GIFT OF Bancroft LIBRARY ORIGIN PROGRESS AND DESTINY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. BY JOHN A. WEISSE, M.D. "The other nations of Europe may esteem themselves fortunate, that the English have not made the discovery of the suitableness of their language for universal adoption." DR. K. M. RAPP'S " Physioloiie der SJrac/ie." Vol. III. p. 157. NEW YORK: J. W. BOUTON, 706 BROADWAY. 1879. COPYRIGHT BY J. W. BOUTON, 1878. GIFT OF Bancroft LIBRARY TROW'S PRINTING AND BOOKBINDING Co., 205-213 Kast \~zth St., NEW YORK. ENGLISH-SPEAKING POPULATIONS IN EUROPE, AMERICA, ASIA, AFRICA, AND OCEANICA, of Appreciation 0f %ir |frmgirag*, THIS WORK IS DEDICATED BY THE AUTHOR. " Language is an art, and a glorious one, whose influence extends over all others, and in which all science whatever must center ; but an art springing from necessity, and originally invented by artless men." HORNE TOOKE'S "Diversions of Pur ley." Vol. I., p. 317, L. E. PREFACE. "The science of language is a modern one, as much so as geology and chemistry ; it be- longs, like them, to the nineteenth century." Prof. W. D. WHITNEY. OUR new method of analyzing the English language was suggested by the term Anglo-Saxon, used by enthusiasts as a national and linguistic pedigree. The people of England Seemed to us as much mixed as any nation in Europe ; the people of the United States more than any European nation, and the English idiom more Greco-Latin than Anglo-Saxon. A strict analysis of Anglo-Saxon and English literature, from King Ethelbert, A.D. 597, to Queen Victoria, realized our opinion, not only historically and philologically, but numerically. Our book is no eulogy on the virtues of the ninety Eng- lish-speaking millions, nor is it a satire on their vices ; but an essay on what they have achieved in language, which contains the thought and wisdom of the nation. We analyzed about one hundred and fifty Anglo-Saxon, English and American writings and authors, from A.D. 597 to our day ; their ultimate percentages will show the origin of the English language. Prof. Draper tells us, in the preface of his excellent work, entitled "Intellectual Development of Europe:" "We gain a more just and thorough appreciation of the thoughts 6 Preface. and motives of men in successive ages of the world." In conformity with this idea, we divide our essay into Cen- turies, not only to appreciate men's thoughts, but to show the gradual progress of a superior language, in which, according to Home Tooke, " all science whatever must center." We started this investigation with intent to show the inferiority of the English language as compared with Greek, Latin, French, and German ; but, finding that it contains the cream and essence of its predecessors and cotemporaries, that its grammar is simpler than any we have studied, and that its records and literature are more successive and complete than those of any other tongue we must acknowledge the fact, in order to be true to our convictions. You have but to follow our account from century to century, and you cannot help being convinced of the truth of every statement. As we think " the agita- tion of thought is the beginning of wisdom," we hope our analysis will be thoroughly and fairly scrutinized and com- mented on. Behold our linguistic classification, slightly modified from that used by previous philologists : f Thraco-Pelasgic or Greco-Latin Family. Ario-Japhetic ! Scytho-Gotho-Germanic " Type : j Gomero-Celtic I Sarmato-Sclavonic " Ario-Semitic , Semitic Family. Type: Ario-Hamitic Type : This classification is based on the writings of eminent ancient, Medieval and modern authors. The above terms Preface. 7 are long and cumbersome, but they may be tolerated and excused, when it is considered that they cover and include not only Balbi's 31 families, but Humboldt's and Bromme's 900 languages, of which 53 belong to Europe, 157 to Asia, 125 to Africa, 445 to America, and 120 to Oceanica. Even the 5,000 dialects admitted by the German savant may find room in our three comprehensive linguistic, Genealogic, Historic and Geographic Types, founded on the Pentateuch, Zendavesta, Vedas and Popol Vuh on Homer, Herodotus, Strabo, Pliny, Josephus, Tacitus, Ximenes, Lavoisne, Renan, Schleicher, Max Miiller, Raw- linson, etc. We prefer the above division, because its terms are his- toric and ethnologic, and not geographic, as Indo-Euro- pean, Indo- Germanic, and the like ; and because its roots : ar, la; sem, sam ; Am, Ham, Cham, have an immense linguistic and patronymic range, not limited by any river, mountain, country, or part of the world, but used as names of mankind's gods, heroes, pioneers, or watchwords. We divide the English language, from its formation to our day, into three periods : Anglo-Saxon period from A.D. 449 to 1200. Franco-English " " " I2OO to 1600. English " " " 1600 to 1878. The object of this work, to which the author has de- voted his leisure hours for thirty years, is : I. To lay before the English-speaking populations, in both hemispheres, the real origin and progress of their language ; II. To make the coming generation realize the superi- 8 Preface. ority of their idiom over others, as to the refine- ment and vigor of its vocabulary, clearness of dic- tion, simplicity in grammar, and directness in con- struction ; III. To show the inconsistency of so-called English orthography ; IV. To suggest a method to write and print English as it is pronounced, and remove the few remaining irregularities from its grammar ; V. Last, to stimulate the English-speaking millions all over the globe, so to simplify the uttering, writing and printing of their language as to make it a desideratum for universal adoption. JOHN A. WEISSE, M.,D. 30 W. I5TH ST., NEW YORK, 1878. INTRODUCTION. IN Sharon Turner's " History of the Anglo-Saxons " we read : " To explore the history of any language is a task peculiarly difficult at this period of the world, in which we are so remote from the era of its construction. We have as yet witnessed no people in the act of forming their language, and cannot therefore from experience demonstrate the simple elements from which a language begins, nor the additional organization which it grad- ually receives." We assent to this statement, when applied to any of the ancient idioms, as Sanscrit, Hebrew, Arabic, Phenician, Etruscan, Celtic, Gothic. Sclavonic, etc.; but Anglo-Saxon, mother of English, being a dialect whose vocabulary and literature are historic, we shall endeavor to show its ''simple elements" and trace "the addi- tional organization which it gradually receives" To perform this " task peculiarly difficult at this period of the world" we ask and answer the following questions : I . What was the language of the three Gotho-Germanic tribes, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles, who settled in Britain from A.D. 449 to 586, and formed the Anglo-Saxon dialect ? II. Where did the Anglo-Saxon dialect, mother of English, originate ? III. What was the language in England from A.D. 597, when the Anglo-Saxon code of Ethelbert, King of Kent, was written to A. D. 1154, when the "Saxon Chronicle " was stopped and Anglo-Saxon ceased to be a written language ? IV. What was the language in England from A.D. 1154 to Shakespeare, 1600 ? V. What was its progress from A.D. 1600 to 1878 ? To answer the first and second question, there being no io Introduction. writings of that period, we compare the earliest &nd Ario-Semitic roots and words to arrive at the ^origin G the 1 " Anglo-Saxon dialect, formed by the three Gotho- Germanic tribes. To answer the three other questions, when there are Gotho-Germanic writings, we select, from century to century, Anglo-Saxon, English and American writers of different styles and on different subjects, take extracts, arrange the words under appropriate headings, and arrive at numeric results. Again, from these tables of 100 words each we drop repetitions, choose the different nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs of quality, and parti- cles, place them in separate columns, and thus reach ultimate totals, which must irrevocably settle the origin and progress of the English language. Poetry and prose, the pulpit, the forum, the university, the press, school and lecture room, furnish their quota to this analysis. We are convinced there are thousands, who desire satisfactory answers to the above questions, language being a nation's intel- lectual and moral mirror. To those who sincerely seek knowl- edge, we present tables and columns of Anglo-Saxon and English words ; to those who, from prejudice, ignorance or want of proper research, parade the terms Anglo-Saxon, Teutonic, A T orman or Norman-French, and think they have exhausted the subject, we offer linguistic transitions with percentages. We thought long and earnestly, till we reached this new method of analyzing the English language and literature. If it affords as much pleasure to readers as it did to the author, who, at the age of thirty, knew not a word of English, his labor of thirty years will be amply rewarded. He offers it to the English-speaking populations as a linguistic monument to supply an educational want, hoping it will find its way into schools, colleges, and universities. A progression of fourteen centuries is a curious linguistic phe- nomenon, if we consider the Dark Ages through which Anglo- Saxon had to pass. As every social change, new science, art, invention and mech- anism requires and fosters peculiar devices and trades, and thus contributes technic terms and words, we cursorily allude to each, so as to show, as much as possible, the time and place, when and where, the additions came into the language. Those who will carefully read our Extracts, Tables, Synopses, Introduction. 1 1 and Ultimate Numeric Results, together with our remarks and notes, as they occur from century to century and from period to period, will not only learn the origin and progress of the English language and literature, but the style of the different authors, the changes in orthography and grammar, also the gradual disuse of certain words and phrases, as the language gained directness and clearness, and became less involved in its construction, which has been and is now the besetting defect of the Gotho-Germanic idioms. About A.D. 1066 an influx of words from a different and more advanced family of languages, unconformable to the Anglo-Saxon grammar, compelled a relinquishment of odd in- flexions and arbitrary declensions. Conjugation and construc- tion were simplified, shortened, and generalized to suit the new comers. Here was the knell of Anglo-Saxon stagnation and the dawn of English progress. The great linguist, Jacob Grimm, consoles Anglo-Saxon enthusiasts by assuring them that modern English gained in spiritual maturity what it may have lost in Anglo-Saxon inflexions. After all, language is the truest gauge of a nation's advancement. There is no doubt that Shakespeare and Milton settled the character of the English idiom from about 1600 to 1670. From our analysis of the Anglo-Saxon dialect through its transition into the present composite English language, we infer, that Ethelbert of A.D. 600 could hardly have conversed with Ethelred II., A.D. 1000 ; that Egbert of A.D. 828 could not have easily read Chaucer's " Canterbury Tales" of 1380 ; and should Alfred the Great suddenly appear at Queen Victoria's court and address Her Majesty in the Anglo-Saxon of his day, some linguist would have to be called in to interpret the distinguished stranger's idiom. Hence Sir Charles Lyell's saying : " None of the tongues now spoken were in existence ten centuries ago," is literally true. The changes of the Anglo-Saxon dialect from Ethelbert, A.D. 597, to Chaucer, 1380, were striking; from Chaucer, 1380. to Shakespeare, 1600, they were less so ; and from 1600 to our day, they were comparatively slight, as may be realized by our Tables. Shakespeare, with his varied conceptions, did not burst the mould of England's dialect; for some admirer counted the words in his writings and states them to be 15,000; probably Mrs. 12 In troduction . Cowden Clark, who made a concordance of Shakespeare's works. Milton did not exhaust his native tongue, for he only employs 8,000 words. We are told that the translation of the Scriptures, under James I., 1611, required 773,746 words, about nine-tenths of which are proper names, repetitions, and particles ; that the insignificant word and occurs 46,219 times; and that few good authors use 10,000 words, while ordinary people employ but 3,000, which is but a fraction of the 80,000 popular, scientific and technical words mentioned in Noah Webster's preface to his Dictionary of 1840, in which he says : " It has been my aim in this work to furnish a standard of our vernacular tongue, which we shall not be ashamed to bequeath to five hundred millions of people, who are destined to occupy and hope to adorn the vast territory within our jurisdiction." Since then Texas, California and Alaska were added. Stenographers found that 1,500 words sufficed for a long evening's debate in the English Parliament. Trench, in his " Study of Words" corroborates the superiority of language over authors in this felicitous strain : " Far more, and mightier in every way, is a language than any one of the works which may have been composed in it ; for that work, great as it may be, is but the embodying of the mind of a single man this, of a nation. The Iliad is great, yet not so great in strength, or power, or beauty, as the Greek language. Paradise Lost is a noble pos- session for a people to have inherited, but the English tongue is a nobler heritage yet." English, now the easiest language as to grammar, combining the elegance of the Greco-Latin with the vigor of the Gotho- Germanic tongues, would be ready for universal adoption, if the English-speaking peoples would adopt the plain phonographic German rule : " Write as you pronounce, and pronounce as you write" In other words, write the same letter or letters for one and the same sound, wherever that sound is required, and utter the same sound for the same letter or letters wherever you find them. This same rule has been applied over two thousand years to Greek and Latin, not only by the nations of continental Europe, but of Asia, Africa, and South America. A Greek or Latin scholar from any part of the world, except England and the United States, can converse in those languages ; because, Introduction. 13 among all, Greek and Latin are written as they are pronounced, and pronounced as they are written. Strange, the Isle of Britain and North America should stand in their own light, and attempt to carry their inconsistent pronunciation into those classic idioms, which ought to be a sacred universal linguistic medium for the educated of all climes, whether from Oxford, Paris, Berlin, Mecca, Fez, Harvard, or Rio Janeiro. This so-called English pronun- ciation of Greek and Latin has not as yet obtained in Ireland, where a classic student from any part of the world except Oxford or Yale, can attend divine service and understand every word uttered by the officiating priest ; so can they in the Convent of Mount St. Bernard, or of Mount Carmel. Is it not high time the English and Americans should awake, not only from their nightmare pronunciation of Greek and Latin, but from the dis- harmony between letter and sound in their own superior language, whose universal adoption is thereby retarded ? We are told, the German phonographic rule would be impossible in English. If it has been possible for centuries in German, Greek and Latin, why should it be impossible in English or any other language ? As to the destiny of the English language, the ninety millions who speak it in Europe, America, Asia, Africa, and Oceanica, are fully aware of its capacity to become the universal linguistic medium, which may be realized by looking at the map of North America, where the English idiom has, within twenty-five years, spread from the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico to the Pacific and Behring's Straits, and displaced the Spanish, French, Indian and Russian dialects. Cuba, St. Domingo, Mexico, Central America, the Sandwich and Navigator's Islands, are feeling its influence and desire its sway ; even exclusive China and Japan seem to lean more and more towards America and the English language across the Pacific. Thus the tide of empire is not only westward, but eastward ; it meets and mingles in America. G. P. Marsh, in his "Lectures on the English Language," p. 121, says: "In order to arrive at satisfactory conclusions on this point (origin of the English language) > more thorough and extensive research is necessary." In our extracts and tables the " more thorough and extensive research " urged by Mr. Marsh will be found. There we even supply the want felt by the eru- dite lecturer, when he says, p. 122 : "I have made no attempt 14 Introduction. to assign words, not of Anglo-Saxon origin, to their respective sources." We made the attempt, and found that the "respective sources " of the English vocabulary are : Anglo-Saxon, Gothic, Danish, Swedish, German, Divtch, Flemish, and Icelandic ; Welch, Cornish, Scotch, Irish, and Armoric; Greek, Latin, French, Italian, Spanish, and Portuguese ; Russian ; Arabic, Hebrew and Aramaic. Hence a careful perusal of this analysis will enable any reader to learn, that the English of to-day is a compound of twenty-three idioms, ancient and modern, dead and living. No wonder Wilberforce says: "English is a composite language." To realize that the English dialect has added from six to sixty- eight per cent, of 'Greco-Latin since Alfred the Great must prove interesting to the English-speaking millions all over the globe. Of all sciences, the sublimest language is the most compli- cated and inconsistent, not for want of votaries, but for want of strictly scientific analysis and synthesis. In our tables, let the reader compare the words of the Greco-Latin and the Anglo- Saxon columns, and he will find, that nearly all the Greco-Latin are words of progress, civilization, and refinement ; whereas al- most one-half of the Anglo-Saxon are insignificant particles and words of primary necessity. According to Tyr whit's "Essay on the Language and Versification of Chaucer," p. 7, the French element in the Anglo-Saxon dialect began with the accession of Edward the Confessor, A.D. 1042, and^not, as usually asserted, with the so-called Norman Conquest, which but hastened the fusion of the two idioms. In our analysis we fully realize what Mr. Marsh says, p. 122 : " Words of original Latin etymology have been, in the great majority of instances, borrowed from the French, and are still used in forms more in accordance with the French than with the Latin orthography." No wonder the English, under Edward the Confessor, ceased to cultivate Anglo-Saxon and introduced French. Swinton's adage, "When a tongue becomes petrified, the national mind walks out of it," was fully realized under Har- dicanute. The Anglo-Saxon dialect was too poor and contracted for an Anglo-French population, who mixed the two idioms in such proportions as suited their progress in morals, literature, science, art, commerce, and civilization. As they progressed Introduction, 15 from Egbert to Victoria, their language advanced towards its present standard of excellence. The English character is a happy mixture of Celtic wit, Franco- Norman daring, and Germanic gravity, tinged with a peculiar love of enterprise and distant adventure. Perhaps the varied tri- bal and national elements, that engendered the English, together with their hazy island home, tended to produce a race distin- guished for sagacious eclecticism, not only in science, art, me- chanics, and manufactures, but in language. The English idiom is the cream and essence of the Ario- Japhe- tic dialects : it contains the choicest Greco-Latin, Gotho-Ger- manic and Celtic elements a happy medium between French and German ; more grave than the former, less guttural, harsh, inverted and cumbersome than the latter ; grammatically simpler than either ; but very capricious in its orthoepy and phonography, which might be easily modified. Vowels and consonants are so felicitously combined in English, that the dwellers of the frigid and torrid zones can articulate and speak it with comparative ease. Before we close this introductory survey of the English-speak- ing millions, let us cite a passage from that most erudite living philologist, Max Miiller: " Why certain words die and others live on, why certain meanings of words become prominent, so as to cause the absorption of all the other meanings, we have no chance to explain. We must take the work of language as we find it, and in disentangling the curious skein we must not expect to find one continuous thread, but rest satisfied, if we can sepa- rate the broken ends, and place them side by side in something like an intelligent order." We shall endeavor to disentangle " the curious skein " of the English language, and unroll it in "one continuous thread," without separating or replacing "any broken ends." Some ideas and events connected with the British Isles prior to the advent of the Gotho-Germanic tribes, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles, who formed England, would not be out of place here, before we undertake to give the Origin, Progress and Destiny of the English Language and Literature. Britain had attracted the attention of Europe, Africa and Asia, as may be realized by observing a series of singular events and 1 6 Introduction. circumstances ; for not only the refined nations of genial climes, but the rude hyperborean tribes looked to Albion as a source of heroism and intellectual light. Strabo informs us that the com- merce of Britain had become so profitable to the Phenicians that Rome tried to compete ; consequently a Roman galley watched the course of a Phenician shipmaster, who, perceiving it, would rather wreck his vessel than go to Britain. For this patriotic deed the Phenician was rewarded by his country. The rich tin mines of Cornwall had for ages attracted the Phenicians and Car- thaginians to the British Isles, which, on that account, were called " Cassiterides " from Kasstrcpos, tin. Cesar, the greatest Roman general, had used 30,000 veterans and 800 vessels to invade Albion and defeat Casivellaunus, one of the British Kings B.C. 55; yet Tacitus says: "Cesar only gave the Romans a view, not a possession of Britain." Insults, offered to Boadicea and her daughters by the licentious Catus, roused the Iceni, who killed 70,000 Romans ; but ultimately the heroic British Queen succumbed at the head of her people, and took poison to avoid falling into the hands of the victors. Such events were surely calculated to turn, not only Rome's, but the world's attention towards Britain. Of all that happened in the British Isles, the capture of the brave Caractacus (Caradoc), who fought the Roman legions nine years, deserves particular men- tion : carried prisoner to Rome, the unfortunate British monarch astonished by his dignified bearing the Emperor Claudius, who ordered his fetters to be removed and treated him and his family with magnanimity. That scene, so vividly and grandly related by Tacitus (annal. lib. xii. 33-39), merits perusal. It seems the British Royal family had embraced Christi- anity and fostered it through ST. PAUL, who, in his second Epis- tle to Timothy iv. 21, mentions Linus (Lleyn), son of Claudia (Gladys), daughter of Caractacus; also Pudens, husband of Claudia, all of whom had become converts and friends of St. Paul in Rome. When voices whisper to us, not only from distant Asia, but from Gaul, that St. Paul preached in Britain, we cannot help as- certaining, as much as possible, a historic fact so interesting to England's and America's ninety English-speaking millions of the present day. Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrus in Syria (A.D. 420- Introduction. if 451), says in his (Com. on II. Timothy) : "When Festus sent Paul to Rome, the Apostle, after his acquittal, traveled to Spain and other countries and to Islands beyond the sea." Elsewhere the same author writes : " After Paul was released at Rome, he preached to the Britons and other nations in the west." We also read in (Demonstr. Evang. lib. 3) of Eusebius, Bishop of Cesarea (A.D. 324) : " The Apostle went beyond the Ocean to the British Isles." These strong and unimpeachable oriental voices go far to prove that St. Paul went to Britain ; especially when we con- sider that Fortunatus, Bishop of Poitiers (A.D. 560-609), says: St. Paul "crossed the Ocean and landed in an Island which Britannus held." As to Joseph of Arimathea, the Virgin Mary, and other co- temporaries of Christ and His apostles, having gone to Britain, we leave others to prove. Linus, Claudia, Pudens, being named in II. Timothy shows, that Paul knew the British Royal family at Rome, which, coupled with the testimony of the eastern and western Bishops, form a pretty strong proof that he was in Britain. Thence we realize, that the misfortunes of Caractacus formed a glittering link in the chain of western civilization and progress. Had Caractacus remained in Britain and ruled quietly over the Silures, he would not have astonished Rome's Emperor and senate by his lofty conduct, and could not have had that bril- liant page in the history of Tacitus. His daughter, Claudia, would not have become the illustrious Roman matron, whose palace was the asylum .of persecuted Christians ; neither would his son, Linus, have been successor to Peter as Bishop of Rome. That the Linus mentioned here was brother to Claudia, is proved by this statement in B. iii. C. I. of St. Ireneus, Bishop of Lyons, about A.D. 190 : " After the Apostles had established the church at Rome, they intrusted its supervision to Linus, who is the Linus named by Paul in his Epistles to Timothy." This passage in the earliest of the western Fathers, not only corroborates, but establishes the friendship and connection between St. Paul, Linus, Claudia, and Pudens. This chain of allusions to St. Paul, his travels and friends in western Europe, should and must prove somewhat of a damper to those, who consider it a mark of scholarship to sneer at and question the authenticity of the New Testament. We read in the Saxon Chronicle : "Pope Eleuthe- 2 1 8 Introduction. rius sent missionaries to Britain at the request of Lucius, king of the Britons, A.D. 190." Britain saw among her Prelates the first western Protestant against papal dictation. That Protestant was Pelagius whose family name was Morgan. It is said he was born at Bangor, where (about A.D. 400) he became Prior of the renowned Abbey, over whose gates was engraved : " If a man will not work, neither let him eat," which in other words was but a repetition of Gen. iii., 19: "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread." The venerable Bede and other writers tell us, that in the Abbey of Bangor were two thousand monks, each of whom had to earn a living by some kind of handwork. Had the Medieval and modern priesthood held to this golden rule, they would never have become so idle and corrupt ; and there would have been neither mendicant friars, nor inquisitorial Dominicans. Pelagius was one of the most erudite scholars of his epoch ; he was not only versed in ancient, but in Celtic lore. He admired Origen and was opposed, to Augustine of Hippo. In his fourth book on "Free Will" written against St. Jerome, his principal tenets may be epitomized thus : 1. Adam was created mortal and would have died, whether he would have sinned or not. 2. Adam's transgression only attached to himself, and not to his posterity. 3. The law as well as the Gospel led men to Heaven. 4. Before Christ's advent men were without sin. 5. Infants are in the same state where Adam was before his fall. 6. Mankind neither dies on account of Adam's death and pre- varication, nor resuscitates through Christ's resurrection. 7. Man is born without sin and can easily obey God's com- mands, if he wishes. When the Bishops of Gaul and Italy, at whose head figured the Bishop of Rome, urged him to recant, Pelagius replied : "Sola in Britannia Ecclesia Britannica Judex" (In Britain the church alone is the British Judge). Although the life of this bold reformer had been without blemish, he was thenceforth styled heretic and deposed by a synod of Winchester. He resigned the Abbey of Bangor and visited Rome, whence he passed to Africa with Celestius, the most learned and zealous of his adherents. Introduction. 19 He tarried but a short time in Africa, left Celestius, who fixed his residence at Carthage and taught the new doctrines, while Pelagius went to the Orient, where he dogmatized. His opinions were denounced in the Council of Diospolis. The Fathers of that assembly anathematized them and forced the author to retract ; but this retraction did not change his mind. He was condemned again A.D. 415, by the council of Carthage. The Bishops of those councils sent their judgment to Pope Innocent I., who joined them in excommunicating him. Shortly after the Pope died, Pelagius wrote to his successor, Zosimus, and sent Celestius to induce him to repeal the anathema against himself and his friend. Zosimus received the apology, but assembled his Bishops and priests, who condemned the Pelagian doctrines, while they approved his resolution to recant. Zosimus accepted a confession of faith from Pelagius, and wrote to the African Bishops in his favor. These prelates formed a new council at Carthage A.D. 417; it consisted of 217 Bishops, who ordained that the sentence, pronounced against Pelagius and Celestius by Pope Innocent I., should stand, till they had anathematized the Pelagian errors. Zosimus consented, confirmed the Council's judgment and condemned the two friends in the sense of his predecessor. The Emperor Honorius, informed of these proceedings, decreed that the Pelagians should be treated as heretics, and that Pelagius and Celestius should be banished from Rome as heresiarchs and disturbers. This rescript is dated April 30, A.D. 418. On the first of May following a general Council assembled at Carthage, in which shone Augustine of Hippo. They formed nine articles of an anathema against the Pelagian sect. The Bishops, who refused to subscribe, were deposed by ecclesiastic judges and driven from their bishoprics by Imperial authority. Pelagius, obliged to quit Rome, retired to Jerusalem, where he found no asylum ; and it is not known at what time and place he died. Perhaps he was spirited away? We read that his persecutors were wont to say : " Speak not to Pelagius or he will convert you." Surely no greater eulogy could attach to any mortal. Of his numerous works, written in elegant Latin, only fragments remain. Great Britain's clergy and laity must ever feel proud of this early champion and martyr of the liberty of conscience. 2O Introduction. Orosius, pupil and friend of St. Augustine, figured in that con- troversy ; for, while studying with St. Jerome in Palestine, where Pelagius preached his doctrines, he was called to oppose them in the Synod of Jerusalem, July 30 A.D. 415. To this learned Spanish prelate we owe " Ab Initio Mundi usque in presentem Diem,' 1 A.D. 416. (From the beginning of the world to the present day), which Alfred the Great translated into Anglo Saxon with valuable additions to his own epoch. This work by Orosius is also called " Historiarum Libri VII. adversus Paganos" Julian, Bishop of Eclanum, Italy, and seventeen other Bishops protested against the Council's decree. The Pope condemned them all ; they appealed to a general Council ; but Augustine, the most vehement adversary of Pelagius, clajmed that their appeal was a sham. Julian died A.D. 450, after having been expelled from his diocese, excommunicated by the Pope and proscribed by the Emperor. Of course the Roman hierarchy congratulated themselves on their triumph, which even the Eng- lish church endorsed in her 9th article, condemning the Pelagian tenets concerning original sin ; but how stands this dogma with Universalists Unitarians, and liberal Christians of all denomina- tions ? This early mental activity, starting in Britain and extending to Africa and Asia, though not directly connected with the English nation or language, prepared the way for their future develop- ment and expansion. The principle of self-reliance, so persist- ently advocated by Pelagius, has ever animated the English- speaking Populations : this fundamental principle is thus ex- pressed by the early British writer Gildas in his " Excidio Britan- nia"' " He that will be a prophet of God, must never rest, till he has traced everything -to its cause and mode of operation." Roger Bacon, Wickliffe, Tindale, Ridley, Newton, Franklin, Tom Paine, Channing, and in our day Darwin, Tyndall, Huxley, Emerson, etc., are eminent representatives of man's free agency. The idea, that man's salvation or ruin depends on his own choice, commission or omission did not originate with the Jews, who passively looked to Jehovah for every thing ; not with the Brah- mins, who practiced abnegation and inertia ; not with the Magi, who believed in mere contemplation ; not with the Greeks and Romans, who had Gods and Goddesses for every thing ; not Introduction. 21 with the Gotho-Germanic tribes, who delighted in fighting, rov- ing, plundering, and wild adventure, both here and hereafter. Whence then came to the Medieval and modern nations, especi- ally to the English-speaking Populations, the fundamental idea of man's selfhood'} Cesar alone answers this question satisfac- torily, when he tells us in his Com. lib. 3 : "The Druids discuss many things concerning the stars and their revolutions, the mag- nitude of the globe and its various divisions, the nature of the universe, the energy and power of the immortal Gods." Hence we are indebted to the Celts for the idea of individual observa- tion, investigation and research in mechanics, art and science, without regard to morals or religion, pope or king. In this age Palladius, sent to Ireland by Pope Celestine, con- verted the Scots or Irish to Christianity A.D. 430, and became their first Bishop. Even to this day the Scotch and Irish honor Palladius as a Saint. St. Patrick took the place of Palladius 434. St. Patrick has ever been a central figure in the Irish mind ; and the 1 7th of March has been celebrated by Irishmen in all parts of the world. This gratitude to their earliest bene- factor, who carried to them "peace, good will toward men," is a pleasant tribute and does credit to the Irish character. Thence- forth civilization began to take root in the British Isles, whence it soon spread to the continent through Anglo-Saxon and Irish missionaries. The clans of Scotland united and established a government under their first King Fergus I., who warred against the Romans and Britons about A.D. 411. When the Roman legions left Britain A.D. 420, those clans styled Picts and Scots so harassed the Britons that they invited Gotho-Germanic auxiliaries to resist the northern foes. ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD, A.D. 449-1200. FIFTH CENTURY. " The only means, by which nations can indulge their curiosity in researches concerning their remote origin, is to consider the language, manners and customs of their ancestors, and compare them with those of neighboring nations." HUME. THE fifth century saw three Gotho-Germanic tribes, known to Roman and Medieval historians as: Juti, Saxones and Angli (Jutes, Saxons and Angles), dwelling in Chersonesus Cimbrica (Jutland). Bede, in his Ecclesiastic History, A.D. 730, speaks of the Jutes and Goths as synonymous. The Anglo-Saxons called them lutas, Iotas or Geotas. We read in the early British and Anglo-Saxon records, that a body of Jutes* sailed in three small vessels, under the brothers Hengist and Horsa, and landed at Ebsrleet in the Isle of Thanet, about A.D. 449; that Vorti- gern, King of the Britons, harassed by the Picts and Scots, * The name Jutes sprang from the following phonetic, alphabetic and linguistic changes : Herodotus' ^KvOcu or 2/coAorot 1500 B.C., and Teroj 440 B.C.; Aristotle's KeArot (Celts) 336 B.C. ; Ptolemy's TOVTCU A.D. 160 ; Latin Scytfuz, Scoti, Getce, Celta, Gothones, Gothi, Gothinii, Guta, lutcz, or luti ; Anglo-Saxon Geotas, Iotas or lutas ; French Scythes, Ecossais, Celtes, Goths, lutes or Jutes /German Scythen, Schotten, Kelten, Gothen. liiten ; English Scythians, Scots, Celts, Goths, lutes or Jutes. In Ethel- werd's Latin Chronicle in the nth century the Jutes are called " Gioti." Thus Herodotus, the Father of history, called those primitive hyperborean tribes 3u0cu or SfcoAoTot and Terat 440 B.C. ; the Romans named them and their descendants Scytha, Celtce, Scoti, Getce about A.D. 100. Hence the most erudite archeologists have good reason to think that the Celts and Scythians sprang from one and the same Asiatic stock ; especially, when Herodotus tells them (B. iv., 6 and 7), that 1500 B.C. the Scythians were named Skolotoi t from a surname of their king, but the Greeks called them Scythians. 24 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. welcomed the Jutes as auxiliaries, and gave them as a reward for their services the Isle of Thanet ; and that soon Hengist's daughter married the British monarch. The earliest English bard, Robert of Gloucester, thus alludes to this royal couple A.D. 1280 : " Kuste hire & sitte hire acloune, & glad dronke hire heil ; And that in this land the verst ' was hail ' ! As in language of Saxoyne, that we might evere iwite ; And so well he paieth the folc about, that he is not yut vorgute." Thus beautifully paraphrased by Robert Burns' friend, Captain Grose : " Health, my Lord King, the sweet Rowena said ; Health, cry'd the chieftain to the Saxon maid ; Then gayly rose and, 'mid the concourse wide, Kissed her hale lips and plac'd her by his side ; At the soft scene such gentle thoughts abound, That health and kisses 'mongst the guests went round ; From this the social custom takes its rise, We still retain and still must keep the prize." Soon the Gothic allies became onerous to Vortigern's subjects, who refused supplies and ordered them to leave the country. A war ensued with varied chances ; but as reinforcements con- stantly arrived from Jutland, the Britons were overwhelmed by numbers and driven from their country, which the Jutes formed into the Kingdom of Kent under Hengist, A.D. 455. Later they added to it a part of Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. The Jutes invited their former neighbors the Saxons and Angles to join them in a country more pleasant and fertile than the one they inhabited ; consequently these tribes prepared for emigration : Ella, with a band of Saxons,* started from Germany, landed * The name Saxons arose from the following phonetic, alphabetic and lin- guistic transitions : Sanscrit Sakas ; Persian Tchaka ; Mongolian Tscha- kars ; Tartar Sakars ; Greek 2a/cat, 2aso/es in Asia, and 2a&>j/es in Europe; Latin Sacce, Sacani and Saxon es ; Anglo-Saxon Seacsa and Seaxa ; German Sassen and Sachsen ; French Saciens and Saxons ; English Sacians and Saxons. Thus Herodotus called this primitive Asiatic people So/cat (Sacians) 440 B.C.; whereas Ptolemy styled their descendants 2o/cot, and 2asoves in Asia, and Salomes in Europe, about A.D. 160. From the analogy of these names commentators had good reason to consider the Fifth Century. 2$ on the southern coast of Britain about A.D. 477, and after a long contest with the natives, succeeded in establishing the KINGDOM OF SUSSEX about 491. In this century the Suevi (Suabians) Alani, Vandals, Burgun- dians, Franks and Goths, pressed by the Huns on the East, abandoned their respective countries in Germany and went west- ward. From A.D. 406 to 428 the Suevi (Suabians), Alani and Vandals passed through Gaul to Spain, which they conquered and became Christians. The Suevi, under Hermeneric, founded a Kingdom in Galicia. The Alani, under Atax, established their Kingdom in Lusitania, now Portugal, and the Vandals, under Godegisit, settled in Betica, which they named Vandalitia, now Andalusia. The Burgundians went to Gaul, founded the King- dom of Burgundy, became Christians, A.D. 417, and soon showed a disposition for progress in the arts of civilized life. About A.D. 420, the Franks settled in Gaul, where they founded the Kingdoms of Austrasia and Soissons, which Clovis united A.D. 486 and named the country France. In 493 he married the accomplished Burgundian Princess, Clotilda, who was a Christian and converted him and the Franks to Christianity, A.D. 496. The Goths of Moesia, Thrace and Dacia (now Servia, Bulgaria and Valachia on the lower Danube), received the Gospel from their apostle Ulfilas, A.D. 376. As Ulfilas cherished the doc- trines of Arius, opposed to the " Trinity" the Goths were " Uni- tarians." They, soon after becoming Christians, abandoned their roving life and cultivated mother Earth, which ever softens fierceness and inclines men to domestic and civilized habits. With the moral example of their pious bishop before them, and the gospel he preached, it took but forty years to so improve and enlighten them, that they dropt their former savage state, and discovered the abject condition of the Greek and Roman pea- santry and the tyranny and injustice of those, who oppressed them. Alaric was a favorite with the Emperor Theodosius ; but he revolted against the intolerance of his weak and vacillating son, Arcadius, who tried to persecute the followers of Arius. Sacians and Saxons synonymous and of Scythian origin ; especially, when Herodotus (B. vii., 64) says: "This people, though really the Amyrgii of Scythia, were called Sacians, the name given by the Persians to all Scy- thians." 26 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Thus Alaric became the defender and champion of the faith of his countrymen. He overran the Eastern Empire, took Corinth, and after varied fortunes invaded Italy and reached effeminate Rome, whose palaces he pillaged, but scrupulously spared the public buildings and churches, A.D. 410. Afterwards they spread over Italy and France, where, under Theodoric I., son of Alaric and King of Aquitania, they joined the Romans against Attila, whom they defeated on the plains of Chalons, and checked the devastation of the Huns, A.D. 451. Theodoric was killed in this memorable battle, and his son Theodoric II., succeeded him in the Kingdom of Aquitania, capital Toulouse, whence he ex- tended his sway to Spain, A.D. 456. Behold what Salvian, a priest of Marseilles, who witnessed the invasion of Gaul by the Goths, wrote regarding the condition of the Roman Empire at that period. His work is entitled "DE GUBERNATIONE DEI"* (On the Government of God}. " In all the cities and villages there are as many tyrants as there are officers of the government ; they devour the bowels of the citizens and their widows and orphans ; public burdens are made the means of private plunder ; the collection of the national revenue is made the instrument of individual peculation ; none are safe from the devastations of these depopulating robbers. The public taxation is partially imposed and arbitrarily levied; hence many desert their farms and dwellings to escape the violence of the exactors. There is but one wish among all the Romans : that they might dwell under the barbarian government. Thus our brothers, not only refuse to leave these nations, but they flee from us to them. Can we then wonder, that the Goths are not conquered by us, when the people would rather become Goths with them than remain Romans with us ? The Roman cities are full of the most dis- solute luxury, and the foulest vices and debauchery. It was even the fashion for the men to dress themselves as women and to pass for such. In this state of evil, the Goths and Vandals, like a torrent, overran the Roman Empire and settled themselves in their cities and towns ; their speedy corruption was anticipated in a population so abandoned ; but, to the astonishment of the whole Empire, instead of degenerating into the universal deprav- * Patrologiae, vol. v. Fifth Century. 27 ity, they became its moral reformers. The luxuries and vices around them excited their disgust and abhorrence. Their own native customs were so modest, that, instead of imitating, they despised and punished, with all their fierce severity, the impuri- ties they witnessed. They made adultery a capital crime, and so sternly punished personal debauchery, that a great moral change took place in all the provinces they conquered." It is remarkable, that the erudite Gibbon, in his "Decline and fall of the Roman Empire" has overlooked this graphic state- ment of a cotemporary and an eye-witness, who, living at Mar- seilles, saw the status of the Roman Empire better than those who were at the capital ; because he came in contact with all classes : farmers, soldiers and officials. Salvian, being a Roman Catholic priest, could not have been prejudiced in favor of the Goths, who were Arians in their Christianity. Greek and Roman historians styled our Gotho-Germanic an- cestors barbarians. Medieval and modern writers imbibed this idea, and it is expressed more or less in our school-books. Even Rollin inclines to make the Goths appear barbarous. This may all be attributed to papal influence on Medieval literature and history ; because the Goths were not of the orthodox faith. Is it not time to discard this error and place our ancestors in their true light, sustained by their simple virtues, and intrinsic merits, as compared with the Romans of that day? It is curious to remark, how hard the Arian or Unitarian opinions struggled for place during the first centuries of Christianity ; till put down by the power of Rome. When its light was finally extinguished the "Dark Ages" followed. The religion that the Goths re- ceived from Ulfilas was Arian Christianity. The Burgundians in France, the Suevi, Alani and Vandals in Spain, and the Goths in Italy, France and Spain were all Arian Christians, and were persecuted by Rome, because of their rejection of the peculiar faith of the Romans. As far as we know, they and their ancestors always worshiped one God ; and it was easy to engraft on that belief the simple and pure ethics of Christ. As the virtuous Bohemian princess Libussa and her consort are usually not mentioned in our histories and biographies, we allude to them here : Libussa reigned wisely and prosperously over Bohemia about A.D. 418, when she found one of her sub- 28 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. jects named Premislas, a farmer, worthy of her hand. This happy couple made beneficent laws for the Bohemians. Thus did a sagacious woman advance civilization among the Gotho- Germanic and Sclavonic races in central Europe at this early period. This century also saw Nemesius, bishop of Emesa, who wrote a remarkable book, entitled Ilepi h cJy2Or5 ffiCj 1 ^^^ 3 P p ~ g g ^T 3-v$ sr g^ }| vJ c g. i^f isi$ nnfif I : g i ;;;. 5 . 3 3 .3 |I g : g 3 P y 33 "2.1 : l; &:;::: i :::! i] IffHgi f I TSSSSg |1 " o. 3"tfq p 33 &: B g Jj H, T - crcrSfcr Sp -^- crcrcrStcrSf g-J: 33^^: : H^E" 233g2S: p Ji c a- ^ jj ft.'iff j 5.0.0.0,0^3^; '* 3r " iSj^.a.' ' =tll ' 1: o 5*5 ft Q Q 8 " n " ig sp : 8 ?r li **: 75: sir I 1 : S-I'I-': II 34 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. the lawgiver of the Hindus ; while Mannus, was the son of Tuiston, and progenitor of the Gotho-Germanic nations. This significant root has ever continued in the cherished national name Herrmann (Lord thinker) ; even the Tartar tribes in Asia have retained to this day the Arian appellation man in the name of their sages and priests, called Shamans ; so have the Chinese in Mandarin. The monosyllable ma characterizes Brahma, God of the Hindus, and of Gautaw good and faithful servant ; " but in which only intriguers and boisterous destroyers find their actions and names paraded. The ancients were not quite so negligent and devoid of justice ; for Cadmus, Palamedes and Simonides are honorably mentioned in connection with the Greek alphabet ; also Carvilius, for adding the letter G to the Roman alphabet, is mentioned by Plutarch. True, modern biography commends Pierre de la Ramee for supplying /and Fto our alphabet, A.D. 1562 ; and the Elzevirs for using this improvement in their fine editions of the Classics. What a pity Augustine, instead of writing so many casuistic trivialities, did not tell posterity who formed the Anglo-Saxon alphabet, and the circumstances con- nected therewith ! Even the Venerable Bede, who wrote a cen- tury after Augustine, might have omitted one of his saints or seers to make room for the Anglo-Saxon alphabet's inventor, whose name would have been as acceptable to posterity as that of Cadmus in Herodotus. The Moeso-Gothic alphabet, more or less modified, was called Modern Gothic or black letter, which was used almost all over Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. The Franks first dropped the Gothic and adopted the Roman characters. Next the Goths in Spain renounced the Gothic and assumed the Roman letters by a decree of a synod at Lyons, A.D. 1091. In England the Gothic characters were last used for King James' version of the Bible, A.D. 1611. The first edition of Shakespeare's writings, issued 1623, was in Roman characters. Germany alone holds on to her Gotho-Germanic hieroglyphics, which are more fantastic and grotesque than the Moeso-Gothic alphabet, invented by Ulfilas, A.D. 376. We do not represent the German alphabet in our table, because it is said Germany is inclined to change it for the Roman now used by all Christian nations, who govern 466,000,000 (over one-third) of Earth's inhabitants. The Greek and Hebrew are known in colleges and seminaries all over Christendom. The Greek and Roman letters have been used Sixth Century. 55 over two centuries to name the stars, and are thus inscribed in the heavens, where they will probably remain as long as man- kind will continue to study the sublime science of the stars. The Mceso-Gothic alphabet has twenty-five and the Anglo-Saxon twenty-four characters. The Scandinavian races, Danes, Swedes, Norwegians, Orkneyans, Shetlanders, and Icelanders, had an al- phabet that numbered but sixteen different letters, which were called Scanic by some and Runic or Icelandic by others. Before leaving this subject, let us allude to a noteworthy and ingenious peculiarity in some Gotho-Germanic alphabets : our readers noticed a dot in Anglo-Saxon y, and a mark across D 5, which changed D d from a dental to a dento-aspirate letter, cor- responding to Greek 6 and English th. The Scanic or Runic alphabet has eight of its sixteen letters with similar marks, whose object is not only to indicate a change of sound, but to increase the alphabet from sixteen to twenty-four letters with- out adding new characters. This mode of marking one and the same letter to indicate a change of sound is analogous to the Hebrew vowel points, Greek and French accents, and Ger- man umlaut. The ninety English-speaking millions of 1878 might advantageously imitate this method to harmonize letter with sound, without adding new characters to their present al- phabet, thus avoiding destruction of type, printed books and libraries, and causing disturbance in education, reading, writing, and printing. The Anglo-Saxons had abbreviating signs for often recurring particles like and, that, or ; they frequently omitted the letter m and indicated its omission by a horizontal line over the letter that immediately preceded the m ; they also united the dip- thongs a and ce into one character for each. Thus did the ancestors of the English give to their progeny an example of being short and telegraphic. No wonder the English and Americans are more inclined than any other nation to shorten words, names, and titles. The year A.D. 597 proved a real blessing to the Anglo-Saxons ; for it not only brought to them the Gospel, an alphabet, and sacred music, but the Roman figures and method of measuring time, as shown by the following Table : 56 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Roman Calendar among the Anglo-Saxons, A.D. 597 : Mar. Mai. Jul. Octob. Jan. Aug. Decemb. Apr. Jun. Sept. Nov. Februar. I Kalendse. Kalendae. Kalendse. Kalendse. 2 VI. Nonas. IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. IV. Nonas. 3 V. Nonas. III. Nonas. III. Nonas. III. Nonas. 4 IV. Nonas. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonas. Pridie Nonae. 5 III. Nonas. Nonse. Nonse. Nonse. 6 Pridie Nonas. VIII. Idus. VIII. Idus. VIII. Idus. 7 Nonae. VII. Idus. VII. Idus. VII. Idus. 8 VIII. Idus. VI. Idus. VI. Idus. VI. Idus. 9 VII. Idus. V. Idus. V. Idus. V. Idus. 10 VI. Idus. IV. Idus. IV. Idus. IV. Idus. ii V. Idus. III. Idus. III. Idus. III. Idus. 12 IV. Idus. Pridie Idus. Pridie Idus. Pridie Idus. *3 III. Idus. Idus. Idus. Idus. J 4 Pridie Idus. XIX. Kal. XVIII. Kal. XVI. Kal. 15 Idus. XVIII. Kal. XVII. Kal. XV. Kal. 16 XVII. Kal. XVII. Kal. XVI. Kal. XIV. Kal. 17 XVI. Kal. XVI. Kal. XV. Kal. XIII. Kal. 18 XV. Kal. XV. Kal. XIV. Kal. XII. Kal. J 9 XIV. Kal. XIV. Kal. XIII. Kal. XI. Kal. 20 XIII. Kal. XIII. Kal. XII. Kal. X. Kal. 21 XII. Kal. XII. Kal. XI. Kal. IX. Kal. 22 XI. Kal. XI. Kal. X. Kal. VIII. Kal. 23 X. Kal. X. Kal. IX. Kal. VII. Kal. 24 IX. Kal. IX. Kal. VIII. Kal. VI. Kal. 2 5 VIII. Kal. VIII. Kal. VII. Kal. V. Kal. 26 VII. Kal. VII. Kal. VI. Kal. IV. Kal. 27 VI. Kal. VI. Kal. V. Kal. III. Kal. 28 V. Kal. V. Kal. IV. Kal. Pridie Kalendas; 29 IV. Kal. IV. Kal. III. Kal. or II. Kalendas. 3 III. Kal. III. Kal. Pridie Kalendas. Pridie Kalendas. Pridie Kalendas. Note, that in every Bissextile or Leap- Vear, February reckons 29 days, and the 24th and 2$th of that month are both written VI. Kal. Mart. With this calendar the Anglo-Saxons obtained the Roman numbers, and the faculty of dividing and counting time, which was an important acquisition ; for without numbers and division of time a community must be very primitive, not to say barba- rous. We first find the Roman figures in Ethelbert's Anglo- Saxon Code of Laws, A.D. 597, and in the " Saxon Chronicle." When we consider that Alfred the Great, about A.D. 889, devised wax candles to mark the hours of the day, then, to prevent their being blown out by the wind, he contrived horn lanterns, we may fully realize how important the Roman calendar was to Sixth Century. 57 mark the dates of important writings and events. We read in Eginhard, secretary of Charlemagne, of a horologe of brass sent to Charlemagne by Abdalla, King of Persia, A. D. 800 ; also of clocks at Venice, A.D. 872 ; but the first really authentic account of a clock, marking and striking the hours for the public, was one made and placed in a tower of the palace of Charles V., King of France, by Henry de Vick about 1364. Next came the re- markable clock in the Cathedral of Strasburg, 1370. Under Richard II., Wallingford, Abbot of St. Albans, made an astro- nomic clock, regulated by a fly-wheel. Thus Horology, like all improvements, advanced slowly. But where are Roman calen- dars, almanacs and clocks now ? Almost every man and woman carry time in their pockets. Do we fully realize human progress ? Are we thankful for the comforts and luxuries, of which our an- cestors could not even dream ? The sixth century witnessed a great improvement in chronology, which had been singularly confused for a long time by the Roman Calendar ', Julian Era, Cycles, Indictions, &c., till Dionysius Exiguus harmonized these diversities by the introduction of the Christian Era, about A.D. 532, which was adopted by Rome and gradually by the Christian nations. Sacred Music, ever Christianity's handmaid, reached the Anglo- Saxons, A.D. 597. Pope Gregory composed and compiled a church-service of 130 pages, called " Gregorian Antiphonary" a manuscript copy of which is now in the famous monastery of St. Gall, Switzerland. The Gregorian Chant was arranged according to the eight celebrated church modes. This style of music and chant Augustine carried among the Kentians. In olden times Sovereigns were musical devotees : at high festivals Charlemagne, attired in cope, was seen and heard among the Choir-singers ; and Alfred the Great charmed even his foes with his harp. I might allude to Orpheus' power over the Argonauts, and to Pan's over the Arcadian shepherds ; but, as the Sacred Record men- tions Jubal, Miriam, Deborah, and extols the soothing influence of David's harp on the melancholy Saul, I need comment no further on the civilizing art among the Anglo-Saxons, who, ac- cording to ihe Venerable Bede (Lib. IV. C. 2), paid thenceforth particular attention to vocal music and " Gregorian Chant." Bede (Lib. I. C. 29) tells us that Pope Gregory sent to Augus- 5 8 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. tine " many books." As there has been much comment about the books, taken to Britain by Mellitus, 60 1, I tried to ascertain, as far as possible, what they were : all I could find was, that in 1414 Thomas of Ehnham wrote a history of St. Augustine's Monastery, at Canterbury, in which the following manuscript books are men- tioned as lying on the altars : 1. Gregory's Bible, in two volumes. 2. Psalter of Augustine. 3. Text of the Gospels. 4. Another Psalter. 5. Another Text of the Gospels. 6. The Passionary of the Saints. 7. Exposition of the Epistles and Gospels. Whether these were Bede's "many books" no one ventures to affirm or deny. All have disappeared except the two manuscript Gospels, which are yet shown at Corpus Christi College, Cam- bridge, and in the Bodleian Library, Oxford. Venerable relics, that have traversed thirteen hundred and seventy-eight years ! Pre- cious seed, that has produced a million-fold since Guttenberg's grand invention ! At the dissolution of religious foundations, under Henry VIII., 1536, one of these gospels fell into the hands of Lord Hatton, who placed it in the Bodleian Library at Ox- ford. It is believed this is a manuscript sent to Britain by Gregory, 60 1. Behold an epitome of what the three Gotho-Germanic tribes did in Britain during this century : The Jutes, Saxons and Angles completed their settlements, and their descendants founded the Heptarchy, of which King Ethelbert became " Bret-walda " (chief ruler), wedded (A.D. 570) the accomplished French prin- cess Bertha, connected with all the Gotho-Germanic royal fami- lies on the continent, and carried her to Canterbury, where from A.D. 570 to 597 her piety and Christian virtues attracted atten- tion and smoothed the way for Christianity among the simple- hearted Anglo-Saxons. This furnished to Pope Gregory I. oc- casion to send missionaries with the Gospel, church music, alphabet, calendar and books, to Canterbury. No doubt much was said, done, and perhaps written then and there ; but the only visible and tangible thing now extant is Ethelbert' s Anglo- Saxon Code of A.D. 597, from which we take an Extract and Sixth Century. 59 Table to show its style and the numeric origin of its vocabulary. It is a linguistic relic, of which the ninety English-speaking mil- lions of 1878 may justly feel proud; because it was the first written thought in any of the Medieval and modern languages, except Ulfilas' Gothic version of the Bible, A.D. 376., and perhaps " Leabhar nah-Uidhei" in Irish. Ethelbert's Code numbers eighty-nine articles, which have for their basis the Gospel motto : "Love thy neighbor as thyself." It was amended by his succes- sors, Lothair and Edric, from A.D. 675 to 685, and by Wihtred (A.D. 691-725). In his "Ecclesiastic History," A.D. 730, Bede alludes to it thus : " Among other benefits, Ethelbert, with the advice of wise men, made laws which, being written in Anglo- Saxon, are still observed by his people." Alfred the Great, speaking of Ethelbert's laws in his Anglo- Saxon Code, A.D. 878, says: "I gathered from them such as appeared to me most just, and left the rest. Ethelbert was the first who received baptism among the Anglo-Saxons." Queer as Ethelbert's Code may seem at first sight, it is an im- provement upon the Code of our Asiatic ancestors, the Arians, contained in the Zend Avesta. In the Arian Code certain offen- ces affected not only the guilty party, but also the nearest of kin. Three sets of punishments are mentioned therein : first, from five to one thousand blows ; second, the giving of a female to the offended party ; and third, a fine of gold. Whereas the punish- ments in Ethelbert's Code are fines of money, by which we realize that the Anglo-Saxons had much progressed as compared with their Arian sires of Asia ; yet murder, being only punished by a fine in money without confinement, as was the case with Ethelbert's laws, might seem too mild even to our most advanced philanthropists. 6o Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Sixth Century. 61 62 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. 1 * Is I AJ e I w tdP-i RO MI i J 1-2=4 * n\n M o4- ds wo ing g. Sixth Century. 63 In perusing Ethelbert's Code our readers may realize the true character and status of early Medieval society. Most conspicu- ous is the absence of respect for life and limb, to say nothing of property. "Love your neighbor as yourself. Do unto others as you would have them do unto you," were much needed, not only among the Anglo-Saxons of A.D. 597, but among their cotemporaries, whether Franks, Lombards, Germans, Goths, Danes, or Normans. Frequent impulsive violence and crime must have been committed to call forth legal clauses to prevent gouging out eyes, cutting off noses, ears, hands, fingers, feet, toes, and tearing off nails, which, it seems, were practised, not only during momentary passion and anger, but were inflicted deliberately as punishments. After alluding thus to the dark side of this primitive document, let us add that it exhibits among the Anglo-Saxons elements of civilization and customs we cherish and hold sacred now ; prior to this code they had a medium of exchange, and consequently an idea of numbers and values, first traced by the Roman characters 1, V, L, X. They also knew the precious metals and the working thereof, as is evidenced by the mention of gold, lord-ring, scillinga, gylde, whence our gold, shillings, German and Dutch geld and German gulden. This code even points to a national poetic sentiment for ancient cus- toms, as evidenced by *' gold finger" which reminds us of ring finger, wedding ring, and all the train of thought connected with our marriage ceremony. To see such a hallowed custom through a hoary hyperborean antiquity must be pleasant to posterity. Synopsis of the different words from the preceding Table of the sixth cen- tury : Greek: i I Greco -Latin : 6 Latm : 5 ) V Total of the different words : 100. Anglo-Saxon : 94 t Gotho-Germanic: 94 Hence the style of Anglo-Saxon writing in the sixth century shows a vo- cabulary of different words, containing ninety-four per cent. Gotho-Ger- manic or Anglo-Saxon, and six per cent. Greco-Latin. Twenty-six of the ninety-four different Anglo-Saxon words, or twenty-seven per cent., are now obsolete.* * This numeric result casts a decided shadow on Sharon Turner's five per cent, obsolete Anglo-Saxon words, as stated in his " History of the Anglo- Saxons." 64 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Fourteen of the ninety-four different Anglo-Saxon words, or fifteen per cent., are now spelt as they were in the sixth century. Archeologists write glowing accounts of pyramids and cyclo- pean structures. Can there be more astounding monuments than the words finger and gold in the above Extract and Table from King Ethelbert's Code of A.D. 597? They were penned twelve hundred and eighty-one years ago as they are now in English and German. Thus is language, or petrified thought, more lasting and immutable than granite or marble. NOTE : Readers "will please remember, that we mention all the authors and writings, penned in Anglo-Saxon from A.D. 50,7 to 1200, and give similar Extracts and Tables therefrom ; so we do the authors of the Franco-English period from A.D. 1200 to 1600. Thus we shall endeavor to give a clear idea of the gradual evolution of the English language from century to cen- tury. In connection with Ethelbert's Code, A.D. 597, we must not omit to mention the oldest Irish MS. " Leabhar nah-Uidhei" now in the Royal Irish Academy of Dublin. Antiquarians claim that St. Ciaran, Abbot of Cluain-mic-Nois, wrote the original in the sixth century, but that the copy now shown at Dublin was made from the original of St. Ciaran by Moelmuiri Mac Ceilea- chair about A.D. noo. Its contents are mostly heroic tales. Irish historians also mention the " Saltair of Tara" written by Cormac Mac Airt, King of Ireland from A.D. 227 to 266. It treats of Hibernia's laws and usages, but there seems to be no MS. thereof. As late as A.D. 1762, James Macpherson issued a book styled " Ossian" purporting to be a translation of two Gaelic poems called Fingal and Temora, by the ancient Scotch hero, Ossian, who lived and wrote in the third century. This work took England's literati by surprise. Hugh Blair, Prof, of Rhetoric at Edinburgh University, Dr. Henry, Lord Kaimes and all the Highlanders admired, sustained and defended Macpherson' s at- tempt ; but Dr. Johnson pronounced the whole movement a forgery. Hume and Gibbon challenged any one to produce a MS. of any poem, ante-dating the sixteenth century. About A.D. 1800, the learned Scotch historian, Malcolm Laing, proved from historic and intrinsic evidence that the so-called Ossianic Sixth Century. 65 poems were spurious. Next the committee of the Highland Society of Edinburgh, appointed .to investigate the matter, re- ported, 1805, "that they had not been able to obtain any one poem the same in title and tenor with the poems of Ossian" This re- port consigned the pretended Ossianic poems to oblivion and put archeology on the qui vive against modern discoveries of ancient relics. Before leaving this age so propitious to Anglo-Saxon progress, let us allude to the earliest book that reached posterity from the Isle of Britain. Its author was Gildas, styled " The Wise" born in Wales about A.D. 511. He studied several years in France, returned, founded a church and school in Pembrokeshire, and wrote " De iLxcidio Britannia" (Destruction of Britain). True, like most books of that period, it was written in Latin ; but it was conceived in Gildas' native tongue, Cymric or Welsh, one of the primitive dialects of Britain. It soon found its way to the Anglo-Saxons, whose mode of thinking it shaped ; for, as early as A.D. 680, Caedmon paraphrased the Bible in a similar style, and A.D. 735, Bede speaks of Gildas, Lib. I., C. XXII. It is generally conceded that Gildas wrote about A.D. 546. The first written thought in any country makes an epoch, because thence date the rudiments of civilization. Thought, like all else in the universe, is magnetic, and attracts thought. The ancient British record, known as " Gildas' Chronicle," is divided into Preface, History and Epistle. In the first he speaks of his plan and style ; in the second he vividly depicts the ad- vent of Christianity into the British Isles, the rule of the Romans, their departure from Britain, the consequent ravages of the Picts and Scots, and the supineness of his countrymen in calling the Saxons. The third is a sermon-like, vehement exhortation, anal- ogous to the Jewish prophecies and St. Paul's Epistles. All who trace their origin to Britain, may feel proud of this early originator of native written thought ; for his ideas and style are not only forcible, but original and impressive. Goeffrey of Monmouth, in his " Historia Britonum" Lib. I., C. 17 (A.D. 1147), speaks of Gildas in the highest terms, calling him "The Great Writer." After witnessing the advent of Christianity, alphabet, chro- nology, sacred music, written law among the Anglo-Saxons, and 66 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. the style of Gildas, Britain's first native author, some allusions to budding intellect and morals elsewhere may not come amiss. We must not pass unnoticed some of the tendencies rising in the British Isles at that period. Columba, styled the Apostle of the Highlanders, went to Scotland, where he preached about A.D. 565, and founded in lona an abbey and college that became renowned as a seat of learning. For several centuries the North- ern nations sent their youth to be educated there. Imagine a famed college at the northwestern confines of Europe in lona, one of the Hebrides, whither the disappointed princes and no- bles went, ended their days in retirement, and were buried. Tourists might enjoy visiting the remains of that primitive abbey, college and resting-place, where curious epitaphs of many departed worthies are to be scanned. There Columba was the first abbot, and there he ended his career, A.D. 597. The Scotch have ever cherished the memory of lona and their apostle. Next Columban and Gall started from the Emerald Isle for Europe about 585, to preach Christ to the Franks, Germans, Helvetians and Lombards. Columban founded the Monastery of Luxeuil in France, and that of Bobbio in Italy. Gall reared the Abbey of St. Gall in Switzerland, which has ever since been cel- ebrated for its rare manuscripts. Later Gall was made Bishop of Constance, where he is known as the Apostle of Switzerland. He wrote an epitome of the Scriptures, which is to be found in Basnage's " Thesaurus Monumentorum." Thus the British Isles shed their light abroad at an early date, and continue to do so now. About A.D. 590 the Bavarian princess Theodelinda married Agilulf, leader of the Lombards in Italy, and persuaded him to become a Christian. Thus the world has to thank two gentle women, Bertha and Theodelinda, for winning to Christ and civilization two distant Gotho-Germanic nations : the Anglo- Saxons in Britain and the Lombards in Italy during the sixth century. Among Pope Gregory's letters in the Patrologiae are some to Theodelinda, written in the same style and spirit as those he wrote to Bertha and Ethelbert. In the sixth century all writing in Europe, with the exception of Ethelbert' s Anglo-Saxon Code and perhaps Leabhar nah-Uidhei Sixth Century. 67 in Irish, was done in Latin and Greek. As Latin pens were flying among most European nations, we can but mention the most prominent : Cassiodorus' books on history, mathematics, grammar, logic and music were valuable productions. It is to be regretted that his "History of the Goths" was lost; fortunately Jornandes had occasion to make an epitome of it that reached us. We already referred to Gregory of Tours' " History of the Franks," which contains matters not to be found elsewhere, con- cerning the conversion of the Franks, Burgundians and Anglo- Saxons. He alludes to the marriage of Bertha with Ethelbert. Boethius, whose " De Consolatione Philosophic" written in prison, was early translated into most European dialects, especially into Anglo-Saxon by the king, scholar, warrior, and statesman, Alfred the Great, about A.D. 890; next by some Frank into Francic, A.D. 950; then by Chaucer into Franco-English, 1380; and finally into English by Queen Elizabeth about 1550. Surely, no other ancient author could have had more eminent admirers and translators. Through this highly philosophic and moral treatise the Medieval nations became acquainted with the ideas of Aris- totle. Boethius also left a valuable treatise on mathematics. The suspicious Theodoric, after intrusting Boethius with the affairs of state, imprisoned him, and after a long confinement at Pavia, ordered him to be beheaded. The Greek Empire perpetuated its thought through most of literary and scientific departments. Procopius' " History of his own Times," in eight books, is a treasure of information. As he was a favorite of Justinian I., and secretary to Belisarius, he had ample opportunity to write an account of his day. His elegant style and veracity place him among the foremost of Greek historians. " Malala's Chronicle," from the creation to the close of Justinian's reign, A.D. 565, deserves attention. Eutocius' Commentaries on Apollonius and Archimedes laid the foundation for modern mathematics. We must not omit the eminent jurist Tribonian, who together with Theophilus, Doro- theus and six other jurists, revised the Greek and Roman con- stitutions, ordinances and decisions, and embodied the result into the famous Pandects, Digest or Institutes, during the brilliant and prosperous reign of Justinian I., A.D. 527-565, since known as " the Justinian Code" consisting of fifty books containing 534 68 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. celebrated decisions, collected from 2,000 manuscript volumes, A manuscript of this famous Code was found at Amain, Italy, 1130. It is now in the library of Florence. As this great work has become the basis of most Medieval and modern codes, we mention it as a linguistic treasure. Olympiodorus' Commentary on Aristotle's " Meteorologica," formed the basis of modern meteorology. Greek medicine had a noble representative in Alexander of Tralles, who, after distinguishing himself in his native country, Lydia. went to Rome, where he won great celeb- rity. His work, entitled " Twelve Books on Medicine" has been oftener read and published than any other Greek or Latin medi- cal treatise. He may be styled the second Hippocrates. He first administered iron and practised venesection at the jugular vein, which, in this nineteenth century, has been placed among the things that were. Navigation, geography and travel had a worthy champion in Cosmas, surnamed " Indicopleustes " (Indian navigator), who, as a merchant of Alexandria, frequently sailed from Egypt to India and other countries. Towards the meridian of life he retired to a monastery and wrote " Christian Topogra- phy" in which he relates ingenuously what he saw, heard and experienced during his travels, but states, among other queer ideas concerning the Earth's form, that it is not a sphere. Montfaucon, in his Collection of Greek Authors, 1706, issued Cosmas' Topography with a Latin translation. The Alexandrian merchant and monk also wrote a " Cosmography of the Southern Countries of Africa," "Astronomic Tables," and a commentary on the "Song of Solomon." From these intellectual treasures we may argue, that merchants of those days had no contracted notions about mere money and trade. True, Cosmas had an illustrious example in Pytheas, merchant of Marseilles, who sailed to Ultima Thule and the amber regions about B.C. 325, and wrote a brilliant account of his journey. One phase of Grecian thought of that period I cannot pass without due notice ; because it expressed itself so indelibly as to challenge the admiration of every beholder. The author was a Libyan, called Anthemius, according to whose ideas, calculations, and plans St. Sophia of Constantinople was reared. He was architect, mathematician, sculptor, and mechanician. His written works were lost, except a fragment containing problems of me- Sixth Century. 69 chanics and dioptrics, translated by Dupuis and published in " Memoir es de V Academic des Inscriptions]* 1777. Here part of one and the same man's thought was lost, while the other, petri- fied thirteen centuries ago, stands a lasting monument. Arabian brains and pens were active in this century ; for in Silvestre de Sacy's "Chrestomathie Arabe," 1820, are gems from Nabega's and Chanfary's celebrated poems. Also Hareth-ben- Hiliza's poems of the sixth century were published in Arabic and English at London, 1782. To find permanent expression, thought must be earnest, vigorous, impelling, and impressive. At the close of the sixth century, French, Italian, Spanish, Ger- man, Scandinavian, and Sclavonic thought was too evanescent to embody itself; of all the starting Medieval dialects, the one solitary exception, Anglo-Saxon, had become vigorous enough to embody itself in King Ethelbert's Code, which maybe considered not only as the dawn of written English thought, but as the ear- liest writing in any of the modern languages. The Irish " Saltair of Tara" and "Leabhar nah-Uidhei" are questionable as to the dates claimed for them. This train of ideas reminds me of some desultory musings : that mere vocally uttered thought revolves and vibrates forever in and with the electro-magnetic and atmospheric waves, and con- stantly knocks at intellect's door to enter for redigestion and permanent expression ; in short, thought, ideas, musings, though invisible, intangible and more ethereal than any fluid or gas, are less destructible than matter. As " the pen is mightier than the sword," so thought is mightier than matter. As thought, language and literature act and react on each other, we shall throughout this work allude to the languages and literatures that influenced Anglo-Saxon and her daughter, English. Our close numeric analysis of language reveals this curious fact : wherever and whenever Christ's ''Ethics" reached a tribe, people, or race, they imparted a higher social and moral tone to their dialect or language ; for immediately, or very soon after, ar. alphabet was adopted, formed or adjusted, in order to translate the new doctrines into the vernacular idiom. As we have pre- viously said, such was the case with the Mceso-Goths, for whom Ulfilas contrived the Gothic alphabet of twenty-five letters, and translated the Scriptures, A.D. 376. The Anglo-Saxons, who, on 7O Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. the advent of the Gospel, formed an alphabet, framed their first code of laws and adopted the Roman numerals, calendar and church music, all of which exercised an immediate influence on the intellectual, social and moral status of the people. Such was undoubtedly the result among our Gotho-Germanic ancestors in Europe. To corroborate our idea, let us add a striking Asiatic experience : The Armenians, for whom Mesrob and Moses Cho- ronensis translated the Bible from Greek, Hebrew, Syriac and Chaldaic, A.D. 411-511, had to add seven vowel-signs to the old Armenian alphabet, consisting of twenty-seven consonants. Here the people had an alphabet and writing ; yet the Christian code of morals compelled more harmony in vocalization and writing, to say nothing of the clearness of thought, ideas, grammar and construction that became necessary. When we consider that Christ's teachings contained the essence, not only of Semitic and Arian, but of Greek and Latin civilization and morals, we shall cease to wonder that the engrafting them on any rude or primitive people, tribe or race required that their whole intel- lectual and social fabric should be prepared and adapted to receive them. SEVENTH CENTURY. '* England, in this period of darkness, produced some rays of intellectual light." PETTIT ANDREWS. As Bede wrote his Ecclesiastic History, A.D. 731, only one hundred and fifteen years after Ethelbert's death, the important events that occurred at the close of the sixth century must have been fresh in the memory of the Anglo-Saxons. He tells us (Lib. I., C. 27), that Augustine sent Laurentius and Peter the Monk to inform Pope Gregory of the success of their mission. This news so rejoiced his Holiness, that he wrote to the Emperor Mauricius at Constantinople, and to Eulogius, Archbishop of Alexandria in Egypt, inviting them to share his delight at the conversion of pagans in the isles at the western confines of the Earth. Next Bede (Lib. I., C. 29) informs posterity that Greg- ory sent Mellitus, Justus, Paulinus, and Rufinianus to Britain with letters to Ethelbert, Bertha, and Augustine ; also presents, " besides many books" Behold the letters to the king and his zealous queen. "Patrologias" Vol. 77, Lib. XL, Epistola LXVI. "GREGROY TO ETHELBERT, KING OF THE ANGLES, July 10, A.D. 601.* "GLORIOUS SON, " Keep with the utmost solicitude the grace you have divinely received; hasten to expand Christianity among your subjects ; increase your zeal in their conversion ; harass the worship of idols ; destroy their temples, and improve the morals of your people in purity of life by exhorting, coaxing, threatening, punishing, and by showing examples of good actions, so that you may find in heaven the Rewarder, whose name and knowledge you have ex- tended on Earth ; for he, whose honor you seek and preserve among the na- tions, will render your name glorious to posterity. Thus Constantine, for- merly the most pious Emperor, recalling the Roman empire from the perverse * Mellitus, first bishop of London, was bearer of this letter. 72 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. worship of idols, turned with all his mind towards the almighty Lord our God Jesus Christ. Thence it happened that this great man surpassed in glory the name of prior Princes and excelled his predecessors as much in public opinion as in good works. " I send you small presents, which will not seem small when you consider that they carry with them the benediction of the blessed Apostle Peter." " Patrologice," Vol. 77, Lib. XL, Epistola XXIX. "GREGORY TO BERTHA, QUEEN OF THE ANGLES, July 10, A.D. 601.* " Laurentius, the presbyter, and Peter, the monk, on their return informed us of your Majesty's kindness to our most reverend brother Augustine. We thanked Almighty God for having propitiously deigned to reserve as your re- ward the conversion of the nation of the Angles. As through the illustrious Helena, mother of the pious Emperor Constantine, God kindled the hearts of the Romans towards the Christian faith, so, through the zeal of your Majesty, his mercy will bring about the conversion of the nation of the Angles. Indeed from prudential motives, like a reverend Christian, you considered it your duty to turn the mind of our glorious son, your consort, so that for the salvation of his kingdom and of his own soul, he might share the religion you follow ; inasmuch as from him and through him, and from the conversion of the entire nation, a worthy reward in heavenly joys might come to you. For, as we said, after your Majesty was fortified in the true faith, and instructed in its literal meaning, it must have appeared to you neither tardy nor difficult. Since the time is now propitious, act, with God's helping your grace, so as to be able to regain with an increase what may have been neglected." KING ETHELBERT'S DEED OF THE LAND, MONASTERY AND CHURCH OF ST. PETER AND PAUL, COMMONLY CALLED ST. AUGUSTINE'S. " Patrologitz," Vol. 80, pp. 341 and 342. "In the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, A.D. 605. "Be it known to all present and to posterity, that I, Ethelbert, by the grace of God, King of the Angles, when from an idolater I was to become a worshiper of Christ under the guidance of my evangelic parent Augustine, by whose advice I transferred to God part of the land under my jurisdiction near the eastern wall of the city of Dorobern \ (Canterbury), where with his assist- ance, I founded a Monastery to Christ in honor of the Apostolic Princes Peter and Paul, and made a perpetual grant of that same land, with all that * Mellitus, first bishop of London, was bearer of this letter. f Canterbury, or part thereof, was then called Dorobernensis and Dorober- na>. In Bede's "Ecclesiastic History," Lib. I., C. 25 (A.D. 735), we find Doruvernis for Canterbury. Seventh Century. 73 belongs to the Monastery, so that neither I nor any of my royal successors, nor any ecclesiastic or secular power shall hereafter have a right to interfere in any way ; but all is to be under the rule of the abbot himself. " If any one attempt to diminish or annul anything of this our deed, he shall by authority of the blessed Pope Gregory, by that of our Apostle Au- gustine, and with our curse, be excluded from the communion of the holy church and from the entire company of the elect on the last day of judgment. " The land, whereon the Monastery of the Apostles Peter and Paul is situ- ated, and also the adjoining land, is bounded : East by St. Martin's * church, thence easterly by Siwenidoune and so northerly by Wykyngmearch, again south-easterly by Bureyaremearch, and so south-westerly by Kyngesmearch, again north easterly by Kyngesmearch, and so westerly to Ritherchepe, and thus northerly to Dryttingstrete. " It was executed in the city of Dorobern (Canterbury) in the year from Christ's incarnation 605, indiction VI. " I, Ethelbert, King of the Angles, confirmed this my donation by the sign of the holy cross f with my own hand. Augustine, through God's grace, archbishop, willingly subscribed. Eadbald, the king's son, do. Hanugus' son, general, lauded. Hocca, page, consented. , Andemund, referee, approved. " I, Graphic, page, blessed. "I, Tangus' son of the king's nobility, confirmed. "I, Pinca, consented. " I, Geddi, corroborated." \ * Bede, Lib. I., C. 26 : "A church anciently built in honor of St. Martin, while the Romans still inhabited Britain, in which the Queen (Bertha) who, as I before said, was a Christian, was accustomed to pray." \ As among the ten signers of this document the king alone used the cross, it would seem that it was a royal prerogative. No wonder grandees and nobles imitated it during the Dark Ages. \ In nomine Domini nostri Jesu Christi (A.D. 605). Notum sit omnibus tarn prsesentibus quam posteris, quod ego Athelbertus, Dei gratia rex Anglo- rum, per Evangelicum genitorem meum Augustinum de idolatra facturus christicola tradidi Deo per ipsum antistitem aliquam partem terras juris mei, sub orientali muro civitatis Dorobernensis, ubi scilicet per eumdem in Christo institutorem monasterium in honore principum apostolorum Petri et Pauli coiididi, et cum ipsa terra et cum omnibus quse ad ipsum monasterium pertinent perpetua libertate clonavi adeo (ut nee) mihi, nee aliorum successo- rum meorum regum, nee ulli unquam potestati sive ecclesiasticse sive saeculari, quidquam inde liceat usurpare ; sed in ipsius abbatis sint omnia libera ditione : si quis vero de hac donatione nostra aliquid minuere aut irritum facere tenta- verit, auctoritate beati papoe Gregorii nostri que apostoli Augustini simul et 74 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. As this document traversed twelve hundred and seventy years, it must not only interest antiquarians, but scholars generally. While the jurist might notice its unlaw-like style, its quaint- ness and the queer mode of signing and witnessing (doubtless Roman) ; the philologist cannot help remarking the unlatinized Anglo-Saxon names of localities. The deed conveyed sixteen acres near the Eastern wall of the city of Canterbury. Tradition says Ethelbert and Augustine began the abbey A.D. 598, and completed it A.D. 605, when the deed of the land, monastery and appurtenances was executed. Thenceforth that primitive Anglo-Saxon institution flourished till A.D. 1536, when Parliament decreed the Dissolution of Monas- tic foundations, and confirmed their seizure, A.D. 1539, which gave to Henry VIII. 645 monasteries, 90 colleges, 2,374 chan- tries and chapels, and 1 10 hospitals, whose yearly revenue was ^161,100. The furniture, utensils, bells, &c., of these establish- ments must have realized vast sums. In one of the monasteries were found 5,000 marks of bullion ; what may have been the amounts found in the other 644, is left to conjecture. These figures may seem trifling, when compared with those of our pub- lic revenues and debts, announced in thousands of millions ; but in the days when a bushel of wheat sold for fourteen pence and forty eggs for a penny, ^161,100 was an immense sum. These financial details are culled from Camden. Peter, the monk, who came to Britain with Augustine, was the nostra imprecatione sit hie segregatus ab omni sanctae Ecclesiae communione, et in die judicii ab 'omni electorum societate. Circumcingitur hoec terra, ubi situni est monasterium apostolorum Petri et Pauli cum terra adjacente his limitibus : in oriente ecclesia sancti Martini et inde ad Orientem be siweni- doune, et sic ad Aquilonem be wykyngmearck, iterum ad Orientem et ad Austrian be bureyaremearch, et sic ad Austram et Occidentem be Kynges- mearch, iterum ad Aquilonem et Orientem be Kyngesmearch, sicque ad Occi- dentem to Ritherchepe, et ita ad Aquilonem to dryttingstrete. Actum est in civitate Doroberniae anno ab incarnatione Christi DC V. , indictione VI. Ego, Athelbertus, rex Anglorum, hauc donationem meam signo sanctae crucis pro- pria manu, confirmavi. Ego, Augustinus gratia Dei archiepiscopus, libenter subscripsi. Ego, Aswaldus, regis filius, facio. Ego, Hanugi filius, dux, laudavi. Ego, Hocca, comes, consensi. Ego, Andemundus, referendarius, approbavi. Ego, Graphio, comes, benedixi. Ego, Tangi filius, regis opti- mas, confirmavi. Ego, Pinca, consensi. Ego, Geddi, corroberavi." Seventh Century. 75 first abbot of St. Augustine's monastery, A.D. 605 ; the last abbot (A.D. 1639) was John Essex, who it is said would not surrender the monastery, till two cannons were pointed at it. This peremp- tory royal notice, after 934 years' possession, caused Abbot John Essex and his thirty monks to quit quarters, perpetually granted to Archbishop Augustine by King Ethelbert. When will sover- eigns, senates and legislatures realize, that perpetual is a term posterity will not respect ? As men and even nations are not perpetual, how can their grants be perpetual, especially grants made to the few that may become onerous to the many ? Such was the case with ancient grants to the church. Hence, England need not look beyond the Reformation and mourn over the non- fulfilment of the term perpetual, since the many were benefited physically, intellectually and morally, and since her commerce and language encircle the globe. Henry VIII. reserved part of St. Augustine's monastery as a loyal palace. Under Charles I. these memorable premises were given to the Lords Wotton, whose descendants own them now. King Ethelbert, Queen Bertha, Bishop Luidhard, Eadbald, his Queen Emma (Austrasian Princess), Ethelburga, and other Kentish kings, queens, princes, and princesses, were buried in this monastery ; so were Archbishop Augustine and his succes- sors for two centuries after the introduction of Christianity. The ruin, now standing on the spot covered by the above deed, will attract the archaeologist's attention. Every intelligent beholder will be reminded of the stirring events that long hal- lowed and then saddened the remembrance of Ethelbert' s and Bertha's resting-place in St. A'ugustine's monastery. Who can help blessing the memory of that most exemplary king and queen ? No wonder both England and Germany glory in the name of ALBERT, which is but abbreviated Ethelbert ! But, alas ! the comparative oblivion of the good, pious, spotless Bertha, seems to me, not only ungallant and unjust, but painful. Since most English historians hardly mention her name, I cannot help citing this short, but beautiful tribute from Ethelbert's biographer : " Tradition records the gentle and lovable virtues of Queen Bertha, but little is known of her life ; she has left but a brief and uncertain illumination on those distant and dark horizons, over which she sits a star, the herald of the sun." 76 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Pope Gregory I. and Archbishop Augustine both died about A.D. 605. As the English have abbreviated their Apostle's name to St. Austin, and hold him in high esteem, I shall attempt no eulogy. Gregory was the master-mind of his epoch : son of a Roman senator, named Gordianus, he was the scholar, author, pope, and statesman, respected abroad and cherished at home. While Legate at Constantinople, he stood god-father to the Em- peror's grandson. He deservedly gained the surname "Great." He fully appreciated the influence of women, and used it dex- terously for the diffusion of Christianity and civilization, as may be realized by his letters to Brunehaut, Bertha, and Theodelinda, Queen of the benighted Lombards in Italy. His five quarto vol- umes of commentaries on the Bible, pastorals, dialogues and letters, all written in classic Greek or Latin, proved him the scholar. His zeal and efforts to convert the barbarous hordes of Europe and gain them to civilization, show him the philanthro- pist and statesman. He had one weakness : he overrated mon- asteries and convents, not considering that they are diametrically opposed to the great primitive injunction : "In the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread." He little dreamed that they would become a canker on the body politic, as they have since proved all over Europe. Activity and not contemplation is man's vo- cation on Earth. However, it was against his own will that the modest Bene- dictine monk, the son of Senator Gordianus, was elected Pope. He tried to make use of Justinian's decree, that the Pope's election is not valid unless sanctioned by the Emperor : he wrote to the Emperor Maurice, imploring him to refuse consent to his election ; but the letter was intercepted by the Prefect of Rome, and Maurice sent a ratification of his election. His letter to a friend, who had congratulated him on his elevation, is a model of self-denial, showing his real character and tastes. Of him the Venerable Bede (Ecclesiast. Hist., B. II.) says : "Other pon- tiffs labored in building churches and ornamenting them with gold and silver, but he was entirely employed in gaining souls. What- ever money he had, he diligently took care to distribute to the poor." The pious Bertha and the good Luidhard soon followed Greg- ory and Augustine to man's home of endless progress. Ethel Seventh Century. 77 bert married again, but his second choice was not as worthy as his first. He died 616. Rome sainted Gregory, Ethelbert, Augustine, and Luidhard ; but omitted the excellent Bertha, without whose influence the names of the three last would scarcely have reached us. Not only civil, but religious governments glori- fied conspicuous men, and overlooked modest, but efficient women. Alfred the Great, in his Code of Laws, A.D. 890, pays this delicate compliment to the first Christian sovereign of Kent : " In my collection are found laws of Ethelbert, who took baptism first among the Anglo-Saxon race."" Ethelbert and Bertha left a son, who married Emma, granddaughter of Queen Brunehaut, and his own cousin. He succeeded his father and reigned till 640. Of Queen Emma, Bradshaw wrote (1500) : " Lady Emma of France the chosen flower." We have witnessed the initial blessings of Christianity and civil- ization in Kent among the descendants of the Jutes (Guthi, Getae, Goths) ; let us now attend its advent among the Angles, who also received it through an innocent princess, only daughter of Ethelbert and Bertha, named Ethelburga, married to Edwin, King of Northumbria, who was baptized with his people at Easter, A.D. 627. As this conversion was so edifying, we will for a moment listen to some of the reflections offered on that occasion by the Wita (wise men) of that obscure Anglo-Saxon people twelve centuries ago : Paulinus, sent from Rome to Canterbury by Pope Gregory, 601, accompanied Ethelburga to Edwin's court, where, like the wise Luidhard, he officiated for Queen Ethelburga. The gentleness and polish of these strangers soon attracted the simple-hearted Angles. Edwin was, no doubt, the first who re- volved in his mind the introduction of a religion and manners far transcending those he and his benighted subjects had hitherto cherished and practised. Ethelburga, styled Tata (The Silent), on account of her modest reticence, bespoke her consort and people by looks, manners, and deeds more expressive and win- ning than words. When Edwin ha.d seen for a while the superior virtues of his queen and guests, he became thoughtful and sat alone for hours. At length he broke his silence and conferred first with his imme- diate friends and counsellors, next with his Witenagemotte (Assein- 78 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. bly of the Wise), about the new religion brought to their country. Coin, chief of the Anglish priests, sympathized with Edwin and declared his willingness to substitute Christ's altars for those of Odin; but the following wild analogy characteristic of primitive thought, uttered by one of the nobles, deserves our utmost atten- tion on account of its graphic analysis and synthesis : " The present life of man on Earth seems to me, O King, in comparison of that unknown to us, such as if when you are sitting at supper with your leaders and ministers in winter time, after a fire has been kindled and made to glow in the supper-room, while storms are raging without a sparrow should come and fly very quickly through the house, entering by one door and going out by another. While within he is untouched by the wintry storm ; yet, after a short time of serenity, he glides from your eyes and returns to the wintry cold he had just left. So this life appears for a short time ; but of what follows or preceded we are totally ignorant. Wherefore, if this new doctrine has brought anything more certain, it deserves to be followed." The other Anglish elders endorsed King Edwin, Coin, and the sage who uttered this primitive simile ; and, as previously stated, the king and his people welcomed the "glad tidings." The substance of these details is taken from the works of Bede, who wrote, A.D. 730, and obtained them from cotemporaries. Soon the Saxons, following the Jutes and Angles, listened to the Gospel, exchanged Odin for Christ, and entered upon a life of progress with their more advanced countrymen. As Hume says : "The fair sex have had the merit of introduc- ing the Christian doctrine into all the most considerable kingdoms of the Saxon Heptarchy." Eanfleda, King Edwin's daughter, adorned with all the virtues of her mother Ethelburga and grandmother Bertha, married Oswy, whose daughter, Alchfleda, married the Mercian King, Peada, whom she gained to Christianity with all his people, 655. We must not omit Ethelbert's sister, Ricola, and her son Seabert, king of the East Saxons, whom he and his pious mother won to the Christian faith as early as 604. Ethelbert and Seabert founded St. Paul's cathedral in London, where Mellitus was the first bishop. Thus the favored royal couple, Ethelbert. and Bertha, were instrumental in uniting the Anglo-Saxons, Franks, Goths, and Rome, not only in a Christian, but international brotherhood that has been, is, and will be expanding all over the Earth. Seventh Century. 79 The gospel came to the East Angles through their King Sige- bert, 629. As this event is so simply related by Bede, Lib. III., C. 18, let us quote : " Sigebert ruled the kingdom of the East Angles, a good and religious man, who previously in France, while he was living there to avoid the enmity of Redwald, received the washing of baptism, and, having returned to his country, when he obtained the kingdom, being desirous to imitate those things he had seen well ordered in France, founded a school in which boys might be instructed in letters." Some say Sigebert' s school was the origin of the University of Cambridge. Christianity spread to Deira, A.D. 634; to the West Angles, 635 ; to the Middle Angles, 653, and to the Isle of Wight, 661. Thus, from A.D. 597 to 661, or within sixty-four years, the " glad tidings" spread over the entire Heptarchy. Thenceforth "Engla- land" (Saxon Chron., A.D. 616) started on her grand career, and has gone on conquering and to conquer over the whole globe. To Bertha, prime mover and soul of Anglo-Saxon civilization, was inscribed this simple yet beautiful distich : " Moribus ornata jacet hie Regina beata Bertha, Deo grata fuit ac homini peramata." " Here lies blessed Queen Bertha, eminent in morals; She was dear to God and* much cherished by men." Among about sixty curious Anglo-Saxon coins, now extant, are four that refer to Ethelbert ; on two of the four the name is Anglo-Saxon ; on another Latin. Two are with and two without the cross. Two have Ethelbert' s bust, one pretty well executed, the other crude. On two of these four coins is a singular mytho- historic simile : some quadruped nursing infant twins. One of the quadrupeds looks like a mare, the other, with the Latin wri- ting, looks like a wolf. We can only suppose that the simile of Romulus and Remus, sucking a she-wolf, was applied to the Jutish brothers Hengist and Horsa, Ethelbert's ancestors, who came to Britain with the Jutes, A.D. 449. As Iforsa, brother of Hengist, assumed his name from the Gotho-Germanic word horse, this singular coin seems to indicate, that there has been some tradition of the two Gotho-Germanic brothers having been nursed by a mare ; the Roman fable being merely transferred from the wolf to the horse. 8o Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. The two coins with the cross were undoubtedly struck after Ethelbert's conversion. As these coins are in Ingram' s " Saxon Chronicle" L. E., 1823, we refer readers thereto. The seventh century had the honor of producing Caedmon, styled "The Father of Anglo-Saxon Poetry," who must have been in his prime about A.D. 650 ; for we are told he died 680. As the Venerable Bede was born about 673, we cannot do better than learn from him what was known, in his day, of this remark- able genius : "In the monastery of the Abbess (Hilda) was a certain brother, especially marked by Divine grace, since he was wont to make songs suited to religion and piety, so that whatever he had learnt from Divine writing through inter- preters, this he, in a little while, produced in poetical expressions, composed with the greatest harmony and accuracy in his own tongue, that is, in that of the Angles." According to Bede, Caedmon had been the cattle-herd of the monastery of Whitby, into which he was taken by order of Abbess Hilda, ordained monk, and instructed in the whole course of sa- cred history, which, from hearing and thinking over, he turned into sweet song, and made his teachers his hearers. He sang of the creation, the origin of man, and the whole history of Genesis ; concerning the going out of Israel from Egypt, etc. ; of the Lord's passion, resurrection, and ascension ; of the coming of the Holy Ghost, and of the teachings of the Apostles. Behold some of posterity's dicta on England's earliest bard: Hickes questions the genuineness of Caedmon's Paraphrase; but the learned Thorpe, who translated it with critical notes, tells us that objections like those of Hickes can in no way affect its authenticity. In his " Poets and Poetry of Europe " Longfellow thus intro- duces the singer of Whitby : "The next work, to which I would call the attention of my readers, is very remarkable, both in a philological and in a poeti- cal point of view, &c. It is Caedmon's Paraphrase of Portions of Holy Writ." We are told Caedmon's first hymn in praise of the Creator, was sung in the stable among the cattle. As our readers might miss this early poetic effusion, we quote : Seventh Century. 81 The two MSS. of Caedmon 1 s Hymn, now extant : Caedmon MS., ascribed to A.D. 737, found at Nor wich ; now in the University Library, Cambridge. Caedmon MS. by King Al- fred, A.D. 885, now at Ox- ford. Literal English. " Nu scylim hergan hefaen ricaes uard " Nu we sceolan herian, heofon-rices weard. Now shall we praise heaven-kingdom's warden, Metudaes maecti metodes mihte. the Creator's might, end his mod gidanc and his mod-gethonc. and his mind's thought, uerc uuldur fadur wera wuldor-faeder. glorious Father of men sue de uundra gihnaes swa he wundra gehwacs. as of every wonder, eci drictin ece dryhten. eternal Lord, or astelidae. He aerist scop oord onstealde. he aerest gesc^op. the beginning he formed. He first created elda barnum eorthan bearnum. for Earth's children heben til hrofe heofon to hrofe. heaven as a roof; haleg scepen tha middun geard halig scyppend. tha middan geard. holy Creator ! then mid-Earth, mon cynnaes uard mon cynnes weard. mankind's guardian, eci dryctin ece dryhten. eternal Lord, aefter tiadae aefter teode. afterwards produced firum foldu firum foldan. for men the ground, frea allmectig." frea aelmihtig." Lord Almighty ! This is considered the oldest King Alfred was sure he Anglo-Saxon MS. extant. was inserting Caedmon's Caedmon died A.D. 680. song in his works ; for he Bede, about fifty years after, says : " thara endebyrd- translated this pious effusion nes " (of which the order is into Latin, Lib. IV., C. 24. this). By comparing these two MSS., it may be realized how the Anglo-Saxon dialect changed in two hundred years. The most remarkable discovery of late is the " Ruthwell Cross," on which is this inscription : " CADMON MOE FAUAEJDO." On this monument are also engraved about thirty lines of Runes, that have been traced to 680, the year of the Northumbrian poet's death. As the poem here found is doubtless the oldest Anglo-Saxon writing, unaltered by copyists and transcribers, I give it here with a literal translation : geredae hinae God almeyottig ba he walde on galgu gi-stiga modig fore (ale) men (ahof) ic riicnse cuningc heafunaes hlafard haelda ic(n)i darstae bismaeraedu ungcet men ba aetgad(r)e ic(waes) mib blodaebistemid 6 Girded him God Almighty when he would on gallows mount proud for all men I heaved the rich King heaven's lord heel (over) I not durst mocked us men both together I was with blood besmeared 82 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Krist waes on rodi Christ was on rood hweprae per fusae whither there confusedly fearran kwomu afar they came aeppilae ti lanum the Prince to aid icf>aet al bi(A)eal(rf) I that all beheld s(eoc) ic waes sick I was mi(b) sorgu(w) gi(cf) rac(/>)d with sorrow grieved mip strelum giwundaed with arrows wounded alegdun hiae hinae limwae laid down they him limb rignae weary gistoddun him (act) h(is l)i they stood (near) him (at) his caes(/) eaf (du)m corpse's head. Thus the erudite Kemble rendered the Runes on the Ruthwell Stone, 1840. Shortly after he was so confirmed by an old parch- ment book, found at Vercelli, Italy, that he had to alter but three letters of his version. The Vercelli parchment book is in Anglo- Saxon, which clears up Kemble's rendering of the "Ruthwell Cross " inscription. By these Runes we also learn that the bard's name was "C&dmon" and not Caedmon. The style of this primitive Anglo-Saxon poet was suited to old Norse ideas; for he calls the Creator ''mankind's Warden" Heaven kingdom's Warden, Governor, Eternal Elder. Life Lord, illustrious Lord, Holy Shaper, Glorious Father, Heaven's high King, the hosfs glorious King, etc. Christ he names ''Prince, Young Hero" etc. ; Angels he calls : ''illustrious ministers" etc.; Heaven: "bright bliss," etc.; Hell : " the punishment house for exiles, perpetual night foul," etc. To give a clearer idea of Anglo-Saxon progress at this period, and of the inspirations uttered by England's Homer and Hesiod, we give some specimens from his scriptural Paraphrase, so feli- citously translated by the American bard, Longfellow : Gleanings from Caedmori's Paraphrase of Genesis. " There had not here as yet, The King of firm mind, Save cavern-shade, And beheld those places Aught been ; Void of joys ; But this wide abyss Saw the dark cloud Stood deep and dim, Lower in eternal night, Strange to its Lord, Swart under heaven, Idle and useless ; Dark and waste, On which looked with his eyes Until this worldly creation Seventh Century. Through the word existed Of the glory-King. Here first shaped The Lord eternal, Chief of all creatures, Heaven and Earth ; The firmament upreared, And this spacious land Established, By his strong powers, The Lord almighty. The Earth as yet was Not green with grass ; Ocean covered, Swart in eternal night, Far and wide, The dusky ways. Then was the glory-bright Spirit of heaven's Guardian Borne over the deep With utmost speed: The Creator of angels bade The Lord of life, Light to come forth Over the spacious deep. Quickly was fulfilled The high King's behest," &c. " Adam spake, Where on earth he stood, A self- created man : ' When I the Lord of triumph, The mighty God Heard speak With strong voice ; And he me here standing bade Hold his commandments, And one gave this bride, This wife of beauteous mien ; And me bade beware, That in the tree of death I were not deceived, Too much seduced ; He said, that the swart hell Should inhabit He, who, in his heart aught, Should admit of sin. [with lies, I know not (for thou mayst come Through dark design) That thou art the Lord's Messenger from heaven. Nay, I cannot of thy orders, Of thy words, nor courses, Aught understand, [ings,' " &c. Of thy journey, nor of thy say- " Then to her spouse she spake: * Adam, my Lord, This fruit is so sweet, Mild in the breast, And this bright messenger God's angel good ; I by his habit see That he is the envoy Of our Lord, Heaven's King. His favor is for us Better to gain Than his aversion. If thou to him this day Spake aught of harm, Yet will he it forgive If we to him obedience Will show. [strife What shall profit thee such hateful With thy Lord's messenger ? To us is his favor needful ; He may bear our errands To the all-powerful Heavenly King. I can see from hence Where He Himself sitteth, That is south-east, With bliss encircled, Him, who formed this world,' " &c. Such effusions on Genesis at Whitby, thirteen centuries ago, not only show original ideas, but original ways of expressing 84 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. them. Verily England did think and write powerfully even in those primitive days and places. Now a word of Hilda, the foundress of Whitby, where the primitive Anglo-Saxon bard, Caedmon, was encouraged to de- velop his musing talents : Hilda was niece of King Edwin, whose gallantry and piety we portrayed in the opening of this century. She was converted to Christianity in her childhood ; founded the convent of Hearthen (afterwards Whitby) about A.D. 655. Under her tuition Caedmon took care of the cattle, mused and chanted his poetic strains. We read that the pious and accomplished princess died in the same year as Caedmon, A.D. 680. Here is another Medieval woman, to whom the English-speaking peoples owe a debt of gratitude for fostering native genius, and with it civilization and progress. Without Hilda's timely encouragement, the ninety English-speaking millions could probably not point with pride to an Anglo-Saxon Homer of the seventh century. Latin intellectual light had shone upon the Anglo-Saxons seventy-two years, and nearly seven centuries had elapsed since Paul had preached the " unknown God" to the Athenians, when Greek intellectual rays reached Britain through Theodore, 669. Paul, the apostle, and Theodore were both natives and scholars of Tarsus, the rival of Athens in learning and refinement. In Britain, Theodore proved himself worthy of his birthplace. On his arrival in Canterbury he turned St. Augustine's Abbey into a school of learning, and appointed the erudite Benedict Biscop abbot. After two years Biscop resigned, and Hadrian took his place. As the cotemporary Bede is so reliable, we cite what he says of Theodore : " Theodore, born at Tarsus in Cilicia, was versed in both secular and divine literature, instructed in both Greek and Latin, approved in morals, and vener- able through age. Abbot Hadrian proposed him to Pope Vitalian to be or- dained Archbishop of Canterbury. Only to these conditions the Pontiff added that Hadrian should accompany him to Britain (Lib. IV., C. 2). Hadrian aided and co-operated with Theodore on all occasions. Theodore traveled through the whole island, wheresoever the nations of the Angles dwelt, for he was most gladly received and heard by all. He was the first Archbishop to whom all the church of the Angles consented to submit. As both Theodore and Hadrian were amply instructed in both sacred and secular literature, a crowd of disciples being congregated, rivers of salutary science daily flowed for the irrigation of their hearts ; there was also delivered to the Seventh Century. 85 hearers rules of ecclesiastic metrical art, astronomy, arithmetic, and volumes of sacred literature. Even to this day some of their scholars are living, who understand the Greek and Latin as well as they do their native tongue. "Never, from the days when the Angles directed their course to Britain, were happier times ; whilst, having most brave and Christian kings, they were a terror to all barbarous nations." Thus Theodore and Hadrian electrified the Anglo-Saxons by initiating them in Greek and Latin literature ; so much so that even convents were turned into seminaries, where the nuns studied the classics and became proficient in ancient lore. From what Bede says it is evident that the Anglo-Saxons, unsophisti- cated as they were, realized the Greek character in Theodore, who opened to them the fountains of Greek thought and learning. Hence Greek among the Anglo-Saxons dates to the seventh cen- tury. Warton says : " Theodore was a scholar in metrical art, as- tronomy, arithmetic, church music, and in the Greek and Latin languages. He brought many Greek and Latin books, among which were Homer, Homilies of St. Chrysostom, the Psalter, and Josephus' Hypomnesticon, all in Greek." " Hist, of Eng. Poetry," Vol. I., Dissert. II., p. 132. Bede informs us that while Theodore lectured on medicine at Canterbury, he objected to bleeding on the fourth day of the moon, because at that period the light of the planet and the tides of the ocean were on the increase. Here we perceive that astronomy and astrology had imbued the Greek mind. We read in Dugdale's " Mbnasticon" I., 89: "In the year 652 it was the common practice of the Anglo-Saxons to send their youth to the monasteries of France for education." BENEDICT BISCOP, so variously and briefly alluded to by most modern biographers, was one of the foremost scholars and teach- ers of the seventh century. From Bede, who was his ward, in- mate and pupil, we cull the following : " A man of venerable life, a soul addicted to no false pleasures, he was descended from a noble lineage of Northumbria, was one of King Oswy's gen- erals, and by the king's gift enjoyed an estate suitable to his rank ; but at the age of twenty-five he renounced military glory, left his home and country and visited Rome, where he devoted his time to study. On his return, Alfrid, son of King Oswy, 86 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. asked Biscop to accompany him to Rome. The king diverted Alfrid from the journey, and Biscop went to Rome alone to con- tinue his studies. After some months he repaired to the famous monastery of Lerins, France, where for two years he passed through all the novitiate studies and exercises, joined the Bene- dictine order, and returned to Rome, where Pope Vitalian was about to consecrate Theodore as Archbishop of Canterbury. The Pontiff, seeing in Biscop a man of wisdom, industry, and a nobleman, wished to intrust to him Theodore and his compan- ions ; he advised him to renounce traveling, and with a higher good in view, return to his country, take with him the teacher- of truth they so earnestly desired, and be to him an interpreter and guide on the journey, and afterwards when he begins to preach. Biscop did as the Pope commanded. They reached Canterbury and were kindly received. Theodore assumed his episcopal labors, and Biscop directed St. Augustine's monastery for two years, when he resigned it to Hadrian, went to Rome a third time, and brought back many books, which he had bought at a price, or received as gifts from friends. On his way back he stopped at Vienne (France) to take more books that had been collected for him there. " He came to the court of Egfrid, King of Northumbria, and gave a full account of all he had done since, in youth, he had left his country. He professed openly his zeal for religion, dis- played the learning he had acquired at Rome and elsewhere, showed the books and rarities he had brought with him, and found great favor with the king, who gave him seventy hides* of land and ordered a monastery to be erected thereon. This was done at the mouth of the river Were, 674. The next year Biscop went to France and engaged masons to construct a church in the Roman style, which he had always admired. He built with such alacrity, that within one year from laying the corner-stone, mass was celebrated therein. He sent to France for artificers in glass, then unknown in England, that they might glaze the windows of his church, cloisters, and dining-rooms. They came, and not only performed the work required, but taught the Anglo-Saxons their handicraft. * One hide is 120 acres; seventy hides = 8,400 acres. Seventh Century. 87 "Biscop made a fourth journey to Rome, whence he returned with a large quantity of books of all kinds, and sacred pictures to adorn his church, so that all who entered, though they could not read, might have before their eyes the benevolent counte- nance of Christ and of his saints. King Egfrid was so delighted with Biscop's achievement that he made a further grant of forty hides of land, on the opposite bank of the Were, on which, with the king's assistance, Biscop erected another abbey named Jarrow. Afterwards Biscop made a fifth journey to Rome and returned, as before, with books and pictures ; also two cloaks, all of silk and of superior workmanship, for which King Alfrid (successor to Egfrid) gave him three hides of land. It was at this time that King Alfrid gave an estate of 900 acres for a book on Geography. Among the manuscripts Biscop brought from Rome, was a copy of Justinian's "Pandects" from which the monks of Weremouth made three copies, one of which Biscop carried to his Roman friends, who had so nobly supplied him with rare MSS. Cer- tainly those monks could not have been better employed than in copying such ancient intellectual treasures. In his " Vita Abba- turn" (Life of the Abbots), Bede tells us that Benedict Biscop died January 14, 690. There is in the " Vita Abbatum " of Bede an episode that deserves mention here : " Ceolfrid, a man of noble birth, cousin of the Abbot Benedict, was an attendant on King Egfrid ; having renounced his temporal vocation and arms, and entered the monastery, he took pleasure in undergoing the usual course of monastic discipline, which, besides religious exercises, consisted in threshing, winnowing, milking, work in the bakehouse, garden, and all other labors of the monastery. When he attained to the name and dignity of Abbot, he retained the same spirit. Often, when he went forth on the affairs of the monastery, if he found the brothers working, he would join them and work with them by taking the plough-handle, or wielding the smith's hammer, or any other thing of like nature. He was a youth of great strength and a pleasant tone of voice, of a kind and bountiful disposition, and fair to look on. He ate the same food as the other brothers, and in the same apartment ; and slept in the same common room as he did before he was Abbot. Even after he was taken ill and saw clear signs of his approaching death, he still remained for 88 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. two days in the common dormitory. He passed five days imme- diately before his death in a private apartment, from which he came out one day, and sitting in the open air, sent for all the brothers, and, as his kind feelings prompted him, gave to each the kiss of peace, whilst they all shed tears of sorrow for the loss of this their father and their guide." I hope my readers will pardon these episodes ; they may seem a digression from " English Language and Literature, their Origin, Progress and Destiny," yet Biscop and Ceolfrid, in collecting and multiplying books for obscure Northumbria, having them translated and copied, and making presents of them at Rome and elsewhere, did cause Greek and Latin thought and expression to find their way into superior Medieval minds, and thence into Medieval dialects as Gothic, Italian, French, Spanish, Anglo- Saxon, and German. Thus Weremouth and Jarrow became early intellectual centers, not only for language, law, morals, art, and literature, but for clearing forests, draining marshes, and turning them into fertile fields, fruitful orchards, and flowering gardens. No wonder Northumbrian kings showered hides of land upon these primitive Benedictine pioneers, whose rule and vow were, besides religious duties, manual labor, instruction of youth > and transcription of valuable manuscripts. Could there have been a higher aim in life and better adapted to their epoch ? In this and many other respects these digressions belong to my subject ; for language and literature only progress with the increase of material wealth through agriculture, mechanics, manufactures, and commerce. Biscop and his cousin Ceolfrid, who have been so little noticed by modern biographers, have great claims on Eng- land for having brought into Britain, not only books, works of art, architecture and artificers, but agriculture. Let us translate from Ersch and Gruber's Universal Encyclopedia : "From the Mayne to the Danube and over the Hartz Mountains the Bene- dictines of the seventh century cleared forests, cultivated fields and gardens, planted southern fruits, introduced mechanics and arts, founded schools, nurtured science, exhibited examples of self-sacrifice, gentleness and purity of manners to the inhabitants, which were much more useful than their religious instruction." From Pierer's Universal Lexicon: "They spread all over Western Europe, founded the celebrated schools of Pavia, Turin, Seventh Century. 89 Cremona, Florence, Verona, Paris, Tours, Rheims, Metz, Co- logne, Mentz, Fulda, Magdeburg, St. Gall, &c., and were of great service in the promotion of agriculture and gentle manners. The aged and infirm copied manuscripts. The first rule of this order was that every monk should earn his living by some manual labor." According to Fessler's statistics the Benedictine monks, during an existence of thirteen centuries, count 15,700 authors, 4,000 bishops, i, 600 archbishops, 200 cardinals, 24 popes, and 1,560 canonized saints. Let us remember that Gregory I. and Augus- tine, England's apostle, were Benedictines. Alas ! opulence effeminated and ruined them, as it did the Assyrians, Persians, Greeks, and Romans. Thus, we mentioned the founder and inmates of Jarrow, where farmers could see superior agriculture and gardening, where painters could find models for their art and architects patterns for sacred and profane structures. When we consider that all this was due to the efforts of the one man, Bis- cop, who turned the wilderness into rich fields, flowering gardens, monuments, and homes of comfort, intellectuality and wealth, we must regret that the features of this benefactor to his country and mankind were not transmitted to posterity. At the close of this century lived the learned and accomplished Aldhelm, Bishop of Sherborn, who, according to Camden, was the first of the Anglo-Saxons that wrote in Latin. He was an eloquent orator, Latin poet, an expert chanter and harper, a Doctor Egregius, and thoroughly versed in the Scriptures and lib- eral sciences. Besides theologic writings, he left a book on Enigmas and treatises on Arithmetic, Astrology, Rhetoric, and Metre. Thus King David's favorite instrument found its way to the western confines of the world as early as the seventh cen- tury ; a man with Bishop Aldhelm' s accomplishments and learn- ing would shine anywhere in this nineteenth century ! While giving Extracts and Tables on the Anglo-Saxon dialect, and expatiating on intellectual pursuits and Benedictine monas- teries, we overlook the wants of the body, the fields, the country and husbandman ; hence let us glance at their status and prog- ress : The monastery of Ely had an orchard that became the ad- miration of England, A.D. 674. Brithnoth, its first abbot, plan- ned and cultivated it. Wilfred, Bishop of York, when driven 9O Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. from his see by Everth, King of Northumbria, went among the Pagans of Sussex, who were starving for want of food amid waters teeming with fish. The practical prelate, who had visited Rome in his young days, taught them the use of nets and aston- ished them by the capture of three hundred at one haul. By thus teaching these innocent people how to provide food, he soon won them to Christ and civilization. Wilfrid but imitated the Master, who astonished his disciples in a similar way seven cen- turies before. He also gained fame for his architectural taste in founding and adorning the cathedral of York. In those days the Anglo-Saxons built their houses of clay, held together by wooden framework, bricks being scarce and only used as orna- ments. The healing art was at a low standard and only prac- tised by women, who employed charms and spells with their herbs and decoctions. As Christianity advanced the priests pre- tended to study medicine, but trusted mainly to holy water and other superstitions. Such was the status of some of the domestic comforts, arts and sciences in the seventh century. Extracts and Tables from three Anglo-Saxon writings of the seventh century, showing their style and the numeric origin of their vocabulary. They are from Caedmon's poems, A.D. 680; Lothair and Edric's Anglo-Saxon Code of Laws, A.D. 685 ; Saxon Chronicle, A.D. 694 : Seventh Century. t/r . 4J" ^^ ^ g ' ^^T-^ II* sia " Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. i'l is i o >-,_ .2 ej "X c *"* - l!li|l|l|^i^P^ o o o o o M 8^2 I X JJ ^ g' S 3 , ! ^ s Seventh Century. 93 Sw ao, S i 4\ O y o. i iCJ H > 1 2 >jO ^ ^H 1 is i ^ 1 9i |J S S H j' 1 K Z S 'S 1 u S- o 1 GOMERO FAMl 1 * g - c iH bfit'-a I Q 01 .nCdCS C S fi 1 & W O g 1 IJ|l^;3 fulfil 8 6 g-s|-l 1 1 o 1 y *IJili JfiMj.^ "-> *O 1 ! i ^ a d ^ | i ^ If | s ^^4|l| Is|l i ills 8 R H o, I i Mijnpjif }&* is^ 1 11 f E y SCYTHO-GO Gotho- ire particles, or ten per c K V3 3 o M p 1 3 s & 2 J 9 1 i bb > | H a | t 8 ! i 'H o 1 1 I |f ill - Greco-Lat words of in! ten of the s 6 ii i cT I j i 94 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. s I f jf i 1 s, established these y were proclaimed 1 ^i 1^ p a S S V-i t/3 CJ ^ g -s 4) SI las o > II I I 2 w 111 ' |12 c/T S 2 1 * 4) *" d S ^ ' rt - >. T3 PH |l | JS ^^ in ^ rt T3 fa > s | a g^; I la ij- 'o 1/3 *^ 8 flS as. 9.8 I ^t* **-* "*^ s -a * ^ ^ tlJQ Si " s ny hi C cJ J- ^ rt" ^ -3 8 S ^ 1 1 G G 3 S S o ^ 'g 73 4) O ^ ^ ,G .2, 1 | e 'S 1 " -S S 1 T3 j_> ^ ^ -G il :: l "** ^ G G .s a ' N 3 S g ^ ^ SP a - j -s U P ^ 3 H ff 3 1-s .s W |r|l o a g C rO rt a g 4) ^g CuO U 1 a 5 3 n II la 4) O 1 ^ j O CO 8 * J> 13 "2 O J flj r-* C 111 I 73 rt D d O 4) G rt * & G a 111! b b 4 10 g i s a al rt G Seventh Century. 95 > S3 1 * g -si w> c > 1 1 t $ bX) g I I j <*-! +-* .2 ^ S * S g o o a-s^ 'I s 'S ., II 1 J8 X ! 51 ^ S co g o rt C3 *H 4> 5 -^ ^ B J s S> ^ I.^S 1 1 J8 * - r; u J jj i 1 M & c S rt K>I tf S - X ^| O lI'C- O rt u *j O I I s. l.l ., " ! i si S .2 fl 1 96 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. * iw J Hg| *.| S 1 ITIC FA I " || J* 1 "* 2^^ $ 1^^ rt V n PH F *> Cj ^ 4) i! s -y e > TS -5 rt Js j *> p ** fl ,3 1 11 !*- JH T3 . , C3 ^ J -o Is ^ ~ 3 "o * - 2 B .S -1 ~ 2 g | a &, > IH c o bfl inM^-tOMt. - ^ J it j! t: 12 |1 g M -2 S3 2 & 5 sT . S' g |f. ^5 S ^a o * || 2g u h jH 1 j ^ .?"! ii ' D c/5 O O u a c 1 OJ u i; i? g &. o is, ? bb ^ 2JS iK3 ^ i S"^ ** 1 OQ r^ W > J a> ^3 9 O M f -> "5 C . ^P 2 ^ u^ <3 D o ^ i y Z llljflltflllijil i 1 s i 3 < | J g " -S fi E 5OTHO-GUE I P*S.*3||I^ S ^8^|rt|^ <2 ^ ' c '.o- Gcrmat go :s, leaving F i W SCYTHO-C 2 ! H s ^ ^ M O PH ff < > > - w'o" | o r^ Cj C/3 flj ^ bJUt/J 4 ^ F C ^ ^C *^'^^ C *"* > 2 rt^'5'' jF ~**y^'Oq t^T3lj S^^piy < 6 bjo' 55 6 "o f " $ 1 5 ^ E 1 IJ M .c .4 ^ t | | ^ i * IlllJSol ob 9 X 1 c^3 S sill III U """a w ioo Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Synopsis* of the different words from the three preceding Tables of the Seventh Century. Greek : 2 ) ] Latin : 14 f Grec - Latm : l6 I Total of the different words : 233 Anglo-Saxon: 217 j- Gotho -Germanic : 217 Hence, the style of Anglo-Saxon literature in the seventh century shows a vocabulary of different words, containing about 94 per cent. Gotho-Germanic or Anglo-Saxon, and 6 " Greco- Latin. 116 of the 233 different Anglo-Saxon words, or fifty per cent., are now (1878) obsolete. What then becomes of Sharon Turner's statement, in his " His- tory of the Anglo-Saxons," that only five per cent, of the Anglo-Saxon dialect are obsolete? Only 22 of the 233 different Anglo-Saxon words, or nine per cent., are now (1878) spelt as they were in the seventh century. By the three foregoing Extracts from Caedmon, Lothair and Edric's Code, Saxon Chronicle, and by P^thelbert's Code, A.D. 597, we realize that the Anglo-Saxons had writing and the germs of a national literature towards the close of the seventh century; when France, Italy, Germany, and Spain had not a written line in their native tongues. .Furthermore, our Extract from the Saxon Chronicle furnishes a fervent speech from King Wihtred at the Council of Bapchild, A.D. 694. Perhaps some Anglo-Saxon stenographer reported that royal discourse, which laid the foundation for ''Peter-Pence" and "Lammas Day" about the same time this royal zealot issued an Anglo-Saxon * As the Synopses and Ultimate Results constitute the essence of this work, showing the origin and progress of the English language, we endeavor to make them conspicuous by having them printed in large type. Seventh Century. 101 Code of laws, in which the church was not forgotten. Such royal religious fervor must have delighted the Roman Metaxchv.*, ' There was, at that period, in the Anglo-Sax6a' ihafactef a feature, which I cannot pass unnoticed, although, it cfoes^lkjiT belong to my subject. As it seems to have beeh j 6verk>6ked by chroniclers and historians, I shall try to add it as a pendant to Pope Gregory's mission. Hardly had the Anglo-Saxons enjoyed the initial blessings of Christianity, when they realized that their kinsmen, across the sea, were yet in darkness as to man's intel- lectual and moral capacities. They felt the sublimity of Greg- ory's zeal to convert their fathers, and strove to imitate it, with this difference : Augustine and his companions were unwilling tools in the hands of Pope Gregory, whereas twelve unpretend- ing Anglo-Saxons spontaneously conceived and executed a mis- sion among their benighted brothers in Germany. This Anglo- Saxon elan is only surpassed by that of the twelve destitute disciples, who, seven centuries before, started from Jerusalem to win the world to their Crucified Master. You, no doubt, desire to hear the names of those intellectual and moral Anglo-Saxon heroes. Alas ! I have as yet only been able to trace three of them. The Venerable Bede (Lib. V., C. 10) preserved two, Wil- brord and Suidbert ; the former was born in Northumbria and educated at Ripon, whence he repaired to Ireland and preached for twelve years. A third, Adalbert (Ethelbert) is mentioned in Pertz' "Monumentorum Germanise Historia," Vol. 2., p. 220. Thus has history failed to record the names of nine of those no- ble pioneers, while it has paraded that of many less worthy men. The twelve started from Britain about 690 and went to Metz, where they were graciously received by Pepin, Duke of Austrasia, and by his hospitable spouse Plectrude. Pepin was father to Charles Martel, who saved Europe from the Turkish yoke, A.D. 732. Charles Martel was the grandfather of Charlemagne, who united Western Europe and restored her to civilization. Pepin, at the head of the impetuous Franks, had just con- quered Citerior Friesland, whence he had driven King Rathbed. The arrival of the Anglo-Saxon missionaries was a "Godsend" to him. He at once invited them to preach, under his protec- tion, to his new subjects. The zeal and example of these pious strangers soon attracted the Frisians to Christianity. Hear what 102 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Bede tells posterity about his countrymen : "The brothers who were atendj.n;g o the ministry of the word in Friesland chose of their -huhi'ber\$aidbert, a man moderate in his habits and meek t, to be ^consecrated their Prelate, who, being sent to a^tfr'dairied Bishop by Wilfrid. Having returned from Britain, Suidbert went among the Bructeri and converted many of them by his preaching ; but soon the Bructeri were conquered by the old Saxons, and Suidbert had to flee. He went with his companions to Pepin, who, at Plectrude's intercession, gave them a home on an island in the Rhine, called Werde (now Kaiser- werth), where Suidbert founded a monastery, died, and was buried. Of Wilbrord, his cotemporary, Bede speaks thus : ' ' Among the twelve, Wilbrord shone pre-eminent for his rank as Presbyter and for his merit, &c., Lib. V., C. 1 1. After they had taught in Friesland for some years, Pepin sent, with the approbation of all, that most reverend man Wilbrord to Rome, where Sergius held the Pontificate, with the demand that he should be consecrated Archbishop of Friesland. This was done as he had requested, 696. He was ordained as Clement. Pepin gave him a place for his episcopal see, in his famous fortified town, Utrecht. When the church of St. Saviour had been built there, the prelate preached the word of faith far and wide, and appointed other bishops in those regions out of the number of those brethren, who, either with him or after him, had come thither to preach ; of whom some are now fallen asleep in the Lord. Wilbrord, how- ever, surnamed Clement, is still living, being now venerable by reason of his extreme old age, to wit, being in the thirty-sixth year of his episcopate, and after manifold conflicts of Heavenly warfare, sighing with his whole mind for the rewards of a heavenly recompense." Bede mentions two other Anglo-Saxon missionaries, named Hewald, probably brothers. They started from Britain about this time, and went to preach to the old Saxons, who murdered them and threw their bodies into the Rhine, whence they were taken and honorably buried by order of Pepin. Another Anglo- Saxon, called Willehad, after winning many to Christ, became Bishop of Bremen, where he died 789. Thus did the Anglo-Saxons, within about two hundred years, nobly repay their debt to Rome. Gregory had sent them Christianity ; they in turn sent the great blessing to their be- nighted German kinsmen, sealing the gift with their blood. Was not this a worthy pendant to Pope Gregory's tableau of 597 ? Wilbrord, Suidbert, Hewald, Willehad, &c., were by no means Seventh Century. 103 inferior to their illustrious predecessors, Gregory, Augustine, Paulinus, &c. As to Pepin and his worthy Plectrude, they fully equalled Ethelbert and Bertha in hospitality and grace. M?tz became to Germany what Canterbury had been to Engla- land. As Mohammed's religion astonished the world, A.D. 622, and as even now emperors, kings and diplomats are embarrassed to dispose of it, A.D. 1878, we must allude to it here. The Ara- bian Reformer claimed that his teachings were divine inspirations, which Abdalla-Ibn-Sad, an early admirer of Mohammed, wrote down as he uttered them. He mixed them with Sabianism, cherished among the shepherd kings, Magi and Arabians, and tinged the whole with Judaism and primitive Christianity ; then, to attract adventurers and warlike races, he engrafted on them the law of the sword ; and to justify his passion for women, he added polygamy. Such a combination was calculated to rouse enthusiasm and inflame the eastern imagination; for Kaab, a co temporary poet, after penning bitter satires against Mohammed, became a convert, and wrote one of the seven eulogies, styled " Moallakah" or poems suspended in the temple of Mecca; so did the cotemporary Arabian bards, Amry, Lebyd, and Joheir. Amry's Moallakah was translated into English by Sir William Jones, -and Lebyd' s into French by Sylvestre de Sacy. This clearly shows that the Arabian intellect was with the reformer and accounts for the rapid expansion. As Carlyle and Washing- ton Irving have written glowing accounts of Mohammed and his doctrines, we refer readers to them. We must not omit here a scholar who did more for linguistic lore than all his ancient and Medieval predecessors : that scholar was Isidore of Seville, author of " Originum sive Etymologiarum Libri XX (Twenty Books of Origins or Etymologies), which is an epitome of all the sciences in his day. The learned Dr. Hoefer calls this work " one of the most precious monuments for the history of human knowledge." He also wrote " Imago Mundi" which is a chronicle from the creation to A.D. 626 ; and two abridged histories of the Gotho-Germanic tribes that settled in Spain during the fifth century, entitled " Chronicon Gothorum" (Chronicle of the Goths), and "Chronicon breve Regum Visigothorum" (Short Chronicle of the Visigoth Kings). IO4 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. This eminent Medieval linguist, historian and scientist was born at Carthagena, of a noble family, about A.D. 570, and died Arch- bishop of Seville, A.D. 636, where he had been the father of the poor, the comforter of the unfortunate, and the oracle of Spain for forty years. He was thoroughly versed in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, as well as in all the learning of his epoch. His numer- ous Essays on Ecclesiastic affairs have been highly valued by divines. In one of them he says : " According to the precept of St. Paul and the Patriarchs, a monk should labor always." Then he adds : " Those who incline to read without working, show that their reading is of little profit to them." The Roman hierar- chy styled Isidore "the most learned man of his age." Soon Isidore's works found their way to PYance, where, about A.D. 799 or 800, some Frank translated part of it into Francic, a MS. of which is now extant in Paris. Spain may ever point with pride to this early intellectual giant. EIGHTH CENTURY. "It is a shame for any Englishman to look coldly upon his mother tongue." OLIPHANT'S 1 Standard English" p. 369. IN the year 672 appeared one of those intellects that are not numerous on Earth The Venerable Bede, whose moral and intellectual sun began to shine fully about 730. Astronomy, mathematics, grammar, and music were embraced in its rays. But his great work was his " ECCLESIASTIC HISTORY." It* had a royal translator in Alfred the Great, who, desiring that his sub- jects should have the benefit thereof, translated it into Anglo- Saxon. Hear what the learned Andrews says of this early Medieval genius : "This pious and humble sage, who never sought to rise above the station of a private monk at Jarrow on the Tyne, has bequeathed to us eight folio volumes, comprising the richest stores of multifarious learning. Bede was born, 672, in Northum- berland. He died in 735, and was long remembered as "The Wise Saxon" Now hear what Bede says of himself and his writings : " I, Bede, born in this country, was at the age of seven years entrusted to the care of the Abbot Benedict, and afterwards to Ceolfrid. I ever considered investigating, teaching and writing the sweetest occupation. From the nineteenth to the fifty-ninth year of my life I took pleasure in commenting on the Holy Scriptures and on the works of the venerable Fathers, for my own instruction and for- that of others, and also in expanding their 'meaning and interpretation." I cannot help quoting the opening of Bede' s letter to the King of Northumbria : 106 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. "To The most Glorious King Ceolwulph, Bede, the servant of Christ, and Presbyter. " I sent with much pleasure before this, O King, at your desire, the Ec- clesiastic History of the Nation of the Angles, which I had lately published, for you to read and judge of; and now I send it again to be transcribed and more fully studied, as you shall find time ; and I delight greatly in the zeal of your sincerity, through which you take diligent pains to become acquainted with the actions and words of illustrious men of former times, and especially of our nation," &c. There is great dignity and freedom of expression in this letter, from which we may realize that the modest monk of Jarrow knew his own worth as compared with that of a king. More than eleven centuries have elapsed since the departure of this industrious scholar. As his last hours on Earth are so edifying, it would be a pity to lose their instruction. They are thus described by his disciple Cuthbert, in a letter, from which we cull : " He translated the Gospel of St. John into our tongue for the benefit of the Church. The third day of the week he began to be greatly distressed in his breathing. During the whole of that day he taught and cheerfully dic- tated, saying : Learn with speed ; I know not how long I may last. At the fourth hour he diligently charged us to write what we had begun. Most be- loved master, there is yet one chapter wanting ; it seems to be troubling you to ask you more. Then said he : It is no trouble. Take your pen, mend it and write quickly, &c. One sentence is still unwritten. Then he said : Write it quickly. The sentence is now written. He said : It is well ; you have spoken the truth, consummatum est (it is consummated). He breathed his last, and so departed to the Heavenly Kingdom. " Know, however, dearest brother, that I could relate many things con- cerning him, but that my unskil fulness in language makes my discourse short." Thus, in moral and intellectual vigor, died this ever-searching scholar, as he had lived. Any man whose native tongue is Eng- lish can have no idea of budding thought in the British Isles, unless he reads the effusions of Gildas, King Ethelbert, Caed- mon, and Bede. We must own that they seem primitive, super- stitious, aye, even childish ; but could Rollin, Justinian, Pope, Macaulay have done better, had they been born and lived in the British Isles, any time from 500 to 800, and under the same cir- cumstances ? Nations, empires, and literatures have their child- hood, manhood, and old age ; the man who sneers at either is no scholar. Eighth Century. 107 MANUSCRIPT BOOKS IN THE LIBRARY OF ARCHBISHOP EGBERT, AT YORK, ENGLAND, FROM A.D. 732 TO 766. We read in the "Saxon Chronicle" A.D. 734, that Archbishop Egbert was brother to Eadbert, King of Nortrfumbria. He was a liberal patron of learning. Enriched by the royal family, he collected a valuable library of manuscript books, of which we shall give a list, drawn from a catalogue * in elegant Latin verse, written by the learned Alcuin, who was a pupil and favorite of Archbishop Egbert : CHRISTIAN FATHERS : Clement, Greek, A.D. 220 Augustine, Lat., A.D. 430 Lactantius, Lat., 3 2 5 Orosius, Lat., 430 Hilary, Lat., 367 Joannes, Lat., 433 Victorinus, Lat., 370 Leo (Pope), Lat., 461 Athanasius, Greek, 373 Prosper, Lat., 463 Basil, Greek, 397 Fulgentius, Lat., 533 Ambrose, Lat., 397 Gregory the Great, Latin and Chrysostom, Greek, 407 Greek, 605 Jerome, Lat., 420 * " Illic invenies veterum vestigia Patrum, Quidquid habet pro se Latio Romanus in orbe, Graecia quidquid transmisit clara Latinis ; Hebraicus vel quod populus bibit imbre superno, Africa lucifluo vel quidquid lumine sparsit. Quod pater Hieronymus, quod sensit Hilarius, atque Ambrosius praesul, simul Augustinus, et ipse Sanctus Athanasius, quod Orosius edit avitus, Quidquid Gregorius summus docet, et Leo Papa ; Basilius quidquid, Fulgentius atque coruscant, Cassiodorus item, Chrysostomus atque Joannes. Quidquid et Althelmus docuit, quid Beda Magister, Quae Victorinus scripsere, Boetius, atque Historici veteres, Pompeius, Plinius, ipse Acer Aristoteles, rhetor quoque Tullius ingens : Quid quoque Sedulius, vel quid canit ipse Juvencus, Alcuinus et Clemens, Prosper, Paulinus, Arator, Quidquid Fortunatus vel quid Lactantius, edunt. Quae Maro Virgilius, Statius, Lucanus, et auctor Artis grammaticae, vel quid scripsere magistri : Quid Probus atque Phocas, Donatus, Priscianusve, Servius, Euticius, Pompeius, Comminianus. Invenies alios perplures." io8 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. HISTORIANS : Pompeius (Trogus), Lat., A.D. 5 Cassiodorus, Lat., A.D. 590 POETS : Virgil, Lat., B.C. 19 Paulinus, Lat., A.D. 431 Lucan, Lat., A.D. 65 Sedulius, Lat., 460 Statins, Lat., 100 Arator, Lat., 560 Juvencus, Lat., 400 Fortunatus, Lat., 609 PHILOSOPHERS : Boetius, Lat., A.D. 525 GRAMMARIANS : Probus, Lat., A.D. 100 Priscianus, Lat., A.D. 525 Pompeius (Festus), Lat., 380 Euticius (Eutychius), Lat., 550 Donatus, Lat., 400 Phocas (since lost). Servius, Lat., 400 Comminianus (since lost). ANGLO-SAXONS : Aldhelm, Lat., A.D. 709 Alcuin, La,.., A.D. 804 Bede, Lat., 735 Alcuin closes his Catalogue by saying : "You will find a great many others." Here were the writings of sixteen of the Fathers, two scientists, eight poets, two historians, one orator, one philosopher, eight grammarians, and three Anglo-Saxon writers in Latin, besides many others. Religion, science, poetry, history, philosophy and grammar were worthily represented in that early Anglo-Saxon effort. If we consider the time and circumstances, we must own that Egbert's library was a wonder : only one hundred and sixty- nine years had elapsed from the formation of the Anglo- Saxon alphabet, A.D. 597, to Egbert's library, A.D. 766. Ingulphus tells us writing materials were so scarce that large es- tates were often conveyed from one family to another by handing a turf and a stone before witnesses, without any written agree- ment. Bede says : Alfrid, King of Northumbria, gave a large landed estate to Abbot Benedict Biscop, for a book on geography, which the Abbot had brought from Rome. Henault relates that a Countess of Anjou gave two hundred sheep and many valuable 'furs for a book of homilies.* Under such circumstances we * Gibbon adds: "Before the invention of printing and paper, the labor and materials of writing could be purchased only by the rich ; and it may Eighth Century. 109 must admire Archbishop Egbert's zeal to collect such intellectual and moral treasures. This wonderful progress must be attributed to the efforts of the Anglo-Saxons to render writing easier and more current : to save space they substituted small for capital letters ; to expedite copying they changed angles and zigzags to curved lines, and copied industriously, increasing the monastic libraries. We may say Alcuin's Catalogue contains no mathematics. True, Euclid's science had not yet visited Britain ; it only deigned to favor the Northwestern Islanders, under King Athel- stan, about 935 ; nor had the Arab's concise expression of num- bers made its appearance ; but see what Anglo-Saxon ingenuity contrived to supply this want : The numbers from i to 100 were expressed by the fingers of the left hand ; from 100 to 10,000 by those of the right ; from 10,000 to 100,000 by varying the po- sition of the left; and from 100,000 to 1,000,000 by varying the position of the right hand. Bede, "De Indigitatione" This not only foreshadowed mental arithmetic and mnemonics, but De 1'Epee's "Deaf and Dumb" speech. The sages of the eighth century divided human knowledge into " The Seven Liberal Sciences : " Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Music, Arithmetic^ Geometry, and Astronomy. The three former were called Trivium ; the four latter Quadrivium. Hence this uncouth, but simple, distich contemplates ten centuries . " Gramm. loquitur ; Dia. vera docet ; Rhet. verba colorat; Mus. canit ; Ar. numerat ; Geo. ponderat ; Ast. colit astra." Thus imitated : " Gramm. rules the speech ; Log. truth doth teach; Rhet. words with wit supplies ; Mus. chants her lays ; Ar. counts; Geo. weighs; Ast. ponders on the skies." To this period belongs a movement of the priesthood to obtain tithes, as allowed by the Mosaic law to the Levites. This eccle- siastic claim was first urged at the Council of Calcuith (Cliftonian Kent), about A.D. 785. No longer satisfied with land-grants, as reasonably be computed that the price of books was a hundred-fold their present value." no Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. were the noble Benedict Biscop and his industrious associates, who, at Wearmouth, turned dismal forests and swamps into fruit- ful gardens and fertile fields, the hierarchy asked one-tenth of all the people's labor and earnings. Here was the germ of priestly intrigue and papal arrogance in England. As the discussions, comments and writings, that grew out of this movement, greatly favored and diffused the English language and literature, let us watch the development of this germ as we proceed in our investi- gation of the English idiom. In a historic point of view, Charlemagne and Alcuin have ever been closely connected in men's minds ; for in them French statesmanship and Anglo-Saxon scholarship went hand in hand to diffuse Medieval civilization. In the seventh century France was in a deplorable plight as to education. The fame of classic learning, introduced by Archbishops Egbert and Theo- dore, Abbot Biscop and Alcuin, had reached the great Western Monarch. We read that Alcuin was sent as ambassador to Charlemagne by King Offa, to negotiate an alliance between France and the Anglo-Saxon king of Mercia, and that letters are extant from Alcuin to Charlemagne, begging him to send French and German. youths to be educated in Britain; but, instead of sending young men to Britain, the Emperor invited the Anglo- Saxon sage to come to his court, and establish schools in his vast dominions. The renowned Yorkshire scholar accepted the invitation about 780, and founded schools, not only at Aix-la- Chapelle, Paris, and Tours, but in the imperial palace, where Charlemagne and his courtiers assembled to hear him. Probably among his hearers was Egbert, first king of England, who about that time was at the court of Charlemagne. Alcuin was the emperor's favorite. He was a prominent prelate at the Coun- cil of Frankfort, 794 ; in 796 he was appointed Abbot of St. Martin's monastery at Tours, where he died, A.D. 804. Alcuin was theologian, philosopher, historian, poet, mathematician, ora- tor, and linguist. His works were published, A.D. 1777, in two folio volumes. They consist of letters, poems, and theologic writings, that are considered the purest Latin of the Middle Ages. He it was, who, in his youth, wrote a catalogue of Arch- bishop Egbert's library in poetry, which we cite elsewhere. Professor F. Lorentz, of Halle, wrote Alcuin's biography, which Eighth Century, in Tras translated into English, 1837. Alcuin immortalized Anglo- Saxon scholarship abroad. About A.D. 787, Danes or Normans landed at Portland, plundered the country, and went away unmolested. The Anglo- Saxons little dreamt how these roving sea-kings would soon harass England. In Bertholin's History of Northern Antiquities is this Danish code of honor : "A brave man should attack two, stand firm against three, give ground a little to four, and only retreat from five." The same ideas prevailed among all the Gotho- Germanic races : Saxons, Franks, Normans, &c. No wonder, men, acting with such motives, were irresistible ; yet a deeper incitement, the idea of immortality in Valhalla, inherited from their ancestors, the Getae, underlay their actions ; thus even a noble thought may prompt to cruel deeds. From the formation of the Anglo-Saxon alphabet, 597 to 788, there were but few Anglo-Saxon writings : Ethelbert's Code, Caedrnon's primitive poems, Ina's Code, and the Saxon Chronicle ; most other writings were in Latin. We are told that annals were written in Anglo-Saxon at Canterbury, Winchester, Peter- borough, Worcester, Abington, &c. that these annals were drafted into short chronicles, collected, and, under the supervi- sion of Plegmund, Archbishop of Canterbury, united into what has been called the " SAXON CHRONICLE." Abbots, bishops, arch- bishops, and, it is thought, even King Alfred, wrote parts of it. The erudite Ingram, Anglo-Saxon Professor at Oxford, edited and translated those relics and issued them under the name " Saxon Chronicle," 1823. This record does credit to the Anglo- Saxons ; for such a continuous, simple, practical vernacular chronicle could probably not be found in any other nation. It is a " Multum in parvo" of history, chronology, geography, sci- ence, and art, and an ancient descriptive national album. If you need some Anglo-Saxon personage, event, place or occur- rence from 449 to 1154, consult its index and you will find some mention thereof with correct date. Were it not for this ancient work and Ina's Code of Laws, I could not find Axglo-Saxon Ex- tracts for Tables in this century ; yet Aldhelm, Bede, and Alcuin wrote volumes in Latin. The Saxon Chronicle begins with a short account of the Isle of Britain, its extent and inhabitants, and of Caesar's invasion, 60 B.C. ; whereas our chronology has 55 112 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. B.C, Then it commences A.D. i, and continues till A.D. 1154. In this venerable Record, births, deaths, murders, battles, coun- cils, advents of kings, bishops, abbots, eclipses of the sun and moon, comets, are all mentioned pele-mele, as may be seen by our Extracts therefrom ; yet even this simplest of records rises at times to a pathos like this : " Sharp death, that passes neither by rich men nor poor, seized him also. Alas, how false and how uncertain is this world's weal ! He, that was before a rich king and lord of many lands, had not then of all his land more than a space of seven feet ; and he, that was whilom enshrouded in gold and gems, lay there covered with mould." This of William the Conqueror's death, A.D. 1087. This collection of Anglo-Saxon Chronicles was originally called "Liber de Wintonia" (The Win- chester Book) from its first place of custody. Ingram, the learned compiler of this precious Medieval record, says: "The Saxon Chronicle contains the original and authentic testimony of cotem- porary writers to the most important transactions of our fore- fathers, both by sea and land, from their first arrival in this country to the year 1154," which he could not mean, because the Anglo-Saxons " from their first arrival in" Britain, A.D. 449 to 597, had neither alphabet, writing, nor writers. Yet he is correct when he adds : " If we except the sacred annals of the Jews, contained in the several books of the Old Testament, there is no other work extant, ancient or modern, which exhibits at one view a regular and chronologic panorama of a people, described in rapid succession by different writers, through so many ages, in their own vernacular language" The British Museum boasts of an Anglo-Saxon manuscript in forty-three cantos, numbering about 6,000 lines, which has elicited much speculation as to by whom, when, and where it was origi- nally written. Some ascribed it to priests of the seventh and eighth, others to monks of the ninth, tenth, and eleventh cen- turies. But as no cotemporary historian alludes to it, not even Bede, who (A.D. 730) mentions Ethelbert's Code, Gildas and Caedmon, this position would almost seem untenable, -unless the poem has intrinsic evidence of the vocabulary and style of any of those periods. There are two copies of this curious poem : one without any, the other with some, Christian allusions. This seems to perplex critics, who claim that the one without Eighth Century. 113 Christian allusions antedates, whereas the other with Christian allusions afterdates Ethelbert's conversion, A.D. 597. Some say this ancient relic was originally written in Scandinavia and carried by the Norsemen to Britain, where it was translated into Anglo-Saxon. Its hero is Beowulf, one of the many Gotho- Germanic Hercules or Don Quixotes, claiming descent from Odin or Woden. The fens and marshes of Jutland are the theatre of Beowulf's extraordinary feats : he exterminates the terrible giant Grendel, a scion of Cain, and the monstrous Fire- drake, that had so long infested the land of the Jutes (Guttones, Gothi, Getae, Guthi). According to Sharon Turner, " Beowulf is certainly the oldest poem, of an epic form, which exists in Europe." Yet he thinks Ethelbert's Code antedates it. Conybeare, Professor of Anglo- Saxon at Oxford University, 1812, refers a part of Beowulf in its original composition to A.D. 450, thus making it cotemporary with Hengist and Horsa. He made a literal Latin and a free English translation of 'it. Warton, in his "History of English Poetry" considers Beowulf "a Dario-Saxon poem celebrating the wars, which Beowulf, a noble Dane, descended from the royal stem of Scyldinge, waged against the kings of Swedeland. The learned linguist Ettrnliller, in his translation of this Gotho- Germanic essay, thinks it belongs to the first half of the eighth century. Thorpe, the English translator, assigns it to the middle of the eleventh century, but regards the original as written in Sweden and brought to England by the Danes. Longfellow calls it "the oldest epic in any modern language. Its style is simple, perhaps one should say austere ; at times it is tedious, at times obscure, and he who undertakes to read the original will find it no easy task." The erudite Anglo-Saxon scholar, Kemble, who translated Beowulf into English, thinks its perusal will repay any one that will read it in a proper spirit, and make allowances for the time and circumstances in which it was composed. Oliphant, in his "Standard English," 1873, observes: u Beowulf is to us English, what the Iliad was to the Greeks. There is an unmis- takable Pagan ring about the poem." According to my humble opinion, Beowulf's style, vocabulary, and scarcity of particles point more to Caedmon's time than any other, whatever may have been its original composition in Scandinavia or elsewhere, 114 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. either A.D. 450, 650, or 1050. Its expressions "Lif-frea" (Lord of Life), "Wuldres Waldend" (Prince of Glory), &c., and its few particles, sound and look like the style and dialect of Caedmon's day (A.D. 650-680). However, as there is so much uncertainty about the date of this Medieval epic, we give no Table therefrom. It seems to be pure Anglo-Saxon ; for we ex- amined forty-two lines of its Anglo-Saxon text, consisting of one hundred different words, among which we found not a single Greco-Latin term. To give our readers some idea of this ven- erable poem, we cite short specimens from Longfellow's excellent version : BEOWULF THE SHYLD. " Then dwelt in the cities The delight of the Shylds, Beowulf the Shyld, To him four children A king, dear to the people : Grew up in the world, Long did he live Leaders of hosts ; His country's father. Weorgar and Rothgar, To him was born And Halga the good. Healfden the high ; And I have heard He, while he lived, That Helen, his queen, Reigned and grew old, Was born by the Shefmgs," &c. THE SAILING OF BEOWULF. " Famous was Beowulf; Cling round their leader, Wide sprang the blood, Soon as the war comes. Which the heir of the Shylds Lastly thy people Shed on the lands. The deeds shall bepraise, So shall the bracelets Which their men have performed. Purchase endeavor, When the Shyld had awaited Freely presented, The time he should stay, As by thy fathers ; Came many to fare And all the young men, On the billows so free," &c. As. is their custom, BEOWULF'S EXPEDITION TO HEORT. " Then went over the sea- waves, So that the sailors Hurried by the wind, The land saw, The ship with foamy neck, The shore-cliffs shining, Most like a sea- fowl; Mountains steep, Till about one hour And broad sea-noses. Of the second day Then was the sea sailing The curved prow Of the Earl at an end," &c. Had passed onward, Eighth Century. 115 AN OLD MAN'S SORROW. u Careful, sorrowing, Joy in the dwellings, He seeth in his son's bower As there was before; The wine-hall deserted, Then departeth he into songs, The resort of the wind noiseless ; Singeth a lay of sorrow, The Knight sleepeth One after one ; The warrior, in darkness All seemed to him too wide There is not there The plains and the dwelling-place." Noise of the harp, GOOD NIGHT. " The night-helm grew dusky, Provided all that Dark over the vassals ; The thane needed. The court all rose, Whatsoever that day The mingled-haired The sailers over the deep Old Scylding Should have. Would visit his bed ; The magnanimous warrior rested ; The Geat wished the The house rose aloft Renowned Warrior to rest Curved and variegated with gold ; Immeasurably well. The stranger slept therein, Soon him the foreigner, Until the pale raven, Weary of his journey, Blithe of heart, The hall-thane guided forth, Announced the joy of heaven, Who, after a fitting manner, The bright sun, to be come." All who review these lines will think, with Kemble, that they richly repay perusal. First and foremost the graphic picture of Beowulf's family, with Helen as wife, mother and hostess, re- minds of Greece, Troy, Paris, and the Iliad ; " bracelets freely presented " show gallantry to the fair sex among our hyperborean ancestors ; next, the ship with foamy neck hurrying over the waves like a sea-fowl ; the shore-cliffs shining like steep moun- tains, and the broad sea-noses are surely bold metaphors ; finally, the bereft father, seeing his son's bower and wine hall deserted, the harp* silent, finds the plains and the dwelling-place too wide, all of which portrays the very acme of sorrow in a novel manner. A poem of such force, pathos, and primitive simplicity, even counting 6,000 lines, could not be tedious, if read in short * The mention of this instrument seems to indicate that this poem was composed after Alfred the Great had immortalized the harp. Hence the ob- scurity and mystery about the date of Beowulf. Ii6 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. lectures and with a desire to know the primitive history and char- acter of a race. As the author's name of this hyperborean lay has not reached us, let us style him The Northern Homer or Hesiod. EXTRACTS AND TABLES FROM ANGLO-SAXON WRITINGS OF THE EIGHTH CENTURY, SHOWING THE STYLE AND NUMERIC ORI- GIN OF THEIR VOCABULARY : The Anglo-Saxon Code of Ina, King of Wessex, opens this age. It consists of seventy-nine articles written from 689 to 728, and forms the basis for, the laws of Alfred the Great. In the annals of the Heptarchy Ina's reign is considered one of the most prosperous. He could moderate the Anglo-Saxon desire for war, as shown by his peaceful settlement with Kent. He, first of the Anglo-Saxon kings, showed clemency to the conquered Britons in Cornwall. Before his day all the prisoners were killed. The vocabulary and style of his code evince linguistic and literary progress. After convincing the world of his valor and states- manship, Ina intrusted his kingdom to his brother-in-law, Ade- lard, and went with his pious queen, Ethelburga, to Rome, where he died. The accurate historian, Matthew of Westminster, tells us that this good king and patron of learning founded the Anglo- Saxon College at Rome, and assigned for its support one penny per year on every house in his kingdom. This tax, called Rome- scot, was extended subsequently by Offa, King of Mercia, on all the houses of Mercia and East Anglia ; and as the money, thus collected, was paid at Rome on the day of St. Peter, it was styled Peter-Pence. It is said the popes afterwards pretended that it was a tribute which the English were to pay to St. Peter and his successors. It is evident that Ina was a zealous advocate of classic education ; for he died at Rome while founding his col- lege. The Extract from Ina's Code is followed by one from the "Saxon Chronicle" from A.D. 788 to 795. As there was no regular Anglo Saxon author in this century, we took Extracts and Tables from these writings. Eighth Century. 117 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. s s O ,5 O C 3 -2 f 3 r 8 ^^ C rt -s 2 -g S SJB .f o - a .s- 73 2 o ro *"** j> sill 2 B* *l "3 .2 'S .? s 2 , s - > -5 > ^ 3 t/i > o b/3 cj o ~ ,9 -5 O I I rt ^ J " " ooo , ri So .5 -3 - o | r G U2 O 2 C! .S 14 Q ^ ^ -S 8' 8 ^ Eighth Century. 119 t^ s ^' ^ *N. ^ ?T 4 v> 23 SEMITIC FAMILY : 1 ., .=1 o! SARMATO-SCLA- VON1C FAMILY : 8 Jill !; at Fingal in September ; .S rt 3 o 13 rt _. > -g a; 3*2 * $ >, |M S"JS e-3* J< 13 (U -C G "" rt W'o g" o^ 5S I s ^w i? ^1 ^ IQ ^"o -S S g M!:U I 3 1s^l ^1 ?" the land of these were hirlwinds of tremendous issembled i nones of l^^o-S . ^ 3 M c S Sw o 8 ^ v*- rt tn fl ^ ^ o; 53 S S S: < ^ v-%.2 iai T3 T3 ? cs > ^ ^ ""V rtX> . "" >-. ^ S rt ~ *^~ -S V 1-, -5 Z^ 2 M& j ~ H-|| O ^3 -^ g Ills 3^|1 (U *-" O ^ 8 = 2 ffi^lj ,* J 0) U ^3 1^1 531 ; s x ;8S 1 ^ O 5 g ^ Here Archbishop Eanbert di -en archbishop the same year, ai ns, was betrayed, and banished son of Ethelwald, succeeded hii Here Baldulf was consecratei ay before the calends of August .op Ethelbert. Here Offa, King of Mercia, c> uld be beheaded ; and Osred, v\ brians, returning home after his e he i8th day before the calends o t Tinemouth. Ethelred this yeai " October, took unto himself a 3 i S a > c -5 o Ji ^ S Hf! 3 Si- 'S^ " V |^ c&'s 8 5 fc M S5 rt o *l.sP fcjO 5?| S- 1 gf fc ^gij o2-2| ^ - &1I SI'S ^ 'TJ ui rt O^ O j; ^ T3 s>i| | 1 rijl dlf^ ;|i ^3 If Q *^ n S 3a Q'|||fl| |1^ 2 -\ - " a; <1| << _G W ^3 r^ ^ ^ i-5 C ctJ J5 t/5 >> S||l u S g^j ^1=i . S 5 c e-5 t> 3 N or dr Eighth Century. SUo .Sg.3 c o ha wa o t t of ong ing he ns, f Ma ed fr ied ned lend on am verth, K er ria s o tir d tai cal rf-g i SB'S2 e-sw ^ 3^ * -~ ? a^^.p >;^ g -3 o &1 a o t f n o w d ^ a S - a hn ^ ? S 5 ll*| gs.g'S-l | IIJ 1 rt k . H~O n-( , , -: '-"?",, ^ jo ^ * h M oo 1 ( ' rt ^ o k~* u -M ' "* i^ O ^u c * o 06 *s 1 s M *^ ll i| 2 Jill r I ?3 g, 5 j ll ScS 3 u < a - S 8 1 c gj^ "tci:c''a2^|cg' *- -1 a u'-^O-S ^'| &J: J^2 Q g " ? * .s g * ^ -- ^ i C) i fc, Sj, Sfl8iS s 1e,Ti^ 1 1 o jz IRMANIC | flj^lHilPfiiM 1 ! 1 vff 8 I 5 fe w O-GOTHO-GE i 0> J e 4 -s vl rt PH S ^ a H i x" u d y ^rt j-.-a'^y^c'i^sS 1 ' w c 3tjj ^.j H ffi r"rt rt^'=-2 J 2'^'f~ o^J- ^>c g2 S W 5 IP u'ot*S < *" l o~^bJttw*"' ^'S" 31 *^ ^ S PL, ^& 2 * ^ s 6 i jj * bid 2 v 1 'S H ^ S 1 s g c 1 s ELASG1C OR GRE Greco-Latin 20 twrds of inher^ ,8 tj 15 K 5 a h * 9 & .y M v o Eighth Century. 123 Synopsis of the different words from the two preceding Tables of the Eighth Century. Greek : i Latin: 21 French : * 2 > words: 176. Anglo-Saxon: 152 Greco-Latin : 24 Total of the different Gotho-Germanic : 152 Hence the style of Anglo-Saxon writing in the eighth century shows a vocabulary of different words containing about 86 per cent. Gotho-Germanic or Anglo-Saxon, and 14 " " Greco-Latin. 66 of the 152 different Anglo-Saxon words, or forty-four per cent., are now obsolete. 9 of the 152 different Anglo-Saxon words, or only six per cent., are now spelt as they were in the eighth century. The conversion of the Germans, started by Wilbrord and Suid- bert, found a zealous champion in Win/rid, born in Devonshire, A.D. 680. To omit him would leave the Anglo-Saxon Christian legion in Germany without its eminent chief. His arduous labors in that country continued over thirty years. Thuringia, Hesse, Friesland, Saxony, and Bavaria witnessed his eloquence, zeal and fervor. To him many cathedrals, schools, and monasteries owed their origin. Pope Leo. III. conferred on him the title of Arch- bishop and Primate of Germany, under the highly appropriate name of Boniface, A.D. 732. By him Pepin le Bref, father of Charlemagne, was consecrated King of the Franks, A.D. 752. Pepin le Bref returned the compliment by creating Boniface Archbishop of Mentz. Yet, after all, Germany's great apostle was murdered near Dokkum, with his companions, by a band of * First French words found in the Anglo-Saxon dialect : seint and nefa, now saint and nephew. 124 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. armed Pagan Frisians, while on an excursion to further diffuse Christianity and civilization, A.D. 754. England and Germany must ever look with pride and gratitude to Winfrid (peace-win- ner) or Boniface (benefactor). Thus his Anglo-Saxon and Latin names express his life and character. PROGRESS OF OTHER MEDIEVAL DIALECTS IN THE EIGHTH CENTURY. Up to the eighth century the Anglo-Saxons were the only Medieval people that had writing in their native dialect, except the Goths, who had Ulfilas' translation of the Bible from Greek into Gothic, A.D. 376, and perhaps the Irish " Leabhar nah- Uidhei." Francic, or High German, was the next Medieval dia- lect that found written expression. As Francic has so much in common with Anglo-Saxon, we give a specimen with literal English, in order to enable readers to judge, not only of the analogy between the two idioms, but to account for the amity that existed between the Franks and Anglo-Saxons prior to the hatred and wars fostered by the Normano-Plantagenet and Cape- dan dynasties. The earliest Francic MS., supposed to date to A.D. 720, is an exhortation to Christians, found at the bishopric of Freisingen (Bavaria) and Fulde (Hesse), but now at Munich and Cassel. Francic : " Hloset ir, chindo liupostun, rihtida thera galaupa the ir in herzin kahuc- clicho hapen sculut, ir den christanun namun intfangan eigut, thaz ist chun- dida iuuerera christanheiti, fona demo truhtine in man gaplasan, fona sin selpes jungiron kasezzit." i English Translation : Listen ye, children dear, to the instruction of the faith, which you in heart shall carefully have, (after) you once received the Christian name, that is, the knowledge of your Christianity, inspired by the Lord, (and) established by his own disciples. In this Francic Extract are twenty-eight different words, twenty- six of which are somewhat analogous in meaning and spelling to twenty-six Anglo-Saxon, twenty-three English, and twenty-four German words, as may be observed by the following Table: Eig h th Cen tu ry . 12 FRANCIC : ANGLO-SAXON : ENGLISH : GERMAN : Hloset chin do liupostun nhtida thera Hlosniaih cylda luflicostu riht thaere listen children loveliest right lauschet kinder liebsten rich tig der 1 galaupa the in herzin ^kahucclicho *geleafa the on heorte *gehuged belief the in heart glauben die in herzen hapen sculut christanum namun intfangan thaz ist chundida iuuerera fona truhtine 2 habban sceolon cristene naman ymbfangen thaet is cunnan eowera fram dryhten 2 have shall Christian name that is knowledge your from haben sollet christlich namen enphangen das ist kunde eurer von man *gaplasan selpses jungiron 1 kasezzit man *geblawen . self . iongir 1 gesette man blown self younger set mann 1 geblasen selbst jiinger ^esetzt 1 Note the prefix ga and ka in Francic and ge in Anglo-Saxon and German. 2 Note the Francic and Anglo-Saxon name for Lord, obsolete in English and German. Such was the dialect of Pepin and Charlemagne. No wonder Wilbrord and Winfrid, Alcuin and Egbert liked to visit their kind neighbors, the Franks. The Anglo-Saxon and Francic dialects, manners and customs being so much alike, they could easily un- derstand, and sympathize with each other. We might quote from the song of "Hildibraht and Hadubrant" A.D. 730; from the hymn in honor of St. Peter, and from the " Wessobrunn Prayer" all Francic MSS. of the eighth century. As yet no vestige of writing in French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, or any other European Medieval dialect. True, it is claimed by Scandinavian archeologists, that part of a poem in "Danska Tunga " (old Danish, Icelandic, Cimbric, Old Norse, Scandic, or Norwegian), by Starkad, antedates A.D. 645 ; but this claim needs confirma- tion. It is curious to observe that most of the numerous Anglo- Saxon words, now obsolete in English, are to be found in modern German, Danish, Swedish and Dutch. Grimm and other German and Scandinavian archeologists, claim that parts of the '^Poetic &dda" are of very high -antiquity ; yet we are assured that Saemund, born in Iceland, 10,56, was the first compiler of the Poetic Edda, that he appears to have 126 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. written some of these poetic effusions from the recital of cotem- porary skalds (bards), and that he collected others from MSS. However, we are shown none of those MSS ; nor are we told where they are to be found, either in Iceland, Denmark, or Swe- den. We are sure that Iceland was settled a thousand years ago, for its millennium was celebrated 1874. We also read that after many attempts to decipher the Runic characters on the rock at Hoby in the province of Bleking, Sweden, Finn Magnusen suc- ceeded in explaining those Runes as soon as he tried to read them from right to left. He says they are in Old Danish and mean : " Him have I among men of the human race, among warriors, found the strongest of body." Hence, it is asserted that these Runes remount to A.D. 770 upon what grounds we fail to see. After perusing most that has been written on Scandinavian archeology, we cannot help lauding the untiring research of those Northern savants; but we must confess that their claims to a higher antiquity than the eleventh century, for any Northern writings or Runes, rest on a very slender basis, and can disturb neither the precedence of Gildas' History (A.D. 546), Ethelbert's Code, A.D. 597, Caedmon's Poems, 680, Bede's History, A.D. 730, Beowulf, Ina's Code, 820, MSS. of which are extant. No Medieval writing in any modern dialect, except Ulfilas' Gothic Version of the Scriptures, A.D. 376, has yet been found that antedates them. Thus, in spite of German and Scandinavian efforts, it remains evident that Anglo-Saxon records antedate all writings in other Medieval dialects, except Gothic, and perhaps Irish, if the " Saltair of Tara " and "Leab- har nah-Uidhei" are authentic and genuine. The eighth century abounded in startling events and useful improvements : Mohammed's religion had so much elastic ad- venture as to expand within ninety years from Arabia to Spain, which the Saracens invaded A.D. 712, and conquered from the last Gothic ruler in Spain, whom Southey portrays in his famous poem styled " Eoderick the Goth." The Mohammedan victors left to the vanquished Christians their property, laws, worship, and contented themselves with a slight tribute and the honor of commanding ; consequently the Spaniards often intermarried with the Saracens and called themselves "Mosarabs" (meaning half Spanish, half Arabian). About A.D. 732, Abder- Rahman, leader Eighth Century. 12 J of the Saracens, penetrated France as far as Tours, where the Franks, under Charles Martel, met the invaders, defeated them with immense slaughter, and checked Moslem conquests in West- ern Europe. The dating of the years from Christ's incarnation commenced A.D. 743 ; and the collection of books for the famous library of the Vatican, A.D. 750. Charlemagne, invited to protect the Pope against the Lombards, crossed the Alps and put an end to the kingdom of Lombardy, A.D. 774. Next he conquered the Saxons, and extended his empire from the Ebro to the Baltic and Hungary. His fame reached the Empress Irene, who it is said, wished to wed the western hero. No doubt the Roman hier- archy encouraged a union that offered a chance to wipe out the difference between Rome and Constantinople, and to reconcile the Eastern and Western Christians. Charlemagne's renown also echoed to Bagdad, whence the Caliph, Haroun-al-Raschid, sent ambassadors with rich presents to the great Ruler of Western Europe. The Saracens from Bagdad to Granada so cultivated literature, art, and science, that Arabian thought, ideas and wri- tings influenced and enriched the Medieval languages and litera- tures of Europe. Geber, the father of chemistry, was a Saracen of Mesopotamia. While trying to ascertain the degree of fusi- bility of the metals, for the purpose of reducing them into gold, he discovered nitric acid, corrosive sublimate, nitrate of silver, &c., which found their way to Europe, where they have been advantageously used over a thousand years. Dr. Hoefer says, in his History of Chemistry, that Geber was to chemistry what Hippocrates was to medicine. The keen critic, Cardan, ranks Geber among the twelve greatest intellects of the world. Hence Mesopotamia, that gave hospitality to Abraham, and wives to Isaac and Jacob ages before our era, may feel proud for giving birth to Geber about A.D. 750. This century witnessed the first foreign expanse of England's language. Historians and critics saw in King Ina's College at Rome, A.D. 728, only the origin of the Peter-Pence and Eng- land's subserviency to the Pope. While we concede this point, we behold in the founding of that institution something more than mere pennies and priestly trickery : Rome was the World's Metropolis, whose streets and palaces resounded with Latin and 128 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Greek, the two most polished languages of that day. A sagacious king of the British Isles resigned the care of his small realm, visited proud Rome with his devoted queen, Ethelburga, and conceived the idea of founding a college, where youths of his country could be educated, acquire not only Latin, but the manners and refinement of Rome, and carry them back to their benighted countrymen. This surely was a laudable ambition even for a king to possess ; for, while those Anglo-Saxon youths dwelt in Rome, they listened to Latin accents and mixed with them the sounds of their native tongue, which caused Romans to realize, that there was an aspiring nation and language in the British Isles even at that early Medieval period. Viewed in this light, Ina's College at Rome, A.D. 728, was the first step towards the future expanse of England's language. From that date Anglo-Saxon scholars began to appreciate Latin linguistic gems. A king from humble Wessex started this glorious educa- tional movement, whether conscious or unconscious of ultimate effects it matters not ; the result was the same ; for Anglo- Saxon was heard in Rome, where by concession it obtained a home and abiding-place amid all that was intellectual and refined in Greco-Latin civilization. Hence the English-speaking popu- lations may consider Ina as one of the earliest champions of classic education, and the first diffuser of England's language. NINTH CENTURY. " I desired to live worthily, while I lived, and, after my life, to leave to the men who should follow me, a remembrance in good works." ALFRED THE GREAT. THE small realm of Wessex gave birth to a princely cion, cherished by all except a jealous royal kinsman. Thinking his life in danger at home, he went to a foreign court, where he acquired not only learning, but the science of war and govern- ment. An intriguing queen instigated a poisoned cup to be prepared for one of her courtiers, but accident brought it to the lips of her royal consort, who drank it and died. The nation, incensed at this foul deed, called for vengeance. The guilty queen fled, and after many vicissitudes died miserably at Pavia, in Italy. The people that had lost their king remembered the prince, his cousin, who was abroad, and sent after him a deputation of nobles, who found him a scholar, warrior, and statesman. He returned with them to his beloved country, A.D. 800, and ex- tended his dominion over the entire Heptarchy. The prince to whom I allude was Egbert, his jealous kinsman was Brithric, King of the West Saxons. The intriguing queen was Eadburga, daughter of Offa, King of Mercia. The monarch, at whose court Egbert found all those advantages was, Charlemagne, who, at parting, girded Egbert with his favorite weapon, saying : "Your swoiii, Prince, has honorably served me, take mine ; may it render equal service to you." This touching anecdote is related by Eginhard, C. 16. It is said Egbert caused the Heptarchy to be called " Angla-land" its dialect " Anglish" and assumed the title King of Angla-land, which was confirmed by a decree of the Witenagemote, A.D. 828. 130 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Thenceforth England was a unit in nationality and language. Behold posterity's eulogy on Angla-land's first king : " Serving in the armies of Charlemagne, the most able and most generous prince that had appeared in Europe during several ages, Egbert had acquired those accomplishments, which afterwards enabled him to make such a shining figure on the throne ; and, familiarizing himself to the manners of the French, who, as Malmesbury observes, were eminent both for valor and civility above all the western nations, he learned to polish the rudeness and barbarity of the Saxon character." Hume. u The historian hastens to commemorate in the accession of the Great Egbert the true commencement of England's History." Peitit Andrews. Egbert's reign would have been prosperous, had not the piratic Danes harassed various parts of the realm, especially Northum- bria, whose dialect their long residence so altered that it was called Dano-Saxon. King Egbert, though a Saxon by birth, seems to have had a predilection for the Angles ; for, when he captured the ancient Mona, he called it Anglesey, a name it bore ever since. After he had succeeded in uniting the jarring elements of his country, he issued an edict, dated Winchester, A.D. 827, abolishing the distinction of Saxons, Jutes, and English, ordering all his subjects thenceforth to be called the latter name only. There is to this day, in the duchy of Schleswig, a district called " Anglcn" Thus the name of that comparatively small and obscure Gotho- Germanic tribe has been for fifteen centuries cherished, not only in the Eatherland and in Britain, but in the Attica of America, NEW ENGLAND. No doubt the magnanimous Egbert, justly sur- named "The Great/' remembered that the brightest intellects of his nation, such as Edwin, Biscop, Caedmon, Bede, Alcuin, &c., sprang from the Angles; he added to his realm Cornwall and Chester about A.D. 810. Egbert reigned from 800 to 837, and was succeeded by his son Ethelwulph, who made a pilgrimage to Rome with his youngest son, Alfred, upon whom Pope Leo IV. conferred the royal unc- tion. On his return Ethelwulph visited Charles the Bald, King of France, whose daughter, Judith, he married and took to Eng- land. The ravages of the Norsemen continued during the reigns of Alfred's elder brothers. In 872 Alfred, the scholar and statesman, mounted the throne, Ninth Century. 131 while the savage northern rovers swarmed all over his desolated kingdom. The loss of the stronghold Chippenham caused Al- fred's dispirited army to abandon their king, who, in a rustic garb, concealed himself in a -barren island, since called Ethelingay* (Isle of Nobles). There the forsaken monarch passed nearly a year with a herdsman, named Denewulsus, where he thought over and contrived the means of defeating his foes. We might here relate the anecdotes told by Asser, Bishop Goodwin, and Malmesbury, of Alfred's forbearance, when the herdsman's wife scolded him for letting the cakes burn that she had told him to watch. She said, " You can eat them readily enough, I'll war- rant, although you will not take the trouble to keep them from * Here was found the beautiful gem worn by King Alfred, and now pre- served in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. The setting is of pure gold, containing colored stones, cased in very thick crystal ; though a thousand years old it is in perfect preservation ; it only looks a little dingy for the great length of time that passed over it. It is about two inches long and half an inch thick ; round the edge is engraved : f AELFRED MEG HEHGEGE WYRCAN (Alfred me had worked) in pierced gold letters. Alfred's name is preceded by a cross. The narrow end of the gem, at which the first and last words of this inscription meet, is formed into the head of a griffin, the national emblem of the Saxons, having in its mouth a strong gold rivet, to which a chain was probably attached. Its flat form indicates that it was worn on the breast, hanging from the chain that passed around the neck, in a way similar to ornaments which are yet worn by royalty on state occa- sions. The background is composed of a blue stone, on which appears a human figure, clothed in a tunic and girt with a belt, from which a strap for a sword hangs towards the left side. The figure is seated on a throne, with a cyne-helm or crown on its head, holding in each hand a scepter, branched out into fleurs-de-lis. Some antiquaries think the figure represents King Al- fred ; others say it is meant for Jesus Christ ; others again consider it as St. Cuthbert, who was a patron of King Alfred. It is claimed that one of the scepters represents the spiritual and the other the temporal power, united in Alfred's hands. The production of such jewels has been ascribed to monks, who, according to Malmesbury, were the most skilled artists of that period in England, so much so, that curious reliquaries, finely worked and set with precious stones, were called throughout Europe " Opera Anglica" (English works). The figure in this Alfredan jewel has a very oriental look. India, China and Japan have been producing the like for ages, and are producing such now. As Sighelm brought many curious jewels to Alfred from India, A.D. 883, is it not possible that this very gem in the jewel now in Oxford was brought from India by Sighelm, and Alfred had it set in England? 132 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. being scorched." Instead of resenting the woman's harshness. Alfred subsequently founded a monastery on the site of the herdsman's hut, and finding Denewulsus capable of receiving an education, had him instructed and made him Bishop of Win- chester. After about a year of concealment the deserted king commu- nicated with his friends, raised their spirits, entered the enemy's camp as a harper, and charmed the Danes so much, that they introduced him to their Prince Guthrum, who kept Alfred several days in his tent, where he had ample opportunity to see the utter abandon and security of his foes. On his release from the Danish camp, Alfred collected an army, fell on the Danes, killed most of them, and confined the small remainder to Northumbria, where they had pillaged and burned everything. Guthrum and the remnant of his people became Christian, and swore allegiance to Alfred. When these wars had passed, Alfred found time to turn a new leaf in his country's history: he realized the proneness of his subjects to superstition, which destroyed their former courage and rendered them an easy prey to their enemies. He saw the Anglo- Saxon language drifting into a meaningless jargon, that was neither Anglo-Saxon, Danish, Celtic, Gothic, German, Greek, nor Latin. In looking over his country's literature, he found about one page of Anglo-Saxon to nine pages of poor Latin. He also witnessed the low standard of popular education. To remedy these defects the statesman and king turned his attention to the establishment of a vigilant executive and judiciary, sus- tained by a militia and navy. The kingdom he divided into counties and districts, with proper officers, judges and justices, and instituted a kind of "trial by jury. ," Next he founded uni- versities and schools, and enjoined parents to send their children to be instructed. He invited foreigners to his dominions, where he fostered both native and foreign industry and manufactures. Asser, Alfred's biographer, tells us that this knowledge-craving sovereign sent for teachers to France, whence Fulco (Foulques), Archbishop of Rheims, sent Grimbald and John, learned in the Scriptures and skilled in literary science and in many arts ; that by the teaching of these men the king's mind was much enlarged ; and that he carried in his bosom a book, as large as a psalter, full of Ninth Century. 133 various matters, which he called his "Enchiridion* or Manual." Thus the Anglo-Saxons and Franks interchanged teachers to promote education and progress. Foulques' letter to Alfred is now cited in Alfred's biographies, and throws much light on the circumstances of that period. To foster his native tongue -and encourage its development, he invited scholars to read their Anglo-Saxon books to him. He discouraged Latin, saying : " He knew not one priest, either north or south of the Thames, who could interpret the Latin service of the Church." He engaged Werefrith, Bishop of Worcester, to translate Pope Gregory's "Dialogues" from -Latin into Anglo- Saxon. He read Anglo-Saxon books, learned Anglo-Saxon poems by heart, recited them and encouraged others to do the same. He translated Esop's Fables from Greek into his native dialect, wrote parables and stories, Anglo-Saxonized Bede's " Ecclesias- tica Historia Gentis Anglorum" and added to it the poem Cad- mon sang while guarding the cattle. To Alfred, England is in- debted for the earliest translation of Orosius' " Historiarum Libri F7f." He not only paraphrased Boethius' " De Consola- tione Philosophies" but amplified, improved and seasoned it with his royal experience. He also translated Pope Gregory's " Pas- toralisT Alfred's " Last Will and Testament " is a masterpiece of clear, strong, Laconic writing, as may be realized by our quo- tations from his works. The Benet Manuscript, which is the first and earliest of the nine Manuscripts that constitute the " Saxon Chronicle" is now thought to have been originally written by Alfred the Great. Some copyist mistook Alfric for Alfred, and the mistake was copied by Hickes, Cave, and Wharton. Brady on Boroughs ascribes to Alfred the Great a census and survey of England, which, it is thought, gave William the Con- queror the idea of the "Domesday Books" Hence, Alfred may be styled the earliest statistician. In Wilkins' "Leges Anglo- Saxonica" L. E., p. 28, is Alfred's Code, written in Anglo-Saxon, from which we give an Extract * This expressive Greek term, used by the sage and king a thousand years ago, heads Hufeland's forty years' medical practice. Thus the stream of language flows on from generation to generation. 134 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. and Table. It begins with the Decalogue, which this wise king thought would give more authority and challenge readier obedi- ence. In the body of this Code, Article 49, the great Anglo- Saxon ruler adds : " I then, Alfred, King, gathered and caused to be copied such of the laws of my ancestors as pleased me, and with the approbation of my \Yitans-\ rejected such as displeased me. I did not venture to add many of my own, because I knew not whether they would please my successors. In my collection are found laws of Ina, my kinsman, of Off a, King of Mercia, or of Ethelbert, who took baptism first among the Anglo-Saxon race. I then, Alfred, King of the West Saxons, showed these to all my Witans, who said that all appeared good and worth keeping." Here again the conciliatory spirit and modesty of the great Anglo- Saxon ruler is the prominent feature. Such was the intellectual and moral legacy Alfred left to his country. He truly deserved the surname Great, especially when we consider the time and circumstances in which he lived. Asser says : "Towards the close of his life, Alfred desired to divide his time into three parts : one to devote to business, another to study and devotion, and the third to rest and sleep. To measure time he had recourse to wax candles, that would burn just twenty-four hours; but, as the air disturbed their burning uniformly, he constructed a lantern of transparent horn, in which they could burn undisturbed." Thus the ingenious monarch supplied the want of clocks and watches, as previously stated. I might speak of his musical talent and harp, that rendered such signal service in the enemy's camp ; of his privations at Ethelingay ; I might extol his courage, heroism, and persever- ance through fifty-two battles on land and at sea ; but I leave all that to others and pass to a tamer theme, as told by one who was at his court, and an eye-witness of all he related : "Alfred was a most acute investigator in passing sentence, as he was in all other things. He inquired into almost all the judgments, which were given in his own absence, throughout all his dominions, whether they were just or unjust. If he perceived that there was iniquity in those judgments, he sum- moned the judges, either through his own agency or through others of his faithful servants, and asked them mildly why they had judged so unjustly ; whether through ignorance or malevolence: namely, whether for the love or Ninth Century. 135 fear of any one, or hatred of others ; or for the desire of money. Finally, if the judges acknowledged that they had given, such judgment, because they knew no better, he discreetly and moderately reproved their inexperience and folly in such terms as these : * I wonder truly at your insolence, that, whereas by God's favor and mine, you have occupied the place and office of the wise, you have neglected the studies and labors of the wise. Therefore, either give up at once discharging the duties of the office you hold, or else study more zealously the lessons of wisdom. Such are my commands.' At words like these, earls and prefects would tremble, and endeavor to turn all their thoughts to the study of justice." From Dickens' account in ^ Bleak House" England needs an Alfred at this present day ; while the United States, especially New York City, need as many Alfreds as there are courts ; for, with the referee system as now carried on, both plaintiff and defendant are ruined and sick before they get into court. As to the impeachment of judges before a senate, it is a costly farce. This corrupt judiciary alone is enough to ruin the Republic. To fully appreciate the character of Alfred, we must go back to his childhood and youth, of which his cotemporary Asser says : " He was- not only loved by his parents, but by all the people. As he ad- vanced through the years of infancy and youth, his form became more comely than that of his brothers. In appearance, speech, and manners he was more graceful than they. His noble nature implanted in him from his cradle a love of wisdom above all things ; but, with shame be it spoken, by the unworthy neglect of his parents and attendants, he remained illiterate till he was more than twelve years old. However, he listened with serious attention to the Saxon poems he often heard recited, and easily retained them in his docile memory. " On a certain occa3ion his mother was showing him and his brothers a Saxon book of poetry, which she held in her hand and said : ' Whichever of you shall the soonest learn this volume shall have it for his own.' Stimulated by these words, and allured by the beautifully illuminated letter at the begin- ning of the volume, he spoke before all his brothers, who, though his seniors in age, were not so in grace, and asked : ' Will you really give that book to one of us, that is to say, to him who can first understand and repeat it to you ? ' At this his mother smiled with satisfaction and confirmed what she had said. Upon which the boy took the book out of her hand and went to his teacher to read it, and in due time brought it to his mother and recited it." Of Alfred's mother, Asser says : " The mother of Alfred was named Osburga, a religious woman, noble both 136 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. by birth and by nature ; she was daughter of Oslac, the famous butler of King Ethelwulf, which Oslac was a Goth by nation, descended from the Goths and Jutes." This clearly shows that the Gotho-Germanic sovereigns of those days had no exclusive ideas that royalty must marry royalty, a rule, which even Napoleon I., with all his liberal professions, tried to enforce in the case of his brother Jerome, who married Miss Patterson. King Ethelwulf married his own butler's daughter, Osburga, who bore England Alfred the Great. Also Alfred married Ethelswitha, the daughter of a Mercian nobleman. Thus did the rulers of old consult the bent of their better feelings, without regard to diplomacy. Alfred always expressed regret, that, while he was young and had capacity for learning, he could not be instructed in the liberal arts, because he could not find teachers ; hence he was a self-educated man. Before I searched the initials of Angia-land's history I considered Alfred as an intellectual and moral phenom- enon, a sage dropped from the skies ; but since I have become familiar with the galaxy of men and women that preceded or were cotemporary with him, I have come to consider him the natural outgrowth of his epoch. Ethelbert, Bertha, their daugh- ter Ethelburga, Sigebert, Caedmon, Benedict Biscop, Ceolfrid, Theodorus, Hadrian, Wilbrord, Winfrid (Boniface), Bede, Al- cuin, fna, and his own grandfather, Egbert, he had before him ; their ideas and motives he had contemplated, studied, memorized, and their characters and actions he had to emulate him. He was of a noble nature and noble by birth. Then his queen, Ethelswitha, must have been an eminent woman ; for she raised to him a brilliant family of sons and daughters, of whom we shall speak in the next century. Alas ! this great monarch, exemplary son, husband and father, scholar, author, moralist and statesman, was taken from his sor- rowing people in the midst of his usefulness, A.D. 901, at the age of fifty-two years. As he made an epoch in his country's lan- guage and literature, .his reign may be styled the Alf redan Era. All other Anglo-Saxon writings are tame, when compared with King Alfred's ideas and his manner of expressing them ; we therefore cite a few of his many Essays, Parables, Proverbs and Ninth Century. 137 Translations, which are of such a style as to improve by closer acquaintance. They are of sterling value : the oftener you read and the more you consider them, the more they impress you. Their very simplicity gives them force and pathos. Our quota- tions here are without the Anglo-Saxon text, because we give ex- tracts in Anglo-Saxon during six consecutive centuries for our Tables from A.D. 597 to 1200 : KING ALFRED'S SOLICITUDE ABOUT NATIONAL EDUCATION : "Alfred the King, to Wtifsig, his beloved bishop and friend, Greeting: " I wish you to know that it often occurs to my mind to consider what manner of wise men there were formerly in the English nation, both spiritual and temporal, and how happy the times then were among the English, and how well the kings behaved in their domestic government, and how they prospered in knowledge and wisdom. I considered also how earnest God's ministers then were, as well about preaching as about learning, and men came from foreign countries to seek wisdom and doctrine in this land, and how we, who live in these times, are obliged to go abroad to get them. To so low a depth has learning fallen among the English nation, that there have been very few on this side of the Humber, who were able to understand the English of their service, or to turn an epistle out of Latin into English ; and I know there were not many beyond the Humber who could do it. There were so few, that I cannot think of one on the south side of the Thames when I first began to reign. God Almighty be thanked that we have always a teacher in the pulpit now. Therefore I pray you to do what I believe you will be ready to do, that you will bestow all the wisdom which God has given you on all around you as far as you are able. Think what punishment shall for this world befall us, if we turn out to have neither loved wisdom ourselves, nor to have taught it to others ; if we have loved only the name of Christi- anity, and very few of us have discharged its duties. When I thought of all this, I fancied also that I saw (before everything was ravaged and burned) hov all the churches throughout the English nation stood full of books, though at that time they gathered very little fruit from their books, not being able to understand them, because they were not written in their own language. For which reason I think it best, if you too think so, that we should turn into the language, which we all of us know, some such books as are deemed most use- ful for all men to understand, and that we do our best to effect, as we easily may, with God's help, if we have quietness, that all the youth of free-born Englishmen, such as have wealth enough to maintain them, be brought up to learn, that, at an age when they can do nothing else, they may learn to read the English language then, and that afterwards the Latin tongue shall be taught to those whom they have it in their power to teach and promote to a higher degree. When I reflected how this learning of the Latin tongue had fallen throughout the English nation, though many knew how to read English 138 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. writing, I then began, in the midst of divers and manifold affairs of this king- dom, to turn into Anglo-Saxon this book, which in Latin is named " Pasto- ralis" * and in Anglo-Saxon the Herdsmarfs Book ; " and I will send one of them to every bishop's see in my kingdom." Thus, in the midst of arduous labors, did the sage of Ethelingay find time to attend to national education. According to his biog- grapher and friend, Asser, he had ever felt the want of a liberal education, and was determined to procure it for his subjects. As this letter speaks so loudly for itself, comment would be useless. It is said Dante created the Italian language and literature ; if so, Dante had an illustrious example in Alfred the Great, who raised and enriched the Anglo-Saxon language and literature. NATURAL EQUALITY OF MANKIND ' ' What ! all men had a like beginning, because they all came from one father and one mother. They all are yet born alike. This is no wonder ; because God alone is the Father of all creatures. He made them all and governs all. He gave us the Sun's light, and the Moon, and placed all the stars. He created men on the Earth. He has connected together the soul and the body by his power, and made all men equally noble in their first nature. " Why then do ye arrogate over other men for your birth without works? Now you can find none unnoble ; all are equally noble, if you will think of your first creation and the Creator, and afterwards of your own nativity. The right nobility is in the mind ; it is not in the flesh, as we said before ; but every man, that is at all subjected to his vices, forsakes his Creator, his first creation and his nobility ; and thence becomes more ignoble than if he were not nobly born." This liberal effusion contains the very essence of the ideas, uttered so solemnly in the "Declaration of Independence" at Philadelphia, 1776. Hence these thoughts floated in the mind of a great Anglo-Saxon king from A.D. 880 to 901. Whoever conceived that third fundamental principle of governing- men, namely, " consent of the governed" whether Jefferson, Tom Paine, or any other American statesman had either read King Alfred's works, or was inspired by England's great monarch of old. How magnetic vast conceptions are ! No wonder the philosopher and * " Pastoralis," written in Latin about A.D. 600, by Pope Gregory I., and translated into Anglo-Saxon by Alfred the Great, was a kind of Pastoral Letter or Good Shepherd's Book for the priesthood. Ninth Century. 139 poet penned these mysterious lines, whose author we know not. They seem Shakespearian : " All natural objects have An echo in the heart. This flesh doth thrill, And has connection, by some unseen chain, With its original source and kindred substance : The mighty forest, the grand tide of ocean, Sky-cleaving hills, and in the vast air, The starry Constellations ; and the Sun, Parent of life exhaustless these maintain With the mysterious mind and breathing mould, A coexistence and community." The philosophic and statesmanlike thoughts, so tersely stated in King Alfred's "Natural Equality of Mankind," probably came to him while living concealed at Ethelingay with the herdsman, where he had ample time and opportunity to realize (as he says), that " the right nobility is in the mind, and not in the flesh" To this conclusion he must have come, when he subsequently had the herdsman educated and made a bishop. KING ALFRED'S CONCEPTION OF POWER. " Power is never a good, unless he be good that has it ; and that is the good of the man, not of the power. If power be goodness, why then is it that no man bv his dominion can come to virtues and to merit ? But by his virtues and merit he comes to dominion and power. Thus no man is better for his power ; but if he be good, it is from his virtues that he is good. From his virtues he becomes worthy of power, if he be worthy of it. " Learn therefore wisdom ; and when you have learned it, do not neglect it. I tell you then, without any doubN that by it you may come to power, though you should not desire the power. You need not be solicitous about power, nor strive after it. If you be wise and good, it will follow you, though you should not wish it." No wonder those who most thoroughly investigated these prac- tical sayings, styled them "The Proverbs and Parables of King Alfredr KING ALFRED'S "PHILOSOPHIC ADDRESS TO THE DEITY. " O Lord, how great and how wonderful art Thou ! Thou, Who, all Thy creatures visible and also invisible hast wonderfully made, and wisely doest govern ! Thou, Who the courses of time, from the beginning of the world to 140 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. the end, hast established in such order that from Thee they all proceed, and to Thee return ! Thou, Who all moving creatures stirrest to Thy will, whilst Thou Thyself remainest ever tranquil and unchangeable! " Hence, none exist mightier than Thou art ; none like Thee. No neces- sity has taught Thee to make what thou hast made, but Thine own will ; and by Thine own power Thou hast created all things. Yet Thou hast no need, of any. Most wonderful is the nature of Thy goodness ; for it is all one, Thou and Thy goodness. Good comes not from without to Thee ; but it is Thine own, and all that we have of good in this world, and that is coming to us from without, proceeds from Thee. Thou hast no envy towards any- thing. "None therefore is more skillful than Thou art. No one is like Thee; because Thou hast conceived and made all good from Thine own thought. No man has given Thee a pattern ; for none of these things existed before Thee, to create anything or not ; but thou hast created all things very good and very fair; and Thou Thyself art the highest and the fairest good. As Thou Thyself didst conceive, so hast thou made this world ; and Thou rulest it as Thou doest well ; and Thou distributest Thyself all good as Thou pleas- est. Thou hast made all creatures alike, or in some things unlike ; but Thou hast named them with one name. Thou hast named them collectively, and called them the world. Yet this single name Thou hast divided into four elements. One of these is earth ; another, water ; the third, air ; the fourth, fire. To each of these Thou hast established his own separate position ; yet each is classed with the other, and so harmoniously bound by thy commandment that none of them intrudes on the limits of the other. The cold striveth with the heat, and the wet with the. dry. The nature of the earth and water is to be cold. The earth is dry and cold ; the water wet and cold. The earth then is called either cold or wet, or warm ; nor is this a wonder, because it is made in the middle, between the dry and the cold earth, and the hot fire. The fire is the uppermost of all this world's creations. " Wonder-like is Thy plan, which Thou hast executed, both that created things should have limits between them, and also be intermingled ; the dry and cold earth under the cold and wet water, so that the soft and flowing water should have a floor on the firm earth, because it cannot of itself stand ; but the earth preserves it, and absorbs a portion, and by thus imbibing it, the ground is watered till it grows and blossoms and brings forth fruits. Yet, if the water did not thus moisten it, the earth would be dried up and driven away by the wind like dust and ashes. " Nor could any living creature enjoy the earth, or the water, or any earthly thing, for the cold, if Thou didst not a little intermix it with fire. Wonderful the skill with which Thou hast ordered that the fire should not burn the water and the earth. It is now mingled with both. Nor, again, can the water and the earth. It is now mingled with both. Nor, again, can the water and the earth entirely extinguish the fire. The water's own country is on the earth, and also in the air, and again above the sky ; but the fire's own place is over all the visible creatures of the world ; and though it is Ninth Century, 141 mingled with all the elements, yet it cannot entirely overcome any of them ; because it has not the leave of the Almighty. " The earth, then, is heavier and thicker than the other elements, because* it is lower than any other, except the sky. Hence the sky is every day on its exterior ; yet it nowhere more approaches it ; but in every place it is equally nigh, both above and below. " Each of the elements that we formerly spoke of, has its own station apart ; and though each is mingled with the other, so that none of them can exist without the other, yet they are not perceptible within the rest. Thus water and earth are very difficult to be seen, or to be comprehended by unwise men, in fire, and yet they are therewith commingled. So is also the fire in stones and water very difficult to be perceived ; but it is there. " Thou bindest fire with very indissoluble chains, that it may not go to its own station, which is the mightiest fire that exists above us ; lest it should abandon the earth, and all other creatures should be destroyed from extreme cold, in case it should wholly depart. Thou hast most wonderfully and firmly established the Earth, so that it halts on no side, and stands on no earthly thing ; but all earth-like things it holds, that they cannot leave it. Nor is it easier for them to fall off downwards than upwards. " Thou also stirrest the threefold soul in accordant limbs, so that there is no less of that soul in the least finger than in all the body. By this I know that the soul is threefold, because philosophers say that it hath three natures ; one of these natures is, that it desires ; another, that it becomes angry ; the third, that it is rational. Two of these natures animals possess the same as men : one is desire, the other is anger ; but man alone has reason, no other creature has it. Hence, he has excelled all earthly creatures in thought and understanding ; because reason shall govern both desire and anger. It is the distinguishing virtue of the soul. " Thou hast so made the soul that she should always revolve upon herself, as all the sky turneth, or as a wheel rolls round, inquiring about her Creator or herself, or about the creatures of the Earth. When she inquires about her Creator, she rises above herself; when she searches into herself; then she is within herself ; and she becomes below herself when she loves earthly things and wonders at them." This is a great production, if we consider that it was penned a thousand years ago, when other Medieval peoples had hardly a written dialect, to say nothing of a literature. How the royal sage must have studied and collated what was known of nature's arcana, to combine and express this chain of ideas with such clearness and precision in his native tongue ! So simple, yet so comprehensive ; so full of tender emotions, yet contemplative and solemn. All the science of Alfred's day is skilfully epito- mized in this prayerful essay. Alfred lived six centuries before 142 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Copernicus and seven before Newton ; yet he clearly hints at the Copernican idea of Earth's situation in space, and at the Newtonian law of gravitation, when he says : "Thou hast most wonderfully and firmly established the Earth so that it halts on no*side, and stands on no earthly thing ; but all earth-like things it holds, that they cannot leave it. Nor is it easier for them to fall off downwards than upwards." I often wondered how the English-speaking populations came to this peculiar gift of earnest devotional utterance, which during my long peregrinations I found in no other nation either Gotho-Germanic, Greco-Latin, or Sclavonic. Here I find its source in King Alfred's works of the ninth century. A noble inheritance ! and how nobly the English-speaking populations have valued it. The Pilgrims carried it to America, where it has lost none of its fervor by ex- pansion. It is being diffused all over the globe, with a language happily adapted to extemporaneous speaking, prayer, and exhor- tation. An Englishman or American has the faculty of speaking, praying or exhorting at a moment's notice ; and now even women begin to cultivate that national gift. The Franco-Normans of A.D. 1066, and the Huguenot emigrants gained that eloquent fervor, wherever they came in contact with the English. Thus have the methods and styles of transmitting thought and wisdom been various ; the ideas of Confucius come to us in conver- sations ; Zoroaster's in dialogues with Ormuzd ; King David's in psalms; Valmiki's in poetic imagery, called Ramayana ; Socra- tes' in morals; Aristotle's in dialectics and logic; Cicero's in harangues; Tacitus' in "Annals;" Chaucer's in tales; Dante's in " Divina Commedia; " Shakespeare's, Racine's, Schiller's, &c., in dramas and tragedies ; Cervantes' in burlesques ; Newton's in " Principia;" Kepler's in " Cosmographic Mystery; " Cuvier's in "Regne Animal ;" Franklin's in electricity ; Kant's in "Critique of Pure Reason ; " Laplace's in " Mecanique Celeste ; " Mrs. Hemans', Tennyson's, Bryant's, and Longfellow's in poetic effu- sions ; Darwin's in "Origin of Species;" whereas the thought and wisdom of the royal sage of Winchester, A.D. 900, reach us in the form of an "Address to the Deity ; " because he would allow neither pope nor priest to stand between him and his (rod. Thus did Alfred the Great embody his conception of God and the universe in a fervent prayer. Such variety of styles renders Ninth Century. 143 the writings of departed and living sages more acceptable and impressive ; for monotony chills the imagination, fetters reason, and arrests progress. Now let us bestow a few moments on the Last Will and Tes- tament of that wisest of kings. As it is written in Anglo-Saxon of his style, it was, no doubt, penned or dictated by himself. GLEANINGS FROM KING ALFRED'S LAST WILL AND TESTAMENT: i. "I, Alfred, King by God's grace, with the advice of Archbishop Ethel- red, and with the concurrence of the West-Saxon Senate, have thought of my soul's health, of the inheritance God gave to me and my ancestors, and of the legacy King Ethel wulf, my father, bequeathed to us three brothers : Ethel- bald, Ethelred, and to me ; and, which of us soever might live longest, should take all, &c. 6. "I, Alfred, by God's grace, King of Wessex, and with that concurrence, declare how I will my inheritance after my day, &c. 26. " I will, if there be any fee unpaid to any men, that my relations should pay it. 27. " My grandfather left his land to the spear-half (males), and not to the spindle-half (females). Wherefore, if I give to any female what he had ac- quired, let my relations redeem it, if they wish to have it while she is living ; if it be otherwise, let it go after their day, as we before determined. For this reason I ordain that they pay for it, because they will succeed to what I give either to the female or male side as I will. 28. " I beseech, in God's name, that none of my relations or heirs obstruct any of the freedom of those I have redeemed. The West-Saxon nobles em- powered me to leave these either free or bond as I desire. But for God's love and my soul's welfare, I will they should be masters of their freedom and of their will ; and in the living God's name, I intreat that no man disturb them either by money-exactions, or in any manner, that they should not choose any man they may like. 29. "And I will that they restore to the families at Duminer their land- deeds and their free liberty to elect any person who may seem to them most agreeable ; for my sake and Elfreda's, and for the sake of the friends both she and I interceded for." * Note how thoroughly and minutely this Last Will and Testa- ment was considered with the spiritual and temporal authorities * The following sentence: "The English have an undoubted right to remain as free as their own thoughts" has been quoted as from Alfred's Will. I can find no such idea or expression therein ; consequently some writer, who pretended to know Anglo-Saxon, must have twisted part of Article 28 or 29 into this fanciful meaning. 144 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. of the nation, about A.D. 885 ; how tenderly the great monarch mentions the fair sex, overlooked by his grandfather; how he alludes to men, whose fees might be unpaid. But the most strik- ing feature in this ancient writing is the solicitude that the freedom he had granted to any subject, or any class of his subjects, should be respected by his relations, heirs, and successors. However, not only liberty of person, but also land wrongfully and hastily taken is remembered. Even the liberality and mercy of his be- loved daughter, Elfleda, find a place among the last wishes of the great Anglo-Saxon king. We have thus cursorily reviewed some of the choicest speci- mens of Anglo-Saxon literature from Alfred's varied writings, covering the philosophic, epistolary, scientific, moral, and devo- tional styles. As our Tables for six centuries (A.D. 597-1200) necessitate Anglo-Saxon extracts, we omitted the Anglo-Saxon text here and gave free translations to show the mode of think- ing. There is no exaggeration in saying Anglo-Saxon literature culminated and died with Alfred the Great. It is said about A.D. 890 Alfred desired the traditions and records concerning the Anglo-Saxons should be collected and compiled into a succinct history under the supervision of Pleg- mund, Archbishop of Canterbury. It is supposed his Majesty aided in writing this national work, entitled the "Saxon Chronicle." Some critics claim that Alfred compiled the whole. Notice how unostentatiously this record mentions the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes : ANGLO-SAXON : "An. CCCCXLIX. Her Martia- nus and Valentinianus onfengon rice and ricsodon VII winter. *. On heora dagum Hengest and Horsa from Wyrtgeorne gelathode Bretta cyninge to fultume. gesohton Brytene on tham staethetheisgenemned Yproinesfleot/. &c. tha com tha menn of thrim maegthum Germanie, of Seaxum, of Anglum of lotum. '. LITERAL ENGLISH: A.D. 449. Here Martian and Va- lentinian took the empire, and reigned seven winters. In their days Hengist and Horsa, invited by Vortigern, King of the Britons, to his aid, came to Britain in the place which is called Ebsfleet, &c. ; then came the men from three provinces of Germany, from the Old Saxons, from the Angles, from the Jutes.* The simplicity and genuineness of this Medieval Record from * The above is quoted from Ingram's London Edition of 1823. Ninth Century. 145 A.D. i to 1154, does credit to those who transmitted it to pos- terity. Think of a book, containing the transactions and events concerning England and other countries from A.D. 449 to 1154, or seven hundred and five years, in as unpretending a style as the above, and you will have an idea of the " Saxon Chronicle," which must ever be regarded as an inexhaustible mine for the historian, poet, philosopher, and statesman. The materials for this national record had been in the capitals, abbeys and convents of the Heptarchy, where priests, abbots, bishops, and kings had written and kept them from the time the Anglo-Saxons received Christianity, and with it an alphabet and writing. Now they were collected, compared, and chronologi- cally arranged into a record, in which we find royal births, mar- riages, erecting of churches and cathedrals, synods and councils in the same year and paragraph with deaths, murders, and bat- tles. Yet this very confusion adds to its veracity; for there seems to be no attempt to conceal or falsify. It is a literary monument, of which not only England, but the ninety English- speaking millions may justly feel proud. As far as my historic reading and research have gone, I found no other ancient or Medieval nation that can boast of a parallel. King Alfred had heard, through Abel, Patriarch of Jerusalem, that there were poor and destitute Christians at St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew in India. To relieve them, the compassionate monarch sent an enterprising priest, named Sighelm, who reached India, fulfilled his mission, and returned with many curious jew- els, which were to be seen in the time of the historian William of Malmesbury, A.D. 1143, at the Cathedral of Sherborn, of which Sighelm was made bishop by Alfred. It is thought some of those jewels are now in an old crown, kept in the Tower of London. The Saxon Chronicle, A.D. 883, mentions Sighelm' s mission to St. Thomas and St. Bartholomew in India. Asser says he saw and read the letters that Abel wrote to Alfred, A.D. 888. Flor- ence of Worcester alludes to Sighelm's mission in his chronicle, A.D. niS. Thus England sent aid to India a thousand years ago. How things changed from Alfred (A.D. 900) to Victoria, A.D. 1878. After a lapse of seven centuries England sent Sir Thomas Roe as ambassador to the great Mogul Jehangire (A.D. 1615). Now Queen Victoria is Empress of India. No wonder 10 146 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. the descendants of the Medieval Goths and Germans yearned to repossess themselves of the patrimony of their Asiatic Arian an- cestors. As previously stated, there is a mysterious magnetism and attraction in this beautiful universe. We read in the Saxon Chronicle, A.D. 885, that, with the sanction of Pope Martin, King Alfred restored at Rome the An- glo-Saxon school, which had been destroyed by fire. A.D. 816. It is said King Alfred, about 893, sent an expedition to the Arctic Ocean under an exiled Norwegian prince, called Ohthere, who sailed as far as the White Sea and the mouth of the Dvvina, whence he safely returned and handed his observations to Eng- land's monarch. Nothing more was heard from that hyperborean region till 1553, when Richard Chancellor made an exploring ex- pedition to the White Sea. We also read of an expedition by Pytheas, a merchant of Massilia (Marseilles), who reached Ultima Thule (Iceland) about 250 B.C. Hence hyperborean expeditions are no novelty. Thus King Egbert, grandfather, gloriously began, and King Alfred, his grandson, gloriously ended the ninth century. KING ALFRED'S PARTING ADVICE TO HIS SON AND SUCCESSOR. " My dear son, set thee now beside me, and I will deliver thee true instruc- tions. My son, I feel that my hour is coming. My countenance is wan. My days are almost done. We must now part. I shall go to another world, and thou shalt be left alone in all my wealth. I pray thee (for thou art my dear child), strive to be a father and a lord to thy people ; be thou the children's father and the widow's friend; comfort thou the poor and shelter the weak; and with all thy might, right that which is wrong. And, son, govern thyself by law ; then shall the Lord love thee, and God above all things shall be tliy reward. Call thou upon Him to advise thee in all thy need, and so he shall help thee the better to compass that which thou wishest." October 26, A.D. 901, witnessed the death of this great meteor- Jike king, after a most useful career of fifty-two years. He was England's David and Solomon, with this difference, that his life and character knew no earthly blemish. Behold what a grateful posterity said of his version of Boethius' <; De Consolations Philo- sophies ".- " The Hand-book of the Middle Ages for all who united piety with philos- ophy." Dr. Hook. "A golden book, not unworthy of Plato or Tully." Gibbon. " But the greatest and most endearing epithet is 'England's Darling?" The English People. Ninth Century. H7 Three centuries had elapsed since the Anglo-Saxon dialect had first appeared in writing, under King Ethelbert, A.D. 597, and adopted a few Greco-Latin words. The slight changes it had experienced during that period, may be seen in some of the fol- lowing words, culled from King Ethelbert's Code of the sixth, Caedmon's poems of the seventh, and King Alfred's writings of the ninth century : Ethelbert, 6th century : Caedmon, 7th century : Alfred, 9th century : English, 1878 : German, 1878: Gothic, Danish and Swedish : fol ful full voll fulds Go wolde wulde would wolte " flod flood fluth flod Sw flor floor ( figgrs, Go. finger finger finger < finger, Dan. ( finger, Sw. tol tool freond frind friend freund frende, Dan. hund hound hund hund, Sw. hu how thu thou du du, Sw. wulf wolf wolf ulf. Sw. miht miht might macht magt, Sw.' riht niht riht Mona night right Moon nacht recht Mond nahts, Go. rig tig, Dan. mena, Go. thurh thurh thurh through durch genog enough genug ganag, Go. and and and and und unte, Go. wundra, pi. wundor wonder wunder In comparing these twenty-one words of Alfred's epoch with present English and Gotho-Gerrnanic, you will find that Anglo- Saxon of Alfred's day has assumed a complicated form and utter- ance. Particles usually remain unchanged ; yet such was not the case in English ; for simple and terse hu, nu, thu, thurh, and genog, became how, now, thou, through, enough, each having one or two more letters, and a sound utterly at variance with the letters. Among the six particles in the above list, and alone escaped linguistic disharmony. When King Alfred changed Caedmon's fol and wolde \K\.Q ful and wulde, he had a motive, and that motive must have been to adapt letter to sound and sound to letter; for Alfred was a prac- tical sage. O in god, flod, flor, and tol, had evidently in Alfred's time a uniform sound, which he did not change into u, as he did o in/0/, wolde ; nor did he double the o in god, flod, flor , and tol. 148 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Yet, since Alfred's period, these very words, and others like them, have been metamorphosed into good, flood^ floor ^ and tool, with three different sounds, that complicate the English language and retard its progress. Alfred simplified Ethelbert's />'#?//*/ by writing it f rind, which has since been incumbered with two vow- els where one would suffice. He did not replace hund, hu, nu, and thu, by hound, how, now, thou, which Walker calls " the most irregular assemblage of vowels in our language ; " neither did he substitute o to it in wulf, and then pronounce that o like u in blue. He would not encumber such words as miht, niht, and riht, with a superfluous mute g, as has been done since his day ; nor would he double o in mono, and pronounce oo like u in blue. Such confusing and retrograde changes the royal scholar, who understood music and harmony, would have considered an insult to common sense. What would the sage of Ethelingay think, say, or do at seeing enough in juxtaposition, not only with the simple Anglo-Saxon genog, and the original sonorous Gothic ganag, but with through, dough, bough, bought, drought, draught, taugJit, to say nothing of laugh, gauge, gauze ; finite, infinite, entice, notice ; home, come; comb, combat, tomb ; dove, grove, groove ; hall, haul, shall ; four, hour ; bow, n., bow, v. y know, now ; fiour, fiower, lower ; door, poor ; far, war ? What would he think, say, or do ? Why, Al- fred and such confusion could not exist together ; he would seize his harp, enter the enemy's camp, ascertain the weak point, rally practical linguists around him, order all court and government documents and books to be written and printed without useless mute letters, according to the plain, common-sense German rule : Write and print as you pronounce, and pronounce as you write and print ; then he would introduce these books into the court, military, naval, and government schools thus rendering the people's native tongue phonetically worthy of its simple gram- mar, superior vocabulary and ultimate destiny to become the universal language on Earth. Extracts and Tables from Anglo-Saxon writings of the ninth century, showing the style and numeric origin of their vocabulary. They are from the "Saxon Chronicle" and King Alfred's Code of Laws, about A.D. 878 : Ninth Century. 149 P H -o" g* d S3 1 ^ e*2 ^ T3 oj S ^ 41 5 n -*- c/3 j_ .Sr > o HH *HH ^ rO O -*- j t/3 n \ n r* !^ . O T? ^^ X t/2 ^s 8 -I 2 8 *>-. fO 00 .^0 c ^ ^ 5) c^^^ O 1C -i_>53C k ~ L< , ii^i.-falS.iJ'g^ . ^ r*. in .-I r_i !_ 4i ^*^ w r- w fc S g ^ 5 3 ^ = j ^ X! , w C/3U3 O g. O ^? T3 ^3 - s .3 - c '^'o-( w .s- g p^ 2 * -r .2 -3 S ^^^ 3 > ^ 1 ffi S v .3 o .f jjifiiiii5i aS5 3 JaJ wS C0 .S ^ * , M tJ3 >- - -T. >OO " H'rt to -.S ^> S > ' te *||lh|||l W Hn- 1 - ij r 2i ^ O i^fl!4Slli '-* -gjSsts^i I^Jki ^ g^^a o!?IP|p^ uj D 2 ffi aj W ^^ys -5i af-s dig w E- 2 .3 ^ t/5 ^s-S >a ^-s 18 . X^^ 1 " < ^>ti'^c U = o-c u g 1 S .s ;^ Qi|-^W :-3 w "2 = rt jpiiili |l!J!t.|i 150 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. m >, 5* c 2 hrt &0 7! ^?|stk- -is I ;> rt ^SI s-^ > M 5 c > s rt rt cn d edde fremde o S| 1^1 tsfl s ? .2 p s 13 rt g i -G ' S -5 ne, a Fo B SS|| w iJ d 3 S3 J g wy um. -S -3 .2 S 1? J3 o S J^ s i ^T* ^ * t M <- -^( (J TO rS r 1 . 'rt S S S x m /-> rrt -4-1 'So^ v2 :r ^ S S S II rihten tl heowdo g rt o G 3 S oT'S ^ 2 *"* *- rt ^ rt , t. t2 rt tut) d 2 S S J3 "5 J ^ .t! W G 5 = ^ ? 8 ^ G S? G M S^^l 3 3 ^ ^ ^ T! -C t; l H * i r D to g II .tJ rt M g. 1 a ~ S Nit llf! 3 "o a A 3 ib ** 2 -H .o T g .a Pli ^ fl rt ^ 1 |S -= -a o * 1 S "- S e -S 8 S 2 ^ 2 ^ 'a S^ 5 O t/J 5 j2 ^ S B ^ s "^ o c 5 "^ p 3 -s . B - 5 i ' t g jj *1 b 1 i-i * 5 a "S o u ^ M^O^O^OS g % s g - t .1* S 533 -^"2 to ol II t;| SS P g - < s : i gj e, C^ C3 rfl 5 ^ . qj IH ^o| C -S>>|^- * *& oSvtt.S^^^ ^ | J " >^ 14 154 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. A- 1 "a W&H B .S C/3 ^ s 2^ B M M M * Q iJ O <;H 1 ii i II oo SH 3 ^i 51 0^1^ JJ5 ^' < M s 2 40 S^ i s d " i ** i* t of King ; p. 28, Londor GUAGES : : FAMILY : >< <0 M T ords : **ds of inheres h O H FHO-GERMANK { i ^ * M-^ k -p ^ Vj & ? ^ B .SP J= g u B 4 'J , U ^ : ^ 5 t 1 S ! i I }Il g 1 vll ^ \ 1 I S \\ y Sli'S aSloS'Ss'i -S 2 I js ,d 1 s S ^ g i-l i s 1 l^'-so" 5 !" 5 !! | c ^ 1 ^ 72 i S 1 MX IS r FAMILY I .8 ^3 5; 8 ^ i. i k "^j ! 4| ts - -s 'rt a 1 |l N 3 |l N Ninth Century. 155 Synopsis of the different words from the two preceding Tables of the Ninth Century : Greek : 2 \ ~\ Latin : ^ \ Greco-Latin : 1 1 Total of the different French : 2 ) V , < words : 1 73 Anglo-Saxon : 162 ! Gotho-Germanic : 162 Hence, the style of Anglo-Saxon writing 1 in the ninth century shows a vocabulary of different words, containing about 94 per cent. Gotho-Germanic, and 6 " Greco- Latin. Sixty-nine of the 162 different Anglo-Saxon words, or forty-three per cent., are now obsolete. Fifteen of the 162 different Anglo-Saxon words, or only nine per cent., are now spelt as they were in the ninth century. PROGRESS OF OTHER MEDIEVAL EUROPEAN DIALECTS IN THE NINTH CENTURY. In the beginning of this age appeared the first writing in Flem- ish or Dutch. It was a translation of the Psalms under Charle- magne, about A.D. 800. Heliand, a Harmony of the Gospels in Old Saxon or Low German, also appeared about that period. There is a MS. thereof at Munich, and one in the British Museum, London. The earliest writing in French, now extant, is'a treaty between Charles the Bald, and his brother, Louis the Germanic, dated Strasburg, Alsace, on the i6th Kalends of March, A.D. 842. It was written in French and in Francic or Old High Ger- man. The armies of the two sovereigns endorsed this treaty by their oaths. Copies of this alliance and oaths are in the History of Nithard (A.D. 790-853), grandson of Charlemagne. The Franks spoke a Germanic dialect, called Francic or High Ger- man ; but under Clovis, when they became Christians, they mixed it with the idiom of the Gauls, consisting of Latin and Celtic, and formed French. About A.D. 868, Germany saw 156 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Otfrid's "Krist" a poetic Paraphrase of the Gospels in Francic or High German, of which three copies are extant : one at Mu- nich, another at Heidelberg, and a third at Vienna. Caedmon's Anglo-Saxon Paraphrase of the Scriptures preceded Otfrid's by nearly two hundred years. Otfrid's MS. is considered the most precious monument in the Fatherland's idiom. FIRST WRITTEN SPECIMEN OF THE DUTCH OR FLEMISH LANGUAGE UNDER CHARLEMAGNE, ABOUT 800. Psalm Ivii. 1-4. 1. " Ginathi mi got ginathi mi. uuanda an thi gitruot sila min. In an scado fitheraco thinro sal ic gitruon untis farliet unreht. 2. Ruopen sal ik te gode hoista. got thia uuala dida mi. 3. Sanda fan himele in ginereda mi. gaf an bismere te tradon mi. 4. Santa got ginatha sina in uuarheit sina. in generida sela mina fan mitton uuelpo leono. slip ik gidruouit. Kiut manno tende iro geuuepene in sceifte. in tunga iro suert scarp." ENGLISH. Psalm Ivii. 1-4. 1. Be merciful unto me, O God, be merciful unto me ; for my soul trusteth in thee ; yea, in the shadow of thy wings will I make my refuge, until these calamities be overpast. 2. I will cry unto God most high ; unto God that performeth all things for me. 3. He shall send from heaven, and save me from the reproach of him that would swallow me up. Selah. 4. God shall send forth his mercy and his truth. My soul is among Lions : and I lie even among them that are set on fire, even the sons of men, whose teeth are spears and arrows, and their tongue a sharp sword." There is some analogy between old Dutch or Flemish, and English ; but not as much as there is between English and the following specimen from the Saxon or Low German : HELIAND, WRITTEN IN OLD SAXON DURING THE EARLY PART OF THE NINTH CENTURY. PARABLE OF THE SOWER. " Huat ik iu seggean mag quad he' gesidos mine, huo imu en erl bigan- an erdu sehan' hren corni mid is handun. Sum it an hardan sten' obanuuardan fel' erdon ni habda. that it thar mahti uuahsan' eftha uurteo gifahan. kinan eftha bicliben. ac uuard that corn farloren. that thar an theru leian gilag." Heliand, 1. 6-10. Ninth Century. 1 57 LITERAL ENGLISH. u What I you say may, quoth he, companions mine, how a farmer began on earth to sow pure corn with his hands, some of it on hard stone fell, earth not had, that it there might wax, or roots take, germinate or stick, also was 1 that com forlorn (lost), that there on the road lay." By these few lines may be seen how much Old Saxon or Low German is and looks like English ; yet it is and looks more like Anglo-Saxon. This primitive old Saxon writing may be attributed to the self-sacrificing Anglo-Saxon missionary, Winfrid, who be- came the Apostle of Germany, and Archbishop of Mentz, under the name of Boniface, A.D. 732, and was murdered by the Pa- gans, while preaching the Gospel to the Old Saxons, A.D. 755. THE EARLIEST WRITING IN FRENCH, A.D. 842. KING Louis' OATH: "Pro deo amur et pro Christian poblo et nostro commun salvament, dist di in avant, in quant deus savir et podir me dunat, si salvarai eo cist meon fradre Karlo et in adjudha et in cadhuna cosa, si cum om per dreit son fradra salvar dist, in o quid il mi altresi fazet, et ab Ludher nul plaid nunquam prin- drai, qui meon vol cist meon fradre Karle in damno sit." LITERAL ENGLISH : "For God's love and for the Christian people and our common preserva- tion from this day and henceforth, in so far as God gives me wisdom and power, so shall I assist this my brother Charles, and in assistance and in any cause, so as one by right ought his brother to assist in such a manner, as he may do to me ; and with Lothar I will not enter into any treaty which to me, or to this my brother Charles, can do an injury." KING CHARLES' OATH IN FRANCIC OR HIGH GERMAN, A.D. 842. " In godes minna ind in thes christianes folches ind unser bedhero gehaltnissi, fon thesemo dage frammordes, so fram so mir got genuizci indi mahd furgi- bit, so halclih tesan minan bruodher soso man mit rehtu sinan bruodher seal, in thiu thaz er mig so soma duo, indi mit Ludherem in nohheiniu thing ne gegangu, the minan uuillon imo ce scadhen werdhen." LITERAL ENGLISH: "In God's love and for the Christian folk and our better preservation, from this day forward, so far as me God knowledge and might gives, so hold I this my brother, so as one with right his brother should, in as much as he me the same do, and with Lothair in no thing will I go, which to my will or to him shall harm become." Charles' oath in Francic or High German resembles English, 158 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. but not so much as the Old Saxon or Low German of the Heli- and ; whereas Louis' oath in the early French or Romance language is almost Latin. Let us close our quotations from these Medieval relics with a specimen from OTFRID'S PARAPHRASE OF THE GOSPELS IN FRANCIC OR HIGH GERMAN, A.D. 868. " Sehet these fogala. thie hiar fh'agent obana. zi akare sie ni gangent. ioh ouh uuiht ni spinnent Thoh ni bristit in thes. zi uuaru thoh ginuages. ni sie sih ginerien. ioh scono giuuerien. Biginnet ana scouuon. thie fronisgon bluomon. thar liuti after uuege gent, thie in themo akare stent. Salomon ther richo. ni uuatta sih gilicho. thaz sagen ih iu in ala uuar. so ein thero bluomon o thar." LITERAL ENGLISH I " See these fowls, they here fly above. To the acre (field) they not go, yea, also not spin, Yet not want in anything, they truly have enough; Neither they themselves nourish, and fine make (beautify). Begin to look at the splendid flowers, After which people go ; they in the acre (field) stand ; Solomon, the rich, not dressed himself like That say I you in all truth one of the flowers there." Thus we had occasion to show clearly and distinctly : 1. That the first Greco-Latin words, introduced into the Anglo-Saxon dialect, were directly or indirectly connected with Christianity or its ethics. 2. That from the formation of the Anglo-Saxon alphabet and Ethelbert's Code, A.D. 597, to Alfred the Great, A.D. 872, Eng- land's dialect steadily progressed to a national literature, with legislators, chroniclers, poets, historians, essayists, moralists, and authors in most branches of intellectual development, as may be noticed by our quotations. 3. That in the ninth century England had comparatively a florishing literature, when other Medieval European countries Germany, the Netherlands, and even France, had but mere rudi- mentary attempts at writing in their national dialects ; and when Italy, Spain, and Portugal had no sign of a written native idiom. Ninth Century. 159 Plenty of poor Latin, but miserable specimens of writing in the people's own language. Ireland claims to have writing prior to the ninth century, and shows " Leabhar nah-Uidhre" now pre- t served in Dublin. No doubt Hibernia was an early center of learning ; for she saw apostles, divines, missionaries, orators, scholars, and authors in Palladius, St. Patrick, Columba, Colom- ban, Gall, &c., from A.D. 430 to 700. Even Wilbrord and Win- frid visited Ireland, before they undertook their missions to Ger- many. Hence she may claim early writings and documents. John Scotus, surnamed Erigena (Erin-born), was another in- tellectual luminary from the British Isles. His fame reached Charles the Bald, who, it is said, invited him to France and intrusted him with the direction of the University of Paris. Eri- gena' s principal work was " De Divisione Natures" He also wrote a treatise on " Predestination" which was considered hete- rodox at Rome. The world is indebted to Erigena for a Latin translation of the works of Dionysius Areopagita. We are told Alfred the Great called this Irish sage to Oxford. As Erigena's birth and death are variously reported, it may be safely said that he florished from A.D. 850 to 886. Quite a humorous anecdote is related concerning Charles the Bald and John Scotus : One day, while convivially seated opposite each other at a festive table, the Emperor asked Scotus : " What is the difference between a ,&<-.W4->O3nc3 o *G .2r o 1-111. Stx: w 2 cS -' --S fi.-LiijiJii l!Js : stilus! ^!ffl*isji "ti -. oj r^ ^ (^ r^ C d) *T^ "sJ?*8a 'o ^^ &, g O S o g5 S lrf - >a '^ g fe e tuO b/5 o v> Wt^ rt ill 8 3 K Tenth Century. ARIO-SEMI- TIC TYPE : SEMITIC FAMILY : i | II SARMATO-SCLA- VONIC FAMILY : = 3! I; GOMERO-CELTIC FAMILY : meaning. GUAGES : FAMILY : rds: ds of inherent Z W HO-GERMANIC M 'ermanic We .96 saving 78 wor C-i o 1 SCYTHO-GOT d _"c g g d ^ > H-O^TS rt"c ^ S bin Gotho-G 3 are particles, 1 6 a||||||i|illl4il1ll .a S---S.SJ i |S^S | |S- 8 5ECO-LATIN FAMILY : French : Words : ent meaning. ASGIC OR GI 1 s HI! 'reco- Latin rds of inhe 1 I u a 171 6 ^a 'a i o o. s s 1! 172 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. * * C .2 -S *o I g I ^ a >> ^11 S a g -S 15 I ^ 3 o u, 0^ "^ *II g u g II fl s H 13 5 _ d) tJ) ^ g (J H 1^ ^i>-d IP ^ g3 o*l 3 j s ts ti 3 V O -g 2 5 O -G a ^^^ J^ K^ s " ^ L^ ^c G ! 5 ti, rt rt i V) Romana a a J 4 ^ -SAXON : rt O G 1 <1J rt "t/3 s H a i ANGLO 3 g a rt O -G rt 4s US _s * 1 ^Q 1/3 - ^G ^ K X S .-C a 5 2 OJ rt ^ a G rt F u tn rt ,r! T3 G rt ^ rt ^ heathene siccetlun c O | & I S a; G u K 1 "S "rt rG 1 a tn * Slip g= 2 6 ll L 1 \\ M > 35 r ^" ^s I^R 81 *5J M II ! Will W * si 5? > o> E >\ rt rt MI bb S ^3 _*3__ "* .B ^ .. U) 9 ^ It 3 - ^ s< 5s ^5 1| !! |1 ARIO JAPHETIC TYPE OF LANGUAGES SCYTHO-GOTHO-GERMANIC FAMILY : Anglo-Saxon : 8g-fi fl< f|g ,g c-oi^bx;'! lllillt-^&ll^l 2 '1 Gotho- Germanic words : 95 hich 25 are particles, leaving 70 words of inherent m -S 13 il J1 'fl-j8i.s1 "iris ||lplll|||-l|Jl| T3 4 ' u 2 1 "liil- IS 111 S u M ^ ft bxi ? -^ .^ ^ G 9 ^ L^ to O *o ^ 4 3S flswilJ{H i tm w -a O ^Q ^ l . H 8 t^ I . .5 5 k O .. r ^ * "^5 rt 1 \* V 1 S y g ; s - J3S.S S % en fc. vj ^a3 ro " * j ^* " H ^1 WPL| o^ k^ _g ^ 6^ <| 5 "o |g f . *_ V 'O S 1 s M * ^ H ,^ *c O ^3 U 113 '.l II 6S It H. f an a IIP l|2l D - "^ U u > r TI ^^ bi rt >, ^ c 0-0,2.2 S^! s ; Germ., C e now (1878) s According t ted oil, on h The discipl Lat., Chris en, &c. . Lat., Ch ven per cent ^'fls^l i- o X^O. ? ^ c o r g pi "111 154- ^ - s ' s<5 ' U 1 rt ? t"S||1 Tenth Century. 175 Synopsis of the different words from the two preceding Tables of the Tenth Century : ureco-JL,arin : 5 Total of different - Greco-Latin: 8 Anglo-Saxon: 175 Gotho-Germanic : 175 words : 184. Hebrew : i ! Semitic : Hence, the style of Anglo-Saxon writing in the tenth century shows a vocabulary of different words, containing about 95 per cent. Gotho-Germanic. 4 " Greco-Latin, and traces of Semitic. Eighty- four of the 175 different Anglo-Saxon words, or forty-eight per cent., are now (1878) ob- solete. Only 26 of the 175 Anglo-Saxon words, or fifteen per cent, are spelt now (1878) as they were in the tenth century. "There co^^ld be nothing more deplorable than the state of letters in Italy and in England during the tenth century.' 1 ' 1 HALLAM. Ethelwerd's Chronicle, Asser's Biography, Athelstan's Trans- lation of the Scriptures, and Alfric's numerous Anglo-Saxon writings, do not show England's state of letters so very deplor- able, when we consider the times and circumstances. As to Italy, Pope Sylvestei;!!. (Gerbert), scientist, philosopher, and mechanician, redeems her and all Europe ; for the Arabian figures, introduced by him, gave a new impetus, not only to arithmetic, mathematics, and astronomy, but to science, com- merce, mechanics, and even to domestic concerns. They were to the exact sciences what alphabetic letters were to language. Ten small figures : i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, o, superseded the seven cumbersome Roman letters, I, V, X, L, C, D, M. These ten small figures soon started enterprise and navigation, constructed telescopes, calculated the motions of the earth, moon, sun, plan- ets, and comets, counted the stars, and gauged the depths of the 176 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. universe. What would science, what would the world do without them ? The sagacious monk first saw these figures and learned mathematics from the Saracens while in Spain, about 980. Gerbert, the poor boy from Auvergne, the imperial and royal tutor, archbishop and pope, worked this wonderful mathematical change from about 994 to 1003. While at Emperor Otho's court, Gerbert constructed a clock and regulated it upon the polar star. Numerous mathematical essays, one hundred and forty-nine epistles, and a discourse against Simony, illustrate the career of this remarkable genius. A century with one such luminary, to say nothing of the skilled Elfleda and the erudite Ethelwerd and Matilda, cannot be called "deplorable" We do not inquire here whether our arithmetical figures originated in Arabia or India ; we leave that to hypercritics, and simply claim that Pope Sylvester II. perceived their utility, and used his influence to introduce them among the Medieval Christian nations in the tenth century.. Cardinal Baronius calls the ninth and tenth centuries " a period, which for barbarity and profligacy may be compared to iron, and for blindness and ignorance may be styled the age of darkness." Facts versus theory': The ninth century witnessed the Hercu- lean labors of Anscarius, who, as previously stated, was styled the "Apostle of the North " among the Danes and Swedes. He was a monk of Picardy, and the first archbishop of Hamburg. After King Harald Klak's baptism at the court of Louis the Pious, Emperor of Germany, Anscarius accompanied him to Denmark, where he preached Christianity amid great vicissitudes ; then went to Sweden, where he did the same thing, and ultimately saw the Gospel take root and florish among tribes who had for years considered pillage and war as the most honorable occupa tion. Anscarius died 864 ; but his zealous disciples, Autbert and Eembert, continued the work he had begun. As the Alfredan era and its Anglo-Saxon progress closed with the ninth century and is fresh in the memory of readers, we need but allude to it. The tenth century saw the efforts of Haquin the Good, King of Norway, to diffuse Christ's teachings among his subjects, about 935. It is said Haquin was educated and baptized at the court of Athelstan in England ; hence he is called by some historians Haquin Adelstan. Some changes intervened before Norway enjoyed the blessings of peace and civilization. Tenth Century. 177 Mieczyslaw, King of Poland, influenced by his Queen Dom- browska, embraced Christianity with all his subjects, A.D. 965. A splendid monument, by Ranch, has been lately raised to this early Christian king, in Posen, his native city. Otho II., Emperor of Germany, stood sponsor to Harald, King of Denmark, while Bishop Popo baptized him and his son Sweyn, 974. True, Sweyn soon relapsed into Odinism, but Christianity outlived him, as it did all his pagan cotemporaries in Denmark. Another gentler and more widespread Christianizing belongs to this era : Anna, sister of the Emperors Constantine and Basil, married Wladimir, Duke of Russia, and won him and his nation to Christ, 988. To this heroic princess, who exchanged brilliant Constantinople for hyperborean Novogorod, 65,000,000 souls now look as the morning star of their civilization. Princess Olga had been baptized, 955, but her example had no effect on the Tartar mind. Adalbert, Bishop of Prague, preached the Gospel to the Bohe- mians, Poles, Hungarians, Prussians, Lithuanians, and suffered martyrdom in Rugen, A.D. 997. He is styled the Apostle of Bohemia, Hungary, and Prussia. The Poles regard him as the author of their national war-song, "Roga Rodzica" Next the eminent, learned, and practical Pope Sylvester II. closed "the age of darkness" by sending to Stephen, chief of the savage Hungarians, the title of king, with a diadem of Greek workmanship. Thenceforth Stephen's subjects, who had ravaged Europe for years, became Christian, and turned their swords into ploughshares, A.D. 1000. Thus, at the close of the tenth century, was Medieval Europe christianized and on the way of progress. Had Hallam and the erudite Cardinal, librarian of the Vatican, remembered all these important events, they would have written more cheeringly of those times. I can see in that age. an unselfish struggle to diffuse civilization. True, the masses were blind and ignorant, but what opportunities had they ever had to be other- wise ? Some of their leaders, both male and female, made almost superhuman efforts to extricate their benighted brothers and sisters from barbarism. To this century belongs the oriental epic poem that has at- tracted so much attention, not only because it is the gem of Persian poetic lore, but because it throws light upon and har- 12 178 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. monizes ancient and Medieval history, geography, ethnology, and philology. This poem is the "Shah-Namah" (Book of Kings), by the Khorassan bard, Firdousi. It is said to contain 56,000 distichs. As soon as Sultan Mahmood heard of Firdousi's genius he called him to his court, and being delighted with his glowing strains, ordered that he should be paid a thousand pieces of gold for every thousand couplets he might produce. Behold Sir William Jones' eulogy on Shah-Namah : "A glorious monument of Eastern genius and learning, which, if it ever be generally understood in the original language, will contest the merit of invention with Homer himself. As there is of this epic an ex- cellent translation by Julius von Mohl, an abridgment by J. At- kinson, and an able criticism in Sir W. Gore Ouseley's " Bio- graphical Notices of the Persian Poets," we refer readers to them. This oriental bard florished about 995. Also Alkalem II., Sul- tan and Caliph of Cordova, encouraged Moslem literature, science and art in collecting a large library, and founding colleges, hos- pitals and mosques, scintillations of which reached other European languages, literatures, and schools of art. The Saracens greatly advanced geography : Haukal, of Bagdad, visited most countries under Moslem rule from the Indus to the Quadalquivir, and wrote an accurate geographic treatise, which the eminent English orien- talist Ouseley translated into four quarto volumes. Aboo Ryhan left an excellent work on geography and astronomy. While the Arabian savants explored the Levant, Adam of Bremen explored the Scandinavian regions and left to posterity " De Situ Dania3," which abounds in curious geographic accounts of the homes of our Gotho-Germanic ancestors. Some Frank translated into Francic, Boethius' " De Consola- tione Philosophise," which Alfred the Great had translated for his people a century before. We must not omit here the earliest information from the far East : Chinese records, corresponding with this century, state that during the administration of Foung Tao, Prime Minister of the Emperor Ming Troung (A.D. 930), the first attempt at printing was made in China, whence the idea may directly or indirectly have reached Europe, where it had time to ripen among the Medieval nations, till Guttenberg succeeded in rendering it practical A.D. 1440. ELEVENTH CENTURY. " Even before the conquest, Anglo-Saxon began to fall into contempt." WARTON. IN the eighth century we alluded to the first landing of the Danes at Portland, A.D. 789, and to the subsequent influence their piratic inroads would exercise on the Anglo-Saxon character and dialect. Now we will point out some of the linguistic changes that began about 870 in Northumbria, conquered and reconquered by these rovers, who amalgamated with the Angles. We are told the Danes are descended from the Cimbri, who had a pecu- liar idiom, still preserved in the Icelandic. It seems those taci- turn sea-kings despised linguistic inflections, affixes, and suffixes, in which Anglo-Saxon abounded ; hence they dropped them and unconsciously produced what has since been styled Dano-Saxon. They usually dropped n in Anglo-Saxon words, especially final n of the termination an of the infinitive ; they also added, omitted, or changed vowels and even syllables, as may be observed by these few illustrations : ANGLO-SAXON : DANO-SAXON : ENGLISH : Drincan drinca to drink greipan greipa to gripe habban habba to have deman doeme to deem naman or noman nama or noma name, n. and v. ondraedan ondrede to dread seistan seista sixth begen bege both twegen twege two Cyning Cynig King eftsona eftso forthwith The Danes also used the preposition to, and dispensed with the termination of the Anglo-Saxon dative case. Thus began i8o Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. i the removal of inflections and the simplification of the Anglo- Saxon grammar. This lasted as long as Danish influence, which began with Gu thrum, A.D. 870, and ended with Hardicanute, A.D. 1041. I might eulogize Ethelred's marriage with Emma, " The Pearl of 'Normandy ;" I might contrast Edmund Ironside's heroism with Ethelred's supineness ; I might cite Emma's diplomatic union with the rude Dane, Canute ; I might enlarge on the crimes of Earl Godwin ; but as such details have no connection with language or literature, let us hasten towards times more propi- tious to human progress. After two centuries of pillage and war- fare, the Danes succeeded in placing Canute on the throne of England, A.D. 1017. Two short Danish reigns disgusted the people to such a degree that they restored the Saxon line in Edward the Confessor, who returned from France and assumed the crown of his ancestors with the approbation of all parties, A.D. 1042. As there is a most reliable cotemporary historian, Ingulphus, it may be advisable to let him relate the linguistic, literary, and social status of his day and generation : "King Edward, though born in England, was brought up in Normandy, and from his long stay there had almost become changed to a Gaul ; he con- sequently brought over with him, or attracted great numbers from Normandy, whom he promoted to many dignities and greatly exalted. The consequence was that under the government of the king and of other Normans, who had been introduced, the whole land began to speak the Gallic tongue, as though it was the great national language ; they executed their charters and deeds after the manner of the Franks, and in these and many other ways showed them- selves ashamed of their own customs." Of Editha, Edward's queen, Ingulphus tells us : as a boy he attended the school of Westminster, and when on his way home he passed the royal palace, the queen often called him in, ex- amined him as to his progress in logic, and then ordered one of her maids to give him a sumptuous meal and some pocket-money. This erudite historian extols her beauty, wit, and learning. The lovely character of Editha called forth this popular line : " Sicut spina rosam, genuit Godwinus Editham." Eleventh Century. 181 It is thus felicitously imitated : " As amid thorns a rose's blush we trace, So fair Editha blooms, midst Godwin's race." To speak least uncharitably of Edward the Confessor, let us condole with him for being Ethelred the Unready's son, the ex- ile, and recalled from necessity. He was flattered by Norman pimps, and cajoled by designing monks into the silly belief that he was God's anointed and had the gift of miracles. However, he lived and died with good intentions, except towards his. best and truest friend, Editha, to whom he never could forgive being Godwin's daughter. On his death-bed, A.D. 1066, he might have said with Louis XIV. : "Apres moi le Deluge" We have seen the origin of the Anglo-Saxon dialect, its prog- ress, Alfredan Era, and its Danification ; now Ingulphus, an eye-witness, tells us that its most intelligent speakers are ashamed of it and fly to a foreign idiom. King Harold* falls at Hastings ; William, aided by Rome, tri- umphs, A.D. 1066 ; gloom spreads over the land ; the nation is sullen. The conqueror is afraid of his own shadow, since his own daughter, Agatha, died of attachment to Harold, whose bride she was to be. We have all heard of the Curfew f bell and * Andrews, in his erudite History of Great Britain, Vol. I., p. 77, con- soles England thus concerning the result of the battle of Hastings : " While we lament the fate of this gallant usurper and of his brave but undisciplined soldiers, we must not forget that by this rough medicine England was purged of a detestable aristocracy, composed of noblemen too powerful for the king to restrain within the limits of decent obedience, and always ready to employ that power against their country, when interest, ambition, or cowardice prompted them. This consideration, joined to that of the vast additional weight which England gained in the European scale by the Norman disci- pline, being joined to the native valor of the islanders, affords ample consola- tion for the disgrace of Hastings; especially, when we recollect that the Saxon race remounted the English throne at the end of only four reigns." \ CURFEW : as the spelling and sense of this word has been distorted, it deserves correcting and explaining. The spelling was originally " couvre-feu" (cover-fire), and the meaning was a signal for families to cover their fire with ashes and retire. To give this signal a bell was rung at eight o'clock. In those halcyon days, when Argand and camphene lamps and gas were un- known, and when the family fire was the principal means of lighting the hut. 1 82 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. other ordinances, enacted by that suspicious king to protect his newly acquired kingdom ; but, as many may not have heard of the following measure, contrived to diffuse his influence and language, we will quote from the cotemporary Ordericus Vitalis, whose history, according to Guizot, contains more valuable in- formation on the eleventh and twelfth centuries than any other single work : " The many castles which William built in the different parts of the island must have contributed very much to the propagation of the French language among the nation ; as it is probable that the foreigners, of whom the garri- sons were entirely composed, would insist upon carrying on all their trans- actions with the neighboring country in their own language." Ordericus Vitalis, Lib. IV. We also read that the fortresses built from William's advent, A.D. 1066, to King Stephen's death, A.D. 1154, amounted to 1,115, scattered all over England; and that they were manned by 60,000 Franco-Normans, ever ready to defend themselves against the Anglo-Saxon population, numbering 2,000,000. Such were the means introduced by William I., to gain influence and diffuse his language. As he issued a code in French, we cite a part of it to show its tenor and style : Extract from William the Conqueror's French Code, A.D. 1070. Ces sont les Leis et les custumes que li Reis William grantut a tut le Peu- ple de Engleterre, apres le Conquest de la Terre. Ice les meismes que le Reis Edward sun Cosin tint devant lui. Hae sunt Leges et Consuetudines quas Willielmus Rex concessit universo Populo Anglise post subactam Ter- rain. Eaedem sunt quas Edwardus Rex, cognatus ejus, observavit ante eum. the inmates were left in the dark, ready for sleep and repose by the covering of their fire. This regulation did not originate with William the Conqueror ; he only introduced it into England from the Continent, where it had been in vogue for several centuries : first, to give people the hour of the night, family clocks and watches being unknown; next, to render them orderly and give them sufficient rest for next day's duties. The ringing of a bell at nine o'clock was a custom in New England long after the landing of the Pilgrims. The nine o'clock gun at military stations has the same meaning. Eleventh Century. 183 I. De Asylorum jure et immunitate Ecclesiastica. Cest a saveir ; Pais a Saint Eglise ; de quel forfait que home out fait en eel tens ; e il pout venir a Sainte Eg- lise ; out pais de vie et de membre, &c. Scilicet ; Pax Sanctae Ecclesiae en- juscunque Forisfacturae quis reus sit hoc tempore ; et venire potest ad sanctam Ecclesiam ; Pacem habeat vitae et membri, &c. Robert Holcoth, Lib. Sapient., C. 2, wrote : "When William, Duke of Normandy, had conquered the kingdom of England, he deliberated how he could destroy the Saxon language and har- monize England and Normandy in idiom ; and therefore ordered that no one should plead in the King's Court, except in French ; and again, that any child about to be sent to school should learn French, and through French Latin, which two ordinances are observed to this day." My historic reading convinces me that there has been misap- prehension or want of proper investigation on the part of histo- rians, who describe the invasion and conquest of England A.D. 1066. They speak of the invaders as Normans, and of their lan- guage as Norman or Norman- French, which to me seem misno- mers. The 5,000 Britons sent to William by Hoel, Count of Brittany, were not Normans ; neither were the many Barons from all parts of France and Flanders with their followers ; but they all flocked to William's standard, encouraged by Baldwin, Earl of Flanders, regent of France, and father-in-law of William, whom he accompanied to England. Henry IV., Emperor of Germany, not only allowed his vassals to join the expedition, but engaged himself to protect William's dominions during his absence. The most powerful ally was Pope Alexander II. , who backed the in- vasion with all the power of the Church, called Harold a perjured usurper, excommunicated him, and sent William relics portending victory. These auxiliaries, allies, influences and means were not Norman. Yet, while all this European enthusiasm was going on, William's own legislature at Lislebonne hesitated to furnish him with supplies. Hence the Norman of that event was all in Wil- liam ; for if his own subjects were averse to it, it certainly cannot be styled Norman. To me and any candid observer that invasion must ever look like a European crusade against England, which was more due to papal than to Norman, French, or German in- fluence. Calling those invaders Normans and their language Norman seem to me terms wofully misapplied ; for history 1 84 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. informs us that about A.D. 911, a band of northern pirates invad- ed Neustria during the reign of Charles the Bald and succeeded in seizing that province ; that Rollo, their leader, married Charles' daughter, Gisela, embraced her religion and adopted her lan- guage, manners and customs as far as a barbarian could ; and his followers married French women and did likewise. We read that the name of William's father was Robert le Diable, and that his mother was a French tanner's daughter named Harlette. I can see no propriety in calling the host, that left France and the rest of Europe to assist William in the invasion of England, NOR- MANS. His followers from the Dukedom of Normandy were not one-tenth of the whole force. Hence, our terms Franco-Norman and Franco- English are more appropriate than Norman. As there is not only philology, but history to be learned from names, let us quote the famous "Roll of J3attel Abbeie" or list of the leaders who fought under William, and whose names were recorded in Battel Abbey, erected by William the Conqueror on the battle-field. It is said remains of the Abbey are yet visible six miles from Hastings. Our readers may judge how much Norse, Scandinavian or Norman is in those names ; only a few seem to have a Gotho-Germanic orthography. This Roll is to be found in Pettit Andrews : THE ROLL OF BATTEL ABBEIE. A Albevile Basset Burgh Andevile Bigot Bushby Aumarle Amourduile Bohun Banet Aincourt Arcy Bailif Blondell Audeley Akeny Bondevile Breton Adgillam Albeny Barbason Blual Argent oune Aybevare Baskervile Baious Arundell A may Bures Browne Avenant Aspermound Bounilaine Beke Abell Asmerenges Bois Bickard Auverne Botelere Banastre Aunwers B Bourchere Baloun Angers Bertram Brabaion Beauchamp* Angenoun Buttecourt Berners Bray Archere Brebus Baibuf Bandy Anvay Byseg Brande Bracy Aspervile Bardolfe Bronce Boundes * The descendants of this Beauchamp assumed the title of Warwick and built the famous castle of that name. One of the Warwicks was styled the "King-Maker? A. 0*1470. Eleventh Century. Bascoun C Dercy Fitz-Marmaduke Broilem Dive Flevez Brolevy Burnel Bellet Baudewin Camois Camvile Chawent Chauncy Dispencere Daubeny Daniell Denise Filberd Fitz- Roger Favecourt Ferrers Beaumont Conderai Devans Fitz- Phillip Burdon Bertevilay Barre Chamberlaine Chamburnoun Davers Dodingsels Darell Filiot Furnivaus Fitz-Otes Bussevile Blunt Comm Columber ("Vibe ft Delaber Delapole Fitz-William Fitz-Roand Beaupere Bevill ^xl 1L)CL C Creuquere Delalinde Delahill Fitz-Pain Fitz-Auger Barbvedor C^or uine Corbett Delaware Fitz-Aleyn Brette Delavache Fitz-Rauff Barrett Bonrel Bainard Cnandos Chaworth Claremaus Dakeny Dauntre Desny Fitz-Browne Fouke Frevil Bornivale darell Dabernoune Front de Boef Bonett Barry Brigan Bodin Betervile Chopis Chaunduit Chantelow Chamber ay Cressy Damry Daveros Davonge Duilby Delasere Facunberge Fort Frisell Fitz-Simon Fitz-Fouk Berlin Berenevile Bellewe Bevery Bushell Boranvile Browe Curtenay Conestable Cholmeley Champney Chawnos Comivile Champaine Delahoid D orange Delee Del aim d Delaward Delaplanch Damnot Filiol Fitz-Thomas Fitz-Morice Fitz-Hugh Fitz-Henrie Fitz-Waren Fitz-Rainold Belevers Buffard Carbonelle Danway Dehense Flamvile For may Botteler Bonveier Charles Chereberge /~*\- Devile Disard Fitz-Eustach Fitz- Laurence Bottevile Bellire Chawnes Chaumont Doiville Durant Formibaud Frisound Bastard Caperoun Drury Friere Bainard Cneine Dabilot Fitz-Robert Brasard Curson Dunsterville Furnivale Beelhelme Braine Couille Chaiters Dunchampe Dambelton Fitz- Geffrey Fitz Herbert Brent Cheines Fitz- Peres Braunch Belcsuz Blunclell Burdet Cateray Cherrecourt Cammille Clerenay f* 1 E Estrange Estutevile Fichet Fitz-Rewes Fitz-Fitz Fitz-John Bagot Curly Clinels Engaine Fleschampe Beauvise Estriels Belemis Cuily Chaundos Esturney Beinn Court eney G Jjcrnoii Clifford Boels \-xllllL'iCl G urn ay Belefroun Ferreres Gressjy Brutz Folville Graunson Barchampe Denaville Fitz-Water Gracy 1 86 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Georges K Muse Mainard Gower T*T 1 1 Y- f Marteine Menere Gaujy Goband Lray jVctunt Karre Karrowe K.oine Mountbrother Mountsoler Malevile JMartinast *Mare Main waring Gaunson Golofre Kaimarrone TCiri^ll Malet Mounteney Matelay Malemis Gobion jvirieii Monfichet Maleheire Grensy Graunt Kancey Kenelre Maleherbe Mare Moren Melun Greile Musegros Marceans Grevet L Musard Meiell Gurry Gurley Loveney Lacey Moine Mont ravers Morton Grammory Linnely Marke N Gernoun Latomer Murres Grendon Loved ay Mortivale Noere Gurdon Lovell Monchenesy Nevile Gines Lemare Mallory Newmarch Grivil Levetot Marny Norbet Grenevile Lucy Mountagu Norice Glatevile >Wf J Luny Mount ford Newborough Gurney Giffard Gouerges Gamages Logevile Longespes Loverace Longechampe Lascales Maule Monhermon Musett Menevile Mantevenant Neisemet Neile Normavile Noesmarch Nermitz Lacv Manse Nembrutz * - "*v Lovan Menpincoy Hauntenay Haunsard Hastings Hanley Haurel Husee Hercy Herioun Herne Harecourt Henoure Houell Hamelin Leded Luse Loterell Loruge Longevale Loy Lorancourt Loions Limers Longepay Laumale Lane Lovetot Maine Mainard Morell Mainell Maleluse Memouros Morreis Morleian Maine Malevere Mandut Mountmasten Mantelet Miners Mauclerke O Otevell Olibef Olifant Osenel Oisell Olifard Orinall Orioll P Pigot Hare well Hardell M Maunchenell Mouet Pery Perepount Hakett Mohant Meintenore Pershale Hamound Mowne Meletak Power Harcord Mandevile Man vile Painell Marmilon Mangisere Perche J Moribray Maumasin Pavey Morvile Mountlovel Pevrell Jarden Miriell Maureward Perot J a y Manlay Monhart Picard Jeniels Malebraunch Meller Pinkenie Jerconvise Malemaine M oun tgomerie Pomeray Janvile Mortimere Manlay Pounce Jaspervile Mortimaine Maulard Pavely Eleventh Century. Paifrere Rougere Sent-More Verdoune Piukenet Rait Sent-Scudemore Valence Phuars Ripere Verdeire Punchardoun Rigny Vavasour Pinchard Richemound Vendore Placy Rocheford Toget Verlay Pugoy Raimond Tercy Valenger Patefine Tuchet V enables Place Tracy Venour Pampilioun Trousbut Viland Perceley Souch Trainell Verland Perere Shevile Takel Valers Pekeny Seucheus Trussel Veirny Porterell Senclere Trison Vauurvile Peukeny Sent Quentin Talbot Veniels Peccely Sent Mere Touny Verrere Pinell Sent Amond Traies Uschere Putrill Sent Legere Tollemach Veffay Petivoll Somervile Tolous Van ay Preaus Si ward Tanny Vian Pantolf Saunsovere Touke Vernoys Pecto Sanford Tiblote Urnal Penecord Santes Turbevile Unguet Preudirlogast Savay Turvile Urnafull Percivale Saulay To my Vasderoll Sules Tavern er Vaberon Sorell Trenchevile Valingford Somerey Trenchelion Venicorde Quinci Sent-John Tankervile Valive Quintiny Sent-George Tirol Viville Sent-Les Trivet Vancorde Sesse Tolet Valanges Salvin Travers Ros Say Tardevile Ridell Solers Turburvile W Rivers Saulay Tinevile Rivell Sent-Albin Torell Wardebois Rous Sent Martin Tortechappell Ward Rushell Sourdemale Trusbote Wafre Raband Seguin Trevei-ell Wake Ronde Sent Barbe Tenwis Wareine Ric Sent Vite Totelles Wate Rokell Souremont Watelin Risers Soreglise Watevil Randuile Sandvile Wely Roselin Sauncey Vere Werdenell Rastoke Sirewast Vernoun Wespaile Rinvill Sent-Cheveroll Vesey Wivell Englishmen now scattered all over the globe may trace their pedigree to some one of these 655 names. The linguistic ap- pearance of nine-tenths of them is French, having representatives now living in France, England and America; only a very few seem to have a Gotho-Germanic orthography. According to these historic and linguistic data, I shall call the 1 88 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. fusion of Anglo-Saxon and French from A.D. 1066 to 1600, Franco-English, and the prior fusion in France, Franco-Norman. The "Saxon Chronicle" of that date has the following: lt Thaer wearth ofslaegen Harold Cyng. and Leaf wine eorl. his brother, and Gyrth eorl. his brothor. and fela godra manna, and tha Frencyscan ahton wael-stode geweald." "There were slain Harold the King, and Leaf win the Earle his brother, and Earle Gyrth, his brother, and many good men ; and the FRENCH held the rule of the slaughter place" Here the cotemporary Anglo-Saxon chronicler positively says the FRENCH held the battle-field, without the slightest allusion to Normans. Hence, it would be more according to the real facts to drop such terms as Norman invasion, Norman conquest, Nor- man-Frencln, &c., and set history right on this subject. We read in Warton's History of English Poetry : "The French imported by the Conqueror and his people was a confused jargon of Teutonic, Gaulish, and vitiated Latin. In this fluctuating state of our national speech French predominated." Any one who will carefully peruse what we quote from Wil- liam's Code, may readily discover that the French there used is no more of a " confused jargon " than any Medieval dialect. As far as I can understand the dialects of that period, French seems to me purer, more advanced, and clearer than any of its cotem- poraries, though it had little or no literature. It is said for about a year William tried hard to learn the dialect of his new subjects, but did not succeed, which, together with the sullenness of the Anglo-Saxons, gave him an aversion to both language and people that ridiculed those who favored the inva- ders by sayings like this : " Jacke wond be a gentilman if he coud bot speke Frenshe. " This spirit galled the Franco-Normans and their leader, who issued more and more tyrannic laws. Children at school were forbidden to read their native tongue, and were only instructed in French. Anglo-Saxon handwriting was so little used that about A.D. 1091, its characters were only known to the few. Laws, public acts, and pleadings in court had to be done in French. Bishops an4 abbots were replaced by foreign- ers. We read of a worthy Anglo-Saxon bishop, who was removed from his see, because he could not speak French. While Anglo-Saxon was thus slighted by the invaders of England, Eleventh Century. 189 another Gotho-Germanic tongue, Icelandic, became prominent, as may be realized by the ancient epic, styled "Edda" which the American bard, Longfellow, rendered thus : Give silence, all Ye sacred race, Both great and small^ Of Heimdal sprung : Vol-father's deeds I will relate, The ancient tales, Which first I learned. In early times, When Ymer lived, Was sand, nor sea, Nor cooling wave ; No earth was found, Nor heaven above, One chaos all, And nowhere grass," &c. So sang our hyperborean Gotho-Germanic ancestors, who were soon joined by their kindred, the " Old High Germans" in the famous " Nibelungen," numbering thirty-nine "adventures" or poems. When the victor of Hastings attempted to substitute French for Anglo-Saxon, he little dreamt that he was but the first link in a chain that would cause Anglo-Saxon to amalgamate with the Greco-Latin idioms and produce present English, which now encircles the globe. Could William now return and be king, he would find England's language of 1878, with fifty-four per cent. French, easier to learn than Anglo-Saxon of 1066 with no French. LIBER JUDICIARIUS VEL CENSUALIS ANGLIAE. ^Domesday- Book" Such is the title of two splendid manu- script volumes : one a large folio, the other a large quarto. The folio contains 382 double pages of vellum, written in a small but plain character ; the quarto, 450 double pages of vellum, written in a large, fair hand. This colossal work, including a census and survey of nearly all the counties of England, A.D. 1086, is the literary monument of William the Conqueror, who ordered its execution A.D. 1081, by appointing commissioners to examine persons under oath as to the state of every county, the number and condition of its inhabitants, the extent and nature of its lands, woods, mills, and the taxes paid thereon. After intense labor all over the realm, the two volumes were laid before his Majesty, A.D. 1086, who must have felt more elated than at the victory of Hastings, whose stone monument has long since crumbled into dust, while the frail intellectual fabric has survived all revolutions, and is now in excellent preservation in the Chap- ter House at Westminster, where millions have admired and are 190 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. yet likely to admire it. Here again ' ' the pen has proved mightier than the sword." Education and literature must have been at alow ebb in England. A.D. 1086 ; for the Doomsday-Book gives but 243 inhabitant? for Oxford. Cambridge and Oxford were burned and plundered, first by the Danes, and afterwards by the Franco-Normans. The Doomsday-Book shows England divided into 700 chief- holdings, 60,215 knights' fees, of which 28,115 were in possession of the clergy, who, under the Norman rule, were bound to the same military service as the laity. Most of these offices and benefices were given to favorites. The Anglo-Saxon dialect was entirely confined to the common people, and nothing was written in it except the "Saxon Chronicle" which was carried on for a short time by a few patriotic monks, styled Chroniclers. Any one who considers this state of things, need not wonder that French progressed, but that Anglo-Saxon survived. As already stated, to obtain an Extract for our Table, we had to resort to the "Saxon Chronicle ',' ' which was the only Anglo-Saxon writing of this century. The population of England, A.D. 1086, was about 2,000,000; in 1871, 21,487,688. Query : Is this immense increase of popu- lation due to purely physical or to intellectual and moral causes ? The cities of William's census, A.D. 1086, would hardly be con- sidered villages in 1871. A few illustrations might prove interest- ing and instructive : j-, .. . Number of houses^ Numbf.r of hotises, A.D. 1086. A.D. 1871. Norwich, 738 i9?446 Ipswich, 538 9,822 Exeter, 315 6,209 Southampton, 84 9?958 Bath, 64 8,918 Northampton, 60 7>8o4 We are told that William received the idea of this census and survey from a similar work by Alfred the Great. It is also said, that this census was taken to ascertain how much taxation the people could be made to pay to the grasping king and his favorites. However that may be, it was a great national work for the age and circumstances ; and the English may feel proud of it ; for no other nation can show anything analogous of that period. Al- Eleventh Century, 191 though written in poor Latin, it furnished to modern times the idea of census and surveys. Such a document is the only basis of equitable taxation. The people called it Doomsday Book ox Domesday-Book, trans- lating judiciarius into doom^ which is the Anglo-Saxon for judg- ment. Amid this gloom appeared some brighter points : Robert Curthose, son of William the Conqueror, founded the beautiful city of New Castle-on-Tyne, A.D. 1078. Richard de Rulos, King William's chamberlain, drained marshes and built the town of Deeping in Lincolnshire. The banks of the Welland, from quag- mires, were changed into gardens and orchards. The French monks practised horticulture and cultivated grapes with such success that, according to Malmesbury, they made wine nearly as good as that of France. Let us mention the Anglo-Saxons of that era who wrote poor Latin: Ingulphus, from 10301109, left us "Historia Croylan- densis" full of valuable information ; but some one tried to prove that Ingulphus' book is a forgery ! Osbern wrote the lives of the ambitious Dunstan and of St. Alphege. To Os- bern literature is indebted for the preservation of many valuable records, which he saved from the conflagration, that destroyed the Cathedral of Canterbury, of which he was precentor, A.D. 1070. The following witticism, which I found in "Anglia Sacra" I cannot help repeating ; it is about as good as anything else they wrote in poor Latin during the eleventh century. Wulstan, Bishop of Worcester, A.D. 1080, was ridiculed by the Bishop of Constance for having his mantle lined with lamb-skin, and was urged to have it replaced by the delicate fur of a species .of cat, then much used for the purpose. " No, my brother," replied the Bishop, " I have often heard of the Lamb of God, but I have never heard of his Cat." EXTRACTS AND TABLES FROM ANGLO-SAXON WRITINGS OF THE ELEVENTH AGE, SHOWING THEIR STYLE AND THE NUMERIC ORIGIN OF THEIR VOCABULARY : At this stage of Anglo-Saxon literature we beg the reader to scrutinize with us the popular gloom, causing stagnation, not only in the mind, but in the dialect of the nation ; Caedmon had 192 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449^-1200. uttered hymns and paraphrases ; King Alfred had developed, not only the people's intellect, but its tongue and ear : thoughts, ideas, conceptions, vocabulary, and music, had gone hand in hand with a king, author, and composer ; Alfric had ennobled his native dialect by edifying homilies ; Ethelbert, and several other kings, had conceived and issued codes in England's primitive idiom ; even the rude foreigner, Canute, showed his predilection for Anglo-Saxon, when he proclaimed in it a code of eighty arti- cles. Soon a native prince, educated in a strange land, mounted the throne of his ancestors, surrounded himself with foreigners, ordered Ethelbert's, Alfred's, and Canute's codes to be trans- lated into a dead language, in which he himself issued a code for a hopeful people. This renegade monarch, by thus slighting the national speech, cast a shadow on its fitness and diverted the minds of scholars to Latin, in which they produced poetry and prose worthy of Virgil and Pliny ; but all to no purpose, for they neither arose in, nor went to the popular mind. Unfortunately, intriguing monks succeeded in making the masses believe, that Edward had the wonderful gift of healing by touch. Thence- forth he was considered a heavenly messenger, sent to heal private and public woes. Soon he died and was buried like other kings. All he had done, and all the priests frad said of him, had lost much of its charm ; but their time-honored Anglo-Saxon codes, language and literature had been reviled by an unpatriotic king, as may be realized by the faint elegy written on Edward's death in Anglo-Saxon by some anonymous monk. Peruse this feeble essay in our Extract and Table ; next read and ponder on our Extract from the "Saxon Chronicle" of A.D. 1066, and you readily perceive that Caedmon's inspiration, Alfred's pathos, and Alfric' s style had fled, and that the Anglo-Saxon of 1066 must die, unless resuscitated by crossing and recrossing, which made the English language what it is in 1878. The English nation was without spirit in 1066 ; the language showed it even in its "La- mentation" as may be observed in the following Extracts and Tables : Eleventh Century. 193 13 S tt t; o h S5 | W rS i a I i 194 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. bfl 1 a J w s i| Jf s 1 s JJ O ^ >^-o .ZQjJr^rt^a;^ 5;iig1a!*!*s=5 ^ S -^ Ti "^ "^ rt ^ 1J ifH "^ ^ rt rt^ rt 43 ^>" JS S Eleventh Century. 195 1 . 1. I I c 8 8, -a gri a 2.0 _, ^ .a mfci'i f I- a s . ,* i's fill? 1* liilii S - - , - R *82l JlJ^jS" " jf 11 13 .- - h ^_" 4; o li 196 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. j; i ^ iw d H H 00 1 O . k Uo ! -| | fl H u 1 I ^| | * ^ 'tf'i'i S'S'H'S c ^ 0^-5^ i! 8> lujJll'lJIfl 1 * i ^ W M S V | " . JGUAGE : FAMILY : || s &* FH I-* M tf t" > ody on the D> Chronicle," O W B GOTHO-GERMAN I itho- Germanic 9 8 les, leaving 78 ^\ a - H 11 S " IPHETIC SCYTHO- Iliillll'W^iPlIp "*Ji & 6 | 1 G< o are partic 1 ^*< * ) o ^-S- ^- s^al-g'-jj N ^y g & .S^ '^^"^So'oSi? ^,2 2 c 2 >,^ "S 1*9 e ^N < "U^5 c^ rt ci g 00 coONTj-^vocOMOC M 13 ,-J O o 1 n 1 rt g I T3 - U-, Q J ci s ,0* CJ T3 s 1 >2 73 S c X < i sume 1 S g2S53:S5SS < < c o a C/3 ii g s e 5 1 33 ^ c CJ w o I' I 1 JI x-C D fi -^ *-* S ^ i-i ^) * <* *. ^ D ^ ^* < co D t/5 ^ o 'g g K i . *i ** * s - - * i i 'S 0) g i .S 1 eS 2 il 51 r < o GOMERO-CELTIC FAMILY : ' 1 NGUAGES 1C FAMILY : 1 fa O w )THO-GERMAN 1 1 ^-Germanic .94 , leaving 58 v 5 o M SCYTHO-GC ^|| fl g Wi| ||g|S| g- g Gotht are particles 8 ' jj i . C * 2 2 M p V J: ^ i o 's ~o o ^"O nj * "s u i 'I if! If! 4 1 j < J i 1 i i s C p 2OO Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Synopsis of the different words from the two preceditig Tables of the Eleventh Century. Greek : Latin . .. Greco-Latin : 8 , Total of thfi Anglo-Saxon: 170 Gotho-Germanic : 1 70 ent words : 178. Hence, the style of Anglo-Saxon writing in the eleventh century shows a vocabulary of different words containing about 95 per cent. Gotho-Germanic, and 5 " Greco-Latin. Seventy-nine of the 170 different Anglo-Saxon words, or forty-six per cent., are now (1878) obso- lete. Fifteen of the 170 different Anglo-Saxon words, or only nine per cent., are now (1878) spelt as they were in the eleventh century. In this century the Troubadours of France, Minnesdnger of Germany, and Skalds of Scandinavia, became prominent. They did much towards polishing and refining the languages, litera- tures, manners, and customs of Medieval Europe, by displaying their poetry and music in courts, among the nobles, and in popu- lar assemblies. They accompanied the crusaders and florished under the name of minstrels from about A.D. 1000 to 1300. France (about A.D. 1050) and Spain, 1091, dropped the Gothic alphabet and adopted the Roman, which was an improvement in the right direction ; for a distinct, clear and easy alphabet is the most important linguistic desideratum. In this century appeared another improvement that affected the music of the world and added new terms to language : A.D. 1024, Guido of Arezzo con- trived a method of rendering the intonation of sounds by means of six notes distributed upon lines or spaces. To these notes he gave the names : ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, which he took from the Eleventh Century. 201 first syllables of words in this stanza of the hymn sung on the day of St. John the Baptist : u Ut queant laxis n?sonare fibris, JJ/i'ra gestorum yizmuli tuorum Solve polluti /abii reatum." Beside these notes he placed seven letters : A, B, C, D, E, F, G, and because the letter G (gamma) accompanied the note /, that he placed above the ancient method ; the whole arrangement was called Gamut, which is but an abbreviation of Gamma ut (Gamut), the name it still bears. To complete the ingenious monk's invention, Le Maire added a semitone and named it si. When we consider, that this simple contrivance belongs to the exact sciences and arts, that it has lasted over seven hundred years, and that by its means musicians of different countries and languages can meet and play extemporaneously, we need not despair of adapting a few English vowel-sounds to letters and reaching the German rule : " Write as you pronounce, and pro- nounce as you write" We may even hope to do it without in- creasing the present alphabet. TWELFTH CENTURY. " Language, like the foliage of the grove, is constantly in a state of change," Preface to Walker's Dictionary, 1842. IN the last century we alluded to the decline of the Anglo- Saxon dialect, and to the tyrannic measures of William the Con- queror to compel the people to adopt the French language. French was spoken everywhere : at court, among the nobles, in parliament, in the army and navy, at the bar in pleadings, in schools, colleges and universities, so much so that the sovereign knew not the dialect of the people he governed ; for Henry II., on a journey, being addressed by the yeomanry: ''Good olde Kynge," asked to have these words interpreted. Under these unfavorable circumstances the " Saxon Chronicle," the last Anglo- Saxon written organ, was stopped A.D. 1154. To honor that venerable record we make its closing paragraph the Extract for one of our Tables in this century. Anglo-Saxon ceased to be a written language, A.D. 1154, when all the intellect of England, as we have shown, expressed itself in elegant Latin ; but this was an eccentric and unnatural ten- dency, that could only be temporary, because the nation spoke Anglo-Saxon and would use no other language. Of course in time the 2,000,000 Anglo-Saxons might adapt their idiom to some other suitable linguistic element to form a language that would suit the governing and the governed. Whither could Eng- land look for the elements of the language she required ? To the Gothic races in Scandinavia, to the nations of Germany ? Neither of these had a language and literature ; they had but just emerged from wild and barbarous ideas of Woden, Balder, and Valhalla. England could not look to her immediate Celtic neighbors for a linguistic element to combine with Anglo-Saxon ; for most of 2O4 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. them were obliged to use Latin as their written language ; hence the choice lay between Latin and French. As I before stated, Latin had been in contact with Anglo-Saxon from A.D. 597 to 1200, in school, church, and literature, and there seemed little prospect of immediate amalgamation. Before the grasping Norman element appeared, the Anglo- Saxons and Franks had lived on the most amicable terms for six centuries, and, according to Bede, they originally understood each other's dialect. From the Franks, Ethelbert received Bertha and Luidhard with the blessings of Christian civilization, A.D. 597. From France, Benedict Biscop brought the elements of literature and art, A.D. 675. In France, Egbert learned the science of war and government, A.D. 800. To France, Alfred the Great sent for teachers, A.D. 880, when the savage Danes had ruined his country physically, intellectually, and morally. Anglo-Saxon and French princes and princesses had intermarried. The Anglo-Saxons and Franks concurred in carrying Christianity and civilization to their Gotho-Germanic kindred. Above all, French was the linguistic element that would most easily and readily combine with Anglo- Saxon, containing, as it did, Greek, Latin, Gotho-Germanic, and Celtic. As there is in the Extracts and Tables of this century a curious linguistic phenomenon, it behooves us to analyze and notice it : for the first time during the progress of the Anglo-Saxon language an Extract of 362 common -words is required to furnish a Table of 100 different words, showing 262 repetitions and including 187 particles; similar figures were not reached prior to A.D. 1154. When, how, and why did this happen ? It happened when the Anglo-Saxon dialect had reached a stage where it could find no written expression. How? The people were stunned by the blow their nationality and language received at Hastings. Why ? The intellectual and moral sense of the two million Anglo-Saxons was so shocked that it took time to recover. Trench's saying, "Language is a moral barometer, which indicates and perma- nently marks the rise or fall of a nation's life," is partly realized; for Anglo-Saxon proved a linguistic barometer, that indicated the nation's shock without permanently marking its fall. True, the people witnessed the decline of their dialect, and apparently made efforts to mould it into a simpler, more convenient, more Twelfth Century. 205 practical, and more cosmopolitan form. Thus Swinton's adage : " When a tongue becomes petrified the national mind walks out of it," applied to Anglo-Saxon. Now let us see how the Anglo-Saxons awoke from their stupor, and what they did. The national intellect expressed itself in Latin superior to any previously written in England ; the Court and officials conversed and corresponded in French ; schools, colleges and universities resounded with Latin and French ; and the people, ever ready to adapt themselves to circumstances and bide their time, gradually dropped inflections and other gram- matic puerilities, and so seasoned their idiom with French and Latin as to attract not only students, authors, and officials, but even the Court. About A.D. 1115, a rivulet of new words began to flow into the English vocabulary from the lectures on civil law, introduced and encouraged by Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury. At this period the Jews, who had ever kept the lamp of litera- ture and science well trimmed, had excellent schools in London, York, Lincoln, and in many other cities, in which their learned rabbis taught Greek, Latin, Hebrew, mathematics, medicine, &c. These institutions were open to both Jewish and Christian chil- dren. During the Middle Ages, Abraham's descendants were the most erudite linguists, travelers, physicians, and the most eco- nomic financiers. They were ever peaceful, sober, law abiding and industrious citizens. Yet these commendable qualities, to- gether with their spirit of tolerance, could not protect them against the cruel persecutions of A.D. 1190, even after they had made rich donations to Richard Cceur de Lion towards his long contemplated crusade. Those generous gifts were but a bait for their rapacious persecutors. As Anglo-Saxon had two million tongues, but no pens to per- petuate thought ; and as Latin had no tongues, but powerful pens, let us cite some of the authors who wrote Latin worthy of the Augustan era : William of Malmesbury left us "Rigalium" Lib. V. (History of the English Kings from A.D. 499 to 1147) ; "His- toria Novella" Lib. II. (New History), in which he relates what happened in his day, and what he saw ; also " De Gestis Pontifi- cum Anglornm" (Acts of the English Pielates). He was Eng- land's Livy. Hear what he says of himself : 206 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. " I presume not to expect the applause of my cotemporaries ; but I hope, when favor and malevolence are no more, I shall receive from impartial pos- terity the character of an industrious, though not an eloquent historian." Giraldus Cambrensis, after studying at the University of Paris and earning laurels in civil and canon law, became chaplain to Henry II. and preceptor to Prince John. His "Topographia Hibernice " (Topography of Ireland) and " Itinerarium Cambrics " (Itinerary of Wales) prove Giraldus a geographer of deep research. He also left "Historia Vaticinalis" "De Expurgatione Hiber- nicz" which shows an over-credulous writer. His family name was de Barry. He flourished about 1 182. These lines on Henry's death and Richard Coeur de Lion's accession are a delicate compliment to both father and son : " Mira cano, sol occubuit, nox nulla secuta." " Vainly the sinking sun alarmed our fears ; We've lost his orb, and yet no night appears." I should speak of Hoveden ; but as Leland and Selden laud his accuracy as a historian, I pass on to Henry of Huntingdon, whose Latin Chronicle is less admired than his poetry. Geoffrey of Monmouth, Bishop of Asaph, translated, as he says, " a very ancient book in the British tongue into Latin" entitled it "His- toria Britonum" and dedicated it to Robert, Duke of Gloucester, about 1140. Next he translated the Prophecies of Merlin, who, it is said, lived about A.D. 450, from British into Latin. Also " Vita Merlini" in hexameter verse, has been attributed to this industrious prelate, whose combined works, in twelve books, are published as "Geoffrey of Monmouth 1 s British History" in Gales' "Six Old English Chronicles" Those who desire to know anything of ancient Britain cannot do better than peruse this relic of Celtic thought, customs, manners, and style of writing. From A.D. 1154 to 1600 it was a favorite work and a resort for dramatic, romantic, and allegoric subjects and personages ; thence Wace derived his "Brut d'Angleterre" ; Butler his "Hudibras" ; Spenser his "Merlin"; Shakespeare his "Cymbe- line" &c. Therefore, to appreciate and understand the sources of English drama, romance, allegory, and fiction, it will repay perusal. We had occasion to quote from it as early as the sixth century, in order to show the hatred of the British clergy against the Anglo-Saxons of A.D. 597. Twelfth Century. 207 Ordericus Vitalis, from whom we have quoted, wrote " Eccle- siastic History of England and Normandy," which con tains, valu- able information. He died 1141. To give variety to our quotations let us turn to Gilbert Foliot, Bishop of London, who, according to M. Paris, had an exchange of civilities in Latin rhyme with his Satanic majesty about 1125. One night, while cogitating, Satan addressed his Reverence thus : "O ! Gilberte Foliot I Dum revolvis tot et tot, Deus tuus est Astarot." " While thus you're revolving on good and on evil, This world is your Heaven, your God is the Devil." To which the Prelate rejoined : " Mentiris daemon ! qui est Deus Sabbaoth ; est ille meus." " Satan, thou liest ! The God, who evermore Both was and is, 'tis he whom I adore." Language and literature made a great acquisition, when at the opening of this century paper began to be made of linen rags. Hitherto writing materials had been so expensive, that poor thinkers could not write. This was probably one of the chief causes that writing was almost exclusively confined to priests and monks, who could procure writing materials. Towards the close of this age appeared an odd writer, usually called Orrmin ; but in his Metrical Paraphrase of the Gospels and Acts, he observes: "Thiss boc iss nemmnedd 'Orrmulum* forthi thaet Orrm itt wrohte." (This book is named Orrmulum, because Orrm wrote it.) This capricious monk must have had a singular fancy for doubling and multiplying consonants and avoiding vowels, as may be perceived by these few words. Per- haps he foresaw and tried to prevent the opposite extreme, namely, the doubling and multiplying of vowels, as ae, ai, ao, an, ay ; ea, ee, et, eo, eu, ey, eye ; ia, ie ; oa, oe^ oi, oo, ou, oy ; ua. ue, *, uoy ; ye, yea,yi,you, of which usually but one is pronounced while the others are silent, and therefore as useless as Orrmin's many consonants. Caedmon's and Alfred's dialect became a real burlesque in the hands of such a mongrel Danish and Anglo- 208 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. Saxon writer. There is hardly one word in ten that does not end in some double consonant. Even the particles for, in, on, that, with, him, his, &c., we find thus : forr, inn, onn, thatt, withth, himm, hiss, &c. He also doubled middle consonants as : bigunnenn, hannd^ hunndredd, rihht, &c.. for begun, hand, hun- dred, riht, &c. Yet this Orrmin fancy, odd as it seems, is less puzzling to children and foreigners than the many unpronounced vowels that now haunt the English vocabulary, because a double consonant, whether middle or final, can have but one and the same sound, whereas two or three vowels in immediate succes- sion may and do have different sounds in one and the same con- nections, and sometimes in one and the same word. When will the English-speaking populations harmonize letter with sound and sound with letter? One of the most brilliant of the English Latinists of this age was Joseph of Exeter (Josephus Iscanus), whom Warton calls " The miracle of his age in classic composition." He left an epic poem on the Trojan war, and "Antiocheis" on the deeds of Coeur de Lion during the crusades. Thomas White, A.D. 1150, the most learned of the cardinals of his day, wrote a treatise on Scholastic Divinity, which was highly appreciated. Let us not omit John of Salisbury, A.D. 1 1 80, who wrote "Polycraticus de Nugis Curialium et Vestigiis Philosophorum," a satire on the follies of courtiers. Gervasius of Tilbury wrote "Otia Imperialia" Lib. III. (History of the Kings of England and France). He says the English nobles sent their children to France to be educated, in order to avoid their mixing English with their idiom. We have thus shown England's Latin lore in the twelfth cen- tury, when there was a gap between Anglo-Saxon and Franco- English. Henceforth England's intellect will have ample scope to express its thought in Franco-English. Latin and Anglo-Saxon could not amalgamate, though it had been in close contact from A.D. 600 to 1200. A less inflected element than Latin was indispensable ; an element with enough Latin to satisfy students, and some Gotho-Germanic to attract the masses ; that element could only be found in French, which, besides Gotho-Germanic, had some Celtic to combine with Welsh and Irish under Henry II., A.D. 1188. Bede says the Anglo- Twelfth Century. 209 Saxons and Franks understood each other's dialect. Hence French and Anglo-Saxon could and did amalgamate, A.D. 1200. As early as the twelfth century England had two authors who wrote in French : Walter Mapes, after writing Latin poems that caused him to be called Anacreon of England, produced several romances in French. Robert Wace was a distinguished poet ; he was born in the Isle of Jersey, studied at Caen, became reader to Henry I. and Henry II. In 1160 he wrote "Roman du Rou" (Romance of Rollo), and dedicated it to Henry II. Next il Chronique des Dues de Normandie " (Chronicle of the Dukes of Normandy) ; and finally "Le Brut d 1 Angleterre" (Brutus of England), consisting of 15,000 lines. His Romance of Rollo and of the Dukes of Normandy is in verse, and is considered a valuable historic record of the personages, events, and manners of that period. Wace lived at Henry's court, and died 1184. A stanza of this early bard may be of interest. " Taille fer, qui moult bien chantoit, Sur un cheval qui tot alloit, Devant eux alloit chantant De Karlemagne et de Roland Et D' Oliver et des Vassals Qui moururent a Roncesvalles." Robert Wace obtained the idea of his popular epic poem, "Le Brut d'Angleterre" from Geoffrey of Monmouth and Nennius. Layamon translated this favorite work into Anglo-Saxon, A.D. 1205. As I have shown the self-sacrificing character of women in Clotilda, Bertha, Ethelburga, Anna, &c., I must now mention the Welsh heroine, Gwen Llyan, who (as related by Giraldus Cam- brinsis), while leading her countrymen against invaders, was taken prisoner and beheaded by one Maurice of London, A.D. 1136. This murder by Maurice was committed the same year that Stephen usurped the throne of England, which of right belonged to Matilda. Stephen's act, though less cruel, was as unjust and ungallant as Maurice's. Were we writing history, we should relate England's deeds during the crusades, especially those of Richard Cceur de Lion. Those otherwise fruitless expeditions affected the English lan- guage, not only by adding military, heraldic, and other gallant 2io Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. terms, but by modifying and softening its vocabulary and code of honor. Other European tongues, especially German, were simi- larly benefited. Different nations marching, camping, and fighting together, began to lose some of their national prejudices ; the middle and lower classes, and even nobles, princes, kings, and emperors became more or less mixed and acquainted. An inter- national feeling of mutual respect sprang up, which tended toward concord. Thus the English as well as other idioms gained in vocabulary and in general polish ; new devices and mechanisms were seen and brought home from the East. The queens, prin- cesses, and other ladies, who accompanied the crusaders, gave a tone of refinement that has ever since pervaded European idioms and manners. The knights were bound by a solemn oath to pro- tect the fair sex, and to rescue widows and orphans from oppres- sion. Behold a voyage in an opposite direction : The Welsh annals mention a Prince Madoc, who sailed from North Wales about A.D. 1170, discovered a western continent, returned to Wales, raised a colony, resailed to the West, and was heard of no more. But about 1550; F. Lopez de Gomara went to America to obtain documents and information for his " Cronica de la Nueva Espana" It is said that, while exploring the New World, Go- mara found remains of Madoc' s colony. I am aware that claims prior to Columban discovery are considered fabulous. I only allude to this, because connected with the name of a historian as reliable as Gomara. The adventures of that Welsh prince furnished to Southey, 1805, the subject of his poem entitled " Madoc r Alexander Neckham, as one of the Medieval pioneers in natural science, deserves posterity's gratitude, especially for "De Naturis Rerum" (On the Nature of Things). In this poem the rudi- ments of most of the modern sciences are set forth in a pleasing style. Behold what Roger Bacon says of its author : " This Alexander in many things wrote what was true and useful ; but he neither can, nor ought, by just title, to be reckoned among authorities." Neckham also produced u De Landibus Divincz Sapientia" His works have a great value, showing us, as they do, the manner of thinking in the twelfth century. He began his studies at the then celebrated academy of St. Alban's, and com- Twelfth Centttry. 21 1 pleted them at the University of Paris. As the following lines give us an idea, not only of the author's tender recollections of his school years, but of* what was taught in the academies of England at that period, we give Andrews' version of them. u 'Twas here my youth's gay hours stole away, And rest, the nights, and science crown'd the day. Here taught, I travel'd learning's arduous road, And to these walls the fame I've gain'd is ow'd. Each art I teach was taught me here before, And Scripture-study joined the useful lore, The canons too Galen Hippocrates; Nor did the civil law my taste displease." We must for a moment look beyond the language and litera- ture of the British Isles, and consider the intellectual and moral status of Europe. Spain, whither the Goths, Vandals and Moors had penetrated, began to develop noble fruits : The Moors could boast of AVENZOAR, A.D. 1140. and AVERRHOES, 1190, two bril- liant intellects, whose scintillations illumined the European ho- rizon. Castille could point to " Poema del Cid" the earliest poem in the Spanish language, 1150. It is very remarkable that the name of the author never reached posterity. The work itself has furnished materials for many noble productions, espe- cially Voltaire's chef-d'oeuvre, " Le Cid." Navarre had her Jewish Rabbi, Benjamin of Tudela, the first and earliest Medieval European geographer and traveler, who, from A.D. 1160 to 1173, visited the synagogues in the Eastern Empire, Egypt, Persia, and as far as China, in order to observe their manners and ceremonies. His Itinerary in Hebrew was pub- lished in Constantinople, translated into Latin by Arius Montanus, and into most European idioms. Being the first description of those distant countries, it gave rise to marvelous tales. About the same period the Spanish Jew, Kharizi, traveled in Palestine, Persia, Russia, Germany, France, and left his geo- graphic and ethnologic information in a treatise called " Tachke- moni" Thus did the Medieval Jews imitate the example of their illustrious ancestors, Abraham and Sarah, who started from Chaldee 2000 B.C., visited Mesopotamia, Egypt, and settled in Canaan. With them the Empire went westward four thousand years ago. 212 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. With regard to education in England during the twelfth century, the Franco-Norman gentry usually sent their sons abroad ; and the University of Paris was the favorite seminary ; for there were collected the youth of all nations, which caused Paris to be styled by the writers of that era "The city of learning" Here is a graphic stanza by some German student named Nigel Wercker, about the English studying with him at Paris : " Et, quia subtiles considerat Anglos, Pluribus ex causis se sociavit iis. Moribus egregii, vultu verboque venusti, Ingenio pollent, consilioque vigent. Dona pluunt populis et detestantur avaros ; Fercula multipficant ; et sine lege bibunt." " The students from Britain his fancy must strike ; Ay ! these (quoth the stranger) are lads that I like. Be these then my mess-mates, stout, jolly and clever; With comrades like -these I could study forever. When they've cash, 'tis soon gone for they hoard up no treasure, And they eat without stint, and they drink without measure." Binding, in his history of Scandinavia, p. in, says : " On the whole, neither science nor the arts had reached a very high point, and young people being desirous of a deeper knowledge than they could ac- quire at home, had to go to the celebrated University of Paris, and at the close of the twelfth century a special college for Danish students was founded in Paris. Here, for instance, Absalon, a man of letters himself, favored lit- erature and encouraged the renowned Saxo- Grammaticus to compose a history of Scandinavia, which he did in elegant Latin, wherefore he was surnamed Grammaticus. " As to education in Germany, hear what Max Miiller says on this head : " Frenchmen became the tutors of the sons of the German nobility. French manners, dresses, dishes, dances were the fashion everywhere. Ger- man poets learnt from French poets the subjects of their own romantic com- positions. The poetry, which florished at the castles, was soon adopted by the lower ranks." Thus were Paris, France, and the Franks the educators of Europe; but the Fatherland had her Otho von Freisingen, son of Leopold IV., Duke of Austria, and Agnes, daughter of the Twelfth Centttry. 213 Emperor Henry IV. This prince, bishop, and scholar studied and graduated at the University of Paris. He was a most erudite writer ; he left a chronicle in seven volumes from the Creation to his own time. He also wrote a life of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa. This Early German historian died A.D. 1158. His works were written in Latin, as nine-tenths of all books were at that period. A unique literary monument of filial affection greets us in this age : Anna Comnena, A.D. (1083-1148), wrote " Alexiad" a biography of her father, Alexis Comnenus, Emperor of Constan- tinople. Hear how the world of letters received this production : The Fatherland placed it in the "Byzantine Collection" which contains the gems of Greek literature. The French "Biographic Universelle " says : " This princess applied herself early to study, without neglecting other duties. While courtiers amused themselves, she conversed with the savants of the capital and became their rival in writing the life of her father. This work, divided into fifteen books, is written with warmth, and its style has eclat. She minutely describes the countenance, features, and size of every one of her personages. Cousin made an elegant French version of it, which is to be found in the fourth volume of the 'Byzantine Collection.' 1 " In 1651 an edition of it in folio was issued for the Louvre, with learned notes by David Hoeschelius. The English biographer Wright says : " Anna was esteemed the most learned female of her age ; she employed the last ten years of her life composing a history of her father's reign." The American biographer Thomas calls Anna "a princess of distinguished beauty, talents and learn- ing, and her Alexiad (in Greek) a remarkable work and one of great historic value, though it is sometimes disfigured by prejudice as well as by a pedantic style." She expressed an aversion for the princes of the crusades, and called the crusaders a barbarous people, unacquainted with the arts, manners, and refinements of the East, which was, no doubt, the truth ; she had occasion to see and know them at her father's court. At all events, her deline- ations of persons and things, being a woman's, are more minute and graphic than any man's would have been, and therefore much more valuable to posterity. In extenuation of the crusaders' un- couthness, which she so vividly describes, a less impulsive his- 214 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. torian would have added, that it was due to want of opportunities to acquire polish. Eustathius, Archbishop of Thessalonica, A.D. 1135-1200, pen- ned his celebrated Commentaries on Homer, Pindar, and Diony- sius Perigetes. Thus a princess and an archbishop addressed posterity in the language of Plato. Italy had her Gerard, sur- named Cremonensis (A.D. 1114-1187), who was an astronomer and orientalist ; he translated seventy- six works from Arabic into Latin. As the Arabic idiom was not only rich in poetry, history, and geography, but in most sciences, Gerard had a vast field for his nimble pen. He, no doubt, transferred into his Latin ver- sions many Arabic terms, that have since found their way into our modern tongues ; such as : almanack, algebra, alchemy, alco- hol, alcove, alkali, azimuth, azure, balcony, chemistry, gazel, gi- raffe, nadir, scarlet, zest, zenith, &c. Let us remember that the twelfth century was a period of translations and compilations with scarcely any original writings. Even the strains of the troubadours, minnesdngers, and skalds, were compilations that tended to diffuse classic language and literature ; straying as those bards did from castle to castle, from city to city, and from court to court, linguistic action and reaction was going on all over Europe and Western Asia. The scarcity and costliness of books and writing materials still continued, although a kind of paper, called "Charta bombycina" (sheet silken), was invented in the beginning of this century ; yet manufactories and mechanics were far behind the intellectual progress. In this era I must mention Abelard, theologian, philosopher, mathematician, and poet, who electrified the students of Paris by his eloquence and learning. Hallam tells us: "Abe- lard was almost the first who awakened mankind, in the age of darkness, to a sympathy with intellectual excellence." In this century the Petrobrusians, Albigenses, and Waldenses. under Peter de Bruys, Count Raymond of Toulouse, and Petei Waldo, merchant of Lyons, began to protest against clerical abuses and pretensions, accusing the priesthood of straying from the teachings of Christ and his Apostles. St. Bernard preached and wrote against them, charging them with belief in the Man- ichean heresy of two co-eternal and co-equal principles, perpetu- ally counteracting each other, which was considered as the worst Twelfth Century. 215 heresy ever conceived. Consequently, Peter de Bruys was burned at the stake in Languedoc, A.D. 1 147. This only increased the zeal of all concerned in this movement, which involved all Southern France. Pope Alexander III. convoked in vain a council at Tours, 1163. Innocent III. asked Philip Augustus to extirpate those heretics, which this short-sighted monarch attempted in vain, for protesting had begun and was repeated by Wickliffe, Huss, Jerome of Prague, Luther, Calvin, the Puritans, Quakers, &c., and ultimately triumphed. During these religious contro- versies, numerous translations of the Bible were made into the modern languages, commentaries multiplied, new words were coined from Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, dialects and languages interchanged and mixed. That sagacious scholar, J. VV. Draper, in his " Intellectual Development of Europe," p. 369, points to the real origin of protestantism, when he says : "In the south of France the intellectual insurrection fast took form." Thus the leading languages of Western Europe had achieved written ver- nacular thought by A.D. 1200; England, A.D. 600; Germany, A.D. 800; France, A.D. 900; Scandinavia, A.D. 1000; Spain, Portugal, and Italy, A.D. 1200. Modern thought had gradually visited those nations, and assumed in their native dialects a visible form in law, religion, or poetry. We are agreeably surprised to find that Russia, just christian- ized through the influence of the Greek princess Anna, had a painter named Alimpius, who so distinguished himself in sacred art at Kief, that the Russian clergy placed him among their saints. Hence, the Moscovites showed artistic progress at an early date and may claim a share in Medieval art. At this period the Moors of Spain had Thofail, who wrote "Hai-el Yokdan" (The Man of Nature), which was translated into Latin. Thofail seems to have been the Arabian Darwin of the twelfth century. Ibn-el-Awam penned a treatise on agricul- ture, which Banquery translated into Spanish. He was the Ara- bian Tusser. We must not omit the English monk, Adelard of Bath, who, after traveling extensively, wrote " De Natura Rerum" (On the Nature of Things), and translated the "Elements of Euclid " from Arabian into Latin, when the Greek text was un- known to scholars of Western Europe. He lived in the beginning of the twelfth century and was one of the earliest Medieval 216 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. orientalists. Thus did the Benedictine monks render themselves useful in England from the day Biscop started their order at Jarrow in the seventh century. We all know what a useful classic Euclid has been and is now in our schools. As we alluded to "Beowulf" and "Edda" which, by way of analogy, have been styled Anglo-Saxon Iliaxl and Icelandic Iliad, we must not omit tJhe " Nibelungen? an Old High-German poem, composed of thirty-nine "Adventures" of which Prof. Lachmann, Schlegel, Grimm, Heine, &c., speak with ecstasy. The heroes of this German Iliad are Attila, King of the Huns (A.D. 450), Giinther, King of the Burgundians, whose capital was Worms on the Rhine, and Siegfried, Prince of the Netherlands ; its heroine, Kriemhild, Giinther's daughter, who first wedded the noble Siegfried, and next Attila, in order to have an occasion to avenge herself upon the Burgundians, who murdered Siegfried. This epic of 6,000 lines is dated to the twelfth century by German critics. We infer from the names of its heroes, especially Attila (Etzel), and from its style, that parts of it were sung and recited in the Fatherland as early as the eighth century, and were only collected and written in the twelfth. As one opening and one closing stanza may give the Nibelungen's key-note, we quote from Lettsom's erudite trans- lation, which deserves every Gotho-Germanic student's perusal : " A dream was dreamt by Kriemhild the virtuous and the gay, How a wild young falcon she train'd for many a day, Till two fierce eagles tore it ; to her there could not be In all the world such sorrow as this perforce to see," &c. " The mighty and the noble there lay together dead; For this had all the people dole and drearihead. The feast of royal Etzel was thus shut up in woe : Pain in the steps of pleasure treads ever here below." The three Medieval landmarks, Beowulf, Edda, and Nibelun- gen, should be made classic among all nations of Gotho-Germanic descent. Their divinities, heroes, and heroines might be com- pared with those of the ancients and thus be made doubly inter- esting to learners. Extracts and Tables from Anglo-Saxon writings of the twelfth century, showing their style and the numeric origin of their vo- cabulary. They are from the "Saxon Chronicle," A.D. 1154, and the "Creed" of A.D. 1160. Twelfth Century. 218 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. r2 o s J.H M 41 C) r* * C ^ 1 1 s II S/ KjfJ O s-. <" I* 5 ^ ^ rt 1 1 ^^ ^ 13 a^ s s o > o < w s ^1 15 C O ' *" ll iP. D ^ S rough, in horney and .a s -s H _ rt ?! rt ^ h a. , ' N 9 iJ rt rt i| T3 3 g O "^ j? i CJ w S i^:-l s 8 T5 E S " C u ti rt i-" a rt .^ o i 1 1 I a 4J J2 " r> i) o jy 13 1 8 OJ c rt OJ u rt 's 's rt 13 rt i 1 g S 1/2 1 * -8 Og^^^^>.^>.-s,, (U U in B.| i S -C rt rt O ,H --^ a Twelfth Century. 219 hi ^' .y s i * 00 N 1 |i i fa 11 ^H e g-S a J 00 5: i f || 1 (j<3 U ^ < o y H ijj II o Illilll'slillilsl j? '"|sS-.| *g-ts-- of inherent 1 3 d g ^u "S u .. | O < < K i b u ;rt^3tijO(/i2'^^_G^ S '2 H SCYTHO- 2 3 1 E jj .? ?S 8 31 8 . Jjj.ss | ^^^ 3 y 3 i rt"w '-S-^^rt ^ -o s s "i - 17 s 1 s H v! a 220 Anglo-Saxon Period, A.D. 449-1200. EXTRACT : The Creed of A.D. 1 1 60. " Ic ileue in God the fader almihti scuppende and weldende of heouene and of orthe and of alle iscefte. and ich ileue on the helende crist. his enlepi sune. ure. lauerd. he is ihaten helende for he moncun helede of than dethliche atter. thet the olde deouel blou on adam and on cue and on al heore ofsprinke. swa swa thet heore fif-falde mihte horn wes al binumen. thet is hore lust, hore loking. hore blawing. hore smelling, heore feling wes aliattret." Extract from the Peterborough Chronicle for the year 1137. " Tha the suikes undergseton that he milde man was and softe and god and na iustise ne dide, tha diden hi alle wunder. Hi hadden him manred maked and athes suoren. ac he nan treuthene heolden. alle hi waeron forsworen. and here treothes forloren. for oeuric rice man his castles makede and agseneshim heolden and fylden the land ful of castles. Hi suencten suythe tha uurecce men of the land mid castelweorces. Tha the castles uuaren maked. tha fylden hi mid deoules and yvele men. Tha namen hi tha men the hi wenden that ani god hefden. bathe be nihtes and be doeies. caiimen and wimmen. and diden-heom in prisun efter gold and sylver. and pined heom untellendice pining, for ne uuceren nseure nan martyrs swa pined alse hi waeron. Me henged up bi the fet and smoked heom mid ful smoke, me henged bi the thumbes. other bi the hefed. and hengen bryniges on her fet. Me dide cnotted." 244 common words, among which The a of to from in with by Pronoun, ist per. 2d " " 3d " be, aux. occurs 12 times. have, aux. o " shall, u 6 " will, " o " may, ' o " do, u 2 " that 3 " and 4 3 " otl " 33 " 6 " i times. o " o " o " I 5 19 ct 95 other particles, 25 1 20 particles. Hence, the style of the twelfth century required about 244 common words to furnish 100 different words, and averaged about 49 per cent, particles and fifty-nine percent, repetitions. Twelfth Century. 221 1 I , > SM d *s w^i < e E 1 h u | fO '^ oj u- O C ^ ^ O 4J Urt W5 ^* V-rt*'***'* .c ^ Q ffi > w-s <;>-c -5 -cj'-p -| >r-5s e."| g 1 t^ A | : 1 1 s > s o j; . g ^"s S .. S ^ ^^ c >>-o w '" c "<< 2 "2 & FAMILY i'. S c " c 1 la ! Z 3 O I 4^ W^ GRECO-LATI 1 tin words: .2* kerent mea of lectures a vocabulary c a 8 -S S? , 4 ^> 3'S J Latin : lf1.ifl 'fill's Is .s **" '1 A l 'fit ^J w .. ^g X H 1 JJS 550 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from Sarah Josepha Hale's "Woman's Record" "Kamamalu (the name signifies 'The shade of the lonely one" 1 ) was the daughter of Kamehameha, King of the Sandwich Islands, who, from his con- quests and character, has been styled ' the Napoleon of the Pacific? Kama- malu was his favorite daughter, and he married her to his son and heir, Liholiho, who was born of a different mother, intermarriages of brother and sister being then practiced in those heathen islands. " After the death of Kamehameha, his son Liholiho succeeded to the King of Hawaii and all the islands of the group, and Kamamalu was his queen and favorite wife, though he had four others. This was in 1819. The following year was the advent of the Gospel and Christian civilization to these miserable heathen. As has ever been the case, women joyfully welcomed the glad tidings of hope and peace and purity. Kamamalu was among the first con- verts, and eagerly embraced the opportunities for instruction. In 1822 she was diligently prosecuting her studies, could read and write, and her example was of great influence in strengthening the wavering disposition of her hus- band, and finally inducing him to abandon his debaucheries and become, as he said, 4 a good man.' * As a proof of the wonderful progress made by this people in the manners of civilized life," &c. 199 common words, among which The occurs 21 times. have, aux occurs 2 times. a 3 " shall " * " of 14 " will * l M " to 4 may *' M " from (4 j do " It * in " 5 " that II " with ii and U 15 by i " Pro. ist person 2 d " ts) M p s st 2 1 a >* 1 j rt^i M 5 ^ ^ *^ ^i . 3 "* W) SJ 1 <; u _' jj 1 11 1 z 1 il|| a K g o 3 I i ]f|ii] ( B|lijj>iijijjii 11 hi O ^t "^'^rt c'fl vO** *>^ & rt ^ 9 -2 <5 &* OH s H u ! * |l H H "g 9 >^>* -^c^ &* C* A, **u r. ui> iiScrcJf > ""^^^** < >i .. liiJifrS'iillilflali * tc c ^-0=3 S PO< -0 u rt"3'a< > 2 i i SP, i H i .fa - 8-og * 1 3 rf|il| ^ I*'"*! -"* 8-l.i^ |a| sf 'ig 1 i 8 HH'HHrWIflfq*" 1 C Oi W y . c 1 -1 w .R 'iTifl i i ^ ,- 1 11 a K 32 8 H ^ 554 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from Longfellow's "Psalm of Life" " Tell me not in mournful numbers, * Life is but an empty dream ! ' For the soul is dead that slumbers, And things are not what they seem. Life is real ! life is earnest ! And the grave is not its goal ; Dust thou art, to dust returnest, Was not spoken of the soul. Not enjoyment, and not sorrow, Is our destined end or way ; But to act that each to-morrow Find us further than to-day. Art is long and time is fleeting, And our hearts, though stout and brave, Still like muffled drums are beating Funeral marches to the grave. In the world's broad field of battle, In the bivouac of life, Be not like dumb, driven cattle; Be a hero in the strife ! Trust no future, howe'er pleasant ; Let the dead past bury its dead 1 Act act in the living present, Heart within and God overhead. Lives of great men all remind us We can make our lives sublime, And, departing, leave behind us Footsteps on the sands of time. Footsteps that perhaps another, Sailing o'er life's solemn main," &c. 1 80 common words, among which The c a of to from in with by Pro. of ist person be, aux. 3 d 10 times. have, aux. 2 " shall, 5 " will, u 5 may, do, 5 that 2 and 8 i Ot 3 4 occurs o times, o " o o o 3 7 other particles, 24 79 particles. Hence, Longfellow's poetic style requires about 180 common words to fur- nish 100 different words, and averages about forty-four per cent, particles, and forty-four per cent, repetitions. Nineteenth Century. 555 LA- MILY : -SC MIL x "Me. .*.... CO 8 V r* < o uj > 2^ V 4-J > t/1 rt 3 g !-> bers Bf J 5 f S J r a SJ rl I I 556 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from Robert Dale Owen's "Footfalls on the Boundary of Another World" p. 48. " A large portion of the periodicals of the day have hitherto either wholly ignored the subject of ultramundane interference, or else passed it by with superficial and disparaging notice. After a time there will be a change in this. The subject is gradually attaining a breadth and importance, and win- ning a degree of attention, which will be felt by the better portion of the press, as entitling it to that respectful notice, which is due of a reputable op- ponent. And surely this is as it should be. Let the facts be as they may, the duty of the press and of the pulpit is best fulfilled, and the dangers, inci- dent to the subject, are best averted by promoting, not discouraging, inquiry ; but inquiry thorough, searching, sedulously accurate, and in the strictest sense of the term, impartial. "The first requisite in him, who undertakes such an investigation more important, even, than scientific training to accurate research is that he shall approach it unbiased and unpledged, bringing with him no favorite theory to be built up, no preconceived opinions to be gratified or offended, not a wish that the results," &c. 189 common words, among which The a of to from in with by Pronoun of ist person " 2 d " occurs be, aux. have, " shall, u will, " may, do, " that and 3d 16 8 9 o 3 2 3 o o 8 6 i 2 2 I O 3 7 times. 76 other particles, 24 100 particles. Hence, R. D. Owen's style requires about 189 common words to obtain loo different words, and averages about fifty-three per cent, particles and forty- seven per cent, repetitions. Nineteenth Century. 557 ! I It 8 ^ =3 Sa s j f! JnS 233 WMM | ( 1 - i *> fj ii SEMITIC i I'.. ^ c Hi JS! 33 U "^ i =i'i l-j'i' c | oc S -5 s i ?5 i s 6 < ~"" < " ow i N C1 H 1C s y 1 o -^ < o Cfl > I? U .^ C j- .. y C o g> s 1 1 - i. II U < IS ^ cS ^ i a 2 t> X ^3 . | 1 N I P n s 5 $ u 3j 1 "c "w^ 1 1 < u W *v a 'E'S t t> z J 3 -S " '5 .; H 1 a-5 li 3 H 0, 1 1 !:Nl-4i 3M hW|I i%y Gotho-Germ 4 7 art par tic L of inherent rty-seven per 1350, to Ower fc 3 X ~ '% O * ^||||||s| -11 i!J]"- B 1 3- 'w I'- 5 ? w '^ "8 8V fT 2 M S ^rf 1-^d I >. |||.||||^ 9 ^ 3 J ^cji o" o "h, - _ < ! " 3 c*^ a " . " SCO-LATIN French : Si's 4p|i I! ^ 8 I 3 ! B- ' fi U .Li S 8 U 1 B-3-O^.Sd B2 &.2- i! ,; g u'E niw||i|| III V '.1 e g! a 'IIP Greco- Lat, ivords of inh( I's " Vision of se twenty per 8. ctf c 2 < I i' Elilic 3 fjjIP averted promoting .jp.liilmi.ilv "ss-S 3 2 1i 2 1 * Langl; reco-Latm 3* O 558 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from Marsh's "Lectures on the English Language" P- *33- " The causes which have led to the adoption of so large a proportion of foreign words, and at the same time produced so important modifications in the signification of many terms originally English, are very various. The most obvious of these are the early christianization of the English nation, a circumstance not always sufficiently considered in the study of our linguistic history ; the Norman conquest ; the crusaders ; and especially the mechanical industry and commercial enterprise of the British people, the former of which has compelled them to seek both the material for industrial elaboration, and a vent for their manufactures in the markets of the whole Earth ; the latter has made them the common carriers and brokers of the world. With so many points of external contact, so many conduits for reception of every species of foreign influence, it would imply a great power of repulsion and resistance in the English, if it had not become eminently composite in its substance and in its organization. In fact it has so completely adapted itself," &c. 171 common words, among which The occurs 19 times. a u 4 " of M H " to U 2 " from U " in H 7 " with (i i " by u ' Pronoun, ist person 1 " " 2d " U " 3d " u 9 u be, aux. ( " have, " II 5 " shall, " it kt wiU, u II i " may, M U do, t '* that u " and II 7 " 70 other particles, 17 87 particles. Hence, Marsh's style requires about 171 common words to furnish 100 different words, and averages about fifty-one per cent, particles and forty-one per cent, repetitions. Nineteenth Century. 559 s & ii N\0 0>N M I Kg M * M 8 i 1 4 i S 8-8 STj-C 4 111} gfi^^ .Sada J a8 ^s-=s ifmjfliiimflEjlU reco-Latin 58* inherent m S6o English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from Horatio Seymour's Speech before the Democratic State Convention at Albany, March n, 1868. " If the assaults from without are never resisted, and the rottenness and mining from within are never guarded against, who can preserve the rights and liberties of the people, when they shall be abandoned by themselves ! Who shall keep watch in the temple, when the watchmen sleep at their post ? Who shall call upon the people to redeem their possessions and revive the republic, when their own hands have deliberately and corruptly surrendered them to the oppressor, and have built the prisons or dug the graves of their own friends? Let us then appeal to the virtue of our people. I believe that now they ponder by their firesides upon the time, when under Democratic rule we had honest officials, economy in affairs, and a cvn-rency of sterling coin. I believe their hearts are stirred with indignation at the outrages now per- petrated at Washington. Let us, then, write in letters of gold the words honor, honesty, economy, upon one side of the folds of our flags, and upon the other, freedom of speech and an independent judiciary. Then lift our standard high and march on. The path of honor is the path to victory. " 195 common words, among which The a of to from in with by Pron. of ist per. " 2d ' " 3 d " be, aux. have, shall, will, may, do, that and 19 times. 2 9 4 2 3 3 i 8 o 10 4 2 3 o o o I 10 Si other particles, 29 no particles. Hence, Governor Seymour's style requires about 195 common words to obtain 100 different words, and averages about fifty-six per cent, particles and forty-eight per cent, repetitions. Nineteenth Century. 561 | SEMITIC FAMILY '. ~*^ rOHMHH |8 c f-&i < f < ,dj C5 ; 2 1 ti (A 5 Jjl^olll* j ] 1 ? SH ^2." PS g "^ 1 < o 1 1 ^O c L - -g >> g>-i 3 1 H 3 I" M . jo * s 5 S ^ is ^ ^ B *" fc s * g 5 1 & c o . i ^2 * ^ * & * % *^ b o 5 -r 1 1 ^ 1 S 1 | S <5 s J TyndalFs " known and po] NGUAGES : GERMANIC FAM] i -'S * manic words : 52 s, leaving only / meaning. 1 i* 3 b | 1 l!iA|=iillisJill ! 11 5 f " O 6 i **^ * 3 ~ 1 ^^ ^ l| M g s i X ^ w "S '>T3&*^ k'fl 3 e ^ c w $ Q x ? H o"^--.'So c >g rt *g^gEu > 8S. a -8.^> ' * < v -E g4J| ^ i 1 A.TO-SCI I FAMIL &.mi 5 = 5 S % 5 !JS> H K^ S g si u r< i 1 5.. "I 1 * "i 1 1 " I M . ^) 8 w ? 8 co ^ > ' h ^ N ^ % r^4 ^* rt , E i*' ^^ ANGUAGE: :RMANIC FAMI JfH*lMi " 10 -3 > L I 9* Uj 3^ i H 9 i g "^ "* fa 6 5 ^^utn Si^ d b !y *> ^ J 1 * X. .3 a B VTHO-GOT* 1 ijjlijfli^jiji-pj! S ti'** ^) rt tl U ^ ^ 3 i $ S a sil 2 il1lllili s - s 1i|l O oa 2 w t * .1 1 French : S : 1 1 rl g-dgS-ljaS Jrf.d-slaS&d ^ -4 8 ELASGIC * 2'^ 8 K ^ > J i 1 E I i llSliii , s as 1 .! a u 2 ^ " *3*^2eriQ.rt 9 5 1 b, s S ^. 3 || 568 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from "Practice of Medicine" by T. H. Tanner, M.D.> F.L.S., $th American Ed., p. 521, 1872. " Bronchitis, inflammation of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes, is one of the most common of the pulmonary diseases which come under the notice of the practitioner. Bronchitis (from Bpovxos the windpipe ; termi- nal it is) may be acute or chronic, and one or both lungs may be affected throughout, or only a portion of these organs usually the upper lobes, &c. The chief symptoms consist of fever, a sense of tightness or constriction about the chest, sternal pain or tenderness, hurried respiration with wheezing, severe cough, and expectoration at first of a viscid glairy mucus, which sub- sequently becomes purulent. The pulse is frequent and often weak ; the tem- perature in the axilla varies from 99.5 to 102 ; the tongue is furred and foul, and there is headache, together with lassitude, sickness, and often much mental uneasiness or even great anxiety. Inflammation of the larger and medium-sized tubes is attended by less severe symptoms, and is much less destructive to life than general and capillary bronchitis," &c. 159 common words, among which The occurs 15 times. a u 3 (c of t< 10 u to M 2 u from II 2 II in 1C I with II 2 by II I II Pro. of ist person 14 u 2 d " If (( 3 d " II M Be, aux. II 2 II have, " II (( shall, " II M will, " II el may, II 2 u do, " if II that u ft and 7 u 47 other particles, 22 69 particles. Thus, Dr. Tanner's didactic medical style requires about 159 common words to obtain 100 different words, and averages forty-three per cent, par- tides, and thirty-seven per cent, repetitions. Nineteenth Century. 569 *. 11 ** i i %. I 2 FAMIL sl-=' >_. 11.8' 1*4 n ay HI ?* 1*12 l^ ? = 1*1 !li! B 1 =5 J ^ Iffi 11 5/0 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from Prof. W. D. Whitney's "Language and the Study of Language" "It is not national prejudice that makes us claim for English literature, in respect to variety and excellence, a rank second to none. We can show, in every or nearly every department, men who have made our English tongue say what no other tongue has exceeded. ** This is not, however, the only test. We cannot but ask also how our lan- guage is fitted to admit and facilitate that indefinite progress and extension of thought and knowledge to which we look forward as the promise of the future. Has it all the capacity of development which could be desired for it ? In their bearing upon this inquiry, two of its striking peculiarities the two most conspicuous, in the view of the historical student of language call for special notice : namely, its uninflective or formless character, and its composition out of two somewhat heterogeneous elements, Germanic and Romanic. " Both these peculiarities have been made the subject of repeated reference in our discussions hitherto. For its poverty in formative elements, for its tendency to monosyllabism, for its inclusion of many parts of speech in the same unvaried word, we have compared English more than once with Chinese. But we must beware of misapprehending the scope and reach of the com- parison." 201 common words, among which The occurs 10 times. a i of 12 to 5 in it 6 from M with i ii by Pronoun of 1st person " 9 2d " 3 d U ( 10 be, aux. II 3 i< have, " 4 ii shall, " (I ii will, " H o ii may, " M ii do, " N that 2 Ii and (( 7 M 70 other particles, 34 104 particles. Hence, Prof. W. D. Whitney's style requires about 201 common words to furnish 100 different words, and averages about fifty-one per cent, particles and fifty per cent, repetitions. Nineteenth Century. 571 wS < .| C/l ^ b JTcn JJ H H O ^ L) O H^CJ i c p^ ^ s H fci *5 ^ 1 i "en ei' OO 53 H " ^j A 2 9 .41 i! *4 S > S c? o ^ ^> ^ .. SB 3 S he 8 o H O-GOTHO-GER 1 1 "'Otho- Germa; 5 rticles, leavin nteani B P ^ U) , % . 4J rt H en g'^.^^ 3^*j c? H ( wioJ<^fego'crt B! ^4;'^S-G t ^M ^x J3 PH > , s s 1^ J - 5] 1 Germanic words : 42 i are particles, leaving rds of inherent mean- O'I-IQ 4->inV' /1 ' O u =3 C *J s. **" ijpiyiiij^ji < U ^j ^ 8 J H & j , 2 .^iIplMlnI "* _e S '11* E u c > a 110 . i .11 * x p ^ S i PM S I jj i ^ d ^tgt.-g^>, i A 2 ^ g.^2"S S"c*S (/'a'*' S u-S'-sl^ c ^ S < z s E 2v23'c Q.O E o."f = o E c'Sj-s^g 3 I 1 s it>.| i^fS^lfi" 1 ? .S 8 | rt 8 1 s o d Illl|i1l : l11||ifllll 1* K ^ k I Q.S cO g^*Q'5*O'^^'^ ) ^*fi w3 v. ." 3 ^ S M >0 M ^MBa-OM -0 o 1 i gl^lS-i.aJ.lrflilbl ^ | a ">D^t2'^'^'^5^ < UGe> W t "? 8,8-8 'Mftll 1 4 I 1 574 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from the li London Times" of December 5, 1863. *'The number of suggestions, which have lately appeared in our columns on the condition of the destitute poor of London, prove at once the magnitude of the evil and the extent of the efforts made to remedy it. It is really sur- prising to see how many various agencies for this purpose come to light, when attention is once called to the subject. They work beneath the surface of society in unknown homes of poverty ; their labor is almost unobserved, be- cause, alas ! when considered as a whole, almost ineffective ; and we forget their existence in ordinary times, as we forget the poverty itself. Besides the workhouses and the ordinary relief of the parish Clergyman, we have Refuges, Homes, Societies for the relief of the distressed, Institutions for distressed workpeople, and all manner of minor agencies for distributing and organizing charity. It was, indeed, not unreasonably suggested in the letter of "A London Curate" in a recent impression, that these agencies are too numerous and various. It may be that they work in too disconnected and haphazard a way, and fling largesses broadcast every winter," &c. 181 common words, among which The occurs 15 times. a " 4 M of 8 " to " 4 " from " II in " 6 II with " II by " Pro. of ist person " 4 " u 2d M " 3^ " 7 II be, aux. " 4 M have, " " i " shall, " " " will, " " " may, i " do, " that " 2 " and 8 f| 64 other particles, 25 89 particles. Hence, the style of the London Times requires about 181 common words to obtain 100 different words, and averages about forty-nine per cent, particles, and forty-five per cent, repetitions. Nineteenth Century. 575 hi '* g ^pu s -SB w s 31 la SEMITIC 1 1 1^ .. " -^i-i.. = 3 d5 %% 'll'&l'I.'l ti < * K? M > y ^ > |j i ^ - L s * s 5 1 3 1 s o 1 CO > ^ M d N O S 5J < 1 U S 1 8 - 1 ! rHO-GERM. ' H| g 1 * -| 4 II "^ v ** 3 ^ S X ^ rt \PHETIC 1 1 1 Hi^^iiii-lpniiiil of which 22 > O -o >- 3 CTJ 2 M FAMILY : i O 3 | | 1 big^.^s-ls..^ |s 1| st. i' 1 O " Ipi^FflpflPlllfl! 1 is! (* K . 1 lilliliffliiil , H 8 8 |1 0: 11|s%| 1 ' 1 i 5/6 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from the "New York Herald" March 31^ 1870. " PROCLAMATION OF THE FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT NOW FOR A UNIVERSAL AMNESTY. " Upon the final passage of the bill yesterday for the restoration of Texas, the last of the list of the late Southern rebellious confederacy, the President promptly issued his proclamation of the ratification of the fifteenth amend- ment to the national constitution, establishing equal suffrage through all the length and breadth of the land to citizens of all races and colors, and regard- less of previous condition of servitude. " The right of the citizen, therefore (male, above the age of twenty-one), to vote in all our political elections, white man, black man, yellow man or red man, is fixed in the supreme law of the land, and North, South, East, and West the politicians of all parties will actively begin to cultivate the colored element in view of the balance of political power eight hundred thousand voters which it commands. The negro question is thus definitely settled en the broad basis of civil and political equality." 164 common words, among which The occurs 21 times. a ii I N of M 18 , to II 4 " from U tl in U 2 it with (4 44 by it " Pro. of ist person II (4 1 ' 2d " " M " 3d " " 2 II be, aux. " 2 ll have u II " shall n tl tl will " ct I (4 may " " H do u it M that H and i 6 M 57 other particles, 9 66 particles. Hence, the New York Herald's style requires about 164 common words to obtain 100 different words, and averages about forty per cent, particles, and thirty-nine per cent, repetitions. Nineteenth Century. 577 0-SEMI- : TYPE : '1C FAMILY I -'"*H l| H 1 "i'l II 3> s -il'li ud ^ c^-< U " i! 1 OS 2 10-* < U5 > u g s u < 6. O J O n oo | I oo ^- 1 1| w U .. s S LANGUAGE THO -GERMAN: 1 j| fe ^ - c | 2SJ O \ ^^ s i g u c'i^j-gs'Si'c'S'S'o^'i i ^ .-o | u b """tJ c **" 3 S"" 1 S a" 13 ^ rt ^S rt w & - 8 - - c-S s CJ s o i | 1 - W r> . ARIO-JA] LATIN FAMILY I 1 1 I Q ^ 1 ^ U E 8 O O 3 " Greco-Latin words of inker * 6 "si- s ~- z? 1 < 5 i 111 I'll t- S 3 3 Ci* u *^ i E ^ 578 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from the "New York Weekly Tribune" Nov. 22, 1871. HORACE GREELEY'S OPENING EDITORIAL. "The consolidation of Italy, so long fragmentary and impotent, into one powerful State, with Rome as its capital ; the humiliation of France through a series of crushing defeats, ending with the siege and capitulation of her proud and gay metropolis ; the expulsion of the Bourbons from the Spanish throne, and the substitution for them of a scion of the most liberal among royal houses; the virtual absorption of the kingdoms of Saxony, Hanover, Bavaria, with Baden, Hesse, the Hanse Towns, &c., under the headship of Prussia, into the triumphant and powerful empire of North Germany ; and the arming of Russia to re-assert her preponderance in the councils of Europe, or to prosecute her often postponed, but never relinquished designs on the great city founded by Constantine, and the vast but decaying and anarchical dominion of the Sultan, all combine to invest with profound interest the ever-changing phases of our tidings from the Old World. The Tribune, through trusted correspondents stationed at all points in Europe, where great movements are in progress or imminent, aims to present a complete and instructive panorama of events on that continent, and to mirror," &c. 170 common words, among which The occurs 1 8 times. a ii 3 " of ii 15 " to (4 4 " from U 2 " in 14 2 " with a 4 " by II I " Pronoun, ist person u I " 2d Ct " " 3d a 4 " be, aux. " have, ' a " shall, ' II " will, ' u " may, ' II " do, ii " that u I " and 14 10 " 65 other particles, 17 82 particles. Hence, Greeley's style required about 170 common words to furnish 100 different words, and averaged about 48 per cent, particles and forty-one per cent, repetitions. m */* #^ Century. 579 .. jig a 1 I ?s i M rr ? MMH !8 'll og y ? w s 9 Q S .. g -|.s S .. ocSo lite . t. 1 6 2> n 03 0. y H _ 3 1 f ii 1 t/T \* ! w s "rt \ ! ^ i | M 1 f o >* >3 B V) j | _j , < ^ J . * 1 fc 1 ss^ o '* M r2 li ts : TYPE o 9 | i {MJh^Mjii M v "is 4 !1 II si a X 4 c3 '* 5> ""&) a i 1 K 1 o m " rt g 2 52 : s > T S t m + i jj i| il || K Z H I French : words : nt meaning. II -PELASGIC OR GRE Greco-Latin 58* 1 words of inhere Press of the Engli lated to decrease I i o *^ i \ rt 1 H B*f !2 c WO"S B ilfttllf8lift Ifi- PPIIlr M * Thus th reading is calc 580 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from Tennyson's "Ode to Memory" " Large dowries doth the raptured eye To the young spirit present, When first she is wed ; And like a bride of old In triumph led, With music and sweet showers Of festal flowers, Into the dwelling she must sway. Well hast thou done, great artist memory, In setting round thy first experiment With royal frame-work of wrought gold, Needs must thou dearly love thy first essay, And foremost in thy various gallery Place it, where sweetest sunlight falls Upon the storied walls ; For the discovery And newness of thine art so pleased thee, That all, which thou hast drawn of fairest Or boldest since but lightly weighs With thee unto the love thou bearest. The first born of thy genius, artist like, Even retiring thou dost gaze On the prime labor of thine early days ; No matter what the sketch may be ; Whether the high field or the bushless Pike, Or even a sand-built ridge," &c. 157 common words, among which The a of to from in with by Pronoun, ist per. 2 d " " 3 d be, aux. occurs 10 times. 2 6 I o 3 3 o o 12 3 i have, aux. occurs 2 times. shall, " o will, " o may, " i do, " 2 that I and 3 50 other particles, 23 73 partic Hence, Tennyson's poetic style requires about 157 common words to obtain 100 different words, and averages about forty-seven per cent, particles and thirty-six per cent, repetitions. Nineteenth Century. 581 aii \ .y i ll ARIO-SE TICTYP SEMITIC FAM Hebrew H i \- :- .. Jreco-Latin. jotho-Germa d-S Semitic we i. 1 SARMATO-SCLA- VONIC FAMILY I 'JIiillllll 27 per cent. ( 71 " ( H H Gotho-Germanic twelve hundred y< ur nine styles cff ?s II I 'o. - i a.S.g fif c .. 1 sketch, n. .1 i 1 H Ti M S - I ! H f inherent if ^"i JGUAGES 1C FAMILY 1 2 _, w "S -o JJ. rll s -ill s ^ > ^ V S J - ^ . ^ 1 1 1 s idi IIO-GERMAN 1 lj^!iiiill1 jlWfMt|i| >>0 rt ej o - 1 'l ll | 1j.fl ^ CO* ^ 111 M S S H j s 1 sweet X > tn j _ 3 - 4^ ^0^ 4> ^ , > > o fji II \\ ," A.D. 68 oetic style Dtho-Germ -JAPHET | ^slllljlll^ i-] 1 of which 3 Mi O FAMILY : ij H * ill GRECO-LAT^ I ^s T i! t tin words 7* \erent meant c ^s u a "H ~w 8 3*? 584 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from President Granfs Inaugural Address* March 4, 1869. "CITIZENS OF THE UNITED STATES: " Your suffrages having elected me to the office of President of the United States, I have, in conformity with the Constitution of our country, taken the oath of office prescribed therein. I have taken this oath without mental reservation, and with the determination to do, to the best of my ability, all that it requires of me. " The responsibilities of the position I feel, but accept them without fear. The office has come to me unsought ; I commence its duties untrammeled. I bring to it a conscientious desire and determination to fill it to the best of my ability to the satisfaction of the people. On all leading questions agitat- ing the public mind I will always express my views to Congress, and urge them according to my judgment, and when I think it advisable, will exercise the constitutional privilege of interposing a veto to defeat measures which I oppose. But all laws will be faithfully executed, whether they meet my ap- proval or not. "I shall on all subjects have a policy to recommend, none to enforce,' against the will of the people. Laws are to govern all alike those opposed to as well," &c. \ 198 common words, among which The occurs 17 times. have, aux. occurs 4 times. a 3 " shall, U ft j tt of 9 " wiU, 3 " to 14 " may, ' " o " from " o " do, u ' ** in i " that I " with " 2 " and 4 by " O _r Pro. of ist per. " 2 d " " 16 ^ k rt rt S ^S 1 .. 1 ."il fa 3 ^ s; ""t 1 u ^ 6 1 ") bfl a 1 B 3 C ^ >>J3 ^ ^ ^H (o tn o 3C-,=3a-^_-rrtJGrt.y?rt a "^ ^ o cs c . a -^ o-g VB o^ c_j-- f= ',5 ^-^^2 L!3 wuOg^ort^a t S o | 8 1 - B'5 rt ^ > S rt ? ? K fc ^ y, g g* H *l|||fl.9|||||il-| ! ai-*ll j| 1 U 43 -S 'g ^ y 8 B ,& .-a . d ARIO-JAP FAMILY I - 1 g X B V s g fg 5 ^2 8 illf' 53'S'ifr8i g s.g sS'l c ''^ fi --" ^ 1 i OR GR ai^||jli|p!! : |lpl|i|tl ls ^ o ^ ! U i ..- g u 1 1 "S M> S a ^1 *o ? I "o u "w .-2 3 T S G ' -S 2* 9 3 'c3$!j5(5s lu o > -|"| 1 i' 586 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from Queen Victoria's Address to Parliament, February 6, 1866.* "My LORDS AND GENTLEMEN: " It is with great satisfaction that I have recourse to your assistance and advice. " I have recently declared my consent to a marriage between my daughter, Princess Helena and Prince Christian of Schleswig Holstein Sonderbourgh- Augustenburg. I trust this union may be prosperous and happy. " The death of my beloved uncle, the King of the Belgians, has affected me with profound grief. I feel great confidence, however, that the wisdom, which he evinced during his reign, will animate his successor, and preserve for Belgium her independence and prosperity. u My relations with foreign powers are friendly and satisfactory, and I see no cause to fear any disturbance of the general peace. The meeting of the fleets of France and England in the ports of the respective countries has tended to cement the amity of the two nations, and to prove to the world their friendly concert in the promotion of peace. "I have observed with satisfaction that the United States, after terminating successfully the severe struggle in which they were so long engaged, are wisely repairing the ravages of civil war. The abolition of slavery is an event call- ing," &c. 178 common words, among which The occurs 17 times. have, aux occurs 4 times. a u 2 ti shall, u u o " of u II 1 1 will, u u I " to M 6 (i may, l< I " from (I < do, <( " in " 3 u that u 3 " with U 4 ti and t( 6 " by <( u Pro. of ist person ii u 79 2 d " II i II other particles, ii " 3 d " If 7 M be, aux It 2 H 90 particles. Hence, Queen Victoria's diplomatic style requires about 178 common words to furnish 100 different words, and averages fifty per cent, particles and 44 per cent, repetitions. * As every word in a document like this is considered and studied by the author, and eagerly canvassed by every Englishman who can read, it is one of the fittest linguistic representatives of its day, especially referring, as it does, to domestic and State affairs. Nineteenth Century. 587 a rf 3 | Eog i S5:^ WHCI | 8 .jj| IP 1 5 |.. |.| 52 _c aj 5J3 " UOcj <: " $1 K c"S o g 2-g . Sells i- = Is ft*- ii H a> B | sH ^ > T ^ 5 S"3> * oi il ^ 1 I ^ .. Oi 8 ^ >' g I 8 H If" 1^ c/5 i 3 3 S 1 !l O y . 1 J1 < 2 X > ^ * ^ ^ R P 2 D^ ^"t^bJC f\2 1 "' bO- * *** r ^> "^ O K i5c^flj-Tc.S*2S^o t *i^w c ^ m tt H - rt ^ 1 pf.fi S rt vJ5 p rt ^'S ^ g ^ H %* 3 I 1 ^ ^ sl 1 1 x cfe ^ 1 a| E 8 rth-. ^ o 3 rt ^-|,.!2 ^.g^- > s"^ SJia ^ .H 1 E s ^ErS { f, ||^s>;-s^ |^^||| o js e 1 | i 1 * 5 i K 1 .. t < > e -^ i 1 C13 y ifl-3.1>T3 > g 4)"-2'u[3 4>"Sc_ o O-LATIN I ii|flP|pji|!iyp|fp 1 1 1 o K 1 1 PI! Pi ii l-sllsll llll . J S "TV* ^ 5 O "i/? S^'co'^xn? S'^ ^ ^-Js^^o h/i^c 3 fejo at Q^ ^ ^ ^ < y jr1_2fi_^ * rt * g^sji? II < > u g 5P ^ ^> | S a IslllSlll! - | o H M 3"^^ "''1 " 8 E * ' -^ a a i 1 588 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. After closing our analysis with England's Queen, it is but fair we should mention here one of England's bravest daughters, Mrs. Behoni, whose presence cheered her husband's arduous explora- tions in Egypt, which added to the British Museum its finest relics : the colossal head, styled the Young Memnon, the Alabaster Sarco- phagus, &c. As she was long among Moslem women, she wrote an interesting sketch of their manners, customs and mode of life, which, being a unique acquisition to English literature, deserves attention and perusal. While in Brussels, 1849 an d 1850, we became acquainted with Mrs. Belzoni, who, the day before our departure, came and invited my wife and me to take tea with her. We were the only guests. As she ever took a warm interest in archeologic researches and discoveries, we conversed freely about them. She spoke of Gliddon and his writings on Egyptian anti- quities, then added : " I was with my husband during his arduous labors in Egypt and traversed the Holy Land with only a guide ; now I have but one desire, which is to visit America, in order to see Niagara and those Indian Mounds, described by Davis and Squier." From such conversation, on the part of one nearly "three score and ten," may be inferred, that she was still young in mind. Thus the evening had passed delightfully, and we were about taking leave, when she asked me in a most winning manner : " Doctor, will you do me a favor ?" As I had previously given her medi- cal advice, I thought her request was of a professional character. " Certainly, madam, I will do anything in my power for you." " Then you will accept this hand : I have borne it about me for twenty- two years, in remembrance of my husband and his discoveries." " I am the last man to deprive you of so precious a relic." " But you just now said you would do anything in your power for me ; it is certainly in your power to receive it as a memento of me." " As such, madam, I will gratefully accept and keep it." It was the hand of the mummy of the Egyptian priestess her husband found in the tomb of Psammuthis, 1818, to which she added manuscripts and diagrams of Egyptian Freemasonry ; then she seized a pen and wrote on them : " My unlettered Theory.' 1 ' 1 The mummy of the priestess is in the Brussels Museum, minus the right hand. Those interesting relics are now in my posses- sion. In 1851 I was delighted to learn, that Parliament had granted her an annual pension of ;ioo. ORIGIN OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. " Language is the armory of the human mind, containing at once the trophies of the past, and the weapons for its future conquests." COLERIDGE. BEFORE we could reach the origin of the English language, we had to trace its progress from the earliest written document, King Ethelbert's Code of Laws, A.D. 597, showing ninety-four per cent. Anglo-Saxon and six per cent. Greco-Latin to the "Constitution of the United States," 1789, numbering but thirty- six per cent. Anglo-Saxon and sixty-two per cent. Greco-Latin. As we advanced in this long vista of thirteen centuries, we noticed the linguistic and literary progress by pointing out numerous authors and events that stimulated thought, language, and liter- ature ; even a new discovery in art or science, whether in or out of England, was mentioned in its place and time, so as to indicate when and how ideas and words came into England's idiom. Any movement that favored intellectual activity, or betokened mental stagnation, was eulogized or stigmatized. Any author, whose writings influenced Europe's advancement, finds a grateful tribute in these pages, showing the cream and essence of linguistic lore, now to be found in the English language, as set forth in our fifty Tables of the English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. The expansion of the English-speaking populations is mentioned en passant. Thus only could we fully and properly portray the workings of the Anglo-Saxon, Franco-English, and English mind from A.D. 597 to 1878. Only in this English period, when the language has passed through its various transitions, can we trace its origin from the fifty Tables, numbering 5,000 words, among which par- ticles like the, of, and, &c., occur each fifty times ; so other words are repeated among the 5,000. We therefore again drop repeti- tions, and only retain different words, as may be observed in the following columns of Ultimate Totals and percentages, that irre- vocably prove the origin of the English language : 590 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. 5 s ^ ^ I I s g ilJim.cliiirsfagJllf-yi 3 a- 8 6 |i UiiifillliPiffMlIlP llsllliljiiilllll s-^ < 8 * "II If si Nineteenth Century. 591 i S22 11 8J N Cornish : j 1 cJ I 00 Danish: 1 d ll s^ssS- ub^ rt*u = 'jj..g c^sS" SJiSw < a* Jjb >. o-^ c i= s 8:l'l a o.'s-g-a'l 8 eJ S & O M fj VO tj.W Ov O H N vr, vo tj. -a lioo c5 d o d d> d H N i >0 O . c A M ci d do 592 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. g altll.flllbS-s.iSJiti *' o bjj< us E tiw "" 3 d> d M ei co -4- tovd ii illiiiffillllsJil 3 a c'S'O S h S.a ft 9-e n^ a s ivin sect 6. dialec B.S O H ga<5|-a-igs^ i-sl l-ie^l 1 u t^OT d d o" d d d d d d o'-g g o d *N ^ CO CO CO CO CO CO^ C0% CO 5- Nineteenth Century. 593 i it Armortc: 1 i 13 | 1 * * i i 1 i i i II 4 i 4 s, (^ ^M Cf) s^lllifi; ,a i & 59 6 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. M li Nineteenth Century. 597 1 N - j - a 3 & oo k - 1 f> 1 N Cornish : H Danish : . I 00 1 I - Swedish : (1 Gothic : 598 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. WP e 38 el 93 ^y 5S 2g B5 tiiliiiiilJiiiii "mi i HI wi Nineteenth Century. 599 II, ^fjll S e - 5 'B' illll 6oo B English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. y ii [l||olll||l|||||l|-^ 41 o P. "O J co -4- >o \o i^oo d\ 6 _ j3 Nineteenth Century. 601 i i 1 1 1* 81 1 } 1 { t . . . ... lO^O t^ 00 O M N ro * >0 O f. J-2 If > d> < _.T3-d Jill 2'i--g D.O, 2 rt h.f ? - iS g* w'S- a W ^^S g ^"8 5 a^c ^ S v. S3 S-a S a 3-- 'C fi C.S ^'7 >>s u-c " rt s.1 fe l Il-ls I s'&l aj-^i gfs ||| g ^^^^ f-s^-l-s^^ "a-ac* 8? ^ I 1 1 1 HUl-if ill I'ill I I'ltlllll Illl i 11 I I 1 2 RO^I-8*|i P |||:i|p4||ipfi g8 8 j a M ft "" . w 1 co4tr> \d A oo^d*fo4 io\c5 t>. rt M M M M M H M d t< M O C< ^ X e "3 " [ w 5) Nineteenth Century. 603 s ? 6-a !isi.iil 'Slt'Sg^fi-d'Sg 1 B ll Illiliil1l&l o li is 604 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. M N jo 4 jo \o N. -5^ a. j g-sU S 1-3 2 * li ts-l g 1 ill III niii k-s ^.s 1-l| il 84 sJil ." ?ii| J 1 Sl-li n I '5 :3 'a8y )in w-S^S.S 1 ''" 353 ^ .P - o I i- 8 Nineteenth Century. 605 riw- rorc 1 I i s s> .2 o s o o j= s I 3 """ 10*0 t>.c o\ d H cl fo 4- iovo till I 1 Il oS- 2-e^ =1 1.3'SS *L. ilHlI fi S 5 '<" ^"B C d 53 I 5g y 00 J .. , B 00 M 5 "^ ^ *S M H rn H v 1 3 - 8 - ^ s 1 1 " 1 " I CO 3f s c^ G y 5 *$ CO 1 j: |> 0^ I 1 CO 8 i M W 2 a ^ ** O ^ h w *O fcj H i 1 8 ; ; '1 1- 1 H ^T U "S ? ^LJ: ^ Vk PH 1 *s < 9 2 P t> *< '! K u ^ * v> o i fe u c*; i TJ- 3 y 1 - g b HRACO-PELA ro f Sslllll IBS Ni 1.* j'lll'iil. i H * ^ ^ 1 '5 B i^J R Nineteenth Century. BS ll d d g -o Sis >> > o| *% ' t ' "g o" o I o d d d 0-3 S.S" o 6 1 -<} uS\d tiod dS d H N M ^ io\o tiod ON d M N A 4 invd t^-oo d\ d f^l fp rorofOforo^-^t- ^i-Tf^^^-^-^-^io od d>d H vd t^-OO ON CJ M cJ fO ^l 4 c ti *^ ^ > t^ '' rt a 6 M pi m 4 too t^oo" d> d ^ ' ro 4 to >d H MMMMM _, MNNNPI W s'JJS&do'd ilsl d S d d\ d w N ro 4 too' r^.od f =? pj? ~l-3^ -^ d d| d d | d d |-| d d d d d d d d d d d d d d| "| 1 6"! ^ d S o' M c5 rn 4 n^ txoo oS d cJ w 4 >ovo t^od o d H ro 4 too' txoo d^ d M M *> 4 608 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Sw y H 2 00 i d p, c5 d o - ' f8 d S^.SS d g s I'-o rt ^ Nineteenth Century. 609 SUMMARY : xhnuuaui }U3jaq 'sapi -ui jo spaoM -j^d' 6jiz ti 'S;' 8 "$ S^ ^ M M ) 1 iy wo< C/}>! y> H J yvu/C$ *co ozviuvu.y M O O N ! & l| ir 3S SCLAVONIC FAMILY : uvjssny M O O O - Sclavonic word : i. i IfSMMJ M - .% 8 1 W^s M O M O N S S; q, ^ 3 u WI ro M o VO - . 11 4 j 5 4 3 i utj. y M | ^. WAI 00 00 N M ON t *. C/3 H npuvjyyj M M P) 1 a 8 N << S3 is nWD M M M rO 11 ^> C i < K ifstpyats N M O M $ 1 fc H 2 ystutvj O M H 1- n* E s 2 K I w*a xj- M CO 00 r | B H 9 o uvtuAaf) 00 M H O fO ro c3 ^ O O k i o 1 uoxv^-ojSuy ? E> - a V? s\ i s 3sdn3n.jj.oj H O H 6 i J s uvjjvfj M O M N H u, z -ynuvfs Tf H N O ^ hi <: j yyuuji 1 % ? * "* i" 1 ^ M B UlfV'f ^ g* ? N ro i y^9 M o O O 2 q H 2S; I j . : Jill! S(U II ll ! s il fj II 3-J 6io English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Origin of the English Language, as shown by our Numeric Analysis of English Literature. The preceding totals of the fifty Tables of the Eng- lish Period, A.D. 1600-1878, number 2,282 ultimate different words, derived from twenty-two dead and living" languages. Among these 2,282 ultimate dif- ferent words 1,557 are Greco-Latin, including 1,224 French; 686 " Gotho-Germanic, including 643 Anglo- Saxon ; 35 " Celtic; 3 " Semitic ; i " Sclavonic. 2,282 Hence, the English language contains : 68+ per cent. Greco-Latin, including 53 per cent. French ; 30+ Gotho-Germanic, including 28 per cent. Anglo-Saxon ; 2- " Celtic, and Traces of Semitic and Sclavonic. Hallam says : " We cannot well assign a definite origin to our present language" We think our close numeric analysis assigns as definite an origin to the English language as can be reached. As the Eng- lish vocabulary counts fifty-three per cent. French, Joseph Bosworth, D.D., F.R.S., F.R.A., was correct in stating: "The foreign words in the English lan- guage are for the most part used to express scien- tific or abstract ideas, and were introduced from the French." To corroborate the above figures and Nineteenth Century. 611- percentages, furnished by our numeric analysis of English literature, we average Walker's and Web- ster's Dictionaries : Noah Webster, in his " Dictionary of the English Language," 1861, Author's Preface, p. xiv., says : "What individual is com- petent to trace to their source, and define in all their various applications, popular, scientific, and technical, seventy or eighty thousand words ? " We averaged the words therein,* and found about : 55,524 Greco-Latin words. 22,220 Gotho-Germanic (mostly Anglo-Saxon) " 443 Celtic 98 Sclavonic " 1,724 Semitic (Hebrew and Arab.) " 80,009 We also averaged Walker's " Critical Pronouncing Dictionary and Expositor, of the English Language," Edinburgh edition, 1852, and realized about : 56,108 Greco-Latin words. 21,777 Gotho-Germanic (mostly Anglo-Saxon) " 461 Celtic " 768 Semitic " 79> IT 4 The averages of the above figures, from the two dictionaries, give about 70 per cent. Greco-Latin ; 27 " Gotho-Germanic; i '* Semitic ; of one per cent. Celtic, and a fraction of Slavonic. As the percentages of our close numeric analysis of English literature nearly agree with the above, we may consider them as correct as possible. * By counting the words of a page in each of the twenty-six letters, and tracing them to their origin ; then averaging them and multiplying the aver- ages by the number of pages in the Dictionary, we obtained the above figures. 612 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Thomas Shaw, in his " Outlines of English Literature," p. 44, says : " The English now consists of about 38,000 words." Some anonymous writer, who had the patience to count the words in each part of speech, observes : " There are in the English lan- guage 20,500 nouns, 40 pronouns, 9,200 adjectives, 8,000 verbs, 2,600 adverbs, 69 prepositions, 19 conjunctions, 68 interjections, and 2 articles ; in all about 40,498 words." No doubt the figures of Shaw and of the anonymous writer refer to school dictionaries, in which many scientific and technical words are omitted. Since people speak of language, as though it were within the covers of some Dictionary or Encyclopedia, let us survey its domain as to time, space, and importance. According to the Sacred Record, language antedates everything, even light ; for God said : Let there be light; called the light Day, the darkness Night , the firmament Heaven, the gathering together of the waters Seas, &c. (Gen. i. 3-11.) Thus, Elohim uttered and formed lan- guage before He made man, animals, or plants. Next we read, Gen. ii. 19, 20: " Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof." Then followed the dialogue between Eve and the serpent, Gen. iii. 1-6 ; the conversation between the Lord God, Adam and Eve in the garden, 9-20. " Cain talked with Abel, his brother," Gen. iv. 8 ; also the dialogue between the Lord God and Cain, Gen. iv. 9-16. Thenceforth language progressed among Adam's progeny for ages, 'till the Deluge, when it was confined to Noah and his family, who, after floating on the waters that inundated the Earth, spied land, and exclaimed, Gen. viii. 4 : "Ar-ar-at ! " which is but the Hebrew for earth, earth ahead ; in other words : " Land, land, ahead" as sailors are wont to sing out when they see terra firma. As the primitive Hebrew root, ar, seems to signify earth or ground, Gen. iv. 2, it may be in- ferred that the dialect of Noah and his family was Hebrew. Gen. xi. i and 6, the Sacred Historian tells us: "The whole Earth was of one language and of one speech," &c. 77?^ Lord said, "Behold the people is one and they have all one language" Soon we read, Gen. xi. 9, of "Babel," or the confusion of lan- guage. By these primitive linguistic allusions we may realize that Moses was quite a philologist, for he seems to have watched Nineteenth Century. 613 and studied language with peculiar interest. Yet we are told philology is a modern science, when we find the term philologie in Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales" A.D. 1390, and when Moses mentions the origin, progress, oneness, and multiplication of lan- guage in the first eleven chapters of his remarkable Record, penned thirty-five centuries ago. True, he does not trace roots and derivations as we do, because the language he mentions was one and primitive. Thus we find in that ancient book the ele- ments of most sciences cosmogony, theogony, astronomy, agri- culture, mineralogy, botany, zoology, philology, and even chem- istry, which, together with metallurgy, was needed to make the "molten calf from the "golden earrings," Exod. xxxiv. 4, and this knowledge the Jewish sage did not transmit to us in hiero- glyphic, or in mysterious cabalistic and Cabiric symbols, signs, and figures, but in clear, distinct, alphabetic characters, known in his day to the Israelites, Arabs, Canaanites, and Phenicians, who carried them to most of the ancient nations, who formed their alphabet therefrom. Hence, let who will sneer at the Mosaic Record (which seems now to be the fashion), any one who will impartially analyze it, must consider it as the starting- point of primitive tradition and knowledge ; for, taking it merely as a historic record, what should we know of the ancient world, tribes, peoples, nations, and races without the Pentateuch, which has been, is, and will be evoking thought, developing dialects and languages, expanding and enriching literature, art, and science all over the globe. No other history evinces the genuineness of the Mosaic account, which narrates the follies and vices, wisdom and virtues of its heroes and heroines with equal candor, and without attempt to exaggerate or conceal any of the attending circumstances. Language embraces Zoology and the names of its 245,000 liv- ing species of animals; Botany and the names of its 100,000 living species of plants ; Geology with its 95,000 fossil species of animals and 2,500 fossil species of plants; Mineralogy with its myriads of crystals, metals and minerals. Language includes not only the ordinary dictionary of 40,000 popular words, but the Classical Lexicon, the Dictionaries of Medicine, Jurispru- dence, Chemistry, Arts and Manufactures, Biography, and the Universal Gazetteer. The 4,000 Christian names, the Bible 614 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. names and the innumerable family names also belong to lan- guage. Even Allibone's " Critical Dictionary of English Litera- ture and British and American Authors " contains 46,000 articles, names, &c. Have we not compassed language? Not yet. Look at yonder cathedral and churches with their lofty spires ; at those grand edifices, reared for parliaments, congresses, legislatures, courts, institutes, universities, faculties, colleges, theatres ; watch that post-office and the mails streaming to and from it ; glance at those newspaper palaces, issuing bulletins and extras ; behold those' wires, freighted with the tersest and choicest treasures of language, rapping out telegrams in yonder office ; see those structures, erected for casting type, printing, binding, publishing, and selling books. Forget not the eighty-four Bible societies and agencies that issued and distributed 110,000,000 Bibles and Testaments since 1804 one and all were founded to diffuse and convey thought by and through language, either spoken, written, printed, or mapped. Should the God, who originated language on earth, strike mankind dumb to-day, to-morrow these architec- tural splendors would begin to fade, for language raised them ; language underlies them all. Now we can exclaim with Home Tooke : " Language is an art and a glorious one, whose influence extends over all others, and in which all science whatever must center." Hence, should not this most powerful of engines lan- guage be made as simple, easy, fluent, and perfect as possible ? Lift your eyes to that azured dome ! When you have learned that language gave names and lent speech to those comets, moons, planets, suns, stars, constellations and galaxies, you will be able to realize Jean Paul Richter's striking simile on language : biiuft, bcv 9Jcnfd) roiirbe fid) (fo lute ba ftrad)(oje Sfyter, bag in ber aufceren 2Belt, toie in cinein bnnfeut, betanbenben 2Bctten=9fteere fdjrotmmt), ebenfatts in bcin DoUgeftirnten immet ber aufeeren 2(nfdjauitng bnmpf tier* lieren, ft>enn cr ba3 uevtDorrene eudjten md)t burd) pracfye in ternbitber abtfyeilte, unb ftd) bnvd) bie[e ba anje in SHjeite fiir bag SBeainfcrfetn auf= Ibfete." From this survey of language's vast domain, we conclude that the English Vocabulary should number, at least, one million of words to satisfy present science, art and literature. Lately the idea of a universal dictionary, including not only what is commonly Nineteenth Century. 615 called language, but Biography, Gazetteer, Encyclopaedia, Myth- ology, and Lexicons of separate sciences, arts, manufactures, me- chanics and trades, has been gaining ground, thus embracing and covering the linguistic expanse just alluded to. Such a work would be a library in itself, and suffice for ordinary purposes of reference. No wonder, then, the German Universal Dictionary, now issuing by the Brothers Grimm, is to contain 500,000 words ! In Vol. II., p. 449, of Sharon Turner's " History of the Anglo- Saxons," we read this significant sentence: "Nouns and verbs are the parents of all the rest of language, and it can be proved that of these the nouns are the ancient and primitive block from which all other words have branched and vegetated." As we were curious to know, not only "the parents of all language, but also their children," we thus selected the different words from the fifty Tables of the English Period for our ultimate synopsis : 1,096 different nouns. 520 " verbs. 445 " adjectives. 107 " qualificative adverbs. 2,169 different words of inherent meaning,* and 113 different words without inherent meaning, or par tides. \ Home Tooke observes : " In English and in all languages there are only two sorts, of words, which are necessary for the communication of our thoughts. And they are : I. Noun ; 2. Verb." Vol. I., p. 47. As we fully agree with the Sage of Purley, we exhibit not only the totals of the different nouns and verbs, but of the different adjectives, qualificative adverbs and particles, giving their re- spective origin in the following Tables : * By words of inherent meaning we understand words having physical rep- resentatives, that are realized by the senses, as : sun, man, red, slow, run, sit, slowly, &c., or words that have a metaphysical signification, like wisdom, good, think, wisely, &c. \ By words without inherent meaning, or particles, we understand words that have merely a relative sense, as : the, of, shall, and, alas, &c. 616 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. WORDS OF INHERENT MEANING. Table, showing the origin of the different Nouns from the Fifty Tables of the English Period, A.D. 1600-1878 : Greek : 91 Latin : 116 1 French : 686 Spanish : r 817 different Greco-Latin nouns. 4 I Italian : I Portuguese : J Anglo-Saxon . 2 37 Danish : 9 German : 8 Dutch : Flemish : 261 different Gotho-Germanic nouns. Swedish : 2 Gothic : I Icelandic : 0, Welsh or Cymric : 8' Armoric : 4 Irish : 3 17 different Celtic nouns. Scotch : i Cornish : i Russian : I > i Sclavonic noun. Hebrew : if- I Semitic noun. 1,096 different nouns. This shows that our Fifty Tables count : 75 percent, different Greco-Latin nouns, including sixty-three per cent. French nouns. Gotho-Germanic nouns, including twenty- two per cent. Anglo-Saxon. Celtic nouns, and Traces of Sclavonic and Semitic. 2 3- 2 ^ Hence, the English language contains now over three Greco- Latin nouns to one Gotho-Germanic or Anglo-Saxon. Nineteenth Century. 617 WORDS OF INHERENT MEANING. Table, showing the origin of the different Verbs from the Fifty Tables of the English Period, A.D. 1600-1878 : 364 different Greco- Latin verbs. Greek : Latin: French : 109 Spanish : Italian : It Portuguese : oJ Anglo-Saxon : Danish : 134" 2 German : Dutch: Flemish : Swedish : Gothic : Icelandic: 1 Welsh or Cymric : Armoric : Irish: Scotch : Cornish : :j Russian : I Hebrew : .1 142 different Gotho -Germanic verbs. V 13 different Celtic verbs. o Sclavonic verbs. if- i Semitic verb, which is gaze. 520 different verbs. This proves that our Fifty Tables contain : 70 per cent, different Greco-Latin verbs, including forty-nine per cent. French verbs. 27+ " " Gotho-Germanic verbs, including twenty- five per cent. Anglo-Saxon. 2+ " " Celtic verbs, and traces of Semitic. Hence, the English language has now nearly three Greco- Latin verbs to one Gotho-Germanic or Anglo-Saxon. Sharon Turner has this pertinent remark on the importance of verbs : "They are like the secondary mountains of the Earth they have been formed posterior to the ancient bulwarks of human speech, which are the nouns." 6i8 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. WORDS OF INHERENT MEANING. Table, showing the origin of the different Adjectives from the Fifty Tables of the English Period, A.D. 1600-1878 : different Greco-Latin adjectives. Greek : Latin : French : Spanish : Italian: 6] 233 1 Portuguese : J Anglo-Saxon : Danish : 131 1 2 German : I Dutch : Flemish : 3 Swedish : Gothic : Icelandic : Welsh or Cymric : Armoric : ol Irish : ' Scotch : I Cornish : oj 137 different Gotho-Germanic adjectives. Russian : 4 different Celtic adjectives. o > o Sclavonic adjectives. Aramaic or Syriac : I X I Semitic adjective. 445 different adjectives. Thus our fifty Tables exibit : 68 per cent, differeat Greco-Latin adjectives, including fifty-two per cent. French. 31 Gotho-Germanic adjectives, including twenty-nine per cent. Anglo-Saxon. i Celtic adjective, and traces of Semitic. Hence, the English language counts now over two Greco- Latin adjectives to one Gotho- Germanic or Anglo-Saxon. Nineteenth Century. WORDS OF INHERENT MEANING. Table, showing the origin of the different Qualiftcative Adverbs from the Fifty Tables of the English Period, A.D. 1600- 1878: 66 different Greco-Latin qualificative adverbs. Greek : o "] Latin : 19 French : 47 Spanish : Italian : Portuguese : OJ Anglo-Saxon : 40 ^ Danish : German : Dutch : Flemish : Swedish : Gothic : Icelandic : Welsh or Cymric : '1 Armoric : Irish : Scotch : i Cornish : oJ Russian : 40 different Gotho-Germanic qualificative ad- verbs. Hebrew i Celtic qualificative adverb. o Sclavonic qualificative adverbs. Of o Semitic qualificative adverbs. 107 different qualificative adverbs. This shows that our fifty Tables number : 6 1 -i- per cent, different Greco-Latin qualificative adverbs, includ- ing forty -four per cent. French. 37 + " " Gotho-Germanic, all Anglo-Saxon, i - " " Celtic. Therefore, the English language numbers now almost two Greco- Latin qualifcative adverbs to one Gotho-Germanic or Anglo- Saxon. 620 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. WORDS WITHOUT INHERENT MEANING, OR PARTICLES. Table, showing the origin of the different Particles from the Fifty Tables of the English Period, A.D. 1600-1878 : 7 different Greco-Latin particles, or words without inherent meaning. Greek : ^| Latin : 2 French : 5 Spanish : Italian : Portuguese : oj Anglo-Saxon : 101 -j Danish : German : 3 Dutch : Flemish : o Swedish : Gothic : I Icelandic : I J Welsh or Cymric : ] Armoric : o 1 Irish : o j. Scotch : Cornish : Russian : } Hebrew : - 106 different Gotho- Germanic particles. o Celtic particles. o Sclavonic particles. o Semitic particles. ) 113 different particles. It is evident from the above figures that our fifty Tables contain 6 per cent, different Greco-Latin particles. 94 " " Gotho-Germanic, including 93 per cent. Anglo-Saxon. Hence, the English language contains sixteen Gotho-Germanic particles to one Greco-Latin, which clearly proves that languages do change their vocabulary as to words of inherent meaning, while they retain their original particles, or words without inher- ent meaning. Nineteenth Century. 621 that occurs 10 1 tim be, aux. " 164 " have, " " 88 " shall, " " 28 " will, " 27 " It seems to us a few remarks on the occurrence of particles might be of interest here : The 9,554 words that constitute our fifty Extracts of the English Period, include 4,693 particles, among which The occurs 851 times, and " 416 " Pro. ist person " 150 " " 2d " " 46 " Hence, our best English writings average about 9+ per cent. the, 4^ u and, i " pronouns of ist person, a small fraction " 2d " 2 per cent. 3d i^- " be, aux. i " have, " a small fraction per cent. shall, " " " " will, " i + " that " We expected to find less the, more and, THAT, and auxiliaries. We are not surprised at the small number of pronouns of the first and second persons, and the large number of pronouns of the third ; because the former belong more to conversation and ora- tory, while the latter belong to history and description : hence, pronouns of the first and second person are usually oral, whereas those of the third are in writing and print. The percentages of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and qualitative adverbs conclusively prove, that more than two-thirds of the words of inherent meaning in the English language are Greco-Latin, and less than one-third Gotho-Germanic ; whereas nine-tenths of the words without inherent meaning, or particles, are Gotho-Ger- manic, and only one-tenth Greco-Latin. This clearly shows, that English greatly changed and increased its vocabulary as to words of inherent meaning, while it retained its original Anglo-Saxon particles. 622 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. We can neither assent to Sharon Turner's exclusive eulogy on nouns and verbs, nor to Marsh's calling "Particles, Pronouns, and Auxiliaries the mere wheel-works of syntactical movement" for we consider many particles, especially pronouns , auxiliaries, adverbs, of place and time; prepositions^ interjections , as highly important words, taking, as they do, not only the place of nouns, but of two, three, four words, and even of a whole sentence. Pronouns save the repetition of the names of persons speaking, spoken to, and of persons and things spoken of: the man, woman, or child, who utters the monosyllables /, we, my thou, you, your ; he, she, it, they, &c., asserts individuality, which involves existence, life, &c. Here, there, where ; now, then ; alas, &c., are truly epitomic terms : here standing for in this place ; there for in that place ; where for in what place ; now for at the present time ; then for at some time either past or future ; alas ! for a whole sen- tence. Any one who overlooks such linguistic gems makes a sad mistake ; for they constitute the Laconism and essence of re- fined speech and language. Any dialect that has them, cannot be called a jargon, because such words involve thought, calcula- tion, analysis, and synthesis. The delicate shades of linguistic relation, indicated by the short invariable prepositions, of^ to, with, from, &c., marking possession, addition, separation, &c., could not be expressed un- less by cumbersome terminations like Greek ov, 779, lov, at?, 015, or Latin ae, i, is, orum, arum, abus, ibus, obus, &c., that vary ac- cording to gender, number, and declension. So with the terse English auxiliaries : be, have, shall, will, may, &c. They truly are auxiliaries and help-meets ; for they obviate the complicated affixes and suffixes we find in Greek, Latin, Anglo-Saxon, French, German, and other languages. No doubt the Anglo-Saxon dialect has undergone much change since Edward the Confessor, A.D. 1042 ; but these precious monosyllables have survived, and should therefore be counted among the " ancient bulwarks " of the English language ; as Home Tooke so justly observes: " They are the wheels of language, the wings of Mercury." Let us add : they are worthy of the telegraph. We look upon a refined, choice, and progressed lan- guage, as we would upon a stately architectural structure : nouns are its foundation-stones; verbs, its bricks; adjectives, its orna- Nineteenth Century. 623 ments ; qualificative adverbs, its roof; while particles are its cement and mortar. Now our analysis of the fifty English Extracts and Tables of the English Period, A. I). 1600-1878, may be epitomized thus : About one-half of the words in the fifty Extracts, numbering 9,554 words, are repetitions ; again, over one-half of the words in the fifty Tables, counting 5,000 words, are repetitions, leaving but 2,282 ultimate different words, which shows that the tersest and choicest productions of English literature contain only about one- quarter of ultimate different words, the other three-quarters being repetitions, which are mostly particles. Such is language now, not only English, but all language. Will it, can it, remain so with the telegraph, telephone, phonograph, and amid the exact sciences, arts, and mechanics ? While searching the origin of the vocabulary, used by the fifty authors of the English Period, we perceived that some uncon- sciously employed more or less Anglo-Saxon or Greco-Latin words, according to the nature of their subjects, while, if emo- tional or domestic, the vocabulary would number more Gotho- Germanic than Greco-Latin terms ;* if historic, legal, or scien- tific, the vocabulary would contain more Greco-Latin than Gotho- Germanic vocables. To show this linguistic phenomenon more fully, we give these comparative Extracts and Tables from Byron's " Occasional Prologue," Longfellow's criticism on Anglo-Saxon poetry, P>ryant's " Thanatopsis," and Popular History of the United States, and from Queen Victoria's "Journal of our Life in the Highlands:" Wordsworth's "Despondency" is the only exception we found to this rule : in it the bard uses forty-nine per cent. Greco- Latin, forty-nine Gotho- Germanic, and two per cent. Celtic. 624 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from "An Occasional Prologue" by Byron: " To-night you throng to witness the debut Of embryo actors, to the Drama new : Here then our almost unfledged wings we try ; Clip not our pinions ere the birds can fly : Failing in this our first attempt to soar, Drooping, alas ! we fall to rise no more. Not our poor trembler only fear betrays, Who hopes yet almost dreads, to meet your praise ; But all our Dramatis personae wait In fond suspense this crisis of our fate. No venal views our progress can retard ; Your generous plaudits are our sole reward ; For these, each Hero all his power displays ; Each timid Heroine shrinks before your gaze. Surely, the last will some protection find ; Whilst youth and beauty form the female shield, The sternest Censor to the fair must yield ; Yet should our feeble efforts naught avail," &c. 138 common words, among which The a of to from in with by Pro. ist person " 2d " be, aux. have, " shall, " will, " may, " do " that and * 6 times. o 2 6 o 2 2 O II 4 i I o i i o o o I 38 other particles, 24 62 particles. Hence, Byron's unemotional style requires 138 common words to furnish 100 different words, and averages about forty-five per cent, particles and twenty-seven per cent, repetitions. * This is the only Extract among our ninety Extracts and Tables, in which and occurs but once in 138 common words, which is less than one per cent. Surely Byron is one of the tersest English authors. Nineteenth Century. 625 ARID-SEMI- TIC TYPE : SEMITIC FAMILY : Hebrew : a S . .a t^CO iriHMNMMHHlO S is .si i fll Semitic word: i. 31 1 si (-> b. < L K 2 IO < in > y \ .. H .^ *>2 MERO-CKL FAMILY : 1 > 4* 11 - 1 1 - | ! - | } - f o * u | >;2 | t/5 g 1 w ! O. M - a O i . x . NGUA y iff VO 1 !! 5 i '* 8* HO-GOTHO-GE] A nglo-Saxon f > ui X 2 ^ E o^S ^ J-^S S- "^^.g jjgvc g, Gotho-Germa ?7 i 27 are partial of inherent u i i ^g-uf kd.?-5&ft.**mJ13tf y " -S c2 ti o '".c'o ^^03 2 "o g.-o S "2 rt S!3 >2 ^ "% s c r ^gc* J c^: rt t S'^ ** '-3 c"^ w ^ 2 g 5'$ S rt o S S '^S : a w |J|s \ jf H < J 1 | I "o-^ ^ rt a e^ 3 >.a 2^- 5 ^ alp 5 jj S 2^^ t - " > " SI '-5 ft w s s "*o - ^ V. h i I! . J el 626 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from Longfellow's "Poets and Poetry of Europe" p. 3. "The first thing, which strikes the reader of Anglo-Saxon poetry, is the structure of the verse ; the short exclamatory lines, whose rhythm depends on alliteration in the emphatic syllables, and to which the general omission of the particles gives great energy and vivacity. Though alliteration predominates in all Anglo-Saxon poetry, rhyme is not wholly wanting. It had line rhymes and final rhymes, which, being added to the alliteration and brought so near together in the short emphatic lines, produce a singular effect upon the ear. They ring like blows of hammers on an anvil. For example : " Other peculiarities of Anglo-Saxon poetry, which cannot escape the reader's attention, are its frequent inversions, its bold transitions, and abundant metaphors. These are the things which render Anglo-Saxon poetry so much more difficult than Anglo Saxon prose. But upon these points I need not enlarge. It is enough to have thus alluded to them. "One of the oldest and most important remains of Anglo-Saxon literature is the epic poem of "Beowulf." Its age is unknown ; but it comes from a very distant and hoar antiquity ; somewhere between the seventh and tenth centuries." 174 common words, among which The Dccurs a 41 of u to n from " in H with u by n Pronoun of ist per. u " 2d " (1 " 3 d (1 be, aux. M have, " If shall, " will, " I may, " 1 do, " i that ' and 1 14 times. 3 o o i o 8 3 2 O O O O O 6 53 other particles, 29 82 particle Hence, Longfellow's prose style requires 174 common words to furnish 100 different words, and averages about forty -seven per cent, particles and forty- three per cent, repetitions. Nineteenth Century. 627 j .| si i Nr^oroMMlO -S" M' CO 10 O % V 3JI 6 ^J *> | s J 3 >- o ojj-f w g ".."Wg" ^^ 38 S c a IATO-SCLA- C FAMILY : ^ yr-four per forty-seve [, as moral 1 y >, w fl GOMERO- FAMI1 ||| .. ^ ill 1 2 H rt H 3 Sta \ 1 ^ 1 O C U O rt w 5 c a s b y 28-68- ^f**|ffgj 1 1^ v & w Z .. -fiBB- !8-s|8*| * -S 's J | III O ^ t/r^ I 3 '"3 H . fi ^ ^- S 2S | ^ I^.S ' '&|'| i !| ^J rffl^ J | is K^4 ;j| 6 1 ^fj *J| = w .| J '~|| > *'o 1 ^ i g g g ^ 45 0) rt Is a , " r A* . - jg - NHg g-S^ , C d^ 3 ^ Si* 3=3 | 3 c | H^|f.| g -S2 -|| 5-S rt^'Sc&J =^ | "oc 2 "S " o 6 "& "rt E ^ > 1, C u C S t - ^> 1 t/3 H 3 j | .. S o, "c S. v S" , rt -^ - s 1*1 B z 1 "* ;a 1 C G \ 13 H 1 fl|]jtj|bt H^tllJ 1 ! 1*? a^l O rllljili-Plllllyf 1 i .| N > J H S fp. y | H , M Greco-Li >ords of inheres 11 | 1 II " I "5 *^|J fjl 628 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from William C. Bryants "Thanatopsis" (Death Sight). " To him, who, in the love of Nature, holds Communion with her visible forms, she speaks A various language : for his gayer hours She has a voice of gladness, and a smile And eloquence of beauty, and she glides Into his darker musings, with a mild And healing sympathy, that steals away Their sharpness ere he is aware. When thoughts Of the last bitter hour come like a blight Over thy spirit, and sad images Of the stern agony, and shroud, and pall, And breathless darkness, and the narrow house Make thee to shudder, and grow sick at heart, Go forth under the open sky and list To Nature's teachings, while from all around Earth and her waters, and the depths of air Comes a still voice. Yet a few days, and thee The all-beholding sun shall see no more In all his course ; nor yet in the cold ground, Where thy pale form was laid with many tears," &c. 161 common words, among which The occurs a fi of to u in i< from (i with ii by 11 Pro. of ist person a " 2d " " < - f j 11 < be, aux. u have, 11 shall, ii will, ii may, li do, *' that it and it curs 9 times. tt 6 6 u 3 M 3 (1 i 3 o a " 4 j j K i o t| i ( o II M t< I it 13 62 other particles, 16 78 particles. Hence, Bryant's poetic style requires about 161 common words to furnish 100 different words, and averages about forty-eight per cent, particles, and thirty-seven per cent, repetitions. Nineteenth Century. 629 , >< ;g ^ 38 w J \ M a a, 2 5 1 M ro tx*o H H I o C S H ** ] g ' c w ?i 1 u H i H |^ 1; S^ (A M ^ rg-8 J > * .. Ijw o ' s 81 d j jj.Sc-^Sja " ;::: 1^ is o^ % u 3 5 ^ ^o- B> S.2 V j 3 3 , ^ .y : I! 1 s 8 N 3? 8 3 ?1 -S.S g > c' ^ Q b g B o I a M O i 51 03 W $ a 1 iS II < M MM * d 1 &% |3 > >iL TlCrt9i ^j^T^ 'O* i* "C ^* .5 > P o ^ 5 rt^j-^ ^ v ^ o 0-3 sJH'jj 3 uT ^ "3 S 5 1 u ^^ it 6Cu |'" tS l 1 1 ^ -J o s B THO-GERMANI ^0 jini-ii|jJis(U Germanic w 7 J avmg but 51 v . Greco-Latin, ent. more Got APHETIC 1 I i!r|^lljjl!ii!^jji M II H s S * P " i IMpil|-ii|l||||| t U J3 c, o 8 IRECO-LATIN French : l{i*its.8frli&ibi4 i|llllii}Ji|!Plt - rds: meaning. J?O fj If u 'i ie-3 U n si v. l&a - f s l E* S r Greco-, words of |l w-3 ^ ft - (H <0 3 * 2 H 2 630 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from William C. Bryanfs ''Popular History of the United States." Preface, p. xxii. " The history of the United States naturally divides itself into three periods, upon the third of which we lately, at the close of our civil war, entered as a people, with congruous institutions in every part of our vast territory. The first was the colonial period ; the second includes the years which elapsed from the Declaration of Independence .to the struggle which closed with the extinc- tion of slavery. The colonial period was a time of tutelage, of struggle and dependence, the childhood of the future nation. But our real growth, as a distinct member of the community of nations, belongs to the second period, and began when we were strong enough to assert and maintain our indepen- dence. To this second period a large space has been allotted in the present work. Not that the military annals of our Revolutionary War would seem to require a large proportion of this space, but the various attendant circum- stances, the previous controversies with the mother country, in which all the colonies were more or less interested, and grew into a common cause ; the consultations which followed ; the defiance," &c. 185 common words, among which The occurs 22 times. a u 6 of u 12 to u 7 from u 4 in It i with 1 3 by 1 Pronoun, ist person ( 7 " 2d " ( o " 3 d " t i be, aux. 14 2 have, " 14 I shall, " It O will, " (( I may, " O do " u o that (1 I and (( 4 72 other particles, 19 91 particles. Hence, William C. Bryant's prose style requires about 185 common words to furnish 100 different words, and averages about forty-six per cent, repetitions and forty-nine per cent, particles. Nineteenth Century. 631 ERO- AMI I *f& S ."y ; t: i I*ai Latin words 57 ent meaning, iiiiiiliil 6 3 2 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Extract from Her Majesty, Queen Victor ids "Leaves from the Journal of our Life in the Highlands? p. 2 73. " During our voyage I was able to give Vicky her lessons. At three o'clock we all got into the barge, including the children and Mademoiselle Gruner, their governess, and rowed through an avenue of boats of all descrip- tions to the l Fairy J where we went on board. The getting in and out of the barge was no easy task. There was a good deal of swell, and the Fairy herself rolled amazingly. We steamed round the buy to look at St. Michael's Mount from the other side, which is even more beautiful, and then went on to Penzance. Albert landed near Penzance with all the gentlemen, except Lord Spencer (who is most agreeable, efficient and useful at sea, being a captain in the navy), and Colonel Grey. They went to see the smelting of copper and tin, and the works in serpentine stone at Penzance. We remained here a little while without going on, in order to sketch, and returned to the ' Victo- ria and Albert,' by half- past four, the boats crowding around us in all direc- tions; and when Bertie showed himself the people shouted ' Three cheers for the Duke of Cornwall ! ' Albert returned a little before seven, much gratified by what he had seen r and bringing home specimens of the serpentine stone." 196 common words, among which The occurs 17 times. a M 5 " of " 7 " to 44 7 from H i in tl 4 with M i by U 2 Pronoun, ist person * 4 5 M 2 d " (( 3 d 5 be, aux. have, " i shall, " will, " may, " M do, " U o that " and u 13 68 other particles, 26 94 particles. Hence, Queen Victoria's style requires about 196 common words to furnish loo different words, and averages about forty-eight per cent, particles and forty- eight per cent, repetitions. Nineteenth Century. 633 SAli-a. mm. W Q fi^ ^i*o^ o rt % W 5 ^ f bb c E } Kg- n I * i 634 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. The change of vocabulary in our previous Extracts and Tables from the same authors is curious : Byron's Prologue shows fifty- seven per cent. Gotho-Germanic, thirty-seven Greco-Latin, five Celtic, and one per cent. Semitic ; whereas, the emotional " Lines beneath an Elm," contain but twenty-three per cent. Greco-Latin, seventy-six Gotho-Germanic, and one per cent. Celtic. In the former the bard swells into the scholar, critic, artist, and man of the world ; in the latter, he shrinks int>3 the sad youth, and becomes the primitive Anglo-Saxon under Egbert, A.D. 800. You may sympathize with him in the childlike attitude beneath the Elm at Harrow ; but if he had remained there, the world would miss the graphic descriptions and the life-like characters that charmed readers and called forth Finden's beautiful illustrations, which adorn our center-tables. We might wish Byron had realized his " Lines written beneath the Elm in the Churchyard of Harrow," rather than become the fevered, impulsive, and passionate "Childe Harold," who died a martyr to Greece's emancipation from Turkish tyranny, at Missolonghi, 1824. As well might we wish to see England as she was under Edward the Confessor ; but then would her sails have whitened the ocean ? Would her flag float over the five parts of the world ? Would the sun daily shine twenty-four hours on her vast dominions ? Expe- rience, advance, progress, good, bad, or indifferent, are the destiny of individuals, tribes, nations, and races, as shown throughout history. Our Extract and Table from William C. Bryant's "Thanatopsis" (Death Sight), shows but twenty-two per cent. Greco-Latin, and seventy-seven per cent. Gotho-Germanic. This is the lowest Greco-Latin percentage of the numerous authors and writings we analyzed in the English language, except the Bible and Fitz- Green Halleck's poetry, which also have twenty-two per cent. Greco-Latin. Hence, " Thanatopsis," the Scriptures, and Fitz- Green Halleck may be considered parallels as to Greco-Latin : next come Byron and Longfellow, whose emotional poems show twenty-three and twenty-four per cent. Greco-Latin, while their other writings exhibit forty-seven and forty-eight per cent. Greco- Latin ; then follow Tennyson with twenty-seven per cent. Greco- Latin ; Shakespeare, thirty-three ; Mrs. Hemans, thirty-four ; Milton and Pope, thirty-six ; Scott with forty per cent. Greco- Nineteenth Century. 635 Latin, &c. Yet our Extract and Table from the preface to Bryant's "Popular History of the United States," exhibits fifty- seven per cent. Greco-Latin, and forty-two per cent. Gotho- Germanic ; thence it appears that, while the New York bard was rhyming his " Thanatopsis," he was the emotional moralist, and his soul overflowed with primitive Anglo-Saxon expressions ; whereas, while penning the preface to the history of his beloved country, the impulsive Greco-Latin muse carried him to Greece and Rome, where a streamlet of progressed Greco-Latin terms flowed into his mind to picture statesmanlike ideas. Could he have written that philosophic and scholarly preface in the limited Anglo-Saxon vocabulary ? Her Majesty's Address to Parliament, closing our fifty Extracts and Tables of the English Period, shows fifty-seven per cent. Greco-Latin, forty-one Gotho-Germanic, and two per cent. Celtic. In this state paper she unconsciously paid a linguistic compliment to the Franco-Norman, Gotho-Germanic, and Celtic elements of the English-speaking populations, by using words from their respective vocabularies. We add here, as a point of comparison, an Extract and Table from Queen Victoria's "Journal of our Life in the Highlands," which has but thirty-six per cent. Greco-Latin, sixty-three Gotho- Germanic, and one per cent. Semitic. When her Majesty penned the word "amazing" she became orientalist, and as such unconsciously paid a delicate linguistic compliment to the Jewish and oriental element of her subjects. We expected this vocabnlar difference between the Address to Parliament, and "Journal of our Life in the Highlands; " for the former, being diplomatic, required Greco-Latin ; while the latter, being do- mestic, needed Gotho-Germanic. To say I read this touching effusion with interest, would be stating the least of my emotions ; but to say I perused it with a deep gratitude to her Gracious Majesty for the encouraging literary example she left to her sex, approaches the impression it left on my mind. The Queen of Eng- land rejoicing to be able to give her darling daughter her lessons during a voyage ! No wonder the old world styled this queenly, production "A unique book in literary History" Round Table ; while the New World hailed it thus : "It were well that it should enter into every household in England and America, as an example of goodness and stainless honor.' 1 New York Home Journal. 636 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. The change of vocabulary, as shown from Byron's, Longfellow's, Bryant's, and Queen Victoria's writings, proves that different themes and styles of composition require words and phraseologies from different types and families of languages. This is a singular feature, which is peculiar to a " composite languarge " like the English, in which the bard may readily find any appropriate voca- bulary for poetizing ; the orator, for haranguing ; the statesman, for legislating ; the preacher, for exhorting ; a language in which the gay can "Rejoice with them that do rejoice" and the sad "Weep with them that weep" ODE TO LANGUAGE. " All nature speaks to us in varied tone, From the wild carol of the morning lark To evening's drowsy moan. Go listen to the voices of the storm The crashing of the woods the ocean's roar, When winds its face deform. Is IT NOT SPEECH ? when terror rides the gale, And calls to us to hurry from its course, With a forewarning wail ? We hear it long before the storm appears, In far-off sobbings of the low south wind, That sighing wakes our fears. Then signal splashes of big drops of rain ; Even the hush and stillness has a voice, Boding the deep refrain. In finest forms, that orator e'er used, He does but copy sounds heard long before, And with his thought infused : First, with a voice subdued, attention's caught To go along with him, and note his course The current of his thought ; Then with a swelling force his periods flow A storm of words the lightning flash of wit And bolts that strike and glow. Nature the teacher, an apt scholar, man Gathers the sounds significant and fit, And gives them shape and plan, FORMING A LANGUAGE, that essential need For mental growth, a vehicle through which The intellect to feed ; To send the winged thought from mind to mind In speech, where teeming brains, conversing free, Advanced ideas find. Its language is the touchstone of a race : Be it refined or coarse, in all its shades The Nation's type we trace. Nineteenth Century. 637 We now might doubt the Greek or Latin power, Were not their language left ; but there embalmed It stands to this late hour. We should not call those ancient idioms dead / Diffused they are, but they live on in tongues, < Through which their words are spread. Among rude nations no such terms we find, Thought and refinement only reach for them ; They serve the polished mind. So, where those graphic words have made their home, A state advanced a cultured race they mark, Like those of Greece or Rome. In classic times language could paint the thought, And as it left the lips the subject glowed. A picture finely wrought. Words dropt like coinage from beneath the die, Stampt with intrinsic worth, and no base mint Could highest needs supply. The fairest offspring of linguistic lore, Now in ascendant, is the English tongue, Spreading the wide world o'er : A full clear stream .rom many fountains fed, All languages in one that's culled from all The living and the dead. JANE LEE WEISSE. "Where the mere historian may take little notice and hasten, the philolo- gist must linger and watch the monotonous tide of language, which is bid the social under tow, bearing on its surface dynasties, statesmen, divines, and soldiers, who are only bubbles, that vanish, while that irresistible under-tow, language, progresses." ANONYMOUS. Here and now we find ourselves in this category : we cannot hasten ; we must linger to draw the conclusions of new linguistic phases from the incontestable numeric results of fourteen con- secutive centuries, A.D. 449-1878. While tracing the vocabulary in the fifty Extracts and Tables of the English Period, A.D. 1600-1878, we perceived linguistic phenomena we can only explain by giving the following synopsis of their numeric results, which will enable us to show at a glance, not only the origin of their vocabulary, but the character of their style, as compared with other writers of the English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. 638 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. 9 .& \\\ D a u A, spj.002, 3t?tuta t^ 10 oo r^'i-N io-*-... . r O /% - pQWrtSSHM^^Ww^BOftiP M N fO 4 IO\) t^.00 di O H N fO >0>O Nineteenth Century. 639 o^vo oo o vo o\vo o vo r^OMn^o N oo inrotxM m M o\^o 10 o^oo M oo oo oo w oo tx t-N\O t> CxVO t^OO t*s t"N\O tx t-x t^CO *O t^C^t^t^txtxt^fxt^t^ t^-OO t>-'-O ^O t^. tx y 75 "> ooooooooooooooooooooooooo o-o o o M o o o J^ 1 Cfl 1 OOO. OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOObOOO s 10 tOVO VO txtO-*O OMOO tv n -^- 1> lovo tovo <* -* to TJ- M ^ IO CO CO CO to IOVO OO^O^t^NHVOfO t^OO CO fOVO t^ + O tv to N OO f^CO N t^ VOlON^fOtO-^COflOlOlO-^Tj-^-^-NtolO-^tO-^-^lOlOlOloioiOPI^-lOlO "S c a 5 * 10 S to >o to ^ 95- >oio??>oioiO'fioioo ^^S- ^ ? 10^5- ? s ' i I ^ I S .s Ij NtOt^O t^ONC7\N -^-M CO ro *<*- to 10 vo tovo vo tv t> oooooooooooocococooo 3 - V V 8 .VJ 1 1 ill II LI I ill i 18 u 5 i| >.> - L. y.-,- ^Sfeo.'rtScX EE^" 1 ^ 2 = > ^ "g c rt ^> ^ O . 8 g"? x 9 Q JP j Jl J o f .5 l| p ag|i|pJ^|l|||p^||3l|i^ Illlllllilrfllll J^J^y ^Islllllsl . * oo O\ O M O w N ro * IOVD xoo* ' 640 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. This synopsis shows at a glance : 1. That the vocabulary in the Fifty Tables from the most varied literary productions of the English Period, A.D. 1600-1878, contains from 22 to 64 per cent. Greco-Latin ; " 35 " ?8 " Gotho-Germanic or An- glo-Saxon ; i " 5 " Celtic, and Traces of Sclavonic and Semitic. 2. That to obtain Fifty Tables of 100 different words each it required Fifty Extracts, numbering from 135 to 531 common words, including " 26 to 8 1 per cent, repetition s ; 39 " 6 1 " words without inherent meaning, or particles, and 68 " 82 " words of inherent meaning. Among the fifty authors and writings, Milton's style has least (twenty-six per cent.) repetitions ; whereas the Bible's has most (eighty-one per cent.) repetitions. Bishop Berkeley's style shows least (thirty-nine per cent.) particles ; whereas the style of the Bible shows most (sixty-one per cent.) par- ticles. Jonathan Edwards' style numbers least (sixty-eight per cent.) words of inherent meaning, whereas Berkeley's numbers most (eighty-two per cent.) words of inherent meaning. The previous synopsis applies more to the style than to the vocabulary of the authors of the English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Hence, may not the hitherto hidden charm of Milton's, Shake- speare's, Pope's, Hume's, Berkeley's, Irving's, Mrs. Hemans' and Cooper's style be due to their having least repetitions and par- tides and most words of inherent meaning ? for we ail consciously or unconsciously like conciseness and dislike verbiage. Nineteenth Century. 641 But the most striking feature, elicited by this synopsis and by our previous ultimate result, is, that the Fifty Extracts, number- ing 9,554 common words, contain but 2,282 (or twenty-four per cent.) ultimate different words, leaving 7,272 (seventy-six per cent.) repetitions. The 9,554 common words of the Fifty Ex- tracts include also 4,693 (forty-nine per cent.) words without in- herent meaning, or particles. Think of English, the tersest, most elastic and most direct of the leading languages, having in its best literary productions only twenty-four per cent, ultimate dif- ferent words, seventy-six per cent, repetitions, and forty-nine per cent, particles, which makes one word in every four an ultimate different word, three words in every four repetitions, and one word in every two an insignificant particle. As previously stated, if English is such, what shall be said of other leading languages, more complicated in grammar and less direct in construction ? Are languages, so constituted, consistent with the telegraph, cable, telephone, phonograph, and with the exact sciences, arts, and mechanics? Is it not time to consider this unscientific status of language and devise an educational system, calculated to simplify language and correct this undreamt of prolixity ? The ninety English-speaking millions, scattered over the globe, have the deepest interest in this problem ; for the nation that solves it, will confer the greatest and most lasting benefit on mankind. In our synopsis of Extracts and Tables the drama and pulpit exhibit low percentages of Greco-Latin and high percentages of Gotho-Germanic or Anglo-Saxon ; whereas the school-room, press, history, and forum show high percentages of Greco-Latin and low percentages of Gotho-Germanic or Anglo-Saxon. This seems to indicate a difference of vocabulary in the various styles of writing, and suggests the possibility of reaching average per- centages concerning the origin of the varied vocabularies in those styles. As the results of the Fifty Extracts and Tables would not suffice to furnish satisfactory average percentages for the nine different styles, we analyze other literary productions of the Eng- lish Period, A.D. 1600-1878, and add about 150 more. Not to incumber our book with additional Extracts and Tables, we only give the numeric results, as seen in the following bird's-eye views, showing the origin of the vocabularies, used in the school-room, pulpit, press, forum, theatre, history, poetry, romance, and mis- cellaneous writings : 642 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. ! rf D ^J Q .^ [T] ^O o ^ ^ 3a ^ u K in >$ .^ W C W * g Bird'' s- Ey SEMITIC WORDS I OOOwOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO - SCLAVONIC WORDS : OOOOOHOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO H i Semitic. gs 1 rt 'c w II .FRMANIC KUS : S n ; manic or j traces of GOTHO-C WO So?. 11 i ii c c' * iiiiiljiiiii!iiiiii) > :::::: i :::::::::::::: ^ : s i Lyceum a 5 : i : ^ :^ ::!& :4 c a ' AVERAGE ORIGIN OF ITS VOCABULj H. Blair, 1783, " Rhetoric and Belles-Lettres " Noah Webster, 1840, " Introduction to his Dictionary ". . Dr. J. Abercrombie, "Intellectual Philosophy " Fowne, "Manual of Elementary Chemistry " T. B. Shaw. " Outlines of English Literature " Prof. C. H. Hitchcock, " Elementary Geology " Prof. L. Agassiz, " Contributions to the Natural History O. Mitchel. " Popular Astronomy " Prof. Tyndall, " Heat considered as a Mode of Motion " . Th. H. Tanner, " Practice of Medicine" used in Medical Prof. Hickok, " Empyrical Psychology " Prof. A. Gray, " How Plants Grow " Prof. Proctor, " Lectures on Astronomy " Prof. Huxley, " Lay Sermons, Addresses, fievifics," 1870 Prof. Max Miiller, " Chips from a German Workshop".. Prof. J. Fiske, "Lectures at Harvard University" 1871 Parker and Watson, " Reader ''''for Beginners Prof. W. D. Whitney, " Language and the Study of Lan Prof. Youmans, " Handbook of Household Science" H. Kiddle, A.M., " Short Course of Astronomy " Barnes' Educational Monthly, April, 1878, "Adopting Tex Hence, the style of the School-room, Unive * ~% *"O S 12 ^ O ^i75> 03*^0 o3G"t^ ifiiflliilFUIi^iitll S^-iji-jj^iiiiiii^iiiii ^^g^ r . r ^>^"c1 : ^SS^c> S.Obi)C^^ * "S g"8 S 8 *t> S.^ -S *' 5 S 2 *' S fe ^^^iS^g--1^^11? r s^^ t rbgs ll-jb^^I^s^*^^!^* 8 - 1 5 .s S ^ s 8 a .8 . a; a. * -g- Sr-s ^ I ^ v K^ Q/; O ^3 O ""C *^ ^j *" 4 * QJ x *~ ^ CD r^ oS '^'-G'? ) i7;"^Ji= i .2 tAlOr ^^ G3 M t/3Nw:r 6 4 - > 2 -S S 8 'S. S 8 ,f g ? ts g -g g -^ .5 .tf 8 ^ g s s g * | |^| | s . g Ls 1 | II J 1 1 1"2 - |J f 1 i & - ' - - s - S.S 644 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Bird's-Eye View concerning the origin of the Vocabulary, used in the Sacred Style of Writing during the English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. : saaoM OIXIWHS O 000000 000 000 OOMOCI : saHOM Dixaaa DiNvwaao-oHxoo 00 Tf ro tx ON ON O\VO * r1 w M VO 00 * t^OO V3 -^-00 N O> t-s t"s to i/)\c $*) "$ ^vo ^o t> u-> ^j-^o ** LOO o iovo vo -^ : SCINOAV r, tx ro o M iroioiricoroN Tj-uiro ioio-- s- I ' 1 1 j Right Rev. W. B. Stevens, P>ishop of Pennsylvania, on " Promotion of Christiai Rev. H. E. Potter, Pastor of Grace Church, New York, sermon on " Liturgy an Rev. Samuel Osgood, seimon on ''The Pauline Paradox in its Modern Bearing Nn TT Vnl T " New York Churchman," No. n, Vol. I., May 25, 1878, " Reply to a Criticism Moody and Sankey, " Gospel Awakening," sermon on " Love and Sympathy" Rabbi Gustav Gottheil, on " Position of the Jews in America," " North America Dr. W. Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible." " Tehovah "... : : : >n, 1678, sermon before the House of Commons, Nov , 1758, " Thoughts on the Revival " , on the " Sermon on the J\Iount " on " Paul's First Prayer " hton Oxenden, D.D., Bishop of Montreal and Metro Robertson, Bishop of Missouri. " History and Claimf dinal McCloskey, " Funeral Oration at the Obsequie L'oxe, P)ishop of Western New York, sermon in Cab . . . 839, sermon on " Autumn " sermon on " Cruelty to Animals " ' Preaching the Gospel to the Poor " sermon on ' ' Charity " ^S'cluffi'^Sr^''*' 1 '^'!/^ w"o rll^ll^l^lllfl^ Nineteenth Century. 645 c~ o rt .S g- cT ^ to "S 11 M O O 00 CO 1 "*- s u S '/3 cj ^'^ s;,sj 6 5 v ^r 2 S !2 fsil *So c ^ f u o M T -*- 10 >o % i if d G S ^ o s - -& ?< "S rt ^ 22 J3 J3 ,,^S 1 rt to rt S (U 0-) || H 6 S rt T3 OJ ^ "*"* O 8 u . J JoS- SS. 8 O rt 2 6 'o 1 *o 'p ^ ill hT | j 1 "7^ u *"* r r^ rt c.c rt.s? .ij o o o V IT. -o o 's'^.o" c! : : 3 T3 e rt c -*- 13 -0 O O T3 rt fl-ft ^i-'^'u 1^ r t/3 . 5 8 n \ S 5 g 6 o rfh 4 ' Clergyman's Magazine," London, July, 1876, " Tlie Speed " Hebrew Trader," New York, May 3, 1878, " Our Societies "Catholic Review," New York, May 4, 1878, "Topics of the "The Orudunoi," a monthly magazine devoted to religion, s lished by Rev. N. Brown,* editor at the American Bapti: "New York Evangelist," "Editorial Notes," May 2, 1878... 'S 1 1 95 & U 8 S & .i rt m .-2 ^ * 1! "I'S Is o K^ ic ; ces of o-Latn o-Germ c, and oou P. + 1 1 ^ o B.S s-s J ; -5 3 .S .- 1 3 3 .3* "3 * I a "^5'P- J = 3 ^ 83 O 8 a * > - W rf ^ -*-^ 5-c CU ^ ^S- "g I q i 5 2 J3 ^ 5^ c 8 < g S3 ^ 13 ^ _ " c f .1-8 O tf a rf C X CU 43 O ^ ^ L tC O tn cJ ^ O t" 1 648 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. | SEMITIC WORDS : OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOHOO H ill 1 M ^9 '& ! U U jj " |i g 's s ls m 15 \ > S og* o. isl 1 in 8. Politico-Legal Style of Writing di \\ GRFCO-LATIN WORDS : ro O moo f u-> o -^O M O ro moo ro t f> O co r-s \O to 10 10 -<-*O lO'*lOt(-o-*Tt--*-fO-*-lOT-lOlO'<->0 1i|ii!JiifijiJHl!ij!l ::.:::::::: :u :: '. i i '.'.'.'. ''.'.'.'-'.''.'.'.I :.: :.....: c . . ? Greco-Latin ; Gotho-Germanic or Anglo-Saxon ; Celtic, and trace of Semitic. , and Courts resound with a voca nt. Greco-Latin and forty-eight p adually adopt a somewhat corres atercourse. Vocabulary, used in the . A.D. 1 600- 1 87 J ITS VOCABULARY : ! : : : ': ': ': i i : 1 : : I : : : i : : i :::::::: :::::::::: ^ :: i f ! i i i Is yii ill 1 !j i i orum averages : 50 -1- per cnt. *r- " 2" O !^ ^ Z2 . j^ "8 *tf 1 1| 3 V O : ^ ^ : g :g : : : ' $ ft w % V> o ^ 1 I H ", ^ rt -.2 4j- >o ; _&! 2 S J 1 .jj J . s s s f AVERAGE OR Bill of Rights, under William of Orange, A.D. 1688 Queen Anne's Speech in Parliament, A.D. 1704 " Declaration of Independence," Philadelphia, July, Burke's speech in Parliament on " Economical Refor Black-stone's " Commentaries," 1788 Washington's " Farewell Address," 1796 J. C. Calhoim's speech in Congress on " Economy ai James Madison on "The Reponsibility of our Count E. Everett on " The Extension of the Republic," 183 Lord Brougham's speech on " Neutral Rights," in P. D. Webster on " Influence of Great Actions," 1846. . John Bright on " Punishment of Death," in Parliam James Brooks' speech in Congress, 1864 Lord Palmerston's speech in Parliament, March 31, i W. Sevvard on " Reconstruction," February 22, 1866 W. D. Voorhees' " Resolutions in Congress," Janua H. Seymour's speech at Albany, March n, 1868 U. S. Grant's " Inaugural Address," 1869 Earl of Dufferin, Governor of Canada, speech at Wir Gladstone's speech, October 28, 1871 Queen Victoria's speech, in Parliament, 1866 u 1 1 1 Among these twenty-two Politico-Legal Rights, 1688, numbers most Greco-Latin and whereas, Lord Palmerston's speech counts most Gotho-Germanic words. Nations, w Nineteenth Century. 649 y i I u P W # i 1 PS 00 oJ O u M ^ GOTHO- GERMANIC WORDS : CO O i 1 & & GRKCO-LATIN WORDS : ** 5 3 2 X rjf; 35 - 1 * 0) ?'s"l O 'u Jr o O .Q X tn C/3_o ^ s 52 1 III II tic style averag u ; manic or Anglo traces of Semit S & s o p^ ^ & &, 5 D ""O *Zj > d -r VOCABULARY : i j![i!jitijnJl dence, the Drama r cent. Greco-Lati " Gotho-Ger " Celtic, and C "^ _*, ' - r-; C3 >-t 3 5 s o '-3 ^ * $ ^ '& & S i E :;*;; ;3 1 : : ; ;> "ft + 1 + 2 1 1 I 1 B fl 'w 3o o tj . M ;.t3 -gOJ ^ nj o o 2 u b, o ;Jifc - ? I ^ < "2 '- * "rt-fl = * 3 g ^ 5 , Shakespeare, A.D. 1616, " Hamlet " Beaumont and Fletcher, 1617, "Honest Ma Ben. Jonson, 1617, " Fall of Sejanus " Rev. Dr. J. Hume. 1756, Tragedy, entitled Sheridan, 1777, "School fur Scandal" Rev. James Townley, 1778, "High Life belc Sheridan Knowles, 1820, " Virginius " Rev. James White, Drama, entitled "Feud i. R. Planche. Farce, entitled "Captain of ulwer 1 .y tton. " Richelieu " Epes Sargent, Drama, "Yclasco" Robert F. Conrad, Drama, "Eylmere" ... Geo. H. Calvert, Comedy, " Like unto Like J. Howard Payne, Tragedy, "Brutus". . Rip Van Winkle, adapted by Charles Uurke Bret Hane, Drama, " Two Men of Sandy I Here we realize that Sheridan K and most Gotho-Germanic, and Ben least Gotho-Germanic or Anglo-Saxc matic authors. Communities, whos< 650 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. ci X o oooooooooooooo i .S 2 - i a 8 g i 1 T3 ^ tS % I i ^.s 3j a * ! 1 a I -1 < s 1 J H I S S 1 y 6 5 K < Q C g as ^ N Tt- U10O u-> OMO O\ N >n\O OO VO !1 1"^ G ^ s K *$* 3 lll*S !? 1 > S ?j i* 0) 00 IO -^ 01 I/) M ^-00 VO CO f) M CO ioT?> IOVO 10 10 10 10^- * < IOVO >0 ?I I -2 ^ .5 , JMti *J P V3 C -, *3 oj , J-> ClJ "^ *-. w o> rt o rt u ^ *5 "5 > 1 U 1 4J *- , '- o r/) *^ o ^ 4; 9 -3 -f & 8.3 b ^ VOCABUL/ I;:::::::::: a .::.... . . . p, : : : :<2 :::;::.: d 1 rt | I < | S 1 1 fe rt 5 -Q* o o g, ^ a 6 .a 9 -2 1 a H h o iiiiiiililili < a -,4) ^ 1 n IH 1 1 1 1 a 11 i 2 -s 1 1 * 1 5 2 * * ' " rt o 9, S c Bird 1 s- Eye View concerning the origin of i | < Hume, A.D. 1776, " History of England " Thomas Warton, " History of English Poetry " Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire ". . Robertson, "History of America," 1777 Halhm, "View of the State of Europe during the Mic Sharon Turner, " History of the Anglo-Saxons " Buckle, " History of Civilization in England " Prescott, *' Conquest of Peru " Washington Irving, " Life of George Washington ". . C J dwards Lester, ' Our First Hundred Years". J. A. Froude, " Short Studies on Great Subjects" . . J. W. Draper, "Intellectual Development of F.urope ' Geo. Bancroft, " History of the United States" W. C. Bryant, " Popular History of the United State * ^ V J9 V W Thus Robertson uses most Greco-Latin manic, and Froude least Greco-Latin and m Anglo-Saxon words among the English His tory deals with intricate and distant inte requires advanced ideas and expressions; he Greco-Latin and low average of Anglo-Sax sons have acquired the information given in s Nineteenth Century. 65 3 U " ES ii^i3- ^ y "^41 1 ii g*:|?^l i 8g CO |l||ir "-JJ GOTHO- GERMANIC WOKDS I fo S .5 .5 S 7 Q 8 & 3 J3 c x -d ta ^ - ^ C C C ^5 - r! c/) * -r; o c ,3 .S -~ S rt 3 P> C ^, r5 j i GRECO-LATIN WORDS : < f*> C c'i T?rococJ > ?efc?c?romc?cre! & 8 n ; manic ; Semitic. CX 3 o> ^ oj O ^" "-1-. VH <*- r; O- O rt O o lllll! isfii; i v 1 Vj L Pfii OOUH r 3 + + i ^ N u among intensely active z and and America. Ho Tassos, &c., belong to ii etry usually sings home expressions ; hence, the age of Anglo-Saxon wor 'Vocabulary, used in I 600- I ITS VOCABULARY : \ mmm e style of Poe.try averag S 3 i 2 5 a^JII 8 3 i . ^ qj Q^ ^ ? -3 - J ^ 1 if M rx ^ i GOTHO- GEKMANIC WOKDS : s ^ "Z ff Writing during I GRECO-LATIN WOUDS : "'----="--="= nic or Anglo-Saxon ; ices of Semitic. ve vocabulary, as average. No woi effort, are sought I :::::::: :::::.: : : jreco-Latin ; jOtho-Gennn "eltic, and tr 111 rt I o ' Romantit. '8. immmmmim 4- per cent, i " ( ^ g w . OJ "fi J^ ^ 3 : : : : : : : : :~ : : E : : . . ... rt ^ ' 1 ^ rt " 1 i E i iV.i : j| |4- 15 j'j^ S^ 1 O I rt l| |1 id 3 i NIOIHO 3OVH2 yle of Romanct '5 fl A S ^24^ 8^< 5 s OJ^^g o ^ 12 E > ^^ ^ ^^^"Ss-c?^ I 1/5 S -H v ^ !J 1 ' |?l|^lvli 1 f 11 1 1 Bird^s-Eye View concerning ^1^1i|lili^lHl^f 3 ?tf i iii'jy y s vv^j 8 j w J ^i Ills H 1 | 8 ' b *H * -a a 1 s 1 1 a .9 I S I3I Nineteenth Century. 653 As some literary friends are curious to know the age of English as compared with other ancient and modern languages, let us try to satisfy their curiosity as cursorily as possible : In his archeologic works, Baron von Bunsen intimates, that it required ten thousand years to develop the Sanscrit language. History furnishes no criterion for a linguistic evolution of 10,- ooo years, as may be noticed by the following languages : Hebrew (named after Heber or Eber, Gen. x., 24), from Abraham, "the Hebrew" 1921 B.C., to the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus, A.D. 70, when -it ceased to be a living language, had approximated an evolu- tion of , _. 1991 years. Greek, from Inachus, founder of Argos, 1856 B.C., to the capture of Con- stantinople by the Turks, A.U. 1453, had an evolution of about 3309 years. Latin^ from the founding of Rome by Romulus and Remus, 753 B.C., to the conquest of Italy by the Heruli under Odoacer, A.D. 476, was developed in about 1229 years. German, from the irruption of the Teutones and Cimbri, no B.C., to A.D. 1878, has been evolving about 1988 years. Spanish, from the invasion of the Vandals, Alani and Suevi, A.D. 410, to 1878 1468 years. English, from the arrival of the Jutes, Saxons and Angles in Britain, A.D. 449, to 1878 1429 years. French, from Me'rovee, founder of the Merovingian dynasty, A D. 458,' to 1878 . 1420 years. Italian, from the conquest of Italy by the Heruli under Odoacer, A.D. 476, to 1878 1402 years. These eight most highly developed languages furnish an average evolution of 1780 years. In presence of these figures and their average, the 10,000 years of Sanscrit development must dwindle, unless it can be demonstrated that prehistoric linguistic evolution required six times as much time as historic, which seems an im- possibility at this remote period. We cannot help considering figures and dates for prehistoric probabilities out of place, until we acquire more circumstantial evidence, which may yet be found in ancient Asiatic ruins and records. Sanscrit scholars style the Hindu idiom the most perfect of languages ; so do students of Hebrew and Greek regard Hebrew and Greek as most perfect. Latin enthusiasts neglected their mother tongues and penned poor Latin throughout the Middle Ages. Germans only see linguistic perfection in the Fatherland's self sustaining language. Even the generous Schiller wrote against borrowing foreign words. French- men think there never was, nor will be, a language like theirs ; hence they neglected foreign tongues, till Jourdain found gems in Persian, Cousin in German, Taine in English, c. The Eng- lish-speaking populations, who, with their elastic and grammati- cally simple language, have been selecting gems from most lan- guages, are but the wiser and richer for such eclecticism. 654 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. ft S OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO NO"-" OO H O H M-OO OOlOOHMOON -MD 10 Jo -*vo vS * io in ^ Jo -- iovo v i ;: M ' 2 II a j 8 Is = Nineteenth Century. 3 a .is resean icoura^ins > ^. O 1H ^ Si 1 .2 d c c "e3 ^H T3 'oc '"3 G a bo .S 'C ing, ) 5,357,133 soldiers, (i soldier per 257 souls.) 418,640 soldiers, (only Vis) (i soldier per 650 souls.) Imports, " Exports, " Postal Service from ) 6,563,620,000 dollars. 5,228,720,000 dollars. 2,711,620,000 dollars, (over ] /s) 2,466,647,000 doll's, (nearly l /) 1868 to 1871 inclu- > 3,468,227,000 letters. 1,761,875,000 letters, (over Va) sive, ) (2 letters per soul. ) (6 letters per soul.) Bibles and Testaments ~j distribute. 4 , by 84 Bi- ' ble Societies from f 117,000,000 Bibles and Tes- taments. 84,918,215 Bibles and Tes- taments, (over a / s ) 1804 to 1874, J Thus, Earth's area is 51,590,000 square miles, and its population I j377)0oo,ooo. Of this total population the English language rules 318,298,857 souls (about one-fourth}, and 13,318,370 square miles (one-quarter] of Earth's land. This land and its dwellers * From Census of United States, 1870, and of Ergland, 1871-1872. 682 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. are scattered from the North Pole to the Equator, and thence to the South Pole. It abounds in the most multifarious mineral and agricultural resources, from gold and diamond to iron and coal, from wheat to millet, from the sturdy oak to the fragrant cinna- mon tree. Its occupants cultivate and manufacture the most varied articles, which they ship, carry, sell and exchange all over the globe. The English language controls the highways and by- ways of trade. It is spoken by all races, from the Esquimaux, Caucasian, Malayan, Hindoo and American Indian to the Hot- tentot. It commands most of the world's mechanical skill, con- sequently most of its manufactures and commerce, and most of its political, intellectual, social, moral and religious influence. The sun sets daily on other leading languages, but it never sets on the English-speaking populations. While the speakers of other leading languages are plunged in darkness and sleep, speakers of English are wide awake and busily at work in another hemisphere. In every country of the globe are English-speaking missionaries, trying to advance Christianity and with it their lan- guage, civilization and progress. To govern, guard, and protect this vast domain, every soul ruled by the English language paid but $4.25 annual tax, and the total population furnished only one soldier per 650 souls in 1873; whereas every soul ruled by the Russian language paid $4.50, and the total population furnished one soldier in 107 souls ; every soul of the Fatherland paid $6.30, and the total population furnished one soldier per 102 souls; every soul in Italy paid $11, and the total population furnished one soldier per 80 souls ; every soul in Japan paid $4.50, and the total population furnished one soldier per 289 souls. Hence, even government is less onerous under English than under any other rule. In the imports of 1873 tne share of the English-speaking popu- lations was about one-third, while their share of the exports was nearly one-half. This conclusively shows, that they command nearly one-half of the world's gold and silver ; yet their popula- tion is but one-fifth of Earth's inhabitants, and their area but one- quarter of Earth's land. London and New York are mankind's commercial agents and financiers. Of the 318 millions, ruled by the English idiom, only about ninety millions speak English. As far as can be surmised r rom prehis- Nineteenth Century. 683 toric indications and historic data, no language was ever so ;videly diffused. We conclusively proved, that English is composed of 68 + per cent. Greco-Latin ; 30+ Gotho-Germanic, or Anglo-Saxon ; 2 " Celtic, and traces of Sclavonic and Semitic. As above stated, this superior linguistic mixture, printed in the simple, comely Roman character, rules over one-fourth of Earth's inhabitants and over one-quarter of Earth's land. Who then can, who will doubt, that a language with such a choice vocabulary, such vast resources, and such an enterprising population, is destined to become, at no distant period, the uni- versal language on Earth ? Circumnavigate the globe go from pole to pole and the English tongue will hail you on every ocean and sea, greet you on every island, welcome you in every haven, accompany you along Morse's wires above and under water with lightning speed. Even around the sources of the White Nile, and among the jungles of Central Africa, it echoed from the lips of Baker, Livingstone and Stanley. On this tour you meet the ancient Ophir, the famous Eldorado, and a southern continent as large as Europe, governed by the English idiom. The English-speaking populations had their Nuina and Egeria in Ethelbert and Bertha, A.D. 570; their Solon in Alfred the Great, their Junitts Brutus in Cromwell, their Cincinnatus in Washington ; their Homer and Hesiod in Caedmon, Chaucer, and Milton ; their Sophocles in Shakespeare ; their Aristotle in Bacon and Newton ; their Herodotus-, Thucydides, &c., in Hume, Gibbon, Prescott, Bancroft, &c. ; their Hippocrates and Galen in Sydenham and Harvey ; their Archimedes in Watt, Franklin, Faraday, and Morse ; their Demosthenes and Cicero in Burke, Pitt, and Webster ; their Hanno and Nearchus in Cook, Drake and Anson ; their Pytheas in Sir John Franklin and Dr. Kane ; their Sappho, Corinna, Hypatia in Aphra Behn, Lady Montagu, Mrs., Hemans, Browning, Sigourney, Miss Mitchell ; their Marco Polo in Sir John Mandeville ; their Hipparchus in Horox, Herschel, Proctor, Mitchel, &c. ; their Virgil, Horace, &c., in Dryden, Gold- smith, Wordsworth, Tennyson, Longfellow, Bryant, Lowell, &c. ; their Semiramis in Elizabeth ; and now their Dido in the gentle but firm Victoria, who rules over 234,762,593 souls, dwelling in 44,142.651 houses. Let us not forget that, where Greek and 684 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. Latin had, in any branch of literature and science, one eminent author, the English idiom has ten. Hence, Tyre and Sidon, Greece, Carthage, and Rome must go in the shade, when com- pared with the countries ruled by the English language, com- prising the British Empire, the United States, and Liberia. England and the United States should ever go hand in hand for England and America at war should make the angels weep, and cause Hope, Liberty, and Justice to hide their faces. Both countries have been expanding the English language England by sending colonies to all parts of the globe, America by receiv- ing, Anglicizing, and assimilating emigrants from all nations thus England acting as the bee-hive of the English-speaking populations, America as their magnet. With their vast domains, England and America can say to the masses of Europe and Asia : " Come unto us, all ye that labour, and are heavy laden, and we will give you rest. Our yoke is easy and our burden is light" Matt. xi. 1 8. Now notice the conclusive evidence of a higher intellectual development among the English-speaking populations : The world's postal service, from 1868 to 1871, inclusive, shows 3,468,227,000 letters mailed and carried. Of these billions and millions of letters 1,761,875,000 (over one-half] were written, mailed, and read by the English-speaking populations. Can there be a surer sign of individual and national progress " reading and writing being the primary requisites and key to knowledge " ? The world's statistics of 1880 will show, that the ninety Eng- lish-speaking millions have more books, newspapers, and there- fore more reading and diffusion of general knowledge, than the other 1,200,000,000 of Earth's inhabitants. Soon Australia and New Zealand, with their superior newspapers, will have native authors and a native literature. So will Cape Colony, Natal, Mauritius, and even the Fiji Islands; for they start with a su- perior language, which is a prompter of thought, ideas, litera- ture, and science. England and America can afford to look quietly at the jeal- ousies and wars in Europe, while races of all climes increase their domain, and while everything points to a speedy advance of civilization in the southern hemisphere, whose serene sky, Nineteenth Century. 68$ bright constellations, atmospheric conditions, telluric formation and soil are ready for higher intellectual development. Starting without Medieval prejudices and drawbacks, Oceanica may soon rival the mother country, especially since the rich gold fields of Australia have been discovered and opened to all nations. The English-speaking populations have done much, and may yet do more for the untutored children of Ham. The Greco- Latin races of Europe, France, Italy, and Spain will gladly aid the progress of Africa, where the fabled gardens of the Hesperides may yet be realized by the enterprise and daring of such men as Baker, Livingstone, Long, Cameron, and Stanley, whose recent explorations across equatorial Africa electrified the world. As guardians of civilization, England and the United States should forget their jealousies and stand together, whenever and wherever a question of progress arises. Already the Sandwich Islanders had their Bertha in Kamamalu, and their Ethelbert in Liholiho. N'ow they are being educated in their own and in the English language. Of the four newspapers they issue, two are native and two English. Lately the chiefs of the Samoan or Navigator's Islands desired to be annexed to the English-speaking popula- tions, only the rivalry between England and the United States prevented the union. Ham's progeny in Ashantee must cast their lot with the English-speaking populations, and affiliate with the Liberians, who are Hamites civilized in America. A colony of Icelanders tried to negotiate terms with the United States for a settlement in Alaska since their millennial celebration, August 2, 1874. Lately Mennonites, persecuted in Russia, and Ice- landers sought and found welcome homes in Canada, where they were graciously visited by the humane Governor, Lord Dufferin. Thus dwellers of the Arctic and Antarctic regions, as well as those of torrid Africa and Oceanica, are casting their fate with the ninety English-speaking millions. Such are the character and enterprise of the English-speaking peoples ; such their means and resources ; such their extent. As to the intrinsic merits of their composite language, we have proved that it numbers sixty-eight per cent. Greco-Latin, thirty Gotho-Germanic, two per cent. Celtic, and traces of Semitic, which enable the instructor of youth, the preacher, scientist, journalist, legislator, dramatist, historian, poet, novelist, and 686 English Period, A.D. 1600-1878. miscellaneous writer to find vocabularies suited to their varied themes; these advantages English alone possesses, now, only harmonize letter with sound. Already the French savant, de Candolle, tells us English will be spoken by eight hundred and sixty millions within a hundred years ; and the German scien- tist, Dr. Rapp, author of "Physiology of Language" speaks of its '''suitableness for universal adoption" After such proofs and testimonials from unbiased foreign scholars, need we add anything more concerning the intrinsic merits of the English tongue ? Under William the Conqueror, A.D. 1085, the Anglo-Saxon dialect, mother of English, ruled over about 2,000,000 souls. Under James I., A.D. 1603, the English language began to rule over a population of about 7,500,000 souls. Now, 1878, it rules over 318,000,000 souls, scattered over the five parts of the globe ; and all this has been accomplished within about two hun- dred and seventy-five years. If its expanse continues in the same ratio for a similar period, it is easy to calculate what the English language will be to mankind, A.D. 2000. Of all reforms discussed, that of a universal language is the most important ; for as soon as the thirteen hundred millions of souls on this planet can interchange their thoughts and ideas in one and the same language, Earth will be a more progressive, more intellectual, and happier home for her children. As linguistic limitations disappear, national and social intercourse will expand ; a universal language will reveal, that the Himalayas, Alps, Cordil- leras, and Andes, saw races and tribes, whose customs, religion, rites, and monuments were similar ; that those races uttered roots and words, which had a common origin ; and that the Ganges, Amoor, Euphrates, Jordan, Nile, Tiber, Don, Rhine, Thames, Mississippi, and Amazon, watered fields, cultivated by kindred tribes and nations. Moses, the oldest philologist, tells us, Gen. xi., i and 6 : "TAe whole Earth was of one language and of one speech. The people is one, and they have all one language" When mankind again listens to one speech, the Millennium will be at hand ; for printing, steam, telegraph, cable, telephone, and phonograph will centuple the diffusion of knowledge and wisdom. INDEX INDEX. IN this index the important results may be found under the heads of Origin, Progress, Destiny, Language, Synopses, Percentages, Statistics, Anglo- Saxon, Franco-English, English, French, Celtic, and Obsolete. Under such headings as Anatomic, Legal, Medical, Theologic, Miisical, Astronomic, &c. , Vocabulary, students will find how and where the terms and phraseologies of their respective branches came into the English language ; hence, these head- ings will be printed in italics. ABDALLA, 57 Abelard, 214 Academies of literature, science, &c., 421, 422 Adam Davie, 286, 287, 397 Adam of Bremen, 178 Adalbert, Apostle of Prussia, Hungary, and Lithuania, 177 Adam Smith, 462 Adams, Mrs., 521 Adapting sound to letter, 201, 385-396 Adelard of Bath, scientist, 215 Addison, 427, 449 Additions of linguistic gems to Anglo- Saxon, 223, 375, 610 Adjectives, English, 618 Advent of pure English, 403 Adverbs, English, 619 Agassiz, Prof., 348, 663 Age of languages: English, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Latin, Sanscrit, Spanish, 653 Agricultural vocabulary, 87, 89, no, 191, 229, 237, 351, 462 Ahalya Bai, Empress of India, 518, 519 Air-pump, 423 Akenside, 462 A language to suit Anglo-Saxons, Franco-Normans and Celts, 244, 245, 250, 251, 255 Albigenses, 214, 243 Alchneda, Apostle of the Mercians, 78, 522 Alcock, 337 Alcuin, 107, no, in, 130 Aldhelm, 89, in Alfred the Great, n, 59, 67, 105, in, 129, 130, 148, 152, 153, 154, 190, 458 ; on equality of mankind, 138 ; on 44 "national education," 137; as a sci- entist, 141, 142 Alfredan Era, 136, 181 ; jewel, 131 Alfred's census, 133 ; A. S. Code, 152, I 53. *54 I Philosophic Address to De- ity,* 139 ; navy, 166 ; will, 143 ; grand- daughters (five) married European sovereigns, 162, 163 Alfred, anatomist, 242 Alfric, 47, 167, 168 Algebraic vocabulary, 315 Alkalem II., 178 Allibone, S. A., 654, 662 Alphabet, 51, 52, 53, 54, 70, 359, 416, 613 ; universal, 54, 55, 386, 387, 396, 415, 416, 686 America, 310, 311, 450, 492, 674, 67^, 684 America and England hand in hand for progress, 496, 497, 498, 501, 508-513, 672, 673, 680, 684, 685 American Bible Society, 42 American enterprise, 404, 405, 442,443, 445-448, 450, 456-459. 465, 49 6 . 497. 508-513 Americans expanding English, 675, 676, 677 America's aborigines add a word to English, 352 America's future, 469, 470 Americo-Indian languages, 313 Americus Vespucius, 312 Anatomic -vocabulary, 85, 231, 242, 2=52, 258, 266, 267, 342, 344, 413 Andrews, Pettit, 29, 71, 105, 130, 181, 182, 211, 335 An, dropped from Anglo-Saxon infini- tives, 379 Anesthesis, 500 690 Index. Angles, 29, 30, 48, 130, 144 ; slaves in Rome, 30, 47 Anglo-Saxon Period, 23-232 ; alphabet, i 51 ; origin and progress of, 32-41, 43, i 62, 63, loo, 123, 155, 175, 200, 222, 223 ; i literature, 60, 78, 81, 82, 83, 91, 94, 97, 114, 115, 117, 120, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 143, 144, 146, 147, 149, 152, 169, 179, 193, 197, 217, 220; Iliad, 112-116; Bible translated into, 166 ; ceased to be a writtten language, 203, 204, 205 ; spelling phonetic, 147, 148 ; spelling altered by the Danes to Dano-Saxon, 179, 180 ; spelling disfigured by Orr- min, 207, 208, 233 ; dialect, 223 ; num- ber of words therein, 224; words ob- solete, 223 ; appreciated by modern scholars, in, 113, 114, 224, 417, 461 ; ingenuity in mental arithmetic, 109 ; enterprise and commerce, 146, 161, 166, 167; jewelry, styled "Opera Anglica," famous all over Europe, 131, 230 ; missionaries, 101, 102, 103, 123 Anglo-Saxons and Franks or French harmonious, 43, 44,45, 48, 49, 50, 51, 72, 77. 8 5- 86, 101, 102, 103, no, 123, 125, 129, 130, 132, 133, 162, 164, 165, 180, 181 ; till alienated by Norman and Plantagenet ambition, 181-188, 258, 259, 260 ; Christianity among the, 43- 44- 45- 5, 51 Animal utterance, 51, 52 An intellectual prodigy, 414 Anna Comnena, 213 Anna, Apostle of the Russians, 177, 522, 55 Anscarius, Apostle of the North, 159, 176 Anthemius, 68 A philosophic language, 415, 416 Apostrophe to Language, by Bilder- dijk, 501 Appleton's Journal, 646, 662 April 25th, 1564, 407 Ar (linguistic root meaning earth or land), 7 Ar ar at (land, land ahead), 612 Arabian figures, 175 ; literature, 69, 103, 160, 178, 211, 214 Arabic words in English, 214 Aramaic or Syriac in English, 609 Arandhati, 517 Architectural vocabulary, 86, 90, 163, 191, 230, 353, 398, 399,' 401, 417, 499 Argus, Melbourne, Australia, 646, 662, 678 Aria, 32, 35 Arian languages, their origin, 32-35 Arian Code, 59 Arians (farmers), 32 ; in Germany, 34 Ariavarta, 32 Ario-Japhetic languages, their origin, 4. 5- 32, 33. 34. 35. 3*3 Ariosto, 350 Aristotle's works sent to Western Eu- rope, 238, 239 Arne, Doctor, 449 Array of great German minds, 502 Art's vocabulary, 398, 399, 400 Arundel, Countess, 313 Ascham, 348 Asiatic Empire of England, 314, 676, 677 Asser, 131, 132, 134, 135, 162, 163, 165, /66 Astor Library, 307, 308, 330, 436 Astronomic vocabulary, 57, 85, 109, 238, 241, 316, 344, 359, 360, 361, 414, 415, 420, 423, 462, 500, 501, 519, 520 Athelstan, 150, 166, 176 Attila, 26 Auckland, 678, 679 Audubon, 498 Aught, final, its origin, 280, 385, 391 Augustine, Apostle of the Anglo-Sax- ons, 47, 72 ; and the forty monks at King Ethelbert's court, 50, 51 Australia, 678, 684 Authors of Anglo-Saxon Period, 226 ; Franco-English Period, 376 ; English Period, 638, 639 Authors' styles and vocabularies com- pared, 657-664 Average origin of the words in Walker's and Noah Webster's Dictionaries, 610, 6n Avenzoar, 211 Averrhoes, 211 BABEL (confusion of language), 612 Bacon, Lord, 410, 412 Roger, 28, 233, 234, 236, 424 Balbi, 7, 505 Bancroft, Geo., 650, 661, 662 Hubert H., 35, 313, 654, 655 Barbarians, Goths and Vandals be- came Europe's reformers, 26, 27 Barbour, John, 261 Barometer, 429 Barnes' Educational Monthly, 642, 662 Bassi, Maria, 520 Beaumont and Fletcher, 411 Bede, 23, 29, 30, 51, 59, 71, 73, 76, 78, 84, 85, 87, loi, 102, 105, 109, 130, 133, 204 Beginning of protesting, 215 Bchaim, 311 Behn Aphra, 415, 660, 664 Belzoni, Madam, 588 Benjamin of Tudela, 211 Benedictines, 88, 89, 216 Beowulf, 112-116, 216, 460 Berg, philotherist, 455, 519 Berkeley, Bishop, 468, 470, 651 Bertha, Apostle of the Anglo-Saxons, 43- 44. 45, 5. 5L 72, 75- 522, 550 Berzelius, 499 Bible translated into Anglo-Saxon, 166; into English, 406, 407 ; into Franco- Index. 691 English, 265, 299, 341 ; into Gothic, 25, 36 ; Bible, polyglot, 337 Bilderdijk, Holland's eminent bard, 501 Katharina, 520, 521 Bill of Rights, 418, 440, 441 Bird's-eye views of the nine styles of writing, 642-657 Biscop, Benedict, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, no, 130 Blackstone, 235, 480, 481, 639, 648 Blavatsky, Countess, 337, 502, 654, 661 Boadicea, Queen, 16 Boccaccio, 268 Bodleian Library, 58 Boethius, 133, 178 Boileau, 425 Bombay Indian Spectator, 646, 662 Bonaparte, Prince L. L., 463 Boniface (Winfrid), Apostle of Ger- many, 123, 124, 157 Books, 58, 85, 263 ; scarcity of, 108, 214, 377- 378 Bopp, 502 Bossuet, 425 Boston Daily Globe, 646, 661 Boston News Letter, 646 Botanic vocabulary, 243, 352, 359, 426, 464, 613 Bowditch, N., 501 Boyle, Robert, 422 Brian Boru, King, 168 Bret Harte, 649, 661 Bright, John, 648 British Isles attracted the world's at- tention, 15-21, 30, 43, 44-59. 6 5. 66 . 71, 72, 77, 84, 101, 102, 103 Brompton, 262 Brooklyn Daily Eagle, 646, 661 Brooks, James, 648, 661 Brougham, Lord, 648 Brown, Rev. N., 645 Brunehaut, Queen, 44, 48, 49, 50, 76 Bruys, Pierre de, 214, 508 Bryant, Wm. C., 628, 629, 630, 631, 634, 6 35. 636, 650, 651, 660, 683 Buckle, 650 Buffon's rich vocabulary of the natural sciences, 462 Bulwer, 652 Bunsen, Baron von, 653 Bunyan, 412, 413, 454 Burke, 648 Burnet, Bishop, 418 Burning for heresy by Catholics, 215, 301, 341 ; by Protestants, 344, 345 Burnouf, 35 Burton, Robert, 412, 434, 435, 569 Butler's Hudibras, 422 Byron, 435, 460, 526, 527, 624, 625, 639, 679 CABLE, Atlantic, 508-512 Cabot, 314, 338 Caedmon, 80, 83, 91, 130, 156 Calcutta Journal, 646, 660 Calderon, De la Barca, 428 Calendar, Roman, 43, 55, 56, 57 ; changed, 351, 365 Calhoun, John C., 648 Calvin, 339, 345 Cambridge University, 79, 163, 190, 3"oi, 338, 343 Camden, 89 Camera-obscura, 234 Camoens, 350, 351 Candolle, de, 680 Canute, 180 Cape Colony, 684 Capital against labor, 469, 513-516 Caractacus (Caradoc) King, 16 Caribert, King, 43, 44, 45 Carlyle, Thomas, 103 Cassiterides, 16 Casivellaunus, King, 16 Castle of the Heavens, 360, 361 Cathedral of Coventry, 399 Catholic Review, 645 Caxton, William, 306-309, 330, 331 Celtic dialects waning and dying, 227, 253. 254. 442, 463 'eltic in Anglo-Sa Celtic in Anglo-Saxon, 223, 226; in Franco-English, 375 ; in English, 610 ; wit, 159 Celts, self-reliant, 20, 21, 50 Census by Alfred the Great, 133 ; by William the Conqueror, 189, 190, 191 Ceolfrid, 87 Certain styles demand more or less Greco-Latin, 670 Cervantes, 397, 428 Cesar, 16, 21, in Cesnola, 35 Champollion, 35, 505 Change of vocabulary according to subjects, 623, 636, 668, 669, 670 ; ac- cording to styles, 641-657, 668, 669, 670 Channing, W. E., 644 Chapin, Rev. E. H., 644, 660 Charles Martel, 101, 127 the Bald, 130, 155, 157 the Simple, 165 V., Emperor, on languages, 313 Charlemagne, 101, 123, 125, 127, 129; his dialect, 125 Chaucer, n, 269-282, 294, 295, 397 Chaucerian Era, 299 Cheke, Sir John, 343 Chcmic vocabulary, 127, 233, 342, 465, 469, 499, 613 Chicago Tribune, 646, 662 China, 178, 240 Christian Era, or Gregorian Calendar, 57. 4.65 Christianity introduced into Britain, 16 ; into Ireland, 21 ; into Kent, 43 ; into Scotland, 21 Christina of Sweden, 428 Christian topography, 68 Christ's Ethics, their influence on Ian- 692 Index. guage, 36, 43, 69, 70, 90, 339, 340, ^342, 464, 490, 508, 517 Ciaran, Saint, 64 Cincinnati Commercial, 646 Cirencester, 268, 269 Clarke, Mrs. Cowden, n, 410 Classification of languages, its basis, 4, 5 Claudia, 16, 17 Claudius, 16 Clergyman's Magazine, London, 644 Clinton, De Witt, 498 Clotilda, Apostle of the Franks, 25, 522, 550 Code of honor, in Coifi, his speech, 78 Coins, 79 Coleridge, 589 College at Rome, Anglo-Saxon, 116, 161 Columbus, Christopher, 311, 312 Columbia College, 226 Combe, George, 499 Communistic vocabtdary, 455, 469, 513- 5i6 Consent, government by, 138, 456-459, 473, 479 Consonants, interchangeable, 40 Cook, Captain, 678, 679 Cooper, J. F., 534, 535, 639 Peter (Philanthropist), 511 Copernicus, 28, 344 Coram, Captain, 455 Corneille, 425, 428 Cornish in English, 609 ; died with Dorothy Pentreath, 463 Cornwall, 16, 463 Cosmas, 68 Cosmos, 502 Coxe, Bishop A. C., 644, 661 Crusades, their influence on language, 200, 209, 210, 213 Cunards, 498 Cuneiform decipherings, 35 Cuvier, 501 DACIER, Madame, 340, 426 Daguerre, 500 Daily Graphic, New York, 646, 660 Dana, Richard H., 347 Danes, in, 132, 149, 179 Danish in English, 609 Dano-Saxon, 130, 179 Dante, 138, 268 Darwin, 20, 654, 662 Davy, Sir Humphrey, 499 Dawnings of progress, 233 Day, Murray S., U.S.N., 519 Deaf-mutes taught to read, 454 Death of a language, A.D. 1778, 463 Decimal measures and weights, 673 Declaration of Independence, 138, 456, 478, 479 De Foe, Daniel, 411, 412, 652 De 1'Epee, Abbe, 454, 455 Dentistry, 500 Disraeli, I., 460 Descartes, 28, 420 Destiny of the English language, 673- 686 Devotional utterance and language, 141, 142, 143 Dialects, number of, 312, 313 Diaz (navigator), 309 Dictionaries of Webster and Walker, 611 ; origin of their words, 611 Didactic style of writing, 642, 643 ; origin of its vocabulary, 656, 657 Different words from the Fifty English Extracts and Tables, 589-609, 610 Discoveries (geographic), 309-315 Disharmony between letter and sound, its origin, 280, 392, 393, 394 Divine right, government by, 450, 456, 458, 459 Dix, Miss, 519 Domain of language, 612, 613, 614, 615 Dombrowska, Apostle of the Poles, 177, 522 Dominicans (Inquisition), 243 Dooms-day Book, 133, 189 Dorset, Lord, Father of English Trag- edy, 346 Dr. Schopher's Sta terra. 344 Drama, its origin, 339, 345~347 Dramatic style of writing, 649 ; origin of its vocabulary, 656, 657 Draper, Prof. J. W., 5, 215, 300, 499, 562, 563, 639, 650, 659, 661, 662 Druids (scientific), 21 Dryclen, 350, 360, 426 Dufferin, Ear 648, 663, 685 Du Halde, 449 Duns Scotus, 242 Duponceau, 497 Dutch, in English, 609 ; literature, 239, 422, 423, 501, 520, 521 ; replaced by English, 675, 676, 677 EANFLEDA, A. S. queen, 78 E and ee, final, changed into^y, 276 Ebsfleet, 23 Edburga, mother of Alfred the Great, 162 Edda, 125, 189, 216 Edgeworth, Miss, 547, 652, 661 Edinburgh Review, 646 Edison, Prof., 395, 671 Editha. Queen, 180 Education among Anglo-Saxons, 58, 84, 85, 86, 108, 109, no, 137, 212, 231, 232 ; in America, 442, 443, 676 ; in England, 212, 255, 301, 337, 338; in Oceanica, 443 ; the corner-stoac of social structure, 643 ; incomplete without Anglo-Saxon and Franco- English, 397 Edward the Confessor, 180, 193 the Elder, 163 Index. 6Q3 Edward III., 258, 259, 260 Edwards, Jonathan, 466, 472, 638 Edwin, 77, 78, 149 Egbert, England's first king, 129, 130, 15 Bishop, 107, no Eginhard, 57, 129, 228 Eighteenth Century, 445-496 Eighth Century, 105-128 Eleutherius, Pope, 17 Eleventh Century, 179-201 Elfleda, 143, 176 Elizabeth, Queen, 348 Elizabethan Era, 349 Elmham, 58 Elstob, Miss, pioneer Anglo-Saxonist, 461, 520 Emerson, R. W., 20, 505 Emma, Pearl of Normandy, 180 Empress of Japan, highly educated and accomplished, 519 E mute, dropped, 354, 400 Enactments of Parliament to be issued in the vernacular, 241 Endearment, words of, 33 England and America, champions of freedom, 496, 680 English Period, 403-686 ; pure, began with Shakespeare, James' Version of the Bible, and Milton, u, 12, 403, 406, 407-411, 413, 414 ; literature, 403, 406-440, 460, 461, 464, 465-495, 497, 498, 505, 519, 520-587, 638, 639, 683, 684 ; accession of expansive words, 445-448 ; -speaking popula- tions : their character, 15 ; enter- prise, 508-512, 673-680 ; resources, 681, 682 ; higher intellectual develop- ment, 684 ; language, 12, 15, 609, 610, 6n ; its domain, 612615 ; extent, 673-680 " Equality of mankind," 138, 458 Erasmus, 343 Erroneous analysis of English, 664- 668 Ethelbert I., 5, 9, II, 44, 45, 49, 51, 59, 60, 64, 71, 75 Ethelbert's, A. S. Code, 58, 60, 62; deed, 72 Etlielburga, Apostle of the Northum- brians, 77, 116, 522 witha, Alfred's queen, 162 Ethelwerd, Alfred's son, 23, 44, 163, 164, 165 Ethel wulph, 130, 136 Ethelingay, Island, 131 Etymology of English at a glance, 379, 380, 381, 382, 384, 446, 447, 448 Euclid, 215, 216 Eucloxia, Empress, 517 Eurmel, Egenolf, Father of News- papers, 356 Eusebius, 17 Evening Post, New York, 646 Evolution theory, 418, 419, 420, 421 Extracts and Tables:* 60-62; 91-93 ; 94-96 ; 97-99 ; 117-119 ; 120-122 ; 149- 151 ; 152-154 ; 169-171 ; 172-174 ; 193-196 ; 197-199 ; 217-219 ; 220, 221 ; 246, 247 ; 248, 249 ; 250, 251 ; 284, 285 ; 286, 287 ; 288, 289 ; 290, 291 ; 292, 293 ; 294, 295 ; 296, 297 ; 324, 325 ; 326, 327 ; 328, 329 ; 330, 331 ; 332, 3331 334, 335: 362, 363; 364, 365 ; 366, 367 ; 368, 369 ; 370, 371 ; 372, 373 ; 43. 431 ; 432, 433 ; 434, 435 I 436, 437 ; 43 8 - 439 ', 44, 44* ; 470, 471 ; 472, 473 ; 474, 475 ; 476, 477 1 478, 479 1 42o, 481 ; 482, 483 ; 484, 485 ; 486, 487 ; 488, 489 ; 490, 491 ; 492, 493 ; 494, 495 ; 526, 527 ; 528, 529 ; 530, 531 ; 532, 533 ; 534, 535; 536, 5371 538, 5391 540, 54i; 542, 5431 544, 545: 546, 5471 548, 549 I 55, 55i ; 552, 553 I 554, 555 ; 556, 557 1 558, 559 I 56o, 561 ; 562, 563 I 5 6 4, 565 ; 566, 567 ; 568, 569 ; 570, 57i; 572, 573; 574, 575: 576, 577 I 578, 579 ; 58o, 581 ; 582, 583 ; 584, 585 ; 5S6, 587 ; 624, 625 ; 626, 627 ; 628, 629 ; 630, 631 ; 632, 633 FABIAN, Robert, 305 Faithful, Miss, 519 Family names, 168 Faraday, 353, 498 Fashion's vocabulary, 228, 229 Father of English Poetry, 270 ; of Eng- lish Prose, 265 ; of English Classic Drama, 349; of Chemistry, 127 ; of Dramatic Music, 400 Fayette, Madame de la, pioneer of novel-writers, 426 Fenelon, 428 Fergus, I., 21 Fernham, 243 Feudalism in England, 353 Field, Cyrus W., 509, 510, 511, 512 Rev. H. M., 509 Fifteenth Century, 301-338 Fifth Century, 23-28 Firdousi, 178 Finn, Magnusen, 126 First foreign expanse of England's lan- guage, 127 First Hebrew word in English, 226 First western Protestant, 18-21 First writing in Anglo-Saxon, 60, 61 Fiske, Prof. J., 642, 661, 662 Flamsteed, 414, 415 Flemish, 155 ; earliest writing in, 156 ; in English, 609 Fleta, treatise on farming, 237 Fleurs de lis, 131, 258 * These ninfty Extracts and Tables are specimens of English literature from its earliest writing, A.D. 597 : fourteen in A. S. period ; 22 in Franco-Eng. ; and 54 in Eng. period. 694 Index. Force, government by, 450, 456, 458, 459 " Foreign words " in English, 667 Foundling asylum, 347, 348, 455 Fowler, O. S., 499 Fourteenth Century, 255-300 France the educator of Europe, 43, 44, 45, 48, 49, 65, 72, 76, 85, 86, 101, 102, 103, no, 125, 129, 130, 132, 133, 176, 180, 182, 183, 208, 212, 213, 236, 425, 426, 427, 488 Francic, or Old High German, 104, 124, 125, 155, 156, 157, 158 ; earliest writing in, 124, 125 ; its analogy to Gothic, An- glo-Saxon, and Low German, 36, 37 ; Charlemagne's dialect, Latin and Celtic, formed French, 125 Franco-English. Period, 233-403 ; fusion of Anglo-Saxon and French, n, 233, 243, 488 ; pioneer, Robert of Glouces- ter, 244, 245, 250, 251, 299, 396, 397 ; Bible translated into, 265, 266, 341 ; Chaucer simplified the A. S. gram- mar, 279, 280 ; Chaucer complicated A. S. spelling, 280, 308, 309 ; Chaucer introduced a French vocabulary, 271- 280; Anglo-Saxon verbs changed into, 378, 379 ; Anglo-Saxon verbs replaced by French, Latin, and Welsh, 382, 383 ; French verbs changed into, 380, 381 ; authors and copyists disfigured A. S. spelling, 253, 308, 309, 38-5-396, 488 ; English classic education in- complete without A. S. and Franco- English, 397, 398 ; dialect, 375 ; ob- solete words, 375 ; enterprise, 314, 338 Franklin, Benjamin, 20, 465, 466, 486, 487, 638, 659, 683 ; his prophecy con- cerning the English language, 486 Sir John, 404, 683 Franks, 25, 43, 44, 101, 209 Frederika Bremer, 520 Freemasons, 398, 523 French, 14, 180-188, 208, 209, 244, 255, 272, 277, 486, 488, 667 ; origin of, 155, 157, 158 ; earliest writing in, 157 ; Code in England, 182, 183 ; at court and in schools, 205 ; in Anglo-Sax- on, 223; introduced by Robert of Gloucester, 250, 251 ; by Chaucer, 271-277 ; and other eminent writers, 389 ; verbs Franco-Anglicized, 380, 381 ; replace Anglo-Saxon verbs, 282, 283 ; in Franco-English, 375 ; litera- ture, 350, 425, 426, 427, 428, 462, 465, 500 Froissart, 264 Froude, J. A., 650 Fulton, Robert, 497, 498 GALAXY of English women, 340, 519, 520 ; of Orientalists, 461 Galileo, 28, 414 Gall, Apostle of Switzerland, 66, 257 ; phrenologist, 499 Galvani, 451 Gamut, 201 Gargi, 517 Garments (their names), 229 Gascoigne, Father of Classic Drama in England, 349 Gazettes, 356 Geber, Father of Chemistry, 127 Gellent, 465 Geoffrey of Monmouth, 49, 50, 65, 68, 206 Geographic vocabulary, 68, 145, 146, 178, 211, 238, 240, 260, 261, 264, 268, 269, 300, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 366, 404, 449, 505, 506, 519, 643-679 Geologic vocabulary, 464, 544, 545, 613 German, formed from Gothic, Old High German or Francic, and Low Ger- man, 33, 35-41 ; its earliest writings, 124, 125, 155-158 ; Bible translated into, 339, 340 ; literature, 54, 158, 212, 339. 34< 423. 465, 502, 503, 504, 505 ; in English, 609 Gesenius, 502 Getae, Goths, Jutes, Scythians, Celts, 23. 24, 25 Gibbon, 27, 146, 283, 490, 491, 638, 650, 662, 683 Gilbert, Miss, 519 Gilbert, W. (on the magnet), 353 Gildas, 20, 65 Giraldus, Cambrensis, 206 Gladstone, 582, 583, 639, 648, 661, 680 Glasgow Weekly Herald, 646 Glass windows a luxury, 230 Goethe, 502, 503 Gold coined, 267 Goldsmith, 460 Gomara, 210 " Good Husbandrie," 351 Goths and Vandals, Europe's moral re- formers, 25, 26, 27 Gottheil, G., Rabbi, 644 Government by consent, 456-459, 478, 479, 515 ; by Divine right, 450, 456- 459 ; by force, 456 Gradual accessions to the Anglo-Saxon dialect, 224 Grammar, 167 Grant (President), 584, 585, 639, 648 Greco-Latin in English, 610 ; increas- ing, 670; -speaking populations, 673 Greek, 85, 238, 316, 318, 320, 342, 343 ; first Greek book printed in England, 351 ; professorship, 343 Greenland discovered, 310 Gregory of Tours, 43 I., Pope, 30, 45, 46, 47, 48, 57, 59, 71, 72, 76 Grimm, Jacob, n, 125, 377 Guericke, 423 Guido of Arez:?o, 200 Guisaunt, William, 267 Guizot, 182 Gunpowder, 258 Index. 695 Gutta-percha, 510 Gwen Llyan, Welsh heroine, 209 HAHNKMANN, 499 Hakluyt, 264 Hale, Mrs., 550, 551, 639 Haliam, 177, 271, 283, 425, 445, 610 Halleck, Fitz-Green, 524 Halley, 429 Hammer, Baron von, 35 Hardicanute, 180 Harold, 181 Haroun al Raschid, 160 Harper's Monthly Magazine, 646, 661 Hart, John, 353, 396 Harvard University, 13, 442 Harvey, 413 Hawaiian Gazette, Sandwich Islands, 646 Hawthorne, 652 Hebrew in English, 609 ; Leader, New York, 645 ; first Hebrew book printed in England, 351 ; professorship, 343 Helena, Apostle of the Romans, 72, 521, 522, 550 Heliand, 155, 156 Hemans, Mrs., 530, 531, 651, 683 Hengist, 23, 24, 31, 44 Henry d'Avranches, first poet-laureate, 241 of Huntingdon, 206 - VIII., 74. 339. 340 Heptarchy, 31, 58, 116, 129, 149 Herald, New York, 358, 576, 577, 639, 646, 658, 659, 663, 664, 678 Herodotus, 7, 23, 25, 29, 30, 31, 34 Herschel, Sir William, 420, 462 Miss C. L., 462, 463, 519 Hickes, 80, 133 Higden's Polychronicon, 255, 264 Hieroglyphics, 463 Hilda, abbess, 80, 84 Historian and philologist, 637 Historic style of writing, 650; origin of its vocabulary, 656, 657, 663 Hitchcock, Prof., 544, 545, 639 Hofer, Dr. 103, 127 Hoffman, Hon. John, 654 Hogarth, 462 Holty, 365 Home Journal, New York, 633, 635, 646, 647, 660 Homeopathic vocabulary, 499 Honour, 274, 275, 354 Home Tooke, 614, 622 Horrox, 414, 683 Horsa, 23, 44 Houses of the Anglo-Saxons, 230 Hoveden, 206 Howard, John, 455 Howe, Dr. S. G., 513 Huguenots, 360, 378 Humboklt, 7, 312, 404, 421, 502 Hume, 23, 78, 130, 300, 476, 477, 499, 638, 650, 658, 659, 683 Hunt, Wilson G., 512 Huss, John, 301, 508 Huttonian Theory, 464 Huxley, Prof., 20, 642, 661, 663 Huygens, 422, 423 ICELANDIC in English, 609 le, final, changed into y, 276, 277, 280, 354 Ight, final, its origin, 280, 388 Illuminated books, 400 Immortality, HI, 462, 506 Importa?ice of adapting letter to sound in English, 12, 13, 385, 386, 390, 391, 396, 655, 680, 681, 686 Important socio-legal measures, 241 Ina's A. S. Code, HI, 116, 117, 119 ; A. S. College at Rome, 127 India, 131, 145, 161 ; its eminent wo- men, 517, 518, 519 Infinitives, Anglo-Saxon, changed into English, 379, 383 ; French changed into English, 380, 381, 383 ; Latin changed into English, 448 Ing, final, its origin, 280 Ingoberga, 44 Ingulphus, 180, 191 Inquisition, 243 Intrinsic merits of the English language, 15, 685, 686 Introduction, 9-21 lorn, 421, 507 lona Island, 66 Ireland, 168, 227 Irish in English, 609 ; literature, 64, 124, 159, 168, 227, 228 Irish missionaries, 66 Irving, W., 103, 538, 539, 638, 650, 658 Isabella of Spain, 311 Isidore of Seville, 103, 104 Italian in English, 609 ; literature, 268, 315. 317. 343. 35, 359. 414. 499 J, INTRODUCED into the Roman alpha- bet, 359, 360 James I. of Scotland, 303 Jansen, Zacharias, 359 Japanese, 396, 416, 519 Jarrow, 89, 105 Jengis Khan, 240 Jerome, St., 42 Jesus College, Oxford, 338 Jewish Schools, 205 Jews, 205, 2ii, 242 Joan of Arc, 503 Johnson, Sam., 293, 412, 464 Johnson, Miss.y. W., 652, 660 Jones, Sir William, 35, 103, 178 Jonson, Ben, 409 Josephus, 7, 34, 42 Journalism, 354, 359, 646, 647 Judah, Aben, Prince of Translators, 240 Judith, Queen, 130 Justice of Alfred the Great, 134, 135 Justinian, his code, 67, 68. 696 Index. Jutes, Scythians, Getae, Goths, 23, 24, 31, 113, 144 KAAB, 103 Kamamalu, Queen, Apostle of the Sandwich Islanders, 522, 550, 551 Kant, 142, 420, 421 Katharine I. of Russia, 463 Kemble, 82, 113 Kent, 31, 44, 50 Kepler, 423, 428 Kiddle, Henry, 572, 573, 642, 662 Kindred (words of), 33 Klopstock, 505 Knighton (chronicler), 262 Koran, 407 LA BRUYERE, 397 Lafontaine, 425 Langland, 262, 288, 289 Langtoft, 243 Langton, Archbishop, 236 Language, see Dedication page ; its origin, 32, 33, 34, 312, 313 ; its vast domain, 612-615, 6 73 I philosophic, 415, 416, 417 ; English, 15, 609, 610, 6li ; universal, 686 Languages, number of, 7, 312, 313 Laplace, 501 Latin, 159, 208, 224, 445, 446, 447, 486 ; expansive words in English, 445, 446, 447 Lavoisier, 465 Layamon, 238 Leabhar nah-Uidhei, 64 Legal vocabulary, its progress, 72, 73, 87, 180, 182, 183, 205, 235, 236, 237, 301, 370, 380, 440, 441, 480, 481, 484, 485 ; its origin, 648, 656, 657, 663 Leibnitz, 28, 420, 423, 428, 464 Lesseps, M. de, 509 Lester, C. Edwards, 451, 650 Leverrier, 500 Libussa, Queen of Bohemia, 27, 522 Liebig, 499 Lily, W. , 342 Limborch, van, 244 Linguistic facts, 669, 670 ; incongrui- ties, their origin, 278, 279, 3'85-396, 488 ; laws immutable, 416, 417 Linus, Lleyn, Pope, 16, 17 Lippincott's Magazine, Philadelphia, 646 Literary Women, English, 340, 341, 503 ; French, 426 Literature, English, its richness, 683, 684 Livingstone, 683, 685 Llorente, on the Inquisition, 244 Locke, 412 Lollards or Wickliffites, 265, 266 London Times, 574, 575, 627, 639, 646, 651, 659, 660, 662 Longfellow, 80, 82, 113, 114, 554, 555, 626, 627, 634, 635, 636, 639, 659, 660, 683 Lope de Vega, 428 Lord's Prayer, a linguistic point of comparison, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 4i Lothair and Edric's A. S. Code, 94, 95. 96 Low, A. A., 511 Lowell, poet, 683 Low German, or Old Saxon, 37, 155, 156 Lucius, King, 18 Luidhard, Bishop, 4.5, 77 Luther, Father of German Language, 339- 340. 58 Lydgate, John, 304, 326, 327 Lyell, Sir Charles, n, 498 MA, 32 33, 34 Macaulay, 35, 412, 439, 456 Macintosh, Sir James, 662 McCloskey, Cardinal, 644, 660 Madden, Sir F., 238 Madoc, Prince, 210, 310 Maerland, Father of the Flemish Lan- guage, 239 Mackam, 300 Mngna Charta, 235, 236 Magdalen College, Oxford, 338 Macpherson, James, 64 Madison, James, 648 Magellan, 311 Magnet, 28, 353 Magnetism (mental and material), 65, 69, 138, 139, 146, 314, 353, 429, 671, 672 ?,L;^ncto-e!cctric vocabulary, 342, 353, 465, 466 Magnifying glasses, 233, 334, 335 Mahomet, 103, 316, 319 Malala's Chronicle, 67 Malthus, 513, 515 Mandeville, Sir John, 260 290, 291 Manning, Robert, 243, 284, 285, 397 Mannus, 34 Manu, 32 Mapes, Walter, 209 Marbeck, 400 Marco Polo, 238 Margaret, Semiramis of the North, 302 Maries, 516, 517 Mariotte's law, 426 Marsh, G. P., 13, 14, 223, 289, 295, 558, 559, 622, 662, 667 Martha, French, 521 Martyrs to science and progress, 500 Masora, 395 Matilda, Princess, 164, 176 Mathcmatic vocabidary, 56, 85, 89, 109, 267, 315 Matthew of Westminster, 116 Matthew, Paris, 242, 243 Max Miiller, Prof., 7, 15, 162, 509, 566, 567, 639, 642, 661, 663 Mechanic vocabulary, 315, 316, 417, 464, 497 Index. 697 Medical vocabulary, 68, 85, 90, 231,245, 267, 306, 342, 663 Melbourne, 678 Meranon, young, 588 Mermaid Tavern, 411 Mesrob, 70 Mctaphysic vocabulary, 505, 506, 507, 508 Military vocabulary, 163, 182, 258, 426, 55 2 > 553 I service in different coun- tries, 682 Milton, ii, 12, 413, 414, 436, 437, 638, 651, 658, 659, 660, 683 Mincralogic vocabulary, 613 Minnesingers, 200 Mirabeau on Franklin, 465 Miscellaneous style of writing, 454 ; origin of its vocabulary, 656, 657 Mitchel, O , 573 Mitchell, Miss, 520, 521, 683 Moelmuiri, 64 Moliere, 425, 428 Monboddo, Lord, 461 Mongolians or Tartars, 240 Montesquieu, 462 Montfaucon, 68 Montreal Gazette, 646, 661, 662 Moody and Sankey, 644 Morse, S. F. B., 353, 498, 509, 683 Moses, earliest philologist, 42, 612, 613, 686 Miihlbach, 520 Mulcaster, 368, 571 Mundinus, 258 Musical'vocabulary, 43, 57, 85, 89, 106, 109, 200, 201, 230, 231, 257, 400, 427, 449 Mythical, 35, 225. A 7 , FINAL, dropped from Anglo-Saxon words, 179 Names indicate language, nation, race, 184, 187, 613; words derived from, 45L 613, 614 Napoleon abolished the Inquisition, 244 National Republican, Washington, D. C., 646 7 vocabulary, 146, 166, 167, 230, 258, 401 Neckham, 210 Nemesius, Bishop, 28 New England, 31, 405, 442, 443, 676 New Era, Monrovia, Liberia, 646 New Orleans Times, 646, 661 News letters, origin of, 355 Newspaper. 1 !, their origin, 354-359; style, 646, 647, 656 ; statistics of, 357, 358 ; style and origin of vocabulary, 646, 647, 656, 657, 663 ; their influence and duty, 358, 647 Newton, 20. 28, 423, 424 New York Churchman, 645 Evangelist, 645 New Zealand Herald, Aukland, 646, 663, 678, 679, 683 Nicholas de Lima, 264 Nibelungen, 189, 216 Nine styles of writing, origin of their vocabularies, 641-657 Nineteenth Century, 497-686 Ninth Century, 129-161 Nithard, grandson of Charlemagne, 155 Nightingale, Miss, 519 " Nitrous-oxyd gas," 500 Nouns, English, 616 Number ot words in Anglo-Saxon, 224 ; in English, 611-615 1 languages, 7, 312 ; dialects, 312, 313 OBSERVATORIES, 360 Observer, The New York, 646, 647, 661, 662, 663 Obsolete Anglo-Saxon words, percent- age of, 223, 224, 382, 383; Greco- Latin words, percentage of, 223 Occleve, 320, 323 Ockham, 264 Okamites, 264 October, 26, A.D. 901, a most useful career, 146 O'Curry. E. , 228 Ode to Language, by J. L. Weisse, 636, 637 ; to Memory, by Tennyson, 580; to Woman, by Fitz-Green Hal- leek, 524 Odin or Woden, 44, 78 Offa, King, no, 116, 121, 129, 150 Ohthere, 146, 161, 167 Olga, Russian princess, 177 Oliphant, 105, 113, 271, 275, 323, 667 One and the same author used differ- ent vocabularies, 623-636 One and the same word is noun, ad- jective, and verb, 272, 273 Oneness of language, 613, 686 Oppert, 35 Optic vocabulary, 234, 359, 500 Ordericus Vitalis, 182, 206, 207 Oriental literature, 178, 240, 502 Origin of the English language, 609, 610, 611 ; Anglo-Saxon dialect, 223 ; Franco-English dialect, 375 ; three periods compared, 671, 672 Orosius, 20, 133 Orrmin's spelling, 207, 208, 233, 392 Orthographic improvement, 109, 167 Orudunoi, 644 Osgood, Rev. S., 644 "4. 65 Otfrid, 156, 158, 166 Otho von Freisingen, 212, 213 On in English words, its origin, 253; 274. 275, 280 Ottfh in English, 285, 354, 385, 386, 388, 389, 391, 392, 393, 394 Ought in English, its origin, 280, 385, 388, 391 698 Index. Ow in English, 385, 386, 388 Oxenden, Ashton, Archbishop of Cana- da, 644, 660 Oxford, 13, 190, 226, 229, 231, 261, 301, 449 PA, 32, 33. 34 Paccioli, 315 Pacific Railroad, 512 Paine, Thomas, 20, 138 Painter's vocabulary, 87, 89, 399, 462 Pali, 463 Palladius, 21 Palmerston, Lord, 648- Pandects, 67, 87 Paracelsus, 342 Paris University, 211, 212, 213 Particles, 12, 61, 294, 406, 430, 589, 615, 620-623, 638-641, 659, 663, 668- 670 Pascal, 426, 445 Patrick, St. , 21 Patrologiae, 45 Patronymic vocabulary, 451 Paul, St., 16, 17 Peacock, Bishop, 305, 324, 325 Pelagius, 18, 19, 20 Penmanship, 109, 167, 229 Penn, William, 405 Pentateuch, 7, 613 Pentreath, Dorothy, with whom died the Cornish dialect, 463 Percentages, showing the origin of the Anglo-Saxon dialect, 223 ; of Franco- English dialect, 375 ; of English lan- guage, 609, 610, 611 ; of English nouns, 616 ; verbs, 617 ; of adjectives, 618 ; of adverbs, 619 ; of particles, 620; showing the ultimate different words in English literature, 641 ; the repetitions in English literature, 641 ; obsolete Anglo-Saxon words, 223, 224 Pepin, 101, 123 Perpetuity of language, 69, 670, 671 Persian words in Gotho-Germanic lan- guages, 35 Peter the Great, 357, 450 Petrobrusians, early Protestants, 214 Pertz, 101 Philadelphia Ledger, 646, 663 Press, 646, 662 Philanthropic vocabulary, 454, 455, 513, 518, 519, 521 Phillips (Milton's nephew), 425, 427, Philips, Catharine, 425 Philologic vocabulary, 32-41, 42, 43, 103, 104, 147, 148, 214, 271-280, 353, 368, 379-3 8 4. 393- 445-448, 501, 502, 609, 612, 613, 614, 638, 639, 686 Philologist and historian, 637 Philosophic language, 415, 416 Philosophic vocabulary, 108, 133, 139, 140, 141, 241, 312, 313, 418-421 Phonetizing English, 147, 148, 201, 253, 280, 353, 354, 359, 360, 385-396, 486, 488 ; its importance, 12, 13, 386, 390, 391, 655, 686 Phonographic rule, 12, 13 Photius, 160 Phrenologic vocabulary, 499 Physiologic vocabulary^ 28, 241, 242, 266, 267, 342, 413 Pitcairn's Island, 679 Pitman's Alphabet, 396 Placidia, Apostle of the Goths, 522 Planet discovered by pure mathemat- ics, 500, 501 Plantagenets, 258, 259, 260 Plegmund, in Plymouth Rock, 405, 521 Pocahontas, 405 Poema del Cid, 211 Poet laureate (First), 241 Poetic style of writing, 651 ; origin of its vocabulary, 656, 657, 663 Political economy, 469, 513-516 Politico-legal style of writing, 648 ; origin of its vocabulary, 656, 657 Polyglot Bibles, 337 Pope, poet, 424, 427, 460, 474, 475, 638, 651, 659, 660 Popol Vuh, 7 Porta, Batista, 359 Port Elisabeth Telegraph, Cape Col- ony, Africa, 646, 662 Portuguese in English, 609 ; enterprise, 314; literature, 309, 310, 350, 351, 505 Postal service, its origin, 306 statistics, 684 Potato, 352 Potter, Rev. Henry C., 644 Preface, 5-8 Prescott, W., 540, 541, 639, 650, 659, 662, 683 Press, the, its origin, 354-359, 579, 646, 647, 656, 657 Priestley, 499 Primitive Arian words, 32-35 Princeton College, 442 Printing, 178, 302, 307, 308 Procopius, 67 Proctor, Professor, 642, 663 Progress of the Anglo-Saxon dialect, 43, 60, 61, 62, 63, zoo, 123, 155, 175, 200, 222, 223 ; Franco-English, 252, 298, 336, 374, 375 ; Anglo-Saxon, Franco-English, and English, 43, 51, 62, 63, 223, 375, 377, 610 litera- ture, 60, 61, 226, 376, 638, 639 Prolixity in English literature, 641 Provincialisms, 385-396, 488 Psychologic vocabulary, 28, 451-454, 506 Ptolemy, 23, 24 Pudens, 16, 17 Pure English, 403, 496 Puritans or Pilgrims, 405, 442, 443, 21, 676 Index. 699 QUKEN Theodelinda and Charlemagne, set the fashions, 228, 229 RABELAIS, 350 Racine, 425, 428 Rahman, Abder, 126, 127 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 349 Ramist letters, J and V, 359, 360 Rapp, Dr. K. M., see title-page. Rationalism, 508 Rawlinson, 7, 35 Reformers, 27, 214, 215, 262, 264, 265, 266, 301, 339, 341, 405, 462 Regions of Beatitude, 32 Relationship of languages, 33, 39, 40, 41, 312, 313 Remarks on Franco-English authors, 396, 397, 398 Renan, 7 Repetitions, 12, 61, 227, 294, 430, 589, 623, 638-641, 658, 659, 668-670 Resources of the English-speaking populations at a glance, 681, 682, 683 Retrospect of the fourteenth century, 671 ; seventeenth century, 428 Richter, Jean Paul, 614 Ricola, A. S. princess, 78 " Rise of Woman," 461 Robert Curthose, 191 of Gloucester, 24, 244, 245, 250, 251, 299, 396 Dale Owen, 556, 557, 639, 654 Roberts, Marshall O., 512 Robertson, Bishop of Missouri, 644, 66 1 Rollin, 27 " Roll of Battel Abbeie," 184-187 Roman letters, 54, 55, 359, 360, 407, 416, 433 ; numbers, 56, 70 Romantic style of writing, 652 ; origin of its vocabulary, 656, 657 Rothschild, 677 Ronsard, 350 Round Table, London, 635 Rousseau, J. J., 455, 513 Rowena, 24, 44 Royal Society, London, 421 Rubruquis, missionary, 240 Runes, 35, 55, 82, 126 Russia, 215, 312, 422, 450 Russian in English, 609 ; replaced by English, 675 Ruthwell Cross, 81 Ryhan, Aboo, 178 SACRED style of writing, 644, 645 ; ori- gin of its vocabulary, 656, 657 Saemund, 125 Saint Louis Globe-Democrat, 646 Saltiiir of Tara, 64, 69 Salvian, 26, 515 San Francisco Daily Morning Call, 646, 661 t, 24, 34, 461, 463 Saracens, 126, 127, 176, 178 Sarahs, 521 Sargent, Epes, 649 Saxon Chronicle, in, 112, 133, 144, 145 Saxons, Saci.ms, Sakas, Sakars, Scyth- ians, 24, 25, 31 Schiller, 503, 504 Schism, between E. and W. Churches, 160 Schleicher, 7, 35 Schliemann, 35 Scholars, English and American, slow to appreciate their language, 672, 673 Schools and Colleges established, 301 Schurmann, Anna H., 340 Science attributed to Satan, 234, 244, 262 Scientific American, New York, 646 Sclavonic peoples, 319 Scoloti, Scoti, Scots, Celts, Scythians, 23, 24, 25, 282, 283 Scotch in English, 609 ; or Gaelic, 64, 65, 442 Scotland, 442 Scots, 21, 23 Scot, Sir Michael, 241, 242 Scot, Sir Walter, 528, 529, 639, 652, 664 Scotus, John, or Erigena, 159 Scriptures translated, 36, 69, 70, 166, 265, 3i- 339- 341, 395. 396, 406, 430, 431 Scythians, Sacians, Getae, Jutes, Goths, 23, 24, 25, 34, 282, 283 Scytho - Gotho - Germanic languages, their origin, 4, 5, 32-41 ; their earliest writings, 36, 37, 155, 156, 157, 158 Septuagint, 42 Serfdom abolished, 450 Servetus, Michael, 344, 345 Seven Liberal Sciences, 109 Seventeenth Century, 403-443 Seventh Century, 71-104 Sevigne, Madame de, 426 Seward, William H., 648 Seymour, Horatio, 560, 561, 639, 648 Shakespeare, 9, n, 407-411, 432, 433, 638 Sharon Turner, 9, 63, 113, 223, 224, 662 ; his defective method of analyzing English, 664-668 Shaw, J. B., 542, 612, 639 Sheridan, 460 Ships, Anglo-Saxon, 230 Sidney, Sir Philip, 346 Sighelm, 131, 145, 161 Sinding, 212 Sixteenth Century, 339-401 Sixth Century, 29-70 Skalds, 126, 200 Skinner, Stephen, 277 Smithsonian Institute, 421 Socialistic vocabulary, 455, 469, 513-516 Sociology, 613 Somerville, Mrs., 521, 546, 547, 639, 654, 6 59 Sophia, St., Church of, 68 700 Index. Sources of English drama, romance, allegory, and fiction, 206 Southey, 210 Spanish in English, 609 ; literature, 103, 104, 160, 210, 211, 337, 428, 505; replaced by English, 674, 675 Spelling, English, 12, 201, 253, 385-396 Spenser, 206, 349, 350, 372, 373, 629 Spiritualism, 505-508 Spiritual vocabulary, 506 Spurzheim, 499 Spurgeon, 644, 660 Stael, Madame de, 350, 351, 502, 519 Stanley, explorer, 35, 678, 683, 685 Statistics, 133, 189, 190, 191, 227, 253, 254. 312, 357, 358, 442, 674, 675, 676, 677, 679, 681, 682, 684, 686 Steam vocabulary, 417, 464, 497 Stenographers, 12 Stephen, King of Hungary, 177 Stevens, Bishop of Penn, 644, 661 St. Paul's Cathedral, 78, 417 Strabo, 7, 16, 34 Style and vocabulary of fifty English authors at a glance, 638, 639. Styles of writing (nine) 642-657, 670 ; origin of their vocabularies at a glance, 656 Sumner, Charles, 390, 655 Sun, New York, 646, 662 Supines, Latin, Anglicized, 445, 446, 447, 448 Swedenborg, 45^-454 Swedish in English, 609 Swinton, 14, 205 Swiss spirit of independence, 257, 258 Sylvester II., Pope, 175, 176 Synopses, showing the origin and prog- ress of the English language and literature, 63, 100, 123, 155, 175, 200, 222, 252, 298, 336, 374 ; of the three Periods, 223, 224, 226 ; 375, 376 ; 609, 610, 611 ; 615, 638, 639, 642, 644, 646, 648, 649, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 656, 6 74- 675, 676, 677, 678, 679, 681 Syriac, or Aramaic, in English, 609 Table of different words from the fifty English Extracts and Tables, 590-609 Tacitus, 7, 16, 29 Taine, 341 Tallis, 400 Tamerlane, 30, 35, 282, 283 Tanner, J. H., 568, 569, 639 Tasso, 350 Taxation in different countries, 682; without representation, 450, 456, 458, 459 Taylor Moses, 512 Tekchand Thakur, 654, 655, 662 Telegraphic language, 55, 511, 641 Telegraph, London Daily, 358, 678 Tell, William, 252, 257 Tennyson, 580, 581, 639, 651, 658, 660, | 683 Tenth Century, 162-178 "Tenures," Littleton's, 338 Thanet, island of, 22, 23, 24, 150 Theatre in America, 347 The Earth is motionless ! ! ! 344 The Nation, New York, 646 Theodelinda, Apostle of the Lom- bards, 66, 228, 522, 550 Theodore, Archbishop, 84, no Theodoret, Bishop, 16 Theofail, 215 Tluologic vocabulary, 36, 37, 41, 42, 51, 58, 78, 85, 101, 106, 107, 108, 109, no, 138, 139, 140, 141, 210, 211, 214, 233, 234, 248, 262, 264, 265, 308, 339, 340, 341, 344, 345- 362, 406, 407, 418-421, 505-508, 644, 645, 656, 657, 686 i The southern hemisphere ready for higher intellectual development' 685 The sun never sets on the English- speaking populations, 673-682 The World, New York, 644 Things thought impossible that are now possible, 499, 500 Thirteenth Century, 233-254 Thorpe, 80 Thought and ideas as indestructible as matter, 670, 671 Three fundamental principles of human government, 456 Tillotson, 418, 644 Times, New York, 646, 661 Timothy, Epistle to, 16 Tindale, W., 341 Tithes, 109 Tombs of two scientists, 499 Tournefort's Botany, 426 Transcendentalism, 421, 505 Trench, 12, 204, 233, 339, 365, 436, Trial by jury, 132 ; by ordeal ceased, 241 Tribonian, 67 Tribune, New York Weekly, 578, 579, 639, 646, 659, 662 Troubadours, 163, 200 Tuiston, 34 Tusser, 351, 352 Twelfth Century, 203-232 Two eminent lexicographers, 501 Tycho Brahe, "Restorer of Astron- omy," 361, 414 Tyndall, Prof., 642, 663 Tyrwhit, 14 U, SUPERFLUOUS, dropped from the suffix our, 274, 275, 276, 354 Ulfilas, Apostle of the Goths, 25, 36, 59, 69 Ultimate different words from the fifty Extracts and Tables, 609, 610, 623 Uniform measures and weights, 267 Unitarians, 25, 27 Universal alphabet, 395, 396, 415, 416 ; language, 396, 513, 673, 681, 683, 686 Index. 701 V, INTRODUCED into the Roman al- phabet, 359 Vandals, 25, 26 Valhalla, in Valmiki, 35, 142 Vanderberg, 310 Vasco de Gama, 314 Vauban, 426 Vedas, 7 Vesalius, 342 Verbs, English, 617 ; forty-five express the utterance of 245,000 animal spe- cies, 51, 52 Victoria, Queen and Empress, 5, 395, 396, 512, 586, 587, 632, 633, 635, 636, 648, 659, 660, 661, 662, 677, 683 Victoria version of the Bible, 395, 407 ; how it should go forth, 395, 396 Vincent de Paul, St., 347, 348 Vista of great intellects, 403 Vocabulary of scientific words, 108, 109, 139, 140, 141, 210, 215, 233, 234, 241, 242, 344, 359, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 462, 500, 505, 519, 520, 663 Vocabulary of Anglo-Saxon authors a.t a glance, 226 ; of Franco-Eng- lish authors at a glance, 376; of English authors at a glance, 638, 639 ; of nine styles at a glance, 656 Voltaire, 462 Voorhees, W. D., 648, 662 Vortigern, 23, 24, 44 Vowel combination, 392 ; and conso- nant combination, 15 Vulgate, 42 WAGE, Robert, 206 Waldenses, early Protestants, 214 Wales, 31, 49, 150, 161, 210, 253, 254 Walker, 203, 386, 501, 611 Wallingford, Abbot, 57 Walsingham, 378 Warton, 113, 179, 188, 262, 349 Washington, Geo. , 466, 467, 494, 495, j 638, 648 Water-engine, Worcester's, 417 Watt, James, 464, 497, 683 Webster, Daniel, 648 Noah, 12, 611 Weisse, Mrs. John A., 503, 637, 654, 660 ; Wells, Horace, M.D., 500 Welsh, 149, 150, 253, 254; in English, 609 Wesley, John, 644 Wharton, 133, 166 Whitney, Prof. W. D. , 5, 35, 509, 570, 571, 642, 663 White, Chandler, 512 Wickliffe, 20, 262, 265, 266, 299, 300, 301, 508 Wieland, 397 Wilberforce, 14 Wilbrord, 101, 102, 159 Wilkins, Bishop, 415, 416 David, 94, 95, 96, 117, 133, 152, 153. J 54 William (he Conqueror, 112, 181, 182 of Malmesbury, 131, 145 Williams, Roger, 405 Wiseman, Cardinal, 644 W r ladimir, Duke of Russia, 177, Woman in history and literature, 516- 525 ; her apostolic and civilizing ca- pacities, 260, 521, 522 ; Ode to, by Fitz-Green Halleck, 524 ; Rise of, by Parnell, 461 ; taxed without repre- sentation, 459, 523 ; uses more Gotho- Germanic or Anglo-Saxon, than Gre- co-Latin, 664 "Woman's Record,' 1 by Mrs. S. J. Hale, 550 "Woman's Words," Philadelphia, 647 Worcester, Marquis of, 417 Words, monosyllabic and primitive, 34, 445 ; dissyllabic, 445 ; polysyllabic, 445-448 ; of inherent meaning, 615- 619, 621, 623, 639, 640, 641, 670 ; with- out inherent meaning, or particles, 615, 620, 621, 622, 623, 639, 640, 641, 670 ; of endearment or kindred, 32, Wordsworth, 623, 651 World's reading and writing capacities, 357. 358, 684 Wren, Sir Christopher, 417 Wright, Thomas, 309 Wufsig, Bishop, 136 XIMENES, Cardinal, 7, 337 YALE College, 13, 226, 231, 442 Youmans, Professor, 642 Young, Dr., 41 ZEND, 40, 463 Zendavesta, 7, 32, 59 Zeno (explorers), 310 Zoologic vocabulary, 51, 52, 241, 413, 462, 501, 613 Zoroaster, 142, 508, 514 706 BROADWAY, New York, December, 1878. J. W. Bouton's Catalogue OF NEW AND RECENT PUBLICATIONS, Importations and Remainders^ COMPRISING IMPORTANT AND VALUABLE WORKS IN THE FOLLOWING DEPARTMENTS OF LITERATURE : Art, Contemporary and Ancient, Art Periodicals, Antiquities, Archeology, Ancient Religions and Worships, Biography, Caxton and Early Print- ing, Costume, Cruikshankiana, Ceramic Art, Dictionaries, Glossaries, Language, etc. Dramatists, Old, Etchings, Modern, Free Masonry, Genealogy, Illustrated Works, Musical Instruments, Mythology, Ornament, Architectural, Textile, etc.. Ornithology, Old Poetry, Phallic and Symbol Wor- ship, Shakspeariana, Etc., Etc. J. W. BOUTON'S NEW PUBLICATIONS. Origin, Progress, and Destiny of the English Language and Literature. By JOHN A. WEISSE, M.D. 1 vol., 8vo, 700 pages, cloth, $5.00. The object of this work, to which the author has devoted his leisure hours for thirty years, is : 1. To lay before the English- speaking populations, in both hemispheres, the real origin and progress of their language. 2. To make the coming generation realize the superiority of their idiom over others, as to the refinement and vigor of its vocabulary, clearness of diction, simplicity in grammar, nnd directness in construction. 3. To show the inconsistency of so-called English orthography. 4. To suggest a method to write and print English as it is pronounced, and remove the few remaining irregularities from its grammar. 5 Last, To stimulate the English-speaking millions all over the globe, so to simplify the uttering, writing, and printing of their language as to make it a desideratum for universal adoption. Stanfield's Coast Scenery. A Series of Views in the British Channel, from Original Draw- ings taken expressly for the Work. By CLARKSON STANFIELD, R. A. Illustrated with 39 Engravings on Steel. Small 4to, cloth extra, gilt edges, $5.00. A few copies, Proofs on India paper, folio size, in portfolio, $20. 00 " I do not know any work in which, on the whole, there is a more unaffected love of ships, for their own sake, and a fresher feeling of sea breeze always blowing, than STANFIELD'S ' COASI SCEKERY.' "John Buskin. The Philosophy of Existence. The Reality and Romance of Histories. In Four Books. I. History of Deities, or Theism and Mythism. II. History of Heaven, or the Celestial Regions. III. History of Demons, or Demonism. IV. History of Hades, or the Infernal Regions. Including a History of Angels and Purgatory. By E. O. KELLEY, M.D. 1 vol., 8vo, $5.00. The work, as a whole, is particularly adapted to the general reader, not only because of the special interest that the subject has. but from the variety of its characters and incidents, its visio?k and revelations, its narratives and its marvels. The sentimental charm of the most admired poets, the highly-wrought romance of the novelist, find at least their counterpart here. The objects embraced have inspired the greatest of ancient poets Honier and Virgil; and Milton and Dante have not been less devoted to the themes of the histories. The Meclallic History of the United States of America, 1776-1876. By J. F. LOUBAT, LL.D. With 170 Etchings by JULES JACQUE- MART. Two Yolum.es. Folio. I. Text, pp. Ixxx., 478; II. pp. xvi., Plates, 86. Printed on heavy, hand-made paper, manu- factured expressly for the work by BLANCHET FRERES & KLKBER, Rives, France. Letter-press by FRANCIS HART & Co., New York, Etchings printed by A. SALMON, Paris. Bound in extra cloth, gilt top and uncut edges, by WILLIAM MATTHEWS. Price, $30.00. NEW EDITION, WITH PORTRAIT OF THE AUTHOR. Isis Unveiled; A MASTER KEY TO THE MYSTERIES OF ANCIENT AND MODERN SCIENCE AND THEOLOGY. By H. P. BLAVATSKY, Corresponding Secretary of the Theosophical Society. 2 vols. 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Lives of the Founders, Augmenters, and other Benefactors of the British Museum. 1 570 to 1870. Based on new researches at the Rolls House ; in the Department of MSS. of the British Museum ; in the Privy Council Office, and in other Col- lections, Public and Private. By EDWARD EDWARDS. I vol. 8vo, large and beautiful type, cloth, $4.00. LARGE PAPER, ROYAL 8vo (only 60 copies printed), cloth, $10.00. %* By a special arrangement with the English publishers, Messrs. Triibner &> Co., the above is offered at the greatly reduced price mentioned. Legge's Chinese Classics. Translated into English, with Preliminary Essays and Explanatory Notes. Vol. I., THE LIFE AND TEACHINGS OF CONFUCIUS. Vol. II., THE LIFE AND WORKS OF MENCIUS. Vol. III., THE SHE KING; OR, THE BOOK OF POETRY, Together 3 vols. 8vo, cloth, $10,00. 24 Diary of the American Bevolutioru By FRANK MOORE, from Newspapers and Original Documents. Handsomely printed on heavy laid paper, and Illustrated with a fine series of steel-plate portraits, INDIA PROOFS. 2 vols. impl. 8vo, paper uncut, $8.00. New York, printed privately, 1865. $*$ Large Paper. Only a Limited Impression. Published at $20.00 per copy. Littre's French Dictionary. Dictionnaire de la Langue Franchise. Par E. LlTTRl, de 1'Institut (Academic Fran9aise et Academic des In- scriptions et Belles-Lettres). Four large vols. royal quarto, new half morocco, $40.00. " No language that we have ever studied, or attempted to study, possesses a Dictionary so rich in the history of words as this great work which M. Littr6 has fortunately lived long enough to com- plete." Saturday Review. UNIFORM WITH THE LARGE FOLIO SHA.KSPEARE EDITED BY THE SAME AUTHOR. Halliwell's New Place. An Historical Account of the New Place, Stratford- upon-Avon, the last residence of Shakspeare. Folio,, cloth (uniform in size with the edition of Shakspeare's Works edited by the Author), elegantly printed on super- fine paper, and illustrated by upwards of sixty woodcuts, comprising views, antiquities, fac-similes of deeds, etc. By JAMES O. HALLIWELL, F.R.S. $10.00. This is a most important work for the Shakspearian student. The great researches of the author have enabled him to bring to light many facts hitherto unknown in reference to the ''great bard." All the documents possessing any real claim to importance are inserted at full length, and many of them are now printed for the first time. With respect to the illustrations, which have been executed by J. T. Blight, Esq., F. W. Fairholt, Esq., E. W. Ashbee, Esq., and J. H. Rimbault, Esq., no endeavors have been spared to attain the strictest accuracy. REISSUE OF CRUIKSHANICS ETCHINGS. Cruikshank's Illustrations of Time. A series of 35 Etchings. By GEORGE CRUIKSHANK Oblong quarto, paper, carefully printed from the original plates. $2.00. 1874 The Same. COLORED. $3.00. 1874 Cruikshank's Phrenological Illustra- T1ONS ; or, An Artist's View of the Craniological System of Doctors Gall and Spurzheim. By GEORGE CRUIKSHANK. A series of 33 Etchings, illustrative of the various Organs of the Brain. Oblong quarto, paper, $2.00. The Same. COLORED. $3.00. *** This reissue, of which only a limited impression has been made, is printed from the original coppers. "Have we not before us, at this very moment, a print one of the admirable * Illustrations of Phrenology'' which entire work was purchased by a joint-stock company of boys each drawing lots afterwards for the separate prints, and taking his choice in rotation ? The writer of this, too, had the honor of drawing the first lot, and seized immediately upon ' Philoprogenitiveness ' a marvellous print, indeed full of ingenuity and fine, jovial humor." WM. M. THACKERAY. 25 SEVEN GENERATIONS OF EXECUTIONERS. Memoirs of the Sanson Family. Compiled from Private Documents in the possession ci the Family (1688 to 1847), by HENRI SANSON. Trans- lated from the French, with an Introduction by CAMILLE BARRERE. Twovols. post 8vo, cloth, $5.50; or half calf, extra, $7.50. "A faithful translation of this curious work, which will certainly repay perusal, not on the ground of its being full of horrors for the original author seems to he rather a-shamed of the technical aspect of his profession, and is commendably reticent as to its details hutbecause it contains a lucid account of the most notable causes celedrts from the time of Louis XIV. to a period within the memory of persons still living The memoirs, if not particularly instructive, can scarcely fail to be extremely entertaining." Daily Telegraph. '* A book of great though somewhat ghastly interest. . . . Something much above a mere chap- ter of horrors." Graphic. Avesta. THE RELIGIOUS BOOKS OF THE PARSEES. From Pro- fessor SPIEGEL'S German Translation of the Original Manuscripts, by A. H. BLEECK. 3 vols. in I, 8vo, cloth, $10.00. English scholars who wish to become acquainted with the " Kible of the Parsees," now for the first time published in English, should secure this copy. To thinkers the 4i Avesta " will be a most valuable work ; they will now have an opportunity to compare its TRUTHS with those of the BIBLE, the KORAN, and the VEDAS. Freemasonry. PATON'S (CHARLES I.) FREEMASONRY, ITS SYMBOLISM, RELIGIOUS .NATURE, AND LAW OF PERFECTION. Thick 8vo, new cloth, uncut, $3.50. Hand-Book of Archaeology. Egyptian Greek Etruscan Roman. By H. M. WES- TROPP. Profusely Illustrated with Engravings on Wood. Svo, new cloth, uncut, $3.00. The Gnostics AND THEIR REMAINS, ANCIENT AND MEDIAEVAL. By C. W. KING. Profusely Illustrated. Svo, new cloth, gilt, $7.50. *% The only English work on the subject Out of print and scarce. Champneys' Quiet Corner of England. 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Enthusiasts are easily duped, and of all enthusiasts, excepting the religious, those who give them- selves up to the worship of some great poet or artist are the easiest prey of the impostor. To them, a hook, a letter, the least scrap or relic which is connected directly, or it would seem indirectly, with their idol, is an inestimable treasure, and they are uneasy until it is in their possession, or removed hopelessly beyond their reach. Of all these enthusiasts the " Shakspearians " are, and for a hundred years have been, at once the most numerous, and the most easily, because the most willingly, deceived. To their craving and their greed we owe the " Ireland Forgeries," which were merely an impudent attempt to supply a demand an attempt made by a clever, ignorant young scamp, who succeeded in deluding the whole body of them in England two generations ago. His ''Confessions" are the simply told story of this stupendous imposture : and the book long out of print and scarce is one the most naif and amusing of its kind in the whole history oi literature. His exhibition of the "gulls," whom he made his victims, is equally delightful and instructive; and chiefly so, because of his simplicity and frankness. He conceals nothing, palliates nothing ; tells the whole story of his ridiculous iniquity, and leaves a lasting lesson to the whole tribe of credulous collectors, Shakspearian and others. "It has frequently afforded me a matter of astonishment to think how this literary fraud could have so long duped the world, and involved in its deceptions vortex such personages as Parr, Whar- ton, and Sheridan, not omitting Jemmy Boswell, of Johnsonian renown : nor can I ever refrain from smiling whensoever the volumes of Malone and Chalmers, together with the pamphlets of Hoaden, Waldron, Wyatt, and Philalethes, otherwise, Webb, Esq., chance to fall in my wav." W. H. IRELAND'S ' Ckalcografhimania." Womankind in Western Europe, From the Earliest Times to the Seventeenth Century. Illuminated Title, IO ClIROMO-LITHOGRAPHIC PLATES, and numerous Woodcuts. Small 4to, cloth, extra gilt, $4.50. 1869. This work is something more thr.n a drawing-room ornament. It is an elaborate and careful summary of all that one of our most learned antiquaries, after years of pleasant labor on a very pleasant subject, has been able to learn as to the condition of women from the earliest times. DeFoe's Life and Works, Life and Newly-Discovered Writings of Daniel DeFoe. Comprising Several Hundred Important Essays, Pam- phlets, and other Writings, now first brought to light, after many years' diligent search. By WILLIAM LEE, Esq. With Facsimiles and Illustrations. 3 vols. Svo, cloth, $6.00. Or in tree calf, extra, $15.00. Vol. I. A NEW MEMOIR OF DEFOE. Vols. II. and III. HITHERTO UNKNOWN WRITINGS. A most valuable contribution to English history and English literature. For many years it has been well known in literary circles that the gentleman to whom the public is indebted for this valuable addition to the knowledge of DeFoe's Life and Works has been an inde- fatigable collector of every thing relating to the subject, and that such collection had reference to a more full and correct Memoir than had yet been given to the world. World's Masonic Begister: Containing Name, N'umbcr, Location, and Time of Meeting of every Masonic Lodge in the World, etc., also every Chapter, Council, and Commandery in the United States and Canada, Date of Organization, etc., and Statis- tics of each Masonic Jurisdiction, etc. By Leon Hyneman. Portrait, thick 8vo, pp. 566, cloth, $2.00. The Eosicrucians ; Their Rites and Mysteries. With chapters on the An- cient Fire and Serpent- Worshippers, and Explanations of the Mystic Symbols represented in the Monuments and Talismans of the primeval Philosophers. By HARGRAVE JENNINGS. Crown 8vo, 316 wood engravings, $3. # * # A volume of startling facts and opinions upon this very mysterious subject. Scientific and Eeligious Mysteries of Antiquity : The Gnosis and Secret Schools of the Middle Ages, Modern Rosicrucianism, and Free and Accepted Masonry. By John Yarker. I2mo, new cloth, $2.00. a** "The sublime depths of the mysteries of antiquity have been sounded but by few minds in the lapse of ages, and those who have leisure to follow upon their tracks will meet with an ample reward. ONLY ONE HUNDRED COPIES PRINTED. Duyckinck's Cyclopaedia of American Literature. Printed by Alvord, on a hand-press, and on tinted paper of extra weight and finish, prepared expressly for the work. For the convenience of persons desirous of il- lustrating the work, for which purpose it is admirably adapted, it has been issued in five parts, with separate rubricated titles, each of the two original volumes being divided into two parts, of about three hundred and fifty pages each, and the new Supplement forming the fifth. A finely engraved portrait printed on India paper is given v/ith each part. The subjects of these portraits are Ben- jamin Franklin, James Fenimore Cooper, Washington Irving, William Hickling Prescott, and, with the Supple- ment, a portrait of the late George L. Duyckinck, newly engraved in line, by Burt, after an original painting by Duggan. 5 vols. 4to, uncut, $25.00. Half morocco, gilt top, $50.00. Only thirteen sets of this edition now remain. 28 Payne Knight's Worship of Priapus. A discourse on the Worship of Priapus, and its connec- tion with the Mystic Theology of the Ancients. I>y RICHARD PAYNE KNIGHT, Esq. A new edition. T< .vhich is added an essay on the worship of the generative powers during the middle ages of Western Europe. Il- lustrated with 138 engravings (many of which are full- page), from Ancient Gems, Coins, Medals, Bronzes, Sculpture, Egyptian Figures, Ornaments, Monuments, etc. Printed on heavy toned paper, at the Chiswick Press, I vol. 4to, half Roxburghe morocco, gilt top, $35.00. 14 R. P. Knight, the writer of the first ' Essay," was a Fellow of the Royal Society, a member the llritish Parliament, and one of the most learned antiquaries of his time. His museum of 1'hal objects is now most carefully preserved in the London British Museum. The second ' Essay.' bring- ing our kiihe Renaissance and the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, lie has selected those subjects which are most worthy of the attention both of the amateur and the manufacturer. In this manner the work now submitted to the public is not a mere ornamental one, but at the same time it possesses a practical usefulness which must cause it to be valued by all who make a study of taste in manufacturing industry in general, and the art of weaving in particular. AN ENTIRELY NEW AND REVISED EDITION. Old Print Collectors' Guide: An Introduction to the Study and Collection of Ancient Prints. Frontispiece, plates of monograms, and illustra- tions. By WM. H. WlLLSHlRE. Handsomely printed. 2 large vols. demy Svo, half morocco, gilt top, $11.00. #*#This new edition entirely supersedes the previous one, having, in addition to much new mat- ter, full lists of Monograms and marks of celebrated collectors and amateurs. A work indispensable to the Print Collector, being a concentration in one volume of all the varied information relative to the History of Engraving and of Ancient Prints. CONTENTS. I. Engraving in Ancient Times. II. Engraving in General, from the beginning oi . . the i3th to the isth Century. lit. On the Various Processes or kinds of Engraving. IV. Advice on the Study and Collection of Prints. V. The Various Schools of Engraving. VI. The Northern Schools to the time of Durer. VII. Northern Schools from I Mirer to the 1 7th Century. VIII. 1 he Southern Schools of Wood Engraving. IX. i he Masters of "Chiaro oscuro." X. Metal Engrav- i;i!i. Masters of 1446, ec.. XI. Dutch and Flemish Schools. XII. French and English Schools. XIII. Chief Etchers of the Northern Schools. XIV. On Engraving in the "Dotted Manner. XV. The Southern Schools of Engraving on Metal. Nielli. XVI. Italian Schools. XVII. School of Marc Antonio. XVIII. Chief Etchers of the Italian Schools. XIX. Mezzotinto Engravings and Engravers. XX. On the Examination and Purchase of Ancient Prints. XXI. On the Conserva- tion ami Arrangement of Prints. Appendix. British Museum Collection. Douce Collection. Oxford, Polytypage, Cliche", Mezzotinto Engraving, High-priced Books, Varia Bibliography, Monograms, indexes, etc.. etc. 32 The Works of William linger. A Series of Seventy-two Etcliings after tlie Old Blasters. With Critical and Descriptive Notes by C. YOSMAER. Comprising the most celebrated paintings oi the following artists: TINTORETTO, RUYSDAEL, KEMP.RANDT, Gumo, POUSSIN, RUBENS, OSTADE, JAN STEEN, VAN DYCK, WOUVERMANS, PAUL PoTTER, FRANS IlALS, VERONESE, JoR- DAENS, VAN DER VELDE, BfiOUWER, etc., etc. Ten parts folio, 16x22 inches, printed on heavy Dutch paper, $60.00. Or half morocco, extra gilt top, elegant and substantial, $80.00. " No engraver who ever lived has BO completely identified himself with painters ho had to in- terpret as Professor Unger in the seventy-two plates which compose his l Works/ lie can adopt at will the most opposite styles, and work on each with ease, a fluency such as other men can only attain in one manner their own and. after half a lifetime. Indeed, one would not be going far wrong to describe Professor Ungcr as an art critic of very uncommon insight, who explains the sentiment and execution of great painters with an etching needle instead of a pen. " It has been said of engraving that it is an nnintellcctnal occupation, because it is pimply copyism ; but such engraving as this is not unintellectual, for it proves a delicacy and keenness of understanding which are b:>th rare among artists and critics. Unger has not the narrowness of the ordinary artist, for he can enter into the most opposite styles : nor has he the technical igno- rance of the ordinary critic, for he can draw I will not say like a great master, but like twenty different great masters. " Mr. Vosmaer, the now well-known Dutch critic, who writes in English and French as well as in his own language, ha"B much increased the interest in Unger's etchings by accompanying them with a valuable biographic e^say of his own, much superior to the ordinary ' letter-press,' which publishers in general appear to consider as a necessary companion to engraving. " The seventy-two etchings before us are. on the whole, the most remarkable set of studies from old masters which has been issued by tlie enterprise of our modern publishers, ami they caa hardly fail to make fine work better appreciated both by artists and amateurs. " A few words of praise are due to the spirited publisher, Mr. Sijthoff, of Leyden, for the manner in which these etchings of Unger have been published. They are printed on fine Dutch paper, and mounted (pasted by the upper edge only) on sufficiently go.id boards in such a manner as to enter into the most carefully arranged collections without further change. They are accom- panied by a text printed with the greatest taste, on very fine Dutch paper. This series is printed in one class of proof only, and issued at a price that is most reasonable, and Mr. Sijthoff deserves our thanks for placing works of real art, thoroughly well got up, within the reach of cultivated people who have limited incomes. " We recommend them strongly to all artists and lovers of art as a valuable means of art edu- cation and a source of enduring pleasure." HAMEKTON in the International Review for Jan., 1876. Etchings after Frans Hals. A Series of 20 beautifully executed Etchings. By WILLIAM UNGER. With an Essay on the Life and Works of the artist, by C. Vosmaer. Two parts, complete, royal folio. Impressions on India paper, $25.00. Selected proofs, before letters, on India paper, $40.00. Artist proofs on India paper, $60.00. Or elegantly bound in half Levant morocco, extra, gilt top, $15.00 additional to the above prices. Uniform with Unger's works. " They who know the Dutch painter Hals only through the few portraits by him which have reached this country have but a slight comparative acquaintance with his works. ' A stranger to all academical lore, to all literary co-operation,' writes Mr. Vosmaer, ' Frans Hals appeared merely as a portrait-painter, like most of the modern artists of his youth .... true to life, but also excel- ling by naturalness and masterly handling. Subsequently he portrayed the joyous popular life of the streets and the tavern ; at last those phases of national social life, which have at once their image and memorial in the pictures of the arquebusiers and the civic governors.' " London Art Journal, Aug. 1873. 33 Tim NEW FRENCH ART JOURNAL. L'Art. Revue Hebdomadaire Illustre"e. (M. Eugene Veron et Chas. Tarclicu, redactcurs.) Handsomely printed on heavy toned paper, and illustrated with several hundred engravings on wood from drawings and pictures by cele- brated cotemporary artists, examples of antique and mod- ern sculpture, objects of Art Industry in all branches, and a series of superbly executed etchings by the best living etchers, executed expressly for this work ; being principally from the more noticeable pictures exhibited in the Salons of Europe, carefully printed on Holland paper. Forming four volumes a year. Royal folio (17 j X 12 in.) of about 500 pp. each, with nearly 200 woodcuts, facsimiles, etc., and upwards of twenty etchings in each volume. 4 vols., folio. Stitched, paper covers, uncut, $32.00. In cloth, gilt top, uncut edges, $40.00. Handsomely bound in half red morocco (Jansen style), gilt tops, uncut edges, $60.00. ANOTHER EDITION, printed throughout on heavy Hol- land paper, in the most careful manner. The etchings in two states, Artist proof on Japan paper, and ordinary print on Holland paper. The edition is strictly limited to one hundred copies, numbered. Forming 4 thick volumes, folio. Price, $125.00. %* N. B. Payments to be made on delivery of each quarterly volume. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. "Nowhere but in Paris could such a Review be produced every week as L 1 Art, so magnificent in every respect, paper, typography, illustrations, and above all, so many sided in its view of art. and so abundant and interesting in its information. It has now been brought to the fourth year of its life, with every sign of assured and increasing vigor, and we are glad to learn, from the report of the edi- tor to the subscribers, that something more substantial than the succes tfestime has rewarded the experiment of such a costly venture. . . . It is simply the cheapest and the best thing of its kind. M. Veron seems, at any rate, to have solved the problem of combining excellence with cheapness. We find, besides numerous little facsimiles of sketches, and autograph letters of eminent artists, musicians, and dramatists, no less than seventy fine etchings by such men as Flameng, Country, Desbrosses, Langon, etc., and woodcuts of Claude's and Turner's pictures, with a series of very re- markable copies of the famous tapestries at Madrid, from the designs of Albrecht Diirer and Van Eyck, by Edmond Yon, Perrichon, and C. Maurand, as well as singularly fine examples of wood en- graving. Supposing the reading matter of the Review were as ephemeral and trivial in its purpose as the cheapest of the cheap instead of being, as it is, rich and racy, with the native style of all French pens, thoughtful and often profoundly suggestive, and generally complete in reference to detail, the tvro etchings by Flameng, from pictures by Frans Hals and Nicholas Maas, alone would be really most valuable and acceptable to the print-collector. . . . While L'Art is conducted in this style the editor may feel quite secure that France will not lose that artistic supremacy she has long held." London Times. " It would be easy and pleasant to go on discoursing about the pictures m I." 1 Art, a paper which is so full of good, sober, and just criticisms, trustworthy news about art, and designs not otherwise to be obtained by most people." Saturday Review. " The new volume of L'Art sufficiently manifests the success of a very valuable and interesting publication. . . . There is no other journal in existence which so happily and skilfully combines c labors of artists and authors which does not subordinate art to letters, or letters to art, but permits t.iem t<> go 'hand in hand, not one before another.' . . . In brief, this grand folio volume of L'Art abounds in matters of interest to all readers and students of aesthetic and cultivated taste." T'te World (London). ' There is some monotony in praising each successive portion of a periodical as it appears with an wolutely equal cordiality ; but the evenness of merit in V Art makes this uniformity of commenda- tion a duty." Tke Nation. " America is so destitute of illustrated works which can at all compare with L'Art that she cannot o better than study and enjoy this French publication. Certainly there is no other means by which so many valuable pictures can be obtained at so small a price." The Christian Union. "Sumptuous in paper and type, lavish in illustrations, and with critical and explanatory text of singular merit ; the most famous of modern art journals." N. Y. Times. 34 The Portfolio: An Artistic Periodical, edited by PHILIP GILBERT HAMERTON. Illustrated with Etchings, Autotypes, Wood- cuts, Facsimiles, Engravings, Heliogravures, etc. Pub- lished monthly. Subscription reduced to TEN DOLLARS per annum. # % Sent, Postage free, to any part of the United States, on receipt of the Subscription price. "The chief intention of 'The Portfolio' is to supply to its subscribers, at a lower cost* than would be possible without the certain sale of a regular periodical circulation, WORKS OF ART of various kinds, but always such as are likely to interest a cultivated public ; and to accompany them with literature by writers of proved ability, superior to mere letter-press, and more readable than pure criticism or cata- loguing." Among the artists who have furnished original etchings are Bracquemond, Lalanne, Rajon, Legros, and Leopold Flameng, who has given some noble specimens of his skill, especially in the repro- duction of "The Laughing Portrait of Rembrandt," in his particular province as a reviver of the works of that artist. The subjects in all cases are chosen for their worth and rarity, and in these respects the " Portfolio" fairly rivals its great contemporary, one of the noblest fine-art periodicals ever issued, the Parisian " Gazette des Beaux-Arts." It has the same finish in execution in the minutest details of paper and print, and is in every way a thoroughly artistic production, far ahead in this way of any- thing of the class heretofore issued in England. There are numerous single illustrations in the " Portfolio," worth the price of the volume, suitable for framing. OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. "Of the PORTFOLIO altogether it is to be said, that not only is it the first periodical in the Eng- lish language devoted to fine-art, but that tt leads all others by a very great distance, whatever the second and third of such publications may be taken to be. "We warmly commend it to the notice of all who would cultivate in themselves and their families an appreciation of the beautiful in nature and art. The illustrations are largely of sylvan scenery, and etchings from the finest paintings are given, with letter-press descriptions, and the best articles from the highest authorities, so that the monthly paper itself, an illustration of what is taught, becomes a com- plete magazine of the science of art. IV e would regard the introduction of such a journal into thf family as a good educator, while it will prove a source of exquisite pleasure to those who /ie already a taste for the beautiful." N. Y. Observer. "We look for the PORTFOLIO as for the only serial published, in which works of art of a certain kind and of peculiar merit are to be found. Etching is not as popular, perhaps, as it should be, but if anything is likely to bring its merits before the public, it is such examples as are to be had here. Their effect is striking, and in execution they arc little short of perfect ; at any rate they exhibit this kind of work in the highest degree of perfection to which it has attained." N. Y. Daily Times. " Mr. Hamerton's PORTFOLIO is easily chief among English art periodicals, and has the advantage of being written by men who are not only familiar with the literature of art and the works of artists, but are artists by profession, and so know the feelings, aims, and technicalities of artists. The editor is probably better acquainted with continental artists and their work than most of the insular fellows, and his art theories and criticisms are proportionately more catholic and valuable. The PORTFOLIO, instead of being a magazine of current gossip about artists and their doings, is a work of permanent value, apart from its excellent illustrations, as a collection of able essays, critical, historical, technical, and personal, very free from narrowness and professional or national prejudice. It is the glory of the PORTFOLIO that it is in a way cosmopolitan, free from the prejudices of nations and schools." Atlantic Afont, "The Portfolio is very charming. An Art periodical far superior to anything which has hitherto appeared." Guardian. " From the first it has stood nearly alone as really 'an artistic periodical.' An hour spent over the Portfolio is one of refreshment, encouragement, and unalloyed delight.'' Spectator. " Of the Etchings the merits are unquestionable ; indeed, the work is enriched with some of the finest examples. The literary part is generally worthy of praise for being scholarly, graceful, an interesting." Athenaum. " Dealing with artistic subjects generally, and always in a spirit of intelligence and refinement."- Graphic. "To the portfolio is unanimously accorded the first place as an artistic periodical." Cambridge Chronicle. Back volumes for 1870, '71, '72, '73, '74, '75, '7", and '77 may still be had on application. Any volume sold separately. Price, in blue cloth, gilt leaves, $14.00 each. DAY USE RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED LOAN DEPT. This book is due on the last date stamped below, or on the date to which renewed. Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. MAY z ! 1962 , fc jj General Library S ' : - ; '" I ; 861386 ' m i THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UBRARY