v^ '^ 0^ •V St?- STAT TAL SCHOOL LOS AI^GJLLiCS, CALIFORNIA PSYCHOLOGY •■ AND THE PSYCHOSIS m INTELLECT. BY DENTON J. SNIDES^ ST. LOUIS: Sigma Publishing Co., 210 Pine St. (For sale by A. C. McClurg & Co., Booksellers, Chicago, 111.) y Copyright by D. J. Snider, 1896. 3r GONTENTIS. PAGE Introduction 5 Intellect 49 I. Sense-perception 56 1. Sensation 60 Externnl Factor 62 Mean Factor . 70 Internal Factor 90 2. Perception 118 Impression 126 Attention 130 Retention 151 3. Apperception 161 Simple Integration 167 Selective Intem-ation 181 Redintegration 195 -o (3) CONTENTS. PAGE II. Representation 222 1. Memory 231 Spontaneous Memory .... 238 Voluntary Memory 247 Systemati'? Memory 256 2. Imagination 281 The Natural Symbol 288 The Artistic Symbol 297 The Rational Symbol (Sign) . .343 3. Memorization 385 The Symbol-learning Ego . . . 392 The Svmbol-employing Ego . . 404 Communication 410 III. Thought 425 1. The Understanding 438 Apprehension 442 Distinction 445 Classification 454 2. Ratiocination 470 Conception 478 Judgment 498 Reasoning 507 3. Reason 513 Intuition 520 The Dialectic 536 The Psychosis 548 INTR OB UCTION, The central fact in Psychology is the Ego. This fact may also be called the Self, or the Person.. The science of Psychology shows the unfolding of the Self, and in this aspect we may name it the science of the Person. ^ At the heart of our science, therefore, we ^ place Personality, which is truly the heart of all ^ things. The universe without Person at its , center would be not only meaningless, but im- N^ possible. Upon the infinite worth of the Person ^ all education, all advancement of civilized so- ciety, the whole institutional world repose. Now, the Person is essentially self-unfolding, or rather is the unfolding of Self ; it has an order, and hence there is a science of it, which is this order duly formulated. (5) 6 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. The first thing which the student is to grasp in Psychology, is himself, or his Self. And if he obtain the best return for his study, he will get not merely some curious information about his mind, but will develop into a completer self- hood. Undoubtedly the knowledge of the mental activities has worth for every rational being; herein is Psychology of great use. But the real function of our science is to help the individual unfold into his true Self, to become an actual Person, and not merely remain an unde- veloped, potential one. Psychology has an im- portant theoretical side which is, in general, to impart knowledge of the Ego, but it has also an intensely practical side, which is that the Ego come into full possession of its heritage, namely, a complete Personality. The central fact in Psychology, which is the Ego, is also called Mind, Consciousness, and sometimes Soul, and sometimes Spirit. The science of Psychology shows the unfolding of theEjjo into consciousness, or into the knowledge of its own activities, and in this aspect it is often named the science of Mind. In the present work we shall cling pretty closely to the word ^go to express the central fact out of which our science develops. The Ego is Per- son, which puts stress upon the element of the introduction: 7 will, or self-activity; the Ego is Mind, which puts stress upon the side of intellect or self- consciousness. Still both sides are one totality, the Ego, and each side has no existence without the other. In every act of intellection there is some phase of volition, and in every volition there is some phase of intellection. The highest philosophy reaches up to the insight that Will and Intellect are one in the Divine; but the humblest act of mind is a reflection of the same unity. Objections have been raised to the use of the Latin word Ugo in Psychology. Its English equivalent can not well be tolerated on account of the ambiguity in sound with the organ of vision — I and eye. Some form of the term must be employed, and the Latin word has the advantage of being a technical term in Psychol- ogy. Its English flavor is, however, said some- times to be unpleasant, on account of its con- nection with egotism and selfishness on the one hand and its suggestion of brooding and excessive self-occupation on the other. Undoubtedly in using it the reader may have to lay aside some of his preconceptions. A great philosopher has shown that the idea of the Ego itself is chargeable with ambiguity, since it has two quite opposite strands : it is the most individual thing in the universe, being the very essence of individuality, and it is the most universal thing in the universe, being the essence 8 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. of universality. But this ambiguity or twofold- nes3 is really the chief recommendation of the term; the Ego must have just these two opposite poles in order to be the theme of Psychology. It is the most comprehensive word that can be used, and at the Game time the most definite. We should also note that Psychology, as the Evolution of the Ego, means not the unfolding of« the latter in time, but its movement into an ordered totality. The activities of the child's Ego develop cotemporaneously as well as in suc- cession ; the scientific order is not always the chronological. But the science of Psychology shows the Ego ordering itself according to its own highest activity, namely, Thought. The principle of psychological procedure is not to be taken from the outside, is not to be picked up from physical science, say, and clapped on exter- nally, to the movement of Mind ; that is the most alien, artificial and jejune of all methods. On the contrarv the Ego must order the Ego, being just the self-orderer in its highest potence. Already the question concerning the definition of the Ego has arisen. To define it formally, from the outside, through something else besides itself, is clearly impossible. Any such defini- tion would have to leave out the main fact, and so would be partial or indeed meaningless. Let us, however, give a fresh, and, if possible, deeper glance into the matter. INTRODUCTION. 9 The Ego is, first. Self, Person; the Ego is, secondly, the conscious, the knowing; the Ego is, thirdly, the self-conscious, the self-knowinor, uniting thus both its sides into one process. From the standpoint of definition, the Ego is Self, is the definer, and is the Self-definer. Is this to define the Ego? Or, to put the question in a little different shape. Can the Ego define the Ego? Some psychologists say that, inasmuch as the Ego must define every- thing, it cannot define itself. But this state- ment is really a contradiction, and hence self-annulling. The Ego does define all and itself too ; or, rather, since it is included in the all, which it defines, it cannot be left outside of its own definition. The Ego is, accordingly, self-defined, not defined through anything else but itself. Indeed its fundamental characteristic is to be self-definition. Thus we touch the peculiarity of Psychology: the very thing to be observed, ordered, and defined, is just the thing observing, ordering, and defining; the central sun which reveals the whole universe, cannot fail of revealing itself at the same time. The Ego is the witness and the fact witnessed, the spectator and the spectacle ; double in its action, yet single; ground of all difference, yet of all unity as well ; divided within itself, yet individual (note the force of ^?^, 10 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. which is negative). It is often said that Psy- chology has to do with " the facts of conscious- ness only," or with " the phenomena of mind; " but who or what is the getter of the fact? The getter of the fact is also the fact gotten, the producer of the phenomenon is the phenomenon produced, the ordering principle is just what is ordered. This reflexive movement of the Esfo is the essence of it, is indeed the Ego definino; itself as self-active, and still further, as self-knowing. The learner in Psychology must wrestle with the conception of his science just here ; this double action of the Ego is the primal fact of it, as yet quite abstract and empty, but which is to fill itself with all the riches of concrete psychical life. The Ego is often called the conscious subject, and the fact just set forth is designated as con- sciousness. These terms we shall also use by the way. When I feel, or know, or wish, I am conscious that I feel, know, wish; the Ego knows itself as feeling, knowing, wishing; it can recog- nize itself in every mental activity ; still further it recognizes itself to be just that which recog- nizes itself, in which fact lies its definition, or indeed its self-definition. The beginner may have already wearied of his first lesson in Psychology; the matter surely is not easy, especially at the start. But let him take courage, and have another grapple not only INTRODUCTION. 11 with the definition of the Ego, but with the very idea of definition. The Ego is not to be defined by anything outside of itself, not by any major term for subsuming it, not by any middle term for mediating it, since all major terms and all middle terms are simply its own creatures. The Ego must define itself, and it is just that thing in this universe of ours which is capable of defining itself. All defini- tion goes back to self-definition as its ground; there could be no definition of anything unless there was a self-definer to give it. The Eoo is supremely the self-definer, and as such defines itself ; that is, the Ego defines itself to be just that which deques itself. The student is not to forget himself in this study of Psychology, he also is in the psychical sweep and must not be left out. Not only must he confirm each statement by introspection, but must make actual the fact that he too is Ego by taking himself up into its movement. Thus when he defines the Ego as self-definer, what is he but the Ego defining itself just in that way? Very easy is it to dismiss all this as dialectical subtlety ; such it is, but it cannot be evaded, since it is the subtle dialectic of consciousness itself, and lies at the root of the whole psychologi- cal process. Not simply the fleeting, changeful, contradictory phenomena of mind do we wish to know, but also what is in it abiding and eternal. 12 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. I. We shall now seek to grasp the process of the Ego as it primarily unfolds within itself, and as it essentially remains through all its activities. One may say that it is the author's Ego trying to project itself into an act of self-definition, and to formulate the same; still further, that it is the student's Ego trying to re-think that act and to identify the same with his own. In both cases it is manifestly the Ego defining itself, which is the movement of all Psychology, and which we shall find to be the principle lurking in many another science. Now, having said that the Ego was self-definition, let it proceed to define itself, for when I am defining my Ego, and you yours, it is merely the Ego defining the Eo;o. The Ego unfolds within itself through three stages: — First, it is simple, undivided, in immediate unity with itself. In this stage the Ego cannot yet know itself, it is unconscious, yet full of the possibility of consciousness. We may call such a stage the infantile, for the infant has an Ego, quiescent, slumbering, sunk in the wrappage of nature. The child is the potential man, and is always giving out intima- tions of his coming destiny ; he is continually anticipating manhood. These anticipations of INTltODUCTION. 13 children are a mighty instrument of develop- ment in the hands of the skillful educator ; it is the great merit of Froebel that he grasped their import and organized them in his kindergarden. In sleep also the Ego is in an unconscious, immediate condition, unseparated within itself, the sport of its environment. Likewise in wak- ing states of the mature mind there are many degrees of unconsciousness, yet always with an impulse toward consciousness; indeed the Ego is forever hoverins; between the unconscious and the conscious, or between the less and the more conscious activity, having an inner force or motion to burst from the bud into the flower. Still in the present stage the Ego is, has being, though not yet thinking and self-relating; it is blank identity of Self, without diff'erence realized, though always impelled inwardly toward self- difl"erentiation. Secondly, the Ego is the divided, the different; it separates itself within itself and makes itself its own object. Now it is awake, and distin- guishes itself from the world; it has become conscious, the dualism has entered, and man can know. This twofoldness of the Ego is the matter to be grasped in the present stage. Look inwardly, you behold yourself; you are your own other, 14 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. you have othered yourself; that is, you have made yourself the object of yourself, you beiog still the subject. These two words, subject and object, coming to light at this point will hence- forth never drop out of our psychological vocabulary. Their birth-place is just here, they are sprung of the self-separation of the Ego, twins, Siamese twins, distinct individuals, yet everlastingly bound together. Historically, these two terms, originating with the Schoolmen, have descended into modern thought and have colored its entire course. They express the fundamental dualism of consciousness,- and form the real - s starting-point of the psychology of our epoch. According to Hamilton, the term consciousness was unknown to ancient Plato and Aristotle, and was first employed by Des Cartes, the precursor of modern philosophy. If the previous stage was that of infancy and of paradisaical innocence, this second stage is the eating of the tree of knowledge, whereby dualism (^deuce, devil) enters and separates man from his primeval condition of simple unity with himself and with nature. Thus the start is made, according to the Hebrew account ; Greek legend has many similar statements. Both the Iliad and the Odyssey spring from mighty breaches in the Hellenic soul, grand separations of the spirit, especially the separation of Occident from Orient, in whose throes Greece was born. introduction: 15 The Ego is in itself the different, and hence the source of all notions of difference. I could not say that yonder house was different from the tree which stands before it, unless the fact lay m me. I could not think myself as different from you, if my Ego did not have difference within itself. I could not know an external world, I could not separate myself from this book, unless I had separation in me. Without this differentiation of the Self, there would be for me no multiplicity of nature, no shifting landscape, no variety of any kind ; I could not distinguish, could not analyze, could not know. Hence this second stage of the Ego will be found in every psychological process, small and great ; we shall note it in each act of the Ego, which, in order to act, must separate itself. Thirdly, the Ego is the return out of separa- tion into unity with itself. This unity is distinct from the unity of the first stage ; that was immediate, this is mediated, mediated by passing through the stage of difference. This unity, therefore, has the separation behind it, present but overcome ; the opposite of itself is now united and reconciled within itself. The Ego has now gone through the last stage of the process, which gives to it completeness. The cycle of the Ego we may name it, inasmuch 16 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. as it, like a circular movement, has returned into itself. It is, however, as yet only the inner or subjective cycle, whose destiny is to make itself external (to outei' or utter itself) in many forms throughout Psychology. It also gives the thought of restoration after estrangement ; it shows the nature of the return out of alienation, out of the fall, hinting the grand recovery of man, which is likewise his progressive movement. It is, in fact, the germ- inal process of the deepest spiritual experiences, and gives the basis of that inner harmony which comes from the resolution of the sharp discords of life. The story of Eden, which may, from one point of view, be regarded as the story of the devel- opment of the first human consciousness, has also its return in later legend; Paradise is lost through the grand estrangement, but this is over- come and Paradise is regained, and man comes back to his Eden. Especially in the great poem of Dante is this last form of the old Semitic legend wrought over and transfigured into a new spiritual utterance for the race. But the same movement and essentially the same thought are found in the Greek Mythus, notably in Homer, whoso two poems, parts of one whole, may be respectively designated as the Separation and the Return. Undisguisedly the Odyssey is called by the poet himself a Return; it is the story of INTRODUCTION. 17 the return of the hero Ulysses from war, estrangement, neojation. It is a very shallow view of the poem, which sees only the hero's external voyage back to his home, with some strange adventures thrown in by the way. In fact, the Iliad and the Od3^ssey together exhibit the purest movement of the Ego found in literature, clothed of course in the events of a world-historical epoch ; in Homer the infant Occident awakes and separates itself from the Orient. It may seem a very remote rela- tionship, but really it is a very near one when we say that what Homer did for the child- man of his age, Froebel has done for the actual child of our time : through play and song and story he has helped to lead it out of its uncon- scious state, and gradually to take possession of the culture of its race, and thus to become the heir of the future. We must, accordingly, seize the movement of the Ego as essentially the movement of Mythol- ogy, of History, of Literature. These are all products of mind seeking to utter itself and to become real in the world ; they all must bear the mind's impress. There is, accordingly, an ob- jective psychology which is the best illustration of the subjective one, veritably its necessary counterpart. Let us, however, turn back to the three stages above given; they must be grasped as a process, 2 18 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. always separating yet always uniting. The Ego is not a crystallized thing, nor is it capable of being forever fixed in a category, so that it may be handled in an external way. The Ego must always be re-thought, that is, re-created; it can- not simply be remembered or be represented. However successful its formulation in words, it cannot thus live and move, for all speech is crys- tallization, while the Ego in its very nature is the process. Still the words we must have, just to transcend them; speech is a ladder by which the spirit climbs to its treasure-house beyond the ladder. 11. The process of the Ego as just given is the germinal movement of Psychology, unfolding into all its distinctions, and yet uniting these dis- tinctions into the one principle, which is just this process of the Ego. For designating it from somewhat different points of view, we shall employ in the main four terms or categories, of which we shall give a brief exposition. These terms are subject-object, limit-transcending , inji- nite, psychosis. More terms might be added, but these will suffice to show the purpose and the usage of nomencla- ture in general. Psychology has to speak its own language ; least of all, can it borrow its vocabulary from Physiology without shooting into chaos. IN Tli OD UC TION. 1 9 But the student must not imao:iue that all he has to do is to write these terms down in a note- book, or to store them up in his memory. They must be generated anew every time they are employed, if they are to have any life. The Ego is not a dead thing, it can be grasped only in the living movement of itself. Hence the above analysis of the Ego must be followed at once by synthesis, which is not an external putting together, but a more than vital process, nay a thinking process. The second stage of the Ego is the analytic, separative, differentiating, which has to find its higher truth in the return to unity. The terms Thesis, Antithesis, Synthesis, have been used a good deal in some systems of philosophy; they must at last obtain their justification in the movement of the Ego, and not in any separated, fixated condition. In Psychology there has to be life, more than life, there must be the self- active Thought. The Ego has been described by a number of thinkers as subject-object, which, when genetically thought out, is the true definition of it. Here is the division within itself ; the Ego separates itself from itself, holds itself up before itself, and looks at itself; then it sees that the two sides are one. Consider again your Ego; you project it before you as object and regard it; yet the object is the subject, is also the Ego regarding, 20 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. both are one. The twain have been put together and called subject-object, an awkward but very useful term, in whose outward form we see division, and in the division we see unity. Or, to state the same thing as a process: the inner Ego throws it.-elf outward and is external to itself, while still within. The hyphen is impor- tant, since it cancels the difference between the two sides, yet indicates it also as present, though overcome, ideated, ideal. A valuable point in regard to the term subject- object is, that it persists in remaining meaningless unless we go through the Ego's complete process in thinking it. The triple movement lurking in it must be seized, if it is to have any life or intelligent purpose. Another important predicate of the Ego is limit-t7'anscending . The Ego reaches out beyond its bounds, it bursts its barriers, it cannot rest satisfied in limits, even its own limits. We saw that it would not remain in mere identity, but passed to difference ; just as little could it remain in difference. Limit-transcending is the Ego; if it posits a limit, straightway it must in some way assert itself as beyond the same, being the free, unbounded spirit. This characteristic is taken for granted in every form of education ; ignorance is a limit which can be transcended, unless all learning be a mistake. The child goes to school under the INTRODUCTION. 21 supposition that mind is limit-transcending; you are now reading this book of mine buoyed with the hope (which may be vain) of removing cer- tain limits of yours in Psychology. Upon the same characteristic rests the moral nature of man. Vice is a limit of which the E^o must be able to liberate itself, if we are to be held accountable. The Christian world holds that the worst sinner can repent, that the deepest and darkest limitation of the Ego this Ego can wipe out and become free again. Here we are suddenly brought face to face with what is often called the infinitude of man. Mind, Spirit, Ego, is designated as infinite. Not that it knows every particular object in the universe, not that it stretches itself externally and extends beyond the sun and stars, filling all space, but that it can rise above its own finitude, and can assert its infinite and eternal nature. Undoubtedly, there has been much vague talk about the infinite spirit of man. Such talk, if not attaining quite the infinite, certainly reaches the indefinite with supreme success. But whnt is here meant by the infinite nature of the mind can be made definite by the process of thinking. The Ego has its bound, is finite, finds its limit on many sides in error, sin, ignorance. But it is also aware that it can pass its bound, that its limit is in reality no limit, is not fixed against it from the outside. 22 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. Employing these terms still further, we may say that the Ego is both infinite and finite ; its very finitude is self-canceling ; its movement is the movement of the Finite, which, to be true to itself, has to put an end to itself, and become infinite. To use other terms, the limit is nega- tion, but negation when fully thought negates itself and becomes positive. The process of the Ego through its three stages is the Psychosis. Here we introduce a word which will remain with us to the end of the present book, a word which expresses the active, unitary principle in all our science. As the Psyche is the soul of man, so the Psychosis is the soul of Psychology. It is a fundamental mistake to suppose that Psychology deals merely in difference and dis- tinction, that it is a dividing of the mind into faculties and activities, as if these were the rooms of a huge apartment house. The Ego has unquestionably division as one of its phases, but its process is to get out of division and dis- tinction, and return to unity. A psychological treatise which gives only distinctions, contradicts therein the Ego itself, which must also cancel distinctions, even its own distinctions. The Ego cannot be held fast in a state of separation, else it were not itself, at least not its whole living self, but merely some dead fragment of itself. Thus analysis the acutest can never reach the INTRODUCTION. 23 total Ego, though analysis is certainly one phase of its process, which has, however, to cancel analysis in order to be the process. The Psychosis is, therefore, always to come after distinction the most minute and classifica- tion the most sweeping, after the smallest and largest divisions of Psycholoirv, iu order that the dislocated and anatomized Ego be restored to unity. To be sure all this will require mental effort, especially will it demand the limit-trans- cending act which has been mentioned. Lan- guage often stands in the way of the Psychosis, yet the latter has to be formulated in words in order to be imparted. Words are always in danger of getting fixed, crystallized, and so destroy the very process which they are de- signed to express. Language is essentially the uttered, the externalized, the separated ; it is the product of the second stage of the Ego and must be transcended by the spirit. If I am sunk in the mere forms of speech, I cannot employ them aright, I am their slave, the Ego loses its free movement which is just the thing to be uttered. The writer who fills and overfills language is really the master of it ; he compels it to express the Psychosis. This is true of literary composi- tion, far truer of psychological writing, which too often slays the soul in trying to tell of it. Accordingly we shall endeavor to lay the Psychosis under the spell of words, well knowing 24 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. the difficulty, and also well knowing that the most successful formulation will be dead to the reader, till he creates it anew, that is, re-thinks it by an immediate act of his own Ego. Noth- ing can be more lifeless than the corpse of Psy- chology cut up into innumerable distinctions with out the Psychosis; the dead human body is hardly so repugnant. There must be the new life, nay the new genesis, which makes whole ; still we must not forget that distinction has its place in the process of the Ego. We have now mentioned four terms which may reasonably be employed in mental science — subject-object, limit-transcending, infinite, the Psychosis. It is to be noted that all these terms are to be understood in substantially the same sense, yet they exhibit their contents in different ways. They are points on the circumference of a circle which have the one common center, though each has a separate direction toward that center. Each requires a special act of thought to reduce it to unity. The Ego has to go through its process in order to find itself in these terms ; there has, in each case, to be a Psychosis in order to identify the Psychosis. No definition of terms is this in the ordinary sense ; it is the Ego reveal- ins itself under different forms as its own single process. To mark the distinction in these terms just a little in passing: subject-object indicates more INTRODUCTION. 25 the Ego with division present but overcome — ideality ; limit-transcending indicates more the Ego as reaching over its bound — aspiration; infinite indicates more the Ego as coming to its true Self in thus reachino; over its bound — attainment ; Psycliosis insists upon the unifi- cation of these distinctions, however minute or however colossal, in the one process of the Ego. For if the Ego be order and not chaos, it must have a plan; this })lan must be its own, its very Self, and recognizable by itself. Underneath these distinctions, accordingly, and indeed underneath all distinction whatever, lies the Psychosis. Historical. The previous view of the Ego is by no means a new doctrine; it is substantially the way in which man has looked at himself from the beginning, that is, since he began to regard himself as a self-conscious being. The poetrv of the race gives many a glimpse of this view. Mythology is much occupied with it also. Especially have the religions of the world taken hold of it and incorporated it into their systems of belief; under diverse shapes the Divine Ego is held to be threefold, and thus to manifest itself to man. Hence comes the sacred nature of the number three among so many peoples, it is God's number, the quantitative form of Spirit. In philosophy the same tendency can be observed, particularly among those philosophers who hold 26 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. to a spiritual view of the world. Ancient Plato is famous for his trichotomy, or threefold move- ment of mind ; modern Hegel organizes his vast system on the same lines. Superstition has undoubtedly misapplied the number three, and fancy has capriciously played with it, so that it has been at times discredited; moreover it can be used in the most external fashion and clapped on anywhere to anything. Still it has also its deeply internal principle which cannot be ignored. Modern philosophy moves about the develop- ment of the Ego as the center, or self-conscious- ness. Thinking and Being are the two opposites which are to be reconciled by a philosophic view of the world. Cogito^ ergo sum is the key-note, or rather short overture, out of which all suc- ceeding harmonies and discords are unfolded. Hence it is that modern philosophy is occupied with the psychological problem, while ancient philosophy was occupied with the ontological, as has often been observed. The culmination of the modern movement took place in Germany and called forth the remarkable line of thinkers from Kant to Hegel. Among these it was Fichte who developed the doctrine of the Ego to its highest subjective potence, and brought into use much of its ter- minology. Fichte, therefore, represents a most important phase of the psychological advance of our age. IN TRODUC TION. 2 7 But at^ainst this movement, strongly idealistic, a reaction has arisen, especially in Germany. As Psychology is at present in the midst of this reaction, we may give a little account of it. The chief of the reactionary influences has entered pedagogy and springs from Herbart, who in his work on Psychology denies explicitly the third stao:e of the Eiijo, or the return into Self. That is, Herbart sees in the process of the subject-object only an infinite series, not a circu- lar movement, or a process self-returning. His method of refutation is by substituting object for subject and subject for object in the defini- tion of the Ego as subject-object, and thereby producing an empty but endless bandying of words from one side to the other. It is manifest that Herbart gets only one stage of the process of the Ego, namely, difference ; beholds that the Ego, having posited difference is compelled to stick to it, and that the return can only be a new separation. Thus no complete identification is possible after difference ; but that the different by its very nature must differ from itself and therein cancel itself into a new unity by its own inner movement, is something that Herbart does not see or i2;nores. Still the self-identity of the Ego is too patent a fact to be wholly cast away. So, according to Herbart, the Ecro must know itself not as other but simply as itself, or must know self as simple 28 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. identity, which can have no object in itself. The Ego is not subject-object, but subject only ; so difference is excluded from within, and abstract identity is asserted of the Ego. Difference has, accordingly, to come from the outside, from tha world, and to determine the Ego, which is thus not the self-determined, and thereby the determiner of the external world, but is itself the externally determined. Herbart denies self-activity to the Ego, which has simply the power of self-preservation against the im- pinging masses of sensations and percepts. These incominor materials meet the Ego with its total mass, and have a collision, the result of which is a settling down into order, as two streams of water coming together show conflict at first and then adjust themselves according to mechanics and statics. The mind also has its science of mechanics and statics ; the Ego is the reservoir of all former percepts which may be considered to be in a state of equilibrium till a new percept arrives and disturbs the equilibrium. There can be no doubt that Herbart, just through his one-sided stress, has called the stronger attention to the ordering of percepts by the help of the percepts already making up the content of the Ego. Herein lies the great value of his doctrine of Apperception, which is a sub- stantial addition both to Psychology and to Edu- cation. Yet even in Apperception it is the mind INTBODUCTION. 29 observing mind, standing back and looking at it- self, as it were, thus showing the return into self, which is the very process of the Ego. Thus Her- bart in spite of his refutation will often be found unconsciously taking for granted the Ego as subject-object or as self-activity. Hence in the proper place we shall introduce Apperception into the grand total movement of Psychology, and do justice to Herbart's impor- tant contribution, though we have to think that his doctrine of the Ego is a mistake. Physiolog- ical Psychology is also a reaction against the earlier German philosophy ; but as it looks at the Ego purely from the physiological side, it never gets to the heart of the problem, though it gives many important hints in reference to the physical antecedents and consequences of mental activity, and makes many interesting measurements of the quanitative element, which also belongs to mind. From a hygienic point of view physiological Psychology has made most valuable contributions to education ; in this regard, we may say it is epoch-making. III. Already we have seen the pure movement of the Ego within itself, as subject-object. Now it will pass to a new phase: it will posit the non- Ego or the external world; this it will first recognize as different from itself, and then 30 psy(:hology and the psychosis. recognize as its own, which is the act of knowl- edge. Still further, the individual Ego, through this cognition of the external object, rises into a recognition of the Universal, Creative Es:©. At this point, however. Psychology begins to pass out of its sphere, and reveals its connection with another science, usually called Ontology. Recognition is a fundamental thought in Psychol- ogy, assuming three different forms, all of which we shall consider. The Ego as simple subject-object is the return to Self, which is consciousness. Again the Ego is one with itself, it has passed from subjective difference into unity with itself, which we desig- nated as the third stage of the Ego. This unity, accordingly, opposes itself to difference and thus asserts the same ; it could not be the opposite of difference unless the latter were in it and at work; unity is just as different from difference as difference is different from unity. Thus the conscious Ego projects into existence a new object separated from itself, which is the non- Ego. The new difference is not that of the second stage above described, not the subjective, inter- nal one; it is not the difference within Self but outside of Self. The object is not now the one in subject-object, but is the complete negation of subject-object or Ego; that is, the object is now uon-Eiro. INTRODUCTION. 31 So tho Ego, htiving reuched consciousness of itself in its first process, posits an objective world outside of itself, the opposite of itself. The difference, previously internal, is now pro- jected out of the Ego and made external. A realm of externality thus arises, which we shall hereafter find to be not merely external to the Ego, but external to itself. We may trace a little further the new object. It, as already stated, is the product of the difference from subject-object, it is the other of the Ego. Yet it is also the object of the same, it is the thing looked at, the fact or the phe- nomenon which the Ego holds up before itself. In spite of the difference, therefore, the Ego identifies the new object with its own process as subject-object; it preserves the difference ideally by overcoming it and making the new object its own, recognizing the same as its own object. A step further we may carry the movement : the process of the object will show the same three stages as the process of the subject — simple, separated, unified. First, the object will show itself in simple, unrelated unity with itself, as any isolated thing in the world of sense ; secondly, it will hold itself distinct from the subject, maintaining its difference therefrom, as in a conscious act of perception ; thirdly, the ob- ject will show itself as one with the subject, unified with subject-object, as in the completed act 32 FSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. of knowledge. The destiny of the object as non- Esro or the externa] world is to be known, that is, to be identified through and with the process of the Ego. Herewith we come upon a fundamental thought. All knowing is the seeing of this process of the Ego as the essential fact of the object. The Ego beholds the world as itself, then it knows the same, and is identical with it, having canceled the difference between Ego and non-Ego. For the Ego is subject-object, such is the mold into which it pours the universe. The knowing Ego, therefore, identifies the world with itself, or, we may also say, it recognizes the external object to be one with itself. Still this external object remains, it is not annihilated by being known, rather is it ideally preserved. The difference still holds, even when the non-Ego is turned back and translated into the Ego, as it has to be, if it reach its true inner significance. Such we may call, in general, cognition; the Ego cancels the difference between itself and the world, beholding in the latter its own process. In order, however, to go to the bottom of this matter, we must observe that the cognitive act here unfolded, is really recognitive; that is, the Ego recognizes itself in the external object, it identi- fies the other as its own. If I am to know the world, I am to find it in my own Ego, for I have nothing else to know with ; without such an in- INTR OD UC TION. 33 strument, the world is alien to me and unattain- able, since I cannot get that which I have no means of getting. All cognition is essentially recognition. But may we not conjecture that there is some- thing in the world which lies outside of all possi- ble forms of the Ego, something which is indeed unknowable? There is no means of proving any such fact, or indeed of perceiving it, for what else have we to perceive with but the Ego? There cannot be even a sensation without the activity of self; you have only your knower to know with. Still such an unknowable something has crept into modern philosophy, where it creates vast confusion, for is it not the contradic- tion of all thought? When you say that this matter is unknowable, you must know something very important about it in order to be able to make the statement. The world must be pene- trable by thought. Why? Because it is a thought. All cognition is recognition. But, though I may know the world, I am aware that I did not make it; I find it before me, and identify it, I recognize it ; my relation to it thus is theoretical. But when the Ego identifies it as Ego, we know it as not our own Ego ; for this reason wo once called it the realm of the non-Ego. The world is object, still not the object found in our subject- object. It is, however, object, and must have a 3 34 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. subject to correspond ; the question then is, what is that Ego of which the external universe is the true object? We are compelled to posit a World-Ego, which is also subject-object. Thus we have an Ego whose object is the world, in- cluding me, including my particular Ego recog- nizing such an universal Ego. The complete development of Psychology carries us up to the Divine Ego which created the world, or whose difference, otherness, outer- nes3 is the external presence of nature in which man is placed, and which he has to know, that is, recognize as Ego. Not so much man as man's Ego is the highest of creation, being God's image, that is, the image of His Ego. God is also subject-object, His objective element being the universe, which His Ego created by its own inner necessity, and which the human Ego recognizes as Ego, and so comes to knowledge. In this connection it may be remarked that the difference, separation, otherness of the Divine Ego is actual, is a posited distinction, and has immediate reality as object; that is, God's think- ing and willing are one, thought is deed with Him. Man's stage of separation, however, is subjective, ideal, in his Ego, which ho has to make real through his will ; he finds his objective world already made, which he has to make over and thus objectify himself. Wo may conceive of the thought in this fashion : God plans and His INTRODUCTION. 35 plan is the universe ; man plans, and his plan has to transform through volition some part of the universe already existent. It was the great insight of the Schoolmen that Intellect and Will become one in God. Very remote all this probably appears, but it is intimately bound up with our science. When my Ego knows the external object, that knowl- edge rests upon the fact of a World-Ego, the Divine, the Universal Person ; it recognizes the same as essentially one with itself. Every act of my knowing pre- supposes the Divine as ex- istent, as object not only to me but also to itself. Really that is just what I know — nothing more, nothing less. From this height of outlook we can see that our Ego acts with the Divine Ego in knowing, co-operates, as it were, with God, doing over again what deity does. Thus is man truly godlike in knowing, the image of the Creator. The noble Malebranche must have had some such thought in mind when he uttered his famous statement that '* we see all things in God." The great point to which we always come back in the present discussion, is this: How does the Ego as simple subject-object pass to the external world which is non-Ego? Note again: the world is object, and hence corre- sponds to object in the simple Ego (or subject- object) ; but the world is also object to its own 36 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. Ego or subject, just as the object in my Ego has its subject. So we transfer the conception of our Ego with its subject-object to a World-Ego with its suV)ject-object. The fact of the world being objective necessitates its having a subject also, an Ego which is the counterpart of it — the Universal, the Divine. Simply to know the external object is cognition, which deepens into recognition when we know the same object as Ego. I observe the rain, the descent of the stream, each seems to be falling all the time. But I next observe evaporation, the rise of water from the earth into the cloud, which is borne by the winds to the upper air or mountain tops, where it is condensed and falls again. Now I have the explanation, I see the total meteorological process of nature, which is an external image of the pro- cess of my Ego ; previously I was not satisfied, I could not rest content with a part of the cycle, which in me was whole. When I can bring any phase of nature into its cycle, I understand it, I explain it ; I make it correspond to the process of my Ego. Still I do not make the process of nature, there is another will in it — Whose? A different Ego from mine has this entire out- ward world as its object, namely the Divine, which I have ultimately to recognize as the com- plement and fulfillment of all my knowledge. Thus a theistic (not thcologic) strand runs through all Psychology, much against the com- INTBODUCTION. 37 mon view of the matter. To-day this science of the soul is often said to have no soul ; but our Psychology has not only a soul but a God. As little can Homer do without his deities as Psy- chology can do without its divine element. It will be well to look back and to summarize what we have learned. We began with the con- scions Ego, which recognized itself as its own immediate object, and this object as itself ; thus the recognition is subjective. Then in the cog- nition of the external object we found the Ego recognizing the non-Ego or the world as itself, which we may name the objective recognition. Still further, the Ego recognizes the non-Ego to be not only itself, but also to be the object of the Divine Ego, through the world rising to deity, who is now recognized by the individual Ego as its other or opposite, that is, as absolute Ego. For the true non-Ego is found to be not merely the external world, but an Ego which is the opposite or the negation of the individual or finite Ego, which cancels within itself all dif- ference, separation, finitude. Such is absolute recognition or the recognition of the Absolute as Ego, as Divine Personality. We have now unfolded the three Recognitions, which we shall briefly put together, that the reader may make his own the complete move- ment of the Ego before proceeding to the more detailed development of Psychology. 38 PSTCEOLOGY AND TEE PSTCEOSIS. 1. Subjective Recognition. — The Ego di- vides itself within itself into subject and object, and recognizes the latter as itself — the individual Ego as conscious. 2. Objective Recognition. — The Ego separates the non-Ego (tho world) from itself, and then proceeds to recognize the same as its own or as Ego — cognition, the knowing of the object. Thus the Ego makes over the world into itself, so that it knows the same. 3. Absolute Recognition. — The Ego recog- nizes the world as the object or expression of an Ego whose thought is reality, who knows him- self as object, and creates the world as his other. The total process as above set forth may be grasped as follows : The individual Ego, through knowing the objective world, mediates itself with the Divine Ego. Psychology, as the science of the evolution of the Ego, has to give the account of this process, and therein takes its true place. Also a mighty Psychosis moves through the three Recognitions and joins them into one pro- cess, in which the human Ego rises up and inter- links with the Divine, in which man-conscious- ness by its own inner necessity is seen to find its fulfillment in God-consciousness. Historical. It was the work of Des Cartes to bring into modern philosophy the significance of the self-conscious Ego. In his famous doctrine, / think, therefore I am, he makes thinking the INTRODUCTION. 39 ground of being. By his I think he means the Eeo thinkinjr itself or self-consciousness, as is shown by his answer to Gasseudi's objections. / walk, therefore I am, will not do, there has to be the self-thinking Ego in the proposition before being can be predicated. / tidnk is the center of my being, and thought is the fountain of existence. This identity of thinking and being — "the most interestino; idea of modern times," accord- ing to Hegel — was not developed by Des Cartes, he did not unfold the Ego in its process with the non-Ego. Still he saw what it involved ; a dim intimation he had that the self-knowing Ego of man had its necessary complement in the Divine Ego. Hence springs his effort to prove the existence of God. The two extremes he saw, and he felt their connection, but he did not sup- ply the mediating thought, which is indeed the development of philosophy since his time. Still he turned on the waters and gave direction to the stream ; the problem, however, remains and has to be solved by every person in his own fashion or stay unsolved. Des Cartes' Thinking and Being have unfolded into subject and object. Ego and non-Ego, self- consciousness and externality. Then he has sought to bring into view the divine counterpart to human thinking by his argument for the exist- ence of God. 40 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. Let us recapitulate in this connection the foregoing movement once more before leaving it. My Ego seizes the world as external object, subjects it, makes it subject, knows it. But the knowledge or identification of the world is not completed by my identifying it with my subject; the world must also be taken as the object of its own Ego (or subject-object), for I am aware that it is not the created object of my Ego; I may know the world, but I did not make it. So I rise to the Divine Ego (or subject-object), of which the world is the true object, as supple- mentary to and involved in every act of my cognition. Des Cartes has the two sides, the theistic and the egoistic (or subjective), but he by no means unites them. His theistic side first unfolded, and called forth Malebranche, who saw all things in God, and Spinoza who saw God in all things, and thereby jeoparded the existence of the individual. The egoistic side of Des Cartes (his cogito) developed later, its legitimate child being Fichte with his doctrine of the Ej^o and non-Ego. To Hegel belongs the distinction of having made what appears to be the final synthesis of the dualism which started so emphatically with Des Cartes, and which since the hitter's time has determined the general character of philosophy. It is plain that this character is largely psycho- INTBODUCTION. 41 logical, and the attempt to banish all philosophy out of psychology in recent years is on the face of it futile and absurd. IV. The Ego having mastered the non-Ego or objective world, and identified the same with it- self (which is the knowing of the same), pro- ceeds to know itself us this knowino- of the objective world, formulates and orders such knowledge, which is its own process of knowing. This gives the Science of the Ego, constructed, of course, by the Ego itself. We have seen the principle of the Ego's activity — its threefold movement, which it must manifest if it act at all. We are now to pass to the science of the Ego, which is the Ego grasp- ing its own order throughout all its phenomena, and thus setting forth the system of itself. Such a science differs from all other sciences ; the lat- ter are ordered from without by the Ego, while this science is ordered from within, the Eeo be- ing the thing ordered and the orderer. It always runs double, yet in unity with itself. If we say that Psychology is the science of the facts of the Ego, we must not conceive of the Ego as simply a mass of facts which are to be arranged by some power outside of themselves, as is the case with the facts of Natural Science. The mind knows the object, then it knows itself knowing the 42 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. object ; this secolid knowledge ordered gives the science of knowledge. Or, to give a little different turn to the matter: the Ego is the knower, is the known, and, chiefly, is the knower knowing himself as the knower of the known. The Ego, as the science of itself and of its own phenomena, will unfold through three stages. I. It is the immediate psychical act — Psyche — as a uniti the single, complete, men- tal thrust or discharge, before all division and classification, of which this act is the source and the material. It must always be remem- bered, and hereafter it will often be enforced, that each psychical act requires the whole mind, and involves implicitly all psychical acts, which might be shown by a sharp analysis. Still the psychical act is also special, has its individual character and relation ; so it has to be ordered, or rather orders itself, in reference to other psychical acts. This brings us to the next. II. It is Psychology, which is the science of the Ego in all its divisions. This is the sphere of separation, which gives us the so-called faculties, the special activities of the Ego. Formerly the science of mind dealt chiefly in division and classification, and this element is not to be dis- pensed with at any time. Still the Ego must not stop with mere division, which is but one stage introduction: 43 of its threefold movement. The fundamental divisions of Psychology are Feeling, Will, Intellect, which are seen to correspond to the three stages of the Ego. III. It is the Psychosis. Already we have emphasized the significance of this terra and shall often do so again. After the divisions of Psychology must always come the unification of the Psychosis ; we are never to rest content with laying out the mind into so many faculties and defining them. The mind is a whole in every one of its special acts, even the smallest, and the science of mind must in some way express just this total process of it amid its finest sub-divisions. We are inclined to afBrm that the chief problem of Psychology at present is to get a method, which, while giving the distinctions of the science their fnll validity, will at the same time preserve the unity of the mind and preserve it alive. Nothinor is more certain than that the mere ana- Ivzins: and arranging of the mental activities one after the other leaves us with a dead science, which is verily " Psychology without a soul." Our age is called often the analytic age, and it must divide and sub-divide and go on refining to a microscopic minuteness in all things. Undoubt- edly most books on Psychology are in the habit of protesting that " the mind is one " while its activities are varied; still they give us always the division, and very seldom the unity, especially 44 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. the living unity, which is the process of the Ego. The Psychosis is the return out of separation to the oneness of mind, yet the separation is not lost but taken along as ideal or as a moment. Our science is not a row of dried sticks, each one apart, repellent, lifeless; on the contrary each activity is itself and the total movement of the Ego likewise. Very subtle is the Psychosis, not to be grasped merely as some abstract conception, still less as an image : it presupposes an Ego identifying the process of the Ego with itself; it is your Ego seizing its own movement in any psychical act and identifying the same. The relation between Psychology and the Psychosis may be illustrated by the relation be- tween Theology and Religion. The one is the exi)ressi(Mi of the conception of the Divine in formula, proposition, dogma — a necessary ex- pression, by the way; the other is the soul's unity wiih God in worship. Theology is largely a matter of definition, so is Psychology ; through definition Theology becomes separative, becomes many Theologies. Religion, on the other hand, lays stress on the unity, feels the one spirit in all religious belief, from the humblest to the highest. So the Psychosis is the Ego unifying all the distinctions of Psychology; it is the one active soul in all the manifold psychical activities. Wiiat Religion is to Theology, what Justice is to Jurisprudence, what the Spirit is to the Letter, INTIiODUCTION. 45 is the Psychosis to Psychology. Even this hist distinction the Psychosis annuls — the distinction between itself and Psychology, and takes up the hitter into the one grand process with itself. The threefold division of the science of Psy- chology will be seen to be fundamental, spring- insr from the nature of the Ego, whose activitv is threefold. This triple movemeut the Ego im- prints itself upon all processes of knowledge, or rather beholds itself in them, since all knowing is the seeing such a movement in the object, which, till it be thus seen and ordered, is chaotic or un- known. We have no other instrument of cogni- tion but the Ego, which must work after its own nature, and unfold its material according to its own hiw. Hence the triplicity running through the manifold distinctions of Psychology, all of them bearing the impress of the Ego as simple, as divided, as unified. There are, however, difficulties in such a pro- cedure. As it seems to put the free spirit into limits, into fetters if you choose to say so, the latter protests and begins to assert its limit- transcending nature. This protest has its validity and must always be met not with dogmatic asser- tion, but with reconciling thought. If the above process were a scheme external to the Ego, and if the latter were forced into it from the outside, the whole thing would have to be cast away, not only as useless but as spirit-destroying. 46 PiSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. Yet spirit has au order, of all things in the universe it is just the orderer, and of itself too. It rises above limits, but this rise is its principle and not its chaos. If it has a scheme, that scheme is its own, and is self-imposed. If it has a law, that law has been enacted by itself, is, in fact, just itself. The Ego, like man, is free, not because it is ungoverned but because it is self-governed. It must, in its science, com- bine development with order, going perpetually beyond itself, yet just therein coming to itself. The Ego must have in its system both liberty and law, excluding inner caprice and outer chaos. The empirical method has the habit of catch- ing up an isolated fact, analyzing it, and placing it under some rubric in an external fashion. Such a procedure may have to pass for a time in physical science, but it will not do in mental science, in which the observed fact is just the observer observing, in which the object is one with the subject. Psychology has too often been constructed from without, division after division is introduced according to the caprice of the psychologist without any inner unfolding. The science is not free, not true till it construct itself according to its own internal principle. Psychology must always be supplemented by the Psychosis. If the former be handed over merely to arbitrary analysis, or to unbridled experimentation, it shows itself cliaotic, or at INTRODUCTION. 47 most put together in an external order, more or less alien to its true nature. It must have analysis and division, but it must also have the return to unity, and this unity must not be defunct, something abstract and finished, but living and moving, yea, self-active in its own process. Looked at from the present point of view, "the old Psychology" was in the main divis- ive, a so-called faculty-Psychology, though it always protested that the mind was one. In the main "the new Psychology" is hostile to the faculty principle ; but, in breaking down the old order, it leads us only too often into chaos instead of the new order, which we are all hop- ing for. We must have the specialization, the faculties, if you please ; we must also have the unification, not as an abstract caput mortuum, but as the active principle in all division. Let us grasp in a brief statement the main sweep of the present Introduction. First is set forth the inner movement of the Ego as subject- object. Secondly, the Ego posits the different, the non-Ego, and then proceeds to recognize it as one with itself, which act is the fundamental act of knowing, and which manifests itself in the three Recognitions. Thirdly, this act of know- ing becomes science when the Ego grasps the same as its own movement, formulating and ordering itself in the process of knowing the 48 PSYCHOLOGY AXD THE PSYCHOSIS. Outer and inner worlds. The science of the Eijo will manifest itself in three forms, the psychical, the psychological, and the psychosis — distinct, yet as one. This science is what we are next to consider in its detailed movement. INTELLECT. The act of the Ego preliminary to the move- ment of Intellect is the separative one, which act is the division into itself and the external world, or into Ego and non-Ego. This dualism shows, in general, the chasm which the mind is to bridge by cognition. In- tellect starts with the external object as some- thing apart, separate, wholly outside ; the process of the latter is the getting rid of such an external condition, and the becoming internal or known. The object is alien to the Ego at the beginning, is unknown, or rather is known as unknown. Such is the preparatory stage which is to be transcended. The general movement of the Ego in Intellect is to overcome the separation between itself and 4 (49) 50 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. the world, and to identify tlie latter with itself, whereby it cognizes the world as its own. In this manner the Ego masters the alien- ation of the external object from itself and recog-nizes the same to be itself through all separation und difference. Again we must note that cognition is fundamentally recog- nition. When I know this house, I recognize the Ego in it, the idea of the builder. Suppose that we, by some process, could deftly jerk this idea out of the house, what would it become? It would fall to pieces, it would suddenly lapse into chaos. That which makes this house, then, is the idea, not the brick and mortar, wood, iron, glass. It is the idea which supports the ceiling above our heads, the idea, to be sure, control- ling the materials of structure. Now if I am to know this house, I must get hold of its idea, and identify it, and so make it one with my Ego. There is nothing else here for me to know; the Ego which brought forth the product I must commune with, and see its movement in its work. Then I know the work and not till then. The Ego cognizes the thing, and therein recognizes itself in the thing. The Ego in Intellect starts with the object which it translates into itself; the Ego in Will starts with itself which it translates into the object. Knowledge identifies the object with Self, Volition identifies Self with the object. INTELLECT. 61 Intellect utters itself in a cognition, Will utters itself in a deed ; the one is often called theoret- ical, the other practical. To complete the process of the Ego in this sphere, we must add Feeling, which is the imme- diate stage of the Eo:o before it becomes conscious of its separation from the bodily organism ; still it acts in undivided unity with the same. Then the Ego separating itself within itself and utter- ing (outering) itself as object is Will. Finally, the Ego internalizing the object and making the same itself is the Intellect. These three — Feeling, Will, Intellect — constitute the funda- mental division of Psychology. Yet they are the one process of the Ego, they are at the same time the Psychosis. This threefold division of the science has been often assailed by psychologists, still it keeps its place, and cannot well be superseded. It originated from a true insight into the movement of the Ego, and is vouched for by a long line of sages, thinkers, and poets. One may find it suggested by ancient Homer, though in an imaginative, mythical form ; it is explicitly announced by Plato in his trichotomy; it is employed by Kant and Hcgol. It has taken deep hold on the religious mind both in the Orient and Occident, which embodies it in many a symbol. It should be observed that this primary dis- 52 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. tinctioii of the mind carries with it all further distinction. If the Ego be threefold in itself, then every activity of it must manifest the same triplicity. It must think in its own way, accord- ing to its own scheme, if it think at all. The result will be that the divisions of the science will not be capricious but ordered ; they can not be made from the outside, the psychologist cannot drag them in as he pleases, increase or diminish their number according to momentary whim or in- sight. The science must develop according to its law, whatever be the psychologist's caprices ; only when he follows and utters this law, is he truly scientific. The objection will often be heard that such an ordered movement of the Ego is limiting, cramps the spirit's full activity, destroys its freedom by forcing it into a predetermined cast-iron system. No more than to obey the law of the land destroys the civil freedom of the citizen. Indeed without the law there would be no true freedom, but only caprice of the individual and with it utter dis- order and final anarchy. Government there must be ; it should not, however, come from without, for that is political subjection, if not servitude; it must come from within, that is, it must bo self-government, in which we all believe. Now this proposed ordering of the Ego is its own, its law is made by itself for itself, it is self- legislative. A famous statement concerning free INTELLECT. 53 government declared that it was of the people by the people for the people. The free njove- ment of the Ego must not be made anarchic, it too must be an ordering of itself by itself for itself. Still further we may assert the freedom of the Ego when its full process is rightly grasped. The very scheme of it makes it limit-transcend- ing ; it posits difference, limitation, restraint, but it also posits the return out of these to unity. The Psychosis is the canceling of all bounds of the Ego and the revealing of it as the unbounded, as that which can transcend its own bound. Freedom thus is the very law of the Ego, the necessity lurking in its process. In the present book, accordingly, we shall see the Ego ordered and arranged in its manifold distinctions, but this order must be its own, and must proceed according to the inherent nature of the Ego. Nothing is to be imported into its movement from the outside, nothing inside of it is to be left out of its movement. Accordingly we shall try to avoid two oppo- site, yet equally objectionable methods. The metaphysical method starts out with some fore- gone system of Philosophy which it applies more or less externally to the free movement of the Ego. The method of Natural Science takes the procedure derived from the physical sciences and applies the same more or less externally to 54 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. the free movement of the Ego. Each method, proceeding from directly opposite standpoints, commits the same mistake in regard to Psychol- ogy. Yet each method in its proper limits has a genuine contribution for Psychology. We cannot wholly aliminate metaphysical concepts from our science, such as law, science, concept, though we banish any pre-ordained metaphysical system. Likewise we call to our aid the method of physical science in treating of physics and physiology as conditions of the psychical pro- cess. Still the method of the Ego must be its own, self-derived, not taken from Philosophy on the one hand, or from Natural Science on the other. Method it must have from the start, and apply the same strictly, but this method must be generated out of itself and imposed upon itself by itself. The movement, therefore, of the Ego in Intel- lect is the overcoming the difference between Ego and non-Ego by cognizing the latter as itself. The intellectual act is the mind find- ing itself in the world, or identifying the world with itself. The movement will be threefold, bearing the impress of the Ego. 1. Sense-perception is the Ego getting pos- session of the external object and uniting the same with itself — the object being always pres- ent to the senses. 2. Representation is the Ego separating the mTELLECT. 55 image of the external object from itself, elab- orating and getting possession of the same in all its vaiiiations, and then uniting it with it- self — the image always being present to the Ego. 3. Thinking is the Ego penetrating the object and recognizing the Ego as creating the same. Thus the Ego in Thought identifies itself as the creative principle in the Universe, as the genus, or the geneuic, that which generates. The whole constitutes the Psychosis of the Ego as Intellect, as the process of making the external object internal, of identifying it with the Ego, which latter finally recognizes itself as generative energy of the objective world. CHAPTER FIRST,— SENSE-PERCEPTION. Sense-perception is the process of the Ego in knowing the external object through the senses. This object is present always in Sense-perception, and is seized upon separately by Attention, and is incorporated into the Ego with its stores by Apperception. The general sweep is from the outer sensing to the inner ordering of the object, but the knowledge of it remains immediate, or the knowledge of the real object. The image of the thing is not yet distinguished from the thing, both image and thing are in an unconscious unity, not to be broken till Representation enters. In a general way we shall state beforehand the stages through which Sense-perception moves in order to know the external object. Three Sec- tions: — T. Sensation is the act of the Ego uniting the (50) SENSE-PERCEPTION. 57 external world immediately with itself through the Senses; II. Perception is the act of the Ego seizing some particular object given by Sensation, sepa- rating the same, and making it a percept; III. Ajjperception is the act of the Ego order- ing the particular percept through and with the previous stores of the Ego. These three terms have been employed by psychologists in a great variety of significations. Nearly every original writer has his own usage of the terms Sensation, Perception and Appercep- tion. Of these, Apperception has hardly yet come into universal employment, still it has already acquired many different shades of mean- ing. The only thing to be done under such cir- cumstances is to follow the general trend of usage, which we shall try to do. There is an advantage in bringing together as far as possible the various derivations of the verb perceive. The Ego is the percipient in this sphere, its content is n percept^ the special act is a perception, which name is also given to the thing perceived. Apperception, the third stage, expresses the relation to Perception as the sec- ond stage; Sense-perception couples Sensation and Perception, and thus overarches the whole sphere. A word should be said in regard to the defini- tions which we have sent on in advance of the 58 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. special treatment of the provinces definecl. They are merely provisional, supposed aids for the student who wishes to take a brief outlook in the direction whither he is going. They are, therefore, temporary makeshifts, to be laid aside when the real edifice is built. For the true definition is not thus picked up from the outside, but must generate itself out of what goes before. The definition of the Self must be self-defined or violate its own inherent nature. The special definition of Apperception, for instance, must proceed of its own accord out of Perception, its antecedent stage, and in like manner that of Per- ception out of Sensation. These terras ary not to be caught up at any point and have a defini- tion clapped on them in a merely external fashion. Again we affirm that the psychological definition must be genetic, self-unfolded, show- ing itself as a phase of the process of the Ego. In Sense-perception the external object is always present to the senses, and is in the pro- cess of being taken up and made internal by the Ego. Hence this sphere is often colled Presen- tation, in contrast to Representation. The ex- ternal object has extension, has three dimensions usually, but when it is sensed, its extension is taken away, its geometrical form is canceled by passing through the Ego, which, after such cancellation, reproduces the extended object. Yonder door I perceive ; its extension I take up 8ENSE-PEBCEPTI0N. 59 into my Ego which has no extension, which is just the annulling of extension. Now the strange fact occurs that this annullinof of the object by the Ego is its fresh reproduction. Really I can only perceive an object by first destrovins it and then recreating it. Yonder door must pass through the zero-point of my Ego, and have its three dimensions pressed to nothing, before I can see it yonder, the product of ray own activity. The Ego has to focus all externality into itself and then generate it anew out of itself. We shall first note this fact in Sensation. SE C TION FIB ST. — SEN 8 A TION. Sensation is the Ego uniting the object with itself thronorh the senses. There must be an external physical object, there must be the bodily organism with its senses, there must be the Ego. The act of Sensation requires the presence and co-operation of all three elements; the object must be presented to the organism, which then conveys the jiresented object to the Ego, which last must accept this presentation, reach back and take up into itself the object. This is the cycle of sensation, starting from the presented object and returning to the same, which cycle in its totality thus becomes the possession of the Ego. We can also say, in a general manner, that Sensation is the E2;o starting to make internal the external object by means of the senses. The (60) seiVsation: 6i Ego in Sensation annuls the outer into the inner, then projects the hitter into the world. Sensa- tion may also be considered as the first eettinsT a knowledge of the material realm, which knowl- edge is to be followed up and deepened by later processes of mind. Sometimes the word Sensation is applied to that which is simply an affection of the organism without any object, or which is purely imaginary. These phases we shall leave out of account at present. In studying Sensation, accordingly, there are three factors which must be carefully held apart and examined. First, the external factor of Sensation, the physical world which is to be taken up and in- ternulizfd by the Ego, the realm of nature environing the man, the mundane element. Second, the mean factor of Sensation, the living body with its nervous system, the middle term between mind and matter, the physiological or corporeal element, the bridge of life out of nature to the soul. Third, the internal factor of Sensation, the Ego with its self-separating and self-uniting process, the psychical or spiritual element of Sensation, which is at the same time the total cycle of Sensation. From the preceding divisions the entire sweep of Sensation can be discerned in outline. It is 62 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. the mind's process of transforming the external world into the mind, the Eijo's movement to know externulity. The object being at hand, that is, being in the horizon of the senses, the Ego must present the same to itself, it must make such object internal. Sensation, however, does not yet distinguish the single thing from its continuity in Space or its succession in Time; whatever flows in upon us through the great stream of objects, has to be sensed. I. The External Factor of Sensation. We consider first that portion of the natural world which lies outside of the human organism, the extra-organic. This is the })rimordial mate- rial of Sensation, is that which has to be sensed, or to be made internal. This natural world itself is in a perpetual process, which the Ego must finally identify with its own. Of the process of nature we dis- tinguish three stages : the mechanical, the chem- ical, and the phyfiical. The first shows the relations of the outward form of matter, the second the relations of the inner constitution of matter, the third shows matter in a state of vibration, which is the process itself in ma- terial form. The material object has extension, the Ego is not extensive, but intensive ; that is, it negates SEIffSATION: 63 the object as extended, then neonates this nesra- tion, and posits the object anew, as its own. Thus it is that the external factor of Sensation has to be re-created by the Ego before there can be a Sensation. We shall now take a few glances at the exter- nal factor of Sensation, which has to do with nature. It is nature or the physical world which is to be taken up by the senses and united with the Ego. Now this external natnre has a variety of phases, or an order within itself; it has also its principle or fundamental thought, which may be stated to be externality, outsideness, other- ness. Moreover nature is in a movement, in a pro- cess of overcoming its externality ; it longs, so to speak, to get inside of itself; hence every material body gravitates toward the center of the earth, which if it reached, it would no longer be outside; it could then be only inside of itself. Really it would there attain selfhood. The various stages of this movement of nature toward internality we have distinguished as the mechanical, the chemical, the physical. Each of these stages has one or more senses to take it up into the Ego, which is seeking to make it internal in itself, that is, in the E^o. We may now see that Nature and the Ego have an intimate correspondence. Nature moves to- ward internality or selfhood, even in the act of 64 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. gravitation ; but the Ego picks up Nature on her way to the goal, in one of her stages, and internalizes the same, primarily in an act of Sensation. I. The mechanical stage shows the purest form of externality in the universe. The exter- nal body acts upon the external body in an external way, whereby the outward force is im- parted and continues till overcome. The so-called mechanical powers show various ways in which external bodies act upon external bodies. Every kind of machinery rests essentially upon the same principle. All space is filled with material bodies standing in mechanical relation to one another. From the remotest speck of stellar dust to the terres- trial objects just around us, we are environed with a world of mechanism, which in one way or other we have to meet. Our body is simply one of these mechanical objects in the first place ; it is subject to contact, to motion, to all the incidents of this grand environment of mechanism. But the human body not only passively re- ceives the mechanical impulse and imparts the same outwardly, like a piece of lifeless matter; it takes up the same inwardly, and imparts it to the Ego, through the senses, specially through the sense of Touch. Thus, externality in its most external manifestation is caught up from the outer world and hurried off to the inner SEXSATION. 65 world of the Ego where it is incorporated with the Self. II. The second grand stage in the process of Nature is the chemical. The material body is now broken into, torn to pieces by its own inner agency co-operating with an outside agency; it is decomposed into its constituents, which may be recom posed into a new and difTerent body. Chemism manifests an inner quality of the object ; in mechanism the latter is separated or united outwardly, in chemism it separates within itself according to its own law, and unites in the same way. A stone is broken or put together from the outside, mechanically, and each part is still a stone, and the whole too is a stone ; but when it is dissolved, chemically, the separation causes it to lose its characteristic, it is no loniier a stone, it becomes another object or element. Chemism, accordingly, changes the form and property of the thing, assailing and undoing the individuality thereof. Mechanism through its forces may break to pieces or mix together objects; they remain the same essentially in division or mixture; their individuality is not lost. Chemism is the great internally separating and transforming principle of external nature. Mechanism brings objects outwardly together, which chemism then divides and unites inwardly. Avast environment of chemism in nature sur- rounds us on all sides, which the Ego is to take 5 66 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. up and appropriate through the senses, which in this domain are chiefly Taste and Smell. III. Besides the mechanical and chemical properties of matter, there are those which are distinctively called physical — Sound, Light, He;it, Electricity. Sound results when a body is struck or assailed in some way, its individuality is attacked and it resists, vibrating between the attack and the resistance. A struggle for self is thrown into the air, which is the medium of sound. A sound- world thus arises and environs the man, reaching him through the ear. Liglit is caused mainly by consumption of matter, the chemical change of form. The grand source of Light is the sun, the center of the solar system, which is burning up, and thus reveals nature or externalitv. The result is. Light is thrown out from the center in opposition to gravity, or the principle of mechanism. Such is the destiny of the external world: as it ap- proaches the center or internality, it is consumed, it vanishes, and yet produces the light, in which the inherent character of externality is revealed. Vision is the sense by which all this is brought to the Ego. Heat also is the result of combustion, primarily of the sun, so that we have a heat-ray as well as a light-ray. It is propagated through a medium in undulations and is taken up by the entire SEN'SATION. 67 periphery of the body, requiring no special sense. Electricity is the result of mechanical friction or chemical dissolution, and moves in a circuit. There is first the separation of this force into opposites, called positive and negative poles, and then their unity in the current. A cyclical move- ment manifests itself in electricity and begins to suggest the circuits of organic life, especially of the nervous system. The complete mechanical cycle takes up the earth into its movement — the earth whose revo- lution around the sun is the outermost form of the cycle in nature, namely the cycle of gravita- tion. Electricity shows the innermost cycle of nature, in which the force divides itself within itself in order to manifest itself. The chemical cycle is intermediate ; the two bodies disintegrate into their constituents in order to integrate anew ; thus there is a circuit from unity to separation and back to unity. Sound, Light, Heat, Electricity can be pro- duced by both mechanical and chemical means. All are the result of an assault on or a dissolu- tion of material bodies, that is, of the negation of matter in some form. Such a negation in the first place negates gravity, goes in opposition to it; hence it propagates itself through the sur- roundino; medium in all directions, or along a wire or confined medium. 68 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. The fact then appears that the special senses take up matter in some negated phase; it has to be ill the process of becoming non-material in order to be received by the senses and the mind. What we may call the immateriality of matter is the form of it to which the Ego re- sponds, being itself supremely the immaterial principle. One may see in the form of vibration the oscillatory trembling between the non-material and the material, the opposite of the steady force of gravity, an image or outer semblance of the strugofle between the two sides. The air, invisible matter, has this billowy character in its perpetual recoil against the earth and its movement. The air is a vast sea of rolling waves, in which man lives; he takes up an unseen principle in his breath. The process of negating matter is what the senses receive from these physical agents. (1) The most external is the mechanical assault upon the object which, however, reacts and preserves itself, producing sound or vibration of the air. (2) Heat is also produced by mechan- ical assault upon the object as well as by chem- ical dissolution and combustion. (3) Light is the product of negation, being the result of the combustion or destruction of form in all cases doubtless. The peculiar point in the case of Light is that while its cause is form-destroying SEN-SATWN. 69 it is for tiie environment form-revealing : the consuming matter shows the limits, the finitude of matter. Such is the dualism which is brought to the Ego by vision — in the negation of matter we behold its limitation. (4) Electricity is set in motion by the destruction of material in a certain relation, by mechanical or chemical means. But this power is not now radiated from a center but takes the circular form more or less confined. The breaking of the circuit causes it to manifest its force to overcome the separation. The transmission of this negative power as electrical is very destructive to all material forms, if they stand in the way of the return, in the breach of the circuit. Looking back at the natural object in the present connection, we observe that its move- ment is more and more from the external and extensive, toward the internal and intensive, then back again to a new form of the external and extensive, namely the vibration. This piece of wood as extended is assailed or destroyed, the result is sound or light which is a new projection of the body assailed or destroyed, in the form of the vibration. Its extension is transformed and becomes an intensive (or internal) principle which transforms itself back into extension, which now has motion. In this external process of nature we note the correspondence with the internal process of the 70 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. Ego, which ill Sensation takes it up and assimi- lates it with itself. The mediating element be- tween these two extreme processes (the external and the internal) is the human body whose func- tion in the present sphere we are next to con- sider. II. The Mean Factor of Sensation. We have now reached the corporeal organism, which with its nervous system is the mean factor of Sensation, intermediate between the world and the Ego. Nature in some form comes in contact with and stimulates the nerve-ends, and this stimulation will be found to involve the entire animate body, which is the gate as well as the track from the outer to the inner, and back again to the stimulated part. Thus the movement in the organism and also its structure, especially its neural structure, is cyclical. Al- ready we observed the same fact as the chief phenomenon of electricity in external nature, and electrical action we shall find transmuting itself into nervous energy. The neural structure of the human body we shall now study a little as the organic basis of Sensation, omitting as far as possible anatomical details, and trying to see the main thing, namely, its correlation with the Ego. Three divisions of structure we shall briefly designate. I. The corporeal periphery, with its system of SEN-SATIOy. 71 nerve-eiulinss which receive the external stimu- lus and start the neural molecular movement — The Senses. II. The separative principle of the nervous system, manifesting itself primarily in the dual division of the nerves into afferent and efferent, which come tosfether in a central orsjan, also distinct, namely, the brain and its adjuncts. III. The unity of the system made active and real in the neural molecular movement, which, still material, is the final stimulus of the Ego to Sensation. This molecular movement tends to be cyclical, but its circuit is broken, like the two poles of the electrical circuit, till the psj^chical factor is introduced and unites the current, which is the completed means of communication between the outer world and the Ego. We have used the terra corporeal periphery, which has become quite common in the Psychol- ogy of to-day. Conceive your body as a sphere ; each point on its surface is connected with a plexus of nerves which sends off a radius to the middle of the sphere, where is the central organ which bears the stimulus of the Ego. The sur- face of the sphere is everywhere brought into some form of contact with the outer world, which the Ego must receive, internalize, and recreate for itself. There is to be not simply a reflection of the external object as from a mirror, but a re- production of it, a kind of re-enactment of its 72 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. creation. Thus each Ego with its sphere is a microcosm, has to make itself a center of the universe, generating the latter over again for itself. Only in this way can it ever get a sen- sation of externality. I. The corporeal periphery is organized into the so-called Senses, which are usually consid- ered to be five in number. The outer surface of the animate body is specialized into separate forms and aptitudes for receiving impressions from the external world. There is an outer bodily organ and a capacity in the same for taking up and transmitting these impressions to the central organ. We may note a gradation in the Senses, as they move more and more toward a complete possession of the environment: first, the general Sense of contact — Touch; second, the specialized Senses of contact — Taste and Smell ; third, the Senses which reach out beyond contact, and which are stimulated through the vibrations of a medium — Hearing and Sight. Designating them by their objective character rather than by their subjective, we may call them in a general way the mechanical, the chem- ical, and the physical Senses, in accord with the divisions of the material world already given. Doubtless these distinctions in certain cases overlap, still in the main they hold good. We shall briefly outline the general character of the five Senses, which have in recent times sensation: 73 been specially investigated by the physiological psychologists. These investigations start from physiology and seek to find therein some traces or intimations ot the psychical principle through experiment, measurement, and external obser- vation. All this is certainly not to be neglected. Our attempt, however, moves in the opposite direction ; we have sought here to give a meager outline, not of physiological psychology, but rather of psychological physiology ; the mental process determines the physical and not the physical the mental ; the purpose is not to indi- cate natural law in the spiritual world, but spiritual law in the natural world. 1. Touch. This may be considered the most general of the Senses, since it belongs to every part of the corporeal periphery in a greater or less degree; yet on the other hand it is the most narrow and particular of all the Senses, since it is limited to the area of contact, and this con- tact is simply mechanical. It is indeed essen- tially the mechanical sense, transferring the immediate mechanical element of nature into sensation. Through it we get the notion of weight, of pressure, of the primal relation of body to body, and possibly of temperature. Moreover this Sense is the substrate of all the other Senses, for even the distant object of Sight has to be brought into the field of Touch ere it can be sensed. 74 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. The entire periphery, as already stated, is covered with the nerve ends of Touch, so that the body may be regarded as one vast organ of this Sense. Still it is differentiated; every part of the body has its own degree of excitability through the stimulus; the tips of the fingers have the greatest delicacy, the middle of the back the least. The whole corporeal area has been mapped out into regions according to their degree of sensitivity through contact — a signifi- cant fact showing the external division of the periphery in its oneness. Passing to the side of the element of stimu- lation, which comes through object, we find that it too has various degrees, or stages which can be laid off and measured. The stimulus has to rise to a certain point of intensity before any sensation can be felt; this point is called by psychologists the t/weshold, a metaphorical term which sug- gests that the stimulus has to pass up a certain number of steps (degrees) ere it can enter' the door of Touch. But when the door has been entered, there are still steps or degrees if we wish to go through the house. Suppose we feel the pressure of an object to have a certain de- gree of intensity; in order to have a sensation of an increased pressure, the stimulus must be increased in a fixed ratio. If the increase be too small, the difference is not felt. The total step must be made in order to have the response SENSATION. 75 of sensation. The following is Weber's famous law upon this subject: To increase t/te sensation^ the stimulus must he increased in a constant ratio. The pressure sensations are said by Wundt to require an addition of one-third to the stimulus, otherwise the change will not be felt. For example, there is a pressure of three pounds on the back of the hand; it will require four pounds to produce any sensation of increased weight; then to these four pounds one-third must be added to make the new pressure felt. This accords with a common experience: if we add one pound to a pound of pressure, we feel the difference ; but if we add one pound to one hundred pounds of pressure, the difference is not perceptible, even if it be the last straw which breaks the camel's back. First, then, the stimulus has to reach a certain degree in order to attain the minimum sensibile or to cross the threshold of sensation ; secondly, the stimulus has to increase in a constant ratio in order to increase the sensation ; thirdly, we may add, the sensation in its various aspects is localized^ that is, assigned to its locality in the organism by the imntediate act of the Ego, and not by any system of local signs which are a fiction introduced into recent Psychology by Lotze, and quite unneces- sary when the psychical factor of sensation is rightly understood. At least, these local signs loudly call for a physiological basis in the 76 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. organism, which basis up to the present time has never been pointed out, though often conjectured. In reference to gretting a knowleds^e of the external world, Touch may be deemed the first stage of the mental awakening. It has already been stated that this Sense acts on a limited area, and that area external ; it, the most general sense of the body, is the most particular and confined in its scope of activity. The other Senses, as they become specialized, will be intenser and more internal, always approaching nearer and nearer the internality of the Ego. Very early, however, the mind begins to synthesize through Touch, and bring together different tactile points, and so get a knowledge of surface and its quali- ties — hardness and softness, smoothness and roughness, movability, distance within certain bounds. Judgment is, of course, involved in such a synthesis, though it is mostly unconscious and gets to be very rapid. Judgment, however, becomes far more explicit in Touch when the latter undertakes to give some knowledge of the external figure of bodies. Still this Sense can but very dimly attain, even with the aid of Judg- ment, the point of getting possession of total forms, and thus become an art-sense, though some writers have so maintained. We can hardly reach the Beautiful through palpation. 2. Taste and Smell. These are specialized senses, each having its particular organ in the per- SENSATION. 77 iphery, yet requiring immediate contact of the object or of its volatilized particles. Both are es- sentially chemical senses, bringing to the mind the disintegration of bodies within, and thus they reach a more internal principle of the material world than Touch. The properties of things now go beyond mere external mechanical relations. It is said that electricity can excite both these senses to activity. Both are guardians of inter- nal organs of the body, Taste of the digestive, Smell of the respiratory apparatus, watching lest some injurious substance may enter lungs or stomach. Still not everything harmful to the organism rouses the protest of Taste and Smell ; nor is everything disagreeable to them harmful. These two watch-dogs of the inner regions, like Cerberus of Hades, can also be quieted by a soporific cake, and can by over-indulgence in their own special delights, become destroyers of their charge. It is to be noted that these two senses, though specialized in organs, manifest different forms of specialization. The tongue which is the spe- cial organ of Taste is twofold but not yet fully dualized, which last fact we observe in the two nostrils, which still, however, make one nose. This movement of the organs of sensation toward a completer dualization will be more fully char- acterized later on. Tasle requires immediate contact of the object 78 PSYCnOLOGY AND THE rSYCHOSIS. with its organ, the toDgue, as well as the appli- cation of an acidulous solvent to the substance which is to be tasted. Thus we see the main elements of a small chemical laboratory at work dissolving the object and taking the fact up into sensation. StiU it must be confessed that taste gives but a very small fragment of the total chemism of nature, apparently only that needful for the protection and preservation of the bodily organism. Taste, we may add, is capable of great cultivation, and rises through all stages, from the earth-eatino; Indian to the refined Roman epicure who claimed he could tell simply by means of gustation the locality where his mullets were caught. Hence Good Taste has been applied metaphorically to spiritual discern- ment, especially in artistic matters. This Sense is very closely connected with Smell both in the locality of the respective organs and in their action; often an object, an onion for instance, seems to be smelt through the Taste and to be tasted through the Smell. The odor of cooked cabbage is distinctly tastable, and the aroma of the oyster stew stimulates the gustatory faculty. Wherewith we pass by an easy transi- tion into the next Sense. /Smell discerns by means of its organ the de- composing body; it recognizes the decay of nature, the dissolution of the object, but it does not bring about this dissolution for its own SENSATION. 79 behoof, as is the case with Taste. Smell does not require direct contact of the object, thougli the particles of the latter must reach the organ and stimulate the same. This sense begins to get at things in the distance, and thus leads over to the following Senses (Hearing and Sight). It requires volatilizatiou of the object, which charges the air as its medium, and therein con- nects with Hearing, which takes up, not the floating material particles, but the pure undula- tions of the air. Smell, while it does not of itself negate nature, like Taste, nevertheless senses the inner negation of nature through herself, and gives a note of warning it may be, or a response of delight. This sense has also its spiritual suggestion in life and literature, in which the fragrance of the flower has played its part. Smell discriminates races of men to a certain extent. A German has elaborated a system of smelling by which he declares that individual character can be smelt, and that the science can be taught. It is well known that many of the lower animals have this sense far more highly developed than man, and can scent their unseen and unheard foe at a distance through the medium of the air. Smell thus in a lower degree takes the place of Hearing and Sight, to which we next pass. 3. Hearing and Sight. Both these Senses take up the external object at a distance from 80 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. the periphery, and thus the outer world reaches them through the vibration of a medium — air and h'ght. The object heard or seen is not neces- sarily in the process of destruction, but is pre- served for the most part in its integrity ; these are not chemical Senses, though of course one can see and hear bodies in a state of dissolution. The main point is that in Hearing and Sight a medium inter- venes, a mediatorial element enters the process of the Senses, mediation begins between the material thing and the special organ. The medium is in- deed physical, but much refined, etherealized, we might say spiritualized, so that it takes the im- pression of the object and vibrates the same to the special Sense, from which it is borne to the central organ. The previous Senses received the object immediately; Hearing and Sight require the object to be mediated for them, that is, taken up and transformed into a medium lying some- where about midway between the material world and mind. Light has been called an ideal matter, quite contradicting gravity, yet still belonging to nature. For the same cause light has always been deemed the best physical analogon of intelligence. In this lies the reason why Hearing and Sight are the art-senses. In art the material form is filled with the spirit; both sides, the ideal and the real, must be transmitted through a medium which can take up both, and which is both to a decree. Hearinir and Si^ht through their media SENSATION. 81 receive totalities of sound and shape, each of which in art express an idea. Touch, for instance, cannot get the notion of a statue, because the whole is not mediated for it, and as an immediate Sense it comes in contact with merely a small part of the surface. Only the total form with its outlines and limits reveals truly the inner or spiritual element of art. Music is a totality of sound ordered in harmony and in succession, wiiich totality must be re- ceived and transmitted by the aerial medium to the ear, which in this new shape takes it up and transmits it to the central organ. Hearing is that sense which receives the sound of bodies. What is the nature of sound? A material object is struck, its individuality is assailed, which, however, it recovers. The process of this recovery is an oscillatory movement, a kind of tremblini;, thrillins, vibrat- ing of the object assailed, which the surrounding medium, the air, responds to with its vibrations. A string struck when in tension vibrates from side to side, and recovers its equipoise, thus asserting itself against the assault from without. The roused object thrills itself to rest, but on its way thereto it makes its music, which stirs my Ego to similar vibrations in response. There is a vast sound-world about us which, when duly ordered, becomes an echo of the inner movement of the Ego, and therein is musical. B 82 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. The sound of the voice prints upon the aerial medium its articulations, and sends them to the ear through a real pneumatic tube made of air and breath, and easily shifted about according to will. This sound strikes my ear-drum, beats it with recurrent waves, which are propagated to my brain, where I get the message atmospheric. The Ego is the recipient; every air-wave has a meaning which I read like a telegraphic message, as it were from point to point, or from sound to sound. You and I — two Egos at the two ends of the line — are the two offices, or the two final readers of the message ; that is the important fact in the whole affair. There could be no sensation without this reading Ego, which has the power of going back to the begin- ing of the line, and completing the cycle from object to Ego and from Ego to object ; this total cyclical movement in a single act is what is known as a sensation. Moreover Hearing is in Time directly, it re- ceives the vibrations in succession, and is a temporal Sense, catching up and reporting the never-ceasing play between the Appearing and the Vanisliing. But the Ego by its very nature cannot endure such a condition, cannot rest in un- rest; the forms of Hearing have the tendency to move out of their fluid state and to become fixed in spatial shapes which are visible. Thus the spoken word has to crystallize itself into the SENSATION. 83 pictured, written, and printed word, in which sound can be seen, and speech can be repro- duced. For such a purpose a new Sense is called for, to which we now pass. Sight receives the form of the object through the medium of light (or through the vibration of a luminiferous ether), which does not assail the external body, yet reveals all its bounds and limits, manifests spatial figure. Light itself, however, springs from the destruction of matter, and therein becomes the medium for showinor the finitude and limitation of the material of objects. Light rays itself out in opposition to gravity, and vet is itself material; light is matter mani- festing in itself its own negation : we might call it spiritual matter or material spirit. Hence it is the most suggestive symbol of spirit to be found in nature, and is so employed by all tongues. It is the medium for the most spiritual of the senses, which is Vision ; it mediates the material world with the Ego, which is the immaterial. Sight is, accordingly, the culmination of the senses, and their conclusion. It has revealed to the Ego the finite, limited character of the external world, l)ringing the same to its end, so to speak, and showing its final outcome. Vision sees primarily by the self-destroying activity of the central body of our material system. Through this colossal negativity the medium is 84 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. begotten in whose undulations is witnessed the boundary of all matter, up to which the previous Senses have led, and of which each has given prophetic indications. The five Senses have thus an inner movement from the lowest to the highest, from Touch giving only a few separate particulars, to Sight giving a totality of outward form. The driving principle of this inner movement is the secret force or aspiration in all nature to assimilate itself to the Ego, to unify the dualism between subject and object, to become self-knowing, a Person, which is truly the ideal center of the Universe. At the same time it will be important to trace the outer movement to the same end in the physical structure of the five Senses. It may be said that the sense-orsrans show an external visible gradation toward the Ego, which is the process through complete dualism into complete unity as observed in self-consciousness. Touch, being the general sense, is twofold only as the whole body is twofold in its bi-lateral symmetry. The tongue, the organ of Taste, is a special organ, yet has its two sides in undivided unity, and is quite as bi-lateral as the total body. The nose, the seat of smell, is a special organ, but is separated in itself by a partition; still the two sides are united into one member. The two ears are completely separated, being not only SENSATION. 85 apart but opposite in locality ; yet they, like the previous organs of Sense, are immediately con- nected with the organism. The two eyes are also wholly separated from, though not opposite to, each other; still the separation goes deeper, since they are distinct organs, inserted into the periphery of the body, structurally quite inde- pendent, spherical and movable. Thus they show two kinds of separation, from one another and from the total organism, to which, however, they are joined by a number of muscular and neural lines. In such manner the sense organs are seen to move more and more into dualism, till in the two eyes each has the outer form of a distinct indi- vidual. Now this separative character unites them with Nature on the one hand, and with the Ego on the other, which latter has also its side of separation. All this external dualism will become ideally one through the Ego, as we shall hereafter see. Thus there is a structural orderinsf of the Senses, manifested in the outward form of their respective organs as we.ll in their functions. The principle of this ordering, outer and inner, is the Ego, or the consciousness of Self, of which the Senses are a projection into externality, and toward which they move in a line of gradation. As we have noticed, the movement is from Touch, the most immediate and least differentiated of 86 PSYCHOLOGY AKD THE PSYCHOSIS. the Senses, into a more complete dualism and separation till the eye is reached. Yet all along this line of dualism and separation, the psychical unity is correspondingly getting to be more com- plete, and the Sense more perfect, that is, more nearly the image and expression of the Ego, which is its ideal prototype as well as end. Along the same organic line the child moves into the consciousness of Self; out of the self-move- ment of the body he unfolds into the self-con- sciousness of the Ego, which, implicit at first, becomes explicit through the separation of the Self from the organism. II. We now pass from the first to the second portion of the nervous organism considered as the mean or intermediate factor of Sensation. In connection with the outer periphery of the body and its special Senses are the two sets of nerves running to and from the central organ, which is the brain and spinal cord. These two sets of nerves, the afferent and the efferent, hint the dual principle of the organic frame work, while the central organ in which they are joined suggests their unity, though it too is subdivided. 1. When we look at the outer shape of the living organism, we are struck by its double- ness, or two-sidedness, often called bi-hiteral symmetry. Draw the median line through your body, and you will see that the latter is two in order to be one. Each side is a symmetrical SEN'SATION. «7 repetition of the other, yet both are united in a single orsranism. Such is the outer visible appearance of yourself; it is the picture of your Ego made external, outered, transformed into body. Note the twofoldness, the separa- tion ; yet also note the unity. The most direct material manifestation of you is your body; it is your othei', not that of anybody else, or of anything else; it is the exact outward counterpart of your inward Self — truly the body of your Ego. Altogether the best likeness or image of the Ego in material form is the body, indeed, the best of all possible pictures it must be in the nature of the case. Hence in art it and nothing else can be employed for the adequate expression of the spirit. Bi-lateral symmetry is the incarnation of sub- ject-object, including the hyphen, being the visible twofoldness which is one. This twofoldness or duplicity is, accordingly, immediate, not yet made explicit. 2. In the next stage of the organism we see this immediate duplicity unfolded in the afferent and efferent nerves, which are distinct from each other and form a principle and indeed a system. The external organs of the body, the muscular, representing more the mechanical element in the human frame, are controlled by these two sets of nerves. In like manner, the internal organs, those of digestion and respiration, for instance. 88 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. representing more the chemical principle in the body, are connected by nerve lines with the cen- tral organ. The total organism, inner and outer, has this double set of lines, often compared to telegraph wires; we may liken them to a stream of couriers moving to and coming from head- quarters. In bi-lateral symmetry we see the duplicity of the body manifested in its outer shape. But we have to enter inside the orajanism and take it to pieces in order to observe the duplicity of the nervous principle. Next the separation is car- ried a step further, and the third organ comes to light in its own distinct shape. 3. This is the central system composed of the brain and spinal cord. Now the mediating organ has appeared, the twofold has become threefold, the duplicity is united in a third, which makes the whole an organic triplicity. It is well to note the movement of structure from below up- ward, culminating in this central system. There is an unfolding from the immediate outer shape of the body in bi-lateral symmetry, to the com- plete inner separation in the twofold afferent and eflferent nerve-lines, which separation finds its uniting element in the third organ just mentioned. The structural circuit is thus made entire. The above exposition is intended especially to suffsest the similitude between the human organ- ism and the Ego. Thus we may the better see SENSATION. 89 reasons why this body of ours is the mean, that is, the mediatorial factor between the Ego and the external world. Such is, in general, the threefold structure, visible, separate, material, of the nervous system. It lies before us in external division, but it has a principle of inner movement which we may now look at — the principle of unification. III. The active unifying principle of the nervous system as such is the following move- ment. The external object stimulates the end- nerve, this stimulus is transformed into a nervous energy, which is propagated to the central organ, whence there is a return to the starting-point. Such is what is called often the neural molecular movement, which is unquestionably a form of successive undulation, be it caused by mechani- cal, chemical, or electrical action. In Sight and Hearing the outer undulation from the object is transmuted into this inner molecular undulation which has access to the brain. But it is clear that this inner molecular undulation in the affer- ent nerve must again be changed, nay totally reversed, else there could be no Sensation. The undulatory movement would simply continue forever, or perchance be stopped without the return. So, after all, the molecular energy can- not of itself complete the circuit, but calls for another principle. But at this point comes to an end the mean 90 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. factor of Sensation, without having been able to make complete the bond of connection between the afferent and the efferent nervous energies. The total Sensation has to separate from and return to the stimulated part of the bodily peri- phery. Thus the complete movement is in the form of a cycle, while the afferent energy works in a straight line. What causes the revolution? We have to answer, the Ego ; but with such an answer we have transcended our present sphere. The corporeal organism has shown itself not only the intermediate, but also the mediating factor of Sensation, since it mediates the exter- nal world with the Ego. Compared to this external world it is inner ; compared to the Ego, it is outer. Its structural suggestion is cyclical, though the Ego has to complete the cycle and make the organism sensitive. Moreover the outer corporeal structure is the image of Ego in Space and Time, manifesting itself visibly, materializing itself in external shape. Now we shall turn to the Ego, who has been all along the hidden demiurge 'in these marvelous manifesta- tions. III. The Psychical Factor or Sensation. We now begin to enter Psychology, hitherto we have dealt only with preliminaries. The activity of the Ego is the internal or psychical SENSATION. 91 factor of Sensation, the essential principle of it. What is the nature of this activity ? The ball which I see before me cannot enter ray brain with its material extension ; if it once did, that would be the end of my seeing. I must annul its material extension, thus only can I receive it; yet 1 must annul this annulment, and posit it anew as object. I see the ball; v?hat is involved in that? I have to wipe it out of exist- ence, as far as I am concerned, and make it over again. As immediately extended, I cannot pos- sibly receive it ; but I can reproduce it as extended, after I have negated its extension. Such the Ego must do in order to have a Sensation. The Ego in Sensation, therefore, first negates the object as extended ; but this negative act is really preservative, annulling the externality of the object and preserving it as internal; finally the Ego projects the object as extended, re- creates the same as its own. Thus the Ego makes complete the circuit of Sensation, and unites the external thing with itself. The outer stimulus rouses the Ego to reproduction, that is, to the reproduction of the stimulus as extended, or, in general, of the environment of nature. We have called the psychical factor internal ; it is doubly so, both in regard to external nature and in regard to the human body. The Ego not only 92 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS internalizes the vibratory movement of the former, but also the neural molecular movement of the lat- ter. The nervous system showed an outer return of its energy, in some form of succession; the Ego is an inner return which cancels succession, and which is the Psychosis. I can only feel in so far as the Eiro reverses the incomins: molecular succession, which beo;an with stimulating the end-nerve. If I touch this table with my finger-tips, I get a Sensation of the object. The end-nerve is stimulated and there is a molecular movement in the nerve to the central organ, where I feel the stimulus. That is, there is an ideal return to the peripheral contact; I go back to it mentally, the Ego returns to the starting-point of the stim- ulus, it reverses the molecular succession, which, if continued, would simply render Sensation impossible. I, the Ego, negate the successive movement along its whole line, and convert the stimulus into a Sensation by making it return into itself, and thus reproduce the object, which is the original stimulus. This transmuting or redirecting power has been more or less distinctly acknowledged by psychologists, and has been given various names, such as sensoriura or sensation continuum. In a general way both these terms mean that the par- ticular stimulus has to be transmitted to and trans- formed by some universal agent of Sensation, SENSATION. 93 and then it can be retransmitted to its particular locality on the bodily periphery. Thus, how- ever, in order to explain an activity, a new and unnecessary faculty or activity is introduced, which itself needs explanation and co-ordination. But in fact it is simply the Ego going through its process, having the stimulus of the object and the resulting molecular movement of the nerves as its content. This Ego, which in its own nature is the return to unity with itself out of difference, cancels the successive difference of the molecular movement of the nerves and produces the return which is the essential fact of Sensation, this return involving the ideal reproduction of the object. In the present sphere there will be manifested three stages, in which we shall see the Ego trans- muting more and more completely the outer into the inner, canceling the vibratory movement of both the nerves and the external world into a deeper and deeper return, and thus making three different cycles of Sensation. The first is con- fined to the corporeal organism, the second em- braces the material body in contact with the organism, the third reaches out to the material body at a distance from the organism and includes that. Three different cycles starling from three different peripheries — the organic, the contigu- ous, and the separated, or the inner, middle and outer cycles — show the Ego taking up into Sen- 94 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE FSYCHOiSIS. sation its immediate organism and the external world, I. There is first the cycle of the corporeal organism, being inside the human body. The molecular movement, whatever be the cause of its excitation, ia carried to the central organ, where the succession is canceled, and we have what is called feeling, the most immediate form of Sensation. With the return to the starting- point of the excitation, the cycle is complete, and, having both center and circumference, possesses self-movement. That is, the neural movement, being turned back upon itself, becomes self-mov- ing. That which transforms the molecular move- ment into the cycle of self-movement is the Ego, since the latter is by its own nature the self-return. In such a cycle each portion of the nerve has an automatic power; it must be able to receive a stimulus, to react against it, to separate from it, sending it forward. Thus each nerve-cell in itself is a small cycle, else it could not take up and transmit any inner or outer stimulus. Then there is the single line or neural circuit, finally the entire system of circuits reaching to every part of the body. In the present case there is no direct external stimulus, no contact with any outer object; the organism has its own inner stimulus. This is often unknown, and brings about nervous action in disease. A sudden tic or stitch is an excita- SENSATION. 95 tion within the organism itself ; there is also an inner locomotion often, without any outer cause. Imagination can bring about intense neural movements with corresponding sensations. II. When an external object is brought into contact with the corporeal organism, a new environment is drawn into the cycle of Sensation ; we begin to feel or to sense the outer world, that is, we start to making the external object inter- nal and to reproducing the same. A periphery of contiguity surrounds our organism, which has to take it up and to transform it into an inner realm of sensation, this being the first stage of all knowledge. Our bodies on every side touch things, which stimulate the end nerves to a cyclical activity of various stages. In the first place, the stimulus of contact is located on the surface of the total organism, wherever this stimulus may be applied. It is a curious fact that each point on the human body is designated specially and known, if it be stimu- lated. How can that be? The stimulus on the thumb differs from that on the forefinger, the Ego discriminates them, each is supposed to have what psychologists call a local sign, of which local signs there must be many thousands if not millions on the area of one human body. Really, however, there is here a special cycle of Sensation passing from the part stimulated to the center and back again through the act of the 96 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIiS. Ego, which cancels the incoming molecular suc- cession to its starting-point at the stimulus. Localization is very significant as showing the ideal counterpart of the Ego to the molecular movement; thus the Ego feels the stimulus at its beginning. In the second place, not only the locality on the surface of the organism is designated, but the total organism moves itself, changes its place. The external object in contact produces the stimulus, which is localized; but now the organism breaks the contact, separates itself from the contiguous object and thus gets rid of the stimulus. This demands another cycle in which there is an outward activity from the center which moves the whole body and makes it tran- scend its limits in space. Or the central power, having localized the stimulus of contact at a cer- tain point, moves that point away from the con- tiguous object. In the third place, the total organism locates itself afresh, takes another position, comes into a new contact. Thus it has begun to show its mastery over space, it transcends and posits its own spatial limits. We saw that the Ego ob- tained an inner or immediate control of the organism in feeling first, but now it shows an outer or mediate control of the organism in loco- motion. The Ego at first located the stimulus of the body, now it locates the whole body. The SENSATION. 07 Ego is acljusting the body to an external world of contact, . with which the latter unites and separates accordino; to the process of the Ego. III. The cycle of Sensation reaches out and takes up an external object not in immediate contact with the organism. The stimulus now passes through a vibratory medium which im- pinges on a nerve-end and this connects with the central organ. Thus the environment is still further extended and embraces objects at a dis- tance. The ear and the eye are the end organs which receive their stimulus from the vibrations or undulations of a medium. This stage has the two preceding stages as its conditions, which it resumes into itself. The vibrating medium is the stimulus which touches the peripheral nerve-ends first ; this is the sta^i-e of immediate contact. But the Ego distinofuishes this vibrating medium from the ex- ternal object of contact; one is an undulatory succession, the other is not, but is fixed and cohesive. Now the Ego cancels this undulatory succession of the external medium, as it canceled the molecular succession of the nerves. The result is the new cycle of Sensation, which extends along the entire undulatory line to the object as its source. The Ego now senses the external object at a distance. The two kinds of vibra- tions, organic and extra-organic, the Ego takes u[), cancels and preserves as ideal ; this makes the 7 98 PSYCBOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. Sensation. The vibration is the element of dif- ference, while the Ego is the return out of difference. In this way the world of Sensation, of which the Ego with its corporeal organism is the center, has been enormously extended. In fact there is hardly any limit to it; by those new eyes, the telescope and the miscroscope, the invisible is made visible in the infinitely distant and in the infinitely small; by those new ears, the telephone and the microphone, the far-off voice and tlie still small voice are literally heard. The horizon of Sensation keeps widening with the years ; an instrument picks up the hitherto unseen and unheard and carries them into the field of vision and hearing. What constitutes a stimulus? It too is often a process which reflects the Ego. The end-organ first must accept the outer contact or vibration, and be one with the same and be controlled ; then it must react, separate and be itself; then it must take up the stimulus within itself and continue it. When you are roused, you take the shock and are shocked; then you react, assert yourself as distinct; then you control the shock, and take it along with you as something canceled. The end-organ particularizes the grand sea of vibrations flowing to the organism, confines them to one small nerve-channel, gives the first chauGje from outer to inner by adding to the vibration SENSATION. 99 the neural cyclical principle. The second change takes place when the molecular movement rouses the mental act or the Ego, which also accepts, then reacts and cancels the successive molecular wave, and so reaches bnck to the starting-point of this wave. The Ego therein annuls Time and Space, or succession and extension, and thus is purely internal. The Ego is non-material, that is,' the negation of matter. The last and finest movement of mat- ter, the neural molecular movement, it has reversed, othered ( or altered), negated. It others the neural line to the periphery of the organism, feels and localizes the stimulus ; it reaches beyond the organism through the vibratory movement to the object starting the same, taking it up, cancel- ing it, thus sensing the object. The brain in and of itself cannot cancel the vibrations of the object, because it must itself vibrate in response ; it ie too like them to master them; it cannot hold them ideally, but propagates them really, though in a finer form. The mind which grasps vibra- tion must be more than vibration, which cannot seize itself; the Ego is just that which can turn back after separation and grasp itself. Vibra- tion has to be reversed, else it would go on, wave after wave, forever ; vibration must be trans- formed into Ego, when it becomes Sensation. In comprehending Sensation the most im[)or- tant thinii; is to show that the Ei2;o, in annullino- 100 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. the neural molecular movement, preserves it ideally, that this annulling is a takiog-up and othering of it, yet just therein a keeping of it. (Compare Hegel's use of the German word -4m/- hehen.) We shall find the Ego proceding thus with its object throughout its entire movement. For instance the Ego in memory has an image of the object; the real object is canceled, but still is ideally preserved. The procedure of the Ego is not, therefore, annihilation, but a kind of trans- lation of the outer into the inner; the destructive act does not destroy but saves. Even in the physical world we may sometimes note a similar fact. Was not the destruction of Pompeii that which has preserved it to this day? That old Roman town had long since vanished, unless it had once been overwhelmed by Vesuvius. Now we pass through its houses and thread its narrow streets, and behold it quite as it was 1,800 years ago ; destruction has saved what else had per- ished by Time, so that we see that destruction has really destroyed destruction, or negation has negatived itself and become a positive reality. In like manner. Sensation negates the object as external in order to take it up and possess it. The object passses through the zero-point of the Ego, losing its extension, its geometrical shape, its materiality. But just this negative process is its preservation and the basis of its reconstruction ; the Ego recreates it, projects it anew, makes it SENSATION. 101 real. For I do not get an image, I get the real object; the image of the tree I know as image, but the real tree 1 know as reality. Once more we mnst make plain to onrselves, that the Ego has to create over again in external shape every- thing that it senses; it has to make the world anew, after the original divine fiat, in order to possess the world. Such creative act is, however, conditioned upon the annulment of the external object, which annulment in its turn is annulled, and the positive result is the reality as given in Sensation by the Ego. One should go to the bottom of the matter and try to see how the Ego can negate the extended object. In the first place, the object as extended is itself in an external, alienated, negative condi- tion, being the opposite of Self. Now the Ego too is the different in itself, yet also the return out of the same ; hence it can respond to the negative character of the extended object and also overcome it. Such is, in fact, the movement of the Ego as subject-object. The material thing is made subject by the Ego, but this is also object in itself. So the material thing through its negation by the Ego is ideally preserved and reproduced as object by the Ego — which is the completed act of Sensation. 102 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. General Obsekvations on Sensation. The discussion of Sensation (often confused with Perception) occupies a large place in the history of Thought. It is the gate of Psychology, not by any means easy to pass and not infre- quently, we fear, it is never passed, even by some who write on the science. We shall append a few miscellaneous observations, which may serve to illustrate and to re-state partially the positions taken in the preceding account. 1. Certain questions will be naturally asked in this connection. Where docs the transfer take place between matter and mind? The form of this interrogation makes the answer contradic- tory. WJiere is demanded. Now if you locate the mind, you put it into space, you make it material, finite. The very point is that the mind must annul not only place but the molecular movement from place to place. The answer might be: this transfer occurs everywhere along the material lines from the object to the Ego, all of which is just the reversal of such a movement. Similar is the question, Whereabouts is the Ego situated in the brain or body? Where is the seat of the soul? Des Cartes, as is well known, located the latter in the pineal gland. But the same difficulty happens. How can you put into a given place that which transcends place, negates it and reduces it to an element or SENSATION. 103 moment? The point of connection is not to be found with the finest microscope, for the reason that it is not a point, not a phice. Where does the brain touch the Ego? It does not touch the Ego ; if it could, the latter would drop back into matter, into difference, which it has just transcended and negated in order to be Ego. The external object touches the nerve- ending, but the function of the Ego is to cancel this contact, aud so take it up ideally into itself. That is, the Ego is just the negation of material contact, and only on account of this can it feel. We may also ask when does all this transpire? After or before what ? The answer can be given : It transpires instantaneously and all the while. The Ego transcends Time as well as Space, else it were not the Ego. There is no temporal suc- cession in the return to the point of contact or to the external object; the Sensation is at once. To be sure, we can originate a molecular move- ment outward through the efferent nerve by an act of will, which is the finitizing of the Ego, but the intellectual act is the reverse. The animal has Sensation, or what Aristotle calls the sensitive soul. The animal feels, has locomotion ; in this stage man and animal are alike. The differentiation between them takes place in the higher activities of mind; yet even there it is very gradual, it is not so easy to dis- 104 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. prove that the animal is wholly incapable of what we call thinking. Many attempts have been made to state the process of Sensation. To say that the external object brings a stimulus to the nerve-end, and the afferent nerve carries the message to the brain, where it is registered for the Ego or mind to read, is no account of Sensation in its com- plete process. The great question is : How does the stimulus reach the Ego, what change takes place in the latter, and why is it that the Ego reaches out and takes in the object? The insight must be had that the Ego is in itself the negation of the incoming wave, of the external, of matter ; it is the other of the outside and of what comes from the outside, being the very process of internalization in the present sphere ; it is the making of the object ideal. Sensation has begun to ideate the material world. The movement of the object to the Ego is a progression in Space and Time, and hence meas- urable. The period required for light to come from an object to the eye, then to pass from the eye to the brain, is subject to quantity. The rapidity of the molecular movement from the hand to the brain has been measured by scientists, as is claimed; 111 feet per second is its rate accordinii; to Helmholtz : certainlv it has the ele- ment of mensuration. But when this progression i:ouses the Ego, it stops, it is reversed, it is SENSATIOy. 105 made the opposite. Thus the infinite progress of matter (as well as of Space and Time) is transformed by the Ego into the infinite jDrocess of mind. The former may be conceived as a straight line running ad infinilum, the latter may be conceived as circular, a return into Self, or a cycle. W^e may conceive the cjcle of Sensation with two halves; the first is the sweep from the object to the Ego, or material ; the second is the sweep from the Ego to the object, or ideal. Or we may say that the external world in its manifold phases flows in waves to the universal sea of the Ego, where all particularit}' of Matter, Space and Time is swallowed u[), yet preserved, and made to appear again ideally in Sensation. The whole progressive movement from object to Ego is material, undulator}', successive; the whole re- gressive movement from Ego to ol)ject is ideal, instantaneous, and the total cycle. The medium of the first — air, luminiferous ether, molecular nerve-fluid — is material; but the medium of the second is of the spirit, is non-material, being just the negation of matter. Undoubtedly the comprehension of the thought before us requires, that we elevate our thinking out of its material form, out of the image taken from nature, into the form of the Ego. Think- ing is of two kinds ; one kind bears simply the impress of externality, of material things, but 106 PSYCHOLOGY AND TEE PSYCHOSIS. the other seizes the very act of internality, and holds it up before itself as the complete process of the Ego. It is true that the Ego is here taken for granted, being the assumption of all psychol- ogy, as well as of all knowledge. There is a natural tendency to place the Ego in the brain, inasmuch as the external stimulation goes to the brain where the Ego is roused. Let us grant so much of a localizing of the Ego, which, however, immediately annuls such loca- tion, and feels on the surface of the organism, and sees at a distance from it. If we accept the place where for the Ego, at once it is not there but elsewhere. Unquestionably the Ego must take up externalit}^ then annul it, and finally reproduce it. Such is its process. The Ego is the indifference-point (negation of difference), through which the external world must pass in order to be sensed, and by which it must be posited anew. At first the Ego (being difference also) adopts, takes up, responds to externality; herein the Ego might be called both material and local ; yet it annuls this externality, indeed it receives the same in order to annul it, and thus asserts itself as non-material and non-local. 2. Tlius in a general way we conceive the pas- sage from the world outside to the world inside, from non-Ego to Eiro, from matter to soul. Often in previous ages has the problem been raised and labored over; but at the present time we see SEXSATIOlSr. 107 a renewed effort. There are really three prob- lems involving three difficult transitions. The external object is the source of vibrations ; how do these vibrations spring up? Then the vibra- tion must be converted into nerve-energy or a molecular movement ; what is the explanation of such a change? Finally the molecular agitation rouses the Eo-o and Sensation is the result. The outer world starts a movement which is first innerved and then is egoized in its primal shape. A group of psychologists are occupying them- selves WMth the organic side of Sensation spe- cially. Their chief category or distinctive predi- cate is that of the neural molecular movement, by which they seek to explain. mind. But mind is the reversal, the opposite of such a movement; the Ego has, as often said already, to negate the onijoing material undulation of any kind, and return to the starting point thereof. The nature of the Ego is well illustrated by its treatment of the image on the retina of the eye. That image is, of course, a shadow, not reality, as is the image in a mirror. But this shadow is transformed into reality when it reaches the Ego. Yonder tree which I see may be a shadow on the retina, yet it is a real tree to the Ego, which will not accept the shadow but converts it to reality. The molecular ima^e it transmutes back to nature. When I see the shadow of a tree, I know it to be shadow, and I do not mistake it for the actual 108 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. tree, unless I am in some state of delusion. The vibration transforms the real object to image, but the Ego returns and transforms the image back to reality. Nor is this all. The image of the object is inverted on the retina, and so it must be trans- mitted to the Ego. Still we do not see the external world turned upside down ; there is a correction of the inversion somewhere. Such a correction can only take place in the Ego, when it cancels the entire vibratory line and resumes it as its own. Thus the inversion is inverted back again, and the image is made to return to reality. Nor is this yet all. There is a double image on two retinas ; the outer object is dii})licated on its way to the Ego by the two eyes, yet we do not see double, unless by some derangement of vision. The object is much reduced in size on the retina, yet this reduction is also corrected- Many of these corrections in regard to the external object are the result of experience, yet experience itself is only possible through the Ego. Herein we see a total reconstruction along the entire line from the object to Ego. The act of vision is primarily a destruction of externality which is reduced to a shadow and then to zero, just in order that it be reconstructed and restored through the Ego, which thus gets to be master and indeed creator of the external. sensation: io9 Thus do we seek to think Sensation, and to formuhite the thought thereof. Still the essence of the matter lies not in the naked formula, but in the thinking of the thought. The process cannot well be remembered, for the activity is not that of memory but of thinking. Memory may recall the words, ])ut thinking is the original creative eneigy of the process itself; to get pos- session of this we have to re-think it every time. The Eofo is not a machine with which vou can manufacture results ; you cannot put 3^our problem into the hop[)er and grind out the answer by turning the crank. To a degree you must make over Ihe machine every time it is used, you will make it more easily because you have made it before, still it has to be re-made The Ego exists but potentially, till it be active, then it exists really. The Ego has to make itself in order to be actual ; without such self-activity it is as if it were not — a mere possibility. 3. In this transition from non-Ego to Ego, from matter to mind, or from the extended to the non- extended, the term unknowable has intrenched itself specially, though it has been applied in a number of other relations. Says Hamilton : " How the immaterial can be united with matter, how the unextendod can apprehend extension, how the indivisible can measure the divided — this is the mystery of mysteries to man." ( Works of jReid, Note D.) But the Ego is the 110 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. divided, the separated within itself, as every act of consciousness will tell ; and itis also the united in the return to self. Mind is what matter is, yet is just the negation of matter, as is implied in the word non-material. It would seem that Hamilton, though he has written so much on the nature of consciousness and believes in it so firmly, had never fully analyzed his Ego and seen it as a process. It may also be noted that the above extract makes unnecessary confusion by putting the negation where it does not belong, as for instance, the unextended (mind) is contrasted with the extended (matter). But really the extended (matter) ought to have the negative in it, since it is the negation, the opposite, the other of mind. The true way of expressing the above dualism is by the terms Ego and non-Ego, inasmuch as the material world is the negative of the Ego, which negative the latter has to overcome in order to know the same. Here we ouijlit to make a brief examination of the so-called idea of the Unknowable, which has wound itself under many forms into our liter- ature, and into our habits of thinking or rather of not thinking, (a) It is a self-devouring con- tradiction. When we are able to affirm that a thing is unknowable, we know a good deal about it already, indeed the essential fact of it. If we declare that a certain territory is unknowable, we must have been over the border and have JSIJNSATION. Ill brought back a very important piece of knowl- edge. To be sure, I may say that such a ter- ritory is unknown, and draw the limit of my knowledge at a certain line ; but concerning what is beyond that line I can make no predica- tions, least of all that it is unknowable. (6) The man who uses such a term, and talks it to us in a long discourse, or spreads it before us in print over many i)ages, presupposes just the opposite in us, the listeners or readers ; he takes for granted that we can know his Unknowable unless he is making game of us and slyly play- ing a practical joke. In like manner, ho who declares that truth is unknowable, or that man cannot know truth, unconsciously assumes that there is one truth knowablc, namely, that man cannot know the truth. The universe rests upon affirmation, not u[)on negation; specially does it rest upon the affirmation of knowl- edge, of spirit; language itself refuses to be made the tool of the negative, and, even in denying, secretly affirms, (c) Just the opposite we assert to be the essence of mind — it is the knowable, the self-revealing, the self-uttering. Moreover the world is the knowable in all its manifestations, its destiny is to be known and not to remain unknown. Undoubtedly there are things unknown to us at present; but the move- ment of man is from the unknown to the known. The sources of the Nile furnished the proverb 112 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. for the unknown to all classical antiquity, to Egypt itself, and to modern ages down to the present generation; but now we have to throw away the proverb. The adage about seeing into the millstone still holds, but it is in danger ap- parently; within the last few months (1896) men have begun to look into the human body, hitherto opaque, and locate objects inside of it through a new kind of ray. Man's grand pred- icate is the knowable, being just the essence of his Ego which in its very process rises out of all limits, even its own. The Unknowable denies his spirit, crushes him back into impassable bounds, or tries to do so, as if to -make him a homunculus in his little glass bottle. Nor can we help taking brief notice of the air of modesty, sometimes of downright humility, which the Unknowable is inclined to put on. Its follower is so much more modest than that other man, who, brazen-faced, atSrms the right, nay the necessity of the Ego, to assert itself , and to free itself of the fetters of ignorance and of error. I have often to confess that a certain matter is unknown to me; but because it may be unknown to me, I do not need to say out of sheer modesty that it is unknowable. In fact, I am led to wonder at my marvelous modesty, which leads me to think that what I do not know and may not be able to know, is unknowable and so must remain unknown to mankind forever. SENSATION. 113 It is strange that " the philosophy of experi- ence" is employed to bolster up the Unknowable; yet if we take the experience of the last one hundred years, what does it say in regard to the limits of knowledge ? If wo judge of the advance- ment of science in the past, what is the inference as to its future? Just the opposite of the Un- knowable; experience rather affirms that all is knowable. 4. If the Ego can take up so many forms of difference in nature, why all this change and refinement of vibration? The outer undulation of the air or of the ether Cso-called) is trans- formed and refined into the molecular movement of the nerves; this again is refined still more in the brain, till it stimulates the Ego, which takes it up, and then others the whole line to the ex- ternal object. But why so many changes, and supi)osed refinements of the undulatory line from the object to the Ego — no less than three ? Why does not the Ego take up the external line at once, if it be able to respond to it? In general, the answer may be given that only thus are the distinctions of nature taken up and internalized by the Ego. The different vibrations of light and sound have to be received by the organism as different, through the special senses, and then ideated into the unity of the Ego, which in this way gets external difference. Without such dis- tinction and specialization hearing and sight 8 114 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. would drop down to a kind of touch, which is the general sense, as yet undiflerentiated. The organism receives them as different, taking them from the external world, and then unifying them in a central organ, which is the stimulus of the Ego. That is, the Ego first accepts from the outside this difference, then cancels it into unity with itself and finally reproduces it, which last act completes the sensation of the external world. What is the use of the image on the retina? It is mediatorial ; thus the Ego can take up form, external limited form with all its lines, and see the object as such. For the image, though taken up, must also be canceled, and therein ideally preserved as the object itself. Mark, therefore, that we do not see the image, which is negated, but the object as real. No doubt the image represented the object on the retina, but the point is that this representation must be canceled, so that the real object is seen, is present in the Ego, not present in the brain, as is sometimes said; for if the material object were present in the material brain, the latter would have the worst of the situation and probably die on the spot. But the Ego cannot be so hurt by the presence of the object in it. The luminiferous vibrations present the form and the lines of the object to the special peripheral organ, the eye, which takes it up; no other sense can take it up, SENSATION. 115 the ear cannot see, just as little can the eye hear. This ditfercnce, then, is still preserved in the Ego, and indeed projected into externality. 5. This transition from the non-Eiro to the Ego, or matter to spirit, is the starting-point lor three chief attitudes of the mind, three views of the world, three methods of philosophizing which have prevailed since man began to think, and are three main strands of the history of philosophy. («) The materialistic view maintains some form of molecular movement, of external succession, to be the explanation of mental activity. In one way or other it denies the ideal return of the Ego, and employs in phice thereof some phase of material progression. (6) The dualistic view holds to the absolute separation of the two sides, or declares their union as soipething incompre- hensible. We can at most see the separation or the absolute difference between two elements, mind and matter; then we observe them united in an act of perception or sensation ; but how this separation passes into unity is just the unknowable, (c) The idealistic view takes many forms; it may quite deny externality and other- ness, or at least the ability to know the same. But it may give to externality the fullest object- ive right, and still behold it as a manifestation of mind, with which mind fraternizes. It has been often felt that there is a theistic element in knowing; this too has found many 116 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. forms of expression. The Cartesians elaborated the doctrine oi Occasional Causes, and seem in the main to have deemed the knowing of matter by mind, of the extended by the unextended as the direct act of God, a special intervention of the deity for the occasion. Leibnitz developed in oi)position his theory of Pre-established Harmony, which reduced the many acts of spe- cial providence to one primal creative act ; God wound up mind on the one hand and matter on the other, as if they were two watches, and set them both to running ; both continue to go together and in harmony, though each is wholly independent of the other. The Scotch school seeks chiefly to refute the representative theory of Perception (better. Sensation), and so is essentially polemical and negative ; for it does not try to explain its doctrine of Immediate Perception positively, but denies in the most explicit manner the comprehensibility of its own cardinal fact. It batters down the enemy's view, but that does not prove that its own view is correct. 6. As set forth in the preceding account, Sensation is the internalizing of the sensuous object immediately ; whatever comes is received ; there is no break, no fixed separation, no inter- ruption in the flow from outer to inner. In like manner the Ego is one continuous succession of states, each quite displacing the other; it SENSATION. 117 responds to the influence from without, hardly maintaining its conscious Self in the stream of external impressions. But the Ego has difference, separation in its complete process, which is next to manifest itself. The Ego will, accordingly, lay hold of the particular object, separate it, distinguish it from other objects. Therein the Ego asserts its self-hood, its individuality, refusing to be swal- lowed up in this deluge of the sense-world. A new phase of Sense-perception thus opens, which we have called distinctively, Perception. SECOND SECTION — PERCEPTION. It has been already noted that Perception is the second stage of the Ego in the total process of Sense-perception. That is, the Ego is in its divisive stage primarily; it separates, isolates, particularizes the object of sense, holding it apart from the flow of Sensation ; then it iden- tifies this object with itself, projecting the same into the world as a real individual. In traveling throuofh a country, trees, hills, houses, streams sweep through the mind in rapid succession, making a moving panorama of varied scenery. But I stop the flow and direct the mind to a single object, a peculiar kind of tree, separating it from every thing else. I sense all the other objects, but I perceive the tree. In this case, the total act of Sensation I seize and do not permit to vanish, the Ego instinctively or (118) rERCEPTION. 110 voluntarily begins to control the object from within, rescuin<^ it, as it were, from the great river of Sensation. To be sure the object must come from the outside to the Ej;o, which first senses it and then perceives it, holding it fast, making it permanent. Plainly the Ego is getting herein a new mastery of the external world. Perception, accordingly, is the Ego separating some special object or element in the stream of Sensation, identifying the same with itself, and then reproducing it as particularized in the external world. In Sensation every object of the external world which presents itself to the senses, is taken up, so that there is an incessant inrushing flow of outer stimulation to the organism. A con- tinuous stream from the circumjacent environ- ment is rolling in upon the Ego, which will be absorbed therein, unless it assert itself and start to master the incoming current of the sense- world. This is the general function of Percep- tion, which will seize hold of some particular object of the total stream, and make the same its own. The terms Sensation and Perception have been much used in Psychology and often very sharply discriminated. Still they have remained some- what vague in spite of the lengthy discussion by Hamilton, Porter, and others. The distinction between them, even when correctly made as to 120 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. matter, has been capricious in form; the psy- chologist has not traced their genesis back to the movement of the Ego, but has picked up the terms and their difference from the outside ap- parently at random. To be sure, he has evolved their meaning from himself, but what we wish to see is their evolution out of the Self as such. In other words we must have the Psychosis, the complete psychical process of which Sensation and Perception are but two separate stages, before we can fully reach around and take in their meaning. The Ego in Perception will manifest its move- ment in three distinct ph:ises of activity, which we shall call Impression, Attention, and Retention. Of the three, the first is more the involuntary act of the Ego, moved from the outside to seize the external object ; the second is more the vol- untary act of the Ego, moved from within to seize the object ; the third may result from both the involuntary and voluntary act of the Ego, which now not only seizes, separates and particu- larizes the external object, but also retains the same, that is, removes it from the external con- ditions of Space and Time. Already in Sensation we could not wholly leave outSpaco andTime. In sensing the external object in contact with the bodily periphery as well as at a distance from it, we ran upon the Space- conception, though in a very indistinct way. In PERCEPTION. 121 like manner, succession in Time is involved in every form of undiilalory movement, and thus underlies every cycle of Sensation. Wo shall now give a short discussion of Space and Time, since they arc very prominent elements of Perception, and will henceforth be woven into the whole movement of Psychology. The beginner may find the subject somewhat difficult at first; he can omit the following note (extending to Impression) till he returns for a review, or feels the need of grappling with all the pre- suppositions of the science. Note on Space and Time. In every age Space and Time have attracted the attention of philosophers, poets, myth-makers; they appear as the external setting of all things ; they are pure externality, in contrast with the Ego which is pure internality. Yet the Ego has to take them up and internalize them, these complete opposites of itself; it is at first conditioned by them, but it must at last reach over and embrace its own condition ; thus it is free, self-contained, self-determined. We have already found that in consciousness the Ego distinguished itself from the non-Ego, or object, which is external to the Ego, and then it cognized the non-Ego or object (see In- troduction, p. 29). Thus externality is posited by the cognition of the object — externality, outerness, otherness. I must first oilier the 122 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. thincr in order to know it, but in knowing it I make it my own, identify it with my Ego, even as the opposite of my Ego. What is the result of this process? I know the object as opposite and external to my Ego which is Self; thus the object is external to Self as such ; being out- side the Ego. it is outside of Self, and so ontside of itself; or, if is the other of itself, being the other of Self, which Self can be only the Ego. So the sensuous object of the Ego is cognized as the opposite of the Ego, of selfhood; thus it is spatial, each particle of it is outside the other particle, and remains in that way ; also the object, being external to Self, is changeful, transitory, temporal. In other words, the object of Sense- perception is flung by the Ego into Space and Time, which are none the less its natural condi- tions, the actual fact of its being, as we shall see. Still further is the externality of the Ego carried in Sense-perception ; it perceives not only the sensuous object as spatial and tempo- ral, but rises to a perception of the pure forms of Space and Time. The sensuous object of the Ego is not simply particular, not simply this extended and transitory thing of Sensation, but the Esfo as such is externalized, is made into pure otherness of itself as its object. Not this particular example of otherness, such as is the object perceived, but the total Ego is now to be seen as the other to itself, and, being so, it PEBCEPTION. 123 becomes the universal otherness to Self which we call Space and Time, and in which the particular percept is posited. For all Perception is par- ticuhir, put into the form of Here and Now, limited to the immediate present ; still this limit will be transcended, and the percept we shall see rescued from the devouring maw of the Void and the Vanishing. Therein the Ego will rise above its particular, limited form of otherness, such as is given in the sensuous object, and attain to a perception of the pure forms of Space and Time. As already implied repeatedly, this self-exter- nality falls into two forms, both of which are derived from the process of the Ego, its identity and its difference. First is the externality to Self, which is identity with difference canceled, simple oneness, fixity, homogeneousness — Space — each point of which is external to itself, yet identical with itself, infinitely divisible, abso- lutely penetrable, the possibility of all shapes, being itself the shapeless ; whose individuality it is to be totally devoid of individuality. Then there is difference with identity canceled; the point is now different from itself continuously, repelling itself from itself, thus becoming a moment, which, when it is, is not; so there is movement, an endless identical movement of pure difference — Time. Space is one beside the other, which other is the one again — simple extension (alongsideness). Time is one after 124 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. the other, which other is the one again — simple succession (afterness). Thus the process of the Ego falls completely asunder, being externalized ; first it divides into Space and Time, then each of these infinitely sub-divide into points mutually exclusive and self-external. Space may be conceived of as absolute rest, Time as absolute unrest, yet both absolutely vacant ; one is blank permanence, the other blank transitoriness, both being blank. Space is the Void, the Universe emptied of everything except it own emptiness; Time is the Vanish- ing, the Universe emptying itself of everything except its own emptying. The Psychosis of Time and Space is to see them as the process of the Ego completely fallen asunder and externalized, reduced to a state of absolute otherness, yet therein still itself. Thus the percept gets from the Ego the form of the spatial and temj^oral ; also the Ego posits pure Space and Time as objects to itself. Yet these are also real, existent in the world, not simply subjective or mine, not simply my object without any corresponding reality. There is likewise the universal Ego, the divine, creative Ego, to which Space and Time are also object, for this Ego too must other itself and become external to itself, wherein lies its divine, creative act, one of whose miinifestations is the real externality of Space and Time. PERCEPTION. 125 Here we may notice Kaut's doctrine, from which most of the modern discussions of this subject have i)roceeded. The German piiiloso- pher holds that Space and Time are merely forms of intuition (Anschauunr/) wliich we may translate in the present connection to be forms of the Ego in Sense-perce[)tion {Kritik der reinen Vernun/t, die transce7identale Aesihetik). That is, Space and Time are only subjective forms, in which the Ego senses things, and have no real objectivity. Such a view reduces them to a mere appearance, a delusion, a lie told by the world to the Ego. But Space and Time are also objective, creations of the divine Ego, in fact just its externality, otherness, outsideness of Self, since it must also be the opposite of itself to be the totality. Thus the eternal creative Idea makes itself its own object, first in the purely external forms of Space and Time, which are, accordingly, the other of Self in its absolute being. In Sense-perception theEgo not only cognizes but recognizes Space and Time as real, as the objectification of the universal Ego whose knowing is creating. The human Ego as subject-object recognizes the act of the divine Ego which is also sul)ject-object, and identifies the same with itself, which identification is knowledge. That is, in order to be truly known, my Space and Time must be recognized and identified as God's Space and Time. 126 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. Thus again we note that a theistic (not theo- logic) strand winds through all psychology, over- arching the science of knowing (epistemology) from beginning to end. The individual Ego through knowing the external world, and reach- ing up from cognition to recognition, mediates itself with the Divine Ego, and the consciousness of man finds its true counterpart and fulfillment in the consciousness of God. I. Impression. The object in the stream of Sensation is dis- tinguished and particularized by the Ego spon- taneously^ that is, without a conscious act of the Will. There is, in Impression, a specializing both of the object and of the Ego, but this spe- cializing act is as yet instinctive and involuntary. Impression is an involuntary Attention. The movement of the Ego in Impression is from its most external form as an automatic re- sponse to an outer stimulus, through its native bent to take up with some outside object by a kind of natural selection, to its acquired ten- dency for being impressed by certain things, which tendency, starting usually from inborn inclination or talent, is unfolded through the acquisitions of culture. Thus we may observe, in the movement of Impression, the general sweep of the Ego, whose PERCEPTION. 127 three stages herein can be designated as the organic, the native, and the cultured Impres- sion. The perceptive Ego receives the stream of sen- sations coming from the external world, which have in themselves variety, difference, degrees of intensity. Also this perceptive Ego is pre- disposed, through innate tendency and acquired equipment, to take up more directly and decid- edly some of these sensations than others. That is, it is more interested in certain objects than in others. The result is, a selection takes place, from the outside through some energy in the thinj^, as well as from the inside throug^h some interest of the Ego. Such is, in general, the first stage of Percep- tion, which we have named Impression. The word puts stress upon the determining power of the external object in relation to the Ego which is modified by that power, and which responds immediately to the difierences of the external world of Sensation. The Impression by its nature is immediate, instinctive, not consciously voluntary. Still the Ego in Impression has its process, its devolopment, moving from with- out to within, from external determination through the object toward internal determina- tion through itself. Yet this activity of the Ego in Impression never reaches the volitional stage, but remains spontaneous. The phases of the 128 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. present movement we shall set apart more dis- tinctly. I. The Ego, in the first place, responds im- mediately to the differences in the stream of Sensation, through the reaction of the organism. Such is the experience in case of a sudden pres- sure, pinch, or prick, a loud noise or a vivid li^ht. This is the most external form of Im- pression, since the Ego is so completely deter- mined from the outside, throuirh the affection of the organism. Still such an Impression is not merely the reflex action of the muscles or of the nerves, though this be involved. A brainless frog cannot have Impression, though its muscles twitch in response to an irritation. II. Native differences, in the next place, a])- pear in the Ego itself, which responds to the differences of the object in Sensation. The child begins to notice certain things, we say ; the light attracts it in distinction from darkness : it laughs in answer to its mother's laugh. The differences of the external world reaching it through the senses, beofin to call forth the innate differences in its Ego, which develop into temperament, talent, character. Early impres- sions are noted for their power, permanence, and even formative influence. The educator will carefully observe what impresses the child, what outer objects or actions find in it the response of attention, or interest, or imitation. The so- PERCEPTION. 129 called bent of nature tirst manifests itself in the answer which the child's Ego makes instinctively to the world of Sensation. III. The acquired differences of the Ego, that is, its different acquisitions in the form of knowl- edge, character, taste, respond to the differences of Sensation. A barbarian and a civilized man receive very different impressions from the same object. A Gothic window impresses a rustic and an architect diversely, still both are impressed. Here an apperceptive power plays in, the Im- pression is modified according to the content of the Ego. The main point is, however, that the Ego, though still immediatelvdetermined'by the object of Sensation, modifies it, indeed may choose it or reject it in an unconscious way. The acquired differences of the Ego, which have become instinctive, go back in most cases to native differences, which have been developed by activity and by fresh acquisitions in the same direction. One develops into culture on foun- dations largely given by nature ; the talent for art is an inborn one, yet it has also to be inbred, ere it comes to much. Thus the native and the acquired elements fuse indistinguishably in the Ego which receives the Impression, and deter- mines the latter, spontaneously, however. In this manner the Ego passes from being impressed by the object in the most external fashion by means of the reaction of the organ- 9 130 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. ism, to an Impression in which the Ego contrib- utes the largest part through its native and acquired qualities. This brings us to the point at "which the Eiro starts to determine itself from within consciously ; it begins to choose its own object, to sepaiate the same from tlie stream of Sensation, by an act of Will, and to appropriate this object of its choice. From Impression, which is an involuntary Attention, we pass to the voluntary one. II. Attention. Attention, as the second stage of Perception, distinguishes itself from Impression in being voluntary or intentional. The Ego from within determines itselF, and moves forth to get posses- sion of the sensuous object, which possession involves its reproduction. The movement of Attention is from the Ego particularizing and concentrating itself within itself, iJirouglt its separating and particulariz- ing the object in the stream of Sensation, to its internalizing and reproducing the same as a particular object. In the complete act of Attention, accordingly, there nmst be the concentration of Self, the partic- ularization of the object, and the uniting of the particularized object with the Self. All these three stages or phases are, however, one act of rEUCEPTION. 131 the Et'O in its threefold movement, which, when performed as a single immediate process of mind, shows the Psychosis of Attention. In popular speech we are often said " to mind a thing," that is, to put the whole mind upon an object, to focus our thoughts upon some particu- lar thing. Such an act is, in general, an act of Attention. There is first the mind focusing itself, secondly the object focused, thirdly the unitication of the two, whereby the object becomes ideated or perceived. It is well to note again that this object, when perceived, is projected by the Ego into externality. It is also well to observe at what point in the total meutal evolution Attention is introduced. Out of what does it develop and into what? In other words the procedure must be genetic, At- tention must arise in its proper place and define itself. It is not to be picked up on any emer- gency and thrust into some psychological gap ; it must be seen unfokling out of what has gone before and into what comes after. Its definition is not to be imposed upon it from the outside, but must be generated in the process of the Ego. Caprice, however brilliant, is not a sound definer. Attention has been very diversely treated by psychologists. Especially do they differ as to its place in the evolution of mind. Some put it first, some last, or almost so ; some deny it as 132 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. " a faculty of the soul," or as a distinct mental activity. Some give it much attention, some ^ive quite no attention to Attention. But it should be seen at the start unfoldingr out of sim- pie Sensation ; then its activity is continued all through the development of mind. There is quite as much Attention in Thought (the third stage of Intellect) as in Sense-perception (the first stage) ; still its unfolding belongs properly to the latter, where it first appears. Hence it is to be considered just here and not elsewhere or anywhere. In fact nothing can show the present chaotic method of psychologists than their treatment of Attention. The inner mental genesis is lost in mere experimentalism, or in pure caprice. This book, however, is not intended to be critical, and so we shall pass on, still holding to the faith that the human mind is an order and not a chaos, and that a prime duty of the psychologist is to reveal that order. The Ego now breaks into the stream of Sensa- tion which flows in upon us from the external world, and seizes some particular object in that stream, holding it fast and appropriating the same. The individual lives and moves in the realm of nature, of externality, which is always beating up against his senses and seeking entrance to ^ Ego. What an enormous mass of objects is tbrasl upon his organism, through vision, through PEIiCEPTION. 133 hearing, and through the other senses ! All arc importunately knocking for admission to the inner chamber of the Ego, where they will no longer be external and real, but internal and ideal. Moreover this outer world of objects is continu- ally shifting, every moment the scene changes and a new panorama slips into vision. Now, the senses let in everything unless they are stopped and controlled ; this control is a most important element in psychical life ; the Ego will simply be drowned in the vast ocean of Sensation, unless it draws itself out of the same and asserts itself. The fundamental characteristic of Attention is, therefore, willed separation — separation of Self from the sense-world. The Ego is first affected by the particular object of sense, or it has a sensa- tion ; then it separates itself from this immediate affection or excitation and observes the same, which is as yet one with the external object. Thus the sensation is no longer simple sensation, but is held off from the Ego by the Ego, which thereby beholds it and makes it objective. Such is the primal fact of Attention — this self-con- centration of the Ego which comes from separat- ing itself from the sensation. Still further, the total Ego, having centered itself, throws its whole power upon the sensation, separates it from all other sensations, seizes it, masters it, takes it up into itself. Thus after the disruption comes the redintegration, and the 134 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. Ego takes possession of all the sensations to which it gives attention, storing them up, as it were, in its ideal storehouse. Were it not for Attention, the world of Sensa- tion would be a mere passing panorama, an ever- flowing stream o^ impressions which rise and dis- appear with the moment, and in which the Ego would be absorbed, vanishing like a river which sinks away and is lost in the sands of the desert. Attention is the Ei^ro asserting: its own self-hood against absorption in the sense-world, it is the first distinctive act of individuality and remains henceforth active through all Psychology. The educative value of Attention is of the highest. Mental training may be said to begin with this act of concentration, which frees the Ego from an absorption in the sense-world. Here the school starts ; the child, in learning the first letter of the alphabet, has to separate his Self from all external matters and throw it upon the one object, the letter A, which must also be held apart from every other object for the time being. The pupil is taught, first of all, to break the endless chain of sensations, seize the impor- tant link and hold it till it be internalized. Re[)e- tition nmst come to his aid, and repetition is here repeated acts of Attention. Thus Atten- tion is the first mastery of the sense-world as well as the primal assertion of selfhood against PERCEPTION. 135 the might of the external. Therewith education has begun as regards both moral self-control and external knowledge. The object of Attention must at the start be chosen for the pupil by the teacher, who has gone in advance and organized the chaos of mere sensation. The selection of the best objects for Attention makes the best course of study. What are the best? That is a great pedagogical ques- tion, which is variously answered; but, in general, it may l)e said that those objects are worthiest of Attention which lead the individual most rapidly and securely into tlie highest cul- ture of the race. The pupil, however, must at last rise to making his own selection of that which he will attend to. Doubtless the Ego pays best attention to those things in which it has an interest. What is it that makes an object interesting? The Ego must be connected with it in some way ; the mind has some purpose which it subserves, some goal to which it leads. A botanist, a painter, a wood-chopper, a forester, all look at a tree, all have an interest in it and pay special Attention to it, yet in very different ways, accord- ing to the end which each has in view. But the ultimate interest of the Ego is to remove its limit of ignorance, to assert itself as limit-trans- cending, to know. To ' reach beyond present bounds is the necessity of the infinite nature of 136 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. man ; the spirit's true interest is to rise out of its confines. In Attention, the Will is prominent, of which there are two kinds. Unconsciously an object draws Attention to itself, we may say that there is Will in the act, but Will spontaneous, uncon- scious, such as we discussed under Impression. Then there is the conscious effort of the Will to bring the Attention to a matter from which the mind may rebound. The primal conquest of the sense-world is only accomplished through some training of the Will in the child, who is not drawn to his alphabet at first by interest. Per- chance he has to learn to subordinate interest to knowledge, and to subject ))leasure to duty in his first lesson. It is worth while to call to notice ao;ain the effect of Attention in its moral aspect. It is the foundation stone of character-buildino;. When ihe child withdraws itself from the dissi- pation of the senses and gathers itself for a con- centrated effort, it has begun self-control, which is ethical as well as intellectual, which should become a habit of conduct as well as of mind. All its life it will be called upon to exercise this command of Self, which starts with the first act of Attention, perchance with its first self-concen- tration upon the letter A. Truly in learning the alphabet of lettei's, the child is learning the PEBCEPTION. 137 alphabet of morals. The training in intellect and the training in character, here at least, go hand in hand ; the external information is worthy, but the inner discipline is yet worthier. To master the implements of culture, such as reading and writing, is very necessary, but to master Self in the same process is the real fruit of edu- cation. In the preceding remarks the movement of the Ego has been stated in a discursive way for the purpose of a general view in advance of a more precise formulation. We may now proceed to mark distinctively the three stages of Atten- tion. I. The separation of the Ego from the stream of Sensation, and its self-concentration ; the Ego particularizes itself. II. The separation of the sensuous object from the stream of Sensation through the Ego; the object is particularized. III. The Ego returns into itself with the particularized object, unites and identifies the same with itself; the object is ideated. Here airain we must exhort the student to verify the process in his own mental laboratory; he must make the Psychosis of Attention, unify- ins: in a single thrust of mind all that which is divided, analyzed, held asunder in the preceding exposition. Words are inherently separative and separated ; only the Psychosis can overcome 138 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. the separation which lies in all speech, and especially in terminology. I. In the first place, the Ego in Attention must purposely separate itself from Sensation. The external world flows inward incessantly through the senses, and floats the Ego helplessly away in the stream, till this Ego asserts itself as distinct, as Self, and holds itself apart from the great environing world-stream of objects. Such is the i^rimal act of Attention : voluntary sepa- ration of the Ego from the immediate imity of Sensation. Alreadv we have found, in discussing the Ego, that it had separation in its own movement, that it separated itself from itself in its second stage, to be restored to itself in its third stage. Perception is, in general, this second stage of the Ego, which tlieiein separates itself from the stream of Sensation. So it must do in order to be itself, it cannot be swallowed up in the sense-world. Still further, in Attention the Ego by its own native movement of will frees itself from the external and turns back to itself, holding aloof the object, which is now emphatically its other or ojiposite. Let us repeat the first act of Attention ; Self-concentration through volition, Self getting hold of itself, the primal deed of Self-mastery. The first stage of Attention, which pertains particularly to the Ego unfolding within itself as PERCEPTION. . 139 related to the sensuous object, will also show the customary movement. 1. First is the simple act of separation in which the Ego divides itself from the sense- world. The difference appears in its immediate form at the start, but the Ego cannot stay in such a condition. 2. The P^go not only separates itself from the sense-world, but turns back into itself, collects itself, and holds itself off from the stream of Sensation, which is its opposite. The simple separation of the previous stage has now deep- ened into mutual opposition. The Ego has turned back and concentrated itself within itself ; it has made itself individual, a particular dis- tinct Ego, not determined from without by the sense-world, which it posits as its other or object, and so it determines the same. 3. The Ego being now its own, the self-cen- tered and the self-determined, can determine the sense-world ; or, the Ego, having particularized itself, has also in the same act posited the object as particular, distinct, separated, and indeed separable in itself. Hence follows the next stage of Attention. II. As in the preceding stage the Ego separated itself from the stream of Sensation, and individ- ualized itself, so now it separates the particular object from the flow of external things, holds it, fixes it as here and now, wrenches it from the 140 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. extension of Space and the succession of Time. In Sensation the object is ceaselessly fleeting and indefinitely connected and continued ; but in Attention the Ego, having particularized itself, next particularizes the object. Thus the latter becomes distinctively a percept and the Ego the percipient. The sensuous thing is thereby rescued from the transitoriness of the sense- world, it is drawn out of the sea of oblivion, and fastened by Attention, which is thus a kind of salvation of the object. Here again we may regard the movement somevvhat more closely. Three stages: the immediate seizure of the object, the seizure with Space and the seizure with Time. 1. The Eiifo havino; liberated itself from its entanglement with the sense-world in simple Sensation, and having asserted itself as Self, turns about and seizes the object of Sensation, which it has selected. For the Ego is also object, and must identify the same with itself. The Ego is now particular, distinct, separate, so it impresses its seal upon the object which it particularizes by attending to it, by a simple act of Attention. 2. Bub in order more completely to particu- larize and to seize the object, the Ego must make a new separation, must distinguish the object from its other, from its limit. But what is that which is the other or the opposite of the sensu- PERCEPTION. 141 ous object? The Void or Space unfilled. From the object of Sensation, which is extension filled we pass to and beyond its limit which is extension unfilled or the Void, empty Space. That is, the Esro again shows itself as limit-transcendino;. Every sensuous object is made definite or is particularized by that which it is not, as well as by that which it is; it exists through its limit This ball which I hold up is made what it is by what it is not; if it had no limit against every- thing else in this room, it would not be a ball; all would be ball, that is, there would be distinct- ively no ball. Sensation gives us a filled exten- sion, but Attention puts the bound upon the same and hence calls up a non-filled extension. The fact of particularizing is the placing a limit, and the limit is the outer negation of the object as extended. Thus the Ego calls forth a filled and a non-filled extension, which together make up the total perception of Space. In Attention, therefore, the Ego begins to develop into the idea of Space. To be sure it by no means yet grasps the creative thought of Space, which is one of the most recondite in all philosophy. In this spatial particularization of the object we can discern the subtle sweep of the Ego through its various stages. When the thing sensed is separated from the indefinite continuity of the sense-world, that which is cut off is ex- 142 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. tension ; the Ego puts a spatial limit upon Space, and thereby makes the object definite. Let us note its movement herein, which we may distin- guish as follows : — (1) The Ego first separates the object from the external series, and breaks up the sensuous continuity ; it senses the filled Space, which has a limit. Accordingly it reaches out and takes up this limit of the object, which limit is the non-being of the object, yet at the same time its being. Thus the Ego comes to and grasps the Void, or the unfilled object, by its own ne- cessity moving from the filled object to the other or opposite thereof. (2) The Ego still holds fast to the object filled, now showing in itself the twofold element, the filled and the unfilled, or the object and the Void, as distinct, as opposite, as being and non-being. Here is the stage of the dualism of the Ego. (3) But each is through the other; there would be no object without the Void, and no Void without the object ; each not only limits the other but conditions the other. Thus they have a common underlying principle and are one ; both are extended, one filled and the other unfilled; both are sj)atial and consti- tute Space. So the Ego psychologically begins to take up the Space-idea through Attention. 3. If the E<:;o unites extension with the limit of extension, and thus gets the spatially limited object, ill like manner it unites succession in Time PEECEPTION. 143 with the limit of succession and gets the tempor- ally limited object. The sense-world is in a perpetual flow, coming and going; the senses, receiving its stimulations, are absorbed into this everlasting flux of Sensa- tion. All things are in Time, it is said; still the flow of the Time-stream must be arrested by the Ego, or, rather, the Ego must free itself from its immediate unity with Time, and seize the fleeting object, hold the same, and rescue it from its rush to oblivion, which rescue of the object is the Ego's own salvation. Here again there must be a separation, but of a new sort. The spatial object, though limited and definite as to extension, is not 3^et limited as to succession. So the Ego puts a limit here also, fixes the object in Time yet against Time, holds it fast against the Vanishing. The Ego stops the indefinite succession of objects of Sensation, and pays Attention to the one, retaining it through a certain lapse of Time. Then the Ego takes up the other or opposite of this persistent seizure, which opposite is the Vanishing, and holds the two elements asunder. Finally, the moment, the point, the Now as object (or the object in the Now) is made to persist, by negating its evanish- ment; thus the present is seen to be the abiding element in all transitoriness. For instance, let us grasp by Attention this ball before us and study it. First we separate it 144 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. locally from all adjacent objects, we limit it in Space. Then we hold it fast in the mind, not permitting anything else to take its place; we tai^e it out of the flow of the stream of Sensa- tion. This holding it fast in the mind is the Ego persisting through Time in retaining the object, which is not allowed to be succeeded by any other object. Thus persistence, fixedness is attained. And yet the Ego, in order to get this fixedness of the ball in the mind, has had to reach forth and put down the opposite, namely the unfixed, the fleeting sense-world always flowing in and trying to sweep the object away. So the Ego, in seizing tbe fixed, must also seize the unfixed, the Vanishing; hence it has the dual elements, the fixed ball and the unfixed world round about the same. Thus we see that, as Space had the filled and the unfilled, so Time has the fixed and the unfixed, being both in one, which one is the Now, most fleeting of sublunary things, yet the most persistent, too, in fact the onl}'^ thing that persists. The Now is all Time that is. In a most significant mythical form ancient Homer has hinted this nature of Time, of the Abiding in Change, of the Fixed in the Van- ishing. Ulysses is told to seize the old sea-god Proteus, master of shapes, who can transmute himself into every conceivable object in nature. Ulysses grasps him, and he turns to a tree, to a PERCEPTION. 145 wild beast, to a running stream ; still the hero holds fast, through all appearances and trans- formations, till finally the divinity takes his true shape and tells his prophetic secret. The per- sistent hero at last gets that which persists through Time and is eternal amid all the fleeting shows of the world. In the temporal particularization of the object, we can discern the threefold movement of the Ego, corresponding to the same move- ment already noticed in the case of Space. ( 1 ) The Ego breaks up the succession of the sense-world and puts a limit upon it, by seiz- ing the Now, or the Object in the Now, and fixins: the same. Yet even in this limit there must be the other or the opposite of the fixed, namely, the unfixed or the Vanish- ing. (2) Accordingly the Ego grasps yet holds asunder the dual elements which have risen in the object, namely the fixed and the unfixed, or the Now and the not-Now, or the permanent and the transitory. Such is the act of separation; the Ego in Attention, holding fast the object ao-ainst the Time-limit, becomes aware of the present and the not-present, which latter is still further dualized into past and future, or the not- Now which has been and the not-Now which will be. Thus the separative stage of the Ego in Time manifests a double dualism. (3) Both 10 146 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. elements, the Now and the not-Now, form one process which is actual Time. The Now, while it is, is not, and while it is not, it is; its being cannot be without its non-being. While I speak, the present vanishes and becomes not-present; yet this not-present vanishes and becomes pres- ent. I must grasp Time as the ever-present yet the ever-fleeting, both in one; the persistent is momentary, and yet the momentary persists. The vanishing Now vanishes, and the eternal Now endures through the vanishing of evanishment. What a dialectical play of empty subtlety ! Yet this is just the fact, the very reality of empty Time, which the Ego must master and fill, or be danced on its vacuity like a shuttle-cock. So the Ego in Attention reaches the Time- idea, as it previously reached the Space-idea ; it stops the mere flow of successive sensations, and holds the sensuous object fast in the Now, out of which act the process of Time develops. Time is always moving, separating, going away from itself, yet always coming back to itself. The present is all of Time that there is; this moment lasts, forever yet is forever leaving. The horse in the treadmill is always moving, yet always in t^e same place. The second stage of Attention has now com- pleted itself. The Ego has fully particular- ized the" object of sense, having seized it not simply immediately, but also in its limits which PERCEPTION. ' 147 are in Space and Time. This is the end at pres- ent ; we are ready to pass into the following stage. III. Attention concludes its process with the act of Ideation. The Ego unites the particular object with itself (the Ego) as particular, identi- fying the two sides. That is, the object is now made internal, ideal ; hence we call this final act Ideation, the sensuous object is ideated, and this its Ideation is also the reproduction of it as par- ticular in the external word. The Ego in Attention first particularizes itself; then it particularizes the object, having made it the same as itself; finally it joins with itself the object which it has already transformed into a likeness of itself through particiiiarization. The student will note that this ideating act of Attention is the first form in which the ideality of mind begins distinctively to assert itself. The destiny of the whole external world is that it be transformed by the Ego and made ideal, first as a Percept, then as an Image, and finally as a Thought. The student will also note that this act of Ideation re-creates the object and projects it into the external world. We have already observed that the Ego negates the extended object, then reproduces it as extended. The Ego annuls the difference between itself and the object, ideating the latter; yet it preserves this difference as 148 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. annulled, and hence must posit the object anew through itself in its act of Ideation. Let us designate a little more fully this third stage of Attention, in which the Ego completes its possession of the particular object of Sensa- tion. In the second stage just concluded. Atten- tion seized this object, separated it from the stream of Sensation, held it from the Void and the Vanishing, fixed it in the Here and Now, thus making it particular. In the first stage the Ego separated itself from the stream of Sensa- tion, concentrated itself within itself, and so began its own self-mastery. In these two stages, accordingly, "we have the Ego getting possession of itself on the one hand, and completely par- ticularizing the object on the other. In the present stage, which is the third, the Ego takes up the object as particular into itself, makes the same its own, re-creating it, for the object is not the Ego's own, till the latter can re-create it. That is, it unites the two previous stages: The object, which was so completely held apart from the Ego, is now adopted and identified with the same, yet also reproduced in order to be thus identified. Such is the completed act of Attention, which is the work of the conscious will. Attention is a grand rescuer both of Self and object; the former it elevates into self-control, the latter it saves from the great sea of Space and Time in PEUCEPTION. 149 their negative pliases, which are the Void and the Vanishing. Both Ego and object would be lost in a nebulous, chaotic, fleeting Sense-world, were it not for Attention. The fixing of the object in the Here and Now saves it from an indefinite extension and an indefinite succession; the Eo-o havino; individualized itself in Attention, individualizes the object, and then makes the same its own, appropriating and reproducing. For this last stage we need a special term, we shall call it Ideation. The object is now ideated, has become internal with its own Space and Time, and is united with the Ego. It is no longer merely an external object in external Space and Time; it was particularized by the Ego, and distinguished from yet joined with extension and succession. Now the whole oI)ject with its spatial and temporal adjuncts has been identified with the Ego, transferred from the real to the ideal, and thence again realized in the world through the Ego. Attention, therefore, has gotten possession of the sensuous object by this final act of Ideation, which not only annuls the difference between subject and object, but annuls this annulment, and so posits the differ- ence anew with the object. In this work of ideating the particular object we can discern the process of the Ego, as it unifies the external with the internal. 1. There is the immediate union in which the 150 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. object as a limited sensuous whole is takeu up and ideated. For instance, I take up and ideate this ball as a total object of sense. Still this ball is itself composed of many particulars, and the Ego still further particularizes, this being now its character. 2. There is what we may call the analytic union, in which the Ego divides up the particular object into many particulars, and then ideates each of these particulars singly. Thus every object calls forth a multiplicity of ideations. 3. There is what we may call the synthetic union, in which the Ego returns out of this mul- tiplicity, and re-unites all the manifold ideations into one concrete synthesis. Thus we ideate again the total ball, not now immediately, but as mediated through many particulars, which form a new whole of Ideation. Again let us grasp in a brief record the three- fold activity of the Ego in Attention: first, the Ego collecting itself within itself, particularizes itself; secondly, it particularizes the object; thirdly, it takes up this object into itself, making the same its own, appropriating and reproduc- ing. If we wish distinct names for these three stages of Attention, we may call them respect- ively; the Self-concentration of the Ego, the particularization of the object through the Ego, the Ideation of the object with the Ego — in perception: 15i which triple movement we catch again the sweep of the Psychosis. Let us now look about us for a moment. Manifestly the outcome of Attention is that the single sensuous object is ideated, and the Ego possesses it for once. But will the Ego keep possession ? Hardly ; there must be a manifold Ideation which makes permanent. Wherewith we go over into the next stage, in order to see how the object, ideated a single time in Atten- tion can be ideated for all time in Eetention. HI. Retention. In the preceding stage of Attention we suc- ceeded in ideating the particuUir object, inter- nalizing it for once and uniting it with the Ego. But this is itself a particular act, and so falls into Time ; it is still exposed to the danger of the Vanishing, on account of its remaining element of externality. Not merely once but many times it must go through the process of internalization, ere it can be made a permanent possession, ere it be retained. Retention is the making permanent the act of Ideation, which, being a particular act, is limited, temporal, transitory. Just as we saw the par- ticular object of Sensation fixed in the Now and rescued from the Vanishing by Attention, so also this total act of Attention (which is the 152 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. ideation of the Object) must be fixed by tlie Eoo aud rescued from the Vanishins. This is the process of Retention which is itself the third stage in the total movement of Perception. We shall designate briefly the stages in the process of Retention, or the making permanent the act of Attention. I. There is always an Immediate Retention in every mind, yet different minds vary much in their retentive capacity. The Ideation must be retained for a while, though the act be quite involuntary and instinctive. The particular ob- ject is taken up and unified with the Ego; such is a complete act of Attention, and yet it is but a single act, passing, transitory for most minds, unless the Ego picks up this passing single act of Attention and frees it from being just in the present moment only. II. This it does by repeating the ideating act, repeating the same through the power of volition. Thus the act is no longer single, but manifold ; no longer confined to one fleeting Now, but is made to persist through many Nows, according to the number of repetitions. I see an object, say, a picture; I go to it often and make many idea- tions of it, until these many become ideally all ; that is, I can ideate the picture without its being present. I no longer need the external picture in order to sec it, I can see it whenever I will to do so. I have removed it from the rKECETTION. 155 outward Space and Time, to the iiiternality of the Ego. This is accomplished by repetition ; I perform these repealed acts of Ideation through my will. The outer object is made inner so often that the whole process, object and all, becomes internal, and is united with the Eizo. III. The inner process of Retention is now instinctive again, it works of itself, it does not require the external stimulus of the object. Not merely the single object is ideated, as in At- tention ; but the ol)ject with its total process is ideated, and identified with the Ego, which thus possesses the ol)ject and controls it at will. Voluntary repetition has stored up in the mind, we say, the external object of sense, and this process has become instinctive ; the Ego needs no longer to have the external object present and to internalize that by an act of will, but the ideated object and its whole process of Ideation are its immediate possession. The will puts forth its effort still, but not now in the form of repeating the external object; it controls the ideated object. The process of Retention has, therefore, its immediate, its repetitive, and its ideated stages. All these are seen to be manifestations of the Ego in its tri[)le movement, which is the Ps}'- chosis or unifving ener<>;y in these distinctions. Moreover Retention is itself the third stage in 154 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. the larger movement of Perception, which is, in general, the receiving, the particularizing, and the identifying of the sensuous object with the Self. The whole moves from the Ego as determined by the external object in Impression, through the Ego separating itself from the external object and internalizing the same in Attention, to the Ego completely ideating the external object and uniting the same with itself. Thus the sweep is from the object determining the Ego without to the Ego determining the object within. Such is the psychical history of the acquiring of a percept by the Ego. The sensuous object is transformed from ruler to the ruled, and thus is itself saved from the Void and Vanishing of the external world, the negative elements of Space and Time, and is stored away in the eternall}'- preserving ideality of the Ego, of which it is now a spiritual portion. At this point let us conceive that a new sen- sation comes out of the external world, and flows in upon the Ego through the inlets of the senses. In such a case Perception is again invoked to do its work, and to internalize the object as partic- ular. But the process is not the same as hither- to, there is an added element which is now introduced. The Ego has gained a content, possesses an acquired percept, and soon many acquired percepts, all of which co-operate with it in the new act of Perception, and give to it a PERCEPTION. 155 now character. The Ego not only perceives hut apperceives ; its content having coalesced with it, co-operates in the aforesaid new act of Perception. Accordingly the Ego now, with the aid of its content, not merely internalizes the object, but orders and correlates it, which process is called Apperception. General Observations on Perception 1. The student will probably agree with the statement that the discussion on Space and Time is the most difficult part of the preceding account of Perception. This difficulty lies chiefly in the fact that they are the pre-suppositions of the sense-world, every sensuous object implies them, every act of Perception falls back upon them ultimately as its very condition and possibility. Thus Perception runs upon its limit in them ; we may say that Perception has to transcend Perception in order to perceive, it has to reach over to something which it does not perceive (at least, not directly) that it may act. It has to particularize Space and Time, which are thus pre-supposed by it as its primordial materials. There has been, however, no attempt in the foregoing account to show how Space and Time get to be, as objective existences. The design is simply to point out the way by which we come to them subjectively. Some philosophers 15G PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. have held that they are subjective forms only (see Kant's doctrine above alluded to), that we make them and impose them upon externalty through our own Eg-o. That we do so, is true: but that they are also real, is likewise true; in fact, both sides (subjective and objective) are counterparts and necessary. But this question is not strictly psychological, though the Ego cer- tainly pre-supposes the reality of Space, and recreates it in Perception along with the object perceived. No attempt, therefore, can here be made adequately to construe Space and Time, though we have already suggested (in the note on Space and Time) that they are posited along with all externalty by the creative act of the Divine Eij"0, and that our cognition of them is ultimately the recognition of that act. 2. Time is the first and most external manifest- ation of the Dialectic, the inner principle of all movement, growth, development in nature, in life and in mind. This word we shall now introduce to the student, that he may begin to grow into its meaning, premising, meanwhile, that its full significance can be unfolded only at the end of Psychology, in the last stage of Thought. At present, however, as a preliminary exercise, let him reflect further upon Time, specially upon the Now as above set forth, how it is the most fleeting, evanescent, shadowy of all things, and in the same breath the most solid and persistent, PERCEPTION. 157 in fact just that which endures. Let him note also the Ego whose movement takes up both these extremes and unifies them. Such is the first glimpse of the Dialectic, or the Pluy of the Negative, most subtle, sinuous, elusive, yet pre- cisely that which must be caught and held and cast into the fetters of speech by the thinker. This Play of the Negative, which undoes itself and turns over to its own opposite, which negates the negation and therein sweeps out of itself and becomes positive — this Play of the Negative is truly the most important matter iu all philoso- phy, it is the driving-wheel of the Universe. Let not the faithful student, however, listen to those insidious voices which will whisper in his ear that all this is a gors^eous fabric of illu- sion, or an intricate network of insoluble prob- lems which the spirit makes for itself and then gets caught in its own toils, to its lasting injury or even destruction. Many minds are too indo- lent or too impatient to perform the task of Thought, and just for that reason feel themselves called upon to proclaim that it is merely a cun- ning web of sophistry spun by the Father of Lies to catch innocent souls, which web they are too shrewd to dally with. Such is a not uncommon prejudice against this dialectical Play of the Negative, as if it were the old Serpent himself, subtle, slippery, sinuous, ensconced in the Ego so slyly, and ever ready to fling his coils around 158 PSTCHOLOGT AND THE PSYCHOSIS. the unwary explorer. Still the Ego must assert itself as master over its own monsters, else it will indeed be caught, it is already caught when it flees — another case of this double-dealing Dialectic. 3. A further instance we may ponder in the matter which we have just been considering — that of knowing the object. Often has it been stated already that the external world is in itself negative, is, so to speak, self-alienated, outside of itself, hence indefinitely projected in Space and Time. Just for this reason it is rightly called non-Ei^o. But in coo-nition the Ego ne- gates the non of the non-Ego, making the latter internal, which process is thus seen to be the negation of a neofative. That is, the act of the Ego knowing the external sensuous object is the negation of a negation. Thus the Plav of the Negative lies in the first act of knowledge ; by such means only ( by negating its negative or non-Ego) can the Ego get to be concretely positive, and thereby know. Let the student still further unravel the following Play of the Negative, and mark its psychological significance. Ignorance (linguis- tically a negative) is primarily not to know that you do not know — unconscious or unknowing it^norance: the first negation of it is to know that you do not know — conscious or knowing ignorance : the second negation of it is to know perception: 1o9 that joii know. The whole movement of knowl- edge is, from this point of view, a negation of a negation. Humor is essentially a vision of the dialectical nature of all things ; wit sees the negative, humor sees the negative too, but also its nega- tion. Some people have neither wit nor humor and cannot understand either ; others again have keen wit but no pervasive humor. The Play of the Negative sometimes embodies itself in the anecdote, and has to be seen through to get the point. A sailor was pulling a long rope up out of the sea; growing impatient of his task he exclaimed: "I believe somebody has been down there and cut off the end ! " 4. We have often spoken of the reproduction of the object by the Ego, when the latter has taken up and internalized said object. In Sense- perception such reproduction means that Ihc Ego reproduces its external form, its geometrical shape, its extended body. In Representation the Image will be reproduced, and in Thought the creative Idea of the object will be reproduced. Note, therefore, that the word reproduction will have necessarily three different senses in the three different stages of Intellect, passing from the outer material fii^ure to the inner genetic thought of the object. Here also we may observe that the ideation of the object always involves its reproduction in the 160 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. world, its projection or objectification. For if the external object be truly made internal by the Ego, it cannot be lost as object, but must be pre- served and restored. That is, the Ego, in appropriating tlie object, cannot let it vanish in this act, otherwise the Egi) would not get the object, there would be ho appropriation but destruction. 5, In Perception, as here considered, the Ego is without content ; it is treated as the simple activity of the Self in getting a percept. But there are very few, if any, such cases of Percep- tion actually ; in psychology, however, we wish at the start to see the i)ure perce})tive act of the Esfo, and so we make the foreiroino: abstraction. The mind of the small child even has some kind of content which enters into the work of its Per- ception. Practically, therefore, and concretely taken. Perception is quite always Ai)perception. SECTION THIRD— APPERCEPTION. There are many terms which express or sug- gest the notion of Apperception. In general, it may be conceived as mental assimilation, where- by the food of the mind — percepts, feelings, experiences — is assimilated, is made over into the mental organism. Or, to take a term which we prefer (as it is not derived from a physio- logical process), Apperception integraies the percept, it is essentially an act of integration. This term, accordingly, we shall use as synony- mous with Apperception, especially when we wish to put stress upon the fact of the percept being made one with the Ego, both together con- stituting the active mental integer. The present sphere has also its place in the well-known doctrine of the Association of Ideas, which has played such an important part in English Psychology. 11 (161) 162 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. The apperceptive act is not only the perceiv- ing, but also the ordering of the percept through the Ego and the content of the Ego already acquired. In Sensation the external object was received ; in Perception it was separated from the mass of Sensation, particularized and ideated ; thus the Ego in Perception begins to have a dis- tinct content. In Apperception the Ego orders each newly acquired percept through itself and its own stores. We can see that the Ego is now quite different from what it wa& at the beginning of Perception. The fresh object of sense is taken up by this new Eo^o and incorporated with the same (or rather insouled therewith). Yet there was a previous percept or percepts, which we shall call its con- tent, ideated, one with it, and functioning with it. This content, now an ideal element of the Ego, enters into relation with the arriving per- cepts and assists in ordering them, which act is their Apperception (literally a perceiving in addition or something added lo Perception). In what does this ordering consist? That is to be unfolded in the present section. The act of Apperception may be illustrated by the arrival of a new box of goods in one of the great stores of a city. The man in charge opens the box, looks at the article or articles, and com- mands where each piece is to go, on what Hoor, in what department, at what counter, possibly apperception: 163 on what shelf. He must have the whole store and its parts in his head to be able to tell where the given article belongs ; his Ego with its con- tent of previous percepts orders the new percept. Imagine him without this previous knowledge and already ordered knowledge ; however great his Ego, or his genius, he would be helpless. In like manner the arrival of a new percept in the mind has to be ordered by the whole mind, which is the Ego and its content. The act of Apperception completes the movement of Sense- perception ; the object is not only ideated as a particular, but is put into its place in the total mental economy, which is indeed an inner world, that of Ego, taken from the outer world, made ideal, and organized. The particular object is united into an internal order, and no longer remains in an external succession or contiguity ; the cosmos is within. The Ejro alone, without its store of Appercep- tion, is like a business man having no capital. With little he can get but little, with much he can get much, provided of course that he is able to handle his acquisitions aright. A good mer- chant must have not only general capacity, but his occupation must become ingrown with his Ego, so that he not only perceives a piece of merchandise, but apperceives it in all its rela- tions. Why are students of a certain grade required to pass an examination before entering /■ 164 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS upon a further course of study? For the sake of Apperception ; if they have not sufficient knowledge to apperceive the new lesson, they must be sent where they can get it, or be put to doinsr something else. Nine-tenths of the com- plaints about the obscurity of certain great books proceed from insufficient Apperception on the part of the complainant. One of the clearest books in the world is said to be Newton's Prin- picia, yet it is certainly one of the darkest, unless you have sufficient stores already in your Ego to apperceive this work. Coleridge has declared somewhere that Kant's Critique of Pure Reason was to him one of the most trans- parent of books, and its style most luminous. Happy man, he had the divine gift of Kantian Apperception. Tremendous is the outpour of indignation against metaphysics and philoso- phy in these days, particularly is such to be found in books of psychology; indeed the psychologists of a certain school are fast ap- proaching the condition of monomaniacs on the subject of that awful man-eating goblin meta- physics. Yet one has not to read very far in order to find out that the trouble lies chiefly in their Apperception ; if they only possessed a sufficient E2;o with sufficient stores to inteijrate and assimilate the metaphysical monster, the dyspeptic attack would be much alleviated, if not transformed into a state of positive health. APPEBCEPTIOK. 165 The Ego in Apperception has undergone a threefold change from what it was hi simple Perception. In the first place, it has developed into its actual form out of its potential, it has furrowed its channels of activity in making its primal percept; it works along its own lines already laid down; what it has done once, it more easily does again. In the second place, it has a content, which is united with it, is a part or rather element of it, since it too is object as well as subject, the content being the particular object of sense ideated. In the third place the total Ego, both in form and content, is united in a single activity, which takes up, ideates, and orders the object, making the same a constituent of its inner world. Thus there is a passing of the object from one world to another, from the outer sense-world in Space and Time to an inner mind- world in which the Egjo is the connectino; bond and the orderer. We have moved with the object from the real to the ideal realm. Apperception, whose general sweep shows the Ego ordering the percept, has three stages. These are all phases of the uniting of the per- cept with the Ego, as determined by the move- ment of the latter. In other words the Eo;o integrates the external object of sense with itself, making the same an element of itself. T. Simple Integration, in which the percept is united with the E^o immediatelv; the Ego 1C6 P/^YCIIOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. with its content orders directly what is brought to it. Here the procedure is on the whole, in- voluntary and instinctive. II. Selective Integration, in which the Ego separates itself from the total mass of the object or objects, and chooses what it will take up. Here a volitional element enters. III. Redintegration of the act of Appercep- tion, which, being a single act and so subject to Time, must be integrated over and over again, till the presence of the sensuous object is no longer needed. Already we have noticed a[)perceptive phases, in Retention for instance ; henceforth Appercep- tion will continue through all Psychology. A similar process will take place when the object is an image or a thought as well as a sensuous object. But here at the end of Sense-perception is its true place in the science ; here it becomes ex- plicit and must be considered. In like manner (as already observed) we shall have Attention further on, and this is really founded upon the Will, which is not especially under consideration in the present work. All of which may serve to recall to us that the mind is a whole always, though it specializes itself in certain activities at given times; such activities are but waves on the surface of the sea, which is underneath them all and is their totality as well as their substance. APFEIiCEPTION. 167 I. Simple Integration. We are now to pre-suppose that the Ego with its content is present, as the result of Percep- tion. If we look back at the movement of this content as already traced in the perceptive pro- cess, we find that it has, first of all, a spatial and temporal character ; the percept was ideated along with its Space and Time. Accordingly the new object, which is now taken up along with its Space and Time also, has in common with the original content the spatial and tem- poral elements. This is the first form of Inte- gration, external, mechanical. Then follows a deeper Integration which conies from analysis, and the object integrates with the content accord- ing to a common quality. Finally an Integra- tion takes place in which the total object is ordered by the totality of the Ego. Thus we have three stages of Simple Integra- tion, or that form of Apperception in which the external object is integrated by the Ego with itself immediately ; that is, this objeet comes from the outside and stimulates the Ego, which responds to the stimulus through its own necessity, with- out inner choice of its own. These stages may be desis^nated as follows; — I. External Integration, that of the object in Space and Time. 168 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. II. Qualitative Integration, that of the object through its properties. III. Total Integration, that of the object as a whole after analysis. Generally, in this sphere of Simple Integration, the object is the determiner, while the Ego is determined externally to order the object, with- out selective volition. Here too we may note, in passing, that this is the sphere of the so-called Laws of Association, whieh are supposed by a certain school of thinkers to determine the Eiro in all its activity. Hence Association is usually coui^led with the doctrine of Determinism. Undoubtedly in this sphere the external object stimulates the Ego, and the Apperception takes place immediately in response. But we shall also see a sphere of choice later in Selective Integration. At present, however, let us exam- ine more fully the three stages above mentioned. I. The first stage of the Integration of the sensuous object with the Ego is the external one, that through Space and Time, which are them- selves the very forms of externality. In this external Integration we may also notice the three- fold movement; the object is integrated with the Ego through Extension (Space), Succession (Time), and Simultaneity (their union). 1. Taking the sensuous object which is now to be a[)perceived (integrated or associated), we observe first that it is in Space, and so must be APFEIiCEPTION. 169 ordered spatially alongside of the content of the Ego, which content is also in the present case a sensuous object ideated. Tlius the two ideated contents have their spatial relations taken ui) into the Ego together, and so are spatially in- tegrated. They are contiguous in a common ideal Space, which is their first and most external Inte2;ration, thouo;h this be in and throuorh the Ego. Such is the basis of the so-called Associ- ation by Contiguity; things which have been in- tegrated (or apperceived ) in the same ideal Space, belongr toii;elher in the mind and will recall each other (see Memory, which is the reverse or dis- inlegration of the present process). I see to-day in an American home a picture of Ra[)haers, the original of which I saw abroad in a Roman gallery ; I bring the two places together with their objects, both are integrated and joined together by my Ego in an ideal Space, and not only the too wheres, but also the two whens arc integrated — with which fact we pass to the next. 2. The sensuous object which is to be apper- ceived is likewise in Time, and is taken up with the same in the act of Apperception, and is ordered temporally with the content of the Ego, which content in the present instance is a sensu- ous object ideated along with its own Time. The two contents are thus brought together in the Ego, and are integrated in a temporal rela- tion. They are contiguous in a common ideal 170 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. Time, or thev co-exist in a common ideal sue- cession; objects Avhich have been thus integrated belonsr toorether, and will recall each other. The picture which I now see integrates tempor- ally with the picture I saw abroad ; I bring the two times of seeing into a common succession, or temporal contiguity in my Ego, though the two events may have been years apart. Thus the Ego, having a content which is in its own ideal Time, integrates temporally the sensuous object, which is also in Time, and which thereby becomes likewise the content of the Eo"0. These two contents are united in a com- mon element, namely in an ideal succession. Every thing is preceded and followed by other things, it exists in a succession which the Ego ideates with it and thus makes internal, ideal. With such a content the Ego integrates the sensuous object in its Time, which is also some- where in Space ; thus Time insists on having Space as its setting, and the two are united in the sensuous object. 3. The spatial and temporal elements co-exist in the thing of sense ; they are likewise fused into unity and coalesce in the Ego in a great variety of ways. Where and when I saw the picture are blended together in the past ; where and wlien I see the picture are blended together in the present. The two Wheres (There and Here) are integrated by the Ego in an ideal APPERCEPTION. 171 Space (spatial Inteojration) ; the two Whens (Then and Now) are also integrated by the Ego (temporal Integration) in an ideal Time; so much we have unfolded in the two previous paragraphs. But now comes the third Integra- tion, the unity of the two preceding, which we shall call Simultaneous Integration. The two- fold Where and When of the object present in- tegrates with the twofold Where and When of the object ])ast, which is the content of the Ego ; thus both doubles co-exist in the Eajo in an ideal Space and Time, or contiguously and in succes- sion, that is, simultaneously. Mark that this Simultaneity (Togetherness) is predicated ot both Space and Time in coalescence. It is the divisive act of the Ego which sepa- rates the temporal from the spatial and makes them two distinct Integrations. Really, how- ever, the sensuous object must be integrated in Space and Time together, or simultane- ously. The concrete act of the Ego as well as the concrete object is spatio-temporal ; the act becomes the more abstract and one-sided, in proportion as we hold apart one or the other of the two elements. Still, in this movement of External Integration we discern the threefold movement of the Ego, and we make the Psy- chosis, which unites not only the single process within itself, but also integrates the same with the total process of Psychology. 172 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. The double Where and the double When in this final step are integrated through and through miUitally, straightwise and crosswise. The result is, that either Where not only recalls the other Where, but also the corresponding When. The place of the picture now seen brings up not only the former place of seeing it, but also the former time. In Memory we shall find that these four integrated elements (the two Wheres and the two Whens) stand in such relation that any one of them may recall any other one of the rest or all of the rest. In regard to Simultaneity, let the reader analyze his mental process in perusing or wit- nesfcing the drama of Julius Ccesar; the place of the action (Rome) integrates with the time of the action (first half-century B. C), and may still further integrate with the present time and place of reading it or seeing it acted. These three terms are often designated as ' Laws of the Association of Ideas — Contiguity in Space, Consecution in Time, and Simultaneity in Space and Time. But whether they are laws or not, they represent the various stages of the Integration of the external object with the Ego — the juxtaposition in extension and in succession. It is manifest that the temporal and the spatial contiguity is really one, though each is se[)arated by an act of the Ego. But just as well each is united with the other by an act of APFEUCEPTION. 173 the Ego, whose process is both divisive and uni- tary. The primal Association is apperceptive, uniting the perceived object by its place and its time with the already acquired content of the Ego with its place and its time. Still further, the Ego integrates the two elements ( place and time) of the two contents, which thus are doubly integrated in Simultaneity ; nay,"the reader, if he wishes to push this business to its last refinement, may here trace a quadruple Integration. It is well to note, however, that the word simultane- ous means usually quite the same as co-tem'pora- neous, as for instance, we speak of two events occurring simultaneously . Still the Integration of the objects remains external, being in Space and Time, which are just the forms of externality. Each is outside of the other, though they be contiguous, spatially and temporally. Their relation in the Ego cor- responds to the mechanical relation in the outer world of matter. But the Ego in its separative character nxxx^i take to pieces the object within, separating the same into its properties or quali- ties, and thus finding its inner constituent ele- ments, which will form the basis of a new kind of Integration. This activity of the Ego corre- sponds to the chemical process in the outside world of matter, with its separations and recom- binations. Accordingly we are next to take up Qualitative Inttgratiun. 174 rSYCnOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. II. Into the sensuous obiect the Ego beo-ins to put distinction — the distinction of qualities. These are internalized with the object and corre- lated with the content, which has also such dis- tinctions. I see a red coat, this quality of redness may unite the object with a mental hat which is red. These qualities again may be su- perficial or profound ; the tendency of the Ego is to deepen them till the essence of the object is reached, in contradistinction to mere appearance. In integrating the external object with the con- tent in this sphere, the Ego proceeds by Eesem- blance, by Contrast, and by Combination. 1. As is well known, Resemblance brings the sensuous object and the ideated one together. Two men have similar cloaks, or similar looks, or similar characters ; they integrate mentally in the observing Ego. Resemblance passes from the outer to inner ; the qualitative Resemblance may be merely that of color, or it may be that of the profoundest thought. 2. The difference of objects may mentally bring them together ; this is Integration by Con- trast. A giant will not only integrate with a giant, but a dwarf with a giant ; the opposites determine each other and are connected. Here we see the movement of the Ego, which is not only identity but also difference ; it has not onl3' Resemblance within itself but also Contrast or otherness; the Ego can integrate in both ways. ArrERCErTION. 175 The psychologists have called Resemblance and Contrast Laws of Association; but how can they be regarded as Laws, since they are not a fixed principle of action, but can work exactly contrariwise? They must be finally referred for explanation to the process of the Ego, which is not only the law, but the law-maker. 3. Out of Contrast we can develop the thought of (!!ombination, which integrates two opposing elements. The giant is the opposite of the dwarf, and the dwarf is the opposite of the giant; they are thus alike in being contrasted. Under- neath Contrast, therefore, lies the movement of Combination, which is also the deeper fact of Resemblance. ( That is. Resemblance and Con- trast are one in the act of Combination, which is essentially the process of the Ego in its three stages.) The object is taken up, divided, then united in the complete process of the Ego ; then it is integrated fully. The giant resembles a giant — first integration, that of identity; the giant contrasts with a dwarf — second integra- tion, that of difference; both giant and dwarf are united in their difference, are made one in the Ego, though specially contrasted. Both are men, and in mutual relation; thus they are com- bined in a process with each other. We do not naturally contrast a dwarf and the planet Jupiter for instance, as there is no underlying resem- blance, such as two men have. The beautiful, 176 rSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. poetic Titania, queen of the Fairies, in love with the "rude mechanical," Bottom the weaver, with an ass's head on, forms a famous comic Con- trast, resting also on Kesemblance. Each is alike in loving the opposite in speech, character, and looks, and both are very human. Were they not so much alike in being so different, there would be no fun. Already we have come to a new stage when we have detected the Ego as the underlying factor of Integration. In Resemblance there was the com- parison of the two things, which was more or less external; in Contrast their diversity was intro- duced into the comparison; but the two objects were found in a common process with each otherin the act of Combination. This act was traced into the Ego — wherewith we pass lo the next stage. III. We have now reached the sphere of total Integration (or Assimilation) which shows the object assimilated into the complete process of the Ego. The sensuous thing is taken up, ideated as a particular, and then ordered in- stinctively, or assimilated into the structure of the Ego. It is an Assimilation analogous to the taking of food into the bodily organism; the food is transformed into the various corporeal constituents by the vital process. At present the process of the Ego is taking up the external world and transmuting the same into the mental organism. APPERCEPTION. 177 In this Assimilation the total process of the Ego has become the apperceiving principle ex- plicitly, and so integrates the object. Yet here too we must note the stages. First is the im- mediate or formal Assimilation which belongs to the Ego as such; second is the grand diversity of Egos in the process of Assimilation ; third is the unity of all Egos just in their diversity of Assimilation. 1. At the start we may simply notice, what has already been set forth, the fact that every Ego has its process of Assimilation, in order to be itself, and it must move through the same in appropriating externality. The Integration of the object with tiio Ego is direct, primordial, constituting tlie very nature of the Ego, without which it could not be at all. This is only saying that the Ego, to be Eijo, must assimilate the outer world into its own process. Unquestionably the Ego assimilates many sep- arate percepts in quite every object which it takes up. I see a ball, it has color, shape, smoothness, hardness, size, odor, each of which is given as a distinct sensation, yet all are uni- fied, assimilated, and finally named as one thing by the Ego ; they constitute the one object called a ball. It is manifest that therein many small integrations are completely and inseparably as- similated by the Ego, so that the distinctions vanish, or are only recovered by a special act 12 178 rSYCHOLOOY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. of the Ego. The ball, however, becomes inte- grated as a total by the Ego, and is separated from the same in Memory as a total, .quite in- complex, or at least not consciously complex. Here we can place in Ihe main the doctrine of Inseparable Association, enforced so strongly by the elder Mill and defended so warmly by his son. But the Associationists seem to hold that the matter gets itself done without the Ego, by the fiat of a Law of Association, which comes from the outside and imposes its decree upon the free-acting Ego. To the teeth of which statement we must agaiu affirm: the Ego is not only the Law but the Law-maker, yea, the Law-unmaker, when the fullness of time hath come. 2. Now enters the fact of the prodigious dif- ference ill the Egos of different people, which comes chiefly from a difference of content. The simple process of the Ego in the savage and in the civilized man is the same; but how diverse is the content of his mind through its acquired stores ! These again re-act upon the process of the Ego and make it seem very different; still both men have fundamentally the one common process of the Ego, else they would not be men, endowed with personality. Take, for instance, this flower; the rustic in- tegrates it as an object having a certain form and color; the botanist integrates it with the APPEBCEPTION. 179 whole vegetable kiaa:clom, orders it at a o:lance under species, genus, family, etc. ; all these are the content of his Ego. The philosopher ought to make a deeper integration still, co-ordinating the flower not only with the vegetable world but with the animal, with conscious existence, with all creation. The different contents of the Ego make the difference in the Apperception of the object. In apperceiving a great complex fact, such as the World's Fair, one man will make the primary Ap- perception and hardly do more than order the objects in Space and Time, where and when he saw them; another man will go deeper and order them according to their qualities, superficial and profound; still a third man will seek to order the World's Fair as a totality made by the Ego, and hence to be grasped as a process thereof, as t\ Psychosis. Thus lis^ht shines throuo;h all com- plexity, when the order of the object is seen to be born of the inherent process of the Ego. To come to the matter just at present in hand, the facts of Psychology may be put together as merely external, indeed as so many spatial objects strung capriciously along in a string of observations and experiments ; or they may be integrated according to some qualities external or internal, which, however, remains at best but an ordering from without. Finally all the facts and divisions of Psychology may be integrated by the Psychosis, in which the whole Ego makes 180 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. whole (integrates) the Ego in every special activity, ramification, or subtlety. 3. With all this difference in the various Effos manifested in assimilating the object, we return to the fact that they are one, and that their com- mon function in Assimilation is to overcome the difference of the object, to make the same ideal and thus to preserve it. The result of the pro- cess of Assimilation is to grasp the Ego as the subjecting of the external difference and the in- ternalizing of this difference, so that henceforth it is a factor of the Ego itself. That is, the Ego does not now let the object put its distinctions upon the Ego, and so deter- mine its activity from without, which has been the case throughout the present stage of Simple or Associative Integration, but the Ego has become aware of itself as the orderer and the master ; from this awareness it proceeds to action, and next it will in turn impose its distinctions on the object. Herewith we paas to a new stage of Apperception. Taking a retrospect of the threefold move- ment of Simple Integration, we should specially note that it manifests the Psychosis. The first or immediate stage is the external (spatio-tem- poral) Integration, which leaves the objects as they are, taking them up in their extension and succession iTnmedialely . The second or divisive stage is the one in which the objects are sepa- APPER CE P TION. 181 rated into qualities, and are integrated tlirough these with the Ego and its content. The third stage restores the unity of the object after qual- itative separation, and the total Ego integrates the object as total, undivided, or with division overcome — inseparable Integration. But when the Ego totifies the object thus separated into many qualities, and then inte- grates the same, it (the Ego) is already im- plicitly controlling the object according to its own principle, which cancels the qualitative separation into unity. This implicit control is now to become explicit, the Ego passes from the determinefZ to the determinzn^/, wherewith a new separation will appear. II. Selective Integration. The Ego in its apperceptive movement is now to choose the object which is to be integrated with itself. The object is, accordingly, separated and selected; moreover the Ego, in order to make such selection, has to bring about a separa- tion within itself, which is involved in taking one thing and rejecting another. There is now an act of Disintegration preced- ing the act of Integration, or of Dissociation going before Association. The Ego brings a new separation into the object, which is not the qualitative separation such as we observed in 182 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. the previous stage, but one imposed by the Ego upon the object for its own subjective behoof. The object is not now co-ordinated by any sensuous or external element, but by some mental element, belonging to the Ego itself. Accord- ingly we shall behold the Ego take certain factors of the object and integrate them with itself, while it rejects others. The question rises, why does the Ego thus select some portions of the object and leave the rest? Why lean to certain things and spurn the others? In a general way the answer can be given, because it is interested in them ; the Ego and its content are already ideally related to them, or have at least a secret tendency in that direction. Thus the Ego divides the object, since it is di- vided within itself, choosing and refusing. Note, therefore, how this second stage, here named Selective Integration, is the stage of separa- tion; in an act of choice the Ego separates itself from all its many other relations, and throws itself upon the particular thing, which is also separated from everything else for the moment. Let us grasp the sweep of what has just been called Selective Integration, which, as distin- guished from the preceding stage of Simple In- tegration, is subjective, voluntary, determined from within, proceeding outward to the object. The Ego now manifests will in selectinii, in- APPEBCEPTION. 183 fluenced primarily b}'' some internal tendency, motive, purpose. The following are the stages of its movement. I. The Ego will choose the object and integrate the same with itself accordinsj to some native bent ; it takes spontaneously what it wants, what it feels an affinity for, what it is interested in. Selective Inteo-ration through interest. II. The Ego will choose the object and inte- grate the same with itself according to some end of its own, which gives to said object a value. This end is, however, at first finite, that is, a means for some further end, and hence, can give only a finite value to the object. Selective Integration through ^/u7e value. III. The Ego will choose the object and inte- grate the same with itself according to its own supreme end, which is to unfold the Self to com- pleteness. Selective Integration through infinite value. It is now time for the student to ask himself: What is the Psychosis of this trinity just an- nounced? Doubtless he has already asked many such questions in the course of the preceding movement. At present, let him think it out for himself, and then read the following develop- ment which may give him some help. The pur- pose of psychology is to impart to the student the power of creative thought, so that he can make his own psychical process, and feel its truth, 184 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. its inner necessity, whicli always lies in the Psychosis. I. The Ego is interested in one object rather than another, it separates or disintegrates in order to find its affinity and to come into unity with its own. A natural interest exists, the result of innate disposition and acquired tend- ency. Every human being has a certain number of likes, talents, aptitudes, all of which go forth with the Ego to the object, as it were in search of their real counterpart. This natural selection of the object by the Ego is sometimes called taste; one man has a taste for fish or for flesh, another for mechanics or for poetry. Often an acquired element plays into such a tendency, which, however, is based upon a natural bent. Native talent has its place in education as well as in society. At a certain point the student must begin to specialize in his training, he must get himself ready to do a certain thing in the social order, to have a vocation. It sometimes happens that what he can do best, what he has a natural capacity for, is just what he has no desire for. Talent does not coincide with wish or ambi- tion. Thus the interest in doing or beinor some- thing is dissevered from the abilitv. The result is, that interest has to be controlled and reconstructed by reason, and adjusted to the situation. At present, however, we arc trj'ing to trace the A PPEli CEP TION. 185 movement of the Ego in its tendency to affiliate with some thini^s and not with others. It inte- <^rates with this object specially, following its bent, as we often say, or through interest. 1. There is, in the first place, the interest which comes thvoaizhfamiUariiy. The object in some phase has been seen or known before, and at once it attracts the Ego. In a strange city a familiar face becomes a matter of deep interest ; the mind, overwhelmed with new things is delighted to run for a while in an old channel. Particularly a familiar tongue heard in a foreign land draws irresistibly the whole Ego, which iden- tities its present with its former Self, or inte- grates the fresh object with its ideated content instinctively and through a feeling of pleasure. Interest indicates the spontaneous uniting of the two sides ; the interest of familiarity is the rccoo-nizing of the thing as belouiiing to the family, the ideal family of father Ego, who so gladly receives the unexpected member. 2. There is, in the second place, the interest which comes through novelty. The Ego finds familiarity a limit, and at once sets about trans- cending it ; things trite and familiar it now casts away. What is the ground of this contradiction? It is to be seen in the nature of the Ego itself, which must be, of necessity, its own opposite ; it will not harden in the grooves of familiarity, but must break over them and assert its freedom, its 186 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. infinite character. Hence the Ego is interested in the novelty of the thing as well as in its famil- iarity, and it loses interest in novelty as well as in familiarity. In the latter the Ego shows its principle of identity, the object must be identified or ideated with Self and its content. But in nov- elty the Ego shows its principle of diff'erence, since the object must be different from Self and its content. The novel thing excites interest, if it be among familiar things; yet the novel thing among novelties only, gets to be familiar and stale, it strikes over into the opposite ; for if all is novel, then the novel is just what is familiar. 3. In the preceding interaction between famil- iarity and novelty the reader has probably detected already the third principle, which is the movement uniting both sides. Already it was the familiar thing among many novel things, the familiar face among many strange faces, which caused the interest. In like manner, it was the new thing among many familiar things, which caused the sudden integration. That is, both familiarity and novelty go together, are sides of one process which is fundamentally that of the Eo-o. The interest in the new is determined through the old, and the interest in the old is determined through the new. The familiar thing amid familiar things, and the new thing amid new things excite less interest, as there is no complete process of the Ego, which does not APPi:RCEf'TIOy. 187 pass from sameness to sameness but from same- ness to difference, and back again, when it fully and freely utters itself. That is, the final inter- est of the Ego lies not in any separate part or separate activity of itself, but in its own complete self-activity, in the Psychosis. II. The Ego has an end or use to which it wishes to put the object; thereby it gives value to the object in proportion to the latter' s ser- viceableness for some purpose of its own. Thus the Ego acquires a new kind of interest in the object, which is now useful, not simply interest- ing ; that is, it subserves some end, which may be graded in different ways. The integration of the object with the Ego through interest was more the result of native likes and dislikes, or, at least, of instinctive tendencies. The mind is interested in that for which it naturally has some affinity, and makes its selections quite unconsciously. But when the Ego puts value into some object and selects the same on that ground, it has an end in view to which the value corresponds. Thus the Ego has divided itself and has an end distinct from itself, and also it has divided the object, which has a value by virtue of the end. It is plain that the Ego sei)arates consciously such an end from itself, though still its own, and integrates the object with the same, and thus gives to the object value. 188 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. Everything in the world may have value, if it can be made useful for any purpose of the Ego. Everything becomes valuable in proportion as the Eo^o can inte2:rate the same with its end. But this is also of many grades, and hence there will be a grand diiference in values. 1. The immediate value is felt when the sen- suous object subserves some purpose of the phy- sical organism. A cup of water has value in slaking thirst; a loaf of bread is not only of interest, but of value to the hungry man, and he is willing to exchange for it something of equal value. Upon the integration which has to take place between subjective ends in the shape of desires, needs and greeds, and objective values in the shape of food, raiment, and shelter is built the mighty structure of the commercial world. 2. The Ego has within it a vast realm of what we may call finite ends, those of fame, power, love, wealth, of which every means has value to him. The given thing is a means to a certain end, yet this end is itself but a means to another end, and so on ad infinitum. Ever}' individual is a little world (microcosm) full of plans, schemes, ends, which he is seeking to realize; society is a huge col- lection of such striving atoms; no wonder that they collide. Still it is just these ends of an enormous number of Egos, which render all thinofs and indeed all persons valuable ; nothinir is without some value, everything is at least ArrEIiCEPTION. 189 destined to have some value. In the Walpurgis- Night (see Goethe's Faust, Part First) such a social order has been portrayed by the poet. One perison has his particular end, great or small, and pursues it with the means at his command, but another person is seeking the same means for his particular end ; to both persons the means, which is some object, let us say, has value; both, therefore, fall into struggle and competi- tion for its possession. Thus arises a vast society of Egos, first giving value to the object and then competing for it with one another, for every person having some end and requiring some object as a means for its attainment, pro- duces value, which, however, may conflict with the valuation put by some other person upon the same object. In like manner we may consider spiritual things. The character of a man has a univer- sal value, rising from the estimate put upon him by his community, his nation, or the world. His fellow Egos place their valuation upon him, higher and lower; his life is a totality of think- inof and doinir, higher and lower; finally the universal Ego, or Public Opinion, strikes the balance, and he receives his measure of univer- 'sal value in fame, be it good or ill. Thus a universal value hovers over and unites all things, and all particular Egos with their special valuations of persons and things. All 190 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. has value or ought to have, belongs somewhere in this vast integration of the world with the Ego, which must employ the same for its end. But even this universal value has still a finite end ; the price or universal value of an article of merchandise is, say, one dollar, which the seller receives and the buyer pays, and then uses for his own purpose. Note, however, that the Ego previously set the value on the object, but now it finds the object already valued, which value it has to accept before using the object ; that is, value is raised out of the caprice of the individual Ego, and mediated with all Egos. 3. Upon such a world of struggle and dissi- dence, with all its diversity of values, thus rises the idea of a universal value, by which every object is integrated with an Ego. There are many Egos competing for every object, but there are many objects competing for every Ego ; the result is that between the totality of objects and the totality of Egos a ratio is formed, which expresses the universal value of the object in relation to the sum total of Egos. What makes the value of a bushel of wheat to-day? Supply and demand, it is said; supply of the object and demand of the totality of Egos ; if the sup})ly is short, the value rises through the comi)etition of the Ego for the thing. Yet other articles of food begin to compete with wheat as an article of food, and so keep down its value. Thus APPEBCEPTION. 191 wheat has a universal value, which may fluctuate from clay to clay, but which always expresses the equilibrium between the totality of Egps competing for the object and thereby raising its value, and the totality of objects competing for the Egpf and thereby lowering its value. The money expression of the universal value of an object is called its price. The universal Value is not the infinite value; this distinction we must try to make plain to ourselves. The sum total of Eggrs proclaims a certain thing to be useful, and so gives to it a universal value. Still such utility is finite, not absolute ; the thing is useful for some end which in its turn proves to be only a means. For instance, the value of sound advice in economical matters, for making money, is useful to all men, and hence is a universal value; Poor Richard's maxims are universally valuable. Still the making of money is a finite end, money is not an end in itself but is for something else outside of itself. But when the Eg(? has itself as end, that is, its own Selfhood, its Personality as such, it has that as end which is the maker of all finite ends, it is Self-end. Herewith we rise into a new sphere which is next to be unfolded. III. We have reached the infinite value of the object, which can be created only by an infinite end. The Ego, as the self-active principle, has now an infinite end, namelv to unfold itself ag 192 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. self-activity or self-determination. The object which conduces to such an end has an iofinite value for the Ego, which therein brings forth itself. Finite ends we have already observed; there is a series of means and ends falling outside of one another without any self-return ; for instance, my end is to build a house, but the house is not an end merely but a means ' for shelter; this shelter again is not an end simply but a means for health and comfort, which again may point to another end. Even the universal value, which is illustrated by the price of an article, is only the value fixed for finite ends. But the infinite value expresses the worth of the object not for some finite end of the Esjo, but for self-end. With this statement, the idea of educational values enters our field. What branches are best adapted to realize the Ego, to unfold it into itself as self-active, self-determining? Such is, in gen- eral, the primary problem of pedagogics, includ- ing all education and culture. The organization of studies is probably the greatest spiritual need of our time or of any time. The Ego moves throu2:h three stajjes in organizing its instru- mentalities for making the object a means to unfold the Person into its completeness. 1 . Those studies are first which develop the Ego into the mastery of the implements of culture, along with a development into a free, full self- AFPEBCEPTION. 193 activity. The Ego gets possession of itself and the intellectual weapons of its race. This is the sphere of the School and of its training from the Primary Grade to the University. 2. This universal training in what is universal, must specialize itself in the training for a voca- tion, whereby the Person is to fill his place as a member of society, perform his function in the social Whole — The Technical School. 3. The return to a universal training through Literature, History, Art, Philosophy. The in- dividual engaged in the special work of life must be a universal being also, a cosmopolitan, a world-man, though at home in his own circle. The instrumentality for such a training may be called the new University, which is just at pres- ent in the process of being evolved. The Study Class, the Literary Club, the Reading Circle, the Lecture Course are the faint beginnings of this new University, which is to be truly universal, located in every village, embracing not only the young, but the middle-aged and even the old, not only the professional student, but the man and woman in active life. Thus the individual, though engaged in his narrow special activity, is to be elevated into participating in the grand universal movement of his race. Only through continuous effort is such an existence possible, the battle must be fought and won every day. The Ego has now put an infinite value into the 13 194 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. object, making the same into a means for realiz- ing itself not merely as an individual, but as a race-man, as a member of total humanity. There- with the object has attained its absolute worth, being employed to develop such a personality. The movement of the Ego which was called Selective Integration has now run its course, passing through the stages which we have desig- nated as Interest, Finite Value and Infinite Value. The Ego, from integrating the object with itself through some native tendency or through some intermediate end, has risen to the point of abso- lute Self-end, in which the Ego employs the object for the complete development of itself as Person. Thus tlie Ego has grasped its own un- folding into perfect selfhood as the infinite end which gives an infinite value to the object or means. We say the infinite end, since the Ego has returned from all external ends into itself as end, and so is not limited by anything outside of itself. We say infinite value, since the object cannot now be measured by any finite standard, and since its value springs from being means to an end which is infinite, namely the Ego as self- determining. The object as means has, accordingly, reached its supremo integration with the Ego. But such an integration may be single, and hence may fiiU into Time and vanish. Hence it must be redin- tegrated. APPERCEPTION, 195 (On the subject educational values, see the Report on the Correlation of Studies by Dr. W. T. Harris, United States Commissioner of Edu- cation. This report, the masterpiece of its author, is the greatest educational document that America has produced, and ranks very high in the world's literature of education. More pro- foundly than any pedagogical writer hitherto, •this author grounds the elementary branches of the Common School upon their infinite value in unfolding the pupil, without neglecting their finite value in the utilities of human life. ) III. Redintegration. Just as we found that it was necessary to have Retention following upon Attention in order to make permanent the work of Perception, so we find that it is necessary to have Redintegration following upon Integration, in order to make permanent the work of Apperception. Indeed this stage might be called Retentive Apperception. The Ego not only integrates the object with itself and content, but redintegrates the same; that is, integrates it over and over asjain, till it is fully internalized and ideally ordered. The apperceptive act must be repeated till the pres- ence of the object is not necessary for the act, which takes place, after such repetition, purely through the Ego. Hence Redintegration makes 196 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. permanent the process of Integration, removing it from the external moment of Time, and fixing it in its own ideal Time in the Ego. Repetition of the external object through the Ego at last leaves it no longer external, but reduces it simply to an element of the process, which becomes thereby wholly internal. Three stages of the movement of Redinte- gration we shall designate — Recurrence, Repe- tition, Habit. They constitute the Psychosis of Redintegration, showing the triple process of the Ego. I. Recurrence is the immediate, involuntary repetition of the apperceptive act, usually caused by the presence of the object. I am reading in a book and I find a strange word, strange to me at least, let it be just this word integration ; I inte- grate it as a sensuous object, and then readon, when I meet it again, and spontaneously redintegrate it ; so I continue doing, till it becomes my intel- lectual property and 1 can use it myself. The word merely recurred, and I immediately responded with my integration. Thus we are always spon- taneously integrating, whereof again we can detect the inner movement, which is that of the object perceived, as we have already observed under Perception. 1. Impression: the object appeals to the Ego, impresses it, and it responds. Thus the Ego is at first determined from without to make the act AFPEBCEPTION. 197 of Integration, and the Recurrence impels tlieEgo to attend the object. 2. Attention: the Ego now voluntarily directs itself to the recurring object, which, however, still recurs by chance, is not made to recur by an act of will, though, when it docs recur, the Eiio pays Attention to it, which demands a volitional effort. 3. Retention: the object having recurred, the Ego not only attends to it, but repeats the act of Attention, and thus ideates the recurring object. The next step is that the Ego make the object recur through an act of will ; but this is no longer Recurrence, which is external and involuntary. Herewith we have moved forward to a new stage, that of Repetition. It is one of the most important elements of the training of the Ego to make it seize the advantage of every chance Recurrence, which is coming to it incessantly. This is truly the sphere of Opportunity, which the man must be ready for at all times, ready to integrate the recurrent facts and events of the world, which occur and recur every day. To be sure, that which simply occurs once externally he must make recur internally, but this brings us again to Repetition. The World's Fair, for instance, was one occurrence, but we have the power of making it often recur. II. Repetition is a voluntary act of the Ego, 198 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. integrating over and over again the object ; we might call the whole process by the name of Intentional Redintegration. Now the activity proceeds from the Ego, from within, and not from without, as in Recurrence; the Ego deter- mines itself to Repetition, which is a separative act, since Volition is j^rimarily a going forth of the Ego out of itself, while Repetition is made up of distinct acts, and hence is preceded by separation. Still the movement is to over- come just the separation of the object and to integrate it with the Ego. The importance of Repetition in education may just be noticed in passing. It is, indeed, the formal act of learning, the child has to repeat and review his lesson till it be thoroughly inte- grated. How many thousands of Repetitions are necessary in learning to read, beginning with the letters of the alphabet ! Repetition is the mind kneading the mind, which has to be wrought over many times, till it become pliable, form-taking, responsive to the object. Repetilio mater studi- orum is an old educational maxim, much enforced bv the Jesuits. The Ego repeats the object which it has selected, and turns away from what it has rejected. In Repetition there is a selection of the thing repeated; this selection, being the act of the Ego, will manifest three phases. 1. Interest: the mind primarily takes up APPERCErTION. 199 what interests it, chooses that, integrates it, and repeats the integration. Man wishes to see again what he likes. Ah-eady we have discussed Interest under Selective Integration; here the fact is that the Ego will of itself repeat and completely integrate that in which it is interested. The use of this psychological fact has an impor- tant place in the School; the teacher is to bring about, as far as is reasonable, this spon- taneous movement to Kepetition of the lesson on the part of the student. 2. Value: the Ego will take up v/hat has value for it and for its legitimate purposes, and in- tegrate the same. We have to learn our pro- fession, in order to earn our bread; the finite ends of life have their value, though this too be intermediate and finite. The object which is useful to us we integrate and redintegrate in order to make the same our own. Usefulness or the finite value of the thing learned, is the second staffe of integrating instruction. 3. Infinite value: the destiny of the Ego is to unfold itself into perfect selfhood, to become actually what it is potentially. Such is its infin- ite end, in which it is truly free, that is, self- limiting and self-legislating; the thing which conduces to this end has infinite value, and ought to obtain the completest integration. Education and its instrumentalities have this infinite value for the Ego. So important are 200 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. these instrumentalities that they must be selected in advance for the child, whose sole vocation in his early years is to redintegrate them in the school, whereby he develops into possession of himself as well as into the culture of his race. It will be roticed that these three stages of Repetition, whereby the object is redintegrated, bear the same names as those of Selective Inte- gration. We observe, in fact, the same general process of the object, yet with a special differ- ence ; there the Ego selects and integrates the object simply, here the Ego selects. and redinte- grates the object, till the latter becomes an ideal element of the Ego. Theie the object was taken up in the process and ideated; here the object and the process are taken up and ideated together, so that the Ego is in possession of both, and no longer needs the presence of the external object. III. Habit is the unified result of a number of repetitions both of the object and of a series of objects ; each is redintegrated by separate acts of volition, till the whole series becomes united with the Ego as one object, and requires but one effort of will for starting. Take the well-known instance of learning to play on a musical instru- ment; to strike each key of the piano demands at first a distinct act of volition, till the move- ment of the fingers becomes a habit, when the player no longer attends to his hand, but looks at the notes before him, or glances off into vacuity. APPEBCEPTION. 201 The process, once under way, goes of itself, that is, unconsciously, to the end. Thus the Ego has taken up into itself the sep- arate repetitions and has unified them into Habit, which means that the Ego possesses the whole series or cycle as a unit. Habit is said to be automatic, it requires but a single stimulus or a single volition at the beginning, after which it runs like a machine moved from the outside. We will to take a walk, without further conscious volition the legs move and complete the long suc- cession of movements. Repetition through Rep- etition does away with Repetition, becoming the latent factor in Habit. The Ego will have its process in Habit, inte- grating the series with itself spontaneously, then separating the same from itself, and at last form- ing the new Habit. 1. The Ego loves Habit, it naturally forms Habits as an element of its inmost Self. I ac- quire the Habit of Industry or Economy ; or the opposite Habits, those of Idleness or Wasteful- ness; good or bad, they are Habits which the Ego has by its very nature to generate. That is, the many separate Integrations must become one complete Redintegration, which, though the creation of the Ego itself, dominates it, rules it with a rod of iron. Wherewith we begin to see the necessity of a new stage. 2. The Eso becomes the slave of Habit, and 202 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. seeks to shake off its slavery. Thus a separation takes place ; the Ego withdraws itself from Habit, or from some given Habit, regarding the same as external, as outside of itself. And indeed, Habit does get to be mechanical, a kind of ma- chine which, ODce set a-going, seems to run with- out the help of or even against the wishes of the Ego. Especially is this the case with physical Habits; eating, drinking, smok- inof all eng-ender enslaving Habits which the Ego resists, or may resist. So the Ego hates Habit, fights it, and is not always victori- ous. Such opposition does not necessarily arise against the so-called bad Habit merely ; the Ego begins to dislike any Habit when this gets to be mechanical, external, no longer an inherent part of itself. For thus the Ego finds itself cramped, thrust into limits, whereas it is by nature limit- transcending. Often the Habit which was once pleasurable — notably the Habit of teaching — becomes burdensome through much repetition, because it has dropped from self-active spon- taneity on the part of the instructor to the grind of a machine. The teacher must be eternally alive with the Psychosis, else Habit will become his mill. 3. The Ego, having fallen out with the old Habit, separates itself from the same, and retires into its inner Self. But just this separation and self-return is the new Habit being formed; for APPERCEPTION. 203 the EiTo must form a Habit even aoraiast Habit. Tims the E"ro goes back to its first stage and becomes spontaneous again, yet after having passed through the different, the opposite, here the mechanical ; from the Habit breaker it rises to being the Habit maker, which is just its pro- cess and completion in this third stage. Thus it has reached beyond its limit, and found freedom, not simply by destroying the old but by creating the new Habit. The apperceptive act is now complete. It first took up and integrated the object with the Ego and its content in an external fashion ; then it selected the object and integrated the same according to its own interest and needs ; finally it has redintegrated the object not only as a separate single thing, but has made a new integra- tion of it into a series or cycle, in which several correlated objects (events, actions, things) are still further unified. Thus has arisen an order within an order, and the single object takes its place in what may be called the social system of the Ego. The work of Apperception is done. Moreover, the inner society of the Ego with its objects ordered and integrated into Habits is the source of the outer society of man, in which Habit again will be a most important factor of order and organization. The Ego will realize itself, it will make its own world to live in, and make it after the pattern of itself. Indeed what 204 PSYCHOLOGY AND THE PSYCHOSIS. else has it ultimately to take as its pattern ? Society is the Ego realizing itself in the world. Herewith the entire process of Sense-percep- tion is brought to a conclusion. The object which in Sensation came upon the Ego in a vast, ceaselessly flowing stream, has been separated, taken up and ideated in Perception, and has been integrated with the Ego and its content, ordered and organized in Apperception. The object as an external thing, event, act, has come to an end, having been internalized and united with the Ego in all the stages of the latter' s move- ment. It is not destroyed, but is actually pre- served and made permanent, being rescued from the negative might of Space and Time, and being transformed into an ideal object out of sensuous externality. Thus the Ego has made the object one with itself. But the process of the Ego requires sep- aration as well as unity; accordingly the Ego separates this ideated object from itself, holds the same up before itself as distinct, whereby this object, still retaining its ideality, becomes Image. At this point we pass out of the first stage of Intellect, which is Sense-perception, into the second stage, which is Representation. Looking backward again, we may observe that when the sensuous thing has been made tc> con- tribute to an infinite end, and thereby has been endowed with an infinite value, it has attained its APPERCEPTION. 205 culmination. That is, when the object of Sense- perception has been completely apperceived by the Ego, an