TEACHER'S MANUAL FOB, THE HART-BOLTON AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS Denoyer-Geppert Co School Map Publishers CHICAGO MANUAL FOR Hart-Bolton American History Maps NEW HISTORICAL WALL MAPS Uniform large size, 44 x 32 inches ANCIENT Breasted Ancient History Series. BY JAMES H. BREASTED, Ph.D., LL. D., and GAEL F. HUTH, JR., University of Chicago. Sixteen Maps covering the period to the Fall of the Eoman Empire. EUROPEAN Harding European History Series. By SAMUEL B. HARDING, Ph.D., Indiana University. Twenty-six Maps from the Barbarian Invasions to the Great War. AMERICAN American History Series. Twenty Maps by ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D., LL.D., Harvard Uni- versity. Assisted by DAVID MAYDOLE MATTESON, A. M., Cambridge, Mass. Four Maps (Al, A2, A3 and A6) by HERBERT EUGENE BOLTON, Ph.D., University of Cali- fornia. Twenty-four Maps. More to follow. WORLD In preparation. For further particulars address DENOYER-GEPPERT COMPANY School Map Publishers 460 E. OHIO ST. CHICAGO, U. S. A. NEW GEOGRAPHICAL WALL MAPS Each in two sizes : 64 x 78 and 44 x 54 UNITED STATES, NORTH AMERICA AND EASTERN UNITED STATES By CHARLES REDWAY DRYER, F. R. G. S., Indiana State Normal School. EUROPE By WILLIAM MORRIS DAVIS, Ph.D., Harvard University, and SUMNER W. GUSHING, M. A., Salem, Mass., State Normal School. ASIA AND EASTERN HEMISPHERE By ELLSWORTH HUNTINGTON, Ph.D., Yale University. AFRICA By JACQUES W. REDWAY, F. R. G. S., Mt. Vernon, N. Y. SOUTH AMERICA BY FRANK CARNEY, Ph.D., Denison University, and WALTER S. TOWER, Ph.D., University of Chicago. WESTERN HEMISPHERE BY WALTER S. TOWER, Ph.D;, University of Chicago. WORLD By J. RUSSELL SMITH, Ph.D., Columbia University, and GEORGE B. ROORBACK, M. A., University of Pennsyl- vania. OTHERS TO FOLLOW For further particulars address DENOYER-GEPPERT COMPANY School Map Publishers 460 E. OHIO ST. CHICAGO, U. S. A. PUBLISHERS' NOTE THE announcement on the opposite page gives a suggestion of the very comprehensive plans the publishers have in mind for preparing helps for history teachers. Suggestions for the improvement or extension of the plans will be welcome. To secure editors who had the unusual combination of scholarship and teaching ability was no easy task. The publishers acknowledge the splendid co-operation of the editors, who often at great personal incon- venience and amidst the pressure of other important duties sought to render a service for the better teaching of history in American schools. In the preparation of each of these series the publishers aimed to produce maps that would meet the highest demands of artistic form, arrangement, and mechanical excellence ; < at the same time to keep the price of the maps within the reach of the most modest school system. The success achieved in this direction is due to the skillful and hearty co-operation of the craftsmen of the staff. The publishers also publish and deal in historical pictures, decora- tive pictures, political maps, geographical globes, and anatomical models and charts, and will welcome correspondence in regard to any of these items from school officials who may be interested. A display room is maintained in which maps and pictures of differ- ent publishers can be examined and compared, and at which teachers are always welcome. The editorial staff gladly gives advice, either personally or by correspondence, as to the best selection of material for a fixed appropriation. School officials are urged to use freely this de- partment of the institution. A TEACHER'S MANUAL ACCOMPANYING THE HART-BOLTON AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS BY ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D., Litt.D., LL. D. Professor of Government, Harvard University ASSISTED BY DAVID MAYDOLE MATTESON, A. M. AND HERBERT EUGENE BOLTON, Ph.D. Professor of American History, University of California DENOYER-GEPPERT COMPANY School Map Publishers 460 E. Ohio Street, Chicago, U. S. A. e \% 142- Copyright, 1919, by Denoyer-Geppert Co. PRICE 75 CENTS CONTENTS PAGE PREFACE 9 MAP Al. WORLD OF COLUMBUS, 1492 13 A2. WORLD EXPLORATIONS TO 1580 18 A3. CARIBBEAN SETTLEMENT ' 22 Inset The Conquest of Peru. A4. INTERNATIONAL KIVALRIES 27 A. 1580-1662. B. 1662-1750. Insets (a) English-Swedish-Dutch Controversy, (b) Six Nations. A5. ENGLISH COLONIAL GRANTS 33 A. 1580-1660. B. 1660-1763. Insets (a) New England Confederation, 1643-1684. (b) Virginia Claims. A6. PARTITION OF AMERICA 36 A. 1700. B. 1763. Inset Texas in the 18th Century. A7. COLONIAL COMMERCE AND INDUSTRIES 46 A. To 1690. B. 1690-1774. Inset Routes of the Triangular Trades in the Atlantic. A8. REVOLUTIONARY WAR, 1775-1783 . . . 51 A. Northern Field. B. Southern and Western Fields. Insets (a) Central Campaigns, 1776-1778. (b) Boston to Concord. A9. RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITUTION AND STATE CLAIMS 54 A. Ratification of the Constitution, 1787-1790. B. State Claims, 1776-1802. Inset Boundary Adjustments, 1780-1800. A10. WESTWARD MOVEMENT 57 A. 1763-1803. B. 1803-1829 and War of 1812. Inset Naval Engagements, War of 1812. All. LOUISIANA PURCHASE AND CONTROVERSY, 1803-1819 62 Inset West Florida Controversy, 1803-1819. 8 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS PAGE A12. TERRITORIAL ACQUISITIONS, 1776-1866 66 A13. LAND AND WATER EOUTES, 1829-1860 69 ^.14. MEXICAN WAR AND COMPROMISE OF 1850 72 Inset Central Mexican Campaign. A15. SECESSION, 1860-1861 76 Inset Charleston Harbor. A16. CIVIL WAR 80 Insets (a) Virginia Campaigns. (b) Vicksburg Campaign, 1863. (c) Atlanta Campaign. A17. ABOLITION AND RECONSTRUCTION 83 A18. WESTERN STATEHOOD AND LAND GRANTS 86 A. Western Statehood. B. Land Grants to Railroads. Insets (a) Central Land Grants. (b) Southern Land Grants. A19. LINES OF TRANSPORTATION, 1918 90 A20. RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION 93 A. Resources. B. Conservation. Insets (a) Resources and Conservation in Central States. (b) Resources and Conservation in Southern States. (c) Conservation in Florida. A21. INDUSTRIAL UNITED STATES 96 A. Eastern Area. B. Central Area. Inset Pennsylvania and Adjacent Areas. A22. AGRICULTURAL UNITED STATES 99 A23. UNITED STATES IN THE CARIBBEAN 102 Insets (a) Panama Canal and Canal Zone. (b) Virgin Islands of the United States. A24. GREATER UNITED STATES, 1918 105 Inset Comparative area of the United States and Possessions. INDEX . 109 PREFACE THE maps of most text books of American history until recently have presented little except political boundaries, the subdivision of Indian tribes, the supposed tracks of voyagers and explorers, and the marches and battlefields of the various land wars. That is, the maps correspond to text books which have been principally devoted to political and mili- tary events. Very few of these maps have been founded on a study of the geographical sources, and they freely copy each other's errors. Recent writers of histories for readers of various ages take into account such topics as the development of the frontier; the products and commerce of the colonial period and of the United States; the expansion of the Republic over its newly acquired territories; the great lines of transportation and the accretions of territory. The schools and the writers of history now realize the necessity of maps to illustrate these social, economic and industrial conditions. Nevertheless, long after children became accustomed to read and to understand large wall maps of physical geography, long after the geography texts con- tained accurate, well drawn, clear and illuminating maps, the schools were without corresponding historical maps. This series is intended to meet the needs which have developed out of the attempt to make history a rational subject, through which children may understand that the human voyages and expeditions and settlements are all dependent upon the distribution of land, water, river, plain and mountain on the surface of the American continent. When history is thus localized on the face of the earth, the next necessity is for generalized wall maps, which make clear the rivalries of nations, the progress of colonies, states and federal republic; and the play of human forces within the area of the United States and neighboring countries. In making up the series the editors have had steadily in mind the following fundamental principles of the political geography of America. 10 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS (1) THE PHYSICAL BACKGROUND. The American conti- nents, and especially the areas now incorporated in the United States, are conditioned by the oceans, coasts, elevations, drainage and moun- tain ranges. These are not simply facts in physical geography, but conditions of the political geography. (2) BASE MAPS. Most of the maps are printed upon a previously prepared physical base, in which the ocean and lake sur- faces are in blue; water courses and hachures showing mountains and rough country are also in a different blue. Hence on every such map the water courses and accented surface underlie the special lines and lettering. The scale of all the maps made on the same base is, of course, exactly the same, and that makes it easy to use them com- paratively. (3) GENERALIZATION. The maps are all drawn with a view to putting in essentials and leaving out non-essentials. Data must be generalized in order not to crowd the maps, and in order to make them visible and clear at a distance. No line or color or legend appears on the map which is not intended to make it more useful. The prin- ciple is to throw the matter into large blocks easily seen, leaving minute detail for the insets and for special maps. (4) INSETS. Where details are necessary for an understand- ing, they are shown in inset maps, of which there are twenty-six in the series of twenty-four maps. (5) COLOR SCHEME. Special pains have been taken to work out a color scheme in which the same colors shall ordinarily be used in successive maps for the same purpose; for instance, English or British territory is always shown in pink, Spanish in yellow, etc. (6) VOYAGES AND LAND EXPLORATIONS. The courses of the first expeditions which made known American lands to the Europeans have been carefully worked out on the successive maps, down to the final occupation of the western territories. (7) DEVELOPMENT OF THE COLONIES. A succession of maps shows the distribution of the Americas between the European powers, and then the subdivision of the British holdings into separate colonies. In the same way the breaking up of annexed areas into organized terri- tories and then into states is followed down to the present time. TEACHER'S MANUAL 11 (8) TRADE, COMMERCE AND TRANSPORTATION. The series includes economic, industrial, social and commercial material which is necessary for the modern teaching of history, in connection with the best recent text books. Among original features shown are: the in- terior trade and commerce of the colonizing nations, the English colonies, and the later United States, and their relations with other nations. These maps bring out the distribution of agricultural and mineral re- sources, of the modern industrial districts and centers, and of lines of transportation. These last begin with the Indian trails, follow through the highways and early canals to the railroads, and include routes of commerce to and from other parts of the world. Take, for instance, Map A7 on Colonial Commerce; and Maps A18 to A22, which embody agriculture, mineral products, industries, conservation and trans- portation. (9) MILITARY MAPS. The military incidents in American history appear in this series in about the same proportion as in the best modern text books. The Revolutionary War and the Civil War deeply affected the political geography of their periods, and to each is given a full sheet. Incidents of the War of 1812, the Mexican War and the Spanish War are shown on maps which include other data. (10) GEOGRAPHY OF SLAVERY. Important phases of this interesting subject are set forth in the maps of the Mexican War and the Compromise of 1850, and Secession and Reconstruction. (Maps A14, A15, A17.) (11) MODERN DEPENDENCIES AND PROTECTORATES. Par- ticular pains have been taken to bring out the expansion of the United States in the Pacific, the Caribbean Islands and Central America. (Maps A23, A24.) (12) SOURCES OF THE MAPS. This series of maps is based upon a careful study of the sources. Wherever it seriously differs from the work of other cartographers, reasons exist in the materials collected as a basis for the maps, and the authors can state those reasons if the question is brought to their notice. The editors desire here to record their obligation to the Widener Library of Harvard University, and the Bancroft Library, University of California, which placed at their disposal their magnificent collections 12 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS X of geographical material and gave every possible facility in carrying out the work of collecting material. Professor Edward C. Page of the Northern Illinois State Normal School offered valuable suggestions on arrangement, especially in regard to Maps A16 and A 17. Professor Curtis H. Walker, formerly of the University of Chicago, aided in the preparation of this manual. The different editors prepared the text of the manual for the maps to which their names are affixed, as indicated on page 2. May 20, 1919. THE EDITORS. Hart-Bolton American History Maps MAP Al. THE WORLD OF COLUMBUS PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map shows the world on the eve of Columbus's great voyage of discovery in 1492, and aims to make clear the meaning of that voyage and the circumstances under which it was made. ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY. The fifteenth century witnessed the shifting of the commercial center from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, the discovery of America, and the open- ing of the Cape route to India. Portugal and Spain started on their careers as colonizing nations, the one destined for a time to control the commerce of the East, the other to take possession of more than half of the Americas and to dominate the Pacific. IDEAS OF WORLD GEOGRAPHY ON THE EVE OF THE DIS- COVERY OF AMERICA. The discoveries of the century had completely transformed European notions of geography. The world known to Europeans at that time embraced the European countries and those parts of Eurasia and Africa marked on the map with yellow bars. Scholars generally thought the earth to be round, but underestimated its size, and assumed that there were three instead of four great continents. The vague notions held in Europe regarding the geography of the rest of the world at the time when Columbus set out on his epoch- making voyage are illustrated by BEHAIM'S Globe, made in the. very year of his triumph, but not incorporating his discoveries. It is super- imposed on this map in black outline. MEDIEVAL VOYAGES TO AMERICA. Medieval explorers had even discovered the American continent, but their discoveries were not generally known. Some scholars believe that as early as the fifth century Chinese priests came to the American coast by way of the Pacific Ocean. This belief rests on evidence which is still shadowy 13 14 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS but may some day emerge into the clearer light of history.* On a surer foundation rests the history of the voyage of the Norsemen to America. Using the islands as stepping-stones, first Iceland, then Greenland, and finally, about the year 1000 A. D., the western continent itself was reached. EARLY TRAVEL IN THE ORIENT. During the period of the Crusades, travel became extensive. Returning pilgrims brought back hearsay information of the Far East, and in the thirteenth century travelers began to visit that country. Among these was Marco Polo, who visited the court of Kublai Khan in Mongolia, and, returning, wrote a wonder book of travel which is still a classic. His travels made known an undreamed of opportunity for commerce. MEDIEVAL TRADE WITH THE FAR EAST. Tho there was as yet little direct communication, much trade between Europe and Asia was already being carried on by land and sea. Overland the silks, glass, porcelain and other wares of Cathay reached Europe by two chief routes. The first crossed the deserts of Central Asia; the second made a long detour to the north to avoid these deserts and the Khingham Mountains. This overland trade was marked by two distinct stages. From Peking and other eastern cities goods were brought to Kashgar, Samarkand, Balkh, Kabul, Herat and Bokhara, which at that time were important cities. Here exchanges were made with western merchants, who carried back the eastern goods to Central and Western Europe. The ships of Venice and Genoa gathered at Cairo, or at Syrian ports, the goods which came by water around India, and through the Persian Gulf or the Red Sea. From India and Ceylon came cotton, dyes, diamonds and pearls. From the Moluccas came spices, which were of the utmost importance in Europe because no methods of refrigeration or canning were known, and preserving was done largely with salt and spices. To the southern ports of the Mediter- ranean, likewise, led great highways over which gold, slaves, cotton and salt were taken from the interior of Africa. PORTUGUESE DISCOVERIES BEFORE COLUMBUS. While Polo *See VINING, EDWARD PAYSON: An Inglorious Columbus; or, Evidence that Hrvui Shan and a party of Buddhist Months from Afghanistan discovered America in the Fifth Century. Bancroft Library TEACHER'S MANUAL 15 was in Asia, European mariners were beginning to explore down the coast of Africa. In this work the Portuguese took the lead, and early in the fifteenth century they had colonized the Canaries. The Portuguese advance was now led by Prince Henry. The traditional belief that Henry set out to find a route to the Indies is probably erroneous. He was interested primarily in the gold and slave trade of Africa, which he prosecuted by water rather than by the old land routes. Voyage by voyage his traders pushed down the coast to con- stantly more remote tribes and markets, till at the time of Henry's death (1461) the Sierra Leone coast was reached. After the Prince's death Portuguese mariners forged southward and eventually conceived the idea of a southern route to India. In pursuit of the plan, Diaz, in 1487, passed the Cape of Good Hope. "Not the Turk, but cheap freight rates, diverted trade from the Mediterranean to the Cape route" (MARSHALL). COLUMBUS'S GREAT VOYAGE. Meanwhile Columbus conceived the idea of western exploration. Most scholars, but not all, think that his aim was to find a western route to the Far East. Certainly he was bent on finding strange lands, and in this he succeeded. His ideas of world geography are probably well represented by BEHAIM's Globe. Sailing to the Canaries, thence nearly west, he landed in the Bahamas and then visited Cuba and Espanola, thinking that he had reached India, hence the name "Indians" for the inhabitants. EFFECT OF WINDS AND OCEAN CURRENTS. Columbus's route was greatly affected by natural conditions. Chronometers and watches were not in common use, and it was difficult to determine longitude at sea. It was easy, however, to determine latitude. The practicable thing for a mariner to do was first to strike the desired latitude, and then proceed till his desired object was reached. By sailing for the latitude of Cipango, and then heading west, Columbus accidentally encountered the Northeast Trade Winds and was helped along by them, as well as by ocean currents. His discovery has, therefore, been called a "windfall" instead of a "landfall." On his return trip he endeavored first to get into the latitude of Palos, Spain, and by so doing was helped on his way by the Westerly Winds. The map shows by black arrows the region where the Northeast and Southeast Trade 16 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS Winds were constantly blowing westward, and, by arrows further north, where the westerlies were blowing eastward, tho with less regu- larity. When Columbus made his first voyage, the wind systems were not known to Europeans, but on his third voyage he noticed and called attention to what we now designate the Planetary Wind System of the Earth. THE MAGNETIC NEEDLE. One of the interesting discoveries made by Columbus was the variation in the magnetic needle. Before his voyage was made, European mariners regarded the compass as a true and faithful friend, and thought that it always pointed due * 1 " But on his way out, Columbus soon discovered that the compa pointing to the west of north. After he reached 40 west longitude he had more difficulty, for now the compass was pointing east of north. This location is shown on the map by the northward bend in his ro" fo - It was here that* he had trouble with his men. Discovering that he was sailing in a circle, they mutinied, until he explained the matter to their satisfaction. CABRAL'S DISCOVERY. Cabral, a Portuguese mariner, on his way to India in 1500, accidentally struck the coast of Brazil, thus independently reaching the western continent by a route shorter than that of Columbus. Hence it may not be incorrect to say that the discovery of America would have been delayed only eight years if Columbus had never lived. The Norse route to America was like- wise shorter than that of Columbus. THE NEW WORLD WHICH COLUMBUS HAD DISCOVERED. What Columbus had reached was a new continent, inhabited by bar- barian and savage peoples. The great event of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was the clash of civilized Europe with uncivilized America. In North America there were the great semi-civilized Maya and Aztec peoples, and the less advanced Muskogee, Shoshone, Sioux, Iroquois, Algonquin, Athapascan and Eskimo stocks. To the south the Carib, Arauak, Tupi, Inca, Guaycuran, Guarani and Araucanian stocks occupied the Caribbean area and South America. These were the human element which conditioned the European conquest of the Americas. The origin of the American Indians is not known, but the prevailing opinion of scholars is that they came from Asia by way of Behring Strait. TEACHER'S MANUAL 17 QUESTIONS Trace Marco Polo's route on the map. What articles of trade were carried from the Far East to Europe in the Middle Ages? Locate - each on the map. What was given in exchange for these articles? Note the line of demarcation on the map. Who made it? Why? How did it influence Brazil? Trace the outlines of the continents as shown on B EH AIM'S Globe. Compare the location of Cipango, as shown on BEHAIM'S Globe, with the actual latitude of Japan. MAP A2. WORLD EXPLORATION (1492-1580) PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map shows the principal explora- tions of the sixteenth century and the resulting claims of the different nations to territory in the New World. The great sea voyages of the century were made in three different quests. They led ( 1 ) west- ward to the Americas, (2) southward and eastward to Africa, India, China and Japan, and (3) around the globe. The map illustrates the results of these enterprises in the new trade routes established and in the areas occupied or claimed, particularly in America, by the competing nations. COLOR SCHEME. The Spanish possessions are colored yellow on the map, the Portuguese brown, and the English pink. THE RACE TO THE WEST. The great voyage of Columbus ( 1 492) was the signal for a general outburst of energy spent in plough- ing new tracks across the ocean, running the coast lines of the western continents, and subduing the natives of the interior. In four voyages Columbus explored the West Indies, discovered the southern main- land, and ran the Central American coast from Honduras to Darien. Meanwhile other Spaniards, and the mariners of other nations, joined in the pursuit. For England the Cabots explored the northern coasts of and gave claim to "New England." For Spain, Ojeda, Pinzon, Bastidas and De Lepe, seeking pearls and trade (in 1499 and 1500), ran the entire coast from Darien to 8 south latitude. PORTUGAL FIRST TO REACH THE EAST. In 1498 Diaz, for Portugal, reached India via Africa and laid the foundations of the Portuguese empire in the East. Then Cabral and Vespuccius explored from Pernambuco past 30 south latitude and strengthened Portugal's claim to Brazil. With amazing rapidity now Portugal occupied the principal trading stations on the coasts of both Africa and southern Asia, and established an eastern viceroyalty, with its capital in Goa. Portugal, not Spain, had won in the race for the Indies. THE SEARCH FOR A STRAIT AND THE RUNNING OF THE EASTERN COAST LINE BY SPAIN. In quick succession now, for 18 TEACHERS MANUAL 19 Spain, Solis, Ponce de Leon, Cordova, Grijalva, Pineda, Magellan, Gordillo, Quexos and Gomez, looking not only for pearls, gold, slaves, and lands to settle, but for a strait to the East as well, by 1 525 had completed the reconnoissance of the eastern coast line of both Americas from Nova Scotia to the Strait of Magellan. SPANISH EXPLORATIONS IN THE PACIFIC OCEAN. Magellan and Elcano crossed the Pacific and laid the foundations of Spanish domination in the Philippines. Balboa and Cortes established new bases on the Pacific (Panama and Zacatula), and by 1543 Spanish explorers had run the entire western coast of North America as far north as Oregon. INTERIOR EXPLORATION IN NORTH AMERICA. Meanwhile Spaniards had conquered Central America, Southern Mexico and Peru, and from the West Indies and Mexico had explored the northern interior. Narvaez explored Florida, Cabeza de Vaca entered Texas and thence crossed the continent to Sinaloa. Coronado, looking for the Seven Cities, explored Arizona and New Mexico, and in search of Quivira reached Kansas. At the same time De Soto and Moscoso, looking for "another Mexico," penetrated the interior from Florida to Oklahoma and central Texas. All this Spain accomplished by 1543, just half a century after Columbus's discovery. It is the greatest record of exploration in the history of the world. INTERIOR EXPLORATION IN SOUTH AMERICA. During the same period similar explorations had been made in the interior of South America. Between 1524 and 1532 Pizarro and Almagro made their way down the coast of Colombia and Peru and across the Andes to Cuzco, where they overthrew the Inca rule. From there Almagro (1 535-37) and Valdivia (1541) continued south, crossing and recrossing the Andes, and conquered Chile. Quesada, ascending the Magdalena River (1536), Benalcazar, marching north from Quito, and Federman, making a three years' march from Venezuela (1535-8), met on the plains of Bogota. While Valdivia was push- ing over Almagro's trail, Orellano, turning east from Quito, explored the entire length some 3,400 miles of the Amazon River (1541). Entering the continent from the east, Sebastian Cabot, in the service of Spain, ascended the La Plata River to the site of Asuncion (1526), 20 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS whence Ayolas (1534-6) continued exploration to Charcas and the head of the Amazon River. Shortly afterward (1540) Cabeza de Vaca, who had just returned to Spain from his wanderings across North America, opened a direct land route from the seacoast to Asuncion. A RETURN ROUTE ACROSS THE PACIFIC OCEAN; THE EAST ATTACHED TO THE WEST. As early as 1527 and 1543 Saavedra and Villalobos had crossed the Pacific from the western coast of Mexico, but, because of wind and current, they could not make their way back. But Legazpi again crossed the Pacific, conquered the Philippines and found a return route vfa the northern Pacific and the California coast (1566-70). This became the eastward course of the Manila Galleon. It was interest in this trade route which centered attention henceforth on California. FRENCH AND ENGLISH EXPLORATION. French explorers had not been idle, and the freebooters of both France and England plundered Spanish settlements and treasure ships. For France, Verrazano had explored the eastern coast line and Carder had entered the St. Lawrence River. English exploration, since the time of Cabot, had lagged, but in the last half of the sixteenth century the seamen of this nation made up for lost time, and, looking for a northern passage, and for oppor- tunities to plunder, trade or settle, their keels ploughed all seas. Wil- loughby turned northeast; Frobisher, Davis and others northwest; Drake, with a fearlessness equal to that of Magellan, passed the south- ern straits, plundered his way to Oregon, careened his single vessel on the California coast, and thence continued round the globe (1577- 1580). COLONIES. By the end of the century, Portugal and Spain had become the two great colonizing powers and had set up their colonial systems in the "Indies," both East and West. These nations were not mere explorers, as some imagine, but were great colonizers as well. In 1580 probably not less than 200,000 Spaniards lived in America, engaged in mining, stock raising, agriculture and the industries. Most of the capitals of the score of Spanish- American nations of today were then in existence. Their work was enduring, for two-thirds of the Americas are still Hispanic (Spanish or Portuguese) in language, law and culture. TEACHER'S MANUAL 21 RELATED MAPS. Compare Map A1 for previous explorations; Map A3 for details in regard to explorations and settlement in the Caribbean ; Map A6 for the voyage of Hudson ; Map H 1 4 for Cook's voyages; and Map A24 for Amundson's route. QUESTIONS Trace the route of Magellan and Elcano. Show how Spain became the mistress of the Pacific. What idea did Columbus have of the coast of South America? What important contribution to knowledge did he make in his third journey? What motives dominated Drake and how did they influence his voyage? Point out places on the map named after explorers. Point out the routes of Willoughby and De Gama. Why did the one fail to reach the East and the other succeed? How did these explorations affect territorial claims in the Americas? MAP A3. SPANISH SETTLEMENT IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA (1492-1519) PURPOSE OF THE MAP. The school of European experience in America was the West Indies. Spain was the pioneer colonizer, and for more than a quarter century the scene of her colonial experi- ments was the Caribbean area the West Indies and the adjacent shores of the mainland. To illustrate this development Map A3 is designed. It shows the beginnings of actual settlement, at the same time that the explorers were feeling their way around the adjacent mainlands. COLUMBUS'S EXPLORATIONS IN THE ISLANDS. Columbus not only discovered the West Indies, but he was also the first explorer of the larger islands. The island first discovered was a small one to the north of Cuba, called Guanahani, which different students have variously identified with Cat Island, Watlings Island, or Samana.* In his first voyage he skirted the northern coasts of Cuba and Espanola. In the second he nearly circumnavigated Porto Rico, Espanola and Jamaica, and skirted almost the entire southern coast of Cuba. Mean- while settlement had already been begun. ESPANOLA, THE NURSERY OF EUROPEAN CULTURE IN AMERICA. The first center of colonization was the island of Espanola, or Haiti, where, at Isabella, Columbus established a considerable settle- ment on his second voyage. In 1 496 the seat of government was moved to Santo Domingo, on the same island, which for a number of years was the capital of all Spanish America, as the audiencia located there was the central governing body. By 1513 there were seventeen chartered towns on this island alone, and Santo Domingo had a population of 1 ,500 persons. EXPANSION OF SETTLEMENT TO THE OTHER ISLANDS. Ovando, the successor of Columbus, began the conquest of the other * See article by J. W. Redway in National Geographic Magazine, Decem- IAQA ber, 1894. 22 TEACHER'S MANUAL 23 islands, and Diego Columbus prosecuted the work with more vigor. In 1508 Ponce de Leon was sent to conquer Porto Rico, and three years later the city of San Juan was founded. In 1509 Esquivel began the settlement of Jamaica, and soon several towns were estab- lished, among them Melilla, Sevilla and Oristan. Two years later Cuba was occupied. These island towns, still existing, are the oldest European cities in America. The map shows settlements with dates. SETTLEMENT ENCOURAGED. Emigration to America was en- couraged by subsidies and other means, and large colonies were sent by governmental authority. Ovando took over 2,500 settlers at one time, and during the sixteenth century emigration to Spanish America averaged 1,000 to 2,000 a year. The notion that Spain did not colonize is absurdly false. INDUSTRIES. In Espanola gold mining was important for a time, but the mines were soon exhausted. In all the islands cotton, sugar and cattle raising soon acquired some proportions, but after the first quarter century the islands declined in prosperity. THE EXPLORATION OF THE ADJACENT COASTS. While most of the Spanish pioneers were busy colonizing the West Indies, a few perhaps one in five hundred were engaged in exploring the adjacent mainland, for which the islands formed a convenient base. By 1519 the outlines of the Gulf of Mexico had been mapped and preparations had been made for entering the Mexican interior. FACTORS LEADING SOUTHWARD. The explorers were first led south by the call of pearls and gold, and in the hope of finding a strait leading to India. Following the discovery of the Pearl Coast by Columbus on his third voyage, Ojeda and Bastidas made known the northern coast of South America, from the mouth of the Orinoco River to Darien. On his fourth voyage (1502) Columbus, seeking a strait, ran the coast from northern Honduras to Darien, and four years later Pinzon and Solis continued the quest up the eastern coast of Yucatan. MAPPING THE GULF AND THE NORTH ATLANTIC COAST- LINE. The next step was to map the outlines of the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic seaboard. From Porto Rico Ponce de Leon, sailing northwest in search of the Fountain of Bimini, threaded the Bahamas 24 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS and circumnavigated the peninsula of Florida.* Going west from Cuba, Cordova (1517) and Grijalva (1518) skirted the coast of Mexico to Tampico, and a year later Pineda, who went out from Jamaica, sailed north, then west, and completed the mapping of the Gulf Coast. The way was now prepared for the conquest of Mexico by Cortes and his companions. The mapping of the North Atlantic coast was completed by Gordillo and Quexos (1521-25) sailing north from Espanola, and Gomez sailing southward from Nova Scotia. SPREAD OF SETTLEMENT TO THE MAINLAND. The West Indies, too, were the center from which the adjacent mainlands were colonized. The early prosperity of the islands rapidly declined, for the Indian laborers soon died off and negro slaves were expensive. Finally the success of Cortes in Mexico and of Pizarro in Peru led settlers off to the more prosperous interior. DARIEN AND CENTRAL AMERICA. The initial permanent main- land settlement was made on the Gulf of Darien by a colony from Espanola. It was here that Balboa came into power. In 1519 Panama was founded on the South Sea and became the center of settlement on the Isthmus and a base for exploration to the west and to the south. In rapid succession Espinosa, Nino and Gil Gonzalez pushed explora- tion westward to Lake Nicaragua, and soon Costa Rica and Nicaragua were conquered, with Bruselas, Leon and Granada as centers of settle- ment (by 1524). A boisterous struggle ensued for the control of Honduras, where Trujillo was founded. In 1536 the San Juan River was explored and became the highway from Nicaragua to the Atlantic Ocean and to the Porto Bello fairs. Already several projects for an Isthmian canal had been considered. THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. Before this time the north mov- ing column of conquerors advancing from Panama was met by a south moving column from Mexico. In 1519 Cortes, setting out from Cuba, founded Vera Cruz, and two years later he captured the great Aztec pueblo of Mexico, which was at once rebuilt as a Spanish city. THE SPREAD OF THE CONQUEST. With the fall of the city * The map follows the route as shown in a map accompanying an article by L. D. Scisco, Ph.D., in the Bulletin of American Geographical Society for October. 1913. TEACHER'S MANUAL 25 of Mexico the first stage of the conquest was ended. Within the follow- ing decade most of the semi-civilized tribes of Southern Mexico and Central America Aztecs and Mayas were brought under the dominion of Spain. During that period Spanish activities were directed from the Valley of Mexico southward, eastward and westward. From the south came rumors of gold and the South Sea, while to the north, among the barbarian tribes, there was little at this stage of the con- quest to attract the adventurers. The spread of the conquest from Mexico was largely the work of the lieutenants of Cortes. Below Vera Cruz Sandoval founded Medellin and Espiritu Santo (1522). Alvarado went to Tehuantepec and thence to Guatemala and San Salvador ( 1 522-25). In Michoacan Olid opened the port of Zacatula (1522); Cortes founded Panuco in 1522, and Colima was begun by 1524. These are only a few of the numerous towns founded by Spaniards in Central America and Mexico by 1525, most of which still exist. FACTORS IN THE CONQUEST. Several factors explain the mar- velous rapidity with which Spanish rule was extended. The conquerors were looking for gold; not finding it at one place they hastened to another, led off by wild tales of riches. The fame of the Spaniards preceded them and paralyzed resistance. Native political organization was weak, and the Spaniards were everywhere aided by a great army of allies, eager to help destroy their enemies. INSET. THE CONQUEST OF PERU (1531-1533). From Panama the conquest spread by natural steps to Peru, as well as to Central America. Insistent tales of gold to the south drew explorers in that direction. The inset shows the route of Pizarro from the Isthmus down the coast by water to Tumbez, and inland to Cuzco, where the Inca rule was overthrown. RELATED MAPS. See Map A1 for location of ancient capital of the Incas, Machu Pichu; Maps A6 and A23 for later history of this area. QUESTIONS Note the relations of the four voyages of Columbus and state the supreme motive of all of these journeys. What explorers established 26 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS the fact of an unbroken coastline west of the Antilles? Why did the exploration of the interior of Mexico and Central America occur earlier than that of southern United States? From what directions was Cen- tral America occupied? Why did the settlements in the West Indies decline after 1550? Point out the four islands claimed to be the "Landfall" of Columbus. What were the chief islands of the West Indies, and what were the initial settlements on each? Why is the conquest of Peru inserted on this map? MAP A4. INTERNATIONAL RIVALRIES (1580-1750) PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This pair of maps illustrates two periods of international rivalry on the Atlantic slope, from the beginning of the English colonies to the beginning of the French and Indian Wars in which the following data are set forth : ( 1 ) the settlements and international rivalries of the five European colonial powers; (2) the territorial rivalries of the English, Dutch and Swedes in the central regions; (3) the early controversies of England with France and Spain for the possession of the interior; (4) the relation of the Six Nations of Indians to the general controversies. (See Inset.) This map offers a good opportunity for study and drill in essential questions of the physical geography of eastern North America. POINTS IN PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. ( 1 ) The situation of the St. Lawrence and the chain of Great Lakes, flanking the English settle- ments and giving the French direct access to the interior. (2) The posi- tion of the Six Nations, who prevented the English from direct access to the fur-bearing lake region, and at the same time fended off the French. (3) The eastern coast rivers with the excellent ports at or near their mouths and their upper reaches, which furnished water routes up into the country. (4) The Appalachian Mountains with their wide belt of parallel ridges, which were a serious obstacle to settling or conquering the West by the English. (5) The Mississippi River and the immense advantage which its possession gave to the French. (6) The low and easy portages from the Great Lakes to the heads of the tributaries of the Ohio and the Mississippi rivers. OCEAN VOYAGES. With this study of the physical outline of the country can easily be combined accounts and geographical verifica- tion of the ocean voyages whose tracks are shown upon the map. This includes: (1) Raleigh for England (1584); (2) Champlain for France (1604, 1606); (3) Hudson for Holland (1609), Hudson in 1610 (see Map A6) ; (4) Mayflower (English, 1620, unauthorized by the government) ; (5) Minuit for Sweden (1638). 27 28 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS THE INDIANS. One of the fundamentals for an understanding of the explorations and settlements of North America is a knowledge of the distribution of the Indian tribes as shown upon this map. The teacher should take particular notice of the following points : ( 1 ) loca- tions of principal tribes (see also Map Al); (2) country and sub- divisions of the Six Nations; (3) incorporation of the Tuscaroras (see their original seat in the Carolinas) ; (4) Creeks and Cherokees as a barrier to English settlement in the Southwest; (5) English trails and trading routes into the Indian country (see also Map A7). INTERIOR EXPLORATIONS. The next step in the process of grasping the manner in which the Europeans first penetrated the interior and made the earliest western settlements is a study of the interior explorations of the French. The map contains the travel routes as follows: (1) Champlain (1615-16); (2) Nicolet (1634-35); (3) Allouez (1665-67); (4) Dollier (1669); (5) Joliet and Mar- quette (1673); (6) Duluth (1679-80); (7) Hennepin (1680); (8) LaSalle (1679-82). EARLY PERMANENT SETTLEMENTS. The distinction between the discoveries of the sixteenth century and those of the seventeenth century of exploration in eastern North America is that in the latter period permanent settlements were made by France, England, Holland and Sweden. The first of these places to be occupied were naturally the coast towns, which became colonial seaports. Next in order were the forts and trading posts established in the first period of colonization (Map A). Then followed forts and posts in the interior (Map B). Attention should be called particularly to the early settlements in Detroit, Michilimackinac, Green Bay, St. Joseph, Cahokia, Kaskaskia, Vincennes, Mobile, Pensacola, New Orleans and St. Augustine. ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS. As successors to the English in North America, the people of the United States are most interested in the early English settlements. This is a good place to call attention to the fact that after the union of 1707 between Scotland and Great Britain, the term British came into use for the colonies of the joint kingdom, altho the term English then and ever since has often been applied to the colonies as having about the same meaning as British. The earliest settlements of this kind were: ( 1 ) Virginia ( 1 607) ; TEACHER'S MANUAL 29 (2) Plymouth (1620); (3) Massachusetts (1630); (4) Maryland (1632). The details concerning these may be found on Map A5. The other New England and Southern colonies and the Hudson Bay Colony can be easily distinguished in the two halves of this map (see also Map A6). Bring out particularly how the English pushed from their coast settlements northward, westward and southward. FRENCH SETTLEMENTS. The first French settlements on the coast of North America were the two temporary colonies on the Carolina coast (1564-1565). Then, followed Acadia, New France, Illinois country, and later Louisiana (1699). These settlements involved France in serious controversies with England, resulting in the transfer of Acadia (now Nova Scotia) to Great Britain (1713), and also a long quarrel over the boundaries of the Hudson's Bay Company (see Map A6). The boundary between the New England colonies and New France was long unsettled, as was the western frontier of the English colonies in the upper Ohio region. (See Map A7.) DUTCH SETTLEMENTS. The coming in of the Dutch with the discovery of the Hudson (1609) and the founding of the town of New Amsterdam, laid the foundation of a bitter quarrel between Holland and England, which included the New Englanders. This rivalry was the cause of the New England Confederation (see Map A5 Inset). SWEDISH SETTLEMENTS. The Swedes by their settlement of New Sweden (1638) on the Delaware came into collision with the Marylanders in the South, and the Dutch in the North. The Dutch settlements were made on the Delaware River and Bay, and in 1635 New Sweden was absorbed by the Dutch. SPANISH SETTLEMENTS. In the period covered by these maps the English colonies were not brought into close contact with the Spanish colonies, except thru the founding of Georgia (1733); but the trad- ing posts in the Indian country occasionally got into difficulties with the Spanish posts. RELATED MAPS. Compare with Map A1 for status of North America before the coming of the Europeans; with Map A2 for earliest claims to the Atlantic coast and Spanish explorations; with Maps A2, A3 and A6 for rival settlements; with Map A5 for Eng- 30 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS lish territorial grants in detail, and for the incorporation of former Dutch and Swedish territory; and with Map A7 for interior trade rivalry. QUESTIONS Upon what grounds did the following powers claim territory on the east coast of North America: (1) England, (2) France, (3) Holland, (4) Spain, (5) Sweden? How did the Mayflower come to land in Massachusetts Bay? What were the discoveries made by Hudson? What attempts did Raleigh make to found colonies in Virginia? Locate the following places and tell something about their settle- ment: (1) Amsterdam, (2) St. Augustine, (3) Boston, (4) Brook- lyn, (5) Exeter, (6) Fort Caroline, (7) Fort Christina, (8) Fort Orange, (9) Hartford, (10) House of Hope, (11) Jamestown, (12) New Haven, (13) Newport, (14) Fort Nassau, (15) Ply- mouth, (16) Providence, (17) St. Mary's, (18) Salem, (19) York, (20) Swaanendaal. What was the basis of the boundary controversies between New France and Massachusetts? Name the principal rivers on the Atlantic Slope, from Canada to Florida. What were the original bounds of Massachusetts? ' How were the following colonies settled without charters : ( 1 ) Connecticut, (2) New Hampshire, (3) Rhode Island, (4) Plymouth? Why did not the Colony of New Netherlands extend farther inland? When and how did the Dutch absorb the colony of New Sweden? What did people mean in 1662 when they spoke of Vir- ginia? How could Maryland be established in 1 632 and New Sweden in 1638 with overlapping bounds? What brought Champlain to the New World? How did the English come into possession of the whole Atlantic coast between Acadia and Florida? How did New York come to extend so far west? Locate the following great Indian race groups and tribes : ( 1 ) Abnakis, (2) Algonquins, (3) Arkansas, (4) Catawbas, (5) Chicka- TEACHER'S MANUAL 31 saws, (6) Chippewas, (7) Choctaws, (8) Creeks, (9) Delawares, (10) Hurons, (11) Illinois, (12) lowas, (13) Iroquois, (14) Kick- apoos, (15) Menominees, (16) Miamis, (17) Missouris, (18) Mo- hegans, (19) Ottawas, (20) Pequots, (21) Pottawatomies, (22) Powhatans, (23) Sauks and Foxes, (24) Seminoles, (25) Shawnees, (26) Susquehannocks, (27) Tuscaroras (28) Wampanoags, (29) Wappingers, (30) Winnebagoes, (31) Yamasees. Locate and describe the following western rivers : ( 1 ) Alabama, (2) Allegheny, (3) Apalachicola, (4) Arkansas, (5) Chattahoochee, (6) Chippewa, (7) Clinch, (8) Coosa, (9) Cumberland, (10) Des Moines, (11) Flint, (12) Fox (111.). (13) Fox (Wis.), (14) Gat- ineau, (15) Holston, (16) Illinois, (17) Iowa, (18) Kanawha, (19) Kankakee, (20) Kaskaskia, (21) Kentucky, (22) Maumee, (23) Miami, (24) Mississippi, (25) Missouri, (26) Mobile, (27) Monongahela, (28) Muskingum, (29) Ohio, (30) Ouachita, (31) Pearl, (32) Rock, (33) St. Croix, (34) St. Joseph, (35) Scioto, (36) Tennessee, (37) Thames, (38) Tombigbee, (39) Wabash, (40) White, (Ark.) (41) White (Ind.), (42) Wisconsin, (43) Yazoo. Locate the following lakes: (1) Champlain, (2) Erie, (3) Huron, (4) Michigan, (5) Nippissing, (6) Superior. Locate the following forts: (1) Chambly, (2) Chartres, (3) Crevecoeur, (4) Frederic, (5) Frontenac, (6) Labaye, (7) Louis, (8) Massac, (9) Miami, (10) Michilimackinac, (11) Niagara, (12) Oswego, (13) Ouiatanon, (14) Prudhomme, (15) Rosalie, (16) St. Joseph, (17) St. Louis, (18) Saratoga, (19) Tombecbie, (20) Toulouse, (21) William. Locate the following interior towns: (1) Albany, (2) Cahokia, (3) Deerfield, (4) Detroit, (5) Dover, (6) Haverhill, (7) Kas- kaskia, (8) Logstown, (9) Montreal, (10) New Orleans, (11) Pick- awillany, (12) Quebec, (13) Schenectady, (14) Three Rivers, (15) Vincennes. Purposes and results of the expeditions of the following ex- plorers: (1) Champlain, voyage, (2) Champlain, interior explora- tions, (3) Collier, (4) La Salle, lakes, (5) La Salle, Illinois and Mississippi rivers, (6) Marquette and Joliet, (7) Hennepin, (8) Nico- let, (9) Duluth, (10) Allouez. 32 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS Why did not the English reach the interior before the French? How did the French get a footing on the Mississippi River as against the Spaniards? What were the territorial subdivisions of the Six Nations? MAP A5. ENGLISH COLONIAL GRANTS (1580-1763) PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This pair of maps shows the founda- tion and expansion of the English colonies in North America, bringing out the following group of data : ( 1 ) The relation of colonial develop- ment to physical geography; (2) The relation of the expansion of England to the early opening up of North America; (3) The first group of colonies, 1580-1660 (see Map A); (4) The colonial capitals; (5) The second group of colonies from 1660 to 1 763. EFFECT OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY ON COLONIZATION. Eng- land was greatly favored by striking a part of the coast which abounded in good ports, backed up by a heavily forested and well-watered coun- try. The Appalachian Mountain system, however, was wild and diffi- cult to traverse, and no permanent English settlements were made beyond the watershed previous to the Revolution. The St. Lawrence River, however, opened up a direct road around that obstruction, and thus enabled the French to get into and occupy the interior long before the English. Once on the waters of the Mississippi, they distributed little forts widely, but had not enough population for real colonies. Especial notice should be taken of the natural passes across the moun- tains: (1) Kennebec-Chaudiere ; (2) Hudson-Champlain ; (3) Mohawk-Lake Ontario; (4) Susquehanna-Monongahela ; (5) Poto- mac-Monongahela ; (6) Roanoke-Kanawha ; (7) Valley of Virginia- upper Tennessee-Cumberland. GRANTS AND SETTLEMENTS NOT INCLUDING FAR WESTERN CLAIMS. For convenience of study the English colonies may be divided into those that had no claim beyond the Appalachians, and a second group whose charters extended far westward. The first group em- braces the following: (1) London and Plymouth companies (1606) [small settlements within prescribed areas]; (2) Plymouth (1620) [no charter], (3) Virginia as a royal province (1624) [without a charter]; (4) Maryland (1632); (5) New Hampshire (1635); (6) Rhode Island (1636) [no charter till 1663] ; (7) Connecticut 33 34 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS (1636) [no charter till 1662]; (8) New Haven (1638) [no charter]; (9) Maine (1639); (10) Rhode Island (1663); (11) New York (1664); (12) East Jersey and West Jersey till 1702 (1664); (13) New Hampshire (1679) [no charter, old Mason Grant ignored] ; (14) Pennsylvania (1681); (15) Delaware (1682) [no charter] . COLONIAL CHARTERS INCLUDING WESTERN CLAIMS. The second group, including western claims, is as follows : ( 1 ) Virginia (1609) [Map A and Inset] ; (2) Virginia (1612) [same bounds, adding Bermuda. This charter taken away in 1624] ; (3) Coun- cil for New England [till 1633]; (4) Massachusetts (1629) [note northern boundary and adjustment with New Hampshire] ; (5) Carolina (1663) [till 1665] ; (6) Carolina (1665) [till 1729] ; (7) Second Massachusetts charter (1691) [till 1774]; (8) Con- necticut charter (1662); (9) Georgia (1732) [till 1752]. COLONIAL CONSOLIDATIONS. The geography of the British colonies cannot be understood without taking notice of the fact that there were numerous consolidations and annexations of colonies, of which the most important are as follows : ( 1 ) New Haven united to Connecticut (about 1662); (2) Western Maine added to Massa- chusetts (1687) ; (3) Eastern Maine added to Massachusetts (1691 ); (4) Plymouth added to Massachusetts (1691); (5) Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard added to Massachusetts (1691 ); (6) two Jerseys united (1702). With these should be associated three cases where new colonies were set up by separation from a larger colony : ( 1 ) New Hampshire from Massachusetts (1679); (2) Delaware from Pennsylvania (1703); (3) South Carolina from North Carolina (1729). A great number of boundary claims and controversies arose in this period which cannot be shown in detail. Every New England colony, every Middle colony and Virginia, previous to the Revolution had some kind of boundary difficulty with its neighbors. RELATED MAPS. See Map A2, for earliest English discovery; Map A4, for rival international claims; Map A6, for expansion of British territory; Map A7, for the English colonies at the beginning of the Revolution; Map A9, for the revival of western claims and controversies; Map A9 Inset, for settlement of Pennsylvania claims. TEACHER'S MANUAL 35 QUESTIONS How did the British Government come to make conflicting grants of land on the Atlantic coast? What was the original authority for the following colonies: (1) London Company, (2) Plymouth Com- pany, (3) second Virginia charter, (4) third Virginia charter, (5) Plymouth, (6) Massachusetts, (7) Maryland, (8) New Hampshire, (9) Connecticut, (10) Rhode Island, (11) Maine? What is the origin and what are the explanations of the con- troversy over the Virginia extension into the interior? (See Inset.) What colonies constituted the New England Confederation? Why was Rhode Island left out? What was the western neighbor of the Confederation? What was the northern neighbor? What was the foundation for the western claims of Massachusetts? What was the true northern boundary of Maryland? What was the foundation of the far western claims of the follow- ing colonies: (1) Massachusetts, (2) Connecticut, (3) Carolina, (4) Georgia? How did the following colonies come to be united: (1 ) Massa- chusetts and Maine, (2) Massachusetts and New Hampshire, (3) Massachusetts and Plymouth, (4) Connecticut and New Haven, (5) East and West Jersey, (6) Pennsylvania and Delaware? How did the following colonies come to be divided : ( 1 ) Maine, (2) New York, (3) Delaware from Pennsylvania, (4) The Caro- linas? What were the territorial controversies of Pennsylvania with: (1) New York, (2) Maryland, (3) Virginia? What were the territorial controversies of Maryland with: (1) Pennsylvania, (2) Virginia? How was the grant to the Duke of York subdivided? MAP A6. THE PARTITION OF AMERICA, 1700 AND 1763 PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map shows the possessions ot the different powers in America in 1 700 and 1 763. It illustrates the expansion of the colonies of the principal nations and the resulting inter- national conflicts, which are treated for a more restricted area in Map A4. COLOR SCHEME. In keeping with the other maps, the yellow represents the Spanish possessions, green the French, pink the English, light brown the Portuguese, and dark brown the Dutch, while the somewhat indefinite claims of Russia on the Pacific coast are indicated by parallel black lines. , INTRUSIONS INTO SPANISH AND PORTUGUESE TERRITORY. The seventeenth century wrought great changes in the political geography of the western continents, particularly North America. At the close of the sixteenth century the New World was chiefly a possession of Spain and Portugal, but then France, England, Holland and Sweden all began to make inroads into their preserves. South America, how- ever, continued to belong mainly to Spain and Portugal. INTERNATIONAL RIVALRIES. As the colonies of the rival nations expanded and their borders came in proximity or contact, international contests inevitably ensued. In South America the Portuguese, Spaniards and French competed on the eastern mainland, while English, French and Dutch contested possession in Guiana. Besides the general scramble for possessions in the Caribbean area, and the temporary competition of the Dutch and Swedes with each other and with the English, in North America there developed before 1 763 three principal lines of border rivalry: (1) Franco-Spanish, (2) Anglo-Spanish, (3) Anglo- French: In order to understand these rivalries one must get a clear notion of colonial growth in its principal stages. SPANISH EXPANSION IN SOUTH AMERICA. Map A3 shows that by 1519 the only European settlements in America were in the West Indies and on the Isthmus of Panama. Spain's colonies now 36 TEACHER'S MANUAL 37 expanded rapidly, both southward and northward. The Spanish oc- cupation of South America proceeded upon two main lines of advance, both of which had as incentives the golden stories of the Andean region. The first of these lines was down the Pacific from Panama. Beginning in 1522 the conquest had brought Lower (northern) and Upper (southern) Peru under subjection by 1533. Southward along the coast, Chile was next conquered between 1540 and 1560. In this territory the Spaniards met from the Araucanians the fiercest and most successful resistance which they encountered in America. Offshoots from the coastal conquest were the expeditions north- eastward into Quito and Bogota; these were urged on by the stories of El Dorado and the fabulous cities of Manoa, Enim, Amagua and Paytiti. Numerous expeditions overran the northern wilds of the Orinoco and Amazon, but the actual settlements beyond Popayan were confined to the Caribbean shore line, and were drawn from the West Indies. Meantime the quest for a strait led numerous voyagers along the Atlantic shore and up the great La Plata system. Sailors wrecked or left behind heard stories from the Indians of a great White Chief and mountains of gold to the west that led to the first exploration of the Argentine interior; this was conquered between 1534 and 1593. In the provinces of Tucuman and Cuyo the eastern and western streams of advance met in fraternal warfare for supremacy during the closing decades of the sixteenth century. PORTUGUESE EXPANSION IN SOUTH AMERICA. On the Atlantic coast of South America the Portuguese were slow to follow up their accidental discovery. Urge to activity came through Spanish advance into the La Plata country. Portuguese settlements began in 1531, and soon huge grants (capitanias) along the coasts were held by feudal overlords. The upper reaches of the Amazon, first navigated by the Spaniards in 1541, were explored by the Portuguese' in 1637-8; due to the activity of the Spaniards, whose title was best, these lands after 1680 became the scene of Portuguese Jesuit missions, which constituted the basis for the westward expansion of Brazil, recognized by the Spaniards in the treaty of 1 750. 38 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS PORTUGUESE RIVALRIES. Every forward step of the Portuguese had its element of international rivalry. The first settlements on the Atlantic had been stimulated by Spanish activities in the La Plata country. The capitanias were bulwarks against Spanish, French and Dutch aggression. At Rio Janeiro the French Huguenots attempted a colony which survived climate, quarrels and Indian and Portuguese attacks but ten short years or so, succumbing in 1 567. The Huguenots failed also at Recife, near Pernambuco, the efforts there ending their attempts on Brazilian territory. The four northern capitanias were disputed by the Dutch West India Company, organized in 1 62 1 , which for twenty-five years held territory northward from Pernambuco, but after 1654 its sole mainland holding was a part of Guiana. The region of modern Uruguay was long in dispute. The definite establishment of Buenos* Aires (Spanish) in 1580 was countered by the Portuguese settlement of Colonia do Sacramento in 1680; it throve on illicit commerce with the Spaniards in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and was alternately Spanish and Portuguese until 1 777, when it definitely became Spanish. RIVALRY IN GuiANA. In the early seventeenth century English, Dutch and French settled extensively in Guiana. In 1654 the French settlements in Cayenne were taken by the Dutch, held a few years, and then restored. British interests were ceded to Holland in 1 667, at the time when New York was relinquished to England, and within ten years the Dutch were colonizing all of the present British and Dutch Guiana (Surinam). SPANISH EXPANSION IN NORTH AMERICA. By 1543 the semi-civilized peoples of Central America and southern Mexico (Mayas and Aztecs) were under control, Spanish centers had been established in their midst, and the northern interior (now the southern United States) had been explored (Map A2). Having exploded the "North- ern Mystery," the Spaniards now fell back on the established frontier and expanded it by gradual settlement. By the end of the sixteenth century northern Mexico had been occupied by scattered outposts ex- tending to a line drawn roughly thru the mouth of the Rio Grande (about latitude 26) and embraced in the provinces of New Galicia, New Vizcaya and New Leon. Most of the important present-day TEACHER'S MANUAL 39 cities within that area date from the sixteenth century. Far beyond this line was the New Mexico salient, established in 1598. At the same time Spain expelled the French and occupied the north Atlantic seaboard (called Florida) temporarily to Chesapeake Bay, and more permanently up the Georgia shoreline to Santa Helena, in the region of Port Royal, South Carolina. In the seventeenth century the Spanish frontier pushed steadily northward into Sonora (including southern Arizona), Lower California (1697), Chihuahua, Coahuila, Texas (temporarily), and Western Florida (Apalachee, 1633, and Pensacola, 1698). In the early eighteenth century Texas, Tamaulipas (New Santander), southern Arizona (Pimeria Alta), and Lower California were permanently occupied and their settlements expanded. During the revolt of the Pueblo Indians ( 1 680) New Mexico was entirely abandoned and then reoccupied (1692-8). Meanwhile El Paso had become an important center of population. EARLY FRENCH SETTLEMENTS. The sixteenth century French settlements in Brazil and Florida were destroyed by the Portuguese and the Spaniards, respectively. Early in the seventeenth century the French colonized Acadia and the lower St. Lawrence Valley, and pushed their way up the Great Lakes. At the same time they estab- lished settlements on a number of the Lesser Antilles and Espanola (Haiti). From these two centers, Canada and the Antilles, they pushed into the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi Valley, exploring the tributaries of this stream and establishing posts in Minnesota, Wis- consin, Illinois and Arkansas. La Salle, in an effort to control the northern gulf shore from France, established a post in Texas at Mata- Corda Bay (1685). EARLY ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS. In the later sixteenth century the English sea rovers plundered Spanish commerce, explored the North Atlantic seaboard in an attempt to find a Northwest Passage to India, and tried to colonize Virginia (Roanoke Island) and Guiana. In the early seventeenth century permanent settlements began. By 1 632 important beginnings had been made in the Bermudas, the Lesser Antilles, New England, Virginia, Maryland and New Foundland. THE DUTCH AND SWEDISH BARRIER TO THE ENGLISH. On 40 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS the mainland the Dutch and Swedes interposed a barrier to English expansion. In 1614 the Dutch began the colonization of the Hudson River Valley, whence they extended their trading posts to the Con- necticut and Delaware rivers. On the Delaware they were checked by the Swedes, who settled Fort Christina (Wilmington) in 1 638. In 1655 the Dutch conquered the Swedish colony. THE STRUGGLE IN THE CARIBBEAN AREA. The second quar- ter of the seventeenth century witnessed a remarkable development in the Caribbean area. This region, which Spain had claimed but neg- lected, became the scene of French, Dutch and English settlements, which struggled with each other and preyed upon Spanish commerce. Spain resisted manfully, and many times the intruders were attacked and expelled from their strongholds. Cromwell launched an imperial policy for England, and in 1655 conquered Jamaica from Spain, after failing to take Espanola (Haiti). Besides Jamaica England now held St. Kitts, Nevis, Barbados, Tobago, Anguilla, Antigua, Montserrat and a part of Honduras on the mainland (1638). The principal Dutch possessions were in the islands of Curacao, and France held, notably, Martinique, Guadeloupe and a portion of Haiti. ENGLISH EXPANSION UNDER THE LATER STUARTS. Under the later Stuarts English expansion was rapid. The Dutch and Swedish colonies on the northern mainland were absorbed (1664-1667), and the Jerseys, Pennsylvania and the Carolinas were established. In the West Indies Barbuda (1662), the Bahamas (1666), the Virgin Islands (later the Danish West Indies, 1672), and Turks Islands (1678) were acquired by settlement or conquest. By 1676 Barbados had a larger population than any mainland province of England. HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY AND THE FUR COUNTRY. On the mainland both France and England pushed into the interior in the interest of fur trade and dominion. In 1 670 the Hudson's Bay Company received from England a grant of the entire basin of Hudson Bay and established posts on the shores of that body of water. At the same time that the French traders entered the Mississippi Valley from the north, Virginia traders entered it by way of Tennessee (1671-1673), while Carolina traders soon reached the lower Missis- sippi. TEACHER'S MANUAL 41 THE FRENCH IN LOUISIANA AND THE FAR WEST After the Peace of Ryswick Louis XIV proceeded to carry out La Salle's designs regarding the control of the gulf by founding the new province of Louisiana (1699). This broke the continuity of Spanish control. The capital, first established at Biloxi, was moved to Mobile, and later to New Orleans (1718). Other posts were established in the Alabama Basin, on the lower Mississippi, and on the lower Red River. The Illinois country, where Kaskaskia and Fort Chartres were centers, was attached to Louisiana. West of the Mississippi the French established trading posts at Natchitoches, at the mouth of the Arkansas, among the Osages, and among the Kansas in the vicinity of the present Kansas City. From these posts, and from New Orleans, the Illinois country and Canada, before 1 762, French traders and explorers made their way up the Arkansas, Missouri and Platte rivers to the Rocky Moun- tains and to New Mexico. Farther north trading stations known as the "Post of the Western Sea" had been extended from Lake Superior to the Rockies by way of the Saskatchewan River, and Canadian traders had opened a route southwestward from Winnipeg. FRANCO-SPANISH RIVALRY. Foreign inroads in the Caribbean area and La Salle's settlements on Matagorda Bay had caused Spain to take defensive measures by occupying western Florida (Apalache, 1633) and temporarily eastern Texas (1690-1693). The found- ing of Louisiana by the French was answered by the occupation of Pensacola Bay (1698) and the re-occupation of eastern Texas by Spain (1716). War breaking out in Europe it spread to the colonies (1719). France captured Pensacola and drove the Spaniards from Texas, while her Indian allies destroyed a defensive expedition made from New Mexico to the upper Platte River (1720). Spain re- occupied Pensacola and Texas, and established the Texas capital at Los Adaes near the Red River (now Robeline, Louisiana). Until 1 762, when Louisiana was added to Spain, the French traders and explorers encroached upon the Spanish border, all the way from the Platte River to the Gulf, while counter expeditions were made by Spaniards into the disputed region. In the struggle for Texas, Spain distinctly won. Arroyo Hondo, between Los Adaes and Natchitoches, was regarded as the inter- 42 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS national boundary. It is a mistake to speak of the Sabine River as the boundary of Texas at any time before the nineteenth century. INSET. TEXAS IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY. Franco- Spanish competition was sharpest in the Texas region. In the eighteenth century the district was occupied by several native stocks, which became the objects of rivalry, and from one of which, the Texas (Hasinai), the present state gets its name. In Texas Spain established three principal centers of occupation: Matagorda Bay (Bahia del Espiritu Santo), eastern Texas (Los Adaes and Nacogdoches), and San Antonio, besides Laredo and El Paso, which till the nineteenth century lay outside of Texas. In addition, Spain had temporary settlements on the San Gabriel, the lower Trinity, and San Saba rivers, among the Tonkawa, Apache and Orcoquiza tribes. The western boundary of Texas was at first the Trinity River; thence it was moved to the Medina River, and by 1 775 to the Nueces. The country west of the Nueces was a part of other provinces (Nuevo Santander, Coahuila, Nueva Vizcaya and New Mexico). Several well-marked highways connected Texas settlements with each other and with the exterior. Chief of these was the "Camino Real" from San Juan Bautista to Los Adaes, which in American days became "The Old San Antonio Road." THE ANGLO-SPANISH BORDER. Not alone in the Caribbean area did Spain and England clash. The settlement of Virginia ( 1 607) was protested and even resisted by Spain, and was followed by renewed Spanish missionary activity on the Georgia and South Carolina shoreline. When the Carolinas were founded, border warfare ensued which, during the general intercolonial wars (1689-1713), resulted in the destruc- tion of the missions of northern Georgia (Gaule) and of the Apalachee country in western Florida. Contributory to this result were the activities of the Carolina traders, who pushed among the Creek Indians on the Spanish border. On the other hand, intrigues of Spaniards encouraged the uprising of the Yamassee Indians (1715), who massacred several hundred Carolina settlers and then fled to Florida. During this period Spain and England frequently came to blows in the Caribbean area. More acute was the border conflict caused by the founding of Georgia (1 732), but in spite of vigorous resistance the Spanish border TEACHER'S MANUAL 43 was pushed back beyond the Altamaha River (1 739-1 742). Finally the Seven Years' War witnessed the cession to England of the re- mainder of "Florida," which once had extended indefinitely up the Atlantic seaboard. At the same time, French Louisiana was divided between England and Spain, who now faced each other on the Missis- sippi. ANGLO-FRENCH RIVALRY. The keenest rivalry for North America came between the French and the English. As early as 1613 New Englanders captured a French settlement on the coast of Maine. A few years later the English captured Port Royal and Quebec, but restored them in 1 632. The early rivalry in the Caribbean has already been noted. Between 1684 and 1697 the French of Canada made several effective raids on the Hudson Bay posts, and on the New England settlements. In return the English again captured Port Royal and attacked the West Indian settlements. All conquests were restored in 1697. During Queen Anne's War, border raids again occurred on Hudson Bay and New England, and an indecisive struggle took place in the West Indies. Port Royal was again captured by Eng- land, and in 1713 France gave up all claim to Acadia, New Found- land and Hudson Bay. Acadia and New Foundland were thus the first permanent English conquests from the French on the mainland. In 1 745, during King George's War, Louisburg was captured by the English, and was restored in 1 748. THE END OF FRENCH RULE. The advance of the English into the interior brought rivalry on the Carolina-Alabama border, in the Cherokee country, on the New York border, and especially in the upper Ohio Valley. The establishment of rival posts here was followed by the outbreak of the Seven Years' War, which resulted in the downfall of French power in North America. The spoils were divided between England and Spain, the French provinces east of the Mississippi falling to England, those west of the Mississippi to Spain. France still retained the island of Miguellon and St. Pierre south of New Foundland, certain fishing rights north and east of that island, minor possessions in the West Indies, and part of Guiana. RUSSIAN POSTS IN AMERICA. Bering's explorations (1728- 1 742 ) were followed by the establishment of fur trading posts on 44 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS the Aleutian islands and voyages down the American mainland. This Russian advance was a principal cause of Spain's forward movement into Alta California in 1 769. QUESTIONS Make a list in chronological order of the explorers shown on this map. Compare this map with Map A2 and show changes in ownership of American territory. Estimate the fraction of American territory belonging to Spain in 1 700. To France. To England. To Portu- gal. To other nations. Ascertain if you can the ten largest cities in America in 1 700. How many of them were in North America, in the West Indies, in South America? How many of them were Spanish, Portuguese, French, English? How did Hudson's Bay Company come to hold its territory? When and how did New Foundland become British? On what was the boundary line in North America between the French and British colonies founded? That between the English and Spanish? The French and the Spanish? When did Spain cease to have settlements in South Carolina, in Georgia? What was the nature of the three-cornered contest for the country between the Savannah River, the Alabama River, and the Gulf? When and how did the Bermudas become British, the Bahamas, Jamaica, St. Kitts, Barbados, Belize? What was the form of government of the British West Indies? Into how many provinces were they formed? When was representative government introduced there? How and when did France come into possession of Haiti, the smaller islands, Cayenne? What was the administrative connec- tion between the French West Indies and Canada? How and when did the Dutch acquire Curacao, Surinam? How did the French acquire Louisiana? What was the nature of the border conflict between Spain and France west of the Mississippi? Which won in the Texas country? TEACHER'S MANUAL 45 What were some of the principal territorial disputes in South America in the seventeenth century? What were the chief haunts of the Buccaneers? When and how did England acquire Acadia, New France, eastern Louisiana? To what power did western Louisiana go in 1763? Trace the boundary between British and Spanish territory in 1 763. How did England acquire the Floridas? Had West Florida previously been Spanish or French territory? When did West Florida first get its name? How many different provinces did England have on the North American mainland after 1763? In the islands? Did the)' all have representative government? What was the Proclamation Line of 1 763? Why drawn? Locate New Spain on the map, Santander, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, Sinaloa, Sonora, New Mexico, California. Compare the size of Mexico City in 1 763 with that of New York City, Philadelphia, Habana, Buenos Aires, Lima, Santiago. Compare the population (numerically) of New Spain in 1 763 with that of British North America. What was the basis of Russian claims to the Northwest coast? When were they given up? Name the principal Texas tribes. (See Inset.) Name the principal Spanish towns in Texas. The principal missions. Trace the principal roads thru Texas. What provinces lay on both sides of the Rio Grande in 1 763 ? (See Map B.) MAP A7. COLONIAL COMMERCE AND INDUSTRIES PURPOSE OF THE MAP. The purpose of this map is to emphasize some of the social and economic conditions characteristic of Colonial history, and to show by a comparison of Map A and Map B the changes in these conditions that took place between the end of the seventeenth century and the period just before the outbreak of the Revolution. COLOR SCHEME. The most striking visual fact brought out on the map is the contrast between the vast stretch of unconquered wilder- ness, represented in green, and the narrow buff colored ribbon of settled area, mostly coastal plain and river valley extending along its edge.* The difference between the buff areas in the two maps brings out the way in which the colonizing and settling movement had been developing in the eighteenth century. How much the lines of advance of this movement inward from the coast were deflected by the routes of least resistance offered by the rivers and their valleys is made clear for each map by the little tongues of buff reaching out into the green areas. For instance, note on Map A the settlements on the Connecticut and Hudson, and on Map B the valleys of the Mohawk, Potomac and Savannah. The isolation of many of these settlements is also brought home forcefully to the mind by such cases as Charleston (Map A) ; Detroit, Vincennes and Mobile (Map B). The yellow color stretching west from the Wabash over to and beyond the Mississippi indicates the Prairie Area** avoided for a while by the settlers because of their mistaken notion that land on which trees would not grow could not be fertile. *The area of settlement is derived partly from Channing's History of the United States. ** Sources: (l)For Illinois, Geological Survey Bulletin No. 15; (2) for Wisconsin, Wisconsin Surpey Bulletin No. 36; (3) for Minnesota, Minnesota Geological Survey Bulletin No. 12. .There were also small prairies in Michigan, Indiana and Ohio, but their extent and location was never mapped. 46 TEACHER'S MANUAL 47 THE THIRTEEN COLONIES. On Map B note the heavy red boundary lines, which serve for the most part to indicate approximately the boundaries of the original thirteen colonies as these existed at the outbreak of the Revolutionary War. They thus show the preparation for the United States of America. LAND ROUTES. We have already noted the part played by the rivers in guiding the inland movement of the settlers along the streams mere paths before the coming of the settlers used by wild animals and Indians. The use of the trails, especially by the Indians, led to their becoming the earliest land ways for the pioneers. Of these trails it is especially interesting to note the following : ( 1 ) from the Mohawk to Fort Niagara; (2) from the Susquehanna, called the Kittanning Path, past the Indian village of that name to the future site of Pittsburgh; thence continued as the Pickawillany Path across the Middle Scioto, where it intersects the Great Warrior Path leading southward from Lake Erie, to Pickawillany village on the upper Miami ; (3) the trail leading southward from the upper Roanoke along the "Great Valley." Further, the map makes clear the continuous road connection between the extreme northern and southern settlements. This road follows the coast only for a portion of the distance, turning inland at Philadelphia and not making decisively for the coast again until the border of South Carolina is reached. Note how this road connects with the important Indian trails already mentioned. PRODUCTS. The colonists' commercial and industrial interests are suggested by the names and symbols showing the wide areas in which the trade in furs and skins flourished, tobacco and grain were raised, cattle nourished, and rice and indigo grown. Owing to the limited space of the map, it is not possible to mention all the important products. In particular, the important articles of meat, salt pork, salt beef, etc., are omitted, altho they formed a very considerable portion of the exports overseas. The importance of fisheries is indicated, as are also the earliest industries related to the native forests, such as dressing of lumber, manufacturing of masts and staves, the production of naval stores (consisting of pitch, turpentine, rosin, etc.), and shipbuilding. The areas in which the mining and smelting of bog iron went on are also shown. 48 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS In Map B will be noted the greater extent of country over which commercial activities have extended themselves, and also the appearance of certain new industries - indicated by the symbols for the production of "Ashes" for soap, the manufacture of "Flour" from wheat, and "Rum" from the molasses brought from the West Indies. SEA ROUTES. To this West Indian trade and the sea routes in general it is now convenient to turn. On Map A are drawn the routes of intercolonial communication and traffic on the sea, both with Europe and the West Indies. The importance of this West Indian trade is brought out on Map B very strikingly by the red graphs which spring out from the seaports and then split up into streams going in various directions. The variation in width indicates the relative volume of exports and imports passing in and out of the various cities. Note that while the combined volume of trade from the Chesapeake ports requires for its representation the largest graph, Boston just before the Revolu- tion was the most important single port ; and that the trade of Charleston rivaled, if it did not exceed, that of Philadelphia, and even that of New York. The map brings out clearly the relative importance of the four principal trades: the colonial trade; the trade with Great Britain; the trade with the rest of Europe; and the West Indies trade. All are shown in the branches into which each larger stream breaks up. The trade with Great Britain had preponderating importance over that with the rest of Europe, but was closely rivaled in importance by that with the West Indies. The Inter-relation of the colonial trade with Great Britain and the West Indies is the subject dealt with by the inset map, which com- pletes the subject of trade routes begun in Map B. These routes, called the "Triangular Trades" because of their three points of de- parture, include the following: (1) the colonies to Great Britain, to the West Indies, and back to the colonies; (2) the colonies to the Mediterranean, to the West Indies, and back to the colonies; (3) the colonies to Africa, carrying rum which was exchanged for slaves, who were taken to the West Indies and exchanged for molasses, which in turn was taken to the colonies, chiefly New England, and there made into rum. A modification of these routes is found in a quadri- TEACHER'S MANUAL 49 lateral route, namely, the colonies to Europe, to Africa, to the West Indies, to the colonies. RELATED MAPS. See Map Al for physical relations with the rest of the world; Map A2 for oversea routes; Map A4 for develop- ment of settlements; Map A6 for physical relations between North and South America; Map A9 for boundaries of the United States in 1789; Map A10 for westward movement; Map A13 for land and water routes (1829-1860). QUESTIONS What caused the irregularities of the distribution of actual settle- ment as shown by Map A? Locate the following places: (1) Albany, (2) Baltimore, (3) Boston, (4) Burlington, (5) Charleston, (6) Marblehead, (7) New Haven, (8) New London, (9) Newport, (10) New York, (11) Norfolk, (12) Perth Amboy, (13) Philadelphia, (14) Portsmouth, (15) Providence, (16) Salem, (17) Savannah. Locate the following eastern rivers: (1) Altamaha, (2) Apa- lachicola, (3) Cape Fear, (4) Connecticut, (5) Delaware, (6) James, (7) Kennebec, (8) Merrimac, (9) Mohawk, (10) Ottawa, (11) Peedee, (12) Potomac, (13) Richelieu, (14) Roanoke, (15) St. Croix, (16) St. John, (17) St. Lawrence, (18) St. Mary's, (19) Santee, (20) Savannah, (21) Susquehanna. What were the chief areas for the productions of: (1) furs, (2) cattle, (3) fish, (4) whales, (5) tobacco, (6) grain, (7) iron, (8) lumber, (9) naval stores, (10) ships, (11) staves, (12) timber? What were the principal triangular trades? (See Inset.) Locate the following forts and posts: (1) Arkansas, (2) Chartres, (3) Congaree, (4) Frontenac, (5) Le Boeuf, (6) Miami, (7) Michilimackinac, (8) Niagara, (9) Ninety-Six, (10) Oswego, (11) Ouitanon, (12) Pitt, (13) Presqu' He, (14) Prince George, (15) Rosalie, (16) Tombecbe, (17) Toulouse, (18) St. Joseph (19) Venango. Locate the following places and Indian villages : ( 1 ) Chota, (2) Cowee, (3) Keowee, (4) Kittanning, (5) Kusa, (6) Logs- town, (7) Lower Shawnee Town, (8) Oakfuskee (9) Pickawillany. 50 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS Locate the following western towns: (1) Arkansas Post, (2) Augusta, (3) Cahokia, (4) Detroit, (5) French Post, (6) Kaskaskia, (7) Mobile, (8) New Orleans, (9) Pensacola, (10) Vincennes. Locate the following western rivers: (1) Alabama, (2) Alle- gheny, (3) Arkansas, (4) Chattahoochee, (5) Coosa, (6) Des Plaines, (7) Illinois, (8) Kanawha, (9) Kankakee, (10) Kentucky, (11) Maumee, (12) Mississippi, (13) Missouri, (14) Monongahela, (15) Muskingum, (16) Ohio, (17) Perdido, (18) St. Joseph, (19) Tombigbee, (20) Wabash, (21) Wisconsin, (22) Yazoo. What are the principal areas for the following products: (1) fish, (2) whales, (3) cattle, (4) grain, (5) tobacco, (6) indigo, (7) rice, (8) furs, (9) skins, (10) ashes, (11) flour, (12) iron, (13) lumber, (14) masts, (15) naval stores, (16) rum, (17) ships. (18) staves, (19) timber? What caused the irregular distribution of the interior settlements of the colonies? MAP A8. REVOLUTIONARY WAR PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map shows the territorial situa- tion just before the Revolutionary War, a situation bearing in im- portant ways on the causes and course of the war; it also plots the chief movements in the principal campaigns of the war. COLOR SCHEME. The areas indicated in the very dark P in k are the areas which remained loyal to Great Britain, namely, Nova Scotia, Quebec and Florida; the medium shade of pink shows the extension affected in the area of Quebec by the Quebec Act of 1 774, a measure which added to the growing irritation of the colonists over the policy of the Mother Country. The area in very light pink denotes the Thirteen Colonies which revolted from Great Britain. Attention should be directed to the western and southern boundary of this area. This is marked out by the red line known as the "Proclamation Line of 1 763," established by Great Britain in 1 763 after the victory over France, in an effort to hold the colonists to the coast, thus becoming another factor in shaping resistance to the Mother Country. The buff shading marks off an area usually designated as "Indian Country." The area left in white shows a section of country that, curiously enough, did not happen to be included by any of the official acts of demarcations just noted, namely, the Quebec Act and the act establishing the Proclamation Line. A part of this was claimed by the colonies, especially Pennsylvania and New York, as can be seen by reference to Map A7. The yellow shade shows the Louisiana territory, at this time in the possession of the Spanish. (Compare Map All.) CAMPAIGNS. Map A shows the routes of the Revolutionary armies and of the attacking forces in the northern and central areas. Map B shows the campaigns in the south and west. The large inset contains in greater detail the campaigns of Washington from Valley Forge to West Point. The small inset, including the expedition of George Rogers Clark down the Ohio, that did so much to secure this 51 52 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS whole middle western area for the later expansion of the United States, is brought out with splendid effect. RELATED MAPS. See Map A7B for physical face of the coun- try and for the colonies in 1 774 ; Map A9 for subdivisions at the end of the Revolution; Maps All and A14 for later subdivision of the western country; Maps A15 and A18 for ultimate division into states. QUESTIONS Locate the following places: (1) Annapolis, (2) Bennington, (3) Concord, (4) Elkton, (5) Falmouth, (6) Kingston, (7) Mt. Vernon, (8) Newburgh, (9) Richmond, (10) Saratoga, (11) West Point, (12) Wilmington, N. C. Locate the following battlefields and encampments : ( 1 ) Bemis Heights, (2) Bennington, (3) Brandywine, (4) Brooklyn, (5) Bunker Hill, (6) Cherry Valley, (7) Concord, (8) Dorchester Heights [covered on map by Roxbury], (9) German Flats, (10) Germantown, (11) Lexington, (12) Monmouth, (13) Morristown, (14) North Castle, (15) Oriskany, (16) Princeton, (17) Saratoga [no title], (18) Stony Point, (19) Trenton, (20) Valley Forge, (21) White Plains, (22) Wyoming. Locate the following forts: (1) Crown Point, (2) Edward, (3) George, (4) Lafayette, (5) Niagara, (6) Oswego, (7) Pitt, (8) Schuyler, (9) Ticonderoga, (10) Washington, (11) West Point. What is the Proclamation Line? How did it affect the Revolu- tion? Why was Washington unable to hold New York? (See Inset.) Why did the British retire from Philadelphia in 1778? (See Inset) What was the importance of the Hudson River in the Revolution? What northern ports were occupied by the British during the Revolu- tion? Locate the following places: (1) Augusta, (2) Baton Rouge, (3) Charlottesville, (4) Danville, (5) Gnadenhutten, (6) Hillsboro, (7) Cahokia, (8) Kaskaskia, (9) Louisville, (10) Mobile, (11) Mt. Vernon, (12) Natchez, (13) New Orleans, (14) Pensacola, (15) Petersburg, (16) Sandusky, (17) St. Augustine, (18) St. Louis, (19) Vincennes, (20) Watauga, (21) Williamsburg, (22) Wilmington, (23) Yorktown. TEACHER'S MANUAL 53 Locate the following forts and posts: (1) Henry, (2) Red- stone, (3) St. Joseph. Locate the following battlefields: (1) Camden, (2) Charleston, (3) Cowpens, (4) Guilford, (5) Hobkirk's Hill, (6) King's Moun- tain, (7) Savannah, (8) Yorktown. What was the Province of Quebec at the beginning of the Revolu- tion? What was the Indian Country? How were the British com- pelled to surrender at Yorktown? How were the British forced out of the Carolinas? MAP A9. RATIFICATION OF THE CONSTITU- TION AND STATE CLAIMS (1776-1802) PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map has a twofold purpose. One aim is to show the order in which the various states ratified the Federal Constitution. The other aim is to show the territorial status of the United States after the Revolution, including the controversy over the state claims to the west. COLOR SCHEME. In the map dealing with the ratification of the constitution, Map A, the first six states ratifying are picked out in brown; the next three, whose ratification put the constitution into effect for the six states who had previously ratified, are colored green; the important states, Virginia and New York, whose action came after the Union had been assured, are classed together as belated states and are shown in buff; North Carolina and Rhode Island, who delayed their ratifications until late in November, 1 789, more than a year after those of Virginia and New York, are appropriately bracketed together as Post Constitutional, and are picked out in yellow. Vermont, not admitted until 1 79 1 , and not having a place in the original group, is left in white. Attention should be directed to the towns and cities shown on the map, for they are the places in the various states where were held the conventions to deliberate on the ratification of the constitution. In Map B the color is used to bring out the relation between the areas claimed by the original thirteen states and the areas finally re- tained by them. The scheme adopted to show this relationship is to use for the two areas different shades of the same color. Thus, for example, the vast area claimed by Virginia, stretching westward to the Mississippi and northward to the Great Lakes, is shown by a light shade of purple, while a dark shade of the same color indicates the final limits of the state's jurisdiction. CRYSTALLIZATION OF STATE AREAS. The interesting feature of this map is its emphasis on the fluidity of the process of state forma- 54 TEACHER'S MANUAL 55 tion. This is true not only of the original thirteen, but also of the middle western states. Of these six had at the end of the Revolution attained a condition of equilibrium and may be called closed boundary states. These were New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New Jersey, Delaware, Pennsylvania and Maryland. The remaining seven were still pressing claims to areas extending far beyond the limits with which we are accustomed to associate their names. Inasmuch as many of these claims were conflicting, an obvious solution was to yield the claims to the new federal power which was taking shape. In this connection compare the dates given on the map, at which the various states yielded these claims, with the dates at which the same states ratified the con- stitution. In most cases the western claims were yielded before that particular state ratified the constitution. The following details should be noted : ( 1 ) The broken red line in Georgia represents the Proclamation Line, 1763. (2) The term "Right of Soil" appearing in western New York on Map B refers to the compromise reached between New York and Massachusetts in 1 787, by which New York persuaded Massachusetts to yield its rights of jurisdiction over the area while retaining its right of ownership of the soil. (3) The Virginia Military Bounty Lands arose out of Vir- ginia's reservation of these lands in the interests of her Revolutionary soldiers. (4) Clark's Grant refers to lands assigned to George Rogers Clark for his services in the conquest of Illinois. THE INSET MAP. This largely explains itself, but attention should be directed to : ( 1 ) the line surveyed by Mason and Dixon, which determined the boundary line between Pennsylvania on one side and Maryland and Virginia on the other, and which came thru popular usage to stand for the dividing line between North and South; (2) the area known as the "Western Reserve," which belonged to Connecticut till 1800; (3) the "Fire Lands" added to the Connecticut area by a separate grant of Congress; (4) the Pennsylvania Triangle, the three- cornered strip that enabled Pennsylvania to reach Lake Erie, title to which was bought by Pennsylvania from the Federal Government, after Connecticut, Virginia and New York had yielded their claims. RELATED MAPS. See Map A5 for colonial territorial grants; Map A7 for colonies in 1 774; Map A8 for states during the Revolu- 56 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS tion; Map All for states admitted to 1819; Map A14 for states admitted to 1850; Map A15 for states admitted to 1861 ; Map A18 for states admitted to 1918. QUESTIONS Why was Vermont not one of the ratifying states? Does the map show a difference of sentiment between .the commercial and agri- cultural parts of the country? What was Mason and Dixon's Line? (See Inset.) What was the Connecticut Western Reserve? What was the Pennsylvania claim outside of its present boundary? (See Map A5-.) What was the Connecticut claim in northern Pennsyl- vania? (See Map A5.) What was the claim of Virginia in south- west Pennsylvania? What was the difficulty over the northern boundary of Maine? What was the settlement of the claims of Massachusetts : ( 1 ) to the Far West, (2) against New York? What was the basis of the Connecticut claims : ( 1 ) in the West, (2) the Western Reserve, (see Inset), (3) Fire Lands, (4) against Pennsylvania? What were the claims of Virginia : ( 1 ) in the Far Northwest, (2) against Massachusetts and Connecticut, (3) against New York, (4) south of the Ohio River? How did Virginia give up her claims : ( 1 ) north of the Ohio River, (2) in Kentucky? What were the western claims of North Carolina? What were the South Carolina claims to: (1) a western strip, (2) against Georgia? What were the claims of Georgia : ( 1 ) west of the Altamaha River, (2) against South Carolina, (3) north of the mouth of the Yazoo River, (4) south of the parallel of the mouth of the Yazoo River? How were the Georgia claims settled? MAP A 10. WESTWARD MOVEMENT AND WAR OF 1812 PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map aims to bring out the rela- tionship between the physical background and the early settlements in America, particularly westward beyond the Appalachians in the basins of the Ohio and Tennessee. The map shows also the development of the road system which served this westward movement. Two stages are noted in this movement: one from the defeat of the French in 1 763, to the Louisiana Purchase in 1803; and a second from the Louisiana Purchase to 1 829. COLOR SCHEME. The color brings out elevation above sea level; e. g., dark green denotes all land whose surface does not rise above five hundred feet. A careful study should be made of the key to the colors in the legend. Proper reading of the map brings out the highlands and the lowlands, and the pathways cut out by the rivers, thru mountain ridges and plateaus. The whole country thus becomes like an open book, whose contents we can read and understand at will. ROADS. In dealing with this subject, if we are to get the most out of it, we must have thoroly in mind the material presented in Map A 7, which shows not only the lines of communication used by the Indians and marked by their trails, but the beginnings of the white man's road system and its tendency to follow the paths already blazed out by the natives. The present map takes up this story of road development and carries it forward thru a period of fifty years, from just before the Revolution to 1 829. On Map A should be noted three developments of especial im- portance : ( 1 ) Continuous road connection between the extreme north- ern and southern settlements, following the lowlands all the way, whereas earlier the traveler from Philadelphia southward entered a road that led up into the mountains and along the Piedmont for a considerable distance. This coast road, thru almost its entire length from Boston to Savannah, crosses the rivers at the points where rapids or falls 57 58 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS mark the limit of navigation for boats coming up from the sea. The line formed by connecting these points on the rivers is called the "Fall Line," which appears on the map, and is of great significance, for along it important cities sprang up, and these in turn helped to determine the course of the great roads. (2) Along the line of the Indian Trail running thru the "Great Valley" and the Cumberland Gap now appears the Wilderness Road. (3) The place of the Kittanning Trail is now taken by a main road leading thru the -Appalachians to Pittsburgh. Attention should be paid to the development of local road systems in New England, in the middle Atlantic States and the South. On Map B it is interesting to note : ( 1 ) the extension of the Fall Line road from Augusta to Montgomery on the Alabama; (2) the increase in the main roads leading from the east, westward; (3) the network of roads in the Ohio and Tennessee basins, and in particular the great road roughly paralleling the Ohio from Wheeling thru Zanes- ville and Cincinnati to St. Louis; (4) the absence of roads from Lake Michigan south and west; (5) the broken parallel lines from Zanesville to Vandalia, which represent the extension of the Cumberland Road, which is later referred to as the National Road. CENTER OF POPULATION. The developing network of trunk roads and local systems was constructed in response to an imperative and ever-increasing demand for transportation, from the multitude of pioneers and settlers who were eager to reach this country, and to provide for the increasing commercial needs of the growing population. An index and epitome of this whole movement can be found in the gradual shifting of the center of population, which is supposed to be the balancing point upon which a board would rest if loaded proportionately to the distribution of population. In response to the great westward move- ment, the center of population moves steadily westward (Map B) with very little variation north or south, showing about equal division of the emigrants into the two sections. At the end of the period shown by the map, the center of population was resting on the western edge of the Appalachians. TERRITORIAL DEVELOPMENT. This map suggests much of the territorial development that took place during the period. In the northwest, for example, a red boundary line defines the Territory TEACHER'S MANUAL 59 Northwest of the River Ohio, created by Congress in 1 787 after the conflicting state claims (see Map A9) had been given up. Note the splitting up of this area into the states of: (1 ) Ohio, admitted 1803; (2) Indiana, 1816; (3) Illinois, 1818; (4) Michigan Territory. South of the Ohio appears a like subdivision of southern territory: (1) State of Kentucky, 1792; (2) State of Tennessee, 1796; (3) Mississippi Territory, 1798; State of Mississippi, 1817; (4) Alabama Territory, 1817; State of Alabama, 1819. (See Maps All and A 13.) The Territory South of the River Ohio, created by Congress in 1 790, soon became the State of Tennessee. MILITARY AND NAVAL MOVEMENTS OF THE WAR OF 1812. The following military movements are indicated : ( 1 ) lines of march to the Canadian frontier; (2) Harrison's route to Detroit and the Thames; (3) British route for attack on Washington and Baltimore; (4) Jackson's march to the Gulf; (5) British sea and land routes to New Orleans and Mobile; (6) battlefields and forts. The naval engagements are represented on the Inset Map. The vessels engaged with place and date of engagement are as follows (the names in italics are those of victorious vessels or squadrons) : AMERICAN BRITISH PLACE DATE 1. Nautilus Squadron Off Barnegat July 16, 1812 2. Essex Alert Atlantic Ocean Aug. 13, 1812 3. (1) Constitution . . Guerriere 41 30' N.-55 W.. . . Aug. 19, 1812 4. (2) Wasp Frolic 37 N.-65 W Oct. 18, 1812 5. Wasp Poictiers 37 N.-65 W Oct. 18, 1812 6. (3) United States. Macedonian 29 N.-29 30' W.. . . Oct. 25, 1812 7. Vixien Southampton West Indies Nov. 22, 1812 8. (4) Constitution . . Java 13 6' S.-38 W Dec. 29, 1812 9. Viper Narcissus N. P Jan. 17, 1813 10. (5) Hornet Peacock Off Demerara Feb. 24, 1813 11. (6) Chesapeake . . Shannon Off Boston June 1, 1813 12. (7) Argus Pelican 52 15' N.-5 50' W. Aug. 14, 1813 13. (8) Enterprise . . . Boxer Off Portland Sept. 5, 1813 14. President .... Highflyer Off Nantucket Sept. 23, 1813 1 5. Constitution . . Pictou Off Barbadoes Feb. 15, 1814 16. (9) Essex Squadron Valparaiso Mar. 28, 1814 17. Frolic Squadron 24 12' N.-81 25' W. Apr. 20, 1814 18. (10) Peacock .... Epervier Cape Canaveral, Fla. . Apr. 29, 1814 19. Rattlesnake . . Leander 40 N.-33 W June 22, 1814 20. (11) Wasp Reindeer 48 36' N.-1 1 15' W. June 28, 1914 21 . Syren Medvay West coast of Africa prob. off the Kongo. July 12. 1814 60 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS AMERICAN BRITISH PLACE DATE 22. (12) Wasp Avon 47" 30'N.-12 W.... Sept. 1, 1814 23. (15) President .... Squadron S. E. of Sandy Hook 15 leagues Jan. 15, 1815 24. (16) Constitution . .Levant and Cyane. E. N. E. of Madeira 40 leagues Feb. 20, 1815 25. (17) Hornet Penguin Tristan d'Acunha Mar. 23, 1815 26. (18) Peacock Nautilus Straits of Sunda June 30, 1815 The numbers within the parentheses represent engagements as shown on the first edition of the maps, while the numbers in the first column represent engagements as shown on the second and subsequent editions. RELATED MAPS. See Map A7 for colonial means of com- munication; Map A8 for the West during the Revolutionary War; Map A9 for state claims and adjustments in the West; Map All for Louisiana added to the West; Map A12 for other western addi- tions to territory; Map A13 for land and water routes, 1829-1860. .QUESTIONS Locate the following early western places : ( 1 ) Boonesboro, (2) Chillicothe, (3) Cleveland, (4) Gallipoli, (5) Jonesboro, (6) Knoxville, (7) Lexington, (8) Louisville, (9) Marietta, (10) Mor- gantown, (11) Pittsburgh, (12) Wheeling, (13) Zanesville. Locate the following highways: (1) Cumberland Road, (2) Wilderness Road. Locate the following eastern and southeastern places : ( 1 ) Cum- berland, (2) Fredericksburg, (3) Hartford, (4) Lancaster, (5) Montpelier, (6) Salisbury, (7) Schenectady, (8) Washington, (9) York. Locate the principal rivers thru the valleys of which roads ran to the west. Why did the roads to the west avoid central Pennsyl- vania and western Virginia? Locate the following western places: (1) Buffalo, (2) Cin- cinnati, (3) Columbus, (4) Dayton, (5) Dunkirk, (6) Erie, (7) Frankfort, (8) Huntsville, (9) Indianapolis, (10) Kingston, (Can- ada), (11) Little Rock, (12) Memphis, (13) Montgomery, (14) TEACHER'S MANUAL 61 Nashville, (15) Natchez, (16) New Orleans, (17) Pensacola, (18) St. Louis, (19) Sandusky, (20) Terre Haute, (21) Tus- caloosa, (22) Vandalia, (23) Vincennes, (24) Wheeling. Locate the following western forts: (1) Bowyer, (2) Defiance, (3) Dearborn, (4) Erie, (5) Jackson, (6) Maiden, (7) Meigs, (8) Michilimackinac, (9) Niagara, (10) Recovery, (11) Stephen- son, (12) Wayne. Locate the following Indian battlefields : ( 1 ) Fallen Timbers, (2) Horseshoe Bend, (3) Tippecanoe. Locate the following battlefields of the War of 1812: (1) Baltimore, (2) Bladensburg, (3) Chatauguay, (4) Chippewa, (5) Chrystler's Farm, (6) Detroit, (7) Fort Niagara, (8) Lundy's Lane, (9) New London, (10) New Orleans, (11) Raisin, (12) Thames, (13) York. Locate the following naval engagements in the War of 1812: (1) Oswego, (2) Plattsburg, (3) Put in Bay, (4) Sacketts Harbor. Locate the following sea engagements: (1) Constitution-Java, (2) Constitution-Guerriere, (3) Chesapeake-Shannon. Locate the following lines of march and campaign : ( 1 ) Jack- son's, (2) Harrison's, (3) Wilkinson's. How were the British able to penetrate to Washington and to Baltimore harbor? Why could not the Americans penetrate the Canadian frontier? MAP All. LOUISIANA PURCHASE, 1803-1819 PURPOSE OF THE MAP. The chief aim of this map is to illus- trate the territorial expansion of the United States west of the Mississippi, especially as related to the complications arising out of the Louisiana Purchase and the controversies connected with the Oregon country. At the same time the process of state-making east of the Mississippi, touched on in the two preceding maps (A9 and A 10), is clearly brought out and summarized. COLOR SCHEME. The brown denotes the states and territories east of the Mississippi which were not involved in the controversies growing out of the Louisiana Purchase. The green denotes the area of Louisiana; the yellow denotes the possessions of Spain apart from Louisiana, while the pm denotes the British possessions. The area barred with pm, green and yellow is the Oregon country, to which the British, the people of the United States, and the Spanish each laid claim. The yellow and green stripes over the area along the Gulf Coast in- dicate that it was claimed by both the United States and Spain. CONTROVERSIES OVER LOUISIANA TERRITORY. In dealing with this subject one should have clearly in mind the geographical data bearing on the early French explorations and claims to which the Louisiana Territory owes its origin, data referred to below in the subject of "Related Maps." The "Louisiana" of the present map represents only the western half of the French territory known as "Louisiana," since the eastern half was lost in 1 763 to the British and after the Revolution passed to the United States. At the time when this western half of the Louisiana Territory passed from the French to the Spanish (1763), no agreement as to the precise location of the western boundary of Louisiana had ever been reached. When the territory passed via Napoleon to the United States, this undefined western boundary at once became a matter of dispute between the United States and Spain. The thin red line follow- ing the divide between the drainage basin of the Mississippi and the 62 TEACHER'S MANUAL 63 rivers to the south and west denotes the watershed of the tributaries of the Mississippi, which was the natural and presumable western limit of the United States on the southwest and west. The heavy red line labeled the "Spanish Treaty Line, 1819" shows how this controversy was ultimately settled by treaty. Farther west the United States was already laying claim to the basin of the Columbia, on the basis of Gray's discovery in 1 792, and on the explorations of Lewis and Clark, 1 804- 1 806. The claims of Spain to this territory are indicated on the map, and the abandon- ment of these claims, by the "Spanish Treaty Line of 1819." The question of the northern boundary of the Louisiana Territory involved the United States in a controversy with the British, which was settled by the "British Treaty Line of 1818." INTERNAL ORGANIZATION OF LOUISIANA TO 1819. The map illustrates the progress of subdivision of the annexed region, as follows: (1) erection of Louisiana into (a) District of Louisiana (1804), (b) Territory of Orleans (1804); (2) occupation of part of West Florida (1810) ; (3) setting off of the Territory of Missouri (1812) ; (4) admission to the Union of the State of Louisiana (1812); (5) occupation of the remainder of West Florida (1813); (6) setting off of the Territory of Arkansas (1819). THE OREGON COUNTRY. Some previous light as to the basis of the original Spanish claim is afforded by Maps A2 and A6. Drake's voyage (1577-80), the earliest basis for the British claims, is shown on Map A2. The significant basis is the occupation of posts of Oregon by the Hudson's Bay Company, beginning in 1806-07. The present map indicates the agreement of 1818 between the United States and Great Britain, providing for temporary joint occupation of this region by citizens of both countries. The map further deals with the northeastern boundary line between the United States and the British possessions. The Massachusetts claim (as owner of the then District of Maine) and the British colony of New Brunswick were still in dispute on this question. RELATED MAPS. See Map A4 for internal rivalries for the West; Map A6 for rival international claims to the West; Map A10A for western movement to 1803; Map A3 for first explorations of the 64 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS coast along the mouth of the Mississippi; Map A4B for first internal explorations on the Mississippi Valley; Map A5B for English grants across the Mississippi Valley; Map A6 for French settlement of Louisiana, and for division of Louisiana between Spain and Great Britain in 1 763 ; Map A6 Inset for Texan boundary of Louisiana ; Map A7 for topography of the central Mississippi Valley; Map A8 for boundary of English West Florida colony; Maps A8 and A9 for expansion of the United States to the Mississippi; Map A10 for roads into the Mississippi Valley; Map A12 for relation to other territorial acquisitions; Map A13 for relation to the development of transportation; Map A14 for relation to Oregon and New Mexico. QUESTIONS Enumerate the new states in the order of their admission, 1 79 1 to 1819. What evidence does the map give of the admission of northern and southern states in pairs? Why was it desirable for the United States to obtain the Floridas ? What was the controversy over the northern boundary of Maine? What was the Island of Orleans? What was the controversy over the Texan boundary of Louisiana? What was the controversy over West Florida (see Inset)? Why was the treaty line of 1819 adopted in- stead of the natural boundary? Trace the following lines of exploration : ( 1 ) Lewis and Clark (1804-05); (2) Pike's expedition to the source of the Mississippi (1805-06); (3) Lewis and Clark's return journey (1806); (4) Pike's expedition to Colorado (1806-07). What was the claim of the United States to Oregon previous to 1 805 ? What were the claims of the United States to Oregon, 1806-1818? What were the bounds of: (1) Louisiana, (2) Territory of Louisiana, (3) Territory of Orleans, (4) Territory of Missouri, (5) Arkansas Territory? Locate the following far western places: (1) Adaes, (2) Al- buquerque, (3) Arkansas Post, (4) Cape Girardeau, (5) Chouteau's Post, (6) Monterey, (7) Nacogdoches, (8) Natchitoches, (9) New Madrid, (10) St. Charles, (11) Ste. Genevieve, (12) San Diego, TEACHER'S MANUAL 65 (13) San Francisco, (14) Santa Barbara, (15) Santa Fe, (16) Taos. Locate the following forts and posts: (1) Armstrong, (2) At- kinson, (3) Clatsop, (4) Crawford, (5) Liza, (6) Mandan, (7) Osage, (8) Smith, (9) Snelling. MAP A 12. TERRITORIAL ACQUISITIONS, 1776-1866 PURPOSE OF THE MAP. The purpose of this map is to show in great blocks the territorial expansion of the United States, from the recognition of their independence by Great Britain in 1 783 to the rounding out of the Southwest thru the Gadsden Purchase of 1853. COLOR SCHEME. This block-like growth by which the main body of the United States acquires its historic size and shape is effec- tively brought home by the use of: (1 ) darfy brown to show the area of the original Thirteen States at the close of the Revolution; (2) light brown to indicate the area acknowledged by Great Britain ( 1 783) ; (3) green for the Louisiana Purchase (1803); (4) buff for the Florida Purchase (1819) and Texas (1845-48); (5) pink for the Oregon country (1846); (6) yellow for the Mexican Cession at the close of the Mexican War (1848) ; (7) purple for the Gadsden Purchase (1853). THE ORIGINAL THIRTEEN STATES. The origin and develop- ment of this area has been traced in the preceding maps (A4, A5 and A7B). The only changes in state boundaries are those noted in A9B by the state cessions, and in the boundary as claimed by Maine, agreed to in 1842 (Map A7). WEST TO THE MISSISSIPPI. The story of the acquisition and development of this interior western area has been illustrated by preced- ing maps. Notice, however, the portion of this area claimed by Spain between 1 783 and 1 795 in connection with the transfer of Florida by Great Britain in 1 783. THE FLORIDA PURCHASE. Originally in the hands of the Spanish as the result of the expedition of Ponce de Leon (1513, see Map A3), this territory passed to the English in 1763, back to the Spanish in 1 783, and finally by purchase into the hands of the United States in 1819. The controversy as to West Florida is set forth on Map A1 1 Inset. TEACHER'S MANUAL 67 REPUBLIC OF TEXAS. The early Spanish explorations and La Salle's attempted French colony are illustrated by Maps A2, A3 and A6. Attention should here be directed to : ( 1 ) The line denot- ing the western boundary of Texas when a part of Mexico; (2) the line labeled the "Natural Boundary of Texas" following for the most part the height of land forming the northeastern rim of the Rio Grande basin; (3) the two additional areas claimed by Texas from 1836 to 1850; (4) the area ceded by Mexico in 1848 (indicated by light buff). For the final shape assumed by Texas after the Compromise of 1850, see Map A 14. GADSDEN PURCHASE. This strip purchased from Mexico (1853) was desired by the United States in order to open a convenient route for a railroad to California. THE OREGON COUNTRY. The conflicting claims to this area are illustrated on the preceding map (A1 1 ). The present map shows the shape taken by the region under the agreement with Great Britain (1846) by which the United States gained full title to all south of 49. The only remaining controversy was the San Juan water bound- ary, which was not settled finally till 1872. RELATED MAPS. See Map A5 for English colonial territorial grants; Map A6 for partition of North America among European powers; Map A7 for the colonies in 1774; Map A8B for western country during the Revolution; Map All for Louisiana Purchase; Map A14 for territorial effect of the Mexican War, and for effect of slavery on Texas, New Mexico and California; Map A15 for sections of the Union in the Civil War; Map A18 for western statehood; Map A23 for annexations and protectorates in the Caribbean Region; Map A24 for Greater United States, including all annexations. QUESTIONS How was the area of the original United States bounded? How did the United States secure the following western territory : ( 1 ) be- tween the Ohio River and the Lakes, (2) between the upper Mississippi and the Lakes, (3) south of the Ohio River, (4) from the parallel of the mouth of the Yazoo to the 31st parallel? 68 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS What were the principal controversies over the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase (see Map All)? What was the controversy over West Florida (see Map All)? What were the United States claims to Oregon: ( 1 ) from 1 792 to 1806, (2) from 1807 to 1819, (3) from 1819 to 1846? How did the United States secure East Florida? What were the boundaries of Texas : ( 1 ) as a Spanish province, (2) natural boundaries, (3) as claimed by Texas in 1836, (4) as adjusted with the United States in 1850? What was added to the United States by the Mexican cession of 1848: (1) in the area claimed by Texas, (2) in New Mexico, (3) in California? Why was the Gadsden Purchase added to the United States? MAP A 13. LAND AND WATER ROUTES, 1829-1860 PURPOSE OF THE MAP. The map seeks: (1) to provide material for a study of the physical background of the history of the whole United States; (2) to show another stage in the development of lines of transportation, thus continuing the subject begun and carried on in Maps A 7 and A10; (3) to show how far canal and railroad building had proceeded just before the Civil War; (4) to illustrate the work of explorers who opened up ways to the Pacific Slope; (5) to indicate the chief trails that were developed in connection with the opening up of the Pacific Slope, on routes later followed by the great trunk lines of the transcontinental railroads. COLOR SCHEME. This is fully explained in the legend on the map and is much the same as that used on Map A 10. It brings out clearly the lowlands of the coastal plain and river valleys. It emphasizes the contrast between the low levels of the Middle West and the high levels and mountainous plateaus of the Far West, as well as the sharp descent from the Rocky Mountain Plateau to the low levels of the Pacific Slope. RAILROADS TO 1 860. One of the most striking things about this railroad development is its reflection of the demand for east and west transportation, caused by the emigration movement. The map also shows the striking advantage in the matter of transportation facilities in the Civil War possessed by the North over the South. At the same time the deficiency of direct rail communication between North and South, as revealed on the map, suggests a lack of intercourse which was one cause of misunderstanding between the two sections. Notice the closeness with which most of the new railroads follow the lines of the old roads and trails (Maps A7 and A 10). They thus testify again to the fundamental influence of topography in fixing the lines of communication, which in turn influence the establishment of cities and towns as centers of commercial, industrial and intellectual develop- ment. 69 70 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS Worthy of especial attention are : ( 1 ) the Canadian Grand Trunk Line from Portland thru Montreal to Chicago; (2) several areas of intensive development (a) in New England, (b) between New York and Harrisburg, (c) between Pittsburgh and Indianapolis, (d) in the Chicago region; (3) the trunk railroad line from Washington to Memphis, thru the "Great Valley" via Knoxville and Chattanooga; (4) the absence of any direct railroad connection along the coastal plain between Washington and Wilmington, Charleston and Savannah; (5) the trunk line from Chicago to New Orleans; (6) the fact that the railroads were already beginning to reach out beyond the Mississippi, St. Joseph on the Missouri being the farthest western point reached down to 1860; (7) the short road near Sacramento, California, indicating the beginning of railroad building from the Pacific eastward. WATERWAYS. Of great importance for communication between different parts of the country were: ( 1 ) the sea route from the Atlantic coast, "round the Horn" to the Pacific coast (see Map A24) ; (2) coasting trade on the three sea coasts (a) eastern New England, (b) Long Island Sound, (c) southern tide rivers and sounds, (d) open sea ; (3) traffic on the Great Lakes, in connection with the Erie Canal; (4) main canal lines: (a) Erie Canal and branches, (b) Champlain Canal, (c) Delaware and Hudson, (d) New Jersey, (e) main Pennsyl- vania system, (f) Potomac Canal, (g) James River Canal, (h) Erie and Pittsburgh Canal, (i) Ohio Canal and branches, (j) Miami and Erie Canal, (k) Wabash and Erie Canal, (1) Chicago and Illinois River Canal, (m) canals around river falls, e. g., at Louisville. WESTERN TRAILS. Attention should be given to the work of far western explorers as represented on the map as follows : ( 1 ) earliest routes of Pike and Lewis and Clark (Map All); (2) Jedediah Smith; (3) Bonneville; (4) Walker; (5) Fremont. Some of the interesting features of the great western trails are: (1) their points of departure on the Missouri; (2) the valley of the North Platte leading to the South Pass; (3) the Santa Fe Trail, oc- cupying a different mountain crossing; (4) the fan-like manner in which, after leaving the South Pass, the trails branch out northwest, west and southwest. For convenience the dates at which these trails came into fairly TEACHER'S MANUAL 71 common use are here given : ( 1 ) Jedediah Smith's routes to and from California (1826-27); (2) Jedediah Smith's Oregon route (1828- 29) ; (3) Santa Fe Trail (1830) ; (4) Oregon Trail (1832) ; (5) Bonneville's Trail on the Platte (1832) ; (6) Bonneville's far western trail (1833-34); (7) Walker's route (1833-34); (8) Fremont's second expedition (1843-44); (9) Mormon Trail (1846); (10) California Trail (1849) ; (1 1 ) Pony Express Trail (1857). RELATED MAPS. See Map A7 for colonial land and water routes; Map A10 for routes of westward movements; Map A1 1 for Louisiana Purchase before the 'opening up of the West, and for early routes of Pike and Lewis and Clark; Map A14 for routes of the Mexican War; Map A16 for routes of the Civil War; Map A18 for land grants to railroads; Map A19 for lines of transportation in 1918; Map A24 for transportation of the greater United States. QUESTIONS What does the map show with reference to the elevation of land in the United States? What were the main natural obstacles to trans- portation? In what parts of the country were the natural facilities for water transportation greatest? Why has water transportation been so scanty west of the Missouri, Arkansas and Red rivers? How far have the Appalachian Mountains been a barrier to lines of transpor- tation ? Locate the following important places on the map : ( 1 ) Astoria ; (2) Fort Vancouver ; (3) Independence; (4) Omaha; (5) Santa Fe; (6) South Pass. Trace the following far western explorations: (1) Smith; (2) Bonneville; (3) Fremont; (4) Walker. How was the Oregon Trail developed? Why did the Southwest remain so long unexplored by America? Trace the main lines of rail transportation on the coast to the Mississippi River. Why are there so few north and south railroads? Explain the areas destitute of railroads in various sections from Maine to Mississippi and Wisconsin. MAP A 14. MEXICAN WAR AND COMPROMISE OF 1850 PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map is designed to illustrate the continued territorial development of the country from 1820 to 1850, and to bring out the subdivision of the Union into free and slave areas, especially after the adjustment of the slavery issue by the Compromise of 1850. The existence and nature of the trade in slaves is suggested thru the routes by which slaves were sent south, while the fugitive slave routes explain how so many slaves escaped to freedom. In addition, the map sets forth the military and naval movements of the Mexican War. COLOR SCHEME. This is entirely devoted to bringing out the distinction between the free areas and the slave areas. Thus the deep purple tint of the free states stands out, while the buff distinguishes the slave states. The deep pint? marks out the territories reserved as free by the Missouri Compromise, an act which applied to what was then left of the Louisiana Territory in 1 820. The light pink rnarks the Oregon country, erected as a free territory in 1 848. The same color of free territory is applied to three other small areas : ( 1 ) the upper North Platte; (2) south of the upper Arkansas; (3) between the Arkansas and the present northern boundary of Texas. These areas had been reserved as free by a clause of the Texas Act of 1845, which applied to all territory claimed by Texas lying north of 36 30' (see Map A 12) whenever those regions should be ready for statehood. DIVISION INTO FREE AND SLAVE AREAS. When the Com- promise of 1850 was passed, the Union was divided into two areas, in one of which slavery was permitted and in the other it was pro- hibited. This division was brought about by legal action as follows: ( 1 ) Action against slavery by sixteen free states, extending continuously from Maine to Iowa, and then jumping over to California. (2) Corre- sponding affirmative legislation in favor of slavery in the fifteen slave- holding states and District of Columbia, extending continuously from Delaware to Texas. (3) Four successive acts of Congress prohibiting 72 TEACHERS MANUAL 73 slavery in four different areas of territory as follows: (a) Northwest Ordinance (1787) covering the later states of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota. All these states added a prohibition of slavery in their original constitutions as they came into the Union, (b) Missouri Compromise (1820), applying to that part of the Louisiana cession lying north of the southern boundary of Mis- souri, and of the line of 36 30' produced westward to the then western boundary of the United States (100th meridian). (c) Texas Act (1845), applying to all territory claimed by Texas north of 36 30' (see Map A 12), whenever those regions should be ready for statehood. This became operative in 1 850 when Texas gave up all claims north of that line, (d) Oregon Act (1848), applying to the present states of Oregon, Washington and Idaho. By the Compromise Acts (1850) Utah Territory and New Mexico Territory were virtually left open to slavery, if the slaveholders chose to take possession. The boundary then described for New Mexico, however, included a little piece of the territory assigned to freedom by the line of 1845. CREATION OF STATES AND TERRITORIES. The process of crystallization into states is signalized on this map by the formation of the following states : ( 1 ) Maine, admitted out of Massachusetts (1820); (2) Missouri, admitted out of Missouri Territory (1821); the western part of the former Territory of Missouri was left without any government until 1854. (3) Arkansas, out of Territory of Arkansas (1836). The western end of the territory, which was a part of the unorganized portion of the former territory of Missouri, was occupied by Indian tribes and called the Indian Territory, tho it had no territorial government. (4) Michigan, out of part of the Territory of Michigan (1837). (5) Florida, out of the Territory of Florida (1845). (6) Texas, the former independent republic of Texas (1845). (7) Iowa, part of Territory of Iowa (1846). (8) Wis- consin, part of Territory of Wisconsin (1848). (9) California, out of territory conquered from Mexico, without passing thru organized terri- torial government (1850). (10) Minnesota Territory, created in part out of the unorganized territory (1850). For the admission of the state of Minnesota (in 1858) see Map A15. 74 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS ROUTES OF THE SLAVE TRADE AND FUGITIVE SLAVES. The illustration of these two sets of routes given on the map calls attention in a vivid way to the existence of "both of these lively movements. Some of the routes are usual lines of transportation along which ordinary merchandise and passengers moved, on the Ohio and Mississippi rivers particularly. Others were concealed routes, used only by the fugitives. The cities shown on the map were the chief centers for the slave trade or fugitive slave movements. CAMPAIGNS OF THE MEXICAN WAR. The principal campaigns of the Mexican War are shown on the map, and may be listed as follows: (1) Taylor's route (1846-47); (2) Scott's route (1847- 48) [see Inset]; (3) Kearny's route to New Mexico (1846-47); (4) Doniphan's route from New Mexico (1846-47); (5) Wool's route from Texas (1846) ; (6) Kearny's route to California (1846) ; (7) Fremont's route in California (1846-47); (8) Stockton's route in California (1846-47). RELATED MAPS. See Map A9 for United States at the ratifica- tion of the constitution; Maps A3, A4, A6 and All for territorial status and conditions of Mexico; Map A12 for addition of the Gadsden Purchase; Map A15 for relation of the territory then ceded by Mexico to what was later the area of secession. QUESTIONS Arrange and explain the admission of states in chronological order from 1820 to 1850. What is the evidence of admitting states during that period in pairs, one northern and one southern? Which section, free or slaveholding, had the advantage in securing territory? Why were there no northwestern states beyond Iowa at this time? Why did the routes of the "underground railroad" run to the northern boundaries of the free states? What were the main routes of the domestic slave trade from the slaveholding states? What were the following lines between freedom and slavery: (1) Line of 1787, (2) Line of 1820, (3) Line of 1845, (4) Line of 1848? Were any of these lines disturbed by the Compromise of 1 850? Why was the territory west of the Missouri left unorganized from 1820 to 1854? TEACHER'S MANUAL 75 Trace the following marches and expeditions of the Mexican War : (1) Taylor; (2) Scott; (3) Doniphan; (4) Wool; (5) Kearny; (6) Fremont; (7) Stockton. Locate the following far western places ana rorts : ( 1 ) Bent's Fort; (2) Des Moines; (3) Fort Kearny; (4) Fort Laramie; (5) Fort Leavenworth ; (6) Topeka. Locate the following places and battlefields connected with the Mexican War: (1) Buena Vista; (2) Cerro Gordo; (3) Chapul- tepec; (4) Cherubusco; (5) Contreras; (6) Corpus Christi; (7) Lobos Island; (8) Mexico City; (9) Monterey (Mex.) ; (10) Palo Alto; (11) Pueblo; (12) Resaca; (13) St. Gabriel; (14) San Pascual; (15) Santa Fe; (16) Sutler's Fort; (17) Tampico; (18) Vera Cruz. MAP A15. SECESSION, 1860-1861 PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map, while illustrating the con- tinuance of the territory and state-making process, is designed especially to bring out the line-up of the states and territories on the question of secession. It shows also the extent to which forts, arsenals and ship- yards passed into the hands of the seceding states. COLOR SCHEME. In this map the states upholding the Union are in purple; the seceding states are in buff, but a distinction is made between the group of seven southernmost states which seceded before April 14, 1861, and were organized as the Confederate States of America (colored a darker buff) and the more northerly stratum of four states that seceded after that date (colored lighter buff). The pink marks out the territories that lined up with the Union; those that adhered to the Confederacy are yellow. The strategic position of the northernmost stratum of slave states, the Border States, which sided with the Union, is brought out by their separate tint, olive. NEW STATES. The map includes the process of state-making as continued by the formation and admission of four more states : ( 1 ) Minnesota (1858), part of the Territory of Minnesota. The portion east of the Mississippi was a part of the old Northwest Territory, in which slavery had been forbidden by the Ordinance of 1 787, while the part west of the Mississippi came out of the Louisiana cession, and was declared free by the Compromise of 1820. (See Map A 14.) (2) Oregon (1859), part of Oregon Territory, free by the Oregon Act of 1848. (3) Kansas (1861), part of Kansas Territory. The area of the state south of the Arkansas and west of meridian 100 was covered by the Texas Act of 1845, while the remainder, being part of the Louisiana cession north of 36 30', was free by the Com- promise of 1820. All these Acts of Congress for territorial freedom were nullified by the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 and the Dred Scott decision of 1857. The net result of the process was that in 1 86 1 there were 1 5 slave states and 1 9 free states, a total of 34. West 76 TEACHER'S MANUAL 77 Virginia (1863), separated with a free constitution from the slave state of Virginia, was the 35th state (see Manual on Map A18). NEW TERRITORIES AND TERRITORIAL SLAVERY. The follow- ing are the significant changes which came about in territorial relations by and after the Compromise of 1850: (1) Washington Territory (1853), created out of Oregon Territory; (2) New Mexico (1853), enlarged out of Gadsden Purchase (see Map A12); (3) Nebraska Territory (1854), out of unorganized territory; (4) Kansas Territory (1854), out of unorganized territory, partly a remnant of the Louisiana cession and partly in the Texas claim (see Map A 14). To understand the complicated questions of territorial slavery, and to use the map properly, several principles must be kept in mind : ( 1 ) "Popular sovereignty," as set forth in the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, which stated or implied the following: (a) no right in Congress to deal with slavery in the territories; (b) hence the Compromise of 1820 was void and had never been legal; (c) the principle of "non- intervention," as stated in the Compromise of 1850 for New Mexico and Utah Territories, was supposed to be extended to all the other territories, thus virtually setting aside the operation of all four previous congressional enactments against slavery in the territories, namely, the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, Missouri Compromise of 1820, Texas Act of 1845, Oregon Act of 1848. (See comments on .Map A14.) (2) Hence all the area not then already organized as free states in 1854 (including the later states of Minnesota, Kansas and Oregon) was open to slavery if the territorial legislatures so declared. (3) The Dred Scott decision embodied the following territorial principles: (a) neither Congress nor a territorial legislature could prohibit slavery in a territory; (b) therefore, the normal condition of all territories was slave-holding; (c) when a state was ready for admission it could choose to be free or slave-holding. Between 1854 and 1861 the following changes were made in the territories: (1) Territory of Washington (1853), organized out of the Territory of Oregon, no protection against slavery in the act; (2) Dakota Territory (1861), organized out of Nebraska Territory; (3) Nevada Territory (1861), organized out of Utah Territory; (4) Colorado Territory (1861), organized out of parts of Nebraska, 78 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS New Mexico, Utah and former Kansas territories; (5) Nebraska Terri- tory (1861), enlarged out of Washington and Utah territories. The net result as regards slavery was therefore that in 1861 the Union was subdivided as follows: (1 ) nineteen free states; (2) fifteen slave states; (3) seven organized territories normally slave-holding, which could be made free only by so declaring themselves when they became states; (4) one unorganized territory (Indian Territory) in which slavery was legal and existed. CONFEDERATE SEIZURES OF FEDERAL POSTS, FORTS, ARSE- NALS, ETC. Attention should be directed to the almost complete sweep made by the seceding states of the federal military resources located in their territory. The seizures included forts, posts, arsenals, shipyards and branch mints. On the map these are all indicated by distinctive symbols. It should be noted, however, that the six following places, marked also by distinctive symbols, remained thruout the war under the control of the federal forces : ( 1 ) Fortress Monroe ( Va. ) ; (2) Fort Taylor on Key West (Fla.) ; (3) Fort Jefferson on Island of Dry Tortugas (Fla.); (4) Fort Pickens, Pensacola (Fla.); (5) Fort Union (New Mex.) ; (6) Fort Yuma (New Mex.). In addi- tion, Fort Sumter (S. C.) was held by a Union garrison till taken by the Confederate forces (April 14, 1861). RELATED MAPS. See Map A14 for state boundaries and division between free and slavery areas; Map A16 for Confederacy during the Civil War; Map A17 for reconstruction of the seceding states. QUESTIONS Arrange in chronological order the admission of states from 1 850 to 1861 . What evidence does the map offer that freedom was gaining ground against slavery? Arrange the southern states and territories existing in 1861 alphabetically in groups as follows : ( 1 ) first block of seceding states; (2) second block of seceding states; (3) territories adhering to seceding states; (4) loyal slave states; (5) new free states formed out of slave state; (6) District of Columbia. Make a list of the territories existing in 1861 in the chronological TEACHER'S MANUAL 79 order of their organization. Were any of them ready for statehood? Why are so many of the western states and territories bounded in whole or part by geographical straight lines? Why are the western states in general larger than those,. to the eastward? Which of the two sections had the more favorable situation for foreign commerce and connections? Which of the two sections had the better internal water communications? Which of the two sections had the better railroad systems? (See Map A13). How did the Missis- sippi River affect the relations between the states in the Union and the states in the Confederate States? Why did the removal of the troops from Fort Moultrie to Fort Sumter give offense to South Caro- lina? (See Inset.) MAP A 16. CIVIL WAR, 1861-1865 PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map illustrates the general field of operation of the Civil War, with the chief campaigns and battle- fields, the blockade, and the principal phases of the struggle, including a representation of the varying areas controlled from year to year by the opposing forces. The map is on an unusually large scale, forty miles to the inch, and brings out with clearness the lines of communica- tion by river and rail, a grasp of which is so important for interpreting the meaning of the military movements. COLOR SCHEME. The colors will enable the eye to take in several conditions which illustrate the nature and progress of the war. In the first place, the line between the slave states and free states is emphasized by coloring the free states, as in preceding maps, a darl? purple, while the slave areas are in lighter colors. Finally, a buff coloring is used to mark out the diminished area over which the Confederacy exercised military control about the first of March, 1865, just before the opening of the last campaigns. PRINCIPAL THEATRE OF WAR. The details of the map can best be remembered by grouping in the mind the areas that suffered from raiding, marked by diagonal red lines: (1) Washington; (2) central Virginia and the valley; (3) line of Sherman's "March to the Sea" from Atlanta to Savannah, and his later march thence to Raleigh and Goldsboro; (4) western North Carolina; (5) lower Tennessee Valley; (6) central Kentucky and Tennessee, and western Tennessee; (7) central Arkansas and southwestern Missouri; (8) Red River region; (9) northern and central Mississippi; (10) raids thru central Alabama into Georgia. The gradual extension of the southern areas occupied by northern troops and the consequent gradual shrinkage in the areas controlled by the South is shown by: ( 1 ) the darl? blue dash and dot lines, show- ing the fluctuating progress of the northern and southern front at yearly intervals from the outbreak of the war up to April, 1864; (2) the buff 80 TEACHER'S MANUAL 81 coloring, which shows the territory under Confederate control in March, 1865. A study of these areas shows the pulsations during the war, and in particular how at the end the Confederate territory was cut in two by the tongue of land under Federal control (marked in yellow) that reached down both banks of the Mississippi. This yellow area, it will be noted, extends over much of the coastal area, thus testifying to the control of sea power by the North and the effective and crushing use made of it. When Lee began his final campaign in 1865, not a single major seaport along the whole coast from the Mississippi to the Chesa- peake remained in the hands of the Confederacy. They were cut off completely from all intercourse with the outside world and were thrown back on their own inadequate resources. The hopelessness of the Southern efforts is brought home still further by a study of Sherman's "March to the Sea." By the beginning of 1 865 he had cut straight thru Confederate territory and was already turning northward from Savannah. Various important campaigns are shown on the Inset Maps: (1 ) the Virginia campaigns, including that which ended with Lee's sur- render; (2) the Atlanta campaign of Sherman; (3) the Vicksburg campaign of Grant. Another war field is that of the west, beginning with Grant's victory at Belmont in 1861, thence following up the Ohio and the Tennessee, and down the Mississippi. The series of campaigns that led ultimately to the capture of Chattanooga (1863) and the control of the great trunk line passing thru that point proved a starting for Sherman's campaign to Atlanta, and his later march to the sea. RELATED MAPS. See Map A13 for land and water routes before the Civil War; Map A15 for Secession; Map Al 7 for the effect of the war on the prosperity of the South; Map A21 for later prosperity of the South; Map A22 for southern agriculture. QUESTIONS How did the Appalachian Mountains affect the campaigns of the Civil War? How far did the (1) southern and (2) northern 82 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS railroad systems answer for the needs of the war? (See Map A 13.) How far was the Ohio River an advantage to the North? How far was the lower Mississippi an advantage to the South? How was it possible to blockade the greater part of the southern coast? Why was there so much hard fighting between the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers? Why were the following places especially important from a military point of view: (1) Belmont, (2) Charleston, (3) Chat- tanooga, (4) Harper's Ferry, (5) Knoxville, (6) Mobile, (7) Nash- ville, (8) New Orleans, (9) Pensacola, (10) Petersburg, (11) Pittsburgh Landing, (12) Richmond, (13) Savannah, (14) Staunton, (15) Vicksburg, (16) Washington, (17) Wilmington, (18) Win- chester ? Locate the following battlefields: (1) Antietam, (2) Bull Run, (3) Chancellorsville, (4) Chattanooga, (5) Chickamauga, (6) Fredericksburg, (7) Gettysburg, (8) Perry ville, (9) Pittsburgh Land- ing, (10) Stone River, (11) Wilderness. Locate the following marches and lines of campaign : ( 1 ) Bragg's route; (2) Buell's route; (3) Grant's route from Cairo to Pittsburgh Landing; (4) Grant's route from Pittsburgh Landing to Memphis and to the Vicksburg area; (5) Morgan's raid; (6) Grant's march circling Vicksburg ; (7) Sherman's Atlanta campaign ; (8) Wil- son's raid in Alabama and Georgia; (9) Sherman's March to the Sea; (10) Sherman's march to the Carolinas; (11) McClellan's peninsular campaign; (12) McClellan's Antietam campaign; (13) Lee's Bull Run and Antietam campaign; (14) Lee, Hooker and Meade's Gettys- burg campaign; (15) Lee and Grant's Virginia campaign (1864); (16) Lee and Grant campaign (1865). Locate the military lines between the two belligerents as shown on the map: (1) April, 1861 ; (2) April, 1862; (3) April, 1863; (4) April, 1864; (5) March, 1865. Explain the crooked lines of Sherman's marches to Atlanta (see Inset). Explain the march of the Confederate and Federal forces to Gettysburg. (See Inset.) What was the significance of the Valley of Virginia in the war? Explain Grant's campaign around Vicks- burg. (See Inset.) MAP A 17. ABOLITION AND RECON- STRUCTION PURPOSE OF THE MAP. The object of this map is to emphasize the problems of the reconstruction period. It therefore deals first with the process of liberating the negroes and making slavery illegal, and then with the controversies over political reconstruction and re- admission of the seceded states into the Union. It shows the period of re-assertion by whites of their social and political leadership. Along- side these political movements are some problems of economic recon- struction. COLOR SCHEME. The story of giving freedom and civil and political rights for the negroes is told by the color. The deep purple denotes the free states at the beginning of the war. The lighter purple denotes the areas in which slavery was prohibited by special acts of Congress passed early in 1862, for the District of Columbia, and for the territories, including Indian Territory, New Mexico, Nebraska and Colorado. The green denotes the area in which freedom came by admission as a free state: West Virginia (June 19, 1863). The pink shows the area where slaves were freed by the acts of the three states concerned: Maryland (Oct. 12-13, 1864); Tennessee (Feb. 22, 1865); Missouri (Jan. 11, 1865, and June 6, 1865). The brovn indicates two areas made free by the 13th Amendment: Delaware (Dec. 18, 1865) ; Kentucky (Dec. 18, 1865). The yellow indicates the areas where the negroes were freed by the final Emancipation Proclamation (Jan. 1, 1863); this action was supplemented by state action over a period running from March, 1864, to June, 1866, the exact dates of which will be found in the legend on the map. RECONSTRUCTION AND COUNTER RECONSTRUCTION. The table printed on the map deals with three important events in the reconstruction of the various seceding states. The first was war recon- struction, or the setting up of governments under the direction of Presi- dent Lincoln in four of the seceding states: (1) Virginia (1861); 83 84 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS (2) Arkansas (1864); (3) Louisiana (1864); (4) Tennessee ( 1 865 ) . These governments were all finally discontinued except Tennessee; the other three shared in the same process of reconstruction as the other seceding states. The second group of significant events is readmission under the reconstruction acts of Congress. Dates are shown in the table, running from Arkansas (June 22, 1868) to Georgia (July 15, 1870). After that time all the states were represented in both houses of Congress. The final political step was the establishment of a "conservative government" in every one of the eleven seceding states by regaining possession of the state government. The dates are shown in the tables, running from October, 1869, to January, 1877. In the case of Vir- ginia, the conservatives had recovered the central authority and or- ganized the state legislature before the state was readmitted. In all other cases there was an interval varying from a few months to nine years, during which the so-called "carpet-bag governments" were in power. SOCIAL COUNTER RECONSTRUCTION AND THE Ku KLUX KLAN. Thru unofficial and usually illegal organizations, previous to the recovery of the state governments, and in some cases with the approval of those governments after they were formed, efforts were made to prevent the negroes from voting and to break up the "carpet- bag governments." The principal areas affected by this movement are as follows: (1) race riot at Memphis (May 1-3, 1866); (2) race riot at New Orleans (July 30, 1866); (3) affair at Mobile, Alabama (May 14, 1867) ; (4) race riot at Camilla, Georgia (Sep- tember 19, 1868); (5) Ku Klux in various portions of Tennessee (February 20, 1869); (6) Ku Klux in northern North Carolina (March and July, 1870) ; (7) Ku Klux in northern South Carolina (October 17, 1871); (8) disturbances in central Arkansas (Septem- ber, 1872); (9) Brooks-Baxter War in Arkansas (April and May, 1 874) ; (10) disturbances at Cousmatta, Louisiana (August 28, 1874); (11) White League rising at New Orleans (September 14, 1874); (12) disturbance at Vicksburg, Mississippi (December 7, 1 874) ; (13) disturbance at Clinton, Mississippi (September 4, 1 875) ; (14) race riots at Hamburg, South Carolina (July 8, 1876). TEACHER'S MANUAL 85 ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON THE SOUTH. The map brings out the destructive influence of the Civil War by marking the areas in which the production of cotton was less in 1869 than it had been in 1859, a condition which reveals industrial loss, poverty and demoralization. These areas are marked by parallel red diagonals, and include nearly the whole of the cotton belt. This map should be compared with the map showing devastations during the war (Map A16). RELATED MAPS. See Map A14 for the southern states in 1850; Map A15 for the seceding states in 1861; Map A16 for movements and devastations of armies during the war; Map A18 for improvements of transportation in the South; Map A21 for industrial progress in the South; Map A22 for agricultural progress in the South. QUESTIONS Find out the areas on the map affected by the following action with reference to slavery : ( 1 ) emancipation acts of original states ; (2) Ordinance of 1787; (3) free constitutions of states admitted out of the Northwest Territory; (4) the Missouri Compromise of 1820; (5) admission of free states out of the Louisiana cession; (6) Texas Act of 1845; (7) Oregon Act of 1848; (8) Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854; (9) District of Columbia Act of 1862; (10) Territorial Acts of 1 862 ; (11) emancipation acts of previous southern slave- holding states; (12) emancipation by parts of former slave-holding states ; (13) emancipation in former slave-holding states by the 1 3th Amendment only ; (14) emancipation by Lincoln's Proclamation; (15) areas of preceding states excepted from the proclamation. Make a table of the readmission of seceded states: ( 1 ) temporarily reconstructed during the war; (2) from 1866 to 1868; (3) in 1870. Why was the cotton production so reduced in a large part of the South? MAP A 18. WESTERN STATEHOOD AND LAND GRANTS TO RAILROADS PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map is designed to show the political development of the western states and the land grant system. The land grant maps are based on a very careful study of the official sources. The three maps are all on the same scale and fit together, so as to include all the land grants to railroads in the continental area of the United States. COLOR SCHEME. The olive marks out the widely scattered states admitted before 186*4; the buff distinguishes the more concen- trated group admitted between 1864 and 1876; the purple denotes the contiguous block of states admitted in the two years 1 889 and 1 890 ; the light buff is used for the new states of Arizona and New Mexico (1912). On the land grant maps the green is used to denote the relative width of the strip granted; the symbols used in connection with the green denote variously whether government bonds were granted in addi- tion to the land; and also whether the grant was made direct to the railroad or indirectly thru a state. The red symbol used alone indi- cates that a grant was made and forfeited. The red or dark P m k indicates areas of Indian reservations as well as such special monu- ments as the Grand Canyon. National parks are shown in green. NEW WESTERN STATES. The material above in the Manual on Maps A1 1, A14 and A 15, as well as the maps themselves, form a useful background for the study of this present map, which brings to completion the state-making process so far as the main body of the United States is concerned. The complete chronological list of the thirteen states admitted after 1 869 is as follows : ( 1 ) Nevada ( 1 864) , out of the Territory of Nevada, with some additions from Utah and Arizona; (2) Nebraska (1867), part of the Territory of Nebraska; (3) Colorado (1876), out of the Territory of Colorado; (4) North Dakota (1889), part of the Territory of Dakota; (5) South 86 TEACHER'S MANUAL 87 Dakota (1889), part of the Territory of Dakota; (6) Washing- ton (1889), out of the Territory of Washington; (7) Montana (1889), out of the Territory of Montana; (8) Wyoming (1890), out of the Territory of Wyoming; (9) Idaho (1890), out of the Territory of Idaho; (10) Utah (1896), out of the Territory of Utah; (11) Oklahoma (1907), out of the Territory of Oklahoma (created in 1890), and the so-called Indian Territory; (12) New Mexico (191 2), out of the Territory of New Mexico. (13) Arizona (1912), out of the Territory of Arizona; This makes the total of forty- eight states (see Manual, Map A15). FEDERAL RESERVATIONS. At the time the various states were admitted, Congress reserved certain areas or created or enlarged them afterwards with the consent of the states. These areas are in most cases not under the government of the states, but are islands of federal territory similar to fhe District of Columbia, and may be grouped as follows : ( 1 ) Indian Reservations, marked in red and found in most of the western states; (2) National Parks and Monuments (see Map A20) ; (3) National Forests, mostly within the jurisdiction of the states, tho retained in ownership by the United States (see Map A20B). RAILROAD LAND GRANTS. To understand the maps the cir- cumstances of the grants need to be clearly stated: (1)The system of aiding railroads, by granting them strips of public land along their line, began in 1850 when a grant was made to the state of Illinois, to be transferred to the Illinois Central Railroad. (2) In this and most later grants was inserted the condition that the. road must be completed within a specified time or else the grant would be forfeited. (3) In all the eastern grants the states received the lands and passed them on to the railroads. (4) The roads received the alternate "sections," that is, half of the mile square checkerboard units of the government surveys, within the belt of the grant. (5) The land grant was to extend a specified number of miles on each side of the track. (6) If any of these squares, which included half the area of the land within the belt, were already taken up, the road might substitute equal areas in other government lands. (7) In a very few cases the govern- ment lent money to land grant railroads. Immense land grants were made in the middle western area. 88 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS The only such grant in Illinois went to the Illinois Central ; but there was a network of land grants in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and several grants in Missouri. Most of these were in timber or grain growing areas and hence of great value. In Indiana and Ohio the land was generally in private hands before the era of railroad grants began, but both states received early grants for roads and canals not shown on this map. Extensive land grants were offered also in the South, in Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana and Arkansas. None were offered in Texas because the lands there were retained by that state when it came into the Union; and none in Kentucky and Tennessee, because there was practically never any federal public land in those states. The most important group of land grants were the transcontinental grants for the four lines running to the Pacific Ocean, namely : ( 1 ) Union Pacific and Central Pacific, with which were connected the Kansas Pacific and branch lines from Plattsmouth, Atchison and Sioux City; (2) Northern Pacific; (3) Atlantic and Pacific this line had a double width land grant thru New Mexico and Arizona, but for- feited its California grant; (4) Texas Pacific, a grant outside of Texas, which was later forfeited. A fourth group of land grants was for the California and Oregon lines : ( 1 ) Southern Pacific, from the Colorado River to San Fran- cisco; (2) California and Oregon, from San Francisco to Portland; (3) Northern Pacific, from Portland to Tacoma. QUESTIONS From the maps (not using the Manual) make up a list of the admission of states from 1864 to 1912 in the order of admission. What portions of the area of the western states are not subject to the law and government of those states? What are the pieces of territory out of which the state of Oklahoma has been made? Locate the following places in the Far West: (1) S?n Fran- cisco, (2) Los Angeles, (3) Seattle, (4) Portland, (5) Denver, (6) Salt Lake City, (7) Santa Fe, (8) Omaha, (9) Yellowstone National Park, (10) Yosemite National Park. TEACHER'S MANUAL 89 Pick out on the map: (1) the five largest Indian reservations; (2) the five principal national parks; (3) the three most important land grants to railroads. Why were the early grants made thru the states? Why were there so many forfeitures of land grants? Were the land grants necessary for the construction of the roads? MAP A 1 9. LINES OF TRANSPORTATION, 1918 PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map is designed to carry on to completion the treatment of the routes of communication begun on Map A7, with the Indian trails and early roads; and continued on Maps Al and Al 3, and that of the Land Grants (Map Al 8). The map shows the chief lines of transportation, both by rail and water, in use in 1918, and also indicates the centers of transportation, which are at the same time the chief commercial and industrial centers, in which is found the greatest concentration of population and wealth. COLOR SCHEME. The chief function of the color scheme on this map is to provide a background that will make the railroads stand out clearly. It should be noted that the width of the red line indicates the greater or less importance of a given road; and that blacfy is used to indicate the navigable parts of a river. RAILROAD CENTERS. The most striking thing about the map is the way in which is brought out the importance of such places as Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis and St. Paul, Atlanta, Omaha, Fort Worth, Indianapolis, and Kansas City. The enormous concentra- tion of roads at Chicago comes out in a startling way. Note another form of concentration in the seaports. Their importance is not so clear to the eye, because the map does not show the relative volume of foreign commerce from the different ports. NORTH AND SOUTH CONNECTIONS. One of the noticeable things about the transportation system in 1860 (Map A 13) is the infrequence of direct north and south connections. VThe way in which since the Civil War that deficiency has been made up is strikingly brought out by the present map. North and south lines along the coastal areas, between the Appalachians and the Mississippi, and even between the Mississippi and the Rockies, are numerous and important. North and South are being bound together by an unbreakabfe network of common interests. THE TRANSCONTINENTAL ROUTES. By comparing this map 90 TEACHER'S MANUAL 91 with that of the western trails (Map A 13) and that of the Land Grants (Map A18) it will be seen how closely the railroads have followed the original routes of the explorers and stage coaches. The dominant influence exercised by the western tributaries of the Mississippi, especially the Missouri and its tributaries, is easily perceived, as also the fan-like spreading of the roads after having crossed the Great Divide. CANALS. While there has been a decline in the building and use of canals since the rapid development of railways, the day of the canal is by no means over, as is shown by the list of principal canals now in operation: ( 1 ) Cape Cod Ship Canal ; (2) Champlain-Hudson Canal; (3) Erie Barge Canal ; (4) Delaware and Hudson ; (5) Dela- ware to Chesapeake (Head of Elk) ; (6) Potomac Canal ; (7) Dismal Swamp Canal; (8) Chicago Drainage Canal; (9) Panama Canal (see Map A23 and Inset); (10) canals around obstructions in rivers: (a) La Chine in the St. Lawrence, (b) Welland, (c) Sault Ste. Marie, (d) Dalles of the Columbia, (e) Ohio at Louisville, (f) Connecticut at Windsor Locks, (g) Tennessee at Muscle Shoals, (h) Mississippi at Keokuk. RIVERS NAVIGABLE BY STEAM CRAFT OF CONSIDERABLE SIZE. River navigation has much declined in importance, but steam- boats still run on the following rivers: (1) eastern (a) Hudson, (b) Delaware, (c) Potomac, (d) James; (2) southern and central (a) Alabama, (b) Arkansas, (c) Cumberland, (d) Mississippi, (e) Red, (f) Tennessee, (g) Tombigbee; (3) western (a) Illinois, (b) Kanawha, (c) Missouri, (d) Monongahela, (e) Ohio; (4) Pacific coast (a) Columbia, (b) Sacramento, (c) San Joaquin, (d) Snake. AREAS DEPRIVED OF CONVENIENT TRANSPORTATION. The vacant spaces on the map bring to view some large areas which have neither rail nor water transportation. Note and explain the following: (1) Canadian, (2) Mexican, (3) Northern Maine, (4) Adirondack Mountains, (5) Appalachian Mountains, (6) Southern Florida, (7) Central Texas, (8) Northern Arkansas (9) Rocky Mountains, (10) Great Basin, (11) Southern and Central Oregon and Idaho, (12) Northern California and Oregon. RELATED MAPS. See Map A7 for colonial routes of travel; 92 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS Map A10 for land and water routes, 1 763-1829; Map A1 3 for land and water routes in 1860; Map A16 for lines of transportation in the Civil War; Map A18 for western and southern land grants; Map A20 for pipe line transportation ; Map A24 for external transportation. QUESTIONS Why is there such a concentration of the points listed under "Railroad Centers"? Why are there so few railroads in the southern interior? What are the main trunk lines to the Pacific? Why so many railroads between the Great Lakes and the Ohio River? What are the main trunk lines from the seaboard: (1) to Chicago; (2) to St. Louis; (3) to Memphis? What are the main trunk lines from Chicago and St. Louis: (1) westward, (2) northwestward, (3) south- westward? What old roads and trails have been paralleled by the Pacific railroads? (See Map A 13.) What railroads run: (1) from one point in Canada to another across the United States; (2) from one point in the United States to another across Canada? Why has transportation on the Mississippi River and its great branches declined? Does the map suggest that government ownership of all the railroads might be desirable? What is the history of the railroad to Key West? MAP A20. RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map is designed to bring out the general resources of the West, and the oil and gas resources of the Union. It also illustrates the government policy of conservation of natural resources and the irrigation projects designed to redeem semi- arid regions outside the Rocky Mountains. A study of the grouping of the resources and the relation of the grouping to lines of transporta- tion (Map A 19) throws much light on the past growth of cities in the West as well as their possible development in the future. COLOR SCHEME. The meaning of the symbols for the various minerals is fully set forth in the legend. The dark green represents the forest areas reserved by the government; the black areas represent irrigation projects. The areas named represent United States Reclama- tion Service projects, while those unnamed are either private enter- prises or "Cary Act" projects. The dotted buff coloring in A indicates industrial areas. DISTRIBUTION OF MINERAL RESOURCES. In dealing with this subject the following grouping may be pointed out: (1) Oil and gas fields: (a) immediately west of the Appalachian chain; (b) in a belt from Kansas to Texas, where there is not much coal or other minerals; (c) a southern California region, not otherwise rich in minerals. (2) Precious metals, gold and silver, usually associated with copper, found in the Rocky Mountains, the Great Basin, and the Sierra Nevada. (3) Other metals: (a) zinc found in Missouri, Montana, Idaho, Wiscon- sin, etc. ; (b) lead in the same districts as zinc and in the central Rockies; (c) copper abundant in the Lake Superior region and widely distributed in the whole far western region. (4) Coal and iron: (a) practically no iron ore of value west of Lake Superior, except in Colorado and the Puget Sound region; (b) coal fields are numerous in the same belt as oil from Iowa to Texas and in scattered areas of the Rocky Mountains, also some small beds in Washington. FORESTS. The United States once owned practically all the 93 94 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS forests of the western area, but has sold or granted vast tracts. During the last thirty years it has systematically retained as national forests enormous areas of woods. These public forests are to be seen on Map B. In addition the government has bought certain areas in the southern Appalachian Mountains and in the White Mountains to become national forests. Additional proposed tracts are shown on the map. IRRIGATION. Considerable tracts of land now valueless can be made fertile by bringing sufficient water to them. This is possible in limited areas by storing waters of the streams in reservoirs, so that they can be used when there is not enough rain. The principal irrigation projects are shown on Map B. This is a problem peculiar to the West, inasmuch as all parts of the United States east of the Mississippi have a sufficient rainfall. Many of the mountain streams which furnish water for the irrigation projects and other streams also offer magnificent water power, which can be made usable by electric transmission. Most of the upper streams shown carry such potential power. NATIONAL PARKS AND MONUMENTS. These were reserved in i order to preserve unusual natural phenomena (see Map A 18): (1) Glacier National Park, within the boundaries of Montana; (2) Yel- lowstone National Park, adjacent to Wyoming; (3) Rocky Moun- tain National Park, in Colorado; (4) Yosemite National Park and Sequoia National Park, in California; (5) Crater Lake, in Oregon; (6) Mount Rainier, in Washington; (7) Hot Springs, in Arkansas; (8) National monuments: These are reservations including prehistoric cliff dwellings and some great national wonders, such as part of the Colorado Canyon. BlRD AND GAME RESERVES. In addition to the great national parks, the United States has established numerous bird and game re- serves which are shown on Map B and in the Inset; these areas are surrounded by a red line. RELATED MAPS. See Map A7 for colonial resources ; Map A1 8 for western land grants; Map A19 for rail and water transportation; Map A21 for industries of the East; Map A22 for agriculture of the United States. TEACHER'S MANUAL 95 QUESTIONS What are the principal western areas of the following products: (1) coal, (2) iron, (3) gold, (4) silver, (5) lead, (6) zinc, (7) copper, (8) oil, (9) gas? What is the relation between coal mining and the production of iron and other metals? What do the pipe lines show as to the relation of the production of oil in the interior to the great consumers and shipping ports? Judging from the map, what are the richest parts of the West? What are the obstacles to the growth and prosperity of the Far West taken as a whole? What is the nature of the region in which forests are most ple.itiful? (Compare Map A 13.) What are the principal national par!is and "monuments" in the Far West? What are the principal existing forests in : ( 1 ) the eastern coast states (compare May A7) ; (2) the Middle West; (3) the Southwest and Florida? (See Insets.) Make a list of the actual irrigation projects in the Far West. Make a list of the bird and game reserves in the southeast and the northwest. Why are there so few irrigation projects on the Columbia River and its branches? Why are there no irrigation projects on the main Colorado? What makes the Rio Grande, Arkansas and Platte available for irrigation? MAP A21. INDUSTRIAL UNITED STATES PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map is designed to show for the Middle West and the East what Map A20 does for the West alone, namely, the distribution of natural resources and industrial activity. The difference in the two maps calls attention to the contrast between these two sections in natural resources and industrial development. As against the small and isolated patches of industrial development on Map A20, Map A21B shows great stretches of industrial activity. In mineral resources the East has a monopoly of workable iron ore, while the West is much richer in all the other minerals except coal. Another feature of the map is the movement of iron to coal and coal to iron on the Great Lakes. The graph shows that the volume of the ore traffic is nearly twice as great as that of the coal traffic. COLOR SCHEME. In part A the brown represents the areas where textile manufacturing is important, the darker brown representing areas of especial importance. The main centers, e. g., cities with a large annual output of cottons, woolens and silks, are given distinctive symbols in red. The important boot and shoe and clothing centers are shown in black symbols, and these are also carried over on to Map B. On Map B the brown represents areas where manufacturing and trading are more important than agriculture, mining, lumbering, etc. A region such as the southern Piedmont may be relatively important in textile manufacture, while not significant when all forms of manufacture are included. Part B also shows in black shadings the areas where coal is produced in significant quantities; while a black H ne surrounds areas containing coal of commercial value, which are naturally more restricted than those of "coal areas" or "coal measures." AREAS OF TEXTILE INDUSTRY. Map A. One of the strik- ing things about the distribution of this industry is the extent of the area devoted to it in the South. The map, therefore, emphasizes one of the great historical developments since the Civil War, namely, the 96 TEACHER'S MANUAL 97 industrialization of the South and its increasing community of interest with the North. In this connection study the lines of transportation of this area as shown on Map A 19. INDUSTRIAL AREAS OF THE MIDDLE WEST. One of the most interesting things illustrated by Map B is the effect of the distribution of coal and iron and the location of lines of transportation on the development of industrial centers and areas. The iron and much of the coal lie near Great Lake transportation; and the industrial areas and centers, therefore, gather about the lakes and along the east and west lines of communication. In other words, wherever it is easy for iron and coal to meet, industrial development results. RELATED MAPS. See Map A7 for colonial commerce and industry; Map A19 for lines of transportation; Map A20 for western resources and industries; Map A22 for agriculture. QUESTIONS What are the principal areas for the manufacture of the following products: (1) cotton goods, (2) woolen goods, (3) silk goods, (4) boots and shoes, (5) clothing? Why are textile manufacturing areas found in : ( 1 ) western Massachusetts, (2) eastern New York, (3) eastern Pennsylvania, (4) south Atlantic states? What is the relation of the Fall Line to manufacturing areas? What causes the great industrial areas in: (1) New England, (2) western New York, (3) central Pennsylvania, (4) the Atlantic coast states? From the map, how far do manufactures appear to be affected by water power? Why are there great iron centers in the neighbor- hood of: (1) New York, (2) Philadelphia, (3) Reading, (4) Johnstown, (5) Pittsburgh, (6) Youngstown, (7) Buffalo, (8) New- castle, (9) Wheeling (see Inset)? What are the principal areas for the production of the follow- ing: (1) anthracite coal, (2) bituminous coal, (3) iron, (4) steel, (5) shipbuilding, (6) machinery? What special facilities for manufacture can be found in the 98 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS following places: (1) Birmingham, (2) Buffalo, (3) Chicago, (4) Cincinnati, (5) Cleveland, (6) Columbus, (7) Detroit, (8) Duluth, (9) Gary, (10) Harrisburg, (11) Johnstown, (12) Milwaukee, (13.) Pittsburgh, (14) Reading, (15) St. Louis, (16) Wheeling, (17) Youngstown? How far is the distribution and prosperity of industrial centers affected by: (1) western rivers, (2) Great Lakes? Why are there so few industrial centers in the lower Mississipoi valley? Why is Chicago such a great industrial center? MAP A22. AGRICULTURAL UNITED STATES PURPOSE OF THE MAP. The map is designed to show the chief production areas of cotton, wheat, corn, etc. ; the cattle, sheep and swine areas; the distribution of pine, spruce, fir and other trees; the location of milling and slaughtering centers; the distribution of the most important fishing areas; and the sites of the State Agricultural Colleges. COLOR SCHEME. The three leading crops are shown in dis- tinct colors. The pink represents areas with a large wheat production, the darker pink representing the heavier production. In the same way the brown represents the corn, while yellow stands for cotton. The barred areas are those where two crops vie with each other in im- portance. The horizontal black ruling shows where meat cattle are important, while the oblique ruling stands for areas where dairying is important. DISTRIBUTION OF FOOD CROPS. One of the striking things brought out by the map is the concentration of the rich food crop producing areas in the basins of the Missouri, upper Mississippi and the Ohio. Notice also the close relationship between this same fertile area and the line of glaciation, marked with black dashes and following closely along the upper Missouri and the Ohio. The development of a good wheat producing area in eastern Washington should be noted, as also the widely scattered areas in which the sugar beet culture is developing, and the centers of fruit growing in California, Florida and northern New York. The spread of alfalfa culture from the West eastward is striking. TIMBER. The forest reserves indicated on Map A20B should be noted in conjunction with this map. The chief areas for the growth of the various kinds of timber may be listed as follows: (1) Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont, spruce and white pine; (2) Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota, spruce and white pine; (3) Michigan, maple; (4) Middle States, hardwoods; (5) Southern States, hard- 99 100 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS woods and yellow pine; (6) Louisiana, cypress; (7) California, red- wood and pine; (8) Oregon and Washington coast, big spruce and fir; (9) Idaho and Washington, yellow pine. ANIMALS. The chief areas connected with the raising of cattle and sheep may be distinguished as follows: (1) meat cattle belts in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Vermont, Maryland, Kentucky, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Texas, Oklahoma, California, Kansas, Ne- braska, Missouri and Iowa; (2) dairy cattle centers in Wisconsin and New York; (3) sheep in Middle West, Far West and California; (4) swine in Middle Western belt. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. Only state institutions are shown, one for each state, except in the southern states, which maintain one for the whites and one for the blacks. These schools, thru their propaganda carried on for many years, have greatly influenced the character of the farmer's activity. For instance, the University of Wisconsin at Madison and Cornell University at Ithaca have had much to do with the leadership of their states in dairying. The experiments carried on at Fort Collins have much affected sugar beet culture in Colorado. MILLING AND PACKING CENTERS. The relation of these cen- ters to the grain and cattle areas and also to the lines of transportation (Map A19) should be noted. RELATED MAPS. See Map A7 for colonial agricultural prod- ucts; Map A18 for western land grants; Map A20 for western re- sources and conservation ; Map A2 1 for mineral products and industry. QUESTIONS What is the relation between the topography of the country and agriculture? (Compare Maps A13 and A 19.) What are the prin- cipal regions for the production of the following : ( 1 ) Wood products : (a) pine and spruce, (b) maple, (c) hardwood, (d) yellow pine, (e) redwood, (f) cypress. (2) Cereal products: (a) wheat, (b) oats, (c) flaxseed, (d) barley, (e) sugarcane, (f) rice (compare Map A7), (g) sugar beets, (h) corn, (i) rye, (j) alfalfa, (k) tobacco. (3) Fruit: (a) oranges, (b) grapes. (4) Textiles: (a) cotton. (5) TEACHER'S MANUAL 101 Animals: (a) sheep, (b) swine, (c) meat cattle, (d) dairy cattle. (6)" Fish products: (a) oysters, (b) lobster, (c) fish, (d) sponges. What are the principal centers for: (1) slaughtering cattle, (2) milling? What is the relation of the limit of the glaciated area to the production of crops? What is the relation between the corn belt and the production of cattle and swine? Why has cattle raising ceased to be the major industry of Texas? What is the influence of alfalfa on the prosperity of the West? What is the nature of the wheat country in : ( 1 ) eastern Oregon, (2) California, (3) Minnesota, Dakota and Canada, (4) Kansas and Oklahoma, (5) the lake states? Why should there be poor agriculture in : ( 1 ) northern Arkansas and southern Missouri, (2) central Tennessee, (3) the Gulf Coast and Florida, (4) central Pennsylvania, Virginia and North Carolina, (5) New England, (6) North and South Belt east of the Rocky Mountains, (7) the region between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevadas, (8) southern Oregon? Locate the sites of the agricultural colleges of the various states. Why should there be centers of the packing industry in New York and Boston? Why is there so little cattle raising and dairying in the southern states? In what way may an agricultural college best in- fluence the farmers' activities? MAP A23. UNITED STATES IN THE CARIBBEAN PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map is designed to illustrate the increasing interests of the people and government of the United States in this area. It deals with the Spanish War and its effects on our relations with Cuba and Porto Rico, and shows the countries over which the United States exercises a protectorate. It indicates the loca- tion of the Virgin Islands, recently purchased from . Denmark ; the trade routes radiating from New Orleans, and those concentrating on the Panama Canal, and includes enlarged insets of the Canal regions and of the Virgin Islands. COLOR SCHEME. The color in this map is used to distinguish the areas in possession or control of various nations. The chief point to whi:h attention should be directed is the distinction between the dar^ green, which indicates the United States and its possessions, and the light green, which denotes the protected countries, viz.: (1) Cuba, (2) Haiti, (3) Dominican Republic, (4) Nicaragua, (5) Panama. This distinction between "Protectorate" and "Possessions" is further brought out by the Inset showing the Panama Canal region ; over the Republic of Panama as a whole, a protectorate is exercised, while the Canal Zone itself is practically owned by the United States. THE SPANISH WAR. The map shows the movements of the American fleets, which resulted in the penning up of Cervera's fleet in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba. The direct results of the war are registered by the coloring showing Porto Rico as a possession of the United States and Cuba as a protectorate. THE CARIBBEAN POSSESSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES. These in the chronological order of their acquisition are: (1) Porto Rico (1898), (2) Canal Zone (1903), (3) Little Corn Island and Great Corn Island (1916), (4) Virgin Islands (1917). UNITED STATES PROTECTORATES. These in the order of their acquisition are: (1) Cuba (1898, note Platt Amendment, 102 TEACHER'S MANUAL 103 1901), (2) Panama (1903), (3) Dominican Republic (1905), (4) Nicaragua (1911), (5) Haiti (1915). TRADE ROUTES. The concentration of trade routes in connec- tion with the ports of New Orleans, Colon at the Atlantic entrance of the Panama Canal, Tampico and Vera Cruz are particularly notice- able. The possible canal route thru Nicaragua should be noted, as well as the trans-isthmian railroads: (1) in the Canal Zone, (2) in Costa Rica, (3) in Guatemala, (4) in Mexico. INSET MAPS. The United States paid $10,000,000 for the strip of land thru which the Canal runs; and it paid to Denmark $25,000,000 for the Virgin Islands. (Note that these two inset maps are on the same scale.) Compare this amount with $15,000,000 paid for Louisiana and $7,200,000 paid for Alaska. RELATED MAPS. See Map A3 and Map A6 for early settle- ments in this area; Map A1 1 and A12 for acquisition of the northern Gulf Coast; Map A24 for other possessions. QUESTIONS How did the United States come into possession of the whole Gulf coast to the Rio Grande River? (Compare Map A 12.) What are the six Central American states? What are the principal British acquisitions in the West Indies region? What are the French acquisitions? What are the Dutch acquisitions? How did the following countries become protectorates of the United States: (1) Cuba, (2) Haiti, (3) Dominican Republic, (4) Panama, (5) Nicaragua? How did the following islands and other tracts become parts of the United States: (1) Porto Rico, (2) Virgin Islands (see Inset), (3) Panama Canal Zone (see Inset), (4) Great and Little Corn Islands? What are the principal exports of the United States from : ( 1 ) Cuba, (2) Jamaica, (3) Haiti, (4) Dominican Republic, (5) Porto Rico, (6) Virgin Islands, (7) small islands, (8) Venezuela, (9) Colombia, (10) Central American states, (11) Mexico? 104 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS What does the map show as to the importance of the Panama Canal to: (1) the United States, (2) world commerce (see Map A24), (3) South America (see Map A24) ? MAP A24. GREATER UNITED STATES PURPOSE OF THE MAP. This map is designed to show the United States and all its possessions on one map, and in their geographic relation to each other. Thus, for example, the Philippines are shown in their true position as part of Asia and inextricably involved in the Asiatic problem. The map, therefore, emphasizes the relation of the United States to problems of the Pacific and of the Far East. The outlines of the possessions are superimposed on a map of Continental United States, thus bringing out the proportionate areas clearly (see Inset). The map also reveals the richness of the gold and coal deposits in Alaska. COLOR SCHEME. In this map the color is used to bring out the different political areas, except that in Alaska yellorv indicates the gold bearing areas and black the coa l bearing areas. SUMMARY OF AMERICAN POSSESSIONS. For purposes of study the various parts of the American empire may be classified as follows: (I) main continental group of forty-eight states: (2) Territory of Alaska; (3) Territory of Hawaii; (4) Territory of Porto Rico; (5) Dependency of Virgin Islands; (6) Dependency of Panama Canal Zone; (7) Great and Little Corn Islands; (8) Naval Station at Guantanamo, Cuba; (9) Small Pacific islands: (a) Midway (part of the Territory of Hawaii), (b) Wake, (c) Howland, (d) Baker, (e) Tutuila, (f) Guam; (10) Dependency of the Philippine Islands; (II) Temporary occupancy of Guano Islands. (See Map A23.) RAILROAD LINES AND TRADE ROUTES. The map affords an interesting comparison between the length and direction of the trans- continental lines in the United States and Canada, and some com- parisons with South America. In dealing with the trade routes it is interesting to notice that the most direct great circle sailing routes from the Pacific coast to Japan pass far north of Honolulu. The map re- veals the success of Amundsen in finally negotiating the "Northwest 105 106 AMERICAN HISTORY MAPS THE INTERNATIONAL DATE LINE. This line indicates the point at which ships sailing east set their date one day ahead, and ships sailing west set their date back, to allow for the revolution of the earth. The bulges in the line are to accommodate ( 1 ) the Aleutian Islands, for which American time is more convenient, (2) outlying parts of the Midway Islands (3) New Zealand. RELATED MAPS. See Map A5 for English colonial grants as the basis of the first United States; Map A6 for partition of America showing claims to the present United States; Map A8 for the United States in 1776; Map A9 for the United States in 1789; Map A1 1 for the United States in 1819; Map A12 for territorial acquirement? to 1866; Map A14 for the United States in 1850; Map A15 fo> the United States in 1861; Map A18A for the western states in 1918; Map A23 for Caribbean acquisitions. QUESTIONS What have been the additions of territory to the United States since 1856 (see Map A12)? How did the following possessions come to the United States: (1) Alaska, (2) Philippine Islands, (3) Guam, (4) Great and Little Corn Islands, (5) Howland Island, (6) Tutuila, (7) Hawaiian Islands, (8) Midway Island, (9) Porto Rico, (10) Virgin Islands, (11) Panama Canal Zone, (12) Naval Station at Guantanamo? When and how did the United States come to hold as depen- dencies the following: (1) Cuba, (2) Haiti, (3) Dominican Re- public, (4) Panama, (5) Nicaragua? How does the possession of Alaska bring us into connection with Asia? How does the possession of the Philippines bring us into, rela- tion with Asia? How has the subdivision of America among the nations altered since 1763? (Compare Map A6). What is the proportion of the area of possessions outside of the continental United States to the area within the continental mass? (See Inset.) What countries are the nearest neighbors of the United States and its possessions? How does the International Date Line affect the transit around the world? TEACHER'S MANUAL 107 Do the Hawaiian Islands aid in the defense of the United States? How does Alaska come to reach southeastward to the neighborhood of Prince Rupert? What are the commercial and economic advantages gained by the following possessions: (1) Alaska, (2) Hawaiian Islands, (3) Philippine Islands, (4) Tutuila, (5) Porto Rico, (6) Virgin Islands, (7) Panama Canal? INDEX Acadia, settlement, 29, 39; becomes British, 29, 43 Africa, medieval trade, 14; Portu- guese voyages, 15 Agricultural colleges, 100 Agricultural, colonial products, 47; present distribution of food crops, 99 Alabama, territory and admission, 59 Alaska, coal and gold fields, 105; territory, 105 Alfalfa areas, 99 Allouez, exploration, 28 Almagro, exploration, 19 Alvarado, in Central America, 25 Amazon River, explored, 19, 37 America, pre-Columbian voyages, 13-4; exploration of eastern, coast, 18-20; 23-4, 27; Hispanic colonizing, 20 (see also Carib- bean, North America, South America ) American Revolutions, distinctive areas, 51 ; campaigns, 51 Amundsen, voyage, 105 Anguilln, English control, 40 Annexations, Louisiana, 62-3, 66; West Florida, 63; maps, 66-7, 102, 105 Antigua, English control, 40 Appalachian Mountains, as barrier, 27, 33; passes, 33 Argentina, exploration, 37 Arizona,' Spanish settlement, 39; admission, 87 Arkansas, territory, 63; admission, 73 ; war-time reconstruction, 84 Arroyo Hondo, 41 Ashes, colonial production, 48 Atlanta, as railroad center. 90 Atlanta campaign, 81 Atlantic and Pacific railroad, land grant, 88 Ayolas, exploration, 20 Bahamas, discovery, 15; English control, 40 Baker, Island, 105 Balboa, exploration, 19, 24 Balkh, as trade center, 14 Barbados, English control, 40 Barbuda, English control, 40 Bastidas, voyage, 18, 23 Behaim's Globe, 13 Benalcazar, exploration, 19 Bering, explorations, 43 Beloxi, 41 Bird reserves, 94 Bogota, Spanish in, 37 Bokhara, as trade center, 14 Border States, 76 Bonneville, B. L. E., explorations, 70, 71 Boot and shoe centers, 96 Boston, as colonial port. 48 Boundaries, French-English contro- versies, 29; intercolonial disputes, 34; Texan, 42, 67; final colonial, 47 ; of Louisiana Purchase, 63 ; northeastern, 63, 66 (see also Claims, States) Brazil, discovery, 16, 18; Portu- guese development, 37; rivalries, 38 Buenos Aires, settled, 38 Cabeza de Vaca, explorations, 19, 20 Cabot, John, voyages, 18 Cabot, Sebastian, explorations, 18, 19 Cabral, voyage, 16, 18 Cahokia, settlement, 28 Cairo, as trade center, 14 California, annexation, 66; free state, 72; admission, 73 California and Oregon railroad, land grant, 88 California Trail, 71 109 110 INDEX Campaigns, of American Revolution, 51; of War of 1812, 59-60; of Mexican War, 74; of Civil War, 81 Canal Zone, 102, 103, 105 Canals, to 1860, 70; present, 91 Canaries, colonized, 15 Capitals, colonial,, 33 Caribbean area, Spanish develop- ment, 22-5; rivalry in, 40; U. S. in, 102-3 Carolina, charters and settlement, 34-40; divided, 34; Spanish rival- ry, 42 Cartier, voyage, 20 Cathay, trade with Europe, 14 Cattle, colonial production, 47; present production, 99, 100 Central America, voyages, 18; ex- ploration and settlement, 24, 25; English in, 40 Central Pacific railroad, land grant, 88 Ceylon, medieval trade, 14 Champlain, voyages, 27 ; explora- tions, 28 Charleston,* 1 as colonial port, 48 Charters, colonial. 33-4 Chartres, Fort, 41 Chattanooga, campaigns, 81 Cherokee Indians, and English, 28, 43 Chicago, as railroad center, 90 Chile, conquest, 19, 37 Chinese priests, voyage to America, 13-4 Cities, colonial capitals, 33 ; ratifi- cation conventions, 54 ; commer- cial centers, 90; industrial cen- ters, 96 Civil War, map, 80-1 ; theatre, raided areas, 80; areas of con- trol, 80-1 ; campaigns, 81 Claims, in North America, rivalry, 27-9, 36, 38-44; in South Ameri- ca, 36-8; in western North Amer- ica, 62-3 Clark, G. R., expedition, 51; grant, 55 Clothing centers, 96 Coal fields, 93, 96; and iron move- ment, 96, 97; Alaskan fields, 105 Colonial development, maps, 10 Color scheme of maps, 10 Colorado, territory, 77; admission, 86 Columbus. Christopher, first voyage and natural conditions, 15-6; and compass variations, 16; later voyages, 18, 22, 23; landfall, 22 Columbus, Diego in West Indies, 23 Commerce, series in maps, 11; me- dieval, with Orient, routes, 14; new routes after Columbus, 18; Indian trade and colonial land routes, 28, 47 ; colonial products, 47; colonial sea routes, 48; West Indian, 48; triangular routes, 48: early national routes, 57-8; railroads to 1860, 69-70; internal waterways to 1860, 70; western trails, 70-1 ; domestic slave trade, 74; land grant railroads. 87-8; present railroad lines, 90-1 ; pres- ent internal waterways, 91; present sea routes, 102, 103. 105 Compass, Columbus and variations, 16 Compromise of 1850, 73, 77 Confederate States, federal property seized by, 78; area controlled by, 80-1 (see also Civil War) Connecticut, settlement, 33-4; char- ter, 34; absorbs New Haven, 34; western claim, 5.4; Western Re- serve and Fire Lands, 55 Conservation, map, 93-4 Copper fields, 93 Cordova, voyage, 19. 24 Corn, production, 99 Coronado, exploration, 19 Cortes, in Mexico, 19, 24-5 Cotton, effect of Civil War, 85 ; pro- duction, 99 Council for New England, grant, 34 Crater Lake, 94 Creek Indians, and English, 28, 42 Crusades, and geographical develop- ment, 14 Cuba, discovery, 15; settlement, 23 ; protectorate, 102 Cumberland Road, 58 Curacao, Dutch control, 40 Dairying, areas, 99, 100 Dakota, territory, 77; divided, 86 INDEX 111 Darien, settlement, 24 Davis, voyage, 20 Delaware, grant and settlement, 34; separated from Pennsylvania, 34 ; final area, 55; slavery prohibited, 83 De Lepe, voyage, 18 Denmark, Virgin Islands, 40, 102, 103, 105 De Soto, exploration, 19 Detroit, settlement, 28 Diaz, voyage, 15, 18 District of Columbia, slavery pro- hibited, 83 Dollier, exploration, 28 Dominican Republic, protectorate, 103 Doniphan, march, 74 Drake, voyage, 20, 63 Dred Scott decision, 76, 77 Duluth, exploration, 28 Dutch West India Company, in South America, 38 El Paso, settlement, 39, 42 Elcano, voyage, 19 Elevation, areas, 57, 69 Emancipation, process, 83 Emancipation Proclamation, area, 83 England, voyages to North America, 18, 20, 27; claims there, French and Spanish rivalry, 27, 36, 42, 43; settlements there, 28, 39, 40; in South America, 36, 38 ; in Caribbean area, 40; Oregon country, 62, 63, 66, 67 Espanola, discovery, 15; settlement, 22, 23; French' in, 39; English- attack, 40 Espinosa, exploration, 24 Esquivel, in Jamaica, 23 Fall Line, 58 Federman, exploration, 19 Fifteenth century achievements, 13 Fire Lands, 55 Fisheries, colonial, 47 Florida, Spanish settlement, 39, 41 ; French in, 39; English control, 43 ; American annexation, 63, 66 ; admission, 73 Forest reserves, 87, 93-4 Fort Worth, as railroad center, 90 Forts, seized by Confederates, 78; retained by North, 78 France, voyages to North America, 20, 27; explorations there, 28; settlements there, 29, 39 ; claims there, English and Spanish rival- ry, 27, 36, 39, 41, 43; in South America, 36, 38, 39; in West In- dies, 39, 43; Louisiana, 41; loses North American possessions, 43; retrocession of Louisiana, sale to United States, 62 Fremont, J. C., explorations, 70, 71; in California, 74 Frobisher, voyage, 20 Fruit areas, 99 Fugitive slaves, routes, 74 Fur trade, rivalry, in interior, 40-1 ; colonial, 47 Gadsden Purchase, 66, 67 Game reserves, 94 Gas fields, 93 Genoa, medieval trade, 14 Geography, development before Co- lumbus, 13 Georgia, grant and settlement, 34; Spanish rivalry, 42-3; western claim, 55 Glacial area, 99 Glacier National Park, 94 Goa, Portuguese in, 18 Gold fields, 93; Alaskan, 105 Gomez, voyage, 19, 24 Gonzalez, exploration, 24 Good Hope, Cape of, passed, 15 Gordillo, voyage, 19, 24 Grain, colonial production, 47, 48; present production, 99 Grand Canyon of the Colorado, 86, 94 Grant, U. S., campaigns, 81 Grants. English colonial, 33-4 Gray, Robert, in Oregon, 63 Great Britain (see England) Great Corn Island, 102, 105 Great Lakes, importance, 27 Great Valley, 47, 58 Great Warrior Path, 47 Green Bay, settlement, 28 Grijalva, voyage, 19, 24 Guadeloupe, French control, 40 Guantanamo, naval station, 105 Guiana, rival claims, 36, 38, 43 112 INDEX Guam Island, 105 Guano Islands, 105 Haiti, French in, 40; protectorate, 103 (see also Espanola) Harrison, W. H., march, 59 Hawaii, territory, 105 Hennepin, exploration, 28 Henry, Prince, and discoveries, 15 Herat, as trade center, 14 Honduras, English in, 40 Hot Springs National Park, 94 Rowland Island, 105 Hudson, voyages, 27 Hudson Bay, English control, 43 Hudson's Bay Company, French rivalry, 29, 43 ; establishment, 40 Huguenots, in Brazil, 38, 39; in Florida, 39 Idaho, admission, 87 Illinois, French exploration and settlement, 28, 29, 41 ; admission, 59 India, medieval trade, 14; Portu- guese in, 18 Indian reservations, 86, 87 Indian Territory, so-called, 73; slavery in, 78 Indiana, admission, 59 Indianapolis, as railroad center, 90 Indians, origin of name, 15; stocks, origin, 16; distribution, 28; trade routes and trails, 28, 47 Indigo, colonial production, 47 Industry (see Agriculture, Com- merce, Manufacture, Mining) International date line, 106 Iowa, admission, 73 Iron, colonial production, 47 ; fields, 93, 96; and coal movement, 96, 97 Irrigation, projects, 93, 94 Isabella, founded, 23 Jackson, Andrew, march, 59 Jamaica, settled, 23; becomes Eng- lish, 40 Jefferson, Fort, 78 Joliet and Marquette, exploration, 28 Kabul, as trade center, 14 Kansas, admission, 76; territory, 77 Kansas City, as railroad center, 90 Kansas-Nebraska Act, 76, 77 Kashgar, as trade center, 14 Kaskaskia, settlement, 28, 41 Kearny, S. W. r march, 74 Kentucky, admission, 59; slavery prohibited, 83; no federal land, 88 Khingham Mountains, 14 King George's War, 43 Kittanning Path, 47 Kublai Khan, 14 Ku Klux Klan, 84 Land grant railroads, 88-8 Laredo, 42 La Salle, exploration, 28; in Texas, 39 Lead fields, 93 Lee, R. E., campaigns, 81 Legazpi, voyages, 20 Lewis and Clark, explorations, 63, 70 Lincoln, Abraham, war-time recon- struction, 83-4 Little Corn Island, 102, 105 London Company, grant, 33 Los Adaes, 41, 42 Louis XIV and Louisiana, 41 Louisburg, captured, 43 Louisiana, French exploration and settlement, 28, 29, 41; Spanish rivalry, 41 ; control by England and Spain, 43; acquisition by United States, 62-6; district, ter- ritory, and state, 63 Louisiana Purchase, 62-3, 66; in- ternal organization, 63 Lumber, colonial production, 47; forest reserves, 87, 93-4; present production, 87, 93-4 Magellan, voyage, 19 Maine, grant and settlement, 34; union with Massachusetts, 34 ; ad- mission, 73 Manufactures, colonial, 47-8; pres- ent areas and centers, 96-7, 100 March to the Sea, 81 Martha's Vineyard, added to Massa- chusetts, 34 Martinique, French control, 40 INDEX 113 Maryland, grant and settlement, 29, 33, 39; final area-, 55; boundary controversy, 55 ; slavery abolished, 83 Mason and Dixon Line, 55 Massachusetts, charters and settle- ment, 29, 34; absorbs other settle- ments, 34; loses New Hampshire, 34; western claim, 54; settlement of claim in New York, 55 Matagorda Bay, French at, 39; Spanish settlement, 42 Mayflower, voyage, 27 Meat, colonial production, 47 ; pres- ent production, 99, 100; packing centers, 100 Medieval voyages to America, 13-4 Metals, fields, 93 Mexican War, annexations, 66; campaigns, 74 Mexico, conquest, 24-5; Spanish ex- pansion, 38-9 Michigan, territory, 59; admission, 73 Michilimackinac, settlement, 28 Midway Island, 105 Miguellon, French retains, 43 Military maps, 11 Milling centers, 100 Mining, colonial, 47 ; present re- sources, 93, 96, 97 Minneapolis, as railroad center, 90 Minnesota, territory and admission, 73, 76 Minuit, voyage, 27 Mississippi, territory and admission, 59 Mississippi Valley, French explora- tion and control, 27, 28, 33, 39; fur-trade rivalry, 40; French-Eng- lish rivalry, 43 Missouri, territory, 63; admission, 73; slavery abolished, 83 Missouri Compromise, 72, 73; void- ed, 77 Mobile, settlement, 28, 41 Mohawk Trail. 47 Moluccas, medieval trade, 14 Mongolia, Polo in, 14 Monroe, Fortress, 78 Montana, admission, 87 Montserrat, English control, 40 Mormon Trail, 71 Moscoso, exploration, 19 s Mount Rainier Park, 94 Nacogdoches, 42 Nantucket, added to Massachusetts, 34 Narvaez, exploration, 19 Natchitoches, 41 National Monuments, 86, 87, 94 National Parks, 86, 87, 94 National Road, 58 Naval engagements, in War of 1812, 59-60 Naval stores, colonial production, 47 Nebraska, territory, 77; enlarged, 78; admission, 86 Netherlands, claims and settlements in North America, 27, 29, 36, 40; in South America, 36, 38 Nevada, territory, 77 ; admission, 86 Nevis, English control, 40 New Amsterdam, founded, 29 New England, French and Dutch boundary controversies, 29; settle- ment, 33-4, 39 New England Confederation, 29 New Foundlancl, English control, 43; French fishing rights, 43 New France, exploration, 28; settle- ment, 29, 39 ; boundary controver- sies, 29 New Hampshire, grant and settle- ment, 33 ; royal colony, separation from Massachusetts, 34; final area, 55 New Haven, settlement, 34; ab- sorbed, 34 New Jersey, grants and settlement, 34, 40; union, 34; final area, 55 New Mexico, settlement, 39 ; annexa- tion, 66 ; opened to slavery, 73 ; enlarged, 77; admission, 87 New Netherlands, settlement, Eng- lish rivalry, 29, 40; absorbs New Sweden, 29, 40; English conquest, 40 New Orleans, settlement, 28, 41; as port, 102 New Sweden, settlement, overthrow, 29, 40 New York, charter, 34; Massachu- setts claims settlement, 55; west- ern claim, 54 New York City (New Amsterdam) founded, 29 ; as colonial port, 48 114 INDEX Nicaragua, protectorate, 103 Nicolet, exploration, 28 Norsemen, voyages to America, 14 North America, English and French voyages, 18, 20, 27; Spanish ex- ploration, 19; physical geography of eastern, 27; rival claims, 27-9, 36; French exploration, 28, 39, 41 ; settlement of eastern, 28-9, 39-40; Spanish settlement, 38-9; Russian posts, 43-4; American exploration, 63, 70 (see also America, Carib- bean) North Carolina, origin, 34; western claim, 55 North Dakota, admission, 86 Northeastern boundary, 63, 66 Northern Pacific railroad, land grant, 88 Northwest Passage, search for, 19; found, 105 Northwest Territory, 58-9; slavery prohibited, 73; prohibition void- ed, 77 Ocean currents, and Columbus's voyage, 1 5 Ohio, admission, 59 Ohio Valley, French-English rivalry, 43 Oil fields, 93 Ojeda, voyage, 18, 23 Oklahoma*, admission, 87 Old San Antonio Road, 42 Olid, in Central America, 25 Omaha, as railroad center, 90 Oregon Act of 1848, 73; slavery prohibition voided, 77 Oregon claims. 62, 63 ; joint occupa- tion, 63; division, 66. 67; terri- tory, 72 ; slavery prohibited, 73 ; admission, 76 Oregon Trail, 71 Orellano, exploration, 19 Orient, early travel, 14; medieval trade, 14 Orleans, Territory of, 63 Ovando, in West Indies, 22, 23 Pacific Ocean, Spanish explorations, 19, 20 Panama, protectorate, "103 Panama Canal, early projects, 24; trade routes, 102 Panama City, established, 19, 24 Passes, in Appalachian Mountains, 33 Peking, medieval trade, 14 Pennsylvania, grant and settlement, 34, 40; loses Delaware, 34; final area, 55 ; boundary controversies, 55 ; Triangle, 55 Pensacola, settlement, 28, 41 Peru, conquest, 19, 25, 37 Philadelphia, as colonial port, 48 Philippines, Spanish in, 19, 20; American dependency, 105 Physical geography, background of maps, 10; of eastern North Amer- ica, 27; and English colonies, 33; prairies, 46; elevations, 57, 69 Pickawillany Path, 47 Pickens, Fort, 78 Pike, Z. M., exploration, 70 Pineda, voyage, 19, 24 'Pinzon, voyage, 18, 23 Pizarro, in Peru, 19, 25 Platt Amendment, 102 Plymouth, settlement, 29, 33; ab- sorbed, 34 Plymouth Company, grant, 33 Polo, Marco, journey, 14 Ponce de Leon, voyage, 19, 23-4; in Porto Rico, 23 Pony Express Trail, 71 Popular sovereignty, 77 Population, colonial areas of settle- ment, 46 ; centers, 58 Portages, 27 Port Royal, captured, 43 Porto Rico, settlement, 23 ; Ameri- can possession, 102; territory, 105 Ports, colonial, 48; present, 90, 102 Portugal, as colonizing nation, 13, 20-3 ; discoveries, eastern empire, 14-5, 18; Brazil, rivals, 16, 18, 37-8 Possessions of United States, 105 Post of the Western Sea, 41 Prairie Area, 46 Precious metals, fields, 93 Proclamation Line of 1763, 51, 55 Products, colonial, 47 Protectorates, American, 102-3 Pueblo Indians, revolt, 39 Quebec, captured, 43 INDEX 115 Quebec Act of 1774, 51 Queen Anne's War, 43 Quesada, exploration, 19 Quexos, voyage, 19, 24 Quito, Spanish in, 37 Railroads, to ' 1860, 69-70; land grants, 86-8; present lines and centers, 90-1; transcontinental, and sea trade routes, 105 Raleigh, voyage, 27 Ratification map, 54; convention towns, 54 Reclamation projects, 93, 94 Reconstruction, war-time. 83-4; con- gressional, 84; restoration of white rule, 84; illegal movements, riots, 84 Resources, natural. 93 Rhode Island, settlement, 33 ; char- ter, 34 ; final area, 55 Rice, colonial production, 47 Rivers, navigable, 91 Roads, colonial, 47; to 1829, 57-8 Rocky Mountain National Park, 94 Rum, colonial production and trade, 48 Russia, posts in North America, 43-4 Rysinck, Peace of, 41 Saavedra, voyage, 20 St. Augustine, settlement, 28 St. Joseph, settlement, 28 St. Kitts, English control, 40 St. Lawrence River, importance, 27, 33 St. Louis, as railroad center, 90 St. Paul, as railroad center, 90 St. Pierre Island, France retains, 43 Samarkand, as. trade center, 14 San Antonia, 42 San Juan, P. R., founded, 23 San Juan River, as trade route, 24 San Juan water boundary, 67 Sandoval, in Mexico, 25 Sante Fe Trail, 70, 71 Santo Domingo, founded, 23 Scott, Winfield, Mexican cam- paign, 74 Secession, map, 76; federal proper- ty seized by Confederates, 78 Sequoia National Park, 94 Seven Years' War, partition of America, 43 Sherman, W. T., March to the Sea, 81; Atlanta, 81 Ship building, colonial, 47 Sierra Leone, discovery, 15 Silver fields, 93 Six Nations, importance, 27 ; loca- tion, 28 Slave trade, colonial, 48; domestic, Slavery, geography, 11; map of compromises, 72 ; free and slave areas to 1850, their origin, 72-3; fugitives, 74; Kansas-Nebraska Act and popular sovereignty, 76, 77; Dred Scott decision, 76, 77; free and slave areas in 1861, 78; process of emancipation, 83 Smith, Jedcdiah, explorations, 70, Solis, voyage. 19, 23 Sources of maps, 11 South America, discovery, 18; Span- ish exploration, 19-20; rival claims, 36, 38; Spanish expansion, 36-7; Portuguese expansion, 37 South Carolina, origin, 34; western claim, 55 South Dakota, admission, 86-7 Southern Pacific railroad, .land grant, 88 Spain, as colonizing nation, 13, 20; explorations in America, 15, 18- 20; Philippines, 19; development of Caribbean area, 22-5; claim and rivalry in North America, 27, 29, 36, 38-9, 41, 42; expansion in South America, 36-7 ; Louis- iana, 43. 62-3; Oregon country, 62, 63; Florida. 63, 66 Spanish War, 102 Spices, trade, 14 State claims (see Western claims) States, crystallization of areas, ad- missions, 54-5, 59; 63, 73, 76-7, 86-7. Stockton, R. F., in California, 74 Sugar beet areas, 99 Sumter, Fort, 78 Sweden, claims and settlements in North America, 27, 36, 40 116 INDEX Taylor, Zachary, Mexican campaign, 74 Taylor, Fort, 78 Tennessee, admission, 59; slavery prohibited, 83; war-time recon- struction, 84; no federal land, 88 Territories, organization, 59, 63, 73, 77-8, 105; slavery in, 73, 77; slavery prohibited, 83 Territory South of the River Ohio, 59 Texas, French in, 39; Spanish set- tlement, 39, 41, 42; French-Span- ish rivalry, 41-2; in eighteenth century, 42; western boundary, 42, 67; annexation, 66; republic, 67; admission, 73; no federal land, 88 Texas Act of 1845, 72, 73; slavery prohibition voided, 77 Texas Pacific railroad, land grant, 88 Textile industry, areas, 96-7 Thirteenth Amendment, 83 Tobacco, colonial production, 47 Tobago, English control, 40 Trade, (see Commerce) Trade Winds, and Columbus's voy- age, 15-6 Trails, Indian, 28, 47; western, 70 Transcontinental railroads, 90-1, 105 Transportation, (see Commerce) Triangular trade routes, 48 Turks Islands, English control, 40 Tutuila Island, 105 Union, Fort, 78 Union Pacific railroad, land grant, 88 Uruguay, rival claims in, 38 Utah, territory opened to slavery, 73 ; admission, 87 Valdivia, exploration, 19 Venice, medieval trade, 14 Verrazano, voyage, 20 Vespucci us, voyage, 18 Vicksburg campaign, 81 Villalobos, voyage, 20 Vincennes, settlement, 28 Virgin Islands, English control, 40; American possession, 102, 103 105 Virginia, settlement and charter- 28, 33, 34, 39 ; western claim. 55 military bounty lands, 55; Penn sylvania boundary controversy 55; Civil War campaigns, 81: war-time reconstruction, 83 Voyages of discovery, quests, 18 Wake Island, 105 Walker, Joseph, explorations 70, 71 War of 1812, 59-60 Washington, George, campaigns, 51 Washington, territory, 77; admis- sion, 87 Waterways, colonial sea routes, 48- 9; internal, to 1860, 70; present internal, 91 ; present sea routes, 102, 103, 105 West Florida, occupation, 63, 66 West Indies, exploration, 18, 22; Spanish colonization, 22-3; Eng- lish-French, and Dutch in. 39-40; trade with mainland colonies, 48; United States in, 102-3 West Virginia, admission, 76-7 ; free state, 83 Western claims, charters originat- ing, 34; map, 54 Western Reserve, 55 Wheat, production, 99 Wilderness Roid, 58 Willouirhby. voyage, 20 Wilmington, founded, 40 Wisconsin. pdim c sion, 73 World, before Columbus, 13 Wyoming, admission, 87 Yamassee Indians, waT, 42 Yellowstono National Park, 01 Yosemite National Park, 94 Yuma, Fort, 78 Zacatula. established, 19 Zinc fields, 93