; "I ■• .. n i'. ■; ' ':^ ■ ,■' - ''SMQUM y OF riu '^ ARKESILAOS, KING OF KYRENE, WEIGHING SILPHIUM. (KYLIX, FROM VULCI.) Page 192. — Frontispiece. PBINTEn IN COLOURS BY WII.I.IAM f I.O\VKS AND EONS. HISTORY OP ANCIENT POTTEEY, EGYPTIAN, ASSYRIAN, GREEK, ETRUSCAN, AND ROMAN. By SAMUEL BIRCH, LL.D., F.S.A., Etc. 3HA. JO NEW AND REVISED EDITION. WITH COLOURED PLATES AND WOODCUTS. LONDON: JOHN MUERAY, ALBEMARLE STREET. 1873. The right of Translation is reserved. \0^ oc -y^i' .•>, LONDON: PRINTED KY Wirj.IAM Cf.OWES AND SONS, STAMFOW) STUEKT, AND CKAKING CROSP. ,r>'^^ I PEEFACE. 'he present Work was commenced many years ago as one of a series on the subject of the history of the Pottery of all nations. It comprises the principal features in the history of the art, from the most ancient period till the decadence of the Eoman Empire. In the Oriental division it embraces the pottery of Egypt and Assyria — the two great centres of primaeval civilisation. In classical antiquity it treats on the pottery of Greece and Eome ; it ends by a concise account of that of the Celtic and Teutonic nations. A work has been long required which should embody the general history of the fictile art of the ancients^ combine the information scattered through many memoirs and treatises, and give one continuous account of the rise and progress of this branch of archaeology. The technical portion of the subject has been already elaborately treated by M. Brongniart, and others, and the relation of this art to literature has been the repeated object of the investi- gations of the learned for the last two centuries. The great advance recently made in the science of archaeology, by the more accurate record of discoveries, the great excavations made upon ancient sites, the new light thrown upon the subject by deeper and more minute examination of ancient authors and inscriptions, > i 1 4 IV PREFACE. added to the immense quantity of fictile remains now- existing in the Museums of Europe, and the collections of individuals, has given to this branch of the study of antiquity a more important place than it formerly occu- pied. To render the work available to those who wish to pursue the investigation further, the author has added references to all statements of the principal facts, and appendices and lists of the most important inscriptions on vases and other terra-cotta objects. He cannot close his labours without thanking many friends, and acknowledg- ing the assistance and information he has received from several — amongst whom he must name, Miss Cornwallis, Mr. Layard, Mr. Newton, Mr. Norris, Mr. Dyer, Mr. A, W. Pranks, Mr. N. E. Hamilton, and Mr. Vaux. To the late Mr. Bandinel he was also more particularly indebted, as it was at his suggestion and advice that he undertook so grave a task. He can only deplore that he was not spared to aid him by his counsel, and see the completion of one portion of his great project. London, Oct. 19, 1857. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. IXTEEN years have elapsed since the first publication of this Work, and the progress of the knowledge of ancient Pottery, and discovery of new monuments, have required considerable additions and corrections to the former volumes. The two have been condensed into a single volume, as better suited for the object of the work ; the headings of subjects, which broke the con- tinuity of the text, have been omitted, their absence supplied by a full and exhaustive index. Much addi- tional matter has been added to the different sections, and the whole corrected and revised. Reference has been made to new and important theories, and the whole subject of ancient pottery brought before the reader. In archaeology, however, the accumulating number of facts brought to light by excavations do not, on the whole, seriously alter the views already entertained, for there are many repetitions and not great varieties in the general character of the monu- ments of ancient art. This law particularly applies to pottery, many divisions of which have been long since classed and determined. The criteria remain much the same ; fabric, contemporary art, palaeography and phi- lology have already contributed their share to the solution of the problem of the relative ages of inscribed VI PKEFACE TO SECOND EDITION. and painted pottery. Tlie present age, remarkable for the discovery of the mode of deciphering and reading languages supposed to be extinct, has opened new paths of inquiry, and supplied fresh data for the history of nations which had escaped the world's age. But although the field of Grreek and Roman archaeology has been almost exhausted by the labours of the learned for two centuries, that of civilized Africa and Central Asia is still far from explored. The same can also be said of another branch of archaeology which has suddenly grown into existence, the investigation of the remains of primitive and ante-historic races, the contemporaries of a past which possessed no art of writing or of con- necting the arts they practised with the languages they spoke. Here the question of the relative date of the pottery can only be solved by the conditions under which it is found, and the remains with which it is associated. These belong to the department of science, and not of literature, and consequently do not offer so large a scope for hypothesis or ilhistration. But the extent of the subjective relations of pottery to all cognate branches of knowledge is so great that it be- comes an essential addition to the mythology, history, and arts of all nations. In conclusion, the best thanks of the writer are offered to many friends who have imparted their advice and information, and aided the revision and correction of the work. Amongst them he would mention Professor Churchill Babington, Mr. A. W. Franks, Mr. A. Murray, and Mr. G. Smith. To his son, Mr. W. de G. Birch, he is indebted for much assistance in the revision, and the Index which closes the volume. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION Page 1 PAET I. EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. CHAPTER I. Antiquity of the art — Unbaked bricks : material, size, fabric — stamps and in- scriptions — Figures and other objects in sun-dried clay — Baiced clay ; red unglazed terra-cotta — bricks— sarcophagi — sepulchral cones — inscrip- tions—sepulchral figures — sepulchral vasts — Vases for liquids, &c,, pots, bottles, amphorae — Mode of manufacture — lamps— architectural ornaments — polished pottery ; red variety Page 7 CHAPTER II. Glazed "Ware — Analysis — Glaze — Colouring matter — Use of glazed ware in architecture and inlaying — Vases of various kinds — from the Sarabut El Khadem — Graeco-Egyptian vases — Inscribed tiles — Toys and draughtsmen — Amulets — beads — bugles — pectoral plates — scarabaei — Small figures of the gods — Porcelain finger-rings — Sepulchral figures — Glazed stone vases, rings, and other ornaments of this material Page 47 CHAPTER III. ssyrian pottery — Sun-dried clay — Kiln-baked bricks — Inscriptions — Terra-cotta writings — Unglazed pottery — Terra-cotta figures — Glazed ware — Bricks — Vases — Enamelled bricks. Babylonian pottery — Sun-dried bricks — Kiln- baked bricks. Unglazed ware — Babylonian writings — Bas-reliefs and figures in terra-cotta — Glazed ware —Coffins. Jewish pottery. Phoenician pottery Page 75 Viu CONTENTS. PAET 11. GREEK POTTERY. CHAPTEE I. Etymology — Division of the subject — Sun-dried clay — Terra-cotta — Bricks and tiles — Friezes, &c. — Statues and figures — Colouring — Subjects — Beliefs — Prices — Cattle Cones — Dolls — Lamps. . . . Page 1 1 2 CHAPTER II. Greek vases — Casks — Various kinds of vases — AmpliorsB — Stamps _ — Names of magistrates — Emblems — Knidian^mphorse — Stamps — Thasian amphorae — Panticapsean amphorae discovered at Olbiu — Bosphoran — Heraclean — Teuthranian — Sinopean — Korinthian — Miscellaneous — Sepulchral vases. Page 134 CHAPTER III. Glazed vases — Number of extant vases — Places of discovery — Tombs — Lite- rary history — Present condition — Frauds of dealers — Earliest mention of Greek vases — Ancient repairs — Age — Criteria — Classification of D'Han- carville — of the Due de Luynes — Pastes — Clays — Sites — The potter's wlieel — Modelling — Moulding — Moulded rhy ta, phialai, &c. — Painting — Tools — Colours — Glaze — Furnaces Page 148 CHAPTER IV. Glazed vases continued — Kise of the art in Greece— Painting of Vases — Earliest style, brown figures — Second period, maroon figures — Development — Ear- liest black figures — Doric style — Old style, later^ black figures — Cream- coloured ground and black figures — Ked figures — Strong style — Fine style — Florid style — Polychrome vases — Decadence — Mode of treatment — Progress of painting. Page 179 CHAPTER V. Glazed vases continued — Subjects — Carved wooden and metal vases — Diffi- culty of the inquiry — Sources — Various hypotheses — Millingen's division of subjects — Panofka's division — Compositions embracing entire myths — Fran9ois vase — Method — Gigantomachia — Subjects with Zeus — Hera — Athene — Poseidon — Demeter and Kora — Delphic deities, Apollo — Arte- mis — Hephaistos — Ares — Aphrodite — Hermes — Hestia — Dionysos — Sileni, Nymphs and Satyrs — Pan — Bacchanals on Lucanian vases — Mar- syas — Erotes — Charites — Muses — Hygieia — Erichthonius — Kabeiri — Atlas — Prometheus — Hades — Moirai — Erinnyes — Hypnos — Thanatos — The Keres — Hecate — Gorgons — Helios — Heos — Nereus — Triton — Glaucos Pontios — Scylla — Naiads — Personifications Page 221 CONTP]NTS. IX CHAPTER VI. Glazed vases — Subjects continued — Heroic legends — The Herakleid — Attic legends — The Theseid — The Kadmeid — Legend of CEdipus — Various Theban legends — Myth of Athamas — Legends of Northern Greece — Argo- nautic expedition — Calydonian boar — Kephalleniac traditions — Bellerophon — Perseid — Pelopeid — Dioskouri — Kentauromachia — Minotaur — Hyper- borean legends — Phrygian legends — Orpheus and Eurydice — Troica — Ante-Homerica — Homerica — Post-Homerica — Unidentified subjects — The Nostoi — Odyssey — Tclegoniad — Oresteid — Semi-mythic period — Histori- cal subjects — Religious rites — Civil life — The Palaestra — Pentathlon — Dramatic subjects — Banquets — War — Immoral scenes — Temples — Ani- mals — Relation of the subject to Hellenic literature — Homeric poems — -^thiopika — Cyclic poems — Cypria — Nostoi — Telegonia — Hesiod's poems — Thebaid — Poems of Stesichorus — Epigrams and fables — Threni — Oresteid — Emblems, attributes, costume — Expression — Scenery or ad- juncts Page 251 CHAPTER VII. Glazed vases continued — Ornaments — Their nature and use — The maiander — Chequered bands — The fret or herring-bone ^- Annulets — Egg and tongue ornament — Scales or featliers — The Helix — Antefixal ornament — Wreaths — Petals — Vine branches — Akanthos leaves — Flowers — Arrangement — Sources from which the vase-painters copied — Inscriptions — Form of the letters — Position — Dialects — Orthography — Different kinds of inscriptions — Names of figures and objects — Addresses — Artists' names — Potters' names — Laudatory inscriptions — Unintelligible inscriptions — Memoranda. Page 300 CHAPTER VIII. Ancient Potters — Athenian Potteries — Names of Potters: Alides — Amasis — Andokides — Archikles — Bryllos, or Brygos — Kalliphon — Kephalos — Chares — Chachrylios — Cliairestratos — Charitaios — Kleophradas — Cholchos — Chelis — Charinos — Deiniades — Doris — Epitimos — Epigenes — Erginos — Ergotimos — Euergetides — Eucheros — Echekrates — Exekias — Euplironios — Euxitheos — Glauky thes — Hermaios — Hermogenes — Hechthor — Hieron — Hilinos — Hischylos — Meidias — Naukydes — Neandros — Nikostlienes — Oinieus — Pamaphios — Phanphaios — Pamphaios — Philinos — Pistoxenos — Priapos — Python — Simon of Elca — Smikylion — Sokles — Sosias — Statins — Taleides — Theoxetos — Thypheitheides — Timagoras — Timandros — Tlenpolemos — Tleson — Tychios — Xenokles — Xenophantos — Names of Vase Painters : Ainiades — Alsimos — Amasis - — Aristophanes — Asteas — Bryllos, or Bryaxis — Klitias — Cholchos — Doris — Euonymos — Epiktetos — Euplironios — Euthymides — Exekias — Hegias — Hermonax — Hypsis — Onesimos — Pheidippos — Philtias — Phrynos — Pothinos — Praxias — Poly- gnotos — Priapos — Psiax — Sosias — Takonides — Timandros — Zeuxiade:?. Page 333 CHAPTER IX. Uses of Vases — Domestic use — Vases for liquids : for the Table ; for the Toilet — Toys — Decorative Vases — Prizes — Marriage Gifts — Millingeu's division X CONTENTS. of Sepulchral Vases — Grecian usage — Names and shapes of Vases — The Pithos — Pithakne — Stamnos — Hyrche — Lagynos — Askos — Amphoreus — Pelike — Kados — Hydria — Kalpis — Krossos — Kothon — Rhyton — Bessa — Bomby lios — Leky thos — Olpe — Alabastros — Krater — Oxybaphon — H ypo- kraterion — Kelebe — Psykter — Dinos — Cliytra — Thermanter — Thermopotis — Tripous — Holmes — Cliy tropous — Lasanon — Chous — Oinochoe — Prochoos — Epichysis — Arytaina — Aryballos — Arystichos, aryter, arytis, &c. — Oine- rysis — Etnerysis — Zomerysis — Hemikotylion — Kotyliskos — Kyathos — Louterion — Asaminthos — Puelos — Skaphe — Skapheion — Exaleiptron — Lekane — Lekanis — Lekaniskos — Podanipter — Cheironiptron — Holkion — Perirhanterion^Ardanion, or Ardalion — Excellence of the Greek cups — The Depas — Aleison — Kissybion — Kypellon — Kymbion — Skyphos onychionos — Ooskyphion — Bromias — Kantharos — Karchesion — Kylix — Therikleios — Hedypotis — Rhodiake — Antigonis — Seleukis — Phiale — Phiale Lepaste — Akatos — Trieres— Kanoun — Pinax — Phthois — Petachnon — Labronia — Gyalas — Keras — Vases for Food — Kanoun — Pinax — Diskos — Lekanis — Paiopsis — Oxis — Embaphion — Ereus — Kypselis — Kyminodokos — Try blion — Oxybaphon. Page 353 CHAPTER X. Sites of Ancient Potteries, and where Pottery has been discovered in Asia Minor — Grecian Islands — Continent of Greece — Athens — Solygia — Sikyon — Argolis — Delphi — Korinth — Patrai — Megara — Laconia — Corfu — Italy — Classification of Lenormant and De Witte — Hadria — Modena — Pollenza — Gavolda — Mantua — Etruria — Vulci — Ponte dell' Abbadia — Castel d'Asso — Cometo — Toscanella — Chiusi — Orbitello — Perugia — Sarteano — Volterra — Bomarzo — Orvieto — Veii — Cervetri — Civita Vecchia — Theories respecting these vases — Arezzo — Selva la Rocca — Sommavilla — Monterone — Poggia — Central and Lower Italy — Periods — Naples — Cumse — Terra di Lavoro — Nola — Acerra — Capua — St. Agata dei Goti — Telese — Prin- cipato Citeriore — Pesto — Eboli — Battipaglia — St. Lucia — Sorrento — Principato Ulteriore — Capitanata — Basilicata — Anzi — Armeuto — Potenza — Grumento — Puglia — Polignano— Putignano — Bari — Canosa — Ruvo — Ceglie — Calabria — Locri — Brindisi — Taranto — Castellaneta — Ischia — Sicily — Girgenti — Malta — Africa — Bengazi — Naukratis — Alexandria — Kertch, or Panticapseum — Sites of supposed Egyptian ware — Imitations and forgeries of Greek vases — Prices Page 386 PAET III. ETEUSCAN POTTEEY. CHAPTER I. Etruscan terra-cottas — Statues — Busts — Bas-reliefs — Sarcophagi — Vases — Brown ware — Black ware — Red ware — Yellow ware — Painted vases — Imitations of Greek vases — Subjects and mode of execution — Age — Vases of Orbitello and Volaterra — Vases with Etruscan inscriptions — Latin in- scriptions — Enamelled ware — Other sites. . . . . . Page 440 CONTENTS. XI PART IV. EOMAN POTTEKY. CHAPTER I. Bricks — Lydia — Tetradora — Pentadora — Size — Paste — Use — Houses — Tombs — Graves — Tiles — Tegulse — Imbrices — Antefixal ornamentation — Tile- makers — Flue tiles — Wall tiles — Ornamentations — Drain tiles — Tesserae or tessellsB — Inscriptions on tiles — Stamps — Farms — Manufactories — Legionary tiles — Devices — Columns — Corbels — Spouts — Friezes. Page 465 CHAPTER II. Statues — Signa Tuscanica — Numa — Gorgasus — Cato — Possis and Arkesilaos — Size — Models — Sigillaria — Festival of Sigillaria — Fabric — Potters — Mis- cellaneous uses of pottery — Coiners' moulds — Crucibles — Toys — Lamps — Names — Parts — Shape — Age — Subjects — Great Gods — Marine deities — Hercules — Fortune — Victory — Foreign deities — Emblems— Poetical subjects — Fables — Historical subjects — Real life — Games of Circus — Gladiators — Animals — Miscellaneous subjects — Christian lamps — Inscriptions — Names of Makers — Of places — Of pottery — Of proprietors — Date of manufactures — Dedications to deities — Acclamations — Illuminations — Superstitions. Page 495 CHAPTER III. Vases — Koman pottery — Paste— Coloui*s — Drying — Wheel or lathe — Modelling — — Moulding — Stamps — Inscriptions — Furnaces — Construction for glazed ware — Heat — Smoke kilns — Northampton kilns — Chichester kilns — For gray ware — Dimensions — Prices — Uses of vases — Transport of eatables — Feet of tables — Sham viands — Dolia, or casks— Hooped with lead — Eepaired — Inscribed — Doliarii — AmphorsB — Inscriptions — Memoranda — Use of amphoras — Size — Makers — Sarcophagi — Obrendaria — Colander — Early use of terra- cotta vases — Names of sacred vessels — Cadus — Diota — Paropsis — Putina — Patera — Patella — TruUa — Catinus — Lanx — Scutula — Gabata — Lagena — Crater — (Enophorum — Urceolus — Poculum — Calix — Cotyle — Scaphium — Cantharus — Carchesion — Scyphus — Rhyton — Acetabulum — Ampulla — Guttus — INIatella — 011a — Sinus — Obba — Places where made — Archi- tectural use Page 525 CHAPTER IV. Division of Roman pottery : Black — Gray — Red — Brown — Yellow ware — Red ware — Shapes — Paste — Shapes — False Samian — Paste and shapes — Lamps of the Christian period — Ollae — Gray ware — Paste — Mortaria — Pelves — Trullse — Names of makers — Black ware — Paste — Colour — Mode of ornamentation — Brown ware — Paste — Shapes— Ornamentation. . Page 544 xu CONTENTS. CHAPTER V. Glazed Eoman pottery — Proto-Samian — Samian — Crustse — Emblemata — Glaze — Aretine vases — Polish — Paste — Slip — Lead — Salt — Moulds — Barbotine — Separate figures — Master-moulds — Dies — Moulds of Cups — Stamps of Potters — Furnaces and Apparatus — Ornamentations — Use — Kepairs — Makers — False Samian — Black ware — Glaze — Varieties — Inscriptions — Sites Page 553 PART y. CELTIC, TEUTONIC, AND SCANDINAVIAN POTTEEY. CHAPTER I. Celtic pottery — Paste — Fabric — Ornamentation — Size — Shapes — Sepulchral use — British — Bascauda — Ornamentation — Triangular pattern — Bosses — Distribution — Scottish — Irish — Type of urns — Ornamentation — Dis- tribution — Teutonic — Paste — Shape — Hut-vases — Ornamentation and distribution — Scaudinaviau pottery — Type — Analogy with Celtic . Page 584 APPENDIX ,,600 INDEX ,,615 LIST OF ILLUSTKATIONS. PLATES. Arkesilaus, King of Cyrene, Weighing Silpiiium. (From a Cup, VuLCi.) Frontispiece. Glazed and Inlaid Tiles from Tel El Yahoudeii Page 50 Terra-Cotta Head of Pallas Athene. (From Calvi.) „ 120 Homer in the Samian Pottery. (From a Painted Greek Vase.) . „ 177 Death of Achilles . „ 193 Revels of Anakreon. (Kylix, Vulci.) „ 200 Birth of Athene. (Pelike, Vulci.) „ 203 Ornaments of Vases „ 306 Elektra at the Tomb of Agamemnon. (Lekythos from Athens.) . „ 395 Bacchante. (Kantharos from Melos.) . ,,396 Ulysses and Polyphemos. (Kylix from Vulci.) = . . . . . „ 409 Athenian Prize Vase. (From near Bengazi.) „ 430 * Parting of Admetos and Alkestis. (Vase from Vulci.) . . . „ 460 No. PAGE 1 Brick stamped with the prseno- men of Thothmes IIL ... 10 2 Brick from the Pyramid of Illahoon 10 3 Brick stamp bearing the praeno- men of Amenophis III. ... 12 4 Bi'ick-making 14 5 Brick arch 15 6 Sepulchral cones . . . . . 18 7 Cone, showing the inscription . 19 8 Embalmer's model coffin ... 22 9 Vase in shape of Tuautmutf . 23 10 Ibis-mummy pot 25 11 Group of plain terra-cotta vases 27 12 Group of vases of unglazed terra- cotta 28 13 Bottle of unglazed ware, orna- mented with grotesque head ofBes 29 14 Pithos, on a stand .... 30 15 Vase for holding oil, in unglazed terra-cotta 31 16 Pottery. From a tomb at Beni- hassan 34 17 Painted vase of unglazed ware . 35 18 Painted jug 36 19 Painted vase 36 20 Double cruse of glazed ware . 40 21 Bowl of red polished ware . . 41 22 Jar-shaped vase 41 No. PAGE 23 Bottle of red polished terra- cotta, in form of a lady play- ing on a guitar .... 42 24 Gourd-shaped vase .... 42 25 Vase of red terra-cotta, in shape of a chastodon or latus . . 42 26 Wine jug of polished red ware . 43 27 Fine glazed red ware .... 43 28 Balsam vase of red ware . . 43 29 Bottle in its stand of polished red ware 44 30 Fragment of a Graeco-Egyptian cup 44 31 Tile for inlaying, inverted, to show manner of insertion . . 49 32 Inlaying tile of dark porcelain, from the Pyramid of Saqqara 49 33 Beard of blue porcelain ... 51 34 Porcelain finger for inlaying. . 51 35 Coffin of Horus ; eyes and beai'd inlaid with porcelain ... 51 36 Stibium case 52 37 Painter's pallet of blue por- celain 53 38 Stand for four little vases . . 53 39 Aryballos 54 40 Bowl of blue porcelain, orna- mented with flowers ... 55 41 Bowl ornamented with fish and plants 55 XIV LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. No. PAGE 42 Bowl inlaid with titles of Ram- eses II 55 43 Draughtsman, of blue porcelain . 56 44 Draughtsman, having the head of a cat 56 45 Striped ball of blue porcelain . 57 46 Toy in shape of a date of the doum-palm 57 47 Toy or ornament, in blue por- celain, in shape of an egg . . 57 48 Beads in shape of fruit and flowers 60 49 Pectoral plate from a mummy . 60 50 Kabhsenuf, from a bead work . 62 51 Tauti (Thoth) 63 52 Taur (Thoueris) 63 53 Tauti (Thoth) 63 54 Porcelain finger-ring .... 65 55 Ring of red porcelain, with the name of Ankhutamen, of the 18th dynasty 65 56 Sepulchral figure 67 57 Porcelain sepulchral figure in shape of a mummy ... 67 58 Sepulchral figure with slab be- hind 67 59 Sepulchral figure of the 19th dynasty 68 60 Sepulchral figure of the 20th dynasty 68 61 Vase of glazed schist bearing name and title of Thothmes I. 70 62 Scarabseus of glazed steaschist set in a signet ring . . .71 63 Hexagonal prism, inscribed with the records of a king's reign. From Kouyunjik .... 79 64 Terra-cotta tablet sealed by a cylinder 80 65 Inscription of edge of No. 67 . 80 66 Terra-cotta tablet impressed with seals . 81 67 Terra-cotta tablet with seals . 81 68 Seal from Kouyunjik ... 82 69 Seal from Kouyunjik ... 82 70 Inscribed seal from Kouyunjik . 83 71 Seal of Sabaco and Sennacherib . 83 72 Egyptian seal, enlarged ... 83 73 Egyptian seal 83 74 Back of seal, with marks of coi'ds and fingers 83 75 Small heai't-shaped vase. . . 84 76 Bowl covered with a coating and polished 84 77 Group of Assyrian vases . . , 85 78 Lamp from Nimrud .... 86 79 Bowl with Chaldee inscription . 86 80 Bowl with Hebrew inscription . 86 81 Bowl with Syriac inscription . 86 82 Stamp on a vase, apparently Sas- sanian .87 No. PAGE 83 Terra-cotta figures of Assyrian Venus 87 84 Terra-cotta dog. From Kou- yunjik 88 85 Blue corbel 89 86 Vase discovered in tombs of the central mound at Nimrud. . 91 87 Brick stamped with the name of Nebuchadnezzar .... 94 88 Birs Nimrud, restored ... 95 89 The Mujellibe or Kasr ... 96 90 Terra-cotta horn 98 91 Bas-relief of man and dog . .103 92 Glazed Aryballos 104 93 Supposed Sassanian coffin . , 105 94 Cover of coffin 105 95 Supposed Sassanian coffin . . 106 96 Terra-cotta model of a coffin . 106 97 Interior of inscribed bowl . . 108 98 Cruse of polished ware . . . 109 99 Cornice with lion's head . . .116 100 Spout in shape of the forepart of a lion 116 101 Terra-cotta figure of Pallas Athene 122 102 Coloured figure of Aphrodite . 125 103 Cones. From Corcyra . . .129 104 Terra-cotta doll, from Athens . 130 105 Pithos of Diogenes .... 135 106 Stamped handle of Amphora . 136 107 Rhodian stamp. Head of Apollo Helios 137 108 Rhodian stamp. Rose . . .137 109 Cnidian lozenge-shaped label . 139 110 Cnidian square label . . . 139 111 Circular stamp with bull's head 142 112 Painted kernos 147 113 Tomb at Veii, containing vases 149 114 Tomb of Southern Italy, with vases 150 115 Tomb of Southern Italy, with skeleton and vases .... 151 116 Potter moulding the handle of a cup 165 117 Situla, with stamped ornaments 165 118 Moulded phiale omphalotos — chai'iots of gods . . . .168 119 Askos, moulded lion's-head spout 168 120 Early moulded vase, in shape of Aphrodite 169 121 Fragment, prepared for painting the background .... 172 122 Diota of the earliest style . . 180 123 Kylix of the earliest style . .180 124 (Enochoe of the earliest style . 182 125 Two-handled vase with lions . 184 126 (Enochoe, showing animals and flowers 185 127 Group of vases of Archaic style, exhibiting the principal shapes 186 128 Aryballos, lions and flower . 187 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XV No. PAGE 129 Cover of vase, with boar hunt . 188 130*Animals, from the wall paintings at Veil . . . . • . . .189 131 Men and animals, from the wall paintings at Veii .... 190 132 Scene of water-drawing from a hydi'ia 195 133 ^neas bearing off Anchises . 196 134 Imbrex of the old style . .197 135 Kylix, with Gorgon and eyes . 200 136 Interior of a Kylix, Peleus and Thetis 201 137 Departure of Achilles . . .204 138 Last night of Troy . . . .206 139 Last night of Troy . . . .207 138tlncised inscriptions on vases , 331 140 Stamnos 360 141 Askos 360 142 Bacchic amphora .... 362 143 Hydria 364 144 Kalpis 364 145 Skyphos, or Kothon . . . 365 146 Rhyton ,.-.... 365 147 Bombylios 366 148 Lekythos 366 149 Olpe 366 150 Alabastron 367 151 Alabastron 367 152 Holmos 368 153 Kelebe 368 154 Krater 369 155 Oxybaphon 369 156 Krater with Volute handles . 369 157 Prochoos 372 158 Prochoos 372 159 Aryballos 373 160 Aryballos 373 161 Epichysis ...... 373 162 Late Aryballos or Lekythos . 373 163 Kotyliskos 375 164 Kyathos 376 165 Kyathos 376 166 Kantharos 380 167 Karchesion 380 168 Early kylix 381 169 Later kylix 381 170 Late kylix . . . . . .381 171 Early kylix with black figures . 382 172 Jar of enamelled ware, Vulci . 433 173 Lekythos, Triumph of Indian Bacchus 438 No. PAGE 174 Etruscan female bust. Vulci . 443 175 Tugurium vase from Albano . 446 176 Group of vases, one in shape of a hut, from Albano . . . 447 177 Cone. Vulci 448 178 Vase with moulded figures and cover. Vulci 449 179 Oinochoe of black ware . . . 450 180 Tray, or table of vases of black ware. Chiusi 451 181 Oinochoe of black ware, Perseus and the Gorgons .... 453 182 Painted ostrich egg. Vulci . 455 183 Etruscan Kanopus of terra-cot ta 457 184 Flange tile, London .... 469 185 Flue tile ornamented . . . 476 186 Stamp on tile 481 187 Lamp, crescent-shaped handle . 506 188 Lamp, with bust of Serapis . 506 189 Group of lamps 507 190 Mould of a lamp . . . .509 191 Lamp: Mercury, Fortune, and Hercules 512 192 Lamp, Games of the Circus. . 516 193 Lamp, Monogram of Christ . 518 194 Lamp with golden candlestick . 518 195 Foot of Lamp, with name of Secular Games 522 196 Dolium containing body . . 532 197 Terra-cotta amphora . . . 533 198 Proto-Samian cup with an Ama- zonomachia, in relief. From Athens 554 199 Patina of Aretine ware . . . 558 200 Ciborium of red Saniian ware, with the name of Divix . . 561 201 Master mould, with the name of the potter Liber .... 564 202 Fragment of a mould found near Mayence 564 203 Vase of red Samian ware, orna- mented with arabesques . . 567 204 Cups of black ware .... 574 205 Group of vases of inscribed black ware 577 206 Cup of black glazed Castor ware 578 207 Group of British vases. The one in the centre is that of Bronwen 587 208 Anglo-Saxon Urn from Norfolk 593 209 Group of German hut-shaped vases 595 From Mr. Dennis's well-known work 'The Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria,' from which are also taken No. HI, and No. 155. A few cuts are also from Sir G. Wilkinson's 'Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,' and Mr. Layard's ' Nineveh and its Babylon.' INTRODUCTION, To trace the history of the art of working in clay, from its rise amongst the oldest nations of antiquity till the period of the decline of the Roman empire, is the object of the present work. The subject resolves itself into two great di\isions, which have eno:a2:ed the attention of two distinct classes of inquirers ; namely, the technical - or scientific part, comprising all the details of material, manipulation, and processes ; and, secondly, the historical portion, which embraces not only the history of the art itself, and the application of ancient literature to its elucidation, but also an account of the light thrown by monuments in clay on the history of mankind. The inquiry, therefore, is neither deficient in dignity, nor limited to trifling investigations, nor rewarded with insignificant results. A knowledge of the origin and progress of any branch of art must always be of immense importance to its future development and improvement ; and this is particularly true of the art of working in clay, both from its universal difi'usion, and from the indestructible nature of its products. It is impossible to determine when the manufacture was invented. Clay is a material so generally diffused, and its plastic nature so easily discovered, that the art of working it does not exceed the intelligence of the rudest savage. The baking of it, so as to produce an indestructible tenacity, must have been a great stride in the art, and was probably discovered by accident rather than by design. In few countries is the condition of the atmosphere such that objects of sun-dried clay can survive a single winter; and, however applicable to the purposes of architecture, such a material was unavailable foj: vessels destined to hold liquids. Egypt, Assyria, and Babylonia, the triple cradle of the human race, have alone transmitted to posterity the sun-dried products which represent the first efforts of the art. 4^ I INTKODUCTION. From the necessity for symmetrical buildiogs arose the invention of the brick, which must have superseded the rude plastering of the hut with clay, to protect it against the sun or storm. In the history of the Semitic nations, of the Baby- lonians, and of the Phoenicians, the brick is classed amongst the earlier inventions of the art, and has descended, with various modifications, from the building of the Tower of Babel to the present day. It is essential that bricks should be symmetrical, and their form is generally rectangular. From their geometri- cal shape, they have preserved the canon of ancient measure ; while the various inscriptions with which they have been stamped have elevated them to the dignity of historical monu- ments. Thus the bricks of Egypt not only afford testimony tOx the truth of Scripture by their composition of straw and | clay, but also, by the hie^'oglyphs impressed upon them, transmit the names of a series of kings, and testify the existence of edifices, all knowdedge of which, except for these relies, would have utterly perished. Those of Assyria and Babylon, in addition to the same information, have, by their cuneiform inscriptions, which mention the locality of the edifices for which they were made, afforded the means of tracing the sites of an- cient Mesopotamia and Assyria with an accuracy unattainable by any other means. AVhen the brick was ornamented, as in Assyria, with glazed representations, this apparently insignificant, but imperishable object, elevated to the rank of a work of art, has confirmed the descriptions of the walls of Babylon, which critical scepticism had denounced as fabulous. The Eoman bricks have also borne their testimony to history. A large number of them present a series of the names of consuls of imperial Rome ; while others show that the proud nobility of the eternal city partly derived their revenues from the kilns of their Cam- panian and Sabine farms. Fronj the next step in the progress of the manufacture, namely, that ofSnodelling in clay the forms of the physical world, arose the plastic art ; to which the symbolical pantheism of the old world gave an extension almost universal. Delicate as is the touch of the fi.nger, which the clay seems to obey, and even by its servility to comprehend the intention of the potter's mind, yet certain I'orms and ornaments which require a finer point than the nail, caused the use of pieces of horn, wood and metal, and thus gave rise to the invention of tools. But modelling in clay was soon completely superseded by sculpture in stone and metal. INTRODUCTION. L. ^■enabling the sculptor to elaborate his first conceptions in a ^p material which could be modified at will; and that of pro- ducing in a small form, and in a rapid and cheap manner, for popular use, copies of the masterpieces of ancient art. The invention of the mould carried this last application to perfection, and the terra-cottas of antiquity were as numerous and as cheap as the plaster casts now sold by itinerants. The materials used for writing on have varied in different ages and nations. Among the Egyptians slices of limestone, leather, linen, and papyrus, especially the last, were universally employed. The Greeks used bronze and stone for public monu- ments, wax for memorandums, and papyrus for the ordinary transactions of life. The kings of l*ergamus adopted parch- ment, and the other nations of the ancient world chiefly depended on a supply of the paper of Egypt. But the Assyrians and Babylonians employed for their public archives, their astronomical computations, their religious dedications, their historical annals, and even for title-deeds and bills of exchange, tablets, cylinders, and hexagonal prisms of terra-cotta. Some of these cylinders, still extant, contain the history of the Assyrian monarch, Tiglath-Pileser Assurbanipal, and the cam- paign of Sennacherib against the kingdom of Judah ; and others, exhumed from the Birs Nimrud, give a detailed account of the dedication of the great temple by Nebuchadnezzar to tbe seven planets. To this indestructible material, and to the happy idea of employing it in this manner, the present age is indebted for a detailed history of the Assyrian monarchy ; whilst the decades of Livy, the plays of Menander and the lays of Anacreon, con- fided to a more perishable material, have either wholly or partly disappeared amidst the wreck of empires. The application of clay to the making of vases probably soon caused the invention of tbe potter's- wheel, befoi'e which period only vessels fashioned by the hand, and of rude unsymmetrical shape, could have been made. But the application of a circular table or lathe, laid horizontally and revolving on a central pivot, on which the clay was placed, and to which it adhered, was in its day a truly wonderful advance in the art. As the wheel spun round, all combinations of oval, spherical, and cylindrical forms could be produced, and the vases became not only symmetrical in their proportions, but true in their capacity. The invention of the wheel has been ascribed to all the fzreat B 2 4 IN^i'RODUCTION. nations of antiquity. It is represented in full activity in the Egyptian sculptures ; it is mentioned in the Scriptures, and was certainly in use at an early period in Assyria. The Greeks and liomans have attributed it to a Scythian philosopher, and to the States of Athens, Corinth, and Sicyon, the three great rivals in the ceramic art. The very oldest vases of Greece, some of which are supposed to have been made in the heroic ages, bear marks of having been turned upon the wheel. Indeed, it is not possible to find any Greek vases except those made by the wheel or by moulds ; which latter process was applied only at a late period to their production. Although none of the very ancient kilns have survived the destructive influence of tinip, yet among all the great nations baked earthenware is of the hi<^iest antiquity. In Egypt, in the tombs of the first dynasties,- vases and other remains of baked earthenware are abundantly found ; and in Assyria and Babylon, the oldest bricks and tablets have passed through the furnace. One of the poems of the Homeric age, addressed to the Samian potters, details in heroic bombast the baking of earthenware. The oldest remains of Hellenic pottery, whether in Asia Minor, as at Sipylus, in the Isles as at Thera, or in the Peloponnese, as at Mycenae, owe their preservation to their having been subjected to the action of fire. To this process, as to the consummation of the art, the other processes of preparing, levigating, kneading, drying, and moulding the clay, must have been necessary preliminaries. The desire of rendering terra-cot ta less porous, and of pro- ducing vases capable of retaining liquids, gave rise to the covering of it with a vitreous enamel or glaze. The invention of glass ha.s been hitherto generally attributed to the Phoeni- cians : but opaque glasses or enamels, as old as the Eighteenth dynasty, and enamelled objects as early as the Eourth, have been found in Egypt. The employment of copper to produce a bril- liant blue-coloured enamel was very early both in Babylonia and Assyria, but. the use of tin for a white enamel, as recently discovered in the enamelled bricks and vases of Babylonia and Assyria, anticipated by many centuries the rediscovery of that process in Europe in the fifteenth century, and shows the early application of metallic oxides. This invention apparently remained for many centuries a secret among the Eastern nations only, enamelled terra-cotta and glass forming articles of com- mercial export from Egypt and Phoenicia to every part of the INTRODUCTION. 5 Mediterraneai). Among the Egyptians and Assyrians enamel- ling was nsed more frequently than glazing, and their works are consequently a kind of fayence consisting of a loose frit or body, to wliicli an enamel adheres after only a slight fusion. After the fall of the Koman Empire, the art of enamelling terra-cotta disappeared amongst tlie xirab and Moorish races, who had retained a traditionary knowledge of the process. The application of a transparent vitreous 'coating, or glaze, over the entire surface, like the varnish of a picture, is also refer- able to a high antiquity, and was universally adopted either to enhance the beauty of single colours, or to promote the combination of many. Innumerable fragments and remains of glazed vases, fabricated by the Greeks and Eomans, not only prove the early use of glazing, but also exhibit in the present day many of the noblest efforts of the potter's art. In the application of form in art, the Greeks have excelled all nations, either past or present. The beauty and simplicity of the shapes of their vases have caused them to be taken as models for various kinds of earthenware ; but as every civilised people has received from other sources forms sanctioned by time, and as many of the Greek forms cannot be adapted to the requirements of modern use, they have not been servilely imitated. Yet, to every eye familiar with works of art of the higher order, the cleverest imitations of nature, and the most elegant conceits of floral ornaments, whether exhibited in the efforts of Oriental or European potters, appear coarse and vulgar when contrasted with the chaste simplicity of the Greek forms. By the application of painting to vases, the Greeks made them something more than mere articles of commercial value or daily use. They have become a reflection of the paintings of the Greek schools, and an inexhaustible source for illus- trating the mythology, manners, customs, and literature of Greece. Unfortunately, very few are ornamented "with his- torical subjects; yet history receives occasional illustration from them ; and the representations of the burning of Croesus, the orgies of Anacreon, the wealth of Arcesilaus, the tributes of Darius, and the meeting of Alcaeus and Sappho, lead us to hope that future discoveries may offer additional examples. The Ehapsodists, the Cyclic poets, the great Tragedians, and the writers of Comedy, can be amply illustrated from these remains, which represent many scenes derived from their, im- 6 INTEODUCTION. mortal productions ; and the obscurer traditions, preserved by the scholiasts and other compilers, receive unexpected eluci- dation from them. Even the Roman lamps and red ware, stamped with subjects in relief, present many remarkable repre- sentations of works of art, and many illustrations of customs and manners, and historical events ; such as the golden candle- sticks of the Jews borne in the triumph of Titus, the cele- bi'ation of the saecular games, and the amusements of the Circus and Amphitheatre. PART I. EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. CHAPTER I. Antiquity of the art — Unbaked bricks : material, size, fabric ; stamps and in- scriptions — Figures and other objects in sun-dried clay — Baked clay ; - red unglazed terra-cotta ; bricks ; sarcophagi ; sepulchral cones ; inscrip- tions ; sepulchral figures ; sepulchral vasfS — Vases for liquids, &c., pots, bottles, amphorae — Mode of manufacture ; lamps ; architectural ornaments ; polished pottery ; red variety. The inquiry must commence with Egypt, since the earliest specimens of the art belong to that country, and are of a period when Central Asia offered no material proofs of civilisation. There is a gulf of several centuries between the Pyramids and the palaces of Nimroud, while all that can be traced of Babylon belongs to an age not more ancient. The term Pottery is supposed to be derived from tlie French j)oterie, which comes from the Latin jpoterium, a cup or drinking- vessel — originally made of clay, whence it was extended to all kinds of earthenware.^ In Egypt the art of pottery is attri- buted, like the other arts and sciences, to the invention of the gods ; an unequivocal proof that it was in use before tlie his- torical period. Thus Thoth, or Hermes, taught man speech and writing ; Neith, the use of the loom ; Athor, music and dancing ; Anubis, the craft of the embalmer ; Isis, husbandry ; Osiris, the method of making wine ; whilst Num, the directing spirit of the universe, and oldest of created beings, first exer- cised the potter's art, and moulded the human race on his wheel. He had previously made the heavens and the earth ^ riautus, Stich, v. 4, 11 ; Trin. iv. o, 10. 8 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Pakt I. the air, the liills and streams, wlience sprung the terrestrial gods ; and hung the sun and moon betwixt " the green sea and the azure vault," which Phtha, the artisan-god, had formed upon his lathe in tlie shape of an egg. Man was the last of his productions, whom he modelled out of the dark Nilotic clay, and into whose nostrils he breathed the breath of life. There is evidence that the existence of earthen vessels in Egypt was at least coeval with the formation of a written language. Several hieroglyphs represent various kinds of ves- sels of red earthenware ; and these signs date from the remote j^eriod of the Third and Fourth dynasties, whose epoch may be placed between B.C. 3000-2000. In sepulchres of the Fourth and subsequent dynasties earthenware vessels are represented as employed for the ordinary purposes of domestic life ; as jugs for water and other liquids ; jars for wine and milk ; deep pans or bowls to serve up dressed viands ; and conical vessels on stands, round which is twined the favourite or national flower, the lotus. And numerous small cups of burnt red clay have been found in the debris of the tombs of the Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth dynasties at Sakkarah. A series of monuments enables us to trace the development of the art from this period to that of the Roman empire ; whilst the manner in which it was exercised is practically illustrated by abundant specimens of many kinds of pottery. Vast mounds, or monies testacei, which lie around the ruined cities and temples, mark at once their former magnificence and grandeur, and the extraordinary abundance of the produce of this art. Unfortunately neither these remains, nor the vases found in the tombs, have been examined and classed with that scientific accuracy which the subject deserves. The hieroglyphs are our principal guide, which give, within certain limits, the date of every inscribed specimen. These become the data for determining the age of vases, the paste of which is of similar composition, and the type and ornaments of the same kind. The art of making bricks, which appears to have preceded that of vases, is so intimately connected with it, that it is necessary to give some account of the principal varieties of bricks. In general they are rectangular plinths, curved forms being very rarely found in Egypt. The greater portion of them is made of unbaked clay, mixed with various substances Chap. I. SUN-DRIED BRICKS. 9 to bind it together. They were called in hieroglyphs teha, the same word as a box or chest, probably derived from the small wooden box or mould from which they were turned out. In a climate like that of Egypt, wliere rains fall only four or five times, at most, during the year, such bricks sufficed to resist the weather, and retained their shape for centuries. Extensive ruins of edifices constructed of them are found in all parts of the country. The pyramids of Dashonr, Illahoon, Hovvara, Aboo Koash, Drah Aboo Nagger ;^ the walls of Sais ; the fortresses at Samneh, Contra Pselcis, Hieraconpolis, Abydos, and El Haybeh ; those at the edifice called the Memnonium of Thebes ; several private tombs, and the great wall which enclosed Egypt on the eastern side, extending a distance of 1500 stadia from Pelusium to Heliopolis, as well as the wall built by Sesostris across Egypt (now called the Gisr-el Agoos), and a chapel at Ekmin^ or Chemmis, are constructed of them. The Fayoom and the Delta, which abounded with rich alluvial soil, and which are remote from the principal quarries, must have presented, at the most ancient period of the national history, the appearance of a vast brick-field. The mud brought down by the river was particu- cularly adapted for bricks and pottery :, when analysed, it has been found that about one-half is argillaceous earth, one-fourth carbonate of lime, while the residue consists of oxide of iron, carbonate of magnesia, and water. Close to the river's banks it is much mixed with sand, which it loses in proportion as it is carried by the water farther from them, so that at a certain distance it consists of pure argil, or clay, which, at the present day, forms excellent bricks, tobacco-pipes, terra-cotta, and stucco.^ Some of the earliest bricks were undoubtedly those made for the various brick pyramids, although it is not possible at present to determine the relative antiquity of all these edifices. Several, however, are tombs of monarchs of the Twelfth dynasty ; and at the period of the Eighteenth, the sepulchres were tunnelled in the rocks. These bricks are all parallelopipeda, of Nile-mud or clay, of a dark loamy colour, held together by chopped straw, either of wheat or barley, or else by means of broken fragments of pottery. They were ^ Vyse, Journal, i. 9, 91 ; iii. 58. ^ Sir G. Wilkiilsou, in the Proceed. Roy. Soe. Lit. vol. iv. p. 94 ; 'Manners and Customs,' i. 105. ^ Malte Brun, iv. 26. The analysis (Descr. de I'Egypte, folio, Paris, 1812, torn. ii. p. 406) gives the following re- sults : — Alumina, 48; carb. lime, 18; carb. magn. 4 ; silica, 4 ; ox. of iron, G ; carbon, 9; water 11 = 100. 10 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Paut I. made by the usual process, and stamped out with a square box. All the bricks in the same pyramid are of the same size. MAJTr/MS' No. 1. — Brick stamped with the pra;- noraen of Thothtnes \\l. No. 2.— Brick from the Pyramid of lUaboon. Unburnt bricks were found in the joints near the foundation of the third pyramid of Gizeh, built by Mycerinus, of the Fourth Memphite dynasty, and others near the building-, some of which were 20 inches long. Those in the pyramid at Aboo Roash had no straw. The bricks of the pyramid at Saq- qara had only a little straw on the outside. The pyramid of Howara was built of bricks, measuring 17^ inches long, 8f inches wide, 5^ inches thick, and containing much straw. That at Illahoon was also made of bricks composed of straw and Nile-mud, 16f inches long, 8f inches wide, and 5J inches thick. The Northern pyramid of Dashour, which seems, from the fragment of the construction there found, to have been the sepulchre of a monarch of the Twelfth dynasty, was built of bricks, from A.\ inches to 5 J inches thick, 8 inches wide, and 16 inches long. Particular marks were found among them accord- ing to their quality, whether formed of alluvial soil only, or of sand mixed with alluvial soil in two different proportions; others were mixed with straw, and many curious organic and inorganic remains, which have been investigated under the microscope,^ and made of a dark tenacious earth. This is, perhaps, the pyramid, the bricks of which were said in the 1 Vysc, Journal, i. 193; iii. 9, 39, 62, 70, 81, 83. Chap. I. SUN-DlllED BRICKS. 11 legend to be formed of the mud deposited by the Nile in the Lake Moeris.^ Those of the Southern pyramid at Dashour measured 15^ inches long by 7| inches wide, and 5-| inches thick, or ISJ inches long by 6^ inches wide, and 4^ inches thick, and contained a great deal of straw. Most of them had been made of rnbbisli, containing broken red pottery and pieces of stone. The kinds were distinguished by various marks made with the finger on the brick before it was dry. In one instance this seems to have been effected by closing the fingers and dipping their points into the clay. Bricks of this class were made from the time of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth dynasties till about the tenth century before the Christian era. In general proportions the width was twice and the length three times the thickness. I am enabled, through the kindness of Mr. Perring, the opener of the pyramids of Gizeh, to give some additional par- ticulars. In sending me the tracings of fourteen bricks, found near the Memnonium at Thebes, he observes, that there are at that spot a number of brick arches from twelve to fourteen feet span, built of crude bricks in concentric rings, and well and scientifically formed. Five of these bricks bear the prsenomen of Thothmes III., a monarch of the Eighteenth ^ dynasty, who reigned about B.C. 1440 ; two are 5^ inches, and three 5 inches thick. It is probable that they were made about one cubit long, which measures 1*713 English feet. In the time of the Eighteenth dynasty bricks were impressed with a stamp on which certain hieroglyphs were cut in intaglio, so as to present them in relief on the surface of the brick. One of these stamps, of an oval shape, bearing the name and title of Amenophis III. ; ^ another, like a cartouche sur- mounted by feathers, but with an illegible inscription,^ and a square one, for bricks for the granaries of the temple of Phtha,^ are in the national collection. The earlier, or oval, impressions are about 4 inches long by 2 inches wide ; but the square inscriptions are 6^ inches long by 2J- inches wide. The object of this stamping was to mark the destination of the bricks. The stamps are not, as some have supposed, any proof ^ Professor linger in the ' Athenseum,' 684-5. 1866, pp. 119-120. 3 Egyptian Room, No. 5993 ,• Wil- 2 Lepsius, ' Einleituug/ s. 29, found kinson, ' Manners and Customs,' ii. 97. bricks here of Rameses II. ' Revue * Egyptian Room, No. 5994. Archeologiquc,' 8vo, Paris, 1844, pp. ^ Ibid., No. 5995. 12 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part 1. of an ancient Stamp Act. Two of them, indeed, bear the name of a deceased high-priest of Amen Ka, the Theban Jupiter ; but this only shows that they were destined for his tomb, and does not imply that the stamp was used for fiscal purposes. Other bricks from the vicinity of Thebes are impressed with the prsenomens and names of the monarchs, Thothmes I.^ and 11.^ and III.,^ Amenophis II.,* Thothmes IV.,^ and Ame- nophis III.,^ of the Eighteenth dynasty ; of Eameses II.,' of the Nineteenth ; of the high-priests of Amen Ra, named Ptah- meri,^ Parennefer, and Rum a ; ^ and of Paher, a nomarch, governor of the country. This last functionary was the son of a high- priest of Amen Ra, named Nebenneteru, surnamed Tenruka.^" Phtha Meri is called the blessed of Phtha-Socharis-Osiris, the tutelary god of Memphis. Other bricks bear the name of Khonsu, or Chons, scribe of the royal treasury .^^ Those which bear the names of kings appear to have been destined for the public works ; while the others, with the names of simple functionaries, were apparently used for private houses or tombs. Some bricks of a very interesting^^ kind were also found at Medinat El Giahel, between Luxor and Abadieh, on the right bank of the Nile, a few miles below Girgeh, among the remains of the old Egyptian city of Tanis or Zoan. They were of the usual dimensions, and made of sand and stone, mixed with straw and clay, and stamped with the name of Hesiemkheb, the last ruler of the Twenty-first or Tanite dynasty, chief governor of the city of Tan, or Tanis, No. 3.— Brick stamp bear- ing the praBnomen of Amenophis III. ^ Egyptia-i Room, No. 6009. 2 Ibid, No. 6010; Prisse, Mon. Eg., PI. 23, No. 15, from the Necropolis of Thebes. 3 Ibid , No. 6011-1.3, Prisse, Mon. Eg., PI. 23, Nos. 10-13, from the Valley of the El Assasif ; Vyse, Journ,, i. 89. 4 Ibid., No., 6014. ^ Ibid., No. 6015 ; Piisse, loe. cit , No. 8. « Ibid., Nos. 6016-17. 7 Ibid., No. 6018-22; Prisse, loe. cit./ No. 9 ; Vyse, Journ., i. 89 ; Lepsius, Denkm. Abth. iii. « Prisse, Mon. Eg., PI. 23, No. 9. » Ibid., Mon. Eg., PI. 23, No. 1. '" Egypt'an Collection, British Mns., No. 6023-24 ; Prisse, Mon. Eg., PL 23, No. 3 ; Vyse, Journ., i, 89. ^1 Perring, MS. Journal; for other bricks see Lepsius Denkm., iii. BI. 4, 25 6?\s 26, 39, 62, 69, 78. ^■■^ Roscllini, Mon. Civ., t. ii. tav. ann. p. 174, No. 4 ; Prisse, Mon. Eg., PI. 23. I Chap. I. SUN-DIUED BRICKS. 13 and son of the monarcli Pasnom, the priest of Amen Ra. This prince took the pra3nomen or first royal title of Ramenkheper, or the " Siin-establisher of Creation," the same as that of Thotlimes III., which helps to remove some difficulties about the antiquity of certain remains. It is thus that the archa^ohigist avails himself of the fragments of the past to reconstruct its history ; and objects, apparently insignificant, have often solved some of the most important enigmas in the history of the human race. No brick appears to have been impressed before the Eighteenth dynasty, nor later than the Twenty-first. There are two inscribed with religious inscriptions in the museum of Ley den. ^ These bricks were called in the hieroglyphics tehi, a word which the Coptic Lexicons still preserve as todbi or toohe, and which is in Egyptian Arabic tubi? They were laid in regular layers, and, occasionally, were formed into arches. A most interesting representation of the art of brick-making, of which the annexed cut is a copy, is depicted in the tomb of Rekmara, an officer of the court of Thothmes III. of the Eighteenth dynasty, about 1400 b.c.^ Asiatic captives are employed in the work under the superin- tendence of taskmasters ; and the scene forcibly recalls to mind the condition of the Hebrews in the house ^f bondage. The process appears to have been nearly the same as at the present day ; for, with the exception of the mill to grind the clay, little progress has been made in this primitive art, the use of machinery being found unprofitable. The picture may be explained as fallows : Labourers are mixing with their hoes mud, clay, or alluvial soil, to a proper consistency (7, 9, 12, 13), the water being brought from a tank constructed for the pur- pose, and protected from too rapid evaporation by the lotus within it, and the trees planted around it. Other labourers are carrying the water thence in large jars to supply the brick- makers (14, 1^). When sufficiently kneaded, the clay is trans- ferred to pans (10, 7), and thrown down in a heap before the brick-maker (7 i), who stamps them out of a mould (8, 14), and * Leemans, Mon. Eg. Pt. ii. PI. Ixxxix. j ^ Mon.Civ., ii.251. Wilkinson, 'Man- 147, 148. I ners and Customs,' ii. 99 ; Rosellini, 2 Nestor I'Hote, ' Lettres Ecrltes , Mon. Civ., tav. xlix., for the other d'figypte,' 8vo, Paris, 1840, p. 30; Prisse, ' Revue Archeologique,' 1844, p, 721 ; Mon. % , PI. 23, Nos. 4, 5, 6, 7, 11. scenes in the tomb see Wilkinson, ibid. ; Hotkins, ' Ethiopia,' Tomb at Thebes. 14 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. then lays tliem in single rows to dry in the sun. When ready for drying or for the furnace, they were carried, like modern pails, suspended on poles. Six of them appear to have been a man's load (4 g). The occupation was not, apparently, much to the taste of the employed, for the stick seems to have been liberally used (3, 6). The inscriptions on the picture record /HAl*. I. FIGURES IN SUN-DRIED CLAY. 15 •^tliat they are bricks made by royal captives, or slaves, to build the temple of Amen Ka at Thebes. Althougli the art of brick- making was ignoble, traces of its ancient importance appear in the ceremony of Tahraka, B.C. 715-658, tlie Ethiopian ruler No. 5. — Brick Arch. Tliebes. being represented at Medinat Haboo employed on his knees in this occupation. This may be compared with the symbolical ploughing of the Emperor of China, and the laying of the first stone of a foundation by an European prince.^ Crude clay was, however, better adapted to the purposes of the modeller than those of the potter. Few objects, indeed, of this material have been preserved, even in a climate so serene as that of Egypt ; and those which have come down to us are either votive offerings, or decorations of the interior of tombs. In the collection in the British Museum are a few heads of rams,^ figures of vultures,^ of the ura^us serpent,* and a scarabaeus with a human head, and the name of Amenhept, or Amenophis, inscribed on the base in linear hieroglyphics.^ This specimen is probably as old as the Eighteenth dynasty. All these objects are unpainted ; but the ursei have inscrip- tions on the breasts, traced in outline in white paint, and con- taining the name of Rennu, the goddess of the harvest, whom * ChampoUion, ' Notice descriptive,' ; Mon. Eg,, xxiv. 350. p. 322. I ^ Ibid., Nos. 2002-3 ; Lecmans, Mon. 2 Egypt. Koom, Nos. 1668-91 ; Lee- Eg , xxv. 500. mans, Mon. Eg., PI. xxiii. p. 305. ! ^ Ibid., No. 4376 «. 3 Ibid., Nos. 1090-1920 ; Leemans, ' 16 EGYPTIAN AXD OlUENTAL POTTERY. Part I. the serpent represented. There is also in the same collfction a small cylindriral bottle^ of unbaked clay, coloured bine and red, supposed to be one of the models which the undertakers, or the relatives of the deceased, deposited in the tomb, in place of a more precious vase which they retained. This has been turned on the potter's wheel. Similar objects are often fonnd, made of terra-cotta or of solid pieces of wood. They are gaudily painted in imitation of opaque glass, which seems to have been an article of luxury.^ For the poorer classes small sepulchral figures, called slidbti or shah-shah, were made of unbaked clay, representing the deceased wrapped up in bandages like a mummy, with a pick-axe in one hand, a hoe in the other, and a basket for transporting sand slung over tlie right shoulder.* The minor details of these figures ai-e traced out with a red or black out- line, and the whole ground washed over in distemper with green paint, in imitation of Egyptian porcelain, or with white to repre- sent calcareous stone. A fuller description of them will be given in the sequel. The coarse, dull, unpolished earthenware must be considered as the next step in the development of the art. The material of this pottery has not been analysed ; but it appears to be made of the ordinary Nilotic clay, deposited at the margin of the inundations, whicli is unctuous, plastic, and easily worked on the wheel or lathe. Its colour is red, running externally into purple when well baked ; whilst tlie specimens less per- fectly submitted to the action of fire are of a reddish-yellow colour. The purple hue is said to be owing to a natural or artificial protoxide of iron, easily removed by a damp linen rag when the piece is slightly baked. The vases made of this clay are very absorbent, but do not allow water to escape, even after it has stood in them eight-and-forty hours. They are, however, then covered with a saline efflorescence. The vases of this kind appear to be similar to the Egyptian hydrocerami.* The first specimens of baked pottery which we have to con- sider are the Egyptian bricks. These are externally of a rose- red colour, but break with a deep black fracture at about ^ of an inch from the surface. These bricks are smaller than those * Egypt. Room, No. 4S82. I 3 Eg-ypt. Room, Nos. 9457-68-73-80. 2 Rosellini, Moii. Civ., ii. 31G. | •* lirongniart, ' Traite,' i. 502. I Hap. T. SAT?C0PHAGI. 17 made of sun-dried clay, and were chiefly used in places where ■the constructions came in contact with water. Kosellini found ^ wall of them fifteen feet thick at Luxor, which was older ihan the edifices of the Eighteenth dynasty.^ In the British Museum^ are two bricks of this class. The . first, which is arched in a peculiar manner, has on the inner edge a line of hieroglyphics, but it is illegible.^ The other has on the narrow side or edge the name of Tetmes or Thothmes, a steward or housekeeper, for whose tomb it was made.* It is not known from what part of Egypt these bricks came. The last is pro- bably contemporary with the kings of the Eighteenth dynasty. A flat brick, 1 ft. square and 1^ in. thick, stamped with the name of a functionary and his wife in hieroglyphs, within an oval, 37 times repeated, and not later than the Nineteenth dynasty, shows the use of baked bricks at that period.^ At Medinat El Giahel, or Tanis, baked bricks were found inscribed with the name of a deceased person called Thothmes. Many of the burnt bricks found in Egypt appear to be Roman.^ Some indeed have denied the use of baked bricks anterior to the Roman period, and their use was no doubt exceptional. There are also in the same collection some portions of coffins or sarcophagi of the same material.^ The workmen of the Tourah quarries were buried in terra-cotta sarcophagi.^ The lower part of one of these sarcophagi, depicted in tlie work of Sir G. Wilkinson, exhibits the singular manner in which the upper and lower parts w^ere fastened together. Another speci- men, constituting the upper part of the cover, and which has an elaborate water-colour painting, representing the deceased attired in the collar or tippet, tischj often worn round the neck, was removed by Belzoni from the sepulchres of Sobah in the oasis of Ammon. A similar one, w^hich came from the same locality, is described and figured by Biongniart, in his Cata- logue of the Museum at Sevres.^ These objects are compara- tively recent, as the settlement there was not earlier than the Persian dominion in Egypt. Two other sarcophagi of this > Mon. Civ., ii. 250. ^ Egypt. Room, No. 9730 g. 2 Egypt. Room, No. 4S3. ^ Vyse, Journ., i. 59, 202. 3 Ibid., No. 2461. ' Egypt. Room, No. 6955. ^ P^erring, MS. Journal; Prifse, Mon. ^ Vyse, Journ., iii. 91. Kg., ri. 28; ' Revue Arclieologiquc,' 8v<), '* Mus. Cer., PI, i. Hg. 2. Paris, 1844, p. 725. C 18 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. material, in the national collection, exhibit such wretched modelling that they may be referred to the fourth century of our era. The use of terra-cotta sarcophagi was rare among the Egyptians, the lich availing themselves of hard stones, such as granite, breccia, basalt, and alabaster, as well as of sycamore, cedar, and sontal or acacia wood. Certain objects, deposited with the dead, were always made of this red-brick earthenware. These were the sepulchral cones, which, as their name implies, were rude cones turned on the potter's wheel, and stamped on their bases witli a hieroglyphical inscription in bas-relief, impressed from a mould. ^ Their in- scribed end is often painted red. A brick has been found thus impressed. These cones have been found placed over the doors of the tombs, or scattered on the floor amidst the debris. Although it is evident that they were part of the sepulchral furni- ture, their use proved a rid- dle to Egyptian archaeolo- gists. Their dimensions are from six inches to a foot in length, and about three inches in diameter at the base. From recent disco- veries made at Warka in Babylonia, it will be seen that these cones were in reality bricks, which were introduced into walls, in such a manner as to form patterns of ornamental brickwork, their inscribed bases being placed outwards. The inscriptions are always of funereal im- port, and the words, "the devoted to," or "blessed by Osiris," often precede the name of the dead. Some of the oldest cones, made for functionaries of state deceased during the Twelfth dynasty, have their inscriptions running round the base, like the legend of a coin. Others have a line of hiero- glyphs stamped in an elliptical or square depression, like the brickmarks.^ From the Eighteenth to the Tvventy-sixth No. 6.— Sepulchral Cones. ^ Wilkinson, 'Manners and Customs,' vol. v. p. 398. 2 Egyptian Room, Nos. 9641-43. Chap. I. SEPULCHRAL CONES. 10 dynasty, the inscriptions are disposed in horizontal or vertical lines.^ None are known of a later age than the Twenty-sixth dynasty, which flourished just previously to the invasion of Egypt by the Persians, llepre- sentations of scenes are rarely found on tliem, and such as do occur are of sepulchral import : the deceased is seen seated by his wife,^ or standing in adora- tion,^ or praying to the solar orb ., 7, . ., , , - . No. 7. — Cone showing the inscription. as it sails in its bark or bans through the ether ,^ or worshipping the monarch of whose court he was an officer.^ The impressions were made with a wooden stamp when the clay was moist ; several cones, as many as fourteen, having been found stamped with the same mould. Occasionally they have double impressions. The inscriptions offer many interesting particulars, on account of the numerous functionaries mentioned, and their relative degrees of pre- cedency. In common with the other monuments of the country, they help to show the interior organization of this vast Empire. As an example of the inscriptions may be cited that on one of the cones of Merimes, which runs as follows : — AmalJii clier Hesar suten sa en Kisli Merimes malchru ; that is, '* Merimes, the prince of Ethiopia, devoted to Osiris, the justi- fied." ^ We know from other sources, that this person was one of the king's scribes or secretaries, who was invested with the viceroyalty of that country during the reign of Eameses If. Of the sacerdotal functionaries, who held the highest rank in the state, several cones have been preserved. These bear the names of Kamenkhepeij nomarch or lord-lieutenant of a pro- vince, and high priest of Amen Ea,'' of Amenusha, also nomarch and priest of the temple of Amen Ra,® of Petamennebkata, the second priest of Amen Pa/ of Amenhept or Amenophis, the fourth priest of the same god, on whose cones are placed the » Prisse, Mon. Eg., PI. 23 ; Egypt, j ^ ibid. Room, Nos. 9661, 0670. ! " Egypt. Room, Nos. 9648-52 : Cham- ' Egypt. Room, No. 96 U. • pollion, Miis. Cl.arles X., p. 164. 3 Prisse, Mon. %., PI. 28. i ' Egypt. Room, Nos. 9G54-55. 4 Ibid., E. R., Nos. 9732-35 ; Mu-\ I » Ibid., No. 96f)9. Dismay, Pt. ii. PI. xcv. p. 229. " Prisse, Mon. %. PI. 27. c 2 20 EaYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. name of his wife, Neferhetep or Nepherophis/ of jVIentuemlia, a similar functionary, and his wife Shepenmut,^ who had the appellation of king's relation ; and of Mentuhemha, a priest of the same god.^ There are also cones with the names of priests of Osiris,* one of which is inscribed with the name of Khem,"^ and others with that of Mentu, who was priest of the god Khem.^ Some have inscriptions in honour of Sebekmes ' and Tenruka,^ priests of the Heaven, or of priests of the god Enpe.^ Besides priests of the gods, two high priests of Ame- nophis II. of the Eighteenth dynasty are mentioned on them. One of these, named Nishni, was also scribe, or clerk of the food of the temple of Amen, in Thebes.^" The other, Nefer- hebef, associated with his own name that of his wife Tauai," who was also his sister. Of the scribes, ready writers, clerks, accountants, copyists, and royal secretaries of state, there are several cones. Amongst those of the caste of sacred scribes, and those not exercising any particular function are found the names of Paru ^^ and Thothmes,^^ Nefermen, scribe of the temple of Seti or the Typhonium,^* Bentehahar, sacred scribe of the books or registers ;^^ a sacred scribe of the god Enpe;^*^ Meri, chief scribe of the god Khem, who was also king's cousin and major-domo of the queen's palace ; " and Neferhept, chief scribe of Amen Ka.^^ These belonged to the ecclesiastical division. Hardly inferior to them were the royal scribes. One of these was charged with the care of the domains of lower Egypt.^^ Amenophis, another, kept the king's accounts.^^ Barneses, a third, was seal-bearer, privy councillor, "the king's eyes and ears," and high treasurer of the Ethiopian monarch, Taharka, ' Egypt. Room, Nos. 9663-67; Prisse, ; " Egypt. Room, Nos. 9671-91. loc. cit. ; Champollion, Mus. Charles X., j '^ Prisse, 1. c. p. 165. I '3 Egypt. Room, Nos. 9718, 9719, ^ Prisse, 1. c. ; Brongniart, Mus. Cer., ; 9658. PI. i. fig. 12, p. 22. ! 1* Prisse, 1. c. No. 1. 3 Champollion, Mus. Charles X., '^ Ibid., 1. c. ; Brongniart, Mus. Ccr., p. 166. i PI. i. 12 ; E. R., Nos. 9713-16. ■^ Egypt. Room, No. 9661. | i« Champollion, Mus. Charles X., p. 5 Ibid., No. 9660. ^ Champollion, 1. c. 165. »^ Egypt. Room, No. 9715. 7 Egypt. Room, Nos. 9645-47. \ '^ Ibid., No. 9722. 8 Ibid., Nos. 9657, 9858 ; Prisse, Mon. | ^'^ Champollion, Mu^. Charles X., p. Eg., PI. 27. I 165. » Champollion, 1. c. | 20 Egypt. Room, No. 9707. 'o Prisse, 1. e. 1 3JIAP. I. SEPULCHRAL CONES. 21 /ho reigned B.C. 715-688.^ NechtsebaV another of these |uuetionaries, was scribe of the royal trooj^s. Two others, tamenkheper ^ and Ka/ were scribes of the granaries of upper id lower Egypt. Amenemha^ was scribe of the account of |he bread of upper and lower Egypt ; and Senmut was scribe >f the silver place, or a clerk in the treasury.^ The list may be closed with the titles of various functionaries, the chief of whom were the dukes, or nomarchs of the first rank, called in the hieroglyphs, rejpa-ha. Besides those of the same name already mentioned are two called Khem, one of whom was also a sphragistes, or sealer ; the other was governor of Abu, the Ivory island, as Elephantine was called in the inscriptions.^ One cone shows that Hepu had charge of the alluvial^ country, and on another is mentioned a king's follower in all lands.^ Besides these are mentioned Abi " and Pahar,^^ chamberlains of the queens of the Twenty-sixth or Saite dynasty ; Amenemapt, a prefect of the palace ; ^^ Petamenapt, guardian of the king's hall.^^ Parennefer, the incense-bearer of Amen Ea,^* and Ameneman, who had the charge of the balance, are, perhaps, of the class of priests.-^^ Senmut, a captain of soldiers, closes the list.-^^ Cones having the names of females only are rare.^^ After the Twenty-sixth dynasty, or about the 6th century, B.C., they ceased to be used. Kectangular and pyramidal bricks of the same material, and stamped with the same impressions, have been also found.^^ This long list might, without doubt, be augmented ; ^^ and as the eye ranges over these tickets of the dead, we are forcibly reminded of the visit- ing cards of the living. The t-enants of the sepulchres of the ancient No-Ammon or Diosopolis, and still older Noph or Memphis, seem to have left them behind, as if to make a call on posterity. The sliabti, or sepulchral figures, which were deposited with Prisse, 1. c. | " Ibid., No. 9710. 2 Egypt. Room, No. 9706. 3 Ibid., No. 9709. * Ibid., No. 9717. * Ibid., No. 9639. « Ibid., No. 9730. Ibid., No. 9660. »2 Ibid., No. 9728. " Ibid., No. 9725. ^* Ibid., No. 9711. " Ibid., No. 9724. »« Ibid., Nos. 9729-31. " Ibid., Nos. 9692-9702. « Prisse, I.e. " Ibid., 9730,/-/. » Egypt. Room, No. 9723. i " Leemans, Cat. Rais. dii Muse'e de '» Ibid., Nos. 9735-36. | Leide, 8vo, Leide, 1842, last page. 22 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. the dead, and formed part of the funeral relics, were also made of terra-cotta.^ ^like those of unbaked clay tliey are generally of a late period, probably of the age of the Koman dominion. In some instances they have been rudely modelled, and a line of hieroglyphs, expressing the name and titles of the deceased, scrawled upon them.^ Others have been stamped in a mould and the formulae with which they are covered impressed in hieroglyphs.^ In some instances the entire ground was coloured white or yellow, and the hieroglyphs and other decorations inserted in red, blue, and yellow. Even after this process, some specimens were varnished with the same substance which covers the fresco paintings of the coffins. All the figures are of persons of inferior condition, and were executed at a period when the arts had irrevocably sunk. They were deposited in little chests No. 8.— Embalmer's Model Coffin. Ecyptiaii Room, Xo. 9729. made of wood, and painted in tempera, on which was inscribed a dedication to Osiris, or the 6tli chapter of the ritual ; and they were then placed by the coffins in the sepulchres. Besides these figures, little sarcophagi are occasionally found in the tombs, painted in exact imitation of the larger coffins, and are supposed to be the models which Herodotus states were shown by the undertakers to the relatives of the deceased.* Some- times they contain a little terra-cotta or wooden mummied figure, and are then complete models of the coffin. They were also part of the funeral decorations, but the reason of their employment is not obvious. ' Egypt. Room, Nos. 9487-0539. 2 Ibid., Nos. 9188-70-82. 3 Ibid., No. 9503. * Ibid., No. 8513. Chap. I. VASES. 23 Another of the many uses of this pottery was for vases or jars to liold the entrails of the dead. In order to preserve the body efiectually, it was necessary to remove the softer portions, such as the thoracic and abdominal viscera, and these were em- balmed separately. In some instances they were returned into the stomach, with wax models of four deities, commonly called the four genii of the Araent or Hades. It was, however, usual in the embalmment of the wealthier classes to soak them care- fully in the requisite preparations, tie them up in neat cylindrical packets, and deposit them in vases having the shape of the four genii. The bodies of these deities, which were usually repre- sented as mummied, formed the bodies of the vases, and were cylindrical below and rounded above. The mouths of the jars were sometimes countersunk to receive the lower part of the covers whicli fitted into them like a plug. The jar of the first genius, whose name was Amset, '' the de- vourer of filth," held the stomacli and large intestines,^ and was formed at the top like a human head. This genius typified, or presided over, the southern quarter of the compass. He was the son of Osiris or of Phtha Soccharis Osiris, the pygmean god of Memphis. The second vase of the series was in the shape of the genius Hajai, the "concealed." Its cover was shaped like the head of a cyno- cephalus, and it held the smaller viscera. This genius presided over the North, and was also the son of Osiris. The third vase was that of the genius Tuautmutf. " the adorer of his mother." It had a cover in shape of the head of a jackal, and held the lungs and heart. This genius presided over the East, and was brother of the preceding. The last was that of the genius Kehhsnuf, the "refresher of his brethren." It had a cover shaped like the head of a sparrow-hawk, and held the liver and gall-bladder. This genius presided over the West, No. 9. — Vase In shape of Tuautmutf. * Pettigrew, on the Jersey Mummy, * Archseologia.' xxvii. 2(52-278. 24 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. and was also brother of the preceding. Three vases of a set, in the British Museum, have all human-shaped lieads, and are provided with handles at the sides of the bodies. Specimens of a very unusual kind are also to be found in the same col- lection,^ having the whole body formed without a cover, in the shape of a dome above, and surmounted by a rudely modelled figure of a jackal, couchant upon a gateway, formed of a detached piece. The entrails were introduced by the rectangular orifice in the upper part. In some other instances the covers appear to have been secured by cords passing through them to the body of the vase. When secured, the vases were placed in a wooden box, which was laid on a sledge and carried to the sepulchre, where they were often taken out and placed two on each side of the coffin. It was only the poorer classes that used pottery for these purposes. The viscera of high officers of state were em- balmed in jars of fine white limestone, and the still more valu- able oriental alabasters or arragonite, obtained from the quarries of Tel El Amarna, or the ancient Alabastron. The potter, however, chiefly exercised his skill in the pro- duction of vases for domestic use, the largest of which were several feet high, the smallest scarcely an inch. These, which ive coloured red in the hieroglyphical inscriptions, to show that they were made of terra-cotta, were called han, or '' vase " ; ^ a word which also meant a measure of liquid capacity. Those of a jar shape held various kinds of liquids. Others, which con- tained the Nile water offered to the gods, were tall and slender, with a spout like that of a coffee-pot.^ Bread, roast meats, and waterfowl, were placed in deep dishes.* Oils and drugs were kept in tall conical jars,^ carefully covered and tied down. Ointments, salves, and extracts, in small pots.^ Other cosmetics were held in a jug with a spout.' Wine, honey, and other liquids were deposited in open-mouthed jars, out of which they could readily be drawn.^ Many vases of these forms are found made of bronze, alabaster and stone, but they were also often of pottery, either dull or glazed. These forms are found in the 1 Egypt. Room, Nos. 9552-54-55. ' Ibid., p. 550, No. 138 ; Champ. Diet. 2 Champ. Diet., p. 241, No. 256 ; p. 413, No. 489. Gram, p. 227. | « Bunsen's 'Egypt's Place,' vol. i. 3 Bunseu's ' Egypt's Place,' vol. i. p. j 140-143. 532, Nos. 5158-72 ; Champ. Diet., p. 425, I • Ibid. ; and Champ. Diet., pp. 424, Nos. 510-513. 504. 4 Ibid., Nos 576-86; cf. No. 141. « Champ. Diet., pp. 424, 501-503. I irAP VASES. 25 i I liicroglyplis ; but tlie sepulchres have yi(4ded a very large number of* vases, the majority of which, there is no doubt, were employed for the uses of daily life. These vases of red terra- otta, unglazed, are in fact some of the very earliest examples bf the potter's art, and many specimens have been found in the tombs of the old dynasties in the plains of Memphis, especially at Saqqara. They were made with the wheel, and many are of small size.-^ Of the coarse red brick pottery were also made the pots which held the embalmed and sacred ibis at Memphis. The bird was duly prepared, and then neatly wrapped up in linen bandages, in the shape of a large tongue or heart. In the plains of Saqqara and Memphis the ibis-mummies are found placed in conical pots, of the shape of an in- verted sugar-loaf. Their material is generally the coarse brick pottery ; sometimes, how- ever, it is of glazed ware, and a few pots of stone have been found. Their walls are about the thickness of a tile. The body has been turned on the potter's wheel, and the exterior is ribbed with broad grooves, made with the potter's fingers. The cover is convex, like an inverted saucer, and is cemented to the body by a coating of lime and plaster. Thus pro- tected, the ibis was deposited, enwrapped in linen, in one of the mummy pits, in which n<>. lo.-ibi^mummy Pot. the pots were placed vertically, the pointed end being thrust into the ground, with the mouth upwards.^ The pits are subterraneous galleries, with niches 8 feet high and 10 feet wide, in which the pots were placed like jars in a cellar.^ At Thebes this bird, when mummied, was deposited in its envelopes alone ; but at Hermopolis it was placed in oblong cases of wood or stone.* The amphoree^ or two-handled vases in the collections of the Museum are of the shape seen in the pictures of the tombs, and are of a pale sandy-coloured unpolished ware. The walls are ^ Lepsius, Denkm., Abth. ii. Bl. 2 Pocoeke, ' Travels in tlie East,' vol. i. PI. Ixx. p. 233. ' Denon, vol. ii. p. 40 ; Pi. xcix. p. xxxi. * Pettigrcw, History of Mummies, p. 209 ; Passaluccjiia, Catalogue Raisonne'e, p. 847 ; one of tlicse pots is figured, Pct- tigrew, PI. xiii. fig. 5. ^ Egypt. Room, Nos. 4945-46. 26 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. thick, and their shape calls to mind those which are seen on the coins of Athens, and which are supposed to have been used as packages for exported products, particularly oil. On one of them is written, in coarse large hieroglyphs, the word han, or " tribute " ;^ and on another is a hieratic inscription only half legible, in which can be distinguished the expression, "the Palace of Sethos I.,"^ showing that these vessels contained some of the tribute deposited in the vaults of that edifice. In the grand triumphal procession to Thothmes III.,^ similar vases, containing incense, wiue, and asphalt, are brought to the Great King by the Eutennu or Ludenu or Ludin, an Asiatic race, situated " north of the great sea." It appears from Herodotus,* that in his days wine was exported from Syria to Egypt in such vases, which were afterwards filled with water, and sent up to the stations in the Arabian desert. It is highly probable that the amphorae in the Museum were part of the tribute of some Asiatic people contemporary with the Nineteenth dynasty, and they consequently afford an insight into the art of other Oriental nations at the same epoch. The mode in which these vases were brought to the table has been already mentioned. Several vases of this shape are known in the different collections. To some the potter has given an extra elongation in the lower part, in order that tliey might be fixed into the floors.^ These am- phorae measure about 3 feet in height, and 1 foot in diameter. There is a handle of one of these amphorse, found at Tel El Amarna, stamped in relief with the names of one of the heretic monarchs of the Eighteenth dynasty, which reigned in the fifteenth century B.C., probably the earliest instance of this practice which was almost universally adojlted at a later time by the Greeks and Komans.® There is an amphora of this class probably of a later date than those just alluded to, and made in Egypt, coming in fact from the vicinity of the ancient Antinoe.'^ The neck of it is cylindrical, and the body decidedly conical ; but the whole of the latter is covered with deep regular grooves, which run in parallel circles round the axis of the vase, and have been made either with the potter's fingers, or else with a broad tool laid at the side while the vase was revolving on the 1 Egypt. Room, No. 4947. | » R. seliini, M. C, Ivi. No. 122. 2 Ibid., No. 4946. j « Egypt. Room, No. 4947 a. 3 Wilkinson, Mann, and Gust., vol. i. | ^ Descr. de 1'%. Ant., vol. v. PI. 84, PI. iv. ; Hoskins, 'Travels in Ethiopia,' | No. 56; A., vol. v., PI. 75-33; Brong- 4to, Lond. 1835. * Herod., iii. 9. '' niart, ' Traite; ' cf. E. R., No. 5270. Chap. I. VASES. 27 lathe. This may have been done for ornament ; but it is pos- sible that the object of it was to allow of the vase being encased in linen or plaited palm-leaves, or even that the hand might hold it more securely. It probably contained a liquid. Some of the smaller amphora?, which are of the same shape, and are only 9 inches high, appear to have held asphalt, barley,^ and dates. These have often rounded bases, and the body more or less globular, while some are provided with a foot,^ like the Greek amphorae. Such vases were convenient for various domestic purposes, especially for carrying a small quantity of liquid. Their mouths were wide or narrow, according to the nature of the substance to be held ; but unfortunately neither the hiero- glyphics nor the inscriptions afford much information respecting the manner in which they were used. The offerings to the gods, of milk and wine, appear indeed to have been made in No. 11.— Group of plain tena-cotta Vases. P^gyptian Kcom, No?. 5074, SO'iP, 5267, 5C75. little amphorae, many of which come from Saqqara. Some of these vases represent those of another class, in which the body is long, but also terminates in a point, while the handles are very small. It would also seem that they should be classed with other little vases having four small handles^ round the neck or collar, which are about ^ inch in diameter, so as to admit of their being slung on a small cord of palm-fibres, and thus transported from place to place. Probably the larger vases contained water,* and the smaller ones^ may also have » Eosellini, M. C, liv.-lvi. 59-74, 75-9-120; E. E., 5101-4; Descr. de 1'%. E., 75, 1 K 15, 20, 22, 30. 2 Eosellini. M. C, Iv. 66-8, Ivi. 113; E. E., 5099. 3 Descr. de I'Ec?. Ant., vol. v. PI. 73, fig. 12 ; found at Saqqara. ^ E. E., 5111-5268-67; Eosellini, M. C, Iv. 85 Dei-cr. de I'Eg., Fl. 75- 34. -^ Eo.cllini, M. C, Iv. 87, 88. 28 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. held enough to take a draught out of the cask, or else to keep it ready suspended and cooled. These are also generally of unpolished ware, but are often stained by the liquids which they have held. With them must be classed three-handled vases, resembling the Greek hydriai, or water-jugs, and, like them, probably employed as pitchers. Of the former vases the body is in the shape of an egg, or else of a compressed globe, while the mouth is in general wide, but occasionally narrow. Some variety is observable in the position of the handle, which either touclies the lip and shoulder, or is placed under the lip, or entirely on the shoulder. It is generally placed in a vertical position on the vase, but in some instances obliquely or hori- zontally,^ which appears to have been done only when the vase Avas intended to be carried about by tlie hand from table to table. No. 12.— Group of Vases of unglazed terra-cotta. Egyptian Room. Nos. 5071, 5023, 5067, 5'j73. Next to the vases with several handles, may be classed those with one. These are undoubtedly jugs, and their shape, although by no means so elegant as the Greek, marks them as the un- equivocal prototypes of their Hellenic successors. The jugs made of this unpolished clay are from about a foot to a few- inches in height ; their shapes are very different, but they exhibit the Egyptian type of the pointed base. The prevalent one is the jug with a tall neck and handle, probably used to hold milk or water ;^ another variety has a small handle in front, and a small orifice^ at the bottom, and was, perhaps, a water- ^ Eosellini, M. C, Ivi. lOJ, 107. '^ Rosellini, M. C, Ivi. 115. •^ E. R., 5089. Chap. I. VASES. 29 vase. At a later period the statue of Canopiis had a fictile hydria or water-vase through which the water |)ercolated, and Galen calls these hunlahs or water-bottles statiha} These jugs appear in the hieroglyphs as the determinative of the names of several liquids which were kept or mixed in vases of this shape. Other jugs ^ have an oval body, with a broad handle, arched over the lip, but are of small dimensions, and must have been used for drugs and spices. Their mouths are wide. There are several jugs with tall necks, oval bodies, and flat circular bases, which have rudely modelled in front the features of the god Bes.^ These are water-bottles, and from their ornaments and shape are of a late age — probably Roman ; they are the Bessa of the Greek and Roman writers,* so called from the god's image affixed to them. Some of these jugs resemble the Greek. An defiant vase eno^raved in Rosel- lini's work^ is scarcely distinguish- able from the elegant Greek shape called the oenoclioe, or wine-bottle ; and a small vase in the Museum,^ of a pale red ware, exactly resembles a lecythus, or oil cruse, from a sepulchre of ancient Greece or Italy. One of the most distinct forms is that apparently of the oil cruse.' The body is of a compressed globular shape ; the neck, remarkably small and short ; the orifice, scarcely J of an inch in diameter. Vases of this kind are generally of a dark colour, as if they had been stained by the contents which they have held. They correspond with the Greek aryhalloi.^ Besides these jugs many of the tall No. 13. — Bottle of ungUized ware, orna- mented with grotesque head of Bes. Egyptian Room, No. 5696. 1 Ruffinus, Hist. Eccl., lib. ii. c, 26 ; Suidas, 'TSpta ; Hesychius, Statika ; Galeu de Simpl., 1. c. 4; PLilostorg. Exc. Hist. Eccl., 1. c. 4; Aristotel. Meteor., 20; Johann. Cassan. de Inst, renunt., c. 16; Palladius, Hist. Lausiac, XX. ; Coteler. Mon., i. p. 36 ; Jablonski, Panth., iii. c. 147. '' Rosellini, M. C, Ivi. 114. ^ Rosdliui, ibid. 96; Descr. de I'Eg;. Ant., vol. V. PI. 75-7. Several varieties of this shape are engraved, ibid. 12-1. * Atliena^us, xi. 784. » M. C, Ivi. 108; E. R., 5071-73. « M. C, Ivi. 108; Descr., I.e. 1-37; E. R., 5074. 7 E. R., 5074-75. * E. R.. 5076-79 ; Descr. de I'Eg. Aut., vol. V. PI. 84-25. 30 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Paht I. vases with one handle were of the nature of cups, and were nsed as such by tlie poorer classes, or by the slaves of a family. They are distinguished from the jug by their wide mouths and small handles. Their bodies are cylindrical, and in some the lip has a spout, which makes them resemble jugs or basins. One has been found containing corn.^ But it is evidently impossible to determine the manifold uses to which they may have been applied ; for another, of nearly the same shape, found at the Pyramid of Abooser, contained white paint. The last class of vases with handles ar^ little jugs with handles passing entirely over the body, thus giving them the appearance of little baskets. It is evident that these are sihdse, or buckets, such as those of larger size, and made apparently of metal, seen in the hands of the statues of Isis. These vases are, however, so small, being only about two inches high, that it is impossible to conceive they were anything but children's toys. The vases without handles are of very different proportions, as different, indeed, as the deep jar of several feet in length and the small cup. The larger of these, to which it will be necessary to allude first, are the casks. They are equivalent to the Greek j)itJioi. The Greek were too large to be made on the lathe, and were fashioned in a particular manner : but the Egyptian, which are of smaller diameter, show from the marks upon them that they were turned. Their form is also different, being elongated, convex above, bending No. 14.- pithos, inwards at the centre, and terminatino^ in a point, on a stand. i • i i i i • i i i which seems to have been thrust into the sand that covered the floors of the cellars. They are of a coarse, gritty, and not very compact texture ; black in the inner surface, but externally of a pale red colour. Their use was, like that of the amphorae, to preserve large quantities of viands. Ducks, salt-fish, meat, wine, and all the requisites of a well-stored pantry, were preserved in them. They are among the largest products of the fictile art. It is probable that they were in use in all ages, and that little improvement ever took place in their manufacture. One, however, in the collections of the ^luseum, which is covered with a demotic inscription, cannot date earlier than the Ptolemies, and is possibly as late as the Roman dominion. Smaller vases of this class, also destined to ' Descr. cle I'Eg. Ant., vol. v. IT. 81-16 ; E. R., 50;:0, 5079. CllAV. I, VASES. 31 preserve viands and other substances, are distinguished by liaving their bodies more or less elliptical and egg-sliaped.^ As the necks become longer tliey gradually^ approach the shape of botth?s,^ and of these there are several varieties, many being distinguished by the narrow aperture through which the liquid dropped or gurgled, and which procured for such vases, among the Romans, the name of gutturnia} Those with a short neck, however, were jars, and some few of these were decorated, like the bottles, with heads rudely modelled in bas-relief Even the gutturnia have occasionally a female head modelled in bas- relief.^ Few of these vases exceed a foot in length, whilst many of them are not more than a few inches long. With these may be classed many small ones, of the nature of crucibles, which have little spouts to pour off the liquids they contain;® small jars, in the shape of an inverted truncated cone, some with spouts, others with a compressed globular body,' in which have been found dates and other eatables ; cruses or bottles, with narrow necks and small orifices, similar to those with handles already described ; ^ and the lecytlioi or unguent vases, with oval bodies more or less elongated, and small necks, like those found in the Roman sepulchres of England and the Continent, and formerly called lachrymatories.^ The last of this division are the wide open-mouthed pans or bowls, which were ap- plied to a multitude of uses, especially to hold the fruit or viands serv^ed at table ; they seldom occur larger than about one foot in diameter, and generally have a broad, flat, and moulded lip. They are of a pale yellow or red unglazed pottery.^° Similar vessels are represented in the tombs of a more conical shape, like the cdlathoi or basket- shaped vessels of the Greeks, and were used in the place of buckets. -^^ The smaller vases of this class were plates or drinking-cups.^ No. 15. — Vase for holding oil, in un- frlazeti terracotta. Kgyptian Room, No. 5033. 12 ' Eos. M. C, Iv! 90-3, t. ii. p. 335. 2 Ibid., liv. 89, 2 ft. 1 in. long; Descr., 1. c. PI. 86-50 ; PI. 75-3G. 3 Cf. Rosellini, M C, Hi. 16-19; Iv. 104-121 ; Descr., 1. c. PI. 84-18. * Cf. Rosellini, M.C..lv.90; Ivi. 121; liv. 48 ; liii. 29 ; E. R., B. :M., .5092-93. ^ Ibid., liii. 8. * Ibid, liii. 15; liv. 57. ' Ibid., Ivi. 125. » Ibid., Iv. 62, 63 ; liv. 58. « Ibid., liv. 55. '" E. R., 4976; cf. Rosellini, M. C, liv. 60. >' Ibid., 4977-79. '- Cf. Descr. de I'Eg. Ant., vol. v. PI. 78, Nos. 26, 38, 39; PI. 84-lS; of. Rosellini, M.C., liii. 25; E. R., 4981-95. 32 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part 1. The use of pottery was very extensive among the Egyptians. Conical jars were employed to raise tlie water out of wells by a process like the modern shadoof} The water-carrier used wide- mouthed jars slung at each end of a pole by a palm-fibre cord.^ The poulterer deposited liis plucked and salted geese in tall open-mouthed amphorae, which were fixed upright by their pointed ends in the floor of his house, or in his cellar.^ The butcher and the cook disposed of their viands in the same manner.* The weaver used terra-cotta vessels to hold his flax, and reeled it out of them.^ Figs were gathered into bottles.*' Wine was squeezed into a pan with low square handles, and deposited, as has been already remarked, in amphorjie, which were sealed with clay, and placed on a low four-legged stand, or on stone rings. The wine was poured into these amphorae by means of large bowls, provided with a spout in front, the necks being carefully sealed.' Some curious examples of the mode of fastening these amphorae are given by Sir Grardner Wilkinson. They were surmounted with tall conical seals or burgs of clay stamped with hieroglyphs, and coloured white and red ; one has the titles of a monarch of the Nineteenth dynasty. A kind of tall cup or bowl of this substance was held by the worshipper to present his offering, or by the servant to assist her mistress.^ Various pots and pans — the celebrated flesh-pots of Egypt — were used by the cooks in the same manner as iron pots are employed at present.^ Cups of this material were used for drinking wine or to take it out of the amphora.^" The water- bottle placed under the table, and round whicli was twined the lotus flower, as well as the table itself, were made of it.^^ The jars held the colours of the varnisher, and the plasters of the plasterer ; ^^ the grains of corn before they were pounded in the mortar, and the flour after it was returned from thence ;^'^ the embalmer's bitumen ; ^* and ^vater for the use of the scribes.^^ A kind of hrater^^ was used as a receptacle for the wine or water drawn from the amphorae. Large jars were employed for water- » Wilk., M. and C, s. 1, vol. ii. p. 4. 2 Ibid., pp. 5, 99-137. 3 Ibid., p. 19 ; Roscllini, M. C, iv. * Ibid., p. 3^5. ^ Ibid., p. CO. « Ibid., p. 146, ' Ibid., PI. X. pp. Ir35-1G0; PI. xx. « Ibid., p. 107. " Ibid., p. 388. »« Ibid., p. 391. " Ibid., pp. 3!i3-9. ^2 Ibid., iii. p. 174, No. 364 ; p. 31 1 No. 385. '3 Ibid., iii. p. 181, No. 367. '< Ibid., p. ISa, No. 368. 1^ Ibid., p. 315, No. 387. i« H.M., p. 341, No. 394. Chap. I. MODE OF MANUFACTURE. 33 ing cattle, for the labourer's hod/ the smelter's bucket and crucible, the jar of the cow-doctor, and the pail of the milk- man.^ ' Although it has been denied that the Egyptians had a type of fabric distinct from that of other people, a practised eye will undoubtedly at once detect their vases by their simpler forms, by their want of high mechanical finish, by the prevalence of pointed bases, and by the extreme "femallness of the neck and orifices. After the subjugation of Egypt by the Greeks and Romans, some of the Egyptian vases resemble, indeed, those of their foreign masters ; but during the national independence the workmanship is totally distinct, being distinguished by the purity of its outline, and by the tendency to imitate the forms of fruits and flowers. The Egyptian potters had not, it is true, that highly refined sense of the beautiful which the Greeks possessed, but they were by no means entirely destitute of it. The high civilisation of Egypt, however, and the abundance of gems and of the precious metals, directed the national taste to working in metal rather than in clay ; and with the exception of the^Egjptian fayence or porcelain, the works in. terra-cotta, were for domestic use rather than for decorative purposes. The mode of transporting these vases has not varied for centuries, and at the time of the Eomans rafts of them floated down the Nile as they do at the present day.^ Fortunately, some scenes depicted at Beni Hassan represent potters at their work, and thus enable us to see by what simple means the craft was carried on. Various members of this fra- ternity were undoubtedly attached to the palace of the monarch, and to the houses of the nobility. In Egypt they were probably thus employed as early as the Fourth dynasty. They appear to have used only the simplest processes. After the clay had been dug up, it was prepared by an operation called hi hat, or " knead- ing" with the feet. A workman rolled out the paste or unbaked clay, which is coloured in the paintings of a deep grey, to pre- pare it as a lump to be laid on the wheel. Making it was called spa or sa]^i. Masses, of convenient size, were then taken up and placed on the wheel. This consisted of a flat circular, or hexagonal, table, placed on a stand, and appears to have been ^ Rosellini, M. C, xlix. 2 Ibid., M. C, 1. 2 a. Wilk. M. aud C, scr. 2, vol. i. or iv. p. 130, No, 441, p. 13 ', No. 444 ; Iloscllini, M. C, 1. 1 a, 2 c, xxvii. xxxi. ^ Juvonal, Sat. xv. 127, 128. D 34 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTEEY. Part I. turned with the left hand, whilst the vase was shaped with the right. The potter either sat on the ground or on a low stool to turn the spindle. The chuck was formed by the lower part of the mass; indeed, it would seem as if the wheel marked 1, 2, 3, Chap. I. MODE OF DECORATION. 35 which revolved on a pin, was turned occasionally from the chnck. Cups and other vessels were hollowed out with the thumb or finger, and the vase fashioned externally with the hands. The mode of making the handles and other parts is not represented ; but they were made separately, and then stuck on, as well as the ornaments, which were made by another class of workmen. The larger dishes and pans were made with the hand. The furnace, which had a blast, consisted of a tall, cylindrical chimney, 6, 8, in which the fire was probably placed half-w'ay up, and a current of cold air admitted by a giating beneath, so as to drive the flames through the top of the chimney, which has been conjectured to have been almost two metres, or G'SOOl-l English feet high. When the vases were baked they were carried away in baskets, slung on a pole, and borne across a man's shoulder.^ ' In general, such vases were adapted for culinary and other purposes ; but for those which were used for entertainments, or which stood in the domestic apart- ments where they could be seen, some kind of decoration seems to have been required. The simplest decorations were annular bauds, of a black or purple colour, running round the body or neck.^ In some cases a wreath w^as painted round the ' neck f and certain jars and bottles have the re- presentation of a collar pendent from the shoulder of the vase, painted in blue, black, and red.* Others are coloured entirely with broad bands, of a faint purple and black colour. Occasionally the annular bands are united by hatched lines, ^ and some- times, but very rarely, a few leaves are painted on the vases.** The most elaborate mode of colouring was to paint the whole vase with a ground, in distemper, — sometimes No. 17.— Painted Vase of unglaz(4 ware. Egypt. Room, No, 4887. ^ Rosellini, M. C, 1. ; Biongniart, i Traite, PL iii. ; Wilkinson, Man. and' Cust., i. p. 164. i - RosL-llini, M. C, liii. 19-26 ; liv. 51 ; j Iv. 67-8-72-86-7, &c. ; hi. 124. ! 3 E. R., 4897, 4898. * Rosellini, M. C, liii. 16, 17, IS; Iv. 62; Lepsius, Drnkra., ii. 153. ' Rosellini, M. C, hi. 117. « E.R., 4913, 4885. D 2 36 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. blue, with festooned bands of narrow lines of white, red, and yellow colour — and then to cover it entirely with a resinous varnish, to which time has imparted an orange colour.^ Thus prepared, they were humble imi- tations of the opaque glass vases — the Egyptian murrhine — and are considered to have been placed in the tombs instead of the real ones, which the relatives of the dead desired to retain. Others were coloured white and marbled with white and black lines, or else of a warm red colour, marbled with crimson or brown lines. These are also covered with the same resinous varnish. On some is painted a small tablet, contain- ing an inscription with the names and titles of the deceased,^ which is generally sepulchral in its tenor. Occasionally mere names of persons are found in these in- scriptions ; but sometimes the substances contained in the vases, or their destination, are mentioned. The highest efforts of the artist seldom exceeded a stiffly- drawai lotus or papyrus flower, or a fanciful ornament. The cylin- drical vases with rounded bases, used to drink water, were de- corated with painted collars or wreaths.^ A more elaborately- painted vase is given by Rosellini from the wall-painting of a tomb at Thebes. It is an amphora with a yellow ground, on which, in red and blue outline, are de- picted calves disporting amidst shrubs and a bunch of pendent lotus flowers.* It is a distant No. 18. — Painted Jug. Egyptian Room, No. 4936, No. 19. — Painted Vase. Egyptian Room, No. 4910. • Rosellini, M. C, liv. 61. Cf. Lee- 250, 251. mans, Mon. Eg., Ixii. 349 ; Ixv. 404,405. | ^ Rosellini, M. C, liii. 16-18; Lee- 2 E. R., 4875; Minutoli, Reise, Taf. ; mans, Mon. %., Ixiii. 367. xx.xi. fig. 8 ; I scriptions in the hieratic or Egyptian writing-hand are not common ; they are chiefly religious,^ but lists, memoranda and other subjects are found on them. Those in the demotic or popular writing, which was used after the Persian rule till the close of the first century of our era, are probably receipts ; but their contents have not yet been explained.^ The Greek in- scriptions on those brought principally from tlie Roman stations of Syene and Pselcis, commencing with the reign of Yespasian and terminating with that of the Antonines, consist of short memoranda, receipts, and epistles. Those from Syene are acquittances by the tax-gatherers and publicans, or contractors of *' the sacred gate of Syene" for payments of the tax paid^ for the poll or income tax which rose from 10 to 18 drachms under the increasing fiscal regulations of the Eoman Empire.^ One more curious than the rest, is an acquittance from Antonius Malchaeus, the port-admiral, to Harsiesis, a goose-feeder.^ Those from Pselcis are receipts of the soldiers to the commissary for their rations."^ Most of these were written by clerks, and, from the fact of their being found in duplicate, it is probable that they were used as tallies — one copy being kept in the public office, and the other given to the payer, which accounts for their discovery near the stations. One is a letter written about the time of the reign of Severus. In the chapter which treats of the pottery of Assyria and Babylon there will be occasion to advert to a similar practice. ^ The Coptic inscriptions are almost all religious, with some few exceptions consisting of memoranda or short letters ; and probably belong to the age of Coustantine. They are not dated either by indictions or by the Diocletian era.^ ' Morri-on, Chin. Gram., Preface, 4to, Athens, 1842, p. 6G. 2 E. R., 5G43, 5644. 3 E. R., 5677-5760 ; Young, 1. c. * E. R., 5790-584U ; Bockh, Corp. Insc. Grajc, No. 4863 6-4891 ; Minutoli, Reise, xxxii. 17 ; Young, Hieroglj^phios, PI 53, 54, 55 ; Rhangabe, Ant. Hell., 5 Rev. Archeol., 1869, p. 226. « E. R., 5790 ; Bockh, 1. c. 4864. ^ Niebuhr in Gau's Nub. Tab. viii. ix. pp. 18-20; Bockh, Corp. In>.cr., No, 5109, p. 458. » E. R., 5863-5894. Chap. TI. GLAZKD WARK. 47 CHAPTER II. Glazerl Ware — Analysis — Glaze — Colouring matter — U.so of glazed ware in architecture and inlaying — Vases of various kinds — from tlie Saralnit FA Khadcm — Gra3co-Egyi)tian vases — Inscribed tiles — Toys and draughtsmen — Amulets, beads, bugles, pectoral plates, scarabaii — Small figures of the gods — Porcelain finger-rings — Sepulchral figures — Glazed stone vases, rings, and other ornaments of this material, HiTHEKTO that kind of Egyptian pottery has been described which was unglazed, and which, consequently, being only used for common and domestic purposes, did not require any high degree of skill in the potter. We are now about to examine those kinds to which the Egyptians applied a vitreous glaze, and which corresponded to the porcelain of the present day and the fayence of the middle ages. The term porcelain, however, which archaeologists and others have applied to this ware, is not strictly correct, since it exhibits neither the translucence, the compactness, nor the hardness of that substance. Nor can it be defined as glazed terra-cotta, since the body of the ware is of a different substance from that material. It is of a white or grey colour, and of a sandy, friable texture, the particles of which it is composed being hard, but having little or no co- hesion. The constituent parts consist of silica and alumina, carbonate of lime, magnesia, oxide of iron, and water ; but the analyses present results so different, that no very satisfactory conclusion can be drawn as to the true proportions of the sub- stances employed. These were probably different, according to the manufactory, and the period in which the ware was made. The heat used, however, was only just sufficient to hold the clay together ; and a small quantity of soda found in it seems to have been introduced to effect the glazing. Its specific gravity is 2'613, and it is not fusible even at a white heat. This paste, or body, which was the core of the glaze, could have very little plasticity, presenting a gritty, sandy mass, difficult to form into vases, and concave pieces turned on the wheel ; it was, however, more easily stamped in moulds, in the shape of small figures of various kinds. The reason why the Egyptians used this kind 48 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTEIIY. Paut I. of paste appears to have been that their argillaceous clays would not combine with their siliceous glazes. When placed on vases of the kind described in the preceding chapter, this glaze would have bubbled, peeled, scaled, or fallen off. The use of lead in glazing had not yet been discovered, and the siliceous glaze required to be held by other siliceous particles, which were all retained in a granular state by the clay.^ When the object had assumed the intended shape, the glaze was laid on. It was com- posed of silica — probably a finely ground or triturated sand, and soda, to which were added certain metallic oxides to produce the colour requirdll. For the fine celestial blue, which is still the admiration of all who view it, and scarcely rivalled after thirty centuries of human experience, an oxide of copper was em- ployed.^ The green glaze, which, in many instances, seems to be the blue changed by the effects of time, is also stated to have been produced by another oxide of the same metal. The red glaze, but rarely seen, is conjectured to be a protoxide of copper ; the violet, to be formed by an oxide of manganese, although capable of being produced by gold. Yellow was, perhaps, made with silver ; the white glaze with tin, or a white earth.^ No very recent analysis has, however, been made ; and it is to be regretted that we are compelled to acquiesce in the conjectures of archaeologists, rather than to adopt the tests of chemists.* Of these colours the celestial blue is the predomi- nant one, the rest being occasional varieties, used for objects made in the Greek and Roman epochs, when foreign ideas and tastes had superseded the genuine national feelings. The glaze is often thick and tender, susceptible of injury from the action of air, and liable to become covered with a saline efflorescence ; it only partially resists strong acids. From the impression of linen cloths^ which some objects bear, it would seem that the glaze was laid on with pledgets of linen, unless these were used in the furnace to prevent adhesion of contiguous pieces. The application of this porcelain in the arts was very extensive. It was highly prized, and was esteemed valuable enough to be exported — objects made of it have been found in Greece and ' Brongniart, Traitc, i. 505. j * See, liowever, the geneial account of 2 Boudet, ' Notice Histoiique de I'Art , this ware, Mus. Pract. Geol. Cat. p. 32. do la Verrerie ne en ^Egypte ' ; Descr. de i * Compare, for example, sj^ecimens, r%ypte Antiq. Mem., t. ii. p. 17. B. M., E. Pt., 1120-27, on the back of * Passalaequa, Cat. Pais., pp. 254, 258, j which are the traces of linen, and foil. i TILES AND INLAID OBJECTS. 49 taly: but of the technical means employed in its preparation there are no representations in the sepulchres. It is as old as tlie Sixth dynasty. In all cases where beauty of decoration was required, and the object was not much exposed to the influence of moisture, this elegant material was used. ^m One of the earliest instances of its application is to df corate ^^^e jambs of an inner door of the Pyramid at Saqqara, in the style of the chimney-pieces plated with Dutch tiles which were in fashion about half a century ago. Tlie tiles are two inches long by one broad, and almost an eighth of an inch thick. ^ Some are of a bright blue colour, slightly convex on the e^jterior, having a plate behind which was perforated horizontally, and was let into a layer of plaster — a wire having been probably run through the tiles to secure them to the jamb. They seem to have been made expressly for the doorway, for some of them have numerals in hieratic characters at the back. Other tiles are rectangular, bevelled inwards, so as to fit into plaster,^ They are of a dark colour, almost black, and thinner than those just [escribed.^ A tablet* had the usual representation of the cow No. 31.— Tile for inlaying, inverted to i^how manner of insertion. Egyptian Room, No. 2440. No. 32.— Inlaying Tile of dark porce- Iain, from the Pyramid of Saq- qara. Egyptian Room, No. 2445, jf the goddess xithor, iidaid in blue porcelain on the calcareous 3tone in which it was sculptured. But the most extensive use of these tiles known is in the ruins of the Tel El Yahoudeh, the ancient Vicus Juda3orum in the Temple of Eameses III. or Eampsinitus formerly built of unbaked bricks at that spot. The walls of this edifice were revetted with porcelain tiles con- taining the legends and conquests of the monarch. Some of the tiles consisted of long rectanguhir slips with the hieroglyphs incused and inlaid with pastes or coloured glass fitted into the incused portions. The backgrounds of these tiles were generally ' E. IJ., 2437-42. - Vyee, Journal, iii. 45 ; Miniitoli, lleise zum Tern pel des Jupiter Ammon^ .-<. 405-407 ; Taf. xxviii. fig. 6, a, h, c, 7, 8 ; Segato, ' Saggi Tittorici,' folio. Fir. 1827, fasc. ii. 3 E. K., 2444-45. * Belmore Collootion, PI. 7. fig. 1. 50 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Paut T. blue. Some square tiles have a yellow background with the hieroirlvphic name and titles of the monarch inlaid in coloured pastes, producing a varied and lively eifect. Another class of tiles representing Asiatic and Negro prisoners conquered by the same king are of an entirely novel cliaracter, and resemble modern Palissy ware. The figures of the prisoners are in reliefs, upon a flat rectangular ground. Portions of the garments and the backgrounds are inlaid with coloured pastes of various colours, the features and flesh of the limbs are appropriately glazed, and the hair or head-dress — especially of the negroes — of coloured pastes. They are well made, and fine specimens of toreutic work in relief. Among the Asiatic tribes were the Kliita, the Kubu, the Tahennu, and others. Beth black and copper-coloured negroes appear at this period in their dresses of linen or panther skins ornamented with spots, stars, and other devices. Along Avith these tiles were found portions of alabaster and calcareous stone, in shape of the heads and arms of inlaid figures. The early statues of Egypt seem, like the acrolithic ones of Greece, to have been often composed of different materials, such as ivory and ebony, or wood and porcelain. When porcelain or vitreous pastes were inlaid, the portions made of this material were the extremities, as the fingers and toes, the beard and eyes, and parts of the dress, such as the collar round the neck, the bracelets, and anklets. One of the finest specimens of this application of porcelain in inlaying, is a head-dress or wig, found at Thebes, which formed part of a small figure of a king,^ probably about three feet high. The mass of which it is composed is of a deep blue colour, the fashionable head-powder of the day being pro- bably of that hue. So regular is the ar/angement of the curls,'' that they appear to have been pressed out- of a mould. A rich fillet or diadem which passed round the head, is inlaid with small tesserae about half an inch long, and one-eighth of an inch wide, of bright red paste, imitating jasper and gilded porcelain. The royal asp or urseus is wanting. It was secured on the statue by a plaster of fine lime, and the whole presented an appearance like the Lucca della Robbia ware. In the collections of the British Museum is a beard of deep blue porcelain, probably from a mummy case,^ and some fingers and toes,^ for inlaying into a figure. The ends consist of long plugs, and the pieces were fixed in with pins of glazed ware. Sometimes only a part » E. R., 2280. 2 E. R., 6894. ^ j^ r^ 2409-2418. GLAZED AND INLAID TILES FROM TEL EL YAHOUDEH. Chap. TI. TILES AND INLAID OBJECTS. 51 of the inlaid work was in porcelain ; thus in the ct)ffins belong- ing to the mummies of Tenamen^ and of Horus,^ in the Museum, the eyes have only their brows and lids of blue porcelain, the white being com- posed of ivory, and the pupils of obsi- dian ; — while in the coffin of Horus, a priest, the plaits of the beard are inlaid with paste or blue composition. Even at au earlier period, when the coffins were made in the shape of rectangular chests or boxes, the two eyes, called the symbolical eyes, inlaid into the sarcophagi, were of various substances,^ and without doubt occasionally of blue porcelain. Besides the inlaying of coffins, porce- lain seems to have been applied in the No. ss.-Beard of i.iue porcelain pnn (, -, . babiy from a mummy-case, i'-gyp- same manner to a variety of domestic tian Room, no. 6894. objects. A box of dark wood, in the British Museum, which was taken out of a sepulchre at Thebes, has at the sides, and on the cover, a square border no. 34.-Porceiain Finger for inlaying. made of rectano^ular tesseraB of blue porcelain, alternating with similar pieces of ivory, stained red.* Several objects are met with which were evidently inlaid into various articles, either used as furniture, or for sepulchral orna- ments. These have a bas-relief on one side, and a rough fiat surface on the other, enabling them to adhere by a mordant to the wood or other substance to which they were attached. Among examples of this class may be cited a small seated figure of a hawk-headed deity, so vitreous as to be almost a paste ;^ a kneeling figure of Isis, de- ploring the death of her brother Osi- ris;® some uraei,^ or serpents; a representation of the heavens,^ Egyptian Room, No. 24 Os. Xo. 35. — CoCBn of Horus; eyes and beard inlaid with porcelain. Egyp- tian Room, No. 6659. » E. R., GG60. 2 E. R., 6659. 3 E. R., 6654. * E. R., 5897 * R. R., 83G. « E. R., 836. ' E. R., 1973-74. « E. R., 2050 !•: 2 52 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. and various legs, arras, and heads of deities or monarchs, in a thick opaque glaze, of a dark red colour, intended to imitate red jasper.^ The pectoral plates,^ called uta, described below, were also often inlaid with narrow borders of coloured porce- lain, and even the whole figures of the gods and other emblems upon them, are composed of pieces of the same material, which formed a coarse mosaic.^ The art was also applied to minute objects. An excellent little specimen of a scarabaeus, about an inch long, in the possession of the Duke of Northumberland, has the body made of steaschist, covered with a vitreous green glaze, while the elytra are inlaid with coloured porcelain. There are in the British Museum two most remark- able pieces intended for inlaying. One is a tile of blue porcelain, six inches long by four inches wide, on which, in outline of a darker blue colour, is traced the figure of a royal scribe, named Amenemapt, worshipping Osiris;* the other, which is circular, has a curious representation of a spider in the centre of its web.^ The vases made of this porcelain are of small size, and few in number; for it was difficult to manipulate the coarse gritty paste into forms either complicated or of large dimensions. Few objects occur of a foot in height. Those made of it were rather ornamental than useful, and were not well adapted for the rougher domestic purposes. Some few, such as the bowls and deep cups, may in- deed, upon special occasions, have held fruit or liquids ; but the smaller jars were apparently for holding cosmetics, and the boxes for salves or ointments. The cases which held the black antimony powder for colouring the eyes, called by the Egyptians stem or stibium, were sometimes of this ware. They are generally of cylindrical shape, in imitation of slips of reed, of which they were usually made.^ A remarkable one of white porcelain, in the British Museum, is inscribed with the name and titles of Anchsenamen, the wife of King Amen- anchut, one of the later kings of the Eighteenth dynasty,^ and another has the name and titles of Amenophis III. Perhaps No. 36.— Stibium Case. Egyp- tian Room, No. 2610. 1 E. B., 6247-55. * E. R., 6133. ^ E. R., 2573. 2 E. R., 7846-70. ^ E. R., 6134. 3 Cf. E. R., 7861-62, 66. « E. R., 2610-11, 2588. CllAl'. II, VASES. 53 tlie small plinths, to which are attached rows of little vases, were iiflaptcd for some use connected with the toilet, or for holding drugs, although they have been generally supposed to be part of the painter's pallets.^ Some of the other vases, such No. ;]7.-i i'^gyptian Room, No. 5541. No. 38.— Stand for four little Vases. Egypt. Room, No. 5537. Rosel- lini, M. C, No. 80, as the open-mouthed ones, seem adapted for unguents, while the smaller sizeJ Lotties may liave contained essential oils or per- fumes. One vase, of elegant oval shape, resembling a cartouche, has two holes for red and black paint, and was decidedly used as an inkstand. Some flasks made of this material are of a complicated form, the Ijody being an oblate compressed sphere, the neck slender, the lip imitating the flower of the papyrus, the orifice of the moutli exceedingly small, as if intended to allow oil, or some similar thick liquid, to ooze out drop by drop. Eound their necks is usually modelled the Egyptian collar called useh. There are generally two small handles at the neck, which sometimes represent apes seated and holding their fore- paws to their mouths, or else the head of the ibex ; and at their sides are broad bands on which are inscribed lines of hiero- glyphs, consisting of a short iuAT^cation to the principal gods of Egypt, such as Ainen-Ra or Jupiter, Mut or Juno, Chons or Hercules, Phtha or Yulcan, Pasht, the wife of Phtha, and Atum Nefer, their son, to confer health or a happy time on the pro- prietor of the vase. One of these vases in the Museum of Ley den has on it the name of Amasis, who reigned B c. 569.^ They are not of the fine blue porcelain, but of a pale or dull green, and sometimes of a bluish colour. They appear to have been imitations of vases in the precious metals, as their decorations resemble those of the gold and silver vases repre- sented in the sculptures. The most singular fact connected ' E. R., 5537-39-40-41. E. R., 4767-78 ; Leemaiis, Mou. Eg. PI. Ixviii. 441. 54 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Paut I. No. 39.— Aryballos. Egj-ptian Room, No. 4770. with them is their discovery in the sepulchres of the PoUedrara^ in Etruria, amongst other remains bearing an Egyptian cha- racter. From their style, which is not of the best period of Egyp- tian art, it is probable that they were made about the age of the Psammetici in the Twenty-sixth dynasty, or the seventh century B.C., when the Tyrrhenians^ were masters of the seas, and obtained these and other trinkets from Egypt by their extensive com- merce.^ In colour and the texture of their paste they much resemble the half of a small box inscribed with one of the royal names of Amasis II., the last monarch of the Twenty-sixth dynasty, who fell into the power of the Persian monarch Cambyses, when he conquered Egypt, B.C. 525.* This box is decorated with wino^ed figures of bulls and other animals, in the Assyrian style ; a proof of the ascendancy of the Chaldean religion in Egypt at the time of its manufacture. Of similar ware, more compact in its texture, but of the saine dull green varnish, are several small bottles in the shape of gazelles ^ and porcupines,^ with small circular mouths and short necks. Like those before described, they probably held oil. It is probable that no vases of this peculiar fabric are older than B.C. 900-800 ; at all events, none can be identified as being of an earlier age, for, during the Nineteenth dynasty, the bright blue fayence was more fashionable. An elegant little bottle of this ware has its side cut in six facets, and is ornamented at the angles with the representation of leaves.' Hound the neck is a triple row of beads. Another of brighter blue is in the shape of a goose trussed ready for the table, the handle being inge- niously formed by the head and neck.^ A few vases of this ware appear to have been made for the ^ Micali, Mon. In. tav. vii. fig. 4, 5, Abeken, ' Mittelitalien/ s. 399. 2 E. R., 4767-4777. 3 Rosellini, M. C, Iv. 81. * E. R., 47C6. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lit. vol. iii. p. 177. ' E. R., 4765. « E. R., 4763-4. ' Prisse, Mon. fii 8 Ibid., 13. Pi. xlix. 14. llfAP. II. VASES. 55 No. 40 — I?owl of I'lne porceljtin. ornamented with flowers. Egyptian Room, No, 4790. I ^Sideboards of the powerful and wealthy, such as cups in tlie ^^ha[)e of modern wine-glasses, tumblers, and mugs, one of which being inscribed with the name and titles of a son of Kameses II., must have been specially made for his use. I'hese cups are ornamented with lines of a darker colour, also glazed, imitating the pe- tals of the lotus, or of papyrus : the hieroglyphical inscriptions are also traced in t\\o same darker colour, over which the whole glaze was fused.^ Bowls of this colour, some of about a foot diameter, were also made. Some smaller and deeper ones seem to liave held various viands for the table. They are occasionally de- corated with ornaments in a darker outline, such as flowers of the papy- rus rising out of the centre.^ One has an ornament crossing the dia- meter, representing a closed flower of the papyrus between two buds, and on each side a chaetodon,^ a fish of the perch species, eating a young stalk of a water plant, the bud No. 41.— BowI ornamented with Fish an l 1 . „ . , ,^, . Plants, hangmg irom its mouth, ihis was a favourite device.* One of the most remarkable of these objects is a bowl in the British Museum. It is nearly hemispherical, and the body is of a dull purple ground.^ Round the lip is an inscription in porcelain of a yellow colour, con- taining: the names and titles of Eameses II., monarch of the Nine- no. 42.— i>uui ..liuu with titles of Ra- teenth dynasty. The foot is orna- meses IL, XIX. dyn. No. 4796. Egypt. Room, > E. R., 4779-87. Cf. Champ. Not. Mu8., ch. X. p, 94 ; Prisse, Mon, Eg. xlix. 1 ; Eosellini, M. C, liv. 56, Ivi. 10. ' E. R, 4794. ^ Leemans, Mon. Eg,, liv. lix. * Cf. Wilkinson, M. C, t. ii. p. 398. ' E, R., 4796. 56 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. niented with a band of circles, consisting of the usual petals of lotus flowers. Certain jars were also made of this ware, and their covers were often very elegant, ornamented with the petals of a flower in relief, or with handles either looped or ringed, or formed by cutting away part of the curved surface. Some other vases of this class in the Leyden Museum have a seated female musi- cian, attended by her ape, together with animals and inscriptions. An excavation undertaken by Major Macdonald, in 1847, on the site of the temple of Athor, which formed at once the temple and station of the miners at the Sarabut el Khadem, near Mount Sinai, brought to light a considerable quantity of fragments of vases and other objects of this glazed ware. None of those deposited by Major Macdonald in the Museum are remarkable for their size, but they are exceedingly interesting, being fragments of figures,. cups, bowls, handles of jugs, and other vessels, many inscribed with the names of monarchs, commencing with Thothmes III. and his regent sister Hatasu, of the Eighteenth, and ending with Rameses III., or Miamoun, of the Twentieth dynasty. As many of the inscriptions state that the monarchs were beloved of Athor, the goddess of the Temple, " who rules over Mafka," or turquoise mine, it is evident that these vessels were made expressly for the service of the station. From their peculiar appearance, it is probable that they were fabricated upon the spot.^ Glazed vases in shape of the Greek jug, or oinochoe, continued to be made in the furnaces of Egypt till the time of the Ptolemies and the Eoman Empire, when lamps of this material were fabricated. A jug inscribed with the name of Berenice, B.C. 239, and another with that of Ptolemy Philopator, B.C. 220, are of pale blue colour and elegant shape.^ Draughtsmen, called ahu, of conical or cylindrical shape, were sometimes made of porcelain.^ They vary in shape ; some had No. 43. — Draughtsman (abtt) of blue porcelain, No. 44. — Draughtsman (dbu), having the Egyptian Room, No, 6413. head of a cat. Egyptian Room, No. 6414. human heads, others those of the dog or jackal, and the pieces for this game were called latrones, or " robbers," by the Eomans, 1 E. R., 2405 a, 2417 a and foil., 4795 a, 4803 a, &c. ^ Beule, Journ. d. Savants, 1862, p. 163 ; De Witte, ' Etudes,' p. 106. ' E. R., 6411-14. ,IIA1'. II. TOYS, BEADS, AND AMULETS. iiid Jcuiies, or dogs, by the Greeks. One of the usual conical ihape, with stud at the top, is inscribed witli the name of* tlie No. 45. — Striped Ball of blue porcelain. Egyptian Room, No. 6390. No. 46. — Toy in sliapo of a Date of tbedoum ralm. Egyptian Room, No. 6400. Pharaoh Necho, B.C. 610, and is of the pale green ware of the period. Striped balls, of a blue and dark blue colour, supposed to have been used as children's toys,^ egg- shaped objects,^ imitations of the date of the doum palm,^ and studs of hemisphe- rical shape, which were used as ear-rings, ^^,, ,,_,,^y ,,„,„,„,,„,.„ t,,,^ and inserted into the ears with a pin, porcelain in shape of an egg. A ' Egyptian Room, No. 6401. have also been found. Amulets of this ware, in the shape of small figures, were extensively manufactured by the Egyptian potters. If we may judge from the quantities still found after twenty or thirty centuries of devastation, millions of these objects must have been made for the decoration of the dead or living. They even formed an article of export, having been found in Greece and the Isles of Italy, and among the ruins of Persepolis and of Nineveh. It is probable that the mode of making them was long a secret to the Greeks and Romans, for no imitation, which can be referred to an early period, is known. They bear evi- dent marks of having been stamped in moulds, and it would seem that a well-finished model was fii*st prepared in terra-cotta, from which, after it had been baked, impressions were taken in a fine clay, flattened in a thick and circular shape.* These impressions formed moulds, which, when they had been duly baked, were ready for use. The paste or core of fine sand, mixed with a small quantity of argillaceous clay, was then pressed into the mould, the line left by the gates pared away, and the specimen, if of very fine work, retouched where defec- ' E. R., 6389-93 ; Wilk., M. C, ii. 432. ^ g. R., G401-4. ' E. R., 6400. ♦ Cf. E. R., 34 et seq. ; Descr. de 1'%. Ant, vol. v. PI. 87, fig. 19, 20, 21. 58 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. tive. Separate impressions were taken of the hinder and fore parts, and the orifice, by which they were intended to be strung, was then made with a wire. After the glaze bad been laid on, the figures were baked in a furnace — being deposited side by side — for marks in the glaze on some specimens show w4iere they have adhered. The objects made by this process exhibit a great variety of forms, and range from six or nine inches to a quarter of an inch in length. They comprise amulets in the shape of various deities of the Pantheon ; of the sacred animals, and religious emblems; studs for the hair;^ drops for ear-rings; beads, and pendants representing flowers, and other emblems, which, strung in concentric rows, formed collars, necklaces, bracelets, and anklets ; scarabapi, of various dimensions, the larger ones inscribed with certain formulae relative to the heart ; large pectoral plates, which were hung round the neck, and finger-rings. The application of this material to the decorative arts was most extensive ; but it was much too fragile for the ordinary wear and tear of life, and must have been principally used for the imitative jewellery of the dead ; especially for the beaded network with which the corpse was covered. The mean- ing of this practice is as yet entirely unknown ; and, although in certain pictures and bas-reliefs, Osiris, who is always mum- mied, is seen encased in such a network, yet the hieroglyphic legends do not aiford any explanation. Perhaps this custom may be symbolical of the discovery of the lost limbs of Osiris in the Nile. The most perfect examples of these networks, which are made of bugles and beads, have a scarab with out- stretched wings over the region of the heart, and at the sides the four sons of Osiris, the genii of the internal viscera. The beads are of various sizes and dimensions, some being several inches, others scarcely a tenth of an inch long. The larger ones seem to have been stamped out of a metal, stone, or terra- cotta mould, and many of the smaller may have been made by the same process. The bas-relief amulets have sharp edges ; much sharper, indeed, than terra- cotta moulds could have produced. Among the beads are bugles of blue porcelain, generally about seven-eighths of an inch long, and perforated with a rather large hole ; other bugles of a more conical shape ; beads, generally made of a glassy paste, slightly rounded at the base ; spherical beads sometimes of rather large size ; and * Descr. de I'Eg. Ant., vol. ii. c. xviii. p. 18. I HAi'. II. BEADS AND AMULETS. 59 jrlobular ones of smaller dimensions. Tlieie are also annular beads, generally of small size, distiugnisliod by Laving large Kirifices and small bands of porcelain ; and flat plate beads, like ►one buttons, which occasionally are crenated. The bugles were strung in nets and foruied, with the other mall globular beads, the exterior beaded network of mummies. They often had small globular beads placed between them in order to conceal the thread at the angle. The conical beads were apparently strung, but I am not aware that any network of them has been found. The globular beads were also strung on network ; but the flat circular beads, like bone buttons, were diapered in fillets, which passed like a ribbon under the chin : at least they are so arranged on the mummy of a priestess in the British Museum.^ The annular beads are generally of various colours, and are often elaborately worked into patterns representing the winged scarabseus thrusting forward the sun's disc, or into lines of hieroglyphical inscriptions. They are threaded and netted together in compact masses, and form a mosaic of thin cylinders, the respective parts being only in beads coloured blue, red, white, and yellow. These beads are certainly as well executed as they could be at the present day ; and some are extremely small, being not more than one-tenth of an inch diameter.^ In one of the Theban tombs a repre- sentation of the process of threading these bugles and beads was found by Kosellini.^ Three men are seen hard at work. One stands filing bugles of green porcelain. Another, seated, has before him a basket full of these bugles, some of which he has filled in rows ready for a collar. The third man drills a hole in a piece of wood. It would appear that some of the mummies were still more elaborately decorated — their breasts having been covered with a collar of beads of various colours and sizes, similar to those which are seen depicted on the coffins of mummies. These beads are moulded in bas-relief on the side presented to the spectator, while the side towards the body is flat. They have a small ring above and below, formed of a separate piece fitted on before they were baked. Some represent bunches of grapes, * Mummies covered with these ricli xxxviii. ; cf. Mummies, B. M., E. 11. vebts are engraved in Alexander Gor- 6(iG9, and foil. don's Essay, and in Pettigrew's History - E. 11., 7041-77, various specimens. of Mummies, PI. vi. Minutoli, Eei^se ; ' Mon. Civ., t. ii. pp. 307, 308. zum Tempel des Jupiter Ammon, Taf. i 60 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTEKY. PAltT I, and are appropriately coloured purple.^ Others in shape of the date of the doum palm, are of a deep red colour. Those intended to represent the edible fig, are of a yellow colour, while those which are imitations of the leaves of the palm-tree are coloured green or white. These gay and various colours seem, however, to have been reserved for mummies embahned in the most expensive manner.'^ Persons of ordinary rank had only the usual blue bugles. These seem to have been pressed from moulds, and are probably not much older than the Twenty-sixth dynasty, or about eight centuries before Christ. No. 48. — Beads in shape of fruit and flowers. From beaded work of a Mummy. Besides the beaded work, another ornament was the pectoral plates, hung by a cord to the neck, and called in Egyptian uta or uja, which name was also given to the Sun's eye, generally P called the symbolical eye. These plates are usually in the shape of an Egyptian doorway with its recurved cornice.^ The subjects represented on them alwa^^s have allusion to sepulchral rites. The most usual subject is the scarabseus, hheper, representing Osiris, or the Creator No. 49.-Pectorai Plate from a Mummy, ^un, placcd Upright in a boat, and hailed by the goddesses Isis and Nephthys.* The base of the scarabaeus, which is of an oval shape, is generally inscribed with the thirtieth chapter of the Sepulchral ^ The beads in the Collection of the British Museum are numbered. E. E., 7502, and foil. 2 Passalacqua, Cat. Kais. 8vo, Paris, 1826, p. 146 ; Roscllini, M. C. Teste, 8vo, Fir. 1834, t. ii. p. 307. ^ Pettigrew, 'History of Egyptian Mummies,' 4to, Lond. 1834, PI. viii. ; E. R., 7846-68. * Champ. Mus. Charles X., p. 125; Leemans, Mus. Lcid ; Mon. %., PI. i. and foil. ;HAr. ir. BEADS AND AMULKTS. 61 1^ Kitual/ move or less complete; in allusion to the jndgment of the dead, mystical transformations which the deceased had to undergo before lie could obtain his heart. Tlie scaraba3us was sometimes let into the plate by leaving a hole in it for the purpose. On plates in which no scarabneus is inserted, the subject is traced in outline, and may then represent the deceased standing and ador- ing Osiris, or the jackal of Anubis seated on a doorway, or a train of goddesses. These plates have in their cornice a series of holes, by means of which they were attached to the network of bugles thrown over the external linen wrappers of the bodies. Specimens of finer workmanship are often made of a talchose steaschist, covered with a siliceous glaze, and have their subject carved in flat Egyptian bas-relief, or else have the figures inlaid in colouied paste or porcelain. Although green is the favourite colour, yellow and white are also found. A few small scarabaei similar to that made of talcose schist appear to have been used at the time of the Ptolemies. They bear the name of the monarch Khufu or Cheops, and Shafra or Chefren, w^ho had a worship and priests or flamens at that period. Some have sup- posed that the smaller scarabsei were used as coins. Besides the ornaments of the external wrappers, various other amulets and beads are found strung round the necks of mum- mies. Some have supposed that they were the necklaces worn during life, but it is more probable that they were made ex- pressly for the dead. What figures were to be made in this material, seems to have been fixed by some special rule ; certain forms being of very great rarity, while others are extremely common. Osiris, for example, seldom occurs, while Isis and Nephthys are constantly found. They are seldom more than six inches high, but sometimes reach more than a foot at a later period. One specimen in the British Museum, of the Greek period, representing Jupiter Serapis, is about one foot high ; but the majority of these figures are from one to two inches in height. They are evidently copies of statues, as they have the same heads and head-dresses as the figures of the gods. The left foot is generally advanced when the figures are represented walking, and the hands are extended and pendent by the thighs. The spaces between the limbs are reserved, i.e. not cut away, so as to show the limbs. The figures stand on a small rectan- gular base, and have behind an upright j)linth, generally per- * Lepsins, * Todtenbuch/ Taf. xvi. c. 30. 62 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. forated at the top. Some of these figures are of exquisite style, and rather resemble gems than porcelain in the fineness of their details. The oldest dated fiorure of this class is one of the sfod Mentu-Ka, the Egyptian Mars, crowned with bronze plumes, and having down the back the names and titles of the monarch Sabaco, wlio reigned B.C. 716-704. It is of pale green porce- lain.^ Most of the others are extant of an earlier date than the Twenty-sixth dynasty, or from the sixth to the eighth century B.C., although it is probable that some were manufactured before that period. A coarser kind, of later style, in- stead of a plinth behind, have merely rings to hang them to the necklaces. These have the limbs detached or in open work, and, although much less elegant in design, occasionally show more freedom of position. The ring is placed at the nape of the neck. A few of the figures are seated, but these are rarely ringed, and for the most part have perforated plinths. When the figure had neither ring nor plinth, it was per- forated vertically. Some are in profile, and the genii of the Amenti, as they are called, are often merely flat slices of porcelain cut out in outline, as if with a pair of scissors, and with one or two holes at the feet and head to connect them with the reticulated bugle-work. Others, however, are in bas-relief, and of much better style. These figures have their collars and sashes in bas-relief; and their decorations are sometimes painted red and yellow. ^ Among the figures of the gods are those of x\men-Ba, repre- sented as a man, walking or seated, wearing on his head the disc of the sun, and two tall plumes ; of Mnt, the mother goddess, the companion of Amen-Ka, wearing on her head the psclient, or Egyptian crown ; of Chons, their son, mummied, wearing the lunar disc, sometimes hawk-headed, seated, holding his emblem, or the left symbolical eye, that of the moon ; of Phtha Socharis, the pigmy or ^^atamos, the Yulean of Memphis, a bow- legged, naked dwarf, having on his head the scarabaens, khejper, emblem of his power as the creator, and standing on two crocodiles, or else holding swords and snakes, supported by "^liftDa No. 50. — Kabhsenuf. From a bead work. E. R., 1189 a. ^ Egyptian Room, No. 345 a ; Rosellini, M. R. CuM\ H. BEADS AND AMULETS. 68 Bast, the lioness-headed goddess', and by Isis and Neplithys. In some cases he has a double head — that of a hawk in addition to his own. The lion-headed goddesses Pasht-Merienptah, Bast, and Tafne, wearing the sun's disc, a disc and plumes, a serpent, and seated upon a throne, holding a sistrum, often occur, with inscriptions recording their names and titles. Athor, or Venus, cow-headed, or as a female bust with cow's ears, occasionally surmounted by her emblem, the pro]puJon, is also found. Ra, the midday 8un, a hawk-headed god, is represented standing and wearing the sun's disc ; while Nefer-Atum, the son of Bast and Phtha, having on his head a lotus flower and plumes, is either advancing or standing on a lion. Her or Labu, the No. 51.— Tauti (Thoth). E. R., 520. No. 52.— Taur (Thoueris). E. R., 1347. No, 53.— Taut (Tholh) ringed. E. R., 518. lion-headed god, probably a form of Horus, wears the crown called atf. Besides these, there are Thoth, the Mercury of Egypt, ibis- headed, writing on a palette, or holding in his hands the left eye of the Moon, with Ma, or the deity Truth, seated, and wearing on her head the ostrich feathers, her emblem. Also Shu, or Light, kneeling on his right knee, and holding up the sun's orb; and Taur or Thoueris, Apt, and the other goddesses, figured as hippopotami, standing upright, and having the tail of a crocodile down the back. Osiris is represented seated on his throne, wearing the cap of Truth, mummied, and * Champollion, Not. Descr. du Muse'e tab. i. ; Descr. de I'fig. Ant. vol. v. PI. Charles X. Kjmo, Paris, 1827, p. 1, &c. ; (".2-89. Minutoli, Reise, PI. xxxiii. ; Leemans, Mon. du Musee de Leide, 8vo. Leide, p. 1 and foil. ; Birch, Gallery, Pt. i. ; Prosper Alpin, Hist. Eg. Nat. Pococke, Trav. in East, 1. c. ; Caylus, Recueil d'Antiquites, torn. i. Egyp- tiens. 64 EGYPTIAN AND OR[ENTAI. POTTERY. Part I. holding the crook and whip ; Phtha as the Tat, in shape of a Nilometer. The celestial Isis stands, wearing the disc and horns, or else is seated, and nurses her son Horus ; while the terrestrial Isis has a throne, her hieroglyph, walks, or seated suckles Horus, or kneeling deplores the death of her brother Osiris. Nephthys, the sister of Osiris, has her phonetical name, the basket and house upon her head — Nahanu-ua, the first her emblem. Small plates often occur, apparently little pectoral plates, having Horus, the Sun, in his nascent state, or at the dawn, walking band-in-hand with Isis, his mother, and Nephthys, his aunt. Horus appears either in his character as the elder Horus, and brother of Osiris, or else as the younger Horus, the son of Osiris and Isis, hawk-headed, and wearing the j^schent. Anubis, jackal-headed, the presiding deity of embalmment, is represented holding a Nilometer, or w'alking. A very common type is the god Bes or Besa, a grotesque leonine pygmean deity, formerly supposed to be Baal or Typhon, either standing or kneeling, holding a sword, or playing on the tambourine; on his head are feathers or plumes, and a lion's skin is thrown across his back. To this lono- list mav be added some of the inferior deities, such as the four genii of the Amenti, already described, and deities with the heads of tortoises, snakes, and hawks. Nor are only the divinities represented, but also the principal animals sacred to them, such as the cynocephali or dog-headed baboons, emblems of Chons and Thoth, seated, and sometimes wearing the lunar disc ; lions, emblems of Phtha and Pasht ; the dog and the jackal, emblems of Anubis ; cats, the emblem of Bast ; the bull Apis ; some of the sacred cows, emblems of Athor; the pig, the emblem of Typhon, and the ibex, indicative of the same god ; tlie hedgehog and hares, the sacred animals of Osiris Onnophis, are also found. Of the feathered tribe com- paratively few occur. The chief of them, the hawk, wears the pschent of Horus, the disc and uraeus serpent of the Sun, the lunar disc, the plumes of Mentu-Ba, the cap of Socharis : besides these are found the vulture, emblem of Mut, the ibis of Thoth, and the Bennu, or nycticorax, of Osiris. Among the reptiles repre- sented, are the crocodiles of Sabak, uraei or cobra-capello snakes, emblems of the goddesses, human-headed, to indicate Kennu or Mersekar, scaralsei, some with human and others with lions' heads. Among fishes, the latus, the bulgad, and the oxy rhyncus ; among flowers, the lotus and papyrus. Mixed types are much ill A p. ir. PORCELAIN FINGElNRINnS. 05 irer ; of these tliere are the sphinx and the human-headed lawk or soul. The objects most commonly found are the inbolical eye, emblem of the Sun or the Moon ; the papyrus 5eptre, the buckle or emblem of life, familiarly known as the IX ansata, or key of the Nile, the easel or upright with bars, )y some also called the Nilometer, emblem of stability. Of rarer occurrence are the animal-headed sceptre, crowns of the upper or lower region, feathers of the cap of Phtha Socharis, little pillows, curls, and staircases. On reviewing this list, which by no means comprises all the objects found in the debris of the sepulchres, it will be seen that they are principally the mystical amulets, mentioned or figured in the Book of the Dead, and ordered to be placed on certain parfs of the body, either to confer benefit or to avert evil. Woe betide the un- provided mummy ! The porcelain finger-rings, tehu, are extremely beautiful, the band of the ring being seldom above one-eighth of an inch in thickness. Some have a plate on which, in bas-relief, is the god Bes, full-face or playing on the tambourine, as the inventor of iMusic ; others have their plates in the shape of the right symbolical eye, the emblem of the Sun ; of a fish, of the perch species ; or of a scarabseus, which is said to have been worn by the military order. Some few represent flowers. Those which have elliptical plates with hieroglyphical inscriptions, bear the names of Amen-Ka, and of other gods and monarchs, as Ame- nophis III., Amenophis IV., and Amenan- chut, of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth dynasties. They are of a bright blue and green porcelain. One of these rings has a little bugle on each side, as if it had been strung on the beaded work of a mummy, instead of being placed on the finger. Blue is the prevalent colour, but a few white and yellow rings, and some even ornamented with red and purple colours, are found. It is not credible that these rings, of a substance finer and more fragile than glass, were worn during life. Neither is it likely that they were worn by the poorer classes,^ for the use of the No. 54.— Porcehun finger-ring. E. R.. 2977. No. 55.— Ring of red porcelain, Willi name of King Ankhuta- men, of XVIII. rtyn. E. R., 3027. » Eosellini, M. 0., ii. 307 ; Passalacqua, Cat. Rais., p. 14G. F 66 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. king's name on sepulchral objects seems to have been restricted to functionaries of state. They appear to belong to the funereal decorations. Some larger rings of porcelain of about an inch diameter, seven-eighths of an inch broad, and one- sixteenth of an inch thick, made in open work, represent the constantly-repeated, lotus flowers, and the god Ea,^ or the Sun, seated, and floated through the heaven in his boat. Common as these objects were in Egypt, where they were employed as substitutes for the hard and precious stones, to the Greeks, Etruscans, and Italian Greeks they were articles of luxury, just as the porcelain of Cliiua was to Europeans some centuries ago. The Etruscans set these bugles, beads, and amulets in settings of their exquisite gold filigree work, intermixed with gold beads and precious stones. Strung as pendants they hung round the necks of the fair ones of Etruria. In one of the tombs already alluded to at the Polledrara, near Yulci, in Italy, was found a heap of annular and curious Egyptian bugles, which had apparently formed a covering to some bronze objects, but the strings having given way, the beads had dropped to pieces. These, as well as the former, had been obtained from some of tlie Egyptian markets, like that at Naucratis ; or from the Phoenician merchants, in the same manner as the flasks. One of the most remarkable of these personal ornaments is a bracelet composed of small fish strung together and secured by a clasp. Sepulchral figures, called Shdb-ti or sliah shah, formed an extensive branch of the porcelain manufacture. They were ordered to be made according to the Egyptian Ritual. They represent the deceased, and only two or three types are known. The most common is that depicted in cut !Ko. 56, in which the deceased is represented wearing on his head the wig called namms. To his chin is attached a beard, and his form, enveloped in bandages from which the hands alone emerge, resembles a mummy set upright. In the right hand is a pickaxe, in the left a hoe, and a cord, to which is attached a basket, to carry sand. The sixth chapter of the Great Ritual is either traced in linear outline or else stamped in intaglio in hieroglyphics, and generally on horizontal lines, round the body. This chapter is called that of making the working figures of Hades or Karneter ; and the formulas, which vary, refer to the labours in which the figures are supposed to aid the deceased in » Wilk. M. and C, iii. p. 374, n. 408-22-23. CifAP. rr. sepuu;hiial figures. the future state.^ The figure stands on a plinth, whicli is occa- sionally covered by the inscription ; and behind is a sort of pillar, intended apparently to attach it to a wall, and occasionally inscribed. A rarer type, which prevailed at the time of the Nineteenth and Twentieth dynasties, represented the deceased standing, and in the costume of the period. A short and ■:SMJ' Nos. 56, 57. — Sepulchral Figures. No. orf. — Sepulchral Figure with plinth slab behind. common formula^ not sanctioned by the Kitual, merely contains the name, titles, and occasionally the genealogy of the deceased, preceded by the word sliet, " illustrious " or '* luminous is the dead." There were two modes of inserting the inscription. The hieroglyphs were either drawn in darker outline, with a * M, Chabas, in the Societe Historique ^ For examples of these figures, see et Archcologiquc do I.angrcs. Ito, 1863 5 Dcscr. de I'fig. Ant., vol. v. PI. 02, 15, 16; Bird), Zoitsehr. fiir ilgyptische Sprachc, \ PI. 65,- 6 ; PI. 78, 11, 12. 1861-5. i F 2 68 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. kasli-reed duly prepared, wliich is the manner in wliieh the sepulchral figures of porcelain of Amenophis III., Sethos I., and others, were inscribed ; or else they were impressed with a stamp, in imita- tion of those carved in stone, wood, and other materials. Such is the method observed on figures used for the funerals of officers deceased, in the reigns of the kings of the Twenty-sixth dynasty, B.C. 800-525. In other in- stances they were prepared blank, and the relations were content with allow- ing a scribe to write the hieroglyphs with a fine reed on the surface of the porcelain. These inscriptions are exe- cuted vvith more or less care, sometimes consisting merely of the name and titles of the deceased ; at other times, of the whole chapter of the funeral Eitual. They are arranged horizon- tally down the front, and perpendicu- larly down the back, rarely passing over the feet. Many figures appear to have been left without any inscription. These are generally small and of in- ferior style ; they seldom have a plinth behind, and the arms, whip, crook, and other accessory details, are often in- serted in blank outline. These figures were deposited in boxes of sycamore wood, and drawn to the sepulchre on sledges.^ The rich and powerful had them also made of stone, wood, and other materials. Great numbers of them are found, all repetitions of one model, which varies from nine inches to one inch in height ; and from their type and inscription, it is evident that they must have formed the staple of the pot- ter's trade. The prevalent colour of them is blue, sometimes of No. 59. — Sepulchral Figure. XIX. dynabty. No. 60.— Sepulchral Figure. XX. dynasty. * Lepsius, * Todtenbuch,' ii. c. 6. Chap. II. GLAZED STONE. 60 a deep and almost purple hue, but generally of the cobalt or celestial tint. Green rarely occurs, white is still more uncom- mon ; and in figures of that colour the hieroglyphs are brown or purple. Yellow and red figures are also of rare occurrence. Sometimes these figures are of fine execution, the modeller having exerted his utmost talent to execute them in his con- ventional style. All the inscriptions commence with the formula shet Res-ar, "luminous Osiris," or " Osirified," i.e. the deceased Then follows the text of the sixth chapter ^ of the Eitual, entitled " the chapter explaining how to make the labouring figures of the Osiris in the Hades." It appears from the contents of the formula that the use of these figures was to aid the deceased in his labours of preparing and irrigating the ground, and raising the crop in the mystical fields of the Aahenru or Aahlu, probably the bean- fields, or Elysium, and in the transport of the sand from the west to the east. It has been conjectured that they were deposited by the relations, but it would rather appear that they were like the Chinese yung, or dummies, the substitutes for human victims formerly offered at the grave in order to assist the deceased in his labours in the future state. It would be tedious to detail the names of all the functionaries of whom figures are known ; it suffices to say that they were essential to all classes of society, from the monarch to the priest, or the village scribe. *They have been found only in Egypt and her possessions ; yet as they were often kept ready-made, there is no reason why they may not, like other undoubtedly sepulchral objects, have occasionally found their way into the foreign market. The last process which we have to describe is the application of a vitreous glaze to different substances carved in certain hard materials, so as to produce a peculiar glazed ware. The substance chiefly employed was agalmatolite or a talcose schist, closely resembling the soapstone of which the Chinese figures are made. The advantages obtained by the process \n ere, greater sharpness of the edges, and greater density of the substance; which before it had undergone the fire of the kiln, was exceed- ingly soft, and easily carved. The method of proceeding was as follows : The object was first of all made of the required shape, either on the lathe or by the graver ; and after it had been coated witli a layer of glaze, which was generally of a uniform colour in each specimen, it was transferred to the * Pastalacqua, Cat. Rais., jip. 172-o. '0 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part I. furnaces. This material was especially use 1 for minute objects in which carving or engraving of any kind was deemed requi- site. The earliest dated specimen of it is of the Fifth dynasty. It was used for most of the purposes to whicli porcelain was applied, but it was undoubtedly the most highly prized of all the vitrified wares, except perhaps pastes or glass. In the British Museum are preserved a leg of a footstool, of this material, six inches high, turned and provided with mortises, evidently showing that it was joined to some otiier material, and a vase for holding colours or stibium^ in the shape of four cylinders united together, on Avhich is neatly incised, " Health to the scribe Amasis." Another vase for holding kohl or anti- mony powder for the toilet, of the ordinary shape of these little pots, stands on a small pedestal of the same material, and has carved round it in open work, a frieze of guitars and feathers, expressive of the idea, '*good and true." Another elegant, but mutilated vase, of this kind, possibly of a kind of sandstone, with a globular body, wide cylindrical mouth, and elegant stem, bears in front on a small tablet the pra^no- men and name of Thothmes I. On all these objects the glaze is of an olive -green colour. Sepulchral figures, sJiabti, for the funerals of persons of high rank, similar to those already described in porcelain, but sharper and finer, were made of this material; and frequently also the pectoral plates called uta, or uja. Jars of it for the entrails are seldom found. Subjects are often carved on articles of this description in intaglio or bas-relief, and the details inlaid with pieces of porcelain and vitrified steaschist of various colours. One of the most remarkable objects in this substance is a painter's pallet, inlaid with a figure of Osiris. Under this class may also be mentioned the small figures which decorated the net-works or necklaces of mummies, similar in all respects to those described in the ac- count of porcelain, being the amulets and charms of persons of No. 61. — Vase of a glazed schist, bearing the uanie and title of Thothmes I. E. R., 4762. Chap. H. GLAZED STONE. 71 rank, and ropresenting tlie principal deities who presided over tlie care of tiie soul, and the welfare of the body. Besides these, some little statues, made of this glazed steasehist, not strung, but deposited with the dead, perhaps their household gods during life, are found ; and theie is in the Museum of the Duke of Northuniberkmd, at Alnwick Castle, part of a iigure of Amenophis III. of this material. It was never employed br domestic uses, probably from the difficulty of obtaining it in masses sufficiently large, and from the precious nature of the objects made of it ; for many must have failed in the furnace. Its chief use was for seals, and amulets, worn as objects of per- sonal attire ; for while its superior compactness secured it from being readily broken or injured, it was also capable of receiving a higher finish, and much sliarper impression of the subjects executed, than porcelain. The principal shape employed for seals of this material was the scarabseus beetle,^ called in Egyptian Idieioer, or " cre- ator," and the sacred emblem of the god who made all things out of clay. The insect stands upon an elliptical base, on which are engraved the requisite hiero- glyphs. The elytra of the beetle are plain, rarely having a symbol engraved upon them ; a rare specimen already men- no. 62.-scaraiwusofgiazpd tioned, and one of the most beautiful, has the elytra inlaid Avith coloured pastes. The glaze of these beetles is of a deep blue or green, rarely of a red or yellow colour. They measure from 3 inches to J in. long, from ^ in. to -pV in. broad, and from 1^ in. high. The ordinary size is about | in. long, ^ in. broad, J in. high. Besides scarabasi, other types are met with, such as oval tablet-shaped amulets, having on one side the god Bes or Besa, hippopotami, cats, the Egyptian hedgehog, the cynocephali, aani, wearing the disc of the moon and seated, the fish chaetodon, of the perch species, which was probably the latus, rami, grass- hoppers, hema, flies, af, cowries, and the symbolical eyes of the sun and moon. Among the geometrical shapes are squares, rect- steaschist set in a signet ring. E. R.,2935. ^ Stcinbuchel, Bcschroibung d. k. k. I Plato, lapillis qiubiisdam insculptis pro S:immlung agypt. Alterthum. 12mo, j 7i?jmis usi sunt : eVSe t?" At0iO7n'a. inquit, Wien, 1826, s. 70, n. 25; Salmas. de j \i6ois iyyey\vfi4vois xpSivTai, ois ovSev Usur. lib., Liigd. Bat. 8vo, 1638, p. 468. j &v exot XP^<''«<''^"' AaKwyiKos af^p." " iEtbiopes eo sa^ciilo, quo scribebat ■ 72 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part. I. angles, ovals, circles, cubes, prisms, parallelopipeds, cones, and })yramids. They are all pierced either through their long axis or diameter with a narrow cylindrical hole, were strung on linen cords when worn as necklaces,^ or else on a gold or silver wire when set in the bezels of rings, in which they revolved. In some instances they were encased in a little frame of gold or silver, in order to protect them more effectually from injury. The hieroglyphs engraved upon these scarabsei are executed in flat intaglio, sometimes with a wonderful accuracy and deli- cacy, completely rivalling those on gems. In fact, they corre- sponded in point of art with the objects engraved on carnelian and other precious stones among the Etruscans and Greeks, and on the vitreous pastes of the Komans. The author of a tract on Egyptian glass, observes the minute delicacy with which on a little scarabseus, five millimetres long, is engraved the hiero- glyph of a scaraba3us scarcely one millimetre in length,^ •03937079 of a foot. On some only a solitary hieroglyph is cut ; but on others as many as three lines of these symbols are inscribed.^ They are of all ages, from the Fifth dynasty down to the Koman empire. The principal period of their manu- facture was, however, the reign of Thothmes III. of the Eight- eenth dynasty, one-tenth of these amulets bearing his name. A great number of others are referable from their style to the Eighteenth, Nineteenth, and TAventieth dynasties. The other amulets are also chiefly of the same age; perhaps, however, towards the commencement of the Nineteenth dynasty, rect- angular and geometrical shapes became more prevalent. The cylinders are of an earlier period, and are chiefly in- scribed with royal names. One in the Il^ational Library at Paris bears the titles and name of Shafra, a monarch of the Fourth dynasty, and some in the British Museum, those of Osertesen or Sesortesen II. and III. and the queen Sebaknefru or Scemiophris, monarchs of the Twelfth dynasty. One at * Passalacqua, Cat. Rais p. 146. 2 Descr. A., vol. v. PL 85, figs. 17-20 ; Ant. Mem., vol. ii. c. xviii. p. 18 ; Palin N. G. in the K. Villerhets Historia, 8vo, Stockholm, 1833, 11. ^ For further information and en- gravings of these amulets, of. Klaproth, intorno diversi argomonti d'Archseo- logia,' vi. ; Descr. de I'Eg. A., vol. v. PI. 79 and foil. ; Steinbuchel, Scarabees Egyptiens figure's du Musee des Ant. de S. M. I'Empereur, Wien, 1824 ; Bel- lermann, iiber die Scarabeen-gemmen, Berl. 1820-21. Tassie, Cat. Gems ; Collection Palin, 4to, Paris, 1829; Lee- ! Champollion, Not. Descr., pp. 50^52 ; mans, Mon. Eg., pi. xxvii. ; xli.-xliv. j E. R., 3522-4374. Not. Descr., p 21 ; St. Quintino, 'Lezioui Chap. II. GLAZED STONE. 73 Vienna lias the name of Petamen, a scribe, and is probably of the Twenty-sixth dynasty. In general they are executed with more than nsual care, and it is extraordinary to find them in use at this early period, as no impressions made from cylinders have been found. It is important to observe that these objects attest a com- munity of art in Assyria and Egypt. Some of the amulets, in shape of a liead, wearing a round cap, are supposed to be of the Persian period. The mottoes or hieroglyphs found on them are of diiferent purport, probably varying according to the caprice or sentiment of the wearer. Some are the figures, names, and titles of the principal gods of Thebes and Memphis ; such as Amen-Ra or Jupiter, Mut or Juno, and Chons or Her- cules ; Phtha or Vulcan, the tutelary god of Memphis ; Bast, Pasht, or Bubastis, the Egyptian Diana ; and Nefer Atum, the son of Phtha and Pasht. The names of Osiris, Isis, Horus, and some of the inferior deities of the Pantheon occur, and the principal animals, such as lions, cynocephali, the bull Apis, the cow of Athor, which produced the Sun, jackals, cats, and other sacred animals ; besides many combinations of serpents, scarabsei, lotus flowers, and other emblems and symbols, such as masanders, and curved and spiral lines, the meaning of which it is not easy to determine. These subjects were probably ap- propriate for the signet-rings of the numerous religious bodies attached to the temples. Another large class of these objects, adapted for the public functionaries, are inscribed with the names, prsen omens, and other titles of the kings of Egypt, and are most valuable for the illustrations which they afford of Egyptian history, some of the names being scarcely known except from these sources. The information they convey is, of course, generally very laconic, but sometimes the names are coupled with some facts connected with them ; such as, that the king is the son of a certain queen, or that he is beloved of the god Amen-Ra, or that he has conquered the foreigners. In the reign of Amenophis III., of the Eighteenth dynasty, scarabeei of the unusual length of three inches, and inscribed with several lines of hieroglyphs, were issued. They record the marriage of this king with Taia, the name of the queen's parents, and the limits of the Empire of Egypt — ^Naharaina or Mesopotamia on the North, and the Kalaas on the South ; ^ the » E. R., 4096 ; Roselliui, M. E., xlvi. 74 EGYPTIAN AND ORIENTAL POTTERY. Part T. number of lions ^ killed by the king in the first ten years of his reign ; and the dimensions of a gigantic tank or lake, made, in his eleventh year,^ to celebrate the festival of the waters, and to receive the boat of the disc of the Sun. None of these objects are of a later period than the age of the Ptolemies, when engraved stones came into use. The last division consists of those which are inscribed with names or mottoes, such as, " A happy life !" — " Sacred to Amen ! " — " May your body be well, your name endure I" — "Good luck!" Such seals were probably used in epistolary correspondence, and generally served as rings ; but they were often inserted among the beads of necklaces or bracelets. It has been supposed that the amulets were also used as money for the purpose of barter or exchange, though it is evident that this could not have been the case, not tlie slightest trace of any such custom being discoverable among the hieroglyph ical inscriptions, nor in any of the scenes depicted in the Tombs ; while, on the other hand, clay seals, which have evidently been impressed from similar objects, are found on letters written during the time of the Ptolemies. Here closes the account of the potteries of Egypt, which never attained a higher excellence in the art of making porce- lain. Yet this porcelain was regarded by contemporary nations with as much admiration as that of the Chinese excited in Europe in the seventeenth century. But a further step was undoubtedly required to produce a ware at the same time com- pact as stone and brilliant as glass, and the discovery of this is due to the Chinese. The Egyptians, although they possessed the requisite materials, failed to combine them so as to make a true porcelain. * E. R., 4095 ; Young, Hieroglyphics, j the Age of the XVIII. Dynasty of PI. xiii. ; Descr. de I'Egypte Ant., vol. v. | Mauetho, Trans. R. Irish Acad., vol. iii. Pl. 81, fig. 6, No. 2. Part 1, p. 7, 4to, Dublin, 1843. 2 Rosellini, M. R., xliv. ; Hincks on | CiiAi>. I If. SUN-DIllED CLAY. 75 CHAPTER III. Assyrian jwttery — Sun-dried clay — Kiln-baked bricks — Inscriptions— Terra-cottu writings — Unglazcd pottery — Terra-cotta figures — Glazed ware — Bricks — Vases — Enamelled bricks. Babylonian pottery — Sun-dried bricks — Kiln- baked bricks. Unglazed ware — Babylonian writings — Bas-relief sand figures in terra-cotta — Glazed ware — Coffins. Jewish pottery. Phoenician pottery. Although the pottery of Assyria and Babylonia bears a general resemblance in shape, form, and use to that of Egypt, it has certain specific differences. As a general rule, it may be stated to be finer in its paste, brighter in its colour, employed in thinner masses, and for purposes not known in Egypt. Hence it exhibits great local peculiarities ; but, as prior to the excavations of M. Botta and Mr. Layard, only a few specimens were known, and as even now their number is comparatively small, the Assyrian pottery has afforded less opportunity for investigation than the Egyptian or the Greek. The Assyrian sculptures, too, do not give that insight into the private life of the people wliich is presented by the wall-painting of the Egyptian tombs ; and less is known of the arts and sciences of Mesopotamia. The plains of Assyria, like the valley of the Nile, being abundantly supplied with clay by the inundations of the Tigris and Euphrates, the potter v>'as as well provided with the material of his art as the Egyptian in the Fayoum or the Delta. It was most extensively employed for the manufacture of bricks, which were easily formed of the common clay moistened with water and mixed with a little stubble to bind it together. The chief use of bricks was for forming the high artificial platforms or mounds, generally about thirty feet high, on which the Assyrian edifices were placed; and, for this purpose, they were fabricated out of the clay dug from the trench or dry ditch ^ with which the city was surrounded. They were also employed for the walls of the town, for the liouses of the inhabitants and the tombs of the dead.^ They » Layard, Nineveh, ii. 275. 2 jbi^]^ n 243. 76 ASSYRIAN POTTERY Part T. were cemented witli a mortar made of wet clay and stubble ; and when employed for military purposes, were revetted with blocks of the grey marble of Mosul, a kind of very calcareous gypsum, to prevent them from crumbling, and to enable them to offer greater resistance to those ancient siege-pieces — the battering-rams. In some instances, as at Mespila and Larissa,^ tlie walls were demi-revetted, or faced with stone only half-way up ; namely, about fifty feet from the bottom of the ditch, quite sufficient to resist the attacks of the ram. When used in the internal portions of the great edifices, they were also faced with slabs of the Mosul marble, on which historical and re- ligious subjects were carved in bas-relief, and painted; or were covered with stucco, on which similar scenes were depicted. ^ Some of these bricks have been even found gilded f and there is every reason to believe that the unrevetted walls of the Assyrians, like those of Ecbatana, were coloured externally white, black, purple, blue, and orange, as well as silvered and gilded.* It would appear that the bricks were made in a square wooden frame or mould, and some are inscribed or impressed with a mark, like the Egyptian. There is some difficulty in measuring them accurately, as they are not so carefully and truly made as the bricks of Babylon and Egypt. Unbaked figures, bearded, and with a conical cap like that of the deity Bel or Ninip, were found under the pavement-slabs of the Assyrian palaces, as if deposited there for propitiatory purposes.^ These are the only methods in which sun-dried clay is known to have been employed in Assyria. Although the Assyrians employed baked bricks less fre- quently than the Babylonians, still they were sufficiently common among them ; and these indestructible records have preserved some most important facts in the history of the people. They were made by the same process as the sun-dried bricks, being mixed with loam and sand, and also with stubble or vegetable fibre, apparently to hold them together before they were sent to the kiln. They are slack-baked, light, and of a pale red colour. Like the Egyptian baked bricks, they were chiefly employed to keep out moisture, hence their use for the ground floors and outer walls of the palaces. Some of the ' Xenophou, Anub. III. iv. 7-10. '^ Lay aid, ii. 12, 3(3, 38, 40. 3 Ibid., ii. 261. * Herodotus, i. 98 ; cf. Rawlinson in Geogr. Soc, x. p. 127. * Layard, ii. 256, 37, 1. Bhap. in. KILX-BAKKD BRICKS. I ^■ombs were made of them.^ They were laid in two tiers, with ^^tiyers of sand between tliem, apparently to keep thera level, or ^else to repel the damp.^ Sometimes tliey were cemented witli ^ftitumen,^ bnt never with reeds and asphalt, as at Babylon.* ^Vhe bricks from Nimriid, stamped with the name of the ^fconarch Assnrnazirpal, who leigned about B.C. 880, are from ^l4 to 14J inches long, from 12 to 6 inches wide, and 4 to 4J inches thick. Those of Shalmaneser II., his successor, B.C. 850, are from 18J to 14 inches long, 18J to 12^ inches wide, and 4J to 3 inches thick, they come from Karamles. Those of Sar- gones or Sargon, his successor, about B.C. 709, from Khorsabad, are about 12 J inches square and 4 J inches thick. The bricks of Sennacherib, at Kouyunjik, B.C. 720, are from 22 to 12^ inches long, and with a thickness of from 4 to 3 inches. Those of his successor Esarhaddon have been found at Nimriid. The bricks of Assur-ebil-ili-kain, the last monarch, about B.C. 629, are from 14J to 13^ inches long, and from 6J to 7 J inches wide, and 4^ to 3 J inches thick. Some bricks from the Nebbi Yunus measured 12 inches square by 4 inches wide. The general squire was 14 inches, or two-thirds of a Babylonian cubit.^ It will be at once perceived that they are of two classes : — the one consisting of square bricks measur- ing from 22 to 12 inches, and varying in thickness from 4 to 3J inches ; the other of rectangular bricks of about 14 inches long, 7J to 6 inches wide, and 4J^ to 4 inches thick, — thus, like the Egyptian, being twice as long as they were wide, and three times as long as they were thick. Those at Kalah Shergat measured 14 inches square, by 3 inches thick. In all pro- bability the above dimensions contain as their base the true elements of the Assyrian cubit. Each brick had an inscription impressed on it in the Assyrian arrow-headed character ; not stamped, as in Egypt, in a small square or oval depression in bas-relief, but intaglio, and either covering one of the broad- sides, or running along the edge. Some semicircular bricks in the collection of the British Museum, measuring about one foot diameter, have the inscription on the edge. It has not been ' As at Kouyunjik, Rich, Residence, ! ^ Layanl, ii. 16, IP, 37, 38. c. xiii. 36. ' Layard, ii. 18 and 261. On some were found rude drawings and scrawls of men and animals. Ibid., 13. * Rich, Residence, p. 36. ' These dimensions were communi- cated by Mr. Layard. 78 ASSYRIAN POTTERY. Part T. stated how tlie bricks were laid at Nimriid, but at Babylon the impressed face was dowD wards. It is not easy to pronounce whether these characters were stamped, or inscribed by a potter with a style. Probably, however, they were made by the former means, as the trouble of writing upon each brick would have been endless. The knowledge of the history of the country, and especially of its geography, depends greatly on the deciphering of these inscrip- tions; since they not only record the name of the king who erected the edifice which they compose, but sometimes also his genealogy for two or three generations, and the name of the place in which the building stood. The formula on each brick was the same, with unessential variations, such as the inter- change of certain homophones or signs, which are of great value to philologists. It is these variations which teach the secret of the language. The inscription on the bricks of the north-west, or oidest palace at Nimrud, contain the name and titles of Assurnazirpal, who flourished about B.C. 880, and of his father and grandfather. Those in the central palace had seven lines of inscriptions.-^ The bricks of the south-west palace contained also inscriptions in three lines, recording itsfounder, Esar- haddon, his father Sennacherib, and grandfather Sargon.^ In the same manner the bricks at Nebbi Yunus, at Kouyun- jik, and Khorsabad, are found to record the mounds and sites of the cities of Nineveh, Mespila, and Sargon. The inscriptions on those of Gerdapan, Sherleker, and other localities, have not yet been published. At Karamles w^as found the usual platform of brickwork, the bricks bearing a name supposed to be that of Sargon.^ Kich found bricks at Arbila, bi/t uninscribed,* as well as at Khistken,^ and at Denbergard, the favourite residence of Khusroo Purvis,^ in the Zendan. The Assyrians, unlike any other nation of antiquity, em- ployed pottery for the same objects, and to the same extent, as papyrus was used in Egypt. Thus bulletins recording the king's victories, and even the annals of his reign, were pub- lished on terra-cotta cylinders, shaped like a rolling-pin, and usually hollow, on hollow hexagonal prisms. These are of a ' They are given in Layard, ii. 194. | linson's Memoir, p. 428, For the reading, of. Sir H. Ravvlinson's | * Layard, i. 52. INIemoir, p. 415, 417. : * Rich, Residence, c. xii. j3. 18. 2 Layard, p. 197. Cf. Sir H. Raw- i ^ II., 276. « II., 253. HAP. II r. TERRA-COTTA WRITINGS. 79 ?markably fine material, sometimes unpolished or imglazed, id at others covered with a vitreous siliceous glaze or white )ating. On the cylinders the inscriptions are engraved length- rise ; on the prisms they are in compartments on each face. 5ach wedge is about one-eighth of an ich long, and the complicity with rhich tlie characters (a cuneiform writing-hand) are arranged is won- derful, and renders them exceedingly difficult for a tyro to read. The prin- cipal hexagonal prisms and cylinders are those of Tiglath Pileser II., found at Kalah Shergat, of Sargon, of Sen- nacherib, detailing his annals from the first to the ninth year of his reign, and recording the conquest of Judaea, those of Esarhaddon and Assurbanipal, found at Koujnnjik. Sales of land and other title-deeds were also incised on rectangular pieces of this polished terra-cotta, slightly convex on each side, and, in order to prevent any enlargement of the ^"o- 63.— Hexagonal Prism, inscribed , T 1 1 ^itb the records of a king's reign. document, a cylmder was run round From Kouyunjik. Brit. mus. the edges, or across, leaving its im- pression in relief; or if the names of witnesses were affixed, each impressed his oval seal on the wet terra-cotta, which was then carefully baked in the kiln. The celebrated cylinders of carnelian, chalcedony, and other substances, were in fact the official or private seals by which the integrity' of these documents was attested.^ These title-deeds are portable docu- ments of four or five inches square, convex on each side, and occasionally also at the edges. Their colour varies, being a bright polished brown, a pale yellow, and a very dark tint, almost black. Some of these sale tablets, as they are called, record the sale of Phoenician slaves, in which case the name of the shave was inscribed in PhoBnician on the edge. The paste of which they are made is remarkably fine and compact. The * A fmgment of one of these is given Sir W. Oiiseley, Travels, i. p. xxi. in Rich, Residence, pi. xxi. p. 38, and | also '' Babylonian Pottery." df's<-riW§ X 12| X 31 the grey 12 x 12 x 3, and the red 14 x 14 x 5 inches.^ Sir H. Eawlinson has endeavoured to trace a certain harmony of the proportions of the bricks to that of the stages or platforms, and that of the celestial spheres ; an ingenious idea, which, however, he has reluctantly abandoned. The walls of the Median Ecbatana were built of different coloured bricks on the same principle, which must be regarded as one of the most remarkable adaptations of coloured brick-work to religious or symbolical uses. The bricks at theMujellibe had an inscription of seven lines ;^ those at the Birs Nimriid, three, four, or seven lines :^ others from the neighbouring ruins have five. Those from Niffer have five lines. The bricks at the Kasr had seven lines ; those at Al Hymer, on the eastern bank, ten lines.* Some of the bricks found on the hill of the Mujellibe had their inscriptions at the edge.^ Sir H. Eawlinsnn examined on the spot bricks of above one hundred different towns and cities in an area of about one ' See Rawlinson, Lecture Roy. Inst., i ' Ibid., 312 ; Maurice, * Ruins of Ba- for details; Layard, Nineveh, p. 495, for bylon,' PL 4, 34 ; Porter, ii. 354. a general description of the Birs. * Porter, ii. 345. * Porter, ii. 394. 5 Ibid., 355. m BABYjLONIAN POTTERY. Part \. hundred miles in length, and thiity in breadth, which comprises Babylonia Proper, and that all have the name of Nebuchad- nezzar. The ruins of Niffer, in Lower Babylonia or Chaldsea, are stated to be more e^xtensive than those of Babylon, and the bricks are stamped with the name of Dungi. At Warka, which has been only recently examined by Mr. Loftus, the ruins are of a stupendous character, and the king's name, Urukh, on the bricks differs from any known ; at Mugeyer and Umwaweis are also brick ruins, bearing stamps of their royal founders/ TTrukh, Kudurmarbuk, Ismidagan, and Nabonidus. The details of ••> ' ■• ■ '■■'•'■■- - ' ■ Xo. 89. — The Mujellibe or Kassr, exliibiiiug the biickwoik. their dimensions and other particulars, however, have not been given; but it may be supposed that they resembled the other bricks of Chaldsea. The impressed marks were made, of course, previously to the baking, and the bricks were then carried to the brick-field, and laid in the sun for some time, since tlie marks of the feet of weasels and birds are found upon the clay ; and on some of the bricks of the Mujellibe are impressions of the ^Ye fingers, or of a circle, probably the brickmaker's private ^ Eawlim^on, Memoir, 476, 481, 482. Cfiap. Iir. DIMENSIONS OF BRICKS. io AllSW3AINn 3HX O marks.^ It does not seem to have occurred to any one that they may have been baked after they liad been built up into phitforras ; at all events, without some such explanation, it is difficult to comprehend the statements of travellers about the extensive vitrification and even masses of slag on the Birs Nim- nid.^ In building, the inscribed face of the brick was always placed downwards, and deposited on a layer of straw with a mortar or cement of lime.^ This mortar is sometimes thin, sometimes about one incli thick. Bitumen was found to have been used as mortar only in the foundation walls.* Notwith- standing the interest of the subject, and the repeated observa- tions made at the Birs Nimriid, as well as at the mounds in Lower Babylonia, no detailed account has been given of the manner in which the bricks are laid. The rest vary from 14 inches square by 4 inches thick to IH inches square by 2^ inches thick. They are all very imperfectly baked, of a light-red or even, ash-coloured paste, but made with considerable accuracy and sharpness, and are intermediate between the tile and brick. Those from one site only resemble in their proportions the brick in use at the present day. This mode of brick-making was of the highest antiquity in Babylon. It is mentioned in the Book of Genesis that burnt bricks were employed soon after the Flood, to build the founda- tions of the celebrated Tower of Babel, and these were cemented together with asphalt or bitumen, vahakhemar hayah lakhem lakhomer, "and slime," or "bitumen,"^ says Moses, "was to them instead of mortar." The mode of building here described exactly coincides with the manner in which the foundations of the buildings, both in -Assyria and Babylonia, are constructed. According to Herodotus,^ the clay dug out of the ditches which surrounded the cities of Babylonia, served to make the bricks with which their walls were built. These were either entirely constructed of sun-dried bricks, or else of sun-dried revetted with kiln-dried or glazed bricks, or with stone. Towering to the astoundinoj height of above a hundred feet, and of a breadth 1 Eich, Kordistan, 289. ' Porter, 312. ^ Ibid. 311 ; Kich, 28, 29 ; Arch, xviii. p. 258. •* Porter, ii. 312. ' Kal 6761/6X0 avTols 7] irKiyOos its \idov' Ka\ atTcpaXTOs i)V avTo7s u TrrjAos- GeD. xi. 3. ^ Herodot., i. 79 ; Ctesias, a Miillcr, 8vo, Paris, 1844, 19, 6; Berosus, Joseph, c. Apion. i. 19; Plilegon de MirahiHbiis ; Schol. Aristoph. Aves, 552, ed. Diiid Heeren, Idcoii, i. s. 117. H 98 BABYLONIAN POTTERY. Part T. sufficient to allow large armed bodies of men, and even chariots, to traverse them, and well protected with battlements, they defied the marauding Arabs, and could only be taken by regular siege, — no easy task, when the most destructive siege artillery consisted only of a strong, heavy, metal-shod beam called the ram, the lever, and the chisel. Hence, while vast structures of stone have been utterly corroded by the devastating hand of time, or dilapidated for the uses of successive generations, the meaner edifices of brick have survived, and Babylon the Great is as well known from its bricks as Greece and Eome from their temples and medals. A part of one of the mounds at Warka, called the Waswas, exhibited a kind of ornamental brickwork very remarkable in its kind, the curtain having its bricks arranged in a lozenge pattern, the buttress in Vandykes or chevrons.^ The state of the arts in Babylon and Egypt helpt? to elucidate some obscure points in the history of brickwork. At the large temple at Warka, Mr. Loftua found an edifice built of cones 3^ inches long, laid horizontally, apex and base alternately, and imbedded in a cement of mud aud straw. Some of the cones dug up on the platform had straw still adhering to their sides. The clay of these bricks was of a dingy yellow, but many had their bases dipped in black or red [)aint. By means of these colours they were arranged in ornamental patterns of diamonds, stripes, and zigzags. They show the use of similar cones found in Egypt, which must have been worked into walls of tombs, and which have been already described. At an edifice called the Waswas, and at the large temple at Warka, Mr. Loftus discovered moulded No. 90.-Terra-cotta object, with Babylonian • : 1 hripk«? wlnVh Inscriptions. From Warka. Semi - ClI CUldr UriCKS, WniCn, being joined at their bases, formed perfect cylindrical columns. Other pieces of similar colours were found in a mound outside the south wall. The objects represented in the cut, which projected out of the walls of Warka, and were inscribed with Babylonian cuneiform characters, containing the names and titles of the patasis or ' Report of Assyrian Excavation Fund, April 28, 1854, No. i. p. 4. rHAP. irr. teuha-cotta horns. :>•» Rulers and kings of that country, \\ere votive dedications to the leities who represented the powers of nature and creation. At the Was was buiUling Mr. Loftus also discovered glazed or mamelled bricks, ornamented with stars having seven rays. ]heir glazing was bhick, white, yellow, blue, and green. A )avement of vitrified slabs, 2 feet 4 inches square, was found in the south ruins of Warka. Glazed terra-cotta lamps of the jassanian period were exhumed from the cemetery. The researches of Mr. Loftus also discovered sun-dried bricks at the ruin called Bouarieh, at Warka. Their dimensions ranged from 7 inches to 9 inches in length, and from 3 inches to 3J inches in thickness, while they were 7 inches wide. The walls in which they were used were bonded like the Koman with layers of reels, three or four in number, placed at intervals of from 4 feet to 5J feet. Each layer of reeds had four or five rows of bricks placed above it. The remainder of the building was constructed of similar bricks, disposed lengthwise on edge, the flat surfaces and narrow edges of the bricks being placed alternately. The cement with which the bricks were united contained barley straw. This arrangement of brickwork Mr. Loftus supposed to be Parthian. Stamped sun-dried bricks were discovered at the upper part of the edifice. It had also kiln-dried bricks stamped with an inscription in 8 lines, record- ing the dedication by King Urukh, B.C. 2200, to the Moon. Some others bore the name of the King Kudurmabuk, who reigned about B.C. 1500. Small red kiln-dried bricks, pierced with six holes and imbedded in bitumen, were found at the base of the construction. Cones of red brick, similar to those of the Egyptians pre- viously described, with bases coloured red, were found in a wall at Warka by Mr. Loftus, imbedded in a cement of mud and straw. They were only 3^ inches long, by 1 inch diameter at the base. Another kind of construction, of which, indeed, instances occur in Sicily and elsewhere, was found at the south-west building at Warka. Above the foundation were a few layers of unbaked bricks, on which were three rows of vases arranged horizontally one above another, with their mouths placed out- wards. Above the last row was a mass of brickwork. Although the conical end was solid, many were broken. Perhaps they were intended for places in which sparrows or mice might build H 2 100 BABYLONIAN POTTERY. Bart 1. their nests. But vases and pipe tiles are used to the present day by the natives of Mosul to decorate the parapets of their houses. At the Sassanian period, unbaked bricks, rudely plastered, were placed inside edifices, and the mode of construction at this time was by placing the bricks alternately with their edges and flat sides outwards. Cornices, capitals, and other objects of terra-cotta, covered with a coating of stucco or plaster, and painted and gilded, were discovered at Warka. Kich^ mentions the discovery of various earthen vessels in the Mujellibe, but the mounds of Babylonia, formed apparently of the walls and foundations of the great edifices, have yielded as many of these relics as the mounds of Assyria ; and as they have been used at all epochs for sepulchres, it is not possible to determine accurately the age of the few specimens discovered. Some of the vases found among these ruins contained burned bones supposed to be the ashes of Greeks, and are consequently subsequent to the Macedonian conquest. There seems to be no doubt, however, that the statues of the gods of Babylon were made of terra-cotta. Such was that seen by Nebuchadnezzar in his dream, which was composed of clay and metals,'^ and that of Bel, which was of clay, plated externally with brass,^ and pro- bably also the colossi mentioned by Diodorus.* The Babylonian earthenware is scarcely to be distinguished from that of Assyria, and presents the same general charac- teristics of paste and shape. It consists of cups, jars, and other vessels. The paste of the terra-cottas is generally of a light red colour and slightly baked. The figures have been made from a mould, perhaps of the same material as that in use among the Egyptians. The vases are of a light red colour, and of bright clay, occasionally, however, of a yellow hue, with a tinge of green. They were made upon the wheel, and are not ornamented with painting or any other kind of decoration. Probably modelled figures of deities were sometimes introduced at the sides and handles, as in some of the vases of large dimensions found in Assyria. Several earthenware documents of a similar nature to those found in Assyria, have been discovered in the ruins of the ancient Babylonia Proper, consisting of grants of lands, receipts Mem. 28. - Daniel, ii. 33-35. ^ jj^j^^^ ^iv. 6. " Diod. Sic, liv. ii. 9. Chap. III. CYLINDERS. 101 for taxes, archives, and other instruments the purport of wliich has not yet been determined. They are of the same shapes as the Assyrian, and made of a very fine terra-cotta, sometimes of a pale straw colour, and of a iine but gritty texture, or else of a light brown, and occasionally even of a dark colour. The forms of these terra-cottas are very various ; some are cylin- drical, or, to speak more accurately, in the shape of two trun- cated cones joined at their bases. These were probably turned on a pillow lathe. The rest are oblong, triangular or circular in form, varying considerably in thickness; the inscribed sur- faces are usually convex, sometimes concave, or nearly level. Many of the oblong pieces are rectangular, and so flattened as to approach the shape of tablets. One of the most valuable is a fragment of a great cylinder, the transcript of an inscription, now in the East India House,^ containing a copy of the Hiera- ti(ial Statistical Tables of Nebuchadnezzar, which enumerated all the temples either built or endowed in Babylonia by that monarch. It is of a pale straw colour, and the inscription is finely written. Another fragment, apparently a deed, has the seals and names of the attesting witnesses at the edges. The material is a fine compact light brown clay, with a polish or slight glaze on the exterior. Several cylinders are preserved in the various museums of Europe, and some of the inscriptions have been published by writers on the subject.^ All are in the hieratical or ancient Babylonian handwriting, which stands in the same relation to the complex character on the bricks as our handwriting does to black-letter. The most remarkable of these tablets are those dated in the reign of Khammurabi, found at Warka. They have been called case tablets, and have inside them a second tablet which was a duplicate of the outer one, containing the same deed of sale or other matters in the same terms and sealed in the same manner, with impressions from a cylinder with cuneiform characters. They are about 6 inches long by 3 inches wide externally, and the discovery of the inner tablets was quite accidental, a frac- ture having revealed them. In shape they resemble a pin- cushion, rectangular and convex on each side. Another series ^ Engraved, Porter, ii. PI. 78 ; Dr. ! Grotefend, * Bemerkungen zum Insclirift Hincks, Trans. Koy. Ir. Acad., 1847, p. i eines Thongefasses mit Babyloniseher 13 ; Rawlinson, Memoir, 478. Keilsclirift,' 4to, Gottiugon, 1848. "^ Sir W. Ouseley, Travels, i. PI. xxi. : | 102 BABYLONIAN POTTERY. rAirr. L of these sub-tablets found at the same spot, not cased and of smaller dimensions, commences with Nubopallasar, in whose reio-n they are dated B.C. 600, continue through the later Baby- lonian reigns of Nebuchadnezzar and Nabonidus, and those of the Persians, Cyrus, Cambyses, Darius, and Artaxerxes, and finish under the great dynasty of the SeleucidsB, about B.C. 125, when the cuneiform writing was discontinued and superseded by the Pehlevi. At this later period the use of preparing clay documents disappeared, papyrus, leatlier, and parchment having come into more general use. The Babylonian cylinders ^ are : 1. Fragment, containing an abridgment of the dedications of the temples of Babylonia by Nebuchadnezzar. 2. Another, recording the clearing of the canal which supplied the cisterns of Babylon, 3. The Sinkarah cylinder, recording the building by Nebuchadnezzar of the temple of the Sun at Larrak. 4. The Birs cylinders, con- taining the rebuilding of the temple of the Seven Spheres at Borsippa. 5. The Mugheir cylinder, commemorating the re- pairs of the temple of the Moon at Bur. 6. The great cylinder of Nabonidus, describing the architectural repairs of the temples of Babylonia and Chaldsea. These later Babylonian cylinders were placed under the corners of the platforms of temples to record the foundations by the monarch, like coins, medals, and inscriptions at the present day. The clue tliey afforded to their position will guide future excavators to discover other of these important documents of ancient history. A few small slabs, or pieces of terra-cotta, in bas-relief, have been found at Babylon, the largest being npt more than 3 inches square and about J of an inch thick. On one of those brought by Rich from Hillah, and now in the British Museum, is a repre- sentation of a seated deity, holding in one hand a dove, and having a seated figure behind. One another is a female, pro- bably a goddess, holding a lotus flower, like that often found on gems, especially on the conical ones. A third specimen, which is the best of all, represents a man holding by the collar a gigantic dog of the Thibet breed, resembling those mentioned by Herodotus^ as forming the kennel of the kings of Persia, and to the support of which three villages were assigned. This ' llawliusou's ' Notes on the History of .. - Lib. i. 192. This specimen was pre- Babylonia,' 8vo, Lond. 1854; Layard, | seuted by Prince Albert to theBiitisli Nineveh, p. 315. I Museum. Chap. III. BAS-KELIEFS. 103 design has not been stamped from a mould, but modelled with the hand, and tlie execution is remarkable for boldness and freedom. This specimen was obtained by Sir H. Rawlinson in the neighbourhood of Babylon, and is now in the British Museum. It is difficult to say for what purposes these bas- reliefs were made. Perhaps they may have been the first sketches of an artist, intended to guide him in more important works, and that last described may have been a study for a group in a frieze, representing the bringing of tribute. The No. 91. — Bas-relief of Man and Dog. clay of which they are made is fine, like that of the cylinders, and delicately manipulated. IMany figures of a naked female, having only a chain round her neck, to which was suspended a heart-shaped ornament, and holding her hands beneath her breast, probably the goddess Ishtar or Aphrodite, were found at Warka. Some of these are of a pale, others of a light red, terra-cotta. They are in bas- relief, and all have been produced from a mould, the marks of the fin<>ers being: visible at the back. These fially of the ^^Bcond period of the Greek and Roman occupation of the country — few or no specimens being re- ferable to the time when the Phoenicians were under their own monarchs. In the collections of the Museum at Sevres is a lecythus or oil-cruse, found at Tyre, of the lustrous or polislied Egyptian ware, and exactly similar to those which come from Egypt. Notwithstanding the space which the Phoenicians occupy in ancient history, and the traditions of their skill in navigation and in the manufactures, they have left behind them few or no remains. Glass and purple dyes were their staples, and their pottery was pro- bably for domestic use. At an early period, in common with the Aramaean nations, they were celebrated for their toreutic and metallic work, their stained ivories, and their glass manufactures. According to the legend of Sanchoniatho, they claimed the invention of brick-making — or rather their own story w^as that Hypsuranius^ invented in Tyre the making of huts with reeds, rushes, and the papyrus. Alter the generation of Hypsuranius were Agrieus, the hunter, and Halieus, the fisher, the inventors of the arts of hunting and fishing. These were followed by two brothers, one of whom, Chrysor, or Hephaestus, was the first who sailed in boats, whilst his brother invented the way of making walls with bricks. From this generation were born two youths — one called Technites, the workman, and the other Autochthon, earthborn, who invented the method of making bricks with loam and straw, and drying them in the sun ; they also invented tiling, — all moral fables recording the progress of civilisation. It is much to be re- gretted that travellers, Avho have often remarked the fragments of pottery which exist in the ruins of the now desolate cities of No. 98. — Cruse of polished ware, Egyptian Koom, No. 4710. * ' Athenjeuin Fran^ais,' 1856 ; Bull. Arch., p. 4. 2 Sanchoniatho, ab Orellio, p. 17 ; Cory, Ancient Fragments, p. 8. 110 PHCENICIAN POTTERY. I^rt I. Phoenicia, have not thought of depositing some of thcni in the European museums, where they might have been scientifically examined. Very few fragments of Phoenician pottery have been discovered. Of two which came from the Palace at Nimriid, inscribed with Phoenician inscriptions in black ink, one was part of the neck of a jug or amphora, of pale red terra-cotta, and the inscription harat lebah. The other, part of tlie shoulder of a vase, was glazed, and ornamented with two bands or zones or broad and narrow lines which had passed round the neck, and had between them an illegible Phoenician inscription. The vase itself had been intermediate between the early Athenian and Corinthian ware. Two handles of amphorae, with circular stamps containing a device, and the names of two kings, whose names began with Zepha and Shat, in Phoenician characters, have been found at Jerusalem. Terra-cotta vases, very like the Greek, were found in the cemeteiies of Tharros, and unglazed terra-cotta vases, with Punic inscriptions, have been found on the site of Carthage. A terra-cotta vase, with scratched Punic inscription, supposed to read " Hatherbaal, son of Melak," was found in Sicily.^ A certain kind of vase found at Cyprus and Egypt, with globoid body, small spout, and two small handles cemented on a stud on the top of tlie vase, is also probably Phoenician. Many of the vases found at Cyprus are probably Phoenician, but the early population of the island was so mixed in its Semitic and Hellenic element, that it is difficidt to deter- mine, in the absence of inscriptions, to which race they belong. The question of the vases called Phoenician found in Greece and Italy will be treated of under those localities. According to Herodotus, the wine which came froni the Syrian coast to Egypt in his day, probably of the celebrated vintage of Helbon, was imported in amphorae. A lamp, with a Palmyrene inscrip- tion, has been found at Palmyra.^ At the same spot have also been found several small terra-cotta objects, -|- inch square and J inch thick, having impressed in relief recumbent figures; others holding military standards, radiated and female busts, with emblems of the sun and moon, and Palmyrene inscriptions. They were of a fine red clay and of the Roman period. The Persians condemned malefactors to drink poison out of earthen vessels, a proof that they used earthen vessels, but none ^ G. Ugulena, ' Sulle Monete Punico-Sicule,' 4to, Palermo. - Ath. Frail?., 1855; Bull. Arch., p. 102. (hap. III. VASES. Ill rhich can be identified with that people can be found. Pro- ibly some of the vases from the Assyrian and Babylonian ptes are early Persian and others of the later Parthian dynasty. ■o this period also are to be referred some of the terra-cotta Jgures of a pale yellow clay, representing the Greek Aphrodite, or ^enus. The vases stamped with medallions of a goat, or other emblems with a figure of a cross, are of a still later period, and belong to the close of the Sassanian dynasty. Some small terra-cotta bas-reliefs used for those or other purposes are also of the Parthian or Sassanian epoch. PART II. GKEEK POTTEEY. CHAPTEE I. Etymology — Division of the subject — Sun-dried clay — Terra-cotta — Bricks and tiles — Friezes, &c. — Statues and figures — Colouring — Subjects — Beliefs — Prices — Cattle Cones, &c. — Dolls — Lamps. We have already alluded to the antiquity of the fictile art among the Greeks. Their term for pottery, keramos, is sup- posed to be derived either from leer as, a horn, probably the most ancient material of which drinking- vessels were formed, or else from Jcerannumi, to mix. They likewise applied the word ostrahon, the name for an oyster-shell, to pottery : ostrahina toreumata is their generic term for works in terra-cotta. The art of working in clay may be considered among the Greeks, as among all other nations, under three heads, according to the nature of the process employed : namely, first, sun-dried clay ; secondly, baked clay, but without a ^laze, or terra-cotta ; and thirdly, baked clay with the addition of a glaze or porcelain. It is under these three heads that it is proposed to treat the subject. The first, from its limited use, will occupy our atten- tion but very briefly. Sun-dried clay was used by the Greeks for modelling objects intended for internal decorations. Thus Pausanias mentions having seen in the Basilica at Athens objects modelled in this material, by Chalcosthenes.^ It may be inferred, from another passage of the same author, that bricks of sun-dried clay con- tinued to be used in Greece at least till the time of the Roman ' Pausanias, x. 4. Plin. N. H. xxxv. I Chalcosthenes and another potter of the 12, § 45 ; xxiv. 8, § 9. There is some I same name, but the former must hav difficulty in distinguishing between this ' belonged to an early period of the art. ("itAi'. I. BKICKS AND TILES. 113 (lominion ; since he relates that Antoninus, a man of senatorial rank, repaired tlie temple of TEsculapius at Epidanvus, which was constructed of unbaked bricks.^ The temple of the Leproean Demeter in Arcadia,^ that of the Stirian Demeter in Stiris,'' and the cliapel of ^sculapius at Panopeus,* were all of this material. The walls of many fortified cities, as Mantinea, for example, seem to have been made of sun-dried bricks,^ which resisted the battering-ram better than baked ones. A statue of Prometheus, of imbaked clay, still existed at Pan opens in the time of Pau- sanias.*^ Prometheus was the first worker in this material, for, according to Hesiod, he made Pandora out of earth and water, and some of the later sarcophagi and vases represent him moulding the human race out of clay or Sinopic earth.'^ The edifices of crude clay have disappeared, and the dimen- sions of the bricks are consequently unknown. They were probably of the same dimensions as the baked bricks, but the nature of the material required them to have a greater thickness. The use of terra-cot ta among the Greeks was very extensive. It supplied the most important parts both of public and private buildings, as the bricks, roof-tiles, imbrices, drain-tiles, columns, and other architectural members. It also served for pavements, and for the construction of lining of cisterns and aqueducts. Among its adaptations to religious purposes may be noticed the statues of the gods which stood in the temples, besides copies of them on a reduced scale, and an immense number of small votive figures. It also supplied the more trivial wants of e very-day life, and served to make studs for the dress, bases for spindles, tickets for the amphitheatres, and prizes for victors, in the games. Of it were made the vats or casks in which wine was made, preserved, or exported ; the pitcher in which it was served, and the cup out of which it was drunk ; as well as all the various culinary and domestic utensils for which earthenware is used in modern times. It furnished the material for many small ornaments, especially figures, which are often of a comic nature ; and supplied the undertaker with bas-reliefs, vases, imitative jewellery, and the other furniture of the tomb. Althouo;h the Greeks sometimes used bricks for building their J Paus., ii. 27, 7. ^ jbi^]^ y, 5^ 4_ 3 jtid., x. 35. " Ibid., iv. 4. * Xenophon, Hell. v. 2; Mem. iii. 1. Vitruv., i. 5; Pans., viii. 8, 5. ^ Paus., X. 4. ^ Welcker, Jahrb. von. Altherth. fr. im Rheinl. xxviii. Taf. xviii. s. 54, n. f. I 114 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. temples, tombs, and houses, yet tbey were not altogether indis- pensable in a country abounding, like Greece, with stone. They are mentioned by Greek authors chiefly when speaking of foreign or barbarian edifices, and in a manner which shows that they were not much employed in Greece at the time when they wrote. They are said to have been used in the Homeric age. The altar of the Herceian Jupiter at Troy, on which Neoptolemus slew Priam, was constructed of bricks. The palace of Croesus at Sardis, that of Mausolus at Halicarnassus, and of Attains at Tralles, were built of the same material ; as well as the Phi- lippeum at Olympia, and the monument of Hephsestion at Babylon.^ The temple of Apollo at Megara is said to have been made of brick,^ the stoa of Cotys at Epidaurus, of Anto- ninus lU Hyperbius of Crete, and Euryalus, Euryades, or Agrolas, are stated to have erected the first brick wall. But tlie very epithet, " brick-bearers," which the Greeks applied to the Egyptians,^ shows that they regarded the use of bricks with a certain contempt, or, at all events, as a characteristic dis- tinction ; and indeed it appears, from the vestiges of Grecian temples, that stone was uniformly employed in preference. Some fragments of baked bricks of a red paste from Athens, and of tiles of a red and yellow paste from Cape Colonna or Sunium, together with a drain-tile of red clay from Ephesus, are in the Museum at Sevres ; but these may belong to a late period of Grecian history.^ At Alexandria Troas were found, either in the walls of the old city or in those of an aqueduct, triangular bricks, apparently half of the didoron, divided through the diameter. They formed a right-angled triangle, the base of whicli measured 14| inches, and the perpendicular line from the apex 7 inches, with a thick- ness of 2^ inches. They were a fine red clay, and were worked into the wall so as to form lozenge-shaped panels — a mode of brickwork w^hich prevailed during the time of the Koraan em- pire. The long walls of Athens, 01. cxi. 3 — cxii. 3, were partly constructed of bricks,® in the administration of Habron, son of Lycurgus, and with tiles for the roofs called Laconian.^ Avolio mentions remains of w^alls at Hyccarra, Minoa, Lily- bseum, Heraclea, Himera, and Tyndaris. At Catania are the ^ Hirt, Geschicliteder Baukunst, 121. ^ Brongniart and Riocieux, Miis. de 2 Puas., I. c. xlii. 5. Sevres, 19. 3 Plin., N. H., vii. c. 56. « Ehangabe, Antiq. Hell. ii. p. 388. * Aristoph. Aves, 1134. ' Pallad., K. R., xix. 11, 1. CiiAi>. I. DIMENSIONS OF BRICKS. 115 remains of a Koman odeum and brick theatre. At Tanrome- niiim are a naumacliia and brick vaults belonjjinji: to the corridor of an amphitheatre; also some brick tombs. The brick remains of the pharos, erected by the architect Orion on the bay of Pelorus, may still be traced; and ruins of similar bnildings occur at Cape d'Orlando, the ancient Agathyrnum. Other remains of red-coloured bricks were found to the west of ^^tna, and some large bricks near Hiuiera.^ The Greek bricks were named after the ancient word down, or palm, to which their dimensions were adjusted. There were three kinds : ihedicldroriy or two-palm brick, measuring a foot in length, and half a foot, or two palms, in breadth; the tetradoron, or four-palm brick, measured four palms on eacli side ; and the pentadoron, or brick of five palms on each side. The pentadoron was employed in the construction of public edifices; the tetradoron for private buikiings. Another kind, called the Lydian, was one foot and a half long, and one foot broad, and derived its name from its use in Lydia. They were made in a mould called plaision, formed of boards united together.^ The mode of their manu- facture is described by Vitruvius. At Massilia, or Maxilua, and Calentum in Spain, and at Pitane in Mysia, bricks were made so light tliat they floated in water.^ Tiles were extensively used in Greece for roofing. They were said to have been invented by Cinyras, in Cyprus.* Those for house use are square and flat, and have the sima of the cornice turned up.^ This part was painted with lotus-flowers, the elegant ornament called the helix, or honeysuckle, and mpeanders in red, blue, brown, and yellow colours. Two tiles of this description, in the British Museum, measure 2 feet 3 inches wide, and 8 inches broad. Similar tiles have also been found in Greece, but with a hollow gutter to carry off the lain, and having lions' heads moulded in salient relief, with tlie mouth open, to act as spouts.^ In Doric architecture the mouths of these lions were closed. Vitruvius says, that the lions' heads ought to be sculptured on the sima of the cornices. According to the traditions of the potters, one of the earliest applications of the plastic art was to the making of these tiles. Dibutades, * Avolio, 42-47. ' xxxv. 14 ; Strabo, xiii. p. 614, c. = Aristoph. Ran. 813; Pollux, x. ♦ Hirt, Geschichte, i. 193, s. 4. 148 ; Beck, comment, ad h. c. t. v. 202 ; ! » Slackelberg, Die Ghiber, Taf. v. rintarch, A'it. Sol. . I « Dodwell, ' Tour in Greece,' i. 333. ^ Vitruvius, ii. c. 8, 9; Plinj^, N. H., | Stackelberg, Die Graber, Taf. vii. I 2 XXll GREEK POTTER 1, Part it. a Sicyonian potter, was the first who placed these heads or masks at the extremity of the imbrices, or gutter-tiles.^ Spouts were modelled in various other forms, such as tlie forepart of a lion, or the mask of a Silenus or Satyr, crowned with ivy.^ No. 99. — Cornice with Lion's Head. British Museum. It is also probable that in Greece, as among the Jitomans, the hollow floors of the hypocausts, as well as the flue-tiles of the hot baths, were made of terra-cotta. Tiles were also em- ployed for constructing graves, in which the body was deposited at full length. In the oldest sepulchres of this kind, it appears that after the floor had been paved with flat tiles, the body was laid upon it, and then covered with arched tiles. The latter had an orifice at the top, in order that they might be carried with the hand ; and after they had been placed in the ground, this aperture was covered with /lead. The flfit and square tiles were in use at a com- paratively late period. Some graves had a second layer of tiles to pro- tect the body from the superin- cumbent earth. ^ Some rare specimens of Greek tiles were found at Acrse in Sicily. Those used for carrying off the rain were 3 palms 3 inches long, and 1 palm 3 inches broad. They were stamped on the outer side, close to the border, with the letters ^ (j) ov <3? E in a circle. The tiles which covered these were 3 palms No 100..— Spout or gargoile in shape of the forepart of a Lion, British Museum. * Pliny, Nat. Hist. xxxv. 12, 43. « British Museum. ' Stackelberg, Die Graber, Taf. vii. ; Ddl:lwell, Tour, i. 452. Chap. r. TILES. 117 3 inches long and 9 inches broad. On some other Sicilian tiles the potter had placed the triskelos, or three legs, as an emblem of the country. Besides these, some bore the Greek inscription Sosimus or Sosinus ; at Solentium others the Latin ones, Caius Murrius, decurio of the colony, and Galba,^ the name apparently of the emperor. At Nebi in Sicily tiles had impressed upon them the names of Polystratus, son of Eunomos, and Dio- phantus.^ At Syracuse otliers had that of Artemidorus of Side, a maker who must have lived under the Anton ines.^ At Messana they were stamped " of the Mamertini," and *' sacred to Apollo," * probably referring to the edifices to which they belonged. The name of Eutyches was found on a tile at Alcami or Tela.^ Several of the tiles found at Olbia near Nicolaief, have oblong labels stamped upon them, with the names of the Greek edile of some state during the period of whose office they were made, in exactly the same form as those found on the handles of amphorsB, which will be hereafter described; as " Chabrias being edile — Ariston being edile," — whilst the other names, Heracleides and Poseidonius, probably indicate the proprietors of tlie pottery.^ At Corey r a, tiles and bricks are also found stamped with the names of magistrates, apparently those of the Prytaneis, indicating the existence of some public regulation respecting the potteries. A list of these inscriptions will be found in the Appendix. Tiles discovered by Dr. Macpherson at Kertch, the ancient Panticapseum, had impressed upon them in oblong labels, letters in relief, reading Basilike '' the Koyal," probably referring to the house or palace, and the date of the archonship of Ugianon, the letters A . . . th, and some other mutilated inscriptions. These are of a remarkably fine bright red paste, with flanges and the usual border above, and depression below for fixing the tiles upon each other. They measure 1 foot 6 inches long by 1 foot wide, and are probably of the sort called LydioUy which had these dimensions, and was named from its use in Lydia. The imbrices which covered the joints had upright sides and an ^ Avolio, 27, 31, 37. 2 Castelli, Inscr. Sic, p. 225 6. ' Ibid., cl. 46. ■• Bockh, Corp. Iiiscr. Grtec, i. 3, p. pp. 492, 496. 626. » Ibid., i. 605. * Bekker, ia the ' Melanges Gre'co- Eomaines,' 8vo, St. Petersburg, 1854, 118 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. n relied top, and were 6 inches broad. These were not stamped. Otiier tiles discovered by Mr. Biirgon, in excavations made at Athens, had in a label, A0E, tlie commencement of the word " Athenian." Tiles found by Mr. Kevvton, in the graves at Calymna, had the word AIO in intaglio, or circular labels with monograms in relief, on the body of the tile. One had " of Euphamus," the name of a maker, or magistrate, in a label on the edge. At Caudela, the site of the ancient Alyzia, one hour's journey north of Alytica, a small port on the west coast of Acarnania, Mr. Colnaghi found tiles stamped in labels, 10^ inches long and 2 inches wide, " of the Alyzians," showing the tiles to have been made for a public building. The paste is pale red. The A and I are about the age of Hadrian, or the first century. Some inscriptions were occasionally scratched on tiles, as " Hippeus " or " The Knight seems handsome to Aristo- medes." ^ Tlie joints of the flat roof tiles were covered by the imbrex, or rain-tile, which was made semi-cylindrical, the sides generally upright with an arched top. These tiles were made by the same process as the flat tiles, and were moulded. They are not inscribed, but some found at Metapontum were painted with maeanders and egg-and-tongue ornaments. Some at Kertch were 4 inches high and 8 inches broad. The mode in which they were adjusted may be seen in the works of Campana^ and Canina.^ Another kind of tile was that which terminated in the antefixa. It was made in imitation of the marble tiles which had the same ornament, and consisted of a long horizontal bevelled body, terminating in a semi-elliptical upright, on which was fixed some moulded ornament, generally the helix, in bas- relief. These tiles were laid on the ends of the other tiles at the sides of the building, to prevent them from slipping. They were sometimes inscribed.* Tiles served as missiles during sieges or civil disturbances, and it was with such a weapon that Pyrrhus was killed. The tiles just described are made of a fine clay. Those from Metapontum were found to be more compact and fine at the elliptical end than in the body. Sometimes the whole of a naos, or chapel, was constructed of tiles; as that * Pouqueville, Voy. iv. 74, c. 1, c. 341. ^ ' Opere en Plastica,' tav. vi. ^ ' Arcliitcttiira Antica,' sez. ii. tav. xcvii. * British Museum, Elgin Saloon, No. 297; Seroux d'Agiiicourt, Recueil, pi. xxi.K. Chap. T. FlllKZES. 1 lli >acr(}d to Diana, seen by Pausanias at PLocis, and another on the road leading to Panopeus. Till Byzes of Naxos^ invented, 01. L., B.C. 574, the art of con- structing the roofs of temples with slabs of marble — the method which he employed in building the temple of Jupiter at Elis — the ancient temples of Greece were roofed with terra-cotta tiles, and the pediments, friezes, and other members were made of the same material. The recent excavations on the site of the Erech- theum^ show that the temple which existed there before the Persian invasion was decorated with painted terra-cotta members. The temple of Apollo at Megara and other old temples were also built of terra-cotta. An antefix was found at Pella in Macedon by Cousinery.^ As the art became more developed, the pediments of Doric temples were ornamented with bas- reliefs in terra-cotta, which were ultimately superseded by marble groups in alto-relievo. Tliese early reliefs, called jpro- typa, or bas-reliefs, and eeti/pa, or high-reliefs, were also used for decorating houses and halls. In the ostracism of the Athenians, the act of voting, or ostra- cophoria, was performed by means of fragments of tiles or vases, on which were inscribed the names of those whom they wished to banish.* There was a guilloche cornice in the museum of Syracuse ; also another at Eryx, ornamented with gryphons, and some representing scenes from the Dionysiac or Isiac worship.^ Many of the architectural members of the Greek temples were undoubtedly made of terra-cotta. Such remains, however, are rare, and most of the fragments of friezes hitherto discovered appear to belong to the period of Roman domination rather than of Greek independence. Those discovered amidst the remains of the old cities of Italy, chiefly those of maritime Etruria, are the work of the Etruscans ; nor are those of Southern Italy and Magna Gra3cia entirely Greek. A fine specimen of an egg-and-tongue moulding, glazed internally, of a light red colour, has been recently discovered at Kertch. It probably formed part of the cornice of a tomb. ' Campana, loc. cit, p. 8. Byzes was j Atheniensium,' 8vo, Lugd. Bat. 1793, contemporary with Alyattes and Asty- 5, 6 ; Plutarch in Pericl., 161 ; Pollux, ages, Pausan., v. 10; cf. Liv., xlii. 2 I viii. 20; Hesychius and Suidas, voce ^ Campana, loc. cit. KepajxeiKr) fidari^. Nepos, in Themist. ^ Dubois, Cat. de M. L. Dufonry, 8vo, | viii. 2 ; in Cimon, iii. 1 ; Aristid., i. 2 ; Par. 1819, p. 5. i Pint, in Aristid., 211, 322. ' Hoe Piirudus., J. A., ' Dc Ostracismo j * Avolio, 97, 98. 120 GREEK POTTERY. Pakt II. The pipes by which water was distributed from the aqueducts, or drained from the soil, were also made of terra-cotta. A drain- tile of red terra-cotta, found at Ephesus, is in the Musetira of Sevres/ Similar pipes, supposed to have been used for con- ducting water from an aqueduct, have been discovered at Old Dardanus, in the Troad. They have been turned upon the lathe, are smootli outside, but grooved inside. Their dimensions are 1 foot lOJ inches long, 4J^ inches diameter at the bore, and about 1 inch thick. They are neitlier stamped nor ornamented, except by an annular grooved line at each end. Cylindrical in shape, they are broader at one end than the other, with a collar at the narrow end to insert into a similar tile as a joint. The clay of which they are composed is of a pale red colour, and rather coarse. They were united at the joint by a mortar made of lime, white of egg, and tow, and, except that they are unglazed, resemble the drain-pipes now in use. Another branch of works in clay, the terra-cotta figures, are made of a paste distinguished from that of the vases by its being softer and more porous. It is easily scratched or marked with a steel instrument ; it does not ring a clear sound when struck ; nor does it when submitted to a high temperature become so hard as stone-ware."'* Its colour ranges from a deep red to a pale straw, and its texture and density vary in specimens found in different localities. Ancient works in terra-cotta are distin- guished from the modern by tlieir greater lightness and softness. The mode of working in this material was by forming the pre- pared clay into the required shape by means of the fingers, or with peculiar tools called kanaboi. To give the finer touches, the nails were employed, as has been alrea'dy mentioned. The art of working thus in terra-cotta was of great antiquity. The invention of it was claimed by the Corinthians, who are said to have exhibited in the Nymphseum of their city speci- mens of the first efforts in it from the hand of the celebrated potter Dibutades. In order to preserve the likeness of his daughter's lover, he moulded in terra-cotta the shadow of his profile on the wall ; and this production is said to have existed in the Nymphseum when the city was stormed by Mum- mius.^ The invention was, however, also claimed by the Sa- mians, who maintained that Rhoecus and Theodoras, who were sculptors in bronze, and who flourished about the Olympiad xxx. * Brongniait and Riocreux, Mus. de Sevres, p. 19. 2 Brongniait, Traite', i. 305. ^ Plin., xxxv. 12, 43. TERRA-COTTA HEAD OF PALLAS ATHENE. FROM CALVI..' I'AOiE h: Bhap. I. STATUES. 121 B.C. ()57, had first practisetl the art of modelling.^ As tlie arly sculptors cast their bronzes solid, like the Egyptians, who e supposed to have been the fathers of the art, it is evident at modelling in clay must have preceded working in bronze. o Dibutades is also ascribed the mixing of ruddle, or ochre, with the clay, in order to impart to it a warmer tone. Pansanias mentions having seen in the Basilica at Athens two remarkable terra-cotta groups in salient relief, representing Theseus killing the robber Skiron, and Heos or Aurora carrying off Kephalos. These groups, which were of considerable size, were modelled.'* It appears certain that the Sicyonian artist Lysistratus, brother of the celebrated Lysippus,^ was the first to make casts of statues by means of terra-cotta moulds. By this means the principal statues of Greece were multiplied, just as works of art are in the present day by plaster-casts. A few ancient statues of terra-cotta existed in the shrines of Greece in the time of Pausanias, as that in the temple of Ceres and Proserpine at Tritsea in Arcadia ; and in the temple of Bacchus at Athens, where there was a composition representing one of the kings of Athens entertaining Bacchus and the other gods at table.^ Some artists of the later schools combined the plastic art with that of painting, and the celebrated Zeuxis was accus- tomed to model in terra-cotta the subjects which he afterwards painted. Many of his works existed in Ambracia at the time that city was captured, and its masterpieces of art were dragged to Rome by Fulvius Nobilior. Pasiteles, an artist who lived at Rome in the time of Pompey, always first modelled his statues in terra-cotta, and used to call the plastic art the mother of statuary and carving.^ One Aphrodisius Epaphus, son of De- metrius, is called a sculptor making painted figures in encaustic, perhaps of terra-cotta, in an inscription.^ Some clay figures appear to have been of a toreutic nature, having parts of the body executed in a different material. Such works, indeed, were rare ; but the extraordinary nature of the combination was much modified by the colours with which all terra-cotta figures were painted. Nor were such works unknown in Assyrian art. ' Plin., XXXV. 12, 43; Panofka, Kes. Samior., 91. "" Paus., i. 3, 1 ; Pliny, N. H., xxxv. c. 12 ; Barthius, Adversar., xlii. 28 ; Ritterhusius, Sacr. Lect., viii. c. 9 ; Triller, Obs. Crit., iv. 6. ' Plin., xxxv. 12, 44 ; Campana, ' An- tiche Opere in Plastica,' Roma, 1842, p. 7. * Pans., i. 7. * Campana, loc. cit. ; Sillig., Diet, of Artists of Antiquity, 8vo, London, 1836; Pliny, Nat. Hist., xxxv. 12, 45. ' Bockh, Corp. Inscr. Graec. iii. 349. 122 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. That these models were also made in plaster, appears from the account given by Pausanias of the statue of the Olympian Jupiter at Megara. Theocosmos, an artist of that town, had undertaken to make the statue of gold and ivory ; but the breaking out of the Peloponnesian war put a stop to his labours. Wlien Pausanias saw it, only the head of the god was con- structed of gold and ivory, the other portions of the figure being made of gypsum and terra-cotta.^ The Athene Skiras^ was made of clay or plaster, and one of Am- phictyon^ was of the same material. At a later period the Roman writers mention an Apollo of gypsum^ and a Liber Pater.^ Portions of ancient statues of gypsum, of fine workmanship and appropriately co- loured, have been found in Cyprus, and are now in the British Museum. The immense number of terra-cotta objects at Athens is alluded to by the pseudo-Dicsearchus^ and by Demosthenes.'^ It appears that on certain festive occasions in Greece, there were competitive exhi- bitions of clay figures and other objects of art ; which accounts for the excellence attained in these productions. Such statues existed till a late period of the Roman empire. It is mentioned in an epigram of Nicaenetus, that there was a celebrated statue of Mercury at Constan- tinople f yet few figures of any size have come down to us. There are in the British Museum two statues of Muses from Pozzuoli, about 3 feet high ; and a torso, probably of a terminal Priapus, of the size of life, the head and arms of which are wanting. . A Mercury, the size of life, is also in the Museum of the Vatican. But there are no statues of this material of any great dimensions extant, which can be referred to an ancient period of art. All have perished amidst the wreck of the No. 101. — Terra-cotta figure of Pallas-Athene. From Agri- geiitum. ' Pausanias, i. 40. 2 Eustathius, Iliad, xxv. ^ Pausanias, ii. ^ Prudcutius, Aijophthegm., 450. * Firmicus, Error. Prof. Eel. « Bibs 'EWdSos, lib. i. p. 182. ^ Philipp. i. 9. ^ Anthologia a Jacobs, torn, i. p. 205. Chap. T. SMALL FIGURES.— COLOURING. 123 Urines and palaces. Neither have any moulds in terra-cotta lor the casting of bronze statues been discovered, althongli it is evident that they must have been prepared for that purpose. The chief attention of inferior artists was directed to the production of small terra-cotta figures, which the Greeks used either as ornaments or as their household gods. They rarely exceed 9 inches in length, and resemble the modern plaster casts. They were called pelinoij^ *' clays," or ostrahina toreu- mafa ;- and one of these, representing Hephaestus, presided over the hearth. They are found in great abundance in the vicinity of the large cities of antiquity, and many specimens are pre- served in the Museums of Europe. ISTumerous specimens have been discovered recently in the little island of Calymna,^ and outside the walls of ancient Tarsus.* The Cyrenaica has also produced many — some exceedingly charming.^ Many of these are repetitions of one another. A careful examination shows that they were made by the same process as the modern plaster- casts. A model figure, j^rotypos, was first made in terra-cotta with the modeller's tools, and from this was taken a mould, tij2)os, apparently also in terra-cotta, seldom in more than two pieces, which was then baked. The figures, technically called eetypa, were made from this mould by pressing into it the clay, formed into a thin crust, thus leaving the figure hollow. Usually the base was open, and at the back were holes, either to allow the clay to contract without cracking, or for the purpose of fixino^ the imao^e \o the wall. When the wet fissure was with- drawn from the mould, it must have been carefully dried, and then retouched by the modeller. Finally it was consigned to the furnace, and baked at a low temperature. Many of these little figures are of the most remote period, and exhibit the state of the art of the sixth century B.C., or the fabled age of the Daedalids.^ Superstitious ideas were connected with small terra-cotta figures.' The method of colouring these figures was well known to the ancients ; and it would appear that the Greeks had a body of artists who were solely employed in painting statues, bas-reliefs, and other architectural ornaments.^ Two modes principally ' Aristoph. Aves, 436. * Clarac, Mus. de Sculpt., p. 90 a. ' Artemidorus, Oneir. II. c. xliv. " Gerhard, Ueber die Metroon, 4to, ^ Arch. Anz., 1848, p. 277. | Berl., 1851, Taf. 3. ^ Barker, ' Lares and Penates,' 8vo, j ^ Hesychius, voce offTpuKis. Lond. 1853, p. 145. I » pi^to, Repub., iv. 420 ; vi. 327, 328. 124 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. prevailed. In the first the whole ground of the figure or bas- relief was coloured celestial blue, and the relieved parts were picked out with red, yellow, and white. The faces, especially in the old style of the art, were painted of a deep red, as among the Egyptians.^ In other instances it is probable that they were coloured with the most harmonious distribution of tints by artists of renown, as in the case of Damophilus and Gorgasus. The celebrated Posis, a contemporary of Varro, executed such exquisite plastic imitations of fruits in terra-cotta, that they were mistaken for the objects themselves ; which could not have been effected except by painting them, like the artificial fruits in wax at the present day. A great number of terra-cotta statues have been painted with flat colours like distemper, consisting of ochrous or opaque colours mixed with chalk and size, or with white of egg. These paints were so used as to give the figures a gay and lively look, without any design of imitating nature. They were laid on after the terra-cotta had been baked, and are not very solid, but peel off easily. The tints are pure, and not shaded ; and the colours usually employed are white, red, yellow, blue, and violet.^ In the archaic figures the favourite colours are blue and red. The former is seen on the chiton and tunic of the seated figure of a goddess, brought from Athens, and now in the British IMuseum ; while several figures of the same early period have their garments either coloured red, or else the borders marked out in that colour. At a later period blue prevailed for the draperies ; buf the borders and selvages of tunics, and sometimes the whole of the garment, were coloured pink, which had then becojne fashionable among artists, and was very promiscuously employed. As an example is given the figure of an Aphrodite from Cales, now in the British Museum. The face and arms of the goddess are white, the wreath is coloured pink, the hair is a light red, the diploid talaric tunic — the lady's gown — is blue with a kind of pink apron, the necklace yellow, probably in imitation of gold. Several other figures, representing Muses, have their tunics pink and white, or pink and blue. A charming little figure of Marsyas, seated, crouching, and playing on the double pipes, is coloured pink (No. 165) ; a rhyton, representing the * Campana, 25. Compare Virgil, Eel. X. 27, and the commentators ; Pliny, Nat. Hist., xxxiii. 1, 36. There is rea- son to suppose that in later times they were gilded ; Martial, Epigr., iv. 39 ; Juven., xi. 116. ^ Clarac, Musee de Sculpture, Partie Technique, 30. lAP. T. COLOURING. 125 I ^■ce of Silenns, a Pan, and a Trojan or Asiatic, are of the same ^rolour. Yellow, a colour which more readily flies, is not so frequently found ; but the base of a statue of Fortune, another of that of Ganymede holding a cock, and a vase in the shape ■ a panther, are of this colour. Green is occasionally seen, as v.xi the acanthus leaf on the helmet of the statue of Athene before mentioned, and on some other specimens. Purples and browns are of very rare occurrence. White was used at all periods for the flesh and garments of females ; but it is often difficult to determine whether it may not be only the leucoma, or priming, from which the colour has dropped. Black appears only rarely, Mild in accessories. Of gilding there are many remains, but it was sparingly applied, the lingering remains of good taste prohibiting a too profuse em- ployment of this reflecting surface. It is found upon terra-cotta vases in Etruscan tombs. A small head, either of Jupiter or ^Esculapius, in the Bri- tish Museum, has gold-leaf adhering to the hair, which was anciently gilt. Some small medallions, with heads of Pallas and of the Gorgons, from Athens, appears to have been entirely gilt.^ Some terra-cotta affixes, shaped like Erotes, and the forepart of chi- mseras, projecting from a vase, are also gilded. There is every reason to suppose that the colours employed in painting terra-cottas were made from the same earths, though of a coarser kind, as the ware itself. Some information on this matter has been preserved by Theophrastus, Vitruvius, Dioscorides, and others. For white the painters used a white earth from Melos, and white lead. The reds were com- posed of a red earth, probably ochre from Sinope, and vermilion, the last especially for walls. Yellow was obtained from Scyrus No. 102. Aphrodite, Coloured Figure of From Cales. * Olarac, IMusee de Sculpture, Partie Technique, 30. 126 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. and Lydia. Of arsenic, sandarac, and orpiment little use was made; but a yellow ochre was obtained by burning a red earth. The Egyptian smalt served for blue, as may be seen still on many terra-cottas. Cyprian blue was also employed.. Indigo was discovered at a later period. Copper green was obtained from many spots, and mixed with white or black. White was made from the burnt lees of wine, or from ivory.^ Pliny evidently speaks of a painter upon terra-cotta in the words, " in the painted pottery and encaustic ;"^ and such specimens will pro- bably be found. Indeed it is by no means improbable that certain roof-tiles have preserved their colour owing to encaustic painting. Among the Greeks, however, terra-cottas were gene- rally painted in tempera with colours, among which red pre- dominated. It would require too much space to enumerate all the various forms and subjects represented in terra-cotta. Among the figures are found the principal gods of the Hellenic Pantheon, and a variety of local divinities. The earliest of these, in their general treatment and accessories, present the cliaracteristics of the hieratic school of art. The principal figures are of Demeter or Ceres, Persephone, the Muse Polyhymnia, Aphrodite, the Erotes. Together with the representations of divinities^ are found those of sacred animals ; such as the cattle of Zeus, and the swine of Demeter or Ceres; or sacred furniture, such as footstools, and even small chairs.* At a more advanced period of fictile art, the treatment becomes freer, and the range of subjects more varied. Bacchse, or Muses, in a variety of atti- tudes, and figures taken from the Satyric drama frequently occur. Actors occasionally are found. After the conquest of Greece and Asia Minor by the Eomans, grotesque and caricatured forms are introduced, such as dwarfs, moriones, and other depraved creations of Roman taste.^ Many of these little figures, in the shape of animals and other objects, such as goats, pigs, pigeons, tortoises, footstools, &c., seem, like the neurospasta or maroquins, to have been toys, since they have been found deposited with the bodies of children in the tombs of Melos and Athens.^ In other cases they may have 1 Hilt, Gesch. der bild. Kunst, 165, 166; Stieglltz, Ueber die Mahleifarben, 8vo, Lips 1817. 2 Nat. Hist., lib. xxxvi. c. xxv. s. 64. ' Panofka, Teriacotten, i. and foil.; Agiucourt, Kecueil, pi. viii. 8. xiii. 1, 2, 4, xiv. 3, 5, 6, XV. 11, 12, 13, 14 ; Caylus, Recueil, t. iii. pi. Ix. No. 1. 4 Dodwell, Tour, i. 446. 5 Ibid., i. 446-448. ® Broiiguiart and Eiocrciix, Mus. do Sevres, 19. I AT. RELIEFS. 127 oen votive oiferings to the p^od.-?, sncli anathemata being offered by the poor. It is impossible not to be charmed with tlie grace iid spirit of many of these objects, which belong to all periods Grecian art, from the old, or as it has been called the ;yptian style, down to the middle age of the lloman Empire, any of them are copies of the statues adored in the shrines ; hers are sketches of noted persons of the day, such as perors, philosophers, gladiators, and horse-riders. Groups 6 of rarer occurrence than single figures, but occur as boxers, players at astragaloi, or " knuckle bones," and boxers engaged in pugilistic encounters. A few busts are found. Besides the small figures just described, objects in bas-relief have occasionally been found in sepulchres, especially in those of Milo, the ancient Melos. They are flat slabs of irregular shape, the bas-relief being upon one side only, with the parts between either reserved or hollow, and having holes, apparently for pegs or nails, to attach them to the wall. The material, lifter having been pressed into the mould, has been scraped ^^■way at the back, leaving a very flat surface. These bas-reliefs ^^Jere painted in the same style as the figures in terra-cotta. In The British Museum are portions of several such reliefs, repre- senting Bellerophon destroying the Chimoera, Perseus killing -Uedusa, Apollo and the deer, the Sphinx devouring Hsemon, the son of Creon, a dancing Bacchante or Maenad with crotala, and the meeting of the poets Alcaeus and Sappho.^ In the Berlin JMuseuni is one with the subject of Helle crossing the Hellespont on the ram.^ Another, in the possession of Professor Ross, of Halle, represents the hunting of the Calydonian boar.^ One found at ^gina exhibited the chariot of the hyperborean Artemis, drawn by two gryphons and driven by Eros.* A few others have been found,^ but it is not known to what use these objects were applied. They may, however, probably have been the prototype slabs of the friezes with which small tombs were ornamented,'^ or decorations for sofiits of ceilings, the agahnata * Millingen, Anc. XJn. Mon., ii. 2, 3, 4. * Welcker, Monumenti Inodili dall' Miiller, ArcLaologie der Kunst, i. 14, ; Iii'-tit. Arch., t. xviii. ; Amiali, 1830, 51, 52. ii. 65. 2 Arch. Zeit., iii. taf. 27, p. 37 ff., 214 | * Raoul Rochette, Ant. Chret. iii. 24, et scq. ; Neue Folge, i, p. 45 et seq. ct seq. ; Ross, Insel Rtise, iii. 19. ' Otto Jiihii, Bericlite der k. Sachs- ^ They can hardly have been deco- ifechen Gcsellschaft der Wisscnschaft, rations for shiekls. Miiller, ' Archaologie 1848, s. 123 tt seq. der Kunst,' § 90, n. 23, p. 76. 128 GREEK POTTERY. Part IT. Avhich Pausanias saw in the royal hall at Athens.^ Of a similar nature were the small masks, chiefly of Gorgons' heads, which were also either inlaid or attached to walls or other objects. Some of these masks, or frosopa, were designed for religious purposes, and hung, like the oscilla, on trees, whilst others were applied to architectui-al decoration. We may here also mention the small figures, heads and other objects in salient relief, whicli were attached as decorations, procrossi, to the sides and handles of terra-cotta vases. Some of these oinaments were small circular medallions, stamped with Gorgons' heads in bas-relief, and are among the most delicate and beautiful examples of this branch of fictile art. These decorations were painted, and at a later time even gilded. Studs, fleurettes, and antefixial orna- ments, or emhlemata^ in salient relief, were also modelled sepa- rately or stamped in moulds, and then affixed to vases when the clay was wet. A singular little monument, probably a votive tablet, has in relief a figure of Diana full-face and standing, with a Greek inscription under it.^ Colonel Ross found at Leucas, in Acarnania, a perfect terra- cotta impression from a coin of Larissa. It may have been the trial-piece of a die-sinker or forger, since persons of that class, as among the Romans, possibly employed the finer qualities of this material to assist their nefarious practices. Many terra- cotta medallions, with subjects and impressions on both sides accompanied by inscriptions, have been found. They were impressed from engraved stones ; one had a square buckler, club and quiver, and " of Nikippus" in Greek ; another a female head with recurved wings, and on the reverse a dolphin and tortoise with the syllable/* The . ." One large medallion had the impression of three gems, a sandal, dancing satyr, and lion. It had two holes for suspension. Their use is unknown. There are but few notices in the ancient writers respecting the prices paid for fictile objects. In the fables ascribed to ^sop,^ Hermes is described entering the shop of a sculptor, and asking the price of a Zeus. The sculptor values it at a drachma — a figure of Hera at rather more ; but if the purchaser will take the two, he is offered a Hermes into the bargain. From the low price it would seem that the figures meant must have been terra-cottas, though the maker of these is generally called a potter, or koroplathos, not a sculptor, by the Greek writers. ^ I. 3, 1. 3, 4. -' Avolio, II. tav. vii. ^ Fab., ccxliii. ; cf. Fab. cccxx. Jhap. I. CONES AND DISCS. 129 Another use to wliicli terra-cotta was applied was for mak- \g small cones or pyramids to suspend round the necks of ?attle. They are about 3^ inches long, and perforated at the bop. They are frequently found in the fields in Greece, and specially in Attica. In general they are painted blaclc and jd, and those found in Corcyra are inscribed. Dodwell ^ saw >me in the collection of S. Prosalinda with the inscriptions, " the lountain of Phalax," " Venus," " of Jupiter the cattle-feeder." ji object similar in form was found in a sepulclu*e at the ^ira3us, the apex of which terminated in the heads of Atys. ?his appears to have been the weight of a steelyard.^ The ^ones found at Kertch had A on one side, and on the under side impressions of engraved stones, and a on the upper side. Other terra-cotta objects were discovered with them. Others found at Corfu had invocations to females, as " Hail Epiktesis, Cleoxena, Artemoklea." ^ A number of cones perforated vertically are found all over prreece and Italy, the use of rhicli is unknown. Like lose just described, they lay have been attached to le necks of animals, or sus- pended to the ends of gar- ments. They have been supposed by some to be Aveights, or to have been used at the corners of gar- ments for holding down the drapery. Several of these cones and truncated pyramids have been exhumed by excavations in the Crimea, near Sebastopol and Kertch. Those there discovered had on the apex the im- pression of the seal of finger- rings, representing heads and other objects. Many were found inside sixteen pithoi, discovered in an edifice near Sebastopol. They resemble bells in shape. Some flat discs of pale red and yellow terra-cotta, in the British Museum, about 3^ inches diameter, discovered by 31 r. Barker in excavations made at Tarsus, aie pierced near the circumference with two holes for a cord to pass through. On one side they have in relief a star, the letters A and E. One of No. 103.— Cones. From Corcyra. ' Tour, i. 34, 35. 4to, Lond. 1819. 2 Ibid., p. 458. ^ Mus. Nan., 73-75 ; Passeri, lez. 2, p. 35; Paccandi, torn. ii. p. 170; Musto- xidi, * Corcyra,' p. 207. K ISO GREEK POTTERY. Part 11. these discs, of fine yellow clay, has in a lahel FHMIH, Heraio, probably the commencement of a name. Another (found at Tarsus) had incised upon it, before the clay had been baked, the name of " ApoUos," in letters of the first century a.d.^ Their use is unknown, but may have been similar to that of the cones. Similar discs were also discovered by Sir C. Fellowes in Lycia. Some convex discs stamped with a small head in relief were found at Halicarnassus. They were perforated in one place, and supposed to have been used as weights to hold the threads of the loom, similar weights being in use at the present day amongst the Grreeks. Certain glands of terra-cotta, in shape of an olive and size of a hen's-egg, have been found at Neti or Noto, Panormus, Catania, in the plains of Assoro in Sicily. They are supposed to have been used for the ballots of the tribes, as they are inscribed the first tribe, the second tribe, the third tribe, and bear the names Phintias, Philias, Tyndaris, Philoumenos son of x\rcesilaus, and others. They have been conjectured to be tesserae like the bronze tickets of the judges of the Heliastic tribunal at Athens, or employed for voting.^ Several children's dolls of terra-cotta have been found in the sepulchres of Athens.^ They are cast in a mould ; the bodies, legs, and arms are formed of separate pieces pierced with a hole, so that they might be connected and moved with a string, Ijke the modern mario- nettes or puppets. Hence their name, neuro- sjpasta. All of them represent females, many of them a dancer holding the Jcrotala or castanets in the hands. One variety has the upper part of the figure only placed as a flat semi-elliptical base, upon which it rose and fell as pulled with the cord ; they are coloured like the other terra- cottas. These dolls or puppets are mentioned in the Greek writers. Xenophon, in his * Symposium,' or Ban- No. 104— Terra-cofta Doll. From Athens. ^ Barker, ' Lares and Penates,' 8vo, Lend. 1853, p. 202. ^ Ale.'si, ' Lettere sullc Ghiande di Piombo.' 8vo, Palermo, 1815. Bockh, Corp. Inscr. Grsec. iii. 589; Mommsen, Zeitsch. fiir Alterth. 1846, n. 98, s. 784-9. 2 Dodwell, Tour, i. 439. The one he mentions as belonging to Mr. Millingen is now in the British Museum. r^ LAMPS. 131 quel, introduces Socrates inquiring of an exhibitor of these puppets, what he cliiefly relies upon in the world.^ "It is," he replies, "a great number of fools; for such are those who tipport me by the pleasure they take in my performances." Ah ! " remarks one of the guests, " I heard you the other day paying that wherever you went there might be abundance of read and wine, and a plentiful lack of good sense." Aristotle so^ mentions certain dolls as moving their limbs and winking their eyes ; but this can hardly refer to terra-cotta figures. Lucian also describes terra-cotta dolls, Jcorai or nym^Jiai,^ painted red and blue. 1^^ According to Clemens of Alexandria,* the invention of lamps ^%as ascribed to the Egyptians ; and Herodotus mentions not only tlie feast of lamps at Sa'is,^ but also the lamp which burnt beside the cow-shaped sarcophagus of Mycerinus, in the same city, but no terra or other lamp has been found in ancient Egypt.^ In Greece lamps were in use in the time of the latter lUthor;' and when Aristophanes flourished, they were the mmon indoor light. According to Axionicus, a writer of the iddle Comedy, they were made of earth.^ The wick was Jled thryallis, ellychnion, and pJilomos ;^ the holes for the icks, myhteres}^ Lamps of the usual circular shape, with one nozzle and a all handle, have been found at Athens, Tarsus, and in other parts of Greece and Asia Minor. They are of the age of the Koman Empire, probably of the first and second century of our era, and exactly resemble those found at Kome. On one is the bas-relief of a Bacchante killing a kid, a copy of the work of Scopas.-^^ A lamp of an entirely different kind, representing a boy reclining on a couch, resembles the terra-cotta figures, and is coloured. It has the nozzle at the foot of the couch, and is a iHruly elegant design. These lamps are made of a fine clay, ^rhich has been moulded and baked. Their technical pecu- liarities will be more fully described when we come to treat of the Roman lamps. ' C. iv. 8. 55. ! * II. c. 62. 2 De Mmido, s. 6. Dodwell, Tour, i. ° II. c. 130. 440, " He describes evening by the term ^ Lexiph., s. 22 ; Miiller, Arch., s. 305, TrepI Xvxvwv acpas, lib. vii. c. 215. 4, p. 408, who cites sucli dolls in the ^ Pollux, x. 122. Museimi of Naples. Cf. Sibyllin. iii. " Ibid., 115. '<» Ibid, p. 449, Gull. * " Stackelberg, Die Grabor, Taf. Iii. * Strom., i. 16, p. 362, P. K '2 132 GREEK POTTERY. Tart 1 1 . The Greek lamps are distinguislied from the Koman by their superior fineness, smaller size, paler clay, and more delicate art ; but above all, by their inscriptions. They assume a great variety of shapes. A lamp found at Pozzuoli, near the ancient Baise, and now in the British Museum, is formed like two human feet in sandals. Another lamp, engraved by Passeri, has the head of a bull in harness, and the inscription AP(8)EM(IAI) lEPOC, "sacred to Diana," indicating that it probably belonged to some temple of that goddess.^ A most remarkable lamp also from Pozzuoli, and which from the Durand collection passed into that of Mr. Hope, is 20 inches loug, and fashioned in the shape of a boat or a trireme. All the numerous subjects with which it is ornamented refer to the pseudo-Egyptian religion, which prevailed so extensively in the Koman empire from the age of Tiberius to that of the Antonines, and which at times became the heresy of the court. On it is inscribed^ "a pro- sperous voyage," expressing either the name of the vessel, or a prayer on behalf of the person who presented it as a votive offering. At the bottom is the following inscription in large characters:^ '* Accept me, who am Helioserapis," or the Sun and Serapis.'^ As all these Greek lamps are of the period of the Koman dominion, they have inscriptions of the same nature as those found at the bottom of Koman lamps, consisting either of the name of a potter in the genitive case, or occasionally the names of emperors, as Gains, Caius, Diocletian ; or their titles, as Germanicus, Pius, Augustus. The design of these inscriptions is, however, by no means clear; and >ve cannot determine whether they signify that the clay of which the lamps were made was taken from an imperial estate, or mark the date or occasion of their manufacture ; or that they were fabricated by imperial freedmen ; or in potteries erected by certain emperors on their own domains ; or, lastly, that they were intended for the use of the imperial household or of the public offices. Greek lamps are found in great abundance in the vicinity of ancient Greek cities. Several hundred were discovered in the excavations made by Mr. Barker at Tarsus, and by Mr. Newton at Calymna. He also found in his excavations at Cnidus about 600 lamps of plain terra-cotta of the coarsest style of art, the 1 Passeri, i. tav. xcviii., who, how- ever, states that the lamp is of Roman paste. 2 EVnAOIA. 2 AABE ME TON HAIOCEPAniN. * Cat. Dur., 1777. Hi. LA MI'S. 133 produce of one furnace.^ The subjects were almost all animals and uninteresting. Besides these, he found at the same locality an immense number of lamps of black or bluish-black ware, with very thin walls, and ornaments and emblems in relief at the sides.^ Some had as many as twelve wicks ; and all were apparently prior to the Eoman era. The bed of lamps extended for 30 yards. At Himera a lamp bore the name of the maker, " Apollophanes the Tyrian," and is of the age of the Antonines. One found at Termini was sealed ; others bore ordinary repre- sentations. ' Bald. Eomano, Antich. ined. di vario genere trovate in Sicilia, fol., Pa- lerm., 1855. tav. 6, fig. 2, 20, p. 14. 2 Id., tav. G. 15, p. 15. 13i GREEK POTTERY. Part II. CHAPTER II. Greek vases — Casks — Various kinds of vases — Ampliorse — Stamps — Names of magistrates — Emblems — Cnidian ami^horse — Stamps — Thasian ampliorse — Panticapseau amphorae discovered at Olbia — Bosphoran — Heraclean — Teuthraniau — Sinopean — Curinthian — Miscellaneous — Sepulchral vases. The principal vases of terra-cotta manufactured by the Greeks were large tubs or casks, called jpithoi, calculated to hold enormous quantities of wine or food ; amphoreis, or vases of a smaller size, yet sufficiently large to hold several gallons ; phialai, or saucers ; jpinaJces, or plates ; chytroi, or pots ; oinochoai, or jugs ; together with numerous small vases used for common domestic purposes, and others which appear to have been appropriated solely to funeral ceremonies. Fithoi, or casks, of gigantic size are found in Italy ; and although no perfect ones have been discovered in Greece, yet fragments of them prove that they v/ere also used in that country. They are shaped like enormous caldrons, with globular bodies, and wide gaping mouths. When full the mouth was covered with a large circular stone, called hithon. It must have been into such a cask that Glaucus, the son of Minos, fell, and Eurystheus retired in fear; and in such must the Centaurs, according to mythical tradition, have kept their stock of wine. They were sufficiently capacious to hold a^man, and were in fact the ancient hogsheads or pipes. They are perhaps best known from tiie circumstance of the eccentric Diogenes having con- verted one of them into his domicile, who is represented in some works of ancient art stretching his body out of a pithos at the moment of his celebrated interview with Alexander.^ They were used to hold honey, wine, and figs. It required great skill to make such vases ; hence the Greek proverb charac- terized an ambitious but inexperienced man as "one who began with a cask." ^ They were made by a peculiar process, which is described ^ as plastering the clay round a certain framework of wood, the pithos being too large to be turned on the lathe. ^ On a bas-relief of the Villa Albani, Winckelmann, Mon. In., No. 352. Frag- ment of a lamp in the British Museum. ^ Hesychius, v. iv iriO^. ^ Geoponica, vi. 3, p. 4. Violetiim a Walz, p. 231. Arsenius, ^Chap. II. AMFHORiE. ,135 I ^m In the recent excavations of Mr. J. Brunton, at the site of ^Kold Dardaiius, in tlie Troad, were discovered several ]pWioi of ^Ppale red clay, with thick massive bodies and the stone cover. In an excavation made between Balaclava and Sebastopol, by Colonel Monroe, that officer dis- covered sixteen jpithoi, 4 feet 4 inches high, and 2 feet 2 inches in diameter, inside a circular building, apparently a kind of store-house. These pithoi were of pale red ware, like the lioman opus doliare. They had no makers' names, but one had in- , ,, T A A TT-r-rxTT No. 105.— Pithos of Diogenes. Frum a Lump. cised on the lip AATinill, ap- parently its price. Various objects were found inside of them, and among others several terra-cotta cones. Similar pithoi have been found in i^thens. Some of the fractured ones had been joined with leaden rivets. The pithoi of oblong form were preferred. Anatolius recommends them to be made of a smaller size. The principal terra-cotta vase, however, is the amphora, which was used for a variety of domestic and commercial purposes. So numerous are the vases of this shape, found all over the ancient world, that they require a separate description. They were principally used for wine, but also for figs, honey, salt, and other substances. The amphora is distinguished by its long egg-shaped body, pointed base, and cylindrical neck, from which two handles descend to the shoulder. The base has sometimes a ring of terra-cotta round it. When complete it had a conical cover terminating in a boss with which tlie mouth was sealed. Remains of amphoraj have been discovered not only in Greece itself, but also wherever the Greek commerce and settlements extended ; as in Athens, Sicily, Corcyra, Alexandria, Rhodes, Kertcli or Panticapteum, and Xanthus.^ They appear to have been used at a very early period ; and some found at Castrades in Corfu, near the tomb of Menecrates, were probably employed for exporting wine to Hadria. The long shape probably came into fashion about B.C. 300, when an ' Bockh, Coj}). Inscr. Grajc. iii. i^p. 50t)-(.O7, 136 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. active commerce was carried on in the Mediterranean by the island of Khodes, then a great commercial entrepot. Amphorae of this form are represented on the Athenian silver tetra- drachms, which are known to have been struck after the reign of Alexander the Great. On these coins the amphora is repre- sented lying horizontally, with an owl perched upon it. This type, which is also found on coins of Gortyna and Thasos, alludes to the large Attic trade in oil, which was exported in these vases. The Rhodian amphorse found at Alexandria were of a clay so pure and tenacious that its fracture is perhaps sharper than that of delf. The colour is extremely pale, and deepening to a lively salmon hue, perfectly exempt from cinereous discoloration. The numerous handles found there have all belonged to amphorse with long lateral handles such as are figured on the coins of Chios, and of Athens, symbols perhaps of their staple trade in wine and oil. A vase of the kind, entire, but without any stamp, was brought home by the soldiers employed on some excavations. Its height was 3 feet 4 inches. The perpendicular portions of the handles rise 10 inches from the body of the vessel ; and the ears or horizontal shoulders unite them to the mouth at a distance of about 3 inches. These handles were solid, and upon their upper surface had been im- pressed the seal, generally an ob- long label, IJ inch or 1 j inch long, and f inch hi^h. Sometimes, how- ever, these labels are of a circular or an oval form. The radiated head of Apollo Helios, on the vase, was placed in the centre with the legend around.^ At Alexandria eight well-defined varieties of handles broken from amphorse of different countries were found. With one exception, they were uninscribed. Their general shape is depicted in the accom- panying cut, taken from a perfect one found at Alexandria. The base of the amphora was either a solid pointed cone, by No, 106.— Stamped Handle of Amphoia. 1 Stoddart in the Trans. Eoy. Soc. Lit., N. S., iii. 7, 8. Chap. II. AMPHORiE. 137 which it was fixed and held upright in the sand floors of cellars ; or a spiked foot ; or a collared foot, produced by twisting a clay collar round it, to aid in steadying the vase; or else the annular foot, terminating in a ring of clay. The most interesting things connected with these vases are the labels or seals with which they were stamped. They are either circular medallions or oblong depressions. Those on the Ehodian specimens have either the head of Apollo Helios, the famous Colossus, represented in full face, or else a full-blown rose ; an emblem which also appears on the coins of the city, so long as it continued to be a free state. The stamp with which they were impressed seems to have been made of a hard stone, as the impressions are too sharp to have been produced by a wood block, and not sufficiently rigid for a metal stamp. The annexed example of a circular label will serve to illustrate those seals having a radiated head of Apollo. The letters lAXONOS "of Jason," the name of the magistrate, are disposed round the head, between the rays of the crown. Sometimes the name of the month v/as added after that of a magistrate ; and the latter was often preceded by the preposition EIII, signifying "under" or " during the rule of." The annexed cut repre- sents one of the rose stamps, with the legend, " Under Xeno- phon, in the month Sminthius." The names of the magistrates are those of the eponymous priests of the 8un, by whose priesthoods the current year was dated. The months belong to the Doric calendar, namely : Thesmophorios, Diosthyos, Agrianios, Pedageitnios,Badromios, Artamitios, Theudaisios, Dalios, Hyakinthios, Sminthios, Karneios, Panamos, and the second Panamos, an intercalary month. The object of the stamps is involved in obscurity. It is clear that they could not have been intended to attest the age of the wine, as the vessel might be used for any sort, and the stamps bear the name of every month in the year. It is supposed that they were intended to certify that the amphora, which was also a measure, held the proper quantity. A long list of the names of magistrates has been found upon handles undoubtedly Ehodian, as the stamps either bore the emblems of the citv, or the names of the Doric months. Some No. 107.— Rhodian Stamp. Head of Apollo Helios. No. 108.— Rhodian Stami), Rose. 138 GKEEK POTTERY. Part II. of these names, such as -ZEnetor, Hephaestion, Demetrius, Zeno, and Antipater, appear on the coins of Rhodes, whilst others are celebrated in Bhodian history. Daniophilus, Menedemus, and Amyntas are probably the admirals who in B.C. 304 commanded the fleets despatched against Demetrius Poliorcetes. Xeno- phantus may have been the naval commander who blockaded the Hellespont in the war against Byzantium, B.C. 220. The name of Peisistratus was that of a general in the second Mace- donian war, B.C. 197, who afterwards, B.C. 191, commanded a fleet against Antiochus. Timagoras was a naval commander who assisted the Eomans in their war with Perseus. Polyaratus was one of the Macedonian party at Rhodes during the time of the Macedonian war. In like manner, many moi-e of these names might be identified with those of celebrated leaders, orators, and historical and philosophical writers ; but it must always be recollected that, though the similarity is striking, the inference of identity is very far from being conclusive, since many individuals of the same state bore the same names, as is soon discovered by the examination of inscriptions.^ Besides those with circular medallions, many of the handles of Rhodian amphorae are stamped witli an oblong cartouche or label, from 1^ inches to If inches in length, and fths of an inch wide. These may be divided into two classes : — Those inscribed with the name of a magistrate and an emblem. This class resembles the small signs, called adjuncts, found on the coins of various Greek cities ; but it is uncertain whether tbey were selected on any fixed principle, or merely adopted from caprice. They may, perhaps, allude to ;the deity whom the magistrate particularly honoured — as the patron god of his village or tribe. The same symbol was often used by many individuals, and on the whole the number discovered is not large. Among them are found stars, a radiated head of Apollo, the caps of the Dioscuri, a head of Medusa, a rat, a dolphin twined round an anchor, fish, a bunch of grapes and caducous, a flowered cross, an acrostolium or prow of a ship, an anchor, cornucopise, garland, torch and garland, double rhyton, bipennis and parazonium. A second class of seals consists of those bearing the name of a magistrate, accompanied with that of a month of the Doric calendar, without any emblem. But though these are also apparently Rhodian, they are probably of a * Stoddart, Trans. Boy. Soc. Lit., N. 8. iii. p. '61 and foil. ClIAl'. II. CNIDIAN AMPHORiE. 139 different age from the circular stamps before described. The names of the magistrates are in the Doric genitive, and their dates appear to range from the foundation of Alexandria, B.C. 332, down to the reign of Vespasian. Many handles of amphorae from Cnidus, or " Cnidian casks," as they were called, have been found on different sites. Their clay is coarser than the Rhodian, its colour darker and duller, breaking with a rugged fracture, displaying particles of a black micaceous sand, the heart frequently having the livid hue of ashes pro;lueed in the kiln. Their dimensions were IJ inches to 2 inches wide, | inch thick. On the top of the ear was the cartouche or label, generally of a rectangular form, and 1^ inches long, by ^ inch wide ; but some are either circular, or oval, or shaped like an ivy-leaf.^ These amphorae differ in form from those of Rhodes, and are not of so early a date, most of them being as late as the Roman empire. The handle of one of these amphorae, externally of a greenish hue, exhibited a rough fracture, of a reddish tint at the edge and of a lighter shade in the centre. The stamps on the Cnidian amphorae, like those of Rhodes, are inscribed with the name of the eponymous magistrate, who appears to have been a demiourgos ; and also with that of the wine-grower, or exporter of the produce, which is always marked as Cnidian, and was probably either wine or vinegar. The annexed cuts represent the various stamps used on these IjJIjpwiiBift'milii' - — .No. 109. —Cnidian Lozenge-shaped I^bel. No. 110.— Cnidian Square Label. amphorae. The names are accompanied with devices ; but it is not quite certain whether these refer to the magistrate or to the exporter. Among them are a caduceus, a club, the prow of a galley, a sceptre, a bucranium or bull's head, grapes, diotee, a ' Stoddart, Trans. Roy. Soc. Lit., N. S., iii. 59; Bockli, Corp. Inscr. GrsettL, iv. 140 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. trident, lance-head, star, anchor, barley-corn,^ and diotae, with the head and neck of a lion. Remains of Cuidian amphorae have been found in Sicily, at Athens, Olbia, and Alexandria. Judging from the palaeography of the inscriptions, they may have been in use from the age of Augustus to that of Marcus Aurelius, or even of Severus. It will be perceived that only two of the magistrates are qualified with the title of demiourgos. Notwithstanding the celebrity of the Thasian wine, only three specimens of the amphorae in which it was exported have been discovered — one at Athens, and two at Olbia. The edges of the handles are rounder than those of the Ehodian amphorae. The paste is not so coarse and gritty as that of the pottery of Cnidus. The inscriptions on them are : " Of the Thasians — Phaedon, Arcton, Aristomedes, and Satyris." Their emblems are a cornucopiae, dolphin, and Hercules shooting the Stympha- lian birds. Their age is supposed to be about B.C. 196. Across the necks ^ of two amphorae found in sepulchres at Pan- ! i I EYAPXO ! ticapaeum were the inscriptions j apiSTON i ^^^^ ^®' " Ariston during the magistracy of Euarchus;" and I eohAMONO^ under the magistracy of Callias son of "Eupamon."^ These vases were not imported, but made upon the spot. At Olbia were also found several handles of amphorae, with the names of ediles of cities, and of other persons, either the growers of the wine, or magistrates of secondary rank. The names of the aediles are, Polystratus, Epicurus, Callistratus, Histaeius, Hieronymus, son of Hieronymus, and grandson of ApoUonidas, Hermes, Poseidonius, Istron, son of Apollonidas, Theagenes, son of Nicander, Aristocles, son of Mantitheus, and some others. Another series of names, perhaps of eponymous magistrates, are Histiaeus, Apollodorus, and Meniscus.* There was no mark except in one instance, and that apparently of Sinope, whence the amphorae came. The emblems upon them » Stoddart, Trans. Eoy. Soc. Lit., iv. | 2121, 2109 d. 24, foil.; iii. 63, and foil. I * Bekker, 'Melanges Greco-Romains,' 2 Ibid. N. S., iv. p. 1. \ i. pp. 503, 504, 519. 3 Bpekh, Corp. Inscr. Grsec, Nos. ! Chap. II. OLBIA. 141 Avere vaiious, comprising leaves, an eagle, a head of Hercules, diota, and bunch of grapes. Various handles, inscribed with the names of an edile, and another person, supposed to be a magistrate, have been found in the Crimea, principally at Olbia, one or two having been found at Kertch. The paste of these handles, according to the researches of Professor Hasshagen, of the Richelieu Lyceum, differed from that of the amphorre of Rhodes, Cnidus, and Thasos, by its want of uniformity ; it contained a mixture of a coarse sand and fragments of quartz. Its grain was not so fine, nor had it the dark colour of the amphorae of those states. Its colour, both outside and when broken, was bright yellow or greyish, and it had not been subjected to a high temperature in the kiln. All these conditions correspond to the clay found in the neighbourhood of Olbia, and the lack of fuel on that spot, where some have supposed the vases stamped with the names of ediles were made. As the same formula appears on the tiles found in situ, this affords another presumption that the amphorae may have been made at Olbia. The inscriptions are impressed from a square stamp or label, and have the form of the magistrate's name at the commencement, as, when Histiaeus son of jMithradates was edile ; or else the official title is placed at end, as in the ex- A5TYNOMOY E2TIAIOY M1[0]PAAATOY ample, iCTPONOCTOYAnOAAO NIAAA^TYNOMOYNTOG Histron son of Apollonidas being edile ; ^ or even in the middle, as Borys, \ t.^pvo-s; son of Hecataeus, being edile. These stamps a^TYNOMOY contained, like those on the handles of the | eKATAIOY Rhodian, and other amphorae, small adjuncts '- or emblems alluding to the magistrates or other persons whose names were impressed. Some of these emblems were a laurelled head of Apollo, bearded head, head to the left, old head to the left, young head to the right, head full-face. Victory, full-face figure standing, dog couchant, a horse prancing or running, eagle preying on a dolphin, swan, snake, sitting bird, spade and grain, ear of corn, laurel branch, twig, trophy, thyrsus, and caducous.^ ' Stoddart, Travis. Koy. Soc. Lit., iv. pp. 50, 51; Koeppen, p. 300; Bi>ckli, Corp. Inscr., No. 2085. ^ stoddart, Trans. Roy. Soc. Lit., iv. 50. 142 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. On some fragment from other cities of the Bosphorns are the inscriptions lA IM apparently with a double date, of the era of the Bosphorus, I A^TYNOMOYNTO^, and with the name of Democrates, an I AHMOKPATOY^ edile. One found near Simpheropol was impressed with the name of Apollas, an sedile, AnOAAA, A5TYNOMO The amphorae of different states had at this period the name of the states and magistrates placed on them. Some of Heraclea have been found at Olbia with the inscription, XABPIA A2TYNOMOY HPAKAEI[TAN] *' Chabrias being edile of the Heracleans." No. 111.- with -Circular Stamp, Bull's Head. ©eopneitoy a:Stynomoy ^iNi2nm(N). Others of Teuthrania on the same site, reading BOPTOS AXTTNOMOT TET@P [ANEHN], have been interpreted "Borys the edile of the Teuthranians ; " but it may be considered doubtful whether the last name my not be either that of the grower of the wine, or of the maker of the vase.^ The device was a bull's head. Some of Sinope, also on the same spot ; one with the name of Theognetus, an edile. The device was an eagle.^/ The handles of some Corinthian amphorae are also known with the names of Cephalion, Archytas, G-orgias, Damas, Rumas, Caninius, Visellius, M. Exsonius.^ These handles are described as curved cylinders, about 6 inches in length, and 1 inch in uniform thickness, their clay pale and fine. The names, which are stamped in large inelegant letters, perhaps those of the eponymous duumvirs, who may have ruled the city from B.C. 44, the epoch of its restoration by Julius Caesar, to a.d. 15. This inference is drawn from the name of Caninius, which is found as the praenomen of certain Corinthian duumvirs. They appear, however, to have been rather the names of the freedmen Boekh, Inscr., No. 2085 c. 2 jbij. 2085 c. Stoddart, loo. cit., p. 95. Chap AMPIIOR.E FROM VARIOUS PLACES. 143 or slaves who made the ware, or of the proprietors of the potteries.^ In a liouse excavated under Mr. Falkener's superinteDdence at Pompeii, a Greek inscription of three lines, painted in red and black, A\as found on an amphora with the name of Meno- dotus and the letters " Kor. opt," intended apparently to denote the best wine that may have come from Corinth. Other handles^ of amphora? have been attributed to Polyr- rhenia, Gortyna, Cydonia, Salamis, Chios, Apamsea, Lysimachia, Cyzicus, Icon, and Parium. There are but very slender grounds for assigning them to these places.^ The ancients also appear to have used flower-pots of earthen- M'are, especially in the festival of the Gardens of Adonis cele- brated at Athens, in which flowers were suddenly elevated in earthen pots, and then cast into the sea, apparently as a type of the premature death of Adonis. On this occasion the women also placed these flower-pots on the tops of the houses. In the same festival, which was chiefly celebrated by the hetairai, a red- coloured figure called Jwrallion, of terra-cotta, was also intro- duced.^ Pots of the same material were also used by the ancients for tender plants ; for Theophrastus, speaking of the southern-wood, observes that it is raised with difficulty, and propagated by slips in pots. The use of flower-pots placed at the windows to form an artificial garden^ was also known. It ^ See the inscriptions in Appendix j Franz in Bockh's Corp. Inscr. Grsec, No. VI. j iii. prsefatio, p. 1. Ouvaroflf, Drevnosti, 2 One handle inscribed OiqAH, Pa- j St. Petersburg, X855, I. c. ii. Sabatier, rion, is supposed to belong to Paros: ; Souvenirs de Kertch, St. Petersburg, Bekker, loc. cit., p. 480. | 1849. Ashik, Vosporskoe Tsarstvo, ' The nader must consult for a \ Odessa, 1848, ii. Jenaische Literatur- complete account of all these handles, zeitung, 1842, No. 180. Stoddart, in Stephani Titulorum Grajcorum, part ii. i Trans. Roy. Soc. Lit., vol. iii. N. S. 8vo, p. 3-5, in the 'Index ScLolarum in uni- ' Lond. 1850, p. 1-183; vol. iv. 8vo, Lond. versitate litteraria Csesarea Dorpatensi 1853, p. 1-68. Bekker, Dr. Paul, in the per seme&tre alterum 1848, habenda- | ' Melanges Gre'co-Komains, tire's du Bul- rum.' Thiersch, in Abhandlung. der j letin Historio-Philologique de I'Acade'- philos. pliihd. Classe der Kais. Bayer. \ mie Impe'riale des Sciences,' 8vo, St. Akadem. der Wissenschaft, 1837, Bd. ' Petersbourg, 1854, s. 416-521. ii. p. 779, and following. Franz, De * Eustath. in Horn. Od., xi. 590, pp. Inscr. Diotar. in Sicil. rcpert., Philolog. 1701-45. 1851, Jahrgang vi.. Heft 2, p. 278 and ' Raoul Pochette, Eev. Arche'ol. 1851 , foil. Osann, Ueber die rait Aufschrift p. 112 ; Alciphron, i. 39. Timseus a versehene Henkel griechischen Thon- | Ruhnken, v. KopoirXddoi. gefasse, in den Jahrbiichern fih- Philol. ® Hist. Plant, vi. 7, 6 ; Kabul Ro- u. Padagog., Supp. xviii. p. 520 and foil, chette, loc. cit. p. 114. Bwkh, Corp. Insor. Grjcc, No. 5376. 144 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. appears that the vases used in the festival of Adonis ^ were big- bellied, probably like those which were given as prizes in the games.^ On the second day of the Anthesteria there were the agones chutrinoi, when vases of corn were dedicated to the Infernal Hermes.^ There is a vase in the British Museum which was certainly designed for sepulchral purposes. The clay is pale, but the entire vase is covered with a coating of stucco. A myrtle wreath is traced on it in green. The shape of the vase is that of the lecane, and round it were placed the fore-parts of three chimseras, gilded. It contained human bones, with which were mingled a few terra-cotta ornaments ; one representing a winged Eros, small in size, but of a good style of art. Amongst the bones was the jaw, with the obolos, or small silver coin, which had been placed there to enable the soul to pay Charon his fare for crossing the Styx. The covering of lime shows that this vase was used for funereal purposes. Another vase was found in the catacombs at Alexandria, of the shape of a hydria, in pale clay, on which also a myrtle wreath was painted. This, when discovered, was filled with bones, for which it was evidently intended as a receptacle. Vases in use during life w^ere also used for the purpose of receiving the ashes of the dead. There is also a class of vases, discovered of late years at Calvi, Capua, and Cumse, which seem to have been made for decorative or sepulchral purposes, as they are not at all adapted for domestic use. They are of pale red, fine and fragile terra- cotta, and painted, like the figures, with colours in tempera. The prevalent form is the aslcos or wine-skin, surmounted by various figures, attached to it or standing on it, or by bas-reliefs which have their flat reverses applied to the body, or by very salient reliefs projecting from it, as proJcrossoi, These affixed portions were made or moulded separately, attached to the*body of the vase while the clay was wet, and the whole was then baked. The subjects are often marine ; on one is the head of the Medusa in front, two Tritons at the sides,* and four Nereids 1 Bekker, Gallus, i. p. 291. Ea«ul Kochette, loc. cit. p. 118, adds to Bekker's citations, Martial, xi. 18 ; Plin., xix. 9, 1. 2 Hermias in Platon. Plised. Schol, Bast. Epist. Grit., p. 193. The words are yaarpia and ydarpa. 3 Schol. Aristoph. Ran. 1. 219. * Miuervini, Monumenti anticlii in- editi di R. Barone, 4 to, Napoli, 1852, taw. xiii-xiv. p. 65. Chap. II. SEPULCHUAL VASES. 145 standing on the body of the vase, as if borne by tlie Tritons. Others have Scylla, winged figures like the Eros of the vases of Southern Italy, Heos or Aurora Avith her winged steeds, Dolon surprised by Ulysses and Diomedes. Similar to these askoi are certain large ornamental vases, modelled in the shape of female heads of Bacchantes,^ or Pallas Athene. The hair is bound with ivy-leaves, or with radiated crowns, and surmounted by small female heads rising from the sides of the large one ; whilst on the apex stands a figure of Nike, or Victory. The one represented is intended to represent the head of Pallas Athene in a helmet, the figure of Nike representing the crest, and the small heads the side feathers. Others are sJcy^hoi, in the shape of large heads with two handles. Of a similar style and period are certain rhjta, modelled in the shape of animals' heads, or with long reeded bodies, and medallions, art/halloi, with flat bodies having in bas- relief figures of Scylla ; and large pyxides or boxes, on which are representations of Scylla, and the loves of Aphrodite and Adonis. Of a like style are certain vases found at Agrigentum, apparently models of Jcanee or canisters, having tall conical covers, with a frieze of projecting lions' heads placed under an ovolo beading, and, round the body, model stems, amidst which are dispersed little Erotes, or Cupids, and heads of the Medusa gilded on a crimson ground. These are evidently imitated from works in metal. Other vases of this class are in the shape of hrateres^ having round the outside small gilt figures and rosettes, laid on as emblemata and gilded. There are also oinochoai, or jugs, with handles in the shape of youths, and affixes modelled to represent gryphons and other ornaments ; and vases of the class called hernos, consisting of four cups united together on a fantastic fluted stand, with emblems of the head of the Medusa, Erotes or Cupids, panthers, and foliage. These vases are pro- bably of the Macedonian period, when cups and other vases were made in metal. In B.C. 330 the precious metals super- seded the formerly esteemed works in terra-cotta, and the potter then endeavoured to imitate the new taste and fashion by re- producing in his plastic material humble imitations of the metallic work in high relief. Sometimes indeed, as on an amphora from Cuma3, in the Campana collection, he stamped » Mon. V. liii. liv., Ann. 1853, pp. 266-272. ^ Campana, ' Opcre in Plastica,' tav. liv. 146 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. a subject from a mould round the body of tbe vase ; but he generally preferred to produce the required effect by detached pieces. Many of these generally pass for figures or groups/ and some of them are exquisite. Amongst them are numerous small medallion heads of Medusa in relief, which are usually gilded. Vases of various shapes have been found in the sepulchres of Greece, such as the oinochoe, or jug ; the ashos, or wine-skin ; the jphiale om^halote, or saucer having a boss in the centre ; rliyia, or jugs, imitated from the heras, or horn, as well as some moulded in the shape of the human bust. Vases of this class, however, occur more frequently in Italy than in Greece.^ Some are of remarkable shape. One in the Durand collection has its interior reeded, and in the centre a medallion of the Gorgon's head ; at the edge is the head of a dog or fox, and to it is attached a long handle terminating in the head of an animal. Similar handles are often found. Another vase from Sicily, also in the same collection, with a conical cover, is ornamented externally with moulded subjects of wreaths, heads of Medusa, painted and gilded. Some of these terra-cot ta vases are very early, and those discovered in the earliest tombs of Cyprus of a pale red clay had spiral and circular ornaments incised upon them like the Etruscan. For the common usages of life unglazed terra-cotta was employed along with bronze.^ A cylindrical vase of red terra-cotta, found at Athens in 1867, was inscribed demosion, "public" measure; it had the impression from a gem of an owl and olive-branch, the official seal of Athens, and was supposed to be the choinix or meter, its con- tents measuring 9 decilitres 6 millilitres, or about 182 pints.* Many of the vases intended for ornamental purposes are covered with a white coating, and painted with colours of the same kind as those used on the figures before described, but with few and simple ornaments, plain bands, mseanders, chequered bands and wreaths. A vase found at Melos affords a curious example. It consists of a number of small vases united together and arranged in a double circle round a central stand. This kind of vase is supposed to be the Tcernos, used in the mystic ceremonies to hold small quantities of viands. By some persons. 1 Bull. Arch. Nap. v. tav. 3. ^ j^i^^ ^852. Tav. 1, 2. ^ ./Esopus, Fab. cccxix. Tauchnitz, 12mo, Lips. 1829. * M. Egger in the Rev. Arch. 1867, p. 292. Chap. II. SEPULCHRAL VASES. 147 however, it is thought to have been intended for eggs or flowers. It is covered with a white coating of clay, and the zigzag stripes are of a maroon colour. Such vases might have been used for flower-pots, and have formed small temporary gardens like those of Adonis, or have been em- ployed as lamps. There was also a large vase composed of several small ones bound together for holding spices for the table called adusmatothehe or huminodokos box for cumin seed.^ Although the oculists who vended the *' Lycian " eye ointment or col- lyrium often sold it in little vases of lead about the size of toys, occasionally they used terra- cotta" bottles with a very small orifice made by the nail. One about 2 inches high having the inscription of '* the Lycian ointment of Jason," was found at Tarentum ; another has the name of Nicias. These are of about the first century a.d., and the stamps of oculists have been found in the Koman potteries for stamping medicine bottles. The ancient vendor of quack or patent medicines knew how to make a bottle contain the least possible quantity. It was an old notion.^ No 112.— Painted Kern «, consisting of a group of little vases. ' Pollux, X. 13. I une Inscr. Grecque, 4to, Paris, 1816 ,* " Miller's ' Vase trouve a Tarente,' Le Narrateur de la Meuse, Fev. 1808 ; 8vo, Paris, 1814 ; Tochond* Annecy sur | Castelli, CI. xvi. p. 2i8, n. 2. L 2 148 GllEEK POTTEKY. Part II. CHAPTEK III. Glazed vases — Number of extant vases — Places of discovery — Tombs — Lite- rary history — Present condition — Frauds of dealers — Earliest mention of Greek vases — Ancient repairs — Age — Criteria — Classification of D'Hancar- ville — of the Due de Luynes — Pastes — Clays — Sites — The potter's wheel — Modelling — Moulding — Moulded rhyta, phialai, &c. — Painting — Tools — Colours — Glaze — Furnaces. The ware we are novv to describe resembles terra-cotta in its general characteristics, the body of the paste being composed of a similar substance, but deeper in tone, and tender in its tex- ture. The latter, however, varies ; being sometimes so hard as scarcely to admit of being cut with a knife ; at others, so soft as to be readily scratched with a finger-nail. These vases show the highest point of perfection which the ancient potteries at- tained. They were applied only to purposes of luxury and decoration, and used with great care and tenderness, as being little suited for domestic purposes. They stood in the same relation to the other products of the ancient potteries as the fayences of the middle ages, and the porcelains of the present day do to vessels of terra-cotta, stoneware, or tender porcelain. The Greek are the most important for their beauty and for their art. Their true designation is lustrous or glazed vases, and they have been placed by Brongniart in the second class of pottery. They are painted with various colours, chiefly black, : brown, yellow, and red, and protected by a fine thin, alkaline glaze, which is transparent, and enhances the colours like the varnish of a picture. They are very porous, allowing water to ooze through, like the hydrokerami ; and their paste is remarkably fine and light, giving forth a dull metallic sound when struck. The number of these vases deposited in the great public museums of Europe is very large, and from calculations derived from catalogues or from observations made on the spot, may be stated in round numbers as follows : — The Museo Borbonico, at Naples, contains about 2100; the Gregorian Museum in the Vatican, about 1000 ; Florence has about 700 ; and at Turin there are 500. On this side of the Alps, the Imperial Museum at Vienna possesses about 300 ; Berlin has 1690 ; Munich about 1700; Dresden, 200; Carlsrahe, 200; the Louvre, at Paris, OllAl>. III. NUMBER OF VASES. 149 about 1500 ; while 500 more may be found in the Bibliotheque Nationale. The British Museum has about 5000 vases of all kinds. Besides the public collections, several choice and valu- able specimens of ancient art belong to individuals. In addition to these, several thousand more vases are in the hands of the principal dealers. The total number of vases in public and private collections probably amor.nts to 20,000 ^ of all kinds. All these were discovered in the sepulchres of the ancients, but the circumstances under which they were found differ according to locality. In Greece, the graves are generally small, being designed for single corpses, which accounts for the comparatively small size of the vases discovered in that country. At Athens, the earlier graves are sunk deepest in the soil, and those at Corinth, especially such as contain the early Corinthian vases, are found by boring to a depth of several feet beneath the surface. The early tombs of Civil a Vecchia and Caere, or Cervetri, in Italy, are tunnelled in the earth ; and those at Vulci and in the Etruscan territory, from which the finest and largest vases have been extracted, are chambers hewn in the rocks. In Southern Italy, especially in Campania, they are large chambers, about 5 J palms under the surface. The accompanying woodcuts will convey an idea of the No. 1 13.— I'omb at Vcii, coutaiuing vases. manner in which the vases are arranged round the bodies of the dead in the tombs of Veii, Nola, and'CumoB. * Do Witte, Etudes, p. 4, states Lenormant, estimated the whole imiubrr dis- covered to be about 50,000. 150 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. The tomb represented below is constructed of large blocks of stone, arranged in squared masses, called the Etruscan style of wall, in contradistinction to the Cyclopean. The walls are painted with subjects, the body is laid upon the stone floor, and the larger vases, such as the oxyba^ha and Icrateres are placed round it. The jugs are hung upon nails round the walls.^ The sepulchres of Southern and Central Italy were made upon the same plan, and the same description applies to both sites. No. 114. — Tomb of Southern Italy, with vases. The most ordinary sepulchres were constructed of rude stones or tiles, of a dimension sufficient to contain the body and five or six vases ; a small one near the head and others between the legs, and on each side, more often on the right than on the left side. An oinochoe and jphiale were usually found in every sepul- chre, but the number, size, and quality of the vases varied, probably according to the rank or wealth of the person for whom the sepulchre was made. The better sort of sepulchres were of larger size, and constructed with large hewn stones, generally without, but sometimes completed with cement, the walls stuccoed, and some little ornaments of painting on them. In such sepulchres, which were like small chambers, the body was on its back on the floor, with the vases placed round it ; sometimes vases with handles have been found hanging upon nails of iron or bronze, attached to the side walls. An exact ^ D'Hancarville, vol. ii. 57, vignette. Gargiulo, p. 12. Chap. HI. PLACES OF DISCOVERY. 151 representation of sucli a sepulchre, found at Trebbia, not far from Capua, has been publislied ; also another, an ordinary sepulchre, found at Naples. The vases in the laro^er sepulchres, or subterranean rooms, were always more numerous, of a larger size, and of a superior quality in every respect to those of the ordinary sort of sepulchres, which had little to recommend them except tlieir form, which was always rather elegant, however otherwise rude. At Polignano in Puglia, a large sepulchre of the best sort was discovered in the garden of the Archbishop, in which were found more than sixty vases, and some of a large size and very beautiful ; but except one or two, which are exceedingly curious, the subjects painted on them were chiefly Bacchanalian, and not very interesting. These vases were placed in the Museum at Capo di Monte.^ Fibulae, or buckles of silver and bronze, and sometimes the Xo. 115.- Tomb of Southern Italy, with skeleton and vases. heads of spears with the vases, broken swords of iron or bronze, rings of silver, brass, and lead, and military belts, with clasps of bronze, were discovered, as well as even the quilted lining of some of them entire, though inclined to moulder away, as * Hamilton, in Tischbein, p. 26. 152 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. did two eggs that were discovered in a bronze patera in one of these sepulchres. In a sepulchre at Psestum was found the entire skull of a wild boar, mixed with the vases and the human bones. There is no reason to believe that it was the usual custom to bury provisions with the dead. At Terra Nuova, in Sicily, supposed to be the ancient Gela, several sepulchres, with fine vases, similar to those of Nolan manufacture, were discovered, and in one of them the egg of an ostrich was found well preserved.^ An example of the mode of arranging these vases in the tombs of Campania will be seen in the woodcut No. 113, taken from Sir William Hamilton's work on vases. Here the grave assumes the shape of a soros, or sepulchral chest, with a pent-house roof, imitating a pediment, or roof of a small temple. The body is laid on the floor and the vases round it. The later tombs of the Eoman soldiery and of the poorer classes, made of tiles, were of the same shape. Public attention was first directed to these vases by La Chausse,^ who, in his * Museum Komanum,' published in 1690, gave plates of a few examples. Laurent Beger published, in 1701, those of the cabinet of the Elector of Brandenburg.^ Montfaucon, in his * Antiquite Expliquee,' repeated these figures.* Dempster^ subsequently published several vases, with full explanations. Gori, whose attention to these monuments had been attracted by seeing them in the work of Dempster, pub- lished several in his * Museum Etruscum ; ' ^ and Caylus gave engravings of some in his * Recueil.' ' Winckelmann also pub- lished several vases.^ Subsequently, D'Hancarville edited the vases in the collection of Sir William Bamilton.^ The inde- fatigable Passeri published a large number of engravings of vases in various collections.^^ A second collection of Hamilton's, ^ Hamilton, in Tischbein, pref. vol. i. p. 30. 2 Fo. Rom. 1690. Also Grsevius, Thesaurus Antiq. Eoman. xii. 955. Dis- sertatio de vasis, buUis, ai'millis, fibulis, annulis, &c. ' ' Thesauri regiiBrandenburgii volu- men tei'tium, continens supellectilem antiquaviam uberrimam, imagines de- orum, statuas, thoraces, vasa et iustru- menta varia.' Col. March. 1701. Also Supplement, tom. iii. 1757. * * L' Antiquite expliquee et repre- sentee en figui-es,' tome iii. ann. 1719. Partie I'-e, p. 142, pi. Ixxi. * ' Etruria Eegalis,' folio, Flor. 1723. « Folio, Flor. 1735-36 ; also the Mu- seum Guarnaceum, folio, Flor. 1744. ' 1752-1767. * Histoire de I'Art, liv. iii. c. iii. s. 2, p. 34. Gesch. d. K., 4to, Dresd. 1764. Monument! Antichi Inediti ; folio, Eom. 1769, nos. 131, 143, &c. ^ ' Antiquites Etrusques, Greeques et Eomaines, tiroes du cabinet de M. Hamilton ; ' folio, 1766-1767. ^° 'In ThomaB Dempsteri libros de Etruria Eegali Paralipomena ; ' folio, Chap. III. LITERARY HISTORY. 153 supposed to have been lost in the sea, was issued by Tischbein,^ witli an explanation by Italy nsky ; and another was subse- quently given by Bottiger.^ The celebrated Millin also pub- lislied vases in his collection of unedited monuments,^ illustrated with observations ; and another edition appeared under the auspices of Dubois Maisonneuve,* under whose name it generally ])asses. Since that time, the * Vases Grecs,' ^ the * Vases de Cog- hill,' ^ and the * Ancient Unedited Monuments ' of Millingen ' have been published, and have been followed by the handsome work of the * Vases de Lamberg,' ^ by De Laborde ; the * Monumenti,' by Micali;^ the 'Monuments Inedits,' by Kaoul Eochette ; ^° * Elite Ceramographique ' of MM. Lenormant and De Witte ; ^^ and the *Vasi Fittili,'^^ of Inghirami and Stackelberg ; ^^ whilst, in Berlin, the learned and careful publications of Gerhard,^* of which the ' Auserlesene Vasenbilder ' is the most important, have diffused a knowledge of ancient vases. Panof ka published the * Vasi di Premro,' ^^ as well as many vases in his description of the cabinet of M. Pourtales-Gorgier,^^ and the Due de Luynes por- tion of his own collection;^' Gonze 'The Vases of Milo.'^^ In Luccse, 1767. ' Picturse Etruscorura in vasculis nunc primum inunum collec- tiB;' folio, Eom. 1767-1775. ' ' Recueil de gravures d'apres des vases antiques ; ' folio, 1791-1803. Tisclibein's work is entitled ' A Collec- tion of engravings from ancient vases, mostly of pure Greek workmanship, discovered in sepulchres in the king- dom of the Two Sicilies, but chiefly in the neighbourhood of Naples, during the years 1789 and 1790 ; now in the possession of Sir W. Hamilton, H. B. Maj. env. ext. and plenipo. at the court of Naples ; with remarks on each vase by the collector. Published by Mr. W. Tischbein, Director of the R. Acad, of Painting at Naples. 1791.' * • Griechische Vasengemalde, mit arcliaologisehen und artistischen Er- lauterungen der Originalkupfer,' tom. i. 8vo, Weimar; tom. ii. 8vo, Magde- burg, 1797-1800. ^ 'Monumens antiques inedits et nouvellement expliques ;' 4to, Paris, 1802-1806. * Dubois Maisonneuve, ' Peintures dcs vases antiques, vulgairement appele's Etrusques, tire'es de diffe'rentes collec- tions, et gravees par Clener, accom- pagnees d'explications par A. L. Millin, Membre de I'lnstitut et de la Legion d'Honneur ; publiees par M. Dubois Maisonneuve ; ' folio, Paris, 1808-10. * Folio, Eom. 1813. « Folio, Rom. 1817. ' 4to, Loud. 1822. 8 Folio, Paris, 1813-25. » ' Monumenti Inediti,' fo. 1810-44. *« Folio, Paris, 1828. " 4to, Paris, 1838, 1844. " 4to. Fiesole, 1833. " 'Die Graber der Hellenen,' fo. Berl. 1837. " 4to, Berlin, 1840. Besides which his Trinkschalen, 1840. Etr. & Kamp. Vasenbild. fo. 1843. Apulisch. Vasen- bild. fo. 1845. Trinkschalen, fo. 1848- 1850. '* Folio, Fir. 1841. *" Descr. de quelques Vases, fo. Paris 1840. " Antiques du Cab, Pourt.-Gorgier, fo. Paris, 1834. *8 ' Melische Thongefasse,' fo. Leipz. 1862. 154 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. EDgland, the works of Moses ^ and Christie^ are of artistic rather than of archaeological value ; and neither public patronage nor private enterprise has undertaken works equal to those published on the Continent, although so desirable in a country whose pot- tery is a considerable article of export trade. Single vases have indeed been published by learned societies and by societies both here and abroad. Of these, the Archaeological Insti- tute of Kome has done the most for this branch of art and antiquity. These vases, as we have already mentioned, are often ranged round the dead, being hung upon, or placed near the walls, or piled up in the corners. Some hold the ashes of the deceased ; others, small objects used during life. They are seldom perfect, having generally either been crushed into fragments by the weight of the superincumbent earth, or else broken into sherds, and thrown into corners. Some exhibit marks of burning, probably from having accompanied the deceased to the funeral pyre. A few are dug up in a complete state of preservation, and still full of the ashes of the dead. These are sometimes found inside a large and coarser vase of unglazed clay, which forms a case to protect them from the earth. Almost all of those in the museums of Europe have been mended, and the most skilful workmen at Naples and Eome have been employed to restore them to their pristine perfection. Their defective parts have been scraped, filed, rejoined, and supplied with pieces from other vases, or else completed in plaster of Paris, over which coating the restored portions are painted in appropriate colours, and varnished, so as to deceive the inexperienced eye. But either through carelessness, or else owing to the difference of process, the restorations have one glaring technical defect : the inner lines are not of the glossy hue of the ancient glazed ones, and there is no indication of a thick raised line which follows the original outline in the old paintings. Sometimes the restorer has pared away the ancient incrustation, and cut down to the dull-coloured paste of the body of the vase. In some rare instances, a figure has been painted in a light red or orange oil paint on the black ground, or in black paint of the same kind on an orange ground. But in all these frauds, the dull tone of colour, the inferior style of 1 ' Collection of Antique Vases,' 4to, I ^ ' Disquisition on Etruscan Vases,' Lond. 1814. I 8vo, Lond. 180G. Chap. III. IMITATIONS AND FRAUDS. 155 art, i\nd the wide difference between modern and ancient drawing and treatment of snbjects, disclose the deception.^ Tlie calcareous incrustation deposited on the vases by the in- filtration into the tombs of water, containing lime in solution, has been removed by the use of muriatic and nitric acids, or by boilincf the vases in hot water. In other cases, vases with subjects have been counterfeited by taking an ancient vase covered entirely with black glaze, tracing upon it the subject and inscription intended to be fabri- cated, and cutting away all the black portions surrounding these tracings, so as to expose the natural colour of the clay for the fictitious ground. When red figures were intended to be counterfeited, the contrary course was adopted, the part for the figures only being scraped away, and the rest left untouched. Yases, indeed, in which the ground or figures are below the surface should always be regarded with suspicion, and their genuineness can only be determined by the general composition and style of the figures, and by the peculiarities of the inscrip- tions. The latter also are often fictitious, being painted in with colours imitating the true ones, and often incised ; indeed all inscriptions incised after the vase has been baked are of a doubtful character. The difference of style in the composition of groups, and especially the remarkable distinction of drawing, such as the over-careful drawing of details, the indication of nails, and various other minute particulars, are also criteria for detecting false or imitated vases. Water, alcohol, and acids will remove false inscriptions, but leave the true ones intact. Pietro Fundi, who had established manufactories at Venice and Corfu, and the Vasari family at Venice,^ made fictitious vases. Wedgwood also imitated ancient vases, and such imitations are made at Naples for the purpose of modern decoration. The oldest express mention of these vases in Greek authors is made by the poet Alcseus, who flourished from B.C. 610 to 580, and who speaks of painted cups, hyliclmai jpoikilai.^ Pindar, in an ode probably written about B.C. 460, particularly describes the painted Panathenaic amphorae which were given as prizes in the contests of the Panathensean festival. Thus he sings of ^ Gerhard, Berlins AntikeBildwerke, I ' Fragra. ed. Schneid. 33; De Witte, 8. 149. 1 ' Etude sur les vases peints,' 8vo, Paris, - Westropp,H.M./ Epochs of Painted , 1865, p. 5. Vases.' 4to, London, 1856. I 156 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. Thiseus, the son of Ulias, the Argive, who had twice obtained prizes of Panathenaic amphorse in the wrestling matches at Athens: '*Him twice, at distant intervals, in the festivals of Athens, have sweet voices lauded. He brought the fruits of the olive in earth, burnt by fire, to the manly people of Hera, Argos, in the variegated receptacles of vases." ^ Those made use of in the Athenian graves are unequivocally alluded to by Aristophanes.^ Athenseus,^ Strabo,* and Suetonius,^ mention painted vases. The later scholiast of Theocritus/ also mentions the fictile vases, painted all over with various colours, and some think Demosthenes alludes to them.' Great value seems to have been set upon these vases. When broken, they were repaired by the pieces being skilfully fitted and drilled, and a rivet of lead or bronze neatly attached to the sides. Several mended vases exist in the European collections. Occasionally they were repaired by inseiting pieces of other vases. Thus a vase with two handles, found at Vulci, of the shape called stamnos, is repaired with a part of a hylix repre- senting quite a diiferent subject, and thus presents a discordant effect.^ Large casks of coarser and unglazed ware, pithoi, were also repaired with leaden cramps. *' The casks of the naked Cynic;," says the Satirist, " do not burn ; should you break one of them, another house will be made by to-morrow, or the same Avill continue to serve when repaired with lead."® The Sybaritic fables, cited by Aristophanes, in the speech of a saucy old man in reply to some one whom he has ill-treated, show the use of bronze rivets. A ^^oman of Sybaris broke an earthen pot, which was represented as screaming out, and calling for witnesses to prove how badly it had been treated.^ "By Proserpine!" exclaims the dame, " were you to leave off bawling for witnesses, and make haste to buy a copper ring to rivet yourself with, you would act more wisely." ^^ It is impossible to determine the age of the oldest glazed vases without inscriptions. Some seem to be coeval with the dawn of Hellenic civilisation, perhaps nine or ten centuries before Christ, and are found in sepulchres in which there are no 1 Nemea, x. 61-68. 2 Eccles., V. 994. 3 Page 466, c. * Lib. viii. p. 382, Cas. » Vit. Jul. Csea. c. 81. « Idyl. i. 27, 36. ^ De Falsa Legat., p. 415, ed. Reiske ; De Witte, Etude, p. 5. ^ Gerhard, A. V., cxlv. 9 Juvenal, Sat. xiv. v. 308-310. ^" Miiller, ' Literature of Ancient Greece,' 8yo, Lond. 1848, p. 1^5. [jChap. III. AGE. 157 [coins, hence before the invention of the art of coinage. Glazed pases of a very fine kind were probably manufactured between lOlympiad Lxxxiv. = B.c. 444; and Olympiad xciv. = B.c. 404. [Those made when painting and art had attained their climax [fall between Olympiads xciv.-cxx., or B.C. 404-300. The decadence of the art seems to have taken place about the cxx. Olympiad, after the conquest of Asia by Alexander the Great^ had introduced vases of the precious metals and gems into Greece ; and earthenware vases probably fell into disuse about the first century B.C., having become entirely superseded by works in metal. In the time of Augustus they were rarities.^ While, however, Gerhard^ assigns the above dates to the art of making vases, Millingeii* is of opinion that the period during which it principally flourished may be divided into three prin- cipal epochs. That of the ancient style, B.C. 700-450, in which are comprehended the first efforts of the art. That of vases of the fine style, B.C. 450-228, or from the time of the Persian to the second Punic war. The best he supposes were executed during the age of Phidias and Polygnotus, the latter of whom, according to Pliny, ^ drew his female ligures with transparent garments and head-dresses of different colours, represented the mouth open and showing the teeth, and did away with the ancient conventional stiffness of the attitudes. That of vases manufactured from the Second Punic to the Social War, in which he includes those of the latest style found in the Easilicata, the Terra di Lavoro, and the ancient Campania and Lucania. Later than this they could not have been made, for, in the days of Augustus, all the towns of Magna Graecia, except Ehegium, Naples, and Tarentum, had relapsed into barbarism.® Other writers, as Kramer,' conjecture that the vases of the oldest style w^ere made from Olympiad l.=b.c. 577, to Olym- piad LXXX. = B.c. 457; those of the second, or "hard style" * In the time of Cleomenes (Plutarch, ! a painted vase. D'Hancarville, p. 103. in Vita), b.c. 238, metal vases were in ^ Gerhard, Berlins AntikeBildwerke, common use at Sparta. s. 143. ' Kapporto Volcente,' p. 112. 2 " Paucos ante menses, quum in co- * ' Vases Grecs/ Pre'f. Ionia Capua deducti lege Julia coloni, | * N. H., xxv. c. 3. ad extruendas villas sepulchra vetus- i ^ Strabo, vi. 253. tissima disjicerent, idqua eo studiosius - ^ Handbuch, ss. 75, 2. Creuzer, fol- facerent, quod aliquantum vasculorum \ lowing Miiller, Briefe, s. 123, throws operis antiqui scrutautcs reperiebant." i the epoch farther back, and so does Suetoii. C. Jul. Cses. c. 81. Out of ; Seroux d'Agincourt, Recueil, p. 93. thirteen tombs at Capua only one had ■ 158 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. of art, from 01. lxxx.=b.c. 457, to 01. xc. = b.c. 417; and those of the fine style, from 01. xc. = B.c. 417, to 01. c. = b.c. 377. For the last class of vases he names no period.^ Dapre, who endeavours to prove the relative age of vases from the coins of the Sicilian Naxos, founded B.C. 736, 16 years after Kome, and destroyed A.u.c. 554= B.C. 39f. (1.) The earlier coins resemble earliest vases of black ware, and have O and X retrograde older than vi. or vii. cent. B.C. (2.) Fine but still rigid with S and O,* iv. and v. cent. B.C., age of Agathocles — and of the cups of Hiero and Epictetus. The following are the principal criteria for determining the age of vases. Those of the Doric style, with maroon figures upon a yellow ground, resemble the mural paintings in the old sepulchres at Veii, which city submitted to the Komaii arms A.u.c. 358, or B.C. 396. The backgrounds with flowers appear, indeed, to have been copied from oriental or Assyrian art, which had ceased to exist in the sixth century B.C. ; while the Asiatic style of the friezes, which resemble those of Solomon's temple and the Babylonian tapestries, likewise indicates an epoch of great antiquity. Some of the animals represented are similar to those seen on coins issued by cities of Southern Italy as the bulls of Metapontum were in the sixth or seventh century B.C. ; or like the lions of Mycenae, which are supposed to date from Olymp. Lxxiv., or B.C. 484. Brondsted is of opinion that the oldest Panathenaic vases may be placed in B.C. 562, and that those for holding oil in the tomb of the Moirai, mentioned by Pindar, are nearly of the same age. Dodwell, indeed, assigned his vase in the oldest style, representing a hunting scene, to B.C. 700 ; but Muller, whose opinion is preferable, gives the more moderate date of Olympiad l.=:b.c. 580. The cup of Arcesilaus, which is only a development of this style of art, may be earlier, but cannot be much later than B.C. 458. Other critical marks for determining the respective ages of vases are : The subjects represented on the black figured vases, such as incidents in the reigns of the Arcesilai, B.C. 580-460, showing that vases of this style cannot be later ; the use of aspirated consonants, introduced by Simonides of Ceos or Epi- charmus, B.C. 529, into the Greek alphabet ; the appearance of the hoplites dromos, or *' armed course," and of the Pentathlon, > r the Greeks have left few or no details of their processes. has been conjectured that the clay was fined by pouring it ^to a series of vats, and constantly decanting the water, so that le last vat held only the finest particles in suspension. The lay was, however, worked up with the hands, and fashioned on the wheel. It is supposed by Brongniart to have been ground in a mill, or trodden out'with the feet. Either red or white clay was preferred by the ancients, according to the nature of the pottery required to be made.^ Certain sites enjoyed in antiquity great reputation for their _clays. One of the most celebrated was that procured from a line near the promontory of Mount Oolias,^ close to Phalerum, )m which was produced the paste which gave so much renown the products of the Athenian Kerameikos. The articles lade of it became so fashionable, that Plutarch ^ mentions an lecdote of a person who, having swallowed poison, refused to •ink the antidote except out of a vessel made of this clay. It seems to have been of a fine quality, but not remarkably warm in tone when submitted to the furnace ; ruddle, or red ochre, being employed to impart to it that rich deep orange glow which distinguishes the. nobler specimens of the ceramic art. Corinth, Cnidus, Samos, and various other places famous for their potteries, were provided with fine clays.* At Coptos, in Egypt, vases were manufactured of an aromatic earth. The extreme lightness of the paste of these vases was not unobserved by the ancients, and its tenuity is mentioned by Plutarch.^ That it w^as an object of ambition to excel in this respect,, appears from the two amphorae preserved in the temple of Erythra},^ of extreme lightness and thinness, made by a potter ' Geoponica, iv. 3. Among the Ro- ! * Pl-ny, N. H., xxxv. 12,46. Brong- lanns it was the duty of a good house- niart, Traite', i. 582. holder to know the nature of clays. * Apophthegm, a Pemherton, p. 14. ^ Suidas, voce Atlienaius, xi. 482, The term which he uses is AcTrra. id. Gas. « Pliny, N. H., xxxv. 12, 46. ' Dc Audit, ii. 47, 2. 153. Rciskc. M 16-2 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. and bis pupil, when contending which could produce the lightest vase. The thinnest vases are of unglazed w^ave ; and some of these pieces which have come down to us are scarcely thicker than stout paper. Great difference is observable in the pastes of vases coming from widely separated localities, owing either to their composition or baking. It is much to be regretted that more profound and minute scientific observations have not been directed to this part of the inquiry, as they might determine the question w^hether the pastes of vases extracted from the sepulchres of Greece and Italy are essentially the same or not? and thus show whether they had a common origin. The clay found near Mon-reale in Sicily, produced, when used in the porcelain furnaces at Naples, a ware very like the Greeks.^ The paste of the early vases of Athens 'and Melos is of a very pale red ; that of vases of the Doric or Corinthian style is of a pale lemon colour. At the best period of the art the paste is of a warm orange-red ; but the Lucanian and Apulian vases are of a paler tone. The Etruscan painted vases of all ages are of a pale red tone, with a much greater quantity of white, which appears to be owing to the greater proportion of chalk used in preparing the paste. It is very soft, and easily scratched with a knife, but well sifted and homogeneous. The analysis of Niccola Covelli gave for the paste of these paler vases, — 48 of silica, 16 alumina, 16 oxide of iron, 9 carbonic acid, 8 carbo- nate of lime, 8 of loss. Fields of this clay are stated to have been found in South Italy, but the material is universally distributed.^ The first glazed vases were made with the hand, but the wheel was a very early invention. Amotfg the Egyptians and G]-eeks it was a low, circular table, turned with the foot. Some wheels used in the ancient Aretine potteries have been dis- covered, consisting of a disk of terra-cotta strengthened with spokes and a tire of lead. They are represented on a hydria with black figures in the Munich Collection, and also on a cup with black figures in the British Museum. The potter is seen seated on a low stool, apparently turning the wheel with his foot; on the kylix at Munich the boy turns it for him. Kepre- sentations of the same kind are also found on gems. In making vases the wheel was used in the following ^ It is found to contain on analysis, silica 40, alumina 16, carb. ac. 14, lime 10. Dei Vasi comm. chiam. Etruschi, 4to, Palerm. 1823, p. 16. 2 Gargiulo, Cenni, pp. 19, 20. niAP. III. MODELLING. 163 manner: — A piece of paste of the required size was placed upon it, vertically in the centre, and while it revolved was formed with the finger and thumb. This process sufficed for the smaller pieces, such as cups, saucers, and jugs ; the larger amphorae and hydrine required the introduction of the arm. The feet, handles, necks, and mouths were separately turned or moulded, and fixed on while the clay was moist. They are turned with great beauty and precision, es{)ecially the feet, which are finished in the most admirable manner ; to effect whicli the vase must have been inverted. The juncture of the handles is so excellent, that it is easier to break than to detach them. Great technical skill was displayed in turning certain circular vases of the class of asJcoi. With their simple wheel the Greeks effected wonders, producing shapes still unrivalled in beauty. We have already adverted to the contending claims for the honour of having invented the potter's wheel. The Grecian traditions attributed it to various persons, — as the Athenian Coroebus ; ^ the Corinthian Hyperbius ; ^ the celebrated Talos, the nephew and rival of Daedalus ; and to Daedalus himself.^ The tyrant Critias ascribed the invention to Athens : *' That city," says he, " which erected the noble trophy of Marathon also invented pottery, the famous offspring of the wheel, of earth, and of fire, the useful household drudge."* But the invention must have been earlier, for it is mentioned in Homer.^ The earlier mode of fabric was by means of the hand. After the clay was properly kneaded, the potter took up a mass of the paste, and hollowing it into the shape of walls with one hand, placed the other inside it, and pressed it out into the required shape. When raised or incised ornaments were required, he used modellers' tools — the wooden and bronze chisels of his art. The largest and coarsest vases of the Greeks w^ere made with the hand. The pithos, or cask, was modelled by the aid of a kind of hooped mould.^ The smaller and finer vases, how- ever, were turned upon the wheel. The Etruscan alone were often only modelled, and not turned. A potter is represented, on a great lamp in the Durand Collection, standing and modelling » Plin. N. H., vii. 56, 57. 2 Schol. ad Find. Olymp. xiii. 27. 3 Diod. Sic, iv. 76. B. ed. Casaub. ^ Iliad 5. 600. ® Panoflva, ' Sur les Veritables Noms * Critias, in Athen»o, i. p. 28, do Vases Grecs,' 4to, Paris, p. 1. M 2 164 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. a vase before his furnace.^ Handles were modelled with sticks, and added to the vases, as may be observed to be represented in some gems.^ Handles were sometimes stamped or modelled, and fixed to the bodies while the clay was moist. The lips and necks of some of the smaller vases were also made separately, and then fixed to the body of the vase. Certain parts of the ancient painted vases were modelled by the potter at all periods of the art ; for on those of the isle of Thera, of Melos, and of Athens, horses are occasionally found on the covers of the flat dishes moulded in full relief, while the handle is sometimes enriched with the moulded figure of a serpent twining round it. This kind of ornament is more suitable to works in metal than in clay, and suggests the idea that such vases were, in fact, imitations of metallic ones. On the vases of the Doric style, moulded bosses and heads, like the metallic reliefs, are sometimes found ; and even in vases of the hard style with black figures, the insertions of the handles of hydrise are occasionally thus enriched. In the later styles modelling was more profusely employed ; small projecting heads were affixed to the handles of jugs at their tops and bases, and on the large craters called amphorae a rotelle found in Campania and the Basilicata ; the disks in which the handles terminated were ornamented with heads of the Gorgons, or with such subjects as Satyrs and Bacchantes. These portions were sometimes covered with the black glaze used for the body of the vase, but more frequently they were painted with white and red colours of the opaque kind. A peculiar kind of modelling was used for the gilded portions of reliefs, introduced over the black glaze. When the vase was baked a fine clay was laid on it and delicately modelled, either with a small tool or a brush, a process similar to that adopted in the Roman red ware. It may indeed have been squeezed in a fluid state through a tube upon the vase, and then modelled. As the gilded portions are generally small, this process was not difficult or important, but a vase discovered at Cumse has two friezes executed in this style. The upper one is a row of figures round the neck, representing the departure of Triptolemiis, delicately modelled, coloured, and with the flesh thoroughly gilded; the lower one consists of a band of animals and arabesque 1 De Witte, Catal. Dur. No. 1777. Lenormant, 'Cur Plato Aristophanem induxerit in convivio,' 4to, Paris, 1838. ' Hausraann, p. 16. SlIAP. III. MOULDING. 165 'nameuts. Several vases from the same locality, from Capua id from Berenice, have, round tlie neck, modelled in the same byle, wreaths of corn, ivy, or myrtle, and necklaces, while the jst is plain. But the art of modelling was soon extensively superseded by lat of moulding y or producing several impressions from a lould probably itself >f terra-cotta,^ but perhaps occasionally if stone or marble. In le former case the subject was modelled in salient relief with considerable care; and from this model a cast in clay was taken and then baked. In the )tlier case a die or 5ounter-sunk impres- flon was carved out in stone mould. As jrra-cotta often warps the bakinP" it i^ ^^- ll 6-— rotter moulding the Handle of a Cup, s/t-j/p/ios. metimes difficult to determine whether certain reliefs are lodelled or moulded. The potter availed dmself of moulds )r various purposes, 'rom them he pro- luced entire parts of fis vase in full relief, ich as the handles, md possibly in some istances the feet.^ [e also stamped out irtain ornaments in dief, much in the ime manner as the Ornaments of cakes No.llT.-Sltula. with stamped ornaments. |re prepared, and fixed ihem uhile moist to the still damp body of the vase. Such ' D'Agincourt, Rccueil, xxxiv. 00, 02. Hausjuaim, p. 16. 166 GREEK POTTERY. Pakt II. ornaments were principally placed upon the lips or at the base of the handles, and in the interior of the hylikes or cups of a late style, when the art was declining. One of these ornaments is an impression from one of the later Syracusan medallions having for its subject the head of Arethusa surrounded by dolphins : it was struck about B.C. 350. The moulded portions of these vases are generally covered with the same black glaze as is used for the bodies ; but many of the little lekythoi found at Athens and in the Basilicata have only their necks and part of their bodies glazed, while the moulded portions are painted in fresco of various colours, like the unglazed terra-cotta figures. Such vases were probably either toys, or else used for ornamental or sepulchral purposes. Some from the tombs of Athens represent a negro grinding corn or kneading bread, Dionysos reposing under a vine, Europa crossing the sea on the bull, a Nereid on a dolphin, a boy with a dog, a female child lying on the ground or on a couch, apes,^ and other animals. A subdivision of this method of moulding upon the vase itself is easily remarked on the saucers, phialai, and cups, sJcypJioi, hantliaroi, or even smaller amphorae and other vessels made at a later period of the art, and entirely covered w^ith a coating of black glaze. Rows and zones of small stamped ornaments, apparently made with a metal punch, have been impressed on the wet clay of these vessels before the glaze was applied. These decorations are from |^ to ^ inch long, and unimportant in their subjects, which are generally a small radiated head, dolphins, helices, or the ante-fixal ornament, and hatched band, arransfed round the axis of the vase. This latter ornament was probably produced by rolling the edge of a disk notched for the purpose round the vase, in the same manner as a bookbinder uses his brass punch. Such, at least, was the method by which this ornament was produced on the Koman pottery. Plain circular zones, a kind of decoration also often used by the potters, were more easily made with a pointed tool. When these vases came into use the potter's trade had ceased to be artistic, and was essentially mechanical. They are found in the ancient sepulchres of the Etruscan territory, as well as in the more recent cities of Southern Italy, such as Brundusium. The last method to be described is that of producing the ^ htackclberi?- xlix-lii. Mus. Pourt. xxviii-xxx. FCiiAP. III. MOULDED VASES. 167 mtire vase from a mould by stamping it out ; a process hOw [extensively adopted in the potteries. During the best period [of the fictile art, wliile painting flourished, such vases were very rare ; but on the introduction of a taste for goblets and other rases of that kind,^ the potters endeavoured to meet the public ftaste by imitating the reliefs of metal ware. The most remarkable of these moulded vases is a kind of beakers called rhyta. They have one handle, and are incapable of being set down on the table except on their mouths, so that the guests were compelled to drink their contents. The bodies, which are cylindrical or expanding, terminate in the heads of animals, which, on examination, appear to have been delivered from a mould. These heads, which are principally of such creatures as belong to the chase, were subsequently coloured, sometimes with an engobe, or coating of opaque colours, slightly baked, at others with the glaze. The bodies, or necks, were painted in the style of the period ; but the former appear to have first received a kind of polish or extra finish by returning them to the lathe, and passing them between the potter's fingers; for the marks of the gates, or divisions of the mould, are often obliterated. By the same process were also made the vases found at Vulci, of the nature of jugs, being either oinoclioai for wine, or Ithytlioi for oil ; the bodies of which are in the shape of human heads,^ sometimes glazed, made from a mould, while the necks were fabricated on the lathe, and the handles added. These were coloured and ornamented on the same principle as the rhyta; but their style of art, which is rather better, shows that they were first in fashion.^ A few cups made in the same way have been discovered ; such as that shaped like the head of Dionysos crowned with ivy,* and certain early cups in the form of a female breast with the nipple, also of the character of rhyta, and which call to mind the gold vase which the vain and lovely Helen dedicated to Aphrodite, modelled in the shape of her own breast. Besides the rhyta, several jphialai, or saucers, were also moulded ; beautiful examples of which process may be seen on the fiat bossed saucers, or j^hialai omphalotai. Bound their * Arneth, Cliev., Das K. K. Mttnz | ' Cat. Duiaud, 1230-12G4. Stackcl- uml autiken Kabinet. Svo, WIlii, 1845, i berg, xxv. s. 7, no. 00, Gl. I ^ Micali, xcix. ^ Mils, rourt. ii. , I 168 GREEK POTTERY. Fart 11. centre is a frieze in bas-relief of four chariots, each having an Eros, or Cupid, flying before it in the air ; whilst in the chariots themselves are Minerva, Diana, Mars, an 1 Hercules, driven by female figures, and having before them a boar or deer. Others No. 1 ] 8. — Moulded phiaU oiiipkalote. Cliariots of Gods. have imitations of scallop shells. One cup has the subject of Ulysses and the Sirens.^ Jugs, amphorae, jars, and cups, the bodies of which are reeded, were also evidently produced from moulds,^ and coul Iliad, xviii. 600. ' Ibid. ix. 405, 469. ^ ji^j^j ^ 337 * Millingen, Vases Grecs, Introd. p. iv. Hesyehius, voce Aifives. N 2 180 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. The first attempts at art would be plain bands or zones dis- posed round the axis of the vase. These bands or friezes were subsequently enriched and di- versified by the introduction of the forms of flowers, animals, and insects, drawn with the childish simplicity of early art. Thus on some the scarabeeus is beheld of gigantic proportions, soaring above a diminutive stag, and a herd of puny lions are placed in a row, under another row of gigantic goats.^ Some vases, with white ornaments of msean- ders and lines upon a black grounrl, much resemble those found in the sepulchres of the early Peruvians,^ and may per- haps be regarded as displaying the first attempts at decoration ; but as the art of making vases was practised at the same time as that of inlaying and chasing, it is probable that the invention of a glaze and the introduction of ornament were simultaneous. Near the ancient sites of Tantalis on Mount Sipylus, the tomb of Agamemnon at Mycenae, that of Achilles in the Troad,^ in the old sepul- chres under the Acropolis at Athens, at Delphi, and in the islands of Rhodes, Milo, the ancient Melos, and Santerino,^ the ancient Thera, and at Dali, Lar- naka, and Golgos,^ a kind of pottery has been dis- sro.i23.-Kyiix of the earliest style. covcred, which has cvcry No. 122. — Diota of the earliest style. * See Due de Ijuynes, Annali, 1830, p. 242. "^ Vases de Lgtmberg, II. xlviii. 42-3. ' Burgon, Trans. Roy. Soc. of Liter., ii. 258 ; Stackelberg, Die Graber der Uellenen, fo. Berlin, 1837, Taf. ix. ; M, Bronguiart, Mus, Oer., pi. xiii. ♦ Gerhard, in Annali, 1837, p. 134 ; BuUetino, 1829, p. 126 ; Ann. 1841, 10 ; Morgenblatt, 1835, s. 698. ^ These have been discovered by ex- cavations made by General L. Ce.snola of tlie United States, and Mr. R. H. Lang. Many of these early vases are figured in 'Harper's New Monthly,' 8vo. New York, 1872, p. 192 ; B.'A. 1869, p. 215. Chap. IV. EARLIEST STYLE. 181 appearance of being the earliest painted ware manufactured by the Greeks.^ It is composed of a fine light red paste, covered with a thin siliceous glaze, and having ornaments painted on it ill red, brown, or dark black lines, which have also been burnt into the body of the vase. Such decorations are the earliest which the vase painters adopted after they had dis- covered tlie art of covering the whole surface with a glaze. They bear great similarity, to the decorations of the early Greek architecture, as exhibited in the sepulchres of the Phrygian kings,^ and the facings of the tomb of Agamemnon,^ works which some regard as the remains of Pelasgic archi- tecture. They consist of hatched lines, annular lines or bands passing round the body of the vase, series of concentric circles, spiral lines, mseanders, chequers, zigzags or Vandykes, and objects resembling a primitive kind of wheel, with four spokes.* No human figures are depicted on any of these vases, but animal forms are found in the rudest and most primitive style of art, distinguished by the extreme stiffness of their attitude, the length of their proportions, and the absence of all anatomical detail. These animals are the horse,^ the goat,® swine,' storks, waterfowl, and dolphins.^ They are either disposed in compartments, like metopes, but separated by diglyphs instead of triglyphs, or else in continuous bands or friezes, each being several times repeated. Besides these, some few objects of an anomalous character are represented, such as wheels^ of chariots, objects resembling the tumhoi or mounds placed over the dead, stars,^*^ and other objects.^^ Comparatively few of these vases are known ; but the shapes differ considerably from those of the latter styles, although they are evidently their prototypes. Several of these vases are amphorae, some- times of a large size, and evidently adapted for holding wine at entertainments. Others of this class have twisted handles, like those discovered at Nola. Among those with two * Brongniart and Riocreux, Mus. de I * Ibid. 2531. Two horses with a Sevres. 2 Steuart, 'Ancient Monuments,' fo. Lond. 1842. ' Expe'dition Scientifique an Mores, fo. 1813, pi. Ixx. ; Gell, Itinerary, 4to, Lond. 1810, pi. vii. p. 28; Dodwell, Tour, ii. 237 ; Travels, ii. 384. I '« Ibid. 2517. * Vase Room, Nos. 2507-70 ; De I " Ibid. 2519-22-25-72 Witte, Etude, p. 30. . | tripod between them, probably alluding to the course. « Ibid. 2558. ^ Stack elberg, Die Graber, Taf. ix. 8 Vase Room, Nos. 2517-56-57-58. » Ibid. 2514, 2517 ; Stackelberg, 1. c. 182 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. handles, many having flat, shallow bodies, sometimes on a tall foot, are of the class of cups destined for sym'posia or entertain- ments, and are the prototypes of those called hylihes, or skyjphoi. Some others of the same shape have a flat cover, surmounted by two modelled figures of horses, and are the first instances of what is probably a kind of pyxis or box, a vase subsequently found in a more elegant shape amidst the sepulchres of Nola and the Basilicata. These have been called, on very slender grounds, lekanai, or tureens. Various jugs or oinochoai are found, some with round handles, which evidently ministerel the dark, sparkling wine at the festive entertainments, some- times of proportions truly heroic ; as well as smaller vessels of this class of the shape called oZ^e. Other vases in the British Museum are of the shape of the ashos, or skin to hold liquids.^ A vase, figured by Stackel- berg, represents a little jug on the top of the cover of a two-handled jar, like some of the vases of later style. The collection in the British Mu- seum, perhaps the richest in vases of this class, contains several speci- mens of very large dimensions, which came from the collections of Lord Elgin, as well as some smaller pieces of this ware, either the orna- ments of vases, or else the toys of childi-^n. Among them are horses, probably from the covers of the pyxides, parts of chariots,^ and a Boeotian buckler.^ Some of the covers are perforated with holes, two on each side, like the Egyptian, by means of which they appear to have been tied on in place of locks. One small vase, having a cover with a tall stud, is a true pyxis, and was undoubtedly of the class used for the toilet. There are no vases of the shape subsequently known as krateres, at this period, that vase being represented by certain large amphorae. There is every reason to believe that these vases are of the highest antiquity. Three, figured in Stackelberg's work, were found in tombs near the Dipylon gate of the Hiera No. 124— (Enoclioe of the earliest style. B. M , No. 2531. » Vaac Room, No. 2583. 2 Ibid. 2583. ' Ibid. 2584. Chap. IV. ARCHAIC GREEK. 183 Hodos, or Sacred Way to Eleusis. Mr. Burgon discovered others in tombs on the south side of the Acropolis, within the precincts of the city, and under circumstances which sliowed tliat they had not been touched for centuries. The absence of nil human figures, and of all inscriptions, the stiff style of the figures, and their analogies with Oriental art, render it probable that some of them may be as old as the heroic ages. None can be more recent than the seventh century B.C. In Olympiad Lxxviii. 1, or B.C. 46S, Mycente was taken by the Argives and never rebuilt, and none of the pottery can be more recent than that date.^ It has been supposed, indeed, that they are of Phoenician origin ; but none of the emblems found upon them are pecu- liarly Asiatic. They are primitive Ionic Greek. These vases, it is also evident from Herodotus,^ were used in religious rites. Some of these vases, adorned with ornaments only, have been attributed to pre-historic times, on account of having been ibund under the lava of Santerino,^ but this isle, the crater of a volcano scarcely dormant, even now has occasional erup- tions. It has also been supposed that they may be twelve centuries B.C.* The next style has been designated by various names, as Carthaginian, Corinthian, Egyptian, Phoenician, and Doric.^ It is, however, better to comprise all these varieties in the general term of Archaic Greek. In antiquity this class of vases imme- diately succeeds the early Athenian. The ground varies from a pale lemon to a blushing red colour, on which the figures have been drawn with a brush in a brownish black. Some of the earliest vases of this sort resemble the Peruvian in their style of decoration.^ The tints of the dark figures, which are monochrome, vary however according to the intensity of the heat to which they have been subjected, being frequently of a maroon red, but occasionally of a lustrous jet black. The colour is not equal in tone throughout, and the figures are spotty. The accessories are coloured in opaque crimson, in those places where an artist in a picture would have laid a ' Eaoul Kochelte, Mem. Ant. comp. pp. 78, 80, pi. ix. 1, la, 68a, 86, 9. • Herod., v. 88. ^ Lcnormant, Kev. Ant, 186G, Dec; Comptcs rcndues, 1860, N. S. torn. ii. p. 273. * De Witte, I^itudes, p. 36. ^ For tills and the subsequent style, see Mon. I., xxvi.-xxvii. * See D'Hancarville, Vases Etrusqucs, i. pi. 46 ; ii. 87. 184 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. shade. ^ The muscles and other details are scratched in. The prevalent type of the design is, ornaments arranged in bands or friezes, sometimes as many as four or five occurring on one vase, and the rule seems to be to repeat the same group ; a practice which reminds us of the stamped friezes of the black Etruscan vases, and the monotonous bands of the early Athenian ones. The animals represented are cliiefly lions, panthers, boars, goats, bulls, deer, eagles, swans, ducks, owls, and snakes. From the ideal world the artist has selected the chimsera, gryphon, and sphinx. They are placed in groups of two or three, facing each other, or in continuous rows after one another. The field of the scene is literally strewed with flowers of many petals, and with smaller objects resembling stones. A kind of trefoil No. 125.— Two-handled Vase with Lious. From Athens. Brit. Mus., No. 2589. lotus is often introduced. Such representations belong evi- dently to the dawn of art, and are derived from oriental sources.^ It is only on the later vases of this style that figures of men are intermingled with those of animals.^ 1 Kramer, Ueber die Herkunft, &c., 8vo, Berlin, 1837, s. 46 ; Thiersch, Pie hellenischen bemalten Vasen, s. 71 ; Gerhard, Annali, iii. p. 222 ; Raoul Roehette, Annali, 1847, xix. 236-40; Gerhard, Ueber die Kunst der Pho- nicier, 4to, Berlin, 1848, s. 17-40 ; De Witte, Cab. Durand, p. 280; Gerhard, Berlin, Ant. Bilder, s. 155-177 ; Due de Luynes, Annali, 1830, p. 242; 1832, p. 243 ; Bunsen, Annali, 1834 ; p. 46 ; Campanari, Intorno 1 Vasi fittili dipinti, pp. 26-42 ; Gerhard, Rapporto Vol cento, pp. 14-16; Walz, Heidelb. Jahrbuch, 1845, p. 385 ; Philologus, Schneidewin, 1846, p. 742, and foil. 2 Stjackelberg, Die Graber, Taf. xiv. 8, 9 ; Raoul Roehette, Journal des Sa- vans, 1835, p. 214; 1836, p. 246, and foil. ; Gerhard, Ueber die Kunst der Phonicier, Taf. vii. No. 1, 2; Inghirarai, Vasi Fittili, cccii-viii. 3 Micali, Storia, xev. ; R. Roehette, Annali, 1847, p. 262. Chap. IV TRANSITIONAL ARCHAIC. 185 The transition from the former style to this was not immediate but gradual.^ An example of a late vase of the former stylo, probably made at the commencement of the Archaic Greek period, is a large two-handled bowl, found at Athens (cut, No. 125). The ground is of a pale fawn, the figures of a light maroon colour. The subject is two h'ons of large proportions, standing face to face, their tongues lolling out of their mouths, their tails curled between their legs. The area is seme, not with flowers, but with mseanders, chequers, spiral-^, and other ornaments which appear in the former style. The border at)ove is irregular, consisting of dentals, the egg and tongue ornament, and the wave pattern. The vase is of the earliest style of art, and though others of the so-called Corinthian style have likewise been discovered at Athens, it evidently pre- ceded the introduction of that style. Some vases of the pale stone-coloured clay ,.also exhibit a style of orna- ment resembling the pri- mitive one, the whole vase being covered with chequers, mseanders, and plain bands or bars. These vases often resemble those of barbarous nations, and the principal shape is a tall shyphos, with handles. An example will be seen in cut No. 127, p. 186. A great improvement, and indeed distinction in style, was the use of incised lines cut through the colour to relieve the monochrome. One remarkable characteristic of these archaic designs is the abundance of flowers, which resemble those scattered over the richly-embroidered robes of figures in the Nimriid bas- reliefs. It has been supposed that the subjects are borrowed from the rich tapestries and embroideries with which the Asiatic Greeks had become acquainted, and which were adopted by the No. 126.— CEnochog, showing animals and flowers. * Some authors, as M. Jabn, Besclireibimg d. Vasensammlung zu Miinclien, 8vo, Miinch., Pref. s. cxlv.. have classed both styles together. 186 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. vase painters with certain modifications. Aristotle^ alludes to stuiFs embroidered with rows or friezes of animals when de- scribing the peplos made for Alcisthenes of Sybaris, on which the gods of Greece were represented between borders decorated with oriental figures, the upper border representing the sacred animals of the Susians, the lower of the Persians. This intro- duction of floral ornaments on the ground of friezes or mural paintings, was rarely employed either in Egyptian or Assyrian art. But it might have been employed by the toreutai, or inlayers, who probably enriched the backgrounds of their works on chests and boxes in this manner. No. 127.— Group of Vases of Archaic style, exhibiting the principal shapes. If the vase ornaments were copied from those works, the yellow, the maroon and the brown colours may be considered to represent different substances. Some writers indeed have suggested that the flowers indicate the earth over wliich the animals are passing. To bear out such an explanation, we must suppose that the point of sight was almost on the ground ; and the Egyptian and Assyrian drawing was certainly distinguished bv this absence of an horizon. In this style some discern the 1 Dc Mirab. auscult., xcix. 200, Beckmann ; De Witte, Etudes, p. 39 ; Loiig- pt'iier, Journal Asiatique, 1855, No. 15. Chap. IV. STYLE OF DRAWING. 187 absence of grace and richness, and the work of an unskilled I land in a period of high antiquity ; others, on the contrary, perceive indications of the feeble treatment of the copyist.^ Certain shapes prevail in this style. One of the most remark- able is the aryballos, wliich is comparatively rare among vases with black figures. We also find the aldbastron ; and in place of the usual oinoehoe, a peculiar kind of jug, supposed by archa3ologists to be the oipe. The deep cup, called the han- tliaros, is absent ; but in its place, that to which the term kothon has been erroneously applied, the Archaic pijxis or Apu- liau stamnos, the helehe, or hrater, with columnar handles, is seen for the first time. Among the forms are the arp^phora, the pinax or platter, as in vases with black figures ; a vase shaped like the halatlios, the jpyxis, or box, in which ladies kept their knitting mate- rials, and children their toys, and the supposed lekane or tureen. The amphora, the ashos, and the oinoehoe are generally ornamented with human figures, and must consequently have been made at the later period of this style. As some of these shapes are not found in the later styles of pottery, but continued to be made in bronze, it would appear that the fictile art had attained a considerable develop- ment at the time of their manufacture. Like the porcelain of China, they seem to have formed the more recherche ornaments of the tables of the great and wealthy.^ Several vases of this style have been found at Corinth, in tombs a considerable depth below the soil ; others at Athens, Melos, Corcyra, Khodes, and Cyprus. Most of them have only rows of animal forms, but some lehijthoi found at Athens have winged male and female figures, terminating in snakes, sup- posed to represent Typhoons^ and Echidna. The most cele- brated of these vases is undoubtedly that called the Dodwell Vase,* which was discovered in a sepulchre at Mertese, in the No. 128.— Aryballos, lions and flower. ' Kramer, s. 48-49 ; Gerhard, Berl. ' Lenormant and De Witte, Elite iu. Aiit. Bildw. 8. 177. ; xxxi-xxxii., xxxii. a, xxxii. u. - Thiersch, Die giiech. boinalt. Vasen, j * Now at Municli, Arch. Zeit. 1852, s. 71 ; Gerhard, Kapp. \o\v. i. pp. 14- | «. 228. O. Jahn, Vaseiisammlung, s. 65, 15. In. 211. 188 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. 8akis, men," vicinity of Coiinth. It is a kind of ^yxis, or box. Round the body are two friezes of animals with the field seme with flowers. On the cover is a representation of the hunting of a boar, as will be seen from the accompanying engraving. The incidents depicted are different from anything recorded of the hunt of the boar of Calydon. The boar has killed the hero Philon, who lies under its feet. Thersandros attacks the animal with a spear in front, while Lakon discharges an arrow at it. Another hero named Andrutas, armed with a shield, hurls a lance. Behind him are three unarmed and draped figures called Andromachos, and Alkathoos, besides " the king of Aoamemnon.^ From the form of the letters it has been conjectured that this vase is as old as B.C. 580,^ or even older ; and it may be con- sidered as fixing an epoch for the age of these vases. Those with animal forms were probably much earlier. The letters, in fact, exactly re- semble those found on certain Greek in- scriptions discovered at Corcvra, colonised by Corinthians B.C. ^734, and on the coins of cities of Magna Grsecia ; and as the age of these cities is well known, especially that of Sybaris, which was destroyed B.C. 510, and as the style of the figures on the vases resembles that of the figures on the coins, it is probable that the former are at least as old as the latter, if not even earlier. Some other cups in this style, but with less interesting subjects, have been discovered. The subjects of the jugs and lekytlioi are races and combats. To the later period of this style belongs the vase in the Hamilton Collection, found at Capua, with the subject of the hunting of the boar of Calydon ; ^ No. 129.— Cover of Vase, with Boar-hunt. ^ Dodwell's Tour, vol. ii. p. 196 ; Se- ^ Miiller, Handbuch, s. 75, 2 ; Creuzer, roux d'Agiucourt, Kecueil, pi. xxxvi. ; Eriefe, s. 123. Bockh, Corp. Inscr. Grsec. i. n. 7, p. 13; ^ D'Hancarville, Antiq. i. pi. 1-4. Kramer, Hcrkunft, s. .51, and foil. I CiiAP. IV. COMPARISON WITH WALL PAINTINGS. 181) another discovered at Nola, on which are represented quadriga) and warriors ;* and others, found at Cervetri, having for their sub- jects Achilles killing Memnon," and incidents of the Troica.^ A plate found at Camiros had the combat of Hector and Menelaus over the dead body of Euphorbus,^ other incidents of the war against Thebes and the expedition of Theseus,*^ and some of the labours of Hercules,® fountl at Cleone. Figures of deities with recurved wings, adaptations from the Aramaean Pantheon, supposed to represent the gods or the giants, are often seen on these vases.' Some are also found having sphinxes and lotus- flowers, subjects of Egyptian origin.® Laborde has published two remarkable vases of this style, which he considers not to be No. 130. — Animals, from the Wall Paintings of Veii. antique, but later imitations. One, an amphora, has round it a frieze of dolphins painted blue and red, the area seme- with blue flowers, blue and red zones, and the egg and tongue orna- ment ;^ the other, of a peculiar shape, is ornamented with stars and branches of trees in compartments and zones. ^'^ * Gerhard u. Panof ka, Neapels Ant. Bildw. p. 324. 2 Gerhard, Berlins neuerworbene an- tike Denkmaler, s. 3, Taf. 1. 3 De Witte, Etudts, p 44-6. * Jalm, Vasensammlung, s. cxlvii. ^ Monument! del Instituto di Gorrisp. Arch, t. vii. pi. xxxvi. « De Witte, Etudes, 1. c. ^ Gerhard, Berl. ant. Bild. s. 179, 480, 8. 184,541,542. » Ibid. s. 193, n. 612. ^ Vases de Lamberg, ii. pi. xlvii. no. 40. ** Ibid, xlvii. no, 41. 190 GREEK POTTERY. Part IT. The origin of these vases has been a disputed point ever since their discovery. Some writers, from the appearance of the lotus and other oriental flowers, are inclined to attribute to them an Egyptian origin, whilst others, from the representation of the Egyptian symbol of life, or Astarte, on vases from Thera and Cuma, assert that they are imitations of Phoenician works of art. The prevailing opinion, however, is that they are the produce of Corinthian and other Doric potteries.^ All the principal museums of Europe have vases of this style in their collections, although they are few in number compared to those belonging to the other periods of the ceramic art. The names of the artists, Timonides and Chares, of this style which have been found, point to a Doric origin.'^ No. 131. — Men and Animals, from the Wall Paintings at Veii. Some of the coloured vases found at Caere probably afford specimens of the earliest attempts to apply coloured figures to the decoration of vases. The body of them is of the usual brown paste, resembling the black Etruscan ware, with a slight glaze or polish on its surface, on which the figures have been traced,^ or painted in fresco, in white, red, and blue colours. The treatment of the figures is more Egyptian than that of the ' Ann. 1847, xix. p. 237. Micali, Mon. Ined. iv. v. Be Witte, fitudes, p. 46. Chap. IV. LOCAL STYLES. 191 so-called Egyptian style, resembling the reliefs on the Etruscan vases, and the wall paintings of the Etruscan sepulchres. Some of the subjects have no particular story connected with them, but consist of chariots, warriors, marine monsters, and otlier animals ; although among them is found a representation of Theseus killing the Minotaur, an Attic myth, which it is difficult to conceive could have exercised the skill of an Etruscan artist.^ Besides Greece and the Isles, the sepulchres of Italy have produced many vases of this style, which of course are only found in those of the older cities. The Necropolis of Yulci, and that of Cervetri or Caere, in Northern Italy, have produced the greatest quantity ; but some have also been found in the tombs of Cumse. There is a considerable difference of style observable in the vases of this yellow ware which come from different localities. Those from Corinth have figures of small size, but rigidly drawn, while the area is completely filled with flowers, and modelled heads or other ornaments are often introduced into the body of the vase. Those from Yulci have figures of larger size, more coarsely drawn, while those from Nola and Southern Italy, supposed by some to be imitations of the earlier vases, have small figures drawn with much precision and softness, and of a more developed style of art. The style of the human figures on these vases, the length of hair, the massive limbs, and the general attitudes resemble Hellenic art, as developed in the frieze of the Harpy tomb, the bas-relief of the Yilla Albani, the old Selinuntine metopes, and the incused coins of Caulonia and Poseidonia. Although the inscriptions belong to the Doric alphabet, no further light is thrown by them on the age of these vases. ^ Many of a modified style of art have also been discovered in the cemeteries of Nola, and some in Sicily. One of the most remarkable is a vase of the shape called holmos, probably a krcder, found in 1835, at Cervetri. It is ornamented with friezes of animals, the hunt of the boar of Calydon, the mono- machia of Achilles and Memnon, and the contest for the body of Patroclus,^ — a subject also found on a jug of the same class in the British Museum.* Another remarkable amphora of this * Micali, Mon. Ined. iv. ' Mus. Extr. Vat. xcii. 1, 1 ; xciv. 2. 2 Jahn, Vasensammliing zu Minchon, ■<. cxlviii. * Cat. Va^,. No. 42L B. Rocliett. I.e. 192 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. ware of the very earliest style is in the British Museum. It was obtained at Civita Vecchia. The clay is of a pale red ; but the body is covered with a coating of a pale cream colour. On it are seven friezes painted in maroon, two round the neck and five round the body of the vase. These are decorated with representations of quails or rock partridges, combats of warriors, lions devouring bulls, and centaurs. In the linear character of the figures, and the elementary mode of treatment, this vase resembles the early ones from Athens, which have been already described. But the most renowned of all these vases is the cup in the Bibliotheque Nationale, with the subject of Arcesilaus seated in his palace, attended by the different officers of his stores, and watching the weighing of the silphium. Not only the figures, but even the balance, have their names.^ The style of drawing, the angularity of the limbs, the peaked noses, the rigidity of attitude, and the smile playing on the features, connect this vase with those of a later style and mode of treat- ment, or else an older and satirical treatment. Many vases of this later style exhibit nearly similar peculiari- ties, such as the partial or total disappearance of animal friezes, the abandonment of the use of the flowers seme in the field, the greater range of subjects, and above all the appearance of the Attic instead of the Doric alphabet and language in the inscriptions, — all co-ordinate with a later style, the rise of Athens in political importance, and the greater development of its export trade. The figures painted on the vases no longer resemble the earliest efforts of Greek art, but rather those of the temples of Pallas Athene, or of Zeus Panhellenicus at ^gina.^ The cup with Arcesilaus, whether intended to represent the 1st or 4th ruler of that name, admitted by all to be imitative, cannot possibly be later than B.C. 450 or earlier than B.C. 599.^ The slow manner in which an art emancipates itself from the conventional thraldom of its origin, is evident from the progress of painted vases. The potter, not content with producing small vases having a pale ground, by degrees introduced a red tint of a pale salmon colour (the rubrica), adopted human figures for his subject in place of the animal forms before employed, and rendered the latter subsidiary to the main design. He still ^ Annali, v. 60 ; Monumenti, p. 1 , xlvii. ^ Jalin, Vasensamralung, s. cxlix. 3 Arcesilaus I., b. c. 599-583 ; II., B.C. 560-550; IH., b.c. 530-514; IV., B.C. (466t)?-450. It is probably Ar- cesilaus IX. OF T! ( r »^nr_ORNi- DEATH OF ACHILLES. Page 193. PRINTED IN COLOITBS BT W.TXIAM CIX)WES AND SONS. Chap. IV. TRANSITIONAL STYLE. 193 continued to arrange the subjects in zones or friezes; but the (h-awing is a sliglit improvement upon that of the cup of Vrcesilaus just described. The forms are tall and thin, the muscles anguUir, the beards and noses long and pointed, the expression of tlie faces grotesque, the attitudes stiff and conventional. The figures are now quite black, except that the flesh of the females is coloured red or white. The flowers seme have disappeared; but the air is often symbolised by a bird, the water by fishes;^ whilst flowers, intended sometimes for the hyacinth, springing from the edges of the vase, indicate tlie (\irth. The extreme purity of the design, and the unequal manner in which the subjects are treated, have led to the conclusion that the style is imitative, and not original. The subjects are from the older poems, and suffice to mark the taste of the day. They comprise Perseus and the Medusa ; Hercules killing the threefold Gorgon ; the monomachia of Achilles and IMemnon ; Ulysses destroying the eye of Poly- phemus ; the fight for* the body of Patroclus, and exercises of the Stadium. These vases are clearly a development of the Corinthian or Egyptian style, and can hardly be allowed to be of Ionic origin,^ as the yellow vases are of Doric. The prevalent shapes are the tall amphorae, with cylindrical and not banded hanoles; two handled vases with a cover caWed peliJce ; the jug or oinochoe ; the apple-shaped lekythos or oil-flask; and the loi).g slender bottle called the aldbastos. '^Vases of this kind are fewer in number than those of the preceding and following classes, and are generally accompanied with inscriptions. The principal examples of the style are liydriai and Bacchic amphorae, and their subjects are derived from the earliest Greek myths,^ such as the Gigantomachia, Amazonomachia, and the hunt of the boar of Calydon; from the Herakleid, as the destruction of Geryon, and the family of lole,* Theseus and the Minotaur ; from the Achilleid, the family of Priam, the death of Achilles, and lament of the Nereids, the lament for Troilus, and the victory of the m j estler Hippo- sthenes, 01. xxx., B.C. 651*, are also found. To these vases Gerhard has applied the designation of Tyrrhene-Egyptian. * On a vase of this stylo, representing j ^ Thiersch, Die Hellenische bemal- the huntmg of the Calydonian boar, | ten Vasen, s. 79; Monum. dell. Inst, tliere are on the area three birds, on i. 51. the oxorgue tliree fishes. It is engraved ' Kramer, s. 61. l.y Micali, Mon. In. tav. xlii. * J;,hn, Vasen^ammlung, s. clvii. O 194 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. The most remarkable known vases of the earlier class are the Paiiatheiiaic amphora discovered by Buigon, and the amphora discovered by Franpois at Chiusi, now at Florence. They are not so old as the Dodwell vase, which is placed about B.C. 574, or that of Timonidas, above cited, which is conjectured to be even earlier. To this age belongs also a fyxis with the name of Chares.^ The inscriptions of both these vases are Attic, and the letters those which were in use till 01. Lxxx., or B.C. 460.^ The art is ^^ginaean. The distinction of the sexes shows the school of the painter Eumarus. The vases of the early style called Doric are supposed to liave been exported from the Doric part of Greece, principally from Corinth ; whilst those with black figures of the Archaic Greek style are regarded as products of the Ionic states, and to have been chiefly procured from Athens. Their age might be conjectured from the representations on them of the Pentathlon, which was introduce! into the games of Greece in the LVth Olympiad, B.C. 560 ; and of the race of youths, which was adopted in the Lxvth. The Lxxth Olympiad, or about B.C. 500, was the age in which they were cliiefly manufactured. The next class, which after all is only a further improve- ment, has been called the old style, and is distinguished by the improved tone of the black colour employed ; the grounds, figures, and accessories being of a uniform monochrome, vary ing from a jet black to a blackish green, and rarely of a light bro\vii tint. When imperfectly baked the vase is of a light red colour and sometimes of air olive green. The faces of the females are white, to indicate superior delicacy of ^complexion, and the pupils of their eyes, wliiclr are more elongated than those of the male figures, are red. The eyes of the men are engraved, and of a form inclining to oval, the pupils circular, as if seen from the front, with two dots ; those of the women are generally long and oval-shaped, with red pupils, also circular. The eyes of the women are sometimes made like those of men, especially on those vases on which the women are coloured black upon a white ground.^ It has been supposed that the figures are imitations of shadows on a wall ; but they may have been copied from inlaid work. They res ^mble those just described. The » Rev. Ardi., 18G8, p. 283. Cat. d. | Etudes, p. 45. Mus. Campana, No. 23 ; Arch. Zeit,, ^ Annali, 1834, pp. 71, 72. 11 18G4, PL clxxxiv., dxxxv.; De Witte, ' ^ Jahn, Vasensammlimg, s. clix. J\ HAP. EARLY PERSPECTIVE. 195 forms are rather full and muscuar, the noses long, the eyes oblique and in profile, the pupil as if seen in front, the ex- tremities long and not carefully finished, the outlines rigid, the attitudes cCaplomh, the knees and elbows rectangular, the draperies stiff, and describing perpendicular, angular, and precise oval lines. The figures are generally in profile, full faces being very rare. V ^ ^^ Jt^.^TE^ V^V C No. 132.— Scene of Water-drawing from a Hydria. An attempt at perspective is sometimes made in paintings with black figures. On a hydria in the British Museum, the scene of which is the usual one, drawing water at the fountain of Callirrlue, the sacred spring is represented as rising in o buil ling with four Doric cohimns. Two of them are in front — for two of the females stand behind, and are partly eclipsed by them — whilst the other two cohimns are represented as in the centre of the building, but are rt^ally at the back, because the female fio:nres stand before them.^ Cat. Vas., No. 481. O 2 196 GREEK POTTERY. Tabt II. Although the vases of this class much resemble the works of the ^giiiaean school, considerable difference of opinion pre- vails as to their age ; for while by some persons they are con- sidered to be of the period to which at first sight it is usual to rel'er them, according to others they are imitations in an Archaic style,^ as is shown by the superiority of their composition and expression, ami by some of the details. The markings of the muscles and inner lines of the figures are incised with great care. The figures are depicted upon an orange ground, gene- rally of a very warm tone, being that of the natural colour of ^w. lo^.— .Eneas bearing ofiF Anchises. the clay heightened by the addition of the ruhrica or ruddle of Dibutades. White is often introduced to relieve the mono- tony of the other colours. It indicates the beard and hair of very old men ;. the colour of horses, which are often alternately white and black ; the emblems of shields ; the embroidery of garments, which are sometimes entirely of this colour. The beard and the nipples of male figures, the eyes of women, striking parts of the attire — as fillets, crests of helmets, edges of shields, borders and embroidery of garments, manes and other ^ Kramer, 1. c, s. 79. SlIAl'KS. li)7 parts of nnimals, are coloured of a crimson red/ This may liavc been tlie imitation of polychrome or chryselephantine sculpture. These vases are chiefly amphorae of the various kinds. Htjdriai, kaJpides, oinochoai, olpai, hylilces, krateres, especially those with columnar handles, which are supposed to be the description of vase called kelebe, are louijd only rarely at Vnlci, although they often occur elsewhere. Tijie lehythos, also so common in the graves of Greece, and especially at Athens,^ is rarely found at Vulci. Some visible diiferenCes in style are to be noted; the drawing on the vases with bl^ck figures from Nola being of a ^•softer style, while those of Athens are remarkable for ease and carelessness. - I No. 134.— Imbrex of the Old Style. The vases of this style discovered at Vulci have been subdivided into the rude Tyrrhenian, chiefly consisting of jimphorae of moderate size, and distinguished like those called Phoenician ^ by the physiognomy of their figures, as the oblique eyes, pointed noses and chins ; and, secondly, vases of an extreme antiquity of style, rendered still more evident by the absence of inner markings. It is to this latter class that cer- tain cups have been referred, especially those with deep bodies, tall stems, and subjects of small figures dispersed in narrow friezes round the body, as well as those with figures without attributes or an easily intelligible meaning. One of these cups, which bears the name of the potter Niko.sthenes, shows that this style is clearly only one of the types of Greek art, by no means limited to the soil of Italy. Some vases of this class are figured by Micali, and are pre- > See.Tahn, VosensammUmg, 8. elviii. p. 201, No. G.34; Micali, Storia, tav, ^ Gerhard, Rapp. Vole, p. 20. j Ixxv. Ixxviii. =• Ibid., p. 22; Berlin. Ant. Bildw., ' 198 GREEK POTTERY. Part II • served in the Museo Gregoriano and in the British Museum. The naked figures are tall, with thick bodies and small limbs and extremities ; the foreheads recede, the noses are long, the beards trim ; the draperies are particularly d'aplomh, with an architectural rigidity ; the chitons, or inner drapery, sack-like ; and the 'pe]ploi, or u[)per garments, which perhaps represent the ampeclionion, i'all in flat plaits. These are studded with stars and other embroideries, and display analogies with Assyrian and Aramaic art. The subjects, from the absence of typical points, are not capable of being divined.^ These vases must be classed amongst the oldest found at Vulci. The figures on them very much resemble in style the bronze idols and mural paintings of the Etruscans, and are clearly of a very old period, since a diligent and mechanical carefulness in the finish is by no meons incompatible with the earliest development of art. The affected style, and the coarse style, in which the figures have no inner markings, are considered to beloug to this school.^ Some inquirers have regarded these vases as the products of a school not Hellenic from the difference of their colour and glaze, the peculiar shape of the amphorae to which they are almost limited, the appearance of winged figures and monstrous animals, the absence of inscriptions and distinctive emblems, and the abnormal treatment of the few Hellenic myths which can be recognised amidst their unintelligible subjects and com- positions.^ They are, however, distinct from other vases with black figures, proved to be of Italian fabric, being in all respects superior to them, and are evidently the product of some Hellenic potterv. They have been principally found at Vulci. It is not to be supposed that the art of vase painting boldly leapt from one style to another. On the contrary, the changes were of a gradual nature, and the transitions almost imper- ceptible, though easily seen now, when the products of centuries of art are before us. Many, for example, of the vases with black figures have either red figures disposed on some portions of them,* or the accessories are treated in red upon a black * Mus. Etr., pp. ii. xxx. ■■* Bunsen, Ann. 1834, p. 74. ^ Jahn, Yasensammlnng, ss. clxxii. clxxiii. ; Micali, Storia, tav. Ixxvii. ; Ger- Micali, Mon. In., 47, 4, 5, 6. * Brondstedt, Trans. R. Soc. Lit. ii. p. 133; Stackelberg, Die Graber; Due de Luynes, Ann. 1832, p. 145 ; Kramer, hard, Aiiser. Vasen, 117, 118, iii. 4; s. 80; Panofka, Mus. Bartoli, p. 10. I Chap. IV. DRAWING OF STRONG STYLE. 199 ground ; from wliicli it has been inferred that both tlie black and the red figures were contemporaneous, and tliat the ancient styles were conventionally retained till a late period. Generally the inscriptions on these vases are of a very early form, and [^■previous to the introduction of the long vowels and double j^Petters. The inscriptions belong to the Attic and Achaean alphabets, the use of the Doric having disappeared from the vases of this class.^ The Ionic alphabet and the black figures were, however, often continued later, for they appear on the vases of the Basilicata and on the Panathenaic vases of Gyrene. The attitudes of the figures are hard and rude. The composi- tions differ ; the figures follow one after another, the attitudes are generally the same, and the groups arranged in symmetrical antithesis, often monotonous, often having not more than two or three figures on each side. Outside of a cup, on the edge of a deinos, or the covt-r of an amphora, occur friezes of small figures painted with minute detail, which also prevails in the accessories of the larger figures. Gontemporaneons with, and imilar to these, are certain vases with black figures upon a white or cream-coloured ground. On these the effect is pro- j^fcduced by covering the red backgrounds with a white coat, or '^^en'gobe, of pipe-clay.^ They were made by the same process as the others, the coating or engobe being subsequently added, and then polished. These vases are a development or com- bination of tlie Arcesilaus cup already described. On some of them the figures are painted with great care and finish, on others in a more hasty manner. Vases of all shapes are found in this style, but they are always of small dimensions. They are found in Italy and Sicily, and are contemporaneous with the preceding.^ Another period comprising vases of directly Athenian origin, all the friezes of which with red figures may be referred to the fourth century B.C., or end of Peloponnesian war, to Alexander the Great. This subdivision still retains the distinct charac- teristics of the Archaic, but it passes insensibly into the next or fine style. The strong vases may be referred to the age of the Peloponnesian war, and that immediately preceding it, the age of Polvu:notus and Pheidias. • Lenorniant, Rev. Ant., 18G3, p. i « Gerhard, Aiiswahl, vi., liv. ; De 190; Fiorelli, Dissertatus, 4to., Gott., i Witte, Etudes, p. 58. 1804. I ^ Jahn, Vasensammlun":, s. clxxiii. 200 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. As long as the vase painters continue to copy the stiff and hieratic forms, which carry back the imagination to the school of the Dsedalids, the black figure was sufficient. The careful mapping out of the hair and of the muscles, the decorations and all the details of shadow in painting and of unequal surface in sculpture, were more easily expressed by this method. But it is evident that these stiff lines were quite inadequate to express those softer contours, which melted, as it were, into one another, and which marked the more refined grace and freedom of the rapidly advancing schools of sculpture and paint- ing. By changing the colour of the figures to the lucid red or orange of the background, the artist was enabled to draw lines of a tone or tint scarcely darker than the clay itself, but still sufficient to express all the finer anatomical details ; while the more important outlines still continued to be marked with No. 135. — Kylix, with Gorgon and eyes. a black line finely drawn. The accessories in the earlier vases of this class continue^ to be crimson. The style is essentially the same, the forms precise, the eyes in^ profile, the attitudes rather rigid, the draperies rectilinear. Inscriptions rarely occur. The shapes of the vases themselves are nearly identical with those of vases with black figures. Technically, the change was produced by tracing the figures on the clay with a fine point, and then working in the whole ground in black. The inner markings and lines representing the hair, which in the other style were incised, in this are traced with a pencil in lines of a light-brown sienna colour, which in some instances are per- ceptible only in the strongest light. The outline of the figures is always surrounded with a thicker line of the black glaze, about one-eighth of an inch broad. It has been supposed that 1 Kramer, ss. 97-101. REVELS OF ANAKREON. (KYLIX, FROM VULCI ) Pnge 200 PBINTKD IN COLOUBS BT WUXIAil CLOWES ANT SONS. ' , OF THE UNIV€RSITY OF I lAP. IV. DETAILS.. 201 the backgl-oiiiul was painted in by an ordinary workman. Some pecimens exist in which it lias never been laid on. The artists em to have worked from slight sketches, and according to ^their individual feelings an 1 ideas ; and as there are liardly two vases exactly alike, it is evident that no system of copying was adopted. The accessories, such as the fillets of the hair, are rimson on the earlier, and white in the later specimens. The iigures, on the earliest vases of this style, so closely esemble the black fiii;uros, that some have supposed tliat tlie No. 136.— Interior of a Kylix, Peleus and Thetis. From Vulci. two styles co-existed, which indeed appears to be the case in some examples. Some of the vase-painters, indeed, as Pheidip- pos and Epictetos, painted in both styles. The early painters of the red vases endeavoured to imitate as much as possible the drawings of vases with black figures. On cups with black figures the large eyes are often painted, and then, by the force of imitation, are repeated on cups with red figures.^ The general contour of form is rather slender, but not so much so as ^ Jalin, Vascnsammlimg, s. clxxvi. 202 GKEES POTTERY. Part II. that observed in the school of Lysippus. The foreheads are low, the noses prominent, the eyes long, the chins sharp, the legs short and thick, aM the folds of the garments stiff and recti- linear.^ The female figures are not distinguished in this style either by their colour or by the shape of their eyes, in botli which respects they are the same as the men, but by their costume and form. The white hair of old men is indicated by white lines on the black ground, fair hair by brown lines on a red ground, white curly hair by raised little knobs, which recall the hostrychoi or clustering locks. The figures are generally small, but some of grandiose proportions occur even in this style,^ which is called by some writers the strong style,^ as it still possesses strength and continuity of outline, unimpassioned countenances, the expression being conveyed by the attitudes, while the treatment of the limbs connects the finest works of this sort with the Dae lalian school. The age of these vases is placed between the l. and Lxxx. Olympiads. Recent dis- coveries have shown that vases of this style are as old as the Parthenon, destroyed by the Persians, 01. Lxxv., B.C. 480, and certainly prior to the age of Pheidias.^ The vases with the historical subjects of Alcseus, 01. XLii., B.C. 612; Anacreon, 01. LX., B.C. 539 ; and Croesus, 01. lviii., b.c. 548, are in this style.^ The alphabet resembles that which appears in the Athenian inscriptions of 01. Lxxxvi., B.C. 436, but the language is both Attic and Doric' The drawing on tlie vases found at Vulci resembled in its general peculiarities that of the vases of Greece and Nola ; the figures are in the purest Greek style, and are drawn upon the flat portions of the JcyliJces and cups, and on the convex portions of other vases. The principal outlines are finished with wonder- ful spirit and truth, while in some parts and details, especially in the extremities, great carelessness is visible. The general effect is much improved, not only by the fineness of the clay, which in the vases of the earliest and best period is of a bright orange-red, but also by the brilliancy oF the black and greenish- black glaze. The ornaments, which are of larger size than on 1 ti * Gerhard, Eapp, Vole, p. 28. ^ Jahn, Vasensammlung, s. clxxxii. ' Kramer, s 101, 102. ^ Thiersch, Die griechisch beraalt. Va- seii, s. 81 ; Rossi in Millingen, ' Vases de Coghill,' p. viii. * Jahn, Vasensammlung, s. clxxiv., clxxv. ; Allg. Monatsschr. 1852, p. 3.%. ® Jahn, 1. c, s clxxxviii. ' Ibid , s. clxxxvii. JO AllSa3Air BIRTH OF ATHENE. (PELIKE, FROM VULCI.) Page 203. PRINTEP IN COI/IUnS BY Wni.I.IASl CLOWES ANP PONS. Jhai'. IV. FINE STYLK— FIGURES AND LETTERS. 203 he bliick vases, are of the same red colour, and the accessories re rarely inserted in white, or, on the vases of the earliest erlod, in crimson.^ A further development of this style, presenting all the char- acteristics of the last period of Greek art, and the highest point to whicrh the art attained, is the fabric called the fine style. In this the figures are still red, and the black grounds re occasionally very dark and lustrous.^ The ornaments are in white, and so are the letters. The figures have lost that hardness which at first characterised them; the eyes are no longer represented oblique and in profile ; the extremities are finished with greater care, the chin and nose are more rounded, and have lost the extreme elongation of the earlier school.^ The limbs are fuller and thicker, the faces noble, the hair of the head and beard treated with greater breadth and mass, as in the style of the painter Zeuxis, who gave more flesh to his figures, in order to make them appear of greater breadth and IQore grandiose, adopting the ideas of Homer, who represents iven his females of larger proportions.^ The great charm of tliose designs is the beauty of the compo- ition, and the more perfect proportion of the figures. The head is an oval, three-quarters of which are comprised, from the chin to the ear, thus affording a guide to its proportions, which are far superior to those of the previous figures. The disproportionate shajje of the limbs disappears, and the counte- nance assumes its natural form and expression. The folds of the drapery, too, are freer, and the attitudes have lost their ancient rigidity. It is the outgrowth of the life and freedom of n ideal proportion, united with careful composition^ The figures are generally large, and arranged in groups of two or ■three on each side, occupying about two-thirds of the height of the vase. Some exceptions, however, occur, such as a single pmall figure on the neck of a stamnos in the Berlin Museum.® One side of the vase, which appears to have been intended to stand against a wall, or at all events not to be so prominently seen as the other, is not finished with the same care. Figures in full face are less uncommon than on the earlier vases. The age of these vases is fixed by the appearance of the long vowels. ' Gerhard, Rapp. Vole, pp. 26-28. j ■» Quintilian, Inst. Or., xii. 10 ; Kra- 2 Ibid., p. 24. mer, 101. •* Kramer, s. Ill; Gerhard, neuerw. » Kramer, ss. 104, 105. ant. Denkra., s. 111. « Berl. Ant. B:ld.. 1651. >5 Chap. IV. STYLE. 205 the clianp^cd form of tlio aspirate, anl the presence of the double or aspirated letters, introduced into the public acts after the archoushii) of Euelid, Olympiad xciv., B.C. 403. The change of costume agrees with these criteria, as the Carian instead of the Corinthian lielraet, and the Argolic for the Boeotian buckler. l''rom the composition of the designs on this and on the former chiss of vases being superior to the drawing, it has been conjec- tured that they are copies from the works of the first masters of antiquity. As scarcely any two are alike, it has been supposed that they are sketches made from memory, adapted to the convex surfaces on wliich they were delineated, and on which it was exceedingly difficult to draw. And as the vase painters considered themselves artists — although their profession never attained a high position in the history of art — they departed considerably from the originals from which they drew their inspiration.^ The varnish is excellent in tone and colour, and the red accessories throughout are replaced by white used with discretion. The principal shapes in this style are the hydria with a globular body, or half is ; the ani^horeus with elongated egg- shaped body and tall neck, and having either flat banded handles, or else those with a double twist ; the supposed Ijelike ; the cup with two horizontal handles^ the supposed sJcifphos ; the jug with round mouth, or oljpe ; the oil-jug, or lekijthos ; the vase \\ ith circular body, or aryhallos ; the shallow cup on a tall stem, or Jcylix ; the elegant cup with a cover, or supposed lekane — the liydria, the Jcyathos, the Jcarchesion, or cup witli spiral handles ; the j^inax, or dish with a tall foot ; the stamnos ; the hrater with large open mouth ; a campana of the Neapolitan antiquaries, the supposed oxijhajpha ; some rhyta, or drinking-cups ; and others in the shape of heads.^ An oinoclioe, in the British Museum, may be taken as an illustration of the vases of this style. The subject depicted on it is the Hyperborean Apollo riding upon a gryphon. The crown of the god, and the berries of the laurel are gilded, which mode of ornament occurs very rarely upon the vases of Vulci. It may be classed with the latest vases of the fine style, much resembling in its art the large kraters or oxyhaj>ha found in the tombs of Apulia. A still finer specimen of this style, ' Cf. Millingcn, Vases do Coghill, Trcface, p. xii. - Gerhai-d, liapp. Vul., pp. 25, 26 Kramer, ss. llG-129. 206 GREEK POTTERY. Part 1 1. excessively grandiose in its treatment, is the Nolan amphora with the subject of the poet Musreus, with a female named Meletosa, and the muse Terpsichore. Sicily has also produced many Abases of this style. The proportion of the figures, the style of the draperies, the pose of the figures, and their arrangement in composition, bear great resemblance to the sculptures of the Parthenon, to those of the Temple of Phigaleia, the balustrade of the temple of Victory, and other works acknowledged to be of the finest period of Greek art. All that is told of the style of painting of UlUIJ101'UlU|U|U|UlJlJ|UlU|JlU|UlUlUIUlUIUlUlUIUlUIUlJlUrJIUl^ J UlU UlJlLll'J|Uiy -AaA/^A KA.Xk k kXX k k k AAA. A A A AA A. A A A A/vA.AJ>^.A KAJ^kL No. 138.— Lajit Night of Troy — iEueas— Cassaudia. Vaso in ihe Museum at NapLs. Polygnotus^ Parrhasius, and Zeuxis, may be traced in the designs~ori:hese vases ; ^ while the later ones, in the isolation of tlie figures upon larger plain surfaces, and the elongation of forms, approach the known canon of Lysippus, and blend into the immediately subsequent style, which just preceded the final decadence of the art of painting vases. The subjects on this class of vases are nearly the same as those of the so-called strong style, but perhaps a greater pro- portion is derived from the Dionysiaca. Among them, however, are found incidents from the Gigantomachia, the Perseid, the ' Cf. Neapel ant. Bildw., torn. vii. s. 369 ; Williiigen, Anc. Uned. Mou., PI. XX., xxiv. ; Vas. de Luc. Eonaparte, livr. i. Nos. 542, 543. iTORNl/^ ^ !Z3 208 GREEK POTTERY. Paut II. exploits of Dionysos and Herakles, tlie Theseid, from the Iliad and Odyssey, and a few from the tragedians, together with triclinia and athletic scenes. The numerous vases of this style found at Santa Aerata dei Goti have given the name of this site to the style. It is the next advance in art towards that exhibited in the still later sepulchres of Apulia. In all these styles there is much negli- gence of execution. Heads and limbs of figures often intrude on the panels of ornaments, an instance of which occurs in a vase of late style representing a singular scene. In this vase the feet of one of the figures are so intermingled with the ornament below, as scarcely to be distinguished from it.^ It is by no means necessary to suppose that one style of fabric ceased immediately on the introduction of another and improved one ; on the contrary, it probably continued till so entirely super- seded that the fabric became obsolete. Hence the transition from the " fine " style of the earlier vases to a subsequent one, which may be termed florid — analogous to the state of art in the time of Pyrrhus. The most striking examples of this style have been found in Apulia, at Kuvo and Athens. The figures are neither so rigid as in the '' strong," nor so full and fleshy as in the " fine " style, but intermediate, being tall and graceful with small heads, like the canon of Lysippus.^ The finish of the hair, which is produced by thin lines, is most careful and minute ; the attitudes are graceful and breathe an air of refine- ment and voluptuousness amounting to affectation. A predi- lection for rounded forms is most marked. The figures are richly attired with head-gear and embroidered dresses, the folds of which are sketched in with the greatest freedom. The orna- ments are large arabesques abundantly used ; while numerous objects are introduced into the field to show where the scene took place. A kind of perspective here first appears, groups being arranged in rows. The ground is indicated by stones or small plants. The glaze is pale and white ; blue, green, yellow, red, and gilding appear in tlie accessories. The most remarkable specimen of this class is the Vase of Meidias, with the subject of the Rape of Leucippides. Many magnificent vases of the same class are found, consisting of large hrateres, amjphoreis, and hydriai. Among the smaller ones are two exquisite lehijtlioi, in the British Museum, both having allegorical subjects.^ » Cab. Point., xxii. ^ Kramer, s. 129. ^ Kramer, ss. 120-131. IV. roLYcrmoME. 209 Oh these vasos gold is introduced as an accessory in the lore ini{)ortant parts. On a httle vase found at Athens, liaving 'on it tlie allegorical subject of Ploutos and Chrysos, a tripod, the wings of the horses, some collars and other parts are gilded.^ On another found at Ruvo, representing the Judgment of Paris, the wings of tlie Erotes, the collars and bracelets of the god- desses, and tlie cadnceus of Hermes are gilded. The personal ornaments of female figures^ are ordinarily so adorned on tlie best of tliem ; and on others, very appropriately, the apples of the Hesperides.^ One of the distinguishing marks of this style, which cannot be denied to have great merit, is the use of arabesque ornaments on tlie necks of the vases, consisting of heads of females,"^ often with tresses, or youthful heads with rams' horns ^ lising from a flower, and having on each side architectural and arabesque foliage, often a winged figure of Nike," Aurora, or a Bacchante ; ' or else the perpetual Kros, or 'Move," lightly trips on the flowers.^ It would appear that the polychrome vases which have a fine black glaze on parts, such as the neck, handles, and feet, were contemporary with the preceding. They are principally leky- thoi, but a few Jcylihes, omochoai, and kraieres of this style have been found. The whole of the body of the vase is coated with a thin layer of lime, leuJcoma, brought to a remarkably fine surface. Over this has been laid a thin siliceous glaze. On the earliest and most elaborate of these vases the figures are drawn in outline in a fine glazed black and sienna-brown colour.^ These may be ranked as pencil sketches, and for purity and beauty of outline, are perhaps unrivalled, as may be seen on the fine vase of the Vatican, representing the birth of Bacchus. At a later time, however, the coating and the outlines are more commonly unglazed, and the figures drawn in black or vermilion. So feeble are these pencillings that some have supposed that they were drawn by females; but it appears that they are the first sketches, and were painted over with opaque colours : for traces of these still remain on many, although for the most part ' Bull. 1836, p. 16o; Lenormant and ; Tischb., iv. (ii.) 14. De Witte, xcvii. ; Stackelbcrg, taf. xxx. 2 Cf. for example, the vase of Anesi- dora. ^ On the Meidias vase. * G. Auser., i. v.; D'Hanc, ii. 39; * G. A., ii. « G. A. A, i. ' G. A., 6, 7. 8 G. A., 6, 7; G. M., iii. ^ Thicrsfh, Die Hellenisch. bemalt. Yas., taf. iii. iv. r 210 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. they have scaled off through the effects of time. The draperies were coloured blue, purple, vermilion, or green. Gold was sparingly employed. The akroteria of tombs were coloured blue and green.^ Even shades and half-tones were employed, which appear on monochrome vases of the latest period. In the treatment of the hair, the full faces, the style and attitude, they are like the vases previously described, and the coins of Magna Gra^cia and Sicily of the same period. The subject is always funereal, generally that incident in the Oresteid, which unfolds the dramas of ^schylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, or Chrysothemis at the tomb of Agamemnon. Hermes conducting a shade to the boat of Charon is not uncommon. Nike, or Victory, warriors, and figures lying upon biers, are also found ; all subjects of funereal import. A remarkable vase of this style, found in a tomb near the Piraous, resembles in shape the glass ossuaria of the Romans. It is entirely coated with white, and has round the neck a laurel wreath coloured blue. In it are the ashes of the dead, the obolos for its fare, naulos, still ad- hering to the jaw, and a few gilt terra-cotta ornaments. Outside, modelled in terra-cotta and gilt, are the fore parts of three gryphons, resembling the ornaments called ^rohossoi by Herodotus. It is impossible that these external paintings, as easily erased as a charcoal sketch on a white \vall, could have been used on vases intended for the palaestra, the baths, or temples, or for household work. They are evidently the sepul- chral lekythoi which were placed in the tomb or on the breast of the dead, as mentioned by Aristophanes and his scholiasts. Vases of a similar shape aje seen in the vase pictures placed in the haneon, or basket, containing the food and fillets offered to the dead, and others probably held the choai, or libations of water and oil. Many still retain remains of an alluvial clay, mixed with small fresh-water shells, apparently the deposit of the water which they once held. Sach vases are also represented on the steps of tombs on which the stele stood.^ Some of the later lekythoi found in Italy are also of this style, and have on one side or in front a bas-relief subject rudely modelled in the clay of which the vase is made ; this is coloured with a leukoma, which is painted with appropriate colours, and in parts gilded. ^ Semper, Museum of Classical An- tiquities, 1851, p. 240; Stackelberg, Die Graber, s. 37. ■ ^ See one with a Bacchanal subject, Panofka, Mus. Blac., PI. iii. JnAi'. TV. SErULClIH.NF FATPLOYMKNT. 211 I IH^ho consular denarii, which have been found with them in certain tombs, fix their date at B.C. 200.^ With them must be classed certain lehytlioi moulded in the form of Dionysos, seated in an arbour formed by the vine, in that of panthers, and covered with a coating of white clay, appropriately coloured with opaque white, pink, and green. They are charming little objects, often well executed. Among the subjects of tliem are a boy seated and playing with a dog,^ a winged Eros seated on a dolphin,^ Europa seated on the bull crossing the sea, Eros lying under roses,^ and a boy playing with a goose. But the most remarkable vase of this class is one in the Jena Museum, on whifh is represented Aphrodite in the shell, attended by Eros, her doves and a swan.^ Vases with polychromic figures on oiange backgrounds, not coated, are also found. A hydria, from Gnathia, had for its subject a seated man, with red am^pechonion and green tunic, bidding farewell to a female, with a yellow chiton and rose- loloured shawl.^ Another of these polychrome vases, of the ihape called hrater, was found in a sepulchre at Centuripa?, or 'entorbi, in Sicily, in 1835 ; and Sir Woodbine Parish possesses magnificent specimen of this class found at Kuvo.'^ The verse of this style was sometimes adopted, the figures being ft black, and the entire ground stopped out in white.^ Many hjlihes of fine drawing glazed black on the outside and ith red figures, but externally with a white background — imongst them are one of this kind, having on the inside the iibject of the adornment of Pandora, drawn in linear and gran- iose proportions, while on the outside, in red figures of the ter style of the decadence, are athletes conversing.^ And others with the busts of Dionysos, by the artist Euphronios, Achilles and Penthesilea, Apollon and Tityos, and Aphrodite on a swan, from Camirus, Theseus, and Procrustes.^" Some of these vases belong to the period of the strong style, exhibiting the same technical peculiarities. Such are a hylix, in the ' Cf. Stackelberg, Griiber, taf. xlix. ; « Arch. Zeit., 1847, s. 190. Cab. PourtaRs, p. 94, No. 28. ' Cf. Bull., 1833, p. 5. 2 Stackelberg, Graber, taf. 1. « D'Haucarville, i. HG. 5 Jalin, Beritrlite d. k. Sachs. Gesell- j " Bullet. 18J9, p. 98, found at Nola. schaft d. Wissenschaften, Febr. 1853, j Gerhard, Festgedanken an Winokel- ■^ 1 t ' mami, 4to, Berlin, 1841. ' lierlln. Ant. Bildw., No. 1685. »» Do Witte, Etudes, p. .SI. •lalm, 1. c, s. 15, taf. i. ii. I' 2 212 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. Campana Collection, having inside the subject of Theseus stretching Procrustes on his bed, in which the curly hair is treated with raised globules; and other hjlikes, with a Bac- chante and Satyr, from Vulci and Kuvo.^ The transition from the florid style to that of the decadence is rapid. The red colour is paler, the glaze often of a dull leaden colour, the ornaments are multiplied, and large in pro- portion to the subjects. Although the heads and extremities of the figures still retain their slender proportions, the bodies and limbs are large, and present an obesity, such as is seen in the Larths and Lucumons of the Etruscan sarcophagi, and in the mural paintings of Pompeii. The male figures have an androgynous look. The proportions are short. They appear to be copies of paintings of the Rhodian school. The costume is most florid, consisting of richly-embroidered tunics with borders, conical caps,^ armlets in the shape of serpents, radiated head-dresses, sphendones. The figures are no longer few and detached, but grouped in masses on the large vases, and the composition is essentially pictorial. The females are still draped at the commencement of the style, but at a later period are seen naked, as in the Koian school. White opaque colour is freely introduced for the flesh of the females and children, and even males,^ as well as into the attire;'' and as the art decays, almost entirely supersedes the previpus red colour. The pecu- liarities of this style have given rise to the conjecture that these vases were an inferior article, hastily executed for sale. They are rarely found in Greece and Nortliern Italy, but abound in the sepulchres of Southern Italy and Sicily. From their common occurrence in the Terra di Lavoro and the Basilicata, and at Santa Agata dei Goti, they are commonly known by the designation of vases of the style of the Basilicata, and have even been supposed to be the production of the semi-civilised population of that country.^ They have, however, been found at Athens and Berenice, or Bengazi in the Kyrenaica. The vases of this style at its best period are later than the intro- * Jalm, Vasensammlung, s. clxxxiii. It may, however, be doubted if any vases of the strong style have been found at 3 D'Hancarville, i. PI. 65. ^ Kramer, ss. 133-137. ' Cf. Dempster, Etruria Regalis, Ruvo. Generally, these white vases are pagw^i ; Inghirami, Mon. Etr., s. \i. of the period of the end of the fine or j T. O., 3; Passeri, passim; Gori, Mu- commencement of the florid style. \ seum Etruscum ; Caylus, Recueil, t. i. ^ D'Hancarville, Vases Etrusques, i. j PI. 30-40. 48. I Chap. IV. SUBJECTS AND INSCRIPTIONS. 213 dnction of the double letters in the Arehonship of Euclid, Olympiad xciv., B.C. 404, and come down to nearly B.C. 200.^ They diifer also in shape from the previous class. The Icrater, or so-called oxijbaphon, is of common occurrence. The Basili- catan amphora is quite a modification of the old form. The oinochoe also completely changes its character, the body being either egg-shaped on a foot, or else squab. The leJcythos has a semi-oval body, and the kylix is replaced by the supposed lepaste or dish. A kind of open vase^ the hadishos, and pinahes, or plates, are also found at this period. The subjects likewise exhibit a change in taste and feeling. The greater proportion of them is derived from the thiasos of Dionysos, and treated with the highest degree of phantasia to which Greek art attained. The Eleusinian story of Triptolemos, the Herakleid, Gigantoraachia, Theseid, Odysseid, and Oresteid, the Perseid, the story of Pelops and Oinomaos, that of Oidipous, of Prokne and Philomela, together with subjects from the Tragedies, and from the Middle and Low Comedy, are found at the commence- ment of the decadence ; but, as it proceeded, the choice of subjects became restricted to a few, although some, consisting of allegorical representations, were suggested by the philoso- phical writers, and by the decay of religious feeling. A group, often repeated, is that of a female seated upon a rock, holding a basket, fillet, and bunch of grapes, and approached by a flying figure of Eros, holding similar object-^. In other instances, females are represented at musical entertainments ; a youth, leaning upon a stick, addresses the principal one, while Eros hovers in the air ; or a youth and females hold a bird, supposed to be the iynx, in their hands, and represent the meeting of Adonis and Venus. A common subject is Eros holding grapes, and flying alone through the air. The a[)pearance of h for the aspirate in the scratched in- scriptions, chiefly found upon these vases, shows them to be coeval with the coins of Heraclea. The occurrence of an epigram extracted from the Peplos of Aristotle, shows them also to be later than that collection.^ Some of the latest in style are certain kraferes, found at Orbi- tello and Yolterra, on which the figures are drawn in the ' Thiersch, ss. 81, 82. ] 1698, 25; Jahn,Va8onsammlung cxxiv.- '^ Millmgcn, Anc. Un. Mon., i. 36; j cxxxiii. ISIus. Borbon., ix. 28; Eustath. Od. A , | 214 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. coarsest manner, with outlines of most exaggerated proportions and cliildish design.^ Blue and red accessories, such as dra- peries, wings, and parts of figures,^ are introduced, and male figures begin to be coloured like the female. The frequency of Bacchanalian subjects on the last vases of this class, is by some writers connected with the prevalence of the Bacchanalian rites and worship in Campania, as indicated by a decree of the Senate^ for their suppression, a.u.c. 540 = B.C. 207. The arts at this period were at the lowest ebb, and the later vases exhibit grotesque figures in barbarian costume, surcharged with elaborated ornaments, and drawn in the coarsest style. The mode of painting opaque figures in imitation of the red figures of the strong and fine styles has been already described. The process, indeed, is as old as the vases with black figures, and one of the amphora3 of the potter Nikosthenes has a female accompanied by a dog so painted on each side of the neck. White figures reappear on the vases of the decadence, but the process is then different. The whole of the figure is painted in opaque white on the black ground, and the details expressed by yellow, brown, or light scarlet lines delicately drawn over the white coating. The white of these vases is always flat, not glazed. The last vases of this kind are those entirely glazed black, with opaque polychrome or white figures. Their paste is paler than that of the vases of the later Apulian style, their glaze inferior, and of a more leaden hue.* The drawing is more care- fully executed than that of the last class, but is feeble in con- ception, and in the worst taste, consisting of female heads rising out of scrolls of foliage, wreaths of myrtle, laurel, or ivy, tied with fillets, to which are occasionally suspended the masks of the comic or tragic drama, heads of Aphrodite, and her dove. A hijlix, however, has the subject of a youthful hero, or hunter, executed in very good style, with shading like the mural paintings of Pompeii. The monotony of the w^hite figures was relieved by drawing the details upon them in lines of a light ^ Cf. Inghirami, Vasi Fittili, cxxvii., j iiber die italisch-griechisclie Baccha- cxxx., cxxxi. I nalien-feier, in his Ideen sur Archao- 2 See the figure of Eros, D'Hancar- ; logie der Malerei, p. 173, u. f. ville, ii. 35. j * The finest collection of this style 3 Gerhard, Rapp. Vole, p. 101 ; Ann. i of vases is said to be that of the Mus. 1834, p. 78; Livius, xxxix. 8; Kra- ' Borbon. mer, ss. 44, 136, 137; Bottiger, Excurs Chap. IV. GR/ECO-llOMAN VASES. 215 yellowish-brown. Some of these vases are still to be considered of a certain merit as regards tlieir execution ; but the style rapidly decays, and in some specimens ma le when the Komaus were masters of Campania, such as the pliialai, bearing the iioman inscriptions Heri pocolora, Volcaiii pocolom,^ Belonai and Acetiai pocolom, Saiiturni pocolom, Salutis pocolom, Lavernai pocolom, or the cups of Vulcan, Bellona, Saturn, iEquitas, Sal us, and Laverna, the colour is coarsely laid on, and the art of the very worst taste. At different periods the Etruscans and other races in Italy attempted to produce vases similar to those of the best Greek style, but they never succeeded. Their process, indeed, was like that of the decadence. For the vases with black figures, the maker covered the whole vases with a paint of ashy-grey or black colour, over which he threw a very imperfect glaze. The parts required for the black figures of the subject were then traced out, and the painter covered the rest of the original black ground Avith an opaque red, apparently produced from triturated fragments of Greek vases, or else from clay. The vases with red figures were produced by colouring the figures in opaque red paint, and cutting lines through for the muscles and details to the glaze beneath, in imitation of the black lines. The designs on some vases of this style, however, have been executed by paring through a black glaze to the body of the paste of the vase. Many are executed in the Greek manner, and are distinguishable only by the paleness of the clay, and by their subjects. Vases prepared in the manner just described, have, however, been found in the excavations at Corinth. That these vases ceased to be made during the later days of the Roman republic is evident from the fact of none having as yet been found in Herculaneum, Pompeii, or Stabiae, cities in Southern Italy pre-eminently Iioman ; while numerous examples have been discovered in the towns of Capua, Nola, and other sites, superior in many respects to those found in the isles of Greece.^ When chased vases of gold and silver came into use, and almost superseded painted ones, the potters could no longer afford to employ skilful artists, and only manufactured pieces of a small size, which bear evident marks of the influence of the metallic upon the fictile vases. The latter, as well as their » G. T. C, viii. ; V. L. I., p. 34, No. xiv. '' D'llancarvillc, ii. pp. 92, 94. 216 . GREEK rOTTERY. Part II. ornaments, were now generally made in a mould ; the bodies were reeded, and moulded ornaments, either from a die or modelled, consisting of subjects in bas-relief, emhiemata, were placed below the handles of jugs, along the rims of cups, and inside the jpliicdai, or saucers. The upper parts of the askidia, or little oil-feeders, or perhaps lehythoi, are also ornamented with subjects in medallions above, of various kinds, some being taken from foreign myths. On a jphiale of the best moulded style is a frieze of very spirited treatment, representing Athene, Ares, Herakles, and Artemis, each in a quadriga, driven at full speed. At the bottom of another is the fac-simile of a Syracusan medallion, not older than the younger Dionysius, B.C. 343. The manner in which the animal figures are arranged on the vases differs considerably according to their styles. On the early fawn-coloured ones, the figures are small in proportion to the size of the vase, and are disposed in rows, facing one way, which are repeated like an ornament. On the yellow vases the figures, although of a larger size, still form continuous friezes ; but they either face different ways, or are arranged in groups of threes or fives, facing each other. The human figures either all face the same way, or are arranged, as in friezes or pedi- ments, in two files, facing the centre, where the principal action takes place. The accessories, such as flowers, occupy the whole field. As the technical details improve on the earliest vases with Greek figures, these accessories are omitted ; but a peculiar floral ornament, the prototype of that called helix, the antefixal ornament, or palmetto, appears at the handle. On the oldest hylikes, or cups, the figures are small, an(i arranged in friezes round the outside, having sometimes only one or two figures on each side of the handles, whilst at other times they are richly filled with them. Inside of the cup is a medallion, consisting of a single subject, and often of only one figure. The external subjects resemble, and are perhaps copied from, those on the pronaos and jposticum of a temple. On the earlier amphorae, the single, double, and triple figures suggest that the compo- sition was borrowed from metopes, a practice which broke up the subject into particular incidents, and attracted the spectator's admiration to the details of art, and to the excellence of sepa- rate parts. Many of the subjects of the Tyrrhenian amphoreis and hydriai resemble those of mural paintings and sculptured pediments. In proportion, however, as the arts improved, the I HAP. IV. NUMBER OF FIGURES—ADJUNCTS. 217 mimber of figures was dirniiiisluul, while they became hirger in their proportions, and treated with more care. On the cu[)s, tlie number of figures on eacli side rarely exceeded three, and the same quantity is usually found on the amphorae. On the oinochoe the number is one, two, or three. When there are three or more figures, their attitudes nearly correspond, and sometimes both on the obverse and reverse. The hydria has often several figures on the front of the body, while on the fiat part, or chest, is a smaller frieze of figures of very dimi- nished proportions, sometimes amounting to as many as twelve. The back of this sort of vase is plain. On the cup called hyathis, the number of figures rarely exceeds three. Single figures occur on the plates. As the ornaments on the earlier cups resemble the bands of friezes which enriched the temples, so on the later ones the forfu of metopes is preferred. The earlier vases with red figures are also painted in the same style ; but on some of the smaller ones, and especially on those of Nola, the abstraction is rendered still more complete by representing only a single figure, the protagonistic or chief one, upon the side of the vase intended to be most seen, whilst the subordinate figure is depicted upon the reverse. Many of the smaller vases have two figures upon each side, but three figures rarely, if ever, occur. On the principal side the figures are well and carefully drawn, while the haste and rapidity with which they were fiin'shed on the other side, shows that they were not intended to be much seen. On all these vases standing attitudes are preferred to sittiug ones.^ On the Jcrateres of Lucania, and on Apulian vases, which resemble the later style of amjyJwreis and omochoai, the number of figures is often three, or at the most four; but the usual number on the reverse is three. The subjects are generally gymnastic, or taken from scenes of pri- vate life. The accessories to these scenes, or the manner in which the locality is indicated, is in the pure taste of the Greeks. For the sea, a few undulating lines, or sometimes the cymation mouldiug is adopted ; for the air a bird is only rarely introduced. The gymnasion is indicated by a lehjthos, or pair of dumb-bells, halteres, for leapers, suspended in the area ; the school, by a book, a letter, or a lyre ; the gynaiheioii, ' Bottiger, Vasengem., ii. 40, men- tions having seen hundreds. Laborde, Vases de Lambcrg, ii. p. 45, lueutious vases comprising thousands of such figures. 218 GEERK rOTTERY. Part 11. by a sash, or girdle, or lekythos. The halls, or other principal rooms of buildings, are sometimes indicated by a column. The rest of the area is generally vacant, and the mind of the spec- tator, as in the scenes of a play, is called upon to supply the deficiency. On those vases, however, on which the later deve- lopment of style is visible, an important change takes place in the arrangement of the figures. There is an attempt to repre- sent the inequalities of the ground, which are indicated by dotted lines, and by placing the objects on diiFerent levels. The figures are placed in rows ; lines, similar to those already de- scribed, represent the earth on which they are treading ; and the enamelled mead is seen profusely strewn with small flowers. The figures most remote from the spectator are sometimes seen in half-length. In this style the accessories are occasionally treated in a manner closely resembling the mural paintings at Pompeii and Herculaneum. Rocks, fountains, the labra of baths, trees, architectural mouldings, and floral scrolls, are pro- fusely introduced, and fill up and enrich the whole of the background. Such is the disposition of the figures on the amphorae of the later or Basilicatan style, on which they are often piled one above another. On the krators with small side-handles, oxy- ha^ha, of the earlier style, one row of figures occupies about two-thirds of the vase. Round the rim, or mouth, is generally a laurel wreath, while the figures stand on a moeander border. An egf^ and tongue ornament decorates the bases of the handles.^ When double rows of figures are introduced, the subjects are separated by a band of the same ornament, and the lips of the vase are enriched with rows of helihes?^ On the kraters with columnar handles, helehai, the subjects are differently arranged. The black ground forms a square picture on which the red figures are traced. The termination of the picture is defined by two vertical wreaths of ivy,^ whilst a horizontal wreath is sometimes painted across the outer rim ; or else there is a frieze of interlaced buds across the neck.* A frieze of animals in black upon a red ground is frequently painted on the outer rim of the lip, the subject of which is a lion attacking a boar.^ The foot is often ornamented with the calyx pattern.^ 1 Millingen, Vases de Coghill, PI. xix. 2 Ibid., ri. i. 3 Ibid., Pi. viii. ^ Ibid., PI. xviii. * Ibid., PI. X. « Ibid., Pi. xxiv, (HAP. IV. TREATMENT AND LOCALITY. 219 On the late vasos, with opaque wlrito figures, the treatment is architectural, the objects being treated as the component j)arts of buihlings, or of mural decorations.^ Faces are repre- sented as looking out of windows ; masks, festoons of wreaths, jind laurel branches appear, copied from such objects when hanging upon walls. Lastly, the modelled vases are treated in the style of bas-reliefs of the Roman school. They are covered with a fine black glaze, like that of the Nolan vases, but prin- cipally come from Sicily and Salonica. Notwithstanding their manifest inferiority to the nobler ieflforts of Greek art, the display of taste in composition and treatment seen in these sketches has obtained the admiration of all the admirers of the fine arts of antiquity.^ The attempts to classify the vases by their place of manu- facture have been entirely unsuccessful.^ The early ones dis- covered at Santorino, Melos, Athens, and Mycenae show that one style was then universal in Greece. Vases of the Doric style of Corinth have also been discovered at Athens, Nola, Vulci, and elsewhere ; and the vases with black figures are widely diffused in Greece, Italy, and Sicily. The same is the case with the red vases of the early or hard style, which are abundant both in Greece and Italy. Those of the so- called Nolan style have also been exhumed at Vulci in Magna Graecia, at Tarentum in Sicily, at Athens, Corinth, Solygia, and Berenice. Vases of the grander style, at one time considered Sicilian, have been found in the vicinity of Naples, and in Southern Italy.'* The florid style is common to Euvo and Athens ; the decadence to Apulia, Athens, Vulci, Italy, Africa,^ and the Peloponnese. The decaying styles of the Basilicata and of Apulia are difficult to discriminate, and appear also on vases from Greece and Greek settlements out of Italy, as Berenice and Panticapaeum. Even the style with outlines on a white ground is extant among the vases of Vulci, Tarentum, the Locri, and Athens.^ The monochrome paintings on ancient vases, which exhibit no distinction of sex, cannot be older than Hygiainon, Dinias, ^ Cf. vol, ii., xxsii. xlvi. 2 Winckelmann, ' Kunstgeschichte,' iii., c. iv., and Bd. L Ann. 818, s. 448, u. f. ; Meyer, Eaub. der Cassandra, s. 15 ; Ptossi, in Millingen, V. de Coghill, p. Kramer, s. 10, u. f. * Kramer, 1. c, s. 27 ; De Witte, Cat. Dur., p. ii. 4 Kramer, 1. e., s. 29. ' Ibid., 8. 33. ix. ; Due de Luynes, Ann. 1832, p. 144; I « Ibid., s. 35. 220 GREEK POTTERY. Part H. and Charmades, who painted with a single colour ; but unfor- tunately the age of these artists is not known.^ Those which distinguish the sexes, which is the case with nearly all, are later than the time of Eumarus, who first made this distinction.^ Kimon of Kleonai, who improved on the works of Eumarus, advanced the art of painting by introducing three-quarter and full faces, by giving expression to the features, by marking the articulations of the limbs, the veins, and the folds of drapery. Plis age also is not defined, although some have attempted to place it in Olympiad lxxx., b.c. 460. Those vases, on which forms, especially of females, are seen through the drapery, are late r than the school o f Polygnotus, or Olympiad xc, B.C. 420. CSftain vases, in the figures oi' wiiicli the ethos, or moral senti- ments and feelings, are thrown into the countenances, are later than Zeuxis of Heraklea, who lived before Olympiad Lxxxviii. 3, B.C. 426 ; and such as exhibit fineness in the treatment, espe- cially of the hair, mouth, and extremities, belong to the school of Parrhasius, Olympiad lxxxix., b.c. 424, while beauty was the forte of Apelles, the contemporary of Alexander the Great, B.C. 336. Parrhasius painted obscenities. Aristides of Thebes expressed the passions, and was the contemporary of Apelles. Mikomachos^ was the first who bestowel a bonnet on Ulysses. He was another contemporary of Apelles. The grylli, or fan- ciful combinations, were invented by Antiklides, B.C. 356. Ardikes of Corinth and Telephanes of Sikyon introduced more extensive lines in the tracing of the figures ; and Kleophantos filled them up with a flat or monochrome colour, apparently powdered earthenware, or red colour. Olympiad xxx., B.C. 660. 8uch designs appear on vases of the decadence.* Other criteria have been proposed for determining the age of vases, as the appearance of cars with a single yoke, invented by Kleisthenes,^ instead of the double one used at the time of Sophocles ; and of masks, which were first used by Thespis and ^schylus. To the inscriptions and their age attention will be subsequently directed. > Pliny, XXXV. 8, 34. ^ j^i^j^ 3 D'Haneaiville, ii. 110, 112. ^ Pliny, XXXV. c. 3, s. 5. * Isidor., xviii. 32. Jhap. V. T^ECOUDED SUDJECTS. 221 CHAPTEK V. ilflzed vnses continued — Subjects — Carved wooden and metal vasop — Difficulty of tile inquiry — Sources — Various hypotheses — Millinj^cn's division of suV)- jects — Panofka's division — Compositions embracing entire myths — Fran^dia vase — Method — Gigaiitoniuchia — Subjects with Zeus — Hem — Athene — Poseidon — Deineter and Kora — Deljihic deities, Apollo — Artemis — Hepluiis- tos — Ares — Aphrodite — Kermes — Hestia — Dionysos — Sileni, Nymphs and Satyrs — Pan — Bacchanals on Lucanian vases — Marsyas — l-'rotes — Chnrites — IVIuses — Hygieia — Erichthonios — Cabeiii — Atlas — Pro- metheus — Hades — Moirai — Erinnyes — Hypnos — Thanatos — The Kerts — Hekate — Gorgons — Helios — Heos — Nereus — 'J'riton — Glaukos Pontics Skylla — Naiads — Personifications. It was not only fictile vases that were decorated with subjects; ancient art adorned every household implement and utensil witli symbolical representations. There are many descriptions in ancient authors of these decorations on vases of wood and metal, most of which apply to subjects in relief; but the motive was the same both iu painted and moulded vases. The cup of Nestor was ornamented with doves^ or with figures of Pleia Is ; ^ the box-wood cup, Jcissjjhion, described by Theocritus, repre- sented a female standing between two youths, a fisherman casting his net, a boy guarding vines and knitting a grasshopper- trap, while two foxes plunder the grapes and devour the contents of his wallet, — the whole surrounded with an acanthus border and an ivy wreath.^ The cup of Nestor at Capua was inscribed with Homeric verses. In the Anakreontica a hypellon, or beaker, is described which had a vine and its branches outside, and on the inside Dionysos, Eros, and Bathyllos.'* Another described by the same author was ornamented with figures of Dionysos, Aphrodite, Eros and the Graces.^ The cup, or skypJios, of Herakles was said to be adorned with the taking of T'roy, and certain illegible letters.® Some cups, or shjphoi, from Agrigentum, deposited in the temple of Bacchus at Rhodes, were ornamented with Centaurs and Bacchants, or with the battles of the Centaurs 1 Homer, ' Iliad,' xi. 635. •• Od., xvii. * Athenaeus, xi. 492, C. j ' Ibid., xviii. ^ Theocritus, Idyll., i. 20. \ « Athenaius, p. 403, C. 222 GREEK POTTERY. Tart 11. and Lapitha3. The cup of King Pterelas bad the car of tlie Sun sculptured on it.^ That of Adrastus, the celebrated Argive king, had on one side Perseus killing Medusa, on the other Ganymedes borne off by the eagle of Jupiter.^ Pliny ^ mentions cups on which were Centaurs and Bacchae, Sileni and Cupids, hunts and battles, and Diomedes and Ulysses carrying off the Palladium. That of Rufus had Helle, the sister of Phrixus, flying on the ram.* On another was Orpheus enchanting the woods.^ The Epicureans are said to have drunk out of cups ornamented with the portrait of their master.^ At a later period are mentioned a patera of amber decorated with the portrait of the Emperor Alexander inside, and having on the outside his history in small figures;' and a glass cup with bunches of grapes in relief, which became purple when the wine was poured in.^ Gallienus, in a letter which he addressed to Claudius Gothicus, sent him a charger ornamented with ivy- berries in relief, a dish adorned with vine-leaves, and a silver patera with ivy.^ Nonnus speaks of cups of gold and silver adorned with ivy, and given as rew^ards to vaulters. The writer of an epigram in the Anthology, mentioning a hyatlios on which an Eros was represented, exclaims, *' Let wine alone suffice to inflame the heart, do not add fire to fire." ^^ Tims from the oldest to the most recent period subjects adorned the drinking- vessels of the ancients. No portion of the history of the fictile art is moi-e difficult to arrange than that of the subjects whicli the painters selected for the decoration of vases. They embrace a great part of ancient mythology, though not, perhaps, that portion which is most familiar to the classical student. Many subjects were taken from sources which had become obsolete in the flourishing period of Greek literature, or from myths and poems which, though inferior to the great works of antiquity in intellectual style and vigour, yet offered to the painter incidents for his pencil. These must be sought for in the scattered fragments of Greek literature preserved in the scholiasts, in the writers on mythology, in works of an encyclopediacal kind, or, finally. 1 Plaut., Amphitryo, Act I. sc. 1, V. 266. ^ Statius, Thebais, i. 542, vi. 534. 3 Lib. xxxiii. c. 1 2, s. 55. 4 Martial, viii. 51 ; Juv., i. 76. « Virgil, Eel., iii. 46. ^ Cicero, de Fin,, v. 1. ' Trebell. Pollio, Vita Quieti. ^ Achilles, Tatius, lib. ii. » Trebell. Pollio, Vita Claud,, c. 17. *" Anthol., iii. 10, Jacobs. CiiAP. V. MODERN INTEEPRETATTON. 223 ill tlie compilations of tlie later Byzantine Bcliool. The attention paid of late to collect, assort, and criticize these remains, has much diminished tlie labour of the interpretation of art, the most difficult branch of arcliJBology. It is, however, only since the discovery of a considerable number of inscribed vases that these investigations have attained any approach to accuracy ; for tlie labours of tlie early European writers on the subject are hypothetical and unsound, except in the interpretation of the most obvious subjects. Up to the present hour, indeed, the identifications not only of particular figures, but even of considerable compositions, remains hypothetical. In cases in which we are guided by names, personages the least expected appear in prominent positions; and compositions often repre- sent myths, of which not even the outlines have reached the present day. Modern explanations are based upon a few great traditional schools of art, and take no account of the universal diffusion of the fine arts throughout Greece and her colonies, and of the dislike which the Greeks had of those exact copies which mechanism has introduced into modern art. It was from this feeling that the same idea was never treated in the same manner in all its details, and a varied richness, like that of nature itself, was spread over and adorned a very limited choice of subjects. When vases were first discovered in Southern Italy, the subjects were supposed to be scenes of the Eleusinian and Dionysiac mysteries ; and this school of interpretation has still some followers. But the most microscopical criticism cannot separate in these designs the mystic from the hieratic or the actual. Other critics supposed the subjects to be Pelasgic or Etruscan.^ At a later period attempts have been made to connect the subjects with the names of the vase makers and painters, or of other persons mentioned on them by the potters ; to show that they alluded to the use of the vase : — as, for instance, that Dionysos appeared upon the amphoreis for holding- wine at entertainm*ents ; scenes of water-drawing upon liydriai ; the Herakleid upon lehythoi, the vases of the palaestra ; and the Oresteid on those destined for sepulchres. Even this hypothesis cannot be entirely followed out. According to Passeri, the subjects of the paintings referred to marriages, nuptial fetes, and the secret scenes of myste- * Cf. Museum Etrusque de Lucien : lonisclien bemalten Yn sou, 4to, Munich, Bouiiparte, Prince de Canino, 4to, Vi- j 18 14, s. 3. terbe, 1829 ; Thiersch, Ueber die Hel- j 224 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. ries.^ Italiiisky, on the contrary, refeired them to the history of the Greek republic.^ D'Hancarville passes over the subjects in silence ; ^ and it was not till the labours of Winckelmann * had commenced, and were continued by Lanzi/ Visconti,^ and Millingen,' that a correct idea of the nature of the subjects began to be entertained. But the opinion of their mystic value still continued to haunt the learned.^ According to IMillingen, on the vases of the oldest period Dionysiac scenes are most frequently represented ; those of the period of the fine arts in Greece have the ancient traditions and mythology in all their purity; those of a later era have subjects taken from the Tragedians ; and those of the last period exhibit new ceremonies and superstitions, mixed up with the ancient and simple religion of the Greeks.^ Millingen ^° divided the subjects of vases into seven classes : — J. Those relating to the gods — the Gigantomachia, the amours of the gods, and the sacrifices made to them. II. Those relating to the Heroic age — the arrival of Cadmus in Greece, the Heracleid, the Theseid, the two wars of Thebes, the Amazono- machia, the Argonautica, the war of Troy, and the Nostoi or retui-n of the Greeks, the heroic cjxle. III. Subjects relating to Dionysos or Bacchus — the Satyrs and Sileni, the orgies and fStes of the gods. IV. Subjects of civil life — marriages, amours, repasts, sacrifices, chases, military dances, scenes of hospitality, and of the theatre. V. Subjects relating to the funeral ceremonies, particularly offerings at the sepulchres. VI. Subjects relating to the gymnasium — youths occupied in different exercises. VII. Subjects relating to the Mysteries." To these may be added : — VIII. Subjects of animals. IX. Ornaments. X. Masks and inanimate objects. Panofka divided the subjects thus : — I. Those showing either the use of the vase, or the occasion on which it was given. » Picturse Etrusc., fo. Rom. 17G7, 8vo, Nap., 1801. Pref., p. xvi. ^ Mus. Pic Clem., iv. p. 311. 2 Laborde, Vases de Laml:erg, In- ^ Vases Grecs, 2 vols. trod. p. iii. ^ Laborde, Introd. pp. vi-viii. ^ Antiq. Etr. Grec. Rom., 4 vols. fo. ^ Millingon, Vases Grecs, p. vii. ^ Mon. Antiq., In., t. i. '" Ibid., Introd. p. v. ' Dei Vasi dipinti Dissertazioni Tre, " Ibid., p. vii. Chap. V. CLASSIFICATION OF SUBJECTS. 225 II. Tliosc alluding t(i a previous use or occasion. HI. Vases with both these subjects, one on each side. IV. Vases with allegorical subjects on each side. Thus a vase with two wrestlers on one side, and Eryx on the other, shows it at once to be a prize vase of the first class. On a nuptial vase of the second class will be Menelaos and Helen, or Hermes and Herse. Prize vases, he considers, were enriched with the actions of Perseus, Herakles, and Theseus, while nuptial vases had a greater range of subjects, and sepulchral vases one more limited. In the present and following Chapters will be given a precis of the subject, following the order adopted by Miiller and Gerhard. As this order is not that of the vases in their succes- sion as to art, it will be necessary to allude cursorily to their precedence as to age. The great mass of the subjects are Greek, the only exceptions being a few Etruscan ones occurring on the local pottery of Etruria, and a peculiar class, apparently local, on the vases of the later style found in the ancient Lucania and Apulia. It was only upon vases of the largest size, destined for prominent and important positions, that the artist could exercise his skill by producing an entire subject ; of which the great vase of Florence, containing the Achilleid, or the adventures of Achilles, is the most striking example. The greater number of vases have only portions selected from these larger compositions. Thus, the often repeated subjects of the return of Hephaistos to Olympus, and the mar- riage of Peleus and Thetis, belonged to the Patroklia, and the discovery of Ariadne at Naxos to the Argonautica. Most of the subjects are parts of some whole, which, however, it is often difficult, if not impossible, to reconstruct. The vase found near Chiusi, now in the Museum at Florence, to which the name of the Franfois Yase has been given, from its discoverer, illustrates these remarks. This vase measures 27 inches in height, and about as much in diameter. On it is a whole composition — the work of the artist Ergotimos — which recalls to mind the decorations of some ancient lesche ; whilst its shape, that of a krater with columnar handles, was moulded by the potter Klitias.^ The subject*, eleven in number, are • Braun, Le dipinture di Clizia so- Ann. xx. 1849, p. 299 ; Arch. Zeit., pra vase Chiusino d'Ergotimo, scoperto | 1846, ss. 321, 322; 1845, s. 123; 1850, e pubblicato da Alessandro Fran9ois, | 258; Dennis, ii. p. 115. Mon., 4to., Roma, 1849; iv., liv-lviii; I Q 226 ' GREEK POTTERY. Part II. arrayed round it in six horizontal bands. Eight are lieroio, and the whole composition is illustrated with 115 inscriptions explaining the names of the persons, and even of the objects. The first subject is the hunt of the boar of Kalydon, in which Peleus plays a conspicuous part ; the second, that of the return of Theseus to Crete, his marriage and dance with Ariadne ; the third, the Battle of the Centaurs and the Lapiths ; the fourth, the Marriage of Peleus and Thetis ; the fiftli, Achilles killing Troilos, and the flight of Polyxene ; the sixth, the return of Hephaistos to Heaven, and the capture of Hera upon the golden throne ; the seventh is a frieze of animals ; the eighth, the battles of the Pigmies and Cranes ; the ninth. Demons ; the tenth, Ajax bearing off the dead body of Achilles ; the eleventh, the funeral games in honour of Patroklos. Dionysos holding the famous golden amphora which he gave to Thetis* and in which the ashes of Achilles were placed, is also seen. The analogy of this vase with the chest of Kypselus, the throne of Bathykles, and similar ancient works of art, is evident. It is impossible to indicate alL the subjects of the thousands of vases that are known, or to present them in all the points of view in which they are capable of being regarded. The different interpretations given of the same subject by the eminent archaeo- logists and scholars who have studied these remains, also em- barrass the inquiry ; and hence this precis must after all be regarded only as a sketch which the student can fill up, but which will convey to the general reader a summary of the matter. Much ingenuity has been exerted to discover whether the subjects were original productions of the va^se-painters or copies. That in general they were original is the more probable view ; but copies may occasionally have been produced.^ One of the oldest^ and most popular subjects in Greece was * Kramer, die Herkunft, s. 16. j B. A. B. - Berlins Antike Bildwerke. 2 In order to abridge the copious B. A. N. — Bulktino Archeologico-Na- references necessary in this portion of ! politano. the work the following abbreviations j B. M. —British Museum Catalogue. have been adopted : — I Bull. — BuUetini dell' Institute Ar- A. — Annali dell' Institute Archseo- logico. A. Z.— Archaologische Zeitung (Ger- hard.) B. — Brongniart, Traite Ceramique, and Musee de Sevres. cheologico. C. 0. — Catalogue Canino. C. D. — Catalogue Durand. C. F.— Collezione Feoli. C. M. — Conze, Melische Thongefasse, D'H. — D'Hancarville, Vases Grecs. rAP. V. GREAT GODS— ZEUS. 227 le Gigantomachia,^ which is found represented as a whole )on many vases, while others contain individual incidents from Zeus, Poseidon, Herakles, Ares, Athene, Apollo, and Artemis, )pear on the scene.^ Pallas,^ Herakles, and Dionysos* are of jquent occurrence. As this subject is connected with the Stans, and the antecedent cosmogony, it may take the pre- cedence in the mythic series. Of the nature of giants are the Aloids,^ but thev are found in connection with the adventures of Apollo and Artemis. Zeus, the father of the gods, the great thunderer, seldom appears alone, or in myths peculiarly referring to him, but is chiefly seen in scenes from the Herakleid, the Trojan War, or the tragedians. On the black vases, however, and on tho?e of the finest style with red figures, he is often represented giving Inrth to Athene. The moment selected by the artists is either that which precedes the leaping of the goddess all armed from his head, or when she has just issued from it, or is presented D. L. — Due de Luynes. D. M. — Dubois Maisonueuve, Vases Feints. G. A. P.— Gerhard, Apulische Va- senbilder. G. A. v.— Gerhard, Auscrlesene Va- senbilder. G. E. v.— Gerhard, Etruskische Va- senbilder. G. T. C.-GerharJ, Trinkschah n. G. V. M. — Gerhard, Vases de Mys- tt-res. L. D. — Lcnormant and De Witte, Elite des Monumens Ce'ramograjihiques. T. M. E. — Inghiranii, Monumenli P^truschi. \ M.— Monumenti dell' Institiito Ar- : cheologico. 1 M. A. I. — Monumenti Antichi Inediti, : posseduti da R. Barone, con brevi dilii- cidazioni di Giulio Minervini. M. A. IT. M.— Millingen, Ancient Un- j edited Monuments. ' M. Bl. — Panofka, Muse'e Blacas. M G. — Museo Gregoriauo (Museum Etruscum Vaticanum). M. I.— jNlicali, Storia d'Kalia. M. M. I. — Micali, Monumenti Inediti. M. P. — Panofka, Muse'e Pourtales. M. B — Museo Borlonico. P.— Pas?eri, Pict. Et. (Vases Etrns- qurs). R. A. — Revue A rcheologique. R. R. — Raoul Rochette, Mo;iiiments Inedits. St. — Stackelberg, die Graber der Hellener. T. — Tisclibein, Vases Grecs. V. D. C.— Millingen, Vas( s de Coghill. V. F.— Inghirami, Vasi Fittili. V. G. — Millingen, Vases Grecs. V. L. — Laborde, Vasts de Laraberg. ' Bull., 1838, p. 55; C. D., 1,2; B. A. N., ii. tav. vi. ; A. Z., 1844, s. 262 \ A. Z., 1852, s. 232; Bull., 1843, pp. 97, 98; A. Z., 1843, 202; G. A. V., 1x1. Ixii. ; Bull., 1850, p. 125 ; D. L., xix. A, B ; M. A. I., xxi. ; L. D., i. ill. iv. ; A. Z., 1844, s. 377; B. A. B., 1002, 1623 ; 584, 605, 659, 6S0 ; D. L., xix. ; ]M. M. I., xxvii. 2 G. A. v., xvii. ; M. G., ii. vii. 1. c. ; G. A. v., V. ; T., i. 31 ; G. A. V., Ixi Ixii. ; M. G., ii. 7, 1 B, xliv., 1 a ; G. T. C, ii. iii. xi. xii. ; M. M. I., xxxvii. ; Mon., vi. vii. t. Ixxviii. ' M. G., ii. xli. 1a; G. A. V., vi. ^ G. A. v., Ixxxv.; G. A. V., Ixiv.- Ixv. ; G. A. v., Ixiii. ; Bull., 1847, p. 102. 5 M. I., xcvi. ; D. h., vii. Q 2 228 GREEK POTTERY. Paht II. on his lap to the astonished deities of Olympus.^ Amongst the gods assembled round him even Herakles^ may be seen. Among his amorous adventures depicted on the vases are the rape of Europa,^ the seduction of lo/ the rape of Aigina or Thaleia,^ his metamorphosis into a swan, and the seduction of Antiope,^ probably confounded with that of Leda ; the golden shower and Danae ; ' the rape of Ganymede/ the destruction of Semele,® and the carrying off of lacchos ^^ in his bosom /^ whom he delivers to tbe Thyades.^^ He is also seen in many scenes difficult to interpret, but probably derived from the incidents of tbe Trojan war. He appears with his brothers Poseidon and Hades, each holding a thunderbolt,^^ or attended by various deities in council;^* with Hera and Ganymede,^^ or Hebe;^^ with Hera and Nike;^^ with Hera holding out the unknown child Diosphos ; ^^ and with Apollo and Aphrodite,^^ or Artemis.^" He is probably to be discovered in certain representa- tions of triclinia,^^ and ia some processions supposed to represent either the return of Hera to heaven,^^ or the apotheosis of Hera- kles. But^^ his most conspicuous adventures are in the Giganto- machia.^* Scenes where he is represented listening to the rivals Thetis and Heos must be referred to the Troica.^^ * G. A. v., i.-iv. ; M. G., ii. xxxix. ; P., clvi. ; L. D., xviii. ii. Hi. ; B. A. N., Creuzer, Gall. Myth, Iv. ; V. L., Ixxxiii. v. 16; A. Z., 1853, 400. 2 G. A. v., ii. iv. Y. 2; 0. F., 65; | ^ 0. D., iii. M. G., ii. xlviii. 2, 6 ; D. M., iii. xxv. ; I i» B. A. B , 902 ; A. Z., 1848, s. 218. V. F., Ixxvi. ; P., clii. ; 0. D., 20, 21 ; I " A. Z., 1851, 310, xxvii. C. C, 6 ; B. A. B., 586 ; M. I., Ixxx. I ''^ D. L., xxviii. Ixxxi. »=* A. Z., 1851, 310, xxvii. ; M.v.xxxv.; » C. F., 2; M. G., ii. xl. 1 a, xli. 2 a; 1 L. D., xxiv./; M. Bl., xix. D. M., ii. ; G. A. V., xc. ; V. G., xxv. ; " A. Z., 1852, 232, 233, 229 ; M. I., Bull., 1844, i. s. V. ; G. A. V., xc. ; P., Ixxxv. i. ii. iv. V. ; D'H., ii. 45 ; C. D., 4 ; '* V. F., ccxlxciii. ; J). L. T., cxxvii. L. D., xxvii. xxviii. ; B. A. B., 801, i ^^ M. P., 1 ; L. D., i. xx. xxi. ; M. B., 1023 ; A. Z., 1852, 248. I v. xxi. ; A. Z., 1846, 340. 4 A. Z., 1848, 8. 218 ; L. D., i. xxv. j ^7 M. B., vi. xxii. ; St., xvii. ; B. A. B., xxvi. ; V. D. C., xlvi. ; Panofka, Argcs 898 ; L. D., xiv. xv. Panoptes, Taf. iv, ; A. Z., 1852, 235. '« M. A. I., 1. * Melchiori, Att. d. Accad. Rom. di ' '^ M. M. I., i. xxxvii. Arch., 4to., Rom., 1838 ; M. G., ii. xix. ^o m. G., ii. xxix. 1 b, ii. 1 ; V. F., cix., XX. ; G. A., vi. ; L. D., i., xvi. xviii. ; ccc. ; L. D., xxii. M. M. I., xl. ; T., i. 26. ^i y, ^^ clxxvii. « B. A. N., p. 25; M. B., vi. xxi. ; \ ^2 a. Z., 1852, 233, 250; M. BL, xix. St., xvii.; see Penelope, T., v. (1) 62; i ^3 m. M. I., xxxvii. R. A., 1868, p. 348. i ^4 g. a. V., ccxxxvii. ; V. F., xlvii. ; ^ Welcker, Danae, 8vo., Bonn, 1852. I D. L., xix. ; L. D., i., i.-iii. » V. L., ii. s. vi. ; G. T. C, xi. xii. ; ' 25 b. A. N., i. p. 16. Dhap. v. HERA AND PALLAS ATHENE. 229 The goddess Hera rarely appears, and when she does is gene- dly intermingled with other deities in a subordinate position. some rare representations she is seen in her flight from Zeus, |fho is turned into a cuckoo/ or in the company of Nike,^ or another female.^ Some of the older vases, perhaps, show ier marriage with Zeus,* or caressed before Ganymede. She present at tlie punishment of Ixion,^ and the attack of the Joids, and is seen consulting Prometheus.^ In one instance le may be regarded as the foundress of the Olympian games ;'' Tn another, she suckles the infant Herakles. Sometimes her portrait alone is seen.^ Far more important is the part played by the goddess Athene, the great female deity of the Ionic race, whose wonderful birth from the head of Zeus connects her with this part of the mytho- logy.^ In the Gigantomachia she always appears ; but many vases have episodes selected from that extensive composition, in which Pallas Athene, generally on foot, but sometimes in her quadriga,^*' is seen transfixing with her lance the giant Enkelados,^^ while in one instance she tears off the arm of the giant Akratos-^^ But, what is more remarkable, she is seen twice repeated in certain Gigantomachiae.^^ She appears in company with the Delphic deities, or with Hermes, Hephaistos, and Poseidon,^'^ with whom her contention for Attica, or Troizene, once forms the subject of a vase.^^ Her presence at the birth of Erichthonios connects her wdth the Attic legend of Hephai- stos or Vulcan. ^^ The Attic tradition of her supposed protec- tion of Erechtheus^^ is more rarely found. As the vanquisher of the Giants, or else in accordance with an incident selected from the Herakleid, she mounts her quadriga,^^ or is seen in > L. D., xxix. A. j 605 ; A. Z., 1853, 402 ; St., xiii. ; M. I, "^ L. D, i. xxx.-iii.-xxxvi. ; A., xxix. T. iv. (ii.) 16, 17. ^ L. D., i. xxxi.-xxxiv. < A. Z., 1848, 217 ; B. A. N., i. 5. xci. " G. A. v., vi.-lxxxiv. ; P., clii. ; C. C, 10; B. A. B., 1002; A. Z., 1856, 202. * M. P., vii. " L, D., Ixxxviii. ^ M. B., i., X., XXXV, ; L. D., i. xxxii. ; , '' De Witte, Ac. Brux., viii. 1 ; Ger- M. Bl., iv. XX.; Gerh., Winckflmanns- ; hard, Zwei Minerven, 4to. Berlin, 1848; Feste, A. Z., 1846, 287. \ L. D., xc. ; A. Z., 1846, 303. ^ L. D., i. xii. * L. D. i , xxix. j " M. G., ii. xxxviii. ; L. D., xxvi. ; » Forchhammer, Die Geburt der i C. C, 66; A. Z., 1846, 234, xxxix. Athene, 4to., Kiel, 1841; L. D., i. j i= L. D., Ixxviii. ; D. L., ii. liv.-lxv. Ixv. A. Ixvi. Ixxiv. Ixxv. d. ^^ M., i. x.-xii. ; V. F., Ixxiii. ><» Gerhard, R. V., p. 35 ; V. L. xlviii. ; i? B. A. B., 1632. C. D., 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32 ; L. D., viii.- i" V. F., ccvi. ; B. A. B., 766 ; A. Z., xi. ; L. D , xxxix. ; C. C, 8 ; B. A. B., i 1852 ; St., xv. 230 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. company with Nike, her charioteer, who ministers to her a libation.^ Her connection with Dionysos is lyrical. She is sometimes seen amidst Sileni,^ or between Hermes and Dionysos himself,^ or she plays on the lyre to the wine-god,* or sometimes alone, as Minerva Musica.^ In this connection with Dionysos she is represented as discovering the use of the pipes or double flute,® for which she contends with Marsyas, or throws them to him,' or else listens to their melody, as inventress of tlie peculiar tune taken from the hissing of the Gorgon's snake.^ In one instance the goddess, as the inventress of letters, is seen writing, and is supposed to be teaching their use to Palamedes.^ As the patroness of the arts of peace, Eirene stands before her,^° and on some vases she holds out her hand to her.^^ Her head alone,^^ taken from a composition, is once found. Generally the companion of heroes and the Mentor of princes, she protects Herakles,^^ whom she is supposed to marry, whose exploits she always aids, sometimes in her chariot,^* and whom she finally introduces to Olympus. She is present also with various deities in scenes derived from tragical or other subjects, as with Eros,^^ Zeus,^® Hebe,^' and females,^® and either with Ares or a favourite hero,^^ perhaps Achilles or Diomedes. As Nauplia, she holds the aplustre,^" and pursues Arachne^^ or Pandrosos.^^ She is also represented in many scenes taken from the exploits of Theseus, the Achilleid, and the Oresteid, and in company with a female, supposed to be Penelope and a crane.^^ The scenes where Athene is beheld mingling wdth the heroes of the Trojan war are to ) numerous to be specified ; the chief • of them shows her present at a game of dice or draughts played by Ajax and Achilles. Such scenes as sacrifices of a bull, or where she accepts other offerings,^* rather represent her image than the goddess herself. ^^ Her archaic Daedalian statue is seen on the Panathenaic vases, standing, as patroness of the ' L. D., Ixvii. Ixix. Ixx. Ixxii. 22, 180; C.F., 71,72; T., 11, 14. 2 B. A. B., 667. a C. F., 74. * G. A. v., xxxvii. ; Bull., 1838, p. 9. 5 B. A. B., 1663; A. Z., 1852, 245. « V. L., ii. ■' L. D., i. Ixxii. ^ L. D., i. Ixxiv. » M. P., vi. ; L. D., Ixxvii. 10 T., iv. (ii.), 11. " G. T. 0., xiii. 12 D'H., iv. 92. i» De Witte, Ac. Brux., viii. 1. " C. F., 75 ; V. L., i. xcii. ; St., xiii. ; B. A. B., 1632. " B. A. B., 1664. L. D., i. Ixxxii. '" L.D., i. Ixxx. L. D., i. Ixxix. A. Z., 1852, 289. 0. D., 20 ; L. D., i. Ixxv. 21 B. M. 22 L D., i. Ixxi. " T. iv. (ii.) 4 ; Cat. of Vases, Brit. Mus., 451, 427, 511, 829. 2* B. A. B., 626. " G. E. v., iii. iv. Uhap. v. POSEroON. 231 rames, between columns surmounted by Triptolemos cocks, vases, >r disks,^ and accompanied by a crane ^ or deer.^ The Phidian Lthene, of chryselephantine workmanship, has been once painted.* The earth-shaker Poseidon, the sea-god, appears as a sub- ordinate in many scenes, and as protagonist in others. He is present at the birth of Athene, and an active participator in the Gigantomachia, in which he hurls the island of Cos at Ephialtes or Polybotes,^ and transfixes him with his trident. He appears grouped witli many deities,® as Aphrodite, Hermes, and Dionysos ; ' or as mounting his chariot with Aphrodite ; ^ also with Athene, Hermes, Hera,^ and the Erotes ;^*' and allied with Dionysos.^^ In scenes from the Herakleid he frequently assists the hero when he fishes,^^ or is represented as reconciled to the demigod,^^ with whom he had quarrelled at Pylos. In most of the assemblies of the Olympic gods he makes his appearance ; he is present at the marriage-feast of Peleus and Thetis, crosses the sea in his chariot of two winged horses,^* or else on the Cretan bull.^^ He pursues Amymone,^^ Aithra,^^ Amphitrite,^^ or Herse.^^ When he stands before a youth,^" in presence of Eros, holding a fish, the scene perhaps refers to Pelops;^^ and the same remark may apply when the youth holds a crown.^"^ He comes to the rescue of the Gorgons at the death of Medusa ;^^ aids Hera at Pylos; receives Theseus ;^* and assists heroes in many scenes taken from the Troica.^^ Sometimes he is seen alone,^^ and on vases having tragic sub- jects looks on as an Olympic spectator. The Eleusinian deities Demeter and Kora are generally » M. G., ii. xlii. 1-3, xliii., 2 a, b ; V. F., ccii. cciii. 2 G. E. v., i. ' C. C, ix. •• Cat. Vas., Brit. Mus., 998 a. » M. G.. ii. Ivi. 1a; V. L., i. xli.- xliii. ; C. C, 65, 128 ; D. L., xx. ; L. D., i. iii. iv. V. vi., xi. xii; M. A. U. M., vii.-ix. ; C. F., 5, 6. 6 C. C, 66, 71 ; D. L., xxiii. ' L. D., iii. xvi. * L. D., iii. xv. ^ L. D., iii. xiii. xxxvi. a. »o L. D., iii. xi. »i Abh. K. Ak. Wiss. Berl., 1845; L. D., iii. iv. »2 L. U.. iii. xiv. '^ L. D., ii. vi. b. " C. F., 9 ; G. A. V., xlviii. ; 0. C, 63. " G. A. v., xlviii. '« T., v. (1.) 42 ; G. A. V., vi. ; M., iv. xiv. ; M. G., ii. xi. 2a; B. A. N., iii. 51, i. 13, 56, iii. 51, tav. iii.; D. M., ii. XX. ; V. L., XXV. ; V. F., xliv. ; G. E. V., XXX. ; C. C, 64 ; L. D., iii. xviii.-xxx. »^ G. A. v., xi. xii. Ixv. ; L. D., iii. v. " G. A. v., xi. ; C. F., 10. 11. »» Bull.. 1839, p. 9. «» L. D., iii., iii. *' L. D, iii., vi.-viii. " L. D., iii. ix. 23 D. M., ii. XX. 5» Nouv. An., 1836, 139; M., liii. ; D. L., xxi. xxiii. ^ G. A. v., cxxxviii. 2« D'H., iii. 51. i. Iii. C32 GKEEK POTTERY. Part IL found together, either in scenes representing the rape of Perse- phone or Kora, her return to earth/ accompanied by Hermes, Dionysos, and Apollo, or else in the often-repeated story of Triptolemos, whom the goddesses seethe in the cauldron,^ or pre- sent with corn, the plough,^ and a winged car, in the presence of Hermes and Keleus,* or Ploutos, and the Eumolpids.^ Some- times they appear unrolling the laws of the Thesmophoriai before Zeus and Hekate.^ Demeter Triopeia^ and the same goddess in company with Erysichthon appears,^ and also in the supposed initiation of Herakles and the Dioscuri.® The number of vases decorated with subjects representing the different occupations and adventures of the Delphic deities is very considerable; there are certainly as many as those with Athene, and they are probably only inferior in number to those with Dionysos and Herakles. The twins are seen nursed by their mother at Delos,^° and generally accompanied by Hermes and Dionysos ; ^^ and the youthful Apollo shoots the serpent Typhon while in his mother's arms.^^ Both contend in the great Gigantomachia,^^ destroy the Aloids, and rescue Leto from the impious attacks of Tityos.^* Apollo is grouped with several other deities, but most frequently with Leto and Artemis.^^ He appears at the omphalos of Delphi,^*' or with his sister Artemis ; " » M. G., ii. xiv. 3, 3 a; A. Z., 1849, s. 165 ; A. Z., 1852, s. 246; C. F., 63; St., xii. ; G. A. V.. xl. Ixxiii. ; B. A. B., 716 ; B. A. B., 990, 591, 611, 653. 2 L. D., iii. xlv. ; G. A. V., lix. 3 M. G., ii. iv. 2 a, ii., xl. 2 a ; G. A. V., Ixxv. ; M. i. iv. ; V. F., clxii. ; T., iv. XXXV. xxxviii. ; V. L., xxxi. xl. Ixiii. ; L. v., i. 1, vii. ; Visconti, Vasi Novi in Magn. Grec. B. A. N., i. p. 5, tav. i. p. 35 ; tav. ii. p. 15 ; E. Bt., p. 16. 4 G. A. v., xli. xlii. xliii. ; M. G., ii. Ixxvi. 2 b; G. A. V., xlv.; 0. D., 66, 67; B. A. N., iii. 51. * G. A. v., xliv. ; D. M., ii. xxxi.; B. A. N., i. 6, t. ii. ; G. T. C, A. B., D'H., iii. 128; A. Z., 1852, s. 246; C. M., 15. « T., iv. viii. xix. ; M. P., xvi. ; C. C, 18, 19, 20. Cf. also L. D., iii. xlvi. xlix. xlix. A. : A., 1829, s. 261 ; T., iv. (ii.) 8, 9a; L. D. iii. xlvii. 1. Ii. Iii. liii. liv. Iv. Ivi. Ivii. Ivii. a, Iviii. lix. Ixi. Ixii. Ixiii. Ixiv. Ixv. Ixvi. Ixvii. Ixviii. ; A. Z., 1849, 187*; C. M., 15 ; T., v. (i.) 38 b ; A. Z., 1846, s. 350 ; B. A. B., 896 ; M. A. U. M., xxiv. ; A. Z., 1852, s. 248 ; T., i. viii. ix. ' B. A. K, 1857, t. V. 8 M., 18.06, PI. vii. 9 Cat. Vas. Brit. Mus., 1331. " T., iii. 4; D'H., i. 109; CD., 5-7, 10-13; C. C.,/65; B. A. B., 837, 900; M. I., Ixxxv. ; 0. F., 12-14. " T., iii. iv.; M. G. ii. xxxix. 1, 2; G. A. v., Iv. ; V. F., lix. ; C. C, 1, 2 ; L. D., 11, i. ii.; A. Z., 1848, 219. 12 L. D., ii. i. A. »' A. Z., 1847, 18*. " G. A. v., xxii. ; A. 1830, tav. h ; M., ii., xviii.; V. F., xlv. xlvi.; D. L., vi. ; G. T. C. C. ; C. D., 18 ; L. D., ii. Iv. Ivii. lix.; Mon., 1856, PL x. ; De Witte, Etudes, p. 31. " L. D., ii. xxxiii. ; M. A. U. M., XXXV. ; M. I., Ixxxiv. ; G. A. V., vi. xxviii. ; L. D., ii. xxiii. b, xxiv. xxvi. xxvii. ; T., i. 24. 1® L. D., ii. iii. vi. a. 1^ G. A. v., xxiii. ; M.. i. Ivii. ; V. F., cccxiv. ; L. D., ii. x.-xiii. xl. Ii. [AP. V. APOLLO NOMIOS AND MARSYAS. 233 mouuts his quadriga, attended by Leto and Artemis, pro- ibly on his return to heaven after his banishment.^ At other inies lie is surrounded by females, who represent the Pierian [uire,^ the Horai, or the Charites, and his sister and mother ; he is placed between Artemis, and Nike^ and Ares. In the )mpany of Zeus, of Hera, Hermes,* and Aplirodite,^ of Maia, ^oseidon, and Amymone,^ or with Ares and Hermes,^ Iris, Hera, Eirene,^ and Athene,^ he only appears as subordinate in certain grand compositions. His banishment from heaven, and his tending the herds of Admetos, must be recognised on many vases in ^hich he is represented tending cattle, ^*^ either in com- pany with Hermes, Dionysos, and Athene, or alone with a bull.^^ He is also seen detecting the theft of Hermes, receiving tlie lyre from that god,^^ and in company with him and a satyr.^^ Subsequent to his employment as Nomios is his return to heaven,^* while his crossing the sea, seated on bis tripod as Enolmios, to reach his oracle at Delphi,^^ is followed by his contest with Herakles for the tripod.^^ In many scenes, Apollo is accompanied by a deer, probably the hind Arge,^^ or by a swan,^^ perhaps in allusion to his character as Nomios. His contest with Marsyas^^ for musical supremacy was a favourite subject of later works of art, to which, perhaps, may be re- ferred his interviews with Hermes.^° He cures the blind * G. A. v., xxi. Ixxv. ; L. D., ii. xi. 1. 1. A ; C. D., 14. ^ G. A. v., xxxiii. xxxiv. Ixxiii. cxcviii. ; L. D., ii. xxix. ; M. P., xxxiv. ; L. D., ii. Ixxvii.-lxxxviii. ; St., xxxii. ; M. I., xci. 12 ; B., 1849, 21 ; M. B., j iv. ; G. T. C, xvii. xviii. xxviii. ; P. C, ; 0. C, 4, 5; L. D., ii. Ixxxiii. ' V. G., xxix. ; L. D,, ii. xxxv. ; St. * L. D., ii. xxxvi. b ; G. A. V., xxi. txv. ; L. D., ii. xxxvi. a, xli. 1. a ; 3. D., 14. 5 L. D., iii. xli. « G. A. v., xiii. XXXV.; L. D., ii., tx. xxxi. c. xxxvi.; T., iv. (ii.) 3. ^ D. M., i. xlvi. ; L. D., ii. Ixxvi. a, :xviii. A. 8 L. D., ii. xlvii. ; B. C. D., V. F., jlxxxii. cclxxxii. 9 A. Z., 1848, 219 ; L. D., ii. xxxvii. .; T., iv. (ii.) 13. 10 D. M., i. 109 ; L.D., ii. liv. Ixxxiv. xxxviii. xxviii. a ; M. B., xxiv. " G. A. v., xiv. xvi. xxvi. ; L. D., ii. liii. Ixxxvii. ; M. G., ii. xxxiii. 2 a; V. L., ii. xix. XX. ; V. F., ccxviii. ; C. C. 17 ; B. A. B., 1642. 12 V. C, xxxvii. ; C.C, 17; A. 1835, a. 13 L. D., ii. xlv. 1* C. D., 17 ; 0. F., 17-23 ; T. v., (i.) 45, 46 " M., i. xlvi. ; R. R., Ixxiii. ; L. D., ii. xlvi.; St. xix. xx. ; Gerhard, Liclit- gottheiten, i. 3 ; M. I., xcix. : T., i. 28. i« M., i. ix. ; Cat. Vas. Brit. Mus. 453. 1^ G. A. v., xxvi. xxvii. ; M. P., xxix. ; L. D., ii. iii. xxxi. xxxvi. ; D. L., xxvi. ; T., iii. V. " L. D., ii. xxxix. 1® V. C, iv. V. ; M , ii. xxxviii. ; V. F., cxcvi. cccxxv.-xxviii. cccxxxii.- cccxxxvi. ; L. D., ii. Ixi.-lxviii. Ixxi. ; P. civ. ; Cat. Vas. Brit. Mus., 1277. 20 L. D., ii. xxvi. ; G. A. V., xxix. XXX. ; L. D., ii. xxv. ; B. A. N., v. 87, ii. 5. 234 GREEK rOTTERY. Pakt II. Chiron.^ Instances of his pursuing the various females of whom he was enamoured, as Daphne,^ or Boline, are sometimes, though rarely, found ; as likewise his flight to Cyrene on a swan.^ As Hyperboreos, he is mounted on a gryphon ; * as Smintheus, he is seen as a mouse.^ He pursues Hyakinthos® and Idas,' and often appears in the Oresteia, as well as in scenes supposed to represent Kallisto and Linos,^ Kassandra,^ and other females.^^ He is generally depicted, however, as a lyrist,^^ sometimes in his chariot,^^ or surrounded by the Muses.^^ His statue is some- times seen, like that of Athene, placed between the columns of the palaestra.^* Artemis, the sister of Apollo, chiefly appears in his company, and in scenes in which he engages, as in the Gigantomacliia or the battle with the Aloids,^^ whom she transfixes with her arrows, or with the Niobids.^^ Sometimes she is joined with Hekate,^' or holds torches with Apollo and Iris,^^ or receives a libation from certain females,^^ or is in the company of Kora;^° but she is often alone,^^ sometimes driving a chariot drawn by two deer,^^ or by panthers,^^ or riding on a stag.^"* As Elaphe- bolos, or the stag-destroyer, she is represented killing that animal,^^ or punishing the imprudent Aktaion.^^ She is also seen with Kallisto, or other females of her choir,^' or attended by her nymphs,^^ or with Endymion, or the hind Arge.^^ In the Herakleid, she protects the stag of Mount Kerynitis, and aids Apollo to protect his tripod ; while in subjects derived from the staw-e, or Tragic I\Iuse, she is a subordinate spectatress of the 1 Lenorinant, Qusestio, 4to., Paris, Ix. I. s. vi./T. M., 5; Vas. Cat. Brit. 1838 ; Cut. Vas. Brit. Mus., 1297. Mus., c. 10. 2 M., iii. xii.; 0. D., 8 ; L. D., xx.- ' i« C. D., 19. xxiii. *^ D- Lm xxvi. ; L. D., ii. xviii. 3 L. D., ii. xxxix. xlii. ; T., ii. 12. ^^ D. L., xxv. ; L. D., ii. xlviii. 4 L. D., ii. V. xliv. ^' V. F., Ixiv. ^o g j^ ^ 1534 5 L. D., ii. civ.; T., ii. 37. ^i y y., clxx. ; D. L., xxiv. ; A. Z., 6 M. a, ii. Iii. 2 : L. D , ii. xvii. 1846, 345. ' A., 1832, 393. » L. D , ii. xiv. ^2 l D., ii. ix. » L. D., ii. xxl '« L. D., ii. xxiii. " y j^ ^ ^xvi. xxvii. ; C. D., 15 ; " A. Z., 1852, 247 ; B. A. B., 983 ; L. D., ii. xliii. L. D., ii. XV. xii. xvi. ; M. I., xci. xcii. ; ^* L. D., ii. xcii. C. D., 5-7 ; M. Bl., iv. ; T. i. xxvii. ; ^^ L. D., ii. xcix.-ciii. iii. ciii. a, M. G., i. xvi. 1. 1 a. ciii. b; M. I., c; A., 1831, tav. d. ; " L. D., ii. 1. lix. ; V. L., ii. xxxi. M. A. I., xix. -" L. D., ii. xci. St.jXlli. ^^ L. D., ii. Ixxxviii. ; B,, Ixxxix. c. i» M. G., ii. XV. " P. clxxxi. ^s j, D., ii. xcv.-xcvi. ; T. iii. 33. 15 M., ii. xviii. ; D. L., vii. ; I.., Iviii.- ^® L. D., ii. vii. >IAP. V. HEPIIAISTOS, ARES, AND Al'HIlODITE. 235 puciilents represented. Her statue as the Tauric Artemis is jeeii in the Oresteid. , Hephaistos is less important in art, and is scarcely to be found except in great compositions, and never as the protago- list, or principal character, of the scene. He strikes with his yelehjs the forehead of Zeus, and brings to light the conceale 1 ^Athene. In the Gigantomachia he burns with his hot irons the giant Gration.^ Returning from beyond the bounds of Ocean, he is received by Thetis,^ and ascends to heaven at the instiga- tion of Dionysos, after having entrapped his mother on the goklen throne ; and, in the ancient Comedy, splinters a lance with Ares over her while she is thus detained.^ He is some- times represented returning to Olympus riding on a mule or seated in a winged car, like that of Triptolemos, having with him his hammer and pelehys, and the golden cup, or vine, which he made for Zeus.* At the Lemnian forges he labours at the armour either of the gods or of Achilles.^ Sometimes, though rarely, he is seen with 'Aphrodite.^ This god is particularly Attic, and is connected by certain myths with Athene, the representations of whom on objects of the ceramic art have already been detailed. Ares, another of the Olympian deities, in the few instances in which he appears on vases, is generally in a subordinate position ; such as a spectator of the birth of Athene, taking part in the Gigantomachia, aiding his son Kyknos against Herakles, engaged in his contest with Athene,^ deploring the loss of his beloved Aphrodite, or detected in her arms by Poseidon and the other gods of Olympus.^ His type is scarcely to be distinguished from that of mortal heroes. His chariot is driven by Deinos and Phobos ; * but on later vases Nike acts as his charioteer.-^" He appears at the marriage-feast of Thetis,^^ and fights with Hephaistos ^^ to rescue his mother Hera. Aphrodite,^^ the mistress of Ares before she was the wife of ^ D. L., xix. ; G. C, xi. a, b. | pi. ix. 49 ; L. D,, i. li. ; G. C, xii. xiii. 2 See Fian(;ois Vase, supra. j ^ l D., i. xxxix. 3 V. D. C, vii. ; T., iii. 9, iv. 38 ; ^ L. D., i. vii. ; A. Z., 1843, 3.51. G. A. v., Iviii. ; D. L., xxxiii. ; L. D., i. | « B. A. B., 1632. xli.-xlix. ; C. C, 49, 50, 51 ; M. B., iii. liii. ; C. M., 3; A. Z., 1852, 240, 246. ^ P., cliii. ; G. A. V., Ivii. ; L. D., i. xxxviii. ^' Ibid., 1433. •^ D'H., i. 112; Christie, Etr. Vases, '3 a. Z., 1848, 201 ; L. D., 11. V. C, ix. ^o V. C, xxi. ; I. s. V. ; T., xxxviii. " Vas. Cat. Brit. Mu3., 811. 236 GREEK POTTERY. Part IT. Hephaistos, is never a protagonist on the vases. Once she is seen in the society of Ares ; ^ often with a youth supposed to be Adonis.^ She is the constant companion of the Olympic gods, and enters into many scenes derived from the Troica; the attiring of Helen, the rescue of Aineas, the marriage of Theseus, the judgment of Paris, the birth of Ericlithonios, the suckling of Herakles, the rape of the Leukippidai and Kassandra, and her preservation from the wrath of Menelaos.^ On later vases, she is often seen at the bath * or the toilet.^ A charming composition represents her embracing Eros ; ^ in others, she is seen caressing a dove or swan.' She wears a tutulus,^ crosses the sea, borne by two Erotes,^ and accompanied by dolphins ; or is mounted on a swan ; ^° or in a chariot, drawn by the Erotes,^^ is seen caressing a hare.^^ Hermes, the messenger of the gods, is a common subject on vases of all epochs, but chiefly as a subordinate agent, as in scenes of the Gigantomachia,^^ the Herakleid, the Perseid, and in those derived from the Troica,^* and* from the Tragic drama. Among the many incidents of his career, he is exhibited as stealing tlie oxen of Adnietus, and taking refuge in his cradle, where he is discovered by Apollo, to the amazement of his mother Maia ; ^^ as inventing the lyre, which he exchanges with Apollo,^^ and as passing over the sea with it ; ^' as carrying a ram, probably that of Tantalos ; ^^ as sa(?rificing a white goat,^^ perhaps in connection with the story of Penelope.^*' He is also seen tending flocks,^^ once with his mother Maia ; ^^ conveying 1 T., iii. 40. 2 V. M., xi. ; D H., iii. 74 ; A. Z., 1848, 229; T., iv. 39; M, iv. xv.-xviii. xxiii. xxiv. ; St , xliv. ; C. M., 8 ; A., 1845, M. N. 3 Cat. Vas. Brit. Mus., 811, 749, lo31, 1323 ; Mon., 1856. PI. xiv. ^ D'H., ii. 89 ; T., iii. 50. 5 C. D., 41, 42, 43 ; C. C, 1 1. 1, s. v. ; T., xix. xxiv. ; M. P., xxviii. xxix. « D. M., i. Ixv. ; P., i. xiv.; M., iv. xxxix. ; M. B., vii. viii. ; A. Z., 1848, 3,3-42. ^ M. A. U. M., xiii. ; P., i. xvii. ; P., cxxxii. cxxxiv. ; D'H., iv. 81. « T., iii. 23, 30. » M. A. U. M., xiii. '0 V. C, xxi. ; V. L., p. 30. xxxvii. i, s. V. ; T., xxxviii. ; St., xxviii. ; De Witte, Etudes, p. 31. " G. C, v.^ V. F., cccxxiv. " V. F., cxviii. ; M., iv. xxiv. " L. D., iii. xcvii. ; C. D., 32. »4 G. A. v., xxxi.; A. Z., 1847, 20. 1* M. G., ii. Ixxxiii. 12 ; L. D., iii. Ixxxvi. ; A. Z., 1844, xx. 321. '« C. D., 64 ; L. D., iii. Ixxxix. Bull., 1843, p. 69. ^^ M., iv. xxxiii. xxxvi. 18 Panofka, Die Heilgotti. Abh., Berl. Akad., 4to., 1845, Taf. i. 7 ; M., i. xxxv. ; L. D., iii. Ixxxvii. ; B. A. B., 1636 ; V. F., clii. ; B. A. B., 1003. 1® L. D., iii. Ixxxviii. ** L. D., iii. Ixxxiii. xcix.-ci. ^^ L. D., iii. Ixxxiii. 22 L. D., iii. Ixxxv. /IIAP. V. HERMES, HESTIA., AND DIONYSOS. 237 Honysos to the Nymphs of Nysa,^ in company with Sileni,^ ind deer, and in many Dionysiac orgies ; ^ or with Hekate,* n* Athene,^ making libations ; ® or roasting the tortoise,' ^ith Hephaistos ; ® or among the assembled Sileni.^ He is lepicted ravishing Herse ; ^° slaying Argo Panoptes ; ^^ and rescuing lo. He is also intermingled with Sphinxes.^^ Some- times he is seen alone,^^ and winged.^* He announces to Nereus ^the rape of Thetis, conducts the goddess to the judgment of Paris, and escorts Priam to Achilles.^^ As Agonies, presiding over the games, he is painted on prize vases.^® Once he appears with the Dioscuri.^' Sacrifices are offered to his ithyphallic terminal figure.^^ Hestia rarely appears, and only in groups of other gods. At the fatal marriage feast of Peleus, she is joined with Hermes.^® So numerous are the vases upon which the subject of Dionysos and his train is depicted, that it is impossible to detail them all. Sometimes he is presented under the form of lacchos,^*^ but generally as Dionysos. the jovial god of wine, and the most appropriate of the whole circle of deities to appear on vases dedicated to his service.^^ Generally, however, he is inter- mingled w4th his cohort, and rarely appears alone.^^ His wonderful birth is represented, especially his being sewed into the thigh of Jupiter, and his subsequent delivery by Hermes to Silenus, to be brought up by the Nysaian nymphs,^^ or even anomalously to the care of xiriadne.^* » M., i., xviii. ; T., iii. 8. 2 B. A. N., iii. 73 ; G. E. V., v.-vii. ^ V. L., xlix. * St , xxxviii. " A. Z., 1852, 238. * L. D., iii. Ixxiii. ^ L. D., iii. Ixxvi. xc. » A. Z., 1848, 220. * M. G., ii. xix. 2 a ; L. D., iii, xc. " T., iv. 41 ; B. A. B., 910 ; L. D., iii. xciii. xcv. »i G. A. v., cxvi. ; Abh. Ak. Wiss. Berl., 4to., 1838, iii. iv. ; A. Z., J847, ii. 17; L. D., iii. xciv. xcv. xcvii.-xcix. '2 L. D., iii. Ixxvii. " M. B., XXV. ; P. C, Ixxxvi.; L. D., iii. xlviii. '* M. I., Ixxxv. '5 Cat. Vas. Brit. Mus., 451, 828*, 486. 16 G. A. v., Ixvi.-xviii. ; M. G., ii. Iviii. 17 L. D., iii. xcvi. 1* L. D., iii. Ixxviii.-lxxxii. »« G. A. v., xvi. ; V. F., cccc. ; A. Z., 1847, 18. vi. 20 A. Z., 1848, 220. 2> Millin., V. ii. 13; M. G., ii. Ivii. 228 ; D. L., xvi. ; D'H., iv. 75 ; A. Z., 1847, vii.; C. C, 21-48. " V. F., ccxliii. OCX. " V. F., Ixv. 65; C. P., 27; M. G., ii. xxvi. 1-1 a; V. F., ccclxxxiv. ; M. P., xxxii. ; D'H., iii. 105 ; M. B., viii. xxix. ; A. Z., 1852. 329; De Witte, Etudes, p. 31. " M. A. U. M., XXV. ; T., v. (i.) 49 ; M., ii. xvii. 238 GREEK POTTERY. FaPvT TT. Perhaps of all the incidents represented, the most frequent, graceful, and interesting, is the discovery of the abandoned Ariadne at Naxos, which forms part of the Theseid. On the older vases,^ this incident is depicted in the most passionless way; but on those of a later style, Dionysos is introduced by Aphrodite and Eros to Ariadne,^ who throws her- self into his arms in the most voluptuous and graceful manner.^ Sometimes they are seen in a chariot, drawn by stags,'^ or atten^led by Nike ; ^ at others, the wine-god pursues Ariadne, who shuns his approach.^ His exploits in the Gigantomachia,'^ and his presence at the marriage of Peleus and Thetis, at which he brings back Hephaistos to Olympus, form the subjects of some fine vases.^ He is himself introduced to heaven ; he is present at the birth of Athene, and joined with Apollo Nomios and the Delphic deities. Sometimes he is seen in a triclinium ; ^ other scenes, in which Semele ^° appears, perhaps refer to his apotheosis. In some instances, he is present in groups of deities, as Aphrodite, Hermes and Poseidon ; ^^ Hermes and Athene ; ^^ Athene and Apollo ; ^^ or with Artemis ; ^* or with Hermes, Apollo, and Herakles,^^ and often with Hermes alone,^*' probably in scenes connected with other myths. In the scenes with Eros, already mentioned, Dionysos is probably to be considered as the lover of Ariadne.^^ The following are the most remark- able representations of the incidents of his career : his appearance » Crenzer, Gall. Taf. 4 ; G. A. V., x. xxxii. XXV. xxxiv. ; M. G., ii. xl. 2 a, xlv. 2 a, xxvii. 2 c ; B., 1847, 206; V. F., cxliv; clxvl. ccvii. ; P. C., xXviii. ; R. R., xliv. A ; V. F., cxxiv. clxxxvi.-cxxiii. ; V. M., vi. 2 D. L., xxix. 3 D. M., i. xxxvii. ii. liii. ; T., ii. Iv. iv. 13 ; V. F., cclvi. ; P., clxix. clxxii. clxxix.-clxxxii. clxxiv. ccxcii.-ccxciii. cccxcv. ; M. B., iii. xix. xx. ; M. P., xviii.; I., s. v. xliv.; T., v. (1) 21-26; T., iii. 53, 54 ; T., ii. 45, 46 ; C. M., 16, 22, 27, 31 ; A. Z., 1849, 161, xvi. ; L. D., xlvii.; A, Z., 1846, xxxix. 8, 1853, 401; 0. D., 95, 116; St., xxi. ; M. I., Ixxxvi. * B., 1843, 54. " B. A. N., iv. tav. i. 2; St., xiv. xvi.; B. A. B., 621, 625, 635, 844; M. A. U. M., xxxiv. ; T., iv. 36. " M. G., ii. iii. a ; T., xxxlii. 1 a, Ii. 1 a; Creuzer, Gall. Ath. Dram., 7 ; V. F., Ixxxvi. Ixxxviii. ; D. L., xxix. ' B., 1844, ^3 ; V. I;. I., Ivi. ; V. F., cxvii.; D'H., ii. 82, iv. 122; D. L., xix. ; P. cli. * V. L. I., Ixx.-lxx'ii. ; P. eciii.-ccvii. ccxix. ; M. B., vi. xxi. ; B. L., 17. » T., i. 46, ii. 51 ; G. A. V., cxiii. ; V. C, Ii. ; M. G., i. 1 ; M. G., ii. Ixxxix. 5 a, 5 b ; V. C., xxvi. ; V. F., Iviii. cclxxii. ; P., cxliii. ccvii. ccxix.-OixXi. ; D'H., ii. 54, iii, 62, iv. 52, 90. '0 A. Z., 1848, 220. '' G. A. v., xlviii. 12 G. A. v., cvi i. ^* G. A. v., XXXV. '' G. A. v., Ixvii Ixvi. 6 a, Creuz'jr, Gall. v. '« V. G., xxxv.ii.; G. A. V., xlii. Ivi 1' P., cliv. B. A. B., 1601. ** M. G., ii. xxii. cxli ; M. G., ii.. IIAP. V. SILENI AND SATYRS. 239 tlie ship with the Tyrrlienian pirates, who are ehaiige*d into )Iphins ; ^ his type as Dionysos pelehjs, holding: an axe, and lounted on a winged car ;^ Ids reception by Icarins ; ^ his presentation of the vine ; * and his delivery of the wine to linopion. He mounts his qna'lriga, attended by Ariadne,^ [ekate/ and others; is drawn by gryphons;' rides on a "anther ; ^ on the mule Eraton ; ® on a camel, as the subduer of India ; ^° on a bull ; ^^ on a ram, in company with Hermes, mounted on the same animal ; ^^ or is seen carried by Sileni.^^ His presentation of the golden amphora to Thetis belongs to the arguments of the epic cycle, while his apotheosis is probably indicated on those vases on which he is seen mounting his chariot. His supposed destruction and re-composition in the boiling cauldron is, perhaps, a representation of the mode in which immortality was conferred on Achilles rather than a portion of the Dionysiac myth.^* The war with the Amazons and Indians is sometimes the subject of a vase, also his alliance with the Hyades.^^ On the older class of vases Dionysos is seen attended by his troop of Sileni, satyrs, and nymphs.^^ On some older vases, the so-called satyrs appear to be Sileni. In these pictures he oftens holds the vine, and the Jceras, or drinking-horn,^' or else the hantharos, out of which he drinks,^^ and has at his side a lion, his goat,^^ or a bull,^'^ to which are added a fawn and owl.^* The panther, so common an adjunct of the wine-god in later works of art, is rarely seen on vases.^^ Dionysos is also found depicted in an orgasm, tearing a kid to pieces.^^ In these com- 1 B. A. B., 806; G. A. V., xlix. ; B. A. N., 1857, t. vii. 2 V. L., lii.; G. A. V., xli. ; D. L., xxxiii. xxxiv. 3 C. D., 119; M. I., Ixxxviii.; M. M. I., xliv. 1; C. F., 43. * G. A., i. ; P., cciv. 5 V. L., V. ; M. B., xiii. xv. ; M. G., ii. iii. 4 a, vi. 2 b; G. A. V., lii.-liv. xcviii. cxli. ; C. F., 44 ; T., i., 32 ; P., civ. ; V. L., Ixxvi. Ixxviii. ^ P., cclxxiii. " P., clx. i. li. 1 a, lii. 2. « T., ii. 43; V. F., xlviii.; Mill n., V. i. 60. » T., ii. 42. >• A. Z., 18 i4, 388, xxiv.; C. D., 96, 97; A., 1832, 99; M., i. 1.; A., v. 99; V. L., i. Ixiv. »» G. A. v., xlvii. 12 A. Z., 1846, 286. 13 M. G, ii. iii. 3 a; B., 1854,34. i» G. A. v., ccvi. 1* B., 1834, 241 ; R. A., 1863, p. 348. i« C. D., 68-95; A. Z., 1848, 219; T., iii. 9. 1' M. G., ii. xxxii. 1 a, xxxiv. 1 a, viii. la; G. A. V., xxxvi. xlix. xcviii. clxxiii.; V. C xxiv. ; M., i. x. ; A., 1837. B. 1* V. F., cclxxxvi. '* G. A. v., xxii. ; M. G., ii. xxxv. ; G. A. v., ix. xxxviii. ; V. D. C, xxi. ; Millin., V. xxiii. xl. ii. xxi. vi. cxiii. 2« C. F., 4. 21 p^ civ. " V. F., Ivi. " M. Bl., xiii. 240 GREEK POTTERY. Part JI. positions he stands between Sileni with the ashos,ov wine-skin/ or between nymphs and Sileni ; ^ or between two nymphs ; ^ or sometimes with only one ; * or between two Sileni,^ or amidst groups ^ engaged in the vintage.' Sileni, Nymphs,^ and Satyrs, engaged in various actions connected with the Dionysiac thiasos, are frequently reproduced in isolated groups from the greater compositions. Eepresenta- tions of amorous pursuits are common, and sometimes a boy, perhaps the youthful Dionysos, mingles in them.^ Many scenes of fun and frolic ai'e displayed among these elves of the ancient world. They are beheld sporting with the mule, the deer,^° the goat,^^ the panther, and other animals belonging to the wine- god, as well as engaged in a variety of games, such as the seesaw ; or they are seen amusing themselves by catching foxes, the pests of the vine, in a trap ; ^^ or gathering grapes to make the vintage ; ^^ or holding the heras}^ As perlagogues they administer a sound flogging to a youth.^^ They also appear armed like Amazons,^^ or fallen from chariots,^' or even en- gaged in palaestric exercises,^^ and hurling the diskos. Nor are the actions of the nymphs less varied. They hold panthers,^** goats, and serpents; play with the ass or mule Eraton; and frisk about in numerous attitudes. In the scenes depicted on the older vases, the monotony of the subjects, and comparatively slight variety of details, show that they were selected from one or two original compositions of great renown, of rigid and archaic execution, and principally relating to the discovery of Ariadne at Naxos, her marriage, or / * G. A. v., xxxviii. I xxxiv. ; D. L., xxxii. xxxiii. ; G. E. V., 2 M. M. I., xliv. 4 ; M. G., ii. Ixi. 2 a; viii. ; G. T. C, v. ; P., clix. ccxi.-ccxii V. F., cclxiv.-cclxviii. ; D'H., i. 404, 119, iii. 68-76, 115, iv. 113; M. B., viii. xxviii. ; T., ii. (v.) 22, 33 ; T., v. 37. 3 G.A.V., cxiii.; V.F., ccliii.; D. L., iii. v.; L. B. A. B., 699. * P., clxx. * V. D. C, xxxvii. ; V. L., ii. xxviii. ; xlv. ; V. F., ccix.-ccxxxi ; D'H., ii. 41, iv. 20-29 ; St., xxv. « V. C, xli. ; V. L., ii. XXX. ; T., (v.) ii. 27, 29, 39. ^ M. G., ii. xlvi. 1 a. * M. G., ii. xviii. Ixxii. 2 a, 26, Ixxix. 2 a, 2 b ; V. C, xvi. i. xviii. xxxix. ; G, A. v., Ixxix. Ixxx. cxlii. cliv. clx. ccxxiii. ccxxxvi, ccxxxvii. cclii. cclv. celxxvii. ; DH., ii. 41, 90, 97, 100, iv. 78-83-100, 107, 32 ; A. Z.. 1848, 248 ; T., i. xvi. ; 0. F., xxx. xxxi. ; T., (v) ii. 31, 35. « St., xxvi. '0 G. A. v., cxcvi. i» G. A. v., Iv. Iviii. '2 G. T. C, X. ; M. P., xxix. " G. A. v., XV.; M. G., xxiv. 1^ G. A v., clxxix. ^5 M. G., ii. Ixxx. 1 a. 16 G. A. v., Ii.; M. P., ix. 17 V. C, lix. 1* St., xxiv. •" V. F., cclix Chap. V. NAMES OF SILP^NI AND NYMPHS. 241 the Bacchic triumph. The attendants of the gods are rarely named, and it is not until the decline of the old rigid school of art that tlie Dionysiac mytlis begin to show not only several new incidents, but also to reveal the appellations of the principal nymphs, mainads, satyrs, and Sileni. It is on such vases that the word " Naxians " is applied to the discovery of Ariadne,^ and that the god appears as the inventor of comedy.^ In these scenes the wine-god appears accompanied by the Silenos Simos, and the nymphs Dione and Thy one ; ^ with the Sileni, Ivomos and Hedyoinos, and the nymphs Opora, Oinone, los, and the goddess Eirene,* crowned by Himeros ; with the Silenos Kamos or Komos, and the nymphs Euoia and Thaleia, the last perhaps tlie Muse of that name, listening to the piping of Pothos or "desire;"^ with Kamos and the nymphs Eiioia and Galene,^ whose name, " the Calm," rather resembles that of a Nereid ; with Simos and Komos, and the nymph Koiros ; ^ L with Kissos and Choronike ^ or Phanope. r In isolated compositions the Sileni Hedyoinos and Komos often i)ursue nymphs.^ In one of the pictures most filled with figures, Dionysos is surrounded by Silenos, Simos, Eudaimos; the nymphs Opora, Eaoia, and Thyone ; the Erotes, Eros, Himeros and Pothos ; ^^ and the boy Sikinnos. Silenos is sometimes his only companion; ^^ while in many thiasoi, the gcd himself is not present, but only his cohort of Sileni and nymphs, as Simos and Myro, Anties and Eio, Thanon and Molpe, Hypoeios and Klyto, Dork is and Xanthe, and Abaties and Chora.^^ The nymph Xanthe is seen between the Sileni, Hippos, and Simos ; the Silenos Smis is seen pursuing Eio and another, Molpe follows Phoebe, Dorkis, and Nais, the Satyrs, Pedis, and Doro,^^ the Sileni, Chorrepous and Kissos, are found witli the nymph Phanope.^* But, returning to the more important compositions, one » V. F., xcix. ; G. T. C, v. ; M. A. ' M. B., ii. xiv. U. M., XXX. xxxi. ** G. T. C, vi. ; T., ccx. 2 T., i. 44. "> D. M., xxxiii. vi. i. 64. 3 See Jahn, Dionysos und sein Thi- »» Schulz. B., 1830, 122 ; P., ccxiii. tisos, Vaocnbilder, 4to, Hamb., 1839, j ccxviii. ; V. C, xxiv. who has collected the following inci- , »» B., 1831, 38. dents; P., ccxlv. '^ Myg^ y^^y ^ S02 ; T., nx. ; Esipp. ^ V. L., i. 65 ; D. M., lutrod., xxii. ■ Vole., 185, n. 748. '^ C. D., 145, •^ T., ii. 44 ; I. M. E , v. 26. | '' Cat. Scelt. Ant. lOtr., Goi h., Ii. V., « V. G., xix.; B. A. N., iv. iii. 4. ' 185, No. 748. R 242 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. may be cited representing Dionysos accompanied by Komos, Ariadne, and Tragoidia/ or Thaleia, another mnse,^ and Methe ; ^ or by the Silenos Hedymeles, who pipes on the flute,* and Dithyrambos, who plays on the lyre, or by Komos and Paean. ^ Dionysos is also found with Eumolpus and lacchos ; ® with Semele, as already mentioned,' Gelos, and Thyone ; or with Briakchos and Erophylle ; ^ or with Nymphaia.^ The names attached to the personages give the following additional inci- dents of his cohort. Komos ^° playing on the double flute, an action also performed by Hedymeles and Briakchos ; Gelos or " laughter," singing to the lyre ; ^^ Skopas, and Hybris ; ^^ Simos sporting with the mule Eraton ; ^^ and tlie often-repeated subject of Tyrbas pursuing Oragie.^* Simos is seen with a mainad and Thyone ; ^^ a mainad with the Sileni IVIarsyas, Soteles, Pothos ; ^® Thaleia with other Sileni ; ^' Oinos ''wine," another of the crew, is united with Komos.^^ Among the more remarkable incidents connected with other myths, are Hermes with the Sileni, Oreimachos and Orokrates ; ^^ the appearance of these in the myths of Herakles, in the Perseid, and in dramatic scenes ; and their war with the Amazons and surprise by the Gryphons.^" Detached incidents respecting the nymphs or mainads, accompanied with their names, are uncommon, yet are occasionally found, as Lilaia playing the crotala, the satyr Mimos and the mainad Polymne, Demon Chores and Aietos, Kissos and the mainad Kinyra, the eponymous Euboia Lemnos, Delos, and Tethys ; ^^ the satyrs Oiphon and Brikon. A few isolated nymphs or mainads are also represented in the decora- tions of the smaller vases as holding a lion or panther,^^ seated on a buU,^^ or with thyrsi and snakes.^* / Pan, the great Arcadian god, who is not introduced into the early works of art, is seen in the later pictures of the Dionysiaca in connection with the Satyric chorus,^^ or else in dramatic ^ C. D., 114 ; R. R. ; Journal des Sa- vants, 1826, p. 89 ; C. F. ; T., i. 34, 36. 2 V. F., xxxviii. ' G. T. C, x. * A., 1829, E. » A. Z., 1852, 401. « Bull., 1829, 75. ' C. D., 85. « Mus. Etr., 1005. » C. C, 42. 10 C. D., 87. " C.D.,85; B,A.B.,699; D'H.,ii.65. 12 C. C, 96. 13 C. C, 59. 1* M., ii. xxxvii. " C. C, 43. 18 B. A. B., 848. 1^ B., 1835, 181 ; B. A. B., 1601. " G. A. v., cliii.-iv. ; V. G.. iii. ; P., cclxx. 21 Bull., 1847, 114; R. A., 1868, 348, 330 ; Caylus, ii, xxix. xxxii. xxxiii. " M. G., ii. xxvii. " G. A. v., cxllx. 2* G. A. v., ccxxxiii. " Walpole, Travels, ii. PL, 8 ; M. A. i« Jahn, 1. c. 24. i- P.,cxlix. clviii. U. M., i. PI. A [AP. V. DIONYSIAC ORGIES. 243 senes.^ He is distinguished by his goats'-hoofs and horns, and accompanied by the nymphs and naiads, and among them probably by Echo ;^ or he is seen with Dionysos, Aphrodite, tnd Pothos,^ or Eros,* and in other subjects.'^ On later vases,^ executed during the decline of the art, specially when it had obtained more licence, the orgies of the >ionysiac thiasoi are displayed in their greatest freedom — it i!iy be added in their greatest beauty. Dionysos and his )llowers are seen under the intoxicating influence of wine ; the ityrs and the Nymplis dance, chase one another, and throw hemselves into extraordinary attitudes to the sound of the nnpanon or tambourine, the double flute or the harp, and often ^by torch-light. Some imitate the tours de force of the jugglers and dancing women ; others fly about with torches, or the branches of trees to which are suspended oscilla ; others, again, hold thyrsoi, bunches of grapes, apples, wine-skins, vases like buckets or with handles, canistra, or baskets, with fruit, bandlets branches of myrtle, rhyta, phalloi, masks, and eggs. The Bacchantes often wear the nebris, or the slight Coian vests, and are intermingled with the Erotes or Loves. Sometimes the Sileni attend on the nymphs, holding their parasols ; on the latest vases of all, the nymphs are naked. In the decline, as at the earlier period, of art, it is difficult, nay, often im- possible, to separate the real from the mythical ; and hence on t'le Lucanian vases many of the subjects are treated in a manner more resembling the actions of private life, than those of mythic import.' To these vases some writers have given ^ Lenormant, Cur Plato Aristopha- nem, &c,, 4to., Paris, 1838; Campana, Ac, Roma, 1830 ; T., ii. 40, 33, v. 1527, 28 ; V. Gr., ii. ; M. B., viii. xxvii. 2 M. B., xxiii. ; P., cxxv. 3 A. Z., 1848, 219. * M. P., xxxii. ; D'H., ii. 58. * T., i. 40, ii. 43. « T., (v.) i. 12-15, 25, 29-31, 34. ' Milliu., in D. M., p. xiii.; M. P., xxix. ; G. T. C, xiv. ; V. L., i. xlvii. Ixvii. Ixxix. Ixxx. ii., xlii.-xliv. i.; Supp., i iii. ; S. V. T., iii. xiv.; S., xxxviii.; V. F., Ixvii.-lxviii. Ixii. ; V. F., viii. ix., xl. xli. xlii. Hi. Iv. xcix. cix. cxii. cxxvii. cxxi. cxlv. cxlvi. clxxxv. cxcvii. cxcix. ; 0. C, xiv. pxlvii. cxlviii. cxlix. el. cliv. clxx. clxxvi. ccxxvi. ccxliii. cclxx. ccxci. cccxviii. cccxxiii. cccxxxvi. xxix. cclxxi. ccliv. ; M. Bl., xiv.; B. A. B., 590, 601; 616, 619, 710, 1603, 1612 ; G. T. C, xvi.; A. Z., 1843, 340, 1847, 25, 1851, 248, 1852, 275 ; B. A. N., i. 26, 92, v. 24, iii. 113 ; C. C, 5060 ; C. D., QS, and foil.; C. F., 25, 34; G. A., iv. c. ; M. B., iii. xxix. vi., vi. ; M. I, Ixxvii. Ixxxi.-iii.; M. M. I., XXXV. ; D'H., i. 40; ii. 2; P. I., xiii. xxxvi. xlvi. xcix. ciii. cxix. cxx. cxxi. cxxii. cxxvii. cii. cxxviii. cxxix. cxxx. cxl. cxlii. cxliii. cxlvii. clxvi. clxxxvi. clxxxviii. cexxi. ccxxvi. ccxxix. ccxxxii. ccxxxiii. ccxxxiv. ; V. d. P., i. xxxiv. xxxx. ; V. L., ii. xxx. ; Supp., ii. V. ; T., v. 94, ii. 45, 49, 50, 56, R 2 2i4 GREIi:K POTTERY. Part II. the term mystical, supposing them to be representations of the mysteries ; or refer them to the actual orgies performed by the contemporary worshippers of Dionysos in Southern Italy, the abomination of whose practices at last called forth the decree of the Senate which suppressed them. But although it cannot be denied that after the time of Alexander the Great, the idealism of ancient art was superseded by the desire of representing the present rather than the past, yet it is not easy to point out any vase to which an interpretation purely historical can be given.^ The adventures of the Silenos Marsyas form the subject- matter of a considerable number of vases, and connect the cycle of Dionysos with that of the Delphic deities. They appear only on vases of the later period. The charming scene in which he instructs Olympus is known from its reproduction by the chisel.^ His fatal contest with Apollo is often repeated, and in many ways. On some vases Apollo listens to the concert of the mainads,^ or sings before an assembly of the gods, at which Marsyas is present ;* or the unfortunate Silenos holds the flutes, ready to sing, and seated at the foot of the fatal tree, while Apollo stands before him with three Muses, judges of the contest f or after having played the lyre before the mainads, proposes to play the Hute.^ Even Athene is present at the contest, and listens to the flute she has abandoned ;^ whilst, last sad scene of all, Apollo flays his unhappy rival.^ Mention has been already made of the appearance of the Erotes, or Loves, in the scenes of the Dionysiac^ orgies. On the earlier vases of the black style Eros never appears ; but on several vases of the later style, he is o^onstantly either intro- duced into the subjects, or treated as protagonist. Thus he figures in all the scenes of which the passion of Love^° is the exponent, and especially in those derived from the Satyric drama ; but his chief appearance is of course in the character of the servant or minister of Aphrodite, near whom he standi s or iii. 11, 14, 15, 18, 20, 113 ; T., v. (i.) 48 ; B. A. N., iii. 77, v. 28. T., i. 30, 37, 38, 44, 45, 49, 51 ; St., xxiv. ; * D. M., i. vi. T., iii. 41, 46, 49, give some of the many i " T., iii. xii. representations. ^ D'H., iv. 64. * A., 1845, c. ^ T., (iv.) vi. ; P., ccxxxv. ccxliv 2 T., i. 33, iii. 12 ; T., v. (i.) 44 ; ! » Vide supra. Cf. P., 6, Ixix. Oreuzer. Gall. B., 1851, 101; P., xxxiv.; ! « D'H., iii. 68, 71. M. A. 1., xvii. I '0 V. G., xxvi.; i. 40, ii. 45, iii. 62; 3 T., iii. 5 ; D'H., ii. G8, iv. 62 ; M. A. I., xv. lAV. V. EllOTES. 243 wliom he ministers. Aphrodite and the Graces, Kleopatra, lunomia, Paidia, and l-*eitlio, phiit a cage for Eros/ a subject rhich is repeated on another vase,^ while on a third he is se(3n ijusting the sandals of his mother.^ His appearance amidst [iree females suggests that they are the Graces.* Sometimes is represented sacrificing, attending the meeting of Herakles id Athene, and the nursing of the demigod by Hera ; appears the garden of the Hesperides, at the toih^t of Helen, the rape ^f Ganymedes, with the Nereids, and constantly with Dionysos id his cycle.^ Th(3 Erotes, or Pothos, Eros and Himeros, are mstantly seen on vases® of the earlier style of the red figures, lometimes crossing: the sea and holdini^ fillets.'^ Eros is also seen holding a toivh or a crown, ^ flute- playing to Peitho,^ see- sawing with the females Archedie and Harpalinn,^" as well as in many scenes ditficnlt of explanation.-^^ An Eros represented shooting one of his arrows at a female breast, in a style truly Anacreontic, is in all probability a modern forgery.^^ On the vases of Lucania and Southern Italy the form of Eros assumes a local type. It is more adult in size, and more soft and feminine in character ; the hair particularly is attire 1 in female fashion ; spiral armlets encircle the left leg ; he holds a crown, garlanls, phialai, a bunch of grapes, a strigil, a mirror, a fan, and a pi/xis, or box, or skiadisheP He is also seen pursuing a hare,^* playing at hoop,^^ or with a deer,^® holding plants and apples,^^ boxes^^ and bandlets/^ offering a youth a hare,^° with a dove^^ or swan,^^ mounted on the shoulders of Pappo-Silenos,^^ with Nike^* and others, holding a fish to Poseidon,^^ pursuing a youth, ^® riding on a stag,^^ mingling with the Graces/^ and attending females at the bath,^^ or swinging * St., xxix. ^ St., XXX. ' St., xxxi. * St., xxxi. * Cat. Vas. Brit. Mus., 1327, 564, 1330, 1535 ; St., xxxv. « D. L., XV. 7 M. I., ix. 8 D. M., i. 22 ; Eapp. Vole, 40. n. 260. » T., ii. 44 ; M. G., ii. Ixxviii. 1 a. '° V. ¥., ccxcviii. ^^ D. L., XV.; P., xlvii. xlviii. Ixvii. ; D'H., iii, 113, 126, 128, 130; T., ii. 32. '- T., iii. 39. ^2 Millin., Mon. Introd., xiii. ; V. L., i. xii. ii. xlii. I. ; S. V. T., xx.-xxiii. ; V. M., iii. ; P., xlvi. xciv. ; D'H , ii. 79, iii. 45, iv. 38 ; B. A. B., 713 ; B. A. N., ii. iv. ; Cat. Vas. Brit. Mud., c. 15. " 0, D., 46. " CD, 47; R. R, xlix. '« C. D., 50. '^ C. D., 51. »8 C. D., 55, 57. i» C. D., 58. 20 M. B., V. XX. ; R. R., xiv. 2» B. A. N., iv. p. 55. 22 A. Z., 1852, s. 248. 23 Miiliu., V. P., i. 14, 22. 2* V. F., cxxvi. 25 G. A. v., Ixv. ; M. B., vii. viii. 1. 2« A. Z., 1848, 324. -' T. iv. (ii.) 7 ; St., xxviii. 2« M. A. I., 15. 2» T., iii. 35 ; Cat. Vas. Brit. Mus., 1491, c. 3y, 1370. 246 GKP:EK POTTERY. Part II. them in the air. Erotes are weighed as if for sale, or, har- nessed, convey through the air the chariot of Aphrodite. The most remarkable circumstance attending him, however, is his Dionysiac character, for he seems scarcely to be separated from the wine-god. His nature, indeed, is generally aerial ; he skims the air above Dionysos and Ariadne/ or sports with the followers of the god. He is mounted on a horse,^ a stag,^ or deer,* and on a dolphin ;^ is himself harnessed to a chariot ; is drawn by gryphons, lions, swans or even capricorns.^ But he is generally in the company of females,' youths,^ or athletes,^ and is frequently seen holding branches and torches.-^" To the train of Aphrodite belong the Charites or Graces, who are subordinate on some vases to Aphrodite,^^ especially Peitho, who attends her toilet.^^ The Muses, who are often repre- sented with Apollo, are once seen destroying Thamyris. The Sirens are introduced as accessories upon certain vases, prin- cipally in connection with the adventure of Ulysses. Although Asklepios seems to be later than the red vases, either of the early or late kind, yet Hygieia appears in a scene on a most remarkable vase found at Ruvo. Telesphoros is never seen. Hestia, whose name is one of the old Attic forms of Ehea or Yesta, occurs in assemblies of the gods, intermingled with other deities ;^^ while of the telluric gods, Erichthonius belongs to the legend of the Attic Athene, and it has been thought that the Kabiri may be recognised.^* Atlas belongs to the myth of Herakles ; Prometheus to that of Hera ;^^ and tlie Giants, to that of Zeus. Hades or Pluto is rarely the subject of a separate picture, although he appears in a subordinate capacity in many scenes, such as the birth of Athene, the feast of the gods, in the Herakleid,^® and above all in scenes of the lower world." In * D. M., i. xxxvii. ; V. L., ii. xxviii. ; P., Ixx ; St., xxvii. 2 D. M., ii. lix. 3 T., iv. 7. * P., xlii. » B., 1840, 55. ^ V. L., i. vii.-xiii. xiv. ii. x. ; P., 6, xlix.-liv. Ixi.-lxvi. Ixxix. Ixxxvii. clxxxv, ; D'H., ii. 35, iv. 71 ; B. A. B., 1628. ^ T., iii. 24-28. « P., Ixxxvii. » M. G., ii. iv. 1. " M. G., ii. Ixxxvii. " R.V., 41,n.285; M, i. liii.; V.F. M. A. U. M., xxxvii. ^2 Jahn, Peitho, 8vo., Greifswald, 1856 ; K. P., viii. ; M. B., xxii. ; St., xxxiv. ; M. A. U. M., xxxvii. ; A., 1844, K. C. F., 61. 13 A., 1845, B., 56; A. Z., 1846, 253. '* G. 0., i. " M., ii. xlix. 1. ; Bl., 29 ; A., 1837, 219; H., 1. i« C. D., 201-202, 204 ; 0. M., 28 ; T., iii. 1. c.-cxliii. cccliv.; D. L, xxii.; V. M., '' G. T. C, A. B. ; B. A. N., i. 14; viii. ; B. A. N., iii. 78 ; A. Z., 1848, 247 ; I M. A. U. M., xvi. 4 ; G. 0., i. 3hap. V. INFERNAL DErJ'IES. 247 jonnection with the Eleusinian myths he carries off Perse- )hoiie.^ Certain youtlis riding upon a Hippalektryon, and luman-headed birds, both male and female, may all belong to le netlier world. The deities of Hades are occasionally painted ; as the Moirai or Fates ;^ the Erinnyes or Furies, who in the story of Orestes are sometimes coloured black f Hypnos and Thanatos, or Sleep and Death, who convey away Sarpedon to Lycia ;* the supposed Demons of death ;^ Charon^ and the Shades ;' and the Keres or goddesses of death.® Hekate is seen chiefly in connection with Demeter, Persephone, and Apollo.^ Hades, or Pluto, occurs as a subordinate character. The Gorgons belong pecu- liarly to the Perseid. The Horai, wlio are connected with Demeter, are found only in subordinate positions. They are seen accompanying the gods to the marriage-feast of Peleus and Thetis, and are present with them in Olympus.-^® . The solar god Helios appears in several compositions con- nected with the Herakleid.^^ He, in his chariot of two winged liorses, is seen attacked by Herakles at the Hesperides, to which the hero had floated on the sea in his cup ;^^ merely revealing his head in the solar disk^^ to Athene and Hermes, or else in a chariot with four winged steeds, and having his head sur- rounded with rays, whilst the stars are plunging into the sea ;^* in a chariot drawn by four mortal horses, and accompanied by Heos^^ holding a torch ; and in a boat shaped like a dolphin, intended to represent Tethys.^^ At other times his head only is seen rising: from the sea. Athene and Ares cross the sea to him." In these compositions the artist intended to show that the action took place at sunrise. » G. T. C. A. B.; 0. D., 206. 1 ''^ Gcrhard,Ueber dieLichtgottheiten 2 Gerhard, Eapp. Vole, p. 41, No. K. Wi^s. Ak., Berlin, 1840, Tuf. i. 287. See also the Fian9ois Vase. . ^^ M., ii. 55 ; A., 1838, 266, and foil. B. A. N., iii., 17, PL, i. fig. 1. | INI., ii. Iv. 1. L. D., ii. cxii. A., cxiil. exv. ; 3 Ibid., No. 288. i Caylus, ii. xv. * Arch., X. xix. p. 139. j '* Bl. PI., xvii. ; R. R., PI. Ixxiii. ; VG. A. v., ccxl. ' L. D. ; ii. cxi. ; T., ii. 27. « A. Z., 1846, s. 350; St., xlvii.;; ^^ Gerhard, I.e. M, ii. 30,31, 32; A. 8, A., 1837, p. 256; B. A. B., 1622. ! p. 106; Millin., Toinbeaux de Canosa, ' St., xlvii. xlviii. « 0. D., 205. Fl v.; Passeri, Pict. Etr., iii. 268; ® A., 1833, Pi. c. j Wiiickelmanu, Mon., No. xxii. ; Dubois *o A., 1853, p. 103, 113 ; Gerhard, ! Maisonneuve, PL, i. ; L. D., ii. cxiv. ; Rapp. Vole., p. 41, No. 283. | V. F., ccexciv.; D'H., ii. 35; L. D., ii. ^^ Stackelberg, Die Graber, xv. 5 ; j cxvi. cxvii. V. F., Ivii. i« P., cclxix. >" L. D., ii. cxv. 248 GREEK rOTTKRY. Part II. Heos, or Aurora, is more frequently represented. She is either driving her chariot, drawn by the winged steeds Phaetlion and Lampos ;^ or rising with them from the sea,^ having on her head a ball ; or preceding Helios in a chariot of four horses, and sometimes in the same chariot with him.^ In one instance she is seen flying through the air and pouring the dew out of hydriai,* one of which she holds in each hand. Some of the figures reputed to be Nik6 probably represent this goddess. Her connection with Kephalos, Tithonios, and Athene will be snbsequently touched on in connection with the Attic myths and the Homerica. Phosphoros and Lucifer, the Dioscuri and Orion, are con- nected with the sun-god; and occur in connection with Hermes^ and Sileni.® Selene, the Moon, another of the solar gods, is rarely seen on vases of any period, and then generally as a mere pictorial accessory. Once she drives her chariot' through the night, accompanied by her crescent ; but more often descends, as Hy- perion mounts, the sky.^ Once she appears at Olympus as a disk showing only her head,® and again in the same form as chained to earth by two Thracian witches^ who invoke her, the venerable Moon ! ^° The winds also are sometimes represented as Boreas and Oreithyia,^^ and Zephyros pursuing Chloris,^^ but chiefly in peculiar myths. The constellation Pegasos appears once with the Moon.^^ Intimately related to the winds are the waves, whose various deities form indeed the cohort of Poseidon, but are of rarer occurrence on vases than any other subject, except that of the ' T., iii. 3; G. A. V., Ixxix.; Bull. 1846, 92 ; L. J)^ ii. cix. cix. a ; cix. B, ex. ; V. F., cclxxvi. ; P., cclxviii. cclxxv.; C. D., 231, 232; M. M. I., xxxvi. ; T., V. i. 55. ^ Gerhard, Ueber die Licbtgottlieiten, Taf. iv. 3 ; Berlins Ant. Bild., No. 1002 ; G. A. v., i. ; Ixxx. ; M. G., ii. xlix. 1 a; G. C, viii. 3 Ibid. Taf. ii. 2, iii. i. ; Millin., Tomb, de Canosa, PI. v. ; Passeri, iii. cclxix. ; Millin., Vases, ii. 37 ; Gal. Myth., 169, 611 ; Millin., Vases, x. 56 ; » M. A. U. M., vi. ^ V. L., i. Ixxxiv. ; D. L., xxx. ' L. D., ii. cxii.; T., iv. (ii.) 12, 13; Mus. Blac, xviii. ; C. D., 233 ; M. B., V. XXV. ; B. A. B., 886 ; C. D., 230, 235 ; V. F., clxxxvii. ; V. F., iv. (ii. 32). « Gerhard, 1. c. iv. 8 ; T., iii. 31. ^ Gerhard, Ueber die Lichtgott. Taf. i. 2, Taf. ii. 2, 3. 10 Gerhard, 1. c., Taf. iv. 8; T., iii. 31 (44). i> C. D., 211, 213; A. Z., 1845, s. 35, Taf. 31. Gal. Myth., xxx. 93. ' ^^ ^^n ^ i844, 98 ; V. F., cxciii. •* Gerhard, 1. c. Taf. iii. 3, 5; M. G., i cclxxxi. ; P., i. xciii. xciv. ; A. Z., 1845, ii. xviii. 2 ; G. T. C. P. eclxxxviii. Taf. xxx. '=* Men. iv. xxxix. ClIAl'. V. VICTOUY. 249 gloomy Hades. Nereus is, however, a part of the Herakleid,^ and Tiitoii appears in the same myth. GhiukosPontios belongs to tlie Arj^onautic expedition, and tlio Nereids appear in the Troika.^ Sea-monsters are sparingly introduced. Skylla, as be- longing to the Odyssey, is found on later vases devouring the companions of Ulysses. The Naiads appear on a very ancient vase, in connection with the Perseid. Some few local deities, intermingled with the principal figures, are introduced on late vases having tragic arguments derived from known subjects ; such as Thebe in the Kadraeid, the nymph Phaia in the Theseid, and Atlas in the Herakleid. Hellas is said to have been discovered on a vase recently exhumed at Capua. Euboia, Lemnos, Delos, Naxos, have been ' already mentioned. The supposed nymph Kyrene occurs on a vase representing the myth of Apollo. Such personifications are, however, the rarest of all, and of the latest period. A winged figure, known from the inscriptions which accom- pany it to be Nike or Victory,^ has been introduced by the vase- painters into the many subjects in which victory is the result, or which typify a future strife. As Eros denotes the purport of the scene to be amorous sentiment, so Victory indicates its heroic tendency. This mode of treatment belongs, however, only to the later period, and the art at an earlier one did not avail itself of such a resource. Nike appears crowning the gods,* heroes,^ athletes, and poets,^ with a wreath or fillet. She acts as charioteer to Ares^ and Herakles, drives a quadriga,^ and flies to meet Heos or the Morn.^ She is found as the com- panion of Zeus, under circumstances in which Iris, his mes- senger, or Hebe^^ his minister, would be expected to be intro- duced. She appears with Dionysos as inventor of tragedy.^^ On many of the later vases of the fine style, and especially on those of Nola, the goddess alone has been taken by the artist D. ni. 1. 11. HI. » M. Bl., XX. ; L, xxxiii. xxxiv. 2 C. D., 2ia; L. D., iii. xxxvi. B., supposed Nereids spinning. G. A. V., vii. ; A. Z., 1847, 18* is Triton ; B. A. B., 1585. 3 K. v., 40 ; C. D., 214, 230. Rath- geber, Nike, lb. Gotha, 1851. * R. v., 40, 267 ; G. A. V., clxxiv.-v. ; P., cliv. ^ R. v., 40, 2t38 ; M. G., ii. Ixiii. 1 a: G. A. v., clxxiv. clxxv. a, 1844, e. « R. v., 269 ; M. G., ii. Ix. 3, 9 ; D'H., iv. 114; T., i. 57, ii. 85. ^ V. F., ccxxiv. ; Oat. Vas. Brit. Mus., 1440. « V. F., ccxv. » V. F., ccxxiv. ; G. A. V., vii. 10 B. A. B., 835 ; M. A. U. M., xxix. ; L. D., i. xciv. xcv. xcvi. " Cut. Vas. Brit. Mus., 1293. 250 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. for his subject, holding the aJcrostoUon or ajolustre,^ erecting a trophy,^ or proffering an ivy-wreath,^ a branch,* or a shield.^ But the most charming compositions are those in which the goddess flies through the air, holding the oinochoe or jug, the jphiale or patera, the thymiaterion or censer used in sacrifices, or sometimes a lyre.® At other times she bears a torch like Hekate,^ or a sceptre like Hera, or a caduceus like Eirene or Peace.^ She offers up a ram,^ crowns bulls for sacrifice,^^ catches birds or animals, and stands at a tripod ^^ or altar.^^ She rarely holds the Jcantharos or cup. She is seen in interviews with other females, ^^ and also with a hare as a spectatress or assistant at the Dionysiac orgies, and is connected with Aphrodite. On the later vases Iris appears ; ^* on the older Eris, or Con- tention,^^ a remarkable goddess called Konikos,^® or Dust, and Lysse, or Madness, fulfil the mandates of Jove. Phobos, or Fear, appears once in the strife.^' The number of these allegorical figures is considerably aug- mented on vases of the later style, on which are seen Telete, or Initiation ; ^^ Eudaimonia, Prosperity ; ^^ Eutychia, Felicity; Kale, Beauty; 2° Pandaisia, Festivity ;^^ Alkis, Strength ;22 Poly- etes, Longevity ;^^ Klymene, Splendour ;^* Eukleia, Kenown;^^ Pannychis, All Night ;^® Harmonia, Harmony,^^ and Apate, Fraud.^^ At last not only Ploutos, or Wealth, but also Chrysos, or Gold, is introduced ; ^^ the popular taste delighting in seeing actions attributed to mental abstractions and material objects, which were made to chase, to gather fruit, to fly, to repose, and perform, like the actions described in the picture of Cebes, or the tales narrated in the fable of Cupid and Psyche. » T., iv. (ii.) 21. '^ M. I., xcix. 10. 3 L. D., i. c. ; V. F., ci. ^ C. D., i. xcviii. ° V. F., clxxxviii. ; L. D., i. xcviii. ^ P., ci. ; C. D., i. xcviii. ' P., ci. ; V. L., ii. xxxvii. « Gerhard Flugelgedtalten, Abh. K. Berlin Akad., 1840, iii. 6, iv. 3, 4 ; G. A. v., Ixxxii. 9 B. A. N., V. 87, ii. 3. 10 P., vii. ; G. A. V., Ixxxi. ; Y. F., ccclix.-lxi.-lxiii.-lxv. ; Cat. Vas. Brit. Mus., 887, 1526. 11 L. D., i. xcL; M. P., vi. »2 L. D., i. xcii. 1' P., ccxvii. ccxli. ; L. D., c. " C. C, 68, 69; L. D., c; G. A. V., xx. " Gerhard, Flugelgestalten, Taf. ii. 6. " 0. D., 14, 241 ; A. Z., 1852, 246, " G. R. v., 41, 281. 1* Gerhard, Flugelgestalten, ii. iii. 19 B. A. B., 810, 864. 20 Rev. Arch., 1855, p. 456. 21 Ibid. ; B. A. N., v. 28. 22 Mem. Acad. Punt., 4to., 1845 ; A., xvii. 1846, 415-417. 23 Creuzer. Gall. 8. 2* Rev. Arch., 1. c. 2* Ibid.; B. A. N., V. 28. ^« B. A. N., V. 28. 27 Ibid. 28 B A. N., V. 28. 29 B. A. N., iii. 13. ClIAP. VI. GLAZED VASES. 251 CHAPTER VI. Glazed vases — Subjects continued — Heroic legends — The Herakleid — Attic legends — The Theseid — The Kadmeid-legend of Oidipous — Thebaid — Various Theban legends — Myth of Athamas — Legends of Northern Greece — Argo- nautic expedition — Kalydonian boar — Kephallenaic traditions — Bcllerophon — Perseid — Pelopeid — Dioscuri — Kentauromachia — Minotaur — Hyperbo- rean legends — Phrygian legends — Orpheus and Eurydike — Troika — Ante- Homerica — Homerica — Post-Homerica — Unidentified subjects — The Nostoi — Odyssey — Telegoniad — Oresteid — Semi-mythic period — Historical sub- jects — Religious rites — Civil life — The Palaistra — Pentathlon — Dramatic subjects — Banquets — War — Immoral scenes — Temples — Animals — Eelation of the subject to Hellenic literature — Homeric poems — Aithiopika — Cyclic poems — Kypria — Nostoi — Telegonia — Hesiod's poems — Thebaid — Poems of Steischorus — Epigrams and fables — Threni — Oresteid — Emblems, attri- butes, costume — Expression — Scenery or adjuncts. Having thus detailed the subjects of vases with regard to the principal gods who figure on them, we will now proceed to con- sider the heroic legends from which others were taken. Commencing with the heroic cycle, the most important and fertile in events, if not the first in point of time, is the Herakleid, which occurs on vases of all ages, and offers an extensive series of exploits of Herakles, from his birth to his apotheosis. He is seen carried by Hermes, or nursed by Hera, amidst several of the deities of Olympus, or strangliug the serpents in his cradle. Throughout his labours, and the parerga, although often alone he is sometimes accompanied by his friend lolaos, or by Hermes and Athene.^ He is beheld in the forests of Mouut Kithairon,^ where he has descended from his chariot,^ and strangling the lion of Nemea,* which he subsequently flays* in the cavern. He is represented destroying the Lernaian » St., xvii. ; A. Z., 1843, s. 75. 2 For Herakks, see C. C, p. 36 and foil. 3 B. A. B., 992, 993 ; C. F., 77, 80, 90, 109 ; M. G., ii. lii. 2, 2 a, ii. vii. 2 b, xlvi. 1 a, xlvii. 2a; M. Bl., xxvii. * B. A. B., 1640, ccxxxviii.; C. M., 29 ; M. Li., ii. xii. 3 a; G. A. V., Ixxiv. xciv. oxxxviii. cxxxix. cxcvii. ; T., iv. xxiii. ; G. A. V., clxxxiii. cii. ; V. C, pl. xxxiv. 2 ; V. L., i. xciii. ; G. E. V. ; xi. D. ; C. D., 265-70 ; M. B., xiv. xviii. ; M. I., Ixxxix. ; M. G., ii. tav. x. 2 a; G. A. V., cxcii. ; Mon., vi. xxvii. ^ G. A. v., cxxxii. 252 GHEEK POTTERY. Part II. Hydra/ after descending either from his chariot^ or from his horse ; crusliing its head with his club^ or burning it with torches/ while a scorpion or land-crab endeavours to bite his heel. The subjugation of the Kretan bull/ which he ties with cords/ and the capture of tlie Erymanthian boar, especially the scene of bringing it back to Eurystheus, who throws himself in trepida- tion into the jpithos, are often depicted.'^ He is also seen receiving the belt from Antiope/ and fighting with the Amazons.^ Of rarer occurrence are tlie taking of the stag of Mount Kerynitis, in spite of the protection of Artemis ;^^ the destruction of the Stymphalian birds/^, either with his club or sling ; the capture of the horses of Diomed ; ^^ the slaying of Busiris/^ and of Geryon/* who is represented as three warriors, and sometimes wiuged,^^ or with a triple head ;^^ the driving away of the oxen /^ and the contest with Eryx in Sicily.^^ In the scene with the Hesperides, they are represented guarding the tree, assisted by the serpent Ladon,^^ which sometimes has a double head. On some vases the Hesperides aid in gathering the apples,^" on others Herakles supports the orb of heaven while Atlas seeks the tree.^^ The contest with Achelous for the han 688. >o G. A. v., ci. c. " G. A. v., cvi., or pigmy and crane ; M.P., viii. ; C. D., 278 ; T., ii. 18. »2 T., ii. 19, 30 ; B., 1843, 59. " M. G., xxxviii. ; V., 405 ; R. R., xxviu. ; G. T. 0., viii. ; C. D., 306 ; M. B., xii. xxxviii. ; M. I., xc. ; M., viii. ; t. xiv. I " G. A. v.,/ civ. cvii. cviii. cJvii. ; I B. A. B., 1592 ; M. G., ii. xcviii. 1 a ; I B., 1834, p. 241 ; A. Z., 1846, p. 342 ; \ 1852, s. 251 ; D. L., viii. ; A., 1834, i p. 69, pi. c ; C. F., 85, 86. I " C. D., 294, 299. I " G. A. v., cv. ; D. L., viii. I " V. G., xxvii. ; G. A., x. - 18 G. A. v., cvi. '» D'H., i. 127, iii. 123; B., 1844, ' p. 89; B., 119; V. F., ccxxxvii. ; D'H., I ii. 115 ; M. B., xii. xxxvii. i 20 Gl, A. v., xcviii. ; C. D., 307, 308 ; A. Z., 1844, s. 319. I 21 I s y, T., xvii.; P., xl. ccxlix. ! ccl. ; D'H., iii. 94; B. A. N., i. p. 126 ; iv. tav. iv. Chap. VJ. LABOUHS OF HERCULES. 253 is by no means an unusual subject on the early vases ; the river-god is generally represented as a bull with a human head/ as described by Sopliokles, and even in the type of a fish.^ The presentation of his horn to JnpitfT is also depicted.^ He- rakles is often seen crossing the sea in the golden cup ; * seizing Nereus, who changes himself into a lion, panther, and dolphin f or engaged in a monomachia^ with Triton,' an event of which no notice is preserved in ancient literature. Not less remark- able are, the supposed contest with the Molionides,^ that with the Ligyres,^ and tlie death of the giant Alkyoneus,^® in which either Tlianatos, Death, or Hy^nos, Sleep, intervenes. The in- sanity of the hero, banquet, and destruction of the family of lole,^^ his delivery by Hermes to the Lydian Omphale,^^ the contest of the demigod with Hera at Pylos,'^ and his discharging his arrows at the Sun, are also depicted.'^ The descent to Hades,^^ the rescue of Alkestis, and of Theseus and Pirithous,^*^ the dragging of Kerberos to earth, who is depicted with tw^o instead of three heads,^' and the bringing of the silver poplar from Hades,^^ are also represented, and are followed by the death of Lyktes.^^ The hero is also seen carrying Pluto on his shoulders.^^ Among the representations of his other adventures are his arrival in the forests of Pelion, his interview with the centaur Pholos,^^ and subsequent fight with the centaurs As- bolos, Hylaios, and Petraios,^^ in which he appears as prot- ' G. C, No. 92 ; G. E. V., xv. xvi. ; C. F., 88 ; Mon., vi. t. xxxiii. viii. t. x B A. B., 661, 669 ; A. Z., 1852, s. 247 ; C. F., xix.; Tr. K. Soc. Lit., iii. p. 117. 12 G.A.,xiv.; C.D.,316,317,B.A.B., 1024 ; V. L., ii. vi. '3 G.A.V.,cxxvii.; Bull., 1831, p. 133. 2 G. A. v., cxv. 3 T., iv. 35 (25;. h St., xv. ; B. A. B., 707. * G. A. v., cix. ; M. G., ii. Ixxiv. 1 b. ^ u G. A. V., cxxviii. * V. G., xxviii. ; P., ccv. | »6 a. Z., 1844, s. 227. « G. A. v., cxii. ; A. Z., 1843, s. 63 ; i n B. A. B., 1636 ; A. Z., 1852, s. 234 ; C. F., 78, 79; G. E. V., xv. xvi. ; C. D., < M. G., ii. Iii. 2 a; B. A. B., 657; A. Z.. 299, 304; B. A. N., i. p. 118; B A. B., | 1853, s. .399 ; G. A. V., xl. xcvii. cxxix. 697 ; A. Z., 1852, s. 234 ; M. A. U. M., cxxx. cxxxi. ; V. F., cxxxvi. ; C. D., 65, xi.; A. Z., 1853, s. 399 ; C. M., 31. 310, 311 ; A. Z., 1843, Tat', xi. s. 177; ' G. A. v., cxi. ; V. G., xxxii. ; A. Z., Mon. vi. t. xxxvi. viii! t. ix. 1852, s. 230 ; IM. G., ii. xliv. 2 a, b. '» D. M., ii. Ixxi. ; Zeus Ba41eus unci « D'H., iv. 50 ; B., 1843, 78 ; C. D., | Hercules Kulliuikos, 4to, Berl. 1847, 319; T., iv. (ii.) 2. i Winckelmann, Feste; V. F., cviii.; St., » B., 1842, p. 29. ; xlii. »o T., ii. 20, 1., 1, xxxi., ii. 10 ; M. L, c. ; ' i^ P., xv. xvi. Jahn, Sach. Gesell., Nov. 1853 ; A. Z., 20 D. M., ii. x. ; P., ii. 104. 1853, s. 237; A., 1833, p. 30S, pi. o. 21 q ^ y., cxx. ; T., v. (i ) 51. " Bull., 1846, p. 66; G. A. V., cxlv. ; 22 j) j^i j l^^.jii . d'jj jj ^.^i ; B., 254 GREEK LOTTERY. Part II. agonist ; the insolence of Nessos to Dejanira, and the death of that centaur in presence of Oileus ; ^ the supposed contest with Lykaon;^ the capture of the Kerkopes, or thievish elves of Ephesus;^ the boxing-match with Eryx ; his bathing at the liot-springs of Sicily or Thermopylae;'* his wrestling-match with the Libyan Antaios ; ^ the death of Kakos ;^ his fishing with his chib ; ' his connection with Glenos,^ and with Telephos ; ^ and the sacrifice of a bull; his contest with the sons of Hippothoon, the Chimaira, Busiris, and his presence at the birth of Athene.''^ In the Amazonomachia/^ or battle with tlie Amazons, He- rakles, aided by lolaos, appears on the earlier vases as the protagonist in the contest.^^ The single combat with Kyknos,^^ in which Herakles is assisted by Minerva and Kyknos by Ares, while their father Jupiter intervenes between the heroes, is by no means uncommon on the earlier vases. His Trojan expe- dition and adventure with Hesione are also represented.^^ We likewise find the contest with Apollo for the tripod at Delphi,^^ in which the god, aided by Athene and Artemis, bears off the prize, whilst the Pythia beholds the contest from the shrine ;^^ the rape of Auge ; tlie birth of Telephos and his nurture by the hind;^^ the reconciliation with Apollo ;^^ Herakles Musegetes^^ 1845, p. 10 ; M. G., ii. xxxix. Ixxii. 1 a ; G. A. v., cxix. ; G. E. V., xiii. ; St., xli. ; A. Z., 1852, s. 228, 230, 247 ; B. A. B., 1588. 1 A. Z., 1843, 192 ; R. Rochette, Mem. d'Arch. Comp., 4to, Paris, 1848, pi. viii. ; M. I., xcv. ; G. A. V., cxvii. ; D'H., iv. 24, 31; M. G., ii. xxviii. 2, 2 a ; V. G., xxxiii. ; M. G., ii. Ixxxix. 4a; I., s. X. 1-13 ; P., cxvii. ; V. F. cxix. ; C. D., 320, 321. See also B. A. B., 628 ; Mon., vi. t. Ixvi. 2 See subject of Poltys. 3 G. A. v., ex. ; B., 1843, p. 65 ; A. Z., 1843, s. 140 ; B., 1830, p. 95 ; Due de Serra di Falco, lUustrazione d'un Vaso Fittile, 1830, p. 95 ; V. F., clxxiii. ; iii. 88 ; CD, 315. 4 Millin. Intr., p. xiv. ; G. A. V., cxxxiv. 5 A. Z., 1852, s. 234 ; G. A. V., Ixx. cxiii. cxiv. ; V. G., xxxi. « M. G., ii. xvi. 2 a. ' Christie, Etr. Va^es, PI., xii. « B., 1832, 134. " V. F., clxxi. '0 G. T. C, XV. ; Cat. Vas. Brit. Mus., 481, 564, 575, 823. " M. G., ii. Ixvi. 4 c; G. A. V., civ. ; D. L., xliv. ; G. E. V., xvii. ; P., clxiii. ; M. I., Ixxxvii. ; T., i. 12, iv. 26. 12 T., i. pi. 12; D'H., iv. 50; C. F., 83, 84. '' G. A. V.,/Cxxi. cxxii. cxxiv. ; M. G., j ii. X. 1 b; M. I., c; Bull., 1835, p. 164; I A. Z., 1852, 8. 230, 234 ; M. A. U. M., ! xxxviii. ; A. Z., 1853, s. 402 ; M. M. I., ! xliv. 2. \ >* G. A., xi.; B. A. B, 1018. I ** M. G., ii. xxxi. 1 a, Ixxxv. 2 a; G. A. v., liv. cxxvi. ; G. A. V., cxxv. 2, 204; B., 1846, 97; Curtius Herakles, 4to, Berlin, 1852 ; M., i. ix. ; C. D., 313, ; 314; St., XV.; B. A. B., 979; 0. M., j 33, 34 ; D. L., iv. v. »« A. Z., 1852, s. 240 ; M. I., Ixxxviii.; V. G., XXX. ; B. A. B., 1630, 659; A. Z., 1852, s. 247 ; T., v. (i.) 52, 53 ; A. Z., I 1852, s. 229, 234 ; C. F., 88. ! »^ D'H., iv. xxiv. 18 V. D. C, xi. 19 M. G., ii. xl. 1 a ; G. A. V., Ixviii. 8 ; Chap. VI. DEATH OF HERAKLES. 255 playing tlie lyre of Apollo, having been instructed by Linos, or sounding the double flute in company with Hermes and the faithful lolaos.^ As a subordinate, Herakles assists in the Argo- nautic expedition ; performs the sacrifice at the altar of Cliryse,^ in Lemnos ; and mixes in the grand and terrible fight of the gods and giants.^ On many vases he is allied with Dionysos and the followers of that god. He is often seen reposing witli the god of wine;* or, when overcome by excess, robbed^ of his bow. and arrows by the Sileni, whom he pursues. At other times he has penetrated to the regions of the Hyperboreans,^ and brings back the golden olive. There is also depicted his marriage with lole;^ his interview with Dejanini,^ who holds up the young Hyllos ; ^ the delivery of the poisoned tunic by Lichas ; ^^ and the immolation of the hero upon the burning pyre of Oita,^^ the satyrs looking on, while the immortal portion of the demi- god ascends to heaven in the car of Jove,^^ driven either by his favourite Pallas Athene, or by Nike. On the oldest vases he is accompanied in his ascent by Apollo, Dionysos, and Hermes,^^ and is generally introduced into Olympus^* in a quadriga. This is followed by the marriage of Herakles and Athene,^^ or Hebe,^^ and the repose of the demigod with his mother Alkmena in Elysium.^^ Zeus, Athene, and Herakles,^^ form another scene in Olympus. Herakles also appears in scenes of an import difficult to interpret. Thus he is seen standing with his protectors Hermes and Athene,^^ or with Zeus,^° holding a bow and V. L., ii. vii. ; D'H., iii. 31 ; V. F., ccxc. ; G. T. 0., XV. ; A. Z., 1852, s. 234. ^ M., iv. xi. ; V. L., ii. xiii. ^ V. Iv., i. xxiii. ' G. A. v., Ixxxiv. ; M., iii. 1, 1 a. * G. A. v., lix.-lx., Ixix.-lxx. ' T., iii. 37 ; V. G., xxxv. ; B. A. B., 1590. « M. G., ii. xiii. la, 1 ; A. Z., 1853, s. 400. ' B. A. B., 1016. » A. Z., 1848, s. 223. » G. A. v., cxvi. »" B., 1845, p. 37; A. Z., 1852, s. 238. '' M., iv. xli. ; B., 1846, 100 ; G. A. V., xxxi. cc. p. 52, n. 97 ; V. L,, xxxiv. ; D'H., iv. 59; A. Z., 1842, s. 248. '2 D'H., iii. 52. >3 M. G., ii. Ii. lb; G. A. v., cxi. cxxxvi. cxxxvii. cxxxix. cxli. ; D. M., iii. xviii. ; V. G., xxxvi. ; M. G., Ixxxiv. 2a; B., 1845, p. 21 ; M. G., ii. vii. xviii. ; B., 1844, p. 37 ; C. D., 327-32. " G. A. v., cxxviii. cxliii. cxlvi. vii. ; V. D. C, XXV. ; C M., 36, 37 ; B., 1844, p. 37; V. F.,ccviii. ccx.-xi.-xxii. ccxvii. ccxxv. ^5 M. G, ii. xxxvii liv. 2 a ; G. A. V., xviii. »« G. A. v., cxxxv. ; V. L., ii. xi. ; P., cclxxvi. " G. A., XV. ; B. A. B., 695, 706 ; A. Z., 1853, s. 402 ; M I., Ixxxix. '» G. A. v., cxliii. ^« T., i. 22, ii. 22 ; G. A. V., cxli. ; I. S., V. T., XXXV. ; A. Z., 1847, s. 24* ; 1848, s. 220 ; A. Z., 1852, ss. 234, 238. 20 G. A. v., cxliii. >^ OF THE ^ 256 GREEK POTTERY. Past II. arrows;^ seated on a folding stool, oJcladias, under a tree,^ or reposing on the ground in presence of Athene, and having behind him a vine ; ^ crowned by Nike,* or Hermes ; ^ re- ceiving a libation from Athene,^ and attending on her chariot ; ' perforaiing his supposed expiation ; ^ playing on the lyre,® or on the Hute ; ^° present amidst warriors ; ^^ carry- ing Dionysos ; ^^ in a contest with Poseidon ; ^^ received by Poltys and Erechtheus ; ^* and with Dionysos, Athene, Ares, and Hermes.^^ His decision between Virtue and Pleasure,^^ is also supposed to be represented. The bust only of the god is sometimes seen ; ^^ and he is also parodied as a pigmy destroy- ing the cranes.^^ He appears in certain scenes as a subordinate, in connection with Hermes and Athene,^® or Nike,^" with Kreon, Ismene, Antigone, and Haimon f^ in an interview with Silenos,^^ or intermingled with Bacchantes,^^ accosted by Zeus,^* and in a symposium with Dionysos,^^ and with Poseidon and Palaimon.^*^ The other myths of the heroic cycle have been classed by Miiller according to their local origin, and of these the Attic are the first in importance, and the most remarkable for their number. Of legends, peculiarly Athenian, the adventures of the daughters of Kekrops, such as Herse, belong to the myth of Hermes ; the birth of Erichthonios to that of Athene ; the rape of Oreithyia by Boreas, to that of the Winds. Tereus and Prokne occur on very few vases, if at all ; and the amour of Aithra and Poseidon has been mentioned when speaking of that deity. But the adventures of Theseus, especially the death of the Minotaur, are portrayed at all epochs of the art, more especially on vases of the finest workmanship, apparently the • G. A. v., cliii. >2 p^ ^.iv^ 13 0. C., 95. 2 T., iv. (ii.) 22 ; G. A. V., cxxxiii. ; j "A. Z., 1846, Taf. xxxix., s. 233 ; A. Z., 1852, s. 231. | A. Z., 1853, s. 401. 3 B., 1837, p. 53; A., 1834, p. 334; , '' B. A. B., 676. G. C^ c. ; G. A. v., cxlii. ! ^« A., 1832, pi. F. p. 379. * V. F., Ixi. Ixii. ! *' M. G., ii. Ixvi. 3 a. 5 D. M., iii. xli. ; G. C, c. ; I. S., v. ; T., xxxviii. : D'H., iii. 49 ; T., ii. 21. « Christie, PI., xv. ; D'H., iii. 49. 7 C. M., 35 ; M. G., ii. ix. ^ P., cclxxvii. » B. A. B., 665 ; M. I., xcix. ; V. L., 11. Vll. 1" B., 1838, p. 10 ; M., iv. xi. ; V. L., ii. xxii. 1' A. Z., 1846, p. 340 ; V. L , i. xxiv. 18 D. M., i. Ixiii. ; T., ii. xviii. " G. T. C, viii. 20 C. D., 322 ; A. Z., 1852, ss. 234, 288. 2» B., 1836, p. 120. 22 B. A. B., 15^0. 23 C. C, 101. -* B. A. B., 1028. 25 B. A. B., 676 ; C. Bt., p. 28. For many bubjects, cf. C. C, pp. 3(1-57. 26 Cat. Van. Brit. Mns., 581. Jhap. VI. ATHENIAN SUBJECTS. 257 I ^Rroduce of the Athenian potteries, and were possibly copied ^Kom some work of high renown. ^" These exploits formed the argument of a cycle of adventure, Ij^alled the Theseid, modelled upon the Herakleid. The whole cycle is not represented, but there is enough to show the higli antiquity of many portions of the mythos ; which, however, are also found mixed up with other Atlienian traditions of the adven- tures of Hermes and Herse, of Boreas and Oreithyia, of Heos and Kephalos, and of the birth of Erichthonios. The labours of the hero often form a series of decorations for cups, which follows the order of his march through the isthmus to Athens. The iirst is the subject of Aigeus consulting the oracle of Themis.^ Theseus is then represented discovering the sword and belt ; ^ bending the pine-tree, and destroying Sinis the pine-bender.^ Next are depicted his amour with the daughters of Sinis,"^ the destruction of the sow or boar of Kromyon,^ and the interference of the Nymph Phaia ; the wrestling-match with Kerkyon ; ® the destruction of the robber Polypemon or Damastes, called Prokroustes,'' or the stretcher, whom he slays with a ]pelekys, on his own bed ; the contest with Skiron,* whom he hurls down the rugged rocks to the gigantic tortoise at their feet ; the amour of the demigod with the daughter of Skiron ; the recognition of Theseus by the aged Aigeus ^ and Poseidon ; ^" the capture of the bull of Marathon ; ^^ the departure of The- seus to destroy the Minotaur,^^ whom on one vase Pasiphae is seen nursing,^^ and whom he slays with the aid of Ariadne ^^ in the presence of Minos ; his marriage with Ariadne at Delos,^* * Gerhard, Das Orakel der Themis, 4to, Berlin, 184t). 2 Bull., 1846, 106. ' G. A. v., clix. cexxxii. ccxxxiii. ; V. F., xlix. cxi.; A. Z., 1846, s. 288; B. A. B., 807 ; T., i. 6, ii. 13. * C. D., 347. " M. G., ii. xii. la; G. A. V., clxii. cexxxii. ccxxxiv. ; C. C, 111; 0. D., 348. « C. D., 348 ; G. A. V., ccxxxiv. l V. G., ix. X. ; G. A. V., ccxxxiv. " V. F., liv.: CD., 336. '2 M. G., ii. Ixxxii. 2 a; G. A, V., clxi. '3 A. Z., 1847, 8. 9*; B., 1847, 121. '* V. L.,i.xxx.; V. F.,ccxcvi.-ccxcvii.; C. D., 333, 335, 337, 338, 339, 340 ; T., v. (i.) 57, 58 ; M. G., ii. viii. lb, ix. 1 a ; G. E. v., xxiii. ; G. A. V., clxi. ccxxv. ; C. 0., pp. 112-114 ; M. G., ii. xlvii. 1 a ; Migliarini, Ace. Fior. Mem. del, 4to Fir. 1839, tav. iii. ; D'H., iii. 86 ; D. L., xiii. ; B. A. B., 674, 688; 1643, c. Bt. 42, « G. A. v., cxxiv.; M., iii. xlvii.; no. 42-44; A. Z., 1852, ss. 237, 238; P., ccxlviii. ; T , V. (i.), 59. l C. M., 42, 44 ; C. F., 81-84 ; T., i. 25 ; '•' M. G., ii. Iv. 1 a. j Mon. vi. t. xv. '« M., i. Iii. ; D. L., xliii. I " G. E V., vi. ; M., iv. Ivi. Ivii. S 258 GREEK POTTERY. Pabt it. and her abandonment; his friendship with Pirithoos/ and death of that hero ; the grand Kentauromachia at the nuptials of Pirithoos, in which the Lapiths are aided by Herakles ; ^ the death of Kaineus;^ the expedition to Troizene to carry off Helen, or Korone ; * the invasion of Athens by the Skythes, with the Amazons, Deinomache, and Philonoe,^ and victory of the Athenians ; ^ the hero attacking Hippolyte and Deino- mache ; ' Euphorbos, and Melosa ; his entrance into The- miskyra ; ^ the death of Antiope on her abduction by the two friends;^ their descent to Hades to carry off Persephone; their capture by the Furies ; ^^ and the story of Hippolytos.^^ Belonging to Attic myths are the rape of Kephalos, who is borne off by Heos,^^ in presence of Kallimachos,^^ and sometimes has at his side the dog Lailaps ; ^* the death of Prokris,^^ and the fate of Prokne.^^ An often repeated subject is Boreas bearing off Oreithyia from the altar of Athene, under the olive in the Erechtheum, while Herse and Pandrosos stand astonished." The birth of Erichthonios ; ^® the water-drawing at the fountain of Kallirrhoe ; ^^ Ion and Kreusa,^" and Pandora,^^ occur less frequently. The vases of later style present a few adventures of the » B., 1845, 202 ; 1850, 16 ; Mon., vi. t. xxxiv. 2 V. L., i. XXV. xxvi. xxvii. ; C. D., 342, 345, 346 ; C. M., 43. 3 G. A. v., clxvii. ; D. L., x. ; A. Z., 1852, s. 250 ; T., iv. 47. * G. A. v., clxviii. ; C C, 110 ; M. A. U. M., XXX. * M. G., ii. XX. 2 a; G. A. V., clxvi. « M. P., XXXV. ; B. A. N., 1855 ; St., ' Bull., 1833, p. 151; M., i. Iv. ; C. C, 115; G. A., 4; A. Z., s. 235; M. A. U. M.jix; Mon,, viii. t. xliv. « G. A. v., clxiii. clxiv. clxv. ; M. P., XXXV. xxxvi. ; M, G., ii. xxiv. 2 a, » V. F., cccxx. ; A., ]833; PI., a; Mon., vi. t. XV. xvi. " C. M., 51 ; Of. for many vases of the Theseid, C. C, 110-112 ; B. A. N., ui. 75; A. Z., 1844, Taf. XV. V» A. Z., 1848, 245 F; A. Z., 1853, s. 2 ; M., iii. xlvii ; M. G., ii. Ixviii. 1 ; G. A. v., clviii. clx. ; V. G., xii. xiii ; Nouv. Ann., 1836, 139 ; M., 1. Iii. liii. ; A. Z., 1852, Taf. 1. »2 G. A. v., s. 39, n. 33; B. A., 1868, p. 348. " B. A. N., i. tav. i. ; T., iv. 12. >* C. F., 14 ; B. A. N., 1844, tav. i. 5 ; V. D. C, xiv. ; R. R. xlii.-xliv. A; A. Z., 1852, /s. 340. » D. H., ii. 24, 126 ; M. A. U. M., xiv. ; D. L., xl. " B. A. N., 1845, tav. i,, No. 5. " G. A. v., clii. 1 ; D. M., ii. v. ; R. R., xliv. a; a. Z., 1852, s. 240; B. A. B., 1602 ; C. C, 1068 ; V. F., cxxi. ; G. E., v., XXX. " M., iii. XXX. ; G. A. V., cli. ; Vase, B. M. 19 R. v., 31, 32, n. 206; V. F., xliii. xliv. cxxii. 20 A. Z., 1852, s. 401, Taf. xxvii.; L. D., iii. xliv. 21 Gerhard, Festgedanke an Winckel- mann, 4to, Berl. 1841 ; C. M., 9 ; L. D., iii. xliii. xiv. (Hap. VI. 'vm<: thi<:bais. 259 Boeotian hero Kadmup, forming the Kadmeid. The hero is represented killing the dragon of Ares, which guarded the fountain of Dirke, in the presence of Harmonia, Aphrodite, and satyrs ; ^ or of Poseidon, Demeter, Apollo, Artemis, Athene, Nike, Ismene, and Thebe. Athene delivers to Kadmos the stone with which he killed the dragon.^ The hero is also seen at the games of Pentheus. The adventures of Semele belong to the cycle of Zeus ; and those of Orion are found on only one vase.^ The story of Oidipous, commencing with Laios bearing off Chrysippos,* is found on some vases of tlie oldest style, in which Oidipous is seen discovered by the herdsman Euphorbos,^ and solving the enigma of the Sphinx,^ by stabbing the monster ; ^ while, upon the latest of all, the tragic arguments of Euripides and Sophokles occur, — such as Oidipous at Kolonos ; ^ perhaps Etookles and Polynikes ; ^ his tomb ; the expedition of the Seven against Thebes,^" and the scene with Axiokersa and Manto.^^ Several subjects are derived from the Thebaid, and principally from the earlier incidents : such as the departure of Amphia- raos in his chariot, drawn by the horses Kallopa^^ and Kalli- phora, and with his charioteer Baton ; his farewell to his wife Eriphyle,^^ the young Adrastos, and Alkmaion,^"* a scene which is often repeated ; ^^ or else he is represented with Tydeus, Adrastos, Deianira,^® and Eriphyle ; ^^ especially in the scene in which the last is bribed with the necklace.^^ There are also the quarrel of Amphiaraos and xidrastos ; ^^ an interview between Antigone and Ismene ;^^ the death of Eriphyle; 21 * Millin., Mon. Ant. In., ii. xxvii. ; D. M., ii. vii. ; Bull, 1843, 62 ; Bull., 1840, p. 49 ; R. R., iv. ; V. F., ccxxxix. ; G. v., c. 2 Bull., 1840, pp. 49, 54 ; Bull., 1. c. 127; B., 1841, pp. 177, 178; A. Z., 1843, s. 26. 3 C. D., 260. * Bull., 1840, p. 188 ; B. A. B., 1010. ' Mon., ii. xiv. « T., ii. 24, iii. 34 ; R. V., p. 48, No. 424; M. G., ii. (D. L., xvii.) Ixxx., 1-6; Bull., 1844, p. 132 ; Mus. Blac. xii. ; C. D., 364, 367 ; M. M. I., xl. ; Mon , viii. t. xlv. ^ St., xxxvii. 8 A. Z., 1853, s. 400 ; V. G., xxiii. 9 G. A., vi. ; St., xvi. ; B. A. B., 860 ; C. C, 125. '* R. R., XXXV. ; P., cclxxix. cclxxx, ; M. A. I., X. '' V. F., cccxv. 12 A. Z. '3 Annali, 1839, 261, 1843, 208-218. 1* Scotti. Illustr. d' un vaso Italo- Greco, d. M. Arc. di Taranto, 8vo, Napoli, 1811 ; V. G., xx. xxi. ; V. F., ccxix. ccxx. 1* M., iii. liv. »« M. G., ii. xxxiv., 2 a; Bull., 1844, p. 35; G. A, v., xii. ccviii. ; M., iii. liv. " Panofka, Hyp. Rom. Stud. i. s. 186. 18 D'H., ii. 71. '» CD., 367; T., i. 23. '^o B. A. N., iv. tav. vii. xxxii. ; A. Z., 1845, xxvii. 49. 2' T., i. 21. s 2 260 GREEK POTTERY. Part IT. the meeting of Admetos and Alkestis ; ^ and a figure, sup- posed to be Dirke ; ^ Periklymenos and Tydeus killing Ismene.^ Another Theban legend, which sometimes appears on vases, is tlie death of Pentheus by the hands of his mother.* The story of Aktaion^ must also be regarded as Theban. No subjects from the Epigoniad are known. Of the local myths of Helle or Theophane, and the fall of Plirixos, that part only is seen which represents Helle crossing the sea ; ® for what was supposed to be the sacrifice of the ram,^ appears now to be more probably the sacrifice made by Oinomaos previous to Ids fatal race with Pelops. Amongst the traditions assigned to Northern Greece, the Pheraean legend of Alkestis is part of the mythos of the Herakleid. One vase only, and that of Etruscan style, represents the parting of Admetos and Alkestis.^ Of the legends of Phthiotis, the Achilleid is only an episode of the Troica, and so closely connected with those legends, that it is preferable to refer it to that head. Of the ^tolian traditions, the hunt of the Kalydonian boar is described elsewhere. The Argonautic Expedition, the great naval epos of Greece, which had formed the subject of the strains of Orpheus, and of which there is so detailed an account in the dry poem of ApoUonius Rhodius, occurs only on vases of a late age and style, — the incidents having apparently been derived from such parts of the subject as had been dramatised. Hence they are limited to the later adventures, — such as Jason trying his lance ; Tiphys building the Argo f the sacrifice of Lemnos ; ^° the landing of the Argonauts on the coast of Mysia ; ^^ Philoktetes bitten by the serpent ; ^^ the loss of Hylas ; ^^ the victory of Pollux over Amykos ; the chasing of the harpies from the tables of Phineus ^* by the Boreads ; Jason charming the serpent,^^ > M., iii. xl. 2 L. D., iii. Ixix. ' M., i. vi. * Mon., iv. t. xiv. * V. L , i. ii. xi. ; M., ii. viii. ; Gr. A., vi. ; B. A. B., 1010. « T., iii. 2, i. 1, xxvi. ; G. E. V. A. ; B. A. B., 996. ^ R. R., xxxiv. XXXV. ; G. A., 6. * Dennis, Cities and Cemeteries of Etmria, title-page. 9 C. D., 875 ; L. D., xxxvii. " V. G., Ii. ; G. A. V., civ. ; V. G., 1. ; G. A. v., cliv. ; L. D., ii. cv. cvi. cvii. cviii. ; A. Z., 1845, s. 161, Taf. xxxv. xxxvi., s. 178; D. M., ii. viii.; A. Z., 1846, Taf. xliv. ; M. A. U. M., xxii. ; M. I., xcvii. ; C. M., 30 ; T., i. 27. " V. F., cccxliv. ; D'H., iv. 41. 12 A. Z., 1846, s. 285. 13 B., 1831, 5. 1* M., iii. xlix. ; St., xvi. xxxviii. M. A. U. M , XV. ; M. I., Ixxxii. xcix. ; In. Vase, Brit. Mus. " V. G., vi. ; M., V. xii. ; D'H., i. 127, 128, 129 ; A. Z., 1844, s. 233, attaching [AP. VI. KEPHALLENIAN TRADITIONS. 261 d swallowed by it;^ the Dioskouri, aided by the enchant- ments of Medea, destroying the Kretan giant Talos ; ^ Jason's marriage with Medea ; ^ the return to the court of Pelias with the golden fleece;* the boiling of the ram in the pre- sence of Pelias and his daughters ; ^ the forcible dragging of old Pelias to the caldron ; the renewal of Jason's ^ youth. The death of the children of Medea, and her escape in the chariot of winged dragons ; with all the tragic incidents which befell the family of Kreon, are found as the arguments of a Kreonteia.^ The most important and most frequently re- peated legend is the great hunt of the Kalydonian boar, which, when depicted in its fullest form, has the names of all the hunters and dogs,^ or with those of persons not recorded.^ The preparation for the hunt ; ^^ the destruction of the animal, in which scene an ape once appears ; ^^ and the cariying of it home ; ^'^ Peleus and Atalanta ^^ wrestling for the sldn ; Mopsos, Klytios, and other heroes, acting as umpires at the funeral rites of Pelias, after the sacrifice of the boar ; ^* the ill-starred Meleagros and Atalanta,^^ and her supposed change into a lioness,^^ are occasionally represented on the vases. Of the traditions assigned to Kephallenia that of the epony- mous hero Kephalos, an Attic rather than aKephallenian tradition, is part of the story of Heos, or the Morn ; whilst of the Thracian legends that of Lykourgos destroying his family, in consequence of insanity inflicted by Dionysos, belongs to the arguments of the tragedians, or to the adventures of Dionysos.^^ The de- it with Herakles ; An., 1848, p. 107 ; M. v., ix. ; I., s. V. T., xii. T., xvi. ; T., xviii.; Bull, 1835, p. 183; A., 1849, pi. i.; G. A., X.; C. D., 256, 257; G. A. v., ccxxxv. * M. G., ii. Ixxxvi. 1 b; Mon., ii. XXXV.; Genaielli, 1. c. mon. prim. 4to, Rom. 1843, 87 ; M., i. xxxv. x. ; B., 1846, p. 87. 2 B. A. N., iii. tav. ii. vi. ; A. Z., 1846, Taf. xliv. 3 A. Z., 1844, s. 256. " V. G-, pi. vii. * M. G., ii. Ixxxiii. 1 a, 1 b; G. A. V., clvii. 3, 4; C. C, 124; A. Z., 1846, s. 370; A. Z., 1846, Tuf. xl. s. 249. ^ Classical Museum, ii. p. 417 ; A. Z., 1846, s. 287. ' A. Z.. 1847, Taf. iii. s. 3; 1843, Taf. xxviii. s. 49, 50. * M. G., ii. xc. ; V. L., xcii. ; M., iii. xliv. ; M., iv. lix. ; G. E. V., ix. ; B. A. B., 1022. » D'H., i. 22-24, 91-93 ; M., iii. xliv. 3 ; I. s. V. ; T , Ivi.-lix. ; G. A., ix. A., 2,5. i» M. P., xi. ; A. Z., 1853, s. 402. '1 M. G., ii. xvii. ; Millin., Intr. p. xiv. ; M. G., ii. xxix. ; G. A. V., XXXV.; M. M. I., xlii. ; Mon., vi.-vii. t. Ixxvii., viii. t. xiv. »2 D. M., i. xviii. " G. A. v., clxxvii. ; A. Z., 1852, s. 235 ; M. M, I., xli. " V. G., clviii. ; Bull., 1843, p. 68, 1837, pp. 130, 213; Schol. Apollon. Rhod., iii. 9, 2 ; A. Z„ 1853, s. 401. '* I., xiii. ; D'H., iv., 128 ; C. D., 252. »« B. A. N.. iv. tav. iii. •^ M. B., xii. xxix. ; M., v. xxiii., iv. xvi. ; V. F., Iv. ; A. Z., 1846, 253. 262 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. striiction of Orpheus by the Thracian women/ and his descent to Hades to rescue Eurydike,^ are a part of the Argonautica ; under which will also be found the Corinthian legends of Medea. Thamyris, who belongs to another Thracian story, is seen playing on the lyre in the company of the Muses.^ The vase-painters have rarely selected the adventures of the hero Bellerophon, though he was so intimately connected with Corinth, the site of the oldest potteries. Bellerophon, aided by his son Pisander,'* destroys the Chimaira. On many vases, in- deed, the winged Pegasos is found, and sometimes more than one ; but on the oldest ones, the hero kills the Chimaira with a club, like Herakles ; if, indeed, these figures do not represent Herakles and lolaus destroying the monster according to another version of the legend. On later vases Bellerophon is aided in the same enterprise by the Lycians.^ The most usual scenes are the delivery of the letter to lobates,^ the spearing of the Chimaira' by Bellerophon mounted upon Pegasos, and the death of the perfidious Alphesiboia,® who falls from the winged steed. In one case he kills a stag,^ at the marriage with Philonoe.^® Few Argive representations, except that of the Danaids in the under-world, and the rare tradition of the mad Proitids" at the altar of Artemis, are given on vases. To Delphic tra- ditions, besides representations of the local deities, must be assigned tlie death of Archemoros, and the origin of the Nemean games.^^ The principal incidents of the Perseid are the golden shower," Akrisios measuring the chest for Danae ;^^ Danae with her son opening the chest on their arrival at Seriphos;^^ Perseus receiving the winged helmet, the har^e, and hibisis from Athene,^^ or the Naiads,^' his flight^ through the air and rencontre with the swan-shaped Graiai ;^^ the death of Medusa,^^ 1 M. I., V. ; C. D., 258 ; M. G., ii. Ix. ; G. A. v., clvi. ; B., 1846, 80 ; M. viii. t. xliii. 2V. M., 5. ' M. G., ii. xiii., 2 a; M., ii. xxiii. viii. t. xliii, * T., i. 1, 2, 204; M., ii. 1.; C. D., 246, 253. * G. A., viii. « B., 1851, p. 171 ; M., iv. xxi. ; A , 1851, p. 136. » T., i. 1 ; V. F,, Ivii. « V. F., i. " M. G., ii. xxix. 3 a ; B. A. B., 1022, 630, 614. '0 B. A. B , 102. » V. G., lii. '2 V. F., ccclxxi. '» A. Z., 1846, s. 285 ; Mon. vi. t. viii. * A. Z., 1846, s. 286 ; A., 1847, PI. M. M. B., ii., xxx. ; A. Z., 1847, s. 285. '« V. F., ccclxvi. ; 0. D., 242 ; C. F., 95. M. G., ii. xcii. * Panofka, Perseus und die Graise, Abhandl. K. Ak. d. Berlin, 4to, 1848, s. 2, 11 ; M. M. I., xxxvi. ; C. D., 243. ^9 G. A. v., ccxvi. ; St., xxxix. ; Mus. Blac, X. xi. xii.; B. A. B., 872; 1033; A., 1851, p. 167, PI. N. O.; A,, 1831, p. 154 ; M. M. I., xliv. 3 ; V. D. C, xxviii. ; Mon. viii. t, xxxiv. 3hap. VI. OLYMPIAN AND ARCADIAN LEGENDS. 263 id Pegasos or Chrysaor^ bursting out of her neck ; the flight )f the other Gorgons to Poseidon^ to inform him of the lestruction of Medusa ; Perseus showing the Gorgon's head to le Satyrs f his arrival at the court of Kepheus ;* the rescue of Ludromeda,^ and the return of the hero to Seriphos, and ^destruction of Polydektes ;^ the himent of Danae. Sometimes the hero's bust alone is seen.'^ The Perseid appears as epi- sodical to many poems,^ as the shield of Herakles, the Megalai Eoiai, and the Theogony. The defeat of the army of Dionysos connects it with the Dionysiaca.^ Athene is also represented showing Perseus the head of the Gorgon^" at the Deikterion of Samos. Of the Pisan or Olympian legends the most often represented, but only on the later vases, is the Pelopeid, which was so closely interwoven with the fate of the family of Agamemnon. Only a few of the leading incidents are selected ; such as the boiling of the youthful Pelops ;^^ Poseidon bringing Pelops^^ his horses ;^^ the hero swearing with Oinomaos at the altar of the Zeus of Olympia to the conditions of the contest ;^* the fatal race, and the perfidy and death of Myrtilos ;^^ Aphrodite intro- ducing Hippodameia after the victory ; and Pelops receiving his title of Plexippos.^® The Arcadian story of Hippomenes and Atalanta, and their metamorphosis into lions is depicted on a single vase.^' To the traditions of Amyklai are to be referred the Dioskouroi, who are sometimes represented on vases, although more rarely than might be expected. The incidents connected with them are Leda and the swan ;^^ the departure of Kastor ;^^ » G. A. v., Ixxxix. 2 G. A. v., Ixxxviii. ; M. G., ii. Ixvi. 4 b, xxix. 4a; P., ccxcvii. ; D'H., iv. 126 ; V. F., Ixxi. ; D. M , ii. iii. iv. 3 M. G., ii. xcii. ; I. V. S., v. T., xliii. * Cat. Vas. Brit. Mus., 801. ' D. M., ii. iii., iv. ; R. R., xli. ; CD., 244, 245; A. Z., 1848, s. 222, 246. ^ Mus. Borb., v. Ii. ; M., viii. t. v. ^ L. D., iii. Ixxii. * Mus. Blac, xxvi. 9 V. G., PI. iii. »» A., 1850, p. 53, PI. A. " G. A. v., clxxxi. '2 A. Z., 1845, 8. 62; A. Z., 1846, g. 252. »' B. A. N., v. p. 57. " A., XX. p. Ill, G.; LS., V. T., XV. ; A. Z., 1846, s. 253 ; A. Z., 1848, s. 222; A. Z., 1852, s. 164; 1853, Taf. liii.-lv. ; A., 1840, Pi. N. O., p. 173. " B., 1835, p. 198 ; M., iv. xxx. ; M., V. xxii. ; Mon., vi.-vii. t. Ixxi. viii. 3.,- i« A., xxi. p. 145 B. '^ B. A. N., iv. t. iii. »« M. G., ii. xxix. ; V. F., ccxli. ; C. D., 369-373; A. Z., 1847, s. 19*; T., iii. 22. '9 M. G., ii. liii., 1 b ; V. G., liii. ; V. L., i. xxviii. ; M., ii. xxii. ; Mus. Blac, xxxi. ; St., xi. ; C. F., 96 ; V. F., ccxxi. ; P., cix. ; D'H., iv. 43 ; C. F., 121; C. D., 120; A. Z., 1847, s. 24*; A. Z., 1849, 74. 264 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. the brothers with Helen ;^ the twin brothers mounted,'^ or conversing with Helen ;^ the hunt of the Kalydoiiian boar ; the rape of the Leukippidai ;^ the quarrel with the Boreadai ;^ the death of Kastor,® and of Idas,' and Nike or Victory crowning Pollux after the fight with Bebrykos.^ Sometimes the brothers are seen mounted and alone,® or as stars led by Heos, or the rosy-fingered dawn. They are also represented at Delphi.i« To the legends of Northern Greece belongs the fight with the Kentaurs, and it is treated in two different manners on the vases. In the older Kentauromachia Herakles" appears as protagonist, and the whole story must probably be referred to the interview with Pholos. On the later vases the Kentauromacliia is con- nected with the Tlieseid, as in the battle with the Lapithai at the nuptials of Peirithoos. It is generally impossible to identify . all the scenes ; the one most often repeated is the death of Kaineus/^ by Oreios and Lasbolos.^^ Sometimes the Kentaurs hurl pines or rocks.^* Theseus is frequently distin- guishable in the melee}^ and isolated scenes, such as the rape of women, often oc3ur.^^ Either to the same locality, or to Asiatic traditions, must be referred the Amazonomachia, in which, upon the oldest vases, Herakles, lolaos, and Telamon appear as protagonists, destroying the Amazons, Thraso, Toxis, Kydoime, Tersikyle, and Hypsipyle." On the later vases, however, the Amazons are connected with the Theseid ; their arming is represented, and their great irruption into Attica. The melee with the Greeks, 18 > V. L., i. lix. ; I, M., iii. s. v. T., xli. ; CM., 45; T., V. (1)56. 2 M. G., ii viii. a, b ; C. C, 120 ; A. Z., 1851, s. M; C. Bl., p. 44, No.45; T., iv. 52; T., V. (i.), 71, 81. 3 V. F., clxxv. ; A., 1832, PI. G. * V. D. C, i. ; B., 1844, p. 86 ; I. S. V. T., xi. xiii. ; P., cclxxxii. cdxxxiii.; D'H., i. 130; A. Z., 1845, 8. 29. * G. A. v., ccxx. * G. A. v., cxciv. ; Mus. Blac. xxx. ; G. E. v., D. 'CD., 25. 8 I. S. Y. T., xxxii. ^ Mus. Blac, viii. xvi. xxviii. ; V. F., coxxviii. •0 A., 1848 K. ; if not, Orestes and Pylades at Delphi ; A. Z., 1853, s. 129, Taf. lix. ' " V. F., Ixxix. ; P., xi. xii. cclii. ; C D., 360, 363; A. Z., 1847, 18*; C F., 97, 98. '2 M. G., ii. Ixxii. 1 b., Ixxxv. 1 a; V. G., viii. ; M. G., ii. xxxix. 2 a; V. F., xci.-xcii. ; G. A., ix. ; A., 2 ; D'H., iii. 81; T., i. 11, 13; B. A. N., iii. p. 118; V. 24 ; B. A. B., 1023, 588. 13 V. D. C, XXXV., PL xl. '4 M. G., ii. Ixxxii. 2 b; M. G., ii. XXXV. 1, 1 a; Bottiger, i. 3; V. F., cxv. cxvi. ; B. A. B., 1629. *' V. F., clxxii. '« P., cxcix. ^' Mon., viii. t. vi. '» V. G., xxxvii.; B. A. B., 1023, 1025 ; Q., 2045; Annali, iv. 258; Bull., 843, Chap. VI. AMAZONS, MINOTAUK. 265 and detached incidents^ are often depicted, nor is it possible to distinguish these subjects from the appearance of the Amazons in the post-Homeric part of the Trojan war. They bear the names of Scythians and Cimmerians.^ On one vase Deino- iiiachos contends with . Eumache.^ On another, Nestor takes part.* Sometimes the Amazons are depicted in conjunction with Sirens,^ or fighting with gryphons,^ in detached scenes,' like the combats of the Gryphons and Arimaspi.® To tlie Isles belong the legends of the Minotaur of Crete, the sacrifice by Minos of the Cretan bull,^ Daidalos and Ikaros,^" Pandrosos and the golden dog Lailaps,^^ Minos, Prokris and Pasiphae,^^ Kephalos and Prokris,^^ and Talos, and the Sicilian Dii Palici.^* From the Hyperborean legends are found the subjects of Hera consulting Prometheus ;^^ Prometheus bound to one of the Pillars of Hercules, or to the Caucasus ;^® and Epimetheus receiving Pandora.^' To Pluygia are to be referred the all-renowned interview of the philosophic Silenos and the gold-seeking Midas ;^^ the sacrifice of the ram^® of Helle ; the scene with Tantalos ;^'^ and Marsyas instructing Olympos.^^ To Africa belong the Niobids ;^^ Apollo and the Nymph Kyrene ; and the Hesperides.^^ The descent of Orpheus^* to Hades to rescue Eurydike is the subject of vases of the later style. The scene of Hades shows 55; A. Z., 1843, s. 138; V. L., xviii. XX. xcv. ; V. I., ii. xvii. ; B. A. N., i. 106; C. C, 116-17; C. D., 25, cf. 393- 1946; 1. S., V. T., xl. ; A. Z., 1847, s. 97, 19*; T., ii. 1, 8, 10; B. A. B., 1006-1008 ; St., xxxviii. ; V. F., cxxviii.- ix. ; D'H., ii. 65; M., ii. xxx.-xxxi.; G. A., 3, 4; C. F., 91, 94; T., v. (i.) 60, 61, 64, 65, 66-7-8. * P., clxvii. ; M. G., ii. Ixix. 1 a, c, 2 a, 3, Ixxiv. 2 b ; D. L., xliii. ; C. D., 349-363 ; B. A. B., 678, 690, 163 ; A. Z., 1852, s. 233-248; M. I., xci. c. 4; G. A. v., cii. ; A. Z., 1848, s. 220 ; St., xi. ; B. A. B., 870 ; M. A. U. M., xix. xxxviii. 2 A. Z., 1847, 19*. 3 c. M., 41. * C. C, p. 92, No. 145. * Mus. Borb., x. Ixiii. : A. Z., 1853, s. 402 ; M. G., ii. xxiv. 32 a ; Mon., ii. « M., iv. xi.; I. S., V. T., ix. xlv.; P.. cclvii. celviii.; D'H., ii. 56; D'H., iv. 110. 7 V. F., clxviii. » P., cxviii. ; T., ii. 9, iii. 43. » M. G., ii., Ixxi. 1 a. >» B., 1843-80 ; V. F., ccclxxi. ; M. B., xiii. Iviii. " C. D., 262. " 0. M., 46. " D. L., xl. »* C. C, p. 35, 72 ; A., p. 395 ; A., 1830, 1832, ccliv., p 245. '' v., XXXV. '^ G. A. v., Ixxxvi. »^ D'H., iii. 77. »« A. Z., 1844, xxiv. 385 ; M., iv. x. ; A., 1844, 200. D. ; Silenus nurses a young Satyr, B. A. B., 1609. •9 V. F., clii. ; B. A. B., 1003. 20 V. F., ciii. 21 B A ^ 841. 22 A. Z., 1844, i. 228 ; B. A. N., i. tav. iii. 23 D'H.,iii.l23; D.M.,i.iii.; G.A.V.. Ixxiv. 2* A. Z., 1843. xi. s. 177, 178 ; A. Z., 1844, xiii. s. 225. 266 GREEK POTTERY. Part IT. not only Hades and Persephone, but also the Danaids,^ Sisy- phos, Theseus, and Peirithoos chained and watched,^ Herakles dragging away Kerberos, and the Furies and Alkestis.^ On other vases are represented Ixion,* Hermes, Eros, Pan, Rhada- manthos, Triptolemos, Aiakos and Rhadamanthos, Acheron, the Styx,^ and Triptolemos, Pelops and Myrtilos, Ailkos, and Manous, Megaira, and the Heraklids.^ The punishment of Sisy- phos is often repeated.'^ Elysium is also painted.^ Of rare occurrence and uncertain locality are the reputed scenes of water-drawing, though they are perhaps Athenian;^ the supposed Enorches and Daisa,^° and the parody of the Cranes and Pigmies,^^ probably Hyperborean. The events of the Trojan war are so numerous that it is necessary to divide them into three main sections. I. The ante-Homerica, or events before the poems of Homer, and especially the argument of the Iliad. II. The Homerica, or events of the Iliad. III. The post-Homerica, or sequel of the story of the capture of Ilium. I. The Ante-Homerica. So deeply are the subjects of the war of Troy blended with the whole of the representations on vases, that it is difficult to decide what may not belong to the epos. Thus the golden vine or kantharos cup, which Hephaistos carries as a present to Zeus,^^ the seizure of Tithonos by Heos, or Aurora,^^ of Ganymedes by Zeus,^* and the return of Hephaistos to Olympus,^^ are all incidents which precede and are connected with the war. Much light is, however, thrown upon the subject up to the death of Achilles by the vase at Florence, and it is necessary to bear this in mind, in order to trace the connection of events, which, with this aid, may be st{j,ted as follows : — the ejection of Hephaistos from heaven, and his reception by Thetis ; the rape of Thetis by Peleus from amidst the Nereids,^^ » V. F., cxxxv. ; M. BL, ix. ; A. Z., \ » M. iv. xv. » M. G., ii. ix. 2 b. 1844, xiii. { " A., 1850, 214-223, tav. i. 2 R. R., xl. ; V. M., ii. ; B., 1835, 41; | h V. F., ccclvii. ; T., ii. 7. A. Z., 1844, xiii. xiv.; B. A. B., 684; A. Z, 1852,234. 3 A. Z., 1843, 191, 192 ; A. Z., 1843, p. 176; M., ii. 1837, xlix. A., 1837, 209-252 ; A. Z., 1844, xiv. * A. Z., 1844, xiii. ; R. R., xiv. » B., 1851, pp. 25-38. « B., 1851, p. 41 ; Mon., viii. t. ix. *^ See the Fraii9ois Vase. " M., ii. xxxviii. ; M., iii. xxiii; A., 1847. p. 231; D'H.,iv.61; D.L.,xxxviii.- xxxix. '* M., i., ix. " See the Frangois Vase. '« T.,i.l9,20; A. Z., 1852, 8.252,249; T., V. (ii.) 72, 73; G. A. V., clxxvii. clxxviii.-ix.-lxxx.-i.-ii. ; G. T. C, ix. ; G. A. v., Ixxxvii. St., xxxvi. ; M. G., ii. Ixxxiv. 1 a ; A. Z., Jhap. VI. TROJAN WAP. 267 it the instigation of Chiron,^ to wliom she is led by the siic- jessful liero ; their marriage in the silver^ palace of Thetis ; *eleiis making liis spear from the ash-tree of Mount Pel ion ;^ the gods proceeding to the marriage banquet ; the fatal strife instigated by Eris or Hephaistos ; the banquet in the palace ;* Zeus ordering Hermes to conduct the goddesses to the judgment of Paris ; the device of the throne with secret springs, and the return of Hephaistos to heaven ;^ Paris and Oinone ; Paris sur- passing liis bretliren at his father's court ; his fatal award of the apple to Aphrodite after the bathing of the three rival goddesses f the young Achilles seethed in the caldron of immortality ;' confided to Chiron f consigned to the court of Lykomedes, and his discovery by Ulysses f the oath of Helen's suitors ;^" the sailing of Paris to the court of Sparta, and seduction of Helen,^^ who is led to Priam ;^^ Telamon bidding adieu to Ajax and Teuker ;^^ the sailing of the Greeks to Troy, and the incident of Philoktetes bitten by the serpent ; the fatal deer-hunt of Aga- memnon,^* and sacrifice of Iphigenia;^^ the landing of the Greeks in Mysia, and wounding of Telephos, who pursues Auge ;^^ Ajax and Achilles playing at dice in the Greek camp ;" Achilles and Briseis ;^® and the contest of Hektor and Diomedes over the body of Skythes.^^ 1843, 8. 62; V. G., iv.; R. R., i. ii. iii. ; Mou. I., xxxvii. xxxviii. ; V. F., ccclxxvii. ccclxxviii. ccclxxix. ccclxxx. ccclxxxii. A female followed by a man with a lance ; D. L., xl. probably is the same subject ; B. A. B., 1005 ; A. Z.j 1853, 8. 400 ; D. L., xxxiv. ; P. P., Iviii. ; C. C, 132, 133, 134, 135; R. A., 1868, p. 348. » Bull., 1844, p. 94 ; 1846, p. 69 ; C. F., 100 ; V. F., Ixxvii -viii. ; V. F., cccxiii. cecxiv. ; M. A. U. M., x. ; 0. D., 378-380; L. D., iii. Ixx. ; A. Z., 1843, s. 62. 2 B., 1845, 116, 210-214; 1846, 38; B. A. B., 842, 1639; V. L., i. xci.; I. S. V. T., xlvi. xlvii. liv. ' L. D,, iii. Ixxiv. * M. G., ii. xxiii. la; I. S. V., t. ix.; M., V. Ixix. ; Mon., vi. vii. t. Ixx. * M., liv.-lv. ; I. S. v., t. X. ; D. M., i. p. i. ; L. D., 22, xxiv. ' G. A. v., Ixxi.-lxxii.-lxxiii. Ixxvi. ccxvi. ; M. G , ii. xxxiii. 1. a ; Gall., d'Art Dram., 8vo., Heidel. 1839 ; V. G., xlii.-xliii.; A., 1845, 132-215. ' G. A. v., Ixx. 8 M. I., Ixxxvii. i.; R. V., 407; M. Etr. Pr., d. c. 1500; C. C, 136; M. I., Ixxxvii. ; R. A., 1868, p. 348. » V. G., Ivii. ; Bull., 1846, 163 ; 0. D., 380. »" C. C, p. 77, No. 129; C. D., 377 ; B. A. B., 955, 1029 ; A. Z., 1851, s. 387, xxxvi. »» Bull., 1847, 158; Italynsky, Vasi, xii. ; B. A. N., iii. 80-92. »2 V. G., Jiv. »3 R R^ ixxi ^* M, A. U. M., xxiii. ; M. I., Ixxxix. » V. F., ccli. ; C. D., 381 ; R. B., xxvi. '6 C. D., 384. >^ V.F.,clxi.; Men., ii. xxii. ; M. G., ! ii. Iii. la; G. A. V., cvi. cxiv. ccxix. ; D. M., Ixvi. ccii. ; C. D., 320, 385, 398, 403 ; B. A. B., 1630-1631. Campanari, Amf.Volc. Achille ed Ajace, 4to., Rome, 1834. ** G. A. v., clxxxvii. '' G. A. v., cxcii. 268 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. Several of the leading incidents of the Homerica, the great poem of the Iliad, are depicted on vases, but it was by no means so much resorted to by artists as other sources, which, though of inferior merit, were richer in pictorial subjects. Among the incidents represented are the opening scene of the Iliad ;^ the quarrel of Agamemnon and Achilles; Briseis^ led away by the heralds ; Ares and Aphrodite wounded by Diomed ;^ the capture of Dolon,^ and of the horses of Ehesos ;^ the fight at the ships f Poseidon advancing to assist the Greeks ; the restitution of Chryseis ;' the contest with Pisander f the valour of Menelaos f the G-ods at Olympus ;^° Zeus listening to Hera and Aphrodite ;^^ and departure of Paris to the combat ;^^ and contest with Menelaos ;^^ Achilles singing to the Myrmidons ;^* the restoration of Briseis ;^^ Glaukos and Diomed exchanging their armour /^ the death of Sarpedon,^^ who is borne by Death and Sleep to Lykia ; the bed of Helen,^^ and her toilet ;^^ Paris and Helen ;^° Euphorbos killed by Menelaos ; the death of Patroklos, and contest around his body ; the grief of Achilles at the news of his death ;^^ the Nereids and Thetis bringing him the arms forged by Hephaistos f^ the funeral games in honour of Patroklos,^^ and visit of Briseis to his tomb; the arming of Achilles, and his departure for the field f^ the arming of Hektor in his quadriga, and departure,^^ and his adieu to Hekuba,^^ Priam, and Andromache f the rescue of Aineias^^ by * Arch., xxxii., PI. ; Mon., vi. t. xix. 2 G. T. C. E. F.; B. M., 831. 3 G. A. v., cxciii. ; B. A. N., 1845, iii. xlviii. tav. v. * M., ii. X.; A., 1834, pp. 295-97; B. A. N., i. X. ; Mon., t. vi. xxxv. * A. Z., 1852, Taf. xliv. s. 481 ; B. M. 524, 533. ^ G. A. v., cxcviii. ^ C. D., 383. 8 B. M., 832. 8 B. M., 832. i» M. L., xxiv. » St., xviii. ; A. Z., 1848, 218. »2 M. G., ii. vi. 1 b. '3 Bull., 1849, 61. " M. B., ix. xii. ; R. R., xiii. '5 G. T. C. E. F. »« M. G., ii. Ixviii. 2 a. ^^ G. A. v., ccxxi. ccxxii. ; Mon., vi. t. xxxi. 18 R. R., xlix. A. 19 V. G., xli. 2« R. R., xlix.- A. 21 M. G., ii. xi. : R. R., Ixxx. ; Mon., vi. t. XX. xxi. " D'H., i. 112, iii. 60 ; Vas. Brit. Mus. " St., xii. / 2* A., 1849, p. 256, 1. ; B. A. B., 620 ; M. A. U. M., XX. xxi. ; G. A. V., xxxviii. cl. ; M. G., ii. xxxvi. 2 a, Iv. 1 a, lix. 1, Ixiii. 2 a ; M., iii. xx. ; R. R., vi. 1, xvi. ; V. F., Ii. ccxciii. ; G. A., x. ; P., cc. Ixvi.; D'H., iii. 118; B., 1846, 61; M. P., xii. ; G. E. v., xiii. 25 M. I., Ixxxii. ; V. F., cccv. ; A. Z., 1852, 236 ; M., v. t. xx. 2« A. Z., 1852, 250, 149 ; M., ii. xxxvi. iii. 1 ; M. G., ii. lix. 3, Ix. 2 a, cf. Ixviii. 2 a, Ixxxi. 2 a, Iv. la; D. L., xii.; G. A. v., clxxxviii.-clxxxix. 2^ M. G., ii. xii. xiii. xxiv. 2 a, Ixxiv. la; G. A. V., cci.-ccii. ; B., 1842, 170 ; A. Z., 1852, 247; C. F., 106-108. 28 G. A. v., cxliv. ; Mon. iii. 1. Chap. VI. HOMERICA AND POST-HOMERICA. 269 Aphrodite from the combat with Achilles ; the fight of Hektor and Achilles, respectively aided by Athene and Apollo;^ the death of Hektor;^ Achilles dragging the corpse of Hektor, attached to his chariot, round the sepulchre of Patroklos, whose shade hovers over it f Priam led by Hermes into the presence of Achilles, and entreating* for the corpse of Hektor, which is brought back ;^ the sepulchre of that hero ;^ Helen and the Trojan women.' The Post-Homerica. — Very numerous representations of events, connected with this part of the Trojan war, are found on vases of all periods, such as the adventures of Troilos and Polyxena. Troilos proceeds beyond the city walls to exercise his horses, and to obtain water from the fountain ; the ambush of Achilles ; the pursuit of the fugitive Troilos, and his immo- lation on the altar of the Thymbrean Apollo ; ^ the monomachia of Achilles and Hektor over Troilos -^ the rescue of his body by Hektor, Aineias, and Deiphobos,^" and his sepulchral rites ; ^^ the arrival of the Amazons at Troy ; ^^ their arming and con- tests with the Greeks ; ^^ their combating against Nestor and Antilochos ; ^* the monomachia of Achilles and Penthesilea,^^ and her death,^^ and Ajax and the Amazons." These are fol- lowed by many incidents out of the Aithiopis, as, for example, the arrival of Memnon and his Aithiopians ; ^^ the combat of Achilles and Memnon over the fallen Antilochos, who had replaced Patroklos as the friend of Achilles ;^^ their mothers, * M. G., ii. xii. xli. xxxv. 2 a, Ixxiv. la; G. A. V., eci.-ccii. ; B., 1842, 170. 2 D'H., iii. 62 ; G A. V., cci.-ccii. cciv. ' M. G., ii. xvi. la; G. A. V., cxviii. cxcviii. cxcix. ; I., i.-v.-vi. ; M., v. x.-xi ; St., xii. ; R. R., xvii. xviii. * B. A. N., i. p. 107 ; A. Z., 1844, s. 231 ; A. Z., 1852, 245, 251 ; G. A. V., cxciii. * M. I., xciv. ; Mon., viii. t. xxvii. « M., V. xi. ^ B. A. B., 1019. 8 A., 1850, 66-108, E. F., G. A. V., xii. clxxxv. ccxxiii. ccxxiv. ccxxv. ccxxvi. ; B. A. B., 682, 1642 ; M. G., ii. Ixiv. 2 a. ^ G, A. v., ccxxiii. •0 V. G., xviii. ; cf. G. A. V., ccix ; Mon., iii. Ix. " V. G., xviii. •2 G. A. v., cxcix. ; M. G., ii. vi. 1 b. " G. A. v., ccxxii. ; M. G., ii. Ivi. 1 a. " C. C, 145. " G. A. v., ccv.-ccvi.-vii. ; I., i. xxix. ; T., ii. 57 ; G. A., v. ; M., ii.-xi.-xiii. ; A. Z., 1852, 8. 236. »« T., iv. (ii.) 20 ; De Witte. Etudes, p. 31. »^ C. D., 392. »« M. G., ii. Ivi. la; G. A. V., xliil. ccvii. ; C. D., 391 ; A. Z., 1846, 1, cf. xxix. ; B. A. B., 954. " G. A. v., c. cxvii. cxviii. cxxx. c. Ixviii. cciv. ccv. ccxii. ccxx. ccxxx. ; D. L., X. xi.-xii. ; M. G., ii. xxxv. xxxviii. xlv. 1 a, xlix. 1 a, xci. ; V. G., xlix. ; G. E. v., xiii. ; Ronlez., Ac. Br., viii. H. ; V. D. C, xxv. ; M., ii. xxxviii. ; G. T. C. D. ; V. F., civ. cviii. cxiv. ; St., X.; A. Z., 1851, s. 346, 360; Taf. xxxi. ; A. Z., 1853, s. 401 ; C. F., 112. 270 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. Thetis and Heos, sometimes mix in the strife,^ assisting them, or interceding with Zeus f the jpsychosiasia, or weighing of the souls of the heroes by Zeus upon Olympus;^ and Memnon borne off by his mother to Susa.* These incidents are followed by the great fight outside the walls of Troy, and the victory of Lykaon ; Achilles shot in the heel by Paris ;^ the fight of Ajax and the Greeks over the corpse of Achilles,^ which is rescued and brought back to the Greek camp on the shoulders of Ajax,^ preceded by the sorrow- ing Thetis,^ who deplores his death ; and the lament of the Nereids;^ the departure of his soul to Leuke, or the Isle of the Blest ; the contention of Ajax and Ulysses for his arms, the voting of the Greeks and the Atreidse, the attempt of Ajax to kill Ulysses, to whom the arms are delivered ; ^° the suicide of Ajax ; ^^ the theft of the Palladium, and quarrel about the same ; ^^ Philoktetes bitten by the serpents ; the making of the wooden horse,^^ and Sinon led to Troy.^* The terrible scene of the last night of Troy is depicted in all its horrors.^^ Kassandra is ravished by Ajax Oileus at the altar of the Pallas Athene of Ilium ;^^ the young Polites is seen killed at the feet of Priam, who is transfixed by Neoptolemos " on the altar of Zeus Herkeios, and the youthful Astyanax is thrown from the walls, while the Trojan women make all the * D. L , ix. Mon. vi. t. v. a. 2 I. S. V. T., X. ; V. R, ccclx. ; G. E. v., xxviii. xxix, ^ G. A. v., clvi. clxxxix. ; M. G., ii. xix. 1, 1 a; B., 1831, 5; P., cclxii. ; Mon., ii. x. * M. G., ii. Ix. : C. C, p. 33, 70, V. F., clviii. ; M. A. TJ. M., v. ; Mon., vi. t. v. a. " G. A. v., cl.; C. C, p. 94, 147; D. L., xvi.; Bull., 1834, p. 35; M., i. Ii. ; G. T. C, vi.-vii. ; C. C, 300. " G. A. v., xlix. ccxxvii. ; M. G., ii. xc. ; C. C, pp. 94, 148. 7 C F., 110; M. G., ii. 2, Ixvii. 2; B., 1845, 19 ; E. R., Ixviii. ; Mon., ii. xi.; C. D., 404, 405 ; C. C, 148 ; B. A. B., 1641 ; A. Z., 1852, s. 236, 237, 238 ; T., iv. 53. ^ G. A. v., xcviii. ccxv. ; M, G., ii. ii. 2 a; G. A. V., ccxii. ^ G. A. v., ccx. ccxxv. ; M. G., ii. xlix. 2 a ; Mon., vi. xlvi. *" Arch., xxix. ; Mon., viii. xli. '' M., ii. viii. vi. xxxiii. '2 M. G., ii. xxxvi. ; B., 1838, p. 85 ; M., ii. xxxvi. ; V. F., cccxxxiii. ; A. Z., 1848, 8. 255; Taf. xvii.; B. A. B.,908; M. A. U. M., j^xviii. ; A. Z., 1852, s. 400 ; A ., 1830, p. 95 ; Mon., vi. t. vii. xxii. ^3 G. A.V.,ccxix.-ccxxxx.; A.Z., 1849, s. 76. " T., iii. 29. " Bull., 1851, 35; G. A. V., ccxii. ccxiv. ; Bull, 1836, 71 G. ; R. R., xiii.- xiv. ; Mon., I. xxiv. ; B. A. B., 1642; A., 1831, p. 381 A. " G. A. v., ccxxviii. ; V. L., ii. xxiv. ; Bull., 1838, p. 18 ; V. L., ii. iv. ; R. R., Ix. Ixi. ; V. F., cccxlix. 1. ; G. E. V., xii. xxii. ; P., ccxciv. ccxcv. ; D'H., iii. 57 ; C. D., 407, 408, 409, 410 ; A. Z., 1848, xiii. xiv. xv. s. 209; B. A. B., 1649; T., i. 20. »^ C. C, p. 95, 149; V. F., cccxliv. G. E. v., xxi. Chap. VI. TROJAN WAR. 271 resistance they can to the aggressors. Aineias flies, bearing the aged Anchises on his back, and leading Kreusa and lulos.^ Menelaos, at the instance of Aphrodite,^ lets fall his sword as he pursues Helen to the statue of Athene,^ or Apollo.* Akamas ^ and Demophon lead back their grandmother Aithra to Athens ; the shade of Achilles^ demands the sacrifice of Polyxene,' which is performed at his tomb.^ The return of the fleet ; ^ Achilles at Leuke/*^ the flight of Aineias, the return of Menelaos and Helen to Sparta,^^ Neoptolemos and Hekuba,^^ close the history of the war, and it will be seen that all its leading events are represented. Many scenes may belong either to the Ante or Post-Homericay especially the former, such as Achilles ^^ and Briseis/* from whom he receives a draught of wine;^^ Achilles conversing with Phoinix ; ^^ the hero rushing on in his quadriga ; " one of his single combats ;^^ scenes in which appear Thetis, Menelaos, Achilles, Patroklos, Ulysses, and Menestheus, or Ulysses, Aga- memnon, and Diomedes ; ^^ the march of the Greek or Trojan army ; ^° Skeparnos receiving a libation from Victory before Aineas ; ^^ the chariot of Anchippos, drawn by the horses Simos, Pyrokome, Kallikome, and Kalliphthera f^ the combat of Hektor and Diomedes over a Scythian ; ^^ the heroes Protomachos, Eu- kleides, and Kalliphanes ;^* Priam and Polyxena, or Kassandra ; ^^ Glaukos, Periphas, Demodokos, and the females Klyto and Hippolyte ;^^ Ajax contending with Hektor and Aineas ;^^ Hektor, * G. A. v., ccxvi. ccxviii. ccxxvi. ; i " M. A. U. M., xxxii. M. G., ii. Ixxxv. 2 a ; R. R., Ixviii. ; I ^^ a. Z., 1852, s. 251. G. E. v., XXV. ; C. D., 412, 413, 414 ; j »» y l^ j^ jj A. Z., 1852, s. 247 ; M. I., Ixxxviii. | " G. A. V., clxxxvii. 2 G. A. v., clxix. ; M. B., ii. v. 2 a; | »' G. A. V., clxxxiv. ; M. G., ii. Iviii. ; V. L., II. xxxiii. ; D'H., iv. 94 ; D. I*, i V. D. C, xii. XXXV. ; A. Z., 1852, s. 238, 247. | '« G. A. V., xliv. ; Mon., i. xxxv. ; ^ D'H., iv. 74 ; C. C, 150 ; B. A. B., \ D'H., ii. 62. 1642. I '' M. G., ii. lii. 1 ; G. A. V., ci. ; * D. L., xlii. ; A., 1849, D. \ M. G., ii. xxxiiL-vii. ; I., 1. iv. ; B. A. B., * G. A. v., cxxiii. cxxix. clxxi. clxxii. ; 638. M. G., ii. xlix. 2 a ; T., 1 s. 29, iv. 1 ; : '« G. A. V., clxxvi. cxcviii. R. R., Ivii. ; Mon., ii. xxvi. ; C. D., 412- »^ M. G., ii. Ixxxvii. 1 a, b., x. 1 a. 413; A. Z., 1853, s. 346, Taf. xxx. ; "o G. A. V., clxxxii. A. Z., 1853, s. 401. i " M. G., ii. Ixiii. 2 a. •^ G. A. v., cxcviii. ; G. E. V., xvii. ; ■ ^^ G. A. V , cvii.-; Mon., iii. xlv. A. Z., 1849, s. 144. " q j^ y^ cxiii. ' V. G., xxii. ; C. D., 415. 8 V. D. C, liii. A. Z., 1847, s. 97; 1851, s. 287,' '^^ CD., 394; G. A. V., cxc. cxci. " Bull., 1838, p. 37 ; Men., ii. xliv. " D. L., xlii. xxviii. '• B. A. B., 1(344. "7 M. G., ii. 1, 2 a. 272 GREEK POTTERY. Part U. Tydeus, and Aidas ; ^ and a Phrygian warrior leading a horse to an altar ; ^ and other scenes from the Troica.^ Probably to various incidents of the war of Troy, or of the expedition against Thebes, are to be referred subjects once fnmiliar, but now no longer to be recognised, representing con- tests of warriors on foot;* warriors accompanied by archers^ and dogs ; ® quadrigae, or chariots, either alone or accompanied by warriors on foot,^ entering into the strife;^ warriors and horsemen ; ^ warriors arming ^° in the presence of old men ; armed warriors ^^ marchingj^^ intermingled with women, ^^ or receiving wine from females,^* or marching with children,^^ or departing from old men,^*^ or crowned by Victory.^^ There is an incident, as yet unexplained, of a warrior and slinger.^^ Fewer in number are the subjects derived from the Nostoi, nearly all of which are found upon vases of the later styles. The return and death of Agamemnon, at the hands of his adulterous wife, Klytaimnestra, belongs rather to the tragic drama than to the work of Agias. The subjects of the attempted » A. Z., 1852, s. 235 ; Mon., ii. xxxviii. ^5 A. Z., 1853, 8. 402. 3 V. L., ii. xl. ; V. D. C, xlviii. ; G. A. v., clxvii. ; M. G., ii. ix. 2 a ; V. D. C, PL Ii. xcviii. ; V. L., ii. viii. ; I., i. xli. c. cxiii. ; V. F., cccvi. ; M. G., ii. xxiii. 2 a; M. G., ii. Ixxxii. 2 a; Mus. Blac. v.; M. G., ii. xxvii. 2 a; G. A. v., xxxi. ; P. clxxviii. ; CO., 140; V. G., v.; M. G., ii. Ixxiv. 2 a; V. L., 1. Jxxxviii. Ixxxix. ; I. S., v. ; T., xliv. pi. 1 ; 0. D., 395, 396, 397. * G. A. v., xlviii, Ixiii. Ixxii. ccxix. cxlix. ; V. F., cclxxx. cclxxxiv. ' G. A. v., Ixxi. cvi. ; M. G., ii. vi. 1 b ; V. L., ii. iv. ; V. L., ii. vi. x. xvi. ; G. E. v., XXX. « M. G., ii. xxxii. 2 b. ^ M. G., ii. xxxiv. 1 a ; St., x. xxxv. ; G. A. v., xvi. ccxi. ; G. A. V., cxxxvii. ; M. G., ii. xlvii. ; G. E. V., i. xxx. ; G. A. v., cvi.; M. G., ii. Ixiv. 4 a; G. A. v., Ixii. ; G. A. V., cxei. ; M. G., ii. xxxii. lb; V. F., ccxiii.-xiv. ccxciv. ; P., clxxx. ; C. D., 677, 678, 684, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 694 ; M. G., ii. xxxi. lb; D. L., xiv.; D'H. ii. 106; V. L., i. iii. * G. A. v., xci. ; M., iii. xxiv. 9 M. G., ii. Ixviii. 1 a, 1 b ; G. A. V., ccxix. ; V. D. 0., xlvii. ; G. A. V., cxx. ; V. F., cclxxviii. ; Ing. Mon. Etr. s. vi. T. H. ; B. A. B , 702. »" M. G., ii. Ixxxvi. 2 a, 2 b ; St. Petersb. Acad., 1847; I., T. V. M., 6; M. G., ii. xiii. 3 a ; M. G., ii. Ixxxi. 2 a, b ; G. A. V., xxvi. ; V. L,, i. xlvi. xxi. xxii. ; P., cxi. ; P., cxii. ; P., i. Ixxvii. ; M. P., viii. ; D'H., iii. 77 ; V. F., cxiv. pxvii. ccxcv. ; V. F,, cxc. " M. G., ii. Ixix. 3 b; V. L., ii. xli. ; Y. F., cccix. cccxii.; G. A. V., cxlix.; V. F., ex. cxii. 12 D'H., iii. »' D'H., ii. 61, 71, iii. 121 ; Mus. Borb. vi. xxxix, ; V. F., cixxxiv. " V. G., xxxviii. 3 ; M. G., ii. xviii. la; Iv. 1 a, clxxviii. ccxxviii. ; M. G., i. Ivi. 3 a; M. G., ii. xvi. i. 1 b; V. F., ccxxvii. ccx. ; V. F., cccx. ; T., iii. 42 ; P., i. 1. 1* M. G., ii. xlvii. i. 2 a.. i« V. D. C, xxxvi. ; T., i. 5, 14, iii. 42 ; V. L., i. xciv. ; V. F., cclxx. xvii. ccxxviii. »^ V. G., xlvii. i« V. F., clxix. InAP. VI. THE ODYSSEY. 273 Uirder of Diomcd by his wife, and tlio arrival of that horo at ipyoia,^ are perhaps represented, as well as the visit of Mene- )s to Proteus,^ Neoptolenios and Ilerniione at tlie sepulclire Phoinix,^ and tlie interview of Menehios with Idothoa and poteus."* The Odyssey presented many subjects for the pencil of the frtist. The destruction of the eye of Polyphemos,^ the escape of the hero under the ram,^ the Nekyomanteia, and appearance of the shades of Elpenor and TeiresiasJ the encounter witli iSkylla^ and Chary bdis, the Sirens^ and their fate,^^ Ulysses and Kirke ; ^^ Ulysses, ^Mentor, and Kirke ; ^^ Charon ferrying Ulysses over the Styx/^ Nausikaa playing at ball/* the hero discovered by Nausikaa/^ Ulysses leaving Alkinoos, Penelope spinning the web/® the hero recognised by Eumaios and his dog/^ the en- counter of Iras/^ Telemachos and Penelope/^ the suitors/" tlie visit of Telemachos to Nestor/^ Telemachos with Pisis- tratos received by Helen /^ Ulysses and Penelope/^ and the suitors shooting at a ring.^* From the Telegonia have been depicted the subjects of Kirke giving her commands to her son, Telegonos;^^ his arrival at Ithaka, the second marriage of Ulysses/® and his death, by the fall of the pristis or thornback/^ Intimately connected with the Nostoi are the subjects which are first developed by the » B. A. N., 1845, xlviii. tav. v. p. 97. 2 Mus. Bor., xii. Iviii. 3 V. G., xviii. * V. D. C, xxiii. •'• Mon., i. vii. ; V. F., cccxxxiv, ; C. D., 41G ; A. Z., 185^, ss. 120, 122. « Bull., 18B4, p. 160; R. R., Ixv. i. ; Mon., i. vii. ; V. F., cccxxxv. ; C. D., 417 ; 0. C, 151 ; B. A. B., 1645 ; M. I., xcix. ' R. R., Ixiv. ; Mod., iv. xis. ; B. A. N., i. p. 100 ; tav. i. » D'H., iii. 116; M. I, ciii. » D'H., ii. 75 ; T., iii. 59 ; M. G., ii. ix. 1 b; Mon., i. viii. ; C. C, 152; C. M., 57 ; T., i. 26. '0 M. P., xxiii.; C. D., 418. " G. A. v., cc-xxx. holding the molys ; Bull., 1838, p. 28; M, v. xli. ; for the supposed Kirke, M. P., viii. '2 D'H., iii. 43. »' G. A. v., ccxl. '' V. F., ccciv. ^'^ G. A. v., ccxviii.; Bull., 1838, 12; Mon., i. vi. ; Mus. Blac., xii. ; A. Z., 1852, s. 247. i« De Witte, Ae. Bmx., x. No. i. ; T., i. X. ; V. G., Ix. ; Bull., 1843, 261 ; P., i. Ivi.; C. D., 419; C. C, 153; A. Z., 1852,8.248; A., 1841, p. 261. »^ Bull., 1851, p. 55, 1838, p. 28; R. R., Ixxvi. ; Jalm, Bqx. Sacs. Ak. 1854, p. 51 ; Taf. ii. ; M., v. xli. »8 M. G., ii. Ixxv. 1 b; I. S. V. T., Ixvii. ; V. D. C, xxiii. ; B. A. B., 884. >« M. G., ii. Ixxv. 1 a ; D'H., iv. 74, 88. 20 Bull., 1851, 57. 21 C. D., 420. 22 (^ A., i. " M. G., ii. Ixxv. 1 b. " Mus. Boib., vii. xli. ; A. Z., 1853, ss. 120, 122. " Bull., 1842, 82. '« T., v. (ii.) 8.5. 2' Bull., 1833, p. 116; D'H., ii. 27; V. F., clxvii. T 274 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. tragic writers, and which connect the mythic legends of Greece with the historic cycle. Of these the Oresteid is of most common recurrence, but only on vases of the later style. Its funeral import, aud its allusion to the Greek doctrine of Nemesis and destiny, rendered it peculiarly appropriate for the decoration of vases destined to sepulchral purposes. The magnificent dramas of the Athenian stage had, moreover, earned for it great popularity among the Greeks. All the principal incidents are found represented : as the death of Agamemnon ; Elektra,^ indignant and sad, attended by Chrysothemis and her maids, bearing offerings to her father's tomb ; ^ Orestes and Pylades^ meeting her there, and concerting the destruction of the adulteress,* who is seen with her paramour ; ^ Orestes receiving his father's sword from Elektra, and bringing the brazen hydria, in which he feigns that his own ashes are deposited, to Klytaimnestra ; ® the two friends, aided by Talthy- bios and Chrysothemis, dispatching Aigisthos and Klytaim- nestra ; ' the Furies pursuing Orestes,^ who flies to Delphi, and is purified by Apollo,^ or by the Pythia,^" with the blood of a pig ;^^ the expiation at Troizene;^^ the expedition to the Tauric Chersonese ;^^ Py lades and Orestes taken and bound ,^* and led to the altar ; ^^ Orestes laid on the altar ; ^^ the Furies rising from the earth ; " the delivery of the letter to Iphigenia ; ^^ > D. L., xviii. ; A , 1842, pi. L. p. Ill, 114 ; T., i. 7 ; Raoul Roch. Peiut. Ant. I., s. vi. p. 104, 8; V. G., xxxix. sur- rounded by vases ; C. F., 4 ; V. F., cxxxvii.-xxxix. cxl. ; D'H., iv. 86 ; Mu?. Borb., iv. xx. ; B. A. B., 95U ; A. Z., 1844, s. 377 ; T., v. 79. 2 Y, D. C., PL xlv. ; V. G., xiv. xvi. ; R, R., xxxiv. ; V. F.,cli.-iii. civ. clvi.-viii. cccxi. ; M. P., XXV. ; P., ccxci. ccxciii. ; Mus. Borb., ix., liii. ; B. A. N., i. p. 92 ; A. Z., 1848, ss. 222, 223; St., xxxvii. xliv. xlvi. 3 V. G., Ivi. ; V. D. C, xxx. ; R. R., xxix. xxx. xxxi. a. * V. F., csxxix. cxli. cxlii. ; D'H., ii. 100 ; T., V. (i.) 87 ; T., ii. 30. * V. G., XV. ; Y. F., cxxxviii. « Y. F., cxliii. ; Y. L., i. viii. ; Mon., vi.-vii. Ixvii. ■> G. E. Y., xxiv. ; A. Z., 1847, 24*; B. A. B., 1007 ; B. A. B., 1616 ; T., iiii. 45, iv. 50 ; Mon. viii. xv. p. * Y. D. C, xxix. ; R. R., xxxvi. Ixxvi. ; T., iii. 32. ® R. R., XXXV. xxxvii. xxxviii. ; B. A. B., 1003 ; D'H ii. 36 ; B. A. N., i. tav. vii. ; T., ii. 16. *** Y. F., ccelxvii. cccl xxxvi. >' Kunstb., 1841, n. 84; Bull., 1846, 91 ; Mon., iv. xlviii. ^2 Y. L., i. xiv. " Y. G., Uv. ; V. L., i. No. vi. p. 15 ; Bull., 1838, p. 135; Doppel-Palladium 8vo, Moskau, 1850 ; L. D., iii. Ixxi. " R. R., xlii. " A. Z., 1848, s. 22 ; Y. F., Ix. ; D'H., i. 41. ^^ Mon., iv. Ix. ; Kalpis, with the word P^ypios ; A. Z., 1847, s. 20* ; A. Z., 1849, Taf. xii. s. 121. '^ A. Z., 1848, s. 222. ^« A. Z., 1849, Taf. xii. s. 121. HISTOTllCAT. SUBJECTS. 275 le recognition of Orestes; the flight to Greece;^ the death )f Neoptolomos, at the hands of Orestes,^ Tlianatos and thePythia; the marriage of Pylades and Elektra;^ and the jpulchres of Pyrrhos* and of Agamemnon,'^ complete the lyth. Few subjects are taken from the semi-mythic period, except those immediately connected with the Nostoi, or adventures of the epic cycle, as they were never very popular among the rreeks. The adventures of Orpheus, indeed, part of the great legend of the Argonautics, occur as already stated, on a few vases of a late period ; as well as the birth of Erichthonios, the story of Thamyris, the mythic poets Mousaios,^ Thallinos, Molpos, Xanthos,^ and Linos ;^ and Sikinnos, the inventor of the lasci- vious dance.^ In the representation of potters. Tales or Hyper- bios may be intended ; and in the workshoi) of a sculptor may, perhaps, be beheld the semi-mythic labours of Daidalos ; '^^ but, on the whole, few, very few, subjects of the proto-historic epoch appear. It was an age not over-popular among the Greeks, for its recollections were intermingled with those of the dynastic tyrannoi — the last and best of whom, Kodros, once only, and in a subordinate character, is introduced on a vase.^^ ' Still more limited is the number of vases on which subjects unquestionably historical have been discovered, although much ingenuity has been exerted to assign many subjects, capable of other interpretation, to events within the historic period. Yet a few subjects, though not, perhaps, those which might have been expected, have been chosen by some of the masters of the pencil to decorate a few choicer specimens of the art. The most remaikable of these have been already mentioned : Homer amongst the potters of Samos, the meeting of Alkaios and Sappho,^^ about B.C. 600 ; the burning of Kroisos ^^ on the funeral pyre, B.C. 545 ; the silphium ^* weighing: of Arkesilaos, one of ' MoTi., ii. xliii. 2 R. K., xli. ; M. P., vii. 3 C. M., 58 ; V. G., xxxiv. * V. G., xxxiv. » V. G., xiv. « V. L., i. xi.; B., 1845, 219; M., v. xxxvii. ; V. F., ccccxx. ' A. Z., 1849, 54. « B. A. B., 855 ; De Wittf, Etudes, p. 90. » B., 1836, 122. " G. T. C, xii.-xiii. " Braun,Die Codrus scliale, fo. Gotl.a, 1843 ; B., 1840, 127. ^"^ Stcinbuchel, Dissevfazione, Padov., 1824; M. A. U. M., xxxiii. ; Homer, Alder. Griecli. Alterth. Zeit. 1824, 24 ; A. Z., 1852, 23^. '3 M., i. liv. ; V. R, cccxix. ; C. D., 421. " M., i. xlvii.; V. F., eel.; C. D., 422 ; M. I., xevii. T V o 276 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. the Battiad line of monarchs at Kyrene, B.C. 580-460 ; the revels of Anakreon/ B.C. 539 ; and the poet Kydias.^ Dareios hunting, the weighing of his tribute, a subject derived from the Persai of Aischylos.^ All these have inscriptions which attest the correctness of the interpretation of the subject ; but more uncertain, although accompanied with names, are the athlete Hipposthenes ;* the sages Solon and Chilo;^ the poets Diphilos, Demonikos and Philippos ; ® the entertainment of Nikomachos,^ the great king,^ probably the younger Kyros, or Artaxerxes; and Xenophon.^ To the realms of conjecture must be banished such interpreta- tions as the supposed Sardanapalos ; ^^ the supposed founder of the city of Messene, or of Boia;^^ Polykrates of Samos,^^ the rhetor Gorgias,^^ and the philosopher Aristippos.^^ Other vases have the names of unknown persons, as Lykophron, Ephar- mostes, Alkimachos, and xiretaios,^^ Athenios,^^ Timandros son of Moschion.^^ To the last period of the fictile art, and to the traditions of another race, belongs the legend of Komulus and Remus,^^ which has been once found on a vase. Many of the subjects just enumerated may have been really those intended by the vase painters, but the interpretation of them does not rest on a basis so assured as that of either of the two preceding classes. Before the Greeks tolerated historical portraiture, the fictile art had decayed, if not expired ; and the love of self and of gold simultaneously supplanted the admira- tion of heroism, and the simpler but more poetical subjects of the artist. Several of the Religious Rites are represented upon vases; such as the sacrifices of animals,^^ and the roasting of them » B., 1841, 2 ; 0. D., 291, 428 ; A. Z., | '^ Rev. Arcli., 1852, p. 61. 1845, 126 ; O. Jahn, Grlech. Dicht. auf l \' C. H., 65. Vasenbild, 8vo, Leipz. 1861. I '* A., 1850, p. 348 ; M., iv. xlvi. 2 2 A. Z., 1857, PI. ciii. ; R. A., 1868, p. 348. 3 Miiller, Gott. .gelehrt. Anz., 1840, No. 60, p. 597 ; C. M., 81 ; Rev. Arch., 1863. 4 B. M., 429. » B. M., 852* « A. Z., 1819, 54; Jahn, 1 c. ' A. Z., 1851, 367. 8 M. G., ii. iv. 2 a ; M., iv. xliii. 9 A. Z., 1846, 196 ^^ Mon., vi. t. XX. i« R. A., 1868, p. 348. 1^ Bockh, c. i. iii. 624. ^^ M. Bl., xxix., supposing this vase to be true for the li?jt of historical sub- jects, cf. Longperier, Rev. Arch., 1852. 19 P. T., iv. 451 ; C. D., 628, 642 ; B. A. B., 112; M. I, xcvi. 4; M. G., ii. Ixxi. 1 b, Ixxviii. 2 b ; B., 1846, 92 ; A. Z., 1852, 248 ; V. L., Ixxxi. ; 10 C. C, 154. jD'H., ii. 37; C. C, 62; L. D., iii. " T., iv. (ii.) 60; V. F., cxx. I Ixxxvii jhap. vr. RELIGIOUS SUBJECTS.— CIVIL LIFE. 277 rith spits ;^ conducting bulls to the altar,^ the making of libations,^ the drawing of water for lustrations,* purifications,^ md sacred baths or ablutions, especially the water-drawing from the Athenian fountain of Kallirrhoe already mentioned ; ^ and the lustration of individuals from crimes. The most remarkable tnd evident incidents represented are the offerings to Aphro- lite,' sacrifices to Hermes,^ to Dionysos Stylos, Phallen, or IPerikiouios,^ the sacrifice of a kid,^" mixed up with representa- tions of Oskophoria or the suspension of masks ; ^^ and also of the sacred ship of Dionysos, the Theoxenia.^^ In most, if not ^in all, instances the subjects are mixed up with mythical ones, from which they are scarcely separable, and the numerous mythical subjects throw considerable light incidentally on the hieratic ceremonies of the Greeks. It is not possible to give in a short compass all the illustra- tions that the vases afford, either directly or indirectly, from their treatment of subjects, of the Civil Life of the Greeks. To this head, however, may be referred several scenes the mythical explanations of whicli have not yet been discovered, representing ploughing,^^ the riding in a car drawn by mules,^* scenes of water-drawing,^^ men gathering olives ^^ or other fruits,-'^ the vintage,^^ wine-press, and the carriage of panniers.^^ Besides the hunt of the Kalydonian boar, are many others,^" such as of the deer, and even hare.^^ The favourite Athenian amusement of cock-fighting ^^ also occurs. Pastoral figures of men playing on pipes, with harps on their backs, and accompanied by their faithful dogs, are seen,^^ as well as scenes of leisure,^'^ of sleep,^^ ^ C. D., 643, 615 ; L. D., ii. cvi. 2 See Nike. ' T., iii. 55, 58. * C. D., 043, G45. ' T., ii. 30, 36. « V. F., xJiii. xliv. cxxu. ; C. F., 138 ; L. D., iv. xviii. 20. 7 13. A. B., 585. 8 V. L., i. Ix. ; C. F., 60 ; B. A. N., V. tav. iv. ; T., v. (i.) 35, 36 ; D'll., ii. 97. 3 Bull., 1851, 110, B. ; I., 1, xxxvii. ; Pauofka in the Abh. d. K. Ak. Wiss. Bcrl., 1852, L, 290, 341 ; V. F., cccxvii. ; M. A. L, vii. ; C. F., 24. ^^ Mou., vi. t. xxvii. '' Mon. vi. t. vii. '- I., i. xxxiii. ; Barou Giudica, xxvi. \K 139 ; Fauof ka, V. di Prem. 10, 13. Mr. C. T. Newton, Tr. R. Soc. Lit. ix. p. 434. *^ G. T. C, i. possibly the ploughing of Jason or Cadmus. " G. A. v., ccxvii. ; D'H., i. 94 ; M. P., viii. " M. G., ii. Ixi. 1 ; A. Z., 1852, 231, 232. »« M., ii. xliv. a ; C. C, 76. " M. I., xi-iii. ; C. D., 877, 878. »« D'H., iii. 77. »» M. I., xciii. 3. "" P., clxxix. CO. ccxxvii. ; D'H., i. 91, 93 ; V. F., Ixxxix. xc. " V. L., i., xviii. ; T., iv. 60. « B. A. B., 633. -'^ D'll., iii. 78. " V. F., clx. -' St., xxxviii. 27a GREEK POTTERY. Part U. of death/ and the wail for the dead.^ Several scenes are supposed to represent marriages.^ Others are of an import difficult to understand, as men with torches,* with a bull, orgies, local combats,^ and captures,^ and the natives of Messapia.*^ The extreme difficulty of explaining certain subjects of the later vases representing youths and females, has induced some antiquaries to recur to the old method of referring them to the mysteries. In a seated female, often represented on these vases, they recognise Telete, or Initiation,^ and give to all these scenes a mystic interpretation, even in those instances in which the presence of the winged figure of Genius, or Eros,* might have rather led to the conclusion that love scenes were intended. The Palaistra is a frequent subject. The vases of later style have constantly on one side, apparently not intended to be seen, two, three, or more figures standing and conversing, sometimes enveloped in their cloaks,^" at other times naked and holding strigils^^ or lances for the akontia,^^ often with older figures, representing the epoptes,^^ the epistates or paidotribes,^* with knotted sticks, who instructed the youths, and who hold a wand or branch. Youths are seen at various exercises in the gymna- sium,^^ or at rest,^^ or proceeding thither with strigils and lekythoi, or crowned by Nike, or Victory ; ^' also athletes drawing lots.^^ 1 P., ccxcviii. 2 A. Z., 1847, s. 24*; M. M. I., xxxix. ; 0. C, 61 ; M. M. I., xcvii. ; B. A. B., 1621. » B. A. B., 804, 1634 ; A. Z., 1852. 165 ; C. D., 646, 653. * D'H., iii. 36. » B. A. B., 160. « P., cclvi. ; A. Z., 1850, Taf. xviii. ; T,, iii. 29. 7 A., 1852, 316, M. Q. 8 C. D., 429-473; B. A. B., 1611. » C. D., 474, 575. 10 T., iv. 1, 13, 48 ; M. G., ii. Ix. Ixxxvi. 1 b; Bull., 1847, p. 127; T., ii. 60. For vases referring to the Pa- laistra, "Welcker, Zeitschrift fiir alte Kunst, P., Ixxi. Ixxii. Ixxiv. Ixxv. Ixxxii. ciii. civ. cxv. cxvi. clxi. clxv. | clxxiv. ccliii. ; 0. D., 722, 724, 726, \ 735, 745 ; V. D. C, vii., xiii. ; G. A. V., | clii. ; B. A. B., 623, 811, 813, 818, 843, ' 846, 878, 889. 11 B. A. B., 595, 610, 649, 679, 700, 709, 797, 1607, 1649 ; A. Z., 1853, Taf. Ii. liii.; V. B.C., xv.; V. L., ii. xliii.; M. P., V. ; P., ccii. ccvi. ccviii. ccix. ccxii. ccxiii. ccxv. ccxvi. ; C. D., 714, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 721, 722, 723, 724, 747 ; Mus. Borb., iii. xiii. 12 C. D., 720, 725, 749. 13 V. G., xxvii. ; M. G., ii. Ixxxv. 1 b. 1* M. G., ii. Ixxxvii. 2 a, b ; C. D., 731, 732, 733 ; A., 1844, c. ; T., i. 25. 1^ V. G., X. ; M. G., ii. Ixxxi. 1 a ; C. D., 722, 726 ; St., xii. i« G. T. C, xiii. " M. G., ii. Ixxxvi. la; V. L., i. xxxix. A full account of athletic and gymnastic subjects is given by Ronlez in the Me'm. de I'Academie de Bru- xelles, torn. xvi. ; D. L., xlv. 18 T., i. 1. HAP. vr. GAMES.— THE PENTATHLON. 279 IHh. IB Most of the exercises of the great games of Greece are IBepresented, especially the Pentatlilon.^ The highly interesting ISeries of Pauathenaic vases, which were given as prizes in the Panathenaia, exliibit on their reverses the principal contests of that game.^ First is the race of the bigae, or two-horse shariots,^ as of Teles and Chionis,* which was changed into that ritli four horses ; ^ that of boys on colts, and wearing only a jhlamys ; ^ the victorious horse led home ; ' the foot-race, »ther the diaulos, or race round the course, or the dolieho- Iromos, or race to a term or boundary * by four or five runners ; ►r the armed course, hoplites dromos, in which the runners carried sliields ; ® the wrestling-match, pale, in the presence of judges ; ^° the hurling of the disJcos or disk ; " leaping, halmaf with the dumb-bells, halteres,^^ sometimes to the music of a flute ; ^^ hurling the lance, ahontion,^^ and boxing.^^ Besides these are represented the poetical or oratorical contests,^^ and the musical contests of boys ^^ or of citharists.^^ On some few subjects the names of athletes are inscribed.^^ The torch-race also occurs,^^ both on foot and on horseback ; and victorious > G. G., i. ; A., 1831, p. 53. * M. G., ii. xvii. For atliletic sub- jects see C. C, p. 99 and foil. ; B. A. B., 59G, 607. ^ A seiies of these vases will be seen engraved in Gerhard, ' Vases Etrusques/ fo., Berlin, A. B., to which the following numbers A. and B. refer ; of. 15, 24, and Gerhard, Rapp. Vole, p. 54 ; I. S., V. ccii. ; C. D., 680, 681 ; G. E. v., A. 2 ; M. I., xcv. * Bull., 1843, 76. ' G. A. v., xcii. exxv. cxxxi. ; V. F., ccxii. cclxxvi. ; C. D., 676, 679, 683, 685, 690; B. A. B., 587, 592, 1624, 1636 ; T., ii. 28 ; A. Z., 1852, 231. « A. 4 ; B., 26, 22 ; G. A. V., ciii. ; M. G., ii. Ixvi. 2 a, b, 5 a ; B. A. B., 582, 624 ; C. D., 697, 698, 699, 701, 702, 703, 704 ; V. L., i. xix. cf. i. No. viii. ; R. R., XXXV. ; V. F., cclxxv. ; G. T. C, xiv. ; M. M. I., xlvii. ; T., i. 52, ii. 26, iii. 47, V. (1) 9. ^ V. F., cclxxiv. ; D. L., xxxvi. ; T., i. 53 ; G. A. V., xiii. « A., 12 ; B., 8, 36 ; R. V., 53, No. 453 ; M. G., ii. viii. 2 a, xlii. 2 b, xliii. 1 a, 2 b ; C. D., 675 ; M. I., Ixxxviii. 4 ; T., V. (1) 6. ® G. A. v., exxxvi. ; M. G., ii. Ixxi. 4 b ; P., cvii. cviii. ; C. D., 673, 674 ; B. A. B., 887. 10 B., 2, 4, 22; M. G., ii. xvi. 2 a; M. Bl., ii. ; C. D., 706. " A., 6 ; M. G., ii. xliii. 2 b, liii. 1 a; T., iv. 44; V. F., Ixxxiv. Ixxxv. ; P., Ixxxvii.; D'H., iv. 63; C. D., 710, 711, 712, 713; A. Z., 1852, 249, n. 142; A., 1846, i. " A., 6 ; V. F,, Ixxx. Ixxxi. Ixxxiii. ccclxix ; D'H., ii. 38, iii. 68, 91 ; C. D., 727, 734 ; T., iv. 43 ; M. G., ii. Ixx. 1 a, 2 b, Ixxiii. 1 a, 1 b ; V. L., i. vii. »3 D'H., i. 124. " M. G., ii. Ixix. 4 c, Ixx. 2 a ; A., 6 ; B., 6. " A., 8, 10; B., 10, 20, 24; V. F., ccxxxii. ccxxxiii. ; M. Bl., ii. ; M. P., viii.; C. D., 707, 708, 709; T., i. 55, 56. »« B , 28 ; M. G., ii. xxii. 2, 2 a ; L. D., ii. XV, xvi. " A. Z., 1845, 339. " B. A. B., 868, 869 ; A. Z., 1852, s. 247. 19 G. A. v., xxii. 20 M. G., ii. Ixxi. 3 b ; C. D., 751 ; T., ii. 25, iii. 48 ; M. P., v. 280 GREEK POTTERY. Tart II. athletes being crowned by Nike.^ Sometimes an exercise with the pickaxe is represented/ which was used to strengthen the arms, and practised by the wrestler Milo.^ Among the representations of the minor games may be cited that of the hoop, trochos ; * of the ball, spliaira ; of dice, pessoi ; ^ or draughts, huboi ; several kinds of dances,^ and among them the armed or Pyrrhic dance,' performed by Korna and Selinikos ; ^ a game supposed to be that of enkotyJe^ or aiganeon ; ^° shooting at a cock on a column ;^^ and musical contests,^^ especially the victory of the Tribe Acamantis of Athens ;^^ and diversions introduced at entertainments.-^* On many vases, on which athletic scenes are depicted, the pipers, who played so remarkably in all the Grecian exercises, and in the gymnasia,^^ are often represented, as well as athletic dances,^® such as female jugglers^' standing on their heads amidst swords, or drawing a bow and arrow witli the feet,^^ or wine from a krater, in that attitude,^^ dancing armed, or merely draped,^^ to the sound of the pipe ; ^^ and dancers and harpists with amphoroe.^^ Several interesting Dramatic Subjects occur, as that supposed to represent Prometheus Bound, with the Wandering lo,^^ treated in an anomalous manner ; scenes from tw^o Satyric dramas, one of Herakles and perhaps Apollo, contending for the tripod ; the other the marriage of Dionysos, including players, musicians, chorus-leaders, and the chorus ; ^* another scene from a Satyric drama, or burlesque, probably by Aischylos, of » T., i. 53-57 ; ii. 20. 2 C. D., 257, 710; C. E., 38, 171; I. M. E., ii. Ixx. ; Ronlez, Mem. Atad. de Bnix., ii. t. xvi, ^ L. D., iii. xlix. * M. A. U. M., xii. * C. D., 761, 762. ^ P., ccsxviii. ccxlvi. ; T. P., 60. ^ M. G., ii. Ixxxiv. 2 b ; Mus, Boib., viii. Iviii. ; T., i. 60. * I., s. V. t. viii. ; P., clxxx. 8 M., i. xlvii., B. 1" V. F., ccxlix, *' V. F., Ixix., or the suitors of Pene- lope. 1- V. F., ccclxii.; C. D., 755, 756, 759. 13 Mus. BL, i. 1* DH,i. 117. 20 22 23 " C. D., 753, 754, 758. »« St., X. I '' M. A. I., i. ix. ; T., v. (ii.) 93. *" B. A. N., torn. V. tav. vi. »" T., i. 60. St., XXXV. 21 g^^ xxii. B. A. B., 589. Millin., Ptint. de Vases Ant. T., ii. pi. Iv. Ivi. ; Wieseler, Theater-Gebaude, Taf. iv. Sab. 2* M., iii. XXX. In the centre AIONT- 205 anJ Ariadne, Venus and IMEP02, one of the actors HPAKAH2, another riAN and EVA; the chorus is called ETNIK02, NIK0MAX02, XAPIA2, AH- PO0EO2, AHMHrPI05, NIKOAEAH2, XAPIN02, AIHN, *IAIN02. KAAAIA5, Wieseler, pi. vi. 1. iAP. VI. DRAMATIC SUBJEOTIS. 281 lidipous consulting the Si)binx ;^ the Satyric persons of the lorus preparing to appear,'^ a scene of Sileniis and Dionysos,^ scene from another drama, a parody upon Arion,* Taras,^ ^alaimon, or the Nereids ; a Satyric chorus, led by a female [ute - player ; ^ a parody on the Elektra,' another on the aitigone,^ or the Elektra, and one of Herakles and the Ker- copes ; ^ a portrait of the actor Xanthias of Aristophanes ; ^" leus and Hermes scaling with a ladder the house of Amphi- ryon, whilst Alkmene is seen at the window,^^ probably from le comedy of Amphitryon, by Ehinthon ; ^^ Zeus, Gany modes, and anotlier god ; ^^ Dionysos and Silenos at the window of Althaia, or Ariadne ; ^* the blind Chiron healed by Apollo ; ^^ a parody of Hera bound to the golden throne, taken from the Hephaistos of the comic poet Epicharmos ;^^ another of Theseus and Prokrustes ; ^^ another meant apparently for Herakles and Auge ; ^^ Oidipous consulting the Sphinx, represented as a fox ; ^^ a burlesque Siren, or else Tereus or Epops of the Birds of Aristophanes ; ^^ a parody of Atlas ; ^^ two men masked as cocks, and preceded by a flute - player, probably from a comedy ; ^^ and two warriors ; ^^ a scene also from the Frogs of xVristophanes ; ^"^ the wine-flask of Kratinos ; ^^ the slave- driver of Pherekrates ; ^^ the destruction of Hium, of Phormos ; ^^ a burlesque of the Antigone,^^ and the elopement of Helen ; ^^ a parody on Briseis ; ^^ Apollo, Herakles ; ^^ arrival of the god at Delphi. On vases of later style also occur several myths, the argu- * Wieseler, 1. c. 10 ; M. B., ix. xii. ; " Lenormant and De Witte, Elite, M. G., ii. Ixxx. 2 a ; Franz. Didask, ii. xciv. ; "Wieseler, 60. ^scliyl., s. c. Theo. Berlin, 1848. i *« Mazocchi, Tab. Her., i. p. 138 ; T., i. 39. ' T., i. 41. ! D'H., iii. 108 * T., iv. 57 ; Millin., i. 116. " V. G., xlvi. ' Miiller, Dorier, ii. 349 ; T., iv. (ii.) '* Wieseler, iii. 18 ; Monumenti, iv. 57. Taf. xii. « G. A., Taf. Ixxxiii. j ^^ M. G., ii. Ixxx. 2 a. ' T., i. 35 ; iv. pl. 10. See Wieseler, 1. c. ■. 2" Vas., B. M., red figui-es. 8 A., Taf. Ixxiii. I ^i Vas., B. M., 1638. " Serra di Falco, Anticb. d. SicUia, I " Vas., B. M., 659. 23 t^ ^ gy^ ii. p. 1, vignette. | " j^ z., 1849, s. 17. ^'^ Panofka, Cabinet Pourtales, ix. Wieseler, 1. c. 57. " D'H., iv. 105. " A. Z., 1849, s. 33. 2« A. Z., 1849, s. 42. " A. Z., 1849, s. 43. 12 Wieseler, p. 59. 28 j^ i847, p. 216, pl. k. ^3 Mel. Grec. Rom. de St. Pe'ters- | 29 Cotlion, red figures, Brit. Mus. bourg, torn. ii. 1859, Pl. xviii. j ^^ Mon., vi. t. xxxv. " Panofka, Cabinet Pourtales, x. ! ^i i^ij^ 282 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. nients of which often formed the subjects of the drama. Some are connected with Dionysos, as Pentheus ^ killed by Mainads ; the insanity of Lykourgos, who destroys his family ; ^ and Hyp- sipyle ; ^ the capture of Silenos in the rose-gardens of Midas ; * the adventures of lo;^ the death of Prokris;^ the mutilated Prokne ; ^ the metamorphosed Atalanta ; ^ Atlas and a Sphinx ; ^ the death of Arcliemoros ; " the fate of the Niobids ; " Tereus and Philomele ; ^^ and Antiope and Dirke.^^ A great number of vases represent the entertainments of adults ; and scenes of triklinia often occur. The guests recline upon couches, amusing themselves by whirling their cups in the supposed game of Jcottahos,^^ singing to the lyre/^ or playing on that instrument ^^ or on the flute.^' On the later vases lietairai, especially the auletrides,^^ or female flute-players, and some- times female citharists ^^ and boys,^° are seen. Some of these also represent the akroama with which the symposium ^^ con- cluded. One scene is the triclinium of Nikomachos,^^ another that of Demetrios.^^ In many of the drinking-scenes candelabra and lamps are represented.^^ These often occur with the names of unknown persons, as Smikythos, Tlepolemos, Euthymides, and Sosias.^^ The homos, or revel, after or during the entertain- ment, is often depicted ; ^^ the revellers, the leader of whom is ^ M., i. vi. ; Jahn, Pentheus, 4to, Kiel, 1841 ; B. A. N., iv. p. 13; tav. ii. 3. 2 Mon., iv. pi. xvi. ; Bull., 1846, p. 88. 3 G., A. E., 10. * M. G., ii. Ixxii. 2 b; G. A. V., ccxxxviii. ; Mon., iv. 10. * V. D. C, xlvi. ; Mon., ii. lix. ; B. A. N., iii. tav. iv. « V. R, ccv. 7 D'H., iv. 76. * B. A. N., iv. tav. iii. 1. » B. A. N., iv. tav. v. *" B. A, N., ii. tav. v. See subject of Archemoros, supra. " B. A. N., i. p. Ill, tav. iii. »2 B. A. N., ii. p. 12, tav. i., n. 5. >* A. Z., 1842, s. 76, 1853, Taf. Ivii. " Gerhard, Rapp. Vole, p. 57 ; T., iii. 10, v. (i.) 16, 84, 90; M. BL, v. ; D'H., ii. 48, 74 ; Mon., iii. xii. vi. t. Ii. ; M. G,, ii. Ixv. 2 a, 2 b, Ixxi. 1 b, Ixxxiv. 1 b, 2 a, xii. 3 a, xcii. 1 ; V. L., ii. xxxviii. ; P., cv. cl. ; I., s. V. t. xxxvi. ; B. A. N., i. p. 92 ; V. F,, exxxii. exxxiii. ; 0. D., 805, 810 ; St., xxvi. ; B. A. B., 879. " V. L., i. xxiv. xxxvi. xxxviii. xlviii. ; D'H., i. 109 ; L. D., ii. xxxvii. " M., iii. xii. ; M. G., ii. liv. 1 a, 2a; B. A. B., 1014. " M. G., ii. Ixxxiii. 1 b ; Ixxxv. 2 b ; T., ii. 41, iii. 16, 17, iv. 40. 1^ M. G.,/ii. vi. 1 a; Ixxxi. 1 a; V. D. C, XX. ; V. L., i. xxxii. ; V. F., cclxxiii. ccc'lvi. ; P., cv. ccxxiv. cexxxix. ccxli. ccxlii. ; D H., ii. 113; T., ii. 52, 55. " V. D. C, viii. 20 p^ ccxliii. 2^ Xenoph. Symp., c. 2 ; Athen., xiv. 7; V. F., cxcviii. ; T., i. 50. 22 Vas., B. M., 1646. 22 Politi, Slancio Artistico, 8vo., Girg., 1826. 2* G. A. v., cxcv. cxcvi. ; C. F., 140. 2* Smikythos is known as an eromenos. Tlempolenios and Euthymedes as a pot- ter and artist. A. Z., 1852, s. 249. 2« M. G., ii. Ixxviii. 2 a ; V. L., i. Ixvi. Ixviii.; A. Z., 1847, s. 18*; B. A. B., 708; T., v. (i.)22, 80. Kap. vr. ENTERTAINMENTS. 283 called Jcomarchos,^ are dancing to the pipe, and liolding am- phone.^ Youths drawing wine from kraters or bowls ;^ or men playing the krotala, dance in wild confusion,* while the intoxi- cated attended by females,^ sometimes with torches,® are frequently represented. A remarkable scene shows Empedokles playing on the flute, while Nikaulos and Charidemos dance with rhyta? Similar to these are representations of youths dancing^ with drinking-hornS;® with lyres,^^ and crowns,^^ and men offering boxes to females,^^ playing with dogs and tortoises,^^ w ith the jerboa,^* or with a hare held by a string ; ^^ or offering this animal as a present,^® or holding a piles," or cups ; ^^ mounting horses, riding pick-a-back, dancing, playing at see- saw, and other games. Young children are depicted playing with toys, balls, and go-carts,^^ crouching to seize apples, or crawling after a swan,^^ or playing at the game of knuckle- bones, or astragaloi?^ There are also many scenes of men standing and talking to females,^^ a man standing between two females,^^ men conversing with youths,^* or with one another.^^ On some yases are draped youths and females conversing,^^ at w^ork with hcdatlioi and spindles,'-^^ and a host of undetermined actions, representing nuptial ceremonies,^^ toilets, and games, and youths with para- sols.^^ Many vases, especially those which from their small size seem intended for children, have representations of youths. * G. A. v., clxxxviii. "^ G. A. v., cxxvi. ' M. P., xxxiv. ; M. G., ii. Ixxxi. 1 a. * M. G., ii. liv. 2 a. * M. G., ii. Ixxxi. 1 b. « P., ccxxx. ; T., V. (i.) 18, 19, 20. ^ G. A. v., ccxxxvlii. 8 Bull., 1834, p. 229 ; 1840, p. 54. » M. G., ii. Ixx. 1 b. '« M. G., ii. Ixxvii. 1 a ; Mus. Borb., iv, Ii. ; T., i. 50. 11 V. L., xliv, 12 p^ ixviii. " V. D. C, xliv. 1* V. F., ccclxxxvii. " G. T. C, xi. xii., with the name Uippodamos ; B. A. N., i. p. 92, the supposed discovery of Boea ; I., p. 126. >« M. M. I., xlvi. 1^ V. D. C, xxi. 18 V. D. C, xlvi. i« St., xvii. ■^» C. D., 800. 21 C. D., 801, 803. " D'H., i. 30, 45, 48 ; ii. 77, 96, 109 ; iii. 47, 83, 95 ; iv. 38, 45, 56, 103 ; C. D., 752 ; St., xxvi. ; T., ii. 59, 60 ; iii. 57, iv. (ii.) 1 ; M. G., ii. xlvii. 1 a ; Ixxv. 2 b ; V. L., i. vi. ; I., s. v. t. Ixviii. ; D. L., XV. ; P., Iii. liii. Ixi. Ixxviii. Ixxx. Ixxxi. Ixxxiii. Ixxxix. xci. xcii. xcvii. clxxv. clxxvi. clxxvii. ccx. ^^ G. A. v., Ixxxi. clxiii. cc. ; T., i. 18, v. (ii.) 70. 2* T., i. 3 ; M. G., ii. Ixxvii. 1 b, 2 a, b, Ixxxiii. 2 a, Ixxxvi. 1 a ; P., Ixxiii. clxxi. clxxiii. " G. A v., cxliv. ccix. ; V. G., x. ; T., V. (ii.) 69 ; M. G., ii. xxii. 1, 2, xxiv. 2 a ; I., s. V. t. iv. ; P., xcv. xcvii. xcviii. ccxxv. ccxlv. ccxlvii. 2® V. D. C, X. xvii. xix ; P., xxxi. cvi. '' St., xxxiv. ^ K. v., p. 51 ; V. L., ii. xliv. 23 P., Ixxi. 284: GREEK POTTERY. Part II. It~is probable that future discoveries raay determine the meaning of many scenes now deemed of general import, such as youths playing on the lyre to females, holding cups and boxes ^ to men with branches,^ taking a necklace out of a box in the presence of a female and an old man,^ offering hares to ladies,* holding cups to other youths,^ a youth in a great vase,^ youths with females, probably hetairai,' or dancing with tambourines,^ or standing at Hermai and stelai,^ conversing in a palace,^^ or receiving offerings from their admirers,^ ^ at fountains,^^ females conversing,^^ pursuing a bull,^* or looking like Narkissos into a mirror,^^ placing wreaths on an altar, and carrying birds in a cage ; ^® in presence of Nikd dancing ; holding shiadishai, or parasols ; ^^ with hrotala ; reading poems ; ^^ in a bath ; ^^ and Eros,^*' apparently in schools,^^ and females over a hydria. Females alone are represented, with kalathoi and crown s,^^ at the bath,^^ as lyrists ^* crowned by Nike,^^ and with the sMadiske or parasol,^® as jugglers, hybisteres, standing on their heads amidst swords set upright in the earth,^' swinging,^^ sometimes seated,^^ or playing with a ball,^^ interviews of females,^^ love scenes.^^ Professional women are seen playing on the harp or J V. G., xlv ; L. V. ii. xxviii. ; L. D., i. XXXV. xl. ; Inghirami, M. E. I. ; 1 , s. V. vi. t. i. iv. 2 G. A. v., cexxix. ; I,, s. v. t. iv. 3 M. G., ii. Ixxi. 2 a; V. D. C, xxxi. 2 ; G. T. C, E. F. * M. M. I., xlvi. 6. * V. D. C. ^ Perhaps Pelops, G. A. V., clxxxi, ^ M. G., ii. Ixxviii. 1 a, 1 b; V. F., cxxx. ; G. T. C, xlv. xv. « D'H., iii. 111. « D'H., iv. 45 ; V. D. C, xxxii. ; P., xx. xxii. xxix. l.-liii. ccxxv. ccxxvii. cexxix. ccxxx. ccxxxiii. ccxxxv. ccxxxviii. ccxli. ccxlii. ccxliv. ccxlvii. ccxlviii. cclii. ccliv. cclvi, ; T., V. 1-5. " M. G., Ixxv. 2 a. " M. G., ii. Ixxviii. 2 a. 12 B. A. B., 1627 ; M. G., ii. x. 2 b. ** M., ii. xxvi. 2 a, '* Bull., 1844, 100, 101. 1^ I., s. V. t. xxi. 1^ D. L., xxxviii. 1^ C. C, 59 ; T., i. 2. 18 D'H., ii. 103. i» T., iv. (ii.) 30 ; P., xxxii, 20 T., i. 59. 21 T^ iy^ (-ii ) 5y, 22 A. Z., 1852, s. 247, 251 ; B. A. B., 583, 856, 857 ; T., iv. (ii.) 31 ; v. (i.) 37; I., 8. v. t. xxix.; P., xviii. xix. XX. xcix. c. ex. cxiii, cxiv. cxxvi. cxxxi. exxxiii. cxxxiv. cxxxv. cxxxvii.-exli. cxliv. clxxxiii. elxxxiv. clxxxvii ; D'H., ii. 57, 94, iii. 71 ; iv. 36, 47 ; B. A. N., i., p. 91. 2^ M. B.^ xiv., XV. ; I., s. v. t. xxv. ; D'H., ii. 25 ; C. D., 763, 765 ; B. A. B., 671 ; T., iv. (ii.) 28, 29, 30 ; Mus. Borb., xiv. XV. 24 i,^ g, V. t. XXX. 2^ J., 8. V. t. xxvii. 2^ I., s. v. t. xliv. 2^ V. F., Ixvi. Ixxxvii. Christie, PI., i. p. 51; T., i. 60; A. Z., 1852, 164; Mus. Borb., vii. Iviii. 28 M. A. U. M., XXX. ; A. Z., 1853, 400. 29 V. F., cxxxiv. ; B. A. B., 673. 3« V. F., clxxxiii. elxxxiv. ; D'H., i. 59, 60 ; Mus. Borb., vii. Iviii. ; A. Z., 1852. 3> 0. D., 796 ; V. F. cxci. ^- V. F., cxeii. ; P., vi. For vases referring to nuptial ceremonies, see Bottiger, Yasengemahlde, 8vo. Wei- mar, 1797. I„. WAR AND THE CHASE. 285 |)ipe/ and receiving wine ; ^ other women perform household work,^ or celebrate orgies.* Females also appear holding a box or pyxis/ crowns,*^ or lekythoi,^ dancing/ and sometimes offering incense to the gods.^ They are often seen washing/" or hohling a hare/^ at their toilet/^ or at a stele ;^^ discoursing over a hydi'ia/* or caressing a deer.^^ Large female heads are often the only decoration of late vases/® and large eyes ; ^' on some vases are reunions of females, either allegorical personages, or hetairai with their names.^^ The scenes illustrative of War in its principal forms, have been already described in enumerating the events of the war of Troy. There is a very great number of vases illustrative of this subject ; but it is not possible to describe all, and many of the scenes without doubt belong to events of a mythic nature.-^^ They represent combats on foot and horseback, by archers, hoplites, and slingers, and even contests of galleys.^" Many representations of youths and others, either starting for or engaged in the chase, refer to the remarkable hunts of antiquity .^^ One represents the hunting of the hare.^^ Some vases have scenes of an immoral tendency, yet they are few in comparison with the other subjects. Nor are they merely coarse examples, painted by poor or careless workmen, to gratify the popular taste ; but on the contrary, the productions of the very best artists.^^ Such subjects, indeed, sometimes exercised the pencil of painters like Parrhasios, Aristides, Pausanias, and Nikophanes ; ^* and vase-painters were only humble imitators of the great masters. Of course these scenes cannot be detailed.^^ Some may be intended for the love adventures of the gods, or celebrated amours of mortals, especially of poets ; but others ^ Mus. Borb., xiv. xv. 2 T., ii. 58. 3 A., 1852, p. 85, V. ^ T., i. 48. * C. D., 766, 769, 772, 774, 775, 777, 780 ; V. F., cxxvii. ccxv. « B. A. N., i. p. 14. ^ C. D., 772. « St., xxiii. xxiv. ^ St., XXXV. ; P., xxi. ^<* P., XXX. xxxii. xxxvii. xxxviii. xxxix. " D'H., iii. 34. 12 D'H., ii. 25 ; iii. 73. " D'H., ii. 57. >* D'H., iv. 96. 1* C. D., 767. i« C. D., 1185, 1213. ^' B. A. B., 819. 1* B. A. N., V. p. 25. Such names as, Melissa, Antliippe, Lysistrate, Arcliesis- trate ; Nikopolis, Klymene, T., i. ; Jahn, O., Ber. d. k. Sachs. Gcsellsch,, 1854. s. 24. 19 C. D., 811-868. 20 c. D., 868. 21 C. D., 869-874. 22 L. D., ii. xcviii. 23 Gerhard, Kapp. Vole, 59, 60 ; C. D., 60, 61 ; L. D., ii. xlix. ; B. A. B., 719 ; 729; C. M., 11, 13; A., 1832, pi. g.; M. M. I., XXV. ; T., v. (i.) 90. 2"* Athenfcus, xiii. ; C, 11. 2» Cf. for example the Vases. 286 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. seem derived from private life, especially those of youths and hetairai/ in which figure several persons whose names are identical with those of Athenian artists and writers,^ and many of the names probably refer to the celebrated and facile beauties of Corinth.^ Many of the late vases represent small temples, or the heroa,* from which the subject was taken. These are generally coloured white. Some of the most remarkable of these heroa represent Aphrodite,^ Aineas crowning loiilos,^ Zeus and Ganymedes, or Dionysos and Komos,^ Leda and the swan,^ the Dioskouroi,^ and Athene,^® a youthful warrior with shield,^^ Heroes with arms and horse, ^^ youth with a dog,^^ two females, one holding a box,^* females ^^ with dove and amphorae,^^ a warrior and a man leaning on a stick, and the supposed Narkissos.-^^ Large heads of a goddess are also common on the later vases/^ perhaps copied from statues ^^ and often combined with arabesque floral ornaments. In one instance the head of lo, or a female satyr, is seen. Heads, too, in a kelcryphalos, are not uncommon.^^ Several vases have representations of animals, which are often engaged in combats; such as boars and lions,^^ or rows of animals,^* consisting of the lion, the boar, the panther,^^ the stag,^^ the deer,^^ the ram, the bull,^^ and the horse.^^ Lions are seen devouring deer and buUs.^" Hares,^^ and dogs ^^ appear 20 21 » P., cci. ; D H., iv. 37. 2 C. C, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16. * C. C, 13, 14, 15, 16. * I., s. V. t. xl. ; v. F., cccxxi. cccxxii. ccclxix. ; D'H., iii, 65 ; G. A., xii. ; T., V. (i.) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; B. A. B., 1-10 ; P., xxii. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. xxix. Ixxxiv. Ixxxv. cxxxii. cxliii. clxxxii. clxxxix. cxc. cxci. cxcii. cxciii. cxciv. cxcv. cxcvi. cxcvii. cclxi. cclxiv. cclxv. cclxx. cclxxi. cclxxix. For several, see C. D., 576-627. * V. F., xxxiii. xlii. « B., 1846, p. 75. ' V. F., cccxciii. ; B. A. B., 1027. « Vase, B. M., No. 1568. 9 V. F., cxxxix. ; V. G., xix. ; D'H., iii. 52, 55. 10 L. D., i. Ixvii. " V. F., cccxxiii. ; B. A. B., 1001. 12 Y. F., xix. XX. ccclxxxix. ; D'H., i. 53, 54 ; David, i. p. 6 ; I., i. xii. b ; T., V. (i.) 3, 4, 5. " B. A. B., 1027. ^* G. A,, xvi. ^^ I , i. xxxiii. '^ Mus. Borb., vii. xxii. »^ B. M.,1567*. '8 V. L., ii., i. iii. ^^ See Minerva, IMon., iv. xlvi. 20 V. F., Hi. ; D'H., iv. 56. 21 P., cclxxxi. 22 B. M., 292, 293 ; DH., i. 101 ; B. A. B., 1626. '3 M. G., ii. vi., 2 b, X., 1 b; V. L , ii. xxi. ; B. A. B., 594. 2^ M. G., ii. xxvii. xxviii. xc. 25 D., 933 ; V. F., cclxxix. 28 Mus. Blac, vi. 27 Mus. Blac, xvi. ; B. A. B., (29 ; D'H., ii. 86. '^ M. G., ii. Ixiv. 4c; M. P., xxx. 29 B. M , 385 ; V. L., ii. viii. 30 M. G., ii. xxxi. 2. •■» C. D., 902. 32 Q p^ 900, 901. lAP. VI. LITERARY SOURCES. 287 single subjects. Among the birds represented are the owl,^ le eagle, the hawk/ the crane, the swan, the goose,^ pigeons, )cks and hens,* and cock-fights.^ Among fishes are the )lphin, tunny, cuttle-fish, and echinus.® There are also repre- jntations of snakes,^ tortoises,^ and grasshoppers.^ Among lants are the laurel, myrtle, poplar, ivy, pansy, hyacinths. Tot the least remarkable subject is that of the great eyes, which has been a fruitful source of conjecture.^*' Among objects of the imaginary world are gryphons,^^ which are sometimes attacking horses ; the hippalektryon, chimaira, sirens,^^ harpies, liippocampi,^^ Pegasi, sphinxes,^* and heads of Gorgons.^^ In many instances these animals are introduced as a kind of artistic bye-play, or parody, on the subject represented, just as the poet uses a metaphor. Thus, on a cup representing the destruction of Polyphemos, a fish is seen swallowing the baited hook ; ^® and on another, where the two Gorgon sisters fly after Perseus, two dogs are depicted chasing a hare.^^ In a mono- machia of Achilles and Memnon, a lion is beheld attacking a boar, and an ape appears at the chase of the boar of Kalydon. A vase with a butterfly is probably a forgery.^^ The relation of subjects depicted on vases to the ancient Hellenic literature forms an interesting inquiry, since it is evident that the works of the rhapsorlists suggested many sub- jects to the older vase-painters. It will be seen, from an inspec- tion of the subjects, how few comparatively are derived from Homer. Great as are the intellectual and moral examples which his poems exhibit, they were by no means well suited to the somewhat monotonous style of ancient art, which required plain and simple incidents. So deficient were the Homeric poems in arguments, even for the drama, that Aristotle has observed, that while the Iliad and Odyssey afforded materials for two dramas, the Kypria supplied the subjects of several, and the little Iliad of eight.^^ Nor is it by any means improbable that the Homeric poems 1 V. L., xlix. 53 ; D'H., i. xli. >o M. G., ii. Ixix. 3, 4 ; G, A .V., xlix. 2 V. L., ii. xlix, 52. '' K. v., p. 65, 66. 3 D'H., iv. 108. " B. A. B., 1591. * M. G., ii. Ixiv. 3 a; V. L., ii. xlv. ^^ P., ccxcix. ^* V. L., ii. xlviii. * M. G , ii. V. 1 a; V. L., ii. p. 30, " C. D., 34, 36. »« M., i. vii. n. viii. '' A. Z., 1847, 17*, 18*. « G. T., c. i. ' G. T., c. i. »» T., iii. 60. « G. T., c. i. » G. T., c. i. *"• Aristotle, Poet., sect, xxxviii. 28S GREEK POTTERY. Part II. did not enjoy that universal reputation which they afterwards monopolised, and that they shared the public favour with other productions. For it is most remarkable and significant, that scarcely one of the vases which issued from the kilns prior to the Peloponnesian war, is decorated with a subject which can be satisfactorily identified with the incidents of the Iliad or Odyssey ; while the few vase-paintings, which are undoubtedly Homeric, are almost all of the third style, with red figures, and executed in the interval between the war of the Peloponnese and the landing of Pyrrhos in Italy. Yet the number of sub- jects derived from other poems, which formed part of the grand cycle of the war of Troy, is remarkable. Thus, almost all the leading events of the Aithiopis of Arktinos of Miletos, the- argument of which is repeated in the later poem of Quintus Calaber, or Smyrnaeus, are depicted on the vases ; sucli as the arrival of the Amazons at Troy, the death of Penthesilea, the appearance of Memnon and his bands, the death of Antilochos, the often-repeated subject of Memnon's death by the hand of Achilles, the death of that hero while pursuing the Trojans, and his apotheosis in Leuke, the contest of Ajax and Ulysses for his armour, the suicide of Ajax, the wooden horse, the inci- dent of Laokoon, and the flight of Aineas.^ About half a century later is the Iliou Persis, or destruction of Troy, written by Lesches, or Leschaios, of Mitylene, which appeared about Olympiad xxx. B.C. 657. The Iliad of Homer contained only a fractional portion of the war of Troy, and the whole story of Ilium was not sung by any single bard or poet. The subjects, as already stated, have been classed as the Ante-Hom erica, consiking of those which precede the events of the Iliad, the argument of which formed the Kypria ; ^ the Mihra Bias, or " Little Iliad," written by Thestorides,^ Diodoros, or Kinaithon ; and the obsolete poem of the Fatrohlia ; — the Homerica, or such incidents as inter- vened between the quarrel about Briseis and the death of Hektor ; — and the Post-Homerica, or events up to the destruc- tion of Troy, comprising the Aithiojns of Arktinos, part of the Kypria, and the Iliou Persis, or " Destruction of Troy," of Lesches ; the Nostoi, or *'Keturn " of the Greeks to their country, which formed the subject of the poem of Agias, and the most ^ Mliller, Literature of Ancient Greece, p. QQ. 2 Muller, Greek Literature, p. QG. 3 Sehol. Troades, 1. 821. 3hai>, VI. CYCLIC POETS. 289 Remarkable part of wliich events is described in Homer's Odyssey. Iiese, with the Oresteid, and the Telegonia of Eugamon of Lyrene, complete the epic cycle of the Greeks. The arguments, as far as they are known, can only have )artially supplied the vase-painters, since only the fate of Ajax, le quarrel of Agamemnon and Achilles, the last niglit of Troy, knd the death of Priam and Astyanax, are found depicted on pses. The death of Paris by the hand of Philoktetes, the deeds Ulysses and Neoptolemos, and the conducting of Aineas by le same hero to Pharsalos, are not found,^ although subsequent Excavations may bring them to light. Nor can the celebrated Ky;prian verses have failed to inspire many of those subjects which were capable of being painted ; and while the prayer of the Earth to Zeus, to lessen the number of men upon her bosom, was clearly inadmissible, there is reason to believe that there may be traces of subjects representing the amours of Zeus and Nemesis, from whose union sprang Helen, subsequently con- fided to Leda ; of the attack by Achilles upon Telephos and Aineias ; ^ the death of Troilos ; ^ the sailing of Lykaon to Lemnos ; '^ and the quarrel of Achilles and Agamemnon, treated in a less subdued manner than in the Iliad. Yet certain sub- jects which formed a very essential part of this poem are want- ing, such as the promise of Helen to Paris for his judgment in favour of Aphrodite and her elopement during the absence of Menelaos ; the death of the Dioskouroi, slain by Aphareus and Lynkos ; and the sailing of the fleet from Aulis to Troy, after having been carried to Teuthrania. The incidents in the Nostoi of Agias of Troizene — the pre- vailing sentiment of which poem is the vengeance of Athene — are repeated in the tragedies of the Attic school ; but though some of the vases of the latest style represent subjects derived from it — as the quarrel of the Atreidai, the return and death of Agamemnon, the flight of Diomedes, the death of Neopto- lemos, the Nehyomanteia, and some subjects resembling those of the Odyssey — yet many of the most striking incidents of it — such as the fate of Nestor,^ Kalchas, Leonteus, and Polypoites, are either undistinguishable, or never engaged the attention of the vase-painters. 1 MuUer, 1. c, p. 66. 2 Iliad, XX. 79. ' Iliad, xxiv. 257. * Iliad, xxi. 405-8. ^ Proklos, cited in Gotlingeu Biblio- tek fill Literatur und Kunst. MUller, Literature, &c., p. 79. HephsBstion, Gaisford, p. 278-472, sq. U 290 GKEEK POTTERY. Part II. Two of the subjects of the Nostoi, or *' Keturn," derived from the Telegonia, or the adventures of Telegonos, the son of Ulysses and Kirke, which formed the subject of the poem of Eugamon of Kyrene/ appear on vases of the later style. One is the well-known return of Ulysses to Ithaka, and his death, caused by the fall of the Pristis or Thornback, referring to the Odysseus AJcanthoj^Iex ; the other is his death at the hands of Telegonos, in the presence of Kirke. But the burial of the suitors, and the voyage of Ulysses to Polyxenos, either do not occur, or cannot be distinguished among the mass of unknown subjects. Many subjects were taken from the Odyssey. Hesiod has supplied few subjects to tlie vase-painters, owing to the absence of plot and incident in his principal work ; for it is evident that a nation wliose whole thoughts were directed at an early period to hieratic illustrations of art, could derive no inspiration from such a composition as iheErga hai Hemerai, or " Works and Days." There are, it is true, some vases which have agricultural subjects, as the remarkable one of the potter Tleson, with a scene of ploughing, and others which represent the gathering of fruit, and the vintage of wine or oil ; not to instance the shops of the potter and the smith, the carpenter, and scenes of weaving and spinning. But these subjects are rare, and the more minutely they are investigated, the stronger appears the reason for assigning them to s]pecial mythological scenes. His other w^orks appear to have suggested a few sub- jects, as the instruction of Achilles by Chiron, probably from the " Lessons of Chiron ; " the prominent position of Alkmene, perhaps from her " Praises ; " and others from the Heoiai ; the amours of Apollo and Kyrene, from the " Catalogues of Women," which is found on a jug of late style in the British Museum. Many vases also refer to the " Epithalamium of Peleus and Thetis;" and others, of archaic style and treatment, represent the combat of Herakles and Kyknos, with the attendant circum- stances, treated in a manner identical Avith the description in the " Shield of Herakles," and in which the demigod appears in the same costume in which he is represented in works of art previous to the fortieth Olympiad.^ From the " Little Iliad " of Kinaithon of Lakedaimon, is taken the incident of the making of the golden vine by Hephaistos.^ 1 Miiller, Hist. Gr. Lit., p. 97. ^ Muller, 1. c, pp. 97, 98. ' Scliol. Venet. ad Troad., 822. [AP. VI. STESICHORUS AND SIMONIDES. 291 The Tbebais, which appeared early in literature, and is tited in the twentieth Olympiad as Homeric, also supplied jrtain subjects, especially the departure of Amphiaraos and lis betrayal by Eriphyle. The destruction of the heroes, with le exception of Adrastos, saved by Orion, is not, however, )und. Some of the subjects of the second Theban war, or Jpigoniad, are extant.^ The very numerous poems of Stosi- shoros embraced so large a portion of the writings of his pre- decessors, that it is difficult to discriminate what subjects were particularly derived from this source. Thus, he sang the Ge- ryonis, or the capture of the oxen of Geryon by Herakles ; Sky 11a, already famous in the Odyssey ; Kyknos, whose contest is known from the shield of Herakles ; Kerberos ; the lliou Persis, or Fall of Troy ; the Nostoi, or Returns ; the Euroj)eia, or Rape of Europa, a subject found on some of the earlier vases ; the Oresteid, the incidents of which, as depicted on vases, rather follow the descriptions of the tragic writer ; the Epi Peliai Atlila, or prizes given at lolchos, at the funeral games of Pelins, from which one subject is taken by the older vase-painters, the palsestric contest between Peleus, the father of Achilles, and Atalanta, in which the huntress was victorious ; and Eriphyle and the Syotherai, or boar-hunters.^ This poet, indeed, flourished in Olympiad XLir., B.C. 611, long before most of the old vases were fabricated. Epigrams, didactic poems, and fobles, in which animals are introduced speaking, were un- suited to the gravity of art. Tlirenai, or Laments, whicli were taken from tragical myths, may occasionally appear, such as tlie tlirene or lament for Danae, the composition of Simonides of Keos ; but these cannot easily be separated from subjects taken from the satyric drama. Idylls and elegies may have supplied a few subjects, and the Rape of Europa, represented on some vases, may be considered as derived from Moschos ; but poems like those of Theokritos, describing rustic life and its feelings, have not supplied subjects to the vase-painters. To the tragic writers, the Oresteid supplied many plots ; and upon vases of the later style the whole story is treated in a manner so varied, that the vase-painters must have evidently sometimes followed plays of Aischylos, at other times those of Sophokles and Euripides. Several other vases present subjects either derived from tragic arguments, or else from myths which formed » Miillcr, p. 91. 2 Miillcr, p. 200. u 2 292 GREEK POTTERY. Part If. their subjects, sucli as those of Prometheus, Perseus, Pelops, the adventures of Bellerophon, Perseus and the Bakchai, Tereus and Prokne, Medea, Alkestis, Prokris, Lykourgos, the Under-^Yorld, the woes of Oidipous and his family, and the Seven against Thebes ; and other representations derived from the heroic epos, such as the Oresteid, which was particularly adapted for vases destined for funeral purposes. The plots of comedy have afforded subjects for only a few vases. Scenes indeed occur, which may be possibly derived from the trilogies, and are parodies of known fables ; while others are taken from the arguments of the known plays of Aristophanes, Diphilos, and otliers. Although many vases seem to have subjects derived from the writers of philosophical allegories, none of these can be identified with any well-known composition ; and the period of the Athenian stage is that of the last decline of the art. Light, of course, is reflected upon the entire series of vases by the whole circle of ancient literature. The especial subject of vases is not, indeed, treated by the Greeks in any separate dissertation, but extensive extracts, and an attempt at a sys- tematic treatise, appears in the Deij)nosoj)histai, or " Philosophers at dinner," of Athenaios of Naukratis, a writer of the Alexandrine school, who flourished in the third century. The " Account of Yases," of the celebrated Eratosthenes, and the meagre tenth book of the Onomasticon of Julius Pollux, written in the second century, in the reign of Commodus, and containing much valu- able information about vases, had indeed preceded; to which the Lexicon of Suidas, the Etymologicum Magnum, and the Scholiasts of Pindar, and those of the tragedians and Aristo- phanes, also contributed their share. We will now direct our attention to the emblems, attributes, and costume, which distinguish the different figures represented, and which are always those which were in use in the earliest ages of Greece. Zeus is generally represented amply draped and bearded, seated upon a magnificent throne, or standing, clad in an ample tunic, and holding a sceptre. Hera is adorned with the stej)hane, or diadem, resembling the mitre, or covered with the kalymma, or veil, and holding a sceptre. Athene, on the oldest vases, is quite indistinguishable from an ordinary female ; but on subsequent ones appears wearing a helmet and the segis. The aegis, however, often entirely disappears on the later vases of Apulia. She almost always holds a lance and HAP. VI. COSTUME OF GREAT GOUS. 293 irgolic buckler, and sometimes her owl. Poseidon, on the Idest vases, holds a trident, and sometimes a dolphin, and is raped in a white woollen tunic, to indicate the foam of tlie sea. lermes, on the earliest vases, wears a short tunic round the >ins, and is winged. On subsequent ones, however, lie wears le petasos, chlamys, and boots. On the latest vases he /ears the hat, winged talaria, and chlamys. He almost always bears the caduceus, but sometimes this is also carried by heralds. Amphitrite sometimes holds, besides a fish, a sceptre decorated with sea-weed. Nereus is distinguished by his white hair, and holds a dolphin and sceptre. Triton is represented as the " iishy Centaur," having a human bust, and terminating in a fish. Thetis, who is often represented as an ordinary female, on some vases is accompanied with snakes, lions, dogs, and sea- monsters, to show her metamorphosis. The other Nereids, on vases of the later style, are mounted on dolphins. Skylla ter- minates in sea-dogs. Pluto is depicted as a white-haired old man, holding a two-pronged sceptre, while Persephone is known from other female deities only by the scenes in which she appears. Sometimes she holds a flower. The Greek Charon is distinguished by his boat and oar, the Etruscan Gharun by his hammer. The Shades are often winged. Ares appears as a hoplite. A^oIIon, on the oldest vases, is seen draped in a long tunic, and playing on the heptachord lyre, but on the later vases he has merely a piece of loose drapery floating over his shoulders. He wings his deadly shafts from the silver bow, or holds tlie laurel branch, and has at his side a swan or a bull, or the gryphon.^ His sister Artemis is always draped, often wears upon her head a lofty tiara or mitre on the oldest vases. She is ever distinguished by her bow and arrows, and when on later vases she has her hair tied in the hrdhulos behind, and wears the short tunic and hothurnoi, she still retains her w capons. At her side is the goat, the lion, and panther. Aphrodite is not easily distinguished from the other goddesses. On the oldest vases she is draped, and sometimes holds a sceptre, or a flower, or even an apple. On the later vases her drapery becomes transparent, and shows her form, and she has her hair bound with the JceJcryjoJialos or simple tainia. At a still later period she appears half draped. At her side is seen the swan, the pigeon or dove, and the goose. She is often accompanied by Eros, Gerhard, Rapp. Vole, p. 45. 294 GREEK POTTERY. Tart II. wIjo is always adult and winged, and whose emblems are the hare, the swan, the pigeon or dove, a bird supposed to be the iynx, and flowers ; and sometimes by Peitho, whose emblems are an alabastos and stylus. Dionysos is distinguished by the ivy wreath which binds his head ; he is draped in a long tunic, and has a garment thrown across his shoulders. On the early vases he has a long beard, but on the later Apulian ones he is seen in his youthful attri- butes, only half draped, and with rounder and more graceful limbs. In his hands he holds the vine, the kantharos, the rhyton, or the keras ; sometimes the thyrsos, or the torn limbs of a goat. At his side are the panther, the goat, the bull, and the mule ; amidst his wild followers his attitude is generally composed, but he is seen tearing the limbs of a kid or fawn, or holding a snake. His consort, Ariadne or Libera, is generally undistinguishable from an ordinary female ; the Silenoi, or Satyrs, are seen with their bald foreheads, pointed ears, and horses' tails, horses' feet on early, and human on later, vases ; and Pan is distinguished by his horns and goats' feet. Con- nected with Dionysos is Demeter, who is generally indicated by her holding spikes of corn, the ploughshare, the rod, as Thes- mophoria, or a sceptre, while Hehate, who appears in the same scenes, grasps torches. The inferior deities, such as Aurora, Nike, Eros, the Winds, the Gorgons, and Fear are winged. HeraMes, on the oldest vases, is not distinguished from other mortals ; but upon those of later, though still ancient style, he appears, as described by Pisander, wearing a tunic, over which is wrapped his lion's skin, and armed with bow and arrows and club ; while in some scenes he is arnted like a hoplite or heavy-armed soldier. The type of warriors on the earliest vases resembles the description of them in Homer and the early poems. They Avear Corinthian helmets, often crested ; thorakes, or breast-plates, under which is a tunic, and greaves. Their arms are either the Argolic, or circular buckler, or else the peculiar Boeotian one — not limited to Greek heroes. These bucklers are ornamented with armorial bearings,^ or devices exhibiting great diversity, and alluding to the wearer, like those described by the tragedians. Thus, that of Achilles has a scorpion. Hector's a tripod or a snake, to indicate that he was protected by Apollo: offensive weapons are double lances, Gerhard, Rapp. Yolc, p. 45. Chap. VI. COSTUME. 295 javelins, swords and falcluons, bows and arrows. Slings, clubs and stones are rarely used. Rather of the nature of a defence than an ornament is the •"andyked leather object, the laiseion, suspended to the bottom ^^pf the shields of the Trojans and their allies, the Amazons, to ward off missiles from the legs. This is also ornamented with devices. Some shields have their omphalos, or boss, sculptured to represent a head of Pan, and others have serpents issuing from them in very salient relief. On the later vases a crested helmet with cheek-plates, called the Carian helmet, often appears instead of that just 'described, and much of the defensive armour is omitted. The Giants, the Amazojis, and the threefold Geryon also appear as armed warriors, and although on the earlier vases the archers are clad in Phrygian costume, with pointed caps, tunics with long sleeves, and trousers, anaxyrides, on the later ones only Asiatic personages, such as the Amazons, Pelops, Priam, the Phiygians, Medea, the great king, and other orientals are distinguished by a costume more distinctly oriental.^ In the same manner the Amazons have the pelta, or lunated shield, and the Scythians, Egyptians, and others are clad in a costume intended to represent their national one. The civil costume varies according to the period, and the action intended to be represented. At the earliest time, and in rapid actions, the personages are clad in short and close-fitting tunics, reaching only to the knees, but older personages, whether gods, or kings, or even their principal officers, and the paidotrihoi, or tutors and instructors in the Gymnasium, are draped in a long talaric tunic, called the chiton poderes or orthostadios, a garment which is also seen upon females. Over this is thrown a kind of shawl, which floats from shoulder to shoulder, and which in females droops to the earth ; as a female garment it must be the pephs, when worn by men perhaps it is the ampechonion. On later vases the drapery of females becomes more transparent, but still retains the same form. On many vases, however, both of the old hieratic and more recent styles, the figures of men have only the ampechonion, especially in orgiastic scenes of the Icomos, and sometimes of the camps. In hunting scenes the heroes wear the chlamys. Great difference of costume is visible upon the later vases of Campania^ and Apulia, and Gerhard, Kapp. Vole, pp. 56, .57. - Ibid., p. Gl. 296 GREEK POTTERY. Pabt ir. especially the richer ones of Riivo or the Rubastini, in which the drapery is of a more embroidered and Asiatic character. It is no longer the plain or simply flowered vestments of the early style, but ornamented with many colours, rich chequers, diapers and mseandered borders ; and sometimes, like the tunic of Jason, as described in Apollonius Rhodins, ornamented with a series of embroidered figures round the hem. In athletic scenes the epheboi or athletes are naked, and so are the warriors in those of the camp. Children, and boys at all periods, have the age of youthful innocence distinguished by the absence of clothes. Females are always 'draped in tunics at the earlier periods of the art ; on the later vases they first appear undraped, except in some rare examples on the older vases of scenes in the bath, or in the symposium, where they exercise the juggler's craft. Their head-gear,^ consisting, on the earlier vases, of a simple tainia or fillet, a wreath or mitra, is exchanged on the later ones for a tiara, the pointed hidaris, the radiated stejohane, the sjphendone, and opisthosjohendone ; and on the later Apulian and Lucanian vases sandals, necklaces, elegant earrings, and the oj)his or serpent-bracelet are first seen. A long chapter might be written upon the difference visible in the chairs, seats, couches, and other furniture; — on the objects held in persons' hands — in the old hieratic style, consisting of a flower, or the edge of their tunic, a wreath or branch, which is exchanged on the later vases for the tainia or fillet — the pyxis or toilet box — the spindle — the mirror — and the halathos, or work-basket. In the earliest vase-paintings deities are not only indis- tinguishable from one another, but even from kings and other mortal personages; nor can the use of white to indicate the finer colour of females be considered otherwise than as a generic distinction. This defect was probably inevitable, owing to the rapid mode of drawing, and because clothing and attitude were the only means employed to denote exalted personages, whether mortal or immortal. Thus all the divinities, both male and female, are clad, and, except Hermes, with the long talaric tunic, the chiton jpoderes, often richly embroidered with flowers, stars, or chequered work, and recall to mind the rich Asiatic garments woven in the looms of Babylon and Assyria. Over this is often thrown another shawl, the same in both male and \ female deities, which is probably the peplos. This tunic did not. ^ Gerhard, Rapp. Vole, p. 44. lAP. VI. p]XPRESSION AND ATTITUDE. 297 the earlier vases, admit of the form being seen through it. )me of the deities, such as Hermes, as ah-eady observed, wear ie usual sliort tunic and the chlamys. The appearance of iked females is limited to the scenes of the batli, and of some ire representations of jugglers or thaumatojpoioi and hetairai. ■et certain distinctions continued to appear as the art advanced, Either by appropriate costume or by the introduction of ad- juncts. The ivy crown indicated Dionysos, so did the mule or goat ^ on which he sat ; the ram accompanied Hermes,^ the swan Aphrodite, while the bull on which Europa rode pointed out that amour of Zeus.^ The lion skin generally envelopes the limbs of Herakles even on the oldest vases, although examples occur where the demigod is armed like an ordinary hoplite, and Zeus in the Gigantomachia appears in the same costume. Hermes has the petasos and caduceus, Ares is armed, Nike, Iris, Eros, the Winds, and Gorgons, are winged. Satyrs have pointed ears, horses' tails, and sometimes, but rarely, hoofs for feet ; the marine deity Triton terminates in a fish ; the Trojan archer wears the pointed cap ; Asiatics, at a later period of the art, appear in the anaxyrides or breeches, the cidaris or pointed cap, and the short tunic. The Acheloos appears as a human-headed bull, the Minotaur as a bull-headed man. The youthful warrior or huntsman wears the petasos or Thessalian broad-brimmed hat, and the chlamys. Spears and swords designate the warrior, sceptres the monarch, sticks the old man, the civil dress of the warrior, the paidotribos or pedagogue ; nudity indicates youth or athletic exercises. The transition from the draped to the half-draped and finally to the nude female marks alike the decline and progress of art. The expression of the figures varies considerably according to the age of the vases, but never exhibits the diversity which the sculpture of the corresponding period shows. All the faces of the same vase are alike, and no physiognomical distinction can be drawn between gods and heroes, or even between male and female figures.* On the earlier vases the noses are long, with a tendency to turn up, the chins pointed, the jaws round and deep, the eyes large, the limbs angular and sinewy, the buttocks curved and rigid. Long prolix beards appear at all Mon., vii. t. lix. ^ Ibid., Ixvii. ^ Ibid., vii. Ixxviii. ^ Gerhard, Rapp. Vole, p. 43. 198 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. times on some figures, to mark the virile or senile age. At the earliest period the distinctions between youth and old age are not well observed, but on the vases with red figures they begin to be marked; but no moral distinctions are attempted, the expression of a Zeus, a Hephaistos, a Dionysos, a Hermes, or even an Apollo being identical. The size of the figures varies from about 1 to 11 inches. A part of the treatment regards the small adjuncts seen in the field of the vases, which generally have reference to the scenes represented. In the oldest style the field is generally seme with flowers,^ but in those of a more advanced style these are never introduced. Thus a forest is represented by a tree, a palace or temple by columns and a pediment. As the style advanced still more, in vases with the red figures accessories gradually appear, and they are most frequent in vases found in Apulia and Lucania. Still the grounds are left comparatively clear, as the object of the artist was to isolate his figure. In scenes of the palaistra, the gymnasium and, of the bath, strigils and lekythoi,^ and the halter es ^ or leaping dumb-bells are seen hung up, or Hermai are introduced.* The camp is indicated by the armour, such as shields, helmets, and greaves ; ^ or by a sword suspended by its belt.^ In symposia vases, baskets, and boots,' are seen about ; in musical scenes the flute-bag ^ or the lyres ^ appear. Interior apartments are indicated by a window,^^ a door,^^ or a column ; and sashes,^'^ kalathoi,^^ spindles,^* balls,^^ letters/^ mirrors,^' and wreaths,^^ vases," or crowns,^'^ are in the back-ground. In a scene of the amours of Dionysos and Ariadne a bird-cage is introduced.^^ A flying bird indicates the open air ; ^^ a dolphin denotes the surface of the sea,^^ a sepia or a shell its depths.^* As the arts declined the accessories became such prominent * Gerhard, Eapp. Vole, pp. 55-57. ^ Y, D. C., xxxiii. ; D. M., ii. xxviii. iii. xiv. li. ; V. G., ii. Ixxxiv. 2 b. 2 V G., xlviii. ; M. A. U. M., xxxvi. * Y. G., xlviii. ' D. M., ii. XXX. xxxvii. Ixxiv. « B. M., 848. ^ Y. G., ii. Ixxvii. 2 a, Ixxxi. ] a. * D. M., ii. Ixiii.; M. G., ii. Ixxxi. lb. * Y. G., ii. Ixxxi. "> Y. G., xxx. xlv. ; T., v. (i.) 71. '1 Y. G., xliii.; D. M., ii. xix. 12 Y. D. G., XX. ; D. M., ii. Ixxi. Ixxiv. '3 T., i. 11. >* T., iv. 1. " D. M., ii. Ixiii. i« T., iii. 34-53, iv. 59. '^ D M„ iii. xli ; M. A. U. M., xxxvii. i« T., iii. 53, v. (i.) 12. »3 P. I., H., iv. 38. 20 Y. D. C., xxvii. 21 T., V. (i.) 3. 22 D. M., iii. xxxviii. 23 D. M., ii. Ixxx. ; Y. D. C. Y. 2* D. M , ii. xxix. ; T., iii. 2. Chai'. VI. EXPRESSION AND ATTITUDE. 299 parts of the picture that they are scarcely any longer subordi- nate. Whole temples,^ lavers, loutra, and furnished apart- ments are introduced, as in modern art, in which the mind and eye have to exprt a microscopic power in order to intei-pret successively the different parts and the meaning of the subject, which in the older art was told simply and unequivocally by the symbols; these adjuncts are the keys and clues to the interpretation of figured archaeology. » D. M., ii. xlix. 300 . GREEK POTTERY. Part II. CHAPTEK VII. Glazed vases continued — Ornaments — Their nature and use — The Maiander — Chequered bauds — The fret or herring-bone — Annulets — Egg and tongue ornament — Scales or feathers — The helix — Antefixal ornament — Wreatlis — Petals — Vine branches — Akanthos leaves — Flowers — Arrangement — Sources from which the vase-painters copied — Inscriptions — Form of the letters — Position — Dialects — Orthography — Different kinds of inscriptions : painted inscriptions ; names of figures and objects — Addresses — Artists' names — Potters' names — Laudatory inscriptions — Unintelligible ioscrip- tions — Memoranda. Subordinate to the subjects in point of archaeological interest, but intimately interwoven with them, are the ornaments which helped to relieve and embellish the representations on pic- tures, and, so to speak, to frame them. Numerous vases, in- deed, are decorated with ornaments only, whilst many smaller ones are entirely black, from which circumstance they were nicknamed *' Libyes " or " Moors." The ware of Nola is richest in vases of this class; and amphorai, hydriai, stamnoi, kylikes, phialai, pyxides, and lamps, of this unornamented de- scription, are found in the Campanian sepulchres. Others have only the simplest kind of ornaments, consisting of plain bands or zones passing round their body and feet. A very common decoration is two bands or zones concenti^ic to the axis of the foot of the vase. This is, however, found only on the black vases of the best period. Other vases, both of the earliest and later classes, are painted with ornaments, consisting of wreaths of laurel, myrtle, or ivy, heliJces, egg and tongue borders, maianders, waves or the kymation moulding, chequers, guilloche, spirals, dentals, and petals. These are artistically disposed upon them according to certain rules of great symmetry and taste; and that the artist prided himself upon his talent in this way is certain, from some vase-painters having attached their names to vases only decorated with ornaments. On the whole, there is a poverty in the variety of ornaments employed, very different from the fruitful caprices of the Teutonic races, amongst whom, from religious motives, ornaments were often Chap. VII. ORNAMENTS— THE MATANDER. 301 employed in preference to representations of the human form. It is on the earliest vases that ornament is most employed : as the art developes itself, it is gradually lessened, till at the best period it almost disappears. But on the later efforts of the potters it again rises like a noxious weed diminishing the in- tent of, and ultimately superseding, the subjects. It must bo borne in mind that originally the ornament was either the normal mode of representing certain things extraneous to the subject, or a symbol introduced into it. Hence in the arrange- ment of ornaments different principles were called into play. The wreatlis and bands of antefixal ornaments or helihes, appear for instance to be imitations of the crowns and fillets which it was the custom of the Greeks to tie round the vase at festive entertainments, whilst the helix at the handles seems to have represented the flowers attached to that part of the vase. Maianders, ovolos, and astragals, on the other hand, were either architectural adaptations to the vase or accompaniments of sub- jects originally selected from the different members of buildings, such as the pediments, metopes, and friezes. Other ornaments were conventional, or symbols to denote particular conditions or places, which originally they defined, and were subsequently retained from habit. Thus the kymation or wave moulding, represented the sea or marine compositions, the maiander a river on the land, and a fleurette (fig. 30) the carpet of nature on which the figures walked. The ornaments, indeed, exhibit great monotony, and are repetitions of a type not diversified like the arabesque ; but they are distinguished by an airy lightness and an extreme simplicity which harmonise exquisitely with the human forms with which they are associated. They are well adapted to the shape and colour of the* vases, and afford great relief to the subject depicted. The details of the principal ornaments are as follows. The maiander ornament differs very considerably on the various vases on 'which it is found. On the early fawn-coloured ones it predominates generally in the simplest forms like those depicted in figures 1, 2. The pattern (fig. 3), indeed, a more complex variety, sometimes occurs. It occupies the most prominent places of the vases, as the neck, body, handles and other parts. On those with yellow grounds, in the rare instances in which it appears, it is employed for bands round the neck (fig. 4) ; whilst on vases of a more advanced style of art it reappears in a more complete and connected form, intermingled with 302 GREEK POTTERY. Part IT. flowers, and represents the ground upon which the animals walk (fig. 5). At the foot of the amphorae with black figures, the ornament appears in the form represented in fig. 5. This type is finally- superseded by one resembling that represented by fig. 3. On the early vases with yellow grounds, it consists of three, four, or five maianders, with a flower at the end, treated in a very conventional style, generally as a square with diagonals, some- times with pellets in the sections (fig. 7), while at other times it resembles a quadrangular fort (fig. 6). On some of the late Apulian vases, on which this style of ornament first appears, the flower is treated as a cross on a black back-ground, bearing some resemblance to a Maltese cross (fig. 9). In the last style of all it appears as a square divided at right angles, with pellets, and is probably intended for a flower with four spots (fig. 7). Chequered panels, disposed either horizontally or vertically, are extensively used on the fawn-coloured vases, and on those with yellow grounds (figs. 10, 11). They also appear on the vase of Capua, already cited, on vases with black figures, and on the shoulders oilehythoi^ (fig. 12). The fret or herring-bone (fig. 13) is of common occurrence on vases of the oldest style, disposed in horizontal or vertical bands, either in a single or triple line. It occurs rarely on vases of the style called Phoenician, and still more so on vases with black figures. A remarkable employment of this ornament occurs on the early^ hydriai w^ith black figures, on which it is used as a boundary to the picture, and being knotted at the points of union, forms a reticulated pattern (fig. 29). On the earlier vases bands of annulets (fig. 14) occur, as on the foot of a vase in the British Museum.^ This ornament does not appear on vases of the later styles. Egg and tongue (fig. 15) ornaments are employed on vases of all periods. On the earlier ones they are much elongated, and principally appear on the shoulder of the vase. They are never placed below the handles, but are sometimes found at the place of insertion. On the hydria, or water vase, this ornament occurs between the frieze and body, its position on vases of a later style, where it sometimes divides the subjects. It is introduced with graceful effect at the lip. This ornament is of the Ionic order. Another 1 See V. L., ii. xlix. 1. 61. ^ ^^ 2559. Jhap. VII. DEVELOPMENT OF THE HELIX. 303 ^rnament imitated overlapping^ scales or feathers like the ojins ivonaceum in tile-work. It occurs only on vases of the early loric style. Many examples occur on vases found at Nola.^ )he development of the helix or ornament of the antefixae is ^ery remarkable ; on early vases of the intermediate style be- tween the Phoenician and early Greek, it assumes the shape of a lere bud (%. K)). On the cups with small figures it developes tself (fig. 17) from the handle on a single stem either with the >etals closed or detached, and curling upon a spiral stem, like le leaf of a creeping plant. On the oldest vases, when it employed in a bud, it sometimes assumes an abnormal appearance. The helix is also extensively employed as a frieze or scroll m many hydriai and vases botli of the earlier and later styles. ^hen it appears alone it resembles the leaf of an aquatic plant, with seven petals ; but in combination, it follows the scroll [fig. 18), like the leaf of a creeping plant, the points of which ire either in one direction, or half of them one way and half the other (fig. 19), or alternately upright and pendent. This ornament is often intermingled with spurs and other portions of plants. On the earlier vases with red figures it forms a rich ornament when intermingled with other emblems — being then often disposed in red bands, on which it is coloured black. Sometimes it is seen as a frieze, with a kind of flower like the hyacinth interposed, in which it represents as it w'ere the foliage to the flower (fig. 20), often treated in this way. On the neck of the later Nolan amphorre, and on vases of the fine style with red figures, this ornament (fig. 21) becomes more floral and pic- turesque, and fills up the whole space of the neck, termed by some the palmetto ornament. The accompanying form of the leaf (fig. 22), which is seen in a wreath or collar of a vase of Etruscan style, bears so much resemblance to the antefixal ornament that it may be an early development of it. On the neck of some of the late hrateres with red figures it is elegantly disposed in an oblique manner (fig. 23). It continued in use till the latest period of the fictile art — but on the vases of the style of the Basilicata and Santa Agata dei Goti, it has more petals, becomes more splay, and the spiral tendrils are often altogether omitted (fig. 31). It is profusely employed, and generally in combination with the flower. 1 B. M., 397. 304 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. One of the earliest ornaments on the vases is a composite form of the antefixal ornament ^ called helikes, intermingled with flowers. A very old arrangement is to place the flower and leaf alternately (fig. 24), by making an ornament, each part of which has a leaf at one end and flower at the other, so as to convey the idea of a double row of leaves and alternate flowers united by a broad band. On the early Dionysiac am- phorsG with black figures this is the prevalent and most im- portant ornament ; arranged generally, however, as a double wreath, the antefixal ornaments inversely to each other, and the flowers, which are connected by a twisted cord or chain. On a vase made by Nikosthenes, this ornament assumes wnth its flowers a remarkable shape. This helix or antefixal ornament is the same as that which appears in the Doric enta- blatures, but the ovolo, or egg and tongue, belongs to the Ionic order. Both are found united upon early vases with red figures. The combinations of helikes and flowers at the handles of the Dionysiac amphorae will give an idea of the elegant appearance of this ornament. A light and elegant arrangement of the helix is displayed on the necks of certain lekythoi.^ The flower inter- mingled with these ornaments has been supposed by some writers to be that of the clematis cirrosa,^ to which plant some varieties of the form of the antefixal ornament have also been referred. On some of the amphorae of the later style the flowers are more elegantly turned, and their shape approaches to its appearance on the red vases, the antefixal ornament having a trefoil. A very common ornament of the necks of amphorae and other vases is a wreath of interlaced flowers and buds (fig. 28). Such wreaths often occur on vases of the old style or that called Egyptian. On vases of the transition style the flower gradually becomes more like a bud and less enclosed. The manner in which •it appears mixed up with the antefixal ornament has been shown in the preceding examples. This ornament is seen on the shoulders of the amphorae called Tyrrhenian, and on the feet of the Dionysiac ones with the points turned up. On the later vases it entirely disappears. It is uncertain what flower it is intended to represent. Some persons take it to be the hyacinth. Ivy wreaths (fig. 25) appear on ^ Various ideas have been put forth with regard to this ornament. See Annali, 1843, pp. 380, 384. 2 For a vase entirely ornamented with helikes, see V. L., ii. 41, 3 Hogg, Trans. Roy. Soc. Lit., New Series, ii. p. 179, and foil. y ^ :r3 ;r-:J 28 f * ^ HO [S1S1515] 10 HH "'"1 [ 29 14 O G O fCHAP. VII. WllKATHS AND FESTOONS. 307 ome of tlie pale vases of the Etruscan style, and on some of lie fine vases from Athens; and on the necks of some of the ehjihoi with black figures. Sometimes the leaves only are seen, intermixed with the helix ornament. On the hydriai, or water vases, the boundary lines of the pictures are sometimes formed y upriglit festoons of ivy wreaths (fig. 26), which are also seen jerranged vertically round the lips, and undulating with the contours of the handles of the so-called Tyrrhenian amphorae ; relieving by their liglit and graceful contrast the sombre mono- tony of the body of the vase. On the necks of the Imljpides, and later vases of the fine red ware, this ornament becomes more graceful and the stems of the foliage more entwined (fig. 27), while flowers or berries are introducer!. On the late kelehai, or craters wdth columnar handles of the style of the Easilicata, the whole neck of the vases is often occupied by an ivy wreath in black upon a red ground, having as many flowers or berries as leaves. The feet of the early vases, and of most pf the hydriai and amj)horeis, are ornamented with the repre- sentation of petals of flowers in black upon a red ground. In some instances this ornament is doubled. Vine branches appear only on the later vases. Such an ornament will be seen on an ashos of pale yellow clay with brown figures, in the British Museum. In the same class of vases acanthus leaves are found grouped in a floral style, with antefixal ornaments at their sides. In the centre generally appears a full-faced head either of Aphrodite or Victory. On these vases the floral ornaments become more elegant and archi- tectural. The accompanying example (fig. 28), will show how the convolvulus was represented at this period. Sometimes there appears a small low flower rising from the earth — pro- bably the asphodel. On some vases the floral ornaments assume the form of the architectural scroll, and are imitated from friezes or other members. Nor is the manner in which these ornaments are grouped on the early vases less instructive. The liydria constantly has its frieze, or upper picture, surmounted by the egg and tongue ornament.^ The picture on the body is separated by a band,^ kmaeander,^ single or double* chequer,^ or net;^ the sides are k B. M., 454. 2 B. M., 485. B. M., 4G8, * B. M., 47G. B. M., 48G. « B. M., 407. B. M., 48G. « B. M , 487. X 2 308 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. zone lias interlaced buds,^ the helix, "^ or a frieze of animals,^ about If in. broad ; all which, however, are wanting in some examples.* The bases are always decorated with petals,^ and the rest of the body is generally black ; yet some hydriai have red lips,® and others the feet either half or entirely red.' The inner half of the handle, and sometimes the whole, is generally red, while at the place of insertion of the long handle is a modelled head. The old hrateres, with columnar handles, have the floi-al orna- ment round the lip, the ovolo ornament round the edges, and the ivy-leaves at the sides, which in the later vases of the style of Santa Agata dei Goti occupy almost the whole of the neck. On the kraters, or the so-called oxtjha])lia, the lips are usually ornamented with a wreath of myrtle or olive, or else with the band of oblique antefixal ornaments. On those of the best style and finish, the lips and places of insertion of the handles have the ovolo. The oinoclioai, or jugs, with black figures of the earliest style, have an ovolo roimd the neck, or sometimes an antefixal ornament. The pictures are generally banded with ivy w^-eaths. On the Dionysiac hydriai, the monotony of the pre- dominant mass of red colour is broken up by the profusion of ornaments. The frieze, for example, for the most part consists of the floral ornament, with the points generally upwards, but sometimes downwards ; or else of the ovolo fringe or border. The same ornament and the maeander is generally repeated below, and sometimes with a band of animals. On the neck are usually disposed the double antefixal and floral ornaments. At " the feet are the petals.^ On the lehythos, the upper and lower parts of the picture are commonly ornamented with a m£eander border while the neck is either decorated with a series of rays or petals, or else with antefixal or helix ornaments, dis- posed in an inverted frieze. The band rouni the foot is usually left of the colour of the clay. The rare hydriai, with red figures have their friezes enriched at the sides with hands of the helix or antefixal ornament, and their pictures are bounded by a helix wreath or by a reticulated ornament. The halpides, or later hydriai, which have no frieze, have their lips and the lower part of their subject bordered with an egg and tongue ' B. M , 464. 3 B. M., 485. * B. M., 468. 2 B. M., 468. ' B. M., 458. « B. M., 480. ' B. M., 470. « Biit. Mns. Vases, No. 546-70-71- 65-97. :hap. VII. LESCH^ AND PAINTINGS. 300 H'liament, and sometimes with antefixal ornaments and ma^an- lers. Wreaths of ivy, myrtle, or laurel, are tastefully disposed )nnd the neck.^ On Panathenaic and Bacchic amphora) the arrangement is IS follows : — Panathenaic amphora."^ — (1) Double antefixal, (2) Ovolo. [3) Subject, (4) Petals. Dionysiac ampliorm? — (1) Double antefixal, (2) Ovolo, (3) 'rieze, (4) Majanders, (5) Lotus flowers, (<>) 8ul)ject, (7) ^he- mders, (8) Petals. It is necessary now to consider the different works of art from which the vase painter may have derived some of his ideas. These works were ever present to his eye in great number and variety, and he reproduced them in accordance with the spirit of his ;ige, without making servile imitations ; for vase-paintings cannot be considered as mere mechanical copies, scarcely any two of them being alike. The treatment of the subjects gene- rally resembles that observed in the mural paintings of the oldest sepulchres. The fresco paintings of the stoai, or porticoes, and of the leschai, or ancient picture galleries, must have been most instructive to artists, as w^ell as the votive pictures of the principal shrines. On the oldest vases, however, may be de- cidedly traced an architectural naanner, derived from the con- templation of metopes, friezes, and pediments. Some of the very oldest vases, having numerous bands or zones of subjects, suggest the idea of their being copies from celebrated pieces of sculpture, such as the chest of Kypselos, or the throne of Bathvkles at Amvklai. The friezes of animals were imitated, as has been already observed, from xAssyrian, Persian, or Susian art. The subjects on the later vases of the fine style recall to mind the descriptions of the pictures of Polygnotos ; whilst in those of the decadence the treatment resembles that adopted by Zeuxis, Apelles, and other artists of the Khodian school, such as Nikias, from whose works they may have been copied. Yet it is almost impossible to identify vase-paintings with any particular works of antiquity, although it is evident from Pau- sanias that their subjects were "to be found in all the principal shrines of Greece. Few, however, present such entire com- positions as occupied the time of the greatest painters. The ' See the va es, B. M., 71G-20. i ' B. M., 555*. For the details of a - B. M., 571. I late ampliora. of. T. V. (I.), 40-41. olO GREEK roTTEUY. Part II greater part contain only portions of subjects, although some striking examples show that the whole argument of an Epos was sometimes painted. Hence their importance both to the study of ancieut painting and to the reconstruction of the lost arguments of the Cyclic and other writers; for, as in the so- called Kaifaele ware, may be traced the arguments of the Scrip- tures and of Ovid ; so in the Greek vases may be found the subjects of the Kt/pria, and the Nostoi, and of the lost tragedies of the Athenian dramatists, togetlier with traces of Comedies of all styles, and even Allegories derived from the philosophical schools, all of which had successively engaged the pencils of the most celebrated artists. That these vases were copies from pictures or sculptures, is maintained by one of the most acute connoisseurs, who cites the celebrated vase at Naples of the last night of Troy, as an evident copy of a frieze or picture, and the procession on a Vulcian cup as taken from a sculpture. But it is impossible, at the same time, not to admit that in so vast a number there are some, if not many, subjects which were invented by the vase painters. These are detected by the corrections of the master's hand and by the composition, with its accompanying ornaments, being adjusted to the character of the vase. Such works are supposed to be the production of the vase painters, Archikles, Xenokles, Panthaios, Sosias, and Epiktetos.^ Incised vases were called grammatihoi? Tlie inscriptions which occur on vases are limited to those produced at the middle period of the art. On the earliest vases they are not found at all ; on those with pale straw-coloured grounds they are of rare occurrence; on vases with black figures and red ground, they are often seen ; and on these with red figures they are constant accompaniments, and continue to be so till the decadence of the art, as seen in the ware of the Basilicata and Southern Italy, when inscriptions again become compara- tively scarce. Some of the last inscriptions are in the Oscan and Latin language, showing the influence and domination of the Romans in Campania. The inscriptions follow the laws of palaeography of the period in which they occur. The oldest inscriptions are those of the following vases : the Korinthian vase of Dodwell, with the hunt of the boar of Kalydon ; those of the makers Timandros and Chares, and other men, found at Aniwli, 1830, p. 244. - Athcnieus, i. 466. [AP. VII. DATE OF INSCRIPTIONS. 311 iJsere ; a cup of the maker Tleson, with the same subject, and le iui[)tial dance of Ariadne ; the vase of the Hamilton col- jction, found at Capua ; a vase with the subject of the Geryon ; le so-called Franpois vase at Florence ; another with the >ml)at over the body of Achilles ; and a cup, on which is seen Lrkesilaos king of Kyrene. Of these, the Dodwell vase has )een supposed by some archaeologists to be of the Feventh century B.C. None, however, date earlier than Olympiad xxx. = B.C. 660, when writing is known to have been used in Greece. The date of the Arkesilaos vase cannot be prior to Olympiad xlvii-li., when the first of the Battiads ruled at Kyrene, nor much later than the Lxxx. Olympiad = B.C. 458, when tlie fourth of the line was in power.^ As a rule the inscriptions on vases are in the Doric and Attic alphabets ; forms of the Ionic alphabet as C for F, or the digamma, appear to have been introduced from Tarentum.^ For comparison of the earlier alphabets the inscriptions of the age of Psammetichus, not older than B.C. 6.j0, that of Polykrates, B.C. 566-22, and the old alphabet of iEgina before the 3rd year of the Olympiad Lxxxvii. B.C. 431, are useful guides. The inscriptions are disposed in the housirojphedon manner. B is used for €, M for X, X for A, C for F, b for the aspirate, © for in a case where the T is not used, 9 for K, I for I, R for P. At a later period the letters which are more cursive are not distinguishable, except by the context. Thus A < O > are confounded, and the C often resembles the.n ; A and V are alike, so are F and FI, M and ^ ; V is much hke L, A itself is written L, X like S, T as V- The aspirated letters (C and 4., the invention of which was attributed to Palamedes, are found on vases of the second class. The form which subsequently became H is used for K. The lour letters Z "^ H H, said to be invented by Simonides, are only found on later vases, "^ being represented by 11 S, H by E, and H by O. 5, erroneously attributed to Palamedes, is represented by KS or X ; but all these double letters are found on the later vases.-^ As compared with coins, (^ appears on the earlier coins of Athens, struck before the Persian war, Q on the helmet of Hiero I., 01. Lxxv.-viii. B.C. 474-467, and on the ancient Boeotian coins, erroneously assigned to Thebes, H for H in the oldest Korinthian alphabet. 1 Tliierscl), 1. c, s. 77. - Rev. Arch., 18G8, p. 197. ' Gerhard, Kapp. Vole, p. 68. 312 GREEK POTTEKY. Part II. The M or san, for ^ or sigma, occurs on coins of Posidoiiia and Sybaris, struck about the seventh century B.C. ; | for I on those of the first-mentioned city ; X for the E, resembling the Etruscan B on uncertain coins of Campania ; H for the aspirate is seen on the coins of Himera, and in the names of the Boio- tarchs about the fifth century B.C., and the S on the currency of the Thespiae.^ No numismatic examples are known of T for 0, or of n for , KS for H, or IlS for "^ ; but 9 is the usual initial of the name of Korinth ^ on its latest and oldest coins, and L for T on the later one of Phaistos in Krete ; all which proves the high antiquity of the potter's art, and that it was far older than the currency. Considerable light is thrown upon the relative age and the local fabrics of the vases by the forms of the letters seen on the vases of different styles. The letters on the vases of the Archaic Greek style resemble those of the oldest inscriptions found at Korkyra, and show their Doric character by the use of the hojph?' This agrees with their probable Korinthian origin, their art, and Oriental types of certain figures. The epochs of the Korinthian alphabets are, the earliest alphabet, of the eighth century B.C. ; the second, distinguished by the use of |, Z, or ^ for the I ; the third with Z for M, B for E and \S^ for B ; and the fourth with £ for Z of the age of Gelon I. and coins of Syracuse B.C. 491, the Y and P occur- ring after Hieron I. B.C. 467.* The words, however, with which they are inscribed are sometimes ^olic,^ and the antiquity of the alphabet undetermined. The alphabet obtained from examining the letters on the style transitional from this to that with black figures, which is for the most part Doric, as evinced by the presence of the digamma and hoj^h, is found in words not of the Doric dialect. Its age is also not certain.^ The letters on the vases with black figures of the old style are those of the oldest Attic alphabet, which was in use about Olympiad Lxxx.^ and the words on these vases, although sometimes abnormal, are generally Attic. On the vases of black figures of the later style the letters are those of the Attic alphabet current about six Olympiads later.'^ The letters on vases with red figures 1 Kramer, XJeber den Styl und die I ^ Fr. I.enormant, Eev. Arch., 1868, Herkunft, s. 54. | p. 283-289. 2 Annali, 1837, | 5 Xb 2AEv2 for ZEv2, on a vase in ^ Jahn,BeschveibungderVasensamm- the Campana Collection. lung zu Miinchen, 8vo, Miincb. 1854. ® Jahn, 1. c, exlix. Einlcit., s. cxlvii. ' Juhn, 1. c, cxlix. HAP. vir. VAIUETY OF ALrilAl'.KTS. 313 ^f tlie strong style are nearly identical in form and epocli ; rhile on the va^es of the fine style are found the letters of le Attic alphabet which was admitted into official employ- lent in the second year of the xciv. Olympiad, in the me- lorahle archonship of Eukleides,^ after which the alphabet Underwent no change. The use of the dic/amma, however, continued on Doric vases, both of this and even of a hiter ^e. Compared with the inscriptions found on coins tlie following results appear. The coins ofHimera resemble in style, type, and weight those of Zankle, founded B.C. 755, before B.C. 494 or the arrival of the Samians. The coins give A, A, E, K, L, N. These coins are evidently imitated, but of smaller size than those of Magna Grsecia. The name of Messene seems to have been given by the Samians B.C. 493. The alphabet then was A, €, I, M, N, O, S ; one of these coins has on it A for Anaxilaus : X for H and O for D. are found on coins of Naxos, probably about B.C. 461, as part of the old Ionic alphabet. The later coins have H, and are about B.C. 437. Some of the coins are as old as those ofHimera B.C. 736-500 of the Ionic colonists. In the fragment of the play of the * Theseus ' of Euripides,^ B.C. 422, the Q is described thus, and the H has two uprights with a horizontal bar h on the coins of Heraklea ; like those of Thurium, B.C. 432, these coins are probably as late as B.C. 280, the date of the defeat of Laevinus by Pyrrhus. E is used for H on coins of Messene struck by Anaxilaus B.C. 476. On coins of Geta, king of the Hedones, H is used. These coins are rather later than those of Alexander I. of Macedon, B.C. 480-463. J appears on coins of Alexander I., which are inscribed or not as if inscriptions were just introduced. E for H is with- out the aspirate on Heraea, B.C. 580, for the coins of Geta read indifferently F or /*. These must be assigned to the epoch of the prosperity of the State, B.C. 498-448. But the inscriptions on the earliest vases do not determine either the question of their origin or their date, for on the same vases, as in the verses of Homer, are found names and words in various dialects ; one of the old vases for example, of transitional style, between the Doric and black-figured w^are, has the name of the Naiades in the purest Ionic, and that of Geryon in the harshest Doric.^ J.ihii, 1. c, cxvii. p]iii ipidcs, Dindorf, p. 711, No. HI. (P8o). ' Bockh, Corp. Iiibcr. iv. p. 5. 314 GREEK POTTERY, Part 11. The same applies to the alphabets found on the same vase, which consist often of the oldest and more recent forms, to the last of which their a[)parent age must be assigned. There is no rule for the position or the presence of tl e in- scriptions on vases.^ In some instances the field or ground of the figures is completely covereH, in others tliey do not appear at all. The general position is governed by the figures to wliich they refer ; but they are also found on the figures themselves, and often upon objects, such as fountains, shiel Is, disks, ^nd even the legs of figures,^ or on the handles, borders, and feet of the vases. Sometimes they are written from left to right, at other times from right to left, and often, especially upon the old vases, perpendicularly to the vase ; but not, except on tlie Panathenaic amphorae from the Kyrenaica, in that order called by the Greeks klovlBov, or vertically as to themselves. Boustrophedon inscriptions are not uncommon, and sentences are often divided into two ; as, HO IIAIS, *' tJie hoy" on one side of a vase, KAAOS, '*^s handsome," on the other. Even names are sometimes thus divided, as, ANAPO on one side, and MAXE on the other side of a celebrated vase, for the name Andromache. This chiefly occurs on the older vases, as when | the art reached its culmination more care was taken. Inscriptions occur in all the three dialects, principally, however, in Ionic Greek, as ANTIOIIEIA for x\ntioi;e, ABENAIA for Pallas Athene, HEPAKAEES for Herakles ; and sometimes the Attic contractions, as, KAMOI for KAI EMOI, MENEAEO^^ for Menelaos, TOAEOX* for lolaos, XATEPOS for KAI ETEPOS, and OVVTEVS (Doric) for OAV2SEV2. Vases with Doric inscriptions, which are com- paratively rare, principally come from south Italy and Sicily. Such forms as HAP A, for Hera or Juno, AOS^ for Heos or Aurora, TAAEIA for 0AAEIA, Thaleia, the name of the Muse,« and AXHEPIAS for the Hesperidas.^ XPH^AN MOI TAN S4)AIPAN, " give me the Ball." ^EMA©E for Psamathe, the name of a Nereid.^ The Aiolic digamma is 1 Gerhard, 1. c, 69. - Cf., the one on the thigh of a youth ; aii»l the name of the ai tist on the diaJem * M. A. U. M., vi. « A. Z., 1848, 8. 247. ^ Millin., Dub., Mai&on. I. iii. orbeordof a figure; A. Z., 1844, s. 317. D'Hancaiville, i. 27; iii. 194; Tasseri, 3 G. A. v., ccxxvii. i. 4. ^ G. A. v., cxlviii. « 13. A. N., 1850, p. 17. liiAF. Vir. DIALECTIC AND OTIIKR FOIIMS. 315 refixod to such names ns FEPAKAES and FY^inVAH;^ id is found in the middle of others, fuch as AlFAS, Aias Ajax, and ^I^IFOX,^ Sisvphos, and Aiolic forms are mnd, as SAET2 for ZETS, Zeus, Jupiter, FAPVFONES, or reryon only. Both the (J) and F are, however, old Ionic. The Id form of the aorist, witli the final N, generally occurs, as, irPA% and KS is shown hy such words as, ErPA<|)^EN3 and EKSEKIAX, or Exsekias. 4^he old diphthong OE for OI, as KPOESOS for KPOlSlOX, I^oisos, and the archaic O for OT, as NEAPXO instead of NEAPXOT, are found on vases of the earliest period ; or, EI for I, as EIOAEOS for lOAEOlS, lolaus,'^ TEISIAS: for TI^IAS, Tisias. The aspirate is also applied to words in which at present it does not appear, as, HIAKXOS^ for lAKXOS, lakchos, and HA^POAITE for A^POAITE, Aphrodite or Venus. The N instead of the F before K, as ANXmOS' for AFKinnOS, Anchippos, ANKAO^ for AFKAOS, Ankaios, ENHEAOKPATES for EMHEAOKPATES, Empedokrates ; or for M, as OATNniOAnPOX' for OATMniOAHPOS, Olympiodorus. Double letters are represented at all epochs by'single ones, as, HinOAAMEIA for HinnOAAMEIA, HinOKPATEX for HinnOKPATES), Hippokrates, HEPO- ^ATA for nEPOATTA, Persephone ;« but the S is often reduplicated, on vases of late style, as 0PEX2)TE2 for OPES- TE^^ Orestes, KAS^THP for KASTOP,^^ Kastur, PIESSQE for niESOE,!! TPITONNO^ for TPITONOX, " of Triton." There is also the Doric use of T for O and the V for X as VIPON AVILLE^, Chiron, Achilles. Letters are often omitted, as AAIIOS for AAMIIO^S, Lampos, in the name of one of the horses of Aurora ; TTTAPEO^ for TTNAAPETS, the father of Helen ; BEPTTAI ^^ for BEPTETAI, " is taken ;" ^JElrt for BEGETS, Theseus ; ^^ KAAIPE KPENE for KAAAIPPOH KPHNH, the fountain of Kallirrhoe ; SAllO ' Kramer, ibid. ; M. A. U. M , xii. ' Gerhard, 1. c, p. 169, n. 641. ' G. A. v., civ. * Birch, Class. Mus., 1. c. 3 Gerhard, Rapp. Vole, pp. 67, 68. » B. A. B., 1007. * M. I., Ixxxix. ''• Gerhard, Vase de Meidias. * Gerhard, 1. c, p. 690, Braun, An- " Gerhard, Rapp. Vole, p. 69 ; nali. Bockh, c. I., 1. c. " Cat. Dur., p. 98, No. 296 ; Birch, I '^ Gerhard, A. V., ccxxxviii. Chvs?. Mus., 1848, p. 298. j '=» Cf., Gerhard, A. V., clviii. clxiii. 316 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. for 2AnOO,i Sapplio the poetess; XANQOS for SANOOX,^ Xantlios, tlie name of a horse. The A on the old vases is always single, as AnOAONOS^ for AnOAAIlNO^. So also, BOPA^ for BOPEA2, Boreas; OPEI^TA, for Oreithyia; EPEX:SE:S,forErechtheus; KEKPOS, for Kekrops;* HEMES, for Hermes.^ The second class have the Attic dialect or palaeography, O for OT, as AE0PO ; E for EI, as AINEAS ; I for EI, as XIPON ; U for HH, as <|)IAinoS.« NAXION is on coins of Naxos, with K for H. Inscriptions are divisible into two classes, — those painted and those incised. I. Painted inscriptions, which are the most conspicuous, are generally small in size, the letters being ^ inch high. They are in black varnish on vases with black or maroon figures ; on vases of the earliest style, with red figures, they are in crimson upon the black backgi'ound, or else in black varnish upon some of the red portions ; on the later vases with red figures they are in white. In the last style they are engraved with a pointed tool through the glaze into the paste itself. They are divisible into subordinate classes. No particular law seems to have guided the artist as to the insertion of the names of the figures represented on his vase. The greater number of vases are without them ; yet it would appear that vases of the very finest class were thus inscribed at all periods. The design of them was to acquaint the public with the story represented. Sometimes not only every figure is accompanied with its name, but even the dogs, horses, and inanimate objects, such as BOMO]^,^ or altar, where Priam is killed; KAAIPE KPENE,« or fountain of Kallirrhoe; TPOON KPENE, the fountain of the Trojans ; OPOS ABEN- AIAS, the boundary of Athene's temple ; HEAPA,^ or " the throne " of Priam ; ATKOS/° thecal tar of Apollo Lykios ; and the HTAPIA,^^ or water-pitcher, which Polyxena let fall in her flight from Achilles; ATP A, "the lyre," over that held by Ariadne in her hands, at the death of the Minotaur; HT^, \ "the sow," over "the Kalydonian boar;^^^ TAYPOS MINOIO ' * Mill. Anc. lined. Mod,, pi. xxxiii. 2 G. A. v., cxci. 3 G. A. v., 5#. * C. C, p. 57, n. 105. ' B. A. B., 849. ' Gerhard, An. 1831, 183, 741. * Brondsted, Descr. of 32 Vases, p. 5ij. ° Francois Vase. i» G. A. v., ccxxv. *' Frangois Vase. Buckli., c. I. iv. 774G. , '-' Gerhard, A. V., ccxxxvi. iixp. vir. NAMRS OF PEKSOXS AND TIIIXHS. 317 the bull of Minos " or the Minotaur ; and AHMOSIA, the public " baths, on a laver.^ These names are generally in e nominative, as ZETS,^ Jupiter; HEPMEX,^ Hermes : but casionallv in the oblique case, as AIIOAONO]^,* "of Apollo;" OXEIA6NOS,"of PoseiIX^ HEAE, "this is the Sphinx ;" ^2 MENE^BET^ HOAE, " this is Menestheus." ^^ In some instances the name is replaced by a periphrase or by a synonym : as HAAIOS rEPON,^* " the old man of the sea," instead *^of Nereus ; TATPO^ ^OPBAX and AAIAAH^,^^ " the feeding " and " sea-going bull " over Zeus metamor- phosed into a bull, and carrying Europa ; HANO"^, " all eyes," instead of "Argos;" XPT^H ^lAOMHAH, or "golden smiler," for "Venus ;"i« MOt UAlt, " the son of Zeus," for " Herakles; " '' AA^rAS HMI,^^ " I am a pirate " on a dolphin ; AIAOS, "Modesty," instead of Leto; AAKI^, "valour" in- stead of Eros ;i^ AIOlS ^nl, " the light of Zeus," for Artemis or Dionysos f^ AES AMENO^, " the receiver," instead of Nes- sos.^^ Some of the later vases have the titles of the subjects, especially the dramatic ones, whence the pictures were derived ; as the HATPOKAIA, or funeral poem abont Patroklos;^^ KPEONTEIA, "the affairs of Kreon;"^^ TPnON lEPEA, » T., i. 58. 2 Q A. v., iv. " G. A. v., cxxii. cxxiii. 3 B. M., 5G7. '* G. A. v., xc. * G. A. v., xxi. ; Gerhard, A. V., '« V.F., cclvi. ; B. A.N.,iii. 51 ; Ann., ccxxxvii. V. 149. * L. D.. iii. XV. »^ M. A. U. M., xxxviii. 92. « A. Z., 1852, s. IGl. '« A. Z., 1852, 1G5, for AH2TH2 HMI ; " M. V. G., xiv. « T., iv. 59. M. A. I., xii. " G. A. v., elxxxix. '" CM., 58; M. V. G., xiv. '0 G. A. v., 1. c. elxxviii. 2» M. A. I., i. " G. A. v., 1. c. ; cc. 135. 2J Mils. Toib., V. X. '2 G. A. v., ocxxxv. " G. A. v., ccxxvii. " G. E. v., xiii. " A. Z.,.1847, taf. iii. ; M. L, elii. 318 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. ^*the sacred places of Troy,"^ on a subject representing the ill-usage of Kassandra; NAHIHN, the "Naxians," on a vase representing Ariadne and Dionysos at Naxos;^ and the sup- posed XEIPONEIA,^ Cheironea. Even on the older vases are found the inscriptions :STAAION ANAPON NIKE, " the victory of men in the stadium," over a foot-race of men ; nENTAOAON, for the Pentatlilon ;* HOAOI A@E[NAIAI], " Athenian roads." ^ Besides the names of figures and objects, there are several inscriptions containing the addresses or speeches of the figures represented, like the labels affixed to the figures of saints in the Middle Ages. These vary in length and purport, but in most cases they are extracts from poems, or expressions well- known at the period, but which are now obscure, or have perished in the wreck of Hellenic literature. They are dis- tributed over the early vases of the black or hard style, and often appear on vases of the archaic style, with red figures; but they are very rare on vases of the earliest and of the latest styles. They are often colloquies : IIPIAME, " O Priam." ^ They read according to the direction or facing of the figure, as if issuing from the mouth. Thus, on a vase on which the contest of Herakles and Kyknos is depicted, the hero and his opponent exclaim, KA6IE, "lay down," KEOMAI, "I am ready." In a boxing-match, is IIAT^AI,^ "cease." Ulysses says to his dog, MH AITAIH2,' "do not ask;" Silenos, gloating over the wine, exclaims, HAT^ 0IN02, " the wine is sweet," or, KAAE OUOt HIEXBE, "it is so good that you may drink it."^ On a vase representing a man standing and singing to an auletris, the song is OAE AHTIl STTPI^OI, " Let him play to the flute." ^® Silenos, who swings a Bac- chante, says, EN AAEIA ANH, "rise at pleasure." ^^ In the scene of the capture of Silenos, one of the attendants exclaims, 0EPTTAI ^lAENOX 0PEI02, "the mountain- haunting Silenos is captured !"^^ The Greek who lights the * V. L., ii. xxiv. 2 M. A. U. M., xxvi. ' Micali, Storia, ciii. i., pp. 101, 163; C. C, 24. * C. C, p. 93, n. 14 •. » C. a, p. 100, 159 ; Bockh., c. I. iv. ^ Dubois, Cab. d'Ant. d. feu M. Leon Dufouiny, 8vo, Paris, 1819. ^ Geihard, Rapp. Vol*., p. 79, no. 778. « MEAITAIE OPOI, B., 1851, p. 58. ^ Gerhard, Rapp. Vole, p. 187, no. 780. " B., 1829, p. 143 ; A. Z., 1852, s. 414. " B., 185],p. 185. *2 G. A. v., ccxxxviii. Mp. yu. subjects and SPEKCHKS. 311) >yre of Kroisos exclaims, ETOTMO, "farewell!"^ The old fvndareus exclaims, XAIPE OESET, "hail, Theseus I"^ ^nd tlie females, EIAO^BEMEN, "it is known." XAIPE, hail!" often occurs in such a manner as to show that it emanates from the mouth of figures, although it is frequently address from the potter. ELA ELA,^ " drive, drive ! " is )laced in the mouth of a charioteer ; and DOATMENE ^IKA^,* "thou conquerest, Polymenos!" in that of another. A paidotrihes says to one of his pupils, ATIOAO^ TO AIA- MEPON, "pay me my day's salary."^ On another vase, if correctly tianscribed, may possibly be read a gnomic sentence, SOAON OXAOKNOIAON KAAO^ I^OAAOS." A cock crows, nPO^AFOPETO, " how d'ye do ? " ' A herald or bra- beus announces, HIHOS ATNEIKETT NIKA, "the horse of Dysneiketes conquers."^ Oidipous, interpreting the enigma of the Sphinx, says, KAI TPI n[OVN], " which has three feet." » On a vase having a representation of olive-gathering, the pro- prietor of the grounds — perhaps the merchant anl sige, Thales, — says, in the Doric dialect, and in Iambic trimeter catalectic verse, O ZET HATEP AI0E HAOT^IOS rENO[IMAN], " father Jove, may I be rich !" a prayer responded to on the reverse by the representation of a liberal harvest, and the reply, HEAE MAN HEAE HAEON nAPABEBHKEN,^« " See, it is already more than enough." On another vase, on which are depicted youths and old men beholding the return of the swallow in Spring, the following colloquy occurs " — lAO XEAIAON, "behold the swallow;" NE TON HEPAKAEA, "by Herakles," ATTEI, "it twitters;" EAP HEAE, "it is already Spring," — which is spoken, apparently in a metrical manner, by a company of men. On a terminal figure, or stele, at which a winged youth plays at ball with Danaids, is the speech, XPHSAN MOI TAN S<^[A]IPAN, "Send me the ball."^^ On another vase is the supposed reply to a beggar. 1 Mon. i. PL, liv.-lv. ; Tr. R. Soo. Eiirip., &c. ; Aristid. Pan., p. 193-245 ; Lit. 4to, ii., 1834, p. 28. . Bruiick. Anal , ii. 321. 2 G. A. v., clviii \. " M., 1837, tuv. xliv. B. ; RitschL 3 St.; Rap. Vole, p. 78. | Annali, ix., 1837, p. 183. Hermann, * Ibid. Zeitschr. Altii-thumw., 1837, no. 103, * Stackdberg, Die Grab(r,tav. xii. 3. p. 854, 855; Bull., 1840, p. 48. ^ Stackelberg. Ibid. xxiv. | " M., ii. xxiv. ' G. T. C, xxiv. j '* Millingen, Ane. Unedit. Mon. PI. « Class. Mus., 1849, p. 296; B. M. | xii., p. 30; Birch, Classic. Mus., 1849, « M. G., ii. ii. Ixxx. 1 b. ; Arg. Phoen. p. 302 ; Kramer, IJeber den Styl, s. 183 ; 320 GREEK POTTERY. Part 11. who says, lOPOPOI, an unintelligible word, reading the same both backwards and forwards.-^ In order to enhance their ware in the estimation of the public, the potters painted on their vases, at an early period of the art, certain expressions addressed to the purchaser or spectator. One of the most usual is XAIPE " hail !"^ to which is sometimes added XAIPE KAI IIIEI, •* hail, and quaff,"^ XAIPE KAI niEI ET, '' hail, and drink well ;"* or XAIPE KAI niEI TENAE, "hail and drink this [cup]."^ NAIXI, "just so."^ On one remarkable vase was supposed to be found OT nANTO:^ E^TI KOPINeOS, " every one cannot go to Korinth,"' a familiar erotic pi'overb. The Athenian prize vases are inscribed TON AQENEBEN A© AON ["I am] a prize from Athens,"^ to which is sometimes added EMI, "I am." This inscription is also found in the abridged form, A@ENE@EN.^ Sometimes the address was to some particular individual, as AEMOSTPATE XAIPE, "Hail, O Demo- stratos." ^^ Inscriptions upon representations of objects are much rarer than any of the kinds just mentioned, and, in cases where they appear, seem to have existed on the object represented. Some few are those found on steles, or funeral tablets, as TPXIIAOS,^^ on the stele of the youthful Troilos, lamented by his sisters ; ArAMEMNON,^^ on that of the King of Men ; OPESTAS '^ on that of his "fury-haunted son ; " IAAS, on that of Idas.^* The most remarkable of these is an elegiac distich, inscribed upon the stele of Oidipous, a copy of that recorded by Eustathius, from the poem called the Peplos, or " Shawl," written by Aristotle — NOTll MEN MAAAXHN KAI HOATPIZON A2:$0- AHAON KOAnn OIAinOAAN AAIOT TION EXXl.^^ " On my back is grass and spreading- rooted asphodel : In my bosom I contain Oidipous the son of Laios." Neapels Antik. Bild. Z., vii. Schr. 2, 1-174; Miis. Borb., iii. xii. » An., 1852, PI. T. 2 G. A. v., iii. p. 150. 3 M. G., II., Ixvi. 3 b. * De Beugnot. Cat,, p. 08, n. 75. * B. A. B., 1594. « C. C, 147. ^ On the cup of Aurora and Tithonos, Braim in Bull., 1848, p. 41, nad DANTOHENA KAAA KOPIN0OI ; both readings are doubtful. * Millingen, Anc. Uned. Mon., PI. i. » Thierscli, 1. c, s. €8. " G. A. v., xxii. i. s. 82, 83. " Millingen, V. G., PI. xvii. 12 M. V. G., xiv. »3 Vase, B. M., 1559. 1^ I. S. V. T., xxxi. xxxvi. '^ Millingen, Anc. Un. Mon. Vase?, PI. xxxvi. INIus. Borb.. ix. xx^x. Chap. VII. INSCRIBED OBJECTS. 321 On the base of a statue of Pallas Athene is the unintellip^ible ■Ascription KOTXT,^ while a laver is inscribevl AHMO^IA/ ^Public "2 [baths]. HATPOKAOT TA^O:^, *nhe pyre" or "funeral of Patroklos."^ Certain bucklers used for the armed race, the hoplites dromos, bear the inscription A0E,* either to show l^piat they belonged to Pallas Atliene, or that they were Athenian. The name ETPT^BET^, Eurystheus, appears on the i)ithos into which he has thrown himself ; TEPMON, limit, is placed on a meta, and 0ETI^ on the shield Thetis gives Achilles. The often-repeated expression KAAOX, " beautiful," appears on layers, disks, a wineskin held by Silenos, and other objects ; and on a column is inscribed HO UK\t KAAOS NAIXI,"^ " tlie boy is handsome forsooth ;" while the inscription A AXES KAAOS,® '^Laches is handsome !" inscribed down the thigh of a statue, recalls to mind tlie expression, " Pantarkes is beautiful," which Pheidias slily incised on the finger of his Olympian Zeus at Elis, and the numerous apostrophes which covered the walls of the Keramikos, and other edifices of Greece. So the name and dedications are sometimes placed on the thighs of Etruscan bronzes, as also in the case of the bronze of Polykrates.'^ Other inscriptions are such as were taken from pedestals, and one remarkable example, reading AKAMANTIS ENIKA TAE, " the tribe of Akamantis has conquered," is on the base of a tripod dedicated by that tribe for a victory in some choragic festival.^ AI02, "the altar of Jove," occurs on that of the Olympian god at Elis, at which Pelops and Oinomaos are depicted taking the oath. On the supposed tessera, or ticket of hospitality, in the hands of a figure representing Jason, is Xl^I^I^OS,^ the name of Sisyphos. The artists who designed and painted the subjects of the vases often placed their names upon their finest productions, accompanied with the words ErPASEN, ErPASE, " was painting," which was that adopted by the followers of the later Athenian school, in order modestly to affect that their most elaborate labours were yet unfinished, but always the more decided aorist, indicating completeness. These iuscriptions do not occur on the early vases, attributed to the Doric and Ionic potteries, but commence with the vases with black figures, and terminate with those of the style of the decadence. Some of the earliest artists appear to have used a kind of Iambic verse, as : — EKXEXIAS EEPA^^E KAHOESEME ^^7J')(td<; eypd-ylre Kanrorjcre fie Exectds U was ichd made and painted me. In the next chapter, describing the principal artists and their works, a further account will be given of the artists. An attempt has been made to connect the choice of subjects on vases bearing the artist's name, with allusions to it;^ but the connection, if it exists, is too vague to assist the interpreta- tion of them. It is possible that such secret allusions may have been occasionally intended, but the subjects of vases in- scribed with the names of artists are comparatively unimportant, and sometimes merely ornamental. A few vases have the potter's name inscribed upon them, accompanied by the expression EIIOIESEN, *' made," or MEIIOIE^EN, " made me," which is rarely, if ever, replaced by the EIIOEI, " was making," of the later school of artists. A rarer form of inscription is the word EPFON, '* work," in- stead of EIIOIESEN. The potter always wrote his name in the nominative, generally simply as NIKOX0ENE' EnOIE^EN, " Nikosthenes made " me or it. TothisTie^me- times added the name of his father, either to distinguish him- self from rivals of the same name, or because his father was in repute. Thus Tleson, a celebrated maker of Jcylikes, or cups, uses the phrase TAE^ON HO NEAPXO EHOIEXEN, " Tleson, son of Nearchos," made it ; while Eucheros, another potter, employed the form HOPPOTIMO HTITS ETXEPOS » Panofka, Abh. d. k. Akacl. d. Wissenschaften, -ito, Beil., 1848, a. 158, 241. [AP. VII. NAMES OF ARTISTS AND POTTERS. 323 inOIE^EN " the son of Ergotimos, Eucheros, made it." IPrON, of course, has the genitive ; as STATIOT EPFON, jthe work of Statins." These inscriptions are generally place^l prominent positions, where they could readily be seen by purchasers. In this respect the potters only imitated the linters, sculptors, and architects, who inscribed their names some part of their works, and even clandestinely introduced lem inside their statues. The potter, who was evidently :posed to an active competition, prided himself upon the fine- less of his ware, and the elegance of the shapes which he produced. The vases with straw-coloured grounds have rarely )tters* names, which appear on vases of the old style, with lie red grounds, and are most common upon cups. They mtinued to be placed upon vases till the latest period, but rith decreasing frequency. The art, in its decay, ceased to be pther honourable or profitable. Otlier potters, to distinguish themselves from their con- jmporaries, introduced the names of their father, as Eucheros, rho appears to be proud of the reputation of his father, also a ivell-known potter — HOPrOTIMO HTITX ETXEPOS EHOIESEN Eucheros, son of Ergotimos, [this vessel] made, id Euphronios, one of the most celebrated of the craft, is Challenged as surpassed by one of his contemporary rivals in the following terms : — not OTAE nOT ETOPONIOS Such never made Euphronios. An account of the potters and their labours, derived from le inscriptions, will be found in the next chapter. Besides le names of the principal figures^ and of the artists and potters, third name, either male or female, accompanied with the Ijective KAAO^,^ or KAAH,^ "the noble, beautiful or lovely," found on several vases, which epithet applied, according to )me, to gods, heroes, and goddesses, is also sometimes found rithout any name. The arcliasologists who first studied the [abject, imagined that these were laudatory inscriptions of ' G. A. v., cxcv. cxcvi. ; M. G., ii. Ixxxv. 2, a; V. C, xxx. x. 2 G. A. v., Ixxix. Ixxxi. V 2 324 GBEEK POTTERY. Part IT. the works of the potters. On many vases is HO ITAIS KAAO^, "the boy is handsome ;"^ sometimes with a repetition of KAAO^,^ with certain anomalies, as HO HAI^ KAAE,^ or HE HAIS KAAE/ sometimes abridged to HO HAIS, "the boy;"^ or HAlS,' or even with KAAOS NAIXI KAAOS, " handsome— handsome forsooth." ' The name, how- ever, of some youth is generally understood, and in some instances expressed, as AOPOQEO^ HO HAI^ KAA02 HO HAIS KAAOS, "Dorotheos — the boy is handsome — the boy is handsome."^ One remarkable cup has, interlaced with tlie foliage painted upon it, KAAOS NIK0AA02 AOPO- eEOS KAAO:^ KAMOI AOKEI NAI XATEPOS HAIS KAAOS MEMNON KAMOI KAAOS IA02. " Nikolaos is handsome, Dorotheos is handsome, seems to me that the one and the other is handsome. Memnon to me is handsome and dear." » A lekythos has OHI^BE ME KAI EVHOAE^ EI KAAOS, "behind (after) me even thou Eupoles art noble." ^" Once is found OIOX HAI2, "what a boy! "^^ Another phrase used is KAPTA KAAOS, "very fine;" KAPTA AIKAIOS, "very just;" and KAAOS AOKEI, "he seems fine." KAA- AISTO^, " most beautiful," appears in three names ; KAA- AI2TH, " the most beautiful female," once.-^^ The most usual form, however, is a proper name, accompanied with KAAO:S, as ONETOPIAE2 KAA02, " Onetorides is beautiful;" :2TPOIBOS KAAO:S, " Stroibos is beautiful;" for which, on later vases, is substituted the form O KAAOS, " the beautiful," as NIKOAHMOX O KAAOS, " the beautiful Nikodemos." ^^ One youth, indeed, Hippokritos, is called HIHOKPITOX KAAIST02, " Hippokritos is the most hand- some." ^* Some attempts, indeed, have been made to identify the names of the ephebi found on the vases with the historic personages of Athens, but while it may be admitted that they 1 M. G., ii. Ixx. 1, a, b; G. A. V., « M. G., ii. Ixxi. 4 a. ccxxxix. Ivii. Ixxvi. 1 a ; M. G., ii. Ixix. ^ Ii., 1851, 68. ^ G. A. V., cii. la; G. A. V., ccxxix. ; V. D. C, xxii. ; j » An. 1833, 236-237; Mon., i. xxxix. M. G., ii. clxii. lb; G. A. V., cxciii. ^<' Campana Collection. 2 V. D. C, xxxi. 1; M. G., ii. Ixxxii. " Vase at Naples ; M. A. U. M., 2 a. xxxviii. 92. ' M. G., ii. Ixxxii. 2 b; V. G., xxii. 12 Bockh, Corp. Inscr., iv. p. x. * M. G., ii. Ixxxv. 2 b. i^ q ^ y., civ. ; cf. Paiiof ka, 1. c. => M. G., ii. Ixx. Ixxi. 4b; G. A. V., '* G. A. V., Ixi.-lxii. ccxix.-cxxx. 5nAP. Vir. NAMES OF YOUTnS AND FEMALES. 325 I Ipre in all probability of the same time, there is more difficulty in recognizing that they are of the identical person. The Hippokrates is supposed to be one mentioned by Herodotus/ . Jlegakles that of liis son, the uncle of Perikles by marriage, Ricagros is assigned to the Athenian general of the Lxxix. K)lynipiad,^ and Glaukon the admiral of the lxxxvi. Olympiad, or other personages nearly contemporaneous. A family of Leokrates and Stroibos, one of whom was the Athenian com- mander, and colleague of Aristeides at Platoea,^ is supposed to be named on other vases. It, however, requires much judg- ment in attempting to assign such names ; that, however, of Alkibiades admits scarcely of a doubt. Besides the names of youths, those of females, either brides, beauties, or hetairae, are found, accompanied with the expression KAAE, as OINAN8E KAAE, " Oinanthe is lovely ! "* Often, however, the names of females are accompanied with those of men. The most elliptical form is KAAOX, "he is handsome ;" KAAE, " she is fair !"^ One vase of the Canino collection had ATXiniAE^ KAAO^ PC AON KAAE, '' Lysippides is beau- tiful, Rodon is fair," apparently a kind of epithalamium. Be- fore a lyrist is written on one vase, KAAE AOKE^,^ " thou seemest fair." This, however, might be part of the song. Of the nature of an Agonistic inscription is that cited, reading KEAHTI AAMOKAEIAA^,^ " Damokleidas (was victor) in the horse race," which throws much light on the use of KAAOS in the others already cited. The import of these inscriptions has excited much contro- versy, for while some have taken them to be the names of the possessors of the vases,® others have considered that they were those of the persons for whom the vase was made, or to whom it was sent as a present,^ or those of youths and maidens beloved or admired by the potter.^° This last hypothesis is supported by the fact of lovers writing the name of the beloved object upon the walls of the Kerameikos, and on columns, edifices, and other P » vi. 131. I Walpole, Memoirs, p. 332 ; Buckh, Corp. 2 Herodot., ix. 75 ; Pausanias, I. 29, 4. ! Inscr. Grsec, no. 33. ' Plutnrcli, vit. Aristeid. 20 ; Bockh, ! * Panofka, Eigennamen mit KAA05, Corp. Inscr., iv. p. viii. i s. 1 ; Gerhard, Annali, 1831, p. 81. * G. A. v., cli. ^ Millingen, Peint. d. Vases Grecs, * G. A. v., Ixxxi, ' fol. Ronuip, 1813, p. iii., p. xi. « Mus. Borb., iii. xii. i "^ Mazocchi, Tab. Heracl., 138; Bot- ' Bockh, in the Bull., 1832, p. 'Jo; tiger, Vasengcm., iii. 20. 326 GREEK POTTERY. Part 11. places,^ In allusion to this, the same epithet of " handsome, or beautiful," is applied sarcastically by Aristophanes to the Demos, Pyrilampous,^ and the same poet, speaking of the Thracian, Sitalkas, as a devoted admirer of Athens, describes him as writ- ing upon the wall *'the beautiful," or "handsome Athenians."^ " He is an exceedingly good friend to Athens," says the poet, "and loves it so exceedingly, that often he scrawls upon the avails, * The Athenians are beautiful!'" Females were re- peatedly called " the fair," * and their names inscribed on walls. Even dogs found their devoted masters, who called them halos on their sepulchral monuments.^ The case, however, most in point for the artists of antiquity, is that of Pheidias inscribing the name of Pantarkes, in the case already mentioned.^ Accord- ing to this hypothesis, where the word halos is found alone, the name was intended to be supplied, as in a blank formula,^ which, however, appears doubtful. It is generally supposed, indeed, that the word is intended to express the personal beauty of the individual named,^ although it is by no means improbable that it was applied to those who excelled in the games of the youths in the Stadium. These names, which no doubt were the popular ones of the day, were adopted by the potter, in order to induce the admiring public to purchase objects which recalled their idols to mind ; and the prominent manner in which the names are placed upon the vases, shows that they were not less essential than the subjects to their sale. The influence which the beauty of boys, and the charms of beautiful and accomplished women, exercised over the Greek mind ^ is quite sufficient to accoilnt for the use of the epithet, without supposing that it resulted from the admiration of the potter. To retaark on the beauty of an athlete was not indecorous, as may be seen from the reproof addressed by Perikles to Sophokles when he praised the beauty of a youth.^° Above seventy names of men, and about ten names of women, have been found with this epithet, besides * Suidas, voce & ScTm KaK6s ; Schol. i Gent., vi., p. 199 ; Greg. Nazian., xviii. ; Aristoph. Acharn., 143 ; Eiistath. ii. j Paiisan., v. 11. p. 633. 2 Aristoph. Vesp., 97, 98. ' Acharn., 143. * Aristsenet. i. 10 ; Lucian, Amor., c. 16 ; Xenoph. Eph., i. 2. 5 Theoplirast., Toup on Snid., Oxon., 1790, t. ii. p. 129. Visconti, Mus. P. Clem. V., tav. xiii., p. 25, n. f. * Miiller, Gotting. gelehrte An- zeigen, 1,34, 135 ; St., d. 25 Aug., 1831, s. 1331-1334. ® Bergk, Allgemeine Literatur Zei- tung, n. 132, Juni, 1846, s. 1049-52. « Clemens Alex., p. 33; Aruob. adv. j *» Cicero, de Offic, I. xl. 142. JflAP. Vir. UNINTELLIGIBLE INSCRIPTIONS. 327 lose of several deities. These names are all Greek, many of tliem traceable to Athenian families ; and as the vases bearinp; fehem were found amidst the Etruscan sepulchres of Vulci and )f Northern Italy, the Campanian tombs of Nola, and in southern Italy and Sicily, it is plain that they could not have ?en those, of tlie possessors or donors.^ A most ingenious ^attempt was made by Panof ka to trace a connection between the subjects of vases and the names which appear upon them. Bearing in mind the apparent remoteness of the allusions in tlie odes of Pindar to the victors celebrated, and in the Greek choruses to the plot of the drama, it is possible that such allu- sions may be intended, althougli, whether the connection can be always satisfactorily traced, is open to doubt.^ A considerable number of vases are covered with inscriptions,^ the meaning of which is quite unintelligible, although the letters can be distinctly read. An unintelligible inscription has been supposed to be a satiric verse on the promise of Hektor to Dolon.* Tliis is not peculiar to vases found in Italy, but is of common occurrence on those of Greece itself. Nor can it be charged to the ignorance or barbarism of the potter, as such inscriptions are often found intermingled with others in good Greek. In some few cases these inscriptions can be traced to forgeries, as for instance of the names of potters ; while in others a certain resemblance is observable between the illegible inscriptions, and the more correctly written names of the figures represented. Some few also may be intended for the sounds of animals, especially where there is a repetition of the same syllable placed near them, sucli as, XEXETAKTEXEXEX9rXEX9r^FXAMIAA KmOC — a native of Cos, and came from Carthage. The names of Chamairo- ' Gerhard, Rapp, Vole, p. 173, n. 670 ; G. A. V., cxxiv. clxv. 2 Cf. the expression, EAEOn EAE- AEM, with the word KOMAPX02, Ger- hard, A. v., clxxxviii. 3 B. M., 678 ; C. D., 335. * C. D., 335; B, M., 667-8. 5 B. A. B., 1599. ^ De Witte, Penelope, Annali, 1841, p. 264, pi. i. " De Witte, Annali, 1841, 268. » As that of Hieron. Bull., 1832, p. 114. 8 M. B., iv. 5, 1 ; Neapels Ant. Bild., s. 548. I liiAP. Vir. INCISED INSOllIPTIONS. 329 phontes and Metrodoros were cut on necks of vases found at Athens.^ A hydria, or pitcher, from Berenice, has in like manner the name of Aristarclios, son of Ariston.^ Sucli formula) "e not uncommon, as AIONT^IOT A AAKT0OS TOT ATAAOT "([ am) the lehytlios of Dionysius, the son of atalns;"^ — TPEMIO EMI, "I belong to Tromios;" APONOS EMI, "I belonjr to Charon;"* ^OXTPATO[T] MI, «IbelongtoSostratos;"5TATAIH^ EIMI AHKT0O5: t AAN ME KAE^[H] BTOAO^ E^TO, ''I am the ehjthos of Tataies, and may whoever steals me be struck blind." ^ ATKIAOS EIMI, "I am the property of Lykis," occurs scratched on the foot of a small lekythos. Another had, " I am the cup of Kephisophon ; if any one breaks me let him pay a drachm, the gift of Xenokrates.^ On a vase in the Museum of Naples is NIKA HEPAKAHS, "Herakles conquers," but it is doubtful whether it is antique.^ In one instance a scratched inscription, reading HEMIKOTTAION, indicated the capacity of a vase with two small handles, found at Corfu; another of these in- sr-riptions,* ATAIA MEZH KE AEHA^TIAES KZ, supposed to refer to the capacity of some vase, holding 25 lydians and 27 lepastides; under another i° IX0TA, ** dishes for fish."ii On the foot of a krater from Girgenti is the word XAPITUN, Chariton, probably a proper name.^^ The most interesting inscriptions, however, are those on the feet of the vases of the earlier style, of which a considerable number have been discovered. They are very difficult to decipher, being chiefly contracted forms of words, and often monograms, or agglomerations of letters and ciphers. The greater portion are consequently unintelligible, and probably were understool only by the potter or his workman. Many of them, however, are evidently memorandums made by the workman, about the number of vases in the batch ; and others those of the merchant, respecting the price to be paid. Such > Bockh, Corp. Inscr., p. 363, whose > ^^ A. Z., 1848, s. 248. ashes it probably containeil. I ^^ Collections of these will be found - Arcli. Zeit., 1846, p. 216. I in Pr. (le Canino, Miis. Etr. ; Gerhard, ^ B., 1830, p. 153; A., 1831, D. Neuerworb. Ant. Denk. 8vo, Berlin, * •'Raoul Rochette, Jourii. des Sav., ; 1836, Taf. ii. ; Cat. Greek and Etr. 1830, p. 118. * Ibid. I Vases in Brit. Mas., pi. A. and B. ® B. Arch. Nap., torn. ii. tav. i., fig. i. '- Millingen, Vases deCoghill, pi. xi. • Bo>kh, c. i., p. 489. The word also means " of the Graces." " Inghirami, S. V. T., xlii. i.e. "the krater of the Graces." " Arch. Zeit., 1846, s. 371. 330 GREEK POTTERY. Part 11. are the abridgments as TE/ HyA, HYAPI for liydria,'^ or in a fuller form HYAPIAX, AHK or AHKY lehythos,^ OHT for 0HTBAA] E,^ " Five oxybapha," or *"' vinegar vases." In a similar manner are written memoranda of the prices of hylihes,^ or cups, and other products of the kiln,* AM<|). AAAII. "32 amphoras," and MEFAAAI nOA[ANinTHPEX], *' great foot-pans." On the neck of the Panathenaic amphora found at Cuma is OO III II supposed to refer to its liquid contents.^ Inscriptions on vases are mentioned by the ancients. The shyjphos of Herakles, on which was seen the fall of Troy, had on it certain illegible characters.® A cup at Capua was said to have an inscription declaring that it belonged to Nestor. Athenseus ' also mentions the inscribed cup of a youth who had thrown himself into the sea after a girl beloved by him, declar- ing that he had carried with him a cup of Zeus Soter. > Gerhard, Nev:erw. Denkm., s. 30, I * B. A. B., \(^QQ; B. A. N., 1854, No. 1605. ; p. 168. 2 Mus. Etr. xl., No. 1821 ; Cat. of | ' C. B. L., p. 21, No. 22 ; B. A. N., Gr. and Etr. Vas. in B. M., pi. A., 459. I 1855, p. 85. B. A. N., 1857, p. 43. I e Athen^us, p. 493, 0. 3 B. A. N. N. S., iv. p. 132, B. A. N., ! ' xi. 466, C. ii. tav. i. 6, p. 23. i ' )UAP. VIII. POTTEI?S AND POTTEIIIKS. 383 CHAPTER VIIT. Aiicknt Potlers — Athenian Polteries — Names of Potters: Alides — Amasis — Antlokidcs — Archikles — Biyllns, or Brygos — Kail i j)hon — Kephalos — Chores — Chachrylios — Chairestratos — Charitaios — Kleopliradas — Chok-hos — Chelis — Charinos — Deiniades — Doris — P^pitimos — Epigenes — Erginos — Ergotimos — Euei getidt s — Eucheros — EcKekrates — Exekias — Euplironios — Euxitheos — Glaukythes — Plermaios — Herraogencs — Hechthor — Hieron — Hilinos — Hischylos — Meidias — Nauky' Ibid. s. 16. '^ Campan. Coll. 1® Gerhard, Trinksch. u. Gefiisse, Taf. xiv. 5, 6,7; Panofka, Die Vasenbildncr, Taf. iv. 7, s. 11 ; Welcker, Khein. Mus., vi. Bd. 1847, s. 394. »' Mon. V. pi. 38, 1855. z 2 340 GREEK POTTERY. Paet II. strong style. Euxitheos, who belongs to the period of vases with red figures, was a painter as well as a potter. He is known from an amphora representing Achilles and Briseis/ and from a kylix with the subject of Patroklos. For the last he employed the vase-paiuter Cholchos.^ Exekias was both a maker and painter of vases,^ with black figures, of the early style. He is known from amphorae on which are represented Herakles killing Geryon, Herakles and the Nemaean lion, Demophon and Akamas, the chariot of Anchippos,* Achilles and Penthesilea,^ Dionysos,^ and Oinopion, and a deep hylix with small figures of a winged female and stag.' On cups, hylikes, and amphorae he painted the subjects of Akamas and Demophon bringing back Aithra,^ Achilles and Ajax playing at dice,^ the contest for the body of Achilles, and Dionysos and the Tyrrhenian pirates.^° Echehrates is known by a single hylix, the subject of which is a Gorgon's head.^^ Glauhythes ^^ has been already mentioned. His name appears on the cup, with small black figures, representing the death of the Minotaur, and of the Kalydonian boar, now in the Museum at Munich, and on another cup in the Berlin Museum. He must have flourished about the same time as Tleson and Nikosthenes, and he placed on his wares the name of Hippokritos, a youth styled '* the most beautiful." He flourished at the early period of vases with black figures. The name of Glaukythes, an Argive sculptor, has been found at Athens. Other potters were Hermaios, the maker of a cup on which is represented Hermes making a libation ;^^ Hermogenes,^^ » EVK2I0EO2 EnoiESEN, Cat. Dur. 386 ; G. A. V., clxxxvii. ; Panofka, s. 17. 2 Vases d. Pr. d. Canino, pi. 5 ; Ger- hard, Ann., 1831, p. 180, 729, No. 729; Campanari, p. 88 ; Brit. Mus., Vas. Cat., p. 246, No. 803 ; Inghirami, Gall. Cm., ii. 254. 3 EX2EKIA2 EnOIE2E, Panofka, s. 19, Taf. ii. 1, 2. * Cat. Dur., 296; G. A. V., cvii. ; Brunn, ibid., 689. 8 Ann. iii. p. 179, No. 709 ; Cat. Dur., 1. c. ; G. A. v., ccvi. 8 Panofka, s. 10, Taf. ii. 10-12 ; M. G., ii. liii., 1 a ; Etr. Vas., Taf. xii. 10 G. A. v., xlix. " Ann., 1849, s. 120. EXEKPATE2 K . . . TEAE2EN. '2 ALAVKVTE2 EHGIESEN, once AAAVKVE2 EnOIESEME, and ME- noIESEN, Gerhard, Berlins Neuerw. Vasen., No. 1598; Bull., 1847, p. 125; Bull., 1860, p. 50. 5 Cat. Dur., 389 ; G. A. V., ccvi. ; ' ^^ HEPMAI02 En01E2EN, Clnrac, Cat. Vas. Brit. Mus., p. Ill, No. 5.54. I Cat., p. 240; Bull., 1842, p. 167. « G. A. v., ccvi. ; Panofkn, s. 19, j ^* HEPMOFENES EHOIESEN, Ger- Taf. ii. 5, 6. j hard, Ann., 1831, 178, No. 090 ; Cat. 7 EK2EKIA2 MEnoiE2EN. Cam- Dur., 1000; Berlins ant. Bildw., No. pa'ia Coll. 183 ; Cat. Can., 159 ; B. M., p. 189, I HAP. VIII. HIEKON, HILINOS, &c. 341 ne of the early school, who only made cups with small figures and ornaments. Hermonax is known from a stamnos with men and flute-players.^ Hieron, a remarkable name, perhaps of a contemporary with the old Sicilian tyrant, is chiefly known from the hylihes he made, and which are foun'l at Vulci, and in the Sabine territory, with the name scratched upon the handle. He appears to have been a partner with Andokides. The subjects of his hylihes are Bacchanalian,^ Peleus and Thetis,^ the Judgment of Paris,* Achilles hearing the death of Patroklos,^ the abstraction of the Palladium, Demophon and Akamas, and festive scenes.*^ His orthography is not always correct,' and his inscriptions are scratched under the handle or foot. The name of Hilinos has been found as one of the lehythoj)oioi, or makers of lehythoi, on a vase with red figures, of that shape, discovered at Athens. He employed an artist named Psiax.^ Kittos manufactured one of the Panathenaic vases found at Tukera, in the Kyrenaika, with black figures having Pallas Athene on one side, and on the other two wrestlers and a brabeutes.^ Laleos on a cup with black figures and animals as a potter's name. His- chylos, another potter, belonged to the period of the transition from black to red figures ; his vases have been found only at Vulci.^° His wares were chiefly cups. He employed one Phei- dippos to paint his vases ,'^^ besides Epiktetos, who surpassed all the other artists of the strong style ^^ of red figures,^^ and Sakonides, whose name appears on a cup with the subject of Herakles and the lion. A potter named Lysias has recorded his name on a plain vase.^"^ Manes is found on a Greek stele of uncertain locality, and the name was applied to a vase maker.^^ The potter Meidias is known by the celebrated Hamilton Vase, of the style of Kuvo, a perfect chef d'oeuvre, of the florid style, 685 ; Eochette, p. 46 ; Campanari, p. 88 ; ** HIAIN02 EnOIE2EN. CreuzL-r, Cat. Vas. B. M., 685. j Alt Atben. Gefass, s. 53. ' Bmnn, ibid., ii. 694. | » Cat. Vas. Brit. Mus. 2 Can. 1« Cent., No. 23; Mus. Etr., 565, 118,S. 3 Depoletti, Coll. Clarac, Cat., p. 128 ; "> HI2KTA02 EnOIE2EN, Caniuo, 1" Cent., No. 6. " Clarac, Cat., 180. Annali, 1831, p. 179, No. 710. I »2 Panofka, s. 30. * Campan. Coll. ' Cat. Dar., 758. ] " Anual., 1831, p. 179, 725 ; Campa- « Gerhard, Trinkschalen, Taf. xi.-xii- nari, p. 88. Panofka, Taf. i. 9. '^AT2IA2 MEnOIEHEN HEMIXONEI, ^ HIEPON EIIOIESEN — EnOE2N. on a vase in the Campana collection at Bull., 1837, p. 71 ; Bull., 1832, p. 114 ; ] Rome. Campanari, p. 88 ; Punofka, i. 7, 8, s. 22, , '' Bull. d. Corr. Arch., 1868, p. 118'* 23 ; Mon., ii. xxxviii. : Atheujous, xi. p. 487, c. 342 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. with red figures, and gilding in the accessories; the subject being the rape of tlie Leukippides, and the Argonauts.^ There is a supposed Naulcydes,^ who flourished during the age of the vases with black figures. Neandros is known from a cup with black figures, having for its subject Herakles strangling the Nemean lion.^ An important and extensive manufacturer was Nihostlienes,^ probably one of the earliest makers of vases with black figures. He made vases in a very mannered and genre style, both with black and red figures. His amphorae are of peculiar shape, tall and slender, with broad fiat handles like bands. Fifty vases are known inscribed with the name of this potter. He is known from a ]jihiale with ornaments,^ and hijlilces with the subjects of Dionysos, Hermes, and Herakles.^ Aineias,' Theseus, and the Minotaiir,^ Akamas, and Demophon,^ athletic subjects.^" A Gorgonium ; ^^ a scene of ploughing ; ^^ a man running, having on one greave ; ^^ and a satyr and youth, painted for him by Epiktetos ; ^* also from a hylix of black and white figures, having on it Ulysses and the 8irens.^^ A han- tliaros of this potter with a dance of figures of fine style exists,^*^ and an oinochoe or jug, with Marsyas playing on the flute. -^^ His amphorae have for their subjects Herakles and the Nemean lion, combats, a boxing match,^^ and another is ornamented with a Bacchanalian thiasos.^^ Others have the Gigantomachia satyrs and mainads, sphinxes, Achilles and Penthesilea, Aineias and Anchises, the adieu of the Dioskouroi, youths riding on hippa- lektryons, warriors, old men, and youths, the supposed Eris, 1 AAAE02 MEnOIESEN, EnOIE2EN. j xxxiii., pi. IG, pp. 225-262 Brunn, Gesch. ii. 765; D'Hancarville, | ^ Panofka,'s. 28, 29. i. p. 130 ; Millin, Gall. Myth., No. 385 ; MEIAIA2 EnOIESEX ', Gerhard, Abh. d. K. Akad., Berlin, 4to, 1840, die Meidias vase ; Notice sur le vase de Meidias. 2 Clarac, Cat., 284-286 ; Cat. Can., 71 ; Campana Collection. 2 NEANAP02 EnOIESEN, Clarac, p. 286 ; Coll. Can., 1845 ; Clarac, p. 287. i s. 28. * NIKO20ENE2 EnoiESEN, or ME- I ^^ Gerhard, Coupes et Vases du ' Mus. Etr., 567; Ann., 1831, 179, No. 711. * Ann., 1. c. ; Mus. Etr., 15 J 6. » Cat. Can., 217. i» Mus. Etr., 273; Berl. ant. Bildw., 1595. 11 Coll. d. Pr. Can., 236; Panofka, noiE2EN, Panofka, s. 23; Ann., 1831, 180, No. 727; Brunn, ibid., 709. * Ann., 1831, p. 178, No. 691 ; M. G., ii. 17 ; xxvii. ; Visconti, Monum. Se- polchr. di Cere, Taf. ix. ; Marquis of Northampton, Observations on a Greek vase discovered in Etruria, Arcbajol. Musee de Berlin, pi. i. i» Cat. Dub., 59. 1* Ann., 1831, 180,727. " Cut. Dur., 418. i« Cat. Dur., 662. 1- Cat. Dur., 147. '« M. G., xxvii. i» Vas. Cat., B. M., 118, 563. lAP. VJII. PANPHAIOS. 343 5US, and Heos, with friezes of animals.^ The most remarkable ise of this potter is one entirely black, with a female figure id a dog in opaque white, having lines cut through to the lack background. He also made a krater^ differing from the isual shape, and ornamented with a frieze representing a gigantomachia.^ Panj)haios, Pamcifhios, or PanthaioSy a potter, who flourished during the strong style of red figures, employed the artist Epiktetos.^ He was a cup maker, and has left his name on no fewer than seventeen hylikes, and is by far the most common of all the makers. He belongs to the period of vases with black and red figures. It occurs also on a stamnos with red figures, representing Herakles and the Achelous, and Mar- syas and Oreithyia.* The subjects on his productions are, a horse ; ^ Herakles and the lion ; Bacchanal scenes ; ^ warriors and Pegasoi ; ^ Sarpedon borne off by Hypnos and Thanatos ; ^ the arming of Memnon ; Hermes, Nomios, and Mainads ; ^ a crovNued youth ;^" a scene of a homos ;^^ a stamnos, vi'iih. the contest of Herakles and the Achelous ; ^^ Herakles destroying Hippolyte, painted with black figures ; ^^ a hylix, with a man crowned seated on a rock and holding a pedum ; ^* Pelops, or Achilles, boiled in the caldron ; ^^ goats and great eyes ; ^^ athletic scenes, warriors' combats, Amazonomachia, Erotic sub- jects ; ^^ a hydria, with black figures, with Dionysos and his crew ; ^^ and Herakles and the other gods of Olympos ; ^^ and a Jvylix, with the head of Medusa.^" There are also amj>horeis, with flat side handles like those of Nikosthenes, of this potter, one with the subjects of satyrs and mainads ; and another with * Gerhard, Neuerw. Denk., s. 18, 159, ; Campanari, p. 88 ; Gerh., Tiinksch., i. 1, 2, 3; Panofka, iii. 11, s. 24. 2 B. M., 560 ; Bull., 1843, p. 59. ' nAMA*I02 EnOIESEN. * Trans. E. Soc. Lit., N. S., vol. i., 1843, p. 100 ; G. A. V., cxv. ; Panofka, Namen, p. 153-241, Taf. v. ' Panofka, s. 2, der Vasenbildner, Pamphaos ; Gerhard, Berl. Ant. Bild., s. 27, No. 1625. « Panofka, Taf. ii. ; Taf. iii. ; Cat. Diir., 17. " Panofka, 8. 4. * Arcliajol., xxxix., p. 139. " Do Wittc, Dcscr. do Vases Points, No. 17. " Inghirami, Mus. Cliiu^., torn, ii., tav, cxxxiii. 11 Mus. Etr. du Pr. do Canino, 1116. 12 Trans. Roy. Soc. Lit., vol. i., p. 100; G. A. v., cxv. " Mus. Greg., ii. Ixvi. 14 Mus. Etr., 1513. 1* Dubois, Notice des Vases re'scrve's, p. 104. i« Braun, Bull., 1842, p. 167 ; Welcker, Rhein. Mus., 1847, s. 396. 1^ Mus. Greg., ii. Ixix. 4. 18 De Witte, Cat. Dur., No. 91 ; Brit. Mus. Cat., p. 43, No. 447*. " De Witte, Cab. Beugnot, 37. 20 Micali, Storia, 102, 1 ; Braun, Bui!., 1844, p. 101. 344 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. that of Chiron and Achilles, Menelaos and Helen, fonnd at Cervetri.^ His style is more developed, and rather later than that of the rigid school. The following vases have both black and red figures on the same vase. A Tcylix, with the Minotaur ; two hydriai from Vulci have black figures with Dionysos and his cortege, and Herakles and lolaos, and two cups with the same Herakles, the Amazons and Dionysos. There is some doubt whether his name should not read Panthaios.^ The name which some read as Hilinos others consider to be more correctly Philinos.^ Phrynos appears on a restored cup with Herakles and Minerva, and the gods of Olympos. Pistoxenos occurs as the name of a maker on a vase found at CaBre. He also employed Epiktetos.* Priapos is mentioned on a cup with black figures, representing a lion running.^ The name of Python is found on two vases, so different in style and art, that there were probably two masters of that name. One employed the artist Epiktetos,^ who painted for him in the strong style a hydria of red figures, representing the death of Bousiris, and an entertainment; the other made a vase of red figures, of the shape called leJcanion, at the time of the decadence, which he, or a later artist of the same name, painted, not made.'^ Sesamas, a Lycian potter, is also known from a sepulchral monument.^ SiJcanos, by some read Silanion, is known from a jpinax or dish with the figure of Artemis.^ Simon, of Elea, the supposed maker of a hydria, with black figures, having for its subject the chariot of Athene and the Gigantomachia,^^ rests on very uncertain grounds. The name of Sokles occurs on a plate found at Cliiusi.^^ Sosias was the maker of a cup with red figures, representing Hermes bringing the ram to heaven, and the healing of Patroklos.^^ The name of Statius appears on a han- * Collection of M. Campana at Rome. 2 Clarac, Cat., 164-5 ; Panofka, 1. c. ; Biunn, Gesch., ii. 720, ^ Cieuzer, Ein alt Athenische Gefass, niLINOS En0IE2EN, Leipzig, 1832, s. 53, 56; Deutscli. Schrift., Bd. iii. n. 1, s. 6 u. ff. ; *PTN02 EnOIESEN. BruDD, ibid., p. 729. ^ ni2TOX2EN02 EnOIE2EN. Cam- panari, Intorno i Vasi, p. 92. 3 nPIAnoS EnoiESEN. Panofka, s. 31. Cat. Dur., 882. « nveON EnOIESEN. Ann., 1831, 180, n. 726; Panofka, s. 36; Micali, Mon. Antich., xc. 1. ^ Clarac, Cat., p. 296; Millingen, Nouv. Ann., i. p. 45. * Bockh, Corp. Insc. Grsec, iii. p. 1116. ^ Bull., 1844, p. 44; Brunn, ibid., p. 733. 2IKAN02 EUOIESEN. »" 2IMON HAEITA EENO HVV2 H- nONON. Cat. Can., 103. 11 Bull, 1851, p. 171. '■- Mon. i., pi. xxiii.-xxiv. ; Panofka, p. 38, Taf. iii. 6. • HAP. VIII. MOULDING. 345 tharos or karehesion, of plain black ware of late style, insfiibed " the work of Statlus, a gift to Kleostratos." ^ Probably one of the earliest makers was Taleides, known from an amphora with a scene of weighing ; ^ a hydria, with Herakles and the lion ; ^ a hjlix, with a swan in the same style of art ; * and an oinoehoe, with Dionysos and a iiute-player, and another with Dionysos.^ The name of the youths, Klitarchos, and Kallias and Neoklides, are found on his vases,^ and he employed the artist Takonides, or Sakonides.'^ Theozotos or Theoxetos is known only from a hjUx with black figures, representing a goatherd.^ Therihles, the celebrated Corinthian potter, conferred his name on two-handled cups, decorated with friezes of animals, and resembling in shape those held in the hands of Dionysos. He lived in the days of Aristophanes.^ Thypheitheides made a cup with red figures, on which are represented a deer running, and large eyes.^° Timagoras is known by two liydriai painted with black figures, representing Theseus killing the Minotaur, Her- akles contending with Nereus. They are of the usual hard but not recherche style of Exekias.^^ The name of the youth Ando- kides appears on his vases, and Theseus killing the Minotaur. Tlenpolemos, another potter, manufactured vases with black figures. Only three of his work ^^ are known. He employed as his artist Sakonides.^^ His productions have been chiefly found at Yulci. A maker \\ hose works are more often found is Tleson, son of Nearchos, probably a Corinthian potter, as a hylix of his fabric has been discovered in that city.^* He was a maker of JcylikeSf or cups, and many of his works are indecent. ^^ His I Gerhard, Arch. Zeit., 1847, s. 190 ; | » Athen., xi. 470, d. 2TATIEPT0NKA[E]02TPATaiAnP0N; \ »« EnOIE2EN 0Y«I»EI0EIAE2, Cat. B, A. N., iv. p. 104. An incised inscrip- | Dur., 893 ; Vas. Cat. Brit. Mus.. p. 309, tion of doubtful authenticity. ' No. 854 ; Panof ka, s. 3.5. TAAEIAE2 EnOlESEN, Millin. V. i " TIMArOPA2 EHOIESEN. Cam- 2 Feints, ii. pi. 61 ; Gal. Myth., cxxi. 490 ; Panof ka, s. 7; G. A. V., ii. s. 113. The subject perhaps referring to Tantalos. ^ Campaua Collection. * Gerhard, B. A. B., No. 685. » Bull., 1845, p. 52 ; Brunn, ibid., 735. pana Col). »2 Cat. Can., 149; Gerhard, Ann., 1831, p. 172 ; p. 178 ; No. 6G1, No. 693, p. 172 ; TAENnOAEM02 MEHOIESEN. " Gerhard, Neuerworb. Vasen, No 1597; Mus. Etr., 149, [6612]; TAEN- « The silver vase of Taleides, with the , nOAEMOT EIMI KYHEAAON. The end name Klitarchos is incredible. Bull., of a hexameter line. 1843, p. 13. i »* Bull., 1849, p. 74 ; TAE20N HO ' Gerhard, Kapp. Vole, 180, 729. | NEAPXO EnOIE2EN : Panofka, s. 34 ; ** 0EOHETO2 MEnoiESE, Cat. Dur., 1 Khangabo, Ant. Hell, p. 13, n. 369. 884 ; Panofka, s. 34. '' B. M. Cat., p. 189, No. 682 ; Clarae, 346 GREEK POTTERY. Part 11. figures, which are black, are generally finely drawn, clear in colour, and of general excellence, but of small size. The most remarkable of his subjects is Orion carrying a fox and hare.^ Others are a kentaur,^ an ape,^ and two cocks.^ Tychios made a hydria, with the subject of Athene in a chariot and Apollo, found at Corneto ; ^ also a cup, and a plain cup.^ XenoMes, another maker of the oldest school, is known from a kylix of the most archaic treatment, with the subject of the Judgment of Paris,^ and other hylihes, \yith the departure of Poseidon ; ^ the search for Poseidon, Dionysos, Achilles, and Troilos, and a swan with sirens,^ and other plain cups. The name of Xeno- j)hantos, of Athens, which is not found amongst those of the makers of the cups at Vulci or in Greece, has been found on one of coarse work with red figures ^^ at Kertch, or Panticapseum, one of the utmost limits where vases have been discovered. An attempt has been made to connect the choice of subjects upon vases with the names of the potters or artists, but the con- nection, if it exists at all, is too vague to assist the interpretation of the subjects. It is possible that such secret allusions may have been occasionally intended ; but there has been no slight difficulty amongst archaeologists to decide the real names of the artists which occur on the vases.^^ From the potters, it is now necessary to turn to the con- sideration of the vase painters, or zoographoi,^^ many of whose names have been discovered on vases, although none are known from the writings of the ancients. The passage of Aristophanes,^^ p.303;Dub.Cat.Can.,262;M.DeWitte, j » Gerhard, Zuwachs, s. 2G, 1662; Coll. d. V. Ant. de terre prov. d. fouilles : Brit. Mus. t Panofka, s. 40. taites en "Etrurie, 8vo, Paris, 1843, p. 72, '\ »» EEN0' See Raoul Roclaette, Lettre a M. ' Cat. Dub,, 262 ; Cat. Vas. B. M., i Schorn, 1. c. ; and Questions de rhis- p. 189, No. 682. toire de Part, 8vo, Paris, 1846 ; Clarac, * Mus. Etr., 15 bis; Cat. Dub., 71. I Manuel, 1. e. ; Panofka, Vasenbildner, » Gerhard, Aim., 1831, 178. No. 701 ; \ &c. Neuerwoib. Vas., 1664. TvXIOS EIIOI- j ^^ ^he vase painter was probably so E2EN. i named, as the portrait painter Pseud- ^ Gerhard, Neuerb. Vas., 1664. A.Z., Anacr. Od. 28; and the shield painter 1853, 402; TTXI02 EHOIESEN. Xenophon, Hist. Graec. iii. c. 8, 4. ^ Lenormant and De Witte, Elite, '' Eccles., 994 ; Kramer, Ueber die xxiv. p. 2, 47 ; Mus. Blac. xix. K2ENO- Herkunft, s. 20. The scholiast refers KAE2 EIIQIESEN. it to the decoration of graves. * Gerhard, Aus. Vas., i. x. ,AP. VIII. VASE PAINTERS. 347 mt these persons, the interpretation of which is doubtful, in lich " the fellow who paints lehijihoi for the dead," is spoken in terms of contempt, does not throw much light upon the mdition of the painters. Demosthenes mentions a painter of ibaster vases, or terra-cotta ones of that name.^ Nor is much lore afforded by the vases themselves. The names of some, ideed, such as Polygnotos, Nikosthenes, and Hegias, correspond with those of artists of known fame ; but it is impossible that such persons should have practised an art held in such inferior estima- tion,^ and if the celebrated Zeuxis painted terra-cottas, it must be understood, that he first modelled and then drew his designs, not that he was engaged as a colourist of plastic works. The names of the artists of metallic cups were held in great renown, and those of Mentor, Athenokles, Krates, Stratonikos, and Myr- mekides are mentioned by ancient authors. Lysippos modelled a cup out of which Kassander the Macedonian monarch drank the wine of Mendes, and copied five beautiful cups, as Zeuxis had five virgins for his picture of Venus. The cup of Herakles ras designed by Parrhasius, and sculptured by Mys, and on it fas the proud inscription " I represent the lofty Ilion which le Greeks overthrew.^ On many vases the name of the artist appears along with lat of the potter, of course to enhance the value of the pro- duction, as celebrated artists were sought after, both in the home and foreign market. On others, the name of the artist alone occurs, probably because the pottery was newly founded, and the proprietor, to establish a reputation, employed the services of known artists. Some potters, such as Amasis and Euphronios, painted as well as made vases, which is natural enough, as the two arts were so nearly blended. It cannot be supposed that the great artists of antiquity occupied themselves even in furnishing designs for works of this nature ; if it could, a sketch with the name of Polygnot os might be recognised as a production of that celebrated master. The professions of potter and painter were often, as already mentioned, exercised by the same person, as Amasis, Exekias, and ]3uris, but generally the artist worked for a potter. One artist alone, Hermokles, uses the ambiguous formula ergazeio^ which might mean either. ' Pliny, XXXV. 40, 42 ; Krnmer, 1. c. ; ^ Visconti, Aiitich. inonuui. di Ccic, = Cf. al=o Demosthenes de F. L. 415. I tav. ix. E. ; Do Wittc, Rev. PliQ. ii. ^ AthensBus, xi. \v. i 385. 348 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. The names of artists follow the law which governs the other inscriptions. There are none on the oldest vases, and few on those of archaic style. They commence about the most flour- ishing period of the strong style, and continue till the florid style and gradually become rarer. One of the oldest painters is Amiades, whose name is inscribed on a hjlix found at Vulci.^ Like most of the older vase painters, he uses the aoristic form e^rapsen, " painted," the affected imperfect egrajplie not having been used by many painters. Amasis, a maker of vases with black figures of the most early and rigid style, much resembling that of the Aiginetan school, painted an oipe with the subject of Perseus killing Medusa,^ and one of rather freer treatment.^ The name of Aristojohanes, better known as that of tlie comic poet than as the appellation of an artist, occurs on a cup witli black figures representing a Gigantomachia. He worked for the potter Erginos.* The name of Assteas occurs on a vase of the style of the decani ence, as a painter of red figures of a subject representing a garden of the Hesperides ^ of an oxy- baphon with the subject of Phrixos and Helle crossing the sea, and Nephele, a cup-shaped vase with a parody of Prokroustes. An artist, whose name some read as Brygos, and others erro- neously as Bryaxis, painted cups with red figures of the strong style,® on which are the Judgment of Paris, Peleus and Thetis, scenes in a palace. Chares occurs on a pyxis of Corinthian style with ten persons, eight on horseback, Palamedes, Nestor, Protesilaos, Patrokles, Achilles, Hektor, Memnon, the horses Podargos, Psalios Ori(f)on, Xanthos, Aidon. On the cover are fourteen hoplites old style.' It is possible that Cholehos painted fori the potter Euxitheos the kylix with the subject of Patroklos, in red figures of the strong style. He was, perhaps, a Korinthian.^ The name of 1 AINIAAE2 ErPA(*2EN), Cat. Dur., 1002 ; Gerhard, Neuerw. Denkm., 16G3. 2 AMA2I2 ErPA*2E KAI EHOIESEN, Cat. Dub., 62 ; Campanari, Intorno i Vasi, pp. 87-89. 3 AMA2I5 EFPA^EN -KAI EHGIE- 2EN EME, Campanari, s. 88 ; Brit. Mu3., no. 641*. * API2TO*ANE2 ErPA*E, Gerhard, Triukschale und Gefasse, ii. ; Clarac, Cat., p. 240 c ; Lctronne, Explic, p. 29 ; bull., 1839, pp. 52, 53. * A22TEA2 ErPA*E, Millingen, Anc. Uned. Mon. i. p. 07, pi. 27; Peint. d. Vases Grecs, pi. 46 ; Gal. Myth., cxiv. 444 ; Panof ka, s. 37 ; ErPA4>E ; Buckh, Corp, Inscr. Grsec, i. p. 42 ; Clarac, Cat., 58; Panofka, s. 36; Brunn, ibid., 661. « BPYL05 ErPA^ Gerhard, Ann., 1831, 162, n. 546; Cat. Can., 12 Cent., No. 8; Vas. Cat., B. M., p. 271, No. 823; Micali, Storia, tav. xe. 1 ; Panof ka, Taf. iii. 4. '8 Gerhard, Ann., 1831, p. 180, 727; Clarac, Cat., 103, 240 m. ; Cat. Dub., 174. •» Cat. Can., 124. 20 Panof ka, Cab. Pourtales, PI. 41. 2' Gerhard, Ann., 1831, p. 180, 729. -^ Gerhard, Neuerworb. Vasen., 1606; Coll. Feoli, p. 113, No. 58. 350 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. also painted a jpelike with the subject of a marriage.^ The painter Epilyhos is known from a cup with red figures, having for its subject Herakles contending with the Acheloos.^ The name of Smikythos appears on his vases. The potter Eu^phro- nios also painted vases with red figures in a style rather grand- iose and strong than elegant, as appears from the cups witli the subjects of Herakles and the boar, and Antaios, scenes of armed warriors, Achilles, the capture of Dolon, drinking scenes, of Troilos, and females reposing.^ The name of Erothemis appears on his vases, and he worked for Chachrylion. Euthy- mides, son of Polios, another painter, whose name is found upon amphorae, with red figures having for their subjects Hektor arming,* and Paris, lyrists,^ was the contemporary of Euphro- nios, of wliom he was jealous, since upon one vase he has written, "Euphronios never did so well ;"^ on the Jiydria with the subject of Paris is the name of the youthful Sostratos,^ and Smikythos. The potter Exehias also exercised the painter's art, and ranks, perhaps, as the best known artist of vases with black figures. The most celebrated of his efforts are the amphorae found at Vulci, and now in the Vatican, representing Achilles and Ajax playing at dice before Troy,^ and the departure of Kastor;^ also one in the British Museum with the subject of Dionysos teaching Oinopion the art of making wine,^° and the death of Penthesilea. Other vases have Herakles and the lion, also Gorgon, the return of the Dioskouroi, arming of war- riors. His style, though rigid, is exceedingly elegant and finished in details, so as to become almost florid. The name of Onetorides, a youth, is mentioned on his vase. The name of Hermonax is known from an am^plioreuSy with red figures of the hard school representing a homos.^^ The name of the painter > Gerhard, Neuerw, Denk., s. 31, « H02 OvAEnOT Ev«l>PONI02,Bull., No. 1606. ' 1830, pp. 140, 143 ; G. A. V., clxxviii. ; 2 BruDn., ibid., 674. Campanaii, p. 99 ; Eochette, Lettre a 3 Cf. Ev*P0NI02 ErPA*2EN, Cat M. Schorn, 8 ; Bull. Fer., 1831, p 153. Can., 87, n. 568 ; Gerhard, Ann., 1831, ' Dubois, Notice d'une Coll. d. Vases Nos. 403, 824 ; Panofka, Taf. iv. 3, pp. du Pr. de Canino, No. 41 ; De Witte, 10, 11. ; Cat. du Pr. de Canino, 71. * Mus. Etr., 1836 ; Gerhard, Ann., ' EK2EKIA2 ErPA*2E KAnOE- 1831, p. 178, No. 698; Ev0vMIAE2 2EME, or ErPA*2E KAnOE2E. HO nOAIO ErPA4>2EN, Panofka, s. 3 ; Welcker, A. Lit. Zeit., 1836, i. 526; Brunn, ibid., p. 686. 5 Gerhard, 1. c.; Eochette, Bull., Fe- » M. G. ir., liii. 1 a. '« Gerhard, Ann., 1831, p. 179, No. 709* ; Cat. Dur., 389 ; G. A. V., cevi. " HEPMONAK2 ErPA*2EN. Cam- russac, 1831, 153; Cat. Can., 146. pana Collection ; Brunn, ibid., p. 194. CiiAP. VII!. KLTTTAS, ONESTMOS, &c. 351 Hegias is found upon a lehjthos, with black figures, discovered in tlie sepul(!lires of Aigina, and of tlie usual unfinished style of that island.^ That of the painter Hyjms occurs on some hydriai, with red figures, representing the arming of the Amazons, a race of boys on horseback, and a quadriga.^ The artist Klitias painted the celebrated Franqois vase now at Florence, ornamented with black figures, and containing a complete Epos of subjects ^ connected with the history of Achilles. Lasimos, formerly read Aisimos or Alsimos, is known from the amphora with handles a rotelle in the Louvre, with red figures of a good style, but of the Decadence, representing the death of Astyanax or Archemos.* A painter of the name of Onesimos ^ decorated some vases with black figures for the potter Euphronios. In connection with the potter Hischylos, already mentioned, Fheidippos painted a cup of red and black figures in a style not remarkably fine, with subjects of youths and athletes.® Fhiltias, another painter of the fine style of red figures, worked for the potter Deiniades, for whom he painted scenes of hydriopliorai, or water drawing.^ Herakles and Alkyoneus, the contest of the same for the tripod, and the name of the youthful Megakles is found upon his vases. Fhrynos is known from a cup with black figures, on wdiich is the birth of Athene, and a scene supposed to represent her reconciliation with Poseidon.^ P,o li[gnoto s ^ is known as a painter of vases with red figures, which are rather careless in their treatment, of the commencement of the style and time of the decadence. His name appears on a vase on which is ' Stackelberg, Die Graber, i. 25G ; pp. 21, 22 ; EriA2 EFPA. 2 HT«I>2I2 ErPA*2EN, Gerhard, Ann., 1831, 178, No. 697 ; Bull., 1821), p. 109; Clarac, Cat., 133 ; G. A. V., ciii. ; Cam- 87 ter; Clarae, Cat., 161; Mus. Etr., 1611; Gerhard, Ann., 1831, p. 180, n. Campanari, p. 88. « Gerhard, Ann., 1831, p. 180, n. 718, 722 ; Campanari, p. 88; *EIAin02 panari, p. 88. i EFFACE, Cat. Vas. Brit. Mas., p. 295, 2 KAITIA2 ErPA*2EN, Braun, An. ■ No. 841. 1848,299; Moir., iv., liv.-Ixix. | ^ Can. 1^ Cent., n. 18,74; Gerhard, * AA2IM02 EFPATE, Millin., Vases ' Ann., 1831, p. 178, Nos. 719, 728 ; [*IA] Ant., i., p. 60 ; ii., p. 37 ; Visconti, \ TIA2 ErPA«I»2EN, or rather [KP]ITIA2 ; Opera Var., iv., p. 258 ; Winckeliuann, j Birch, Class. Mus., 1848, pp. 99, 102. Mon. In , 143. This name has been read | « *PTN02 ErPA*2EN, Cat. Dur., Lasimos or /Esimos. Clarac, Catalogue des Artistes, 16mo, Paris, 1849, 30, 248; Panof ka, s. 37 ; Brunn, ibid., 705. 5 ONE21M02 ErPA«I>2E, Cat. Dub., No. 21. 9 nOAYrNnT02 EPPA^FEN, Cat. Dur., 362 ; Kochette, p. 66. 352 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. represented the death of Kainens/ and an amphora on which is the sacrifice of a bull.^ It is written in an indistinct, blotted manner, very different from that in which the names of the other artists are inscribed. Pothinos painted a Jcylix of black figures, the subject of which is Peleus and Thetis.^ Praxias, another artist's name, is found on a small vase with red figures, representing Achilles delivered by Peleus into the charge of Chiron.* An Athenian painter, named Psiax,^ who worked for the potter Hilinos, or Philinos, has inscribed his name upon a leliythos, ornamented with black figures, representing a Baccha- nalian subject. The artist Python is known from a crater with red figures, on which is depicted the apotheosis of Alkmena. His style is remarkably careful, but somewhat rigid.^ Sahonides painted vases with black figures for the potters Tlenpolemos ' and Hischylos.^ Timonides is named on a bottle found at Kleonai in Argolis, on a vase of old style kind of bottle, Achilles pursuing Troilos, Priam, Hermes, the horses Asobas and Xanthos, Troilos, Achilles and paidotribos.^ * Cat. Dur., 362 ; Rochette, p. m. 2 Vas. Cat., Brit. Mus., p. 220, No. 755. 3 nEI0INO2 ErPA*2EN, Gerhard, Berl. Ant. Bild., No. 1005; Panofka, s. 5, Taf. i. 2 ; Gerhard, Tiinkschalen, Taf. xiii.-xiv. xv. 4 Panofka, s. 30 ; Mus. Etr., 1500, p. 135; Raoul Rochette, p. 57; nPAXIAS ErPA*2E. 5 «I»2IAX2 ErPA*2EN, Crenzer, Ein alt athenisehe Gefass, Leipz. imd Darmst., 1832; Deutsch. Schrift., Bd. iii., No. 1, 8. 6, a. flf.; Panofka, s. IG- 17 ; Taf. iii. 9, 10. ® Millingen, Nonv. Ann., i. 495. " IAK0NIAE2 ErPA*2EN EME, Ann., 1831, p. 178, No. 693, p. 180, No. 729 ; Clarac, p. 301 ; Campanari, p. 88 ; Brunn, ibid., p. 732. 8 Panofka, s. 30. 9 De Witt(^, Rev. Arch., 18G3, p. 274. TIMONIAA2 MErPA4>E. Chap. IX. CIVIL AND DOMESTIC USE OF VASES. 353 CHAPTER IX. Uses of Vases — Domestic use — Vases for liquids : for the Table ; for the Toilet — Toys — Decorative Vases — Prizes — Marriage Gifts — Millingeii's division of Sepulchral Vases — Grecian usage — Names and shapes of Vases — The Pithos — Pithakne — Staranos — Hyrche — Lagynos — Askos — Amphoreus — Pelike — Kados — Hydria — Kalpis — Krossos — Kothon — Rliyton — Bessa — Bombylios — Lekythos — Olpe — Alabastron — Krater — Oxybaphon — Hypo- kratL-riou — Kelt-be — Psykter — Dinos — Cliytia — Thermauter — Thermopotis — Tri pous — Holmos — Chy tropous — Lasanon — Chous — Oiiiochoe — Prochoos — Epichysis — Aiytuina — Aryballos — Arysticlios, aryter, arytis, &c. — Oine- rysis — Etnerysis — Zomerysis — Hemikotylion — Kotyliskos — Kyathos — Loutei ion — Asaminthos — Puelos — Skaphe — Skapheion — Exaleiptron — Lekane — Lekanis — Lekaniskos — Podaiiipter — Cheironiptron — Holkion — Perirhanteriun — Ardanion, or Ai dalion — Excellence of the Greek cups — The Depas — Aleison — Kissybion — Kypellon — Kymbion — Skyphos ony ehionos — Ooskyphion — Bromias — Kantharos — Karche»ion — Kylix — Therikleios — Hedypotis — Rhodiake — Antigonis — Seleukis — Phiale — Phiale Lepaste — Akatos — Trieres — Kanoun — Pinax — Phthois — Petachiiun — Labron'a — GyaLis — Kerns — Vases for Food — Kanoun — Pinax — Diskos — Lekanis — Paropsis — Oxis — Embaphion — Eieus — Kypselis — Kyminodokos — Try blion — Oxybathon. As most of tlie vases hitherto known have been discovered in sepulchres, it would, at first sight, appear that their destination was for the dead ; but this seems to have been a subsequent use of them, and many, if not all, were employed for the pur- poses of life. The celebrated Panathenaic vase, for example, discovered at Athens, liad been bestowed as a prize upon the illustrious person to whose ashes it was afterwards appropriated. Many other instances miglit be cited. It has been supposed that the large vases were dedicated to the gods in the various shrines of Greece and Rome, as by the Metapontines in their Naos at Olympia, and by the Byzantians in the chapel of Hera. Vases of large size, painted carefully with a principal figure on one side, and having on tlie other figures carelessly drawn, as if intended to be placed against a wall, D'Hancarville considers peculiarly adapted for such uses, as the rooms of Roman villas were far too small to hold them.^ As the civil and domestic use of vases is the most important, it is • D'Hancarville, ii. G8, 02. 2 A 354 GREEK POTTERY. Tart II. necessary to consider it first. It is indicated by their style and shape. The use of earthenware amongst the Greeks was pre- valent for ordinary purposes as at tlie present day, and the word heramion, like the Latin testa, meant a cask or vessel which transported wine," and even the measure of an. amphora ; ^ figs, oil, honey, flesh, shells of the pearl oysters, are known to have been kept in earthenware vessels.^ The painted vAare was not employed for the viler purposes, nor to contain large quan- tities of liquids, for which it was far too expensive, but chiefly for entertainments and the triclinia of the wealthy. The exceedingly porous nature of these vases, and the difificuhy of cleaning them internally, have led some writers to assert that they were ornamental. They are, however, seen in use in scenes painted on the vases themselves.^ Thus, in the scene of the Harpies plundering the table of the blind Phineus, a painted skyphos with figures is seen in the liands of the aged king ; a female in a farewell scene pours a libation of wine out of an amphora with black figures, and another ornamented with painted figures is seen upon the top of a column. Several other instances are depicted on the vases themselves. The residuum of water has also been found in some vases.* These vases were used for liquids. Th'e hydriai, or water- vases, went to the well, and the various kinds of amphorae served for carrying wine about at entertainments. Those (tailed krateres were used to mix wine, and the jpsyhter, or cooler, to prepare it for drinking. In jugs called oinochoia and oIj)ai, also of painted ware, wine was drawn from the kraters, which was then poured into various painted cups, as the skyjplios, the Tcylix, the hantharos, and the rhyta, horns or beakers, which were the most common. A kind of cup, called the kyatliis, also of painted ware, was likewise used. The cup called jphiale was employed in religious rites. The vases used upon the table were the joinax, or plate, a vase supposed to be the lehane, or tureen, and certain dishes called tryhlia, generally of ruder material and manufacture than the others. One of the most remarkable of these vases is the hirnos. Besides the.^table, others were employed for the service of the toilet, as the pyxis, 1 Aristot. Cat., 12 ; Polyb., iv. £6. * For this question see Dei Vasi 2 Demosthenes, Lacrit., p. 934; Plato, | Greclii comunemente ohiamati Etrus- Sympos., viii. 3, 2 ; Pliny, Nat. Hist., | che, 8vo, Palermo, 1823 ; and La Storia ix. 55. I dei Vasi Fittili, 8vo, Roma, 1832, p. 26. ^ Inghirami, Vasi Fittili, Taf. i. xxxii. I Chap. IX. PRIZE VASES. 355 the hylichne, tlie tri/podiskos, the alahastron, the lekytJws, and the aryhallos. Vases were also used as toys. This class is comparatively small, but its existence is proved by the discovery of several little vases in the sepulchres of children at Athens, on which are depicted children playing at various games ; whilst others are so extremely small that they could not possibly have answered any useful purpose. Among them may be cited those in the shape of animals, as apes, elephants, bulls, rams, stags, and hogs ; imitations of crab's claws and of the astragalos, or knuckle-bone ; and other vessels, containing brazen balls, which produced a rattling sound when shaken. There can be no doubt that many of the vases, especially those of later style, were used for decorative purposes, although the employment of them is not expressly mentioned in ancient authors ; it is, how- ever, partly evident, from the fact of one side only being executed with care, whilst the other has been neglected, both in the drawing and in the subject. On the later vases, too, are depicted vases of large proportions, resting upon columnar stands in interiors. One of the noblest uses to which terra-cotta vases were applied was as prizes given to the victors in the public games. These prizes, called athla, besides the honorary crowns, armour, and tripods, and other valuable objects, were occasionally fictile vases, and even coins.^ Certain vases bear- ing the inscription '* From Athens," or " Prizes from Athens," seem to have been given to the victors in the pentathla, or courses of athletic exercises in the Panathenaia, and are men- tioned by Pindar. Some of these vases, which are principally in the old style, are of two sizes, the greater given for the athletic and the lesser for musical contests. It is also possible that some of the uninscribed vases of similar designs and shapes may have been distributed as rew^ards in local games. Some of the vases also on which the name of a youth, accompanied with the word Jcalos, occurs, may have been given as prizes in the training-schools of athletes. It has been supposed that certain vases were intended for presentation ag marriage gifts. But tlie information to be obtained from classical authors on this point is by no means clear ; and no satisfactory conclusion can Ibe drawn from the circumstance that some of the subjects depicted on them appear to allude to marriages. The last use for which vases were employed, and that to which ' Brondsted on Panathenaic Vases, in tho Tians. Roy. Soc. Lit., 4to, London, 1834, vol. ii. p. 102. 2 A 2 356 GEEEK POTTERY. Part II. their preservation is due, was for sepulchral purposes. The principal modes in which they are found deposited in the toinbs has been already shown. Some which were employed for the nekrodeipnon, or rites of the dead, were no doubt placed by preference. Other vases probably held the milk, oil, perfumes, and other liquids which were poured upon the corpse, or retained the lustral water placed at the entrance of the sepulchre. Others contained the food of the funereal feast, and viands such as eggs have been occasionally found in these, painted as in plain vases. Favourite vases of the deceased, and those which were par- ticularly used by the dead during life, were also probably placed with the remains. The prize vases which he had gained were also generally, if not always, interred with the dead, as were the small toy vases of children which were laid with them. Vases employed in the ceremonies and different operations of the funereal rites, and subsequently broken, were probably gathered up and deposited in the tomb. They were also em- ployed as shrouds or coflQns to hold the ashes of the dead, and small objects, such as the oholos, placed in the jaws for the fare, naulos, of Charon in Hades. At the earliest period of Greece, vases were not employed to hold the ashes of the dead. Those, for example, of the oldest style found at Athens, and at Vulci, do not contain ashes. In the Etruscan cemeteries, the dead were not burnt, but laid at full length, with all their personal ornaments, their furniture, their arms, and their vases. Althouo^h in the heroic ai^res-bodies were burnt, the remains are not stated to have been deposited in earthen vessels. Those of Patroklos^ were collected in a golden dish, caretully covered with a garment and layer of fat which was folded; and those of Achilles were placed in the golden amphora^ given by Dionysos to Thetis;^ but the ima- gination of poets constantly dreams of gold which they do not possess. In the fictitious account of the death of Orestes, intro- duced into the * Elektra' of Sophokles, the expression, " his fine form circled by the naiTow brass"* of a hydria, shows this use of metallic vases. The custom prevailed amongst the Eomans of employing fictile vases exclusively for religious rites, amongst which that of interment was included. Hence the use of the beautiful vases imported from Greece for funeral purposes, and ' 11., xxiii. 211-258. Schol. ad euiul. ' xxiii. 1, 91. ' Q. Calab. r. iii. TH. * V. 760. Soliol. u(l eund. Ihap. IX. SI^:PULCHHAL VASKS. 357 fter tlie due performance of libations,^ the vases so employed fere tlirown away, and left broken in the corners of sepulchres. [umerous specimens of vases thus used have been found, espe- Kally oinoclioai and hijlihes. Other vases of considerable size, [nd wliich certainly had not been so employed, were deposited tombs as the most acceptable offerings to the deceased, jcalling to the mind of the shade the joy and glory of his life, le festivals that he had shared, the hetairai with whom he had Ived, the Lydian airs that he had heard,^ and the games that le had seen or taken part in. Those vases were selected which rare most appropriate for funeral purposes, or to contain the lilk, oil and wine, which were placed on the bier, with their Jacks inclined to the corpse, in order that the liquid should run 'er it while in the fire ; those used at the perideipnon, or last ipper, in which the food of the deceased was placed at his pde;^ and a vase, called the ardanion, which held the lustral ^ater, placed at the door of a house where a death had taken place.* Alter the earliest or heroic ages, and during the period of the old vases with black figures, the Grreeks appear to have used them for holdins^ the ashes of the dead. A vase of the shape of the lebeSy probably a Tcrater, found near the Piraios, which once held the ruby wine at festive triclinia, and which was decorated with drinking-scenes, also held ashes. Of vases with red figures, one representing Theseus and the Amazonomachia, discovered in Sicily, and the celebrated vase discovered carefully deposited inside another at Nola, and now in the Museo Borbonico, also held the ashes of the dead. The prize vases at Athens also held the ashes of the illustrious dead, who had won them in the games. At Athens it was the custom to place a fictile lehythos on the breast of those interred entire, while the use of fictile canopi among the Etruscans shows that Greek vases must have been sometimes so used by them. In the celebrated vase representing the death of Archemoros, two persons are seen carrying two tables laden with vases to the tomb, while an oinochoe is placed under the funeral couch.^ xAfter the uses of these vases it is necessary to give some account of the names of ancient vases, and their supposed iden- tification with the specimens which have been found. It is impossible, however, to enter here into any critical dissertation. ' Millingen, Intiod. iii. 2 Thiersch, 1. c, s. 25. ' Millingen, Introcl. iii. * Thiersch, s. 22-3. * Gerhard, 11 vaso di Archemoros, Fnghirami, iv. colxxi. 358 ' GREEK POTTERY. Tart II or to attempt to reconcile the contending opinions of those critics who have written on tlie snbject ; and the curious reader must be referred to those works/ which have already treated on the subject in all its details. Great doubts obscure the subject of the names of ancient vases, owing to the difference of time between the authors by whom they are mentioned, the difficulty of explaining types by words, the ambiguity of describing the shape of one vase by the name of another, and the difference of dialects in which the names are found. The names of vases used by Homer and the earlier poets cannot on any just principles of criticism be applied to any but the oldest ones. Those of the second and later age must be sought for in the contemporaneous writers. The first source is the vases themselves, from which, however, only a few examples can be gathered, namely, one from having the inscription AIONT^IOT A AAKTeOS, " the lehijthos of Dionysios," on a vase of that shape ; and from another having KHOISO^ON- TOS H KTAIH, '*the cup of Kephisoplion"^ and HMIKOTT- AION incised on a two-handled cup. The next source is, the names attached to vases in the paintings, among which the word HTAPIA^ occurs written over a broken three-handled pitcher. Another source is an examination of the names inscribed by potters on the feet of certain vases, as KPATEPE^, hraters ; OHTBAA, oxijba^pha; XTTPI(A), pots; KTAI[KES], cwps; AHK[T6)OI], cruets, but the relation of the inscriptions to the forms is very doubtful.'^ The various scholia written at different ages, and often em- bodying fragments of lost books, have 6ccasional notices of rases. Those upon Aristophanes are the most important in this respect. Hesychios, Photios, the Etymologicum Magnum, Suidas, and others, Yarro, Festus, Macrobius, and Isidorus of * Panofka, Kecberches sur les v^ri- tables Noms des Vases Grecs, &c., fob, Paris, 1829. Letronne, Observations sur les Nonas des Yases Grecs a I'occasion de I'ouvrage de M. Tbeodore Panofka, 4to, Paris, 1833. Letronne, Suppl. aux Observations, Dec. 1837, Jan. 1838. Gerbard, Kapporto Volcente ; Berlins Ussing, De Nomiuibus vasorum GrsB- corum disputatio, 8vo, Haunise, 1844. Thiersch, Ueber die hellenischen be- malten Vasen, c. ii. s. 26 in the Abb. d. philos. philolog. CI. d. konig. Bayer. Ak. d. Wiss. 4to. Munich, 1844. ^ Ussing, De Nomin., p. 24. ^ Monumenti, iv. liv. Iv. antike Bildwerke, s. 188-342, u. f. | 4 Ussing, 1. e. p. 8. Cf. Chapter on ITltime Kicerche suUe forme dei Vasi Inscriptions. Gyec. Ant. torn. viii. 1836, p. 147. Jhap. IX. VASES FOR niESERVING. 359 Seville, also contain notices of the shapes of vases. Among lodern archa3ologists, Panof'ka was the first to propose an lentification of the shapes of the fictile vases found in the jpulchres of Greece and Italy, and the question has been dis- cussed by the critics already mentioned. In order not to embarrass the subject with constant references and critical liscussion we shall only mention those vases which are the lost important, and the sliape of wliich has been the most Ltisfactorily proved. With regard to tlieir shapes, vases may be divided into — 1. Those in which liquids were preserved ; 2. Those in which liquids were mixed or cooked ; 3. Those by which liquids were poured out and distributed. 4. Those for storing liquids and food till wanted for use. Some classification of shapes according to their uses has been attempted, such as those of vases in which liquids were preserved, others in which they were mixed or cooked, those by which they were poured out or distributed, vases in fact for the table and other purposes, and vases for storing liquids, food, and other substances. But a really critical classification should b3 according to their age, or at all events should trace the development and first appearance of each type from its earliest appearance. Those for the preservation of food will be now detailed. The chief vase of this class was the jpitlios, or cask ; a very large jar with wide-open mouth, and lips inclined outwards, .sometimes provided with two handles. It held the water drawn by the Danaids, and is represented on vases ; and Eurys- theus threw himself into it, on vases. That of the Kentaurs which held their wine is also represented. It had a cover. It held figs or wine, and was placed in the earth in the wine- cellar, propped up with reeds and earth. Its shape resembles that of a modern jar, and the few examples which remain are in the plain unglazed ware, or in the tall Etruscan vases of red ware, with subjects in relief.^ The pithahne was a vase smaller than the jpitlios. In such vases the Athenians are supposed by some to have lived during the war of the Peloponnese, if indeed the word does not refer to caverns. The pithahne appears, from allusions in the Comic poets, to have been used for holding ' Ussing, p. 32 ; Panofka, Recherche?, i. 1 ; ii. 2 ; Visconti, M. P. Clem., t. iv. xxi.-vi. ; Winckolmann, Mon. In. 360 GREEK POTTERY. Part U. No, 140. — Stamnos. wine at festivals. It was of baked earth.^ Its shape is unknown. The stamnos was a vase used to hold wine and oil. It was a jar with two small ear-shaped handles, and decorated with red figures upon a black ground.^ It is often found in the sepul- chres of Northern and Southern Italy. A good reason for believing that this is the shape of the stamnos, is, that vases of this fiojure are still called stamnoi in Greece.^ Those with smaller bellies are the che- roulia. The Mhos was a vase with han- dles, like the stamnos, which held figs and wine.* The name of ApuUan stamnos has been applied to a vase with double upright handles, chiefly of the later style, with jed figures, and having a vaulted cover, which is sometimes sur- mounted by a second vase, of the shape called the lejpaste. They are among the latest efibrts of the fictile art, and are only found in Southern Italy. The hyrche was apparently a kind of amphora with a narrow neck, in which many things were imported from Athens, and which served to hold the tickets used in drawing lots.^ It seems to have been a large kind of vase. The lagynos was also a vase of considerable size, which among the Patrenses held twelve heminai. Nikostratos mentions one three times greater than usual ; and Lynkeus of Samos introduced the custom of placing one beside each guest. At a later period, it appears to have had a long narrow neck.® It is the bottle which, in the fables of ^sop, the stork is represented as setting before the fox at dinner. Many terra-cotta vases are imitations of the asTcos, or wine- skin, which was usually made of the skin of a goat, the apertures of the legs being sewn up, and the neck, which formed the mouth, secured with a thong. In the terra-cotta imitations the mouth is open, and the four feet below, while a handle passes over the body to the neck. Certain small vases with one handle and about a foot long, when of unglazed ware, are supposed to represent ashoi. This shape is often decorated with figures of animals or men in red colour, and occa- No. 141. — Askos. ' TJssing, p. 33 ; Panof ka, Kech. iii. 2. 2 Gerhard, Berlins Aut. Bild. s. 356; TJssing, p. 35 ; Gerhard, Ult. Kich, Xo. 16. 3 Thiersch, 36. ^ Ussing, 1. c. ' Ussing, p. 35 ; Panof ka, iii. 26. « Ussing, p. 36; Panof ka, v. 100; Athenseu?, xi. 499. ?HAP. IX. VARIOUS KINDS OF AMPHOIL 301 jionally also tlie second ; wliile there is a variety decorated at the upper part with a medallion in relief, and has the body ?eded. These are supposed to have been lani})s, or else de- dinned for holdino: oil.^ Perhaps of all the ancient vases the amphoreus, amphiphoreuSy )r amphora is the best known. It consists of an oval or pyri- )rm body, with a cylindrical neck and two handles, from ?hich it derives its name, viz., from amj^hi pherOy '* to carry fcout." Those deposited in cellars generally had their bases ^xtremely pointed, and were fixed into the earth.^ They were >f great size, and contained large quantities of wine, honey, oil, ish, dried and green fruit, sand,^ eatables, and coin. Originally [be amphora seems to have been a liquid measure, holding light congii. It was always fictile, but its shape varied. The fainted amphorae were generally provided with flat circular feet. They are divided into several kinds. The amphora,^ called Egyptian, the body of which is long and rather elegant, the handles small, and the foot tapering. The Panathenaic ^am- phora, resembling the former in shape, except that the mouth is smaller and narrower, and the general form thinner. The shape of this vase is also represented on a monument commemo- rating athletic victories.^ They much resemble those represented on the coins of Athens. There are some varieties of this type without the usual representations of Pallas Athene and athletic subjects. The most remarkable of them is that discovered by Mr. Burgon.'^ The amphora called Tyrrhenian differs only in its general proportion from the two preceding kinds, the body being thicker and the mouth wider. The subjects on these vases are arranged as in the Panathenaic ones, in a kind of square picture at each side. The neck is sometimes ornamented with » Ussing, pp. 37, 38 ; Panof ka, ii. 43 ; vi. 10 ; Letronne, Jour. d. Sav., 1833 ; p. 684; 1837, p. 749; Gerhard, Ult. Ricerche, Ann. 183G, No. 40-41 ; Beil. Ant. Bikl., s. 366, 5, 40, 41. ^ Ussing, p. 38 ; Gerhard, Berlins Antike Bildwerke, s. 345. ' Cicero in Verrem, ii. 74, 183 ; Homer, II., xxiii. 170 ; Martial, xiii. 103 ; Homer, Odyss., ii. 290, 349, 379 ; ix. 164, 204. * Gerhard, Berlins Ant. Bild., 346. ^ Ibid. ; Panofka, Rech., i. 6 ; Annali, 1831, 229; Panofka, p. 16; Mon., i. xxi. xxii. « Caylus, vi. 3, pi. 56 ; Stuart, Athen., i. 1, XX. ; Rhangabe', Antiq. Hell. ii. 6g9. ^ Millingen, Anc. Un. Mon., pi i. ii. ill. p. 1 and foil. According to the Scholiast of Plato (Charmides, id. Bek- ker, 8vo, Lond. 1824, p. 17, n. 126), the contest in the Panathenaia was one of boys, who received for th< ir reward oil, an amphora, and an olive crown. They contended as in the Isthmian games. 362 GREEK POTTERY. Tart. IT. No. 142.— Bacchic Amphora. the double lielix or chain, and the foot has tlie petals. Under the handles is sometimes an anteiixal ornament. Many of these vases are decorated with figures of the usual style in black upon a red ground. They are principally found in Etruiia. Another class of these amphorae, with black figures, has a broad, flat handle like a riband, the edges being raised. The Dionysiac amphora^ is the most prevalent type at tlie best period of the vases with bhnck figures. The neck of these vases is larger and taller in pro- portion to the body than the preceding, and the handles are not cylindrical but ribbed, having been produced from a mould. They are from five to twenty inches high. The character of the Nolan amphorae differs so essentially from that of the preceding, that they have been conventionally called Nolan amphorae. The body is larger than that of the Etruscan or Dionysiac amphorae ; the handles are not reeded but flat ribands ; the whole vase, except the subject painted on it, is black, and has generally but few figures at each side. It is often provided with a convex cover and a stud.^ Another variety of this form, with twisted handles, is produced by •rolling up the paste. Some slight variety ^ occurs in the feet. This kind of vase, in elegance of shape, is the finest production of the potter's skill; while the exquisite black varnish and high finish render it the admiration of all lovers of ancient art. The amphora, called Ajpulian from the circumstance of its being found only in Apulia, has a thick and overlapping mouth like an inverted cone. The neck is not cylindrical, but slopes upon the shoulders, and the body is more egg-shaped.* Its style, varnish, and abundance of white colour, are all peculiar to "the latter class of vases. There is also a vase of elegant shape, called the Candelabrum Amphora, with cylindrical body, spiral handles, tall neck, and narrow lip and mouth, w^hich is always of the latest style. Some of these vases — as, for example, » Gerhard, Berlins A. B., s. 347; Annali, 1831,p. 231. 2 Ibid., s. 348, 5, 6. 3 Ibid., 8. 348, 5, 6. * Gerhard, Berlins A. B., s. 349, No. 7, ;nAi* IX. APULTAN AMPHORA— PELIKE. ^63 me in the British Museum — appear from having a hole at the bottom, to have been used as a decoration on the top of a pilaster or cohimn. Its complex sliape seems imitated from metal-work.^ A remarkably fine vase of this shape from the Temple collection at the British Museum has its handles and feet ornamented with moulded floral ornaments. It was found at Euvo. Similar to this, but of a still later style, is the am- phora with sieve-shaped handles. These are tall and angular, rising above the mouth, and curved upwards at the bottom. On each handle are three semicircular studs.^ The amphora, when (;omplete, had a cover of the same material as the vase, sur- mounted by a stud or button with which to raise it. An am- phora in the Berlin Museum had a double cover, an inner one of alabaster, over which was placed another of terra-cotta.^ The ]pelihe was a later kind of amphora, with a swelling base, two rather large handles, and red figures, principally of the later style, or that called Apulian. It is rarely found with black figures. The name, however, is doubtful.'^ Next in order are the vases employed for drawing liquids, of which there are some varieties. The hados, or cask, a name given, according to Kallimachos, to all pottery, was used at banquets. It appears also to have been employed as a situla, or bucket, and it is possible that the deep semi-oval vase of pale varnish, and generally with figures of a late style, either embossed or painted, was the kados.^ It is very similar to certain bronze vessels w Inch seem also to have been kadoi or Icadishoi. In the *Eirene'^ of Aristophanes, Trygaios persuades a helmet-seller to clap two handles on a helmet and convert it into a kados.^ The Jiijdria, or water vase, is known irom the word HTAPIA inscribed over a vase of this shape, on a painted vase, which Polyxene has let fall in going out of Troy to draw water from the fountain. It certainly appears on the heads of females in scenes of water-drawing. The ground of this vase is generally black, and it has two subjects — one on the shoul- der or neck, generally called the frieze ; the other, the picture on the body of the vase.^ These vases are mostly of the class • Gerhard, Berlins A. B., s. 350, No. 11. 2 ibij^ s 350^ j^T^, 12. 3 Ibid., s. 680. 13; Thiersch, fig. 12. ^ Thiersch, fig. 12, makes this the autliou. « Gerhard, Berl. A. B., s. 349, No. 8. » Ussing, p. 43 ; Gerhard, Berlins * Cf. Ussing, 1. e. 40 ; Aristoph., Eccl., 1002 ; Athenseus, iv. 102, d. * 1258. Cf. Panof ka, Recherche:*, ii. Antike Bildwerke, s. 350; Panof ka, i. 11 ; Aiinali, 1831, 241 ; Letronne, p. 10, 54. 864 GREEK POTTERY. Part 1 1. No. 143.— Hydria. with blaclv figures — but some rare examples with red figures have been found at Yulci. The two small side handles are cylindrioal ; the larger ones are riband-lihe or moulded, and have a small head moulded at the point of union. The hydria was em- ployed for holding water, oil, the votes of judges, and the ashes of the dead, and was often made of bronze. It is called by the Italians vaso a tre maniche. Many fine paint- ings and interesting subjects are found on vases of this shape. The haljpis was essen- tially a water vase, and only a later modifica- tion of the hydria ; the body being rounder, the neck shorter, and the handles cylindrical. It was generally used for drawing water, but unguents, and the lots of the judges, were often placed in it.^ This form of vase is principally found in the sepulchres of Southern Italy, while the older type, or hydria, ^ ./r^^m'i,H'm \\^\\\\Si\^t^ comes chiefly from Vulci. Kalli machos alludes to vases of this shape on the top of the Parthenon ; and Pindar mentions them at an earlier period.^ Of other vases of this class are the following : — the Jcrcssos, a two-handled vase for drawing water, the shape of \a hich is unknown :^ the Jcothon, also of unknown shape, almost seems to have been a Lacedfemonian name for a military cup used for drinking water, and adapted by its recurved month to strain ojff the mud.* Some have conjectured it to be the teacup- shaped vase with horizontal handles. Probably a kind of cup No. 144.— Kalpis. ^ Ussing, p. 46 ; Panof ka, p. 8, pi. vi. 4, 5 ; Aimali, 1831, 241 ; Thiersch, p. 37. 2 Pindar, O., vi. 68. ^ Ussing, p. 49. * Ussing, pp. 55, 56; Pan.fka, Rech., , 72 ; Letronne, p. 7M2 ; Thiersch, IV s. 33. I Chap. IX. DRINKING-CUPS. 365 I with lips recurved inwards answers to the description of the kotli- on. Tiie rliyton is well known, and many examples occur. The great peculiarity of tliis vase was that it could not be set down without drink- ing the contents. It may be divided into two shapes : first, a cylindrical cup terminating in the head of an animal, and with a flat banded handle, the lip ^, , , ., ^ 11. 1 N). 145.— Skyphos, or Kothon. slightly expanding, in the second kind the body is fluted, longer, and more horn-like, and terminates in the head or fore part of an animal, which is pierced so as to let a jet of liquid flow out. Tliese vases sometimes have a small circular handle at the side, to suspend them to the wall. On the necks are subjects of little im- portance, and of a satiric or comic nature, in red upon a black ground, and of the later style of art ; the part forming the animal's head is often left plain or is red. Many are entirelv of terra-cotta. Tx /. • p"^! • No. 146.— Rhyton. It appears from a comparison or the specimens, that they terminate in horses, goats, Pegasoi, panthers, hounds, gryphons, sows ; heads of rams and goats, mules, dragons, deer, the horse, the ass, the cat, and the wolf. Similar ones, called gryphons or grypes, Pegasoi, and elephants, are mentioned in ancient authors. When not in actual use, they were placed on a peculiar stand and disposed on buffets, as appears from the vases found at Bernay. They were introduced at a late period into the ceramic art, and are evidently an imitation of the metallic rhyta in use among the Egyptians and Assyrians. They are first mentioned by Demosthenes : and it appears from Polybios that there were several statues of Klino, the cup-bearer of Ptolemy Philadelphus, holding a rhyton in his hand ; and one of Arsinoe Zephyritis holding the same vase. Only one maker of them, named Didymos, is known. A remarkable one found at Vulci has an Etruscan inscription in honour oi PhlunpJiluns, or Bacchus. An attempt has been made to identify the representations on these vases with the animals in whose heads they terminate.^ The hessa was an Egyptian vase, used by the Alexandrians. It is described as broad below and narrow above. Its Greek ^ Ussing, pp. 55, 62 ; Panofka, Rech., in the Abhandlung. d. Berlins K. Akn- .32-60; Gerhard, Berl. Ant. Bil.l., 366; dem, 4to, 1850, s. 1-38. Panofko, Die (iriechitohe Trinklmnior 366 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. No. 147. — Bombylios. shape is not known. Certain small vases are supposed to have been of the description called hombylios,^ so called from the cocoon shape or the buzzing, gurgling sound which the liquid made in dripping out of the mouth. It was mentioned by Antisthenes as narrow-necked and a kind of Jehjthos? It is sup- posed to be rej)resented by an egg-shaped ^ body and short neck with a small handle just enough for a strap. Vases of this kind are principally of the early Greek style, with brown figures on a cream-coloured ground. The ancient Egyptian hessa with the moulded head or figure of the god Bes has been already described amongst the Egyptian pottery. The lekythos, or cruet, was used for holding oil. It is princi- pally recognised by its tall cylindrical shape, long narrow neck, deep cup-shaped depression, and flat banded handle. It was often made of metal, but still more frequently of terra-cotta. It commences Avith the old period of vases with black figures, and terminates with the best red style and those with white grounds. A slight difference of shape is visible ; for, while on the older vases the shoulder is slightly convex, on the later ones it is flattened and the neck is taller. In the oldest style, figures are often placed on the shoulder instead of other ornaments. They principally come from Greece — especially Athens and Sicily, and are rarely found in the tombs of Vulci. They seldom exceed a foot in height.^ The earlier lehythoi have subjects embracing some of the myths of antiquity depicted in Y I 11 groups of many figures, while but few figures / \ // occur in those of the later sort. Lekythoi were chiefly used for holding oil, and were carried down to the gymnasium by means of a strap held in the hand to which a strigil was at- tached. The whole apparatus was called xijstro- leJcythion. A lehjthos of marble appears to have been sculptured or painted upon the steles of men. The No. 148.— Lekythos. No. 149.— Olpe. 1 Ussing, pp. 62-63 ; Yates, E., Text- lin. Antiq., p. 170. 2 Cf. Ussing, pp. 63-64 ; 3, Gerhard, Berl. Ant. Bild., s. 368, No. 48. 3 Panofka, v. 99 ; Amiali, 1831, 261 ; Lctionne, 51. * Gerhard, Berl. Ant. B:id., p. 367; Panofka, v. 93 ; Ussing, p. 67 ; Letronne, p. 616; Thiersch, s. 40; fig. 78-9; ArL«-t)ph., Eccles., 906; Batrach. 1224. JlIAP. IX. JUGS. 367 T\ No. 150.— A la- bastros. )eciiUar sepulchral character of the lehjthoi found at Athens las been already mentioned. The oljns is supposed to be a kind ►f oinochoe or wine }u^, or rather to be intermediate between the oinochoe and lehythos, bnt the identification of it seems to be rery doubtful. It is generally mentioned as a leather bottle or letallic vase like the oinochoe} It was used for holding oil [and wine, and is mentioned by the oldest authors. Sappho^ speaks of "Hermes holding an olpis and ministering wine to the gods ; '* and Ion of Chios ^ of " drawing wine in olpes from mighty kraters." Many of the lehythoi of a late period., espe- cially those fonnd in Magna Graecia, are moulded to represent comic or satirical subjects, such as a boy devoured by a sea-monster,'' a man bitten by a great bird,^ pigmies and cranes,^ a comic Herakles seated,^ a personage of the New Comedy,® a Nubian devoured by a crocodile, and Silenos reposing and drinking out of a wine-skin, — ideas derived from the New Comedy, and consonant with the decaying spirit of the age, no longer elevated by the heroic epos or the tragic drama, but seeking delight in the gro- tesque, the coarse, and the ridiculous. Tiie alabastros^ was used for holding unguents, oils, cosmetics and paint, and was a kind of lehijthos. Its name was derivetl from the material of which it was made, namely Oriental alabaster ; and some Egyptian vases of this shape are known, bearing the name of Pharaoh Necho. The terra-cotta vase is known from its resemblance to those in alabaster, and from its constant appearance in the pictures, on vases and other ornaments. Its body ^^ is an elongated cone, its neck short, its mouth small, and lips flat and disk-shaped ; sometimes it has a foot, and also two little projections to hold it without slipping, or to hang it up to a wall with a cord. These vases are very rarely No. 151.- Ala- bastron. * Ussing, p. G9 ; Schol. Theocrit. II. 156 ; Gerhard, Beil. Ant. Bild., s. 36."), Nos. 35-8G. 2 Atheiifcus, X., 425 d. 3 Ibid., 495 h. •» Gargiulo, Race. II., 10. » Ibid., 10. « Arcli. Anz., 1849, p. 60. ' Berlins Ant. Bild., N. 1961. * Arneth., Besch. d. K. K. Miinz und Ant. Cabin., pp. 16-196. See Jalni, Bericlite K. Saclis. Gesellscliaft, 1852, Feb. 8. 15-16. » Ussing, pp. 70-71 ; Herodot. iii., 20; Aristoph., Ach., 1053; Callimac;i., Pull., 15 ; Ceres, 13 ; Plutarch, Tiinol., 15; Theocrit., xv. 114; Cicero apud Non., 545 ; Martial, xi. 89 ; Pliny, N. H., 56-113. '° Gerhard, Berl. Ant. lUM., s. 369, No. 49-50. 368 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. No. 152.— Holmos. found in sepulclires ; some, however, occur eitlier with red or black figures, and often upon a cream-coloured ground, whilst others are of the Athenian white style. Their subjects chiefly relate to the domestic life of females, but some Bacchanalian and other subjects occur. No maker of them is known. The hrater may be considered the wine-cooler, in which tlie ancients mixed their wine with snow and water. It is distinguished from the amjphoreus by its larger size, its wider mouth, its semi-oval body, and its two handles for occasional transport, which were small, and almost vertical. Krateres are chiefly found in South Italy, and are always deco- rated with red figures. Of the earlier style of art are the so-called holmos, and the supposed Tcelehe, or kraterwith columnar handles. Ihe vase called oxuha2)lion, with red figures, is a very prevalent variety of this shape.^ It is doubtful whether the amphoise with volute or medallion handles are not kraters. The hypokraterion, or stand on which the vase was placed, was a hollow cylindrical foot, decorated with an egg-and- tongue moulding, and a reeded body, which raised the vase almost to the height of four feet. Several kinds of kraters are mentioned l)y ancient authors, — as the Lesbian, the Theri- klean, the Lakonian, and Korin- thian. Some held three or four gallons. The hrater with colum- nar handles is supposed, on no very certain grounds, to be the Tcelebe. The shape depicted in the accompanying cut is the oldest, having arched handles, from which springs a banded handle. Sometimes four columnar handles are substituted for these. Vases of this sort are found at the earliest period, having the subjects disposed in friezes round the body. In the few examples known with black figures, the subject is arranged in pictures. At a later time the subjects are red upon a black ground. Kraters appear to have come into use much later than the so-called oxyhajpha. Although some consider the oxy- haj)hon a ki-ater, it is contested wdiether the name of kelehe or No. 153.— Kelebe. 1 Gerhard Bcrl. Ant. Bild., 857, 17; Ult. Eicli., No. 18; Ussiiig, p. 84; Panoika, i. 17. ;hap. IX. WINE-GLASSES. 369 t ^kelebeion can be properly applied to tlie latter description of B^ase.^ Passing to tlie Apuliau kraters, — the first of which are the so-called oxyhajpha, which are bell-shaped, and have two mall handles at the side, recurved towards the body. These No. 154. — Kratcr. No. 155. — Oxybaphon. vases are called by the Italian antiquaries vasi a campana. There is some difference in the proportions, those of the earlier times being fuller in the body, while the later ones are thin, and have an exjDanding lip.^ The correctness ■ of the name oxyhaphon is contested by many critics.^ Some other hrateres ] of this tall style have i been improperly called amphoreis with volute handles. These are large vases with long egor - shaped bodies, wide open mouths, and two tall handles curl- ing over the lip of the vase, and terminating in the head of a swan at the lower extre- mity. These, however, are rather the kraters of the later Apulian potteries. They No. J56 — Krater, with volute handles. ' Ussing, De Nona. Vass., pp. 80-84. ' Gerhard, Berlins Ant. Bildw., s. 358, No. 18. ' Ussing, p. 81 ; Letionne, 1. p. 2 B 370 GREEK POTTERY. Part TT. reach to a great size, and are decorated with numerous figures.^ Similar to them are Amphoreis with Gorgon liandles. This description of amphora, which is another of the later sort, only differs from the preceding in having medallions instead of volutes at the top of the handles, the ends of which also ter- minate in swans' necks. Tiie medallions are stamped in moulds. These kraters are found of great size, principally in South Italy, and are decorated with numerous figures^ of the later style of art. In the days of the Koman empire they were made of marble. The j)sykter, or as it was also called, the psygeus,^ or the *' wine cooler," was used for cooling wine. In glazed ware, this vase is of the greatest rarity. It is in the shape of a Dionysiac amphora, with a double wall and an orifice projecting in front, through which snow was introduced, and a small one in the foot of the vase, by which it was withdrawn when melted. Tbe josykter was one of the most celebrated vases of antiquity ; one in the British Museum has the part between the walls filled with a layer of chalk, apparently the ancient core. The subjects of these vases are always in black upon red grounds, like the amphorae, to which they belong. Sometimes they have only a frieze ronnd the neck. They were placed on tripods when used. The dinos was made of terra-cotta, and was large enough to contain wine for a family. It appears to have been round, with a wide mouth, and to have terminated in a pointed or rounded foot, like the most ancient shape of the krater used for enter- tainments.* Chytrai, pots, were used for drawing or warming water, boiling flesh, and various domestic purposes. They must have been of some size, for children were exposed in them ; but nothing is known of their shape, except that they had two handles. It is evident that they could not have been of glazed ware, for to "paint pots" was a proverb to express useless labour.^ The fhermanter was a vase used for warming wine or water ; but it is uncertain whether it was ever made of clay, as it is only mentioned as a brazen vessel.® Its shape is unknown. The thermo^otis was a vase also used for warming wine. Its shape is unknown, but perhaps it resembled a chafing-dish, the warming apparatus being placed beneath. The stands of the » Gerhard, B. A. B., s. 349, No. 9. j » Ussing, pp. 87-91 ; Scliol. ad Arist., 2 Ibid., 8. 850, No. 10. Vesp., 279. ^ Ussing, pp. 76-82. * Ussing, 1. c. ; Midler, ^ginetica, * Ussing, pp. 82-83; Panofka, Recli., p. 160; Bockh, Corp. Inscr. 2139. I. 15; Letronne, Journ. des Sav., 614. Jhap. IX. VASE-STANDS. 371 iraters, or large wine-coolers, were called hypokrateria or hypo- Wateridia} They were very different in shape, according to the age to which they belonged. At the time of the style called ]gyptian, they were tall and trumpet-shaped, and sometimes lecorated with rows of figures of animals. With vases of tlie jarly style with black figures they are seldom if ever found ; with ^hose with red figures, they are sometimes of one piece with the rase itself, and are ornamented with subjects. With the later rases of the Basilicatan style, they are of far shorter proportions, md have an egg-and-tongue moulding and reeded body, the ^oot of the krater fitting into a groove or rim in the upper )ortion. Certain shallow circular pans among the specimens of Itruscan red ware, appear to be intended for the same use, as [arge jar-shaped kraters are found standing in them. In the )lack ware of the same people, certain cups, which some have called the liolkion, are supported by female figures standing at their sides, sometimes alternating with bands. The tripous, or tripod, was a vase with three flat feet at the sides, and a cover, the body being hemispherical. It appears sometimes to have had fire placed under it, apparently for warming liquids. The feet and cover are ornamented with subjects. It is found only among vases of the ancient style with brown figures upon a yellow ground, and black figures upon a red ground.^ The word holmos, which signifies * a mortar,' and was applied to vases, is su})posed to be the name of a certain large iiemi- spherical vessel with a flat or pointed foot, which was often fixed into a trumpet-shaped stand, by which it was supported. These vases belong to the ancient hieratic style, or that called Egyptian ; and both the kind with black figures, and that in the strong red style, have rows of figures round the body. The sliape shows tiiat it was a vase from which wine was drawn like the kraters. The name of deinos\ or skaphe, has also been con- sidered applicable to vases of this shape.^ They resemble the lehes, or caldron. The cliytro]oous, pot-foot, or trivet, was an instrument by which the pot was kept upon the fire. Possibly, some of the old Athenian vase-stands are this useful instrument.* • Ussing, 1. c, pp. 02, 03 ; Gerhard, No. 26G0. lilt. Ric, No. 26; Berlins Ant. Bildw., ' Gerliard, B. A. B., 3.0, No. 26; s. 360, 26. U.9. No. 165.— Kyatbos, * Ussing, p. Ill ; Gerliarrl, Berlins Ant. Bildw., ss. 360, No. 24, 25 ; Panof- ka, No. 52, vii. 5; Annali. 1831, p. 251, and foil, ' Ussing, p. 1 14. ' Ussing, p. 115; Odyss., iv. 48; Pollux, vi. 97. ^ Ibid. ; Aristoph., Equit., 1060 ; Pax., 843. Up. IX. VASES FOR WASHING. 377 id also employed as a foot bath,^ appears to Lave been generally lade of wood or brass ;^ the skajiheion or shafhion, a hemi- )herical vase, for holding or drawing water, the shape of which not identified.^ It seems to have been also a drinking-vessel,* )r Phylarchos, in describing the mode of living of Kleomenes, le Spartan king, says that he had a silver sJcapMon, holding ro Tcotijlai} The exaleiptron was a vase, like a jpliiale or saucer,^ for holding ointment. The lekane is recognised in a deep two-handled vase, provided with a cover resembling an inverted cup. It was used for washing the feet, and for holding cups, clothes, pitch, and for other coarse work ; ' as a basin to vomit in ;^ and likewise in the Sicilian game of kottabos.^ It was also employed for that kind of divination called leJcano- manteia, or " dish-divination." In the romantic life of Alexander the Great, written by the pseudo-Kallisthenes, a long account is given how the fabled sorcerer, the Egyptian Nectanebo, employed this vessel in magic arts, and after placing in it small waxen figures of men and ships, plunged it into the sea, and so destroyed his enemies. He constantly used it for the purpose of inveigling Olympias. Julius Yalens, who wrote in Latin a similar apocryphal life of Alexander, calls the vessel a basin or j)elvis. This magical use of the vase is also mentioned in the work called Pliilosoj^lioumena, erroneously attributed to Origen. The lekanis, or smaller lekane^ made of terra-cotta, w^as pro- bably of the shape like the preceding. In it the father of the bride sent, along with her, presents to his son-in-law, at the time of the marriage. According to Photios, lekanides were earthen vessels, very much resembling a krater, which, he continues, the women now call *' foodholders."^" The lehanuhos eLud leJcamon were small lehanides}^ The jpodanijjtey- was a basin for washing the feet in.^^ Possibly this vase may be identified with the flat, ^ Ussing, 1. c, ami pp. 116, 117. * Pollux, X. 77 ; -^schylus in Sisypho. ' Ussing, p. 117. * Athen., xi. 475 c. * Atlienseus, iv. p. 142. 8 Plutarch, Moral., p. 801, B. ; Ari- stoph.. Nub., 906; Theopomp., Athen., xi. 485, c; Pollux, x. 76; Gerl.ard, 13. A. B., 364, 32. » Sohol. ad Aristoph., Pac, 1214. * Ussing, p. 117; Clearclms, apud I '° Ussing, I.e.; Pollux, vi. 85 ; Pho- Athen., xiv. 648, f . ; Pollux, vi. 106; tins; Schol. ad Aristopli., Ach., 1110; Aristoph., Acharn., 1003 ; Athen. v. Teleclides ap. Athen., vi, 208, c. v. 11; 202, c. I Hesych., v. ; Gerhard, B. Ant. Bild., s. ^ Ussing, p. 118 ; Pollux, x. 70 ; | 364, 365, No. 32 ; Panof ka, Eech., ill. 42. Suidas, V. KeAejSrj ; Bockh, Corp. Inscr., i " Ussing, p. 119. No. 3071, 8; Aristoph., Av., 840, 1143, \ »« xjssing, p. 120; Photius, p. 118; 1146 ; Vesp., 600. Pollux, x. 78; Hero.lot., ii. 172. 378 GREEK POTTERY. Part 11. tliick, circular basins found in the Etruscan tombs. It was generally of bronze. The chewonijptron, cheironi/ps, and clier- nihon, were wash-hand basins, but their shape is unknown.^ The vase called liolkaion was a kind of bowl for washing cups. It also appears to have been used for the table and the bath. It is supposed to have been a kind of small krater, with figures and supports;^ but this is not by any means satisfactorily proved. The j)erirrhanterion, or sprinkler, was a vase which held the lustral water in the temples, and which, in the earliest times, was made of earthenware. It may probably be recog- nised on certain jugs of the kind of oinochoai, or oZpai, with tubular spouts which will not discharge their contents except by sprinkling when shaken, the water refusing to flow from, and only coming out of them when agitated violently. The list is closed by the ardanion, or ardalion, the lower part of which vase, after it had been broken, was placed as an emblem before a house in which a death had occurred. The productions of the potter never perhaps attained greater excellence as to form than in drinking-cups, many of which are of unrivalled shape. If any extant specimens of fictile ware represent the shapes mentioned by Homer, who in the true poetic spirit always speaks of cups as made of the precious metals, they must be looked for in the primitive vases of Melos and Athens. The great cup described by Homer bears, how- ever, more resemblance to some of the specimens of the Etrurian black ware.^ " The great cup, ornamented with golden studs, was produced, which the old man had brought from home. It had four handles, and two golden doves were placed on each ; and it had two stems. AVhen full, anyone else could hardly lift it from the table ; but old Nestor liited it with ease." The cups mentioned by Homer are the depas ; the aleison,^ a cup with two handles ; the Idssyhion ^ so called from its being made of ivy wood, or from its being ornamented with carvings repre- senting the foliage of ivy ; the ky^ellon^ or later hymhion,^ ' * Ussing, 1. c. 121 ; Athenseus, ix. p. ' Odyss., v. 346; xiv. 78; Pollux, vi. 408; Homer, xxiii. 304; Andocid. in 97 ; Theocrit.,i. 59, etSchol.; Athenseus, Alcib., 29, K. T. A. iv. 477. 2 Gerhard, B. Ant. Bildw., s. 362, n. \ « Atlien., xi., 482, 483 a, 783 c ; 27; Ussiug, p. 122; Panofka. iv. 92; Amiali, 1831, p. 252. 3 Iliad, xi. p. 632. jiElian, Hist. Anim., ix. 40. " Macrob., Sat., v. 21 ; Letronue, Journ. d. Savans, 1833, p. 605 ; Athe- * Odyss., iii. 49, 50, 63, xxii. 9, 7 ; useus, 481 e, f, 482 f, 502 ; Schol. Aribt. Ussing, 1. c, p. 124. Pac, 1242; Nicauder, Ther., 526; lAP. IX. VARIOUS KINDS OF CUPS. 379 Ihicli, among the Kretans and Kyprians, had either two or )ur handles ; and the am^hilcypellon, having two liandles, le at each side. The hymhion was a kind of cup, stated some authors to reseml^le a boat. No vase of such a shape known to exist, unless it be the rhyton in the British [useum, fashioned in the shape of the prow of a vessel, with female seated on it ; or a long boat-shaped vessel with a )out, discovered at Yulci, on which is inscribed "Drink, do not lay me down." ^ This kind of vase was in common use among tlie Athenians. The name for cups in general was shjjohos ; and they were called, from the ])laces of their manufacture, Boiotian, Rhodian, Syracusan, and Herakleotan,^ or Theriklean from their maker Therikles. The Athenians had seventy-two kinds of cups, and the Arcadian Pythens, who was a collector, had inscribed on his tomb that he possessed more than any man. It may easily be conceived that no very distinct idea of their shape is conveyed by ancient writers. Simonides, indeed, men- tions that they had handles ; and the Herakleotan skijphos had its handle ornamented with the Heraklean knot.^ Some vases of the latest period of the art, with reeded bodies, sides orna- mented with white ivy wreaths, and handles of two twigs or pieces interlaced in a knot, more resembling the Jcantharos, are probably the Herakleotan skyplioi. A kind of wide cup with two handles is supposed to be the skyphos. These cups, which are found at Nola,* are of the later style, and ornamented with red figures, principally of a Bacchanalian character. Very often, however, they are entirely plain, being merely covered with black varnish. Another kind was the Panathenaic shyplios, supposed to be a cup with two handles, of the same shape as the preceding, but having one handle placed at right angles to the cup*s axis. Their usual decoration is an owl, placed between two olive branches. This vase is supposed, from the shape of its handles, to have been the onychios. The ooshypliion, or egg-shaped cup, was without a foot,^ and was, perhaps, the same as the vase called mastos, which had two handles, like the Panathenaic shyjplios, and was often decorated externally Alexiph., 129; Hesychius, voce; De- ■ ' Casaubon, Not, in Athen., xi. c. 111. mobth. in Meidiam., 133-158 ; inEuerg. | •» Gerhard, B. A. B., s. 362, No. 28 ; et Mnesib., 58. i Panofka, iv. 92. » Panofka, Rech., v. 74, 75. * Ussing, p. 133 ; Athen., xi. 488 f, * Athenaeus!, p. 500 a ; Letronne, 503 c, 477 c ; Panofka, v. 103. Journ. des Savans, 1833, p. 731, note 1. 380 GllEEK POTTERY. Part II. No. 166— Kantharos. with black figures upon a red ground. It often terminates like an areola, or nipple, with an oval band round it. These cujs are very rare, and are ornamented with Bacchanalian subjects. They are tliin and well turned, and altogether very elegant productions. They chiefly come from Yulci. The hromias was a long kind of skijjphos} The Jcantharos was a kind of cup, probably so called from its re- semblinsr a beetle. It was the cup specially used by Diony- sos,^ and was generally made of earthenware, although some- times of metal. It appears from the various monuments of Dionysos to have been a kind of goblet, on a tall stem, with two very long ears. In some of the older specimens of Etruscan black ware it has no stem.^ Yases of this kind are seldom deco- rated with paintings, which, when they do appear, consist of red figures upon a black ground. A few are also found among the vases of the latest style of the Basil icata, especially those pro- duced from moulds. With them has been classed a goblet-shaped vase without handles. In the picture of the battle of the Ken- taurs and Lapiths, painted by Hippeus, he represented them drinking out of terra-cotta kan- tharoi.* The harchesion was a kind of two-handled cup, the shape of which is not very intelligible from the descriptions of it given by the early poets, Pherekydes, Sappho, and others.^ As, however, it was the sort of cup held by Dionysos and his " wassail rout " in the Pageant of Ptolemy Philadelphus,^ it was probably a kind of kantharos. Gerhard ' and Panofka No. 167. — Karcbesiun. ' Ussiiig, p. 134; Panofkn, iv. 65; Athenfeus, xi, 78 1 d. 2 Pliny, xxxiii. 53, 150. 3 Gerhard, B. A. B., s. 359, No. 21-23 ; Panofka, iv. 61 ; Annali, 1831, 256. * Athenseiis, 474 d ; cf. Pollux, vi. 96. * Athenaeus, 474 f, 475 a. « Athen., v. 198, b, c. ' Gerhard, B. A. B., s. 359, No. 20 ; Panolka, iv. 61 ; Annali, iii. 256, f, 6, s. 36, compared with the tr clinical tie- [AP. IX. DRINKING-CUPS. 381 No. 168.— Earlj' Kylix. jcognise it in a very elegant cup, with large ear-shaped handles, lort stem, and wide mouth, and ornamented with red figures, jlating to Dionysos. This sort of cup is chiefly found among le later remains of Soutliern Italy; but it is probable that lany of the vases called hantharoi are harchesia. Of all the |ups the most celebrated was, un- )ubtedly, the hijlix, so called from being turned on the lathe. It ras a flat, shallow, and extremely ride saucer, with two side handles, Jnd a tall stem or foot, and was lecorated with red figures of the [nest style, both on the exterior "and interior. Those of the earliest period are distinguished by their deeper bowl and taller stem, while the bowl of those of a later period, with black figures, is unprovided with a foot. Others, ornamented with paintings of the strong and fine style have a shallow bowl, recurved handles, rising rather higher than the lip, and a stem not so high as the earlier ky likes. Their shape is one of the most elegant of those handed down from antiquity. At the Basilicatan period these vases resemble large flat baskets with handles, like the krater. Kylihcs of this style, which approach the bowl shape, are very rare, and have subjects only inside. These vessels hold about a pint, or even from four to seven heminai, and were probably passed round from guest to guest. In banqueting scenes de- picted upon them, they are often represented as being x^-^ twirled round upon the finger, in the supposed Sicilian game of kottabos.^ Athens was cele- brated for its cups,^ made of clay from the promontory of Mount Kolias ; but the Lacedae- monian,^ Teian,* Chian,^ and Argive ^ cups were also esteemed. No. 1l9. — Later Kylix. No. 170.— Late Kylix. scription of Callixinus of Rhodes, Athenseus, xi. 474, e. ' Panofka, Recli., vii. 37 ; Millingen, Vases de CoghiU, pi. viii. and 41 ; Cab. Pouitales, xxxiv. ; Thiersch, .s. 31. - Pindar apud Athenfeum, p. 480, o. ^ Aristophan. jip. Athen., 484, f. ■* AlcfBus ap. Athen., p. 481, a. 5 Hermippus apud AHild., 4S0, e. " 8iinonides, ibid., 480, a. 882 GREEK POTTERY. Part IT. These cups, when not in use, were hung up by one of their handles on a peg, and hence Hermippus sings, " high on its peg the Chian cup is hung ;" a good example of which custom will be found represented on the Ficoroni cista} The Therihleios was a kind of cup invented by Therikles, a Korintliian potter, the con- temporary of Aristophanes.^ The " Therikleans," as they were named, were, however, soon in vogue at Athens, w^iere tlie best were manufactured, and are mentioned by the writers of the middle and the new comedy. They were all clay, and held three heminai. Thus Enboulos exclaims in comic bombast, " Lately the bravest of the Therikleans, foaming o'er, like a kothon handled, rattling like a ballot-box, black, well circled, sharp stemmed, gleaming, reflecting, well cooled with snow, its head bristling with ivy, calling upon Jupiter the Saviour, I ITo. 171. — Early Kylix, with black figures. ( riierikleaii.) have quaffed." It is probable that these were the Icylikes with deep bodies. They were often successfully imitated in fine wood or glass, and gilded.^ Along with the "Therikleans" may be cited other cups, such as the hedijpotis, a cup of a very cheap kind, manufactured by the Khodians to compete with the Athenian "Therikleans,"* and which drove them out of the market, being nobler, with better contours, lighter, and the Bhodiaka, Ehodiakai, Bhodiades, or *' BhodiansJ' which were perhaps the same as the hedyjpotides. Their shape does not appear to be well known. ^ The Antigonis, a kind of cup, so called from King Antigonos, seems to liave ended in a point. * Broadsted, Den Ficoronisko Cista, nseiis, xi. 472, 5 ; 478, a ; Photius, voce, folio, Kjobenhavn, 1831. j * Athenseus, xi. 464, c, 409, b. - Athen., i. 470, f, 472, d, e ; Bcntley | * Pollux, vi. 96 ; Hesychius, voce ; on Phalaris, i. 173. Athon.'eui', 496, f. 3 Bockh, c. i. p. 101 ; Inscr. 130; Atlic- Chap. IX. PATER.E. 383 Itiit it is uncertain wlietlier it was ever made of earthenware.^ I'he Seleuhis was named after ]<^ing Seleukos. Its shape has been recognised in some of the paintings at Pompeii. It appears to have had four handles,^ lilce a mether. Of the same species as the hjlix, but almost limited to re- ligious offices, was the jphiale, the patera or saucer, a shallow, circular vessel, so like the round Argolic buckler, that Aristotle calls it the shield of Ares,^ Sind vice versa, Antiphanes* calls a phiale " tlie shield of Ares." It rarely liad handles,^ and was chiefly used for libations, being seldom, if ever, employed at entertainments.^ It is of rare occurrence ; the few which have been discovered belong to the later style of art, and to the class of moulded vases. Its want of handles was supplied by a boss, called the omphalos, in the centre of the cup, having a hollow beneath to admit of the insertion of the thumb or finger to hold it steady,' from which circumstance ^9/^^aZa^ were also called omphalotoi, " bossy ;" or mesomj)haloi, " having omphaloi in the middle." ^ In metallic work this umbo, or boss, appears to have been often ornamented with the head of the Gorgon. Such bosses were called " balanomphaloi," or glandular omphaloi, an example of which has been found. Another variety of this shape was the phiale le])aste, respecting which all that can be determined is, that it was larger than the phiale.^ It has been recognised in the large kylix-like vessel of Basilicatan style, ornamented with studs at the sides. The aJcatos appears to have been the name of a phiale omphalotos, or " bossy saucer." *' Some one," says Antiphanes, " has raised the akatos of Jupiter the Saviour ! " ^" Tlie trieres, that is the " triremis," or " first rate," was a large phiale}^ The phthois was a broad, bossy phiale, or saucer,^^ but it is not certainly known whether it was made of fictile ware. The petachnon, or " stretcher," was a wide-spreading cup, resembling neither a phiale nor a tryhlionP The labronia was a Persian cup, pro- * Athenseus, 497, f; Pollux, vi. 95; I 485, a; Clement. Pa^ila;^. ii. .S ; Allien., Scliol. Clement. Psedag , ii. 3. iv. 131, c ; Pollux, vi. 95 ; Pollux, x. 75 ; ^ Athenseus, p. 488, d, f ; Losing, pp. Hesycliius, voce ; Panuf ka, Recli., iv. 145, 146. 2 Rhetor, iii. 4 and 11. | 3G ; Gerhard, B. A. B. 4 Athen., x. 433, c ; 488, f, 591, f. i '<> Athen., xv. 692, f ; Panofka, iii. 30. * Hesychius, ufxcpiOeTou. < " AtheutT3us, xi. 497, b, 500, e. « Bekker, Charicles, tab. 3, 1, 2. >2 Athen., 490, 502, b; Biickh, Corp. ■ Athen., 502, a, b, 501, f. Inscr., No. 146. " Thiersch, s. 30. "Ibid.; Panofka, iv. 31, iv. 41; ^ Ussing, pp. 152, 153; Athena3us, p. Athen., iii. 125, f. .^84 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. bably introduced into Greece after the conquest of Asia by Alexander, and was made of gold inlaid with gems.^ Gualas was the Doric name of a ciip.^ With these cups may be classed the Jceras, or "horn," so called from its imitating a natural horn.^ It was sometimes, though rarely, made of terra-cotta. Some examples, together with a notice of it, will be found under the word rliyton. The body was reeded, and the horn terminated in a liori's head, with a small aperture for the liquid to flow through. The upper part was decorated with a subject in bas-relief, and at the side was a small circular handle, by which to hang it on a peg. It was sometimes supported by a collar or anklet, called perishelis. The next class of vases is those for holding food, of which there were several varieties in fictile ware. The kanoun, or "canister," also called hanastron, hanee, hane- nion, and JcamsJcion, was sometimes made of earthenware.* The shape of this vase may be determined from that w orn upon the heads of the kanephoroi, and consequently it must have re- sembled the halatlios. The jprnax, or " plate," of which the diminutives are ^inahion^ and ^inakisJcos,^ though not men- tioned among fictile ware, w^as probably the flat plate upon a tall stem or stand,' having its interior ornamented with repre-^ sentations of fishes, such as the tunny, or pelamys, the cuttle- fish or se^yia, the maid or jpristis, and the ecliinos or sea-egg. The dishos, or " disk," appears to have been a flat, circular, plate or dish, similar to the Latin patina.^ The lehanis, lekos, lekis, lekanion, or lekiskion, were dishes or tureens for holding food. They have already been described^ The jparojpsis was a dish, the shape of which was square. jEt does not appear till a late period, and is often mentioned by the Eoman authors.^*' The oxis was a vinegar cruet of small size, holding a Jiemina^ and generally made of earthenware.^^ Aristophanes ridicules Euripides, as advising vinegar to be thrown out of vinegar cups into the eyes of the enemy. ^^ Embaj^Ma were vases, the shape of which is unknown. The ereus \\as a vase for holding sweets,^^ ' Allien., 484, c. | ' Panofka, iii. 59 2 Ath'^i., 4G7, c ; Letroiine, J. d. S., I ^ Pollux, vi. 84 ; Ibidoms, xx. 4 G14, n. 3. 3 U.ssing, pp. ]5o, 156; Piuiofka, V. 78; 4 Homer, Epigr., 14, 3. * llfcsing, 1. c, ] 57. « U.-sing, 1. c, \:S, 150. ^ Vide bupra, Utsing, p. 160. '« Ibid. '' Ussing, pp. 166', 167; Aristoph. Equit., 1304 ; Plut., 812. '- AiLtiiph., Ranse, 1440. 13 Pollux, X. 92 ; Athen., ii. 67, d. CnAP. IX. DISHES, 385 and the hjiyselis, which perhaps liad a cover, was employed for the same purpose.* The IcumijwdoJcos, Icuminodohe, or Jcumi- Qiotheke, was a spice-box,^ consisting of several small cups, called hadiska, united on a stand or stem. Several such vases, erro- neously supposed to be kernos, both of late and early style, are known. ^ Another kind of dish was the iryhlion, a name which denoted either a dish or a cup, but is probably more correctly applied to the former.* A person is described as stealing an earthen- ware trijhlion at an entertainment.^ The expression " to make trijbUa badly," shows that they were fictile. All that is known about them is, that they were larger than the oxtjhajyliay and that figs were eaten out of them. The oxyhaplioUf the " vinegar cruet," or " cup," often served the general purposes of a cup.^ It appears to have been small and open.^ The name was also applied to dice-boxes. Oxyhajpha were used in the Sicilian game of kottabos,^ which was played in many different ways. This name has been applied to a bell-shaped krater already de- scribed. Besides the shapes to which it has been attempted to attach names, and which are those chiefly found amongst painted vases, others are known and occur from time to time. A great number of vases are formed in the shape of animals, and were apparently used either as sprinklers, or as toys for children. These last are of the principal shapes, as the oinochoe, the ^hiahy the oxyhaphon, and the like, but of smaller shape. On the whole, the varieties of shape are not very numerous, the Greek potters confining themselves to the production of a lew simple forms often repeated. They also occasionally made of this painted ware other objects, such as sarcophagi, tiles, lamp- holders, and models or ornaments. * Ussing, 1G7. ' Lucian, Somnium sive Gall us, p. « AtbensBus, vi. 230, d, e. 723 ; Lelimann, vi. p. 326. ' Pollux, X. 92. I ^ Athenajus, 494, c ; Aiistoph., Avf s, * Pollux, vi. 85, X. 86 ; Arittuph., 361 ; Schol. ad eund. Acharn. 278, Equit. 905; Plut., 1108 ; ' » Bekker, Chaiiclcs, i. 476-480; A thc- Schol. Aristoph., Ave.^, :}71 ; Allien., iv. iireus, xv. 665, f; 669, h ; Pollux, vi. 169, e, f. xii. 549, f. ; Ussinj?, p. 161, 2. 109, 111. » Atliena3us, xi. 494, b ; Pollux, vi. 85. ! 2 C 38(3 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. CHAPTER X. Sites of Ancient Potteries, and where Pottery has been discovered in Asia Minor — Grecian Islands — Continent of Greece — Athens — Solygia — Sikyon — Argolis — Del phi — Korinth — Patrai — Megara — Laconia — Corfu — Italy — Classification of Lenonnant and De Witte — Hadria — INIoflena — Pollenza — Gavolda — Mantua — Etruria — Vulci — Ponte dell' Abbadia — Oastel d'Asso — Corneto — ToscanuUa — Chiusi — Orbetello — Perugia — Sarteano, &c. — Volterra — Bomarzo — Orvieto — Veii — Cervetri — Civita Vecchia — Theories respecting these vases — Arezzo — Selva la Rocca — Sommavilla — Monterone — Poggio — Central and Lower Italy — Periods — Naples ^Cuma — Terra di Lavoro — Nola — Acerra — Santa Agata dei Goti — Cajazzo — Telese — Prin- cipato Citeriore — Pesto — Eboli — Battipaglia — Santa Lucia — Sorrento — j • Principato Ulteriore — Capitanata — Ba^ilicata — Anzi — Armento — Potenza I — Grumento — Puglia — Polignano, Putignano — Bari — Canosa — Ruvo — Ceglie — Calabi ia Ulteriore — Locri — Brindisi — Taranto — Castellaneta — Iscliia — Sicily — Girgenti — Malta — Africa — Bengazi — Naukratis — Alex- andria — Kertch, or Pantieapajum — Sites of supposed Egyptian ware — Imitations and forgeries of Greek vases — Prices. It now remains to enumerate the principal localities in which the existence of potteries is mentioned by ancient authors, aSj well as those in which the fictile productions of the Greeks have been discovered. This enumeration, however, chiefly relates to painted vases, as it would be almost impossible to detail all the places where unglazed terra-cotta objects have been found. The most ancient potteries were probably those of Asia Minor, the scene of the first development of Grecian civilisation ; but our imperfect information will not permit us to follow the chronological order in describing them. Erythrai in Ionia was celebrated for the extreme thinness and lightness of its ware, and the two amphorae, remarkable for these qualities, the rival productions of an Erythraean potter and his pupil, were consecrated in a temple of that city.^ Certain fragments of vases found near the circular tombs on Mount Sipylos, and in the so-called sepulchre of Tantalos, show that this ancient site had potteries which produced ware of the earliest fawn-coloured i * Plin., XXXV. 12, s. 46 ; Brongniart, Tiaite, p. 578. AP. X. ASIA MINOR— THE TROAD. 387 ;yle, reseniblinpr flie oldest Athenian pottery.^ At Xantbos, KLykia, some fragments of vases of micaceous clay, witli black d red figures, were found in the course of the excavations.^ Fragments of similar vases have been found on the sites of the tombs of tlie Lydian kings at Sardis. That potters were dis- tributed all over Asia Minor may be surmised. An inscription at Telmissos records one who had bought a sepulchre for himself, his wife Elpis, his mother-in-law Euplirosyne, for Januarius, and his father-in-law Soterius.^ He must have been in easy circumstances. At Halikarnassos, during the excavations made at the ]\Iausoleum, the fragments of a vase, with brown figures upon a cream-coloured coating, were found. The vases of the oldest style discovered at Smyrna are not of any great size or importance.* Lampsakos^ and Parium^ have also produced vases. The vases found in Ionia have the white grounds of the Athenian style ; but one had the outline of the figure traced with a graver on a pale black ground, and the principal portion retouched in black with a pencil.'^ The determination of the characteristics of the different local styles is a point of the greatest difficulty.^ The ware of Knidos was renowned, even till the days of the Roman empire, but its fictile vases were probably not of the painted kind.^ Their ex- treme lightness was much praised. At Halikarnassos 200 leky- thoi of plain terra-cotta were found in one grave. In the days of Pliny Tralles had a great commerce in vases. -^^ Pergamos, in Mysia, was also celebrated for its potteries in the time of the same author.^^ A few vases, of very poor style and character, have been found at Tenedos,^^ a site once renowned for its potteries,^^ which lasted till the time of the Roman empire. Dion Chry- sostom mentions in one of his discourses the vases which travel- lers purchased at this place, and which, on account of their extreme lightness, were packed with great care, but when they • Trans. Roy. Soc, Lit., N. S,, ii. 258. ' Lucian, Lexiphanes, 7 and 11. For the 2 Brit. Mui?. ; Arch. Zeit., iv. 216. teira-cottas of Knidos, Lucian, Erotes, ' Franz, Corp. Inscr. Grscc., iii. n. c. 11 : ovKayeXaarTlrTJs KepafjLcvriKTJs clko- 4212; Supp,, p. 1116; Annali, 1847, Xaarias fierexo^v, ^s iy'AcppoBiT-ns ir6\€t. 1>. 116. , '" Plin., N. H., XXV. c. 12, ad eund. ^ Jahn, Vasensammlung, xxvii. '' Ibid., c. 17. * Walpole, Mem., p. 91. »2 Welcker, Rhein. Mus., 1843, s. 435 ; ^ Dubois, Cat. Cli< is. Gonf., p. 139. j Annali, 1843; Chevalier, Voyage dans ' De Witte, Bull., 1832, p. 169. ' La Troade, title page, 8vo, par. 1. « Bull., 1840, p. 54. i '3 Plutarcli de Vit. ror. alien., Reiske, " Eubulus in Athcnseus, i. j^ 28, D ; ix. 291. 2 c 2 888 GREEK POTTERY. Part 11 arrived at their destination were mere potsherds.^ At the supposed grave of Achilles, in the Troad, lehjthoi, with poly- chrome figures, have been discovered, resembling in style those found in Athenian sepulchres.^ And recent excavations made at the sites of New Ilium and Old Dardanos in the Troad, have discovered many small vases, some of the early fawn-coloured style, with figures of birds, a few with yellow grounds of the later style, and small lehytJioi, with black figures resembling the Athenian.^ Fragments of vases may probably be traced throughout Asia Minor, and all the principal cities must have had their potteries. Some have been found at Tarsos. In the Isles of Greece many vases of different styles have been discovered. From the oldest times the island of Samos was renowned for its fictile ware. It is to the potters of Sa- mos that one of the Homeric hymns is addressed, the oldest description of the art in literature. It appears from the life of Homer, attributed to Herodotos, that the poet had taken refuge in one of the potteries from a storm ; and that upon the morrow the potters, who were preparing to light their furnaces and bake their earthenware, perceiving Homer, whose merit was known to them, called upon him to sing some verses, promising in return to present him with a vase or any other object they possessed. Homer accepted their offer, and sang to them the '* Lay of the Furnace," in which the inflated language of epic verse is applied, in a kind of satiric strain,* to the subject of baking vases : " Oh, you who work the clay, and who offer me a recompense, listen to my strains. Athene ! I invoke thee ! Appear, listen, and lend thy skilful hand to the labour of the furnace, so that the vases which are aboit to be drawn, espe- cially those destined for religious ceremonies, may not turn black ; that all may be heated to the proper temperature ; and that, fetching a good price, they may be disposed of in great numbers in the markets and streets of our city. Finally, that they may be for you an abundant source of profit, and for me a new occasion to sing to you. But if you should shamelessly deceive me, I invoke against your furnace the most dreadful afflictions — fracture, contraction, overheat, destruction, and. * Orat., xlii. 5. 2 Chevalier, Voy. dans la Troade, Keise nach Troas, 8vo, Alten, 1800, Taf. i. 8. 213. Choiseul Gouffier, Voy. pitt. ii. 30. 3 Made in 1855-56, by Mr. Brunton, of the Civil Hospital of Renkioi. These vases are in the British Museum. •^ Miiller, Greek Literature, p. 132, Chap. X. SAMIAN POTTERY. 380 above all, a destructive force, wliich, beyond all others, is the destroyer of your art. I^Iay the fire devour your building, may all the furnace contains mix and be blended together without power of regaining it, and may the potter shudder at the sight ; may the furnace send forth a sound like the jaws of an angry horse, and may all the vases broken be only a heap of fragments." ' The Samian ware was distinguished for its hard- ness, and was used in surgical operations.^ The earth was me- dicinal.^ A lekythos, or toilet vase, of fine paste, and exqui- sitely modelled, with representations of the sandals attached to it, with black glaze and red accessories, procured by Mr. Finlay from this island, is now in the collection of the British Museum. Few vases have been found at Samos, notwithstanding the ancient renown of the Samian potteries, and especially of the earth, which, on account of its fineness and red colour, main- tained its reputation till the days of the Eoman empire.* In the days of the Eoman empire, Samos supplied dinner-services ; and certain vases of i*ed ware with ivy-leaves, perl^aps belonging to the Roman class, have been found there.^ The vases found at Melos are of different ages and styles; but this island was more celebrated for its plain than its painted vases.® Those of the earliest period have a paste of a greyish- yellow colour, of a density and hardness resembling common stone ware.'^ Some vases from this island, formerly belonging to Mr. Burgon, and now in the British Museum, are of the old fawn-coloured and pale yellow wares, and have black figures of the most ancient style. Lately some vases have been found at jMelos, which resemble those of Hhodes, witli large archaic figures upon a light cream ground, in black touched up with violet, human and animal figures of Phoenician style — with Apollo and the Muses, Achilles and Memnon and the Dioskouroi, of most archaic style, apparently of a local fabric. Apollo has the heptachord lyre, invented by Terpander 01. xxvi. b.c. 676. They have been supposed to be from B.C. 650-670, and are. not of the Phceuicians, who at the time of Homer navigated all over ' Miot, Histoire d'lIcroLlote. Paris, 11-22. PI. iu. p. 203. 2 Pliny, N. H., xxxv. 12, 46 ; Lucilius, i. Nonn., 398, 33. 3 Hesychius, 2ajuta 7^. Etymol.Magn., p. 229, 21. ^ Pl.uitus, Capt., 291 ; Stich., v. G94 ; 36 ; Pliny, H. N., xxv. 46 ; TertuUian, Apolog., 25; Ausonius, Epigram, 8 ; Isidorus, Origin., xx. 4, 3. » Bull., 1830, p. 226. . ^ Welcker, Rhein. Mus., 8vo, Franck, 1843, s. 43."), 1823, p. 239. ^ Bronguiart, Traife, i. 577; Mus. TibuUu^s ii. 3, 51 ; Cicc-ro pro Murieua, I Ccr., pi. xiii. fig. 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 10, 14. 390 GilEEK POTTERY. Part II. the Mediterranean.^ Others exhibit a great advance in tlie arts, and are as late as the period of the Roman empire. At the neiglibouring ishmd of Argentiera, Kimolos, painted vases have been exlmmed.^ The vases found in the sepulchres of Santorino, the ancient Tliera, and then an old Phoenician settlement, are all of primitive style, with fawn-coloured grounds and brown figures.^ Many vases from this island are in the Bibliotheque Nationale, at Paris. Others, in the Museum at Sevres, were taken out of tombs excavated in tlie solid limestone, the princi- pal formation of the ishind. These tombs have been covered, at a very remote period, to the depth of about 45 to 60 feet by a volcanic eruption of tufo, and are of the most remote antiquity.* Some jpithoi from this island are of huge size.^ Several vases which have been found in Krete, are said to resemble those of Cam- pania.® At Kamiros, which emigrated to Rhodes in B.C. 4U4, vases occurred of the earliest Greek style, with yellow grounds and dark figures and ornaments anterior to the oldest of this class, i and transitional from the fawn-coloured vases of Athens and ' Melos. Amongst them were a puelos or sarcophagus, many flat plates with animals, one in shape of a Boiotian buckler, and another with the death of Euphorbos. Some vases with black, but none with red, figures were found ; all came from | tombs with ancient jewellery. There vases were celebrated for * imparting an aromatic flavour to the wine.'^ At lalyssos in the same island excavations made by the British Yice-Consul, Mr. Biliotti, have produced vases like those of Santorin, with geometric floral patterns and birds, and a singular vase in shape of a horn. These were found with ancient jewellery, engraved stones, and ivories of the earliest style of Greek art. Those of the sepulchres of Kalymno, the ancient Calymna, a little isle of the Sporades, were of a fine clay, covered like those of Athens and Yulci with a fine lustrous glaze, but not ornamented with J subjects.^ Cos, which was celebrated for its culinary vessels ■ and for its amphorae, which were considered very beautiful, and were exported to Egypt, has contributed cups of the oldest style to collections of vases.^ At Mytilene and Lesbos, the * Conze, A. MelischeThongefasse, fo., I ' Arch. Zeit., xii. Gl, 62; Eoss, Insel, Leipz.,1862; De \Vitte,Kev. Arch., 1862, p. 401. 2 Eoss, Insel, iii. 65. ^ Brongniait, Traite, i. 577 ; Leuor- inaut, Introd. a TEtude, xxiii. '* Brongniart, Traite. i. p. 577-8; Mus. Ccr., xiii. 4, 13, 15, 16. i. 66, 68 ; iii. 27. ** Brongniart, Traite, i. p. 578. ^ Athena^ns, xi. 11, 464. « Archaol. Zeit., 1848, 278. » Hcrudot., iii. C. CiiAP. X. VASES. 391 fragments of vases hitherto discovered have either black or red fi<2^ures, resembling in their style those found in the graves of I Athens.^ The vases of Rhodes have black figures on red grounds of the free and careless style of Greece. At Nisyros, or Nisiros, an oinochoe with red figures has been found.^ The extensive excavations principally made by General de Cesnola, United States Consul in that island, comprising the examina- tions of above 8000 tombs, have discovered many vases of all styles, comprising the earlier ones of pale clay, oi-namented by birds, lotus flowers, chequers, geometric and other patterns, one of which has a Phoenician inscription burnt in attesting its origin, many oinochoai, with heads in shapes of animals, barrel-shaped and other vases with birds and animals and a galley on a cream- coloui-ed ground, resembling the early vases of Ehodes. Fawn- coloured vases of the Athenian style, many in shape of animals, and rarer examples of vases with black and red figures of the later styles have been also discovered. These disco veiies were chiefly made at Dali or Llalium, but Golgos, and other sites also produced vases from the earliest period to the second cent. A.D. At Pisco])ia, Telos, another of the isles, a vase, with black figures on a yellow ground of bad drawing, has also been dis- covered.^ At Chiliodromia, one of the small isles of the Sporades, several vases of coarse and late style, and principally of the Roman period, have been found. They are chiefly remarkable for the peculiar manner in which they were ranged round the skeletons of the dead.^ Another site of the old insular potteries was the island of Aigina,^ celebrated at an early period for the excellence it attained in the arts, and especially for its sculptures. Although Aigina chiefly imported Athenian ware, yet that it also manu- factured pottery appears from an anonymous writer of comedy, calling it '^ the Rocky echo — the vendor of pots." ® The few vases found there are remarkable for their lightness, being made of a superficial soil, for the most part of a siliceous base of infu- sorial carapaces. They are principally leJcythoiJ A l-ylix with black figures has, however, been found, with the subject of ' 3Ir. C. T. Newton found here many fragments of painted vases. « Bull., 1829, p. 113, and ful. ; Paus., X. 17, 6. 2 Ross, Insel, iv. 175, 104, 201, 20G. « Meineke, Frag. Com. Gr., 180, B ; ^ Ross, Insel, iv. 44. i Hesycli., voce 'Hxft'; Photius and Poll., '' Fiedler, Reise durch alle Theile vi. 197. des Ktinigr. Giiechcnland, lA-ipz. 1841 ; j " Brongniait, Mus. Ccr., pi. xiii. fig. Bronguiart, Traite, pi. ii. lig. 1, i. p. 581. 11 ; Traile, p. 57(3. 392 GREEK POTTERY. Part II Herakles strangling the Nemean lion, and a Bacchanalian dance, Avith tlie names of Nikaulos, Charidemos, Empedokrates, and an inscription,^ probably alluded to the capture of Midas, or the app?arance of Pan to the liem&t'odromos, or 'courier, Pliilippos. It also bears the name of the maker, Ergotinios. Some fine lehythoi, with white grounds and figures, painted in the poly- chrome style, have been found at Aigina. At Colouri, Salamis, a polychrome vase of fine style ; ^ and at Caristo, Karystos, in Euboia,^ a vase with black figures on a white ground, accom- panied by an inscription. Passing hence to the continent of Greece, the first place to be considered is Athens^ the pottery of which was, of course, the most highly renowned of the ancient fabrics.'* The city was celebrated for its cups,^ which, however, w^ere rivalled by those of Argos ; for its wine casks or amphorae,^ its bottles, or lagenoe,^ and its ware in general.^ The clay of Mount Kolias was re- nowned all over Greece.^ Claiming, as it did, the honour of having invented the potter's wheel, the manufacture was highly esteemed ; and in very early days the Athenians exported their wares to Aigina and the neighbouring isles. A tribe called Keramis also represented the old guild of potters. At Athens there were two pottery quarters, or kerameikoi, one within, the other without the walls. Both seem to have had a bad repu- tation from their being frequented by hetairai.^" The tombs of Athens have yielded specimens of painted and glazed ware of all kinds and periods. These have passed into the different Euro- pean collections ; and the British Museum ^^ has been particularly * For vases found at Aigina, cf. Ger- hard, Bulletin©, 1829, p. 118; Wagner, Bericht iiber die aeginetisclien Bild- werke, s. 80 ; Wolf, Bull., 1829, p. 122 ; Gerhard, Bull., 1829, p. 122 ; Boss, Bull., 1841, p. 83; Bull., 1833, p. 27. ^ Men. d. Inst., iii. 46 ; Ann., xiv. 103 ; Kochette, Peint. ant., Taf. 8-11. ^ From the Atticism of this inscrip- tion, Kramer (Ueber den Styl, s. 173) is of opinion that the vase was made at Athens. ■* Eochette, Ltttre a M. Schorn, 6. Cf. Matron the Parodist apud Athen., iv. p. 136, f., 'Attjk^j eV KepafjLcp ireTTcau TpiSKaiSeKa /XTjuaa. ^ AthensDus, lib. xi. p. 480, C ; Jacob ad Anth. Graec., i. p. 2, p. 141 ; Erato- sthenes, apu^ Macrob. Saturn, v. 21 ; Pindar, Fr. 89, a Bockh ; Athenseus, xi. p. 480, C. ® Aridtoph., Acharn,, 910; Corsini Fasti Altici, torn. ii. pp. 236-7; Diss, xii. ' KeKpoirh Xdryvve. Posidippus, Epist. xi. * Pindar, p. 614 ; Athen£eus, xi. p. 484, f ; SimoMide.s, Anal. i. pp. 72, 69, ed. Jacobs. Athens had also a large trade in domestic vessels. Aristophanes, Lysistr., 557. ^ Suidas, V. KooXid^. Kepa/x., Erato- sthenes in Macrob., Sat. v. 21. JO Schol. Plat. Parmenidcs, Bekkcr, p. 17, No. 127. *' For the vases discovered at Athens Chap. X. TILES AND INLAID OBJECTS. 393 onriched by them. The earliest Athenian vases, with brown iigures on a fawn-colonred ground/ have been already described.^ Many remarkable examples of glazed ware have been found in the tombs of Athens, and among them the sarcophagus of glazed ware found in 1813, which contained the skeleton of a child, surrounded with terra-cotta figures, leJcythoif and other small vases. It was in a grave beyond the Acharnian gate, and its contents subsequently passed into the stores of the British Museum. The early sepulchres have also yielded many vases of the style called Doric, with yellow grounds.^ Of vases with black figures the predominant form discovered is the leJcf/thos, especially lekytlioi of small size, ornamented with subjects, of which the most favourite was the return of Proserpine to earth ; but there are several with subjects taken from the Gigan- tomachia, the Herakleid, the War of Troy, and from Attic myths, as Boreas and Oreithyia, and the Theseid. Many, as might be expected, are ornamented with scenes from the Gymnasium.* Of other vases of this style, the most remarkable is that with the subject of the Trojan women lamenting either Troilos or Hektor,^ and a tripod vase.^ But all these yield in interest to the Panathenaic amphora, or Vas Burgonianum, found outside the Acharnian gate at Athens, in the year 1813. It is of a pale salmon-coloured clay, on which the figures are painted in a blackish-brown colour, while the parts not painted are of a pale black leaden glaze. The subject represents, on one side, Pallas Athene, standing between two columns of the Palaistra, surmounted by cocks, the birds sacred to Hermes and the Games, as Promachos, or engaging in battle, but without the aigis. She is dressed in a talaric tunic, and armed with her aigis and shield, the device, or episemorij on which is a dolphin ; in her other hand she holds her lance. Inscribed on the vase is a perpendicular line of Greek, reading from right to left, TON: AQENEBEN: A@AON: EMI: "I am a prize from Athens." On the other side is a man driving the biga, or cf. Millingen, Anc. lined. Mon., p. 1 ; Stackelberg, Die Giaber der Hellenen ; Pauofka, Cabinet Pourtales; Creuzer, Eia alt atlienisches Gcfass, Leipz. and Darm. ; Gerhard, Ann., ix. 135; Brond- btedt, Memoir Tran. E. S. Lit., ii. pt. 1 ; Dull., 1831, p. 95; Eoss, Arch. Auss., 1): 223. ' No. 2800 and foil. ; Graber der Hellenen, a. 47, Taf. 9. 2 Ibid., s. 42, Taf. 8 ; A. Conze, An- fange griech. Kunst, 8vo., Wien, 1870. ' One with a giant is figured ' in Stackelberg, Taf. 15. * Cf. Stackelberg, Die Graber, Taf. 10-16. Gerhard, Berlins Ant. Bild. s. 230, 709; No. 674, 711, 716, s. 231, 717. * Mon., iii. 60. ^ Stackelberg, ibid., Taf. 15. 394 GREEK POTTEHY. Taut 11. synoris, and urging the horses with a goad, to which jingh'n^* bells are attached. There can be no doubt but that this is one of the very amphorae described by Pindar, when he sings of Theiaios, son of Ulias of Argos, in the passage before cited. As a prelude to future victories, "sacred songs twice proclaimed him victor in the sacred festivals of the Athenians, and the fruit of the olive-tree came over in tb.e splendid vessels of earth burnt in fire for the manly people of Hera." It held the holy oil from the Olive Grove of the Moirai, or Fates. When dis- covered, it was filled as already mentioned, with the burnt ashes of its former owner, and also with several small vases, some painted in the same style, which probably held the oil, milk, and other substances poured upon the pyre. Its age is at least as early as the sixth century b.c.^ Numerous small vases have been found in the graves of the Peiraios, evidently after the age of Themistokles who fortifiied this harbour, and probably of the time of the Great Plague of Athens in the days of Perikles.^ The Athenian vases of this style differ considerably from those found at Yulci, the drawing of the figures being much more free and careless, and the incised lines bolder and less rigid. ^ A few vases, with the wdiite coating and black figures, have also been discovered at Athens, and some, with red figures of the hard style ; the best much resembling in their varnish and treatment the vases of Nola ; but they are exquisitely fine and light, and certainly equal to any found in Italy. Many of the Athenian vases are of the later period of the art, and resemble those found in Apulia and Santa Agata dei Goti ; among which some jpyxides, or ladies' toilet boxes, are distinct from any yet discovered even in Southern Italy, being ornamented with ^polychrome figures, in red, white, and blue colours. Some of the vases found here are of the florid style of Ruvo ; among which may be cited an allegorical vase, with the subject of Aphrodite and Peitho plait- ing a basket, and the three Graces, Paidia, " instruction ; " Eunomia, "discipline;" and Kleopatra, "national glory." ^ There have also been discovered vases with opaque red and white figures, painted on a ground of black varnish. Among ^ Brondsted on the Pauathenaic vases, Trans. K. Soc. Lit., p. 112 ; Boekh, Bullet., 1832, p. 91 ; Muller, Comment. S. K. Sclent. Gott. t. vii., Class Hist. p. Ill; Bullet, Inst., 1832, 98; Wclcker, Rheinisclies Museum fiir Philologie, Bd. i. 1833, s. 301, 316; Pindar, Nem., x. 33, 36. 2 Eoss, Monats. f. Wissensch. u. Lit., 1852, s. 356. 3 Gerhard, Bcrl. Ant. Bild., s. 237, No. 804. ■^ Stackelbery:, xxix. ELEKTRA AT THE TOMB OF AGAMEMNON. ( LEKYTHOS, FROM ATHENS.) Page 395- PKINTED IN COIX>UB8 BY WHXIAM CLO^VES AND SONS. Chap. X. TOYS, BEADS, AND AMULETS. 395 these is a charming little toy jug, on which is depicted a boy crawling to a low seat, on which is an apple. This specimen is nnrivalled for its fine varnish and treatment.^ Another vase, also ornamented with gilding, has a representation of Nike in a quadriga of winged horses, between Ploutos, " Wealth," and Chrysos, or "Gold."^ To this class must also be referred an exquisite little vase, in the shape of an astragalos, or knuckle- bone, ornamented with the subject of Pentheus and the Mainads ;^ a hantliaros, a thermopotis, rliyta,^ hylikes, jpyxides^ kalpides, and pelikai,^ Some alabastra, with linear figures, in black upon a white ground, have also been found at Athens, as well as nume- rous lelcytlioi, with polychromatic paintings on a white ground.^ Their subjects are Orestes, Elektra, and Pylades at the tomb of Agamemnon. The vase peculiarly Attic, and not found else- where, is tlie lehythos, with a white ground or leukoma^ on which the subject has been traced in red, black, or brown outlines, and the details painted in appropriate colours. An example of one of these vases is already given, where Elektra is seen seated at the tomb of Agamemnon attended by Chrysothemis. Many Athenian vases are unadorned with figures, and many painted black, although very elegant in shape and finish. The accounts of the rivalry in trade between Athens, Aigina, and Argos,^ and the fact of these vases being transported to Dikaiopolis,^ and carried by Phoenician ships to Aithiopia,^^ show the extent of the Athenian trade in pottery. In the other parts of the continent of Greece, the vases found are not very numerous. Some, however, with, both black and red figures upon a black ground, as well as some with opaque Avhite figures of the very latest style of art, have been discovered in the district of Solygia;^^ but they are of rare occurrence. Nor has the " hollow Lakedaimon," once renowned in this branch of manufacture for dark brown cups, called kothons, with recurved lips, adapted for keeping back the mud of the foul water, which her valiant soldiery drank upon their marches, enriched our stoi-es of Greek fictile productions.^^ Some fragments of vases » Stackelberg, Taf. xvii. ; C; Pollux, vi. 100. ■^ Ibid., xvii. ' Ibid., Taf. xxiii. | ® Aristophanes, Acliarn., 902. ' n)id., xxiv. '" Scylax, p. 54, H. ' Ibid., xxiii. xxiv. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. " See Arch. Zeit., Bull., 1830. '• Ibid , Taf. XX. xxi. xxii. '■' Brongiiiart, Traite, p. 570, pi. ii. " Ibid., xliv. xlv. xlvi. xlviii. , lig. 1, pi. xxxiii. 1 ; I'lutaichus, Vit. " Hcitxl., V. 88 ; Athcutcus, xi, p. 502, | Lycuig., vol. 1. p. 84. 396 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. with black figures, said to be of archaic style and to refer to the Thebais, liave been found at Magoula.^ Sikyon has only yielded a hylix of early Doric style. Of the potteries oi Argolls, only a few fragments ploughed up at the foot of the supposed tomb of Agamemnon at Mykenai, of the early fawn-coloured style, with maiander ornaments, have been discovered,^ and the vase of the artist Timonidas of the oldest style and period found at Kleonai. A vase in the Munich collection is from Tenea.^ Near Sinano, the ancient Megdlojpolis, in Arkadia, a lehythos, witli black figures, has been found.* Some fragments have been discovered at Delphi,^ and a con- siderable number of vases at Korintli, already celebrated for its earthenware in the days of Caesar, when the new Colonia Julia, as it was designated, ransacked the sepulchres for the vases, which were the admiration of the rich nobility of Kome.^ The most remarkable ones of this site are of the old style called Doric, with black figures on cream-coloured ground, many of which were probably made in the days of Dema- i-atos, when Kypselos expelled the Bacchiads. The principal one is that found by Dodwell,' and generally called the Dod- well Vase, with a subject rei)resenting the boar hunt of Aga- memnon. .. '. , The collection of Mr. Burgon contained specimens of vases from Korinth, some with black figures upon a red ground, con- sisting of pyxides, oinochoai, and tripods with subjects of little interest ; the best specimen had a representation of a Kentaur bearing off a female. Some years ago a great number of vases in very indifferent condition, having suffered much from the percolation of water through the earth, were found by boring into tombs many feet below the surface at the isthmus, or Hexamili. Most of them have passed into the possession of the Society of Arts. Lately, some hylihes, chiefly of the early shapes, with tall stems and small figures of bulls, dancing men, ornaments, flowers, and illegible inscriptions, have been found there. The discovery of a cup with the name of the maker ^ Le Bas, in the Rev. Arch., i. 722. 2 Dodwell, Classical Tour, ii. 237. 3 Ahcken, Mittel-Italien, p. 298 ; De Witte, Etudes, p. 46; Arch. Zeit,, 18G1, pi. clxxv. * Berl. Ant. Bikl., 1887. * Ross, Morgonblatt, 1835, 698. De Witte, Annali, xiii. p. 10. ^ Strabo, 1. c. ; Zum])t, Arch. Zeit., 1846, p. 309. 0;=aii, Znsatz iiber Ur- sprimg, pp. 63, 85, considers the Nekro- korintliiato be bas-reliefs. ^ Dodwell, ii. pp. 197, 201. '•••••«••••* BACCHANTE. ( KANTHAROS, FROM MELOS.) Page 395. PBiXTKD IN rninfp.s r.v wtujam cix>wes ant sons. )llAP. X. CORINTHIAN POTTERY. 397 i" ^Bleson, shows that Koriiith was probably tlie place whence these Upases were exported to Italy.^ ^^ Koriiith, like Athens, boasted the invention of pottery,^ and of the wheel. As the artists Eiicheir and Eiigrammos accom- anied Demaratos from Korinth to Italy, it has been supposed at the Korinthians instructed the Etruscans in the art of aking fine vases. Therikles was the most renowned of the orinthian potters. His cups, under the name of *' Therikleans," btained a celebrity almost universal. It was here that in the ime of Julius C?esar, the colony sent here found ancient painted ases, and other remains, which excited as much interest then t Rome ^ as the discoveries at Vulci did a quarter of a century ofo in Paris and London. The vases found at Korinth are of mall size, with black or maroon figures on a cream-coloured round, and of the so-called Korinthian or Doric style. Yases ave also been found at Patras, Patrai, and a small bottle, of a fine red paste, having on it a winged and bearded head in a j^, Phrygian mitre, is said to have been discovered there.* It is ^ well known that Megara was anciently renowned for its vases.^ They were chiefly of a large size and of a soft paste, as the pantomimes used to break them with their foreheads.^ Some vases have been found on its site.' Laconia gave its name to a kind of hjlix,^ and its vases when pounded and mixed with pitch and wine, were supposed to make hens lay large eggs.^ From the sepulchres of Aulis, which is also mentioned by Pliny with Tenedos,^" has been disinterred a vase with red figures, repre- senting the Prometheus Bound of Aischylos, at the moment when the wandering lo enters the stnge.^^ Passing westward, some vases of early style with brown figures on a yellow ground \vere found in the cemetery at Castrades in Corfu, or Korkyra,^^ where stood the sepulchres of Menekrates and Tlasias, besides numerous terra-cotta amphora3 ^ Abeken, Mittcl-Italien, p. 298; Ross, Anaphe; Thiersch, Abhandl. d. Miinch. Akad., 1838, ii. 2, p. 109; con- tending for the so-called Egyptian style being Korinthian. "^ Barth, Corinth, commerc. et mercat. Hist., p. 16 ; R. Rochette, Ann., xix. p. 237. » Strabo, viii. 381, f. * Gerhard, Annali, ix. 139. * Steph. Byz., Meyapa. ^ Synesius, Exc. Calv., 44, p. 77, c. ^ Dodwell, Tour, ii. 180. 8 Athen., xi. p. 484, f. ^ Gcoponica, xiv. 11. ^0 Plut. de Vit. rer. al., 828. *' Millingen, Anc. Uncd. Mon., pi. ii. '2 Arch. Zeit., 1846, s. 377. For the amphorsB, see Pseudo-Arist., Miiab. auscult. ed. Beckmann, No. cxi. 398 GREEK POTTERY. Part IT. for holding wines of the Hadriatie/ which have been ah-eady mentioned.^ Tlie vases found in Greece are both small in size and few in number, when compared with those discovered in the ancient cemeteries, and on the sites of the old cities of Italy. Tliese are indeed so numerous, that the fictile art of antiquity might be traced from the vases of Italy alone. Those found in the Italian peninsula, by far the most numerous and remarkable, have been divided into three great classes.^ The first division comprises those found in the south of the peninsula, the ancient Magna Graecia, where the cities founded upon the coast by the Greeks, infused a certain degree of civilisation into the interior. Thus at Locri and Tarentum,* the potter's art is supposed to have been first established, and to have influenced the semi-barbarous population of Apulia and Lucania. The vases of these cities are distinguished for their beauty and art, and are far superior to the specimens discovered in the southern and eastern districts of the kingdom of Naples, in the mountainous regions of the Basilicata, and the Mediter- ranean cantons of Puglia. Of the rest of this territory, the finest specimens have been found in the necropolis of Canosa, the ancient Canusium, and of Ruvo, the ancient Kubi. The second class ^ embraces the vases of Campania,^ which were dis- covered in three of the cities of its coast, viz., Cumse,^ Psestum,^ and Surrentum,^ and in others in the interior. Those of the first-mentioned city are supposed from their style to have been fabricated after its subjection by the Samnites, as also were those of Nola at their finest period. The rest of the vases of Campania, as those of Capua, Avella, and Santa Agata dei Goti, are far inferior to the preceding in art and fabric. As all these cities fell with the Samnite league in B.C. 272, it is probable that their potteries then ceased to exist. The third, and last class ^° are the vases discovered in Etruria, which are as abundant as that of the south of Italy. They are found in every Etruscan ' Eubulus in Athen., i. 28, e. 2 Jahn, 1. c, s. 34; Anth. Pal., ix. 232, 257. ^ Elite, Introd. xxv. ; Lenormant and De Witte. * Gerhard, Bull., 1829, 167. ' Berl. Ant. Bildw., s. 138. •^ Elite, Introd. xxvi. ' Gerhard, Bull., 1829, p. 163 Schulz, Bull., 1842, 8. « Gerhard, Bull, 1829, p. 163 hard u. Panofka, Neapels Ant, s. 353, No. 60, 5, 308, No. 404. 9 Gerhard, Bull., 1829, p. Schulz, Bull., 1842, 10. 1" Elite, Introd., xxvi. Ger- Bild. 164 : JnAP. X. SEPULCHRAL VASES. 399 Hty of importance, from Iladria,^ at the mouth of the Eiidainis »r Po, to tlie very gates of Eome itself.^ These vases are, in general, of ohler style than those of Southern Italy. The most mcient arc discovered in the sepulchres of Cfcre, or of Aijylla, ^ts port ; in tliose of Tarquinii, and in the numerous sepulchres >f Vulci, which have yiehled an immense number of vases. In describing these remains, the most convenient method rill be to follow the geographical distribution of the potteries prom north to south, and, accordingly, to commence with tliose >f Hadria, and which, at the time of Pliny, still continued to manufacture drinking-cups of the finest quality. 'Painted vases have also been found in its tombs. According to Micali,^ the vases discovered at Hadria differ entirely from the fabric of those found in Piiglia, the Basilicata, and at Nola. They have been exlmmed there as early as the sixteenth century ;* and in later excavations made at the mouth of the Po, and in others formerly undertaken by the Austrian government, fragments of Greek fictile vases were found at some depth below tlie Roman remains. Of these, Micali^ has engraved a selection, consisting of a fragment of an amphora, with the subject of Hephaistos holding a hatchet ; a vase of large size, with part of a chariot ; a female named Kaliope or Kalliope,^ and a man named Sikon ; and three fragments of cups, with the subjects of a satyr, a lyrist, and a man at a symposium. It has been observed that, in Italy, the old vases with black figures are rare in graves of the earliest style, and that the greatest number of vases come from the more recent tombs ^ of the other northern cities of Italy. Mutina, or the modern Modena, in Gallia Cisalpina, was celebrated in the days of Pliny for its drinking-cups. Few painted vases, however, have been found there, but only some of a glazed red ware, resembling the ware of Arretium, an observation which also applies to the city of Asti.^ Painted vases have, however, been found in this part of Italy, some with red figures, of a style like the Campanian, having been exhumed 1 Gerhard, Bull., 1832, pp. 90, 205, tona, torn. iii. p. 80, tav. viii. ix. ; Mus. Bull., 1834, p. 134 ; E. Kochette, Etrusc, tav. 188. Ann., vi. 293; Gori, Mus. Etr., tab. ii. * L. c, tav. xlv. clxxxviii. * Supposed to refer to the horses of 2 Winckelmann, Cat. de Pierres Gia- Rhesus. See Panofka, Arch. Zeit., 1852, vees, p. 215; Lanzi, Vas. Dip., 42. I 481. 3 Mon. Inedit., p. 279, and foil. ; j ^ Abeken, Mittel-ItaTien, s. 298. Bull., 1834, p. 134. I « Nat. Hist., xxxv. e. 46, ad fin. ; 4 Bocehi, Dissert. dcU' Accad. di Cor- Bull., 1837, pp. 88-97. 400 GREEK POTTERY. Part IT. at PoUentia,^ winch, like Modena and Asti, was celebrated in the time of Pliny ^ for its cups ; and others at Gavolda,^ on the left bank of the Mincio, near its confluence with the Po. One, discovered near Mmitua, had the subject of Perseus holding the head of the Gorgon, and Andromeda.* At Bologna, the ancient Bononia, in the Bolognese, vases, even with black figures, have been formerly discovered.^ Proceeding to the site of Etruria, so prolific in specimens of the fictile art, we find that many vases of the oldest style have been discovered at Valore, in the vicinity of Viterbo,^ consisting of archaic amphorae with black figures ; amongst which was one made by the potter Euphronios.'^ From the sepulchres of Castel d'Asso, some ancient amphorae and fragments of cups, with red figures, have been obtained. Corneto, the celebrated town of Tarquinii, the birthplace of the Tarquins, and the spot to which the Korinthian Demaratos fled, taking with him the artists Eucheir and Engrammos,® has yielded from its sepulchres a great quantity of the black Etruscan ware, with embossed figures.^ Of tlie painted vases,^® comparatively few have b^en found on this site ; but among them are a leJcythos of the most archaic style, resembling the vases of Korinth, or those called Doric.-^^ Alabastra of this style were more frequently found here than at Vulci.^^ Archaeological excavations were made on this site in 1825 and in 1827.^^ The vases from this spot are chiefly small amphorae, of medium size and good archaic style, but for the most part either of ordinary glaze, or unglazed. One of the largest vases found in Etruria, however, came from this site ; and on fragments of cups found here are the names of the artists Amasis and Briaxides.^* This site has principally afforded vases ^ Brongniart, Traite, i. p. 583 ; Bull., 1830, p. 21. 2 N. H., XXXV. c. 46. 3 Bull., 1847, p. 17. " Bull., 1838, p. 62. ' Lanzi, Ant. Yas. dipint,, p. 25. " Also coarse vases, B., 1829, p. 201. ^ Gerhard, Rapporto Volcente, p. 116, note 8; Bulletino, 1830, pp. 233-243, 1832, p. 2, 1839, p. 199; Gerhard, B. A. B., s. 141, n. 5, No. 680 ; Micali, Storia, tav. xcii. xciii. ; Panof ka, Mus. Bart., p. 69. 8 Livy, i. dec. 34; Bull., 1831, p. 5, 1832, pp. 2, 3. » Annali, 1829, pp. 95, 109. '0 Hyperb. Rom. Stud., i. 89 ; Rapp. Vole, note 3. i» Ibid., Bullet., 1829, pp. 176, 197, 1830, pp. 197, 138. >2 Gerhard, Rapp. Vole, p. 121, n. 35. '^ Bull., 1829, p. 2. ^* Gerhard, Rapporto Volcente, p. 115, n. 3; Kunstblatt, 1823, p. 205, 1825, p. 199 ; Annali, 1829, p. 120 ; Bulletino, 1829, p. 198 ; Bull., 1830, p. 242, 1831, p. 4. TAP. X. ETRURIA. 401 the solid black or Etruscan ware,^ although a few painted les have been disinterred from its sepulclires, with black tigures id Atlienian subjects.^ Some came from ]\Ionto Quagliere.^ tt ToscaneUa, Tuscania, only a few vases, and those generally ^ith black figures, and of careless drawing, have been discovered. ^t Chiusi, the Etruscan Camars or Cumers, and Latin Clusium, igraeuts of painted cups, with the names of the makers, Pan- tiiaios and Hiero, and the youths Cherilos and Nikostratos, have been found.* The excavations of Francois here discovered the magnificent krater of the Florence Museum, representing the subjects of the Achilleis, and known as the Francois Vase. It is by far the most interesting of the vases of its class. Many vases of all the principal styles have been disinterred at this site : those with black figures resemble, in general tone of glaze and style, those of Vulci, and are of the usual forms. One of them has the name of the potter Anakles. Vases with red figures, both of the strong and fine styles, abound here ; the most remarkable of which are the cups, which have certain local peculiarities, and some vases of local manufacture have also been met with iu the excavations.^ Many come from the sepulchres of the Val di Chiana.^ Vases of the moulded black ware have been found at Sarteano, ' at Castiglioncel del Trinoro, in the vicinity, and at Chianciano, to the number of several thousands in all, but no painted vases. The ware of Orhetello is of a pale dull clay, the glaze of a dull leaden hue, like that of the worst of the Apulian and Southern Italian vases ; the forms are rude and inelegant, and the subjects, representing satyrs and Bacchantes and youths, are coarse and ill-drawn. Vases, with subjects of the earliest archaic style, together with the usual Etruscan black ware, have been discovered at Perugia^ or Perusia, and others at Roselle or Kusellae. The painted vases discovered in the sepulchres of Volterra, Volaterrse, are much inferior to those of Vulci, Tarquinii, and Bull., 1830, 202; 1831, 3; 1833, '' Jalin, Vasensammlung, Ixxix.- p. 80. \ Bull., 1829, p. 5. 3' Ibid., p. 10. * Gerhard, Riipporto Volcente, s. 116, No. 5 ; BuUetino, 1830, p. 244 ; Mus. Ixxxii. ; Inghirami, Etrusco Musco chiu- sino, 2 ed. 4to, Fies. 1832. « Bull, 1841, p. 4, 1835, p. 128. ■ Dennis, Etruria, i. p. 464. ' Dennis, Etr,, i. p. 425 ; BuUetino, Etr. Chius., tav. xxv. 46; Gerliard, 1829, p. 14; Micali, Storia d' Italia, B. A. B., 390, 427 ; B., 1839, p. 49 ; Ixxiv. Ixxvi. Ixxviii. 2, Ixxix. 1 ; xxiii. 1840, p. 150 ; 1836, p. 35 ; 1838, pp. 82, I 9 ; Berlins Antiken Bildwerke, s. 172 74 ; 1831, p. 100; Bull., 1836, p. 25. | and foil., Nos. 390, 426. 2 D 402 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. Chiusi. Their clay is coarse^ their glaze neither lustrous nor durable.^ Their subjects are principally large female heads, in yellow, upon a black ground, like those of the Basilicata. They betray a comparatively recent origin ; and although some fine vases are said to have been found there, none of an early style have been discovered.^ Some contained the ashes of the dead.^ Similar vases have been found in Siena, or Sena.* And at Pisa, in the beginning of the present century, a potter's establish- ment was discovered. A fine hydria from this find is figured by Inghirami. At a later period vases with red figures, both of the strong and fine style, have been discovered here.^ The excavations in the ancient site of Bomarzo have produced some archaic amphorae, with black figures, of perfect style, and a few elegant cups. Some of the vases have red figures, and the flesh of the females is white.® The hydria, or water-jar, has not been discovered there. The glaze is bad, and the subjects common. The place where the vases have been principally found is at Pianmiano, the supposed Mseonia of the Italian archaeologists.' The vases found at Orvieto are a hylix, with red, and a hrater, with black figures ; ^ one bearing the name of a youth, Hiketas, orNiketas, the other having Bacchanalian subjects.^ Yases of the solid black Etruscan ware are also found on this site. Veii, or Isola Farnese, is more celebrated for its black, or Etruscan ware, than for its vases of Greek style. Several painted vases have, however, been found at this place. Some of the Veian sepul- chres consisted of a large chamber, containing sculptured couches, on which the dead were deposited ; others were mere niches cut out of the tufo, and were capable of ^containing one vase, and a small covered urn of terra-cotta, in which the ashes of the dead were deposited. The black vases of larger size \Aere found placed round the body of the deceased, while those of more elegant shape were in the niches, amidst the ashes of the dead and the gold ornaments.^" The vases were of the archaic » Dennis, Etruria, ii. p. 203; Bull., i 1834, p. 50; B. A. B., s. 141, n. 8. 1830, p. 236. I ' Bull., 1830, p. 233. 2 Mieali, Mon. Ined., p. 216. | « Bull., 1831, pp. 23, 35, 57; cf. p. 7. 3 Bull., 1829, p. 203. * Ijanzi, Vasi, p. 24. ^ Jalin, Vasensammlung, Ixxxiii. " Gerhard, Bapporto Volcente, p. 116 ; Bull., 1830, p. 233, 1831, p. 7 ; Gerhard, " Bull., 1833, p. 9. '" A particular description of the se- pulchres of Veii is given by S. Canipa- nari, Descrizione dei Vasi rinvenuti nei sepolchri dell' antica Veii ; and in r iiAP. X. cKRVi<7nn. 403 style, with brown figures upon a yellow ground, representing men fighting for a tripod, stags, panthers, and hind, a gryphon Knd crow, a lion swallowing Pegasos, a man and an andros])hinx,^ ows of animals, and a winged figure between two gryphons, ieveral vases were of the finished style, with black figures, consisting of kraters, Jcelehai, with the representation of a mainad and satyr,^ Heos pursumg Kephalos and Deinomachos, and of amphorae, with the Kentauromachia ; the first labour of Herakles, or the conquest of tlie Nemrean lion ; Tyndareus and the Dioskouroi ; the car of Heos ; Achilles arming in the presence of Thetis. The vases of the finished style, with red figures, consist of the shape called staninos, having the subject of Jupiter, Ganymede, and Dardanos, the departure of Trip- tolemos; theDionysiac thiasos, kitharoidoi, and athletes. Some cups, with subjects derived from the Dionysiac thiasos and gymnastic exercises; a shyphos jpanatheiiaiJcos, with the owl and laurel branch ; and a rhyton, with a scene taken from a tricli- nium.^ The vases found in the very ancient tunnelled tombs of Cervetri, or Ca^re,* are of the oldest style. One from Civita Vecchia, now in the British Museum, has bands of animals, kentaurs, and other figures, drawn in maroon, on a white coating, in a style of art scarcely a degree advanced beyond that of the pale fawn-coloured ware of Athens.^ The most remarkable vases of this locality are certain ones of anomalous shapes, with two or more handles — the very oldest example of the Archaic Greek ; the figures of a dark colour, on a pale red or yellow background, originally traced out in a white outline, and not relieved by any incised lines ; the subject fish, and large ornaments. These vases appear contemporary with certain others, on which are painted deer and animals, in a white tempera outline, sometimes stippled.^ Abundance of vases of the early Phoenician or Korin- thian styles, especially large kraters, Avith stands, called by some holmoi, have, besides the usual friezes of animals, such subjects as the hunt of the Kalydonian boar,' the monomachia of Memnon and Achilles,*^ and the rescue of the corpse of the last-mentioned the Descrizione dei Vasi rinvenuti nello ^ Iliid. Cf. for the shapes tav. A. B. escavazione fatte nell' isdla Fainese, fo., ! ^ IJull., 1839, p. 20. Roma, 1838, 112; Bull., 1840, p. 12, j ' Brit. Mus. Ciinina, Vej., fo., Eom., 1847, Etr. Marit., j " Campaiia collection at Rome. i. p. 123, tav. 34-38. j ' Mus. Grog., ii.xc. » Ibid., tav. i. pp. 13-15. j » Mon., ii. 38 ; Annali, 1836, pp. 310, ' Ibi.l., pp. 18-21. 311. 2 D 2 404 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. j hero ^ from the Trojans. Other vases, sucli as an oinochoe of the Gregorian Museum, are of the same style of art, but tending towards the rigid class of black figures, and representing Ajax, Hektor, and Aineias.^ Yases of the hard style of black figures also occur, as an oljpe, with the subject of the shade of Achilles,^ and among those with red figures is a remarkable stamnos, in which is represented the contest of Herakles and the Acheloos.* A ki/Ux, with black figures, discovered at this place, had the name of the potter Charitaios.^ Many vases of Nikosthenes were also found there.® Some have incised Etruscan inscriptions."^ Other vases bore the names of the potters and artists — Pamphaios, Epiktetos, and Euphronios. The sepulchres of Caere have pro- duced some vases of the fine style, distinguished by a deep black and lustrous glaze, distinct in tone from those of Nola ; and some few of later style, the vases of Nikosthenes, are said to be made of a clay found near Cervetri.^ But the discoveries made at all the other Etruscan sites combined are surpassed, both in number and interest, by those at Vulci (which name is uni- versally agreed to be the ancient designation of the site of the Ponte della Badia), and, in its vicinity, the supposed Nekropolis. It is to the elaborate report of Gerhard ^ that we owe an excel- lent classification and account of the discoveries at this site. They appear to have commenced towards the close of the year 1829, during which year about 3000 painted vases were dis- covered by the Princess of Canino, S8. Fossati, Campanari, and Candelori, at places called the Piano^^ delV Ahbadia and the Campo Morto,^^ in a vast desert plain, about five miles in cir- cumference, between the territory of Canino and Montalto, known by the name of Ponte della Badia, irom the bridge which crosses the little stream Fiora, by which the plain is traversed. The country on the right bank of the river, called by the » Mon., i. 51 ; Aniiali, 1836, pp. 306- 310. 2 Mus. Greg., ii. 1,3. 3 Bull., 1830, p. 243. ^ Roy. Soc. Lit., New Series, ii. p. 100 ; Annali, 1837, p. 183. * Visconti, Ant. Mon. Scop., pi. 9 ; Canina, Cere Atitica, pp. 73, 78 ; Abeken, Mittel-ltalien, p. 299. « Bull., 1830, p. 124; 1832, p. 2; 1834, p. 49; 1839, pp. 20, 21. 7 As that with Larthia, Bull, 1836, p. 01; Bull., 1839, 21. For Cervttri Vases, see Bull., 1832, p. 3. 8 Bockh, C. I., iv. p. 7. ® Called the Kapporto Volcente, nnd published in the Annali, 1839 ; see also Bull., 1830, p. 4, 1832, pp. 1-3-5. 10 Bull., 1832, p. 5, 1836, p. 134, 1839, pp. 69-67; Gerhard, in the Bull., 1831, p. 161, makes them about 3000-4000. For a view of tin's, see Mon., i. xli. , " Bull., 1829, 3, 18, 39, 141. < HAP. X. DISCOVERIES AT VULCI. 405 inhabitants Camposcala, and tlmt on the left, distinguished by a hill called the Cucumella, belonged to the l^rince of Canino. Since that time continuous excavations made at Vulci have wrought to light several vases of great interest, although the lumbers have materially diminished since the first discovery. ■hey were found in small grotto-tombs, hollowed in the tuf'o, ^nd with few exceptions only a few palms underground. There ras nothing remarkable in them except the vases, for they were neither spacious nor decorated, nor furnished with splendid ornaments, like the sepulchres of Tarquinii and of Magna Graecia. 8ome had seats for holding the objects deposited with the dead ; others pegs for hanging the vases up to the walls. The wonder was to find such noble specimens of art in sepul- chres so homely.^ The political condition of the country and the inequality of fortune may have had some great influence on the number of vases, but the accessibility of the tombs has probably had greater. These vases were of all styles and epochs of the art, from those with maroon figures upon yellow grounds to the pale figures and opaque ones of its last decadence. Hence they comprise specimens of the style called Doric, or archaic, of the transition to the black figures upon a red ground, of the hard rigid red figures, of those of the most flourishing age of the fictile art, of the style of the Basilicata and Southern Italy, of figures in outline upon a \\hite ground like those of Locri and Athens, of opaque figures in white or red, laid upon the black varnish of the vase, and of others of a character unmistakably Etruscan. Besides these, an immense number of vases painted black only, without any subject,and others of the solid black ware, were discovered in the various sepulchres along with Etruscan bronzes and ivories, and other objects peculiarly Etruscan.^ This vast discovery naturally attracted the attention of the learned in Europe. Notwithstanding the glaring fact of their Greek inscriptions, and the light thrown upon them by the » Bull., 1829, pp. 4, 5. j K. Rochette, Ann., 1834, p. 285. See also ^ Besides the already cited Rapporto ! Archjeol., xxiii. p. 130, the Beugnot, Voleente (Annali, 1830, iii.) of Ger- ', Magnoucourt, and Durand Catalogues, hard, an account of these discoveries and the Reserve ifitrusque, by M. De will be found in the Museum Etrusque ; Witte, that of the Feoli Collection, by of the late Prince of Canino, 4 to, Viterbo; , Campanari, and all the recent works Millingeu on I.ate Discoveries in Etru- j upon antiquities. Cf. Bull., 1829, s. 49 ; ria, Jr. R. Soc. Lit., vol. ii. Supp. 1831, | 1830, 1 ; 1831, 88, IGl, 193; 1832, 47; 409 ; Schultz, Allg. Zeit., 1831, p. 409; | 1834, 75 ; 1835, 111. 406 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. researches of Lanzi,^ Winckelmann ^ and other archaeoloirists, the Italian antiquaries, animated with an ardent zeal for their country, claimed them as Etruscan works.^ It was easier to demonstrate the error of this hypothesis, than to explain how so many Greek vases should be found in an inland Etruscan city. Millingen advanced the opinion that they were the pro- ductions of a Hellenic population, called by him Tyrrhenians, who were subdued by the Etruscans between B.C. (jOO-350. (iJerharcl, on the contrary, imagined them to be the work of Greek potters settled in Vulci along with the Etruscans, and enjoying equal rights* with them; an opinion so far modified by Welcker ^ that he supposes these potters to have been metoi- koi, or foreign residents, which view was also adopted by the Due de Luynes.® Hirt attributed them to the 300 Thasians who, after the failure of the Athenians before Syracuse, might have fled to Cumae and Capua ; ^ while others imagined that they were importations, either from Sicily,^ as Rochette supposed, from Athens,^ or from Cuma).^^ Braun asserted the Doric vases came from Naukratis.^^ This opinion was also adopted by Bunsen, but with the modification that they might principally have come from Nola in Campania, although many specimens of different styles, he imagines, were brought from Greece.-^^ Kramer, on the contrary, disputes all the previous conjectures, and traces the vases, not only of Italy, but even of Greece itself, to the potteries of Athens.^^ Such was also the opinion of Thiersch ; ^* while Miiller, on the other hand, considered them * Dei Vasi antichi dipinti, volgar- ineiite chiamati Etruschi. 2 Hi«t. de I'Art, iii. 3, 10. ^ Bonaparte, L. (P. de Cauino), ISIu- se'um Etrusque, 4to, Viterbo, 1829 ; Ca- talogo di Scelte Antichita Etrusche, 4to, Viterbo, 1829; Idem, Vases Etrusques, 2 livrea grand-folio ; Annali dell' In- stitut. Arcli., i. p. 188 ; Bull., 1829, p. 60 ; Idem, Lettres a M. Gerhard ; Bull., 1829, pp. 113-116, 1830, pp. 142, 143; Amati, sui Vasi Etruschi, Estratto dal Giornale Arcadico, Eoraa, 1829-1830 ; Bull., 1830, p. 182 ; Fea, Storia dei Vasi fittili dipinti, 8vo, Roma, 1832. * Kapp. Vole, n. 96G ; Bull., 1832, pp. 78-90, 1833, pp. 74-91. ' Rh(in. Mus., 1833, s. 341 ; Berl. Aut. Bildvv.. s. 143. « Annali, iv. 138. ^ Annali, |831, p. 213. *■ R. Rochette, Journ. des Sav., 1830, pp. 122, 185 ; Lettre a M. Schorn, pp. 5,10, ® Miiller K. O., Comm. soc. reg. scient. Gott., vol. vii. cl.; hist., pp. 77-118; Bockh, Index Lect. Univ. Berol. sem. bib., 1831-2. '0 Miiller K. 0., in Bull, 1832, p. 100 ; Cat. Etr., avert, p. ,vii. n. 3. " Bockh, c. 1, iv. p. ii. '2 Annali, vi. p. 72. See also Bull., 1832, p. 74. " Ueber den Styl und die Herkunft der bemalten Thongefasse, 8vo, Berl., 1837, 8. 140; see Campanari, Atti di Pont. Acad. R. Arch., vii. p. 1. ^ '* Ucbor die Hellcnischcu bemalten (JiiAP. X. QUESTION OF IMrOllTATlON. 407 to be an importation from the Chalkidians, basing his argument on the Jonic dialect of their inscriptions, their discovery in maritime and not inland cities, the admitted exportations of Athens, and her well-known superiority in the ceramic art/ 'hose who inclined to the idea that the vases were a local )roduction, based their arguments upon grounds partly material ind partly traditional ; as, on the diiference observable in the rases found at different spots; on the varieties of their tone, (rawing, and art, which differ in some cases most remarkably from those of vases discovered in Greece; on tlie difficulties of transporting, even with the appliances of modern skill, articles of so fragile a nature ; on the universal diffusion of clay on the earth's surface ; and on the idea, that it is much more probable that the potters were imported than their products. Much light, they considered, was thrown on the condition of tlie arts in Italy and northern Greece at this period by the story already related of the flight of Demaratus, the father of the elder Tarquin from Corinth, and his introduction of the plastic art into Italy. From this account, which rests on the authority of Pliny,^ it is contended that the art clearly came from Greece. It appears, indeed, that Demaratus and his companions emigrated to Tarqninii, then a flourishing city of tiie Etruscans; that he there married a native woman; and that one of his party, named Lucumo, initiated the Etruscans in Greek civilisation.^ Unfortunately, however, this account of Demaratus is enveloped in much obscurity, as other authorities represent him as being a Korinthian merchant.* It is, how- ever, to be observed that Tai quin the Proud was supported by Cumae, a city of the Opici- Tyrrhenorum. The opponents of this theory contest it by alleging the traces of an early inde- pendent art in Italy ; the hesitation w ith which Pliny speaks ; ^ the Ionic character of the ware ; the identity of its style of ornament with that of vases found at Athens ; ® the fact, that vases made by the same potters have been discovered at different places ; the supposed mystery of the art,' and the Vascn, in tlie Abhandlungen d. I. CI. d. ^ N. H., xxxv. c. 3, s. 5, and c. 12, s. 43. Akad. d. Wiss. iv. Bd. Abtb. i. j ^ Cicero, De Rep., lib. ii. c. 19, s. 9. ' Bull., 1832, p. 102. The fact which | * Dionysius Halic, Ant. Rom., iil 48 ; he cites, however, of the Phcenicians Liv. 1. 34 ; Tacit., Ann., xi. 14. purcluising Athenian vases to export to '•' Thierscli, 1. c, s. 10. C<;rtia3 on the African coast, applies to ® Ibid., ss. 89-94. uiiglazcd ware. ' LcnormantandDeAVitte, Iiitrod.xix. 408 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. extreme rudeness of the Etruscan imitations. Tlie language and subjects are generally Attic, and the names found upon them correspond with those of Athenian archons from 01. Lxxi-cxi. Some writers have even gone so far as to assert, on the authority of Pliny,^ that Etruria exported vases to Athens. When the great space of time occupied by the history of Italy is considered, it seems reasonable to believe that vases were imported into Etruria from various localities, and principally from Greece. It is probable, however, that many came from potteries established in Sicily and Magna Graecia ; for it can hardly be conceived that an art esteemed so trivial by the Greeks was not exercised in their colonies, wherever founded. The influence of these settlers upon the Etruscan population appears to have been most marked since Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, the last king but one of Eome, ingratiated himself into the favour of Ancus Martins by his superior education and knowledge, and finally obtained the sovereignty. According to Florus^ his elevation was due to his application to business and the elegance of his manners ; " for," he adds, *' being of Korinthian origin, he combined Greek intelligence with the arts and manners of Italy." The introduction of the fine arts, as well as of writing, into Italy, is placed by Bunsen at a very remote period, when the whole of southern Etruria was in the possession of the Tyrrheno- Pelasgians. The epoch when these were expelled from Agylla, Pyrgos, and the coast, appears, according to the researches of Niebuhr, to have been later than the second century of Eome, or at least than the first half of that century. But the Attic dialect of the races here under consideration, will not the less belong to an epoch later than the invasion of the Romans, siuce the tombs of Tarquinii exhibit nothing but what is Etruscan.^ Besides these, many other vases were decidedly of Etrus- can origin, and were made either at Vulci or in some of the neighbouring cities. The tutulus, or pointed cap, on the head of Juno, in a scene of the judgment of Paris, has been supposed to be a proof of the Etruscan origin of a vase. So also figures armed with the long scutum of the Samnites, which the Romans adopted from that people.* The same argument has been adduced from a vase on which Hermes is represented with four ' N. H., XXXV. 12, 46. I ■» Sallust, Bell. Cat., 8vo. Lond., 1823, 2 Lib. i. 5. p. 30. ^ Annali, 1834, p. 65. ! ULYSSES AND POLYPHEMOS. (KYLIX, FROM VULCI.) Page 409. raiNTKD IN COLOrBS BT WTVLIXX CtOWKB AND SONi. Hhap. X. qup:stion of importation. 409 wings, and Ganymede with two. The proportions of the figurf^s of the vases of the paler tone, and of the style called by the Italians " national," which resemble, in their short stature and thick-set limbs, the Etruscan bronze figures, have also been considere i an additional proof of their origin ; and all doubt vanishes when names of persons in the language, not of Greece, but of Etruria, are found upon them.^ It is very evident that no argument as to exportation or local manufacture can be drawn from the circumstance of the different proportion in which vases Avith black and red figures are found at Vulci and Nola, as this may be entirely owing to the different epochs at which these cities flourished. Yet there are certain differences of style and glaze perceptible to an ex- perienced eye, which show, at all events, a difference of im- portation. It is indeed possible that the early vases, or those called Doric, were introduced into Italy from the Doric states, such as Korinth,^ and were subsequently superseded by the more active trade and more elegant productions of Athens.^ The objection that the Etruscan Larths would have taken no interest in foreign pottery, can scarcely be serious, for the entire art of the Etruscans is filled with Greek symbolism and mytho- logy. Greece, in fact, then stood in the same relation to Etruria as France now does to Europe in the application of the fine arts. That vases were exported cannot be denied, one of the potter Ergotimos has been found at Aigina, another at Chiusi ; those of Nilfosthenes have been found at Yulci ; at Cervetri, Girgenti and in Lucania ; those of the maker Taleides in Vulci and Magna Grsecia ; others of Euthymedes at Hadria and Yulci ; and those of Tleson at Korinth and Vulci ; all these are about 01. XL. The vases found at Vulci consist of all styles till that of the decadence, commencing with the early Archaic Greek, \\ith narrow figures on yellow grounds, although neither so numerous nor of so large a size as those of Cervetri. Most of the finest vases with black figures, consisting of hydriai, am- phorae, and oinochoai, many of large size and of finest drawing and colour, have been found at Vulci. Some vases with inscrip- tions, often with the names of potters or artists, of this style, have been discovered here, — a few of the vases, also, with black ' Such as KAPE MAKA0E2A, " dear" or "lovely" Macathesa,, HEAEI, Peleiis, AXAE, Achilles, XIPTN,Cliiroii, APTNM. AmiKs. AA22AM, Lassas; Annali, 1834, p. 54. 2 Anuali, 1834, p. 04. ^ Abeken, Mittel-Italien, p. 294, places tlu'sc in Olympiad 70-90. 410 GEEEK POTTERY. Part 11. figures on a white ground, chiefly of small size. But as remark- able for their beauty and number are the vases with red figures, of the strong style, found on this site, consisting of amphora3, hydriai, and krateres of large size, ky likes, and oinochoai. These vases are distinguished by the green tone of their black colour, the vivid red of the clay and figures, the fineness, energy, and excellence of their drawing. Of the later developed and fine style, comparatively few vases have been found. The numerous inscriptions with which these vases abound, the occurrence of subjects new to classical authorities, the beauty of their shapes (contemporary with the best periods of Greek art) and the excellence of their drawing, glaze, and colour, has had great influence — not only on modern manufacture, but also on the fine arts in general, and has tended more to advance tlie know- ledge of ancient pottery than all the previous discoveries.^ Vases with red figures, and Etruscan ones with black and white figures on a yellow ground, have been discovered in the sepulchres at Alberoro, near Arezzo^ in the north-west of the Etruscan terri- tory. Arezzo itself, the ancient Arretium, so repeatedly men- tioned by the Latin authors, and called by Lanzi the Etruscan Samos, has also produced a few painted vases.^ Other sites in the neighbourhood of ancient Eome, as Civita Vecchia,^ have yielded vases of a bad style, which were probably brought thither by the commerce of modern dealers. One, remarkable for its high antiquity, has been already mentioned. The old hut-shaped vases of the Alban lake, near Alba Longa, will be described under the Etruscan potteries.* Several lekythoi have been exhumed at Belva Le Bocca, near Monteroni, the ancient Alsium,^ and at Monteroni itself, dishes or^iamented with red bands, and coarse vases of the difterent styles. Others have been discovered at the Funta di Guardiola, near St. Marinella ; and at Poggio Somavilla, in tlie territory of the Sabines, vases of Etruscan fabric, ornamented with red lines,^ and otlier vases with red figures, having the subject of the gods of light, Bellerophon, and an Amazonomachia, have been excavated,all of the later style. The mass of vases found in central and lower Italy, are dis- tinguished from those of Etruria by the greater paleness of their ' Jahn, Vasensammlung, Ixviii.- j 324. Ixxviii. 2 Bull., 1838, p. 74. 3 Ibid., 1882, p. 3. ^ See also Abckeu, Mittel-Italien, p. 5 Bull., 1839, p. 34, 1840, p. 133; Alxken, Mittel-Italien, p. 207. « Bull., 1838. p. 71. I nAi'. X. VASES OF SOUTHERN ITALY. 411 chiy, by the softer drawiiiis, koihon. or sJcyphos, oinocJioe, jpyxis, and phiale. They are the most charming of the ancient vases, Some few vases with red figures are of the strong style, or of one intermediate between that and the fine style — the most remarkable of 1 Bull., 1829, pp. 165, 166. 2 Jalm, Vasensammlung, lii. ^ Bockh, Corp. Inscr., iv. p. 5. ■• According to Justin, xx. c. i., was Attic. Silius Ital., xii. 161, states Chalkidiau colonibts were sent there. Its coins resemble those of Naples. Chap. X. VASES OF NOLA. 415 which is that with the subject of the last night of Troy.^ Some of tlie vases of Nola are modelhHl in fanciful shapes, such as that of an astragalus, or the claw of a lobster. Besides the painting, they were often decorated with an ornament punched in, like that on the vases of Vulci. These decorations are ante- fixal ornaments, stars, and bands of hatched or plain lines. A favourite ornament of the purely black vases, which form a large proportion of the Nolan ware, is a series of black annular bands on the base, concentric to the axis of the vase. Their treatment is similar to that of the same class of vases found at Vulci, except that it is not so careful, the extremities and outline being executed with less finish. In many of the vases the presence of white ornaments and letters, and the circumstance of the eye being provided with lashes and no longer represented in profile, show that they belong to the fine style of the art. In- scriptions rarely occur on them, and those that are found are chiefly exclamations, such as. The boy is handsome ! The girl is fair ! for the names of personages very seldom accompany the figures. The haljpis, or water vase, has rarely more than three figures ; the amphora) generally one on each side. The oinochoai have generally a single figure, two sometimes occurring. No law can be laid dow^n that the subjects selected alluded to the use of the vase, though the inferior figui-es upon one side show that they were intended to stand against a wall. Among the shapes particularly local, is a kin 1 of jug or oinochoe, better adapted for metallic work than for clay. The body assumes the shape of a head, generally, but not always, that of a female. The face is of a warmer tone than the body of the vase, and is sometimes covered with a coating of lime or stucco. The hair is painted, of a light colour, and there is sometimes a necklace moulded in the same material round the neck, which has been gilded. The upper part of these vases, as well as the handle and foot, are usually glazed with a black colour. Some are in the shape of a negro's head, the mouth being small like that of the lehjtlioi, and the whole face covered with a black glaze.^ The subjects found on the Nolan vases of this class are the same as on those discovered at Yulci, consisting of Zeus, Athene, and Apollo, DionysoS; Satyrs and Bacchanals,^ or Komos and Oinos,* Ariadne,^ ' Jalm, Vasensammlung, liv.;Millin., ii. 806, s. 2, 40, 810; B. A. B., xlviii. I. 2.0-26. I s. 245, 845, s. 251, 867. 2 Gerhard, Berl. Ant. Bild , s. 234, j •» Ibid., s. 246, 848. 235, 236. Taf. i. 38. j " Ibid., s. 241, 822. 3 Gerhard, Borl. Ant. Bild., s. 239, 116 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. Apollo and Artemis ;^ Nike,^ Linos ; ^ the story of Hermes and Herse;* Phaidra swinging ; ^ Heos and Kephalos ; ^ Amazono- machiai ; ^ Eros and female ; ^ Penelope ; ^ the judgment of Paris; ^° death of Achilles.^^ The prevalence of Attic subjects on vases found at a town apparently far removed from Athenian influence, and certainly not an Athenian colony, together with the difference of style, have been used as arguments by some in favour of the vases Laving been exported from Athens.-^^ Many of the subjects, indeed, of these vases are difficult to explain, and have been supposed to represent incidents of private life, — such as, females in the gynseceum,^^ marriages, exercises of the palai- stra,^* and the sports of youth, or the games of Greece.^^ There are, however, uiarks of the decadence of art, showing that it was passing from the ideal to the actual — from the poetic to the prosaic feeling. Oscan letters have been found incised under the vases.^® Future discoveries may clear up some difficulties; and to us these remains would have been more precious had they presented scenes derived from stirring contemporaneous events. Other vases from this site have been burnt on the pyre. They are the salicerni of Italian antiquaries, and much prized by amateurs.^' This city was of great antiquity, as is mentioned by Hekataios, of Miletos, who wrote about A.c. 523-500, the period of its early vases with yellow grounds, and it was placed by him amongst the Ausonii and Opici.^^ It however finally placed itself under Koman protection, A.v.c. 409, B.C. 346. Its most beautiful vases must have been made before its final subjection. Its pre- dilection for Greek art and institutions is w^ell known.^^ The ex- istence of Greek potteries at Nola has been conjectured from the vases there found ; and the Greek inscriptions on its coins tend to show that a dominant Greek population was established there. Nola was a colony of the Chalkidian Greeks, who were invited » Ibid., 243, s. 837. - Ibid., s. 242, ^33. 3 Ibid., 8. 248, 855. 4 Ibid., 8.248,854,8.271,910. * Ibid., 8. 249, 859. « Ibid., 8. 251, 866. ■ Ibid., s. 253, 870. 8 Ibid., 254, 877. 9 De Witte, An. 1841, p. 261. 10 Ibid., s. 319, 1029 ; Gerhard, Berl. Ant. Bild., Taf. xxxiii.-xxxv. '1 Ibid., 8. 239, 809. 12 Kramer, Ueber d. Herkuiifr, s. 149. 13 B. A. B., 8. 242, 831, 243, n. 836- 840, 8. 249, 856-57, s. 277, n. 989. »•« B. A. B., 8. 248, n. 852, 8. 251, n. 863. 1^ B. A. B., 8. 243, u. f. 834, 869-71. 1^ Gerhard, neuerw. Denkm.,i. n. 1614, ii. 1667. 1^ Bull, 1829, p. 19. 1^ Steph. Byz., voce Nola. 1^ Dionys. Hnlicarn. Excerpt. Reiske, p. 2315. CiiAP. X. AGE OF NOLAN VASES. 417 thither by the Tyrrhenians, and it is possible they may have brought with them the art of making vases. The clay of which their vases were made is said to have been found in the district.^ Vases of Kolan fabric are distributed far and wide throughout the peninsula as far as Poestum and Locris. The age of the beautiful vases of Nola is certainly that of the apogee of the Greek colonies in Italy. Their age is placed about Olympiad xc, and they have been attributed to the potteries of Ionian cities.^ Generally speaking, the Nolan vases have attracted less attention than those of Vulci and Cervetri, from their smaller size and their less interesting subjects.^ Other sites in this province, being those of cities once renowned in Campania, have also produced several vases of late style, as Acerra^ Sessa, and Calvi or Gales, the tombs of which have yielded some of the finest and largest specimens of modelled terra-cotta of the latest style of art. The vases of Avella, or Abella, were distinguished by their bad glaze, the pale colour of their figures, the fineness of their clay, and occasional good drawing.^ Still more renowned from its vases, being among some of the first discovered, is the site of Sanf Agata dei Goti, the ancient Plistia, which at one time gave its name to all the vases of later style and fabric. Their shapes were principally hraieres, their drawing skilful, but careless, especially in the extremities, resembling those of Nola, but with the introduction of more red and white tints ; their clay is fine, their glaze black and lustrous.^ It is supposed that they were made after the occupation of this city by the Samnites.' Yases with black figures are rarely found here. The vases discovered in the Principato Citeriore come from SalernO; from Cava, and Nocera dei Fagani,^ or Nuceria Alfa- terna. Those from the celebrated Festo or Paestum, the ancient Poseidonia, resemble in style those of the Basilicata, having red figures on a black ground, but of a better style of art, the varnish dull, the figures pale, with accessories of various colours.^ ' Aimali, 1832, p. 76. •» Bull., 1829, p. 162 ; Gargiulo, Cciini, 2 Abeken, Mittel-Itulien, pp. 340- p. 15. 341. 3 A volume of engravings of Nolan vases, prepared by Angelini, was in the possession of the late Dr. Braun at Rome, who was to have edited them with an accompanying text. They were engraved in the style of Tisclibcin, and had been printed at Naples. Bull, 1829, p. 163 ; Gerl.ard, Berl. Ant. Bild., 1. e. « Bull., 1829, p. 165. ' Abeken, Mittel-Italien, p. 341. 8 Bull., 1829, p. 165 ; Bull., Arch. Nap., 1856, p. 3. " Ibid., p. 163. 2 E 418 , GREEK POTTERY. Part II. One of the finest vases of this locality is that of the painter Assteas, in the Louvre, representing the story of Kadmos and the dragon, the principal figures of which have their names inscribed. Some other vases of this spot, of inferior style, represent the toilet of Aphrodite, jugglers,^ and similar sub- jects. They are said to be discovered outside the sepulchres.^ The vases found at EhoU do not appear to have had any particular or distinct style, although some had engraved in- scriptions in the Doric dialect^ under their handles. Their subjects Avere uninteresting.^ Vases had also been discovered at Battijpaglia, in the vicinity.'* No details have been given of those from the sepulchres of Santa Lucia. Those from the plains of Surrento, the ancient Surrentum, resembled in style the fabric of Sant' Agata dei Goti, and had the ordinary subjects of vases of this class, such as Sirens, Bacchanalians,^ and triclinia. There Avere potteries here in the time of Pliny, celebrated for producing excellent cups.* The lekythoi of the ancient Thurium were formerly celebrated, but none have been found there: pottery has, however, been discovered at Uria. Avellino and Monte Sarehio, in the Principato Ulteriore, have also produced vases, probably of later style ; so have Isernla, in the Contada di Molise, Sansevera, and Lucera in the Capi- tanata."^ The vases of the Basilicaia comprise a large portion of those of the later style of art, and exhibit the local pecu- liarities of a native fabric, through the barbaric and other costumes represented on them. The Alpine countries of Lucania have produced vases differing in style from those of the maritime districts of Magna Graecia. Some, indeed, have sup- posed that a colony of foreign potters, lociated here, introduced amongst the Lucanians the art of painting vases. Their tint is pale, the glaze of leaden hue, their ornaments are distin- guished by an absence of white accessories and their style of art has already been described in the account of the decadence. The high price which vases of great beauty or interest obtained in the European market during the eighteenth century, caused researches to be carried on in this province with enterprise, and on a settled plan. Here the earth is still trenched on sites ^ Quaranta, Mystagogue, p. 214. I ^ Mus. Point., pi. xxiii. xxv. p. 73, 2 Bull., 1829, 119. i and foil. ; Bull., 1829, p. IGl ; 1842, » Ibid., 1829, pp. 151, 164; 1836, p. ' pp. 11-13. 136; one was a Siren. <' N. H., xxxv., s, 46. * Bull., 1829, 163. I • Gargiulo, Cenni, p. 16. CiiAP. X. BASILICATAN VASES. 419 which appear favourable, and when the original soil has been disturbed, the excavators continue their labours till they have arrived at a part where the earth shows decided proofs of being still intact, and by this moans they are assured that nothing remains below. Many of the vases in this locality are found broken into fragments, either owing to the roofs and tops of the sepulchres having been destroyed or burst by the roots of trees. All the vases found in this province are of the latest style, with pale red figures on a dull, leaden, black ground, and subjects chiefly relating to the Dionysiac orgies. Many vases of the finest red style have been excavated from the sepulchres of Anzi, the ancient Anxia, a spot teeming with the remains of ancient art. It is the principal place where the vases of Lucania are found. Their style much resembles that of Ceglie, and is better than that of the generality of vases of the Basilicata. A fine JcaJjyis, found at this spot, and now in the Berlin Museum, represents the subject of Zeus and lo.^ Some of the vases were of the style of Nola, others of that of Apulia, and were supposed to be made by foreign potters established thero.^ At Armeyito, the ancient Armentum, vases have been found^ with black figures of the finest style, an example of which will be seen in a krater now in the British Museum, and others of an intermediate style, between the latest Nolan and early Apulian. Other vases of large size, fine style, and heroic sub- jects, have been found at Missanello, where a vase of ancient style, and many of later style, generally with good, but occa- sionally of careless drawing, have been found in the vicinity.* A magnificent vase, with the subject of Perseus, but of medi- ocre drawing, was found at the same place, in the vicinity of Grumento.^ The other sites of the Basilicata, in which vases have been exhumed, are Potenza, or Potentia, Calvello, and Pomarico (distinguished for its well-painted dishes, with sup- posed representation of nuptial ceremonies), Venosa or Yenusia, and Pisticci.^ Some vases from Grumento, the ancient Grumen- tum, founded by a Greek colony from Tliurium, and which evi- dently was flourishing at the time of the second Punic war,^ • Gorhard, Beil. Ant. Bild., s. 2G0, n. 902 ; Hirt, Die Bruutscliau, Berlin, 1825; Avellino, OpuscoU divcr&i, vol. ii. t'lv. 7, pp. 1G9, 174, ■ Bull, 1829, pp. 162, 169. ^ Gerhaid, B. A. B., ss. 139, 234. * Bull., 1829, p. 170. « Ibid., 1830, p. 24. « Gargiulo, Ccnni, p. 15; Bull., 1829, p. 165. ^ Livy, xxiii., c, 37 ; xxvii , c. 4. 2 E 2 420 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. exhibited the same style as the vases of Puglia. One had for its subject an Amazonomachia. Other sites in the same province, as BoecaNova and Sanf Areangelo, San Brancato,Ardarea, and Nice, Tim,]pani and Sodano^ have also produced vases of similar style. At Marsiconuova was found a vase with an Amazonomachia ; others of both styles occurred at Castelluccio,^ so also at Vaglio Oppido, or Velia, and BuotP Calvello, Acerenza, or Aceruntia.* The vases of Puglia^ on the coast of the Hadriatic are de- scribed as so much resembling each other in character and \ style, as to lead to the inference that they must have been fabricated about the same period, and almost in one pottery, i Their epoch is properly that of later days of the potteries, and of the Senatus consultum A.V.C. 564, suppressing the licen- tiousness of the Bacchic orgies. They are distinguished from those of Northern or Southern Italy, by the paler colour of their clay, the duller tone of their glaze, the size and recherche character of their shape, the obscure nature of their subjects, the abundance of heroic figures, and their general resemblance to the vases of the Basilicata. They differ essentially in the Alpine countries from those of the cities of the Gulf of Ta- rentum,^ the most remarkable of which are a rhyton, with the name of its maker Didymos, that of the maker Assteas, in the Louvre, and the vase in the British Museum, with the subject of Mars and Vulcan contending over Juno, entrapped on the golden throne.'^ Many of the vases of Puglia are the most beautiful of the later style of art. They have been found throughout the tract of level country extending from Bitonto to Euvo, and at Polignano or Neapolis-Peucetise, Putignano, Alta Mura,^ and Carbon ara,^ Terra di Bari, Canosa, Ceglie, and Kuvo, the vases of which, from their superior excellence, merit a separate description. These belong to the district called the Terra di Bari. The vases of Bari, the ancient Barium, are like those of Kubastini, Canosa, and Sant' Agata dei Goti, and have red figures upon a black ground. Among them was one in the shape of the head of a female, resembling those of Nola, ^ Lombardi, Memorie dell' Instit., p. 195, and foil. 2 Panofka, Hyperbor. Rom. Stud., i., p. 168. 3 IMera., pp. 218, 221, 227. * Mem., p. 208. 5 Bull., 1829, pp. 166, 172, 173. « Ibid., p. 162. '' Jahn, Vasensammlung, xxxix. « Bull., 1829, p. 172 ; Arch. Zeif., 1851, s. 81. » Bull., 1829, p. 173. Chap. X. VASES OF BAM AND CANOSA. 421 and several were deep bell-shaped hrateres, called oxyhajiiJia, havin2^ on tliem mystic and Dionysiac subjects.^ They have been found in tombs on the sea-shore.^ The vases of Canosa, the ancient Canusium, a city supposed to have been founded by Diomed, and an ^tolian colony, which at one time had attained considerable grandeur and power, probably in the interval before the second Punic war, and was one of the largest cities of Greek origin in Italy,^ consist of large krateres, decorated with subjects derived from the Dio- nysiac rites, allegories, the drama, and other sources which inspired the later artists. They rank as some of the very finest of the florid style of the decadence of the art, and bear considerable resemblance to the vases of Ruvo and Ceglie.* Lately a magnificent vase, with the subject of Dareios and Hellas, taken from the Persai of Aischylos, has been discovered at Canosa.^ One of the tombs opened here, which contained vases, had a Latin inscription dated B.C. 67, but the kind of vases found in it have not been recorded. Some unimportant vases of the style of black figures of the last decadence, have also been disinterred at Canosa.^ Close to Bari, at a little distance from the sea, lies Conversa^io. Its vases appear in style to resemble those of other parts of Puglia and those of Nola.' Futignano, in the same territory, has also produced vases.^ The vases found at Buvo, the ancient Ryps or Eubastini, are of the same style and composition as those of the rest of Southern Italy, and of some found at Athens.^ This city, of which so little is known from the ancient authorities, has produced many of the finest vases found in Southern Italy. Several styles have been found on this site, showing that it was colonised probably by the Achaians at an early epoch. Only a single vase with animals on a yellow ground, of the style called Dorian, Korinthian, or Phceniciau, has been exhumed. The most remarkable with black figures are two Panathenaic vases with the usual inscriptions, and a vase with Priam ransoming » ALeken, Mittel-Italien, p. 349; B. A. B., 8. 139, Nos. 729, 742, 753; Bull., 1837, p. 33. « Bull., 1829, p. 172. 3 Strabo, vi. 284. ■* Millin., Tombeaux de Canosa, fo., Paris,. J816; Bull., 1829, p. 174; Ger- hard, Ant. Bild., ss. 139 and 192, No. ' Gerhard, Monatsbericlit.d.K.Akad. Wissensch. zu Berlin, 1857. ' Jahn, Vasensammlung, xlv. ' See the oinochoe with the head of a Satyr and Bacchante, Gerhard, Berl, Ant. Bild., p. 234 ; Bull., 1829, p. 172. « Bull., 1829, p. 172. » Bull., 1829, p. 174; Bull., 1837, 604. , p. 97. 422 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. the corpse of Hektor, of the strong red style ; and of the fine style like that of Nola, only a few vases have been found. A polychrome vase, with the figure of a satyr, and the name of Alkibiades was discovered at Ruvo; and another, in the possession of Sir Woodbine Parish, represents Heos or Aurora. The great proportion of vases, however, of this ancient city are of the florid style, of large size, with volute and ornamented handles, with numerous figures, and arabesque ornaments, sometimes enhanced by gilding. Of these large vases, the most important for its subject, and the elaboration of its details, is that with the death of the Kretan giant, Talos, at the hands of the Argonauts. It would be too long to specify here all the sub- jects of the vases of Euvo. Besides amphorse, kraters, hydriai, and rhyta of fantastical shape are by no means of uncommon occurrence in the sepulchres.^ They are often of considerable size, and most of the finest vases of late style have come from this spot. The celebrated vase of the potter Meidias, in the British Museum, with the subject of the rape of the Leukippides, is supposed to have come from thence, on account of its resem- blance to many other beautiful vases known to have been dis- covered on the spot. Their details are executed with great elegance, the hair and also the drapery being indicated by fine wiry lines,^ while the figures are of more slender proportions , than those of the vases of the Basilicata. In fact, they resemble \ the known works of the young Athenian School, which com- menced about the age of Alexander, in the middle of the fourth century B.C., and of which, in another branch of art, such brilliant examples may be traced on the coins of Pyrrhos and those of Tarentum. Vases of the latest^ style have also been found here.^ The sepulchres of the comparatively unknown site of Ceglie, the ancient Cselia, in Apulia, have much enriched the collections at Berlin.* In style these vases have the general Apulian type, and their art is of the same late period. They are remarkable for their size. The principal shapes are cups and amphorae, Avith volute handles and gorgon masks. Some have subjects of great interest from their representing scenes taken from the drama. Among the subjects are the usual Eros ^ For the Euvo vases, see Jahn, Va- sensammlung, xl.-xlv. 2 For the account of tlie finest Ruvo vases in the Naples Museum, B,, 1837, pp. 97, 98 ; 1840, p. 187. ' Bull., 1834, pp. 164, 228 ; 1836, p. 114 ; 1838, p. 162. ^ Bull., 1829, p. 173. Chap. X. YASES OF LOCRI. 42;i and Aphrodite^ of this style, Phrixos crossing the Hellespont on the ram,^ Orestes at Delphi, the sacrifice of tlie ram of Tan- talus,^ Aktaion seized by his dogs, the burial of Chrysippos,* Bellerophoii, Meleager and the Kalydonian boar, Herakles and Geryon,^ the judgment of Paris,® the arming of Penthesilea,' Eiiropa, the Kentaurs and Amazonomachiai,^ Omphale,® and others of a similar kind. The finest of these vases represents the subject of the marriage of Herakles and Hebe.^° These vases show the prevalence of Greek ideas and civilisation, and were probably ftibricated on the spot by Hellenic potters. In the province of Calabria Ulteriore the vases discovered at Locri are perhaps some of the most beautiful of the South. The Locri, a branch either of the Opuntii or Epizephyi-ii, established themselves at Cape Zephyrium, 01. xxvi. B.C. 673, and appear to have been accompanied in their emigration by Korinthians and Laceda3monians, finally becoming a Dorian colony. Their coins are not earlier than 01. c, B.C. 374. All these states appear to have suffered from the ravages of the Lucanians, who, 01. xcvi., B.C. 396, advancing rapidly, seized part of the country and the maritime cities. These were succeeded by the Brettii, who, forty years later, revolted in 01. cvi., B.C. 356, and who issued gold coins of great beauty, probably struck in the maritime cities, showing the high state of the arts of the period. The vases are not found in covered sepulchres, like those previously described, but in the cultivated ground, as if scattered by a barbarian and plundering population. So tho- roughly have the vases on this site been destroyed, that it is almost impossible to discover all the fragments of any single specimen. Those in the Berlin Museum were found broken within a sepulchre, and a vase holding the ashes of the dead was discovered deposited in another of coarser ware, which served as a kind of case for it,^^ much in the same manner as glass vases are found holding the ashes of the ancient Romans or Britons in this country. They are of different styles of art, » Gerhard, B. A. B., s. 139, s. 279, n. | ' Ibid., 1019, s. 307. 995 ; Bull., 1834, p. 55. ' Ibid., 8. 279, n. 99G. 3 Ibid., 1003 ; Raoul Rochette, Mon. 8 Ibid., 1023, s. 313. » Ibid., 1024, 8. 315. ^'^ For these vases, see Jalin, Vaseu., Iiied., pi. XXXV., pp. 102-19G. I s. xxxviii. ; Gerhard, Apulischc Vasen- ^ Gerhard, B. A. B., 1010, ss. 295, 1 bil.ler, fo., Berlin, 1845. 29G. I " Gargiiilo, Cenni, p. 13; Bull.. 1834, * lbid.,1222, s. 309. ' p. 16b\ Ibid., 1011. s. 29G, 424 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. commencing with those of black figures. In the fainter colour of their paste, and the duller tone of their black glaze, they differ from those of Vulci, and few of the earlier kind are known. Among them may be cited a liydria or Jcal^is with an erotic subject,^ and a lekythos with a Bacchanalian one.^ The most remarkable of these with red figures are the hydria or haljpis, on which is represented the last night of Troy, Neopto- lemos slaying Priam on the altar of the Herkeian Zeus, the death of Astyanax, and the rape of Kassandra ; a lekythos with an erotic scene ; ^ an oinocJioe with a Bacchanalian one ;* a Nolan amphora, with figures of Marsyas and Olympos;^ a vase with the Dioskouroi and their names ;^ a two-handled vase with Trip- tolemos,' and an amphora with Zeus and Nike.^ Of the later style of art, and resembling the local style of Lucania, is an amphora with the subject of Yenus, Adonis, and Eros.^ In the Durand collection were also some lekythoi of the late Athenian style, with polychrome figures on a white ground, and of a coarser kind of drawing than those of Athens. One vase of this site has a remarkable inscription.^" In the department of Otranto, Brindisi — the ancient Brun- dusium, founded before Tarentum and the arrival of the Spartan Parthenii, a formidable rival to Tarentum, and one of the great ports of Italy, colonised by the Komans A.v.c. 508, B.C. 246 — has produced several vases. Besides the numerous black glazed plates impressed with small ornaments stamped from a die, a great hrater in the Naples Museum, painted with the subject of Eros mounted on a panther,^^ came from thence. Vases have also been found in the vicinity of Oria^"^ or Hyria, between Brindisi and Taranto, a town of great antiqiiity, founded by the Kretans sent in pursuit of Daidalos, and which successfully resisted the people of Tarentum and Khegium. At Torre di Mare (the ancient Metapontium, supposed to be the Alybas of Homer, but colonised by Achaians from Sybaris, the great head-quarters of the Pythagoreans, and subsequently, during the Peloponnesian war, in alliance with Athens; finally sub- ' Gerhard, Berl. Ant. Bild., s. 231, 721. 2 Ibid., 232, 725. 3 Gerhard, B. A. B., s. 232, 726. * Ibid., 728. * Gerhard, 1. c, s. 244, 841. * Jahn, Vaseiisainmluug, s. xx.\v. ^ Gerhard, B. A. B., s. 259, 896 ; Pa- nofka, Mus. Bart., p. 133. 8 Gerliard, B. A. B., s. 259, 898. » Ibid., 332, 1057. '0 KAAE AOKE2, Bull., 1829, p. 167. " Bull., Arch., 1829, p. 172. •2 Bull., 1834, p. 55. Uhap. X. VASES OF TARENTUM. 425 jiigated by the Romans after the retreat of Pyrrhus, but sub- sequently revolting to Hannibal), the circumstance of Roman sepulchres having been constructed over the Greek ones ap- pears to have been unfavourable to excavations in search of vases. Some of late style have also been discovere 1 at Casiellaneta,^ at the site of the ancient Salentum in its neigh- bourhood, and at Fasano^ or Gnathia, at Ce^lie, Genosa, and Ostunif all of late style. Vases have been found as early as 1578, at Mount Scaglioso.^ At Plistia the vases appear to have come from Capua, and to have been about 01. c* At Taranto or Tarentum, where it might have been expected from its ancient renown for luxury that many vases would have occurred, few have been turned up amidst its ancient ruins. Those, however, which are met with maintain the old pre-eminence of the city for its works of art, especially as manifested in its coins. Their clay is of a fine glaze like the vases of Pomarico, and often resembles the finest red figured vases of Nola.^ Vases with black figures are rarely found ; a fine krater with an Amazonomachia was dis- vered here ; ^ and on the fragment of a Jcrater in the British Museum is the Pallas Athene of the Parthenon, in red upon a black ground. It is of the best style of this School, probably not much older than Alexander, B.C. 330, if not over half a century later, or of the age of Pyrrhos, B.C. 280 ; although the medallic art of that time is more like the style of drawing found on the vases of Ruvo. Generally, the subjects of the vases discovered here are unimportant. Some objects, supposed to be moulds, have also been discovered on this site,' and the vases here, as at Locri, are found broken into fragments. Vases with black figures are comparatively rare on this site, those with red figures of a free style, having been principally found. This agrees with its history, the most flourishing period of the city having been from B.C. 400, under the government of Archytas till its final fall to the Romans, during which time the principal sculptors and painters of Greece embellished the public monuments of Tarentum. Its treasures of ancient art at the period of its fall were equal to those of Syracuse ; and there can be no doubt, from the beauty of its coins, that it not only imported the » Bull, 1836, p. 167. I * Bookh, Corp., Inscr. iv. p. x. * A vase with a siren between two i ^ Bull., 1S29, p. 171. owls was there discovered. See Bull., ' ^ Due de Luynes, Choix, pi. 43. 1819, p. 171. ' ' Bull., 1842, p. 120. ' Bull., Arch. Nap., 1857, p. 118. 426 GKEEK POTTEIIY. Taut II. choicest ceramic products of Greece, but also employed in its city vase-painters and potters of eminence. Other specimens come from Molto, La Castellaneta, and La Terza, in tlie vicinity ; from the latter they are principally dishes. Vases of Campanian style have also been found at Lecce, the ancient Lupise/ at Rugge, or Rudise, and at Boeca Nova and Valesio ^ Many vases some witli black and others with red figures, but tliey are almost all of small dimensions ; one a Dionysiac amphora, has the Attic subject of Theseus and the Minotaur.^ At the island of Isehia, ^Enaria, was found a Jcrater with the subject of the infant Dionysos con- signed to the Nymphs.* Two islands off the Campanian coast, the Pithecusae, are said to be named after the vats made there. Sicily, so celebrated for its magnificent works of art, has not produced a very great number of fictile vases, and the greater part of those discovered are by no means pre-eminently dis- tinguished from those of Italy ; some resembling in style the early vases, with black figures of Greece Proper ; while others are undistinguishable from those of Southern Italy. The lan- guage and form of letters of Sicilian vases is old Attic, with a mixture of Ionic in the more recent vases.^ The vases with red figures especially resemble those found in the Apulian tombs. Many of the vases from the Peninsula are however carried over to Palermo and sold as Sicilian, so that it is by no means certain which are really Sicilian vases. This island was anciently re- nowned for its potteries, and Agathokles, the celebrated tyrant of this island, was the son of a potter, and was reported to have dined off earthenware in his youth. The various sites in which vases have been found at Syracuse, Palermo, Elima, Himera, and Alicata, will be found subsequently mentioned. In Sicily the cities of the southern coast have produced the greatest number of vases, Agrigentum, the modern Girgenti, abounding in the treasures of ceramic art. Fine vases have also been dis- covered at Gela and Kamarina. On the east coast, south of Syracuse, the cemeteries of the Leontini and Acrse have produced more vases than the necropolis of Syracuse, which was probably the first destroyed. Palermo, Messina, and Catania,^ on the north and east coast, have produced but a small number of vases. » Keidesel, Keise, 230. I ^ Sclmlz, in Bull, 1842, p. 10. '•* Mommsen, Unterital. Dial. 58-GO. j ' Buekh, Corp. Iiiser. iv., p. v. 3 Bull., Arch. Nap., 185G, p. 82, tav. '■ '' Sena di Falco, Bull, 1834. xiii. ! (^iiAP. X. DETAILS. 427 On the whole, Sicily has produced far fewer ancient vases than Italy.^ The clay from which the vases may have been made is said to have been found near Panormus.^ The principal sites where vases have been discovered are Centorhi, the ancient Ken- turipai, where a vase was found, with encaustic painting, the Colours having been prepared with wax, and laid upon a rose- oloured ground. This vase is ornamented with gilding, and is of a late style and period.^ At Lentini, Leontini, vases, chiefly of the later style of art, have been discovered, many polychrome, and one or two with red figures of the strong style.* The vases found at Syracuse have both red and black figures, and are of both styles, but unimportant.^ At Palazzolo, the ancient Acra3, vases of the ancient Doric or Phoenician style, of the archaic style, and some with red figures, have been discovered ; one of the most interesting is that in the British Museum, representing Dionysos in a car in the shape of a ship.^ Fine vases have been found at Kamarina ; at Terranova, the ancient Gela, one of the ^earliest settlements of the island, vases had been found a cen- ^niry ago, both with black and red figures,' and in style like Hpose of Nola.^ In 1792, a pottery with furnaces and vases appears to have been discovered in the vicinity.^ Of late years vases with black and with red figures, of the finest style, have been discovered here. In Selinunte, or Selinus, famous for its two ancient Doric temples, its archaic sculptures, and for the beauty of its coins, both of the ancient and finest style, leky thoi of archaic style have come to light.-^*^ Himera has produced only a few vases ^^ with red figures, and the single specimen found at Solos has been doubted.^^ * Avolio, Delle fatture di argilla clie i ® Judica, Antichita di Acre, fo., si trovano iu Sicilia, 8vo., Pal., 1829, Messina, 1819. p. 6. 7 Dorville, Sicula, p. 123 b. ^ Bockh, C. I., iv. p. vii. ® Bottiger, Vaseii., i. p. 39 ^ Tliis mode of painting vases is al- luded to by Athenaios, v. 200 b. The vase is not unique, similarly painted fragments having been discovered in the Biscuri Museum in Catania, at Kertch, and in the Dnrand Collection ; llochette. Feint. Ant. In., p. 430, Taf. xii.; Bull., 1833, p. 490. ■* Jahn, Vasensammlung, s. xxxi. Uhden, Arch. Intell. Bl., 1836, p. 33. "> Gerhard, in Arch. Int. Bl., 1834, p. 55. " B. Komano, Antichita Termitane Pal, 1838, p. 139, Taf. i. H. ; Antichita inediti di vario genere trovato in Sicilia, fo., Palermo, 1855 ; Hauss, de' vasi greci comunam. chiamati Etrusc, Palermo, 1823; Bull., Arch. Nap., 1^55, p. 140. ^ Gerhard, Aus. Vas., 68, i. ; Bull., ' ^"^ Jahn, Vasensammlung, s. xxxi v. 1832, p. 177. ' 428 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. Several vases are described in various accounts of these re- mains as coming from Sicily. Many of these with black figures exhibit a style of drawing so rude and peculiar as to entitle them to be considered decidedly of local fabric, as they are readily to be distinguished from those of Vulci, Nola, and Cam- pania. Those with red figures have also certain characteristics, such as defects of shape and careless style of drawing, which connect them with the vases of Greece Proper. One of the most interesting specimens of this class discovered of late years, is a fragment, with the subject of Telegonos, Kirke, and Ulysses.^ Most of the vases come from Girgenti, and few from Palermo.^ The vases of Girgenti, or Agrigentum, with black figures, re- semble those of Vulci in the rigidity and mechanical finish of their details ; among them may be cited, a Panathenaic amphora, with Herakles and Kerberos, Hermes and Bacchanals ; ^ a lehyihos, having on it the destruction of the Lernaean Hydra ; * another, with a warrior leaping from his horse ; ^ the arnpJioreis of the maker Taleides, with Theseus and the Minotaur, and a scene of weighing ; ^ another with Achilles and Hektor, and Heos or Aurora bearing off Memnon.^ A curious vase of the maker Nikosthenes^ has also been found there. From these and similar subjects, such as Herakles and Tritons,® Achilles drag- ging Hektor,^® and Bacchanals,^^ it will be seen that they are of the usual class found on the best and rigid school of vases with red figures. Numerous examples of this style have been found in Sicily, such as lehythoi with females,^^ Hera and her pea- cock,^^ Nike,^* the Dioskouroi, scenes from the Amazonomachia,^^ warriors, ^^ Dionysos,^^ and birds.^^ Among the finest vases of this » Bull., 1843, 82; Arch. Zeit., 1843, 143. 2 One, with birth and marriage of Dionysos, Bull., 1834, p. 201, 1843, p. 54 ; Arch. Zeit., 1843, 137. ^ Politi, Anfora Panateuaica 8vo., Girgenti, 1840. ^ Politi, II mostro di Lerna lekitos Agrigentino, 8vo., Palenno, 1840. ^ Politi, Esposizione di sette vase Gr. Sic. Agr., 8vo., Palermo, 1832. ^ Millingen, Peiut. d. Vases Ant., pi. i. Ixvi. ; Explic, ii. p. 88, n. 7. ^ Millingen, Anc. Un. Mon., i. pi. 3, 4. 8 Panofka, Mus. Blae., pi. Ill ; Ger- hard, Lettrcs, p. 40. 3 Politi, Lettcra al S. Millingen su. di una figuliua rappres^ntaute Ercole e N(.reo, 8vo., Palermo, 1834. ^" Politi, Cenni su di un vaso fittile Greco-Agr. rapp. Achille vincitore di Ettore, 8vo., Messina, 1828. " Politi, Esposizione di sette vasi, 1. c; Bull. d. Inst. 1834, p. 59. '^ Politi, Illustr. sul dipinto in terra- cotta, 8vo., Girg., 1829. '^ Politi, Esposizione di sette vasi Gr. Sic. Agr., 8vo., Palermo, 1832. " Ibid. »* Ibid. '^ Politi, Un lekitos, 8vo., Palermo, 1840. 1^ Politi, Due parole, 8vo., Pal., 1833. *^ Politi, Esposizione di sette vasi. I.e. Chap. X. VASES OF AGIUGENTUM. 429 style are the amphora of Munich, representing Tityos seizing Leto, and Mr. Stoddart's Jcrater with an Amazonomachia.^ But that representing the meeting of Alkaios and Sappho, now in the Museum of Munich, is the most renowned of all.^ Most of the vases of Girgenti however are of the shape of the hrateres or oxyhapha, and resemble those of the tombs of Lucania. They have such subjects as the Hyperborean Apollo,^ Dionysiac representations,* the return of Hephaistos to heaven,^ the Kentauromachia,^ scenes of leave-taking,' triclinia,^ and Achil- les and Amazon.^ Many interesting vases of the shape called kelehe also come from Girgenti, and are of the more perfect style of art, representing Zeus bearing off Aigina,^° the Eleusinian deities,^^ Dionysos confided to the nursing of Ariadne,^^ the de- parture of Triptolemos, Heos and Thetis pleading for their sons,^^ Peleus and Thetis,^* and some general scenes.^^ Cups with white grounds, and with subjects in linear outline, have also been discovered there, and one in the Museum at Munich has the subject of Bacchanals, Herakles killing Kyknos, or the Amazons. -^^ ?he Atticism of the inscriptions ^' has been alleged as a reason for supposing the vases of this island to have been imported, )ut the Ionic colonies, such as Akragas and Selinos,^^ and the ' Politi, Illustrazione sul dipinto in ;rra-cotta, 8vo., Girgenti, 1829, ^ Millingen, Anc. Un. Mon., xxxiv, ; ja Borde, Vase de Lamberg, pi. lii. ^ Politi, Illustrazione d' un vase rreco-Siculo rappresentante Nemesi, )vato neir antica Agiigento, Svo., *alermo, 182G, p. 22, tav. iii. * Politi, Cinque Vasi di Preraio, extracted from La Concordia Giornale Siciliauo, Num. 14-20, Luglio Anno Secuudo; Mineivini ; Bull., Arch. Nap. i. 14 ; Gerhard, A. Z., s. 61. * Politi, Illustrazione sul dipinto in terra-cotta, 8vo., Girgenti, 1829, tav. 4. ^ Politi, Cinque Vasi di Premio, tav. vi. ; Osserv. 8vo., Ven., 1828 ; Mi- nervini, Bull., Nap., i. p. 14 ; Gerhard, A. Z., 1843, 8. 60, ^ Politi, Descr. di due Vasi Grtco- Sicoli Agrigentini, 8vo., Girgenti, 1831. ^ Politi, Illustraz., tav. 3. 5 Politi, Due parole su tre Vasi fittili, 8vo., Palermo, 1833. The name of the Amazon is 2AAE2I2. '" Politi, Cinque Vasi di Premio, tav. iv. " Politi, Illustr. di un Vaso fit tile rappr. Apollo il citaredo, 8vo., Palermo, 1826. »2 Mon., iii. i^l. 17 ; Ann., 1835, p. 82. '^ Politi, Cinque Vasi di Premio, Concord., ii. 14 ; Bull., Arch. Nap., 11. p. 16 ; Gerliard, Arch. Zeit., 1843, p. 14. ^•* Politi, lUiistr. ad un Vaso rappr. Cassandra e Ajace d' Oileo, 8vo., Pa- lermo, 1828 ; Minervini, Bull., Arch. Nap., i. p. 14; Gerhard, A. Z., 1843, 61, Poseidon und Amymone. *^ Politi, ibid. ; also Descr. di due Vasi Greco-Sicoli, 8vo., Girg., 1831. ^'^ Politi, Descr. di due Vasi, 1. c. >7 Kramer, Uebtr die Herkunft, s. 119. ^^ Akragas was either a colony of Gc la (Strabo, vi. 5), or, according to one n ad- ing of the lonians, Scymmis(l. 275-292) makes the founchrs inhabitants of Gela, 430 GEEEK rOTTERY. Part II. prevalence of Ionic and Attic Greek as a polite language, may account for the appearance of this dialect. Yases of fine style have also been discovered at Catania, and some with black figures at Alicata.^ Vases with red figures, of good style, have been found at Aderno, Adranon, at the foot of Etua.^ In the public museum at Malta are also some vases of Phoe- nician and later G-reek style, with Bacchanalian subjects. One represents the capture of Midas.^ Another has Eros, with his name.* The vases are said to resemble those found in Sicily and Campania. Earthen sarcophagi of Phoenician type, shaped like Egyptian mummy cases, were found at Malta a.d. 1624.^ Passing from Sicily to the coast of Africa, the site of Bengazi • — the old Euhes])eris of the Kyrenaika, which subsequently ob- tained the name of BereniJce from the queen of Ptolemy Phila- delphos — abounds in sepulchres, in which have been found a very large number of vases of the later style of art, like those of Lucania and Apulia. Of these the most remarkable are the Panathenaic vases, which have black figures on a red ground, and the usual inscription of *' [I am] one of the prizes from Athens," accompanied with the names of the following archons : — Hegesias and Nikokrates, who were archons at Athens in the 4th year of cxi. Olympiad, B.C. 334 ; Kephisodoros, who was archon in the 2nd year of cxiv. Olympiad, B.C. 323 ; Archippos, who was archon of the 4th year of the same Olympiad, B.C. 321 ; and Theophrastos, whose name occurs as that of archon of the 1st year of ex. Olympiad, B.C. 340, or of cxvi. Olympiad, B.C. 313.® They are remarkable for showing the later period at which black figures were used.' These vases, from the Atticism of their inscriptions, are conjectured to hav^ been imported from but interpolates the description between ' are ia the Museum of Ley den; Lenor- tlie Ionian colonies of Selinos and Mes- sene. * Jahn, Vasensaramlung, s. xxxii. 2 Bull., 1843, p. 121). 3 De Witte, Bull., 1842, p. 43. mant and De Witte, Elite des Monu- meiis, Introd., p. xix. Many of these vases are like those found at Nula, while others' resemble the pottery of Melos, especially the coarser fabrics ; while the ^ Eeidesel, Reise, p. 74 ; Jahn, Va&en- ' appearance of the head of Jupiter Am- sammlung, s. xxix. mou on a vase iiidicutes a local fabric. ' Abela, G. F., Dchcrittione di Malta, 8vo., 1847, n. 12. « Cf. ArA2IA2 APXON TON A0E- NE0EN A0AON, R. Rocliette, Ann., vi. 287, n. 2 ; Boekh, Corp, Inscr. Gisec, ii. p. 70, No 2035; P. I.uca.«, ii. 84. Lenormant and De Witte, Elite, Introd., xxiv. and n. 2 ; Jahn, Vaseusaramlung, s. xxviii. xxix. ^ Lenormant, Eevue Archeologique, 1848, p. 230 ; Paul Lucas, t. ii. p. 84, ed. Amst., 1714 ; Bockh, Corp. Inser. gome of these vases from the Cyrenaica j Grsec. t. ii. p. '(O, No, 2035. ATHENIAN PRIZE VASE ^FROM NEAR BENGAZI. Chap. X. VASES OF BERENICE. 431 Athens. Two other vases of a supposed historical import have also been found there, one representing a Persian king attacked by a lion, the other Aristippos between Arete, his daughter, and Aphrodite.^ These last have inscriptions in the Doric dialect. Besides the prize vases, many small vases and a few large of later style, some few polychrome, with subjects of little interest, and resembling the later vases found at Ruvo, Apulia and the Basi- licatxi, have been exhumed here, and at the adjoining spots of PioJeynata, or Ptolemais, and TuJcera, or Teucheira. It is from this site the later Athenian prize vases just mentioned were obtained, bearing the name of Athenian archons from Nikokrates, B.C. 334 — to Theophrastus, B.C. 313. One has the name of the potter Kittos. Others had Triptolemos instead of the cock on the columns, and one Harmodios and Aristogeiton on the shield of Athene.^ Of the vases in the Louvre, Mr. C. T. Newton describes those coming from the Kyrenaika as very interesting. He con- siders the vases with black figures, with the names of Athenian archons, as being in a style of complete decadence. The figures have the small heads and general proportions of the school of Lysippus ; the drawing is very coarse, and, compared w^ith the drawing of other vases, may be called cursive. On each of the two columns, between which Athene stands, is Nike, holding an aplustron. Their form is the late Basilicatan kind of amphora. A number of very interesting vases and terra-cottas have been brought from the Kyrenaika. The vases seem to be of Athenian manufacture ; among them many polychrome ornaments in relief, gilt. One vase is a mixture of painting and bas-relief. Eros is seen seated on a rock fishing, the rock raised in relief, the wings of the Eros painted red, the accessories gilt, before him are two figures hauling in a net; all on a black ground. The composition is elegant and graceful, like the mural paintings of Pompeii. There is also a vase with a curious caricature of Herakles, after his Libyan victory, standing in a chariot driven by Nike, to which are harnessed four Kentaurs, their faces of the Nubian type ; very grotesque, and full of comic expression. Vases have also been found at Tripolis, on the same coast. They are also of late style, few with black figures, the greater portion with red figures, and unimportant subjects, principally ornaments. A few of like style have also been discovered at Leptis? To the other vases found on the 1 I.enormant, Nouvellei Annales, 1847, 331. - De Witte, Etudes, pp. .5-0. ' Jnhn, Vasensammliinsr. s. xxix. 432 GREEK POTTERY. Part II. African coast and in Egypt, allusion has been already made — such as those of Coptos, famous for being made of an aromatic earth .^ Naukratis was celebrated for its johialai having four handles, and a glaze so fine that they passed for silver. One of the doors of the city was called the Potters' door.^ The vases were not made upon the wheel, but modelled with the hand.^ In the catacombs of Alexandria, vases with a pale paste, and painted in the last style of Greek art, have been discovered, some of which are now in the Louvre,* and others in the British Museum. Their paste occasionally is of a violet colour.*^ According to Skylax the Phoenicians carried to the African Arulonpolis, or as corrected Doulon-polis or Doulopolis, "slave-city," the pottery of Athens.^ The northernmost point at which vases have been found is Kertch, the ancient Fanticajpseum, one of the other colonies of the Milesians, in the Kimmerian Bosphoros, celebrated at a later period for its commerce, and in A.C. 120 finally subdued by Mithridates. About 400 vases, scarcely a fourth of which have subjects of the least importance, have been found in this locality. Few have black figures, and their drawing is in the careless and free style of the Greek potteries. The rest are principally small vases, with red figures, of the later style of art, and some of these are polychromatic, and ornamented with gilding. The most remarkable of these vases is that of the Athenian potter Xenophantos, having for its subject a combat of gryphons and the Arimaspoi, a story of local interest. These vases appear to be about the time of Leukon king of the Bosphoros, who flourished A.c. 393-353. Fragments of a vase of the artist Epiktetos have also been discovered in this vicinity.' Most of these are now in the Hermitage of St. Petersburg. They al-e probably Athenian, most of them ill-preserved. One from this site, at present in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris, has a beautiful black glaze, and a bas-relief in the midst of it.^ The vases have red figures, * Brongniart, Traite, i. p. 582. ^ Krause, Anguol. p. 137. ^ Brongniart, ibid. ; Atbenseus, x. c. 61. ^ Brongniart, 1. c. 582. ' Mus. de Sevres, i. 18. ^ Acad, des Inscr. et Belles-Lettres, Comptes Rendus. n. s., vi, 206. ^ For the vases found here see Annali, 1832, p. 6 ; Dubois de Montpereux, Voyage autour du Caucase, Pad. 1843, PI. 7-15 ; Ashik, Bosph. Reich. 4to, Od. 1848-49, iii. t. 3. 26 ; Bull. 1841, p. 105; Kohne in the Bulletin de la Soc. Arch, et Num. de St. Peters- bourg, ii. 7. ; Jabn, Vasensammlung, 8. xxviii. A coin of Leucon was found with a vase. Annali. xii. 13 ; Ouvaroff, Antiquites du Hosphore Cimmeiien, vol. iii. pp. xlvi.-lxviii. ^ Brongniart, Traite, i. 578. En- gravings of these vases will be found lAI'. X. ENAMELLED WAIH']. 43a id art of the style of the decadence of the art, the vvorkman- ip being coarse, and the subjects uninteresting ; such as the ionysiac tliiasos/ gymnastic scenes,^ and those of private life.^ eir shapes were the Jiydriay kalpis, peliJce, and lehane} In the sepulchres of Greece, the Islands, and Italy, a class ware has been found, quite distinct from the preceding, and SRsembling the enamelled stone ware of the Egyptians and Ba- bylonians already described. Many Egyptian perlume vases have been found in the sepulchres of Etruria ; and as their hiero- glyphs ^ are identical with those found in Egypt, it is probable that they were imported into Etruria from that country. Amongst them are several aryhalloif of the pale green ware, with reeds in shape of the flow^er of the papyrus, and handles like apes with inscriptions, a class of vases which came into use in Egypt in the sixth century, B.C., under the rule of the Psam- metichi of the 26th dynasty. There are, however, some other vases of this class of ancient fayence, or porcelain, which are not so decidedly Egyptian, such as certain jars, ornamented with zig- zacr white ornaments and maroon petals, on a pale, dull green ground, and which may be imitations by Greek potters of this foreign ware.^ The specimen here represented was found by Campanari in a tomb at Vulci. Some very beautiful specimens have been discovered in the tombs of Southern Italy. A beautiful small JcaIathos-sh.sq)ed vase procured at Naples, and now in the British Museum, is of a pale green, inlaid with blue and white ornaments ; and a proclioos, or No. 172.— Jar of Enamelled Ware . Vulci. in Dubois de Montpereux, Voyage autour du Caucase, etc., Pai-is, 1843, 6 vols, atlas folio, and Anton Ashik, Bosphorische Alterthiimer, Odessa, 1848; cf. Annali, 1840, p. 6. * Gerhard, 1. c. s. 195; Dubois de Montpereux and Ashik, I. c. ^ Ibid. These principally are draped and enveloped figures. =" HEN0«I>ANT02 EnOIHSEN A0HN. Bull., 1887, p. 47, 1841, pp. 108, 109; Dubois de Montpereux, Voyage au- tour du Caucase, V. Classe at Kertch. These vases exhibit proofs of a local fabric ; Lenormant and De Witte, Introd., xxiii. ^ Bull., 1841, p. 108. Dubois de Montpe'reux, Atlas, pi. vii. ; Gerhard, Dtnkmaler, Forschungen und Berichte, 1850, 8. 193. Compte rendu d. 1. Comm. Imp. Archeol. f°. St. Petersb. 1867 and foil. * Micali, Mon. Inedit. tav. vii. • Mus. Etrus. Vatic, ii. iv. 2 F 434 GKEEK POTTERY. Part IT. bottle, most delicately decorated with ornaments of the same kind, came from the same place. Several lehjthoi, or little toilet vases, of this Avare, have been discovered in the tombs of Melos and CsBre, and at Vulci. Their shapes show that they had not an origin purely Oriental, having been delivered from moulds, and then glazed. They are in the shape of a female kneeling, and holding a jar, the heals of satyrs and nymphs, alektryons and hedgehogs. In the Egyptian grotto of the PoUedrara at Vulci were found scaraba^i and beads, also of this ware. At Athens one was found in the shape of a double head of Herakles and Omphale,^ an^l at Melos another in the form of a hedgehog.^ In the early tombs of Kameiros at Ehodes, many glazed vases were found mixed with objects of Egyptian porcelain. Some of these vases were apparently Egyptian, but others may have been made by Phoenicians. Amongst the shapes were small alahastra, with friezes of men and animals in relief, compressed globular little jars like the Egyptian, also ornamented with friezes and bands in relief. Many lekijthoi, or anjballoi, m the shape of females liolding jars, or playing on the flute, apes, lions, hedgehogs, or porcupines, the latus fish and the dolphin. They are now in the British Museum. To the later period of this glazed ware belong the oinochoai, inscribed with the names of the Ptolemies, found at Alexandria, and already mentioned, and some other glazed vases in the shape of oinochoai, and lamps of a yellowish- brown colour. This glazed ware was continued under the Roman Empire. Several objects of this ware, consisting of heads, sca- raba^i, unguent vases, and figures of Egyptian deities, have been found at Capo del Sevo, the ancient Tharras, on the north of the Gulf of Oristano. Many of them resembled Phoenician types, or treatment in their art. Their glaze was a pale green, resem- bling that of the ware of the 26th dynasty, and one scaraba^us bore the name of Psammetichus, showing that these objects were probably not older than B.C. 600. This city was founded by the Phoenicians, or Carthaginians, and existed till the reign of the Roman Emperor Philip.^ The discovery of painted vases, and the general admiration w^hich they excited among the lovers of the fine arts, gave rise to several imitations. The first of these were made by Wedge wood. ' Panofka, Rech., p. 25, pi. iii. 55. 2 Bull, 1831, pp. 181-90. 2 De la Marmora, Vuy. eu Sard., ii. pp. 359-147 ; Bull. Arch. Sard. 1857, p. 139. ("HAP. X. IMITATIONS. 435 His paste is, liowever, heavier, and bis drawings far inferior to lie antique in freedom and spirit. At Naples, chiefly through e researches and directions of Gargiulo, vases have been pro- ced, which in their paste and glaze resemble the antique, though the drawings are vastly inferior, and the imitation is once detected by a practised eye. They are far inferior in 1 essential respects to the ancient vases. Even soon after the acquisition of the Hamilton collection by the pubh'c, the taste created for these novelties caused various imitations to be pro (hiced. Some of the simplest kind were made of wood, covered with painted paper, the subjects being traced from the vases themselves, and this was the most obvious mode of making them. Mr. Battam also has made very excellent facsimiles of these vases, but they are produced in a manner very different from that of the ancient potters, the black colour for the grounds or figures not being laid on with a glaze, but merely with a cold pigment which has not been fired, and their lustre being pro- duced by a polish. Such a process by no means gives them the extreme beauty of the better specimens of the ancient potteries, l^bid in technical details they do not equal the imitations made at r^aples, some of the best of which have occasionally deceived both archa3ologists and collectors. Even in the times of antiquity many counterfeits existed, for the potters evidently often endea- voured to assume the names of their rivals, without infringing the laws of their respective states, by inscribing them on their vases in an illegible manner. These, however, can scarcely be classed in the category of ancient forgeries, like the Etruscan painted vases, imitated from the Greek. These are chiefly found on Etruscan sites ; but some few from Athens itself show that they were manufactured at home. They may possibly have been a particular style of fabric, introduced as a novelty to attract the popular taste, and subsequently abandoned. One of the most remarkable fabricated engravings of these vases was that issued by Brondsted and Stackelberg, in a fit of archaeological jealousy. A modern archaeologist is seen running after a draped female figure, called ^HMH, or "Fame," who flies from him exclaim- ing, EKA^ UAI KAAE, " A long way off, my fine fellow!" This vase which never existed except upon paper, deceived the cre- dulous luffhirami, who too late endeavoured to cancel it from his work. Other vases, evidently false, have also been published.^ 1 Inghirami, Vasi Fittili, i. tav. xiii. ; ;i false vase also is published in Passeri, ccc, and another in D'Hancarville, ii. 81 ; D'Hancarville, ii. 71. 2 F 2 436 GREP]K POTTP]RY. Part TT. In the ancient times of Rome, these vases bore a high value, and sold for enormous sums to connoisseurs, which has also been the case in modern times. Cleopatra spent daily on the fragrant or flowery ware of Rhossos, a Syrian town, six minae.^ Of the actual prices paid for painted vases, no positive mention occurs in classical authorities, yet it is most probable that vases of the best class, the products of eminent painters, obtained considerable prices. Among the Greeks, works of merit were at all times handsomely remunerated, and it is probable that vases of excel- lence shared the general favour shown to the fine arts. For works of inferior merit only small sums were paid, as will be seen by referring to the chapter on inscriptions, which were incised on their feet, and which mentioned their contemporary value. In modern times little is known about the prices paid for these works of art till quite a recent period, when their fragile remains have realised considerable sums. In this country the collections of Mr. Tow^nley, Sir W. Hamilton, Lord Elgin, and Mr. Payne Knight, all contained painted vases ; yet, as they included other objects, it is difficult to determine the value placed on the vases. A sum of 500/. was paid in consideration of the Athenian vases in Lord Elgin's collection, which is by no means large when the extraordinary nature of these vases is considered, as they are the finest in the world of the old primi- tive vases of Athens. 8400Z. were paid for the vases of the Hamilton collection, one of the most remarkable of the time, and consisting of many beautiful specimens from Southern Italy. The great discoveries of the Prince of Canino, in 1827, and the subsequent sale of numerous vases, gave them, however, a definite market value, to which the sale of the collection of Baron Durand, which consisted almost entirely of vases, affords some clue. His collection sold in 1836 for 313,160 francs, or about 12,524Z. The most valuable specimen in the collection was the vase representing the death of Kroisos, which was purchased for the Louvre at the price of 6600 francs, or 264/. The vase with the subject of Arkesilaos brought 1050 francs, or 42/. Another magnificent vase, now in the Louvre, having the subject of the )^outhful Herakles strangling the serpents, was only secured for France after reaching the price of 6000 francs, or 210/. ; another, with the subject of Herakles, Dejanira, and Hyllos, was purchased for the sum of 3550 francs, or 142/. A hrater, with the subject of ^ Athen. vi. 229, e. CuAi'. X. MAXIMUM VALUE. 437 Akamas and Demophon bringiDg back Aithra, was obtained by Magnoncourt for 4250 francs, or 170/. A Dionysiac amphora of the maker Exekias, of the archaic style, was bought by the British i\ruseum for 3600 francs, or 142/. in round numbers. Enough has, however, been said to show the high price attained by the most remarkable of these works of art. Tlie inferior vases of course realised much smaller sums, varying from a few francs to a few })ounds ; but high prices continued to be ob- tained, and the sale by the Prince of Canino in 1837, of some of his finest vases, contributed to enrich the museums of Europe, although, as many of the vases were bought in, it does not afford a good criterion as to price. An oinochoe, with Apollo and the Muses, and a hydria, with the same subject, were bought in for i 2000 francs, or 80/. each. A hylix, with a love scene, and another with Priam redeeming Hektor*s corpse, brought 6600 I'rancs, or 2G4Z. An amphora with the subject of Dionysos, and a cup with that of Herakles, sold for 8000 francs,'or 320/. each. I Another brought 7000 francs, or 280Z. A vase with the subject pf Theseus seizing Helen, another with the arming of Paris, and a third with Peleus and Thetis, sold for 6000 francs, or 240/. Kor can the value of the finest specimens of the art be con- Bidered to have deteriorated since. The late IMr. Steuart was offered 7500 francs, or 300/. for a large hrater, found in Southern Italy, ornamented with tlie subject of Kadmos and the dragon ; 3000 francs, or 120/., were paid by the British Museum for a fine Jcrater ornamented with the exploits of Achilles ; 2500 francs, or 100/., for an amphora of Apulian style, with the subject of Pelops and Oinomaos at the altar of the Olympian Zeus. For another vase, with the subject of Mousaios, 3000 francs, or 120/. were paid, and 2500 francs, or 100/., for the Athenian prize vase, the celebrated Vas Burgonianum, exhumed by Burgon. At Mr. Beckford's sale, the late Duke of Hamilton gave 200/. for a small vase, with the subject of the Indian Bacchus. The passion for possessing fine vases outstripped these prices at Naples; 2400 ducats, or 500/., was given for the vase with gilded figures discovered at Capua. Still more incredible, half a century back, 8000 ducats, or 1500/., was paid to Vivenzio for the vase in the Museo Borbonico representing the last night of Troy ; 6000 ducats, or 1000/., for the one with a Dionysiac feast; and 4000 ducats, or 800/., for the vase with the grand battle of the Amazons, published by Schulz. Another vase, for which the sum of 1000/. was paid, was the so-called Capo di Monte 438 GREEK POTTERY. Part TT. Vase, purcliased by the late Mr. Edwards, at Naples. It is an amphora 3 feet 6 inches high, with medallion handles, on which are modelled Gorgons' heads, Satyrs and Nymphs ; the subject has no remarkable interest, on one side is an Amazonoraachia, on the other a sepulchre. For the large colossal vases of South- ern Italy from 300Z. to 500?. has been given according to their condition and style of art. But such sums will not be hereafter realized, not that taste is less, but that fine vases are more common. No sepulchre has been s[)ared when detected, and no vase neirlected when dis- covered ; and vases have been exhumed with more activity than the most of precious re- lics. The vases of Athens, with white grounds and polychrome figures, have also been always much sought after, and have realized large prices, the best preserved examples fetching as much as 70?. or 100?. Gene- rally those vases which are finest in point of art have ob- tained the highest prices, but in some instances they have been surpassed in this respect by others of high literary or historical value. As a general rule, vase^ with inscriptions have always been most No. Its.— Lekythos. Triuinpb of Indian Bacchus. tit ,^ i ^ ji valuable, the value oi these objects being much enhanced when inscribed with the names of potters or artists, or with remarkable expressions. The inferior kinds have fetclied prices much more moderate, the hylilces averaging from 5?. to 10?., the amj)horeis from 10?. to 20?., the hydriai about the same; the hrateres from 5?. to 20?., according to their general excellence, the oinochoai about 5?., and the mis- cellaneous shapes from a few sliillings to a few pounds. Of tlie inferior vases, the charming glaze and shapes of those discovered at Nola have obtained the best prices from amateurs. Those of Greece Proper have also fetched rather a higher price than those of Italy, on account of the interest attached to the place of their discovery. Many charming vases of ungkzed terra-cotta have CllAl". X. MINIMUM VALUE. 439 rivalled in their prices even the best of the painted vases.^ Although there are scarcely limits to the desire of possessinjj^ noble works of art, it will be seen that vases have never excited the mhids of men so much as the nobler creations of sculpture, or of painting; nor have they reached the fabulous value of Sevres porcelain or Dutch tulips. Even at the present day tlieir price in the scale of public taste has been equalled, if not excelled, by the porcelain of the supposed barbarian Chinese, and Chelsea may pride itself that its china in value, if not in merit, has surpassed the choicest productions of the furnaces of Italv and Atliens. • Some account of the prices paid for vases will be found in the "Description des Antiquite's et Objets d'Art qui romposent le cnbinet de feu M. le Chev. !•:. Durand," by M. J. De VVitte, 8vo, Paris, 1836 ; in the " Supplement a la Description des Antiquites du cabinet de feu M. le Chev. E, Duiand;" and in the "Description d'une collection des vases peints ct bronzes antiques provenant des fouillesderEtrurie,"8vo, Paris, 1837 ; ako by M. De Witte. PART III. ETEUSCAN POTTERY. CHAPTER I. Etruscan Terra-Cottas — Statues — Busts — Bas-reliefs — Sarcophagi — Vases — Brown Ware — Black Ware — Eed Ware — Yellow Ware ~ Painted Vases — Imitations of Greek Vases — Subjects and Mode of Execution — Age — Vases of Orbetello and Vulaterra — Vas; s with Etruscan Inscriptions — Latin In- scriptions — Enamelled Ware — Other sites. From Grecian pottery the transition is natural to the Etruscan, as that people derived their arts from their Asiatic ancestors and Hellenic masters. Few remains, however, of their produc- tions have reached the present day with the exception of vases and bronzes, of which an immense number has been found, and which convey a very distinct notion of the Etruscan art. It is not, however, possible to trace the Etruscan arts in clay in so distinct a manner as the Greek or Eoman, owing to the want of a literature among the Etruscans. Bricks and tiles they seem to liave seldom employed, most of the public buildings and sepulchres having been composed of tufo.^ Gori has, indeed published several tiles, some plain and others with flanges, from the Museum Buccellianum,^ having inscriptions in the Etruscan language, either engraved or painted upon them, commemorat- ing the name and titles of the deceased, like the inscriptions upon the sarcophagi. According to Buonarroti, tiles were employed for closing the recesses in the chambers w ithin which were placed the little sarcophagi which held the ashes of the dead.^ These were principally found in the sepulchres of Chiusi or Camars. One specimen had, besides the usual inscription, the figure of the dead incised upon it.^ At a later period, such 1 Gori, Mus. Etrus. torn. III. p. 134. and foil. t. xxviii. xxx. "^ Dempst. ii, snpp. xxvi. p. 36. ' Gori, p. 135. TILES AND STATUES. 441 tiles were also used in graves, to cover the body laid at full length. Some, which bear bilingual inscriptions, in the Etruscan and Latin languages, show them to be not much older than the latter days of the Roman republic, or the commencement of the empire. According to Strabo, the walls of Arretivm, or Arezzo, were made of these tiles, but no traces of these ancient walls remain.^ Some portions of the architectural decorations of tombs, however, were made of terra-cotta ; ^ and sometimes certain altars, or other embellishments of sepulchres, decorated with bas-reliefs, were moulded of the same material. At Cer- vetri have been found the antefixal ornaments at the end of the large imbrices or joint tiles, with representations of the head of the Gorgon, modelled in the style of the earliest vases with yellow grounds, and painted with colours in engohe. From the same locality are said to have come the revetment of the walls of a tomb made of slabs, about four feet high and one inch thick, having painted on them a series of mythical representa- tions, treated in an archaic style, having some resemblance to the figures on the vases with yellow grounds. The figures on these slabs are principally painted in red and black on a cream- coloured ground, but it is difficult to say whether all the colours have been burnt in. Notwithstanding the reputation of the Etruscans for their works in clay, few statues of importance have descended to us. Although some of the Gieek authors,^ and of the modern Italian writers,* claim the priority of the art of making figures in terra-cotta for Italy, there can be no doubt that the Etruscans, ! in their modelling, imitated the Greeks. It must be conceded that the art of modelling in clay preceded that of working in metals, in which last the Etruscans particularly excelled,^ espe- cially in the mechanical treatment. The arrival of the Korin- thian Demaratus, and of the artists in his train, in Italy, is the earliest record that can be referred to, of the art of modellino: clay ; working in bronze having been imported from Greece. The most remarkable for its size and execution is a group of a male and female figure, reposing on a couch, found at Cervetri, of the same style of art as the early bronzes, and wall paintings of the sepulchres of Italy. The figures are life-size, of rather * Strabo, V. p. 226; Dennis, II. p. I * Campana, Ant. op. in Plastic;i,c. iv. J21. - Dennis, II. 479. i p. 10. ^ Tatian. Orut. adv. Cilr;<;c. c. i. : ' Pliny, xxxv. c. lG-44. 442 ETRUSCAN POTTERY. Part ill. slender proportions, with smiling features, tlie drapery fiat and formal. This group is made of a clay, mixed with volcanic sand, resembling the red ware, and is decorated with colour. It is said to come from Cervetri, where similar figures in relief, of pale-red terra-cotta, have also been discovered, all probably older than the foundation of Kome. To the earliest period of Greek art, and to what is called the Egyptian style, have been referred a small figure in Berlin, the torso of a Juno Sospita in the same museum, and the bas-relief of Yelletri.^ It is chiefly from the Koman writers that our knowledge of Etruscan statues in terra-cotta is derived, as the Romans, unable themselves to execute such works, were obliged to employ Etruscan artists for the decoration of their temples, as will be subsequently seen in the description of Roman statues. Yolcanius or Turianus of Fre- genni or Fregellae, or Veil, was employed by Tarquinius Priscus to make the statue of Jupiter in the Capitol, which was of colos- sal proportions.^ The quadriga placed on the acroterium of the same temple, and a figure of Hercules in the Forum Boarium, were modelled in the same material.^ Numa also consecrated a double statue of Janus, or a statue of the two-headed Janus, of terra-cotta.* According to Pliny, the art of statuary was so old in Italy that its origin was unknown.^ There was an export trade thence even to Greece, the greater part of which, in all probability, consisted of works in metal.^ The art of working in terra-cotta, according to the same author, was principally cultivated in Italy, and by the Etruscans. They may indeed have worked from foreign models, and perhaps from the statues of the Egyptians, with which the Etruscans first became acquainted when Psam- metichus I. B.C. 654, threw open Egypt to the commerce of the world, in the second century of the era of Rome. It was sub- sequently that the Romans employed Etruscan artists, and Tarquinius Priscus placed in the Capitol a terra-cotta statue of Jupiter, made by Volcanius or Turianus.'^ Besides these, * Hilt, Geschichte der Bildende Kunst, 8. 93. ^ Pliny, N. H. xxxv. xii. 45; cf. Sillig. Diet, of Aitists, 8vo, London, 1836, p. 137. 3 Plutarch, Vit. Poplic. i. 409 ; Pliny N. H. xxxv. c. 45 ; cf. also Martial, ' Ibid., xxxiv. c. vii. 16 ; xxxv. 44, I. c. 54 ; Dionysius, III. c. 46 ; Strabo, V. C.2. ^ Ibid., loc. cit. ^ Pliny, N. H. xxxv. c. 45 ; CampJna (loc. cit. p. 13) prefers the reading ''Fregenis" to " Fregillis," theVolscian xiv. Ep. 178. town. See Sillig's notes to Pliny, 1. e. ■* Pliny, loc, cit. xxxiv. vii. 16. | Chap. I. STATUES AND BUSTS. 443 0.^e there were numerous fictile statues in the temples of i\ome called si(j/na Tuscanica, distinguished by their barbarous rigidity, and their resembling in many respects the works of the .^ginetan school. The Etruscans la-obably continued to supply Rome with statues till Southern Italy submitted to her arms. The popular legends invested these fictile statues with a halo of superstition. The horses in the quadriga on the apex of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus were reported to have swollen instead of contracting in the furnace, a circumstance supposed to prognosticate the future greatness of Rome.^ No vestiges of any of these statues remain, and remarkably few small figures have been found in excavations made in Etruria, but some singular busts and models of viscera have been discovered on tlie sites of the ancient Gabii and at Yulci. The busts represent the face in profile and the neck ; the back is flat, to allow of the busts being at- tached to the wall, and has in the centre a hole for a peg to fix it. Models of hands, feet, of the breasts and viscera, have also been found, some having plug - holes ^ for fixing them to statues, either made of other mate- rials, or in separate pieces, like the acrolithic statues of Greece. Some of these may have been charisteria, or thank-offerings, like those at Athens. No bas-reliefs like those employed by the Romans to decorate the walls of edifices have been discovered in recent excavations, although it is probable that some of the temples were decorated with terra-cotta friezes. In the tombs, however, a considerable number of sarcophagi have been discovered, the greater part of small proportions, ornamented with subjects in bas-relief. The bas-relief models found at the ancient Gabii have been already mentioned. In connection with these may be mentioned some No. 174.— Etruscan Female Bust. Vulci. • Fostus V. "Ratuineuu. - D'Agineourt, Kccucil, I'l. xviii. 4.-1 ; xxii. 1-5. 444 ETRUSCAN POTTERY. Part III. bas-reliefs found in the Sabine territory, engraved in tbe work of D'Agincourt. Althongh the more important sarcophagi of the Etruscans were made of alabaster, tnfo, and peperiiio, a considerable number, principally of small size, were of terra-cotta. Some few were large enough to receive a body laid at full length. Tiie reliefs in the smaller ones seem to have been moulded. The colour of their paste is either pale red or pale yellow, and some which were discovered in the tombs of Tarquinii and Vol- terra contained traces of pyroxene. Two L^rge sarcophagi, removed from a tomb at Vnlci, are now in the British Museum. Tbe lower part, which held the body, is shaped like a rect- angular bin or trough, about three feet high and as many wide. On the covers are recumbent Etruscan females, modelled at full leno-th. One has both its cover and chest divided into two portions, probably because it was found that masses of too large a size failed in the baking. The edges at the point of division are turned up, like flange tiles. These have on their fronts either dolphins or branches of trees, incised with a tool in outline. Other sarcophagi of the same dimensions are engraved in the works of Inghirami and Micali, and are imitations of the larger ones of stone. Many of the smaller sort, which held the ashes of the dead, are of the same shape, the body being a small rectangular chest, while the cover presents a figure of the deceased in a reclining posture. They generally have in front a composition in bas-relief, freely modelled in the later style of Etruscan art, the subject being of funereal import ; such as the last farewell to the dead, combats of heroes, espe- cially one, in which an unarmed hero, the supposed Echetlus, is fighting with a ploughshare;^ the parting of Admetos and Alkestis in the presence of Death and Charon,^ and demons appearing at a repast.^ Some few have a painted roof. All these were painted in water-colours, upon a white ground, in bright and vivid tones, produ(;ing a gaudy effect. The inscrip- tions were also traced in paint, and not incised. A good and elaborate example of taste in the colouring of terra-cotta occurs on a small sarcophagus in the British Museum. Here the flesh is red, the eyes blue, the hair red, the wreath green, and the drapery of the figure is white, with purple limbus, and crimson 1 Brongniart, Mus. Cer., I. 3; Inglii- rami, Mon. Etrusc, tab. xxxviii. p. 25. ^ Inghirami, i. p. 324. ■' Bull. 1844. p. 87. I HAP. T. ETRUSCAN BUOWN WARE. 445 border. The pillars are red, with purple and blue stripes. The beards and hair are bluish-purple, the anus blue, the inside of the shield yellow, with a blue ground ; the chlamydes yellow, purple, and erimson ; one blue, lined with purple ; the mitrae red and blue. Even the pilasters are coloured white, with red flutes; the festoon of the caj)ital is green, and the abacus red, the dentals yellow, with a red boss. The inscription is in brown letters on a white ground. Such a colouring is gaudy, fantastic, and scarcely appropriate. Specimens of terra-cotta sarcophagi have been engraved by Dempster^ and Gori.^ According to Lanzi and Inghirami^ they are seldom found at Yolterra, while they are frequently discovered in the sepulchres of Chiusi and of Monte Pulciano.* They. are the prototypes of the Koman urns, which were ranged in niches round the columbaria or sepulchral chambers. Beside statues, reliefs, and sarcophagi, numerous vases, differ- ing in paste and composition, have been discovered in the different tombs of Etruria. The principal varieties are : 1, Brown-ware ; 2, Black- ware ; 3, Red-ware ; 4, Yellow-ware. The brown-wares are apparently the oldest^ Their colour is a greyish-brown, probably from their having been imperfectly baked ; sometimes, however, they are red in the centre. Some vases of this class, the fabric of which is exceedingly coarse, and which are ornamented with rude decorations, consisting of punctured or incised lines, spirals, raised zigzags, bosses, and projecting ornaments applied after they were made, resemble in their character the Teutonic vases found on the banks of the Khine, and certain Celtic ones that occur in France and Britain, from which they are often scarcely to be distinguished.^ They consist of jugs, oinochoai, small vases with two handles, and wide cups like the hyathos. In the rudeness of their shapes, and peculiar treatment, they seem to be imitations of vases carved out of wood, such as we know the cissibion to have been. The most remarkable and interesting of them are those found under the volcanic tufo, near the Alban lakes, which are in the shape of a tugurium or cottage, and must have contained the ashes of the early inhabitants of L-itium. Other vases of the same * De Etruria regali, i. tab. liii.-lv. I Gori, I. tab. Ixvii. I. p. 155 ; tab. clvii. 2 Mils. Etr. III. Prsef. xxii., torn. I. clviii. clx. p. 92 ; cf. Tab. clvii. clviii. cxci. | * Brongniart, Traite, i. p. 417 ; Dorow, •* Mon. Etriisc. i. tab. iii. p. 15. j Poteries £trusq[ues proprement elites, * See also Mus. Etr. Ixxiii. xcvi. ; 4to. 1829. 446 ETRUSCAN POTTEllY. Talt in. No. 175 — Tuguriura vase From Albano. colour, ornamentation, and shape liave been found in the suburbs of Eome, and also in Etruscan localities, consisting of holkia, hantliaroi, plates and cups. Their decorations are bosses, studs, concentric and reticulated or hatched bands.^ Consider- able difference of opinion has however prevailed respecting the age of these vases. ^ By some they are supposed to be relics of the primitive in- habitants of ancient Eome; by others, of those of Alba Longa. One in the British Museum, presented by Mr. W. K. Hamilton, is filled with the ashes of the dead, which were introduced by a little door. This door was secured by a cord passing through two rings at its sides, and tied round the vase. The cover or roof is vaulted and apparently intended to represent the beams of a house or cottage. 1'he exterior has been ornamented with a maeander in white paint, traces of which still remain. They were placed inside a large two-handled vase which protected them from the superincumbent mass. Although the fact of their having been found under beds of lava, originally led to an exaggerated opinion of the antiquity of these vases, there can be no doubt that they are of the earliest period of Etruscan art. The curious contents of one of them, published by yisc«nti, confirm their very primitive^ use. They have no glaze upon their surface, but a polish produced by friction. At Caere have also been found some of the earliest specimens of painted vases, evidently manufactured upon the spot by the native settlers, and exhibiting traces of Greek rather than of Etruscan art. The paste of which these vases are made is pale reddish-brown, speckled black, with volcanic sand, and gleaming with particles of mica. Upon the ground of these vases the » De Witte, Etudes, pp. 50-57. Archaeologia. xxxviii. p. 188. 2 Urns in shape of cottagi s, of brown Etruscan ware (Bull. 1846, p. 94), sup- posed to be of the Swiss guards in the service of the Romans, were found near Albano. They were excavated in 1817, by Giuseppe Carnevali of Albano, and illustrated by Sig Alessandro Visconti, Sopra alcuni Vasi sepolcrali rinvcnuti nelk vicinanze delle antica Alba-Longa. Roma, 1817. Chap. I. VASES OF ALBA LONG A. 447 subjects have [been painted in white upon a coarse bla^^k back- i^round, or in the natural colour of the clay. Dental, helix, herring-bone, and calix patterns abound, some covering the whole vase, but on some of the vases of tin's class are introduced birds, lions, gryphons, and even fish. Some of the figures of animals are small, and drawn in outline like those of the fawn- coloured vases found at Melos, Thera, and Athens, but many of the others are large coarse figures, resembling in style and treatment those of tlie earliest Greek vases of the style called Phoenician or Egyptian. None of these early vases have in- cised lines scratched on the figures to aid the effect of the painting, which was an opaque colour, laid on as fresco, and not No. 176 — Group of vases, one in shape of a hut. From Albauo. burnt in as encaustic on the vases. The drawing was sketched out in white outline, sometimes consisting of a line of dots, by the artist, and the background subsequently filled in. The shapes of these vases also differ considerably from those of the later Hellenic vases, but resemble those of the fawn-coloured vases. Similar to these are two other ones, published by Micali, which were found at the ancient Caere or Cervetri. One in the shape of a Panathenaic amphora has more mica or tufo in its paste ; the other, a hydria or three-handled water jar, more resembles the paste of the vases just described, and has a polish on its surface. All these have had subjects painted upon them in opaque colours, like those used on the sarcophagi, and in the mural paintings of the tombs, in blue, white, and vermilion ; 448 ETRUSCAN POTTERY. Fart III. one with the Athenian legend of the destruction of the Mino- taur.^ From tlie remote antiquity of their shape, the absence of human figures, the tempera character of their drawing, they are evidently to be referred to the oldest period of Caere or Agylla, probably to that historically designated as the age of the Pelasgi and Aborigines, which succeeded the occupation of the Siculi, during which period Agylla had maintained an intercourse with Greece Proper.^ The subsequent conquest of the Etruscans probably introduced a different style of art,^ that of the black and red Etruscan stamped and modelled ware — while the Greeks supplied the city, through the Port of Pyrgi, at a later period, with vases of all the principal styles j^ .^', r r.. v„i 5 of their art.* ^o. 177. — Cone. Vuki. Some objects resembling latrunculi, or curling-pins or hilhoquets of this ware, have also been found at Vulci. The next class are made of a paste entirely black, though rather darker on the edges than in the centre,^ — and when imperfectly baked, the black has sonaetimes a lustrous jet-like polish. It has been conjectured that this ware was made of a black bituminous earth found in the Etruscan territory ; according to others it is of a clay naturally yellow, but darkened by casting the smoke of the furnace upon it. Although some have conjectured that it is sun-dried, yet an attentive exa- mination shows that it has been baked in kilns, but at a low temperature.^ There are, however, several varieties of this ware, dependent upon the place of maniifacture. Sometimes it is thick and heavy, at others thin and light. It is found only in the sepulchres of Etruria, and belongs to the subdivision of lustrous vases with a tender paste.'^ In many specimens the lustrous appearance is a mere polish, probably produced on the lathe. This ware was an improvement on the brown * Monumtnti Inediti, PI. iv. v. ^ Brongniart, Traite, i. pp. 413-419. ^ Lepsius, Ueber die Tyrrhener, p. ' « Micali, Mon. In. p. 156. 39 ; Dennis, ii. p. 58. j ^ ^.n analysis of its paste gives a ^ Brongniart, Traite', 1. c. mean of 63-34 Silica, 14-42 Alumina, 4 Canina, Cere Anf.ca, p. 16. Cf. j 7*9 Ox. lion and Manganese, 3'25 Carb. the dedication of treasures to Apollo at ' Lime, 2-12 Magnesia, 7*34 Water, 1-83 Delphi, Strabo, v. 220, and its consulting C.irbon. the oracle, Horodot. i. 167. Chap. T. ART OF BLACK WARE. 44J) Etruscan sort already described, and exhibits the highest degree of art attained by the Italian potteries. They are for the most part made with the hand, rarely if ever turned on the wheel. The ornaments are often incised with a pointed tool, and in such cases consist of flowers, resembling the lotus, fes- toons, rude imitations of waves, or spirals resembling the springs or armilla) known at a later period, and very similar to the orna- ments on the early vases of Athens. Sometimes tliey appear to have been punched in with a circular stamp, and run round the vase ; while in other instances figures of horses and other animals, are stamped in the interior.^ Many of these vases have bas-reliefs, either modelled on the vase, or pressed out from its mould, which are disposed as a frieze running round its body. These friezes have been pro- duced by passing a hollow cylinder round the vase, while the clay was moist, and before it was sent to tlie furnace, a process identical with that employed by the Assyrians and Babylonians, in order to prevent the clay tablets which they used for written documents being enlarged after they had been inscribed.^ The treatment of the subject on the friezes is peculiar. The conventional arrangement of the hair, the rigidity of the limbs, the smile playing on the features,^ the rudeness and archaism of the forms, not unmixed, however, with a certain plumpness and softness of outline, reminds us of the early schools of Asia Minor and Aigina, as well as of the bas-relief of Samothrace, and the coins of Magna Grsecia ; all which belong- to the style of art called by some Egyptian. In some in- stances the rudeness of the forms seems to be the effect of the material rather than of the artist's conceptions; and in this respect their bas-reliefs may be compared with the rude asses of the Etruscans, the circulation of which did not continue later No 1 78. — Vase with mouliJed figures and cover. Vulci. ' Dennis, ii. H.52. dipinti, in the Dissertazioiie dalla - Storia d'ltalia, toni. ii. p. 278, et soq. Pnntifioia Accademia Romana di ^ Campauari, Intoino i vasi fittili \ Archeologia, torn. vii. 183G, pp. 5-7. 2 G 450 ETRUSCAN POTTERY. Part III. than beyond the third century B.C. Other specimens exhibit all the characteristics of Oriental art in the arrangement and treatment of the recurved wings, the monstrous animal com- binations, such as the scrupulous exactitude of detail, and the ornamental repetition of the subject. The monotony of the moulded figures is often relieved by incised marks by which the minor details of the dress are indicated. Those who con- ceive that they exhibit traces of imitation should remember that imitative art is the product of a universal decadence — the evidence that a na- tion has exhausted its intellectual capacity: and that Etruria fell in her meridian, when the arts of lier neiah- hours bloomed in un- rivalled beauty. The only traces of imitation which they display are those of other Etruscan works in metal. The bronze vases and shields found at Cervetri, Caere, are ornamented in the same manner Avith circular friezes chased on the metal. The idea of imitation from works in metal is still more strongly suggested by the de- tached figures in com- plete relief which de- corate the covers of these vases — the rows of animals' heads, such as cows, rams, and lions, which pass round their lips, and tlie pro- jecting knots which radiate from their sides.-^ One most remark- able vase of this class is modelled like a man standing in a biga, and the mouths, which are at the top of the horses' heads, are provided with bow-shaped stoppers.^ From the shapes of this No. 179.- Oinochoe of Black Ware. * Mus. Etr. Vat. G., II. xcvi.-xcvii. '^ Mus. Etr. Vat., xcviii. Chap. T. PREVALENT SHAPES. 451 class of vases may be drawn some conclusions derived from Egyp- tian, Clialdaean, or Phoenician sources, respecting the uses to which they were applied. They evidently formed part of the furniture of the Etruscans.^ We find among them the kantharoSy or two-handled cup; the kyathos or kissijbion, another kind of drinking-vessel somewliat resembling the modern teacup, the kothon, or deep cup with two handles ; and a small kylix. A peculiar kind of goblet, to which the not very satisfactory name of liolkion has been given, to judge from the description given by Herodotos of that made by Glaukos, a kind of krater, is by no means uncommon.^ The phiale, or saucer, and ^inaXy c)r trencher, frequently occur ; and the vessel called holmos, pro- bably a krater for holding wine at a banquet, is also found. No. 180. — Tray or Table of Vases of Black Ware. Chiusi. The omocJioe, or wine pitcher, either with the vine-leaf shaped or the circular mouth, is of frequent occurrence ; but the lekythos, or oil cruse, is uncommon, and the alahastros alto- gether unknown. The two-handled vase with a cover, called lekane, is found, which seems to have served the purpose of a box or basket among the ancients. There are also vases of unusual shape, and even of grotesque appearance ; among them a kind of cubital, the use of which is utterly unknown. Objects supposed to be braziers, or trays,^ are also to be found among them ; but these are probably stands to hold other vases. They often contain spoons as well as other curious little vases of » Denuis, ii. 352. 2 Ibid. Cf. Brongniait, Traite, PI. XX. 3 See Dennis, ii. 325; Ingliirami, Mus. Cliius., tav. 40, p. 39 ; Mon. Etrusc., vi. tav. 6, 5 ; Micali, Antic. Pop. tav. xxvi.-xxiii. ; Brongniart, Traite, PI. XX. fig. 12. 2 (> 2 452 ETRUSCAN POTTERY. Part 111. UDknown use. The celebrated rhyton, or drinkiiig-cnp which could not be set down, is also found among this w^are.-^ The most extraordinary application of it, however, was to sepulchral purposes. Here the potter has exhausted all the resources of his art. He has endeavoured to invest the clay with metallic power, and to work it up into shape that conveys an idea of metallic strength. One of the simplest forms of tliese vases is the hanofos, or jar resembling those in which the Egyptians placed the entrails of their mummies. The Etruscan kanopoi are rude representations of the human figure, the heads which are coifed in the Egyptian manner forming the covers.^ The eyes are sometimes inlaid. They have large earrings which are moveable. They have holes supposed to be intended to allow the effluvia of the ashes to escape. When they had received the last remains of mortality, they were placed in the tombs on curule cliairs of oak or terra-cotta. In this respect tbey resemble the tufo sepulchral figures of early style found at Chiusi, which separate into two pieces, and have in their lower part a hollow bowl scooped out to receive the ashes of the dead. This method of placing the mortal remains of a person within a representation of himself, is peculiarly Egyptian, and recalls to mind the orientalism of certain Etruscan remains. The cir- cumstance of burning the dead cannot be considered as a fatal objection to the antiquity of these vases; and although the kanopoi are probably not anterior to the fourth century B.C., they are not to be regarded as modern.^ A vase found at Cervetri is a remarkable instance of this style. It is a modi- fication of the holhion, and is supposed to have been used as a thymiaterion. The bowl or upper part ih ornamented with a star and lune, it is attached to the side, or upper part of tlie stem by objects resembling studs rather than columns, and the stem is divided into two bowls or inverted cups.* Unfor- tunately the subjects in the small friezes are imperfectly defined, especially the attributes ; yet enough is seen to enable us to draw some general conclusions.^ They seem to be later than the early vases of Athens, with their elongated animal forms, or than the early Doric ware with its extraordinary human and animal figures, as seen on the vase of Civita Vecchia, repre- ^ For vases see Micali, 1. c. xiv.-xxvii. 1 them modern; Dennis, 1. c. p, 359 2 Dennis, II. 356, n. 8 ; Micali, Mon. In. p. 151. 3 Abekcn, Mittel-Itnlien, 273, thinks * Dennis, ii. p. 58. ^ Brongniiirt, Tiaite, PI. xx. fig*. 1, 3,4, 5, (\, 7, 0. JO, XX. lln, 12. Chap. T. INSCRIPTIONS ON BLACK WAIIE. 453 seating the battle of the Lapithai and Kentanrs. Yet the mythology which they present seems obscure and shadowy, and in a state of transition from its Asiatic prototypes. It is not Etrnscan, for none of the local divinities appear ; it is rather oriental Greek, with till its primitive monstrous combinations of human and animal forms, before it had been refined by the national genius and taste, and endowed with ideal beauty. It is ante-Homeric, since the legends are cither entirely different from tliose of the Epic cycle, or else such as are alluded to, or borrowed, as antecedent tradi- tions, in the Iliad and Odyssey. The Korinthian legend of Bellerophon re- presented on them, has like the Milo terra-cotta an un- winged Pegasos, the hero and his son Peisander. The grand exploit of the Perseid has two Gor- gons, one with the head of the horse Pe- gasos issuing from the neck, and the swan or Graia. On others are divinities grouped like those on the Harpy monu- ments at Xanthos. The vases of this style have no inscriptions referring either to the subjects, the artist or the potter. This is a remarkable fact and confirms their high antiquity ; for in the middle period the use of in- scriptions was common. When inscriptions do occur they are not essential, being subsequent to the fabric and scratched in with a point after it has been made. These subsequent inscriptions, which seem to be the potter's memoranda, are No. 181. — Oinochoe of Black Ware. Perseus and the Gorgons. 454 ETRUSCAN POTTERY. Part III. placed at the bottom of the vases, having black and red figures, and are generally in the Etruscan language. Many vases of Etruscan black ware have these inscriptions, and that on a cinerary urn is mi tesan Iceia tarchumenai} One jug is known that has an inscription, and several inscribed slabs have been found. In the tombs of Cervetri ^ two of these vases, whicli had probably been employed as an inkstand, had a Greek alphabet and syllabarium scratched on them, but this, like the other inscriptions, is incidental rather than necessary. All these vases precede the period when names, whetlier of the figures or of the artists, were introduced. As the arrangement of the alphabet just alluded to differs from that established by the Alexandrian grammarians it may be useful to give it here, viz. B, C, Z, H, Th, M, IST, P, K, S, Kh, Ph, T. At Bomarzo ^ another vase had an Etruscan alphabet thus arranged : A, C, E, F, Z, H, Th, I, L, M, N, P, S, T, U, Th, Ch, Ph. From the form of the letters, especially from the Q or aspirate, and the E, it is evident that the inscription is con- temporary with that on the helmet of Hiero I. in the British Museum ; while the introduction of the double letters proves it to be of the age of Simonides. Of these the archaic H, written g, is excessively remarkable, and points out the original form as analogous to the aspirate which is thus shaped on the early coins of Thebes. On another vase of this class was found what has been called a Pelasgic inscription, supposed to be two hexameters.* The vases of this class are discovered only in a limited range of country. They scarcely appear to the south of the Tibur, and the most northern sepul- chres in which they are found are those of ^ Siena. In the old tombs of Cervetri ^ or Caere Vetus, on the site of Veii, Orte,^ and Viterbo,' at Vulci,^ at Palo, the ancient Alsium,® at Chiusi or Clusium, Sarteano, Castiglioncel del Trinoro, Chianciano,^^ and Cesona,^^ six miles to the west of Chiusi ; also at Magliano ^^ Orbetello,^^ Orvieto,^* especially at Volaterra,^^ and Cortona,^® * Micali, Moil. In,, tav. Iv. 7. 2 Dennis, ii. p. 54. ' Lepsius, Annali, 1836, p. 186, 203 ; Ueber die Tyrrhener-Pelasger, p. 39, 42. * Dennis, Cities, 1, 225, v. ^ Dennis, Cem. and Cit., p. 58. « Ibid., 164. ' IbM., 197. » Ibid., 410. 9 Ibid., ii. pp. 72-73. '« Dennis, ii. pp. 101, 409; Micali, Ant. Pop. Ital., tav. xxii. xxvi. ; Mon. In., xxviii.-xxxi. ; Mus. Chius., xii.-xix. xxi.-xlv.-lxxxii, ; Dennis, ii. 348. '• Ibid., pp. 402, 425. •2 Ibid., ii. 296. '3 Ibid., ii. 265. '^ Ibid., ii. 528. '^ Ibid., ii. 203. '« Ibid., ii. 442. Chap. I. ETRUSCAN RED WARE. 455 numbers of tliese vases are found. The vases of the different localities are, however, distinct in style; those from Chiusi, Volaterra, Magliano, and its neighbourhood, have figures in bas-relief, while those from Palo and Veii, have the figures incised or engraved. In many instances, they are entirely plain. The solution of the question as to their relative an- tiquity has been much retarded by the uncritical and careless manner in which the tombs have been opened. At Palo the incised vases were found in excavated tunnel tombs, like the Egyptian sjpeoi^ and in these were what have been called Egyp- tian remains, as painted ostrich eggs, and beads of an odorous paste. At j\lagliano such remains were found in se[>ulchres with the scarabaei. The vases with subjects in bas-relief, appear to be found in tombs with the ala- baster sarcophagi, most of which cannot be placed earlier than the third century, B.C. In none were found coins which would have been of much service in fixing the age of the vases of this class. Most of them appear to be prior to the circulation of the as gravis of Italy. There is some reason to believe that this black ware was that sup- posed to have been made by the corporation of potters in the days of Numa, B.C. 700 ; * for Juvenal men- tions it as being in use at that period : " who dared, then," he says, *' to ridicule the simpuvium and the black saucer of Numa ? ' while Persius ^ styles it the Tuscum fictile or Tuscan pottery ; and it appears from Martial that Porsena/ B.C. 507, had a dinner set of the same ware. Horace also speaks of the Tyrrhena sigillay or Tyrrhene pottery.^ Tlie next class of vases to be considered is that of the red ware, of which there are two or three different kinds. The first consists of certain large jars resembling the cask, pitJios or keramos, in which wine and other things were stored, and which, long before the time of Diogenes, afforded a retreat to Eurystheus No. 182.— Painted Ostrich egg. Vulci. ' 2 ' Pliny, N. H., xxxv. xii. 46. ' Juvenal, vi. 343 3 Ibid., ii. 60, Schv 1. Vet., " Vilcm fictileinque a Thuscis olim factum." * Martial, Epig. xiv. 98. » Epist., II. 2, V. 180. 456 ETRUSCAN POTTERY. Part II [. when lie fled at the sight of the Erymanthian boar. Such a vase also formed the prison of Ares, when bound by the twin Aloids, Otos and Ephialtes. The bodies of these vases are reeded, and there is usually a bold modelling running round the neck, for which a frieze, with figures of animals, is some- limes substituted, resembling those on some of the black ware. Sometimes the friezes have hunting-scenes of animals chased by persons in chariots ; at other times they represent enter- tainments. The friezes were impressed from a cylinder with the subject incised. These vases often have handles, thus forming a kind of large amphorae or diotae. They generally stand in flat circular dishes of a similar ware, but of a finer paste, the broad and flat lips of which have friezes of similar subjects impressed in bas-relief with a cylinder. These vase are very old, probably B.C. 700, and are chiefl.y found in the old Etruscan cemeteries, in the tunnelled tombs of CervetnV or Caere Vetus, or at Tarquinii, and on tlie site of Veii. Their paste is of a dullish red colour, and of a gritty material, apparently mixed with tbe tufo of the soil. Sometimes they are of a pale salmon hue, mingled with black s])ecks or ashes, probably of a volcanic nature. The bodies of these vases are too lai'ge to have been turned upon the wheel, and they must consequently have been modelled. As they are found in tombs which contain no painted vases, they evidently belong to the earliest period of the Etruscan conquest. They are about three feet four inches, with expand- ing mouth, and body tapering to a cylindrical foot. A festoon or zigzag line in relief usually runs round the neck of these vases, the body of which is reeded, and a ring or band in bas- relief round the foot. On the shoulder of these vases is a frieze or zoidion either impressed from a cylinder and then run iji a continuous repetition round the neck, or else stamped from a mould about 2^ inches square, depressed like metopes. Their upper surface is flat like work in ivory, and they seem moulded from bronze or other metallic work. That these were separately stamped is evident from some having been double struck, and others having been only half struck, owing to their interfering with the part already impressed. These latter ornaments or metopes contain generally only one figure, wdiile the friezes have a subject successively repeated. The connection of these vases ' Mils, Etr. Vat., ii. xcix. c. Chap. T. GREAT JAKS. 457 of Cfcro with the early metallic works of Egypt and Assyria will appear from the animals and monsters represented, which show an acquaintance with Asiatic art, either derived from the early commerce of the Etruscans, or introduced to them by other means from Asia. Such patterns probably passed over to Greece and Italy from the western coasts of Asia Minor and from the Phoenician seaports in Syria. The most remarkable of these representations indeed are to be found on the silver cups and other gold objects discovered in the tombs of Ca3re, which show a style of art immediately derived from Egypt, and such as existed in Egypt during the reign of the Psam- metichi, when the ports of the Nile were thrown unrestrictedly open to Greek commerce, and Egyptian art and even language appears in the annals of Korinth about the 7tli and 8th century before Christ. This art which is also found in Assyria is refer- able to the Phoenicians, who made the vases and other works in bronze of the monarch of Assyria in the 9th century, B.C. In the 6th century, B.C., the Etruscans had probably developed a brisk trade in the Mediterranean, and ivory, ostrich eggs, amber, Egyptian porcelain, and tin found in the articles of adorn- ment of the oldest sepulchres, show the extent and activity of the national adventure. The vases of Greece Proper indeed had not yet been imported, but the great casks or dolia, of which mention is now made, were manufactured on the spot, probably imder the direction of colonies of Greek and other potters. Such a fusion of Hellenic art is visible in the subjects, which are Sphinxes, Kentaurs, horsemen, wild birds perched on the back of the horse, Pegasoi, Gorgons, and Chimaeras, winged lions uniting in a common head, man hunting a stag, lions, birds, and similar subjects. These so nearly resemble the vases of pale clay with friezes of animal figures, that they must have im- mediately preceded them. Of a deeper red, but of rather finer paste, a!id covered with a coat- in'>' of red paint are certain dishes found in the sepulchres of Vulci and other places, and almost resembling the Aretine ware. No. 1 83. — Etruscan Kanopus of Terra-cotta. 458 ETRUSCAN POTTERY. Part III. Many jugs or oinochoai, phialai or saucers, aslvoi or bottles, and a few eu})S, are also found of a red paste, more or less deep in colour and fine in quality. But the most remarkable vases of this sort are those which held the ashes of the dead, rudely modelled in shape of the human form, the cover representing the head, and having in front small rude arms and hands. 'These were placed in the tombs in curule cliairs of the same material, as if the dead still sat there in state. Of pale yellow ware of fine quality, but imperfectly baked, are certain lekytlioi and perfume vases, found in the more ancient sepulchres. These very much resemble the painted vases called Doric, but are not decorated with figures. They are modelled in the shape of animals, of Yenus holding her dove, and other types ; and some were perhaps made by the Etruscans. Various unglazed vases of a light-coloured paste come from the Etruscan sej)ulchres, and such may be occasionally contemporary with the earlier vases, but the general mass of this pale ware appears referable to a later period. Although the Etruscans executed such magnificent works in bronze, exercised with great skill the art of engraving gems, and produced such refined specimens of filigree- work in gold, they never attained high excellence in the potter's art. The vases already described belong to plastic rather than graphic art, and are decided imitations of works in metal. Their mode of painting certain vases in opaque colours, in the manner of fres- coes, which were not subjected a second time to the furnace, has been already described. These were probably their first attempts at ornamenting vases with subjects, and such vases are as old as the sixth century B.C. These vases are quite distinct from the glazed vases of the Greeks, which, however, the Etrus- can potters imitated, although not at their first introduction into the country. They subsequently produced imitations of the black and red monochrome vases, as appears from a few specimens which have reached the present time, and which are in the different Museums of Europe. In order to make these imitations they used different methods. The vases with black figures upon a red ground were produced, either by making a vase of pale paste and painting upon it a subject in a black glaze of leaden hue, or else by painting an opaque red ground in an ochrous earth over the black varnish of a vase entirely coloured black, of which an example may be seen in the hydria now in the British Museum, representing the subject of a giant Chap. I. ETRUSCAN PAINTED VASES. 459 attacked by two gods. In this case the inner engraved lines are usually omitted. This mode was, however, not exclusively Etruscan, for a vase found at Athens, has its subject painted in a similar manner, in red upon a black ground. Another vase in the Bibliotheque Nationale, at Paris, with the subject of Chiron, has been painted u})on the same principle, and this process has been adduced as a proof that the art of making painted glazed vases was a mystery to the Etruscans. But there are several vases of pale clay, painted with a dull leaden glaze, and of treat- ment so bad, and drawing showing such remarkable analogies with other works of Etruscan design, that their origin is undoubtedly local, and they are called by Italian antiquaries *' national." The subjects of these vases generally show traces of Etruscan influence and often resemble the friezes of the solid black ware, abounding in winged figures and monstrous combinations, not capable of explanation by Hellenic myths, or else have scenes derived from private life. Many of these vases are evidently much later than the vases with black figures, which they attempt to imitate, and must have been fabricated at a late epoch. To produce imita- tions of vases with red figures, the Etruscan potter adopted the processes already described. In the vases with black figures he stopped out, with an opaque red ground, all but the required figures ; but to produce a vase with red figures, the required figures were painted in an opaque red, apparently a pulverised clay, on the dull leaden background of the vase. The figures were relieved by passing a tool, not so sharp as to cut through the black glaze, through the required details of the opaque red figure down to the black glaze, thus producing the inner black outlines usually painted on the red figures of the Greek vases of the more finished style. But they also manufactured a ware of paler paste, with figures of a pallid tint, and glaze of a leaden hue, drawn in imitation of the finer Greek vases. Their drawing is bad, and tlie subjects generally unimportant. Sometimes Etruscan deities, such as Charon with his mace, are represented on them, which decides their Etruscan origin. The general mass of the vases of this style and period resemble those of the later Greek potteries found in the sepulchres of Puglia, and of the Basilicata. Although their shape is less elegant, their clay less fine, and their inscriptions generally more local than those of the Greek vases, yet their subjects are generally derived from the Greek mythology, treated in a manner consonant to the Etruscan taste, and to the local religion, while their drawing is 460 ETRUSCAN POTTERY. Part HI. of the coarsest kind. One vase of this class had for its subject the farewell of A'lmetos and Alkestis/ with Etruscan inscriptions ac- companying the figures, and an Etruscan speech issuing from the mouth of one of them. There is depicted, behind Admetos, one of the horrid demons of the Etruscan hell, probably intended for Hades or Thanatos, girdled in a sjiort tunic and holding in each hand a snake. Behind the faithful wife is Charon, with his mace. On a second vase of the same style and fabric, found at Vulci, Neoptolemos is represented killing a Trojan prisoner, probably Polites, also in the presence of the Etruscan Charon ; while, on the reverse, Penthesilea, or her shade, is seen, accompanied by other figures, to which are attached an undeciphered Etruscan inscription.^ A third vase of the same class has on it Ajax, de- signated by his Etruscan name, committing suicide by throwing himself upon his sword, after the fatal judgment respecting the armour of Achilles ; while on the reverse is the unfortunate Aktaion, also designated by his name, killed by his own dogs.^ On one of these vases, the Etruscan name, Elenai, of " Helen," inscribed upon an oval object held by a female, and addressing a man, is supposed to represent Leda showing Tyndareus one of the eggs from which spring the Dioskouroi, Helen, and Klytai- mnestra.* The age of these vases is universally referred to the very latest time of the existence of the potteries, and those Avith the opaque red figures are supposed to have been made between the fall of Veii, A.v.c. 359, B.C. 395, and the civil wars of Marius and Sylla, B.C. 90.^ Connected with these vases are certain others of pallid clay, figures of a light tone, white accessories, dull glaze, and coarse shapes, discovered in the sepulchres of Orbitello and Volaterra, on which are painted figures, armed with the long oval buckler, and the square Roman scutum.^ These vases are almost the last examples of the glazed kind produced in Italy, and were succeeded by a class of excessive interest, of which, however, only a few examples have been found. Their subjects are painted in opaque white colour upon a black ground, in drawing * Engiav( d in Dennis, The Cities [ sertazione, 1. c. and Cemeteries of Etruiia, vol, ii. [ ^ R. Rochette, 1. c. Frontispiece. 4 Micali, Mon. In., xxxviii. 2 Raoul Rochette, Sur deux vases, i ^ Annali, 1834, pp. 81-83 ; Gcihard, peiuts du style et de travail Etrusque, I Rapp. Vole., p. 31, n. 177. Annali, 1834, 274 ; Campauari, Dis- « Inghirami, Vas. Fit. ccciviii. Chap. T. ETRUSCAN INSCRIPTIONS. 461 of the coarsest kind, far inferior to the best examples of this class of vases found in southern Italy, and consist of figures of Cnpids or Erotes, accompanied with old Latin inscriptions, such as VOLCANI POCOLOM, KERI POCOLOM, BELOLAI ACETAI POCOLOM, the cup of Vulcan, of Janus Bel- Ion a, or Acetia or Aequitas, in Latin as old as the age of Ennius and Plautus. Why these inscriptions were placed upon them is uncertain. Perhaps, as all of them have the names of deities, they may have been placed before the images of the gods, or at tlieir lectisternium. The archaic form of the word Pocolom, resembling that of Romanom of the coins of the Komans struck in Campania, shows that they were made about the time of the Social War, B.C. 200, at the earliest, and pro- bably much later. They were found at Orte.^ The inscriptions which accompany the Etruscan vases are of two kinds, like those on the Greek, namely, such as are painted on the glaze of the vase itself, descriptive of the figures and other circumstances connected with the subject, and such as are incised. The former are painted in an opaque colour, white or red, and are in the Etruscan language, resembling those which accompany similar figures on the engraved scarabsei, or bronze mirrors. Such are the names of the deities ^ADV* Charu[n],- or Charon ; of the Kentaur >y \ DV, Chiru[n], for Chiron ; and of the heroes Al FAZ, Aivas or Ajax ; ATDESTE, Atreste, or Adrastus; AKTAIVN, Actaiun, or Aktaion ; and of the females EVINAI, Elinai "of Helen"; AVC STI, Alcestis ; and r ENTAS I AA, or Penthesilea. Some other of these painted inscriptions are not equally intelligible, having such words as eiNOIAA TVPMVCAS, Hinthial Turmucas, ''the crowds of shades" which accompany Penthesilea, and ECA^EDSCE^ NAC : A^ DVM : SLEDODCE, eclia: erscJie : nae aqrum: wiertherche, the speech of Charon at the parting of Alkestis and Admetos, " I bear thee to Acheron." Some few of the inscriptions, painted on the vases after the baking, seem to refer to the vase itself, ^\J/A A^ M AAI"^,^ mi laris aaqs A \A ^ A I ^ ® A <^ A I *y j ^ mi aratlisilguna, which are painted, in white and red. On a deep krater is found ^ V\/3 70J^3 ^3IS^A1, Lasnas. 8ome otlier inscriptions appear to refer to ladies, and are prefixed by the word B s/ A> , imitated from the Greek, as AZ3 0A^\\J^3>J (\^, Kale Mukathesa, "the lovely Muka- thesa ; " but it is difficult to feel sure about the meaning of many of these inscriptions, as they frequently consist of truncated words, whilst others do not recur elsewhere. A small vase found at Bomarzo, and another at Cervetri, were incised with the Etruscan alphabet. The presence of incised inscrip- tions'^ in the Etruscan language under the' feet of vases lias been alleged as a proof that these vases were made in Italy ; but this, of course, turns on the circumstance, if the inscriptions have been incised after the clay was baked.^ Even at Nola a few vases have been found inscribed with Oscan inscriptions,® supposed to be the names of their former possessors, and some terra-cotta tablets inscribed with Oscan characters were found 1 M. De Witte, Descr. d'une Coll. de Vases ptiiits, 8vo., Paris, 1837, no. 198. Perhaps " plaqies " is for '• places," " thou please.st." 2 Inghirami, Mon. Etr., tav. vi. s. vi. T. O. 37. ' Antichi Monumenti, fo. Flor. 1832. tav. ci. * Arch. Zeit. 1844, s. 835. ^ Bull., 1844, p. 13 ; Berl. Ant. Bild. no. 1(567. « Berlins Ant. Bild. no. 1013. 1G29. Chap. I. VASES FROM OTHER SITES. 463 in the valley of Gavelli, at a place called La Motte, six miles from Hadria.^ A few vases of the later style of art, when pottery had fallen into discredit, have the Latin inscriptions already mentioned painted in white letters on them, and intended to describe their use, as KERI : POCOLOM, the Clip of Kerus, or Janus ; VOLCANI : POCOLOM, the cup of Vulcan ; BELOLAI : POCOLOM, the cup of Bellona ; LAVIIRNAI : POCOLOM, the cup of Lavenia; SALVTES : POCOLOM, the cup of Salus; AECETIAI : POCOLOM, the cup of Aecetia or Aeqnitas. The enamelled perfume bottles, and other objects of this ware, sometimes found in the tombs of Etruria set as jewels, in frameworks of gold, and considered by Italian archaeologists to be certainly discovered in these sepulchres, are products of the Egyptian potteries. The Etruscans, masters of the seas, im- ported enamelled ware from Egypt, glass from Phoenicia, shells from the Red Sea, and tin from the coast of Spain or Britain. This ware is generally with a tarnished hue, and often of a pale grass-green colour, resembling that which was made in Egypt at the time of the 26tli dynasty or the seventh century B.C. It has been previously described. Many terra-cotta statues, bas-reliefs, have been found in other cities, the art of modelling and working terra-cotta having been in activity all over the Italian Peninsula. Notices of the vases, and other objects in glazed ware, will be found in the chapter on the distribution of the potteries. It would require a long research to describe all the Italian sites where terra-cotta remains have been found, and in style of art and method of execution they resemble Greek or Roman terra-cotta, according to the site where they have been discovered. Those from the cities of Southern Italy, Magna Gra3cia, and Lncania, such as Calvi or Cales, Canosa, Psestum, Tarentum, are in all respects similar to contemporary productions of Greece Proper. Some bas-reliefs found at Capua,^ not of very early work, about B.C. 200, are supposed from their style and representation to be Samnite, while a considerable collection of terra-cotta statues from Ardea, in the Campana collection at Rome, exhibit the style of Latium in the days of the Republic, and consist of figures of considerable merit, of rather a severe style of art. • Muratori, dix. 2. "^ Riccio, Not. rl. s^av. d. suol. d. ant. Capua, 4to., Napoli, 1855. V or THE 464 ETRUSCAN POTTERY. Part TIL They are important, as this city had a great celebrity for its ancient fresco or tempera paintings. Among the objects deci- dedly of Samnite art discovered at Capua are two stamps impressed on terra-cotta bricks with Oscan inscriptions ; one repiesented the head of Pallas Athene with a triple-crested helmet, the other a wild boar.^ » Bull., Arch. Nap., 185:5, p. 182. PART IV. ROMAN POTTERY, CHAPTER I. Bricks — Lydia — Tetradora — Pentadora — Size — Paste — Use — Houses — Tombs — Graves — Tiles — TcgulJB — Imbrices — Antefixal ornamentation — Tile-makers — Flue tiles — Wall tiles — Ornamentations — Drain tiles — Tesserae or tessellae — Inscriptions on tiles — Stamps — Farms — Manufactories — Legionary tQes — Devices — Columns — Corbels — Spouts — Friezes. In treating of the Roman pottery it is not necessary to repeat the description of the technical parts, as they were the same as among the Greeks. Commencing, therefore, as in the other sections, with bricks: they were called "Xa/eres," "becanse," says Isidorus, '* they were broad, and made by placing round them four boards." ^ Their use was most extensive, and they were employed as tiles for roofing houses, as bricks for structures, as slabs for pavements, and covering graves. The kilns were called lateraria, and the Greek makers laterarii. The simplest kind of bricks were made of clay merely dried in the sun, called lateres crudi, or raw bricks, and were used for building walls. The clay of which they were made was called argilla or Ihnus ; and they were cemented together by clay or mud, called lutum? According to the Roman writers, bricks were divided into three classes. " Three kinds of bricks," says Vitravius, " are made ; one, which the Greeks call Lydion, which our people use, one foot and a half long, and a foot broad. The Greeks build their edifices with the two other kinds. One of these is called the jpentadoron. For the Greeks call a palm doron; whence the presentation of gifts is called doron, for that is always borne in the palm of the hands. Hence, that which is five palms long every way is called pentadoron, and that which is four, tetra- doron. Now public edifices are built with the pentad or on, ' Origin., xv. 8. ■^ Pliny, N. H., xxxv. 13, 49. Varro, de Ee Rustica, i. 14 ; Columella, de R Rusticu, ix. 1. 2 H 46f5 ROMAN POTTERY. Tart IV. private with the tetradoronr ^ Pliny states nearly in the same words, " Their sorts of bricks are three, the Lydion, which we use, one foot and a half long, and one foot broad ; the second, the tetradoron ; the third, the joentadoron. For the ancient Greeks called a palm a doroUf and hence dor a are gifts, which are given with the hand. Therefore, they are named from their measures of four and five palms. Tlieir breadth is the same. The smaller are used in Greece for private buildings, the larger for the public edifices." ^ For public buildings the Komans used tridora tiles.^ There is, indeed, some discrepancy in the dimensions of bricks, as Palladius makes them measure two feet long and a foot wide, while the others give their dimensions as a foot and a half long by a foot wide and four inches thick, but their dimensions may have been altered in the interval between these writers. Two dimensions are recorded by the brick-makers in the numerous inscriptions, hi^edales, or two-foot bricks, and secipedales or sesquipedales, one and a half, which occur amongst the names of the makers of the oj>us doliare. The Lydian^ were probably so called from their resembling those used in the palace of Kroisos, at Sardis, the dimensions of which were rec- tangular like the didoron, of which they appear to be but another name. In their proportions they resemble our tiles rather than bricks, being very flat and thin in proportion to their size. They are generally square or rectangular, with the exception of the cylindrical hand bricks.^ The smallest size, the tetradora^ generally measure between seven and eight inches square. Pentadora are often found measuring fifteen inches, by seven and a half inches broad. Some of the larger, which are twenty inches square, are the hijpedales. Their thickness varies from one and a quarter inches to two inches. They are not made with mechanical accuracy, the edges being rounded and the sides not always parallel. In military works they were often used alternately with flint and stone, and for turning arches of doorways. For this purpose the two sizes were some- times combined, in order to bond the work, the hijpedales tegulm, or "two-foot tiles," as Yitruvius calls them, and the sesquijoedales, or *' tiles of one and a half feet." The dimensions of the bricks found in Sicily varied from two palms six inches to one palm nine inches in length. Those of Treves were one ^ Vitravius, ii. 3. 1778, p. 150. 2 Pliny, N. H., xxxv. 14, s. 49. | * BeBe Rustica, vi. 36, 12. » Schoenvisner, ' de ruderibus Laconi I * For the mode of ronstruction see Remain in solo Bndeiisi,' fo. Budn?, ; Piranesi, T. iii. tav. v. Chap. T. DIMENSIONS Ob' liiaCKS. 467 foot three inches broad, one and a quarter inches thick ; others from Civita Veccliia, in the Museum of Sevres, measured 0*65° hmg by 0*5^ thick. The general size of the Roman bricks was 15 X 14 inches by two inches thick. The hypocausts had tlie pillars of their floors formed of bricks, from seven or eight inches to ten inches square, hessales, and sometimes of two semicircular bricks joined at their diameter, and so forming a circle.^ Occasionally the upper bricks diminished in size, in order to give greater solidity to the construction. The upper floor bricks, or tiles, were from eighteen inches to twenty inches sqiiare, and formed the floor of the laconicum. All these were laid with mortar.^ The great building at Treves, called the place of Constautine, is built of penfadora burnt bricks, 15 inches square and 1^ inches thick.^ The researches of Mr. J. H. Parker at Rome, kindly communicated to me, give the following dimensions. The bricks of the time of Nero, a.d. 50, are 6 to 4 ; those of Hadrian, a.d. 110, from 8 to 11 ; of Aurelian, a.d. 250, from 6 to 11 ; and of Maxentius and Constantine, a.d. 320, from 4 to 12 inches. Baked bricks, called cocti or coctiles, were in general use. Clay, which was either whitish or de- cidedly red, was preferred ; and, as is evident from inspection, was well ofround and mixed with straw. It was then kneaded and stamped out from a frame or mould of four boards. The bricks then went through the usual process of drying in the brick-field, indeed some of them bear the marks of the feet of animals and birds, which passed over them while the clay was yielding and unbaked, and on a brick at York and at Wiesbaden* are the nails of the shoes of a boy ; on those in the Museum of Shrewsbury, the imprint of the feet of a goat. The bricks were then baked — an operation expressed by the phrase lateres clucere ^ in kilns apparently covered as the fornax. They were then ready for use, but were kept for two years before they were employed. Much care was taken in their prepai-ation, and it was generally considered that the spring was the most favoui-able time for making them, probably because they dried more slowly and were less liable to crack during the operation ; in autumn ' See Caiimont, Cours d'Anliq., ii. j floors were made of flange tiles. PI. XX. figs. 1-5, pp. 161-G5. ' Wyttenbach, Guide to the Roman * Caumoit, Cours, PI. xx. pp. 170-71; Antiquities of Treves, p. 42; R. Smith, cf. Buckman and Nevrmarch, Illnstra- Collect., II. xxvi.-xxvii. tions of the remains of Roman Art in | ^ Rossel, K., Romische Wiesbaden, Cirencester, the site of the ancient \ 8vo. Wiosb. 1858, p. 48. Corinium, pp. G4-66. The bricks of I ^ Pliny, N. H., vii. 57. the pilne were 8 inches square ; the 2 H 2 468 EOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. the rain interfered with the makirig, and in winter the frost. The paste of the Roman brick is remarkably hard, and generally of a fine red colour, although sometimes of a pale yellow inter- mingled with fragments of red brick ground up with it to bind it together. Both kinds are found even in the same locality. In the museum of Sevres are fragments of bricks of a red paste, from different parts of France and Italy, as the Thermae at Civita Vecchia, the pavement of the Coliseum, the theatre at Lillebonne, and the Thermae of Julian ^ and Trajan. Among those from Civita Yecchia, were some similar to the so-called hand-bricks, which are rude conical lumps of red paste, roughly fashioned with the hand, and supposed to be used for drainiog marshy roads, one having been found in the bog of Mareuil near Abbeville,^ cut in facettes, and with striated marks. Some from Italy were baked almost to a stone ware, and others from Byzantium were of a similar red paste.^ The bricks formed one of the great staples of the manufacture in baked earth among the Romans, who appear to have derived it from their Etruscan ancestors. Baths,* either public or private, military towers, and walls were constructed with bricks, as they were better able to resist the battering ram than stone. Tanks for holding water, amphitlieatres, palaces, temples, and other public edifices were also generally made of bricks.^ The tombs of Cumae of the Roman period are made of brick. Gigantic brick w^alls erected near Cumae,® and great arches of brick still remain in the amphitheatre at Pazzuoli.'^ The magnificent aqueducts, the prototypes of the modern viaduct, broad enough for a horseman to travel along them, were constructed of the same material.^ The villae, insulae, and houses of Rome were of brick during the time of the republic, and Dio mentions how an inundation of the Tibur destroyed the bricks of the houses in the time of Pompey. Augustus boasted that he had found Rome of brick and left it stone,® and Vitruvius mentions that brick was no •longer adopted for Roman houses in consequence of the laws which prohibited the thickness of the walls exceeding 2-J feet, thus preventing their being made two or three bricks thick, which was required for the joists. From the time of Trajan, ^ Brongniart, Musee, pp. 16-18. le antichita et per le curiosita natuiali ^ Ibid , p. 17. ! di Pozzuoli, di Gaetano d'Ancora, p. 3 Ibid., p. 18. ' 120. * Martial., Epigram, vii. Ixxvii. '' Avolio, p. 35 ; G. d'Ancora, p. 61. ^ Avolio, p, 10. * Avolio, p. 35. ^ Ibid., p. 34; G«ida Ragionata per ! ^ Siieton., Aug. c. 29. Chap. I. VAIUETY OF imiCKWOUK. 469 however, the use of bricks revived, and public edifices were made wliolly of tliem. They were laid in a manner called the ojous reticulatum^ or network. A common mode of construction, especially in the military works, was to lay them in double courses horizontally with stone above and below, which bonded the stone-work and lessened its monotony by the red veins which tiiey presented to the eye of the spectator. Sometimes they are disposed in chevrons or vandykes. A hand-brick found in Guernsey is in the collection of the Museum.^ It is 3J in. long, 2\ in. diameter above, and 1^ below; of a coarser and more gritty composition than the regular tiles. Immense quantities of these, some 25 centim. in circumference and height, were used to render solid the marshy valley of Le Seille in Lorrain. The extent of this remarkable work 13,200 sq. toises under the town of Marsal, and 82,499 toises under that of Moyenvic from 3 to 7 feet deep, would have occupied 4000 men for 25 consecutive years. The spot is known as the Briquetage de Marsal.^ Others have been found at Kinderton, in Cheshire ; they were often made of clay mixed with straw, not so much for lightness, which some have supposed, as to render the baking more easy.^ ^ The word tile, tegula, was evidently derived from tegere, to cover; called "tegula,'' says Isido- rus,'^ " because it covers the house." The curved tile was called imbrex, because it received the showers, im- bibes ;^ and those which resemble the French festieres are called by Pliny ^ " latercuU frontati'' The tile is distinguished from the brick by its greater thinness in proportion to its superficies, and by its being em- ployed generally for roofing houses. Tiles are much more commonly found than bricks. The margin of the tiles was called hamata ^ or flanged. Some tiles had one flange, tegulm No. 184. — Flange Tile, Tjomlon. ' Archaeological Journal, vol. vii. ' Proc. Soc. Ant. iv. p. 245. p. 70. * Origin., v. 8, " Tegula, quoJ sedes 2 Gobineau, M. A. de, Sur rine'galitd tegat." dc3 races, 8vo, Paris, 1855, pp. 29-31 ; I * Ibid. " Imbrex, quod accipiat im- D'Arteze de la Sauvagerc, Kecherchcs brcs." sur la Briquetage do Marsal , 8vo, « N. H., xxxv. 12. Tar. 1710. ^ Vitniv. vii. 1. 470 KOMAN POTTEIIY. Part IV. hamatds} The most distinctive mark of tiles is the flanges. The paste of which the tiles are composed is compact and dense, very similar to the brick, but generally not so fine. Their clay when baked is either of a pale salmon or light straw colour. In some specimens, portions of bricks appear to have been ground up and mixed with the paste in order to bind it. Small stones, and fragments of vegetable remains, are also occasionally seen amidst the paste. Tiles, like bricks, appear to have been made by means of a mould, but two boards were probably sufficient for the pur- pose. A hole was then driven through them by a peg when they were intended for roofing, especially for the opus ]pavonaceum, or peacock-work, in which they are arranged like scales, being hung by one corner. The flange tiles were probably made in the same way, and the flanges subsequently turned up by the hand of the workman. They were then dried in the sun, evidently by being laid flat upon the ground, and subsequently baked in a kiln. How they were transported, or what they cost, or were taxed, unfortunately are among the particulars which have not reached us. In the Museum of Sevres are many of these tiles either of yellow or of red paste, and turned up at the edges, and used for roofing, from the remains of Roman villas and baths in France. Some were for hypocausts,^ others for pavements,^ and others for roofs of houses.* Similar tiles are found all over England and Germany, wherever traces of Roman occupation occur, and were made on the spot. In Greece, small temples as well as houses were roofed with tiles.^ The Romans, in the first instance, used tiles or bricks dried in the sun, as has been already stated, but after five years these became useless. The walls of gardens and fields in the Sabine territory in the days of Varro were made of unbaked, but those of Gaul of baked bricks. The painted brick walls of Sparta were removed to the Comitium at Rome by Murena and Varro in the days of Augustus. The mode in which bricks were laid differed according to the edifices and the time when used. Triangular bricks, made by dividing a medium-sized brick into ' Jahrb. d. v. Alterth. fr. in Rheinl., \ * From Mt. Ganelon, ibid., 18; at 1844, p. 131. Blizon, ibid., 18; mixed with white 2 As the one from Heilenburg, Mus. quartzose sand at Noyelles-sur-Mer, PI. II. 13, p. 17. I ibid. ' From the Tower of Dagobert at « See Inscr. at Eriguez ; Le Bas, Rev. Laon, p. 17 ; also at Pontchartrain ; Ph. I. 331 ; Bockh, Corp. Inscr. Grsec. ibid. III. 1083. Chap. I. TILK-WOKK. 471 four triangles before baked, were built into walls with the long edge cut, so as to appear solid, and lock in and render the wall firmer. The principal mode of laying was in horizontal courses, found in the Palace of the Caesars, the Pantheon, the Aqueducts, Thermai, Mausolea, and in the Tliermse of Diocletian. At Ostia, in the Temple of Honour and Valour, the walls were built of triangular bricks or tiles, or with moulded bricks of two kinds, re 1 and yellow, having cornices. In the Praetorian Camp, probably as old as the Republic, they were laid by the pavi- mentarii^ or bricklayers. Later, under Constantine, they were worked in with layers of tufo in the Circus of Maxentius, or so- called sepulchre of Helena or Tor Pigne Terra, a mode of con- struction continued till the eighth century. At St. Albans the ancient Verulamium, three horizontal layers of tiles are laid in walls made of flint and mortar at intervals of about 4 feet. In some cases a groove made by the finger is at the side of the flange to prevent its slipping laterally. When a loop-hole was required in the wall, a small didoron tile was placed horizontally at the top of the hole. Tiles having their edges turned up were principally employed for roofing, but some were occasion- ally placed in the walls when others were not at hand.^ Those found in France are said to be distinguished by the sand and stones found in their paste.^ In the ruins of villas they are found scattered about the floor, the roofs having fallen in. The flanges are generally about 2 J inches higher than the lower surface of the tile. They are bevelled on their inner side in order to diminish the diameter of the imbrex, but have no hole by which to nail them to the rafters. In order that the lower edge of one tile might rest on the upper edge of that which came next to it, the two sides were made to converge down- wards, as seen in the cut. These joints were of course covered by the semi-cylindrical tiles called imbrices, and the roof was thus rendered compact.* The rain flowed down each row of broad tiles into a gutter ; the end tiles being lapped up at their outer edge, and provided with a spout, in shape of a lion's head in bas-relief, for the purpose of carrying off the water. The imbrices were plain semi-cylindrical tiles, except the last, which had an upright, generally semi-oval, and ornamented with ante- » Guattaui, Mou. Sabin., 1828, pp. ' Ibid., 184. 66-89. •• Xcnoplion, Memorabilia, III. s. 1 - Caumout, Cours, ii. p. 182. c. 7. 472 ROMAN POTTERY. Taut IV. fixal or other ornaments. The end tiles were always flanged on their exteriors, and had a maeander or antefixal ornauaent painted upon them.^ At Pompeii the mode of roofing was as follows : — The tiles and the joint tiles were laid in lines parallel to the long ridge of tlie roof, so that the water all converged into the gutter tiles, which were larger, square, cut away at tw^o opposite angles, depressed in the centre, and flanged. They were laid wn'th their axis on the lines bisecting the salient angles of the roof, the water flowed off down there at the angles into the impluvium. Passages were lighted by tiles having in the centre a rectangular or shoe-shaped hole, protected at the sides by a flange from the rain.^ The tiles from private houses, as will be seen by the one found at Ostia, were upon the same plan as those used for the temples. The use of tiles for the roofs of private edifices as well as temples is proved by the ordinary expression of descending from the tiles, being applied to those who came down from the roof.^ The tiles with two of their parallel edges turned up, called flanged tiles, were principally used for roofing ; but they were also employed for the floors of the laconica and the hot .baths, in which case they were inverted, the flanges being placed on the J)^7^, and the stucco floor was laid on them.* Several of these tiles, of red and yellow paste, from the Roman Thermae near Saintes, are in the Museum of Sevres, as well as others from the ancient potteries at Milhac de Nontron ; also some tiles of red paste mixed wdth calcareous remains found at Palmyra.^ In England in the military castra these flange tiles are also found of a red or yellow colour, the latter apparently having fragments of red tiles mixed in the paste. They are worked in the brick bonding of the walls. vOf two tiles found at Boxmoor, and now in the British Museum, the one plain, the other a flange or roof tile, the dimensions are nearly similar. T'he plain tile measures 1 foot 4 inches long, by 10 J inches wide, and 1^ inches thick. Tiie flange tile 1 foot 3^ inches long, by 1 foot wide, and the highest part of a flange 2\ inches high. These are probably the tiles of one foot and a half in length, the sesquipedales of the inscriptions. In the same collection are two tiles, submultiples of the above, mea- suring 8^ inches square, by IJ inches long. They, as usual, » Diet. Antiq., Tegula, p. 939. 2 Bull. Arch. Nap , 1853, tav. xv. p. 185. 3 Terent. Eun. iii. 5, 60 ; Gellius, x. 15; St. Luke, V. 18. * Cf. Buckman and Newmarcli, p. 64. * Brongniart and Riocreiix, Mus. de Sevres, I. 18. Chap. I. FLANGE TILES. 473 are not quite square. In the same collection are several other fragments of flange tiles, wliich have apparently been of the same dimensions. The flanges, however, are always bevelled on the inner side. Low one-storied huts or houses called attegia tegulicia were sometimes made of tiles.^ Sometimes the tiles of the floors, straturse, or pillars, jpi7a», of the hypocaust were scored in chequers ^ or perforated,^ or even made round.* Terra- cotta cisterns were also used at the Roman times, and large tubes having a diameter of 2 ft. 1 in. have been found casing the sides of a wall at Selinunte or Selinus. Other cisterns of brick have also been found at Taormina or Taurominium. The cylindrical water-pipes were called tuhi or Jistulse canales.^ One of the most interesting facts connected with tiles is their use in the graves of the ancient Romans. Three or rarely six large hipedales tiles were set up in a prismatic form, one form- ing the floor, and the two others the pointed covering, en decharge, which* protected the body from the superincumbent earth. In this hollow prism were laid the urns, ollde, which held the ashes of the dead, and other vases. In some of the graves of Greece, apparently of the same age, semicircular, or vaulted tiles were used. On these tiles were impressed in large letters the names of the legions which garrisoned the various cities. Thus the tiles of the Roman graves at York ^ are inscribed with the name of the sixth and ninth legions wliich were there quartered, while at Caerleon, the old Isca Silurum, the bricks bear the name of the second or Augustan legion.' The stations of the twenty-second legion may also bo traced by the bricks placed over the graves of its soldiers in this manner.^ They were placed at the foot of the sepulchre in order to indicate, like tombstones, who was buried beneath. The inscriptions in most cases are written across the breadth of the tiles in Greek or Latin.® The inscriptions given by Gori are of very different age, some apparently as late as the intro- duction of Christianity. At Royston, in a supposed ustrinum, i Steiner, Cod. luscr., I. 393. 2 R. Smitli, Collect., II. PI. viii. n. vi. p. 21. ^ Those at Chester are so made. * Jahrb. d. V. Alterthfr. im Eheinl., 1840,196. » Bull. Arch. Nap., 1852, p. 40, Vena- fraii inscription. \ xxx " Wellbeloved, Eburacum, pp. 33, 34, 118. ^ Lee, Delineation of Roman anti- quities found at Caerleon, PI. xiii. ; Gent. Mag., Nov. 184.'>, p. 490. * AViener, De Legion., Rom. 1838, pp. 106-137. ° See Gori, Mus. Etr., iii. tab. xxvii.- 474 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. roof tiles either covered the mouths of the sepulchral urns, or they were placed around them as a sejotum} The name of the imhrices, as already stated, is from their use in keeping off the showers, imbres, from the joints of the roof tile=; ; and the roof of a bath, found at Ostia, will illustrate the manner in which they were placed over them. They were semi-cylindrical, about 3 feet long, 3 inches in diameter, and IJ inches thick, made of the same material as the flange tiles, and apparently with the hand, but are not stamped like them with potters' names. The imbrex close to the edge of the roof had a perpendicular semi-elliptical piece, called the antefix. The tiles were con- nected at their edges, being laid for that purpose across the rafters, fostes, of the roof, tectum? The semi-oval upright plate, or antefixa of the imbrices, was not large enough to admit of much ornament. The usual one is the floral antefixal orna- ment, sometimes, indeed, replaced by acanthus leaves, accom- panied with the mseander. Busts, from their elongated shape, were peculiarly appropriate to these plates, and those of Juno,^ Yenus, heads of the Gorgon, and Neptune between two dolphins, and tragic masks, have been found.* In this case the bust is stamped in a mould, and applied to the antefixal ornament. Two found at Ostia had groups instead of busts, — such as Neptune sailing over the sea in his car drawn by hippocampi, and the statue of Cybele in the ship drawn by the Vestal Claudia.^ These came from the ridge of a house, the tiles of which were inscribed with the names of Consuls in the reign of Hadrian. Flue tiles with various patterns on one side, as if to be seen, are often found. One has been discovered with the letters P and T amongst the ornaments of wavy lines, others have lozenge ornaments. They generally have one lateral hole in the narrow edge of the tile in the middle. This hole is either rectangular or circular, Mr. R. Smith says, for the heated air to pass through ; one tile had a double chimney without a lateral hole. They were often handsomely ornamented with fleurettes, drapery, and other patterns. Some found in Essex and Surrey had dogs, stags, and initial letters in the foliage ; and another discovered at Plaxtol, in Kent, had CAMBRIASANTVS, the British Roman makers' name, repeated on the entire side. ^ Archseol. xxvi. p. 370. I 3 Campana, PI. xi. on specimens * Bayardi, Catalogo degli Antichi : found on the Palatine Hill. Monumenti di Ercolano, pp. 284-285 ; ! ^ Campana, tav. vii. at Ostia. Smetius, Antiq. Neomag. p. 88. I * Ibid., tav. vi. Chap. I. ANTEFIXA— FLUE TILES. 475 The ornamented side, it is thought, was concealed from view : but this is unlikely. Occasionally they were used as pillars of hypocmsts.^ A remarkable use of ornamental tiles having dental, ovolos, fleurettes, or chequer ornaments, is in the Pile Cinq- Mars in the vicinity of Tours.'^ It has been supposed these ornaments imitated the patterns of Mosaics. Sometimes the antefixum of the imbrex was strengthened by a band behind, examples of which occur in the roof tiles at Pompeii. The edge tiles of the roof were flanged so as to form a gutter, and either externally decorated with subjects moulded in bas-relief — such as antefixal and floral, and floral architectural ornaments — or else painted in encaustic with maeanders, and other patterns. A space was cut out to admit of the insertion of the antefixal ornament of the imbrex. The ancient tiles were made by special makers, distinct from the brick-makers, and called JiguU a tegulis, tegularii, or teglarii,^ tilers, or figuli ah imhricihus} Perhaps at the Byzantine period tiles were gilded, for the term Chrijsokeramos, or " gold-tiled," was applied to certain edifices.® For warming the rooms of the baths and other chambers a peculiar kind of tiles were used. These tiles w^ere called tuhi ;^ according to some archaeologists the hole was stopped by a fictile valve or plug ; but possibly they may have been so disposed that the small hole communicated laterally so as to let the air pass from one tube to another, or probably they were used as chimneys of hypocausts. These tubuli were also called va]poraria and alveoli.^ They are hollow parallelopipeda, with a hole at one side for the ejection of the air which traverses them. Sometimes the whole side of the wall was composed of flue tiles covered with cement. Their sides are always scored with w^avy or diagonal lines, apparently to make the cement adhere better to them. Sometimes these marks assume a more regular and ornamental appearance, such as the shapes of lozenges or cheques, and the fleurettes, as on those of the Koman villa at Hartlip,^ and the lower tiles have scores of squares.^^ They are generally of the ' C. R. Smith, 111., London, p. 114. j ^ Seneca, Epist. 90. " Et impresses 2 Smith, Coll. Ant. iv. p. 11. parietibustubosquiimasimulet summa ' Muratori in Mongez ; Brongniart, | foverent ajquiter." Traite, I. 367 ; Orellius and Henzen, | « pjtiscos, Lexicon i. 77. 6445, 7279. i » R. Smith, Collectanea, vol. .II. p. I. ♦ Orellius, 4190. " Henzen, 7280. p. 21, PI. viii. fig. 1, 2. « Barduri, lib. iii. p. 89, '« Ibid. 476 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. same paste as tlie roof-tiles, and are found scattered amongst the desolate Koman houses. The flue tiles were sixteen and a half inches long, six and a half inches wide, five inches deep.^ A similar mode of constructing walls is found in the building called the house of Agathokles at Acra- dina,^ some of the walls of which were made of hollow cylinders. The tepidaria of baths were lined with rectangular hol- low tiles, with holes for the introduction of warm air to heat the walls of the chambers. These tiles were plastered over with stucco.^ The regular marks are supposed to have been made with a hackle or large comb, and the workman himself may have pointed or distinguished his tiles by their pattern. Through these chimneys, for they are no less, the hot air circulated and gave an imperfect warmth to the rooms, being radiated from the walls. The pipes for conducting the hot air stood on a pier, and the whole wall No. 185.— Flue-tiles, ornamented. WaS Warmcd by thcSC pipCS, whicll stOod close to one another and made up the solid wall ; the heated air passed through by an opening made in the wall, decorated with a lion's head.* Such walls Ausonius ^ calls plastered, or tectoria. The Eomans had no chimneys ; and the smoke, and heated air and smoke, came through the doors and windows of the winter apartments : ® and the square holes may have been for plugs to secure them to the walk It is difficult to understand how these tiles could have warmed rooms by the mere introduction of hot air circulating through them, especially if they were covered with stucco. At the same time the smoke of the hypocaust could not have been admitted into ^ Specimens of these tiles will be seen engraved in Oaumont, Cours d'Anti- quites, t. ii. p. 172, PI. xxii. fig. 3 and 5 ; and Buckman and Newmarch, Il- lustrations of the Remains of Roman Art in the Ancient Corinium, 4to, 1850, pp. 64, 65. ^ Torre Rezzonico, Viaggio di Sicilia c Malta, torn. v. p. 227 ; Avolio, p. 9. ^ One at Cassibili, near Syracuse; Avolio, p. 21 ; cf. Apolio, p. 9. * Jahrb. d. Ver. d. Alterthfr. im Rheinl. 1844, p. 120 ; Schoepflin, Alsatia illustrata, i. p. 539. ^ Mosell., V. 337. « Jahrb. d. V. Alterth. im Rheinl. 1844, p. 123. Chap. L WALT. ANP DRAIN TILES. 477 the apartments. At Hartlij) these tiles were placed vertically on one wall of a lavacrum. By some the ® is supposed to be the ornament called cuneus of Vitruvius, with which walls were ornamented. These pipes were fixed to the wall by a small nail, called elavis muscarius} A flue-tile filled with soot was found at Briare.^ Of the nature of tiles were large thin squares of terra-cotta, which were often two Eoman feet square, and hence called hipedales, used for casting or revetting the walls of the rooms. They are found in the different Roman villas, and are orna- mented on one side with various incised ornaments by the potter, apparently with a tool upon the wet clay. The decora- tions of some, found in Essex,^ represent mseanders, the Greek border, rosettes, and other ornaments. They were often covered with the stucco with which the rooms were plastered. At Pompeii the stucco-painted walls were constructed with bricks or tiles placed edgewise and connected by leaden cramps to the main walls from which the brick lining is detached a trifle.* Terra-cotta pipes, tuhuli, joined with mortar, were especially used for draining lands,^ and for drains of amphitheatres.^ They were eight inches in diameter. Some of the drain tiles were hemispherical and open above. The Campagna di Roma was formerly extensively drained by these tiles, and owed to that circumstance much of its ancient salubrity.^ The cylin- drical drain -tiles or water-pipes rarely have the names of makers, or other inscriptions. Such, how^ever, sometimes occur, and at Aix-la-Chapelle they were found with the stamps of the 6tli Victorious Legion, arranged in the form of a cross.^ Places for the nails are found in the wall-tiles, cortina muri.^ In some cases, as on the baths, a space of a few inches was left betw een the tiles and the wall, and the hot air from the hypocaust circulated between the tiles and the wall. The tiles had four holes, and they were affixed to the wall by plugs or nails appa- rently of lead. A chamber in the castrum at Jublains is yet partly standing, one of its sides yet coated with tiles.^° 1 Jahrb. d. V. Alterth. im Rheinl., 1844, p. 127, 2 Jollois, Ant. du Loiret, 4to, Par., 1830, p. 167. Nuova, Alesa, and Alicata in Sicily, Fazzelli, Decad. I. lib. ix. ** Avolio, p. 21. ^ For tessellated pavements, see 3 Archseologia, xiv. 64, 72 ; Brong- : Seneca, Quaest., v. 31. niart, Traite, I. p. 367. I * Steiner, Codex Inscr. Rom., ii. p. 4 Taylor, Fresco and Encaustic | 174. Painting, p. 40. j " Winckelmann, Werke. » Some have been found at Terra ' '<> R. Smith, 111., Lond., PI. xxiv. 478 ROMAN POTTERY. Tart IV. Broken and ground fragments of brick and tile wei-e used to the very last, being employed for the second of the five strata, called the ruderatio, of the road, while tlie third, called the nucleus, was formed of bricks and of large stones.^ The RoQian mortar was made of sand, chalk, and pounded brick.^ The tessons used for mosaic pavements were made of marbles, glass, and of a red brick. These pieces were called by the Greeks psejohoiy or j)sejphides, pebbles ; and by the Horn an s tessellse, tesserw, laminse. They vary in size from an inch to almost a quarter of an inch square, and were made either by fracture and cutting of the ordinary Roman tile into small squares, or else were stamped in a small mould. They supplied the red and sometimes the black colour for the o^us musivum, or mosaic work, especially for pavements, and aided in the composition of the various subjects. At the time of the Byzantine empire such mosaics were introduced into ceilings. The early mention of mosaic pavements in the book of Esther, and the anecdote of Aristarchus, show that they were in use long before the time of Augustus, although no extant mosaic is earlier than that age, and most of them are of the period of the Antonines. One of these pavements found at Wiflisburg or Avenches, has an inscription recording that it was made in the Consulship of Avitus and Pompeianus, a.d. 209,^ Another at the same place had the name of Prostasius,^ and a third bore the name of a lady named Eusebia.^ Another mosaist, whose name has been found, is Dioskourides of Samos.® The larger tiles of the tessellated pavements were called tesserse or tesserm magnse, the smaller Sjpicata testacea. The word tessellm was particularly applied to the pavements. It evidently comes from the Greek word tessera, " four" sided, of which tessella is the diminutive ; ' and thus signifies a diminutive cube or die. The term testacea sj)ieata was applied to pavements, the tesserw of which were not flat cubes, but packed with their ends pointed upwards.^ A pavement at Verona was made by xxix. ; Pliny, Ep., i. 17, mentions the hole by which the air was let in. * Avolio, p. 37. 2 pitiscus. 3 Orellius, i. 122, n. 383 ; Spon, Misc., p. 40 ; Wild, Avench., p. 178 ; Hagenb. MSS., i. p. 203. See also for the opus doliare, Orellius, ii. 572. * Steincr, Codex. luscr. Rom., iii. 3G7. * Maflfei. " Ex officina Foroiii folix ut ista lego," at Salona was " sic cervus desiderat ad fontes aquarum, ita desi- derat anima mea ad te Deus." Smith, lUust. of Rom., Lond. p. 49. ® Rochette, Quest, sur I'hist. de I'Art. Paris, 184G, p. 127. ^ Turnebus, Adv., xix. 2G. ^ Vitruvius, Arch., vii. 1 ; Plinv, N. H., xxxvi. 25, (;3. (FiAP. I. INSCRIPTIONS ON TILES AND BRICKS. 479 many hands, one Eusebia and her companions made 20 feet, Hiernisa and hers as many, Marinns 10 feet. Some supposed they subscribed only to the work.^ The small tesserae of glass in mosaics were called ahaculi? Pavements were called Asarota, from the asarote oikos of Sosos of Pergamos, where they repre- sented droppings from the dinner-table.^ The usurper Firmus is said to have lined his house with glass slabs or mosaics inlaid in bitumen,* and Constantine and Helena first applied mosaics to walls. In the seventh century a.d., the Arabs adopted the art called jpsejfihosis fsefysa. One of the conditions of the Peace of Khalef Valyd and the Emperor of Constantinople was that the emperor should supply mosaics for the decoration of the mosque at Damascus. These, as at Cordova, were the work of Byzantine artists, but the Arabs early substituted coloured fayences as at the Alhambra. Mosaic flourished both in east and west, and is in the twelfth century found in the church of Bethlema, A.D. 1180 : Saladin a.d. 1187 used them.^ A considerable number of the Koman tiles are inscribed with the names of the consuls of the current year in which they were made, presenting a long and interesting series, commencing with the consulship of L. Licinius Sura and C. Sosius Senecio, A.D. 107, and terminating with that of Alexander Severus, a.d. 222. Many of these consulships, however, do not appear to have been recorded in the regular fasti consulares, or oflScial lists, and they were probably the suffects whose names were not recorded after their temporary elevation. Since many of the potters indifferently inscribed, or omitted, the names of the consuls upon their ware, it is probable that the tiles so dated Avere destined for the public buildings, and were so marked to prevent their being stolen with impunity. They are fewer in number than those which have merely the names of the potteries, or of the farms from which the clay was procured, but are yet ' Fea Misc. Crit., ii. 281. | pictum ratam de museo. Trebell. Poll. 2 Pliny, N. H., xxxvi. 67. | Vita Tetr. Procop. Bell. Goth., i. c. 3 Spartian. vet.; Pesc. Treb. Poll, j 19, states that the head of Theodoric Vita Tetric. ; Augustin, de civ. Dei, separated from his body, on a mosaic xvi. 8, races of men in the platese mari- in the Forum at Naples. " Bonum timse of Carthage, called musivo picta, I eventum bene colito," appears on a opus musivum, or opus museum. Orel- \ mosaic at Woodchester. lius, ii. 258 : vermiculum, or spicatum, supposed to refer to its use in museums, the vermiculated or guilloche pattern ; : p. 45 jt was also styled pictum de museo or * Vopisc, Hist. Aug. Script. * Reinaud, Rev. Arch., 1802, PI. ii. 480 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IY. sufficiently numerous to be an invaluable aid to tbe chrono- logical inquirer in tracing the succession of consuls for upwards of sixty years. Inscriptions of this class belong to the ojpus doliare only, and are found on the tiles of Italy alone, and it is probable that their appearance is owing to some law passed by the senate, about the reign of Trajan, to regulate the potteries. It lias been, indeed, stated that the law obliged the brick and tile-makers ^ to affix their distinctive mark or emblem upon their bricks. The emblem in the circular stamps is in the centre, surrounded with the inscription, as on medals, and re- sembling the countermarks or little adjuncts on the currency of the republic, and the seals or stamps of the eponymi of Rhodes. On the Roman tiles these marks are generally cir- cular, with a circular portion cut out at one part, but they are occasionally oblong or rectangular. The use of such a mark was to guarantee the quality of the clay of which the tiles were composed,^ and which, in some instances, is found so remarkably fine, so compact, and so well baked, that when struck it rings with a metallic sound. It is of these bricks and tiles that the greater part of the edifices of ancient Rome were made, and Theodoric,^ when he repaired the walls, made a present of 25,000 tiles for that purpose. The boast of Augustus, that he had found Rome built of brick, and left it constructed of stone, could only apply to some of the principal monuments and quarters of the city. The visitor of the Vatican will remember a great number of these tile-marks inserted in a wall of that magnificent museum. Such tiles have been removed from the principal edifices of ancient Rome ; the Coliseum, Circus Maximus, the so-called Thermae of Titus, the Thermae of Caracalla, the Basilica of Constantino, the Praetorian Camp, the Cemetery of Priscilla, the Mons Coelius, Mons Viminalis, Mons Yaticanus, and the Pons Sublicius. Similar stamps have also been found on tiles removed from the ancient edifices, and now placed on the roofs of many of the churches of modern Rome. Large collections of them are, and were, in the museums of the Vatican, and in the Villa Albani. Cortona, Bologna, Tibur, Pagnani, and Ostia have also revealed numerous tiles of this class, important remains of the golden days of the imperial city, when the best of the emperors embellished it with new edifices, or restored * Cassiodor., I. s, xxv. ; II. s. xxviii. 2 Seroux d'Agincoiirt, Recueil, p. 82, PL xxxii. ^ Cassiodorus, Varior,, i. 25, ii. 23. Chap. 1, STAMPS ON TILES. 481 tliose of their predecessors which exhibited symptoms of decay. To the topographer they are of the greatest value ; and had the Komans stamped on them tlie names of the buiklings for which they were destined, the sites of the great edifices of the city might have been indisputably fixed. Besides the value of these tiles in settling the succession of tlie consuls and tlie sites of the monuments, they also throw great light upon the economy of the Roman farms, and the possessions of the great landed proprietors. Perhaps from Nero, and certainly from Domitian, till the age of Commodus, after which these marks almost disappear amidst the general wreck of the fine arts which then ensued, an uninterrupted series of names of pro- ])rietors, potters, and estates, tells much of the internal con- dition of Italy, and one of the sources of revenue to the Roman nobility.^ Before, however, entering further upon this subject, it is as well to show the nature of these inscriptions ; and the accompanying example, taken from a tile removed from one of the edifices at Rome, will illustrate their na- ture in the fullest man- ner. The whole is in bas-relief, and w^as pro- bably made with a stamp or die of bronze,^ wood, stone, or terra- cotta, a bronze stamp ol this kind having been discovered.^ In the cen- tre of the circular stamp or medallion is seen a figure of Victory — the mark or sign that the potter used. Commencing with the inscription on the outer band, the follow- ing words mav he read: OPYS DOL[iare] DE FIGVL[inis] PVBLINIANIS. EX PRED18 AExMlLlAES SEVERAES. " Pot work from the Publinian potteries, from the estate of No. ) 86.— Stamp on ix. Tilo. British Museum. J Fabretti, Inscr. Autiq., fo., 1G99, , pp. 152, 153; Cajlus, III. PI. Ixviii. pp. 502, .50.3; Boldttti, Osservazioni sopia ; '^5.3, 254. rimptorij, p. 557; Hori, Inscr. Aiit., Til. ; ' Coii, Inscr., iii. 118. ' IbiM. 2 I 482 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. JEmilia Severa." The most complete stamps have the date of the emperor or of the consulship, the name of the estate which supplied the clay, that of the pottery which baked it, and of the potter who prepared it; sometimes even of the slave who moulded the tile, and the very dimensions of the tile itself. The earliest stamps look like the first attempts at a methodical manner of impression, and the later ones betray a comparative neglect. Not only are the names of the em- perors and Caesars given at the beginning and end of the series, without indications of the consulships, farms, or pro- prietors, but singular expressions are also introduced. Thus the tiles of Theodoric show that his gift excited national or official enthusiasm, for he is styled upon them the good and glorious king, with the addition of " Happy is Eome ! " At all times, indeed, as is shown in the stamp already figured, the inscriptions were in contraction, and even the consuls were men- tioned only by the initial letters of their name. Still, by com- paring the numerous series, it is possible to place them in their order. Many tiles, indeed, have no date, although it is evident that they were made in the imperial times, but the general impression, on examining the series of stamps, is that the potteries of tiles or bricks were in active operation during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian, especially in that of the last- mentioned Emperor, and continued so till the close of the reign of Marcus Aurelius. After the twentieth vear of Antoninus, till the eighth year of Alexander Severus, the inscriptions are few and irregular. Most of the public edifices had been built or amply repaired. The political convulsions left no time for architecture; the law respecting the stamp^ had probably been abrogated, and estates had changed hands. The estates from which the tiles came, or to which some probably belonged, are called possessions, ^ossessio7ies ; pri- vate property, frivata ; shares, rationes ; blocks, insulde ; or more generally estates, jprasdia. There is, indeed, some ambiguity about the expression ex ]^rdediis^ but it apparently means that the brick or tile was " from the estate," the uncertainty being in what sense this is to be taken. Prasdium, indeed, means a property, either in the town or country ; but the word fundus, which means a country farm, is also found impressed upon some bricks. It will however be seen, from some apparently excep- tional instances, that the names of the edifices to which the tiles belonged are combined with those of the potteries and Chap. I. NAMES OF ESTATES. 483 potters, so tlmt the expression ex prwdiis possibly means that the tiles or bricks belonged to the houses or other property in the city of Eome of the person named. The designation of the place, for example, for which the tiles were made occurs on those stamped with the name of the Praetorian Camp, and of the Chapel of the Augusti, and can hardly refer to potteries established in that quarter. A critical examination of the series would enable the enquirer to arrange the entire sequence of the properties to which the tiles ref»r, and, on comparing the evidence, it is probable that the ]^rsedia are the estates whicli produced the clay. The proprietors of these estates were the Emperors and Caesars, persons of consular dignity or eques- trian rank, and sometimes imperial freedmen. The names of the estates are rarely mentioned, although the Salarian, the XJlpian, and a few others are recorded. Many of the tiles record merely the imperial estates, without designating the name of the reigning Emperor ; and at a later period, as on the tiles of the Basilica of Constantino,^ the stamps record the estates of " our Augusti and our Caesars." Of the family of the Anto- nines there ai*e several names. The Empress Plotina was evi- dently a large landed proprietor. Annius Verus, and his wife Domitia Lucilla, the parents of M. Aurelius, have left their names upon many tiles ; so have that Emperor himself, ^lius Caesar, the adopted heir-apparent of Hadrian ; Arria Fadilla, the aunt of jM. Aurelius ; Julia Procula, Cusinia Gratilla, Faustina, and others. It would be tedious to repeat all the names of inferior proprietors unknown to fame, such as Q. Servilius Pudens and T. Tatinius Satrinus. Amongst the more remarkable is that of Lucius ^milius Julianus, priest of the Sun and Moon.^ Some belonged to imperial freedmen, for such names as Umidius Quadratus and Quintus Agathyrsus are evidently of this de- scription. The most remarkable fact connected with the history of the proprietors is the prevalence of female names ; and the quantity of tiles which came from their estates is enormous. The occasional renunciation by the Emperors of their private fortune in favour of their female relations ; the extensive pro- scriptions by which, owing to a defect of male heirs, estates devolved upon females, as well as the gradual extinction of great families, consequent on the corruption of public morals, may be traced on a tile as readily as in the page of a liistorian. As to 1 Annali, 1848, p. 158. « Ibid , xxxii. p. 435. 2 I 2 484 KOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. freedmen, their rise and progress is not in the scope of the present work, but they were alike the ministers of the palace, commanders of fleets, the agents of the nobility, and the wealthy proprietors of Italy. The potteries were sometimes mortgaged, as will be seen by the instance of a mortgage made by C. Coelius Verus of his potteries to Cornelius Gallicanus.^ The potteries of the tile-makers were of two kinds ; the "potieries, figlinse, and the manufactories, offieinfe. The jiglinm are the most numerous, and form a class by themselves ; the term officina, or workshop, being commonly stamped on lamps and smaller vases. The potteries are mentioned in a subordi- nate manner to the jprsedia, or farms, and, in many instances, the names of both occur on the same tiles. The prsedia, too, are often omitted, and only the figlinm recorded. Attached to the term jiglinds is often an adjective, expressive of some quality or name. These epithets are sometimes geographical, as the Korinthian, Makedouian, Khodian, or Tempesine, and the greater or lesser Ocean potteries. Sometimes their names were derived from the reigning Emperor, as the Neronian and Domitian potteries, but the greater number were called by a Gentile or family name, as the Bucconian, Camillian, Furian, Terentian, and Yoconian potteries. There are, however, many potteries only distinguished by the names of their proprietors, who were generally freedmen or slaves. One of tlie names which most frequently recurs in the series is that of L. Brutidius Augustalis, a freedman ; while other tiles are stamped " from the potteries of Primigenius, the slave of our Lord, the Emperor." There were many potteries of imperial slaves ; but there are also numerous tiles from the potteries of the Emperors and other wealthy proprietors, although undoubtedly under the adminis- tration of freedmen or slaves. The offieinse, which are also recorded upon tiles, served to distinguisli the quality of the different figlinde. Thus tiles are stamped with the title of the officinae of L. Aurelius Martialis, of Domitius Decembris, and of M. Publicius Januarius, freedmen, named after the months in which they were born. The esta- blishment of the last of these freedmen was called the doliaride officinw, a term which meant the pot-work shop or potteries. Another officina is called " Domitian," either after its proprietor, or out of flattery to the Emperor. Sometimes a second manu- Lama, Inscrip. Ant., 4to., Parma, 1818 ; on the Tab. aliment, of Yelleia. Chap. T. MANUFACTORIES AND MAKERS. 485 factory of the same proprietor is mentioned. Other tiles are stamped with the fanciful names given them by the potters, as Chiudians, Domitians, Brutians. A few tiles are stamped both with the name of the potter and that of the proprietor of the estate, as the tiles of C. Cosconius, from the potteries of the celebrated Asinius Pollio, and the tegulm doUares, or pot- work tiles of Julia Procula ; the Blpedales^ or two-foot tiles of Crispinianus, anl the Secipedahs, or '-one foot and a half" tiles of Julia Procula. This expression is distinguished from the previous one by having after it the name of the wealthy proprietor, and not of the poor slave who made the tile. A tile found at Trasobbia with the name of Cominus the slave of L. Cornelius Scipio rests on very uncertain grounds.^ While, in- deed, the potteries of private proprietors were under the direction of liberti and libertini, those of the Imperial estates were chiefly managed by slaves, from whose labours the Koman nobles de- rived so large a portion of their revenue. There were many private potteries in Gaul and Germany. One L. Valerius Labeius, or Labelleius, had a furnace near Saarbriicken, and his tiles have been found in many places on the Saar. The names of many private tile-makers have been found at Treves, one example has on it the stamp of the republic or colony.^ Several of the potters had evidently Gaulish names, as Yacasatus son of Brapiatus,^ Dicetus and others. Fidenatis was found on a tile at Zulpich.* The tiles often had initial letters only, as, T.P.F.A., T.P.F.C, T.P.F.P., on those at Rodmanton, in Glou- cestershire. Often the name of the master only occurs, as, Armarius, Sicinnus on tiles found at Vienna, and Apronianus on those of Sistell in Croatia.^ The work itself was called earthenware, ojpus figlinum, or pot-work, ojpus doliare ; and, in the contracted form of either ojpus or doliare. Such work is always found accompanied with the names of freed- men or slaves. The Imperial slaves have two names, those of private individuals only one; but the liberti had three names. Such names as Arabus, Arestius, Modestus, Tertius, Zosimus, are clearly servile. In some cases, the form fecit is substituted for (ypus ; but in all instances the makers were of inferior condition. A regent of France might amuse himself with making glass, and ' Fea, Misc. Ciit., I. p. cxiv. ] * Steiner, ii. 187, 287. 2 Steiner, iii. 27. * Seidl., Chronik d. Arch. Funde, 8vo. ' Jannseu, Mus., p. 151, tab. xxvii. Vicuna, 1846. n. 230. i 483 ROMAN POTTERY. Pabt IV. a German Emperor with compounding sealing-wax, without the loss of the respect of their subjects ; but a Boman historian cites, as an instance of the degraded taste of Commodus, that in his youth he had amused himself with making cups of earthenware.^ *' Let him who made it, and who belongs to Cneius Domitius Amandus, prosper," is stamped on one remarkable tile. Some- times the work is stated to come from particular potteries, without mentioning the potter. Some of the potters, indeed, impressed mottoes on their tiles, as utamur felices, "may we use happily," " Fortune who brings back is to be worshipped," and " the Constantinian age." Sometimes a wish is stamped even on grave-tiles, as utifelix vivas, "may you live happy," late in the Roman Empire. Only a few of the tiles have inscriptions indicating the places for which they were destined. This is particularly the case with those employed for military purposes, and these probably had a double use. First, they showed that they were made by the soldiers, thus pointing out that in the legions, as in modern armies, there were many soldiers acquainted with handicraft trades, and the tile-potters of one of the legions are men- tioned at Hooldorn.^ Secondly, they prevented the tiles being stolen or removed, and were thus impressed with the Boman broad arrow of the public property. The inscriptions were also stamped by the decurio of the artificers or potters, whose names are occasionally found with that of the legion, one Julius Mar- tialis of the 6th legion being mentioned at Aix-la-Chapelle, and Eenatus at Hooldorn.^ An iron typarium of the 3rd cohort of the Vindelicii has been found, and one of the 13th or double legion, with the D.L., the initials of the decurio of the legion who affixed it. The inscriptions record the legions with their names either in initials or entire, the cohorts and the ala^, some- times with the names of the decurion of artificers by whorji they were made, as Julius Sempronius, Helvius Morans, Julius Mar- tialis, Secundus Vitalis of the 4th and 5th legions. They are sometimes accompanied by fecit or figulis} Tiles so stamped have been found at Xanten and Nimeguen. At Rome, indeed, there was no necessity for the legionaries themselves making tiles and bricks ; and, accordingly, one '^1. Lanipii ]ius, Vit. Commodi, ^ ^ Steiner, Cod., 174, 276. init. 1 < Ibid., II. 174. ' Steiner, Codex Inscr. Rom., ii. 276. Chap. I. LKGIONAUY STAMPS. 487 Sextus Attius Silvamis appears to have supplied the camp. The cLxy he obtained from the estate of Umidius Oppius. The actual maker was a freedman, who bore the name of L. Silvinus Helpi- dianus. The sacellum, or shrine, of the Augusti, which held the standards and eagles of the Pra3torians, seems to have been roofed, or partly constructed of tiles from the potteries of Panis- cus, Hermetianus, and Urbicus. A few tiles from the Via Salaria, had only on them Castrum, or camp. Same fragments of tiles or bricks, evidently the seinilateres, or half-bricks, of Vitruvius, dug up on the site of the Post-office in London, were impressed with the letters P P. BE. LON. (see plate on p. 472), perhaps denoting the residence of the Eoman Propraetor in Britain.^ Still more interesting are the inscriptions stamped on the tiles relating to the legions and other military divisions stationed throughout the provinces of the vast empire. These are chiefly found in their graves, camps, and quarters. They contain the number and titles of the legions, and mark the limits of Koman conquest. The route of the thirty legions has been traced through Germany ; and in Britain an examination and comparison of these tiles show the distribution of the military force, and the change of the quarters of the different legions which held the island in subjection. Some legions and cohorts worked more than others. The stamps are long labels, tesserae, lunes, circles, in one instance surrounded by a laurel crown. These are seldom circular like those of the imbrices and flange tiles, but are in shape ^ of a foot, an ivy-leaf or amphorae, or oblong, with the letters in relief, sharply impressed, probably with a metallic die. The tiles of the first legion have been found at Mayence, Yoorburg, and Wiehelhof Nimeguen ; of the second at Ems, Darmstadt, Obernburg, Hooldorn, and Caerleon; of the 3rd in Scotland ; of the 4th at Mayence ; the 5th in Scot- land, at Baden, Cleves and Nimeguen ; the 6th at the last place, Neuss, Darmstadt, Windisch, Augst, and Birten ; the 7th at Ko- denkirchen and Aix-la-Chapelle, Xanten ; the 8th atNiederbieber, Birten, Mayence, Butzbach, Friedberg, Baden, Hoddesdorf; the 9th at Baden and York ; the 10th at Caer, Ehyn, Yoorburg, Nimeguen, Hooldorn, Yienna, and Jerusalem ; it had been sent to Low^er Germany by the Emperor Didius Julian. The tiles of the 11th are found at Kloten, Friedberg and Windisch; of ^ Mr. Eoach Smith, Collectanea, i. p. 143 ; 111. Rom., Lond. p. 31. - Arnetli. Hypocaustum, 4to, Wien, 1856, Taf. iii. 488 KOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. the 12th at Mayence; of the 13th at the same place, PetroneUi, Zahlbach, and Baden ; the 14th at Durmagen, Petronelli, Nidd, Mayence, Wiesbaden ; the 15th at Petronelli and Hooldorn ; the 16th at Neuss; the 17th at Voorburg ; the 18th at Vetera; the 19th at Xanten ; the 20th at Nimeguen and Chester; the 21st at Mayence, Xanten, and Kloten ; the 22nd at Oberros- bach, Mayence, Seligenstadt, Yielbrunn, Breuberg, Hofzedl, Waldiirn, Coblentz, Bonn, Ellen, Hooldorn, Cleves, Darmstadt, Bingen, Baden, Nidd, Kuckingen, Wiesbalen, Marienfels, He- dernheim, Mannheim, Hochst, with the names of the brick- makers, Quintus and Sempronius ; the 23rd at Xanten, Stock- stadt, Hoheberg; the 24th at Breuberg. The 30th legion was at Hooldorn, Ximeguen, Cleves, Rodenkirchen, Aix-la- Chapelle, Xanten.^ Besides these were a legio Cisrhenana on the right bank of the Rhine, and a Transrhenana on the left bank, tiles of which have been found at Bonn. Each legion had its titles either in full or contraction, for which LEGr or LUG is used. This was followed by the number of the legion, as LEG I., the first legion, or the number and titles, as LEG CISRHEXANA, LEG I MIX, the 1st Minervian legion, legio jprima Minervia, LEG XII. F., *' the 12th thundering legion," legio duodecima fulminatrix. These names were derived from the exploits of the legions ; for example, the 13th legion, called gemina, or double, was supposed to be named Martia Valeria on account of its victories in Britain a.d. 62, and was stationed at Moguntiacum. It had fought under Drusus and Germanicus in A.D. 43, went to the Parthian war and was sent by Vitellius, A.D. 69, to Britain. Besides the legions there were cohorts which have left their names on tiles. \ The 1st Aquitan of veterans was in Hadrian's time,^ A.D. 124, at Arnsberg and Fried- berg. That of the Fidenates was at Ellen, the 1st Flavian Damascan at Friedberg. The 1st and 2nd of the Roman citizens were at Seligenstadt, the r)th and 26th of volunteer citizens, civea voluntarii, at Riegel and Baden ; the 2nd Rhsetian at Mt. Tanrus ; the 3rd Helvetian at Giesbergen, the 3rd Aquitan at Stockstadt, a 4th of Vindelicians at Frankfort, Wiesbaden, and Niederbieber, and the 3rd Dalmatian at Wiesbaden ; ^ a 2nd of Isaurians was at Kochendorf. In addition to these were the Vexillationes, the main body of which was at Nimeguen and Wiesveller, that of the * A list of legions is given, Orellius, ii. 83, 81 ; Stein., Codex, ii. 121 and foil. ' Rossell, Rom. Wiesbaden, p. 39. ' Steiner, Codex, i. 289; ii. 143. Chap. I. DEVICES. 489 army of Lower Germany was at Hooldorn, Vooiburg, and Nime- giien. Tiles of the army have been found at tlie last-mentioned site and Bonn, and of the British fleet, or marines, at Lynine and Dover. Sometimes a maker's name is added to that of the legion.^ Some tiles appear to have been numbered in the order in wliich they were to be built into the public works. A British Vexillation attached to the army of Lower Germany has also been discovered in Holland and on the lihine. Muny tiles have only initial letters of words inscribed upon them, and w4ien so contracted, it is always difficult, and often impossible, to guess what the inscriptions were intended to express.^ All that remains to be considered is the devices which accompany these stamps. The device occupies the centre as in a medal, and the inscriptions on the oval stamps are dis- posed on the outer circle running round it. A common orna- ment, or device, is a plain circle or ball, touching the inner edge of a larger circle at one point, thus giving the rest of the stamp a lunated shape. Sometimes the device is left out alto- gether. The devices are not numerous, nor is it always possible to discover the principle upon which they were adopted. They were, of course, the potter's seal, and he selected his devices, or coat-of-arms, as it may be termed, as he chose. Some can, however, be traced to their origin. One potter, named Aper or Boar, adopts that animal for his device ; another, called Hermes or Mercury, has a caduceus. Other devices represent a favourite deity, or some idea connected with the estate. Rome, of course, is found. The Caninian potteries had a star, in allusion to the dog-star. Divinities, animals, stars, crescents, palm branches, pine cones, crowns, &c., are among those found. It was the practice of the ancient world to use these emblems in various manners. The Ehodian and Cnidian potters placed them upon their amphorae, the maker of strigils on the handles of that instrument ; the mint-masters of Greece and of Rome in the consular times, introduced them upon the area of the coins issued during their tenure of office, and the potter followed the general rule. So interwoven was art in the mind of the ancients, and so dominant was the love of animal form, that the work of the potter was deemed incomplete unless he im- pressed his device upon it. Generally in the provinces the tiles ' Roach Smith, ii. 132. I 8vo, Vienna, 1846 ; Cedreniis, Annal. p. = Seidl, Chronik d. archaol. Fund., | 140. 490 EOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. had only the maker's name without any device or indication of consulate. Those at Avilia had only names, as Marcus Valerius Pastor, Tiberius Paosa Antoninus, Publius Kemigius Coxendicus, and others in contractions,^ or simply, as at Seligenstadt, Secun- danus, Pacatus, with the addition F for fecit, " made." Amongst the more remarkable inscriptions of the military tiles are those in the name of Fulvius Plautianus,^ the Praetorian prefect, and another with that of Publius Renatus, one of the milites a tegulis, or military tile makers.^ Inscriptions were often incised on tiles, with various memoranda : as, £^a?[endis] Junis Quartus laterclos Numero ec x iiiL " Quartus made 214 tiles on the Kalends of June;"* xvii Jcalendarum Junii dclxxii, *'672 on the 17th of the Kalends of June." ^ On another tile at Hummel- roth was inscribed, stratura tertia later culi cajpitulares num[ero\ leg. xxii.^ "In the third layer large tiles of the number of the 22nd legion." One found in Hungary had two lines in a quasi-iambic metre : Senem severum semper esse condecet ; Bene debet esse puer qui discit bene,'' " An old man ought to be always grave ; He ought to be a good boy who learns well." Names incised were found on those of Sabaria in Hungary,^ as Tertius, Kandidus, Verna, and others ; and in Germany some with the consulships of a Cornelius Amuliuus 'and Aufidins Pronto, a.d. 199 ; Flavins Aper and Alb. Maximus, a.d. 206 ; of Aurelius Pompeianus and Q. Lollianus Avitus, A.D. 209 ; and of Vettius Modestus and Probus, A.D. 228.^ Idle boys often appear in the brick-fields to have scratched the alphabets on the soft clay; besides the instances, part of a late Greek alphabet is incised on a tile found in the amphitheatre at Hadria.^" The use of terra-cotta in architecture wa§ most extensive for capitals and columns, bases of columns, sills and frames of windows, the crowning portions of cornices, and gutter spouts were made of this material. -^^ The corbels which supported the * For a list of these, Fumuletti, pp. 451-460. 2 Orellius, i. 45. 3 Steiuer, Codex, ii. 290. * Jannsen, een Eomenisclie Tegel; Steiner, ii. 249. * Jannsen, Nieuwe Ontdeckungen ; Steiner, 1. c. « Steiner, ii. 390. ^ Paur, Sitzgb. d, Philosoph. Hist. Class d. K. Akad. d. Wiss., xiv. 133 f. * Maasman, Tab. Ccr., p. 56. ^ Jahrb. d. Ver. AlterthUm. im Rheinl. ii. 81. ^^ Bocchi, antico teatro scoperto in Hadria, 4to, Ven. 1739, tab. xi. ^^ Seroux d' Agincourt, Recueil, p. 78. Some of the columns and windows of this material were found outside the gate of St. John Lateran, and in tlie valley of the Fountain of Egeiia ; cf. also D'Agincourt, Histoirc de I'Art Architect., PI. xii. xx. Chap. I. SPOUTS AND FRIEZES. 491 cornices were also made of the same, either moulded or else stamped out of mould. Indications of the use of terra-cotta corbels occur in a lararium at the entrance of the house of the Faun, and in the fragments discovered amidst the ruins of the buildings at Pompeii. Some of the wall paintings in which interiors are represented, also show cornices supf)orted appa- rently by figures of terra-cotta, which have been painted entirely in accordance with the mural decorations. Between the columns were suspended masks and lieads of terra-cotta, called clypea^ painted and decorated and suspended by long cords, in the same manner as lamps are in religious edifices at the present day. On some of the Greek vases similar objects, oscilla, are seen suspended from the boughs of trees, along with tablets or paintings, jpinahes. The gutter spouts under the ridge tiles were a very decorative and interesting part of terra-cotta archi- tecture.^ The most ordinary form of these spouts was a lion's head, which is constantly seen in fountains, and which is found on the walls of the bath at Ostia and at Pompeii, moulded in salient relief. Sometimes the whole fore-part of a lion is sub- stituted, with a trough placed below the feet for the water to flow out. The head and the fore-parts of dogs,^ and comic and tragic masks, whose open, shell-shaped mouths, conchw, were particularly adapted for this purpose, were sometimes used, and also female heads.^ These objects are generally of the same piece as the gutter tile, and were stamped out of moulds. Yet, after all, spouts of this description must have been a very im- perfect contrivance, and disagreeable beyond measure to pedes- trians in the streets. Terra-cotta ornaments were also used largely in the interior and exterior decoration of houses, a custom which probably arose from the imperfect knowledge possessed by the ancients of the uses of gypsum, especially in ornamental work ; hence they substituted terra-cotta for such purposes. Bas-reliefs of terra-cotta, antefixa,^ formed the deco- rations either of the impluvium^ of the house, or else went round the exterior. They were formed of flat slabs, about 1 Due de Luynos, Metaponte, pi. vii. at Musama, Bull., 1850, p. 41. "^ Cf. d'Agiucourt, PI. xxix. ; Histoire | * " Antefixa, quae ex opere fiu:ulino do lArt, XX. ; Marquez, Dell' ordine tectis adflguntur sub stillicidio." — Dorico ricerche, 8vo, Romse, 1803; and : Festus, voce. Boni, Littera, 8vo, 1805; Guattani, ' ' Festus, voc. Impluvium. Varro, de Mon. Ined., 4to, 1805, p. 108. LL. 4. "' Three masks of torra-cotti found 492 KOMAN POTTEEY. Part IV. eighteen inclies in length and nine inches wide, and were deco- rated with a variety of subjects. The style of art is bold and vigorous, and the slabs were evidently cast in a mould, although in some instances they were apparently retouched before they were transferred to the kiln. Slabs entirely moulded are of much rarer occurrence, but tliey exhibit a njuch higher artistic feeling and freedom. Such is the bas-relief of an Endymion in the British Museum (T. 428) ; the hair is fine, and so deeply cut that it could not have been delivered from any mould. Circular holes are left in them for the plugs by which they were attached to the woodwork or to the masonry. These plugs were generally leaden, and had a countersunk flat head. They were painted after they were fixed. The paste of which they were made is of various qualities, often coarse and mixed with a volcanic sand, and of a red or yellow colour. Their thickness is from 1 to I^ or 2 inches thick. Traces of a leucoma or coating, and of colour, are found on them. No great variety of subjects occurs ; but the treatment, which is essentially Roman, exhibits illustrations chiefly borrowed from mythology, such as the birth of Jupiter, who is cradled by the Corybantes ; the Giganto- machia ; the birth of Bacchus, the thiasos of the god, especially that in which he is supported by the satyr Comus ; Pan ; the Tritons and Nereids ; Neptune, Apollo Musagetes ; the dances of the Spartan Virgins at the statue of Minerva; Minerva and Tiphys fabricating the Argo, the Kentauromachia ; Theseus destroying the huge Eurytus ; Perseus, aided by Minerva, killing Medusa ; ^neas consulting the oracle of Apollo ; Machaon curing Anti- lochus ; Victory ; sacrifices ; Barbarian prisoners, and architec- tural ornaments. Some few slabs have be,en found which, in the false taste of the period, represent the land of the Pigmies, hippopotami browsing on the banks of the Nile, and gigantic cranes perched on the cottages of the diminutive race, who are navigating the river in boats. The friezes found in the Thermae of Antoninus had Herakles at the Hesperides, arabesques, and other subjects.^ As many of these slabs went to the formation of a large composition, they were numbered, in order to assist their arrangement.^ The subjects on these slabs are disposed in bas-reliefs on the flat surface, and their treatment is of two kinds. In the first sort the figures are grouped with large flat surfaces ' Fen, Misc. Crit., I. p. clxxi. * Campana, Antiche operc in plastica, to. Roma, 1842. Chap. I. COLOUR AND ART OF FRIEZES. 493 between them, in accordance with the later style of Greek art ; in the second, they are introduced as accessories to floral and scroll ornaments, forming centres from which these ornaments radiate. For the narrow slabs of cornice heads and basts in high relief, because more remote from the eye, were preferred ; panthers and Cupids, however, sometimes appear. The slabs are ornamental, with bands or cornices, in the shape of artificial flowers, or with the usual egg and tongue moulding above, while plain moulding and artificial ornaments occur below. The bas-relief is exceedingly high in the narrow bands and friezes destined for some of the architectural mouldinors, but in other instances it is flat and scarcely raised a quarter of an inch above the surface. The ornaments are very limited, consisting of egg and tongue, the antefixal ornament, and lilies. The treatment, although free, and in many cases noble, is essentially archi- tectural. These slabs are by no means choice specimens of ancient art, like those which decorated public buildings, but were intended merely as ornaments for private dwellings, or for sepulchres. All these ornaments, even when used externally, were coloured generally with pure colours, such as red, blue, and black ; while, in some instances, as in the decoration of the antefixa, green and yellow were used. In Greek edifices, it is probable that the painting was in wax, as mentioned by the pseudo-Dikaiarchos ; and some, indeed, of the Pompeian buildings appear to have been coloured in encaustic. These ornaments were probably not much later than the time of Severus. In some instances the name of the potter occurs upon them, as those of Annia Arescusana, and M. Antonius Epaphro- ditus. The bas-reliefs in the collection of the British Museum were found in a dry well, near the Porta Latina at Rome.^ In 1761, a subterraneous place, divided into many chambers, was discovered at Scrofano, about sixteen miles from Rome. The dome of the largest chamber was enriched with paintings in fresco, representing animals. The whole of the frieze below the dome was enriched with bas-reliefs in terra-cotta, which were fastened to the wall with leaden nails. Many tombs on the Appian Road, as well as the temple dedicated to Romulus, near the Circus of Maxentius, were ornamented in a similar manner with terra-cottas ; and there are several ancient cham- bers still visible in the neighbourhood of Rome, in which. ^ Taylor Combe, Descr. of Ancient Terra-Cottas, 4to, London, 1810, pp. vi. vii. 494 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. though the bas-reliefs have been long since removed, the places which they occupied are perfectly distinguishable. Similar slabs were discovered, forming a frieze round the four sides of a chamber of the house of the Caecilii, at Tusculum.^ Some found between the Porta Salaria and Pinciana were used for roofs, and stood considerably raised above the height of the roof, with a narrow gutter and a ridge, over which was placed an imbrex,^ and they were probably the monumenta testacea of the inscriptions. The subject of the potteries engaged the at- tention of some of the Koman writers on agriculture, for Yarro^ quotes the book of Hostilius Saserna, both father and son of the same name, which treated on the potteries. ' Campana, p. 31. ^ D'Agincourt, Recueil, pi. vii. • De Re Rustica, i. 2. (.^riAP. ir. S^'ATUES. 495 CHAPTER II. statues — Signa Tuscanica — Volcanius — Numa — Gorgasus — Cato — Possia and Arkesilaos — Size — Models — Sigillaria — Festival of Sigillaria — Fabric — Potters — Miscellaneous uses of pottery — Coiners' moulds — Crucibles — Toys — Lamps — Names — Parts — Shape — Age — Powers — Subjects — Great Gods — Marine deities — Hercules — Fortune — Victory — Foreign deities — Emblems — Poetical subjects — Fables — Historical subjects — Real life — Games of Circus — Gladiators — Animals — Miscellaneous subjects — Christian lamps — Inscriptions — Names of Makers — Of places — Of pottery — Of proprietors — Date of manufactures — Dedication to deities — Acclama- tions — Illuminations — Superstitions. In tlie earlier ages of Rome the laws and institutions, based without doubt upon the sentiments of the people, were un- favourable to the arts. Numa prohibited the deity being represented under the human form. Great men were indeed allowed to have statues, but not to exceed 3 Roman feet in height — a small size — and this privilege was not extended to females till much later. Most of the ancient statues of the Romans are of terra-cotta,^ a fact which is constantly alluded to by their writers.^ In the early days of the republic the fine arts were at the lowest ebb, all objects coming under this denomination being either imported from Greece, or procured from their more refined neighbours the Etruscans who cultivated the glyptic .'and plastic art with com- plete success. Hence the Romans purchased such statues as they required ; and these which appear to have been terra-cotta and called signa Tuscanica,^ adorned all the principal temples of their gods. The most celebrated works of republican Rome were made by the artists of Yeii, and those of the Yolscian Fregella? or the Etruscan Fregense. The celebrated quadriga made by Volcanius of Fregellae, which surmounted the pediment of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, which was treated with superstitious awe and considered one of the safeguards of the » Pliny, N. H., xxv. 12, 46. ' Ibid.; Muratori Thesaur., torn. ii. p. 237. 3 Ovid, Fasti, 1, 201-202; Propertius, Eleg., lib. iv. 1, 5; Juvenal, Satir., xi 1, 16; Seneca, Epistol., xxxi. ad fin.; Consolat. ad Helv., c. 10, 2. 496 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. Imperial city, shows the low state of the arts among the Romans.^ Nnma, however, ever attentive to the Roman arts and institutions, is said to have founded a corporation of potters.^ In B.C. 491, Gorgasus and Demophilos ornamented with bas- reliefs and terra-cotta figures the temple of Ceres at Rome. They were natives of Himera in Sicily, and their labours were probably rather of Greek, than Etruscan style, which was pre- vious to them. In the reign of Augustus the temple was burnt, and so great was the esteem in which the works of these old masters were held, that they were taken out ot the walls and framed in wood. They were of the Aiginsean style of art.^ It has been conjectured that the want of white marble in Italy, none being discovered till the Imperial times, caused the exten- sive use of terra-cotta.* The gradual conquest of Campania and of Greece Proper, which supervened after the fall of Etruria, unfolded to the eyes of the Romans a new school of art, and after the siege of Korinth the old terra-cottas fell into contempt and neglect. From this time the temples of the gods and the houses of the nobility became enriched and beautified with the spoils of Grecian art, in stone, marble, bronze, and terra-cotta. The artists of Greece hastened to pay their court to their new masters, and received great encouragement, in spite of the protests of the old conservative party of the aristocracy led by Cato. On the occasion of the attempt to abolish the Oppian law, which was in fact a sumptuary one for women, Cato, who was then consul, inveighed against the increasing luxury of the state, and espe- cially against the statues which conquest had brought in its train. " Hateful, believe me," says he, *' are the statues brought from Syracuse into this city. Already do I hear^too many who praise and admire the ornaments of Korinth and Athens, and deride the terra-cotta figures, antefixa,^ of the Roman gods. For my part, I prefer these propitious gods, and hope they will continue to be so if we allow them to remain in their places."® Towards the close of the republic, great w^orks continued to be exe- cuted in terra-cotta, and were much esteemed. The modellers, Possis and Arkesilaos, are cited by Varro,' and the former made » Pliny, N. H., x. xxv., c. 12. 45. 2 Servius ad Virgil. JEneid., vii. 188. 2 Tacit. Annal., ii. 49; Dio Cassius, 50, 10. * Hirt. Gesch. d. Bild. Kunst, s. 117, 123. ' "In a;de Concordise, Victoria, quae in culmine erat icta decussaque ad Vic- torias qn?e in antefixis erant." — Livy, lib. xxvi. ; Vitruvius, iii. c. 2. * Livy, xxxiv. c. 4. ' Plinv, xxxv. c. 12, 4.5. Shap. ir. {SIZE OF STATUES. 497 )r Julius Ca3sar a statue of Venus, which was highly prized, Uthough the artist had not completed it. Virgil's father was a potter in the neiglibourhood of Mantua ; and some of the remains of terra-cotta, extant in the museums of Europe, can be safely referred to the first century of our era.^ The two principal terra-cotta figures at Rome were, one of Venus Genetrix made at the expense of Julius Caesar, and another of Felicitas made by order of Lucullus.^ Few statues of any size in this material have escaped the injuries of time. In the regal days of Kome, Numa prohibited all statues above three feet high, a regulation probably agreeable to the practice of the neighbouring nations, and by no means favourable to the arts. At least there are few larg^e Etruscan figures. Of the large Roman figures known, one is the Torso, in the British Museum, the arms, legs, head, and extremities of which were mortised to it in another material in separate pieces. That such was tiie practice appears from the fable of Phaidros about Prometheus, who after he had made the human race out of clay, in separate pieces, having been invited to supper by Bacchus, on his return home applied the wrong limbs to the bodies.^ Four figures in this material found at Pompeii are larger than life. They represent an ^sculapius and Hygieia, and a male and female comedian. There is also a bust of Pallas, rather larger than life, with a buckler at the right side. Figures however of this size are of great rarity ;* one of the latest of the.^e terra-cotta figures, mentioned in ancient authors, is that of Cal- purnia, wife of Titus, one of the thirty tyrants, *' whose statue," says Trebellius Pollio/ " made of clay, but gilded, w^e still see in the temple of Venus." In the Vatican is a figure of Mercury of this material, about the size of life. Some figures, about three feet high, representing the Muses, an 1 some terminal busts of Bacchus, almost the size of life, used to decorate gardens, were found in the same well as the friezes near the Porta Latina. These were of the same coarse red material as the friezes. They are in the British Museum.^ It appears that tlie artist was obliged to make first a model * Seroux d'Agincourt, Recueil, p. 7. auratam." TriJler (Ob. Crit., I. 4, c. 6, ' Fliny, N. H., xxxv. c. 45. p. 328) reads "Argilla-eam." Winckel- ^ Phaidros, lib. iv. Fab. xiv. mann. Hist, de I'Ait, iii. p. 2.o6. < Winckelraann, Stor., ii. p. 273. \ « Ancient Terra-cottas in tlie British ^ VitaTiti, "Cujusstatuamin templo Museum, PI. 1 et seq. Veneris a;lhuc videmus Argolicam sed 2 K 498 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. in clay of the statues in bronze or marble whicb he intended to I execute. This process was, however, not very ancient, as Pliny states that it was first used by Lysistratos, the brother of Lysip- pos. Pasiteles, an artist of the time of Augustus, is stated by Pliny never to have made a statue except in this manner ; but the custom was by no means general. These sketches, called jproplasmata, were often much sought after, as they exhibited the full freedom of the artist's conception and style, and those of Arkesilaos, an artist of the period, fetched a high price. -^ The majority of figures were of small size, called sigilla or sigillariay and were used for votive purposes, or as toys, presents, and for the lararia. They represent all kinds of figures of gods, actors, aurigae, moriones or buifoons, dwarfs, portraits of Imperial personages, and philosophers, like those of Greece, but of coarser execution, and are found throughout the Koman Empire. Few specimens, indeed, have been discovered in Britain, and those found are of a coarse red clay.^ Some were found in the rubbish pits of Eichborough.^ More than 200 at a time have been discovered in France.* Small figures of the Gaulish goddess Nehalenia, having incised on them the name of Pistil lus, have been found at Autun, Dijon, and Semur.^ A very common type is a nude figure of a female seated in a chair, giving suck to two children, supposed to represent the Dese Matronae, or Matres. A manufactory of them was discovered some years ago at Hei- ligenberg, near Mutzig, on the Brusche. Many of these figures, in the British Museum, found in the neighbourhood of Lyons, are of a very white paste, and represent Mercury, Venus Ana- dyomene, and other figures. A great number of figures were probably prepared for the festival of the^ Sigillaria. This is particularly described by Macrobius, and like all the Eoman fetes was supposed to have had a mythic origin. Hercules, after the death of Geryon, and the capture of his cattle, was stated by tradition to have thrown from the Pons Sublicius, into the Tiber, the images of the companions whom he had lost in his wander- ings, in order that they should be carried by the sea to their native shores. The hypothesis of Macrobius is equally fanciful, for he thinks that candles were used by the Pelasgi, because the word ^^hos, or ]^'h6s, signified both man and light, and that ^ Clarac, i. p. 25. ^ Cf. that of Lidney Park, Lysons, Reliq. Britann. Rom., ii. xxix. 6. ^ Wright, The Celt, Roman, and Saxon, 12mo. London, p. 224. * Caumont, Oours, xxxviii. p. 222. 5 Leclerc, Arch. Celto-Rom., 4to, Paris, 1840, p. 28, PI. 7. Chap. II. SIGILLARIA. 499 oscilla, or masks of terra-cotta,^ were substituted instead of human lieads around the altar. "They keep," says Ausonius, "the festivals so called from the figures."^ Macrobius thus describes the Saturnalia. *'The Saturnalia were [originally] celebrated for only one day, on the fourteenth of the Kalends, but were afterwards prolonged to three. The celebration of the Sigillaria, which was added, extended the public pastime and the joy of the fete till the seventh day. It was called the Sigil- laria because sigilla, or little images,^ and other trifling gifts were sent about." Martial * alludes to many of these being of terra- cotta, which were either bought for joke, or by parents for their children in honour of Saturn. They probably alluded to the stone or image wdiich Khea gave the god to devour instead ot his children. The Saturnalia commenced on the 14th or 16tli of the Kalends of January, and were continued for three days. On the 12th of the Kalends of January, the feast of the Sigillaria commenced.^ All classes of society indulged in this festival. Hadrian, says his biographer, sent the Saturnalian and Sigillarian gifts even to those wlio did not expect them, or had no right to do so.® Commodus, when a child, gave them to his tutors as a mark of great condescension. The whole feast reminds us of Twelfth Night. Terra - cotta figures were also sold in the temples.' xllthough it is not possible to trace a succession of these small figures in the Imperial times, yet the age of the greater part of them is of the middle period of the empire. Some representing the Dese Matres just cited, are of the latest time of Paganism, when taste and knowledge had declined. Some were actual portraits of deceased persons.^ One of the most interesting if true of this nature is the small head discovered in the sepulchral chambers of the Cornelian family near the urn of Scipio Barbatus. Furnaces of Sigillaria had been found at Moulins and in the Yalley of Allier. A great number of moulds were found, many of which had scrawled upon them in cursive Latin on the outside, while the clay was moist, the names of the potters. Their names were Abudinos, Prisons, ^ Macrobius, Siitum., i. c. 11. 2 Idylla, XXV. 32. 1G32, p. 23. ' Plutarch in Libitina; Gerhard, 3 Saturn., lib. i. c. 10. ! Prodromus. * Lib., xiv. clxiv. clxvi. ; I. c. x., Into | ^ Seroux d'Agincourt, Recueil, PI. Saturnalicio. ! xvi. fig. 1. One of these heads was in ^ Itosinus, Autiq. Roiu., p. 295. { the Hertz's collection. •^ Spartianus, in vita, Lugd. Bat., '1 K 'Z 500 ROMAN rOTTERY. Part 1Y Nattus, Urbicus, Pistica, Belinns Greens, C. Cossus, M. Atilianus, Tiberius Silvani, Quintillus, Tritoguno, Julius, Camul[eiius], Severus, Coppios, Anctios, and Silvinus. The alphabet was ^ B C AMK<; HIKhM UKPrP f^<. TV. Some moulds had the word forma, mould, inscribed upon them. The figures were moulded in two down the middle, without arms, which were added while the clay was moist. One was kept as a master or store cast. The subjects were Venus, Abundantia, Ceres or Ari- adne, warriors, figures in a higa} Small clay figures from 6 to 9 inches high, of a fine white pipe-clay, almost resembling plaster, have been found in London. They were cast in two longitudinal moulds, and then fixed upon a circular pedestal. The fact of Venus Anadyomene being a common figure suggests that they were placed in the apartments of women, and a female figure with two children, probably Latona, also occurs. A personifi- cation of Fecundity was also found in the temple of the goddesses of the Seine, Dem Sequanse, near the sources of tliat river, all of which types indicate that they had relation to love.^ A few notices of terra-cotta figures ^ are found in the Latin authors. Martial speaks of a deformed indecent figure of a man, perhaps Clesippus or Ctesippus, which was so horrid that he thought Prometheus must have made it when intoxicated during the Saturnalia,* and of a mask of a red-haired Batavian, the conceit of the potter.^ The makers of Sigillaria do not appear to have deemed them of such importance as to place their names upon them. The Roman artists followed the same process as the Greeks. The figures were made upon a stick, crux et stipes,^ with moist clay, and afterwards baked. As in^ the case of Greek figures, they are all made from a mould. " You will imitate," says Horace,' "in wet clay whatever you choose." From these figures moulds were taken in a more porous clay, which produced a succession of other figures.^ The torso was often a separate piece. D' Agin court finds some difficulty in accounting for the mode in which the terra-cotta figures were hollowetl. » Tudot, Collection de figurines, en ^ por sigillaria, D'Agincourt, PI. x. argile de I'Epoque Gallo-Romaine avee les noms des c^ramistes qui les ont ! ^ Epig., xiv. 176. xiii. 1, 2, 3 ; xiv. 1, 3 ; xv. 14 ; xvi. 3. executes, 4to, Paris, 1859. 2 Baudet, H. M., Rapport sur les decouvertes faites aux sources de la Seine, Paris, 1845. 5 Ibid., 182. ® Tertullian, Apologet, 12. ^ Horace, lib. ii. ; Ep. 1, 8. * Festus, in Rutumena, 6. CriAP. II. MISCELLANEOUS ARTICLES. 501 Although the names of makers are constantly found upon all kinds of lamps, vases, tiles, friezes, and mouldings, especially those of terra-cotta., the sigillaria are not found marked by them. Passeri ^ indeed has engraved a figure of Minerva, on which is stamped or impressed the name Ulpianus, probably the name of its maker — but as this figure has two wings or handles behind, it probably belonged to a lamp, and the inscriptions might even have been put on by its possessor. The names of the Gallo- Eoman potters at Moulins have been just given. The maker of these small figures was called a sigillarius? There was also a potter called signarius.^ Although among the Greeks the potter, as a manufacturer and often an artist, held a respectable position, the social condition of the Roman potter was low. He was generally a slave, sometimes a barbarian, while the masters of factories or shops were only liherti, or freedmen. Sometimes the potter appears to have worked on the estate of a wealthy proprietor, who received through his name the profits accruing from the establishment. The fullest account of the potters will be found in the description of tile and lamp makers, who formed a numerous class. It is impossible to enumerate all the purposes to which the Romans applied terra-cotta ; but some are so remarkable as to deserve a special notice. Such are the cages employed to fatten dormice,* called saginaria, gliraria,^ in order to prepare them for the palates of Roman epicures ; and the cones of heated terra-cotta placed before hives, in order to burn the butterflies, and other insects which attacked the bees, called milliaria testacea. There are specimens of both these objects in the Museum of Naples.® Bees, too, seem to have been hived in terra-cotta amphorae,' a use of the material peculiar to antiquity. Toys, as among the Greeks, were also made of this material, and called cre^undia and sigillaria, from their being stamped in moulds. A toy in shape of a horse or mule carrying two am- phorae in panniers has been figured.® Small altars, which have been found, are supposed to have been dedicated in the lararia to the lares, for the holding of lamps or the burning of incense.* > IIL tab. 84. 2 Orellius, ii. 165. | « Verde, 1. c, No. 486), p. 140. 3 Ibid. 265 ; cf. 42, 79, 81, 82. i ^ Porphyry, Ant. Nymph., p. 261. 4 Verde, Guide pour le Musee Koyal j * Cireo and De la Venelle, Ant. d. Bourbon, Naples, 1833, p. 114, n. ; pp. ; Chatelet, Ixvii. 516-518. j ® D'Agincourt, Recueil, xxi. 1, 3; * Varro, lib. iii. c. xiv. 1 xxii. 9, p. 53. 502 IIOMAN POTTERY. Taut IV. Of terra-cotta were also made the little money-boxes wliicli the successful charioteers or athletes carried about, to receive the donations of the spectators of the circus. One of these of a conical shape, like an ancient furnace, was found on the Aventine liills.^ On one side is the victor, in the dress of the auriga of tlie third century ; on the other, the words Ael(m) Max[im.Si). A second had a head of Hercules ; and a third. ^ is of an oval form, like a snuff-box, and has upon it a head of Hercules. It was found upon Mount Coelius, with another, on which was Ceres. A fourth was discovered in the baths of Titus, in 1812, filled with coins of the time of Trajan.^ The three figures on the front of this were explained as the tutelary gods of the Capitol. It had on the outside a branch and horse.* A fifth was found at Vicliy. A few tickets, or tesserae, used for admission to the games of the ampliitheatre and the circus, were also occasionally made of red ware, intermediate between terra-cotta and stone ware. On them were either impressed or incised the number of the cuneus and the steps, such as, V iiii. : — meaning, the 4th division of the 5th row, or cuneus, or else a representation of the animals exhibite 1. On the reverse of one with such a representation is the letter A., and on the obverse an elephant, showing that it was used for the admission to a spectacle in which these beasts were shown.^ Terra-cotta moulds for making false coins have been discovered, of a paste composed of fine clay, containing the fossil infusoria of the genus Navicula. Other moulds are of a dark red clay, and as hard as brick.^ The clay was first worked up to form a tablet or lozenge, flat on both sides, and about one-eiglith of an inch thick. A piece of coin was pressed into this pillet on each side, so as to leave ah impression on the clay. The clay was cut round this, and a triangular notch was made at one side of the clay. The pillets or moulds intended for the ends were impressed on one side only. The moulds were then piled in rouleaux or stacks, one above another, with the obverse and reverse of the coins adjusted so as to give out proper casts, and the notches inside, to allow the metal to flow through. 1 D'Agincomt, Recueil, PI. xx. pp. 50-52. 2 Tom. iv. PI. Iiii. 3, 4, p. 157. ^ Fea, Dissertation sur la pretendue Statue de Pompee, p. 12. * A. de Romanis, Terme di Tito, fo. Roniffi, 1822, pp. 25, 50-51 ; B. Smith, Collectanea, vi. p. 63. * Alessi, Lettera sulle gliiande di piombo, 8vo, Palermo, 1815. It is doubt- ful if this is really an ancient terra-cotta. * On the subject of these moulds, see Caylus, i. 286, cv. ; Hiver, Eev. Num., 1837, p. 171 ; Poey d'Avant, de Melle, Rev. Num., 1837, p. 165; Rev. J. P. Reade, Num. Ohron., vol. i. p. 161. |d.,.p. ir. MOULDS. 503 The greatest number of piles or rouleaux placed together was eight, but there were often not more than three. The whole Pjwas then luted externally, to prevent the liquid metal from escaping ; and a kind of small basin or funnel was made at tlie top of tlie mould to facilitate the pouring in and circulation of the liquid mass, which was poured into a channel of a star-shape, . formed by the union of the triangular notches. How the coins were extracted is not known ; in all probability the external terra- cotta luting was removed, and the jet of the mould was pared ; after which the coins were washed with tin or silver. Such is the apparatus for coining found in Koman stations in France and England. In the former country such an apparatus was found in an ancient building, close to the public baths at Fourvieres, near Lyons ; and in another in the park of the castle of Damery, near Epernay, built on the ruins of Bibe, the first station on the I military road between Rheims and Beauvais. In the latter place were found two thousand pieces of base silver coin, three-fourths of the Emperor Posthumius, and the rest coins of the Emperor : Pliilip and his successors ; also several of the Constantines, and [' of all the principal imperial mints. An apparatus and thirty- nine moulds were found here, comprising the types of Caracalla, the elder Philip, and Posthumius. Another of 130 moulds were found in a large jug at Bernard. They commenced with Trajan, A.D. 98, and terminated with Julia Mammaea a.d. 322, and appear to have been hastily placed in the jar by forgers.^ The dates of these moulds range from the time of Severus, who first adulte- rated the silver currency, till Diocletian, who restored it. They were thus made wdien the empire was distracterl with civil dis- sensions, rapid revolutions, and hostile camps ; and it is very diffi- cult to decide whether they were the work of forgers of the public money, or intended for the issues of usurpers, who, being removed a considerable distance from the capital, were unable to fill their military chests except with cast coins. At the Lingwell Gate, in Yorkshire, where several of these moulds were found, they were made of the clay and sand belonging to the spot. Similar moulds from Egypt, in the British Museum, of a deep brick-red colour, are quite dissimilar from the moulds of the Lingwell Gate, and are probably made of Egyptian clay,^ as are others of the age of Constantino. In the sepulchres of the Romans, ' Baudry, F., Memoire sur les Fouilles j are given in D'Agincourt, Reeueil, Archeol. do Bernard, Vendee, 8vo., 1859, xxxiv. p. 90 ; Ficoroni, Piombi Autichi, ^ Others of these false dies for coins i torn. i. pi. cv. No. 2. 504 EOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. several dolls of terra-cotta, with movable arms and legs, are found, like those of bone and ivory which occur more frequently,^ especially in the cemeteries of a late period, and of Christian children.^ Horace mentions them as made of wood, so also Apuleius,^ and M. Antoninus applies to them the Greek term of neurospasts.* Other toys were also made of this material, such as the astragalus, or knuckle bone,^ latrunculi, fruits, carts, animals, and other objects. Lamps, lucernse, often were made of terra-cotta, of a fine clay, and are one of the most interesting products of the art. Several are covered with a thin coating of slip, or silicious glaze, and consequently belong to the lustrous pottery, com- posed of a tender paste. The later lamps are of the red Roman ware. As the greater number, however, are of terra-cotta, the general description of their manufacture, subjects, and epigraphs, will be given here, and the other kinds referred to in their respective places.^ The Greek name for a lamp was lychnos, and for the stand in which the lamp was placed, lychniichus, lamp-holder. The lamp lucerna, says Yarro, was afterwards invented, so called from luXy light, or beaming, the Greeks call it lychnos? The parts of the lamp are the nozzle, or the nose, nasus, the handle ansa, and the upper part discus, in which was a hole for pouring in the oil, anciently plugged with a stopper. The word myxa, the French meche, which was applied to the wick, gave the name dimyxos, trimyxos, ^olymyxos, to lamps with two, three, or many nozzles, they were also called hilychnis. Lamps are sometimes circular, with a spout and handle, some- times elliptical or shoe-shapel. The Greeks applied to terra- cotta lamps the term trochelatos,^ or made on the lathe, although. * Seroux d'Agincourt, Eeciieil, p. 91 ; 168. a Silenus lamp ; kl. Schrift v. III. Caylus, Recueil, torn. iv. pi. Ixxx. No. 1, s. 3U7, new-ytar's lamp ; Walz., in p. 259. ^ Boldetti, Osservazioiii sopra i cime- terii, 1720, p. 49G. Pauley, Eeal Encyclopedie der classi- schen Altertbumswisseii. 4 Bd. 1846, s. 1162 ; F. Licctus, De lucernis antiquo- 3 De Mundo, 8vo, Franc, 1621, p. 70 ; rum, libii vi. fo Udin., 1652 ; P. Santi cf. Aristotle, De Mundo, 1. c. \ Bartoli, Le antiche lucerne sepolcrall In Vita, lib. vi. c. 2. { figurate et designate ed intagliate nelle DAgincourt, Recueil, xxiii. ii. j loro forme, fo. Roma, 1691 ; Lucernse fictiles Musei Passerii, folio, Pisauri, 1739-43-51 ; Le Lucerne d'Ercolano, 5 ^ Oct. Ferrarius, de veterum lucernis sepulchralibus ; Grsevius, Ant. Rom , xii. 998. Veterum lucernse sepulchrales de- | fo. Nap., 1792 ; Seroux d'Agincourt, lineatse a P. S. Bellorio, cum observa- Recueil, p. 63 et seq. tionibus G. P. Bellori ex Italico, Romse, ' ? L. L., v. 34. 1691-1729; Gronovius, Tlies., t. xii., » Aristophanes, Eccl., 1. 1702 ; Bottiger, Amalthaea, Bd. iii. s. Chap. IF. EARLY LAMPS. 505 already stated, they were obviously made in a mould. Those ed in dining-rooms, tricliniares, generally hung by chains from le ceiling,^ candelabra being only used to hold lamps in tem- les. Others found in sepulchres, sejmlchrales, were placed in a shoe-shaped stand, fastened with a spike into the wall. The cham- ber lamps, cuhiculares, burnt all night.^ The invention of lamps is attributed to the Egyptians, who thought that they were first fabricated by Yulcan, that Minerva supplied the oil, and that Prometheus lit them;^ but no Egyptian lamps of terra-cotta earlier than the Koman Empire have been found. Lamps are lirst mentioned by Pherekrates, the Athenian poet, who flourished in the reign of Alexander the Great. We find no further men- tion of them till the age of Augustus, and none of the unglazed terra-cotta lamps are earlier than that period. The principal parts of these lamps are the cup or hollow portion, hrater, the upper part, discus, and the handle, ansa, behind. The discus has a hole, infundihulum. Round the krater is the limhus, which is a decorated border of floral or other ornaments.'* The hole, by which the oil \vas poured into the lamp had a movable cover, or stopper, which is rarely found. This, which was an inch or an inch and a quarter in diameter, was stamped in a separate mould, and is generally ornamented with the subject of a head in full face. A fictile lantern was found in the pyramid of Cestius. The wick, myxa, was made either of tow, stujppa, or rush, scirpus, of amaranth, amaranthus, or papyrus. The pin or needle with which the wick was trimmed was sometimes placed in a hole at the side. The earliest lamf)s have an open circular body, with a curved projecting rim to prevent the oil from spilling, and occur both in terra-cotta and also in the black glazed ware found in the sepulchres of Nola. Many have a projecting hollow pipe in the centre, in order to fix them to a stick on the top of a candela- brum. These lamps have no handles. They may have been placed in the sacella or lararia, and were turned on the potter's wheel. The shoe-shape is the most usual, with a round body,^ a projecting spout or nozzle having a hole for the wick, and a ^ Virgil, Mn. I., 730. < ^ Passeri, Lucernae, folio, Pisauri, 2 Martial, xiv. 39, x. 38. For the ! 1739, p. 4. mode of using lamps, see Bottiger, Die I "* Pollux, Onomasticon, x. 27. Silenus lampen, Amalthaea, iii. p. 168, j * See the work of Kenner, Die Anti- Ac. ; Becker, Charicles, ii. p. 215 ; ken Thonlampen, Svo, 1858. Gallus, ii. p. 209. 5'J6 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. small annular handle, which is more or less raised. Some of the larger lamps, and especially the Greek ones, have a flat triangular handle, which is sometimes elaborately ornamented in bas-relief with figures, the helix ornaments, dolphins, and other subjects. Another kind of handle was in the shape of the crescent moon, and was very com- mon in bronze. In a few instances it was in the form of the neck of a vessel. The bust of the god Serapis was a much more unusual form. A singular variety of lamp, well adapted for a table, was fitted into a kind of small altar, the sides of which were orna- mented with reliefs. Several, however, from their unusual shape, may be con- sidered as fancy ware, the upper part, or the whole lamp, being moulded into the resemblance of some object. Such are the lamps in the British Museum in the shape of a female head surmounted by a flower, or of the head of a negro or Nubian with open jaws, through which the wick was inserted. Some elegant little lamps were in the shape of a foot, or pair of No. 187.— Limp. Crescent-shaped handle. No. 18?.— Lamp, with bust of Serapis. Chap. IT. SHAPES OF LAMPS. 507 feet, shod in the mih'tary boot, caliga, and studded with nails. A bull's head was a favourite device. Some lamps in the shape f^ a pigeon are of a very late fabric. A lamp for two wicks, in le collection just referred to, is in the shape of tlie wine-skin of d Silenos, whose head is seen above, and tlirough whose gaping ws it was fed. Another is also of a comic nature, having a satyr's head in front. It was for many wicks.^ Some are in the shape of tall jugs, the upper part being the lamp. In this case the front and sides are ornamente 1 with figures in bas-relief, such as Apollo,^ or the triform Hekate, one figure on each side.^ Lamps admitted many fanciful shapes, as the helmet of a gladiator, a rat and a snail.* Most of these lamps appear to have been made between the age of No. 189. — Group of Lnmps (altar-shapod), with many spouts, and ordinarj' one for one wick. Augustus and that of Constantine. The style, of course best at the earlier period of the empire, degenerated under the later emperors, such as Philip and Maximus, and becomes at last Byzantine and bad. Most lamps had only one wick, but the light they afforded must have been feeble, and consequently some have two wicks, the nozzles for which project beyond the body of the lamp. In the same manner were fabricated lamps of three, five, and seven wicks. If more were required the nozzles did not project far beyond the body of the lamp, which was then moulded in a shape adapted for the purpose, and the favourite one was a ' Seroux d'Agincourt, Recueil, pi. xxxvii. xxxviii. 2 Pnsseri, i. tav. Ixix. ' Passeri, i. tav. xcvii. iii. Ixxvii. '• De Witte, Rev. Num. N. S., iii. p. oG. 508 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. galley. Sometimes a conglomeration of small lamps was manu- factured in a row, or in a serrated shape, which enabled the purchaser to obtain what light he required ; still the amount of illumination must have been feeble. As many as twenty wicks are iound in some lamps. The greater number average from three to four inches long, and one inch high ; the walls are about one-eighth of an inch thick, and the circular handles not more than one inch in diameter. Some of the larger lamps, however, are about nine inches or a foot lono^, with handles eio^ht or nine inches high. The paste of some lamps is white, chalky, and easily scratched ; of others, hard and clayey ; of a few, of a bluish-black colour. Eed is, however, the prevalent tone, either owing to the earth called riibrica, or ruddle, by Pliny, or to the use of bullock's blood, which washes out.^ The lamps found at Kome on the Yia Nomentana, celebrated for its potteries, are of a white colour.^ The Neapolitan lamps are of a dingy brown, or yellow. Those made of earth from the Vatican hill are red.^ The lamps from Cumae are also made of red clay,* and those found at Arretium and Perusia are of the same colour.^ The lamps of Pesauri are both red and white clay, from the fundus Accianus. The Etruscan are of black clay, the Egyptian of red, brown, or black clay, full baked. Many of the lamps from the vicinity of Naples are of an ashen or yellow clay. Those from Greece are remarkably pale and pure, and the lamps found in France and England if not im- ported from Kome, which appears to have been the emporium of the trade, are generally of a pale white or yellowish clay. They were manufactured by means of moulds, which were modelled from a pattern lamp, in a harder a^d finer clay than tlie squeeze or pattern. The latter was divided into two parts, adjusted by mortices and tenons, the lower part forming the body of the lamp, the upper the decorated superficies. The clay was pressed in with the fingers, by a potter called the figulus sigillator,^ or stamper. The two portions were joined while the clay was moist, and pared with a tool, and a small hole was pierced for introducing the oil. They were then dried and sent to the kiln, and baked carefully at a not very high temperature. ' Livy, lib. iii. dec. 1. 2 Passeri, xiii. xiv. speaks of the red clay of this locality. * Passeri, xiv. ^ The fragiles patellae of the Vatican ^ Passeri, x. " Dis manibus Aga- are mentioned by Juvenal, Sat. vi. 343. tobolus, Lucii filius Pyrrhus figulus '* Passeri, xiv.; Martial, xiv. Ep. 112, sigillator;" Orellius, 4191. Chap. IT. IMOULDS OF LAMPS. 5U9 No. 190. — Mould of a Lamp (lower yart). )ine moulds were prepared- with considerable taste and good >rkmanship, and as the same type was used by difterent potters I'ho made lamps, lucernarii^ appears tliat they were )ld ready made, and that le potter merely added his name. The simplest kind of lamps, and which may be considered of the earliest and best style, have their subjects in the centre, which is concave, like a votive clipeus, which it appears intended to represent. The subject is only surrounded with a plain bead or moulding. Such lamps are probably of the best period of the empire, and may be traced down to the time of Philip.^ They generally have simple semi-oval nozzles and moulded handles, and are distinguished by their simple circular bodies. In some cases the moulding is divided, leaving a channel to the neck.^ These lamps have never more than one hole for the oil. Such specimens as have not handles, generally have the part for the wick elongated, and ornamented either with mouldings resembling the Amazonian pelta, sometimes seen combined with architectural flowers on those vvith handles, or else the nozzle seems intended for an ivy leaf, flower, or pelta. On some of the later lamps, the borders are much more elabo- rate ; egg and tongue mouldings, wreaths of laurel, bunches of grapes, and oak leaves, are distributed round the subject ; or the acanthus leaf, and antefixal ornament, a trefoil flower or leaf, an egg and tongue border, and wreaths appear. The number of figures is generally small, it being contrary to the principle of ancient art to crowd a work with minute figures and acces- sories. Many lamps have no subject, the majority only one figure ; and two, three, and more figures are rare in the ratio of the increasing number. Some of the largest lamps, indeed, have several figures, but such are very rare. Nor are lamps impressed with distinct and well-preserved subjects common ; only a few of this description can be selected out of the hundreds that are found. Many are of grotesque and humorous workman- 1 Orellius, 6324. ' Of. the one in Passeri, iii. xxix. ' Ibid., iii. xxvii. 510 EOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. ship. Such lamps, when of small size, generally fetch from a few shillings to a pound ; but there is no limit to the price that amateurs will pay for extraordinary specimens. Considering their smallness, they are amongst the most interesting remains of Koman terra-cottas ; and it is only to be regretted that the Romans possessed so little historical taste, as they might by this means have transmitted to us more interesting information than is conveyed by the representation of barren myths, the exploits of gladiators, or the lives and arts of courtesans. The subjects of these lamps are calculated to convey the same rela- tive idea of Roman civilization, as the plates now made to be sold among the working classes are of that of our own day. The lamp-maker sought to gratify the taste of his customers by ornamenting his ware with familiar subjects. Purchasers of terra-cotta lamps were generally persons of inferior condition : and the lamp-maker could therefore copy from memory well- known statues of the principal gods, or represent incidents in the lives of heroes whose fame was popular. In Rome the stage exerted little influence, and the lamp-maker rarely took a subject from the drama; but the games of the circus, the inci- dents of gladiatorial life, the contest, the pardon, or the death, as well as the tricks of the circulatores or mountebanks, re- called scenes familiar to every eye. Under the empire the Romans had become vain and frivolous, and their masters sought to obliterate from their minds the cruel scenes of imperial bloodshed and public rapine by spectacles and diver- sions. There are also some subjects taken from fables, which always make a great impression on uneducated minds; but a great number have nothing except ornaments. A few only of the great gods are found represented.-^ One has Coelus, surrounded by Sol, Luna, and the stars.^ Jupiter often occurs, seated on a throne ; probably a potter's copy of the statue of the Oapitoline Jove ; ^ at other times he is seen in the company of Juno and Minerva,* or allied with Cybele, Sol, and Luna.^ A very common subject is the bust of this deity, sometimes with his sceptre placed on the eagle which is flying upwards.® His consort Juno seems to have had but few ad- mirers.'^ Of the incidents in the life of Minerva, the lamps ^ Campana, Stp. Rom., tav. viii. B. for Bartoli ; and L. for Licetus. 2 Passeri, Lucernaj, vii. In this and the following pages B. M. stands for the Collection of the British Museum ; ' B. M. * B. M. « Pass. I., XV. « B. M. ' P. I., xii. Chap. IT. SUBJECTS ON LAMPS. 511 represent her birtli, Jupiter being attended by Vulcan and Lucina.^ Her head^ or bust is^ of common occurrence. She is also seen standing* as Pacifera,^ having at her side a vase and cista;^ advancing as PromachosJ having at her side an owl ; ® or sacrificing at an altar.^ Sometimes only her helmet ^° or lier a3gis is represented,^^ having on it the head of the terrible )eauty Medusa. The lame Vulcan is scarcely ever seen/^ and lis servant, the grim Cyclops, only once.^^ Apollo often appears the Pythian or the Lykian/* seated ^^ and playing on the lyre ; >r as the Hyperborean ^^ with the gold-guarding gryphon at his dde. Other lamps have Diana hunting/^ or without her dogs,^^ ^r driving in her character of the Moon, or Luna.^^ Another )rm of Diana, as the threefold Hekate, whose statue was placed most of the Eoman triviae, is often found.^" Mercury occurs various attitudes, with the caduceus and purse, as the god of )mmerce,^^ with a goat, dog, and cock,^^ or allied with Fortune ^nd Hercules.^^ The bust of this god, with a purse and caduceus the god of merchandise, or with the ram ^^ is constantly re- )eated.^^ On one lamp, the exchange of the lyre, which he invented, for the caduceus of Apollo is represented.^^ Mercury was always a popular Koman god, and was often represented jn art. Although Mars was pre-eminently the deity of Eome, the Gradivus Pater is rarely distinguishable from ordinary herof'S. He is represented disarmed by Cupid,^^ meditating war,^^ and bearing a trophy. ^^ One lamp, on which are the busts of Mars, Venus, and Sol, probably refers to the amours of the god.^° Venus, a favourite goddess of the Eoman people, and consequently of the lamp-makers, is seen as Cytherea, or rising from the sea,^^ with a star and crown,^^ at the bath,^^ as the Coia of Praxiteles,^* as Victrix, or the van- quisher, and arming, attended by Cupids,^^ like the Venus of Capua. The representations of marine deities are limited to » P. I., lii. Ix. ' P. I., liii. '* p. I., xci.-xcii. 20 p i xcvii. 3 p. I., liv. * P. I. * P. I., lix. ; 2' P. 1., ciii. cv. « P. I., Ixii. Ixiii. ; B. ii. 18. | " Passeri, I., cii. ; B., ii. 18. - P. I., Ixiv. 8 P. I.. Ixv. ' " B. M. "-* P. III., xevii. a B.M. »» P.I.,lxvi. " P.L.lxvi. ^2 P. II., XXXV. ; Menelli, Aiit. Rel., fo., Veron., 1756, IIG. •3 P. II,, XXXV. '^ p. I., Ixxi. 1^ P. I., Ixxii.-v. '« P I., Ixxv. '' P. I., xcvi. ; B. M. '» B. M. ; P. I., Ixxxvii. " B. M. ; P. I., c. 2G p. i^ civ. " B. M. -^s B. M. ; P. II., XXX. 2» P. II., xxiv.-xxvi. 30 P. I., Ixxxix. =»> P. II., xiv. " p^ II ^ X ii. " B. M. " p 11^ ^y « B. M. 512 ROMAN POTTERY. Part 1Y. those of Neptune/ Triton, Proteus wearing the mariner's cap,' and Scylla,^ and the head of Tlietis ornamented with a crab. Many himps have Cu- pids, whcwappear invested with the attributes and performing the functions of the gods. Sometimes the merry little deity holds the club and quiver of Hercules,* reclines upon a couch,^ sails over the sea in a galley,® fishes from a rock, plays ou pipes,' holds a krater and inverted torch,® gam- bols with companions,^ holds a bird,^° sounds the lyre like Apollo,^^ sacri- fices,^^ seizes the arms of Mars,^^ fills a krater or wine-bowl out of an amphora, like a Satyr,^* holds grapes,^^ shoots a serpent, a parody of Apollo and Python,^® or blows Pan's pipe." Sometimes his amour with Psyche is repre- sented, from the tale of the Golden Ass by Lucian and Lucius Apuleius ; ^® occasionally his bust is only seen,^^ or he appears as a terminal statue.^^ Bacchus was always a popular god at Rome, and the edicts against his worship show how deeply it had taken root in the minds of the people of Italy. On lamps he is seen holding his cantharus for a panther to lick,^^ or with the cantharus on his head,^^ drinking,^^ as a boy with grapes,^'^ seated on a ram, or in his ship,^^ or with Ariadne seated on a tiger.^® Several lamps have Ampelos,^' a Satyr, with a goat, a mule, torches,'^® No. 191. — Lamp. Mercury, Fortune, and ncrculc: ^ P., i. xlii. ^ P., i. xlvii. * B. M. ' B. M. ' " P. III., xci. »2 P. I., ci. 2 B. M. ; B. 5. 4 B. M. « B. M. B. M. 9 B. M. '^ P. I., Ixxvii. »3 P. I., Ixvii. 14 B. M. '' B. M. IG B. M. 1^ B. M. '8 P. III., t. XX. ; B. i. 7. "> B. M. ; P. II., i. 20 p ni., viii. 21 B. M. " B 3r " P. II,, xxxix. 2* B. M. ; Muselli, 120. ^s g jj 2« Muselli, 142. 27 p n xxxvi. 28 P. II., xxxviii. ; Muselli, 131-125. Chap. II. MYTHS ON LAMPS. 513 tambourine, or pipes,^ Comus or Marsyas, Satyrs pouring wino from tlie aslcos or wine-skin,^ or pounding in a mortar,^ the old Pappo-Silenus,'* Satyrs pursuing Nymplis,^ Bacchantes tearing a kid over a lighted altar,^ or a Bacchante at an altar,' and Pan with Echo.^ The host of minor deities arid demi-gods also often exercised the ingenuity of the modeller of Limps. Among these is found Sol in a quadriga,^ standing with Luna,^° Luna between two birds,^^ Sol or the Colossus of Bhodes, full face,^^ and his bust surrounded by the stars and planets ; ^^ Nox also is found.^* Luna also appears in an infinite variety of shapes. So many of the lamps were made on tlie occasion of the secular games that they seem to allude to them. Among Ivoman gods are seen Janus,^^ Silvanus with tlie falx and basket,^^ his bust,^' Yesta, and some others.^^ Pluto,^^ Salus, Triptolemos and -^sculapius rarely occur.^^ Hercules is seen killing the serpent Ladon, which guarded the tree of the Hesperides,^^ holding the gathered apples,^^ seizing the stag of Mount Cerynitis,^^ sacrificing,^^ reposing,^^ holding the cup as Hercules Bibax,^^ in the company of Minerva,^' or as Musagetes playing on the lyre.^^ The Dioscuri, so propitious to the Eomans at the lake Regillus, sometimes appear as busts in full face, as the " lucid stars, the brothers of Helen ; " ^® Castor is seen accompanied by his horse,^° or with his horse's head and spear .^^ Of the inferior deities there is Pome seated alone,^^ or crowned by Victory ; ^^ Fortune having before her a star and rudder,^* or standing with other gods ; the Dii lares,^^ the Genius of the army,^^ Hymen,^' the four Seasons,^^ and Vesta.^^ Victory is beheld holding a shield,^*' on which is often an inscription, invoking a happy new year,*^ having in area the head of Janus and other emblems ; *^ sacrificing at an altar ; accompanied by ' B. M. ; Muselli, 128. ^ ^ j^j 3 B. M. 4 B. M. 5 B. M. « B. M. ' B. M. ; B., ii. 22. ^ Gerhard, Denkm. u. Forsch., 1852, 39. " P. I., Ixxxv. ; B., ii. 9. '0 P. I., Ixxxviii. '» P. L, Ixxxiv. ^"^ Campana, Sep. Kom., 1841, tav. viii. ^' P. I., xii. »* P. I., vii. XV. »' P. I., iv. 1° P. I., X. »' P. I., ix. 18 B. M. " B., ii. G, 8. 20 B. ii. 45; Muselli, 121. 21 B. M. ; P. Ill ,93 22 B. M. " P. II., iv. 24 P. II., iii. 2* P. III., xeiv. 2G B. M. 27 P. II., vii. 28 P. II., vi. 2» B. M. ; P. I., Ixxxvii. 30 B. M. ; P. II., xxviii. " P. II., xxvi. 32 P. III., i. 33 P. III., ii. 3* B. M. 35 B. M. 3« P. II., xxvi. 37 p I., xxxviii. 38 P. I., xi. 39 p I., xiii. <" B. M. ^» B. M. 42 B. M. 2 L 514 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. ■\ the Lares ; ^ holding a shield ; ^ sacrificing a bull, or elevating a trophy high in the air.^ The prevalence of exotic religions at Rome is shown by the representations of Diana of Ephesus,* Cybele with her lions, and the youth Atys,^ Mithras;^ Serapis supported by two sphinxes^ or alone,^ or on a throne with Isis; ^ Isis,^" with her son Harpokrates,^^ in the company of Anubis ; ^^ Harpokrates alone,^^ and other Egyptian gods.^* Some lamps have an Egyp- tian hunt,^^ a crocodile, and the god Canopus.^® Many lamps have merely the emblems of deities, as the sword, club, and lion's skin of Hercules ; ^' the lion's head, cantharus, and vine leaves of Bacchus ;^^ or a cantharus with wreaths of vine leaves and panthers, of which Passeri possessed 500 repetitions, made by the lamp-maker L. Csecilius Saetinus ; ^^ the dolphin and lyre of Apollo, allied with the hippocamp and rudder for ^Neptune ; ^" the gryphon and patera of Apollo ; ^^ or the raven, laurel, and caduceus,^^ allied with the thunderbolt of Jupiter, the staff of ^sculapius, the helmet and shield of Mars ; "^^ the joined hands and caducous of the goddess of Peace ; ^* a goat, and armour on a column,^^ the torch of Ceres,^® the cock of Mercury,^' the palm- branch of Victory ^^ and the anchor.^^ Few subjects were taken from the old stories of the cyclic poets and the Iliad, which were familiar only to the learned public; yet some appear which Virgil, Ovid, and the other poets of the Augustan age had rendered familiar. Among these are Ganymede playing with the bird of Jove ; ^° the amour of Jupiter, under the form of a swan, with Leda;^^ the flight of Icarus ;^^ the judgment of Paris ; ^^ the combat of Achilles and Hektor ; ^^ the death of Hektor, of Penthesilea,^^ and of other Amazons ; ^^ Diomed and Ulysses with the Palladium ; the flight of ^neas ; ^' Ulysses passing the Sirens ; ^^ Polyphemos devouring the companions of » B. M. ; Gerhard, Denkm. u. Forsch. 19 P. III., ciii. 20 P. I., 1. 1852, 31. 2 p i^ t yi 21 P. I., Ixx. " B. M. 3 B. M. * P. I., xcviii. 23 P. I., iii. ; Miis-I !i, 157. '^ B. M. « P. I., xc. 24 B. M. " P. I., Ixviii. 7 P. III., Ixx. 26 Muselli, 158. 27 Muselli, 159. « P. III., Ixiii. Ixvi.i. 28 Muselli, 119. 23 Muselli, 178. » P. III., Ixx.-i. 30 B. M. 3' B. M. '" P. III., Ixix. 1' B. M. 32 Gerhard, Denk.u .Forsch., 1852, 39 »2 B. M. I., xxxii. '3 p i^ I 33 B. M. 34 p ]vi ; B., i. 10; iii. 9 >* P. I., IxxvLii. ; III., Ixxx. Ixxxi. 35 B. M. 3« B. M. >5 B. M. >" P. III., Ixxiv. 37 B. M. ; Mns. Nan. 342, 5. 17 p. 11., ix. '« P. III., civ. 38 B. M. Chap. 11. IIIST01}T(LVL SUBJECTS. 5 IT) Ulysses;^ tho same hero escaping under the Uani,^ an B. M. 31 c ^i 3 B. M. 4 B. M. 32 B. M. 32 P. III., XV. xvii. » Cf.B., i. 22. Sabinus and Popillius. 34 B. M. ; P. I., xlix. « P. III. , X. xiii.; B., i. 23; Muselli, 35 P. in. Iviii. lix. 29-130. ^ P. Ill , xxii. xxiii. 36 P. III. Ixi. 1 >txxiii. 8 P. III. cvi. ^ P. III., XXXV. 37 B. M.; IMuselli, 14(\ 10 B. M. ; D., 100. " P. III., xxi. 38 B. M. ^' B. M. >2 B. M. '3 B. M. » B. M. 4(1 P. III., li. 41 P. III., c^^x. '^ P. I., Ixxix. '« P. I., Ixxx. \2 B. M. « P. I., xlviii\ >^ B. M. ; Muselli, 153. 44 P. I., V . 4- Muselli, 152. '8 B. M. '^ B. M. 20 B M. 46 IMiisclli, 120. '' Muselli. 148. ■' B. M. ; P. I., Ixxxvi. •iS B. M. « B. 31. =-' B. M. " B. M. 2* B. M. 50 B. M. •^' P. iii. li. -• B. M. ■^ B. M. -'■ B. !Sr. : P. in., xxxix. '« P. III., xliv. xlv. xlvii. ; I., 13, 14. » B, M. * P., iii. xliii. " P., iii. xlvi. »2 p, iii_^ xlviii. " P. III., xlix. 1. '* P., iii. xlii. xlviii. 1* B., iii. 32 ; Muselli, 1G9. i« B., iii. 22. '' B., iii. 28, 20. •^ Valesius, Mus. Corton. lb., Rom., 1650, tab. 84. Chap. II. INSCRIPTIONS. 519 A considerable number of lamps have inscriptions, disposed ill different manners, those which have reference to the subject being impressed in relief along with it, while those which relate to the lamp itself, or its maker, are always on the bottom, and consequently out of sight. These are either in relief, or else incised with a tool in cui-sive letters ; on tlie lamps of Arretium and Cuma3 they are in relief in small tablets, on the upper surface. They were impressed with bronze stamps. The inscriptions found upon lamps consist of simple trade marks, the names of makers, or of places and towns where they were fabricated, that of the pottery or of the proprietors, the date of manufacture, dedication to deities, the acclamations used at the public games, events or facts.^ Of the first class are the little marks used by the potter, either instead of his name, or in conjunction with it. There is no very great variety of symbols, and those found are of the simplest kind, such as circles, half-moons, the print of a human foot, wheels, palm branches, or the vine leaf. Although the inscriptions relating to the fabric of lamps are by no means so numerous or complete as those upon tiles, yet they are instructive with regard to the potteries. A considerable portion only indicate that they w^ere made by slaves, since they bear single names, such as Agatho, Attius, Arion, Aquiliims, Cinnamus, Bassa, Bagradus, Draco, Diogenes, Heraclides, Fabrinus, Fortis, Faber, Faustus, Inu- liucos, Memmius, Monos, Maximus, Muntripus, Nereus, Oppius, Piimus, Priscus, Pastor, Publius, Probus, Khodia, Stephanus, Successivus, Tertullus, Vibianus, Victorinus, and Yitalis. These names generally occur in the genitive, the word officina, "manu- facture" or "factory," being understood. One rare specimen has "Diogenes fecit," and several makers used/, for fecit after their names. Many makers appear to have been freedmen, and the most remarkable of these was Tindarus, the freedman of Plotina Augusta, the wife of Trajan.^ It has been already seen from the inscriptions upon tiles, that Tindarus was also a tile- maker, many of the tegula) doliares having been prepared in his potteries. Some examples of the use of the word offieinx occur, as the officinae of Caius Clodius Successivus, the officinoe of Publius and Titus already mentioned, that of P. Asisus, that of Patricius and Chrestio, and Ion is, but the expression is uncom- Seioux tl'Agincourt, llccucil, p. (37. ^ P., i. xxxi. 520 ROMAN POTTERY. Tart IV. moil. That of Mann, or " by tlie hand of," is still rarer ; only potter, L. Muranus, is known to have employed it. Another remarkable inscription under a lamp reads, ^'froni the manufactory of Fublius and Titus, at the Porta Trige- minal ^ which was situated at the foot of the Aventine and towards the Tiber: one P. Cornelius Celadus, a bookseller, who lived tliere outside the gate, is mentioned in an inscrip- tion. It is where Cacus dwelt, close to the salt springs or pans.^ The Porta Trigemina appears to have been the quarter of shops.^ A considerable number of the names have a simple prainomen, such as Aurelius Xanthus, ^lius Maxiinus, Caius Ca3sar, Caius Secundus, Caius Vigilaris, Clodius Heliodorus, Caius Memmius, Caius Faber, Caius Fabricius. Claudius Luper- calis, Egnatius Aprilis, Lucius Primus, Turciiis Sabinus.* They were probably freedmen who manufactured lamps. Of still liigher rank than these freedmen were the persons who possessed three names, and who occasionally record their descent. These must be regarded as Eoman citizens. Such were probably Publius Satrius Camillus, Caius Oppius Restitutus, Caius Lucius Maurus, Caius Clodius Successivus, Caius Julius Nicephorus, Caius Pomponius Dicax, Caius Julius Philippus, Caius Iccius Yaticanus, Lucius Fabricius ^veius, Lucius Fabricius Masculus, Lucius CaBcilius Scsevus. Whether they were proprietors of the establishment, or of the farm from which the clay was procured, is by no means certain, but none of them are mentioned else- where ; which renders it probable that they were persons of inferior condition, such as masters of the potteries, who were probably rich freedmen. A few words occur in a contracted form which refer to the fabric, such as the Accianian of Publius Satrius Campestris, son of Caius," on lamps found at Pesaurum ; " the Caninian," " the thirds (tertia) of Commodus," and those already mentioned, called " Flavians " and " Domitians ; " also " the Heraclians," " the fourths of Oppius," and *^ the thirds of Publius Fabricius." It is of course uncertain what such expres- sions mean, as they may refer either to the officinse or establish- ments, or to the names of the lamps themselves. If some may be interpreted " the Vatican lamps of Caius Iccius," this would appear to mean the celebrated clay of that hill, and the word figflina, or ^'pottery," is to be supplied. Some have the » P., iii. vii. I -J OrcHius, 413. 2 Soliiius; Fca, Miscc-ll. Crit., ii. 15. | ' 0. R. Smith, 111., Lonil, p. 112. V OF THE UNIVERSITY OF Chap. II. IMPP:RIAL INSCriirTIONS.Vi,£A!JirO names of certain shops, such as Piiblii Fabrlcii tertia, Oppedi qnarta. Some of the makers under the Konian empire used ,^ Koman names in Greek ciiaracters, as shown by the example l^iof Celsus Pompeius.^ Many of the Greek lamps are also of the Eomau period, as those of Apollophanes the Tyrian, found at Taormini, the ancient Himera,^ and Chryseros found with those of Gains and Sillius at Catana.^ A third class may contain the name of the place where the lamps were made, as Caii Iccii Vatican (a), for " Vatican (lamps) of C. Iccius," on lamps found at Rome. The fourth class has the name of the lamps or fabric, as the Caninian, Flavian, Domitian, Heraclian. This expression may refer to the names of ihQ figlinm^ or potteries, similar expressions occurring on the tiles. The fifth kind is supposed to contain the name of the Patroni in whose house the lamp-makers lived. On these the names of Anto- ninus, Commodus, Philippus, Diocletian, and Maximus occur, and one, more distinct than the rest, has Tindarus, PJotinse Augustde lihertus, " Tindarus,^ the freedman of Plotina Augusta." One only contains the date of the consulship of the Emperor Philip, during the celebration of the Secular games. These inscriptions observe the usual laws of contraction. The most contracted form in which the names of emperors appear, is AA. NN. for ^' Augustorum nostrorum^' of our two Augusti ; a phrase which cannot date earlier than the joint reign of M. Aurelius and L. Yerus. It is indeed possible that the name of Titus, which occurs on one lamp, may be as old as that of the emperor of that name, for upon several lamps is found inscribed, *' the Flavians of our god and lord ;" an expression particularly referable to Vespasian or Titus, both of whom bore that surname ; while other lamps are inscribed " the Domitians of our god and lord," showing that they allude to the Emperor Domitian. Much light is, however, thrown upon this point by the tiles, some of which were called " the larger Neronians " after the Emperor Nero. The name of Trajan is found upon a lamp, showing either that it came from the imperial potteries or from others named after that emperor; while a large number of lamps are inscribed *' of Antoninus," or " of Antoninus Au- » KEACEI nOMnEEI. Bull. Arch, j 1854. Nap., 1856, p- 51. | =» Bockh, C. I., 3, p. 060; Castdlo, 2 AnOAAO*AN TYPIO Bull. | CI. xvi. 244, u. 6-10; Avolio, v. 94-98. Arch. Nap., 1855, p. 40; Bald. Euiuaiio ' Passed, xi. Autichita trovalc in ^icilia, 4to., Tal., ' 522 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. gustiis," which probably refers to one of the two Antonines, or else to Caracalla or Elagabalus. To this loiddle period of the Eoman empire most lamps may be referred, as some occur with the name of Severus, others witli that of Maximus, and several ^ with that of M. Julius Philippus, some of which have the addition of his third consulship — thus showing that they were made during the remarkable epoch of the celebration of the Secular games, a.d. 247. It is of course impossible to feel certain that such names as Probus and Victorinus refer to tlie emperors, and no Koman lamps bear the name of a later sove- reign, although one Greek one has that of Diocletian. The inscriptions upon some lamps are votive exclamations re- sembling those of the Decennalia and Secularia, such as, ANNVM NOVVM FA VSTVM FELICEM, " a new and pro- pitiously happy year!" 2 ANNVM IN QVO FAYSTVM FELIX TIBI SIT, " a year in which may all be fortunate and propitious to you;" or ANNVM NOVVM FAV8TVM FE- LICEM MIHIC, *^ may the new year be happy and propitious to me." An erotic lamp has HAVE . MAC^ELLA VILLA . HAVE, ''Hail, markets (macella), hail, O block!" BE ATA TKANQVILLITAS, " Blessed tranquillity," on another. These inscriptions seem to show that the lamps were given away or sold on new-year's-day, or on the celebration of the Secular games. On one is inscribed HAVE,^ " hail ! " ; SVTINE, " O Sutinus." These inscriptions sometimes occur upon victors' shields, on which are often found inscriptions relative to vic- tories, and other subjects. One remark- able lamp has DEO QVI EST MAXI- MVS,* " to the god whb is greatest." An- other 10 VI SEBENO SACKUM, "sacred to serene Jove."^ Nor are certain ex- No. i95.-Foot of Lamp, with pressious adapted for funeral purposes less name of the Secular Games. ^ ^ r i interesting, such as SIT TIBI TERRA LEVIS, "earth lie light on thee: " or ANIMA DVLCIS, "O sweet soul ! " ® A great number are stamped SAECVL, or SAECVLARIA, in reference to the games of the period. An immense number of lamps must have been used during the illuminations which seem to have taken place on occasion ' P., i. xxix. ^ Passcri, i. G ; Fabr. vii. 5. ^ Avolio, p. 112. * P., i. xxxiii. * Ptissiri, i. " Passcri, iii. it). Chap. 11. USES. 523 of tiiumplis. Amongst those known are the illuminations made (hiring the celebration of the Secular games, when the city was illuminated for three nights, and it is probable that some of the subjects found in lamps have reference to this festive use of them. ^ They were used for illuminations as early as that for the suppression of the Catiline conspiracy ^ by Cleopatra,^ at tlie births of the Cyesars,* the return of Nero,^ at the games given by Angustus to the people.® Tiamps were also used in the Isiac worship. " Moreover," says Apuleius, *' in the festival of Isis there was a great number of either sex, with lamps, torches, wax candles, and another kind of torches, imitating the light of the celestial stars. The first of tliem held forth a lamp, gleaming with a clear light, not much like those which illumi- nate our evening entertainments, but a golden boat or cup, sending forth a very long flame out of the midst of it." ' They were also lighted in the lararia and sacella, theatres and therma?,^ which Alexander Severus opened at nights ; and were often hung up at night ^ in cross roads. They appear, indeed, to have been in general use for illumi- nating public buildings. For domestic use they were employed in the dining-room, the study ; and the kitchen used lamps of earthenware.^" Several lamps have been found in sepulchres, but these are chiefly of the Christian period or connected with the worship of the Manes, and were not placed there, as some authors of the preceding century imagined, witii the idea of their burning eternally.^^ In an inscription on a sepulchral cippus in the JMuseum, the heirs of a deceased person are directed on all the kalends, ides, and nones of each month ^^ to place a lighted lamp in his sepulchre ; and the same is enjoined upon alternate months as a condition on wOiich her slaves received their ' Suet. Vit. Tib. c. Domit. Orsati, lucciuc auticlie, 16mo., Ven., 1709. 2 Plutarch, Ant., 26. 3 Millin., 1. c, 180-83 ; Dio Cassiiis, H. K., Ixiii. 4. •* biieton,, Domit., 4. * Passeri, xx. ; Sucton. Vit. Jul. C»sar. c. 37 ; Dio. Neiou. ; Xipliilin. i. xxxiii. ; Suetou. Dom. c. 4 ; Lamprid. Vit. Alex. Scv. c. iv. ; Tcrtull. in Apuloget. ; Capitoliuiis, vita Gordian., iid liri. ; Martial, x. cp. 6 ; Symmachus, « Plutarch. Cic, c. 22. ^ Lamprid. vit. c. 24. "As. Aur. xi. ^ Libanius in orat. ifaliid ad Elle- bech. ; Ammian. Marcell. xiv. 1. »« Virgil., Georg. i. 392 ; Capit. Vit. Phil)., 33. " Fort. Licetus, de lucernis anti- quorum reconditis, 1G22 ; 0. R. Smith, 111., Lend., pp. 111-112. Such lamps are alto said to have been placed in the Parthenon, in the temple of Amnion and in that of Venus at Antioch. 1. ii. I '^ Brit. Mus. Marbles, pt. v. viii. 524 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. liberty, in tlie testament of Maevia.^ Tliat this was common under the empire appears from the story of the Matron of Ephesiis,^ and from the following remarkable inscription : " May a golden shower cover the ashes of whoever places a lighted lamp in this tumulus."^ Lamps w^ere also dedicated as thank- offerings to Jupiter and other gods.* Among other superstitions connected with lamps was that of choosing the name of a child. Several lamps were named, and then lighted, and tlie name of the child was taken from that of the lamp last extinguished.^ xit the end of the eigliteenth century a great number of lamps were discovered in a furnace, where they had been baked, together with the moulds and other utensils for making them.® Great numbers are found at Rome, Naples, and on the sites of the principal cities of ancient Italy, Germany, France, and Britain. Large numbers also occur in the rubbish heaps of the different cities of Greece, Asia Minor, and Africa. According to Avolio seventeen lamps, placed one upon another, were found close to the mouth of a reverberat- ing furnace, near Anzi.'^ These lamps were placed in stands, also of pale red and coarse terra-cotta.^ Lamps of the maker Attiiius have been found at Louisendorf and Mayland ; ^ those of the maker Fortis at Kastel or Mayence, Aquileia, and London.^" The great site of the manufacture appears to have been Rome, and the lamps there made to have been exported to the different provinces of the Roman Empire. Their shape and use continued for centuries, and they were imitated and made by the Saracens. ^ Digest, i. Ix. 44. 2 Petroaius, Sat., c. 3. 3 Grater, mcxlviii. * See the inscription of one Chrom- atis at Oenanda ; Biickh, Corp. Inscr. Grsec, iii. 1168. * Joh. ChrysOst., Homelia, xii. ^ Avolio, p. 117. ' P. 123. V * Lysons, iii. PI. xvii. G; R. Smith, Collectanea, i, PI. xliv. p. 123. ^ Jannsen, Gedeenkleekeona, 8vo., Utrecht, 1836, Pi. xii.-xvi. 10 R. Smith, 111. Lond., p. 112 ; Emele, viii. 1 ; Bertoli, Le Ant. d'Aquileie, p. 267-9. CUiAi'. III. VASES. 525 CHAPTER III. Vas(>s — Eonian pottery — Paste — Colours — Drying — Wheel or lathe — Model- ling — Moulding — Stamps — Inscriptions — Furnaces — Construction for glazed ware — Heat — Smoke kilns — Northampton kilns — Colchester kilns — For grey ware — Dimensions — Prices — Uses of vases — Transix)rt of eatables — Feet of tables — Sliam viands — Dolia or casks — Hooped witli lead — Repaired — Inscribed — Doliarii — Amphora) — Inscriptions — Memo- randa — Use of amphorae — Size — Makers — Sarcophagi — Obrendaria — Early use of terra-cotta vases — Names of sacred vessels — Cadus — Diota — Paropsis — Patina — Patera — Patella — Trulla — Catinus — Lanx — Scutula — Gabata — Lagena — Crater — CEnophoriura — Urceolus — Poculum — Calix — Cotylo — Scaphium — Cantharus — Carchesion — Scyphus — Ehyton — Aceta- bulum — Ampulla — Guttus — Matella — 011a, Sinus, Obba — Places where made — Architectural use. The decorations of lamps are analogous with bas-reliefs used for architectural purposes, and hence they may be considered as connected with the fine arts, since they required not merely the technical manipulation of a potter, but also the skill and taste of an artist to produce them. They are the last link in the chain of the glyptic art. Of the unglazed Koman pottery it now only remains to consider the vases, a class of objects which demand for their manufacture no higher skill than that of the potter. The technical part of Roman pottery is probably better known than that of the Greek ; kilns, furnaces, moulds, tools, clays, and other objects connected Avith it being distributed all over Europe, and consequently having attracted the attention of various scientific inquirers. In point of shape and elegance the Roman vases are far inferior to the Greek ; nor does the paste seem to have been prepared with the same regard to fine- ness and compactness. Nevertheless, many shapes and pastes often possess very superior qualities for useful purposes. The art was evidently held in lower estimation among the Romans, and committed to the hands of slaves and freedmen. The Roman potteries produced useful but by no means fine or beauti- ful vases, and they were only adapted to the necessities of life. The paste of the Roman vases is by no means so fine as that of the Greek, except the glazed red ware, which is of so bright a \ 526 ROMAN POTTEllY. Part IV colour as to resemble coral.^ Since red clay does not retain this colour in the furnace, either a peculiar clay must have been used, like some varieties found in this country, or it must have been heated to a certain temperature and combined with pe- culiar earths to produce the colour. The pipe-clay used was (tailed the figlina or potter's chalk. Other kinds of paste are of a pale or deep yellow, with small pebbles intermingled, and fragments of red bricks worked in. It was generally fine. Some ancient terra-cottas have little pebbles mixed in their composition, either from the use of ill- prepared clay, or in order to prevent the contraction of the clay. Other pastes are black, of a deep thick gray, cream-coloured, nearly white, light red, pale red, brown, and even of a yellow colour. The clay was probably ground, trodden out with the feet, and worked up with the hand.^ The Komans evidently availed themselves of the earth of the different localities in which they found themselves ; ^ with the exception of the Samian ware, the paste and colour of which are uniform. The vases from different countries are easily distinguished from one another. Tiiore is also a variety of paste of a pale red colour intermixed with flakes of mica, of the nature of that of the vases commonly called chrysendeta.* There is a great difference of opinion among the commentators about this paste. Tiie ancients employed several processes, and paid the greatest attention in preparing their different clays for use. An analysis of the fragments found in the excavations at Rome, Pompeii, and Herculaneum, shows that the clays were mixed in certain proportions with volcanic earth and sand, especially pozzolano. Even the time of making was carefully observed. " Bricks are best made in the spring,^ for those made at the solstice," says Pliny, " are full of chinks ; " an observation repeated by Vitruvius, who says, "Bricks are to be made in spring and autumn, in order that they may dry equally ; " ^ and they were often prepared two years before. The time however was not always scientifically observed, for certain memoranda made by tile-makers on their tiles show that they prepared ware in the middle of May and the beginning of September. Perhaps ' 777 K€pa/xiKr„ Gcopon, ii. 49. • * Varro, de lie Rustica, iii. 9 ; Yates in Smith's Diet. Antiq., p. 418. 3 Clarac, Tart. Tech. I. 31. * Clarac, Mus. d. Sculpt. P. Tech. p. .SO. The Chrysenihta arc mentioned as used by the wealthy ; but some sup- poso them to have been of metal, — Mart, xi. 29, * Pliny, N. H,, xxxv,, xiv. 49, •^ Vitruvius, ii. B. Chap. I IF. MANUFACTURE OF VASES. 527 the dates of the. Consulates stamped or inscribed on the potlery were used to inflicate its age. In tlie manufactare of vases the Romans used the same process as the Greeks. They were made by tlie table or wheel, called orhiSf or rota figularis. This wheel revolved either way, oither backwards or forwards.^ The mass of clay was placed on this, and worked np with the hand to the requisite form. Most vases were made by this process, except the dolia^ or casks, which were made by the same means as the pithoi. The handles were either modelled with tools or else pressed out of moulds ; and zones, concentric circles, hatched and punctured lines, and imitations of thorns were produced by pressing pointed pieces of stick or bone against the sides of the vases while revolving. Sometimes ornaments w^ere modelled upon the moist clay before the vase was sent to the furnace. Moulds were very extensively used by the Romans, and the entire vase was often made by pressing the clay with the fingers into one of the requisite size. Besides these ornaments, the potter impressed upon certain vessels an inscription from a metal mould, containing the name of the establishment which manufactured them. These inscrip- tions are found upon amphora?, and the so-called mortaria ; but seldom on the smaller vases of unglazed ware. It appears that under the Lower Empire the potters were compelled by law to place their names on their ware.^ The Romans were acquainted with several ways of perfectly drying their wares before they submitted them to the action of the fire. As the greatest at- tention was paid to the proper manner of preparing tiles, bricks, and architectural members, it is probable that the clay of vases was also an object of great attention.^ The furnaces were arched with bricks moulded for the purpose. The side of the kiln was constructed with curved bricks set edgeways in a thick slip of the same material, made into mortar, to the height of two feet. A singular furnace was discovered, over which had been placed two circular earthen fire-vessels, one close to the furnace, of about eight gallons contents. The fire passed under both of these, the smoke escaping by a neatly plastered flue, from seven to eight inches wide. These vessels were suspended by the rims fitting into a circular rabbet or ^ riaut. Capt., act. ii. sc. iii. 1. 9, 10; Herat., Serin, ii. 7, 86, alludes to polish- ing on the wheel. 2 Cassiodonis, Variar., lib. i. form. XXV., lib. ii. form, xxiii. ^ Vitniviiis, ii. c. 8; Campana, p. 22. 528 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. groove formed for the purpose. They contained some perfect vessels and many fragments, and are supposed to have been used for glazed ware, and probably had covers.^ A uniform lieat in firing the kiln is supposed to have been produced by first pack- ing up the articles which were required to be fired to the height of the side walls, the circumference of the bulk was then dimin- ished, and finished in the shape of a dome. As this arrangement progressed, it is supposed that an attendant followed the packer, and thinly covered a layer of pots with coarse bay or grass. He then took some thin clay, the size of his hand, and laid it flat on the grass upon the vessels ; he then placed more grass on the edge of tlie clay just laid on, and then more clay, and so on until he had completed the circle. Tlie packer then raised another tier of pots, the plasterer followed, hanging the grass over the top edge of the last layer of plaster until he had reached the top, in which a small aperture was left, and the clay scraped round the edge ; another coating would be laid on as before described. Gravel or loam was thrown up against the side wall, where the clay wrappers were commenced, to secure the bricks and the clay coating. The kiln was fired with wood.^ In some kilns, indeed, has been discovered a layer of ashes four or five inches deep. Other kilns at Sibson, near Wandsford,^ Northamptonshire, exhibited peculiar differences in the mode of arranging the furnace. Instead of the usual dome of clay and straw, bricks were modelled and kneaded with chaff and grain, and made of a wedge shape, interlapping at the edges, with a sufficient curve to traverse the circumference of the kiln ; the floor of which had perforated arch-shaped bricks. These kilns appear to have been used for making a great quantity of terra- cotta, Samian and stone ware. The blue ware is supposed to have been produced by smothering the fire, or rather smoke, of the furnace upon it when in the kiln, and the colour is so vola- tile that it flies when fired a second time in an open kiln. A circular Gallo-Eoman furnace excavated in the ground was found at Belle Vue, near Agen, Lot-et-Garonne.^ Artis has traced these potteries in England for twenty miles on the gravel banks of the Nen, in Northamptonshire, and tells us that " the kilns generally resemble one another, consisting of a cylindrical shaft » Brongniart, Traite, i. pp. 426-27. 2 Roach Smith, in the ' Journal of the British Archoeologioal Association,' vol. i. p. 5. ^ Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, li. 165. ♦ Rev. Ant. 18, p. 207, PI. xxiii. Chap. Il[. FURNACES. 5'2i) three feet deep, four feet diameter, walled to the lieight of two feet. The length of tlie furnace, which communicated with the kiln, was one-third its diameter. In the centre of the circle formed by the furnace and the kiln was an oval pedestal, the same height as the side, with the end pointing to the kiln's mouth. Upon this pedestal, and upon the side wall, the floors of the kilns, formed of perforated arch-shaped bricks, rested. The furnace itself was arched, made of moulded bricks to form the arch and the side constructed of curved bricks set edgeways. Four Roman kilns were found in a.d. 1677, in digging foun- dations N.W. of St. Paul's at a depth of 26 feet.^ The furnaces in use were constructed of terra-cotta bricks. Some oval ones for smelting copper were found at Marsal, and late in the days of the Roman Empire bronze and other figures were cast in brick furnaces.^ A portion of one of the sun-dried bricks, of which a furnace was composed, was discovered at Colchester in 1819, with about thirty vases. The vases stood on circular vents above the hollow chambers, through whicli the heat was conveyed to them. Some of the vases, all of which were of the same coarse material^ and nearly of the same form and size, were less baked than the rest, and broke unless handled with great care.^ One of the furnaces, which appears to have been used for baking the g"ay Roman ware, was discovered at Castor. The furnace was quite different from those for the black, and only calculated for a slight degree of baking. It was a regular oval, and measured 6 feet 4 inches in breadth. The furnace holes were filled in the lower part with burnt earth of a red colour, and in the upper part with peat. The exterior was formed of strong blue clay 6 inches thick, and the interior was lined with peat. The kiln was intersected by lines of the same, and divisions of blue clay. Some of the vases were inverted and filled with a core of white sand.* The supposed joistillay or pestles for mortars, were also made of baked clay,^ they were really supports used in the kilns to steady vases while baking.^ At all periods specimens of immense vases were fabricated. The great Roman amphora) were sometimes as high as 7*86 feet, and required two oxen to draw them. The enormous dish pre- pared to cook the gigantic turbot presented to Domitian must ^ Smith, 111. Rom., Loud., p. 79; ^ r g^jit;, QoU^^ct. ii. p. 38. Sloane MS., 958. | * Vol. xxii. p. 418, PI. xxxvi. - Aruob, vi. 14, figulinis foinacibus; ^ Arcli., xxiv. p. 199, PI. xliv. 4. this can hardly be potter's kilns. ' * Arch. Jonrn., vii. 17<). 2 M 530 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. have been above seven feet long ; ^ and another dish, called the ^gis of Minerva,^ composed of tongues, brains, and roes, must have been of the same size. Ciampini mentions an ancient Roman vase so large that a man required a ladder of twelve steps to reach the mouth. Martial describes the tiresome man as going about the town, and winding up the day by purchasing two cups for an as, or penny, but it is not certain whether these were earthenware or glass.^ They were probably worth a sesterce, or large brass Roman coin of two ases and a half, for one of the amusements of the fast young Lucius Yerus, the colleague of the staid Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, was to break caliees, or cups, with these pieces of money — probably for two reasons, these were sufficiently heavy to effect their purpose, and at the same time paid for the damage they occasioned.* Juvenal speaks of Plebeian cups purchased for a few ases.^ Pliny states that some terra-cotta vases sold for more than the celebrated myrrhine vase ;® and for gigantic proportions of this ware may be cited the immense plate made by Vitellius, to bake which a furnace was prepared in the open country. It cost him a million sesterces, or about 8000?. One of the great uses of earthenware was for the trans- port of wine, figs, honey, and other commodities — being used in the same manner as casks are at the present day. The lagena, or large bottle, was used to hold wine or figs, and articles were imported from the African coast in it under the name of the testa. In this manner a preparation from the blood of the tunny was sent from the Phrygian Antipolis to Rome.'^ Another vessel for transporting and preserving viands was the cadus. Martial speaks of cadi vaticani,^ which are supposed to refer to the wine ; however, he speaks of the yellow honey taken out of the red pot,^ and also mentions the red cadus pouring out foreign wine.^° Vases were also used for religious rites, the ope- rations of metallurgy, chemistry, and medicine ; but above all for domestic purposes — for the cellar, the kitchen, and the table. They were also employed as bell-glasses, a new use, for rearing vine sprouts.^^ The feet of tables were also made either of this » Juvenal, Sat. iv. 39-41, 72, 131-135. | ' Sat., xi. 145. - Pliny, N. H. xxxv. c. xii. 46 ; Sueton., Vit. Vitell. 13. ' M>a'ti;a, ix. 60. " Jul. Ciipit. vit. Veri, 12rao, Lugd. Bat., 1671, p. 102. N. H., xxxv. c. 12, 46, Martial, iv. 88. Epigram, i. xix. 2. Ibid., i. 10. "> Ibid., iv. 66. Virgil, Georg. i'. 351. ClIAP. III. DOLTA. 531 unglazed ware or propped up with potsherds/ and one of the jests of Elagabalus ^ was to place before his parasitical guests, at a lower table, a course, the viands of which were made of earthen- ware, and make them eat an imaginary dinner. The gigantic earthenware casks, resembling the Greek pithoi, were used for holding enormous quantities of wine, corn, and oil — in fact whole stacks of cellars have been found at Antium and Tunis, at Ger- govia near Clermont, and at Apt in the department of Vaucluse.^ Delia have been found at Palmense, or Palma, Sezza, Anzio.* A number of dolia were found at Sarno,^ one had stamped on it the name of IVFarcus Lucilius Qnartio, M. LVCCEI QVAK- TIONIS ; a third had that of Onesimus, ONESIMYS FECIT, another Vitalis, YITALIS F., and L. T1TU8 PAPIUS, L. TITI. F. PAP. On them were scratched xiv ; s.t. Lxxxiv (lagenae) or 16 amphorae. None had the year of the consuls.^ They bore marks of the withes by which they were held, or of being made from moulds. In various caves and other places in France they are mixed up with fossils,^ the supposed remains of a primitive race. These casks were anciently called calpar^ afterwards dolium.® It appears from the ancient jurists that it was unlawful to remove the gigantic dolia in which the Komans kept their stores of wines in the cellar, for fear of endangering the safety of the liouse.^ From the dolia, the wine, as among the Greeks, was put into another vase, probably an amphora, and decanted o^}^ As the amphora had a pointed base to fix it more securely into the earth of the cellar, it was when brought up placed in a tripod stand, ^^ which among the poor was of wood, but among the rich was made of brass or silver. The dolia were sunk in the ground, and one of those prodigies which was supposed to predict the future fortune of the Emperor Antoninus Pius was the discovery above ground of the dolia in Etruria, which had been sunk in the earth.^^ Juvenal represents them as deep casks,^^ and as being cemented with pitch, gypsum, or mud.^* They held twenty amphorae, or forty-one urns. They * Martial, ii. xliii. 2 Lamprid. Vita Heliogab., 12mo, Lugd., 1632, p. 317. 3 Brongniart, Traite, i. 407, 408, 409. 4 Winckelm., Mon. In. ii. p. 229, tav. 174. * Bull. Arch. Nap., 1858, p. 84. ^ Cicero, Brut. 83, " sine nota anni." ' Brongniart, Traite, i. " Varro in Nom, Marcell., cap. xix. n. 31, edit. Gothofr. ' Paullus Manutius, Comm. in Cic. Epist. famil. lib. vii. ; Epist. xxii. '" Cicero, de Clar. Orat. ; Seneca, Epist., xxxvi. ; Pliny, xiv. c. 13. " Doni, 1. c, pp. Ixxxviii.-lxxxix. '- Capitoliuus, Vita Anion. Pii, s. 1. '3 Sat., vi. 430. '* Sat., ix. r)8. 2 M 2 532 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. were placed in the cellar. Dolia were ma^le in separate pieces ; the base and other parts were secured by leaden nets or cramps and held the unfermented wine, according to Priscian. The makers of the casks called dolia, and of the larger amphora?, were called doliarii ; ^ a term, however, applicable to all kinds of coarse ware, since the roof tiles were also called opws doliare, while the workmen were called fabriles? Makers of smaller vases were styled vascularii,^ jictilarii,^ ornamentarii,^ or amj^uh larii.^ Large dolia, with leaden hoops have been found at Palzano, seven miles from Modena, and at Spilamberto one was also discovered broken in fragments, with an inscription containing the name of T. Gavelius and the numbers XXX and XX, probably its contents ; while another of thirty-six amjohora) capacity had an inscription and contained a coin of Augustus.'^ The doliolum at Rome was in the Xlth quarter of the city. *'Bind your casks with lead," says Cato,^ in his treatise upon agricul- ttire, and Pliny spealvS of scraping the hoops or making new ones.® The dolia were made either of a white, a red clay, or of clays of the two colours combined. They were baked by a slow heat. The smaller ones were made on the wheel, the large in a kind of heated house. Great care was requisite in moderating the beat of the furnace. The lips inclined slightly upwards so that the liquid should keep in.^** They were also used for holding corpses in graves.^^ Besides those already cited, a few inscriptions, recording the names of the owners or makers of the dolia have been preserved, as L. Calpurnius Eros, on the mouth of a cask found in the villa Peretta.^^ T. Cocceius Fortunatus, on that of another discovered in the ruins of Bsebiana.^^ Another large vase had Stabulum No. 196.— Dolium containiug body. IV ^ D.3 Florus, i. 18. '* Juv., iii. U'8. 538 ROMAN POTTERY. Part 1Y. whom the JEtolian ambassador in his consulship found dining off vessels of earthenware,^ B.C. 169 ; and in the entertainment given before the Cella of the temple of Jupiter, Q. Tubero placed fictile vases before the guests.^ At the entertainment, however, given by Massinissa, the second course was in the Eoman manner, served up on silver, B.C. 148, which the Greeks had not substituted for earthenware till after the age of Alexander.^ In the service of the Genius, or Lares, silver vases at least were used, for the Miser is described as so avaricious that he sacrificed in earthen or Samian ware lest the Genius should steal the silver.* In the early times of the Republic even persons of wealth used only pottery at their meals, as well as for other domestic purposes ; but the increase of wealth caused vessels of bronze to be made for many uses for which pottery had been formerly deemed suflScient. In warmth and comfort, however, homely earthenware must have far surpassed the frigid magnificence of services of plate. Under the Empire glass was used even by the poor for drinking-cups, while the rich disdained meaner materials than gems, precious metals, moulded or engraved glass. Earthenware was left for the service of the gods, and the tables of the poor. Numerous small vessels, especially bottles and jars of various shapes, which are found either in graves or houses, seem to show that earthen- ware was employed for the purposes of life. It is however difficult, if not impossible, to decide if the various small flat plates, dishes, and bowls, which are found, were the ^arojosis, which is known to have been made of red ware, the patina, a dish, sufficiently large to hold fish, crabs, and lobsters, made of earthenware,^ i\\Q j^atera, the catinus, which could hold a large fish,® the gahatse, or lanQes, mentioned as made of red terra-cotta, a whole boar was placed on a round lanx.' The trullse, or bowls, were probably made of red ware. The jpatella^ or plate, was made of black ware. Martial speaks of " a green cabbage in a black plate." ^ The catellus ^ held pepper. Some clue might perhaps be obtained to their size from the descrip- tions of ancient authors. The catinus was large enough to hold the tail of a turmy,^° the catillus or porringer was also fictile, the ^ Pliny, N. H. xxxiii. c. 11, 51. ^ Seneca, Epist, 95, 72. ' Athenteus, vi. 229 a. It does not appear quite certain whether Athenseus refers to his own time or that of the republic when he cites this fact. * Plant., Capt. act ii. sc. 2, 1. 46, 47. ' Horat., Serm. ii. 8, 42, 55, 71. « Ibid., ii. 4, 72. ^ Ibid., ii. 4, 47. 8 Martial, v. 78, 1. 7. ^ Horat., Serm. ii. 4, 75. '0 Pers. V. 182. Horat., Serm. i, 3, 90. Chap. III. SHAPES OF VASES. 539 lanx could hold a boar, a crab.^ Another dish was called scutula. Speaking of the course of a luxurious entertain- ment, Martial says, ** Thus he fills the gabatse, and the parop- sides, the smooth scutulas, and the hollow lances." ^ The patina was flat, and held soup,^ and was the generic name for a dish, the most remarkable example of which was that made by Vitellius, and which has been already mentioned. Tiiis was called the "marsh of dishes," by Mutianus.* The wretched emperor, when dragged to death, was insulted by the epithet of patinarius, or dish maker.^ Small vases, called acetabula or vinegar cups, which were certainly made of terra-cotta, probably appeared on the table.® The great vessels for holding the wine in the cellar, the dolia, and amphorae, have been already fully described. Besides the amphorae the cadus held wine in tlie cellar. The cadus held more than two quadrantes or six cyathi,' and it was hung up in the chimney in order to give the wine a mature flavour, especially that of ^larseilles.^ The diota held wine.^ The wine was transferred from the cadus into a fictile vase, called the hirnea, but its shape is unknown.^^ xinother large vase for holding liquids, milk, was the sinus or sinwm, which also held water. Many bottles are found in the coarser kinds of ware, and were probably used even at table for pouring the wine into the cups of the guests. The lagena, lagyna, lagsena, or narrow-necked bottles with one or two handles,^^ when destined for the next day's entertainment were sealed by the master of tlie feast with his ring, that they should not be changed. It answered the purpose of the oinochoe or wine bottle among the Greeks, and the flask of the present day ; the hunter carried it in his knapsack,^^ and the fisherman among his traps,^^ the Koman barmaid or vivandiere slung it at her side when serving in the taverns.^* It was proverbially brittle,^^ and in order to protect it better was surrounded, as in modern times the flask, with wicker- work.^® Like the modern bottle of some choice wine, its mouth was secured with the impression of the seal of the possessor.^^ ' Juv. V. 80 ; Martial, ii. 43. 2 xi. 31, 19. ' Phsedrus, i. 26. * " Paludem patinarum," Pliny, N. H. xxxvi. 12. * Suetonius, Vita Vitellii, c. 17. ^ Tertullian, Apolog. c. xxv. ' Martial, ix. 94. « Ibid., X. 36. » Hor., Carm. i. 9. »« Varro, L. L. " Symposius; ^nigm. »2 Pliuy, Ep. i. 6, 3. '^ Juvenal, xii. 69. •^ Ibid., viii. 158-161. »* aiartial, vi. 89, 5 ; Petron. 22. »« Pliny, N. H. xvi. 34, 56. '" Horat., Epist. ii. 2, 134. 540 ROMAN POTTERY. Tart IV. These vases were of terra-cotta.^ No crater of the Roman times can be identified in terra-cotta. The oenopliorum,^ a large wine- pitclier, and the urceus, a vase with one handle,^ sometimes made of red ware, and the urceoli, or h'ttle pitchers, are of frequent occurrence. Another vase for liolding wine, probably the same as the oenophorum, was the aeratophorum. The ampulla, a kind of jug, was used for bringing wine to table after having been duly labelled.* The wine was mixed into a crater, and thence transferred into cups.^ These vases are probably represented by various terra-cotta bottles. There are great numbers of little cups found in different localities, and in all kinds of ware, but chieliy in tlie glazed varieties. These were perhaps known under the generic name of pocula ^ *' cups," calices " goblets," cohjlse " half-pints," ' and ,scaphia or " boats." ^ The shapes known under the names of \ cafitharus,^ carehesioyi,^^ seyplms, and rhijton were rarely if ever Ij made of earthenware ; indeed the pride of the wealthy Romans at I this period was to show magnificent cups of metal embossed by j Mentor, Mys, and other celebrated masters of antiquity, and f hence earthenware cups were only used by persons in moderate circumstances. There were, however, certain cups peculiarly Roman, their names not like those just mentioned, derived from the Greek. Such were the ciboria, in shape of the pods of the colocasia, or Egyptian bean,^^ the cymhia, or milk cups,^^ the nasiterna, so called from its long spout, nasus, used for a watering-pot,^^ which had three handles. Besides these, the guttiis, a small bottle used for conveying oil to the bath, and which is probably the little long-necked bottle, called by antiquarians the lachrymatory, was often made of terra-cotta. Little vases of this shape are inserted into a monument dedicated to certain mother goddesses by one Egnatius, a doctor, who thus consecrated his phials to these personages.^* They were also used as phials. Horace's table had two cups and a cyatlius, 1 Hor., ii. 8, 41, 81. . 2 juv, Sat. vi. 425; Pers. v. 140; Hor., Sat. i. 6, 109. 3 Martial, xiv. 103. * Pliny, Epist. iv. 30; Suetonius, Vit. Domit., 21 ; Martial, vi. 35-3, xiv. 110. 5 Ovid, Fisti., V. 522, of red terra- C('ttK ^ Martial, xiv. 108, refers to Sagun- tine cups. ^ Martial, viii. 71. « Plaut., Stieh. v. 4, 11. 3 Virgil, Eel. vi. 17. '•^ Macrobius, vi. 41. '^ Porphyrion in Horat., Carm. II. 7. '2 Pliny, N. H. xxxvii. 8. '^ Juv. V. 47. 1* T. R. Smith, Collect., v. 8. Chap. III. PLACES OF MANUFACTURE. 511 on the echmus or wasliing vase a guttus and a jyatera} The matella'^ or mateUio was also made of eartlienwaro, as well as a large vase that used to be placed in the highways.^ The hascaudiEf imported to Rome from Britain, were probably baskets or basket-shaped \ases.'* The cumera, or corn-bin, was also fictile.^ Several obscure names of vases are mentioned bv the etvmo- legists and others, as the 'pollvhriim, a bason for washing hands and feet, the inaMuvium or washhand basin, the escaria, or vege- table dishes, the ohha, which was probably a kind of ampulla, being in the shape of the helmets of the Dioscuri,^ the craticula, a small goblet, or little crater or gridiron, the myoharhum,^ in shape of a mouse, which has been found in unglazed ware, the galeola and others. The pelviSy or pan, is probably the so-called mortarium ; the sinus, which was also used as a washhand basin, may be a vase of similar shape, but there is as much difficulty in recognising the true names of the Roman as of the Greek vases. The olla, or jar, was of sepulchral use, and the urna was also adapted to hold the ashes of the dead. There was also a liydria for sepulchres,' and the mazonomum is men- tioned.^ It is not to be supposed that all vessels were made at one place, for different towns excelled in the production of their respective wares, which were imported in large quantities into Rome. Anciently this city was supplied with earthenware by tlie Etruscans, and probably by the Greeks, as Plautus mentions Samian ware almost as synonymous with earthenware, and Horace preserved his Sabine wine in a jar of Greek earthen- ware.^ Still it cannot be doubted that extensive manu- factories of vases existed at Rome, although they are only occasionally mentioned. Martial speaks of the fragile plates of the Vatican Hill, and Horace of Campanian ware, and the potter's w'heel,^° as though he had seen it revolving. He also speaks of cups made at Allifae in Samnium. Yet Rome itself does not appear to have excelled in any of the finer vases, as > Horat., Serm. i., 116, 117. 2 Martial, xii. 32; xiv. 119. ' Persius, v. 148. * The old Scholiast to Juvenal, ii. 2t), calls the hascauda an English vas?, in ^Yhich cups and pots ^Ycrc washed ; this can hardly be a b.tskct. * Ausonius, Ep. iii. * Pliny, N. H. xxviii. 1. ^ Orellius, 45, 40, 47. « Uorat., Sat. ii. 8. 9 Carm., i. 20, 2, 3. »« Sat., ii. S, 39. Serm., i. llG-117. 542 KOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. Pliny, when he mentions pottery, does not praise its produc- tions^ although Numa had instituted a guild of potters.^ He mentions eight principal places of the manufacture ; Arretium or Arezzo, famous for its dinner services, which he compares to the wares of Samos ; Asta ; Pollentia, upon the banks of the Tanarus; and Surrentum, upon the eastern coast of the Bay of Naples, renowned for drinking - cups ; Modena and Ehegium which produced the most durable ones, and Cuma, already mentioned by Martial. The foreign manufactories were Saguntum, in Spain, so often praised by the same poet ; Per- gamus in Asia; the island of Samos; Erythrae in Ionia, where two amphorae of remarkable thinness existed ; Tralles, Cos, and Hadria. At a later period a glazed red ware is found dis- tributed all over the European limits of the old Koman world, and was evidently manufactured at one place and exported. The services used at a Roman entertainment presented the same spectacle as those of persons possessing wealth and taste at the present day, to which the potteries of Staffordshire, of Sevres, Dresden, and China, contribute their respective por- tions. The most exquisite enjoyment was derived from the con- templation of a variety of the products of the human mind and hand, which please by their association and improve by their presence. The vaulted top of an oven at Pompeii is formed of jars, ollde, fitted one into another. These ollao are about a foot high and six inches wide, of the usual ware. The span of the arch is five feet six inches. The object of it was to produce extreme light- ness and dryness. A similar construction occurs at Syracuse ; part of S. Stefano alia Kotonda at Eome, and the dome of the church of S. Vitale, at Eavenna, built by Justinian, is con- structed of amphorae and tubes on the same plan.^ In the chapter Yitruvius has written on the * Echea,' or sounding vases, which were distributed in the Greek tlieatre, he mentions that they were often for economy made of earthenware.* The Greeks seem indeed to have employed both pithoi or casks and lagenae to make rooms,^ and they were sometimes used as in the case of vaults, domes, or other elevated erections, for the sake of dimi- » N. H., XXXV. xii. 46. 2 Ibid. ^ Seioux cl'Agincourt, Stoiia dell' Arte, tav. xxiii. tcm. v. p, 56. See tav. xxii. torn. v. pp. 52-56. * Vitruvius, v. c. vii. vol. i. p. 284, a Marinio; Pliny, N. H. xi. 112. " Seneca, Queest. Nat. vi. 19 ; Aris- totle, Probl. xi. 8. Chap. III. USES. 543 nishing the weight rather than for augmenting the sound, ^ or for want of a better material.^ ^uch, at all events, is supposed to be the case of the vases found at the top of the wall of the circus of Maxentius, at Rome. There is a row of amphorae arranged with their necks downwards, and their long axis inclined obliquely to the top of the wall. All these are now broken, but they show an ingenious method for rendering lighter the upper part of the arches which held the wall of the seats. Vases are also found used in the construction of the Tor Pignat- tarra, the Mausoleum of the Empress Helena.^ * Blanconius, Descr. dei Circhi, p. 98 ; Scamotius, Arch. Un., viii. 15 ; Venutius, Kom. Ant., PI. ii. i. ; Winck- elmann, Stor, d. Art, iii. p. 29. ' Nibby, Del circo di Caracalla, 4 to, Koin., 1825. ' Nibby, Analisi della carta di Roma, 8vo, Roma, 1837, III. p. 243. 541 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. CHAPTER IV. Division of Roman pottery : Blaclc — Gray — Red — Brown — Yellow ware — Shapes — Red ware — Paste — Shapes — False Samian — Paste and Shapes — Lamps of Christian period — Olios — Gray ware — Mortaria — Paste — Pelves — TrullsB — Names of makers — Black ware — Paste ^- Colour — Mode of ornamentation — Shapes — Brown ware — Paste — Shapes — Ornamentation. Great confusion prevails in the classification of Eoman pottery, and each author adopts a system of his own, owing to the sub- ject not having been yet studied with the necessary minuteness. Many local circumstances, such as the clay, firing and manipu- lation, produced differences in the ware. As the scope of this work is not so much to follow the technical march of science as to give the literary and archaeological results of an examination of ancient pottery, it will perhaps only be necessary to take colour for a guide, as it is a distinction easily followed. The glazed wares, irrespective of their colour, will be reserved for a subsequent chapter. The Roman pottery is grouped in the fol- lowing manner ^ : — Division 1. — Pale yellow paste, almost white. 2. — Dull red- dish paste, passing to a reddish brown. 3. — Gray, or ash- coloured paste. 4. — Black paste. The 1st division comprises the jars and amphorae ; the 2nd division, the Roman pottery of the first century ; the 3rd divi- sion, Roman ware later than the first century ; the 4th division, Gallo-Roman ware, and that of the local potteries. The system of Brongniart follows the age of the potteries more closely than tliat of Professor Buckman, although it must be remembered that the different descriptions of ware are found together, and were consequently employed simultaneously. Thus, the am- phorae and ollae which filled the cellar, the bottles in which the wine and other liquids were carried about, the lagenae and cadi were of the first and second divisions. The so-called mortaria, some bottles, and other small vases were of the third division. The jars which covered the ashes of the dead were of the brown 1 Brongniart, Tiaitc, p. 381. Chap. IV. CLASSIFICATION. 545 j)aste of the second division ; and tlie cups and other bottles out of which persons drank were of red*" or black ware. Pro- fessor Buckman/ who examined the technical qualities of the unglazed ware found in Britain, divides them as follows : — Division 1. — Black. 2. — Gray. 3. — Ked. 4. — Brown. 5. — False Samian. The only objection to this division is that it does not present the vases according to their relative ages. The yellow ware is distinguished by its coarse paste, of a grayish-white or yellow colour, verging more or less to red. It is to this division that all the larger pieces of wares belong, such as the remains of amphorae^ and tubs or casks, dolia, which form the Monte Testaceo at Eome. These vases were made by diffe- rent processes. Some were turned upon the wheel; others, such as the casks, cadi, were modelled with the hand, and turned from within.^ The globes, in which the urns and glass vessels hold- ing the ashes of the dead, were deposited, were of this class. They appear to have been dolia or amphorae with their handles broken off. Mortaria were also made of this ware, and it was extensively used for long narrow-necked bottles with one or two handles, probably lagenae : and for trullae, or deep bowls. A remarkable vase of this ware, apparently a kind of olla in shape of a human head, probably of the god Mercury, has painted on the foot DO MIIRCVRIO, "to the god Mercury," in brown letters, found at Lincoln, and has been published.* A finer paste of this colour, often of a rosy tint, or white and micaceous, was used for making the smaller vases, which are all turned upon the wheel, and are thin and light.^ They are orna- mented with zones, lines, hatchings, and leaves, slightly indicated by a dull ochre, laid on and baked at the same time as the paste.® These vases are often covered with a white coating of a fiat colour, harder and more equally laid on than in the Athenian vases. Some of this ware has its paste mixed with grains of quartz.' A subdivision of it is a very white kind, which has been occasionally found in England, consisting of little jars; small bottles, paterae or dishes, painted inside with a. dull red » Buckman and Newniarch, Corin- * Proc. Soc. Ant. of London, 1867, ium, p. 77. p. 440. 2 MuseeCeramique, PI. iv. fig. 2,3,5. i ^ Brongniart, Tiaite, i. 435; Mus. ^ For various fragments of this ware Cer., viii. 5, 10, 14. found with other specimens of red ware, ' ® Arch., xiv. PI. 14, p. 74. ( (' Archrcologia, viii. PI. G. ' Caumont, iii. p. 214. 2 N 546 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. ornament ; vessels of the same shape, painted ; a vase, appa- rently a dish, ornamented with red lines crossing and hooked ; and others with brown lines. The paste of these is very white, and by no means adapted for common uses. They must have formed a fine kind of ware for ornamental purposes, as well as those of the table. The largest division of Roman pottery is the red ware, as it comprises nearly all the vessels used for domestic purposes. It varies in colour from a pale salmon to a deep coral; in quality from a coarse gritty and cancellated structure to a fine compact homogeneous paste. The greater part of this pottery is red, and without any glaze, and of it are made a great number of plates, dishes, bottles, amphorae, dolia, and jars. It is often distin- guished by an engobe or white coating of pipe-clay, with which the potter has covered the vase, in order to give it a neater appearance ; but in many specimens this is completely wanting. Sometimes the paste of this red ware is mixed with grains of quartz.^ The following are the principal shapes of this ware : the olla or jar, which was often used to hold the ashes of the dead ; the amphora ; the urceolus or small jar ; vases in the shape of a small barrel, one of which was found near Basingstoke, and pre- sented to the British Museum by Lord Eversley. Another similar to those still used by rustics, probably for carrying water to drink, was found at Vie ; ^ a little bowl, patella, patina, or lanx. Innumerable small bottles with a long neck, of a very fine red paste, formerly called lachrymatories, but now supposed to be unguent vases, are found in the Eoman graves all over Europe. Many illustrations of this ware may be taken from the vases in the collections of the British Museum,^ consisting of amphorae, and large open-mouthed jars, with two handles, probably diotm ; conical vases with a small mouth, adapted^ for holding liquids, perhaps the cadus,^ which held fruit or honey ; a lagena, or bot- tle, and bottle with a female head, probably the guttus, painted with white ornaments upon a red ground ; and a colus, or colander, of red ware, from Cissbury, curiously moulded at the sides, pierced for straining. Some of these have a polish or very thin glaze, and belong to the division of glazed wares. A jar with six holes at the bottom, was found at Minchinhampton, * Caumont, Cours, i. 214. 2 Societe des Antiquaiies de France, T., V. no. ]. 3 Journal, Brit. Arch. Assoc, i. 238. * Martial, v. 18, 3. Chap. IV. IIED WARE. 547 Gloucestershire. Of this pale red ware were also made the jars or oUaB which held the ashes of the dead, mostly of slaves which were deposited in the Columbaria. Some singular lamps of this ware are in the shape of the helmet of a gladiator.^ Specimens of this pale unglazed ware were found at Staples, near Boulogne, with hatched and wreathed patterns in a very bad style, and apparently of a late age.^ In the Sevres Museum are the remains of a vase or cup found at Souaire, near Bourges, made of a reddish-brown paste mixed with a great number of little particles of mica. The exterior is covered with a perfectly black coating, with micaceous particles shining through it. The polish is owing to the friction i\\Q potter has given it while turning it. The interior is flat. Some other specimens in the Sevres Museum, and fragments of cups and bottles, exhibit the same peculiarities.^ This is, however, rather a glazed or lustrous ware. Another division of ware with a red paste is that called false Samian, made of fine red clay, by no means so brilliant as the Samian, and covered with a thin coating of a red colour, pro- duced by dipping the clay into a slip made of sulphate of iron. The subjects, as in the case of the Samian ware,* have been impressed from a mould ; but they are generally of ruder execution, and more indistinct than upon the true Samian, The vases with reliefs are, however, often hollowed on the inner side. This ware is of a rarer occurrence than the true Samian. Specimens of it in the shape of dishes, lances, patinse or patellae, cups, pocula, cyathi or calices, are found in England, France, Germany, the Peloponnese, and the Archipelago. Of the very fine brick-red paste the principal shapes are the class called mortaria, the inside having small black pebbles inserted into it, to grind or pound the food ; another is probably the urceolus, or cup of some kind ; a third, a guttus, or oil vase ; others are lagense, or bottles. Some of these last have handles in shape of the busts of Serapis and Isis,^ and at Briaire a Zodiac was found on red ware.^ Of this fine red imglazed ware, were made a great number of lamps in the latter days of the Koman Empire. They are long and shoe-shaped, having subjects stamped on a flat bas-relief. ' Joum. Brit. Arch. Assoc,, v. 136. I ** Buckman and Newmarch, pp. 93, 2 Eoach Smith, Collectanea, vol. i. 94. ' Caylus, vi. 75, 3, 4. pi. iii. 3. I ® Jollois, Ant. du Loiret, 4 to, Parl.s, 3 Brongniart, Traite, i. p. 434. 1836, p. 167. 2 N 2 548 llOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. These consist of the monogram of Christ — the great whale which swallowed Jonah — a fish — alluding to the monogram IX@TC/ in which was contained " Jesus Christ, sou of God, tlie Saviour;' necklaces of crosses, and other objects and symbols. Such lamps were particularly common in Egypt, with inscriptions as already cited, evidently made for Christians. Tlie ollae which held the ashes of slaves in the columbaria, are also of unglazed terra-cotta. They are tall jar-shaped vessels, with a moulded rim, and a flat saucer-shaped cover. They are humble imitations of tlie glass or alabaster vessels, in which Avere deposited the mortal remains of their wealthier masters, two of them, a pigeon's pair, went into one arched recess, the columbarium. In the Roman sepulchres of Britain and Gaul, the ashes of important persons were also deposited in oUee, or jars, which were placed inside a large dolium, or broken amphora, to protect them from the weight of superin- cumbent earth.^ Near the urns were often deposited several small vessels and different instruments. The urns were also placed in coffins or coverings of different kinds: one of the most remarkable, which was found near Lincoln,^ was a sphere with an orifice sufficiently large to allow the urn to be intro- duced. Great numbers of these urns are found on the sites of the ancient Roman provincial cemeteries, as in the Dover Road. Twenty thousand were found near Bordeaux.* An amphora of pale red ware, containing a jar, with a lid of pale gray pottery,^ was found near Colchester. After the introduction of Cliris- tianity in the third century this practice was abandoned ; when the body ceased to be burnt, similar vases, but of smaller size, containing charcoal, were placed near the dead. The gray ware was made of fine clay, and may be divided into two classes. The first of these was made of a kind of sandy loam, such as that of the softer bricks made from clays on the border of the chalk formation. Its colour is rather light and its texture brittle.® By many it is called stone-coloured ware. This ware was chiefly employed for amphorae, mortaria, and dishes used in cooking, which were exposed to the heat of the fire. The small pebbles, which some suppose to have been placed inside the vessels for the purpose of preventing unequal * Avolio, p. 126, lamp from Puzzuoli. i 7 & 8. 2 Wright, Celt, Koman, and Saxon, ■* Brongniart, i. p. 437. P- 223. 5 Journal Brit. Arch. Assoc, i. 239. » Archaeologia, xii. p. 108, PI. xiv. ' « Mus. Pract. Geol. Cat., pp. 88, 89. Chap. IV. OKAY WAKE. 549 contraction in baking, others regard as intended to grate the corn, fiour, or meat. The mortaria resemble in shape modern miJk-pans, being flat and circnlar with overlapping edges, and a grooved spout in front, though these may be the pelvis or trulla. Most of them appear to have been used for boiling, as appears from holes burnt through them, or from their having become much thinner. This however may be the result of the grinding to which the materials placed in them were subjected. They are of a hard ware, rather coarse, but compact in texture, and heavy. On the upper portion inside are the remains of the small stones, which some think were introduced into the paste in order to render it harder to grind upon.^ Sometimes ground tile was used, apparently to prevent the vessels from shrinking when they were baked. They are often impressed with iron scoria. Their colour is a pale red, bright yellow, or creamy white, re- sembling stone ware. Some of them have upon their lips a square stamp with a potter's name, like those upon amphorge. These names are generally of persons of servile condition, such as xilbiuus, Aprilis, Catnlus, Brixsa, Sollus, Ripanus, and Paulus ; but some are apparently the work of freedmen, such as those inscribed Quintus Valerius, Sextus Valerius, Quintus Valerius Veranius, Quintus Valerius Esunertus. The most remarkable are those which read upon one edge Bipanus Tiher{inus) f{ecit) Liigdu(ni) /actus, — " Ripanus Tiberinus, — made at Lyons." The names of the potters are accompanied with the words F or FECIT, he made; OF. or Officina, the factory ; M. manu or Manus, the hand ; as in the red Samian ware.^ These mortaria are from 7 to 23 inches across, and 4 inches high.^ They are found in France,^ England, Switzerland, and Germany. Among several urns found at Aosta was a mortarium inscribed C. Atisius Sabinus.* A group, selected from the collection of the British Museum, exhibits some of the principal shapes of this ware. One is a dish, patera, or patella ; others, small bottles, gutti, for oil or vinegar ; an urceus, found in Moorgate Street in the City ; an amphora, the sides of which are fluted, perhaps to case it with wicker-work in order that it might be carried about without breaking ; an oUa or jar, of the same ware. A kind of pipkin was also found of this ware in France 15 inches diameter 7 inches high.^ The second class of gray pottery is a stone ware 1 Cf. Buckmon and Newraarch, p. 79. ^ Caumout, Cours, 1*1. xxviii. 4. ^ Artis, Journal Brit. Arch. Assoc, ii. * Muratori, i. p. 134, fig. 3. pp. 166, 167. ' Oaumont, Cours, xxviii. 5, p. 217. 550 KOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. much resembling the modern Staffordshire, and is supposed to have been made out of clays of the same kind. It is almost of a stone colour, much heavier than the preceding class, and sonorous when struck. It is principally used for amphorae ^ and mortars ; one remarkable vase of this ware found at Caistor is in shape of a human head. Another class of this ware was dis- covered in the New Forest, where kilns and many vases were found of a dark grayish or black ware glazed like the Caistor ^ ware. The vases were small, a kind of cup, especially of the class with the sides pinched in. Some varieties of this ware are filled with quartzose sand, and covered on the outside with mica.^ This class is more like stone ware than any other Koman pottery, but is rather glazed. There is a variety of the black unglazed pottery, which is not only black on its surface, but has a paste entirely of a grayish black colour, and often of a fine black, or grayish-red, inter- nally. It has a coating about a quarter of a millimetre thick upon the surface, but is without any glaze, however shining it may be. It is distinguished from the Celtic or Gaulish pot- tery, which it much resembles, by the fineness of its paste, the thinness of its pieces, and the perfect manner in which it is made, having been well turned on the lathe.* This ware varies much in colour, sometimes being almost of a jet black, at others of a bluish-black, or even running into an ashy-gray colour. It is generally glazed, but many vessels exhibit no more ornament than a polish upon the surface, given by the potter when the piece was upon the lathe. This ware is distinguished by its colour, which is sometimes of a jet black, at others of a metallic gray, or even ashy. As it is sometimes glazed, a fuller descrip- tion of it will be found under the glazed ware. Sometimes the paste is intermingled with micaceous particles, pebbles, or shells, which gives it a gleaming colour when broken, and it is often covered externally, or frosted with powdered mica. The greater number of vases are evidently native ware, manufactured on the spot by Komans or by Gaulish, British, and German potters in the Boman settlements. The shapes much resemble those of the red ware, and it was chiefly employed for the smaller vases ; a few of larger size are found made of it. It was principally used ^ Buckman and Newmarch, p. 80 ; Arch. Joiirn., p. 8. Caumont, Cours, i, pp. 215, 216, xxviii. ^ Caumont, Cours, i. p. 214. fig. 1, 2. 1 Brongniart, i. p. 434. 2 Archseologia, xxxv. p. 91, PI. iii. ; Chap. IV. BLACK WAKE; 13E0WN WAKE. 551 for vases for the table, as shown in the following shapes : a shallow cylindrical vase, the patella, perhaps the 7iigra patella, or " black plate " of Martial ; the calix, or a cup ; a kind of small cup, or a jar ; the ciboria and tlie olla. The mode of ornamenting these vases is peculiar, and resembles Gaulish rather than Roman work, consisting of zones, hatched bands, and rows of dots, made by moulding little pellets and fixing them in squares and circles, or stamping hemispherical bosses on the body of the vase. Some vases of this ware have a peculiar ornament, made by hollowing small spaces in the sides, and pinching up the clay and giving it the appearance of a series of thorns. Others have eccentric patterns. The pattern of an urn, from York, is like a series of scales, formed by depressions. The ornaments are of the rudest character ; consisting of hatched lines, zones, or indented bands, raised dots arranged in squares or parallelo- grams, series of spurs imitating the pine cones, or rows of thorns, zigzag, and hatched lines, the herring-bone pattern, diagonal and crossing bands. Five little vessels, found at Binsted, in Hampshire, now in the British Museum, illustrate some shapes of this ware. One is a candelahrum, or ceruha,^ or candlestick ; another, a small vase for oil or vinegar, acetabulum ; a third, a jar, olla ; two others, small cups, calices. They were all found in a sarcophagus. Cups of a thin and finely moulded black ware, along with numerous potteries and kilns, have been found at the Upchurch marshes. This ware, known as the Upchurch, was adapted for useful pur- poses only ; and by the absence of all floral or animal orna- mentations shows a late character and local fabric. It is of the latest period of the Anglo-Roman epoch.^ Specimens of brown ware of a very coarse style are often found among other Roman remains of cream-coloured ware, consisting of amphorae, and other vessels for domestic use. It is, however, much more common in the Celtic and early Etruscan potteries. Some ^ amphorae and jugs have their necks decorated with the heads of females moulded upon them, like the bottles of the middle ages. Examples of these have been found at Richborough."^ Ihey are of brown ware, and four and a half inches in diameter. The excavations at Wroxeter have disco- vered two new classes of Roman pottery, the one of white Brosely ' Paciacedi, Inscr., i. 36. | p. 223 ; Arch. Journ., ix. ■' R. Smith, Collectanea, vi. p. 173. I * R. Smith, Ant. Richboroiigh, p. 74. ^ Wright, Celt, lionuin, and Saxon, I 552 ROMAN POTTERY. . Part IV. ware, so called from the spot, chiefly of narrow-necked jugs and mortaria very beautifully made, the surface of which is formed of hard stone, and striped red and yellow bands. Tlie other is a kind of red ware called the Roman Salopian ware, made from the clay in the Severn valley and differing from the common Roman ware. Colanders, or bowls pierced all over with small holes, have been also found.^ Some ollse as late as Const an tins II. were found at Rousse near Oudenarde.^ Many small vases in shape of ollse or wide-mouthed jars, some with narrow necks and reeded bodies, small ampliorse, double- handled bottles, lagense, mortars, or pans, and cups or cihoria ornamented with tool marks, and lamps of this ware have been found in different parts of England.^ In the German provinces the inscriptions show several " negotiatores artis cretaride^' per- sons engaged in the traffic of fine vases ; one, named Secundinus Silvanus, was a native of Britain.* ^ Wright, T., Ruins of Uriconium, 1837. ISmo., Shrewsb., 1860. | ^ Miis. Pract. Geol. Cat., pp. 84-91. 2 IMeersch, D. J. Van der, Oudhe- I ^ Steiner, Cod. Inscrip. Rom., ii. 305, den der Stad Rousse, 4to., Audeiiaerde, I 3-7. CiiAP. V. GLAZJ;D AND SAMIAN WARE. 553 CHAPTER V. Glazed Roman pottery — Samian — Proto-Samian — CrustsB — Emblemata — Aretine ware — Glaze — Polish — Slip — Lead — Salt — Moulds — Barbotine — Separate figures — Master moulds — Dies — Moulds of Cups — Stamps of potters — Furnaces and apparatus — Ornamentations — Use — Repairs — Makers — Names — False Sainiau — Black ware — Glaze — Varieties — Inscriptions — Sites. The Romans manufactured a glazed ware very distinct in its\ character from that of the Greeks, and more resembling that of the Etruscans. It must not, however, be supposed that all the lustrous wares of Italy were ornamented with highly finished subjects, as a very large number were entirely covered with a black glaze, which was the great characteristic of the pottery of the best Greek period, and which became more entirely used as the art of vase-painting decayed. On many of 'the later vases too of Southern Italy and other places, modelled figures in bas- relief were introduced by degrees, an imitation of the metal ware, which was rapidly rising into fashion ; and these, which are entirely glazed with a black lustre, are the nearest approach to the Roman ware. There are also certain vases found in Etruria and Greece which were apparently made just before the Samian of the time of the Roman Empire. They are of a fine earth of a pale red colour, and have a slight glaze or polish, but their paste is not of the fine lustrous red colour of the so-called Samian. They are, however, made from a mould, and liave in bas-relief friezes, anaglijiiilia, and other subjects, which imitated the crusim or detachable relief ornaments,^ of the metallic vases, or the ernUemata, fixed reliefs of the celebrated chased goblets and other vases of the great masters of antiquity, to which frequent allusion is made by Roman writers.^ Some of the vases, too, of the Greek islands, of red ware, with moulded subjects coloured with red paint, are prototypes of the Roman ware. On tlie bottom of a vase of this proto- Samian ware, found in excavations at Halicamassus made by ' Cicero in Verrem, vi. 23, 24 ; Ju- j 2 Virgil, Eel., iii. 38 ; JEii., i. 614 ; venal, v. 40 ; Martial, viii. 51-59 ; Pliny, Trebell. Pollio, Vita Quieti. N. H.. xxxiii. c. 11. 554 EOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. Mr. Newton, were figures in bold relief of Hercules and the Lion. The ware was a dull red externally, bluish inside through de- fective baking. The Koman Aretine ware is of one peculiar kind, being bright red, like sealing-wax, and covered, like the Greek lustrous vases, with a silicated alkaline glaze. As most of this ware in Italy has been found at Arezzo^ the ancient Aretium, it will be necessary first to consider its manufacture at that place, where it succeeded the black Etruscan ware found in the sepulchres of the oldest inhabitants.^ The potteries of Aretium were in activity during No. 193. — Proto-Samian Cup, with an Amazonomachia in relief. From Athens. the age of the early Caesars, probably closing about a.d. 300. The ware is fine, red, and often unglazed, in which case it was formed into hemispherical cups, stamped out of moulds, with the names of makers placed on raised tesserae on the exterior.^ Other fragments found at this place resemble the so-called Samian ware. The pottery of Aretium is often mentioned in classical authors. " O Aretine cup, which decorated my father's table, how sound thou wast before the doctor's hand!" says Virgil,^ referring to taking medicine out of it. And Persius ^ Dennis, ii. 425. - Arcliseologia, xxvi. p. 254 ; xxii. p. 8 ; Dennis, ii. pp. 422-428. '' Vir-nl. Chap. V. AllETINE WARE. 555 subsequently says of the ware of this town, " Behold, he believes himself somebody, because supine with Italian honour, as an fiedile, he has broken the unjust measures of Aretium.'*^ Ac- cording to Macrobius, Augustus said to IMsecenas, who was of the Gens Cilnia, and a native of Arezzo,^ " Fare thee well, O pearl of the Tiber, emerald of the Oilnians, jasper of potters, beryl of Porsena," in which some see an allusion to the red ware of Aretium, his native city. We find the vases of Arctium mentioned by Martial,^ who flourished from the reign of Domitian to that of Nerva, and who says in a metaphor, that as the vile Champagne cloak, with its greasy exterior, contaminates the gay scarlet dresses of the city — so the ware of Aretium violated the splendour of the crystal cup, or was like a black crow on the banks of the Cayster, laughed at when wandering amidst the swans, one of which charmed Leda. Pliny, speaking of this ware, says,* " In sacrifices amidst all this wealth libations are not made from myrrhine or crystalline, but from earthenware simpuvia." " Tlie greater part of mankind," says the same author, " uses earthen- ware. Samian ware is even now used for food. Aretium, in Italy, has also the pre-eminence." Isidorus says,^ " Earthenware vases are said to have been first invented by Samos, made of clay, and hardened in the fire. Afterwards it was found out how to add a red colour. The vases are called Are tine from a town in Italy," where they are made. Sedulius says of them, " The herbs which are brought up served on the red pottery." These vases are mentioned in a MS. written by S. Ristori, of Aretium, in a.d. 1282, and also by C. Yillani, in his History of the World.^ Alessi, who lived in the time of Leo X., describes the discovery of red vases of Arezzo, about one mile from the city. Vasari ' states that in a.d. 1484, his grandfather found in the neighbour- hood three vaults of an ancient furnace.^ In a.d. 1734, Crori,^ who had not seen any of the vases, republished the lists of Alessi. Rossi, who died a.d. 1796, had collected more information.^" Fabroni ^^ fouud in a.d. 1779, potteries at Cincelli, or Centum 1 Persius, Sta., i. 144, 145; Schol., Aim. Cornuti. ^ Sat., ii. c. 4. 3 Martial, i. 54 ; xiv. 98. •* Pliny, N. H., xxxv. c. 12 ; c. i., c. 46. - * Isidorus, xx. 20 ; a.d. 610. * Libio della composizione del inondo; Gori, Difesa dell' Alfabcto Etrusco, p. 208, pref. ' I., 9, cap. 47. * Fabroni, Storia degli Antichi Vast fittili Aretini, 8vo., Arezzo, 1841, p. 18; Vite dei Pitt. Roma, 1759, t. i. p. 335. » Pref. alia Dif. dell' Air. Etr., p. 207. '" Fabroni, p. 21. 11 » Tiovo le fornaci,i trogoli o vasehe, e gli utensili dell' arte. Vidde clic le foruaci erano construtte in qiiadro su 556 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. Cellse, with the different implements used in the art. The clay of the colour of umber was also found there, and the furnaces formed of bricks. The clay is supposed to have been decanted from vat to vat, and the vats were lined with pottery, and pro- vided with canals for tlie introduction of water. According to Kossi the vase was first made upon the wheel, and before the clay was quite dry the ornaments and figures were impressed with me- tallic stamps. I'he vases appear to have been generally made in moulds, which were oiled, and then had the clay pressed into them. They were completed upon the wheel, and when the inner part had been thus perfected, are supposed to have been first baked and then coated with the slip or glaze, and returned a second time to the furnace. From one of the moulds in the Rossi Museum having the name of the potter, Antiochus, the freedman or slave of P. Cornelius, vases have been made exactly like the ancient ones. The moulds in which the vases were fabricated were made of the same clay as the vases themselves, but less baked, without any glaze, and about one inch thick. They were composed of separate parts, so as to take to pieces, and had traces of some fat or unctuous substance employed to prevent the adhesion of the paste.'^ A terra-cotta mould terminating in a tragic mask was found, and some instruments. Part of a potter's wheel was also discovered, and much resembled that in use at present. It is composed of two disks or tables, both placed horizontally, of unequal diameter, having a certain distance between them, and their centre traversed by a vertical pin, which revolved. The wheel found was ^apparently part of one of the disks. It was made of terra-cotta, about three inches thick and eleven feet in diameter, circular, with a groove all round the border. Round this vase was a kind of leaden tire, held firm by six cylindrical spokes of the same metal, placed inside the disks. These cylinders, about half a foot long, one foot three inches in diameter, came beyond the circumference of the disk, and gave it the appearance of a plate.^ There was no mark of any pin in the centre, so that it must have formed part due braccia toscane di lato con pic- | ^ Fabroni, pp. 62, 63. Prof. Buck colissimi mattoni lungi J di biaccio sopra I di larghezza. La creta o argilla man and Mr. Newmarch, Remains of Roman Art in Cirencester, 4to., Ciren- gli parvi escavata poco piu in basso I cester, pp. 82-85. delle fabbriche ed imitante da crnda il ^ fabroni. tav. iii. 9, 10 ; v. 7, 8, 9, colore della terra d'ombra." — Fabroni, p. 64. p. 22. Chap. V. GLAZE AND FABRIC. 557 of the upper disk, called by potters the table, which lies upon a support of under chiy, aud enables the potter to fix the paste and to form it with the hands during the revolutions of the wheel,^ The glaze of these vases, both black and red, have been found difficult to analyse. It is not, however, produced by lead, but apparently by a vitreous flux.^ The vases were baked in furnaces, like those used at present. Considerable difference of opinion exists with respect to the varnish of these vases. By some it is stated to be an alkaline glaze,^ by others a glaze of a metallic nature, while water alone is said to be sufficient to produce the polish. The glaze is not so strong or compact as that of porcelain or majolica, so as to be incapable of infiltration, yet is sufficiently strong to resist the action of wine, vinegar, or oil, although hot, and is not altered by these liquids. It is said to leave traces of having been pro- duced by a brush, which looks as if a slip had been laid on. These vases seem to have been used for the table to hold fruits and liquids, and for medicine, and sacrificial purposes.* It is tender and more easily injured than the ordinary Samian. A bowl of Aretine ware found in Cambridgeshire is in the Fitz- william Museum. The two collections of Aretine vases at Arezzo are that of the Museo Kossi Bacci, and the public one of the city. The dia- critical marks of this ware are a paste of a red coralline colour, pale when broken, and of a reddish-yellow under the fracture, which does not become redder when subject to a red heat, but falls upon friction into an orange-red calx. The vases are coated with a very slight glaze, which is levigated and always of a red coral colour, occasionally black, and verging towards azure, sometimes iron grey, or with a bright metallic lustre.^ They are principally of small size and ornamented with bas- reliefs, of a decorative nature, not mythological, and in accordance with the later subjects of Koman art. They are generally light. The prevalent form of the vases is that of a teacup without handles, apparently the calix of Yirgil, and these when orna- mented with bas-reliefs, have rarely the name of any potter impressed upon them. When a name does occur it is on a tessera, and in bas-relief. * Fabroni, 1. c. 64. - Ibid., 1. c. G6. ( Art in Cirencester, 4 to., Cirencester, 3 Traite, i. p. 414. I p. 85. 4 Fabroni, 1. c. p. 65 ; cf. Prof. Buck- ^ Pabroni, 1. c, ii. p. 32, et seq. man and Newniarch, Remains of liomau | 558 KOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. Flat circular dishes, ^patellae or lances, also appear to have emanated from this fabric, together with larger urns, some for cinerary purposes, square tiles, bas-reliefs, and lamps.^ None of these pieces were, however, of any size, while the smallness of the furnaces proves that large vases could not have been baked in them. The subjects are disposed as friezes, but more often mixed up with architectural ornaments, such as scrolls, egg and tongue borders, and columns with spiral shafts and featoons. The subjects appear to be Hercules and Hylas, Bacchic orgies, Cupids, combats, chases, dances, candelabra, masks, gladiators. No. 199.— Patina of Aretine Ware. British Museum. females, horses, dolphins, dogs, goats, serpents, sphinxes, lions, and panthers, in a style resembling the Roman art at the best period of the empire. The examination of 1500 graves at Xan- ten, Castra Vetera, has done much for the classification of the red glazed ware. In almost all these graves coins were discovered, verifying the date of the vessels of earth therein found. The Samian w^are of the age of the first Caesars had the finest red colour, the brightest glaze, the hardest paste, and the best exe- cuted ornaments, reliefs, and arabesques. The vases ring with a metallic sound when struck. At the time of the Flavii the clay Fabroiii, 1. c. 3S. CiiAP. V. POTTERS. 559 is good, but no longer so fine, and resembled imitations of the earlier ware. In graves of the time of the Antonines true Samian ware is no longer found, the shapes are still good, but the fracture and glaze show instead a coarse material coloured with red lead, litharge, and an artificial glaze, far inferior to the true Samian. After the age of the Antonines the paste is still worse prepared, and it fell off on vases of tlie later period of the Empire. Altliough tlie details of this examination are uncertain, the fact of the gradual deterioration of this ware may be considered to be proved. This is the reverse of the glass fabric, which continues to improve under the later Empire. The black glazed ware follows the style of red ware.^ Many vases have the potter s name impressed in bas-relief with a metallic stamp in Koman letters, often interlaced in ligatures, as on the consular coins. In the plain ware these are usually inside at the bottom of the vase, but in vases with bas- reliefs they are more often introduced amidst the foliage and ornaments. The letters are often enclosed in an oblong outline or tessera. Sometimes they are impressed in a human foot, probably in allusion to the treading out of the clay. The inscriptions show that the vases were principally made by slaves, who placed their names upon their work, sometimes followed by that of their master, the proprietor of the estate. One person named Publius seems to have employed several slaves. Another, Aulus Titius, calls himself an Aretine potter; and L. Tettius, stamped L. Tettii Samia, proving that this ware had been imitated from the Samian.^ Three lists are given by Fabroni, the first of which, consisting of names with prsenomens, contains the free citizens, or freedmen, who were proprietors of estates, or who worked the potteries ; the second is that of the slaves whose products were sufficiently good to be impressed upon the ware, or who may have sold it for masters who were too proud to exercise the craft in their own name. The last list contains the inscriptions exactly as they appear on the vases. Vases of red ware, similar to those found at Arezzo, have been discovered in the vicinity of Modena, having the names of the potters Camurus, Eutychius, L. Gellius, Herennius, Occa, Phil- adelphus, Sanus, and Villus, and others. This circumstance has given rise to the hypothesis that the so-called Aretine * Fiedler, Denkm. von Castra Vetera, fo., Xanten, 1839, pp. 40, 41. * Fabroiii, p. 41, 560 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. vases were made at Modena.^ Similar vases are said to have been found at Vulci, bearing the inscription Atrane,^ and at Cervetri, with the names of the Aretine potters, C. Vibianns Faustus, L. GeUius, Aulus Titius figulus,^ and another. In the Gregorian Museum are three cups and one jug, called in the description of that collection Aretine ware, apparently of the red unglazed terra-cotta ware there found. On the cups are large acanthus leaves, egg and tongue ornaments, goats, and a race of dolphins. On the jug are four bands of fleurettes and festoons, artificial ornaments, and dolphins and anchors repeated. On one cup, with Cupid and other ornaments, is the name of the Roman maker, C. Popilius.* In the Museo Borbonico, at Naples, are several specimens of this red ware, which is found in abundance at Capua, and amidst the ruins of the houses at Pompeii. The specimens procured at Naples and coming from the South Italian potteries are of finer make and ware than those found out of Italy. There is a beautiful specimen of this ware in the Slade collection representing a large goblet, orna- mented with figures delicately moulded.^ A ware exactly like that of Arezzo, called by some the red Roman ware, and by others Samian, distinguished by its close grain composed of a fine clay, and presenting when broken, edges of an opaque light red colour, whilst the inner and outer surface are quite smooth, and of a brighter and darker red, is iound in all places of the ancient world to which the Roman arms or civilisation reached.^ It is distinguished from the Aretine by its darker tone_, stronger glazq, and coarser orna- mentation. Possibly, the whole passage of Pliny^ in which he speaks of the earthenware of his day refers to this red ware. Thus for dishes he praises the Samian, and the Aretine ware, for cups that of Surrentum, Asta and Pollentia, Saguntum and Pergamus. Tralles and Mutina had their manufactories. Cos was most esteemed, Hadria produced the hardest ware. That one of these, that of Saguntum, was a red ware, is clear ; that of Curaae was also of the same colour. " The chaste Sibyl has ^ Cavedoni, Dichiarazione dei maimi ^ Nesbitt, A.; Cat. of the Collection Modeuese, 1828; Biographia di Cav. of F, Slade, fo. 1871, Appendix, p. 167, Zaumo, 1835, pp. 40-41 ; Bull., 1837, No. 4. p. 10 ; 1838, pp. 129-131. « Buckmaii and Newmarch, p. 84 ; 2 Bull, 1836, p. 171. Roach Smith, Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, 3 Bull., 1830, p. 238 ; 1834, p. 102, iv. pp. 1-20. 149 ; 1837, p. 108 ; 1839, p. 20. j ^ N. H., xxxv. 45. * Mus. Etr. Vat., ii. cii. i ClIAP. V. SAMfAN WARE. 561 sent thee, her own burgess, a red dish of Cumaean earth," says Martial.^ Cups also were made at Allifoe. That the red ware is found amidst the dense forests of Germany and on the distant shores of Britain, is a remarkable fact in the civilisation of the old world. It was a[>parently an importation, being exactly identical wherever discovered, and is readily distinguished from the local pottery.^ No question has excited more controversy among antiquaries than the place where it was made. Samos, Aretium, Kome, Modena, Capua, Ancient Gaul, and Britain,^ into which, however, it seems to have been imported, have been supposed to be the sites of its manufa(;ture. It belongs to the No. 200.— Bowl of Red Samian Ware, bearing the name of Divix, a Gaulish Potter. class of tender lustrous pottery, consisting of a bright red paste like sealing-wax, breaking with a close texture, and covered with a siliceous, or according to some, a metallic glaze. This glaze is exceedingly thin, transparent, and equally laid upon the whole surface, only slightly augmenting the colour of the clay. The vases made of this ware are generally of small dimensions, and consist of dishes, lances or patinse, of an oval or flat circular shape, like modern salvers, of small bowls, apparently for holding small quantities of viands, perhaps paterae, and generally hemi- ^ Epio-r., xiv. 114. I ' Roach Smith, Journ. Brit. Ardi. " Brongniart, Traito, i. p. 240 et scq. | Assoc, iv. pp. 1, 20. 2 O 562 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. spherical or cylindrical, and of little cups either of globular or of conical shape, probably pocula, and of jugs or larger vessels. The ware is generally plain, and impressed with the name of the potter from whose factory it emanated, and it will be seen from the names of the potters, that these were slaves, or liberti, and that many were of Gaulish or British origin. The Samian ware from its peculiar paste was more than usually brittle. In the Menaschmus ^ of Plautus, the following dialogue occurs : "If. Knock gently. — P. Are you afraid the doors are Samian." In another play, the Bacchides,^ of the same author, the following passage is found: " Take care, prithee, lest any heedless one toucli that ; Thou knowest how soon a Samian vase will break." The most remarkable fact connected with this ware is the great similarity of its paste in whatever place it may be found, Avhich renders it probable that the ware was made upon one spot, and imported throughout the Empire. The potters did not import their paste prepared, but levigated a colourless clay of the locality, and produced the usual red colour by the intro- duction of ochre.^ The colour of this ware, which was made of a clay like the red ware, was owing to the more perfect oxidation of the iron contained in it, and it was probably baked in open kilns or fire- pans. The glaze or lustre is supposed to be owing to a polish given to it when upon the wheel.* The analysis of Brongniart ^ shows that the- paste of these vases consists of 56 — 64 silica, 25 — 17 alumina, 7 — 10 ox. iron, 9 — 2 carb. lime, 2 — magnesia, 18 — 2 water, while the glaze consists of 64 silica, ll'O ox. iron. Dr. Percy's analysis is 54-45— 60-67 silica, 22-08—20-96 alumina, 7-31— 5-95 peroxide of iron, 9-76—6-77 lime, 1-67—1-22 mag- nesia, 3-22 potash, and 1*76 soda.^ The glaze of these vases is stated not to be metallic, but produced by some substance laid upon them after they were ready for baking. The portions not covered with reliefs have been polished ' upon the lathe, and the bas-reliefs were in certain instances retouched with a tool, which left a furrowed line round > Menscchmus, I., i. 65. j « Mus. Pract. Geol. Cat., 8vo. Lend., 2 Act II., 11. 22, 23. 1854, p. 59. 3 Brongniart, Traite, i. p. 423. | ^ Cf. also on this ware Grivaud de la * Buckman and Nowmarch, pp. 78, 79. i Vincelle, Antiquites decouvertes dans * Brongniart, Traite, i. p. 421. j les jardins du palais de Luxembourg. f.'HAP. V. PASTE AND MOULDS. 563 tliem.^ The colour of the vases is due to the introduetiou of an oxide of iron, and the difference of tlie external colour appears to depend mainly upon the paste. When heated in the fire, they become a deep claret colour.^ As there are no traces of any pencil being used to apply the glaze, it is probable that the vases were dipped into a slip which held it in suspension.^ A similar glaze, however, could probably be obtained by the appli- cation of salt thrown into the furnaces durinof the bakiuG:, in the same way as now practised at Lambeth for stone ware. This ware was made upon the wheel, by which the slopes fillets, mouldings, incised rings, or bands were produced. Moulds were employed, sometimes of an entire piece, in which case they were made by punching the requisite ornaments upon the mould itself from matrices, or master moulds. Sometimes many sepa- rate moulds, representing the same or different subjects, were adjusted together to complete the decoration of the circumference of a cup. The engrailed lines and smaller ornaments were made by means of a cylinder or revolving mould of terra-cotta or metal,* applied to the vessel while in slow rotation, leaving in- dentations in the clay at regular intervals, the vessel and instru- ment revolving in constant contact, like a wheel and pinion ; but the larger ones, such as the egg and tongue moulding, were effected by a punch or seal Avith a long handle,^ the part on which the ornament is incised being concave, to correspond with the convex surface of the vase. The same process was adopted for the figures in the central groups,^ and the more salient parts w^ere separately stamped and placed on the vase while the clay was wet, as is very evident in some reliefs of vases of Aretine ware. Names of potters were also impressed from stamps of terra-cotta or metal.' The last mode of fabric consisted in lay- ing upon the general body of the vase some clay in a very viscous state, technically called harlotine, either with a pipe or a little spatula in form of a spoon, and with it following out the con- tours, of the branches of olives or laurel, animals with thin limbs,^ &c. On some specimens an ornament had been modelled 1 Caumont, Coiirs, p. 206. ; " Ibid., i. p. 424, PL xxx. F. 2, A. 2 Ibid., p. 909. ^ Ibid., p. 424 ; Musee Ceramique, ix. 3 Brongniart, Traite, i. p. 423. fig. xix. "^ Ibid. 424, PI. xxx. 3, A ; J. Evans, ® Brongniart, p. 425 ; Golbert and Excavations at Boxmoor, Lond., 1S.53, Scbweigliivuser, Mem. de la Soc. des fol., p. 18. ! Antiq. de Fiance, t. vii. Pi. Ixxii. ; Can- ^ Brongniart, 1. c. F. 4. A. B. mont, C-onrs d'Antiq., t. ii. p. 185. 2 O 2 534 ROMAN POTTERY. Paut IV. with a white paste. Separate figures, crustse, were also rriade in moulds, and then placed on the body of the vase, one of the finest specimens of which is an Atys, in the York Museum.-^ Another mode of ornamentation visible on some pieces found in the north of England, consisted in scooping out wreaths, and cutting out fan-shaped patterns in intaglio, wdth a tool on the clay, while moist, the parts dug out being removed from the plain surface, as shown by the hori- zontal stripes.^ This mode of working was copied from engraving on glass, called by the later Jurists diatretum,^ executed by certain engravers called diatretarii celatores, who en- graved on glass in a style resembling that of inferior intaglios or precious stones. A master-mould, in the Britisli Museum, pyramidal in shape, and convex at the base, has a slight bas-relief of a youth standing full fiice with some drapery thrown over his left arm. At one side is OFFI LIBERI, "the workshop of Liber," stamped incuse, probably as a preservative against theft or removal from the premises. This die was apparently arranged with others so as to form a pattern, and it was then stamped into the sides of a convex vessel fashioned like one of the cups or dishes, but No. 201.— Master-Mould ' of the potter Liber. . No. 202,— Fragment of a Mould found near Mayence. without the foot, which in some instances appears to have been subsequently added. This die is of rather a fine terra-cotta, and was found near Mayence. A similar mould, presenting a tragic mask, was found at Arezzo or- Arctium.* Two others 1 Wellbeloved, Antiquities of York- shire, Phil. Soc. 1852, p. 50. 2 Ibid. p. 52, 1, 2. ' Ulpian, Digest, ad leg. Aqnil., I. 27-29. * Fabroni, tav. v. 4. Ohap. V. MOULDS AND DIES. ^65 in the British Museum are in- shape of a boar and lion : they are of a compact red clay, externally of a reddish-brown. Other moulds in shape of a hare and of a lion, inscribed with the name of Cerealis, a well-known maker of red ware, are in the Museum of Sevres, one, in the shape of a wolf standing, baked almost as hard as stone ware, has on it the name Cobnertus.^ Some moulds for this purpose of the Roman period have been found, and the process is of common use at present. It was particu- larly desirable in cases where ornaments in high relief were required for the enrichment of red or black wares. A fragment with a draped figure from the mould of Liber, already cited, was found at Cirencester.^ Another mould of a vessel was found near Mayence. It is in shape of a shallow bowl, with a mould- ing at the edges and foot, and the pattern has been stamped out from matrices like those already described : the pattern is coarse, and represents a series of animals, consisting of a dog or wolf, boar, and lion pursuing each other. Sometimes mechanical means were employed : one mould in the British Museum had six small tragic masks to make at one stamping, to be applied in pairs to the outer rims of small plain cups; another has the whole frieze of a vase rolled out on a black surface. The paste of the clay when kneaded to a due consistence, was pressed into and formed a bowl ; the foot was probably afterwards formed of a separate piece, and added. This vase-matrix was made of a very fine bright red clay, rather light, and not glazed. In this respect it differs from the mould of the lamps already mentioned, whose paste was of a bright yellow colour. It was very porous, rapidly absorbing the moisture, and easily delivering the clay to the potter like the plaster of Paris moulds now in use. At Arezzo similar moulds, for other vessels of the Roman red ware, have also been found. Those of the lamps are mentioned with the lamps. Besides these moulds, metal dies or punches were used for stamping intaglio ornaments, such as fleurettes and other mouldings, on some rare examples of Samian ware.^ Dies for stamping the potters' names upon these vases have been discovered at Lezoux,* in Auvergne, and in Luxembourg,^ with parts of other moulds for festoons and the tassel pattern,® and for making vases. '^ ^ Brongniart, Traite, 1. c. Musee de Sevres, p. IG. 2 Buckmau and Newmarch, p. 92. 3 R. Smitli, Aut. Richlorough, PI. iv. * Brongniart, Traite, i. p. 424. •^ Grivund do la Vincelle, 1801. « Brongniart, Traite, PI. xxx. 2, H, 4. " Koaeh bmitli, Collectanea, vol. i. p. 73. i IGl. 566 ROMAN FOTTEllY. Part IV. They had the names of the potters, Auster and Cobnertns,^ and another, witli a potter's name, was made of metal.^ Modelling tools, styles, punches, and other little instruments of bone or ivory, have been found amidst the remains of the ancient potteries,^ along with the remains of the potter's wheel. The mode in which these vases were baked is shown by fur- naces found at Chatelet, in Auvergne, on the banks of the Ehine, in the vicinity of Strasburg; at Heiligenberg, near Milz, and also at Ittenweiler. The furnaces near Heiligenberg were evidently for the baking of red Koman ware. The flue was a long canal, with vaulted arch, the mouth of which is 8 feet 2| inches, from the space where the flame and heat were concentrated beneath the laboratory. Numerous terra-cotta pipes, of two different diameters, branched off from the upper part or floor of that chamber, to distribute the heat : the smaller were in the outer wall of the laboratory ; the larger, twelve or fifteen in number, opened under the floor of the laboratory, to conduct the heat and flame round the pieces which were placed there. The- mouths of the pipes were sometimes stopped with terra-cotta stoppers, so as to moderate the heat. The upper part, or dome, is never found entire, and is supposed to have been destroyed and replaced by the superincumbent earth. Walls of strong masonry separated and protected the space between the mouth of the flue and the walls of the observatory. The floor of the latter was made of tiles, or large squares of terra-cotta. Fifteen such furnaces were found at Kheinzabern, some round and others square, but all constructed on the same plan) They were found at the depth of 2 feet 4 inches under the ancient soil, and more than 3 feet 3 inches above the modern transported soil. The floor of the laboratory was nearly 3 feet 3 inches below the upper edge of the walls ; a kind of tile roof covered it. The brick- work was made of masses of clay, 2 feet 4 inches long and 1 foot 4 inches broad and thick. The pieces which supported the floor of the laboratory were in some of these furnaces made of bricks, covered with a coating of clay.* The fuel was fir or deal. The pieces placed in the furnace were carried on supports or rests of terra-cotta, in shape of a flattened cylinder, and kept up by pads of a peculiar shape, made by the person who placed the * Brongniart, Musee Ccramique, ix. 19. "^ Brongniai t, Traite, i. p. 424. ' Ibid., Mus, dc Sevres, jx 16. •1 Ibid., Traite, 1. c. p. 429 ; PI. xxx. 7, A. B. C. Chap. V. ORNAMENTATIDN. 567 vases in the furnace, by rolling up a piece of clay in shape of a rolling-pin and squeezing it together. These are the pieces erroneously called hand-bricks. The pieces have no cases, as tliey were not necessary to prevent adhesion.^ The scrolls which ornamented the upper part of the bowls made of this ware are of exceedingly elegant device, though clearly architectural in their treatment, and are generally varieties of the tendrils, flowers, leaves, and fruit of the grape or ivy.^ Sometimes the upper parts of the bowls are ornamented with an egg and tongue moulding, and the scrolls have often figures of little birds introduced into the composition, in ara- besque style. The animals and otlier figures consist of isolated groups introduced at intervals into the outer surface of the vase. They are separated by headings, and are often in niches, formed No. 203. — Vase of Sumian Wave ornampiitcd with Arabesques. of pillars with twisted shafts, surmounted by arches, or in me- dallions. These are clearly intended for representations of statues, and other embellishments of public edifices, as they appeared at the time. Repetition was the object chiefly sought, and as, in the decadence of art, the ornaments occupy much surface in proportion to their importance. They consist of scenic masks, garlands, rosettes, foliage, astragal mouldings above and below, the egg and tongue mouldings above, scrolls of flowers, in which birds are pecking the foliage and fruit ; friezes of animals, consisting of lions, goats, hares, rabbits, and deer ; or insects ; among birds, pigeons, eagles, and crows ; medal- » Ibid., i. 419 ; Shaw, Pottery, 1839, I Cer., viii.-ix. ; R. Smith, Collectanea, i. p. 390, note. Pl. liii. ^ Brongniart, Truitc, PI. xxx. ; Mus. | 568 EOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. lions and other architectural ornaments.^ The subjects are not arranged on a continuous frieze, but generally consist of one or two friezes, rarely more, repeated several times round the body, and inter Diingled with the foliage.^ The subjects consist of the gods, Cupids, Genii, Venus, Hercules and his exploits, gladiators (a favourite subject of vulgar art),^ the Circensian games, hunts, and erotic representations.* Some of these frag- ments are clearly as late as the fourth century, as the costume and style of art of the subjects resemble that prevalent at the close of the Eoman Empire.^ The subjects are taken from the Eoman school of art, from the statues which adorned the Circus, the Forum, the Triumphal Arches, the Thermae, the Basilicas, and the houses of the wealthy. They resemble in their treat- ment the reverse of the Roman medallions,^ except that they bear indications of being entirely influenced by architectural considerations. It is evident that the ware was for use and not decoration, its solid character and glaze adapting it for that purpose. Many of the flat dishes were undoubtedly the lances or paropsides used at entertainments,^ others are supposed to have been the mortars used in the kitchen or at the apothecaries.^ It is not known to have been employed for cinerary purposes, although often placed in tombs to contain the. objects deposited with the dead.^ The observations made upon the Aretine ware apply also to this. Yet, however common in Rome, it was a comparative luxury in Gaul and Britain, though it is found in those countries wher- ever Roman settlements occur.-^" That it wa§ common at Rome appears from Martial : "If," says he, "ye have enough to eat, a few white beans dressed in oil, upon a red plate, refuse the entertainments of the wealthy." ^^ " Be present, ye gods, nor spurn the gifts from pure earthenware on the tables of the poor." ^^ The ancient husbandman first made for himself cups from the yielding clay.^^ The most striking point in the deco- * Brongniai-t, Traite, PI. xxx. ; Musee Ceramique, PI. viii. ix. 2 Caumont, Cours, PI. xxiii. xxiv. xxv. xxvi. xxvii. ; K. Smith, Collectanea, i. p. 165. 3 Horah Serm., II., vii. 96, 97. * Caumont, Cours, ii. p. 200 ; E. Smith, Collectanea, i. p. 165. | 12 Tibull., CI. I. iv. 37. = K. Smith, Collectanea, vol. ii. p. i. i 13 Ausonius, Epigr., 8 p. 12, i ■ . . ^ Janssen, Inscr., 4to., Lugd., 1842. tab. xxxi. 230. ^ Martial, Epigr. xi. 27. ^ Bronguiart, Traite, 1. p. 432. » Ibid. - ^° Caumont, Cours, ii. p. 185. " Epigr. xiii. 7, 1. CuAP. V. NAMES OP POTTERS. 569 ration of those vases is their resemblance in the adoption of arabesque forms to the mural paintings. Wlien fractured this ware was repaired with leaden rivets,^ which shows the estimation in which it was held. It was equivalent to domestic porcelain, with a soft paste. Tlie shapes are few ; all the vases are wide and open-mouthed, and of small proportions. Those of the largest dimensions are the dishes, jparopsides, lances, or paterw, ornamented with a tendril led leaf, intended for that of the ivy or the vine. These are probably the lances pampinatse, or hederatse, dishes with grapes, or ivy leaves, such as Claudius received from Gallienus. Some rare dishes, with spouts like the mortaria, and bowls with lion-headed spouts, are known ; occasionally some of the paterae have handles. The small cups are supposed by some to be either acetahula, vinegar cups, or salina, salt-cellars. The larger cups are the pocula, cyathi, or calices} Many of the vases have the makers' names stamped across their centre, or placed upon their sides.^ The letters are often united in a nexus or ligature. They are in relief, but the place stamped is depressed, and of square, circular, or long oval shape ; in a few instances, in that of the human foot, in allusion to the potter's mode of working. The letters are sometimes, although rarely, found incised. A piece of coarse red ware, not Samian, from Calymna, had BARBARVS impressed on it. This would appear to be an accidental employment of the nume- rous bronze stamps with letters in relief so often found, the use of which has long been a mystery. The potters' inscriptions occur inside the plain vases; those ornamented outside with bas-relief being less frequently stamped with potters' names, winch, when they do occur on such vases, are on labels or tesserae. There are certain philological peculiarities evident upon inspection of these stamps. The names generally end in ws, which was introduced at the Augustan era, and superseded the form in os which preceded that period. Some early names as Paterclos, Julios,* Yiducos occur.^ The double 1 1 is used for E, as Riignus and Siixtus for Regnus and Sextus. It first appears on a coin of Emerita in Spain, struck under P. Carisius A.V.C. 729-732, b.c. 25-22, on an aureus of Antony and ' Birch, Archaeologia, xxx. p. 254. "* R. Smith, CoUeitanea, 1. 156. ^ Buckmaii and Newmai*ch, p. 87. ^ Ibid., ii. p. 35. 3 Ibid., p. 93. 570 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. Octavia, struck in Campania A.v.c. 715, B.C. 39, on the leaden sling bullets of the Perugian war A.v.c. 713, B.C. 41, and on a fictile cinerary urn of the time of the Flavii, and is common at Pompeii.^ This form, which was in use from the first century B.C. to the close of the first century a.d., shows the earliest period at which this ware was in use.^ The /^ in the name of Caretus resembles the Celtiberian form, and on one with the name Methillus the ® is used for TH. The words are often in contraction, retrograde, and confused ; and some have supposed that the potters used movable letters, which is improbable. The names of many potters are Gaulish, apparently of slaves or freedmen. Amongst the names more particularly Gaulish are Advocisus, Beleniccus, Cobnertus, Dagodubnus, Dagomarus, Dagoimnus, Suobnedo, Tasconus, Tascillus. The formula used by the potters was O., OF., or OFFIC- foi* offieina, or establishment, either before or after the name. M for manu, ** hand, the work," which is always placed after the name of the potter in the genitive, and F- or FE. for fecit, "he made," after the potter's name in the nominative ; and the ano- malous forms, of F' oy fecit, "made," ovAing to the cacography of the potter.^ In one instance fecit, *' he made," occurs without any potter's name, and in another case the potter, through ignorance or caprice, has impressed the stamp of a Eoman oculist, destined for some quack ointment, on the bottom of a cup. Besides these names, a few other inscriptions are found. On a deep poculum of red glazed ware is inscribed, in raised letters, round the outside, BIBE AMICE DE MEO, "Drink, friend, from my cup."* The idea was probably taken by the potter from the glass cups, which often have similar letters, in complete relief, round their sides. A list of the potters' names which occur on the Koman earthenware found in Britain has been given by Mr. Koach ^mith, in the * Archaeologia,' ^ and in his * Collectanea Antiqua.' ^ The nume- rous names found at York are inserted in Wellbeloved's * Ebu- racum,'' and others, found at Caerleon, in Lee's * Antiquities' of that place.^ A more complete list than those yet published will appear in the Corpus of Eoman Inscriptions of the Berlin 1 Cavedoni, Bull., 1852, p. 135. ^ E. Smith, Collectanea, i. 156. ^ Froehner, Inscript. terrsc cottoc va- Borum intra Alpcs, Tissam, Tamcsiu rc- pertae, 8vo., Getting,, 1858. * Mus, Borb., vi. xxix. * Archseologia, xxvii. p. 143. ^ Smith, Collectanea, i. 150, ' P. 128. 8 r. 10, PI. iii. Chap. V. TOTTERS. 571 Academy. A fragment, supposed to have been given as a love-token from a gladiator to his mistress, has '*Verecunda Ludia, Lucius the Gladiator."^ In some rare instances the potter has scrawled a few illegible words on the mould before the clay was pressed in, and these have been preserved on the vase when baked.^ Such caprices of the potter are not uncommon, and have been already mentioned in the case of Greek vases. At Rottenburg the inscriptions showed that the vessels inscribed belonged to the legions there stationed, for many had scratched upon them the initials of the 21st and 22nd legion, besides those of Jovianus the master of the stand- ards of the 3rd Helvetian cohort of the same legion, of Jovianus and another tribune of the 3 id cohort. Others bore the name of the prefect of the colony, Sumlocene, or Solicinium, and the dates A.v.c. 1056 and 850.^ Inscriptions scratched upon Samian ware after it has been baked, chiefly names of its possessors, also occur. The potters were called doliarii, or pot-makers, if they made vessels of unglazed ware and large size,* ampullarii, flask-makers,^ vaseularii, or vase-makers,^ fictiliarii,'' makers of fictile vases, and jlgulmarii, figuli, or potters in general. They were generally of servile condition, and are represented wearing only the tunic of the slave.^ One Gaulish potter, named Casatus Caratius,^ is, however, represented on a bas-relief, w earing a cloak besides the tunic. He holds in one hand a fluted vase, like those of the black ware. One of the reasons why the mechanical arts never attained any excellence under the Eomans was that they were considered servile.^^ A female potter, one Tascilla Verti- cisa, is known. The potters of the red ware usually have only one name, rarely more, such as L. Cossutius Virilis, and others of freedmen are found out of Italy.^^ It would appear almost ^ HoUings, J. F. ; Eoman Leicester, celle, xxxiii. 2. In the sepulchral bas- p. 47. relief are an amphora, olla, and lagena. 2 Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc., ii. 20 ; * Plant., iii. 4, 51 ; Orellius, 4143 ; Soc. Lux,, 4to, 1853 ; PI. vi. 4, p. 124. 1 Cicero in Verrem, iv. 24. ' For engravings of vases found at * Grivaud de la Vincelle, xlvii. this place, Kottenburg, see Jaumann, j ^ Ibid., xlvi. ^ Ibid., xlvi. 1. Colonia Sumlocene, tab. xi. xii. xiii. * Ibid., xlvi. 4. note; Steiner, Codex Inscr. Kom., ii. pp. ! ^" Cicero, De Offic. 7, c. 42, 150. Sec 350, 351 ; Jahrb. d. V. A. im Kheinl., for incised inscriptions of one H. Juli- 1850, pp. 51-58, 60. For a long list of anus, Mnasmann, Tubulas ceratiB, 4to,, private names supposed to be of the j Lips., 1837. later Constantino period, Jahrb., 1851, j '* K. Smith, Collectanea, i. 155. The P 70. j form Maiiibus L. Abucci Pothi, vernal * " L. Aurclius Sabiiuij;, doliarius, . Abuccia) Aiisculai L(iberti) Maft( i, fecit sibi et suis." Grivaud de la Vin- ' Gall. Ant., p. 8(j. 572 EOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. certain that the ware was an article of export, as stated by- Pliny, and that the name of Samian was applied to it in reference to its origin, long after it had ceased to be made in that island. Some of tlie Eottenburg vases had the date of the consuls D. Coelius Balbus, Marcus Clodius Pupienus Maximus II., A.D. 227. Traces of manufactories of red pottery and broken moulds and wheels have been found scattered all over Gaul, as near Nancy, at Paris, Mmes, Lyons, and at Ferrand-Clermont, near Bordeaux ; but principally at Bheiuzabern, and at Heiligenberg, near Strasburg.^ In Italy the ware has been found from Modena to Pompeii, and probably extended over many sites in the Penin- sula. In England it has been discovered in great abundance, principally in the south and west of the island. A vase of a red ware of late period and singular shape was found near the new Hotel Dieu of Paris. They were hollow annular, with a coarse reddish-brown glaze, and had letters in relief. One reads OSPITA REPLE LAGONA CERVESA, "Host, fill the jug with beer;" the other COPO CNODI TV ABES EST REPLEDA, '* Innkeeper, .... be off, [the bottle] is full." Similar vases have been found at Hainaut and Treves, and are still made at Talavera and Segovia.^ The sites of the French potteries of Samian were in Auvergne, those of Spain at Murviedo or Saguntum. Another kind of the red glazed ware is that used for lamps, which differs considerably from the Samian. Its colour is much paler and texture very different from that of the bowls ; the glaze is of a thin alkaline kind, and thinly spread over the surface of the ware. The lamps of this ware are generally found in Italy, and have been already described in the general account of lamps. There is a kind of this ware, which is pro- bably the earliest in point of time, and to which the term Samian might not be inappropriately applied. The clay is not uniform in its colour, being gray, black, or yellow, and the lustre appears as much due to a polish on the lathe as to a vitrification. The prevalent shape is the cup, either hemispherical or cylin- drical, decorated with figures or architectural scrolls and orna- ments. This so much resembles certain cups of terra-cotta already described, that it can hardly be separated from them. Such vases have been found at Melos, and a jug of this > Caumont, ii. p. 211. 2 jj^^ Arch., vol. xviii., 4868, p. 227. Chap. V. GLAZED TIED WAl^E. 573 style representing a sacrifice was dug up in 1725 at Hadria.^ Another variety of this ware, called by some the false Samian, resembles the Samian, but is of an orange, not yellow colour. The colour too has sometimes a kind of red paint, or powdered Samian ware, laid on it externally, in order to deepen it.^ False Samian light red clay, glazed within and without with a thin reddish-brown and somewhat lustrous glaze, has been found at Oundle and in London.^ This ware is often coarse, and ornamented externally with coarse white scrolls, painted with pipeclay on the body. One kind of ware found at Caistor is distinguished by its red glaze, which often has a metalloid lustre. The paste is yellowish-brown, white, or reddish-yellow.* In some instances the glaze is lustrous, and shows the colour of the paste. The shapes and ornamentation resemble the black glazed ware. One remarkable jar has a chariot race. The difference of colour assumed by the vases appears partly due to the degree of firing the vases experienced, the paste of some which is black, red, or gray, becoming of a copper hue.^ A remarkable variety has been found at Botham, near Lincoln, the site of a local pottery, composed of a light yellow paste, brushed over from the lip downwards with a light yellow wash of a sparkling mica, or dipped in the fluid and inverted to drain off the superfluous fluid. Here the colours consisted of many shades of yellow, brown, purple, and even black, with a metal- loid lustre. The shapes and ornaments are the same as those of the Caistor black ware, and are sometimes laid on with a slip of pipeclay.® The Caistor ware is also found in France, Belgium, Holland, and Flanders : and is probably of a late date, for an urn 7 in. by 6 in. found at Colchester had on it an incised inscription of the fourth century, a.d. The subject, in barbotine, represented two gladiators, ^lario and Secundus, killing a boar, Memnon, ii secutor, and Valentinas, a retiarius, in mortal combat, and a deer hunt. This cup had also SAC Villi. the 9th sacellum or chapel where the eagles were placed of the 30th Legion, LEGION IS XXX.' These vases are Gallo-Koman, made subsequent to the Samian. Sometimes ' Muratori, cxlix. i xlvii. 3, xlix. 4 - As at Comberton, Arcli. Joiirn., vi. \ * Arch. Journ., x. 229 210. 3 Smith, Coll., vol. iv. p. G3. 4 Cat. Mus. Pract. Geol., pp. 72-77; Artis Dnvobiiv.p, PI. iii. 1, xxx. ■4, 6 Jbid., xii. 173. ' E. Smith, Coll. Ant., iv. p. 82, PL xxi. It was found with Samian and other ware. 574 KOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. they have inciseJ inscriptions — dedications to deity, as to the "Genius of Tournay,"^ on a vase found in France — rarely the names of potters, as that of Camaro, on a vase at Lin- coln.^ A similar vase of pink ware, stamped with the name of the maker, Camaro, CAMARO F., Camaro fecit, has been found elsewhere.^ A remarkable variety has a gray paste baked hard like stone ware, and painted of a yellow mottled colour to imitate marble. The black ware was made of any tenacious clay in the neigh- bourhood, and it varies from a dark black to a slate or olive colour. The kilns in which it was baked have been already described, but the phenomenon is differently explained by Professor Buckman,* who supposes that the carbon and hydrogen of the smother kiln re- duced or rather prevented the iron in the clay changing into a peroxide or the red oxide of iron. Fune- No. 202.— Cups of Black Ware— that on the peal ums wcro oftcn made of this left Crockhill, on the right Upchurch ware. pottery. Some varieties of this ware exist like that of the unglazed red. In the first the clay is soft, easily scratched, and covered with a polish or lustre produced by friction on the lathe. From the peculiarities and differences in its paste and embellishments it appears to have been the product of local potteries.^ The glaze, or coating, may have been produced l^y water or friction.^ The paste is fine, and the walls thin and well turned. The paste varies from a kind of gray, or colour like that of the London clay, to a dull black. The vases are mostly small, the ware generally consisting of cups, bottles, and small amphorse and jugs, but occasionally of the supposed mortaria. Some of the cups, like those of the red dull ware, have their sides cor- rugated. The ornaments which are by far more common than the subjects, are of the most simple nature, consisting of pressed lines and herring-bone patterns ; but the favourite devices are regular clusters of corrugated studs, disposed in squares or bands round the vases, and produced by sticking small pieces * R. Smith, Collectanea, iii. 193. ^ Arch. Journ., xii. 174. ' Proc. Soc. Ant., Lond., 1867, p. •* Buckman and Newmarch, p. 78. * Artis, Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, ii. 166. 440. I « Traite', i. 430. Chap. V. GLAZED BLACK WARE. 575 on the vase before the clay was baked. Some of these re- semble the spines on the blackthorn. In some rare instances the potter has stamped in a series of small square indentations, resembling fleurettes. A great peculiarity of this ware is that it is unaccompanied with the names of potters, nor is it found with coins and other Roman remains.^ A few vases of this ware are ornamented round the body with rows of little pebbles, let into the clay, humble imitation of the cups of the wealthy inlaid with gems.^ Great quantities of this ware have been found in England, in the Upchurch marshes near Sheerness.^ There is a pottery differing from the preceding, by the quality and colour of its paste, which is red with a black glaze. Some- times, however, it is gray, or even black, but generally not so fine as the first kind. Its grand distinction is its glaze or lustre, which consists of an alkaline earthy silicate, sometimes very black and pure, but at other times of a green or bluish or slate- coloured tint. One kind, although thin, is lustrous, but without any metallic reflection ; the other, which seems to be a metallic coating deposited by steam, having a lustre like black-lead. This ware was made on the wheel by the same process as the red, and the ornaments were either made by the revolving swivel-moulds or else by the usual process.* It must be bonie in mind that there was a black as well as red Aretine ware, and that plain black lustrous vases continued in Italy till the middle of the Roman Empire. A Roman vase of this ware, found at Cumge, has the subject of Perseus and the Gorgons stamped in intaglio from separate dies, after the vase left the lathe.^ A hemispherical cup, found in the Greek islands,® of the proto-Samian class, and of the period of the Empire, was made from a mould, has its subject in relief, and is covered with a lustrous black glaze. Another urn of this black ware, with its cover, is ornamented with subjects in relief like the Samian, and is only different by being black instead of red, and bears the name of the potter, Bassus. It was found in France. Some of these vases are ornamented with subjects in relief, representing mythic and hunting scenes in a low ^ J. Kenrick, Excavations at the Mote Hill, Warrington. 8vo., Warring- ton, 1853. 2 The calix gemmatus. Martial, xiv. 106. ' E. Smith, Ant. Richborough, p, 58, Joum. Brit. Arch. Assoc, ii. 138. * Brongniart, Traite, i. p. 433. * Mon., 1855, tav. ii. p. 18. * By Mr. Newton, now in the British Museum. 576 ROMAN POTTERY. Part lY. and degenerate style of art, which, from the costume of the figures, may be referred to the last days of the waning Empire of Eome, and are clearly later than the red polished glazed ware. The art is apparently Gaulish, and the figures bear striking resemblance to those on the ancient British and Gaul- ish coins. They are never made from moulds as in the Samian ware, but by the process called harhotine, by depositing on the surface of the vase after it had left the lathe, from a small vessel or tube, masses of semifluid clay, which were slightly modelled with a tool into the required shape. The glaze and colour are supposed to have been produced by smothering the vases when in the furnace with the smoke of the kiln, and depositing at the same time the carbon on the surface of the heated vases, and thus giving them a black glaze. It has two different glazes, one dark but without any metallic reflections, the other metalloid, like a polish of black-lead. The principal subjects represented on this pottery are hunting scenes,^ such as dogs chasing stags — deer — hares, — also dolphins, ivy wreaths, and engrailed lines, and engine-turned patterns.^ In a few instances men with spears are represented, but in a rude and de- based style of art. The principal form is the cup of a jar-shape, sometimes with deep oval flutings, as on one found at Caistor ; but dishes, cups, plates, and mortars, are not found in this ware. Some of the vases of this ware have ornaments, and some- times letters painted on them in white slip upon their black ground. They are generally of a small size, and of the nature of bottles or cups. The inscriptions read SITIO> *'I thirst;" REPLE, "fill up;" MISCE, "mix; " DA VINVM, "give wine;" MITTE MERVM, "send pure wine ;" DA BIBERE, ^'let us drink;" BIBE, *' drink thou;"^ BIBATIS, "drink ye ; " Bl BAMVS PIE," let us drink piously ; " VIVE, " live ; " VIVAS, " may you live ; " VALI AM VS, " let us do well ; ' AVE, "hail!" FELIX, "oh, happy;" GAVDIO, "I rejoice;" LVDE, "sport;" AMO,"I love;" AMO TE CONDITE, "I love thee, O stored* one!" AM AS : FELIX VITA, "thou lovest: happy life;" CALO, "I warm;" BELLVS SVADEO,' IMPLE, "fill;" AVE COPO, *'hail host!' or innkeeper;" SITIO, * Journal, Brit. Arch. Assoc, i. pp. 5, 7, 8. 2 Brongniart, Traite, PI. xxix. ' Grivaud de la Vincelle, Antiq. PI. xxxiii. 48. Janssen, Inscr. Tab. xxviii. 26-29 ; Gerhard, Berl. ant. Bild., 182; R. Smith, Collect., i. p. 3. * Jahn, Jahr. d. Ver. von Alterth. im Eheinl., xiii. 105. ' Jahrb. Vereins Alterthumsfr. im Rheinl., i. 84, 92. « Virgil, Eel. ili. 43-7, " pocula con- dita." Chap. V. INSCTIIBED BLACK WARE. 577 or iniikooper ; " SITIO, "I thirst;" VALIAMVS, *'may wo hail;" VT FELIX VIVAS, *' may est thou live happily!"^ MERViVI DA SATIS, "give wine enough;" SESE, ''may you live;" FRVI, "enjoy ;" EME, '' buy ; " REPLEME COPO MERI DE ET, ''fill me up, host, wine is wanting;" DO[S] DOS, PETE, "seek;" FERO, 'I give;" VINVM TIBI DVLCIS, "I bring you wine, my dear." ^ One of these BIBE vases was found at Treves,^ which confirms the idea that they are of the age of Constantine; VINVM, "wine;" VITA, "life;" VIVE BIBE MVLTIS; showing that they were used for purposes purely convivial. Such are the vases found at Etaples near Boulogne,* the ancient Ges- soriacum, and at Mesnil.^ Some rarer and finer spe- cimens from Bredene, in the de| artment of Lis, have a mould- ing round the foot. Great quantities are found in England, Holland, Belgium, and France. It is found on the right bank of the Khine. A variety of this ware was found at Crockhill in the New Forest, together with the kilns in which it was made, and a heap of potter's sherds, or pieces spoilt in the baking. The paste was made of the blue clay of the neighbourhood, covered with an alkaline glaze of a maroon colour, perhaps the result of imperfect baking ; for the pieces when submitted again to the action of tlie fire, decrepitated and split. They were so much vitrified as to resemble modern stone ware, yet as all of them have proofs of having been rejected by the potters, it is probable that this was not the proper colour of the ware. Almost all were of the pinched-up fluted shape, and had no bas- reliefs, having been ornamented with patteins laid on in white colour. The kilns are supposed to be of the third century of No. 2(!5. — Group of Vasts of Jnscnf)ed Black Ware, principally from Cologne. ' Lcvezow, Verzciclm., s. 3GG n., 1 1G9. - Jahrb. d. Ver. von Altcrtb. iin Kheinl , xxxv.p. 49. ^ Wyttenbach, Forsch. liLer die Ro- miscli. Altertli. in Moselthale, 8vo? Trier, 1844, p. 121. ■* Roach Smith, Collectanea, I. PI. iii. p. 3. Jochet, Normandie souterraine, 8vo, I'aris, 1855, p. 131 . 2 P 578 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. our era/ and the ware was in local use, for some of it was found at Bittern. The bottoms of two pots of this Roman ware found at Lyons showed that it was sometimes made of a very coarse and gritty paste with many micaceous and calcareous particles distributed through it, breaking with a coarse fracture of a dark red colour. The ware is covered with rather a thick coat of black glaze also exhibiting the same paste. The bottoms were impressed with a potter's name stamped in circular mouldings and disposed in circles, in characters of the later period of the Empire, and the ornamental grooves were subsequently made. One of these had L. CASS I O, perhaps Lucii Cassii officina — "from the factory of L. Cassius ; " the other had F I R M I N VS F(ecit)— "Firmi- nus made it." The name of Fortis, a well-known lamp maker and of Similis, SI MI- LI S p., have been found on black ware at Aix.^ This ware is very different -from the Castor ware and forms a totally distinct class, inter- mediate between the glazed and plain ware, sprinkled with mica. If the ars cretaria is pottery, as some suppose, the negotiator's artis cretariw are earthenware merchants, some of whom traded in British potteries;^ and the name has been preserved of M. Messius Fortunatus, who united with it that of the artes Pa[v]ementari8e and Psenularise, and whose name is also found on Samian ware.* The distribution of this pottery of Roman manufacture and style, whether of the Samian or other ware, is almost universal over Germany, France, and Eastern Europe, and in the West, extending through Spain and England. In Germany ^ it has No. 206. — Cup of Black-glazed Castor ware. * Akerman, in Archseologia, xxxv. Rheinl. 1856, 61. 91-96 ; Arch. Journ., March, 1853, p. 8. | 4 Orellius, 2029, 4304, 4466, 7258, 2 Roiiard, fouilles d'Aix, p. 144, pp. 7259. 16-29. * Wagener, Handbuch, 8vo, Weimar, 3 Jahrbuch d. Ver. von Alterth. im ' 1842, PI. 22, 23. Chap. V. DISTIUliUTION OF BLACK WAHK. 579 l)een found tliroughout the oountry, as at Alsheim, Cassel, Xauteii, and Zahlbaeli. The sites of the legionary tiles have been already given. Of the German localities, however, May- ence seems to have been particularly active in it8 ancient potteries. Details of a still more precise nature are afforded of the different kinds of ware found in France. Thus at the Canal de Bourges in the department of the Cher ^ red Roman ware and that with a black micaceous paste were found ; red ware at Esclas ^ near Darney in Vosges, at Limoges in the Haute Yienne,^ at Aix,* and Nismes,^ in Provence and Langue- doc, and at Vienne in Dauphiny ; at Paris in the gardens of the Luxembourg, and at St. Genevieye. At Bordeaux were found the red ware, the black Roman ware and that with white, yellow, and red pastes.^ Large specimens of red ware of an elliptical shape were exhumed east of Thit rs near Lezoux, together with moulds, stamps, and the remains of a pottery;^ as also near Clermont- Ferrand.^ Amphorse joined with lead were found at Mont- labathie-Saleon, near Aspres, in the High Alps,® Chatelet, be- tween St. Dizier and Joinville in Champagne, the Samian ware with potters' names, dull red ware, that of a yellowish-white tint, with a leaden glaze, and others of a black earth with a brown ^® or black lustre. Roman red ware has also been discovered on the banks of the Seine near Asnieres at Mount Ganelon, in Oise, at Compiegne,^^ near Beauvais,^^ and at Limeray near Dieppe, in Normandy ;^^ at Maulevrier near Caudedec in Normandy, tosrether with coins of Gallienus and Constantine: at Sarthe near Mans, 2000 pieces, as well as the vitrified bricks of a furnace, and a cruse, with the name of Tertiolus, either maker or proprietor, were dug up in throwing a bridge over the river. They were all broken, some stamped with the names of Severus, Bassus, Crassus, and others. At Loiret in the Orleannais, in ' Traite, i. 144. - M. JoUois, Cimetiere d'Orleans, PI. xvi. ; Bronguiart, 1. c. ' Brongniart, 1. e. * Kouard, Fouilles d'Aix, 1841. ' Menard, Antiq. de Nimes ; Brong- niart, i. 455. *> Brongniart, i. 441 ; Grivaud de la Vincelle. ^ Jouannet de Bordeaux, Antiquite's Se'pulclirales de la Gironde ; Rec. Aca- demie de Bordeaux, 1831. * Brongniart, i. 445 ; Mus. Cer., ix. 1, 8, 13; D'Allonville, Campes Romaines du dep. de la Somme, 4to, Clermont- Ferrand, PI. ii., iii., iv., v. ® Brongniart, i. 144. '« Ibid., 408, 445. " Grignon, Bulletin des fouilles falter par I'ordre du roi, 8vo, Paris, 1774. *- Brongniart, I.e. 442. '3 Ibid., i. 442, PI. xxxv. 19. 2 P 2 580 ROMAN POTTERY. Part IV. Brequeruque in the Pas de Calais, at Noyelles-sur-mer^ in the department of the Somme, red, black, and yellow Roman ware have also been found ; at Pagny-les-Chateanx vases and tiles.^ Some of the pottery found at Agen resembled the Samian, but was of a softer paste and exhibited some local peculi- arities. The names of the potters also differed from those of the usual lists. It has been supposed that these vases might have been made by potters settled upon the spot, and it is certain that the Komans, whose villages must have been decorated by Roman workers in mosaic, had local potters. The trade in pottery in France was carried on with great activity in the Yalley of the Rhone from Lyons to Vienne. The potteries of coarser ware it is thought may have been placed for facility of trans- port of their productions on the banks of rivers, while those of the finer materials were situated either close to the beds of finer clays or near the cities containing the largest populations. Potteries and furnaces of more recherche wares have been found at Serin, Francheville, Massues and Sainte-Foy, while a pottery for the coarser materials of ornamented brick-work, tiles, and bricks existed at St. Romain-en-Gall between Gisors and Sainte- Colombe.^ In Italy this ware has been found chiefly at Arezzo, and also at Hadria, Modena, and other northern sites. Fine speci- mens, far surpassing in size and art those of northern and western Europe, have been discovered at Capua.* Of Western Europe it now only remains to mention Spain, in which country numerous specimens of this ware have been discovered. Saguntum, praised by Pliny ^ for its calices, or drinking-cups, may have been one of the sites whei-e this pottery was manufactured ; Pliny places it in about the third rank. Martial^ mentions "a nest of seven little vases, septenaria synthesis, the clayey turning of the Spanish wheel, polished with the thick glaze of the Saguntine potter " as part of a dinner set of a person of moderate circumstances. In another place he says, "Nothing is more odious to me than the old cups of Euctus. I prefer the cymbia made of Saguntine clay."^ Sa- ^ Brongniart, i. 442, 443 ; Rev. Arch., suolo dell' antica Capua, 4to, Napoli, 1865, p. 246. ; 1855, p. 13, tav. iv. v. viii. 2 Rev. Arch., 1863, p. 542. | « N. H., xxxv. c. 46 ; Brongniart, i. ^ Comarmond, Muse'e lapidaire de } 455. Lyon, p. 460. i ^ Martial, iv. 46. •* Riccio, Notizie degli scavamenti del ' Ibid., viii. 6. . • CfiAP. V. SITES OF RED AND BLACK WAKE. 581 gnntiim appears to have manufactured boxes^ cups,^ cynibia, calices,^ aud lagena3,^ or bottles. The actual ware found at Murviedo* is classed under four different kinds, viz.: 1. The lloman red ware. 2. A cinereous kind. 3. Yellow with certain red spots. 4. Whitish terra-cotta, unglazed, of the colour of the clay used for bricks and tiles. The pieces of the first class were of the usual shape, and many had the names of the pot- ters. The same remark applies to those of the second class. Those of the third class had only two branches of wild palm stamj^ed inside ; and those of the last kind had inscriptions incised upon the tiles and on necks of the amphora^, some in Greek, as the name Hermogenes, or in Latin, as Lucii Herennii officina, " The factory of L. Herennius ; " others apparently in the Celtiberian character. All were of the period of the Roman Empire, and the pottery resembled the Italian red ware. In England the various kinds of Bonian red ware are scattered all over the island, and specimens are everywhere turned up with the spade or the plough on all the old Eoman sites. The pages of the ' Archaeologia ' are filled with descriptions of these remains, which have been discovered in abundance on the site of the City of London, principally near the bridges ^ and sites of late improvements ; ^ at Gloucester ; ^ at Southfleet ; ^ great quantities have also been dug up on the banks of the Medway in the Upchurch Marshes, leading to Sheerness,^ together with a local fabric of a bluish-black ware. Eoman vases of different wares have also been discovered at Chesterford,^" at Ickleton near Saffron Walden,^^ at St an way ,^^ at Mount Bures,^^ at Colchester,^* and at Billericay.^^ A kiln has been found at Ashdon;^*^ false Samian ware at Appleford" and Comberton.^^ » Martial, xiv. 108. ^ " Calicum tantum Surrentum, Asta, Koach Smith, Collectanea, PI. ix. x. " Neville, E. C, Ant. Explor., 8vo, 1847; Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc., 173; Arch. Journ., xii. 85. PoUentia, in Hispania Saguntum." — Pliny, XXXV. 12. ^ Juv., v. 29. * Valcarcel, Barros Saguntinos, 8vo, " Arch. Journ., vi. 17. Valencia, 1779 ; Kev. Arch., 1863, p. ^- Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, ii. 45. 228. >2 Bj.ojjgjjjaj.t,Traite,i. 449; R.Smith, * Archaeologia, xxiv. PI. xliii. xliv. Collect., ii. p. 25. xxvii. p. 190, " Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, ii. 4, vii. ^ Bermondsey, Journ. Brit. Arch. 109 ; R. Smith, Collect., ii. PI. xii. Assoc, i. 313. i p. 37. ^ Archa3ologia, x. PI. ix. 2, p. 131 ; i '* Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, iii. 250. Journal, Brit. Arch. Assoc, ii. 324. ! '^ Arch. Journ., x. 21. * Archajologia, lb. p. 37. ! '^ Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, iii. 328. ^ Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, ii. p. 131 ; ** Arch. Journ. vi. 210. 582 KOMAN POTTERY. Part IV. At Mereworth/ Canterbury,^ East Fairleigli,^ aud Hartlip,* Samian and other vases have been exhumed ; but the most remarkable, as well as the earliest discovery of Samian ware, was on the Pan sand, off Margate.^ Castor ware has been found in the Hoo Marsh, near Kochester.® At Richborough' all sorts of ware have been discovered. Sussex abounds in Eoman wares ; Samian, and also the glazed maroon ware, having been found at Chichester,^ Newhaven,^ and Maresfield.^*' Black unglazed ware has been found at Binstead,^^ and a local black glazed ware with the kilns and potteries in the New Forest.^^ Samian and other wares have been dug up at Dorchester, the Isle of Purbeck,^^ Portland,^* and Exeter.^^ Similar wares have been found at the Fleam Dyke,^^ and throughout Cambridgeshire. A local fabric of a yellow Castor ware 1ms been discovered at Boutham, near Lincoln ; ^^ also at Towcester,^^ Cirencester, and other sites in Gloucestershire. The red and black glazed ware, and the kilns for baking them, and other potteries, have been discovered at Castor,^^ along the banks of the Nen,^® at Sibson, and the Bedford purlieus. At Headingtdn^^ numerous mortaria of yellow Castor and other wares, and at Deddington^^ Samian ware has been exhumed. A kiln of pottery, resembling the German, has been found at Marl- borough. Samian and black glazed ware has been excavated at Bath, Samian and other Roman wares at York,^^ and in the north of England, at Caerleon and Carnarvon in Wales ;^* in fact through- out the whole of the island, and even in the Channel Islands. In Holland Samian ware has been discovered at Rossem, Arentsburg,^^ Wijk bij Duurstede,^^ and elsewhere. In eastern Europe it is found in quantities along the Danube, Greece, Asia * Arch. Joum., xi. 404. *• Arch. Journ., ix. 12 - Ibid. ^ Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, ii. 4. * R. Smith, Coll., ii. p. 12. * Phil. Trans., xiv. p. 519; Shaw, History of Staffordshire Pottery, p. 93 ; »2 Ibid., 23, X. 8. 13 Ibid., vii. 384. '^ Ibid., X. 61. '' Ibid., ix. 9. i« Ibid., ix. 229, X. 224, 225; Short, \V. T. P., Sylva Antiqua lsc.,8vo, Exeter. '^ Ibid., xiii. 173. Archseologia, v. 282, 290. ^ ^^ Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, vii. 109. « Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, v. 339. ^^ Ibid., i 1. ^o jbi,]. ' R. Smith, Ant. Eichborough, 8vo, ^ ^i i^id., vi. 58. Lond., 1850. ■ 22 j^^^^ Journ., viii. 423. « Arch. Journ., xi. 26 ; Journ. Brit. '^^ Ibid., vi. 3b-. ^4 j^ij^^ ^n 219. Arch. Assoc, iv. 158; E. Smith, Col- lectanea, 152. » Arch. Journ., ix. 263. -* Leemans, Eomische Oudheiden, 8vo., Leyden, 1842. ^^ Jannsen, Oudheidkundige Medc- 10 Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, v. 390. \ dcelingen, 8vo, Leyden, 1842. Chap. V. GLAZED ROMAN WAIJE. 583 Minor, and the Isles, and at Balaclava and Kertcli, having been carried by commerce beyond the limits of Koman conquests. There is another kind of pottery found sparingly among Roman remains which has been supposed to be Roman. The paste is generally of a yellow colour, and over this has been laid a thick vitreous glaze, of a pale blue, green, yellow, brown, or olive. The shape in which it principally occurs is that of small jugs, cups, and lamps; but fragments of small vases and jars are also found. It is a later kind of the enamelled ware of the Etruscan sepulchres already described. It has been occasionally dis- covered in England, and some fragments found in the pits at E well, in Surrey, had a glaze produced by lead.^ Many vases of this ^^are have been discovered in Italy, especially at Pompeii and Cervetri. Some are amphorae, measuring 11 inches high ; others in shape of jars, ollm ; of wine bottles, urcei ; of the wine-skin, uter ; small jars, cups, and lamps. The larger are ornamented with reliefs, anaglypha, or emhlemata, dispersed at distant intervals on the surface of the vase, and stamped as crustas from separate moulds, and then affused. The smaller vases, such as lamps, are made entirely in moulds. Their subjects are Her- cules, Bacchus, a goddess sacrificing, Abundantia ; on a lamp is a Gorgon, treated in the usual coarse style of Roman art. They have been supposed to be Alexandrian. Probably to this class of pottery belongs a remarkable vase with three handles, and as many medallions representing the busts of Serapis and Isis, Mars and Ilia, and two gladiators accompanied by their names.^ There are in the Louvre some remarkable specimens of Greek glazed ware of the Roman period, found at Tarsus. The glaze appears to have been produced by lead ; the colours are green, red, yellow, and blue. The objects, which are small, were made in moulds like the Roman red ware. The subjects are various patterns of leaves and flowers in relief. Amongst the fragments are portions of a vase with two handles, half of an oscillum or mask, and some fragments of red ware, like the so-called Samian, and of finer paste. One of these pieces, inscribed in characters, shows that it was later than the Antonines. A bottle also in the British Museum, ornamented with masks and other subjects in relief, and of a style almost mediaeval, was found with Roman remains, and another annular bottle from Gyrene, previously described, belongs to the same class, where some specimens have been found, also at Pesth, in Hungary, and other sites. ' Ai'Chteologiu, xxxii. p. 45l. - Ctiylus, vi. 107. PART V. CELTIC, TEUTONIC, AND SCANDINAVIAN POTTERY. CHAPTER I. Celtic pottery — Paste — Fabric — Ornamentation — Size — Shapes — Sepulchral use — British — Bascaudae — Ornamentation — Triangular patterns — Bosses — Distribution — Scottish — Irish — Type of urns — Ornamentation — Distri- bution — Teutonic — Paste — Shapes — Hut vases — Ornamentation and distribution — Scandinavian pottery — Type — Analogy with Celtic. It is difficult to draw a line of distinction between the Celtic pottery and the black Gallo-Roman ware, as this was evidently a local ware made upon a Roman type and according to the principles of Eoman art. The colour is owing to carbon. Brongniart ^ assigns this ware to the ancient Gauls, while he considers the first to be Gallo-Roman. There are some varieties of this ware which in shape and fabric resemble the German pottery, and are ornamented with zigzags, salient lines, and reliefs in imitation of letters, arranged in zones or bands. Such pottery has been found at Gisors, in the tumuli of the ancient Gaulic races. It is coarse, of bad texture, veiy fragile, easily scratched with a knife, the paste either black or gray. The pieces were often made upon the wheel, the marks of the potter's hands still remaining on the body of the vase ; and where the foot has not been hollowed, indications appear of sawing from the chuck or piece by which it was affixed to the table.^ They are rarely found of any considerable size, although some nearly as large as casks have been exhumed in 1 Traite, i. p. 483. « Ibid. p. 485. CliAP. I. CELTIC POTTPTvY. 585 Auvergne/ and in the Channel Islands.^ Some of these vases were an inn)rove(l fabric consequent upon the contact of the Celts with a more polislied [)eople like the llomans, wlio by degrees introduced a certain elegance and refinement into the arts of that comparatively barbarous people. The pottery which had preceded this, and which is found in the barrows or tumuli of the early Celtic race among the remains of stone or bronze weapons, and rude amber and glass beads, is of quite a distinct character, more resembling in its general appearance the urns of the Scandinavians and the vases of other primitive people, above all of the Teutonic tribes, who had but little knowledge of the ceramic art. The paste consists of the clay found upon the spot, prepared without any irrigation, consequently coarse, and sometimes mixed with small pebbles, which appear to have been added for the sake of holding it compactly together. These pebbles often have been sufficiently baked to assume the milky-white colour that silica changes to under great heat. It has undergone a baking of a very imperfect kind, the paste being black internally, while at the sides it assumes the natural brown colour of the clay. The vases of the Stone period found in the tumuli of Europe are generally of an urn shape, with wide open mouths, and tapering at the feet ; the lip is bevelled, and overlaps, thus giving them a peculiar form. As it is impossible, owing to their very great friability, that they could have been of much use for domestic purposes, it is probable that they were expressly made for sepulchral rites. Their style of ornament is of the simplest kind, cords and bands are laid round or down the vase, or the pattern is punctured or incised with a tool, tooth, or pointed piece of stick or bone, for the lower compartment; while the upper appears to have been made by binding a long strip of twisted skin spirally round the urn. The principal ornament is the herring-bone, the same which appears on the tores, celts, bracelets, and glass beads, and is, perhaps, a repre- sentation of the tattooing or the painted marks on the body in use amongst the ancient Gauls and Britons.^ A few seem to be imitations of wreaths and such other simple ornaments as were placed on Eoman ware. These ornaments differ — each tribe and age probably adopting a different style ; and while on most ' Traite, i, pp. 8, 11. In one of these Uk' Emperor Tetricus (a.d. 2G8) biuied Mertorix, Kev. Arch. 1857. - Jouni. Brit. Arch. Absoc. 1847, p. 309. ^ Lubbock, Sir J., Prehistoric Times, pp. 154-159. 586 CELTIC, TEUTONIC, AND SCANDINAVIAN WAKE. Part V. vases they are sparingly introduced, some examples are covered with them in most elaborate style, from the lip to the foot. The size of these vases is by uo means inconsiderable, being on an average from 18 to 25 inches in height, and from 13 to 22 inches in diameter; while some measure 32 inches in height and 4 inches in diameter.^ They are all modelled by the hand, and show no trace of the wheel, and have always an overhanging rim. They have been classed as urns, incense cups, bowls, or vases for food, and cups for drinking. The urns are the largest, the vessels for food of a smaller size, but with open mouths like jars, the cups with a tall open neck and slightly globular body. They are found in the barrows, generally placed with their mouths downwards; like a dish-cover, protecting the ashes of the dead ; beads and rude personal adornments of the Celtic races are found with them. The pottery of the Stone age in the settlements of the lake dwellings in Switzerland was of the same character, generally found in broken pieces or shreds, and rarely entire, the ornaments of the kind above described, with only one attempt to represent a plant. They were supported on stones, while those of the Bronze age had terra-cotta rings. Many had pierced projections for rings, and a few small holes at different levels supposed to be of use to make curds.^ That found in the dolmens of Morbihan, in Brittany, generally broken, was rude and bore marks of the potter's nails ; at Karnak it was yellowish-brown and polished, no celts were found with it^ or on other sites. It resembled the Irish. The vases found throughout England and Wales belong to the class above described, and only differ from others by their simpler forms and less elaborate ornamentation. Many small urns and vases have been found in British barrows, sometimes placed inside others, and holding the ashes of children or of the smaller domestic animals. The urns of each tribe, and even period, differ in ornamentation, paste, and shape. Those found in cairns on the Welsli coast have often a striking resemblance to the urns of the Irish Celts. All these vases have large wide mouths ; for the potter, not using a wheel, was obliged to fashion them by the hand, and could not make small necks or mouths by the fingers. They seldom have handles ; one or two vases • Akerman, Archseologieal Index, l p. 186. 8vo., London, 1847, pp. 46, 47. | ^ jjcv. Arch., 1865, pp. 262-310. 2 Lubbock, Sir J., Prehisturic Times, Chap. T. PRIMAEVAL BRITISH WARK. 587 with such appendages only liaving been fonnd, but in their place projecting studs with holes bored to admit a cord for sus- pension. Such vases have been called censers, but more pro- bably were used as pots or lamps in the huts of the Aborigines. Their colour varies from a light yellowish-brown to an aslien- gray hue ; and their ornaments are principally zigzag or triangular, hatched, zones, and herring-bone, chiefly placed on the bevelled rim or lip. A few have bosses or knobs in bands No. 207. — Group of British Vases. The one in the centre is that of Bronwen, around their body, and they are perhaps transitions to the Eomano-British and Saxon ware, distinguished by their darker colour, bottle-shape, and stamped ornaments. The liomans appear to have termed these vases hascaudas, or baskets. A few other objects, besides vases, were made of this material, such as cylindrical cases to hold vases, and beads, some reeded, appa- rently in imitation of glass or enamelled beads. The most important discoveries of these remains are those made in Wiltshire, a county which has produced many monu- ments of its former Celtic inhabitants. Many urns have been 588 CELTIC, TEUTONIC, AND SCANDINAVIAN WAKE. Part V. found in the vicinity of Dorchester ; ^ others at Heytesbury ^ and Stourton,^ Barrow Hills/ Lake,^ Upton Level,^ Everley/ Stone- henge,^ Amesbury,^ Winterbourne,^^ Fovant," Durrington,^^ and Beckhampton, near Abury/^ at Oldbury Castle, Cherhill Down, near Devizes,^* Woodgates, near Salisbury.^^ The west of England and Wales have probably produced the most inter- esting specimens of these urns, wliich, however, have been found in the South of England ; those of the northern and western parts of the island are most highly ornamented. They have also been found in various places in Sussex, especially in the vicinity of Brighton, in tumuli on the racecourse ; at Lewes,^® Storrington Downs,^^ SuUington Warren ,^^ Alfriston,^^ and Clayton Hill.^^ In the adjoining county of Hampshire similar urns have been exhumed at Arbor Lowe,^^ at Bakevvell,^^ and at Broughton, in the Isle of Wiglit.^^ In Kent they have been found at Iffin near Canterbury,^* and at Beedon in Berkshire.^^ Many vases of this class have been discovered at Blandford, Dorsetshire, in tlie Isle of Purbeck,^' and at Badbury Camp. Others have been discovered at Torquay, in Devonshire.^^ They have been found at Broughton ^^ and Wolden Newton ^^ in Lincolnshire, at Culford,^^ at Felixstowe in Suffolk on the Matlovv Hills ; in the Fleam Dyke,^^ Newmarket Heath,^* and Eoyston ^^ in Cambridgeshire ; at Drayton,^^ and at Stow Heath ^^ 26 28 * Archseologia, xxx. PI. xvii. 2 Sir E. Colt Hoare, Anc. Wilt., PI. ix. viii. 3 Ibid., PI. i. * Archseologia, xv., p. 343, xviii. » Sir R. Colt Hoare, Anc. Wilt., PI. xxx. ^ Ibid., xi. ' Ibid., xxii. ^ Ibid., xvi. ^ Ibid., xxiii. 4. '0 Ibid., xiii. 15. 11 Ibid., xxiii. 4. 1- Ibid., xvii. '^ Horsfield, Hist. Lewes, p. 48, PI. v. ^•t Times, 19 Feb. 1858 ; Roach Smith, Collectanea, I. PI. xiv. p. 33. 15 R. Smith, Collectanea, i. 96. '^ Sussex Archseological Collections, i. p. 55. 17 Cart Wright, Rape of Bramber, p. 128. 18 Sussex Arch. Coll., ii. 270. •» Ibid., viii. 285. 20 Journ. Brit. Assoc, Winch., 203. -' Ibid., 194. 2^ Arch. Joiirn., ix, 11. 2^ Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, 185G, p. 186. 2* Arch. xxx. p. 327. 2* Arch. Journ,, vii. 67. ^'^ The Barrow-diggers, 4to, Lend., 1839, p. 91. 2^ Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, vii. 385, 28 Ai-ch,, xvii. 338. 2" Vase Room, Brit. Mus. ^^ Arch. Journ., viii. 343. 31 Ibid., vi. 184. 32 Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, ii. 63. 33 Arch, Journ., ix. 226. 3^ Ibid., iii. 225. 3^ Arch., xxxii. p. 359. 3" Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, v. 154, xxvii. 359. 3' Ibid., viii. 59, PI. 9. OiiAP. T. vnmMYAh scoriMsii ware. 580 between Tullington and Aylslmm in Norfolk, and at Brandon.^ Tn the midland counties similar vases have been discovered at Castoi-,'*^ and Ijrixworth,^ at J^rnssington IMoor,* and Kingston and Larks Lowe^ in Derbyshire,® at Kingston-upon-Stonr,' and at Great Malvern^ in Worcestershire. In Shropshire these vases have occurred at Biilford ^ and at Newark, while remark- able examples allied to the Irish urns were found at Port Dafarch,^*^ Holyhead in Anglesea, at IMyimyd Carn Goch in Glamorganshire,^^ and on the Breselu Hills ^^ in Pembrokeshire. One of the most remarkable is the vase which is supposed to have covered the ashes of Bronwen the Fair, the daughter of Llyr Llediaith, the aunt of Caractacus, a.d. 50, found in a.d. 1818, on a carnedd or grave on the banks of the Alaw.^^ In the north of England they have been discovered at Scar- borough,^* York,^^ Bernaldy Moor, near Cleveland; ^^ Fylingdale, near Whitby;^' the Way Hagg, near Hackness;^^ Furness, in Lancashire ; ^^ Jesmond, near Newcastle-on-Tyne ;^^ Black Heddon, in Northumberland, and elsewhere ;^^ and lastly at L'Ancresse, in Guernsey,^^ and Alderney,^^ amidst the barrows or tumuli which formed the graves of the early Celtic population, although in smaller numbers than vases of tlie different Roman wares. The early pottery of S(,'otland found in the graves of the ancient inhabitants, principally of those of the so-called bronze period, anterior to, and contemporary with, the Eoman conquest of Britain, is exactly like that of the rest of the island. The vases are of two classes; those feebly baked and made by the hand, and those which appear to have been turned upon the wheel.^* The first comprising the urns, or hascaudee, used ' R. Smith, Collectauea, I. PL xv. 103, 10(5, 10?'; Arcli., xxx. 458. p. 34. '^ Wellbeloved, Descr. p. 8. 2 Journ. Brit. Arcli. Assoc. 1853, 106. \ '« Arch. Journ., i. 412. 3 Ibid., iv. 142. \ " Ibid , xiii. 95. ^ Arch. Journ., i. 248. *^ Journ. Brit. Arcli. Assoc, vi. 1. * R. Smith, Collectanea, I. PI. xxi. '" Arch. Journ., iii. 68. p. 60. '" Ibid., X. 3. •5 Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, ii. 02. ^^ As at Rombalds Moor, Arch, ' Arch. Journ., iii. 154. xxxvii. 303. 8 Ibid., vii. 67. » Ibid., vi. 319. " ^rch. Journ., i. 142, 149. "> Ibid., X. 177. " Clay beads, Journ. Brit. Arch. " Arch. Cambr., 1856, 65. Assoc, iii. 11. '- Arch. Journ., x. 177. ^* Wilson, The ArchoBology and Prc- '3 Ibid., vi. 326. historic History of Scotland, 8vo, Edin- ^^ Journ. Brit. Arch. Assoc, iii. 194, burgh, 1851, p. 281. 590 CELTIC, TEUTONIC, AND SCANDINAVIAN WARE. Part V. for covering the ashes of the dead, often measure as much as sixteen inches high, and have the usual bevelled lip ; a few cups, and lamps with small side liandles for a cord to sling them, and domestic vases resembling in shape the Roman oUa, have been also found. They are all wide-mouthed, and may have been used for quaffing the Pictish heather ale. Their ornamentation also is of the simplest kind, consisting of the fern-leaf pattern, the zigzag, and herring-bone. A few vases are ornamented all over the body as well as lip, and resemble those found in Ireland and upon the Welsh coast. Others have indented patterns. 1'hese vases have been found all over Scotland, at Eonaldshay in Orkney,^ Craikraig in Sutherlandshire,^ Banffshire,^ Mon- trose,* Kinghorn in Fifeshire,^ at Shealloch near Borthwick, and at Edinburgh ; ^ at Coilsfleld,^ at Banchory ^ and Memsie ^ in Aberdeenshire, and at Whitsorae " in Berwickshire. The urns discovered in Ireland resemble the British in their form and material, but are often finer in colour, more complex in shape, and more elaborate in ornament ; the whole body of the urn being decorated with punctured marks, lines, zones, zigzags, and bands. The paste is generally red, simple, un- levigated, and mixed with sand or flint pebbles, or micaceous clay. The vases are cased with fragments of quartz and fel- spar, and are black or dark brown inside, from the incandescent bones, or the fuel placed in them. Their exterior is gray, brown, or light red. Some urns have a peculiar shape, the upper part, surmounting the jar-shaped body, being in the form of a trun- cated coue.-^^ The prevalence of triangulai^ and hatched orna- ment is peculiarly Celtic, and appears on the gold objects as well as the urns. The potter never used stamps, but only his nails, fingers, or flints, to make the ornaments. In the Irish urns the resemblance to basket-work, in which coloured patterns were worked is still more distinct than in the British. Some of the ornaments are bands of deep ovals, like a chain pattern, or spiral and striated bands like Scandinavian metal-work. The urns generally held or covered the ashes of the dead, but they were sometimes placed around the unburnt body. They are found in stone kists holding one or two urns, outside the cromlechs or tumuli, or imbedded in the earth, or in the crom- 1 Wilson, p. 286. ^ jbid., p. 285. 3 Arch. Scot., iv. 298, PI. xii. * Wilson, p. 284. * Ibid. « Ibid., p. 290. 7 Ibid., p. 333. 8 Ibid., p. 283. 9 Ibid., p. 287. ^° New Stat. Arch. Berwick, ii. p. 171. " Cf. the one from Cairn Thierna. Arch. Joiirn,, vi. p. 191. Chap. J. IRISH URNS. 591 leclis themselves, filled with calcined liuman and animal bones, generally, but not always, with their mouths upward. Shell necklaces, stone weapons and rude objects are found with them.* The most remarkable and beautiful are those found at Cairn Thierna,^ county Cork, and at Killucken, county Tyrone.^ Others have been discovered in a cromlech at Phoenix Park, and Hill of Tallaght, Dublin ;"* at Kiltale and Knowth, county Meath;^ at Powerscourt, Kilbride, Lugnagroagh, county Wick- low;® at Mount Stewart, Ballynatty, county Down;^ Mayhora, Castle Comar, Coven, Kilkenny ;^ and at Mullingar;* at Balla- goddine and Rathborn, county Sligo ; at Athenry, in Galway ; Coolnakilly, Dunagore, in Antrim ; Crowenstown, in Westmeath ; Donaghami, in Donegal ; Kilmurry, in Kilkenny ; at Hill of Rath, county Leith, from 150 to 200 urns were found, and at Killi- nagh, county Cavan.*" I'hey are anterior, and quite free from all traces of Roman civilisation. Every locality had a different type. The Roman dominion in Gaul had so completely sw^pt away the distinct traces of the Celtic potteries, that it is difficult to point out any which can be referred to the Gauls before the Roman conquest.^* Such as are found, mixed up with later remains, do not show that peculiarly Celtic type and orna- mentation which are seen on the vases of the British Isles. A few, however, supposed to be early Celtic, have been found at Fontenay-le-Marmion, in Calvados, near Dieppe, and in Brit- tany, made of a black earth, badly prepared, filled with pebbles, breaking with a porous fracture. Their paste is externally of a rusty colour, and black inside. It breaks readily when dry, and can be ground to powder by the finger. Wetted it assumes the hue of decayed bark ; submitted again to the furnace it turns to a brick-red colour, but becomes more brittle. These vases are of the rudest shape, and have neither been made in a mould nor turned upon the wheel, but fashioned by the hand, or scooped by rude instruments.*^ It has been supposed that a certain class of pottery, formed of black clay mixed with white » Wilde, W. K., Cat. of Autiq. of the « Aich. Journ., vi. p. 102. K. Irish Acad., 8vo, Dublin, 1857, pp. 173-179. 2 Arch. Joura., vi. p. 191, Plate. * Journ. Arch. Assoc, i. p. 224 ; Akerman, Arch. Index, PI. ii. 51. * Wakeman, Handbook of Irish An- tiquities, pp. 5, 155. * Molyneux, Essay on Danisli Mounts. ^ Dublin Penny Journal, i. p. 108. * Arch. Journ., viii. 200. " Archseologia, ii. p. 32. •» Wilde, Cat., pp. 187-92. " Cuumont, Cours, i. p. 255. *- Caumont, Bull. Men., v. 164; xiii. 111. 592 CELTIC, TEUTONIC, AND SCANDINAVIAN WARE. Part Y. pebbles, or gronnd-np shells, varying in colour from a deep black to a blackish-gray or rusty colour, and sometimes glazed or coated with a carbonaceous black coating, is also of the early Celtic period. The walls of the vases are thicker and the paste more adhesive than the earliest Celtic, while the forms prove an acquaintance with Roman art, and cannot be assigned with cer- tainty to the earlier epoch. They have been found at Abbeville and Portelette. The peasants suppose they grow in the earth.^ Throughout the whole of Germany various kinds of pottery have been discovered. They are, however, reducible to three great classes. That of the early native population prior to the invasion of the Romans ; that made during the Roman conquest, which although exhibiting local peculiarities of paste and orna- mentation, belongs to the Roman wares ; that imported, consist- ing of red ware made at Arctium, Capua, Modena, and other places in Italy. The two last classes having been already described, there only remains the first, which has, unfortunately, not been hitherto carefully discriminated from the others. It must be borne in mind that the Celtic and Anglo-Saxon wares, one class of Teutonic pottery discovered in England, are easily discriminated, the latter being more bottle-shaped, made of a dark paste, with thinner walls, with oblate globular bodies, nar- rower necks, and having stamped around them a regidar band of ornaments, from a die of bone, wood, or metal. Urns very similar to those of the Celtic potteries have been found all over Germany, along with the remains of the Teutonic races. They are assignable to an age an^tecedent to and co- ordinate with the Roman Empire, and bear considerable resem- blance to those of the Pagan Saxons. They are friable in texture, with punctured patterns, and are grouped round the corpses in the graves of the Teutonic tribes, or are employed to hold their ashes or offerings to the dead.^ They are intermediate betweeu the Mexican, early Greek, and Anglo-Saxon, which they most resemble. The paste of some of these urns is very friable, that of others rings like stone ware when struck by the hand. It is composed of clay and sand, intermixed with par- ticles of white, yellow, red, or brown mica, which seems to have been introduced either to strengthen the clay or produce a glit- tering appearance.^ The colour of the paste varies according to 1 M. Eavin in M. Boucher de Perthes, I Halle, 1846, ss. 311-313. Bastian u. Ant. Celt., p. 509. Eev. Arch., 1860, ' Hartmann, Zeitsch. f. Etlmol., II. Bd. p. 395. I 1869, s. 214, t. viii. 2 Keferstein, Kcltisch. Alteitli. 8vo, ^ Klcmm^ Handbuch, s. 169. JiiAP. I. EARLY GERMAN WARE. 593 I Mhe localities. The vases at Hossleben and Bottendorf consisted, partly of yellow earth, partly of black, mixed with white quartz pebbles. Those at Bergen, in Hanover, were of unctuous earth, with a shining blue coating. Urns of gray or brown paste have been discovered between Cacherin, Gisborn, and Langendorf, in the country of the Wends. In Lauenstein the pottery is gray and well baked. In Lausitz and Silesia its colour is all varie- ties of brown, gray, and black, and it is the remains of a Scla- vonic population.^ Many of the smaller vases have, as in the Celtic pottery, been modelled by the hand, but the larger urns bear decided marks of having been turned upon the wheel. Among them are found saucers, plates, cups, goblets with one handle, jars, small amphorae, and bot- v, one a i « n v vr^i,, •f f r y No. 208. — Anglo-Saxon Urn. From Norfolk. ties. The handles are gene- rally small, but in some of the jugs they are as large as those found undep the Komans. They are rarely moulded at their edges. Some few vases are divided into inner vases, as if used like little boxes ; others have feet to stand upon. Their orna- ments are either painted with colours, or moulded, or engraved. Generally the artist has been content to raise bosses in circles, a series of lunettes upon the clay of the vase, or bosses pressed out from within, or studs laid on in separate pieces ; but in some instances, as in the Etruscan canopi and Egyptian vases, he has moulded a human head with more or less skill, but always rudely. Another mode of decoration was that of punc- turing or incising the paste.^ The ornaments were the hatched lines, bands of points concentric to the axis of the vases, zig- zags, screw lines perpendicular to the axis, maeanders, chequers, network lines, semicircles and dots, diagonals, ti'iangles, lunes, and pentagonal ornaments, all peculiar to the Teutonic pottery. Some of the ornaments, such as the mseander, are probably as late as the Roman Empire. The ornaments of other vases are » Worel, J. E., Grundz. d. Bohm. Alterth., 8vo, Prag, 1845, s. 12, Taf. iv; * Brongniart, Traite, i. 471. 2 Q 594 CELTIC, TEUTONIC, AND SCANDINAVIAN WAKES. Part V. painted in red and yellow by means of ochreous eartb, and in black by black-lead. Tbese are arranged in parallel zones or lines. The vases found in Central Germany, between the Weser and the Oder, are more ornamented than those of the North.^ At Nordendorf where many urns of a later period were found, pots and pans were only discovered in female graves.^ The principal shapes are, cups with or without small handles ; pots resembling the British urns, with bevelled mouths, found near the Black Elsler, small one-handled cups like the modern tea-cup; goblets, of which the most remarkable are the long- necked double-handled of the Wends, others in the shape of modern tumblers, flasks, and bottles ; diotae or amphorae with small handles. Some urns resemble, by their tall necks and bosses, the Anglo-Saxon, and a remarkable kind of urn has a broad hemispherical shoulder and long pointed foot, resembling those in which olives are still transported. Some few are apparently toys, such as the rattles found at Bautzen and Oschatz, and a bird found at Luben ; others have been found ^ with human feet, in shape of horns, pierced for censers, or grouped in threes. But a scientific classification of the German potteries, according to race and age, is a research which would require a volume alone. Vast quantities of them have been discovered ia the tumuli of Schkopau, near Merseburg,* at Kablert,^ at the ancient Suevenhoek or Schwenden Hiigel, Swedes' Hill, the greater part however broken by rabbits, and in Saxony between Dresden and Meissen, and near Leipzig, in the village of Connevitz ; at the mouth of the Black Elsler, near the Elbe, 800 tumuli have been opened, and various vases have been found near Gus- mandorf, on the right bank of the Elbe.® The Hanover urns ' are thick, with open mouths, rudely ornamented with hatched zones, zigzag and triglyph lines and rude ovolos. There are jugs, bowls, two-handled vases with spouts. At Mecklenburg the vases assume more of the Scandinavian type.^^ Similar urns have been found at Kummer, Stolpe, Dobbersten, Spomitz, * Klemm, Handbuch, s. 171. ' Rasen, Die Grabsfatte bei Norden- dorf, 8vo, Aug. 1844. ^ Klemm, Handbuch, xii. xiii. xiv. * Brongniart, i. p.476; Kruse.Deutsch Alterth., Halle, 1824, i. p. 73, PI. 1. ! rico-Franciscum, Leipzig, 1827 * Janssen, L., Gedenkteekeneii, 8vo, Utr., 1836, 1-11, at Merseburg. Ibid., v. ^ Brongniart, i. p. 476 ;• Wagner in Kruse, Arch., iii. pt. ii.p.l6, et seq. PI. i. ii. ' Lendeschmidt, Heft III., Taf. iv. ^ Schiotter and Lisch, Museum Fride- Chap. I. HUT-SHAPED VASES. 595 Marnitz, Lndwigsliist, Timkenberg, and Stargard. The vases found in Western Germany, on the banks of the Rliine, have moulded lips like the Roman ware, and are apparently made after Roman types. They have been found at 8chierstein and Kemel, and in fact throughout all Germany. Some urns re- sembling in their paste, shape, and decoration the Scandinavian and English \vere found at Waldhausen,^ in cromlechs with stone and bronze weapons.^ No. 209.— Group of Hut-shaped Vases, from Halberstadt, Kiekiudemark, and Aschersleben. Some remarkable sepulchral urns resembling those of the early inhabitants of Alba Longa, already mentioned, have been found in Germany, and are distinctly Teutonic. They occur in the sepulchres of the period when bronze weapons were used, and before the predominance of Roman art. A very curious urn of this kind, supposed to represent a lake dwelling, is in the museum at Munich. It represents seven cylindrical huts and a porch, and is ornamented in front with a spiral device of the character of the Bronze or even Iron period.^ One found at Mount Chemnitz, in Thuringia, had a cylindrical body and conical top, imitating a roof. In this was a square orifice, representing the door or window, by which the ashes of ' Spetzler, Opfer- unci Grab-Alter- thiimer zu Waldhausen, 4to, Liibeck, 1844, PI. V. Nos. 1-4. * Estorf, Heidnische Alterthiimer, fo., Hanov., 1646, Taf. iii. • Lubbock, Sir J., Prehistoric Times, 8vo, Lend., 1869, p. 51. 2 Q 2 596 CELTIC, TEUTONIC, AND SCANDINAVIAN WARES. Part V the dead were introduced, and the whole then secured by a small door fastened with a metal pin. A second vase was found at Eoenne ; a third in the island of Bornholm. A similar urn exhumed at Parchim had a shorter body, taller roof, and door at the side. Still more remarkable was another found at Aschersleben, which has its cover modelled in shape of a tall conical thatched roof, and the door with its ring still remaining. Another with a taller body and flatter roof, with a door at the side, was found at Klus, near Halberstadt.^ The larger vases were used to hold the ashes of the dead, and are sometimes pro- tected by a cover, or stone, or placed in another vase of coarser fabric. The others are the household vessels, which were offered to the dead filled with different viands. Some of the smaller vases appear to have been toys. Extraordinary popular si5perstitions have prevailed amongst the German peasantry as to the origin and nature of these vases, which in some districts are considered to be the work of the elves; in others to grow spontaneously from the ground like mushrooms ; or to be endued with remarkable properties for the preservation of milk and other articles of food.^ Weights to sink nets, balls, discs, and little rods of terra-cotta are also found in the graves. Connected with this class, and finishing as it were the series of these remains, is the Scandinavian pottery, which resembles in many particulars that of the Teutonic populations, and is intermediate between the Celtic and the earlier or Pagan Saxon. Its paste is coarse, and much interspersed^ with calcareous sub- stances and particles of mica.^ It was made of the local clay and not turned on the latlie, but fashioned with the hand in the lap, a method still retained in Scandinavia.* It is probable that it was baked in a way still practised in Scandinavia, namely, by placing the pieces in a hole in the ground, and surrounding them with hay, which is then burnt ; a feeble process, indeed, but yet sufficient for vases only intended to cover the ashes of the dead.^ The paste is either of a very dark gray, or of a light brown colour. Such at least are those in the Museum at ^ Lisch, Ueber die Hausurnen, 8vo, shape of a bird. Taf. vi, ix. 5. Schwerin, 185(5. ^ Brongniart, Traite', i. p. 480, PI. 2 Keferstein, Kelt. Alt., 311 ; Buscli- xxvi. xxvii. ing, Die heidnischen Alterthumer ^ Ibid. Schlesiens, fo., Leipz. 1830, Taf. iii. 2a, 6. i ' Brongniart, Mus. Ce'r., x. figs. 1 0, Found with terra-cotta toys, one in | 11. Chap. I. SCANDINAVIAN POTTEKY. 597 Sevres. The form is more regular than the Celtic, but not so good as the Koman ; the ornaments are also more distinct, but the baking is feeble. The prevalent shape is the olla or jar, some of which have perforations or little handles at the sides, apparently for cords by which they might bo carried. Some rare examples have conical lids. Smaller vases of other shapes are also found. The prevalent ornamentation is the fret or herring-bone, and triangular bands, arranged horizontally or vertically to the axis of the vase ; the maeander also occurs.^ They are found in the oldest tombs of the so-called Stone period,^ and held or covered the ashes of the oldest inhabitants of the Cimbric Chersonese. In the specimens of this ware hitherto published, the shapes bear a resemblance to those found in Greece and Germany rather than in England. Thus, an elegantly formed hemi- spherical cup, another with two large handles resembling the Greek skyphos, a diota and amphora with tall and narrow cylindrical necks, apparently well turned, have been attributed to the stone period.^ Such vases were apparently turned on the wheel, and could hardly have been moulded by the hand. The vases of the Bronze period also bear more resemblance to the German than British pottery. The most remarkable shapes are the hut-urn, a kind of amphora, and a tall jar surmounted by a cover.* The remains of the Iron age are contemporary with the Saxon or Christian period, and belong to another branch of the study of the fictile art. A small cylindrical bushel with an iron hoop and handle, from Bergen, in Norway, in the British Museum, is very like the Early British, of brown colour, with diagonal workings and micaceous. It is rather later than those of the Iron Age. Future researches, more accurate observations, and scientific examination of the remains of the Northern races, will help to class more strictly the pottery of the rude tribes, to assign its ethnological character, and geographical distribution. Amongst those remote from Eoman conquest, or those antecedent to the » Hist. Mittheil. v. k. Gesell. fur Nord. Alterth., 8vo, Kopen., p. 835, p. "^^ 102. ^ Janssen, De Germansche en Noord- sche Monumentcn van het Museum te Lcyden, 1840, 8vo, Leyd., p. 20, PI. ii. ; Worsaae, Primseval Antiquities of Den- mark, by J. W. Thoms, 8vo, Lond., 1849, p. 21. ^ Worsaae, Afbildninger, 4to, Kjoben- havn, 1854, pi. 16. * Ibid., pi. 54. 598 CELTIC, TEUTONIC, AND SCANDINAVIAN WAEES. Part V. rise of the Empire of the West, may be traced ornaments and types which show the influence of a higher civih'sation. The slave's ashes in the olla of the Eternal City, those of the un- conquered chieftain of the North in his rude urn, the Etruscan larth's in the model of his house, the Teutonic leader's in his hut-shaped urn, the Briton's ashes covered by the inverted jar, the Koman legionary laid in his last home roofed with tiles, show one common idea of sepulture, one universal application of the potter's art. Yet time and patience unclose many mysteries. There are in art, as in literature, certain diacritical signs, which enable those initiated to ^x what appears at first sight to elude appre- hension. Not only each tribe and family use a separate type of shape and ornamentation, but even these are in their turn insensibly influenced by time and external circumstances. Hence the advance and progress of certain races, as relates to themselves or as compared with others, are to be seen in their monumental remains. For the history of those races which have left no written records, no inscribed memorials, their pottery is an invaluable guide. It may be compared with those fossil remains by which man attempts to measure the chronology of the earth, for the pottery of each race bears with it internal evidence of the stratum of human existence to which it belongs. Its use is anterior to that of metals ; it is as enduring as brass. All the pottery of the northern races is of the lowest order ■with respect to those qualities which characterise excellence in the potter's art. Their kilns, it is evident; were of the rudest and feeblest kind ; little care w^as paid to the preparation of the clay, and the fashioning was a mere rude modelling with the hand. The simplest kind of ornamentation delighted the inhabitants of the rude huts of the north. In no instance has the potter left either his name or other inscription on the vessels he made ; and their age and fabric have to be searched for in the objects which surround them, or in the character of the locality where they are found. Great doubts will for some time prevail as to their actual age, and even the divisions of time supposed to be marked by the so-called ages of Stone, Bronze, and Iron are not definitely settled. When the potter's art arrives at perfection, it charms by the impress which embel- lishes it, but the examples in its infancy instruct by the clue they aiford to the primitive state of mankind. A due know- ledge of the great distinction of the various products of the Chap. I. REVIEW. 599 art of pottery amongst the ancients is essential to a perfect knowledge of the relative antiquity of races and sites. The use of letters is comparatively recent, the glyptic and graphic arts only exist in their later forms as exercised on unperishable materials ; but in every quarter of the world fictile fragments of the earliest efforts of the human race lie beneath the soil, fragile but enduring remains of the time when the world was in its youth. of ( (iOO ) APTENDIX. INSCRIPTIONS ON TILES. The number of inscriptions on these tiles is so great that they would occupy too much space for the Appendix. The principal will be found in Fabretti, Corp. Inscript., c. vii. pp. 512, 513; Donius, Inscr., p. 98 ; Maffeius, Mus. Veron., p. 109 ; Boldetti, Osserv. sopra i cimiterj di Roma, Vol. i., pj). 527-531 ; A. de Romanis, Le Antiche Camere Esquiline Rom., 1822, Tav. v. p. 45 ; Schopflin, Alsat. Illust., T. i. p. 511, Museum, p. 108, Tab. ix. ; Hagenbuch, De figlinis in circulo sive in orbem inscriptis in Orellius' Corp. Inscript. Lat., II. p. 37, s. 22 ; Bellerman, Die alt- Christl. Begrabnisse, p. 62 ; D'Agincourt, PI. Ixxxii. pp. 82-88 ; Janssen, Mus. Lugd. Bat. Inscript. Graec. et Latin. Tab. xxvii. p. 121 ; Steiner, Corp. Inscr. I. pp. 253, 301, 329, 337, 345; II. pp. 19, 112, 140, 149, & foil STAMP OF LEGION. TITLE. LOCALITY. LEG. 1. AD Adjutrix. J^ayence, Wiesbaden, Darm- stadt. LEG. 1. MIN. Minervia. Voorburg. LEG. 1. MEN. Minervia. Nimeguen. LEG. 1. PR. MIN. Prima Minervia. Voorburg. LEG. 1. MR. ]Miaervia. Augst, Wijk bij Duurstede. LEG. 1. M. ANT. Minervia Antonina. Voorburg. LEG. 1. M., MP MP. Augst. LE. M. Bonn. LEG. 1. M. P. F. Pia Fidelis. LEG. 1. M. L. 1. M. roivvs 1 AVGVS.] 5 Wiehelhof. LEG. II. ITA. Italica. Ems. LEG. II. Ems, Obernburg. LEG. II. AVG. Augusta. Caerleon. LEG. II. AVG. .ANT. Augusta Antonina. Caerleon. LEG. III. M. Martia Victrix. Scotland. LEG. IV. Xanten. LEG. IV. [VIR SEV. PLAG. F.] LEG. V. M. Macedonica. Baden. LEG V APPENDIX. 601 STAMP OF LEaiON. TITLE. LOCALITY-. LEG. V. P. F. M. Pia Fidelis Macedonica. Cleves, Nimeguen. LEG. V. M. MAG. Xanten. [TLVSEN SEVI] VICTRIX PF CLD. F.C. LVC SECVN- Dl.] Xanten. LEG. VI. V. Victrix. Nimeguen, Augst, Xanten. LEG. VI. V. P. F. Victrix Pia Fidelis. Birten, Darmstadt. LEG. VI. P. Rodenkirchen. LEG. VI. P. F. Aix-la-Chapelle, Windisch. LEG. VI. VICTRIX. Aix-la-Chapelle. VICTR. Calcar. LEG. VII. Galbiana. LEG. VIII. AVG.AR. Augusta Armenia Felix. Niederbiber, Baden, Hod- FE desdorf. LEG. VIII. AVG. Augusta. Birten, Mayence,Nidd, Wies- baden. LEG.. IX. VIC. Victrix. York, Xanten. LEG. IX. HISP. Hispanica. York. LEG. IX. MAC. Macedonica. Baden. LEG. X. F. Fretensis. Jerusalem. LEG. X. (G.)" Gemina. Caer Rhyn, Nimeguen, Xan- ten. LEG. X. G. P. F. Gemina Pia Fidelis. Voorburg, Vienna. LEG. XI. C. P. F. Constans Pia Fidelis. Kloten. LEG. XI. C. P. Kloten. LEG. XI. C.P.F. G. Claudia Pia Fidelis. Windisch, Oberculm, Griess- P.F. lingen, Hufingeu, Win- disch. LEG. XII. F. Fulminatrix. Mayence. LEG. XIII. Vienna. [SEMPERONIVS Gemina. SABELLIAS Winterich, CRESENTIOF IVL. PRIMVS Hochst. HELVIVS MOI- Nidd. ANS3 LEG. XIII. G M. V. Gemina Martia Victrix. Baden, Mayence, Petronelli, Zahlbach, Wiesbaden. LEG. Xllll. LEG. XIV. G.M V. Transrhenana Germanica. Dormagen, Petronelli, Nidd. LEG. XV. Nimeguen, Wiesbaden. LEG. XV. A.P. Augusta Pia. Petronelli, Xanten. LEG. XVI. Neuss. LEG. XVII. Voorburg LEG. XVIII. F. P. Firma Primigenia. Vetera. LEG. XIX. P. Primigenia. Xanten. LEG. XX. PR. Primigenia. Cleves, Neuss, Nimeguen. LEG. XX. V. V. Valeria Victrix. Chester, Nimeguen. LEG. XXI. R RAP. liapax. Mayence, Xanten, Ruck- RP. ingen, Grosskrotzenburg, Hochst. LEG. XXI.iSEC.VI. Secunda Constans Victrix. Kloten. LEG. XXI. C. LEG. XXI. G.R. Gallica Rapax. Windisch. LEG. XXI. S. i Kloten, Baden. LEG. XXI. LEG. XXI. S. C. VI. Wiehelhof. Windisch. 602 APPENDIX. STAMP OF LEGION. TITLE. LOCALITY. LEG. XXII. P. P. F. Primigenia Pia Fidelis. Mayence, Xanten. CV. LEG. XXII. PRI. Primigenia. Niederbieber, Bergen, He- dernheim, Wiesbaden, Ma- rienfels, Coblentz. lEQ. XXIII. G. Gemina. Xanten, Stockstadt, Hohe- berg. Darmstadt. LEG. XXIV. LEG. XXV. LEG. XXVI. LEG. XXVI.S.C.VI. Severa Claudia Sexta. LEG. XXVII. LEG. XXVII. LEG. XXVIII. LEG. XXIX. LEG. XXX. VAL. Valeriana Severiana Alex- S.A.A. andrina Augusta. LEG. XXX. V. V. P. F. LEG. XXX. V. V. Ulpia Victrix Pia Fidelis. Ulpia Victrix. Nimeguen, Rodenkirchen, Aix-la-Chapelle, Xanten. LEG. XXX. Nimeguen, Hooldorn, Calcar. LEG. XXX. V. VI. Nimeguen, Voorburg. LEG. XXX. [COP. F.] LEG. XXXIX. Primigenia. Xanten. LEG. CISRHENA- NA LEG. TRANSRHE- Transrhenana Germanica. Bonn. NANA GERM. COHORTS. PRIMA COH. QV. Quorquenorum Nimeguen. COH. III. COH. ill. VIND. Vindelicorum Niederbieber, Helferich, Bi- COH. III. VINDE- , ^chofshof, Saalburg. LICO VM 1. COH. III. TR. Trevirorum Hoheberg. COH. III. AQ. Aquitanorum Stockstadt. Ruckingen. COH. E. A Q. Equitum Aquitanorum COH. 1. CIV. R. Civium Romanorum Saalburg. COH. III. DAL. Dalmaticorum Wiesbaden. CIV. V. CIVIVM. Voluntariorum. Rugel. C. II. R. Cohors 11. Rhaetorum Mt. Taurus. COH. IV. VIND. Frankfort, Wiesbaden, Nie- derbieber. COH. XXVI. VOL. Voluntariorum Civium Ro- Baden. C. R. manorum COH. II. IS. Kochendorf. XV. Wiehelhof. CCPE EX GER Niederbiebei". INF COH. 1. HEL. Helvetiorum. Olnhaussen. APPENDIX. 603 STAMP OF LEGION. ' TITLE. LOCALITY. VEXIIJ.ATIONS. VEX. VEXILI. VEXILARI. VEX. EX. GER. F. VEX. EX. GERM. VEX. LEG. GERM. VEX. BRIT. VEX. K. EX. GER. INF. On same tile LEGI, MAMI. VEXI. VEX. EX. GERM. Exercitus Germaniae Infe- rioris Exercitus Germanicus Legionis Germanicae Britannica Nimeguen. Nimeguen. Nimeguen. Bonn. Wiehelhof. EX. GER. INF. IF. EX. GER. EX. G E 1. Exercitus Germanise Infe- Nimeguen, Bonn. rioris | Bonn, Voorburg, Calcar. N. BRIT. CAL. Numerus Britonum Cale- doniorum. Olnhaussen. CL. BR. CIV. V. Classis Britannica. Gives voluntarii. Lymne, Dover. KAR. LON. VINDOB. Carnuntum Londinum Vindobona Petronelli. London. Vienna. INSCKIPTIONS ON LAMPS. A'A* A'A-N'N' ACE ACCIANA PVBLI SATRI F'CAM* A'COCC'FEL- AED- AELI MAXI AGATE AGILIS AGILIS'F AGILIS'OF Al AIATO AIMILI ERONIS ALBINVS ALEXAN AMRD ANNAM ANI ANIA ANISDO ANTO'AVG- ANTON ANTONINI ANTONINI AQVILIN AQVILINI AREOLIN ARI ARIONIS ARRE ATELLVS'F ATILI-REST* ATIME'F AVQ- ATIMETI ATRVSA ATT I ATTIANVS ATTILIVS'F AVF'FRON ATY AVF- FRONT AVG'ANTONINI AVGNR AVGNRI A'VIBI AVLLI AVR'XAN BAGRADI BALSA BASAVGV BASSA 604 APPENDIX. BASSIDI BESTIALIS C'ABRILIS'F CAI'ADIEC' C'lVN'DRAC* CANTO CASSV CAI MERCVR CABS CAIVS'LVCIVS MAVRVS CAMSAR CAMVR CANA'FEL CANI CANINIA CAPITON CAPITO'F CAPRINVS CARINIA CARPI CASSI C ATI LIVES C'CAESAE CXAESAR C'CELER C'CiSI C-CLO'SVC C'CLO'SrO* C'CLO'SVC C'CLODIVS'SVC- cvs COMMVNI C"CORN-VRS* C'DESIGNATVS C'FAB'IVS C-FABR" C'FABRIS* C'FABRVS C"FAM- CHRES c-icci C'lCCI -VATIC C ICCI "VATICAN ■ C-ICCII -VATICAN! CISTEAS C-IVEIT* CINNAMI C'lVL-APAAC C'lVL-NIC- C-IVL-NICEP C'lVLI-NICI C-IVL-PHI C'lVL-PHILJ- C-IVL-SO- C'lVL-PHIL C-IVN-DOMIT C'lVN-NH CLO-HE CLQ-HEL CLQ-HELI- CL-LVPERCAUS CLO'L-DIA CLVNERI- C'MARV C-MEM* C-M-EVPO CN-AP-AP CN-ATEI- COEFrO COMITIANS'F COMMVNIS C-QP-REST C-OPPI-REST* C'OPPI-RES COMMODI COMMODI TERTIA COR -AV PAS CORDI- CRACLID* C-POM-DIC* C-PPE CRESCENS CRISPIN C'SECV C-TER C-TERT' C-TESO: C-VICILAR CVIVRI C'lAS-AVGV D'ET'DEI-N DEO-N-PIS DIOGENES-F DOMITIA DOMITIA D-E- (or, ET) D - N DRAC- EG'APRILIS* ERACLID- EROTIS- ERTI ANC EVCARI-F EVCARPrOF EVCHARES- EX-OFF-HORTENSI- EX-OF- PV- ET-TI* ADPORT-TRIG- F- FABRI FABRIC -AGAT FABRIC-A-MAS FABRINI F-AEL-ER-AC FAVSTI • FESTI FELI FIDELIS . FLAV FLAVD-P FLAVI FLAVIA FLAVIA D-E'D'N- ■ FLAVIA D'ET-DEI" FLAVIA D-ET'DEI N- FLAVIA D'ET -D-N FLOREN FLORENS FLORENT FORTIS FORTIS'N* FORTVNI'N' FRONTO GABINIA G-NVMICir G'P-R-F- HERACLIANV riccrvATic J- MS'V INA INVLISVCO lON-IV-CI G-VF IVLCIRI IVLIAE Nl* IVLIENI IVNCA IVN-ALEXI IVSTI IVVIHERM KV LABERI L-CAESAE L-CAESA'F L-CAMSAS L-CEVS-F L-COELI L-COELI-F L-DP L-DOMITI'P L-FARR-AEAE- L-FABRI-AEVI L-FABR L-FABRIC'MAS ^L- FABRIC- MASCL' LITOGENES L-IVLI-RE- L-MAMIT L-MARMI L'M-C L'M-MIT L'M-RES L'M'PHI-O L-M'SA- L'MVRA-M L-OPPIRES L'OREST L-PASISI'O L-PASISI'R LPR|- L'SEP L-SERGI L-T LVC-CEI LVCI APPENDIX. 605 L'MA-ADIEC LVCI LVCIVSCAECILIVS SAEVVS LVPVS M' MARCIAN MARN MART MAXI MAXIM MAXIMI MAXIM"SAC* M'ELI MEM Ml MENANDER MERA M'lVL'PHI M"IVL-PHILIP* cos-Ill M-IVL'PHILIPPI M-NOTIVS MONOS M'OPPrOF M" R'MTO MVNT" RES MVNT'REST* MVNTRIPr N* NATE NEGIDIVS NERI NEREVS NNA NNANN* NNAELVCI OFCHRESTIO' OF-IONJS OF'MODEST" OF- PAR ONORATI OPI OPPI OPP-QVART P'ACCI PANNICr PASTOR PAS'AVG P-ASINIVS PASISID- PHOETASPI PONTI PRIMI PRISGI PROB PROBI PVBLI PVB-FABRICII TERTIA Q-ALLA'D Q'MAMI'CEL R' ROMANE'V RVDIA-SABRI* SABINIA' SAECVL' SAM" SARNIOF SATRI SAT' SATTONIS SATVRNINI SENJCIO'FE- SERG'PRIM SEVERI SEX'EGN- APR SEXTVS SILVOS SINORVS STEPANI STROBIL-P SVCCESE SVCCESSIVI SVL TAXIAPOL TERTVLLI T-QELER T'FLAVriANVARI* FLORENT- TIN DA TINDAR'PLOT- AVQ LIBERTVS' TIBERINA-P'C'L TINLVTI TITI TITINIA TRAIANI TVRICrSAB VEGETVS'F VEICRIS VETTI VIBIAN VIBIVS VICTOR -F VICTORINVS VITALIS' VMVN-SVG VOVIVS VRBINVS'F* VRsro* VSAJA-M SNOIIVS Impressed In labels referring to subject. DEO QVI EST MAX- IMVS ADIVVATESODALES ANNVM NOVVM FAVSTVM FELICEM Ml STAMPS ON THE HANDLES OF ROMAN AMPHORA.* A'CIRGI AFRI AGRICOLAE APFSC ARCHEIA AXII BARNAE BELLVCI C, CF-AI* • I • I ; • I V ■ R C'lV C'VH CANINI CIREXORAS COR! CRADOS DAMAS DOM"S EIPC EVrSTERPS GIAB- GORCIA-- ICIOR IIICA"MENSS IIIMIN ro'vir HILARI-- HOSDAS' I EN L'CPI L-ME LO'S' MAXIMV8 MIM MOGVED- OCCO OMR PAVLLVS QVNAND ROMAN! RVFIAN RVMAS * R. Smith, Collectanea, i. 149-150 ; Archeol. viii.; Janssen, Inscr. p. 12, ami following. Orellius, i. 129-441 ; Steiner, Codex i. 129-441. Oculist's stamp on a mortarium. 606 APPENDIX. S'F'E SAENNVS SCALENS THrsvv VALERI* VIBIOR VTRir VISELLI- C'ANT'QVIET* C" ANTON -QV C'F'AI C'lVR- C-MAR'STIL G'M'T LACONIS L-CAN-SEC L-C'SOLL* L-CES' L-IVN'MELISSAE L'lVNI MELISSI L'SER'SENEC* L'S'SEX M-C*C M'AEM'RVS MAR M'EXSONI M'P-R- P'CRISP P ' S * A POR-L'AN* P'VENETV Q'VIIRATIVS- CATVLINVS QS'P S " C ' L ' SEVERI'LVPI S'VENT'VR' VRSI VIRGIRI F, or FECIT, before the name. GERMARA' C'CVFIA F after the name. G'APF C'VA- EROr [FR3ATERNI GESCV SARTF O F after the name. •■•EMING •"GEBI ••LCFPC "SANI SVI M' CARTVNIT L'VROPI NYMPMF'S STAMPS ON MORTAKIA. ALBINVS ALEXAND AMMIVS' ANDREAS APRILIS AXII BOISVS BRIXSA CAS"- C CALAIS C'E-F' P-R- CELSANOS CHOSDAS CI B CINTVSMVS C'SENTI DEVA- DVBITATVS' DOINV'DO" ENNVSAMI FELIX ANTRON HSR L-C-F-P-C'O* LICINILLVS LITVGENI MALLA MAMA MARINVS MATVCENVS MAXICMVS] PENEAS Q-APPOL-SODAL RIDANVS RIPANI" RVCCVS SABINVS SAEPIC SAVRANVS SATVRNINVS SECVNDVS SEXTI SOLLVS SVMACI C'DVRONCTET CHELIDOADCAL TANIO VIALLA With F, or FECIT, after the name. ALBINVS BORIEDO- BRVSC CANDIDVS CATVLVS C'FLAVIVS CHOSDAS LVGVDI MARINVS MARTINVS MATVSENVS PACATVS PAVLVS P'SEPVLLI-P QVARTVS QVIETVS SECVNDANVS SEQVT SOLLVS VIBIAN With M after the name. RIPANVS with OF' PRIMI PRASSO The name only. A'TEREN-RIPAN CASSIC'LEGE C-ATISIVS'SABINVS C'ATTIVS MANSI- NVS C'HERM L" CAN 'SEC L'FVRIVS'PRISCVS' p.p.pj. P-RB Q'VA'SE' Q'VAL- F'VERAN'F Q'VALERIVS- Q- VALERI ESV- NERTI Q'VALERIVS VA'SEC'SATVRN VERANIVS QVI'VAL' SEX 'SAT SEX'VAL' T[ITV]S'VI RIPANVS TIBER'F LVGVDV FACTVS APPENDIX. 607 NAMES OF POTTERS OF SAMIAN OR RED WARE. The accompanying list contains the names stamped on Samian ware in England and on the Continent. It does not comprise the Are tine potters. They are given as they have been published ; many without doubt erroneously ; and others as single, which are probably double names. Few are older than the time of Augustus. They are classed according to the formula the potters used, as the same names are found at Augst in Switzerland, at Murviedo in Spain, in London, in Normandy, and Holland, it is evident that they belong to some renowned pottery, whence they were exported. The principal authorities are the ' Collectanea ' of Mr. Eoach Smith, the list of Mr. Neville, the ' Cours ' of M. Caumont, the * Normandie Souterraine ' of M. Cochet, the ' Inscriptions ' of M. Janssen, and the ' Handbuch ' of Wagener. With O, OFF, OFFIC before the potter's name. ACRISI IVGVN- MVRRA ACVTI IVGVND- MVRRANI* ADVOCI IVLI- NARIS" ALBANI IVLIA- NATIVIC ALBI' IVLIAE'M' NEM ALBVCIANI IVLPATR* NERI' ALBIN' IVSTI Nl., NIGRI- ARD IVVENAL" NIGRINIANI ARDACI LABI NITORI" BASSI L'AE- NOM- GAL' L'O-VIRIL PAR- CALP- LIBERTI PARI* CALV Liomr PAssr CALVr LOVIRIGO" PASSIENI* CARAN LVCGEI- PASSINI CARQ- LVCIGOS'VIRIL PATRICr CELSI LVCO PATRIC* GEN MAGGA PATRVCI • GENSO" MANA- POLI GENTO MARAN POLLIO" GIRMI • MARO- PONT GOTTO • MONO PRIM- GOTVL MATE PRIMI- GREM- MATRI PRIMVL- ORES' MEINI PVDEN- GREST* MEM* RIGIMI' DOM" MERO ROSRVFI DVDE MINVS RVFIN FAB M'LVCCA* RVL- FABIN MO SAB- FAGER MODESTI SABIN FAGE* MOE SAGRI FEL MA* MOM SARMIT' FELIGIS MON SENG FIRMONIS MONO SEGV FRONT!* MONTEI SEVER FRONTINI* MONTI siis- FVSG' MONTO- SUV GER- MONTECI SVLPICI 608 APPENDIX. SVRILLI TERT- TVRINI VENMAN VERINA VIA- VIRILLI- L-C'VIRIUS VIRTVTIS VIT VITA VITAL EX ' O F before the name. HIRVN- With O, OFF, or OFFIC after the potter's name. ABALI* ABAN" ABARI- ACIRAT" AVRAP ADVOCISr ALBAN' ALBI' AMAND- APRILI8 APRIS APRO' ARC ATILIAN AVITOS* BASSI BELLINI BORI BORILLJ- BVRDONIS CAN' PATR CASSIA* CRECIRI* M'CRESTI" CONTI CRESTI" DONNA FELICIS* GERMAN!* lANVARJ ISE KALENDI* LABIONIS* L-C'CELSJ* MANSVETI MARCI MARTI! MISCI NASCIT!* PATERAT! PATERCLINI* PATERN!* PONTI REBVRRIS* ROMVLI SACERI • SACERVASI SACIRAP- SATERNINI SCENIG! SEVER! * SEXTI SIIXTILI* SILV! SOLIM! SOLEMN!* TVRRIN VAC" VESTR! VIRON!* VITAL!* With F, FE, FEC, FECIT after the potter's name. ACCILINVS ACIRGI- A'CVRIO* ADDO AEQVIR* ALBINVS ALBVS AMABILIS AMMIVS ANISATVS* APER ARC ARGO ASSIVS* ATILIANVS ATVSA AVGELLA AVLLVS AVSTVS BELINICCVS BIGA BIO BITVRIX BODVOC BONOXVS BVODVS BVODVTIVS BVCCVS BVRDO C'ABRILIS CABRVS CABVSA CAIVS CALMVA CAMBVS CAPASIAS CARVS CASTVS CATVS CASVRIVS CAVPIN- CERIALIS CERTVS CIBIS" CILLVTIVS CINTVSMVS CIRRVS COBNIIRT* COCCA COCVRNV* COCVRO COLLO COMPRIN COSAXT! COSEVS COSIA- CONSTANS CRACISA* CRACVNA CRAOSNA CRIMVS CROBRO CRVCVRO CVNI'IA DAGODVBNVS DAGOIMNVS DAGOMARVS DAMONVS'S DERCINVS DESTER* DISETVS DOCCA DOCCIVS DOCILIS DOMETOS DOMITIANVS DONAVC DRAPPVS DRAVCVS ELIVS ETVS FELIX- FELIXS- FESTVS FVSCVS GAIVS GALBINVS GARBVS GATISIVS GENITOR APPENDIX. 609 GIO GRACVS HABILIS HELL •'S HELVIVS'FI lABVS lANVS ICMRIMO INPRITV IRNVS IVSTVS' LATINIAN- LAXTVCIS LEO L'GETVS' LIBIIRALIS LICINVS LOLLIVS LVCANVS LUCCEIVS LVCIVS LVPVS LVTAEVS MACER M-ACCIVS MAGNVS MAIOR' MALLVRO MANERIVS MARCVS" MARINVS MARTIALIS MARTIN- MASCVLVS MAYS MEDDIC MESTO MICCIO MIDIA MINVCIVS MOTIVS- MOXIVS MOXSIVS MOXSVS MVISVS NASSO N. DERCINVS NATAL NATTVS NEBBIG NESTOR NICEPHORVS" NIGER NISTVS PASTOR PASTORINVS PATER PATERCLOS PATERCLVS PATERN- PATNA PATRICIANVS PAVLO PAVLLVS PAVLVS PRICVS PRIMVS PRISCrF SERRVS QVARTILLVS QVARTVS QVINTILIAN QVINTVS REGENVS ROFFVS ROPPVS ROPVSI RVFVS SACER SACINV8 SALV SANVCIVS* SATTO • SATVRNINVS SECANDINVS SECVNDVS SEDATVS SENNIVS SENTRVS SEVERIANVS SEVVO SEXTVS' SILVINVS- SOLLVS- SVOBNEDO TASCONVS TAVRICVS TERTIVS TOCCA TOTTIVS TVLLVS- VERTECISA VERTECISSA VERTILIS VESPO VIGTIGIVS VIDVGVS VINDVS VIRILIS VIRTHVS VITALIS" VITINVS With ME FEGIT SEXTVS F with a genitive for figuli. GARANI GELSIANI CITSIANI MAIORIS MARGJ- ROMVLJ- SILVINI • Without F after the name. AGERO AGVBIA AGVTVS ADVOSI AELIANVS AETERNI AGEDILLVS AGILIS AGIILITO AIISTIVI ALBINI ALBINV3 ALBVS ALLIVS AMATOR AMONVS AP0LLINARI3 APRONIOS AQVIINVS ARGANVS ARSAGVS ASIATICVS ATE! ATILIANVS ATIMETI ATINI AVGVSTALI3 AVGVSTINVS AVITVS BARN/E BASSVS BESSYS BIRAGRI BIRRANTIN BIRTIOLYS BOLDO BRAGTILLO BYGGIYS BVTRI GABIAVA GABRASIVS CAGAYA CAGER CALYYS CAMYLINYS GAPASIYS' GAPITOLINVS GARINYS GARR GARYS GARYSSA GASTYS GATIANYS GAYPIYS GAYTERRA GAYTV GELFS GELSI GELSINYS GELTAS GENSORINV GERIALIS GESORINI* GIAMAT* GINNAMI GINTYSMY GINTYGNATVS GIRINNA GITSIANI GOBNERTYS GOGYRO COLLON 2 R 610 APPENDIX. COLON COMICVS COMITIALIS COMITIANVS COMMVNIS COTIS COTTO CRASSIACVS CRE+CVS CRISPINA CRISPINI CRVCVRO CVPITVS" DAGO- DAGODVBNVS DAGOMARVS DAMO DAMON DAMONVS DAVIVS" DICETVS DIGNVS DilVI DIVICATVS DIVIX DIVIXTVL- DOCCIVS DOIICGI DOMINAG DOMITVS DONATV8 DOVIICCVS DVRINV ECVESER ELLENIIVS EPPA ERCLVS EROS EVRVS FACIVS FEGILVS FESIVS FORMOSVS FORTIS FRONTINVS GENIVS GERMANVS' GIAMI GINOVII GRACCHVS GRATVS HABILIS' HILARYS lACOMIO lANVARIVS lASO ILLIOMAR ILLVSTACO IMAN IMIVSETGAI INGEN lOENALIS IVCVNDI ■ IVSTVS LAGENVS LASTVCA LATINIANVS LATINVS L-C- FIRMINI LIBERTVS LICINILVS LICINVS LINIVSMIX LITVCAMVS LOLLIVS LOSSA LVCANVS LVCANIVS LVNARIS LVPPA LVTAEVS MACCARI MACRVS MACRINI MACRINVS MAETOS MAIANVS MALLIA MANSINVS MARCELLINV MARCIILLIN MARCOTOR MARNVS MARTIALIS MARTICVS MARTIVS MASONIVS MASSA MASCVLVS MATERNINVS MATRVPRO MATRINVS MATVACV MATVCENVS MERCATOR METHILLVS MINVVS MINVTVS M'NOTIVS MONTANVS MOSSVS MOXIVS MVLINOS MVRRANI NATALIS NAVONIS NERI NERTVS NEQVREC* NICEPHOR- NIMI NORVS IVL-NVMIDIC" ONATINI- OCARO PATERCLIN PATERNVS PATRICIVS PATVLVS PATVLLIANI PERE- PERPET PERRVS PERVS PETRVLLVS PRIMVL' PATER PRIMINVS PRIMVS PRVBCVS PVBLIVS PVRINX QVADRATVS QVARTVS QVINTILIANI QVINTVS RAEN RAMVLVS REBVRRIS RECMVS REGALIS REGINVS REGVLINVS REGVLVS REVILINVS RIIGALIS RIIGNVS RVCCATIA SABELLVS SABINVS SACRANTI SACRANTIVS SALVE SALVETV SALVINI SAM+IVS SAMOGEN SANTIAN SANTIANVS SARENTIV SARINVS SATVRNVS SAXOFER SCOROBRES SECANDI SENECA SERRVS SEVERI SEVVO SILVANVS SILVI ■ PATER SINATAS SOLANO SOLLVS SVARA SVRIVS SVLINOS SVLPIC SVLPICIAN! SVOBNEDO SYMPHO" TAVRIANVS TERRVS TERTIVS TETT'PRIM- TETTVR APPENDIX. 611 TIRO TITTIVS TITTVRONIS TRINONVS TVRNVS VENERANDI VENICARVS VERECVNDVS VERONISSA VESPONI VIBIVS VICTOR VICTORINVS VIINIIRANDVS VILLANOS VIRENS VIRG VIRIL* VIRiLIS' VIRTHV VIRTHVS VITALIS" VILLO* VOSIICVNNVS VLIVVS VMVN-SVG VNICVS VRVC VTRINVS ZOIL With M ', or MA, for manu after the name. AELIANI" AESTIVI' AFRICANI AIISTIVr AISTIVr AETERNJ- ALBANr ALBILLI* ALBINI- ANVMI- ARACI ARICr ASCIATICI ASCILLI- ATECLO ATILIANI' ATTIC I AVSTRI AVENTINI AVITI AVINI BANVNVr BELINICCI BENICCI BENNICI BIRR! BORILLJ- BOVTI- BRICC CACAS* CALVI CALVINI CAMTI CANAI CARANTI CARANTINI CARETI CARBONIS CARILLI CATIO CATTO CERIAL- CHRESTJ- CINTVSMI CIRRI' CIVRRr COBNERTr COCCIL- COCCILI* COCILLI COLLI' COMPRINNI CONGI' CONSORTI* C0SERV8 COSMI* CRACrS* CRASIS' CRISPIN! CRV CVCALI CVCILLI DAMINI DAVICI DECANNI DECMI DECVMINI" DEM'-R- DISETVS DIVICATI" DIVICr DOCALJ- DOMNA* DONATI" ELI- EVOTALIS FAVI' GLVPEI GENITALIS' ILLIANr IVSTI • LALLI* LIBERTI LILTANI' LIMETII LOGIRN' LOGIRNI' LOTTI LVPEI' LVPI' LVPINI' MACCALI MACILLI MACRIANI MAIORI MALLI MALLIACI MALLICI MANDVILL MARCELLI MARCELLINI MARCr MaRINI' MARITI" maritvmi maroilli- martcdanj- martialis MARTINI MAPTIO MATERNINI MATT I MAXIMII MELISSVS MEMORIS MERCATOR MERETI- METTI- MICCIONIS MIDI' MINVLI MINVTIVS MITERNA MONTI Mossr MVXTVLLI • MVXIVni NAMITA NERT' NOBILIANI OF"CIA OF'IVLIAE OPTATI' OSBI OTACRE OVINII PACATI PASSENI' PATTOSVS PATRICI PAVLI PAVLIANI PAVLLI ' PAVLLI PIIRPETVVS ' PIIRVTANVCVS PIIRVINCI POMPEII POMPEIVS POTITIANI* POTITINI' PRIMITIVOS PRISCIAN PRISCILLI' PVTRI QVI'ASSA' QVINTI QVINTILI,\NI QVINTINJ REDITI REGINI' 612 APPENDIX. R!IOGENI REGVLI- ROLOGENI' ROPPIRVr ROTTLAI RVFFr RVFFINI* SABINI' SACIRO SACRATI SACRE SAGRILLI SANIANI SANVILLI SANVITTI* SOOTH • SEOANDI" SEOVN- SEOVNDINI SEOVRI SEDETI* SENLIA SENO SENON SERVI SEVERI SEVIRI SIIGVOI siixxr SILDATIANI* SITVSiRI SORILLI SVARTI TASOILI TASOILLl* TAXIL TEROII TERTII TETTI TIBER! TITVRI TOOOA TOOCINVS TOSOINVS VARVOIVS VEGETI VENERANDI VENI" VEREOVNDI* VEST- VIOTORI- VIINIRANDI VIIRI • VSAIAON: With M F or M S, ^anu Sua. CAI' CENT FVOA- SAOROT' VERTELI With M AN V after tbe name. PRISOILLI Witliout M ■ or MA ' or F ABIANI- ADIVTORI ADVOOISI AEGEDILLI AETERN AIISTIVI AITI ALBINI ALBVOI ALBVOIANI AMATORIS ANTIOVI A- POL 'AVOIR A-POL-AVSTRI* APR APRONIS ATE I ATTIVS BANOLVOCI BASS! BASSIOI BELINIOOI BENAVIOI BENNIOI BILIOANI BILICAT* BLAESI BOINIOCI BONOXVS BRIOOI BRITANN BVOIANI BVRDIVI OALETINI OANRVOATI OARANI OASSI CASSIVS OATIAN OATVLI • OELSI OENSORJ- OENSORINI* OIITVS OINNAMI* OINNVMI OINTVAGENI* OINTVSSA- OIRNIOr OOSMIANI GRANT ORANIANI ORESTI GRISPINI CVEBROI OVTAI • DAGOMARVS DEOMARTI DIOGNATI Divixr DOIIOI DOMINIOI DOMITIVS DONNAVG DONTIONI ELVILLI EPONTI ERior ERRIMI FELIOIONIS FOARI FORTIS FORTVNI FRONTO GAANIANI GENITORIS GENTO GERMANI GRANANI HELINIV lABJ- lANVARIVS IIIMVI lOVANTI ISTVRONIS IVLIAN- LENTVLI LM-ADIEC LM MIT LM RES LOGIRNI LVOOANI MAOOARL MAOER MAIORIS MALLIAOI MALVNONI MAMILIANI MA[N]SVETI MAROELLINI MAROI MATRIANI MATVRN MAXIM! MAXIMINI MEDDIRIV3 MEROA* METILI* MIOOlO* MISS! NAMANTI NARISIVS NIGRINJ- NIMI PASSENI PASSIENI PATER P'OPPI'PIN PP"PATERNI PATERNVLJ' PATRIOI PATVLLIANI PEREGRIN!' PONT! PONTIACI PRIDIAN!' PRIMAIN' PRIM! PRIMVLI' APPENDIX. 613 PRIMIS PRIMVLI* PROTVLI QIVLHAB QVADRATI' QVE SALVr QVINTILIANI REGINL REGVILL' RELATVLI RIPANr RICTJIOGENI- RIVICA RVFINI SABINV8 SACER SACIANI 8ACIER SACRANTI SALVINI SATVRNINI' SEGANDI SECVNDINI SENONI SERVILIS SEVER! SILITV SILVANI' SILVINI SILVIPATRIGI STROBILI SVLPICr SVLPIGIANI- TALLINI TITTILir TITVRONIS TOCCA ; TRITVS VAC • O VALERI VASSALI VERECV VERECVNDI VEROCANDl VESPONI VICTOR VRNNI XIVI . L'ADN' ADGEN IVL-NVMIDI! ALSOETIA* AMIDV AQVIT* AQVITAN ARDA'C ARRO A-SVLPIC BVTRIV CAGIL-ANTRO CALV CASIL* C'GRATI" CLO'HEL CGSIR- COSI-RVFIN COTON C'VAL-AB DAMETGOS DOGG DONTIO'"IIC FIRMO UNCERTAIN FORMS. FL-COS'V F-SER- GERMAN ILLIOMEN ••••RIM IVN E T MELISSE FIMAN^ IVLIA* IVLIA PATR LACNO* LANG* L^FABR*. GASCE L^GELr LOGIRN L^RASIN^P- L^P^RIG MININ MR^M-R'R M'PER-CR- M'R'MRR N1B0 PAESTON PASSIEN PCD* PCOR PELT A PRIMICCO Q-VS- •••R FLAIVII SANTINOVC SCOTO AVOTO S'M'R* S'M-T TAVRI TEBBIL* TVRTVNN^ VERECV VINN VIRTH XC XVNX A list of incised inscriptions is given, Janssen, loc. cit. p. 159, and following. OCULIST'S STAMP ON RED SAMIAN WARE. [Fragment in British Museum.] C^IVLI OENIS CR I OCOD-AD'ASPE' BLACK WARE STAMPS. CAMAR'O* L-CASSrO FIRMINVS'F AVGVSTI-F^ . INCISED INSCRIPTIONS. MEMN-N-SAC'VIII VALENTINVLEG^XXV GENIO TVRNACENSI DEOMERCVRIO 614 APPENDIX. LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL COLLECTIONS OF ANCIENT POTTERY. Addington, H,, Esq., St. INInrtiu's Lane. Babington, Charles, Professor, Cock- field. Bale, C. S., Esq., 71, Cambridge Ter- race, London. British Museum, London. Cadogau, Earl, 138, Piccadilly, London. Cambridge, Fitzwilliam Museum. Chichester Museum. Field, E. W., Esq., Hampstf ad. Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. Forman, W. H., Dyers* Hall Wharf. Fortnum, E. C, Esq., Stanmore. Gray, Mrs. Hamilton, Bolsover. (iJuildhall Museum, London. Hamilton, Duke of, Hamilton, Scotland. Henderson John, Esq., Montague Place. Hoare, S. R. C. Lansdowne, Marquis of, Bowood. Liverpool Museum. Mayer, H., Esq, Liverpool. Museum of Geology, Jermyn Street, London. Northampton, Marquis of, CastleAshby. Northumberland, Duke of. Alnwick. Society of Arts, Adelphi, London. South Kensington Museum. York, Museum of Philosophical Society. France. Museum of the Louvre, Paris. Bibliotheque Nationale, Rue Richelieu, Paris. Boulogne Museum. Lyons Museum. Belgium. BiuBsels Museum, Holland. Leydcn Museum. Switzerland. Berne Museum. Denmark. ^ King's Collection, Copenhagen. Thorwaldsen Museum, Copenhagen. Russia. Hermit:ige, St. Petersburg. Kertcli Museum. Odessa Museum. Prussia. Berlin Museum. University of Bonn. Austria. Antiken-Kabinet, Vienna. Bavaria. Pinakothek, Munich. B.\DEN. Kunsthalle, Karlsruhe. Kingdom op Italy. Palagi Collection, Milan. Museum, Florence. Museum, Turin. \ Casuccini Collection, Chiusi. Museo Rossi Bacci, Arezzo. Museo Gregoriano, Rome, Museo Borbonico, Naples. Museum at Syracuse. Museum at Pnlorrao. Giudica Collection, Palazzuolo, Malta. Museum. ( 615 ) INDEX. For some Greek forms in ai, k, o, u, &c,, see also their Roman equivalents in se, c, u, y, &c. AAHENRU. ARABIA. AINEIAS. 287-291, 294, 311, 315, ^schylus, 210, 220 A. 316, 321, 336, 338 -340, ^sculapius, 113, 125, 497, 342-344, 346, 348, 350- 519, 514 Aahenru, 69 352, 356, 388, 389, 403, iEsop, 128, 360, 515 aahlu, 69 404, 410, 416, 428, 429, JEtna., 115 abaculi, 479 437, 460, 476, 514 ^tolia, 538 Abadieh, 12 Acradina, 476 ^tolian traditions, 260 Abaties, 241 AcriE, 116, 426, 427 colony, 421 Abbeville, 468, 592 acratophorum, 540 Afragola, 412 Abella, 417 acrolithic statues, 443 Africa, 219, 430, 432, 524 Abi, 21 Acropolis, 180, 183 agalmata, 127 Aboo Roash, 9, 10 aci'oterium, 442 agalmatolite, 69 Abooser, 30 Acta2on, 515 Agamemnon, 180, 181, 188, Abu, 21, 50 Actaion, 460 210, 263, 267-8, 271, 272, Abiidinos, 499 Aderl, 413 274-5, 289, 317, 320, 395, Abundantia, 500, 583 Aderno, 430 396 Abuiy, 588 Admetos, 233, 236, 260 444, Agatho, 519 Abydos, 9 460, 461 Agathokles, 158, 334, 426, acanthus, 307 Adonis, 143-145, 147, 213, 476 Acarnania, 128 236, 424 Agathyrnum, 115 Accad dialect, 82 Adranon, 430 Agen, Lot-et-Garonney 528, Accianian fabric, 520 Adrastos, Adrastus, 221 259, 580 Accianus fundus, 508 291, 461 Agias, 272, 288, 289 Acerenza, 420 adusmatotheke, 147 Agonios, Hermes, 237 Acerra, 417 Advocisus, 570 Agrianios, 137 Aceruntia, 420 Aecetia, 463 Agricola, 535 acetabula, 539, 569 ^diles, 140-142 Agriens, 109 acetabulum, 551 ^gina, 127, 192, 311, 392, Agrigentum, 145, 221, 426, Acetia, 461 409, 449 428 Acetias, 215 Jilginean art, 194, 196, 443, Agrolas, 114 Achajan alphabet, 199 496 Agylla, 399, 408, 448 colonies, 41 1 JEgis of Minerva, 539 Aiakos, 266 Achaians, 421, 424 j^^^gisthus, 515 Aidas, 272 Acharnian gate, 393 .'Elia Maxima, 502 Aidon, 348 Achelous, Acheloos, 252, 297, JEUus Caisar, 483 Aietos, 242 343, 350, 404 Maximus, 520 Aigeus, 257 Acheron, 266, 461 iEmilia Severia, 482 Aigina, 228, 338, 351, 391, AchiUeid, 193, 225, 230, 260, iEneas, 196, 206, 492, 514 395, 429 401 ^netor, 138 Aigisthos, 274 ^ ' lies, 180, 189, 191, 193, iEolus, 515 Ailkos, 266 4, 211, 225, 226, 230, vEquitas, 215, 461, 463 Aineias, 236, 268-9, 271, >, 237, 239, 266- i -271, araria, 426 286, 288, 289, 342, 404 616 INDEX. AINIADES. Ainiades, 348 Aiolis, 412 Aischylos, -us, 276, 280, 291, 397, 421 Aisimos, 351 Aithiopia, 395 Aithiopis, 269, 288 Aithra, 231, 256, 271, 340, 437 Aitolians, 375 Aivas, 461 Aix, 578, 579 Aix-la-chapelle, 477, 486- 488 Ajax, 226, 230, 267, 269, 270, 272, 288, 289, 315, 340, 350, 404, 460, 461 Oileus, 270 Akamantis tribe, 280, 321 Akamas, 271, 340-342, 437 akatos, 383 Akerkuf, 92, 93 akontia, 278 Akragus, 429 akratos, 229 Akrisios, 262 akroama, 282 akrostolion, 250 akroteria, 210 Aktaion, 234, 260, 423, 461 Aktaiun, 461 alabaster, 18, 24, 40, 50, 367, 376, 444, 455 alabastos, 193 alabastra, 400, 434 Alabastron, 24 alabastron, 187, 355, 367 alabastros, 367, 451 Alaw river, 589 Alba Longa, 410, 446, 595 Alban lakes, 410, 445 Albani, villa, 191, 480, 533 Albano, 446, 447 Alberoro, 410 Albinus, 549 Alb. Maximus, 490 Alcaius, 127, 155, 159, 202 Alcami, 117 Alcisthenes, 186 Alderney, 589 alectryon, 434 aleison, 378 Alexander the Great, 44, 82, 134, 157, 169, 199, 220, 222, 244, 313, 377, 384, 422, 425, 505, 515 Alexandei*, 538 Severus, 479, 482, 523 Alexandria, 38, 135, 136, 139, 140, 144, 432, 434 Troas, 114 Alexandrians, 365 Alexandrian art, 583 AMEN-RA. Alexandrian grammarians, 454 Alfaterna, 417 Altriston, 588 Alhambra, 479 Al Hymer, 93, 95 Alicata, 426, 430 Alkaios, 275, 339 Alkathoos, 188 Alkestis, 253, 260, 266, 292, 444, 460, 461 Alkibiades, 325, 422 Alkimachos, 276 Alkinoos, 273 Alkis, 250 Alkmaion, 259 Alkmena, Alkmene, 255, 281, 290, 352 Alkyonens, 253, 338, 351 Allier, valley of, 499 Alliiap, 541, 561 Alnwick Castle, museum, 71 Aloides, Aloids, 179, 227, 229, 232, 234, 456 alphabets, 310-332 of Sigillaria, 500 Alphesiboia, 262 Alsheim, 579 Aisimos, 351 Alsium, 410, 454 Alta Mura, 420 Althaia, 281 alveoli, 475 Alybas, 424 Alytica, 118 Alyzia, 118 amaranth, 505 Amasis, 53, 54, 70, 335, 337, 347, 348, 400 Amazons, 239, 240, 242, 252, 258, 264-5, 269, 288, 295, 336-338, 344, 349, 351, 429, 437, 514 Amazonomachia, 193, 224, 254, 264, 343, 357, 410, 416, 420, 423, 425, 428-9, 438, 554 amber, 457, 585 Ambracia, 121 Amen, 74 Amenanchut, 52, 65 Ameneman, 21 Amenemapt, 21, 52 Amenemha, 21 Amenhept, 15, 19 Amenophis, 15, 19, 20 II., 12, 20 III., 11, 12, 52, 65, 68, 71, 73 IV., 65 Amen-Ra, 12, 13, 1?, 19, 20, 21, 53, 62, 65, 73 ANDROSPHINX. Amenti, 23, 62 Amenusha, 19 Amesbury, 588 Amnion (oasis), 17 ampechonion, 198, 211 Ampelus, 512 Amphiaraos, 259, 291 Amphictyon, 122 amphikypellon, 379 amphiphoreus, 361 Amphitrite, 231, 293 Amphitryon, 281 amphora, amphoraj, am- phoreus, amphoreis, 25- 27, 32, 36, 40, 85, 91, 92, 110, 134-140, 163, 164, 168, 181, 182, 187, 189, 191, 193, 197, 205, 208, | 213, 216, 217, 223, 300, ' 302-304, 307, 336, 339, 340,, 342, 343, 345, 350, 352, 354, 361-363, 368- 370, 372, 394, 400, 402, 403, 414, 422, 424, 428, 429, 437, 438, 456, 490, 512, 527, 529, 531-533, 539, 542, 544-546, 548- 552, 581, 593, 594, 597 ampullae, 41, 540-1 ampullarii, 532, 571 Amram, 108 Amset, 23 amula, 537 amulets, 57, 58, 61, 63, 70- 72, 74 Amyklai, 263, 309 Amykos, 260 Amymome, 231, 233 Amyntas, 138 An, 42 Anacreon* Anakreon, 159, 200, 202, 276. anaglypha, 553, 583 Anakles, 336, 401 Anakreontica, 221 analysis, 9, 47, 90, 104, 160, 173-6, 562 Anatolius, 135 Anaxilaus, 313 anaxyrides, 295 Anchippos, Anchippus, 271, 315, 340 Anchises, 196, 271, 342 anchor, .514 Anchsenamen, 52 L'Ancresse, Guernsey, 589 Ancus Martins, 408 Andokides, 328, 3% 341, 345. \y Andromache, 268, 314, 374 Andromachos, 188 Andromeda, 263, 400, 515 Androsphinx, 403 INDEX 617 ANDRUTAS. Andrutas, 188 Anglo-Romaa ware, 551 Aui^lo-Saxons, 592, 593 uuimals, 71, 73, 126, 169, 181, 239, 240, 286-7, 365, 403, 450, 456, 457, 492-3, 517-18, 558, 565, 567 Ankaios, 315 Annia Arescusana, 493 Anuiiis Verus, 483 Anau, 87 ansa, 504-5. Antaios, 254, 339, 350 antefix, 118, 308-310, 441, 474, 475, 491, 493, 496, 509 Anthesteria, 144 Anthippe, 285 Anties, 241 Antigone, 256, 259,281 Autigonis, 382 Antigonus, 382 Antiklides, 220 Antilochus, 269, 288, 338, 492 Antinoe, 26 Antiochus, 138, 556 Antiope, 228, . 252, 258, 282, 314, 337 Antipater, 138 Antiphanes, 383 Antipolis, Phrygian, 530 Antisthenes, 366 Antium, 531 Antonines, 46, 117, 132, 478, 483, 559, 583 Antoninus, 113, 482, 492, 521 Augustus, 522 Pius, 531 Antonius Malchaeus, 46 Antony, 569 Antrim, 591 antyges, 171 Anubis, 7, 61, 64, 514 Anxia, 419 Anzi, 419, 524 Anzio, 531 Aon, 336 Aosta, 549 Apamsea, 143 Apate, 250 Apelles, 159, 220, 309 Aper, 489 apes, 53 Aphareus, 289 Aphrodisius Epaphos, 121 Aphrodite, 103, 111, 124- 126, 145, 167, 169, 211, 214, 221, 228, 231, 233, 235, 238, 243-245, 250, 259, 263, 267-269, 271, ARCADIA. 277, 286, 289, 293, 297, 307, 315, 317, 373, 394, 418, 423, 431 Apis, 64, 73 aplustre, aplustron, 230, 250, . 431 Apollas, 142 Apollo, 114, 117, 119, 122, 127, 138, 141, 227, 228, 232, 233, 234, 236, 238, 244, 246, 247, 249, 254-5, 259, 265, 269, 271, 274, 280, 281, 290, 293, 294, 298, 316, 317, 337, 346, 374, 389, 415, 416, 437, 492, 507, 512, 514 Helios, 136-7 Hyperborean, 205, 429, 511 Lycian, 316, 511 Musagetes, 492 Nomios, 238 Pythion, 511 ■ Thymbraean, 269 Apollodorus, 140, 375 Apollon, 211 ApoUonidas, 140, 141 Apollonius Rhodius, 260, 296 Apollophanes, 133, 521 Apollos, 130 Appian Road, 493 Appleford, 582 Aprilis, 549 Apronianus, 485 Apt, 63 in Vaucluse, 531 Apuleius, 504, 516 Apulia, 162, 205, 208, 217, 219, 225, 292, 295-6, 298, 328, 360, 394, 398, 411, 419, 422, 426, 430, 431 Apulian style, 214, 294, 422, 437 vases, 302, 362-3, 369, 401 aqueduct, 120, 471 Aquileia, 524 Aquilinus, 519 aquimenarium, 537 Aquitan cohort, 488 Araban, 92 Arabia, 108 Arabs, 479 Arabus, 485 Arachne, 230 Aramaic art, 198 Aramjea, 109 Aramaean pantheon, 189 Arbila, 78 Arbor Lowe, 588 Arcadia, 113, 121, 242, 263, 396 ARI8TOMEDE8. Arcesilaus, 130, 158, 193, 199, 496, 498 Archaic period, 185-6 Archedic, 245 Archemoros, 262, 282, 357 Archemos, 351 Archesistrate, 285 Archikles, 310, 333, 336 Archipelago, 547 Archippos, 430 Archons, 159, 430, 431 Archytas, 142, 425 Arcton, 140 ardalion, 378 ardanion, 357, 378 Ardarea, 420 Ardea, 463 Ardikes, 220 Arentsburg, 582 Ares, 179, 216, 227, 230, 233, 235-6, 247, 249, 254, 256, 259, 268, 293, 297, 383, 456 Arestius, 485 Aretaios, 276 Arete, 431 Arethusa, 166 Aretine ware, 457, 557, 558, 560, 575 Aretines, 560 Arctium, 399, 410, 441, 508, 519, 542,554-5,561, 564, 592 Arezzo, 410, 441, 542, 554- 5, 557, 560, 564-5, 580 Arge, 233, 234 Argentiera, 390 argilla, 465 Argive cups, 381 myths, 262 Argo, 260, 492 Panoptes, 237 Argolic buckler, 294, 383 style, 292 Argolis, 352, 396 Argonautica, Argonauts,'224, 225, 249, 255, 260, 262, 275, 342, 422 Argos, 156, 221, 317, 392, 394, 395 Ariadne, 225, 226, 237-242, 246, 257, 281, 294, 298, 311, 316, 318, 415, 429, 500, 512 Arimaspi, Arimaspoi, 265, 432 Arion, 281, 519 Aristarchos, 329, 478 Aristides, 220, 285, 325 Aristippos, 276, 431 Aristocles, 140 Aristogeiton, 431 Aristoraedes, 118, 140 618 INDEX. ARISTON. Ariston, aedile, 117 Ariston, 140, 329 Aristophanes, 131, 156, 210, 281, 292, 326-7, 331, 338, 345, 346, 348, 358, 363, 384 Aristotle, 131, 186, 213, 383 Arkesilaos, 275, 311, 436 Arktinos, 288 Armarius Sicinnus, 485 Armento, Armentum, 419 armillae, 449 armour, 293-295 arms, 512 Arnaise, 536 Arnsberg, 488 Arnthe, 335 arragonite, 24, 42 Arria Fadilla, 483 Arrius Diomedes, 533 ars cretaria, 552, 578 pajnularia, 578 pavementaria, 578 Arsinoe Zophyritis, 365 Artamitios, 137 Artaxerxes, 102, 276 Mnemon, 175 Artemidorus, 117 Artemis, 216, 227, 228, 232- 234, 238, 252, 254, 259, 262, 293, 344, 374, 416 Hyperborean, 127 Tauric, 235 Artemoklea, 129 artists, 170-173 Arulonpolis, 432 Aruns, 409, 462 aryballos, aryballoi, aryballi, 29, 40, 85, 104, 145, 187, 205, 355, 373-4, 433, 434 arysane, 374 arysides, 330 arysteis, 374 aryster, 374 arystichos, 374 arystris, 374 arytaina, 373 aryter, 374 asaminthos, 376 asarota, 479 Aschersleben, 595, 596 Ashdon, 582 Asia, 384, 457 Minor, 39, 179, 386, 388, 449, 457, 524, 583 Asiatics, 297, 440 Asiatic myths, 264 personages, 295-6 style, 453 Asinius Agrippa, 533 Pollio, 485 askidia, 168, 216 Asklepios, 246 ATHENS. askos, askoi, 144, 146, 163, 168, 182, 187, 240, 307, 360, 458, 513 Asniferes, 579 Asobas, 352 asphodel, 307 Aspres in High Alps, 579 asses, 449 Assoro, 130 Assteas, 348, 418, 420 Assurbanipal, 79, 82, 88 Assur-ebil-ili-kain, 77 Assur-nazir-pal,77,78,88,105 Assyria, 73, 75, 457 Assyrians, 365, 449 Assyrian art, 121, 158, 186, 198 style, 54, 309 Asta, 542, 560 Astarte, 190 Asti, 399, 400 astragal, astragaloi, astraga- los,127, 301,355,395,415, 540 Astyanax, 270, 289, 351, 424 Atalanta, 261, 263, 282, 291 Atella, 413 atf, 63 Athenaios, Athenaeus, 156, 292, 332, 373 Athene, 125, pi. p. 203, 216, 227. 229-235, 237, 238, 244-248, 251, 254, 256, 258, 259, 262, 263, 269, 271, 286, 289, 292, 316, 336, 338, 344, 346, 349, 351, 415, 431 Skiras, 122 Athenian archons, 431 myths, 266, 448 style, 184. 15^9, 360, 391, 422, 424 ware, 110, 392, 436 Athenians, 326-7, 359, 379, 394 Athenios, 276 Athenokles, 347 Athenry, 591 Athens, 26, 112, 114, 118, 119, 121, 122, 124, 126, 128, 130, 135, 140, 143, 146, 149, 156, 162-165, 180, 184, 187, 192, 194, 197, 202, 208, 209, 212, 219, 258, 271, 307, 311, 320, 324, 329, 335, 340, 341, 353, 355-357, 360, 361, 366, 375, 378, 381, 382, 386-7, 390, 392- 395, 397, 403, 405-408, 416, 424, 430-432, 434, 435, 438, 439, 443, 447, 449, 452, 459, 496, 554 AYLSHAM. Athor, 7, 49, 56, 63, 64, 73 Atlas, 246, 249, 252, 281, 282 Atrane, 560 Atreidai, 289 Atreste, 461 Attains, 114 attegia tegulicia, 473 Attic dialect, 408 inscriptions, 429, 430 language, 426 literature, 414 myths, 258, 393 subjects, 408, 412, 416, 426 Attica, 129, 229, 264 Attilius, 524 Attius, 519 Atum Nefer, 53 Atys, 129, 514, 564 Auctios, 500 Aufianus, 535 Aufidius Fronto, 490 Auge, 254, 267, 281 Augst, 487 Augustan legion, 473 period, 569 poets, 514 Augusti, 521 , chapel of the, 483, 487 Augustus, 132, 140, 157, 468, 470, 478, 480, 496, 498, 505, 507, 523, 532, 555 auletrides, 282 Aulis, 289, 397 Aulus Bursenos, 499 "^ — Titius, 559 , figulus, 560 Aurelian, 467 Aurelius, 521 Marcus, 140 Pompeianus, 490 Xanthus, 520 Aurora, 121, 145, 209, 248, 266, 294, 314, 412, 422, 428 Ausonius, 476, 499 Ausonii, 416 Auster, 566 Autochthon, 109 Autun, 498 Auvergne, 572, 585 Avella, 398, 417 Avellino, 418 Avenches, 478 Aventine hill, 502, 520, 534 Avilia, 490 Avitus, Consul, 478 Axiokersa, 259 Axionicus, 131 Aylsham, co. Norfolk, 589 INDEX. 619 BAAL. B. Caal, 64 Baashok, 92 Babel, 97, 107 Babylon, 7, 7G-78, 81, 82, 92, 93, 96, &c., 107, 114 Babylonia, 18, 75, 108, 158, 433, 449 Baccha, 126, 222 Bacchanalian style, 379, 380 subjects, 151, 214, 337, 341-343, 352, 368, 424 Bacchanalians, 337, 415, 418, 428-430 Bacchante, Bacchantes, 127, 131, 145, 164, 209, 212, 221, 243, 256, 318, 396, 401, 513 Bacchiads, 396 Bacchic amphora?, 193, 309, 362 orgies, 420, 558 thiasos, 349 triumph, 241 Bacchus, 121, 209, 221, 224, 365, 492, 497, 512, 514, 537, 583 Indian, 437-8 Badbury Camp, 588 Baden, 487, 488 Badromios, 137 B^ebiana, 532 Bagradus, 519 BaifB, 132 Bakchai, 292 Bakewell, 588 Balaclava, 135, 583 balanompihaloi, 383 Ballagodine, co. Sligo, 591 balls, 57 Ballynatty, co. Down, 591 balsam-vase, 43 Banchory, Aberdeenshire, 590 bands, 44 Banffshire, 590 Barbarians, 492 Barbarus, 569 barbotine, 563, 573, 576 Barce, 534 Bari, 421 Baris, 19 Barrow Hills, 588 barrows, 586, 589 Bartlow Hills, 536 basalt, 18 bascauda, 541, 587, 589 Basilica, 112, 121,480,483, 568 Ba^licata, 157, 164-5, 168, ( 2, 199, 212, 219, 303, 7, 310, 380, 381, 398, BETHLEHEM. 399, 402, 405,411, 417- 419,420,422,431,459 Basilicatau style, 218, 371, 383 Basingstoke, 546 basins, 86 Bas-reliefs, 103, 111, 443, 444 Bassa, 519 Bassus, 575, 579 Bast, 63, 64, 73 Batavian, a, 500 Bath, 582 baths, 468, 470, 472, 474, 475 Bathykles, 226, 309 Bathyllus, 331 Baton, 259 Battiad, 276 Battipaglia, 418 Bautzen, 594 beads, 58-62, 72, 434, 455, 586, 587 Beauvais, 503, 579 Bebrykos, 264 Beckhampton, 588 Bedford purlieus, 582 Beedon, co. Berks, 588 bee-hives, 501 Bel, 76, 100. Beleniccus, 570 Belgium, 573, 577 Belinus Grecus, 500 Bellerophon, 127, 262, 292, 410, 423, 453, 515 Belle Vue, France, 528 bellglasses, 530 Bellona, 215, 461, 463 Bellucus, 535 Belshazzar, 85 Belus, 94 Bengazi, 212, 430 Beni Hassan, 33 Bennu, 64 Bentehahar, 20 Berenice, Berenike, 56, 159, 165, 212, 213, 219, 329, 412, 430 Bergen, Hanover, 593 Norway, 597 Berlin, 148, 331, 442 Academy, 570-1 Museum, 127, 176, 203, 340, 363, 419, 422, 423 Bernaldy Moor, 589 Bernard, 503 Bernay, 365 Bes, or Besa, 29, 64, 65, 71, 366 bessa, 29, 365-6 bessaies, 467 Bethlehem. 107 WIETAGNE. liethlema, 479 Bibe, 503 Bicnaris, 500 biga, 500 Billericay, 581 bilychnis, 504 Bingen, 488 Binstead, 582 Binsted, Hants., 551 bipedales, 466, 473, 477, 485 Birs Nimrud, 92-97, 104 Birten, 487 Biscari Museum, 427 Bitonto, 420 Bittern, 578 bitumen, 479 Black Heddon, co. North- umberland, 589 Blandfox-d, co. Dorset, 588 Boeotian buckler, 294, 390 coins, 311 skyphoi, 379 Boia, 276 Boiotarchs, 312 Boisius, 535 Boline, 234 Bologna, 400, 480 Bolognese legation, 400 Bomarzo, 402, 454, 462 bombylios, 366 Bonn, 488, 489 Bononia, 400 Borbonico, museo, 148, 357, 437, 560 Bordeaux, 548, 572, 579 Boreads, 260, 264 Boreas, 248, 256-258, 316, 393 Bornholm, 596 Borsippa, 102, 104 Borthwick, 590 Borys, 141, 142 Bosphorus, 142, 175, 432 Kimmerian, 432 bostrychoi, 202 Botham, near Lincoln, 573 Botteudorf, 593 Bouarieh, 99 Bourges, 579 Bousiris, Busiris, 252, 254, 344, 349 Boutham, near Lincoln, 582 Boxmoor, 472 Brandenburg, Elector of, 152 Brandon, 589 Brapiatus, 485 Brassington Moor, 589 Breccia, 18 Bredene, 577 Brequeruque, 580 Breselu Hills, Pemhr. 589 Bretagne, 591 620 INDEX. BRETTII. Brettii, 423 Breuberg, 488 Briakchos, 242 Briare, 477, 547 Briaxides, 400 Brighton, 588 Brikon, 242 Brindisi, 424 Briquet age de Marsal, 469 Briseis, 238, 267-8, 271, 281, 340 Britain, 445, 463, 487, 488, 498, 524, 548, 561, 568, 570, 589 British art, 576 Early, 597 potters, 550 potteries, 578, 590, 594 Britons, 423, 585 Brixsa, 549 Brixworth, 589 Bromias, 380 Bronwen, 587, 589 bronze, 24 age, 586, 595 kyathoi, 376 Brosely, 551 Broughton, 588 Brundusium, 166, 424 Brusche river, 498 Bruttian tiles, 485 Bruttii, 160 Bryaxis, 348 Brygos, 336, 348 Bubastis, 73 Buccellianum Museum, 440 Bucconian potteries, 484 Bulford, Salop^ 589 Bur, 102 burdaks, 29 Bures, Mount, 581 Burgonianum, vas, 393, 437 busts, 127, 443 Butzbach, 487 Byzantians, 353, 479 Byzantine empire, 478 period, 475 style, 222, 507 Byzantium, 138, 468 Byzes, 119 O. Cacherin, 593 Cacus, 520 Cadmus, 224 cadus, cadi, 530, 539, 544, 546 Cacilii, 494 Cselia, 422 Cielius Mons, 480, 502 C^lus, 510 Caer, 487 CAMBRIDGESHIRE. Csere, 149, 174, 190, 191, 311, 336, 337, 344, 399, 403, 404, 434, 446-448, 450, 457 Ca^re Vetus, 454, 456 Caerleon, 473, 487, 570, 582 Caernarvon, 582 Caesar, 396 Csesars, 482, 523, 554, 558 palace of the, 471 Caesennia, 534 Cairn Thierna, co. Cork, 591 Caius, 132 Antonius Quintus, 535 Atisius Sabinus, 549 Caelius Verus, 483 Caesar, 520 Clodius Successivus, 519, 520 Cosconius, 485 — — Cossus, 500 Faber, 520 — — Fabricius, 520 Iccius, 520-1 Iccius Vaticanus, 520 Julius Nicephorus, 520 Julius Philippus, 520 Lucius Maurus, 520 Marius, 533 — Memmius, 520 Murrius, 117 ■ Oppius Restitutus, 520 Pomponius Dicax, 520 Popilius, 560 Secundas, 520 Sosius Senecio, 479 Vibianus Faustus, 560 Vigilaris, 520 Calabria Ulteriore, 423 calathi, 31 . Calavo, 333 Calentum, 115 Cales, 124, 178, 417, 463 caliga, 507 calix, calices, 447, 530, 547, 551, 557, 569, 581 Callias, 140 Calliope, 399 Callirrhoe, 195 Callistratus, 140 calpar, 531 Calpurnia, 497 Calvello, 419,420 Calvi, 144, 417, 463 Calvisius, 517 Calydon, 188, 191, 193 Calydonian boar, 127, 403 Calymna, 118, 123, 132, 390, 569 Camaro, 574 Camars, 401, 441 Cambriasantus, 475 Cambridgeshire, 557, 582 CARTUKITUS. Cambyses, 54, 102 Camillian potteries, 484 Camiros, Camirus, 189, 211, 390 Campagna di Roma, 477 campana, 205 Campana collection, 145, 212, 463 Campania, 149, 152, 157, 164, 174, 214, 295, 300, 310, 312, 327, 390, 398, 399, 406, 410, 412, 417, 426, 428, 430, 461, 496, 541, 570 Campo Morto, 404 Camposcala, 405 Campua, 413 Camulenus, 500 Camurus, 559 Canal de Bourges, 579 candelabra, 38 candelabrum, 551 candelabrum amphora, 362 Caninian, 489, 520, 521 Caninius, 142 Canino, 325, 404, 405, 436-7, 462. canistra, 243 canopus, canopi, 29, 357, 514, 593 Canosa, 398, 420, 421, 463 Canterbury, 582, 588 cantharoi, 166 cantharus, 512, 514, 540 Canusium, 398, 421 capedo, 537 capeduncula, 537 capis, 537 Capitanata, 418 Capitol, 442, 502 Capo del Sevo, 434 di Monte, 437 ■ museum, 151 Capraean orgies, 516 Capua, 144, 151, 165, 188, 215, 221, 249, 311, 332, 339, 398, 406, 425, 437, 463, 464, 560, 561, 580, 592 S. Maria di, 413 Caracalla, 480, 503, 522 Caractacus, 589 Carbonara, 420 carchesion, 540 Caretus, 570 Carian helmet, 205 Caristo, 392 Caristus, 392 Carlsruhe, 148 carnedd, 589 Carthage, 110, 183, 328,434, 479 n. Cartunitus, 535 INDEX. 621 CASATUS. Casatus Caratius, 571 Caspian sea, 170 Cassandra, 206 Cassel, 579 Castel d'Asso, 400 Castellaneta, 425, 426 Castellucio, 420 Castiglioncel delTrinoro,401, 454 Castor, 513 Castor, CO. Northampton, 529, 550, 573, 576, 578, 582, 589 castra, 472 Castra Vetera, 558 Castrades, 135, 397 Castrum, 487 Catana, 521 Catania,l 14,130,426,427,430 catellus, 538 Catiline, 523 catillus, 538 catiuus, 537, 538 Cato, 496, 532, 536 Catulus, 549 Catus iElius, 537 Caucasus, 265 Caudedec, in Normandy , 579 Caudela, 118 Caulonia, 191 Cava, 417 Cayster, 555 Cebes, 250 cedar, 18 Ceglie, 419-422, 425 Cella, 538 Celsus Pompeius, 521 Celtiberian, 570, 581 Celtic pottery, 445, 593 style, 550, 551, 584, 591-2, 596-7. Celts, 585-587, 589 cemeteries, 456 censers, 587 Centaurs, 134, 192, 221, 222, 226 Centorbi, 211, 427 Centum Cella;, 556 Centuripae, 211 Ceos, 158 Cephalion, 142 Cerealis, 565 Ceres, 121, 126, 412, 496, 500, 502, 514 ceruba, 551 Cervetri, 149, 189, 191, 344, 403-4, 409, 417, 441, 442, 447, 450, 452, 454, 456, 462, 560, 583 Cerynitis, 513 . Cesnola, Genei*al di, 391 Cesona, 454 Cestius, 505 CHITON. Chabrias, 117 Chachrylion, Chachrylios, 337 chjetodon, 42, 55 Chairestratos, 337, 349 Chalcidian, 407, 412 Chalcosthenes, 112 Chaldasa, 82, 86, 96 inscrr., 108 religion, 54 style, 451 chalkeos keramos, 179 Chalkidian Greeks, 416 Chamairophontes, 329 Champagne, 555 Channel islands, 582, 585 Chares, 190, 194, 310, 348 Charidemos, 283, 391 Charinos, 337 charisteria, 443 Charitaios, 337, 404 Charites, 233, 246 Chariton, 329 Charmades, 220 Charminos, 328 Charon, 144, 210, 247, 273, 293, 329, 356, 444, 459, 460, 461 Charybdis, 273 Chatelet, 579 Chatelet in Auvergne, 566 Chefren, 61 Cheironea, 318 cheironips, 378 cheironiptron, 378 Chelis, 337 Chelsea, 439 Chemmis, 9 Chemnitz, 595 Cheops, 61 Cher, dcpt., 579 Cherhill-down, 588 Cherilos, 401 chernibon, 378 cheroulia, 360 Chester, 488 Chesterford, 581 Chian cups, 381-2 Chianciano, 401, 454 Chichester, 582 Chiliodromia, 391 Chilo, 276 Chimsera, Chimaira, 127, 254, 262, 287, 338, 457 China, 542 Chinese, 46, 69 porcelain, 439 Chionis, 279 Chios, 136, 143, 367 Chiron, 234, 267, 281, 290, 315-6, 344, 352,410,459, 461 chiton, chitons, 198, 211 CI8TA. Chiusi, 194, 225, 344, 401-2, 409, 441, 445, 451, 452, 454-5 chlamys, 515 Chi oris, 248 choai, 210 Choinix, 146 Cholchos, 337, 348 Chons, 12, 53, 62, 64, 73 Chora, 241 Choronike, 241 Chores, 242 Chorrepous, 241 Chosdas, 535 chous, 372 Chrestio, 519 Christ, monogram of, 518, 548 Christian devices, 518, 548 lamps, 523 period, 523, 597 Chromatis, 524 n. Chrysaor, 263 Chryse, 255 Chryseis, 268 chryselephantine, 231 sculpture, 197 chrysendeta, 526 Chryseros, 521 Chrysippos, 259, 423 Chrysokeramos, 475 Chrysor, 109 Chrysos, 209, 395 Chrysothemis, 210, 274, 395 Chrystina, 38 chutrinoi, agones, 144 chutrai, 370 chytreis, 333 chytria, 330, 332, 358 chytroi, 134 chytropous, 371 ciboria, 540, 551, 552 Cicero, 536, 537 Cilnia Gens, 555 Cimbric Chersonese, 597 Cimmerians, 265 Cimolos, 390 Cimon, 159 Cincelli, 555 Cinnamus, 519 Cinyras, 115 cippus, 523 Circensian games, 516, 568 circulatores, 510 Circus, 471, 568 of Maxentius, 493 Maximus, 480 Cirencester, 565-6, 582 Cireioras, 535 Cisrhenana legio, 488 . Cissbury, 546 cissybion, 445 cista, 382 622 INDEX. CISTERKS. CRANES. D^DALIAN STYLE. cisterns, 473 Comberton, 582 Crassus, 579 citharcedi, 403 Cominus, 485 crater, crateres, 164, 182, Civita Vecchia, 149, 192, Comitium, 470 540, 541 403, 452, 467, 468 Commodus, 481, 486, 515, craticula, 541 Claudia, Vestal, 475 520, 521 Creon, 127 Claudian tiles, 485 Compifegne, 579 crepundia, 501 Claudius, 569 Comus, 492, 513 Cretan bull, 231, 265 Gothicus, 222 conchae, 491 Crete, 114, 226, 265, 390 Lupercalis, 520 cones, 18-21, 129, 448 Crimea, 129, 141 clavis muscarius, 477 congius, 372 Crispinianus, 485 Clayton Hill, 588 Connevitz, 594 Critias, 163 Clemens of Alexandria, 131 | Constantine, 46, 467, 471, Croatia, 485 Cleomenes, 157 479, 480, 483, 507, 579 Crockhill in New Forest, 577 Cleonaj, 159 Constantines, 503 ware, 574 Cleone, 189 Constantinian age, 486 crocodiles, 62 Cleopatra, 436, 523 Constantinople, 122 . Croesus, 114, 159, 202, 466 Cleoxena, 129 , Emperor of, 479 cromlechs, 591, 595 Clermont, 531 Constantius II., 552 Crowenstown, co. Wcstnieath, -Ferrand, 572, 579 consuls, 475, 479, 480, 527, 591 Clesippus, 500 533 cruse, 29, 39, 40 Cleveland, 589 Contada di Molise, 418 crustaj, 553, 564, 583 Cleves, 487, 488 Contra Pselcis, 9 crux et stipes, 500 Clodius Heliodorus, 520 Conversano, 421 crystalline vases, 555 Clusium, 401, 454 convolvulus, 307 Cucumella, 405 clypea, 491 Conze, 153 Culford, 588 Cnaeus Lentulus, 533 Coolnakilly, 591 Cuma, Cum«, 144, 145, 149, Cneius Domitius Amandus, Coppios, 500 164, 190, 191, 332, 398, 486 Coptos, 38, 45, 161, 432 406, 407, 412, 468, 508, Cnidians, 490 Copts, 46 518, 542, 560-1, 575 Cnidus, 132, 139-141, 161, Coraibus, 163 Cumera, 541 170, 387 corbels, 89 Cumers, 401 Coblentz, 488 Corcyra, 117, 129, 135, 187, cuneus, 477, 502 Cobnertus, 565, 570 188, 534 Cupid, Cupids, 145, 168, 222, cocti, 467 Cordova, 479 250, 461, 511, 512, 558, coctiles, 467 Corfu, 129, 135, 155, 375, 397 560, 568 coffins, 51, 105, 106 Corinth, 142, 143, 149, 159, Curius, 537 coffin-models, 22 161, 163, 187, 188, 194, Curtius, 515 Coghill, 153 215, 219, 220, 333, 335, curule chairs, 452, 458 cohorts, 488 396, 397, 407-8, 496, 534 Cusinia Gratilla, 483 Coia Venus, 511 Corinthians, 120 cyathi, 539, 540, 547, 569 Coian vests, 159, 243 Corinthian helmets, 294 Cybele, 474, 510, 514 Coilsfield, 590 mvth" ^fi'^ Cyclic poets, 514 coin-moulds, 502-3 *-»*-i + +rvi»i rtc 1 QA Cyclopean walls, 150 colanders, 536, 546, 555 ) potters, 345 348 Cyclops, 511 Colchester, 529, 548, 573 ',581 style, 162, 183, 185, Cydonia, 143 Colias, 161, 392 193, 348, 397, 403, 484 cylinders, 78-80, 94, 101, 102 Coliseum, 468, 480 ware, 110, 400 cylix, 166, 177, pi. 409 collyrium, 147 Cornelian family, 499 cymation, 217 colocasia, 540 Cornelius Amulinus, 490 cymbia, 540, 581 Cologne, 577 Gallicanus, 483 cynocephali, 64 Colonia Julia, 396 Corneto, 346, 400 Cyprus, 110, 115, 122, 146, Colonna, Cape, 114 cornices, 116 187, 375 Colossus, 513 Cortina muri, 477 Cyrenaica, 123 colossi, 100 Cortona,- 480, 454 Cyrene, 199, 234, 534, 583 Colouri, 392 Corybantes, 492 Cyriacus, 38 colouring, 48, 123-126, 170- Cos, 231, 328, 390, 542 Cyrus, 93, 102 173, 183, 194-196, 444, costumes, 292-7 Cyzicus, 143 445, 447, 526, 549, 573, coturnium, 537 583 cotylae, 540 D. columbaria, 445, 547, 5 48 Cotys, 114 *■ Columbus, 517 Coven, 591 D^DALIAN statue of Athene, colus, 546 Craikraig, co. Sutherl., . 590 230 T Comar, castle, 591 Cranes, 220, 266, 515 Daedalian style, 202 INDEX. (\'l?, 1 D/EDA.LIDS. DrONYSOS. DOIllO STYLE. bffdalids, 123, 200 Demetrius, 121, 138, 282 226, 227, 230-2, 235, 237, "Daedalus, Daidalos, 163, 265, Poliorcctes, 138 238, 241-246, 249, 255, ■ 275, 424 demiourgos, 139, 140 256, 261, 26.J, 277, 280- Dagodubnus, 570 Democi-ates, 142 282, 286, 294, 297, 298, Dagoimnus, 570 Demodokos, 272 318, 33(>, 340, 342- -346, Dagomarus, 570 Demon, 242 349, 350, 356, 358, 374, Dagon, 87 Demonikos, 276 380, 381, 415, 426- -429, Daisa, 266 demons, 226, 247, 444 437, 462 Dali, 391 Demophilus, 496 Dionysos pelekys, 239 Dalios, 137 Demophon, 271, 340, 341, Stylos, 277 Dalmatian cohort, 488 342, 437 Diophantus, 117 Damas, 142 Demosthenes, 122, 156, 349, Dioscorides,Dioscourides, 125, Damascus, mosque at, 4 79 365 478 Damastes, 257 Demostratos, 320 Dioscuri, Dioskouroi, 138, Damery, castle, 503 Denbergard, 78 232, 237, 248, 261, 263, Damokleidas, 325 depas, 378 286, 289, 342, 350, 389, Damophilus, 124, 138 devices, 139, 140, 489, 506, 403, 424, 428, 460, 513, Danae, 228, 262-3, 291 507 541 Danaids, 262, 266, 319, 359 Devizes, 588 Diosphos, 228 Danube, 582 dialects, 310-332 Diospolis, 21 Daphne, 234 Diana, 73, 119, 128, 132, Diosthyos, 137 Dardanus, 120, 135, 388, 168, 511, 514 diota, diotae, 40, 456, 539, 403 diatretarii, 564 546, 594, 597 Darius, Dareios, 102, 175, diatretum, 564 Diphilos, 276, 292 411, 421 Dibutades, 115, 120, 121, Dipylon gate, 182 Darmstadt, 487, 488 196 Dirke, 259, 260, 282 Darney, in Vosges, 579 Dicetus, 485 discus, 504, 505 Dashour, 9, 10, 11 dicus, 537 diskos, 240, 384 Deae Matres, 498-9 Didius Julian, 487 distemper, 35 Matrons, 498 Didymos, 338, 365, 420 Dithyrarabos, 242 Sequanae, 500 didoron, 466, 471 Divix, 561 Death, 444 Dieppe, 579, 591 Dobbersten, 594 Decennalia, 522 Dii Lares, 513 Dodwell vase, 187, 194, 310, D. Calius Balbus, 572 Palici, 265 311, 396 decurio, 486 Dijon, 498 dogs, 88 Deddington, 582 dimyxos, 504 doliare opus, 135, 466, 480, Deikterion, 263 Dinias, 219 ' 481, 485, 532 Deiniades, 338, 351 Dinos, 370 doliares, 485 Deinomache, 258 Dio, 468 doliariae officinae, 484 Deinomachos, 265, 403 Diocletian, 132, 471, 503, doliarii, 532, 571 Deinos, 235 521, 522 doliolum, 532 deinos, 199, 371 Diocletian era, 46 dolium, dolia, 457, 527, 531- Deiphobos, 269 Diodoros, 288, 375 3, 539, 545, 546, 548 deipnosophistai, 292 Diogenes, 134, 455, 515 , 519 dolls, 130, 504 deities, 37, 42, 62, 63 , 73, Diomed, Diomedes, 39, 145, Dolon, 145, 327, 339, 350, 87, 100, 126, 434, 459, 222, 230, 252, 267, 268, 268 510, 513, 514 271, 273, 289, 339, 421, Domitia Lucilla, 483, 534 Dejanira, 252, 254, 255, 259, 514 Domitian,481, 521,529, 537, 436 Dion Chrysostom, 387 555 Delos, 232, 242, 249, 257 Dione, 241 potteries, 484 Delphi, 180, 232, 233, 254, Dionysiac amphorae, 304, tiles, 485 264, 281, 396, 423 362, 370, 426, 437 Domitians, 520-1 Delphic deities, 232, 238, feast, 437 Domitius, 521 244 hydriai, 308 Docembris, 484 mvths, 262 mysteries, 223 Donaghami, co. Donegal, 591 Delta, 9, 75 orgies, 250, 419 Dorchester, 582, 588 Deraaratus, 338, 396, 397, subjects, 224, 421 429 Doric alphabet, 199 400, 407, 441 thiasos, 240, 403, 433 colony, 423 Demeter, 126, 231, 247, 259, Dionysiaca, 206, 263 294 Dionysius, 177, 216, 233, months, 137 Leprean, 113 329 potteries, 190 Stivian, 113 Dionvsos, -us, 119, 166, 167, style, 158, 160, 162, Tropeia, 232 208, 211, 213, 221, 223, 164, '182, 193-195, 219, 624 INDEX. DORIC STYLE. 303, 304, 312, 396, 397, 405, 409, 411, 414, 421, 427, 452, 458 Doric vases, 313, 400, 406 Dorkis, 241 Doro, 241 Dorotheos, 324 Doulopolis, 432 Dover, 489, 548 Draco, 519 Drah Aboo Nagger, 9 drains, 477 dramatic subjects, 280 draughtsmen, 56 Drayton, 588 Dresden, 148, 542, 594 Dromo, 535 Drusus, 488 dummies, 69 Dunagore, 591 Dungi, 93, 96 Durand collection, 132, 146, 163, 424, 427, 436 Duris, 338, 347, 349 Durmagen, 488 Durrington, 588 Dysneiketes, 319 E. EAGLES, 38 earrings, 57, 452 East Fairleigh, 682 Eboli, 418 Ecbatana, 76, 95 echea, 542 Echekrates, 340 Echetlus, 444 Echidna, 187 echinos, echinus, 384, 541 Echo, 243, 513 ectypa, 119, 123 Edinburgh, 590 Egesteans, 373 eggs, painted ostrich, 455, 457 Egnatius, 540 Aprilis, 520 Egypt, 76, 82, 83, 110, 161, 162, 390, 432, 457, 503, 505, 548 Egyptians, 131, 182, 295, 361, 365-6, 433, 434, 452, 455 • brickmakers, 18 Gods, 514 Grotto, 434 lamps, 508 mummy cases, 430 style, 183, 186, 189, 190-1, 193,304,371, 375, 442, 447, 449, 451 Avare, 109, 367, 463, 533, 593 EPIGONIAD. Eio, 241 Eirene, 230, 233, 241, 250 Eiresione, 375 Ekmin, 9 El Haybeh, 9 Elagabalus, 522, 531 Elam, 82 Elaphebolos, 234 Elatria, 413 Elbe, 594 Elea, 344 Electra, Elektra, 274-5, 281, 356, 395 Elephantine, 21, 38, 45 Eleusinian deities, 231, 429 mysteries, 223 myths, 213, 247 Eleusis, 183 Elima, 426 Elis, 119, 321 Ellen, 488 ellychnion, 131 Elpenor, 273 Elpis, 387 elpoi, 331 Elsler, Black, 594 Elysium, 255, 266 embaphia, 384 emblems, emblemata, 58, 110, 111, 140, 141, 216, 297-9, 514, 548, 553, 583 Emerita, 569 Emms, 487 Empedokles, 283 Empedokrates, 315, 391 encaustic, 427 Encelados, 229 Endymion, 234, 492 England, 470, 472, 503, 508, 536, 545, 547, 549, 552, 564, 572, 577, 578, 581, 582, 583, 586, 588, 589, 597 English style, 595 engobe, 167, 199, 411 Ennius, 461 Enolmios, 233 Enorches, 266 Enpe, 20 Eoiai, megalai, 263 Epernay, 503 Epharmostes, 276 ephebi, ephebos, 324, 374 Ephesus, 114, 120, 254, 514 , Matron of, 524 Ephialtes, 231, 456 Epicharmus, 158, 281 epichysis, 373 Epicureans, 222 Epicurus, 140 Epidaurus, 113, 114 Epigenes, 82, 338 Epigoniad, 260, 291 ETKURIA. Epiktesis, 129 Epictetus, Epictetos, Epik- tetos, 158, 201, 310, 341- 4, 349, 404, 413, 432 Epilykos, 350 Epimetheus, 265 episemon, 393 Epitimos, 338 Epizephyrii, 423 eponymi, 480 eponymous, 139, 140 Epops, 281 epoptes, 278 equestrian statue, 518 Eraton, 230, 240, 242 Eratosthenes, 292, 375 Erechtheum, 119, 258 Erechtheus, 229, 256, 316 ereus, 384 ergasterion, 334 Erginos, 338, 348 Ergoteles, 338 Ergotimos, 225, 323, 338-9, 392, 409 Erichthonius, 229, 236, 246, 256-8, 275 Eridanus, 399 Erinnves, 247 Eriphyle, 259, 291 Eris, 250, 267, 342 Erophylle, 242 Eros, 127, 144, 145, 168, 211, 213, 221, 222, 230, 231, 236, 238, 241, 243, 245, 249, 266, 293, 294, 297, 416, 422, 424, 430, 431 Erotes, 125, 126, 209, 231, 243-5, 461 Erotic subjects, 424 Erothemis, 350 Erymanthian boar, 252, 339, 456 Erysichthon, 232 Erythrae, 161, 386, 542 Eryx, 119, 225, 252, 254, 373 Esarhaddon, 77-79 escaria, 541 Esclas, 579 Essex, 475, 477 Estates, 482 Estranghelo, 86 Etaples, near Boulogne, 547, 577 Eteokles, 259 Ethiopia, 19 Ethiopian, 169 Etna, Mount, 430 etnervsis, 374 Etruria, 56, 66, 119, 166, 225, 362, 398, 400, 408, 409, 433, 531, 553 ETRUSCANS. Etruscans, 66, 215, 357, 397, 407-8, 468, 495, 541, 553-4, 598 alphabet, 454, 462 bronzes, 321 inscriptions, 404, 413, 461 sites, 404 tombs, 125, 327, 356, 378, 583 style, 146, 163, 184-, 198, 260, 303, 307, 312, 327, 405, 406, 409, 435, 440, &c., 496, 497, 508, 551, 593 subjects, 223 ware, 190-1, 359, 362, 371, 380, 400-402, 410, 537 walls, 150 Etymologicum Magnum, 292, 358 Euarchus, 140 Euboia, 242, 249, 392, 412 Eucheir, 335, 338, 397, 400 Eucheros, 322, 323, 338 Euclid, 205, 213 Euctus, 580 Eudaimon, 241 Eudaimonia, 250 Euergides, 339, 413 Eugamon, 289, 290 Eugrammos, 397, 400 Euhesperis, 430 Eukleia, 250 Eukleides, 271, 313 Eumache, 265 Eumaios, 273 Eumarus, 159, 194, 220 !£umolpios, 242 Eumolpis, 232 Eunomia, 245, 394 Eunomus, 117 Euoia, 241 V Eupamon, 140 . Euphorbos, -us, 189, 258, 259, 268, 390 Euphrates, 75 Euphronios, 211, 323, 337, 339, 347, 350, 351, 400 Euphronius, 404 Euphrosyne, 387 Eupoles, 324 Euripides, 210, 259, 291, 313, 384 Europa, 166, 211, 228, 291, 297, 317, 423 Europe, 497, 525, 542, 546, 578, 582 Europeia, 291 Euryades, 114 Euryalus, 114 Eurydike, 262, 265 INDEX. FLAVIAN COHORT. Eurystheus, 134, 252, 321, 359, 455 Eurytus, 492 Eusebia, 478, 479 Eustathius, 320 Euthymedes, 409 Euthymides, 282, 350 Eutyches, 117 Eutychia, 250 Eutychius, 559 Euxitheos, 340, 348, 349 Everley, 588 Ewell, CO. Surrey, 583 exaleiptron, 377 Execias, Exekias, 322, 340, 345, 347, 350, 437 Exeter, 582 Exsechias, 315 Exsonius, 142 Ezekiel, 46 F. Faber, 519 fabriles, 532 Fabrinus, 519 Falernian wine, 535 farms, 481 Farnese, villa, 533 Fasano, 425 fasti, 479 Faun, house of the, 491, 533 Faustina, 483 Faustulus, 515 Faustus, 519 fayence, 33, 47, 54, 89, 90, 479 Fayoum, 9, 38, 45, 75 Fecundity, 500 Felicitas, 497 Felixstowe, co. Suffolk, 588 Ferrand-Clermont, 572, 579 festieres, 469 Festus, 358 fictiliarii, 532, 571 Fidenates, 488 Fidenatis, 485 figlina, figlinae, 484, 520, 521, 526 figuli, 475, 571 figulinarii, 571 figulus, 560 figures, 120, 122, 123, 126 Fiora, river, 404 Firminus, 578 Firmus, 479 fistulae canales, 473 Fitzwilliam museum, 557 Flaminian Gate, 534 Flanders, 573 flasks, 53 Flavians, 520, 521 Damascan cohort, 488 625 GAMES. Flavian lamps, 521 Flavii, 558, 570 Flavius Aper, 490 Fleam dyke, 582, 588 fleurette, 301 Florence, 148, 194,311,351 vase, 225, 266 Florus, 408 flowerpots, 143 flue-tiles, 476 Fontenay-le-Marmion in Cal- vados, 591 forgeries, 435 forgers, 128 forma, 500 Formian wine, 534 fornax, 467 Fortis, 519, 524, 578 Fortune, 125, 486, 511-513 Forum, 568 Boarium, 442 Fourviferes, 503 Fovant, 588 France, 445, 468, 470, 472, 498, 503, 508, 524, 531, 547, 549, 572-580 Francheville, 580 Francois vase, 194, 311, 338, 339, 351, 401 Frankfort, 488 Fregella, 442, 495 Fregenae, 495 Fregenni, 442 fret, 302 Friedberg, 487, 488 friezes, 127 fsefysa, 479 Fulvius Nobilior, 121 Plautianus, 490 Fundian wine, 533 fundus, 482 Furian potteries, 484 Furies, 258, 266, 274, 515 Furius, 517 furnaces, 34, 35, 177, 527- 529, 532, 566, 579-80 Furness, in Luncashire, 589 Fylingdale, 589 G. Gabat^ 538, 539 Gabii, 443 Gaius, 132, 521 Galba, 117, 535 Galene, 241 galeola, 541 galleys, 515 Gallia Cisalpina, 399 Gallienus, 222, 569, 579 Gallo-Roman, 544, 573 games, 279-80, 282, 284 2 S 626 INDEX. GANELON. Ganelon, 579 Ganymede, Ganymedes, 125, 222, 228, 229, 245, 266, 281,286,349,403,409,514 Gaul, 470, 548, 561, 568. 572, 591, 535, 585 Gaulish art, 550, 551, 576 goddess, 498 potters, 570, 571 potteries, 485 Gavelli, 463 Gavolda, 400 gazelles, 54 Gela, 152, 426, 427, 429 n. Gelon L, 312 Gelos, 242 gems, 33, 458 Genii, 23, 58, 62, 517, 568 Genius, 538 of the army, 513 of Tournay, 574 Genosa, 425 Gerdapan, 78 Gergovia, 531 German potters, 550 ware, 582 Germanicus, 132, 488 Germans, 596 Germany, 470, 524, 547, 549,552, 561,578-9, 592, 594, 595, 597 Lower, 487, 489 Geryon, 193, 252, 291, 295. 311, 313, 315, 340, 423, 498 Geryonis, 291 Gessoriacum, 577 Geta, 313 Giants, 246, 295, 334 Giesbergen, 488 Gigantomachia, 193, 206, 213, 224, 227-9, 231, 234- 238, 297, 322, 338, 342, 344, 348, 393, 492. gilding, 125 Girgeh, 12 Girgenti, 409,426, 428, 429 Gisborn, 593 Gisors, 580, 584 Gisr-el-Agoos, 9 Giugliano, 412 Gizeh, 10, 11 gladiators, 517, 568, 573,583 glass, 36, 463, 479, 585 Glaucus, Glaukos, 134, 268, 271, 451 gualas, 384 Pontios, 249 Glaukon, 325 Glaukytes, 333, 336 Glaucythes, 340 glaze, 39, 47 &c., 175, 547, 553, 556-7, 562-3 GYMNASION. Glenos, 254 gliraria, 501 Gloucester, 536, 581 Gloucestershire, 582 Gnathia, 425 Gnostics, 38 Gods, 53 Golden Ass, 512 candlestick, 518 vases, 373 Golgos, 180, 391 Gorgasus, 124, 496 Gorgias, 142, 276 Gorgon, Gorgons, 125, 128, 146, 164, 169, 193, 230, 231, 247, 263, 287, 294, 297, 340, 350, 370, 383, 400, 438, 441, 453, 457, 474, 575, 583. masks, 422 Gorgonium, 342 Gortyna, 136, 143 Graces, 221, 245, 246, 394 Gradivus Pater, 511 Graia, 453 Graiai, 262 grammatikoi, 310 granite, 18 Gration, 235 graves, 116, 473, 546 Grecus, 500 Greece, 39, 44, 46, 48, 50, 57, 149, 346, 441-2, 448, 457, 470, 473, 495, 496, 508, 524, 533, 582, 597 Greece, Islands of, 388, 433, 553, 583 alphabet, 491 art, 416-7, 440, 446 artist, 500 lamps, 521 style, 85, 453, 459, 463, 477, 493, 496, 525, 527, 540, 553, 592 ware, 45, 541, 571, 583. Greeks, 66, 538, 541 Gregorian museum, 148, 197, 404, 560 Grumento, 419 Grumentum, 419 grylli, 220 gryphon, gryphons, 205, 210, 234, 239, 242, 246, 265, 287, 365, 403, 432, 514 Guernsey, 469, 589 Gusmandorf, 594 gutturnia, 31 Guttus, 540, 541, 546, 547, 549 Gyges, 82 gymnasion, 217, 295, 393 HECTOR* gyngeceum, 416 gynaikeion, 217 H. Habron-, 114 Hackness, 589 Hades, 66, 69, 228, 246, 247, 249, 253, 258, 262, 265-6, 373, 460 Hadria, 135, 399, 409, 463, 491, 542, 560, 573, 580 Hadrian, 118. 467, 475, 482- 3, 488, 499 Hadriatic wine, 398 Hasmon, 127 Haimon, 256 Hainaut, 572 Halberstadt, 595-6 Halicarnassus, 114, 130, 387, 533 Halieus, 109 Halle, 127 halter es, 217 hamata, 469 Hamilton collection, 188, 311, 435 vase, 341 Hampshii'e, 588 han, 24, 26 Hannibal, 425 Hanover, 594 Hapi, 23 Harmodios, 431 Harmonia, 250, 259 Harpalina, 245 harpe, 262 Harpies, 354 Harpocrates, 37, 514 l^arpy tomb, 191, 453 Harsiesis, 46 Hartlip, 475-6, 582 Hatasu, 56 Hatherbaal, 110 Haute Vienne, 579 Headington, 582 Hebe, 228, 230, 249, 255, 423 Hebrew character, 108 language, 86 Hedersheim, 488 Hedones, 313 Hedymeles, 242 hedypotis, 382 Hedyoinos, 241 Hegesias, 430 Hegias, 347, 351 Hecatseus, Hekataios, 141, 416 Hecate, Hekate, 232, 234, 237, 239, 247, 250, 294, 507, 511 Hector, Hektor, 189, 267- INDEX. G27 HEILIGENBERO. 269, 271, 272, 288, 317; 327, 348, 350, 393, 404, 422, 428, 437, 514 Ileiligenberg, 498, 566, 572 Hekuba, 268, 271 Helbon, 110 Helen, 167, 225, 236, 245, 258, 264, 267, 268, 269, 271, 273, 281, 289, 344, 437, 460, 461, 513 Helena, 471, 479 Helena, Empress, 543 Heliastic tribunal, 130 Heliopolis, 9 Helios, 247, 248 Helioserapis, 132 helix, 89,166, 216,218,301, 303-5, 307-8, 362, 447 Hellas, 249, 421 Helle, 127, 222, 260, 265, 348 Hellenic myths, 38, 459 Hellespont, 127, 138, 423 helmet-shaped lamps, 547 Helvetian cohort, 488, 571 Helvius Morans, 486 hemerodromos, 392 hemikotylion, 375 hemina, 360, 374, 384 Heoiai, 290 Heos, 121, 145, 228, 247- 249, 257, 258, 261, 264, 266, 270, 314, 343, 403, 413, 416, 422, 428, 429 Hephaistion, 114, 138 Hephaestus, Hephaistos, 109, 123, 225, 226, 229, 235- 238, 266-8, 281, 290, 298, 429 Hepu, 21 Her, 63 Hera, 128, 156, 226, 228, 229, 231, 233, 235, 245, 246, 250, 251, 253, 265, 268, 281, 292, 314, 353, • 428, 461 Hera^a, 313 Heraklea, Heraclea, 114, 142, 213, 220, 313 Herakleid, 193, 213, 223, 224, 229, 231, 234, 236, 247, 249, 251, 257, 260, 393 Heracleides, Heraclides, 117, 519 Herakleotan skyphoi, 379 Herakles, Hercules, 53, 73, 141, 189, 193, 208, 216, 221, 225, 227-230, 232, 235, 236, 238, 242, 245, 246, 249, 251, 252, 254-5, 258, 263, 264, 266, 280, 281, 290, 291, 294, 297, HIMERA. 314, 317, 318, 329, 332, 336-350, 351, 367, 391, 403, 404, 423, 428, 429, 431, 434, 436-7, 442, 492, 498, 502, 511-514, 554, 568, 583 Herakles(Hercules)Bibax,513 Musegetes, 254, 513 Heraclians, 520 Heraclian lamps, 521 Heraklids, 266 Herculaneum, 215, 218, 526 Herennius, 559 Hermai, 284, 298 Hermaios, 340 Hermes, 7, 128, 140, 209, 210, 225, 229-233, 236- 239, 242, 247, 248, 251, 253, 255-257, 266, 267, 277, 281, 293, 296-298, 316, 317, 337, 340, 342- 344, 352, 367, 393, 408, 416, 428 Hermes, a potter, 489 Hermetianus, 487 Hermione, 273 Hermippus, 382 Hermogenes, 340, 581 Hermokles, 347 Hermonax, 341, 350 Hermopolis, 25 heroa, 286 Herodotus, 26, 39, 97, 110, 131, 183, 210, 325, 387, 451 Heroic age, 224 Herse, 225, 231, 237, 256- 258, 416 Herus, 215, 461, 463 Hesiemkheb, 12 Hesiod, 113, 290 Hesione, 254 Hesperides, 245, 247, 252, 265, 314, 348, 492, 513 Hestia, 237, 246 Hesychius, 358 hetairae, hetairai, 143, 282, 285, 297, 325, 339, 357, 392 Hexamili, 396 Heytesbury, 588 Hieraconpolis, 9 Hiernisa, 479 Hiero, 158, 401 Hierol., 311-2,454 Hieron, 328, 341 Hieronymus, 140 hi hat (or kneading), 33 Hiketas, 402 Hilinos, 341, 344, 352 HiUah, 102 Himera, 114, 115, 133, 312, 313, 426, 427, 496, 521 HYDRIA. Himeros, 241, 245 hippalektryon, 247, 342 Hippeus, 118, 380 hippocampi, 474, 514 Hippodameia, 263, 315 Hipjwkrates, 315, 325 Hippokritos, 324, 340 Hippolyte, 258, 272, 343 Hippolytos, 258 Hippomenes, 263 Hippos, 241 Hipposthenes, 193, 276 Hippothoon, 254 hirnea, 539 Hischylos, 341, 349, 351, 352 HistijEUs, 140, 141 Histron, 141 Hochst, 488 Hoddesdorf, 487 Hofzell, 488 Hoheberg, 488 holkaion, 378 holkion, holkia, 371, 446, 451, 452 Holland, 489, 573, 577, 582 holmos, 191, 368,371, 451 Holyhead, Anglesea, 589 Homer, 177, 179, 203, 275, 287-8, 294, 313, 358, 373, 374, 378, 388, 390, 424, 535 Homerica, 248, 266 Homeric subjects, 288 myths, 453 Hoo marsh, Rochester, 582 Hooldorn, 486-488 hoplites dromos, 158 Horace, 455, 500, 504, 540, 541 Horai, 233, 247 Horus, 37, 41, 51, 63, 64, 73 Hostilius Saserna, 494 Howara, 9, 10 Humetroth, 490 Hungary, 490 hut-shaped vases, 595-6 Hyades, 239 Hyakinthios, 137 Hyakinthos, 234 Hybris, 242 Hyccarra, 114 Hydra, Lernaian, 428 hydria, hvdriae, hydriai, 28, 29, 144, 163, 177, 193, 195, 197, 205^ 208, 211, 216, 217, 223, 285, 300, 302, 303, 307, 308, 316, 329, 330, 343-346, 350, 351, 354, 356, 358, 363-4, 402, 414, 422, 424, 433, 437, 438, 447, 458, 537, 541 2 s 2 628 INDEX. HYDRIOPHORAI. hydriophorai, 351 hydrocerami, hvdrokerami, 16, 148 Hygiainon, 219 Hygieia, 246, 497 Hygiemon, 159 Hylaios, 253 Hylas, 260, 558 Hyllos, 255, 436 Hymen, 513 Hyperbius, Hyperbios, 114, 163, 275 Hyperborean myths, 265, 266 Hyperboreans, 255 Hyperboreos, 234 Hyperion, 248 Hypnos, 247, 253, 343 hypocausts, 116, 467, 470, 473, 475, 476 hypokrateria, 371 hypokrateridia, 371 hypokraterion, 368 Hypoeios, 241 Hypsipyle, 264, 282, 315 Hypsis, 351 Hypsuranius, 109 hyrche, 360 Hyria, 424 Iacchus, lacchos, lakchos, 228, 237, 242, 315 lapygia, 273, 412 Ibex, 53 Ibis-mummy, 25 Icarius, 239 Icarus, Ikaros, 265, 514 Ickleton, 581 Icon, 143 Idalium, 391 Idas, 234, 264, 317, 320 Idothea, 273 Iffin, 588 Ilia, 583 Iliad, 208, 514 Ilium, 270, 281, 288, 291, 347 New, 388 Illahoon, 9, 10 imbrex, imbrices, 116, 118, 197, 441, 471, 474, 475, 487 imitations, 155 impluvium, 491 India, 239 Indulcius, 536 infundibulum, 505 inlay ers, 186 inlayings, 50-52 inscriptions, 45, 46, 310- 332, 441, 490, 519, 571, 576-7 lULOS. insulse, 468, 482 Inuliucus, 519 lo, 228, 237, 280, 282, 286, 419 lobates, 262 lolaos, lolaus, 251, 254, 255, 264, 314, 315, 344 lolchos, 291 lole, 193, 253, 255 Ion, 258, 367 Ionia, 386-7 Ionian cities, 417 lonians, 183, 229, 375 Ionic alphabet, 199 colonies, 429 language, 426 inscriptions, 407, 414 style, 193, 194, 302, 304 lonis, 519 los, 241 loulos, 286 Iphigenia, 267, 274 Iras, 273 Ireland, 590 Iris, 233, 234, 250, 297, 337, 373 Irish Celts, 586 style, 586 urns, 589 iron, 597 period, 595 Isaurians, 488 Isca Silui'um, 473 Ischia, 426 Isernia, 418 Isidorus, 358, 465, 469, 555 Isis, 7, 37, 41, 51, 57, 60-64, 73, 119, 514, 523, 524, 547, 583 worship of, 523 Ishtar, 82, 87, 103 Island myths, 265 Ismene, 256, 259, 260 Ismidagan, 93, 96 Istron, 140 Italian islands, 57 style, 197, 409 Italians, 66 Italy, 49, 129, 146, 150, 162, 191, 199, 212, 215, 219, 223, 244, 245, 314, 327, 359, 360, 368, 370, 381, 394, 397-399, 401, 405, 406-411, 417, 420, 421, 424, 426, 427, 433, 436- 439, 442, 443, 457, 460-1, 463, 468, 480, 481, 560, 580, 583, 592 Southern, 158, 166 Ithaka, 273, 290 Ittenweiler, 566 lulos, 271 KAKOS. ivory, 50, 51 island, 21 Ixion, 229, 266 iynx, 213 JACKAL, 61 Januarius, 387 Janus, 442, 462, 513 Jason, 137, 147, 260, 261, 296, 321 Jena museum, 211 Jeremiah, 107 Jerusalem, 107, 108, 110 Jesmond, 589 Jews, 46 Joinville, 579 Jonas, 518 Jovianus, 571 Jublains, 477 Judaea, 79 Julia Mammaea, 503 Procula, 483, 485 Julian, 468 Julios, 569 Julius, 500 Julius Caesar, 142, 397, 497 Martialis, 486 Pollux, 292 Sempronius, 486 Valens, 377 Juno, 53, 73, 314, 394, 408, 420, 474, 510 Sospita, 442 Jupiter, 53, 73, 119, 125, 129, 222, 237, 253-255, 383, 403, 442, 492, 511, V 514, 522, 524 Capitolinns, 443, 495, 510 Hercean, 114 Olympian, 122 Serapis, 61 Temple of, 538 Justinian, 542 Juvenal, 455, 530, 531, 535, 537 Kabhsenuf, 62 Kabiri, 246 Kablert, 594 kadiska, 385 kadiskoi, 363 kadiskos, 213 Kadmeid, 249, 259 Kadmus, Kadmos, 259, 418, 437 kados, 331, 363 Kaineus, 258, 264, 352 Kakos, 254 INDEX. 620 KALAAS. KINGSTON. KRATER. Kalaas, 7'^ kelebe, kelebai,187, 197, 218, Kingston-on-Stour, 589 Kalah Shergat, 77, 79 , 84, 307, 368, 403 Kinyra, 242 91 kelebeion, 369 Kircherian museum, 534 kalathos, kalathoi, 187, 283, Keleus, 232, 336 Kirke, 273, 290, 291, 428 384, 433 Kernel, 595 kirnos, 354 Kalchas, 289 Kent, 475, 588 Kisses, 241, 242 Kale, 250 Kentaur, Kent^iurs, 264, 349, kissybion, 221, 378, 451 Kaliope, 399 359, 380, 396, 423, 431, kists, 590 Kallias, 345 453, 457, 461 Kithairon, Mount, 251 Kallikome, 271 Kentauromachia, 258, 264, kithon, 134 Kallimachos, 258, 3G3, 364 403, 429, 492 Kittos, 341, 431 Kalliope, 399 Kenturipai, 427 Kleisthenes, 220 Kalliphanes, 271 Keos, 291 Kleomenes, 377 Kalliphon, 337 Kephallenian myths, 261 Kleonai, 220, 352, 396 Kalliphoi-a, 259 Kephalos, 121, 248, 257, 258, Kleopatra, 245, 394 Kalliphthera, 271 261, 265, 338, 403, 412, Kleophradas, 335, 337 Kallirrhoe, 258, 277, 315-6 416 Kleostratos, 345 Kallisthenes, 82 Kepheus, 263 Klino, 365 Kallisto, 234 Kephisodoros, 430 Klitarchos, 345 Kallopa, 259 Kephisophon, 329, 358 Klitias, 225, 351 kalpis, kalpides, 197, 205, kerameikos, kerameikoi, 161, Kloten, 487, 488 307, 308, 364, 395, 413, 321, 325, 333 Klus, 596 414, 419, 424, 433 keramion, 354 Klymene, 250, 285 Kalydon, 226 Keramis, 392 Klytaimnestra, 272, 274, 337, Kalydonian boar, 260, 261, keramos, 112, 455 460 264, 277, 287, 310, 316, keras, 112, 146, 239, 240, Klytios, 261 340, 413, 423 294, 384 Klyto, 241, 272 kalymma, 292 Kerberos, 253, 266, 291, 428 Knowth, CO. Meath, 591 Kalymno, 390 Keres, 247 Kochendorf, 488 Kamarina, 426, 427 Kerkopes, 254, 281 Kodros, 275 Kameiros, 434 Kerkyon, 257 Koian style, 212 Kainos, 241 kernos, 145, 146, 375, 385 Koiros, 241 kanaboi, 120 Kertch, 117-9, 129, 135, 141, Kolias, Mount, 161, 375, kanabos, 170 175, 346, 427, 432, 583 381, 392 kanastron, 384 Kerus, 463 Kolonos, 259 Kandidus, 490 Kerynitis, Mount, 234, 252 Komarchos, 283 kanee, 145, 384 Khammurabi, 93, 101 Komos, 241, 242, 282, 286, kanenion, 384 Khebsnuf, 23 343, 350, 415 kaneon, 210 Khem, 20, 21 Konikos, 250 Kanephoroi, 384 Kheper, 60, 62, 71 Kora, 231-2, 234 kaniskion, 384 Khistken, 78 korallion, 143 kanopos, 452, 457 Khita tribe, 50 Korinth, 311-2, 320, 335, kanoun, 384 Khonsu, 12 338, 441, 453, 457 kantharis, 395 Khorsabad, 77. 78, 86-8, 90, Korinthians, 423 kantharos, kantharoi. 187, 91, 105 Korinthian kraters, 368 250, 294, 337, 338, 342, Khufu, 61 style, 421 345, 349, 354, 37 9-81, Khusroo Purvis, 78 vase, 310 396, 446, 451 kibisis, 262 Korkyra, 312, 397 Kapu, 413 Kiekindemark, 595 Korna, 280 Kararales, 77, 87, 91 Kilbride, 591 Korone, 258 karchesion, karchesia, 205, Kilkenny, 591 koroplathos, 128 345, 380, 381 Killinagh, co. Cavctn, 591 kothon, kothons, 187, 364, Karnak, 586 Killucken, co. Tyrone, 591 365, 382, 395, 414, 451 Karneios, 137 Kilmurry, 591 kothurnoi, 293 Karneter, 66 kiln, kilns, 528-9, 577, 581, kottabos, 381, 385, 377 Kasr, 93, 95 582, 598 kotyle, kotylai, 374, 376, 377 Kassander, 347 Kiltale, co. Meath, 591 kotyliskos, 375 Kassandra, 234, 236, 270, Kimon, 220 kotylos, 374-5 271, 318, 424 Kinaithon, 288, 290 . Kouyunjik, 77-81, 83, 84, Kastel, 524 Kinderton, co. Cheshire, 469 88, 91, 94 Kastor, 263-4, 315, 35C Kinghorn, co. Fife, 590 krater, krateres, 32, 145, 150, Kekrops, 256, 316 Kingsholme, 536 187, 191, 197, 205, 208, kekryphalos, 286, 293 Kingston, 589 209, 211, 213, 217, 218, 630 INDEX. KRATES. 303, 308, 330, 339, 343, 354, 357,358, 368-9,371, 372, 378, 402, 403, 413- 415, 417, 421, 422, 424- 426, 429, 436-8, 451, 505, 512 Krates, 347 Kratinos, 281 Kreon, 256, 261, 317 Kreonteia, 261 Kretan bull, 252 giant, 261, 422 Kretans, 379, 424 Krete, 312 Kreusa, 258, 271 krobulos, 293 Kroisos, 275, 315, 319, 436 Kromyon, 257 krossos, 364 krotala, 130 Ktesias, 104 Kudurmarbuk, 96, 99 kulichnai, 155 kuminodoke, 385 kuminodokos, 147, 385 kuminotheke, 385 Kummer, 594 kunes, 57 kyathea, 330 kyathis, 217, 354 kyathos, 205, 222, 376, 445, 451 kybisteres, 284 Kydias, 276 Kydoime, 264 Kyknos, 235, 254, 290, 291, 318, 336-7, 429 kylichne, 355 kylix, kylikes, 182, 197, 200- 202, 205, 209, 211-214, 216, 300, 330, 332, 336- 346, 348, 349, 352, 354, 357, 358, 381-383, 391, 395-397, 402, 410, 437, 438, 451 kymation, 301 kymbion, 378, 379 Kymothoe, 338 kypellon, 221 kypria, 288, 310 Kyprians, 379 Kyprian verses, 289 kypselis, 385 Kypselos, Kypselus, 226, 309, 396 Kyrenaica, 212, 314, 341, 430, 431 Kyrene, 249, 265, 289-291, 311 Kyros, 276 LASNAS. L. LABRONIA, 383 Labu, 63 Laches, 321 lachrymatory, lachrymato- ries, 31, 540, 546 Laconian tiles, 114 laconica, 472 laconicum, 467 Ladon, 252, 513 Lsevinus, 313 laga^na, lagena, lagenai, 40, 42, 392, 530, 534, 539, 542, 544-547, 552, 581 lagona, 572 lagyna, 539 lagynos, 360 Lailaps, 258, 265 Laios, 259, 320 Lake, 588 Lakedaimon, 290, 375, 395, 423 Lacedaemonian cup, 364, 381 Lakon, 188 Lakonia, 397 Lakonian k raters, 368 Laleos, 341 Lamberg, 153 Lambeth stoneware, 563 laminiE, 478 La Motte, 463 lamp-makers, 521 Lampos, 248, 315 lamps, 38, 39, 85, 86, 131- 133, 147, 300, 434, 504, &c., 525, 547-8, 558, 572, 583 Lampsacus, 387 Langendorf, 593 Lauguedoc, 579 lanx, lances, 537-539, 546, 547, 558, 561, 569 lances hederatas, 569 pampinatae, 569 Laokoon, 288 Lapithai, Lapithse, Lapiths, 221, 226, 258, 264, 380, 453 Lar, 462 lararium, 491 lararia, 498, 501, 505 Lares, 514, 538 Larissa, 76, 128 Larks Lowe, 589 Larnaka, 180 Larrak, 102 larth, larths, 212, 409, 598 lasanon, 372 Lasbolos, 264 Lasimos, 351 Lasnas, 462 LEONTEUS. Lassas, 409 lateraria, 465 laterculi, 490 frontati, 469 lateres, 465 Latin inscriptions, 421, 461 language, 441 Latium, 445, 463 Latona, 500 latrones, 56 latrunculi, 448 Lauenstein, 593 Lausitz, 593 lavacrum, 375, 477 Laverna, 215, 463 lead binding, 552 cramps, 532 rivets, 569 vases, 147 Leagros, 325 lebes, 357, 371 lecane, 144 Lecce, 426 lectisternium, 461, 517 lecythos, lecythus, lecythi, lekythos, &c., 29, 39, 40, 109, 167, 169, 187, 188, 193, 197, 205, 208-211, 213, 216-218, 223, 302, 307, 308, 329-331, 347, 351, 352, 355, 357, 358, 366-7, 373-375, 387-389, 392-3, 395, 396, 400, 410, 415, 418, 424, 427, 428, 434, 438, 451, 458 lecythi, double, 39 Leda, 228, 263, 286, 289, 460, 514, 555 legends, 109 legionaries, 486, 598 legion, 30th, 573 legions, 473, 486, 487, 488, 571 victorious, 477 Leipzig, 594 lekane, lekanai, 182, 187, 205, 354, 433, 451 lekanion, 344, 377 lekanis, 377, 384 lekaniskos, 377 lekanomanteia, 377 lekarion, 384 lekis, 384 lekiskion, 384 lekos, 384 lekythopoioi, 341 Lemnian, 235 Lemnos, 242, 249, 255, 260, 289, 515 Lentini, 427 Leo, 536 Leokrates, 325 Leonteus, 289 INDEX. 631 LEONTINI. Leontini, 426, 427 lepaste, 213, 360, 383 lepastides, 329 lepesta, 537 Leptis, 431 Lernaian hydra, 252 Lesbian kraters, 368 Lesbos, 390 leschai, 309 lesche, 225 Lesches, or Leschaios, 288 Le Seille, 469 Leto, 232-3, 317, 429 Leucas, 128 Leucon L, 175 Leuke, 270, 271, 288 Leukippidai, Leucippides, &c., 208, 236, 264, 342, 422, 515 eukoma, leucoma, 125, 209, 210, 395 Leukon, 432 Lewes, 588 Leyden Museum, 13, 53, 56, 430 n. Lezoux, in Aaverqne, 565 Liber, a potter, 564—5 Liber Pater, 122 Libera, see Ariadne, 294 liberti, 485, 501 libertini, 485 library, 81 Libyan victory, 431 Libyes, 179, 300 Lichas, 255 Licryres, 253 Lilaia, 242 Lillebonne, 468 Lilybajum, 114 limbus, 505 lime-glaze, 39 Limeray, 579 Limoges, 579 limus, 465 Lincoln, 545, 548, 574 linen cloth, 48 Lingwell gate, Yorkshire, 403 Linos, 234, 255, 275, 416 liquamen, 534 Lis, dept., 577 literatse, 535 litharge, 107 Littiugton, 536 Llyr Lhediaith, 589 Locri, 219, 398, 405, 423, 425 Locris, 417 Loiret, in OrlAinnois, 579 London, 487, 500, 524, 536, 573, 581 clay, 574 Lorraine, 469 LUXEHBOURQ. lotus, 55 Louisendorf, 524 louterion, 376 Louvre, 148, 204, 331, 351, 418, 420, 431, 432, 436, 583 Luben, 594 Lubrense, 412 Lucania, 157, 160, 162, 217, 225, 245, 296, 298, 398, 409, 418-9, 424, 429, 430, 463 Lucanian style, 243 Lucanians, 411, 423 Lucera, 418 lucernarii, 509 lucernae, 504 Lucifer, 248 Lucian, 131, 512 Lucina, 511 Lucius the gladiator, 571 iEmilius Julianus, 483 Apuleius, 512 Aurelius Martialis, 484 Brutidius Augustalis, 484 487 Caecilius Ssetinus, 514 Cgecilius Scaevus, 520 Calpurnius Eros, 532 Cassius, 533, 578 Cestius, 535 Cornelius Scipio, 485 Cossutius Virilis, 571 Fabricius iEveius, 520 Fabricius Masculus, 520 Gellius, 559, 560 Herennius, 581 Licinius Sura, 479 Muranus, 620 Philomusus, 532, n. Primus, 520 Purellus Gemellus, 534 Silvinus Helpidianus, 442 ■ Tarquinius Priscus,408, Tettius, 559 Titus Papius, 531 Valerius Labeius, 485 Verus, 521, 530 Lucullus, 497 Lucumo, 407 Lucumons, 212 Ludenu, 26 Ludin, 26 Ludwigslust, 595 ; Lugnagroagh, Wicklow^ 591 I Luna, 510, 511, 513 : Lupiaj, 426 lustral vases, 518 . lutum, 465 Luxembourg, 565 I gardens, Paris, 579 MAMEKTINI. Luxor, 12, 17 lychnos, 504 lychnuchus, 504 Lycia, 130, 247, 386 Lycian ointment, 147 Lycurgus, 114 Lydia, 82, 117, 126 lydians, 329 Lydian airs, 367 kings, 387 lydion, 465-6 Lysippus, 206 Lykaon, 254, 270, 289 Lyketes, 253 Lykia, 268 Lykis, 329 Lykomedes, 267 Lykophron, 276 Lykourgos, 261, 282, 292 Lymne, 489 Lynkeus, 360 Lynkos, 289 Lyons, 498, 503, 549, 572, 578, 580 Lysias, 341 Lysimachia, 143 Lysippide§, 325 Lysippos, Lysippus, 121, 202, 208, 345, 431, 498 Lysistrate, 285 Lysistratus, 121, 498 Lysse, 250 M. Ma, 63 Macedon, 119 Macedonia, 138 Macedonian period, 145 potteries, 484 Machaon, 492 Macrobius, 358, 498-9, 555 Maecenas, 555 Maeonia, 402 Maevia, 524 Mafka, 56 Magliano, 454—5 Magna Graecia, 119, 157, 188, 210, 219, 405, 409, 411, 418, 449, 463 Magoula, 396 Maia, 233, 236 Maiander, 301-2, 307 Mainads, Ma;nad, 127, 241, 242, 282, 342, 343, 395, 403 Makathesa, 409 n. makers, 501 malluvium, 541 Malta museum, 430 Malvern, Great, 589 Mamertine wine, 534 Mamertini, 117 632 INDEX. MANES. Manes, a potter, 341 Manes, 523 Mannheim, 488 Manous, 266 Mantinea, 113 Mantitheus, 140 Manto, 259 Mantua, 400, 497 Marathon, 163, 257 Marcella, 534 Marcians, 38 Marcus iEmilius Rusticus, 535 Antoninus, 504 Epaphroditus, 493 Atilianus, 500 Aurelius, 482, 483 Antoninus, 530 Solinus, 535 — Clodius Pupienus Maxi- mus II., 572 — Exsonius, 535 — Julius Philippus, 522 — Lucilius Quartio, 531 — Messius Fortunatus, 578 Petronius 536 Publicius 484 Veteranus, Januarius, • Sentius Cestius, 462 Valerius Pastor, 490 Maresfield, 582 Mareuil, 468 Margate, 582 Marienfels, 488 Marinus, 479 Marius, 460 Secundus, 573 Marlborough, 582 Marnitz, 595 Mars, 62, 168, 420, 511, 514, 583 Marsal, 469, 529 Marseilles, 539 Marsiconuova, 426 Marsyas, 124, 230, 233, 242, 244, 265, 342, 343, 349, 424, 513 Martia Valeria, 488 Martial, 455, 499, 500, 530, 534, 539, 541, 542, 551, 555, 561, 568, 580 masks, 128,491,564-5, 583 Massa, 412 Massilia, 115 Massinissa, 538 Massues, 580 master-mould, 564 mastos, 379 Matalus, 329 matella, 541 matellio, 541 MENECRATES. Matlow Hills, 588 Maturius, 533 Maturus, 533 Maulevrier, 579 Mausolea, 471 Mausoleum, 387 of Empress Helena, 543 Mausolus, 114 Maxentius, 467, 471, 493 circus of, 543 Maxilua, 115 Maximus, Emperor, 507 517, 519, 521, 522, 535 Mavence, 487, 488, 524, 564-5, 579 Mayhora, 591 Mayland, 524 mazonomum, 541 measures, 117 Mecklenburg, 594 medallion, medallions, 128, 166, 168, 370, 568, 583 Medea, 261, 262, 292, 295 Medinat El Giahel, 12, 17 Haboo, 15 Mediterranean, 457 Medusa, 127, 138, 144-146, 193, 222, 231, 262, 336, 343, 348, 492, 511 Medway, 581 Megaira, 266 Megakles, 325, 351 Megalai Eoiai, 263 Megalopolis, 396 Megara, 114, 119, 122, 397 Meidias, 208, 341, 422 Meissen, 594 Melak, 110 Meleager, 423, 515 Meleagros, 261 Meletosa, 206 Melibceus, 516 Melissa, 285 Melos, 125-127, 146, 162, 164, 180, 187, 219, 378, 389, 390, 396, 430 »., 434, 447, 572 Melosa, 258 Memmius, 519 Memnon, 189, 191, 193, 269, 270, 287, 288, 324, 336, 343, 348, 389, 403, 428 Memnon, secutor, 573 Memnonium, 9, 11 Memphis, 12, 21, 23, 25, 38, 62, 73 Memsie, Aberdeenshire, 590 Mena;chmus, of Plautus, 562 Menas, 40 Mendes, 347 Menedemus, 138 Menecrates, Menekratcs, 135, 397 MIKOA. Menelana, 533 Menelaos, Menelaus, 189, 225, 236, 268, 271, 273, 289, 314, 344 Menestheus, 271, 317 Meniscus, 140 Menodotus, 143 Mentor, 230, 273, 347, 540 Mentu, 20 Mentuemha, 20 Mentu Ra, 62, 64 Menulus, 462 Mercury, 63, 122, 168, 497, 498, 511, 512, 514, 545 Mereworth, 582 Meri, 20 Merimes, 19 Merodach Baladan, 93 Merseburg, 594 Mersekar, 64 Mertese, 187 Mesnil, 577 mesomphaloi, 383 Mesopotamia, 73, 75 Mespila, 76, 78 Messana, 117 Messapia, 160, 278 Messene, 276, 313 Messina, 426 metallic rhyta, 365 Metapontium, 424 Metapontum, 118, 158, 353, 373 Methe, 242 Methillus, 570 metoikoi, 406 Metrodorus, 329 Mexican, 592 ]\Jiamoum, 56 mica, 526, 547. 550 Midas, 265, 282,338,392,430 Migdol-eu-Rameses, 107 Mikomachos, 220 Milan, 533 Milesians, 432 Miletos, 288, 416 Milhac de Nontrou, 472 milliaria testacea, 601 Milo, 127, 153, 180, 280, 375 Milos, 389, 453 Milz, 566 Mimos, 242 Minchinhampton, co. Glou- cester, 546 Mincio, 400 Minerva, 168, 254, 344, 492, 501, 505, 510, 513, 530 Musica, 230 Pacifera, 511 Promachos, 511 Minervian legion, 488 Minoa, 114 INDEX. 633 MINOS. Minos, i;U, 257, 265, 317 Minotaur, 191, 193, 256, 257, 265, 297, 316-7, 336, 340, 342, 344, 345, 349, 426, 428, 448 mirmillones, 517 mirrors, 461 Missanello, 419 Mithradates, 141 Mithras, 514 Mithridates, 432 Mitylene, 288 Mnaseas, 336 Moabitis, 108 Modena, 399, 400, 532, 542, 559, 560, 561, 572, 580, 592 Modestus, 485 Mceris lake, 11 Moguntiacum, 488 Moirai, 158, 247, 394 Molionides, 253 Molise, 418 Molpe, 241 Molpos, 275 Molto, 426 money-boxes, 502 monochrome, 159, 458 Monos, 519 Mon-reale, 162 monsters, 184, 287, 457 Montalto, 404 Monteroni, 410 Monte Sarchio, 418 montes testacei, 8 Monte Testaceo, 545 Mont-labathie-Salebn, 579 Montrose, 590 Moorgate Street, 549 Mopsos, 261 Morbihan, Brittany, 586 moriones, 517 mortar, mortaria, mortarium, 478, 527, 529, 536, 541, 544, 547, 549, 550, 568 mosaics, 475, 478, 479 Moschion, 276 Moschos, 291 Mosul, 76, 89, 100 moulds, 9, 13, 38, 47, 57, 94, 100, 103, 106, 115, 121, 123, 127, 128, 165, 167-169, 434, 499, 502-3, 505, 509, 553, 554, 556- 7, 564-5, 572, 576, 579 Moulins, 499, 501 Mousaios, 275, 437 Moyenvic, 469 Mugever, Mugheir, 93, 96, 102, 106 Mugnano, 413 Mujellibe, 92, 9?, 95, 96, 100, 105 NARKI8S08. Mukathesa, 409 n., 462 Mullingar, 591 mummies, 59, 60 Mummius, 120 Munich, 148, 162, 176, 177, 340, 396, 429, 595 Muntripus, 519 Murano, 412 Murena, 470 murrhine, 36 Murviedo, 572, 581 Musaeus, 206 Muses, 122, 126, 244, 246, 262, 38i), 437, 497 Museum, British, ptssim Museum of Practical Geology, 90, 104 Museums, 154 musivum opus, 478 Mut, 53, 62, 64, 73 Mutianus, 539 Mutina, 399, 560 Mutzig, 498 Mycena;, Mykenai, 108, 158, 180, 183, 219, 396 Mycerinus, 10, 131 mykteres, 131 Mynnyd Carn Goch, co. Gla- morgan, 589 myobarbum, 541 Myrmekides, 347 Myrmidons, 268 Myro, 241 myrrhine vase, 530, 555 Myrtilos, Myrtilus, 263, 266 Mys, 347, 540 Mysia, 115, 260, 267, 387 mysteries, 224 Mytilene, 390 myxa, 504-5 N. Nabonidus, 93, 96, 102 Nabopallasar, 102 Naham-ua, 64 Naharaina, 73 Naiades, Naiads, 213, 249, 262 Nais, 241 names of potters, 559 namms, 66 Nancy, 572 naos, 118, 353, 373 Naples, 148, 151, 155, 157, 162, 169, 219, 310, 398, 411,412,433,435,437-8, 479«., 515, 517, 524,542, 560 , lamps of, 508 Museum, 170,206,328, 324, 424, 501 Narbonne, 532 n. Narkissos, 284-5 NEKON1AN8. nasiterna, 540 nasus, 504, 540 Nattus, 500 Naucratis, Naukratis, 66, 406, 432 Naukydes, 342 naulos, 210, 356 Nauplia, 230 Nausikaa, 273 Naxians, 241 Naxos, 119, 158, 225, 238, 240, 249, 313, 316, 318 Neandros, 342 Neapolis-Peucetiae, 420 Nearchos, Nearchus, 315, 322, 338, 345 Nebbi yunus, 77, 78 Nebenneteru, 12 Nebi, 117 nebris, 243 Nebuchadnezzar, 84, 93, 94, 96, 100-102 Nechtsebak, 21 necklaces, 591 Necropolis, 191 Nectanebo, 377 Nefer-Atum, 63, 73 Neferhebef, 20 Neferheft, 20 Neferhetep, 20 Nefermen, 20 negotiatores, 552, 578 negroes, 50 Nehalenia, 498 Neith, 7 nekrodeipnon, 356 Nekropolis, 404 nekyomanteia, 273, 289 Nemea, 251 Neraean games, 262 lion, 337, 340, 342, 391, 403 Nemesis, 274, 289 Nen, river, co. JSortht^ 528, 582 Neoklides, 345 Neoptolemos, Neoptolemus, 114, 270-1, 273,275,289, 424, 460, 515 Nephele, 348 Nepherophis, 20 Nephthys, 60, 61, 63, 64 Neptune, 474, 492, 512, 514 Nereids, 144, 166, 193, 245 249, 266, 268, 270, 281, 293, 336, 492 Nereus, 237, 249, 253, 293, 317, 345, 519 Nero, 467, 481, 521, 523, 535 golden palace of, 533 Nei'onian potteries, 484 Neronians, 521 634 INDEX. KERVA. Nerva, 555 Nessos, 254, 317 Nestor, 221, 265, 269, 273, 289, 332, 338, 348, 378 Neti, 130 neurospasta, 130 Neuss, 487, 488 Newark, 589 Newcastle-on-Tyne, 589 New Forest, 550, 582 Newhaven, 582 Newmarket Heath, 588 Nicaenetus, 122 Nicander, 140 Nice, 420 Nicolaief, 117 Nidd, 488 Niebuhr, 408 Niederbieber, 487, 488 Niffer, 92, 93, 95, 96 Nikaulos, 283 Nike, 145, 209, 210, 228-9, 230, 233, 235, 238, 245, 248, 249, 255, 256, 259, 264, 278, 280, 284, 294, 297, 337, 395, 416, 424, 428, 431 Niketas, 402 Nikias, 147, 309 Nikippus, 128 Nikodemos, 324 Nikokrates, 159, 430-1 Nikolaos, 324 Nicomachos, Nikomachus, 159, 276, 282 Nikophanes, 285 Nikopolis, 285 Nikosthenes, 197, 214, 304, 322, 340, 342, 343, 347, 349, 404, 409, 428 Nikostratos, 360, 401 Nile, 457 Nilometer, 64, 65 Nimeguen, 486-489 Nimes, 572 Nimroud, Nimrud, 7, 77, 78, 84, 87, 89, 90, 94, 105, 110, 185 Nineveh, 57, 78, 81, 87, 91. Ninip, god, 76 Ninyas, 105 Niobids, 234, 265, 282 Nisaian nymphs, 237 Nishni, 20 Nisiros, 391 Nismes, in Provence, 579 Nisyros, 391 No-Ammon, 21 Nocera dei Pagani, 417 Nola, 40, 149, 152, 174, 181, 182, 189, 191, 197, 202, 206, 215, 217, 219, 249, 300, 303, 327-8, 332, 357, OINOCHOE. 379, 394, 398-9, 404, 409, 411, 412, 414-417, 419, 420, 422, 424, 425, 427, 428, 430 n., 438, 462, 505 Nolan amphoras, 362 ware, 372, 410 Nomentana via, 508 Nomios, 233, 343 Nonnus, 222 Noph, 21 Nordendorf, 594 Norfolk, 593 Normandy, 579 Northern style, 597-8 nostoi, 224, 272, 273, 275, 288-291, 310 Noto, 130 Nox, 513 Noyelles-sur-mer, 580 Nubian, 367, 431, 506 Nuceria Alfaterna, 41 7 nucleus, 478 Num, 7 Numa, 442, 455, 495, 496, 497, 537, 542 numbers, 148 Nympha3um, 120 Nymphaia, 242 Nymphs, 240, 241, 243, 438, 513 Nysa, 237 OBBA, 541 Obernburg, 487 Oberrosbach, 488 objects in vases, 151 obolos, 144 obrendaria, 536 Occa, 559 Ocean potteries, 484 Octavia, 570 Oder, river, 594 Odeum, 115 Odusseus, 314 Akanthoplex, 290 Odyssey, 208, 213, 273, 289 Oenanda, 524 n. officina, officinal, 484, 519, 536 (Edipus, Oidipous, 213, 259, 281, 292, 319, 320, 515 Oileus, 254 Oinanthe, 325 oinerysis, 374 oinochoe, oinochoai, 29, 56, 134, 145, 146, 150, 167, 182, 185, 187, 193, 197, 205, 209, 213, 217, 250, ORDIS. 308, 337, 342, 345, 354, 357, 367, 372-3, 378, 385, 391, 396, 404, 410, 414, 415, 424, 434, 437, 438, 445, 450, 451, 453, 458, 539 oinochoos, 372 Oinomaos, 213, 260, 263, 321, 437 Oinone, 241, 267 Oinopion, 340, 350 oenochoe, cenochoai, 29, 182, 404, 539 oenophorum, 540 Oinos, 242, 415 Oiphon, 242 Oise, 579 Oita, 255 okladias, 256 Olbia, 117, 140, 141, 142 Oldburv Castle, 588 ^oila, olla;, 473, 536, 541, 542, 544-549, 551, 552, 583, 590, 597, 598 olpe, olpai, 182, 187, 197, ^ 205, 336, 348, 354, 366, 378, 404 olpis, 367 Olympia, 114 Olympias, 353, 377 Olympic games, 229 gods, 231, 343, 344 myths, 263 Olympiodoros, 315 Olympos, Olympus, 225, 228, 230, 235, 238, 244, 247, 248, 251, 255, 265, 266, 268, 270, 424 Omphale, 253, 423, 434 Omphalos, 383 Oueias, 89 Onesimos, Onesimus, 339, 351, 531 Onetorides, 324, 350 onomasticon, 292 Onopion, 239 onychis, 379 ooskyphion, 379 Opici, 412, 416 Tyrrhenorum, 407 Opora, 241 Oppedi quarta, 521 Oppian laws, 496 Oppius, 519, 520 Opuntii, 423 opus doliare, 135, 466, 480, 481, 485, 532 pavonaceum, 470 reticulatum, 469 Oragie, 242 Orbetello, Orbitello, 213, 401, 454, 460 orbis, 527 INDEX. 635 OBEIMACHCB. Oreimachos, 242 Oreios, 264 Oreithyia, 248, 256-258,316, 343, 393 Oresteia, Oresteid, 211, 213, 223, 230, 234, 235, 274, 289, 291, 292 Orestes, 247, 274, 275, 315, 320, 337, 356, 395, 423, 515 Oria, 424 Oricum, 534 Oriental style, 434, 450 Origen, 377 Oriou, 115, 248, 259, 291, 346, 348 Oristano, gulf of, 434 Orkney, 590 D'Orlando, cape, 115 ornameutarii, 532 ornaments, 51, 52, 58, 85, 89, 115, 146, 166, 180, 181, 184, 185, 216, 218, 300-309, 444-449, 456, 475, 491, 493, 506, 509, 527, 545, 551, 558, 560, 563, 567, 574, 584, 585, 587, 590, 593-4, 597 Orokrates, 242 Orpheus, 222, 260, 262, 265, 275 Orte, 454, 461 Orvieto, 402, 454 Oscan alphabet, 416, 462 colony, 411, 414 inscriptions, 462, 464 Oschatz, 594 oscillum, oscilla, 128, 491, 499, 583 Osertesen, 72 Osiris, 7, 18, 19, 20, 22, 23, 51, 52, 58, 60, 61, 63, 64, 69, 70, 73 onnophris, 64 oskophoria, 277 Ostia, 471, 472, 474, 480, 491, 516 ostracism, 119 ostrakina toreumata, 112, 123 ostrakon, 112 Ostuni, 425 Otranto, 424 Otus, 456 Oundle, CO. Nortut., 573 Ourigalzu, 93 oven, 542 Ovid, 514 ovolo, 301, 304, 308 oxis, 384 oxybaphon, oxybapha, 150, 205, 213, 218, 308. 330, 332, 358, 368, 369, 385, 421, 429 PANTilAlOS. Pacatus, 490 Paian, 242 Ptestum, 152, 398, 417, 463 Pagnaui, 480 Pagny-les-Chateaux, 580 Pahar, 12, 21 Paidia, 245, 394 paidotribes, paidotriboi, 278, 295, 319 paidotribos, 352 painting, 458 Palaimon, 256, 281 palaistra, 278, 393, 416 Palamedes, 230, 311, 348 Palazzolo, 427 Palermo, 426, 428 Palestine, 39, 107 Pali, 180 Palladium, 222, 270, 341, 514 Pallas, 125, 227, 497 Athene, 145, 192, 229, 255, 270, 321, 341, 361, 393, 425, 464 pallet, 53, 70 Palma, 531 palm branches, 38 Palmense, 531 palmette, 216 Palmyra, 110, 472 Palmy rene inscriptions, 110 Palo, 454-5 Palzano, 532 Pamaphios, 343 Pamphaios, 404 Pan, 125, 177, 242, 266, 294, 295, 392, 492, 512, 513 Panaitios, 339 Panamos, 137 Panathenaia, 355 Panathenaic amphora, 155, 156, 193, 314, 309, 332, 361, 393, 412, 414, 428, 447 skyphos, 379, 403 vases, 158, 159, 199, 230, 279, 341, 353, 421, 430 Pandaisia, 250 Pandora, 113, 211, 258, 265 Pandrosos, 230, 258, 265 Paniscus, 487 Pannychis, 250 Panopeus, 113, 119, 130 Panormus, 427 Panphaios, 343 Pantarkes, 321, 326 Panthaios, 310, 343, 344, 401 PAVIMENTARII. Pantheon, 471 Panticapajum, 117, 135, 219, 346, 432 Pappo-Silenos, 245, 513 papyrus, papyri, 45, 55, 83, 505 Parchim, 596 Parennefer, 12, 21 Paris, 148, 149, 209, 236, 237, 267-8, 270, 289, 337, 341, 346, 348, 350, 408, 416, 423, 437, 514, 572, 579 national library, 72, 104, 149, 192, 390, 432, 459 Hotel Dieu, 572 Parium, 143, 387 paropsis, paropsides, 384, 538, 539, 569 Parrhasius, 159, 206, 220, 285, 347 Parthenii, 424 Parthenon, 202, 206, 364, 372, 425 Parthian, 106, 111, 488 Paru, 20 Pas de Calais, 580 Pasht, 53, 64, 73 Pasht-Merienptah, 63 Pasiphae, 257, 265 Pasiteles, 121, 498 Pasnem, 13 paste, 37, 48, 70, 468, 525-6, 545, 547, 559, 591, 592, 596 Pastor, 519 pataikos, 62 patella, 538, 546, 547, 549, 551, 558 patera, patera^ 84, 85, 152, 372, 514, 537, 538, 541, 545, 549, 561, 569 Paterclos, 569 patina, patinaj, 384, 538, 539, 546, 547, 558, 561 patinarius, 539 Patraj, 397 Patras, 397 Patrenses, 360 Patricius, 519 Patrokles, 348 Patroklia, 225, 288 Patroclus, Patroklos, 191, 193, 226, 268-9, 271, 317, 321, 338, 340, 344, 348, 356 Patroni, 521 Paulus, 549 Pausanias, 112, 113, 119, 121, 122, 128, 285, 309 pavements, 470, 478, 479 pavimentarii, 471 636 INDEX. PAVONACEUM OPUS. PHIALE. PILE CIKQ-MARS. pavonaceum opus, 470 perideipnon, 357 phiale omphalotos, 146, 167 Peace, 514 Perikionios, 277 phialos, 166-7 pebbles, 549 Perikles, 159, 160, 325, 826, Phidian Athene, 231 pectorals, 60 394 Phidias, 157 Pedageitnios, 137 Periklymenos, 260 Phigaleia, 206 Pegasos, Pegasoi, 248, 262, Periphas, 272 Philadelphus, 559 263, 343, 365, 403, 453, perirrhanterion, 378 Philias, 130 457, 517 periskelis, 384 Philinos, 344, 352 Pehlevi, 102 Perseid, 206, 213, 236, 242, Philip, Emperor, 434, 503, Peiraius, 394 247, 249, 262-3, 453 507, 509, 521 Peirithoos, 264, 266 Persephone, 126, 232, 247, Philippeum, 114 Peisander, 453 258, 266, 293, 315 Philippos, Philippus, 276, Peisistratus, 138 Persepolis, 57 316, 392, 521 Peitho, 245, 246, 294, 394 Perseus, 127, 138, 193, 222, Philoktetes, 260, 267, 270, pelamys, 384 225, 262, 287, 292, 336, 289, 515 Pelasgi, 448, 498 348, 400, 419, 453, 492, Philomela, Philomele, 213, Pelasgic architecture, 181 515, 575 282 inscription, 454 Persian king, 431 Philon, 188 subjects, 223 style, 309 Philonoe, 258, 262 Pelekys, 235, 239, 257 Persians, 17, 46, 54, 93, Philosophoumene, 377 Peleus, 201, 225, 226, 231, 110, 111, 119, 157, 186, Philoumenes, 130 237, 238, 247, 261, 266-7, 202 Philtias, 338, 351 290, 341, 348, 349, 352-3, Persius, 455, 554 Phineus, 260, 354 410, 429, 437 Perugia, 401 Phintias, 130 Pelias, 261, 291 Perugian war, 570 plilomos, 131 pelice, pelike, pelikai, 193, Perusia, 401, 508 Phlunphluns, 365 pi. p. 203, 205, 332, 350, Peruvian style, 183 Phobos, 235, 250 363, 395, 433 Peruvians, 180 Phocis, 119 pelinoi, 123 Pesauri, 508 Phoebe, 241 Pelion, 253, 267 Pesaurum, 520 Phoenicia, 110, 457, 463 Pella, 119 Peschiera, 533 Phoenician inscriptions. 391 Pelopeid, 263 Pesth, Hungary, 683 style, 160, 183, 197, Peloponnese, 179, 219, 359, Pesto, 417 302, 303, 376, 389, 403, 547 petachnon, 383 421, 427, 430, 447, 451 Peloponnesian war, 199, 288, Petamen, 73 ware, 44 424 Petraios, 253 Phoenicians, 108, 109, 183, Pelops, 213, 231, 260, 263, Petronelli, 488 390, 395, 432, 434 266, 292, 295, 321, 343, Petronius, 516 Phoinix, 271, 273 437 Phsedon, 140 phoenix, 45 Plexippos, 263, 339 Phaedrus, 497 Phoenix Park, Dublin, 591 Pelorus, 115 Phaethon, 248 Pholos, 253, 264 pelta, amazonian, 509 Phaia, 249, 257 Phormos, 281 Pelusium, 9 Phaidra, 416 Phosphoros, 248 pelvis, 377, 541, 549 Phaistos, 312 Photius, 358, 377 Penelope, 230, 236, 273, 416 Phalax, 129 Phrixos, 222, 260, 348, 423 Peninsula, 572 Phalerum, 161 Phrygian costume, 295 pentadoron, pentadora, 465- Phallen, 277 myths, 265 6, 467 phalloi, 243 Phrygians, 181, 295, 339 Pentamenapt, 21 Phanope, 241 Phrynichos, 337 Pentamennebkata, 19 Pharaoh Necho, 57, 367 Phrynos, 344, 351 Pentathlon, pentathla, 158, pharos, 115 Phtha, 8, 12, 53, 63, Q4 -,73 194, 279, 318, 355 Pharsalos, 289 Socharis, 62, 65 Penthesilea, 211, 269, 288, Pheidias, 199, 202, 321, 326 Osiris, 12, 23 336, 340, 342, 350, 423, Pheidippos, 201, 341, 351 Phthiotis, 260 460, 461, 514 Phera;, 159 phthois, 383 Pentheus, 259, 260, 282, Phersean legends, 260 Phylarchos, 377 395 Pherecrates, Pherekrates, Pianmiano, 402 peperino, 444 281, 505 Piano dell' Abbadia, 404 peplos, peploi, 198, 213 Pherekydos, 380 Pictish ale, 590 Peretta, 532 phiale, phialai, 134, 150, 215, Pierian quire, 233 perfume vases, 458, 463 216, 245, 250, 300, 342, Pigmies, 226, 266, 492, 515 Pergamus, 387, 479, 542, 354, 372-3, 383, 385, 414, pila, 472, 473 560 432, 451, 458 Pile Cinq-Mars, 475 INDEX. 637 PILLARS OP HERCULK8. P08SES8I0XE8. PROTYPA. Pillars of Hercules, 265 pollubrum, 541 Possis, 496 pinakion, 384 Pollux, 260, 264 postes, 474 pinakiskos, 384 , Julius, 292 Posthumus, Emperor, 503 pinax, pinakes, 134, 187, Poltys, 256 posticum, 216 205, 213, 337, 344, 349, Polyaratus, 138 Potentia, 419 354, 384, 451, 491 Polybius, 365 Potenza, 419 Pindar, 155, 158, 292, 327, Poly botes, 231 poterium, 7 355, 364, 394 polychrome, 394, 413, 422, Pothinos, 352 Piraeus, Piraios, 129, 210j 424, 427, 431-2, 438 Pothos, 241, 242, 243, 245 357 Polydektes, 263 potteries, 485 Pirithoos, Pirithous, 253, Polyetes, 250 potters' guild, 107 258 Pisa, 402 Polygnotus, 157, 159, 199, names, 499-500, 570, 579, 580 Pisan myths, 263 Polyhymnia, 126 Powerscourt, 591 Pisander, 262, 268, 294 Polykrates, 276, 311, 321 pozzolano, 526 Piscopia, 391 Polymenos, 319 Pozzuoli, 122, 132, 177, 468 Pisistratos, 273 Polymne, 242 prajdia, 482-484 Pistica, 500 polymyxos, 504 Praetorian, 480, 487 Pisticci, 419 Polynikes, 259 Camp, 471, 483 pistilla, 529 Polypemon, 257 Praxias, 352 Pistillus, 498 Polyphemos, Polyphemus, Praxiteles, 511 Pistoxenos, 344, 349, 413 193, 273, 287, pi. 409, Priam, 114, 193, 237, 267- Pitane, 115 514 271, 289, 295, 316, 317, pithakne, 359 Polypoites, 289 318, 352, 421, 424, 437 Pithecusae, 426 Polyrrhenia, 143 Priapos, Priapus, 122, 344 Pithom, 107 Polystratus, 117, 140 prices, 128 pithos, pithoi, 30, 134, 135, Polyxena, 269, 271, 316 Primigenius, 484 156, 163, 179, 359, 390, Polyxene, 226, 271, 363 , P. F. Lucillae, 535 455, 527, 531, 542 Polyxenos, 290 Primus, 519, 534 Pius, 132 Pomarico, 419, 425 Principato Citeriore, 417 planets, 95 pomegranate, 40 Ulteriore, 418 Plato, 178 Pompeianus, Consul, 478 Priscian, 532 Plautus, 461, 535, 537, 541, Pompeii, 143, 212, 214, 215, Priscilla, 480 562 218, 383, 431, 472, 475, Prisons, 499, 519 Plaxtol, 475 477, 491, 493, 497, 526, pristis, 273, 290, 384 Plebeian cups, 530 533, 534, 542, 570, 572, privata, 482 Pleiads, 221 583 prizes, 355 Plexippos, 263, 339 Pompey, 121, 468 Probus, 490, 519, 522 Pliny, 157, 222, 387, 397, Pons Sublicius, 498 prochoos, 372-3, 433 399, 400, 407-8, 418, Ponte della Badia, 404 procrossi, prokrossoi, 128, 442, 466, 469, 498, 508, Pontomeda, 339 144, 210 526, 530, 532, 542, 555, porcelain, 33, 40, 47, 50-52, Proitids, 262 560, 572, 580 59, 88, 457 Prokne, 213, 256, 258, 282, Plistia, 417, 425 porcupines, 54 292 Plotina, 483 Porsena, 455, 555 Prokris, 258, 265, 282, 292 Augusta, 519, 521 Porta Latina, 493, 497 Procrustes, Prokroustes, Ploutos, 209, 232, 250, 395 Pinciana, 494 211-2, 257, 281, 348 Plutarch, 161 del Popolo, 534 Promachos, 393 Pluto, 246, 247, 253, 293, ■ Salaria, 494 Prometheans, 334 513 Trigemina, 520 Prometheus, 113, 229, 246, Po, 399, 400 Port Dafarch, 589 265, 280, 292, 334, 397, poculum, pocula, 540, 547, Portelette, 592 497, 500, 505, 515 569, 570 Portland, 582 pronaos, 216 podanipter, 332, 377 portraits, 127 proplasmata, 498 Podargos, 348 Poseidon, 227, 228, 229, 231, Propraetor, 487 Podis, 241 233, 235, 238, 245, 248, Proserpine, 121, 336, 393 Poggio Somavilla, 410 256, 257, 259, 263, 268, prosopa, 128 Polignano, 151, 420 293, 317, 336, 346, 351 Prostasius, 478 Polios, 350 Poseidonia, Posidonia, 191, Protesilaos, 348 polish, 39, 41, 44 312, 417 Proteus, 273, 512 Polites, 270, 460 Poseidonius, 117, 140 Protomachos, 271 Polledrara, 54, 66, 434 Posis, 124 Protosamians, 554, 575 Pollentia, 400, 542, 560 possessiones, 482 protypa, 119 638 INDEX. PEOTYPOS. protypos, 123 Psalias, 348 Psamathe, 314 Psammetichi, Psammetici, 54, 433, 457 Psammetichus, 311,434 pschent, 62 Pselcis, 9, 46 psephides, 478 psephoi, 478 psephosis, 479 Pseudo-Dicaearchus, 122, 493 Egyptian religion, 132 Kallisthenes, 377 Psiax, 341, 352 Psyche, 250, 512 psychostasia, 270 psygeus, 370 psykter, 354, 370 Ptahmeri, 12 Pterelas, 221 Ptolemais, 431 Ptolemata, 431 Ptolemies, 74, 434 Ptolemy Philadelplius, 159, 365, 380, 430 Philopator, 56 Publinian potteries, 481 Publius, 519, 520, 559 Actius, 533 Asisus, 519 Carisius, 569 Cornelius, 556 Cornelius Celadus, 520 Crispus, 535 Fabricius, 520 Fabricii tertia, 521 ' Remigius Coxendicus, 490 Renatus, 490 Satrius Camillus, 520 Satrius Campestris, 520 puelos, 376 Puglia, 151, 398-9, 413, 420, 421, 459 Pulciano, Monte, 445 Punic inscriptions, 110 Punta di Guardiola, 410 Purbeck, 582, 588 Putignano, 420, 421 Puzzuoli, 468 pyaloneis, 333 Pylades, 274-5, 395 Pylos, 231, 253 Pyramid, Pyramids, 7, 9, 11 49 pyramids, 129 Pyrgi, port of, 448 Pyrgos, 408 Pyrilampous, 326 Pyrokome, 271 Pyrrhic dance, 280 Pyrrhos, Pyrrhus, 118, 160, RHINTHON. 208, 275, 288, 313, 317, 412, 422, 425 Pythagoreans, 424 Pytheus, 379 Pythia, 254, 274-5 Python, 344, 349, 352, 512 pyxis, pvxides, 145, 182, 187, 188, 194, 245, 300, 354, 394-396, 414 QUADRIGA, 442, 443, 516 Quagliere, Monte, 401 quartz, 546 Quintillus, 500 Quintus, 488 Agathyrsus, 483 Lollianus Avitus, 490 Servilius Pudens, 483 Tubero, 538 Valerius, 549 Valerius Esunertus, 549 Valerius Veranius, 549 R. Ra, 21, 63, 66 Raffaele ware, 310 Ramenkheper, 13, 19, 21 Rameses, 20, 56 II., 12, 19, 45, 55 III., 49, 89 Fort, 107 Rampsinitus, 49 rams, 15 Rath, hill of, co. Leith, 591 Rathborn, co. Sligo, 591 rationes, 482 Ravenna, 542 Red sea, 463 Regillus, 513 Regnus, 569 Rekmara, 13 religious rites, 276-7 Remus, 276, 515 Renatus, 486 Rennu, 15, 64 repa-ha, 21 repairs, 156, 569 restorations, 154 retiarius, 517 reticulatum opus, 469 Rhadamanthos, 266 Rhaetian cohort, 488 Rhea, 246 Rhegium, 157, 424, 542 Rheims, 503 Rheinzabern, 566, 572 Rhesos, 268 Rhine, 445, 488, 489, 566, 577, 595 Rhinthon, 281 RUDI^. Rhodes, 135, 136, 138, 141, 180, 187, 221, 389-391, 434, 480, 513 Rhodia, 519 rhodiades, 382 rhodiaka, 382 Rhodian potteries, 484 skyphoi, 379 style, 309 Rhodians, 212, 382, 489 Rhoecus, 120 Rhone, 580 Rhossos, 436 Rhvn, 487 rhyton, rhyta, 124, 145, 146, 159, 167, 205, 243, 283, 294, 338, 354, 365, 379, 384, 395, 403, 420, 422, 452, 462, 540 Richborough, 498, 551, 582 Riegel, 488 rings, 58, 65, 66, 586 Ripanus, 549 Tiberinus, 549 ritual, 61, 66-68 Rocca Nova, 420, 426 Rodenkirchen, 487, 488 Rodmanton, co. Glouc, 485 rods, 596 Roenne, 596 Roma, 513 Roman Empire, 434 British ware, 587 shapes, 85 style, 219, 425, 463, 592, 595 ware, 43, 107, 566 Romans, 356, 423, 442, 525, 593 Rome, 39, 389, 390, 397, 399, 436, 443, 446, 463, 467, 468, 470, 486, 489, 493, 496, 508, 524, 526, 530, 533, 541, 545, 561 Arch. Inst., 154 Romulus, 276, 493, 515 Ronaldshay, 590 Rosselle, 401 Rossem, 582 Rossi Museum, 556 Rossi Bacci, Museo, 557 Rossleben, 593 rota figularis, 527 Rottenburg, 571, 572 Rousse, near Oudenarde, 552 Royston, 473, 536, 588 Rubastini, 296, 421 Rubi, 398 rubrica, 196, 508 Rubu tribe, 50 Ruckingen, 488 ruderatio, 478 Rudia^, 426 INDEX. 639 BUFUS. Rufus, 222 Rugge, 426 Ruma, 12 Rumas, 142 Ruoti, 420 Rusellae, 401 Rutennu, 26 Riivo, 208, 209, 212, 246, 296, 341, 363, 394, 398, 411,420-422,425,431 Rvps, 421 Saar, 485 Saarbriicken, 485 Sabaco, 62, 83 Sabak, 64 Sabaria, 490 Sabine, 410 territory, 341, 470 wine, 541 Sabines, 444, 537 sacella, 505 sacellum, 487, 573 sacrificial vessels, 537 Saffron Walden, 581 sagger, 177 saginaria, 501 Saguntum, 536, 542, 572, 580 St. Albans, 471 St. Dizier, in Champagne, 579 Sainte-Colombe, 580 Foy, 580 Saintes, 472 St. Genevieve, 579 St. Marinella, 410 St. Paul's Cathedral, 529 St. Petersburg, Hermitage, 432 St. Romain-en-Gall, 580 Sais, 9, 131 Sakis, 188 Sakkara, Sakkhara, Sakka- rah, Saqqara, 8, 10, 25, 27, 49, 89 Sakonides, 341, 345, 352 Saladin, 479 Salamis, 143, 392 Salaria via, 487 Salarian estates, 483 Salentum, 425 Salerno, 417 salicerni, 416 Salii, 517 salina, 569 Salisbury, 588 Salonica, 219 Salopian ware, 552 Salus, 215, 463, 513 Samian potters, 177 8AXON WARE. Samian ware, 107, 174, 176, 526, 528, 536, 547, 549, 553, 555, 557, 559, 560- 562, 565, 567, 569,571-2, 576, 578-580, 582, 583 , false, 518, 545, 547, 573, 582 Samians, 120, 313 Samneh, 9 Samnite style, 463, 464 Samnites, 398, 408, 411-414, 417, 517, 537 Samnium, 541 Samos, 161, 263, 275, 276, 333, 360, 388, 389, 478, 542, 555, 561 -, Etruscan, 410 Samothrace, 449 San Brancato, 420 Germane, 413 Matteo, 533 Stefano alia RotonJa, Rome, 542 — — Vitale, church, Ra- venna, 542 Sanchoniatho, 109 sandal wood, 18 Sanserera, 418 Santa Agata del Goti, 208, 212, 303, 308, 394, 398, 417 Lucia, 418 Sant' Archangelo, 420 Santo Arpino, 412 Sauterino, Santorino, 180, 183, 219, 390 Sanus, 559 sapi, 33 Sappho, 127, 159, 275, 316, 339, 367, 380 Sara but El Khadem, 56 Saracens, 524 sarcophagi, 17, 18, 51, 84, 106, 212, 385, 430, 440, 444, 445, 447, 455, 536, 551 Sardanapalos, 276 Sardis, 114, 159, 387, 466 Sargon, Sargones, 77-79 Sarno, 531 Sarpedon, 247, 268, 339 Sarteano, 401, 454 Sarthe, near Mans, 579 Sassanians, 87, 93, 106, 111 Saturn, Saturnus, 499, 537, 215 Saturnalia, 499, 500, 534 Satyris, 140 Satyr, Satyrs, 116, 164, 176, 212, 240, 241, 243, 263, 336, 374, 415, 438, 512, 513 Saxon ware, 587 SBUPBONrUH, Saxons, 592, 596, 597 Saxony, 594 Scagliosa, Mount, 425 Scandinavian tyj)e, 594 style, 595, 596 Scandinavians, 585, 590 scaphia, 540 scarabaeus, scaraba^i, 15, 52, 58, 62, 71-73, 91, 180, 434, 461 Scarborough, 589 Scaurus, 534 Scemiophris, 72 Schiersheim, 595 schist, 69, 70 Schkopau, 594 Schwenden HUgel, 594 Scipio Barbatus, 499 Sciron, 121 scirpus, 505 Sclavonic population, 593 Scopas, 131 Scotland, 487, 589, 590 scribe's jar, 41 Scrofano, 493 scutula, scutula;, 539 scutum, 408 Scylla, 145, 512 scyphos, scyphus, 535, 540, 597 Scyrus, 125 Scythians, 265, 295 seals, 32, 71, 74, 82, 83, 88, 137, 138, 146, 539 seasons, four, 513 Sebaknefru, 72 Sebastopol, 129, 135 Sebekmes, 20 secipedales, 466, 485 Secular games, 521, 522, 523 Secularia, 522 Secundanus, 490 Secundinus Silvanus, 552 Secundus Vitalis, 486 Sedulius, 555 Segovia, 572 Seine, 579 Selene, 248 Seleucidae, 85, 87, 102 seleukis, 383 Seleukos, 383 Seligenstadt, 488, 490 Selinikos, 280 Selinos, Selinus, 427, 429, 473 Selinunte, 427, 473 Selinuntine metopes, 191 sellarius, 573 Selva le Rocca, 410 Semele, 228, 238, 259, 242 semilateres, 487 Semiramis, 105 Sempronius, 488 640 INDEX. . SEMUR. Semur, 498 Sena, 402 Senkereh, 93 Senmut, 21 Senuacherib,77,78,79, 81-83, 91 Senulus, 462 sepia, 384 septenaria synthesis, 580 Septimus Menodotus, 534 septum, 474 sepulchral figures, 66, 67, 68, 70 — — lamps, 505 vases, 355-7 sepulchres, 149, 150, 433, 503-4, 548, 595 sepulture, 598 Serapis, 38, 506, 514, 547, 583 Serin, 580 Seriphos, 262-3 Sesamas, 344 Sesortesen II., 72 III., 72 Sesostris, 9 sesquipedales, 466, 472 Sessa, 417 Sethos I., 26, 68 Seti, 20 Seven against Thebes, 259, 292 Severn valley, 552 Severus, 46, 140, 159, 493, 500, 503, 522, 579 Sevres, 17, 439, 542, 467 Museum, 109, 114, 120, 390, 468, 470, 472, 547, 565, 597 Sextus, 569 Attius Silvanus, 487 Valerius, 549 Sezza, 531 shab shab, 16, Q6 shabti, 16, 21, 66, 70 Shades, 247, 293 shadoof, 32 Shafra, 61, 72 Shalmanezer, 84 I., 91 II., 77 shapes, 451, 527, 538, 540, 541, 551, 552, 586, 592, 594, 597, 505-7 Shealloch, 590 Sheerness, 575, 581 shells, 463 Shepenmut, 20 ' Sherif khan, 91, 92 Sherleker, 78 s'het, 67 Shinar, 92 Shrewsbury Museum, 467 SISYPHOS. Shropshire, 589 Shu, 63 Sibson, CO. Northt, 528, 582 Sibvl, 412, 560 Sicily, 99, 110, 116, 117, 130, 135, 140, 146, 152, 168, 191, 199, 206, 210- 212, 219, 252, 254, 314, 327, 357, 366, 406, 408, 411, 414, 426-428, 430, 466, 496 Sicyonia, 116 Sicyonians, 121 Siculi, 448 Side, 117 Siena, 402, 454 sigilla, 455, 498, 499 sigillaria, 37, 498-501 sigillarius, 501 sigillator, 508 signa, 443 signarius, 501 signet-rings, 73 Sikanos, 344 Sikinnos, 275 Sikon, 399 Sikyon, 220, 375 Silanion, 344 Sileni, Silenoi, 222, 237, 239- 241, 248, 255, 294, 374 Silenus, 116, 125, 169, 241, 242, 256, 265, 281, 282, 317, 321, 318, 338, 349, 367, 507 Silesia, 593 Sillius, 521 silphium, 275 Silvanus, 513 silver vases, 573 Silvinus, 500 Similis, 578 Simon, 344 Simonides, 158, 291, 311, 379, 454 Simos, 241, 242, 271 Simpheropol, 142 simpulum, 537 simpuvium, 455, 537 Sinai, Mount, 56 Sinano, 396 Sinis, 257 Sinkarah, 102 Sinon, 270 Sinope, 125, 140, 142 Sinopic earth, 113 sinum, 539 sinus, 539, 541 Sipylus, Mount, 180, 386 Sirens, 168, 169, 246, 265, 273, 281, 287, 342, 418, 514 Sistell, 485 Sisyphos, 266, 315, 321 SPHINX. Sitalkas, 326 Situla, Situlffi, 30, 165, 363 sizes of bricks, 115 skaphe, 371, 376 skapheion, 377 skaphion, 377 Skeparnos, 271 skiadiske, skiadiskai, (243) 245, 284 Skiron, 257 Skopas, 242 Skylax, 432 Skylla, 249, 273, 291, 293 skyphos, skyphoi, 145, 165, 166, 182, 185, 205, 221, 332, 354, 365, 379-80, 414 panathenaikos, 379, 403 Skythes, 258, 267 Slade collection, 560 slaves, 37, 519 Smikythos, 282, 350 Smintheus, Sminthius, 137, 234 Smis, 241 Smyrna, 387 Smyrnaeus, 288 Sobah, 17 Socharis, 64 Social war, 461 Society of Arts collection, 396 Socrates, 131 Sodano, 420 Sokles, 344 Sol, 510, 511, 513 Solentium, 117 Solicinum, 571 Sollus, 549 Solomon's temple, 158 SoWn, 276 Solos, 427 Solygia, 219, 395 Somme, dept., 580 Sophocles, Sophokles, 210, 220, 253, 259, 291, 326, 356 sorofe, 152 Sorrento, 413 Sosias, 282, 310, 344 Sosimus, 117 Sosos, 479 Sostratos, 329, 350 Soteles, 242 Soterius, 387 Southfleet, 581 Spa, 33 Spain, 115, 463, 542, 572, 578, 580 Sparta, 267, 271, 470 Spartan virgins, 492 spatula, 563 speoi, 455 Sphinx, sphinxes, 127, 237, INDEX. G41 81MIRA0I8TE8. 259, 281, 282, 317, 319, 342, 457, 513 .sphragistes, 21 spicatii testacea, 478 Spilamberto, 532 spirals, 44 Sporades, 390, 391 Spornitz, 594 spouts, 116, 491 Spurinas, 4(.52 Stabia}, 215 Stabulum P. Actii, 532 Stadium, 193 Staftbrdshire potteries, 542 ware, 550 stamnos, stamnoi, 187, 203, 205, 300, 341, 343, 360, 403, 404 stamps, 19, 87, 139, 147, 480-482, 485, 487, 536, 559, 569, 570, 575, 579 stands, 42, 130 Stanway, 581 Stargard, 595 statika, 29 Statius, 323, 344-5 statues, 50, 113, 463 steaschist, 52, 61, 71 stele, 210, 341 stephane, 292 Stephanus, 519 Stesichoros, 291 Stewart, Mount, 591 stibium-case, 52, 70 Stiris, 113 stoai, 309 Stockstadt, 488 Stolpe, 594 stone period, 585—6, 597 Stonehenge, 588 Storrington Downs, 588 Stourton, 588 Stow Heath, 588 Strabo, 156, 441 Strasburg, 566, 572 Stratonikos, 347 stratura^, 473 Stroibos, 325 stuppa, 505 style, 598 Stymphalian birds, 252 Styx, 144, 266, 373,_ subjects, 44, 211, 224; 272, 277-8, 282-285, 287, 310, 434, 498, 515, 517-8, 547, 558, 567-8, 576, 583 Sublicius, Pons, 480 Successivus, 519 Suetonius, 156 Suidas, 358 , Lexicon of, 292 Sullington Warren, 588 Sumlocene, 571 TARQUIN. Sunium, 114 Suobnedo, 570 superstition, 524, 596 Surrentine, 534 Surrento, 418 Surrentum, 398, 418, 542, 560 Surrey, 475 Susa, 90, 270 Susian style, 309 Susians, 186 Sussex, 582, 588 Sutinus, 522 Suvenhock, 594 Switzerland, 549 Sybaris, 156, 186, 188, 312, 411, 424 sycamore wood, 18 Syene, 46 Sylla, 460 symbols, 138 symjjosia, 182 sympuvia, 555 Syotherai, 291 Syracusan skyphoi, 379 Syracuse, 117, 166, 177, 216, 312, 406, 425-427, 496, 542 museum, 119 Prince of, 413 Syria, 26, 109, 436, 457 Syriac language, 86 TABLES, 42 tablets, 80, 81, 101, 102 Tafne, 63 Taharka, 20 Tahennu tribe, 50 Taliraka, 15 Taia, 73 tainia, 293 Takonides, 345 Talavera, 572 Taleides, 345, 409, 428 Tallaght, hill of, Dublin, 591 Talos, 163, 261, 265, 275, 422 Talthybios, 274 Tan, 12 Tanarus, 542 Tanis, 12, 17 Tantalos, Tantalus, 180, 230, 265, 386, 423 Taormina, Taormini, 473, 521 Taranto, 424, 425 Taras, 281 Tarentura, 147, 157, 219, 311, 375, 398, 420, 422, 424, 425, 463 Tarquin, 407 TERPSICirOBE. Tarquinii, 338, 399, 400, 4U1, 405, 407-8, 444,456, 462 Tarquinius Priscus, Lucias, 408, 442 Tarquina, 400 Tarsus, 123, 129, 130, 132, 388, 583 Tascilla Verticisa, 571 Tascillus, 570 Tasconus, 570 Tat, 64 Tataies, 329 tattooing, 585 Tauai, 20 Taur, 63 Tauric Chereonese, 274 Tauromenium, 115 Taurominium, 473 Taurus, Mount, 488 Teano, 413 Teanum, 413 teba, 9 tebi, 13 tebu, 65 Technites, 109 tectoria, 476 tectum, 474 teglarii, 475 tegula, tegulaj, 466, 469 doliares, 485 tegularii, 475 Teian cujjs, 381 Teiresias, 273 Tela, 117 Telamon, 264, 267 Telegonia, 273, 289, 290 Telegonos, 273, 290, 291, 428 Tel el Amarna, 24, 26 Yahoudeh, 49, 89 Telemachos, 273 Telephanes, 220 Telephos, 254, 267, 289 Teles, 279 Telesphoros, 246 Telete, 250, 278 Telmissus, 387 Telos, 391 tempera, 22, 37, 126 Tempesine potteries, 484 Temple of Honour, 471 of Valour, 471 Temple collection, 363 Tenamen, 51 Tenea, 396 Tenedos, 387, 397 Tenruka, 12, 20 Terentian potteries, 484 Tereus, 256, 281, 282, 292 Termini, 133 Terpander, 389 Terpsichore, 206 2 T 642 INDEX. TERRA DI BARI. Terra di Bari, 420 di Lavoro, 157, 212, 413 Terranova, 427 Terra Nuova, 152 Tersikyle, 264 tertia, 520 Tertiolus, 579 Tertius, 485, 490 Tertullus, 519 La Terza, 426 tessell^e, 478 tessera, 51, 478, 479, 502, 554, 557, 559 lessons, 478 testa, 354, 530 Tethys, 242, 247 Tetmes, 17 tetradoron, 465-6 Teucheira, 431 Teuker, 267 Teuthrania, 142, 289 Teutonic tribes, 585 ■ vases, 445 pottery, 592, 595, 596 Teutons, 598 Thaleia, 228, 241, 242, 314 Thallinos, 275 Thamyris, 246, 262, 275 Thanatos, 247, 253, 275, 343, 460 Thanon, 241 Tharras, 110, 434 Thasians, 406 Thasos, 136, 140, 141 thaumatopoioi, 297 Theagenes, 140 Thebaid, Thebais, 259, 291, 396 Theban, 260, 291 Thebe, 249, 259 Thebes, 9, 11, 12, 15, 20,25, 44, 45, 50, 51, 59, 73, 189, 220, 224, 272, 311, 454 Theiaius, 394 Themis, 257 Themiskyra, 258 Themistokles, 394 Theocosmos, 122 Theocritus, 156, 221 Theokritos, 291 Theodoric, 479 n., 480, 482 Theodoras, 120 Theognetus, 142 theogony, 263 Theophamides, 328 Theophane, 260 Theophrastus, 125, 143, 159, 430-1 Theoxenia, 277 Theoxetos, 345 Theozotos, 345 TIBERIUS. Thera, 164, 180, 190, 390, 447 Thericlean kraters, 368 Therikleans, 397 Therikleios, 382 Therikles, 345, 379, 382, 397 Thermae, 468, 471, 472, 480, 492, 568 thermanter, 370 thermopotis, 370, 395 Thermopylae, 254 Thersandros, 188 Theseid, 208, 213, 224, 238, 249, 257, 264, 393 Theseus, 121, 189, 191, 193, 211, 212, 225, 226, 230, 231, 236, 253, 256-7, 266, 281, 313, 315, 319, 337, 342, 345, 349, 357, 426, 428, 437, 492 Thesmophoria, 294 Thesmophoriai, 232 Thesmophorios, 137 Thespiae, 312 Thespis, 220 Thestorides, 288 Thetis, 201, 225, 226,228, 231, 235, 237, 238, 239, 247, 266-268, 270, 271, 290, 293, 321, 338, 341, 348, 349, 352, 356, 403, 429, 437, 512 Theudaisios, 137 Thiajus, 156 thiasos, thiasoi, 213, 240, 243, 492 Thiers 7iear Lezoux, 579 Thirsch, 406 Thoth, 7, 63, 64 Thothmes, 17, 20 L, 12, 70 II., 12 III., 11-13, 26, 56, 72 IV., 12 Thoueris, 63 Thracian myths, 261-2 witches, 248 Thraso, 264 threnai, 291 thryallis, 131 Thucydides, 373 Thurian, 313 Thui'ingia, 595 Thurium, 418, 419 Thyades, 228 thymiaterion, 250 thymiateria, 372-3 Thyone, 241, 242 Thypheitheides, 345 Tiber, 498, 516, 520, 555 Tiberius, 132, 516 Pansa Antonius, 490 TRIDORA. Tiberius Silvani, 500 Tibur, 454, 468, 480 Tiglath Pileser II., 79 Tigris river, 75 tiles,.. 46, 49, 440-1, 489, 558 Timagoras, 138, 345 Timandros, 276, 310 Timkenberg, 595 Timonidas, 194, 396 Timonides, 190, 352 Timpani, 420 tin, 463 Tindarus, 519, 521 Tiphys, 260, 492 Tisias, 315 Titans, 227, 334 Tithonios, 248 Tithonos, 266, 413 Titus, 480, 497, 502, 519- 521 Cocceius Fortunatus. 532 Gavelius, 532 Tatinius Satrinus, 483 arch of, 518 baths of, 533 Tityos, 211, 232-3, 429 Tityrus, 516 Tlasias, 397 Tlenpolemos, 345, 352 Tlepolemos, 282 Tleson, 291, 311, 322, 340, 345, 397 toad, 38 tombs, 45, 49, 59, 454, 468 toobi, 13 tools, 120, 123, 163, 166, 170, 173, 566, 585 toreutai, 186 Tor Pignattarra, 471, 543 Torquay, co. Devo7i, 588 Torre di Mare, 424 torso, 497, 500 Toscanella, 401 Tourah, 17 Tournay, 574 Tours, 475 Towcester, 582 Toxis, 264 toys, 57, 126, 169, 355-6, 498, 501, 504, 596 Tragoidia, 242 Trajan, 159, 468, 480, 482, 502, 503, 519, 521 Tralles, 114, 387, 542, 560 Transrhenana legio, 488 Trasobbia, 485 Trebbia, 151 ■ Trebellius Pollio, 497 Treves, 466, 485, 572 tricliniares, 505 tridora, 466 INDEX. 643 TRIERKS. trieres, 383 Trimalchio, 535 trimyxos, 504 tripodiskos, 355 Tripolis, 431 tripous, 371 Triptolemos, Triptolemus, 164, 213, 231, 235, 266, 336, 403, 412, 413, 424, 429, 431, 513 triremis, 383 Tritaea, 121 Tritoguno, 500 Triton, Tritons, 144, 145, 249, 253, 293, 297, 315, 428, 492, 512 triumphal arches, 568 triviae, 511 Troad, 120, 135, 180, 387, 388 trochelatos, 504 Troica, 189, 228, 236, 249, 260 Troilos, Troilus, 193, 226, 269, 289, 320, 339, 346, 350, 352, 393 Troizene, 229, 258, 274, 289 Trojan prisoner, 460 war, 224, 227, 228, 265, 266, 393 Trojans, 297, 404 Tromios, 329 Troy, 114, 221, 267, 270, 272, 289, 310, 318, 332, 336, 350, 363, 415, 424, 437 trulla, trullae, 538, 545, 549 tryblia, 354 tryblion, 383, 385 Trvgaios, 363 Tuautmutf, 23 tubes, 542 Tubi, 13 tubi, 473, 475 tubuli, 475, 477 tufo, 444, 445, 447,452, 471 tugurium, 445, 446 Tukera, 341, 431 Tullington, co. Norfolk, 589 tumblers 55 tumboi, 181 tumuli, 584-5, 589, 591, 594 Tunis, 531 Turcius Sabinus, 520 Turianus, 442 Turin, 45, 148, 533 Tuscan bowl, 537 ■■■ colony, 414 pottery, 455 Tuscania, 401 tuscanica signa, 443, 495 Tusculan wine, 534 USES. Tusculum, 494 tutulus, 408 Twelve Apostles, 518 Tychios, 346 Tydeus, 259, 260, 272 tympanon, 243 Tyndareus, 315, 319, 403, 460 Tyndaris, 114, 130 typarium, 486 Typhoeus, 187 Typhon, 64 Typhonium, 20 typos, 123 Tyrbas, 242 Tyre, 39, 109 Tyrrhenian amphora, 361 pirates, 239, 340 pottery, 455 style, 304 subjects, 216 Tyrrhenians, 54, 406, 413, 417 Tyrrheno-Egyptian style, 193 ■ -Pelasgians, 408 U. Ugiainon, 117 uja, 60, 70 Ukalegon, 338 Ulias, 156, 394 Ulpian estates, 483 Ulpianus, 501 Ululuns, 462 Ulysses, 145, 159, 168, 193, 220, 222, 246, 249, 267, 270, 271, 273, 288-291, 318, 339, 342; pi. 409, 428, 514, 515 umbo, 383 Umger, 106 Umidius Oppius, 487 Quadratus, 483 Umwaweis, 96 unguent-vases, 546 Upchurch, 575, 581 — - ware, 551, 574 Upton Level, 588 Ur, 105 uraei, 51, 64 urajus, 15 Urbicus, 487, 500 urceolus, urceoli, 540, 546, 547 urceus, urcei, 540, 549, 583 urna, urnae, urns, 445, 537, 541, 548, 558, 583, 585, 586, 590, 592-595 urnula, 537 Urukh, 93, 96, 99 Usch, 17, 53 uses, 468, 491, 501, 523, 530 VIELBBUNN. uatrinum, 473 uta, 52, 60, 70 uter, 583 V. Vacasatcs, 485 Vaglio oppido, 420 Val di Chiana, 401 Valentinus, seliarius, 573 Valesio, 426 Valore, 400 value, 530 Valyd, Khalef, 479 vaporaria, 475 varnish, 36 Varro, 124, 358, 470, 494, 496, 536 vas Burgonianum, 393, 437 vascularii, 532, 571 vases, 525, 529 Vatican, 148, 209, 350, 480 Vaticanus, Mons, 480 Vatican hill, 508, 537, 541 lamps, 520, 521 museum, 122, 480, 497 Vauquelin, 174 Veii, 149, 402, 414, 44J, 454-456, 460, 495 Velia, 420 Velletri, 442 Venice, 155 Venosa, 419 Venus, 63, 111, 129, 213, 317, 347, 374, 424, 458, 474, 497, 500, 511, 568 — — Anadyomene, 500, 498 of Capua, 511 Cytherea, 511 Genetrix, 497 Victrix, 511 Venusia, 419 Verecunda Lucia, 571 Verna, 490 Verona, 478 Verulamium, 471 Vespasian, 46, 139, 159, 5'Jl. 534 Vesta, 246, 513 Vestals, 537 Vetera, 488 Vettius Modestus, 490 veiillationes, 488-9 Via Nomentana, 508 Salaria, 487 Vibianus, 519 Victorinus, 519, 522 Victorv, 141, 145, 210, 307, 481,' 492, 513, 514 Temple of, 206 Vicus Judaeorum, 4S Viducos, 569 Vie, 546 Vielbrunn, 488 644 INDEX. VIENNA. Vienna, 73, 148, 485, 487 Vienne, 579, 580 Villa Albani, 191, 480, 533 Faraese, 533 villa, 468 villas, 470, 472 Villus, 559 Viminalis, Mons, 480 Vindelicians, 488 Vindelicii, 486 Virgil, 497, 514, 554 Visellius, 142 Vitalis, 519, 531 Vitellius, 488, 530, 539 Viterbo, 400, 454 Vitruvius, 115, 125, 465-6, 468, 477, 487, 526, 542 Volaterrae, 401, 454-5, 460 Volcanius, 442 Volcanus, 215 Volsci, 495 Volterra, 213, 401, 442, 445 Voorburg, 487, 488, 489 Vosges, 579 votive figures, 57 Vulcan, 53, 62, 73, 229, 420, 461, 463, 505, 511 Vulci, 40, 66, 149, 156, 167 174, 177, 191, 197, 198 201, pi. p. 203, 205, 212 219, 310, 327, 336, 341 344-346, 348, 350, 356 364-366, 374, 379, 380 390, 394, 397, 399-401 404-406, 408, pi. 409, 409 414, 415, 417, 424, 428 433, 434, 443, 444, 448 449, 454, 457, 460, 560 vulture, 15 Vulturnus, 171, 413 W. Waldhausen, 595 Waldurn, 488 XANTHOS. Wales, 582, 586, 588, 590 Wandsford, co. Northampton, 528 Warka, 18, 93, 96, 98, 99, 101, 103, 105, 106 Waswas, 98, 99 water-pipes, 473, 477 water-vases, 27, 36 Way Haag, 589 weapons, 585, 591, 595 Wedgwood, 155, 434 weights, 88 wells, 32 Wends, country of, 593, 594 Weser, river, 594 wheel, potter's, 107, 163, 179, 541, 545, 556-7, 563, 566, 572, 584 Whitley, 589 Whitsome, co. Berwick, 590 wickerwork, 539, 549 Wiehelhof, 487 Wiesbaden, 467, 488 Wiesveller, 488 Wiflisburg, 478 Wight, Isle of, 588 Wijk bij Duurstede, 582 Wiltshire, 587 Windisch, 487 wine cups, 55 Winterbourne, 588 Woburn, 536 Wolden Newton, co. Lincoln, 588 Woodchester, 479 n. Woodgates, 588 Wroxeter, 551 X. Xanten, 486-488, 558, 579 Xanthe, 241 Xanthias, 281 Xanthos, Xanthus, 135, 275, 316, 348, 352, 386, 453 ZOSIMUS. Xeuodoros, 337 Xenokles, 310, 346 Xenokrates, 329 Xenophantos, 346, 432 Xenophon, 130, 137, 276 xystrolekythion, 366 y. York, 467, 473, 487, 551, 564, 570, 582, 589 , museum, 564 Yuns, 09 Z. Zaiilbach, 488, 579 Zancle, 313 Zendan, 78 Zeno, 138 Zephyritis, Arsinoe, 365 Zephyrium, cape, 423 Zephyros, 248 Zeus, 126, 128, 227, 229, 230, 232, 233, 235, 246, 249, 255, 256, 259, 266- 268, 270, 281, 286, 289, 292, 297, 298, 315, 317, 343, 415, 419, 424, 429 Herkeian, 424 Herkeios, 270 Olympic, 263, 321, 437 Panhellenicus, 192 Soter, 332 Zeuxis, 121, 159, 203, 206, 220v 309, 347 Zoan, 12 Zodiac, 547 zomerysis, 374 zoocephalic deities, 62-64 zoographoi, 346 Zosimus, 485 IA>KPON : PJUNIKD BY WILLIAM CLOWES AND SONS, STAilFOaD STBEET AND CHAKING CBOSS. 14 DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. RENEWALS ONLY— -TEL. NO. 642-3405 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 7 DAY USE — 8EC. cm NOV "2 77 ^PR 3 1982 RETD MAR 3 UCU041987 iMB N OV 9 19 OCT 2 5 2001 0CI„2. ,7.2001 m7 •? MQR 2002 ^LD ON B^v^K ^ AKK 1 2002 LD21A-60m-6,'69 (J9096sl0)476-A-32 General Library University of California Berkeley UC. BERKELEY LIBHRWES III CODMlBbMlO >:.2^^^9 UNIVERSITY OF CAl,II:ORNIA LIBRAKY