'ERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA L _ ERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LI iRSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Ul ^40 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA I in UIUERSITY OF CUIFORNU LIBRHRY OF TRE UHIVERSITY OF CALIFORIIII D , ^ * DEPARTMENT OF ' * 0^ H - ^^?y. AKD MW^" CHElTf^tRY, WITH ITS MINERALOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, AND THE ARTS. -* - ROBERT DUNDAS THOMSON, M.D., F.R.S.L. & E., F.C.S., FELLOW OF THE ROTAL MEDICAL AND CHIRITRGICAL SOCIETY ; HONORARY MEMBER OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF GLASGOW ; PEESIDENT OF / THE uniTISH METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY, ETC. ; AND PROFESSOR OF CHEM!STRT IN ST TITOMAS-S HOSPITAL COLLEGE, LONDON. Illustrations. NEW EDITION. LONDON AND GLASGOW : f RICHAKD GRIFFIN AND COMPANY. to % atnidcrsiig PREFACE. THE present volume was projected two years ago, but has been much interrupted in its progress. It is intended to serve as an introduction and familiar work of refei to the Science of Chemistry, a study in which, from its rapid advance, new names, and facts are accumulating with amazing rapidity. Had the object been to write an exhaustive treatise, the task would have been a comparatively light one, a materials had, to a great extent, been collected; but as the work was destined to be comprised within a very limited compass, the labour of selection, and therefore of an extensive criticism understood rather than expressed, was necessarily involved in the undertaking. The opportunities which the author has possessed for many years- gener6usly afforded to him by the liberal and intelligent manufacturers of Glasgow << Lancashire-of personally studying practical chemistry on a great scale, induced him to commence a series of researches on the composition of various chemical substances, from'the first stage of the process of manufacture, through its varied phases, to finished condition of the product. He was most energetically assisted in this inquiry by his ardent and indefatigable pupils, many of whom are nS? filling important positi The results of several of these investigations have been included in the present volume. r: And although the author's removal to London has interfered with the prosecutio of this branch of his subject to an extent which was not contemplated when t ' volume was origina^y projected, he takes the opportunity of referring to the article* on the manufacture 'of COFFEE, KELP, LEAD, CARBONATE OF SODA, POTTERY, a illustrations of a considerable amount of research in this department of practical science. On a future occasion it is anticipated that the results of further investiga- tions will be. added, aided by the liberal arrangements of the authorities of the noble Institution with which the author has the honour to be connected, and by the extended . field of study presented by a chemical practice in the metropolis. 116 VI PREFACE. A familiar acquaintance with the study of ores and minerals for many years, together with the advantages of an extensive private museum, rendered historical by its having been founded by the late Dr. Thomas Thomson, have enabled the author to supply a copi- ous index of mineralogical synonymes, in addition to many new analyses, published for the first time. The preservation of the study of minerals, that is of elements and salts found in nature, as the essential basis of the science of Chemistry, seems so important, that attempts to restrict mineralogical arrangements to mere crystallographic systems, are much to be regretted, since that valuable auxiliary in the discrimination of physical forms is as thoroughly applicable to artificial salts as to those found in nature. Following out this view, many species have been restored, in this volume, which crystallographers have removed from the mineral list, either from their similarity in per centage composition to previously described compounds, or from their amorphous condition, without, perhaps, viewing the subject in the true chemical aspect, which usually presents us with a prospect of the most important bodies in nature, not in a definite shape ; but as " clods" and "glebe" without crystalline characters, and therefore in a condition admirably suited to produce that endless variety of form in nature which " even custom cannot stale," and only renders still more worthy of our admiration and regard. To make the work available as a practical manual, it would be advisable to study it in a systematic manner. The elementary bodies, beginning with oxygen, may be taken up in the order in which they are arranged, under the article ATOMIC WEIGHT, the reading of the context being illustrated by the simple experiments detailed under the various heads, and the theory of the processes by which the elements and their compounds are isolated being thoroughly followed out by the construction of diagrams and formula} ; without the precision of which Chemistry is deprived of its mathematical exactness, which renders it so well calculated to furnish the student with the most happy opportunities for correct inductive reasonm 1 ^. For the sake of acquiring a knowledge of the language and of the phenomena of the science with as much rapidity as possible, it will be found advantageous to practice the system of testing arranged under the tables headed ANALYSIS QUALITATIVE. . The author can confidently recommend such an experimental introduction to the science after a long experience, being fully satisfied that Chemistry ought to be taught not only by lectures, but by direct manipulation from the very outset of the study, as was recommended in the preface to his " School Chemistry ;" and he is convinced that the lime has arrived when examining boards must find it incumbent, particularly for the physician, to render practice in the chemical laboratory as imperative as attendance in the dissecting room for the student of anatomy. PREFACE. vii In the preparation of the work, the author is desirous of acknowledging his obliga- tions to many friends who have afforded him numerous facilities for acquiring informa- tion. To John Wood, Esq., Chairman of the Board of Inland Revenue, he is indebted for many reports connected with the department of Government over which he so ably pre- sides, and for permission to engrave the beautiful drawings by Dr. Joseph Dalton Hooker, illustrative of the anatomy of various seeds and roots used as adulterating agents. From the following pupils he has received much assistance, generally acknowledged throughout the work : Messrs. George William Brown, John Brown, Andrew Buchanan, Roderick Alison Couper, James King, Robert Kirkwood, James Napier, Robert Thomson Fattison, W. V. Simons, James Taylor, Hugh Brown Tennent, David Walker, John Wilson. His obligations to other friends are recognised in the body of the volume. In addition to many original engravings, the publishers have placed at the author's disposal a series of woodcuts purchased abroad, which have been freely used, and it is hoped will be found to render the descriptions much more intelligible. In conclusion, it may be observed that it is intended to publish periodical additions to the present work, sc as to preserve it on a level with the rapid progress of the science. The Supplement at the end of the volume comprehends many substances which have been described since a portion of the work was printed. SOME ABBEEVIATIONS USED IN THIS VOLUME. F.P., Fusing point. B.P., ... Boiling point. S.G., Specific gravity. B.B., Before the blowpipe. H, Hardness. C, Carbon. H, Hydrogen. N, Nitrogen. O, Oxygen. SiOo, Silica. COg, Carbonic acid. AlgOs, Alumina. CaO, Lime. MgO, Magnesia. NaO, Soda. KO, Potash. MnO, Protoxide of manganese. SH, Sulphuretted hydrogen. SOg, Sulphuric acid. HC1, Hydrochloric acid. KOs, Nitric acid. NHs, ; Ammonia. For other Symbols, see ATOMIC WEIGHT. NOTE. For the sake of precision in describing bodies, the numerical characters are usually state first. For example, under IRON we read, " Metallic iron, Fe 3'5; 28. Spec. grav. 7'645," &c. Fe is th symbol (Ferram) for iron, 3'5 is the atomic weight by the oxygen scale; 28 the same number multiplie< by 8, or the atomic weight of iron, by the hydrogen scale. CYCLOPEDIA CHEMISTRY AND A. The letter commencing a word has often the effect of deprivation, from the Greek priva- tive a. or oc.v : thus, hydrous, with water ; a //////- drons, without water ; a a, in a prescription, de- notes ana ana of each. Abie lute. Syu. of Terhydrous hexarseniate of copper. Abietine. A crystalline resin in Strasburg turpentine. Abrazitc. See ZEAGOXITE. Absinthine. C 16 H n O5. Yellow resinous fluid, becoming crystalline ; very bitter, soluble in alcohol and acetic acid ; soluble in sulphuric acid, with a red and then blue colour ; obtained by alcohol and ether from wormwood root, Artemi- sia absinthium. Absolute Alcohol. Spirit deprived of water, having a specific gravity of *794, and consisting of (C 4 H 5 O, HO) carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and water. See ALCOHOL. Absorbent. A body which possesses the pro- perty of sucking another into its pores or inter- stices : thus, a sponge is an absorbent of water. Absorption. The act by which one substance encloses another in its pores; paper filtration consists of the absorption of water by paper, and its replacement by new additions of water. Char- coal absorbs gases, as ammonia, chlorohydric acid, in great quantity, see CHARCOAL. Water absorbs these gases likewise with great avidity. See WATER. Acadialite. An amber-coloured variety of chabasite from ISTova Scotia. Aeauticonite. A subspecies of epidote from Norway. Acerdese, or hydrous sesquioxide of man- ganese. See VARVICITK. Acetochloryle, or chloracetyle, (C^lg) the hypothetic base of chloral Acescent. Substances which have a tendency to become acid are so termed, which is delayed by bitters in solution. Beer is acescent, and is less liable to acescency when much hops are present. Acetal. A colourless ethereal fluid-with a pecu- liar odour, boiling at 203-3 or 221, of spec. grav. 823 ; of vapour 4-082 ; soluble in 6 parts of water, ACE and miscible in all proportions in alcohol ; converted into resin of aldehyde 1 iy j it ash ; obtained by plac- ing alcohol in the bottom ol'a jar, a.nd .suspending in the jar a number of watch-glasses, containing plati- num black moistened with water. In the course of some months acetal, aldehyde, acetic acid, and acetic ether are formed. These ;;re neutralized with chalk and distilled: the distilled fluid is treated repeatedly with chloride of calcium till that salt is no longer moistened ; it is then dis- tilled, and as soon as the boiling point rises to 203 t is acetal. It consists of C, S H,,O; 5 , or it maybe viewed as :} atoms oxide of ethyle and 1 atom acetic acid = C 10 H 18 C , or C 12 H 14 O4 (Stas.) Acetauilide. C^H^NO,, F.P. 233. Bril- liant colourless plates, .soluble in boiling water, alcohol, and ether, distilling without alteration; formed by dropping anhydrous acetic acid into aniline, or acetic chloride into aniline. Acetates are compounds of acetic acid with 1 or more atoms of iiasic oxides. They are decomposed by a red heat ; the compounds "with silver and cop- per leaving the metal and yielding strong acetic acid. Acetates of alkaline earths yield acetone and a carbonate. They are all soluble in water ; the least soluble are the acetates of tungsten, molybdenum, silver, and mercury. The stronger acids displace acetic acid from its combinations. The acetate of alumina is used as a mordant in. calico printing ; acetate of lead, in printing, and for the formation of chrome yellow ; acetate of copper or verdigris, for various purposes Acetates are distinguished by their yielding the odour of vinegar when sulphuric acid is poured on them, and by their solutions giving a deep yellow, with a colourless solution of sesquichloride of iron. Acetate of Ammoma, or spirit of Mindererus, or liquor of acetate of ammonia, difficultly crys- talline, (oblique rhombs ?) obtained by saturat- ing carbonate of ammonia with acetic acid. It is used as a diaphoretic in medicine, and is said to act as an antidote for a fit of inebriety. It may be made of nearly definite strength by saturating 6 parts of liquor ammonite (spec. grav. *9GO) with strong acetic acid, and making the mixture up to 2-i parts with water. B ACE The Binacetate is procured in deliquescent needles by distilling a mixture of equal parts of salammoniac and acetate of potash, or lime ; or by adding an additional quantity of acetic acid to the acetate and evaporating: it melts at 169 and sublimes at 250 undeconiposed. Acetate of Potash, in deliquescent plates, desti- tute of crystalline water, is formed by saturating carbonate of potash with acetic acid, and evapo- rating ; it is decomposed by ignition into ace- tone, acetic \icid, oil, v i w&ter; ^inflammable gas, carbonic -acid^ charooaVand^catboiiate of potash. 2$napefat$ oJPotash,jn flat pearly 'prisms, or ne^dlfis'a^d' plated, l atonrof.yate.r, fa fonned by' adding acetic'acid to the 1 a6elate, aiid evapo- rating. (T. Thomson.) Acetate of Soda, in oblique rhombic prisms, with 6 atoms of water, is formed by saturating carbonate of soda with acetic acid, and evaporating ; it tastes bitter, and fuses under 212, splitting, on cooling, in all directions ; it dissolves in 3-9 water, at 43 ; in 1 part of boiling water, 5 alcohol; efflor- esces in dry air. It is formed on the large scale in the production of pure acetic or pyroligneous acid, by the distillation of wood. The raw pyro- ligneous acid is distilled and saturated with chalk, and lastly with milk of lime, as it is said that chalk does not entirely remove its acid reaction, (125 to 128 chalk, to 1000 pyroligneous acid.) The concentrated solution is precipitated by sul- phate of soda, as long as a precipitate falls. A double salt of gypsum and sulphate of soda forms, acetate of soda remaining in solution. When 125 chalk are required, 800 crystalline sulphate of soda will be necessary ; in cooling, some car- bonate of soda is added, to remove the last traces of lime ; the solution is filtered, evaporated in an iron boiler to the spec. grav. 1*356, (27 Twad- del,) and then crystallized in iron coolers. To purify the crystals from attached black oily matter they are kept melted in an iron boiler until the oil is volatilized, digested in cold water, the clear liquor drawn off, and crystallized. Acetate of Alumina, Red liquor. An uncrystal- line compound, used extensively as a mordant for vegetable colours, parting with its acid when cloth impregnated with it is exposed to the air, and depositing half its base when heated. It is prepai'ed by precipitating acetate of lead by sulphate of alu- mina or alum, in nearly equal parts, neutralizing any excess of acid by chalk or carbonate of soda, or by adding 3 Ibs. alum to every gallon of ace- tate of lime at 13 Twad. Thus made, it contains some double salt of alumina in solution. Its commercial red colour is sometimes due to peach or Brazil wood. Acetate of Lime, Pijrolignate of lime. Silky needles when pure; is prepared on the large scale in the manufacture of acetic acid from wood in an amorphous brown mass. In this state I have found it composed of acetic -acid 48-22, water 5*62, lime 35% carbonate of lime 8-17, tary matter 2-99. It is used for pre- ACE paring acetate of alumina, by decomposing alum or sulphate of alumina. Acetate of protoxide of Iron, iron liquor, pyro- lignate of iron, tincture of iron. "Whitish-green needles, very soluble in water, usually in the state of solution as used in printing ; obtained by dissolving iron in acetic acid, or precipitating 198 acetate of lead with 138 protosulphate of iron. Sulphuretted hydrogen causes a precipitate in its solution. When dissolved in alcohol it consti- tutes the tinctura ferri acetatis of the pharmacopoeia, In dyeing it is employed to form blacks. It is used to preserve timber, by introducing a solution into a wound at the bottom of the tree before it is cut down. On the large scale, finely divided iron is heated in a cast iron boiler to 150, with pyroligneous acid, spec. grav. 1035, (7 Twad- del) until the liquid, in some days, acquires the density of 1090, (18 Twaddel.) Peracetate of Iron, sesquiacetate. A brownish-red fluid, obtained by dissolving sesquioxide of iron in acetic acid, or by precipitating equal parts of iron, alum, and acetate of lead, or by mixing 198 dry sesquisulphate of iron and 570 acetate of lead. By heat a portion of the base is deposited. As used in dyeing and printing, these acetates of iron are prepared by means of impure pyroligneous acid; they are used in dyeing wool, and to form on cotton, blues, by means of yellow prussiate of potash. When the ground is to be of a uniform, shade, it is necessary to have the peracetate of iron free from protoacetate. The ethereal acetate of iron, used in medicine, is made by adding to 9 parts of the aqueous solution of the acetate 1 part acetic naphtha and 2 parts rectified spirit. Acetates of Copper. There are four combinations of acetic acid and oxide of copper. The neutral acetate, (CuO, C 4 H 3 3 , HO, and also 5 HO,) obtained by dissolving vert-de-gris in acetic acid, or by precipitating acetate of lead by sulphate of copper, filtering and crystallizing. The crystals are bluish-green oblique rhombic prisms, efflores- cent, poisonous, scarcely soluble in alcohol ; af- ford by heat acetone, strong acetic acid, gas, and metallic copper. Sugar when boiled with it causes the deposition of red oxide or dinoxide of copper. The crystals contain 51 per cent, of acetic acid. It is employed as a mordant for black in wool, as a resist-paste in the blue vat dyes, the din- oxide of copper being fonned, and the indigo de- oxidized, before coming in contact with the cotton, which prevents their union. Subsesquiacetate of Copper. 3 CuO, 2 C 4 II 3 03 G HO. Pale blue minute crystals, procured by digesting verdigris hi water, and evaporating the soluble portion. Disacetate of Copper, vert-de-gris. 2 CuO, C 4 H 3 3 6 HO, or CuO C 4 H 3 3 CuO HO 5 HO. Firm concrete mass of a greenish-blue' colour, sepa- rated by cold water into soluble subsesquiacetate and insoluble crystalline trisacetate, prepared in France at Montpellier and Grenoble, by stratify- ing thin plates of copper with grape lees moisten- 2 ACE t\l with wine ; a pulverulent layer of verdigris forms, which is scraped off; the alcohol contained in the wine lees is converted into acetic acid, which unites with the oxide of copper, formed by the union of the oxygen of the air with the copper. In this country copper plates are wrap- ped in cloths moistened with pyroligneous acid. It is used as a pigment, and to form the neutral acetate ; it enters as an ingredient of green basili- con ointment; it dissolves, when pure, in acetic and dilute sulphuric acids, and leaves, by igni- tion, metallic copper mixed with charcoal. Arsenio-acetate of Copper, Schweinfurt green, Vienna green. CuO, C 4 H 3 3 -f- 3 CuO As0 3 . Rich green coloured powder, insoluble in water, soluble in ammonia; decomposed by acids and caus- tic alkalies ; prepared by fonning a thin paste with 10 parts of verdigris in water of 130, passing through a hair sieve to separate copper and other impurities. This paste is added to a boiling hot solution of 8 parts of arsenious acid in 100 water, when the line green paint separates. It is poi- sonous, and used as a fine paint. Acetate of Lead, sityaroflead,saccharumsatumi. PbO, C 4 H 3 3 3 HO. Contains 59 per cent, oxide of lead and 26-84 acetic acid. White rhomboidal prisms or needles, terminated by dihedral sum- suits, sweet and astringent, poisonous, acid reac- tion ; effloresces slightly in dry air, losing acid ; soluble in 1^ water and 8 alcohol ; most of the lead is precipitated by a current of carbonic acid gas. Sugar of lead is prepared in a state of purity, by dissolving litharge or lead in pure acetic acid. For dyeing purposes, scales of me- tallic lead or granulated lead may be digested in hot pyroligneous acid and the solution evaporated. Jt is commonly used in the fonn of a brown mass. The vessels employed may be of lead or earthenware, and the crystallizing vessels of the same nature or of wood. It is used as a mordant for chromic acid, to prepare orange and yellow, -and also to form, by double decomposition, chrome yellow paint, iron, and red liquor, &c. Trisacetate of Lead, Goulard's lotion. 3 PbO, C 4 H 3 3 . Fine needles, very poisonous, with an alkaline reaction, insoluble in alcohol ; a thick solu- tion, as used in medicine, absorbing carbonic acid from the air. It may be made by boiling a solution of 23 f parts of sugar of lead in 120 water, with 28 parts of litharge till the latter is dissolved, or by adding to a cold saturated solution of sugar of lead one-fifth of its volume of caustic ammonia, and allowing it to stand ; 1 part of the salt dissolved in 24 parts of water constitutes Goulard's lotion or water. It is used in organic chemistry to precipitate solutions of gum, extrac- tive, and albuminous substances. As it precipi- tates gum and not sugar, these two bodies can be readily separated by this salt. It is believed that in the formation of white lead this salt is first produced. Hexacetate of Lead. G PbO, C 4 H 3 3 , 3 HO. White crystalline precipitate, somewhat ACE soluble in boiling water, and separating in fea- thery crystals ; loses hi a vacuum all its water ; white lead frequently contains this salt. It is formed by adding an excess of caustic ammonia to sugar of lead hi solution. Acetic Acid. Vinegar, Spirit of Verdigris, Wood Vinegar, Pyroligneous Acid, Acetous Acid. Essig, Gr., Vinaigre, Fr. History. Vinegar is mentioned by Moses, and. appears to have been employed by mankind from the earliest ages. Pliny states that a fluid (ce- drium) was obtained by fire from the tceda (pinus sylvestris) which was used in Egypt to preserve dead bodies. This may probably be an allusion to pyroligneous acid. A description of the old French process for vinegar is published in the Phil. Trans, for 1670, and also in the Elemens de Chimie of the Dijon Academie, vol. 3, p. 5. Berthollet, in 1785, held that radical vinegar, or acetic acid, as it was called, distilled from verdigris, differed from distilled vinegar or acetous acid, but Adet, in 1797, concluded that they were identical. Chaptal, in 1798, sided with Berthollet, and Dabit of Nantes held with the latter, that acetic acid contained more oxygen, Darracq at last proved that the two only differed in their concentration, and abolished the term acetous acid. Dr. Higgins first at- tempted to determine the composition of vinegar, (On Acetous Acid, p. 26,) and was afterwards followed by Gay Lussac and Thenard, who ana- lyzed the acetate of barytes with chlorate of potash. Theory of Acetification When we keep wine or beer carefully corked up from access of air they have no tendency to become sour, but if the cork is removed from the bottles, so as to admit oxygen, they speedily turn acid. Pure spirit, however, when exposed to the air never becomes sour. Wine and beer, there- fore, must contain some matter in solution which assists the action of the air upon the alcohol con- tained in these fluids. This is the albuminous matter in solution which acts as a ferment. Mr. E. Davy has observed, that when alcohol in vapour is brought in contact with platinum black, the latter becomes red hot, and acetic acid is formed. It is probable that the ferment is a cellular plant, which absorbs, like the porous metal, oxygen from the air in such a condition as to produce union with the hydrogen of the alco- hol. The view at present entertained, is that alcohol is first, by the action of 2 atoms oxygen, converted into aldehyde, (C 4 H 5 0, HO + O 2 = C 4 H 3 HO, aldehyde and 2 HO,) then as a second stage, by the further addition of 2 atoms oxygen, acetic acid is produced, (C 4 H 3 0, HO -f- 2 "= C 4 H 3 O 3 HO = hydrous acetic acid.) The various processes for preparing acetic acid are as follows : 1. Quick Vinegar Method. This, usually called the German process, was discovered inde- pendently, and patented by Mr. Ham of Bristol soon after 1820, and is followed by Messrs. Hill ACE and Evans of Worcester. In Germany this pro- cess is considered to have been first practised by Wagenmann and Schiitzenbach. A cask of 6 feet in height, similar to that used for wine vine- gar, is filled with beech wood shavings which have previously had hot water poured over them, and been soaked in vinegar. The cask is covered with a top, and is perforated with a funnel, which leads into a space formed by a false top, perfora- ted with numerous holes. Alcohol being, poured into the fun- nel trickles through the false bottom into the shavings, toward the bottom of the cask, which tapers downwards. The air from the cask escapes by small glass tubes which enter into the space between the tops. About a foot from the bottom of the cask there is a circle of 8 holes, which enter downwards obliquely, for the admis- sion of air. A glass syphon, inserted in the bottom of the cask, conducts the fluid which accumu- lates into an exterior vessel. It is found advan- tageous to mix with the alcohol to be acetified some vinegar, so as to cover the shavings with the vinegar plant, (mother of vinegar.) The temperature at first rises to 80 then to 100, where it remains, if the process advances properly. In a cask of 6 feet high and 3 J diameter, a charge consists of 16 gallons of alcohol of 60 per cent, diluted with 60 gallons water; 30 gallons of vinegar are daily thus prepared. The liquid which passes through the first cask is transferred to a second similar cask, and to a third if neces- sary, until it is thoroughly acetified. The pre- sence of various substances prevents the conver- sion of the alcohol into vinegar; among these may be enumerated aromatics, fluid oils, and the most minute traces of p}Toligneous acid. Messrs. Hill, Evans, & Co. of Worcester, were among the first to adopt and carry out Mr. Ham's ingenious ideas. Malt vinegar being the kind manufactured at their works, the antecedent operations of mash- ing the grain in water, at a temperature of about 154, and fermenting the sweet infusion thus ob- tained in large vats, by the aid of yea*, so as to convert the saccharine matter into alcohol, are necessarily the same as those of ordinary brewing as seen practised in distilleries. The spirituous liquid thus furnished is suitable, without further preparation, for the oxidizing, which appears as a species of aeration, the spirituous liquid being showered upon the surface of a mass of faggots of birch twigs, occupy ing the upper part of a largo vat, and, after trickling to the bottom, being returned again and again to the top by the constant action of a pump. The oxygen of the air is continually ACE absorbed by the circulating fluid ; and the air, which is admitted by a small aperture in the vat below the level of the faggots, passes away by the openings in the cover of the vat, more or less ex- rausted of its active element. The process comes to a termination when all the alcohol is oxidized ; and this is learned from the progressive rise in the proportion of acid in the liquid being found to cease. The product, when drawn off, is already finished vinegar, but is always kept in store for some time to clarify, or, as it is said, to mature it, before being sent into the market. This mode of oxidizing the alcohol, whick is rapid and effec- tive, appeare to have the incidental advantage of changing and rendering insoluble certain glutin- ous and albuminous matters in the fermented, wort, which are apt, if not got rid of at this stage of the process, to occasion after-muddiness in the vinegar, and to prevent its keeping. It was gen- erally considered necessary in the vinegar trade, at a former period, to add a small portion of sul- phuric acid to vinegar in order to counteract this tendency of the liquid to decomposition, and to preserve it from turbidity. This addition of sul- phuric acid was permitted to the extent of 1 gallon of sulphuric acid to 1000 gallons of vinegar, by an excise regulation, and had, therefore, a legal sanction. But sulphuric acid is now known to be unnecessary in properly-prepared vinegars, although still added by some manufacturers, for the purpose of increasing the strength of their vinegar, or, in some instances, merely from habit and the indisposition to disturb the routine of an old-established practice. The presence of sul- phuric acid in vinegar should be looked upon as the mark of inferior quality, for it is only where the mode of manufacture is defective that the addition appears to be at all necessary. 2. Malt Vinegar. In this country vinegar for domestic use is made from malt by a process similar to that employed for producing alcohoL The malt prepared from barley is mashed in the tun with water at the temperature 168 to 170. This liquor is replaced by fresh, water, the heat of which may be raised still higher. A third repetition completes the pro- cess. The liquid is then fermented at 70 by means of yeast ; 100 gallons of wort requiring about 3|- gallons of yeast. After the fermenta- tion ceases the liquor is placed in casks, which are laid on their sides in an apartment at the temperature of summer heat. As the alcohol produced by the fermenting process is converted into vinegar entirely by the action of the oxygen of the air, it is necessary to leave the bungs out of the caskSf and not to fill them completely, in order that the whole upper surface of the wort may be in contact with air. From two to three months are required to complete the acetification of the contents of the casks. Another method often employed for the production of vinegar from malt is to place the wort in upright casks, which are supplied with a double bottom, the upper one. ACE drilled with holes, on which the refuse raisins from British wines, termed rape, are deposited. The liquor is then fermented and drawn off into another cask, where it is allowed to acidify. In consequence of the length of time required for this process, it is obvious that the quick vinegar method is applicable to it. It is calculated that a cwt. of good malt will afford about 60 to 65 gallons of vinegar. In Germany potatoes are used for procuring the alcohol, and to obtain the preceding quantity of vinegar, it is necessary to employ about 30 gallons of potatoes. 3. Wine Vinegar. In France vinegar is usually made from wine, by two methods. One plan consists in placing the wine to be acidified in contact with vinegar already formed, and to allow the action to proceed with access of air, at the requisite temperature. This is the oldest method, and it is practised with great success at Orleans. The apartment where the process is conducted is usually one where the temperature may be economically kept up, the air being renewed through apertures, which may be closed at will. By means of a stove the heat is raised to 86. The vessels employed are oak casks that have frequently been previously in use for holding wine, and have a capacity of from 40 to 50 gallons. These casks are placed horizontally upon supports, and arranged in three orfourrows,in tiers upon each other, for the sake of economy of space, and for uniformity of temperature. Thev are filled up to one-third with good vinegar ; 2 gallons of wine to be acidified are then added, and after eight days a similar quantity is added. The same addition is made twice successively, and in eight days after the last addition the whole liquor is acidified. The 9 gallons which have been added are then withdrawn, and the process repeated as before. When tiie wine is tin-bid, it is necessary to filter it through beech chips, and the same operation should be performed if the resulting vinegar is similarly circumstanced. Weak and new wines acidify most easily ; strong and old wines with greater difficulty. The weak wines are sometimes strengthened by adding sugar, molasses, and yeast. By the method de- scribed 30 days are required to convert the alco- hol completely into vinegar. But by admitting the oxygen more freely, vinegar has been made in three days by a modification of the preceding process. In this cas& casks are used 6^- feet in height and 3-J feet in diameter. The top of the cask is replaced by a cover, fitting as tight as possible. At the distance of 6 or 8 inches below the cover is fitted a false top, pierced with minute holes, about a tenth or two of an inch in diame- ter. A piece of thread, 6 inches long, like a wick, is suspended from each of the holes, and partially closes it, being tied by a knot above. The wine is introduced between the cover and false top, passes down by the threads, and falls drop by drop into the interior of the cask, which is filled with beech chips. Perforations in the cask below ACE enable the air to enter. It passes through the false bottom by means of tubes, which rise above the surface of the wine, and makes its escape from the cask by an opening in the cover, through which the wine is introduced. This process is precisely similar to the quick vinegar method already described. 4. Cider Vinegar is made in America from refuse cider, which is placed in a cask and mixed ' with vinegar and the mother of vinegar plant, which acts as a ferment. The fermentation is also assisted by adding a piece of dough or lean muscle of an animal. 5. /Sugar Vinegar. Various proportions of the ingredients are recommended in the production of vinegar from sugar. It has been recommended to employ 20 Ibs. sugar, 15 to 17 gallons water, and 24 pints of bruised gooseberries mixed with yeast and raisins. The saccharine liquor attenu- ates and becomes acidified in the course of a summer. The colour may be removed by distil- lation. A pleasant vinegar is made for the table by dissolving 3 Ibs. of sugar in a gallon of water, placing the solution in an open vessel, loosely covered with a cloth, and adding yeast to produce fermentation. The mother of vinegar, or vinegar plant, (Mycoderma aceti,) answers the purpose of yeast. In both cases 1 the same plant is formed or propagated. Alcohol is first formed, which, speedily changes into vinegar by access of atmos- pheric oxygen. 6. Pyroligneous Atidor Wood Vinegar. IIolz- cssig, Gr. In this country wood vinegar is usu- ally prepared from hardwoods ; but by the patent still of Mr. Ilalliday, any refuse of dyewoods can. be subjected to dry distillation, and is thus saved from waste. The common stills consist of cylin- ders of iron similar to those used for gas -making, placed horizontally or sometimes vertically, con- nected with a metallic worm for condensing the products. The iron cylinders or retorts vary in size, being often 6 feet long, and from 3 to 4 feet in diameter. A retort of 6 feet by 4 is capable of holding a charge of 800 Ibs. of wood. The wood is cut into convenient lengths ; heat is then applied to the cast-iron retort for about 12 hours, care being taken that it never attains a red heat ; the fireman judges of the temperature by ejecting saliva on the door of the furnace, when, if it eva- porates with a hissing sound, he allows the fire to be extinguished. With some manufacturers, however, the distillation is hurried on by smart firing, when the operation terminates in 8 hours. But no doubt by this process the destruction of a portion of the valuable products occurs. The pro- ducts of the distillation are conveyed by a series of refrigeratory tubes, which are surrounded with cold water, into a cistern or receiver. Here two layers are formed ; the lower stratum consi&ting of tar, creasote, oils saturated with acetic acid, with some trace of pyroxilic spirit, wlule. acetic acid and pyroxilic spirit, with tar, oils, creasote, and mesite" float above. The gaseous products ACE escape, and are again passed through the furnace, the tube which conveys them previously dipping into water to prevent explosion. When ignited in the furnace, these gases save the use of fuel. The tar or lower stratum is drawn off by means of a tap at the bottom of the cistern, and it is washed with water to remove acetic acid. The tar contains the following liquids: creasote, eupion, capnomore, picamar, mesite; and the following solids : pittacal, cedriret, paraffine, py- roxanthine, asphalt. The acid or upper layer is first purified by rectification, that is, distillation in a copper still. Pyroxilic spirit being most volatile, comes over first. It is removed and distilled over lime. Purification as Acetate of Soda Jn some works, for the sake of economy, the acid is placed in a cast-iron or copper boiler, a quantity of sul- phate of soda is added, proportional to that ol the acid, the whole is heated, and the salt be- ing dissolved, the liquor is evaporated to the spec, grav. 1-114. Some chalk is then added to the liquor, when an effervescence takes place, and precipitate of sulphate of lime falls. To render the liquor neutral, it is necessary to add milk of lime. During the neutralization a quantity of tar rises, which is skimmed off, the liquor evaporated to 1-12 and allowed to rest. The evaporation is carried on to 1*23, when the liquor is run into -wooden coolers, where it is allowed to crystallize. In three or four days the crystals of acetate of soda are formed in rhomboidal prisms. The mother liquors are crystallized, and when no more crystals can be obtained, the liquor when evaporated and ignited, yields carbonate of soda. The salt thus obtained is very impure, from the tar with which it is contaminated. This is removed by carefully heating the acetate for 24 hours in an iron fur- nace, shallow but broad, and capable of contain- ing about 8 cwt. When the salt is sufficiently heated it becomes pyrophorus, and burns like tinder when it accidentally catches fire. The salt after cooling is dissolved in water and again crystallized. To obtain the acid from the pure salt, it is mixed with sulphuric acid diluted with half its weight of water; 100 parts of pounded salt require 36 of strong sulphuric acid. The reaction is allowed to continue for some time, and the sulphate of soda deposits in the form of a powder or granular crystals. When thus pre- pared the acetic acid contains a small portion of sulphate of soda, and therefore precipitates chlo- ride of barium. To obtain the acid perfectly pure, the acetate must be distilled with sulphuric acid, and the product, in order to free it from sulphuric and sulphurous acids, must be distilled with peroxide of lead, mixed with peroxide of manganese. German purification as Acetate of Lime The impure acid may be deprived of a considerable part of its tar, &c. by filtration. A vessel similar to the alkaline tub of the soap boiler, with a double perforated bottom, is filled to the height of an ACE inch with straw, and the latter is covered with a layer of sacking : over this is laid 6 inches of moist wood sawings, which are pressed down with a bat of wood ; above this gravel is strewed to the depth of 4 inches, to prevent the sawings from being displaced and swimming about. This constitutes the filter upon which the impiu-e acid is placed. The tar remains on the sand, and the acid passes to the bottom, and is let off by a stop- cock. The acid is now placed in a cast-iron boiler, heated and saturated with milk of lime previously passed through a hair sieve. An ex- cess of lime is considered necessary. The liquor is boiled down to one-half, and allowed to stand for two days ; it is then drawn off, evaporated in a flat vessel, accurately neutralized, and re- duced to the consistence of thick turpentine when Avarm, and of such a nature when cool that it should crumble down without adhering to the fingers. When it is beginning to thicken it should be carefully stirred with an iron spatula. The acetate is then transferred to an iron plate, and spread out to the depth of 2 or 3 inches, for the purpose of being dried ; where it should not remain long, however, as it is apt to absorb moisture. The salt when cool is placed in the drying furnace, which is a simple round furnace from 7 to 8 feet long and 4| to 5 broad, built of brick, floored by an iron plate. The salt is first spread out to the depth of 2 inches, and after it has become somewhat dry, the depth is in- creased to 4 or 5 inches. The heat should bo continued for 24 hours ; and towards the end of the process may be pushed as high as 257, the mass being frequently stirred. No smoke should be permitted to arise, a sign of decomposition ; nor should sparks be alloAved to gain access to it, otherwise it will catch fire and bum like tinder. To separate the acid, 20 Ibs. of the acetate of lime are introduced into an iron retort, and stirred, with 5 Ibs. of water. After 10 hours, 20 Ibs. of oil of vitriol, diluted with 5 Ibs. of water, are poured over it, and the porcelain or tin cover of the retort cemented on with lime and fine sand. The first tenth of acid which comes over con- tains sulphurous acid, which may be removed by- distilling it over black oxide of manganese and a little wood charcoal. The spec. grav. of the first distillation is 1045 to 1050; after being twice distilled, it ranges from 1042 to 1049. When carbonate of potash is added to this acid a yellow tinge is produced, indicating organic matter. This may be removed, previous to dis- tillation, by adding a solution of nutgalls, or oak bark, and allowing the acid to clear. The colour may also be removed by means of animal charcoal, freed previously from bone earth by digestion in muriatic acid. (R. T). Thomson's Re- cords of Gen. Science, ii. 133.) Schwartz's method s similar to the preceding. Pasch recommends :he removal of the colour by means of animal charcoal, freed previously from bone earth;, while Stoltze places the distilled acid in contact with ^ ACE of its weight of black oxide of manganese, for six hours, at the temperature of 248 F. He then adds wood charcoal to the amount of 8 times the weight of the manganese, and allows the mixture to digest at the same temperature for 12 hours. The acid is then distilled. The man- ganese may be replaced by sulphuric acid of equal ACE weight, or by a mixture of manganese, common salt, and sulphuric acid. A. P. Halliday's patent process for the manu- of Pyroligneous Acid, from sawdust, spent dyewoods, tan, $c. I am indebted to my late friend Mr. Halliday of Manchester for the follow- ing figure of his ingenious invention : In the ordinary process of manufacturing pyroligneous acid, branches or billets of oak or any other wood are introduced into air- tight cast-iron cylinders, and subjected to de- structive distillation, by the application of heat. It is also known that sawdust, wood turn- ings, wood chips, spent dt/ewoods, spent tan, turf, cf*c. are capable of yielding pyroligneous acid; but, owing to the minutely divided state in which these substances exist, the ordinary method of effecting their destructive distillation becomes difficult, if not impossible, in consequence of that portion in immediate contact with the retort be- coming completely charred, whilst the non-con- ducting property of the charcoal prevents the heat from penetrating into the interior. The first part of this invention consists in effecting the destructive distillation of sawdust, spent dye- woods, &c. in order to obtain pyroligneous acid therefrom, by causing such substances to pass in continuous motion through heated retorts, by means of suitable machinery or apparatus. The saw- dust, spent dyewoods, &c. from which pyrolig- neous acid is to be distilled, are introduced into a hopper, in which vertical screws or worms revolve, conveying the materials (regulating, at the same time, the supply) to the retorts, placed in a horizontal position, and heated by means of a furnace ; and in which retorts revolving screws or worms keep the material in constant agitation, moving it, at the same tune, forward, until the Avhole is completely carbonized, and all the pyro- ligneous acid evolved. The charcoal thus formed, falls through pipes dipping into a vessel of water, or into an air-tight vessel, and from which it may be withdrawn through a door at the side. The pyroligneous acid is condensed, in the usual way, in pipes of iron or copper, surrounded with or immersed in water, the other products ob- tained by the destructive distillation of the ma- terial being employed in the ordinary manner. The superiority of this retort is shown by the circumstance, that 8 retorts, 12 inches in diame- ter and 6 feet long, turn out as much pyroligne- ous acid in 24 hours as 16 retorts 3 feet in dia- meter and 6 feet long. The material is, of course, comparatively costless, having been pre- viously thrown away. The product from 20 tons of pine sawdust is, pyroligneous acid, 2258 gals. 8 Twaddel; tar, 218 gals. Oak sawdust, 20 tons, gives 2400 gals, pyroligneous acid, 7 Twaddel, and 80 gals. tar. Spent logwood gives 2310 gals. 6 Twaddel, and 90 gals. tar. French Method. In France large plate- iron cylinders are employed, cased with iron to give them greater strength, and placed vertically on the fire. Each of them is capable of holding a large quantity of wood, which, by some manufacturers, is previously dried by the heat of the flue. At the upper part of the vessel there is a small cone, placed later- ally, which closes with a cover, and serves as the neck of the retort. By means of three rings and three chains, the cylinder may be elevated or lowered at pleasure. The operation is commenced by means of hot charcoal placed beneath the cylinder, but the remainder of the distillation is produced by the heat of the combustible gases disengaged from the wood. The quantity of fuel required amounts to an eighth of the wood submitted to distillation. Communicating with the neck is a series of zig-zag tubes, surrounded by other cylinders, which constitute the conden- ser. In the space between the two series of ACE cylinders, a sufficient quantity of water is kept circulating, by entering below and passing out above in a heated state. The condenser com- municates with the first receiver placed under- ground. The liquid products pass from thence into a larger receiver, through a tube so dis- posed as to intercept any communication with the interior of the apparatus. The gas, which is disengaged without condensation, is brought back by tubes under the ash-pit of the furnace, and made to serve as fuel. Towards the end of the operation the cylinder is heated red hot. The distillation is completed in eight hours. If the heat has been applied slowly, the charcoal in the cylinder is greater, and the acid less in quantity than when the lir- ing has been rapid. It i believed that the harder kind of woods, or those which contain much ligneous matter in their celfe, yieM the greatest amount of acid, althoogh ceBotin also affords acid. Along with the acid much em- pyreumatic oil and tar come orer ; a portion of these pass into the aqueous liquid and colour it brown ; another portion separates by remaining at rest, which is pumped off. The acid liquor is also pumped off, and first purified by distilla- tion in a copper alembic. It is in this distilla- tion that the pyroxilic spirit separates. In consequence of its volatility, it passes over first, and must be managed with care, otherwise it will be lost. The spirit which comes over first is removed, and rectified with lime. To purify the acid in some manufactories, it is usual to saturate it with carbonate of soda. In others, for the sake of economy, the acid is placed in a cast-iron or copper boiler ; a quantity of sulphate of soda is added, proportional to that of the acid ; the whole is heated, and the salt being dissolved, the liquor is evaporated to the spec. grav. 1*114 (15 Beaume). Some chalk is then dissolved in the liquor, when an effervescence takes place, and a precipitation of the sulphate of lime occurs. Generally the liquor remains always acid, even with an excess of chalk. (Is this only when hot?) The saturation is therefore completed with milk of lime. During the neutralization, a quantity of tar rises to the surface, which is to be skimmed off. The liquor is evaporated to 16 Beaume (spec. grav. 1*12). It is then allowed to rest, and treated as above described. It is cal- culated that 1000 Ibs. of distilled pyroligneous acid require 127^ Ibs. carbonate of lime or chalk, and 21 Ibs. caustic lime for neutralization. This solution" has a spec. grav. of 1090 (12 B.), and contains 11)7-95 Ibs. of dry acetate of lime. It requires for decomposition 188 Ibs. of anhy- drous sulphate of soda, or 420 Ibs. of the same salt in crystals. But as the glauber salt does not precipitate the acetate of lime completely, it is necessary to add a little carbonate of soda. According to Stoltze, all kinds of wood, when they have been deprived of resins, and well washed with caustic alkalies, and dried, give nearly the Oil. Charcoal. Gas. 8-60 24-40 20-00 9-55 24-60 22-85 9-OG 26-20 21-74 8-80 22-10 22-30 8-05 23-40 22-85 10 -as 21-60 24-35 10-73 22-70 20-77 13-7U 21-20 23-90 11-80 21-50 24-30 ACE same products by distillation, as exhibited in the Mowing table. (Griindliche anleitung, die rohe holz'aure zu benutzen, Halle, 1820, and Ber- thier's Traite i. 243.) Wood. Acetic Acid. White Birch \ , (Bouleau),/ Beech 44-00 Oak 43-00 Ash 46-80 White Poplar .. 45-80 Wild Prune 43-70 Juniper Tree.... 45-80 Fir(Sapin) 41-20 Pine (Pin) 42-40 Acetic Acid Anhydrous. C 4 H 3 3 , spec, grav. 1-073, of vapour 3-47 T B. P. 279-5. Colourless fluid, very mobile, powerful refractor of light, with a strong smell ; falls to the bottom of water in oily drops, and only dissolves after some time; fuming sulphuric acid disengages from it carbonic acid, and forms a conjugate compound, which unites with lead; potassium, and zinc form anhydrous acetate and a new- acid. Anhydrous acetic acid is obtained by heat- ing together acetate of potash and chloride of benzoyle ; there are first formed acetate of ben- zoyle and chloride of potassium, and at an ele- vated temperature, acetate of benzoyle 2(C<>H40 3 ) doubles into anhydrous acetic acid ^E^Og) and anhydrous benzoic acid, (C^H^O^) It may be also ma.de by dropping oxichloride of phos- phorus or protochloride of phosphorus on fused acetate of potash, and rectifying the product. Acetic Acid, Hydrate of. Glacial Acetic Acid. C 4 H 3 3 HO == 7-5, or 60 : acetic acid 85-01 water = 14-99, spec. grav. of vapour, 2-764 = f vapour of acetic acid and -f steam Spec, grav. of the liquid crystals, 1-06296. Colourless plates and tables at a temperature under 40 ; obtained by distilling with 9^ sulphuric acid, 3 acetate of soda, twice fused, and crystallized after each fusion, or by distilling dry acetate of lead with sulphuric acid. The following table exhibits the spec. grav. of the crystals in solu- tion, and combined with various quantities of water, (T. Thomson) : Acid. Water. At60deg. 1 atom, 1 atom, 1-06296 1 ' 2 1-07060 1 3 1-07084 1 4 1-07132 1 5 1-06820 1 G 1-06708 1 7 1-06349 1 8 1-05974 1 9 1-05794 1 10 1-05439 The specific gravity appears to be a maximum when the liquid is a compound of 1 atom acid and 4 atoms water, or of 58-2 dry acid and 41-8 8 ACE water. In the following table, by Mollerat, the composition of acid and water is exhibited : Hydrous Acid. Water. Spec. Grav. 110 parts, 0-0 parts, 1-0630 10- 1-0742 22-5 1-0770 32-5 1-0791 43- 1-0763 55- 1-0742 66-5 1-0728 97-5 ' 1-0658 108-5 1-0637 118-2 ' 1-0630 The following table gives the strength of acetic acid variously diluted (Mohr) : Hydrous Acid in \W parts. 100 1-0635 , , 67 1-0690 97 1-0680 94 1-0706 91 1-0721 SS 1-0730 85 1-0730 82 1-0730 79 1-0735 76 1-0730 73 1-0720 70 1-0700 64 1-0680 61 1-0670 .58 1-0660 55 1-0640 52 1-0620 49 1-0590 46 1-0550 43 1-0530 40 1-0513 37 1-0480 34 1-0450 ;;i 1-0410 28 1-0380 26 1-0340 22 1-0310 19 1-0260 16 1-0230 1 -J 1-0180 ID 1-0150 7 1-0107 4 1-0050 Acid consisting of 1 atom acid and 1 water, and acid consisting of 1 atom acid and 7 atoms water, have the same spec. grav. 1-0630. (T. Thomson.) Impurities. We often observe in weak vine- gar the occurrence of the Vibrio aceti (vinegar eel), the Musca cellaris, or vinegar fly, and the mother of vinegar (Mycoderma aceti). Accto-Sulphuric Acid. C 4 H 2 2 2 S0 3 . Colourless silky prisms, fusing at 143^, decom- posing at 320, and smelling of caramel. The crystallized acid contains 2 atoms basic water, and 3 atoms additional water ; obtained by act- ing on strong acetic acid with vapour of anhy- drous sulphuric acid. Acetic Ether. Acetate of Ethyle. C 4 H 5 0, C 4 H 3 O 3 11 or 88 : sp. grav., vapour 3041. Co- lourless fluid; odour pleasant. B.P. 165 sp. grav. -89 ; soluble in 7 water, miscible with al- cohol and ether in all proportions ; when boiled with a spirituous solution of alkali alcohol is formed and an alkaline acetate; prepared by distilling 16 parts sugar of lead 4|- absolute al- cohol, 6 sulphuric acid, or 10 acetate of soda 6 alcohol (-840), and 15 sulphuric acid; the pro- duct is agitated with a strong solution of carbonate of soda, the liquor poured oif, agitated with chlo- ride of calcium, and distilled off from this salt. Aceto-Nitrilc. C 4 H 3 K A fluid boiling at 170, identical with cyanide of methyle, ob- tained by acting on acetate of ammonia, with anhydrous phosphoric acid. Acetometry. The process of measuring the value of acetic acid or quantity of dry acid in a sample. One method consists in weighing a piece ACH of marble, immersing it in the acetic acid or vinegar, and reweighing it after it has saturated the acid. Every 6-25 grains which have disap- peared are equivalent to 6-375 of acetic acid. A preferable mode is to weigh out 100 grams of the sample, and also 50 grains of crystals of bicar- bonate of potash pounded. The powder is added gradually to the acid until reddened litmus be- comes slightly blue when immersed in the solution. The residual bicarbonate is again weighed. Every 12-53 grs. used represent 6-375 grs. of acid in the 100 grains of sample. From the table which is given above, it is obvious that no correct in- formation is obtained by taking the specific gravity of vinegar. Acetone. Pyroacetic Spirit, Mesitic Al- cohol, Naphtha. C 3 H 3 O. Sp. grav. -7921 ; of vapour 2022, B.P. 100. Clear, colourless li- quid, smell peculiar, taste pungent ; miscible in all proportions with water, ether, and alcohol, and may be separated from water by caustic pot- ash, chloride of calcium, or salts insoluble in acetone. Bleaching powder changes it into car- bonic acid and chloroform. It has been consi- dered as the hydrate of a hypothetic body,mesityle, C 6 H 5 , acetone being C 6 H 5 0, HO, or the hydrate of the oxide of this radical but this is doubtful. It is obtained by passing acetic acid through a red hot tube, or by distilling acetates of- lead or lime. Acetate of lime (CaO C 4 H 3 3 ) becomes carbonate of lime (CaO C0 2 ), and acetone (C 3 II 3 0). It has been recommended in consump- tion. By fuming sulphuric acid it is changed into mesitilole (C 6 H 4 , or C 18 H ]2 ), and by per- chloride of phosphorus into chloride of mesityle, or terchloro mesitilole (C 18 H 9 C1 3 ). Acetous Acid. A synonyme of aldehydic acid. Acetyle, Acetule. C 4 H 3 , the hypothetic radi- cal of acetic acid. Acetyle Mcrcaptaii. C 4 H 4 S 2 , or aldehyde, in which sulphur replaces oxygen. Dazzling white needles, subliming at 113; obtained by adding sulphohydric acid to aldehyde, and to the oil thus formed adding sulphuric acid, and repre- cipitating by water. Acetyle Urea. C 4 H 6 ISr 2 2 . Crystals by adding ammonia to cyanate Of methyle. Acetylic Acid, or acetic acid. Acetylous Acid, or aldehydic acid. Achirite. Dioptase or subsesquisilicate of copper. Achniitc. Keddish-brown right oblique prisms, or 6-sided prism terminated by a 4-sided pyramid. Sp. grav. 3.398 ; hardness 4. B.B. fuses into a black bead. Si0 3 52-016, FeO 28-080, KaO 13-33, MnO 3-487, CaO -876, MgO -504, A1 2 3 -685. Found at Eger, in S. Norway. KaO S10 3 , Fe 2 O 3 2 Si0 3 . Achroite. A species of tourmaline from Elba, in which it is supposed that boracic and carbonic acids replace silica. (Hermann.) Achromatic. ( and X,? U (**T) destitute of 1) ACI ACI colour. Achromatic glasses refract light without Metasulphazilic, 4 SO 2 NO 3 3 HO 2 S0 3 producing coloured images. Sulphammonic, 8 S0 2 NO 3 3 HO Acicular Bismuth Ore, or needle ore of Metasulphammonic, 4 SO 2 S 2 2 N0 3 3 HO bismuth. Sulphamidic, 2 S 2 O 2 N6s 3 HO Acidity. Sourness; the effect produced Chlorohyposulphuric, S 2 OsCl on the palate by certain acids, although not uni- Nitrosulphuric, SO 2 N0 2 versally characteristic of all acids. The cause of Selenious, Se0 2 the sour taste is not yet known ; nor does it cer- Selenic, Se0 3 tainly proceed from the presence of any one ele- Arsenious, As0 3 ment unless it be hydrogen. Arsenic, As0 5 Acids. (Acidus, sour). Acids were for- Antimonious, Sb0 4 merly characterized by their sour taste, their Antimonic, Sb0 5 reddening effect on vegetable blue colours, and Chromic, Cr0 3 their neutralizing influence on alkalies. It is Chlorochromic, Cr0 2 Cl not easy to give^ in the present state of chemis- Vanadic, V0 3 try, an accurate definition of an acid, but generally Uranic, ^Og the term is applied to such bodies as replace each Molybdic, Mo0 3 other in their union with bases. The following Tungstic, Tn0 3 tables, although by no means complete, contain the Tellurous, Te0 2 principal of the inorganic and organic acids : Telluric, Te0 3 Titanic, Ti0 2 INORGANIC ACIDS. Columbic, CmO 3 Pelopic, PeO ? Oxygen Acids. Niobic, NiO? Hypochlorous or proto- > ^^ Ferric, Fe0 3 chlorous, ; C Manganic, Mn0 3 Chlorous or terchlorus, C10 3 Permanganic, Mn0 7 Hypochloric or quaterchlorous,C104 Cupric, Cu0 3 ? Chloric or quintochloric, C10 5 Stannic, Sn0 2 Perchloric or septachloric, C10 7 Auric, Au 2 O 3 Chlorochloric, C1 3 15 Osmous, Os0 2 Chloroperchloric, C1 3 17 Osmic, OsO 4 lodous, ? Hypoiodic (quatriodous,) IO 4 Hydrogen Acids. lodic, I0 5 Chlorohydric, HC1 Periodic, septiodic, I0 7 lodohydric, HI Hypobromous, BrO ? Bromohydric, HBr Bromic, Br(>5 Fluohydric, HF Nitrous, ternitrous, NO S Sulphohydric, SH Hyponitric, quaternitrous, N0 4 Seleniohydric, SeH Nitric, N0 5 Arseniohydric, AsH 3 Carbonic, CO 2 TeUurohydric, TeH Chlorocarbonic, COC1 Boracic, B0 3 ORGANIC ACIDS. Silioio ^iO O111C1C, olv/ 3 Hypophosphorous, PO Carbonic Oxide Series. Phosphorous, P0 3 Carbonic, CO -j- Phosphoric, P0 5 Chlorocarbonic, CO -j- Cl Sulphurous, S0 2 Oxalic, C04-C0 2 Sulphuric, S0 3 Oxamic, CO -{- C0 2 -j- C 2 3 NH;j Chlorosulphuric, S0 2 CI Crocoic, C, 5 4 HO Hyposulphurous, S0 2 S Rhodizoic, C 7 7 3 HO Hyposulphuric, SO 2 S0 3 Mellitic, C 4 3 HO Sulpho-hyposulphuric, S0 2 S0 3 S Euchroic, C 12 C N 2 HO Bisulpho-hyposulphuric, SO 2 S03S 2 Tersulpho-hyposulphuric, S0 2 SO 3 S 3 Cyanogen Series. Sulphazous, 3 S0 2 N0 3 3 HO Cyanic, CyO Sulphazic, 4 S0 2 N0 3 3 HO Fulminic, Cy 2 2 Sulphazotic, 5 S0 2 NO 3 3 HO Cyanuric, Cy 3 3 Metasulphazic, 7 S0 2 2 NO 3 6 HO Mellamiric, C TT n o vfr\ phthalic, |C 1G H 4 G 2HO Iridiocyanohydric, Cy 3 IrH 2 Nitrophthalic, C 16 H S NO 10 2 HO Manganocyano- \ ,.- TT Chlorophthalisic, C 16 HC1 3 G hydric, j ^"* 2 3 Ampelic, Ci 4 H G O G ? Mellonohydric, C G N 4 H Rethiic, C 21 H 9 3 Sulphomellono- ) r" xr rr o TT Sulphomesitylic, C 6 H 5 OHO 2 SO 3 hydric, > ^4*13^*1 Sulphethylic, C 4 H 5 OS0 3 Cyameluric, C 12 N 7 H 3 0-> 3 HO Uric, C 10 N 4 H 4 6 Jfethyk and Formyle Series. AUoxanic, C 8 N 2 H 2 8 Sulphomethylic, C. 2 H 3 OHO 2 S0 3 Leucoturic, C G N 2 H 3 O G Methyloxamic, C G NH 4 5 HO Hydurilic, C 12 N 3 H 5 O n Formic, C9H0 3 HO Mesoxalic, C 3 4 2 HO Cacodylic, C 4 H 6 As0 3 HO Mycomelic, C 8 N 4 H 5 5 Parabanic, C G N 2 4 2 HO Oxaluric, C c NoH 3 7 HO Acids existing in, or derived from, the Cells and Jukes of Plants. Alloxanosulphurous ? Sulpho-amidic, ? Thionuric, C 8 N" 3 H 7 S 2 14 Pectic, C 32 H 20 28 2 HO Uramilic, C 1G N 5 H 10 15 ? Pectosic, C 32 H 20 28 3 HO Dialuric, C 8 N 2 H 4 O 8 Meta-pectic, C 8 H 5 6 7 2 HO Alituric, C 6 NoH 3 4 Parapectic, C 24 H 15 21 2 HO Dilituric, C 8 N 3 H 3 10 Sulphosaccharic, ? Lantanuric, C 6 N 2 H S O 7 Sacchuhnic, C 35 H 10 15 Hidantoic, C 8 N 4 H 9 0,> Glucic, C 24 H 15 15 6 HO Uroxanic, CjoNsHgOj^ Melassic acid, C 24 H 12 1G ? H Sic C r } C io^4H 5 9 ? Saccharic, C 12 H 8 14 2 HO ? Acids of Decaying Woody Matter. Pyro-mucic, C 10 Ho0 5 + HO Humous, C 40 H 14 12 Lactic, C G H 5 5 -f HO Humic, C 40 H 15 15 NH 3 Butyric, C 8 H 7 3 HO Ulmic, C 40 H 12 12 ? Geic, C 40 H 12 O 12 ? Ethyle Series. Crenic, C 40 H 16 NO 12 ? Sulphovinic, C 4 H 5 OHO, 2 S0 3 Apocrenic, C 28 H 14 N G G ? Phosphovinic, C 4 H 5 2 HOPO r> Mudesous, C 12 H 5 8 -f 3 HO ? Oxalovinic, C 4 H 5 OHO 2 (CjOs) Mudesic, C 12 H 5 O 10 + HO ? Xanthic, C 4 H 5 OHO 2 (CS 2 ) Acids produced by Distillation of Wood and of Allophanic, C 4 H 3 5 N 2 HO Ethionic, C 4 H 5 2 SO 3 Coal, ij-c. Isethionic, C 4 H 5 O 2 HOS 2 5 Acetic, C 4 H 3 O 3 -4- 3 HO Methionic, C 2 H 3 S 2 7 Carbolic or phenic, C 12 H 5 O -|- HO Sulpho-phenic, C 12 H 5 OHO -|- 2 S0 3 Althionic, C 4 H 5 OHO 2 SO 3 Sulphethamic, C 16 NH 23 O 4 4 S0 a Chloro-phenesic, C 12 H 3 C1 2 OHO Carbamic, C0 2 CONH 2 Chloro-phenisic, C 12 H 2 C1 3 OHO Chloro-phenusic, C 12 C1 5 OHO Acetyle Series. Bromo-phenisic, C 12 H 2 Br 3 OHO Acetylous, C 4 H 3 2 HO Nitro-phenesic, C 12 H 3 2 N0 4 OHO Acetylic, acetic, C 4 H 3 3 HO Nitro-phenisic, C 12 H 2 3 N0 4 OHO Sulphacetic, C 4 H 4 O 2 2 S0 3 Hypo-sulpho- ^ r< TJ c r i rrn o naphthalic, } L 20^ 8 b 2 O 5 -p t. Chloracetic, C 4 C1 3 3 HO Sulphacetylic, C 4 H 4 2 S0 3 -tlypo-svilpno~ F f\ TT ^ /^ i TT/"\ o naphthic, > C ii H 4^2O 5 + Series ofPropyle, Butyryle, $c. Hypo-sulpho-glutic,? Propylic, C G H 5 3 HO Naphthionic, C 20 NS 2 H 8 5 HO -f HO Nitropropvlic, C C H 4 NO 4 HO Thio-naphthamic, C 20 NS 2 H 8 5 HO Butyric, " C 8 H 7 O 3 HO Kitro-naphthesic, C 32 H 9 N 3 8 ? Nitrobutyric, C 8 H 6 NO 7 HO Nitro-naphthaleisic, C 24 H 8 N 3 12 ? Sulphamylic, C 10 H n OHO 2 S0 3 Kitro-naphthisic, ? Hyposulphamylic, CioHnS 2 05HO 11 ACI ACI Valerianic, C 10 H 9 3 HO Isatic, C 16 H 6 NO.,HO hlorovalerisic, C 10 H 7 C1 3 O 4 Chlorisatic, C 1G H 5 C1N0 5 HO hlorovalerosic, C 10 H 5 C1 4 S Bichlorisatic, C 16 H 4 C1.,N0 3 HO T> 7 rv Bromisatic, C 16 H 5 BrNO,HO Benzoyle Series. Bibromisatic, C 16 H 4 Br 2 N0 5 HO Benzole, C 14 H 5 3 HO Indie, C 16 H C N0 2 HO? Bromobenzoic, C 28 H 9 Br0 8 2 HO Hydrindic, C64H 2 iN 4 9 HO ? Formobenzoilic, C 2 HO3-|-C 14 H G 0.>^-HO Nitrindic, C 1G H 4 NO 4 ONO 2 HO ? Hippuric, Ci 8 NH 8 5 HO Chlorohydrindic, C^jHuClaNaOa Benzoglycolic, C 1S H 7 O 7 HO Sulphisatanous, C 1 6H 5 N0 4 2S0 2 4 r HO Glycolic, C 4 H 3 O 5 HO Chloranilic, C 19 Cl90 G 2 HO Hyposulphobenzoic, C 14 H 4 O 3 4- So0 5 4- 2 HO Imasatic, C 16 H 5 N0 3 NHHO Nitrobenzoic, C 14 H 4 N0 7 HO Anilic, C 14 H 4 NOf)HO HyposulphobenzidicC i <>H 5 S 2 r O Picric, C 12 H 2 3 N0 4 OHO Benzilic, C 2 ;H n 5 + HO Amygdalic, C 40 H 26 24 + HO Picramic, Chrysanilic, C 12 H 4 0.,N0 4 NHO ? Anthranilic, C 14 H N0 3 HO Salicyle Series. Chrysammic, C 15 HNo0 12 HO Salicylous, C 14 H 5 4 H Melanic, C 10 H 4 O 5 Chrysolepic, Styphnic, C 12 H 2 N 3 13 HO C 12 H 2 3N0 4 3 HO? Salicylic, C 14 H 5 4 OHO Ohlorosalicylic, C 14 H 5 4 C1 Acids secreted by Plants and their Derivatices. Bromosalicylic, C 14 H 5 4 Br Citric, Ci 2 H g O n 3 HO lodosalicylic, C 14 H 5 4 I Aconitic, C 4 H0 3 HO Nitrosalicylic, C 14 H 3 N0 10 iNitrophloretic, C 30 H 12 N0 15 Itacic, Citracic, C 5 H 2 6 3 HO C 10 H 4 G 2 HO Anisic, C 16 H 7 5 HO Bromanisic, C 1G H 7 Br0 4 ? Mesacic, Mtrocitracic, C 10 H 4 6 2 HO C 10 H 3 N0 4 C 2HO? Nitranisic, C 16 H 7 N0 4 O C Citracanilic, C 22 H 10 N0 5 HO Dinitranisic, C 16 H G 2 N0 4 6 Tartaric, C 8 H 4 10 2HO Tartralic, C 12 H 6 5 2HO Cinnamyle Series. Tartrelic, Ci G H 8 20 2HO Cinnamic, C 18 H 7 O 3 4 r HO Nitrocinnamic, C 18 H 6 N0 4 3 HO Sulphocinnamic, C 18 H 6 2 2 S0 3 4 r 2 HO Myriospermic, ? Toluylic, C 16 H 7 3 HO Sulphotoluylic, C 14 H 7 S 2 5 Pyroguaiacic, C 14 H 7 O 4 -\- H Guaiacic, C 12 H 7 5 + HO Anhydrous tartaric, Pyrotartaric, Pyro-racemic, Racemic, Malic, Malamidic, Maleic, Paramaleic, Tannic, C 4 H 2 5 C 5 H 3 3 HO C 6 H 3 5 HO C 4 H 2 5 HO C 8 H 4 8 2 HO C 8 NH 7 8 C 8 H 2 6 2HO C 4 H0 3 HO C 18 H 3 3 HO Acids of Colouring Matters secreted in Plants, $c. Gallic, Pyrogallic, C 7 H0 3 2 HO CoHO? Cannimc, C 28 H 14 1G Metagallic, C G H 2 2 ? Nitrococcusic, C 16 H 5 O 18 N 3 Ellagic, C 7 H 3 5 Alizaric, C 14 H 5 O 7 or C 1G H 4 G 2 HO Catechuic, Lecanoric, C 18 H 8 8 HO Pyromorintamiic, Ci 2 H G 4 8 ? Parellic, C 21 H 8 O 10 HO Aspertannic, Erythric, C 20 H 10 9 HO Rufimoric, cJ 4 H?0 8 ? Erythrelesic, ? Tanningenic, Alpha-orsellic, C 32 H 15 13 HO Japonic, cJ 2 H 4 4 HO? Beta-orsellic, C 34 H 17 14 HO Rubinic, C H O j> Alpha-orseUesic, C 1G H 8 O 7 HO Caffeo-tannic, C 14 H 8 0/ Evernic, C 34 H 15 O 13 HO Viridic, C 14 H 7 8 Evernesic, C 18 H 9 O 7 HO Boheic, C 14 H 8 Usnic, C 38 H 17 14 Opianic, C 2 oHg0 9 HO Parietic, or chry-> TT ^ Xanthopenic, J sophanic, j 10 s 3 Opianosulphurous, C 20 H 9 O 11 S 2 HO Erythroleic, C 2G H 2 20 8 Siilphopianic, C 20 H 9 O 7 S 2 HO Sulphopuri^uric, 2(C 1G H 5 N0 2 ) 2 S0 3 ? Hemipic, /~i TT r\ y T-TO Sulpho-indigotic, C 1G H 4 N0 2 S 2 5 ? Humopic, ? Hyposulpho-in- ) 9 Apophyllic, C 1G NH 7 8 digotic, ) ' Narcotic, ? 12 ACI ACI Amalic, C 12 N 2 H 7 8 Hydromargaric, C 70 H 70 3 HO ? Meconic, C 14 HO n 3 HO Metoleic, C 70 H 63 8 HO ? Ethylomeconic, C 14 HO 1T C 4 H 5 2 HO Hydroleic, C 70 H C3 O 8 2 HO ? Mecon-amidic, C 84 H 24 X 7 O 1 3 9 HO -j- 6 Aq Ambreic, C 13 H 10 XO G Mecono-ethylo- ]. 2 (C 14 HO n )C 4 H 5 5 HO mecomc, j * *- Caincic, C 1C H 13 O 7 Crameric, C 10 H 8 O 5 ? Bi-ethylo-meconic, C 14 HO n 2 (C 4 H 5 O)HO Caffeic, C 1C H 7 O 6 2 HO ? Cornenic, C 12 H 2 O 8 2 HO Chiococcic, C 12 H 9 3 Paracomenic, C 12 H 2 8 2 HO Ipecacuanic, C 14 H 9 7 Chlorocoinenic, 2 HOC 12 HC10 8 Bromocomenic, 2 HOC 12 HBrO s Boletic. Solanic. Ethylocomenic, HOC 4 H 5 0,C 12 H 2 S Comenamic, Cj 2 H 4 NO 7 HO Fungic. Coneic. Tanacetic. Aceric. Pyromeconic, C 10 H 3 5 HO Bromopyromeconic, C 10 H 3 BrO6 Jodopyromeconic, C 10 H 3 IOG V Lactucic. Myroxilic. Atropic. Quino\nc. Cocognidic. Menispermic. Kinic, C 7 H 4 4 2HO? Butyroleic, C 34 H 30 O 4 HO Chelidonic, C 14 H 5 Oi 3 ? Crotonic, ? SabadUlic, ? Adds of Oils, Fats, c. Acids from essential Oils, and from tfie excretions: Caproic, doHnOgHO of Plants. Nitrovalerianic, C 10 H 8 NO 4 O 3 HO (Enanthylic, C 14 H 13 3 HO Caprylic, C 1C H 15 3 HO Pelargonic, Ci 8 H 17 3 HO Capric, C 20 H 19 O 3 HO Margaritic, C 22 H 21 O 3 HO Laurostearic, C 24 H 23 O 3 HO Cocinic, Co 6 Ho 5 O 3 HO Coumaric, C 18 H 7 5 HO Eugenic, C 20 H 1 .,O 4 HO ? Picranisic, C 12 H 3 N 3 O 14 Cuminic, Co H n O 3 HO Cyminic, ? Terebinic, C 14 H 9 7 HO Pinic acid, C 40 H 30 O 4 Myristic, C 28 H 27 O 3 HO Benic, C 30 H 29 3 HO Sulphocetylic, C 32 H 33 OHO 2 SO^ Cetylic or ethalic, C; !:2 H 31 O 3 HO Palmitic, C 32 H 31 O 3 Margaric, C 34 H 33 3 HO Sylvic, CooHjjOo Colopholic, ? Dammaric, C 40 H 31 O7 Pimaric, C 48 H 30 4 HO Pyromaric, ? Azomaric, C 20 H n X0 8 Camphamic, V SuS, C 3 8 H C 3 HO Succinic, C 4 H 2 O 3 HO Stearophanic, C 35 H 34 O 3 HO Bassic, C 3C H 35 3 HO Campholic, C9 H 17 3 HO Polychromic, ? Aloetic, C 14 H 2 N 2 O 10 HO ? Aloeretinic, Ci 4 H 3 NOi 2 1 Balenic, C 38 H 37 O 3 HO Behenic, C 43 H 41 3 HO Acids oftlie Bile, Brain, <$c. Cerotic, C 34 H 53 O 3 HO Cholic, CrjoNH^OnHO Melissic, C CO H 59 O 3 HO Paracholic, C5<>NH 4 r;OiQ Camphoric, C 10 H 7 O 3 HO Cholonic, C52NH420H Sulphocamphoric, C 9 H 7 O 3 SO 2 HO -|- 2 Aq Cholalic, C4oH 40 O 10 Sulphocamphic, C 20 H 13 S 2 O r ,HO (Enanthic, C 14 H 13 OoHO Choloidic, C 48 H 30 O9 Choleic, C 5 oNS,,H 44 13 HO> Eoccellic, C 17 H 15 O 3 HO? Hyocholic, C 54 XH 43 10 Oleic, C 3C H 33 O 3 HO Hyocholalic, C 50 H 40 O 8 Sebacic, C 10 H 8 3 HO Hyocholeic, C 54 NS 2 H 45 O 12 Elaidic, C 36 H 33 OHO NitrochoHc, C 2 N 4 HO 9 HO Azelaic, Ci H 8 O 4 HO Choloidanic, Ci H 12 O 7 Pimelic, C 7 H 5 3 HO Cholesteric, C 8 H 4 O 4 HO Adipic, C C H 4 O 8 HO LithofeUic, C 40 H 35 7 HO Lipic, C 5 H 3 O 4 HO Xitrolithofellic, C 40 NH 35 12 ? Azoleie, C 13 H 13 O 4 ? Pyrolithofellic, C 40 H 34 G Eicinic, C 35 H 31 5 ? Cerebric, ? Palmic, C34H 3 ;>O,-;HO Oleophosphoric, ? Acrylic, C 6 H 3 O 8 HO Inosic, C 10 X 2 H C 10 HO Sulpholeic, ? Sulphomargaric, ? Taurylic, C 14 H 8 2 ? Metamargaric, C 70 H 67 O (; 3 HO ? Damaluric, C 14 Hi 2 4 Hydromargaritic, C 70 H 71 Oi 2 HO ? Damolic, CgoHg^O^ 13 ACI Ac 5 1 5 liable. Capable of being converted into an acid ; thus nitrogen, hydrogen, carbon, boron, &c. are acidifiable bases, because acids are formed by their union with oxygen, chlorine, &c. Acidimetry. The process for measuring the strength of acids. See under various acids. Acidulous Waters are such as contain free acids in solution. Acomtic Acid. Equisetic. C 4 H0 3 HO. Crystalline mass soluble in alcohol, ether, and water ; melts -without change, but decomposes by a higher heat, yielding an oil, itacic acid. It is obtained from aconitum napellus, and equisetiun fluviatile by solution of the juice of these plants in water, uniting the acid with oxide of lead, decomposing the lead salt by sulphohydric acid, and crystallizing out of ether. It may also be obtained by heating citric acid till it ceases to yield inflammable vapours; acetone, carbonic oxide, and acid being evolved. What remains is dissolved in alcohol, and heated with chloro- hydric acid gas, by which aconitic ether, an oily fluid, is formed. Caustic potash forms with it aconitate of potash. Aconitate of lead is formed from this salt, which is decomposed as above. When heated it yields itacic and citracic acids. Aconitine. White granules of unknown composition, obtained from the root and leaves of A. napellus and other species, by digesting the plant in alcohol, evaporating to an extract, add- ing water, filtering, evaporating to a syrup, add- ing sulphuric acid, when sulphate of aconitine is procured. This salt is precipitated by ammonia, and the filtered aconitine redissolved in dilute sulphuric acid, decolorized by animal charcoal, filtered and precipitated by ammonia, and crys- tallized out of alcohol ; -j^y of a grain is poisonous ; it contracts the pupil of the eye. Acorn. The fruit of the oak; is some- times used to adulterate coffee. The ash con- sists of silica 1-01 P0 5 11-15 C0 2 13-69 S0 3 4-79 Cl 2-51 Fe 2 3 -54 MgO 4-32 CaO 6-01 !NaO -63 KO 54-93. The seed is composed of thin sided cells filled with starch. The skin is a cellular membrane containing bundles of spiral vessels. Cells. [Hooter.] Skin. Acrospire. The maltster's name for the rudi- ments of the future stem or plumule of barley, when germinating in the process of malting. Acroleiiie. Hydrous oxide of acryle. C,jH 8 0, HO B.P 125 C = 64-55 11 = 7-08 O == 28-37 spec. grav. of vapour = 1-897. ADH Volatile oily fluid, with a peculiar odour, acting on the eyes with great force, uniting with atmos- pheric oxygen and becoming acid. The odour s distinguished when the wick of a tallow candle is allowed to glow after beingblown out. It is obtain by distilling fats, but in greatest purity by disti ing glycerine, the sweet principle of oil, with ph phoric acid ; the products are distilled over oxide of lead, and chloride of calcium, in an atmos- phere of carbonic acid. When acroleine or hydrate of oxide of acryle makes its appearance, we infer the presence of glycerine in the distilled substance. Acmsiie. A black coated crystal of car- bonate of lead. Acryle. C,jH 3 . The hypothetic radical of acroleine. Acrylic Acid. C G H 3 3 HO. Obtained in union with silver as fine white crystals, by pouring acroleine upon oxide of silver in a tubu- lated retort, until the action ceases ; by distilling over a water bath, foreign oils are removed, and acrylate of silver may be taken up by water from the residue and crystallized. The acryle series consists of Acryle, hypothetic, C(-H 3 Oxide of acryle, C 6 H 3 Hydrous oxide, or acroleine, CgH 3 OHO Acrylous acid, C G H 3 2 HO? Acrylic acid, C 6 H 3 3 HO Actinolite. Actlnote. (a-unr,, ray of the sun.) Calamite, byssolite, strahlstem. A variety of Hornblende, distinguished by green radiated oblique 6-sided prisms, spec. grav. 3-175 to 3-482 ; of different shades of colours leek, olive, and emerald green. Constituents according to Bonsdorff, Si0 3 59-75, MgO 21-10, CaO 14-25, FeO 3-95, MnO -31, FH -76. B.B. melts into a glass coloured by iron. When of the lustre of glass it is called vitreous, and of resin, common actinolite ; occurs in talc rocks. Adamant. A synonyme of the diamond. Adamantine Spar. A synonyme of the corundum. Adept. An old term applied to proficients in alchemy. Adhesion. {Adlmrio, I stick to.) A spe- cies of attraction by which the surfaces of bodies, cither different or of the same nature, adhere to each other. A weak adhesive power is exempli- fied when a knife is dipped in water and thus wetted. An example of strong adhesion is afford- ed when the same instrument is immersed in glue or starch paste. Plane surfaces of glass by means of pressure may be made to adhere to each other, and cut lead surfaces also adhere under pressure with great force. The force of adhesion is measured by the weight required to separate two surfaces. The force of the adhesion of gold to mercury is 446 grains; of silver 429, tin 418, lead 397, bismuth 372, platinum 282, zinc 204, copper 242, antimony 126, iron 115, cobalt 8. (Brooke Taylor.) The force of adhesion seems 14 ADH in the order of their chemical affinities between solids and fluids, inversely as the temperature, and in direct ratio to the squares of the surfaces. Adhesion differs from cohesion, in that the last term applies to the force which retains the parti- cles of the same mass, as of iron or lead together. Adhesive Slate. A yellow or gray slaty mass, infusible, adhering strongly to the tongue, occurring in the Paris gypsum beds. Spec. grav. 2-08 ; it contains Si0 3 86-5, A1 2 3 7, MgO 1-5, aO 1-25, FeO 2-50. Adiiiole. Compact felspar, orthose, petro- silex, or fusible hornstone. Adipic Acid. C C H 4 3 HO. Fusing point 266 (Laurent) 293 (Bromeis.) Crystals brown- ish, radiated tubercles, sparingly soluble in cold, very soluble in boiling water, easily soluble in alcohol and ether ; distils over without decompo- sition ; obtained by boiling oleic acid with nitric acid, after the separation by evaporation of the suberic and pimelic acids. It consists of C 49-78, H 6 '7 7, O 43 '45. It is distinguished from pime- lic acid by its not precipitating salts of lead and copper. Sesquichloride of iron yields with it a l>rick precipitate. Adipocere. (Adeps, fat; cera, wax.) Or Marrjf irate of Ammonia principally. A fatty or waxy substance, first found by Fourcroy in the Ci- mitiere des Saints Innocens in Paris, as a product of the decomposition of the human remains. It has been frequently confounded with cholesterin ; it fuses about 100 ; it is soluble in alcohol and ammonia. It has been reported to have been found in bogs, (bog butter ?) but it requires more careful examination. Adipocere. A synonyme of hatchettine, or rock fat. Adit, Galerie. The horizontal entrance to a vein in a mine, as in fig. at A. Adopter, Adapter. An elongated vessel ap- plied to the beak of a retort, and conducting into the receiver. Adtilaria, (from Mount Adula.) Moonstone, That form of felspar which is very translucent, passing into blue, green, or gray, with a pearly lustre. Acdclforsite, (from Aedelfors, Sweden.) A AER red zeolite, consisting of Si0 3 60-28, A1 2 3 15-42, CaO 8-18, FeO 4-46, HO 11-07 MgO, and MnO -42 (Retzius.) Its formula is A1 2 3 , 3 Si0 3 , CaO, Si0 3 , 4 HO, or stilbite, without 2 atoms of water. Aedelitc. A variety of mesotype. Aegyrine. Consists of SiO 3 46-571, CaO 5-913, MgO 5-878, FeO 24-384, MnO 2-068, NaO 7-79, KO 2-961, A1 2 3 3-418, Ti0 2 2-017. Acolipyle. (AeSlipylae, Vitruvius.) A/aAow wux.i the doors of ^Eolus; originally applied to machines for discovering the cause of the winds. The term is now given to hollow spherical ves- sels terminating in a curved tube. Water or spirit being introduced into the interior, and heat applied, steam issues from the point of the tube, and may be used as a blowpipe when adjusted to a lamp, or as a bellows for blowing the fire. A similar instrument was used by Solomon de Caus in 1615, to show the pressure of steam, " causing water, by the assistance of heat, to mount above its level." Aequinolitc. A mineral allied to the obsidian of Mexico, or soda felspar. Aerated Water*. Waters impregnated with carbonic acid. Aerial Acid. An old synonyme of carbonic acid. Aeriform XEodics. Substances existing in the rarest form, or as gases, as distinguished from solids and liquids. Aerolite. (r?, air; xiOas, stone.) Me- teorolite. Meteorite. Stones which are believed to fall from the atmosphere or moon, although many which have been so classed are obviously derived from the earth. They generally contain nickel and chromium. The analysis, by Mr. Faraday, of a very large one found in the Cape Colony, affords a view of the general nature of their constituents silica, 28-9 ; protoxide of iron, 33-22; magnesia, 19-2; alumina, 5-22; lime, 1-61 ; oxide of nickel, -82 ; sesquioxide of chro- mium, -7; sulphur, 4'24 ; water, 6-5. Then* spec. grav. is 3-352 to 4-281. The view gene- rally entertained is, that these meteorites are mixtures of various minerals, of which nickel ore and chrome iron always appear to form a part. The compound minerals usually present, it is considered, are native iron, magnetic iron ore, which, after being reduced to powder, is removed by the magnet ; chrome iron ore, bisul- phuret of iron, olivine. With the exception of the speculation of Laplace that they may be derived by volcanic action from the moon no feasible explanation has been given of the source of these stones. It may be worth inquiry whether they may not be connected with elec- trical discharges, or volcanic forces acting on the ores existing on our earth. Great care would require to be exercised in the selection of such reputed stones, and in the examination of the localities connected with their fall, especially when we call to mind the numerous instances of 15 AER powders deposited on ships at great distances from land, and of inorganic matter falling in .Britain simultaneously with the occurrence of violent volcanic eruptions at Mount Hecla in Iceland. See Howard, Phil. Trans., 1802. Shepherd, Catalogue of American Meteorites. Sillimaivs Journ., 2d series. Chladni, Ann. Chem. v. 31. Powell's List of Meteors, Brit. Ass. Rept. Aerology. O'i?, air; and ;./?, a dis- course.) The science of the air, its properties, &c. Aerometer. (*r?, air; (*tr ? ev, a measure.) An instrument by which the necessary corrections are made in experimenting with aerial fluids to ascertain the mean bidk of the gases ; invented by Dr. Marshall Hall. (Quart. Journ. of Science, 5.) Aeronautic!-!. The mode of navigating or sailing through the air. Aerosite. Autimonial sulphuret of silver, or dark red silver ore 1% Ag, S 3 , Sb. Spec, grav. 5-85 ; red six-sided prisms. Aerostation. (??, air ; and tsr,fu I weigh.) Properly the science of weights suspended in the ah', but now applied to the navigation of the ah- by balloons. It seems to have first occurred to Dr. Black, in 1767 or 1768, to suggest the idea of aerostation, and he put the idea in practice soon afterwards. " There is an anecdote of Dr. Black," says Dr. T. Thom- son, (II 1st. of Chem. i. 328) " which I was told by the late Mr. Benjamin Bell of Edinburgh, author of a well-known system of surgery, and he a-sured me that he had it from the late Sir George Clark of Pennycuik, who was a witness of the circumstance related. Soon after the appearance of Mr. Cavendish's paper on hydro- gen gas, in which he made an approximation to the specific gravity of that body, showing that it was at least 10 times lighter than common air, Dr. Black invited a party of his friends to sup- per, informing them that he had a curiosity to them. Dr. Hutton, Mr. Clerk of Eldin, ami Sir George Clark of Pennycuik, were of the munber. \Vhen the company invited had assembled, he took them into a room ; he had the allantois of a calf filled with hydrogen ; upon K'tting it at liberty, it immediately ascended and adhered to the. ceiling. The phenomenon was ca^ilv accounted for; it was taken for granted i!i;i; .-:, small bla'-k thread had been attached to the allantois, that this thread passed through the ceiling, and that some one in the apartment . by pulling Hi" thread, elevated it to the . and kept it. in this position. This ex- planation was so probable, that it was acceded to bv the whole coinpanv, thoughj like many other plausible theories, it. turned out wholly unfound- <<[ ; for when the. allantois was brought down, no thread whatever was found attached to it. Dr. JUack explained the. cause, of its ascent to his jidniiring friends; but such was his carelessness of his own reputation, and of the information of the public, that he never gave the least account AER of this curious experiment even to his class ; and more than 12 years elapsed before this obvious property of hydrogen was applied to the eleva- tion of air balloons by M. Charles, in Paris." The first ascent in the atmosphere was made by means of a fire balloon, in 1782, by Stephen and John Montgolfier, who, by burning paper under a silk bag, so ratified the air, that the bag ascended, with some animals attached. On the 15th Oct., 1783 Pilatre de Rozier ascended in a fire balloon. On the 1st Dec., 1783, Messrs. Robert and Charles ascended from Paris in a balloon filled with hydrogen. Hydrogen con- tinued to be used for the inflation of balloons until the employment of coal gas for illuminating purposes brought it also into action for aerosta- tion, and superseded the use of the more expen- sive hydrogen. The first balloon ascent in Eng- land was made by Lunardi, an Italian, on the 15th Sept., 1784; and the second by Mr. Blanchard and Mr. Shelden, on the 16th Octo- ber following. Little alteration has been, made, apparently, in the original construction of balloons. They are composed of silk, and may be varnished with caoutchouc, to render them air-tight. A net is spread over the balloon, and is fastened to a hoop which passes round the balloon. From the hoop a car of wicker work is suspended, in which the aeronatit takes his seat, supplied with sand-bags for ballast, and bags of air for the purpose of breathing, should the balloon ascend with great rapidity, and the coal gas. escape so as to surround the aerial voyager. Without the supply of fresh ah", he would be in danger of being asphyxiated. M. Garnerin first descended, on the 21st Sept., 1802, from a balloon, at a considerable elevation, (a few hundred feet) by means of a parachute or umbrella, without any considerable injury. In his progress towards the earth, it was observed that the whole apparatus began to vibrate vio- lently, so that the basket with the aeronaut was frequently in the same plane with the para- chute itself. Another descent of a similar kind recorded, is that of Mr. Cocking, who ascended with Mr. Green, from the Surrey Gardens, on the 25th July, 1837. His parachute was made to descend in the form of an inverted umbrella an unfortuate idea, as it very speedily collapsed by the pressure of the air. This martyr in the parachute cause was desirous of descending from an elevation of 8,000 feet; but in consequence of the great weight attached to the balloon, it could not lie made, to ascend above 5,000 feet It was, at this height, then, that the parachute, detached by a knife from the balloon, began its descent, along with the unfortunate victim. For three seconds the machine continued to move steadily, though with great velocity. The. tin tube which constituted the extending hoop now broke, the parachute collapsed and descended like a closed umbrella, with the staff upwards. Little or no more resistance was now presented to its descent AER than by a heavy stone. Mr. Cocking fell near Blackheath, and was killed on the spot, many of hib ribs and vertebrae being broken. Recent descents have been successfully made by Mad. Poitivin, in an umbrella-shaped parachute, per- forated at the top, so as to allow the air to stream from below equally upwards ; the result being, that the oscillating motion is obviated, and considerable steadiness of the apparatus at- tained. The great desideratum at the present time is, a method of navigating the air according to the will, instead of being at the mercy of the wind. I was once witness of a very interesting experi- ment by the veteran Green, at the Polytechnic Institution, in which he was most successful, in directing a model balloon to any part of a room filled with still air. A small windmill placed in front of the balloon, and motion given to it by a weight and rolled up cord, produced ratification of the air, and consequent horizontal motion of the machine. An upward movement was gained in the same way, by changing the position of the tiny windmill. The inventor hoped by such means to conduct his balloon to heights where he would meet with steady atmospheric currents blowing in different directions. Aerugo. (Literally, rust of brass.) Car- bonate of copper. Aeschyiiitc. (KIC-XUVH, modesty.) Black rhomboidal pyramids. Hardness, 5 to 6 ; spec. grav. 5-08-5-55 ; infusible, per se, and on char- coal before the blowpipe; on the outer edges forming a black slag ; forms a dark yellow bead with borax, and a colourless clear bead with salt of phosphorus; with soda, a rust yellow mass without fusing. It consists of, titanic acid 56, zirconia 20, peroxide of cerium 15, lime 3-8, peroxide of iron 2-6, peroxide of tin 0-5. (Hart- wall.) The specimen was from Minsk, in Ural. By another analysis, the composition has been found columbic acid 33-39, titanic acid 11-94, zirconia 17-52, protoxide of iron 17-6. yttria 9-35, oxide of lanthanum 4*70, protoxide of cerium 2-48, lime 2-40, water 1-5, fluorine trace. Actlmmiu Sulphuric Acid. See ETIIAMIX SULPHURIC ACID. Acthal, or Ethal. Cetylic Alcohol The al- cohol of spermaceti. AetMonic. See ETIIIONIC ACID. A elites. Lftpls Colly mus. Eaglestone; a hollow geode of oxide of iron, used fonnerly in medicine. Affinity. (Ad and finis), a term first intro- duced into chemistry by Dr. Hooke, to distinguish chemical actions from gravitation, cohesion, and adhesion. When we pour a few drops of sulphu- ric acid into lime water, we observe a white tur- bidity produced, and on standing a white precipi- tate subsides. On examination we find it to consist of lime and sulphuric acid. Hence it is said that the lime has been removed from the solution by the sulphuric acid in consequence of the chemical affinity existing between the acid AFF and the lime, which gave rise to the formation of the sulphate of lime. The earlv chemists sup- posed, that as in such an experiment the lime lost its alkaline reaction, that of restoring the colour of reddened litmus, and the acid the power of reddening litmus, the acid and the lime were both destroyed, and the resulting sulphate of lime was formed out of their ruins. This view Avas refuted in 1674 by Mayow, who showed that sal ammoniac, formed by adding muriatic acid to ammonia, contained both of these sub- stanoes, as might be proved by adding potash when the ammonia was evolved, and by adding sulphuric acid when the muriatic acid was set free. Geofrroy, in 1718, generalized Mayow's view, and drew up tables of affinities, in which he showed that metals are separated from acids by the absorbent earths ; the absorbent earths from acids by volatile alkalies ; while the latter are separated by the fixed alkalies. In 1751, Gellert published new tables ; and in 1758, Lim- bourg gave others. In consequence of the pub- lication of these tables, two theories of affinity were broached. Some adopted the view of Geof- froy, that every body A had a particular degree or intensity of affinity by which it was united to another body X, and that whenever a third body, B, liaving a greater affinity for X than A had, is presented to the compound, A is displaced, and B unites in its stead with the body X. 2. Others were of opinion that no such differ- ence in the intensity of affinity existed ; that B might be capable of displacing A, and separating it from X ; Avhile, at the same time, A, in its turn, might displace B from X or that B might be able to remove A, and incapable of disengaging C, though A were capable of removing C. In 1775, Bergman decided in favour of the first of these hypotheses, and carried chemists generally with him. According to him, the affinity of each of the bodies A B C D for X differs in intensity in such a manner that the intensity of the affi- nity of each may be expressed in numbers. He considered also that affinity was elective, in con- sequence of which, if A have a greater affinity for X than B has, if we present A to B X, X separates altogether from B and unites to A. Thus barytes has a stronger affinity for sulphuric acid than potash has; hence, when barytes is added to a solution of sulphate of potash, the sul- phuric acid leaves the potash, and forms sulphate of barytes. In 1803, Berthollet opposed Berg- ; mart's view. He considered affinity as an attrac- tion existing between the bodies which combine, similar probably to that which exists between the heavenly bodies. If this be so, the affinity must increase with the mass of the acting body. Hence, though barytes has a stronger affinity for sul- phuric acid than potash, yet if we present a great quantity of potash to a small quantity of sul- phate of barytes, the potash will separate a por- tion of the acid. In certain cases some countenance is lent to this view. For example, if we add to a 17 C AFF blue solution of sulphate of copper a large quan- tity of colourless chlorohydric acid, the blue solu- tion becomes green from the formation of chloride of copper, although the affinity of sulphuric acid is the greater for copper. Berthollet, therefore, consi- dered affinity a species of attraction, depending on mass as in other cases of gravitation, and he explained chemical decompositions upon the view that the change which occurs is owing either to the insolubility or the elasticity of the ingredient which separates. Nitrate of ba- rytes and sulphate of soda decompose each other, because sulphate of barytes is insoluble in water, while nitrate of soda is soluble. The two theories, therefore, may be simply stated as follows: Berg- man affirmed that affinity is elective; that the body which has the stronger affinity displaces that which possesses the weaker; and the strength of affinity may be measured by decomposition. Ac- cording to Berthollet, affinity is not elective ; the strength of affinity is not an absolute quantity, but increases with the mass of the attracting body. Hence this view leads to the conclusion, that bodies are capable of uniting in any propor- tion whatever indefinitely. The theory of union in definite proportions, first broached by Richter in 1792-1802, and established by Dalton in 1804, without any knowledge of Richter's views, has refuted the ideas of Berthollet, and has con- firmed, in a modified manner, the theory of Bergman. Modern chemistry would tend to the inference, that instead of affinity the expression replacement or substitution may be employed. Thus, when barytes is added to sulphate of soda, barytes replaces soda, and sulphate of barytes is the result. Richter observed that when two neutral salts, which mutually decompose each other, are mixed together, the two newly formed salts still retain the same neutral state as the two original ones from which they were formed. He made a series of experiments, from which he drew up tables exhibiting the weight of each base capable of saturating 100 parts by weight of each acid, and the weight of each acid capable of saturating 100 parts of each base. He observed that the numbers in each table formed a series which have the same ratio to each other in all the tables. If, for example, in the table represent- ing the muriates, the quantity of potash required to saturate 100 parts of muriatic acid were three times as great us the quantity of alumina requi- site to produce the same effect, the same thing would hold in the sulphates, nitrates, and in all the other series of salts. Thus Richter had the merit of showing that the saturating power of acids and liax 1 .- may be represented by numbers attached to them. ' Mr. Daltoii. in 1804, com- municated his views on the nfomic. tin or;/ to Dr. Thomas Thomson, who first published it to the world. According to him, the ultimate par- ticles of all bodies consist of atoms incapable of further division; they are spherical, and of differ- ent weights. It is these atoms which unite AGR together, and we can determine the atomic weight of a body by ascertaining how much of it will combine with another body. Thus, when 200 parts by weight of oxygen are exposed to the ac- tion of a burning glass, in a vessel containing a piece of charcoal, the oxygen is entirely converted into carbonic acid, which has increased in weight by 75 parts of carbon or charcoal. If we pass this carbonic acid through red hot charcoal, the 200 parts oxygen are found united to 150 carbon or charcoal, or 100 oxygen to 75 charcoal, to form carbonic oxide. We have thus two compounds of oxygen and carbon, carbonic acid C02, and carbonic oxide CO, in which the relation of oxy- gen is 2 to 1 Avith the same weight of carbon in each. The more recent view, which attributes chemical decomposition to electrical conditions, has not been confirmed by the later researches in organic chemistry, since it has been found that hydrogen, the type of the electro-positive metals, may be replaced by chlorine, the type of electro- negative bodies, atom for atom, even where the amount of hydrogen is great or small. Agalmatolitc. Bildstein, Fiyurestone, Ko- reite^Lardite^ Payodite. White, gray, green, yellow, red, or brown mass, with a somewhat soapy feel. Sp. grav. 2-895; hardness, 2; silica, 49-816; alumina, 29-596; lime, 6; protoxide of iron, 1*5; potash, 6 '8; water, 5*5. Infusible before blowpipe, but becomes white ; fracture splintery. Brought from China in the form of images and ornaments, and from Nagyag. Agaric Mineral. Rock milk. A white, light powder, soiling the fingers, and floating on water for some time. Found in calcareous rocks in Switzerland. It is a carbonate of lime. Agaphite. A synonyme of turquoise. Agate. A variety of quartz, found in amyg- daloid rocks in rounded masses. When polished, it presents a variety of colours, depending upon al- ternations of layers of different tints ; it has pro- bably been deposited from solution in water. Agcdoitc. A synonyme of asparagine, found in liquorice root. Agent. A substance which produces a che- mical action. A reagent is a term applied to such bodies as by their reaction occasion changes of colour or precipitation. In this sense it is equivalent to test. Aggregate. (Ad, to ; c/rex, a flock.) To gather together the smaller particles of substances into a denser mass. Aggregation. The advantage of the aggre- gation of particles is very observable in filtering precipitates. Sulphate of barytes and oxalate of lime, when first formed, are very fine powders, which pass through the pores of a filter ; but when they have stood for some hours exposed to heat, the liner particles aggregate into larger molecules, and are retained on the filter. Agriculture. (Ager, a field; cultura, cul- ture,) may be defined to be the proper treatment of the soil so as to enable plants sown in it to 18 AGE derive a ready and proper supply of food. The basis, therefore, of the study is the discrimination of the true nature of the food of plants. In former times, although many applications at present used in agriculture were employed, their mode of operation was not properly appreciated. It is only of later years that natural agriculture lias been studied. At one time it was supposed that plants derived their food alone from water and the air, and that the only use of the soil was to fix them in their place. The first agriculturist who seems to have taken the proper view of the subject was Jethro Tidl of Shelborne, in the Bounty of Berks, who published a most valuable work on agriculture in the year 1733. ^ Cattle," he says, u feed on vegetables that grow upon the earth's external surface ; but vegetables themselves first receive from within the earth the nourishment they give to animals ;" and he de- nominates " the superficies of the pores, cavities, or interstices of the divided parts of the earth " the " pasture of plants." He appears, however, io have undervalued the importance of water and air; and it was not till the time of Kirwan, in 1796, that the various sources of the food of plants began to obtain their proper position in the science. " The most fertile soil," says he, " is that which contains the greatest quantity of the food of those vegetables that nourish men and useful animals, .and administers it to them with due economy. The first essential requisite, therefore, of a fruit- ful soil is, that it contain a sufficient quantity of the three or four simple earths (lime, magnesia, alumina, and silica), and of the soluble carbona- ceous principle. The other requisites are, that the proportion of each and general texture of the soil be such as to enable it to admit and retain as much water as is necessary to vegetation, and no more :" and he states, that " manures are applied to supply either the defective ingredients of the soil, or improve its texture, or correct its vices." Afterwards Davy advocated the same view. " The great use of the soil," says he, " is to afford support to the plant, to enable it to fix its roots, and to derive nourishment by its tubes slowly and gradually from the soluble and dissolved substances mixed with the earths," while the greater part of the weight of plants is derived from the carbonic acid and oxygen of the air, and from water. Liebig, still more recently, has followed up the same view, and has added most materially to our knowledge of the growth of vegetables. The theory or mode of explaining the nutrition of plants at present is, that the carbon which they contain is absorbed by the leaves and roots in the form of carbonic acid ; the carbon is deposited in the system of the plant; the hydrogen is derived from water ; the nitrogen from the am- monia and nitrogen of the air ; the oxygen from ^vater, &c. ; and the ash which all vegetables leave when they are burned, is that portion of the food which is obtained from the soil. One important object to be held in view in agriculture is, to re- ALB store to the land the ash or salts which have been removed by the crop ; hence the importance of manures, which not only supply salts, but likewise ammonia and carbonic acid, by the de- cay of the vegetable matter. The soil which contains the inorganic food of plants, may be considered to have been originally rock, and to be in a condition of gradual disintegration, by which the soluble food of plants is slowly formed through the action of the atmosphere. Hence the importance of tilling the earth, in order that new portions may arrive at the surface, to be exposed to the influence of air and water. The object of fallowing appears to be, to allow the upturned soil to enjoy for some time the disin- tegrating energies of the atmosphere, and to en- able the agriculturalist to plough and pulverize the soil. See MANURES, SOILS. Agrostcmmine. Yellowish white fusible plates, difficultly soluble in water, more readily in alcohol ; obtained by exhausting the seed of Agrostemma githago (corn cockle) with diluted spirit containing acetic acid, distilling off the al- cohol, adding magnesia, and treating the pre- cipitate with alcohol. Agustitc. A synonyme of the emerald. Air. Atmospheric and Common Air. The term airs was originally applied to different species of gases before their characteristic dis- tinctions were detected. Dr. Hales was the first person who began the investigations which led to this discrimination. The word air is now limited to the atmosphere, q. v. Akccthinc. ^Yellow, tasteless, rhombohe- drons, F. P. 302," soluble in alcohol, ether, and acetone ; soda evolves from it ammonia ; formed by the action of ammonia and sulphur on acetone. Alabaiidiuc. A synonyme of sulphide of manganese. Alabaster. Alaluss, (Scot.) sulphate of lime, gypsum, or plaster of Paris. A white substance used for the purpose of making casts and moulds, or when in fine white masses, as at Florence, it is sculptured into figures and vases. There are two varieties, gypseous and calcareous. Alabastritcs. A synonyme of alabaster. The older mineralogists by this term understood calcsinter. Alalite. A synonyme of white augite, from the place of its occurrence ; four-sided, doubly oblique prisms, spec. grac. 3-297, silica 54-4, CaO 15-7, MgO 22-57, Fe 2 Q 3 2-5, Al 2 a 2-83 B.B. fuses into a glass. Alaniiic. C 6 NH 7 4 a crystalline body isomeric Avith sarcosine, urethane, and lactamide, converted bv hyponitrous acid into lactic acid and N ; homologous with glycocoll ; formed by acting on aldehydammonia with cyanohydric acid, and an excess of chlorohydric acid. Almatiiic. A German synonyme for inulin. Albciie. A provincial name of a calctuff occurring at Erding, in Bavaria. Albinc. A synonyme of apophyllite. 19 ALB Albite. Soda felspar. Occurs crystallized in white doubly oblique rhombs. Spec. grav. 2-6. Fuses like felspar before the blowpipe, but yields a yellow tiiige to the flame. Its composition is Si0 3 68-, A1 2 3 22-, MgO -4, potash -7, soda 7-8. It enters as a constituent into greenstones, -which therefore differ from granites by containing more soda than potash although albite also occurs in granite sometimes, along with felspar. Album Ci i-rociiiu. The white farces of dogs, consisting chiefly of bone earth were so named formerly, and used as a medicine. Albumen. (Album Ovi) Albumin, Oonin. The type of albumen is the white of egg, a transparent glairy body enclosed in the cells of a memJirane, which when broken by whipping with a spoon, or twigs, yields a fluid soluble in water. Albumen also exists in the serum of "blood, and in lymphatic fluids. When exposed to the vacuum of an air-pump, there is left a brittle translucent substance, which, when pul- verized, is a white powder with a saltish taste. A similar substance is procured by heating under a temperature of 120, until all water is evapo- rated, when it is soluble in cold water. When heated to 140 it becomes white, opaque, and coagulated, and is then no longer soluble in water. It may be freed from the greater portion of its salts and impurity by digestion in water, ether, and alcohol. Its solutions are precipitated by chlorohydric, sulphuric, nitric, pyrophos- phoric, and metaphosphoric acids. The pre- cipitates contain a portion of these acids, and are insoluble in dilute acids, but, when freed from the excess of acid, dissolve in pure water. Acetic and phosphoric acids produce in dilute solutions no precipitate; but the strong acids form a gelatinous precipitate, easily soluble in water. When acetic acid is added in small quantity to a solution to overcome its alkaline character, flocks of pure albumen fall. Albumen is precipitated from its solutions by alcohol. Carbonate of soda, Avhen added to a solution of albumen, prevents its coagulation by heat, even at a boiling temperature. Pure albumen dis- solves easily in acetic and dilute phosphoric acids. The temperature at which albumen coagulates depends on its state of dilution; a solution con- taining N per cent, consulates at 1 H), but when more dilute it requires a temperature of even l('n ; and wli'-n very dilute the solution may even require boiling, or evaporation, before coagu- lation occurs. Coagulated albumen is soluble in dilute caustic alkali. When procured by boiling :-cniin of blood, it is found to contain nearly '.Mi per cent, of *\\;.(er, drying up when heated into a hard, pale yellow translucent ALC resembling gum arabic, becoming soft when ligestcd in water; insoluble in alcohol, ether, and volatile oils. By exposure to the action of i long continued heat in a Papin's digester, it dissolves, and forms a yellow solution. Albumen consists of C 53-32 H 7-29 N 15-7 S 1-3 O 22-39. Its formula is S 2 N 2r C 2 i C Hi G9 DCS- When acetic acid is added to a solution of albumen, and then a solution of yellow pras- siate of potash, a copious white precipitate falls. Albumen of silk, when similarly treated, gives a green precipitate insoluble in water. Protosulphate of iron and sulphate of copper precipitate albumen, but hi excess redissolve it. The salts of tin, lead, bis- muth, silver, and mercury, precipitate albumen white. Hence the best antidote for corrosive sublimate is white of egg. Alburnum. The colourless part of wood situated between the bark and the duramen, or heart-wood. Alcarazas. Porous earthenware vessels used in Spain for cooling water and wine by the evaporation through their sides, similar to water jugs used in India, and now in this country. Alcargeiie. See KACODYLIC ACID. Alcarsisie. A synonyme of oxide of caco- dyle, (alcohol and arsenic.) Alcliesiiy, Alkcmy. The knowledge of the substance or composition of bodies. So named from the Arabic substantive Kiyamon, that is, the substance or constitution of anything from the root Kama, (Mr. Palmer.) This science, the incipient stage of chemistry, seems to be of Egyptian origin ; it first signified natural philo- sophy; afterwards it was applied to the art of working metals; in the third century it was limited to the art of making gold and silver. From Egypt it passed to Greece, and thence to Arabia, and ultimately into the west of Europe, the followers of the science being termed alche- mists. They conceived that the ingredients which enter into the constitution of gold are present in all metals mixed Avith impure bodies, but susceptible by proper treatment of being pro- duced in a perfect state. The object of their studies was, therefore, to discover the method or agent for effecting this change, or in other words, of converting the inferior metals into gold. This desideratum they designated the philosophers stone. Alchemy then came to signify the art of making the philosopher's stone. It was the search after this wonderful agent which gave rise to numerous experiments, and caused the dis- covery of an immense number of facts which constitute the basis of the present important science of chemistry. True alchemy must not I;e confounded Avith the quackery which ran parallel with it, any more than the science of medicine of the present day is to be mistaken for the empirical remedies winch meet the eye in the ephemeral periodicals of our time. AlcoRte, Alcoholatc. Weak compounds, 20 ALC which alcohol forms -with certain salts, are termed alcoates. Cliloride of zinc combines with 1 atom of alcohol. Their existence has been called in question, but apparently without reason. Alcohol. C 4 H 5 O, HO 6-75; 54. This term was originally applied to sulphuret of anti- mony, and bodies reduced to a fine state of divi- sion were said to be alcoholized. But in more recent times it is employed to designate the chemical compound which constitutes the essence of fermented liquors. It is said to have been first accurately described by Arnold de Villa Nova, who was bom about the middle of the 13th cen- tury ; although this is doubtful ; but the method of distilling it from fermented liquors, and strength- ening it by removing the water by means of car- bonate of potash, was known to Raymond Lully about the middle of the 13th century. Alcohol is an ingredient of all fermented liquors. It is a colourless, mobile, combustible fluid, with a pecu- liar taste, a non-conductor of electricity, spec, grav. -7947 at 59; boiling point 173; spec, grav. of its vapour, 1*6133. It consists of ^ vol. ether vapour, 1*29044, and vol. vapour of water = -31005 = 1.60049. Its formula is C 4 H 5 -f- HO, and it contains C 52*658 H 12*896 34*446. Brandy and whisky contain about 50 per cent, of alcohol ; spirit of wine 55 to 60 per cent, of alcohol ; highly rectified spirit contains 80 to 85 per cent. ; and alcohol 90 to 95 per cent, of alcohol. The common brandies contain usually an essential volatile oil, and frequently acetic acid. The acid may be removed by dis- tilling with carbonate of soda, which retains the acetic acid, and the peculiar oil (fusel oil) may be destroyed by a small portion of bleaching powder or manganate of potash, and a few drops of sul- phuric acid. Fat oils, when shaken with alcohol, likewise remove the volatile oils; but the best separater is wood charcoal. When brandy or whisky is distilled, the first spirit in the receiver contains 75 to 80 per cent, alcohol ; the second portion is between 60 and 70 per cent. ; and lastly, weak spirit and water. When spirit, containing GO per cent, alcohol, with a spec. grav. of *8952, Is distilled, the first product has a spec. grav. of 840 to *833, and contains from 85 to 90 per cent, alcohol. Alcohol cannot be rendered anhy- drous or destitute of water by mere distillation. Some substance must be mixed with the alcohol which has a stronger affinity with the water than with the alcohol. Slaked lime is such a body, and to the same class belongs chloride of calcium fused in a strong heat, on an iron plate or cruci- ble. One part of this salt with 2 parts of alcohol is shaken in a bottle for several days. The liquid is poured off into a retort containing half as much chloride of calcium as the spirit w and distillation performed by means of a sand heat the first ounce is set aside. By two dis- tillations in this way, anhydrous alcohol may be obtained. Strong alcohol may also be procured by tying up spirit in a bladder and allowing it to ALC hang in the air ; the particles of water pass more rapidly through the coats of the bladder than the alcohol. Alcohol may also be deprived of water by placing it in a vacuum over caustic or qiu'ck [ime. The lime absorbs the water, while the vacuum is filled with the vapour of alcohol, and fluid alcohol remains of great strength in the vessel in which the spirit was deposited. To re- nove water from spirit also, carbonate and tar- trate of potash, and caustic potash, may be em- ployed ; likewise Glauber's salt, sulphate of lime, carbonate of soda, &c. The best table of the strength of alcohol is that of Dr. Steel, (R. D. Thomson's Records of Gen. Science, vol. i. 257. 1835.) Alcohol per cent. S P . Gr. .it CO deg. Fah. Cor. or ea. deg. Alcohol >er cent. Sp. Gr. at 60 deg. Fah. Cor. orea. deg. 100* 79460 48 78-5 -85136 47 99*5 79568 48 78- 85248 47 99* 79716 48 77-5 853G9 47 98*5 79845 48 77- 85491 47 98* 79973 48 76*5 85612 47 97*5 80102 48 76- 85733 47 97* 80231 48 75*5 35854 47 96*5 80361 48 75* 85975 47 96* 80490 48 74-5 86095 47 95*5 80620 48 74* 86216 47 95* 80750 48 73-5 86336 47 94*5 80880 48 73- 86456 47 94- 81010 48 72-5 86576 46 93*5 81146 48 72- 86696 46 93* 81271 48 71-5 86815 46 92*5 81398 48 71- 86935 46 92* 81524 48 70*5 87053 46 91*5 81660 48 70- 87172 46 91* 81797 48 69*5 87291 46 90*5 81953 48 69* 87411 46 90* 82108 48 68*5 87529 46 89*5 82286 48 68- 87648 46 89* 82465 48 67*5 87767 46 88*5 82594 48 67- 87886 46 88* 82724 47 66-5 88006 46 87*5 82857 47 66- 88123 46 87- 82982 47 65*5 88238 46 86*5 83112 47 65* 88354 46 86- 83242 47 64*5 88473 46 85*5 83371 47 64* 88593 46 85- 83499 47 63*5 88709 45 84*5 83627 47 63- 88826 45 84* 83754 47 62*5 88973 45 83*5 83881 47 62* 89121 45 83* 84008 47 61-5 89208 45 82*5 84133 47 61- 89295 45 82* 84259 47 60*5 89411 45 81*5 84385 47 60* 89528 45 81* 84509 47 59*5 89643 45 80-5 84633 47 59* 89759 45 80* 84757 47 58*5 89873 45 79-5 84840 47 58- | -89988 45 79* 84924 47 57-5 1 -90101 45 21 ALC ALC Cor Cor Alcohol has a strong affinity for water, ana Alcohol per cent. Sp. Gr. at CO deg. Fah. for ea. deg. Alcohol per cent. Sp. Gr. at CO deg. Fah. for ea. deg. mixes with it in all proportions, the spec. grav. of the resulting mixture increasing with the 57- 56-5 66- 55-5 55- 54-5 54- 53-5 53- 52-5 52- 90215 90328 90442 90554 90666 90778 90891 91005 91119 91232 91345 45 45 45 45 45 45 44 44 44 44 44 28-5 28- 27-5 27- 26-5 26- 25-5 25- 24-5 24- 23-5 95979 96057 96132 96207 96279 96351 96421 96491 96558 96626 96691 30 30 29 29 28 28 27 26 25 24 23 amount of water. When the water is added at first heat is evolved, showing that a chemical union has taken place; but the density of tho resulting fluid is less than the mean of the two fluids ; consequently there is a condensation or mutual penetration. ; The spec. grav. therefore of such mixtures cannot be calculated, but must be determined by experiment. This point is one of great importance, particularly in reference to excise questions. The following table by Maro- zeau, was determined by Gay Lussac's hydro- 51-5 91487 44 23- 96757 23 meter : 61- 91570 43 22-5 96821 22 Vol. of Alcohol per cent. Vol. of Alcohol per cent. 50-5 91680 43 22- 96886 22 1-000 10 -987 50- 91791 43 21-5 96949 21 1 -999 20 -976 49-5 91896 43 21- 97012 21 2 -997 30 -966 49- 92001 43 20-5 97074 21 3 -996 40 -953 48-5 92115 43 20- 97136 20 4 -994 50 -936 48- 92229 43 19-5 97198 20 5 -993 60 -915 47-5 92337 43 19- 97260 20 6 -992 70 -891 47- 92446 43 18-5 97321 19 7 -990 80 -865 46-5 92554 42 18- 97382 19 8 -989 90 -835 46- 92663 42 17-5 97443 18 9 -988 100 -795 45-5 92770 42 17- 97504 18 The following table by Grb'ning affords a 45- 92877 42 16-5 97564 17 proximate idea of the strength of alcohol, accord- 44-5 92986 42 16- 97625 17 ing to the boiling point of the fluid: 44- 93095 41 15-5 97686 16 43-5 93200 ' 41 15- 97748 16 Alcohol by Vol. Alcohol by Voll 43- 93306 41 14-5 97806 15 per cent. In the In the per cent. In the In the 42-5 93408 "41 14- 97865 15 Boiling Point. Boiling Distilled Fluid Fluid Boiling Point. Boiling Distilled Fluid Fluid 42- 93511 41 13-5 97930 14 77 -25 C. ...92 ' 93 ' 87 -50 C. ...20 71 ' 41-5 93612 40 13- 97995 14 77-50 ...90 92 88-75 ...18 68 41- 93714 40 12-5 98059 13 77-81 ...85 91-5 90-00 ...15 66 40-5 93815 40 12- 98124 12 78-15 ...80 90-5 91-25 ...12 61 40- 93916 40 11-5 98188 12 78-75 ...75 90- 92-50 ...10 55 39-5 94015 40 11- 98253 12 79-50 ...70 89- 93-75 ... 7 50 39- 94115 40 10-5 98320 12 80-00 ...65 87- 95- ... 5 42 38-5 94213 39 10- 98387 12 81-25 ...50 85 96-25 ... 3 36 38- 94311 39 9-5 98456 11 82-50 ...40 82 97-50 ... 2 28 37-5 94406 39 9- 98525 11 83-75 ...35 80 98-75 ... 1 13 37- 94502 39 8-5 98595 10 85-00 ...20 78 100- ... 36-5 94595 38 8- 98666 10 86-25 ...25 70 36- 94689 38 7-5 98739 10 35-5 94782 37 7- 98812 10 The tables used in this country for the deter- :;:> 84-5 34- 33-5 33- 94876 94967 95059 95148 95238 37 36 36 35 35 6-5 6- 5-5 5- 4-5 98887 98963 99041 99120 99201 10 10 9 ' 9 9 mination of the strength of spirit from its spec. grav. are those of Gilpin, (Phil. Trans. 1794.) The alcohol employed was of spec. grav. -825 at 60 F., and was composed of 100 parts alcohol,, of spec. grav. -814, and 4-5 Avater. Alcohol of 32-5 95325 34 4- 99282 9 825 consists of 89 alcohol and 11 water. 32- 95412 34 3-5 99373 9 31-5 95496 33 3- 99464 9 31- 95581 33 2-5 99547 9 30-5 95662 32 2' 99630 8 30- 95743 32 1-5 99721 8 29-5 95822 31 1- 99813 7 . 29- 95902 31 0-5 99906 7 22 ALC ALC Real Specific Gravities at the different Temperatures. Pure 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol Alcohol. 5 Water. 10 Water. 15 Water. 20 Water. 25 Water. SO Water. 35 Water. 40 Water. 45 Water. 30 C 83896 84995 85957 86825 87585 88282 88921 89511 90054 90558 35 83672 84769 85729 86587 87357 88059 88701 89294 89839 90345 40 83445 84539 85507 86361 87134 87838 88481 89073 89617 90127 45 83214 84310 85277 86131 86105 87613 88255 88849 89396 89909 50 82977 84076 85042 85902 86676 87384 88030 88626 89174 89684 55 82736 83834 84802 85664 86441 87150 87796 88393 88945 89458 60 82500 83599 84568 85430 86208 86918 87569 88169 88720 89232 65 82262 83362 84334 85193 85976 86686 87337 87938 88490 89006 70 82023 83124 84092 84951 85736 86451 87105 87705 88254 88773 75 81780 82878 83851 84710 85496 86212 86864 87466 88018 88538 80 81530 82631 83603 84467 85248 85966 86622 87228 87776 88301 85 81291 82396 83371 84243 85036 85757 86411 87021 87590 88120 90 81044 82150 83126 84001 84797 85518 86172 86787 87360 87889 95 80794 81900 82877 83753 84550 85272 85928 86542 87114 87654 100 80548 81657 82639 83513 84308 85031 85688 86302 86879 87421 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol 100 Alcohol TOO Alcohol 100 Alcohol 'lOO Alcohol Heat. 50 Water. 55 Water. 60 Water. 65 Water. 70 Water. 75 Water. 80 Water. 85 Water. 90 Water. 95 Water. 30 91023 91449 91847 92217 92563 92889 93191 93474 93741 93991 35 90811 91241 91640 92009 92355 92680 92986 93274 93541 93790 40 90596 91026 91428 91799 92151 92476 92783 93072 93341 93592 45 90380 90812 91211 91584 91937 92264 92570 92859 93131 93382 50 90160 90596 90997 91370 91723 92051 92358 92647 92919 93177 55 89933 90367 90768 91144 91502 91837 92145 92436 92707 92963 60 89707 90144 90549 90927 91287 91622 91933 92225 92499 92758 65 89479 89920 90328 90707 91066 91400 91715 92010 92283 92546 70 89252 89695 90104 90484 90847 91181 91493 91793 92069 92333 75 89018 89464 89872 90252 90617 90952 91270 91569 91849 92111 80 88781 89225 89639 90021 90385 90723 91046 91340 91622 91891 85 88605 89043 89460 89843 90209 90558 90882 91186 91465 91729 90 88376 88817 89230 89617 89988 90342 90668 90967 91248 91511 95 88146 88588 89003 89390 89763 90119 90443 90747 91029 91290 100 87915 88357 88769 89158 89536 89889 90215 90522 90305 91066 100 Alcohol 95 Alcohol 90 Alcohol 85 Alcohol 80 Alcohol 75 Alcohol 70 Alcohol 65 Alcohol 60 Alcohol 55 Alcohol Heat. 100 Water. 100 Water. 100 Water. 100 Water. 100 Water. 100 Water. 100 Water. 100 Water. 100 Water. 100 Water. 30 94222 94447 94675 94920 95173 95429 95681 95944 96209 96470 35 94025 94249 94484 94734 94988 95246 95502 95772 96048 96315 40 93827 94058 94295 94547 94802 95060 95328 95602 95879 96159 45 93621 93860 94096 94348 94605 94871 95143 95423 95705 95993 50 93419 93658 93897 94149 94414 94683 94958 95243 95534 95831 55 93208 93452 93696 93948 94213 94486 94767 95057 95357 95662 60 93002 93247 93493 93749 94018 94296 94579 94876 95181 95493 65 92794 93040 93285 93546 93822 94099 94388 94689 95000 95318 70 92580 92828 93076 93337 93616 93898 94193 94500 94813 95139 75 92364 92613 92865 93132 93413 93695 93989 94301 94623 94957 80 92142 92393 92646 92917 93201 93488 93785 94102 94431 94768 85 91969 90 91751 95 91531 100 91310 23 ALC ALC Heat. 50 Alcohol 100 Water. 45 Alcohol 100 Water. 40 Alcohol 100 Water. 35 Alcohol 100 Water. 30 Alcohol 100 Water. 25 Alcohol 100 Water. 20 Alcohol 100 AVater. 15 Alcohol 100 Water. 10 Alcohol 100 Water. 5 Alcohol 100 Water. 30 96719 96967 97200 97418 97635 97860 98108 98412 98813 99334 35 96579 96840 97086 97319 97556 97801 98076 98397 98804 99344 40 96434 96706 96967 97220 97472 97737 98033 98373 98795 99345 45 96280 96563 96840 97110 97384 97666 97980 98338 98774 99338 r>o 96126 96420 96708 96995 97284 97589 97920 98293 98745 99316 55 95966 i)i;-j72 96575 96877 97181 97500 97847 98239 98702 99284 60 95804 96122 96437 96752 97074 97410 97771 98176 98654 99244 65 95635 959G2 96288 96620 96959 97309 97688 98106 98594 99194 70 95469 95802 96143 96484 96836 97203 97596 98028 98527 99134 75 95292 95638 95987 96344 96708 97086 97495 97943 98454 99066 80 95111 95467 95826 96192 96568 96963 97385 97845 98367 98991 Alcohol, when inflamed in the open air, bums with a bluish-white flame, the products of com- bustion being carbonic acid and water. When the amount of oxygen is deficient, lamp black is deposited. When the vapour of alcohol is mixed with oxygen in the proper proportion, and fivcd, it detonates with a loud explosion. If the vapour be passed with atmospheric air or oxygen through u red hot tube, the products are carbonic acid, a -tic acid, aldehydic acid and water, with a peculiar body smarting the eyes. When plati- num black is moistened with spirit, similar pro- ducts result with a rise of temperature. If alco- holic vapour be passed through a glass tube at a low red heat there form aldehyde, olefiant gas, carburetted hydrogen and water. When distilled with bleaching powder, chloroform is produced; and by the continuous action of chlorine, chloral is formed. Sulphuric acid removes w r ater from alcohol, and sets ether free. The various acids form ethers with the basis of alcohol. Various substances are soluble in alcohol. All salts of inorganic acids insoluble or difficultly soluble in water, are insoluble in alcohol. Alcooinetry* Alcoholomctry. The pro- cess of estimating the amount of alcohol con- tained in a fluid mixture. The original method effecting this object was a very rude one. A measured quantity of spirits was poured upon a portion of gunpowder in a plate and ignited. If at the end of the combustion the gunpowder WU dry, it took fire and exploded; but if the was weak, the water which it contained melted the powder and prevented it from igniting : in the former case it was said to be above, in tin latter case below proof. The term proof spirit is now applied to a spirit consisting nearly of equa weights of ;:lcohol and water. By different esti- mates proof spirit has a spec. grav. of '91921 92003 -91957. The density at 62 i 918633. When the fluid containing the al cohol has in it nothing b< -sides water, th" deter- mination of the sped lie gravity by means of i hydrometer or specific gravity bottle is suffi cient, and from the preceding tables the strengtl may be calculated; but when sugar or other in gmlients, us in beer, are dissolved in the liquii to be tested, it is n're^ny to have recourse t ther methods. The fluid containing the alcohol lay be distilled in a retort or tube apparatus, so arranged that no escape of alcoholic vapour can ccur. A convenient apparatus of simple con- traction will be found to be two flasks connected y a Liebig's condensing tube, or a tube 3 or 4 eet long, passing through corks. One of these .asks acts as a retort, and the other as a re- eiver, being immersed in a large vessel of cold vater to condense the vapour as it passes over. The alcoholic fluid being placed in the retort flask, leat is applied by means of a gas flame through ;he medium of a small sand bath. The distilla- tion is continued until one-half of the fluid is distilled over, or until the liquid dropping over yields a green colour and the odour of aldehyde, when treated with bicromate of potash and sul- phuric acid. The specific gravity of the distilled fluid is then taken, from which, by the preceding tables, the amount of absolute alcohol contained in the whole amount of original fluid distilled may be calculated ; and hence the per centage composition of the alcoholic fluid. Example. Retort flask = 034- grs., beer = 2294-6, total = 2928-6 grs. Receiver flask = 880 grs., distilled spirit = 987-4 grs., spec. grav. of spirit = 9848 = 9-98 per cent, of absolute alcohol. Then 100 : 9-98 : : 987-4 : 98-54 = total abso- lute alcohol in 2294*6 grs. of beer. Then 2294-6 : 98-54 : : 100 : 4-29 per cent, of abso- lute alcohol in the beer. Another method of quicker application from which the original gravity of the alcoholic fluid can be calculat- ed, but probably not so precise, has been, it is said, long used by German brewers. Whether it is originally a German discovery is doubtful ; 24 ALC but certain it is, that it has been known to the excise of this country for at least 2 years. 1. The specific gravity of the beer .or alcoholic fluid is ascertained by means of the hydrometer. 2. A measured quantity of the fluid is boiled in an -open vessel till one-half has evaporated, or until all the alcohol is dissipated. 3. The remaining fluid or extract fluid, thus deprived of its alcohol, and consisting of water, albuminous matter, and sugar, or extract as it is termed, in solution, is made up to its original bulk by the addition of distilled water. 4. The specific gravity of this prepared fluid is taken. 5. By deducting the specific gravity of the original fluid, a, from the specific gravity of the extract fluid, J, after the addition of the water, the spirit indication, c, of so many degrees is obtained, which when added to the specific gravity of the extract fluid, 6, yU'lds the specific gravity of the original fluid before it was fermented. A beer having a spec. grav. of 1035-1, when boiled down, and made up to its original bulk with water, gives a spec. grav. of 1044-7. Now 1044-7 1035-1 = 9-G degrees of spirit indication, and by the following table 9-6 degrees are equivalent to 43-7 degrees of gravity lost. Then 1044-7 "+ 43 = 1087-7 = the original specific gravity of the beer or alco- holic fluid. The following tables, for which I am indebted to the kind attention of John Wood, Esq., the very able chairman of the Board of Inland Revenue, are those which are used by the excise. It is proper to mention that the first table is the result of the labours of Messrs. Dohson and Phillips, and the second table was made long afterwards, to test its accuracy, at the request of the excise board, by a chemical commission con- sisting of Messrs. Graham, Hofmann, and Red- wood. Simple comparison of the respective num- bers exhibits, in a strong point of view, the value of the experiments in the first table, and of the ability of the gentlemen in the service of the excise. TABLK 1. ALD TABLE 2. ll oj 1 -2 "3 4 -5 G "7 8 9 p .. 3 6 9 12 1-5 1-8 21 2-4 2-7 1 3-0 3-3 3'7 41 4-4 4-8 5-1 5'5 5-9 6-2 2 6-6 7-0 74 7-8 8-2 8'6 9-0 94 98 10-2 3 107 11-1 11-5 12-0 12-4 12-9 13-3 13-8 14-2 14-7 4 151 155 16-0 16-4 16-8 173 17-7 18-2 18-6 19-1 5 19-5 19-9 204 20-9 21-3 21-8 22-2 22-7 231 23-6 6 241 24-6 25-0 25-5 26-0 26-4 26-9 27-4 27-8 28-3 7 28-8 29-2 29-7 30-2 30-7 31-2 31-7 32-2 32-7 33-2 8 33-7 34-3 34-S 35-4 35-9 861! 37-0 37-5 38-0 38-6 9 39-1 39-7 40-2 40-7 41-2 41-7 42-2 42-7 432 43-7 10 44-2 44-7 45-1 45 6 46-0 46-5 47-0 47-5 48-0 48-5 11 490 49-6 501 50-6 51-2 51-7 52-2 52-7 53-3 53-8 12 54-3 64-9 55-4 55-9 56-4 56-9 57-4 57-9 58-4 58-9 13 59-4 60-0 60-5 611 61-6 62-2 62-7 63-3 63-8 643 14 64-8 65-4 65-9 66-5 671 67-6 68-2 GS-7 69-3 69-9 15 70-5 1 TENTHS. *j 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 31 3-5 3-7 4-0 4-3 46 5-0 5-3 5-6 5-9 2 0-2 6-6 71 7-5 7'9 8'3 8-8 9-2 96 101 3 10-5 109 11-4 11-8 12-2 12-6 131 13-5 13-9 14-4 4 14-8 15-2 15-7 161 16'5 16-9 17-4 17-8 18-2 18-7 5 191 195 200 204 20-9 21-3 21-7 22-2 22-6 231 6 23-5 23-9 24-4 24-8 25-3 25-7 26-2 26-6 271 27-5 7 28-0 2S-5 290 29-5 30-0 30-5 310 31 '5 32-0 32-5 8 33-0 33-5 34-0 34-5 35-1 35-6 36-1 36'6 371 37-7 9 38-2 38-7 39-2 39 '8 40-3 408 41-3 41-9 42-4 429 10 43-4 43-9 44-4 45-0 455 46-0 46-5 47-0 47-6 48-1 11 48-6 491 49-7 50-2 507 51-2 51-8 52-3 52-8 53-4 12 53-9 54-4 55-0 55-5 56-1 56-6 571 57-7 58-2 58-8 13 59-3 59-8 60-4 60-9 61-5 62-0 62-6 63-1 63 7 64-2 14 64-8 65-4 65-9 66-5 671 67-6 68-2 68 -8 69-4 69-9 15 70-5 It is obvious that the two methods may bo conjoined. In the second case, by conducting ;he process by distillation, the alcohol may be collected and estimated by the first method. Alcornine. A neutral crystalline body, ob- tained by alcohol from the bark of Alcomea lati- folia. Aldehyde. (Alcohol dehydrogenatus.') Hy- drous oxide of cicetyle. C 4 H 4 2 or C 4 H 3 OHO. A colourless, limpid, volatile fluid, with a peculiar ethereal odour ; irrespirable, as it produces suffoca- tion. Spec. grav. -790, boiling point 7l. Spec, grav. of its vapour 1-512=2 vols. carbon vapour 84279, 2 vols. hydrogen=-13760 vol. oxygen =05280=1-53319. It is miscible with water, alcohol, and ether, in all proportions. By the action of air and sun light it passes into acetic acid, and very rapidly if platinum black be present. It dissolves sulphur and iodine ; is converted by chlorine and bromine into chloral and bromal ; by nitric acid into acetic and carbonic acids ; con- verted by caustic potash into a brown resin. When heated with nitrate of silver, with the addition of so much solution of barytes as to precipitate all the oxide of silver, metallic silver coats the glass tube like a mirror, and acetate of barytes remains in solution. Alde- hyde is derived from ether and alcohol. When ether vapour is passed through a red hot tube, aldehyde, carburetted hydrogen, and olefiant gas are evolved. Aldehyde is made in largest quantity by distilling 2 alcohol of 80 per cent, with 3 black oxide of manganese, 2 water, and 3 sulphuric acid, C 4 H 5 OHO, 2 Mn02S0 3 = C 4 H 3 OHO + 2 HO 2 (MnOSO 3 ), or bichromate of potash may be used as the oxidizing agent ; it occurs also in the oxidation of casein, and several organic substances, and is produced by the action of many chlorides, as chloride of antimony, chloride of zinc, &c. upon spirit. Pure aldehyde is prepared by passing dry am- moniacal gas through aldehyde, when crystals of aldehyde ammonia separate (C 4 H 4 02NH 3 ) as ALD a white crystalline compound ; 2 parts of these crystals are dissolved in 3 parts water, and dis- tilled with 3 parts sulphuric acid diluted with 5 parts water; Imparts are distilled off. When aldehyde is kept at 32 it changes into prismatic icy crystals, elaldehyde, and when kept at the ordinary temperature it becomes needles, or 4- sided prisms. Chlorine acts upon aldehyde, and forms chlor-aldehyde C 4 H 4 C1 2 . Aldehydes, Metaldehyde. Aldehyde having a peculiar relation to acetic acid, from which it differs only in the amount of oxygen, it is believed that aldehyde is an intermediate stage in the production of acetic acid from alcohol. A class of such compounds exists connected with other organic acids, as the aldehyde of butyric acid, the aldehyde of metacetonic acid, the aldehyde of valerianic acid, (C 10 H 10 O 2 ,) the composition of valerianic acid being C 10 H 10 O4. Aldchydic Acid. Lampic Add. C 4 H 4 3 . An acid not isolated ; believed to be formed when aldehyde is boiled with nitrate of silver, and also in the lamp without flame. Aldehydcnc. The hypothetic radical of the aldehyde series, C 4 H 3 . Aldidc. A name given to a class of which aldehyde is the type. Ale. A well-known amber-coloured ferment- ed liquor of considerable strength, but varying in the amount of alcohol which it contains, accord- ing to the option of the particular ale brewer. Edinburgh ale contains apparently more sacchar- ine matter unfermented than other ales, and is strong. Burton ale has more hops added, and is hence termed pale bitter ale. The Scotch ale is said to be brewed during the cold months of the year, only one mash of half-an-hour's dura- tion being made, and the heat of the liquor raised to 180 ; it is then drained off into the wort copper. The malt is then deprived of all its soluble matter by sparging, or dashing over hot water of 180 for eight or ten times sut vs- sively, the liquor draining through by apertures placed at the sides of the mash tun, and armed with stopcocks. One gallon of yeast is added to 240 gallons of wort, and the fermentation begun at 50, and continued for two or three weeks : four Ibs. of hops are used to the quarter of malt. The following table by my pupil, Mr. John "Wright Currie, of the Perth Brewery, gives the strength of various ales brewed in that establish- ment. The experiments were made with great care in my laboratory. Scottish Ales. Absol. Alcohol Extract Wat or per cent. per cent. per cent. Export Ale,...7-96 3-75 88-29 India. Ale, 8-97 2-75 89-28 No. 3 Ale,. ...7-055 5-7 87-25 No. 4 Ale,.... 7 -855 6-675 85-47 Scottish Ale Brewing. To brew 20 barrels of ale, 80 bushels of malt and 80 Ibs. of hops arc ALE required. Three or four barrels of water at 180 are let down into the mash tun, and at o, Mash tun. b, Under back. the same time the sluice of the malt bung is opened, and the malt and remainder of the liquor at 175 run down together, and stirred. The mashing requires three hours, when the spar- ger (sprinkler) is fixed to the head of the tun. The sparger is a copper cylinder five or six inches in diameter, closed at both ends, and nearly so to within a foot of the centre, which is open, with a cross division against which a run of liquor by a spout from the copper strikes and sends it round the tun. An iron bar is fixed, across the latter, on which the sparger is placed on a pivot. Its two arms extend the width of the tun, the inferior side of these being pierced with small holes similar to the mouth of a water- ing-pan, from which as it revolves, the liquor escapes and sprinkles the mash. The water in the boiler being tempered to the heat required for sparging, (185,) the taps of the mash tun. are slacked, and the worts permitted to flow out slowly, the sparger being set in motion this operation being merely a continuation of the masliing. I may add, that having examined most of the waters used by the Edinburgh ale, brewers, I have found them all very hard waters, containing a large quantity of carbonate of lime. If any virtue is to be attributed to the water, it may be presumed that the carbonate may act by neutralizing any acid as soon as it is formed. The 30 barrels of wort, 72 Ibs. saccharine extract per barrel, are boiled for half-an-hour, and 40 Ibs. hops added ; another half-hour's boiling takes place, the remaining hops are added, and the wort boiled for another half-hour. Worts of the gravity of 50 Ibs. extract per bar- rel strengthen 5 Ibs. per barrel in one hour's boiling, and worts of 100 Ibs. in one and a half- hour strengthen 15 Ibs. So that the brewer can. easily judge of the amount of boiling required by the use of the saccharometer. The worts, after at quarter of an hour, are run into the hop back, and then spread on the coolers, where they remain twelve hours ; during this time they lose one-eighth of their bulk by evaporation. The worts being cooled to 53, one barrel of wort is run into the gyle, and G gallons of yeast added, and thoroughly mixed; the remaining wort is then added. In Scotland, the temperature for commencing the fermentation is about 52, in England 62^. In twenty- four hours the first stage ends, the surface being characterized on ALE the edges by a white circle, and irregular patches of white breaking through, and soon being covered with froth. The head of froth is beat down, and the process continued for twenty-four hours more. In eight days the heat has increased 10. The brewer judges of the period to stop the fermen- tation by the saccharometer, which indicates the amount of sugar which has been converted into alcohol. The next process is cleansing. In Edinburgh the ale is run finished from the gyle into the casks in which it is sold. In Alloa and Stirling it is run into butts, from which it is rocked into casks, a pint of fillings or prepared wort being put at the same time into each. English Ale Brewing. To make 20 barrels of ale, as in the preceding case, 24 barrels of water at 170 are added to the materials in the mash tun, allowed to extract for three hours, and run off; 17 barrels are drawn; a second and third mash are made at 185, 9 barrels of water being used for each. After all these are removed, 8 barrels of water at 170 are nm in for small beer. The 33 barrels of wort are boiled one hour ; then 40 Ibs. hops are added, the boiling continued for half-an-hour ; the remaining hops added, and the boiling continued for half-an-hour, or two hours altogether. The worts are then run into the coolers. The fermentation is made c, e, Fermenting tuns. d t d, Troughs to receive the yeast thrown off. at 60 to G5. 9 gallons of yeast are added. In twelve hours a head has gathered ; in twenty to twenty-four hours the head is formed, the heat being 70. The great difference between the Scottish and English systems of brewing is that the first is conducted 10 under the English; it is therefore a slow process, while the English is a rapid one, and ales of different descriptions are produced. The cleansing is performed by mixing the yeast and ale together in the gyle, turn- ing into barrels placed in close troughs, and con- tinuing the fermentation until the yeast forms and separates from the ale, which is managed by keeping the barrels re- peatedly filled up until fer- mentation ceases, and the process is finished. Alembic. (Al&nbicus.') A term applied to a peculiar head or capital of a still. (B.) See STILL. In France, the ALI term alembic or alambic is used to designate a glass still, consisting of a retort and head Al< mbiotli Salt. Salt of Wisdom. Salt of Art. A salt knoAvn to the alchemists ; rhom- boidal crystals obtained by mixing 2 atoms- corrosive sublimate, (34,) 1 atom sal ammoniac,. (6 1,) and 8 atoms water, (9.) At 140 this mixture is fluid, but on cooling, sal alembroth crystallizes. Its composition is chloride of mer- cury and chloride of ammonium, with 1 atom water, (NH 4 C1 HgCl HO,) but the water varies. Alexandrite. A synonyme of phenakite. Algaroth Powder. English Powder. Oxychloride of Antimony. Discovered by Victor Algarothi, a Veronese physician. White flocky precipitate, or soft powder, obtained by boiling black sulphuret of antimony, (Sb S 3 ,) with, chlorohydric acid, and pouring the solution into- water ; terchloride of antimony is thus converted into an oxychloride of antimony. When it is allowed to stand in water it becomes crystalline r and then consists nearly of 11-32 chlorine, 76-6 antimony, and 12-08 oxygen, or 9 Sb0 3 , 2 Sb CIs. It is used in the preparation of tartar emetic, and is said to have an emetic action when, swallowed. Algae. Seaweeds are plants which yield certain chemical products. The carragheen gives bassorin when boiled, cooling in the form of a jelly ; the fucus saccharinus is covered with man- na, and the fronds of these plants, when distilled with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, give an oily base fucusol. Their ash is Kelp. Algerite. (After Mr. F. Alger, of Boston.) Honey-yellow prisms in limestone, at Franklin, New Jersey. Spec. grav. 2-78, hardness 3 to 3-5, fuses B.B. into a white blebby glass. Consists of silica 49-96, A1 2 3 24-41, Fe.,O 3 1-48, MgO 5-18, CaOC0 2 4-21, KO 9-97, HO 5-06. Form. 3 (A1 2 3 2 Si0 3 ) ; (MgO KO) 3 Si0 3 , 3 HO. Alica. A grain used by the ancients for mak .g tisanes, perhaps triticmn spelta. Aliment. Alimentary Bodies, (from akre, to nourish.) By this term is to be understood all those substances which answer as food for animals, and support their system under the continual wasting which it is undergoing. They are of two classes. 1. Nitrogenous, azotized, nutritive, or plastic substances, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulphur, which are deposited from the blood in the solid form of muscle and organized tissue. These include fibriue, albumen, caseine, bodies common to both vegetable and animal food, gluten of vegetable origin, and gelatin peculiar to animals. 2. Non- nitrogenous, non- azotized, calorifiant, or respiratory aliment, including starch, sugar, gum, fat. Neither class is sufficient by itself to retain the system in a healthy condition; but the true theory of alimentation depends on the proper proportioning of the two classes to the wants or waste of the system. The best type to study this ratio by is milk, the natural 27 ALI food of the human sixvie-. ami of mammalia in :::- of their exigence. In milk, we have caseine, or curd, and albumen, NfnMnting the nitrogenous, or muscular ]iart of animals; sugar, fat, or butter, supplying the system with the means 0< : '1> the supply of animal heat through the medium of the respiratory or breathing apparatus, and the salts which form n essential constituent of the blood and arts of the body. The law that there is a settled ratio between these constituents of food out by the author in 1846, (Experi- mental Researches on Food, 8vo, 1846, p. 167,) ami it lias since been ably substantiated and i.y Liehig, Knapp, and Fresenius. the elevated mission of science," says Lie- 'iow why man and animals require such an admixture in the constituents of their food for the support of the vital functions, and .he intlneiut'sare which determine in accor- nith tin- l;iw of instinct changes in this admixtunv' It is obvious that although nature .dained thv animal system so that it is capable, of sustaining a great amount of strain 'ad management, yet, that there is a point 1 which discretion should restrain us prix-ivding in utter disregard of nature's Hitherto, especially in the higher classes men have been obliged to submit health, and even existence, to the tender mercies of the individual whom they may have hired to cook their victuals, obliged, should the results !> prejudicial, to call in the aid of a phy- sician, instead of using tin ir reason and apply- ing it to the discrimination of proper aliment. i< elevated u in regard to an important function which he possesses in common with the lower animals alx>ve the level of those beings which are destitute of reason, and supplies him, in the regulation of those bodily wants which -ntial to his exigence and prosperity, with D which the lower animals do not ire, because in them the commands of the sill are not opposed or overpowerec by tin- allurements of sense, nor by a perverted and n-Utmg will." The following table gi\v.- i ate composition of vegetable food in .!t>ist state, from my own experiments : Nitrogen. Beans :;-7so Oatm.-::', .: FL-tir f *;< 1-855 i -MO 1-7:,0 r H;:IO Lothian Flour 1 ::.-, . Alliurmnous Matt.T. 28-620 16-618 11 ;-_;, I1HU1 11-810 '.'7!:! . Water ]VT (Tilt. 10*60 1 I -Jo 5-30 13-32 11-80 9-46 i. -HO I2-W ALI Albuminous Water isitrogen. Matter. per cent. Arrowroot, '515 3-218 12-76 Tapioca -502 3-137 1,'ve-Tass, -460 2-875 75- Starch, -349 2-185 13-40 Potatoes, '358 2-237 78-48 Swedish Turnips, -212 1-325 84-55 Ked Mangel Wur-> 91-57 zel, > " White Do ... 37-63 Beet Root, Salsify, .- 77-42 'he following table, beginning with milk, affords view of the relative position which various articles of food hold in respect to that important ype of the aliment of mammalia, and is from he author's own experiments : Approximate relation of nitrogenous or nutri- ive to non-nitrogenous, or caloririant matter. Nut. Calorif. Cow's Milk, Food for a growing animal, 1 2 Human Milk, 1 4 Beans, 1 2 Oatmeal, 1 5 Semolina, \ ) .1 Barley, English Wheat Flour, Food for an) ^ animal at rest, } Potatoes, 1 9 Rice, 110 Turnips, 1 11 Arrowroot,") Tapioca, k 1 2G Sago, ) Starch, 140 From this table we infer that the food destined br the animal in a state of exercise should range between wheat and milk, flour varying in its degree of dilution with calorifiant matter, ac- cording to the nature and extent of the demands upon the system. The animal system is thus viewed as in an analogous condition to a field from which different crops extract various amounts of matter from the soil, which must be ascertained by experiment. An animal at rest consumes more calorifiant food in relation to the nutritive constituents than an animal in full exercise. The food therefore employed by a per- son of sedentary habits should contain more, caloritiant. and less nutritive matter than one whitst- occupations cause him to take more ex- ercise. The food of animals, and the manure of plants. A', e thus see a il'ord somewhat of a paral- lelism. Milk may therefore be used with a cer- tain amount of farinaceous matter, such as the class of meals and Hours, with probable advan- tage, but. the dilution should not exceed the prcscrilwd limits, it is thus that we may ex- plain the fact of beans, oats, oatmeal, and barley- meal being used so extensively in the feeding of articles of food, however, do not ALI suffice alone; calorifiant matter in the form of hay should also be administered. From this table, likewise, AVC infer that as nature has pro- vided inilk for the support of the infant mammalia, the constitution of their food should always be fonned after this type. Hence we learn that milk, in some form or other, being the true food of children, the use of arrowroot, or any of the members of the starch class, where the relation of the nutritive to the calorifiant matter is as 1 to 26, instead of being as 1 to 4, by an animal placed in the circumstances of a human infant, is opposed to the principles unfolded by the preceding table. Due attention to tlic.se principles should be attended to in the prepara- tion of all our various forms of food. A fixi.-i Camphor. White capillary crystals, occurring on the interior of the bark of Alixia aromatica, subliming at 150 ; soluble in hot, insoluble hi cold water ; soluble in alcohol, ether, oil of turpentine, acetic acid, carbonates of pot- ash, and ammonia; coloured yellow by nitric acid. Aiizaric Acid. Identical with pb.tb.alic acid. Alizarine. {Ali-Zari, oriental name for madder.) Orange-yellow needles, volatile with elevation of temperature ; insoluble in cold, little soluble in hot Avater ; soluble in alcohol and ether, forming a dark yellow solution ; forming a red solution with strong sulphuric acid, and yellow flakes falling on the addition of water ; soluble in caustic potash, with a red colour ; precipitated yellow by acids. It consists of C 68-18, H 4-55, O 27-27, C 20 H 8 8 . (Koclileder.) It seems to be identical with chrysophanic acid, or park tin. obtained from the parruelia parietiua lichen, and also with morindon, a derivative from the JIo- rinda citrifolia. It may be obtained by exhaust- ing madder by boiling water, and precipitating by acetate of lead. The violet precipitate thus ob- tained is washed with water, diffused through water, and decomposed by a current of sulpho- hydric acid. Sulphide of lead, mixed with fat, alizarin, and purpurin fall. This precipitate is filtered and boiled with alcohol, and yields a dark brownish-yellow solution of fat, alizarin, and purpurin. Water allows the somewhat im- pure alizarin to fall. Fat is removed from it by cold ether. By solution of the remaining alizarin in boiling ether and spontaneous evaporation, alizarin is obtained in orange plates. Alkahest. An universal solvent of the al- chemists. Van Helmont distinguished carbonate of potash by this title. Alkali. (J/, the article; and kali, Arabic for salt ash,) a term now generally re- stricted to a class of bases potash, soda, Uthia, and ammonia which are soluble in alcohol and water, neutralize acids, change blue colours to green, render reddened litmus blue, yellow tur- meric paper brown. Potash was formerly called the vegetable alkali, because it is derived from the ash of trees ; soda the mineral alkali, because I produce.). ALK its source is common salt, a product of the mineral kingdom ; and ammonia was designated the volatile alkali, from its great tendency to assume the gaseous form at common temperatures. Certain earthy bodies having like characters, to a certain extent, of alkalies, in so far that they are somewhat soluble hi water, turn blue colours green, and neutralize acids, have been termed, alkaline earths. These are lime, barytes, and strontian. A numerous class of organic bases- exists, which form salts with acids, and having; certain affinities with the alkalies, has been called alkaloids (alkali, itiog, form). Alkaligene. (Alkali and j/sva*>, Alkali producer ; a hypothetic term. Alkalimcter. (Alkali and fttre ov > a measure.) An in- strument for measuring the amount of alkali in a salt mix- ture, particularly in commercial samples of soda-ash, and car- bonates of soda and potash. The principle depends on using a known quantity of acid, and ascertaining when the alkali present has been neutralized. Alkalimeters are usually gra- duated glass tubes, or narrow cylinders, of varied form. Alkalimetry, consists in the mode of using the alkalimeter. Alkalimetry with a Solid Acid. I have long used a very convenient system of alkalime- try. It consists in dissolving 50 grams of the alkaline sample in 2 ounces of water, in a flask, or stoppered phial, weighing out, on a watch-glass, 60 grains of well crystallized oxalic acid, reduced to a fine powder. Small portions of the acid powder are then to be added at a time, by means of a spatula or knife, to the alkaline solution, shaking the liquid be- tween each addition, or stirring it with a glass rod, heating and testing it with litmus paper, until the latter becomes slightly reddened, while the liquid is hot The residual oxalic acid is then weighed. Suppose it to be 20 grains. It is obvious that to saturate the alkali in 50 grains of the sample, 40 grs. of oxalic acid have been required. Now, 7-875 grains of oxalic acid are capable of saturating or removing the alkaline reaction of nearly 4 grains of soda (3-897 grs.), or 6 grains of potash (more precisely 5-888 grs.) We say, then, that the relation between the ato- mic weight of oxalic acid and of the soda or potash is the same as between the quantity of oxalic acid consumed hi the experiment, and the soda or potash neutralized by it, and contained in the 50 grams of the sample, or as 7-875 : 3-897 for soda, and 5-888 for potash : : 40 : x. By multiplying the second term of the proportion by 40, and dividing by the 7*875, we get x equal to the amount of alkali contained in the sample. -i-a | 29 ALK. If we wish to uncertain the amount of carbonate <>t' alkali present, all that we require is to substi- tute for tin- number I'm- tin- alkali tin-, atomic weight of the carbonate of the alkali : and then as tin- quantity of sample used was*50 grs., by mul- tiplying the product .r by 2, we obtain the per ventage amount <>f alkali. \Yhatcver process be adopted in alkalimetry, this plan will be found advantageous as a rapid check, as no preparation of te-t acid H required. Alhi/hitctiy !'!>// a /-'/iiid .\<-i-888 or 3*897 : : x number of divisions : / amount of alkali in the sample. Alkalescent. The act of the evolution of alkaline characters. Alkaloid*. (Alkali and itio;, form.) Organic approximating to alkalies in character. EASES OK..AMO fora table containing the principal alkaloids. Alknun. Oriental alkanct, from the root of the Henna plant (Liin-.^niin tallixed is a right oblique 'l-.-ided pri-m. Sp. grav. 4'001. Hardness 6. I"'.!!, into a scoria or ma^iietic n'lass. nixes with nitric and muriatic acids. It s of silica 35-15, AL <).. n;--_>;;, FeO : oxide of cerium J:>-:M; o^xidc of lan- thanum .VMi .M,,<) ti-'.ix ; lime liMn', ]\l-() water -.")(>. Allnuioi* I luid. The urine ,,f tin- fi.-tus in ; mammalia. |.laced in a Madder l.et\veen the allantois and tlie amniuni. It contains al- lantoii Alhimoim, Ailiuiioir Arid, Aimiiotir Acid. l>i-, ,;< red |,y Vau.meliu and IJuniva, ALL and analyzed by Liebig. Yellowish or colour- less 4-sided prisms, neutral, without taste and. smell, losing nothing at 212 ; soluble in 4'00 parts cold, in 40 hot water ; soluble in alcohol. Its formula is C 4 H 3 N 2 3 . It contains the elements of oxalic acid and ammonia, and is changed into these bodies by alkalies. It may be obtained from the allantoic fluid by evapora- tion, to a quarter of its volume ; the crystals, which separate on cooling, are decolorized by animal charcoal. It may also be formed by boiling 1 uric acid and 20 water with brown oxide of lead added, as long as the colour of the fluid changes. Allanturic Acid. CIQ H 7 N 4 O 9 , or uric acid and 3 atoms water ; a white matter formed in the first stage of the preparation of allantoine, and also by treating uric acid with nitric acid, and precipitating by ammonia, Allituric Acid. Crystalline powder, dis- engaging ammonia with potash; soluble in 18 parts cold water; obtained by boiling alloxan- tine with chlorohydric acid. Form. C (; N 2 H ?) O 4 . Allochroite, Grossiilarite, or Green Gar- net, or even Colophonite. AUogonitc. A synonyme of Herderite. Allomorphite. A synonyme of a variety of sulphate of barytes, containing 2 per cent, sul- phate of lime. Alloplmitc. (*xxf, high; and >;, habit.) A body having different physical i'orms, is said to be allotropic. Carbon, for example, oc- curring as coke, plumbago, charcoal, diamond, in different crystalline forms, is a body* subject to allot n>py. Alloxaii, Erytliric Acid. Colourless light prismatic crystals, efflorescent, losing 27 p. cent. of water, and becoming anhydrous. Very sol- uble in water. Odour disagreeable; reddens vegetable colours, and stains the skin purple; formed by adding cautiously uric acid to nitric acid, of spec. grav. 1 -3 5. When crystals make their appearance, the addition of uric acid is stopped for the time, and the solution allowed to cool, when crystals of alloxan separate. These are thrown on a filter, upon a stopper of asbestus, and washed once with ice-cold water. They are ALL then purified by recrystallization. When oxi- dized, it changes into uric and carbonic acid. Form. C 8 H 4 N 2 10 . It is formed from uric acid, by the addition of 2 atoms oxygen, and 4 wa- ter, when it becomes equivalent to alloxan and urea, Alloxan yields an abundance of compounds : by alkalies, alloxanic acid ; by ammonia, mycome- 7/cacid; by N0 5 , parabanic acid; with sulpho- hydret of ammonia, dialurate of ammonia is formed ; with sulphate of ammonia, thionurate of ammonia. Alloxauic Acid. C s N 2 H 2 O 8 , 2 HO. Isomeric with alloxan; radiated needles, obtained by heating alloxan in barytes water. Alloxaiiate of barytes separates in crystals on cooling, which Is decomposed by sulphuric acid : it is bibasic. Alloxano-Sulphurous Acid. Only known in combination with potash in a crystalline form ; a salt obtained by adding a strong solution of sul- phurous acid to a cold saturated solution of alloxan till the odour of the acid becomes per- manent. It is probably 1 at alloxan with 2 S0 2 . By boiling a solution of alloxanic acid to dry-ness, and heating pretty strongly in a capsule, leuco- turic acid remains, while water takes up dijluan. By heat, alloxanate of barytes changes into mes- oxalic acid. Alloxaiitiiic. C 8 N 2 H 5 10 . White hard crystals, sparingly soluble in cold, more soluble in hot water, yielding a violet colour with harytes water, reducing nitrate of silver, and yielding a black powder of silver, with formation *of alloxan or oxaluric acid. It is obtained by passing sulphohydric acid through a solution of alloxan, or through the acid mother liquor from that substance. It contains an atom more hy- drogen than alloxan, which it takes from the sulphohydric acid SH, sulphur being deposited. By HC1 dilitwric and alituric acids are derived from it; likewise hidanloic acid, and, with the aid of alloxan, murexide. Alloy. Mixtures or compounds of various metals are called alloys (Aayw, I bind)'. The various coins used as a circulating medium are alloys of the more precious metals. Thus the gold coinage is alloyed with copper or silver, and sil- ver coin is alloyed with copper. The composition of many alloys will be given under the various species of bronze, com, bell metal, brass, Ger- man silver, Britannia metal, pewter, pinchbeck, cannon metal, similor, packfong, tombac, tute- nag, solder, prince's metal, Muntz's metal, type metal, &c. In uniting the various metals, some- times the alloy has a density greater, sometimes less, than the means of the metals separated, show- ing that there has been either a contraction or an expansion in the union. The following alloys have a greater density than the mean density 'of the metals of which they consist : Gold, with the following metals : zinc, tin, bismuth, anti- mony, cobalt. Silver, with the following metals : zinc, lead, tin, bismuth, antimony. Copper, with zinc, or tin, or palladium, or bismuth, or antimony. Lead, with bismuth, or zinc, or ALM antimony. Platinum, with molybdenum. Pal- ladium, with bisrrmth. The following alloys have a specific gravity less than the mean of the metals of which they consist : Gold, with silver, or iron, or lead, 'or copper, or iridium, or nickel. Silver, with copper. Copper, with lead or pla- tinum. Iron, with bismuth, or zinc, or anti- mony, or lead. Tin, with lead, or zinc, or palladium, or antimony. Nickel, with arsenic. Zinc, with antimony. The electrical conducting power of the alloys is inferior to that of the metals of which they consist. When the fusing point of the constituent metals is very different, they may be separated by eliquation or fusion. Tin, which fuses at 442, may be separated from copper, whose fusing point is 1996. Brass, which consists of copper and zinc, when melted for casting, and exposed to the air, exhibits a beautiful white light, and gives out fumes of oxide of zinc. In general, alloys are less easily oxidated than the separate metals. Allspice. Ail aromatic mild spice, the fruit of the Eugenia pimento, a W. Indian tree. Allunuditc. Dvfrenite, Craurite. Proto- phosphate of iron, from Liege, consisting of 28-42 P0 3 , 57-6 FeO, and 12-15 HO. Alluvium. Alluo, I wash upon; or al- luvio, an inundation ; Alluvion. Earth, sand, gravel, stones, and other transported matter, which have been washed away and thrown down by rivers, floods, or other causes, upon land not per- manently submerged beneath the waters of lakes or seas. Allylc. C G H 5 . The hypothetic radical of oil of garlic, or sulphuret of allyle, C C H 5 S = All S ; and of oil of mustard, or sulphocyanide of allyle. Almagra. A purplish red oclire, formerly used as a pigment, and in medicine; the sil atti- cum of the ancients. Aliiiandinc Garnet. A synonyme of fine red transparent garnet. Aliiiamlinc Ruby. A synonyme of spinelle. Almond*, Fixed Oil of. Obtamed by ex- pression from the fruit of the Amygdahis commu- nis; pleasant taste, without smell. Spec. grav. 918. At 14 deposits solid matter. Both sweet and bitter almonds, varieties from the same plant, contain the same fixed oil. Almonds, Volatile Oil of Bitter. Procured by distilling bitter almonds with water. When the fixed oil of bitter almonds is obtained by expres- sion without the application of heat, it contains no trace of the volatile oil, showing that the vo- latile oil does not exist in the bitter almonds, but it results from an action between the amygdaline and emulsine which they contain. If the amyg- daline be removed by means of alcohol, no vola- tile oil can be formed. If the amygdaline be separated, and brought in contact with the emulsion of sweet almonds, volatile oil results. The volatile oil, when purified, is hydret or hydride of benzoyle (C 12 H G 2 ). 100 parts 31 ALO vgdalinc form 47 of crude oil. It is ob- . ; hen-Ion-, that emulHiie, ads as a ferment, tifc t.il is one of the products of ti.in : iu change is etVected in the einulsine, luit theamvgdalino (.'4,, NH-r < '-_ i s converted ! atom HCy = C 2 NH ;" 2 hydride of ben- zovlc = C 2 s H 12 4 ; su-ar C, ; 1 1 .-, ; 2 fonnic acid = C 4 H S O ; 7 water 1 1 7 r . Oil of bitter al- monds is u.-nl in France tor j>crfuniin- I0*p. Aloes. The reddish-brown evaporated juice of thelenyooftlie.; (porM^orJooo^rMa. Tin- leaves are cut off dose to the stem, then cut in pier's, and the juice allowed to run out This fluid remains standing for 24 hours, when extrac- tive n -sited. The clear liquor Li then d, and allowed to concrete in the sun, ;xiratcd in copper boilers, as in the "West . The bitter principle is taken up by cold , and 1 ici ice the best mode of preparing pills from the commercial article is to ;lii-m from a cold water extract. It is IV8, and is best given in union with soap, which renders it more soluble. From this insolubility it has been supposed to act spe- ciiically on the rectum. Socotrme aloes con.-ist.s of ] Hire aloes 80, sulphate of potash 2, sulphate of lime 2, gallic acid -2."), albumen 8 traces of lates of potash and liine, and phosphate of Aloctnmidc. CnHsNoOio- Dark red body formed by ammonia on aloetic acid. Aloctic Acid. Yellow or brown, of a bitter formed by heating 1 part aloes with 8 . grav. 1-25, and adding water; acid falls ; it is to be dissolved in water, and purified: its composition is Cj^Ho^OnyHO V Aloorrtinic Acid. A product of the action of nitric acid on alvs < 'uHoXO^. Aloiiic. A supposed alkali in aloes, form- '>n>wn solution, changing reddened litmus, -nniug a crystalline salt Avith S0 3 (Meiss- Small granular crystals were obtained by .Smith from aloes, l.y pounding aloes Avith sand. in cold water, and evaporating in . rvstals are said to - than 10 to 15 of the common ex- As it ha- not been obtained from soco- . it is doubtful whether it be the se crvstals consist of C 34 ; Iio. Ali>haor<-llcNic Acid. C 1G H 9 8 . Ob- liy iM.iling aljihaorseilate of baryt When further 1-oikd it yields colour- Alpfanor^Ilic Arid. C : . a II j,- O M . :aiin-d fmn: tim-tm-'m of Le in cold water; soluble i:i alcolio!. i with Meai-hing li|iK.r. \l|Iiu K*Mi:i<. A mode of nomenclature Bometimes u.-cd wl;<'ii : i'hony, alpha n>in Aliouitc. A nonymc of baryto-calcite ALU of Brooke, from the town of Alston in Cumber- land, near which it is found. Altaitc. Tellurido of lead. Althciiic. A synonyone of Asparayine. Althionic Acid. When sulphuric acid is added in excess to alcohol, olefiant gas is evolved,. and in the residue is an acid, the salts of which . are composed exactly as the sulphovinates, the crystalline fonn being, hoAvever, different. It Is possible these may be mixtures of isethionates and sulphovinates. Aludcl. A clay vessel with the form of a pear, with, two necks connected together,. ( and used at Almaden in Spain for subliming: mercury. It has long been replaced in Idria by condensing chambers, in consequence of loss sus- tained. Aliichi Resin. Obtained from a tree in. Madagascar, called timpi (Bomare), or from ! i Tfltera aromatica. It is very soluble in alcohol and ether, but not in soda. Alusn. A term IIOAV applied to a class of S- hedral salts, formed on the same model. Thus we have potash alum, (KO S0 3 A1 2 O S 3 SO 3 , 24HO) a compound of 1 atom sulphate of pot- ash, 1 atom tersulphate of alumina, and 24 atoms water. TAVO others, also, may be formed by re- placing the potash by soda or ammonia. These salts are, therefore, isomorphous. The potash may likewise be replaced by mananese and mag- nesia, as in manganese alum and by protoxide of iron. The composition of these salts will then be KOSO 3 A1 2 3 3 S0 3 24 HO... Potash alum. XaOS0 3 AU0 3 3 S0 8 24 HO .. . Soda alum. LOSO 3 A1 2 3 3 SO S 24 HO ... Lithia alum. NH 4 OS0 3 A1^0 3 3 SQ, 24 HO {^m^ ,, o , (Manganese M -O f S 3 Al2 3 3 S 3 24 H0 1 ma nesia (_ alum. FeO S0 3 A1 2 3 3 S0 8 24 HO Protoiron alum. KO SO 3 Cr 2 3 3 SO 3 24 HO Chrome alum. In addition to these, the sesqiu'oxide of alu- minum may be replaced by other sesquioxides T luioxide of iron, sesquioxide of manganese, yielding scsqui-iron alum, sesquimanganeso alum. Tliese are all formed on the same type as in the last formula. Potas/i Alum. Crystallizes in coloiu-less 8- , sometimes; combination of the cube and l-'-he-.Imn. Ta-te, justringent and SAN Keddens litmus; spec. gra. 1 -72 !, if satiu-ated solution l-(i.l."); soluble in 13-,'> parts water at ; s-2 at 70, in 2-2 at 100, hi 0-OG at 100; IflMB 1S at. -ins water at ML>' ; (lie alu- mina parts with its sulphuric acid at a Avhite ALU heat, alumina and sulphate of potash' being left. It contains, per cent. KO 9*86, Al.,0 3 11-09, S0 3 32-85, HO 46-2. The isomorphism of the oxides of iron, with potash and alumina, causes the presence of these oxides in alum. Their presence may be distinguished by yellow prus- siate of potash, which gives with them a blue colour. The iron is best removed by boiling and repeated crystallization. Roman alum is so called because it comes from Italy ; sometimes, though raivly, in prisms. Alum is used extensive- ly as a mordant for vegetable colours in dyeing, and calico printing. It is used, from its aflinitv for colours, to prepare lakes. It is also mixed, in small proportion, with bread, to render it white, and to raise it. Ammonia alum is, how- ever, preferred for this purpose, as it is nearly decomposed by the temperature of firing. A saturated solution of 2 nitre, 1 common salt, 1 alum, in a boiling state, is used by workers in gold to produce fine colours on gold. The solu- tion dissolves copper, silver, and gold. As a mordant, it is usually employed in. the state of acetate. JJaynesia A him, Pickerlngite. MgOSO 3 , A1 2 3 3 SO 3 , 24 1IO. White fibrous masses with silky lustre. Mmgmem Alum. MnO S0 3 , A1 2 3 3 S0 3 24 HO. Asbestus-like filaments : first examined by Stromeyer, from near Algoa Bay. Iron Alum, Feather Alum. FeO SO 3 Alo 3 3 SO 3 24 HO. Silky, styptic fibres, found in alum shale. Xoda Alum. 8-hedrons, or fibrous masses. Sp. grav. 1-S8. Found native at Mendoza, S. America. SO 3 37-7, A1 2 3 12-4, NaO 7-5, HO 42-4 (T. Thomson). B.B. gives a yellow flame. Ammonia, Alum. 8-hedrons, and fibrous. Sp. grav. 1-5 0. When boiled with caustic potash or soda yields ammonia, and also a green flame, B.B. When sublimed, gives sulphate of ammo- nia. Occurs at Tschermig in Bohemia. The following table will be found useful in discrimi- nating whether an alum be an ammonia or potash alum, a point of considerable importance in the arts, as the value of the salt depends on the amount of alumina present. Ammonia, however, may sometimes interfere with the shade of co- lour, although that species of alum contains most of this earth : Ammonia.. 2-125 3-74 ...Potash 5-899 10- Alumina... 6-5 11-450... 6-5 10-92 4 Sul. acid.20- 35-240... 20- 33-61 25 Water..28-125 49-570...24W. 27- 45-47 100 59-399 100 The quantitative determination of the alumina or sulphuric acid will show to which species a sample may belong, according as the result may approximate to either column, as the two species are often mixed together. Manufacture of Alum. Alum is prepared in ALU this country by tAvo different methods. 1. The simplest mode is to dissolve alumina or pure clay in sulphuric acid, as by either method the first step consists in the production of a tersulphate of alumina. The object of importance in this process is to obtain a form of alumina as free as possible from iron, and likewise if lime is absent entirely, much sulphuric acid will be saved. The porcelain clay of the S. of England answers well for the purpose ; and the shale of the coal strata of Scotland and Lancashire is advantageously used for the same object. The clay or shale is first calcined ; it is found preferable in practice not to reduce the shale to powder, but to use it in small pieces, an inch or so in diameter, as this prevents the formation of a quantity of sludge. It is then heated hi a wooden vessel with sulphu- ric acid, by passing steam through the mixture. Care must be taken, on the application of the heat, to prevent the formation of subsulphates, by which a great loss of acid will be sustained. The character of these subsalts is, that they are insoluble in boiling solutions, and redissolved on cooling. On the evaporation of the liquors to a convenient bulk, a salt of potash or ammonia is added, either sulphate or muriate, as they are sold in commerce, and the alum, on further con- centration and cooling, crystallizes out in fine 8- hedral crystals. To purify them from iron, and other foreign bodies, a second solution and crys- tallization is required. The alum earth of the Freienwalde contains a small quantity of tersul- phate of alumina, with much protosulphate of iron and sulphate of potash. AN' lien these two salts are exposed to the air, a difficultly soluble salt of sulphate of iron with potash is formed, setting free sulphuric acid, which unites with alumina. At Solfatara, in Italy, an impure alum is obtained by dissolving the efflorescence of lavas, evaporating, and recrystallizing. Ahun- stone contains the basic sidphate of potash and alumina, which it is difficult to dissolve. It is broken in small pieces, and calcined at Civita Vecchia in reverberatory furnaces, at Tolfa, in furnaces like lime-kilns, until sulphurous acid be- gins to be perceptibly evolved. It is then moist- ened with water, and exposed, when it acquires a soft consistence. It is then boiled in lead ves- sels, the liquor evaporated at a gentle heat, and then allowed to crystallize in wooden vessels. It partly crystallizes in the state of cubic alum. It is termed Roman alum, of a reddish hue, from an admixture with some sesquioxide of iron, but it is the purest alum in commerce. When dis- solved in water, and heated under 104, it affords cubic alum ; but when the temperature is raised above 110, a basic alum falls, and octahedral alum remains in solution, which crystallizes hi 8- hedrons, if the liquor be decanted and crystallized, but in cubes if it remain in contact with the pre- cipitated cubic alum. It seems to be a basic alum, and is hence preferred in dyeing, &c. from its containing a larger amount of alumina. 2. 33 ALU From Alum Slate. The greatest amount of alum in tliis tumtrv is made from alum slate, a dark- coloured slaty rock often found in connection with roril measures. This substance contains alumina, protoxide of iron, a trace of potash, and dispersed through it bisulphuret of iron, or iron pyrite-. \Vlicn exposed to moist air for a great It n-th of time, the sulphur is oxidi/ed, and is com fried into sulphuric acid. A hair-like salt re-nits, consisting of protosulphate of iron and terration of the sul- phate- of iron and alumina. The calcined ore led ini,, l.ir-v s.|iiare troughs or pits in tlie ground, named Bleep, and the wa-hings ALU of a former steep are run upon it, and the whole allowed to remain at rest for some time. It is then run off into a cistern to settle ; the ore . in the steep being repeatedly digested until it is quite exhausted. The last washings are run into a separate cistern, and instead of being eva- porated (which would be unprofitable, owing to thek weakness), they are kept for the purpose of being run upon fresh portions of calcined ore. The exhausted ore is either removed to the Avaste heap, or is spread in layers alternately with the fresh ore upon the ridges, for the purpose of mo- derating the combustion. The washings are allowed to settle, and then run into a boiler for evaporation. The boilers are large, water-tight cisterns, made of stone, and arched over with brick, sometimes about GO feet in length, 7 feet in breadth, and 4 feet in depth. At one end is a large furnace, and at the opposite end a chimney, and by this means a current is formed, which, sweeping the flame and heated gases over the surface of the liquid, causes speedy evaporation. The loss by evaporation is fre- quently supplied by fresh liquor, and after seve- ral days the contents of the boiler are allowed to rest. This constitutes the second stage. The third stage consists in the addition of the potash or ammonia salt. This is not done at random. Before the liquor is removed from the boiler, it is tested to see how much potash is required for a given quantity. Having ascertained this, the boiler is guaged, and this is done by introducing, a guaging rod at an orifice in the roof of the boiler. The liquor is then run into coolers, or large stone troughs, and the potash or ammonia salt added. After allowing the mother liquor to drain off into another cistern, the ' first alum-' is shovelled out, and placed on a sloping platform, to allow the mother liquor to drain off. The ob- ject of this stage is to form a double salt, which shall crystallize, sulphate of alumina not being capable of crystallizing. Solution, evaporation, andrecrystallizationofthe 'first alum' constitute the fourth stage. The ' first alum ' is washed to remove all the mother liquor thoroughly, and is then introduced into cisterns covered with wooden lids, where it is dissolved in alum washings, and is evaporated by moans of steam. When suffi- ciently evaporated, the lids are put on, the steam shut off, and the liquor allowed to settle for some hours. It is then run into another series of alum coolers, or sunk stone cisterns, like the former, and yields, after several days, tolerably white crystals, called ' second alum.' In the fifth stage, these crystals are drained to free them from the adhering mother liquor, and tliev are subsoquentlv washed with water. It is then introduced into a large and closely-covered lead cistern, named the rnaching pan, where it is entirely, or almost en- tirely, dissolved by means of steam. On cooling, it i- run otf into t lie roachiug casks, which are large wooden vessels. After standing for a suffi- cient length of time in the casks, the casks 34 ALU (which are so constructed as to admit of this) are taken to pieces; the mother liquor is al- lowed to dram off by means of holes bored in the centre of the crystallized alum. When it has become sufficiently dry and hard, it is broken into masses, and is then fit for the market." Alumina. Alumine, argil, sesquioxide of aluminum. A1 2 O 3 , 6-4234, 51-3872, or 6-5, 52. White powder, very infusible, but fusible by the oxyhydrogen blowpipe more easily than silica; prepared by precipitating alum by caustic ammo- nia, washing and igniting ; or by igniting ainmo- niacal alum ; spec. grav. 4-2. Trishydrate of Alumina, 3 A1 2 3 , HO, or dia- spora, is found native. It may be purified from iron by solution in acid, and boiling with caustic potash or soda ; it dissolves, and may be preci- pitated by adding acid and caustic ammonia. Terhydrate or Gibbsite, A1 2 3 3 HO, is found in America. There is also a native B iky d rate. Corundum or anhydrous alumina, with a specific gravity of 3-95, occurs native in granite. Aluminsim. Al = 1-7117, or 1-75, or 13-693. A gray powder ; is prepared by placing alternate layers of potassium or sodium and chloride of aluminum in a platinum crucible, and fastening down the cover with platinum wire. A gentle heat, gradually raised, is sufficient to produce the decomposition. When placed in cold water, chloride of potassium dissolves out, and aluminum remains. When heated in the air, it absorbs oxygen, and is converted into alumina. Characters of Salts of Alumina. 1. Most of the salts of alumina are soluble in water, but few of them are capable of crystallizing. 2. They are usually sweet and astringent, resem- bling salts of yttria and glucina. 3. They are not precipitated by oxalate of ammonia and tar- .taric acid, by which they are distinguished from salts of yttria. 4. Precipitated by caustic am- monia, in concentrated solutions, not in very dilute solutions; slightly soluble in excess, but not so when salts of ammonia are present ; pre- cipitated by alkaline carbonates. 5. Precipitat- ed and redissolved by excess of caustic soda and potash. 6. Sulphohydric acid produces no precipi- tate ; but sulphurets form a white precipitate of .alumina, sulphohydric acid being evolved. 7. Yel- low prussiate of potash, no immediate precipitate, but after some time. 8. Phosphate of ammonia gives a white precipitate. 9. Iodide of potassium, white becoming yellow. 10. Nitrate of cobalt, with a mineral or salt containing alumina, before the blowpipe, gives a fine blue, called Thenard'sblue. Sesquichloride of Aluminum. A yellow waxy crystalline body, boiling at 360, and volatilizing, fuming in the air ; obtained by pass- ing dry chlorine over a mixture of charcoal and alumina. Tersulphate of Alumina. A white mass, or crystalline when native, with a sweetish inky taste, acid reaction, soluble in 2 parts water, AMA scarcely so in alcohol. It consists of water, 48-50; tersulphate of alumina, 51-5; and its formula is A1 2 3 3 S0 3 18 HO. It is the salt formed in the first stage of the production of alum, and is prepared separately, by a patent process, at Newcastle, by acting on calcined porcelain clay, with sulphuric acid. Native sul- phate or alunogen, hair salt or feather alum, contains 35-68 S0 3 14-98 A1 2 3 49-34 HO. The composition is, therefore, the same as the artificial salt. Alum Earth. An earthy slaty substance, in the brown coal series of Germany, France, &c. probably brown coal hi an impure state, contain- ing pyrites and clay. Aluininitc, Hallite. Earthy kidney-shaped masses, occurring at Halle, &c. containing 21-5 S0 3 , 31 A1 2 3 45 HO, impurities 2-. It adheres to the tongue, gives oft' water, and S0 2 when ignited. Alum JTlcal. A name sometimes given to the granular alum which occurs in the manu- facture of that salt. Alumo Calcite. A name which has been given to an impure quartz in the Erzgebirge. Spec. grav. 2-174, Si0 3 86-6, CaO 6-25, A1 2 3 2-23, HO 4-. Alum 1* j rophorus, or Homberg's pyropho- rus. Alum Slate. A bituminous slate of a dark colour, consisting of two species, the dia- mond and gentle slate, the former distinguished by having visible crystals of pyrites, the latter with this substance more equally diffused, with a rhomboidal structure. The mean of analyses of Hurlet alum slate gave me silica, 50-92; alumina, 13-32 ; sulphur, 9-51. Alumstonc, Alunite. White rhombohe- drons, spec. grav. 2-694* consisting of 9-9 KO 42-2 A1 2 O 3 33-1 S0 3 14-8 HO, and also in an amorphous form, as Tolfa rock a crystalline rock produced by the action of sulphxirous acid from volcanoes on trachvtes. It consists of A1 2 O 3 19- KO 4 S0 3 16-5 HO 3- Si0 3 56-5. When made from this rock, alum was called rock alum. Aluuogcii. A synonyme of tersulphate of alumina. Amadou. A tinder prepared from the Bole- tus igniarius, a fungus occurring on trees. It is boiled with water, and beat in a mortar or with a hammer, to soften the matter of which it con- sists. Since the introdution of lucifers it has gone much out of use. Amalgam. A combination of mercury with any other metal. All metals seem to possess such a tendency in a greater or less degree. Some of them are solid, others fluid ; the former being often, crystalline, and the fluid, solutions of a solid amalgam in mercury. The latter is proved by straining through chamois leather^ when the solid amalgam remains on the filter, and mercury passes through, containing but a trace of the alloy. Amalgams are readily formed. 35 AMA with potassium and sodium, either by heat or rimplv l.y bringing them in contact. The pro- hite crystalline solid, when it contains JA per cent, potassium. Amalgams of this description are used for the demonstration of ammonium. .'././/?. "When '.} parts of a saturated solution of nitrate of silver, -with '2 parts of a saturated solution of protonitrate of mercury, are mixed with an amalgam of 7 parts mercury and 1 silver, in 36 hours the whole solution is pervaded with a beautiful crystalline amalgam, resembling in form a tree arbor Dianae, or tree of Diana consisting of 65 per cent, mercury and 35 silver. The amorphous amalgam may be formed by adding mercury to silver which has been precipitated by copper in the fonn of a powder. A native amalgam occurs in 12-he- drons, spec. grav. 13-7 to 14-1 of the same com- position as the above. Gold Amalgam is made by heating together mercury with gold grams or foil ; or by bringing mercury and gold loaf together in the cold state ; or by precipitating a solution of sesquichloride of gold with excess of mercury. When filtered through leather, the excess of mercury passes, and the remaining amalgam consists of 2 gold and 1 mercury. When 1 part gold is heated with 6 mercury, and the mass cooled, an amal- gam in 4-sided prisms is formed. When an amalgam of gold is heated, the mercury is dis- sipated, and the gold remains. This amalgam i ployed in the old process of gilding, and also in the separation of the precious metals. Tin Amalgam is obtained in cubic crystals, consisting of 3 parts mercury and 1 tin, by bringing molted tin in contact with mercury, and even in the cold state. This is used in ing looking-glasses. The glass is laid on a hori/ontal stum- table, and covered with tin foil; mercury is then poured 'on it, and the ex \ry ] tressed out by covering the whole with r and exposing it to pressure. In twenty- four hours the table is inclined at an angle of 5 to in degrees, so as to allow the excess of mercury to run oil*. In some ueeks the amalgam heo>uie> verv hard. To silver glav means of inen-urv : or silver exNts in a. nati\i- state a> an ore, all that is necessary is to triturate 1 part of the ore deprived of rocky matter with 2 AMA \irts of mercury, in a mortar of greater or less limensions. The excess of mercury is poured >ff, the amalgam strained through leather, and . listilled in a retort, the mercury being condensed m water. American Method. To amalgamate sulphuret of silver, chloride of silver, and such poor ores, n America, the earths are triturated with water n a wide shallow cylinder, in a similar manner :o clay at a pottery, and then dried ; from 1 to 3 per cent, of common salt is then added to it r according to its purity, and the whole triturated. Sulphate of copper, hi the proportion of 5 Ib. to 1 Ib. to the hundredweight, (magistral) is next added, and the whole triturated; 6 times as much quicksilver is now added as the ore con- tains, which is added at three separate times, and trituration performed. The amalgam is washed and distilled. In this operation it ap- pears that, in the first instance, chloride of cop- per and sulphate of soda are formed when the common salt and sulphate of copper are added. The latter is speedily changed into chloride of copper and sulphuret of copper, with excess of sulphur, for which a corresponding quantity of sulphuret of silver is changed into chloride of silver. The chloride of copper, dissolved bv the common salt, completes this change, while it passes into protosulphuret of copper. The chlo- ride of silver dissolves in excess of common salt, and is reduced by the mercury, calomel being formed. European Method. The triturated earth, which must contain so much pyrites as to leave 30 per cent, sulphuret of iron when melted in a crucible, is mixed with 10 per cent, common salt. The mixture is roasted in a furnace, by which pro- cess the pyrites loses half its sulphur; a con- siderable part is converted into sulphurous acid, and another portion into sulphuric acid, which acts on the common salt, and expels chlorine, while it becomes sulphurous acid. The chlorine forms chloride of silver. The amalgamation then is performed with the matter taken from the furnace in wooden YI Amalic Acid. C 12 X 2 H r O 8 . A weak acid obtained by acting on caffeine with chlo- rine ; it is analogous to alloxantine ; when oxi- dixed it, yields cholestrophane, homologous with parabanic acid; and when it acts on ammonia, it forms calleomurcxide, homologous with mur- cxide. A mainline. A synonyme of emulsine. AmaiiitiiK . A poisonous principle in some mushrooms iinexamined. AmaiiiK. lkn~oUne. 4 ,ir ]s X.>. White iifi-dlis ; a base from hydrobeiizamide by boilin-- with pota-li. Aiuaroiir. <".;! 1 10 X. Amapliriiaxr. A synonyme of aniline. A >iKM T iiu i.., . J Vrm rytfnm, mrytkrme lif- ter. C ;{4 11 23 Oo . Obtained by boiling erythric acid with water. AMA Amasatinc. Ci C H 3 N0 8 NH 2 HO. A yellow body formed in the action of ammonia on Amausitc. Petrosilex ; a variety of felspar Amazon Stone. A synonyme of green fel- spar, and also of nephrite. Amber. A yellow fossil resin, found on the shores of the Baltic, in connection with beds o: wood coal, especially in the Prussian territories, where it is cast up by the sea, and often includes, buried in its substance, fossil insects. It is also found in Greenland, France, Switzerland, &c. Spec. grav. 1-065 to 1-075. Electrical when nibbed; fusing point 550; insoluble in water; slightly soluble in alcohol and ether ; soluble in sulphuric acid and nitric acid. Potash extracts succinic acid from it. Besides, amber contains a volatile oil and two resins soluble in alcohol and ether. When in fine powder, and digested with ether, 10 per cent, of the amber is dissolved, consisting of succinic acid, balsam, and volatile oil. If the ether solution be mixed with water and distilled, a resin swims on the water in the retort, and when heated, a volatile oil passes with the water, while the water contains succinic acid. The resin consists of two, Avhichmay be separated by cold alcohol of -840, which dis- solves one, and leaves the other. The greater portion of the amber 90 per cent., is insoluble in ether, and is bitumen of amber. Oil of Amber, C-, () 1I 1( ;, (Dopping) is ob- tained by distilling amber, and, therefore, the products are principally those of the bitumen. The first product, when distilled with charcoal, becomes rectified oil of amber; 1 rectified oil dissolved in 24 alcohol of -830, and 90 caustic ammonia of -916, forms Eau de Luce. When amber is treated with fuming nitric acid, a resin is formed (artificial, /////*/) which is soluble in an excess of nitric acid, (! 1: ,11 S N()-, but it is pro- bably a mixture of resins. Amber is used for making varnishes, and for ornamental purposes, tobacco pipe mouthpieces, &c. Ambergris. Awlreine. An ash-gray light soft substance which floats in water ; spec. grav. -78 to -92 ; smell agreeable ; taste insipid ; soluble in alcohol- of -827, and depositing crystals. A concretion apparently formed in the stomach or intestines of the Pliyseter macroceplmlus or spermaceti whale. Ambreine. Colourless needles, or white brilliant insipid solid, with an agreeable smell, which may be removed by keeping the ambreine long in a fused state ; obtained, by digesting am- bergris in hot alcohol; composed of C 83-37 H 13-32 3-31 ; fusing point about 86 ; distils without alteration. Ainbreic Acid. Jellow or white plates or masses with a peculiar odour; reddens lit- mus. Solid at 212, forms salts with bases; ob- tained by heating ambreine with nitric acid, evaporating to dryness, washing with cold Avater, boiling with carbonate of lead, Avashing with AMI cold water to remove any traces of lead, and crystallizing out of alcohol. It is used as a per- fume in the form of tincture. Composition un- certain. Amblygonite. (tx.ts.Zxvs, blunt; >->, an angle). Greenish-white rhombic prisms, lustre A-itreous, semitransparent ; H 6, spec. grav. 3, B.B. easily fusible, becoming a white enamel. Occurs at Chursdorf, near Penig, in Saxony, in granite ; consists of P0 5 35-69, A1 2 O 3 25-69, 9-11. Form. 2 LQ, PO 5 , 4 A1 2 0>3 3 P0 5 . Amethyst. ( a^efluo-of , sober from being used against drunkenness). Violet-coloured quartz or rock crystal, used as a precious stone, owing its colour, probably, to manganese. The oriental amethyst is the Adolet variety of corundum or spinelle. Amianthus. Amiantlioide, Asbestus. A. species of amphibole; spec. graA r . 1*551, melts before the blowpipe into a bead. White Avith a slight shade of green, lustre silky, composed of fine soft flexible threads consisting of silica 43-5 MgO 40-, FeO 2-08, A1 2 O 3 -4, HO 13-8 It occurs in Sardinia, and is used to make incom- bustible cloth. Common asbestus seems to be rather a A~ariety of pyroxene, Amiatite. Hyalite or resinous quartz, con- tains 80 to 92 per cent, of silica, with from 7 to 10 per cent, water. Amide, Amidogen. The term amide is giA-en to a class of substances which contain am- monia deprived of an atom of hydrogen, (NH 2 .) Hence, Avhen they are treated Avith water, soda, or potash, ammonia is disengaged, the third atom of hydrogen derived from water again uniting, so as to form the necessary quantity in ammonia. That such a substance as amide or amidogen exists, may be proved by passing dry ammonia ver heated potassium or sodium. A .green body is formed, and hydrogen is eA r oh-ed, Avhich is re- laced by the metal, NH 2 H -|- Ma, becoming NH 2 Na and H. Some of the most familiar of these amides are potassamide NH 2 K, sodamide S T H 2 Na, oxamide NH 2 C 2 O 2 , benzamide NH 2 C 14: 3 5 O 2 , sulphamide NH 2 S0 2 , carbamide NH 2 JO, platosamine NH 2 Pt. Some of these amides aref- formed by heating organic salts of ammonia, >y Avhich they lose Avater, and leave an amide. Thus oxalate of ammonia, Avhen distilled, gives water and oxamide (NH 3 C 2 03 = NH 2 C 2 Og and HO). It is probable that many animal ubstances, as albumen, belong to this class. Amidochrysammic Acid. C 1 5H 4 N 3 12 . Olive-green needles from chrysaminamide, byHCI. Amidine. A yellow or white substance when hydrous, is the name applied by Guerin ~' r arry to the soluble part of starch obtained by lacing 1 part of potatoe starch in 100 Avater, boil- ng for a quarter of an hour, and then pouring it into a tall glass to alloAV the insoluble matter to sub- ide. Pour off the supernatant liquor, and boil down to the consistence of syrup; pass is hrough a cloth, evaporate below 212 -, the 37 AMI nitrations are to be continued as long as any pre- cipitate appears. The insoluble portion, or outer covering of the starch granules, is called amylin according to this view, and the enclosed soluble portion uiiti(Hn. Varry called the soluble part ainii/ln. and the insoluble am idine; but as these words have the same sound in English, Dr. T. Thomson employed for the latter term imii/liii. According to lla-pail. starch granules are vesi- cular, endowing a soluble portion; but this idea is replaced, by considering starch to consist of layers of a homogeneous body, which is insoluble in cold water, and swells up, without dissolving, into a paste when treated with hot water. Amidou. The continental name for starch. AmidoMiilphuric Acid. Formed by the action of oil of vitriol on starch. Amiduliuc. A modified starch. Amileiie. Amylene. C 10 H 10 . A colourless fluid with a peculiar odour, floating on water, boiling at 320, spec. grav. of vapour 5'061; ob- tained by distilling oil of potatoes or grain with anhydrous phosphoric acid. Ainmelide. C 12 N Hf)0 . A white powder, obtained by dissolving melamine or ammeline in strong oil of vitriol or melam in nitric acid; mix- ing the solution with 2 vols. water, and then with 4 of alcohol. Ammeline. C G N 5 H 5 2 . White powder, a ba-c obtained by super-saturating with acetic acid the alkaline liquid which has deposited melamine. Ammoline. An oily base, occurring in Dip- pel'- animal oil, .smelling of horse-radish; sepa- rated from >e\vral other oils, as animine, olanine, by fractional distillation. Ammoiiialdehydc. A compound of aldehyde and ammonia. Ammonia. A/vV/7 of Tiartshorn, Volatile al- knli. MI : , 2-125 or 17. H vol. H = '1032, $ vol. N = -4880 = -5912. "The experimental spec. grav. bv Dr. Thomson is '5931, 100 cubic inche> vei-hing 1 :.;<):> grains. Colourless gas, odour peculiar, taste caustic, blistering the tongue and mucous membrane of the mouth, irrespirable except in a very dilute stale. Ammonia restores reddened litmus to a blue; makes moistened turmeric paper brown. With a pressure of f. atmo-ph' res it becomes a fluid, or at a tem- perature of -in . The tluid lia> a driiMty of -76. When a taper is dipped in the gas it is extinguished with a greenish-yellow flame, water being formed at tlr : the hydrogen of the ammonia, and nit.o-vn \,<-\\\_ sel free. When electric .^>ark- are pas-ed through ammonia, the gas is resolved into hydrogen and nitrogen. One vol. water 70 vols. ammonia. Ammonia i> obtained in the ga-voiis state by heating equal I' slaked lime and Milphate or muriate ol ammonia, water be'mi: added to form a pa-te, and reeei\cd over mercury, in bottles tilled with mer- curv, and inverted in a mercurial trough. Ji thi- pr006M the lime replaces the ammonia, wliich being volatile is removed by the heat, and a Him AMM salt remains in the retort (CaO, NH 3 S0 3 HO Becomes CaO S0 3 and NH 3 and HO). Ammonia . is produced by the distillation and decomposition of substances containing nitrogen, and hence its origin in the products of the distillation of coal. It is a product of volcanoes (?) and exists in. minute quantities in the atmosphere. It is Formed in the decomposition of prussic acid, and of many cyanogen compounds ; during the solu- tion of tin and iron in nitric acid ; in the reduc- tion of platinum out of its solution in aqua regia 7 platinum black by caustic alkali, in spirit ; in the decomposition of sulphohydric acid by nitric acid; by the action of iron filings on air and water ; occurs along with boracic acid in the hot springs which supply that acid in Tuscany and Tibet. Liquid Ammonia, Caustic Ammonia, fyirits of Hartshorn. Ammonia is absorbed most abun- dantly by water. If a small portion of water be admitted to a jar full of ammonia, over mercury, the gas is absorbed almost explosively. A current of ammonia when passed through G cubic inches of water, is absorbed to the extent of 780 times the volume of the water, while the bulk of the water increases to 10 cubic inches ; hence 1 cubic inch of water absorbs, according to this experi- ment, 468 of ammonia. The solution is colour - 5, precipitates many metallic solutions, and has the characters of the gas ; its specific gravity is less than that of water ; the boiling point depends on the amount of water, falling according to the quantity of ammonia contained in the solution. The specific gravity of mixtures of ammonia and water is a mean of the two ingredients. A strong solution of ammonia when cooled to 36 or 40 solidifies in the form of silky needles. When heated it parts with its ammonia below 212, and thus the gas may be conveniently made from the liquid ammonia of commerce. To prepare it, 1 part of sal ammoniac or sulphate of ammonia is to be introduced into a retort, and upon it is poured, by means of a funnel, 1 part of slaked lime, converted into the consistence of a thin paste with water. The beak of the retort is then connected with a scries of Wolfe's bottles, q. v., containing water which is to be. impregnated with the gas to any required strength. By de- termining the specific gravity of the solution, the amount of ammonia contained in it may be as- certained. The following table is one of the best: Spec. Grav. Gas per ct. Spec. Grav. Gas per ct. 8720 32-5 9435 14-53 8875 29-2fi 9476 13-46 9000 26-00 9513 12-40 9064 25-87 9545 11-56. 916G 22-07 9573 10-82 9256 19-54 9699 10-17 9826 17-52 9619 9-60 9385 15-88 9692 8-50 Uses. In medicine, caustic ammonia is some- AMM times used as a blistering agent, or as a rubefacient, mixed with oil (1 part ammonia, and 2 parts oil),for sore throats, under the name of volatile oliniment. It is used as an antidote to prussic acid, by inhala- tion ; as smelling salts, when poured on a spunge, in a bottle, and kept close, or by mixing 1 part of sal ammoniac with 2 parts of lime, moistened with water, in a close-stoppered bottle. For the manufacture of alum, ammonia is largely em- ployed ; it is used as a manure in union with acids. In the laboratory it is an indispensable agent for the separation of metallic oxides, &c. Estimation. Ammonia is estimated by precipitat- ing the muriate by bichloride of platinum in a minimum of water, evaporating to dryness at 212 in a water bath, treating the residue with 1 part of ether and 2 of alcohol, throwing on a small weighed filter, drying at 212, and weighing. The composition of this salt is NH 3 II Cl -f- TtCl 2 , 27-891 grs. of which contain 2-125 grs. of am- monia, and 12-33 metallic platinum. The salt, when burned, leaves platinum, from which the ammonia may likewise be calculated. Salts of Ammonia. Ammonia possesses the characters of an alkali or base, and forms a series of interesting and important salts. The oxygen acid salts contain at least 1 atom of water ; some of them are volatile, while others are decomposed at a red heat, as phosphate of ammonia. Most of them, when boiled, become acid by loss of ammonia. Characters. 1. Salts of ammonia are generally soluble in water. 2. When caustic potash or soda is added to a salt of ammonia, the odour of ammonia is evolved, and moistened turmeric paper is rendered brown. 3. The ad- dition of a salt of magnesia and phosphate of soda to a salt of ammonia is followed by a crystalline precipitation. 4. Ammoniacal salts, with the exception of the phosphate and borate, are expelled by heat. 5. They are precipitated yellow by bichloride of platinum. Chlorohydride of Ammonia, Sal Ammoniac, Chloride of Ammonium, Muriate of Ammonia. NH 3 HC1 or NH 4 Cl. 8-hedrons cubes or 24- hedrons, or in feathery crystals, or in cubes, when sublimed. Sp. grav. 1-45 to 1-53. Tun- gent, saline taste; fixed at the usual temperatures, but is volatilized by heat, and then has the effect of decomposing many salts. It contains 31-98 per cent, ammonia. It is formed on the large scale by saturating ammoniacal liquor of the gas works with muriatic acid, evaporating in lead vessels, running the liquor into wooden coolers, drying the salt in open stoves, and then subliming in subliming pots, which are formed of iron, with a large dome. After some days the sublimation is complete. Bisulpliohydride of Ammonia, Jlydrosulphuret of Ammonia. NH 3 2 SH. Colourless foliated crystals, with an alkaline reaction, and a strong smell of ammonia ; usually, however, only known in the state of solution, and extensively employed as one of the most valuable chemical reagents for AMM passing a current of sulphohydric acid through caustic ammonia, until a salt of magnesia is no longer precipitated by it. The addition of some flowers of sulphur ensures the presence of a suffi- cient amount of that body to produce the neces- sary reactions, particularly with tin. It must be kept in a closely-stoppered bottle, full of the fluid, otherwise air will gradually change it into hyposulphite of ammonia. It requires, therefore, to be frequently renewed. Sulphate of Ammonia, (Glauber, 1640 ?) Secret Sal Ammoniac, Vitriolated Ammoniac. Muscaynin (when native) NH 3 S0 3 HO 8-28, 4-sided prism with square base; spec. grav. 2-; sharp bitter taste ; soluble in 2 parts of cold, and 1 of boiling water ; melts at 284 ; decom- poses at 536. Deliquesces slowly in air. Formed by saturating carbonate of ammonia with sul- phuric acid, and manufactured on the large scale for agricultural and other purposes, as for alum making, by saturating gas liquor or urine with oil of vitriol. There are two modes of making sulphate of ammonia from the crude ammouiacal liquor from the gas works : one consists in simply saturating the liquor with sulphuric acid, and evaporating the solution in either cast iron boilers, by a fire, or hi a leaden vessel, by steam, till it has a spec. grav. of 1-3, when it is run out into a vessel lined with lead, and crystallized. The other is to distil the ammoniacal liquor in a close boiler, and to conduct the products into a dilute solution of sulphuric acid, or acid of a spec. grav. of 1-7 ; in the latter case, the sulphate of ammo- nia precipitates, or, as the workmen call it, " drops " from the saturated solution, and is "fished" out by a copper ladle, and is called " fished salt." The latter process has been further improved by certain patents, on the principle of CofFey's still, whereby cast iron columns, 30 feet in height, and 4 feet in diameter, and filled with plates 4 inches apart, and perforated with holes to admit of passage both ways, have been to a small extent adopted. The crude gas liquor, from a cis- tern, flows in at the top, while high pressure steam enters at the bottom. The steam, on its upward passage, carries with it the carbonate and sulphuret of ammonia, and escapes at the top by an exit pipe into a vessel containing sulphuric acid, diluted with twice its volume of water. The distillation is continued till the sulphuric acid is saturated, when it is syphoned into a vessel lined with lead, called the " evaporating basin," and evaporated by steam till the sulphuret of ammo- nia drops, and is then fished out as before noticed, and allowed to drain till it is ready for being stored, or put into casks, and constitutes commercial sulphate of ammonia. It not un- frequently happens that some makers mix it either with sulphate of soda, or chloride of sodium, for the purpose of adulterating it. There exists also a bihydrate, NH 3 S0 3 2HO, which loses its additional water at a gentle heat. Bisulphate.NH 3 2S0 3 2 HO (?) Thin the detection of metals, &c. It is prepared by i rhomboidal scales ; acid and bitter taste. Ob- 39 AXM tained by adding to the preceding sulphuric acid, and crystallizing. Anhydrous sulphuric acid unites with ammonia, and forms an an- hydrous sulphite (NII : . SO ; 0, or ** NIL, HO), a white amorphous powder, dL-M~lving "in 1 parts of water, and giving out, when hnfeed, sulphurqus' acid, ammonia, and sulphate of ammonia, leaving sulphate of ammo- nia. Chloride of barium precipitates only half ; present, and bichloride of pla- tinum onlv half the. ammonia, while lime, when niblM.il with it, yields no smell of ammonia. When the anhydrous sulphate is dissolved and cvap <>n; ;t be precipitated in vaeuo. It appears to consist of the common sulphate, with the an- hydrous sulphate. j\V,'/v//-. Ml ;: NO., HO 10, 80. Nitrum semivolatile, nitruinjlcunnunt. 6-sided colourless prisms terminated by (i-sided pyramids. Ob- bv neutralizing carbonate of ammonia by nitric add. and evaporating. Spec. grav. 1-707. (Koj ip. ) Taste aeri< I bitter ; deliquescent. Begins to fuse at 133, and is quite fluid at 220. At 302 gives out white fumes ; at 460 gives out protoxide of nitrogen, and is entirely decomposed at 480 into NO and HO. (Davy.) Dissolves in 2 parts cold, part boiling water. (Fourcroy.) Produces great cold in dissolving. Most metals are oxidized when heated with the nitrate, as lead, zinc, antimony, bismuth, nickel, copper, and silver but not arsenic, iron, mercury, and tin. X it rate of annn< >nia and salammoniac in fu- iissolve gold, platinum, rhodium, and in- dium, especially with addition of a small quan- chl< irate or nitrate of potash. (Emmet.) In : with spongy platinum the nitrate decom- < . The nitrate is used in the pre- paration of protoxide of nitrogen, and for burning away tin- last traces of carbon in organic an. ywcarbonate of Ammonia. 2 NHs 3 COo 211". \\-l >. Sal ,-nlntUe, commercial carbonate <]f amai' wlta of hartshorn. Hard cakes, formed bv distilling 1^ part car- of lime or chalk, with 4 parts of sulphate if ammonia, in a clay or iron retort. : ;it lir.-t is coloured, but may be puri- i-tillation. Tin- first products of the .re water and ammonia; the carbonate then ]);ts>cs over and condenses in white cry-talline cru.-ts; when this salt is treated with a small portion of cold water, a bicarbonate 'inn 'iiia, in granular crystals, remains, -lived. (Scanlan.) lienee this mav be viewed as its composition 110 -f Ml :; -_M (>, 110 -2 Mi, lie commercial sail , ilh hyposulphite of ammonia, sul- liiionia, and sal ammoniac, lime, and chloride i if calcium. !&. NH 8 2C0 2 2HO, C-bidwl: AMM h aving no smell, and less taste than the sesquicarbo- nate ; soluble in 8 parts cold water. Obtained by passing a current of carbonic acid through a solu- tion of the sesquicarbonate, and crystallizing in va- cuo ; or by exposing the commercial salt in powder to an atmosphere of carbonic acid; or by washing the same salt in powder with alcohol of sp. grav. 821. This salt is isomorphous with bicarbonate of potash; it volatilizes slowly in the air, giving out a slight odour of ammonia. The bicarbonate maybe procured with 2i atoms of water, by digest- ing the sesquicarbonate with boiling water, suffi- cient to dissolve it in a strong flask, kept close : on cooling, the salt is left. It is obtained with 3 atoms of water, when the salt 4 NHg 5O 2 4 HO is distilled. When the terhydrated bicarbonate is further distilled, it yields the salt 4 NH 3 7 C0 2 12 HO. (Rose.) Carbamide. H"H"2 CO, (flegnault.) Isomeric with urea. Obtained by passing dry ammonia into flasks full of chlorocarbonic acid (CO Cl) ; a mixture of salammoniac and carbamide results, which are difficult to separate completely. Car- bamide is soluble in weak alcohol and in water ; it does not precipitate lime or barytes water. Strong acids convert it into ammonia. It forms no precipitate with nitric acid as urea does. Diphosphate. Neutral phosphate. 2 ^NH-PO-; 3HO 16'5. Large colourless transparent crys- tals of oblique rhombic prisms. Taste saline and cooling, with impression of bitterness. Alka- line reaction; soluble in 4 parts cold water; insoluble in alcohol. Effloresces in the air, and loses ammonia. Obtained by adding caustic ammonia to the solution of the superphosphate of lime, obtained from bones, filtering off" the phos- phate of lime, evaporating and crystallizing. When heated it fuses, loses its ammonia, and is converted into the monophosphate of water (HO P0 5 ), or pyrophosphoric acid. By boiling, it is changed also into the monophosphate, formerly termed the acid or blphosphate NH3 PO$ 3 HO 14-5. 8-hedrons, with square bases, having commonly the base prolonged into a square prism. Obtained by adding to the common phosphate phosphoric aeid until litmus is reddened, or by adding the acid in excess to liquid ammonia till the solution does not precipitate chloride of barium. Crystals transparent, undergoing no change in the, air. Tnsie acid, cooling, saline. By heat, monophosphate of water is left. Pre- cipitates nitrate of silver white. The phosphates of ammonia ..have been recommended to impreg- nate cloth, to render it less combustible. Cloth, immersed in a solution of these salts, if exposed to ignition, would have, the ammonia expelled, and the hydrous acid deposited on the libre,' which would be carbon i/ed, but not inflamed. X<-iilriil Ari')t'mt<>. 1' NIL, HO, AsO- 2 HO, L'lH -_>.">. Oblique rhomboidal prisms exactly resem- bling phosphate of ammonia. ( >h tail led bv adding ammonia io a concentrated solution of arsenic aeid till a precipitate appears. This precipitate is dis- : by aid of lie; t, and the liquid is set aside A MM to crystallize. Reaction to litmiis alkaline, but when exposed to the air half of the ammonia is lost, and its action is acid. When heated, it evolves ammonia, water, and lastly arsenic sub- limes, and nitrogen. Binarseniate, Acid arseniate, NH 8 2 HO AsO 5 HO 20-. S-hedrons, with square bases (2d system), the base being drawn out generally, as with biphosphate of am- monia, into a 4-sided square prism. Reaction, acid ; obtained by adding an atom of arsenic acid to the neutral salt. Arsenite of Ammonia can only be obtained in solution ; which, when eva- porated, leaves 8-hedrons of arsenious acid. Antimonite (NH 3 SbO 4 HO?), by digesting the hydrous acid in ammonia. It only exists in solution, and deposits by heat a white biautuno- nite. Oxalate of Ammonia. NH 3 C 2 O 3 2 HO S-875; 71; needles and right rhombic prisms, the faces of which are inclined at angles of 104-7 ; the longitudinal edges of the prisms are often re- placed by tangent planes, and the angle at the base by one or two small faces. Bitter and unpleasant. Sp. grav. 1-582. 100 water dissolve 4|; in- soluble in alcohol. By heat it loses 2 atoms water. At 428 the salt is converted into car- bonic oxide and carbonate of ammonia. When more strongly heated it yields a trace of carbon, carbonic oxide, carbonic acid, ammonia, water, oxamide (NH 2 C2-O-2), and also oxamic acid. Wlien the solution is heated for some time it loses ammonia and becomes acid. This salt is L very important reagent in the detection and estimation of lime, which it precipitates entirely from hot neutral or alkaline solutions ; the preci- pitate consists of CaO C 2 3 2 HO, when dried a.t 212; and by ignition loses carbonic oxide, and is converted into carbonate of lime (CaO C0 2 ), every G^ grs. of which contain 3i of lime. It is prepared by saturating a cold solution of oxalic acid with carbonate of ammonia. Binoxalate of Ammonia. NH 3 2 C 2 S 2 HO. 8-hedrons, or rectangular flat 4-sided prisms; reaction acid. Obtained by adding an additional atom of oxalic acid to a solution of oxalate of ammonia, or by adding a mineral acid. When heated, it yields oxamic acid (NH 2 C 4 0-;). For Acetate of Ammonia, see ACETIC ACID. Theories of Ammonia. 1. Ammonia Theory. By this view ammonia is considered as a gas, and combines directly with acids. With S0 3 it forms NH 3 S0 3 -{- HO. With Cl it forms sal am- moniac, NH 3 Cl H. 2. Ammonium Theory. If we rub in a mortar a small portion of sodium, with some mercury (filtered through leather or paper) until an amalgam is formed, and then drop it into a strong solution of sal ammoniac in a, tube, the amalgam swells and rises up in the tube to an extraordinary height. This increase of volume is supposed to be owing to the union of ammonium (NH 4 ) with the mercury. Xa -j- Hg, and NH 4 -}-Cl becoming. Na Cl and Hg XH 4 . According to this view, the ammoniacal salts are no longer compounds of the gas with an acid, AMP but of acids with the aid of a metal ; sulphate of ammonia being NH 4 OS0 3 . 3. Amide Theory. According to this theory ammonia is an amide of hydrogen (H -{- NH 2 ). This is proved by passing dry ammonia over potassium in a tube at a red heat ; a green substance is formed called potassa- mide (KNH 2 ), and hydrogen is liberated. Sul- phate of ammonia is, upon this view. HNHo HO, SO 3 . Ammonidc, Ammoniuret. A basic double salt of ammonia. Ammoniac Gum. A gum resin ; the dried juice of the Dorema Armeniacum, from Persia. Spec. grav. 1-207; it contains 70 per cent, of resin, which fuses at 130, and is very soluble in alcohol. This gum is used in medicine as an antispasmodic. Ammonium, Ammonyle, Hydramide. NH 4 . The hypothetic radical of ammoniacal salts, but which has not been isolated. It is only known in union with mercury, as the ammoniacal amal- gam. This amalgam may be formed by acting on mercury placed in a depression of a cake of sal ammoniac with a very powerful galvanic battery, or by adding to a saturated solution of sal ammo- niac, in a tube, an amalgam of mercury with sodium, containing a tenth of sodium. Amoibitc. Nickel glance. An ore of nickel, consisting of S 14, As 45*34, Ni 37-34, Fe 2-50, Pb 0-82, Co trace. Aiuomum. Granum paradisi, grains of paradise. The fruit of a species of ginger used hi India with betel to promote digestion. A mulct it- Acid, or allantome. Amorphous. (Privative , destitute of /"?//t< ; compact amphibole, cor- neine; black amphibole is hornblende; green amphibole is ttctinote. Other synonymes are (iiniir.//f/l/ite,keratoj>hyllite, foto&fe, pargastie, smaraffdite, asbestus, amian- thus, rapkiKte, Oblique rhombic prisms, with angles of 130 15, 124 Spec. grav. 2-9257 to :J -18. H. 4.75. Very frangible, lustre vitreous. J '..!'.. 1'u scs into a semitrausparent glass, with borax and soda into a transparent glass, opaline gla>s with salt of ])hosi)liorus. This mineral all'ords a:i example of isomorphism in a striking degree. We may take hornblende as an average of "n- composition. SiO 3 42-24, MgO 13-74, CaO 12-24, 13-92, FeO 16-26, MnO '33. la. 4RO,3SiO3. Found in primary rocks. Amphibolitcs. Trap rocks, with a basis of amphibole. Amphitlc Halts, are those which are formed of a binary acid and a binary base, as sul- phate of soda (NaO 803), to distinguish them from haloid or binary salts, as common salt (Nad). These terms have never been applied in this coin itry . Amphigeue, or Leucite. Amphodclitc. A mineral, from Lojo, in Finland, having nearly the crystalline form of felspar, a spec. grav. of 2-763, and consisting of silica i.Vs. ,\1., < ) 35-45, CaO 10-15, MgO 5 ; 0o, FeO 1-7. Water and loss 1-85. Amygdalic Acid. H HO. Soft crystalline ma-s when prepared in the cold state, gummy when hot. Obtained by boiling amygdaline with dilute solutions of caus- tic alkalie.> ; ammonia is evolved, and amygdalate ! . When harytes is used, the barytes sal; is decomposed by sulphuric acid. Insoluble in alcohol, soluble in water. Tins acid may lie i as a compound of oil of bitter almonds, anhydrous formic acid, and sugar. Aiuyi,hliiM. C. )0 NH 27 22 . Pearly without water, when crystal li/cd from al- cohol ; colourless prisms when crystallized from : il- solution in water is slightly bitter; -ohible in water and alcohol, insoluble in filler; distilled witli nitric acid, it is converted into pru-sic acid, oil of bitter almonds, formic, and ben/oic aciu- : it is procured from hitter almonds, by pounding and pressing them between 1 plates of iron, to free them from the fat oil. The residue is then boiled twice witli alco- hol ,,r -sin. th,. solution lilt. -red through a clean cloth, and the cake pressed. On .standing some -eparate, but the greater por- AMY tion remains in solution. The liquid is distilled to the consistence of syrup. This is fermented with yeast to remove sugar, water being added; it is then 'filtered, evaporated, and again treated with alcohol of -810; the amygdaline falls. It is purified from fat oil by frequent pressure, if necessary, and crystallization from alcohol. Amyg- daline, when brought in contact with emulsine, is decomposed into oil of bitter almonds. This oil does not exist in the almonds, the two principles being prevented from acting on each other by the fat oil contained in the almonds. Amygdaloid. A species of trap rock, so named from its containing almond-shaped cavi- ties filled with crystals. It consists of silica 50- A1 2 3 18-5, CO 3- FeO 16-75, HO 5- NaO 4- (Kennedy). Amyle. Ayl. C 10 H n . An oil boiling at 311. Obtained by acting on iodide of amylo by zinc. Amyle, Hydrous Oxide of. Ami/lie alcohol, oil of grain, fusel oil, oil of whisky, oil of potatoes. C 10 H n OHO. A colourless oil, boiling at 269, and crystallizing at -4. Peculiar pene- trating odour, affecting the chesty burns with a white flame, and is poisonous. Spec. grav. -812, of vapour 3-147. This oil comes over in the distillation of the fermented infusion of barley r oats, and potatoes, mixed with alcohol and wa- ter, and is purified by washing it with water, and distilling over chloride of calcium. The valerate of amyle, formed by distilling this oil with sulphuric acid and bichromate of potash, and the acetate with the same materials, and the addition of an acetate, is employed to flavour confections and British brandy, under the name of oil of pears, &c. The oxide of amyle, or amylic ether, is obtained by acting on chloride of amyle with a solution of potash in alcohol, while the chloride is formed by distilling grain oil with chloride of phosphorus. The sulphate of amyle and water, or sulphamylic acid, is produced by boiling the oil with sulphuric acid. Aiuylcue. Valeri'/ie. C ]0 H 10 . See AMILENE, Aniylaininc. C 10 H 13 N or NH 2 Ayl. Amide of amijle, a fluid; boiling point 203. Spec. grav. -7503. A base with the smell of ammonia. Obtained by treating cyanate or cy- anurate of amyle, or amyle-urea, with potash. Amylate. A compound of starch with a base, Amyle-Urca. C 12 II 14 N0 2 . Obtained by acting on sulphate of amylamiue with cy- anate of potash. Amy lie Acid. Vleri;i the ammonia (XII 3 ) is, then fore, ses- >le of iron. Process when the Precipitate is White. Sup- g the precipitate to be of an unmixed white . we observe from the first table that it may be one or more of twelve bodies, and besides, Avheu we have added an excess of ammonia (NH 3 ), that tbere may be a base held in solution by that reagent. The first step then is to iilter the liquid ; the precipitate remains on the filter, and the am- moniacal liquor passes through. We saturate tin- latter with a few drops of acid, and then add ammonia drop by drop, and watch carefully if any precipitation takes place before an excess is added, j'f a precipitate a] (pears and is again dis- solved, the. substance belongs to Class III. If no precipitate appears, some of the substances in- cluded under Cla-s 11. may !> present, which are therefore in be tested 1 or by the appropriate re- ts. Dilute! chlorohydric acid is now to be poured on the iilter, when the precipitate will ,!i in solution. Caustic soda is to be add-- 1 the solution of the precipitates, and the liquid filtered. The filtered liquor is to be saturated with chlorohydric acid (IIC1), anc Miiia t Ml;;) added. 1C a precipitate appears it must I e. i -ne or mun- of the following substances Alumina, Lead protoxide, Tin pr : ANA as these are the only -white hydrous oxides which are soluble in caustic alkalies. To distinguish these, we find by Table III. that lead and tin are precipitated by Sulphohydric acid (SH), while alumina and glucina are not affected. We therefore dissolve the precipitate in chlorohydric acid (HC1), and pass a current of sulphohydric acid (SH) through the solution. If a black pre- cipitate appears, it may consist of both lead and "in. The precipitate is thrown on a filter, and washed with sulphohydride of ammonia. If tin is resent it will be dissolved, and pass through the filter, while the lead will remain as a black pre- cipitate. To detect the tin the filtered liquor is boiled with chlorohydric acid (HC1) till sulpho- hydric acid (SH) is driven off, and the distin- guishing tests for tin employed. The sulphide of lead on the filter is dissolved in chlorohydric acid (HC1), and tested with sulphuric acid (S0 3 ) and chromate of potash. If alumina and glucina are present, they will remain dissolved in the liquid through which the SH has been passed. The gas is to be boiled away, and carbonate of ammonia added in excess. If alumina is present it will remain undissolved, while the glucina will be dissolved by the alkali. The liquid is there- fore to be filtered, the solution which passes through neutralized by chlorohydric acid (HC1), and ammonia (NH 3 ) added. If glucina is pre- sent it will fall. The siibstances which may re- main on the filter, which are insoluble in caustic soda, are the following : Magnesia, Zirconia, Tttria, Titaniate, Cerium oxides, Bismuth, Lantana, Mercury oxide. The first six are not precipitated by sulphohydrid acid (SH), while the two last are precipitated by that gas, as appears by Table III. By trans- mitting a stream of Sulphohydric acid (SH) through the solution, therefore, these two metals will be precipitated. After filtration, by adding sulphohydride of ammonia (NH 3 SH), according to Table IV., an}- antimony detained will be dis- solved, and may be precipitated from its solution by boiling the liquor and passing Sulphohydric acid (SH) through it. An orange precipitate will fall. The bismuth and mercury may be separated by evaporating to dryness, dissolving the residue in nitric acid (N< )-), and adding water, the whitetrisnitrate of bismuth will precipitate as a white powder, while, after filtration the mercury may be thrown down as yellow hydrate with caustic soda, or as iodide, by means of iodide of potas- sium, in the form of a beautiful red powder. The precipitate on the filter is dis*>lvrd in chlorohydric acid (HC1), the solution neutralized, and sulphohydride of ammonia (N11 3 SH) added. Magnesia, if present, will remain in solution, while the titanic acid and earths will be thrown down in the form of bulky white precipitates. After filtration the magnesia may be precipitated by phosphate of soda and carbonate of ammo- 44 ANA iiia. The earths remaining on the filter are now to be distinguished. The oxides of cerium, Lmtaiium, zirconium, and yttrium, are first separated by means of a saturated solution of sulphate of potash ; a double salt is formed, in- soluble in the solution. The double salt of zir- conia is nearly insoluble in water and acids, while those of the other two earths can be dissolved in much water. Zirconia, after ignition, is insoluble in acids, sulphuric acid excepted, while yttria is soluble in the same circumstances. Titanic acid is easily distinguished by its being precipitated by boiling, and when precipitated, by its insolu- bility in chlorohydric acid. Proceeding when the Precipitate is Coloured. By acting on the precipitate with caustic soda we remove sesquioxide of chromium and oxide of indium, which are both soluble in that reagent. These may be separated from each other by sul- phohydride of ammonia (NH 3 SH), which throws down iridium, and redissolves it, but not sesqui- oxide of chromium. The remaining oxides may then be divided into those which are precipitated ANA by sulphohydric acid (SH), and those which are not acted on by that gas. Precipitated by SH. Not precipitated. Antimony oxide, Orange. The earths. Mercury oxides, Black. Uranium oxides. Bismuth oxide, Black. Manganese oxides. Molybdenum oxides, Brown. Vanadium oxides. Lead oxide, Black. Iron protoxide. Osmium oxide, Yellow. Iron peroxide (S falls > Tin oxide, Brown. Platinum oxide, Brown. Rhodium oxide, Brown. Iridium oxide, Brown. Palladium oxide, Black. The precipitate is to be washed by decantation r and then treated with an excess of sulphohydrido of ammonia (NH 3 SH). The following will be the result : Insoluble in NII^SH. Mercury oxides. Bismuth oxide. Lead Rhodium Palladium Solu Antimony oxide. Molybdenum oxide. Tin protoxide. Platinum Iridium Osmium These are then to be tested for by the distin- guishing tests. TESTS FOR ACIDS. Adds of Common Occurrence. Sulphuric, SO* NITRATE OF SILVER. AgONOo. Insoluble in cold Nitric Acid. O. CHLORIDE OF BARITTM. BaCL White powder insol in NO** Nitric ... NO. O. (BaO S0 3 ). O. Chlorohydric, (Muriatic,) lodohydric, HC1 HI White curdy, (AgCl.) WJiitish-yellow, insol.in NH 3 0. O. Cyanohydric, (Prussic,) ... HCy CO* insol. in cold N0 5 (Agl.) White curdy, sol. in boiling N0 5 (Ag Cy.) Smell of prussic acid. Soluble in Nitric Acid. \VJttte curdv, sol. with effer- O, Wliite, sol. with effervescence PO- vescence in N0 5 (AgO COo). Whits, sol. without efferves- in NO 5 (BaO C0 2 ). White sol without efferves- (Bibasic phosphoric acid.) Oxalic CoO* cence in NO 5 (2 AgO PO,). White, sol. in NO-. cence in N0 5 (2 BaO P0 5 ). O. free White neut Antimonic, SbO 3 White do. White. SOo White. White, sol. in HC1 Hyposulphurous, SO 9 S White, then ' O. H vposulphuric, JS0 2 0. 0. (S0 3 JC 4 H 3 0. 0. Tartaric, ( O 3 White. White. Phosphoric, (Tribasic,) Arseniou White, with NHg in time. AsO 5 As0 3 ). Brown. White, sol. in N0 5 . CrO 3 Brown. Yellow, sol. in NO 3 . Sulphohydric. SH Black, sol. in N0 5 , with O. evol. of SH. ANA Jtisti/if/uishing Tests for Acids. Nitric acid is distinguished by dropping in a of copperas and adding sulphuric acid ; if the nitric acid (N0 5 ) is combined. dark ch;iracteri>tic colour is produced. M ) > and beat, the odour of NOg. O.r/ilii- acid precipitates a solution of sulphate; of lime. Antimonic and Antiinonimift acids, an orange precipitate by sulphohydric acid, SH. Jodtihydric acid. The precipitate with nitrate i.'' silver (AgO NOs) is scarcely soluble in am- ?iiouia (MI ; >)i while most silver salts are quite soluble. Starch and commercial nitric acid give a blue. Yellow with nitrate of lead (PbO NO.-;). ////< trie acid. Adda few drops of solu- tion ( ,f decomposing sulphate of iron, then 2 drops* of ammonia (NH 3 ), then chlorohydric acid (HC1) till the precipitate appears like to Prussian blue. l-'or other tests, see HYDROCYANIC ACID. Chromic add becomes green by sulphohydric -11), yellow by nitrate of lead (PbO NO.-,). Arsenic and Arw.nioiis acid* give a yellow pre- cipitate by sulphohydric acid (SH). id. Smell of vinegar when heated with .sulphuric acid (S0 3 ). Phosphoric acid, when ignited, gives white with nitrate of silver (AgO NO,-,)- ^iiljilturoiiit arid, Avith sulphuric acid (S0 3 ) and inell of burning sulphur. Hypostdphttrous acid with sulphuric acid (S0 3 ), sub ilnir (S) falls, and sulphurous acid ($02) l!>!l>(innlj>ltni'ic (tcid, with chlorohydric acid (II Cl), sulphurous acid (SOo) evolved, and sul- phuric acid (S0 3 ) in solution. Ttt/i/iric acid. }\'hite with chloride of calcium lime water (CaO) and potash (KO). re of the Actions in the preceding and followiny Tahlt-x. id Taltle the precipitates fonned arc nations of the acid examined, with the base . a new insoluble salt being formed. In t Table of liases all. the precipitates pro- . except those of mercury and !e of platinum, palladium, and gold. When ANA 8 (NH 3 SH) becoming A1 2 O 3 and 3 (NH 3 S0 3 ) with SH evolved, and chromium as green oxide. Similar diagrams should be employed as in the case of acids. Note. When bases are dissolved in organic acids, the effect of reagents is often interfered with, and the expected precipitate does not fall. A few dmps of chlorohydric aczW(HCl) are then required. TABLE I. TESTS FOR BASES. Caiistic Ammonia, (NH 3 ). add(;d ts. calomel a blackish Is, 2(Hg.,Cl) and -2NII.. becoming XII,, and 'N1I.,HC1. When XH n '.--1 to con-osive >iil)limate ('Hg(T) -trhite pre- (IlgCl IlgNILj. When MI... is I on bichloride of platinum, tlie yellow am- chlovide of platinum is formed (Mfo HC1 . Animonia forms Avitli chloride of gold roll!. In the 'Jd Talile all the pre- <-;pita!es \vith Mtda arc oxides, except with anti- . when a salt is formed. 1'otash forms with a ciinipound salt ( K('l I'M.'IA In the 3d M'ablc SI I forms sulphides, except with chromic hen tli- green o.xidc apjiear.-. In the 4th Table, the earth.-, fall us oxides, A1 2 3 3 S0 3 and FIRST CLASS. Precipitated and not JRedissolved. f Magnesia, y . j Alumina, ^5 ! Clucina, '% j Yttria, \ Cerium oxides, [ Zirconia, Antimony oxide, Titanic acid, with oxide > WHITE. in HC1. Lead oxide, except or- ganized salts, Tin protoxide, Bismuth oxide, Mercury oxide, Mercury suboxide, BLACK. Chromium oxide, GKEEN. Uranium oxide, BROWX. peroxide, YELLOW. Molybdenum protoxide, BROWN. 5 7 YELLOW. (WHITE, 1 Manganese protoxide, -? then ( BROWN. . u^ *\ BROWN. Osmium oxide, Vanadium peroxide, ) Iron protoxide, GREEN. sesquioxide, BROWNISH-RED. Platinum protoxide, GREEN. With Cl. ,v ,, ,>:,!,. "v With Cl. YELLOAV. Jlhodhnn peroxide, ) Iridii'.ni (>.'/, BLUE. L After boiling. SKCOXD CLASS. Not Precipitated. f Ammonia. Alkalies, J J. >ot . a8h - j Soda. \_Lithia. ^ Lime. Alkaline Ivirths, - With " Antimonic acid, ) HC1. Tellurium oxide, with HC1. Zinc oxide, }- WHITE. Cadmium oxide, Tin peroxide, Nickel oxide, GREEN. Precipitated, and in Excess Dissolved. Antimony oxide, "] Antimonious acid, > Antimonic acid, j mth K0 Tellurium oxide, Columbic acid, Alumina, J> WHITE. Cobalt oxide, ) Copper oxide, $ JJLUE> Silver oxide, (neut.) BROWN. Palladium protoxide, REDDISH- WHITE. Wifh TTr 1 ! Zinc oxide, Tin protoxide, peroxide, Lead protoxide, w itn jiVvi. Gold peroxide, YELLOW. Note. The substances in italics are of rare occurrence. Iridium peroxide, BROWN. Chromium oxide, GREEN. Vanadium oxide, DIRTY WHITE. TABLE II. TESTS FOR BASES. Caustic Soda or Potash (NaO or KO). TABLE III. TESTS FOR BASES. Sulphohydric Acid (SH). FIRST CLASS. FIRST CLASS. Precipitated and not Redissolved. Precipitated. Alkaline (^ mie ' Earths, ^arytes, ' ( Strontian, Tellurium oxide, ~] Molybdenum oxides, Tin protoxide, f" Magnesia, Copper oxides, ^ BROWN. Earths, \ Ce rium oxides, - WHITE. Platinum oxides, Rhodium oxide, [^Zirconia, Iridium oxide, J f Titanic acid,with oxide inllCl, Antimony oxide, ~\ Bismuth oxide, Antimonious acid, V ORANGE. Cadmium oxide, Antimonic acid, ) Manganese protoxide, then Arsenious acid (acid,) \ brown, J Arsenic acid Iron protoxide, WHITISH-GREEN. Cadmium oxide, sesquioxide, REDDISH-BROWN. Tin peroxide, Uranium protoxide, BROWN. and neut. BELLOW. /v-m^^/v,-,"^-/,, "^ Osmium oxide, Platinum peroxide, with Selenious acid, with HC1. ^ KO, 0. with NaO. ( y Selenic acid, J 3 < Rhodium peroxide, by boiling, [* Lead oxide, "J j Palladium protoxide, Bismuth oxide, Mercury oxide, Mercury oxides, I J TJ ^ Silver oxide, J. BLACK. Molybdenum protoxide, ~) BROWNISH- Palladium oxide, Nickel oxide, GREEN. ()*nu<- acid, J Cobalt oxide, \ Chromic acid, GREEN. Copper oxide, j f Zinc oxide, (neut.) WHITE. Osmium oxide, > - Gold oxide, | BLACK. SECOND CLASS. Au. on standing. Not Precipitated. {^Silver oxide, BROWN. Alkalies. SECOND CLASS. AH T fLime. Not Precijntated. Alkaline T, - -(Barvtes. f Ammonia, Hiartiis, J c " . ( Strontian. *,, ,. ! Lithia. Alkalies, { potagh> f Magnesia. [ Alumina. [Soda. Farths J Glucina. Arsenious acid. j Yttria. Arsenic acid. 1 Cerium oxides. Platinum protoxide. \JZirconia. ANA ANA "Iron protoxide. Tin protoxide, "") sesquioxido, sulphur falls. Gold oxide, IBROWX. Manganese oxides. Iridium oxide, Nickel oxide. Tellurium oxide, J Cobalt oxide. ' Metals, -^ Chromium oxide. Vanadium oxide, \ BRO\\^isir-BLACE> Platinum oxides, ) Vanadium o.ride. Uranium wide. Tunyttic add. Magnesia possesses some of the characters of earths and alkaline earths in common. Coliiinbic add. l^Titanic acid. DISTINGUISHING TESTS FOR BASES, Copper in dilute solutions is brown, in concen- FIRST CLASS. trated solutions Hack. Precipitated ly NII 3 . TABLE IV. TESTS FOR BASES. Sulphohydride of Ammonia, NH 3 SH. Magnesia, White by NH 3 , 4>. by NH 3 SH. Wliite by phosphate of soda. FIIIST CLASS. and NH 3 C0 2 . Soluble in Precipitated and not, Redissolved. Titanic acid, ~] Alumina, NH 3 HC1. Soluble in NaO and KO. In- soluble in alkal-carbonates- Alumina, Glucina, Yftri>!, > WHITE. Glucina, White by NH 3 SH. Soluble in NaO and KO. Sol- uble in carbonate of NH 3 . ('< rin in. oxides, Tltria, White by oxalic acid. Soluble Z-trconia, in carbonate of NH 3 . In- Zinc oxide, J Vraidum oxide, ~) Iron oxides, Kickel oxide, Cobalt oxide, Copper oxide, I BLACK. Bismuth oxide, f T Cerium oxides, Zirconia, soluble in NaO. White by KO S0 3 , nearly in- soluble ha HO. Brownish-red when ignited. Insoluble in ^HCl after ignition. Soluble in alkal-carbonatcs. Insoluble in NaO. Lead oxide, Mercury oxide, Silver oxide, ride, Aitimony ox. Tifaniate, in, Orange by SH. Chloride decom- posed by HO. Blue colour produced by metal- Ticnijxiic acid. ~> T, . 7 > BEOW3E, turn oxide, $ YELLOW. Chromium oxide. GREEX. Manganese oxides, FLESII~REI>- Lead oxide, Tin protoxide, lic /inc. Blade by NH 3 SII. Soluble in NaO or KO. White by S0 3 _ Yelfo&t} by eliminate of K( ). Lr.\ide, ~\ mi pro- N T H 3 . Black Aiitim< V ORANGE. toxi by NH 3 SH. Becomes per- Anlimonic acid, J oxide by XO r . p, }' 1 K. <*, from; Xya>, I loose). When the compound substance is of an explosive na- ture, or from other circumstances, it may be ad- visable to judge of its composition by bringing together its ingredients, and observing the pro- portions which unite, we are said to determine the constitution of the body by xi//it//<'*/* (arwQi formation of a body from its elements). In pro- ceeding to analyze a substance, it is necessary to obtain it either partially or wholly in a state of solution. Many salts are easily soluble in water, or by the addition of an acid; but the greater number of the ores and minerals, as they occur in nature, require special treatment before they are in a condition to be subjected to chemical analysis. Analysis of Silicates soluble in Chlorohydrii Add. A considerable number of minerals winch have silica present as an acid, and contain from 10 to 20 per cent, of water, are decomposed by chlo- rohydric acid, the silica being replaced by that acid, which then unites with the bases and forms soluble salts. Estimation of Water. To determine the amount of water present in the mineral, 25 grains of it in small portions, about the size of a pea, are weighed out in a platinum crucible, heated to redness, and weighed after cooling. The mineral should be previously dried at 212 in a water bath, unless it is found to lose water at this temperature. After ignition the silicates soluble in acid lose this property. KatnHiiiiHii, of Silica. To determine the amount of silica, and other constituents, a fresh portion of mineral is used; it is first pounded in a dia- mond or steel mortar, which is a steel box fitted witli a piston. Fragments of the mineral are placed in the mortar, the piston is introduced, and struck with repeated blows of a hammer on an anvil. A sheet of white glazed paper being spread on a tal>K the. steel mortar with its con- tents are placed on the paper. About a gram of the rough powder is then transferred by means of a platinum spatula, knife point, or fragment of to an agate mortar, and pounded with the agate pe.-tle until it feels no longer gritty under the pe-tle. When the pounding of this portion is lini in-w added, and the powder formed 50 ANA into a paste by stirring with a glass or porcelain rod. Wh0D it is thoroughly diffused through the water, and no lumps exist, strong chlorohy- dric acid is added, and the agitation with the rod continued. In a short time the silica separates in a hydrous or gelatinous form (SiOg HO), and then care must be taken that none of the powder escapes decomposition by being enclosed in the jelly, by constant agitation and robbing it against the bottom of the basin. The jelly is to be di- luted with a small portion of water, and the whole evaporated to dryness with constant stirring, to prevent sputtering. The residue is well pulverized with the broad end of a glass rod, and heated on a sand bath until the smell of chlorohydric acid is no longer evolved. The object in applying the heat is to remove the water in combination with the silica, which ren- ders it somewhat soluble. The powder in the Sucker or Pipette Filtering Bottle. basin is now allowed to cool, and being moistened witli strong hydrochloric acid, to supply acid to any of the bases which may have lost it by the heat, it is allowed to stand for 20 minutes. Water is then digested on it, and the whole filtered. (See FILTRA- TION.) The silica re- mains on the filter. Hot water is now to be. added to the filter, by means of a sucker or washing bottle, un- til a drop of the solu- tion, passing thr6ugh, caught in a test-glass, gi v es n o precipitate with nitrate of silver. Some- times this operation is ery tedious, if the silica has not been properly Washing Bottle. ANA evaporated to dryness, as in the gelatinous state it tills up the pores of the paper. /Separation of Silica from Minerals insoluble in Chlorohydric Acid. When the silicate is found to be insoluble in acid, it is necessary to unite the silica with an alkaline base, an alkaline silicate being then formed which is decomposable by a mineral acid. Some minerals, undecomposable by acids before ignition, gelatinize after being heated in contact Avith acid (garnet, idocrase, epi- dote, and axinite). The silicate is to be pounded as already described, but if it is harder than agate, it is necessary to weigh the agate mortar before and after use, and deduct from the silica procured in the analysis the amount abraded from the mortar. The fine powder is mixed in a platinum crucible with 3^ to 4 times its weight of powdered anhydrous carbonate of soda (dried by heating the soda crystals on a sand bath). The crucible being covered with its lid, is placed in a cylindrical clay crucible, containing a little magnesia in the bottom, and introduced into a furnace, w r here it is kept at a bright red heat from half-an-hour to an hour. The fused mass frequently is separated by contraction from the sides of the crucible, and can be easily trans- ferred to a porcelain basin ; but when it adheres to the crucible, the crucible is placed in the porcelain basin. Some water and chlorohydric acid are added to the mass, and the whole digested until it is all obtained in the basin ; when it is evaporated to dryness, and filtered, &c. as described in the previous section. After the silica has been properly washed, the funnel, filter, and silica are placed in a hot air stove, or oven, until the water evaporates; the silica and filter are then placet I in a platinum crucible, and ignited over a gas or spirit flame, and weighed on cooling, covered with its lid to prevent absorption of moisture from the air. To ascertain that it contains no sand or undecomposed mineral, it is boiled with a solution of carbonate of soda in a flask or basin. If pure, it should dissolve completely. The in- soluble matter, if undecomposed mineral, must be fused again with carbonate of soda, and the silica separated as described ; if it is sand, it will be recognized by its grittiness between the teeth. When the silicate contains an alkali, instead of carbonate of soda or potash,we may use carbonate of barytes, or nitrate of barytes, a base which can be readily separated; but in this case a more elevated temperature is required for fusion. Separation of Alumina and Iron. After the separation of the silica as detailed, the liquid which passes through the filter is placed in a basin, and concentrated by evaporation on the sand bath. It contains all the constituents of the mineral, except the silica. After being re- duced to the volume of about a pint, and made sufficiently acid, caustic ammonia is added to the concentrated fluid, when alumina and sesquioxide of iron fall, in gelatinous white or red flakes ; if no iron is present, the whole of the precipitate ANA will be white. It is necessary that the fluid should contain ammoniacal salts, which are formed by the addition of ammonia to an acid solution, otherwise magnesia will be thrown down, and a part of the alumina will be dissolved. If the precipitate is greenish, it is a proof that the protoxide of iron is present ; but as it is so- luble in ammonia, it must be converted by the addition of some nitric acid into sesquioxide which is insoluble. When alumina is alone, the best precipitant is sulphide of ammonium. The precipitate of alumina and sesquiox. of iron are thrown on a filter, and washed with boiling water, until a drop of the fluid, passing through, gives no precipitate with nitrate of silver. They are placed with the filter and funnel in a hot air stove, and after being dry are ignited in a platinum cru- cible, and weighed. To separate the iron from the alumina, the precipitate is transferred to a flask, and boiled with strong nitric and chlorohydric acids. Sometimes a skeleton of silica remains after the solution of the iron and alumina, which must I >e filtered oft', washed, and weighed. The acid so- lution being concentrated, is boiled in a basin with an excess of strong caustic soda or potash. The alumina dissolves, while the sesquioxide of iron remains undissolved. When the quantity of iron is considerable, a portion of alumina remains undissolved. In this case it is often necessary to repeat the boiling with the caustic alkali two or three times. The whole is then diluted with hot water, filtered, and washed with boiling water, and tested with nitrate of silver. The sesquioxide of iron is dried in a stove, ignited, and weighed. It often contains potash or soda attached to it. It is best, therefore, to dissolve it off the filter in chlorohydric acid, and precipitate by carbonate of ammonia, filter, wash, dry, ignite, and weigh. The alkaline fluid containing the alumina is now supersaturated Avith chlorohydric acid, until it turns litmus paper slightly red, and is precipitated with carbonate of ammonia or sul- phide of ammonium. Separation of Lime. The original liquid from which the alumina and iron have been sepa- rated is to be concentrated on the sand bath. The heat may render it acid, as ammoniacal salts become acid by heat. A slight excess of caustic ammonia is added, and care must be taken that a sufficient quantity of ammoniacal salts is present to retain the magnesia in solu- tion. If a precipitate falls, it is probably mag- nesia. Acid must be added, and an excess of caustic ammonia. If it does not dissolve, it must be the alumina, and must be filtered off. Oxa- late of ammonia is added in solution, when oxa- late of lime falls. This is allowed to stand in a hot place for some hours. The supernatant liquor, while hot, is poured on the filter, hot water thrown on the precipitate, and allowed to clear, again poured off, and the process repeated. This precaution prevents the liquor from passing through in a milky state. The oxalate of lima 51 AXA is filteiv.1. drinl. ignited, and weighed. CaO, COa CO. It remains as a gray carbonate, hav- ing lost carbonic oxide, which burns with a blue ilanio. It may be rendered white by ignition with access of air ; but sometimes loses < . acid. To prevent error after weighing, it is mois- tened with n strong solution of carbonate of am- monia, ignited, and weighed. Every 6-25 grs. of carbonate of lune contain 3-5 of lime. Separation of M(i;iin*iu. If no alkalies are present in solution with the magnesia, the mag- nesia may be separated by adding carbonate of potash, evaporating to dryness. and heating to dispel ammoniacal salts, filtering, washing, ignit- ing, and weighing the carbonate of magnesia, of which every 5*25 grams contain 2-5 magnesia; or the magnesia may be precipitated (Wollaston) by adding phosphate of soda to an ammoniacal solution, allowing the crystalline precipitate to stand for at least twelve hours, and then filtering and washing with water, containing one-tenth ot caustic ammonia, as the precipitate of ammonia- plnpliate of magnesia is soluble in water, but not in water containing caustic ammonia. When ignited ( XH ;5 2MgO PO 5 becomes 2MgO P0 5 ), every 14 grs. contain 5 of magnesia. Xi-jMirttfioi/, (if Mttf/iiciiia from Alkalies. If, however, it is ramired to separate magnesia, and afterwards one or more of the alkalies, they are to be converted into sulphates by evaporating to dry ness, and igniting in a platinum capsule. The fused residue is treated with sulphuric acid, and ignited. If there is an excess of acid, it may be removed by neutralizing it by ammonia, when it is carried off as sulphate of ammonia. The alkaline and magnesian sulphates are then weighed, dissolved in water, precipitated, with pun: acetate of barytes, and filtered. The filtered fluid is evaporated and ignited. Alkaline and earthy carbonates remain; but the magnesian .salt i- partially or wholly decarbonated. By digestion in water, the alkaline carbonates are < iis.-ol vcd, and are to be separated from each other by bichloride of platinum, (see SODA.') while carbonates of barytes and magnesia remain. The-e earthy carbonates are dissolved in chloro- liydric acid, and the barytes precipitated by sul- phuric aeid. The filtered liquor is evaporated ami ignited., and the dried mass of sulphate of i. Every 7-5 grs. contain 2-5 Of 11KIL 'oine nitric acid, or i chlorine through it. When the oxide is scsqui- oxidated. tliat i>. when tin; protoxide js entirely coin erte:.n,;te of ammonia in excess. At first the oxide is dissolved, but after standing for -ome hours in a warm place, it is wholly sepa- rated. The. precipitate is separated from the ilter as much as possible, ' and ignited in a por- elain crucible. Every 29 grs. are equal to.LMi J.TS. metallic bismuth. /'/<'/(>.. t>/t/if I 'ran tinn is separated from its solutions by caustic ammonia. AXA Oxide of Mercury. Mercury is usually esti- mated in the metallic state. The mercurial compound is dissolved in an excess of chlorohydric acid, and boiled with a strong solution of proto- chloride of tin in a flask ; the flask is well closed, and the whole allowed to cool. The clear liquor is poured off from the globules, and the metal washed and dried with blotting paper, but not Altered. Gold is also procured in the metallic state, in absence of nitric acid, by adding to a hot solution of gold a solution of sulphated protoxide of iron (copperas). It may also be reduced by oxalic acid, which should be digested for twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Platinum is separated from its solutions by 'concentrating its acid solution, adding to it a strong solution of sal ammoniac, and then as much strong alcohol as is necessary to separate completely the double yellow salt of ammonium- bichloride of platinum (Wollaston). It is washed with alcohol, containing some sal ammoniac, and is then burned at first in a covered crucible to prevent the platinum from being partially carried away with the sal ammoniac. The spongy pla- tinum which remains is then weighed. Palladium is separated by iodide of potassium. See IODINE. For RHODIUM, IRIDIUM, &c., see these metals. Analysis of Sulphides (sulphurets). The sul- phide is pulverized as described under silicates, placed in a narrow-mouthed flask, and digested in fuming nitric acid, or in aqua regia (1 nitric, 2 chlorohydric acids). The greater portion of the siilphur is converted into sulphuric acid, and precipitated by chloride of barium. If any sulphur remains undissolved, it is thrown on a weighed filter and washed, dried at 212, and weighed. Arsenides are estimated by treatment with aqua regia, which converts them into arsenic acid. A current of sulphohydric acid is passed through the solution, which is fully saturated with gas, and the liquor placed in a very warm place till . odour of sulphohydric acid gas is destroyed. The precipitate of tersulphide of arsenic, with excess of sulphur, is thrown on a weighed filter, washed, dried at 212, and weighed. As much of the precipitate is removed from the filter " as possible, and weighed. It is digested in aqua regia, and the sulphuric acid precipitated by ' chloride of barium. Every 14*567 of the sul- phate of barytes is equivalent to 2 grains of sul- phur, which is to be deducted from the tersulphide of arsenic. The remainder is the arsenic. As some of the precipitate adhered to the filter, the quantity of arsenic contained in it must be calcu- lated by simple proportion from the amount ob- tained from the analysis of the larger portion. Selenides. Selenium may be estimated by passing chlorine over the selenide placed in pow- der, in a bulbed tube, and receiving the cliloride of selenium in a flask. Water is added, and a stream of chlorine being passed through the solu- AND tion, selenic acid is formed, which is precipitate as selenate of barytes by the addition of chlorid of barium." For the mode of estimating lodidet Bromides, Chlorides, Fluorides, see these sub stances. Analysis of Waters. See WATERS. Analysis of Organic /Substances. See ORGANII ANALYSIS. Analysis of Gases. See GASES. Anatase. (atvtcruiia, I extend). Oisanit (from Oisans), octahedrite, from the length o the 8-hedra, blue schorl, octahedral schorl Ti 2 8-hedron, with a square base, the summit be- ing sometimes replaced by a small square paralle to the base of the pyramid. Colour, when pure indigo blue, but more usually steel-gray or olive brown ; yellowish-green or blue by transrnittec light. Lustre splendent and adamantine. Sp grav. 3-857 to 3-826, H 5-5 to 6- B.B. infusible dissolves in borax, yielding, with reducing flame, an amethyst bead. Scarcely fusible witl microcosmic salt; but forms a blue bead ii reducing flame. It may be fused with carbonat< of potash and soda, but is not affected by acids It consists only of titanic acid when in its pure state, but generally has present from 5 to 1 pei cent, oxide of iron, and is identical in compositior with ArTcansite. It is found in granite and slat( in Cornwall, Dartmoor, Dauphine, Tyrol, &c. Anauxite. (*9*vfant t without augmentation.] Greenish-white grains, in plates with translu- cent edges; found in decomposing volcanic rocks at Bum. Spec. grav. 2-265. Contains 55-7 silica, 11*05 water; the other constituents being alumina, magnesia, and protoxide of iron. AMchosiitc. A mineral containing silica 52-52; Al, O 3 30*98, CaO 3-82, FeO -80, KO 6-38, HO 1*60. (Kobell. Jahr. furMin. 1834.) Anchnsine, Anchusic Acid. C 71*33, H 7-00,O 21-67. A dark red resinous body, permanent in light, softening at 140, and subliming, with- out change, at a higher temperature, in the form of violet fumes, like iodine ; insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether, with a red colour ; n turpentine and fat oils. The red alcoholic and ethereal solutions are changed by light, and the atter, by boiling, t into blue and green colours. Sulphuric acid dissolves it of a red colour. It is he red colouring matter of the Anchusa tinctoria, >r alkanet, obtained by acting on the root with joiling absolute alcohol or ether. Aiicrauiitc. A synonyme of carbonate of zinc. Asaclalizsilc (front Andalusia,) Disilicate of Alumina, Micaphyllite, Stanzaite, Adamantine ipar, Apyritic felspar. Sp. grav. 3-314 to 3-13. tl 7-5. Eight rhombic prisms, sometimes of great size. Colour flesh-red, pearl gray, brown- .sh-red ; fracture uneven ; lustre glassy ; translu- cent on edges. It consists of silica 35-30, A1 2 3 30*19, FeO 1*32, MgO 1, HO. 2-03. Infusible B.B., but becomes covered with white spots ; fuses ivith great difficulty with borax and microcos- AND mic salt; not attacked by acids. Occurs in Andalusia, Saxony, Tyrol, near Aberdeen, Glen Malor in Wirklow. Andcsinc. A mineral, allied to felspar grayish or greenish, consisting of silica 59*6, Al 5 8 24-28, <'aO .".-77. XaO 0-53, KO 1-08, MgO 1-08, Fe 2 O 3 1-58. Spec, grav. 2-736 to 2-651 Andreasbcrgolitc, Andrcollte. A syno- nyiiH' of Imrmotonie. Andronia. A substance described b^ Winterl in wood coal. Anemic Acifl. A yellowish-white sub- stance iVoni the infusion of the Anemone nemorosa ty exposure to light ; -\vithout taste and smell but slightly soluble in cold water; reaction acid insoluble in alcohol and ether. Am mo.i i< Acid. C 7 H 4 3 HO. Brown brittle mass, soluble in water, scarcely so in al- vohol and ether; reaction acid; yielding uncrys- talliue salts. Obtained by boiling anemonine with barytes water: removing excess of barytes by carbonic acid ; precipitating the filtered liquor with acetate of lead, decomposing the preci- pitate bv Bulphohydric acid, and evaporating the tiltered liquid to dryness. Ajicmoiiinr. " C 7 H 3 O 4 (Loewig), or Ci 5 H O c (Fehling). White crystalline needles m- plates. heavier than water at the usual tem- perature, without smell, at first without taste, but afterwards having a permanent burning im- pression ; vields by heat pungent vapour, affect- ing the eyes and nose. But slightly soluble in water; very soluble in alcohol and oil of tur- pentine, Obtained as an oil, which, with air, changes into anemonine and anemonic acid, by distilling the root of the Anemone nemorosa, pul- satilla, and pratcnsis with water, and setting the distilled fluid a.-ide. Anemometer. An instrument for measur- ing the strength of the wind. Angelica Kal*am. A blackish - brown resinous syrupy matter, with a bitter taste, ob- tained from the root of the Angelica archangelica, bv extracting, with absolute alcohol, evaporating lor t lie extract, washing it with water, and treating with ether. Angelic Acid, C 10 H 7 O 3 , and Angclicine, from the root of the angelica. A synonyme of phosphate of iron, or vivianite. A iit;J< -in . A synonyme of sulphate of lead. Angof urine. Cusparine, Galipeine. See CCSPAKINE. Anhydrite. Anhydrous Sulphate of Lime, Miiriacitc, K'ii-xt<->t'i!<-, ('nix- X/,(ir. CaO S0 3 8-5 or 68. White right rectangular prisms or fibres. Sp. grav. 2-99 to 2.94. H 2-75 to ! 'sually aoociated with common salt. It is found in the silt, mines of Austria and Tyrol, at J>e.\, in Switzerland, Lock port, New York, &c. Aiihydrou*. (? priv destitute of; i^a-f, water.) A Hib.-tane" \vithout any water united lo it, or mechanically mixed witli it, is said 54 ANI to be anhydrous: gypsum, for example, -when ignited, loses water, and becomes anhydrous. Anil, Nil. The native name of indigo. Anilamine Urea. C 14 H 8 N 2 2 . Car- banilamide, or anilo-urea. Crystalline body, sol- uble in water, alcohol, and ether. Fuses at 161^, when anhydrous at 212 ; combines with acids. Obtained by acting on nitro-ben- zamide with sulphohydride of ammonia at a, boiling temperature. Aiiilic Acid. Indirjotic Ac/'d. NitrotaMcylis Add, C 14 H 4 NO.,HO. Light yellowish-white prisms, soluble in 1000 parts water, fusible and vo- latile ; it unites readily with bases, and forms well crystallized salts. It is obtained by adding pound - ed indigo, in small portions at a time, to nitric acid, of spec. grav. 1-28, diluted with an equal volume of water, gentle heat being applied ; along with it, carbazotic acid remains in solution. On the addition of acetate of lead, anilate of lead is formed, which separates in crystals. Sulphuric acid will decompose the anilate of lead. Anilie acid is also formed by the action of nitric acid ou salicine or salicylic acid. Aniline. Crystalline, Cyanol, Benzidam, Phenylamine, Phenamine, Phenamide. Cj 2 H/ N. A colourless oily fluid of sp. grav. 1-020. A powerful base. Taste burning aromatic ; smell inous ; boiling point 320 ; does not freeze at -4; evaporates at all temperatures, and becomes brown in air; it does not in solution affect vegetable colours ; dissolves phosphorus, sulphur, camphor, and rosin; coagulates albumen, and forms crystalline salts with acids. It is formed by heating isatine with potash, the action beinr* C 1C NH 5 4 4 KO HO = C 12 II r N, 4 KO C0 2r H 2 ; by distilling anthranilic acid, by distilling- nitrobenzoin, or salicylainide, or nitrotoluole, with lime ; by distilling oil of coal tar, first heat- ng the oils with chlorohydric acid, which unites with the basic oils. These form the lowest layer, which is to be neutralized by milk of lime, or an alkali, and the oil which separates is to be dis- tilled. A white fluid condenses in the first in- stance, containing aniline arid leucol. To purify his mixture, the oils are treated successivelv with chlorohydric acid and an alkali, and the >roduct distilled repeatedly until an oil is obtained, whose boiling point is 360. It is lastly purified ')y heating it with oxalic acid, and decomposing he oxalate by potash. It is obtained from ni- n.bcn/ide by dissolving the latter in alcohol, saturating the solution with ammonia, and pass- ng a current of sulphuretted hydrogen through, he deep red mixture. The clear liquor, after tanding for some time, becomes clouded, and ulphur separates in crystals. The current of , r as is again to be renewed, until sulphur ceases o separate on standing. Hydrochloric acid is lien added in excess to the solution, and the alcohol >eing removed by evaporation, a clear, slightly oloured fluid, aniline, remains, possessing the haracters of an organic base. It is obviously ANI produced by the separation of all the oxygen from nitrobenzide, by the action of the hydrogen of the sulphuretted hydrogen, in the fonn of water, the sulphur being dropped, and the place of the oxygen supplied by hydrogen. Aniline is readily detected by its producing, in minute quantities, with solutions of chloride of lime, a fine violet-blue, resembling ammoniacal oxide of copper. To detect the presence of benzole, we heat a drop of the tested fluid with fuming nitric acid, until the mix- ture becomes yellowish; the nitrobenzide thus formed is separated by water, and dissolved in ether. This solution is mixed with some weak alcohol and sulphuric acid ; a fragment of granulated zinc is then added ; a solution of sulphate of aniline is thus formed, to which caustic potash is added ; the aniline, which separates, is dissolved in ether, and mixed with a solution of chloride of lime. Aniline has a remarkable analogy with ammonia, and from this and other circumstances it has been proposed to consider ammonia as an amide of hydrogen, Ad H (NH 2 H), and aniline as an amide of phenyl. Ad Ph (C 12 H-,). Aniline has a compound oxanilide corresponding to the oxa- mide of ammonia, and carbanilide, parallel to the carbamide of ammonia. Cyanate of aniline passes into anil-urea, as cyanate of ammonia does into urea. In aniline we have an example of an organic body (phenyle), which replaces the third atom of hydrogen of ammonia. Its natural formula will, according to this view, therefore be Cj2 Hi; NH.>, and aniline would be styled phe- nylamine (C~ 12 H? N). It unites directly with hydrogen acids, like ammonia. Cyanogen, when acting on an alcoholic solution of aniline, unites with the latter, and forms a new base, cyaniline (Ci2 HT N, NC2), Avhich unites with acids and yields salts. Acted on by chloride of cyanogen, it forms melaniline,, a new base, where 1 atom of aniline is coupled with another atom of aniline, in which 1 atom of hydrogen is replaced by cyanogen 2C 12 H 7 N, NC 2 C1 = C 2G Hi 3 N 3 , H Cl). The hydrogen of aniline may be replaced by chlorine, bromine, and iodine, in more than one proportion, and hence arises a series of bases, probably of greater extent than has yet been pointed out. Those described are chloraniline Ci 2 , H(j, Cl, N, dichloraniline, trichloraniline, bromaniline, dibromaniline, tribromaniline, chlo- rodibromaniline, nitraniline, nitrodibromaniline. Again, the hydrogen is capable of being replaced by organic radicals, as in Ethyl-aniline NH, E, Ph, or, as it may be termed, Ethyl-phenyl- amine. Anilo-cyanic AciI. C 14 NH 5 O 2 . Volatile liquid, with a pungent odour, boiling at 354 ; bearing to aniline the same relation as that of cyanic acid to ammonia ; it is obtained by heating inelanoximide. Anilo-mcllonc. Fhenyle-mellone. C 18 , H 4 N 4 . A fluid obtained by heating melaniline. It consists of mellone (C 6 N 4 ), coupled with phenyle (C 12 H 4 ), less hydrogen. ANI Animal Chemistry. Minerals differ from plants in the circumstance that minerals grow without possessing any organization, or any ves- sels by which they can be supplied with nourish- ment from within. They increase in size by depositions of solid matter to their circum- ference. Plants, again, differ from animals by their possessing no nervous system, to which animals owe their powers of sensation, and their varied supply of intellectual power, from the humble bee, which collects its food and stores it with mathematical precision, to the dog and ele- phant, which, in many points, are superior in sagacity to man himself. Much mystery has been thrown over the organic world, and parti- cularly over the animal creation, by a kind of silent agreement entered into by many cultivators of science, that the processes to which we are indebted for our subsistence are too minute, and are guided by what have been termed such vital dynamical laws, that they must ever elude human inquiry. Now, this is a mode of raising up artificial difficulties which are not to be found in the extensive field of nature ; and it may be with truth affirmed, that, as far as the production and reproduction of plants and animals are concerned, we are not in a condition to predicate where our know- ledge must stop. The true method of philosophy is to push inquiry as far as possible, not by metaphysical and hypothetical means, but by the sure process of induction, and not by raising ar- tificial barriers long ere we have reached the destined goal. It has been well said by Liebig, that the term dynamic is about equal to that of specific in medicine. Everything is specific which we cannot explain, and dynamic is the explana- tion of all that we do not understand. There is no greater mystery in the growth of a plant or animal from seed than there is in the production of a crystal in a saturated solution of a salt. In the manufacture of sulphate of iron, a saturated solution of this salt is introduced into a large evaporating cooler. A piece of wood is dipped into the solution, and hi the course of a short time it is surrounded with a circle of beautiful green rhombic prisms, which never existed be- fore. We call this crystallization ; but this is no explanation, it is merely a word ; and we are iii no respect nearer our object than we are in ex- plaining the deposition of solid fibres from the blood of animals. The products of the animal and vegetable world constitute organic chemistry. Scientific men have had much difficulty in defin- ing the characters of vegetables and animals. Vegetables being confined to one spot, and ani- mals being moveable beings, some have consi- dered that animals were distinctively locomotive. But it so happens that many of the lesser tribes of animals are incapable of locomotion; and hence this definition is untenable. Others ^ob- serving that plants are destitute of sensation, have proposed to ascribe this attribute alone to animals, and define them as nervous beings. AXI But in opposition to this view, we find many in- ferior animals apparently destitute of sensation, ly supplied with a degree of irritability even inferior to that of the sensitive plant, culti- vated so frequently in our botanic gardens; and hence this definition also fails us. We believe that the tme distinction between plants and ani- mal* A\ ill be detected more readily by discovering the nature of the matter by means of which they increase in bulk, or, in other words, by the na- ture of their food ; the term food being a word applied to express the matter which enables plants and young animals to increase in size, and full-grown animals to preserve their forms unim- paired. It is to chemistry, then, we are to look for an answer to the questions, What is an ani- mal? What is a vegetable? To one accustomed to view only the larger kinds of animated be- ings, it might seem an easy task to give a reply- to these questions. But when we know that nature is simple in her works, that in her we find no sudden leaps from great to small, that the whole animated world consists of a chain formed of a series of beings, passing down in regular gradation from the most perfect to the most im- perfect state, the lowest plant being closely allied to the lowest form of animal, it will at once be obvious that to say where plants begin and animals end, cannot be a problem of easy solu- tion. To apply, however, the test which we have suggested. Let us begin with plants. We find a plant cultivated among the Chinese, and in- troduced among ourselves, termed the air-plant, which, by being merely suspended in the air, increases in bulk and weight without even the application of water. This is one of the most simple forms of vegetable life, as the plant has nothing to feed on save the air, which, however, contains all the elements necessary for its growth, oxygen, vapour of water, carbonic acid, and nitrogen. But all these are gaseous bodies or vapours, while the air-plant is a solid hence we infer that this plant is capable of reducing ga.ses to the solid state, and of thus increasing in bulk and weight. According to the present views of persons Ijpst qualified to judge, it appears that all plants are endowed with similar properties, and that they mainly subsist by feeding on the gases which surround them, by converting these gases, by means of the organs with which th'-y are supplied, into the solid forms of the ;ble kingdom, so endless in figure, but yet so lovely, that the greatest familiarity renders them only objects of superior admiration. When we turn to the animal world, we find that the individuals of which it consists are incapable of condensing gases; in fact, the least educated person knows that animals cannot exist upon air, but that they require to imbibe solid matter simi- lar to that of which they consist. Man lives upon animal food, and those kinds of grain which In matter nearly allied to it. The question, Why has grass perhaps the most abundant 56 vegetable in nature never constituted a portion of human food ? may not strike one as being in its answer fraught with important information : and yet the only reason which can be given for the fact that it has never been an article of human food, except perhaps among the lowest portions of the human family, is because it contains such a small portion of matter similar in its nature to the 'constituents of man's fcame, that the quantity required would be too voluminous for the diges- tive capacity of the stomach and other organs. An animal may, therefore, be defined to be a being which subsists by appropriating to itself food similar to the matter of which its own body is composed. Hence we see the necessity for its locomotion, while a plant, finding its nourishment in the constituents of the air which summnds it, has its food brought to it by the usual laws of nature. We believe, then, that such will be found the only legitimate mode of separating animals from plants. It is possible that, among the inferior tribes of animals, where an approxi- mation is made to the vegetable kingdom, there may be individuals partaking of a semi- vegetable and animal nature, partly living on air, and vjartly on solids ; although it does not follow that such an occurrence is necessary ; yet, from the simplicity and gradation which we find subsisting throughout nature, we might expect to discover some such union of the two kingdoms or some equally simple transition from one set of beings to the other. Accordingly, we find that cellulose, hitherto considered as a characteristic of vege- tables, exists in some of the lower animals. This circumstance occurs in some of the as- cidiae. A sack in these animals forms a con- gregation of large spherical cells, similar to the tissue of the cacti, and some of the fruits produced in the garden. The substance of this tissue is insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, acids, and al- kalies ; is free from nitrogen, and contains per cent, carbon 45-38 11 = 6-470 =48-15. It is, therefore, identical in composition with vegetable cellulin. Schmidt has examined among the zoophytes, a class of animals which, in salt springs, are developed underground in the form of a gelatinous white mass, to which Ehrenberg has given the name ofFrustulia sal in a. This ani- mal was treated with solvents, then by acids and dilute alkalies. When analyzed, it was found to consist of C 46-19, H 6-06, O 47-85. This re- sult agrees exactly Avith analyses which have been made of the basic tissue of some of the lichens, of which the composition was found to be G 46-08, H 6-67. Plants, then, it might be considered, are supplied with a more com- plicated apparatus than animals; for they are capable of generating solids from gases, or of producing from these elements compound bodies, which never existed before; while animals merely take from plants solid food ready prepared for them, and add it without any change to their own substance. Animals, then, it would appear, are ANI made up of plants ; and hence we infer that plants must have existed before animals. So strikingly is it the fact, that animals are derived from plants, that it is usual to judge of the fertility of a pasture field by the quantity and richness of the milk, the essence, as it were, supplied by the cattle which feed upon it Plants, however, are scarcely sus- ceptible of remaining so long without food as animals. Deprive a plant of moisture and air, and it speedily withers and decays. Man is enabled, perhaps, to endure hunger for a longer period than any other class of animals. Mr. Catlin has stated, that when he visited the Man- dans, on the Missouri river, some years ago, he found their numbers amounting to 2000. But soon after he left them, the small-pox, introduced by the 1ST. "Vv r . Fur Company, and the assaults of their enemies, contributed to effect the total an- nihilation of the tribe. One of the chiefs, described by Mr. C. as a man of noble spirit, when he found his friends and relatives dying around him, and that single-handed he could no longer defend himself from the enemies of his tribe, resolved upon terminating his existence by starving himself to death ; and although strongly urged by the fur traders to desist from his inten- tion, he, in the most determined manner, adhered to his purpose, and died on the ninth day. Since plants, then, are less capable of subsisting with- out food than animals, it would appear that the food of plants is less permanent in its effects than that of animals. But animals have the power of laying up a kind of food, which renders them capable of existing for much longer periods than that mentioned without the use of aliment. An instance, which occurred to myself, strikingly illustrated this fact. A poor idiot, who had been bed-rid for years, had received a sudden fright "by a peal of thunder, which caused him to refuse nearly all sustenance ; and so far did he carry his prejudice, that he would allow no water to cross Ids lips which was not clear and crystal from the spring. In this condition he remained for seventy- four days, when tired nature at last yielded, and gave up the struggle. The explanation was simple, but it was as beautiful as it was simple. The poor creature, by want of exercise, and by previously possessing a strong appetite, had become enor- mously fat This deposit acted as so much fuel, and enabled respiration to proceed as usual ; but as his frame was acquiring no addition, and every part of it was dwindling, or more properly burning, away, as soon as the fat was removed, the indi- vidual became thin and exhausted, and death inevitably closed the scene. The power of the human body, displayed 'in this fact, I believe to be peculiar, and not to be shared by the vegetable kingdom. These observations tend to delineate the characteristic features of the two living king- doms of nature, and to show that there is a point at which vegetable unites with animal chemistry, inasmuch as plants supply food for animals. Hence the consideration of the materials of which AXI animals are composed naturally includes the study of the plants, or at least of those parts of vege- tables upon which they principally subsist. The chemistry of animal substances may, therefore, be legitimately viewed as including the nature of the substances derived from animals, and of the food from which they are primarily obtained. For the details of animal chemistry, see BLOOD, CHYLE, DIGESTION, RESPIRATIOX, &c. The ultimate constituents of animals are as follows : Oxygen, chlorine, fluorine; hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, silica, phosphorus, sulphur; potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesia; iron, manganese. The proximate constituents obtained from ani- mals are: Animal amides? Fibrin, albumen, casern, globulin, collin, chondrin, gelatin, hema- tosin, spermatin, salivin ? pepsin ? pancreatin (?) ( 'a!, mring matters: Carmin, sericin, cancrin, peris- terin, anserin. Oily oxides, saponifiable : Stearine, oleine, hircine? Oily oxides not saponifiable: Castorin, ambrein, cholesterin, serolin, cantharidin. Animal bases: Urea, odorin, anirnin, creatin, cre- atinin, sarcosin, alanin, ammolin, fuscin, crystal- lin, aposepedin, taurin, chitin, ammonia. Acids, see ACIDS. Animal Heat. The heat generated in animals by the action of the oxygen of the air, through the medium of the lungs and blood vessels, upon the solids in the circulation, is so designated. As I consider Dr. Crawford to have been the discoverer of the theory of animal heat, and to have developed his views in a more re- markable manner than he usually obtains credit for, I shall here give a sketch of his theory. His great work was his " Experiments and Ob- servations on Animal Heat, and the Inflammation of Combustible Bodies, being an attempt to resolve these phenomena into a general law of Nature," of which the first edition was published in 1779, and the second in 1788. In his preface to the second edition, he states that the experiments which gave rise to his explanation of animal heat and combustion were made at Glasgow in the summer of the year 1777, and that they were communicated in the autumn of that year to Dr. Reid, Mr. Wilson, and Dr. Irvine. In the be- ginning of the ensuing session they were made known to many of the professors and students in the University of Edinburgh, and in the course of the winter they were explained by their author in the Royal Medical Society. In this work, Dr. Crawford commences by stating the theory of specific heat, as elucidated by Drs. Black and Irvine, and proceeds to determine the specific heats of a variety of bodies, the general result of which was, 'that flesh, milk, and vegetables con- tarn less absolute heat than water, and water less than arterial blood. Arterial blood, therefore, he concludes, contains a greater quantity of abso- lute heat than the principles of which it is com- posed. Thence he was led to suspect that, from the remarkable accumulation of heat in this fluid, it must absorb heat from the air in the 57 AXI process of respiration ; and this suspicion was much confirmed by the following considerations : 1. Animals supplied with lungs, which respire air in large quantities, preserve a temperature consi- derably above that of the surrounding atmosphere. But animals which are not furnished with organs of respiration, are nearly of the same temperature as the medium which surrounds them. 2. Among hot animals, those are warmest which have the largest breathing organs, and which consequently respire the greatest quantity of air in proportion to their bulk: thus the respiratory organs of birds are more extensive than those of other ani- mals, and birds possess the greatest amount of animal heat. 3. In the same animal, the de- gree of heat is in some measure proportional to the quantity of air inspired in a given time. Thus we find that animal heat is increased by exercise, and by whatever accelerates respiration. Dr. Crawford then proceeds to support these positions by experiments. He proves, that by placing an animal in a given quantity of at- mospherical air, over lime water, the air will diminish nearly one-fifth in bulk, and the liquid will become turbid, and the quantity of calcareous earth precipitated will be in proportion to the diminution of the air. The correctness of this observation deserves remark, as some experimen- ters shortly afterwards found the quantity of oxygen in air to be upwards of one-fourth of the bulk of atmospheric air. Other experiments in- duced him to infer that the arterial blood assumed a livid hue in the capillaries during its passage into the venous system, and that it again acquired its florid hue in the lungs. The cause of the venous colour he attributed to the absorption of in- flammable air ; a portion of this air he considered combined with the pure air (oxygen) of the atmosphere, and formed aqueous vapour, while another portion, with the same gas, produced carbonic acid, or fixed air. The remaining pro- positions, which he endeavoured to substantiate bv an elaborate series of experiments, are as fol- low : 1. The quantity of absolute heat contained in pure air is diminished by the change which it undergoes in the lungs of animals, and the quantity of heat in any kind of air that is fit for re.-piration is nearly proportional to its power in supporting life. This alone gave rise to a large .series of experiments on the specific heat of gases, wliieh are remarkable for the variety of modes which he invented for the purpose of determining his data. 2. The blood which passes from the lungs to the heart by the pulmonary vein con- tains more absolute heat than that which passes from the heart to the lungs by the pulmonary artery. 3. The comparative quantities of heat in bndies suppo.-ed to contain phlogiston, are in- creased by the changes which they undergo in the processes of calcination and combustion. His exposition of this proposition shows, that lie considered that in the combination of pure air (oxygen) with the inflammable principle (hydro- ANI gen and carbon), a portion of their absolute heat will be separated, and fly off in the state of sen- sible heat. 4. When an animal is placed in a warm medium, the colour of the venous blood approaches more nearly to that of the arterial than when it is placed in a cold medium ; the quantity of respirable air which it phlogisticates in a given time, in the fonner instance, is less than that which it phlogisticates during an equal space of time in the latter ; and the quantity of heat produced when a given portion of pure air is altered by the respiration of an animal, is nearly equal to that which is produced when the same quantity of air is altered by the burning of wax or charcoal. The experiments which illus- trate this, or rather upon which this proposition is founded, are highly important. He placed a guinea-pig in an inverted glass jar, contain- ing nearly five pints of common air, and sur- rounded it with water of the temperature 55^, that of the atmosphere being 61. In forty- two minutes the animal was removed, and the air tested by nitrous air, " and the measures of the test were found to be 2'7 nearly, or \ as pure as common air." Another animal, of the same- kind, was surrounded with water of the tempera- ture 104, and "the test of nitrous air gave 2 '5, or it was nearly half as pure as common air." " Hence," says Crawford, " it appears that the degree of purity in the air necessary to the support of life is greater when an animal is placed in a warm than in a cold medium, the phlogistication (consump- tion of oxygen) of the air in the first or cold air experiment being twice as great as in the second or hot air trial." These trials were repeated in various ways, and always with uniform results. The summary of these experiments is briefly the fact, that as cold condenses air, and heat expands it, a larger amount of oxygen will be consumed by respiration in a given time in a cold than in a warm country. This is an interesting con- firmation of the view of Liebig in his late work on animal chemistry, who holds that in different climates the quantity of oxygen introduced into the system by respiration varies according to the temperature of the external air. It may be called a confirmation rather than an anticipation, because we believe that Crawford's work is al- most unknown, to most of the present continental chemists, much less certainly than it deserves, Bcrxclius, aware of the experiments and views of Crawford on animal heat, yet affirms, that he Avas acquainted with no fact which supported such a view. The illustrations pre- sented by Liebig of the immense supplies of food required by the Esquimaux, contrasted with its limited imbibition by the natives of tropical climates, is a sufficient answer to such an objec- tion, and a flattering proof of the sagacity of Crawford. Dr. Crawford made a comparative set of experiments on the effects produced upon air by combustion and respiration, in which he observed some interesting facts. For example, ANI he found that the diminution produced in the volume of pure air, by the combustion of wax, was to the entire diminution after the fixed air was absorbed, as 1 to 3 nearly, while, when char- coal was substituted, the diminution was as 1 to 7 nearly. Hence he concluded that when wax was burned, the pure air was partly converted into vapour, and partly into fixed ah-; but with charcoal it was entirely changed into fixed air. This induced him to determine if the pro- cess of respiration was analogous to the combus- tion of wax and tallow, or to that of charcoal ; that is to say, if the expired air of animals con- tained also aqueous vapours. The result of his experiment was in the affirmative. In reference to the comparative quantities of heat produced, he found that with, equal quantities of air, the amount of heat communicated to 31 Ibs. 7 ounces of water was as follows : 100 ounce measures of pure air by) ve.*./ , the combustion of wax, gave charcoal ...... 10-3 respiration .. 17-3 ,, These results differ considerably from each other ; they are attributable to errors of experiment, as was inferred by himself ; but he concludes that they approach so nearly to each other as to prove that the heat in these processes arises principally, if not entirely, from the conversion of pure air into fixed ah" or into water. He had concluded, from his experiments, that the specific heat of pure ah* (oxygen) is greater than that of fixed air (carbonic acid) and aqueous vapour, or, in more particular terms, that the same heat which would raise pure air one degree, would raise fixed air and aqueous vapour three degrees. The oxygen of the air, therefore, in combining with the inflammable principle (carbon and hydrogen) of the lungs, to form carbonic acid and water, gave out a certain quantity of heat, which was absorbed by the blood, in the change from the venous to the arterial state, the capacity for heat of venous to arterial blood being as 11^- to 10. This in- genious explanation was founded on the theory of the source of heat in combustion and chemical combination, entertained by Dr. Irvine. It can scarcely be said to be disproved at the present day, as no accurate idea of the source of heat in these cases has yet been formed. It is obvious that Crawford endeavoured to present explana- tions of phenomena of which we are still unable to afford a more plausible one. His fault con- sisted in his restricting the action of oxygen in the production of heat to the lungs, and in the adoption of what appears rather a hypothesis than a true explanation. Under the article Ali- ment it has been shown that the food used by animals in order that they may be retained in a state of health, should consist of nutritious and calorifiant, or heat-producing food. But there are some animals which apparently make use of no calorifiant matter. How, then, it may be in- ANI quired, is their heat kept up ? The American savage, for example, consumes animal food alone, and beasts of prey are nourished after a similar fashion, without having an opportunity of par- taking of the fruits of the field; for as the first do not sow,- it is impossible for them to reap. Yet then* animal heat is sustained ; not, however, ti must be observed, without great exertion, and a restless and wandering existence, impressed on them, in a great degree, by the nature of the food upon which they subsist. All the food: which they eat, with the exception of fat (which is, however, always present to a certain extent in muscular tissue), enters into the solid consti- tution of their frames ; and it is only when the muscular substance of the body is passing into gelatinous and other soluble states, that it is capable of evolving heat. This degradation of muscular tissue must proceed even in an animal in a perfect state of rest, but it is accelerated by motion in proportion to the degree and violence of the exercise. To keep up the animal heat, more particularly in whiter, when it is tending to be conducted away by the colder surrounding media with rapidity, the savage is compelled to cover himself with warm skins, and to take a great amount of exercise. These expedients serve, likewise, as antagonists to the action of the atmosphere, and assist in forming and retain- ing heat, which is but tardily extricated. The. function, then, which the calorifiant food fulfils in the animal economy is at once obvious from this view. It is to save the waste of the muscular- tissue, and to admit of the formation of a suffi- cient amount of heat, by a more direct process of combustion. It is not a little remarkable that this, physiological condition should constitute an es- sential element in civilization, by enabling the body to fulfil its functions without violent exer- tion, and to admit of unrestrained exercise of the- mental powers. Animalcules. Small animals, seldom dis- cernible except by means of magnifying glasses, are so popularly termed. They occur in all a Desmidium apiculosum. h Navicula viridis. b Euastrum verrucosum. c Xantidium ramosum. d Peridinium pyrophovum. e Gomphonemalanceolata. / Hemanthidium arcus. t g Pinnularia dactylus. i Actinocyclus senarius. j Pixidula prisca. k Gaillonella distans. I Synedra ulna. m Bacillaria vulgaris. n Sponge spiculaa. ANI waters exposed to the atmosphere, as rivers, town wells, &c. belonging to the genera navi- culoc;, exilarire, bacillaria?, gaillonellas, &c. Their occurrence in many solutions likewise renders them especial objects of attention to the chemist. An example is furnished in fossil and other de- posits, especially in the tripoli slate of Bilin. Animine. An oily base, with a peculiar smell, soluble in 20 parts cold water, less soluble in hot water, the cold solution becoming milky by heat ; changes reddened litmus to a violet- blue ; very soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils ; ob- tained from rectified oil of Dippel by saturating with ammonia, and distilling ; the first liquid is odorin; the next portions are odorine and ani- mine ; when the mixture is agitated with water, the odorine dissolves; by supersaturating with sulphuric acid, evaporating and distilling the residue with a base, animine remains as an oil. Muriate of animine forms double salts with cop- per, gold, and platinum : little soluble in water. Anime Resin, a resin much resembling co- pal, obtained from the Hymencea, courbarii of Cayenne ; it is distinguished from copal by its ready solubility in alcohol ; it is used for varnishes and for scenting pastilles. There are two kinds, the American and Oriental; the latter consisting apparently of two resins. When digested in cold alcohol, a portion remains undissolved, which crystallizes from hot alcohol (subresin). Aiiion. (, upwards ; and /, I go.) When a, substance is decomposed by the galvanic bat- ter}', the elements into which it is resolved are termed ions ; the element going to the anode is an electro-negative body, or an-ion, while the element which proceeds to the cathode is an elec- tro-positive, or cat-ion (XU.TO, and >iiv Miluble in hot water, very soluble in alcohol and ether ; forming crystalline ANN" salts with alkalies, oxides of lead, and silver ; formed by boiling anise or estragon stearoptene with nitric acid (spec. grav. 1-2), washing the crystals, when separated, with cold water, and subliming them. Anisidinc. C 14 H 9 -N0 2 , or toluidine less 2 atoms oxygen. An oil formed by treating nitranisole with an alcoholic solution of sulpho- hydride of ammonia, evaporating the alcoholic solution at a gentle heat to , and adding chlo- rohydric acid, and filtering. By distilling the muriate with potash, anisidine passes over. Anisoiiic. C 20 H 12 O 2 . White, solid, without odour, insoluble in water, little soluble in alcohol, soluble and crystallizable in ether; melts above 212 ; formed by treating anise stearoptene with 1^ its volume of sulphuric acid ; a resin results, which is freed from acid by boil- ing water, and distilled, when it is converted into anisoine, a solid which distils over with a vola- tile oil. Anisole. Carlolate of Methyle. C 14 r H 8 O 2 . A colourless aromatic fluid, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether; boiling at 305; formed by distilling anisic acid with an excess of lime or barytes. It is anisic acid, with 2 atoms carbonic acid removed. It forms chloranisole, &c. Auisylc. C 1G H 7 O 4 . The hypothetic radical of anisic acid, the hypothetic hydride of which would be C 16 H 7 O 4 H. Anise Stearoptene. Anise Camphor. C 1() H(j O. Crystalline plates, obtained by exposing anise oil to 32, and pressing in blotting paper to separate it from the fluid elaoptene, and crys- tallizing it from 90 per cent, alcohol. Sp. grav. at 53, 1-044; melted at 77, -9849; at 200, 9256; soluble in 4 alcohol (-806) at 50; in 0-6 alcohol at 59 ; it unites with chlorohydric gas ; fusing point 61; boiling point, 428; not changed by air, but when kept fluid it is no longer crystallizable. It is identical with the stearopten of fennel and star anise. Ankerite. Pyrotamous lime haloid. CaOCOg 51-1, Mg OC0 2 25-7, FeOCO 2 20-, MnOCO 2 3-. Rhomboids with angles of 106 -12 ; differing, therefore, from calc. spar. Spec. grav. 3-080, H 3-5 to 4. White, with tints of gray, red, and brown; foliated, slightly translucent, brittle, lustre pearly B.B. becomes black magnetic; occurs in Salzburg upon beds in mica slate, and also in Stiria. It is often considered a variety of dolomite or brown spar. Annealing. (Saxon, celan, to heat.) Tem- pering ; recuire (F.) ; anlassen (G.) When glass and metals, particularly iron or steel, have been heated to a red heat, they are very brittle. Glass drops, for example, made in the form of what are termed Prince Rupert drops, are so brittle, that when touched sharply with a stone, or when a portion is broken off, they fly into a thousand frag- ments : glass requires, therefore, to be annealed ; a process consisting in placing it in a furnace for many hours, and gradually drawing it to a cooler GO ANN part of the oven. Malleable iron, when it is to be subjected to pressure, requires annealing. Thus, boiler plates, which are draAvn out by rol- lers, are placed for some time in an annealing furnace. Tempering of steel is an analogous process, and consists in heating the metal at va- rious temperatures. Under these circumstances, steel acquires a peculiar tint by oxidization, according to the heat applied. When heated in oil to 430, the temperature required for razors and scalpels, steel assumes a very pale yellowish tinge; at 460, the colour is a pale straw tint, and the instrument has the usual temper of pen- knives, razors, and other fine-edged tools. As the heat rises, the colour becomes successively yellow, brown, red, and purple, to 580, when the metal possesses an miiform deep blue tinge, as exemplified in watch springs. The blue weakens to a water colour, which is the last step that can be distinguished before the metal be- comes red hot. The explanation of the process of annealing will depend upon the theory of heat which may be adopted. According to the mate- rial theory, annealing may restore the heat which has been lost in the preparation of the iron. By the immaterial theory, the particles of iron and glass are placed by the high temperatures of pre- paration in a peculiar condition, opposed to the attraction of cohesion ; the cohesive force being restored by the modified application of heat in the annealing or tempering process. The follow- ing table (Parkes) gives the metallic mixtures of tin and lead, for baths, for tempering Va- rious instruments. The quantity of lead varies, but that of tin is always 4 : Lead. Tin. Temp. Lancets, f 4 420 Razors, 8 4 442 Penknives, Si 4 450 Do. larger, 10 - 4 470 Scissors, shears, 14 4 490 Axes, plane iron*?, 19 4 509 Table knives, 30 4 530 Watch springs, swords,. 48 4 550 Large springs, augers,... 100 4 558 Annotto. Annatto. Arnotto. Onoto. Roucou (F) ; Orlean (G.) Brown cakes, being the pulp of the seeds of the Bixa orellana, a shrub of . America, but now cultivated in the W. and E. Indies. It is prepared by triturating gently the grains of the bixa under water, so as to rub off the superficial colouring matter without dis- solving mucilage ; the colouring matter settles, and is called achiote; it is then dried in cakes for sale. It has no taste, but a smell of urine, which is said to be added to it ; soluble in water, slightly in alcohol, ether with orange colour, in caus- tic potash with a red colour, also in oil of turpen- tine ;. sulphuric acid makes it indigo blue ; nitric acid makes it green; it contains a yellow and red-colouring matter. Annotto is sometimes em- ployed for dyeing silk of an orange colour, by ANT immersing the goods in a solution of the dye in potash, or soda, and brightening by means of alum, vinegar, or lime juice. It is extensively used for dyeing cheese and butter. Anode. (&&/, upwards ; and jsa?, a way the way which the sun rises.) That surface at which the electric current enters, being the nega- tive extremity of the decomposing body by the agency of a galvanic battery, and is where oxygen, chlorine, acids, &c. are evolved. The term is founded on the view that in any case of electric decomposition the decomposing body is considered as placed so that the current passing through it shall be in the same direction and. parallel to that supposed to exist in the earth from east to west, then the surfaces at which the electricity is passing into and out of the substance- would have an invariable reference ; that towards the east is the anode, and that towards the west the cathode. Anorthite. (*v0?, without right angles.)* Christianite. White doubly- oblique prisms; fracture conchoidal, lustre on cleavage planes pearly, other- wise vitreous. H 6, spec. grav. 2-762 to 2-656,. B.B. fuses on the edges with great difficulty ; with borax and microcosmic salt fuses into a transparent bead, in the latter case leaving a skeleton of silica ; with carbonate of soda forms an enamel. It consists of silica 44-49 AlaOg. 34-46, CaO 15-68, MgO 5-26, Fe 2 O 3 -74, some- times 2 per cent, of potash. It is closely allied to felspar ; occurs at Mount Vesuvius in limestone along with greenish pyroxene. Aiioxydic Bodies, are those whose car- bon, when they are charred, yields nothing to solvents, as in blood. Anserine. CIQ HQ 0s. Yellow oil liquid at common temperatures, but becoming a tallow at 45 ; it is the pigment of the feet and bill of the goose, pigeon's foot, and in the craw fish. Autalogcue. A synonyme of iodine, from its positive relation to chlorine (halogene.) Aiitliiarine. The peculiar poison of the- upas anthiar, said to consist of C^H^Cs. It exists in the resin to the extent of 3-56 per cent. Ajnthocyane. The blue colour of flowers- soluble in alcohol. Anthophyliite, Anhydrous. (a V ? , a flower; and quxxov, a leaf.) Strelite, Karstine. Yellow- gray crystals or crystalline fibres often radiating,, cleavable parallel to a right rhombic prism with angles of 125 30' and 54 30' ; fracture uneven,, lustre pearly, inclining to metallic ; translucent. H 5 to 5, spec. grav. 2-94 to 3-1558. B.B. in- fusible; forms a glass with borax coloured by iron; consists of silica 57-12, FeO 13-52, MgO 25-92, CaO 1-32, HO 1-36. It occurs at Kongs- berg in Norway in mica slate ; in Greenland and Mecklenburg. Antnophyllite, Hydrous. H 2 -5, spec, grav. 2-911. Greenish-yellow diverging fibres, consisting of a series of plates or very imperfect Cl ANT diverging from various centres (scopi- form) of which the fibres are separable, but with greater difficidty than asbestus ; lustre silvery ; opaque; sectile; feel soft; it consists of silica 54-98, MgO 13-376, Fe 2 O 3 9-832, MnO 1-20, KO 6-804, A1 2 O 3 1-56, HO 11-448. New York; Girvan, Ayrshire. Anthoaiderite, or hydrous tersilicate of iron, (Fe 2 O 3 3 Si0 3 HO) from Brazil, consisting of Si0 3 61-36, A1 2 6 3 34-66, HO 3-98. AnthoA-anthiiic. The yellow colour of flowers. Anthracene. Paranaplithallne. C 3 oHi 2 . Co- lourless crystalline grains, fusing at 356, sublim- ing at 592, spec. grav. of vapour 6-741, obtained in the rectification of coal tar; it separates by application of cold in grains, not in plates, insol- uble iu water, slightly in alcohol and ether, very soluble in oil of turpentine. Nitric acid causes oxygen to replace hydrogen, and forms nitrites. Anthracene is distinguishedfrompyrene byplacing them on a bit of glass and heating anthracene gives a crystalline, pyrene no crystalline fume. Authracciicsc, JBinitrite of. C 30 H 10 O 2 , 2 NO 3 . Orange-yellow needles or powder with- out smell, insoluble in water, slightly soluble in boiling alcohol, more easily soluble in ether, sol- uble in sulphuric acid, and reprecipitated by water. Anthraceiii*e, Tcraitrite of. C 30 H<)Oo,, 3 NOo 3 HO. An orange-red resin , very fusible and soluble in ether. Obtained by the action of excess of nitric acid on anthracene. Anthraceuise, Nitrite of. C 30 H, S 4 N0 3 . Long yellow needles or prisms with two acute .terminations, someAvhat soluble in hot alcohol and ether. Obtained by the action of nitric acid on anthracene. Aiithraccnosc, Nitrite of. CgoHgO^NOs HO. Nearly colourless or yellowish needles, in- soluble in water. Obtained by acting on the mother liquors of the preceding bodies by nitric acid. (Laurent, Ann. Chim. 72, 421.) Anthracenu.se. C 30 H 7 O,v AVhite needles, becoming yellow until washed with ether, free from resin, prepared by converting anthracene into nitrite of anthracenose, and gently heating in a basin covered with a capsule, when anthra- cemisc sublimes. Anthracite. ( a! /0|, oarbo, charcoal.) Glance coal, Column" / coat, Kilkenny coal, Blind coal, Culm. Spided prisms, and acute 8-hedrons (?) ; distin- guished from common coal by its higher specific gravity, its se;iii-mctallic lustre, and by its burn- ing without emitting smoke. Colour, black; lustre splendent and semi-metallic; sometimes beautifully iridescent, as at Lehigh. It occurs in primary rocks, but is most abundant in altered or transition rocks, as at Lehigh, in beds of 12 to 1 f> feet, up to 30 feet in thickness, alternating with clay slate, mica slate, and sandstone, also ANT in Rhode Island ; it is found in Wales in the coal measures. The following table gives the composition of some anthracites : Sable. Swansea. Isere. Vizille. Pembroke. C... 87-22 90-58 94- 94-09 94-1 ' H... 2-49 3-60 1-49 1-85 2-39 N .. 2-31 0-29 0-58 2-85 -87 O... 1-08 3-81 1-34 Ash, 6-90 1-72 4- 1-90 1-3 It is now used in the hot blast process for iron. Anthracolite. Anthraconite. Swinestone, Stinkstone. A foliated or compact bituminous foetid variety of limestone, occurring at Andreas- berg, in the Harz, Christiania, Andrarum, Neu- dorf, and Dalmatia. Amhrakometcr. (v^|, carbon; piT^y, measure.) An instrument used for measuring the carbonic acid of the air. See ATMOSFHKRK. Anthraiiilic Acid. C 14 H 6 N() 3 HO. Yellowish translucent regular plates with a fine lustre; sublimes like benzoic acid by greater heat; when distilled yields carbonic acid and aniline ; slightly soluble in water ; very soluble in alcohol and ether, the solutions being acid, and having the taste of benzoic acid. Obtained by boiling indigo with caustic potash of spec. grav. 1*35, and diluting with water; before the indigo is entirely dissolved black oxide of manganese is cautiously added, tmtil a portion of the solution taken out no longer deposits indigo. After dilu- tion it is saturated with sulphuric acid, and eva- porated to dryness, the anthranilate of potash taken up with alcohol and decomposed by acetic acid ; it is further purified by uniting it with lime, and decomposing. Anihropic Acid. (v a metallic oxide. When tartar emetic is dried at 212 it loses 2 atoms of water of crys- tallization, and becomes anhydrous. When ln-atcd to 428 it loses the elements of 2 atoms atix, and becomes KO SbO 3 C 8 IL,O, S , while the other emetics undergo a similar change. i. lies. ANT Hydrous Teroxide. Sb0 3 2 HO 21-375, 171. Dissolve freshly precipitated tersulphide in caustic soda, boil ; add a solution of sulphate of copper, till a portion of the solution, mixed with acids, gives a pure white. It is filtered from the sul- phide of copper filtered and washed (Fresenius). Anthnonious Acid. Sb0 4 or (SbO 3 Sb0 5 ) 20-; 161. Specific gravity, 6-695. Fine white powder, becoming yellow when heated, not de- composed by ignition but volatilized before the blowpipe ; acid reaction ; is reduced to the me- tallic state by ignition with potassium or sodium, likewise by charcoal, cyanide of potassium, ferro- cyamde of potassium. Process. This acid is obtained by oxidizing antimony by nitric acid, evaporating to dryness, and igniting the antimo- uic acid until it is changed into antimonious acid. Antimonites are colourless, and are decomposed by nitric acid ; some of these salts glow when ignited, and are then very insoluble in acids ; but this is not the case with the alkaline salts. Antimonic Acid.$bO 6 21; 169. Spec. grav. 6-525 (Boullay). Straw-yellow powder, tasteless and insoluble in water, becoming of a deeper yellow when repeatedly heated ; reaction acid. When ignited oxygen is given out and antimonious acid remains. When fused with, some metallic sulphides, it is changed into ter- oxide, sulphurous acid being evolved. Process. : Dissolve antimony in aqua regia, and evaporate until all the nitric acid is removed a red heat will expel an atom of oxygen ; it is also formed by igniting the metal with nitre or oxide of mercury, or by dropping quintochloride of antimony into water. It decomposes the alkaline carbonates by fusion, but not in solution ; soluble in caustic pot- ash, from, which acids precipitate the following : Hydrous Antimonic Acid. When antimony is fused with 4 parts of nitre and washed with water, antimoniate of potash dissolves, and biantimoniate remains ; from both of which the hydrate is ob- tained by means of nitric acid. The hydrate contains an atom of water, and is a fine white powder. It is sparingly soluble in water, and then precipitated by sulphohydric acid. It is- slightly soluble in chlorohydric and tartaric acids. Antimoniates. Antimonic acid replaces car- bonic acid, when fused with alkaline, carbonates. It unites with 1, 1|, and 2 atoms of base, and also 1 base unites with 2 acid ; colourless salts ; decomposed by feebler acids ; the acid then falls, as a hydrate, which is soluble in chlorohydric and tartaric acids. fd-ntifinirmiiitc. of PnlngJi. Bilxtsic Anil- mo&u&e. KO SbOs 7 HO. Granular Anti- i//<>/,< -tifc, of Potash. White, crystalline. Very solulile i:i cold \\ ater, more soluble in hot. When boiled with water it is changed into neutral anti- J moniate. It is this salt which is a valuable re- agent for detecting soda. J'rocess. Fuse 1 part of metallic antimony Avith 4 nitre, digest in'warm water to remove nitrite and nitrate of potash, when neutral antimoniate of potash remains. This is ANT boiled for about an hour until it is all dissolved. It is filtered to separate the biantirnoniate which remains undissolved. The filtered liquid is evaporated in a silver or platinum capsule to the consistence of syrup, till the gummy antimoniate begins to deposit. A few pieces of caustic potash are now added, to change the antimoniate into the meta or bibasic antimoniate, and the evapora- tion is continued until a portion, placed on a plate of glass, begins to crystallize. The capsule is withdrawn from the heat ; a crystalline deposit soon occurs a mixture of meta-antimoniate and of oimeta-antimoniate of potash. The alkaline liquor is poured off, and the salt dried in blotting paper, or on a porous tile. To use this reagent. Place about 70 grains in a test-glass, pour upon it about 150 grains of cold water, in order to dissolve the excess of potash which the salt may contain, and to decompose the neutral meta-antimoniate into the acid salt, which is only slightly soluble in cold water. The liquid is poured off, and the bimeta-antimoniate is washed repeatedly. The last washings should be made as rapidly as pos- sible, to dissolve as little as possible of the bi- meta-antimoniate of potash. When we are satisfied that the excess of potash has been re- moved, we leave the acid salt in contact with water for a few seconds; we filter the liquor, which is always somewhat turbid, and preserve it for detecting minute quantities of soda, (^J^ even.) If the bimeta-antimoniate of soda does not fall immediately it is because the solution is alkaline, but it falls in the course of a short period. Terek loride of A ntimony. Butter of Antimony. Sb.iCl3 2 9 - 5. This compound may be prepared by various methods : 1. By distilling 3 parts of corrosive sublimate with 1 part of antimony in fine powder, or 7 parts of sublimate with 3 parts of glass of antimony. 2. When 1 part of ter- sulphide of antimony is dissolved in 5 parts of fuming hydrochloric acid, with the assistance of a gentle heat, a solution of the antimony is obtained. This is to be allowed to clear by standing, and is then evaporated in a porcelain basin, until a drop, taken up by a glass rod, deposits crvstals, when placed on a cold plate of glass. The whole is transferred into a small retort and distilled. When a drop becomes solid on a piece of metal, pure chloride is present. The evaporation may be conducted entirely in the porcelain vessel, with the loss, however, of a small portion by volatilization. Instead of the sul- phide the metal may be employed. 3. The older methods consisted in distilling 6 parts of common salt, 5 parts of oxide of antimony, 7 parts sulphuric acid, and 3| water. Butter of antimony is a grayish solid, crystallizing in octa- hedrons. It fuses at 212, and possesses the consistence of an oil ; it boils at 356. By ex- posure to the air, it first smokes, attracts mois- ture, and gradually deposits the powder of alga- roth. When heated with nitric acid it is con- verted into antimonic acid. The anhydrous ANT chloride absorbs ammoniacal gas; the fluid chloride is decomposed by it. It is soluble in a warm solution of common salt, and on cooling it separates in large crystals. Tersulphide of Antimony. Crude Antimony. SbS 3 . Occurs native, but is sold under the form of crude antimony of a conical shape. To procure it in this form, the ore is pounded, fused in a crucible, with a hole in the bottom, which is placed over another of the same size. Kermes is a brownish- red oxysulphide, possessing some appearance of a crystalline structure. It leaves a red stain on paper; destitute of taste and smell. In cold water it is qtiite insoluble, but in boiling water it gives out SH ; scarcely soluble in caustic am- monia. It is a good deal employed on the continent, and has powerful emetic properties. It must not be administered along with acids, as they decom- pose it. It is used also as a paint. Quintosulphide or Golden Sulphuret. Persul- phuret. Sulphur auratum. Sb 85. Was known to Basil Valentine in the 15th century. It may be obtained by boiling equal parts of sulphur and crude antimony in caustic potash, or soda, till a clear solution is obtained. When sulphuric acid is added to the solution the golden sulphuret falls, winch is to be filtered and washed with cold water. It can also be obtained by dissolving the crystallized soda sulphuret of antimony in 3 tunes its weight of water, filtering and precipitat- ing with sulphuric acid. Any soluble sulphide of antimony will serve for its precipitation. The hydrate of this sulphide is obtained with a fine orange colour when a current of SH is passed through a solution of the oxide of antimony. It is an orange powder, becoming brown, almost destitute of taste and smell, insoluble in cold water ; caustic ammonia, potash, and soda, dis- solve it. When ignited in close crucibles sulphur is evolved, and the black sulphuret remains. It acts less powerfully than the preceding as a medicine. The Washed White Oxide of Antimony is pre- pared in various ways. A simple method is to mix 4 parts of tersulphide of antimony with 10 parts of nitre, and add them gradually to a red hot crucible. The fused mass consists of sulphate, nitrate, antimonite, and antimoniate of potash. By washing, the sulphate, nitrate, and subanti- moniate of potash are removed, while the insol- uble acid antimoniate remains. It is seldom now used in medicine, but still stands in the Prussian Pharmacopoeia. The Hepar Antimonii, or Liver of Antimony, is a mixture of a compound consisting of tersul- phide of antimony united to sulphide of potas- sium, with oxide of antimony and antimonite of potash. The processes for its preparation are very numerous ; the products are various. The Crocus of Antimony is a dark yellow or rust-coloured powder consisting of one part oxide of antimony, 2 parts sulphide of antimony, and variable quantities of potash and oxide of anti- 65 ANT mony.' It is prepared by deflagrating equal parts of sulphide of antimony and nitre, and washing the residue till the washings are tasteless. Red Antimony. Sb0 3 -{- 2 SbS 3 . Found in Saxony, in veins ; occurs in capillary crystals, their primitive form being a right square prism. Spec. grav. 4-09 1-6. Colour cherry-red, frac- ture foliated. Separation of Arsenic and Antimony. When the metals occur together in the form of a metal- lic alloy, the arsenic may be volatilized by pass- ing a current of hydrogen gas over the alloy, with the application of heat. This should be moderate, otherwise the antimony will also be driven over. By weighing the alloy and tube containing it before and after the experiment, the loss measures the amount of arsenic ; or a sim- pler method is to dissolve the alloy in nitric acid and add water ; the teroxide of antimony falls and the arsenious acid remains in solution. It is necessary to add a few drops of caustic ammonia to precipitate a small portion of antimony which still remains in solution. Estimation of Antimony. The antimony is precipitated from its solutions by sulphuretted hydrogen; the resulting compound is the ter- sulphide (Sb S 3 ), which is thrown on a weighed filter, washed, and dried at 212. When weigh- ed, every 22 grams indicate 16 of antimony, or 14 of the teroxide. This may be further examined by converting the sulphur into S0 3 by NQs- Aiitimoiiyle. (Sb0 2 ). A theoretical mode of viewing the base of teroxide of antimony, which would be an oxide of antimonyle (Sb0 2 O). Antiphlogistic Theory. (r, opposed to, and phlogiston.') The phlogistic theory of Stahl considered oxides of metals as simple bodies, and the metals as compounds of the oxide with a hypo- thetical substance, phlogiston. Lavoisier started the antiphlogistic theory, now in use, which considers the metals as simple, and the oxides compounds of metals and oxygen. In medicine, antiphlogistic remedies (*>, against, and . Oblique -1-sided prisms (?) the angles of tlie prism being 123 55' and 56 5', while those of amphibole are 124 30' and 55 30'. Spec. grav. .'l-.'JOD, H 4'5. Lustre resinous; opaque: colour ]iurc black. The prism splits parallel to its longitudinal faces, but no clea vage can be observed parallel to the base; we AEK are therefore ignorant whether the prism be right or oblique. It consists of Si0 3 - 50-508, A1 2 , 5 2-488, Fe 2 O 3 35-144, Mn 2 O 3 8-920, CaO 1-56, HO -96. B.B. fuses per se into a black globule; with borax and salt of phosphorus into a glass coloured by iron. Brought from Kargardluarduk by Giesecke. Argancl IJamp. Invented by Argand in 1789, with a circular wick to admit a double current of air ; in common use. Argal or Argols. The commercial name of impure cream of tartar, or acid tartrate of pot- ash, as it is taken in the form of an incrustation from the interior of wine casks. It has usually a red tinge, due to the colouring matter of the grape. ArgcMtanc. German silver, Paclcfong, Brit- ish plate. An alloy consisting of copper, nickel, and zinc, in various proportions, in imitation of the Chinese silver or packfong, which has been found to contain Cu 43-8, Ni 15-6, Zn 40-6 (Engstrom, 1776), and Cu 40-4, Ni 31-6, Zn 25-4, Fe 2-6 (Fyfe, 1821), with a spec. grav. of 8-432. Each maker seems to have his own receipt for imitating this preparation ; the maille- chort of Paris, with a spec. grav. of 7-18, con- sists of Cu 65-, Ni 16-8, Zn 13-, Fe 3-4. I have found the composition of some used in Glasgow Cu 68-69, Ni 24-28, Zn 9-89. It is now extensively employed as a basis for plating with silver; forks and spoons, and articles of domestic use, being made of this material, and electro-plated. Before be- ing dipped in the plating trough, they are usually immersed in nitric acid. Argentarium. An alloy, consisting of equal parts of lead and tin. Argentine. Slate spar, in thin plates, in Norway, Glentilt, &c. A variety of calcareous spar, with a pearly lustre : also applied to oxide of antimony. Argentvive. (Living silver.) The alche- mical name of mercury. Argil. The old name of alumina or clay. Argillaceous. Containing clay or alumina; applied to slates. Argillite. A synonyme of clay slate. Argyrithrose. Argento sulphide of anti- mony, Red silver ore. Argyrose. Sulphide of silver ore. Arieine. Cusco cinchonine. C 20 H 2 4 N 3 . Obtained from arica bark, in the "same way as cinchonine, from Penman bark; it is closely allied to this alkaloid, as it differs from it by containing 2 atoms more oxygen, and 1 more than in quinine ; it crystallizes in white brilliant translucent needles, with a slightly bit- ter taste. The salts of aricine are very- bitter: soluble in w r ater and alcohol, insoluble hi ether. ArkatiMife. A variety of brookite or tita- nic, acid, found in Arkansas, United States. Arkowe. The felspathic sandstone of Poi- vin, in the Vosges, formed by the assimilation of hyalite and felspar, resting on granite. ASM Armenian Bole. See BOLE. Armenitc, or blue carbonate of copper. Armcninm. Probably a yellow or orange ochre. Arnicine. An acrid resin, soluble in alco- hol and ether. Similar to cytisin ; derived from the flowers of arnica montana. A rn olio. See ANNOTTO. Aroma. (5j, life.) The French name for nitrogen. Azotic and Azotous Acids. Synonymes of nitric and nitrous acids. Azoxybenzide. C 12 H 5 NO. Obtained, along with azobenzide, when nitrobenzide is dis- tilled with an alcoholic solution of potash. Azotide. A compound of nitrogen with bases ; also called nitride, nitruret, nitret. Azotized Bodies. Substances containing nitrogen. Azulmic Acid, Azulmine. C 3 N 2 H ? Black substance proceeding from the spontaneous decomposition of cyanogen in water. According to others it is composed of 2 cyanogen -f- 1 HO. A)zure Stone, or Lazulite, or Lapis lazuli. Azure Spar. Blue Spar. A variety of lazulite. B Babingtonite. Spec. grav. 3-4; H 5'5. Black 8-sided prisms, from a doubly-oblique prism, the angles being 92 34, 88 and 112 30'. I found a specimen from Arendal to consist of Si0 3 47-46, A1 2 O 3 6-48, FeO 16-81, MnO 10-16, CaO 11-74, MgO 2-21, HO 1.24. For- mula, from Arppe's analysis 3(CaO Si0 3 ), 3Fe02 Si0 3 . Arppe found in it SiO 3 54-4, AL> O 3 -3 FeO 21-3, MnO 1-3, CaO 19-6, MgO 2-2, HO -9. B.B. fuses into a black ena- mel. It is closely allied to hornblende. Bablah. The brown fruit or seed of the Mimosa Arabica, or M. cinerea, from India and Senegal. It contains gallic and tannic acids, and is used in calico printing to give different shades of brown with an alum mordant. Bagrationite. Allied to gadolinite. Spec, grav. 4-115, H=6'5. Found in the Ural moun- tains. Baierinc. Bavarian tantalite, Columbite. Baikalitc. A dark green variety of py- roxene, found on lake Baikal in Siberia. Balance. The instrument by means of which the accurate weight of substances is determined in chemical analyses. The construction of a ba- lance being the work of a mechanic, it is only necessary here simply to allude to those points which are requisite for the chemist to be ac- quainted with, in order to direct him in his pur- chase, and to enable him to adjust his instrument so as prevent it from becoming disordered from misuse. The chemist requires a very delicate balance for minute weights, and likewise another for heavy weights, sufficiently delicate, however, that it shall turn with a few tenths of a grain when loaded with some pounds. One of the best balances for delicate weighing is that contrived by Captain Kater and Mr. Robinson, and usu- ally known as Robinson's balance. The accom- panying cut will give an idea of its construction^ The beam of the balance, which is a frame of bell metal, in the form of a rhomb, is only 10 inches long. The fulcrum is an equilateral tri- angular prism of steel, ail inch in length; the edge on which the beam vibrates being formed to an angle of 120, that no injury may result from the weight with which it may be loaded. The knife edge of the fulcrum rests on an agate plane throughout its whole length. The sup- ports for the scales are knife edges, on which the agate planes hook on a plan suggested by Cavendish and these are supplied with two pressing screws, so as to make them parallel to the central knife edge. Each end of the beam is sprung obliquely upwards and towards the middle, so as to form a spring through which a pushing screw passes, which serves to vary the point of suspension from the fulcrum, and, at the same tune, by its oblique action, to raise or de- BAL press it, so as to furnish a means of bringing the points of suspension and the fulcrum into a right line. A piece of wire, 4 inches long, on which a screw is cut, points from the centre of the beam downwards. This tapers so as to form an index, and a small brass ball moves on the screw to enable the centre of gravity to be changed at will. On the lower half of the pillar on which the agate plane is fixed for the support of the fulcrum, a tube slides up and down, by means of a lever, which passes to the outside of the case. From the top of this tube arms proceed obliquely towards the end of the balance, which support a horizontal piece, carrying at each extremity two sets of Y's, one a little above the other. The upper Y's are destined to receive the agate planes to which the scales are attached, and thus to re- lieve the knife edges from their pressure; the lower to receive the knife edges themselves, which form the points of suspension of the pans, conse- quently the lower Y's, when in action, sustain the whole beam. When the lever is freed from a notch in which it is lodged, a spring is allowed to act upon the tube already mentioned, and to elevate it. The upper Y's first meet the agate planes carrying the scale pans, and free them from the knife edges. The lower Y's then come into action, and raise the whole beam, elevating the central knife edge above the agate plane. This is the usual state of the balance when not in use. When it is to be brought into action, the reverse of what has been described takes place. On pressing down the lever, the central knife- edge first meets the agate plane, and afterwards the two agate planes, carrying the scale pans, are deposited on them, supporting knife edges. To adjust this balance, Captain Kater, who used It in arranging the imperial standard weights, gives the following directions : 1. To bring the points of suspension and the fulcrum into a right line, make the vibrations of the balance very slow, by moving the weight which influences the centre of gravity, and bring the beam into a horizontal position, by means of small pieces of paper thrown into the scales. Then load the scales with nearly the greatest weight the beam is fitted to carry. If the vibrations are performed in the same tune as before, no further adjustment is necessary ; but if the beam vibrates quicker, or if it oversets, cause it to vibrate in the same time as at first, by moving the adjusting weights, and note the distance through which the weight has passed. Move the weight then in the contrary direction, through double this distance, and then produce the former slow motion, by means of the screw acting vertically on the points of suspen- sion. Repeat this operation till the adjustment is perfect. 2. To make the arms of the beam of an equal length, put weights in the scales as before ; bring the beam as nearly as possible to a horizontal position, and note the division at which the index stands ; unhook the scales, and trans- fer them with their weights to the other ends of BAL the beam, when, if the index points to the same division, the arms are of equal length; but if not, bring the index to the division which had been noted, by placing small weights on one or the other scale. Take away half these weights, and bring the index again to the observed divi- sion by the adjusting screw, which acts horizon- tally on the points of support. If the scale pans are known to be of the same weight, it will not be necessary to change the scales, but merely to transfer the weights from one scale pan to the other. The beam is enclosed in a glass case ; and, to prevent rusting, a basin containing quick- lime, carbonate of potash, or sulphuric acid should be inserted within the case to absorb moisture. The weights commonly sold along with such ba- lances have the larger ones formed of brass, the smaller weights of platinum. They usually con- sist of 400, 300, 200, 100 separate grain weights in brass = 1000, and 40, 30, 20, 10, grains in platinum. The smaller grain weights all in platinum are 4, 3, 2, 1 grs. The tenths are -4 ( T * g ths), -3,'2,'I. The hundredths are made of platinum wire or foil, -04, -03, -02, -01. The thousandths of a gram, of a still finer wire, con- sist of -004, -003, -002, -001. Robinson's ba- lance, when in good order, will turn with the ^ (-001) of a grain, when loaded with 2000 grains in each pan, a delicacy indicat- ing the two-millionth part of the body weighed; but such minuteness is never required ; indeed, a chemist, who understands the value of numbers, will never present more than two or three deci- mals. If the arms of the beam be of different lengths, counterpoising weights, when reversed in the pans, will not equUibriate ; hence it is of ad- vantage always to put the weights in the same scale. The weights should frequently be exa- mined to ascertain that they agree with one another ; and if they do, it does not much signify Yhether the grain weight corresponds with the imperial standard, although it is proper that it should be so. The weights should always be lifted with a brass or steel forceps. The sub- stance to be weighed should be placed by means of a spatula on a watch glass, or glass tube, or glazed paper. When hot substances are weighed, they should be allowed to remain till they cool, and have ceased to depress the scale. When ong tubes are to be weighed, the lower extre- mity is placed in the pan, and the superior end upported by a loop of hair passing round the upper part of the wires or threads of the scales. Bnldniu'a Phosphorus. Nitrate of lime, when evaporated, loses its water of crystalliza- tion, and becomes luminous in the dark, as discovered by Balduin in 1675. XEaliiiic Acid. C 38 H 38 O 4 . A fatty acid, fusing at 164; obtained from a natural atty oil. Balloon. (Ballon, Fr.) The silk apparatus or retaining coal gas, so as to cause an ascent n the atmosphere. The best material for their BAL construction is thin silk, covered with a solution of India rubber in naphtha. BCalsi* Ruby, or rose-red ruby. Baltimorite. Allied to serpentine; found near Baltimore, and in Perthshire. It is grayish- green, consisting of longitudinal fibres, somewhat resembling asbestus ; lustre silky; it consists of Si0 3 40-95, MgO 34-70, FeO 10-05, AL> O 3 1-5, HO 12-6. Balsams are aromatic semi-resinous fluids, often containing benzoic acid. In France, the presence of this acid is necessary to form a bal- sam, but not so in this country. On distillation they yield an oil, benzoic acid, when present, and leave a resin. The balsams in use are B. of copaiba, B. of Mecca, of Peru, of Tolu. The balsams containing benzoic acid are soluble in alcohol, resin being precipitated on the addi- tion of water, forming a milky fluid. Benzo- ine, storax, and liquid amber possess similar properties. Balsam of Sulphur. Sulphuretted oil. A dark-coloured adhesive mixture used in medicine, prepared by heating a pint of olive oil with 2 ounces of washed sulphur tuitil they unite. When considered formerly a balsam it was used in catarrhs, but is only now employed sometimes to wash foul ulcers. Bamlitc. A grayish-white radiated splin- tery mineral, from Bamle in Norway. Spec. grav. 2-984, H 6-, composition Si0 3 56-9, A1 2 O 3 40-75, Fe 2 3 1-04, CaO 1-04, Fl trace! Form. 2 A1 2 3 3 Si0 3 . Banded Jasper is formed of silica some- times united with some alumina in which the ap- pearance of a banded or ribbon-like deposition is presented ; probably from solution in water. Barbotinc. A vegetable product from the Levant and India, consisting of wax, bitter ex- tract, earthy and gummy matter. Bardigliouc. A blue variety of anhydrous sulphate of lime used for ornamental purposes. Bareginc. Glairine, Zoogene, Plombierine. A gelatinous organic deposit at the hot wells of Bareges, and other places, destitute apparently of organization, and probably therefore produced bv the action of water on plants. Sometimes the deposits at wells are species of nostoc. Barilla. The name given to commercial alkalies, formerly imported from Alicant, Malaga, Carthagena, &c. as derived from the combustion of sea plants. The term British barilla is applied to the soda ball, or crude soda, as it occurs as one of the stages in the production of carbonate of soda from common salt in British soda manu- factories, and also to kelp. Barium. Ba 8-5, 68 ; 68-6. A silver-white metal, inferior in lustre to cast iron. Spec, grav. 4- (?) Sinks in oil of vitriol; melts below redness, and is not volatile at a red beat ; ductile and malleable; decomposes water rapidly. 1. Obtained by exposing hydrate, carbonate, chloride, or nitrate made into a pasty BAR cup with water, and filled with mercury, in a platinum vessel, to the action of a battery of 500 plates. 2. By passing the vapour of potassium over red hot barytes, or chloride of barium (Sir H. Davy, Phil. Trans. 1808).' 3. By exposing barytes on charcoal to the oxygen-hydrogen blowpipe (An. Phil. 17, 419). Davy first obtained indications of this metal in October, 1807, and in March, 1808, formed an alloy of it with iron. The process of electrifying mercury in contact with barytes was pointed out to him in May, 1808, by Ber- zelius and Pontin, and in June he obtained the metal. Barytes. Baryta. Oxide of Barium. BaO 9*5, 9-575, 76*6. A grayish-white porous body. Spec. grav. 4 ; 4 7 3 2 . Taste harsh, and more caustic than lime, acting on the stomach as a violent poi- son ; turns vegetable blues green ; a non-conductor of electricity ; decomposes animal bodies like the fixed alkalies, though with less energy. Before the blowpipe on charcoal it fuses, and penetrates the charcoal, an effect probably occasioned by the per- sence of water, as it has since been found, when anhydrous, to fuse only by the strongest heat of a forge (Abich. Gay Lussac; Rech. Phys.-Chim. 1, 170), and by the oxy hydrogen blowpipe (Clarke). When sulphuric or chlorohydric acid is poured on barytes, it becomes red hot (Barry, Ann. Phil. 2d ser. 2, 77). When water is poured on it, barytes is slaked like quicklime with the evolution of heat ; the mass becomes white and swells ; if more water is added, so as to dilute it completely, the barytes crystallizes on cooling as a hydrate (BaOHO), and it then absorbs carbonic acid from the air, and must,, therefore, be preserved in closely-stoppered bottles (Mem. de 1'Institut. 2, 59 ; Fourcroy, 2, 193). The hydrate loses no Avater by ignition (Bucholz. and Gehlen). Anhydrous barytes dissolves in 35 water at 55|, in 7| at 116|, in 5-6 at 158 a (Osann); while th ehydrate dissolves in 20 cold r and 2 boiling water. Process. 1. Barytes may- be easily prepared by dissolving the native car- bonate of Anglesark in Lancashire in nitric acid, crystallizing, and exposing the nitrate to a strong red heat, gradually applied, in a clay crucible, covered after the escape of the greater portion of the nitric acid. 2. The carbonate may be formed from the sulphate by mixing it in fine powder with one-fourth its weight of charcoal, and ignit- ing the mixture for two hours in a clay cru- cible (BaOS0 3 and 2C become BaS and 2CO 2 evolved); sulphide of barium is formed and car- bonic acid evolved. The sulphide is dissolved in water, and precipitated by an alkaline carbo- nate. The carbonate of barytes being washed, is treated with nitric acid, and ignited (Scheele). 3. Barytes may be obtained from the carbonate by mixing the carbonate with one-tenth its weight of lamp black or charcoal, made into a paste with gum or oil, and heating to whiteness n a black lead crucible (Hope, Pelletier). 8G BAR Protohydrate. BaOHO 10-625. White powder or fused white mass, forming an oily liquid at a low red heat. Novohydrate, or crystalline hydrate. Ba09HO. Spec. grav. 2-188 (Filhol). Clear, colourless, 4-sided or flat G-sided prisms, with 4-sided pyra- mids (Hope, Edin. Trans. 4, 36). At 212 they undergo the watery fusion, and their water is re- duced to 2 atoms or 20 per cent. ; the original water being about 53 per cent. ; they are soluble in 17^ water at 60, and in any quantity of boiling water, as the crystals themselves fuse at that heat (Hope). Process. The crystalline hydrate is obtained by dissolving anhydrous barytes from nitrate in water, and evaporating in vacuo. Binoxide, Deutoxide, Peroxide. Ba0 2 10-5 (Thenard, Rec. Phys.-Chim. 1, 169). Grayish powder, more fusible than the equioxide ; when placed in powder in water, it becomes white and hydrous, without giving out heat; it does not decompose at a low red heat, but when the heat is increased, or in boiling water, it gives out oxygen. With carbonic acid it affords oxygen and carbon- ate of barytes. Carbon, boron, phosphorus, sul- phur, and the metals, remove oxygen from it when heated, and likewise cold sulphuretted hydrogen decomposes it. It is precipitated in pearly scales with 6 atoms water (Liebig and Wohler, Poggen. Ann. 26, 172), by adding a solution of binoxide of hydrogen to barytes water; the hydrate is decomposed at 212 into oxygen and solution of barytas. Process. The binoxide is prepared by passing dry oxygen gas slowly over anhydrous barytes (carefully prepared from the nitrate) in a hard glass tube (Gay Lussac and Thenard), or by sprinkling chlorate of pot- ash in small portions over barytes at a low red heat, in a platinum crucible, and washing out the chloride of potassium with water, the hy- drated binoxide remaining (Liebig and Wohler). Salts of Barytes. 1. They are generally white or colourless, and crystalline. 2. The soluble salts of barytes give a white precipitate by sul- phuric acid and alkaline sulphates, insoluble in nitric acid. 3. Ammonia does not precipitate barytes, while soda and potash do. 4. Yellow prussiate gives no precipitate. 5. The soluble salts of barytes are poisonous. 6. Before the blow- pipe, salts of barytes communicate a green tinge to the flame. 7. Sulphate of lime in solution precipitates barytes salts immediately. 8. Chro- mate of potash precipitates alkaline and neutral solutions of salts of barium yellow ; insoluble in alkalies and acetic acid ; while no precipitate oc- curs with strontian and lime salts. Chloride Hydrous. VnClZKO 15-25; 122- Ba 55-73, Cl 29-5, HO 14-77. Spec. grav. 3.049 (Karsten). Commonly colourless tables, refer- able to the right prismatic system. Taste, pun- gent and disagreeable ; poisonous ; not altered in the air, decrepitating on being heated, but not liquefying ; by ignition it fuses, but does not de- BAR compose. When the anhydrous salt is exposed to the air, it takes up two atoms of crystalline water, or 14| per cent.; 100 water at 61| dissolve 39-6 salt, with rise of temperature, when, anhydrous (Brandes and Melm, Repert. 14, 97) ; at 60, 43-5 (Gay Lussac); at 32, 32-62; and 0-2711 for every 1-8 degree above 32 (ib.); at 222, 78 parts (ib.) ; at 212, 72 (B. and M.) 100 parts of boiling absolute alcohol, (-7964) dis- solve 0-25 parts of the salt (Bucholz, Beitrage, 3, 24); not when cold; 100 parts of alcohol (93-3 percent.), at 57 2 dissolve -0012 salt; at a boiling temperature, - 0020 (Fresenius, Quantitative Analysis'). Alcohol of -8 8 sensibly dissolves it (Thomson) ; a saturated, or even a strong solution of chloride of barium is precipi- tated by chlorohydric and nitric acids, and hence, in testing for sulphuric acid with this salt, this fact is to be noted. The anhydrous chloride (BaCl), which results from igniting the hydrate, is a white mass, with a specific gravity of 3-7037 (Karsten), 3-8 (Richter), 3-86 to 4-156 (Boullay); when heated in contact with steam, it gives out chlorohydric acid, and becomes alkaline (Kraus, Poggen. Ann. 43, 140). It is decomposed in solution by soda or potash nitre (Karsten). It is not decomposed in the cold by the vapour of an- hydrous sulphuric acid (Rose, Pogg. Ann. 38, 120). Process. It may be prepared by dissolving the native or artificial carbonate of barytes in chloro- hydric acid, and crystallizing, or by boiling the solution of sulphuret of barium (from the decom- posed sulphate with charcoal) with the same acid, until the sulphuretted hydrogen ceases to be evolved ; filtering, and crystallizing. Chlorides of strontium and calcium may be removed from it by means of alcohol, which scarcely dissolves chloride of barium. Small portions of these salts may be detected by burning the alcohol, which gives a red with them, and a green when in con- tact with barytes salts. Use. It is principally employed for testing and precipitating sulphuric acid in solutions ; every 14^ parts of the result- ing sulphate of barytes are equivalent to 5 sul- phuric acid. Sulphate. Heavy Spar. Barytine. Hepatite. Baroselenite. Cawlc. Bolognian Spar. Litheospore. BaOSO 3 14-51 14-575, 116-6 ; 'BaO 65-52, S0 3 34-48. Spec. grav. 4-446 (Mobs). Crys- tal. Primary form, a right rhombic prism, the faces of which are inclined at angles of 101 42', or 101 32| (Hauy), and 78 18'. It occurs in nature amorphous, and artificially BAR as a white powder. Solubility. 1 part is so- luble in 43,000 parts cold water (Kirwan, -Mineral. 1, 136); oil of vitriol (HO SO 3 ) dis- solves it by boiling, but it is again precipitated on the addition of water (Withering) ; an acid sulphate being formed, which is deposited in needles, but decomposed by water. It becomes red hot when first mixed with the acid (Barry, Ann. Phil. 18, 77), and likewise with anhydrous acid (Kuhlmann). Oil of vitriol (1-848) does not unite with barytes at the usual temperature ; but if the barytes, when moistened with oil of vitriol, be touched with a hot iron, the com- bination extends throughout, and moist air has a similar effect (ib). Alcohol, ether, and pyroxylic spirit, if added to the acid, prevent its action on barytes. Anhydrous sulphuric acid, in vapour, over barytes, is absorbed, and renders it red hot (Bussy, Journ. Pharm. 10, 370). When heated, it decrepitates from the conversion of hygroscopic water between its plates into steam. Before the blowpipe it fuses into an opaque white globule a temperature of 35 Wedgewood being required (Saussure, Journ. Phys. 45, 15). When made into a paste with flour and water, and ignited, it phosphoresces in tho dark, from the sulphide formed by heat probably again uniting with oxygen, and becoming sulphate. An Italian shoemaker, named Vincenzo Casciarolo, first ob- served that the Bologna stone (found at the foot of mount Paterno), a variety of heavy spar, when ignited became luminous in the dark (Lemery). When boiled with carbonate of potash or soda, sulphate of barytes is partially decomposed (KO CO 2 and BaO S0 3 , become KO SO 3 and BaO CO 2 ) ; in the cold state the result is the opposite (Klaproth, Beit. 2, 70, and 73 ; Dulong, Ann. Chim. 82, 273). When fused with the alkaline carbonates, it is decomposed ; fused with chloride of calcium, it yields chloride of barium and sul- phate of lime ; but in solution the reverse results. When barytes salts are precipitated with sulphu- ric acid, or sulphates, the salts contained in the liquid are frequently taken down ; as nitrates of soda and barytes, but not chloride of barium. Ignition is frequently required in the case of nitrates, and then washing to remove it (Mits- cherlich, Pogg. Ann. 55, 214) ; chloride of mag- nesium, and oxides of iron, cobalt, copper, &c. fall with the sulphate of barytes, when the sulphates of these bases are mixed with chloride of barium (Berzelius, Ann. Chim. 14, 374). Sources. Sulphate of barytes is found along with galena in the graywacke formations, and likewise in the coal series, and in the old red sandstone conglomer- ate, as at Arran. It is used to mix with white lead in painting, but is of no value, as it is trans- parent, and thus injures the white lead. To render it fit for this purpose it is ground by millstones, and then by stones and water, into a fine powder. The powder is digested in sulphuric acid in iron pots, with the application of heat to remove iron. The sulphuric acid is washed out by water and BAR decantation, and the powder dried into cakes like magnesia over a flue. It is frequently mixed with ochre, chrome yellow, &c. according to the colour required. Nitrate. BaONOr, 16-25, 16-325, 130-6, BaO . 58-47, NO 5 41-53. Spec. grav. 2-9149 (Hassen- fratz, Ann. Chim. 28, 12); 3-1848 (Karsten). Crystal. Regular 8-hedrons and cubes, often ad- hering to each other in the form, of stars ; the sum- mits of the pyramids are often truncated. It some- times crystallizes in 3-sided tables, with truncated angles, or in brilliant plates. Taste hot, acrid, and austere. Solubility. 100 water at 32 dissolve 5 parts, diminishing the temperature; at 58 15'8 parts; at 120 17 parts; and at 215 35-2 parts (Gay Lussac). Insoluble in alcohol and strong nitric acid; its solubility in water is dimin- ished by the presence of nitric acid ; and carbonate of barytes is not dissolved by strong nitric acid (Mitscherlich, Pogg. Ann. 18, 159). It decrepi- tates by heat, and fuses ; by ignition it decom- poses, yielding oxygen, nitrogen, quatemitrous fumes, and leaving barytes. It detonates less violently with combustibles than most of the other nitrates. Process. This salt may be prepared by dissolving native or artificial carbonate in nitric acid, and crystallizing, or by adding nitric acid to a dilute solution of the sulphuret pre- pared by decomposing the sulphate by charcoal. Nitrate of soda likewise partially decomposes the sulphide (Mohr, Ann. Pharm. 25, 290.) Carbonate. Witherite. Barolite. BaOCO 2 12-25, 12-325, 98-6, BaO 77-55, CO 2 22-45. Specific gravity, native, 4-331 ; artificial, 3*763 (Thomson); 4-301 (Mohr); 4-3019 (Karsten). Crystal. ,Right rhombic prisms, with angles of 118-30, and 61 30' (Phillips). The usual crys- tal is a 6-sided prism, terminated by a 6-sided pyramid. Taste, none : yet it is poisonous. Soluble in 4304 parts cold, and 2304 hot water (Fourcroy, An. Chim. 4, 64); in 14,137 cold, and 15,421 boiling water, and hi 141,000 water containing ammonia or carbonate of ammonia (Fresenius, Quant. Analys.) Turns red litmus blue ; fuses before the oxyhydrogen blowpipe ; decomposed by a strong heat in a black lead cru- cible, or in the form of a paste with charcoal (Hope). In a blast furnace it loses its carbonic acid (Abich. Pogg. Ann. 23, 314), and at a lower temperature if vapour be present (Priestley). When mixed with sulphate of potash in water, partial double decomposition occurs, but at a higher temperature the reverse occurs (Kblreuter, Gossmann). It dissolves readily in cold solu- tions of muriate, nitrate, or succinate of ammonia (Vogel, Erdman. Journ. 7, 453). Source. It was first examined by Bergman. Dr. Withering found it native in 1783, and hence it was called Witherite. It occurs in veins along with lead ore in various parts of England, as at Anglesark, near Chorley, in Lancashire, and in Cumberland. It is found at Neuberg, in Styria, and in Hun- gary, Sicily, Siberia, &c. It is formed artificially 88 BAR (1) by exposing barytes water to the open air ; (2) by decomposing the sulphate by charcoal into the sulphide, and precipitating the yellow solu- tion of the sulphide by carbonate of ammonia, or soda, and washing ; or (3) it may be formed by fusing 14^ parts of powdered native sulphate of barytes with 7 parts of anhydrous carbonate of soda, digesting the fused mass in cold water, and washing out the sulphate of soda. Acetate of 'Barytes. BaOC 4 H 3 3 3HO. Ob- lique rhombic prisms, or 8-sided very soluble prisms, obtained by dissolving carbonate of foarytes in acetic acid, and evaporating. This salt is used in analysis when it is necessary to prevent the presence of nitric and chlorohydric acids, in a solution, or to convert a soluble sulphate into an acetate, thence into a carbonate or chlo- ride, as in the estimation of alkaline sulphates. Barm (Bier-rahm, beer-cream), A syno- jiyme of yeast. Barolite. Carbonate of barytes. Baroselcnitc. Sulphate of barytes. Barsovite. A mineral resembling scapolite, found at Barsowskoj in the Ural, but distinguish- able by its action with the blowpipe and with acids. Spec. grav. 2*74, H 5-5. Colour snow white ; massive, sometimes several cubic feet in size ; lustre pearly ; translucent on the edges ; B.B. fuses with difficulty. With borax, fuses into a transparent glass; with imiriatic acid it forms a jelly. Composition. SiO 3 49-08, A1 2 O 3 32-76, CaO 18-16. Form. 3 Ca02Si0 3 , 3 (AL>O 3 Si0 3 ). liaa-yto Calotte, of Broolce and Children, Alstonite. Calcareo-carbonate of Barytes. BaO C0 2 CaOC0 2 . White, with a shade of gray, yellow, or green oblique rhombic prisms, with angles of 106 54' and 102 54'. Spec. grav. 3-66 to 3-636 H 4-; lustre vitreous, inclining to resinous. B.B. does not fuse, but melts with bo- rax into a transparent glass ; it gives indications of some iron and manganese. It contains CaO O 2 31-65, BaOCO 2 62-20, with some impuri- ties, but when quite pure it has been found to consist of CaOCOo 31-89, BaOC0 2 66-2, silica '27. It occurs only at Alston Moor. Baryto Calcite of Bromley Hill Bromlite. Bicalcareo-carbonate of Barytes. Dimorphous fiaryto-calcite. Usually occurring in the form of two 6-sided pyramids, applied base to base ; the fracture, however, indicating that these pyramids are formed of 3 quadrangular pyra- mids with a rhombic base, penetrating so as to confound their axes; belonging, therefore, to the right prismatic system, or doubly-oblique rhombic system. Colour snow-white ; translucent ; lustre vitreous. Spec. grav. 3-718, H 2-25. When pure, it consists of the same ingredients as the preced- ing. BaOCO 2 65-31, CaO C0 2 32-9, SrOCO 2 1.1, Si0 3 -20, MnO -16; its formula being Ba OCO 2 CaOCOo. It is, therefore, dimorphous baryto calcite. "it is found at Fallowfield and Bromley Hill, near Alston Moor, in Cumberland. BAS Baryto Fluorspar. Specific gravity 3-75. BaOS0 3 51-5, Ca Fl 48-5, = BaOS0 3 , 3 Ca El. Constitutes a bed an inch thick in lime- stone in Derbyshire. Baryto Strontianitc, Stromnite. SrOCOg 68-6, BaO S0 3 27-5, CaOC0 2 2-6, FeO -1. Spec. grav. 3-7, H 3-5. Colour grayish- white ; lustre shining ; fracture glistening and resinous ; radiated, or in small plates ; brittle. B.B. in- fusible. Found at Stromness. Baryto Sulphate of Strontian. Radiated Celestine. Baryto Celestine. BaOS0 3 35-19, SrOSO 3 63-20, FeOSO 3 1-24, HO -72. Spec, grav. 3-921, H 2-75. Colour white, with a blue shade; texture laminated, or in imperfect crys- tals. B.B. becomes of a dazzling white, but does not easily fuse. Found in Drummond Island, Lake Erie, and at Kingston. Basalt. Spec. grav. 2-87 to 3-. A grayish or bluish-black rock with a splintery fracture, con- sisting of a black base of basanite or flinty slate, with crystals of augite and olivine interspersed. It has also been described as an intimate mix- ture of augite, labradorite, and magnetic iron. When of a columnar form, as at the Giants' Causeway and Staffa, the form of the pillar is a pentagonal or 5-sided prism. Before the blow- pipe it melts into a green glass, and is attracted by the magnet. It frequently contains augite, oh' vine, and hornblende, mica, hyacinth, obsidian, and titaniate of iron. It is frequently con- founded with fine-grained greenstone, which, how- ever, consists of albite and hornblende in about equal proportions. That which occurs near Edinburgh was analyzed by Dr. Kennedy in 1800, and found to consist of Si0 3 48-, A1 2 O 3 16, CaO 9, NaO 4, FeO 16, HC1 1-, BO 5-; and from Staffa, SiO 3 44-5, A1 9 O 3 16-75, CaO 9-5, FeO 20-2, MgO 2-25, MnO. 12, NaO 2-6, HO 2. Ebelmen found basalt from Polignac to contain SiO 3 53-, A1 2 3 18-4 CaO 6-8, FeO 9-5, MgO 3-5, KO 2-7,"NaO 3-1, HO, and organic mat- ter 3-7. From the action of acids on basalt, it has been represented as composed of zeolite 39-81, augite 55-5, FeO 4-61 (Lowe); but this is certainly not constant. Basalt, when fused and cooled rapidly, presents the appearance of bottle glass, but when slowly cooled it resumes its crystalline aspect. It has, therefore, been known for upwards of fifty years that trap rocks con- 89 BAS taiued water, although the fact has recently been announced as a new discovery. The pre- sence of water distinguishes the trap rocks from lava or recent volcanic rocks, which usually con- tain a mere trace of hygroscopic water. Ac- cording to C. Gmelin, basalt is resolvable by acids into a decomposable and a nondecompos- able part. Basaltic Hornblende. Hornblende occur- ring in basalt. Basaltine, or pyroxene. Basauite. Lydian Stone. Touchstone. Flinty Slate. Spec. grav. 2-585 to 2-644. H 7- Gray, bluish, yellow, brown, and red. When grayish- black called lyclian stone ; the other colours be- long to flinty slate ; fracture of flinty slate is slaty ; that of basanite even ; lustre glimmering ; composed principally of silica, ' its colour being due, according to Humboldt, to carb6n; it oc- curs in beds in trap rocks, &c. It is considered by some to be the basis of basalt. It occurs at Niederminnig and Mayen on the Ehine, where it is used for building and for millstones. Basanomelanite. Titaniferous iron. Basiciriue. Hydrofluoride of cerium. Base. A term usually applied to those bodies which are capable of uniting with acids to form salts, and are replaced by other bases. For example, ammonia (NH 3 ), when neutralized by sulphuric acid (HOS0 3 ), constitutes the base of the salt sulphate of ammonia (NH 3 S0 3 HO). When we add to this salt caustic potash (KO), the smell of ammonia is evident ; in other words, the base ammonia is replaced by the base potash, and in- stead of the salt sulphate of ammonia, we have now formed sulphate of potash (KOS0 3 ). The term base, in this case, is used instead of the older term alkali, a name which only applies to certain bases. But each of the bases and acids possesses likewise a base. Instead, however, of employing this expression hi such instances, it is now usual to speak of the radical or root of a base or acid. Hence we have basic and acid " T(n Heals. In ammonia, nitrogen is the radical of that base, or basic radical; and in sulphuric acids, sulphur is the radical of that acid, or acid radical. Some bodies are both base and acid formers, hence they have been sometimes termed amphif/ene bodies (both formers). These are oxygen, sulphur, selenium, and tellurium ; and the salts formed by them are thence called am- phide salts. A basic or subsalt is a compound consisting of an acid and a base, in which the base preponderates over the acid. Thus, corro- sive sublimate consists of 1 atom chlorine and 1 atom mercury (HgCl), and is an equisalt, or neutral salt, while calomel consists of 2 atoms mercury, and 1 atom chlorine (Hg 2 Cl), and is a svbsalt, or basic salt, or Oi 4 ? Anisidine, C 14 H 9 N0 2 Narcogenine, C 3G H 19 N0 10 Volatile Oily Bases. Chelidonine, C 40 H 20 N 3 6 Chelerythrine, ? Nicotine, C 10 H 8 N n ^"1 TT AT Glaucine, ? Connne, Ci6H 1G JN t Glaucopicrine, ? Alkaloids found in the Animal Organism. Bases of the Solanacece and other Vegetable Urea, C 2 N 2 H 4 2 Families. Creatinine, C S N 3 H 7 2 Hyosciamine, ? Stramonine, ? Daturine, ? Sabadilline, Volatile Oily Artificial Alkaloids. Atropine, C 34 H 33 NO G ? Aniline, Ci 2 H 7 N Solanine, C 84 H 68 N0 28 ? Chloraniline, doH 6 ClN Veratruie, C 24 Ho G NOg Dichloraniline, Ci 2 H 5 Cl 2 N 91 BAS BAS Ci 2 H 4 Cl 3 N" Ci 2 H 6 BrN C 12 H 5 Br 2 N" Ci<>H 4 Br 3 N C 12 H 6 IN Ci 2 H 4 N0 4 ,HEN C 26 H 11 I 2 N 3 Trichloraniline, Bromaniline, Dibromaniline, Tribromaniline, lodaniline, Nitraniline, Ethyl-nitraniline, Diethyl-chlDranUhie, Ci 2 H 4 CINE 2 <3yaniline, Ci 4 H 7 N" 2 Melaniline, C 2 6Hi 3 N^ Dichloromelaniline, C a6 H n Cl 2 N3 Dibromomelaniline* Di-iodomelaniline, Dinitromelaniline, Dicyanomelaniline, Odorine or Picoline, C 12 H 7 N Toluidine, Cyano- toluidine, Lutidine, Xylidine, Cyano-cumidine, !Nitro-cumidine, Cacotheline, Leucoline, JNltromesidine, Artificial Alkaloids from Oil of Mustard, C 14 H 9 NCy C 14 H 9 N dgHuBT Ci 8 H 13 NCy C 18 H 12 N0 4 N- C 42 H 22 N 4 2 Q C 18 H 8 N Thiosinnamine, Sinnamine, Sinapine, Sincaline, Sinapoline, Thialdine, Selenaldine, Melamine, Ammeline, Amarine, Lophine, Picrine, Piirfurine, lucusine, C 8 H 8 N 2 S 2 C 8 H 6 N 2 C 32 H 26 N"0 12 C 14 H 12 N 2 2 , 14 n 12 i ^1 2 H 13 NS 2 C 12 H 13 NSe 2 C 6 H 6 N C C 6 H 5 N 5 2 C 42 H 18 N 2 C 4G H 16 N 2 C 42 H 15 N0 4 C 3 0H 12 N 2 Og C 3 oH i2 N 2 O G Artificial Alkaloids from Animal Products. Gfj-cocollin, C 4 H 5 N0 4 Alanine, C 6 H 7 N0 4 Leucine, C 12 H 13 N0 4 Sarcosinc, C 6 H 7 N0 4 ^ ^ , T ^TTrk annnonium, } ^E 8 MeOHO Methyl-ethyl- amyl-phenyl- V N,E, Me, Ayl, Ph, 0, HO ammonium, ) Artificial Alkaloids referred to Ammonia, (Amine). 2. With a base of Amide, (NH 2 ). NH 2 H NH 2 , C 2 H 3 NH 2 C 2 H NH;, c 4 H 5 NH 2 , C 6 H r NH 2 , C 8 H 9 !NH 2 , NH 2 , C 12 H 5 Ammonia, Methyl-amine, Formyl-amine, Ethyl-amine, Propyl-amine, Butyl-amine, Amyl-amine, Caprol-amine, Phenyl-amine, aniline, Toluyl-amine, ) jr-rr r\ TT toluidine, ) 2? 14 7" Xylamine, xylidine, NH 2 , C 16 H 9 Cumidine, NH 2 , CjgH^ Cymidine, NH 2 , C 20 H 13 Sinethylamine, Ci 2 HjoN 2 Thio-sin-ethylamine, C 12 H 12 N" 2 02 3. With a base of Imide, (NH). Ammonia, NH, H 2 Di-methyl-amine, NH,2(C 2 H 3 ) Di-ethyl-amine, NH,2(C 4 H 5 ) Di-amyl-amine, NH,2(C 10 H n ) Di-phenyl-amine, NH,2(C 12 H 5 ) Methyl-phenyl- ") amine, (methyl- J- NH2C 2 H 3 , C 12 H 5 aniline,) ) Ethyl-phenyl- ^ amine, (ethyl- ^ NHC 4 H 5 , C 12 H 5 aniline,) ) Amyl-phenyl- ~) amine, amyl- J- NHCioH u , C 12 H 5 aniline, } 4. With a base ofN'dnjle, Ammonia, NH 3 Triethyl-amine, NE 3 Trimethyl-amine, NMeg Triamyl-amine, NAyl s TripheJtyl-amine, NPh 3 Diethyl-amyl-amine, NE 2 Ayl BAS Basil, Oil of. An aromatic ethereal oil, distilled from the root of the Ocymum basilicum, a plant of the family of Labiata. It deposits a stearoptene in 4-sided pyramids (C 20 H 2 2O C ); little soluble in cold, very soluble in hot water ; again deposited on cooling ; partly soluble in cold alcohol; the solution reddening vegetable blues. They are soluble in boiling alcohol, ether, nitric and acetic acids. Sulphuric acid turns it red. Bassic Acid. C 36 H 36 O4. Fusing point, 159. Crystalline fatty acid in the fat of Bas- sia latifolia and Coculus indicus. In 1842, I extracted an acid from the Shea butter of Africa, a fat from a species of Bassia, and termed it bassic acid ; described and showed it in my lectures, but afterwards inferred that it was somewhat impure margaric acid. I think it highly probable that the present acid is of the same nature. Bassora Gum. Spec. grav. 1-3591. Colour yellowish-white. A gum obtained from different species of acacia (A. leucophlaea ?). Besides bassorin, it contains chlorophyllin, wax, acetate of potash, chloride of calcium, and bimalate of lime, but consists essentially of water, 21-89 ; ash, 5-6 ; arabin, 11-2; bassorin, 61-31. Bassorine. CifHuOiv Asolid; colourless, semitransparent, insipid, inodorous, and amor- phous; it is tough, and not easily pulverized; insoluble in water, but swells up, and becomes like a jelly ; insoluble in alcohol, and does not ferment. It is isomeric with starch, gum, and sugar; 100 parts heated with 1000 nitric acid form 22-61 mucic acid, and some oxalic acid; forms a crystalline sugar with sulphuric acid. It is obtained by exhausting gum bassora, or traga- canth r with cold water; bassorin remains in a gelatinous form. It exists in gum bassora, gum tragacanth (Astragalus tragacantha), and in gum kuteera (Sterculio urens). Bastflesitc. Fluohydride of cerium. Bath, in chemistry, is a term applied to ap- paratus employed for the purpose of communi- cating a graduated temperature to bodies. Various* fluids and solids are employed as the means through which the heat is applied. Water Bath, Bain Marie, Bain d'Eau, Wasserbad, Marienbad. In this bath, the substance to be heated can never have its temperature elevated above 212, or a steam heat. It is a form of bath very generally in requisition, and it is used in a great variety of forms in the laboratory. One of the sim- plest shapes is a porcelain or salt ware cup, into which a smaller one fits, the intermediate space being filled with water, to which heat applied below; the steam making its way at the points of junction, or by an aperture left for the purpose. A saucepan may be converted into a temporary steam chamber, so as to heat flasks, a piece of tin plate perforated answering as a covei (b). A common kettle, filled with water, has a BAT tin box fitted through its lid, for the reception of the flasks, which become thus surrounded with steam (c). Water Bath. For the purpose of drying organic substances, or others which require a long sus- tained steady temperature, we employ a double copper box, which, if made with hard solder, will answer also as an oil bath, where a higher temperature is re- quired to be sus- tained than soft solder can resist (cZ). It has one aperture, which merely enters the external box by which steam es- capes. By the other, a thermo- Water and Oil Bath. meter may be adjusted through a perforated cork r and may have its bulb immersed in the steam. Saline baths are used when a somewhat higher temperature than a steam heat is desirable. Salts,, when dissolved in water, elevate the boiling point of the fluid, although the steam has exactly the usual temperature of 2 1 2 . The following satura- ted solutions boil at the annexed temperatures : Sulphate of soda, 213-2G Alum, 213-8 Acetate of lead, 215-6 Chlorate of potash, 219-5 ' Chloride of barium, 220-0 Borax, 220-0 Chloride of potassium, 226-$ Chloride of sodium, .'... 227-3 Sal ammoniac, 237-9 Nitrate of potash, 240-6 Chloride of strontium, 244-2 Nitrate of soda, 249-8 Chlorate of potash, 275- Nitrate of potash,.. 303-8 Chloride of calcium, 355- Nitrate of ammonia, 362-8 Chloride of zinc, 572- Oil of vitriol, 636-8 Steam and Dn/Air Bath. When an organic body requires to be dried in a dry atmosphere,, especially if it has a tendency to absorb mois- ture when exposed to the air, it is necessary to place it in a tube and draw dry air over it, in order to remove the moisture which emanates 93 BAT BAT from it. For tins purpose, the apparatus (e) is per bath, (fig. c?,) and the heat regulated by a used. ' The body is placed hi a bent tube, which thermometer. The temperature may be carried up to nearly 600 by an oil bath. e, Steam Bath. Is deposited hi a water bath, with a chloride of { calcium tube on either side. The aspirating bottle, filled with water, causes air dried by the first chloride of calcium to pass over it, until it is thoroughly dry. Steam and Vacuum Bath. When the atmos- pheric ah* acts on the substance, and when it is desirable to exhaust the moist air rapidly, an air-pump is used as in fig. f. A, Air-pump, fixed by a screw into a table; B, chloride of g, Air Bath. Air Bath. An air bath, -<\ J'tm- IcelriVx'.. This plant is cultivated extensively' for the sugar contained in its root. In the white BEX beet the amount per cent, varies from 5-8 to 9-2, and in the red beet from 7 '5 to 10 per cent. The quantity of beetroot sugar manufactured on the continent, of Europe is rapidly increasing, [n Germany, in 1848, the quantity of sugar raised was *26,000 tons; in 1849, 34,000; in 1850, 40,000 ; and in 1851, 43,000. In Rus- sia, in 1851, it was 35,000 tons. In Aus- tria, in 1848, it was 8,000 ton's; in 1851 r 15,000 tons. In Belgium, in 1848-49, 4,500 ; in 1850, 7,000; in 1851, 10,000. In Francey in 1851, the quantity raised was 60,000 tons ; while the cane sugar imported into England, in 1851, was 6,636,214 cwts. or 331,810 tons. According to Pelouze, the manufacturers only xpress 70 per cent, of juice, and leave 30 of moist residue ; but in the laboratory there is ' only 12 per cent, of residue. Beheiiic Acid. C 4 4H 44 4 . Crystalline fat acid, fusing at 170, found in the oil of Ben, or Moringa oleifera the basis of Macassar oil. Belladonna, or Atropa belladonna deadly nightshade. See ATROPINE. Bell Metal is a grayish-white alloy, hard r sonorous, and elastic. It usually consists of 75 copper and 25 tin, or of 78 copper and 22 tin; so that the proportion, in some measure, varies ; less tin is used for church bells than for clock bells ; and in small bells, as in those of watches, a little zinc is added to the alloy. The greater portion of the tin may be separated by melting; the alloy and pouring water on the surface oxide of tin is formed on the surface. Cymbals and gongs contain 81 copper and 19 tin. Ben, Oil of. A whitish-yellow, thickish oil, from the fruit of the Hyperanthera moringa r in Egypt, Ceylon, &c. ; used in perfumer}'. Benic Acid. CgoH^OsHO. ? A fatty acid, fusing at 125, found in certain kinds of oil of behen or ben. Bcnzamide. C 14 NH 7 2 , or C 14 H 5 2r NH 2 . Needles, or pearly volatile scales, ob- tained by acting on chloride of benzoyle with ammonia, or by boiling hippuric acid with brown oxide of lead. Benzanilidc. Crystals by aniline and anhydrous benzoic acid. Benzamilc, Ci 4 H 5 NO. Benzene. Benzine, benzole, phene. Sec BENZOLE. Bcnzidam, or Aniline. Bcnzidinc, C 12 H 3 O 7 . Benzilam, C 28 H 9 N. Benzile. Benzoyle. C 28 H 10 4 . Yellow 6-sided prisms, fusing at 197^, insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; subliming without decomposing; obtained by acting on fused benzoine with chlorine, or by heating: benzoinc with nitric acid. The cold mass result- ing is boiled in alcohol, and benzile deposited on cooling. This, from its composition, was sup-, posed to be the radical benzoyle ; but its formula is believed to be the double of that base. i'G BEN Ifcnzilic Acid. C 28 H n 5 HO. Colourless brilliant crystals, fusing at 248, decomposed at a higher temperature into benzoic acid and purple vapours; formed by dissolving benzile or ben- zoine in a hot solution of potash or alcohol, and boiling till a violet colour is dissipated ; benzi- late of potash is thus formed, from which the base is separated by an excess of chlorohydric acid. Bcnzilimide. CasHnXCV Benzimic Acid. White needles, sparingly soluble in water and alcohol; formed in the process for amarine, when that substance is formed by the action of ammonia on pure oil of bitter almonds ; composition unknown. Bciizimidc. CggNHnCV Crystals de- posited in the crude oil of bitter almonds ; de- composed by acids into benzoic acid and am- monia. It is formed also by adding an alcoholic solution of potash to a mixture of hydride of benzoyle, or oil of bitter almonds and strong pntssic acid. Benzine. See BENZOLE. Beuzoene. See TOLUOLE. Beuzoglycolic Acid. Ci 8 H 8 8 . Crystals little soluble in water; soluble in alcohol and ether; decomposed by boiling with water, and by heat ; yields, when boiled with acids, glycolic acid ; formed by acting on hippuric acid with nitrous acid (NOs). Bcnzoglycolamidic Acid, or Hippuric Acid. This name is derived from the view that hippuric acid is the amide of the preceding acid. Bcnzohydramidc. C4 2 Hj 8 N 2 . 6-sided prisms, isomeric with hydrobenzamide, obtained along with that body and azobenzoyle and nitro- lenzoyle, by treating crude oil of bitter almonds with ammonia, and acting on the resinous mass which falls with boiling ether ; on cooling, ben- zohydrainide falls in crystals, with azobenzoyle ; boiling alcohol takes up the former and leaves the latter ; the benzohydramide is then purified by repeated solution in alcohol. Bciizohydrol. C 2 gH 15 5 . Colourless plates. The stearoptene of oil of cassia. Benzoic Acid. C 14 H 5 3 . HO or Bz OHO. Light white crystals hi prisms or needles or pearly scales ; usually with an aromatic smell, but when pure quite odourless; soluble in 200 cold, 25 hot water ; melts at 249 and boils at 462 ; but sublimes in a current of air with a gentle heat, and gives out vapours even at the temperature of the atmosphere. Spec. grav. of vapour about 4-271. It may be obtained by placing gum benzoin, pulverized with sand, in a pan or evaporating basin, pasting a piece of filter- ing paper over its mouth as a lid and over all a paper cap so as to receive the vapours. On applying heat carefully by a sand bath to the vessel, the acid vapours pass through the pores of the filtering paper are deposited on its upper surface within the paper cap in the form of fine light crystals, all oUy matter being retained by BEN the paper. 2. Gum benzoin when boiled with slaked lime or carbonate of soda yields beuzoate of lime or soda, which may be decomposed by muriatic acid. 3. Dissolve gum benzoin in alco- hol precipitate the resin by muriatic acid ; on distilling, benzoate of ethyle or benzoic ether passes over ; which is changed into benzoate of potash by heating with caustic potash ; when decomposed by muriatic acid, benzoic acid crys- tallizes. By distilling the residue with water, more benzoic acid is obtained in the retort. 4. Boil hippuric acid with muriatic ; benzoic acid results. 5. Benzoic acid is obtained along with hippuric acid by evaporating cow's urine ; ether dissolves up the benzoic acid, which may be purified by the preceding methods ; by union with a base, or by dissolving it in 4 or 5 tunes its weight of sulphuric acid diluted with 6 times its weight of water ; boil and add animal char- coal to decolourize ; on cooling, benzoic acid separ- ates in crystals. Use. Benzoic acid is used in the form of benzoate of ammonia (a salt in feathery crystals, obtained by saturating caustic ammonia or its carbonate with benzoic acid), to precipitate sesquioxide of iron from neutral solutions, and thus separate iron from manganese, which remains in solution. The sesquibenzoate of iron is a buff- coloured precipitate, easily distinguishable from sesquioxide of iron. Benzoic acid constitutes the first of a series of homologous acids related to certain oils and bases also homologous. Benzoic acid, C 14 H G 4 Toluylicacid,C 16 H 8 4 Cuminicacid, C 20 H 12 4 Benzole, ...... C 12 H G Toluole, ....... C 14 H 8 Xylole, C 16 H 10 Cumole, C 18 H 12 Aniline, Cj 2 H ?N Toluidine, C 14 H 9 N Xylidine, C 16 H U 1T Cumidine, ...C 18 H 13 N Benzoic Acid, Anhydrous. C 14 H 5 3 . F.P. 107^, distils at 590, without change. Oblique prisms, soluble in alcohol and ether; neutral; ammonia converts it into benzamide; with aniline, forms benzanilide; obtained by heating chloride of benzoyle with benzoate of soda, or with oxalate of potash. Benzoin Gum. A solid brittle substance, sometimes in yellowish- white tears, and sometimes as a brown substance resembling rosin, obtained by incision from the Styrax benzoe in Sumatra, &c. each tree yielding 3 or 4 Ibs. Spec. grav. 1-092; boiling water takes up some benzoic acid ; soluble in ether and alcohol ; reprecipi- tated as a white powder by water, muriatic, sul- phuric, and acetic acids, but not by alkalies ; soluble in acetic acid, sulphuric acid, fixed alkalies, and by ammonia sparingly. It contains 3 or 4 resins, having different formulas, to the extent of 83 per cent, and benzoic acid from 12 to 19^- per cent. When distilled it yields benzoic acid", carbon, olefiant gas, and phenole. It is used for supplying benzoic acid. Benzoinam. C 56 N 2 H 24 2 . White needles, consisting of the union of 2 atoms benzoine, 97 BEN ammonia being taken up and water separated; soluble in acids : precipitated by alkalies having the characters of a weak base ; formed when a mixture of ammonia, alcohol, and benzoine are allowed to remain in a stoppered bottle for several months, along with hydrobenzoinamidc. Benzoinamide. Hydrobenzoinamide. C 42 H 1S N 2 . White tasteless needles or powder, sublimable, isomeric or polymeric with hydro- benzamide, prepared by allowing benzoine to re- main in contact with ammonia for several months. Benzoine. C 2 gHi 2 4 . Small sublimable crystals, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol formed by acting on crude oil of bitter almonds, which contains cyanohydric acid, with a solu- tion of potash, or sulphide, or cyanide of potas- sium in alcohol ; fused with hydrate of potash, it yields benzoate of potash ; when passed through a red hot glass tube it becomes oil of bitter al- monds. F.P. 248. Benzolactic Acid. C^HjoOg. A mem- ber of a homologous series, of which lactic acid (C 6 H G 6 ) is the first. Benzole. Ci 2 H 6 . Benzene, Phene, Bicar- lurct of Hydrogen (Faraday), Benzine (Mits- cherlich). 1. This oil was discovered by Mr. Faraday among the oils condensed from oil gas. at a pressure of 30 atmospheres. The crude oils obtained from oil gas were distilled at a heat of 187, and the distilled oil exposed to a temperature of 0, when it solidified into a crys- talline mass. This when pressed between sheets of blotting paper was freed from oily impurity. 2. Mitscherlich afterwards obtained this sub- stance by distilling benzoic acid with hydrate of lime. When 1 part of crystallized benzoic acid is intimately mixed with 3 parts of slaked lime and the powder introduced into a glass or porcelain retort and exposed to a high tem- perature, benzole passes into the receiver. It may be further purified by distillation with water or over slaked and unslaked lime. 3. It may also be procured by passing the vapour of benzoic acid through a red hot gun barrel, accord- ing to D'Arcet. 4. It exists in coal naphtha, and may be separated by fractional distillation. Properties. When freed from benzoic acid by potash and redistillation, and from water by chloride of calcium, benzole is a clear, colourless fluid with an ethereal odour, lighter than water. Spec. grav. = 0-85 ; spec. grav. of its vapour = 2-738. It solidifies at 32, becomes fluid at 44 , and boils at 186. It dissolves in alcohol and ether, but not in water. Its production from he.nzoic acid is easily explained. T.enz. ,ic acid and 2 lime. Benzole-f 2 Carb. of lime. > s o that the lime- simply acts by removing car- bonic acid from 1 he benzoic acid. Benzone. If after the distillation of all the benzole the residue BEN is distilled separately benzone passes over, holding naphthaline in solution, which crystallizes out at 5, and leaves pure benzone (Peligot). This oil is decomposed by SO 3 or Cl, but not by N0 5 or NaO. Its composition is C 13 H 5 Benzone C H 8 = C0 2 +HO Ci4H 6 04 Benzoic acid. Benzole and Chlorine. Chlorobenzole. Chlo- ride of Benzole. C 12 H 6 C1 6 , or C 12 H 3 CL> -\- 3 HC1 (Mitscherlich and Peligot). When benzole and chlorine are exposed in a large glass flask to the action of the sun's rays, the sides of the glass in a few minutes become covered with white crystals, which consist of benzole and chlorine united together, without change. They melt at 270, are insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and ether, from which they may be obtained, particularly from the latter, in fine crystals. From the cir- cumstance that when chlorobenzole is distilled at 555 its boiling point hydrochloric acid is given out and chlorobenzide formed, it is possible that chlorobenzole is a hydrochlorate of chloro- benzide. Chlorobenzide. (Mitscherlich) C 12 H 3 C1 3 . An oily, colourless fluid, boiling at 410; obtained by the distillation of chlorobenzole. It may also be procured by distilling chlorobenzole with slaked lime. Benzole and Bromine. Similar compounds to the preceding are formed with bromine. Benzole and Nitric Acid. Nitrobenzide. C 12 H 5 NO 4 (Mitscherlich). When benzole is added gradually to fuming nitric acid the compound produced dissolves completely in the acid, but on cooling collects on the surface, and on dilu- tion with water, precipitates in the form of a yellow oil, which may be freed from JST0 5 by washing with water and distillation. When pure it has a faint yellow colour, very sweet taste, and the smell of oil of bitter almonds. Its boiling point is 415; the spec. grav. of the liquid is 1-209 ; of the vapour 4-376. It solidi- fies at 37|, crystallizing hi needles; soluble in ether and alcohol, insoluble in water. It is soluble in dilute acids, decomposed by S0 3 , but not by alkalies. Its production is easily ex- plained .;= C 12 H 5 + HO Benzole Nitric acid NO 4 where an atom of hyponitric acid is substituted for an atom of hydrogen. When nitrobenzide, is heated with strong sulphuric acid, it is decom- xised with the evolution of sulphurous acid. Po- tassium, when heated with nitrobenzide, occa- lant by the presence of a fat oil ; as soon, how- ever, as this fat is removed, the action commences, and the essential oil is the result. The almonds are bruised and freed from the fat oil by cold xpression ; the almonds further bruised, placed n the still with some cold water to form a paste, and allowed to rest for twenty-four hours and then distilled. The water which passes over contains much oil in solution, from which it is freed by BEN redistillation with common salt. The crude oil is yellow, which deepens by keeping. To separate prussic acid it is distilled over red oxide of mer- cury with water after standing some days ; it is finally distilled from fresh hurned powdered lime, when it is obtained pure. Benzoyle, Hydride of, B cnzoate of. BzO, HO, 2 BzH. White crystalline powder, insol- uble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether ; ob- tained by saturating crude oil of bitter almonds with chlorine gas. Beuzoylurcidc. C 50 H 28 N 8 8 . White powder from 5 urea and 2 oil of bitter almonds. Beraunite, or hydrous perphosphate of iron, a variety found at Beraun in Bohemia ; colour, hyacinth-red; spec. grav. 2-878, H 2 to 2$. Bcrberine. C 42 H 18 N0 9 . YelloAV silky needles or powder with a bitter taste ; soluble in 500 parts cold water ; in 250 cold alcohol ; fusing point 266 with change; forms salts with alka- lies and also with acids. It is used as a sub- stitute for quinine in Bavaria ; it colours cotton and silk without a mordant ; it is obtained from the rasped root of the barberry (Berberis vulgaris) by extraction with water ; and crystallizing the berberine from the extract by alcohol. Bcrengelite. C^H^Oj,. A yellowish resin, from Berengela in Peru, insoluble in water, sol- uble in alcohol and ether ; unites with alkalies ; employed for paying boats, &c. Bergapteite. C 3 HO. Colourless, tasteless crystals, fusing at 404, subliming, neutral; a deposit in oil of bergamot ; a product by pressure of the rind of the Citrus bergamia. Bcrginanite. A variety of scapolite. Berries, Persian and French. The fruit of the Rhamnus infectorius, yielding a yellow colour. Bcrthierinc, or chamoisite, or carbono- phosphate of iron. Berthierite. Haidingerite. S 28-3, Sb 48 -3, Fe 14-9, Zn -3, Si0 3 3-2, FeS 2 3-2. Colour iron-black, in masses with the rudiments of crystals; fuses before the blowpipe; found near Chazelles in Auvergne, and at Braunsdorf ; sol uble in muriatic, and nitro-muriatic acids. Beryl. See EMEKALD. Berzcline. Selenide of copper, in silver- white masses, consisting of Cu 64, Se 40, found in Smaland in Sweden. Berzelitc. A name given to petalite, di- chloride of lead, and to an arseuiate of lime and magnesia. Betaorceinc. Ci 8 H 10 N0 8 . A blue sub- stance obtained from archil. Betaorcinc. C 38 H 24 Oio- Square prisms, soluble in water, alcohol, and ether ; sublimable ; sweet taste ; obtained by the destructive distilla- tion of dry usnic acid. Bctaorsellic Acid. C^H^O^. Crys- talline body, nearly insohible in cold water; soluble in hot alcohol ; forms a red colour with chloride of lime ; fonned by heating archil lichen BIL (Roccella tinctoria) from the Cape of Good Hope with milk of lime, and precipitating with muri- atic acid. Beta rsellesic Acid. Not analyzed, but obtained by boiling beta orsellate of barytes with water. Beta Resins. A mode of nomenclature by attaching the Greek letters when more than one resin is present in a mixture. Bctuline. C 40 H 33 3 . A colourless resin, soluble in 120 parts cold, in 80 boiling alcohol ; melts at 392, and sublimes. Obtained by ex- hausting birch bark with hot water, and extract- ing from the aqueous residue with alcohol, and purifying with ether. Beudantinc. See NEPHELINE. Bcudantitc. An arseniate of iron. Beudantite. Black obtuse rhombohedrons r with resinous lustre, containing iron and lead, found at Hornhausen on the Rhine. Bczoar Stones. Oval concretions, sup- posed to be voided in the East from animals of the deer tribe ; they usually consist of lithofellic acid ; in one I found a nucleus of a date stone. Bczoaric Acid. Microscopic crystals, obtained from olive-green bezoars. Soluble in potash, and precipitated in stellated groups by chlorohydric acid. Soluble in sulphuric acid, and reprecipitated by water. It has not been analyzed. Also a synonyme of ellagic acid. Bibroniisalinc. C 1G H 3 Br 2 N0 4 . Obtained by acting on isatine with bromine. When heated with potash it yields bibromisatic acid. Bichlorisatine. C 1C ,H 3 C1 2 ,N0 4 . Yellow 4-sided prisms, obtained by passing chlorine through water, in which indigo or isatine is sus- pended ; it forms with potash bichlorisatic acid. Bichlorisatyde. C 16 H 5 NC1 2 3 . Biethyl-Mcconic Acid. H0,2 (C 4 H 5 0) Cj 4 HOu. A compound of ethyle and mecouic acid. Bile. The bile, which is contained in the gall bladder, an appendage of the liver, possesses a weak alkaline reaction, and an oily consistency^ Its colour is yellow, or greenish-yellow, which be- comes darker by exposure to the air. When eva- porated to dryness in the water bath, it dissolves readily in alcohol, leaving a quantity of mucus, which is insoluble in that fluid. It may be purified with animal charcoal, and by precipitating tho colouring matter by means of .barytes water. The cholesterin which it contains may be removed after it has been deprived of colour by the char- coal ; if after concentrating the alcoholic solution a double volume of ether be added, the choles- terin dissolves in the ether, and the bile, which is insoluble in ether, separates in the form of a thick syrup. On removing the ethereal solution the cholesterin crystallizes out. The alcoholic solution now containing the bile, when evapo- rated to dryness, leaves a dry pulverulent residue, which is completely soluble in water and absolute alcohol. From its aqueous solution it is sepa- 100 BIL rated by caustic potash when added to satura- tion. Acetic arid oxalic acids produce no change in the aqueous solution. By mineral acids, a milkiness is produced either immediately or by standing, and a syrupy fluid separates. A por- tion of the acid is found to be combined with soda ; acetate of lead and nitrate of silver preci- pitate the aqueous solution of bile. A solution of pure bile is completely precipitated by the acetate of lead, but an excess of the salt redis- eolves a small portion of the bile. The portion in solution was considered a peculiar substance by Gmelin and termed biline, bile sugar, c. Test for Bile. Add to the liquor containing bile its bulk of sulphuric acid. Pour in a few drops of a weak solution of sugar. A fine red colour is produced. The view which has been supported of the composition of the bile by the most recent ex- periments is, that this fluid is composed of two different soda salts, formed of different acids, cholic and choleic, a sulphur acid. Cholic acid, when boiled with alkalies, is resolved into cho- lalic acid and glycocoll. Choleic acid, on the other hand, becomes cholalic acid and taurine. These acids are, therefore, conjugate acids. Cholic Acid or Glycocholalic Acid. Cholalic acid, ...................... CUgH^Og Glycocoll, \ n TT n AT ,} ................. 4 H * 3 N -1 atom HO, Cholic acid, C 32 H 43 12 N Choleic Acid or Taurocholalic Acid. Cholalic acid, C^sH^gOg Taurine,> C H 0- NS> Choleic acid, The human bile consists of Water, ........................... 85-96 86-84 Cholate of soda, \ I o.-,q1 Choleate of soda, J Colouring matter, Margarine, ...................... 0-62 Cholesterine, .................... 0-21 Bile mucus, .................... 2-82 . na Inorganic matter, 14-04 13-16 Analysis. A weighed portion of bile is ex- posed in a porcelain basin to the heat of an air bath, at the temperature of about 250, until it ceases to lose weight ; the loss is water. 2. The dry residue is pulverized and placed in a flask, and digested in repeated additions of boiling ether, until a drop of the fluid leaves no residue on a plate of glass. The ether, on evaporation, leaves the fatty matters (oleine and cholesterine). 3. The bile, from the action of ether, is boiled BIL in alcohol and evaporated. The remainder is the biliary mucus ; the alcoholic extract is the cholate and choleate of soda, with colouring mat- ter. 4. To obtain the salts, a fresh portion is to be incinerated. Cholate of Cholic Choleic Para- CholalicCholoidicDys- Soda. Acid. Acid, cholic Acid. Acid, lysin. Carbon, G406 67'31 62-52 67'18 70'59 72'18 77'4 Hydrog., S'G2 935 9'02 9'24 9'80 977 96 Nitrogen, 2-87 323 2'81 2'73 Oxygen, 18'09 2011 22-44 20'S5 1961 18-05 13- Sulphur, 3-21 Soda, 6-36 Preparation, cf Cryriallized Bifo. ,Qx bile is dried at 21$; di^kfed. in absolute' aieohol, and treated /*itti some ether; a syrupy dark mass falls, which &se asijl*}.' 'It., consists v>f> crystals and an- AmApJirtus, jnass.", o .Tht^ cjeiif iuju^r is drawn off and again treated with ether ; pale yellow needles subside, which are transferred to a filter by means of alcohol, containing one- tenth of ether, with which they are washed. They are then dried in vacuo over S0 3 , and consist of C 60-50 H 8-63 S 2-50 N2.8 Preparation of Cholic Acid. The preceding crystals of bile, still moist, were dissolved in water and decomposed by sulphuric acid. In twelve hours colourless crystals formed, and oily drops. They were washed in water, when the oily drops disappeared. The turbid wash-water deposited a resinous precipitate after some days. The crystals were now snow-white. The precipitate which separated on the addition of S0 3 to the bile, purified by Theyer and Schlosser's plan, on the addition of ether was converted into a net- work of the same crystals. By dissolving in water and evaporating, the crystals again ap- pear, and possess all the characters of Gmelin's cholic acid in delicate needles. 1000 parts of cold water dissolve 3-3, and boiling 8-3 ; reddens litmus in 'solution; readily soluble in alcohol, leaving a resin on evaporation; dissolves in acids, in NH 3 , KO, and BaO water. Another Method. Precipitate fresh bile with acetate of lead. Wash well the yellowish preci- pitate ; boil in alcohol of -848 spec. grav. which partly takes it lip. Pass SH through the solu- tion ; filter while hot. Add alcohol to the solu- tion in air-tight vessels. In twelve hours a mixture of cholic and paracholic acids separate 208 grains Avere thus obtained from 10 bladders- full. Paracholic Acid, isomcric with cholic acid, is obtained by boiling the latter with water, when 6-sided tables fall, insoluble in water. Both acids give a pink with SO 3 and sugar. When boiled with barytes, cholalic acid, or cholic acid of Demarcay, appears. Cholalic Acid, when precipitated from its barytes salt bv HC1, is resinous, but by dissolv- ing in hot alcohol it crystallizes out on cooling 101 BIL in tetrahedrons; colourless; soluble in 750 boiling, and 4000 cold water. Cholic acid, C 52 H 43 N0 12 Cholalic acid, C 48 H" 4 o Oi Remainder, C 4 H 3 NOo + 2 atoms HO, H 2 O 2 Crystallized glyeocoll, glue sugar, r> ~, J H After heating cholic acid with barytes, and separating the cholalic acid and barytes, glyco- coll wa* -obtained in - crj s^ai's py Strecker. With acids'cholte acid is -alsn eHaxiged': glycocoll and Demarcay's choloidic acid are formed. By continued al'.'tid'n, 1 choloicfiK a'cid "di^appear.-s, and ' Cholalic, .................... C 48 H 40 O 10 Choloidic, .................. O 48 H 39 0 Choloidic acid, C 48 H 39 O 9 Dyslysine, C 48 H 36 0 Taurine, C 4 H r NO G sj BIL Uses of the Bile, When bile is injected into the rectum, it is all absorbed ; but it does not make its way into the urine, while yellow prus- siate of potash, or iodide of potassium, in the same state does so ; and common salt in solution is alsc absorbed, and appears in the urine. The bile, therefore, seems to pass into the circula- tion, for the purpose, probably, of supporting respiration. Use of Bile in the Dog. Schellbach (Liebig's Ann. 79, 290) experimented on a dog weighing 12-3 Ibs. avoird. (5-58 kilogram.) He found, on extirpating the spleen and introducing a tube into the ductus communis choledochus, so as to cause all bile formed to flow out externally, that the animal, when fed on flesh, did not fall off in weight. The amount of bile passed daily was (164-43 grammes) 2532-23 grains of fresh bile, or 107^ gVains of dry bile; or for 2-2 Ibs. of live dog, 460'4 grains of fresh bile are given daily. Bidder found only half this quantity, but the dog was unhealthy. On examining the faeces, and comparing it with a normal dog, it was found that not half of the fat of the food (lights and livers) was digested hi the dog with the fistula, while nearly the whole disappeared in the normal dog. The digestion of albuminous matter was not impaired. The amount of fat in the system diminished, and none was found under the cutis after death. It is obvious, therefore, that the carbon in the case of this animal, usually supplied for respiration from the fat, must have been derived from muscular matter, and hence it consumed about 17 ounces of flesh, or nearly double the normal quantity. The largest amount of bile is secreted between thirteen and fourteen hours after eating. The faeces of a normal dog contained no bile. Pettenkofer likewise found in none of the constituents of normal faeces the constituents of bile, but Lehmann found in the alcoholic extract of faeces, by means of ether, small portions of cholalic acid, Avhich gave a red colour with sulphuric acid and sugar. Biliary Calculi. Gall Stones. These con- cretions in man are usually triangular bodies with a smooth surface, consisting of cholesterine, with a certain amount of colouring matter. They are soluble in boiling alcohol, brilliant plates depositing from the solution on cooling. From their appearance, they seem to have been de- tained in a pouch in the gall bladder, the bile supplying the matter of which they consist. Besides containing rhombic plates of cholesterine, when examined under the microscope, epithelial scales are observed, and mucus from the gall bladder. They are generally lighter than water, but their spec. grav. varies from -803 to 1-06. Caustic potash dissolves up from them colouring matter, &c. and leaves white cholesterine. In oxen the gall stones consist principally of colour- ing matter used as pigment, and of margaric acid salts-, in the dog, of chalk, some phosphate of lime, and colouring matter; in the pig, of choles- BIS terine 6, resin 45, bile 4, animal matter, colouring matter, phosphate of lime, 45. The bezoars, con- sisting of lithofellic acid with a spec. grav. of 1-043, are supposed to be the gall stones of animals of the deer tribe ; they are characterized by forming soaps with potash and soda, and being precipitated from the alcaline solution by acids. Bilic Acid Impure cholic acid. Biliphaine. C 32 H 18 N20 9 . The brown colouring matter of the bile, probably identical with biliverdine. Binary Theory. See BASE and SALTS. Biogenc. A name given to the yolk hi the ovarian eggs of the lower animals. Biotine. A variety of Anorthite. Biphosphamidc. PNO 2 orPNO 5 . Grayish- white powder, obtained by heating phosphamide. Birch Trees. Different species of Betula,. supplying betulin, a resin or camphor, and essential oils.; that of the B. alba has an odour resembling turpentine; spec. grav. -847; of vapour 5-318; formula C 2 oH 16 ; that of the B. lenta is identical with the oil of Gaultheria procumbens ; and salicylic acid is formed from jt in crystals when it is acted on by oil of vitriol. Bird Idnie. A peculiar adhesive matter, due to the presence of viscin, extracted from the middle bark of the holly, mistletoe, and distaff thistle by boiling several hours in water ; used for catching birds. Biro us:i, or turquoise. Bis, Si, Bin, Twice. Lathi affixes to denote the amount of oxygen, acid, &c. united to a base. Bismuth. Bi 26-625; 213. Character. Bis- muth is found native in the form of a reddish- white metal, consisting of brilliant plates ad- hering to each other. Process. The ore is sepa- rated from the rock by the hand, and thrown into red hot tubes a b placed in an inclined position, of which the lower extremity is closed by a clay plate with a small perforation, through which the metal flows (eliquates) into iron pans c, placed in a row at the mouths of the series of tube furnaces. After the iron pans have been nearly filled, the metal is removed by ladles into an iron mould, and formed into bars of from 25 to 50 Ibs. The process for separating or eliquating 1 ton of ore lasts eight hours. In this state the metal contains small quantities of arsenic, sulphur, iron, &c. which do not interfere, however, with its applica- tions. It may be purified by dissolving in nitric acid, evaporating excess of acid, adding water to throw down trisnitrate, taking up the arseni- ous acid by caustic potash, and reducing the oxide with black flux at a moderated temperature. It is used in the preparation of pewter, type metal. Fusing point 276 (Irvine), 496 (Crichton). When cooled slowly, it crystallizes in parallelo 1 pipeds, crossing each other at right angles. Its primary form is a rhombohedron. Spec. gr. 9 -822 (Hatchett), 9-833 (Harepath), 9-654 (Karsten), 9-799 (Marchand). By exposure to the air it 103 BIS loses its brilliancy, in consequence of its union with oxygen. Obtained pure by heating the sub- nitrate with charcoal. [Mitscherlich.] Teroxide of Bismuth, Bi0 3 , 29-625. Straw- yellow powder, without taste and smell, insol- uble in water, soluble in NO;;. Melts by heat into an opaque glass. Soluble in caustic soda. The oxide may be obtained by burning the metal in the air, when a blue flame is produced, and the oxide sublimes (flowers of bismuth) or by igniting the trisnitrate of bismuth. At a red heat the colour of the oxide is brown, but on cooling pale yellow. Trisnitrate of Bismuth. Flake white. Ma- gistery of Bismuth. 3 Bi0 3 , N0 5 . This is the only form of bismuth of interest. The process for preparing it forms a beautiful experiment. It consists in dissolving a portion of the metal in nitric acid in a flask, and then pouring the nitric acid solution into a pint or more of water in a tall jar ; a fine white precipitate immediately falls, which is flake white, (3 Bi0 3 3N0 5 ) being converted into trisnitrate (3 Bi0 3 N0 5 ) and 2 atoms N0 5 are set free. It is much used in medicine in many dyspeptic cases, where the mucous membrane of the bowels seems to be affected, and particularly in the diarrhoea of children. Qu/ititoxide, Peroxide of Bismuth, Bismuthic A rid. BiO 5 . Formed by fusing hydrate of soda with oxide of bismuth, and is purified by boiling with caustic soda solution. A brown powder is obtained, which is washed with NO,;; and then with water. It resembles deutoxide of lead. Fusible Metal, which dissolves in hot water, is formed by heating in a crucible 3 parts of tin, 8 bismuth, and 5 lead, the addition of a little mer- cury increases the fusibility. It is used to form casts for electrotype. IE i- j null. Native. Spec. grav. 9-737, H 2 to 2^. Colour silver- white, with a red tint; massive also in 8-hedrons and in acute rhomboids ; tex- ture in plates ; surface rough, generally covered BIS with oxide; lustre metallic, sectile, opaque, melts at the flame of a candle. B.B. is dissipated in yellow smoke, which falls on the charcoal ; sol- uble in nitric acid, and pre- cipitated white by water; found at Schneeberg in Sax- ony, and at Joachimsthal in Bohemia, also at Altenberg; in France, Sweden, Norway, Connecticut, andinBotallack and in St. Columb in Corn- wall, and Carrock in Cum- berland. Bismuth Arsenical. As 96-785, Bi 3-001. Oc- curs at Palmbaum, near Ma- rienberg. Bismuth, Ferruginous Arsenide of. Bi 55-913, As 38-092, Fe 6-321. Speci- fic gravity, 3-694, H 5-5. Dark brown externally, brownish-yellow internally, in plates ; lustre resinous, brittle. B.B. decre- pitates, and emits arsenical fumes, burning with a blue flame, being fused into a globule, or" dis- sipated. Soluble in nitric and muriatic acids. Occurs at Schneeberg in Saxony. Bismu thine. Bismuth glance, or sulphide of bismuth. Bismuthite. Carbonate of bismuth. Bismuth, Needle Ore of. Bi 43-2, Pb 24-32, Cu 12-1, Ni? 1-58, Te? 1-32, S 11-58, Au 79. Spec. grav. 6-125, H 5-25. Steel-gray, with a copper-red tarnish, in 4 or 6-sided prisms, with the lateral faces longitudinally streaked. B.B. sulphur is driven off, the assay melting, and yielding metallic globules. Bismuth, Oxide of. Ochre. Spec. grav. 4-361. Colour greenish-yellow, or yellowish- gfay; massive and disseminated; fracture fine- grained, uneven ; lustre adamantine ; when fine- grained, glimmering ; of the foliated, shining ; of the earthy, dull. B.B. easily reduced on char- coal; consists of Bi0 3 86-4, FeO 5-1, C0 2 4-1, HO 3*4. Found at Schneeberg and Joachims- thai. Bismuth, Carbonate of. Bismuthite. A dirty-yellow earthy substance, found at St. Ag- nes, Cornwall probably the same as the pre- ceding. Bismuth, Silicate of. Bismuth Blende. Arsenical Bismuth. Bi0 3 69-38, Si0 3 22-23, P0 5 3-31, Fe 2 3 2-4, Mi40 3 -3, F and HO 1-01. Spec. grav. 5-912 to 6-006; H 5-5 to 6-. Clove-brown and reddish- brown rhomboidal 12- hedrons, and also in 4-hedrons, 6-hedrons, and pyramidal 12-hedrons ; opaque to semitranspar- ent, brittle. B.B. fuses to a dark yellow mass, and gives out an odourless sublimate ; fuses easily on charcoal ; fuses with carbonate of soda into a button, at first greenish-yellow, and then reddish-yellow, globules of metal appearing; 104 BIS forms a yellowish-green glass with borax; with salt of phosphorus fuses, and leaves a skele- ton of silica. Found at Schneeberg. 2 Bi0 3 3 Si0 3 . Bismuth, Sulphide of. Bi 80-98, S 18-72, BiS 3 , Sp 6-549, H 2-25. Lead-gray rhombic prisms of 91 and 89; massive; and in minute needles or prisms ; lustre metallic, opaque, rather sectile. B.B. volatilized, and covers the charcoal with a yellow ring. Very fusible; soluble in nitric acid, solution precipitated by water. Bismuth, Tclluritlc of. Bi 59*84, Te 35-24, S 4-92. Spec. grav. 7-5 ; H 2. Silver- white broad plates, laid on each other; lustre metallic, opaque; divisible into thin plates, and staining paper like sulphide of molybdenum ; found in crystals of two different rhombohedrons, united together. B.B. melts, and gives out a yellow metallic vapour. Found at Deutsch Pilsen in Hungary. Bismuth-Tri-EthYle. C 12 H 15 Bi = E 3 Bi. Colourless fluid of spec. grav. 1-82 ; boiling point 122. Smell disagreeable, taste burning ; evaporates in the air in yellow fumes, and takes fire with a weak explosion, giving out a yellow smoke of bismuth ; decomposed explosively by nitric acid, chlorine ; insoluble in water, little soluble hi ether ; very soluble in absolute alco- hol. With bromine and iodine, it forms in its al- coholic solution bromide and iodide ; it unites with weak nitric acid. Bismuth-ethyle is prepared by the action of iodide of ethyle on bismuth-po- tassium. The latter is formed by heating slowly in a covered clay crucible 20 ounces of powdered bismuth with 16 ounces cream of tartar, and then raising the temperature for half-an-hour to an incipient white heat; it is then allowed to cool slowly ; the bismuth-potassium is formed at the bottom of the crucible as a silver- white me- tallic mass. The iodide of ethyle is made by the action of iodine and phosphorus on 90 per cent, alcohol. Bissolite. A variety of amphibole. Bistre. A pigment prepared by boiling or grinding wood soot with urine or water into a smooth paste, and then diluting with pure water. The mixture is then allowed to stand until the larger particles of soot have subsided. The supernatant liquor is then poured off, and al- lowed to stand in another vessel for a few days, until a fine powder subsides, which is bistre. It is made into cakes by mixing it with a solu- tion of gum in water. Bisuccinamide. C 8 H 3 5 , NH 4 O. Co- lourless rhombic prisms, formed by dissolving succinamide in water and evaporating spontane- ously. Bitter Almonds. See BENZOYLE, .HY- DRIDE OF, and ALMONDS. Bitter Principles consist of bodies ex- tracted from plants by means of water, alcohol, or ether, and are the source of that peculiar taste possessed by the plants. They are gene- BIT rally neutral, uniting neither with acids nor bases. The 4 nature of these substances is very imperfectly understood. Many of them are soluble in water, others only in alcohol and ether. The solutions in water and alcohol be- come darker coloured by exposure to the air and the absorption of oxygen. When evaporated to the consistence of syrup, they are termed ex- tracts, and are divisible into watery or alcoholic, according to their relations to these substances. The alcoholic extract contains all the medicinal matters. By redissolving most extracts in wa- ter or alcohol, a dark matter remains, consisting of oxidized matter, albumen, mucus, and gallic acid. It is upon a knowledge of the behaviour of these substances with reagents that the mode of purifying bitter matters depends. Absinthin. From wormwood, by means of alcohol. Aloin. From aloe spicata. Amanitin. Obtained from poisonous mush- rooms. Antiarin. Pearly plates ; from the upas an- tiar, extracted by alcohol ; poisonous. Arthanitin, White needles from the root of the cyclamen Europseum. Asparagin. (C 8 N 2 H 10 8 ) rhombic prisms from the althaea and asparagus. Berberin, q. v. Bryonin. Yellowish -white mass, from the root of the bryonia alba. Centawin. From centaurea benedicta. Cetrarin. From Iceland moss (Cetraria Is- landica) ; by boiling the lichen with absolute alcohol, the cetrarin separates in grains by dis- tillation. It is purified by washing with cold water, ether, and weak alcohol, and crystallizing out of absolute alcohol in fine white crystalline grains. Colocynthin. Yellow matter obtained by cold water and alcohol from colocynth, cucuniis colo- cynthis, and is the aperient principle hi the medicine of that name. Cornin. From cornus florida. Coumarin. A base yielding the odour of woodruff, hay, grass, and tonka-beans, derived from these plants. Columbin. Colourless rhombic prisms, bitter and neutral, extracted by alcohol from columbo root ; scarcely soluble in cold water, spirit, and ether ; sulphuric acid makes it red. Cvbebin White needles extracted from the marc of oil of cubebs (piper cubebas) by alcohol and precipitated by potash. Cyclamin. From Cyclamen Europamm. Cytisin, Cathartin. Both yellowish substances, apparently the same ; the first extracted by alco- hol from the seeds of the cytisus laburnum, the second from the cassia senna, in which plant it acts as the aperient. Daphnin. Colourless crystals from the daphne mezereum. Elaterin An uncrystallized principle in the 105 BIT momordica elaterium, much used as a powerful purgative. Ergotin. A brownish-red matter extracted from ergot of rye by ether and alcohol. Fraxinin. 6-sided prisms from the bark of the ash or fraxinus excelsior, by precipitating the decoction by acetate of lead, the filtered liquor by SH, and evaporating. Gentianin. Golden bitter needles, subliming by heat, soluble in hot water, alcohol, ether, and acetic acid, obtained from the powdered root of the gentiana lutea, by treating with ether ; dis- tilling' off the greater portion, and allowing the remainder to evaporate spontaneously ; the resi- due is digested in alcohol of -830 ; the gentianin crystallizes out. Guaiacin. Dark yellow mass obtained by al- cohol from guaicum wood. Hesperidin, White needles from citrons. Juglanin. Dark brown bitter from the wal- nut, juglans regia. Imperatorin. Colourless rhombic prisms ; by ether from the root of the imperatoria ostru- thium. Lactucin. Yellowish or reddish matter from the common lettuce and other species of lactuca ; obtained from the milky juice by alcohol. Lapathin. A hard bitter from rumex obtusi- folius. Liriodendrin. Colourless scales, resembling boracic acid, from liriodendron tulipifera. Lupinin, q. v. Lupulin, bitter matter of hops. Reddish-yel- low powder obtained from hops by alcohol, mix- ing the evaporated extract with water, saturating the aqueous solution with lime, and treating the evaporated residue with ether and alcohol. Meconin. G-sided prisms obtained from an aqueous solution after precipitating morphin by ammonia. The nieconm separates from the fil- tered liquor. Menyanihin. From the menyanthes trifoliata. Melampyrin. Crystals from melampyrum ne- morosum. Mudarin. A pitchy matter obtained by water from the mudar, colotropis mudarii. Ilicin. Yellow crystals from holly. Narcissin. White substance obtained by al- cohol from the narcissus pseudo-narcissus. Olivin. White needles by alcohol from the resin of the olive tree. Peucedanin. White prisms obtained by alco- hol from the root of the peucidanum officinale. Phittyrin. Amorphous mass from the philly- rea media. Pkloridzine, q. v. Picrotoxin. (C 12 H 7 O 5 .) Poisonous, white, 4-sided prisms ; bitter, decomposing at high tem- peratures without melting; soluble in 150 cold, 25 boiling water, 3 boiling alcohol; soluble in ether ; obtained from cocculus indicus by means of alcohol ; the picrotoxin crystallizes out, mixed with oil, which is removed by pressing between BIT paper, redissolving in alcohol, and filtering through animal charcoal. Picrolichenin, or Variolarin. Colourless octo- hedrons extracted by alcohol from the variolaria amara, a common lichen on trees. Plumbagin. Orange - yellow needles from plumbago Europaea. Populin. White hard needles from the popu- lus tremula. Porphyroxin. Shining needles from opium by- ether, water and ether. The last boiling with ether, gives codein, thebain, and porphyroxin. The first is precipitated by dissolving the three in HC1, and adding NH 3 . Thebain and porphyr- oxin fall ; spirit takes up the porphyroxin. Quassin. (C 66-7, H 6-9, 26-3.) Bitter small white prisms, obtained from the wood of quassia amara, by boiling the wood in chips in water, filtering, evaporating to three-fourths of its bulk, throwing down pectin, &c. by slaked lime. After remaining one day in contact with the lime, the liquor is filtered and evaporated to dryness, and digested with alcohol of "830 spe- cific gravity. Impure crystals subside, which are further purified by absolute alcohol, ether,, and evaporation. This is an important tonic in medicine. Qmrcin. Crystalline from Quercus robur (the oak) by alcohol. Salicine, q. v. Santonin. White 6-sided prisms from chamo- mile and other species of artemisia. /Saponin. White matter from the root of soap- wort, saponaria ofiicinalis, a common plant in gardens. By means of potash converted into- saponic acid. Scillitin. Colourless matter derived from the sap of the scilla maritima, or squills, by alcohol. Scoparin, q. v. Senegin. White substance from the polygala. senega. Smilacin. Colourless tasteless needles, ob- tained by treating the root of the smilax sarsa- parilla with alcohol and evaporation, and removing the colouring matter by animal charcoal. Spartin, q. v. Syringin. An iincrystalline bitter from the syringa. ^ Tanghinin. Crystals from Madagascar tan- ghin. Xanthroiricrin. Greenish-yellow needles, ob- tained from xanthoxylum clava Herculis, by- alcohol, water, and ether. Bitter of Welter. Picric or Carbazotic acid. Bitter Spar. A class of minerals, includ- ing the isomorphous varieties of carbonates of lime, magnesia, and iron, including magnesian limestone. Bittern. The mother liquor which remains after the evaporated sea water has deposited its common salt. The deliquescent fluid, which does not crystallize, is employed in the manu- 106 BIT facture of magnesia alba. The muriate of mag- nesia, which it contains, is decomposed by car- bonate of soda, or by the purified amniouiacal liquor of gas works. Bitumen. An expression used to denote a number of distinct bodies of organic origin, including amber, asphalt, berengelite, bog butter, boloretin, coal, dyssodyle, elastic bitumen, fichte- lite, Highgate resin, Guayaquillite, hartite, Hat- chettine, idrialine, ixolyte, Middletonite, naph- theine, ozokerite, petroleum, phylloretin, retin- asphalt, Scheererite, tekoretin, xyloretin. Bituminous Shale. The name of a slate containing bituminous combustible matter. Bituminous Coals comprehend those coals which leave a comparatively small amount of coke when heated in close vessels. They are the best kind of coals for gas making. Biuret. C 4 H 5 N 3 O 4 -f- 2 HO. White crys- talline body, (Wiedemann Poggend. 74, 67), soluble in strong sulphuric, and not too concen- trated nitric acid ; not precipitated by metallic salts, nor by gallic and tannic acids ; soluble in water and alcohol ; forms a red solution with oxide of copper and potash, yielding a crystal- line compound ; by heat evolves ammonia, and then solidifies into cyanuric acid. It is formed from urea, by heating that substance for a long time at a temperature between 302 and 338. The pasty mass is boiled with a small portion of water, and the filtered liquor precipitated with disacetate of lead ; again filtered ; the fluid sepa- rated from oxide of lead by sulphohydric acid, boiled and evaporated down to crystallize. Biuret is urea deprived of ammonia, or 2 Urea, = C 4 H 8 K 4 4 Biuret, C 4 H 5 N 3 4 H 8 N It may also be obtained by heating nitrate of urea to 3 05; nitrate of ammonia, cyanuric acid, and biuret are formed. Blacking. Cirage, Fr. Day and Martin's is made by incorporating bone black in powder with sperm oil; sugar, or molasses, and some vinegar are then added ; strong sulphuric acid is gradually poured in. Sulphate of lime is thus formed from the bones, which produces a tenacious paste. After the action of the acid, the mixture is diluted with vinegar and bottled while warm. Black Colours for Pottery. Gray-black. Gray flux 85 ; carbonate of cobalt 10 ; oxide of iron by ammonia 5. Brown-black. Gray flux 76; carbonate of cobalt 16; oxide of iron by ammonia 4 ; ditto, by heat 4. Deep Hack. Gray flux 78 ; carbonate of cobalt 11 ; oxide of iron by ammonia 11. Iridium black. Gray flux 75 ; sesquioxide of iridium 25. Black Chalk. A bluish-black slate in Caernarvonshire and the island of Islay. Black Dyes are chiefly formed by the action of tannic acid with a salt of iron. BLE Black Flux is prepared by igniting cream of tartar in a close crucible, previously lining it with paper to prevent the adhesion of the flux to the sides. Black Jack. The miner's name for zinc blende or sulphide of zinc. Black Lead. Plumbago or graphite. Black Wad. A common miner's name for black oxide of manganese or an earthy variety of it. Blanquette. The French term for kelp. Blanquiuine. An alkaloid said to have been detected hi white cinchona bark. Blanspath. A phosphate of alumina and magnesia from Styria. Bleaching. Blanchiment, (Fr.) Bleichen,, (Ger.) The process of bleaching, which consists in the removal of the natural colouring matter of cloth, either linen or cotton, used formerly to be conducted on the principle of oxidizing the colour by the agency of air and the light of the sun ; but in consequence of the tedious nature of the opera- tion, the process is generally performed by chlo- ride of lime in the case of cotton, although linen is still exposed to the action of light. When cotton was thus bleached it was exposed to a fermenting action for about a week by steeping the cloth hi water to remove the flour of the weaver's dressing, and after being washed hi the dash wheel, it was spread or hung hi the sun for a similar period and then boiled in caustic soda, the several processes being repeated until the cloth was sufiiciently white. It was then soured or exposed to the action of sour milk or weak sulphuric acid, which had the effect of re- moving earths and alkalies from the cloth. In, bleaching with chlorine, the preparatory stages, vary with the description of goods. 1. They are often boiled with lime in the bucking boiler A. 2. They are transferred into similar boilers and boiled with carbonate of soda or weak soda ash. 3. They are washed with the dash wheel. 4. They are steeped in a weak solution of bleaching powder, or chemic, as it is technically called. 5. They are soured, and sometimes chemiced and soured again. I. The first operation on the continent is to. remove extraneous matter by steeping the cloth in water for twelve hours, at about 100, when 107 BLE it is well rinsed out or washed in the dash wheel. In France this previous treatment with water is prolonged more than in this country. (1) The cloth there is first moistened with water, (2) then macerated for twenty-four hours at a tempera- ture of about 80, to remove the starch which may attach to it, by converting it into dextrin or sugar; it is then washed in the dash wheel. It is usual after the cotton is singed, steeped in cold water, and washed with the dash wheel, to put the goods in layers into a bucking boiler A, to cover each layer with a solution of lime and water of a creamy consistence, the quantity of lime being ^ of the weight of the cloth. The boiling is thus continued for eight hours, when the cloth is again washed with the dash wheel in order to remove the lime. II. The cloth is next boiled in an alkaline lye. In France the strength of the lye is 44 Ibs. carbonate of soda, 22 Ibs. lime, 3,300 Ibs. water, for 325 pieces of cloth, and the boiling is kept up for twenty-four hours. In this country the quantity of soda is often used to the amount of 10 Ibs. to 100 Ibs. cloth, with a sufficient quantity of water to allow the goods to boil freely, and the boiling is only continued for three hours. The goods are then allowed to drain, and hot water is poured over them to remove the alkali. III. The next operation consists in steep- ing the goods in a solution of bleaching powder. The bleaching liquor is placed in large troughs of stone or wood, termed bleaching vats, and must be carefully diluted to the proper strength, so as not to injure the goods. The best method of de- termining the strength of this liquid is that in- vented by Mr. Crum. Cruirfs Chlorimeter. A solution is formed of protochloride of iron by dissolving cast iron turn- ings in muriatic acid of half the usual strength, and the solution is saturated by keeping a piece of iron in it for some time at the heat of boiling water. One measure of this solution at 40 T wad- dell (spec. grav. 1,200), is mixed with one of acetic acid, such as is sold in Glasgow. This forms the proof solution. If mixed with 6 or 8 parts of water it is quite colourless, but bleach- ing powder occasions with it the production of peracetate of iron, Avhich has a fine red colour. ..t -/ 42 ,n. r-Jl A set of phials is procured, twelve in number, all of the same size. A portion of the proof solution, equal to ^ of their capacity, is put into each, and then they are filled up with bleaching liquor of various strengths ; the first at -^ of a degree of Twaddell, the second fa, and so on, up to \ -*, or 1 Twaddell. They are then corked up and ranged together, To ascertain the strength of an un- BLE known and partially exhausted bleaching liquor, the proof solution is put into a similar phial up to A, and is filled up with the unknown liquor and placed beside that phial which it resembles. The number of that phial is its strength in 12ths. of a degree of the hydrometer, and by inspecting a table we find at once how much of a solution. of bleaching powder, which is always kept in stock at 60, is necessary to raise the whole of the liquor in the steeping vessel to the desired strength. The theory of the operation is as fol- lows : 3CaOCl becoming 3 CaCl 6 Fed 4FeCll|=2Fe 2 Cl 3 = Fe 2 3 The peroxide of iron is taken up by the acetic acid, and produces the characteristic colour. IV. The goods after remaining some hours in the bleaching liquor are soured, that is, placed in weak sulphuric acid. The action of the acid is not sufficiently understood, but it has certainly the effect of removing a brown or yellow organic matter which resists the action of chlorine and alk alies. If necessary the processes of washing, steeping, and souring are again repeated. But different bleachers pursue different methods. In bleaching, besides the whitening effect which is produced, the fibres of the cotton or linen are shortened in breadth, so that the cloth does not measure the same breadth as before being sub- jected to the operation. This seems to be ac- counted for by the curving of the fibres as they cross each other. This shortening of the fibres is more particularly observable in some of the pro- cesses for finishing off cloth, in which the fibres are subjected to moisture and friction. Measurement of Cloth before Bleaching and after Finishing. Wt. of Piece. Breadth. Length. Grey state, ...... 5 Ibs. 27 ins. 29 yds. After bleaching, 4 2 oz 23| 30 yds 23| in After printing and finishing, 24 30 yds 4 in. An interesting observation has been made by Mr. Mercer, that when steeped in caustic soda of 70 Twaddell (1-350), cotton cloth becomes of finer fibre, and produces finer colours hi printing, but shrinks very much. Bleaching by /Sulphurous Acid. In bleaching woollens chlorine is not sufficient ; it is necessary to expose them to the action of sulphurous acid, in chambers built for the purpose. The goods are hung up, and the sulphurous acid evolved by placing a piece of hot iron in a pan of sulphur. The frames on which the goods are hung are generally of fir, supplied with hardwood pins, for catching the blankets or woollen goods. In the formation of this framework no nails are allowed to enter, as they are readily rusted by the damp and the goods damaged. Thorn's Sulphuring Apparatus. A patent re- cently taken out by Mr. John Thorn of Birkacre, Chorley, for a sulphuring apparatus, has greatly 108 BLE improved the process of bleaching by sulphurous acid, by reducing the period of contact of the sul- phurous acid and goods to a few seconds. The sul- phur apartment is supplied with the acid from an adjoining furnace, the goods being passed rapidly on rollers through the chamber, as represented in the drawing. The advantages of this process, according to the patentee, are, 1st, a considerable saving hi fitting up sulphur rooms or chambers ; 2d, economy of space and building ; 3d, economy of sulphur, time, and labour ; 4th, entire freedom from sulphur stains or drops ; 5th, improvement BLO in the quality of the cloth, and when printed the results are more certain, and the colours superior. He considers the most important precaution in using the patent successfully to be, to have the cloth in a proper state of humidity, neither too dry nor too damp ; this condition being obtained " by using a certain weight upon the levers of the bowls through which the cloth passed as it finished being scoured." The piece is only in the chamber a few seconds; 50 to 70 Ibs. crude sulphur are sufficient for 1000 pieces 36 yards long, and one lad manages two machines. Theory of Bleaching. Action of Air. When linen and cotton fabrics are exposed to moisture and the heat of the sun, a slow process of com- bustion takes place ; the oxygen of the air uniting with the colouring matter converts it into carbonic ackl, and the weight of the cloth dimi- nishes. If the action be continued too long the linen and cotton lose their cohesion, and are con- verted into a pulp resembling that used for the manufacture of paper. Action of Chlorine. According to one view, chlorine, under the influence of light or oxidable bodies, including coloured substances, decomposes water, yielding chlorohydric acid, the oxygen forming chlorous acid, or binoxide of hydrogen. One or other of these compounds now gives oxygen to the colouring matter, and this goes on till all the chlorine is converted into chlorohydric acid. Another view is, that chlorine unites directly with the colouring matter, and forms a colourless chloride. But the most probable ex- planation is that the chlorine unites with the colouring matter by replacing hydrogen, whih another atom of chlorine combines with the displaced hydrogen, and separates as chlorohy- dric acid. Bleaching Powtlcr. See LIME, CHLORIDK. OF. Blende. See SULPHIDE OF ZINC. Bleyniere. An impure arsenic-carbonate of lead. Blistered Steel. Steel having blisters on its surface from the discharge of a gas from the interior of the bar, is so termed. Block Tin, or metallic tin reduced from tin- stone dug out of veins is less pure than grain tin, which is obtained from stream tin, or loose grains of tinstone in alluvial soil. B Hoc-elite. Reussin or Reissite. Soda Sul- phate of Magnesia. From Ischel, in Austria, found along with polyhalite. It consists of sul- phate of soda 33-34, sulphate of magnesia 36-66, 109 BLO water 29-, XaCl -33, FeOSOg -34, MnOS0 3 -33 Efflorescences found at Seidlitz and Seidschutz in Bohemia, in flat 6-sided prisms and needles, contain NaOSOg 66-04, MgOSO 3 31-35, MgCl 2-19, CaOSOs -42. Blood. A well-known fluid, amounting to from 22 to 26 Ibs. in the human body, which, as seen by the naked eye, is red, and when viewed by the microscope, appears as a greenish-yellow liquid, in which red corpuscles or globules are floating. The fluid portion as it exists in the circulation is termed the liquor sanguinis or liquid part of the blood. When fresh drawn, the spec. grav. of the blood varies from 1051 to 1057; 1054 is about the mean of healthy human blood. The size of the human blood globules are dif- ferently stated by authors who have measured them. They were first noticed by Leuwenhoek Human Blood Globules. , Cams. 5, Dumas, c, Bauer and Home, d, Wagner. in 1674, who considered them 25,000 times smaller than a grain of sand. Sir E. Home found them -j^Vrti 1 part of an English inch in diameter; Wollaston ^-g^tb. part, and Young -gJg^th part. But they differ much in different animals, those of man passing readily through a filter, and those of the frog being detained on it, and allowing a clear fluid to pass through the paper. The form of the globules is considered to be that of a flat disc in which a nucleus is seen. To view them under the microscope they must not be mixed with pure water, which par- tially dissolves them, but with saline or sac- charine water. The smell of the blood is peculiar, and has been termed by physiologists frayrant and (ill'mct-nii*, and is powerfully represented by Miaksj.careas constituting the ever-present goad to tin- guiltv nmsrionoc of Lady Macbeth, as she <'\<-laiins, " Iln-c's the smell of the blood still; all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this BLO little hand." The action on test paper by the blood is alkaline that is, it restores immediately the blue colour of reddened litmus. Coagulation. When the blood of the frog is drawn from the animal and thrown on a filter a clear liquid passes through, which is the liquor sanguinis, while the red globules remain on the filter. In a few minutes the clear fluid, however, gelatinizes. This is due to the separation of the fibrine, which in warm blood, as drawn from an animal, is in a state of solution. If we make the same experi- ment with the human blood, the red particles are so minute that they pass throtigh the pores of the filter, and we cannot thus separate them from the fibrine. Human blood and all other kinds of red blood when freshly drawn therefore coagulate; that is, the fibrine separates as the blood cools and entangles the blood globules, which fall down together as a red crassamentum or coagulum, and an amber-coloured fluid sepa- rates from it, called the serum, in which the red cake is placed. It is important to dis- tinguish between the liquor sanguinis and the serum, the former being the serum before the fibrine has separated by coagulation. Coagula- tion occurs in some animals much more rapidly than in others. With the sheep it is difficult to weigh out a portion of blood as it flows from a vein, since it coagulates in from % to 1|- minute ; in the same time in the pig, rabbit, and fowl; in from 2 to 15 minutes in the horse; 2 to 10 in the ox; ^ to 3 in the dog; in mice and fish in a moment. Dr. Andrew Buchanan has contrived a very ingenious method of sepa- rating the blood globules in human blood from the fibrine. He throws a quantity of serum on a filter ; allows fresh blood to flow into the serum ; in general, the globules are detained on the filter ; and the liquor sanguinis passing through coagu- lates by the separation of the fibrine which forms a clear jelly. Again, if we pour fresh blood in a tumbler into a quantity of serum, the red glo- bules fall to the bottom of the vessel, and the fibrine separates in a coagulum above. Compo- sition of the dot. When the blood has been drawn from an animal it is \isual to consider it as composed of two portions a solid part, the clot or crassamentum floating in the serum or watery' portion. The relative proportions of serum and slot I have found to be in healthy persons ; in 1000 parts in man, serum 455-, clot 545 ; in woman, serum 424, clot 576. When 1000 parts of clot are heated a little above a steam heat un- til they cease to lose weight, it is found that 709 oarts of water have evaporated, and 291 parts of solid matter, consisting of fibrine and blood globules, remain. From this experiment we earn that much of the serum is detained by the clot, and that the true composition of the clot, ipproximately, is scrum and water of globules 93, globules* fibrin, and salts 207-. The glo- jules consist of a modification of albumen, which las been termed globuline, of colouring matter or 110 BLO haematine, together with a portion of oxide of iron. The other constituents of the clot are Jibrine and salts. Composition of the serum. The serum is an alkaline fluid having a yellow or amber colour, and is quite clear when drawn from an animal which has not tasted food for some hours, and from whose food fat or oil has been excluded. Its specific gravity varies from 1027 to 1029. I have found it as a mean from many trials, about 1028. When heated (to 159, Thomson,) as ascertained by Dr. Harvey, the serum coagulates, the albumen which it contains in solution becoming solid as with white of egg (Rouelle and Bouquet, 1776). When 1000 parts of serum are heated in a water bath, they lose in man 910 water and there remain 90 parts of solid residue. In the human female I have found 898 water, and 102 solid matter consisting of albumen and salts, with certain fatty substances, margarin, margaric acid, cho- lesterin, serolin, lecithine, cerebric acid, creatine, creatinine, &c. Besides these bodies, serum possesses a great absorptive power of gases, for while 1000 vols. of water only absorb 9^ of oxygen, 1000 vols. blood absorb from 100 to 130 vols. oxygen. Magnus found 125 vols. of the blood of a horse to give out in vacuo, 5 '4 carbonic acid, 1*9 oxygen, and 2*5 nitrogen. The following table presents a list of the various bodies which have been found in human blood : Dog fed on Flesh. Chlorine,. ...30-25 Sodium, 19-60 Soda,... . ^-78 Do. Bread and Potat. 30-94 20-04 2-02 19-16 4-38 1-08 9-34 2-35 0-70 8-65 0-37 Man 45 Woman 22 Years. Tears. 37-50 33-76 24-49 21-87 2-03 6-27 12-70 11-24 0-99 1-26 1-70 1-64 7-48 9-74 1-87 1-36 1-68 1-85 8-06 0-68 1-43 0-95 Ox. 32-60 21-11 14-40 8-76 0-59 1-16 3-02 1-62 0-70 8-80 6-44) Potash, 15-16 Magnesia,.. Sulph. acid, Phosphor. \ acid, / Ditto . 0-67 . 1-71 12-74 1-22 Lime, O'lO Sesquiox. \ of iron,../ Carb. acid, 12-75 . 0-53 Clot. fFibrine, Globules, 2-7 es, 1 Fibrinous { Hasmatosine, ! - 9 Q. iiip ' Matter,.... Globuline, [Caseine, Serum. j G9-41 90- Gases, . Fats,... Salts,. Albumen, Water, ( Carbonic acid, ... -cNitrogen, (Oxygen, Fat with phosphorus, ...") Cholesterine, | Serolme, 1 Fats, c. Oleicacid, f =10-96 Margaric acid, Cerebric acid, i" Chloride of sodium, , . ! potassium, .... (-.-. ammonium?. /Carbonates, soda, 3. lime, ( magnesia,..., /" Phosphates of soda, 1 lime, | . magnesia, . \- iron, , Salts, ( 6-45 Sulphate of potash,. Lactate of soda, Fatty acid salts,.... Volatile fat salts,... BLO Yellow colouring matter, .... Sugar, Urea, Hippuric acid? Uric acid, Creatine, Creatinine, Licithine, Haematoidine, Albuminose ? Salts of the Blood. Mean ash in blood, 6-45 per 1000. The amount of carbonic acid increases with vegetable food, while the phosphoric acid diminishes. Phos- phoric acid is largest in a dog fed with meat ; the potash also diminishes with vegetable diet. The sesquioxide of iron in the blood from animal food is in great excess. Ashes of Blood. Human. Calves. Sheep. Phosphoric acid, 31-787 20-145 16-80(1 Alkaliesandalk.earths,58-993 66-578 60-576 Carbonic acid, 3-783 9-848 19-474 This is a proof that carbonate of soda can re- place phosphate of soda in the blood, and both of these salts increase the power of the serum to take up carbonic acid. White Blood. That the serum of the blood frequently assumes a white appearance has been known for a long period, but it has been generally considered to indicate a state of disease. Hewson observed this phenomenon, and he rejected the view that it depended on the presence of chyle. He ascribed it to the presence of fat absorbed from the adipose tissue, which he supposed to be taken up more rapidly than the wants of the system require, and therefore to accumulate in the blood vessels. This opinion appears to be the common doctrine at the present day. John Hunter alone rejected it. He observed it most in the blood of breeding women. Dr. Trail observed it, and ascribed it to the same cause as Hewson; while Dr. Christison refers it to incipient disease of the kidney. Dr. Andrew Buchanan first observed it to omir in healthy persons in 1844, in the following experiment : 111 BLO "A strong healthy young man, to whom a good dinner was an equivalent for the loss of a few ounces of blood, was easily pre- vailed upon to submit to the following regi- men and treatment. He had no breakfast, and at four o'clock had for dinner one pound of beefsteak, half-a-ponnd of bread, sixteen liquid ounces of brown soup, and half-a-bottle of porter. Three ounces of blood were then taken from a vein in the arm at three different periods ; the first time, half-an-hour after the meal ; the second time, an hour and forty minutes after it ; and the last time, next morning at eight o'clock, or six- teen hours after the meal, no food having been taken in the interval. The blood as it issued from the vein had the usual appearance, and the scrum which separated from it was about the same in quantity each time. The first time the serum was whitish and turbid; the second time it was like whey ; while the third time it was perfectly limpid. The crassamentum on the first occasion exhibited nothing peculiar, while on the last it was covered with a transparent fibrinous crust beautifully interspersed with white dots, which led the medical friend who assisted me in these investigations to compare it to a precious stone. As it might be supposed that this young man's blood was white before he took dinner, the two following trials were made to obviate that objec- tion : A vigorous man of about thirty-five years of age, after fasting nineteen hours, had for din- ner twenty ounces of beefsteak, sixteen liquid ounces of brown soup, and eight ounces of bread. He was bled immediately before his meal, and three times after it, two ounces of blood being taken away each time. The serum obtained from the first bleeding before the meal was perfectly limpid ; the serum from the second bleeding, three hours and fifteen minutes after the meal, was turbid ; the serum from the third bleeding, eight hours and fifteen minutes after the meal, was still thicker; while that from the last bleeding, eighteen hours after the meal, was again quite limpid, although some supper had been eaten in the interval. The young man first mentioned, after fasting eighteen hours, dined upon sixteen ounces of brown soup, four ounces of bread, eight ounces of potatoes, sixteen ounces of beef- steak, and sixteen ounces of London porter, and fasted eighteen hours after the meal. He had blood taken from his arm four times, to the ex- tent of two ounces each time. The serum of the blood first taken, immediately before the meal, was of an amber-yellow, and quite transparent ; the serum from the second bleeding, two hours and ten minutes after the meal, was turbid ; the serum. from the third bleeding, eight hours after the meal, was exactly of the colour of water gruel, and quite opaque ; the serum of the blood last taken, eighteen hours after the meal, was still turbid, its limpidity not having been, as after his usual fare, restored by an eighteen hours' fast. In neither of the two last cases did the blood, as BLO t issued from the arm, present white streaks or anything else unusual. The crassamentum of the blood drawn before the meal was in both cases of the usual red colour on the surface, as also that drawn first after the meal in the last case ; but in all the other instances it exhibited the saxfifc pellucid fibrinous crust already described, although not dotted in the same remarkable way. We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that this pellucid crust is connected with finished diges- tion, when we reflect that out of nine bleedings practised within eighteen hours after a very full meal this crust was observed on every occasion, if we except those in which the blood was drawn within three hours and a quarter of the period of taking the meal. Dr. R. D. Thomson was kind enough to examine a specimen of the white mat- ter separated by the action of common salt and the filter, but too minute in quantity to admit of a satisfactory analysis. He found it quite in- soluble in ether and alcohol, while it dissolved in caustic potash. On boiling it in a- solution of sugar of lead, it gave traces of black sulphuret. He concluded, therefore, that it contained no fixed oil, and consisted most probably of an albuminous compound, like white of egg or muscle. A fur- ther opportunity was afforded of examining the chemical qualities of this serum in some specimens obtained for illustration. A man about thirty years of age, after fasting eighteen hours, dined upon twenty-four ounces of a pudding, consist- ing of two parts wheaten flour, and one part suet, seasoned with salt. Two ounces of blood taken before the meal yielded a perfectly limpid serum. Seven ounces were taken three hours after the meal, and the same quantity six hours after it. The serum from the former was like syrup, but a little white; that from the latter was milk-white. The white matter in the latter was separated by Dr. Thomson, by means of salt and the filter, and appeared similar to the substance before examined. It contained no fixed oil. The other specimen of serum threw up its cream spontaneously. It left upon the filter only a trace of white matter, but a notable proportion of a fixed oil, which was easily demonstrated by merely drying the filtering paper, and holding it between the eye and the light. It can scarcely be doubted that this oil was derived from the suet of the pudding, while the white albuminous substance most probably repre- sented the gluten of the flour. Thus two of the three elements of which the food consisted were found in the blood, but the starch, the most abundant of all, was sought for in vain." It was subsequently found, however, that all blood ferments with yeast. Hence it is possible that all starch is converted into sugar, and thus n-nclics the blood in solution. To ascertain if the same phenomena were constant also in the inferior animals, I caused a calf to be fed with milk and gruel at seven in the morning, and at ten it was killed. An oily substance separated from it, and a cream formed on its surface as in 112 BLO the preceding experiments. An ox also was fed on oats, and being killed in five hours afforded similar results. The quantity of white matter which was separated from the serum by means of salt was very considerable. It was afterwards found by Dr. Buchanan that arrowroot, jelly, and similar diet, unless when fat was present in the food, produced no whiteness in the serum. Blood in Diseases. This subject has attracted the attention of various physicians, and among others of Aridral and Gavarret, who have made an interesting series of experiments upon the quantity of the materials of blood in different diseases. These they have determined by care- fully separating and weighing them. Now, weighing is a most important consideration in medicine. It is common for surgeons to enter in their reports that the pulse of a patient is less frequent than yesterday, that the quantity of urine has diminished or increased. But this is a most indefinite mode of writing. If, on the con- trary, the pulse is stated to be 90 one day and 80 the next, or that the quantity of urine was one day 2 Ibs. and 3 or 1| the next, a precise and definite nomenclature is employed; and if we are told at the same time the weight of the food and drink swallowed, most important data are afforded, from which interesting conclusions can be drawn. It is by such data that we are enabled to determine whether our patient is improving. For example, in diabetes the principal symptom is an unna- tural discharge of saccharine urine. But if one is asked what he means by an unnatural dis- charge, many persons would say a large quantity. This again is an indefinite expression. It is a comparative term, with an indefinite object of comparison. But if one is told that the average quantity of healthy urine daily is 40 fluid oz. and that in diabetes it may amount to, upon an average, 200 oz. this numerical statement is at once clear and obvious to the mind. The first mode of expression is equivalent to the rule of thumb, so prevalent among fanners and older manufacturers, while the latter method is ex- pressed with mathematical precision. Weighing and measuring are most important objects in medicine, which remarkably distinguish the medical men of the continent from those of this country. In considering the effect of diseases upon the blood, it is necessary to institute a standard of comparison to determine the average amount of the constituents of the blood in health. Now, according to Lecanu, healthy blood con- tains - Fibrine, 3 Globules, 127 Solid matter in serum, 80 Water, 790 1000 Mode of Analysis by Dumas. -The blood is received into two vessels of equal capacity, each BLO of which is capable of containing 5| oz. Into one of the vessels the first fourth of the blood is drawn, and afterwards the last fourth ; and this portion of blood is allowed to coagulate. Into the other vessel are drawn the second and third fourths. This portion is beat with a stick in or- der to obtain the fibrine, which is carefully washed. The two portions of blood thus separ- ated ought to have the same composition. When the coagulation is completed the serum is to be carefully separated from the clot, and dried. There are thus obtained (1) the fibrine; (2) the serum; (3) the clot. The dry fibrine is weighed. This gives the quantity of fibrine which the clot contained. The residue from the serum is weighed, and thus we obtain the quantity of water and solid material. The dried clot is then weighed. The quantity of water which it contained, represented by the loss sus- tained by the drying, enables us to calculate the quantity of solid materials of the serum which the dried clot contains. Subtracting from the weight of the dry clot the weight of the fib- rine, plus the weight of the solid materials of the serum which the clot contained, and which must be calculated, there remains the weight of the globules which the clot contains. By this pro- cedure we obtain (1) the weight of the fibrine ; (2) the weight of the globules ; (3) the weight of the solid materials of the serum; (4) the weight of the water. The result of experiments upon different kinds of blood has shown the con- stituents to vary as follow: Fibrine, from 10 to 1 per 1000 Globules, from 185 to 21 S.M. of serum, from 114 to 57 Water, from 915 to 725 The diseases which have been examined in re- gard to the composition of the blood appear divisible into four classes. I. Fibrine increased. This class comprehends articular rheumatism, pneumonia, capillary bronchitis, pleuritis, peri - tonitis, erysipelas, amygdalitis, cystitis, and in- flammation of the lymphatic ganglia. In acute rheumatism the quantity of fibrine varies from 10-2 to 4-1, the average quantity being about 7|. The intensity and extent of the pain in this disease appeared to exercise a greater influ- ence in increasing the quantity of fibrine than the period or duration of the disease ; and it is an important remark, that if a bleeding did not produce any effect upon the disease the fib- rine did not diminish; but whenever the bleeding was beneficial the fibrine diminished. The fol- lowing was the result of five bleedings: 1 bleeding, 8-9 per 1000 fibrin. 2 9-8 3 8-5 4 6-4 5 2-8 The state of the globules in rheumatism appears 113 I BLO to be inversely that of the fibrine. In no case do these amount to their natural quantity, and often after the first bleeding their quantity has descended under the mean number. In pneumo- nia the fibrine is always increased the highest number is 10, and the lowest 4. The quantity of fibrine increases with the intensity of the dis- ease, and decreases with its amelioration. The other diseases presented similar results. In ery- sipelas the average of fibrine was 6. In one case, in which the disease was mild, the quantity was 3*6, and the globules were increased. In pulmonary tubercles there is always a tendency to increase hi the amount of fibrine and diminu- tion of the globules. The increase of fibrine begins to show itself when the tubercles be- gin to soften. Even when the lung is filled with cavities, there is abnormal quantity of fib- rine. It always happens that when the patient is reduced to a state of marasmus and exhaus- tion, the fibrine begins to decrease, the quantity then being as low as 2. These facts go to sup- port the idea of the inflammatory nature of con- sumption. It also appears that every acute disease has a tendency to increase the quantity of fibrine hi the blood. II. The second class in- cludes the pyrexice, which are characterized by the fibrine remaining normal in quantity or dimi- nishing, while the same holds with regard to the globules ; from which Andral concludes, that it is on the inflammatory action, and not on the fever which accompanies the diseases of the pre- ceding class, that the increase of fibrine depends. The diseases of the present class include, con- tinued and typhoid fevers, eruptive fevers (small- pox, measles, and scarlet fever), and intermittent fevers, and congestions. III. Diseases in which the globules are diminished. Andral had proved, nnder the preceding classes, that, by loss of blood and deprivation of food, the globules of the blood diminish ; he proved- the same with regard to certain diseases which oppose the free and complete reparation of the blood, as cancer of the stomach and pulmonary tubercle. But there' is still another state of body, termed ance- mia (want of blood), into which some persons fall, who have either been weakened by accident or disease. This may happen after fevers or diabetes. But it is most particularly typified in delicate females in the form of chlorosis, where the waxy paleness of the whole body denum- stratcs the deficiency hi the colouring matter of the blood. An interesting case is related by Andral of a young man who fell into a state of anaemia without any assignable caiise. His blood when first examined contained 87-9 of globules, the fibrine being natural. Shortly after- wards he. was again bled, the globules were 72-2. He Avas then treated with ferruginous medicines, and when the blood was again examined, the globules amounted to 86-9. The fibrine does not appear to diminish; from whicli Andral con- cludes that a clilorotic patient may contract an BLO inflammatory disease, since the element of the blood, which is most modified in the inflamma- tory state, not only has not diminished, but pre- dominates over the globules. IV. The next class comprehends Bright's disease of the kidney, or albuminous nephritis, as it has been called. It is characterized by the presence of albumen in the urine ; and Andral has found that, in pro- portion to the increase of albumen in the urine, that of the blood diminishes. But the same ob- servation had previously been made by others. Indeed, it is almost self-evident that it should be so. This character of the blood may be de- tected by the diminished specific gravity of the serum. Healthy serum has a specific gravity of 1*027. If it falls much below this, we may conclude it to be abnormal. Blood in Scurvy and Purpura. (R.D.T.) Scurvy. Purpura. Water, ^ 807-82) qQ9 ftf , /t Globules, | 185-74 j J Albumen, [ Fibrin, j 1-106 Salts, J 6-44 6-82 1000 1000 Total Salts in Blood. (R.D.T.) Healthy Female, 5-84 Do. Male, 6-38 Typhus, 3-41 Cholera, lymphatic stage, 8-56 Bloodin Cholera. (R.D.T.) Relations of Insoluble to Soluble Salts. Eatio Insol. Sol. Healthy blood, Female, 1 to 4-4 Ditto, Male, 1 to 4-02 Cholera blood, - < l to 3 ' 81 Ditto, biliary, .1 to 4%3 Ratio Fibrine to Albumen. Globules and Water. Cholera, 1 to 59-86 159 Health, 1 to 66-80 263 Blood in Diseases. (Le Canu.) Healthy. Inflam. Diabetes. Typb. 3 ^* rt Water, 790- 776- 8161 805- 83G : Globules, 131. 144' 120'3 115- 80- Albumen, 56- 5-5 Fibrine, 27 24 Oxide of iron, 1-7 ^ Carb. of soda, 1-00) Chi. of sodium 41 V 71 Do. potassium 21 j 80 'Salts 5 7 80 Carb. of lime, 1'3 ] Phos. lime, > r I Phos. MgO.j " j 3-5 Fats with P.. . 8~0 Cruorine, 11 114 BLO Chlorosis. Cholera. Water, 862- 630 749- Globules, 55- Albumen, S3- Mean of 3 cases. 370 251 Bloodstone. A variety of quartz of a green colour traversed by blood-red veins, which owe their tint to sesquioxide of iron. Blowpipe. As a knowledge of the results to be obtained by the xise of the blowpipe can only be acquired by a good deal of practice, the stu- dent should provide himself with a blowpipe (which may be had very cheap when made of tin), and practise frequently, so as to be enabled o use the subsequent tables. The cheapest form of blowpipe is No. 1, introduced by Dr. Black. No. 2, Wollaston's blowpipe, takes to pieces, and is, therefore, so far, convenient. In the ab- sence of a gas or spirit-lamp, a common tallow candle will supply a flame capable of affording sufficient heat. The charcoal to be used should be well burned and free from fissures ; a small cavity being made by means of the point of a knife, to retain the substance and fluxes. Action of the Bloirpipe upon Bodies. By the influence of even comparatively low degrees of heat, and such as can be communicated by a gas or spirit-lamp, when the substance is placed on a spatula held over it, we are enabled to obtain much knowledge of the nature of many bodies. When greater degrees of heat are to be applied it is necessary to use the blowpipe, whether of .glass or metal, bent at a right angle, and em- ployed so to propel the flame of the lamp upon the body to be examined, as to enable the oper- ator to observe distinctly the slightest alteration produced upon the body by the continued high temperature. "When we propel a flame by means of a blowpipe, there are two portions of the flame which produce different effects, and there- fore require particular attention. The flame of a common candle consists of an external red, and an interior blue or dark, cone. A flame is sim- ply a hollow cone of light, consisting of gases, which merely burn at the surface, where they are in contact with the oxygen of the atmosphere. The point a is obviously in contact with the air, while the point b is farther removed from it. But when we blow through a flame the circumstances are altered : b in the first figure corresponds with b in the second, as in both unburned gases exist. In the second figure a is the oxidizing and b the reducing flame. To reduce an oxide to the state BLO of metal, that is, to cause the oxygen of the oxide to combine with the gases and form flame, we place the body in the reducing flame. To oxi- dize a metal, so as to cause the metal to com- bine with oxygen, we place the substance in the oxidizing flame. In exposing a body to the action of the blowpipe we first ascertain the effect {per se) by itself, simply by holding the body in the flame by means of a convenient instrument, either a thin platinum wire twisted round the substance or a pair of forceps tipped with platinum. up Action upon Bodies per se. In making this experiment a long thin fragment of the body is fixed between the points of a pair of forceps, and held in the reducing flame. This method is parti- cularly applicable to minerals, many of which have- peculiarities which assist us in deciding on their species. A certain set of minerals, amounting to about thirty-six in number, are characterized by their frothing before the blowpipe, and hence they have been termed zeolites (from &, I boil). They are well typified by Thomsonite. They contain from ten to twenty per cent, of water, and when heated they part with the water, and, boiling up during the process, either fuse into a Avhite bead or fall to powder. (For other char- acters of minerals, see Thomson's Mineralogy, vol. i. and this work.) I. Colours produced by bodies per se. Potash salts, Violet flame, Lithia, Purple red. Strontian, Crimson. Lime, Red. Soda, Yellow. Barytes, Pale greet 1 . Borates, with sulphuric) acid,. 1 | Green - Iodides, with salt ofphos-"\ phorus and oxide of > Green- copper, j Phosphates, with sul-> ^ phuricacid, | Green - 115 BLO Ammonia, Dark green. Tellurium oxide, Green. (Green, except Cl and i Br(blue). Zinc, Whitish-green. Bromides, with phos-"l phorus and oxide of > Blue, with green edges. copper, ) Arsenic, Light blue. Antimony, Greenish-blue. Selenium, Blue. Lead oxide, Blue.. II. Odours produced. Arsenic, Garlic. Selenium, Horse- Radish. Sulphur, ("Peculiar. Sulphurets, (.Odour of S0 2 - III. Blowpipe Action of Substances upon Char- coal. The metals, -with the exception of plati- num, palladium, iridium, rhodium, and osmium, are almost all capable of being melted before the blowpipe on charcoal. Fusible Oxides. The oxides are mostly infus- ible, with the following exceptions : BLO ("Green when hot, dopper oxide, < colourless when, ( cold. {Transparent when Lead oxide, < hot, yellow and (_ opaque when cold. Metals subliming on charcoal with carbonate of soda : Arsenic. Antimony. Selenium. Tellurium. Zinc. Cadmium. Lead. Bismuth. Metals reduced on charcoal with carbonate of soda: Molybdenum. Cobalt. Silver. Tungsten. Copper. Gold. Iron. Tin. Platinum. Nickel. Bodies neither Fused nor Reduced. The alka- line earths, the earths, oxides of cerium, oxide of uranium, columbic acid. V. Blouyipe Action with Borax Colour of Beads. Experiments with borax or carbonate Antimony, oxide. Bismuth, oxide. Vanadic acid. Lead, Tellurous Copper, Molybdic Volatile Metals. The following metals sub- lime, leaving a powder on the charcoal: Arsenic. Cadmium, "i Antimony,") ^^ ., Bismuth, > Yellow. TeUuriumA:, Lead, j Zinc, ' ) Sublimate. Tm ^^ ^.^ Mercury and osmium volatilize, without pro- ducing a sublimate. Reducible Bodies. Most metallic oxides are reduced to the metallic state on charcoal. The exceptions are, the alkalies, earths, cerium, ura- nium, manganese, iron, vanadium, chromium, tungsten, columbium, titanium. IV. Blowpipe Action with Carbonate of Soda. Bodies fusing into a bead on platinum wire in oxidating flame : Silica, Colourless glass. xidizing flame. Colourless, < Green, Red, Blue, Violet, Yellow, ... 'Lime,... , "1 Reducing flame. > Colourless. ..Gray. ..Grav- Strontian. Magnesia, Alumina, . . Glucina, Yttria, . . Zirconia, Thorina, . Silica, Columbic acid,... Cadmium, Zinc, .. Tin,. Tellurium, Molybdic acid,.... Tungstic acid, .... Titanic acid, ..Reddish-brown. . .Yellow. ..Yellow hot* vio- Silver, let or dark blue, cold. . Grav. Antimony, oxide and acids, White. ( Colourless when Tellurium, oxide and acid, -] hot, opaque when ( cold. /'Orange in oxidat- Chromium oxide, < ing, green in re- ^Bismuth, (Chromium, when < cold. ..Gray. Green. ^Copper, ..Brown. (. ducing. Molybdic acid, Milky. Cerium, ..Colourless. ..Green. Tungstic acid, .. Yellowish. i Nickel, Grav. pfellow glass when .Cobalt, .Manganese, (Uranium, ] } Vanadium, ( (Lead,.. ..Blue. .Colourless. ' Green. ..Grav. ( cold. Manganese oxides, Green, Cobalt oxide, . . . Red, and then trrav. 116 BLO VI. Blowpipe Action with Salt of Phosphorus Colour of Beads. Microcosmic salt, or ammonia- phosphate of soda, when heated, parts with its ammonia, and is converted into biphosphate of soda. Oxidizing Reducing flame. flame. (Vanadium, Green. Uranium, while \ hot, I Uranium, green ( u while cold, ) Bismuth, Gray. Silver, Gray. Blue, Cobalt, Blue. Violet, Manganese, Colourless. ("Cerium, Colourless. Red, -^Iron, Green. (Nickel, Red. f Chromium, when*) hot, yellow, ...} Green ' Uranium, when^ Green, { hot, yellow, . . . J Green. Colourless, , cold. ^ Copper, Brown. f Red, if iron Tungstic acid, ... < present, blue ( without it. Antimonious acid,. ..Red with iron. Antimony oxide, . . . Gray. fRed with iron, Titanic acid, -j violet or blue ( without it. Tellurium, Gray. Lead, yellow^ fi L when hot, / (jTay ' The alkaline earths, earths and other bodies Jiot enumerated, give colourless or milky beads in both flames, Blowpipe Oxyhydrogen. An apparatus which acts on a similar principle to the preceding. In- stead, however, of employing the force of the cheeks and common air, strong pressure is used, and a mixture of 1 vol. oxygen and 2 vols. 'hydrogen being propelled through the mouth of the blowpipe, the gases are ignited and produce intense ignition. This application of the two gases seems to have been invented about the same tune by Dr. Thomas Thomson, (1800 or 1801,) and Dr. Hare, 1802 ; but as Dr. Thom- son published no account of his experiments at the time, but merely showed them to his pupils, and as Dr. Hare gave a detail of his to the public, the latter has usually obtained the merit of the invention. The apparatus used by Dr. Thomson as subsequently improved is delineated an the woodcut under hydrogen. Blowpipe Table. In this form of blowpipe the air is propelled through the blowpipe by means of a pair of bellows pressed by the foot as in glass-blowing, that being the form of appara- tus particularly valuable to the chemist for bend- BLU ing glass tubes, blowing bulbs, hermetically sealing tubes, &c. Blue, Azure. Consists of 6.7 gray flux (89 pebble flux, 75 minium, 25 sand,) and 11 fused borax. Another azure blue for skies is made by mixing on a glass slab 2 deep blue, 1 oxide of zinc, 4 lead glass (4 minium, 1 sand). Blue, Berlin. See PRUSSIAN BLUE. Blue, Brunswick, or celestial, is prepared as a pigment by adding to a solution of alum carbonate of soda to precipitate alumina, washing the alumina, and adding sulphate of iron, yellow prussiate of potash, sulphate of barytes, and a little bichromate of potash to supply oxygen. This colour is dried. Blue, Cerulian. Gray flux 79, (see AZUEE BLUE,) carbonate of cobalt 7, hydrous carbonate of zinc 14, for pottery. Blue, Clear. 1 oxide of cobalt, 2 oxide of zinc, 6 glass of lead, (2 minium, 1 white sand,) 1^ lead glass, (2 minium, 1 sand, 1 calcined borax,) are mixed and fused. Blue, Cobalt. See COBALT. Blue, Damp. Is made by the same pro- cess as the cerulian, omitting the barytes and the drying. Blue, Deep. For porcelain, 1 pure oxide of cobalt, 1 oxide of zinc, 1 lead glass (2 minium, 1 sand, 1 calcined borax), 4 glass of lead (2 minium, 1 white sand), are fused in a porcelain crucible at a red heat for three hours, washed, divided, and triturated on a glass slab. Blue Colour of Flowers, or Anthocyan. Extracted by digesting blue flowers in alcohol of 85 per cent, away from light for some days ; by water it is precipitated as an extract. The blue colour of the alcohol becomes red by acids, green by alkalies ; hence some of the blue boragineae by the secretion of an acid have frequently a red colour (ecliium, anchusa, puhnonaria). Blue, Iron Earth. Native Prussian Blue. A fine blue powder occurring among the strata of bog iron ore, and in mosses in Europe and New Zealand. It is considered by many merely a form of vivianite. It contains P0 5 31-15, FeO 45-63, A1 2 3 -7, Si0 3 -02, HO 22-5. B.B. melts into a black globule which is magnetic. Blue, Indigo. For pottery, carbonate of cobalt 13, hydrous carbonate of zinc 26, gray flux 61. (See AZURE BLUE.) This is a fine colour, and may be modified into gray or black by proper mixtures. 117 BLU Blue .Boiui. A miner's name for fluorspar. BIm-, Kiii-%. Carbonate % of cobalt 29, sand i".'. carbonate of potash 42.* When fused it forms a beautiful blue, almost black. This glass is powdered and fused with half its weight of pebble flux (75 minium or litharge, 25 sand). Blue, lieitner'*, is formed by precipitating a solution of a salt of cobalt and alum, by an alkaline carbonate, and igniting. Pure clay when moistened with a salt of cobalt and ignited gives a fine blue. Blue ,ii m ii*. See LITMUS. Blue malachite. Hydrous blue carbonate of copper. Blue, Mineral. See PRUSSIAN BLUE. Blue, Paris. See PRUSSIAN BLUE. Blue, Prussian. Berlin Blue. Sesqui- ferrocyanide of Iron. Fe 7 Cy<) = Cfy 3 Fe 4 . (1704, by Diesbach and Dippel, by calcining blood and potash. Berlin Miscel. 1710, Stahl's Exper. p. 281.) A process was published for pre- paring it in 1720 by Dr. Woodward, ob- tained from Germany. (Phil. Trans. 1724.) Preparation. 1. When solutions of sulphate of iron and yellow prussiate of potash are mixed, a blue precipitate is produced which is Prus- sian blue. 2. Hochstatter recommends us to dissolve 6 parts of protosulphate of iron (green vitriol) and 6 parts of yellow prussiate separately in 15 parts of water, mixing the solutions; and adding 24 parts of concentrated hydrochloric acid, and 1 part of oil of vitriol, and agitating the mixture. After the expiry of some hours a clear solution of 1 part of bleaching powder dissolved in 80 parts of water is to be added gradually to the mixture, stopping always when chlorine is evolved. In a few hours the precipitate is to be washed and dried, either at the common temperature, or with a more elevated heat, or the blue precipitate may be treated with N0 5 until it becomes dark blue. 3. The blue which occurs in commerce under the title of Paris Urn is obtained by precipitating a neutral salt of peroxide of iron, as of chloride of iron, by pure ferrocyanide of potassium. It contains a portion of the latter salt, which cannot be re- moved by washing. 4. Prussian blue is also formed by exposing green vitriol to the air, or oxidizing it by gently roasting it, dissolving it in water, and then precipitating by yellow prus- siate ; a portion only of the precipitate at first is blue. It is mixed with white cyanide of iron, but by exposure to the air it gradually becomes more blue, and finally assumes a fine deep tint. The process may be hastened by the addition of weak chlorine water or hydrochloric acid. 5. On the large scale, Prussian blue is often made by adding a solution of the impure cake of yellow prussiate to the dried protosulphate of iron ; but as the cake contains carbonate of potash, it may be saturated by sulphuric acid, or, as is generally practised, by alum, in which case the alumina assists in giving more body to the Prussian blue. BLU It is usual to add 2| Ibs. of alum for every pound of pearl-ash employed in the preparation of the yellow prussiate. On the continent, for the same purpose, moist carbonate of magnesia, carbonate of zinc, or sulphates of magnesia and zinc, have been substituted; the former are preferable to the latter, as in the latter case cyanide of zinc is formed, which renders the colour of the blue lighter ; it is then termed mineral blue. Prus- sian blue is sometimes contaminated with starch, which injures the colour, but may be detected by forming an adhesive paste when mixed with water ; and when boiled with water, the starch dissolves ; on standing at rest the blue subsides and leaves a clear solution of starch which may be detected by iodine. Chalk is also sometimes added, which is easily detected by its effervescence with vinegar or weak acids. The lime may be separated by calcination and examination of the ash, or by boiling with dilute sulphuric acid, filtering and precipitating the lime with soda. Sulphate of lime is detected by calcination and digestion in water. Characters. Prussian blue Avhen dried spontaneously, possesses a fine soft dark blue colour, and when dried w r ith a greater heat it assumes a coppery metallic lustre ; when mixed with alumina it has a dull earthy frac- ture. It generally contains potassium, which has been considered by some essential to its com- position; but it may be separated by careful washing. It is tasteless and odourless, and is not poisonous. It absorbs moisture from the air with great facility; it is converted by destructive dis- tillation into hydrocyanic acid, carbonate of ammonia, and water, while carbide of iron re- mains in the retort. By the alkalies, Prussian blue is decomposed into peroxide of iron and alkaline ferrocyanides, a character which renders it less valuable than indigo as a dye, in con- sequence of its being affected by the alkali of soap. Sulphuric acid forms a paste with Prus- sian blue, from which the latter is again sepa- rated on the addition of water. Nitric acid dis- solves the iron and destroys the blue. Cold hydrochloric acid does not change the colour. Sulphuretted hydrogen removes the colour, which it again acquires by exposure to the air. Wheii heated to 400 in the open air, it catches fire and bums with difficulty like tinder, evolving a dis- agreeable odour and leaving a red ash. It is in- soluble in water, alcohol, ether, oils, and dilute ari< Is. Strong hydrocyanic acid takes up its iron and sets free hydroferrocyanic acid. Eed oxide of mercury, when treated with Prussian blue and water, is converted into cyanide of mercury, which is soluble, and an insoluble mix- ture of oxide and cyanide of iron. Prussian blue decomposes by sunlight, and evolves cyano- gen; but again recovers its colour in the dark (Chevreul), forming basic Prussian blue. The view generally taken of the formation of Prus- sian blue is, that 3 atoms of yellow prussiate and 4 of peroxide of iron, are converted into 118 BLU Prussian blue, and 6 atoms of a, potash salt. As Prussian blue, however, appears to contain the elements of water, it is. probable that hydroferro- cyanic acid exists in it a view suggested by Dr. Thomas Thomson. Its formula will then be 4 Fe6O -f Cfy fig.' Prussian blue is the fine dark blue colour so frequent on muslin and woollen dresses, which is characterized by its being fugitive in presence of soap. It is com- monly termed blue, and is used by washerwomen to conceal the yellow colour of linen, and hence it is a frequent application in the washing tub. It is also used for giving a blue tint to paper, and for communicating a green by means of chromate of lead to silk, termed Raymond Hue. Steam blue is produced by mixing a solution of yellow prussiate and tartaric acid when cream of tartar precipitates. The liquid containing prus- sic acid, and the white Prussian blue, as it is termed, is then mixed with gum and printed on the cloth. It is now steamed, and the colour raised in a weak solution of bleaching powder, or of bichromate of potash. Oxalic acid is sometimes substituted for the tartaric acid. Royal blue is a steam colour, into which, in addition to the above ingredients, a small portion of cyanide of tin enters. Mineral blue is prepared with oxide of zinc or carbonate of magnesia, instead of alumina. It is usually sold in the form of cubic cakes. These are produced by placing the blue when it is moist on cloth filters, allowing it to dry, and then dividing it with a knife. Blue, Saxon, consists of a solution of in- digo in Nordhausen sulphuric acid, the process being discovered at Grossenhain, in Saxony, by Earth in 1810. The powdered indigo is dried at 135 ; 1 part is then added by degrees to about 12 parts of acid, and the mixture heated up to 212 ; and when the solution is complete, the vessel is covered up, and the acid poured into 20 tunes its bulk of water and filtered (T. Thomson). Another mode of preparing it is, to digest 1 ounce of indigo with 4 ounces sulphuric acid in a glass flask for an hour at 212 ; then add 12 ounces of water, and when cold, filter (Ure). To dye with this colour, the cloth is steeped in alum, or in a hot solution of chloride of barium and bitartrate of potash mixed to- gether, and then plunged into the blue liquor. Blue, Old Sevres, for porcelain. Sand 39, calcined carbonate of soda 39, fused borax 3, calcined oxide of cobalt 19. Blue Spar, or lazulite. Blue Stone, or Vitriol Sulphate of copper. Blue, Thenard's. Is made by mixing 1 phosphate or arseniate of cobalt with 8 hydrous alumina and igniting, or by evaporating nitrate of cobalt and ammoniacal alum and igniting. Blue Turquoise, for porcelain. 3 pure oxide of cobalt, 1 oxide of zinc, are dissolved in sulphuric acid, and mixed with a solution of 40 parts of ammoniacal alum ; evaporated to dry- ness, the water expelled by heat, pulverized and BOL ignited in a crucible for several hours at a red heat. It is composed of 4 atoms alumina, 3 oxide of cobalt, and 1 atom oxide of zinc. To give it a greenish shade, the alum solution is mixed with T ^ moist chromate of mercury; or as at Sevres, dissolve 2 carbonate of zinc, and 6 carbonate of cobalt in chlorohydric acid, and mix with 92 alum, dissolved hi water ; filter and add carbonate of soda till the solution is neutral. Wash, dry, pulverize and calcine at a cherry heat till the blue colour is developed ; at too high a temperature it is destroyed and becomes violet. Mix it with 2 times its weight of flux (3 mi- nium, 1 hydrous boracic acid, 1 sand), carefully triturated. Blue Vitriol, or sulphate of copper. Blue, Variegated, for porcelain. Fuse to- gether 10 oxide of cobalt, 9 oxide of zinc, 25 glass of lead (2 minium, 1 sand), 5 lead glass (2 minium, 1 sand, 1 calcined borax). This is used to shade the other blues. Blue, Azure. Mix on a glass slab 2 deep blue, 1 oxide of zinc, 4 lead glass (4 minium, 1 sand. Used for skies. Boa Constrictor Faeces, or, more properly, urine, which are much used as a source of uric acid, consist essentially of urate of ammonia and bone earth. Bodcnite. Brown prisms, of 110 to 112, accompanying felspar, near Marienberg (Kerndt). Sp. grav. 3-523. Silica 26-12, alumina 10-33, FeO 12-05 ; yttria, 17-43, CaO 6-32, MgO 2-33, MnO 1-61, KO 1-21, NaO -84, protoxide of ce- rium 10-46, oxide of lanthanum, 7-56, HO 3-01. Bog Iron Ore. A variety of brown haema- tite or sesquioxide of iron, containing phosphoric acid, so named from its habitat apparently consisting of infusorial shields of Gaillonella fer- ruginea, invisible to the naked eye. See AJSI- MALCULES. Bobcic Acid. C 7 H 5 6 . Pale yellow pow- der hi vacuo, fusing at 212 to a resinous body; deliquescent, soluble in water and alcohol; exists hi tea leaves ; obtained by precipitating a boiling decoction of tea leaves with acetate of lead and filtering ; neutralizing the fluid with ammonia, decomposing the precipitate suspended in alcohol with sulphuretted hydrogen; when the filtered liquor is freed from sulphuretted hydrogen, and precipitated with an alcoholic solution of acetate of lead, boheate of lead results. Bole. A term applied to a variety of coloured earths, used generally to colour other substances, by mixture. Armenian bole possesses a red colour, and is used principally for colouring tooth powders, but it has been employed for sophisti- cating the colour of anchovies. Lemnos bole has a pale red tinge, and consists of SiO 3 47', A1 2 O 3 19-, Fe 2 O 3 5-4, CaOC0 2 5-4, MgOC0 2 6-2, HO 17-. Blois bole is a yellow calcareous earth. Bohemian bole is reddish-yellow. French bole, pale red. Silesian bole, pale yellow. Boletic Acid. Colourless 4-sided prisms, 119 BOL soluble in 180 water, 45 alcohol; sublimable ; forms crystalline salts with bases; precipitates sesquioxicle and not protoxide of iron ; obtained from the Boletus pseudo-igniaritv, by treating the evaporated expressed juice with alcohol ; there remains a white residue, which is dissolved in water, precipitated with acetate of lead, and washed, the precipitate, suspended in water, and precipitated by sulphohydric acid; on filtering and evaporating, the acid crystallizes. Bologna Stone, or Phosphorus. A peculiar radiated phosphorescent variety of sulphate of barytes, found in a clay slate at mount Paterno, near Bologna. Bologna Vial is the name given to an unan- nealed tumbler, which breaks to pieces when an angular bit of stone is dropped into it. Boloretine. C 75-5, H 11-7, O 12-8. Form. 640, H 32 , 3 HO. A fossil resin, found in the peat of Denmark on the remains of pines. Boltonitc. Spec. grav. 2-85, H 5-5. Yel- lowish or bluish-white grams, with traces of a doubly-oblique rhombic prism. Found at Bolton, Massachusets : consists of silica 56-64^ A1 2 3 6-07, MgO 36-52, FeO 2-46. Another analysis gave 46- silica, 5-66 A1 2 3 , MgO 38-15, FeO 8-63, CaO 1-52. Bombic Acid with sulphuric acid. Obtained by distilling silk Bombite. Silica 50% AU0 3 10'5, Feo0 3 25-, MgO 3-5, CaO 8-5, C 3-, S -3. Bonsdorfitc. Greenish-brown, or dark olive- green 6-sided prisms ; texture foliated, lustre like that of talc ; translucent, in thin pieces, opaque in thick. H 3-5. Silica 45-05, A1 2 O 3 30-05, MgO 9-, FeO 5-3, HO 10-6. Occurs at Biskop- sokern, near Obo, in Finland. Bone constitutes the skeleton, or frame- work of animals, to which the soft tissues are fixed. They are covered by a membrane. termed periosteum, which detaches itself when the bone is immersed for some time in water, Bones are divided into flat and cylindrical ; the latter being distinguished by having a central perforation for the preservation of the mar- row. When a bone is steeped in dilute mu- riatic acid for some days it becomes flexible, in consequence of the solution by the acid of th inorganic or earthy salts, the flexible cartilage alone remaining. The relative amount of organi and inorganic matter in bones varies, as indi- cated by the specific gravity. Human os hu- meri, 1-748. First phalanx of human great toe 9775. Os femoris of sheep, 2-0345. Tibia o sheep, 2-0329. Ileum of ox, 1-8353. Vertebrae of haddock, 1-635. The cartilage of a long bone consists of a congeries of long minute tubes These tubes are formed of very fine circular plates, and the intervals between them are fillec up by numerous circular plates, which encircle the tubes. The cartilages also contain oval-shapec particles, of minute size, the use of which is no well known. In infants, the bones are princi BOR ally cartilage; but as age advances earthy alts are deposited, and ossification, as it is called, akes place. The mean amount of cartilage in he bones of a human foetus is 42-8, and of the :arthy matters 57-2 ; in the human adult, the mean organic matter is 41-, and the inorganic ~>9' (Rees). According to another determination, he organic matter in the bones of a foetus is much less than this, or about 37 per cent. Frerichs), and in the adult 34 per oent. The ollowing table gives the composition of different bones (T. Thomson) : Human Sheep's Ox Haddock S fl a T" femur. Ileum. Ileum. Vertebra gnout 48-50 39-49 4631 Cartilage, 3912 Phosphate of lime, > 43 . 67 50 . 58 45 . 20 56 . 8 4255 Fluoride of calcium,; Phosphate of magnesia -49 '86 '24 '79 '10 Carbonate of lime,.... 14- 4'49 610 3-57 2'64 Alkaline salts, 206 '50 -31 1-68 14 Water, 6'92 These analyses were made by digesting the bones dried at 212 in ether to take up fat, digesting in muriatic acid to remove earthy matters, and sometimes burning to extract completely. The effect of disease in bones is to remove inorganic matter, and to increase cartilage. In osteo ma- lacia the constituents have been found in the dorsal vertebrae. Cartilage 79-75 ; phosphate of lime, 13-6; phosphate of magnesia, -82; carbo- nate of lime, 1-13; alkaline and earthy soluble salts, 4-7 (Bostock). Compare with article TEETH. Bone Ash is obtained by calcining bones in open vessels. It is white when properly burned, and is used for making cupels in the separation of silver from lead, the metallic lead when melted oxidizing, and partly sinking into the cupel, while the silver remains as a pure metal on the surface. It is also used for cleaning plate, un- der the name of powder of hartshorn, coloured with red vegetable matter, or Armenian bole, and also as a tooth powder. It consists essen- tially of phosphate of lime (3 CaO P0 5 , or 8 CaO 3 POr;). It is mixed with some phosphate of magnesia, carbonate of lime, and alkaline salts. It is used for the production of phosphorus. Boue Black. Animal charcoal. See CHAR- COAL. Bone Earth. A synonyme of phosphate of lime, as found in bones. Bone Crelatinc, Collin, Glutin, Glue. See GELATIN. Boracic Acid. Boronic Acid, Acid of Borax, Sedative Salt of Homberg, Narcotic Salt of Vitriol, Sassolin. BO 3 4-375; 35'0; 4-35, 34-8 B = 31-l, = 68-9. Specific gravity fused, 1-803 (Hassenfratz, Ann. Chim. 28, 11), 1-83 in vacuo at 39 (Royer and Dumas, Ann. Phil. 3, 392), discovered by Homberg in 1702 (Crell's Ann. 2-265). A colourless, translucent, hard, brittle glass, fusing at a red heat, and not vola- tile when free from foreign ingredients. When steam is passed over it, at a red heat, or when it ia 120 BOR heated in contact with solutions of acids or al- cohol, it volatizes. When a solution of it in water is boiled, it likewise is mechanically car- ried away. AVhen fused in a crucible, it cracks on cooling, and evolves light along the course of the fissures, visible even hi daylight (Du- mas, Ann. Chiin. 32, 335). Soluble in water and alcohol, it is destitute of smell, but has a slightly bitter though not sour taste. (E. Davy, Jameson's Joum. 6, 131.) It imparts to its solution in alcohol, and to its mixture with sul- phur, a green flame; it is decomposed by so- dium and potassium, and by the galvanic bat- tery ; not so by charcoal or phosphorus. Source. Boracic acid is brought from the in- terior of the earth by the soffioni, or jets of vapour which reach the surface through chalk and marl deposits, and are visible at a distance hi the form of dense vapour in the Duchy of Tuscany, at Monte Rot ondo, and other places. Boracic acid was first detected in the lagoon of this place by Peter Hoefer, apothecary to Leopold I. Grand Duke of Tuscany, who found 9 per cent, of acid in the water, a fact which was confirmed in 1779 by Mascagni (Journ. de Phys. 16, 364; 42, 37), who suggested the manufacture of boracic acid. Professor GazzerT in 1807 found the boracic acid too small for this purpose (Dr. Bowring, Stat. of Tuscany, Phil. Mag. July, 1839, vol. 15, N. S. p. 21); but the first manu- factory began in 1818, under the direction of M. Larderello (Count de Pomerance). According to this author, the boracic acid is not brought from the ulterior ready formed, as the vapours of the soffioni when condensed contain no trace of it ; none is found in the fields surrounding the jets, nor in the earth at the mouths of the jets, nor in the earth at the bottoms of the lagoons which have been formed by the jets, and when examined after the jets cease to flow into them. Hence he supposes that at a great depth, there BOR exists a deposit of boron and sulphur, which, when acted upon by water, evolves great heat. Vapour is thus formed, which forms a passage through the surrounding strata, on one side sulphohydric acid, and on the other boron in the state of gas, for which the liquid becomes a crea- tive agent of boracic acid ; when quitting the in- terior of the earth, the gas passes into the water without any communication with the air. Payen supposes that in the interior, steam mixed with projected water, passing over boracic acid, would carry out the latter, which, by the reaction of its own organic matter on the sulphates, would pro- duce sulphides, from which boracic acid would drive off sulphohydric acid. (Ann. Chim. 3, 1, 250.) Dumas conjectures that the water of the sea acting at a great depth on sulphide of boron would yield boracic acid, sulphohydric acid, and a high temperature which would carry off these products with the water ; chlorohydric acid from the decomposition of earthy chlorides, and ammonia from organic matter. If limestone were near, the boracic acid would liberate car- bonic acid; at a certain distance the sublimed boracic acid would form deposits ; and according as the water of the lagoons descended to this point, or did not penetrate, the current would bring up fresh boracic acid or pass without vola- tilizing it. The air supplied by the sea to the fissure of the strata with sulphohydric acid would form sulphates of lime, alumina and iron from the rocks, and ammonia from the organic matter. (Ib. 250.) In order to collect the boracic acid, a wooden cylinder is placed over one of the soffioni so as to protect the workmen from the influence of the vapour, which has a temperature of 257 (Lardarello), 206 to 212 (Payen). A basin or lagoon of brick is then built round the jet, and lined with stones and lime. These lagoons ABC are of various sizes, from 100 to 500 and 1000 feet in circumference, and from 7 to 20 feet deep. In the latter cases several jets terminate in one lagoon. The wooden chimney is then removed, and the basin filled with water from a neighbouring stream. This water never runs, according to Lardarello, into the soffioni in consequence of the tortuous nature of the passage and the pressure of the vapour. The water of the lagoon in immediate contact with the vapour jet gradually boils; but little, however, evaporates, the water in the lagoon generally remaining at the same level and exhaling a strong odour of sulphohydric 121 BOR acid. The water takes up boracic acid during twenty-four hours, and is then run off into another basin or lagoon of a similar kind. After passing through 6 or 8 of these basins, which are situ- ated on the incline of a hill at different elevations, the water is charged to the extent of 1 to l per cent. It is then run into a depositing vessel, when a quantity of dark mud settles, containing little or no boracic acid. It is then placed in leaden pans 12 feet square and 14 inches deep, which are heated by the natural steam jets which are enclosed in pipes, and made to circulate under the pans. In seventy-two hours the liquors are transferred to crystallizing wooden tubs, and in three days the acid is found attached to the sides A. The mother liquors are run off into fresh concen- trated fluid the crystals placed in baskets to drain and spread out for a few hours on the floor of a drying chamber D, under which a jet of steam circulates. It is then packed in and sent to Leghorn. The product of the ten Tuscan works, in 1845, was one mil- lion kilogrammes, or 984^ tons. The gases which issue from the sofiioni are C02=57-3 N=34-81 0=6-57 SH=l-32. The condensed products are water, earthy matter, sulphates of lime, ammonia, alumina and iron, chlorohydric acid, organic matter with a sea smell, and little or no boracic acid. They deposit sulphur in all the narrow fissures and porous bodies which they traverse. (Payen. Ann. Chim. 3d, 1,247). Com- mercial boracic acid consists of boracic acid, 76-494; sulphuric acid united with boracic acid 1-322; the following sulphates: of ammonia 8-508 ; of magnesia 2-632 ; of lime 1-018 ; of soda 0-917; of peroxide of iron -365; of alu- mina -320; of potash -3G9; salammoniac -298; BOR silica 1 -2 ; water 6-557. Organic matter contain- ing nitrogen a trace. Terhydrate of Boracic Acid. B0 3 3 HO 7-75 r 62; 7,727,61-8; H0=43'69; spec. grav. 1-479 (Kirwan's Min. 2,4). Thin 6-sided scales of a silvery whiteness, having some resemblance to spermaceti, and the same greasy feel. It crys- tallizes in large crystals from a solution con- taining sulphuric acid. The crystals are then doubly-oblique prisms. P on M 80 30', P on T 84 53', M on T 118 30', P on K 75 30', M on K 120 45', Ton K 120 45', (?). (W. H. Miller, Trans. Phil. Soc. Cambridge, 3, 365.) Taste bitterish, cooling, leaving an, agreeable sweetness. When sulphuric acid is poured on it, a transient odour of musk is perceptible (Reuss de Sale. Sedat. 1778) ; reddens vegetable blues feebly, renders turmeric paper brown or reddens it (Faraday). Soluble in 25-66 parts water of 66-2 : in 14-88 at 77 ; in 12-66 at 99-0; in 10-16 'at 122; in 6-12 at 144; in 4-73 at 167; in 2'97 at 212. A cold saturated solution has a density of 1-014. When distilled in a retort with water it crystallizes in the receiver. It is soluble in sulphuric acid, alcohol, and oils. Preparation. The terhydrate is usually pre- pared by dissolving 1 part of borax in 4 of boil- ing water, and 1 part of concentrated sulphuric acid is added. The acid deposits in crystalline scales as the liquid cools. To free it from adher- ing sulphuric acid it is ignited, redissolved in water, and crystallized. It may also be purified by solution in alcohol. It may also be prepared by subliming in a retort 16 borax, 2 water, and 5 sulphuric acid. Borates. Boracic acid is a feeble acid, and acts on very few of the metals ; it however dis- places carbonic acid ; it combines with bases in a great variety of proportions, from f to 6 atoms of acid to 1 of base, yet all of these combinations give a green colour to vegetable blues ; they are soluble with difficulty in water except the alka- line salts ; they fuse mostly into a colourless glass by heat, and dissolve metallic oxides before the blowpipe. Most acids separate boracic acid from the bases, and if alcohol be then added, the boracic acid dissolves and imparts to it a green flame when ignited. A borate also, when moistened with sul- phuric acid, yields a green flame to the blowpipe flame. Boracite. B'iborate of Magnesia. 3 MgO 4 r BOg=MgO 33, BO 3 67. Small cubes, with their edges and alternate solid angles replaced by tangent planes, also in rhomboidal 12 -he-' drons ; colour white, inclining to gray, yellow, or green ; streak white, fracture conchoidal, un- even ; lustre vitreous, with one axis of double refraction. H 4'25 to 7? spec. grav. 2-974. The solid angles become electric by heat. B.B. fuses and intumesces, and on cooling is covered 122 BOR with needles. With borax and salt of phospho- rus fuses into a glass. Moistened with a drop of sulphuric acid, it gives a green flame. Found in gypsum near Luneburg, Brunswick; at Se- genberg in Holstein ; and at Taracapa, Peru. Borax. Biborate of Soda. Chrysocolla ? (Pliny). NaO 2 BO 3 +10HO. 23-75. This salt is imported from Tibet, under the name of tincal, in the form of whitish-gray crystals. It was at an early period introduced by the Venetians from Asia, and purified from the soapy matter which it contains by mixing it with quicklime in cold water till the water be- came clear; it was then crystallized from hot water. Borax may also be obtained by dissolv- ing 10 parts of boracic acid in hot water, and adding 12 parts of crystals of carbonate of soda and crystallizing. This is the method followed in France, but in this country much borax is still imported from India. Characters. Borax crystallizes in hexangular or octangular prisms, of which two sides are broader than the others. Spec. grav. 1-74. It converts vegetable blues to green; the taste is sweetish and alkaline. When heated it melts in its water of crystallization, and assumes a white opaque appearance, which is termed calcined or litrtit borax. When strongly heated it fuses into a glass containing no water. The composition of borax is as follows : Octahedral Borax. 69-36 Common Borax. Soda, 17-8\ Boracic acid,...35-6/ Water, 46-6 30-64 Na02B0 3 +10HO Na02B0 3 +5HO Octahedral borax is obtained by dissolving so much of the salt in water at 212, that the solu- tion shall have a spec. grav. of 1 -246. On cooling down to 174 the octahedrons begin to deposit, and this continues till the solution reaches the tempt, of 138, when common borax is separated. (Buron and Payen.) The spec. grav. of the octa- hedrons is 1-815. Like common borax they become opaque in the air from loss of water. I have ascertained that native borax in Tibet is formed by boracic acid from hot springs saturating the natron of the soil. Practical Application. Borax is employed in medicine when mixed with honey, in ulcerations of the mucous membrane of the mouth, cancrum oris, &c. It is used also as a flux for metals, as in the assay of iron ores ; and it enters as a con- ' stituent into the glazes employed for the finer kinds of porcelain. Borcch, Trona, or Sesquicarbonate of Soda. Borneene, Oil of Camphor, Fluid Borneo 'Camphor. C 20 H 1G . Boiling point 320. Lighter than water, without colour, smells of oil of tur- pentine, but the odour is more agreeable; ob- tained by fractional distillation from the native oil of Borneo camphor, which is procured by making incisions in the Dryobalanops camphora BOR hi Borneo and Sumatra, and receiving the oil which flows out ; it is also formed artificially by fractional distillation from oil of valerian, and also by heating slightly Borneo camphor with dry phosphoric acid. It is used in perfumery. Borneole. Borneo Camphor. C 2 oH 16 2HO. White rhombic 6-sided prisms, heavier than wa- ter; fusing point 388; sublimes at 414 ; in- soluble in water, soluble in alcohol ; its odour differs from common camphor. Found in crevices of the wood of the D. camphora in Borneo, and is formed artificially by acting on borneene with caustic potash. It is much used in Japan, and seldom comes into the western market. Koi nim , Bornite, Telluride of Bismuth. Borocalcite, Hayesine. CaO 2 B0 3 6HO. Probably the same as Boronatrocalcite. Borodiglione, Cupferschaum, Subarseniate of Copper. Boron. Symbol, B. 1 ; 8 (Thomson), 1-35, 10-8 (Gmelin). The term borax first occurs hi the works of Geber, written in the 10th cen- tury. It has long been used in Europe as a flux, being obtained from lakes in Tibet, and the borders of China. In 1702, Homberg, by distilling borax and green vitriol, procured boracic- acid in small plates, which he termed sedative salt. In 1807, Davy succeeded when he exposed boracic acid to the action of the galvanic battery hi obtaining the deposition of a black matter on the negative wire. In 1808, Gay Lussac and Thenard decomposed the acid by means of potas- sium into boron and oxygen ; and Sir H. Davy, in 1809, obtained similar results. Preparation. 1. A small quantity of boron may easily be obtained by fusing some boracic acid in a platinum crucible to remove water, pulverizing it coarsely, and mixing it with twice its bulk of potassium, cut into small pieces, and free from potash, hi a glass tube. The heat of a spirit or gas lamp is then to be applied for a few minutes; the mixtiire being then allowed to cool, is boiled with HC1 to remove the potash ; the boron being thrown on a filter, is well washed with water. The mixture is apt to detonate violently, when heated without the preceding precaution, from water being retained by the boracic acid ; perhaps this could be removed by the addition of a drop of sulphuric acid and ignition (R. D. T.) 2. It may be prepared by passing fluoboric acid gas through a tube filled with crystallized boracic acid, and then through a tube filled with peroxide of lead, to free it from fluoride of silicon and sulphurous acid ; and, lastly, over potassium heated. The mixture of boron and fluoride of potassium is then washed with water, solution of salam- moniac and alcohol. 3. Fluo-borate of potash dried just under a red heat is heated with an equal quantity of potassium in an iron or glass tube. When the potassium melte, the mixture is stirred with a steel wire and ignited ; boron is set free, and fluoride of potassium formed. The latter is to be washed out with a solution of sal- 123 BOR ammoniac, often repeated ; the boron is then heated with hydrogen gas to separate water and fluoboric acid ; washed with water, and dried in a vacuum. Characters. Boron is a deep brown powder with a shade of green, destitute of taste and smell. When first prepared its spec. grav. is 1 -183, but when strongly heated it sinks in sulphuric acid of spec. grav. 1-844. It is insoluble in water after strong heating (although somewhat soluble when freshly prepared, giving a greenish-yellow solution), also in alcohol, ether, and oils ; it is a non-conductor of electricity. When heated to 600 it burns with great splendour, and becomes partially boracic acid. When heated with pot- ash, borate of potash is formed. Boronatrocalcite, Tiza, Hayesine ? Borate of Lime and Soda. NaO 2B0 3 , 2CaO 3B0 3 10 HO. Spec. grav. 1-8, B0 3 49-5, CaO 15-7, NaO 8-8, HO 26-. Nodules of the size of a hazel nut, consisting of fine silky fibres, scarcely sol- uble in cold water; difficultly soluble in hot water ; soluble in acids. B.B. fuses into a pearly bead ; found at Iquique in Pern. Borosilicatc el* Lime, or Botryolite. Botany Bay Resin. C 4 oH 2 o0 12 . A yellow resin, two-thirds of which are soluble in alcohol, obtained from the Acarois resinifera, a New Holland tree. When treated with nitric acid it yields picric acid. Botryogene. Native Red Iron Vitriol Misy? Magnetic Oxide Sulphate. S0 3 32-55, Fe 2 3 23-86, FeO 10-71, HO 32-85=3Fe02S0 3 3Fe 2 3 2S0 3 36HO. Spec. grav. 2-039, H 2-25 to 2-5. Hyacinth-coloured oblique rhombic prisms of 119 66' and 60 4', collected in botryoidal masses (Berjy? , a bunch of grapes), found in the copper mine at Fahlun, in Sweden ; it is only partially soluble in water. Botryolitc, Biboro Silicate of Lime. See DATHOLITE. Bottle Glass. See GLASS. Boulangeritc. Sulphide of Lead and Anti- mony. 3PbS, SbS 3 Pb 53-9, Sb 25-5, S 18-5, Fe 1-2, Cu -9. Spec. grav. 5 '9 7. Colour bluish- gray ; in black lead plumose masses. B.B. fuses, yielding fumes of sulphurous acid and oxide of antimony ; on charcoal lead is reduced ; soluble iu chlorohydric acid ; found at Molieres, France, and Nertschinsk. Boulder. A mass of stone detached from its native rock and carried to a distance. Bouquet of Wine. That peculiar flavour due to the presence probably of oenanthic ether. Bourdainc. A name given by the French to commercial charcoal. When procured by dis- tillation it contains 60 per cent, of carbonaceou matter, and 39-3 volatile matter; by combustion in the usual way, 74 per cent, carbonaceous matter. Bonrnouite. Disulphide of Copper, Sulphide, of Lead, and Tersulphule of Antimony. 3Cu 2 S, GPbS, 3SbS 3 . Spec. grav. 5-79. Steel-gray right rectangular prisms ; lustre metallic, opaque, brittle ;, fracture conchoidal. B.B. emits sulphur- BRA ous fumes, leaving a crust of sulphide of lead ; soluble in nitric acid. It is found at Neudorf and Clausthal in the Hartz, at Kapnik, in Transyl- vania, Servos, in Piedmont, in Cornwall, in Mexico, &c. and consists of sulphur 18-62, lead 41-37, antimony 24-71, copper 12-74. Bouse. A technical term for lead ore in its mechanical preparation. See LEAD. Bovey Coal. Wood Coal or Lignite, as illustrated at Bovey, in Devonshire. Analogous to it is the Boghead coal at Bathgate, but in the coal series employed by Mr. Young for the distil- lation of his paraffine oil used in machinery. I find the latter under the microscope to consist of a con- tinuous mass of organized matter. Boyle's Fuming Liquor. Sulphohydride of ammonia, or hydrosulphuret of ammonia. Brain. The blood with which the chyle is mixed in the right auricle and ventricle is the venous or dark blood which has been brought back to the heart from every part of the body. From the right ventricle it is sent by the pul- monary artery to the lungs, where it is exposed to the action of the air, assumes a red colour, giving out C0 2 , and returns to the left side of the heart, thus completing the lesser circulation. It is now arterial blood, and is qualified to be sent through the arteries to the various parts of the body to supply them with the nourishment with which it is so amply endowed. The changes which the blood undergoes in the lungs are of vast importance in the human system. The blood proceeds from the left heart by the aorta, in the first instance, to the head and in- ferior parts of the body. The arteries are tubes of elastic membranes, which are readily dilated and contracted according to the amount of force applied to them from within. The blood sent to the head traverses the brain, and supplies it with nourishment. The brain is the organ of sensation and volition. The spinal marrow, which is a process of the brain, is the organ of the movements of ingestion and egestion while the ganglionic nerves constitute the nervous sys- tem of nutrition and secretion. With all of these the brain therefore is connected. One marked characteristic of the brain, as the seat of '|j volition, is, that the brain sleeps; the spinal ;*? nerves and ganglionic nerves never sleep. If ; i you watch a person who has fallen asleep in his chair it is impossible to fail being struck with this fact. The processes of secretion and nutri- tion are as active as ever the sleeper nods and nods again not because his brain is awake, and his will dictates the action, but because his brain is asleep, and his spinal nerves are brisk and .active. It would be interesting to determine the chemical composition of the various sys- tems of nerves. The brain, however, has 1 alone been examined with any degree of care. " The process of analysis is as follows : The brain is cut into small fragments. Tt is several times heated with boiling alcohol. It 124 BRA is then allowed to remain in contact with this fluid for some days, in order to remove as much water from it as possible. If the alcohol has been properly applied, the albuminous part of tho brain should be coagulated, have lost its elasticity, and be easily compressed. It is then to be submitted to pressure, rapidly triturated in a mortar, and treated with ether. The ether should be employed first cold and then hot. The ether on being distilled leaves a viscid matter, which may be termed the ethereal product. The alco- holic solution deposits a white substance on cool- ing, which contains phosphate, and was termed cerebrate, or cerebric acid, by Fremy and Vauque- lin. Cerebric acid is extracted best from the ethereal product. This is treated Avith a large quantity of ether a substance is left, which consists of cerebric acid and phosphates, &c. To purify it, the precipitate is to be heated with boiling absolute alcohol, slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. Cerebric and oleophosphoric acids are dissolved, while sulphates of lime, and soda, and albumen, are suspended. Filter. On cooling the two acids separate. Cold ether takes up the oleophosphoric acid, and leaves cerebric acid. Cerebric acid is in white, small crystalline grains, swells like starch in boiling water ; burns, giving out a characteristic odour. Cerebric acid consists of per cent. 66C | 10-6H J 2-3N j 0-9P | 19-50. It combines with bases ; with barytes it forms cerebrate of barytes, containing 7 "3 per cent, of barytes. Oleophosphoric acid is separated from cerebric acid by its solubility in ether. It is in this state in union with soda. Decompose the salt with an acid, and dissolve the oleophosphoric acid in alcohol; evaporate; the acid remains; insoluble in water. It combines with potash, ammonia, and soda, forming soaps. When oleo- phosphoric acid is long boiled in alcohol or water, it is converted into olehie and phosphoric acid, so that it seems to be a compound of these bodies. It appears to be in consequence of the separation of these bodies that the softenmg of the brain is produced, which takes place soon after death, and also in diseases. Oleine has been found separately in the brain. Cholesterine. Gmelin first pointed out its presence in the brain. The ethereal product is boiled with alcohol and a little potash. A precipitate falls on cooling, from which the cholesterine may be taken up by cold ether. Okie and margaric acids also exist in the brain. Besides, it contains water and albumen. Constituents of Human Brain. Water, 78'00 Albumen, 7'00 Cerebric acid, Oleophosphoric acid, Cholesterine, Oleine, \. 9'85 Margarine, Oleic acid, Margaric acid, BRA Soda, Phosphate of lime, Phosphate of potash, Phosphate of magnesia? Common salt, Sulphate of potash, Free phosphoric acid, 515 100- I have found the different parts of the brain and nerves to present the following composition : Entire Brain. C 56-48 H 5:::l Salts....) White. 55-47 8-06 36-47 Gray. 56-31 8-95 34-86 Spinal Marrow. 55-42 8-95 35-63 Ash of Human Brain. Fresh Brain Water, 78'48 Dry residue,... 21-52 100- Of the dry residue '027 was ash. It consists of Pyrophosphate of potash, 55-24 soda, 22-93 ., iron, 1-23 lime, 1-62 magnesia, 3-40 Chloride of sodium, 4' 74 Sulphate of potash, 1-64 Free phosphoric acid, 9-15 Silica, 0-42 100- (Breed. Liebig's Ann. 80, 124). The free phos- phoric acid enables us to detect traces of brain in cases of murder. Brachytype. A variety of calcareous spar. Brandisitc, Disterrite. Leek-green, mica- ceous leaves. Spec. grav. 3-015. Constitution Si0 3 20, A1 2 3 43-22, Fe 2 3 3-6, CaO 4-, MgO 25-01, KO -57, HO 3-6 = 4, (MgO, A1 2 3 ) (3RO) 2Si0 3 2HO. Brachytypous 3|aiigaese, or Braunite,. or Sesquioxide. Bran. Kkie (German), Son (French). The exterior husk of grain is too often neglected as an element in bread, and given to the inferior ani- mals. In 1843 I showed, in an analysis of Prus- sian brown bread, that when the bran was retained a larger quantity of nitrogen was present than when it was rejected, as in white bread. The amount of albuminous matter in bran I found to amount to from 12-01 to 16-031 per cent. At my recommendation bread made with the entire wheat was introduced into the prisons and chari- table institutions of Glasgow. This view has been lately confirmed by Millon. Bran is used in calico printing for clearing goods after the application of the mordant. The mode of action is not well understood. Runge attributes its in- fluence to the presence of an acid. 125 BRA Brandy. Branntwein (Burntivine)), Eau de Vie. In this country this term is restricted to a reddish-coloured fluid obtained by the fermenta- tion of grapes and distillation of the resulting fluid, to which a colouring and flavouring sub- stance is added. On the continent it is the generic expression for various alcoholic fluids. British brandy is believed to be whisky flavoured with corn oil and one or more of its salts (acetate of amyle) and a vegetable colouring matter. Braordite. Red silver ore. Bra**. 3fc.4sing (Gr.), Laiton (Fr.) A familiar yellow alloy of copper and zinc ; of spec, grav. 8-2 to 8'9, fusing point 1869 ; was for- merly made by igniting in a blast furnace or close crucible equal parts of calcined calamine or oxide of zinc, and half the weight of each of charcoal, which produced 7 or 8 parts of arcot. Another proportion is 30 copper, 20 calamine, 10 kiess, 16 charcoal. This was fused again with calamine and copper, and brass produced. It is in France now usually made by melting the two metals together in fire-clay pots or crucibles set in a circular domed furnace. On the sole of the furnace is placed a plate of cast iron pierced with eight apertures, which are fitted with as many cast iron tubes rising above the level of the plate. The plate is covered with a layer of fire clay. The eight crucibles being filled with the proper proportions of zinc and copper, the furnace is filled up with coals ; in six or seven hours the tempera- ture is at a white heat, and in ten hours the brass is formed. It is then poured for sheet brass of the proper thickness into granite moulds edged round with iron. The clay crucibles are made of good refractory fire clay about 16 inches deep, 9 5 inches broad at the mouth, and 6 at the bottom, and from 1 to l inches thick. The proportions used in Prussia are 41 old brass, 55 copper, and 24 zinc, a loss of 2 to 3 per cent, being sustained. Brass usually contains some lead and tin, probably derived from the solder of old brass. The visual composition of brass seems to be Cu 2 Zn, or 8 copper, and 4-125 zinc, adizin- cide of copper, but it varies considerably. The various alloys of copper and zinc are as follows : i, Pinchbeck Princes' Bath Red Dutch Malleable rass ' or Tomba. Metal. Metal. Brass. Gold, Brass. Copper, GG 85 72 55 2f 11 60 Zinc, 34 15 28 45 1 2 40 Brannitc. Sesquioxide of manganese. Brazil -Wood. Fernambuc (Fr.) A red dye- wood from Pernambuco, in Brazil, and the West Indies. That from the former place is said to be de- rived from Caesalpinia echinata. The other plants which supply it are C. Crista and C. vesica. It is much used in calico printing and for making red ink, and owes its value to the presence of Bra/i- line. 1C rn 7 ill IK. Brazikinc. C 18 H 7 7 ? Orange- coloured needles; soluble in water, alcohol and ether ; its solution becomes yellow by acids, violet BRE by alkalies ; yields pink or purple precipitates with salts of tin and alum; is obtained by exhausting rasped Brazil-wood with water, evaporating to dryness ; dissolving in water, agitating with lith- arge to remove some acid ; evaporating to drynes?, digesting in alcohol, filtering, and evaporating ; diluting the residue with water, throwing down tannin by glue, filtering, evaporating, and taking up and crystallizing the Braziline by alcohol. Brazing. Brass Soldering. Hard Soldering. Soudurefort, Brazure (Fr.), Messing-ldthung (Gr.) The operation by which brass and other metals are united by means of a solder difficultly fusible, so that the blowpipe is required to effect the fusion and union of the two surfaces. The brass or hard solder consists of 18 brass, 3 zinc, 2 tin; or 12 brass, 4 zinc, 3 tin; or 16 zinc, 16 copper, 1 tin. The hardness or difficulty of fusion may be in- creased by diminishing the quantity of zinc. The surfaces to be united are filed quite bright, and strewed with- dry borax powder, and in cases of great ignition the borax is mixed with powder of lass ; the parts covered with charcoal, and the blowpipe applied or what is usual, the gas flame directed by the blowpipe upon the solder held over the surfaces. Bread. Pain (Fr.), Brot. (Gr.) This term seems to have been originally applied to food in general, but is now restricted in a great measure to fermented loaves of wheat flour, although hi common language we talk of unfermented or un- leavened, and fermented or leavened, bread. Among primitive nations fermented bread is scarcely known. In the east, as in the Punjaub and Affghaunista-un, the flour is simply kneaded with water and made into thin cakes, similar to what are termed scones in Scotland. Oat cakes are made in a similar manner, and in the. latter country, barleymeal and peasemeal bannocks, varying from half-an-inch to 1 ^ in thickness, are also composed of these meals kneaded with water. In Australia dampers are unfermented wheat floiir bannocks. The passover cakes of the Israelites are thin unfermented cakes of wheat flour. The corn bread of America is made by kneading the Indian corn meal or maize with water. Biscuits, (bis, twice, cuit, baked,) (Fr.) Zweibach, (Gr.) are similarly prepared, but hardened to a greater extent by firing. Bread formed by Leaven. The earliest kind of fermented bread seems to have been produced by means of leaven, that is, a portion of sponge or previously fermented dough. On the continent, at the present day, it is usual to set a new sponge, that is, mix a new portion of dough made of flour and water with a portion of fermented dough called leaven, kept from the last baking. This is a necessary mode of baking when breweries from which yeast can be obtained are at a distance;, but in this country the fermentation of bread is conducted entirely by means of yeast or barm. To prepare a sponge by means of leaven, the leaven, or portion of fermented dough from a 12G BRE previous baking, is placed in an oaken vessel. A sufficient amount of water is then added, and the leaven divided with the hands. The proper quan- tity of flour is next gradually mixed with it to form a dough or paste, the materials being care- fully incorporated with the hands. If the mix- ing is not scrupulously attended to, knots of dry flour will be formed in the loaves. The sponge Is now divided into a number of separate portions or loaves, and left for some time. They are then turned, and after being rolled in flour each is placed in a separate vessel of tin, where it is allowed to swell up. If the flour is of a good quality the sponge rises uniformly, but when it contains only a small portion of gluten, as when it is mixed with potato flour, the dough rises imperfectly and irregularly. The moist fermented loaves are now introduced into the oven upon a piece of wood, or wooden shovel, which is covered with a little bran or flour to prevent the adhesion of the loaves to the wood. They are exposed to the action of the oven, the heat being graduated in different parts of the oven according to the experience of the baker. The temperature of the baker's oven varies from 448 (Thomson), 482 to 572 (Claubry). The bread never, however, reaches but an insignificant part of this temp. ; a thermometer when inserted in the interior of a loaf in the oven never rising so high as 212 (about 206). When the bread has been ex- posed to the atmosphere for some time it loses its elasticity, and assumes the aspect of stalciuss, the cause of Avhich is not evident, as it does not depend on its drying from loss of water. The objection to the use of leaven in bread making is the tendency of this ferment to become sour, which is frequently the case, especially with rye bread, as it is met with on the continent. The explanation of the various operations, however, in baking is precisely the same whether leaven or yeast be employed. The flour requires to be properly mixed with water in the preparation of the sponge in order to vmite the water to the starch and .to the gluten, and to dissolve the sugar and albumen. It is probable, too, that the water acting on the starch converts it into sugar, since rye meal, if mixed with water over night, yields to the latter a distinctly sweet taste. It has been frequently asserted that the amount of sugar decomposed by fermentation in baking does not exceed 1 per cent. This may or may not be correct ; but at the same time it is an undoubted fact, as ascertained by the long experience of Mr. Dobson of the Borough, as communicated to me, that by the chemical process, as compared with the fermenting process, there is a difference of profit in favour of the bread, by the first proceeding, oi 6% per cent. That this was not due alone to the one species of bread containing an excess of water is easily proved by experiment. Attempts to col- lect the alcohol generated in the process of baking in a profitable manner, have proved fruitless, partly from the small amount of product, and partly, BRE n London, from a prejudice excited against bread rom which alcohol has been obtained. Baking with Yeast, A sack of flour weighing 280 Ibs. and measuring 5 bushels, is capable of orming 80 to 86 quartern loaves. The baker ntroduces the flour into the kneading trough, and then sifts it through a fine sieve; 4 Ibs. of are dissolved in a pailful of hot water in the seasoning tub, and sometimes a little is added, although this is not done by the best bakers. When this solution has fallen to 84, three English pints of yeast are added, the whole well mixed, and strained through the seasoning sieve into a depression of the flour. The flour is then mixed up into a paste, and some dry flour being sprinkled over the surface, it is covered over with cloths, the operation being termed setting quarter sponge. After three hours an additional pailful of water is added and mixed, &c. This is called setting half sponge; it is left for five hours. Three pail- Fuls of warm water are now added ; the mass is now kneaded for upwards of an hour. The dough, being then cut in pieces and sprinkled with flour, is left for four hours ; it is then kneaded again for half-an-hour. The various kneadings are, however, modified by different bakers. It is then weighed out at the rate of 4 Ibs. 15 ounces for every quartern loaf, and introduced into the oven. The oven is a square apartment from three to four feet high, with an arched circular roof and a brick or stone floor, and furnished with a door which may be shut close. It is often the custom to heat the oven with wood either of faggots or brushwood (Dr. T. Thomson). Loaves, accord- ing to act of parliament, must have a specific weight under a penalty. On this account it is necessary for the baker to calculate the amount of loss which the bread will undergo in firing. The following table gives the weights before and after firing : Before Tiring. After Firing. Peck loaf, Half-peck, Quartern, Ibs. 19 Ibs. oz. 17 6 8 11 4 5 Avoirdupois. Loss. Ibs. ox. drs. 2 6 1 3 9 8 A quartern loaf at the present time weighs about 4 Ibs. Abroad or in our colonies it may be found impracticable to obtain yeast. In this case leaven may be formed by making a quantity of flour into a dough with water, and setting it in a warm situation for thirty-six hours, when it undergoes fermentation. A portion of this may be employed by mixture with flour to produce fermented bread. In India the juice of the toddy tree when allowed to stand ferments, and is used as a bread ferment. In the juice of a species of Eucalyptus, in Van Diemen's Land, I have detected alcohol, so that this or analogous fluids might be employed in- stead of yeast, I give these hints for the benefit of emigrants and others who may be thrown on their own resources. Baking with Carbonate of Soda and Muratic 12 < BRE Acid. When none of the preceding ferments can be obtained, or even when they are within reach, by a little practice, an excellent bread may be made by mixing intimately with the flour, bi- carbonate of soda, and adding the water with a quantity of muratic or chlorohydric acid. The effect of this operation is to disengage carbonic acid through every part of the sponge, and to form common salt to flavour the bread, without any interference with the constituents of the flour. The proportions for bread of this descrip- tion are, 4 Ibs. of flour, through which are mixed 320 grs. of bicarbonate of soda; dissolve then 300 grs. of common salt in 35 ounces of water, and add to it 6 fluid ounces of muratic acid ; mix the fluid with the flour rapidly, and heat in the oven. Soda scones are formed by mixing bicar- bonate of soda with the flour, and then baking the mass up with butter milk ; the lactic acid of the milk displacing the carbonic acid of the soda salt. Gingerbread and light cakes are often raised by carbonate of ammonia, which, being volatile, is dissipated like the carbonic acid in the common modes of baking. Shortbread, a sweet cake, is rendered brittle by means of butter. Adulteration of Bread. Bread in Belgium is adulterated with sulphate of copper. This sub- stance is used for the purpose of improving the colour of bad flour. When present the dough requires less manual labour. The bread rises quicker, and the crust is finer. Two hundred loaves of 2^ Ibs. each contain about 1 ounce of sulphate. To detect it, we may take 3000 grs. of bread, and burn it in a platinum capsule ; the residue is heated with half an ounce of nitric acid. After the dissipation of the acid, the resi- due is treated with water; the liquid filtered; an excess of ammonia is added, and some drops of a solution of carbonate of ammonia. It is allowed to cool, and again filtered, boiled down to one-fourth, acidulated with nitric acid, and being divided into two portions, one of them is tested with the yellow prussiate, and the other with sulphuretted hydrogen. Alum is mixed with flour to destroy the colour of pease and beans, which are sometimes mixed with it. It may be detected by burning the bread, and treating it as already described testing for copper and pre- cipitating the alumina by boiling with salam- moniac filtering and weighing it. The presence of potato starch may be detected under the microscope by the relative size of the starch granules. See STARCH. Theory of Bread Makiiuj or Panification. The first step of bread making consists in its fermentation, that is, the conversion of the sugar contained in the flour into carbonic acid and alcohol ; the gaseous carbonic acid, as it is uni- formly evolved throughout the mass of dough, forms vesicles or little bubbles of gas which expand by the heat of the oven, and along with the alcohol is dissipated, leaving a dry spongy mass constituting a loaf. The raising of the BRE oaf depends upon the resistance to the escape of the gas offered by the gluten of the flour, which increases with the amount of that sub- stance which is present. Breaiie. C 30 H 46 3HO. A crystalline resin, extracted by alcohol from icica resin, a product of the Styrax officinale; it consists of C 84-06, H 11-73, 4-21, exactly the composition of cholesterine. Breccia. A conglomerate rock, composed of fragments of other rocks connected together. Breidiiic. Rhombic prisms of 102 and 78. Soluble hi 260 water, easily in alcohol, less in ether ; from arbol a brea. Brcinc. Transparent rhombic prisms of 110 and 70, obtained by crystallization from alcohol, from the resin of arbol a brea, a tree, Canarium album, growing in the Philippines. Insoluble in water; soluble in 70 parts of 85 per cent, alco- hol ; fusing point 369. Brcislakitc. Reddish-brown or chestnut- brown capillary crystals, resembling the form of augite. B.B. fuses into a slightly magnetic bead of a gold colour ; from Capo di Bove. Bremen CJreen. See VJERDITER. Breunerite. A synonyme of carbonate of magnesia. Brevicite. White foliated or radiated mass in amygdaloid, from Brevig, in Norway; tra- versed by dark red streaks. Brewing. This process of preparing fer- mented liquors does not seem to have been known at a very early period, so far as history informs us ; but there is no doubt that it was discovered even by savage nations. The discovery of beer is usually attributed to the Egyptians, who made it from barley. It appears to have been long known to the ancient Germans, who believed that if they obtained the favour of their divinity Woden by their valour, they should be admitted after their death into his hall, and, reposing on couches, should satiate themselves with ale from the sculls of their enemies whom they had slain in battle. Dioscorides describes two kinds of beer ?w0v and *flt^,a/, both made from barley. Pliny calls it cerevisia or cervisia. The process of brewing is usually conducted by converting bar- ley into malt. See MALT. The malt is then in- fused in hot water ; the infusion, when it is com- pleted, being termed wort. This wort is fer- mented (see FERMENTATION), and is then called wash in distilling, or beer, ale, porter, when the process is carried no farther. The various stages of brewing axe mashing, boiling, cooling, ferment- ing, cleansing, which are described under the various articles which are brewed. Brewsteritc. 6-sided prisms, terminated by two oblique and very low faces of 172, 90, and 93 30' ; the primary form being a right oblique prism, with an angle of 93 40'. Sp. gr. 2-432, H 4-25. Composition. Silica, 53-045; alumina, 16-540; barytes, 6-05; strontian, 9-; lime, -8; water, 14-735. It consists of 1 atom silicate of 128 BRI barytes and strontian, 1 atom tersilicate of alu- mina, and 15 atoms water. B.B. loses water, becomes opaque, froths and swells up, and does not easily fuse; leaves a silica skeleton when fused with microcosmic salt; it differs from heulandite in having lime replaced by other two earths. It occurs at Strontian, in Argyll, asso- ciated with galena, in grayish or yellowish-white crystals; near Freiburg; in Isere, and in the Pyrenees. Brick. Ziegelstein (Gr.), Brique (Fr.) A well - known quadrangular form of clay used for building. The most important bricks are the common and fire bricks. The first are made of any adhesive clay, and are burned at a lower temperature than the second de- scription. The clay employed in making fire "bricks must contain but a small amount of oxide of iron and lime, otherwise, at the high tem- peratures to which it is exposed, it will be in danger of fusing, and forming a silicate of iron, with the silica which it contains. In selecting a clay for the manufacture of fire bricks, the less iron that is present the better. See CLAY. Sun- dried bricks are used in Germany, China, and in countries where the heat of the sun is sufficient to give the clay consistence. Scouring bricks are formed of washed clay, or of a mixture of fine sand and clay. Floating bricks were known to the ancients, and appear to be formed of the remarkable deposit now known as mountain meal and kieselgithr, consisting of the silicified remains of fossil infusoria, which are found in Italy, Ger- many, and even in the Hebrides. Brightening. An operation in calico print- ing, performed by boiling printed goods in a solu- tion of soda, &c. by which the colour is rendered more brilliant. Brilliant. A term applied to the diamond when set. Brimstone. The name of sulphur. Brithyne Salt. Calcareo-sulphate of soda, or glauberite. British Crum. A form of starch, soluble in cold water, used extensively in calico printing. It was fonnerly prepared by adding a small por- tion of nitric acid to common wheat or potato starch, but is now manufactured by passing pounded sago, as imported, through cylinders of iron, heated up to the proper temperature (600 ?). The sago is introduced at one end of an open re- volving cylinder, and by constant addition of the new sago it gradually traverses the length of the cylinder, and falls out prepared at the other extremity. It is the same as dextrin. Britannia ITEctal. An alloy of tin, con- taining different quantities of other metals. One specimen consisted of tin. 85-72 ; antimony BRO 10-39 ; zinc 2-91 ; copper -98. It is much used for making teapots, &c. Brittle Silver Ore. See SILVER. Brocatello. A variegated marble, composed of fragments of other marbles. Brochautite. TrisulpliatQ of Copper. Ko- nigine. 3 CuO, S0 3 3 HO. Spec. grav. 3-78, H 3-5 to 4. Thin rectangular tables, bevelled on the edges, belonging to a right rhombic prism ; colour emerald-green, transparent, lustre glossy, sometimes pearly; insoluble in water; soluble in acids. Found in England, Hungary, Siberia. Composition. CuO 66-94, S0 3 17-43, HO 11-91, ZnO 3-14, PbO 1-. There are several minerals allied to this with the formula 4 CuO S0 3 3 HO, and 4 CuO S0 3 4 HO. Bromachlouaphtonc. C 40 HrO G . Bromoform, or Terbromide ofFormyle. C 2 HBr 3 . Clear fluid. Spec. grav. 2-9, of vapour 8 '63, formed by a similar process to chloroform. Bromohclicinc. C 2G , HisCl, Oi 4 . A base formed by bromine on helicine. Bromohydric, or Hydrobromic Acid. HBr. Colourless gas; taste acid; smell like muriatic acid. Spec. grav. 2'75; smokes in the air from its affinity for water ; formed by making bromide of phosphorus by the union of these two sub- stances, and adding water and gentle heat ; or by the following process : Put pieces of phos- phorus in c7, bromine into 5, closing the tube Avith the cork a, and moistened glass into d e ; heat b gently Avith a lamp, the bromine in vapour unites Avith the phosphorus at d; the bromide of phosphorus and water form phosphorus acid and bromohydric acid, Avhich is collected over mer- cury. Bromonaphthalase, or BronapJiihase. C 2 o H r Br. Colourless oil by bromine, not in ex- cess, on naphthaline. Bromonaphthalase. Bromophciiasic Acid. C 24 H 10 Br 2 2 . An oil by distilling bromosalicylic acid over sand and barytes. Bromophenisic Acid. C 24 H G Br G O. Colourless needles by bromine on hydrate of phenyle. Bromopurreic Acid. C 40 H 14 Br 2 2 i. Gold needles by bromine and purreic acid. Bromorcine. Ci 4 H 5 Br 3 O 4 . Silky needles by bromine on solution of orcine. Bromosalicylic Acid. C 14 .H 5 Br 4 . Brilliant prisms by bromine on salicylic acid ; by further action 2 and 3 atoms may replace the same number of atoms of hydrogen, and form two acids, the bi and ter bromosalicylic acids. 131 BRO Bromosamide. C 14 H 5 2 N4Br. Yellow crystalline plates by ammonia on bromide of salicyle. Bromostrychninc. C 44 H 23 BrlSi20 4 . A base by bromine on muriate of strychnine. Bromotcrcbenc. C 2 oH 12 Br 4 . Red viscid flnid. Spec. grav. 1-978 by bromine on terebene. Bromotriconic Acid. C 8 H 5 Br 2 3 .^ Yel- lowish-white greasy scales, by the action of bromine on a neutral solution of citraconate of potash. Bromous, Hypobromom Add. BrO? When bromine is brought in contact with alkaline bases, bleaching compounds are formed analogous to the hypochlorites with the same odour. Bromoxaform. C 6 H Br 5 O 4 . Silky needles fusing at 167; formed by bromine on citrate of potash. Brouaphthene. C 40 H n Br 3 . Bronaphthese. C 20 H 6 Br 2 . Crystalline by bromine in excess, on naphthaline ; a bromide is formed by heating bromine with it. Bronaphthise. C 20 H 5 Br 3 . Crystalline by heat to the bromide of bronaphthise, a product of the action of bromine on naphthaline or on bronaphthase. Bronaphthose. C 20 H 4 Br 4 . Crystalline by distilling bromide of bronaphthese. Brougniardite. Spec. grav. 5-95. PbS, AgS, Sb 2 S 3 . A black metallic mineral, with uneven fracture, from Mexico. Broiigiiiortiuc. NaOS0 3 -j- CaOS0 3 , or Glauberite. Bronze. (E., Gr., Fr.) An alloy of copper, tin, zinc, and lead, used for statuary, casts, &c. The following is the composition of different kinds of bronze : Antique Bronze Bell Gun r Mirror Bronze. Ware. Metal. Metal. ong ' Metal. Copper, 85 to 97 82- 64-4 78 80 90- 91 80 66 66 Tin,.... 15 to 3 3 -25 2210110- 9 20 33-34 Zinc,.... 18 32-4 5-6 Lead,... 1-5 286 4-3 The spec. grav. of bronze is 8-78 in gun metal, and 8-482 in statue of Louis XIV. Its colour s reddish-yellow, fine-grained in the fracture. I have found the strength of gun metal (which 1 found by analysis to consist of 91 copper 9 tin) to be to malleable iron as 1 to 2. Bronzing consists in communicating the colour more rapidly, which bronze acquires in the course of time by the oxidation of the copper. This may be accomplished by placing the articles to be bronzed in a boiling very dilute solution of 2 acetate of copper and 1 salammoniac. A fine colour is also produced by the action of sulphu- retted hydrogen which may be allowed to escape spontaneously in a room from a flat vessel con- taming an alkaline sulphuret in solution. Brouzite, Dialkige. Spec. grav. 3*154 to 3'3, H 4-5. Brown, dark green, or ash-gray, fre- quently resembling bronze plates, belonging to an oblique rhombic prism of 93 30'. Composi- tion Silica 50-81, magnesia 29-G7, lime 2-19, BRO FeO 8-46, MnO -61, HO -22. It seems a bisilicate of magnesia ; found in Styria, Piedmont; Lizard, Cornwall ; Girvan, Ayrshire. (?) Brookitc. Jurinite, Prismatic titanium ore., Eumanite. Spec. grav. 3.81, H 5-75. Primary form a right rhombic prism of 100 and 80, the height being to the breadth as 11 to 30 ; the crys- tals are often 6 -sided prisms with pyramidal summits ; B.B. infusible on charcoal ; fusible into a brownish-yellow glass with salt of phosphorus. It contains titanic acid 94-09, Fe 2 3 4-5, A1 2 3 trace. Loss by ignition 1-4. It is therefore slightly impure titanic acid ; found in Dauphine, Savoy, Rutherford county, U.S. ; Chesterfield, Massachu- sets; Snowdon, Wales. Brown Coal. See COAL. Brown Haematite. See HAEMATITE. Brown Spar, a crystallized form of carbonate of iron, but perhaps more properly applicable to an isomorphous compound of carbonate of lime, iron, and magnesia. Browns for Porcelain. Light Brown. 6 anhydrous copperas, 4 anhydrous sulphate of zinc, 13 nitre, are mixed and heated in a clay crucible till the nitre is decomposed. It is re- moved from the crucible by fracture and digested in water, which takes up the soluble parts. A yellowish-brown powder remains, composed of oxides of zinc and iron. This is made into a vitrifiable colour by triturating 2 parts of the brown powder, and 5 lead glass (12 minium, 3 sand, 1 calcined borax). Another Light Brown. 2 anhydrous copperas, 2 anhydrous sulphate of zinc, are substituted for the above; or 1 copperas, 2 sulphate of zinc, yield another shade. Brown Bistre. 1 calcined sulphate of manga- nese, 8 anhydrous sulphate of zinc, 12 anhydrous copperas, 26 nitre, are treated as the first light brown. Another shade is procured by substi- tuting 4 copperas, and 4 sulphate of zinc ; 12 nitre. Brown Sepia. 1 calcined copperas, 1 calcined sulphate of manganese, 2 calcined sulphate of zinc, 5 nitre, are treated as for light brown, and the gray-brown residue mixed with 2| times its weight of the glass. Another shade is made by 1 copperas, 2 sulphate of manganese, 6 sulphate of zinc, 10 nitre. Dee}) Brown. 1 dry sulphate of cobalt, 4 dry sulphate of zinc, 4 calcined copperas, 10 nitre, are mixed as for light brown, and afterwards with 2 1 times its weight of the lead glass. Chrome Brown. 1 hydrous oxide of iron, 2 chromate of mercury are mixed on a glass slab, then ignited in a capsule placed in an open muffle to drive off the mercury ; the residue fused with lead glass (5 minium, 2 sand, 1 borax), and triturated on glass. Chesnut Brown is prepared by igniting red oxide of iron intensely till it becomes ehcsmit brown, and mixing 2 parts of this with 5 lead glass (12 minium, 3 sand, 1 calcined bora*), and carefully triturating on glass. + 132 BRU Ochre Brown. 80 gray flux (pebble flux 89), fused borax 11, (for pebble flux see BLACK) 13 hydrous carbonate of zinc, 7 yellow oxide of iron; to be mixed without fusion. Another. 77 gray flux, hydrous carbonate of zinc 15, oxide of iron 8. Deep Ochre Broicn. Gray flux 75, hydrous carbonate of zinc 12 J, yellow oxide of iron 12^. Mix without fusing. Brucine. C 46 H 2C N 2 8 . Colourless, trans- parent, oblique 4-sided prisms, becoming opaque by keeping, containing 16 per cent, of water, which they part with at 212; soluble in 850 cold, 500 hot water; soluble in alcohol; not soluble in ether ; its solutions ' are bitter and poisonous ; tincture of iodine throws down an orange-brown precipitate; nitric acid turns it red, becoming yellow by heat, and violet by adding a tin salt ; this test distinguishes it from strych- nine and morphine. It is procured from the bark of the Brucea antidysenterica, by forming a decoction with boiling water, adding oxalic acid to the solutions, evaporating to an extract, digest- ing the extract in alcohol at 32; the oxalate of brucine remaining is decomposed by boiling with magnesia, the brucine taken up and crystallized by alcohol. It is also obtained from the mother liquor of the strychnine solutions in the prepara- tion of that zdkaloid from mix vomica, by evaporating it to a syrup, adding dilute sulphuric acid slightly beyond saturation ; crystals appear in a few days, which are pressed in a cloth, de- colourized by animal charcoal, and the brucine precipitated by ammonia. It unites with acids and forms monobasic crystalline salts. Bi'ticite. A name given by American min- eralogists to hydrate of magnesia and to chon- drodite. Brunolic Acid. An asphalt-looking matter obtained from coal oils in the preparation of car- bolic acid. 12 coal oil being mixed with 2 lime and 50 water and allowed to stand; the liquor is saturated with muriatic acid, when carbolic, brunolic, and rosolic acids separate as an oil. When this oil is distilled with water, the first third which passes over is carbolic acid ; the re- mainder is brunolic and rosolic acids. When saturated with lime and boiled with Avater, roso- late of lirne dissolves, and brunolate of lime falls ; this is repeated until all colour disappears; the brunolic acid is separated by nmriatic acid, and is lastly dissolved in caustic soda, precipitated with muriatic acid, and dissolved in alcohol. Bruisone. A synonyme of sphene. Brunswick Crrecn. A name given to dif- ferent compounds. The usual pigment consists of 3CuO, CuCl 4HO, obtained by exposing metallic copper to the air, and sprinkling it with a paste of sulphate of copper, common salt, and water ; or with common salt and dilute sulphuric- acid, or with a solution of salammoniac. A di- carbonate of copper (2CuO C0 2 HO), also goes Uflder this name, or mountain green, formed by 133 BUT decomposing sulphate or chloride of copper with an alkaline carbonate or carbonate of lime, and washing the precipitate with hot water. It is made to acquire various shades by mixing with sulphate of barytes, gypsum, c. Bryoidine. White silky fibres, fusing at 135, from the watery solution of arbol a brea or resin of Canarium album. Bryoninc. Yellow-brown bitter extract, obtained by the process for bitter extracts, q.v. from the Bryonia alba and dioica, Soluble in water, alcohol ; insoluble in ether ; sulphuric acid ren- ders it blue and deep green. Buckolzitc. A nhydrous Silicate of A lumina. Spec. grav. 3-193, H 6-, silica 46-4, alumina 52-92. Colour grayish -white, with a slight tinge of yellow ; structure fibrous hi imperfect prisms ; lustre silky, allied to fibrolite and silli- manite. Bucholzitc Hydrous. Spec. grav. 2*855. H 3.' Silica 41-35, alumina 49-55, S0 3 2-01, CaO 1-105, HO 4-85. Colour light bluish-green, powder white, streak white, structure granular, formed of small scales; brittle. B.B. becomes snow-white and falls to powder ; with carbonate of soda becomes an enamel; with borax fuses into a transparent bead ; found in Sardinia. Buchu. The leaves of several species of Barosma or Diosma from the Cape of Good Hope, much used hi the form of tea in retention of mine, &c. Bucklanditc. Scotine. Spec. grav. 3-945 to 3-51. Soluble in nitric acid; 6-sided prisms, terminated by bihedral summits, derived from an oblique rhombic prism, with angles of 70 40', and 103 56'; opaque, lustre vitreous. The crystal is the same as that of epidote. Composi- tion. Silica 36-97, alumina 21-84, Fe 2 3 10-19, FeO 9-19, CaO 21-14, HO -68, C0 2 .32. In some specimens have been found yttria, and ceria, and lantana, and this is explained by the fact, that orthite, allanite, and cerine are heteronieric with epidote. Buckwheat. The seed of the Polygonum fagopyrum, contains resin -36, gluten 10 -47, albu- men -22, apotheme 2-53, saccharine 3'08, gum and mucilage 2-80, starch 52-29, fibre 26-93. Buratitc. Cupro Carbonate of Zinc, occur- ring at Campiglia in the Maremma Pisena. It consists of ZnO 32-02, CuO 29'46, C0 2 21-45, 110 8-45, CaO 8-62. Busiaiuite. Spec. grav. 3-12 to 3-25 H 6-5. Pale gray, with a tint of green or red, radiated spherical masses from Puebla in Mexico. Composition. Silica 48 -9, protoxide of manganese 36-, lime 14-57, FeO -81. Formula, 3 CaO 2 SiO 3 , 2 (3 MnO 2Si0 3 ). Butter. E. and Gr. Beurre, Fr. The solid oil contained in the milk of the cow ; but all solid oils are occasionally termed butters, whether of animal or vegetable origin. The butter of milk is diffused through the milk in the form of emulsion globules. These, by standin g, from their less den- BUT sity, rise to the surface, mixed with milk and curd, in the form of cream. To separate the butter from the cream, see CREAM, the latter is agitated in a churn, when the butter separates from the glo- bules, and swims in buttermilk. The tempera- ture rises 4, but no oxygen is necessary, as none is absorbed ; the chemical change is confined to the separation into two parts .of the lactin, or sugar of milk, in the form of lactic acid. The temperature for churning most advantageously has been found to be 55. As soon as the churn works stiff the butter is known to be formed. The buttermilk is poured off from it, and the butter washed free from buttermilk by water and pressure. The best butter I have found composed of 12-79 water, 86-27 butter oil, and 94 caseine or curd. It is the presence of the caseine which sets up a fermentation, and causes butter to become rancid. To analyze butter, it is heated at 212 till it ceases to lose weight ; the butter is taken up by ether, and the caseine remains. To preserve butter, it may be heated in a pan to remove water, whfen it becomes a fine fluid oil ; the oil, when strained through a muslin cloth, leaves caseine on the filter. If the oil thus deprived of water and curd be poured into close bottles, it solidifies, and may be kept for any length of time. In this way it is pre- served in India, and called ghee, and likewise on the continent. To preserve it in its natural state, salt, nitre, and sugar are usually employed. Nitre is likewise used to deprive it of the pe- culiar taste which it possesses when cows are fed on turnips. The pure oil separated by ether or fusion consists of 68 margarine (margarate of oxide of glyceryle) 30 butyroleine (butyroleate of oxide of glyceryle), and 2 of caprine, caprylline, caproine, vaccine. The hardness of butter is produced by the predominance of margarine, which appears to be greatest in winter. Pure butter solidifies about 80. Boiling alcohol of 822 dissolves 3-46 per cent, of butter. The quantity of butter given by different kinds of food is various. The largest quantity given by a brown cow, on a grass diet in a fortnight, was 11 Ibs. 4 oz. ; by a white cow, on the same diet and the same time, 8 Ibs. 2 oz. Five days on bean meal and hay, the brown cow produced 3 Ibs. 11^ oz. butter; the white cow 3 Ibs. 12 oz. butter. The following table gives the amount of butter in five days by different kinds of food, the mean of the two cows by my experiments : Nitrogen . Ibs. in food. Grass, ,.. 3-5 2-32 Barley and hay, 3-43 3-89 Malt and hay, 3-20 3-34 Barley, molasses, and hay, .. 3-44 3-82 Barley, linseed, and hay,.... 3-48 4-14 Beans and hay, 3-72 5.27 This table shows that there is a connection be- t ween the nitrogenous matter in the food and the butter of the milk. BUT Butter is also, the old name of certain che- mical compounds, of the consistence of butter, as butters of antimony, tin, bismuth, zinc, &c. Butter Bog. C 75'05, H12-56, 012-84, from the bogs in Ireland. Butter Mountain. A name sometimes given to native ferrosulphate of alumina. Butters. A name applied to solid oils, as shea, palms, cocoa, nutmegs. Butylaminc. Petinine. NH 2 C 8 H 9 . An oil occurring in Dippel's animal oil along Avith ethy- lamine, methylamine, and propylamine. Butylc. Valyle. C 8 H 9 . Colourless fluid with a pleasant odour, taste somewhat burning ; boils at 2.26, spec. grav. -694, of vapour 4-053 ; obtained by decomposing valerianic acid by elec- tricity ; when oxidized it yields butyric acid ; it is homologous with ethyle. Butyleiie. Carburet of Hydrogen, Tetarto- Carbohydrogen. C 8 H 8 . An oil, spec. grav. -627, of vapour 1-944, boils under 32, occurs in the oil of oil gas, and in the decomposition of valerate of potash by galvanism. Butyral. Butyraldehyde, Hydrous oxide of Butyryle. C 8 H 7 OHO. A fluid, boiling at 158 (Gu'ckelberger), 203 (Chancel), spec. grav. -8 ; it is homologous with aldehyde, and has similar properties ; another compound isomeric with it is obtained by distilling butyrate of lime. Butyramide. C 8 H 7 2 NH 2 . By acting on butyric ether with ammonia, in closed tubes. Butyranilide. C 20 H 13 ]SrO 2 . Pearly plates, fusing at 194, distilling without change, insol- uble in water, soluble in alcohol and ether ; by the action of anhydrous butyric acid on aniline. Butyric Acid, Anhydrous. CgHj-Os, spec, grav. -978, of vapour 5'38, B.P. 374, strong odour of butyric ether, colourless liquid, very refractive, mobile, lighter than water ; formed by allowing oxychloride of phosphorus to drop on dried butyrate of soda, distilling the product, or by distilling 5 chloride of benzoyle and 8 dry butyrate of soda. Butyric Acid. C 8 H 7 3 HO. Clear oily fluid, soluble in water, alcohol, ether, and oil of vitriol, possessing an acid, rancid odour; buty- rate of lime distilled with sulphuric acid yields hydrous butyric acid ; polymeric with alde- hyde and isomeric with acetic ether ; spec. grav. 9739, of vapour 3-3, boils at 314; still fluid at -4; evaporates in air without residue ; crys- tallizes in broad plates when exposed to the ac- tion of solid carbonic acid and ether ; it unites with bases, and forms crystalline tasteless salts. From butter it is prepared by saponifying the butter with caustic potash ; supersaturating with sulphuric acid; distilling half of the solution, pouring water on the remainder, and again dis- tilling till the fluid passing is no longer acid. The distilled fluid is saturated immediately with - barytes water, and kept in close vessels till the whole is collected at the end of the operation. The whole distilled fluid saturated with barytes 134 BUT is boiled down in the still to one-twentieth, and then distilled to dryness in a retort. This resi- due consists of 95 parts of butyrate and caproate of barytes, more soluble in water, and 5 parts of caprylate and caprate of barytes, with diffi- culty soluble in water. The whole residue is boiled with water, filtered, and crystallized. Caproate of barytes crystallizes out in silky needles like benzoate of lime, while butyrate of barytes remains in the mother liquor. Vaccate of barytes has in one instance been found alone instead of butyrate and caproate. The butyrate of barytes is decomposed by dilute sulphuric acid, and the butyric acid distilled over. From Sugar. It may also be prepared from sugar. Mix a solution of sugar with a small quantity of curd and a sufficient quantity of chalk to saturate all the acid which may be formed (100 sugar, 8 to 10 fresh curd, 50 chalk). This mixture, exposed to a temperature of 77 to 86, soon undergoes great alterations. The fermentation, at first viscid, becomes next lactic, and then buttery. Much gas is evolved, consist- ing of hydrogen and carbonic acid ; when the hydrogen is a third of the carbonic acid, the buttery fermentation is at its height. In the course of some weeks the action has ceased, and the liquid contains only butyrate of lime. The action is as follows, produced by the fermenting action of the caseine : C 12 H 14 Oi4 == Sugar = C 8 H 8 4 Butyric acid. C 4 8 = 4 Carbonic acid H 4 = 4 hydrogen. H 2 2 = 2 water. The lime may be separated from the butyric acid by adding weak muriatic acid or sulphuric acid in a retort and distilling. This production of butter from sugar must necessarily be an im- portant point in the consideration of the question of the formation of fat in animals, as the transfor- mation is effected without the agency of heat. Butyric Ether. C 4 H 5 O,C 8 H 7 O3 A fluid with a fine pine apple odour, used for flavouring CAC rum and confections ; by alcohol, sulphuric acid, and butyric acid. Biityroacetic Acid. Metacetonic acid, pro- pionic acid. C 6 H 5 O 3 HO. Butyroleic Acid. C 4 oH3oO 4 HO. Colour- less oil, specific grav. '904; the oleic acid of butter; extracted by saponification from the butyroleine, which again is taken up by pressure from butter. Butyroiic. C 7 H 7 or C 14 H 14 2 ; clear oil, spec. grav. -83, of vapour 3-99, B.P. 144 C. (29lF.); taste burning; almost insoluble in water ; very soluble in alcohol ; obtained by dis- tilling butyrate of lime or barytes. Butyroiiitric Acid. C 8 , H G N0 4 3 HO. Yellow oil ; smell aromatic ; taste sweet ; burns with a red flame ; insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol ; forms bibasic salts, which when heated to 212, decompose explosively; formed by heating gently in a retort equal parts of nitric acid and butyrone. Butyronitrylc. Cyanide ofpropyle, Cyanide ofmetacetyle. C 8 H 7 N or C 6 H 7 , C 2 N. An oil, spec. grav. -795, B.P. 245. Smell similar to that of oil of bitter almonds ; formed by distilling dry butyrate of ammonia with anhydrous phos- phoric acid, or passing the vapour of butyramide through ignited lime. Butyryle. C 8 H 7 . A hypothetic radical, homologous with formyle C 2 H, acetyle C 4 H 3 , propionyle CgHg, which differ from each other by C 2 H 2 . Buxinc. A bitter alkaloid, in Buxus semper- virens or common box. Byssolite of Saussure, probably asbestiform actinolite. Bytownitc. Spec. grav. 2-801 H6. Light greenish-blue, granular, amorphous mineral ; translucent with splintery fracture and vitreous lustre, infusible before blowpipe, fusing with, borax into a colourless glass. Silica 47-56, alumina 29-64, lime 9-06. Fe 2 3l 3-57, MgO -4, NaO 9-6, HO 1-98; found at By town, Upper Canada. C Cabbage, or Brassica Oleracea, contains -29 of albumen, 2-84 alcoholic and watery extract, 63 green matter, -05 resin, 2-89 gummy extract. Cacao. The beans of the Theobroma cacao, containing 11-3 husk per cent. The kernel con- sists of oil 53-1, albumen 16-7, starch 10-91, gum 7-75, red-colouring matter 2-01, fibre '9, water 5-28, ash 2-. From these beans chocolate is made, and likewise coco, q. v. Cacao Butter. A yellowish fat, with the weight of boiling water, and expressing it between heated iron Cacholong. Spec. grav. 2-2. Opaque, milky, or yellowish form of quartz, externally dull, in- ternally pearly ; found on the Cach in Bucharia, Iceland, Nova Scotia, Greenland. Cacodyle, Kakodyle. C 4 H 6 As or AsMe 2 . Clear fluid, self-inflammable; crystallizing when cooled in large square prisms at 21. B.P. 338 (170C.). Spec. grav. of vapour 7-101; heavier ^_/.*;t*f Mm**ll*5M. -tJL J VI.1.V *T J.I3AJ. MMI) IT AM* M4O 1 ^A I V \_/y. kJ|JC^. ,.rt. V VJL YCtJJULU. J. V J. ) *** taste and smell of cacao beans ; can be purified than water ; poisonous ; it may be viewed as a by solution in alcohol ; is then colourless ; it consists of C76-6,Hll-9, O 11-5. Spec. grav. -91 ; fusing point 85-1 (29-5C.); it contains stearine, margarine, and some oleine; it is obtained by mixing the powdered kernel with 10 times its 135 coupled or conjugate compound of arsenic and methyle ; formed by acting on chloride of cacodyle with "zinc at 212, or on sulphide or bromide of cacodyle with mercury between 392 and 572. Cacodyle of Butyric Acid. An oil, by CAC distilling butyrate of potash and arsenious acid. Cacodyle Chloride. CMorarsine, C 4 H c As Cl. Volatile fetid fluid causing tears, formed by heating alkarsine with corrosive sublimate. Spec. grav. of vapour 4*56. ' Cacodylc, Oxide of. Cadefs Liquor, Al- Tcarsine. C4H(jAsO or AsMe 2 O. Limpid ether, a strong refractor of light; spec. grav. 1-462, of vapour 7-555. B.P. 302 (150C). Smokes in the air; becomes solid at 13 in white scales; acts powerfully as an irritant and poison ; obtained by distilling acetate of potash and arsenious acid together, and purifying by distillation in an at- mosphere of carbonic acid (2C 4 H 3 3 ), As0 3 = 4C0 2 , C 4 H 6 AsO; it is self-inflammable in air, and by water is converted into cacodylic acid; smells of garlio ; insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether; inflames in chlorine, bromine; unites with iodine; reduces oxide of mercury, cacodylic acid being formed. Cacodylic Acid. AlJcargene. C 4 H As0 3 . F.P. 397. Oblique 4-sided prisms, brittle and vitreous, forms amorphous salts ; not poisonous ; obtained by the action of water or air on the preceding. Cacoplatyle Chloride. C 4 H 7 AsPt0 2 Cl. Needles obtained by adding an alcoholic solution of bichloride of platinum to chloride of cacodyle in alcohol. Cacoplatyle has not been isolated. Cacothcline. C 21 H n !N" 2 10 . Yellow plates, insoluble hi water; soluble in alcohol; a base formed by the action of nitric acid on brucine. Cacoxenile. Diphospliate of Iron,. 2Fe 2 Oo, P0 5 . Spec. grav. 2-336. Dull yellow small silky tufts, consisting of phosphoric acid 20-5, sesquioxide of iron 43-1, water 30-2, lime 1-1, MgO 0-9, silica 2-1. Cactiiic. The red-colouring matter obtained from the Cactus speciosus, by expression or alcohol, has been so called. Cadet's Fuming Liquor. Oxide of caco- dyle or alkarsine. Cadmia. The name given to the crust de- posited on zinc ore furnaces ; consisting of ZnO 86- to 92|, PbO 1 to 8-8, FeO 1 J to 3|. Cadmium. (za.'&pMot,, calamine.) Cd7, 6-9677; 55-7416. White metal. Crystals 8-hedrons. Spec, grav. 8-694 after, and 8-604 before hammering. F.P. 442 or 608. Vapour point above 600 ; fracture hackly, soft, and easily cut ; sectile, duc- tile, and malleable ; frequently occurs in zinc ores, and is volatilized in the furnace, collecting in the form of a crust on the roof of the arch. This is called cadmia ; contains from 10 to 20 per cent, of cadmium. It is separated from the zinc by dissolving in sulphuric acid, and passing a current of sulphohydric acid through the solution ; yellow sulphide of cadmium falls, and the zinc remains in solution, or the zinc may be dissolved by caus- tic soda, the oxide of cadmium falling ; the oxide when heated with charcoal is reduced, and the cadmium sublimed. Oxide of Cadmium CdOS-; 64; spec. grav. CAF 8-183. Brownish-yellow powder, easily reduced, obtained by burning cadmium in the air, or by precipitating its salts by an alkaline carbonate, washing and igniting. The salts are colourless ; reaction alkaline ; disagreeable taste ; act as eme- tics ; a plate of zinc precipitates metallic cadmium. Sulphide of Cadmium, Greenockite. CdS. Cadmium 77-6. Sulphur 23-4. Sp. grav. 4-842. H 2-75. Yellow 6-sided pyramids, sometimes 6- sided prisms, belonging to the rhombohedi*al sys- tem. B.B. on charcoal ; a yellowish-red ring is formed round the fragment. With soda the red ring is formed ; with borax it forms a yellow glass ; it is soluble in muriatic acid, with evolution of sulphohydric acid; crystallizes by evaporation, which distinguishes it from zinc ; it occurs in an amygdaloid along with phrenite in the Greenock tunnel, and on the Kilpatrick hills. Artificially formed sulphide of cadmium is yellow with a tint of orange ; crystallizing in a white heat in mica- ceous scales ; it has been used in mixture with oil as a pigment. Chloride Rectangularprisms falling to a white powder, after being heated in the air, instead of deliquescing as the chloride of zinc does ; sub- limes in micaceous scales. Sulphate. CdOSO 3 4HO. Rectangular ef- florescing prisms; converted into a subsulphate by heat. Caeruleum. A silicate of copper; a blue Roman pigment. Cafteic Acid.? White powder; soluble in water; insoluble in alcohol; reddening litmus. When heated it evolves an aromatic odour, re- sembling roasted coffee ; obtained by precipitating the decoction of coffee with acetate of lead, filter- ing, and then Avith subacetate of lead. The last precipitate is thrown on a filter, mixed with water, and precipitated by sulphohydric acid ; the filtered liquor evaporated to a syrup, and then mixed with its volume of alcohol ; caffeic acid is thrown, down, and caffeotannic acid dissolved. Caffeine. Theine,Guaranim. C 1G Hj oN 4 0^ Fine white silky prisms or needles ; soluble in water, alcohol, and ether; volatile and fus- ible; it acts as a weak base, but forms fine crystals with chlorohydric and sulphuric acids. It contains in its silky state 7-81 per cent, of water, which is removed at 248 (120C.), while the caffeine loses its lustre, and is then easily pounded; fuses at 350 (177C.); sublimes at 723 (384C.) ; soluble" in 93 cold water, 158 absolute alcohol, 298 ether; anhydrous caffeine dissolves in 98 water, 97 alcohol, and 794 ether; boiled with barytes it yields ammonia, cyanic acid and carbonic acid, and by long boiling formic acid ; it is found in coffee, Chinese, Paraguay, and Guarana teas (Coffea Arabica, Thea bo/tea, Ilex J > hate of iron and deoxidizing after being printed >y alternate immersions in lime and copperas ; or he indigo may be dissolved in a hot solution of oda and stannate of soda, and is then precipi- ated in the white state by muriatic acid ; the >recipitate being thickened and mixed with fresh hloride of tin is then printed on the cloth. When Iry the cloth is immersed in carbonate of soda. ). Catechu brown is formed by dissolving catechu CAL in acetic acid, adding a solution of copper and salammoniac ; the whole is printed on the cloth. 10. Chrome orange is formed by printing on the chroraate of lead, and abstracting the half of the acid in hot lime water. 11. White dis- charge on Bladder red. The cloth is first mor- danted with alum, dyed in madder and discharged with citric acid. 12. Madder and logioood with alum mordant yields a brown. 13. Cochineal pink is dyed in cochineal after mordanting with alum. 14. Black ground a)id white pro- duced by alum mordant and logwood, and white discharge by citric acid. 15. Turkey red. This mode of dyeing was introduced into France from the Levant, and into Glasgow by M. Papillon of Rouen, in 1785, and under Papillon's direction the firm of Dale and Macintosh was established at Dalinarnock, and continued till 1805. 1. The cloth is steeped in a weak alkaline lye (rot steep), 4 or 5 Ibs. caustic soda to 100 Ibs. cloth, at 110 for twenty-four hours, in order to remove the weaver's dressing. 2. It is boiled in carbo- nate of soda, 7 to 10 Ibs. carbonate of soda to 100 cloth. 8. 22 gallons of the following mixture are made to have a spec. grav. of 1020 to 1025 : 1 gallon gallipoli oil, 1| gallon sheep's dung, 4 gallons solution of carbo'nate of soda, spec. grav. 1060, 1 gallon solution of pearl-ash, spec. grav. 1040. This mixture is mixed in the liquor tub, and conveyed by pipes to the padding machine, where the cloth is immersed for fourteen days. The sheep's dung assists the bleaching process. 4. It is dried on the grass or in the stove.. 5. It is immersed again in No. 3, and dried, and the process again repeated. 6. It is steeped in a solution of pearl-ash of 1007 to 1010, at 120. 7. It is immersed in the following mixture as in No. 3 : 1 gallon gallipoli oil, 3 gallons soda lye, spec. grav. 1060, 1 gallon caustic potash lye, 1048 made up with water to 22 gallons; it is then dried on the grass, or in the stove. 8. The process 7 is repeated thrice. 9. It is steeped in caustic potash and soda, spec. grav. 1010 to 1012^- at 120, drained and washed to remove superfluous oil. 10. For galling. 18 Ibs. aleppo, or 33 Ibs. sumach, or a mixture of 9 Ibs. nut- galls, and 16^ sumach, are boiled for four or five hours in 25 gallons water down to '20 gallons, and the cloth immersed at from 80 to 100. 11. Mordanting or aluming. Precipitate from a solution of alum, spec. grav. 1040, the alumina by pearl-ash, soda, or chalk. The cloth is passed though this turbid liquor at 100 to 120, and steeped for twelve hours. 12. The cloth is stove-dried, and then washed out of the alum liquor. 13. Dyeing red. From 1 to 3 Ibs. mad- der for every pound of cloth are placed in the boiler with the cloth in cold water. It is made to boil in an hour, and continued for two hours; the cloth being passed through the liquor by a winch ; 1 gallon bullock's blood is added to every 25 Ibs. cloth to produce a fine red. 14. Clear ing re- moves the brown colour, and is performed by CAL boiling the cloth for twelve or fourteen hours in 5 Ibs. soda, 8 Ibs. soap, and 16 to 18 Ibs. residual liquor of No. 9, with sufficient water. 15. Brightening. 5 or 6 Ibs. soap, and 16 to 18 oz. chloride of tin are boiled with water, and the cloth, in a covered globular boiler at a pressure of 2 at- mospheres, or at 250|. 16. The cloth is spread out on the grass, and exposed to the sun for a few days. Indigo blue. The blue vat is a solu- tion of colourless indigo in lime water. To form it the indigo is ground with water, and mixed with sulphate of iron and an excess of lime. In a few hours the indigo is deoxidized and dis- solved. The new products, sesquioxide of iron and sulphate of lime, subside, and a clear yellow solution of indigo remains. Cloth dipped in this vat attracts the indigo from the lime; on exposure to the air the indigo becomes blue. Chemical colours are such as are fugitive, and re- ceive their permanence, such as it is, by being raised by steam. 1. Chemical black. A salt of protoxide of iron is printed on the cloth with nut- galls or logwood and exposed to the air, when it becomes black. 2. Chemical pink. A decoction of Brazil or peach- wood is thickened with gum Senegal and mixed with salt of tin, which forms a lake colour, and is printed on the block. 3. Steam blue. To a solution of yellow prussiate of potash tartaric acid is added ; cream of tartar precipi- tates, while hydrocyanic acid and white Prussian blue dissolve in water. This liquid is thickened with gum, and printed on the cloth. The print is now exposed to the action of steam in a closed box, and if the other colours allow, raised in a weak solution of bleaching powder or bichromate of potash or -by exposure to the air. 4. Steam green is a combination of the preceding with a yellow colour, by a decoction of Persian berries, and fixed on the cloth by alum. The prussiate of potash is dissolved in water, and this liquor is mixed with a decoction of Persian berries and alum. On applying steam, sulphate of potash is formed, the alumina uniting with the yellow of the berries and fixing it. The heat also decomposes the white Prussian blue and deposits blue on the cloth. The blue and yellow thus produce a green. 5. Annotto orange. Annotto is dissolved in potash or soda and printed on the cloth. 6. Chrome yellow on Turkey red. Tartaric acid and nitrate of lead are dissolved together in water, which is thickened with gum and printed on those parts of the Turkey red cloth to be rendered yellow. By passing through bleaching solution the tar- taric acid portions are deprived of colour, while the oxide of lead becomes fixed on the cloth, which is changed into yellow chromate of lead by passing through bichromate of potash. 8. Chrome yelloio on Indigo. A resist paste is made by mix- ing a solution of nitrate and acetate of lead and nitrate and acetate of copper with gum and pipe- clay. While the indigo is depositing itself on the cloth, the lime which holds it in solution is pre- cipitating the oxide of lead on those parts of the 140 CAL cloth where the paste has been applied. After washing, the cloth is passed through a solution of bichromate of potash. To remove some copper deposited, the cloth is immersed in muriatic acid. 9. Orange and yellow upon blue. In this case the cloth, prepared as in the last, is passed through a solution of dichromate of potash. When weak nitric acid thickened with gum is printed on por- tions of this orange, half of the oxide of lead is removed, and the orange is converted into yellow. 10. Chrome yellow on bronze. Sulphate of lead mixed with chloride of tin is printed on bronzed cloth. Chloride of manganese is removed by washing, the oxide of tin and sulphate of lead remaining ; the latter is decomposed by lime, the oxide of lead adhering to the cloth, and becoming yellow when passed through bichromate of potash. 11. Red and chocolate resist on pale blue If the aluminous mordant, with the addition of a little verdigris and a little soft soap, and thickened with gum and pipeclay, be printed on white cloth, the piece may be immersed in the blue vat without any of the indigo attaching itself to those parts so printed. When dunged and dyed in the usual way, a red is produced on the pale blue ground. The same mordant, with the addition of acetate of iron, gives a chocolate. A neutral paste of lime juice and sulphate of copper is em- ployed in this case to defend the cloth against both the reds and chocolate and the blue. 1 2. Pig- ment printing. The colours are the same as those used for painting or printing on paper, and are printed on dresses not intended to be washed. Caliph He. A mineral composed of sesqui- oxide of iron 28-8, binoxide of manganese 28*13, water 19-01, silica 12-1, ZnO 6-3, CaO 2-55, Ti0 2 1-2, A1 2 3 -6, MgO -7. Callus. The new bone or cement thrown out by the extremities of a broken bone to cause union ; it is composed of animal matter 50, phos- phate of lime 33, carbonate of lime 6, soluble salts 11. Callutannic Acid. C 14 H G Os. A yellow- colouring matter obtained by boiling Calluna vulgaris with spirit, precipitating it with lead salts, and decomposing. Calluxanthine. C 14 H 5 7 . Yellow amor- phous body, obtained by acting on an aqueous solution of callutannic acid with mineral acids and heat. Calomel. The old and still common name of subchloride or dichloride of mercury. Caloric. A synonyme of heat. Calorifiant Food. Food producing heat in the systems of animals. Calorimeter. A measurer of heat. The oldest form of calorimeter is that of Lavoisier and Laplace, consisting of three cylinders within each other. The heated body being placed in the interior vessel and the spaces between the cylinders filled with ice ; the amount of ice melted measured the heat evolved from the heated body. Calorimotor. A galvanic apparatus named CAM from its heating power, composed of several pairs of large copper and zinc plates. Calotropis Mudarii, or Gigantea. Contains in its root bark 11^ per cent, of an emetic, mudarine. Ca!p of Milton. A siliceous carbonate of lime. Calstronbaryte. Right rhombic prisms and in plates. Spec. grav. 4-2, H 3-25, found in New York state; contains 65-5 BaOS0 3 , 22 SrO,C0 2 , 12 CaOC0 2 . Calumbiiie. C 22 H 12 O7. ? Colourless rhom- bic prisms, poisonous. Taste bitter, neutral; scarcely soluble in water, alcohol, ether ; soluble in boiling alcohol of -835, sulphuric acid, nitric, acetic acid, and alkalies ; obtained from the root of Columbo (Cocculus palmatus) by boiling alcohol. Calx. The old name for oxides of metals. Calyptolite. H 6-5. Spec. grav. 4-34. A fluocolumbate from Connecticut in 4-sided prisms. Cambium. A mucous viscid layer of minute transparent granules intersposed in the spring be- neath the bark and above the wood of trees. Campcachy-Wood. Logwood, Blauholz, Gr., Haematoxylon Campeachianum. Camphamic Acid. An amide acid from camphoric acid ; little known. Camphene. A general expression for essen- tial oils composed on the type of oil of turpentine. C 5 H 4 , or a multiple of these atoms Ci H (S or C 20 H 1G . The camphenes and compounds are as follows : Oils. Sp. Gr. B.P. Camphene, turpentine, C 20 H 1G -860 150 C cubebs, CifiHn '929 {^ t0 pepper, f -864 167 lemon, I C 10 H 1G -845 | 17 go 836 180 889 245 orange, copaiva, [_ Oxide of Camphene. Common resin. C 20 Hi 2 O 2 . Oxide of Camphene. Copaiva resin. GI H G 0. Hydrate of Camphene. Stearoptene of turpen- tine. C 20 H 12 4HO. Chlorohydride of Camphene. C 20 H 12 HC1. Campherene. A term applied to a class of bodies produced by a simple chemical action from the camphenes, as by the action of acids. They consist of Sp. grav. Vapour. Terebene, C 20 H 1G -864 4-763 Colophene, C 20 H 1G -939 9-526? Chlorohydride of Tere- bene, C 20 H 1G HC1 -902 Bichlorohydride of Terebene,... ..C 20 H 1G 2HC1 1-017 Dichlorotere- bene, C 20 H 14 C1 2 1-137 CaiispMlcne. This class is formed from the campherenes by a simple reaction, or from the camphenes by a double action, and are isomeric both with the camphenes and campherenes. They 141 CAM are formed by passing the vapour of muriates ol camphene or campherene through a tube filled with quicklime, heated by an oil bath up to near 400 F. till the oily product is free from acid, and rectifying over potassiiun. The type of them is camphilene or dadyle, the fluid produced by the decomposition of muriate of oil of turpentine (chlorohydride of camphene). Form. C 20 H 1C . Spec. grav. -87, B.P. 135. C.; colour- less, aromatic like oil of turpentine. It does not possess its rotary power, and hence its molecular constitution must be altered. Camphine. Ci 8 H 16 by the action of iodine on camphor. Camphine. A commercial name of purified oil of turpentine used for lamps. Camphocrcasotc. By acting on camphor with iodine. Camphogcne. C 20 Hi 4 . Spec. gr. -860, of vapour 4-78. Colourless; B.P. 175 C. ; obtained by distilling Japan camphor with anhydrous phosphoric acid; it occurs naturally in the oil of cummin. Camphogenc Sulphuric Acid. Sulpko- campic Acid. C 20 H 13 S 2 O 5 . Small crystals formed by distilling camphogene with fuming sulphuric acid. Campholene. Ci 8 H lfi . A fluid. B.P. 135 C. Spec. grav. vapour 4-353 ; formed by distilling campholic acid with anhydrous phos- phoric acid, by which it is deprived of 2 atoms water and 2 atoms carbonic oxide. Campholic Acid. C 20 H 17 O 3 HO. Spec. grav. vapour 5-938, B.P. 250 C. F.P. 80 C. formed by passing repeatedly the vapour of cam- phor through soda lime, at 300 to 400 C. (570, 750 F.); the mixture heated with boiling water; on adding an acid it separates in white crystals. Campholone. C 19 H 17 0. A fluid by dis- tilling campholate of lime. Camphor-Anile. C 32 H 19 N0 4 = C 12 H 7 N, 2HO 2C 10 H 7 3 , F.P. 116 Slightly soluble in water ; soluble in alcohol or ether ; by acting with anhydrous camphoric acid on aniline with heat, and adding ammonia to the glacial product in which camphor-anile is insoluble. CamphoranilicAcid. C 32 H 21 lSrO G . Needles dissolved from the preceding glacial mass by ammonia. Camphoric Acid. C 10 H 7 3 HO. F.P. 338, fine transparent plates or needles; taste acid, bitter ; slightly soluble in cold, more soluble in boiling water; very soluble in alcohol and ether, sulphuric and nitric acids ; formed by di- gesting nitric acid on camphor, and applying heat ; when distilled, it yields water and anhy- drous acid, with a spec. grav. of 1-194, F.P. 423 in rhombic prisms. Camphor of Borneo. (Solid'). C 10 H 9 0. G-sided prism with rhombic base. F.P. 388 ; B.P. 414; taste between that of pepper and camphor; heavier than water scarcely soluble in it ; very soluble in alcohol and ether ; heated with auhy- CAN drous phosphoric acid it yields a campherene; obtained from Drydbalonops camphora. Camphor of Borneo. (Fluid). Resembles oil of turpentine. B.P. 320, occurs in the same tree, and appears the same as the preceding cam- pherene ; it occurs in oil of valerian. Camphor of Japan, or Common Camphor. C 10 H 8 0. Spec. grav. -9857 to -996, of vapour 5-317. F.P. 347, B.P. 400. Solid amor- phous body in commerce, with a peculiar smell and burning taste; sublimes when exposed to light, and deposits on the sides of the bottle in 8- hedrons; soluble in 1000 water, nearly equal parts of alcohol, and precipitated by water ; it evaporates more quickly in water than in air moving about on its surface ; soluble in sulphuric acid and nitric acid, without change reprecipi- tated by water ; is obtained by boiling the chip- ped wood of Persea (Laurus) camphora in a still. Camphor, Oil of. C 20 H 1G 0. Spec. grav. 910, B.P. above 212. Clear fluid occurring along with Japan camphor in the tree. Camphorosinc. C 22 H 12 . A substance formed by acting on camphor with iodine. Camphoryle. CioH-fO. A fluid, soluble in alcohol and ether ; insoluble in water ; a pro- duct of distillation of camphorate of lime at a high temperature. Camphovinic Acid, or camphorate of oxide of ethyle. Camphrone. C 30 H 2 iO. B.P. 167 ; colour- less fluid, formed by passing vapour of camphor over red hot lime. Camwood. A red wood from the coast of Africa, used instead of Brazil-wood in dyeing j from Baphia nitida ? Canaanite. Silica 53-36. AU0 3 , 10-38, lime 25-80, Fe04'5, MgOl-62, C0 2 4; probably Scapolite. Canada Balsam. A balsam from the Abies balsamea, much used for fixing microscopic objects on glass. Cancer, Matter of. The cancerous part of the lip was found to consist of fibrinous matter 9-, water 85-, albumen 1-3, glutine -83, extract 1-25, fat 2-7. The ash contained NaCl 10-, NaOS0 3 2-, alkaline phosphate and carbonate 63-88, earthy phosphates 24-. Cancrinc. C 1G H 13 4 ? The colouring mat- ter of crabs. Cancrinite. Rose hexagonal crystals, spec, grav. 2-453, H. 5| to 6-, soluble with efferves- cence in muriatic acid. B.B. fuses to a white vesi- cular glass ; effervesces with microcosmic salt with a siliceous skeleton; silica 40-58, alumina 28-57, lime 20-2, soda 3-5, C0 2 6-4, Cl -89. Ilmeu mountains. Canditc. A variety of spinelle found at Candy, Ceylon. Candles. Well-known instruments for af- fording light, formed of solid oils or fatty sub- stances. There are various kinds. Dip candles are made by dipping the wicks into melted tal- 142 CAN low. Moulded candles are made in a mould. Stearic acid, or stearine, and wax candles, are formed of these bodies. In China vegetable oil is used and obtained from the StilUncjia sebifera. Sperm candles are made of Spermaceti. Compo- sition candles, of various oils, of which cocoa nut oil is one frequently. Parajjine, which by Mr. Young's patent process can now be made in quantity, may also be used. It has been found that the relative consumption of various candles per hour is as follows, expressed in grains : Moulds (10 to the pound) 132 grains per hour; dips (10 to the pound) 150 grains; moulds (8 to the pound) 132 grains; ditto (6 to the pound) 163 grains ; ditto (4 to the pound) 186 grains. Argand oil flame 512 grains (Ure), but the light is much greater with an argand ; 1 argand being equal to the following number of candles in each of the preceding classes : 5-7 candles ; 5^ ; 6- T % ; 5; 3. Camly Sugar. Common sugar candy is obtained in rhomboidal crystals, by inserting strings in a strong solution of purified sugar. The term candy is likewise applied to prepara- tions of molasses and syrup. Cane Sugar. Produced from sugar cane. See SUGAR. Canclline. Needles, with a sweet taste, from canella alba. Caniraniine. (Canis, dog ; and ira, anger), synonyme of Brucine. Canna, Tous le mois. A starch from a species of Canna. Cannabinc. The bitter resin of Cannabis sativa. Canncl Coal. Candle coal, Parrot coal, Gas coal. See COAL. Caimclsteiii. Si0 3 38-8, CaO 31-25, A1 2 O 3 21-2, FeO 6-5. Caimon jTIefal. A species of brass or bronze, is composed of 91 copper, 9 tin. Cantalite. Yellowish-green quartz. Cantharidine. Vesicolorine. Cantharides camphor. Ci H O4. ? White crystalline plates like spermaceti ; insoluble in water but soluble in union with the yellow matter of the Spanish flies ; soluble in hot alcohol ; soluble in ether and oils ; obtained from Lytta vesicatoria, gifjfts, violacea, and other species of insects, by treating their watery extract with ether, and washing the mica- like scales with cold alcohol. From the blister- ing principle being soluble in ether, the improved blistering papers are prepared. Canton's Phosphorus, or Pyrophorus, was prepared by calcining 3 parts oyster shells and 1 flowers of sulphur for an hour in a close vessel. When dropped in the air the sulphide of calcium takes fire. Caoutchcne. C.H. Needles mixed with a yellowish fluid obtained by distilling caoutchouc, and condensing the product by snow. Spec. grav. 65. B.P. 58 (14 J C.); insoluble in water; sol- uble in absolute alcohol and ether. CAP Caoutchine. CsHs. Clear oil, smells of orange oil. Spec. grav. -8433, of vapour 4-461, B.P. 340 ; soluble in absolute alcohol, ether, fat oils, and bisulphide of carbon ; obtained by frac- tional distillation of the oil of caoutchouc between 284, (140C.) and 536, (280C.); shaking the product with dilute sulphuric acid until the acid ceases to be coloured, washing with water and potash ; frequently distilled ; heated with muriatic acid; frequently distilled, and rectified over potas- sium. Caoutchouc, India rubber, Gum elastic. C 8 H 7 . Spec. grav. -9335. Colour pale yellow. F.P. 248 ; soluble in ether, naphtha, and oil of turpentine, fixed and volatile oils, bisulphide of carbon ; by long action in ammonia and alkalies ; it is dissolved and decomposed by sulphuric acid with heat ; decomposed by nitric acid. It is ob- tained in the fonn of a white juice from Siphonia elastica, Cahouchu in South America ; Curceola, elastica in . Sumatra, Java ; Urostigma elastica, Indica and religiosa in India, &c. These trees, when punctured, emit a white juice which is caught in bottles. The fluid caoutchouc is similar to cream hi appearance. Spec. grav. 1011-74. The juice consists of 31 caoutchouc, 56-37 water, 1*9 albumen, 7-13 peculiar azotized matter, sol- uble in water and alcohol. By heat and alcohol the albumen coagulates, while the caoutchouc is suspended as an emulsion. It is prepared in America for exportation by spreading thin layers on a mould and drying each deposit by a smoky fire. Bui if dried without smoke it is yellow in- stead of black or dark coloured. Caoutchouc is employed to remove stains from paper ; to form elastic gas bottles, prepared from sheet caoutchouc by cutting from a block with a peculiar knife worked by machinery, which is kept moist with water. These sheets are most valuable for con- necting pneumatic apparatus and forming rings for various purposes. They are vulcanized by exposing them to the action of sulphur either by immersion or in the form of vapour, sometimes previously dipping them in a salt of lead. Vul- canized India grubber is also made with a mixture of 25 caoutchouc, 5 sulphur, 7 white lead; the first being dissolved in some of the essential oils, and the whole ground together as pigments are. This preparation is used extensively for tubes, &c. as it is more completely elastic, stands a higher tem- perature without melting, and does not stiffen with cold. In solution in coal naphtha, produced by simple trituration, caoutchouc is applied to make cloth waterproof (Macintosh's patent). Caoutchouc, Oil of. Caoutchucine. Co- lourless oil. Spec. grav. -68. B.P. 93, rising to 149. Vapour very heavy ; dissolves caout- chouc, resins, shellac, and amber. Obtained by distilling caoutchouc in iron retorts at 600. The results of the decomposition are caoutchene, boiling at 58 ; heveene. at 600; eupione, at 124 ; . Faradayine, at 91 to 111; caoutchine, at 336. Capacity. A term indicating relative amount, 143 CAP as capacity for heat, or specific heat. Abroad, the expression saturating capacity is used in re- lation to acids and bases. Caphopicrite. A name given to the bitter principle of rhubarb. Capillary Attraction. The tendency which fluids have to be attracted by the sides of the vessels containing them, so that the surface of the fluid is concave and not horizonal. Capnite. Ferrocarbonate of zinc. Capiiomore. (xot,wes, smoke; /u-oi^a,, apart.) Colourless oil, with a smell of rum. Spec, gravity -9775; B.P. 365; fluid at -6 ; insoluble in water, soda ; soluble in alcohol, ether, and eupione ; dissolves caoutchouc, fats, resins, colours; dis- tinguished from creasote and picamar by its taste, insolubility in alkali, and dissolving caout- chouc ; from eupione by spec. grav. and boiling point. Obtained from heavy oil of wood tar, along Avith creasote, picamar, and pittacal, by digesting with caustic potash of 1-2, heating for some time, decomposing by sulphuric acid, and distilling with potash. This process is repeated .several times. The last portions distilled are capnomore. Caporcmmte. A reddish radiated zeolite, allied to chabasite, found at Caporciani, Tuscany, consisting of silica 52-8 ; alumina 21-7 ; soda -2 ; potash 1-1 ; water 13-1 ; MgO -4 ; Fe 2 3 -1 ; lime 11-3. Capraldefeyde, or Capral C 12 H 12 2 . A body accompanying caprone. Capramide. C 20 H 21 ,N0 2 . Brilliant scales by ammonia on caprate of ethyle. F.P. below 212. Capric Acid. C 2 oHi 9 3 HO. Fine needles, smelling of sweat. Spec, gravity -9103 ; F.P. 80 ; it exists in butter, in oil of gram, and is formed by oxidating oil of rue, which is its alde- hyde. It is prepared from butter by taking the less soluble caprate and caprylate of barytes, see BUTYRIC ACID, dissolving in boiling Avater, and filtering, when caprate of barytes falls on cool- ing in minute scales ; when decomposed by sul- phuric acid, the capric acid separates. Caprate of barytes in the air becomes carbonated, and .gives the smell of Roquefort cheese. Caprilyle. C 1C H 15 . A homologue of for- myle. CnproicAcid. C 12 H U 3 HO. Oily fluid, with a smell of sweat. .Spec. graA~. '922. B.P. 390; soluble in 9G parts water; miscible with alcohol, ether, and oils ; soluble in sulphuric and CAR nitric acids ; produces a white spot on the tongue ; obtained from the more soluble barytes salts of the volatile acids of butter; see BUTYRIC ACID; being less soluble than butyrate of barytes, along Avith which it occurs. It occurs in the oxidiza- tion of albumen, oleic acid, and oenanthole, and by treating capronitryle Avith an alcoholic solu- tion of potash; caproates of ethyle, and methyle, have a pine-apple odour. Caprone. CnH^O. A fluid obtained by distilling caproate of barytes. Capronitryle. C 12 H 1L N. By heating potash-sulphate of amyle Avith cyanide of po- tassium. Caprotylaimisie. C^H^N" ? C 19 H 1S NH 3 ? Probably in Dippel's animal oil. Caprotyle. C 12 H 13 . Obtained by the gal- vanic decomposition of renanthylic acid. Capryle. C 20 H 19 OHO. The chief con- stituent of oil of rue. Caprylic Acid. Ci 6 H 15 3 HO. A fat crys- tallizing in needles below 50, giving an odour to butter, obtained from the mother liquor of caprate of barytes, the caprylate of barytes be- ing most soluble ; it is decomposed by sulphuric acid. Caprylonc. C 15 H 15 0. Formed by distil- ling caprylate of barytes. Capsicinc. Crystalline, or a yellow or red- broAvn soft substance, like an oil or resin, evapor- ating when heated, and exciting cough and sneezing ; slightly sohible in water and vinegar ; A r ery soluble in alcohol, ether, oil of turpentine ; combines with barytes ; obtained by heating the alcoholic extract of Capsicum annuum Avith ether. Capnt Mortuum Vitrioli. Coleothar. The red powder left by calcining sulphate of iron. Caramel. C^HgOg. Black powder, sol- uble in water, without imparting a taste; not fermentable ; unites with lead ; forms the basis of sugar ; insoluble in alcohol ; obtained by heat- ing sugar to 410 to 430 ; it is formed in the roasting of coffee and chicory, which contain sugar: it is used to colour Avines, &c. yellow. Carapinc. A bitter w T hite alkaloid (?) from the bark of Carapa guianensis. Carat. A weight employed in estimating the value of the diamond, precious stones, and gold. 156 carats = 1 troy ounce, or 1 carat = 3-077 grains. Gold is estimated, as to purity, in carats ; thus, in gold of 23 carats fine, it is meant that (24 carats indicating perfectly pure gold) ia 24 carats of the sample 23 are pure gold. Caraway, or Carum Carui Oil, is obtained by distilling the seeds of this plant. Spec. grav. 938. B.P. 401. See CARVENE, CARVACROL. Carbamic Acid. Mcarbamide. C 2 Og NH 2 . An acid amidide. Carbamate of M ethyle. Methylane. C 2 II 3 OjCoH^Os- Fine crystals, by acting on pyroxy lie spirit with chlorocarbonic acid, and then on this oily product Avith ammonia. Carbamate of Asisylc. Awylo-urethane. 144 CAR doHnOjCaNHgOs. Crystals by the action of phosgene gas on amylic alcohol, and the addi- tion of ammonia. Carbamide. CONH 2 . White volatile crystals by phosphene gas and ammonia. Carbamide-Carlbaiiilidc. Carbanilamide. C 12 H 7 N,HC 2 N0 2 . Needles by the action of chloride of cyanogen in presence of water. Carbamide Nitrocarbauilide. C 14 H 7 N0 4 N 2 2 . Yellow needles, by treating nitrani- line, chloride of cyanogen, and basic dinitroinelani- line, together. Carbamide of Naphthalidine. C 2 iH s NO. White body, distilling at 300C. ; obtained by distilling oxalate of naphthalidine. Carbauilamide. See ANILAMINE UREA. Carbanilic Acid. C 12 H 7 N, C 2 O 4 . Orange crystals by boiling carbanilamide with potash. Carbauilide. Ci 2 H G N, CO. Satin needles, by phosgene gas on aniline. Carbanilcthaiie. Carbanilate of ethyle. C 18 H n N04. A liquid, by sulphide of anunonium on nitrobenzoate of ethyle. Carbawimethylaaae. C lfi H 9 N0 4 . Similar to the preceding, substituting the rnethyle salt. Carbazotic Acid. See PICRIC ACID. Carbo-methylo-viiiidc Kisulphidc. 8>il- plmretted Carbonate of Ethyle and Methyle. C S II 8 O 2 S 4 . Yellow fluid, by distilling xanthate of potash with potash sulphate of ethyle and methyle. Carbo-vino-methylidc. Carbonate of Ethyle and Methyle, by distilling potash oxalate of ethyle and methyle with compounds containing potash sulphate of ethyle. Carbohydrogen*. A term applied to a series of compounds, in which the amount of carbon and hydrogen in each differs by an equal number of atoms, or by a multiple number, and on this ac- count they are also said to be homologous. Their physical characters are likewise characterized by their amounts of carbon and hydrogen present, which affect particularly then- boiling point. The same relation often exists ha the boiling points of the acids derived from them. Boiling Point. Pyroxylic spirit, CoH 4 2 138 -2 Alcohol, C 4 H r ,0 2 172 -4 Potato spirit oil, C 10 H 12 O 2 275 Formic acid, 210 -2> n . 9 Acetic acid, 244 -4 / Valerianic acid....... 347- 102-6 Every 2 atoms of CH raising the boiling point 34-2. Carbolic Acid. Phenole, Hydrous Oxide of Phenyle. C 12 H 5 O, HO. Colourless oil, or needles, sinking in water. Spec. grav. 1-062, 1-065; B.P. 368; taste caustic and burning; acts on the skin ; closely resembles creasote, but differs in being an acid, in being precipitated by acetate of lead, in not being altered by ammonia or the air, and in being changed by nitric acid into a red-brown matter ; a splinter of fir dipped in carbolic acid and then hi nitric acid becomes blue CAR and brown ; its salts are crystalline. Obtained from that portion of coal oils boiling or distilling between 300 and 400 ; agitating this portion with twice its vol. of caustic potash, and decom- posing by muriatic acid. Carbolic acid may be viewed as the alcohol of phenyleand chlorophenesic (C 12 H 3 C1 2 O, HO), and bromophenesic acids, as bodies hi which chlorine, &c. replace hydrogen. Aniline (C 12 H 5 NH 2 ) is the amide of phenyle. This view connects the products of salicyle, in- digo, &c.; it is also obtained by distilling Cas- toreum canadense; it is poisonous; it may be used like creasote in the treatment of toothache. Carbon. C. -75 ; 6\ Carbon, in the form of wood charcoal, was undoubtedly known in the earliest ages, from its importance as a fuel, and for the reduction of ores. The term coals in Isaiah (liv. 16), 712 years before Christ, obviously refers to charcoal; for although coal is said to have been recently discovered hi Le- banon, it was quite unknown in the earlier ages of the world. The term Carbo, used by the Latin writers (Horace, Suetonius), refers to the same substance, since it was burned in the centre of the room, the Romans having no chimneys. Carbon in various forms occurs widely distributed in nature. It is presented hi the purest form in the diamond, coal gas carbon, and more impure in %>lumbayo, anthracite, wood charcoal, animal charcoal, lamp black, and pitcoal. In union, with oxygen, in the -state of carbonic acid, carbon constitutes an important ingredient hi limestones ; and it enters as a chief element into the forma- tion of all vegetable and animal substances. Ac- cording to Sorby (Brit. Assoc. Rep. 1850, 62), carbon crystallizes in four forms, or is tetramor- phous. Coke has the regular form, but has a different spec. grav. 1*891 from diamond; anthra- cite (1-784), charcoal, and lamp black are square prisms, having nearly the same specific gravity; plumbago 6 -sided prisms (2-3). Carbonic Acid. Gas Sylvestre, Spiritus Sylvestris, Fixed Air (Black, 1754, Thesis), Cal- careous acid (Keir), Aerial acid (Bergman, 1774, Opusc 1, 50), Mephitic acid (Bewdley), Carbonic acid (Lavoisier, 1781.) Vols. Sp. Grav. Atoms. "VVts. Per Cent- Carbon, Q 1 -4234 1 '75 27-69 Oxygen, Q 1 1-10563 2 2- 72-31 1-52903 2-75 100- Calculated sp. grav. z=-5528lX2'75=l-52023, weight of 100 cubic inches, that of ah* being 30-9451 grs. (Regnault) 47-3151 grs. Refracting power 1-526. Source. Carbonic acid exists in atmospheric air to the extent of ^000 of its buUc in calca ~ reous districts it occasionally issues from the earth in considerable quantities, as in the Grotto del Cane at Naples, in the Upas Valley in Java, hi the Pyrmont and Nassau mineral springs, &c. ; and it exists in well waters. 145 CAR Characters. It possesses the mechanical pro- perties of common air, and is destitute of colour ; and when brought in contact with the nostrils a sharp pungent sensation is produced, similar to the effect produced by fermenting liquors. The taste is distinctly sour. It has no effect on aqueous infusion of red cabbage, but it imparts to infusion of litmus a purple-red colour, an effect, however, which speedily disappears by exposing the solu- tion to the open ah* ; the carbonic acid escapes, and the litmus resumes its original tint (Hey, 1772). From the high specific gravity of carbonic acid, it may be poured from a jar like water on a candle so as to extinguish it. Carbonic acid is incapable of supporting combustion, or of burning. Hence, when carbonic acid is poured on a taper, the light is extinguished, Avhile with oxygen the flame is enlarged. It is also irrespirable, and speedily asphyxiates any ani- mal which may be immersed in it ; but when the animal is subjected to long respiration in an atmosphere containing much carbonic acid, poisonous effects are supposed to be produced. If, however, we introduce an animal into an atmos- phere of this gas for a second or two until it ap- pears to be just insensible, and then plunge it into cold water, it instantaneously recovers its sensi- bility, and if a bird it Avill fly from the hand. I was induced to try this experiment from a remark made by that quaint old Scottish traveller Lith- gow, in 1609, in reference to the Grotto del Cane at Naples. This cave is situated in a limestone rock, from which carbonic acid is copiously evolved at the bottom of the cave. The gas, in consequence of its weight, remains principally at the lower part, so that a man entering, having his head above the region of the carbonic acid, is not affected, while a dog is speedily destroyed if not removed in time. Describing the occurrences at that cavern, Lithgow says, " The dog-keeper for an easy composition made trial of his dog, and having tied a string to his hinder leg, he cast the dog scarce half-way in the cave, where imme- diately his tongue hanging out he fell down CAR dead, and forthwith his master repulling him back recast him in the lake, pouring in water in his ears ; but he could never recover his life ; whereupon the poor man cried out, ' Alas, I am undone ! what shall I do, the dog that won my daily bread is dead.' " The oriental fable of the Upas Valley of Java is founded upon the fact of the evolution of large quantities of carbonic acid in a deep dell in that island. Travel- lers describe the neighbourhood of this spot as being strewed at intervals with the osseous re- mains of man and animals. The spirit of eastern romance had in former times ascribed the source of this mortality to the upas tree, which is still celebrated for the poisonous properties of its juices. But it is now ascertained that the lower strata of the atmosphere of the Upas Valley are contami- nated with carbonic acid from a constant source, to such a degree as in some measure to afford coun- tenance to the poetic tale. (Information communi- cated to me by C. Millet, Esq.) The destructive influence of carbonic acid upon animals may be taken advantage of by entomologists for killing butterflies and insects for preservation. It has been foimd that air containing from 5 to 6 per cent, of carbonic acid extinguishes a can- dle, and that life may continue in this atmos- phere ; but that a warm-blooded animal respires with great difficulty, and is seriously affected. In mines it is usual to test the salubriousness of the atmosphere by lowering a lighted candle or lamp. If the lamp is extinguished, the conclusion is drawn that it is dangerous for a human being to enter such a deteriorated atmosphere, while, if the taper continues to burn, it is inferred that the miner may proceed to his work in safety. It has been found that on some occasions a human being has been able to respire where a candle would not bum, but these were accidental cases, which are usually attended by fatal consequences, As plants derive their carbon from the carbonic acid of the air, its presence is essential to vegeta- tion, which thus assists in purifying the air. Ac- cording to Peclet (Ann. Chim. 5, 243), a ward containing 50 patients remaining shut for eight hours, should have a capacity of 50 cubic metres (1763-87 cubic feet) for each individual during the night. The actual quantity which we find allowed in hospitals is under this amount. Thus at the Salpetriere the ration of air granted to each patient is only 1^- cubic metre (52-916 cubic feet) per hour. How much inferior it must be even to this in the houses of some of our ill- ventilated streets it is scarcely necessary to urge. Carbonic acid is .copiously evolved in distilleries and brew- eries iti*'' fermentation, and hence the danger of the atmosphere over a tun. Decomposition. Carbonic acid is not decom- posed by being passed through an ignited porce- lain tube. It is partially decomposed by having electric sparks passed through it, into carbonic oxide and oxygen (Henry), but when the resi- dual carbonic acid is removed by potash, the 146 CAR carbonic oxide and oxygen unite by an electric spark. Equal volumes of carbonic acid and hy- drogen, when passed tlirough a red hot porcelain tube, are converted into carbonic oxide and water. When passed in a dry state over ignited potassi- um, it decomposes, charcoal being deposited (H. Davy). Phosphorus and boron have a similar action (S. Tennant, Gay Lussac.) Preparation. A convenient apparatus for the ,fc=^ 13 preparation of carbonic acid is a Wolfe's bottle and tube, by which the acid may be introduced from time to time ; a number of pieces of marble are introduced into the bottle covered with water, and the acid is poured in by the funnel tube. See PREPARATION OF GASES. Carbonic Acid in Water. Carbonic acid is capable of being dissolved to a considerable ex- tent in water 100 vols. absorbing 107 vols. of gas or water may be said to absorb nearly its own volume of carbonic acid, and Dr. Henry (Phil. Trans. 1803) has shown as a general ex- pression, that water takes up the same volume of compressed carbonic acid as of gas under ordi- nary pressure. Thus if water under common circumstances takes up an equal bulk of carbonic acid, under the pressure of two atmospheres, it will absorb twice its bulk ; under 3 atmospheres 3 times its bulk, and so on : so that by increasing the pressure we may cause water to absorb any amount of carbonic acid. Water thus impreg- nated is freed from the carbonic acid which it may contain by being placed under the exhausted receiver of an air pump by boiling, by freez- ing, or in a great measure by the solution of sugar and salts in the water. It is to the pre- sence of carbonic acid in beer, soda water, cham- paigne, that the pleasant briskness and sparkling character of these beverages is due. Mineral waters, such as those of Selters and Seidlitz, owe their repute to the presence of a large quantity of car- bonic acid in solution, which has been obviously condensed by pressure under the surface of the earth. Imitations of such natural products are, perhaps, of a more agreeable nature, and are familiar to us under the titles of soda water and lemonade. There are* various methods of impreg- nating water with carbonic acid. The apparatus of Nooth is one of the simplest ; but can only be employed on a limited scale. For preparing soda water in the large way, the soda water machine is used, of which there is considerable variety. CAR Soda water was originally prepared with carbo- nate of soda and sulphuric acid, and hence origi- nated the name. It does not now necessarily contain soda, although a small portion of the carbonate of soda is generally added. It is now usually manufactured from chalk or limestone and oil of vitriol, in consequence of the economy of the materials. Although chalk or marble is not soluble in water, yet it can be dissolved to a certain extent in water impregnated with car- bonic acid. It is in this way that magnesia is rendered soluble, and sold in the form of liquid magnesia, as it is termed. The cause of this depends on the formation of a bicarbonate of the base, according to the following scheme : CaO CO 2 insoluble in HO) C0 2 j When water containing carbonate of lime in solution is boiled, a deposit of chalk falls, which, with sulphate of lime deposited by the evapora- tion of the water, gives steam boiler deposits, which may be partially redissolved by muriate of ammonia. Apparatus for the Preparation of Soda Water. Fill B from A with water till nearly full, and screw on A again tight. Unscrew c and fill E nearly full with water; put in the bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid, and screw on c tight, and the machine is then charged. If placed in a warm situation, the action will be instantaneous. A little wine or raspberry vinegar makes a de- licious drink when mixed with the water put into the vessel. The proportions to be used of bi- carbonate of soda and tartaric acid are the same as in an effervescing soda powder. See MINERAL WATERS. Liquid Carbonic Acid. This gas assumes the form of a liqtiid when subjected to sufficient pres- sure and cold (Faraday). Sulphuric acid and carbonate of ammonia were introduced into a strong glass tube, bent at an angle, the ingredients being separated by platinum foil. The tube was then hermetically sealed- The acid was made to act upon the carbonate of ammonia, and the gas evolved was condensed on the clean end of the tube, which was immersed in a freezing mixture. 147 CAR Obtained in this way, carbonic acid is a colour- less liquid, very fluid and light, with a refracting power inferior to water. At 32 its elasticity is equal to 36 atmospheres, specific gravity 0-838. Solid Carbonic Add. Thilorier has succeeded (Ann. Chun. 60, 427) by imitating in the first instance the experiment of Faraday using iron cylinders instead of glass in condensing carbonic acid into a liquid, and then by an ingenious method of causing it to revolve when emitted by the stop-cock round a hollow hemisphere, it vapourizes and produces so much cold as to cause it to condense into a solid form like snow. A more safe and convenient method is to prepare the fluid acid by means of a pump. A strong cylinder of iron &, lined with lead, is filled with pieces of marble through an aperture a at the top. A force pump d draws dilute chlorohydric acid from e in contact with the marble. A stop-cock allows the evolved carbonic acid to pass into the strong iron receiver c, where it condenses into the fluid state. On opening the stop-cock, the fluid passes jn the form of va- pour. When received in Thilorier's receiver it is solid. The temperature of this solid cannot be less than 148. The effect of touching this cold mass with the tongue is remarkable. A sensation of burning is produced, and a blister results ; when mixed with a small portion of ether and mercury, the metal may be frozen in considerable quantity. The elasticity of the vapour of carbonic acid as determined by Mr. Addams is as follows : Temperat. .... Lbs. per square inch. 280 Atmospheres of 1.5 lUs. each. 18-1 10 .... 300 20 80 398 2 (i ") 32 .... 41 3 27-6 50 520 3-J-7 100 9:!. r ) 02-3 150 1490 Liquid carbonic acid is capable of 99-7 mixing in all CAR proportions with oil of turpentine, bisulphide of carbon, alcohol, ether, naphtha ; water and fatty oils are, however, incapable of dissolving it. When in union with alcohol, the compound may be frozen ; it melts'* at 135, probably the lowest temperature ever measured bv the thermometer. Spec. grav. at 20 C. is -90 at C.-83 at 4- 30 C. -60. Analyses of Carbonates. In a quantitative ana- lysis of carbonates, it is usual to estimate the amount of carbonic acid by the loss sustained when a carbonate is acted on by a stronger acid, as sulphuric or chlorohydric acids; the former, from its fixity, is preferable in all cases when the resulting sulphate is soluble in water. Introduce into a light flask about 150 grs. of oil of vitriol, and dilute it -with an equal bulk of water ; weigh out in a small tube 50 grs. of the car- bonate ; suspend it by a thread in the flask, and close the mouth of the flask by a perforated cork and tube filled with chloride of calcium. Then weigh accurately the whole apparatus; allow the tube to descend into the acid, cork tightly, and gradually by agitation allow the acid to act upon the car- bonate in the tube. On the cessation of effer- vescence, heat the flask gently ; release the cork slightly, apply a suction tube to the top of the chloride of calcium tube, and suck out the car- bonic acid; lastly, weigh the apparatus. The loss indicates the amount of carbonic acid in 50 grs. of the carbonate. Carbonsic Oxide. Vol. Spec. Grav. Atoms. Wts. Carbon, 1 Q '4234 I '75 43-38 Oxygen, Q 55281 1 1- 50-62 97021 1-75 100- Calculated spec. grav. = 55281X1*75 = .9G74; refractive power 1-157 (Dulong, Ann. Chim. 31, 166); weight of 100 cubic inches, that of air being 30-9451 grs.=30-2089 grs. Characters. Carbonic oxide is a colourless gas, and possesses the mechanical properties of common air; destitute of taste and smell. It possesses neither acid nor alkaline action on vegetable colours, and is a neutral body. It has not been condensed into a liquid; 100 vols. water absorb 2 of this gas (Davy, Thomson), 3-7 (Dalton), 6 (Saussure). Cold carbonic oxide when ignited gives a blue flame, but Avhen previously heated a yellowish-red flame (Gmelin). In the formation of ball soda, the carbonic oxide evolved in the furnaces gives a yellow flame, due probably to the soda. Ani- mals cannot exist in it, but when immersed in it are immediately asphyxiated. It is one of the most poisonous gases known (Leblanc) when existing in atmospheric air. All gases contain- ing carbon have been found more or less to in- terfere with the natural physiological state when respired. . When mixed with common air it does not explode like hydrogen, but burns brilliantly. 148 CAR A mixture of 2 vols. of this gas with 1 of air explodes feebly by an electric spark, or when iguited by a red hot wire. When 1 vol. of car- bonic oxide is fired with ^ vol. of oxygen, the mixture is converted into 1 vol. carbonic acid; equal vols. of carbonic acid and carbonic oxide contain the same amount of carbon, but in car- bonic oxide the oxygen is only half of that in carbonic acid. A mixture of 1 vol. oxygen and 2 carbonic oxide, when exposed to the action of spongy platinum at the common temperature, is gradually converted into carbonic acid ; while, if the heat be raised to 320, the combination occurs immediately. When carbonic oxide is added in equal proportions to an explosive mixture of oxygen and hydrogen, it prevents the latter from exploding in presence of spongy platinum ; but the gases still act on each other slowly; carbonic acid and water being formed. If the quantity of carbonic oxide is small, detonation occurs on the introduction of the platinum (Henry, Phil. Trans. 1824, 271). Equal vols. of carbonic oxide and hydrogen passed through a red hot tube, give origin to water and the deposition of charcoal. Potassium heated also decomposes it. Preparation. 1. If carbonic acid gas be trans- mitted over red hot charcoal in an iron or porce- lain tube, the gas passing out at the opposite extremity of the tube is twice as bulky as before transmission, and instead of extinguishing a taper, it burns with a blue flame. In this pro- cess the second atom of oxygen in. the carbonic acid unites with an atom of carbon from the charcoal, and there are 2 atoms of carbonic oxide produced. Half the oxygen may be re- moved by passing carbonic acid over ignited iron filings (FeC0 2 = FeO,CO). Carbonic acid. 75 1- 1- COO Charcoal. 75 C CO CO 1-75 1-75 carbonic carbonic oxide. oxide. CAR 2. When oxide of zinc and charcoal are ig- nited in an iron bottle, or gun barrel, carbonic oxide is produced (Priestley, 1800). In the same way, oxides of iron, lead, or copper may be employed ; but by this process carbonic acid is likewise evolved : ZnO CO Carbonic oxide evolved. 3. When 3 parts of carbonates of lime, barytes, or strontian are ignited in an iron bottle with 1 part of charcoal, carbonic oxide is evolved in abundance (Ca OC0 2 , C=CaO, 2 CO), and the caustic earths are left. Iron filings may be substituted for the charcoal (CaOC0 2 Fe = CaO, CO,FeO). Any carbonic acid present may be removed by lime water, or milk of lime. 4. When oxalic acid and oil of vitriol are heated in a retort or flask, the acid removes water from the oxalic acid, and equal volumes of carbonic oxide and carbonic acid are evolved, from which the carbonic acid may be removed by an interme- diate vessel containing milk of lime, or caustic soda, or by standing over water, if required ; but with- out this precaution the blue colour of the oxide flame can be distinguished (Dobereiner, Arm. Chun. 1821, 19, 83). Oxalic acid. Sulphuric acid. 1-75 2-75 3-375 5 1-125 CO, C0 5 3 HO SO S HO CO 1-75 carbonic C0 2 S0 3 4 HO oxide. 2-75 carbonic 5 sulph. 4-5 water, acid. acid. Binoxalate of potash, or oxalate of ammonia, may be substituted for the oxalic acid. The latter yields prussic acid also. (?) In these pro- cesses the carbonic acid may be absorbed in an intermediate vessel, containing milk of lime or 149 CAR caustic soda (ib. 84). Dumas recommends the binoxalate (An. Chim. 33, 110, 1826). 5. An- other method pointed out by Dr. T. Thomson (Ann. Phil. 12, 103, 1818, Inorgan. Chem. 1831, 2, 251) of procuring this gas is to pour sulphuric acid upon the ferrocyanide of potassium (yellow prussiate), and apply heat. Carbonic oxide passes over in abundance. Practical Applications. Car- bonic "oxide is formed in many cases of intense ignition, in presence of carbon, at the ex- pense of carbonic acid, as in lime kilns, where it may be distinguished by its delicate blue flame. It appears also when glowing coke or charcoal is bunied in a furnace. The blue flame in these cases, which is popularly attributed to sulphur, is due to carbonic acid generated in the lower strata in contact with the air passing through the ig- nited coal. In smelting iron by the hot blast process, hot atmospheric air is brought in con- tact under great pressure with coal in a state of incandescence. The formation of carbonic acid is the first result. The gas passing upwards through the heated mass of carbonaceous matter, takes up an additional dose of carbon, and is converted into carbonic oxide. Carbuncle. The ancient name of the pre- cious garnet. Carburets, Carbides. Compounds of car- bon with the metals and simple bodies. Carburetted Hydrogen. Fire Damp (1640), Heavy Inflammable Air (Priestley), Marsh Gas, Light Carburetted Hydrogen, Bihydroguret of Carbon, Dicarbide of Hydrogen, and Proto-car- bonated Hydrogen. Vols. Carbon, 1 o Hydrog. 2 Q Spec. Grav. Ats. Wts. P.ct. Wt.of lOOc.i. 4234 -4166 1 "75 75 1T ., 7 , T 1384 -1384 2 '25 25 = 17 1747 S rs - 5618 '5550 100 Experimental specific gravity '5555 (Thomson) ; 556 (Henry). Symbol, CH 2 = 1- or 8. Theo- retical spec. grav. '5528 X 1 = '5528. From the want of knowledge of the exact specific gravity of the vapour of carbon there is a discrepancy between the per centage composition deduced from the spe- cific gravity and from the atomic weight. History. This gas is mentioned in the Phil. Trans. (1677) as having been observed in mines as early as 1640. Dr. Franklin, in a letter to Priestley, in 1774, mentions that in America it had been ob- tained by stirring stagnant pools with a stick, and that it had been fired. Dr. Priestley was previous to this unacquainted with it (On ah-, 1, 321). Dr. Dalton and Dr. Thomson first accurately examined it (Wernerian Trans. 1811, 1, 506). Characters. A colourless gas, possess- ing the mechanical properties of common air; destitute of taste and smell; refracting power 1-504 (An. Chim. 31, 266). According to Per- kins, it liquefies under a pressure of 1200 atmos- pheres (Phil. Trans. 1826, 544). It is a neutral body, since it does not change vegetable blues, and forms no compounds with acids or bases. It 150 CAR burns with a yellow flame ; and exists in coal gas, although its illuminating power is ' con- tested; it requires a white heat to inflame it. This is illustrated by the well-known fact of steel mills being formerly employed in mines, which threw off red hot sparks sufficient to sup- ply light, but not to explode the gas. It is upon analogous principles that the Davy lamp is constructed. Davy found that if he ignited this gas at one extremity of a very narrow metallic tube, and if at the other end there was an explo- sive mixture of carburetted hydrogen and air, the interior of the tube being quite free, the flame never could pass along the tube to the ex- plosive mixture, but was so cooled that the temperature always subsided far below the degree required to ignite the explosive mixture. He found that wire gauze might be substituted for tubes ; and hence that wire gauze is a network of capillary metallic tubes. If a lamp be con- structed of wire gauze, the car- buretted hydrogen may pass from the exterior air through the gauze into the lamp, and be ignited, but the flame will not pass from the interior of the lamp to the exter- nal air so as to ignite an atmos- phere of carburetted hydrogen. The influence of wire gauze in checking the progress of flame may be illustrated by taking a piece of gauze, and holding it across a candle or lamp, when it will be found that the flame will not perforate the metallic meshes. If held over a gas lamp before ig- nition, so as to allow the gas to stream through the interstices, and if the gas be then lighted, the flame will be found never to descend below the gauze, unless the gas be forced through the gauze under pressure. For a similar reason an explosive mixture of carburetted hy- drogen and oxygen is not acted upon by spongv platinum, even at 555 (Henry). Cylinders of iron, covered over the top with wire gauze, are used in the laboratory for the purpose of obtain- ing a blue flame, which does not smoke, by a proper intermixture with air. The number of apertures in the gauze generally used in Davy lamps amounts to from 625 to 800 in the square inch. The principal accidents have occurred in CAR the use of the Davy lamp not from any error in its principle, but from the carelessness of the miners. The security of the lamp is increased by immersing the gauze in caustic alkali. When an animal is immersed in this gas, insen- sibility is produced. " I once accidentally inhaled it; being anxious to empty a gas-holder filled with it as quickly as possible, I applied my mouth to the stop-cock to draw it out. After two or three inhalations, I fell insensible on the floor, but recovered again in about twenty minutes, without feeling any bad effects whatever, except a slight headache, which soon went off" (T. Thomson). Accidents of this kind frequently occur in gas works, but seldom prove fatal. Car- buretted hydrogen is, therefore, an anaesthetic. When passed through chlorochromic acid, it carries the latter with it in vapour, and when fired, sesquioxide of chromium is deposited on a funnel held over the flame. Prepara- tion. 1. Carburetted hydrogen may be pro- cured" by inverting a bottle or jar filled with water in a stagnant pool, supplied with an in- verted funnel, and stirring under the mouth of the bottle the bottom of the pool with a stick. The gas bubbles up into the bottle. It contains from this source some carbonic acid, which may be removed by caustic soda, or lime water, or prolonged washing with water. 2. It may be obtained by passing the vapour of alco- hol through a red hot porcelain tube; carburetted hydrogen and carbonic acid pass over. 3. When coal is ignited in a close vessel the principal pro- ducts are tar, water, &c. ; and gases not absorbed by water containing 70 per cent, of carburetted hydrogen. The experiment may be made as in CAR the prefixed figure. A tube closed at one end is half filled with pounded coal, and united to a tube with a capillary opening. Heat being ap- plied, the gas passes out and may be collected under water or ignited. It varies in quality ac- cording to the heat applied, and to the quality of the coal. When the gas is passed through a red hot tube, it is obtained more free from foreign mixture. 4. Acetate of potash and soda when heated Avith hydrate of potash or barytes yield carbonic acid which unites with the base, and carburetted hydrogen which may be collected pure (Perzoz). NaO, C 4 H 3 3 HO + NaO be- come NaO C0 2 NaO C0 2 and 2 CH 2 , or 4 parts acetate of soda, 40 solid potash, and GO quick- lime, heated in a glass retort, yield the same gas (Dumas). The soda is dissolved in a small quantity of water, and the lime is added in pow- der so as to form a paste. 5. This gas is found abundantly in deep coal mines, from whence it sometimes escapes by an aperture in the earth, as at one time at Bedlay, near Curnbernauld ; near Lake Erie ; at Bakou in Persia ; perhaps in Lycia giving rise to the chimsera of the ancients. It frequently accompanies artesian springs, as at Dalmarnock. Composition. When mixed with oxygen and fired by electricity, carburetted hydrogen explodes if the bulk of the oxygen prevails over that of the gas, and the detonation is prevented if the amount of oxygen surpasses that of the gas two and a-half times. When mingled with common air in the proportion of 1 gas to 7 or 8 common air, the mixture is capable of exploding most powerfully. With 3 or 4 times its bulk of air it does not detonate, and with 5 or G times its bulk it explodes in a slight degree. In any proportion between 7 and 14 times its bulk of common air it explodes. To bum it completely, 2 vols. of oxygen are required for every vol. of carburetted hydrogen, when it is resolved into its own volume of carbonic acid and into water. The action when fired with oxygen, will be as represented, vol. of oxygen and 1 of hydrogen forming water Carbon. Hydrogen. Oxygen. C HH OO By vols. C HH 00 00 By atoms. C0 2 Carbonic acid. 2 (HO) Water. When mixed with chlorine and water and exposed to the action of light, the carburetted hydrogen is gradually converted into carbonic acid, while the chlorine unites with the hydrogen and forms chlorohydric acid ; 4 vols. chlorine are required to decompose 1 vol. carburetted hydro- gen ; 2 vols. hydrogen are supplied by the car- buretted hydrogen, and 2 vols. by the water (4 Cl, CH 2 2 HO = C0 2 4 HC1) ; an acid fluid is thus'forined (Cruickshanks). With 3 vols. 151 CAR chlorine a violent explosion occurs, chlorohydric acid being formed and carbon deposited. When the chlorine is allowed to act less powerfully by diluting it with its bulk of carbonic acid, and is passed through tubes into carburetted hydrogen, an oily liquid, bichloride of carbon (CC1 2 or C 2 C1 4 ), is formed, and by the continued action of chlorine the following series is obtained from pyroxylic spirit, which may be viewed as 2 atoms carburetted hydrogen (Dumas): Carburetted hydrogen, or methylene, C 2 H 4 Chloride of methylene, C 2 H 3 Cl ~ Bichloretted methylene, C 2 H 2 C1 2 Terchloretted methylene or chloro- form, C 2 H C1 3 Chloride of carbon, CoCl 4 Applications. As this gas is very prejudicial in coal mines, not only from the danger of ex- plosions which its mixture with the atmosphere is apt to produce, "but also from its unwholesome nature in respiration, it has been recommended that it should be absorbed by means of bleach- ing powder. According to Dumas, if 6 or 8 Ibs. of chloride of lime be spread at night in an en- closed space containing the gas, in the morning the whole of the noxious gas will be found to have disappeared. But the true mode of re- moving all these dangerous agents to human life is by a proper system of ventilation in mines; because a Davy lamp, although it may prevent the poor miner from being instantly destroyed by an explosion, does not afford any precaution against a slow death from improper oxidation of the blood by the constant respira- tion of an atmosphere foreign to the animal sys- tem, instead of a pure mixture of oxygen and nitrogen in the natural proportions. For the purpose of drawing out the bad air mechanically, and thus properly ventilating the mine, various contrivances have been recommended. The method of Desaguiller is to extract the foul ah- by means of a fan as represented, which may be driven either by the hand or by machinery. Carbothialdiiie. C S H 5 NS 2 . Brilliant crystalline base, by the action of bisulphide of carbon on an alcoholic solution of aldehyde am- monia. Carbylc. CH. A base supposed to exist in 152 CAR the combination of sulphuric acid, when anhy- drous sulphuric acid is allowed to be absorbed by absolute alcohol ; sulphate of carbyle results = CH SO 3 . Carbylosulpfauric Acid. Aethionic Acid. S 4 , C 4 H 5 , 13 . An acid liquor obtained by dissolving sulphate of carbyle in water. The aethionic acid of Magnus is a mixture of hypo- sulphate of ethyle and carbylosulphuric acid. Cardamom Oil. C 10 H 8 . From the seeds of Alpinia (Ellettaria) cardamomum ; Amomum repens. Spec. grav. -943. Cardolc. C 42 H 3 i0 4 . Spec. grav. -978. Yellow fluid from the liquor from wliich anacardic acid has been separated by protoxide of lead. Caries. A disease of bones and teeth where bone earth is deficient. See TEETH. Carinthinc. A green hornblende from the Sau Alpe, Carinthia. Carinfliitc. A synonyme of Molybdate of lead. Carminic Acid. C 28 H 14 1C . Pxirple- brown mass, the colouring matter of cochineal (Coccus cacti), soluble in alcohol and water; slightly soluble in ether; decomposes above 136C. ; obtained by precipitating an aqueous de- coction of cochineal with acetate of lead, and decomposing the washed carminate by sulpho- hydric acid; evaporating to dryness and dissolving in absolute alcohol, digesting the alcoholic solu- tion with carminate of lead, and lastly precipitat- ing the last trace of nitrogenous matter with ether. Carmine. The older name for carminic acid; commercially, the name is applied to a combination of cochineal with alumina, prepared by boiling 1 Ib. cochineal for a few minutes in a gallon of water, adding T L of alum and boiling for a few minutes ; the liquid is passed through fine sieves into porcelain vessels, where it is allowed to deposit. In a few days, a deposit of fine carmine takes place, and an additional quantity of inferior quality falls after some time longer. Carmindinc, BibromMe of. C 64 H 15 Ny 10 Br 8 . Carmufclic Acid. C 24 H 20 32 . A crys- talline body from cloves by nitric acid. Carnelian. A white and red variety of quartz from Surat. Carol in ke. A synonyme of nepheline. Caroline. Ruby crystals from the juice of carrot (JDaucus carota) by ether. Carpholite. See KARPHOLITE. Carragheen. Irish Moss. The Chondrus crispus of the British and other shores. When the lichen is boiled in water, a solution is formed, which on cooling becomes gelatinous from the presence of a substance analogous to pectic acid. On examination, I have found the aqueous ex- . tract to be mixed with albuminous matter to the extent of 9-87 per cent, and to contain about 20 per cent, of ash, which accounts for its nu- CAR tritive power. It is used for preparing blanc mange and puddings, and is probably much superior to arrowroots. Carrot. The root of the Daucus carota. It contains 32 per cent, of sugar before and ll per cent, after roasting. It is frequently used to adulterate coffee ; but may be distinguished by its cells, which are small and very thin-sided. t&bo&er.J Dotted, barred, and spirally marked tubes occur abundantly among the cells, and are smaller than those of turnip and chicory. Boiled in weak caustic potash they give out the smell of carrots. Scarce any starch is present. Carthaminc. A dark red powder or needles, insoluble in water and dilute acids, slightly sol- uble in alcohol and ether; alkalies destroy its colour ; obtained by exhausting safflower (Car- ihamus tinctorius) with cold water and acetic acid to remove the yellow-colouring matter. The flowers are then treated with water containing some carbonate of soda in solution, and the car- thamine precipitated by an acid ; citric acid is to be preferred. Cartilage. See CIIONDRIXE. Carvacrole. C 40 H. 2K S . A colourless oil, heavier than water. B~.P. 232C. ; soluble in spirit, ether, and potash; obtained in the pre- paration of carvene. Carvcnc. CioHs- Colourless fluid, lighter than water. B.P. 343. (173C.) Spec grav. vapour 5-175 ; obtained by distilling oil of cara- ways (Carum carni"), over hydrous phosphoric acid, until the distilled liquid loses the smell of caraways; carvene distils over, carvacrole re- mains. CaryophyKic Acid. Eugenic Acid. C 2 4 H 15 5 . Spec. grav. 1-079, B.P. 469; colour- less oil, tasting and smelling of cloves, forms a blue with iron from an alkaline solution ; separated from oil of cloves by distilling with caustic potash ; carryophyllate of potash remains. A light oil, of spec. grav. ^IS^omericwithcamphene^oN^), passes over. Caryophylline. C 20 H 10 2 . Silky crys- tals, insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol, ether, without taste and smell, volatile ; obtained from cloves by boiling alcohol. Cascarilla. The bark of the Croton eleuteria or cascarilla, yields a volatile oil, bitter resin, CAS and cascarilUne, a bitter matter. The oil is pro- bably a caniphene. Case Hardening. The process of render- ing the exterior of keys, &c. hard by heating them for an hour or two at a low red heat in a forge, wrapt in a paste of horns, hoofs, chopped hair, bone shaving, &c. and the whole enveloped in clay. Caseic Acid. See APOSEPEDINE. Caseine, Curd, Caseum. S9N 36 C9g 8 H 228 . 90 C=53-6, H=7-l, N=15-8, 6 22-68=0-9. Coagulated caseine, when pure and dry, is hard, translucent, and yellowish; when pulverized, it is a yellowish- white powder ; in water it soften^ and swells, but does not dissolve ; soluble iijt strong oil of vitriol, and is reprecipitated by water; soluble in nitric and muriatic acids, the colour becoming blue with the latter above GO . Solu- tions of caseine in acids, excepting in phosphoric and arsenious acids, are precipitated by yellow prussiate of potash ; caserne is soluble in boil- ing alcohol, the excess precipitating as the solu- tion cools ; this property appears to depend on. the presence of an alkali ; all mineral acids, except trisphosphoric acid, coagulate caseine, uniting with it ; the precipitate produced by acetic acid is soluble in excess of acid, but on the addition of a mineral acid again precipitates. In dilute solutions, mineral acids do not precipitate caseine ; but lime water immediately produces a coagulum. The compounds of caseine with acids are soluble in weak acetates of soda and potash by heat. Caseine is very soluble in potash, soda, and am- monia ; with earth and metallic oxides, as mag- nesia and oxide of zinc, it forms insoluble com- pounds. Caseine is precipitated from its solutions by all salts excepting those of potash, soda, and ammonia. Caseine decomposes in its aqueous- solution into ammoniacal products, aposepedine, &c. ; its compounds with acids are more perma- nent. The sulphate of caseine changes into aposepedine, sulphate of ammonia, &c. In oil of vitriol, caseine swells up and gelatinizes, and. when washed with water it contains 8-4 per cent, sulphuric acid; nitric acid forms xan- tlwprotdc add (?); strong chlorohydric forms an indigo-blue solution, forming salammoniac and a brown matter; aqueous solutions of caseine are precipitated by tincture of nutgalls. Caseine exists in the milk of mammalia, and in many edible vegetables, as in potatoes, beans, pease, and leguminous plants generally, &c. and is a highly nutritive body. It is distinguished from albumea and fibrine by not coagulating, either spontane- ously or by heat, and by forming a pellicle when its solution is evaporated. The products of the oxidization of caseine are, acetic aldehyde, meta- cetonic aldehyde, butyric aldehyde, acetic, buty- ric, benzoic, cyanohydric, metacetonic, caproic, formic, valerianic acids, oil of bitter almonds, and valeronitrile. It has been asserted that albumen and caserne are identical, but this is not strictly accurate, for it is only the fibrine of flesh and 153 CAS albumen of blood that are identical; the albumen of eggs differs from these, since it contains for the same amount of the other elements one-half more sulphur ; it is certain that this sulphur must be separated when the albumen of eggs is con- verted into the albumen of blood. Caseine ex- hibits a similar, but reversed relation ; for the same amount of sulphur it contains more carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen than the albumen of blood ; and it is absolutely certain, that a com- pound containing carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen must be separated from this constituent of milk when it is converted into albumen of blood in the body of the young animal. From various consi- derations we may conclude, that the nutritive value of the caseine of milk is greater for the child and less for the adult than that of albumen ; for it is certain that nature requires and applies to certain purposes in the body of the young animal the excess of the elements which caseine contains be- yond those of albumen, and that these objects have no longer any importance on the adult animal {Liebig). Process. Caseine is obtained from milk, by coagulating the milk by means of a few drops of acetic, or chlorohydric, or sulphuric acids, or alcohol, throwing the curd on a cloth filter, washing away the excess of acid by water, dissolving the curd in a weak solution of an al- kaline carbonate, precipitating by an acid, washing the precipitate, and repeating these processes once or twice. As caseine is soluble in water, too much washing is not admissible. Vegetable caseine may be obtained from potatoes and pease, &c. by digestion in water and coagulation, &c. as de- scribed. Cassava. The starch of the root of the Ja- tropha manihot is so named in the W. Indies. Cassia Oil, or oils of cinnamon and senna. Cassiteritc. Native binoxide of tin, or tin- stone. Cassitcros. The Greek name for tin. Cassius, Purple of. Goldpurpur, Gr. AuOSn 2 O 3 . (?) The composition of this purple pigment is somewhat doubtful; it appears to con- tain about 39-82 per cent, of metallic gold; but as it is formed by adding a solution of protochlo- ride or bichloride of tin, in the proportion to form a sesquichloride of tin to a sesquichloride of gold, the above formula is perhaps accurate. For the methods of preparing gold purples, see PURPLE. Castinc. A bitter crystalline body, obtained by alcohol from the seeds of Vitex agnus castus. Castor. An animal substance from the beaver (Castor fiber), contained in a bag between the genitals and anus of both sexes. It contains 43 per cent, of oil and resin. ' Castor from Elba. A mineral containing 78 silica, 19 alumina, 2-76 lithia, and a trace of potash and soda. Castoric Acid. The crystalline product of the action of nitric acid on castorine. Castoriite. Crystalline body from castor, by alcohol. 154 CAT Castor Oil. A colourless slightly-tasted oil, of spec. grav. -9575, at 77, B.P. 509; soluble in alcohol and ether in all proportions ; its solu- bility in alcohol distinguishes it from all other fixed oils ; it is obtained by expressing or boiling the seeds of the East and West Indian Ricinus communis, which contain about one-fourth their weight of oil. Water removes various impuri- ties, and a fermenting principle. Cold-drawn castor oil is oil which has stood in contact with cold water. When distilled, it yields a volatile oil, like acroleine ; by saponification, ricinic, rici- noleic, ricinostearic acids ; by nitrous ac\d. palmine and palmic acid ; by nitric acid, osnanthylic acid. It is used extensively as a mild purgative. Catalysis. (**T, from; *vu, I loose;) a term sometimes used to denote a class of phenomena in which apparently the characters of a substance are changed by the contact of another ; thus starch in contact with sulphuric acid is changed into sugar, a body of the same composition. Catalysotype. Photographic paper prepared with water containing 2 drops of chlorohydric acid to 3 ounces of water. After drying with filter- ing paper, it is laid upon thin gum water in which Jp of iodide of iron is dissolved, and 1 or 2 drops of tincture of iodine to each ounce. On drying it is laid on a solution of nitrate of silver 1 part to 4 parts water. Catechiiic. Catechuic acid, Tanningenic acid. C2oHioOg. White crystals, soluble in hot water, alcohol, and ether, dilute mineral and acetic acids. F.P. 422 (217 C.); precipitates sesquichloride of iron green, lead salts white, sulphate of iron green; obtained by extracting Bengal catechu with cold water, which takes lip mimotannic acid and leaves catechine and tannic acid. The latter are boiled in 8 times their weight of water. Catechine separates on cooling. By reso- lution, and treatment with animal charcoal, it is purified ; by distillation it yields pyrocatechine. C C H 3 2 , in scales fusing at 259. Catechu. (Cate, a tree ; chu, juice.) Cachou, Fr. Terra Japonica, Cutch. An extract from different trees in India. The trees are felled; the interior coloured wood in chips is boiled with water in an earthen pot, and the decoction evapo- rated in the sun. Three kinds of catechu occur n commerce. 1. Bombay catechu. Spec. grav. 1'39, taste astringent, from the Areca catechu or palm, by boiling the fruit; dark reddish- brown masses, with a shining fracture, almost all soluble in boiling water ; contains 54-5 per cent, of tannic acid, which may be ascertained by dissolving a certain weight of glue in hot water, and adding the solution from an alkalimeter. The other constituents are : Extract 34', mucilage 6-5, inorganic matter 5-. 2. Bengal Catechu. Sp. grav. 1-28. Choco- late-coloured pieces from Acacia catechu, leaving a large residue Avith cold water ; by boiling almost entirely taken up the solution containing less CAT tannic acid and more catechu than Bomba; catechu. It contains tannin 48, extract 36, mu cilage 8, resin 7. 3. Gambir, from the Nauclea (Unearia) gambir in pieces of 1 to 11 inch thick, of a brownish yellow colour ; fracture even, with shining points slightly soluble in cold, almost completely solubl in boiling water. Catechu of all kinds is nearly all soluble in alcohol. It is used as an astringen in medicine, and for producing different shades o brown in calico printing. Cathartiiie, Sitter of Senna. Neutral dark red, uncrystalline body; has a peculiar odou and bitter nauseous taste; soluble in water an< alcohol ; insoluble in ether ; obtained from the de coction of senna leaves by the usual process fo bitter principles. Catliiiite. Spec. grav. 2-54, H 1-5, SiO 48-2, A1 2 3 28-2, MgO 6-, CaO 2-6, Fe 2 3 5- MnO -6, HO 8-4. A red mineral from the Sioux country, North America, used for tobacco pipe, by the Indians. Specimens sent to me proved t( be claystone porphyry. Cat's Eye. A gray, greenish, or reddish variety of opal or fibrous quartz, interspersed with thin filaments of asbestus, presenting, when cut, a peculiar opalescent appearance. Cave. The space under the fire of a potter) furnace. Cavear. The salted roe of Accipenser huso, or sturgeon. Cuvolinite. A synonyme of nepheline. Cawk, (Chalk). Massive opaque sulphate oj barytes, in lead mines. Cecerite, or Cerite. Cedrene. C 32 H24, B.P. 478 (248C.), spec, grav. -984, of vapour 7-9. Aromatic, peppery fluid, obtained by distilling cedrole with anhy- drous phosphoric acid, and then over potassium. Cedrinc. A bitter, neutral, silky crystalline body, by ether and alcohol, from the fruit of the jSimaba cedron, in New Granada. Cedrircte. Red needles ; insoluble hi water, alcohol, and ether ; forms a blue with pure sul- phuric acid, purple with creasote; obtained by distilling beech tar, saturating the distilled oil with carbonate of soda and caustic soda ; sepa- rating from insoluble part; neutralizing with acetic acid, and then distilling. Cedrole. C 32 H 2 42HO, F.P. 165, B.P. 5391, specific grav. of vapour 8-4. Silky needles, the soluble part of oil of juniper (Juniperus Virgini- ana), by pressure and alcohol. Celestiiie, or sulphate of strontian. Cellular Tissue, in plants and animals, con- sists of spaces surrounded with walls ; composed CEL in animals of nitrogenous, and in plants of non- nitrogenous membrane (cellulose). Cellulose, or Celluline. C 12 H 10 O 10 . lAgnw* of Front. C 44-8, H 6-2, O 50-. The idea now generally entertained by physiologists is that plants and animals originally exist in the form of a cell or vesicle, which is filled with fluid containing the elements for the production of other cells, and that these vesicles possess an absorptive power through their sides by which they can acquire new matter from without, and deposit it on the inter- nal sides of the cells, or form new organs of a similar description. But the nature of the sub- stance constituting the walls of the cells is quite different in the two kingdoms. Vegetable cellulose possesses the same composition as starch, or three elements, and is convertible into dextrine; it is not acted on by acetic acid and ammonia, and is very little altered by potash or soda. When distilled, it gives acid products. Animal cellulose, on the contrary, contains, besides carbon, hydro- gen, and oxygen, a fourth element, nitrogen, and is often acted on by ammonia or acetic acid, and always by soda and potash ; and when distilled it affords ammoniacal products. The following is the comparative amount of nitrogen in different animal envelopes : Skin, .20 uxviu, ^u v per ct. Nitrogen. Crustacea and insects) Q (Chitine), f y Envelope of Tunicata, 4 5 Vegetable cuticle, 2 to 2.5 Preparation of Cellulose. This substance is ob- tained in its purest form from cotton and linen. These substances are first to be washed with cold and then with hot water. They are then digested in a solution of caustic soda for two or three hours, at a boiling temperature ; then placed in water, and a current of chlorine passed through it; after which the cellulose is digested in caustic soda. It 5 then washed with water, acetic acid, boiling ,vater, ether, and alcohol, and lastly dried in -acuo at 212. To extract cellulose from wood, t is necessary to pulverize it in the first place, and then to pound it into a paste with water. The paste is then heated in an oil bath with five imes its weight of caustic soda, and the solution vaporated to dryness. It is then treated with hlorine, or a solution of chloride of lime, and vashed with dilute chlorohydric acid. The hlorine acts by attacking the superficial layers f the substance, and thus destroys the adhe- ion of all foreign bodies. In a saturated solu- ion of bleaching powder, paper pulp, when .eated, gives' out carbonic acid ; the cellulose isagregates, burns, and disappears. It exists n certain animals, as Phallusia and Cynthiapapil- ata. Properties. Cellulose is white, solid, diapha- ous, insoluble in cold water, alcohol, ether, fixed nd volatile oils; its specific gravity is 1-525. t can sometimes be easily disagregated by boil- ig water, and the resulting substance possesses 155 GEL the characters and composition of dextrine. S trong sulphuric and phosphoric acids attack cellulose without heat, and render it soluble in water, and capable of being precipitated by alcohol. They convert it into starch, then into dextrine, and then into sugar. Caustic soda causes it to swell up, and acts upon it in a superficial manner. It is in this way that the effect is produced iu bleaching. Sulphuric, phosphoric, chlorohydric, and nitric acids, when very dilute, do not dissolve it. Nit- ric acid, in a concentrated state, produces first dextrine, and then xyloidine, which may be pre- cipitated by water. Iodine has no effect upon cellulose, except in some cryptogamous plants, where a violet tint is produced a character by which cellulose in this class of plants seems to approximate to starch. The sporules of some mushrooms produce a violet with iodine, and hence they appear to contain cellulose. Dextrine. To obtain dextrine, we triturate in a mortar 100 parts of charpie with 140 parts sul- phuric acid, added drop by drop, and stir until the mixture is formed into a gummy mass, then dilute with water, and saturate with chalk or barytes. The liquid is then filtered and concen- trated ; it is then precipitated and washed with alcohol. The product is dissolved in water and filtered, and the liquor contains dextrine possess- ing the same composition as cellulose, and being capable of being turned into grape sugar by sul- phuric acid, and heat, and in every respect re- sembling a similar product from starch. Xyloidine, or 'Nitramidine. When cellulose is treated with strong nitric acid, it dissolves, com- bining with an atom of nitric acid. When water is added, this compound precipitates. If allowed to stand for some days, the precipitate disappears, and by evaporation, a new acid, deliquescent, white, and solid, remains. Xyloidine is very combustible ; at the temperature of 356 it takes fire, and burns, leaving but a scanty residue. M. Pelouze has in consequence recommended it for the pur- pose of forming matches for the artillery. It can be easily made by plunging a piece of paper into nitric acid, of spec. grav. 1-5, and allowing it to remain for a few minutes. It may then bo taken out and dipped in water, when it forms, after drying, a parchment impermeable to mois- ture, and of extreme combustibility. Its compo- sition is Xyloidine, C 12 H 9 10 , or C 12 H 9 9 N0 4 N0 5 an atom of the hydrogen of the cellulose being replaced by an atom of nitrous vapour. Nitric acid, when boiled with cellulose, produces oxalic acid. Soda or potash, when boiled with cellulose, displaces hydrogen, and oxalic acid remains in combination with the soda or potash. Chloro- hydric acid, when boiled with cellulose, acquires a red colour, which alters to brown, and the liquid blackens, but does not dissolve. See GUN COTTOX. Ccllulo.se Aiiimnl. The cellular tissue of animals resolved by boiling into gelatine. CER Ccllulostasc. C 63-15, II 21-65, 15-15, N-05. Cement. A term applied to various kinds of hydraulic mortars, &c. Natural, or Roman Cement, consisting of lime- stone and siliceous clay. On calcination and mix- ture with water it hardens, becoming carbonate and silicate of lime. Mastic, or Artificial Stone, consisting of sand r limestone, litharge, and linseed oil. Asphalt Cement, formed by mixing coal asphalt with sand and chalk, or with powdered iron slag. Cementation. The process by which carbon unites with the particles of iron to convert it into steel, by making its way from one atom to another, from the exterior to the interior of an iron bar, by a series of combinations or replacements. Cciitaurinc, Cnicine. A bitter substance, from Carduus benedictus root by ether. Cephalote. An impure form of cerebric acid. Ceraic Acid. C2oH 2 o0 3 . A body said to- exist in white wax, accompanying myricine. Ceraine. The saponifiable portion of cerine. Ceraniic Acid. Granular crystals by alco- hol, from the fuel in an antique lamp of the 4th century. Ccrasinc. C^HnOn- Spec. grav. 1-469 to 1-530. Solid, tasteless ; insoluble in cold water and in alcohol ; unfermentable. By boiling with water it is changed into arabine ; it is the principal con- stituent of cherry tree gum, and of various spe- cies of prunus ; it is obtained by digesting these gums in water; arabine dissolves and cerasine remains. When heated with nitric acid, it yields mucic and oxalic acids. This gum is of no value. See GUM. Cerasitc. (s?f, horn). Chlor-oxide of lead. Ceraunitc, or Cerite. Cerebric Acid. Cerebrine. C 67-04, H 10-85, N 2-24, P -4, 19-41. White crystal- line grains obtained from the brain of animals. I have used two modes; drying the brain at 300, boiling with alcohol, and then the extract with ether, which dissolves oleophosphoric acid and leaves cerebric acid, insoluble in cold ether, and crystallizing from boiling alcohol; or by saponifying the brain with dilute potash and gentle heat ; albumen is dissolved and cerebrate of potash floats. The cerebrate is decanted and decomposed by tartaric acid, the cerebric acid dried, digested in cold ether, and crystallized re- peatedly from boiling alcohol or ether. Cerebric acid swells up like starch when boiled in water ; it yields by oxidation acids similar to the fats. It is found in the liver, blood, nerves, and brain. Cerebroleine. Cerebral, Eleencephol, Brain Oil. The oleine of the brain united to phosphoric acid, to form oleophosphoric acid. Cercbrote. Impure cerebric acid. CercriKc, Cererite, or Cerine. A silicate of cerium. 156 CER Ceric Acid. C 64-9, II 8-7, 26-4 A fatty acid. (?) Cerine. Impure cerotic acid. The soluble part of bees' wax in alcohol, fusing at 16 1^, (72 C.) When saponified with potash "it yields cerotic acid. Ceylon wax contains none ; distilled it yields 2 fluid oils containing very little oxygen. Cerine, sometimes confounded with ceraine, which is probably an impure cerine. Ceriise. A synonyme of Allanite. Cerinic Acid. C 42 H 34 O 13 . A fatty acid. (?) Ccrinine. C 20 H 19 O 2 . (?) A waxy fat by alcohol and ether, from a brown coal at Merse- burg. Ccritc, Silicate of Cerium, Ochroite. Spec. grav. 4-912, H 5-5. Clove-brown, cherry-red, or gray masses, granular; fracture splintery; streak white ; lustre adamantine, translucent on the edges. B.B. infusible per se; forms with borax a yellow bead, which is paler on cooling. It consists of silica 16*, peroxide of cerium 26'55, oxide of lanthanum 33-38, water 9-1, COo 4-62, A1 2 3 1-68, Fe 2 O 3 3-53, CaO 3-56, MnO -27. It occurs at Bastnas, Redderhyttan, Westman- land, in a bed of gneiss. C?crim, Didymium, Lanthanum. These sub- stances have not been properly distinguished in consequence of the difficulty of separating them from each other. They occur in C trite and Al- lanite. Ceria may be separated from lantana by igniting the mixture of these two bodies, and di- gesting the ignited mass in weak nitric acid, which has the property of dissolving the lantana, and leaving the ceria. The methods recommended in books for separating ceria, refer to all these three metals, which usually occur together, and have never been completely separated. See LAX- THAJSIUM, DIDY3IIUM. Ccrolite. Soapstone from serpentine in Silesia. Cerosic Acid. C 4S H 48 3 . A wax acid. (?) Ccrosinc. C 48 H 50 O 2 . Pearly scales. F.P. 179|, the wax of sugar canes. Cerotic Acid. C 54 H 54 O 4 . F.P. 172-4 to 174|. Granular crystals, volatile without de- composing, except when in contact with the other constituents of wax; it is obtained by boil- Ing alcohol on bees' wax to extract the cerine (impure cerotic acid). This is dissolved in much alcohol, and precipitated with a boiling solution in alcohol of acetate of lead and filtered while hot ; the precipitate boiled with ether and alco- hol to purify it, and then decomposed with acetic acid ; the precipitate washed with boiling water, dissolved in hot alcohol and filtered while hot; it may be further purified by saponification, precipi- tation, and crystallization. Its salts are mono- basic. Ccrotiiie. Alcohol of Cerotic Acid and Cerotyle. C 54 H r , c 2 . F.P. 174 . Crystalline; obtained by fusing Chinese wax with caustic CET potash ; washing with water ; precipitating by chloride of barium and treating the precipitate heated with alcohol or ether; cerotine is dis- solved, and cerotate of barytes is left. Cerotine when heated with lime and potash, evolves hy- drogen, and becomes cerotic acid. Ccrotcne. C 54 H 54 . F.P. 135|. A crys- talline body resembling parafnne ; "obtained "by distilling Chinese wax ; it is freed from cerotic acid by potash. Chlorine replaces 22 atoms. Cerotene is changed into a fluid when distilled in a sealed tube. Cerotyle, Hydrous Oxide of. C 54 H 55 0. The basis united with cerotic acid in cerotine. Ceroxyiinc. C 20 H 16 , 0. F.P. 212. The resin of palm wax. Ccrulinc. See INDIGO. Cerumen, Ear Wax. A yellow oil secreted by the glands of the auditory canal, concreting by exposure to the air; taste bitter; when heated it stains paper like a fixed oil, giving out an aro- matic odour ; forms an emulsion with water and putrifies. Cerumen appears to consist of stearine, oleine, otine, yellow matter soluble in water, un- coagulated albumen, coagulated albumen, lac- tates of lime, and potash or soda. Ceruse, Cerussa. Carbonate of lead, white lead. Cerussa Usta. Red lead. Cetene. C 32 H 32 . An oil. B.P. 527. Specific gravity, vapour 8-007; obtained by treating ethal with anhydrous phosphoric acid. Celine. Cetylate of Oxide of Cetyle, Sperma- ceti. Wallratlifett,Gr.', Blanc de Baleine, Fr. C 64 H G4 4 = C 32 H 33 0, C 32 H 31 3 . White pearly scales. F.P. 120 (49 C.); volatilizes at 680 (360 C.); insoluble in water; 100 boiling alcohol of -821 dissolve 2 cetine, mostly deposited on cooling; soluble in pyroxilic spirit, oil of tur- pentine, and fat oils ; by distillation are obtained water, carbonic acid, oxide of carbon, olefiant gas, cetine, cetylic acid, and cetene ; and in the retort charcoal ; adipic acid is formed by oxidation by nitric acid ; cetine is obtained by boiling sper- maceti in alcohol of -816 till the alcohol poured from the deposit yields no oil on evaporation. Cetic Acid. C 32 H 24 8 . Cetraric Acid. C 34 H 16 15 . Cetrarinc. White bitter powder ; nearly in- soluble in hot and cold water; 100 boiling alco- hol dissolve If; boiling ether -93; does not fuse; chlorohydric acid changes it to a blue sub- stance ; by alkalies changed to ulmic acid ; ob- tained by boiling Iceland moss (Cetraria Islan- dica) as long as it tastes bitter with alcohol, distilling off the alcohol, digesting the residue in ether, and crystallizing out of absolute alcohol. Cetyle. C 32 H 33 . The hypothetic radical of cetine, &c. Cetyle, Oxide of. C 32 H 3S 0. Shining scales, by the action of sodium on ethal at 212, and crystallization from alcohol. Cetylic Acid. Aethdllc Acid. C 32 H 31 3 157 CET HO. Colourless crystalline solid; fusing at 131, volatile, insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol and ether ; obtained by heating ethal or spermaceti by fusion with caustic potash, cetylic acid and oxide of cetyle being formed. Cetyloplienylamine. 032^3, C^H.rjHN. Keddish-white crystals, fusing at 107 (42 C.); soluble in alcohol and ether ; formed by the action of aniline on iodide of cetyle. Cevadic Acid. Volatile white pearly needles, fusing at G8 in white hellebore seed (Veratrum album); extracted by hot ether and removing fatty matter by potash. Ccvadine, or Hordeine. Ceylanitc, or Spinelle. Chabazitc. (*/<>/). Cubic Zeolite, Cu- boide. Spec. grav. 2-088, 2-472, H 3-75. Ob- tuse rhomboids with angles of 94 46' ; fracture uneven, brittle; lustre vitreous; transparent to translucent. B.B. becomes a white spumous mass. It contains silica 49-20, alumina 17-91, lime 9-64, potash 1-92, water 20-4. Sometimes soda replaces lime ; occurs in trap rocks in Scot- land, Ireland, Ferroe, &c. Form. 3 (CaO NaO KO), 2 Si0 3 , 3 (A1 2 3 2 Si0 3 ), 18 HO. Chaerophylline. A substance obtained by distilling with water the Chaerophyllum bulbosum. Chalcaiitum. Probably a mixture of sul- phates of copper and iron. Chalcites. Probably sulphuret of copper. Chalcolite, or Uranite. Chalcopyrite, or Copper pyrites. Chalcosinc. Sulphide of copper. Chalilite. (**/?, flint). Spec. grav. 2-252, H 4-5. Reddish or brown resembling a flint, translucent on the edges. B.B. becomes white, and spreads out like a cauliflower; becomes a white bead with soda, with borax a colourless glass. Consists of silica 36-56, alumina 26-20, lime 10-28, Fe 2 3 9-28, soda 2-72, water 16-66 ; from Sandybrae, county Antrim ; allied to Thom- sonite. Chalk. Kreie, Ger. ; Craie, Fr. Carbonate of lime. The name of the calcareous deposit distin- guished by the presence of flints. It consists of microscopic calcareous shells of carbonate and trace of phosphate of lime. It constitutes the basis of whiting, Paris and Spanish white, crayons. Black Chalk is a black carbonaceous soft slate, consisting of silica 57-5, A1 2 3 12-98, alkali 4-02, charcoal 17-52, HO 6-3. Red Chalk. Bole or iron ochre. Chalk stones in gout are urate of soda. Chalybeate Waters. Waters containing iron. See WATER. Chameleon Mineral, or manganate of pot- ash, formed by melting 3 parts of nitre and 1 part of black oxide of manganese ; when dissolved in water, it produces a variety of colours in the course of its decomposition. Chamoiaitc. Spec. grav. 3- to 3-4. Mag- netic dark greenish-gray masses ; soluble with effervescence in acids; consisting of silica 12, FcO CHA 50-5, alumina 6-6, water and bitumen 14-7, CaOC0 2 14-4 ; found in limestone at Chamoisin in the Valais. Chamoiuilc Oil, from Matricaria chamomilla* by distillation with water; at first blue, then brown ; with the smell of chamomile. Champagne, an effervescing wine, deriving its name from the country of its production ; it contains 4*9 per cent, of absolute alcohol. Chantonnite. Spec. grav. 3-48, H 6| to 7. Black veins in the meteoric stone of Chantonney. Chapapotc, or Asphalt. Charcoal. Vegetable or Wood Charcoal, Kohle, Gr. ; Charbon, Fr.; is of such great value on the continent, in consequence of the want of coal, that there are establishments for the purpose of managing forests. In this country much charcoal is derived from the iron stills in which wood is heated for the purpose of obtaining pyroligneous acid. The purest charcoal may be obtained by burning sugar, gum, or gelatine, as when prepared from wood it contains much ashes ; but for the usual purposes to which it is applied, it is by preference made from oak or birch. The branches and por- tions of trees are disposed in a conical form, and are covered with turf, with the exception of a few points at the bottom, by which the air is admitted. The pile is ignited from below, and as the com- bustion ascends, the lower holes are filled, and new ones opened higher up. When smoke ceases to be emitted from the conical piles, the process, it is concluded, has terminated, and all the aper- tures are closed, when the ignition of the char- coal ceases. Wood dried in the air consists nearly of carbon 38-5 ; combined water 35-5 ; free water 25 ; ash 1. The gases emitted in the carbonization of wood are carbonic acid 26-7, carbonic oxide 9*7, hydrogen 9-9, nitrogen 53-7. Charcoal possesses different properties, according to the circumstances under which it is formed. When it is burned at a temperature under redness, it is a non-conductor of electricity, a bad conductor of heat, and very easily burned. This form of carbon, therefore, does not answer for experiments with the galvanic battery. When charcoal is produced at a red heat, it conducts electricity and heat well, but is less easily burned ; while, if it be heated to whiteness during its for- mation, it possesses a much superior conducting 158 CHA power to heat and electric fluid than in the pre- vious circumstances, and is of very difficult com- bustion (Cheuvreusse, Ann.Chim.29, 426). When heated away from air and moisture, charcoal is not altered, hut becomes harder and more bril- liant (Hoffmann's Observations, 298). Charcoal begins to burn at 460; decomposes water at a red heat, hydrogen being set free, carbonic oxide and carbonic acid (CO and CC^) beingformed. Bunsen has found such gases to consist of hydrogen 56*03, CO 29-15, C0 2 14-65, CH 2 00-17. When char- coal has been exposed to a very high temperature, as in a blast furnace, it is such a good conductor of heat, that when one end is ignited it is im- possible to hold the other in the hand. In masses it floats in water, but if reduced to powder it sinks. When free from air its spec. grav. is 3-5 (Leslie). The combustibility of charcoal depends in a great measure on the nature of the texture of the ma- terial from which it has been prepared. Thus the loose fabric of old linen affords a charcoal, so susceptible of ignition that it is the familiar com- panion in the tobacco pouch of the labourer. The same observation applies to the loose texture of charcoal made from the rapidly-growing trees, as poplars, willows, which absorbs more water, contains more pores, and is therefore of more easy combustion than charcoal of oak and birch. The property which charcoal possesses of absorb- ing water rapidly is one which interests the pur- chaser, and requires his attention to the nature of the wood from which it has been prepared. 100 parts of poplar charcoal have been found to ab- sorb as much as 23 parts of moisture, while the same amount of guaiacum charcoal took up only 11 parts. Wood charcoal absorbs colours, dis- solved in water, even in the cold state (Lowitz, 1792). Charcoal absorbs gases to a great ex- tent. The following table expresses this absorp- tion according to the experiments of Saussure on boxwood charcoal: 1 vol. charcoal absorbs Vols. Ammoniacal gas, 90 Muriatic acid, 85 Sulphurous acid, 65 Sulphuretted hydrogen, 55 Protox of nitrogen, 40 Carbonic acid, 35 Olefiantgas, 35 Phosphuretted hydrogen, 10 Carbonic oxide, 9-42 Oxygen, 9-25 Mtrogen, 7-5 Hydrogen, 1-75 When charcoal, saturated with any gas, is put into another gas, it gives out a portion of its ab- sorbed gas, and absorbs a portion of the new gas. These gases are again disengaged in a vacuum. It is by this property probably that the fami- liar recipe of burned bread as an antidote to the odour communicated to the breath by eating CHA onions acts. (Lametherie, Jour. Phys. 30, 309 ; Marozzo, ib. 1783, 376 ; Rouppe and Van Noor- den, Ann. Chim. 32, 3 ; Saussure, Annals Philos. 6, 241, 331.) Animal Charcoal, Ivory Black, Bone Charcoal, Ebur ustum nigrum, Blood Charcoal, is prepared from bones, by placing them, deprived of their fat and grease as much as possible, in cast iron cylinders, one extremity of which leads by a tube into coolers, serving to condense the volatile and ammoniacal matters, while the other end opens by means of a disc capable of being opened and shut at pleasure, through which the crushed bones are introduced. Around these cylinders the fire of the furnace plays. The cylinders are heated red hot, and are kept in this condition for thirty-six hours, when they are emptied and recharged. For the usual purposes of the arts, animal char- coal does not require purification: but in the laboratory it is often necessary to remove from it the phosphate and carbonate of lime, which enter largely into its composition. This object is at- tained by digestion in dilute hydrochloric acid for some hours. The mixture should then be thrown on a filter and well washed with water, until the liquor passing through ceases to give a precipitate with nitrate of silver. Animal char- coal possesses the remarkable property of with- drawing from their solutions in water many substances, as lime from lime water, iodine from solution in iodide of potassium, soluble subsalts of lead, and oxides of the metals which are soluble in ammonia and caustic potash. It removes also nitrate of lead and most metallic subsalts. It also removes disulphate of quinine from its solu- tions, likewise acetate of morphine, strychnine, lu- puline, sulphate of magnesia in part, chloride of barium, &c. It is also much used for remov- ing colours from liquids, and thus purifying the substances which may be in solution. Experi- ment. The effect of animal matter in decolour- izing liquids can be illustrated conveniently by shaking a portion for a few minutes with a solution of Brazil-wood, and then filtering. A colourless fluid passes through the filter. The action of animal charcoal in depriving liquids of colouring matters with which they may be con- taminated is increased by the application of heat r and its influence is likewise greatly heightened when the liquor to be decolourized is slightly acid. When an alkali is present, the solution, instead of losing any of its depth of colour, has its tint in- creased in consequence of the solution of a dark organic matter by the influence of the alkali. Animal charcoal is of great importance in the refining of sugar, in which process it is largely used to remove the colouring matters which usu- ally render its solutions in the first periods of its purification exceedingly dull. It is also of great importance in the laboratory in the preparation of alkaloids and other delicately crystallizable bodies of organic chemistry. It is also used to purify solutions of tartaric acid. 159 CHA Chay, or Chaya Root. The root of Olden lanflia umbellata, grown on the Coromandel coast, used for dyeing red by the natives, and considered to be finer than madder red. Cheese. Ktise, Ger. ; Fromage, Fr. Cheese consists of the caseine of milk, accompanied by a certain amount of butter. According to the quantity of butter present, the richness of the cheese varies. Cheese may be made entirely from the cream, and then it contains all the butter of the milk ; is soft, and known as cream cheese. When the cream has been removed, and the remaining milk employed to produce the cheese, it is termed slim-milk cheese. These are generally characterized by hardness and little flavour. When formed from the entire milk they are termed sweet-milk cheeses ; this is the most common fonn of good cheese. When made from ewe's milk, they are termed ewe cheeses, and are distinguished by a peculiar sharp taste and high flavour, as in Roquefort cheese. The theory of cheese-making seems to be, to introduce into the milk a substance which causes the sugar to de- compose into lactic acid ; this acid immediately acts upon the caserne or curd, and causes it to cur- dle or coagulate, and fonn out of the milk a gela- tinous opaque mass, from which the yellow whey separates by pressure. The usual coagulating me- dium is a solution formed by acting on the internal coat of the stomach of a pig or calf, with a solu- tion of salt. The stomach is carefully washed, and then its internal surface is digested in a solu- tion of common salt for many weeks. The solu- tion is rennet. The milk to be converted into cheese is rendered lukewarm (loowarm, Scot. ; lauwarm, Gr.) and mixed with the requisite quantity of rennet. In an hour or two the milk is found to be coagulated. The next- object is to separate as much as possible of the whey. The curdled milk is first pressed on the surface with a cheese cloth. The whey passes through, and is removed. As it becomes drier, the curds are introduced into the cloth, which surrounds them in the fonn of a bag, and are carefully pressed. They are then rubbed with the hand so as to pulverize them, mixed with the requisite quan- tity of salt, placed in the cheese cloth, and depo- sited in a wooden mould of the required fonn of the cheese, which is supplied with draining holes at the bottom. It is then subjected to pressure in the cheese press, to remove the last traces of whey, and to consolidate the curds. The quality of the cheese depends on the process and the ex- posure to the air. The flavour is derived from the volatile acids of the butter. In commerce we have Stilton, Chedder, Cheshire, Gloucester, Dunlop, &c. ; of continental, Parmesan, Roque- fort ; different kinds of Swiss cheese, as Gmyere, &c. Curd always contains a large quantity of salts. Gruyere has been found to leave an ash when burned formed of alkalies 13*48 ; lime 39-22 ; magnesia 1*77 ; sesquioxide of iron "35 ; phosphoric acid 45- ; silica, '18. What is CHI called Hand lease in Germany, from its shape, is made from sour milk. Chclidonic Acid. C 14 H 3 1 i. Colourless crystals from the aqueous extract of Chelidonium majus, by precipitating with a salt of lead, and decomposition. Chelidonime. C^Hao^W Bitter alka- loid in Chelidonium majus. Chelerythrine. Crystalline, obtained from the Chelidonium majus, after separating chelido- nine by sulphuric acid. Chelidoxanthin. Yellow needles, from Chelidonium majus. Chelmsfordite. Said to be a variety of table spar. Cfacmic. The commercial name of bleaching powder. Chemistry. (Chemie, ' Gr. ; Chimie", Fr. ; Kemi, Schw.) The word x.r^mx, first occurs hi the dictionary of Suidas, a Greek writer of the llth century, and is by him defined to be " the preparation of silver and gold." The term is by some supposed to be derived from an oriental word (see ALCHEMY), and by others from Chemi, Cham, or Chami, or x*iu.ix,, chemia (Plutarche), the ancient name of Egypt. On the Rosetta stone is the word ChmL In the present state of our knowledge, chemistry may be defined the study of the characters of the various elementary bodies of nature, their actions on each other, the products which they form, and the laws which regulate their actions. See Thomson's History of Chemistry. Chenocholic Acid. A sulphur acid sup- posed to exist in the bile of the goose. Chcnocoprolitc. An arseniate of silver and iron, from Clausthal, of a yellow or pale-green colour, resembling goose dung. Chert. A variety of quartz, found in lime- stones, allied to hornstone. Chiastolite. Made, or Wood Spar. A variety of Andalusite, characterized by the remarkable appearance of its crys- tals in clay slate, as if the separate prisms, while imbedded in a soft me- dium, had not possessed sufficient free- dom to allow them to unite perfectly. Chica Red. The colouring matter of Big- onia chica, from Orinoco. Chicory. See CICHORIUM. Childrenite. Spec. grav. 3-247, H. 5'. Yellow rhombic 8-hedrons, with angles of 97 50', 120 30', 130 20'. From the George and Char- lotte mine at Tavistock. Composition. Silica 3-82; phosphoric acid 28-24; alumina 18-06; protoxide of iron 29-58; protoxide of manganese 5-89 ; protoxide of copper -65 ; water 16-35 ; 2 RO P0 5 , Al 2 O a P0 5 , 15 HO. Chileite. Ail iron mineral. Chiltonite. A variety of Prephite. Chiococcinc. A bitter alkaloid hi Chio- cocca racemosa. See EMETINE. Chiolitc. Fluoride of Aluminum and 80- 160 CHI (Than. From the Topaz mine of Miask, consist- ing of Al 18-16, Na 23-78, F 57-53. Chinovic. See Quixovic ACID. Chii-ctta. A yellow wood from Bengal. Chiiinc. The principal part of the elytra of insects ; a white body, insoluble in potash. Chladnite. Spec. grav. 3-116. White ob- lique double prisms, consisting of Si0 3 65-69, MgO 27-11, CaO 1-3-9, CaO 1-02, HO -68, in the meteorite of Bishop ville, U.S. Chlorabethamidc. C 15-12, H 1'6, Cl 65-14, N 10-05. Chlorabrouaphthcsc. C 20 H G Cl r) Br. Chlorncctiun. C 14*6, H 1-2, Cl 65-8, N 8-5. Chloracctamid?. Chloroxetliamide. Chlo- rocarbethamide. C 10 C1 7 H C N 3 3 . By ammonia on chlor-oxalic ether. Chloracetic Acid. C 4 C1 3 3 HO. Rhom- boidal needles, deliquescent, irritating odour. F.P. 115. Spec. grav. at 115, 1-617. Corrodes the skin, and combines with bases ; obtained by the action of chlorine on solid acetic acid in a jar, by sunlight. Formed on the type of acetic acid, chlorine replacing hydrogen. B.P. 387. Chloracctoniirilc. C 4 C1 3 N. Sp. grav. 1-444. B.P. 178. A liquid by the action of anhydrous phosphoric acid on chloracetate of ammonia or chloracetamide. Chloral. C 4 C1 3 OHO. Spec. grav. 1-502 ; B.P. 202, (94 C.) Oily fluid, with a peculiar smell, and acting on the eyes ; mixes Avith ether and alcohol ; dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, and iodine ; obtained by passing dry chlorine through anhydrous alcohol for a long time, till the chlo- rine passes unchanged. Needles of hydrate of chloral deposit. These are treated with sulphuric acid and quicklime. Chloralbine. Needles. C 12 H C C1 2 . Chloraldchyde, (Bichloride ofAcetyle.) C 4 H 4 C1 2 . Spec. grav. 1*174, of vapour, 3*478. B.P. 147. Mobile fluid, by acting on chloride of ethyle with chlorine. Chioraldehydene, (Chloride of Acetyle.) C 4 H 3 C1. Spec. grav. of vapour 2*166 ; from the oil by the action of chlorine on olefiant gas. Chloralidc. C 18-61, H -62, Cl 65-9, O 14-87. CIrdoramilal. C 2 oH 17 4 Cl 3 ; B.P. 356. Oily fluid by the action of chlorine on gram oil. Chloranilam. Chloranilamiic Acid. Ci 2 Cl 2 H 3 N0 6 . Black needles, obtained by mixing a solution of chloranilammon with chlorohydric acid. ChloraiiilamMe. C 12 N 2 C1 2 H 4 O 4 . Needles by heating an alcoholic solution of chloranil with ammonia. Chlorauilammoii. C G H 3 NC10 3 4HO. Brown crystals by acting on chlorauile with caustic ammonia. Chloranilc. C 12 C1 4 4 . Golden scales by acting on chlorisatine with chlorine. CHL Chloranilfc Acid. C 12 C1 2 6 2HO. Yel- low crystals by dissolving chloranil in weak ootash. CbJoraniline. Ci 2 H 6 ClN. A base by dis- tilling chlorisatine with potash. Two other hloride bases are formed by the action of hlorine. Di and tri-chloraniline. Chloranisal. C 20 H 6 C1 3 6 2 . By acting on anisal with chlorine. Chlorargutc, or chloride of cacodyle. Chlorastrolite. A zeolite from Lake Su- perior. Spec. grav. 3'18, H 5'5. Bluish-green iridescent radiated fibres; silica 36-99, alumina 25-49, Fe 2 O 3 6-48, CaO 19*9, NaO 3*7, KO *4, HO 7*22. Cblorazolitmine. C 18 Hi NClOi . Yel- low insoluble substance by acting on azolitmine with chlorine. Chlorcbronaphthinc. C 40 H n Cl 4 Br. Chlorcbronaphthise. C 20 H 5 Cl 2 Br. Solid by acting on chlornaphthise with bromine. Chlorcbronaphthone. C 40 H 9 Q 3 Br 4 . Chlorobronaphthose. C 2 oH 4 Cl 2 Br 2 . Chloribronaphthoe. C 20 H 4 C1 3 , Br. All the remarkable isomeric forms in the action of chlorine on naphthaline are produced by the replacement of corresponding atoms of hydro- gen. Chloribroiiaphthusc. C 20 H 3 Cl 3 Br 2 . Chloric Acid. C10 5 . Forms a colourless or yellowish solution in water. Obtained by- decomposing chlorate of barytes by sulphuric acid. See manufacture of chlorate of potash under POTASH. Chlorimciry. (Chlorine and ^r^ov). The process of estimating the amount of chlorine in bleaching powder. See BLEACHING for a con- venient method in manufactures. One of the most accurate and rapid processes is that of Dai- ton, which depends on the conversion of protoxide of iron into sesquioxide of iron, by means of the chlorine of the bleaching powder, which decom- poses water. For this purpose we take 4 atoms of good crystals of protosulphate of iron (FeO S0 3 7HO), or 69*5 grains previously well dried and pulverized, and dissolve them in 2 ounces of distilled water, with the addition of a few drops of sulphuric acid, placed in a stoppered bottle. We then weigh out 50 grains of the bleaching powder to be tested, and add k in small portions at a time to the copperas solution, shaking the mixture between each addition, and gently apply- ing heat. As every atom of protoxide of iron requires half an atom of oxygen to convert it into the sesquioxide, -this is equivalent to half an atom of chlorine in the bleaching powder, or 2*22 grains chlorine. When 4 atoms of the protoxide have been peroxidized, it is equal to 2 atoms of chlorine in the powder, or 8-88 grains of chlorine. The peroxidation of the solution is judged of by frequently taking out a drop with the end of a glass rod, placing it on a piece of white porce- 161 M CHL lain, or spotting it on blotting paper, and then adding a drop of a solution of red prussiate of potash. As soon as a blue precipitate of Prussian blue ceases to be formed, we infer that the whole of the protoxide, in the 6 9 '5 grains of sulphate of iron, has been peroxidized. We then weigh the residue of the bleaching powder. Suppose it amounts to 15 grains ; then this amount de- ducted from 50 grains, shows that 35 grains of the bleaching powder contained 8*88 grains of chlorine. We have then the proportion 35 : 100 : : 8'88 : 2 5 '3 7 =: the quantity of chlorine con- tained in 100 grains of the sample. Chlorindatmine. C 12 H 4 C1 3 N, or trichlo- raniline. Chlorindiuc. C 10 , H 5 C1N0 2 , 2HO. A powder by the action of heat on chlorisatyde. Chlorindopfeuc. C 8 H 2 C1 2 0. Crystalline; volatile ; by chlorine on indigo. Chloriiidoptic Acid. See CHLOROPHENI- sic. Chlorine. Cl 4'5, 36, 4'437, 35'496. Syn. Dephlogisticated marine acid (Scheele, 1774), Oxygenized muriatic acid (Berthollet, 1785), oxy- muriatic add (Kirwan), chlorine (Davy, 1810). Sources. Chlorine occurs abundantly in sea water, as chloride of sodium, or common salt, in rivers and wells, and in the soil ; also in large deposits in the new red sandstone formation, as in Cheshire ; Punjaub ; Peru, Rio Negro, in South America ; also as chloride of potassium in sea Avater. Physical Characters. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow col- oured gas, possessing a peculiar suffocating odour, resembling that of aqua regia (a mixture of chlo- rohydric and nitric acids). When it comes in contact with the lining membranes of the nos- trils and windpipe, it induces great irritation, cough, watering of the eyes, and other symptoms analogous to a common cold, but accompanied with great prostration of strength if the inspira- tion has been longer than a second. Chlorine is about 322 times lighter than water. Its specific grav. air, being 1, is 2-5 (Thomson) ; 2-47 (Gay Lussac andThenard, Eech. Phys,-Chim. 2, 125); 2-392 (Davy, Phil. Trans. 1810); 2-52 (ib. Elements, p. 236) ; 2-44 (Theoretic). The theo- retic specific gravity may be deduced by multi- plying by the atomic weight of the gas, half the spec. grav. of oxygen, 1-10563 ^ 2 == -55281 X 4-437 2-4528. The weight of 100 cubic inches, that of air being 31 grs. and the spec. grav. of chlorine 2-44, is 75-64 grains; with a spec, grav. of 2-47, it is 76-57 grs. ; with spec. grav. 2-5, it is 77-529 grams ; with the weight of air at 30-9451 grs. (Regnault) ; and spec. grav. 2-44 it is 75-506. The refracting power of chlorine is to that of air as 2-628 to 1 (Dulong, Ann. Chim. 31, 166). Chlorine is an electro negative body, being deposited at the positive pole, when its compounds are decomposed except in the case of its union with oxygen, when the oxygen goes to the positive pole, and the chlorine to the negative. CHL Liquid Chlorine. Greenish-yellow fluid, eva- porating rapidly in air. Spec. grav. 1-33 (Fara- day, Phil. Trans. 1823), non-conductor of elec- tricity, procured by introducing crystals of hydrate of chlorine into one end of a bent tube, to be then hermetically sealed at both ends, and applying hot water of 90 to 100, so as to evolve the chlo- rine from the water. The farther extremity being immersed in ice, the gas by its own pressure soon liquefies ; bleaches dry litmus paper (Kemp). In the figure, a represents the end of the tube containing the hydrate of chlorine immersed in warm water, and 6, the extremity with the con- densed fluid chlorine, surrounded by a freezing mixture. Aqueous Chlorine. Chlorine is very soluble in water. 1 volume or measure of water dissolves 1 -5 chlorine at 32, 3-04 chlorine at 46-4, its maxi- mum absorption ; at 57-2, 2-50; at 122 it is 1-09 (Pelouze) ; at 60, 2 (Dalton) ; at 212 almost nothing (Gay Lussac, Ann. Chim. 70, 407). A saturated solution at 42 -8 of chlorine in water ; has a spec. grav. of 1-003 (Berzelius) ; the water has a greenish-yellow colour ; the peculiar odour and the astringent taste of the gas. In collecting the gas over water, it is therefore desirable to raise the temperature of the water in the trough up to 80, so as to diminish the absorption. When the chlorine solution is agitated with com- mon air, almost the whole of the chlorine leaves the water in a few seconds, and hence no air should be left in a bottle of chlorine water. Light decomposes the solution, chlorohydric acid and some perchloric acid (HC1 and C10 7 ) be- ing formed at the expense of the water. It should therefore be preserved in dark vessels, or bottles covered with black paper. Decihydrate. Cl, 10 HO (Davy), 15*687, 125-49, Cl 27-7, HO 72-3. Spec. grav. 1-2, rhombic 8-hedrons and needles or plates ; non- conductor of electricity (Solly). Can be sub- limed, loses chlorine at 90 (liegnault), and re- gains it if in a closed tube at a temperature of 70 (Faraday). When exposed to the light, the crystals attach themselves to 'the sides of the bottle next the light as is the case with camphor. When thrown into alcohol, the temperature rises 8 or 10 degrees, a violent action occurs, chloric 1G2 CHL ether and muriatic acid being formed, and a small portion of a compound of chlorine, carbon, and hydrogen. The hydrate exhibits the same actions as chlorine. It may be obtained by adding to a bottle full of chlorine one-fourth of water, stopping it up close and surrounding it with ice or snow; a temperature of 33 to 36 suffices. (Faraday, Roy. Inst. Journ. 15, 71) Preparation of .Chlorine. 1. The simplest method of preparing chlorine, and that generally employed, is to introduce into a retort 6 parts of dilorohydric acid of commerce, and then from 1 to 2 parts binoxide of manganese, according to its quality, so as to form a thin paste. The mix- ture is then shaken, the heat of a gas or spirit- lamp applied to the retort or flask, and the .gas, which rapidly escapes, should be received over water heated to 80, or containing salt in .-solution, in bottles supplied with greased stop- pers, to prevent the pressure of the air by the absorption of the gas from retaining the stoppers. In consequence of the weight of the gas, it may be kept for some time in bottles. It may for the same reason be introduced into bottles by dis- placement of the common air. If the beak of the retort be introduced into a dry bottle, the chlo- rine will fall to the bottom, and press out the air above. The action is as follows : 2. Chlorohydric acid. Binoxide of manganese. 4-437 4-437 '125 -125 3'447 1- ! Cl Cl H H Mn O O Cl 2 HO MnCl 4-437 Chi. 2-25 Water. 7 -8 84 Chi. of manganese. In the manufacture of bleaching powder this pro- 03ss is usually adopted, the chlorine being evolved from chlorohydric acid and black oxide of man- ganese in a double stone box or still, which is previously boiled in tar, to render it less readily decomposed by the acid. Steam is admitted into the exterior casing, so as to assist the action. Another method is sometimes used CHL where clilorohydric acid is not abundant de- pending upon the evolution of chlorine from com- mon salt by the assistance of the oxygen of the black oxide of manganese and sulphuric acid. If the manganese were quite pure, the proportions would be 7-309 common salt, 12-25 oil of vitriol, and 5 '447 binoxide of manganese the sulphuric acid being diluted with an equal bulk of water. The following scheme explains the action: Sulphuric Binoxide of Sulphuric Common acid. manganese. acid. salt. 5 3-447 11 5 2-872 4-437 S0 3 Mn GO S0 3 Na Cl Cl 4.437 Chlor. MnOS0 3 9-447 Sulph. of manganese. 8-872 Sulph. of soda. Chemical Characters. 1. Chlorine cannot be inflamed, but if a taper be immersed in the gas it burns with a low red flame, giving out much smoke, and is speedily extinguished. 2. Phos- phorus when introduced by means of a dip- per ladle into chlorine, spontaneously catches fire and burns' with a yellowish-white flame. 3. Several of the metals, as antimony, arsenic, pot- assium, tin, iron, zinc, bismuth, and mercury, when finely divided, heated in a spoon, and then showered into a bottle full of the gas, or immersed in the gas, catch fire and produce chlorides. Hence chlorine may be considered a simple sup- porter of combustion. 4. A copper wire when heated and plunged into the gas burns with great rapidity. 5. Gold and silver leaf likewise burn, the gold with a green, the silver with a white flame. 6. When a feather moistened with oil of turpentine is introduced into chlorine, it bursts into flame with a copious evolution of lamp black. 7. When a piece of blue litmus paper moistened with water is introduced into chlorine, the paper becomes white without being previously reddened. Red, blue, and yellow flowers and green vege- tables, are also bleached and cannot be recovered (Scheele, 1774). Dry chlorine has no action on dry litmus, but chlorine condensed into a liquid, bleaches colouring matters (Kemp) ; the presence CHL of water enables the dry gas to act, possibly therefore by its being in a liquid form (Davy). 8. When equal measures of chlorine and hydro- gen are mixed over water in a bottle, and fired by a taper, an explosion occurs, and chlorohydric acid is formed (HC1). 9. When an animal is plunged into chlorine it dies immediately. Chlorides, Mwriates, Hydrochhrates, Chloro- hydrides. Many of the chlorides are formed by the direct action of chlorine upon metals as stated above ; many are produced by acting upon the oxides by means of chlorine, the oxygen being replaced by the chlorine ; chlorides being fonned and also chlorates and hypochlorites ; the oxides which are not converted into chlorides without being ignited with charcoal, are alumina, glucina, thorium, and yttria. They are generally soluble in water, with the exception of chlorides of silver, dichloride of mercury, &c. The alkaline chlorides crystallize in cubes as well as the chloride of silver; chlorine at 212 replaces the oxygen in potash and soda. The actions of bromine, iodine, fluorine, and cyanogen, are analogous to those of chlorine. Practical Application. See BLEACHING. Use in Medicine. A solution of chlorine in water was recommended to remove the odours from the emunctories of Paris in 1785 by Halle (Rapport sur les fosses d'aisances), and also by Fourcroy in 1 7 9 1 . In 1 7 9 3 it was used in the army of the Rhine against hospital gangrene. It has since been used in a liquid form in scarlet fever ; 2 drachms of a saturated solution being diluted with half-a-pound of water, have been adminis- tered during the day internally (Braithwaite), and also in putrid Spanish fever to the extent of an ounce per day. It is sometimes employed to spunge over the skin in fevers, and to immerse the hands in for the cure of itch (Thenard and Cluzel). It has been given internally with suc- cess in diarrhoea, chronic dysentery, and hydro- phobia. To counteract infection it is used in the form of solution of bleaching powder, or chloride of soda, and sprinkled in the chamber. It is also used to remove the odour of sulphuretted hydrogen in sewers and cess pools by decomposi- tion (SH and Cl becoming HC1 and, S). The vapour of ammonia may be breathed as an anti- dote where chlorine has been inspired, and alcohol has been employed for the same purpose. A French chemist, Pelletier, died from the irritation produced by the inspiration of this gas. Accord- ing to experience in Glasgow, chlorine seems to possess no disinfecting power. In 1821 and 1822, the people employed at St. Rollox became in- fected with typhus, and suffered as severely from it as any others, although a temporary building was erected for some of them, and the use o: chlorine on a very extensive scale tried. In 1827, Dr. John Couper thought that they per- haps suffered less than the inhabitants of other districts, but after studying the exhibition o: chlorine in this instance as a matter of medical CHL ractice, he is most decidedly of opinion of its otal inefficacy in preventing contagion. la small-pox, measles, &c, the people at St. Rollox ake the infection as readily as any others (Life >f C. Macintosh). Chlorine abundantly possesses he property of removing odours. Odours, how- ever, are not characteristic of such poisons as we snow to be capable of producing disease. On the contrary, when animal poisons decompose and give out smells, they are incapable of prodixcing; disease by inoculation. Test and Analysis. Chlorine is detected by its ielding with nitrate of silver a white curdy preci- pitate, insoluble in boiling nitric acid (AgCl), and ;hus distinguished from cyanide of silver, also a white curdy precipitate, which disappears when boiled with nitric acid. To determine the amount chlorine in a solution, we render the solution acid by nitric acid, bring it nearly to the boiling point, and add the nitrate of silver, and stir the solution well when dried, ignited, fused, and weighed, every 17*935 parts contain 4-437 chlorine, or very nearly one-fourth of its weight is chlorine. When the filter is burned with the ast portions of precipitate, a portion of the silver is reduced. This is to be heated with a drop or ;\vo of nitric acid, and then chlorohydric acid, and again fused. Chlorisamide. C^H^ Chlorisatic AcM. C 16 H 6 01]SrO 6 HO. By potash on chlorisatine. Chlorisatinc. C 16 , H 4 C1 N0 4 . Yellow prisms by chlorine on isatine. Chlorisatydc. C 16 H 5 C1N0 4 . White pow- der by sulphide of ammonium on chlorisatine. Chlorite. Spec. grav. 2-823, H 1-5. Dark green small scales or plates, cohering without cement, opaque ; B.B. fuses into a black opaque glass ; found in quartz veins in Bute and Arran, &c. Silica 27-62, FeO 27-54, alumina 23'71. magnesia 10'96, water 9-16 ; potash trace. Chlorite Slate. A green soapy slate, form- ing a subordinate bed in mica slate, found abun- dantly on Loch Fine, at St. Catherine's. A1 Inverary, an ore of sulphuret of nickel occurs in it. It contains Si0 3 27-40, FeO 27-918, A1 2 3 20-74, HO 8-8, potash 4-8, magnesia lime, and loss, 7-322. Chloritoide, or Chlorite Spar. Spec, grav 3-55. A foliated greenish-black mineral fron Ural, consisting of SiO 3 24-9, A1 2 3 46-2, FeC 28-89. B.B. infusible. Chloroacetamic Acid. Chloracstam, Chlo- rocarbamic Acid. C 4 NH C1 4 2 . Needles b] chlorine on chloracetamide in sunlight. Chloroacethyphide. C 4 , PH 2 C1 3 , 2 White crystals by phosphuretted hydrogen 01 chloroaldehyde. Chloroalbine. C 12 H 6 C1 2 . White needles obtained along with terchloro-carbonic acid. Chloroalide. C 10 H 2 C1<;0 G . White crys tals by oil of vitriol, and heat on hydrate c chloral. CHL Chloroazosncciitic Acid. C 8 , NH 2 H, Cl.i, O 4 . 4-sided prisms by the action of am- moniacal gas on perchlorosuccinic ether. Chlorobciizauiide. From chlorobenzoate of ammonia. Chlorobcnzidc and Chlorobenzine. See BENZOL. Chiorobciazociiasc. C 14 H 7 C1. Chlorobenzocuylc. C 2 7 -6, H 0-7, Cl 71-7 Chlorobciizoylc, Chloracetyle, Chlorocinna- myle. CklorobutyraL C 8 H 7 C1, O 2 . Clear fluid by chlorine on butyral. Chlorobutyrcn. C 8 H 7 C1. Colourless fluid by quintochloride of phosphorus on butyral. Chlorocaffcine. C 1C H 9 C1N 4 O 4 . By act- ing on caffeine with chlorine. Chlorocamphenc. C 2 oH 12 Cl 4 . See CAJVI- PHENE. Chlorocarbcihamic Acid. C 10 NH 2 H 4 1 7 ,0 10 . . By ammonia on chlorocarbethamide. Chlorocarbethamide. (Chloracetamide ?) 10 H 6 C1 7 N 3 4 . By ammonia on perchloro- carbonic ether. Chlorocarbohyposulphnric Acid. Ter- cldoroUsulphite of Methyle. C 2 HC1 3 2 2 S0 2 . Chlorocarbonic Acid. CO Cl. Phos- gene gas. By the action of carbonic oxide and chlorine by sunlight. Cklorocarboiiic Ether. CO,C1,C 4 H 5 0, C0 2 . By chlorocarbonic acid on alcohol. ChloroccrotaL C. 54 H 4 iCl 13 2 . The chlo- raldehyde of chlorocerotic acid. Chlorocerotic Acid. C. 54 H 42 C1 12 O 4 . A resin by chlorine on cerotic acid. Chlorocinchoninc. C 38 H 20 C1 2 X 2 2 . By chlorine on cinchonine. Chlorocinuainic Acid. Ci 8 H c C10 3 HO. Iseedles by potash on chlorostyracine. Chlorocinnosc. C 18 H 4 C1 4 O 2 . By chlo- line on oil of cinnamon. CbJorocodciitc. C 3r ,H2oCl N,0 6 . By act- ing on codeine -with chlorine. CHL Cltlorocomcuic Acid. 2 HO, C 12 HCl,Og 3Aq. By chloiine on comenic acid. Chlorocuiiiinolc. C 2 oH 12 Cl 2 . By chlorine on cummole. hlrocyunilidc. C 3 oH 12 ClN 5 . Fine plates by aniline and chloride of cyanogen in alcohol. Chlorocyamogcii. CyCL A gas by chlo- rine on cyanohydric acid. Chlorodibromauilinc. Ci 2 , H 4 C1 Br 2 , K. By chlorine and bromine on aniline. Chlorodraconylr. C 32 H 15 3 Cl6. By chlo- rine on dragon's blood resin. Cblorocuaiubic Acid. Ci 4 HiiCl 2 O a . By potash on chloroenantliic ether. Chlorociianthic Ether. C^HnC^Oo, C 4 H 3 O,C1 2 . From cliloruie and oenanthic ether. Chlorofilipelosic Acid. C 24 H 13 O 9 . Chlorofilixic Acid. Gz^*,C\.Qw Yel- low fluid by chlorine on filixic acid. Chloroform. Terchloride of Formyle. C 2 H C1 8 . Spec. -grav. 1'480 to 1-5, of vapour 4-192, B.P. 141-8. Peculiar agreeable odour, valuable as an anaesthetic in operations, and therefore largely prepared; but slightly soluble in water, to the bottom of which it sinks; mixes with alcohol and ether ; insoluble in sulphuric acid, but gradu- ally decomposed by it ; not decomposed by solu- tion of nitrate of silver ; decomposed by boiling with potash and alcohol into formate of potash and chloride of potassium ; passed over ignited lime there are fonned carbon, chloride of calcium, and carbonate of lime ; through an ignited copper or iron tube it yields a metallic chloride. Pro- cess. Chloroform may be obtained by the action, of chloride of lime (bleaching powder) on alcohol, pyroxylic spirit, acetone, acetate of lime or soda, oil of turpentine; or by distilling chloral or chloracetic acid with potash, lime, or barytes. I have found the most economical process to be to distil with a gentle heat in a half-gallon retort 8 ounces bleaching powder, 24 ounces water, 1^- ounce alcohol (-840). The mixture is apt to puff up, but it may be restrained by pouring in cold 165 CHL water rapidly by a funnel tube, or by applying water exteriorly. Wash the product with its own bulk of water to remove chlorine. Add chloride of calcium to the oil, and allow them to stand for an hour. Pour off the oil, and distil with its own bulk of sulphuric acid. To detect the pre- sence of alcohol, add a few small crystals of bi- chromate of potash, and then sulphuric acid ; if al- cohol be present, a green colour will appear in con- tact with the crystals. By the process above given, Mr. James King, in my laboratory, first obtained it of the spec. grav. 1-5 in 1848 (Glasg. Phil. Proc. 2,419). Chlorogenic Acid. Ci 4 H 8 7 . Obtained by precipitating the double salt of chlorogenite of potash and caffeine existing in coffee, by acetate of lead, and decomposing by sulphohydric acid. Chlorogcnine. A green powder from mad- der. Chlorohelicinc. C 26 H 15 C1 14 . By chlo- rine on helicine. Chlorohellenine. C 15 H 9 C10 2 . By chlo- rine on helknine. Chlorohiimic Acid. C 32 H 2G Cl 2 Oi r . By chlorine on mimic acid. Chlorohydranilc. C 12 C1 4 O 2 , 2 HO. Pearly plates by sulphurous acid on chloranile. Chlorohydric Acid. Muriatic Acid. See HYDROCHLORIC ACID. Chlorohydrokinonc. C 25 H 10 C1 2 8 . By chlorine on kinone. Chlorohypoiiitric Acid. N0 2 C1 2 . Yel- low fluid by chlorine on nitric acid. Chloroiodoform. C 2 H, IC1 2 . Yellow oil by distilling iodoform with corrosive sublimate or quintochloride of phosphorus. Chlorokinonc. C 2 5H 6 Cl 2 Og. Chloromclal. C C oH 45 Cl 14 O 2 . By chlo- rine on melissin. Chloromclan, or Cronstedtite. Chloromcnthcne. C 20 H 18 , HC1. Bychlo- rine on menthene. Chloronaphthalanc. C^HsClu. Chloroimphthalasc. UexachlonapTithine. C 2 oH 2 Clc- Prisms by chlorine on chlornaphthise. Chloronaphthalcsc. Unknown. Chloronaphthalise. Octoclilonaphthine. C 20 Clg. Crystalline solid. Chloronaphthasc. Chlonaphthine. C 20 H 7 C1. An oil, by acting on subchloride of naphthaline with an alcoholic solution of potash. Chloroiiaphthcsc. Dichlonaphthine. C 20 H 6 C1 2 . Occurring in seven different isomeric forms. G'hlorouaphthisc. TrichlonapJithine. C 20 H 5 Cl-j. In six isomeric forms. Chloronaphthisic Acid. C 2 pH 5 C10 . By acting with nitric acid on chloride or chloro- naphthose. Chloronaphthonc. C 4 oH 9 Cl7. Chlorouaphthoae. Tetrachlonaphthine. C 20 H 4 C1 4 . In four isomeric forms. CHL Chloronaphthnse. Pentachlonaphthine Co H 3 C1 5 . Unknown. Chloroiiiceamide. NH 2 ,C 12 H 4 C1 2 . By ammonia on chloroniceic ether. Chloroniccic Acid. C 12 H 4 C10 3 HO. By chlorine on benzoic acid. Chloronicciic. C 10 H 5 C1. By distilling chloroniceic acid with lime. Chloronicine. Ci H G Cl N. A product from chloronicene and nitric acid. Chloronitrous Acid. N0 2 C1. By chlorine on nitric acid. Chloropal. Spec. grav. 1-727 to 2-105, H 3 to 4. Greenish-yellow masses, infusible before the blowpipe, from Hungary and Ceylon. The latter contains silica 53, Fe 2 3 26-04, MgO 1-4, A1 2 3 1-8, HO 18. Chlorophacite, probably chlorophante from the Faroes. Chlorophacitc. Spec. grav. 2-02. A green brittle silicate of iron, occurring in the Scuinuore, Eum, in amygdaloid. B.B. not altered. Chlorophane. Green fluor spar, which when heated exhibits a green phosphorescence. Chloropheiicsic Acid. C 12 H 3 C1 2 HO. By chlorine on carbolic acid. Chlorophcnisc. Chlorobenzine. C 12 H C1 C . Chlorophcnisic Acid. Chlorindoptic Add. C 12 H 2 C1 3 O,HO. By further action on the chlorophenesic acid. Chlorophemisic Acid. C 12 C1 5 OHO. By further action on the preceding. Chlorophenylc. Ci 2 H 5 Cl. By quintochlo- ride of phosphorus on carbonic acid. Chlorophtalisic. C 16 HC1 3 C . By nitric acid on chloronaphthalase. Chlorophyllc. C 18 H 9 N0 8 ? The green- colouring matter of plants. Chlorophyllitc. Spec. grav. 2-709, H 1-75. Greenish G and 12-sided prisms, pearly lustre, translucent, brittle, B.B., fuses on edges, with carbonate of soda a 'greenish enamel ; silica 45-2, alumina or phosphate of alumina 27-6. MgO 9-6, FeO 8-24, MnO 4-08, HO 3-G Found at Brevig, Norway, and Maine, U.S. Chloropicriiic. C 2 NC1 3 4 . Clear oil by distilling picric acid with bleaching powder. Chloroprotcic Acid. A hypothetic body, supposed to consist of chlorine and proteine. Chloropurrcic Acid. Chloreuxanthic Acid. C 40 H 14 Cl 2 2 i. Golden scales ; insoluble in al- cohol ; by the action of chlorine ' on purreic acid. Chlororccinc. Ci 8 H 10 N,0 8 Cl 2 . From chlo- rine on orceine. Chlorrubinc. Ci 2 H 4 3 . Red powder by heating rubichloric acid and HC1. Chlorosalicinc. C 2G H 17 C10 14 . By chlo- rine on salicine; a di and trichlorosalicine exist. hlorosalicylic Acid. Chloride of salicyle. C] 4 H 5 O 4 C1. Rectangular plates, by chlorine on anhydrous hydride of salicyle. Chlorosamidc. C 14 H 5 2 N Cl. 166 CHL Chlorosalicylimide. C 42 H 15 By ammonia on the preceding. Chlorosaligeiiiiic. C 14 H 7 C10 4 . Produced by fermenting chlorosalicine, which consists of sugar and chlorosaligenine. Chlorospinclle. Spec. grav. 3-592 ; H 8. Grass-green 8-hedrons in talc slate in the Ural. B.B. infusible ; forms a green glass with borax. Silica 27-13, alumina 60-735, Fe0 2 3 11-731, CuO -445, CaO -135. Chlorostilbasc. C 2 8H n Cl. By Cl on stil- bene. Chlorostryclminc. C^H^CIN^. Chlorostyracinc. C GO H 2 iCl 7 O G . Chloroauccilamide. C 4 NH 2 C1 2 ? Silky needles by evaporating in vacuo a solution of chloroazosuccinic acid in aqueous ammonia. Chlorowuccilic Acid. Bichloroacetic Acid. C 4 H 2 C1 2 ,O 4 . By boiling chlorosuccilamide with caustic potash. Chlorosuccinic Acid. C C H 3 C1 3 4 . Or metacetonic acid in which H 3 are replaced by C1 3 ? Chlorosulphokinonc. Broicn. C 25 H 8 C1 O 8 S 4 ? The orange has H 2 less. Chlorosulphonaphthalic Acid. HO, ( '., H C ,S0 2 ,C1,SO 3 . Chlorotercbene*. C 20 H 14 C1 2 and C1 4 . Chlorous Acid. C1O 3 . A dark greenish- yellow gas, formed by mixing 1 tartaric acid, 2 chlorate of potash, in a retort, and pouring on the mixture 6 nitric acid and 8 water. Chlorovalcrisic Acid. Ci H 7 Cl 3 4 . By chlorine on valerianic acid without light. Chlorovalcrosic Acid. Ci H 5 Cl 4 03. By Cl on valerianic acid in light. Chloroxalic Ether. C 12 Cli O 8 . From chlo- rine and oxalic ether. Chloroxamethane. C 8 H 2 C1 5 NO G . By dry ammonia chloroxalic ether. Chloroxcnaphthalisc, Oxide of. C 20 C1 G 2 O 2 . By nitric acid on chloronaphthalase. Chloroxciiaphthalisic* Acid. C 20 HC1 5 O f) . By potash on the preceding. Chloroxcnaphthosc, Oxide of. C 20 H 4 C1 2 2 ,09. By nitric acid on chloride of chloro- naphthose. Chloroxcthiile. C 4 H 5 0, C 4 C ? Yellow oil by adding perohloroxalic ether to spirit, and decomposing by water. Chloroxethose. C 4 C1 3 O. An oil by per- chloric ether on sulphide of potassium. Chloryle. C G H 3 C1 3 4 . A fluid by the ac- tion of chlorine on acetate of methyle. Chocolate. A material for extracting a beverage from, prepared by pulverizing the ker- nel of the Theobroma cacao, mixing it with sugar, and compressing it into a cake. Cholacrole. C 8 N" 2 H 5 Oi 3 . Pungent fluid in the action of NO^ on choloidic acid. Cholalic, Cholanic, Cholonic, Cholic, Choleic, acids. See BILE. Cholcsteric Acid. C 8 H 4 4 HO. Needles CHO fusing at 136 by the action of nitric acid on cholesterine and choloidic acid. Cholesteriline. C 32 H 26 , F.P. 464. White needles by sulphuric acid on cholesterine. Other two hydrocarbons are formed at the same time ; b crystalline C 32 H 18 , F.P. 491; and c a resin C 27 H 22 260. Cholcatcrine. C 81 H G9 O 3 ,orC 36 H 32 0. Spec, grav. 1-03. F.P. 337, 278, C 85-09, H 11-85, O 3-06. White pearly scales, without taste and smell, unchanged by distillation free from air; soluble in 9 parts alcohol (-840), 5-54 ('816), in 12 cold, 22 boiling ether ; soluble in pyroxylic spirit ; with difficulty in oil of turpentine ; 4 parts of dry soap, dissolved in water, take up one part cholesterine ; strong sulphuric acid decomposes it into the three preceding hydrocarbons. It exists in the blood, bile, brain, yolk of egg, and may be taken up from biliary calculi by boiling alco- hol, from which it is deposited on cooling. It has been suggested that cholesterine may be de- rived from cholalic acid. Cholcsteroiic (a). F.P. 154. Rhombic prisms, containing C 87-7, H 12-1, by the action of phosphoric acid on cholesterine. Cholcsteroiie (b). F.P. 347. Crystals with the same composition as the preceding. Cholemtrophane. Nitrotheine. C 10 2NH 2 , H 2 4 ,O 2 ? White pearly plates and 8-hedrons. Soluble in 3 cold water ; in ether and alcohol ; obtained by the action of nitric acid or chlorine on caffeine ; by potash, yields ethylamine. Choloidaiiic Acid." C 1G H 12 7 . Crystal- line; a product of the oxidation of choloidic acid. Choloidic Acid. C 48 H 39 . Resin, in- soluble in water, soluble in alcohol ; obtained by boiling cholic acid or bile with chlorohydric acid ; when longer boiled, it loses 3 atoms water, and leaves dyslysine. When heated with nitric acid it yields acetic, butyric, valeriauic, caprylic, and capric acids, nitrocholic acid, and cholacrol, choloidanic acid, and cholesteric acid. Choiidrinc. C 10 H 13 N 2 O 7 . Brownish elas- tic masses, insoluble in alcohol and ether ; swells up in cold water, soluble in hot water, gelatiniz- ing on cooling ; from its solution it is precipitated by a drop of mineral acids, soluble in excess; by a stream of carbonic acid, by alcohol, diace- tate of lead, chloride of tin, perchlorides of iron, platinum, and mercury, alum, sulphate of alu- mina. Caseine and chondrine are the only ani- mal substances precipitated by acetic acid; it is obtained by boiling in water the permanent cartilages, as of the larynx, ribs, or joints, from twelve to eighteen hours. It is also yielded by skins, tendons, the cornea, &c. Choudroditc. Spec. grav. 3-118 to 3-199 ; H 6 to 6-5. Yellow, brown, or greenish oblique prisms, from N. Jersey and Finland, in limestone. B.B. becomes black, white on charcoal, without fusing ; dissolves in borax to a clear glass ; gives out fluohydric acid with oil of vitriol. Silica, 167 CHO 36- ; MgO 54-64, Fe 2 3 3-97, F 3-75, HO 1-62, Form. MgF, 2 (3 MgO, Si0 3 ). Chonicrite. A white massive mineral from Elba, consisting of SiO 3 35-69, A1 2 3 17-12, MgO 22-5, CaO 12-6, FeO 1-46, HO 9-. Chrisnratine. A yellow resin on calc spar at "VVettin, Halle. Christianitc. A name given to anorthite, and likewise to lime harmotome, or Phillipsite. Chrome Iron Ore. Spec. grav. 4-321, H 5-5. Regular 8-hedrons or massive; colour between iron -black or brownish -black, streak brown ; lustre imperfect metallic ; fracture un- even, imperfect, conchoidal ; distinguished from magnetic iron ore by its not being attracted by the magnet, and by its resinous lustre. A speci- men from Baltimore yielded Berthier protox. iron 35-, oxide of chromium 51-6, alumina 10-, silica 3-, but its composition seems to vary. By calcula- tion, the composition would be, FeO 34-44, Cr 2 O 3 57-4, A1 2 3 8-15, if we represent the for- mulas of magnetic iron, chrome iron ore, and Franklinite respectively as follows : 2 FeO, 2 FeO, 3 Fe 2 3 , Fe 2 3 , Mag. iron ore. 2 ZnO, 2 FeO, 3 Fe 2 3 , Mn 2 O 3 , Franklinite. 2 FeO, 2 FeO, 3 Cr 2 3 , A1 2 3 , Chrome iron ore. I have found the best method of decomposing this, one of the most refractory minerals, to be, to fuse it with bisulphate of soda. It is found in Shetland ; near Baltimore ; Eoraas, Norway, &c. Chrome Ochre. Native Sesquioxide o f Chrome, Wolclionskoite, Miloschine, Silicate of Chromium, and Iron. Forms a rich green coat- ing on certain rocks, but has often, I suspect, been confounded with native carbonate of nickel, which I first detected on the chrome iron ore of America. From Okhansk, it consists of Si0 3 27-2, Cr 2 p 3 34, Fe 2 3 7-2, MgO 7-2, HO 28*. The iron is sometimes replaced partially by alu- mina. Chromic Acid. CrO, 6'5,50'G. Pure chromic acid may be obtained by precipitating the solu- tion of the fused mass of chrome iron ore and nitre, when saturated with nitric acid, with ace- tat i- of lead, or nitrate of barytes. The chromate of lead or barytes is then washed and ignited ; 4 parts of chromate of lead, or 3 chromate of barytes, are then to be heated with 3 parts of pure iluor spar previously ignited, and 5 parts of sulphuric acid, as concentrated as possible in a lead retort with the aid of a spirit-lamp. Red vapours are evolved which, when condensed by water, arc converted into fluohydric and chromic acids. By evaporation in a platinum vessel to dry-ness, pure chromic acid remains (Unverdor- beu). When cautiously evaporated, it is often CHR obtained in 4-sided rich crimson-coloured prisms, with square or rectangular bases. If the vapours, consisting of fluochroniic acid, be received in a large platinum crucible, the chromic acid deposits in large needles (Berzelius). It may be procured likewise by passing fiuosilicic acid through a solu- tion of bichromate of potash. The potash falls in union with the fluosilicic acid, the chromic acid remaining in the solution, and is procured by evaporating to dryness. Chromic acid is useful in the laboratory for testing, in consequence of the facility with which it parts with its oxygen. For this purpose it may be prepared nearly pure, by the following process. Form a hot saturated solution of bichromate of potash and allow it to stand at rest to cool, until its excess of salt is deposited. To 1 part of this cold saturated solu- tion, add 1^ part of oil of vitriol. The mixture on cooling gradually deposits crystals of chromic acid, from which the fluid is to be poured off, and the crystals dried on a porous tile. Chromic acid when evaporated to dryness is black ; biit when it cools it is deep red ; when ignited, oxygen is evolved, and oxide of chrome left. Chromic acid decomposes alcohol, and gives origin to al- dehyde, by substracting hydrogen from the spirit. I have found this to be an excellent test of alco- hol in solutions. It affords such a delicate method of testing, that a drop or two of alcohol may be distinguished in an ounce of water. All that is necessary is to drop a few crystals of chromic acid into the liquor to be tested, when the odour of aldehyde will be perceptible, and oxide of chrome will be precipitated. A crystal of bichromate of potash, and a drop or two of sulphuric acid, answer the same purpose. According to Gay Lussac, chromic acid unites with sulphuric acid, and forms ruby-coloured prisms (Ann de Chim. xvi. 102); but this is now viewed as doubtful. Chromic acid is considered by Mitscherlich as iso- morphous with sulphuric acid and selenic acid, and to consist of oxygen 46-03, and chromium 53-97. Many of the metallic chromates are in- soluble in water ; the alkaline salts are charac- terized by their brilliant colours, and are all soluble in water. The most important of these salts are the chromate and bichromate of potash. Chromium. Cr 3-5, 28.26-7. //^.Chro- mium was discovered in 1797, by Vanquelin, in. the chromate of lead (red lead ore), a beautiful red mineral from Beresow in Siberia, crystallizing in 4-sided prisms, and was so named from XM, $ colour, from its power of communicating tints to other bodies. It was afterwards examined by Klaproth and others (Berzelius, Ann. of Phil, iii. 101). It occurs in nature in the form of chromate of lead, cupreo chromate of lead (2 (PbO Cr^ 3 ) -j- CuO), but most abundantly in the state of chrome iron ore, a compound of green oxide of chrome and of protoxide and peroxide of iron. The metal may be ob- tained from the green oxide by heating it in a forge, mixed with charcoal, at a white 168 CHR heat. It possesses a grayish-white colour, and a spec. grav. of 5-9 ; is brittle, easily pulverized, and not attracted by the magnet. It is a con- ductor of electricity. The acids can scarcely, if at all, be made to oxidize it, but it dissolves in fluohydric acid with the application of heat. When fused with the alkalies, or alkaline carbonates, or nitrates, it is converted into chromic acid. The metal may be procured with greater facility by passing a stream of ammoniacal gas over the chlo- ride of chromium, salammoniac being formed (Liebig). The oxide may be obtained on the large scale by fusing chrome iron ore (a com- pound crystallizing in octahedrons near Baltimore, and consisting of 52-95 green oxide, 29-24 per- oxide of iron and 12-22 alumina), with an equal weight of nitre, in a clay or iron crucible, boiling the fused mass with water, hydrochloric acid, and sugar, or oxalic acid, evaporating to dryness, dissolving in acid, neutralizing. If the liquor is now boiled, the iron falls, and the chrome and alumina may be separated by caustic soda, which dissolves the alumina, and leaves the chrome. Oxide of Chromium, Sesquioxide of Chrome. Cr 2 3 10' is a green powder acquiring a brownish tint by ignition. It may be obtained by boiling a solution of bichromate of potash with a portion of oxalic acid or sugar and hydrochlo- ric acid. The carbon of the sugar or oxalic acid unites with oxygen of the chromic acid, and is converted into carbonic acid, while the green oxide of chrome is dissolved by the mineral acid. The action is represented by the accompanying scheme : 2 (Cr0 3 ) chromic acid, 3 C 2 3 oxalic acid, = 1 Cr 2 3 , 6 C0 2 . On the addition of caustic ammonia the hydrate of the green oxide precipitates. It may also be obtained from this salt by passing a current of sul- phuretted hydrogen through its solution. It may likewise be formed by heating bichromate of pot- ash with QT without salammoniac, and washing the oxide free from potash. The oxide may also be procured by heating the chloride of chromium in the air, or by igniting the chromate of mercury, or by heating the chromate of potash with its own weight of muriate of ammonia in a close crucible (Wohler). For commercial purposes the green oxide may be formed by fusing chrome iron ore with nitre, washing the fused mass, and boiling the liquor with sulphur : a sulphuret of potassium is formed which precipitates the green oxide (Frick). It may be obtained in rhombohedral crystals, by passing the vapour of chlorochro- rnic acid through a red hot glass tube (Wohler, Ann. de Chim. Ivii). Green oxide when nearly heated to redness, glows or becomes ignited like tinder, a property possessed also by zirconia. After this it is no longer soluble in acids, but in order to render it soluble it must be fused with an alkali. It is isomorphous with sesquioxides CHR of iron, manganese, and alumina. Practical appli- cations The green oxide of chrome constitutes one of the best greens employed as a paint, espe- cially for porcelain. It enters as an ingredient into the English pink used for porcelain, a colour formed of 100 parts peroxide of tin, 33 chalk, and 1 of oxide of chrome. The part which it plays in this mixture is not understood, since some other substances are said to answer equally well when substituted for it (Sims). It is supposed to act as the colouring substance of green serpentines and of the emerald (Vanquelin.) Brown Oxide. Cfvromate of Chrome. This oxide, which appears to be a mixture of oxide of chrome and chromic acid, may be obtained by passing a current of sulphurous acid through a solution of the chromate or bichromate of potash. It possesses a flea-brown colour, has no taste, and undergoes no alteration in the ah". When washed with caustic ammonia it assumes the colour of the green oxide. It ordinarily consists of 3 Cr 2 O 3 -j- Cr0 3 (Thomson). It dissolves in acids, and forms the usual salts of oxide of chrome. Protoxide of Chromium. CrO 4-5. Obtained in combination with acids by Peligot, but has not been isolated, as it acts upon water, and is con- verted into the Protosesquioxide. Cr 3 O 4 , or CrO Cr 2 3 . Brown. Obtained by precipitating a salt of the protoxide with caustic alkali. When heated in the air it changes into sesquioxide. Binoxide. Cr0 2 5 - 5, or chromate of sesqui- oxide of chromium Cr 2 3 CrO 3 = 3 (Cr0 2 ), may be prepared by pouring, drop by drop, a solution of chromate of potash into a sesquioxide salt ; another form is obtained by precipitating chrome alum by chromate of potash. Yellowish- green. Chromochloritc. An American variety of serpentine. Chromocyauogcn. Cy c Cr 2 . Obtained by heating chromium with ferrocyanide of potas- sium in union with potassium. Chromotype. This term is applied to the mode of preparing photographic paper by a solu- tion of 1 part sulphate of copper, and 4 parts of a saturated solution of bichromate of potash. Chromylc, or Xanthophylle. Chryaiiisic Acid. Ci 4 H 4 N 3 13 . By nitric on anisic acid. Chryiodamidc. C 28 H 8 N 3 13 . Blue body along with oxide of chryiodammonium. Chryiodammoaiium Oxide. Oig. Blue by ammonia on cliryiodine. Chryiodine. C fi6 H 8 N 3 2 8. Violet body by sulphuric acid on chrysammic acid. Chrysammic Acid. C 15 HN0 12 ,HO. Greenish-yellow, shining scales ; slightly soluble hi boiling water; soluble in ether, alcohol, and strong acids ; fonned by the action of nitric acid on aloes. Chrysammide. C 14 II 2 KOiiNH 2 . By dry ammonia on chrysammic acid. 1G9 CHR Chrysamiiiin-amidc. C 2S H 10 ]Sr 7 2 i. By boiling ammonia with chrysammic acid. Inysmiilii- Acid. C 28 H n ,N 2 O 6 ? By the action of potash on indigo. Chrysatric Acid. C 2 4H 6 N 3 15 . By al- kalies on chrysammic or aloetic acids. Chrysene. C 12 H 4 , F.P. 450. Yellow powder ; found in the last fifth during the distil- lation of wood tar ; it is only slightly soluble in ether, by which it may be separated from pyrene. Chrysindauiidc. C 28 H 9 N 5 Oi 8 . Blue by SH on chrysammic acid in ammonia. Chrysiiidiii-Animoiiium Oxide. CogHg NsOis. By ammonia and SH on chrysam- niide. Chrysite, or Chrysolite. Chrysoberyl. Cymophane. Specific grav. 3-51 to 3-754 and 3-733, H 8-5. Right rectan- gular prisms ; sometimes 8 or 12-sided, with 6 or 8-sided pyramidal terminations ; sometimes it occurs as 3 prisms crossing, fig. 2 ; colour aspara- ro Fig. 2. gus-green to greenish- white and gray; lustre vitreous, transparent to translucent. B.B. does not fuseper se, nor with soda ; with borax into a glass. Alumina 76-75, glucina 17-79, FeO 4-49, HO 48 (Brazil). Found in granite in Connecticut ; but in Brazil in alluvium along with topaz. Chrysocolla. See SILICOCARBONATE of COPPER. Chrysoidinc. C 24 H 22 8 . Yellow body from the berries of asparagus. Chrysolepic Acid. C 12 H 2 N 3 1S RO. Gol- den scales ; by nitric acid on aloes, believed to be the same as picric acid. Chrysolite. Peridote, Olivine, Chusite, An- hydrous Silicate of Magnesia. Spec. grav. 3-338 to 3-41, H 6-75. Asparagus, grass-green or olive, right rectangular prisms from the Levant and as olivine in basalt. B.B. infusible; with borax a glass coloured by iron. Silica 41-54, mag- nesia 50-04, protox. iron 8-GG, MnO -25, alumina 06. Chrysolite of Saxony is Topaz. Chrysopal, or Chrysoberyl. Chrysophaue, Clintonite, Seybertite, Holme- site. Chrysophanic Acid. See PAUIETIC ACID. Chrysoprasc-. An apple-green variety of calcedony, owing its colour to oxide of nickel Chrysorefinc. A brown resin, from senna leaves. Chrygorhamninc. C^H^O^. Yellow- colouring matter of Persian berries, Rhammis inftctoriw. 2. 89-2 8 4-7 4-6 CIC Chrysotile, or Metaxite, a variety of serpen- tine. Specific grav. 2-223. From the Vosges. Si0 3 41-58, MgO 42-61, FeO 1-69, Alo0 3 -42, HO 13-7. Chrysotype. Photographic paper, prepared with a solution of ammonia, citrate of iron, dried, and then, in the dark, with a solution of yellow prussiate of potash. Chuaite. A decomposed variety of Olivine, from Limbourg. Chyle. The digested food in its passage from the stomach and intestines to the blood. For examination it has usually been taken from the thoracic duct. It is sometimes a colourless fluid, but generally a milky liquid, with a neutral re- action, and a specific gravity from 102 1 to 1022, and containing 4-8 to 7-8 of solid mat- ter per cent. The following is the composi- tion of chyle, according to various analyses : 1, Chyle of dog, from vegetable food (Prout) ; 2, chyle of dog from animal food (Prout) ; 3, chyle (Simon) ; 4, chyle of ass (Rees) : 1. Water, 93-6 Fibrine, -6 Albumen, 4-6 Albumen, with) . red matter, ) Sugar, trace Oil, trace trace 0-12 trace Salts, -8 -7 1-01 -58 Extracts by al- ) cohol and water,) The milky appearance of the chyle is said to be produced by the pancreatic juice on the fat. Chyme. The pulpy condition of the digest- ing food in the stomach has been so named ; it is obviously in a transition state from the insol- uble to the soluble condition, and is therefore a heterogeneous mixture of various colours, accord- ing to the nature of the food. Chyuolc. C 3 HO. Chytophyllite. A slag consisting of bluish pearly scales, from iron works at Altenau. Spec. grav. 2-94, H 5-5. B.B. fuses into a greenish- black non-magnetic bead. Si0 3 54-89, A1 2 3 5-07, FeO 20-79, CaO 20-34. Cichorium Intybus. Chicory. Wild Suc- cory, or Wild endive. Chicoree. This plant is extensively cultivated in Yorkshire and on the continent for its roots, which, when roasted and pulverized, are used in mixture with coffee. It must be considered as an adulteration, as it con- tains no principle analogous to that of tea or coffee. The permission by the legislature to use this article in competition with coffee, an article which pays duty, is to be regretted ; but now that it has become a favourite with the public, the withdrawal of the admission would be un- popular in the highest degree. 100 parts of best chicory contain 10-11 water, 8-9 ash, and give up 72-3 to boiling water. 100 parts of second 3. 4. 94-0 95-5 03 -12 4-3 1-2 04 1-5 170 CIC quality contain 10 water, 36-8 ash, and yield 48-5 to boiling water. 100 grammes chicory (1544J grs.) yield 35 grammes of extract to a litre (1-76 pint) of water, which contains -574 gramme of nitrogen = 3-55 gramme albuminous matter. Yorkshire chicory contains in its ash sulphuric acid 10-29; chlorine 4-93; carbonic acid 1-78; phosphoric acid 10-66; silica 3-81 ; sand 9-32; potash 33-48; soda 8-12; lime 9-38; magnesia 5-27; sesquioxide of iron 3-81. Chicory contains a large quantity of sugar, from 23-76 to 35-23 per cent, in the dry root, and in roasted chicory are retained from 9-86 to 17-98 ; while coffee beans contain before roasting from 5*7 to 7-7 per cent, sugar (Graham, Campbell, Stenhouse). It is to the charring of the sugar, or its conversion into caramel, that chicory owes its bitter and colouring power. Chicory is distinguished from coffee 1. By its containing a much larger amount of sugar, 11-98 to 17-98 per cent, in roasted chicory, from to 1 Lacticiferous Tissue. Cicutiiic. An unexamined principle from Cicuta virosa. Cider. A fermented liquor from the juice of apples, extensively made in Gloucestershire and other parts of England. Cimolite. A grayish or reddish clay from the island of Argentiera, (Cimola), consisting of Si0 3 63-53, A1 2 3 22-70, HO 42-42 (from Alexandrowsk), or A1 2 O 3 3 Si0 3 3 HO. Cinchona. The barks of different trees ap- pear to go under this designation, although no certainty seems to prevail on the subject. The barks known in commerce are the pale, red, and yellow. They contain certain bitter alkaloids, qui- nine, cinchonine, aricine, united or accompanied by certain acids, kinic and kinovic acids. They contain also tannic acid, colouring matters, and resins. Cinchoniciuc. A new base isomeric with cinchonine, obtained by heating sulphate of cin- chonine with a little water and sulphuric acid for three or four hours at 248, 266 ; sulphate of cinchonicine is thus obtained. If heated above this, a red resin is formed. GIN per cent, in roasted coffee. 2. By the large amount of silica and sand in its ash, 2 to 15 per cent. in coffee less than per cent. ; also by less carbonic acid 2 to 3 per cent. in coffee 15 to 18 per cent, and 3 by the red colour of the ash, from the large quantity of iron. When roasted chicory, in powder, is dropped into cold water, a pale amber-yellow colour gradually forms round each particle ; but roasted coffee powder gives out no such colour. This arises from the presence of more soluble matter in chicory 100 grammes chicory give a fluid of specific gravity 2-5, (Beaume), and an intensity of colour, 130, while the respective numbers for coffee are 1-50 B. and. 100. When boiled in caustic potash chicory separates into two kinds of particles, pitch- brown and pale brown, while coffee has nearly a uni- form colour, unless any fibres of skin or parch- ment be present: Chicory, likewise, contains lacticiferous vessels and coffee none. The follow- ing drawings are by Dr. J. D. Hooker : Vascular Tissue. Cinchonidinc. A new alkaloid existing ia commercial quinine, which is not rendered green by chlorine and ammonia, and is isomeric with cinchonine. Cinchonine. C 38 H 22 lS[ 2 O 2 = Ci. Colour- less, transparent, 4-sided prisms; F.P. 165 C. (329 F.) sublimes like benzoic acid, soluble in 2500 boiling water; insoluble in ether, which dissolves quinine; 100 strong spirit dissolve 3 parts ; forms a series of crystalline salts, often sub- salts, insoluble in ether; it is obtained along with quinine, and is separated from that alkaloid by hot alcohol, which, on evaporation, allows the cincho- nine to deposit in crystals, and retains quinine. With chlorine and bromine are formed, chloro and bromo cinchonine by the replacement of 1 atom of H by 1 atom Cl. Cinchonine and quinine both yield quinoline with hydrate of potash when, heated. With bromine it forms jDibromocin- chonine. C 3 gH 2 oBr 2 N 2 02. Cinchotine, or B. Quinine. C 2 oHi 2 N0 2 . Rhomboids in commercial cinehonine. Cinchovatinc. C 46 H 2 7N 2 O 8 . A crystal- line alkaloid from Cinchona ovata. 171 CIN Ciniue. A crystalline body in the seeds o: Cina. Cinnabar. Sulphide of mercury. Cinnamcine. C 36 H 18 O 4 . An oil existing in balsam of Peru. When boiled with potash it yields peruvine and cinnamic acid, from which it has been compared to a fat, the peruvine being the glycerine. It has been found to contain cinnamic acid, C 18 H 7 O 3 , and a new ether, C 18 H 7 O. At 26 it deposits in crystals of hy- of. Blue Cotiperose, Blue Vitriol, Bluestone, Cyanose. CuO SO 3 , 5HO. Spec. grav. 2-213, H 2-25. Blue doubly-oblique- prisms, with angles of 127 30', 108, and 123; occurs as a result of the decomposition of cop- per pyrites at Ilammelsberg, Neusohl, Anglesea, Wicklow, &c. Copper Sulpho Arsenide. See TENKAJSTITE. Copper, Teruydrous Pentaphosphate of. Phosphoro-calcite, Ehlite, Dihydrite, Rhenite? Ypoleine, Hydrous subsesquiphosphate. 5 CuO PO 5 , 3 HO or CuO 67-25, P0 6 24-55, HO 8-2. Sometimes the water is a little deficient, varying: from 2 to 3 atoms. Spec. grav. 4-2 to 4*3, H 5-. Emerald-green masses, or blackish-green oblique- rhombic prisms, with angles of 97-30, and 37-30 - T structure generally striated, from the crystals- being aggregated ; lustre adamantine or vitreous, translucent on the edges. Locality. Rheinbrei- tenbach, near Bonn, and Tagilsk, Russia. Copper, Terhydrous Subsesqnisilicate of. Dioptase, Achirite, Copper Emerald, Kiesel Ma- lachite. Spec. grav. 3-2 to 3-4, H 5 ; 3 CuO, 2 SiO 3r 3 HO CuO 49-92, Si0 3 38-76, HO 11-32. Fine emerald-green rhombic 12-hedrons, from the Kerghese Steppes, on calc spar ; insoluble in nitric acid (?), but soluble in muriatic acid, the silica gelatinizing; B.B. becomes black hi the oxidizing, and red in the reducing flame ; infusible ; forms a green glass with borax. 189 COP Copper, Tctrasulphate of. 4 CuO S0 3 , 4 HO. A verdigris-green powder, found in Mexico. Copper, Triple Sulphuret. See BOUR- JfOXITE. Copper, Trisulphatc of. See BROCHAN- TITK. Copper Uraiiite. See URANITE. Copper, Tanadiate of. Volborthite. Spec, grav. 3 ; o5. Olive-green coloured 6-gonal crys- tals, sometimes in globular masses in Siberian ores of copper. CuO 44-15, CaO 12-68, V0 3 36-58, HO 4-62, MgO -5, MnO -4. Copper, Variegated Ore of. Buntlcupfer- crz, Purple copper ore, Liver-coloured copper ore, Octahedral copper pyrites. Spec. grav. 5-003 ; H 2-5 to 3. 2 Cu 2 S, FeS or Cu 2 S, FeS or 3CuoS, Fe 2 S 3 =Cu 61-07, Fe 14, S 23-75, Si0 3 -5. Col- our intermediate between copper and pinchbeck- brown, with an iridescent tarnish, by which it is easily recognized ; massive, and in cubes, with the solid angles replaced by triangular planes. Cleaves parallel to these faces ; hence its primary form is the regular 8-hedron. Found in Cornwall, Ire- land, Silesia, Norway, Sweden,Canada, Greenland. . Coprolites. The fossil excrements of ex- tinct animals ; found in the lias, chalk, and coal formations, as at Bristol, Lyme Regis, Auteuil, Coprolites. Connecticut, Burdiehouse, Fifeshire, &c. Consist of from 9-5 to 85 per cent, of phosphate of lime and magnesia; 10 to 61 of carbonate of lime; o to 13-5 of carbonate of magnesia; 7 to 25 organic matter; and sometimes small quanti- ties of urate of ammonia, fluoride of calcium, gypsum, common salt, alumina, sesquioxide of iron, silica. When found in any quantity, they are valuable manures. Copulated or Conjugate Bodies. Com- pound bodies, composed of two simpler com- pounds; thus salicine, the bitter matter of the willow, is formed of saligenine and sugar. Coquimbite. Fe 2 O 3 3S0 3 9HO. Native f-esquisulphate of iron, found in Chili ; it is often a mixture. Coracite. Pitch Blende? Spec. grav. 4-378, H 4-5. Black amorphous, found at the junction of trap and syenite, on the .N. shore of Lake Su- perior; contains from 59-3 to 76-6 of protoses- quioxide of uranium (U 3 4 ), Si0 3 4-35, A1 2 O 3 , -9, Fe 2 O 3 2-24, Pb 5-36, Ca O 14-44, C0 2 7-47, HO 4-64. Coral. The name applied to various genera of sea animals, supposed to originate the chalk COT formation. They consist of carbonate and phos- phorate of lime, magnesia, and animal matter. It Astrea Viridis. has been found that in the neighbourhood of coral islands the sea water is deficient in lime salts. Cordieritc. See IOLITE. Coriander Oil. A colourless oil of spec, grav. -759, from the seeds of Coriandrum sativum. Coriarine. A crystalline substance from the leaves of Coriaria myrtlfolia. Cork. C 62-3, H 7-15, O 27-57, N 3-03. The modified liber or endophloeum of the Quercus suber or cork tree; but cork occurs in other plants, as in the potato, constituting the outermost layer of the stem, and forms a row of cells, readily dis- tinguishable both by their structure and chemical reactions from the starch cells. The layer is easily separated from boiled potatoes. Strong sulphuric acid does not act for" some time on cork. Nitric acid of 1-2 oxidizes it below 212, and yields suberic acid, oxalic acid, &c. Corkwax. C 25 H 10 3 . Cerine. Needles ob- tained by alcohol arid ether from cork, converted into an acid (eerie acid C 42 H 17 Oi 3 ) by nitric acid. Coriialiue. A variety of agate. Corncine. Ilornstone, Compact Amphibole, Aluminous Hornblende. Contains, from Nord- marck, silica 48-83, alumina 7-43, MgO 13-61, CaO 10-16, FeO 18-75, MnO 1-15, F -41, HO -5. Corneous l^ead, or Chlorocarbonate of lead. Cornine. A crystalline resin from Cornus florida. Corrosive Sublimate. See CHLORIDE OF MERCURY. Corticine. A solid by alcohol from the bark of Populus tremula. Coruntlcllite. Marr/arite. Spec. grav. 3, H 3-5. Hexagonal whitish-yellow masses in plates, from Chester county, U.S. ; SiO 3 35-71, A1 2 3 53-13, CaO 7-27, KO 1-22, NaO -41, HO and F 2-3. Corundophyllite. Green plates from North Carolina, consisting of SiO 3 34-75, FeO 31-25, A1 2 3 8-55, HO 5-47, NaO? 20. Corundum. See SAPPHIRE. Corydaline. C 34 H 22 NO 10 |. Crystalline plates from Corydalis tuberosa, &c. Cosmetics, (xofftiu, I adorn). Preparations for the hair and skin. Cotarninc. C 26 H 13 N0 5 . Yellow radiated mass from narcotine by oxidation with binoxide of manganese and sulphuric acid. Cotton. Baumwolle, Ger.; Coton, Fr. C 190, COT 44-35, H 6-14, 049-51. The well-known wool or down surrounding the seeds of species of gos- sjpiura. It is nearly pure cellulose. Cotton Cotton. (Batter.) Linen. consists of flattened, twisted tubes without joints, while linen consists of jointed cylindrical tubes. Hence, it is supposed that the flattened sharp edge of the cotton has an unfavourable irritating influence in dressing wounds, while the rounded form of the linen is destitute of any such effect. Cotumiitc. Chloride of lead in needles from the crater of Vesuvius. Coulobrasinc, or Selenide of Zinc. Coumaric Acid. C 18 H 6 O 5 HO. Plates by potash on coumarine. Coumarinc. CisHgO^. Needles from Tonka bean, by alcohol, &c. Coupcrosc. {Ang. Copperqs). The French name for sulphate of iron. Coupcrosc, White. Sulphate of Zinc. Couzcranitc. Spec. grav. 2-69, H 6-5. Black or indigo-blue lamellar, or in oblique rhombic prisms resembling pyroxene, from which it differs by its action before the blowpipe, and in its fracture, which is conchoidal; at Couzeran, Py- renees. Silica 52-37, alumina 24-02, lime 11-85, MgO 1-4, KO 5-52, NaO 3-96. B.B. fuses to a white enamel. Covclliiiitc, or Nepheline. Covcllitc, Covclliiic. Equisulphide of copper. Cowdic. Kaurie or Cowrie resin. See DAMMARA RESIST. Crajtiru. A red-colouring matter from Para, resembling chica red. Craiucric Acid. C 10 H 8 05. Crystals from Crameria triandra. Crauritc. Protophosphate of iron. Crayons, Black. Are composed of fine charcoal from willows and other soft woods ; white crayons from fine chalk; red crayons of sanguine 100, gum 4-41. Cream. Rahm, Ger. ; Creme, Fr. The olea- ginous matter of milk which rises to the sur- face of that fluid after standing. It consists of 4-5 oil and 3-5 caseine, with 92 whey; it is . therefore very liable to decomposition from the fermenting action of the caseine. The amount of cream which rises to the surface of milk, de- pends on the shallowness of the vessel in which the milk is deposited. The lactometers sometimes used, which are deep graduated cylinders, do not CRO afford an indication of so much cream as would be obtained from a shallower vessel. Cream of Tartar. Acid tartrate of pbtash. Creasote, not Creosote, fane;, flesh; ? I preserve). C 2 eH 16 4 ? Spec. grav. 1-040. B. P. 398-3 ; clear neutral oil,, with a burning taste and peculiar odour, evaporating without residue, changing to a brown colour in light; leaves a white spot on the skin; it is soluble in alcohol, ether, and acetic acid, ammonia, potash ; only slightly so in water ; poisonous; it dissolves camphor, fats, essen- tial oils, resins, and indigo, &c.; becomes pur- ple by oil of vitriol ; it forms weak combinations with bases ; passed through an ignited tube it yields naphthaline, a gas and carbon; it ap- proximates to hydrate of guiacyle in composition and character ; it appears to be the active agent in the Aqua Binelli used as a styptic ; it is a valuable remedy in toothache from its caustic influence on the pulp of the tooth ; it preserves anatomical preparations, and likewise meat in summer; it is to its presence in pyroligneous acid that the preservative action of that substance is owing. It is derived from the wood tar obtained in the process for pyroligneous acid. When this acid in its crude state is saturated with a base, an oil floats on the surface. This oil is mixed with an alkaline carbonate and distilled with water, which frees it from acid. The oil is dis- solved in caustic soda ; the alkali saturated, the oil distilled ; these processes being repeated until it is free from colour. It is often adulterated with carbolic acid. By the action of chlorohy- dric acid and chlorate of potash, yellow plates, Hexaclilorxylone, CgeHgClgOg, result; and by sul- phurous acid this is converted into hexachlorhy- droxylone. C26HiodGO(j. Creasotic acid. The product of the oxidation of creasote. Crcatinc. See KREATINE. Creatinine. See KREATININE. Credncrite, or Psilomelanite. Crenic Acid. Quel^tre, Ger. C 2 4H 12 Oi6 or C 7 H 8 N0 6 . A yellow mass, sour ; reddens litmus ; soluble in water and alcohol ; with bases forms salts, soluble in water, insoluble in alcohol; obtained from the ochry sediment of ferruginous waters, by boiling it with caustic potash, saturating the filtered solution with acetic acid, and precipitating by acetate of copper, de- composing the crenate o copper by sulphohydric acid, and purifying the acid by alcohol. Cricktomte. Mohsite. Titaniate of iron. Spec. grav. 4-; H 4-5. Protoxide of iron 46-53, sesquioxide of iron 1-2, titanic acid 52-27. Blu- ish-black acute rhomboids; allied to common titaniate of iron. B.B. infusible ; with salt of phosphorus a red glass on cooling. Locality. St. Christophe, Oisans. Cripine. See PICRYLE. Crispitc. A synonyme of titanite. Crocidolite. See KROKIDOLITE. Crockalite. A variety of mesotype. 191 CRO Crocoic Acid. Croconic Acid. C 5 4 HO. Yellow crystals, forming yellow crystallized salts ; it is obtained in the state of crocoate of potash, by heating rhodizoate of potash in water ; fluosilicic acid takes the potash, and sets crocoic acid free. Crocoise, or chromate of lead. Crocus of Antimony, or oxysulphide of antimony. Crocus Martial. Martial Crocus, or colco- thar. Crocus Sativus. See SAFFROX. Croisctte. See STAUROTIDE. Croustedtiic. Spec. grav. 3-3, H 2-5. Black masses and 6-sided prisms ; protoxide of iron 58-85, silica 22-45, water 10-7. MnO 2-88, MgO 5*08 ; B.B. swells up without fusing; with borax an opaque enamel ; gelatinizes in muriatic acid; found at Przibram Bohemia, Cornwall, and Brazil. Cross Stone. A variety of harmotome, in which the crystals cross each other lengthwise, and at right angles. Crotonic Acid. Jatropkic Acid. A volatile acid, obtained by saponifying croton oil, and distilling the acid disengaged from the soap by a mineral acid. Crotoninc. Small crystals by alcohol, from the seeds and oil of the Croton tiglium. Croton Oil. An amber-coloured oil, obtained by expression from the seeds of the Croton tig- lium, used as a powerful purgative, and as a rubefacient externally; ether dissolves 60 per cent, of oil from the seeds ; soluble also in alcohol. Crucible. An important instrument in chemi- cal operations, for fusing and heating substances. Crucibles are formed of refractory clay, porcelain, of platinum, silver, black lead, day and charcoal. Crucite. Crucilite. Spec. grav. 3-579 to 3-809, H 3-. Black 4-sided oblique prisms, crossing each other at angles of 60 and 120. Sometimes forming a star with 6 rays; not magnetic; contains sesquioxide of iron 81-16, alumina 6-86, silica 6-, lime 4-, magnesia -532; in clay slate, Clonmell, Waterford (R.D.T.) Crusite, or Andalusite. Cryolite. Soda Fluoride of Aluminum. (x$vo; cold, from its melting like ice when ignited.) Sp grav. 2-95, H 2-25. White or brownish right rectangular prisms ; translucent ; lustre vitreous brittle; affords fluorine 31-35, alumina 24-4J soda 44-25 ; found at Arksat in Greenland. Cryometer. A thermometer filled with bi- sulphide of carbon, for very low temperatures, th scale ranging from 122 F. to about 250. Cryophorus. (*w>?, cold ; Q^M, I carry). A CRY cube with a glass ball at each end to illustrate the formation of ice by ;he evaporation of wa- ter, one bulb containing water and the remain- der of the tube vapour. When the empty bulb is immersed in a freez- ing mixture the va- pour is condensed, and the cold produced by the evaporation from the surface of the water becomes so great as to freeze the water. Cryptolite. Plios- phocerite. Spec. grav. 4*6, 4*78, H 5. Red 8-hedrons from Arendal and Johannisberg in Sweden ; composed of protoxide of cerium 73-7, protoxide of iron 1-51, phosphoric acid 27-37. Crystal. (xtv H 4 N. Cyaiaobenzile. Large crystals obtained by heating prussic acid and an alcoholic solution of benzile. Cyanecumidine. C 20 H 13 N 2 . Needles formed by treating an alcoholic solution of cu- midine with cyanogen. Cyanogen. (Gay Lussac, 1815. (Kyvj, blue; rtw*u, I produce.) C 2 N = Cy 3-25 ; 26. Spec. grav. 1-80 5 5 (Theory), 1-8064 (Gay Lussa and has been applied successfully on the large scale in the manufacture of yellow prussiate of potash, but has been again abandoned from its- e'xpense. Considerable quantities of cyanide of potassium, derived probably from the nitrogen 198 CYA and potash of coal, have been obtained in the blast furnaces near Glasgow (Clark, Phil. Mag. 10, 729). It has been shown that cyanogen exists in the gases of the lower part of 'the fur- naces. Mr. Kankine of Carluke has found con- siderable quantities of potash salts with cyanide to be sublimed at the top of the furnaces. Binoxide of nitrogen, nitrous acid, and nitric acid, produce, by acting on organic compounds, cyano- hydric acid, cyanohydride of ammonia, or cyanide of potassium. 1 part nitre, and 2 cream of tartar, when ignited, yield much cyanide of potassium. Characters, A colourless gas, possessing the mechanical properties of common air; smell pecu- liar, very strong and disagreeable, somewhat similar to prussic acid; probably poisonous when inhaled in quantity. Inflammable, burning with a purplish-blue flame ; not decomposed by a red heat. Water absorbs 4^ vols. of cyanogen, alcohol 25 vols. and acquires its smell and a peculiar taste. It reddens litmus solution ; it is decom- posed by electric sparks into charcoal and nitro- gen. 2 vols. of oxygen convert 1 vol. of cyano- gen into 2 vols. carbonic acid and 1 vol. nitrogen ; spongy platinum causes cyanogen and oxygen to unite when heated. Dry chlorine in the light of the sun converts it into oils of chlorides of car- bon and nitrogen (Serullas). Phosphorus, sul- phur, and iodine may be volatilized in cyanogen without altering it ; potassium, when heated in it, absorbs it with the evolution of a fine light. When passed over ignited iron, carbon is depo- sited, and nitrogen set free ; when brought in contact with ignited carbonate of potash, cyanide of potassium and cyanate of potash are formed ; caustic alkalies absorb it, and form metallic cyanide, cyanate, and azulmate; ammonia ab- sorbs it, and gradually decomposes into cyano- hydric acid, azulmic acid, oxalic acid, and urea (Wohler). When dissolved in water, the solution gradually becomes brownish-black, and yields from 7NC 2 -f- 14HO ; cyanohydric acid 3C 2 NH ; carbonic acid 4C0 2 ; oxalate of ammonia NH 3 C 2 3 HO; ammonia NH 3 ; urea C 2 N 2 H 4 O 2 (Pelouze and Richardson). Alcohol and ether saturated with cyanogen likewise become dark coloured from the decomposition, much urea be- ing precipitated. Preparation. 1. Cyanide of mercury (HgCy) is heated to redness in a tube or retort, and the cyanogen gas evolved is collected over mercury ; the mercury is volatilized, w r hile a considerable portion of the cyanogen remains as a black solid in the. retort in the form of paracyanogen (John- ston, Brewster's Journ. 2d, 1, 75), in which the carbon and nitrogen are present in the same ratio as in cyanogen; or, it may be, inellon (C C N 4 ), uniformly mixed with charcoal. 2. 2 parts of dry yellow prussiate of potash, when mixed inti- mately with 3 parts of corrosive sublimate (Hg Cl), and ignited in a retort, yield cyanogen (2Cy), mercury (2Hg), cyanide of iron (FeCy), CYA and chloride of potassium 2(KC1) (Kemp, Phil. Mag. 22, 179). Analysis. 1 vol. cyanogen mixed with 2 vols. oxygen and fired by electricity, yields 2 vols. carbonic acid and 1 vol. nitrogen. The experi- ment is attended with a very violent detonation, and should be made on a small scale. It is ob- served that the cyanogen is more completely decomposed if a small portion of an explosive mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, prepared by decomposing water by the galvanic battery, is mixed with it. Cyanogen may also be analyzed by burning a cyanide with oxide of copper for the carbon, and with soda h'me for the nitrogen. Fluid Cyanogen. Clear colourless fluid. Spec, grav. -866, discovered by Davy and Faraday (Phil. Trans. 1823, 196). Refractive power 1316 (Brewster). Non-conductor of electricity (Kemp) ; obtained by 7 heating in one end of a strong closed tube cyanide of mercury, and immersing the other extremity in a freezing <* mixture (D. & F.), or simply by exposing cyan- ogen at the common pressure of the atmosphere in a tube to a cold of 13 to 22 (Buusen, Pogg. Ann. 46, 101) It becomes solid some degrees under 22. Cyanocumidine. Ci 8 H 13 N,C 2 N. Needles by cyanogen on cumidine. Cyanofeydric Acid. See HYDROCYANIC or PRUSSIC ACID. Cyanose. See SULPHATE of COPPER. Cyanotoluidine. C 14 S 9 N,C 2 N? By act- ing on toluidine with cyanogen. Cyaitotype. Photographic paper prepared by a solution of nitrate of mercury, and then with yellow prussiate of potash. Cyaiioxalic Acid, or Uryle. CsXoO^ The hypothetic base of uric acid. Cyanuramidc, or Cyanuramine, Melamine. Formed by dissolving cyanamide in water and evaporating. Cyamireaic Acitl. Kyanurenic Acid. Col- 199 CYA ourless needles, sublimable in white satin crystals, soluble in alcohol, soluble in chloro- hydric acid, potash, boiling dilute sulphuric and nitric acids ; contains no nitrogen ; soluble in strong cold sulphuric acids; on heating and adding water deposits a lemon precipitate. This acid is obtained by dissolving the coloured deposits of dog's urine in lime water, and adding chlorohydric acid when cyanurenic acid deposits in crystals. Cyaiiuric Acid. Cy 3 O s 3HO. Anhydrous 8-hedrons, or hydrous prisms, possessing a weak acid taste ; polymeric with cyanic and fulminic acids ; obtained by distilling uric acid ; by add- ing acetic acid to cyanate of potash. Cynnurinc. A dark blue substance, found in diseased urine, somewhat soluble in alcohol, from which a crystalline blue precipitate separates. Cyclamine. See ARTHANITINE. Cydoiiinc. The peculiar gum of Cydonia vulgaris, or quince seeds ; is not precipitated by alcohol, nutgalls, or oxalate of ammonia, by which it is distinguished from gum arabic. Cymatinc. Silica 57-98, lime 12-95, mag- nesia 22-38, protoxide of iron, 6-32, alumina -58. DAM Cymene. C 20 H 14 . Spec. grav. -8 61, -8 5 7, of vapour 4-69 ; B.P. 347, 341. A camphogene, the more volatile oil of oil of cumin; unites with sulphuric acid, and forms cymene sul- phuric acid; with nitric acid gives toluylic acid. Cymidiaie. C 20 H 15 X. Fusible and vola- tile crystalline base from cymole. j mime Aeid ? Cyinole. The less volatile oil of Cumin. Cyiuolitc. A variety of Halloysite. Cymoplianc. See CHRYSOBERYL. Cymy Ic. The hypothetic radical of the cymole series. Cynapiaie. Rhombic prisms by alcohol from Aethusa cynapium, or fool's parsley. C'ynodiiic. Asparayine f Colourless prisms from a decoction of the root of Cynodon dactylon. Cypomica. Arseniate of copper. Cyprine. A blue variety of garnet from Norway. Cystiiic. Cystic oxide. See URINARY CAL- CULI. Cytisine. Cathartine ? A bitter principle in the seeds of Cytisus laburnum by alcohol. D Dadyle. C 20 H 16 . A name given to the oil obtained by distilling muriate of oil of turpentine with caustic lime. Daguerreotype. (From Daguerre, the inven- tor). The method of forming pictures on a silver or other surface by the action of light. A silver plate, or copper plate electroplated with silver, is well cleaned, and then exposed to the fumes of iodine in a box, and afterwards to those of bro- mine. The plate is now sensitive, that is, it is coated with a thin layer of iodide and bromide of silver, compounds which are easily decomposed by light when the plate is put into the camera obscura to take the likeness. The plate is then taken out of the camera and exposed to the fumes of mercury, which unites with those parts of the plate where the iodide and bromide have bden decomposed. The iodide and bromide un- acted on over the other portions of the plate are then removed by a solution of hyposul- phite of soda, in which the bromide and iodide of silver are soluble. The mercurial sur- face is next prevented from deterioration by evaporation by being gilt. For this purpose, a solution of 1 part of sesquichloride of gold in 500 water, and 3 parts of hyposulphite of soda in 500 water is dropped on the moist plate, which is gently heated when the gold is deposited. ]>ah2iuc. See INUHNE. 1> a in a In lit Acid. C 1 4H 12 4 . Obtained from urine by treatment with caustic lime ; it possesses the odour of butyric or valeric acid. ]>umburite. See DANBUKITE. Dammara Resin. Spec. grav. 1'097 to 1-123. A light yellow resin resembling copal, said to be derived from the Pimis dammara, or Dammar a Alba of India. It consists of a resin, soluble in alcohol 83-1 per cent, and insoluble 16 "8 per cent. It forms a fine varnish with oil of turpentine. It is said to fuse at 163, and to consist of C 82-4, H 11-2, O 6- ; it leaves -215 ash. Ether extracts Dammaryle, C^Hgg ; ab- solute alcohol, dammarylic acid, C 4 5~H 36 3 ; and weak alcohol, hydrous dammarylic acid, C^^HLQQ 3 , HO. These are all probably products of tho operations. l>ammara Resin. Cowdie, Kauri resin. The yellow resinous product of the Dammara Australia of New Zealand. Spec. grav. I have found, 1-040 Qight variety) to 1-062 (dark van), ash -424, containing sulphuric acid and lime. Fusing point 255. A portion of it (57-33 per cent.) is dissolved in alcohol, with acid properties, Dammaric acid, C4 H 30 7 , HO. A portion re- mains undissolved, Dammarane, C4 H 31 G . By distillation an amber-coloured oil, Dammarol, is obtained, C4 H 2 3O 3 , or the resin deprived of 3 atoms of water. Distilled with lime it yields Dammarone, C 38 H 30 0, by the removal of 2 atoms carbonic acid, and 1 atom water. Cowdie resin is said to be extensively used in America as a varnish. Damolic Acid. C 2fi H 24 04. A volatile acid, obtained by the action of lime and distil- lation on urine. Damouritc. Spec. grav. 2'792, H 2-75. Yellow scales, the matrix of cyanitc. Silica 200 DAM 45-22, alumina 37-87,. oxide of iron, trace; potash 11-2, water 5-25. Damp, Choke. The term applied by miners to carbonic acid, from its extinguishing flame and life. I>amp, Fire. The miners' name for carbu- retted hydrogen, or marsh gas, from its explo- sive nature. Danaitc. See GRAY COBALT ORE. Danburitc. Spec. grav. 2'83, H7'5. Yellow crystalline body, containing 56 silica and 28-3 lime, probably allied to table spar or dyscla- site. Dandelion Root. The root of Leontodon taraxacum, used in extract as a diuretic. Its ash consists of silica 11-26, P0 5 11-21, C0 2 6-21, S0 3 2-37, Cl 3-84, Fe 2 O 3 1'27, MgO 1-31, CaO 11-43, NaO 30-95, KO 17-95. JJ>aouritc. A variety of Tourmaline. Daphniiic. Colourless bitter prisms by water and alcohol, from the bark of Daphne mezer- eum and alpina. Dapicho. Zapis. An elastic bitumen, from the roots of Siphonia elastka, from South Ame- rica. Dates. The fruit of the date palm, contain- ing much sugar, also mucilage, gum, albumen, and cellular matter ; used extensively as food by the Arabs of Africa. Datholite. Borosilicate of Lime, EsmarJc- ite, Ilumboldtite. Spec. grav. 2-98 to 3-346, H 4-75; from Arendal in Norway, and New Jersey. "White oblique rhombic prisms with DEN angles of 103 C the obtuse edges of this prism being replaced by tangent planes, lustre vitreous, inclining to pearly, translucent, streak white. B.B. becomes opaque at first, and crumbles between the fingers, and gradually fuses into a colourless glass, tinging the flame green ; soluble in chlorohydric acid. Silica 37-36, boracic acid 21-26, lime 35-67, water 5-71. Form. 3 (CaO BO 3 ), 3 CaO 4Si0 3 3HO. Datisca Yellow. The colouring matter of Datisca cannabina. Datiscinc. See INULIXE. Datiiriuc. Brilliant prisms. F.P. 212; subliming ; very poisonous ; forms crystalline salts; dilates the pupil; obtained from the seeds of Datura Stramonium. See STRAMO- NINE. Daiicus Carola. Carrot. Contains cane sugar, uncrystallizable sugar and carotine, a glutinous body, fat and ethereal oil. See CAR- ROT. Daridsonitc. A variety of beryl found in Aberdeenshire. Davyne. A Vesuvian zeolite, probably nepheline. Davy's Safety Lamp. See CARBURETTED HYDROGEN. Davyte. A1 2 O 3 , 3 S0 3 11HO. Plumose or feather alum at Bogota, &c. The operation of pouring off a precipitate which has sub- Dccantalion. a solution from sided. Decay of Wood. Or EREMACAUSIS. Dechciiitc. Vanadiate of Lead. PbO 57'57 Vanadic acid 49-27. Spec. grav. 5-81, H 3-75. Yellowish-red rhomboids from the Lau- terthal. Decoction. The solution obtained by boil- ing an organic substance with water. Decociioii Press is employed to remove the fluid from the or- ganic matter in pre- paring the preceding decoction ; see fig. Decolorimcter. An optical instrument for determining the decolourizing influ- ence of animal char- coal. Decomposition. The separation of the elements of a com- pound. It may be simple, as when oxide of mercury is heated ; it is resolved into oxygen and mercury (HgO becomes Hg and 0); or double, as when sulphate of soda and chloride of barium undergo decomposi- tion by being mixed and converted into sulphate of barytes and chloride of sodium (NaO S0<>, BaCl=NaCl, BaO S0 3 ). Decrepitation. The crackling sound pro- duced when common salt is thrown on the fire, proceeding from the sudden expansion and va- porization of the water between the plates of the crystals. Deflagration, (deflagro, I burn). The pe- culiar rapid combustion of nitre and nitrate of ammonia when thrown on the fire. Dclessitc. Ferruginous chlorite, from Ober- stem and Planitz. It consists of Si0 3 29-45, A1 2 3 18-25, Fe 2 3 8-17, FeO 15-12, MgO 15-32, HO 12-57, CaO -45. Deliquescence, (deliquesco, I melt). The tendency to fluidity possessed by many bodies Avhen exposed to a moist atmosphere, depend- ing on their affinity for water, as chlorides of calcium and magnesium. Dclphiiic. C 27 H 19 N0 2 ? Yellowish-white powder, obtained by means of alcohol, from the gray and brown seeds of Delphinium Staphisagria, or Stavesacre ; it is acrid and poisonous. Delphinic Acid. Phocenic acid. The vol- atile acid of the Viburnum opulus, or guelder rose, and of whale oil, has been found to be valerianic acid. Delphinit c. A variety of Epidote. Delvauxite. 2Fe 2 O 3 P0 5 24HO. Brown earthy phosphate of iron from Vise, Bel- gium. Dendrites. (SjvSp, a tree). Tree-like crys- stals, as in the Arbor Dianae. The figures re- 201 DEIST present serrated, plumose, triangular, and reti- culated deudrites. Density. See SPECIFIC GRAVITY. Dentine. The ivory of the teeth. See TEETH. Dephlcgznation. An alchemistical term for the separation of volatile matter by distilla- tion. Dcphlogisticatc. To deprive a substance of phlogiston, a hypothetic body, afterwards hydrogen. Thus when oxygen was first ob- tained pure, it was supposed to be air deprived of phlogiston. Derbyshire Spar. Fluor spar, or fluoride of calcium. Dermatine. Spec. grav. 2-1. 3 MgO, Fe 0, 2 Si03, 6 HO. Brown stalactitic masses from Waldheim, Saxony. Desiccation. The process of removing water by drying. Desmine. A variety of Stilbite. Desrosne's Still. A still, the principle of which is, that in a mixture of vapour of alcohol and water, by partial cooling, the aqueous va- pour will be condensed, and the alcoholic vapour rendered stronger. The same principle is carried out in Stein's apparatus. See STILL. Detonation. The immediate combustion of a substance accompanied by sound and light is so termed, as the explosion of gunpowder, ful- minate of silver, gun cotton, &c. Deutoxide. A term originally applied by Dr. Thomas Thomson in 1804 to the second oxide of a metal. Afterwards, when he came to use sym- bols, he applied the Latin numerals to denote the exact number of atoms of oxygen or acid united to a base. See NOMENCLATURE. Devonite. A synonyme of Wavellite. De>v. The water deposited on the surface of plants, the earth, &c. during the night, especially in clear cold nights. Dew-point. When the air is dry evapora- tion goes on rapidly and the wet bulb thermome- ter falls. When the air is saturated, the read- ings of the wet and dry thermometers will be the same. The important point is the dew-point, or that degree at which the atmosphere will part with its moisture, or will be cooled down to the point of saturation. The dew-point is, therefore DEW that degree of temperature at which saturation is attained and moisture deposited. A table of factors has been constructed by which the dif- ference between the readings of the dry and wet bulb thermometer is to be multiplied in order to- obtain the difference between the temperature of the air and that of the dew-point. This method affords a close approximation to the true num- ber. Mean temp, of dry bulb thermometer,^ November, 1851, ............... =/ wet bulb, 36 -7 c> Difference, .................. 2-l Factor, ......... = 2-5 Difference between air and dew-point,... 5*2 5 Then 38'8 5-25=33-55=temperature of the dew-point. Or we find the dew-point and then find the elastic force of vapour corresponding tc* the dew-point (Greenwich Observ. 1842 and 1843). Then to obtain the elastic force from this r we have recourse to a table as at page.210 Thom- son's Outlines of Heat, &c. where we find at 33-5 the elastic force = 2-10. The elastic- force being obtained, all other problems can be solved. Table of Factors. (Glaisher,) The difference between Gives the differ- When the temper- the temp, of evapora- ence between the- ature of the air is tion 8-5 and the tern- temp, of the ail- below 24?. perature of the air and the temp, of" multiplied by the dew-point. Between ... ,..24 and 25 25 26 6-4 26 . . 27 27 28 6-1 5-9 28 29 5-7 29 30 30 31 5- 4-6 31 32 32 33 3-6 3-1 33 34 34 35 2-8 2-& 35 40 40 45 2-5 2-3 45 50 2-1 50 55 55 60 2- 1-8 60 65 , 65 , 70 1-8 1-7 70 .. 1-5 Above The interesting phenomenon of the formation of dew receives its explanation from the considera- tion of the subject of the radiation of heat. Dew is more abundant in spring and autumn than in summer, and especially during still and serene nights in autumn. Dew is always very copious on those clear and calm nights which are followed 202 DEW by misty or foggy mornings, the turbidness of the air in the morning showing that it must have contained during the preceding night a consider- able quantity of moisture. Dew is unusually plentiful on a clear morning which has succeeded a cloudy night ; for the air having in the course of the night lost little or no moisture, is in the morning more charged with wateiy vapour than it would be if the night had also been clear. Dew is also produced by preceding heat of the atmosphere, if the other circumstances are favourable. Such are some of the important facts observed by Dr. Wells in relation to the formation of dew. The theory of its production, then, is as follows : All bodies have the power of radiating heat. During the day the heat lost by radiation is more than supplied by the sun, so that the tem- perature of bodies is increased instead of being diminished. But the contrary is the case during the night. The heat radiated by the bodies on the surface of the earth penetrates into the sky, and does not again return to them. The tem- perature of these bodies must, therefore, decrease, and must remain so during the night. If the sky be covered with clouds, the heat will be radi- ated back from them, so that the earth will not become colder. Hence we always find dew to be formed in clear nights, and not when the sky is overclouded. In accordance with this view, \ve find that the best radiators have always the largest amount of dew deposited on their surfaces. By this theory of dew we are enabled to explain many phenomena of common occurrence. 1. A pane of glass, covered by an inside shutter, is moister in the morning than one which is un- covered, because the shutter prevents the radia- tion of the heat from the room to the pane of glass, and thus the latter is colder from ex- ternal radiation. 2. In a clear night we feel colder than on a cloudy night, in consequence of the greater radiation from our bodies. 3. Gardeners cover their plants with matting to prevent the radiation from their leaves. Dr. Wells found grass, on which a thin cambric handkerchief was placed, several degrees warmer than grass freely exposed to the sky. 4. The covering of snow upon the surface of the earth during winter is chiefly useful by preventing the radiation of the heat of the plants placed un- der it. 5. In tropical climates there is a preva- lent idea that the exposure of animal substances to moonlight promotes their putrefaction. Now, as moonlight nights are clear, the consequence is, that dew, that is, water, the great auxiliary of putrefaction, is deposited upon the animal sub- stances, 6. Ice is formed in Bengal by exposing water to the air, in shallow unglazed pans, placed upon dry straw or sugar canes, and some- times sunk artificially below the surface of the earth. When the nights are clear and serene, ice is formed not by the evaporation of the water, but by the radiation of heat from its surface ; the straw serving only to prevent heat from DIA being conveyed into the water from the earth. Dr. Wells is inclined to attribute the whole of the cold to radiation, but that a certain amount of cold is produced by evaporation through, the porous sides of the vessels, is obvious from, the fact, that jugs of the same land of ware are- universally employed to cool the water contained in them for domestic purposes, under circumstances little calculated to ensure radiation, since they are close vessels often deposited in shaded posi- tions. It is rather remarkable that such vessel* are not more used in this country. Cool w r ater f however, may be obtained during the night purely from the cold produced by radiation, by placing water bottles outside the window. The practice of making ice in the Indian fashion ap- pears to have been known to the Jews, since Josephus says (Wars of the Jews, iii. 10 and 7), " When the water of the lake of Gennesaret is left in the open, air, it is as cold as that ice which the country people are accustomed to make by- night in summer." Deweylite. Spec. grav. 2-3, H 3-. White or greenish- white variety of serpentine, in veins, at Middlefield, Mass. U. S. containing silica 40 \ magnesia, 40-, water 20'. Dextrine. Soluble /Starch. Soluble starch may be obtained by adding 2 parts of nitric acid to 300 of water, and mixing this liquid with 1000 parts of dry starch. The starch is then placed in a drying closet. A current of air is passed over the starch, which is then placed in a stove, the temperature being raised to about 176. It is then passed through the common process for starch in a sieve, the temperature being retained at 212 to 230 (Payen). Dextrine is formed by heating starch up to 392 ; also in a copper tube with water at 338. Applications. It is used under the name of gum substitute, soluble gum, &c. for thickening the colours in calico printing. It is also employed for making dex- trine bandages for fractures. 100 parts of dex- trine are mixed with 60 parts of camphorated spirit, the mixture being triturated until it acquires the consistence of honey. 40 parts of water are then added, and the bandage immersed in it (D'Arcet). For a fracture of the clavicle, 6,000 grains of dry dextrine are required ; ^for that of the thigh 4,500 ; of the leg 3,000 ; of the fore- arm 2,220. Starch bandages are often em- ployed in this country, being softened with warm water before being applied. Dexjroracenaic Acid. Identical with tar- taric acid. Diabase. A granular variety of greenstone, with a predominance of hornblende. Diabetic Sugar. A sugar, identical with glucose or grape, sugar (which see), is found in the urine in diabetes. The urine in this disease greatly exceeds the normal quantity. If we take the usual daily evacuation of urine at 3-21 Ibs. avoirdupois, that in diabetes rises to 10 Ibs. and 20 Ibs. and even 40 Ibs. The presence of the 203 DIA sugar may be detected by boiling a portion of the urine in a tube with a solution of sulphate of copper and caustic soda ; the brownish-red din- oxide of copper will be speedily deposited. To determine the amount of sugar contained in a given weight of urine, it is to be fermented at a temperature of 60 to 70, by the addition of yeast, the alcohol distilled off, and estimated (see ALCOOMETRY); or the carbonic acid may be caught in a phial containing a mixture of solution of chloride of barium and caustic am- monia or barytes water, and the sugar estimated from the carbonate of barytes formed; every 13 '50 grains of absolute alcohol are equivalent to 24-75 grains diabetic or grape sugar; while 49' grains carbonate of barytes are precipitated by the amount of carbonic acid evolved from the above weight of sugar when fermented. The sugar may be extracted from urine by evaporat- ing to a syrup in a water bath, boiling the resi- due with alcohol (spec. grav. -850), and evaporat- ing in a water bath. The residue is washed with absolute alcohol as long as anything is taken up ; it is then evaporated in a water bath ; and lastly in the vacuum of an air pump over sulphuric acid. The cause of the formation of this sugar in the system is not known. It appears to depend on an abnormal change in the stomach, by which the sugar of the food is prevented from being converted into lactic acid and carbonic acid, as in the natural state. It probably depends on some diseased condition or functional derangement of the nervous system. Some sugar is found in the urine when particular spinal nerves are compressed or pricked ; also in epileptics. ]>iaclasitc. Allied to hypersthene. Si0 3 53-74, MgO 25-09, Ca04-73, FeO 11-51, MnO 23, A1 2 3 1-34. l>iadochite. Spec. grav. 2-035, H 3-. A variety of pitchy iron ore from Arnsbach, in Thuringia, consisting of perphosphate and sul- phate of iron (3 Fe 2 3 2 P0 5 , 2 Fe 9 0o 2 S0 3 24 HO). Diagoniie* A synonyme of Brewsterite. ]>iallage. A name given originally to an amphibolic mineral with a metallic aspect. Un- der this name are usually confounded Bronzite, tSckillerspafy and Hypersthene. Green Diallage. A mixture of thin plates of hornblende and au- gite. t Diallage metalloids is Schillerspar. Dial- laye roc/j, a mixture of diallaye and Saussurite. Diallagitc. A synonyme of carbonate of manganese ; often mixed with lime and iron. Dialogitc. A synonyme of bisilicate of man- ganese. Dialuric Acid. C 8 H 3 N 2 7 HO. Colourless prisms resembling alloxantine, obtained by add- ing an excess of sulphohy dride of ammonium to a solution of alloxane, or alloxantine, and dissolving the dialurate of ammonia formed in hot chloro- hydric acid. In solution this acid absorbs oxygen, and is converted into alloxantine. A term employed to ex- DIA press the magnetic relations of certain bodies. All bodies are either magnetic or diamagnetic ; for example, a magnetic bar oscillating between the poles of an electro needle takes an axial direc- tion, that is, parallel to a plane following the direction of the axis of the needle ; while a dia- magnetic bar takes an equatorial position, or one which is perpendicular to the preceding plane. The magnetic metals in the order of their power are iron, nickel, cobalt, manganese, chromium, cerium, titanium, palladium, platinum, osmium. The diamagnetic metals are bismuth, antimony, zinc, tin, cadmium, sodium, mercury, lead, sil- ver, copper, gold, arsenic, uranium, rhodium, iridium, tungsten. Diamond. Syn. Demant, adamas, adamantos. Physical Ch. Regular system, 1. octahedrons; 2. octahedrons with cubes; 3. cubes with dodeca- hedrons ; 4. hexakisoctahedrons ; 5. triakisocta- hedrons. Colour, transparent, colourless, white, gray, blue, black, red, brown, yellow, green. Hardness 10'. Spec. grav. 3-48, 3-55. Lustre, splendent and pecuh'ar. When rubbed becomes positively electrical. Heated in the sun, and brought into a dark place, it phosphoresces. Blowpipe Ch. Unchanged, but when heated to redness in contact with air, it is converted into carbonic acid, leaving no residue. Chemical Ch. Consists of pure carbon (C), and may be con- verted into carbonic (C0 2 ) by heating it in a glass tube with nitre or chlorate of potash, col- lecting the gas over mercury. Uses. In 1456, Louis Berquen discovered that diamonds may be polished by rubbing them on then* own powder (Hauy). When polished, they are sold in two forms rose diamonds and brilliants; the former being conical and the latter flattened. In powder it is made into a paste, and being set on a handle is used for cutting glass by glaziers, and for sharpening cutting instruments. An unwrought diamond is worth 2 per carat (of 3-077 grains). The largest diamond known to exist belonged to the Great Mogul, and was found in the mine of Colone in 1550. It weighed originally 2,769 grains, and by cutting became 861 grains. It is now lost. The diamond purchased by Catherine of Russia formerly belonged to Nadir Schah, and weighed 593-86 grains, and cost 90,000, and an annuity of 6,000. The Pitt diamond, pur- chased by Mr. Pitt, governor of Bencoolen, was bought by the regent duke of Orleans for 130,000, and is now among the French crown jewels. It weighs 419^- grains, and is worth half-a-million sterling. The Koh-i-noor is another large dia- mond, now in this country, formerly the property of Shah Soojah of AfFghanistan. The mode of calculating the price of moderate-sized diamonds 204 DIA is to multiply the square of the weight in carats by 2. The Hunterian diamond weighs 3-518 carats (10-825 grains). Its value, if of the firs water, that is, destitute of colour, is 24 15s. Large diamonds have the square multiplied by eve^n more than 8. Localities. In Europe the diamond is reported to be found in Ural. In Asia it has been obtained in alluvial soil in Gol- conda, Visapoor, Bengal, and Borneo. In Africa it has been found in the province of Constantino, in the sand of the river Gumil ; and in America it has been obtained since 1740 in Serra Dofrio of Brazil, and at the present time abundantly in the Minas Geraes district, in strata derived from primary rocks (Gardner). Source. In the Nalla Malla mountains of Madras the diamond occurs in an alluvial soil formed of a sandstone breccia, which consists of fragments of jasper, quartz chalcedony, cemented together by a quartzose paste passing into a pudding-stone formed of rounded pebbles united together by clay and limestone (Voysey, Phil. Mag. 2d ser. i. 147). In Brazil, in the district near Rio, to reach the deposit in which the diamonds are situated, it is necessary to cut first through a reddish sandy soil twenty feet thick, then eight feet of tough yellow clay; then two and a-half feet^of coarse red- dish sand. Below this is the diamond bed, from one to four feet thick, consisting of pebbles of primitive rocks. This rests on hard clay, and below it are the slaty rocks. The formation in which the diamonds occur is washed in water by means of a large flat wooden plate. Specimens of diamonds have been found imbedded in the primitive rocks, and hence it is probable that they have been washed down into their present position along with the debris of these formations (Gardner's Brazil, 452). The sand in which the diamond is found in Bahia consists of quartz, a species of tourmaline (?), orthose, rutile, brookite, anatase, zircon, diaspore, hydrophos- phate of alumina and lime, hydrophosphate of yttria, silicate of yttria, native gold, oxide of iron (Damour). Chemical Characters. The diamond was long considered to be a per- fectly fixed body till Newton conjectured, from its great power of refracting light, that it was combustible, an idea which was established in 1694 by the Florentine academicians, who suc- ceeded in volatilizing several diamonds by means of a burning glass (Giornali di Litterati d' Italia, 8, 9), in presence of Cosmo, the third grand duke of Tuscany. In 1751, Francis I. emperor of Germany, witnessed the combustion of several diamonds (Das neueste aus der enmuthigen ge- lehrsamkeit, 1751, s. 540). These experiments were repeated by D'Arcet, Eouelle, Macquer, Cadet, and Lavoisier (Mem. Paris, 1766-70, 71, 72), who shoAved that air was necessary to its combustion. Lavoisier ascertained that car- bonic acid is formed in the combustion (Mac- quer's Diet. 1, 337). When perfectly pure no residue is left on combustion, which can be I _ 205 DIG effected as low as the melting point of silver (about 1900). IMainylc-niiiiiir. 2 (C 10 H n X"NH. B.P. 340. Aromatic, burning, colourless oil, by the reaction of ammonia and iodide of amyle, or of amylamine and bromide of amyle ; it is ammo- nia, in which 2 atoms hydrogen are replaced by two atoms amyle. I>iamylc-phciiylamine. Diamyle-aniline. N,2 (C 10 Hp) C I2 H 7 . B.P. 531-5. A base, by the action of amylaniline and bromide of amyle, for some days at 212. Diaphaiiitc. Neolite. Spec. grav. 2*77. Green silky fibres from Naskil. Si0 3 52-28, A1 2 3 7-33, MgO 31-24, FeO 3-79, HO 4-0. A recent production. Diasporc. Hydrate of Alumina. AloO 3 HO~ Spec. grav. 3-43, H 6-25. A1 2 O 3 76-06, HO 14-70, FeO 7'78. Greenish-gray plates, with a pearly lustre; also in doubly-oblique prisms ; B.B. fuses with borax into a colourless glass. Oxide- of iron is dissolved up from it by muriatic acid, but the alumina is unacted on. Found near Kor- oibrod, Orenbourg, and at Schemnitz. Diastase. A white tasteless substance, ob- tained by moistening pounded malt with an equal weight of water, and pressing it through a bag. The turbid fluid is precipitated with alco- hol, which throws down albumen, and is filtered. The diastase is now precipitated with a quantity of alcohol, redissolved in water, and precipitated with alcohol. It is probably a mixture of seve- ral bodies ; but 1 part of it possesses the remark- able property of converting 2000 parts of starch into dextrine, and 1000 into sugar. IMasf atit. A synonyme of Amphibole. Diatercbic Acid. C 14 H 10 8 . By the ac- tion of nitric acid on oil of turpentine. Dibcnzoil-plcnyl-amidc (Dibenz-aniMe\ 2 C 7 H 5 0,C G H 5 N. Dibromanilinc. C 12 H 5 Br 2 N. IMbromobutylene. C 8 H 8 Br 2 . 1>ibromocimchonine. C 38 H 20 Br 2 N 2 Oo> Pearly needles, by bromine on cinchonine. IMbromo-cthylaniiiic. C 4 H 5 Br 2 N. Dibromocthylciic. C 4 H 4 Br 2 . Dibromomelauiliiic. C 2 6HjjBr 2 N" 3 . I>ibromoiiaphthaliuc. Bromonaphthese* Dibroinopropylcnc. C(jHgBr 2 . JDibromo-siilphonaphthalic Acid. C 2 y H 5 , S0 2 , Br 2 , S0 3 . I>i Ivlopfn iiyhmiiiie. 2C 32 H 33 , C 12 H-> IMchloraniliiic. Ci 2 H 5 Cl 2 N. IMchloro-cthylamiiic. C 4 H 5 C1 2 N. Yel- ow fluid. IHchlorofilipclosic Acid. C 24 H 12 C1 2 1() , 3y chlorine on filipelosic acid. Dichlorohydrokiiaonc. Colourless. C 11? H 4 C1 2 4 . Violet species, Ci 2 H 3 Cl 2 4 2 HO, ellow species, C 12 H 3 C1 2 O 4 . DichlorokiiKOiic. Ci 2 H 2 Cl 2 4 . Yellow )risms. DIG UicWoromelanilinc. C 25 H n CljNa. Dichloropfathalic Acid. C 16 H 4 C1 4 ? IMchloropropylene. C C H G C1 2 . ]>ichroitr. See lOLlTE. Dicyanocodeittc. C 3C H 21 NO G ,2Cy. Shin- ing 6-sided plates, by cyanogen on codeine in alcohol. IMcyanomelaniline. C 26 H 13 N 3 ,Cy 2 . Didymium. Di 6*48. Discovered by Mosander in 1841 (Pogg. Ann. 56, 504 ; Phil. Mag. 28, 241). The metal has not been separated, but the oxide occurs along with oxide of cerium on cerite, Allanite, &c. Oxide, Didymia. DiO. Dark brown powder, ir- regularly tinted; dull white at a white heat; forms an amethyst bead with salt of phosphorus before the blowpipe, a whitish-gray mass with carbonate of soda; obtained by acidulating and evaporating the mother liquor from the sulphate of lanthanum, and thus obtaining sulphate of didymium in rose crystals. The rose crystals of sulphate of didy- miutn in rhomboids, may be also picked out from the amethyst or violet prisms of impiire sulphate of lanthanum when these salts exist together. The oxide is precipitated from the red sulphate by caustic soda, or potash, or oxalate of ammonia, washing and igniting. When precipi- tated it is violet, and absorbs carbonic acid. Salts. Oxide of didymium is a weaker base than oxide of lanthanum. The salts are pink or rose, and amethyst or violet. Ammonia pre- cipitates a subsalt, which may be washed without passing through the filter. Potash and soda throw down the hydrous oxide. Sulphohydride of ammonia, unless in great excess, produces no precipitate. Sulphate. Rose-coloured rhombohedral crys- tals with secondary faces, when crystallized from a mixture of a lanthanum salt, but from Its pure solutions in oblique rhombic prisms without secondary faces. Soluble in 5 water Ibetween 59 and 68. A cold saturated solu- sion yields a deposit of crystals at 1275, .gradually increasing as the heat rises, and at 212 only 1 part of salt in 50^ water remains undecomposed at a low red heat ; a white heat expels two- thirds of its acid. The potash sul- phate of didymium is an amethyst salt, in- soluble in sulphate of potash (Mosander). Nitrate. Red deliquescent salt, crystallizing with difficulty ; loses acid by heat ; forms in satu- rated aqueous solutions a red fluid; violet-blue by reflected light. Does not fall to powder, like .nitrate of lanthanum. Formed by dissolving the oxide in nitric acid, and evaporating. IMethylc-amiiic. 2(C 4 H 5 )HN. Volatil oil, an amide base, where 2 atoms ethyle replace 2 atoms hydrogen in ammonia ; from bromide oi ethyle on ethyl-amine, and distilling the produci with potash. DIF IMctliylc-phcnylamine. Diethylaniline. 2 ! 4 H 5 )C 12 H 5 ,iSr ; by acting on ethyle-phenyla- mine by bromide of ethyle. Diethyle-urca. C 2 H 2 2(C 4 H 5 )lSr 2 O 2 ; by water on cyanate of ethyle. Mffluan. C 6 N 2 H 4 5 . White poAvder by >oiling alloxanic acid. intrusion of Oases. Dispersion, or Trans- tosition. (The terms diffusion, transposition, first 1 by Priestley). A property of elastic fluids discovered by Priestley in a long series of expe- riments. He first found in the last century that f water be converted into vapour in an earthen etort, the vapour makes its escape through the jores of the retort, while the external air enters hrough the same pores, and may be collected by >lacing inverted jars over the beak of the retort )lunged into a pneumatic trough. He filled a ladder Avith oxygen gas, and placed it for a month n a vessel filled with hydrogen. He found the gas in the jar and in the bladder to be mixtures of >xygen and hydrogen in the same proportion, ' diffused through one another." On reversing ;he experiment he found the oxygen of inferior quality, and the bladder much shrunk. Both the air in the bladder and in the jar exploded Avith violence. Glass retorts allowed of similar transmission in time, and likeAvise broken jars mended with paint or cement. Dalton Avas of >pinion, that gases dispersed into each other as nto vacua, the particles of one gas offering no resistance to the passage of those of another; and corroborati\-e of this, Mr. Faraday showed that gases, when pressed through capillary tubes, massed Avith a rapidity in connection with their ievity (1818) ; it was shown by Graham that the ratio of dispersion depends on their specific gravity, the lightest gases travelling fastest, as was shoAvn in Priestley's experiments, and the heaAdest most slowly. The rate of diffusion Graham found to be inversely as the square root of the density of gases, or d being the density of the gas, then the formula V-; expresses the diffusion volume. A nitrile base. Dicthyl-mcthylaminc. -^ expresses This property of gases may be well illustrated by filling a large jar with hydrogen, placing it upright on a table covered with a glass plate. Another equal sized empty jar is then placed over it mouth to mouth ; and on quickly remov- ing the intervening plate of glass both jars Avill be found to explode when fired by a taper ; thus proving that common air has entered into the lower jar, and hydrogen into the upper one. This discovery of Priestley has not always been properly attributed to him ; but that he was aAvare of its vast importance is obvious from the following sentence, Avith Avhich he commences his paper (American Trans, v. 14) : " One of the most extraordinary circumstances that ever oc- curred in the course of my experiments, is that of the vapour of water or of mercury changing places with any kind of air in vessels through which air could not be made to pass Avithout 206 DIF great force, so that for most purposes they might be considered as air-tight. I had also observed that different kinds of air capable of forming a chemical union would do it through a bladder that was perfectly air-tight, that in this manner pure air was imbibed by the blood through the membrane of the lungs, while phlogiston was admitted into the air within it; and it is by means of this that respiration is carried on, that the atmosphere is retained in a state of purity sufficient to communicate to animals the proper mixture of gases required for healthy subsistence." Diffusion of Fluids through Membranes. Membranes, when applied to the extremities of tubes and exposed to the action of water, speedily putrefy and give way. They may, however, be rendered more permanent. The tube closed at one end by bladder is to be partially filled with alcohol and placed in water for some days, when it Avill be found to withstand the putrefying action for a considerable period. To fix the bladder on the tube it is moistened with cold water, and tied with a string to the open end of the tube. It is then allowed to remain twenty-four hours, when the bladder is thoroughly dry and glued to the tube. It is then to be tied to the tube with several turns of a linen thread. The tube may be about 6 inches long, and from f to 1 inch in diameter, and it may be supplied with a border to retain the thread. The permeability of membranes to solutions depends on their being moistened, for when dry they are air-tight. Their affinity for water also is connected with their action. Mem- branes, tendons, muscles, cartilages, ligaments, &c. contain, in their natural state, more than half then* weight of water. When dried the water evaporates, and they become hard horny bodies. But if they are immersed for twenty- four hours in water, they recover their former quantity of water. That the water is not chemi- cally united, but merely diffused through the pores or tubes of the membranes by capillary attraction, is obvious from the fact, that me- chanical pressure is sufficient to remove the water, as in a sponge, which is an analogous body. The tendency which fluids have to pass through membranes, depends in some measure on the nature of the animal substances, which ab- sorb liquids with different degrees of power. 100 parts of ox bladder, in twenty-four hours, take up of water 268 vols. ; saturated solution of salt 133 vols.; alcohol of spec. grav. -8375 (84 per cent.) 38 vols. ; oil of marrow 17 vols. 100 parts of pig's bladder take up in twenty-four hours 356 vols. of pure water, of brine 159 vols. oil of marrow 14 vols. Water passes most readily into mem- branes. Alcohol passes through membranes with great difficulty and slowness. The permeability of membranes may be shown by moistening one side of a membrane with yellow prussiate of potash and the other with chloride of iron : a blue spot of Prussian blue is formed in the centre. A tube containing urine, closed with a bladder and irn- DIF mersed in distilled water, in a few seconds gives out chlorine to the distilled water, and gradually the solution eqxializes itself on each side. If bile, milk, urine, serum, syrup, solution of gum, be placed in the tube, they gradually diffuse into the distilled water, but in these cases more water passes into the tube than bile, &c. out of the tube, the denser fluid being always slowest in its progress. This gives rise to endosmosis and ex- osmosis. When the volume of a fluid increases by the lighter fluid passing into the denser, it is called endosmosis. When the volume diminishes, it is termed exosmosis. The diffusion of salts through water takes place as the formation of steel by cementation. Diffusion of Liquids. (1.) When solutions of common salt were placed in an open phial, with 1-25 inch aperture, and immersed in a large jar filled with water, the salt diffused into the pure water of the jar, in a period of eight days, as fol- lows: Solutions NaCl Per Cent. 1, 2, Salt Diffused. 1 1-99 3-01 ... 4-00 The amount of salt which diffused amounted to of the whole. (2.) The proportion of salt diffused increases with the temperature ; an ele- vation of 80 F. doubles the amount of common salt diffused. (3.) Different salts have different diffusibilities ; 20 parts of the following salts, in 100 of Avater, gave the following results: com- mon salt 58-68, sulphate of magnesia 27-42, sulphate of water 69-32, cane sugar 26-74, starch sugar 26-94, gum arabic 13-24, albumen 3 -03. The small diffusion of albumen explains its deficiency in serous effusions, and in cholera fluids (R. D. T.) (4.) Urea is as highly diffusible as chloride of sodnuni (5.) Isomorphous salts have an equal diffusibility, as chloride of potassium. with salammoniac, nitrate of potash with nitrate of ammonia, and sulphate of magnesia with sul- phate of zinc, not for chemical equivalents, but for equal weights. (6.) Acids differ greatly in diffusibility. Nitric acid is 4 times greater than phosphoric acid; nitric and chlorohydric acids equal ; acetic and sulphuric acids equal. (7.) Soluble subsalts have a very low diffusibility. Sulphate of ammonia 8, sulphate of copper 4, am- monia sulphate of copper 1. (8.) When two dif- ferent salts are dissolved in the diffusion cell, they diffuse into the water atmosphere according to the diffusibility of each, exactly as other gases diffuse in the air. An important consequence is, that in liquid diffusion we have a new method of separation or analysis for many soluble bodies. Thus, chlorides diffuse out from sulphates and carbonates, and salts of potash from salts of soda; and from sea water the salts of soda diffuse out into pure water faster than the salts of magnesia. This circumstance is applied to explain the dif- 207 DIG fercnces which have been found in the composi- tion of the Dead Sea, the different salts diffusing into the sheet of fresh water with which the lake is frequently covered. (9.) Chemical decompo- sitions may be produced by liquid diffusion. The constituents of alum separate in the diffusion cell, the sulphate of potash diffusing in largest quantity. (10.) One salt, such as nitrate of potash, will diffuse into another, as nitrate of ammonia, as rapidly as into pure water, the salts being naturally diffusible as gases are. (11.) The diffusibilities of the salts into water, like those of the gases into air, are connected by simple numbers. 4 per cent, solutions of the following salts diffused as follows : carbo- nate of potash 10-25, sulphate of potash 10-57, sulphate of ammonia 10-51. The acetate of potash and yellow prussiate of potash belong to the same group. Nitrate of potash, chlo- rate of potash, nitrate of ammonia, chloride of potassium, and chloride of ammonium, form an equi-diffusible group. (12.) The time in which an equal amount of diffusion took place in these two groups, appeared to be as 1 for the second to 1-4142 for the first, or as 1 to the square of 2. Now, hi gases, the squares of the times of equal diffusion are the densities of the gases. The relation between the sulphate of pot- ash and nitrate of potash group, would therefore fall to be referred to the diffusion molecule and diffusion vapour of the first group, having a den- sity represented by 2, while that of the second is represented by 1. These were named the solu- tion densities of the salts in question. The cor- responding salts of soda appear tb fall into a nitrate and sulphate group, also related to each other, as the potash salts. The relation of the salts of pot- ash to those of soda, in times of equal diffusibility, appeared to be as the square root of 2 to the square root of 3. If the times of diffusing are all squared, the following are the solution densities of salts : KOHO 1, KON0 5 = 2, KOS0 3 = 4, NaON0 5 = 3, NaOS0 3 = 6 (Graham). Digcnitc. Spec. grav. 4-57, H 2-75. Lead- gray mass from Chili and Thuringia. Cu 70-20, Ag -24. Loss (S?) 29-56 ; probably a disulphide. Digester, Papin's. A strong metallic ves- sel, supplied with a screw for compressing steam, by which the temperature can be raised to up- wards of 400. Digestion. The operation of exposing a body to the action of a fluid at a temperature under boiling. Digestion, Animal. See STOMACH. DigcstiTe Salt, or chloride of potassium. Digitalic Acid. Needles from Digitalis purpurea. Digitulirriiie. C n H 10 O 3 . Yellow powder from digitaline by tannic acid. Digitaline. C 10 H 9 4 . White crystalline mass by alcohol from the aqueous extract of fox- glove (Digitalis purjwrea). DIM Digiiasoline. Ci 9 H lc 9 . Yellowish-white body in crude digitaline. IMgitolcic Acid? Dihydrite. Bihydrous pentaphospJiate of copper. 5 CuO,P0 5 , 2 HO^CuO 68-, PO 5 24-. Di-iodo-et9iylaminc. C 4 H 5 I 2 N. Black- ish fluid by iodine and ethylamine. Di-iodo-inelaniline. C 26 , H n I 2 N 3 . Di-iodo-methylamine. C S H 8 I 2 N. Ked powder by iodine on methylamine. Dike. The appearance of a wall presented by trap rocks, as injected from below. The figure represents a trap dike with the adjacent rocks worn away, as at Millport, Cumbrae. Dilituric Acid. CgNgH 8 , 2 HO. Ob- tained from the mother liquor of alituric acid. Dillnite. Collyrite. . Spec. grav. 2-574. White, adhering to the tongue, from near Schem- nitz. Si0 3 23-53, A1 2 3 56-4, MgO -44, HO 21-13. Dill Oil. Yellow oil. Spec. grav. -881, from the seeds of Anethum graveolens, Dimctaphosphoric Acid. 2 HO, 2 P0 5r from metaphosphate of copper. Dimcthylamine. 2 (C 2 H 3 ) NH, by bro- mide of methyle on methylamine. Dimethyl-cthylamiiie. 2 (C 2 H 3 ) C 4 H 5 , N, unknown. Dimethyle-urea. C 2 H 2 , 2 C 2 H 3 , N 2 2? by methylamine on cyanate of methyle. Dimorphinc. A species of rhombic sul- phide of arsenic. Dimorphism. (Aioritc. See GREENSTONE. Dioxylitc. See SULPHATO CARBONATE OF LEAD. IMphanite. Silica 33-24, alumina 44-33, lime 13-11, FeO 3-04, ( MnO 1-13, water 5-18. Diphcnc Compounds, are those derived by two conjugate atoms of benzole Cj^Hg, or pbe- nole C 12 H 6 O 2 . IMplicninc. C 24 H 12 N 4 by NH 4 S, on dinitro-azobenzide. Diphosphamidc. PN0 2 , or PN0 5 , by heating phosph amide. IMplatinaminc. N 2 H 4 Pt 2 . The base ex- isting in Gros' platinum salt. Diplatosaminc. N 2 H 5 Pt. The base ex- isting in Reiset's platinum salt (a). Diploite. See LATROBITE. Dippcl's Animal Oil. Rectified oil of Hartshorn. An oil obtained in the distillation of bones for the preparation of bone black. In its crude state it is brown and viscid, but may be obtained colourless by redistillation. It con- tains odorine (picoline), aniline, lutidine, bases of the ethylamine series, and of the pyrol series, the latter characterized by giving a red resin when decomposed. According to Unverdorben, it contains odorine, animine, olanlne, and ammo- line. IMpyre. See SCAPOLITE. Oisacrylc. C 10 H 7 4 . A white powder from water and acroleine. Discrasc. See ANTIMONIAL SILVER. Disinfecting Liquor of l.abarrucque, or chloride of soda. IHsomose. Arsenio-sulphide of nickel. 209 DIS nt A sepcies of filtration in which an organic substance which acts as the filter has its soluble matter dis- placed by water or other fluid acting in the form of a column. Apparatus adapted for this pur- pose are termed displacement apparatus, and may be formed of glass or metal. For labora- tory experiments they are most conveniently made of a long narrow glass cylinder, a foot or more in length, stoppered above, and with a narrow open outlet below, fitted by grinding into a glass receiver beneath. The sub- stance to be exhausted is placed in the bottom of the cylinder c7, water is poured on it, and the resulting infusion drops into the receiver below. In this way in- fusions are made on the great scale by a large tin apparatus, the glass cylinder being replaced by a tin tube many feet in length, which may be connected with a reservoir or headpressure of water. DIS Disterrite. Spec. grav. 3-042, H 5 to _G. Hexagonal prisms. Silica 20-, alumina 43-22, Fe 2 O 3 3-6, magnesia 25-01, lime 4-, potash -57, water 3-60 ; from Fassa, Tyrol. Disthcrac. See CYANITE. Distillate. A fluid distilled, and found in the receiver of a distilling apparatus. Distillation, (destillare, to drop), is a pro- cess which has been long practised. It con- sists in heating a fluid in a close vessel, and collecting and condensing the vapour which passes from it in a cool receiver. The apparatus required for distillation is a retort or still, and a receiver or condenser. The fluid to be distilled is placed in the retort or still which is closed. The retort is connected with the receiver. Heat being applied to the retort, enters the fluid and converts it into vapour. The vapour passes into the receiver, which is kept cool by a current of cold water running over it. The cold water de- prives the vapour of the heat required to retain it hi its elastic state; the vapour consequently con- denses into a fluid state again. Distillation therefore supplies a method of removing volatile matters from more fixed materials when the volatile matter is not decomposed by the heat applied to it. A convenient method of distilling in a laboratory, is by means of Liebig's conden- sing tube. The condensing tube into which the beak of the retort enters, consists of an exterior tin tube, E D, and a narrower glass tube, Z>, which is enclosed in the tin tube, and communicates directly with the retort. There is therefore a considerable space between the glass and tin tubes for the reception of water. Cold water being admitted from a vessel standing on a stool by the funnel c, or from a reservoir, into the space , mentioned, removes the heat from the vapour of the distilled fluid, becomes itself heated, and rising to the upper extremity of the tin tube f, rum off by the curved tube y into a re- ceiving vessel. A constant flow of cold water is thus kept up from the water reservoir upwards from d to f along the tin tube. A convenient mo- dification of this apparatus is the annexed. For pharmaceutical purposes, a convenient apparatus is to have a large globular vessel of green glass (bolthead), supplied with a head or alembic (fig.) For purposes of testing, a tube retort and receiver, a J, will be found convenient. A zig-zag tube, 210 DIS >?, may also be employed for a similar purpose, cold being applied at the bend so as to produce "condensation of the fluid distilled from the closed nd. Distillation, Destructive. The result, it has been long known, of the application of heat to organic substances confined in close vessels, is merely a change of state, nothing being lost. Distillation was practised by the alchemists ; but it is only in more recent times that the results of the distillation have been examined carefully with relation to the source of their produc- tion. So late as 1730 Hales distilled sub- stances to ascertain if they contained air, no dis- tinction being at that time recognized between -one kind of gas and another. Soon afterwards It Avas observed by Beccaria, that flour contained two principles, one which yielded acid by distil- lation, and the other ammonia. These are now .known to be derived, the acid from the starch, and the ammonia from the albuminous or nutri- tive matter. But besides these products, there are various gases and oils. Such results are well exhibited in the gas manufactory, and in the production of bone black. When substances consisting of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are distilled, the effect is to remove oxygen from the body, in the form of carbonic acid or water. After the removal of the oxygen, the carbon and hydrogen are removed in the form of the inflam- mable gases, olefiant gas and carburetted hydro- gen. Sugar (C 12 H 9 9 2 HO) for example, when distilled, yields first 2 atoms water, and is -changed into soluble caramel (C 12 H 9 O 9 ). If the heat be continued, more water is given off with DRA acetic acid (C 4 H 3 O 3 ), formic acid (C 2 H0 3 ), carburetted hydrogen (CH 2 ), &c. and a vesicular charcoal remains behind. When many acids are distilled, they lose oxygen in the form of carbonic acid and water, and are converted into a new acid ; 1 atom hydrate of salicylic acid by heat loses 2 atoms carbonic acid, and is changed into carbolic acid (C 14 H 6 6 2 CO 2 = C 12 H G 2 ); 1 atom meconic acid is deprived of 2 atoms water and 2 atoms carbonic acid, and becomes comenic acid (C 14 H 4 O 14 2 HO, and 2 C0 2 = C 12 H 2 O 8 ). Nitrogenous bodies lose first ammonia, then cyanogen and cyanohydric or prussic acidl Urea 'when distilled loses ammonia, and is con- verted into cyanuric acid, which again is changed into cyanic acid. When organic acids are dis- tilled in contact with strong bases, they lose the elements of carbonic acid, which unites with the base, and the acid less the carbonic acid passes over in the form of a new product, whose termination is in one (cetone). Acetate of lime becomes car- bonate of lime and acetone (C 4 H 3 O 3 , CaO = CaO C0 2 , and C 3 H 3 0). The action in dry distillation has been compared to combustion from the tendency to the union of carbon and oxygen, and of hydrogen with oxygen; the pro- ducts being carbonic acid and water. Distillation of Spirits. See SPIRITS and STILL. Distilled Waters are those waters used as cosmetics, &c. which have been formed by distilling water with plants containing essential oils. Disuccinamide. C 8 H 3 4 NH 2 . By dis- tilling bisuccinate of ammonia. Dithionic Acid, or Hyposulphuric acid. Dividivi. The fruit of the Ccesolpinia cori- aria from Carthagena, containing tannic and gallic acids ; used in tanning. DocgUc Acid. C 38 H 3G 4 . Yellow fluid, the oleic acid of doegling oil. Docglic Oxide. C 24 H 24 HO. By distilling doegling oil and rectifying. Doegling Train Oil. The oil of the bottle- nose whale, Balaena rostrata, of spec. grav. '868. Dolerite. A trap rock consisting of labra- dorite and augite. Dolomite. Magnesian limestone, a combi- nation of 1 atom carbonate of lime, and 1 atom carbonate of magnesia, but often in other pro- portions ; occurring crystallized, as rhomboidal bitter spar, and in large deposits as a distinct formation overlying the coal formation. Doraitc. A'variety of trachyte. Silica 51, A1 2 3 24, MgO 7-8, CaO 2-, Fe 2 3 8-3, MnO 64, KO 4-6. Doppleritc. A gelatinous substance from a peat bog in Styria. Dracole. C 14 H 8 2 . See ANISOLE. Draconic Acid. See ANISIC ACID. Draconine, Dracine. C 40 H 21 8 . The pure red basic resin of dragon's blood (Pterocar- pus draco), extracted by carbonizing the impuri- 211 DRA ties of the crude resin by sulphuric acid. It is employed to colour varnishes; spec grav. 1-196. When distilled it yields dracyle, C 14 H 8 , or toluole. Dragonitc. A variety of quartz. Drawing Slate. See SLATE. I>reelitc. 3 (BaO S0 3 ,) CaOS0 3 . Pearly rhomboidal crystals from Beaujeu, France; re- sembles chabasite, spec. grav. 3-3, H 3-25. B.B. fuses into a blebby glass coloured blue by nitre. Drosometer. (S^eee, dew.) An instru- ment for measuring the amount of dew. Drummond Light. The intense light pro- duced for signals by propelling a mixture of ignited hydrogen or coal gas and oxygen upon lime. Drying. The process of removing moisture from bodies by means of the water or other baths, the air pump, &c. Gases are dried by passing them over asbestus moistened with sul- phuric acid, by causing them to bubble through sulphuric acid, or by passing them through a tube filled with chloride of calcium. Drying Oils. See OILS. Dry Rot. The process of dry decay in tim- ber, considered to be pr'oduced by the fermenting action of the albuminous matter still retained in - the wood from want of proper seasoning. The . antidote is to expose the wood to the air or run- ning -water, so that its juices may be washed out, or to immerse it in a metallic saline solution, or in creasote, derived from distilled resins which coagulate the albumen. Ductility. The property possessed by metals of being drawn out into wires. This power is possessed by them in the following order : gold, silver, platinum, iron, nickel, copper, zinc, tin, lead. Dufrenite, Alluaudite, Craurite. Phosphoric acid 28-42, Fe0 57-6, water 12-15. Olive or green colour. Spec. grav. 3-227; from Anglar, Limoges. Dufrcsnoysite, Arsenio Sulphide of Lead, from Clausthal in the Hartz. 2 PbS, AsS 3 . Duksteiii, or Trass. A recent volcanic mineral. Dulcinc, Dulcose. C 14 H 14 O 12 3HO. A white sweet substance from an unknown source in Mada- gascar, crystallizing in oblique prisms. F. P. 3 5 9 to 374. At 527 it decomposes, giving out carbonic oxide, and perhaps acetic acid, and ace- tone. Almost insoluble in alcohol, which distin- guishes it from mannite; it seems homologous with grape sugar, although it does not ferment ; it has no action on polarized light ; not precipi- tated from its solutions by acetate of lead. With sulphuric acid it forms a conjugate acid, the barytes salt of which is gummy. Dumaaine. Ci H 8 0? Spec. grav. of vapour 5-204. Colourless empyreumatic fluid, obtained along with acetone in the distillation of acetate of lime. Dutch Gold Leaf, or Foil, is composed of copper and zinc, or of bronze and copper leaf ; DYS it possesses a golden colour, and is often sold far gold leaf, from which, however, it may be dis- tinguished by its solubility in either, muriatic or nitric acid, separately. Its frequent constitution is said to be 11 copper, 2 zinc, rolled from red bronze. Dyeing. (Teinture, Fr. ; Fdrberei, Fdrbe- kunst, Ger.) The term dyeing is usually restricted to that part of the art of communicating colours to cloth, which is accomplished by immersion in a fluid. It is the most ancient branch of the art, and is practised hi the rudest states of society. Even at the present time it is not unfrequently a, domestic art hi the more sequestered parts of our island. The female Highlanders during the win- ter months often practise the art of dyeing then* own dresses with vegetable materials immediately within their reach. Thus a broiun colour is ob- tained by heating the yarn or cloth with a solu- tion of copperas, which acts as the mordant with the colouring matters of sumac, logwood, and crottel (Parmclia omphalodes), a lichen which covers the surface of rocks and trees in a moist climate. Black is dyed with the bark of the alder (Am, Scot. ; Fiarn, Gael.) or Almus glu- tinosa, with copperas and a little sumac ; yellow by means of the common heather (Calluna vul- garis) and alum ; red with the roots of the galium verum and alum. It is obvious, therefore, that, a in calico printing, the application of colours to> fabrics implies generally the use of a mordant to adhere to the cloth, and of a colouring matter which unites with the mordant, and thus forms a chemical combination. This treatment is parti- cularly required in dyeing cotton ; but between woollen and silk fibre and colouring matters an affinity exists which renders the operation of dyeing with these fabrics much simpler. Ther mordants used by dyers are usually termed spirits^ and as they require different strengths for various colours, the peculiar mordant is designated by the colour for which it is used. Brazil-wood, or red spirits, is obtained by adding to 3 Ibs. muri- atic acid, and 1 nitric acid, metallic tin cautioug- ly, to prevent too violent action, until the metal, ceases to be dissolved. The proportions in Bar- wood red spirits are 6 Ibs. muriatic acid and 1 nitric acid, the metal being added as before ; while in Plum spirits the ingredients are 1 Ib. nitric, and 7 Ibs. muriatic acid. To prepare the metal for these spirits, it is melted in an iron vessel, and,' while still fused it is run into cold water a pro- cess technically called feathering. The details of the process of dyeing Turkey red has been given, under CALICO PRINTING. It affords ^n illustra- tion of one of the most difficult operations in the: art. The best works on dyeing are by Bancroft,' Berthollet, Chevreul, Persoz, Leuchs, &c." Dyripc, from Mauleon, Pyrenees. Si0 3 GO, A1 2 3 24, CaO 10, HO 2-. " Dyaclasitc, Okenite. Spec. grav. 2-362, H 4-5. White fibrous crystals, difficult to fracture. B.B. fuses on the edges, and with soda into a 212 DYS semitransparent glass ; gelatinizes with chloro- hydric acid. Silica 57-69, lime 26-83, water 14-71, soda -44, potash -23, Fe 2 3 -32, MnO -22. Form. 3 CaO, 4 Si0 3 , 2 HO. Dysintribite. A mineral from Diana, New York. Spec. grav. 2-76 to 2-81, H 3-75; dark green granular mass ; fusing into a porcelain mass, Si0 3 47-68, AL>0 3 41-5, FeO 5-48, HO 4-83. Dyslititc, Schreibersite. Brownish-black powder remaining on dissolving many meteoric masses in acids. Dysluite. Spec. grav. 4-551, H 4-5. Yel- lowish-brown 8-hedrons ; texture foliated, opaque; lustre splendent and vitreous. B. B. becomes red, which it loses on cooling; does not fuse with fluxes, but the soda bead has a fine red EGG colour, disappearing on cooling. It is very difficult of decomposition, bisulphate of potash or soda being the best agent ; from Sterling, N. Jersey. A1 2 O 3 30-49, ZnO 16-8, Fe 2 3 41-93, MnO 7-6, Si0 3 2-96, HO -4. Dyslysine. C 60 H 48 O r or C 48 H 36 C . A resinous substance obtained by boiling choloidic acid with chlorohydric acid ; so named from its difficult solubility. Dysodile. Apparently used by many as a generic term to include a number of species. A variety occurring near Giessen consists of bitu- men 49, carbon 55-5, sesquioxide of iron 11, silica soluble in potash 17-4, clay, &c. 1-. It has been described also as composed of siliceous infusoria. Dyssuite. See SILICATE OF MANGANESE. E Eaglestone. A name given to a clay iron ere. Earthenware. See POTTERY. Earths. (Erden, Ger.; Terres, Fr.) A class of metallic oxides characterized by their insolu- bility in water. They are as follows : alumina, glucina, zirconia, thoria, didymia, lantana, ceria, i/ttria, terbia, erbia. With the exception of alumina, which is one of the most abundant sub- stances in nature, the earths are uncommon, and most of them have been very imperfectly ex- amined in consequence of the close approxima- tion of their characters. They are all precipi- tated white by ammonia from their solutions, and also by soda ; but alumina and glucina are redissolved b}^ soda or potash. They are all preci- pitated as oxides by sulphohydride of ammonium with the evolution of sulphohydric acid. They are not precipitated by sulphohydric acid. Eau de Cologne. See COLOGNE WATER. Eau de Jarelle. A solution of chlorine in water. Eau de I^uce. A milky-coloured mixture *>f 1 part oil of amber, 24 alcohol, and 96 caustic ammonia. Eblaninc. (Dublinine) Pyroxanthine. C 2 i H 9 4 . Yellow needles, F.P. 291, subliming at 273; insoluble in water; soluble in ether, alcohol, and acetic acid; soluble in sulphuric and chlorohydric acids. It is obtained from crude pyroxylic spirit by distilling one-sixth of that fluid, saturating the distilled fluid with slaked lime, distilling off the spirit, treating the brown residue with dilute chlorohydric acid, and then with alcohol, which by distillation yields impure el^anine. and evaporation. This is purified by re-solution Ebullition. The act of boiling produced by the rapid formation and escape of vapour from a fluid by the influence of heat. The tempera- ture of the fluid as indicated by the thermometer termed the boiling point. Echynitc of ITIiask. Columbic acid 33-39, titanic acid 11-94, zirconia 17-52, protoxide of iron 17-65, yttria 9-35, lanthana 4-76, protox- ide of cerium 2-48, lime 2-40, water 1-56, traces of fluorine, tungstic acid, manganese, and mag- nesia. E delforsite. Tersilicate of tiftMgBftnr Edel- forss. Si0 3 57-75, CaO 30-16, MgO 4-75, FeO 1-, MnO -65, A1 2 3 3-75. Edelite, or Mesotype. Edelithe, or Prehnite. Edfngtonite. Antiedrite. Spec. grav. 2-75, II 4-25. Primaryform, right square prisms, angles of 129 8' and 92 41', with 8-hedrons with square base ; along with Thomsonite in the Kil- patrick hills, Glasgow; lustre vitreous, streak white, brittle; B.B. fuses into a colourless mass. Silica 35-09, alumina 27-69, lime 12-68, water 13-32, alkali 10 to 12. Edulcoration. (Dulds, sweet). The pro- cess of washing a substance until the wash water no longer tastes saline but sweet Edwardsite. See MONAZITE. Effervescence. (Effervesco, I boil.) The appearance of boiling produced by the rapid escape of a gas, as when an acid is poured on chalk or any carbonate. Efflorescence. (Effloresco, I blossom, or shoot into flower.) The appearance often ob- servable on brick walls, of a salt which renders the surface white; or when a salt, by losing water in the air, becomes powdery on the surface, as with crystals of carbonate of soda. Egcranc, Egrane. Streaked liver-brown idocrase from Eger, Bohemia. Egg. (Ei, Ger. ; (Euf, Fr.) The term egg is bestowed on the ovum of oviparous animals, but in common use it is applied to the egg of the hen, which consists of 1. the shell, a compound of animal matter 2, phosphate of lime and mag- nesia 1, carbonate of lime and a little carbonate of magnesia 97. 2. The membrana putaminis, a 213 EHL thin pellicle within the shell. 3. The white, or albumen of the egg, consisting of a glassy fluid deposited hi membranous cells, coagulating at 160. The white consists of water 80, albumen 15-5, mucus 4-5. The ash of the white consists in 1000 parts of S0 3 -15, P0 r , -46, Cl -93, KO, NaO, and carbonates of do. 2-93, CaO, MgO, and carbonates of do. -25. Total, 4-72. 3. The yolk, consists of water 53-78, albumen or vitel- line 17-47, yellow oil 28-75. The ash consists of S0 3 '06, P0 5 3-5, Cl -2-8, KO and NaO and then- carbonates '27, CaO, MgO, and their carbonates 61 (Prout). The oil contains phospho-oleic acid, the same as in the brain, and cerebric acid. The latest determination of the composition of the yolk is water 51-48, vitelline 15-76, margarine and oleine 21-30, cholesterine -438, phosphoric body (containing 7-23 oleic and margaric acids, and 1-2 phosphoglyceric acid) 8-426, cerebric sub- stance -3, NH^Cl -03, NaCI, KC1, KOS0 3 -28, CaOPOs and MgO 1-02, alcoholic extract -4, colouring matter -55. The spec. grav. of a new- laid egg is 1-080 to 1-090. An egg rapidly loses weight when kept, the aqueeus portion being displaced by air. The loss is about -744 grs. daily, the original weight of an egg being 907^ grs., in two years its weight was 363-2 grs. It is the presence of the air which promotes putrefaction. Hence the mode of pre- serving eggs, is to cover them Avith lard or butter. An egg also loses 20 to 30 per 1000 of its weight when boiled ; some of its saline ingredients escape into the water. The relative weights of the 3 portions of the egg are shell and membrane 106-9, albumen 604-2, yolk 288-9. By keeping an egg for three weeks at a temperature of 100, a chick is formed; in a week the average loss is 50 grs. ; at the end of the second it has lost 130 grs. ; the oil passes into the albumen, which di- minishes ; during the last week the yolk loses much of its phosphorus, which is found in the animal as phosphate of lime; at the period of . incubation all the albumen has disappeared ; the yolk is reduced in size, and is taken into the abdomen of the chick, the animal having attained a weight nearly equal to the original weight of the albumen. Ehlitc, or quintohydrous pentaphosphate of copper. CuO 65-99, PO 5 24-93, HO 9-06. Ekcbcrgite. Sodaite, Green, gray, or brown masses, transparent ; lustre vitreous or resinous ; with difficulty acted on by. acids; B.B. yields water, and melts into a blebby glass ; fuses with effervescence with borax. Silica 46, alumina 28-75, lime 13-50, soda 5-25, Fe 2 3 -75, water 2-25. Hlar-iic. Ci 8 H 18 . By distilling metoleic and hydroleic acids, and oleine together. Elacolitc. Fettstein, Lythrodes, Sodaite. Blue, green, or brick-red, massive, with natural joints parallel to the planes of a right rhombic prism, with angles of 1 1 2 and 68; fracture conchoidal ; lustre resinous, translucent; H 6. Spec. grav. ELE 2-54 to 2-62.; B.B. fuses into a'white enamel; Si0 3 44-19, A1 2 O 3 34-42, NaO 16-87, KO 4-73, CaO -52, MgO -68, Fe 2 3 -65, HO -6 ; gelatin- izes in acids ; from Laurvig, Stavern, and Fred- eriksvarm, Norway ; and from the United States of America. Elaidiuc, and Elaidic Acid. C7 2 H GG O S . Tabular pearly crystals, by heating oleic acid with nitrous acid. Elaine. See OLEINE. Elalclchyclc. Polymeric with aldehyde, from which it deposits by long keeping, and exposure to a temperature of 32 ; elaldehyde then ap- pears as ice-like needles ; fusing at 35. Elaoptene. Oleoptene. The fluid portion of essential oils. Elasmose. Bitelluride of Lead. Elasticity, or Spring, denotes the tendency which exists in the particles of certain bodies to recover then- natural position, when they have been mechanically or chemically displaced. When air has been compressed, and the particles of which it is composed are brought in closer jux- taposition, they will recover their former position on the removal of the pressure. When caout- chouc is compressed or extended, it returns to its original volume when the disturbing influences are at an end. Fluids possess the same power r but the particles of metals are less elastic. When hammered, metals retain the close proximity of their particles. Gases are, at equal temperatures and under equal atmospheric pressure, similarly elastic, except near their condensing points, when the reaction increases more than the pressure. Elastic Bitumen. Mineral Caoutchouc, Elaterite. Blackish-brown, of various shades, internally shining and glistening, very soft, sec- tile, elastic, flexible. Spec. grav. -905 to 1-233. It is said to consist of C 52- to 58, II 7-5 to 4-75, 40- to 36-75 ; nitrogen, a trace ; it is found in limestone, near Castletown, Derbyshire. Elastic Gum. See CAOUTCHOUC. Elateriue. Elatine, Momordicine. C^H^Os^ Silky rhombic prisms, with a bitter taste; fuses at 392 and volatilizes ; soluble in sulphuric acid, with a blood-red colour; soluble in 5 parts alcohol, and 118 ether; obtained from the eva- porated juice of the Momordica elaterium by strong alcohol (90 per cent.) evaporating, wash- ing with ether, and again dissolving in boiling; alcohol and evaporating. Elathinc. Brownish-yellow oil, lighter than water, partially decomposed by distillation, ob- tained by the action of ammonia and sulphur on acetone. Elaylc. A theoretic name given to olefiant gas. Elecampane. The root oflnula helenium, containing 36-7 of inuline, a variety of starch. Elecampane, Camphor. See J I KI .! .KX i x ;;. Electricity. (r^r;6, amber). A term, ori- ginally used to express the fact that certain bodies, when rubbed, attract light bodies towards 214 ELE them ; but now applied to an extensive branch of science, which not only includes such phenomena as are produced by friction, but also by chemical action. The consideration of this part of science belongs to natural philosophy, but in the pre- sent work the subjects of animal electricity and electro-metallurgy may be shortly noticed." Galvanism. Animal Electricity. Sultzer, in his Theorie Generale, published in 1767, states that if a plate of lead be placed upon the tongue, and another of silver under the tongue, a styptic taste, similar to that of a chalybeate water, is immediately experienced. The same experiment may be performed with other metals. In 1786 Cotugno announced that a student of medicine at Bologna, while dissecting a living mouse, was surprised at re- ceiving in his hand an electrical shock when he touched the phrenic or intercostal nerve with his scalpel. In 1790 Galvani, professor of anatomy at Bologna, had dissected a frog, and having placed it on a table where there was an electric machine, one of the persons who was assisting him, by accident touched the crural nerves of the frog with a scalpel near the conductor of the machine in action, when instantly violent con- tractions were produced. To make this experi- ment, it is necessary to lay bare the crural nerves, and to leave the legs attached to the spine by the nerves alone, and then a copper and zinc wire being either twisted or soldered together at one end, are to be applied, one under the nerve and the other to the leg. Experiment. Place two glasses full of water together ; into one put the thighs and legs of a frog, and lay the nerves over the edges of both glasses. Wrap a piece of tinfoil round the nerves. Place the fingers of one hand in the water of the glass that contains the legs, and holding a piece of silver in the other, touch the nerves ; convulsions occur. Galvani considered the body of the animal to be in the state of a charged Ley den jar, of which the nerves and muscles were the internal and external coatings, and that on connecting these by the conducting wire the electricities were united, and renewed for an instant the phenomena of life. Volta, on the contrary, having repeated the experiment, attri- buted the phenomena not to an animal electri- ELE city, as Galvani had done, but to common elec- tricity. He affirmed that when two metals are brought in contact, one acquires vitreous and the other resinous electricity ; and it is the electricity thus induced that occasions the animal contrac- tions. Fabroni, in 1792, advanced an opinion which is in all probability the correct one. Ac- cording to him, the particles of every metal, when brought in contact with those of another metal, have a tendency to unite with each other, and they would do so if they were not restrained by the attraction of cohesion. Their mutual action increases their power of attracting oxygen from the atmosphere or other sources, and hence the effects produced upon the frog's limbs may be attributed to a chemical operation the passage of oxygen from some combination to form a new one. In repeating the experiment of Sultzer, he observed that -if he wiped his tongue as dry as possible, the effect was so much diminished as to be hardly distinguishable. He conceived, there- fore, that the saliva must act a conspicuous part in the manifestation of the effect ; and as he sup- posed that the taste was produced by the partial solution of the metallic bodies employed, he came to the obvious conclusion that the saliva acted the part of a menstruum in accomplishing the solution. Electricity in the Frog. Galvani first laid the basis of this study by his celebrated experiment. Volta repeated it, while Aldini, in his treatise on galvanism, records some experiments in which he obtained contractions from the prepared frog, by making a communication between the muscles and nerves of the animal through other animals and his own body. And it has since been ascer- tained that this statement is not only correct, but that every metallic or liquid conductor interposed between the muscles and nerves of a frog, and through which the circulation of the electric fluid can be established, determines this current, and consequently the contraction. Humboldt also obtained contractions by interposing between the muscles and nerves a portion of muscular sub- stance, and according to him these contractions do not occur when the muscle touched is that of the thigh. Forty years elapsed without any ad- dition to these facts, until Nobili showed that these contractions are produced by a current of electricity proceeding from the muscles to the nerves of the frog. In order to detect the elec- tricity of the frog, Matteucci, to whom we owe many interesting facts in this important depart- ment of electricity, employs four porcelain capsules, which are filled with water slightly saline. Into the outer capsule, on each side, platinum plates are introduced, and connected with a galvano- meter. The two extreme capsules are then united by moist cotton threads, and lastly the two middle capsules are connected by means of the frog, prepared or in a living state. To prepare it in the living state, it is necessary to raise the skin from the legs, to cut longitudinally that of the 215 ELE flanks, and to draw out with glass forceps the crural nerves. It is not necessary, however, in order to affect the galvanometer, that the two portions of the body of the animal plunged into the capsules should be only the nerves and muscles or tendons of the leg. Thus, without cutting the frog, as is done in preparing it, we may limit ourselves to raising the skin up entire, and plung- ing the legs into one capsule, the head and back into another. We have then as intense a current as that obtained with the nerves and muscles, always passing from the feet to the head. Contractions in general only occur by the con- tact of the nerves and the muscles, although there are some animals possessed of such viva- city as to contract after the contact is destroyed. When a frog is placed in the capsules as de- scribed, Matteucci has found that the galvano- meter at first is deflected 25 or 30. The needle, however, soon begins to return, and becomes fixed at 3, and in a quarter of an hour it re- mains at 2. He has even kept frogs for six hours, and found them to produce an effect upon the galvanometer. To account for these phenomena, two explana- tions have been suggested. One of these ascribes the contractions and currents to a thermo-electric source, or in other words, they are produced by the unequal temperature of the muscle and the nerve ; an inequality occasioned, according to this hypothesis, by the difference of the evaporation in these two portions of the animal. But this view appears groundless when we consider that the currents are only produced when the galvano- meter is supplied with a very long circuit of wire, and that they traverse liquids conditions quite opposed to thermo-electricity. According to the second hypothesis, the currents are pro- duced by the electro-chemical state of the body, some organs being alkaline, others acid. Ac- cording to this view, as the current goes from the muscle to the nerve, the muscle ought to be al- kaline and the nerve acid, deductions which are not borne out by the chemical examination of these organs. Hence it is better to plead igno- rance of the cause of these currents. The conclusions to which Matteucci has come respecting amimal electricity are : 1. That in the frog and in warm-blooded ani- mals we find an electric current when the inter- nal part of a muscular mass and its surface are placed in communication with a conducting arc. 2. That the nerve which belongs to a muscular mass, and the whole cerebral system, can perform the office of the internal part of the muscle in which the nerve is distributed. 3. That the current is directed in the animal from the interior of the muscle or of its nerve to its surface or to its tendon. 4>. With the frog we obtain a current (the peculiar current) by placing in connection the muscles or the tendons of the leg with the muscles or the nerves of the thigh. This current is ELE directed in the animal from the leg to the thigh or to the nerve. Matteucci has added to these facts some very extraordinary ones, which seem to call in ques- tion the identity of the animal and electrical powers. He places in an isolated position a frog prepared in the usual way; then he prepares another frog, so as to have one leg with the ner- vous twig which goes from the spinal marrow to the muscles of the leg. It is necessary that this nerve should be perfectly cleared of the muscle. He then places the nervous twig over the thighs of the first frog, so that the filament of the leg to which the nervous twig belongs shall not touch the thighs. He waits till the nervous move- ments occasioned by the rapid preparation of the animal cease. Let the lumbar nerves be now touched with a pair of plates of copper and zinc, instantly the muscles of the thighs contract, but at the same time the leg whose nerve is laid on the contracting muscles is observed to contract. Instead of a voltaic pair, we may use a nail or any similar body with the same effect. The same experiment has been repeated by placing the prepared single leg on the muscles of a living rabbit's thigh with the same result. This phenomenon he terms contraction by induction or induced contraction. This is a remarkable ex- periment, and quite original, but the subsequent facts are not less so. When the muscles of the legs are covered with gold leaf, and the single leg placed as before, the voltaic pair produces the same contractions in the legs, but no effect is produced on the single leg. Hence it is obvious that metal is incapable of superseding the nerve in carrying the contracting power. But if we tear the gold leaf, and bring the animal surfaces in contact as before, the contractions recur. If in place of gold leaf we use unsized paper of very fine quality, the contractions take place. The- phenomena never occur if the intervening body be an insulating plate, however thin it may be. Electro-Magnetic Coil. Magnetism in- duced by a current of electricity, is termed electro- magnetism. An apparatus formed on this prin- ciple is used for communicating shocks in paralytic and other cases of nervous debility. One of the wires of a single cell battery is screwed in a, and the other at a corresponding coupling screw on the other side ; the screw g must touch liglxtly 216 ELE the former from the West, the latter from the East Indies. It consists of two resins, one sol- uble in cold alcohol and crystallizable ; the solu- tion is not precipitated by metals, but by ammonia; changes into a jelly; it has the same composition as anime. E liquation. The separation of a more fluid from a less fluid metal when alloyed together, by heating them to the fusing point of one of the metals. Ellagic Acid. Bezoaric Acid. C^H^O;-. Spec. grav. 1'667. Light yellow powder con- sisting of prisms, nearly insoluble in water and ether; slightly soluble in alcohol; soluble in sulphuric acid, from which it is separated by water ; when the sulphuric acid solution is al- 218 ELU lowed to attract moisture from the air, the ellagic acid separates in long prisms ; it forms a yellow solution with potash, which yields blue crystals of glaucomelanic acid ; it forms black precipitates with salts of iron ; ellagic acid is obtained from Oriental bezoarsby digestion in potash, and pre- cipitation by chlorohydric acid ; it is formed by exposing infusion of nutgalls to the air, and remains in the insoluble matter from which the gallic acid is removed by boiling water. Elutriation. (Elutrio, I clean). A mechan- ical process in the preparation of ores, by which their finer particles are suspended, and the heavier portions fall to the bottom. It is also ex- tensively used in the pottery, and in preparing pigments. Embolite. Chlorobromide of Silver. 2Ag Br, 3AgCl. Spec. grav. 5-80; 8-hedrons; cleavage cubic; externally olive-green, internally sulphur-yellow colour, from Copiapo, Chili; on calcareous spar. i:mi>2 ithitc. See BOULANGERITE. Emerald. Beryl, Aquamarine, Agustite. Spec. grav. 2-58 to 2-732, H 7.5 to 8. Emerald- green passing into blue, yellow, and white ; regu- lar 6-sided prisms. The bright greens are called emerald, the pale varieties beryl B.B. the edges are rounded, and a vesicular slag is formed; it fuses with borax. It consists of SiO 3 66-858, A1 2 O 3 18-406, G10 12-536, Fe 2 3 2\ Form. 3G1O 2Si0 3 , Al 2 O 3 2Si0 3 . The finest spe- cimens come" from Peru in Santa Fe, in pri- mary rocks ; it occurs in Upper Egypt, at Nertschinsk in Ural ; in Cornwall, Caringorum, Wicklow, Brazil, Amity, New York. Emerald Copper. See DIOPTASE. Emery. A1 2 O 3 86, Si0 3 3-, Fe 2 3 4. Sp. grav. 4-. A gray variety of corundum from Naxos in the Archipelago, with a shining and adamantine lustre; opaque, very hard, and in powder is used to polish hard bodies. Emery lite. CorundelUte, Clingmannite. Sp. grav. 2 -995, H 4\ White plates resembling mica, brittle or somewhat flexible, translucent ; occurs along with corundum in Asia Minor, in Delaware, U. S. c. Silica 30-18, A1 2 (>3 51 J 4, CaO 10-87, MgO -92, soda 2-23, water 4-52 ; 3 (CaO, MgO, NaO), Si0 3 , 3 A1 2 O 3 Si0 3 , 3 HO. B.B. splits, gives out light and fuses on the edges. Emetics. A series of compounds formed on the type of tartar emetic. Tartar emetic, being KO Sb0 3 , C 8 H 4 10 , Iron emetic, is KG Fe 2 O 3 , C 8 H 4 Oi , and Lead emetic, is PbO Sb0 3 C 8 H 4 Oio, &c. Emetic Tartar. See ANTIMONY. Emetine. C 37 H 27 NO 10 ? White, bitterish . powder, very poisonous ; obtained by alcohol from the root of Cephaelis ipecacuanha. JKinmonsite. A variety of carbonate of strontian from the United States, contains 6- to 8-64 per cent, of carbonate of linae. ENC Empirical Formula. See FORMULAE. Empyrcuma. ( tfuntti*, I kindle). The pe- culiar odour due to the partial decomposition of oils in the dry distillation of organic substances. Emnlsine. Legumine. C 48-79, H 7'73 ? N 18-83, O 24-65. (R, D. Thomson and Richardson). A fine white powder, giving out ammonia when boiled with alkalies ; soluble in water, but insoluble in alcohol and ether; ob- tained by making an emulsion with water and sweet almonds, adding 4 times its volume of ether, allowing it to stand for three weeks, and drawing off the under clear fluid. On adding alcohol, the emulsine falls in white flocks, which are washed with alcohol, and dried in vacuo. It is coagulated by heat, and dissolved by acetic acid. It is the same substance termed legumine by Dumas, and found in many stone fruits. The substance examined by Robiquet, and termed synaptase, is quite different ; the body analyzed by Ortliff is also different. Emulsion. A name given to a thick gummy mixture, formed by trituration, of certain sub- stances with water. One of the best examples of this kind is emulsion of almonds. Enamel of Teeth. See TEETH. Enamel, White, for pottery. Sand 53, cal- cined mass (consisting of 15 tin, 100 lead), 26 r carbonate of potash 21. Another. Fused borax 14, oxide of tin 14, arsenious acid 4, mixture- Consisting of sand 45, minium 37, carbonate of potash 18), 68. Enamelling. The process of covering the interior of iron vessels, &c. with an enamel of porcelain. The iron vessel is first heated gently* with very dilute sulphuric acid, with which it remains in contact from half-a-day to twenty- four hours; it is then washed with water and rubbed with a brush. The first application of the enamel takes place ; it consists of a frit of quartz and borax mixed with powdered felspar and clay free from iron, ground to a fine paste (100 Ibs. flints, 50 calcined borax ; 40 Ibs. of this mixture are ground with 5 Ibs. clay). The first applied coating is dried in a hot room, and then the second application is made. This con- sists of a mixture of 25 Ibs. glass destitute of lead, 5 Ibs. borax, and 4 Ibs. crystals of carbon- ate of soda. To every 9 Ibs. of this mixture are added 3^ oz. of carbonate of soda. It is- mixed with hot water, dried, powdered, and the- sifted powder dusted over the first coating, and dried at 212. The pan is then exposed to a sufficient heat in a gloss kiln. These pans do- not last long, in consequence often of the careless- way in which they are used. They should al- ways contain Avater, and should not be exposed to a higher heat than 212. Eisargitc. Spec. grav. 4-44, H B: Black rhombic prisms from Peru. S 32-22, As 17-59,. Sb 1-61, Cu 47-20, Fe -56, Zn 2-3, Ag -02. Eiiceladite. Warwickite, Silicotitaniate of Iron and Magnesia. Specific gravity 3 -2 0, H 3^ . 219 ENC Dark brown rhombic prisms, with often a cop- per tinge, lustre metallic and vitreous. Ti- tanic acid 28-2, silica 18-5, alumina 13-84, protoxide of iron 10-59, magnesia 22-2, lime 1-3. Occurs in limestone at Edenville, New York. By another description it possesses a specific gravity of 3-188, H 3 to 4. Si0 3 18-, Fe 2 O 3 13-, Ti0 3 ? 25-15, A1 2 3 13-84, MgO 22-2, CaO 1-3, HO 7-35. Blue, or brown- ish-black rhombic prisms ; lustre resinous or me- tallic ; becomes red by heat. In magnesian lime- stone, Amity, New York. Enchysiderite. A synonyme of pyroxene. JEiidcIlionitc. A synonyme of bournonite. H ii dial itc. From Kangerdluarsuk. Silica (33-33, zirconia 11-1, lime 9-79, soda 13 -82, FeO 6-75, MnO 2-06, HC1 1-03, HO 1-8. Xhidoinorphism. A change of state in a plutonic rock. The endomorphic rocks are por- phyry modified by slate and sandsone, claystone porphyry, and brown porphyry. JEndosmosc. A term applied to express the diffusion of two fluids of unequal density into each other when placed on opposite sides of a porous membrane ; the term has, how- ever, been restricted by some to the increase of volume produced by a fluid of less density passing from without inward to a heavier fluid. The phe- nomenon may be exhibited by filling a jar with water (fig. 1), and inserting in it a tube closed at the lower end with a piece of bladder, and filled to the same i, height with a saturated solution of '* common salt coloured by litmus; in the course of a few days, the fluid in the interior tube, c, will be found to have risen above that in the exterior jar, J, showing that more pure water has passed through the membrane than saline water. Another illustration is afforded by a bent tube (fig. 2), filled with a saline solution, or with pure water. One leg >f the tube may be longer than the other. When the extremities are covered with blad- der, and the tube suspended, it will be found that the membranes become gradually con- cave, and that the curvature of the tube is EPI occupied by a vacuum, or by air, proving that water has evaporated or diffused through the membranes into the air in the form of vapour. Hence there is constantly a vacuum forming in the tube. If the short end of this tube be inserted in coloured water, a current will pass from a to 5, and the fluid in the tube will become entirely col- oured. If a tube partially filled with salt water be closed with a membrane, and be brought in contact with one drop on the surface of water in another vessel, it will be found that the saline fluid aug- ments in volume (fig. 3.) It is found that no fluids diffuse when the membranes are dry, and that in all cases of endosmose of this description the fluid must be in contact with the membrane. It is believed that in these phenomena we have an apt illustration of the probable nature of the as- cent of sap in trees, and of the diffusion of fluids in the animal organism. For example, if we drink a glass of well water every ten minutes, until eight or ten glasses have been swallowed, if the water contained less salt than the blood, we shall find that the urine becomes nearly of the same density as the well water. If the same trial is made with water containing the same per centage of salt as exists in the blood, it will be found a very difficult matter to drink more than a glass or two of such water ; while, if the salt greatly exceeds that of the blood, purging will be the result. See also DIFFUSION OF FLUIDS. Eiiergiatype. A term applied to a mode of producing photographic effects by the applica- tion of succinic acid and gum to paper, and afterwards washing with nitrate of silver. Eocene. (!?, aurora; XKIVS, recent). The lowest of the tertiary rocks containing a small number of shells now living the dawn of the present state of the earth's surface. JEoidiiic. C 2 4H 2 2O 3 . The red-colouring matter of asparagus berries, similar to that of annatto. Ephesitc. Spec. grav. 3-2. White mica- ceous mineral. Si0 3 30-, A1 2 3 56-45, CaO 2-11, FeO 1-, NaO 4-41, HO 3-, found near Ephesus. Epichloritc. Spec. grav. 2-76, H 2-25. Dark leek-green masses with fatty lustre, fusing with difficulty ; occurs in serpentine at Eadan- thal. SiOo, 40-88, A1 2 3 10-96, Fe 2 O 3 8-72, FeO 8-96, MgO 20-, Cap -68, HO 10-18. Epidermis, Scar/skin, Cuticle, (nr., upon ; tty*.*, true skin). C 50-03, H 6-8, N 17-22, and S 24-93 (sole of the human foot, C 52-9, H 6-79, N and O 40-31, cuticle of Agave Americana). The animal epidermis con- sists of cells soluble in strong sulphuric acid and caustic soda. Nitrate of silver colours the cuticle black, partly by the formation of chloride of sil- ver, and partly of sulphide of silver from the sulphur of the cuticle. Epiflotc. (ttritiitiuf&i, I increase.) Acanticonite, Achmatite, Arendalite, BwUandite, Delphinite, llhiderite, Pistacite, Puschkinite, Scorza, Thal- 220 EPI lite, Thulite, Zotsitef Specific gravity 3-289 to 3-46, H 6-5. Massive and in right oblique prisms, the faces being elongated and streaked ; the edges so replaced with planes that the prism is 6, 8, or 10-sided ; fracture uneven, translucent, lustre vitreous, inclining to pearly on perfect faces of cleavage, brittle; colour green, of various shades. BB. fuses with difficulty, and only on the thin edges, with borax into a clean globule. Silica 38-05, alumina 21-25, lime 20-20, protox- ide of iron 17 -3, protoxide of manganese !, water 2-45, 3 RO, Si0 3 2 RgOgSiOs. Epidote was originally confounded with pyroxene ; found at Arendal, Norway; Carinthia; United States. Epiphyte. Plants which grow on the stems of others. My late pupil, Mr. John Thomson, M.A., found the composition of the Commelina Skinneri to be, water 79-64, organic matter 18-34, ash 2-02. The latter contained alkaline, sulphate, and chloride 42-72, silica, carbonate of lime, phosphate of lime and iron, &c. 59. In the Vanilla planifolia were found, water 89-06, organic matter 9-84, ash 1-1. The source of these salts is obviously the soil on which the plants grow, whether that be other trees or earth. Epistilbitc. A variety of stilbite. Specific gravity 2-2; white rhombic prisms. SiO 3 58-59, A1 2 O 3 17-52, CaO 7-56, NaO 1-78, HO 14-48. Epithelium. C 51-53, H 7-03, N 16-64, 22-32, S 2-68. The scaly covering of the mu- cous membranes, of which a quantity exists in the saliva. The above is an analysis of the epi- thelium of the whale ; almost insoluble in alco- hol ; slowly soluble in caustic potash, from which it is precipitated and redissolved by acetic acid ; the acetic solution is precipitated by yellow prus- siate of potash. Epsom Salt. Epsomite, Sulphate of mag- nesia. Equisalt, or Semel Salt, Equioxlde. A salt or oxide containing an atom of each ingredient. Protoxide of iron FeO is a semel oxide, or equi- oxide. Eqnisetic Acid, or aconitic acid. Equivalents. A term introduced by Dr. Wollaston instead of atomic weight, which is of theoretic origin. But as the latter is in general use, it is a matter of little consequence which ex- pression is employed. Erbium, Er. The metallic base of the earth erbia which has not yet been thoroughly separated from yttria and terbia. It occurs along with these earths when they are dissolved from the minerals containing them in acids. When am- monia is added fractionally to nitrate of these earths, erbia first falls ; then terbia ; and lastly 2 ERU yttria, which is the strongest base. Erbia is dark yellow ; the sulphate has a sweet taste. Ercinite. A syuonyme of harmotome. Eremacansis. (*)/*, gradually; xnvtri;, combustion). The slow but incessant union in nature of the carbon and hydrogen of dead plants and animals with the oxygen of the air, to form carbonic acid and water, as exemplified in th rotting of trees, the decay of vegetables, and formation of mould. The presence of water and a suitable heat are required in the oxidizing pro- cess of decay, as in putrefaction and fermenta- tion. Perfect dryness, or a temperature below freezing, puts an end to slow combustion. Wefc hay or wood, if enclosed for some time, will be found to remove the oxygen from the air in which it is in contact, so that a taper placed inr the atmosphere will be extinguished in it, just as if we had bumed either of these substances in a close vessel, the resulting products being the same in both cases. The destruction of the colouring matter in the fibres of cotton in the process of bleaching is also an example of ere- macausis. Eremite. Seo MONAZITE. Eretria. An unknown ancient substance. Ergot. Spurred Eye, Secale Cornutum. A fungus growing on rye. It contains 34 per cent, of a colourless oil, fungine 4 to 7f per cent, ergotine l per cent. It is extensively used in obstetrics, from the expulsive influence it is considered to possess on the uterus. ErgotiMe. C 76-32, H 5-64, 18-03. Bitter red powder, soluble in alcohol, sulphuric and acetic acids, and caustic potash; insoluble in water and ether, obtained by extracting oils from ergot by ether, taking up the ergotine by al- cohol, and precipitating by water. Ericinole. C 20 Hi50 2 . An oil from heaths by decoction ; precipitating by lead, and decom- posing by sulphuric acid. Ericoliuc. C 16 H 15 2 i. A substance from heaths and ledum pahistre. Erinite of Thomson. (Erin,, Ireland). Specific gravity 2-04, H 1-75. Yellowish-red,, compact, fine-grained masses, in an amygdaloi- dal rock, four miles east of the Giant's Cause- way. B.B. whitens, but does not fuse ; with. carbonate of soda into a blebby glass. Silica 47-03, A1 2 3 18-46, CaO 1-, FeO 6-36, water 25-28, NaCl '9. Erinite of Turner. See PENTARSENIATE. OF COPPER. Erlanitc. A variety of garnet. Erucasic Acid. C 44 H 42 O4. An acid in needles, from the oil of white and black mustard seeds. Erucasic Acid. C^H^OgHO. Needles, fusing at 93, from white mustard oil. Erucine. A whitish-yellow substance, in- soluble in water and ammonia ; soluble in alco- hol, ether, carbide of sulphur; obtained from white mustard oil. 21 ERY Erytfarelesic Acid. Erythretinic Acid. "Mica-like plates, obtained by boiling barytes with erythric acid. Eryfthvic Acid. Orcino-lecanoric Acid. Erythrine. C 34 H 19 15 3 HO. Snow-white scales, silky and stelliform crystals, by boiling water and precipitating by alcohol, from Par- melia roccella and Roccella tinctoria, or by treat- ment with lime and acid. When boiled it is con- verted into carbonic acid and orcine; boiled with alcohol it yields orcine and lecanoric acid ; hence it is probably a coupled acid ; it unites with 4 atoms oxide of lead ; when boiled with lime it yields picroery thrine and erythrelesic acid ; when boiled with alcohol it gives lecanorate of ethyle ; when heated it yields a sublimate of orcine; with ammonia it affords a red colour. Erythriue, or triarseniate of cobalt. Erythrite. A flesh-coloured mineral in the Kilpatrick hills, and in the amygdaloid at Bishop ton. Spec. grav. 2*541; hardness about the same as that of felspar ; texture compact ; silica 67-9, alumina 18*, Fe 2 O 3 2-7, lime 1-, MgO 3-25, KO 7-5, HO 1-. It seems to be allied to felspar. Erythrobetic Acid. Crystals from the aqueous extract of dry beetroot, by acetate of lead. Erythrogciie. A name applied to two substances, one a crystalline matter from the bile in a peculiar case ; the other the colouring matter of floAvers rendered red by acids. Erythroglucine. See PSEUDO-OKCINE. Erythroleic Acid. C 26 H 22 8 . Erytfaroleine. C 26 H 22 4 . Red oily 'fluid; but slightly soluble in water ; someAvhat soluble in alcohol and ether, Avith a red colour ; soluble in ammonia, with a purple colour ; obtained by heating the residue of litmus after extraction with water, Avith chlorohydric acid ; the solution being filtered, a red mass remains on the filter, which is to be treated with alcohol and ether. Eryllirolitmine. C 26 H 22 Oi 2 . Red pow- der, slightly soluble in water, very soluble in alcohol, with a red colour, yielding red grains from a hot saturated solution ; forms a blue solu- tion with potash; the alcoholic solution forms purple precipitates with metallic salts. Obtained in the preparation of erythroleine from the por- tion insoluble in ether. Erythromamiite. Eryylucine. C 22 H 28 O 22 . Crystalline body by boiling picroery- thrine Avith lime or barytes water. With nitric acid it forms an explosive compound, C^Hig 12 N0 5 . Erythropfaylle The red-colouring principle of flowers, obtained by extracting Avith alcohol; the solution precipitated by acetate of lead; the filtered liquor freed from lead by sulphohydric acid, evaporated, and a reddish-broAvn matter ob- tained. Erythropicrine. Picroerythrine, Amary- thrine. C 34 H 24 O 2 Q. By boiling erythric acid Avith water. ETH Erythroprotide. C 13 H 8 N 2 05. A doubt- ful body obtained by the action of alkalies on albuminous substances. Erythroretine.' Yellow resinous body by . ether from rhubarb root. Erythrose. A yellow body from rhubarb root by nitric acid. Erythrosic Acid. Produced by alkalies and erythrose. Erythrozyme. C^H^N^o 4 CaO. A reddish-broAvn matter by adding alcohol to an aqueous decoction of madder. When added to a solution of rubiane, the liquor becomes a jelly. The ery throzyme here acts as a ferment, and con- A-erts the rubiane into alizarine, verantine, rubi- retine, rubiafine, rubiagine, rubiadipine, and sugar. When precipitated by alcohol it is unit- ed to lime ; in Avater it putrifies and evoWes gas. Erythryline. C 22 H 1G 0(5. White insoluble powder by alcohol from roccella tinctoria. Erytrarsine, or chloride of cacodyle. Eschynite. See ^EsCHYNiTE. Esculinc. Esculic Acid. C5 2 H 46 24 . Crys- talline grains, insoluble in water, soluble in al- cohol, by heating saponine from horse chestnuts with acids. Esmaskitc, or Datholite. Esmarkite. Spec. grav. 2-709, H 3 to 5. Large prisms, coA^ered with a glittering coat, from Brevig, Norway, in granite, accompanied by chlorite. Silica 46, alumina 32-1, magnesia 10-3, water 5-5, FeO 3-8, MnO -4, PbO,"CuO, CoO Ti0 3 -5 Essences. Essential Oils. The odours of plants usually depend on the presence of A'olatile oils peculiar to each plant. They are distin- guished from fixed oils by the rapidity Avith which they evaporate Avhen a drop is alloAved to fall on blotting paper, and held before the fire. See VOLATILE OILS. Essonitc. Cinnamon Stone, Canelstein. Lime garnet. 3 CaO Si0 3 ,Al 2 3 Si0 3 . Spec. grav. 3-631, H 65. Granular masses from Ceylon; colour between hyacinth-red and orange; lustre between resinous and vitreous ; semitransparent to translucent; Si0 3 39-82, CaO 30-57, A1 2 3 20-14, FeO 9-46. B.B. fuses into a greenish glass. Ester. A name g'lven by Gmelin to ox-acid ethers. Vinester is an ethyle ether, saidformestei' a formyle or methyle ether. Etching. The process of engraving on glass by fluohydric acid, or on copper by nitric acid. Ethal. Cetylic Alcohol. Hydrous Oxide of Cetyle. C 32 H 33 OHO. Brilliant plates. F.P. 11.8. Volatile; soluble in alcohol, in- soluble in water ; decomposed by nitric acid ; unites with sulphuric acid; obtained by fusing in a silver basin spermaceti with hydrate of pot- ash; the oil which floats is heated with potash, Avater, and acid; the mixed ethal and cetylic acid are digested in milk of lime, and the ethal separated by cold alcohol from the cetylate of lime. 222 ETH ETH Ethalic Acid. See CETYLIC ACID. Fluohydric, C 4 H 5 F lather. A term applied to a series of volatile Formic, C 6 H 6 4 compounds, consisting of oxide of ethyle as a bichloro-, C G H 4 C1 2 4 base united to an acid, either inorganic or orga- sexchloro-, C 6 C1 6 4 nic. They are usually prepared by boiling the Fumaric, C 8 H 6 4 acid with alcohol, with the addition of sulphuric Hippuric, C 22 H 13 NO G acid in the organic ethers, when the acid replaces Hyponitrous, C 4 H 5 N0 4 the water of the alcohol. Although they are Indigotic, C 18 H 9 N0 10 termed ethers, they may be viewed as salts com- lodohydric, C 4 H 5 I posed of an organic radical and an acid. lodomesitylic, Itacic, C 9 H 7 O 4 Acetic ether, C 4 H 5 0, C 4 H 3 3 Lactic, C 2 oH 20 12 Chloracetic, C 4 H 5 0,C 4 C1 3 3 Leconoric, C 22 H 13 0() Perchloracetic, C 8 C1 8 4 Margaric, C 38 H 39 O 4 Aconitic, C 8 H 6 4 Mesitic, C 6 H 5 Adipic, C 10 H 9 O 4 Metacetic, ^ioHioO 4 AUophanic, C 8 NoH 6 G Methylic, C 2 H 3 Arsenic, C 4 H 5 0,HO,As0 5 semelchloro-, C 2 H 9 OC1 Anisic, C 20 H 12 6 bichloro-, C 2 HOC1 2 Azoleic, C 18 H 18 4 terchloro-, CoCl 3 Benzoic, C 18 H 10 4 Mucic, 2C 4 H 5 0,Ci 2 H 8 14 Benzoic, chloro-, C 18 H 8 C1 3 O 3 Myristic, CeoHooOs Triboracic, 3 C 4 H 5 O,B0 3 , Nitroanisic, C 2 oH n N0 10 Biboracic, C 4 H 5 O2 BO 3 Nitrochloroniceic, C 16 H 8 C1 N0 8 Bromanisic, C^HnBrOg Nitrocmnarnic, C 22 H n N0 8 Bromohydric, C 4 H 5 Br Nitric, C 4 H 5 ONO r , Bromic, C 4 H 4 0,Br0 5 Nitrous, C 4 H 5 ON0 3 Butyric, C 12 H 12 4 (Enanthic, C 4 H 5 OC 7 H 13 2 Butyroleic, . C 38 H 30 5 (Enanthylic, Ci 8 H 18 O 4 Camphoric, C 4 H 5 O, C 10 H 7 3 Oleic, C 48 H 44 05 Capric, C 16 H 16 4 Opianic, C 4 H5OCjoH 9 O9 Carbonic, ^ C 5 H 5 O 3 Oxamic, C 8 H 7 6 N Carbonic, bichloro-, C5H 3 C1 2 03 Oxalic, C 6 H 5 4 Carbonic, quintochloro-, C 5 C1 5 O 3 Phosphoric, C 4 H 5 2 HO P0 3 Carbamic, C G H 7 NO 4 Pyrocitric, C 9 H 7 4 Chlorocyanoformic, C 8 H G C1N0 4 ? Pyromucic, Ci 4 H 8 6 Chlorohydric, C 4 H 5 C1 Pyrotartaric, Ci 8 H 16 O8 semelchloro-, C 4 H 4 C1 2 Racemic, CcHnO 13 bichloro-, C 4 H 3 C1 3 Salicylic, Ci 8 H 10 6 terchloro-, C 4 H 2 C1 4 bibromo-, Ci 8 H 8 Br 2 O 6 quaterchloro-, C 4 HC1 5 bichloro-, Cl8H 8 Cl 2 Og quintochloro-, C 4 Clg binitro-, C 18 H 8 N 2 14 Chlorocamphoric, C 14 H 10 C1 2 4 Silicic, C 4 H 5 OSi0 3 Chloro-formic, C 6 H 5 C10 4 Disilicic, 2C 4 H 5 0,Si0 3 Chlorornesitylic, C 6 H 5 C1 BisiHcic, C 4 H 5 O,2Si0 3 Chloroniceic, Ci 8 H 9 C10 4 Stearic, C 72 H 72 7 Chloronitric, azotized, C 12 H 3 C1N0 7 , C 4 H 5 Stearophanic, ^39H 39 O 4 Chloropyromucic, C 14 H 8 Cl 4 Oc Suberic, Ci2Hn0 4 Chlorosuberic, ? Succinic, C 8 H 7 4 Chlorosulphuretted, C 4 H 3 C1SO perchloro-, C 1C HC1 13 08 Chloroxalic, C 44 C1 5 0,C 2 3 Sulphohydric, C 4 H 5 S Chloroxicarbonic, C C H 5 C10 4 quaterchloro-, C 4 HC1 4 S Chrysanisic, C 18 H 9 N 3 14 perchloro-, CoClgS Cinnamic, C 22 H 12 4 Sulphocarbonic, C 4 H 5 O 2 CS 2 HO Citracic, C 9 H 7 .O 4 Sulphuretted, C 4 H 3 S 2 O Citric, C 8 H 7 5 Sulphurous, C 4 H 5 0,S0 2 Cocostearic, C 31 H 34 10 Sulphuric, C 4 H 5 2 S0 3 HO Cuminic, C.7 4 H 1G 4 common, C 4 H 5 O Cyanohydric, C G H 5 N Tartaric, C 4 H 5 0,C 8 H 4 10 HO Cyanic, C 4 H 5 OCyO Tellurohydric, C 4 H 5 Te, Cyanuric, Ci 8 H 15 N 3 G Valerianic, Ci 4 H 14 O 4 Elaidic, C 39 H 38 4 Veratric, C 22 H 14 8 Ether, C 4 H 5 223 ETH Ether, Sulphuric Ether. C 4 H 5 O, or C 4 H 4 HO. Ether is best obtained by what is termed a continuous process. Alcohol is used of specific gravity -822 or 96 per cent, and is obtained by digesting proof spirits upon an equal weight of salt of tartar. Five parts by weight of this alcohol are mixed with 9 parts- S0 3 in a copper or cast iron vessel, sur- rounded by cold water, and the mixture is then placed in a tubulated glass retort, which it fills one-half. The distillation is conducted by the heat of a sand pot. A glass tube is fixed by a cork in the tubulure of the retort, of which the extremity within the retort is drawn to a capil- lary point, and dips one inch in the liquor. It communicates with a vessel of alcohol by a stop- cock, by which the supply of alcohol is regulated. Liebig says that when the process is properly conducted there is no product besides ether and water. The acid is not affected, and may be em- ployed for making an indefinite quantity of ether. The effect of this operation has been to deprive alcohol of water. Ether, ................. C 4 H 5 O = Alcohol, .............. C 4 H 5 O H EO = EO,HO Process for EtJier. A mixture of 9 parts of oil of vitriol (S0 3 HO), and 5 parts of alcohol of 85 per cent, heated to the boiling point, produce 1 atom of sulphate of ethyle, and 3 water. If we heat the mixture above 284, the whole is decomposed into EO -j- Aq, which distils over, leaving S0 3 and water behind. It is remarkable that the escape of the ether is not facilitated by the addition of strong sulphuric acid, while more al- cohol, when added, distils over without decom- position. The water in the mixture of ether is required, and seems to act as a stronger base, and thus displaces the oxide of ethyle in combi- nation with the acid, setting it free as ether. When a great excess of acid is present, the de- composition of the EOS0 3 requires a tempera- ture of 320, which is supposed by Liebig to be due to the action of the S0 3 upon the elements of the EO itself. He explains the production of defiant gas thus : 1 atom C 4 H 5 OS0 3 -|- HOS0 3 become 2 atoms sulph. acid, S 2 ^ atom olefiant gas, 3 atoms water, 2 atoms carbon, O H 2 H 3 H Mitscherlich has, however, suggested that ether and alcohol have different bases, for this rea- son, that, if we act upon alcohol with lime, oxide of potassium, or chloride of calcium, none of these bodies are able to remove the HO and convert the alcohol into ether; and fur- ther, that if ether were a base, the compound ETH ethers ought principally to be formed by the solution of acids in ether, which never happens. If ether is added to S0 3 , no sulphate of oxide of ethyle is formed till the temperature is raised to 280, and maintained there for some time. Ether, again, is not converted into alcohol by remain- ing in contact with' water. Mitscherlich is in- clined to regard alcohol as a kind of compound ether, which contains water instead of an acid, and which is retained by a feeble affinity, but in which this cannot be removed by mechanical action, except in a certain condition. This con- dition is fulfilled for alcohol and compound ethers by different substances, which are more electro- negative, and which act by contact. Thus, fluo- boric acid, some chlorides, as chloride of zinc, sul- phuric and phosphoric acids, have this action. Ether is a limpid and colourless liquor. It evaporates rapidly, and produces cold. Boils at 96. Used in cupping to produce a vacuum. Burns with a white flame. Ethe,r may be sepa- rated from alcohol by washing it with water. Ether dissolves fats, and is much used for this purpose in chemical analyses. It acts as a stu- pefacient when breathed. Spec. grav. of ether 7154, of vapour 2*586 ; non-conductor of elec- tricity; it dissolves iodine, bromine, ammonia, potash, sulphur, phosphorus ; water dissolves To to T l ? * ts v l' f et ^ er - Etherification (Graham). When 1 volume sulphuric acid and 4 to 8 volumes alcohol (83 per cent.) are heated in a sealed glass tube to 320 F. ether is formed by a polymerizing ac- tion, as it may be termed, of the acid. The hydrocarbon does not unite with the acid, but is merely increased in atomic weight and gaseous density, without any further derangement of com- position. Sulphuric acid has a similar action on. oil of turpentine, terebene and colophene being formed, one of which has a higher boiling and va- pour point than oil of turpentine. Chloride of zinc has an analogous action upon alcohol (Mitscher- lich). Bisulphate of soda may be substituted for sulphuric acid to produce ether. The formation of sulphovinic acid appears to impede etherization. According to another view, when sulphuric acid acts upon alcohol, half of the hydrogen of the water of the acid (H 2 OS0 3 ) is replaced by carburetted hydrogen (C 2 H 5 ), and is converted into sulpho- vinic acid; the water being viewed as formed of 2 atoms H, and 1 atom corresponding with the volumes. Sulphuric H acid, H H Sulphovinic acid. Then the sulphovinic acid, acting further on the alcohol, has its atom of hydrogen replaced by carburetted hydrogen, while sulphuric acid and water are formed. 224 ETH become Ether, S0 = "Water, alcohol, and ether are thus ternary homo- logous bodies, containing the same quantity of oxygen, and differing only in the form of the two molecules which are united to it. rater. H II Alcohol. H ( C 2 H 5 (Williamson.) To Purify Ether. Agitate it with double its volume of water. The supernatant liquor is poured upon quicklime, where it should remain some days. The third of it distilled affords per- fectly pure ether. E*therinc. Camphor of Oil of Wine. C 4 H 4 . Sp. grav. -980 ; F.P. 230, B.P. 500. White transparent prisms; soluble in alcohol and ether; tasteless ; separates from etherole by exposure to cold; isomeric with etherole and olefiant gas. Ethcrolc. Ethene. Light Oil of Wine. C 4 H 4 . Spec. grav. -917; B.P. 536. Solidifies at 31. Colourless or yellowish oil, with a pe- culiar odour ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; ob- tained by distilling equal parts of sulphovinate of lime and caustic lime, and removing alcohol from the distilled fluid in vacuo, over oil of vitriol. This is heavy, or sweet oil of wine (sulphate of oxide of ethyle and of etherole). C 4 H 5 OS0 3 , C 4 H 4 S0 3 . A colourless oil, of spec. grav. 1-135; B.P. 536. When boiled with water, acids, and alkalies, it is decomposed into sulphovinic acid, etherole, and etherine. The two latter swim on the surface, and by exposing them to a cold mixture the etherine crystallizes, and the etherole remains fluid. Ethionic Acid. C 4 H 5 0, 4S0 3 . By the action of anhydrous sulphuric acid on alcohol, or by the absorption of olefiant gas by sul- phuric acid. Ethiops Martialis. A mixture of protoxide and sesquioxide of iron. Ethiops Mineral. Ethiops Narcoticus. A sulphide of mercury, by triturating sulphur and mercury. Ethiops per se. Black oxide or dinoxide of mercury, formed by agitating mercury for some weeks or months. Ethogcnc, or Nitride of Boron. BN? B = 43-76, N^ 56-24? White light granular powder by igniting in a covered crucible 1 dry borax with 2 dry salammoniac, and boiling with water acidulated with HC1. Ethylaceinide. N,(C 4 H 5 ,C 4 H 3 2 ,H.) An amide produced by the action of cyanic ether on protohydrous acetic acid. When cyanic ether and anhydrous acetic acid are enclosed in a sealed tube, and heated to 356?, there is formed Ethyl- diacetamide, N(C 4 H 5 2C 4 H 3 2 ), both being formed on the type of ammonia. ETH KthylajMino, Ethylamide, Ethammine, Ethy~ liaque. C 4 H r ,ONH 2 . B.P. 68. Spec grav. -69, of vapour 1-5568. Volatile fluid, with the smell of ammonia ; soluble in water ; it occurs in coal tar, and in animal oil produced by the distillation of bones, and maybe probably extricated in putre- faction ; formed by heating cyanic ether, cyanu- ric ether, or ethlyo-urea with potash (C 4 H 5 0, Co NO, KO HO = K02CC-2, C 4 H 7 N), or by act- ing on bromide of ethyle with ammonia. This substance is ammonia, in which the third atom of hydrogen is replaced by ethyle. It has been, doubtless, often obtained, but has been mistaken for ammonia from the similarity of their odours. It is an amide of ethyle. It acts on the chloride of platinum, and forms 2 platinum bases, H,E, Pt,N, and NH 2 E,NH.E,Pt, in the second the atom is doubled. Ethyl-amyl-phenylamine. Ethyl- amyl- aniline. E,Ay,C 12 H 5 ,N. B.P. 503-6. Colourless oil by the action of bromide of ethyle on amyl- aniline, or by bromide of amyle on ethyl -pheny- lamine. Ethyl-aniline, or Ethyl - phenylamine. E, C 12 H 5 ,HN. B.P. 399. Spec. grav. -954. Col- ourless liquid, refracting light ; when dissolved in acids, turning fir wood yellow, with a smell of aniline ; obtained by decomposing the hydrobro- mate of ethyl-aniline with potash; this salt being formed in 4-sided plates by heating aniline with bromide of ethyle. EthySe. (Ether and \\ ra matter). C 4 H 5 = E or JE. The basis of the ethers. A colour- less gas. Spec. grav. 2-00394; with 2 atmos- pheric pressure it becomes a mobile fluid ; formed by acting on iodide of ethyle with zinc. It is not certain that this is the base of the ethers, but it is at least isomeric with it. Ethyle, Binoxalate of. Oxalovinic Acid. EOC 2 3 , HOC 2 O 3 . Obtained by adding a solu- tion of potash in absolute alcohol, to a solution of oxalic ether in absolute alcohol ; the quantity of potash being sufficient to decompose half of the oxalic acid, there is formed the potash oxa- late of ethyle, C 4 H 5 OC 2 O 3 , KOC 2 3 . When fluosilicic acid is added to this salt the potash is removed, and oxalovinic acid is formed. Ethyle, JSisulphatc of Oxide of. Sul- phovinic Acid, C 4 H 5 OS0 3 , HO S0 3 . Sp. grav. 1-319. A colourless oily fluid, with an acid taste, obtained by boiling alcohol and sulphuric acid together, or by passing the vapour of ether into oil of vitriol. When we boil alcohol and sul- phuric a'cid together (EO HO, and 2S0 3 ), we have formed a double compound in solution, of sul- phate of ethyle and sulphate of water (EO SO, HO S0 3 ) ; andtheproof of its formation is thefact, that when we saturate it with carbonate of lime or barytes, there is formed lime or barytes sulphate of ethyle (EOSO 3 , BaOSO 3 ), where the basic water is replaced by barytes, and which is a salt crystallizing in shining rhombic prisms. The acid may be separated from the barytes, lime, or lead 225 ETH salts, by adding sulphuric acid to the first, ox- alic acid to the second, and sulphohydric acid to the last, and evaporating the filtered liquor in yacuo over oil of vitriol. Ethyle, Bromide of. E Br. Spec. gray. 2-164, of vapour 6-485. Colourless oil. B. P. 264; by a similar process to that for the iodide. Ethyle, Carbonate of. Carbonic Ether. C 4 H 5 0, C0 2 . Spec. grav. -975, of vapour 4-09 ; B. P. 260. Clear fluid; burning with a blue flame ; insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; obtained by acting on oxalic ether with sodium. Ethyle-chloraniline. E,Ci 2 H 5 Cl,K Yel- low oil, by acting for some days on chloraniline with bromide of ethyle ; a hydrobromate of this base is formed ; by heating to 212 for two days, 2 atoms ethyle are united, and di-ethyl-chlorani- line is formed, 2 E, C 12 H 4 Cl N. Ethyle, Chloride of. E Cl. Colourless fluid. Spec. grav. -874; B.P. 52; obtained by saturating ether with chlorohydric acid gas, and distilling in a steam bath. Ethyle, Cyanate of. Cyanic Ether. EO CyO. Volatile fluid. Spec. grav. of vapour 2 -4, by distilling sulphovinate of potash, and cyanate of potash. Ethyle, Cyanide of. E Cy. Volatile fluid, by distilling sulphovinate of potash, with yellow prussiate of potash. Ethyle, Cyanurate of. Cyanuric Ether. 3 EO, Cy 3 3 . Crystals; F.P. 185; B.P. 529. Spec. grav. of vapour 7-4 ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; formed by distilling sulphovinate of pot- ash with tricyanurate of potash. Ethyle, Hydrous Oxide of. See ALCO- HOL. Ethyle, Iodide of. El. Clear neutral fluid. Sp. grav. 1-9206; of vapour 5-417. B.P. 161; insoluble in water, not inflammable ; formed by distilling alcohol, iodine, and phosphorus. The Mniodide is in colourless needles. Ethyle, Nitrate of Oxide of. Nitric Ether. C 4 H 5 N0 5 . Spec. grav. 1-112; B. P. 185. An agreeable smelling fluid with a sweetish-bit- ter taste, burns explosively with a white flame ; soluble in all proportions of alcohol ; insoluble in water ; dissolves iodine ; decomposed by a solu- tion of potash in alcohol into alcohol and nitre ; obtained by distilling 2 volumes of alcohol with 1 vol. nitric acid (1'4), with 25 grains nitrate of urea by a gentle heat, removing the first fluid which comes over that contains alcohol ; the pro- duct is washed with potash and then with water, and, lastly, digested with chloride of calcium and rectified. Ethyle, Nitrite of Oxide of. Nitrous Ether. C 4 H 5 NOo. Sp. grav. -947, of vapour 2-627 ; B.P. 16-4 C (61i). Light yellow ethereal fluid, with an apple odour; becomes acid by keeping from the separation of nitric acid; burns with a white flame ; it is decomposed by oil of vitriol, by sulphide of ammonium, into alcohol, ETH ammonia, water, and sulphur. Nitrous ether is prepared by passing a current of nitrous acid vapour, by the action of nitric acid on starch (10 acid 1 starch), into dilute alcohol. The pro- duct is heated with water and chloride of calcium. Nitrous ether is soluble in 48 water, and in al- cohol ; sweet spirits of nitre is nitrous ether dis- solved in alcohol; but as usually sold and pre- pared by the distillation of alcohol and nitric acid, it contains aldehyde and other impuri- ties. It is used as an antispasmodic and diuretic. Ethyle, Oxalate of. Oxalic Ether. C 4 H 5 O, C 2 3 . Spec. grav. 1-093; B.P. 364. Aro- matic colourless fluid ; remains permanent if pure, but if an excess of alcohol or oxalic acid be pre- sent, oxalic acid is deposited; it is formed by distilling 4 parts strong alcohol, 4 quadroxalate of potash, 5 sulphuric acid, washing the ether with water, and rectifying. Ethyle, Oxalate of and Ox amide. Cg H 7 NO 6 . F.P. 212 ; distils at 430 ; soluble in water and alcohol ; by ammonia on an alcoholic solution of oxalic ether. Ethyle, Oxamate of. Oxamic Ether. EO C2O 3 , AdC 2 2 . Pearly plates; obtained by adding ammonia to oxalic ether ; oxamate first falls, and the fluid yields oxamic ether. Ethyle, Oxide of. See ETHER. Ethyle, Silicates of. 3C 4 H 5 Si0 3 , or C 4 H 6 0,SiO 3 , or 2C 4 H 5 Si0 3 . Spec. grav. -932, of vapour 7-18 ; B. P. 324. Colourless neutral ethereal fluid, with a peppery taste ; soluble in all proportions in alcohol and ether ; obtained by pour- ing cautiously absolute alcohol into chloride of silicon. When the alcohol somewhat exceeds that of the chloride, no further action occurs. On dis- tilling, chlorohydric ether first passes ; then the greater part of the fluid distils over at 320 to 338. This, when rectified, is silicate of ethyle. A Bisillcate, C 4 H 5 O 2Si0 3 , or C 4 H 4 O Si0 3 , a clear fluid, of spec. grav. 1*035 ; distils over after the separation of the preceding, between 338 and 572. Ethyle, Sulphate of Oxide of. C 4 H 5 S0 3 . A neutral oil, capable of being distilled, but decomposed by over heating ; its taste re- sembles peppermint; it is formed by bring- ing anhydrous sulphuric acid in contact with ether. Ethyle, Sulphide of. E S. Colourless fluid. B.P. 167, with the smell of garlic; obtained by the reaction of chloride of ethyle, on sulphide of potassium. Ethyle, Sulphocarbonate of Oxide of. Oxide ofXantheline. HO E0 2 CS 2 . Spec. grav. 1-0703; B.P. 415; insol. in water ; sol. in alcohol and ether. In a solution of potash in alcohol it changes into carbonate of potash and mercaptan ; formed by heating potash sulphocarbonate of ethyle, with iodine, filtering and distilling. The residue is shaken with water, the separating oil treated with chloride of calcium. This potash 226 ETH salt is produced by dissolving caustic potash in alcohol to saturation, and adding bisulphide of carbon, until the alkaline action disappears ; the fluid congeals into a crystalline mass. Ethyle, Snlphocarbonate of sulphide of. ES CS 2 . Yellowish oil with the smell of gar- lic. B.P. 320; burning with a blue flame; taste sweet and aromatic ; formed bypassing the vapour of chloride of ethyle into solution of sulphide of potassium in alcohol until all the chloride of potassium separates. The addition of water separates the oil, from which bisulphide of car- bon is removed, by shaking it with a solution of sulphide of potassium in water. Ethyle, Sulphohydride of sulphide of. Mercaptcm. Sulphide of ethyle and hydrogen. E S, H S. Mobile colourless fluid; B.P. 97. Spec. grav. '842. Alliaceous smell. It is formed from alcohol by substituting sulphur for oxygen, ly distilling sulphovinate of lime with a saturated solution of sulphohydri.de of potassium. The dis- tilled fluid is digested with oxide of mercury and chloride of calcium, which remove sulphur and water. It acts on many oxides, the metal re- placing the hydrogen of the sulphohydric acid, and forming compounds with the type E S, M S. According to Zeise, the basis of this compound is E S 2 , or mercaptan (bisulphide of ethyle), which* forms with metals mercaptides. Ethyle, Triborate of. 3C 4 H 5 O, B0 3 . Sp. grav. -871, of vapour 5-14; B.P. 246. Smell agreeable, taste hot and bitter; burns with a green flame; soluble in water, ether, and alcohol; obtained by passing chlorine through a heated mixture of boracic acid and charcoal into a flask containing absolute alcohol, kept cold. The ether swims on the surface. It is distilled with some drops of alcohol ; alcohol passes over first, and then the ether. A biborate is formed by heating and distilling absolute alcohol and boracic acid at 230, treating the residue when cold with -ether, and distilling the solution under 400. There remains a yellowish, thick fluid, which gives out thick fumes at 390, and decomposes at 570. Ethyle, Triphosphatc of. Phosphovinic Acid. C 4 H 5 02HO, P0 5 . An acid fluid; sol- uble in water, ether, and alcohol ; obtained by heating phosphoric acid and alcohol, saturating with carbonate 'of barytes and precipitating th barytes by sulphuric acid. Ethyl-mcthyl-aininc. E,M,H,N ? By bromide of ethyle on methylamine. Ethyl-methyl-aniline. E,Me,C 12 H 5 N. An oil by the action of iodide of methyle on ethylaniline. Ethylocodcinc. C 3C Ho C 4 H 5 ]Sr0 6 . Abase supposed to exist in union with iodohydric acid, by the action of iodide of ethyle on codeine in a sealed tube. Ethylo-comcnic Acid. HO,E,C ]2 H 2 S . Ethylo-meconic Acid. 2HO,E,C 14 HOn. Ethylomorphiue. C 34 H 18 C 4 H 5 N0 6 . A EUD base supposed to exist in union with hydriodic acid, by the action of iodide of ethyle on mor- phine in a sealed tube. Ethylo-uarcotiiie. C 4C NH 25 U . Occurs in opium. Ethylomtraniline. C 4 H 5 ,C 12 H 5 ,N0 4 ,K Yellow needles by acting on nitranilinp with bromide of ethyle, and treating the hydrobro- rnate formed with potash. Ethylo-propylamine. E,Pr,H,N. Ethylo-stibyle. C 4 H 5 ,Sb. A base obtained in the form of ethylostibylic acid, when stibe- thyle is slowly oxidized. Ethyl-oxamidc. C 6 H G NO 2 , or oxa- mide in which 1 atom hydrogen is replaced by ethyle. Crystallizes ; soluble ; formed by acting on oxalic ether with ethylamine. Ethyl-propyl-amyl-amine. E,Pr,Ayl,N". Ethyl-urea. C 6 N 2 H 8 2 . Obtained by heating mixed solutions of cyanate of potash and sulphate of ethylamine. Ethyl-urethane. CioH n N0 4 . An amide by the action of cyanic ether on alcohol. i: ii rhl or inc. A green gas, probably a mix- ture of quaterchlorous acid (C10 4 ), and free chlo- rine or a binoxide, possessing bleaching powers ; exploding when touched with a hot wire ; formed by heating gently in a tube 1 chlorate of potash, 2 clilorohydric acid, and 2 water. Euchroic Acid. (ti>xt<>6f, beautiful). Eu- chronic Acid. Ci 2 NOg. 4-sided prisms, tasting like cream of tartar, obtained by heating mellate of ammonia in powder at 311, till it becomes a yellow powder ; water takes up euchroate of am- monia and leaves paramide ; muriatic or nitric acid will remove the ammonia, and the acid falls as a white powder, which is to be purified by crystallization from boiling water. Euchroitc, or septahydrous diarseniate of copper. Euchrone. A fine purple substance by zinc, or protoxide of iron and euchroic acid. Euchysiderite. A synonyme of pyroxene, probably. Euclase. Spec. grav. 2-907 to 3-098, H 7 '5. Mountain-green, passing into blue and white, right oblique angled prisms of 130 52'; fracture conchoidal, easily effected (hence the name easily Irokeii) ; lustre vitreous, splendent, transparent. B.B. fuses into a white enamel, dissolves slowly in borax into a colourless glass, a white bead with soda, with salt' of phosphorus effervesces, leaving a silica skeleton. Silica 43-22, alumina 30-56, glucina 21-78, Fe 2 3 2-22, SnO 2 -7; 2 Al 2 3 ,Si0 3 , 2 G 2 3 Si0 3 . Found in Peru, and Villa Rica, Brazil. Eucolite. Brown kidney-shaped mass, re- sembling Wohlerite. Si0 3 47-85, Zr 2 O 3 14-05, Fe 2 3 8-24, CaO 12-06, CeO 2-98, NaO 12-31, MnO 1-94, HO -94. Probably a Wohlerite in which zirconia is replaced by Fe 2 3 ; from near Brevig and Fredericksvarn, Norway. Eudialite. Spec. grav. 2-9036, H G. Eecl 227 EUD rhomboidal 12-hedrons; structure foliated ; frac- ture imperfect, conchoidal, or splintery; lustre vitreous. B.B. fuses into a slag ; gelatinizes in acids. Si0 3 53-325, Zr 2 O 3 11-102, CaO 9-785, NaO 13-822, FeO 6-754, MnO -2-062, HC1 1-034, HO 1-801 ; from Kangerluarzue, in Greenland. Eudiometer. (t^*?, good; /u,srgov, measurer of goodness of air). This instrument is an ac- curately graduated tube, first used by Priestley and Fontana. Priestley introduced a definite quantity of air, and mixed with it a certain amount of binoxide of nitrogen which united with the oxygen, but this method was found to be incorrect, in consequence of the formation of different nitrogen compounds. Perhaps the most convenient eudiometer is that usually called Volta's t for firing oxyen and hydrogen, and consists of a straight tube ac- curately graduated, closed at one end and open at the other the mouth being ground smooth as recommended by Bunsen. It is from 23 1 to 27^ inches in length, of equal calibre through- out; its interior diameter being about \ inch, and the thickness of the glass -^ of an inch (-0590 inch). At the closed end of the tube two fine platinum wires are made to perforate the glass, one on each side, and are made to ascend, lying flat on the sides of the tube till they ap- proach within T L (-118) of an inch of each other, at the sum- mit. To fix the wires with ac- curacy, the tube is heated at 5 with a pointed flame from the blowpipe, and the softened glass is drawn out to s b by means of an ignited platinum wire ; the portion a a is then cut off with a triangular file. The apertures are then heated by the blowpipe till they are nearly of the diameter of the wire to be introduced. Two platinum wires of the thickness of a horse's hair are then adjusted, and are melted into the glass by the blowpipe. When the tube has cooled, the extremities of the wire are pressed up to the top of the tube by means of a cylindrical piece of wood rounded at the end, EUL and which fills up the interior of the tube. For the graduation of the tube, Bunsen employs a peculiar instrument, which also answers for ther- mometers. See G.KA- DUATOR. Another form of eudiometer is that of Ure, b. It is not so readily graduated with accuracy, but is con- venient of application. The figure exhibits the principle on which the gaseous mixture is ex- ploded. The Leyden jar is charged ; a chain conducts from one wire of the eudiometer to the outside coating of the jar, while the other wire is brought in contact with the knob of the j ar. In reading off the amount of gas contained in the eudiometer, the tube is to be depressed in the water or mercurial trough, until the exterior fluid is on a level with that in the interior of the eudiometer, and the upper curvature of the fluid is that which is usually- considered the point to be noted (Cavendish re- commended the lower circle). The trough in which the experiment is made should therefore be sufficiently deep to admit of the proper de- pression of the tube. Eudiometry. The mode of analyzing at- mospheric air, or generally of determining the nature of mixed gases. See ATMOSPHERIC AIR. Eudnopfaif e. A form of analciine belonging- to the rhombic system, found on the island of Lamo, near Brevig Eugciicsite. An alloy of gold, palladium, silver, and selenium from Tilkerode. Eugenic Acid. Caryophyllic acid, Ileawf oil of Cloves. C 2 oH 12 5 . Oily fluid, specific grav. 1-079; B.P. 469; is separated from the light oil of cloves (both coming over when cloves are distilled with water) ; by adding pot- ash and distilling, the light oil passes over, and the heavy oil united to potash remains ; by then- adding sulphuric or phosphoric acid, and dis- tilling, the heavy oil passes over. Eugciiinc. C 2 oH 12 O4. Yellow pearly scales from the distilled water of.cloves. Eukairitc. Aryento Selenide of Copper. AgSe, Cu 2 Sc. Lead -gray and silver -white masses, lustre metallic, opaque, scratched by the knife, impressed by the hammer. B.B. fuses, giving out the odour of horse-radish, and leaving a globule of lead ; the globule melted with borax gives the colour of copper; dissolved in nitric- acid, white selenide of silver falls. Se 26, Cu 23-05, Ag 38-93, earthy matter 8-9; from Skrikerum, in Smoland. Eukolitc. Brown Wohlerite. See Euco- LITE. Eulebritc. Riolite. Selenide of zinc. Eulysitc. A granular mixture of augite, 228 EUL garnet, and a mineral related to olivine, forming strata in gneiss, in Sweden. jKulytiiw, or Silicate of Bismuth. Eiinumit*:. A synonyme of Brookite. Eupatoriiic. A bitter white powder ex- tracted by water, acidulated with sulphuric acid from Eupatorium Cannabinum, precipitating by slaked lime, and treating by alcohol. Euphorbic Acid? In the juice of Euphor- bia cyparissias, but doubtful ; by means of ace- tate of lead and sulphohydric acid. Euphorbiiim f&csiii. The dried milky juice of several species of euphorbia in Arabia ; in yellowish-brown masses, internally white, mixed with foreign matters, taste burning, smell when melted by heat agreeable. When dis- solved in alcohol and precipitated by acetate of lead, alpha resin falls with the oxide of lead, and beta resin (euphorbine) remains in solution. The alpha resin is separated from the lead by sulpho- hydric acid and dissolved in alcohol ; it is dark brown, taste bitter; the beta resin is separated from its lead base by sulphuric acid, and the resin purified by alcohol ; it is colourless and bitter ; gamma resin is obtained by heating the insoluble part of euphorbium in water; first with cold and then with boiling alcohol ; it separates from the last in white masses ; its formula is C 40 H 33 3 . Euphorbium is used in medicine as a stimulating resin. Euphotidc. Gabbro. A rock having some species of felspar for its basis; at Mount Genevre it consists of saussurite, and diallage (smarag- dite), the whole mass being Si0 3 45, AU0 3 , and Fe 2 3 26-83, CaO 8-5, MgO, NaO, and KG 13-9, HO and C0 2 5-78. Euphyllitc. Spec. grav. 2-693, H 3-5 to 4-5. Pearly brittle scales like mica at Union- ville, Pennsylvania. Si0 3 43-69, A1 2 O 3 44-69, CaO 3-98, MgO -75, NO '98, KO -82, HO 5-6. Eupiouc. (eu, good; and n, oil). CsHg. Spec. grav. -655 to -740; B.P. 117. Colour- less, agreeably smelling, tasteless volatile liquid, insoluble in water, very soluble in alcohol ; ob- tained from wood tar oils, by distilling and separating the first and the last distillates, and rectifying separately over oil of vitriol. These, although having different boiling points, seem to be homologous. Eupyrchroitc. A massive radiated variety of apatite or phosphate of lime, occurring in America. Eurste. Whitestone. A granular mixture of felspar and quartz. Euxaiithic Acid. See PURREIC ACID. Euxanthoiie. See PURRENOXE. Euxenitc. Polycrase. Spec. grav. 4"6 to 4'76, H 6-5. Brownish-black rhombic prisms, lustre metallic, in thin splinters. Columbic niobic, and pelopic acids 57-6, yttria 25-09, pro- toxide of uranium 6-34, protoxide of cerium 3-14, lime 2-47, MgO -29, HO 3-97 ; from J61- ster, Norway. B.B. infusible, becomes a" yellow EVA enamel with borax, a yellow thin colourless pearl with salt of phosphorus. Euzcolitc. A synonyme of Heulandite. Evaporation. (Abdiinstung, Ger.) The pro- cess of removing the volatile portions of a solu- tion either by heat, by spontaneous action, or by removal of atmospheric pressure. When the evaporation is performed for the purpose of ob- taining organic extracts, the process is termed inspissation, or when the solution is to be rendered more condensed, the process _is called concentra- tion. Evaporation of chemical solutions is usually performed in the open air, in large or small flat vessels termed evaporating basins. The best are made of Berlin or Dresden porce- lain. When the residue from the evaporation is to be weighed, the evaporating basin should be small, or the contents of a large one as they dimmish, may be emptied into a smaller one weigh- ing a few hundred grains. Heat may be applied to the evaporating vessel by any of the baths de- scribed under that title. When it is desired to evaporate for the purposes of crystallization in a dry atmosphere, the solution may be concen- trated in the open air by heat, and may then be introduced under a glass receiver in convenient vessels, standing over sulphuric acid, which ab- sorbs the aqueous vapour as fast as it rises. Drying and evaporation over sulphuric acid. When it is desirable to evaporate a solution in a vacuum, the object is effected by placing a flat vessel containing sulphuric acid on the plate of the air pump. Within it the vessel containing the solution on a support, and over all a receiver, ground, and smeared on its ground surface with lard. The exhaustion when made is to be kept up by frequently working the pump from time to time. Evaporation in vacuo is much employed in the laboratory, and in the purification of sugar upon the great scale in sugar works. Evaporat- 229 EVE ing vessels are made of porcelain, the best being Berlin porcelain, of glass when they are only used for evaporation in vacuo, and of platinum when the substance contained in the solution does not affect that metal. The latter are very convenient, especially when evaporation and cal- culation can be performed in the same vessel. Evcrnesic,orEverninicAcid. HO,C 18 H Oj. Silky needles by boiling evernic acid with potash or barytes, adding chlorohydric acid. It appears to be formed from evernic- acid, along with orcine and carbonic acid (C 34 H 16 Oi4-4-2HO = orcine C 14 H 8 4 and C 18 H 10 8 -|- C0 2 ). Evernic Acid. Hp,C 34 H 16 O 13 . Crystals from the lichen evernia prunastri, by milk of lime and chlorohydric acid ; is not coloured red by chloride of lime ; yields orcine when heated, and affords a red colour slowly with ammonia when exposed to the air. Exanthalosc. Synonyme of sulphate of soda. EXT Excrements. Solid Excreta, Faces. These consist of all the matters ejected at the lower ex- tremity of the intestinal canal of animals, and are composed essentially of matters destitute of the capability of solution in the stomach and intes- tines, and consequently of nutritive power. Their nature depends entirely on the constitution of the food. In a cow the excrement is formed essen- tially of straw or grass, with the green-colouring- matter and wax so characteristic of green food. In the human subject the peculiar colour is derived from the decomposed colouring matter of bile, and the odour from altered caserne. They usually con- tain little matter which can be of service as manure, the most valuable manure being the urine. Hence the richness of guano, which is the urine of birds, discharged in that class of animals into a common passage with excrement. The following table contains a vieAV of the com- position of some faeces : Water, 73-3 Organic remains,... ! Bile? -9 Albumen, '9 Extract, 2-7 Biliary matter, &c. 14- Salts, 1-2 (Berzelius.) Water, 70- Fibre, 24- ") Green wax, 0-76 | Sugar, 3- \ Albumen, 2- Resin and salts, ..17- J Cow. 85-900 12-352 1-748 Boa Constrictor. Mucus and colouring matter, 2-94 Uric acid, 90-1G Ammonia, 1-7 Potash, 3-45 Sulphate of potash, -95 Chlor. sodium, trace. (Morrin.) (Liebig.) Phos. of lime, carb. of > sia,...f lime, and magnesia. 80 (Prout.) With a grass and farinaceous diet mixed, I have usually found the excrement of cows to yield 88-33 to 86 per cent, of water, 1-37 to 1-35 per cent, ash, and 12- to 9-92 organic matter. The ash of human faeces has been found potash 6-1, soda 5-07, lime 26-46, magnesia 10-54, Fe 2 3 2-5, phosphoric acid 36-03, sulphuric acid 3-13, C0 2 5-07, NaCl 4-33. The faeces contained 6-7 cent, of ash (Porter). Exitele. A synonyme of white oxide or ter- oxide of antimony. Isomorphism. The case in which a strati- fied rock has undergone alteration by the influ- ence of plutonic rocks. Examples of this kind are slate, modified sandstone, green porphyry, black passing into brown porphyry. Exostoacs. Excrescences of bony matter from other bones are so termed. I have found a "bony tumour from Guy's Hospital, given me by the lato Alex. Nasmyth, Esq. to consist of car- tilage 21-12, water 8-72, phosphate of lime and magnesia 65-802, carbonate of lime 4-848, and to have a spec. grav. of 1-910. Explosive Cotton. See Gux COTTON. Explosive IVIaniiitc. See EKYTHRO-MAX- NITE. Explosive Sugar. A solid, brittle substance, becoming soft and pliable when heated ; semi- fluid at a boiling temperature, and when more ghly heated explodes without residue; it is tasteless, inodorous, and colourless, and acts to solvents as a resin ; formed as a glutinous insol- uble mass by the action of a mixture of sul- phuric and nitric acid on cane sugar, and wash- ing with water and drying. Extract. The constituents of a plant which are soluble in some fluid which is capable of extract- ing them. When a plant is digested in cold water, the aqueous infusion poured off and evaporated ; the residue is termed the cold icatery extract ; if the water were used hot and boiled with the plant, the remainder would be the hot aqueous extract. By means of alcohol and ether, are obtained the alcoholic and ethereal extracts. The best mode of making extracts is by means of dis- placement apparatus (which see), the expres- sion of the fluid thoroughly from the plant by means of a press, and evaporating the fluid in a vacuum, to prevent the oxidation of essential oils, &c. Extractive Matter. A name given to a mixture of bodies which precipitate during the evaporation of watery extracts, and which be- come by oxidation insoluble in water. It is analogous to the humine, &c. formed by the decay of vegetable matter in soils. Extract of ITIcat. When butcher meat is chopped, and exhausted with water by pressure, the water dissolves 16 to 17 per cent, of the weight of the dry flesh, and ;ill the savoury constituents of the juice ; the fibrine which remains being; destitute of flavour. When the aqueous infusion 230 EYE is heated to 133, flocks of albumen separate; at 158 the red-colouring matter coagulates; the liquor is pale yellow and reddens litmus. When the albumen separates, amounting in old animals to 1 to 2 per cent., and in young to 14 per cent., the liquid has all the savoury characters of soup, and when evaporated, leaves a brown mass amounting to 12 or 13 per cent, of the weight of the original dry flesh. "When this extract is dis- solved hi about 32 parts of hot water with some salt, the water acquires the taste, and all the peculiar properties of an excellent soup. It is in FAT this extract that the peculiar flavour of each kind of meat resides, as it is impossible to dis- tinguish the insoluble fibrine of one animal from that of another (Liebig). Eye. The eye consists of two chambers, one behind and the other in front of the crystalline lens. The posterior chamber is filled with the vitreous humour see HUMOURS; and the an- terior with the aqueous humour. The lens con- sists of globuline or crystalline, a modification of albumen. See GLOBULINE. F Faeces. See EXCREMENT. Faecula. Fecula. The meal of different plants. Fahlunite. Tridasite, Pyrargilllte. Spec, grav. 2-6 to 2-7, H 3. Reddish-brown, green, or black oblique rhombic prisms of 6 sides ; angles 109 28' and 70 32'; occurs in chlorite at Eric Matts mine, Fahlun. B.B. turns gray, and fuses on the thin edges ; with borax fuses into a glass coloured by iron. Silica 43-51, Al.,0 3 25-81, MgO 6-35, FeO 6-35, KO and NaCf 5-39, HO 11-06 (black var.), 3 (MgO, NaO, KO FeO), 2 Si0 3 , 3 (Al 2 3 Si0 3 ), G HO. Fahluuite, Hard. See IOLITE. Faience. The French term for the finer kinds of pottery. Faradayine. A volatile oil from caoutchouc, which passes over at the temperatures 1)1 to 111. Farina. A term similar to faecula. Farina, Fossil. Agaric Mineral, Mountain Milk. Probably silicified animalcules. From China it consists of Si0 3 50 -6, A1 2 3 26-5, MgO 9-1, CaO -4, FeO -2, HO and organic matter 13-2. Fassaitc. Grass-green pyroxene, from Fassa. Fats. (Fette, Ger.) The term applied to solid oily bodies, found in the vegetable and animal worlds. The best known of the fats are as fol- lows : Vegetable Butters. Fusing Point. Cacao butter, 85 Carapa oil, 50- Chinese vegetable tallow, 80 Cocculus oil, ? Cocoa nut oil, 72*5 Galam butter, 73 Laurel oil, ? Miniabatta, 95* Nutmeg butter, ? Palm oil, 80-5 Shea butter, 110- Valteria butter, 95- Animal Fats. Fusing Point. Badger fat, 86 Beef tallow, 98| Animal Fats. Fusing Point Calf, 136-8 Camel, 131 Cochineal fat, 104 Cow's butter, 79-7 Duck fat, 77 Dog, 79| Fox, 129 Hare, 117 Hog's lard, 80-5 Horse grease, 140 . Human fat, 77 Pheasant, 109 Turkey, 113 Stearine (human), 120 (sheep), 109 (oxen), Ill Owg), 109 (duck), 109 Cetine, 120 Cholesterine, 278 Cantharides fat, 93| Margarine (butter), 105 Palmithie, 115 Vegetable fats are principally met with in the seeds of plants contained in cells, in the form of small globules. In order to express them it is necessary to apply heat and pressure. Animal fats are likewise similarly deposited in cells, and are equally difficult of expression without heat. The fats in different plants and animals are some- what different. "When pressed between blotting paper, a fluid oleine is absorbed, and a solid stea- rine remains ; but the stearine possesses a differ- ent acid in different plants. The stearine, or a portion of it in palm oil, is, for example, palmi- tine. When saponified by means of potash, a soap is formed containing palmitic acid, and oxide of glyceryle is set free ; the stearine of nutmeg butter is myristine, and the acid contained in it myristic acid. The amount of these peculiar acids, which have been obtained from many vege- table butters, is small compared with the quantity of solid oils usually operated on. From^my own experience, I am much disposed to think that these oils require much more minute investiga- tion, and that the acids may then be probably 231 FAT diminished in number. By the present modes of investigation, the composition and fusing point of a fat acid depend very much on the number of times that it has been crystallized out of alco- hol. If the acid is examined at an earlier stage, it will almost certainly turn out of different com- position from any previously examined, while the fusing points of the same fatty body are found to vary very considerably under different circumstances. Mr. Dufty has shown that mut- ton stearine has three different fusing points, and different specific gravities. Origin of Fat in Animals. According to some views, the fat of animals is supposed to be derived from fat existing in their food, while, according to others, it is formed from the starch and sugar of the food. In my experiments made in 1845 for the government upon a great scale, and extending over a period of several months, I found that the largest amount of butter in cows was not produced by food containing oil, but by such kinds of fodder as contain no oil at all. Grass, for example, when used as food, produces much butter, although it cannot be said to contain a trace of oil. The only substance allied to oil which it contains is chlorophylle, a green wax, which, however, is believed to contain less oxygen than an oil, and hence could not be converted into an oil in the animal system, which is a de- oxidating apparatus. The production of butter from sugar by the action of caserne or curd is, on the contrary, a process with which chemists are familiar, and is therefore more readily admissible into physiological theories, than the idea of the formation of butter from wax, since we are un- acquainted with any analogous example. That there is a decided connection between the nitro- genous constituents of food, and the butter of cows, is obvious from the following table : Pood Butter in Five Nitrogen in Food Days. in Five Days. Grass, 3'5 Ibs. 2'321bs. Barley and hay, 3-43 3-89 Malt and hay, 3-20 3-34 Barley, molasses, and hay,.. 3 '44 3-82 Barley, linseed, and hay, .. . .3-48 414 Beans and hay, 372 5-27 (Experimental Researches on Food, 174.) Fatty Acids are those acids which exist in nature, in union with oxide of glyceryle or lipyle, and which combine with alkalies in saponification. Those belonging to the solid fats are usually crys- talline in pearly scales, and afford salts of fine lustre. ^ The acids, on the other hand, of the fluid oils are liquid at the usual temperature. The fatty acids are homologous, that is to say they differ from each other by an equal number of atoms of carbon and hydrogen. Acids. Formic, Acetic, Propionic, Butyric, Valerianic, C 2 H 2 4 C 4 H 4 4 C 6 H 6 4 C 8 H 8 4 86' 109-4 G9-8 120 FEL Acids. Fusing Point. Caproic, C^HigO-i Oenanthylic, C 14 H 14 4 Caprylic, C 16 H 1G 4 Azoleic or Pelargic, C 18 H 18 O 4 Capric, C 20 H 20 4 Margaritic, C 22 H 22 4 Laurostearic,, C 24 H 24 4 Cocic? C 27 H 27 4 Myristic, C 28 H 98 4 Benic, C 30 H; 4 Ethalic and Palmitic, C 32 H 32 4 131 & 140 Margaric C 34 H 34 4 136 Stearophanic, C 3 5H 35 O 4 154 Bassic, C 36 H 36 4 160 Stearic, C 38 H 38 O 4 158 Behenic, C 42 H 42 4 172 Cerotic, C 34 H 54 4 171 Melissic, C 60 H 60 O 4 192 Ceric, C G8 H 68 4 149 Fat Xjutc. A composition of pipeclay and linseed oil. Faujnsite. Spec. grav. 1-923. Brown 8- hedrons, with a square base, with angles of 74 30', 111 30', 105 30'. B.B. swells up and fuses into a white enamel, with soda a trans- parent glass. Silica 49-36, alumina 16*77, lime 5-, soda 4-34, water 22-49, 3 A1 2 3 , 2 Si0 3 , (CaNaO) 4 Si0 3 . 8 HO. In amygdaloid at Kaiserstuhl. Fault. The interruption which frequently occurs in the continuity of a stratum in the same plane, is so called by miners. It generally pro- ceeds from the sinking, or elevation of one portion of the stratum. Fayalitc. A volcanic-looking slag from Fayal. It consists of an insoluble and soluble portion in muriatic acid. The insoluble part consists of Si0 3 58-11, A1 2 O 3 12-53, FeO 18-55, MnO 6-67, CuO 2-28. The soluble part con- sists of Si0 3 24-93, A1 2 3 1-84, FeO 65-84, MnO 2-94, CuO -6, sulphate of iron 2-77. Feather Ore of Sulphide of lead and anti- mony, 2 (PbS) SbS 3 , fusing before the blowpipe and giving white fumes; soluble in muriatic acid. Feathers. The light portion of the wings and plumage of birds ; appear to be prolonga- tions of the cuticle, analogous to nails and horns. Their composition is similar to that of horn. The light portion contains much silica in its ash, the quill being destitute of this substance. The for- mula of feathers is C 48 H 39 N 7 16 ; but they also contain sulphur. Fellic or Fellinic Acid. A resinous acid from the decomposition of bile by chlorohydric 232 FEL acid. When the resin produced by this action is treated with cold alcohqj, fellic and cholinic acids are dissolved, and dyslysine remains. The addition of Avater to the alcoholic solution preci- pitates cholinic acid, while fellic acid remains in solution ; it is a very doubtful substance. Felspar, Common. Amausite, amazon- stone, adularia, felstein, fdsite, fusible hornstone, ice spar, lemanite, lodulite, murchisonite, moon- stone, Napoleonite, necronite, orthose, orthoclase, fusiblepetrosilex, pegmatolite, potash felspar ', suna- din. Spec.grav. 2-394 to2-581,H6-. White, gray, flesh-red, or green doubly-oblique prisms, with angles of 90, 67 15', and 120 35', or massive. Structiire foliated, fracture conchoidal, lustre vitre- ous, brittle, transparent to translucent on the edges. B.B. fuses with difficulty, and only on the edges, with borax into a transparent glass, and also with salt of phosphorus, leaving a skeleton of silica ; with soda, forms a glass full of vesicles. Silica 64-2, alumina 18-4, potash 16-95, soda a trace. Form. KOSi0 3 , Al20 8 3SiO 3 orK03SiO, 3(A1O 3 SiO). Felspar is an essential constituent of granite. Fine - grained granite from Goatfell in Arran, I have found to have a spec. grav. of 2-54G, and to consist of silica 74*30, alumina and oxide of iron 15-24, lime 3-68, magnesia and alkalies 6-78. Porcelain clay and Ha lloy lite are products of the decomposition of felspar. Felspar Glassy. RyacoUte. Specific grav. 2-576 to 2-582, H 6. Gray or grayish-white, of the same form as common felspar. The crystals are usually much cracked, small, and imbedded in the lava of Vesuvius, Laiecher, &c. in the pitchstone porphyry of Arran and Rum; it is distinguished by its strong, splendent, and vitreous lustre : its optical properties are dis- tinct from those of common felspar. It consists of Si0 3 66, A1 2 3 19-13, KO 7-45, NaO 3-85. Felspar, Apyrous. See ANDALUSITE. Felspar, Arenturiuc, or Sunstone. A variety with a peculiar lustre from the presence of imbedded mica spangles. Felspar Opaline, or Labradorite. Fennel, Oil of. The stearoptene of this oil has the same composition as that of anise, and as cuminole. Fergusoititc. Spec. grav. 5 -8, H 5-75. Brownish-black scales, or 8-hedrons with a square base, the terminal edges of the pyramids FER being 100 28', and their lateral edges 128 27'. B.B. infusible; dissolves with difficulty in borax; the glass when hot being yellow, but a white portion remains imdissolved ; with salt of phosphorus slowly dissolves, the undis- solved part remaining white ; found at Ki- kertaursak, near Cape Farewell, Greenland. Columbic acid 47 -75, yttria 41-91, protox- ide of cerium 4-68, zirconia 3-02, oxide of tin 1-, oxide of uranium -95, sesquioxide of iron '34. Ferment. Yeast, Barm, Leaven. (JHefes Giih- rungsmittel, Ger.; Levain, Levure, Fr.) See YEAST and FERMENTATION. Fermentation. The conversion of a com- pound body into simpler compounds by means of a second substance which is not changed. Fermentation Vinous. By this term is implied the conversion of sugar into alcohol and car- bonic acid (C 12 H 12 Oi2, become 2 C 4 H 6 02, and 4 CO 2 ). Leeuwenhoek had noticed the for- mation of cells (blaschen) in fermented fluids without attributing anything to their presence (CarusMuller'sArchiv.1839, 3, 245). In 1827, Desmazieres (Ann. Scien. Natur. x. 42-67) de- scribes globules accurately in yeast, as Mycoder- ma cerevisiae, or vini, glutinis, farinulae malti, juniperi malti, not as yeast nor as a fungus, but as animalcula monadina. In April, 1835, Cagniard Latour, in examining fresh yeast in water, observed that it is almost entirely composed of small diaphanous globules, some round, others slightly oval, which he considered to be of an animal nature. In August of the same year, in a report upon his paper, by Turpin, Thenard, and Becquerel, it appears that he was not com- mitted to the opinion of their animal nature, but conceived that they might be vegetable ; and ac- counts for the increase of the yeast in the fer- mented wort by the multiplication of the globules developed end to end the number being aug- mented sevenfold after the yeast is added to the wort, exhibiting a growth by buds. The evo- lution of the carbonic acid during the fermenta- tion, he attributes to the vegetation of the fer- mentation fungus (Geiger's Pharm. Botanique, 37). According to Quevenne (Journ. Pharm. 24, 265), when yeast is washed several times- by subsidence, the residue consists entirely of globules, and is the ferment, the watery part having but a weak action. He found that oil of turpentine, prussic acid, corrosive sublimate, acetate of copper, &c. prevent fermentation, by poisoning the plants. Morphine and strychnine had no such action, which may be viewed per- haps as evidence of their vegetable and not animal 233 FEE nature. Schwann (Pogg. Ann. 39, 487, and 41, 184) also observed these fermentation globules. Turpin termed them Torula cerevisice. Meyen viewed these globules as distinct in different kinds of fermentation, and hag described saccharomyccs, vini, cerevisue, pomorum (lahresbericht, 1837, 99) fungi as occurring in wine, malt, and cider. Kiitzing (Erdmann's Journ. xi. 390, and Physologia Generalis, 4to, 1843, 148) in 1834, states that he first observed the yeast globules, but published no account till 1837. He noticed, as was well known previously, that a solution of pure sugar, destitute of a nitrogenous substance, never ferments, but that every vegetable juice or sap containing sugar soon begins to undergo this process when withdrawn from the living vege- table. At the same time yeast globules can be detected. These he describes as a species of cryptococcus, a genus characterized as mucous, Jiyaline or clear globules, aggregated into an iinde- terminate mucous layer. Cryptococcus Fermentum (Kiitzing), Torula cerevisice, (Turpin), Mycoder- ina cerevisice (Desmazieres), submersed, consisting of solid elliptic globules, with one or two points in the centre. This he considers an alga of the lowest kind, but a fungus of high development. If yeast is placed with the fermenting fluid in a flat vessel in the air, yeast globules collect on the surface. These lengthen, reach each other, and increase Avithout limit (fig. 2). These globules, 1st, 2d, 3d, 4th, and 5th stages. which in some measure resemble starch granules, possess a somewhat opaque round nucleus (fig. 1). After some days a pellicle forms on the surface, composed of yeast globules, and several globules adhere to each other (fig. 2). They gradually unite, and are converted into oblong bodies (fig. 3), forming the third stage of their progress, simi- lar to Diatoma and Exilaria. The whole mass forms into a mould, and a sporotrichum ap- FER pears (fig. 4) ; on a moister part of the vessel a mucor forms (fig. 5). Chemical Character of Yeast. When yeast is washed successively with water, hot and cold alcohol, and then by ether, a white substance remains, which is incapable of producing fermen- tation, although the globules appear to have un- dergone little change. When the residue is heated with dilute caustic potash, a nitrogenous substance dissolves, and a matter insoluble remains, destitute of nitrogen. The nitrogenous natter contained in the interior of the globules is precipitated from its alkaline solution by acids. Dried at 212, it has an amber colour, and leaves no residue when burned. It consists of While the insoluble matter i& C 55-53, 45-45 H 7-50, 6-87 N 14-01, O 22-96, 47-68 S Or the non-nitrogenous body has exactly the composition of cellulose obtained from lichens. Schmidt obtained the mother of vinegar by adding yeast to some beer, and allowing it to stand for three weeks ; alcohol, acetic, and lactic acids were formed. ' The mother of vinegar was at the surface, while the yeast layer was at the bottom. No trace of difference of fonn could be distinguished between the one set of globules and the other. In the yeast were found crystals of 8-hcdrons, with a square base, and also crystals of phosphate of lime, which appeared to be secre- tions of the cells, just as we find similar salts secreted by the mucous membrane of the kid- neys. I have found yeast used in Mr. Neil Thomson's bakery, near Glasgow, to be com- posed entirely of globules under the microscope, mixed with a few starch grains floating in water, and to have the following composi- tion : J. JUUb Water, 5474 grs. Organic matter, 262 Alkaline phosphate, ... 8-30 Phosphate of lime\ 14.55 and magnesia, J Siliceous matter 1-15 5760 Per 1000. 950-348 45-48G 1-440 2-527 199 1000- The process of fermentation has been compared by M. Turpin to that of vegetation. He states that all yeast derives its origin from the separa- tion of minute particles from organic tissues, which rise to the surface of the fluids in which they are produced and germinate, this vegetation being produced by the heat and the oxygen of the air. M. Turpin considers the addition of yeast to a fluid equivalent to sowing a number of seeds in a productive soil. He calls the yeast plant Torula cerevisice, the CO^ and alcohol being the excre- 234 FER , tion of the plant. The idea of the presence of a plant in fermentation has been supported by the observations of Mitscherlich. This chemist consi- ders that there are three kinds of sugar, cane su- gar, grape sugar, and caramel. The first is obtained from the sugar cane, the second from grapes and starch, and the third by pounding cane sugar with water, and heating it in a chloride of zinc bath to the temperature of 320 F. This sugar is identical with the black matter obtained by fusing sugar at the same temperature, but it is less coloured. The same substance may also be obtained by heating a solution of sugar to an elevated tem- perature. When yeast is added to the caramel it ferments. The sugar found in fruit possesses the composition C^E^O^ and that of grapes Ci2H 11 ^O 14 . Mitscherlich believes the three spe- cies of sugar capable of fermentation. Indeed this has been proved with respect to the sugar of fruit and grapes; but it was supposed that cane sugar, before fermenting, was converted into grape sugar. It is easily proved that the sugar of grapes and fruit ferments, by examining them by polarized light. The rotatory power of grape sugar is to the right, and fruit sugar to the left ; and during their fermentation the action upon light con- tinues the same, only diminishing with the de- composition. In plants cane sugar is converted by acids into the sugar of fruits, and then by crystallization into grape sugar; while starch, by means of acids and diastase, becomes first dextrine, and then grape sugar. According to Mitscherlich, fermentation is produced by a vegetable, putrefaction by an animal being. He has only been able to detect, after examining a great many putrefying substances, one species of infusory animal, which consists of globules, some- times solitary, sometimes united together, to the amount of "twenty or more, forming then a mass, the diameter of each individual being -000393 English inch, or '001 millimetre. Then: move- ment is undulating. According to all the observations which he has made, the other animalcules which have been observed in putre- fying matter have been carried thither either by the air or by insects, or by some other means. It is necessary for the existence and development of vibrios that a certain quantity of oxygen should be present. It results, from Mitscherlich's experiments, that the phenomena of putrid fer- mentation depend upon the presence of a certain quantity of atmospheric air. The maceration of vegetable substances in whiter, in a warm apart- ment, is speedily attacked by these \ibrios. In this action nitrogen is developed. These vibrios exist abundantly in the intestinal canal, through the whole of its extent, as well as in the esopha- gus and stomach. They can be easily observed, by examining under the microscope the matter attached to the teeth. They are also observable on the skin ; but Mitscherlich has not yet dis- covered them in the blood, milk, urine, bile, nor other fluids of the human body. If we add to FER the liquids in which these animals are formed a small quantity of sugar, these vibrios are pro- duced in much greater abundance still, and at the same time there is formed a vegetable being, that is to say, yeast. If we now add a greater quantity of sugar, the formation of these animals is arrested, or suddenly suspended, and that of the yeast augments. Mitscherlich has never seen yeast form in a liquid which did not con- tain sugar. One may satisfy himself that the cryptogamic plant belongs to the yeast, by the fact that, when added to sugar, under the mi- croscope it immediately excites fermentation. In a clear liquid, where yeast is forming, we observe first a turbidness, and under the microscope glo- bules or spheres of various diameters are observ- able. From day to day these globules in- crease in size, and many new ones make their appearance. In these liquids for example, the juice of the grape we observe only solitary globules, generally of an oval form, and some- times a second forms upon them of inferior size. Yeast acts in a different way when it has been produced for some time by means of another yeast. It propagates itself for a series of years, always with a constant character. In brewing we distinguish two kinds of yeast the frothy and precipitated yeast ; the former rising to the top, and the latter falling to the bottom of the vessel in which they are placed. The frothy yeast increases at the temperature which should not exceed 44^, nor fall below 32. It is the fermenting principle of the Bavarian beer. The finest frothy yeast is that of white beer, which is propagated at a temperature of 77. The preci- pitated yeast consists of isolated globules, of the most variable dimensions. The small globules are always dispersed through the liquid, and are pro- duced at the same place with the large ones. In the frothy yeast, small solitary globules are never observed, but only large ones, at the extremities of which small ones are developed, assuming a branched appearance. These globules are pro- pagated by buds ; th. precipitated yeast, on the contrary, by small isolated globules swimming in the liquid. Mitscherlich has been enabled to observe their structure at different periods. In old yeast there can be distinguished an envelope and an interior granular substance, which ap- pears more distinct when an aqueous solution of iodine is poured over it. By means of a com- pressor, invented by him, the granular body can be expelled from the envelope under the mi- croscope, and he considers it probable that in precipitated yeast the globules become flattened in order' to drive out this granular matter, and that each grain thus expelled gives origin to a globule. Yeast is thus multiplied by spores. Substances, which act as poisons upon cryptoga- mic vegetables, exercise the same influence upon yeast, such as corrosive sublimate, and analo- gous bodies. Substances, on the contrary, which react energetically on the animal organism, as 235 FER tartar emetic, in whose solutions we observe species of mucedones, do not affect the progress of vegetation. There are many cryptogamic plants which have been considered as diseases in plants, which act in a similar manner to yeast. It is thus that the boletus acts on the fibre of wood; and, on the same principle, it is possible that we may be able to explain the decomposi- tion which the roots of plants produce in the soil, and hence in this view fermentation ac- quires a double interest. Experiments on Fermentation with the Vinegar Plant. (R. D. T.) The vinegar plant, or mother of vinegar, belongs, according to Kutzing, to the genus Ulvina, characterized by consisting of a com- pact lubricous layer of very minute granules (tig. 1st, 2d, and 3d stages), Ulvina aceti, at first mem- branaceous, then forming a compact stratum, ver- tically divided into dichotomous branches densely aggregated. He describes it as occurring always in the vinegar fermentation, upon the surface of the vinegar pot. * The formation of the vinegar plant commences with that of the vinegar. It begins as a thin pellicle on the surface of the fluid, with little consistence. Under the micro- scope it consists of small globules, which are si:i times smaller than those of yeast. This pellicle becomes thicker, more compact, and coherent, and in fourteen days it begins to grow on the exterior border. It then presents the aspect of a chccfo- phora a gelatinous, fucoid appearance. To en- deavour to throw some light upon the mode of action of the vinegar plant, I inserted a portion of a plant, well washed with distilled water, in a solution of sugar, and exposed the whole to the influence of the air. The liquid, when first formed, had no action on litmus paper, but in a few days it was characterized by a distinct acid reaction. After some weeks I took a portion of the fluid, saturated it with carbonate of soda, and distilled it in a glass retort. A liquid passed over which possessed the odour of alcohol, and which gave FER aldehyde and green oxide of chromium when treated with bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid, according to a mode of testing which I de- scribed some years ago (Proc. Phil. Soc. Glas. ii. 94). After two-thirds of the fluid in the rer tort was distilled, the receiver was changed, and sulphuric acid was poured into the retort, heat being applied cautiously. An acid liquid passed over into the receiver, which possessed the odour of vinegar, and rendered yellow a colourless solu- tion of sesquichloride of iron. It was therefore acetic acid. Another experiment was made to determine the nature of the products of the vine- gar plant, in the absence of oxygen. An ounce of sugar was dissolved in twenty ounces of water, a vinegar plant was introduced into the solution, the bottle was stopped close with a ground stop- per, carefully waxed, and inverted in a glass full of distilled water. After some weeks, only a small portion of fluid was found in the bottle, smelling strongly of alcohol, and yielding aldehyde and green oxide of chromium to bichromate of pot- ash and sulphuric acid. The stopper was still fixed in the bottle, but the wax had given way in one place by the pressure of the gas, so as to allow of the expulsion of the fluid into the ex- terior vessel filled with water. The greater por- tion, two-thirds of the bottle, was filled with a gas, which upon examination was found to preci- pitate lime water abundantly, and to be absorbed by caustic soda. It was, therefore, carbonic acid. Formation of Alcohol. From these experi- ments it seems undoubted that the vinegar plant possesses the power of breaking up sugar in its solutions into alcohol and carbonic acid, and as the plant during the process appears to be in- creasing in bidk, it seems scarcely legitimate to ascribe the decomposition of the sugar to any process of decay in the plant itself. I am not prepared from my own observation to state that, in absence of air, the vinegar plant when im- mersed in a solution of sugar, does increase in bulk, or, in other words, grow, although I have no reason to doubt the fact. But from the ob- servations of Schlossberger and Schmidt, there can be little hesitation in concluding that the vinegar plant is merely a modification of the yeast globules, and therefore that it is capable of augmenting in size under the same conditions as the latter form of vegetation. When a plant of this description is found to vegetate in a position of immersion in a liquid, it must possess a power of extracting nourishment from the fluid atmos- phere with which it is surrounded, just as sea and water plants effect their object. It is, how- ever, impossible that in a solution of pure sugar the vinegar plant can increase from the influence of vinegar and any albuminous substance, as has been asserted (Mulder) to be the mode of its propa- gation, since the presence of the vinegar plant pre- cedes the formation of the vinegar in the trials de- tailed. If the numerous experiments of various che- mists are to be depended on, it is certain that the 236 FEE cellular structure of the vinegar plant, consisting ol cellulose chiefly, must derive its carbon from the cai'bonic acid of the sugar, in absence of common air, or possibly from the atmosphere, in its pre- sence, which may also supply it with nitrogen for its albuminous constituent ; or the nitrogenous principle, like the salts, may be capable of a greater diffusion, without any considerable in- crease in its original amount. Formation of Vinegar. The circumstances most favourable to the production of vinegar from sugar are, when a vinegar plant is intro- duced into an open shallow vessel, containing a solution of sugar or treacle. The plant exposes its upper layer near the surface of the solution, and augments by the deposition of a new layer or stratum above the old plant, to which it is attached, but both can readily be separated sun- ply by lifting up the superincumbent layer. It is thus worthy of notice, that the new growth takes place between the old plant and the at- mosphere, that is, in closer contact with the ah*. My observations tend to show that when the vinegar plant falls to the bottom of a deep ves- sel filled with a saccharine fluid, the progress of the acetification is much more slow than when the plant is in contact with the air. The action of a cellular plant is, under these circumstances, analogous to that of a porous body which is capable of condensing oxygen from the atmos- phere, to a condition approximating to fluidity upon the area of its wall cells. The action of spongy platinum and platinum black in the ab- sorption and condensation of oxygen, are suffi- ciently well known ; and through this power, of oxidizing and acidifying, hydrous oxide of ine- thyle into formic acid, and alcohol into vinegar. The absorption and retention of air in the cells of the vinegar plant may assist in explaining the fact, which is particularly noticed by Kiit- zing and Schmidt, that it is distinguished by its floating at the surface of the fermenting fluid, while the yeast globules remain at the bottom of the liquid. The influence of cellular plants in decomposing the higher oxides, in consequence of their absorptive action on oxygen, is well ex- emplified in the case of yeast globules, which, when brought in contact with binoxide of hy- drogen, speedily cause the removal of the second atom of oxygen. This action seems quite parallel to that of porous paper on certain coloitred solutions, as the red solution of per- manganate of potash, and the amethyst solu- tion of ferrate of potash, the former of which is slowly, the latter with great rapidity, deprived of tint when passed through common filtering paper. The yeast globules and vinegar plant, when introduced into a solution of permanganate of potash, remove its fine colour rapidly, but the action is not so instantaneous as when these globules are placed in the ferrate of potash. A similar -action I find to occur when spongy plati- num is placed in a solution of permanganate of FER potash, or of ferrate of potash. The chang 6 is, however, somewhat more slow than tha fc of the influence exerted by the yeast plant- It is in this way also that the cellular matter, in the form of chips of birch, acts in the formation of vinegar from alcohol in the quick vinegar process. Analysis of the Vinegar Plant. 107-05 grs. gave 101-2 water. 6 '8 5 solid residue. The constitution of 100 parts was found, Water, 94-53 Cellulose, 5*134 Alkaline salts, 336 100- The salts, when dissolved in water, indicated the- presence of chloride, sulphate, and a trace of phosphate. The plant, when digested in w r eak caustic soda, gave a turbidity when the alkaline fluid was saturated with acetic acid, indicating- the presence of some albuminous matter. Fermentation, Acetous, consists in the conver- sion of alcohol into acetic acid by means of the oxygen of the air, and the presence of a ferment (C 4 H S OHO and 2 , become C 4 H 3 3 HO and 2 HO). Fermentation, Benzole. When emulsme from sweet almonds is mixed with amygdaline from bitter almonds, no change is produced on the emulsine, but the amygdaline is converted into prussic acid, oil of bitter almonds, sugar, formic acid, and water. See BEXZOYLE SERIES. Fennentation,Buti/ric. Sugar in solution when mixed with cheese (the ferment), is converted into lactic, and then into butyric acid. (C^H^o 12 C 8 H 7 3 , 4 CO, H 4 , HO). Fermentation, Lactic, consists in the conver- sion of sugar into lactic acid; 1800 sugar in 9500 of water with some curd of cheese, and milk of lime are converted in four or five weeks into lactate of lime. The atom of sugar is di- vided into two parts, lactic acid having the com- position C 6 H 5 5 . Fermentation, Mucous or Viscous, is induced in saccharine juices, as of carrots, beetroot, onions, &c. lactic acid (CgHj-Og), and man- nite (C G H 5 Or,), being produced from sugar. Fermentation, Madder. By the action of erythrozyme on rubian ; 6 new bodies are formed, ;. alizarine, verantine, rubiretine, rubiafine, rubiagine, rubiadipine. Fermentation, Sinapic. In. the seed of black mustard no oil seems to exist, but when it is moistened, the odour of mustard begins to be evolved. Fermentation, Salicylic. When yeast is mixed with salicine, the latter body is resolved into saligenine and grape sugar (CogHjsOn 2 HO C 14 H 8 4 , and Ci 2 H 12 O 12 ). Fermentation, Urinous. In this phenomenon, 1 atom fused urea by taking up 2 atoms water, 237 FEE is converted into 2 atoms volatile carbonate of ammonia (C 2 O.7N<,H 4 , and 2 HO = 2 NH 3 CO,). Fermentation, Oils from. Certain oils appear to be produced by fermentation. Oil of spirit and potatoes is probably one of these. "When the leaves of Centaureum minus are macerated -with water and distilled, an oil passes over. Similar oils are formed from oak leaves (spec. grav. '795), Echium vulgare, Urtica urens, Chaerophyllum silvestre, apples, millfoil, &c. Fern. The roots of Aspidium filix mas and Asplenium filix femina have been examined by Bock. The first contains fibre 45-, ash 2-1, starchy fibre 1*5, tannic and gallic acids 10', pectine 2-1, sugar 11', starch 10-, albumen 3-5, gum 3-3, mucus -4, resin 4', stearine !, fat oil -, volatile oil -04. The second contains fibre 0-24, ash 4-94, starch fibre 1-5, tannic and gallic acids 11-9, pectine 4', starch 7-5, albumen 5, gum 2-, mucus 1-3, resin -4, fat oil 1-2, vola- tile oil -02. A variety of acids have been ob- tained, all, however, amorphous, as filimelisic, fili- pelosic, chlorofilipelosic, dichlorofilipelosic, sul- phofilimelisic, filixolic, filosmylic, tannaspidic, pteritannic, &c. Ferric Acid. See lEOH". Ferricalcite, or Cerite. Fcrridcyaiiogcn. GCy-(-2Fe=Cfdy. When a solution of the common yellow prussiate of pot- ash (ferrocyanide of potassium) is treated with a current of chlorine, a new radical is formed con- taining double the amount of cyanogen and iron existing in ferrocyanogen, and instead of uniting with 2 it combines with 3 atoms of base. UydroferridcyanicAcid. 3H-|-Cfdy. Obtained T>y diffusing ferridcyanide of lead in water, and passing a stream of SH through it, or by adding S0 3 to the salt. On filtering, the solution de- posits without heat by spontaneous evaporation crystals of this acid. The compounds of this radical are as follows : Ferridcyanogen, C c Fe 2 Cfdy Hydroferridcyanic acid, Cfdy-{-3H Ferridcyanide of Potassium, discovered bv Gme- lin, and usually termed red prussiate of potash, is prepared by acting with chlorine on the yellow prussiate of potash, until it yields no longer a precipitate with persalts of iron. It is usually pre- pared in stone or lead chambers resembling those of bleaching powder, in which the yellow prussiate is spread out in powder. The chamber being filled with chlorine, 1 atom of potassium is speedily re- moved. If the salt is now dissolved in water, and evaporated in earthen or glass vessels, crystals of rod prussiate appear. It is of importance that no metal should be present during its concentration, otherwise yellow prussiate again is formed. If we represent the composition of the yellow prus- FER siate according to the following formula, the ac- tion is easily understood : Cy 6 Fe 2 K 3 K yellow prussiate. CycFe 2 K 3 red prussiate, the fourth atom of potassium being removed by Cl, or by the folio Aying scheme: 2 Ferrocyanogen 4 Potassium Cy 3 Fe, Cy 3 Fe, K 3 K .1 Chi. Cl a -f Ferridcyanide of potas. KC1 Chloride of potas. The manufacture of the red prussiate may easily be studied in a large flask, to represent the chamber; the rapid action is striking. (1). Yellow prussiate is converted into red by placing a piece of lead in the solution, (2), or by passing electricity through it. If mixed with a few drops of protoxide salt of iron, the Prussian blue may be detected speedily on the conductor. Characters. Transparent red rhombic prisms, anhydrous, soluble in 3^ parts of cold water, more soluble in hot water. When held in the flame of a lamp, the salt bums, giving off sparks. When ignited in a close crucible, cy- anogen and nitrogen are given out, and a black matter remains, consisting of carbide of iron and ferrocyanide of potassium. This salt has been extensively used for producing the dark blue on woollen dresses, and it is a valuable test in the laboratory for the protoxide of iron, with which it forms a fine brilliant blue. Ferrocyanogen, or Iron Cyanogen. Cfy (Gay Lussac), C c N 3 Fe, or FeCy 3 13-25, 106-. This substance has not been obtained in a separate state, but it appears to exist in the ferrocyanides. The compound which it forms with hydrogen, is known under the appellation of Hydroferrocyanic Acid. FeCy 3 -f- 2 H, or 2 H, Cfy. 1. Mr. Porrett discovered this acid in 1814 (Phil. Trans, p. 580). By dissolving 58 grains of tartaric acid in alcohol, and 50 grains of ferrocyanide of potassium (yellow prussiate) in as little wann water as possible, and mixing the liquids, cream of tartar is precipitated, and hydroferrocyanic acid remains in solution, which, by spontaneous crystallization, separates in small yellow cubes. 2. Berzelius recommends decom- posing the ferrocyanide of lead or copper by SH, filtering the liquor and obtaining crystals of the acid by evaporation. Dr. Posselt (Ann. cler Pharm. xlii. 164) has pointed out a method of obtaining the acid at once from its aqueous solu- tion, simply by agitating with ether in a flask a concentrated solution procured by the process of Berzelius. When sufficiently concentrated, the whole mass becomes thick, and after some time the acid becomes suspended in the ether, and swims on the surface of the fluid. The mixture is thrown upon a filter, washed once with a inix- 238 FER ture of ether and alcohol, pressed between blot- ting paper, and lastly dried in vacuo. 3. Dr. Pos- selt has, however, proposed a still simpler method of procuring this acid. A concentrated solution of yellow prussiate of potash is prepared in boiling water, and being covered, is allowed to cool. If Into the ferrocyanide solution containing chloro- hydric acid, we pass the vapour of ether, bluish- white crystalline scales of the acid fall, apparently depending on the solution of the vapour of ether by the water, which thus loses its power of dis- solving hydroferrocyanic acid. It is then mixed with an excess of HCl free from ah*, and the whole shaken with ether ; the acid separates as previously described. It may then be purified by dissolving it in alcohol, separating by ether, and drying it as before. Characters. The acid thus prepared is a white powder with a faint yellow or bluish shade. When quite dry it may be preserved for some tune in the air without altering. When moist it is more rapidly decom- posed ; the acid gradually becomes blue, and is at length completely changed into Prussia^! blue. It can be kept for some time at a temperature of 212, without decomposition when covered from the air; but even in this state it gradually alters into Prussian blue. When strongly heated, hydrocyanic acid escapes, and compound cyanide of iron remains. When C0 2 is passed over it when heated at 212, hydrocyanic acid escapes, and white cyanide of iron remains. Hydroferro- cyanic acid is more soluble in alcohol than in water. The composition of the acid is C 33-33, H 1-84, iron 25-06, N 38-89. Hydroferrocyanic Acid appears to afford the type according to which all the compounds of ferrocyanogen are formed. It contains 2 H, and these 2 atoms are represented by the same number of atoms of other bases, according to the following table: Ferrocyanogen, Cfy=FeCy 3 Hydroferrocyanic acid, Cfy H2 Ferrocyanide of potassium, Cfy K 2 Ferrocyanide of potassium and iron, 2 Cfy -< -^ 3 Prussian blue, 3 Cfy Fe^ Basic Prussian blue, .. , 3 Cfy Soluble Prussian blue, 2Cfy Ferrocyanide of zinc and potassium2 Cfy -[ Ferrocyanides. The ferrocyanides are all de- composed by a red heat, generally giving rise to a cyanide of the base, with a carbide of iron and evolving nitrogen. The soluble ferrocyanides are decomposed by being boiled with red oxide of mercury into cyanide of mercury, free alkali and cyanide of iron with oxide of iron. They gene- rally contain crystalline water with NH 3 . The ferrocyanides of zinc, copper, and mercury form FER double compounds. They are decomposed by NOs, cyanogen and ferrocyanides being formed. Ferrocyanide of Potassium, pldogistieated al- kali, yellow prussiate of potash, ferroprussiate of potash, Formula, K 2 Cfy+8 HO, or 2 K (C 6 N 3 Fe) -f 3HO. At. Wt. = 2G'65. This salt was discovered by Macquer in 1750?, and was for a long time used merely as a test for iron. It has now been introduced into the arts for many years. It was first begun to be manufactured at Canipsie, near Glasgow, by Charles Macintosh, Esq. in 1807-8. It was usually sent out to the printers in the fluid state, but in 1809 it was crystallized (R. Clarke) ; it is still made there in large quantities. Manufacture. This salt is prepared in commerce by heating together azo- tized animal or even vegetable substances, with 2 or 3 times their weight of carbonate of potash. For this purpose, blood, horns, hoofs of cattle, hair, hides, woollen rags, fish, guano, rape cake, cabbages, &c. have been employed. Animal sub- stances are preferred when a sufficient supply can be obtained, but in consequence of the great extent to which the use of this salt is carried, the matters mentioned, and many others con- taining azote, have been used, when the supply of substances of animal origin was insufficient to meet the demand. The animal matter to be employed in the manufacture of this salt, is first sorted or sifted, according to its nature, to remove dust, and other unnecessary matters adhering to it. It is then dried in a hot stove to remove water from it. The temperature should, however, not be so high as to drive off ammonia, although, as commonly managed, the odour of ammonia is generally perceptible to a great extent hi the drying room. Some manufacturers, however, calcine the animal substances in cast iron cylin- ders before bringing them in contact with potash, and when such a process is followed, the method of drying the matters is entirely omitted. The product, however, appears to be smaller after cal- cination than when the materials are used in then- natural state after careful drying. The next stage of the manufacture consists in introducing the ani- mal and alkaline ingredients into a cast iron pot or furnace, to which the heat is applied. These pots are of various forms. Sometimes they resemble an oval retort, which is built into brickwork, and has no communication with the ah 1 , except by a narrow mouth which opens horizontally, and ad- mits of being closed. This form is generally made use of when the animal matter is previously carbonized. Another shape of pot is simply that of a small hemispherical boiler of cast iron, covered by a cast iron lid, which is perforated with an aperture for admitting an iron stirrer for the purpose of keeping the matters contained hi it in a state of intimate mixture. The pearl-ash is first introduced into the pot in equal proportions, when the animal matter has previously only been dried; but when it has been calcined, 10 parts of pearl-ash are used for every 8 parts of charry 239 FER matter. The animal substances are thrown upon the pearl-ash in the pot : and when the proper quantities have been added the cover is placed on the pot, and the materials kept in intimate union by the stirrer, which revolves by means of ma- chinery connected with a steam engine. A copious evolution of combustible gases takes place, which escape tinder the edges of the cover, and burn with a brilliant illumination. The heat is con- tinued until the melted mass exhibits the char- coal diffused equally throughout. To restrain the temperature of the pot, and the consequent decomposition of the contents, Mr. Young recom- mends cooling it by passing cold water through a tube which perforates the boiler, and which acts as the stirrer by rotating perpendicular to the bottom. After several hours, and when no more gases pass off, and the action is considered to be at an end, the liquid mass is removed from the pots by means of iron ladles, and is allowed to cool. The mass has then a dark appearance, and is called black cake. I have found its com- position to be Soluble Salts. Cyanide of potassium, 10-95 Chloride of potassium, 1'58 Hydrate of potash, 10-93 Carbonate of potash, 29-30 Sulphate of potash, 6-62 Sulphate of lime, 11-42 Insoluble Matter. Carbonaceous matter, 18- Iron, Sulphide of iron, 8 '56 Carbonate of lime, '72 Silica and titanic acid, 3-30 101-38 The cake is then introduced into cold water de- posited in iron pans, where it is allowed to remain till it dissolves, heat being applied by means of steam. The dissolved portions are then drawn off, and evaporated at a temperature below 200. The salt thus obtained is impure ; but it is puri- fied by again dissolving it in water, evaporating the solution, and, when sufficiently concentrated, introducing it into wooden casks, where it is allowed to crystallize spontaneously on strings suspended in the fluid, when it appears of a colour resembling sugar-candy. In consequence of the complicated nature of animal matter, this process does not admit of a very easy ex- planation ; at the same time, the experience of the manufacturer, and the theories of chemistry, have elucidated the subject in a considerable de- gree. The general theory consists in the pro- duction of cyanogen at the expense of the car- bon and nitrogen of the animal matter, the con- sequent production of cyanide of potassium, by the action of the cyanogen upon the potash, while a portion of iron is removed from the pots either in the state of sulphide or oxide, or in FER the metallic state, To facilitate the production of the last substance, it is usual on the continent to add to the mixture a quantity of iron filings ; but this is not necessary, and is frequently not practised in this countiy. It appears that when the fused cake, which has cooled, after being taken from the pots, is treated with alcohol or cold water, the solution contains nothing but potash and cyanide of potassium. Hence it may be inferred that the impure cake consists of cya- nide of potassium, iron in some form of combina- tion, and charcoal. When the cake is dissolved in water, it becomes then a solution of cyanide of potassium, capable of producing the reactions previously described, and of forming a double compound Avith iron. According to Liebig iron dissolves in cyanide of potassium with the evo- lution of hydrogen. Iron. 3 Cyanide of potassium. "Water. Fe 2KCy, Cy K OH Cy 3 FeK 2 KO H Potash. Hyd. evolved. Sulphide of iron dissolves in K Cy with the production of sulphide of potassium, while the protoxide undergoes a similar solution with tho formation of caustic potash. It is sometimes recommended that pearl-ash should be free from sulphate of potash ; but Liebig has endeavoured to show that this salt acts most beneficially in the course of the process. He considers that the sulphate is deoxidized by the charcoal into bi- sulphide of potassium, and carbonate of potash. The bisulphide of potassium takes up an atom of iron from the pot, and forms a fusible double sulphide, which is diffused through the melted mass. Liebig ascribes the sources of deficiency of product in the manufacture of the yellow prus- siate, either to the absence of a sufficiency of iron in the melted contents of the pots, which causes the cyanogen to be converted into formate of am- monia by the caustic potash when the cake is dis- solved, or by the production of sulphocyanide of potassium by the union of the sulphur of bisul- phide of potassium with the cyanide of potassium. The important considerations in this manufac- ture, therefore, are, to have a sufficient quan- tity of iron present, and to exclude the air effec- tually. Characters. Ferrocyanide of potassium crystallizes in fine lemon-yellow 4-sided plates -=~ with bevelled edges, orjieeply truncated ^/2_L\ octane(U ~ ons w * tn S( l uare bases; spec. C jj^grav. of the crystals 1-832. Taste ^ I-/ saline and cooling ; structure foliated ; splitting into thin plates, which are flexible. It is soluble in 4 parts of cold, and 2 of hot water ; insoluble in alcohol ; at 212 it loses 12-82 per cent, of water. When ignited in close vessels, it is converted into cyanide of potassium and carbide of iron, but the former by access of the oxygen becomes cyanate of potash (KO CyO). 240 FER When it is acted on by sulphuric acid, hydro- cyanic acid is evolved, with carbonic oxide and some nitrogen and ammonia (Thos. Thomson). Ferrocyanide of potassium may be used as an oxidizing agent, by immersing cloth dyed with indigo in yellow prussiate solution, and then in caustic potash or soda. The following table shows the action of yellow prussiate on various salt solutions : Alkalies, Alkaline earths, includ- ing magnesia, EARTHS Alumina, Glucina, Yttria, . Thorina, f Cerium oxides,. Zirconia, METALS (white.) O - White. Manganese, then red. Zinc oxide. Cadmium, yellowish. Nickel, greenish. Silver. Rhodium,.../ Iridium, Tellurium Antimony. Lead. Tin. Bismuth. Mercury. Chromium,.. Osmium, Platinum, Uranium, Reddish-brown. Molybdenum, Reddish-brown. Vanadium, Yellow, then green. Copper, Brown. Iron protoxide, Light blue. Iron sesquioxide, Prussian blue. Cobalt, Green. ( Greenish on stand- ouver. m,.."^ Rhodium,.... ^ ,....> O Iridium, >O i, ..) Tellurium,...) Palladium, .. I ing- Gold, Emerald-green. Ferrocyanide of lead, Pb 2 Cry, white powder. Ferrocyanide of zinc, ....Zn 2 Cfy, white. Ferrocyanide of copper,.. Cu 2 Cfy, reddish-brown. Ferrocyanide of mercury, Hg2 Cfy, white. Ferrocyanide of potassium with ferrocyanide of zinc, 2 Cfy KZn 3 . .This is the salt obtained by adding yellow prussiate to a salt of zinc, and has been used as a medicine. IFcrruginous. Containing iron. Fibrinc. When prepared from fish and dried, fibrine is white ; from blood and flesh it has a dirty yellow colour; in water it imbibes that fluid and swells up. It is destitute of taste and smell, the flavour of meat being due to matters soluble in water; it dissolves in caustic alkalies, and is precipitated by acids and alcohol from the alkaline solution. Acetic acid forms with fibrine a jelly, which dissolves on the addition of hot water, from which yellow prussiate of potash throws down a white precipitate. As long ago as 1835, it was observed by Dr. Rainy of Glasgow that fibrine from different sources possesses some- what different chemical characters. Fibrine from blood he found to be soluble hi twenty-four hours FIB in a dilute solution of common salt without heat ; the solution coagulates at 130 ; is not precipi- tated by corrosive sublimate, while white of egg solution, mixed with common salt solution, does not coagulate. Salammoniac, chloride of cal- cium, chloride of barium, nitrate of potash, sul- phate of soda, potash tartrate of soda, have the same effect.- Fibrine from muscle is not com- pletely dissolved in such solutions (R. D. Thom- son's Records of Science, vol. ii. p. 316). Liebig has recently directed his attention to the subject, and has obtained the following results : Fibrine of blood, if laid in water, and a drop of chloro- hydric added to every fluid ounce, swells up to a stiff jelly without dissolving. When the quantity of water is not too large, it is absorbed by the swollen fibrine as by a sponge, and if strong HC1 be added to the mass, the fibrine shrinks to its original bulk. If again laid in water, it again swells up and shrinks to its original bulk. It contains 2 per cent, of ash (Fe 2 3 , 3CaO P0 5 ). Fibrine of muscle, under the same circumstances, dissolves into a clear liquid, only rendered turbid, by drops of fat suspended hi it (Liebig). When fibrine of the blood is exposed hi close vessels and in water to a cold temperature, it putrefies and dissolves in three weeks. The solution possesses now the character of that of albumen, coagulat- ing by heat, and the coagulum has exactly the composition of albumen. The composition of the fibrine of the blood approaches more nearly to that of albumen, than to muscular fibrine. Fibrine of Muscle. C, 54-46 H, 7-28 N, 15-84 S, 1-21 0, 19-81 Ash, 1-40 Fibrine of Blood. 53-90 6-99 15-58 1-50) 21-88 J- 22-44 28) (R.D.T.) Fibrine of Oysters. 53-67 7-00 16-89 Muscle fibrine, ...... S 2 'N"2 7 C 216 H 1G9 O C8 . Blood fibrine, ........ So early as near the beginning of the present century, Dr. Thomas Thomson viewed fibrine in solution in caustic potash, as analogous to albu- men. From fish, fibrine is prepared by washing it carefxilly with cold water to remove albumen, heating it with very dilute muriatic acid, to re- move as much as possible of insoluble salts. It is then boiled repeatedly in alcohol and ether, digested for a considerable time in ether, to se- parate the last traces of fat and oil (R. D. T. Phil. Mag. 3d, 28, 368). It is obtained from fresh-drawn blood by agitating it before it has coagulated with a ghiss or metallic rod, throwing it on a cloth and washing it carefully with cold water until it is quite deprived of colour. For analysis it is usually dissolved in chlorohydric acid and precipitated by ammonia. When fibrine is oxidated by means of bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid, it yields much butyric acid, butyric aldehyde, acetic acid, aldehyde, oil 241 R FIB of bitter almonds and metacetonic aldehyde, ben- zoic acid and prussic acid. These products differ, therefore, from those of albumen in its giving little acetic acid, while albumen affords a greater quantity. Fibrine combines both with acids and bases. Its atomic weight seems to be about 64-, that weight uniting with 5 of oxide of copper to form, fibrinate of copper. Fibrofrrrite. Native Sesquisulphate of Iron, Fibrosiderite, from Chili. Fibroiiic. Fibrine of Silk. C 47-99, H 6-57, N 17-35, 28-09. Purified silk forms this substance. Raw silk boiled successively in water, alcohol, ether, and acetic acid, till all sol- uble matter is taken up, leaves Jibroine; in yel- low silk it amounts to 53-37 per cent. ; in white raw silk to 54-04. It is softer and much more brittle than natural silk, as it breaks very easily ; heavier than water ; soluble in strong sulphuric acid, from which it is precipitated by nutgalls ; soluble in chlorohydric and nitric acids ; soluble in phosphoric and pyrophosphoric acids, assisted by heat ; soluble hi strong caustic alkalies ; heated with dry caustic potash it is converted into oxalic acid. After digestion in acetic acid, Mulder found it to leave '3 ash. Without this digestion I have found it to leave -688 per cent. Fibrolitc. Spec. grav. 3-214. Harder than quartz. White or gray right prisms with rhombic bases, having angles of 100 and 80; internal lustre vitreous ; texture fibrous ; becomes nega- tively electric by friction. Silica 38, alumina 58-25. Allied to cyanite (Dr. Thos. Thomson). Accompanies corundum in the Carnatic. 4A1 2 3 3Si0 3 . Fichi<>lie. Mountain Suiter. C 4 H 3 . Pearly needles. F.P. 115. Slightly soluble in alco- hol ; easily soluble in ether ; in brown coal at Usnach, Fichtel Mountains. Figs are composed of sugar 62-5, fibrous mat- ter 15, water 16, gum and a phosphate 5-2, ex- tractive and CaCl *4. Figure Stone. See AGALMA.TOLITE. Filimelisic Acid. C 24 H 13 8 . Ochrey powder, by heating filixic acid with dilute caus- tic ammonia or potash, out of the air; when heated with dilute potash in air it forms Filipelosic Acid. C 24 H 13 . A bright insoluble powder ; chlorine forms with it cliloro- jilipelosic acid, C 24 H 12 C10 9 , and dichlorojlUpelo- sic acid, C 24 Hi 2 Cl 2 Oio a similar powder. When filixic acid is dissolved in fuming sulphuric acid, and the solution dropped in some hours into a solution of sulphate of soda, a golden powder falls of sulphofilimelisic add, C 24 H 13 03S0 3 ; soluble in alcohol and ether. Filixic Acid. C 2C H 15 9 . Yellow crystal- line powder by alcohol and ether from 'fern roots. When acted on by chlorine it yields chloroJiUxic acid, C 20 H 15 C10 10 in brown drops; by an excess of chlorine it gives a yellow powder, C 2 (;Hi 3 Cl 3 OIQ, tercJdorofilixic acid. FIL Filixolic Acid. C 42 H 41 5 . Ked oil by alcohol, ether, and water, from feni root. FiloNinylic Acid. C 3 H 2 3 . Obtained as a volatile acid of the brown heavy oil from fern root, by saponification. Filtration. The method by which substances mechanically diffused through fluids are sepa- rated. The simplest kind of filter is a paper or calico filter placed in a funnel or filler. Paper filters are formed as in the figures. A sheet of filtering foolscap paper is folded into three parts lengthwise, and then twice on itself, a, b. The extremities being rounded off, six filters are formed, c. This may be more neatly performed by means of a filter cutter made of tin or pasteboard, cut into the shape of half a filter. The filter is then folded into four, d, and placed in the funnel. Besides impurities, precipitates are collected in this way, and in such cases it is requisite to pour the fluid without spilling a drop. This may be ef- fected in various ways. The filter being moistened, a little lard may be rubbed on the outside of the lip of the vessel from which the liquid is to be poured, which prevents the fluid from naming Ove r 5 or, as is more convenient, pouring by means of a glass rod. My pupil, Mr. Eustace C. Summers, has sug- gested the following ingenious method of con- tinuous nitration. It consists of a reservoir, fig. , having the mouth placed at its base. This, when the vessel is filled with water, is closed by 242 FIO a cork, pierced by a straight tube, &, passing through it obliquely downwards. It is now ob- vious that the water will rise in the tube b so long as au: can gain access to the interior of the reser- voir; which, however, is prevented when the water in the tube is sufficiently high to cover the whole of its lower extremity. A siphon is then introduced through this tube, so as to project into the reservoir slightly beyond the lower extremity of the tube, care being taken to leave sufficient space to allow of the passage of air between the siphon and the surrounding tube. The funnel is placed beneath the long leg of the siphon, so that the edge of the filter is a little above the level of the water in the straight tube. In this condition the apparatus works. As long as the level of water in the filter is lower than the level of that in the tube 5, the column of water ce will be heavier than the column cd, and consequently the siphon will keep up a supply of water, bubbles of air obtaining access to the interior of the re- servoir, as the level of the water in the tube b is reduced by the action of the siphon. But no sooner does the water in the filter attain the same level with that in the tube, than the column of water cd is equal in pressure to the column ce, and consequently the action of the siphon is stopped, the water in the tube b remaining at just sufficient height to exclude the air from the interior of the reservoir. This simple apparatus may be affixed to any convenient vessel having an aperture at the bottom; all other openings beiifg of course closed, so as to prevent the ingress of air except by the tube b. A common salt FIX glaze earthenware washing-bottle, or a Griffin's gas-holder, will be found to answer the purpose perfectly. Continuous Filtration, On a larger scale, fil- tration of potable water may be managed by means of a cask, which is to have a false bottom fixed near its lower extremity. This consists of a bottom pierced with holes. The portion of the cask above this is divided by a vertical partition. The space is filled with alternate layers of coarse and fine sand, leaving about a foot on each side at top free ; on one side for pouring hi the water, and on the other side for its escape after it has been filtered. To remove the colour from mossy water, it may be found advantageous to place a layer of charcoal on the false bottom. Such a contrivance I have found to answer well for the removal of colours from Scottish Highland waters. It seems unnecessary to describe the various drip-stones by means of porous stones, sponges, &c. which may be seen abundantly at the present time exhibited in the streets ; but the figure of the Glasgow Gorbals Water Works filter is so simple, that it may be strong!}' recommended for filtration of water in the supply of towns, especially upon the gravitation principle. The water meanders from the conduit on the top of a compartment of gravel, through which it sinks and passes into the well adjoining by an aperture at the bottom, to the top of which it rises, and then runs into the coarse sand, then in a similar manner into fine sand, and, lastly, is discharged into the storing tank. Fioritc, or Pearl Sinter. Pearly globular and botryoidal masses of silica in cav tseiiof volcanic tuff. Fire. The term applied to the flame or red appearance presented during combustion. Fire-Damp. Carburetted hydrogen. Fireworks, or Pyrotechnics. Fish Scales. The scales of fishes have been examined both in the recent and fossil state, as follows. Then* composition is : Megralich- Eecent Senegal thys Fish. Crocodile. (Fossil.) Organic matter, and> bituminous matter,/ Phosphate of lima, 37-80 70-92 50-94 Phosphate of magnesia, '90 1-20 trace Carbonate of lime, 3-06 10-27 11-91 Carbonate of soda, -90 -47 Phosphate of soda, 0-25 Liquid fat, -40 Siliceous matter, 13-21 33-10 55-00 1-15 12 Fischerite. Spec. grav. 2-46. Colourless or green 6-sided prisms at Nlschne Tagilsk, composed of A1 2 3 38-47, P0 5 29'03, Fe 2 8 , and Mn 2 3 1-2, CuO -8, 3 CaO, P0 5 3-. Seems a variety of WaveUite. Fixed Air, or Carbonic acid. Fixed Bodies. Substances which are not volatilized, nor decomposed by very high tempera^ tures. Fixed or Ammonium Bases. Under this may be comprised a number of bases discovered by Hofmann, of which ammonium (NH 4 ) is the type, and in which the hydrogen is replaced by various organic radicals. They stand a con- siderable temperature without decomposing, and correspond in many of their characters with the fixed alkalies ; precipitating metallic oxides, and having a caustic taste. They are tetra-methyl ammonium, tetra-ethyl ammonium, metliyl-tri- ethyl ammonium, &c. See BASES. Fixed Oils. See OILS. 243 FLA Flake White, or Carbonate of lead. Flume. The light evolved by rapid com- bustion. See BLOWPIPE, COMBUSTION. Flask. Matrass. A globular glass vessel for the digestion of chemical solutions. Flavcquisetine. A yellow matter from Equisetum fluviatile. Flavindine. C 1C H C N0 3 ? C 72-5, H 3-8. Yellowish needles from the mother liquor of hydrindine by an acid. See INDIGO. Flavinc. A name given to a vegetable ex- tract from America. It is a light brown powder, and is used to replace quercitron bark. It is rich in colouring matter. It seems to contain much tannic acid, as it gives black precipitates with iron salts. Fleh and Juice. The flesh or muscular part of animals consists of solid fibrine, which constitutes the basis of the soft parts of the body, and of a juice (blood and lymphatic fluids, &c.) diffused through it. When the juice has been squeezed out by pressure, and washed with water, the tasteless insoluble fibrine re- mains, amounting to 70 per cent, of dry muscle. In dead animals the juice possesses an acid re- action, but I am not aware of any facts which prove that in the flesh of living animals any free acid exists. If this suspicion be correct, then it may turn out that lactic acid, the partial cause of the acidity in dead muscle, does not enter as a con- stituent into any part of the body, but is merely present in the stomach during digestion. If we dry a piece of muscle without washing it, the ultimate constitution is found to be the same as that of blood, C 48 H 33 X C 5 . Its proximate ana- lysis (that is, the substances which have been detected as entering into its composition) shows it to contain, water 79', fibrine and cellular mat- ter 17', albumen 3*, lactic acid ?, phosphoric acid, fat, creatine, inosic acid, phosphate of soda, phos- phates of lime and magnesia, chlorides of potassium and sodium !. Fresh meat when calcined leaves 3 per cent, (of the weight of the dried flesh) of salts ; meat exhausted by boiling, leaves scarcely 1 per cent. Hence we see that in making soup, unless the meat be used at the same time, only a portion of the substances necessary to form blood is taken, the object of the use of all food being, in the first place, to produce blood, from which the solid parts of the body originate. The same result occurs with salted meat. When salt is sprinkled on flesh a brine is formed, that is, FLU the water of the flesh, along with a great part of the salts contained in it, passes into the con- taining vessel. The flesh is thus rendered by so much dissimilar to blood. If the meat in this condition is eaten, the blood formed from such nutriment must be destitute of the salts removed in the brine. Hence it is not surpris- ing that diseases, such as scurvy, depending on the incapacity of the blood to form the solids of the body from deficiency of materials, should re- sult from the use of such food. Lime juice and succulent vegetables are valuable antidotes to such diseases, because I find them to contain the very salts which have been removed from the meat, viz. alkaline phosphates, sulphates, chlorides, and phosphate of lime. The ashes of flesh con- sist of phosphoric acid 36-6, potash 40' 2, earths and oxide of iron 5*69, sulphuric acid 2*95, chlo- ride of potassium 14-81. The salts removed in the brine might be replaced, by adding to tho salted meat the extract of meat which is pre- served extensively for use, and contains its sol- uble materials. Flint. A siliceous nodule, found in the chalk formation. Flints are of various forms, and probably have been produced by the deposition around sponges, of silica from a state of solution in water, good examples of this kind of forma- tion I have in my possession. They usually have a darkish colour, which is probably dependent on the presence of organic matter; this they lose by ignition, and then become perfectly white. Flints are used sometimes for guns, and exten- sively in the manufacture of pottery. Flint Glass. See GLASS. Flinty Slate. See BASANITE. Floatstone. Nectic Quartz. A, light vesi- cular form of quartz. Flos serfs, or red oxide of copper. Flosferri. A coral-like form of Arragonite, coating cavities. Flour. The pulverized grain chiefly of wheat. See WHEAT and BREAD. Flowers. An alchemistical term applied to> certain sublimates, as flowers of sulphur, anti- mony, and benzoic acid. Fluellite. Fluoride of Aluminum, A1F ?, from Stenna-gwyn, Cornwall. H 3. White rhombic 8-hedrons, rare. Fluid, Fluidity. The mobile condition of the particles of matter as exhibited in water, and distinguished from its firm state in ice and other solids. Fluoboric Acid. Terjluoride of Boron. BF 3 . Spec. grav. 2312-4. Colourless incom- bustible gas, with acid reaction and pungent smell ; attracts moisture from the air like chlo- rohydric acid gas ; water absorbs 700 times its volume ; obtained by igniting boracic acid and fluor spar, or by heating boracic acid, fluor spar, and sulphuric acid. Fluocerine. Cc 2 3 84-2, FH 10-85, HO 4-95. Yellow rhombic 12-hedrons, Finbo. 244 FLU Fluoccritc. Ce 2 3 82-64, YO 1-12, FH 16-24. Bed 6-sided prisms. B.B. infusible; dissolves in borax and salt of phosphorus; blood- red in oxidizing flame ; not fusible in soda ; Finbo and Broddbo. Fluohydric Acid. Fluoric Acid, Hydro- fluoric Add. HF. Spec. grav. 1-0609. B.P. 59. Colourless fluid, with a strong odour; when falling on the skin producing corrosion ; acid reaction ; obtained by heating fluor spar and sulphuric acid in a lead or platinum still, and condensing in a similar receiver. It is used in etching on glass. The materials are placed in a; the two portions of the retort cemented with fat lute, the neck being screwed tight. Fluorine. Sources. Exists in fluor spar, in the teeth and bones of animals, in Carlsbad water (Berzelius), in sea water (Wilson), in many rocks and minerals, as phosphate of lime or apatite, in some species of mica, karpholite, horn- blende, fluate of cerium, fluoride of cerium, topaz, cryolite, yttrocerite, wagnerite, wavellite or phosphate of alumina, lepidolite, apophyllite, fel- spar. Characters. Fluorine is, according to Louyet, a colourless gas with a smell; not bleaching vegetable colours ; decomposing water at the ordinary temperatures, and under the influence of light ; attacking glass very feebly or probably not at all ; acting upon almost all metals, with the exception of gold and platinum, at least not when it is in the nascent state. Its affinities are closer to those of oxygen and sulphur, than to chlorine, bromine, or iodine. Chloride, &c. of silver are* stable and insoluble; fluoride of silver is deliquescent, decomposed by heat; contains combined water which is only removed by heat. Chloride, &c. of calcium are deliques- cent ; fluoride of calcium is insoluble ; on adding a solution of fluoride of silver to chloride of platinum or of gold, chloride of silver, and oxide of platinum or of gold, fall; the water giving hydrogen to the fluorine, and its oxygen to the platinum or gold. The mixture is not changed ivhen digested with concentrated fluohydric acid; but of the precipitates of chloride of silver, and peroxide of gold, or by the hydrogen acids of chlorine, bromine, or iodine, a chloride, bromide, or iodide of gold is formed, and the chloride of silver is bleached. Process. Louyet in his ex- periments used vessels of fluor spar, placed at his FOL disposal by Messrs. G. & T. Knox. He re- peated many of the experiments of these chemists and confirmed their results. The gas was liberated by acting upon dry fluorides, as fluoride of silver by means of chlorine gas (Knox, Phil. Mag. 9, 107; 16, 192). Fluorides. These are distinguished from chlorides, bromides, and iodides by their forming with silver a very sol- uble salt in water. A fluoride in powder when mixed in a platinum crucible with sulphuric acid, corrodes glass placed over the mouth of the crucible. A method of quantitative estimation is that pointed out by AVohler, of determining the amount of loss when a fluoride is heated with sulphuric acid in a flask supplied with a chloride of calcium tube. Test for Fluorine. The sim- plest test for fluorine depends on its property of corroding glass. The substance supposed to con- tain the fluorine or fluoride, is placed in powder in a platinum crucible, sulphuric acid is poured on it, and a plate of glass is laid across the mouth of the crucible. Gentle heat being applied, fluo- hydric acid comes in contact with the glass and forms fluosilicic acid, which corrodes it (FH and SiO = HO and FH). The quantity of fluorine in an analysis is inferred by the loss, there being no direct method of estimation. Fluor Spar. Fluoride of Calcium. Derby- shire Spar. CaF. Spec. grav. 3-16, H 4. Regular cubes and 8-hedrons, of various colours, and colourl, red, violet, green, blue, &c. found in connection with lead ores. See FLUORIDE OF CALCIUM. Fluosilicic Acid. See SiLicoN,FLuoRiDE OF. Flux. (Fluo, I flow). A substance employed to cause the fusion and reduction of a metallic ore . Black flux, formed by the calcination of cream of tartar, and consisting of carbonate of potash and charcoal, is a valuable flux for the reduction of various metals, the carbon removing the oxygen. In the reduction of iron, limestone is the flux em- ployed ; it acts by its lime uniting with the silica of the impure ironstone, and forming a slag. Fluor spar is often a useful flux, and so likewise is pro- toxide of lead, from the facility with which they mite with silica and other acids, forming com- pounds, which are fluid at a red heat. Fluxes, for pottery, used at Sevres. Pebble flux. Minium or litharge 75, sand 25. Gray flux. Pebble flux 88-88, fused borax ll'll, or minium or litharge 66-66, sand 22-22, fused bo- rax 11-11. Carmine flux. Fused borax 55*55, sand 33-33, minium or litharge 10-12. Purple r litharge 67'-56, sand 5, crystallized boracic acid 27-5. Green flux. Minium or litharge 73, sand 9, crystallized boracic acid 18. Metallic flux. Subnitrate of bismuth 11, fused borax 1. According to circumstances, ^ or T J 3 of this flux s mixed with 1 of gold. Foliated Lead. Tellurium. Red Telluride, of 245 TOO Food of Animals. The food of domestic ani- mals consists of matter prepared for them by plants, and having the same composition as the solid parts of animals. An animal may be defined to be, a being which appropriates food similar to the matter of which its own body is composed, while a plant produces solids from the air and surround- ing gaseous matter. Food of Plants. The carbon of plants is derived from the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, absorbed by the leaves and roots of plants, the hydrogen and oxygen from water and the atmos- phere, the nitrogen from ammonia in the air, and the inorganic matter from the soluble salts of the soil taken up by the roots. Forge Furnace, or blacksmith furnace, consisting of an open furnace, urged by a power- ful bellows, which often answers well for fluxing. Formal. See METHYLAL. Formanilide. C 14 H 7 lSr 2 . Rectangular prisms, resembling urea. F.P. 114|. Obtained by heating oxalate of aniline at 338. Formaniline. See METHYLE- ANILINE. Formates. Formic acid has a great affinity for bases, with which it forms crystallizable salts ; formate of ethyle, or formic ether, obtained by distilling an alkaline formate with alcohol and sulphuric acid, is a volatile fluid with an aro- matic odour. Formation. An epithet applied in geology to a group of rocks believed to havft been depo- sited at the same epoch. Formester. A German name for ethers from pyroxilic spirit. Formic Acid. (Ameisensaure, Ger.) C 2 H O 3 HO. Spec. grav. 1-2353; B.P. 209i. Crys- atals below 32, brilliant plates. Clear colour- less fluid, giving off a slight fume, and a peculiar odour ; its vapour burns with a blue flame ; it corrodes the skin; mixes with water; heated with alcohol, formic ether is formed ; heated with sulphuric acid it yields water and carbonic oxide (C 2 H0 3 , HO and HOS0 3 3 HO, S0 3 and 2 CO). When heated with red oxide of mercury, or oxide of silver, the metal is set free, and car- bonic acid escapes ; with 2 atoms water it forms the dihydrate. B.P. 221. Spec. grav. 1-11. Formic acid was obtained originally by Fisher of Leeds, in 1670 ; and in 1671 by Dr. Hulse, by distilling red ants. It may be prepared by boil- ing 1 starch with 4 sulphuric acid and 4 water, allowing the liquor to cool, then adding gradually 4 black oxide of manganese and distilling ; formic acid comes over by the following action : A of an atom of sugar C 2 H 2 O 2 , produced by the ac- tion of sulphuric acid on starch, and 2 Mn0 2 with 2 S0 3 become C 2 H O 3 and 2 MnO S0 3 and HO. To purify it, carbonate of lead is added to saturation; formate of lead is produced which resembles acetate of lead in being in needles, but is much more insoluble in water. When this is distilled with sulphuric acid, or the lead is pre- cipitated by sulphohydric acid, and the fluid dis- FOE tilled, the acid is obtained strong and pure. It may also be prepared by oxidating pyroxilic spirit by spongy platinum. When prepared by distillation from starch sugar as above, the cop- per still should be very capacious, as abundance of carbonic acid is evolved at first, which will carry over a quantity of acid into the receiver. Formobcnzoilic Acid. (Rfanddsaure, Ger.) HO,C 1C H 7 5 , or C 2 H0 3 ,C 14 H G 2 ,HO. Large tabular rhombohedrons, obtained by evaporating to dryness some water and oil of bitter almonds with a little muriatic acid; ether takes up the forrnobenzoilic acid. The cyanohydric acid, contained in the oil, in presence of a mineral acid, is converted into formic acid and ammonia ; the formic acid unites with the oil of bitter almonds, and forms the acid. It is an example of a coupled or conjugate acid. Formomethylal. See METIIYLAI,. Formonitrilc. NH 4 O,C 2 H0 3 less 4 HO = C 2 NH, or cyanohydric acid. Formula consists of a mimber of symbols, or initial letters of simple bodies, united together so as to express the composition of a substance containing more than one element. Symbols of various kinds, chiefly hieroglyphical, were used at an early period by the alchemists, and were subsequently variously modified. But the pre- sent system of symbols was introduced by Dr. Thomas Thomson, in 1796-99, before the promul- gation of the atomic theory, and was first applied to the composition of minerals. "All those min- erals composed of the same ingredients, he arranged under the same genus. According to this plan, there must be as many genera as there are varie- ties of combinations of earths, &c. existing in nature. The varieties in the proportion of the* ingredients constitute species." He denoted each genus by a symbol. This symbol was composed of the first letter of every substance which en- tered in any considerable quantity into the com- position of the minerals arranged under the genus denoted by it. The symbols which he used were as follows : A, alumina ; M, magnesia ; S, quartz or silica; I, iron; Z, zirconia; G, glucina; C, chromium ; L, lime ; W, water ; P, potash ; B, barytes. In the year 1807, in giving an account of Dalton's theory, he used the hieroglyphics in- troduced by that chemist, and in the same year he employs regular formulas (Phil. Trans.) in his paper on oxalic acid. For example, he says r " If an atom of oxygen be w, an atom of carbon c, and an atom of hydrogen A, an integral par- ticle of oxalic acid may be represented by 4 to -|- 3 c -j- 2 A," and so on throughout the paper. In 1814, Berzelius published his new system of mineralogy in Swedish, a copy of which he sent to Dr. Thomson, asking him as a favour to en- deavour to have it translated into English. The Swedish work and the letter are still extant. Dr. Thomson prevailed on his friend John Black, Esq. to execute the translation. In this work, Berzelius says, in reference to for- 246 FOR mulas for minerals, I "shall for this purpose fol- low the rules given by Thomson hi his System of Chemistry. He arranges the initial letters of the name of the earths in such order, that he begins with that of which each fossil contains the most, and so on in succession till that of which it contains the least. I cannot make use of the same letters as Thomson, because they are merely related to the English name, and as these formulae ought everywhere equally to be under- stood, I consider they ought to be founded on the Latin nomenclature." In the same year, in his paper on atomic proportions, he modified some of these symbols ; and in his letter, which I possess, dated 12th May, 1814, he observes : " Vous trou- verez quelques changement faites dans les signes chimiques employes dans 1'essai sur la mineralogie J'ai cru devoir preferer 1'employer des exposants algebraiques au lieu de mettre les numeros au- dessus les lettres pour ne pas oter tine ligne." I. . 2. Per Cent. Analysis. FeO 1 at protoxide of iron,... 2 5 -7 SO 3 1 sulphuric acid, 28-9 7HO7 water, 45-4 100- The formula, therefore, is nearly FeOS0 3 7HO. There is a slight excess in the case of the acid and water, but trifling. It is obvious that from the formula may also be calculated the per cent- age composition, by looking for the atomic weight in the table, and constructing column 7. Instead of using the initial letter for oxygen, sometimes dots are used ; thus, the above formula would be Fe 8 7 H ; but this plan is seldom adopted in England, France, or Germany. A theoretic method sometimes employed is to calculate the oxygen in the acid and base, of which the former should be a multiple of that in the base. In the above example the oxygen in the acid is three times that of the base. But this method is never used in this country, as it is quite inapplicable in organic chemistry, and in many basic salts. Sulphur compounds are sometimes represented by a comma ; thus, bisulphide of iron would be Fe. In organic chemistry a horizonal or minus line over a body indicates that it is an acid, as A acetic acid. A plus over a body shows that it is a base, as M Morphine. Formylaminc. Formyliaqiie. !NTI<>CoH. B.P. 289. Colourless fluid, with a caustic taste, and slightly ammoniacal odour ; saturates acids ; by the action of bromated Dutch liquor on ammonia. Formylc. C 2 H = Fo. The hypothetic base of formic acid, which is the teroxide ; it is raethyle deprived of 2 atoms hydrogen, byi FRA Formula?, at the present time,' are usually con- structed on the plan adopted in this work, and the symbols of which they are composed are the same as those given under Atomic Weights. A formula represents the relations in which the atoms of the elements of a compound exist in respect to each other, and is obtained in the following manner: The first object is to determine the composition of a compound in 100 parts. If we divide by the atomic weight of each substance, the amount of each, contained in 100 parts, we shall effect this object, and then all that remains is to reduce these num- bers to their lowest terms. In the following table the 1st column gives the symbols; the 2 d column represents the per centage composition of sulphate of oxide of iron by analysis ; 3d, atomic weights of each substance; 4th, by dividing 3d by 4th; 5th, obtained by dividing the two last terms by the first or lowest: 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Atomic Weights. Atoms. Reduced to Lowest Terms. Calculated Composition. 4-5 5-71 1- 4-5 25-89 5- 5-78 1-012 5- 28.77 1-125 40-35 7-06 7-875 45-34 17-375 means of 2 oxygen converting the hydrogen into water. An important compound is terchlo- ride of formyle, or chloroform. Formylinc. See 'METHYLAMINE. Foruacite. A crystallized slag from a lime furnace atTanndorf. Si0 3 46, CuO 22-5, MgO 7-5, FeO and MnO 8, A1 2 O 3 14-. A somewhat analogous black slag, gelatinizing with muriatic acid, was examined by my late pupil, John Brown, Esq. from St. Rollox. Si0 3 36-47, CaO 28-89, FeO 12-68, A1 2 3 18-88. Forsterite. Right rhombic prisms, in bril- liant crystals, with green pyroxene, at Vesuvius ; contains silica and magnesia. Fosresenic Acid. Yellow powder, formed by acting on Highgate resin, with nitric acid. Fo*il*. A term applied to organic remains existing in strata in the earth. Fossil Resin. Fossil Copal, Copalite. See HIGHGATE RESIN. Fowlcrite. Apparently a silicate of man- ganese. Fracture. The irregular surface formed when a mineral is broken. The species of frac- ture are conchoidal, even, uneven, splintery. Franco liic. A variety of phosphate of lime, or apatite, from near Tavistock, in irregular ag- gregated or mammillated crystals. Frankincense. See OLIBASUM. Franklinkc. Spec. grav. 5'069, to 4'87, H 6 to 6-5. Iron-gray masses and 8-hedrons, somewhat magnetic ; fracture conchoidal ; lustre metallic; opaque, crystals semitransparent, with a blood-red tint. Found at Franklin, N. Jer- 247 FRA sey. Fe 2 3 66-, Mn 2 3 ' 14-96, ZnQ 17-425, SiO 3 -204, HO -56. It is isomorphous with magnetic iron ore. For its formula, see CHROME IRON ORE. B.B. infusible. Gives oxide of zinc on charcoal at a high temperature. Fraxiiiine. 6 -sided prisms in Fraxinus ex- celsior or ash. Freezing Mixtures. Mixtures or solutions of salts to produce cold, are employed for cooling wine, and for experimental purposes. All bodies which produce cold by mixture act chemically on each other. They are either both solid, or, at least, one of them is solid, and they begin to become fluid as soon as they are mixed; the degree of cold is proportioned to the rapidity of the liquefaction. Very considerable degrees of cold, however, are produced by anhydrous salts, as nitre or nitrate of potash, the cause of which is not so apparent. In those cases where solid water is liquefied, the cold is produced by the latent heat required to convert the solid into the fluid. Intense cold is produced by sprinkling muriatic acid over pulverized sulphate of soda (from 50 to 0). Carbonate of soda, in crys- tals, is a convenient salt for the production of cold; 9 phosphate of soda and 4 dilute nitric acid reduce the temperature from -|- 50 to 12. 5 sulphate of soda and 4 dilute sulphuric acid lower the temperature to 3. 9 phosphate of soda, 6 nitrate of ammonia, 4 dilute nitric acid, produce a cold of 21. 2 snow 1 com- mon salt produce a cold of 5. 5 snow, 2 com- mon salt, 1 salammoniac, lower the temperature to 12. 3 snow 2 dilute sulphuric acid from 32 to 23. 8 snow 5 muriatic acid from 32 to 27. 4 snow, 5 chloride of cal- cium from 3 2 to 40. 3 snow 4 potash to 57. Freezing Point. The point as indicated on the thermometer, at which water freezes. The freezing point on Fahrenheit's thermometer is 32; Centigrade, 0-; Reaumur, 0*. French Berries. See BERRIES. Friesland Green, or Brunsivick Green, or ammonia chloride of copper. Frit. An imperfectly fused mass of silica and bases in the preparatory stage of glass-making. Frost, Hoar. Frozen dew which has been deposited on the cold surface of vegetables, and bodies exposed to radiation on a clear night. Frugardite. A variety of idocrase, from Frugard, Finland. Fuchsite. Biaxial, oblique, or potash mica. Si0 3 48', A1 2 3 34-5, KO 10-75, Fe 2 3 1-8, MgO -72. Fuchs' Soluble Glass is made by heating 15 pure sand, 10 carbonate of potash, and 1 charcoal. This, when dissolved in 4 or 5 parts of boiling water, and evaporated to the specific gravity 1-24, allows the water to evaporate from it when it is spread on a surface, and leaves a glassy glaze, which has been used to protect wood from fire. FUE Fuci. A term often applied to the class of sea weeds. In chemistry the term includes particu- larly those sea weeds which are burned for the value of their ash. Of all vegetable productions sea weeds contain the largest amount of inorr ganic matter. The Padina imvonia, contains as much when dried as 34| per cent, ash ; the Sar- gassum vulgare, or Gulf weed, 22-58 per cent.; the Chondrus crispus 20-G1. 1. 2. 3. Sulphuric acid, 2-86 5-05 1-45 Chlorine, -23 4-77 2-41 Phosphate of lime, ..1-0 5 1-42 1-47 Lime, 2-35 1-87 0-95 Magnesia, 1-19 0-78 Potash, 0-98 4-24 2-68 Soda, 1-05 5-48 1-66 Silica, &c 1-20 -11 -08 1. Fucus vesiculosus, per cent. 2. Laminaria digitata. 3. L. latifolia. The amount of iodide of sodium contained per cent, in the dried plant is as follows : Fucus digitatus 3-34, F. vesiculosus 32, F. nodosus -34, F. serratus 1-18. The re- spective quantities of ash in these species being 20-4 per cent. 16-39, 16-19, 15-63. Fucusamidc. C 15 H C N03. Needles, by adding NH 3 to fucusole. Fucusine. CsoH^N^Oc- Small plates, iso- meric with furf urine ; soluble in 2 4 water (twice as insoluble as furfurine), less soluble in spirit than furfurine ; forms crystalline salts with acids. Obtained by boiling fucusamide with potash, forming nitrate of fucusine with the product, crystallizing it out, and decomposing by NH 3 . Fucusole. C 15 H c Oc. Spec. grav. 1-15; B.P. 341. Colourless oil, becoming green with HC1, yellow with NOs, greenish-brown with S0 3 . Obtained by distilling sea weeds, ferns, and Iceland lichen with water and sulphu- ric acid, washing the product with water, and rectifying over chloride of calcium. "When treated with SH iu a solution of alcohol it yields Th-io- fucusolej which is converted by dry distillation into Pyrofucusole. Fuel. (Combustitte,~$r.; Br&mstof, Ger.) On the continent of Europe, in addition to coal, which is sparingly used, turf and wood charcoal . are the usual kinds of fuel. ^In this country, turf or peat is only used in the boggy parts of Ireland and the mountainous regions of England and Scotland, while coal is the almost universal ar- ticle of consumption. The value of a coal is indi- cated by the amount of steam which its heat can raise in a given time. Loss of Gas in Coking Coal. It is an opinion entertained by some, that in using coal for raising steam the bituminous matter is dissipated, and that it is from this matter that the gas is obtained, so that in coking coal the gas is actually thrown away. Attention was directed to this point in the recent experiments upon coal for the steam navy. If we multiply the coke of coal by its heating power 13268, and divide by 965-7, the 248 FUL latent heat of steam, we obtain the number of Ibs. of water which the coke could evaporate without the aid of the bituminous matter. On comparing the results of this calculation with the actual work done by different coals, we find that it is actually greater, with certain exceptions. /C X 13268N , V 965-7 ) 7 /H h X 6247\ __ V 965-7 / ~ C carbon, H= hydrogen in an unit of fuel, and h the hydrogen corresponding to the hydrogen contained in the coal. These multiplied by their heating powers (Dulong), and divided by the latent heat of steam, indicate the number of Ibs. of water evaporated. No. of Ibs. of Water No. of Ibs. of HO converted into convertible into Coal. Steam by 1 Ib. of Steam by the Coal. Coke left in the Coal. Practical. Calculated. Anthracite (Welsh), 9-46 12-554 Pontypool, 7-47 8-144 Grangemouth, 7-40 7-292 Slicvardagh (Irish), 9-85 10-895 Wylam's patent fuel, ....8-92 8-378 fuliginous. (Fuligo, soot). A combustible body is said to be fuliginous when it gives out much smoke or soot when burning. Fuller's JKarth. Argiles smectiques, Terres a foulon. A clay so named from the property which it possesses, owing to its porosity, of re- moving stains of grease from cloth. It occurs in the green sand and oolitic formations. Colour dull greenish-gray ; texture earthy ; fracture uneven, opaque, rather tough, sectile ; feel soapy, lustre dull; hardness 1. Spec. grav. 2-4448; adheres veiy slightly to the tongue ; falls to powder in water. Si0 3 44, HO 24-95, A1 2 3 23-06, CaO 4-08, MgO 2-, FeO 2. B.B. fuses into a gray enamel ; with soda into a bead ; transparent and colourless when hot, opaque when cold ; docs not unite with borax ; forms a frit with microcosmic salt. Fulminating Cotton. See Gux Coxxox. Fulminating Powders. The most im- portant of these are commonly termed detonating powders, and are salts of fulminic acid, viz. ful- minate of mercury, and fulminate of silver. Fnlminic Acid. (Knallsaure, Ger.) C^Os =' Cy 2 2 8-5, 68% Bibasic acid, known only in the state of union with bases ; discovered by Howard. The fulminate of mercury is obtained by dissolving 1 part of mercury in 12 nitric acid (Sp. grav. 1-36), and adding 11 alcohol (-8475) with gentle heat. The action becoming violent, the heat should be withdrawn ; a white precipi- tate falls, which, when washed and dried, is ful- minate of mercury (2 HgO,Cy 2 O 2 ). In this ac- tion aldehyde and nitrous ether are evolved, and the fulminate precipitates according to the reac- tion. C 4 H 6 2N0 3 = C 4 N 2 2 , 5 HO. It is FUR used for filling percussion caps, but must be warily used from its liability to explosion. 10 parts are mixed on a marble slab, with 30 parts water, by means of a wooden pestle. To this paste are added 6 parts of saltpetre. The caps are then filled to the proper extent with the mix- ture. The salt may be obtained in silky needles by dissolving in hot water. Fulminate of silver, 2 AgO,Cy 2 2 . Crystalline powder obtained by a similar process, using silver instead of mercury, and 10 parts nitric acid with 20 alcohol. Ac- cording to E. Davy this acid contains hydrogen, which would account for its explosive character. Fulminate of silver may also be formed bv pass- ing the vapour of nitrous acid into a solution of nitrate of silver in alcohol. Fumaramidc. C 8 2NH 2 H 2 2 , 2 . White insoluble powder, by adding ammonia to fumaric ether. Fumaric Acid. Paramaleic Acid, Lichenic Acid. HO,C 4 H0 3 . Rhombic mica-like scales, obtained by keeping malic, or maleic acid at the fusing point for a long tune; soluble in 200 water. It is obtained also from Fumaria ojfici- nalis, and Cetraria Islandica. Fumaric Ether. C 4 H 5 OC 4 H0 4 . Oily fluid by passing chlorohydric acid gas into malic acid in absolute alcohol, and rectifying. FumaroEcs. Soffioni. Terms applied to volumes of steam, which issue in large quanti- ties through openings in the earth, and carry with them, mechanically, boracic acid; occur- ring in Tuscany, and other parts of Italy and Sicily. Fume. A term applied to the sulphate of lead, &c. carried by the draught into the flues of lead furnaces. Fumigation. The process of exposing in- fected places to the action of chlorine, bleaching powder, sulphurous acid, &c. to destroy the sup- posed cause of infection. Fuming Liquor*. A term applied to such fluids as the chloride of soda, or fuming liquor of Libavius, from the vapours which it evolves in the air. Fungic Acid. A colourless syrup with acid taste, mixing with water and alcohol in all pro- portions ; nearly insoluble in ether, from fungi ; it is fumaric acid (Bolley). Funginc. The basis of the fungi, probably a mixture of cellulose, with a nitrogenous body. Funkitc. Green coccolite or pyroxene. Furfurinc. C 30 H 12 N 2 6 . F.P. under 212. White silky needles resembling caffeine, without smell, and scarcely any taste ; nearly insoluble in cold, soluble in 135 hot water; very soluble in alcohol and ether, with an alkaline reaction; forms monobasic crystalline salts. Ob- tained by boiling furfurolamide for ten to fifteen minutes, with a large quantity of dilute caustic potash. A heavy yellow oil falls, which becomes crystalline on cooling. It is purified by dissolving it in a boiling dilute solution of oxalic acid ; on 249 FUR cooling, binoxalate of furfiirine separates in crys- tals. These are dissolved in hot water, and purified with animal charcoal. Ammonia sepa- rates the base by uniting with the acid. Fiirfurolamide. Fur/amide. C 3 oH 12 N2 OG- Isomeric with furfurine. Needles, or a white soluble powder ; decomposed by boiling in water and alcohol into ammonia and furfurole. Furfiirole. Oil of Ants. C 10 H 4 4 . Spec. grav. 1-1648; B.P. 323|. Clear volatile oU; soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. First ob- tained by Dobereiner by distilling sugar, black oxide of manganese, and sulphuric acid. Em- mett showed that it could be procured by distil- ling meal, bran, sawdust, &c. with sulphuric acid, without any oxide. The best proportions are, 6 parts bran, 5 parts sulphuric acid, diluted with water, distilled in a capacious retort. Bran yields 2 per cent, of this oil. Compare fucu- sole. Furnace. (Fourneatt, Fr. ; Ofen, Ger.) An apparatus in chemistry for the application of high temperatures. The most important are the Re- verberatory furnace, Flamm ofen, where the heat is applied to the substance by a flame playing on its surface (see SODA MANI FAC- TURE, and COPPER FURNACE) ; Wind furnace, Windofen, where, by means of a tall chimney and strong draught, air is drawn through or over a fire with great force. Fusainc. A preparation of charcoal used in Paris, composed of charcoal 82-8, calcined cin- ders 1*6, volatile matters 15-6. Fuscine. A brown base, becoming red in air. Obtained in rectifying bone oil, by Unver- dorben. Fuscite. A variety of Scapolite. Fusel Oil. Potato and grain oil. In the distillation of potato and grain spirit, a quantity of solid oil is obtained, and likewise a fluid por- tion. Dumas described the fluid portion from potato spirit as an amylic alcohol in 1836, and in the same year I described a similar body from grain spirit, which I obtained from the late Mr. Cofiey, patentee of the well-known still (Brit. Annual, 1837). The solid oil has been shown GAD to contain margaric acid, oenanthic acid, capric acid, and bassic acid (?) The presence of the amyle oil in spirit renders it noxious 5 it should therefore be carefully removed by water. Fusibility. The capacity of fusing or melt- ing. Fusible Metal may be formed of 31 lead, 19 tin, 50 bismuth, to melt at 203, or of 34 lead, 19 tin, 47 bismuth. Fusing or Melting Point of oils and oily acids is determined by introducing them into small tubes, with a fine thermometer inserted, plunging into water, which is gradually heated, and noting the point at which the thermometer stands when the oil fuses. Fusion. The conversion of a solid into a liquid state, depending upon the absorption of latent heat by the body ; in certain substances the fusing point seems to vary after one fusion,, as in the crystalline organic compounds. An analogous result occurs with stearine and other fats. Fustcine. Orange-coloured varnish, formed from f ustine by absorption of oxygen. Fustet. A name for sumac. Fustic. Yellow -wood. Two varieties of sumac are known in commerce. Old fustic, from Morus tinctoria; new fustic, from Rhus cotinus, from Venice. Fustic is a yellow-coloured wood employed in dyeing; it gives a yellow colour to water, with a slightly acid reaction ; this col- our becomes purplish or reddish by alkalies. Alum and chloride of tin give orange precipitates. Some greens are dyed with the assistance of fus- tic ; the yarn being first dyed blue by indigo, and then passed through pyrolignate of alumina, and lastly into a hot solution of fustic, whick gives it a fine green shade. Fustiue? Colourless crystals from fustic, by making a decoction in water, precipitating: tannic acid by gelatine, filtering, evaporating to- near dryness, extracting by ether, adding water, precipitating by oxide of lead ; the yellow pre- cipitate decomposed by sulphuric acid. Fustine deposits from the liquor. It resembles rhamnine. Morine is another colouring principle of fustic. Oabbro. Ratchet, Diorite, Eupliotide. A rock consisting of a mixture of Labradorite and Diallage, with compact albite. Oabronite. A synonyme of Wernerite or Scapo.lite. Oadolinitc. II 6-5. Spec. grav. 4-1493, and 4-028 to 4-238. Greenish-black, velvet- black, massive, or in oblique rhombic prisms, with angles of 115 and 98; fracture flat, con- choidal; lustre vitreous, inclining to resinous, slightly translucent on the edges, almost opaque. BB. intumesces, forming cauliflower excrescences, becoming white with loss of water ; fuses with borax into a dark glass coloured by iron, be- coming bottle-green in the reducing flame ; with soda becomes a slag. It sometimes is mixed with platinum. A specimen from a Swedish cabinet yielded silica 24-33; glucina 11-60; yttria 45-; cerium oxide 4-33; protox. iron, 13-59; water -9. (T. Thomson, A. Steel, 1835.) Oadninc. C S5 R 2 2^B- Dark brown powder, soluble in strong sulphuric acid and potash, but not in nitric and muriatic acids ; soluble in alco- hol and ether; insoluble in water, without taste and smell ; obtained by saponifying cod liver oil, 250 GAIT decomposing the soap -with acetate of lead, ex- tracting the lead soap with ether ; the margarate of lead remains, while the oleic acid and gaduine dissolve. The solution is decomposed by dilute sulphuric acid, and the gaduine purified. Gahnitc. Awtomolite (aro,w.oAo,-, deserter.) Zinc Spinel; 8-hedral Corundum. Specific grav. 4-261; H 7-25. Dark green regular 8-hedrons, similar to magnetic iron ore; cross fracture conchoidal; opaque, or only translucent on the edges ; occur- ring near Fahlun, imbedded in talc slate. B.B. infusi- ble; fuses with bo- rax into a clear glass ; greenish when hot, colour- less when cold ; with salt of phosphorus fuses into a clear glass; does not fuse with soda; silica 3-84; alumina 55-14 ; zinc oxide 30-02; mag nesia 5-25 ; protox. iron, 5-85. Galactiiic. CogHooOo. Spec. grav. -969; F.P. 117 to 137 ; B.P. 640. Snow-white flakes when moist, and yellow when dry; re- sembling wax; tasteless, plastic between the teeth, and adheres to the teeth like a resin; insoluble in fixed alkalies ; soluble in nitric acid, and reprecipitated by water. Obtained by alco- hol from the extract of the milk of the cow tree (Galactodendron utile) of S. America. (T. Thomson, 1829.) Galactitc. A mineral occurring at Kilpa- trick, a mesotype or Thomsonite. Galaui Rimer. A reddish-white fat from Africa, said to be from the Bassia, bufyracea. F.P. 72 ; insoluble in alcohol and water. Galaiiga. The root of the Alpinia Galanga. It affords a crystalline body to alcohol and ether. It yields also a yellowish volatile oil, CjoHoO, hardening and thickening in air. Galapectitc. A variety of Ilalloysite. Galbanum Resin. C^H^C^. Yellowish- brown resin. The Levant resin is in tears and masses; the Persian in masses with a strong smell ; soluble partly in alcohol, with an acid and rather a bitter taste ; insoluble in oil of tur- pentine. By distilling with water, a colourless oil comes over. Specific grav. -912 ; soluble in alcohol and ether. By dry distillation it yields a blue oil. Gale, Sweet Oil of. Specific grav. -876. Dark yellow oil, obtained by distilling the leaves of Mi/rica gale with water, consists of 5- Oleop- tene and f Stearoptene ; very soluble in ether. Galena, or Sulphide of Lead. See LEAD. Galipot. A mixture of resin from Finns abies, and sylvestris, or sometimes common tur- pentine deprived of some of its oil. Gall. See BILE. Gall Nuts. See JSTuxQALLS. GAM Gall Stones. See CONCRETIONS and Cuo- LESTEIUNE Gallic Acid. C 7 HO 32 HO. Silky needles, of rhombic prisms, without smell; slight acid astringent taste; precipitates neither glue nor organic bases ; but it forms a black precipitate with iron; its solution is not changed in air; in contact with bases and ah*, it becomes black ; and like humus (tannomelanic acid, C^H^O?}, it is precipitated from its solutions by salts of lead, alumina, magnesia, &c. ; soluble in 100 cold, 3 hot water; soluble in alcohol, less sol- uble in ether. When mixed with 5 parts of strong sulphuric acid it become's red; and on the addition of water, rufogallic acid, C 7 H 2 04, or Parellagic acid, falls, partly flocky and partly in granular crystals of a brownish colour. Gallic acid by dry distillation at 410, gives off crystals of pyrogaUic acid, C 2 HO ; by a strong heat, a black matter, metagallic acid, Ci 2 H 3 O 3 HO, is formed. Gallic acid exists ready formed in plants, and may be obtained from nutgalls, divi divi, &c. by boiling with water, precipitating the tannic acid from the solution by gelatine, evaporating the decanted liquor to extract, treat- ing the extract with boiling alcohol, evaporating- the extract and crystallizing from ether, de- colourizing by animal charcoal. It deposits likewise from a decoction of nutgalls by standing. It is used in photography, and in testing to detect iron. Gallinacc. A synonyme of Obsidian. GalUpoli Oil. Olive oil purified at Galli- poli by cold water. Gallizinite. A synonyme of sulphate of zinc and anatase. Gallon, Imperial, has a capacity of 277-274 cubic inches. A gallon of distilled water weighs 10 Ibs. or 70,000 grains. 1 French litre is equivalent to -22009687 gallon, or 1 gallon 4-543458 litres. Galmei. Calamine, or carbonate of zinc. Galvanism. See ELECTRICITY. Gambir, or Catechu. Gamboge. (Gomme gutte, Fr. ; Gummigutt, Gutti, Ger.) Yellow resin, used as a paint and purgative, from the Gambogia g-utta, and other species from India. It occurs in four states in commerce, which are as follows, according to Christison : Pipe G. Cake O; Common G. Ceylon Gi Resin,. ..74-2 4-3 61-4 to 35- 68-8 Gum,. ..24- 20-7 17-2 ' 20-7 Starch, 6-2 7-8 Water,.. ..4-b 4 7-2 4-C Insol. matter, 4-4 7-8 6-8 The resin is soluble in ether, without smell or taste; soluble in alcohol, with acid reaction; soluble in caustic potash, forming a dark solu- tion, a compound separating by evaporation; soluble in ammonia with a red colour, and preci- pitating by an acid. The precipitated resin when dried consists of C 72-05, H 7-23, O 20-72. 251 CAN Ganguc or Ittatrix. That portion of a rock in which an ore is deposited. Ganomatitc. See CHEXOCOPROLITE. Garancinc. A reddish-brown powder, pre- pared from madder root. The madder is ground and digested in diluted sulphuric acid, washed with water and dried. The action of the acid seems to be to remove lime with which the colouring matter is united. Spent madder which has been used in dyeing is found to yield an additional amount of colour when converted into garancine. 1 part of garancine is estimated usually to be equal to 3 to 3^ madder; but it sometimes varies to 2, 2^, 5, and 7. The value of garancine is determined by its dyeing powers, either upon a small or large scale. Garlic, Oil of. Sulphide of Allyle. C 6 H 5 S. B.P. near 300. Yellow oil, decomposing at 302, evolving suffocating vapours, and leaving -a brownish mass ; insoluble in water ; very soluble in alcohol and ether; not altered by dilute acids nor by alkalies ; nitric acid fonns with it sulphuric and oxalic acids ; dissolves in strong sulplmric acid with a purple colour, reprecipi- tated by water ; it forms double compounds with solutions of platinum, mercury, silver, palladium, &c. ; when distilled over potassium, oil of garlic is perfectly colourless, and there remains in the retort sulphide of potassium. It is obtained by distilling the roots of onions (Allium Sativum) with water, and rectifying the oil. Garnet. Precious Garnet, Almandine, Aplome, Greenlandite, Pyrenaite, Carbuncle of the Ancients. Specific grav. 3-157 to 4-208; H G-5 to 7-5. Red rhomboidal 12-hedrons; the edges are often replaced by tangent planes which ulti- mately produce the leucite crystal of 24 trapezoidal faces ; structure foliated, and the cleavage faces parallel to those of the primary form ; fracture uneven or conchoidal ; lustre vitreous; transpar- ent to translucent. B.B. fused easily into a dark-coloured globule. This mineral is a mixture of various garnets, or silicates of various bases, isomorphous with each other. These will be now described. Garnets are found in mica slate and primary rock. Garnet, Black. Melanite, Iron magnesia Garnet. Spec. grav. 3-157 to 3-73; H 6-75. Velvet-black 24-hedrons ; lustre inclined to resi- nous; fracture flat and imperfect conchoidal; opaque. Found at Arendal, Norway. Si0 3 42-45, A1 2 3 22-475, FeO 9-202, MnO 6-273, MgO 13-43, CaO 6-525. Garnet, Bohemian. Pyrope. Spec. grav. 5-78; H. 7-5. Blood-red rounded or angular grains of right prisms with a square base (?); GAS fracture conchoidal; streak white. B.B. fuses into an opaque black bead with difficulty. Found in the mountains on the south of Bohemia, at Elie in Fife in trap tuff. SiO 3 42-, Al 2 0o, 20, MgO 20-199, FeO 9-096, FeoOoo 1-507, MnO 32, Cr0 3 3-013, CaO 1-993" (Kobell) ; Si0 3 43-7, A1 2 3 22-4, MgO 5-6, FeO 11-48, MnO 3-68, Cr0 3 7-68, CaO 6-72. (From Meronitz, by Wachtmeister). Garnet, Brown Manganese. Spec. grav. 3-829; H. 6-75. Tombac brown garnet crystals ; brittle and easily frangible. Si0 3 33*716, CaO 25-884, A1 2 O 3 7-972, FeO 15-84, MnO 16-704, HO -08 (T. Thomson); Si0 3 39-, A1 2 3 14-3, FeO 15-44, MnO' 27-9 (D'Ohsson). Garnet, Green. Gi^ossularite, Lime Garnet. 3CaOSi0 3 , Al 2 O 3 Si0 3 . Spec. grav. 3-372 to 3-64; H. 6-75. Asparagus-green rhombic 12- hedrons, or generally 24-hedrons, similar to leu- cite crystals ; lustre resinous, dull to shining ; fracture between conchoidal and uneven ; trans- lucent. B.B. thin splinters are rounded on the edges, but not completely fused. Si0 3 40-55, A1 2 3 20-1, FeO 5-, MnO -48, CaO 34-86. It has the same composition as idocrase, but a dif- ferent hardness and crystalline form. Found in Siberia, near the Wilni river. Gas. Chemical writers before Van Hel- mont (1577-1644), speak of an elastic fluid disengaged from bodies by fermentation, com- bustion, and effervescence, under the name of spiritus sylvestris ; but they do not seem to have distinguished it from respirable air. Van Hel- mont gave it the name of Gas (Geest, Dutch ; Gaist, Gast, Scottish; Geist, Ger.) which he defines a non-coagulable spirit, as from ferment- ing wine, likewise from hydromel, verjuice, bread, salammoniac, in combinations, from vege- tables, and from gunpowder. He attributes the deadly influence of the Dogs' Grotto near Naples, and the accidents from suffocation in mines and in cellars, to this gas. He drew the conclusion that gas is a different body from the air Ave breathe. Boyle afterwards (1627-1691) used the term artificial air, instead of. the word gas; and he showed that artificial air is not always the same when obtained from various sources. Hales followed in the same track, and showed that an almost infinite number of bodies yields air by heat. But it was not till 1753, when Dr Black characterized fixed air (carbonic acid), in its true light, that genuine pneumatic chemistry, so fertilely cultivated afterwards by Cavendish, Priestley, &c. can be said to have been indubit- ably based. The term is applied at the present time to those elastic fluids which are permanent at the usual pressure and temperature of the at- mosphere. Coal Gas. In fixing on the position for the manufacture of gas, it is obvious that coal gas being lighter than air, much inconvenience uld be experienced if the gas required to descend. It is necessary, therefore, that a gas 252 is introduced and stir- to disengage the gas; GAS work should be situated in the lowest part of the city which it is intended to supply. The essen- tial apparatus required for the preparation of gas, are (1st), .iron or fire-clay retorts, a, (see fig.) into which the coal rounded by fire at c, (2d), pipes to carry off the gas, in order that it may be purified ; (3d), condensers, or vessels for removing the tar, and volatile matter by cooling, from the gas ; (4), lime purifiers to condense car- bonic acid and sulphuretted hydrogen, which injure the lighting properties of the gas; and (5th), gasometers for retaining the gas after purification, 1. Retorts. The retorts are made of iron or of fire- brick. Their shape is cylin- drical or flattened, from G feet 6 inches to 9 feet long, and from 12 inches wide by 12 high, to 20 inches wide by 14 high. They are placed in a horizontal direction, sometimes 1 and sometimes 3, 5 or 11 together, in the same furnace for the sake of economv. Between the furnace and the retort is placed an arch of brickwork to save the iron, and the flue turns back upon the retort, so as to econo- mize the heat. The arch and flue are seen in the diagram, the arch being darkened over and below the retort. Retorts are sometimes 12 to 18 feet long ; they are then open at both extremities for charging, and have a furnace at each end. The GAS from the coke extracted from the retort. From the retort, the gas is conducted by the ascension Qi) and dip (a) pipes, to the hydraulic main, E, a cast iron pipe possessing a diameter of 12 or 15 inches. The hydraulic main is supported by pillars placed in front of the retorts, and serves the double object of condensing tarry matter, and also, as it is half filled with fluid, and the dip pipes, a a, penetrate under the surface of the water, to prevent any gas from returning into the retorts when the workmen are charging- them. At the upper part of the dip- pipe is a plug for allowing tarry matter to be extracted, which is apt to accumulate and detain the gas. The hydraulic main leads by I into s, a vessel for receiving the tar and ammoniacal liquor. 2. Condemers. The gas then passes into lofty syphon-like tubes, not exhibited in figure 2 at a, which it traverses, the tubes being usually moistened by water to remove the heat, and con- dense tar and ammoniacal water which run into the tar well. In some works, the gas coal used in Scotland, is the Parrot or cannel coal. I now passes up a vertical vessel filled with coke, It affords a much larger supply of gas than the j which is moistened with a stream of cold water cherry or splint, or caking coals. A ton ofi Lesmahago coal produces in Glasgow 10,880 cubic feet of gas ; while the Newcastle Wallsend coal yields only 7,400 cubic feet; in London, 8,500* to 9,500. The cause of the inferiority to condense ammonia, &c. In other works, the gas is washed by being passed over the surface of water. To overcome the resistance to the progress of the gas produced by these processes, in large iras works it is usual to have a machine termed appears to be, that the quantity of carbon in the j an exhauster, by which the gas is pumped from cannel, is more nearly in the relation to the hydro- I the hydraulic main as rapidly as it is generated, gen, of equal atoms, than we find existing in the j It is believed that the carbonaceous deposits in domestic coal. The weight of the 10,880 cubic the retorts are thereby diminished, and the leak- feet of gas, supplied by the Lesmahago coal, amounts to about one-fifth of the whole of the coal employed ; so that a ton of coal will yield 4 cwt. of gas. The remainder of the coal is spent in forming -| coke, ^ tar, water, &c. That coal contains more water than is usu- ally supposed, is' obvious from the results which I have obtained with some kinds of cannel coal. When distilled at it lost 4-097 per cent, of pure water, which I collected and examined. In another instance, when the coal was heated up to between 400 and 500, the loss in a week exceeded 14 per cent. When heated a little above 600, paraffine passes over without any tar or gas (Young). The quan- tity of fuel required to heat the retorts, amounts to from 30 to 40 per cent, of the coal required for producing the gas ; but this is usually derived age of the gas to the extent of 12 per cent, pre- vented. 3. Purification The coal gas, as it comes from the condensers, contains several impurities, viz. sulphuretted hydrogen, carbonic acid, am- monia, &c. ; and in order to remove these, so far as practicable, the refrigerated gas is passed into a wet lime purifier, D, which is a cylindrical iron vessel with an air-tight cover. The vertical axis of the agitator, t, works in a stuffing box in the cover, with two arms at the bottom for the pur- pose of keeping the lime suspended in the water. The gas enters by a tube, and on passing the milk of lime it is freed from its impurities. The milk of lime is made by mixing 1 part of lime with 25 of water, and is introduced by the tube V, and is removed by . Sometimes the gas is purified by what is termed the dry lime process. 253 GAS The lime is slaked and moistened, till, on being squeezed in the hand, the whole adheres into a solid mass, when it is in a condition for the pro- per purification of the gas. The purifiers are either square or oblong vessels, with generally GAS three or four tiers of trays. The lime is laid on the trays to the depth of about 12 inches, and after being made level, it is watered again with a watering-pot, so as to make it moist, to prevent the gas from passing up the sides of the vessel without being acted on. The gas enters at the bottom, and after passing through the lime escapes at the top. The impurities in gas are removed in a variety of ways. Mr. Croll intro- duced the use of muriate of manganese and mu- riate of iron in 1840. The processes about to be detailed are those most commonly in use. Mr. Croll, by his patent dated in 1840, removes the ammonia by means of a dilute solution of sul- phuric acid. The gas, after leaving the conden- sers, and before entering the lime purifiers, passes through a series of two vessels, made either of wood or iron and lined with lead, and provided with proper inlet and outlet pipes. The vessels are filled to about ^ with the dilute acid, made by mixing 71bs. of sulphuric acid with 100 gallons of water. The acid, on becoming neutralized with the ammonia from the gas, is supplied with a continuous stream of acid from a reservoir placed on the top of the saturator, tilj. the solu- tion attains a specific gravity of 1-170, or as near the crystallizing point as is practicable. The stream of acid is then discontinued, and the gas passed through, till all the free acid is neutral- ized, when it is withdrawn and evaporated in iron pots, and yields good commercial sulphate of ammonia. The gas is afterwards passed through lime to free it from its carbonic acid, and sul- phuretted hydrogen. Mr. Croll also removes the ammonia from the gas by means of muriate of manganese dissolved in water, in vessels similar to those above described. The gas on passing through the solution forms sulphide of manga- nese, which precipitates, and the muriate of ammonia remains in solution. The liquid is drawn off, evaporated and crystallized, and forms good commercial muriate of ammonia. Muriate of ammonia obtained in this way is very well adapted for the sublimation of salammoniac. In this case the greater part of the sulphuretted hydrogen is removed, and when the ammonia is sufficient to saturate it the whole is removed. Impure gas can also be freed from its ammonia, and the equivalent of carbonic acid by means of a saturated solution of muriate of lime absorbed into sawdust (Laming). The mixture is put into a dry lime purifier, and the gas passed through it, which gradually converts the muriate of lime into muriate of ammonia and carbonate of lime. There are generally two vessels employed for this purpose, that while the one is in action, the other may be emptied and refilled. The saturated material on being taken out is washed, and the solution of muriate of ammonia evaporated and crystallized. It is afterwards put in baskets, drained, and forms a good commercial article. "When the above process is adopted, the principal remaining impurity in the gas, viz. sulphuretted hydrogen, is removed by means of sesquioxide of iron. The sesquioxide of iron is mixed with saw- dust for the purpose of giving greater porosity to the mass, and the mixture is placed in dry lime purifiers to the depth of about 12 inches. The gas is allowed to ascend through it, which, in the first instance, reduces the sesquioxide to the state of protoxide with the formation of water, and one atom of sulphur is precipitated; as the action is continued the protoxide is reacted on, forming sulphide of iron and water, so that the products in the end are water, sulphur, and sulphide of iron. The material on being satu- rated, is taken out, spread on a floor, ex- posed to the air, and becomes reconverted into sesquioxide of iron, while the sulphur that was in combination with it is precipitated. The mix- ture is again put into the purifiers, and purifies the gas as before, and this process is repeated for twenty or thirty times, till the sulphur accumu- lates so as to prevent the action of the gas on the sesquioxide of iron (Laming). 254 GAS 4. From the purifier the gas passes to the me- ter, where it is measured, and thence to the gas- holder, F, which is a cylindrical iron vessel, sup- plied with a counterbalance, k z, and floating in a tank, I, of water. GAS In large works these holders are constructed on the sliding principle of the telescope. Ground Plan of a Gas Work, by Mr. H. T. Lowe. A Retort house 220 feet long ; B retort beds ; C flues; D chimney; /'coal stores; G hydraulic main ; //con- densers; / tar and liquor tanks ; ^ ammonia purifiers; A' purifiers for patent material ; Z scrubbers; M meter 'and house ; ^gas-holders ; P boilers and engine-house ; Q revivifying shed ; R smith's and carpenter's shops ; governor; T gate and valve-room ; U weigh bridge; F house; W offices ; X store-house ; T laboratory; Z mains. Preparation of Gases in general. When gases are prepared in large quantities, it is usual to employ a gas-holder for their reception, and a retort for the generation of the gases. The gas-holder has various forms. One of the most economical kinds is Griffin's, consisting of glazed earthenware of the annexed shape. It has two apertures at the top, one of which, 6, is connected with a tube which down to the bottom of the vessel, and is surmounted by a funnel for the intro- duction of water ; the other aperture, <7, is at the summit, and is intended for the escape of the gas. There is a third opening at the bottom, e, by means of which the gas-holder is filled with gas. In order to fill it with water, which is the first step in preparing it for the reception of a gas, the two apertures at the top are opened, that at the bottom, e, is closed. Water is then poured in by the funnel at the top, until the vessel is completely full, the air escaping by the middle aperture. When filled, the two openings are closed, one by a cork, the other by a stop-cock ; the lower aperture is now 255 opened, and the beak of the retort containing the substance for generating the gas is inserted in it. The water cannot run out of the vessel, because the openings at the top are closed, and the atmospheric pressure is therefore withheld from the surface of the water ; neither can the air enter from below, because the lower aperture is placed obliquely like a bird's fountain glass, where the water exposed to the air is pressed upon by the atmosphere, upon the principle exhibited in Cooper's tube for collecting gases over mercury. When we fill this tube with water or mercury, retaining | the stopper in it, the tube may be held vertically without any escape of fluid ; and the beak of a retort or tube con- nected with a vessel for generating gas, being inserted in the lower open- ing, the gas enters and displaces the fluid. The inferior aperture of the gas-holder is constructed in a similar manner. The beak of the retort being intro- duced into the gas-holder, as described, as soon as the gas is disengaged, water begins to flow from the vessel in proportion to the amount of gas which enters ; and as soon as all the water has been displaced by gas, we close the aperture, and set aside the gas-holder for use. In order to remove gas from the vessel as it is required, a bent tube is fixed to one of the apertures at the top, connected with a pneumatic trough, which GAS is simply in this case a cylindrical vessel of earthenware, filled two-thirds with water, and having an inverted cylinder standing in it with an opem'ng^onone side for the extremity of the tube to enter, and another on its upper surface to ad- mit of the escape of the gas from the end of the tube, and convey it into an inverted glass jar filled with water. The glass jar is thus placed by filling it in its natural position with water, covering its mouth closely with a plate of glass, and while holding it firmly, inverting it, and placing it on the shelf. The apparatus being thus arranged, the stop -cock at the top of the gas-holder is opened, the funnel is adjusted to the other aperture and opened. Water being poured in by the funnel, the gas escapes by the bent tube and passes into the in- verted glass jar in the pneumatic trough. Thus a succession of jars may be filled until the whole of the gas has been ex- pended. A very con- venient gas-holder is one made of copper, or of japanned tin or zinc, usually called Pepys' gas-holder. This ap- paratus consists of a cy- linder (A) for hold- ing the gas, and of an upper vessel (C) for hold- ing the water which is intended to displace the gas. They are connected by two tubes, one (6) dipping to the bottom of the cylinder, and the other (a) entering at the top. *In order to fill the gas-holder with water, the stop-cocks on the two tubes (6, ) are opened, and water is poured into the upper vessel, until no more air escapes by the tube which enters at the top of the cylinder. There is also a stop-cock (c) at the side, which may be opened to facilitate the escape of the air. When full, the stop-cocks are closed. The gas- holder is filled with gas in the same way as the C "Water-holder. A Gas-holder. b Water tube. a Gas tube. h Gauge. GAU earthenware gas-holder. To procure the gas for use after it has been collected, an inverted jar T filled with water, is placed in the upper vessel (C) over the opening of the short tube (a), and the two stop-cocks being opened, the gas rises and displaces the water in the inverted jar. Con- nected with the cylinder there is a glass tube or gauge, which exhibits the amount of gas in the vessel in proportion to the rise or fall of the water contained in it. Gases, however, may be collected in smaller quantities, and then a gas- holder is unnecessary. The substances to supply the gas are placed in a flask (see CHLOKINE), communicating with an inverted jar, placed in a pneumatic trough. Heat being generally required to facilitate the evolution of the gas, is applied cautiously by means of a spirit-lamp, or a gas flame, covered with a wire gauze cylinder ; or, when the amount of gas required is minute, a wide test-tube of Bohemian glass (a, 5, c), supplied with a perforated cork and exit tube, may be used. English glass does not answer for such experi- ments, in consequence of its liability to fusion from its containing lead. Gastric Juice. The fluid found in the sto- mach. The following are analyses of it : Dog. Without Saliva. Water, ............ 973-062 Dry residue, ..... 26-938 Ferment, ......... 17-127 Chlorohyd. acid, 3-050 KC1, ............. 1-125 XaCl, ............ 2-507 CaCl, ............ 0-624 NH 4 C1, .......... 0-468 Phosph. of lime, 1-729 Phosph. MgO,... 0-226 Phosph. of iron,.. 0-082 26-938 Dog. With Saliva. 971-171 28-829 17-336 2-337 1-073 3-147 1-661 0-537 2-294 0-323 0-121 28-829 K , Sheep. 986-147 13-853 4-055 1-234 1-518 4-369 0-114 0-473 1-182 0-577 0-331 13-853 When both par vagums were cut it was found that digestion went on, but more slowly. Thus albumen dissolved, but more slowly than when the nerves were not cut. The gastric juice had the same composition as in the healthy state, but more salammo- niac, 4-517 per 1000 in one, and 3-745 in another case of a dog. Craultltcric Acid. Salicylate of Methyle. Gaultheria Procum- bens Oil, Winter-green Oil. Birch Bark Oil C 1C H 8 O G , or C 2 II 3 C 14 H 5 5 . Spec. grav. 1-180, of vapour 5-42. B.P. 428. Col- ourless oil, becoming reddish on exposure to air; with difficulty soluble in water; mixes, in all 5 proportions, with alcohol and ether ; taste and smell agreeably aromatic. The aqueous solution of the oil pro- duces a violet colour with salts of sesquioxide of iron ; distilled with 256 GAU GEO potash it yields pyroxylic spirit and salicylate of Gelatine includes two varieties, termed Colla and potash. It is therefore a salt of an organic radical, with acid properties, as it unites with bases and forms crystalline salts. It is obtained by means of alcohol from the GaultherlaprocumbensofNew Jersey, also by distilling with water the bark of the Betula lenta. Bromine displaces hydrogen, and forms a new compound. Oaulthcrilcnc. C 10 H 8 . Spec. grav. of vapour 4-699. B.P. 320. Colourless oil, with an agreeable odour ; converted by nitric acid into a resin. Obtained by distilling commercial oil of gaultheria with caustic potash; water, py- roxylic spirit, and gaultherilene pass over. The product is purified by washing with water, caus- tic potash, and treatment with chloride of cal- cium. GanUhcrhaic Acid. A crystalline compound obtained by boiling gaultherine with barytes Ava- ter, precipitating the excess of barytes by car- bonic acid, and decomposing by sulphuric acid, boiling the syrupy mass with carbonate of lead, and decomposing by sulphohydric acid. Gay Xjiiasifie. Natro Calcite. Spec. grav. 1-928 to 1-99, II 2-5. Yellowish-white oblique prisms with angles of 68 50', 96 30'; the obtuse lateral edges being in general replaced by tangent planes. AYhen heated, the crystals de- crepitate and become opaque. B.B. melts ra- pidly into an opaque globule, which becomes infusible, with an alkaline taste; soluble with effervescence in acids. It consists of NaOCO? 33-96, CaOCOa 31-39, HO 32-2, A1 2 O 3 1-, C0 2 1-45. Form. NaOC0 2 , CaOC0 2 5HO. Found in the Natron Lake in Columbia. Gcdritc, from Gedre, Pyrenees. SiO 3 38-81, A1 2 3 9-31, FeO 45-83, MgO 4-13, CaO -67, HO 2-3. Hornblende, resembling anthophyllite. Gchlcnitc. StyloUte. Spec. grav. 2-9166 to 3-029, H 6-5. Gray rectangular prisms with square bases (2d system ?) ; fracture uneven, pass- ing into splintery, lustre resinous, inclining to vitreous, usually opaque, brittle. B.B-. fuses with difficulty in thin splinters ; slowly soluble in borax; gelatinizes with chlorohydric acid. Si0 3 29-386, A1 2 3 24-924, CaO 36-34, FeO 5-455, HO 3-92. Form. 3(3R0 2 Si0 3 ) 3R 2 3 Si0 3 . Found on Mount Monzoni, Fassa, Tyrol. Geic Acid. A product of the decomposition of vegetable matter in the soil, a species ofllumus or mould. Its formula has been given as C 40 H 12 14 2NH 3 HO. But it is probably not con- stant. Gclaciiic. A variety of cell substance col- oured green by muriatic acid. Found in Cuactis, Scytonema, and Lyngbya. Gelatine, or Glne. (Leim, Ger. ; Colk, Fr.) Chondrin. See these articles, and likewise GLUE, ISINGLASS. Gelinc. A name given to the matter consti- tuting the cells of fuci, gelatinizing by boiling. Gem*. (Edelsteine, Ger.) Precious stones. These terms are applied to certain minerals which have become valuable from their colour, hardness, and lustre. The principal of these are, diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald, topaz, hyacinth or ja- cinth, garnet, amethyst, aquamarine, opal, tur- quoise, blood-stone, carnelian. Genus, Artificial. These are prepared bv means of various kinds of coloured glass, which are made to resemble the precious gems. Glasses which serve for the bases of these gems are made as follows : 1st, 100 silica or sand, 136 red lead, 25 carbonate of potash, 9 borax, ^ white arsenic. 2d, 75 silica, 100 red lead, 10 carbonate of pot- ash. 3d, 100 silica, 156 red lead, 55 caustic potash, 7 borax, ^ white arsenic. 4th, 112 litharge, 16 silica, 36 boracic acid. When a gem is to be formed, 100 parts of one of these kinds of glass is pulverized and mixed with the proper proportion of colouring mixture, some of which are as follows: Reddish-yellow topaz. 4 parts glass of antimony, r \y gold purple. Yellow topaz, 1 red oxide of iron. Garnet, 50 glass of anti- mony, -| gold purple, -| black oxide of man- ganese. Turquoise, 100 parts of glass whitened with oxide of tin, 3 oxide of copper, i zaffre, -fe black oxide of manganese. Emerald, -^ glass of antimony, -^ oxide of cobalt. Sapphire, 1$ oxide of cobalt. Amethyst, black oxide of man- ganese, \ oxide of cobalt, -J^ gold purple. The glass with which these colours are mixed must be first made by exposure in refractory clay cru- cibles to the heat of a pottery- or wind furnace for twenty-four hours, and after the mixture is made, the crucible must be again subjected to a similar temperature for twenty -four to thirty hours. Gcntianme. The bitter principle of Gen- tiana lutea, which has not been obtained in a pure state. Geiitiniiic. Gentisine. Gentisic acid. A new body in yellowish needles with the for- mula C 14 H 5 Os ; has no bitter taste. It is ob- tained from the aqueous extract by alcohol. It unites with soda and barytes ; with nitric acid nitro gentianine is fonned, Ci4H 5 N0 10 , a green powder. CJeocronitc. Kilbrickenite. 5 PbS, Sb S 3 . Spec. grav. 6-5, H 2 to 3. Lead-gray metallic masses, and granular or earthy; fracture un- even; Pb 68-87, Fe -38, Sb 14-39, S 16-36. Kilbricken, Clare; Sala, Sweden. Sometimes the antimony is replaced partly by arsenic. CJcodc. A round hollow mass of rock occur- ring in mountains, with the interior cavity lined with crystals. Geogmosy. (ys, earth, and yivua-zu, I know.) The description of the earth as distinguished from speculations. 257 GEO Geology. (yi, earth, and Aj/? , a discourse.) A term restricted by some to the theoretical view of the earth, but generally used to imply the science of the structure of the earth The rocks of which the earth's crust is composed may be divided into igneous and sedimentary, or into non-fossiliferous and fossiliferous, or those in which the remains of organic beings cannot be detected, and those in which they are abundantly present. Whether the earth be a solid, or consist of a crust, has been disputed by physicists. The depth to which it has been penetrated amounts only to 21,358 feet or 3-6 miles. Chimborazo is rather more than as much above the level of the sea, so that 45,000 feet or ^ part of the earth's semi- diameter is all that we know of its crust ; an amount of knowledge insufficient to solve the GEO preceding problem. The earth is one of nu- merous planets revolving round the sun. Its mean semidiameter is 8,286 miles or 8,000 sta- tute miles ; its mean circumference being 24,858 miles. It performs its daily revolution in 365 days, 48 minutes, and 49-7 seconds. It is an oblate spheroid, being compressed at the poles. Its equitorial radius is 3963-025 miles ; its polar radius is 3949-8 miles. The polar radius is there- fore 13*225 miles shorter than the equatorial. The mean density of the earth is, according to Cavendish, corrected by Bailey, 5-448. The rocks of which the earth is composed, as far as they have been examined, beginning at the lowest and ascending,, are comprehended in the following table : Illustration of the Arrangement of the various Groups of Rocks. ' Quaternary Rocks, 9 ' Tertiary, 8. Molasse. fl. Chalk. I 6. Jura. Secondary, < 5. Trias. 4. Zechstein. U. Coal. Transition Rocks, 2. Gray wacke. Primitive Rocks, 1. Slate. Interior mass of the earth. Deposits. ARRANGEMENT OF ROCKS. Non-Fossiliferous Rocks. Crystalline, or Plutonic Hocks. GRANITE,. (Felspar, quartz, mica). 1. Talc Granite, or protogine (fel- spar, quartz, talc). 2. Graphic Granite, Pegmatite. Crystallized mixture of felspar and quartz. GRANITE,.., A. Granite. B. Greenstone. C. Porphyry. D. Basalt. E Volcanic Rocks. M. The Sea. 0. Mineral Veins. .3. Granular Granite. Eurite Granulite, White Stone. 4. Schorly Granite. Granite con- taining schorl. 5. Porphyritic Granite, with largi felspar crystals. C. Porcelain Clay, from graphii gram'te. 7. Greissen, or liyalomite, graniti without felspar. 258 GEO SYENITE, (Felspar, Quartz, Hornblende.) Syenitic Granite ; with mica. Slaty Syenite. Metamorphic Rocks. GNEISS, Ingredients of granite in layers, giving the rock a ribbond as- pect. Talc Gneiss, Stratified Protogine (felspar, quartz, and talc in layers. Syenitic Gneiss, the ingredients of syenite arranged in layers). MICA SLATE,.. (Mica, quartz). Chlorite Slate (green chlorite, with quartz and felspar. HORNBLENPE (Hornblende, with SLATE, quartz and fel- spar). CLAY SLATE,.. (Silica & alumina). Quartz Rode. Talc Slate. Potstone (talc with chlorite and mica). Elastic Sand Slate. PRIMARY ME- TAMORPIIICjOr HYPOGENE LIMESTONE. 1. Newer Igneous Rocks. (Traps.') GREENSTONE, Hornblende and albite (diabase, whinstone). (Diorite), aphanase, trap. Hornblende- A Ibite-Porphyry (Dio- ritic porphyry). Labrador Augite Rock (Labrador- greenstone dolerite). Hypersthene-Labrador Rock. tA.mphibolite, . . .or Hornblende Slate; when com- pact, ophanite. DIALLAGE, ....Diallage and Saussurite, or com- pact felspar (or jade, and fel- spar), gabbro, enphotide. Serpentine, Silica and magnesia (ophiolites). Ophite (serpentine and limestone). Schillerspar Rock, Schillerspar, and Labradorite. AMYGDALOID,. An earthy rock, containing al- mond-shaped cavities. BASALT A black siliceous rock, containing olivine and augite, or peridote, labradorite and magnetic iron. CLINKSTONE, ..Porphyry Slate. Phonolite. Pe- trosilex (felspar and mesotype). LHERZOLITE, ..Consisting of bright green py- roxene. WACKE, A greenish-gray clay TRAP TUFF, ...A coarse sandstone, containing fragments of igneous rocks. Laterite. (Coarse sandstone, per- oxidized by heat like brick.) GEO PORPHYRY, ...A rock having crystals distributed in a base. Augite Porphyry. (Labradorite and augite). Felspar Porphyry. A felspar basis, with crystals of felspar interspersed. Pitchstone Porphyry. Pitchstone, with crystals of felspar. Hornstone Porphyry. A siliceous rock resembling horn. Claystone Porphyry. A basis of clay, with felspar crystals. Felspar, or Petrosilex, when the crystals disappear. Pitchstone, in the same circum- stances. 2. Recent Volcanic Rocks. (Lavas). TRACHYTE, ... .A felspar basis, with glassy felspar. Trachytic Porphyry, without sco- ria, with quartz in grains or crystals. Domite. Fine-grained trachyte, friable and rough to the touch. Pearlstone, with the lustre of pearl. Obsidian. Deep greenish-black; vitreous like bottle glass. Millstone Trachyte. Hard and cellular. Trachytic Conglomerate. Pumice, &c., agglutinated. Leucite. Rock of leucite, augite, and magnetic iron ore, in grains. TUFF, Agglutinated mass of volcanic scoria. Stone Tuff. Granular Tuff. Earthy Tuff. Fossillferous Rocks. 1. OLDER PALAEOZOIC PERIOD. Lower Silu- rian. Caradoc sandstone, Landeilo flags, shales, graywacke and slate. Upper Silurian. Ludlow and Wenlock, Cumbrian and Cambrian, gray- wacke and slaty sandstones of Germany, &c. 2. MIDDLE PALAEOZOIC. Devonian system, or old red sandstone ; slates and limestone of De- von, conglomerate, &c. 3. NEWER PALAEOZOIC PERIOD. Carboni- ferous system, magnesian limestone. Permian system, lower new red sandstone, Zechstein. 4. OLDER SECONDARY PERIOD. Upper new red sandstone, salt marls, red sandstone, and con- glomerate. 5. MIDDLE SECONDARY PERIOD. Lias group. Lower lias slate and limestone. Upper lias shale. Oolite system, loiver oolite, cornbrash, forest marble, Bradford clay, Stonesfield slate. Middle Oolite, coral crag, Oxford clay, Kelloway clay. Upper Oolite, Portland stone and sand, Kimmeridge clay. Wealden formation, Weald clay, Hast- ings sand, Purbeck beds. 259 GER 6. NEWER SECONDARY PERIOD. Cretaceoii, or chalk system. Lower chalk without flints green sand, chalk marl, gault. Upper chalk with flints. 7. TERTIARY ROCKS. Older tertiary, Eocene Bagshot sand, London clay, characterized by containing a small per centage of living species among its fossil shells. Middle tertiary, Miocene coralline crag, red crag, with a minority of its fossil shells referable to living species. Newer tertiary, Pliocene, Norwich crag, Clyde till, with the largest part of fossil shells of' recent species. Superficial deposits (Pleistocene) or diluvium alluvium, &c. German Silver. An alloy of about 60 cop- per, 25 zinc, 15 nickel, with a spec. grav. of 8-5 Germination. Consists of the development of the seed embryo, a fleshy body occupying the interior of the seed, and constituting the rudiment of a future plant. When the embryo is placed in circumstances favourable for germination, the caulicle will extend so as to separate the cotyle- dons from the radicle by an interval, the extent of which varies in different plants; the radicle lengthens downwards forming the root, while the cotyledons either rise above the earth and unfold, or remain under ground, lose their starch, and shrivel up, and the plumule elongates upwards and gives rise to stem and leaves. Gersdorflite. Nickelylance, or arseniosul- phide of nickel. Geyserite. The siliceous incrustation depo- sited by hot springs. Gibbsite. Terhydrate of Alumina. A1 2 3 SHO. Spec. grav. 2-385, H 3- to 3-75. Grayish, greenish, or reddish-white hexagonal crystals or stalactitic, lustre pearly or faint, translucent ; giving, when breathed on, a peculiar odour. A1 2 3 64-8, HO 34-7. Richmond, Massachu- ssets, and Ural. B.B. infusible, phosphoresces ; gives a blue with solution of cobalt. It is said sometimes to contain phosphoric acid. Gieseckite. Spec. grav. 2-832, H 3-5. Ex- ternally brownish, internally greenish 6-sided prisms, probably pseudomorphous of nepheline ; fracture splintery, uneven, lustre resinous, almost dull, opaque or feebly translucent on the edges. Si0 3 46-079, A1 2 3 33-828, MgO 1-203, FeO 8-358, MnO 1-155, KO 6-200, vol. matter 4-886. From Akulliarasiarsuk, Greenland. Gigantolitc. Spec. grav. 2-8, H 2-5. A variety of Pinite, according to some. Si0 3 46-25, A1 2 O 3 25-1, Fe 2 O 3 15-6, MgO 3-8, MnO -89, KO 2-7, NaO 1-2, HO 2-. Named from the size of its crystals ; occurs at Tammela in Finnland. Gilbcrtitc. Spec. grav. 2-648, H 2-75. Whitish-yellow micaceous plates lying irregu- larly on each other, lustre silky, translucent, sectile, easily cut with a knife. Si0 3 45-155, A1 2 3 40-11, CaO 4-17, MgO 1-9, FeO 2-43, HO 4-25 ; Stonagwyn, St. Austle, Cornwall. Gillingite. See HISINGERITE. Ginger. The root of the Amomum Zinyiber, 260 GLA contains a volatile oil lighter than water, an aro-*. matic resin, &c. Gingseiig. The root of the Panax quinqiie- folium, much used medicinally in China. Ginkoic Acid. An organic acid found -ill the fruit of Ginglco liloba, but little known. Giobj:rtite, or Carbonate of Magnesia. Gi*m outline. Abrazite, Zeagonite, Phillip- site of Levy, Harmotome of Levy. Spec. grav. 2-265, H 4-5. Si0 3 35-88, A1 2 3 27-23, CaO 13-12, KO 2-85, HO 21-1. Form. 2Al 2 O a SiO 3 , 3(CaOKO) Si0 3 9HO. Found on Vesu- vius in dew-looking drops. Githagine. See SAPONINE. Glairine. Glairidine. See BAREGINE. Glance. A German term applied to certain sulphides of metals. Glaserite or sulphate of potash. Glass. (Glas, Ger. ; Verre, Fr.) The tern* glass has by some been supposed to be derived from the Latin glades, ice; and by others. from glastum, bhie or wood (Isatis tinctoria), from glass usually having a blue shade. Glass beads are frequently found on the Egyptian. mummies. It is mentioned as ix in the "Clouds" of Aristophanes, a play acted 423'. years before the Christian era. A large plate of glass was discovered in Herculaneum, and is supposed to have been used as a looking- glass. Pliny ascribes the discovery of glass- to an accident which occurred to some Phoeni- cians who, when encamped on the river Bclus, ! found that the ashes of their wood fire had vitrified, by combining with the sand of the- river. In his time it is obvious that the art of making stained glass was understood. The theory of glass-making depends on the union of an acid, silica, with a base, and the formation of translucent fused mass which, under certain conditions, is perfectly transparent and colourless. The glass varies in quality according to the nature? of the base, and consists of four kinds as manu- factured in this country. 1. Bottle glass. 2. Crown or window glass. 3. Flint or commoa table glass. 4. Plate glass. Excess of soda, potash, or lead, renders the glass more soluble in water or in acid, and if the excess of oxide of lead be great it renders the glass easily fusible. It is said that the lustre and refractive power of glass, increase Avith the atomic weights of the jases contained in it. The silicates of some of the metallic and earthy oxides have a tendency ;o crystallize, and they may be deprived of this oroperty by means of the silicates of soda or of potash. The following table exhibits the com- position of several varieties of glass : Silic.i. Bohemian, 69 Crown, ..... G'5 ,Vindow,..G9 Bottle,.... 54 Flint, ..... 45 Crystal,... 61 Strass ..... 38 8 Soluble,... 62 26 Potash. Lime. Ox. Lead. Alumina. Water. 11 12 11 NaO 5 12 6 FeO 43 33 53 GLA GLA Some kinds of glass when slowly cooled in the much iron and magnesia besides. In addition to pots, separate into two portions, the one crystal- line, the other vitreous. According to the fol- lowing analysis by Dumas, the crystalline por- tion parts with some of its alkali to that which remains vitreous. NaO, .. CaO, .. A1 2 3 , Si0 3 ,.. Crystallized Portion. Vitreous Portion. 14-9 19-8 12- 12- 4-9 3-5 ,...62-2 = 100 64-7 = 100 Some kinds of glass when exposed for several liours to an intense heat, assume a condition re- sembling porcelain. This happens most readily in glass in which the quantity of alumina is great. Glass so changed has been named Reaumur's por- celain, while the change itself has been named devitrification. The specific gravity of glass varies between 2-5 and 3-6. 1 1. Bottle Glass, or Green Glass, is formed in this country generally by using the insoluble portions of kelp, which consist principally of carbonate of lime; 3 parts of this matter, soaper's waste as it is termed, are mixed with 9 of river sand, and heated to redness in a reverberatory fur- nace for a day. The mixture is then deposited in clay pots which are fixed in the fusing furnace, and ignited for half-a-day, or eighteen hours. By this heat, it is converted into a fused mass of green glass, which is then blown into bottles by means of a long iron tube, or in moulds accord- ing to fancy or desire ; of this kind of glass wine bottles and carboys are made. It contains no lead, and therefore stands a very high degree of heat. A frequent mixture for bottle glass in this country, is 80 parts of spent soaper's ash, 48 kelp, 20 of potash, 50 clay, 50 broken glass. Champagne bottles are formed of 100 felspar, 10 lime, 7 1 common salt, G2i iron slag. Common French bottle glass consists of 20 parts barilla, S5 spent ash, 20 kelp, 50 clay, 5 broken glass. Glass requires to be annealed, otherwise it is apt to fly to pieces on the sudden application of heat. Annealing consists in exposing the glass to a long continued regulated heat in an oven or heated chamber. The following description of a visit to Mr. Mac- adam's Bottle Glass Work, in Glasgow, is by my pupil, Mr. Andrew Buchanan : " The manufac- ture of bottle glass differs chiefly from theflint glass manufacture in the crude materials which are em- ployed, and the less careful precautions which have to be taken against whatever can interfere with the transparency or fineness of the products. The following are the chief particulars which deserve notice respecting it : 1. To supply the silica common river sand is used, which often contains a large admixture of iron and other impurities ; but here, as colour is of little moment, it is judged sufficiently pure. 2. Quicklime, prepared from mag- nesian limestone, is the principal base employed; but as this is not specially purified, it contains these, kelp waste, or kelp after being exhausted of soluble alkaline salts, but which still contains some alkaline matter, is introduced among the materials. Soda ball is sometimes here used with advantage, but is rather expensive for ordinary bottles. These ingredients are mixed in definite proportions, and are then ready for the furnace. 3. That the materials may fuse with greater readiness they are calcined in a furnace apart before being introduced into the crucibles, to re- move water, carbonic acid, and organic impuri- ties. There is a large conical chimney in which these crucibles, four in number, are inserted at regular intervals, being heated by a central fire; and the furnaces alluded to are likewise worked by the help of the same fire, with which they are con- nected by apertures entering the large chimney from behind. After being thoroughly dried in these, the materials are removed by a long iron shovel to the crucibles. 4. The crucibles themselves are not covered, but are simply large round pots of earthenware. Common fire-clay enters most largely into their composition; though it has been found expedient to mix this with a quan- tity of plastic or pipeclay. The clays, being- intimately mixed together, are placed in lumps upon the floor and trodden down with the naked foot to expel all the bubbles of air, as well as to detect any hard substance, such as gravel, the presence of a very small particle of which would cause the crucibles to crack. For further security it is next worked with the hands, and rolled into oblong cakes about half a foot in length. One of the workmen taking these now builds up the crucibles with his hands ; and these, upon being completed, are transferred to an apartment above the glass furnace house, and preserved at a tem- perature of about 90 Fahr. But before use they must be heated in a separate furnace by them- selves, from which they are conveyed with great care, and at a high temperature, to then' places. As the crucibles require to be renewed fre- quently, there are new ones constantly making, and a store kept in readiness ; they are, more- over, very apt to give way, (which they in- variably do when the glass is in a state of fusion and the heat consequently greatest,) but some- times admit of being patched up so as to serve out their time. The constant wear of these cru- cibles makes them the most expensive articles in the glass work. 5. The raw materials being shovelled into the crucibles are now permitted to fuse ; the heat being first raised very high, till the glass acquires a watery consistence and the air bells rise, and then gradually reduced that it may become tougher. Upon being ready for working, the heat is maintained as steadily as possible. G. Bottles are made in the following manner : A hollow rod or punty is introduced into the melted mass, and the glass wound up like wax upon its extremity. AVhen a sufficient quantity is upon it, the rod is removed by the 261 GLA workman, and carried to a horizontal bar of iron, or any other convenient erection, across which the middle of the punty is laid, and rolled along it from end to end. Some superfluous glass gen- erally drops off here in long threads upon the ground ; and the rod during the operation is a little inclined that the red hot mass may sink towards or rather a little below the ends of it. After this the workman rolls the glass backwards and forwards on a smooth stone, occasionally thrusting it beyond the farther edge, and pulling the rod gently towards him. He is thus able to elongate the mass, or diminish its circumference at pleasure ; and the operation is continued until a bottle's length of glass remains below the ex- tremity of the punty, and this of such circum- ference that, when inserted in a mould the size of an ordinary bottle and inflated, the sides shall have a proper thickness. Moulds are made of iron, in two pieces, like a bottle cleft down the middle; and these pieces are so constructed as to open or separate when a spring is touched by the foot. The glass at the one extremity of the punty is dipped into the mould and the spring let go, which had been previously touched to let it in ; while at the same time the workman blows through the other end and so forms a bottle. But inasmuch as the bottoms of these moulds are plane, and it is customary to make the base of the bottle convex, it is afterwards set in a small mould, likewise worked by the foot, where the requisite impression is made. The neck of the bottle is next cut to a right length, and the rim properly rounded with forceps. Finally, it is placed in a separate furnace to be annealed. These furnaces may be heated at first to within a little of the melting point of glass ; and after being filled, when at this temperature, with bottles, the fire is allowed to subside of its own accord. 7. Carboys for acids, as well as bottles, are sometimes made at this kind of manufactory. The process of moulding them is very similar ; but, as it would be tiresome and injurious to inflate such large vessels with the lungs, a mouth- ful of water is taken by the workman and in- jected into the interior, while he at the same time places his finger on the extremity where he in- troduced it." 2. Croion, Sheet, or Window Glass. The mix- ture for this glass in this country is often one part of fine Lynn or Isle of Wight sand and two parts of kelp or soda is generally substituted. Per- fectly white glass is also made from 50 Ibs. sand, 26| potash, 1\ chalk, black oxide of man- ganese 4 oz., broken glass 62 parts. These substances are intimately mixed and placed in a reverberatory furnace. The mixture is well stirred, and in four hours, the heat being gradu- ally increased, it is fused into what is termed a frit. The frit is then introduced into clay pots placed in the melting furnace. In about ten hours the frit has melted down, and a fresh charge is placed over the fused mass, and the heat con- GLA tinned. In the course of a few more hours broken ! glass is added to the pot, and in forty hours the glass is ready for working. English window glass consists of silica 69*, soda ll'l, lime 12*5, alumina 7-4. German Sheet Glass is made of the same ma-* terials, the name depending on the mode of blow- ing ; a cylinder is formed, which is split and flat- tened out in a furnace. Crown glass is made by the centrifugal process. Sheet glass has been much more extensively employed since the removal of the duty. The same composition is used for water and gas pipes, which are connected by tin coupling- screws. There is an inferior kind of window glass, termed broad or spread glass, made by fluxing soaper's waste, kelp, and sand, but it is less fre- quently sued than formerly. 3. tUnt, or Common Table Glass, is so termed, because it was originally made with flint. It is often made by mixing 1 part of pearl-ash, 2 parts of red lead, and 3 of sand. Sometimes a portion of saltpetre is added, together with manganeses and arsenious acid, for the purpose of oxidizing carbonaceous matter which may be present in the metal. The pearl-ash is previously purified by dissolving it in water, allowing it to stand at rest, drawing off the liquor and evaporating. The other materials are then mixed with it, and the whole introduced into the crucibles or cla}T pots. After the first portions are melted, addi- tional quantities are added, so as^to keep the pots full. The heat is continued from thirty to forty-eight hours, broken glass being added as the matter in the pot subsides. The mixture is known to be completely formed when the silica has disappeared and no air bubbles are dis- tinguishable. This is determined by taking out portions of the metal, as it is termed, at various intervals, and blowing it at the end of a tube to ascertain whether it has fused into a perfect glass. The composition of flint glass is, silica 44-30, potash 11-75, lead oxide, 43-05. Tumblers, wine glasses, decanters, and all our crystal glasses in this country, are made of flint glass. It is very fusible in consequence of the lead which it con- tains, and can be more readily freed from air bubbles and other imperfections than the harder kinds of glass. The following account of a visit to Mr. Cochrane's Flint Glass Work, in Glas- gow, is by my pupil and assistant, Mr. Robert Kirkwood: " Onlv one kind of glass is made at these works, viz. flint glass. The silica is obtained from fine sand brought from Alum Bay, Isle of Wight. In order to free it from the salts, chalk, and carbonaceous matter present in it, it is first washed repeatedly in large wooden troughs, then dried, and calcined in a reverbera- tory furnace. When properly calcined it is a very pure and almost white sand. When the sand has been thus properly prepared, it is mixed either with soda ash, or with pearl-ash, or with both, according to the nature of the glass desired, and also with some oxide of lead ; definite pro- 262 GLA portions of all the ingredients being employed. I In order that the glass may be of fine colour and transparent, it is necessary that some oxidizing agent should be added ; binoxide of manganese is usually employed for this purpose. The man- ganese serves to oxidize the carbon contained in soda, or pearl-ash, and which would otherwise have rendered the glass brown. It also serves to peroxidize the iron contained in the sand. The iron exists in the sand as a protoxide, in which state it would give the glass a dark green colour, but by means of the. binoxide of man- ganese it is converted into sesquioxide of iron, in which state it communicates a faint yellow tint. It is necessary, however, to exercise caution in adding the manganese ; for if too much be em- ployed, so that the carbon and protoxide of iron cannot reduce it all to the state of protoxide, in which condition it dissolves without imparting any colour to the glass, a portion of it is taken up, and stains the glass of a purplish or reddish colour. These ingredients may be called the raw materials ; it is a common practice to mix along with these one-third or one -fourth part their weight of broken or refuse glass. The building we next entered was the glass-house; it is built somewhat in the form of a cone. The glass pots arranged round the furnace occupied the centre ; on one side there was a low brick building for annealing the glass ; on the other side a furnace and a single pot for making ves- sels of large size. The furnace in the centre had an arched or dome-shaped roof; and the pots, of which there were eight or nine, were arranged in a circular form round the fire, which occupied the centre. " The crucibles or pots are built of Stourbridge clay, and require to be formed with great care. The clay is made into rolls, which are applied in successive layers, and firmly kneaded together. The crucibles, after being finished, are allowed to remain for many months, for the purpose of being dried, in a warm apartment. They are then fired in a peculiar furnace, which is situated as near as convenient to the glass-house furnace, to which when they are transferred at a red heat, all communication with the external air must be carefully avoided, since the effect of cold air would be to fracture them. When fixed in their places, glass dust is thrown in, and this, fusing over the soft material, glazes the internal surface. Some of these pots crack almost im- mediately, while others last for more than a year. "When they do give way, it is generally when cooling; and the experience of the workmen who go round for this purpose at stated inter- vals and examine them minutely, detects al- most immediately any injury they may have sustained. In each pot there was a semicircular opening, called the mouth, or working hole, by which the materials are introduced, and the soft or ductile glass is taken out. The mixed ingre- dients formerly mentioned are heated so as to cause GLA the expulsion of the carbonic acid and water, and thus diminish the subsequent swelling up or froth- ing in the pot. This is called fritting, and the pro- duct is named a fret or frit. In this state it is shovelled into the pot and fused, more being added, when the preceding portion has subsided by melt- ing, and this is repeated until the pot is filled. The impurities and ' sandiver' rise to the sur- face, and are removed by skimming. About forty-eight hours are required for the complete vitri- fication of the mass. It has then become glass, and is in a state fit for working or forming into ves- sels. This is seemingly an easy matter, but great skill and dexterity are necessary in order to ob- tain proficiency in the art, and it would be vain to attempt fully to describe all the manipulations that are required to form a vessel. It may be as well to notice here the glass-blower's instruments. These are few and exceedingly simple. First there is an iron tube of about from 5 to 5^ feet in length. This is called the blow iron, or blowing-tube. There is also a solid rod of iron of about the same size or length; it is called the pun to or punty rod. Again, there are one or two pairs of forceps of different sizes ; a ruler or scale to indicate the proper sizes ; and lastly, a pair of scissors. Having noticed the instruments employed by the workman, I will endeavour to describe the mode of making a tumbler, this being one of the vessels made dur- ing our visit. The operatives wrought in parties of three ; one dipped the end of the blowing- tube, previously heated at an opening in the furnace, into the melted mass or metal; and having gathered upon the end of it sufficient metal to make the vessel intended, he took it out, and by blowing through the tube and swinging it once or twice in the ah-, he caused it to expand, and to assume a form resembling somewhat that of a pear. He then rolled it on the marver, a smooth iron plate or table, occasionally blowing into it, until he thought it had become of suffi- cient size ; he then sat down upon his chair or stool, and laying the rod over his thigh, he communicated a rotatory motion to it with his hand. A little boy then approached, and held the flattened part of a pair of forceps to the bot- tom of the vessel, while the workman continued the rolling motion. When the bottom was pro- perly formed and flattened, the workman, still continuing the rotatory motion, began with a pair of pincers to smooth and taper slightly the sides of the vessel. It had now assumed something of the form of a bottle, when the workman, having smoothed the sides of the vessel, went with it to a small wooden table where he touched its neck with a piece of cold iron, by this means breaking off the neck and thus detaching his tube. Another man having a punty rod with some hot metal on the end of it, applied it to the bottom of the vessel and thus lifted it, and placed it in the working hole of the pot. When suffi- ciently heated, he lifted it out, and by swinging it once or twice in the air caused it to open out. 263 GLA He next cut it round with a pair of scissors, and again introduced it into the furnace, and when sufficiently heated brought it out, swinging it as before. He then communicated a rotatory mo- tion to it by rolling the punty rod along his thigh, and with a piece of wood opened out and smoothed the inside of the tumbler. This done, he detached it from the punty rod by a bknv (the mark caused by the separation being named the punty mark). The little boy then appeared, and with a pair of wooden forceps lifted the tumbler and carried it away to the annealing furnace or oven. I observed that in making wine glasses the foot of the glass was blown as a separate bulb, and then attached to the body of the glass and rapidly opened out or flattened by means of a pair of forceps. Glass in this condition is very brittle ; change of temperature being often suffi- cient to cause it to crack and fly in pieces. To remedy this defect, the vessels are made to un- dergo what is called the annealing process, which consists in keeping them for several hours, or it may be days, at a temperature progressively lowered from the highest degree which the glass can bear without softening, to the temperature of the atmosphere. In some cases it is necessary, when the vessels are intended for particular pur- poses, to anneal them by boiling them in oil; they are thus enabled to bear a higher range of temperature. The peculiar properties of un an- nealed glass are well illustrated by those glass tears known as Prince Rupert's drops. These are formed by letting drops of melted glass fall into cold water ; they have a rounded head which tapers to a slender tail. If struck on the thick end they will sustain no injury, but if a small point of the tail be broken off, the whole mass will fly asunder with violence. The oven into which the glass vessels were put had some resemblance to a flue; the floor was elevated above the level of the floor of the glass-house. At one end of the oven there was a fire, from which the hot air and smoke were Avafted or sucked along through the oven, and escaped through a chimney near the opposite extremity. There was also an opening in the side of the oven, and through it the vessels to be annealed were introduced, and set upon large iron trays. The articles were placed on the tray next the fire, and as soon as that tray was filled it was removed farther from the fire, and another tray put in its place. These trays are hooked to each other in a series, and are gradually drawn from the fire towards the cold end by means of a windlass and chain. It is neither easy to under- stand this process of annealing, nor to explain it, unless we consider heat as a material substance. When the trays are taken out of the furnace they are all coated with soot. Our conductor next led us to the grinding shop. Here the grinding lathes were arranged in two rows along the whole length of the building. A shaft extended along the ceiling, and, from the pulleys of the GLA shaft, driving belts descended and passed round the driving pulleys near the end of each lathe. The turning lathe was of a very simple construc- tion, consisting of a spindle or axis, and a grind- ing stone, the motion of which was vertical. A' vessel containing water was suspended above the grinding stone, upon which it constantly trickled down. Below this again there was a trough which served the double purpose of receiving the water and containing the sand, or other polishing agent required by the grinder. A handful of wet sand was thrown upon the stone, and the vessel to be ground was held to it; when re- quired of a fine polish it was taken to a finer stone, and, in some instances, these grinding stones or discs seemed to be metallic. In some cases, instead of using a grinding stone, the article to be ground w r as attached to the spindle of the lathe, and motion communicated by throwing on the gearing. The workman having wet the glass, placed a handful of sand on it, and holding a brush made of iron Avire to it, speedily rendered its surface equal. We also saAV the mode of stoppering bottles ; it is very simple. A piece of wood of a conical shape is attached to a spindle, which is put in motion by means of a driving belt or gearing as in the other lathes. Upon the conical piece of wood a quantity of paste made of emery, &c. is put ; it is then introduced into the neck of the bottle to be ground, Avhich is held firmly in the hand of the operator. The stopper is next fastened to the spindle and set in motion. The operator holds in his hand a semicylindrical piece of tin, coated also with emery paste, and applies it to the revolving stopper. In a short time he lays the tin aside, substituting for it the bottle AA T hich he intends to stopper. The stopper is then placed in the neck of the bottle, the appara- tus set in motion, and thus they mutually grind each other. Passing from this part of the pre- mises, Ave next entered the show- rooms. Here Ave saw productions of numerous and A'aried shapes and colour, many of them possessing great beauty of form, as well as richness of colouring. We saAV some vessels Avhich were -opaque, and of a milk-white colour. Bone earth and arsenious acid are employed to form this very pretty glass. The glass produced is named enamel if it be free from any tinge of colour, but if it possesses a slightly reddish tint it is named opal. There were also some beautifully coloured transparent specimens. To produce a blood-red colour din- oxide of copper is used ; for a violet-red, binoxide of manganese ; for a ruby-red, purple of Cassius and oxide of tin ; for a blue, oxide of cobalt ; for a green, sesquioxide of chrome." Plate Glass is that which is employed for mir- rors and large panes of glass. The proportions used in the preparation of this glass are, 14 parts of Lynn or Alum Bay sand, 4| parts of anhydrous carbonate of soda, and tAvo parts of quicklime. A little nitre is also useful to remove carbonaceous matter. The mixture is introduced into the 2G4 GLA crucibles, and in ten hours melts ; the heat is still continued till the air bubbles are dissipated. The crucibles are kept filled by the addition of broken plate glass, or cullet, as it is technically called. The glass is then ready for being worked and rolled out on a table to the requisite size of plate, an operation requiring great dexterity. Plate glass consists of silica 75-9, soda 17-5, lime 3-8, alu- mina 2 - 8. The principal plate glass-houses in Great Britain at present are at South Shields, Sunderland; St. Helens, Lancashire; Smethwick, Birmingham; Blackwall, London and Ravenhead, near Prescot. From the difficulty of forming such large masses of glass, accidents being fre- quent, a great capital is required to establish such glass-houses. French mirror glass of St. Gobin is made from 1 lime, 7 carbonate of soda, 20 pure sand, 20 broken glass, and some manganese or nitre. Technical Terms used in Glass-making. Supplied by my friend and pupil Mr. Roderick A. Couper : Annealing, or tempering the glass, is the act of passing the goods through the leer slowly, so that they gradually cool as they are drawn from the one end to the other. Batch is the several ingredients of glass mixed well together, and in the state ready to be put into the pot for fusion. Blown Goods are hand-made goods, or such as are blown into by the workmen. Blow-irons are hollow iron rods about 5^ feet long, on the end of which the workmen gather the metal out of the pots. Cased Goods are formed by putting coloured metal on the top of flint glass, or any other colour. Cave, The, is a passage of 4 or 5 feet wide to give draught, and also to clean the grate-room or work the furnace ; in length it is generally car- ried 10 feet outside from the glass-house on both sides. Charging the Pots is filling them with the batch and cullet. Collars are of the same shape as stoppers, but with the centre cut out ; they are used also like stoppers for the mouth of the pots. Cullet is broken glass. Cut Goods. Glass cut on the sxirface to improve it, either in utility or as an ornament. Cutter's Frames are two uprights, well stayed, between which a spindle revolves with an iron, stone, or wooden wheel, as circumstances may require ; a trough lying directly under the spindle betwixt the uprights. Dragading or Dragaded Metal is the batch fused into a pot and then ladled out into water, for the purpose of being used over again, making in this way the finest metal or glass. Flint Glass is so called from flint being used in its manufacture in its earliest age, and still GLA keeps the name, although Lynn and Isle of Wight sand have been substituted for flint. Furnaces vary in size, containing from 6 to 12 pots, and are built within the cone, the material being either fire-clay blocks or freestone got in Newcastle-on-Tyne. A furnace consists of its pillars and crown ; an 8-pot furnace may have an inside diameter of from 11 to 12 feet, and height in centre of 4 feet, the crown resting on 8 pil- lars, and between these 8 pillars are 8 spaces like 8 low-arched doorways, in which the pots are placed ; at the back of each of these pillars are flues for the conveyance of smoke, and to cause a draught. Glass Cone is a chimney outside the furnace, height from 50 to 100 feet, for carrying away the smoke and keeping up a draught. Glass-House is where the glass is manufac- tured. Glassmaker's Chair is a long stool with two arms attached to it, for the purpose of rotating the blow-iron on it. Harbours are large chests with covers 6 or 7 feet long to hold the batch and cullet in, previous to being put into the pots. Hoppers are conical vessels hung from tho ceiling over the frame, and filled with sand and water to supply the cutter's wants. Leer, The, is along arched building from 30 to 40 feet long, 6 feet broad, and 28 inches high, with an opening at the end next the glass-house for putting in the goods, and also the pans upon Avhich the goods are placed. Close to this open- ing is the fireplace or fireplaces, while the chim- ney is at the other extremity, causing the heat thus to travel along the whole length of the long arched building. Marvers are iron plates planed on their sur- face for the glass-makers to roll their glass on. Metal is glass in a state of fusion. Mixing House is where the materials are kept and mixed up as batch to make glass. Obscuring is putting the glass on a revolving spindle, then holding a brush of iron wire to it, and feeding it with loamy clay, which breaks the surface of the glass, making it opaque or to ap- pearance frosted. Picking House is where the cullet or broken glass is picked, washed, and dried. Polishing is performed by rubbing the smoothed glass over a wooden revolving wheel, which is sup- plied with a mixture of ground pumice stone and rottenstone moistened together , this takes away all opaqueness, making the glass quite translucent. Pots are made generally of Stourbriclge fire- clay, closed at the top, with an opening called the mouth of the pot about 25 inches from the bot- tom, by which the pot is both filled and emptied; around the mouth is a projecting portion of clay, the top part of which is called the hood, and the under part the pat ; the mouth of the pot is 10 inches wide by 9 inches high, the pot itself being about 3 feet wide by 3^ feet high. GLA Pot Arch is a small kiln for firing one or more pots previous to their being set in the furnace. Pot Carriage is like an iron three-pronged fork, but of large dimensions, placed on two wheels. Pot Setting is the act of first taking the broken pot out of the furnace, with the aid of the pot carriage, then by the same means taking a pot out of the pot arch which has been for six or seven days gradually brought up to a red heat, and placing it in the arch of the furnace from which the broken pot was taken out, and building up with fire-brick as quickly as possible to protect it from the cold air. This is a remarkably warm opera- tion, and requires to be done very expedi- tiously. Pressed Goods are made by pressing glass into a mould by means of a machine. Proofs are little cy lindrical pieces of metal blown to judge of the colour of the glass. P unties are solid iron rods about 5 feet long, used to stick to the foot or bottom of any article so as to be able to turn it to finish the mouth or top of it, such as a wine glass, tumb- ler, c. Puntying is the cutting away the marks of the punty from the bottoms of glasses, &c. Putty is a powder made from tin and lead melted together in an open shallow pot; the oxides formed on the surface are skimmed off, be- ing the putty. Puttying is holding the polished glass to the wood wheel, supplying it with moistened putty, which gives the cutting a brilliancy or lustre. Roughing. A roughed glass is produced by hold- ing the glass over an iron mill or wheel that is kept revolving, over the edge of which runs a stream of sharp sand, which breaks the surface of the glass, and roughens it to the necessary style ; the cut parts become quite opaque. Sand Arch is a reverberatory furnace to cal- cine the sand in, previous to its being used in the mixture for glass. Shoes are little clay vessels of a semicircular form about a foot long and 4 inches wide, placed at the side of the pots in the furnace to put the blow-irons in, to keep the ends of them hot. Siege, The, is the floor on which the furnace stands ; it has an opening in the centre called the eye or grate-room, which communicates with the cave underneath; the coals lie in the grate- room and upon the siege. Skumming or Skimming. When the metal is a little rough or strong, the top is skimmed by gathering it on the end of a blow-iron. Smoothing is effected by holding the rough glass to the edge of a revolving stone, on which trickles a stream of water, the glass being still opaque. Stoppers are flat pieces of fire-clay to fit the mouth of the pot. Strockles are shovels with turned up edges, adapted to the filling of pots from the harbours. GLA Teaze-hok is the opening in the furnace through which the coals are put in to keep the heat up. Teazer is the fireman who attends the furnace and leer. Topping off" is when the pots have been twice charged, or received two fillings, and been allowed to settle down. A sample proof is taken out, so as to judge of the colour, and to alter it if required. It is then filled up the third time, which last filling generally brings the metal, when fused, to- a level with the pat of the mouth of the pot. Olaubcritc, Brogniartine. CaOSO 3 NaOS 3 = gypsum 49, glauber salt 51. Spec. grav. 2-807, 2-73, H 2-5 to 3. Yellowish or grayish- white flat rhomboidal prisms, of the oblique prismatic system, with angles of 83 20' ; 104 15'; 112 20'; 131 35'; 116 20'; lustre vitreous, brittle ; taste saline, astringent and weak ; fuses when heated with de- crepitation into a white enamel, which becomes white and opaque in water. From Ocagna, New Castile ; Aussee, Austria ; Tarapaca, Peru. Glauber's Salt, or sulphate of soda. Glancenc. C 4 N 3 H. A product from sulpho- cyanide of ammonium. Glauciiie. A crystalline alkaloid from the leaves of Glaucium luteum. Glaucodote. (CoFe)S 2 (CoFe)As. Spec, grav. 6, H 5*. Cobalt mispickel, one- third of the cobalt being replaced by iron. Glaucolite. Spec. grav. 2-72 to 2-9, H 5. Lavender-blue or green rhombic prisms of 143 30' ; fracture splintery ; lustre vitreous. SiO 3 54-58, A1 2 3 29-77, CaO 11-08, KO 4-57. From Menge, near Lake Baikal, Siberia. Glaucomclanic Acid. Obtained by the action of oxygen on bezoaric acid dissolved in, caustic alkali ; it forms bluish-black salts. Glaucoitite. (-yXciuzct, sea-green.) Green earth, chlorite baldagee, Talc chlorite zographique. Spec. grav. 2 598 2-632. Celadine green glo- bular masses ; structure earthy ; fracture small- grained, uneven ; dull, streak feebly glistening ; feels greasy ; adheres slightly to the tongue ; not acted on by chlorohydric acid, but by aqua regia. It is a common constituent of amygdaloid, and the green sand formation ; and is employed as the mountain green in water painting. Si0 3 57-8, FeO 7-5, Al,0 3 6-5, MgO 19-5, KO 4-, HO 4-7. Glaucophane. Spec. grav. 3-108, H 5-5. SiO 3 56-49, A1 2 O 3 12-23, FeO 10-91, MnO '5 r MgO 7-97, CaO 2-25, NaO 9-28. Light blue 6-sided prism, translucent, opaque, slightly at- tracted by the magnet. B.B. fuses easily into an obscure olive-green glass. From the island of Syra. 3(FeO, MnO, MgO, CaO, NaO) 2 Si0 3 , 2(A1 2 3 , 2 Si0 3 .) Glaiicopicriuc. White bitter plates from the roots of Glaucium luteum. Glaucosidcritc. See VIVIANITE. Glazes for pottery. See POTTERY. 266 GLA Glazing gunpowder. Giving the grains a smoothness by friction. Oliadiiic. A transparent and reddish mat- ter, separated by cold alcohol from gluten ; sol- uble in tartaric acid; reprecipitated by tannic acid. Globules of Blood. See BLOOD. Globuline. Crystallin. C 54-50, H 6-90, N 16-50, S 1-23, O 20-87 (Mulder). Characters. Globuline, a modification of albumen, forms the principal constituent of the blood globules, and of the crystalline lens. When dried at 120 it is a yellowish mass, which becomes a white powder when pounded. Without taste and smell ; soluble in water, from which it is precipitated insoluble in water ; soluble partly in boiling al- cohol, separating in flocks on cooling. Aqueous solution coagulated by ether; and by heat at 200. When a drop of acetic acid is added to a solution of globuline it becomes turbid, and if the acid be accurately saturated with ammonia, a flocky precipitate falls. Dilute acetic acid renders solution of globuline opaline; when heated to 120, a milky coagulum separates; the solution rendered turbid by a small quantity of acetic acid becomes clearer bv an additional quantity, but is always milky ; about 212 a coagulum separates. By excess of boiling acetic acid, globuline loses its capacity of coagulation ; coagulated by creasote ; more easily decomposed than other albuminous bodies. Even by boiling with water ammonia is disengaged; coagulated by mineral acids. Pre- paration. Soluble globuline is obtained from the crystalline lens of the eye by coagulating it by acetic acid under 120, evaporating todryness, and exhausting with ether and dilute alcohol. Coagu- lated globuline is obtained by precipitating its so- lution by boiling, and digesting in alcohol and ether (Mulder), or by precipitating by chlorohy- dric acid, washing with the same acid, dissolving in water, precipitating by carbonate of ammonia, and washing with water, alcohol, and ether (Leh- mann). It is distinguished from other albu- minous bodies by its tendency to precipitate, when its solution in water, rendered acid or alka- line, is neutralized. The globuline of the blood is precisely similar, but it has never been obtained quite pure. Glottayte. (Giotto, the Clyde). Sp. grav. 2-181, H 3-5. Regular 8-hedronsor 4-sided pyra- mids, the faces of which appear to be equilateral triangles ; lustre vitreous, strongly translucent, brittle. B.B. swells up and melts into a white enamel ; fuses into an opaque white bead with soda, into a translucent glass with borax. Si0 3 37-014, CaO 23-927, A1 2 O 3 16-308, Fe 2 3 -5, HO 21-25. Form. 3 CaO, 2 SiO 3 , Al 2 6 3 Si0 3 9 HO. In the hills above Port-Glasgow. Glucic Acid. C 12 H 8 O 8 3HO. Obtained by the action of alkalies and lime on sugar by boil- ing; soluble in water; not crystalline; forms neutral soluble salts with barytes, lime and lead. GLU Gliicina. Oxide of G/ucinum. Oxide of Beryllium. GO 3-25, 26 ; 3-222, 25-77 ; 1-5808, 12-6464; O = 63-25 ; G = 36-72 (Awjedew, L'Institut. 461). Spec. grav. 2-976 (Ekeberg, Ann. Chim. 43, 277). Soft light white powder, without taste or smell, neutral, adheres to the tongue; insoluble in water, but forms a paste with water, having some ductility; does not combine with oxygen and combustibles ; it unites with sulphohydric acid (Fourcroy, 2, 159) ; fusible before the oxyhydrogen blowpipe (Davy) ; soluble in the hydrous state in caustic potash and soda ; insoluble in caustic ammonia, soluble in carbonate of ammonia, which distinguishes it from alumina, and is five times more soluble in. that carbonate than yttria; forms sweet-tasted! salts with the acids. Process. The beryl, when reduced to a fine powder, is fused in a platinum crucible, with 3 times its weight of carbonate of soda or potash ; the fused mass digested in dilute chlorohydric acid, and the silica separated; in the usual manner ; the filtered liquor from the silica is precipitated by caustic ammonia. The precipitate, consisting of oxide of iron, alumina T and glucina, is digested in a strong solution of carbonate of ammonia, which takes up the glu- cina. The whole is then filtered, when the liquor is boiled, glucina separates ; or the solution may be saturated with chlorohydric acid, and precipi- tated with ammonia. The alumina may also be separated from the glucina by dissolving the mixed earths in a solution of sulphurous acid, and boiling the clear liquid till the excess of acid is removed, when the sulphite of alumina precipitates, and the sulphite of glucina remains in solution (Ber- thier, Ann. Chim. 50, 371). Hydrate of Glucina. GO HO, 2-7125, 21 -7 y or 3 GO 4 HO at 212. Gelatinous mass when freshly precipitated ; when dry, a white powder r resembling alumina. Glucinum. From *,>.vzu;, sweet. Beryl- lium. History. Vauquelin, in 1798, ana- lyzed the Beryl at the request of Hauy, to ascer- tain whether it contained the same ingredients as the emerald, a suspicion entertained by that mineralogist from crystallographic considera- tions. The result of the analysis confirmed that idea. A new earth was found in it, Avhich Vau- quelin called Glucina, from the sweet taste of its salts (Ann. Chim. 26, 155). Klaproth con- firmed this result (Beitrage, 3, 215). It occurs also in Euclase, Chrysoberyl, Helvine, Lpucophane, Phenakite, Gadolinite, and has been examined by Berzelius (Schweigg. Journ. 15, 296 ; Wohler, Pogg. Ann. 13, 577; Gmelin, ib. 50, 175; Schaflfgotsch, ib. 183; Steel and Thomson, Eec. of Gen. Science, 1 ; Awjedew, Pogg. Ann. 56, 101). Characters G 2-25, 18 (Thomson); 2-22, 17-7 (Berzelius); -5808, 4-6464 (Awjedew). Dark gray powder, black mass or gray scales, with the metallic lustre when burnished, difficult of fusion; does not absorb oxygen from the air at the usual temperature, but burns with splendour. 267 GLU "When heated in air or oxygen gas leaves glu- cina ; not altered by water, even when boiling ; soluble in strong hot sulphuric acid, with evolu- tion of sulphurous acid ; readily soluble in dilute sulphurous acid, and in chlorohydric acid, with evolution of hydrogen ; also in nitric acid, bin- oxide of nitrogen being liberated ; soluble in caustic potash, but not in ammonia. Process. 1. Obtained by passing the vapour of potassium over glucina, at a white heat, in a platinum tube ; a mixture appears of potash, glucina, and glucinum, which, when heated with ah-, is con- verted into glucina (Sir H. Davy). 2. By means of potassium or sodium from the chlo- ride of glucinum, as with aluminum (Wuhler, in 1828; Pogg. Ann. 13, 577; Bussy, Journ. Chim. Medic. 4, 455). Chloride. GCl 5-0125, 40-1, G 11-74, Cl = 88-26. Fine white silky needles or flakes, very volatile, deliquescent, fusing at a gentle heat into a brown fluid. Obtained by passing dry chlorine gas, in a glass or porcelain tube, over a mixture, at a red heat, of glucina and charcoal (H. Rose, Pogg. Ann. 9, 39); the chloride sublimes into the colder parts of the tube. It is also formed by heating glucinum in chlorine. From this salt glucinum is obtained. Hydrous Chloride. GCl, 4 HO, in crystals, is formed by dissolving glucina in dilute chlorohydric acid, and evaporating ; by ignition glucina is left. Glucose. See GEAPE SUGAR. Glue. Col/a. Glutine. (Leim, Ger. ; Colle, Fr.) C 82 H C7 N 13 032? C 49-3, H 6-9, N 18-3, and S 25-2. Glue or colla is obtained from hides, which are boiled in a copper or iron boiler with pure water, being previously, however, digested in lime water for three weeks to dissolve blood and soft parts The impurities are skimmed off as they rise, and when the whole is dissolved, a little alum, or finely-pounded lime, is thrown in. It is then strained through baskets, and allowed to settle. The clear liquor is boiled again, and poured into wooden frames, where it concretes into a jelly. It is then cut by a spade into square cakes, which are again cut by a wire, as with soap, into thin slices. These are put into a kind of coarse network, and dried in the air. For convenience it is usual to have a reservoir with water at a higher level, communicating with the boiler by a tap, while a stop-cock at the bottom of the boiler allows the solution of glue to be drawn off into a boiler, at a still lower level, for the purpose of concentration. But it is obvious that, instead of the direct application of fire to the boilers, a pre- ferable plan is that often adopted of heating the materials by passing steam through the water covering the hides, and thus avoiding the risk of singing the animal matter by over heating. The quantity of glue obtained from hare and rab- l>it skins amounts to 54 per cent., parchment scraps 62, tanners' clippings and refuse 38 to 42, the epidermis of hides, used for manufacturing belts, 30, pieces of glove skins 45. Glue is also made GLU from pelts from furriers, the hoofs and ears of horses, oxen, calves, sheep. It mav also be pro- cured from bones, muscles, tendons, ligaments, membranes, &c. the best, however, being ob- tained from skins. It may be formed from bones by digesting them for a week in chlorohy- dric acid, diluted with 4 parts of water. The bone earth is dissolved, and may be used as a manure, or for the manufacture of phosphorus. The in- soluble cartilage is now boiled in water, by pass- ing steam through it, and when dissolved is cooled, c. as already described. The best glue is hard and brittle, with a dark brown colour, and an equal degree of transparency and chonchoi- dal fracture, without black spots. In cold water it swells up, and becomes gelatinous, but is not soluble except when weak. Its solution precipi- tates tannic acid, and forms leather. The mode of purifying glue, so as to make it pure colline, is given under that substance. It seems to unite with chlorine when that gas is passed through its so- lution. When boiled for six days with water, it no longer gelatinizes. When digested with sul- phuric acid, or boiled with caustic potash, it yields leucine and glycycoll. When 1 part glue is oxidized with 2 bichromate of potash, 3 oil of vitriol, and 30 water, there are formed benzoic, formic, acetic, butyric, and valerianic acids, prus- sic acid, oil of bitter almonds, and valeronitrile. Oxidized with 3 binoxide of manganese, 4- oil of vitriol, and 30 water, it gives aldehyde, buty- ric, benzoic, formic, acetic, metacetonic, valerianic, and capric (?) acids. Glue is extensively used for its adhesive quality. It is not adapted as nutri- tious food, but may answer for the purposes of respiration. Crlaae, Marine. A solution of caoutchouc in naphtha, or tar oil, with the addition of shellac. Gluten. (Richer, Ger.) The term applied to the adhesive matter which remains when the flour of wheat is washed on a cloth. It consists of fibrine, caseine, glutine and oil, which may be separated by boiling with alcohol. In cooling, caseine separates in flocks, while glutine and oil are obtained by evaporation. The matter in- soluble in alcohol is vegetable fibrine, identical in composition with animal fibrine or muscle. It is to the presence of gluten that the superior quality of wheat bread is due, from its power of detaining carbonic acid when fermented, and forming a spongy, porous, light article of food. When flour is injured with moisture, the gluten becomes soluble in water. Many salts appear to render gluten again insoluble, by forming with it a chemical combination; and the bakers of Belgium discovered how to bake with damaged flour by adding sulphate of copper (a poison) to the dough. Alum has a similar effect (Liebig). It is probable, however, that alum is principally used for the purpose of bleaching the flour. Glutiuc. C 53-27, H 7-17, N 15-94, 23-62. Obtained by evaporating the alcoholic decoc- 268 GLY tion from gluten. It has the same composition as albuminous bodies. Olyccric Acid. A synonyme of metacetic acid. Glyceridcs. Fats yielding glycerine by saponification. Glycerine. Street principle of oik. Lipyle oxide and water. C C H 8 O G =: C fi H 7 O 5 HO. Hy- drate, of oxide of Glyceryle. Spec. grav. 1-28. A colourless, transparent, sweet, odourless, thick syrup, capable of being heated to 302 without decomposition, and without losing its combined water ; at a higher temperature part of the gly- cerine distils over, but a portion is decomposed into acroleine ; soluble in water and alcohol in all proportions ; insoluble in ether ; is capable of being kept without change, but its colour becomes dark, which may be removed by digestion with oxide of lead. It unites with bases as sugar does ; it dissolves oxide of copper with a green colour ; with lime, barytes, and strontian, compounds are fonned, which are not decomposed by carbonic acid. By yeast it becomes acid by the forma- tion of formic and metacetic acids ; chlorine and bromine unite with it ; iodine does not act on it. It unites with phosphoric acid and forms phos- phoglyceric acid, which exists ready fonned in the yolk of egg. It unites with benzoic, sebacic, camphoric, and chlorohydric acids, forming ben- zoycine, an oil, sebine, crystalline, camphorine, thick fluid like turpentine, and cJdoroliydrine, a neutral oil. B.P. 448|. With acetic acid it forms acetine, an ethereal fluid (CioHs^s)^ an( ^ ace ~ tidine. Glycerine is obtained in the purest state by heating 2 litharge, 3 fat or oil, and 1 water with steam ; lead plaster is formed, and the glycerine separated ; water is added, which dissolves the glycerine. Sulphohydric acid is passed through the solution to remove any lead which may be present. It is then filtered and evaporated in the water bath. Glycerine, as a commercial article, is a product in the manu- facture of stearic acid candles. The theory of its separation from fats is explained by some by supposing that, at the moment of its separation, 2 atoms of oxide of lipyle (C 3 H 2 0) unite with 4 atoms water to form glycerine = Cg II j- 0^ HO. CjJlyccrylc. C G H 7 . The hypothetic radical of glycerine. Qlycocoll. Glycycoil, Glycocine, Glue sugar. C 4 H 4 NO 3 HO. Colourless, sweet, rhomboidal prisms, fusing at 352 ; soluble in 4-3 cold water; neutral reaction ; insoluble in ether and absolute alcohol ; heated with caustic potash it yields am- monia. It unites with acids, and forms crystal- lized salts. It has been supposed to be a com- pound of urea and \ atom glucose = 2 glycocoll, or 1 atom cane sugar and 4 ammonia = 4 gly- cocoll. The presence of sugar in it is inferred from its action on polarized light. It is obtained by pouring on 1 part glue, 2 parts oil of vitriol, and in twenty-four hours adding 8 parts water, boiling for five hours, neutralizing with chalk, GOL filtering and evaporating, treating the residue with alcohol and evaporating. Glycocoll and leucine crystallize. By solution and treatment with animal charcoal it may be obtained colour- less (Braconnot, 1819). It may be also formed by boiling glue with caustic potash as long as am- monia is evolved, neutralizing by sulphuric acid, and treating with alcohol (Mulder). Another method is to treat 3 to 4 ounces hippuric acid with 12 to 16 ounces strong chlorohydric acid with heat till it is dissolved; in half-an-hcur water is added, when benzoic acid separates in oily drops, hippuric acid, consisting of benzoie acid and glycocoll; while the glycocoll unites with the chlorohydric acid. The liquid is filtered and boiled to dissipate benzoic and chlorohydric- acids ; ammonia being added, a white precipitate- of glycocoll in small crystals falls, which are filtered and washed with absolute alcohol till the filtered liquor gives no precipitate with nitrate of silver. It is isomeric with aconitate of ammonia. It appears to be the amide of glycolic acid. Glycolic Acid. C 4 H 3 O 5 HO. A syrup, like lactic acid, decomposed by heat; it is a homo- logue of lactic acid (C 6 H 6 O C ) differing by C 2 H 2 in the latter ; it is also a hornologue of leucic acid (C 12 H 12 6 ). It is obtained by boiling benzo- glycolic acid with acids, when it is resolved into> benzoic acid and glycolic acid. CrlycyrrfaiziHc. Glycione, Liquorice Sugar* C 16 H 12 O 6 or C 36 H 24 Oi4. Brown translucent mass, yielding a brownish-yellow powder ; taste sweet and bitter; soluble in boiling water and alcohol, with acid reaction ; rendered more soluble by alkalies ; insoluble in ether ; not fermentable. It is obtained by precipitating a hot decoction of Glycyrrhiza fjlabra and echinata with basic ace- tate of lead, washing the precipitate and decom- posing with sulphohydric acid, filtering, evapor- ating, and purifying by absolute alcohol (Vogel). It may also be separated from the cold aqueous infusion by adding dilute sulphuric acid as long; as a precipitate falls. The pitchy mass is kneaded with acid, and then with pure water freed from acid. It is then evaporated and dissolved in, absolute alcohol. Nitric acid produces no nitropi- cric acid, but a yellow powder, insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, which is bitter and unites with bases. Qmeli nile. See HYDROLITE. Ci-nciss. A metavnorphic rock. See GEO- LOGY. Goethite. LepidocroTdte. Brownish -red rhomboidal or rectangular prisms of sesquioxide of iron from Hollerterzug, Westerwakl. ttokumitc. A variety of Idocrase from Gokum. M. Au (Aurum). (Sol, Lat. ; Or, Fr.) 12-25 r 98- or 24-5875, 196-7. Spec. grav. 19-2 (fused), 19-3 to 19-4 (hammered) ; F.P. 1298 (Dijon, A.}, 2590 (Davies), 2517 (G.Morveau), 2589 8 (Darnell), 2192 (Pouillet). Rather softer than silver. It is exceedingly ductile, and may be 269 GOL beaten out so thin that 1 grain will cover 56 f square inches, the loaves being ^-^^^ of an inch in thickness, and a grain may be draAvn out into a wire 500 feet long ; an ounce of gold or silver wire will extend 1,300 miles. Crystal. Native gold occurs in the form of the regular system in cubes. Its colour is orange-red or reddish- yellow ; it has no taste nor smell ; its lustre is considerable, yielding only to that of platinum, steel, silver, and mercury ; its tenacity is less than iron, copper, platinum and silver; a gold wire of 078 inch diameter supports a weight of 150*07 without breaking (Sickingen). When melted it assumes a bright bluish-green colour ; it expands In the act of fusion and contracts in solidifying, hence it is less proper for casting in moulds than ther metals. It requires a very high tempera- ture to volatilize it (Claveus, Kunkel, Parker). It has been seen, however, to volatilize (Hom- foerg, Macquer, Lavoisier). After fusion it crystallizes. It is not altered by exposure to the air. Sources, $c. Gold is found in a native state united with silver and copper. It sometimes occurs 011 the surface of rocks in a dendritic form, as if deposited by electrical action ; more gene- rally it is obtained in the form of gold dust among the sand of rivers, and latterly it has been procured in large quantities in the alluvial quartz derived from primary rocks, principally granite, which has been broken up and disintegrated. It is found metallic and in sulphides. The density affords some evidence of the value of the native gold. I found the density of a mass of Califor- nian gold, weighing 2572-13 grains, shown to me by Dr. Stewart of Glasgow, to be 15-808. According to a mean of analyses, Californian gold contains about 88 1 per cent, of gold. I found the density of gold brought from the rivers of Khoten and Cashgar, and given me by Dr. Thos. Thomson, Bengal army, and now in my museum, to be 17-224. It consisted of 89-3 gold, 7-3 silver, 3-4 copper. African gold with a density of 14*457, consisted of gold 78-, copper 11-8, silver 9*48 (Dr. T. Thomson). Native gold occurs in Europe in Transylvania, Hungary, the Rhine, Spain, Portugal, Wicklow, Cumberland, Leadhills, Glenturrit, Glencoich. Asia. Eastern fcide of Ural to Ekatherinenberg in Tomsk and Yeneseisk, Cashgar, Australia, &c. Africa. Be- tween Darfur and Abyssinia, from the Niger, Gam- bia, and Senegal. America. Brazil, in Minas Ge- raes, Mexico, Virginia, South Carolina, California. Alloys. Gold in an alloyed state is said to be of the value of so many carats. Pure gold is 24 carats, which is the unit in this mode of estima- tion. Each carat is divided into twelfths. Stan- dard gold is 22 carat gold, or in every 24 parts 22 GOL are gold and 2 alloy, or in every pound Troy there are 22 carats or i fine gold and 2 carats or jL alloy. A sovereign weighs 123*274 grains, and contains 10-273 grains of alloy. See MONEY. Gold amalgam is a combination of gold and mer- cury for gilding metals. Green gold, used in j ewel- lery, is an alloy of 30 silver and 70 gold. Jewellers' standard gold is 18 carat gold, or contains 75 per cent, gold, that is, three-fourths of its weight. When less rich in gold the Goldsmiths' Hall stamp is not attached to it. Gold containing much copper is liable to tamish, which, however, may be removed by immersion in ammonia and friction. Preparation. Native gold being found mixed with many foreign substances, it is neces- sary to remove much extraneous matter from it by washing. When the gangue is only sand, the gold particles being heavier fall to the bot- tom while the sands are mixed with the water, and by frequent washing the sand is run all off. For this purpose inverted conical pans of iron or zinc are used, or inclined tables traversed by grooves, or the auriferous sands are placed in iron boxes per- forated with holes, upon which water is run. The fine particles pass through the apertures and fall upon inclined tables, where the gold, by means of a broom, is detained while the sand is washed away. It is probable that some of the adaptations of the mechanical preparation of lead ores might be rendered available in gold sand washing, such as the use of the revolving endless cloths instead of the brooms in the stage now de- tailed. Much of the gold washing is performed in California and Australia by means of cradles, so called from the rocking motion which is given to them, their bottoms being rounded like their prototypes. A grating at the upper end of the cradle receives the gold and matrix. Over them are poured water, which carries the particles of gold and sand through the grating, the larger portions being detained, and deposits the gold immediately underneath ; but the sand is washed off, and passes with tHe water out by an aperture at the lower end of the cradle, whose bottom is inclined for this purpose. When pure particles of gold are mixed with oxides of iron and com- minuted particles of earth, it is usual at some works to amalgamate the gold with mercury in revolving barrels, and to distil off the mercury and condense it in water. When the gold is mixed with arsenical pyrites, as at Eeichenstein, an other process is adopted. These ores contain 200 grains of gold in the ton. The ore is roasted in a reverberatory furnace, surmounted by a large condensing chamber, in which the arsenious acid is condensed, leaving in the furnace oxide of iron, some arsenic, and the whole of the gold. A cur- rent of chlorine is now passed over this residue in an appropriate apparatus, by which the gold and iron are dissolved. Water and chlorohydric acid are added, and the gold separated by sulphohy- dric acid gas. The sulpliide of gold is then roasted 270 GOL in a porcelain crucible, and reduced in the usual way. Parting. All native gold contains silver, and usually copper. To remove these the opera- tion of parting is required. This process may be performed with nitric acid, which dissolves the silver and copper, and leaves the gold. But as nitric acid is expensive on the large scale, sul- phuric acid is now usually substituted. It has been long used in India to separate the gold and silver of the Sycee silver of China ; the occur- rence of gold in the Chinese metal having been first discovered by Dr. Andrew Steel about 1826 In parting, the alloy must not contain more than 20 per cent, of gold nor 10 per cent, of copper. The best proportions for facility in parting are 72-5 per cent, silver, 20 gold, 7-5 copper. If more gold is present, it may escape being acted on ; and if more copper exists in the alloy, much an- hydrous sulphate of copper surrounds the metal, and shields it from the action of the acid. The alloy being fused and granulated in water, is placed in a porcelain or cast iron boiler, and covered with 2 to 3 times its weight of sulphuric acid of spec. grav. 1-848. The boiler is covered "with a head, which conducts into a draught, to remove the sulphurous acid formed. Heat is ap- plied by a direct fire for from four to eight or twelve hours, till the solution is completed. The acid liquor is cooled, and drawn off into lead vessels, and the gold boiled with some fresh acid. But considerable variation occurs in this stage of the process ; sometimes weaker fresh acid being added before the first acid solution is poured off. The gold is well washed, removed, and ignited in a black lead crucible. From the solution the silver is reduced by the insertion of copper bars in it. Assay of Gold. The ore, especially when much gangue is present, is mixed with a flux consisting of borax, alkaline carbonate, common salt, charcoal, and litharge, and fused in a clay crucible. The reduced metals are then cupelled as with lead, when a button of gold and silver alloy alone remains, the litharge and copper having been oxidized. The alloy, which must contain 3 parts silver to 1 gold, is then boiled with nitric acid, diluted with thrice its weight of water. The residual gold is then ignited and weighed. Gold is reduced from its solutions by protosul- phate of iron, with the addition of a few drops oi chlorohydric acid. Another method is to mix so- lutions of protochloride of tin and sesquichloride oi iron until a pale green is formed, and then adt the mixture to a solution of chloride of gold freed from nitric acid. Dinoxide, suboxide. Au 2 25-5, 204. Green powder obtained by precipitating the dichloride (Au 2 Cl) by caustic soda. Sesquioxide, Auric acid. Au 2 3 27'5, 220 Brownish powder, easily decomposed by light does not combine with acids, but forms feebl< compounds with bases. It is formed by adding GOL slight excess of caustic magnesia to a solution )f gold in nitro- chlorohydric acid; the oxide recipitates in union with magnesia ; wash the precipitate ; digest in nitric acid, which removes ;he magnesia, and leaves the oxide in the state >f a hydrate, which parts with its water at 212. When heated with chlorohydric acid, sesquichlo- ride is formed ; an oxide is formed by passing a spark of electricity through gold leaf placed be- ;ween two plates of glass ; the gold burns, and eaves the trace of the spark; gold burns also when exposed to the action of the battery : the oxide forms fulminating gold when digested with ammonia. Gold has less affinity for oxygen than any other metal. Hence its value in retaining ts colour without tarnishing. Purple ofCassius. Goldpurple. AuOSn 2 3 ? A fine purple powder, a compound of oxide of gold and sesquioxide of tin, formed by adding to a solu- tion of chloride of gold a solution of protochloride of tin. It is used as a pigment for glass and porce- lain, and may be prepared by dissolving one part of grain tin in 9 of nitric acid, diluted with 2 of water ; 3 parts of common salt are added, as the addition of salts promotes the separation, and then 80 parts of water. The chloride of gold is then mixed with it in drops. See PURPLES. Sesquichloride. Au 2 Cl 3 37-8, 302-4. Pale yellow needles, formed by igniting gold leaf in chlorine gas, or by dissolving gold in aqu a regia (a mixture of 1 N0 5 and 3 H Cl), evaporating away the excess of acid, and dissolving in water ; the crystals are deliquescent, and form a yellow solu- tion. Gold is precipitated in the metallic state from this solution by phosphorus, sulphate of iron, iron, zinc, copper, &c. oxalic acid, and the vegetable acids, and salts of the alkalies. Pure gold is often obtained by adding protosulphate of iron to this salt, and washing with dilute chlo- rohydric acid and water. This salt is used in the electrotype for gilding, as a caustic in sur- gery, as an application to cancerous surfaces, and also as an internal remedy in syphilis. Fulminat- ing gold. -2 NH 3 Au 2 3 , orNH 3 Au 2 N, 3 HO. Yellow-brown powder, formed by precipitating sesquichloride by NH 3 . Dichloride. Au 2 Cl. Yellow mass, insoluble in water, obtained by heating the sesquiddoride up to the melting point of tin. Converted by water into gold and ses- quichloride. Sesquisulphide. Au 2 S 3 30-5, 244-. Formedby precipitating the sesquichloride by SH. It is a yellow powder, much employed in painting on pottery. It is made for commercial purposes, by fusing in a crucible 3 parts of potash, 9 sulphur, and 1 gold ; pouring out the melted mass and digesting in water with access of air. Acetic acid is then poured on to divide it finely. Diniodide. Au 2 I. Yellow powder by adding iodide of potassium to sesquichloride of gold in solution. Sesquiiodide. Au 2 I 3 . Dark green, formed by reversing the preceding process, and adding sesquichloride of gold to iodide of potas- 271 GOL slum. Sesquicyanide. AuoCysGHO. Fine tables, soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, obtained by decomposing the potassium cyanide of gold (KCy Au 2 Cy 3 , 1 HO) by nitrate of silver. The latter salt is formed by adding 46 cyanide of potassium to 35 gold converted into neutral sesquichloride. By evaporation fine colourless crystals are ob- tained, which become milky in the air from loss of water. &oMbeatcr's Skin. This substance is the peritonaea! or serous membrane separated from the intestinal tube of the ox, and other ani- mals, rendered thinner by hammering, and pre- pared to resist putrefaction. Goniometer (angle measurer). For a de- scription of the common and reflective goniometers, see CRYSTALLOGRAPHY. The goniometer of Babinet is sometimes used in France. To mea- sure an angle with it, stick the crystal, a cube, for example, as shown in the figure with wax on the cen- tre piece, turn -the moveable telescope b till its wires become oblique to those of the fixed telescope , for example, at 45 ; place the cross piece c at 180, and the moveable telescope on the opposite side of the circle ; move the support of GRA the crystal so as to allow the crystal to reflect the wires into the moveable telescope, and to throw the point of crossing of the wires in this manner upon the vertical wire of the fixed teles- cope ; turn then the cross piece c until the other face of the crystal produces the same coincidence of the point of crossing with the vertical wire of a ; the angle is then read off. C^oulard'g Lotion and ExSract. See LEAD. GioMty Concretions, or Calculi, Chalk Stones. Urate of Soda (Wollaston, 1797). These are found in the joints of persons of a gouty disposition. They are insoluble in cold, but somewhat soluble in boiling water ; soluble in caustic potash with heat. The uric acid may be separated by nitric or sulphuric acid. The deposition of these calculi augurs want of oxida- tion in the system, carbonic oxide, the basis of uric acid, instead of the higher oxidation car- bonic acid, being formed. Grain Oil, Potato Oil, Fusel Oil The oil which comes over in the distillation of raw grain consists of a solid portion (margarine, caprine, &c.) r and a liquid part, hydrate of oxide of amyle. These I first pointed out in 1836 (Thomson's Brit. Annual, 1837). Crraduator, Bnnsen's, for dividing thermo- meter tubes, &c. into degrees. It consists of a mahogany frame, 5^ feet long, and 7 inches wide, | inch thick. Throughout its centre is a groove an inch wide, half-an-inch deep, arched at the, 1 [o 0)0 o | o o ' o o 1 O r, ' A ' & l 1 p bottom for the reception of tubes. At one part, five inches from the end, is placed a brass plate, 1-J foot long, and 2 inches wide, in such a posi- tion that when screwed down its edge comes one- half over the groove. It is furnished with four screw-nuts, passing through a cut portion of the plate, 5- inch long, so as to allow a certain ad- vancement or withdrawal of the plate at pleasure. C and D are two similar plates, placed at the other end of the wooden board C, having the same amount of motion as B, and being precisely similar. D is a brass plate of the same dimensions as B and C, but the screws go through holes of the same size as themselves, into the wood. It is cut, at intervals of 5 millimetres, into notches, every alternate one being ^y and ^ inch deep. E is a wooden rod, 3 feet long, 1 inch broad, and inch thick. It has two steel points, placed by screws at half-an-inch from either end. One of these, F, is in the form of a knife, the other, G, of a bradawl. The tube to be graduated is covered with a layer of melted wax and turpentine, and is placed in the groove between C and D r . which are then screwed down in their places. A standard tube, previously mathematically di- vided, is now placed in the groove under B r which is then screwed upon it The rod E is now used, the point G being put in one of the graduated marks on the standard tube ; the knife- formed steel F is now upon the waxed tube, and is made to make a mark upon it, the length of which is regulated by the distance between the edges of C and D. The pointed steel is now removed back one division on the standard tube, and the corresponding mark made on the waxed one, and so on. The waxed tube is now exposed to fluohydric acid, and etched in a lead box, Crrasniuat ite. Granatite. A synonyme of tremolite or hornblende. Cnranamitc. A synonyme of table spar, Granite (granum, a grain). A plutoriic or 272 GRA igneous rock (see GEOLOGY), consisting of quartz, red or white felspar, and mica in black plates. The composition of small-grained granite, from the milldam at Goatfell, Arran, I have found as follows: Spec. grav. 2-546, silica 74-3, sesqui- oxide of iron 6-3, alumina 8-94, lime 3-68, mag- nesia, water and alkalies 6-78. The large-grained granite of Goatfell has a spec. grav. of 2-576 to 2-573, and consists of silica 73-48, sesquioxide of iron 9-92, alumina 6-68, lime 2-11, magnesia, water and alkalies 7-81. Granite mountains have usu- ally peaked summits, as in the figure. Granular. Consisting of grains. This structure of rocks or minerals may be produced either by the particles having been agglutinated together, or by the action of heat under pressure, as with granular limestone and greenstones. Granulation. The conversion of metals into grains, by projecting them in a fused state into water. Granulate. Eurite, Leptynite. A granular mixture of quartz and felspar. Grape Sugar. See SUGAR. Graphic Gold. See TELLURIUM, Graphic Granite. Composed of a base of felspar, with quartz distributed through it, pre- senting the appearance of letters or writing. Graphite. Plumbago, Plumbayine, Black Lead. Physical Characters. 3 and 1 axed system. Seldom in 6-sided prisms (Greenland and Philadelphia). Commonly its texture, is fo- liated and amorphous, the laminae being flexible, in flat 6 -sided tables. Hardness. 1. Spec. grav. 1-9 to 2-25, 2-32. Lustre metallic. Streak splendent and metallic, sectile; feel greasy; writes readily on paper. Fracture uneven. 'Blowpipe Character. Unchanged, infusible. Chem. Character. When graphite is boiled with aqua regia a portion of iron is dissolved. When ignited in a crucible with 10 times its weight of nitre it deflagrates. Conducts electricity. Spec, heat -20187 (Regnault). Source. It occurs in pieces about the size of the fist, in a porphyry tra- versing graywacke slate, at Seathwaite, inBorrow- dale, Cumberland. This mine was discovered in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, when gold and silver were worked in the vicinity by a company of Germans. The top of the hill, called the Moor, in which the mine is situated, is 1,500 feet above the sea. A new level has been lately driven through a porphyry branch dyke, lower down GRA the hill, for the purpose of reaching the old work- ings, several fathoms below. It is now (1849) 460 yards long. Indications of plumbago have been frequently obtained, but no collection of masses or sops has been met with. No new gra- phite has been come upon since 1841. What is now used is taken from old stock on hand, which was sold last year to the extent of 1,500. The mode in which the sale of plumbago was conducted was peculiar. Once a-year the mine was opened, and a sufficient quantity of graphite extracted to supply the purchasers during the year. The mine was then closed, and the pro- duct carried to London, where it was exposed to sale at the black lead market, which was held on the first Monday of each month at a public- house in Essex- Street, Strand. The buyers, who amounted to seven or eight, examined every piece with a sharp instrument to ascertain its hardness, those which were too soft being rejected. The in- dividual who had the first choice paid 45s. per Ib. the others 30s. But as there used to be no addition made to the stock during the year, the same portions were examined over and over again until the lot was exhausted. Graphite has been observed to float on the refined iron in the iron manufac- ture' (Schaf haeutl). The following table gives the composition of different graphites : Carbon, ........ 95'8 95'4 Water, ......... 3 - 0'6 Silica ............ 2-6 Alumina, ....... Oxide of Man- ) ganese, ..... J- 1-2 1'4 Oxide of Iron, j Black lead is likewise found in Ceylon, apparently in granite, and also in the United States and in Greenland, from which some specimens have re- cently been imported. Much of the lead now used is, however, manufactured of a mixture of plumbago powder and tersulphide of antimony. These are ground together by means of large stones revolv- ing in tubs containing water. This mixture, when ia sufficiently fine powder, is introduced into a large clay crucible, and is exposed to the intense heat of a reverberatory flame. The crucible is taken out, cooled, and the material removed to a strong iron box, where it is sub- jected to great pressure. It is then sawn into slices for pencils. Uses. There are three kinds of pen- cils occurring in commerce, common cedar pencils, ever-pointed pencils, and plummets. The two first often consist of pure plumbago, the last of one- third tersulphide of antimony and two-thirds plum- bago. In the manufacture of these pencils, the first process consists in sawing out the cedar into long planks, and then into tops and bottoms ; the grooves are sawn out by means of a fly- wheel ; the lead is then scraped on a stone, having been previously cut into thin slices to suit the roove, and heated in contact with the fumes of sulphur. It is next introduced into the groove, 85'-i5 !X)-10 G'GO 4'93 1-20 HO 0'50 0'20 273 T GRA and the side scratched with a sharp point, so as to cause it to break off above the groove and fill it. The fourth process consists in glueing the tops and bottoms together, and turning the cedar cases in a gauge. They are then French polished and stamped by a machine. The ever-pointed pencils are first cut into thin slabs, and next into square pieces, by means of a steel gauge. They are then drawn through three small holes, armed with rubies, in order to render them fine. The friction destroys the rubies in three or four days. Genuine plumbago pencils must cost two shillings per half-dozen, and a genuine cedar pencil at least sixpence. On the continent pencils are often made of a mixture of plumbago, fuller's earth, and ver- micelli. Grass Oil. This amber-coloured oil from Bengal, I first described in 1836, and found it to begin to give off bubbles of vapour at 120, the boiling continues with the thermometer ris- ing to 370. Its smell resembles oil of cajeput. It is the product of a species of andropogon, pro- bably A. ivaracusa. It appears to be a mixture of oils analogous in composition to oil of turpen- tine (Brit. Annual, 1837). Sulphuric acid forms with it a fine crimson colour. It is applied to various economical purposes in India. Gratiolacrinc. C 23 H 2 o 5 . Reddish- brown resin from Gratiola ojficinalis. Gratioline. C 2 iH 18 7 . White bitter crys- talline powder from the same plant. Gratiosoltne. C 18 H 16 O 10 . A soluble bitter principle from the same. Gray Antimony. See ANTIMONY. Gray Copper. See COPPER. Graywacke. Traumate, Psammite. (Grau, gray ; wacke, clay). A name given by the Frey- berg miners to a sandstone composed of quartz, felspar, lydian stone and clay slate, and filled with metallic veins. It constitiites the lowest of the fossiliferous rocks, and is included in the Silu- rian system. See GEOLOGY. This rock usually forms fine rounded pastoral hills, as in Scotland and the north of England. Grease. Fat. (Graisse, Fr. ; Fett, Ger). Soft melted tallow, employed for the axles of wheels. The yellow grease for railway carriages in Eng- land consists of tallow 253, palm oil 88, soda 25, water 634 ; in Belgium, tallow 83, palm oil 207, soda 14, water 696. Green Colours. Many of the following green colours are diluted by such substances as gypsum, sulphate of barytes, and lead, and then go by different names. Green, Bluish, for pottery. Oxide of chrome 50, carbonate of cobalt 25, hydrous car- bonate of zinc 25. Calcine for a quarter of an hour, and take 25 parts and mix it with 75 green ftux, which is formed of 73 minium or litharge, 9 sand, and 18 crystals of boracic acid fused. Another Bluish Green. 10 chromate of mer- cury, 1 pure oxide of cobalt, are triturated on GRE glass, and then heated in a porcelain tube to expel mercury. The powder is next poured into a por- celain crucible, on which the cover is luted ; it is" intensely heated in a porcelain kiln. The crucible is broken, and the mass digested in water, to remove chromate of potash. The vitrifiable colour is then made by triturating 1 of this residue, ^ oxide of zinc, 5 lead glass (2 minium, 1 sand, 1 calcined borax). By mixing this bluish- green with citron-yellow, all intermediate shades may be procured. Green, Breiner. Verditer. A fine pig- ment for oil or water colours. 225 Ibs. common salt, and 222 Ibs. sulphate of copper, are mixed in the dry state, and made into a paste with water on a stone. Sulphate of soda and chloride of copper result. 225 Ibs. old ship's copper, in square inch pieces, freed from impurity by wash- ing with dilute sulphuric acid, and afterwards with water, are placed with the salts in oaken chests in a cellar. By the absorption of oxygen oxychloride of copper is formed (3 CuO, CuCl 4 HO), which is a green insoluble sub-salt. It is allowed to remain for three months, and is stirred weekly. It is then washed free from salts, the wash-water evaporated to a paste, and the insol- uble matter added to the green salt. The green salt is heated with dilute chlorohydric acid for thirty- six hours, and then to the acid liquor is added caustic potash to decompose the neutral salt par- tially formed by the acid. After thirty-six hours, it is washed free from potash, thrown on filtering cloths, exposed to the air for some weeks, pressed in cloth, and dried in the air, or by gentle heat under 88. Green, Brunswick, occurs of various shades. A common mode of manufacturing it (3 CuO, CuCl 4 HO) is by mixing metallic copper with a paste of sulphate of copper, common salt, and water, mixed either with common salt and dilute sul- phuric acid, or sprinkled with a solution of sal- ammoniac, and exposed to the air. A common form of it is dicarbonate of copper (2 CuO CO 2 HO), and called also mineral and mountain green. It is prepared by precipitating sulphate or chloride of copper with carbonate of lime, washing the precipitate with hot water, and then drying it. It may be diluted to different shades with barytes, gypsum, &c. Green, Deep, for pottery. Oxide of chrome 75, carbonate of cobalt 25, intimately mixed on glass with water, calcined, and 25 parts mixed with green flux, as above (Sevres). Chromate of mercury alone is treated in the same manner as for its mixture with oxide of cobalt, and 1 fine green oxide of cobalt thus obtained is mixed with 3 parts lead glass (2 minium, 1 sand, 1 borax). Green ICarth, Green Sand. See GLAU- CONITE. Green Ilydrokinone. See HYDROKINONE. Green Iron Stone. See PHOSPHATE OF IRON. Grcenlandite. An iron garnet. 274 GEE Green malachite. Carbonate of copper. See COPPER. Grecnockite. Sulphide of Cadmium. CdS. Spec. grav. 4-82 to 4-534, H 2-75, Cd 77-6, S 2 2 '4. Yellow hexagonal prisms or combinations of truncated 6-sided prisms, with several 6-sided pyramids. The only specimens of this mineral, which is very rare, have been found in the amygdaloid of the Bishopton tunnel, Renfrew, and I have small specimens in my museum on prehnite from the Kilpatrick hills. Greenovite. A variety of sphene or silico- titaniate of lime, from Piedmont. Oreen, Scheclc's. See ARSENITE OF COP- PER. Green, Schwcinfurth. Vienna Green. See ARSENIO- ACETATE OF COPPER. Greenstone. A mixture of green, horn- blende and albite, commonly termed whin and trap. Green, Ultramarine. A green which is fonned by a similar process to that for ultra- marine blue, and which is now printed on cloth by means of a paste. Green, Variegated. 8 chromate of mer- cury, 1 oxide of cobalt, mixed and placed in a .flat capsule, and heated in a porcelain kiln. This is mixed with twice its weight of lead glass (2 minium, 1 sand, 1 calcined borax). Green Vitriol, or sulphated protoxide of iron. Grcgoritc. A synonyme of titaniate of iron. Grciiatite. A synonyme of staurolite. Grcngcsite. A variety of green-earth, from Dalarne, Sweden. Groppite. Spec. grav. 2-73, H 2-5. Crys- talline ; colour rose-red; fracture splintery, splin- ters transparent. B.B. shows only incipient fusion; swells up with borax and dissolves ; forms a glass with soda. Si0 3 45-008, A1 2 3 22-548, Pe 2 3 3-063, CaO 4-548, MgO 12-283, KO 5-237, NaO -215, HO 7-11; from Gropptrop, Sweden, in limestone. Groroilitc. See PYROLUSITE, WAD, or AN- HYDROUS BINOXIDE OF MANGANESE. G TO*'* Salts. See PLATINUM. Grossularite. See GREEN GARNET. Grossuliiae. A synonyme of Pectine. Guaciiic. A resinous bitter principle by means of alcohol, from the leaves of Guaco, a species of Eupatori&m, Guaiacciic. C 10 H 8 Oo. Spec. grav. '874, of vapour 2-92. B.F. 244, colourless oil. Ob- tained by distilling gum guaiacum. Guaiacic Acid. C 12 H 7 O 5 HO. Brilliant needles (benzoic acid?), obtained by distilling the tincture of guaiacum to one-fourth, neutralizing with bary tes water, evaporating to one-half, adding sulphuric acid, evaporating to a syrup, and ex- tracting the acid by ether. Gnaiacine. Dark yellow bitter resin ob- tained from the root and wood of Guaiacum ojjicinale by alcohol ; soluble in alcohol and hot GUA water; less soluble in cold water; insoluble in ether; unites with sulphuric acid, not with alkalies. Guaiacum Resin. C^ILjsOio ? Spec, grav. 1-22. Yellowish or reddish-brown amor- phous pieces, partly translucent, but usually covered with a greenish-gray powder, from the Guaiacum officinale, a West Indian tree ; sweet- ish bitter taste ; soluble in alcohol and ammonia ; less soluble in ether and oil of turpentine. It is easily detected in solution by the fine green or blue colours produced when a solution of bleach- ing powder is added to its alcoholic solution. Commercial resin consists of 80 per cent, resin, 16-5 bark, H gum, 2 per cent, extract. The resin appears to consist of 2 or 3 different resins. It is used in medicine in the form of tincture, and in the solid state. Gnaiacum Soap. A pharmaceutical pre- paration, made by heating powdered guaiacum resin in caustic potash and evaporating ; soluble in water and alcohol. Guaiacyle, Hydride of. Pyroguaiacic Acid. C 14 H 8 4 . Spec. grav. 1-119, of vapour 4-9; B.P. 410. Colourless peppery oil, becoming red and then black in the air ; very soluble in alcohol, ether, and caustic potash. It unites with alkalies; it reduces salts of silver and gold, and peroxide salts of iron, and copper, to the low- est state of oxidation ; it resembles creasote, from which it differs by 2 atoms more oxygen. Guanic Acid. C 10 H 3 N 4 O 7 2 HO. Col- ourless rhombic prisms, gritty between the teeth, without taste and smell ; obtained by gently heating for twenty-four hours, 5 chlorate of potash, 3 guanine, 25 water, and 30 muriatic acid. Guanine. CioHgNgC^. White insoluble powder, becoming wax-like by friction ; not de- composed at 482 when distilled with water ; sol- uble in acids, forming crystalline salts ; soluble in alkalies, and uniting with them ; by the action of chlorohydric acid, and chlorate of potash, it is converted into oxalic acid and ammonia ; ob- tained from guano by digesting it with milk of lime till the solution is no longer brown, but greenish-yellow ; it is then filtered and neutral- ized with chlorohydric acid ; equal quantities of uric acid and guanine subside in some hours ; by boiling with chlorohydric acid, guanine dissolves, and uric acid remains ; on cooling chlorohydride of guanine falls, from which the guanine is pre- cipitated by ammonia. Guanite. Spec. grav. 1-65, H2; (MgO 2 NH 3 , P0 3 , 5 HO). Insoluble right rho'm- boidal prisms, found in guano. Guano. Huano. The urine of sea-fowls de- posited on the coasts of Peni, Africa, &c. of great value as a manure, in consequence of its contain- ing the salts and nitrogen necessary for the food of plants. It is usually mixed with a certain amount of granite powder from the soil on which it is deposited. Sometimes it contains bones of 275 GUA "birds, feathers, &c. ; and often salts, such as am- monia phosphate of magnesia, bicarbonate of ammonia. It has been used for ages as a manure by the Peruvians, and was first brought into pro- minent notice in Europe by Humboldt and Bous- singault ; but more recently by Liebig, who has done great service to our agriculturists in this and other respects. When genuine it should have a light brown colour, with a smell of ammonia ; should, when burned, leave a fine white ash of bone earth, &c. This ash, when heated with dilute muriatic acid, should not effervesce, in- dicating the absence of chalk or carbonate of lime, and should dissolve with the exception of less than 2 per cent, of white sand and micro- scopic shells. When treated by water alone, the best Peruvian guano I have found to yield fine crystals of oxalate of ammonia. As the other constituents are pretty equally diffused in different shipments of guano, one of the most important tests of its value depends on the amount of uric acid and ammonia which is present. But in all ana- lyses the amount of the different constituents should be determined. From a long experience in the examination of guano, imported at Glas- gow and elsewhere, I have constructed the fol- lowing tables. Although I have frequently had submitted to my examination adulterated sam- ples, I am happy to say, for the credit of im- porters, that I have scarcely ever found sophis- tication to be attempted in then- hands, and I have therefore strongly to recommend farmers to unite and purchase their stocks at the ship's side, the price to be determined by chemical analysis : A B 1, 11-90 9-40 2, 5-20 9-43 3, 53-90 51-58 4, 27-80 27-98 5, V20 1-59 C 25-02 15-07 28-98 29-65 1-28 6, 18-38 17-28 6-85 D E 37-72 50-30 4-65 1-00 30-13 13-60 26-00 12-10 1-5 15-00 3-47 1, water; 2, soluble salts, phosphate and sul- phate of potash, chlorides of potassium and so- dium; 3, organic matter, containing uric acid, ammoniacal salts, &c. ; 4, phosphate of lime and magnesia ; 5, siliceous matter from the soil ; 6, ammonia. A and B, fine specimens of guano from Chincha, Peru, imported by John Thomson, Union Street, Glasgow. C, Inferior Peruvian guano. D, African guano. E, Guano from Ailsa Craig, coast of Ayrshire ; along with the phosphate of lime is included 1*5 carbonate of lime. A spe- cimen of adulterated guano I found to consist of water 26-60, volatile matter containing 4^ am- monia 27-4, phosphate of lime 12-09, carbon- ate of lime 10-58, sulphate of lime and peroxide of iron 1-84, sulphate of soda and some potash 2-3, chloride of sodium 5-06, river sand 12-56, cinders 1'57. Independently of its river sand and other substances, the presence of so much 2 GUX soda salts is a suspicious circumstance, as potash is the principal alkali in guano soluble salts. Guaraninc. A synonyme of Theme and Caf- feine found in Brazilian Guarana (Paullinia sorbilis.') . . Gum* are exudations from plants which soften in water, have the same composition as starch and sugar, are insoluble in alcohol, but differ from starch in not being coloured by iodine, and from sugar by not being sweet, and not fermenting- with yeast. They are converted by nitric acid into mucic acid. The principal species of gums are 1. Cerasine, insoluble in cold water, found in the plum tree and bird cherry, first distin- guished by this name by Dr. Thos. Thomson. 2. Arabine, soluble in cold water, in gum Arabic. 3. Bassorine, gum tragacanth, forming- a mucilage in water without dissolving. The following bodies appear also to be connected with this class. Calenduline from marigold, saponine from saponaria. Gum I^ac. See LAC RESIN. Gum Itesins are more opaque than resins, and consist of a mixture of gums, resins, oils, &c. in various proportions. They do not melt like resins when heated ; have a strong odour ; are partially soluble in water and in dilute alcohol and caustic alkalies. They have been divided into 1. Fetid, including ammoniac, galbanum, asafoetida, opoponax, sagapenum. 2. Stimulating, comprising olibanum, myrrh, euphorbium, and bdellium. 3. Cathartic, aloes, gamboge, scam- mony. 4. Sedative, opium, lactucarium, upas. Gun. Cotton. Pi/roxyline. Ternitramidine- C 12 H 7 N3022 = C 12 H 7 7 3N"O 5 . The explosive compound known under this name resembles common cotton wool. The best specimen which I have seen was prepared by Mr. Crum, who found it to have the preceding composition (Proc. Phil. Soc., Glasg., ii. 165), or cellulose, in which 3 atoms water are replaced by 3 nitric acid. The cotton used was fine Sea Island ; it was thoroughly- carded and bleached by boiling in caustic soda and steeping in solution of bleaching powder,, then in caustic soda again, and afterwards in weak nitric acid. It was well washed and beaten in a bag after each operation. When burnt 10000 parts left 9 of ash. The cotton dried and carded after bleaching was exposed in parcels of 10 grains each for several hours to the heat of a steam bath. Each parcel was immersed while hot in 1 measure of a mixture of 1 measure sulphuric acid of 1-840, 3 measures pale lemon-coloured nitric acid of 1*5 17. After one hour it was Avashed in successive portions of Avater till no- trace of acid remained, and dried in the open air. By this process 100 of dry cotton produced 177*9 gun cotton. It often happens that a portion of cotton remains unacted on. Mr^Crum OA r ercame this difficulty by immersion for'an hour in nitric- acid alone. The varying analyses Avhich have been given by others obviously depend on this circumstance. The tendency of this substance to GUN explode by friction has prevented its introduction into the arts. Its solution in ether, known as collodion, is valuable in photography and surgery. Crunjun. An Indian balsam from Diptero- carpus levis. Spec. grav. -934 ; B.P. 240 ; sol- uble in alcohol and ether. Cruitpowder was known to the Chinese at a very early period. A Franciscan, Berthold Schwartz, is reported to have known it at an early period. Roger Bacon, who died in 1292, was acquainted with it. Brother Ferrarius, a Spaniard, in the 13th century, gives a receipt for gunpowder, or flying fire ; 1 sulphur, 2 char- coal, 6 nitre (Sir F. Palgrave). It seems to have fceen used at the siege of Niebla in 1257 ; it is mentioned by an Arabic author in 1294. At Amberg there is a piece of ordnance with the date 1303. Guns, or " crackies of war," appear to have been employed at the battle of Were- water in 1327, at Algesiras in 1343, and at Cressy in 1346. Characters. Gunpowder should be slate-coloured, or dark-bluish gray, so hard as not to fall into powder by the pressure of the finger. When powder has not been glazed, the .slightest touch detaches dust from its surface; and, when reduced to fine powder, gunpowder by agitation hi carriage would separate into its con- stituents according to their gravity. Granulated powder burns instantaneously, while powder in mass gives a long fire. When powder evolves its gas too rapidly, as in detonating powders, the greater part of the force is spent on the sides of the gun. Good powder inflames at a temperature of about 572. It ought to explode on paper with- out leaving any appreciable residue, and without inflaming the paper. 1 measure of powder has been found to give 450 measures of gas, but as a temperature of 2200 (4352 Brianchon), is pro- duced, the expansion of these 450 measures has been calculated to amount to 2000 measures. When heated above the melting point of sulphur over a lamp, the sulphur may be distilled off in .absence of air without explosion. Gunpowder, as used in different countries, has the following composition (Pelouze) : Nitre. Charcoal. Sulphur. Spain, ............... 76-47 10-78 12-75 Austria, ............ 76- 11-5 12-5 Switzerland, ........ 76- 14- 10- England, ............ 75- 15- 10- France, ........... "| America, ......... V 75- Prussia, .......... ) Sweden,.. ........... 75- 9- 16- China, ............... 75- 14-4 9-6 Russia, .............. 73-78 13-59 12-63 Holland,. ........... 70- 16- 14- 12-5 12-5 Manufacture. Mixture. The nitre must be as free as possible from chlorides, which is effected by repeated crystallization and careful washing, until the washings give little or no cloud with nitrp.te GUN" of silver. The charcoal is made of the younger branches of bird cherry, elder, poplar, maple, and walnut, previously deprived of bark. The char- ring is performed in an iron retort or cylinder re- sembling a gas retort, at a high temperature. The sulphur on the continent is usually employed in the condition of roll sulphur. The materials are separately introduced into oak mortars, which are set in a series, and pulverized by means of pestles or stampers, which are worked by ma- chinery like the flint mill at a pottery, or stampers at a bleachfield. The mortars are 14 inches in diameter. The materials are moistened with water into a paste. In France the pulverization is made in revolving wooden or leathern drums containing metallic balls of different sizes. A third, and more common method, is to pound the materials separately by means of millstones formed of cast iron, sometimes enclosed in a ring of bronze. Pressing. The powder, properly ground and thoroughly mixed, is conveyed to the press. The powder is arranged in layers separated by metallic plates, and is subjected to intense pressure in a Bramah press, or it is placed on cloths and pressed between rollers on end- less cloths. The nature of the metals employed as separating media is important; Muntz's metal has been found most durable in standing the pressure. The condensation by this process is so great as to reduce the cake formed to one-fourth of its original bulk. Graining or Corning. The broken cake is made to pass between a series of rollers; the first armed with long teeth, the second series having finer teeth, and the last being smooth. The powder thus formed is sifted in brass wire sieves, having apertures suited to the kind of powder re- quired; or the broken cake is first placed in parchment or leathern sieves and pressed upon, by a disc of hard wood, till the grains pass through the apertures; the coarse grains and dust are then sifted in brass wire sieves moved by ma- chinery. Dusting. From the corning house the powder is carried to the dusting house, where the dust is removed from the grains by sifting. Glazing or polishing. The corned powder has a dull leaden aspect. To give it a shining ap- pearance, it requires to be subjected to a polish- ing process. This is effected in a somewhat similar manner to that employed for removing the asperities from steel pens. The corned powder is placed in the glazing casks or barrels with projections in their ulterior, which are deposited horizontally, and made to revolve on their axes. The barrels are three-fourths filled. The glaz- ing process, which is attended with an in- crease of temperature, is prolonged according to the degree of glazing required, the rapi- dity of rotation being increased as the process proceeds. In France the glazing process lasts 36 hours, in Austria 8 to 10 hours. When the blasting powder is to be kept for a long time, or to be exported, it is now customary to glaze it 277 GUN with black lead to enable it to withstand hygro- metric water. For this purpose a quantity of finely pounded plumbago, prepared in London, from Trieste, is introduced into the glazing bar- rels along with the corned powder. Drying. The powder is dried at a temperature of 110 to 120 in an apartment heated by means of steam, which passes in a wide pipe or chamber at the bottom of the apartment, a current of dry air passing over the powder. The powder is placed in wooden trays with canvas bottoms, which are deposited on shelves. In France the powder is spread on woollen cloth in a box heated by steam, through which a current of dry air is drawn by means of a ventilator. The force of powder may be measured by the distance to which a given weight will propel a ball, as a 60 Ib. ball in a mortar by 2 ounces of powder. Analysis. The moisture is detennined by drying 100 grains at 212 till it ceases to lose weight. The nitre is dissolved out by means of water, and by wash- ing through a weighed filter until the washings leave no residue on a plate of glass when eva- porated, drying at 212 and weighing. The sulphur is estimated by deflagrating 1 part with 1 nitre, 1 carbonate of potash, and 4 common salt, to prevent spirting (Gay Lussac) ; the sul- phur being converted into sulphuric acid, is pre- cipitated by chloride of barium ; every 14 1 sul- phate of barytes are equal to 2 sulphur ; or the sulphur and charcoal may be boiled with strong nitric acid. The charcoal is estimated by the loss. The sulphur and charcoal may also be ascertained by placing them in a glass ball, to which a second bulb is attached. Heat being applied to the mixture, and hydrogen passed over it, the sulphur sublimes into the empty bulb, while the charcoal remains in the first ball, and both may then be weighed. Gunpowder, White. 1 sugar, 1 yellow prussiate of potash, 2 chlorate of potash mixed with water and triturated in a mortar for fifteen minutes, and granulated by passing through a sieve (Augendre). I have found 6-1 grains of this powder, at five feet distance, carry a bullet through 100 pages of paper, while black powder in the same quantity did not rupture one page ; even 36'6 grains of black powder only made an indentation. HJEM Gurhoffite, Gurhofiaii, or Calcareo-car- jonate of magnesia. Gurolitc. H 3-5. Small white globular masses of pearly-like plates along with laumo- rite, and apophyllite, in amygdaloid at Storr in; Skye. Si0 3 50-7, A1 2 3 1-48, CaO 33-24, MgO -18, HO 14-18, or 2 (CaOSiO 3 ), 3 HO ; lecomposed by chlorohydric acid, loses water at 212, and becomes CaOSi0 3 HO. It is often mixed with other zeolites, or with carbonate of ime (Anderson). Gutta Percha. Niato, or Pertsha. C 87-8 r H 12-2. The milky juice of the Isonandra. yutta (Sapotaceae), a tree growing in Malacca and Borneo, each tree yielding from 20 to 30 Ibs. It has been long known in these countries, and I recollect in 1831 of seeing articles made of it at Singapore. Spec. grav. -979. Softens at 122 ,~ at 158 176, it is very workable, and can be made into moulds ; insoluble in water, alcohol, dilute acids, and alkalies. Ether and ethereal oils swell it up as with caoutchouc ; it dissolves in oil of turpentine, oil of tar, and oil of caout- chouc. It can be vulcanized by means of sul- phur in the same manner as caoutchouc. Its- various uses are so well known that it is unne- cessary to mention them. Three million pounds weight were imported in 1848. Guyaquillifc. C 40 H 1C O 6 . Specific grav. 1-092; F.P. 157 212. Pale yellow fossit resin; soluble in alcohol with a bitter taste; soluble in sulphuric acid and reprecipitated by water; soluble in caustic potash; precipitated" by nitrate of silver ; found near Guayaquille in America. Gyle Tim, or fermenting tun. See ALE. Gymnite. 2 MgO SiO 3 3 HO. A variety of serpentine found in the Bare hills, Baltimore.. Colour pale yellow with resinous lustre; fusing* B.B. into a white opaque mass with soda, a col- ourless glass with borax. Si0 3 40-16, AUOs 1-16, MgO 36, CaO -8, HO 21-16 (Thomas- Thomson). Gypsum, or sulphate of lime. Gyrophoric Acid. C 36 H 18 Oi. 5 ? Colour- less crystals from Gyrophora pustidata by milk of lime, precipitation by chlorohydi'ic acid, and crystallizing from alcohol; probably lecanoric: acid. H Hammpliaeine. The yellow-colouring mat- ter of blood serum. Ilaemateinc. C^H^O]^. Reddish-brown when moist, when dry dark green ; soluble in hot water, alcohol, potash, and acids ; unites with bases ; with ammonia forms haemateine-ammo- nia, violet 4-sided prisms, containing 2 atoms ammonia. Hjemateine is obtained by dissolving hrematoxyline in ammonia and allowing it to stand, and precipitating by acetic acid. Hacmafinone. Spec. grav. 3-5. A reil glass used by the ancients ; its colouring matter appears to be red oxide of copper. Hrcmatitc. See SESQUIOXIDE OF IRON. Haematoidiiie. Xantkose. Euby oblique rhombic prisms ; soluble in caustic potash with a bright red colour; changed to green, blue, rose and yellow by sulphuric acid. It is always found in the sanguineous extravasations, by the bursting of the Graafian vesicles in menstruation, 278 frequently in old extravasations in the brain, haemorrhage of the spleen, and purulent abscess of the extremities. Ilsematosinc, Hcematine. C 4 4H 22 lS"3O<3Fe ? The colouring matter of blood. Dark brown mass, without taste and smell; insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, fat, and volatile oils ; sol- uble in weak alcohol acidulated with sulphuric or chlorohydric acid; insoluble in strong acids, which, however, take up some iron ; very soluble in dilute caustic alkalies; precipitated from its solution in ammonia by salts of silver, lead, and copper ; decomposed by nitric acid and heat. When allowed to remain in contact with sul- phuric acid for some time, and then diluted with water, hydrogen is evolved and copperas dis- solved, and by repeating this process the whole iron may be removed. When treated with chlo- rine, a compound of 1 haematine and 6 chlorine is formed. Chlorohydric acid gas forms a violet mass, soluble in water and alcohol. Hannatosine is obtained by treating blood with 8 times its vol- ume of a solution of an alkaline sulphate or of common salt, filtering and washing with the same solution. The residue deprived of serum is dissolved in water and coagulated by heat. It is then boiled in spirit containing sulphuric acid, till a colourless fluid passes through the filter. The filtered fluid is saturated with ammonia and evaporated to dryness, some globuline and sulphate of am- monia which deposit, being separated ; the resi- due is digested with water, alcohol, and ether, and may be again dissolved in ammoniacal spirit for greater purity. Hivmatoxyiiiie, Hwmatine, Hematine. CQ H 17 13 . Brilliant yellow needles or oblique rhombs, yielding a white or yellowish powder with a sweetish taste ; slightly soluble in cold, very soluble in boiling water; soluble in alco- hol and ether ; not volatile but decomposed by heat ; soluble in sulphuric and chlorohydric acids without decomposition ; nitric acid forms oxalic acid ; precipitated white by isinglass ; it has a tendency to unite with bases, but then becomes blue by access of oxygen. Pure haematoxyline is obtained by ether from the watery extract of logwood (Hcematoxylon campechianum). The commercial extract may be employed for this purpose, 2 Ibs. of the extract yielding 3 to 4 ounces of crystals. I have obtained several ounces of it, in beautiful crystals, during frosty weather, from the sides of the evaporators of log- wood liquors. Haidingcrite. Ferro-sulphide of antimony. See BERTHIEKITE. Hair. C 49-78, H 6-36, N 17-14, 21-72, S 5*. The hair consists of tubes formed of an internal and external layer which probably differ in composition. The exterior contains fat which is considerable in wool, and has been termed stearerine and olaerine (?', wool). Hair con- tains much sulphur, brown 4-98 to 5 '44, black 4-85 to 5-22, red 5-02, gray 4-63. The ash HAR consists chiefly of oxide of iron and earthy salts, brown 1-1 per cent, to -32, black 1-02, red 1-3 to 5, gray 1 to -75. When boiled with water for a long time, hair is converted into a gelatinous mass, and a similar mass is formed in a Papin's digester with the evolution of much sulphohydric acid. From the quantity of sulphur it is easy to dye hair with nitrate of silver. Hair Pyrites. See SULPHIDE OF NICKEL. Hair Salt. Sulphate of magnesia in capil- lary crystals, also Ferro-sulphate of alumina (FeO 13-56, A1 2 O 3 7-127, SO 3 35-6, HO 43-713), found in the alum slate at Hurlet and Campsie alum works. Hallite. See ALUMINITE. Halloylite. Halloysite. Spec. grav. 1-8 to 2-1. Si0 3 39-5, A1 2 3 34-, HO 26. White compact mineral ; lustre waxy ; fracture conchoi- dal ; absorbs water when immersed in it, and gives out air ; the alumina is dissolved by sulphuric acid and the silica left ; found at Angleure by d'Hal- loy. Attempts have been made by some writers to classify the silicates of alumina obviously without proper attention to the subject; minerals with a spec. grav. of 1-8 being placed along with others of 2-55. Such arrangements are mis- chievous to true mineralogy, which must be based on chemistry. Haloiilc Bodies. (**?, salt; \tit t , form). A term for chlorine, iodine, and fluorine, which produce salts with metals. Haloid*: Salts. (ix f , salt; itice, form). Salts formed by a haloide body and a metal. They are distinguished from amphide salts by their two constituents being generally elementary bodies. Halotrichitc. A synonyme of feather alum. Hamathioitic Acid. See EUXAKTHIO ACID. Hampshiritc. A synonyme of steatite. Hardness of minerals is determined by an ascending scale of 10 degrees, each degree being represented by a harder mineral ; 1 talc, 2 rock salt, gypsum, 3 calcareous spar, 4 fluor spar, 5 phosphate of lime, 6 felspar, 7 rock crystal, 8 topaz, 9 corundum, 10 diamond. When a min- eral scratches talc, but not rock salt or gypsum, its hardness is said to be 1-25 to 1-5 or T75, according to the impression which it makes on the talc and gypsum. Harinaline. C 27 H 14 ]Sr 2 2 . Brownish transparent bitter, crystals or rhombic prisms. Sol- uble in alcohol ; slightly soluble in water and ether ; fusible, partly volatile*; forms yellow salts with acids. The harmala red of commerce is the pow- dered seeds of Peganum harmala, which contain phosphate of harmaline. B, y the action of prus- sic acid a new base, Jiydrocyanharmaline^ is formed. By oxidization harmine and chrysohaimine are formed. Harmine. Leucoharmine. C 27 H 12 N' 2 02. Colourless rhombic prisms, less soluble in cold alcohol than harmaline ; soluble in ether ; forms 279 HAR salts with acids. Obtained with harmaline from the seeds of Peganum harmala, which grows in the Steppes of Russia. Harmotome (/*?, a joint; T3.M, I cut). Andreolite, Andreasbergolite, Cross stone, Ercinite Barytes ha.rmotome. 3 Ba02SiO 3 , 4 (A1 2 O 3 2 Si0 3 ) 18 HO. Spec. grav. 2-390 to 2-45, H 4*25. White, occasionally gray, yellow, red, and brown, right rectangular prisms. The face of the prism is often replaced by four faces on the solid angles of the primary form; fracture imperfect, conchoidal, lustre vitreous ; sometimes transparent, but commonly only translucent, brittle. SiO 3 48-753, A1 2 O 3 15-1, BaO 14-275, CaO 3-18, KO 2-55, HO 14-. Occurs in amyg- daloidal rocks at Kilpatrick, Strontian, Hartz. B.B. fuses with difficulty without boiling. For Lime Harmotome, see PHILLIPSITK. Harriugtonite. Spec. grav. 2-217, H 5-25. Snow-white crystalline or earthy masses, with almond lustre, opaque, tough. A mean of five analyses gave me for its composition SiO 3 40-85, A1 2 6 3 29-41, CaO 11-06, NaO 2-80, KO trace (volatile matter) 15-1, FeO -63. From the north of Ireland. It is often mixed with carbonate of lime. Hartine. C 20 H 17 O 2 . Spec. grav. 1'115 at 32; F.P. 410. White insoluble resin in the brown coal of Hart, Austria ; without taste and smell; slightly soluble in alcohol and ether; soluble in naphtha, from which it separates in long needles ; by distillation it is resolved into acid water, carbonic oxide, olefiant gas, tar, and a white crystalline body. Hartite. C 6 H 5 . Spec. grav. 1-046 ; F.P. 165. White resin with a fatty lustre ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; distils without decomposi- tion ; separates from its ethereal solution in silky crystals; decomposed by sulphuric acid; from the coal of Oberhart. Hatchettinc. Mineral tallow, Mountain tallow. CH. Spec. grav. -8035 to -983; F.P. 118; B.P. 290. Yellow translucent pearly plates ; soft like wax ; without odour till heated, when it smells like fat ; distils without change ; less soluble in alcohol than in ether ; becomes dark in the air; decomposed by sulphuric acid, not apparently by nitric acid. Found on the coast of Finland, at Strasburg, Inverary, Oban, Mer- thyr Tydvill. A greenish-yellow substance found in the trap rocks near Glasgow, and used by the country people as a balsam for wounds, seems to belong to this class. The hatchettine of Conybeare fuses at 170. Haucrite. Bisulphide of Manganese. MnS 2 . Spec. grav. 3-463, H 4'. Reddish-brown; 8- hedrons or cubes; lustre metallic, adamantine, streak brownish-red. B.B. gives off sulphur and becomes MnS ; from Kalinka, Hungary. Hausnranuite. Red Oxide of Manganese, Slack Manganese, Pyramidal Manganese. MnO 1 or MnO Mn 2 3 . Spec. grav. 4-722, H 4-75. Brownish-black masses, and 8-hedrons witl TIED quare bases, with angles of 105 45', 117 30', the summits of the pyramids being often replaced 3y low 4-sided pyramids ; lustre imperfect me- tallic, opaque ; streak reddish. In porphyry at [hlefeld, Hartz, Ilmenau, Framont, and Penn- sylvania. Hauyne. Berzeline, Marialite, Ittnerite. Spec. grav. 2-45, H 5-75. Blue or green crys- talline grains, or 12-hedrons; lustre glassy, translucent; fracture conchoidal, irregular. B.B. fuses into a white opaque glass with decrepita- tion; gelatinizes with muriatic acid, SiO 3 3 5 -48, S0 3 12-39, A1 2 3 18-87, CaO 12-, KO 15-45, Fe 2 3 1-16. Found in Vesuvian lavas, in basalt at Andernach, and at Albano and Marino. A,llied to sodalite and spinellane. Haydenite. Spec. grav. 2-136 to 2-265, H 3-. Si0 3 49-5, A1 2 3 and Fe 2 O 3 23-5, HO 21-, CaO -27, MgO trace, KO -25; oblique rhombic prisms, found near Baltimore; probably Chabasite. Hayesite. Hayesine. A synonyme of borate of lime and soda. Haylorilr. Pseudomorphous quartz with the crystal of Datholite, Devon. Heat. Caloric. See Cyclopaedia of Natu- ral Philosophy. Heavy Spar. See SULPHATE OF BARYTES. Heavy Wine Oil. Sulphate of Ethyle and Etherole. C 8 H 9 2 S0 3 . Spec. grav. 1-133; B.P 540. Colourless neutral oily fluid, with an ethereal odour and cooling taste ; mixes with alcohol and ether, distils unchanged when dry ; decomposed by water and alkalies, forming bi- sulphate of ethyle and etherole ; it gives mer- captan with sulphide of potassium. It is ob- tained whenever ether and anhydrous sulphuric acid come in contact ; it is readily formed by distilling an intimate mixture of eqiial parts of quicklime and dry sulphovinate of lime or potash, at a heat not above 540 ; or by distilling basic sulphovinate of lead. It is freed from al- cohol by evaporation in air, or in vacuo. Hebetine. A synonyme of silicate of zinc. Hedenbergitc. Blliydrous Bisesquisilicate of Iron. Spec. grav. 3-154, H 3-5. 7 FeO 7 SiO 3 2 HO = SiO 3 40-62, FeO 35-25, HO 16-05, MnO -75, CaO 3-37, A1 2 3 -37, C0 2 1-56. Green- ish-black masses, with rhomboidal cleavage re- sembling calcareous spar ; fibrous, opaque, streak olive. B.B. loses its lustre, becomes black, and is attracted by the magnet, fusing into a black glass ; with borax an iron glass ; with soda a grayish-green bead. Allied to Black Pyroxene. Near Tunaberg, Sweden. lEcdcric Acid. C 66'46, H 9-45, O 24-09. Fine needles, insoluble in water and ether, with- out smell; tastes of ivy. Obtained from the 280 HED seeds of Iledera helix, or ivy, by boiling alco- hoL II cd crime ? Bitter substance from ivy seeds, by acid water; neutralizing with slaked lime, and treating the precipitate with alcohol. Hcdyphane. Spec. grav. 5-46 to 5'493, H 4-75. White amorphous masses or 6-sided py- ramids, translucent, lustre adamantine. B.B. fuses into an opaque globule, tinging the flame greenish-blue ; on charcoal, lead is reduced and arsenious acid evolved in fumes ; with salts of phosphorus it froths, and muriatic acid is given out. PbO 52-95, CaO 14-034, Cl 2-029, AsO 5 22-78, P0 3 8-207. Found at Longbanshyttan, Sweden. It is an arseniophosphate of lead. Helcnine. C 42 H 28 O C ; F.P. 161 J; B.P. 530. White 4-sided prisms, lighter than water ; insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol, ether, and ethereal oils; soluble in caustic alkalies, and repre- cipitated by muriatic acid without change ; soluble in sulphuric acid, Avith which it forms a coupled acid, sulphohelenic acid remaining insoluble when water is added. With nitric acid it forms nitro- fielenine. Helenine is obtained by hot alcohol from the root of the Inula kelenium. Helicine. C 2C H K) O 14 ,1|HO. White needles, without smell, taste bitterish; little soluble in cold, very soluble in hot water; soluble in spirit; insoluble hi ether; at 212 loses 4i per cent, water ; at 347 fuses into an oil, which, by con- tinued heat, yields the odour of salicylous acid; it is split by acids, and fermentation, into salicy- lous acid and sugar (C 12 H 10 10 , C 14 H 6 4 = C 26 H 1G 14 ). It is obtained by acting on 1 part of salicine with 10 nitric acid, spec. grav. 1-1G, for twenty-four hours, and crystallizing out. With chlorine and bromine it forms chlorohelicine and bromoheUcine, Along with helicine is usu- ally formed a nitrogenous body, anilotic acid, which strikes a red with iron salts. Mclicoidiiie. C 52 H 34 O 2 8 3 HO = 2 sugar, 1 salicylous acid, 1 saligenine. Crystals ob- tained by treating salicine with nitric acid of spec. grav. 1-09. They are purified by wash- ing with cold water, and crystallizing from hot water. Heliotrope, or Blood Stone. Green quartz with blood-red spots and veins. IScIJcbore, White. Veratrum album. The root contains Veratrine. Barytine? and Jervine . Hclleborine. Resinous crystals from Ildle- borus hyemalis by alcohol. HclniiiEtSioiitc. A variegated marble a Hall, Tyrol. Melvine. Spec. grav. 3-1G6, H 6-5. SiO 3 33-258, GO and A1 2 O 3 12-029, FeO 5-564 MnO 31-817, MnS 14-, Vol. matter 1-155. Yellow wax or sisken-green tetrahedrons or acute rhom- boids ; lustre vitreous or resinous ; translucent on edges ; fracture uneven. B.B. melts on charcoa into a globule, with borax into a transparen glass ; decomposed by chlorohydric acid with evo lution of sulphohydric acid gas. Its compositioi ' HEM as been given as MnO, MnS, 3(2MnO2GO :FeO) SiO 3 . Ilemathionic Acid. C i4 H 7 12 SO 3 . Jummy mass, along with purrenone by the action f sulphuric acid on purreic acid. Hemidesmus Indicus. Ummtamul of Bengal. The root is used in Madras as a substi- ute for sarsaparilla, fif cjnihedrisiu is exemplified when half the imilar alternate angles or edges of a crystal are altered independently of the other half, or when the similar angles or edges are altered but by lalf the regular number of planes. Mcmimorphism. A case in which bodies possessing the same or analogous chemical com- position, crystallize with several angles almost dentical, and with others varying considerably. Mcmipic Acid. Hemipinic acid. C 10 H 4 O5 HO. F.P. 356. 4-sided prisms; sublimes; ittle soluble in water, more soluble in alcohol and ether. When its hot aqueous solution is nixed with siilphuric acid, and brown oxide of lead, it is resolved into carbonic acid and water ; obtained by mixing a boiling aqueous solution of opianic acid with brown oxide of lead, and dilute sulphuric acid dropped in, till carbonic acid be- gins to be evolved ; the dissolved lead is preci- pitated by sulphuric acid, and the hemipic acid crystallized out. Memitropism, Hemitrope Crystals, Mack, Twin crystallization-, is the appearance in a crystal as if it had been slit, and then one por- tion turned half round on the other upon an imaginary axis in the figures. The 8-hedron has been cut at a, b, c, d, and one half being turned round on the other, presents the aspect of the other figure. When the evolution has been only one-sixth, it is called transposition, which occurs in calc spar, gypsum, &c. Mciaaloek. Conium "Maculatum. See CONI- Memp, Common. Cannabis SattOO, con- tains a bitter resin, soluble in alcohol and ether (Cannabine). 281 HEM Hemp, Indian. Cannalis Indica. Gunjah. ]3ang. An alcoholic extract is formed from the tops of the plant, and is used as a narcotic. Hepatite. An impure variety of sulphate of barytes, with a foetid smell on friction. Ilerbcckitc. A synonyme of Hisingerite. Hercinite. A variety of spinell. A1 2 3 61-17, FeO 35-67, MgO 2-92; Bohemia. Hertleritc. Allogonite. Spec. grav. 2-985, H 5- Prismatic system; colour yellow and greenish- white ; streak white, translucent ; lustre vitreous, brittle ; fracture conchoidal. Supposed to contain phosphate of alumina with fluorine. One specimen only found at Ehrenfriedersdorf, Saxony, in fluor spar. Hcrreritc ? Spec. grav. 4-3, H 4-5. Green rhombohedrons? or kidney-shaped masses; cleav- age in three directions ; streak yellowish-gray, translucent. C0 2 31'86, TeO (ZnO?) 55-58, !NiO 12-32. Albarradon, Mexico. Herschcllite. Sp. grav. 2-06. Si0 3 47-39, A1 2 O 3 20-9, NaO 8-33, KO 4-39, CaO -38, HO 17 : 84. Farm. 3 NaO,3 A1 2 O 3 8 Si0 3 15 HO. 12-hedrons, the summits of which are deeply re- placed, and in streaked regular 6-sided prisms ; colour white, translucent, or opaque ; cleavage parallel to the base of the prism. In amygdaloid from Poonah ; at Aci Reale, Catania. Allied to chabasite. Hesperidinc. White bitter silky plates; soluble in water and boiling alcohol; insoluble in ether ; converted into a wax by boiling with water ; obtained by water and alcohol from the white spongy part of unripe bitter oranges. Hessite. A synonyme of Telluride of silver. Hessonite. A variety of garnet. Heteroclite. Silicate of manganese in oblique rhombic prisms. Meteromcrism. A property supposed to exist by which all bodies possessing a similar crystalline form, although dissimilar in the na- ture, number, and grouping of their atoms, are capable of crystallizing together. Heteroinerite. A synonyme of Idocrase. Hetcromorphism. The property of two or more compounds with an equal number and grouping of atoms, and having a different crys- talline form. Thus, copperas is clinorhombic, and white vitriol rhombic. Heteromorphitc. See FEATHER ORE OF LEAD. Hcterositc. Hetpoizite. Ileteposite. Spec, grav. 3*524. Greenish-gray or violet rhomboidal prisms, usually in foliated masses; softer than quartz ; soluble in acids. B.B. fuses into a brown enamel, with semi-metallic lustre. FeO 35, P0 5 4-777, MnO 16-18, HO 4-4, SiO 3 2-2. Hure- aux, Haute Yienne. 2 (5Fe0 2 P0 5 ) 5Mn0 2 P0 5 5 HO. Hculandite. Foliated Zeolite, Stilbite of Breithaupt and Rose. Spec. grav. 2-195, H 3-5. Snow-white or flesh-red right oblique prisms with angles of 130 30', 112 15', sometimes HIP massive and in round balls ; lustre vitreous and pearly, translucent, brittle, streak white. B.B. yields an opaque vesicular bead ; decomposes but does not gelatinize with chlorohydric acid. SiO 3 59-145, A1 2 3 17-92, CaO 7-652, HO 15-4. Form. 3CaOSi0 3 , 4Al 2 3 3Si0 3 18HO. Kil- patrick; Bombay; &c. Heveene. A volatile oil boiling at 600, ob- tained by fractional distillation of caoutchouc oil. Hcxachlorhydroxylone. C 26 H 10 C1 6 O 6 . Fine long, blonde, vitreous needles resembling benzoic acid ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; little soluble in water ; decomposes by boiling with water, to which it imparts a violet colour; soluble in acetic acid with heat ; obtained by passing sul- phurous acid through water in which hexachloro- xylone is suspended, and crystallizing the crys- tals obtained out of alcohol and ether. When heated with nitrate of silver and evaporated, Violet hexachlorhydroxylone (C 20 H 8 C] G (] 4HO) in crystals is obtained, and when treated for a long time with hypochlorite of soda, plates are formed of ydlow hexachlorhydroxylone. C 2C H 8 C1 G C . Mexachloroxyloiie. C 26 H 6 Cl e O G . Golden scales, or rhombic tables, beginning to sublime at 248, but subliming best at 365 ; at a higher temperature decomposing and giving copper needles ; insoluble in water ; soluble in 171 parts of hot alcohol; very soluble in ether ; decomposed by sulphuric acid ; soluble in nitric acid without change ; decomposed with solution by caustic pot- ash and ammonia ; formed by the action of chlo- rohydric acid and chlorate of potash, -on creasote (C 2(5 H 16 4 ?). Hidantoic Acid. C 8 H N 4 O 9 . White mass or syrup by allowing allantoine to remain some days in contact with strong caustic potash, Highgate JResin. (T. Thomson, 1813.) Fossil Copal. C 40 H 32 O ? Colour muddy yel- lowish light brown, semitransparent ; lustre re- sinous, and appears as if it had been under water. Softer than copal ; smell when heated resinous and aromatic; fuses into a liquid like water; partially soluble in ether and alcohol ; nitric acid converts it into a reddish substance ; insoluble in caustic potash; from the London clay of the Highgate tunnel. Hippuric Acid. (Liebig, 1829). Uroben- zoic Acid, Urinic Acid, Gtycobenzoic Acid, HO,C 18 H 8 NO 5 = Benzoic Acid and Glycocoll. Ci 4 H 5 3 + C 4 H 4 N0 3 , or Benzoic Acid and fumaramide. Colourless rhombic prisms ; soluble in 600 water at 32 ; very soluble in hot water and alcohol, much less so in ether ; reaction acid ; fuses at a gentle heat ; distinguished from benzoic acisl by its crystalline form ; less solubility in water ; reaction with alkalies and by distillation; by chlorohydric acid and boiling it is resolved into benzoic acid and chlorohydride of glycocoll ; with nitric acid it yields nitrohippuric acid where 1 hydrogen is replaced by N0 4 ; boiled with alka- lies it separates into glycocoll and benzoic acid ; 282 HIR oxidized with brown oxide of lead it yields benza- inide ; by binox. manganese and sulphuric acid it gives sulphate of ammonia and benzoic acid. It is obtained from the urine of the horse or cow by evaporating gently to the consistence of a syrup and acidulating with chlorohydric acid, when, on standing, brown crystals fall. These are boiled with excess of milk of lime to decolourize them, and sufficient water to dissolve the hip- purate of lime. The addition of chlorohydric acid causes the deposition of hippuric acid ; ben- zoic acid may be separated from it by ether. From human urine it may be obtained by eva- porating to a syrup in the water bath, adding chlorohydric acid and a volume of ether, which takes up the hippuric acid, and in an hour ^L of alcohol is mixed with it. Some urea is dissolved by the alcohol, but the addition of water removes the urea and alcohol, and the hippuric acid re- mains dissolved in the ether, from which by eva- poration the acid crystallizes. Mr. Alex. Ure showed that benzoic acid, when swallowed, is converted into hippuric acid in the system. Mircic Acid. A volatile acid, probably Valerianic acid, from the fat of the goat. Hisingcritc, or THRAUUTE. Hoganite. A synonyme of Natrollte. Holmesite. Clintonite. Rhombohedral Pearly Miqa, Chrysophane, /Seybertite ? Xanthopkyllite ? Spec. grav. 3-08, H 4-25. Yellow or reddish- brown hexagonal oblique rhombic prisms in granular limestone, Orange County, M ew York. Si0 3 19-35, AloO 3 46-80, Fe 2 3 4-8, MgO 9-05, CaO 11-45, MnO 1-35, HO 4-55, Fl -9. B.B. infusible ; with borax and soda fuses into a white pearl (T. Thomson). Holohcdral Crystals, (Ao,-, all ; ? 2{, seat), are such as have all the similar parts modified hi the same way, as in the tetrahexahedron 01 modified cube. Homberg's Phosphorus. An ignitec mixture of chloride of calcium and lime, which in a closed vessel exposed to the sun, gives ou light in the dark. Homberg's Pyrophorus. An ignitec mixture of 3 alum and 1 meal kept in a clos vessel. Sulphide of potassium is formed, whicl takes fire when shaken out in the air. Ittomohedrism. A crystal with simila faces, as in the cube and 8-hedron. Homolactic Acid. HOC 4 H 3 O 5 . Spec grav. 1-197. Syrupy fluid, homologous with lactic acid ; attracts moisture ; completely solubl in alcohol and ether ; coagulates milk ; dissolve iron and zinc with evolution of hydrogen ; in close tube heated to 392 white vapours are sub limed; the silver salt is in plates. Obtained from HOE he mother liquor of fulminate of mercury by sa- urating with carbonate of lime and distilling the Itered liquor in a water bath. The residue onsists of nitrate, formate, and homolactate of ime. The nitrate of lime is removed by alcohol ; he lime precipitated by oxalic acid ; the formic ,nd acetic acids being displaced, are distilled 1 iff ; the liquor saturated with lime and homo- actate of lime, purified by animal charcoal and xystallization, and decomposed by oxalic acid. I&omomorphism. (Similar shape.) It has >een observed that sulphates of potash, barytes T trontian, &c. approach each other in specific fol., relation of axes and angles ; to these the ibove term has been applied. Spec. Vol. KOS0 3 , 32-98 BaOS0 3 , 26-35 SrOSOo, 23-48 Angles. 120 29' 116 22' 117 10' 106 46' 105 6* 103 58' Iffoucystone. See MELLITK. Money ^ugar, Glucose, Grape /Sugar, is ;he sugar extracted by bees from the aromatic lart of plants, and is by them converted into wax br the purpose of nutrition. It is obtained pure by digesting in alcohol to remove fluid sugar, and washing with alcohol ; dissolving in hot water r heating with animal charcoal, and crystallizing- out of alcohol. Iffopcite. Spec. grav. 2-76, H 2-5. White 4-sided prisms terminated by a truncated 6-sided low pyramid, the primary form appearing to be a right oblique prism with angles of 81 34'; transparent with two axes of double refraction. B.B. becomes milk-white and fuses into a colour- less globule, giving the flame a greenish tint; forms a colourless glass with borax and salt of phosphorus ; with soda a slag, oxide of zinc be- ing condensed round it ; soluble without effer- vescence in chlorohydric acid; probably a hydrous phosphate of zinc (Brewster). Hop Resin. Reddish-yellow resin ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; obtained from the hop tinc- ture by the addition of water. Hops. Volatile Oil. Spec. grav. -91. Yel- low; soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, be- coming a resin by standing ; obtained by distil- ling hops with water. Hops, the fruit of Humulus lupulus, contain 2 per cent, of oil, 10 per cent, of lupuline, and 55 of resin. Hordeinc. The starch of barley, Hordeum disticlion. Horn is analogous to epidermis and epithe- lium, and consists of C 51-99, H 6-72, N 17-28, O 20-68, S 3-33. Hornblende. See AMPHIBOLE. Horn Mercury. Native Calomel, Corneous Mercury. Horn Silver, or native chloride of silver. Hornstoiie. A form of quartz resembling horn. Horse-radish. The root of the Cochlearia armoracia ; owes its taste to the oil of mustard- Hudsonite. A black variety of Augite. 283 HUD Iliimboldilitc. Spec. grav. 2-9 3-104, II 5-. Brown- yellowish or greenish-yellow right square prisms of 6, 8, or 16 sides, or in masses; lustre vitreous, translucent, and in thin layers transparent. B.B. melts with effervescence with difficulty into a blackish glass. I found the composition of this mineral several years ago SiO 3 43-16, A1 2 O 3 4-76, CaO 30-56, Fe 2 3 12-72, MgO 5-88, KO 1-2. From the lava of "Vesuvius. Huinboldline. Oxalate of Iron, Eisen Resin. Spec. grav. 2-13, H 2-. Yellow masses, consisting of a congeries of crystals or fibres; in- soluble in alcohol and water ; easily soluble in acids; decomposed by ammonia yielding oxalate of ammonia, FeO 41-13, C 2 3 42-40, HO 16-47. Form. FeO, C 2 O 3 l, HO. " B.B. yields an or- ganic smell, and is decomposed, becoming red. From Kolosoruk, Bohemia; Gross Ahnerode, Hesse. Humboldtite. A synonyme of borosilicate of lime, or datholite. Ifnmic Acid. C 40 II 12 O 12 ? Brownish- black; obtained by acting on sugar with sul- phuric acid ; it exists also in the mould of soil, and is produced by the decomposition of vegetable matter; but no definite composition can be at- tached to it. Humine. Humus. C4 H 15 Oi5 ? Similar to the preceding. Humite. A synonyme of Chondrodite. Humopic Acid. Humopinic Acid. C 4 o H 20 Oi 4 V Dark brown substance by heating narcotine to 428 ; insoluble in water and dilute acids ; soluble in alcohol with a reddish tinge. Humours of the Eye. These consist of the anterior humour or aqueous, the crystal- line lens, and the posterior or vitreous humour. The principal constituents are water and glo- buline. Murcaulitc. Spec. grav. 2-27, H 5-. Red- dish-yellow right oblique prisms with angles of 117 30' and 62 30'; lustre vitreous, trans- parent, P0 5 38-, FeO 11-52, MnO 33-305, HO .18-. B.B. fuses into a bluish bead with the me- tallic lustre. Hureaux Limoges, Haute Yienne, forming a small vein in granite. Hurine. A soluble crystalline body from the milky juice of Hura crepitans. Iluroiiitc. Spec. grav. 2-8625, H 3-25. Light yellow foliated or granular masses, trans- lucent on the edges, in cavities in boulder horn- blende from Lake Huron. B.B. infusible ; fuses with borax into a greenish glass. Si0 3 45-2, A1 2 O 3 35-9, FeO 4-99, CaO 15-. Hyacinth. See ZIRCON. Hyalite, Midler's Glass. Colourless or white botryoidal or stalactitic quartz. Hyalomictc, granitic or slaty. A variety . of granite associated with tin ores, and character- ized by the absence of felspar. Ilyaloaidcritc. Spec. grav. 2-875, H 5-5. Yellow or reddish-brown 8-hedrons, with a rec- HYD tangular base, the summits, Jbeing commonly re- placed by planes parallel to the base, with>angles of 99 22', 77 50'; internal lustre glassy, of surfaces metallic, transhicent on the edges. B.B. becomes black, and fuses into a black bead, at- tracted by magnet ; with borax becomes a clear bead. Si0 3 31-634, FeO 29-711, MgO 32-403, A1 2 3 2-211, MnO -48, KO 2-788. In amygda- loid near Sasbach, Brisgau. Allied to chrysolite. Hydra cids. Acids containing hydrogen as an essential constituent, along with another lement or compound having the characters of such an element. See ACIDS. Hydramidcs. A class of amides typified by hydrobenzamide. Hydrargillite. A mineral which appears to be a hydrate of alumina, with some phospho- ric acid ; allied to gibbsite. Found in talc slate near Slatoust, Ural. Mydrargyronetliylraiiie. Methose of Mer- cury. C 2 H 3 Hg. A base supposed to exist in union with iodine, when iodide of methyle and mercury are exposed to sunlight. Hydrarsinc. A mixture of cacodylic acid and cacodylate of oxide of cacodyle. Hydrate (vSo/e, water). A compound of a substance with water. Hydride. Hydruret. Ilydret. A com- pound of hydrogen with a metal or organic radical. Hydvindine. C 32 H 13 N 2 O 5 . Yellow crys- talline body, resolved by heat into 2 indine 2(C 16 H 6 lSr,0 2 ) and water. Obtained by heat- ing indine, sulphasatyde, or isatyde, with pot- ash. Hydriodic Acid. See IODOHYDRIC ACID. Hydroaloetic Acid. C 14 H 4 N 2 O n . Dark violet powder formed by the action of water and protochloride of tin on aloetic or chrysamic acid. Hydrobenzamidc. C 42 H 18 N" 2 . F.P. t 230. 8-hedrons or rhombic prisms, without taste, smell, or colour; insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, slightly soluble in ether ; converted by HC1 into hydride of benzoyle and salammo- niac. Obtained by acting on 3 hydride of ben- zoyle or oil of bitter almonds with 2 ammonia, in a stoppered bottle, at 105 to 120. Hydrobeaizoinamidc. White powder, isomeric with the preceding by heating benzoine and ammonia. Xlydroboracite. Hydrous Calcareo - libe- rate of Magnesia. Spec. grav. 1-9, H 2-, 3 CaO 4BO 3 3 MgO 4B0 3 18 HO. White fibres and plates resembling gypsum, spotted with red sesquisilicate of iron. CaO 13-519, MgO 10-57, BO 3 49-571, HO 26-33. Caucasus. Hydrobromic Acid. See BROMINE. Hydrocarbon. Compounds of equal pro- portions of these elements. Hydrochlorates, or Chlorobydrides. Com- pounds of hydrochloric or chlorohydric acid with oxides. 284 HYD Hydrochloric Acid. Chlorohydric Acid. Muriatic Acid. Spirit of Salt. Marine Acid. Vols. Sp. Grav. Atom. ^y^ Per Cent. Chlorine, & 1-22 1 4-43?' 97-26 Hydrogen, ... J ' 0-0346 1 -125 2-74 1-2546 4-562 Physical Characters. A colourless gas, elas- tic, like common air, with a peculiar smell and very sour taste. Water absorbs it with great avidity, so that it can only be preserved over mercury. It smokes in the air by uniting with water. No combustible body will burn in it. and it destroys life when an attempt is made to respire it ; indeed it cannot be introduced into the lungs, the glottis being spasmodically closed whenever it comes in contact with this gas. When compressed by 40 atmosphere's at 50, it becomes a colourless fluid of specific gravity 1-27 (Faraday, Phil. Trans. 1826, 544). It even liquefies under the pressure of a single atmosphere when placed in a vacuum with solid carbonic acid and ether, Preparation. 1. Chlorohydric acid gas is ob- tained by mixing equal volumes of hydrogen and chlorine in a strong bottle. On bringing a taper to the mouth of the bottle an explosion occurs, the gases unite, and chlorohydric acid is formed equal in volume to the two gases. It was first observed by Gay Lussac and Thenard, and at the same time by Dalton, that this union is effected by the agency of the light of the sun in a strong tube (Rech. Phys.-Chimiques, 2,129), but not in a dark place. Although the experiment was first made by the French chemists, the true explana- tion was first given by Sir H. Davy. When the same gaseous mixture is fired by electricity, union occurs. Davy ascertained that a mixture of chlorine and hydrogen burns at a much lower temperature, and produces a greater degree of jheat during the combustion, than oxygen and iiydrogen gases. These last gases ceased to ex- plode when rarefied 18 times. But the mixture of chlorine and hydrogen still burns when rarefied 24 times. 2. When 7-308 of common salt (NaCl are heated in a retort with 6-125 sulphuric acid) chlorohydric gas comes over, and may be col- lected over mercury (NaCl,HOSO 3 =: HCl,NaO S0 3 ). Sulphate of soda or glauber salt remains in the retort, and chlorohydric acid gas is evolved. Chemical Characters. When oxygen is mixed with chlorohydric acid, and electric sparks are passed through the mixture, water is formed and chlorine set free (HC1 and becoming HO and Cl). When electric sparks are passed through the pure gas, a part is decomposed into hydrogen arid chlorine. Spongy platinum, Avhen heated Avith this gas mixed with oxygen, forms water and chlorine. Dry chlorohydric and sulphurous acid, decompose each othei", and form chlorine, sulphur, and water. Some metals decompose chlorohydric acid gas, either at common or elevated tempera- HYD tures, as potassium, zinc, tin, mercury, and iron, setting Iiydrogen free, and being converted into chlorides. Some metallic oxides, as oxides of silver and lead, form chlorides and water. Caus- tic barytes and strontian, when heated in chlo- rohydric acid, become red hot ; and lime evolves much heat. It has no action on non-metallic- bodies. Silver decomposes it at a high tempera- ture. Analysis. If we take a tube bent into the form of a retort, fill it with mercury, re- place the mercury by dry chlorohydric acid gas, and let up a globule of potassium on the end of a platinum wire into the gas, and apply heat to the potassium, the gas is decomposed, the chlorine unites with the potassium, and the hydrogen is liberated. When the gas has cooled it will be found to have decreased by one-half its bulk, proving that every volume of chlorohydric acid contained half a volume of each element. Practical Applications. Guyton de Morveau, in 1773, recommended muriatic acid gas as a disinfecting agent, and employ edit at Dijon, and in Paris. He considered 10 ounces of common salt, and 8 of sulphuric acid sufficient to disinfect a ward of twenty beds. This gas has also been used in the treatment of malignant cancer of the face by Zugeubiihler. Chlorohydric Acid in Water. When chloro- hj'dric acid gas is allowed to escape into the air, it becomes visible in the form of a cloud ; the gas- combines with the watery vapour which always exists in the atmosphere, and the resulting com- pound, possessing a feebler tension than pure aqueous vapour, is consequently deposited in the form of a cloud. When a piece of charcoal soaked - in water is introduced into a tube containing this gas inverted over mercury, the gas is absorbed, and the tube speedily filled with mercury; if air be mixed with the gas, the absorption is very much retarded. Water at 32 dissolves 500 times its volume of chlorohydric acid gas ; the solution possesses a spec. grav. of 1-2109, and contains 6 atoms water. When this is exposed to the air, it smokes, loses half its acid, and then contains 12 atoms of water (HC1 12 HO), having a spec, grav. of 1-128 at 60, and boiling at 220 ; the solubility diminishes with the temperature of the water. 100 cubic inches of water at 69, are capable of absorbing 41,782 cubic inches of gas ; sthe liquid acquires the specific gravity 1-1958, and expands to 134-38 cubic inches. It contains 40-39 per cent, of acid, and 59-61 of water (Thomson). This condensation is accompanied 285 HYD with a powerful evolution of heat, which must be absorbed by ice-cold water, or cold water constantly flowing over the condenser. In the Laboratory. Chlorohydric acid may be formed by mixing in a retort or flask 1\ parts com- mon salt, 9-2 sulphuric acid, and 2 parts of water ; the beak of the retort or flask passes into a Wolfe's bottle containing a small portion of water in the bottom for the purpose of washing HYD the gas; a second "Wolfe's bottle is connected to the first by a tube which dips into water oc- cupying the lower half of the bottle ; other bottles are connected in a similar manner. Each bottle is supplied with a safety tube which passes from the air just under the surface of the water by a central aperture in each bottle. The object of this tube is to prevent the water in one bottle from rushing into that which precedes it, when, tjy'the rapidity of absorption, a vacuum has been formed in any part of the connected apparatus. Instead of this form, a Welter's tube may be in- troduced between the first and second bottles. Commercial Acid. 1. A great source of the muriatic acid of commerce is the preparation of the sulphate of soda for the ultimate production of carbonate of soda, in the soda manufacture. Common salt and sulphuric acid are intro- duced into a pan and strongly heated. An action identical with that previously described occurs ; sulphate of soda is formed and chloro- hydric acid set free, which passes up a tower filled with coke, through which a current of water trickles from a reservoir placed at the summit of the tower. The gas meeting the current of water is condensed, and carried into ap- propriate receivers. As thus pre- pared it is very impure, being mixed with sulphuric acid, &c. which may be got rid of by distilling the acid, previously adding some chloride of barium to retain the sulphuric acid. 2. In a purer state chlorohydric acid is manufactured on the large scale by introducing the common salt into a cast iron cylinder, e, which is closed at one extremity with a circular mouthpiece, a, &, of siliceous sandstone luted on with lime. At the other extremity is attached a tube, cZ, for the evolution of the gas. The sulphuric acid is run in by an aperture, k, in the cylinder, and heat applied below; the gas passes into stoneware con- densers or carboys, A, which are half filled with water. The cylinders 286 HYD are often placed in pairs, so as to be heated by one furnace. The cylinders are about 5 3 feet long, l to 2 feet in diameter, and ^ inch thick, and are capable of containing 179 Ibs. and up- wards of common salt. Upon this are run in about 148 Ibs. of oil of vitriol of spec. grav. 1-80. Mr. W. Ely the recommends the follow- ing proportions : common salt GOO Ibs., oil of vitriol (1-750) 700 Ibs. Characters. Liquid chlorohydric acid, or the solution of the gas in water, should be colourless, if pure. The yellow colour of the commercial acid is frequently due to the presence of chloride of iron derived from the still. When that is the cause the acid gives a blue with yellow prussiate of potash. A colour may be communicated by organic mat- ter, as cork, straw, &c. As the colour disappears on placing a piece of metallic tin in the acid, it may be due to bromine (Thom- son). Chlorohydric acid boils at a low temperature. Acid of spec. grav. 1-203 boils at 107. Hence it may be easily boiled over when mixed with sulphuric or nitric acids. The strongest acid of 1-21 consists of HC1 6HO, and by exposure to the air becomes HC1 12HO losing acid, and then has a spec. grav. of 1-128 (Bineau), boiling at 222. A solution of chlorohydric acid, when dis- tilled, gives off much acid at first, but its boiling point speedily becomes constant at 230, with a HYD of mercury and hydrochloric acid, and to fit to the beak of the retort a glass tube 2 feet in length, and /oth of an inch wide ; the first third of the tube is filled with fragments of marble, to saturate any HC1 which might pass over, and the re- mainder of the tube occupied with chloride of calcium, to abstract the water from the hydrocy- anic acid. To the extremity of the tube, a small receiver surrounded with a freezing mixture is adapted; a moderate heat is then applied to the retort; the acid passes over and condenses at first on the marble; but it can be easily removed by a gentle heat, and caused to pass over the chloride of calcium into the receiver. 2. Traut- wein recommends for obtaining the strongest acid, to distil with a gentle heat in a retort, 15 parts of finely powdered ferrocyanide of potassium (yel- low prussiate of potash), with 9 parts of oil of a Flask with HgCy and HC1. b Portion of tube filled with marble. c Portion of tube filled with CuCl, conducting into the curved tube surrounded by freezing mixture in a beaker. spec. grav. of 1-094, the formula being HC1 16HO. There are thus 3 hydrates of chlorohydric acid, containing respectively 6, 12, and 16 atoms water. The following table by Dr. T. Thomson gives the strength of hydrochloric acid with different proportions of water : Atoms of Water to 1 Acid. Dry Acid Per Cent. Spec. Grav. 6 40-66 1-203 7 37-00 1-179 8 33-95 1-162 9 31-35 1-149 10 29-13 1-139 11 27-21 1-1285 12 25-52 1-1197 13 24-03 1-1127 14 22-70 ... . 1-1060 15 21-512 1-1008 16 20-442 1-0960 17 19-474 1-0902 18 18-590 1-0860 19 17-790 1-0820 20 17-051 1-0780 Hydrocyanic Acid, Cyanohydric acid,Prussic or Prussian acid, Berlin Blue acid. HCyS'375. Preparation. 1. The method of Gay Lussac for the preparation of this acid, is to place in a small tubulated retort or flask a mixture of cyanide vitriol (HOSOs), and 9 parts of water. The distilled liquor is to be collected in a strong re- ceiver (placed in a freezing mixture), which con- tains 5 parts of chloride of calcium in large pieces; the distillation may be stopped when the CaCl is covered with the liquid. The latter is then to be poured into a well-stoppered bottle. Characters. Hydrocyanic acid prepared by the preceding methods is a colourless liquid, hav- ing a strong smell, similar to that of peach blos- soms. The taste is sharp, and at first cooling ; but it gradually produces a sensation of burning in the mouth, and acts as a powerful poison. Its specific gravity at 44^ is -7058, and at 64|, 6969. It boils at the temperature of 79-7 and congeals at 5, assuming then the appearance of prisms like nitrate of ammonia. The spec. grav. of its vapour, according to Gay Lussac, is -9476. This corresponds nearly with the following com- position : Vols. Atoms W. S. G. Carbon, 1 1-50 -4160 Nitrogen, |- 1'75 -4861 Hydrogen, -125 -0346 Atoms W. 1-50 1-75 125 3-375 100- Hydrocyanic acid scarcely reddens litmus paper. When fired it burns with great facility, with a 287 MID white flame. If 1 vol. of the vapour of the acid be mixed with l oxygen, it detonates when electric sparks are passed through it, and pro- duces 1 vol. carbonic acid, and $ vol. nitrogen ; the remaining vol. oxygen combining with ^ vol. hydrogen. Anhydrous hydrocyanic acid decomposes rapidly even when kept in a dark place, sometimes in a few hours, at other times it may be preserved for several weeks without change. Hydrous Hydrocyanic Acid, Medicinal Prussia Acid. 1. Scheele's method, improved by Geiger, consists in distilling 4 parts crystallized ferrocy- anide of potassium with 18 parts of water, and 2 parts of oil of vitriol (HOSO-3, specific gravity 1-842). In the receiver 20 parts of water are placed, and the distillation is carried on until the quantity of liquid in the receiver amounts to 38 parts. The distillation should be conducted by the aid of a chloride of calcium bath. 2. Clark's method consists in dissolving in a stoppered bottle 8|- drachms of pure cyanide of potassium in 100 drachms of water, adding to the solution 18 1 drachms of crystallized tartaric acid previ- ously dissolved in 20 drachms of water; double decomposition ensues ; bitartrate of potash falls, and 120 drachms of water remain, holding in solution 2 '81 per cent, of hydrocyanic acid. The action in this process is exhibited in the follow- ing scheme : ^ HO/ KCy, C 8 H 4 10 = HCy, KO C 8 H 4 10 This solution contains in the ounce from 2-|- to 3 grains of bitartrate of potash (cream of tartar). The dose for medicinal purposes is 8 to 10 drops. The addition of a little alcohol tends to preserve it. 2. The London pharmacopoeia formerly directed extemporaneous acid to be prepared from the cy- anide of silver, by decomposing it by means of hydrochloric acid. A fluid ounce of distilled water was placed in a stoppered phial, and to it were added 48^ grains cyanide of silver, with 39^ grs. hydrochloric acid. Tests. Whenever hydrocyanic acid is pre- pared by distillation, in consequence of the vola- tility of the acid it always varies in its strength. It is therefore necessary to determine the strength of the acid after it has been obtained by distillation. A simple method is to dissolve 6-3 grains of nitrate of silver in an ounce of distilled water, to which is added some ammonia, and to add hydrocyanic acid from a gra- duated measure in drachms, drop by drop, agi- tating between each addition until the silver Is completely precipitated. Note the quantity of acid used ; it contained exactly a grain of dry hydrocyanic acid. By weighing the acid before and after the experiment, we can determine with accuracy the per centage by weight of prussic acid present, and then by simple proportion, the quantity of water to be added to bring it to any strength may be calculated. But for medicinal HYD purposes, the acid prepared by Dr. Clark's me- thod will be found the best in practice, provided the cyanide of potassium be pure, and it can be now obtained genuine prepared by various makers. The cyanide when dissolved in water, should not effervesce when mixed with acetic acid. Per- fectly pure hydrocyanic acid should leave no re- sidue when evaporated to dryness. Clark's acid contains, unless alcohol be added, about 3 grains in the ounce of cream of tartar. It should not become black, nor be precipitated by sulphohydric acid. It should be colourless like water. When quite pure it deposits a dark sediment in conse- quence of decomposition ; but if a minute portion of sulphuric or chlorohydric acid be present, the decomposition is prevented, or a similar object may be attained by adding a small portion of alcohol. The most permanent acid which I have met with, is that prepared by Clark's process, with the addition of a little alcohol. I have preserved it for many years without any decom- position whatever. The presence of sulphuric acid mav be detected by chloride of barium, and that of chlorohydric acid by precipitating by ni- trate of silver, and boiling the precipitate with nitric acid; if the precipitate does not disappear, the conclusion may be drawn that chlorohydric acid is present. These acids may be removed by rectifying the hydrocyanic acid containing- them, over carbonate of lime or chalk. Antidotes. Hydrocyanic acid is one of the most powerful poisons with which we are ac- quainted ; a single drop of the concentrated acid when applied to the eye of an animal, producing; very rapid death preceded by violent convulsions. When a weak dose of this acid has been adminis- tered the symptoms are merely giddiness, slow pulse, and other signs of weakness, or anaesthesia. When the dose is larger, however, these appear- ances are aggravated and convulsions occur, in which the head is drawn backwards towards the heels, a scream or peculiar cry is generally uttered, and death occurs with great rapidity. I have never found birds when the acid of 2^ per cent, has been introduced into the mouth to the extent of a few drops, begin to be aftected until after the expiration of fifteen seconds. Dashing cold water on the patient has been found a successful restorative, and I have ob- served that bleeding in the lower animals gave immediate relief, when used within a few seconds of the assumption of the poison. Mode of detecting Hydrocyanic acid when taken into the system. On opening the stomach of a per- son who has swallowed any considerable quantity of prussic acid, the peculiar odour is generally distinctly perceptible. I have even been able to- distinguish it in the blood vessels of the extremi- ties, and above all in the brain ; but if the body has undergone any amount of decomposition, the odour of the prussic acid may be obscured by sulphuretted hydrogen, and the smells evolved by the mass of decomposition. Generally, how- 288 HYD ever, it appears that when the body is recent the odour of the acid in the situations enumerated is recognizable, and besides it is often perceptible at the mouth, where commonly a quantity of frothy mucus is protruded, engendered during the violent struggling of the victim. To obtain the acid, a portion of cold distilled water is to be added to the contents of the stomach, and the whole carefully filtered, as much as possible un- der cover, to prevent the volatilization of the acid. The filtered liquor is to be distilled in a water bath. If hydrocyanic acid is present it may be recognized (1), by its smell; (2), by the liquid giving a precipitate with nitrate of silver (cyanide of silver), soluble only in nitric acid when boiled, with the evolution of prussic acid which may be distilled over; (3), by its forming a white precipitate with a salt of copper {cyanide of copper) ; (4), add to the suspected fluid a few drops of a solution of decomposing copperas (which contains both peroxide and pro- toxide of iron) ; neutralize by a few drops of ammonia or caustic soda, and then add a few drops of hydrochloric acid so as to render it acid, Prussian bine falls; (5), add to the suspected liquor in a test-tube, half a drachm of sulpho- hydride of ammonia, and a few grains of flowers of sulphur. Boil till the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen disappears. Filter the solution, and add a drop of it to a solution of sesquichloride of iron : a blood-red sulphocyanide of iron forms (Liebig); (6), by its destroying a bird in a state of convulsions when a few drops are intro- duced into its mouth. Mydrocynno-harmaline. C^j^H-i^z^^ HCv. Rhombic plates, decomposed at 356 into harmaline and prussic acid; by HCy on harma- line. Ifydrofcrridcyanic Acid. See FERRID- CYANOGEN. II vIi of< rrooynnic Acid. See FERRO- CYANOGEX. Hydrofluoric Acid. See FL,UOIYDRIC ACID. Ifydrogcn. Source. Hydrogen constitutes one-ninth part by weight of water. It exists likewise abundantly in vegetable and animal sub- stances. Physical Characters. Hydrogen possesses the mechanical properties of common air ; it has no taste, colour, nor smell. It is the lightest body in nature. Its specific gravity has been found -0732 (Biot and Arago, Mem. del'Institut. 1806, 320), -0694 (Prout, Ann. Phil. 6,322), -0693 (Thomson, An. Phil. 16,168), -0688 (Berzelius and Dulong, An. Claim. 15,386), -0693 (Dumas), -06926 (Ttegnault). By theory' -5528 X '125 = 06911. It is nearly 16 times lighter than oxygen, and 14 J times lighter than air. Its lightness may be exhibited, by filling a blad- der with hydrogen, and affixing a tobacco pipe to it: plunge the bowl of the pipe into a, lather of soap, and press out the hydrogen HYD so as to form soap bubbles filled with hydrogen. These are so light that they rise in the air. Dr. Black seems to have first suggested the employ- ment of hydrogen to fill balloons (Thomson's Hist. Chemistry, vol.ii.), about 1767-68. In 1782, Mr. Cavallo read a paper on aerostation to the Royal Society ; but the first voyage made hi a hydrogen balloon was that of Messrs. Roberts and Charles of Paris, 27 August, 1783. For illustrating this experiment small balloons are made of goldbeaters' skin. The balloon is filled from a jar with an opening at the top, supplied with a stop-cock ; the balloon is tied on to this, a portion of cotton being placed in the tube to prevent water from being projected into the balloon. These balloons should not be moistened, otherwise they readily tear. On the 8th October, 1776, Macquer, and Sigaud de Lafond, collected the product of the combustion of inflammable air in common air, upon a porcelain saucer, and observed that no soot was deposited, but a clear liquor like water. 100 cubic inches weigh, . according to Regnault's specific gravity (100 cubic niches of air weighing 30*945 grains), 2-13324 grams, at 30 inches pressure, and GO temperature. Its refractory power is '47, that of air being 1- (Dulong, Am Chun. 31,1176); and hence, considering its lightness, it refracts light more powerfully than any other gas. 100 vols. of boiled water absorb l - 53 vols. of hydrogen gas (Dr. Henry, Phil. Trans. 1803, 274), and alco- hol 5-1? (Saussure, An. Phil. 6, 340). A pres- sure of 1000 atmospheres has no effect in con- densing hydrogen gas. The intensity of sound diminishes with the rarefaction of the medium in which it is produced ; but in hydrogen it is much greater than could have been anticipated. Even hydrogen, when mixed with common air, blunts the sound. Sound moves at least thrice as fast in hydrogen as in common air. Preparation. The source of hydrogen, by whatever process it is prepared, is water, which, according to the synthetic experiment of Warl- tire as explained bv Watt (1781), and demon- strated by Cavendish (1781), consists of oxygen and hydrogen. 1. By electricity from water. 289 HYD Hydrogen is obtained in the experiment, by which we prove by analysis, that water is composed of oxygen and hydrogen. One or two tubes filled with water, in which some common salt is dissolved to render its conducting power greater, are inverted over two platinum wires connected with the two wires of a battery. The tube in contact with the negative pole of the bat- tery, is speedily filled with hydrogen, while the tube at the positive pole is only half filled with oxygen. 2. By potassium from water. If we rub up mercury and potassium in HYD a mortar into an amalgam, and introduce the mixture into an inverted tube filled with water, hydrogen is evolved which has no smell (HO and K = H and KO) (Berzelius). 3. By passing steam over red hot iron. An economical method of preparing a large amount of hydrogen, is to convert water in a retort or flask, into steam, by means of a lamp or fire placed beneath; the steam passes through an iron tube, o, &, par- tially filled with iron filings kept at a red heat in a furnace. The retort or flask is fitted into the iron tube by means of a cork, and cemented by pipeclay. An educt bent tube, c, d, conveys the gas at the other end into an inverted vessel filled with water in a pneumatic trough. The steam, on coming in contact with the ignited iron filings, yields up its oxygen to the iron, while the hydrogen is set free, and dis- places the water in the inverted jar, 4 atoms of water and 3 of iron giving out 4 atoms of hydro- gen, and yielding 1 atom of magnetic oxide of iron (4 HO and 3 Fe 4 H and Fe 3 4 or FeO, Fe 2 3 ). 4. From zinc and sulphuric acid. The most convenient method of preparing hydrogen gas is to pour upon zinc filings, in a retort or Wolf's bottle, sulphuric acid, and 8 times its bulk of water. Any of the glass apparatus, described under GAS PREPARATION, may be employed. The hydrogen is evolved in large quantities, while the oxygen unites with the zinc, forming oxide of zinc ; and this oxide again combines with the sulphuric acid, producing sulphate of zinc. Vater. Sulphuric acid. Zinc. 25 1- 5 4-125 I S0 3 Zn II ZnOS0 3 -125 Hydrogen. 10-125 Sulphate of Zinc. For the zinc, iron filings may be substituted, but in this case, the hydrogen is very impure. Chemical Characters. 1. Hydrogen extin- guishes a candle when immersed in it, but the. gas takes fire at the mouth of the bottle in which it is contained, burning at the expense of the oxygen of the air, and forming water. It is there- fore a combustible body, and not a supporter of combustion. This may be shown comparatively with oxygen by inverting a bottle of oxygen over a candle ; the candle in- creases in brilliancy of illumination ; and then a bottle of hydrogen in the same way; the candle is ex- tinguished, but the hydro- gen takes fire, and burns at the mouth of the bottle. 2. Its lightness, and com- bustibility, may be exhibited by placing the mouth of an inverted jar filled with common air, over the mouth of a jar filled with hydro- gen. In a few seconds the gas in each will be found to explode when a taper, or red hot iron, is brought in contact with it. This experiment also affords an illustration of the diffusion or transposition of gases, since the light hydrogen mixes instantaneously with the heavier common air placed above it. The rapidity of the dispersion is proportionate to the light- ness of the gases (Priestley). 3. When a small flask is fitted with a perforated cork and capillary 290 HYD tube, and hydrogen is generated in the flask from water, sulphuric acid, and zinc ; after wait- ing till the common air Jhas been replaced by the hydrogen, ignite the hydrogen arising from the capillary jet ; it will then be found that if a long tube be inserted over the lamp musical notes will be heard, varying in tone according to the length of the tube (Dr. Higgins, 1777, Nicholson's Journ. 1, 130). The cause of these sounds was first explained by Mr. Faraday, who showed that small successive explosions take place in the tube by the rapid union of mixed portions of air and hydrogen. These explo- sions occur so rapidly that they produce a con- tinuous sound. 4. The influence of hydrogen in producing heat is shown by a simple experi- ment. Take a phial or flask supplied with a rectangular tube terminating in a capillary open- ing, insert the other end in a perforated cork, and disengaging hydrogen in the flask, secure the cork and tube in its mouth, then cause the hyd- rogen arising from the capillary extremity to play on some previously heated spongy platinum placed on a stand (Db'bereiner) ; the platinum speedily becomes red hot, and will ignite paper immersed in ether. A simple apparatus frequently used HYD consists of a gas lamp chimney, f, inverted, and suspended from a metallic lid in a jar, a, sur- rounding a piece of zinc, z, also suspended. Into the jar is introduced diluted sulphuric acid, which acting on the zinc, evolves hydrogen. This gas fills the lamp chimney, and on touching the valve, c, inserted in the lid, the hydrogen escapes by a jet, &, and is projected on spongy platinum placed opposite to it in a holder, d. Applications. Hydrogen was used at the commencement of aerostation to fill balloons, but its employment has been superseded by that of coal gas. Notwithstanding the greater density of coal gas, its greater cheapness renders it more available. Hydrogen is principally applied in the laboratory to deoxidize or remove oxygen from metallic oxides. Analysis. The quantity of hydrogen in a mixture is determined by introducing into a tube over mercury the mixed gas, and then an excess of oxygen, noting the amount of the gases, then transferring it to a eudiometer, q.v., firing it by elec- tricity, and returning it to the tube, and noting the amount of diminution; two-thirds of the gas- which has disappeared was hydrogen, and the remaining one-third oxygen. Mydrolcic Acid. C 3r ,H 34 4 HO. Yellowish oil, by the action of oil of vitriol on oleic oil ; it is soluble in cold alcohol. Hydrolitc. See SARCOLITK. Hydromnrgaric Acid. C 3 4lI 35 5 HO-}- C 34 H 33 3 HO? Milk-white and solid; fusing at 140; by the action of sulphuric acid on mar- garine. Ilydromargaritic Acid. C 34 H 34 O 4 HO? Colourless prisms, insoluble in water ; soluble in ether and hot alcohol; found along with the preceding, and hydroleic acid, &c. by the action of oil of vitriol. Hy0n 6-9, MgO 36-3, CO 2 10-54, HO 32-06. Snarum, Norway. If ydrothionic Acid. A synonyme of sul- phuretted hydrogen. Hydrous. Bodies containing combined wa- ter are said to be hydrous. HycCnrilic Acid. C^B^N^On. White powder in needles ; insoluble in cold water and alcohol ; soluble in hot water ; obtained by eva- porating gently the mother liquor from alloxane. Hygroscopic. The tendency to absorb wa- ter from the atmosphere. Hyocfeolalic Acid. C 5 qH 40 O 8 . Soluble in alcohol and ether ; insoluble in water ; obtained by boiling hyocholic acid with alkalies. IlyochoJesc Acid. C 54 H 46 Nq i2 S 2 ? An acid occurring along with the following, but not yet sufficiently examined. Ilyocfoolic Acid. C54H 43 lsrO 1 o. Consists of hyocholalic acid and glycycoll. F.P. above 248; white or yellow resin, becoming soft and silky in boiling water ; soluble in acids, and reprecipitated by water; soluble in alkalies, slightly soluble in ether, soluble in alcohol ; ob- tained from pig's bile, by evaporating to dryness in a water bath, dissolving in absolute alcohol, decolourizing by charcoal; precipitating by ether, the hyocholate of soda falling. The hyocholate is dissolved in water and precipitated by acetic acid. The precipitate is washed in water, dis- solved in alcohol, and precipitated by water and dried. Slyoscyamiiic. Silky needles, alkaline, nar- cotic ; dilates the pupil ; not decomposed by the air; sublime's partially; obtained from the seeds of Byoscyarwe niyer, by hot alcohol with 2 per 292 HYP cent, of sulphuric acid; filtering, neutralizing with lime, adding a slight excess of sulphuric acid, and distilling off the alcohol ; diluting the residue with water, and adding carbonate of pot- ash. It is then washed several times with ether, which takes up the hyoscyamine. Hypargite. A synonyme of red silver ore. Hyper, (^e, above.) Hyperchloric Acid. Perchloric Acid. C1O 7 . White crystalline solid, in 4-sided prisms, very deliquescent ; by decomposing per- chlorate of potash with sulphuric acid. Hyperite. A syenite in which the felspar is replaced by labradorite, and the hornblende by hypersthene. Hypcrmnngaiiic Acid. Permanganic acid. MnoOf. A blood-red solution, obtained by de- composing manganate of barytes by sulphuric, or carbonic acid. Hypcroxymuriatic Acid. A synonyme of chloric acid. Ilypcrsthcnc. (y*i$, above; mmis, &c. ; the inuline separates from the water on cooling. Io;, I IF,.,. White crystalline ponder. pri>ms. and S-liedrons. Iodide*. The combinations of iodine with bases bear this name. They resemble chlorides and bromides in many respects. The alkaline iodides IOD and bromides are anhydrous, and crystallize in cubes. The bromide of silver is similar to the iodide of silver, but it is soluble in ammonia. Iodides are precipitated red by corrosive subli- mate, and yellow by salts of lead. They are de- composed by chlorine which sets the iodine free ; the addition of starch then gives a blue colour,' but an excess of chlorine converts the iodine into iodohydric acid, which does not precipitate starch. Uses. Iodine is used in medicine when dis- solved in alcohol. It is also used extensively for the same purpose in the form of iodide of potassium, and it is said is now employed on the continent in the arts. When an overdose of it has been taken, the best antidote is iron filings. lodic Add (I0 5 20-75). If we boil 80 parts of iodine, 75 chlorate of potash, 1 nitric acid, and 400 water in a flask, for some time, and then add nitrate of barytes, a precipitate of iodate of barytes falls. The iodate of barytes is washed two or three times with water by decantation. It is then boiled for half-an-hour with 40 parts of S0 3 di- luted with 150 parts of water. It is filtered and evaporated. On cooling the iodic acid is ob- tained in the form of a white crystalline powder, or in G-sided crystalline plates, which appear to be segments of an octahedron; without smell; sour astringent taste ; heavier than sulphuric acid, very soluble in water ; with a solution of morphia, gives a reddish-brown colour, from which starch precipitates iodine. The iodates closely resemble the chlorates. Test. Oxygen is evolved when the acid is heat- .ed, and iodine dropped. Sulphurous acid evolves iodine, which may be detected by starch. There are various other oxygen acids of iodine of no peculiar interest, except from their analogy to the chlorine compounds, as hypoiodic acid (I0 4 ), periodic acid (10 7), the former obtained by heat- ing iodic acid with S0 3 in a crucible, and the latter by heating iodate of soda with hypochlorite of soda. Iodine. I 15-75, 15-887, 126-, 127-. (fcfcjr, violet). Source. Iodine, besides being derived from the ashes of sea- weeds, is found also in na- ture united with metals, as iodides of mercury, silver, and in the white lead ore of Catorce, and in the zinc ore of Silesia. Characters. Specific gravity 4-948 (Gay Lussac); of its vapour 8-678 to 8-716 (Gay Lussac and Dumas, An. Chim. 91, 17; 33, 346); (theory -5528 X 15-75 = 8-706) ; specific heat 0-05412; 100 cubic inches weigh 2 7 0| grains. Its colour is grayish-black, when pure in the form of scales, or when crystallized in acute rhombic 8-hedrons, the axes of which are to each other as 2, 3, and 4 (Wollaston, An. Phil. 5, 237) ; somewhat similar to the pris- matic form of sulphur. . It sometimes occurs as double 6-sided pyra- mids (Plisson and Soubeiran). When volatil- ized it deposits usually in plates, but when dis- 298 IOD solved in a solution of iodohydric acid in water, or in ether, it may be obtained in crystals. It is very soft and friable. It melts at 224^, and boiling, volatilizes between 347 and 356 with a fine violet colour (Gay Lussac, An. Chim. 91, 7); but like essential oils when mixed with water and the liquid boiled, it may be distilled over with the water; non-conductor of electricity. Odour similar to that of chlorine, though weaker. Taste acrid and hot. It acts as a poison (Orfila, Toxicol. 1, 290). Lik^ chlorine it destroys vegetable colours such as sulphate of indigo, but with less energy. It stains the skin of a deep yellow colour which speedily disappears. Paper is permanently corroded by iodine. Soluble in 7,000 parts of water, forming a yellow solution which has the smell of iodine ; its solubility in water is promoted by the presence of iodides ; in 9 parts of alcohol, spec. grav. -842. When kept, the alcohol is reacted on by the iodine, and ac- quires a peculiar smell, while iodohydric acid is formed. Preparation of Iodine from Kelp or ashes of sea-iveeds. See KELP. 1. The kelp broken into pieces is introduced into cast iron vats or keaves, and digested in water for twelve hours ; the solu- tion is then run off and fresh water is added. Earthy salts remain undissolved. 2. It is then placed in a boiler and concentrated to 60 Twad- dell (1-300). Sulphate and muriate of soda fall, and may be removed occasionally. >This con- centrated fluid when run off into a cooler, deposits muriate of potash on its sides during five days. 3. The fluid is drawn off and boiled down to 68 Twaddell (1-340) when it deposits sulphate, muriate, and carbonate of soda. When run into a cooler it again deposits muriate of potash. 4. It is again placed in a boiler and brought to 74 Twaddell (1-370), when it deposits sulphate, mu- riate, and carbonate of soda, with, on cooling, muriate of potash. The latter is used in alum- making, and the carbonate of soda is sold to soap-makers. Sometimes the liquor is brought up to 74 Twaddell (1-370) at once. The con- centrated liquor is then saturated with sulphuric acid of 1-700 spec. grav. (140 Twaddell), and allowed to stand from one to two days, till the sulphur from the oxysulphurous acids collects on the top. The iodine retort is filled to three- fourths. The fluid is brought up to near the boiling point but is not boiled, otherwise the con- densers would be filled with steam (Meldrum). The usual iodine still is an iron vessel, either lined with lead or without this precaution, covered by a lead or iron top or by a dome, which termi- nates in a tube conducting into receivers in which the iodine condenses. This is shown in the figure. Sometimes there are three or more sets of receivers communicating with the still, by as many tubes passing through the lid or into the dome. The liquor, by the action of the sulphuric acid, loses sulphohydric, chlorohydric, carbonic, and sulphurous acids, while sulphur, from the IOD decomposed hyposulphites and sulphides, collects on the top (Macintosh) ; but no iodine escapes if the acid has not been added in too great quantity, as the iodine being united with the metal, sodium, cannot be evolved without being displaced bv oxygen. This is effected by the addition of bin- oxide of manganese, which is mixed with the liquor in the still (Wollaston, Ann. Phil. 3, 314, 1814), as explained by the following scheme: Nal Mn0 2 2 SO 3 =NaOS0 3 MnOS03l, and when an excess of acid is added, and heat applied pre- vious to the addition of manganese, iodine is given off, in consequence of the excess of acid yielding oxygen from the water which it contains, to unite with the sodium. When heat is applied to the still, the iodine passes over, but is often in union with chlorine, if the common salt of the solution has not previously been decomposed. Tins, together with inattention to the proper regulation of a moderate temperature, frequently causes a great diminution in the product. Test. The most delicate test for iodine, is starch. A solution of starch is made in boiling wa- ter, and added to the iodine solution. If the iodine is in a free state, and the fluids are cold, a blue col- our is immediately produced ; but if the iodine is in union with a base, no change occurs. It is necessary to add nitrous acid (Millon), or commercial nitric acid (Dr. A. Buchanan), which contains nitrous acid, when a colour appears ; or if stilphuric acid be added, a colour may not appear, as substances evolved by the sulphuric acid (as S0 2 and SH) may convert the iodine into iodohydric acid (HI), which does not precipitate starch. In this case it is advisable, after adding the acid, to hold over the mixed solution the mouth of an open bottle of chlorine gas, or chlorine water, when the blue colour appears at the surface proceeding dowmvards (Balard, An. Chim. 28, 178). If too much chlorine be added, it may convert the iodine into iodohydric acid, which does not affect starch. The blue precipitate is an iodide of starch. It may be formed by triturating starch with an excess of iodine, dissolving the mixture in potash, and then precipitating by acetic or tar- taric acid. It has been shown that starch acquires a perceptibly blue tinge when the iodine does not exceeed 4-7^00 of the li( l uid - Ifc is soluble in water of 150. On cooling, a portion of the 299 IOD iodine again falls; hut if the heating and cooling iiiently repeated, the cold solution at List remains colourless. Nitrate of silver gives with iodine a vellou ish curdy precipitate insoluble in nitric acid, and in caustic ammonia. When mixed with a chloride, and precipitated by nitrate of sil- ver, the iodide remains insoluble, on adding ammo- nia, and may be thrown on a filter. The chloride of silver passes through dissolved in ammonia; but reappears on adding an excess of nitric acid. Xatinuitton. The best method of determining the amount of iodine in kelp, and in mixed solu- ti-.ns, is to evaporate to dryness; exhaust the dry salts with alcohol so as to take up all the alkaline iodide. The alcoholic fluid is distilled down to an ounce and mixed with a few grains of carbonate of soda ; evaporated to dryness in a platinum crucible; the residue gently ignited t> destroy organic matter, dissolved in water and lilt i- red. The solution is carefully neutralized with chlorohydric acid, and precipitated by chloride of palladium, or potassium chloride of palladium. A blackish precipitate of iodide of palladium falls, which should be allowed to stand for twelve hours, when the supernatant liquor will be found quite clear. The precipitate is then thrown on a weighed lilter, washed; driedat 2 12 and weighed; 22-113 grains of this salt (6-663 Pd-f-15-75 I), contain 15-75 iodine, or 18 04.- contain 127-1 iodine. ledocodciue. Teriodide of Codeine. CM H 21 iNO G ,I 3 . Doubly-oblique prisms. lodocyanogcn. White needles by iodine on cyanides. lodoforin. Teriodide of Formyle. C 2 HI 3 . Yellow crystalline volatile solid body, obtained bv the reaction of alcohol, potash, and iodine. "lodohydric Acid. Hydriod-ic Acid. HI. 15-8875, 128. Spec. grav. 4-409 to 4-433. This, the heaviest known gas, is colourless, and smokes in the ah- ; is rapidly absorbed by water and de- composed by mercury ; prepared by heating in a tube 1 phosphorus, 16 iodine; covered with moistened powder of glass. A solution may be prepared by mixing 40 iodine, 40 finely divided vith 24 water, heating the mixture and agitating until the fluid has lost its smell, passing Bulphohydric acid through the solution until the f lead is decomposed (Pbl and SH = ] 'I >S ,uid HI), when iodohydric acid remains in so- lution. It fsjHjedily Ixvomes brown. lodolitc. A name given to an American rite. lodoli< T lic Acid. C 14 H 3 Q 4 I. By the action of iodine on hydride of salicyle. IRI lodostaimates. Compounds of iodide of tin with other iodides. lolite. (iov, a violet ; Ju0*, a stone.) Cor- dierite, Dichroite, Peliome, Steinheilite, Sapphire d'eau. Spec. grav. 2-5969 to 2-6643, H 7-. Various shades of blue, inclining to black, mas- sive or in regular 6-sided prisms, usually with the lateral edges replaced by tangent planes ; the terminal edges are frequently replaced by planes making angles of 137 46', with the correspond- ing lateral faces of the prism ; fracture conchoi- dal ; lustre vitreous translucent, sometimes trans- parent in the direction of the axis ; the colour is blue ; perpendicular to the axis it has a yellowish- gray colour. B.B. the edges fuse with difficulty into a glass of the same lustre as the mineral. Found at Cape de Gata; Bavaria; Greenland; Norway. Silica 49-62, AL,O 3 28-72, Mg08-64, CaO -228, FeO 11-58, MnO 1-508. Form. 3(MgO FeO) 2Si0 3 , SCAlgOsF^Ot) Si0 3 . lolitc Hydrous. H 3 -75. Greenish-brown or olive-green 6-sided prisms, the lateral edges replaced so as to form nearly a cylinder ; struc- ture straight, foliated, the plates at right angles to the axis of the prism ; cross fracture conchoidal ; lustre of the fracture talc-like, of the surface of the plates waxy. B.B. infusible. Found in granite/ at Abo, Finland. Silica 45-05, A1 2 3 30-05, MgO 9-, FeO 5-3, HO 10-6 ; allied to Finite. Ipecacuanha. The root of the Cephaelis ipecacuanha, containing from 1 to 16 percent, of emetine, the emetic principle for which this remedy is so extensively used in medicine. Ipomic Acid. See HYDRORHODEORETIXE. Iridescence. A display of colours similar to the rainboAV. Iridiocyanogen. Cy 3 Ir. Contained in the iridiocyanide of potassium, but not isolated; a salt in colourless crystals by the action of cyanide of potassium on protochloride of indium. Iridium. Tennant, 1803 (from iris, the rain- bow) Irl2-375;99-. Characters. White metal ; the least fusible of all metals. Spec. grav. 16-26 to- 23; resists the action of all acids ; very hard. Pro- cess. It exists in the black matter which remains on treating the ore of platinum, in Avhich it ex- ists to the extent of from 1 to 5 per cent, with nitro-hydrochloric acid. This matter is a com- pound of osmium and iridium. They are sepa- rated by fusing the black substance with potash in a silver crucible; dissolving the potash out with water, when the osmium is taken up of an orange colour. The residue is to be alternately treated with potash and HC1 till it dissolves. On the evaporation of the red chloride of iridium, the salt crystallizes in octahedrons. When a plate of iron or zinc is placed in the solution of this salt, the metal falls. Protoxide (IrO). Greenish-gray when moist, black when dry j obtained by precipitating IrCl by potash. Ses- gtttoxide (Iro0 3 ). Dark brown as hydrate, bluish-black when dry, formed by igniting the potash chloride of iridium with an alkaline car- 300 IRI bonate. Bitoxide (Ir0 2 ). Imperfectly exa- mined, but probably an acid. Teroxide (IrO 3 ?) brownish-yellow hydrate, formed by precipitating the double potash salt with an alkaline carbonate. The blue oxide is supposed to be composed of IrO and Ir 2 3 . Protochloride (IrCl). Formed by passing Cl over ignited iridium : forms double salts with the alkaline chlorides. Sesquichloride (Ir 2 Cl 3 ), obtained as a black mass by igniting iridium with nitre and digesting in HC1. Bi- chloride (IrCl 2 ), formed by dissolving the last chloride in nitric and hydrochloric acids; by evaporation it is reconverted into the sesquioxide. Ter chloride (IrCl 3 ) has only been obtained in union with chloride of potassium in black octahe- drons. Iodine unites with iridium, forming an iodide (Irl) a black powder ; it forms four com- binations with sulphur. Similar bases with am- monia seem to exist, as with platinum. Separation of Osmium and Iridium. The ore is dissolved in aqua regia, and both metals are pre- cipitated from the solution as double salts, by means of salammoniac. They are diffused in water, and through the mixture a current of sulphurous acid is passed. The chloride of iridium is decomposed into sesquichloride, which dissolves in the solu- tion, while the ammonium chloride of osmium is not decomposed, and remains undissolved in the solution when it contains much salammoniac. The solution deposits by evaporation crystals of ammonium sesquichloride of iridium, which, when carefully heated, yield metallic iridium in place of crystals. The double salt of osmium is heated in a current of hydrogen, and changed into metallic osmium. To obtain the metals in the first instance in solution, it is necessary to fuse them with three times their weight of nitre in a porcelain crucible, and ignite for an hour at a red heat. The mass is poured on a metallic plate, and it is necessary to avoid the action of the fumes of osmic acid on the skin ; a small amount of osmic acid is dissi- pated. The mass is heated in a retort with nitric acid, and the osmic acid condensed in a strong solution of potash. The residue of this distilla- tion being treated with water which takes up the nitre, contains still oxide of iridium, and a certain ( quantity of oxide of osmium. The two oxides are then dissolved in aqua regia, and treated as above. Eridosminc. Native Iridium. Spec. grav. 19-5 to 21-118, H 6 to 7. Tin- white irregular flattened grains or in 6-sided prisms, terminated by truncated 6-sided pyramids. There are 3 varieties: 1, flat plates, Ir Os, spec. grav. 19-25 ; 2d, in plates, spec. grav. 18-645 to 19-25, IrOs 3 ; 3d, very rare 6-sided plates, spec. grav. 21-118, Ir 084. This ore is found in South America and Siberia. Irite. Spec. grav. 6-506. Black magnetic grains or scales found in Ural with native plati- num, &c.; containing peroxide of,iridium 62-86, protoxide of osmium 10-3, FeO 12-5, sesquioxide of chromium 13-7. IRO Iron. Sources. Upwards of forty species of iron ores have been described. Iron occurs also in all rocks, into the constitution of which it usually enters as a base to silica. The most valuable ores of iron are the oxides and car- bonate. Metallic Iron. Fe 3-5; 28% Sp. grav. 7-645 (Shaw); 7-788(Brisson); 7-7 (Hatchett); 7-817 (Swedenburg); (7-6 Muschenbrceck, softened by heat); 7-763 (if hammered hot); 7-875 (Wasser- berg, hammered cold); 7-843 (T. Thomson); 7-79 (Karsten, soft bar iron). An iron wire of 0-078 inch diameter supports a weight of 449-34= Ibs. (Rennie, Phil. Trans. 1818, p. 126. See also Ann. Phil. 7, 320. Ann de Chim. 33,225). Grayish- white metal. Its cleavage is sometimes parallel to the faces of a cube, especially in iron plates heated to whiteness under the hearth of a blast furnace; and it has been observed in 8- hedrons in the hollows of a large cast iron roller (Wohler, Pogg. Ann. 26,182 ; Breithaupt ; Erdmann's Journ. 4,425). Taste styptic. When rubbed, iron emits a smell. Hardness greater than most metals; attracted by the magnet, under an orange heat ; malleable at all temperatures, but increasing with the heat. Ductility greater than silver, gold, or copper, as it may be drawn out into a wire at least as fine as a human hair. In the state of wire its strength is li times greater than that of hammered iron. Reduction. Iron exists rarely in nature in a free state, although it is thus found occasionally in meteorolites or metallic masses which fall from the atmosphere. A common form in which it presents itself is that of Hcematite, or hydrous ses- quioxide of iron (Fe 2 3 2HO). Magnetic iron ore (FeOFe 2 O 3 ), and carbonate of the protoxide of iron (FeOC0 2 ). The theory of the production of iron consists in removing the oxygen from the oxides by charcoal or coal, and the extraction from the carbonate of carbonic acid in the first instance, and then of the oxygen. The process of iron-making from the clay ironstone, as it is termed, or carbonate of iron, may be divided into 4 stages. 1. Decarbonating, calcining, or removing the carbonic acid. 2. Deoxidizing or smelting. 3. Decarbonizing or refining, or removing carbon. 4. Further decarbonizing or puddling. 1. Decarbonating or Calcining. This process consists in mixing a certain amount of coal with the ironstone in heaps, and allowing it to bum slowly ; the proportion of coal to ore varies from 1 to 5 to 1 to 8. But in certain species of iron- stone, termed Uack land, the amount of coal diffused through the ore is so considerable, that little or no coal is required to be intermixed with it ; but it burns spontaneously after being once ignited. In the course of a few weeks the ore has lost its earthy appearance, and has acquired a metallic aspect, in consequence of the removal of the carbonic acid. More recently the ore has been calcined by a kiln by the aid of the wastegases of the iron furnace. A red oxide of iron, techni- IKO c.illy called mine, remain^, which is then ready for the second stage of the process. When coal is used, it is spread on the ground in a layer of 8 or 9 inches thick, over ;i surface of 10 feet by 8. Over this is laid a stratum of ore, 5 or 6 feet thick, mingled with coke, dust and cinders; and over the whole is placed- coal. It is then set on fire. The loss of weight varies from one- fourth to one-third, according to the amount of carbonic acid in the ore. Every 7;25 grs. FeO C0 2 become 4-833 magnetic oxide, or 100 parts become 66-. 2. Deoxidating or Smelting. This process is conducted in the Host furnace, a tall building, from 50 to 60 feet high, containing within it a ' a Blowing machine with its valves opening and shut- ting alternately above and below. b Throat, or tunnel hole. c Nose-pipe of tweers. d Arches. e Boshes. conical space, into which the roasted ore is in- troduced, mixed with coal and limestone. The coal and ore are mixed in equal proportions, while the quantity of limestone amounts to abou a fifth of the coal. These being thrown in a the top of the furnace^ I, make their way to the bottom, c, where they are exposed to the action o: a powerful blast of hot air from a blowing ap- paratus connected with a steam engine. Th air thus driven into the furnace is never at a lower temperature than f>12, the melting poin of lead, which is frequently used as a test of its being at a proper heat. An intense temperature is produced in the furnace, the oxide is reducec to the metallic state, while the impurities of the ore, consisting of silica and alumina, unite with the lime and form a slag, which floats on the surface of the melted iron, in the hearth or lowes part of the furnace. After the furnace has been kept in a charged state at an intense heat fo: twenty-four hours, it is tapped, and the meltec iron allowed to flow off into small canals, made in sand at the bottom of the furnace. These from their being formed into main channels IRQ md smaller furrows at right angles to them, lave been termed by the workmen the sow and igs.~ Hence the iron cooled in these channels s called pig iron. There is sometimes found in cavities in the cast iron a substance in scales of i glistening lustre ; and sometimes floating on - ;he surface of the melted iron as it flows into ;he sand-channels, a substance termed Iceesh by :he workmen. It is a carbide of manganese, according to Dr. Wollaston. Spec. grav. 2-982 (T. Thomson). When these ingots or pigs are examined, they are sorted according to the quan- tity of charcoal which they contain, mechani- cally mixed, as detected by inspecting their cross fracture. The following is the constitution of cold and hot blast iron, No. 1, and of slags: Hot. 7-06 95-58 0-87 2-09 1-08 0-42 Cold. Spec, grav., 6-703 Iron, 91-15 Manganese, 2*03 Carbon, 3-85 Silicon, .'. 1-17 Aluminum, 1'65 By Dr. T. Thomson, and Mr. John Tennent. Slags. K.D.T. Berthicr. Spec, grav., 2-848 Silica, 43-75 38-12 Alumina, 12-50 16-97 Lime, 31-22 32-77 Magnesia, 715 6-22 Protoxide of mangan-'' ese. Protoxide of! 40-4 11-2 38-4 5-2 iron, , 5-92 Black cast iron, or No. 1, is the most valu- able product of the blast furnace. It contains the smallest amount of carbon visible to the eye, diffused through the iron. Spec. grav. 6-83 6-90. Texture granular; used in castings. Its slag is uniform in colour and appearance, glassy and feebly translucent. No. 2. Gray or mottled cast iron. Spec. grav. 7*07. Harder than No. 1 ; it contains carbon, chiefly in the centre, in the form of black dull particles, easily distinguishable from the white, metallic, glisten- ing aspect of the metal itself ; artillery is usually made of it. The slag is opaque, heavy, of a yellowish-green colour, exhibiting bands of blue- ish enamel. No. 3. White cast iron, resembling silver. Spec. grav. 7-68. Particles of charcoal may be observed interspersed over the whole fractured surface. It is therefore the least valu- able species of cast iron. It is very hard and brittle, and is only useful for bullets, weights, and bombs. It consists of iron 95, carbon 5 (or Fe 4 C). The slag is black, vitreous, and blcbby, and gives out the smell of sulphuretted hydrogen. It sometimes happens that in smelting, white cast iron free from interspersed carbon, is at once procured. If this result could be obtained invariably, a great improvement in iron-making would be accomplished, as it would save the next 302 IRQ process. The impurities in the iron ore unite with the lime and form slag, Avhich can be tapped over the metal. When thus drawn off, the quality of the slag as described, enables the iron smelter to predict the nature of the iron in the furnace. Theory of Iron Smelting. -*-\ blast furnace consists of two columns, one of air, ascending from below upwards, and the other of solids, thrown in from above, and descending. At the top, the amount of watery vapour is 9 to 1.4 per cent. But the vapour in the gases rapidly di- minishes. At the top the gases are nitrogen 57-79, carbonic oxide 23-51, carbonic acid 12-88, hydrogen 5-82. At between 8 and 17 feet from the top, the carbonic acid and hydrogen diminish, and the water completely disappears. The oxy- gen of the air is first changed into carbonic acid, and then by the coal into carbonic oxide. The hydrogen is produced by the vapour of the wa- ter, which is decomposed by carbon into hydro- IRQ gen and carbonic oxide. As the column of gas ascends, the carbonic oxide diminishes, and the carbonic acid increases, a change produced by the action of carbonic oxide upon sesquioxide of iron, which yields carbonic acid and metallic iron. It seems remarkable that hydrogen should exist in contact with sesquioxide of iron at a red heat without deoxidizing it; but it has been shown that an electric spark passed through car- bonic oxide, oxygen, and hydrogen, produces car- bonic acid, while hydrogen remains. Between the neck of tho furnace and the boshes the minerals lose their moisture, and the oxide of iron f f of its oxygen to the deoxidizing power of carbonic oxide, while the ^ remaining are removed between the boshes and tweers by the carbon of the coal. At a foot above the tweers the temperature diminishes, and to this the line of fusion is limited, and here the change of carbonic acid into carbonic oxide is complete. Depth from the top in Feet. Nitrogen, 55-35 Carbonic acid, 7-77 Carbonic oxide, ...25-97 Garb, hydrogen,... 3-75 Hydrogen, 6-73 Olefiantgas, 0-43 Cyanogen, Composition of the Gases in Iron Furnaces. 8 11 14 17 23 24 54-77 52-57 50-95 55-49 58-28 56-75 9-42 9-41 9-10 12-43 8-19 10-08 20-24 23-16 19-32 18-77 29-97 25-19 8-23 4-57 6-64 4-31 1-Q4 2-33 6-49 9-33 12-42 7-62 4-92 5-65 0-85 0-95 1-57 1-38 , trace trace 34 58-08 3-18 1-34 (Bunsen and Playfair, Rep. Brit. Ass. 1845.) The occurrence of the cyanogen is interesting, although its formation had been long ago pointed out by Dr. Clark. When an iron tube was in- troduced through a hole 2 feet 9 indies above the hearth, a gas passed out burning with a yel- low flame, similar to that occurring during the preparation of potassium. The tube was soon ob- structed by cyanide of potassium. The cyanogen is produced by the nitrogen of the air or coal, while the potassium is derived from the potash of the coal (-07 per cent.) and from the iron ore ("75 per cent.), amounting to 270 Ibs. in twenty-four hours. The cyanide of potassium is volatilized, and is decomposed by the air into carbonate of potash and cyanide, which is gradually decom- posed as it ascends. That the cyanogen is not altogether decomposed is, however, proved by the results obtained at Coltness Ironworks, where, in saving the waste gases for the purpose of calcin- ing the ore, a considerable quantity of alkali, con- taming cyanide of potassium and carbonate of potash, &c. is sublimed in the common furnace at the summit. The amount of alkaline salts sublimed may be about 2 tons per furnace during the year, according to the estimate of Mr. Hun- ter. For this observation I am indebted to Mr. Rankin of Carluke. 3. Decarbonizing or Refining. When iron is to be made into castings, it is used in the state of No. 1. But when it is to be converted into bar and malleable iron it undergoes the present process, which is intended to remove the carbon, which is still artificially mixed with it. 6 pigs are introduced into the refining furnace, mixed with coke. The refining furnace is a crucible or hearth, sunk 2 1 feet deep in the ground, 3 feet square, and composed of 4 plates of cast iron. There are generally two tweers, one at each side, occupied each by one or two nose-pipes. In thejigure one side of the refining furnace only is seen. These are 303 IRQ kept cool by a current of water which passes from a cistern above into one below in a continuous stream ; the nose-pipes are thus preserved from bc-ins fused. Air is propelled by these pipes into the heated mass ; the intense heat is continued for two or three hours, during which carbonic oxide and carbonic acid are evolved. The metal is then tapped, and allowed to run into a cavity 10 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 2^ inches deep. The iron fills this space and acquires its form. Water is then run upon it. When cool it is white cast iron, and very hard ; fracture fibrous or radiated, and it is frequently filled with spherical cavities like those Avhich occur in amygdaloidal rocks. The metal loses in this process from 12 to 17 per cent The slag from this process consists of 35 silica, 61 FeO, and A1 2 3 , with from 1J to 4 per cent, of phosphoric acid. It is dark coloured with a bluish shade, often fibrous and crystallized. 4. Further Decarbonizing or Puddling. Re- fined iron still contains a quantity of carbon united with it, which is removed to a great ex- tent by the puddling process, contrived by Mr. ort, in 1785. It consists in placing the refined iron, 'broken in pieces, in a reverberatory furnace, where it is heated by a strong flame playing on its surface. In the course of half-an-hour it is brought up to a white heat, when it begins to soften and to melt. It is then continually stirred or puddled, so as to keep it in a fine state of division, by means of a long iron instrument, which is introduced through a door in the fumace. Much carbonic oxide is evolved, and burns with a blue flame. After the gas has ceased to burn, the metal is still puddled till it is reduced to the state of sand. As soon as it begins to work heavy it is collected into balls, and the heat raised so as to iceld the particles together. It is re- moved in the form of large balls from the furnace by means of a pair of tongs after it has remained 2 hours in the furnace. It is then carried to be .-/.//Ay/, iK-ing first hammered and then drawn by rollers into mill bar iron. In Wales 10 tons of coals are used in puddling 9 tons of refined or Jlne mctnJ and by this process a loss is sustained of 10 per cent. Various methods have been re- "ndrd of facilitating the removal of the n ii: the puddling furnace, such as the addi- li<>n of black oxide of manganese, common salt, and potter's clay (Schafhaeafl). The slag IRO obtained from the puddling furnace is black with a shade of blue, sometimes crystalline, and corresponding in composition with pyroxene (Mitscherlich), that is, nearly a sesquisilicate of iron. Steel is made from bar iron, by placing it, sur- rounded by finely pounded charcoal, in a furnace covered up with sand, and heated intensely for a week or ten days. The carbon unites with the iron, and forms a carbide of iron, or steel. When the. steel bars are broken and frequently welded or hammered together, they are termed German or shear steel, because they were originally thus prepared for making shears to dress woollen cloth. Cast steelis obtained by breaking up the bars, fus- ing them in a crucible, and pouring the melted steel into moulds. Steel is whiter than iron ; texture granular, fracture whitish-gray; more brittle than iron. Its hardness is increased by heating and plunging into water. A drop of nitric acid leaves on steel a black spot (carbon) ; on iron a whitish- green stain (oxide). Case hardening consists in converting the surface of iron into steel by heating it with charcoal for a short time. Keys and gun-locks are thus treated. Tempered steel is re- quired for knives and other cutlery instruments. This is effected by heating the articles in oil raised to the proper temperature. Penknives and razors require a heat of 460, and have a straw-yellow colour; watch-springs are made deep blue at 580. These colours are obviously produced by a partial union with oxygen of the air, for when heated in hydrogen no change of colour occurs. Protoxide of Iron, FeO 4*5, 36, may be ob- tained as a hydrate; that is, in union with water, by precipitating a solution of well crystal- lized green vitriol or copperas (FeO S0 3 7 HO), by caustic ammonia, or potash, or soda. It is first thrown down white and then becomes green ; by exposure to the air it absorbs oxygen, and is converted into the sesquioxide or brown oxide (Feg 03). The dry protoxide has not been iso- lated. Sesquioxide, peroxide, red oxide, deutoxide, rust, FeOij$ or Fe 2 3 , 5, 10 ; 80, may be formed from sulphate of iron or green vitriol, by dis- solving the salt in water, adding nitric acid and heat until the black colour, which at first shows itself, is changed into a bright yellow. On the addition of caustic ammonia to the sulphate of the peroxide of iron, the peroxide falls in the form of a brownish-red flocky precipitate. It may also be prepared by dissolving iron in nitric acid, and precipitating by alkalies or alkaline carbonates. When dried it is a fine brownish-red powder, insoluble in water, tasteless, soluble in hydrochloric acid. When freshly precipitated it constitutes the antidote to arsenious acid, and when administered is to be diffused through wa- ter by means of a knife or spoon, and drank freely. It is used also as a tonic in nervous diseases. Peroxide of iron occurs in nature 304 IRQ abundantly, in the form of haematite, an iron ore (Fe 2 O 3 2 HO). Rust is formed when iron is exposed to the atmosphere. It consists of the hydrous red oxide, mixed with some carbonate of the protoxide of iron. Protosesquioxide, Octahedral iron ore, Mag- netic oxide, Loadstone, Black oxide, Ferroso- ferric oxide. FeOi^ 4-833 or FeO Fe 2 O 3 14-5, 116, occurs abundantly in nature, as magnetic iron ore, in octahedral crystals. It occurs in Sweden, and forms the iron from which the best steel is made. It enters into the composition of the roasted ironstone, or carbonate of iron, which is magnetic. It is prepared artificially by burn- ing iron wire in oxygen gas, or by pouring a mixed solution of proto and sesquisulphate of iron into caustic ammonia. Ferric acid, FeO 3 6-5,52-, is obtained by pass- ing a current of chlorine gas through a strong solution of potash, in which the sesquioxide of iron is suspended. When the mixture is filtered it possesses a fine amethyst colour ferrate of potash. Protochloride of iron, Fe Cl 8;64, a gray, variegated, metallic solid, in plates, melting at a red heat ; soluble in water ; obtained by dissolving iron in hydrochloric acid, and igniting the residue in a tube away from the air. /Sesquichloride, Fe 2 C1 3 20-5, 164, produced when iron wire is burned in chlorine gas. A solution of this salt in alcohol is used in medicine as a tonic, termed Tinctura ferri sesquichloridi. Iodide of iron. (See Iodide of potassium.) /Sulphide of iron, Fe S 5*5, is much used in the preparation of sulphohydric acid. It is made by heating an iron bar to red- ness, and bringing it in contact with a roll of sulphur, over water ; sulphide of iron is formed and drops into the water. It is essential that the iron be intensely hot. It may also be formed, Imt of inferior purity, by heating sulphur and iron filings in a clay crucible. Sulphate of iron, Green vitriol, Copperas, Fe O S0 3 7 HO, 17-375; 139, may be formed by dis- solving iron in sulphuric acid, with the addition of water. In commerce it is prepared on a large scale in the alum' manufacture, the sulphate of iron being crystallized out from the sulphate of alumina. Copperas crystallizes in green rhom- boidal prisms. When heated it loses water and acid, and leaves a red powder (colcothar of vitriol), which is an impure peroxide. Persulphate of iron, Fe 2 O 3 3 S0 3 25-, formed by oxidating the pro- tosulphate by means of nitric acid, as already described. Green vitriol is used as a tonic in nervous diseases, and where the blood is supposed to be deficient in iron, as in chlorosis and anaemia. Potash tdrtrate of iron, obtained by boiling the sesquioxide with cream of tartar (bitartrate of potash), and evaporating. Used as a tonic in medicine. Gun barrels are browned by sponging with the following mixture : 3 oz. alcohol, 3 oz. tincture of iron, 1 oz. corrosive sublimate, 3 oz. of nitric ether, 2 oz. sulphate of copper, 1^ oz. nitric acid; IRQ and after drying, rubbing with a scratch card or brush. Estimation of Iron. Iron is always estimated in the form of sesquioxide ; every 5 parts being equivalent to 3^ of metallic iron. It is usually precipitated from its solution by caustic ammonia. Analysis of Iron Ores. The hydrates of iron are analyzed by heating to redness ; the loss of weight indicates the water with which the oxide was united. A fresh portion of ore finely pul- verized is dissolved in aqua regia ; the sesqui- oxide of iron precipitated by ammonia ; the alu- mina separated from the iron by caustic soda ; the lime by oxalate of ammonia, and the mag- nesia by phosphate of soda. Magnetic oxide re- quires to be fused with carbonate of soda. Car- bonate of iron is analyzed by dissolving in aqua regia, and proceeding as with the oxide ; or it may be heated in a platinum crucible, with bi- sulphate of potash, when the object is merely to determine the amount of iron. Cast iron and steel are analyzed by pulverizing them in a steel mortar. The carbon is then mixed with twenty times its weight of chromate of lead, and an equal weight of chlorate of potash. The mixture is in- troduced into an organic analysis tube, and to it are adapted a chloride of calcium tube, and a potash bulbed tube. The carbon is converted into carbonic acid, and is absorbed by the potash. The silicon is obtained by dissolving the iron in muriatic acid, evaporating the solution to dryness, and fil- tering the silica which remains. The sulphur is obtained by dissolving the iron in aqiia regia, and precipitating the sulphuric acid by chloride of barium. The phosphorus is obtained by dissolving in aqua regia, precipitating the iron by sulpho- hydride of ammonia, and the lime by oxalate of ammonia; filtering, boiling oft' the alkaline sul- phide, and precipitating the phosphoric acid by sulphate of magnesia and ammonia. The solu- tion contains salammoniac, and one-eighth of caus- tic ammonia. The manganese and iron, being precipitated as sulphides, are to be separated by dissolving in aqua regia, neutralizing, precipi- tating the iron by benzoate of ammonia; the manganese from the filtered liquor by carbonate of soda. Separation of Iron from Alumina. Dissolve the oxides of iron and alumina in chlorohydric and nitric acids, free the solution by evaporation from excess of acid, and then add an excess of caustic potash or soda, and boil for twenty min- utes. The alumina is dissolved, and the sesqui- oxide of iron remains. Fresenius recommends that the solution of the alumina and iron should be boiled, and then with sulphite of soda, to re- duce the salt of iron to the state of protoxide. It is again boiled and neutralized with carbonate of soda. It is then boiled with caustic soda until the precipitate becomes black and granular. The precipitate is filtered and washed with hot water. The filtered liquid is then acidulated with chlo- rohydric acid. Some chlorate of potash is added 305 IRQ to destroy organic matter from the paper, and then precipitated with ammonia; on standing for some hours the alumina is filtered. Iron from Manganese. Dissolve the two metals or oxides of the metals in chlorohydric acid, with the addition of some nitric acid, add caustic ammonia until the greater portion of th acid is neutralized, and then add an excess of chalk or carbonate of barytes, and boil the mix- ture. The whole of the sesquioxide of iron is precipitated with the excess of chalk or barytes, while the manganese remains in solution. rru " The precipitate is thrown on a filter, and the oxide of iron determined by a solution in acid, and pre- cipitation by caustic ammonia. The manganese is then precipitated by sulphohydride of ammo- nia, the precipitate washed, dissolved in chloro- hydric acid, and precipitated by carbonate of soda ; evaporating the whole to dryness, digest- ing in water, filtering, igniting, and weighing. The protosesquioxide, or brown oxide, remains, containing 1^ atom oxygen. The usual method of separating iron and manganese, is to saturate the solution as accurately as possible with am- monia, and then to add benzoate or succinate of ammonia. The sesquioxide of iron falls, in union with the organic acid, as a buff-coloured preci- pitate, which leaves sesquioxide on ignition. The manganese may then be precipitated by evapora- tion with carbonate of soda. Iron Ores. Native iron. Bolide. Spec. grav. 5-95 to 6-72, H 4-5. Bluish- white masses, attracted by the magnet. It has been doubted if native iron exists. A specimen examined by Klaproth contained Fe 92-5 Pb 6- Cu 1-5 (Great Kamsdorf ) ; and others have been found in veins at Canaan, Connecticut. Demarcay states that he found metallic iron in cerite from Bastnas ; and Andrews in- Irish basalt. Iron, Meteoric. Spec. grav. 7-3. Silver- white masses, not so liable to rust as common iron, with a granular structure. A specimen from Blansko contained Fe 93-816, Ni 5-053, Co -347, Sn and Cu -46, S -324. This variety of iron ore is supposed to be derived from igneous meteors which are occasionally seen to fall through the atmos- phere. Then* source is unknown. They are found on the surface of the earth in Siberia, South ami North America, Cape of Good Hope, &c. Iron Specular Ore. Anhydrous sesquioxide, or peroxide of iron, Olirjiste iron, Iron froth, Elba, iron ore, Iron mica, Red haematite, Red clay, Jr/ni stone, Red riUciotu iron stone, Red ochre, Reddle, Red chalk Fe 9 3 = Fe. 70 O. :;o. Specific gravity 5-251 to 4-232, II 5-5 t< <;:,. l;, ,1 < rv>talline masses, or steel-gray and iron -black acute rhomboids, with angles of 86 10' and '.i:{ 10', or 8-hedrons, triangular 12- hodroris, with their apices truncated very deep, or near the summit ; lustre metallic, opaque, brittle, .M,ui.-(iiii(.< arting slightly on the magnet; in thin plat'-.-, blood-red. When in micaceous scales in IRQ volcanic countries, it is termed iron mica. Spec, grav. 4-491 to 5-059, in thin 6-sided plates. Iron froth consists of friable, soiling scales, with a cherry or brownish-red colour. Red hcematite. Spec. grav. 6-305, H 7-; in masses, stalactites or fibrous kidney-shaped balls, opaque, with a semi-metallic lustre, is found in Wales, &c. Red clay iron stones are found in an impure state, mixed with clay, &c. in Great Britain. The finest crystals are found in the island of Elba. Iron, Crucite, or Crucilitc. See CRUCITE. Iron, Scsquihydrous Scsqnioxide, or Per- oxide of iron, Bog iron ore, Bonerz, Brown fibrous haematite, Brown ochre, Broivn clay iron stone, Gos- thite, Lepidocrokite, Ligniform hcematite, Limonite, Pisiform iron ore, Pyrosiderite, Rubinglimmer, Stil- pnosiderite, Umber, Yellow clay iron stone. Fe 2 03 83-38, HO 15-01, Si0 3 1-61. Form. Fe 2 3 "l HO. Spec. grav. 3-922 to 4-04, H 4-5 to 5. Various shades of brown masses, stalactites, or botryoidal pieces, found in veins and beds in primary and secondary rocks in England, Caririthia, Bohemia, Bonn, Brazil, North America ; does not act on the magnet. B.B. becomes black and magnetic ; soluble in nitrochlorohydric acid. Iron, I"rotohydrons Sesquioxide. Gcethite in part, Pitchy iron ore in part. Fe 2 3 91-7, HO 8-5=Fe 2 3 HO. Spec. grav. 4-375, H 4-5 to 5- (T. Thomson). Reddish-brown needles, or right rhombic prisms, with angles of 130 40' and 49 20' ; lustre imperfect, metallic, and silky, brittle, paque, streak broAvn. In nodules in trap near Greenock; in crystals at St. Just, Cornwall, and St. Vincent ; rocks, Bristol. Iron, Mangaiicsiaii Ore. Sp. grav. 5'079 r II 7: Black splendent masses, or 8-hedrons; streak red; texture foliated; surface smooth, brittle, opaque; acts feebly on the magnet. Fe"/.< onite, Knebelite, Polylite, Non.- . ( '<>/,>, iintyfonite, Pyrosmalite. Iron, Hydrous Bisilicate. Sideroschiso- ///.-. S| :<<: grav. 3-, H 2-5. FeO 75-5, Si0 3 16-3, A1 2 3 4-1, HO 7-3. Form. 6FeO Si0 3 3 HO? Yd vet -black microscopic 4-hedrons. Found at Conghonas do Campo, Brazil. Soluble in clilorohydric acid. Iron, Anhydrous Siliratc of. Si0 3 29'6, FeO (is-7:;, MnO 1-7*. Form. :',FcO 5Si0 3 or !'! . 'J I Si( )... Spec. grav. 3-8846, H 4. I >lvrk bn.wn foliated obscure -1-sidi-d prisms, attracted magnet. Soluble in chloroliydric acid, ISA leaving silica ; B. B. infusible, in the reducing flame becomes metallic looking, and like mag- netic iron ore. Slavearrach, Morne (Doran). Iron, TiiaMiate of. See ISERINE. Iron, Magnesia Carbonate of. 2 (FeO CO 2 ) MgOC0 2 . Light yellow rhomboids, from Grande Fosse, Vizille. Iron, Phosphate of, and Manganese. Spec. grav. 3-562, H 5-25. FeO 31-9, MnO 32-6, P0 5 32-8. Form. 2 MnO 2 FeO P0 5 . Blackish-brown masses, or with cubic cleavage. Limoges. Iron, Alumina Sulphate of. Hair Salt. S0 3 33-92, FeO 11-23, A1 2 3 11-48, MgO -27, HO and KO 43-1 (R.D.T.) Form. A1 2 O 3 3 SO 3 , FeO S0 3 24 HO ? Capillary or hair crystals, with a sweet and astringent taste, soluble in water ; often mixed with portions of sulphates of iron and magnesia. Found on the surface of alum shale in coal beds. Iron, Tltaniferoiis Ore of. Spec. grav. 4-488 to 4-787, H 5 to 5-5. Iron-gray masses and rhomboids, texture foliated, opaque, brittle. B.B. infusible, but the edges are rounded. TiO a 41', Fe 2 3 56-2, SiO 3 2-5. Arendal, Brazil, Bohe- mia, North America, Acid. See IMASATIC ACID. Isatane. C 16 H 6 NO 3 . Insoluble white powder formed by the action of bisulphite of am- monia on sulphesatyde ; when heated it yields isatine and mdine. Isatic Acid. Tsatinic Acid. Ci C H, ; N0 5 HO. White powder, obtained by dissolving isatine in potash. Ssatilime. C 4 3H 16 "N'40io. Amorphous flocks by evaporating the liquid from which isa- timide deposits. Isatimide. C 48 H 17 ISr 5 Og. Yellow 4-sided plates, insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether; obtained by passing dry ammonia over isatiue moistened with absolute alcohol. Isatine. C 1G H 5 NO 4 . Beautiful, splendent reddish-brown hexagonal prisms, with a rhombic base, with an orange-red powder. It may be obtained in fine crystals by dissolving it in caus- tic potash, with some alcohol added, and precipi- tating it while hot by chlorohydric acid, and evaporating; volatile; slightly soluble in cold water, more soluble in hot water, soluble in boiling alcohol and ether, which have no action on litmus. Isatine unites with bases, forming peculiar combinations. It is formed by adding common nitric acid to powdered indigo, and ap- plying heat until the blue colour disappears and a yellow solution is formed; or by heating indigo with sulphuric acid and bichromate of potash. It differs from indigo in containing two additional atoms of oxygen, derived from the oxidizing agent. Isato-siitphuroiis Acid. C 16 H 5 N04 2 S0 2 HO. By acting on isatine, or isatates with sulphuric acid. Isatyde. CicII^NO.-. Gray crystalline 308 ISC powder, by acting on a solution of isatine in al- cohol, with bisulphohydride of ammonia. Ischelitc, or Polyhalite. Iseritie. Titaniate of Iron. Gregorite Menachanite. TiO 2 57-187, FeO 39-78. Spec grav. 4-427, 4-491, and 4-65. It varies consi- derably in constitution. Grayish-black angular grains, imperfectly lamellar, lustre glistening, between adamantine and metallic, opaque, yields to the knife, not attracted by the magnet, but is often mixed with magnetic iron sarid. B.B. fuses into a blackish-glass, slightly attracted by the magnet; with borax forms a green bead, becoming brown on cooling. Found at Menac- can, Cornwall ; river Don, Aberdeen ; Seacombe Ferry; Liverpool; the Iser, in the Riesenge- birge. Iscthionic Acid. C 4 H 5 O 2S0 3 . By the action of anhydrous sulphuric acid on alcohol or defiant gas ; isomeric with sulphovinic acid. Isinglass. A form of nearly pure gelatine, from the sounds of certain species of sturgeon, found in the Danube and Russian rivers. 1 part dissolved in 100 hot water becomes a jelly on cooling; but 1 part in 150 water does not soli- dify, though the solution is somewhat gelatinous. It is soluble in rectified spirits, by which it is distinguished from colline. IsodiinorphiMm. A term applied to de- signate such bodies as are both dimorphous, but isomorphous in both modifications (SbO 3 and As0 3 ). It i s a l s used to indicate the property of a substance to crystallize in two forms, which closely resemble each other, but belong to differ- ent systems. Isolnsine. A bitter resin from the root of Polygala senega, amara, &c. Isomcrisra. (W, same; ptpos, part). A term first applied by mistake by Berzelius to explain the circumstance, discovered by Clark, that phosphate of soda gives a yellow precipitate with salts before, and a white. precipitate after ignition; the cause of which has been demonstrated by Graham. But the expression is now used to classify such bodies as have the same chemical composition in 100 parts, but different characters. Thus, gum and sugar are isomeric, but have totally different characters. Gum is not sweet, and does not crystallize and ferment, two charac- ters possessed by sugar. Many oils have the same composition, as oil of turpentine, CjoHg, but have an agreeable odour and different pro- ISO perties. There are different varieties of isomer- ism, as when the formulae of one body is a mul- tiple by 1, 2, or 3, &c. of the formula of another, that body is said to be polymeric. Thus, cyanic acid, which is CyO, cyanuric acid, Cy 2 2 , and fulminic acid, Cy 3 O 3 , are polymeric bodies. Metameric bodies have the same per centago composition, the same empirical formula, but a different rational formula, the constituents being arranged in a different manner. Cyanate of ammonia NH 3 HO, CyO NH 3 HO C 2 NO, has the same empirical formula as urea, but the elements are arranged differently (C 2 H 4 N 2 2 ). fgomcromorphism is exemplified when in two compounds the same atoms are arranged in the same proportions in the same form, but cer- tain atoms of the one compound being found, when compared with the other compoxuid, to have changed places, as in bichlorohydrate of bibromated cinchonine. Isomcthionic Aciil. HO,C 2 H 3 O 2 ,S 2 O 5 , formed by passing the vapour of solid sulphuric acid into pyroxylic spirit ; forms rhomboidal crys- tals with barytes. Isomorphism. ( ' one oil, with spec. grav. -847, boils at 318 ; the other has a specific gravity of -868, and boils at 536. They are separated by distillation. Jnrinite. A synonyme of Brookite. Kakodylc. See CACODYLE. Kakoxene. See CACOXENITE. Kalaitc. See TURQUOISE. Kalamite. A species of amphibole. Kaliphite. Spec. grav. 2-8, H !. Fibrous "brown mineral, apparently a mixture containing iron and manganese, zinc, silica, &c. Kaliuin. The Latin name for potassium. Kammererite. Spec. grav. 2-76, H 1-75. Violet-red 6-sided prisms ; lustre pearly; trans- lucent, sectile, and flexible. B.B. infusible, allied to serpentine. SiO 3 37-, MgO 31-5, CaO 1-5, FeO 1 5, A1 2 3 14-2, HO 13-, Cr 2 3 1-. Kancc Istein. A synonyme of garnet. Kaolin. The Chinese term for porcelain clay. Kvabe of Sodom. Asphalt from the Dead Sea. Karpholite. (Strawstone). Spec. grav. 2-935, 2-923, 2-9365, H 2-5. Straw-yellow tufted minute diverging crystals ; lustre silky, glistening, opaque. B.B. becomes white, and fuses imperfectly; with soda into a green enamel ; not acted on by chlorohydric acid. Si0 3 36 154, A1 2 3 28-669, MnO 19-16, FeO 2-29, CaO -271, F 1-47, HO 10-78. Found in granite at Schlaggenwalde, Bohemia. KarphoMiderite. Sp. grav. 2-5, H 4. Yel- low resinous mineral, found in mica slate on the coast of Labrador. Probably a subsesquiphos- phate of iron. Karittenite. See Anhydrite. Keares. (Cuves). Vessels employed to con- tain salts while exhausting them of their soluble parts by water. Keilhauite. Yttrotitamte. Sp. grav. 3-69, H 6-5. Brownish-black mass, with a resinous and vitreous lustre. B.B. fuses into a black scoria swelling up, with soda into a bead col- oured by manganese. Si0 3 30-, TiO 2 29-01, Fe 2 3 6-35, A1 2 3 6-09, Mn 2 3 -67, Ce 2 3 32, CaO 18-92. la felspar, near Arendal, Norway. Kelp. Kelp is the commercial name of the ash obtained by the incineration of sea weeds. It is valuable from the potash salts and iodine which it contains. The largest amount of iodine is obtained from drift weed kelp. The drift weed is so named from its being drifted ashore, from deep water in which it grows, and is thus easily secured by the natives of Ireland, and the Hebrides. The cut weed is obtained at low water, and is cut by means of sickles. The plants are spread out> thinly in the rays of the siin for two days, and are then brought to the kiln, which consists of a parallelogram of about 15 feet long and 2 feet wide, surrounded with a rough wall of stones about 9 inches high. The burning lasts for twelve hours. The kiln is kindled with a layer of dry heath or straw, and overlaid with a stratum of dry weed, a succession of layers of weed is thus burned. When the operation is completed, kelp presents the appearance of a dark- coloured fused mass of salts; the dark colour being due to portions of charcoal interspersed through the mass. The greater portion of kelp is made from the Fucus nodosus, F. serratus, F. vesiculosus, Laminaria digitata, L. saccharina, Halictrys siliquosa, 'Alarm esculenta, Rhodomenia palmata. The best analysis of kelp which has been made so far as I know, is a very careful one executed under my eye by my pupil Mr. George William Brown. The amount of iodina present by three trials was respectively -283, -306, 287 = mean -292 per cent. (Proc. Phil. Soc- Glasgow, vol. iii.) Table of per centaye Composition of Orkney Kelp* Insoluble Salts. Carbonate of lime, 2-591 Phosphate of lime, 10-556 Oxysulphuret of calcium, 3 CaS, CaO, 1-093 Silicate of lime, 3-824 Carbonate of magnesia, 6-554 Sand, 1-575 Alumina, -142 Carbon, -920 Hydrogen, -144: Oxygen, 1*152 Nitrogen, -G58 29'209 Soluble Salts. Sulphate of potash, 4-527 Sulphate of soda, 3-600 Sulphate of lime, *279 Sulphate of magnesia, '924 Sulphite of soda, -784 Hyposulphite of soda, '220 Sulphide of sodium, 1'651 Phosphate of soda, *540 Carbonate of soda, T ..., 5-306 312 KER Chloride of potassium, 2 G -4 1 Chloride of sodium, 19-334 Chloride of calcium, -229 Iodide of magnesium, '316 Bromide of magnesium, trace. Water, 6-800 71-000 100-209 ICcramohalitc, or Sulphate of Alumina. Kerargyre, or Chloride of Silver. Kerasite. Kerasine. Chlorocarbonate of lead. Keratinc. The basis of horns, epidermis, and epithelium, &c. It appears to contain more oxygen than albumen or fibrine. Kcratophyllitc. A variety of Amphibole. Itermes. Grana Kermes. An insect from Quercus coccifera, containing a colouring matter similar to cochineal. Kcrmes Mineral. S 30'93, Sb 63'28, K 5-79. A brick-red powder, formed by just fusing 1 carbonate of potash and 2f tersulphide of anti- mony, boiling with water and filtering, when the kermes separates on cooling; formerly used in medicine. Kerolite. Cerollte. Spec. grav. 2 to 2-2, H 2-25. White or green mineral, transparent, translucent, feel greasy, vitreous or resinous, not adherent to the tongue. B.B. blackens but does not fuse. Si0 3 46-96, MgO 31-26, HO 21-22. Found in Silesia and Zoblitz along with serpen- tine. Ketones, or Cetones. A tenn sometimes ap- plied to a class of bodies of which acetone may be taken as the type. They are formed by distilling organic acids with a base, such as lime, which re- moves the elements of carbonic acid from them. Staedeler considers them to be all ether com- binations. If we view acetic acid as a com- pound of methyle, like formic acid, in which 1 atom hydrogen is replaced by methyle, C 2 (C 2 H 3 , H) O 4 , then acetate of potash will be C 2 (C 2 H 3 K) 4 . When heated, carbonic acid is evolved, and potassium methyle formed, a com- pound similar to zinc methyle (2 CO 2 , KC 2 H 3 ), which, with a second atom of acetate, is trans- formed into potash and acetone, K, C 2 H 3 and C 2 (K, C 2 H 2 ) O 4 = 2 KO and C 2 2(C 2 H 3 ) 2 acetone. In the same way all the cetones may be viewed as ether combinations. Propione is C 2 2 C 4 H 5 2 ; butyrone C 2 2 C G H 7 2 ; valerone C 2 2 C 8 H 9 , 2 , and even butyral is probably C 2 , 2 C 2 H 3 ,0 2 . When acetone is boiled with dilute alkalies, acetonic acid, C 8 H 8 Oe, is formed, consisting of acid prisms ; monobasic. By a mix- ture of acetone, sulphide of carbon and ammonia, carbothiacetonine, C 20 H 18 N 2 S 4 , in yellow prisms is formed, and by the action of sulphohydric acid and ammonia on acetone, thiacetonine, Ci 8 H 19 :NS 4 , identical with akcethine, is produced. Kieselghur. The siliceous remains of ani- mals deposited in the form of Tripoli or polishing slate, at Bilin, composed of silica 72-, alumina 2-5, Fe 2 3 2-5, HO 21- (Klaproth). Similar remains I have examined from the island of Ilaasay, from near Aberdeen, and from Bengal, containing some organic matter. Killbrickcnite. Geocronite. Spec. grav. 6-5, H 2-5. 5 PbS, SbAsS 3 . Metallic lead- gray grams, or earthy masses and crystalline ; found at Kilbricken, Clare, and at Sala, Sweden. Killiuite. Specific gravity 2-711, H 3-5. Brownish-yellow, sometimes tinged with green masses, or 4-sided prisms, similar to spodumene;, lustre waxy, opaque, streak yellowish-white. B.B. fuses into a white opaque bead, with soda into a glass. SiO 3 49-08, A1 2 O 3 30-6, KO 6-72, FeO 2-27, CaO 68, MgO 1-08, HO 10-. Found in granite at Killiney, Dublin. Miraic Acid. Quinic Add. C 14 H 11 O 11 HO ? Colourless crystals, resembling tartaric- acid. Spec. grav. 1-637 ; soluble in 2^ water; acid taste ; converts starch into sugar by boiling. It occurs in Peruvian bark in the form of kinate of quinine, and appears during the process for separating that alkaloid, as kinate of lime, in, white rhomboidal plates, with angles of 78 and 112, from which the lime is separated by oxalia acid. It unites with bases, and forms apparently bibasic salts; their formulae being CrH 4 O 4 2 MO (?) When distilled with dilute sulphuric acid and binoxide of manganese, it yields kinoiie in yel- low plates ; by adding to kinone sulphuric acid, we obtain white and green hydrokinone. It is thus easy to detect the presence of kinic acid in a vegetable mixture. Mino. The commercial name of reddish- brown dry masses, resembling catechu, occurring' in four fonns African kino, from Pterocarpus erinaceus; Asiatic kino, from P. marsupium; Australian kino, from Eucalyptus resinifera ; American kino, from Coccoloba uvifera. It is used in medicine in the form of tincture in diar- rhoea, &c. The African is most abundant, and contains 75 per cent, tannic acid, 24 red gum, and 1 ligniue. It precipitates salts of sesqui- oxide of iron, green, and is converted by nitric acid into oxalic acid. Soluble in cold, more- soluble in hot water. Kinone. C 25 H 8 8 . Golden-yellow prisms,, fusible and volatile, soluble in water, with a pun- gent odour. Obtained by distilling kinic ac5d r or a kinate, with dilute sulphuric acid and bin- oxide of manganese ; the presence of kinic acid is thus easily detected. Kinoric Acid. Chinovic Acid. CggHso 10 ? White light matter, little soluble in wa- ter; easily soluble in alcohol and ether, from which it is precipitated by water. The alkaline kinovates are soluble; it bears a resemblance- to stearic acid. Obtained by heating the alco- holic extract of the China nova bark with alco- hol and magnesia ; colouring matter, &c. precipi- tate, and kinovate of magnesia dissolves, from which the kinovic acid is precipitated by an acid in white flocks. 313 KIR Kirwnnitc. Specific gravity 2-941, H 2-. Colour dark olive-green, texture fibrous, fibres diverging from a centre and forming brushes ; opaque. B.B. becomes black, and partially fuses with fluxes into a dark brown glass. SiO, 40-5 to 38-9, FeO 23-91, A1 2 3 11-41, CaO 19-78, HO 4-35. Form. 3(2CaO 2 FeO) Si0 3 , Al 2 3 Si0 3 2 HO. In basalt, north-east coast of Ireland (R.D.T.) Klnprothinc. A synonyme of Lazulite. Kliuoclnae. A synonyme of aphanese, or variety of olivenite. Kncbclitc. Specific gravity 3-714. Gray, spotted, dirty-white, red, brown, and green, mas- give ; external surface uneven and full of holes ; lustre glistening, opaque, hard, brittle. B.B. infusible ; with borax forms a dark olive-green bead. Si0 3 32-5, FeO 32-, MnO 35 (Dbbereiner). Locality unknown. 3 FeO Si0 3 , 3 MnO Si0 3 . Kobdliir. Spec. grav. 6-29 to 6-32. Shin- ing leaden metallic masses, along with cobalt ore, aUIvena, Sweden. S 17-86, Sb 9-24, Bi 27-05, Pb 40-12, Fe 2-96, Cu 8, rock 1-45 = 3 FeS, 2 SbS 3 , 3 PbS, Bi 2 S 3 . Koccitiic Acid. Yellow crystalline grains by nitric acid on purreic acid. * Koenigite. See BKOCHANTITE. Kollyrin . See COLLYRITE. Konichalcitc. Spec. grav. 4-123, H 4-5. Green kidney- shaped masses. AsOs 30-68, 4 (CuOCaO) (PO 5 As0 5 ) PO 5 8-81, VO 3 1-78, CuO 31-76, CaO 21-36, HO 5-61. Cordova, Spain; allied to olivenite. Konitc. An ash-gray dolomite (CaOC0 2 ) 3(MgOCOo), from Freiberg, Hesse. Konlite. C 2 H. Spec. grav. -88 ; F.P. 237 ; 193j. Soft white crystalline plates and grains, LAC slightly soluble in cold alcohol ; more soluble in boiling alcohol and ether. la brown coal. Uz- nach, Bavaria Morcitc. A synonyme of Agalmatolite. Koscine. Colourless needles by alcohol from the flowers of Brayera anthelminthica (Flores Koso). Koupholitc. A synonyme of Prehnite. Koumisa. An alcoholic fluid obtained by the fermentation of mare's milk by the Russian Tartars. Krablitc. Spec. grav. 2-389. A variety of felspar from Iceland, containing Si0 3 74-83, A1 2 3 13-49, Fe 2 3 4-4, CaO 1-98, MgO -17, NaO 5-56. Krieuvigitc. See BROCHANTITE. Kupaphritc, or Cupaphrite. See Kovo- HYDROUS PENTARSE:NIATE OF COPPER. Kutcera, Gum. Occurs in commerce in the form of loose wrinkled drops or pieces without smell or taste, and mostly transparent. In water it slowly forms a pulp or jelly like gum traga- canth, but if pounded well in a mortar, and then boiled in water for fifteen minutes with constant agitation, it is said to be completely dissolved. In India it enters into the composition of some varnishes ; in this country it is used by calico printers and veterinary surgeons. It is a product of the Sterculio urens, in Hindostan. It seems a variety of bassorine. Kyauite. See CYANITE. Kymatiiie. A variety of amphibole. Kypholite. A variety of serpentine. Kyroaitc. -32 FeS 2 , Cu S or S 52-63, Fe 45-63, Cu 1-69, As -93. A variety of iron pyrites. Ijabarracque's I) i si 11 fee ting Hiiquor, or hypochlorite of soda, prepared by passing chlorine gas through caustic soda, or boiling carbonate of soda with bleaching powder. 1 ,aby Sir Martin Frobisher, under the impression of its being gold ore ; lustre of the sides of the prism vitreous, of the base pearl}-, translucent in thin pieces. B.B. behaves like 'felspar. SiO 3 5 3 -48, A1 2 3 26-46, CaO 9-49, NaO 4-10, KO -22, FeO 2 -69, MgO 1-74, MnO -89, HO -42. Form. CaO Si0 3 ,Al 2 O 3 Si0 3 , the lime being replaced by magnesia and soda. It is found in Labradore ; in green stone as at Campsie; GlenifFer, Paisley; Finland ; Ingermannia. lroduced. Lactide. C C H 4 O 4 ; F.P. 224|; B.P 482. iVTiite rhombic tables, without taste and smell ; ublimes by heat above 248; obtained by heating actic acid at 280, as long as water passes over, nd then to 484 to 500, and evaporating the listilled fluid in the water bath ; lactide sepa- ates on cooling in crystals. It is lactic acid leprived of water. Lactidic Acid. Anhydrous Lactic Acid. '1 2 H 5 O 5 , Yellow mass, with bitter taste, fus- :ig below 212; converted in moist air and Ikalies into lactic acid ; dissolves by boiling with rater ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; obtained y distilling lactic acid at 266, or rapidly at/ 56 to 392. La* lim. (Lactose, Fr. ; Milk Sugar; Milch 'ucker, Ger.) C 12 H 12 O 12 . Spec. grav. 1-534. olourless 4-sided prisms terminated by 4-sided yramids ; soluble in 5 to 6 parts cold, 2 hot ater ; insoluble in cold alcohol and ether. At LAC 212 it is not altered; at 266 loses 12 percent, or 2 atoms water, when it is colourless ; at 302 it becoms a brown extract. An aqueous solution turns the plane of polarization to the right, 201-9 parts in this respect being equal to 164-7 cane sugar ; it unites with bases, as potash, soda, lead, &c.; it absorbs 12^ per cent, ammonia; soluble in milk of lime ; the addition of alcohol renders the solution turbid, and precipitates in strong solutions a white mass, which, Avhen washed with alcohol and dried over sulphuric acid, contains 11 ^ to lof lime per cent. It is obtained from whey by evaporating to the consistence of syrup, and allowing it to stand, when the sugar sepa- rates in crusts, and may be purified from water by animal charcoal and recrystallization ; when fermented it is resolved into carbonic acid and alcohol ; converted by dilute acids into grape sugar, and by nitric acid into mucic acid. JLactomcter. An instrument for measuring the value of milk. J,actonc. C 10 H 8 O 4 2(C 6 H S 5 , 2 C0 2 2HO. B.P. 197. Colourless oily fluid, be- coming dark in the air, with burning taste and aromatic odour, lighter than water, and very soluble in it ; burns with a blue flame ; obtained by distilling lactic acid at 248, after being heated to 482. On mixing the distillate with water, a light oil separates, which is to be recti- fied over chloride of calcium. Lacfacarium. The dried milky juice of different species of Lactuca, as L. sativa, elonyata, virosa. It is obtained by piercing the stem of the plant about the time it flowers, and collecting the juice. When dry it is a dark substance softening in hot water, narcotic, with a bitter taste ; only partially soluble in water, spirit, and ^ther. It consists of 42-6 lactucone, 3-98 wax, 2 lignine, 6-98 albumen, 27-68 lactucine, 14-96 water}' extract, 1'75 lactucine. JLactucic Acid. Perhaps a mixture of lac- tucine and ether, obtained as a bitter amorphous matter by precipitating the juice of Lactuca virosa with acetate of lead, and decomposing the precipitate with sulphohydric acid gas. JLaciiiciiie. Pearly scales like boracic acid from water, or needles from ether ; it is without smell, with a bitter taste. Obtained by the pro- cess for lactucic acid. lactucone. Lactucerine. C 40 H 32 O3. F.P. 300 to 400. Colourless 4-sided prisms in the form of warts, without taste, smell, and physio- logical action ; soluble in alcohol, ether, and fat oils, scarcely so in water ; sublimes in a current of carbonic acid ; potash and chlorine have no action on it ; it differs from betuline by an atom of hydrogen. Obtained by exhausting lactu- carium with hot alcohol, and treating the result- ing deposit with alcohol and animal charcoal. JLagonitc. Supposed borate of iron. Lukes. A name applied to vegetable colour- ing matters united with metallic or earthy oxides, as alumina, tin, or zinc oxides, and used as pig- LAM ments. They are prepared by adding to a solu- tion of alum or tin salts a solution of colouring matter, and then enough of caustic soda to preci- pitate the lake. Orange lake consists of alumina and turmeric ; red lake of cochineal and alumina ; madder lake of madder and alumina; blue lakes of ultramarine, indigo, cobalt blue, &c. and alumina. I,nmas Poison, from Peruvian trees, pro- bably Tabemcemontana, Capsicum, &c. ]Lami. The lamps used in chemical mani- pulation are 1 and 2, spirit-lamp; 3, argand lamp, with a double current of air. ILampatliic. A variety of wad. Mn0 2 ? 82-, CuO 13-5, Si0 3 2-. l,nti } > Black. Smoke Black, Peach Black, German and /Spanish Black, China Ink. Specific gravity 1-782. All of these varieties of carbon or smoke are procured by burning- woods or vegetable matters away from the access of air, so that the carbon, instead of being converted into carbonic acid, as in ordi- nary cases of combustion, is deposited as a soft, smoky residue. In Germany, the pitch, tar, resin, oil, or wood employed for the production of lamp black is burned and received in a close vessel, which is lined with leather, sheep's skin, or soft material, upon which the carbon falls gently without losing its lustre, and to facilitate its deposition ; or in this country it is deposited in rooms or flues. Lamp black is by no means a pure form of carbon, as it contains only 79*1 per cent, of that body, the remaining ingredi- ents being resinous and bituminous matters = 7 per cent, ulmine, sulphates of ammonia, pot- ash, and lime, water, and phosphate of lime fonn- ng the remainder. Lamp black constitutes the basis of lithographic ink, and when used for 317 LAM this purpose it is recommended to be ignited in close vessels, in order to remove the resins, bitumen, and water, which are injurious to the ink. The adulteration of lamp black by bone black may be detected by burning it in a platinum cru- cible ; lamp black leaves but little residue, while ivory black leaves phosphate of lime. When oil of turpentine is distilled over from the impure tur- pentine, a quantity of resin remains in the retort, which may be advantageously used for the pro- duction of lamp black. The purest form in which, in the opinion of Davy, this substance can be obtained, is by passing oils, or spirits of wine through tubes in a state of ignition. Carbon is then deposited in the shape of an -impalpable pow- der destitute of taste and smell, a conductor of elec- tricity, and more than twice as heavy as water. Lamp black is used as a water-colour pigment in the form of bistre. See BISTRE. Common lamp black is extensively used as an oil paint of a very permanent nature. It is the colouring matter of common printer's ink, which is prepared by mix- ing lamp black with concentrated nut or linseed oil. I^ampic Acid. An acid produced in the combustion of the lamp without flame, probably aldehydic acid. I.nnn Philosophica. The volatile flocks of oxide of zinc, prepared by burning zinc in air. Kianarkitc. A synonyms of sulphato-car- bonate of lead. Lancaeteritc. MgOC0 2 ,MgO, HO. Spec gravity 2-34. White crystals like stilbite. North America. ]Lang*taflite. A synonyme of chondrodite. Lanfanuric Acid. HOC C H 4 N 2 O 6 ? White amorphous mass, very soluble in water ; insol- uble in alcohol; obtained by dissolving allan- toine in cold potash, adding acetic acid to pro- duce a slight acid reaction, evaporating the fluid to a syrup in the water bath ; then adding abso- lute alcohol as long as a precipitate falls; acetate of potash may be separated from the lantanurate by washing with alcohol. The lan- tanurate of potash is dissolved in water and precipitated with acetate of lead; the precipitate decomposed by sulphohydric acid gas. Ijanthauite. Carbonate of Cerium, Carbonate of Lanthanum. H 2-75, LaO 75'7, C0 2 10-8, HO 13-5. Grayish or yellowish- white 4-sided plates, or earthy. Lustre dull or pearly. B.B. in- fusible ; found coating cerite at Bastnas, Sweden. lanthanum. La 5-5375, 44'3 ; 4'52, 36'IG? Dark gray metallic powder, the particles feeling soft and cohering; prepared by dis- solving oxide of lanthanum in chlorohydric acid, evaporating to dryness, heating the residue in a current of chlorohydric gas, to make it anhydrous. The chloride then formed is decom- posed by sodium ; the common salt dissolved out liy alcohol ('833), and the lanthanum freed from oxide by washing, and dried between blotting paper in vacuo over sulphuric acid. LAN Oxide of Lanthanum, Lanthana. White powder, and brownish when it contains oxide of didymium ; not decomposed by sodium or pot- assium; prepared by taking common hydrous oxide of cerium (consisting of oxides of cerium, lanthanum, and didymium), dissolving in nitric acid, evaporating to dryness, and removing the acid by ignition. The residue is pulverized and digested with weak nitric acid (1 acid and 75 water) assisted by some heat, when nitrates of lan- thanum and didymium are formed; but as nitrate of lanthanum is more readily formed than nitrate of didymium, the first digestion consists principally of a lanthanum salt. When cold dilute nitric acid is used, oxide of lan- thanum alone dissolves with traces of didymium. But to separate lanthanum and didymium in the most complete manner yet known, the nitrates of these substances as above obtained, are pre- cipitated by caustic potash, and the washed precipitate dissolved in sulphuric acid ; the sulphates are then evaporated to dryness in a platinum capsule, and cautiously heated to remove the excess of acid, and obtain anhydrous sulphates; the residue is digested in about 5 times its weight of water of the temperature of 35^ to 37^, or the salt may be pulverized and added in small portions to the water, the vessel containing which is to be surrounded with ice- cold water to prevent the increase of temperature of the solution, which would then crystallize. The solution being completed, the liquid is heated in a water bath to 104, when the sul- phate of lanthanum crystallizes, leaving the didymium salt in the mother liquor. When perfectly pure, the salt is white; if it contains didymium it has^ an amethyst tint. To purify it thoroughly, it is ignited gently, rendered anhydrous, dissolved in cold water as before, and crystallized, the process being repeated until the salt is white. Salts. Oxide of lanthanum is easily soluble in acids even after powerful ignition ; the salts formed are destitute of colour when pure ; their taste is styptic. They are precipitated as gela- tinous hydrate, and must be dissolved by caustic ammonia, potash, or soda, and by sulpho- hydride of ammonia. The oxide is soluble when boiled with salammoniac, a chloride being formed and ammonia evolved. Sulphate of potash yields no precipitate, as a salt of cerium does ; the precipitate from ammonia is mixed with a subsalt which is soluble in water. When left on a filter, the subsalt becomes a carbonate, and when washed, the carbonate remains and a neutral salt dissolves; carbonate and bicarbonate of ammonia and potash, phosphate of soda, oxalate of ammonia, yield white precipitates, insoluble in excess of reagent. Sulphate. White right rhombic prisms (Bolley, Liebig, Ann. 33, 126), amethyst coloured (Ram- melsberg Pogg. Ann. 55, 65), when containing didymium ; G -sided prisms, with G-gonal suni- 318 LAP mits containing 3 atoms water. Soluble in 6 water at 36$, in 42| water at 73, in 115 at 212. When anhydrous, it contains 56-64 oxide per cent. At a red heat it loses half its acid. Potash sulphate of lanthanum. Reddish-yel- low precipitate, consisting of KO = 27'48> LaO=: 25-69, S0 3 = 46-68. Carbonate of lanthanum. See PARISITE. 1 >:i|tutl] itir. A bitter substance from Lapa- thum acutum. B-ifipi* CaiiKiifUH, or solid caustic potash. Lapis Infernalis. Nitrate of silver. Lapis Lazuli. A synonyme of Hauyne. Lard. The fat of the pig. Lardite* A synonyme of Agalmatolite. Laricine. C 14 H 24 O 4 . White powder from Agaricus albus by alcohol. Lasioiiite. A synonyme of Wavellite. Latent Heat. The insensible heat which enters into a body before it can change from the solid to the fluid state, or from the condition of fluidity to that of vapour. When we heat ice it becomes fluid, but when it is just melted its tem- perature is still 32, although heat has been pouring into it. The latent heat of water is LAU 140 (Black), 142-3 (Pvegnault). To deter- mine it, Black mixed equal weights of water at 172 and ice at 32. He found that the ice in- stantly melted, and the resulting temperature was 32. It is therefore obvious that 140 of latent heat were required to convert the ice into water, without adding to the heat appreciable by the thermometer. The latent heat of steam at 212 is 950 (Watt), 998-6 (Regnault) ; at 248, 973-6 ; at 302, 941-5. According to Person, the latent heat of vaporization is the same in substances which boil at the same tem- perature. The following table gives the latent heats, in column 1 referred to the bodies ; column, 2 referred to water : I. 2. Ice, 140- 140- Sulphur, 143-68 27-14 Spermaceti, 145* ...162 Lead, Bees' wax, 175 Zinc, 493 Tin, 500 Bismuth 550 / 5 ' 6 110-93 48-a (33- J24-85- 23-25 Latent Jleat of Fluids. Sulphuric ether, C 4 H 5 O Pyroxylic spirit, C H 2 O Acetic ether, C 4 H 4 O 2 Alcohol, C 2 H 3 O Butyrate of Methylene, ... C 5 H 5 2 Water, H O Formic acid, C 2 H 2 4 Valerianic ether, ?... C 10 H n O Acetic acid, C 2 H 2 2 Valerianic alcohol, C 5 H 6 O Oil of turpentine, C 20 H 16 Terebene, C 20 H 1C Oil of lemons, C 20 H 1( ; Butyric acid, C 4 H 4 2 Valerianic acid, C 5 H 5 2 Carbohydrogen, 12^12 Ditto, C 15 H 15 Ethalic alcohol, C 1G H 17 Latrobite. Spec. grav. 2-8. Pink doubly- oblique prisms, with angles of 98 30', 91, 93 30'. Si0 3 44-653, A1 2 O 3 38-814, CaO 8-291, MnO 3-16, KO 6-575. From Amitoke island, Labrador. Lauraontite. Laumonite, Lomonite, Efflor- escing Zeolite. Spec. grav. 2-3; H 3-5. White, with a shade of red, yellow or green oblique rhombic prisms, with angles of 113 30' and 86 15'; lustre vitreous, translucent; falls into powder in the air. B.B. fuses into a white spu- mous mass; gelatinizes in acids, and becomes negatively electric by friction, if insulated. SiO 3 51-98, A1 2 O 3 21-12, CaO 11-71, HO Latent Heat Of Atomic Weight." Of Unit of Weight 421-3 91 "1 527-7 263-8 582- 1058 598-8 - 208-3 556-5 87-3 603- 536- 694- 120-7 685- 69-4 382- 101-9 606 121-4 584 68-7 571 67-2 595 70- 632 114-9 660 103-5 629 59-9 783 5*9-7 884 58-4 Boiling Point*. 96-0 151-7 165-2 173- 199-4 212- 212 235-4 248- 269-6 312-8 312-8 329- 327-2 347- 491- 680-? Form. 3 CaO, Si0 3 , 3 (A1 2 3 2Si0 3 ) 12 HO. HuelGoet, Brittany; Kilpatrick hills; Greenland, and North America ; generally in trap rocks. Laurel Oil. C 20 H 10 O. Spec. grav. -914. White, viscid oil, consisting of two isomeric oils from laurel berries. Laurel Water. A preparation obtained by distilling the leaves of the Cerasus laurocerasus with water. Laurelic Acid. An uncrystalline sub- stance from the pericarp of Laurus nob'dis. Lauriite. the kernel of A bitter crystalline body from Laurus nobilis, by boiling al- 15-05. jcohol. 319 LAU I,.iitrolcaric Acid. HO C 24 H 23 O 3 ; F.P. 108J. Spec. grav. -883. Crystals ob- tained by saponifying laurostearine 5 readily sol 1 ublo in alcohol and ether. H 23 3 ; F.P. 112. White crystalline grains, by alcohol from laurel berries; soluble in boiling alcohol and ether; also in cocoa nut oil. 9,nuro'arom<. C 4C H 4 e0 2 . White scales by distilling laurostearate of liine. l.nvn. A name applied to the products of active volcanoes, and which seem to be mixtures of various minerals, especially pyroxene. A ho- mogeneous lava, from Krafla, Bunsen found to consist of Si0 8 76-38, A1 2 3 11-53, FeO 3-59, CaO 1-76, MgO -4, KO 1'88, NaO 4-46. Lava from Stromboli was found by Abich to consist of Si0 3 50-25, A1 2 O 3 13-09, FeO 10-55, MnO -38, CaO 11 '16, MgO 9-43, KO and NaO 4-92. lavender Oil. C 15 H 14 2 ; B.P. 397-4. Spec. grav. '892 to -917. Yellow oil, becoming thick in the air; mixes with alcohol in all pro- portions ; obtained by distilling lavender leaves (Lavendula, spica, augustifolia, and latifolia) with water. , l,arendnlanc. Spec. grav. 3 -014; H 2'75. Lavender-coloured masses, with a blue streak; contains arsenic, cobalt, nickel, copper, and wa- ter; from Annaberg, Saxony. liaznlite. Azure Stone, Prismatoidal Azure Spar, Hydrous Diphosphate of Alumina and Magnesia. Spec. grav. 3'057; H 5 to 5'5. Pale blue, of various shades, in granular masses, or pieces the size of a hazel nut, or in regular rhombic prisms, with angles of 121 30'; streak white; surface smooth, all the faces alike; lustre vitreous, translucent on the edges, sometimes opaque. B.B. intumesces, and becomes glassy, but does not melt; with borax a colourless bead. PO-, 41-81, A1 2 3 35-73, MgO 9-34, Si0 3 2-10, FeO 2-64, HO 6-06. Werfen, Salzburg; Vo- ran, Austria, &c. 2 (3 MgO FeO -j-PO 5 ) 4 A1 2 3 3P0 5 6HO. liead. Metallic Lead. Pb (plumbum) 13-, 12-945, 103-56. Lead .is a bluish-white metal, in masses or regular 6-hedrons. It has no taste, but a peculiar smell by friction. It leaves a mark on paper, and is a poison when taken internally. Spec. grav. 11-35 (Fahren- heit), 11 ;;.") 7 '(Crichton), 11-352 (Herepath and Brusor), 11-407 (T. Thomson), 11-445 (Uerzelius). Melting point 613 (Gay Lussac), 606 (Crichton, jun.) The specific gravity is not increased by hammering. Very malleable, and may be thus reduced into thin plates. It cuts readily with tin: kniff. Lead is principally "Stained from (Jakiui. The following valuable a of lead manufacture has been drawn up by my pupil, .Mr. James Taylor. The experi- niade by him under my eye in my laboratory: '"i/i!'-nl Pt'i nitration- of the Ore. When LEA the ore is dug out of the mine it is generally associated and blended with extraneous sub- stances, which are separated from it by a mecha- nical process of cleaning or dressing before being fit for smelting. In this condition the ore is called by the miners bouse. With a view, therefore, to free the ore as much as possible from the matrix, it is washed until it has attained the degree of purity necessary for the siibsequent metallurgic operations; previous to which it is pulverized, by crushing and stamp mills, moved either by water or steam power. The crushing mill consists essentially of a series of iron rollers, between which the ore is made to pass. The hopper which supplies the ore to the rollers, is placed at an elevation, and under it is a trough called a gtioe, which is constantly moved by the machinery, so as to cause the ore to fall gradu- ally upon the rollers. To prevent the rollers from becoming hot by their action, a stream of water is made to flow into the shoe, which 13 dispersed over them, keeping them always cold. The stamp mill consists of a wooden framework, in which the stampers are moved up and down. The bouse ore to be stamped is placed on an in- cline behind the stampers, and a stream of water from an elevation made to fall upon it, as the ore gradually descends under the stampers, to be pul- verized. Crating. The grate consists of bars of iron 1 inch square, and from 24 to 32 inches long, placed horizontally and parallel to each other, 1 inch apart. The bouse ore is placed upon the grating, and a stream of water, conveyed by a wooden channel, is allowed to flow over it ; the water and ore that pass through are led by an, inclined plane into a hemispherical basin under- neath, where they are collected. The pieces of ore that remain on the grating, mixed with the stones and other matters, are separated aud broken into pieces suitable for the smelting-house, and conveyed to the ling-stead, being a place near to the works, where all the dressed ore is deposited. If any ore still remains mixed with the gangue on the grating, it is canied to the crushing mill and reduced to a coarse powder. After being crushed it is again placed upon the grating, and subjected to the same treatment as before. If any ore still adhere to the stony matter which remains on the surface of the grate, it is sub- jected to a second process of crushing and wash- ing, and if not it is cast away. The ore that passes through the grate, and collects "in the basin under it, receives the name of dashed or crushed ore. Bouse Best. In order to purify the crushed ore further, it is washed upon the brake sieve, which is similar to the grating, but the apertures are smaller, and is suspended at the end of a wooden lever. On commencing the process of washing, the brake sieve is placed in a cistern filled with water, and a quantity of crushed ore put upon it. The end of the lever, in connection 320 LEA with the sieve, is agitated in such a manner as to cause the finer portions of ore to pass through the openings into the cistern below. The con- tents of the sieve are thereby separated int layers. The upper stratum or portion that rises ' to the surface, called cuttings, is removed by a scraper made of sheet iron, called by the washers a limp, and carried to the cutting washers. A second stratum, or centre portion, called by the miners chats, is taken out, and conveyed to th crushing mill, ground, and adapted for the sub- sequent treatment. A third stratum, or portion next the meshes of the sieve, is pure ore, which is also taken out by the limp and transported to the bing-stead. This last is technically called by the miners bouse best. The following table gives the analyses by Mr. Taylor : 1. Bouse 2. Tails 3. Bouse Best. Rest. Common Gangue, 6-90 8-00 8-80 Sulphuretof lead, ...89-00 85-80 83-80 Tersul. of antimony, . 0-60 0-80 0-90 Copper, trace trace trace Carbonate of iron,.... 1-20 3-48 3-00 Alumina, 0-25 0-80 0-90 Carbonate of lime, ... 1-90 1-00 2-40 99-85 99-88 99-80 Tails Best. The chats, after being ground, are again transferred to the brake sieve, and treated in the same manner as above described. The gangue which collects on the surface of the sieve, called gritty chats, is taken out by the limp, placed under the stampers, and pulverized. The pulverized gangue, now called bouse smid- dum, is carried to the cutting washers, and fur- ther purified. The under or third stratum of pure ore lying on the sieve, and called by the miners tails best, is likewise removed and depo- sited in the bing-stead. Bouse Common. The ore that passes through the brake sieve, and known as bouse smiddum, is placed in the running buddle, which is a large box into which a stream of water flows at what is called the eye of the buddle. The smiddum to be buddled is placed on the bottom, and while the water is flowing in, it is agitated with a col- rake (shovel), and by that means resolved into two qualities, the purest, which remains at the high end, and the sludge or slimy portion, called smiddum tails, which flows to the lower end ; they are both taken out, the former, which is the purest, is deposited by the side of the buddle, and the latter is carried to the trunk buddle. The purest portion is again put into the buddle, and washed properly before being conveyed to the bing-stead. After being washed and sorted in the manner before described, it receives the name of bouse common. Tails Common. The smiddum tails are next put into the trunk buddle, which is composed of two parts a box, into which a current of water LEA ] flows, and a large tank with a smooth bottom. | The ore to be trunked is placed in the box, and agitated with an iron shovel turned up at the sides, and the coarse particles are removed from time to time, while the finer particles pass along with the water, and are deposited on the level area. The portion at the upper end of the buddle, called sludge, is taken out and deposited at the side for further purification, and the other portion at the low end, containing a very small quantity of ore, is taken to the cutting washers. The ore taken out from time to time by the shovel is placed upon what the washers call a bedding, consisting of a layer (about 2 inches thick) of ore on the brake sieve. The sieve is moved in the water by means of the lever, and the pulverized ore, owing to its great specific gravity, and the minuteness of its particles, passes through the bedding, while the stones and gangue are taken off by the limp, and transported to the cutting washers. This operation is called " letting in," from the ore being let into the cistern under the sieve. The ore, after being let in, is taken out and put into the run- ning buddle, and washed until it is clean, when it is removed to the bing-stead. It is now known by the name of Tails Common, and on analysis was found to have the following composi- tion : i. 2. Gangue, 10-00 8-40 Sulphuret of lead, 81-80 77-80 Tersulphuret of antimony, .... 0-80 0-87 Copper, trace. trace. Carbonate of iron, 2-90 4-06 Alumina, 0-80 1-20 Carbonate of lime, 3-60 7-60 99-90 99-93 1, Tails common. 2, Cuttings common. Cuttings Common. The sludge taken from the high end of the trunk buddle is washed over again in the same manner. During the time it is being agitated, the washer moves his shovel uniformly, from the low to the high end of the buddle, and causes the separation of the materials into two parts. This operation is repeated until :he slimy matters are in a suitable condition to dollied. The dolly-tub is a cylindrical vessel, \vith an upright shaft which supports a perforated board, called a dolly, which, on being quickly urned by a winch handle, communicates a cir- cular motion to the contents of the tub. The ore ;o be washed is put in gradually by a shovel, and, as soon as ifr is thoroughly mixed with the water, the dolly is quickly withdrawn, and the ides of the tub are smartly struck with a mallet or a considerable time, in order to hasten the iubsidence of the heavy particles of ore ; while he slimy or light portion remains suspended in he water, but on the fluid coming to rest it ubsides also. The water is then decanted off, md the slime, having little or no ore in it, is 321 LEA taken out as refuse. The pure ore at the bottom of the tub, called cuttings common, is next re- in .,\vd and placed in the bing-steacl. The cut- tings, called sieve toppings, are placed on the brake sieve and treated in the same manner as the bouse ore. Upon the removal of the stony matter from the surface of the sieve, the pure ore is taken out and deposited in the bing-stead. The smiddum which passes through the sieve is taken out of the tub, trunk buddled and let in, as before noticed respecting the bouse smiddum. The slimy matters that collect at the lower end of the appa- ratus, when huddling the bouse smiddum, are carried to the trunk buddle and trunked. It is afterwards let in, and lastly treated in the run- ning buddle until the ore is pure, when it is carried to the place of deposit. The fine slimy matters produced by the last operation, are taken to the stirring buddle, which is ,a box in which the sludge is thoroughly mixed with water, till it assumes the consistency of slime, and where much of the impure matter is washed out. They are next removed to the nicking buddle, which has a board called the nicking board, placed at a slight incline. Upon this the slime is spread and water is made to trickle in small streams down its surface, v> hich, as it descends, comes in contact with the small ridges of slime made by the washer's shovel, and this process is continued until all the ore is ultimately washed down into the trunk, where it becomes deposited in regular layers on the floor. This process is repeated as often as is necessary to fit the ore for dollying, as before described. Cuttings common are composed as above. Smelting of Lead Ore. Roasting. It is only within the last half-century that the ore to be smelted in the Scotch furnace was subjected to the preparatory step of roasting, in order to effect its partial desulphuration and oxidation. The form of furnace generally employed varies con- siderably in its dimensions, but it always consists of a long flat hearth, with an arched roof, and heated by a fire placed at one end. There are two doors on either side for the removal and working of the ore. The charge of the furnace varies from 9 to 12 cwt. of galena, and requires from two and a-half to three hours for roasting. The ore is introduced into the furnace without the addition of any flux spread even over the surface of the sole and heated cautiously, taking care that the temperature is always kept under the fusing point of galena. If at any time dur- ing the operation, the ore presents the appearance of being fused, a fresh surface is exposed to the action of the flame. By this operation a large portion of the sulphur, c. is driven off, and the ore so agglutinated as to be enabled to resist the action of the blastfurnace, without being earned into the flues. On analyzing two specimens of the roasted ore, the following results were ob- tained : LEA First Specimen. Second Specn. II. 9 acetate of lead, till the precipitate which at first appours is again dissolved, and then mixing this alkaline solution with a cold solution of hypochlorite of soda as long as a precipitate falls. Wh.-ii washed and dried, this oxide is a reddish- yellow- powder, and does not combine with acids. It is soluble in HC1 ; reduced by formic and oxalic acids to protoxide. Hiiioxide, Peroxide, Deutoxide, Brown or puce oxide, Plumbic acid.. Pb0 2 , 15'. When nitric acid, specific gravity 1-26, is poured upon 20 parts of minium (PbOPb 2 O 3 ) 18* parts dissolve, while U part remains in the state of bromi oxide. It may also be obtained by passing chlorine into water through which red lead is diffused, until the oxide is dissolved, and then precipitating by caustic soda. It is also formed by precipitating a boiling solution of acetate of lead with hypochlorite of soda, or by passing a current of chlorine through acetate of lead, or by the action of bleaching powder on the same salt (W. Crum). The brown oxide is a tasteless insol- uble powder of a flea-brown colour. Spec. grav. 8-902 (Herapath); not acted on by sulphuric or nitric acids. By heat it becomes protoxide. It is used as an oxidizing agent sometimes in organic chemistry. It is decomposed by the light of the sun into oxygen and minium. Plumbate of Lime. If we dissolve 1 Ib. of nitrate of lead in water, and add it with 3 atoms of lime to 16 Ibs. of a solution of bleaching powder, specific gravity 1-08, and heat the mixture to 160 F., frequently stirring for five hours; pour off the clear liquor, and add 16 Ibs. more of the solution, and continue the heat three hours longer, a compound of lime and binoxide of lead is obtained, which may be termed plumbate of lime. If we digest it in nitric acid, the oxide is left of a jet-black colour (Crum), but the com- position is not easily made out. Protosesquioxide, Red Oxide,Minlum, Red Lead. PbO P 2 O 3 43, 344, is formed when oxide of lead is placed in a reverberatory furnace for forty- eight hours, and constantly stirred. It is a tasteless, insoluble scarlet powder of specific gravity 9 '09 (Herapath). When digested in acetic acid, pro- toxide of lead dissolves, and a brown powder remains (binoxide?) Hence minium may be 2 (PbO) PbO 2 . By heat it is decomposed into oxygen and protoxide. It is sometimes adulter- ated with colcothar, the residue on heating cop- peras, from which it may be distinguished by its becoming yellow (PbO) when heated. It does not unite with acids. With sulphurous acid (S0 2 ) it is converted into sulphate of lead (PbOS0 3 ). Chloride of Lead. PbCl 17-5, 140. Speci- fic gravity 6-; occurs in nature as horn lead. It is easily prepared by dissolving galena or sulphuret of lead in hydrochloric acid; it crys- tallines in 4-sided prisms, more frequently in white scales and needles ; tasteless, dissolving in 22 parts of boiling, in 135 to 150 cold water. 328 portions ; mixtures atom PbCl, are white or pale yellow; 1 PbCl with 7 PbO, when melted, forms Turner's yellow. It may be also obtained by heating 10 parts minium with 1 salammoniac. Oxychloride as a pigment is patented by Mr. Pattinson. Iodide of Lead. Pbl, 28-75, 230-. Yellow powder or scales formed by precipitating a salt of lead by iodide of potassium, dissolving in boiling water or in hot dilute acetic acid, and allowing the solution to cool. Sulphide of Lead, Sulphuret, Galena. PbS. Lead ore. This ore occurs hi the primary rocks of Cornwall and Argyllshire, in the graywacke rocks of Wanlockhead, Leadhills, and Carsphairn, and in the north of England in the mountain limestone upon which the coal formation reposes. Its colour is pure lead-gray ; it is apt to tarnish. It sometimes occurs hi a massive or fibrous form, but it is generally crystallized; the primary form is a cube ; but it occurs in octahedrons, and in the shape of the leucite crystal, and sometimes as an icositetrahedron. Hardness 3-; spec. grav. 7*5. When heated before the blowpipe it gives off sulphur ; and if on charcoal, a metallic bead of lead is left. When sulphide of lead is heated in contact with atmospheric air, the sulphur is oxidized and sulphate of lead is produced (PbS -f 4 O become PbO S0 3 ). In the reduc- tion of lead, therefore, this is the first product obtained. If an atom of sulphuret of lead and one of sulphate of lead be exposed to a powerful heat, they are resolved into metallic lead and sulphurous acid, PbS and PbOS0 3 become 2Pb and 2S02- Galena is decomposed by iron when they are heated together, PbS and Fe becoming FeS and Pb. Carbonate of Lead, White lead, Cerussa, Ma- gistery oflead.PbOC0 2 , 16-75, 134. Known to the ancients. As it occurs in commerce, it contains always an excess of oxide, its composi- tion being C0 2 14-00, and PbO 86-, instead of CO 2 16-43, Pb 83-57. It occurs in nature white, with intermediate shades down to a black. Crystalline form, right rhombic prism ; specific gravity 7-235. Diamond lustre, fracture resinous. It may be formed artificially by precipitating acetate of lead by an alkaline carbonate ; but in this state is not fitted for a pigment. It is usu- ally prepared for commercial purposes by the Dutch method, which consists in spreading out thin sheets of lead in an apartment, the floor of which is covered with tan or horse-dung ; the lead is laid over earthen pots containing weak acetic acid ; the temperature of the dung or tan rises to 150 ; the lead becomes corroded, being brought into a fit state by the acetic acid for combining with C0 2 from the dung. White lead is also made by bringing carbonic acid in contact with litharge, mixed with a small portion of acetate of lead in water. Acetate of Lead. See ACETATES. LEA Sulphate of Lead. PbOS0 3 , 19-, 152. Specific gravity 6-3. White rhombic prisms when native, or heavy white powder when prepared by preci- pitating acetate of lead by sulphuric acid, or an alkaline sulphate; soluble in 22,816 water, in 480 sulphuric acid, in 172 nitric acid. Nitrate of Lead. PbON0 5 20-75, 166-; col- ourless 8-hedrons. May be obtained by dis- solving litharge or white lead in nitric acid. When the nitric acid is properly neutralized, the process of boiling down may be conducted in a copper vessel. Chromate, Chrome Yellow. PbOCr0 3 20-5, 164 ; specific gravity 6-. Red oblique rhombic prisms ; yellow powder formed by precipitating 100 bichromate of potash with 176 acetate of lead, and washing by subsidence. It is used in organic analysis; as a pigment; and in calico printing. Dichromate, Chrome Orange. An orange pow- der obtained by acting on chrome yellow with caustic soda. When chrome yellow is printed on cloth, if the cloth be passed through lime water, the yellow becomes orange, 2 (PbO Cr0 3 ), and CaO become 2 PbOCrO 3 , and CaO Cr0 3 . Assay of Lead Dry Assay. It is impossible to arrive at completely accurate results in the assay of lead in the state of sulphides, more particularly when mixed with other sulphides. An approximation, however, may be attained by mixing 100 parts of the pounded ore (containing, for example, galena, antimony, and selenium), with 30 parts of fine iron filings and placing them in a Hessian crucible filled up to three-fourths. The mixture is covered with a layer of common salt or carbonate of soda, or black flux. A cover is then fitted on without heating, and the crucible introduced into a moderate heat, which is to be urged towards the close. When the crucible is fractured on cooling, we find a button of metal, which, on being struck with a hammer, divides into 2 parts; the inferior layer consisting of pure lead, and the upper containing magnetic oxide of iron. Some- times particles of lead are interspersed through the fused mass, which are to be removed by pounding and passing through a fine sieve. Another method is to fuse 100 parts of galena with 150 carbonate of soda, 30 iron filings, and 5 of charcoal, or black flux may be substituted for the soda and charcoal. To reduce the oxides they are to be mixed with 2 parts of black flux; and if they contain lime, with 2 parts of borax or carbonate of soda, increasing the borax in proportion to the amount of lime. To reduce the sulphate, the powder is mixed with 4 parts of black flux; and iron filings may be further addqd to remove the sulphate more readily. Other fluxes are : 2 galena, 2 black flux, 1 native iron pyrites ; or, 10 galena, 20 black flux, 3 oxide of zinc. For frequent assays, it is best to use a crucible made of hammered iron (cast iron is soon destroyed), of a cylindrical form, LEA about 4 to 6 inches high, and covered with an iron lid. Wet Assay. To obtain the lead from an im- pure sulphuret, 100 grains of the ore are to be boiled in pure hydrochloric acid, until the fumes cease to strike a dark colour upon a piece of filtering paper dipped in acetate of lead. The acid should be free from sulphuric acid, other- wise an insoluble sulphate will be formed ; and it should contain no nitric acid to prevent the conversion of the sulphur into sulphuric acid. The liquid is then to be mixed with water, and thrown on a weighed filter ; the insoluble matter is washed as long as the liquor passing through the filter affords a precipitate with nitrate of silver. The insoluble matter is dried along with the filter in a water bath at 212, till it ceases to lose weight. The chloride of lead being very insoluble in cold water, Avill deposit as the filtered liquid cools. This is dissolved by heating the fluid, and a current of sulphuretted hydrogen is passed through it until the lead is precipitated. The sulphuret of lead is thrown on a filter and washed with distilled water. It is then digested off the filter in dilute nitric acid, precipitated by sulphuric acid, or an alkaline sulphate from a concentrated solution, then filtered, the sulphate washed, dried, and weighed on the filter; 19 parts contain 13 of lead. In using nitric acid there is always a tendency to the formation of sulphate of lead, which, however, may be taken up by caustic potash or soda. /Separation of Lead. To determine the amount of lead in pure galena, when it is mixed only with silver, we digest the ore in strong nitric acid ; sulphate of lead is formed, which is thrown on a [filter, washed, and weighed. The silver remains in solution, and may be precipitated by hydrochloric acid, and weighed as chloride of silver ; 18 grains contain 13^ of silver. When the quantity of silver is very minute, 2 ounces of the lead must be placed on a cupel in a muffle, and heated with access of air till the lead is oxidized, and the silver remains in a state of purity. A few hundredths of a grain in 2 ounces may thus be appreciated. I ,-ad minerals, or Natural Salts : Lead, Selenide. Specific gravity 7-187, H 3-. Pb Se; Se = 27-59, Pb = 1-81. Lead-gray granular masses, resembling sul- phide of lead. When heated in a glass tube open at both ends crystals of selenic acid are formed, which deliquesce ; B.B. burns in charcoal with a blue flame. Zorge, Hartz. Lead, Bitellnridc. Foliated ore of Tellurium, Tellurium glance. Spec. grav. 7-085, H 1 to 1'5. Lead-gray tables, or right square prisms ; foliated, opaque, flexible when in thin plates. B.B. fuses into a malleable button ; with borax gives a bead of gold, containing some silver ; soluble in nitric acid. Te 32-08, Pb 54-74, Au 8-72, Cu 1-22, S 3-03. Nagyag and Offenbanya, Transylvania. Lead, Chloride. PbCl. Spec. grav. 1- 897 ? 329 LEA White needles. Scratched by the nail. Soluble in nd tl water. Crater yf Mount Vesuvius. Lead, bichloride. Mendipite. Pb 2 Cl,orPb CIPbO, or Pb 83-2, Cl 13-77, C0 2 1-03, Si0 3 1-46, HO -54. Spec. grav. 7', H 2-75. White 4-sided prisms on earthy black ore of manganese in the Mcndip Hills. la>ad,Chloroxide. MatlocMe. Pb 83-667, Cl 8-45, C0 2 1-03, Si0 3 1-46, HO -54. Straw- yellow, cleaving with a foliated texture; the cleav- age planes meeting at an angle of 102 to 103. B.B. easily fuses, and is reduced on charcoal to a metallic globule. Soluble partially in water; soluble in nitric acid, with little or no effer- vescence. From Mendip (Berzelius) ; pure specimens from Cromford, near Mattock, in fine splendent right square prisms, consist of Pb Cl 55-177, PbO 44-3, HO -072, with a spec, grav. of 7-21 (Greg and Smith). Lead, Oxychloride, is prepared as a pig- ment by Mr. Pattinson, by forming chloride of lead from galena and muriatic acid, and mixing its solution in water, with sufficient lime water to remove half the chlorine. Lead, Chlorocarbonatc. Murio- Carbonate, Corneous Lead. Spec. grav. 6-056, H 2-75. Pb CIPbO C0 2 =Pb 39-17, Cl 13-56, PbO 43 -32, C0 2 8-51. White rectangular square prisms, with pale tints of gray, yellow, and green ; streak white; partially soluble in water; soluble, with effervescence, in nitric acid. Cromford, near Mat- ' lock ; Alston moor ; Badenweiler, Germany ; Southampton, Massachusets. Lead, Tuugstate of. Spec. grav. 8', H 3-. PbO Tn0 2 . Yellowish-gray 8 -hedrons, with a square base, resembling molybdate. B.B. fuses, yielding a crystalline globule. [Lead, Molybdate. See MoLYBDATE OF LEAD. Lead, Trismolybdaec. 3 PbO, Mo0 3 . Spec. grav. 6-. Greenish-yellow concretions ; from near Pamplona, South America. Lead, Cupreous Sulphate of. PbOSO 3 , CuOHO. Spec. grav. 5-3, H 3-. Deep blue right oblique prisms Leadhills. Lead, Nulphaio-carbonate of. Lanarlcite. PbO S0 3 , PbO C0 2 . Spec. grav. 6-8 to 7-, H 2-25. Greenish or yellowish- white oblique angled 4-sided prisms, with curved faces, terrain- 1 >v two planes ; lustre adamantine, inclining to resinous ; translucent, sectile. Partially soluble in nitric acid, with effervescence, leaving sulphate of lead. Leadhills. Lead, Sulphato-tricarboiiate of. Lead- . PbOS0 3 , 3PbOC0 2 . Spec. grav. 6-3 to 6-5, H 2-5. Pale greenish rhomboids, or yellowish or colourless 6-sided prisms. More readily soluble in nitric acid than the preceding. Leadhills. Lead, JPhoMphateof. Polychrome, Pyromor- Broton I;>1 ore, Green lead. Spec. grav. <;-:.7s] to ti-Ilir,, 112-75. PbO 69-639, PO, 17-6, I'b :*;;;,;. ri -_'-<;.-,G, FeO 2-, HO -8. Form. Pb LEA Cl ; 6 to 8 3PbO, PO 5 . Green, yellow, or brown masses and 6-sided prisms, frequently terminating in 6 -sided pyramids, the edges of the prisms frequently being replaced by tangent planes ; lustre resinous, brittle ; fracture imper- fect, conchoidal ; semitransparent to translucent. B.B. melts on charcoal ; soluble in warm nitric acid. Leadhills ; Huel Goet, Brittany ; Saxony. Lead, Vaiiadiate of. Spec. grav. 6-6623 to 7-23, H 2-75, Pb 7-063, Cl 2-446, PbO 66-326, V0 3 23-436, Fe 2 3 and Si0 3 -163 (R.D.T .), 3 (3 PbO V0 3 ), Pb Cl. Light brownish-yellow in spheres or 6-sided prisms ; opaque or slightly translucent on the edges ; brittle ; fracture even, or flat conchoidal ; lustre resinous. B.B. fuses on charcoal into a black scoria; reduced with carbonate of soda ; with borax, a blue or green bead. Soluble partially in sulphohydride of ammonia, becoming blue or green on boiling and the addition of muriatic acid. Wanlockheacl ; Wicklow; Mexico. Lead, Arseniate of. Mimetene, Nussierite, Campylite, Hedyphane. Sp. gr. 6*41 to 6-9 and 7-25, H 2-75 to 3-5. PbO 75-59, As0 5 21-2 ,P0 5 1-32, HC1 1-89 (Wohler), 3(3 PbO, AsO 5 P0 5 ), Pb Cl. Pale or orange-yellow 6-sided prisms ; texture foliated; lustre resinous, sectile. B.B. gives out fumes of arsenic on charcoal. Soluble in nitric acid ; the acid is taken up by sulpho- hydride of ammonia, sulphuret being precipi- tated on the addition of muriatic acid to the solution. Cornwall ; Cumberland. Lead, Cupreo Chromate of. Vauquelinite. Spec. grav. 5-5 to 5-78, H 2-75. PbO 60-87, CuO 10-80, Cr0 3 28-33. Form. 2 (FbO Cr0 3 ) CuO. Dark or olive-green masses, or oblique rhombic prisms, with nearly the same angles as chabazite ; fracture partlv compact, partly earthy ; streak siskin-green. B.B. melts into a dark gray bead with some metallic globules ; on platinum foil passes into a green and then yellow bead, which forms a yellow solution with Avater. Accom- panies Siberian chromate. Lead, Plumbakiminite. Binaluminate, Sexaluminate, Plombyomme. Spec. grav. 4-88 to 6-35, H 4-25. PbO 40-14, AL>O 3 37-, HO 18-8, CaO, MnO, FeO 1-8, Si0 3 -6. Form. PbO, 2 A1 2 3 6 HO. Yellowish and reddish-brown reniform masses, translucent, resembling Muller's glass. B.B. decrepitates and becomes white and opaque, with borax a transparent colourless glass ; on char- coal becomes an enamel. Sometimes contains phosphates of alumina and lead. Huel Goet, Brit- tany. Lead, Cupreous Sulphato Carbonate of. Caledonite. Spec, grav 5- to 6-4, H 2-75. PbO S0 3 55-8, PbO C0 2 32-8, CuO C0 2 11-4. Deep verdigris- green radiating crystals of right rhom- bic prisms of 95 and 85; streak greenish- white; lustre resinous, translucent, rather brittle. Leadhills. Lead, Nagyag Tellurium Ore of. Spec, grav. 6-84. Au 6-7, Te 13-, Pb 63-1, Sb 4-5, 330 LEA Cu 1', S 11*7. Iron-black curved plates inter- laced together ; disseminated in silicate of man- ganese ; lustre splendent. From Nagyag. JLcacl, Antiuioniate of. Spec. grav. 3-93 to 4*76, H 4*. Gray, brown, or yellow reniform masses, opaque. Sb0 5 81-72, PbO 61-83, HO 6-46. Nertschinsk. Lead,Scleuiateof. H3to4. Sulphur-yel- low masses in spheres and grape-like clusters. Frederichsgl tick. Leather. (Leder, Ger. ; Cuir, Fr.) A mode of preparing skins so as to fit them for domestic and other purposes. Skins or hides are prepared in various ways : 1. Tanned leather is formed by digestion in a solution of tannic acid, in the form of oak bark. 2. Tawed or white leather, from the skins of sheep, goats, and calves, used for kid gloves, &c. is prepared by means of alum and common salt. 3. Chamois or wash leather, formed with oil or fat. 4. Parchment, obtained by immersing skins in lime water. Tanned lea- ther is obtained by steeping skins in water, to deprive them of fat, blood, &c. ; they are then digested in lime water or caustic soda, to soften and deprive them of their hah*. They are afterwards steeped in a solution of oak bark for several weeks, to unite the tannic acid with the gelatine of the skins. Russian leather is acted on with birch, tar, and alum. Morocco leather is dyed with madder or other colouring matter, mixed with tin salts, and alum. Leaven. Fermenting dough. Lecanoric Acid. Lecanorine, Variolarine. C 18 H 8 8 . White silky needles, scarcely soluble in cold water ; soluble in 2500 hot water, in 150 cold spirit, 15 boiling spirit, in 80 ether ; soluble in caustic and carbonated alkalies. The solu- tions, when boiled, yield orcine and carbonic acid. Obtained by treating powdered Lecanora, Par- melia, or Variolaria by displacement with ether, evaporating the solution ; treating the residue with ether and boiling water, and then dissolving and crystallizing with hot alcohol ; or by treat- ing the lichens with spirit containing ammonia, precipitating by acetic acid, and crystallizing from alcohol. Erythric acid appears to be orcino lecanoric acid, a coupled acid, consisting of orcine and lecanoric acid. Lecitfaine. A phosphoric fat from human venous blood, not crystallized ; similar to that of the egg, brain, &c. LedereHte. Si0 3 49-47, A1 2 3 21-48, CaO 11-48, NaO 3-94, HO 8-58, P0 5 3-48, Fe 2 3 14. A variety of chabazite from Nova Scotia, with half the quantity of water. Ledcrite. A variety of sphene. JLcdiiaiinic Acid. 3 HO C 14 , H G , O 6 . An amorphous substance from Ledum palustre, by alcohol and lead salts. Ledixanthine. C 14 H c O r> . A red or yel- low body by the action of mineral acids on solu- tions of leditannic acid. Ledum Camp&or. From Ledum palustre. LEP Leelite. Spec. grav. 2-606, H 6-25. Deep flesh-red masses ; structure, compact ; fracture splintery and conchoidal ; translucent like horn. Si0 3 81-91, A1 2 3 6-55, FeO 6-42, KO 8-88. Grythittan, Nerike ; allied to felspar. Lcgallic Acid. A form of gallic acid by frequent sublimation ; does not precipitate iron, black. Lcgmninr. C 50-68, H 6-74, N 18-76, S -482, Ash -6. The principal nitrogenous con- stituent of peas and beans, extracted by cold water. Seems identical with caseine. Lehuiitite. Spec. grav. 1-953, H 3-75. Flesh-red or white mass, like lump sugar, but often consisting of a congeries of scales or crystals under the microscope. B.B. fuses into a white enamel. SiO 3 47-33, A1 2 3 24, NaO 13-2, CaO 1-524, HO 13-6. Allied to natrolite. Glen- arm, Antrim. Leiocome. A synonyme of British gum or soluble starch. Lemanite. A synonyme of Saussurite. Lemons, Essential Salt of. Salt of Sorrel, or binoxalate of potash. Lemons, Oil of. C 10 H 8 . Sp. grav. -847, of vapour 4-835. B.P. 343| ; deposits crystals at 4 ; obtained by distilling the skin of Citrus limonum ; by HC1 gas citrene is formed, a cam- phor united to HC1. Ficnzinite. Spec. grav. 1-8 to 2-1. Si0 3 37-5, A1 2 3 37-5, HO 25-. Soft and soapy feel; adhering to the tongue ; polishes with the finger; sectile, fracture conchoidal, dull; in amorphous masses, covered with oxide of iron. Kail, Eifeld, St. Sever. Leonhardite. Si0 3 54-9, A1 2 3 22-5, CaO 9-1, HO 13-5. Form. 3 (CaOSi0 3 ), 4 (A1 2 3 2 Si0 3 ), 15 HO. Similar in appearance and form to Laumontite. Lepidine. Yellow bitter mass or powder from the seeds of Lepidium Iberis. Lepidocrocite. Protohydrous Sesquioxide of iron. Fe 2 O 3 HO. A synonyme of Gothite. Lepidolite. Lithia Mica, Peach blossom mica. Spec. grav. 2-8 to 3-, H 3-. Si0 3 47-99, AU0 3 23-75, MnO 7-06, MgO '42, KO 14-63, LO 3-16, HF1 2-71, HO 1-5. Peachy scales, or oblique rhombojdal 8-gonal prisms. See MICA. Found in granite, &c. Lepidomelane. Sp. grav. 3-, H 3. Black or leek-green hexagonal plates or scales ; lustre adamantine; streak green. Si0 3 37-4, ALjOg 11-6, Fe 2 3 27-66, FeO 12-43, MgO,CaO -26, KO 9-2, HO -6. B.B. becomes brown, and fuses into a black enamel, with borax a green glass. Persberg, Wermland. Lcpolife. Spec grav. 2-76, H 6-. Colour- less, grav, or green prisms. SiO 3 42-8, A1 2 O 3 35-12, FeoO 3 1-5, CaO 14-14, MgO 2-27, NaO 1-5, HO 1-56. Finland. Leptynite, Whitestone. Granite, sienite, or gneiss, deprived of their quartz, mica, and am- phibole, with felspar alone remaining. 331 LET Lettsomitc. Velvet Copper Ore. Blue glo- bules in fibres. SO 2 15-38, A1 2 O 3 11-06, Fe 2 O 3 1-18, CuO 48-16, HO 23-06. Moldawa Bannat. Leuchtcnbcrgite. Spec. grav. 2-71, H 2-5. Yellowish or white imperfect rhombohedrons ; feelgreasy. Si0 3 32-35, A1 2 3 18', MgO 32-29, FeO 4-37, HO 12-5. B.B. fuses into a green thin colourless bead with salt of phosphorus, colourless glass with borax. Slatonsk. Allied to chlorite. I^eucic Acid? C 12 H 12 O 6 . Oily solution by the action of nitrous acid on an aqueous solu- tion of leucine. I.cuciuc. (Xiu*, white). Aposepedine, Oxide ofcaseine. C 12 H 13 NO 4 . Small pearly plates, resembling margaric acid. Soluble in 27-7 water, 658 alcohol ; insoluble in ether ; soluble in acids and alkalies ; neutral reaction ; sublimes by heat in a current of air without decomposition ; ob- tained by dissolving 1 part glue in 2 strong sul- phuric acid ; allowing them to stand for a day, diluting with 8 water ; boiling for some hours, and neutralizing with chalk ; evaporating the fil- tered liquor to a syrup, boiling with alcohol and crystallizing. By a similar process it is procured from albumen, fibrine, &c. or by boiling these substances with strong caustic alkali for several hours ; neutralizing with sulphuric acid ; evapo- rating and crystallizing from alcohol. Lencite. White garnet, Amphigene, Vesu- viane, Leucolite. Spec. grav. 2-49, H 7. Red- dish, yellowish, generally white tetrakishexahe- drons, or icositetrahedrons, or modifications of the 8-hedron, having 24 faces, with angles of 131 48' 16", and 146 26' 33',. To this form in other minerals, the term leucite crystal is given ; fracture con- choidal ; lustre vitre- ous. B.B. infusible; fuses with borax or carbonate of lime into a clear globule. SiO 3 56-1, A1 2 3 23-1, KO 21-15, Fe 2 3 95. In basalt and lava in Italy and Bohemia ; between Home and Frascati. l>< u< ohanmiH-. A synonyme of Harmine. l,< IK oliiK . Le'ucol. Quinoline. CigH 7 N. Spec. grav. 1-081. Refracting power 1-64. B.P. 462. Colourless fluid, with a disagreeable taste like bitter almond oil; becomes brown in air; sparingly soluble in water; soluble in alcohol, pyroxylic spirit, acetone, fat, and ethereal oils ; it dissolves sulphur, phosphorus, camphor, and rosin ; soluble in acids, with which it unites, and forms crystalline salts ; obtained from coal gas heavy oils which pass over last in the distillation of coal oils. These oils are shaken with strong chlorohydric acid, and distilled with milk of lime in ;i I-U|,|,,T still. Ammonia, odorine, aniline, and pass over. The distilled fluid is treated LEY with chlorohydric acid, and evaporated ; caustic , potash being added, the oils swim on the surface. On distillation ammonia and odorine pass first, then aniline, and lastly leucoline. Aniline can be separated by distillation, as it boils at 359|, and gives a blue with bleaching powder. It is also obtained by heating quinine, cinchonine, strychnine, and thialdine, with potash, by the separation of carbonic acid and hydrogen. JLeucopctrine. C 50 H 42 O 3 . Resinous needles by alcohol from an ethereal extract from brown coal. JLeucophane. Spec. grav. 2-974, H 3-5. Pale green to wine-yellow, crystalline, or massive and columnar ; cleavage imperfect in 3 directions; lustre vitreous; pow r der white and phosphores- cent; when heated electric. B.B. fuses into a violet glass. Si0 3 47-82, CaO 25-, G1O 11-51, MnO 1-01, NaO 7-59, KO -26, F 6-17. In syenite, Langesundfiord, Norway. Ijciicophovuui. A pigment of the ancients, consisting of 6 red chalk, 10 siris(?), and 2 me- linum (probably chalk). liencopyrite. A synonyme of arsenide of iron. I,< m o!u> it Acid. C 6 H 3 N 2 6 . White crys- talline acid, obtained by boiling a solution of alloxanic acid to dryness, heating pretty strongly in a capsule, and adding water ; difluan dissolves, and leucoturic acid remains. Irrigation. The mode of separating the finer parts of powders by suspension in water. I^evyine. Spec. grav. 2-161, H 4-. SiO 3 44-48, A1 2 O 3 , 23-77, CaO 10-71, KO 1-61, NaO 1-38, HO 17-41. Has been confounded with chabazite ; it intumesces like scolezite before the blowpipe. It may be considered a natrolite with a double quantity of w r ater. Form. (RO Si0 3 .Al 2 3 Si0 3 ) 4 HO. In rhombohedrons similar to those of chabazite. Scotland, Ireland, Iceland. JLcyden Jar. A glass jar or bottle, th6 lower half of which is coated on the out and inside with tin foil. Into the mouth is passed a rod, terminating in a knob at top, while the lower end splits into three legs, or terminates in a chain passing to the bottom of the jar. When the jar is held in the hand, and the knob brought near the prime conductor of a machine, a spark passes to the knob, and a shock is experienced in the arm holding the jar, which is explained as follows : When we pass a spark of positive elec- tricity from the prime conductor into the interior of a Ley den jar, the person holding the jar re- ceives a shock in the arm. This is a spark of positive electricity passing from the exterior of the jar to the earth, repelled by every spark of 332 LHE the same electricity which enters the interior of the jar. For every spark that enters the jar, therefore, a corresponding spark of the same elec- tricity passes from the exterior coating until the positive electricity of the exterior of the jar is removed, and an equivalent amount of the same electricity has accumulated in the interior. When we connect the exterior and ulterior of the jar by a discharger, the accumulated positive electricity of the interior flies to the exterior, and supplies the place of that which passed to the earth, and thus the equilibrium is restored or everything returns to its natural condition. The principles involved in the preceding statement may be sim- ply illustrated : If we insulate a Leyden jar on a glass stool or glass tumbler inverted, connect it with the prime conductor and work the machine, we shall find that we cannot charge it, because the electricity of the same name with that of the machine cannot escape to the earth, glass being it, non-conductor of electricity. The electricity, therefore, cannot accumulate hi the interior of the jar, which therefore merely acts as a continuation of the prime conductor. Lherzolite. Green pyroxene from Lake Lherz, Pyrenees. Libavius's Fuming Liquor. Bichloride of tin. Libethenite. Hydrous tetraphosphate of copper. lichens are familiar plants growing on rocks and trees. They consist principally of cellulose 17 per cent. ; starch or lichenine 70 ; cetraric acid, lichesteric acid, fat, thallochlore, lichulmic acid, substance soluble in alcohol ; unmixed nitrogenous matter ; often sugar which I have crystallized, 3 per cent. In 1843, 1 showed that all lichens contain inorganic matter as an essential part of their composition, and that when burned they leave more ash than any other plants, except sea weeds ; although previously it was the general expressed opinion of botanists that lichens derived their nourishment solely from the air (Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, vol. i.) When lichens are boiled with spirit containing some car- bonate of potash, lichesteric, and cetraric acids, thallochlore, lichulmic acid, fat, &c. are dissolved, while lichenine or lichen starch, with cellular mat- ter, remains. Various crystalline bodies and pow- ders have been obtained from lichens, but no evi- dence has been supplied that these are anything else than products of the processes employed; every new experimenter having rendered the sub- ject more unintelligible by the multitude of such decompositions. Lichens are employed for the production of litmus and cudbear, by digesting them in ammoniacal liquor. Lichenine. Lichen Starch. Ci 2 Hi 10 . Colourless transparent mass, swelling up hi wa- ter, and coloured blue by iodine; forming a clear solution in boiling water, but only swelling up and yielding a greenish colour with iodine; the starch separated by alcohol yields a blue with LIG iodine ; insoluble in alcohol and ether ; 1 starch converts 23 hot water into a jelly ; by long boiling it ceases to gelatinize, being probably con- verted into dextrine or sugar; nitric acid changes it into oxalic and saccharic acids, not into mucic acid. It does not exist in the state of granules, but is spread out between the fine cells. It is prepared by digesting for twenty- four hours Iceland moss (Cetraria Islandica) in cold water, containing -^^ of its weight of carbonate of potash ; filtering the brown bitter solution off, and treating the residue with cold water till its bitter taste and alkaline action are removed. It is then boiled with 9 times its weight of water, the solution evaporated to one- third, the liquor strained through calico while boiling hot, and pressed ; on cooling the liquid gelatinizes. The starch gradually contracts on cooling, and separates from the water. LichestericAcid. HOC 28 H 23 5 ; F.P.248 . White pearly mass, or 4-sided plates, without smell, but with a peculiar taste ; insoluble in wa- ter, soluble in ether, alcohol, and fat oils ; unites with bases, forming unibasic salts; obtained by boiling for half-an-hour, in a retort, lichens with strong spirit and some carbonate of potash ; filtering while boiling through a cloth, acidu- lating with chlorohydric acid, and then adding 4 or 5 times its volume of water. The pre- cipitate which falls is filtered and washed, and boiled with 9 times its volume of alcohol (930). The crystalline precipitate which sepa- rates on cooling consists principally of lichesteric acid, in 4-sided tables ; the cetraric acid mixed with it is in needles, which can be distinguished under the microscope, while a fatty body is in granules. To purify it completely, it is repeat- edly crystallized from petroleum or mineral naphtha, which dissolves the lichesteric acid, but not cetraric acid or fat. Lichulmic Acid. C 3 oH 13 Oi3. Brown substance, formed by the action of oxygen on cetraric acid hi presence of an alkali. Liebigite. H 2-25, A 2 O 3 38-, CaO 8-, C0 2 10-2, HO 45-2. Apple-green warty transparent masses ; loses water by heat, and becomes gray and black and orange on cooling. On pitch blende from Adrianople. Licbnerite. Spec. grav. 2 -8 14, H 3 -5. Greenish-gray 6-sided prisms. B.B. not fusible. Si0 3 44-66, A1 2 O 3 36-51, FeO 1-75, MgO 1-4, KO 9-9, NaO -9, HO and C0 2 4-49. Mount Viesena, on felspar porphyry. Lienine. C 53-71, H 8-95, N4-82,O 32-52. Crystalline body from the fluid of the spleen. Lievrite. See ILVAITE. Ligament. The bands or cords which re- tain the joints in their situations. They are par- tially soluble in water, affording gelatine; in- soluble in alcohol; soluble in sulphuric, nitric, and chlorohydric acids ; the solutions are not pre- cipitated by potash or yellow prussiate of potash, but are by nutgalls. Ligaments are soluble in 333 LTG potash, the solution yielding: a slight precipitate \viili acetic acid. They contain much water, which can he partially removed by pressure and at, and when again immersed in that fluid they ahsorb it like a sponge. Ligniiic. Woody matter, Incrusting matter, C 34 H 2 402o (Payen). The matter deposited on the interior of the cells of plants, consisting of a mixture of bodies which have different relations to solvents. Lignose is insoluble in water, alco- hol, ether, and ammonia ; soluble in potash and soda. Lignone, insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether ; soluble in potash, soda, and ammonia. I A '(/nine, insoluble in water and ether; sol- uble in potash, soda, ammonia, and alcohol. Lffiiiireose, insoluble in water; soluble in potash, soda, ammonia, alcohol, and ether. According to some chemists lignine has the same composition as cellulose ; but it is better to confine this name to the incrusting matter of the cells. Lignite. Wood coal. Liguritc. From Stura, in the Appenines,.in oblique rhombic prisms, containing Si0 3 57'45, CaO 25-3, A1 2 3 7-36, MgO 2-56, FeO 3". Supposed by some to be sphene. Ugustrine. A bitter extract by alcohol from the bark of Ligustrum vulgare, or privet. Ijilaicnc. Bitter needles from the Syringa vulgaris. I a In lite. A synonyme of lepidolite. lamacine. A white substance obtained by decoction from garden slugs (Livnax agrestis). Soluble in water, alcohol, and alkalies. I>imh<<*.*. 1. Pure lime is obtained by heating calcium in air or oxygen. 2. By exposing lime- (CaO C0 2 ), to a strong heat, carbonic ;!<;, 1 is evolved, and quicklime, or lime, or oxide <>!' calcium (CaO) remains. It was long known that limestone lost something by exposure- to, heat. Some thought the loss due to water (Van Ilelmont, Ludovicus, jMucquer), and that LIM it regained it by exposure to the air. Stahl attributed the new properties of quicklime to the more minute division of its particles by fire. Boyle ascribed them to fixation of fire in the lime, a view adopted by Newton, Hales, and Meyer. In 1756, Dr. Black, then of Glasgow, showed that the quantity of water lost is not sufficient to account for the difference in weight of limestone before and after calcination ; but remembering that Dr. Hales had proved air to be disengaged from limestone by the action of acids, he conjectured that this might be what is lost in calcination. By the application of weights and measures, he found that the loss was exactly due to the water and air removed. By exposing it again to the air, he found that it regained its weight by absorbing air. He termed this air, fixed air, which was afterwards examined by Priestley and others, and called carbonic acid. On the great scale, limestone is burned for mortar and manures in lime-kilns, funnel-shaped chambers, in which the limestone is mixed w y ith coal and ignited; the carbonic acid is converted first into carbonic oxide, which burns and changes into carbonic acid (C0 2 , C = 2 CO, then 2 CO and O 2 = 2 C0 2 ). When it contains too much clay (silica and alumina), the lime unites with the silica and becomes dead-burnt, that is, it will not slake. Oyster shells are burned into quicklime, which is much used in India for building and whitewashing, under the name of chunam. Hydrate. Slaked lime. CaOHO 4-625, 37', CaO 75-67, HO 24-33. Fine white powder, or transparent 6-sided prisms or tables, cleaving in planes parallel to the faces of a rhomboid. It loses water at a low red heat, but does not fuse. Quicklime does not absorb carbonic acid ; but as soon as it is in a state of hydrate, the carbonic acid of the air partly replaces the water (Scheele), which in this case seems to occupy the function of an acid. Soluble in 384 water at 60 ; 729 at 130; 952 at 212 (Dalton). Process. When we pour water upon a piece of quicklime, we observe that the water is absorbed, and air filling the pores which have been formed by the expul- sion of the carbonic acid, makes its escape with an audible sound. The absorption of the water, however, at last ceases ; the lime feels hot to the hand ; vapour begins to rise ; the lime swells up, crackles, emits much heat, and gradually falls into powder. This process is termed slaking lime. When the lime is considerable in quantity, the heat is so great as to inflame combustibles, and even vessels loaded with it ; in a dark place, light is perceptible. Salts of lime. 1. A considerable number ol the salts of lime are insoluble in water. Some of those which are soluble, cannot easily bf crystallized. 2. Insoluble salts of lime when boiled with carbonate of soda or potash, leave an insoluble carbonate of lime. 3. Caustic ammo- nia does not precipitate lime, while soda and 334 LIM potash precipitate it. 4. Sulphate of lime does not precipitate lime, but oxalate of ammonia precipitates it in neutral and alkaline solutions, the precipitate being insoluble in water and acetic acid. Sulphate, anhydrous sulphate, anhydrite. CaO S0 3 8-5, 68-. Specific gravity at 39-2, in vacuo (natural) 2-96, (Royer and Dumas); (artificial) 2-9271 (Karsten); hardness equal to calcareous spar. Crystal right rectangular pnsm, the lateral edges often replaced by tangent planes, or amorphous ; phosphoresces when heated; fuses at a red heat, and be- comes a white crystalline mass ; converted by ignition with charcoal into sulphide. Quicklime absorbs the vapour of sulphuric acid at a red heat (Rose). Oil of vitriol in large quantity poured on quicklime, renders it red hot (Kastner) ; and when diluted or concentrated acid is dropped on quicklime, light is emitted in the dark. Insoluble in water ; vapour of solid sulphuric acid, and oil of vitriol, do not decompose carbonate of lime ; the acid must be diluted (Marx, N. Br. Arch. 15, 103). Sources. It may be obtained by heating hydrous sulphate of lime to the tem- perature of 400 (Millon). It occurs also native, as first pointed out by Hauy ; a specimen was described by Fleurien in 1798 (Journ. Physique), and analyzed by Vauquelin, who first ascer- tained its composition ; afterwards described by Boumon (Jour. Min. An. x. 2, 355) ; Chenevix (ib. 418); and Klaproth (Gehlen Jour. 2, 355). Semihydratedsulpliate. CaO S0 3 , ^HO 8-0625 72-5. Specific gravity 2-757 ; needles with a dark coating, obtained from the water of a boiler worked under two pressures (Johnston, Phil. Mag. 13, 325). Bihydrated sulpliate.CaO S0 3 2 HO 10-75. 86-. Specific gravity 2-322, at 32 in vacuo (Royer and Dumas). Crystal native right oblique prism, the faces inclined at angles of 113 8', and 66 52'. The most common shape is a thin rhomboidal prism with bevelled edges ; lustre silky, very soft; artificially, it is in fine needles, or granular, scratched with the nail. At 212 .in vacuo, over oil of vitriol, loses 1 atom of water or 10-46 per cent.; becomes an- hydrous at 270 (Graham) ; 259 (Mitscherlich) ; near 400 (Millon). When dried at the tem- perature of 270, and mixed with water, union takes place with the evolution of heat; the salt sets, and is thus used to take plaster casts and impressions. But if the heat be greater, the LIM water does not readily unite. Hence gypsum over-burnt does not again set, and is of no value. Soluble in 460 water at 60 (Bucholz, Gehlen, J. 5, 165), 380 (Giese), and 450 boiling water (B). 388 (G.). Taste slightly nauseous, scarcely perceptible, except in considerable quantity (Macquer) ; solubility increased by salammoniac (Vogel); common salt (Trommsdorf) ; sulphate of soda (0. Henry) ; and succinate of ammonia (Wittstein) ; soluble in sulphuric acid. Melts before the blowpipe, giving an opaque glass at a temperature of 51 Wedgewood (Saussure, Jour. Phys. 45, 16). The solution saturated under pressure with hydrogen, contains in six months much sulphide (Paul, Phil. Mag. 15, 63). ' Hypochlorite, Chloride of lime, Bleaching powder, Tennant s bleaching powder. CaO CIO, Ca Cl 2 HO. 18-25, 18-1, 144-8. White powder with the peculiar odour of hypochlorous acid ; partially soluble, leaving hydrate of lime ; attracts water and carbonic acid slowly in the air, and evolves chlorine ; heat converts it into chlo- ride of calcium and chlorate of lime, oxygen being evolved and sometimes chlorine, and the bleaching power lost (18 (Ca Cl -f CaO CIO) =:12 O-f-17 CaCl-f CaO C10 5 ) (Morin) ; be- comes moist after long exposure in the air, giving out oxygen slowly, losing its bleaching power, and being converted into chloride of cal- cium. The solution of bleaching powder is transparent and colourless, with the characteristic odour. When boiled, it evolves oxygen, and the same action occurs under the influence of metals and light, one -third being changed into chloride of calcium and chlorate of lime, and two-thirds into chloride of calcium and oxygen gas. By exposure to the direct solar rays, the hypochlorite changes into chlorite of lime. Preparation. On the 23d January, 1797, Charles Tennant of Darnley, near Glasgow, obtained a patent for preparing bleaching li- quor, and on 30th April, 1799, for forming solid bleaching powder. This important article has been ever since manufactured on an increas- ingly great scale, by Messrs. Charles Tennant & Co. of St. Rollox. 1. It was originally made in the fluid form, and slaked lime was mixed with water and placed in a receiver. 2. The method of preparing dry bleaching powder at the present time, is to slake quicklime with water, since lime and carbonate of lime do not absorb chlorine. The slaked lime is spread out on the floor, and sometimes on shelves, in large stone chambers, to the depth of 3 or 4 inches. The doors of this apartment, formed of flags, are closed up air-tight by a cement of pitch, rosin, and gypsum. A lead tube conducts from the bleaching powder chambers to the stills in which the chlorine is prepared. These are formed of sandstone, and consist of a double box. Into the interior is introduced the finely ground black oxide of manganese, and upon this is run from reservob-s, chlorohydric acid, which is derived in LIM soda works from the gas proceeding from the decomposition of common salt by sulphuric acid. The exterior box, of comparatively much smaller dimensions, is filled with steam, in order to assist the action of the acid upon the binoxide of manganese. The chlorine thus liberated, passes by the lead tube into the chamber by an aperture in the top or sides. If the chlorine be admitted too rapidly, the temperature rises, and may reach 246, which will have the effect of forming chloride of calcium and chlorate of potash. The chlorine therefore ought to be passed slowly. An atom of lime slaked with half an atom water, absorbs only atom chlorine, with 1 or 2 atoms water, atom chlorine ; but when fully slaked with an excess, and the redundancy removed by heat, 1 atom lime absorbs nearly 1 atom chlo- rine (53 per cent.). The general action is ex- by the formula 2 CaO 2 Cl = Ca Cl CaO CIO. It has been found that when the slaked lime is mixed with ^ of common salt, or sulphate of soda, the absorption is promoted. The lime remains exposed to the action of the chlorine for forty-eight to ninety-six hours; the doors are then opened, the excess of chlorine allowed to escape, and the bleaching powder packed in casks. For mode of testing, see CHLORINE. Mercer's Method of Testing Bleaching Powder, with Yellow Prussiate of Potash, depends on the conversion of the yellow into the red prussiate, as indicated by pouring a solution of a given strength into a solution of bleaching powder, and dipping a piece of pale sesquioxide of iron-buff calico into the mixture. When the cloth ceases to become blue, it is a proof that the yellow has become red prussiate, which does not form Prus- sian blue with sesquioxide of iron. A convenient apparatus for this test is sold by J. Ronchetti, Manchester, where it is commonly employed. Carbonate, limestone, marble, calcareous spar, chalk, marl, oolite, travertine, tufa CaO C0 2 . 6-25, 50; spec. grav. of Iceland spar 2-717 in vacuo (Le Royer and Dumas) ; 2-721 (Mohs); 2-75 (Neumann); of acute calc spar 2-6987; less acute 2-700; most obtuse 2-7064 (Kar- sten). Dimorphous. 1. Calc spar crystallizes in obtuse rhombohedrons, with angles of 105 5' (Wollaston); of this form 680 modifications have been described. 2. Arragonite right rhom- boidal prism, usually as 6-sided prisms, hard- ness 3-75; specific grav. 2-931 (Hai- dinger); 2-920 (Bournon); 2-9267 (Biot); 2-885 to 2-9304 (Stromeyer) ; 2-7647 to 2-9467 (Beaudant). Car- bonate of lime in all its forms is it is soluble in 10,601 water #t 60, 336 LIM and 8834 at 212, and in 65,246 water, having alkaline salts in solution (Fresenius). When newly precipitated, it dissolves easily in a strong cold solution of salammoniac, but with difficulty after standing a day ; it is also soluble in solu- tions of carbonate, sulphate, nitrate and succinate of ammonia. When the precipitate is allowed to stand, it is much less soluble (Vogel, Wittstein); at a red heat it loses all its carbonic acid, and if steam be present, less heat is required. When heated in a glass tube with half its weight of sodium, carbon is deposited. It dissolves readily in water through which carbonic acid is passed, or under pressure (CaO CO 2 and C0 2 , become CaO 2 C0 2 ), and on boiling the water carbonic acid is evolved, and carbonate of lime is repre- cipitated. Trisphosphate, Common Phosphate, Apatite, Asparagus stone, Bone earth, Moroxite, Phospho- rite. 3 CaO P0 5 19-5, 155-4, or 8 CaO 3 P0 5 55, 440 (Berzelius). White powder as precipi- tated from guano and bones, or in low 6-sided prisms with a white, blue, or green colour; in a native state with a spec. grav. of 3-0989 to 3-2 (Hauy). /Soluble to a small extent when newly precipitated, in pure water, the solution becoming cloudy on the addition of nitrate of lead (Phillips) ; in water containing starch or glue ; hi solution of common salt (Thomson) ; in ammo- niacal salts (Wohler); chlorohydric and nitric acids dissolve it by removing 2 atoms of lime and converting it into protophosphate. From these solutions, acetate of lead precipitates phos- phate of lead; 100,000 parts of water saturated with carbonic acid, at 50 dissolve 75 parts of pure phosphate (Lassaigne, Comptes Eendus, 23, 101); from this property we may explain the mode in which bone earth is absorbed into plants and animals, and how bones decay when exposed to the air. Dilute sulphuric acid removes the lime, and leaves a soluble compound with a s^mall portion of lime ; 1 atom trisphosphate, and atoms sulphuric acid, give sulphate of lime and orotophosphate of lime; some sulphate remains n solution, which may be precipitated by the addition of alcohol; 10 parts of bone earth, 5 silica or sand, and 5 clay, ignited in a charcoal crucible, yield 3 phosphorus when distilled with water, silicate of lime and carbonic oxide being formed (Berthier). Natural Sources. 1. Bone earth occurs in .nimals and plants, constituting the basis of the bones and teeth, and of those portions of plants used as food. It is prepared pure from bones and guano, by calcining them in a clay crucible, dissolving the white residue in dilute chloro- hydric acid, precipitating the solution by caustic LIM ammonia in the form of a jelly, and filtering rapidly without access of air to prevent carbo- nate of lime from being formed. It occurs in the form of apatite or phosphorite mixed with chloride and fluoride of calcium in Norway, Spain, and Tyrol. Its hardness is 5' ; it fuses before the blowpipe into a white enamel, and into a glass with borax and biphosphate of soda. Artifi- cially, bone earth is obtained by precipitating an ammoniacal solution of chloride of calcium with phosphate of ammonia (Fuchs). It then con- tains 54 (Fuchs) per cent, of lime; or 52-95 (R.D.T.); 53-34 (Berzelius) ; approximating to the formula 3 CaO PO 5 . Formerly, it was found to contain 51-68 lime (Berzelius); and its formula was 8 CaO 3 P0 5 . Lime Silicate, See TABLE SPAR. Lime, soda silicate of. See WOLLASTONITE. Lime, silicate, of, Tersilicate of lime. Specific grav. 2-2055; H. 3-5. Snow-white, resembling tremolite; texture fine radiated, phosphoresces when rubbed ; decomposed by acids ; easily fran- gible. B.B. acts like table spar, fusing into a colourless glass with difficulty. SiO 3 55-2, CaO 34-284, A1 2 3 4-16, FeO 2-896, HO 3-4. Formula CaO Si0 3 (T. Thomson) ; a similar mineral from Girvan in Ayrshire, I have found to have a specific grav. of 2-845, and to contain Si0 3 55-5, CaO 33-81, with some soda, magne- sia, iron, and alumina. For other silicates, see DYSCLASITE, WOLLASTONITE, or SODA TABLE SPAR, TABLE SPAR, APOPHYLLITE, ( GURO- LITE. Lime, arseniate of. Specific gravity 2-848 ; H 2 to 2-5. White, 8-hedrons, with an oblique base. Locality unknown. AsO 5 67-781, CaO 17-9, HO 14-319, or CaO AsO 5 85-681, HO 14-319. See also PHARMACOLITE. Lime, Tungstate of, Scheelate of Lime, Tung- sten. Specific grav. 5-959 to 6-076, H 4-5 to 5* White or yellow, gray or brown, 8-hedrons, with a square base more or less mo- dified, found on quartz ; with angles of 100 40', 128 46'; structure im- perfectly foliated; lustre glassy. B.B. crackles, but does not fuse ; with bo- rax becomes a clear glass; CaO 19-06, Tn0 3 78, Si0 3 2-8. Form. CaO Tn0 3 . Zinnwald, Bo- hemia; Saxony; Pengelly, Cornwall; Coquimbo. JLinioninc. C 42 H 25 O 13 . F.P. 471. Rhom- bic crystals, slightly soluble in water, ether, and ammonia; soluble in mineral acids, alcohol, and acetic acid and potash. By alcohol from orange and lemon seeds. Limonite. Bog iron ore. Linarite. Cuprosulphate of lead. Lincolnitc. A synonyme of Heulandite. Lindsayite. Probably a pseudomorph of Anorthite, consisting of Si0 3 42-22, A1 2 3 27-55, Fe 2 3 6-98, FeO 2-, MgO 8-85, KG 3-, NaO 2-53, HO 7: Linea Vulgaris. The flowers of this plant are used as a yellow dye, due to the presence of LIT Aetholdrrine, a yellow amorphous substance, soluble in ether and alcohol. Liuim-. White powder from the root of Linum catharticum, by alcohol. Linoleic Acid. C 46 H 38 O 5 HO? Theoleic acid from linseed oil by saponification. Linseed Oil. Yellow oil; specific gravity 9347; soluble in ether and alcohol; from Linum usitatissimum. Lipic Acid. C 5 H 3 3 . F.P. 284 to 293. Plates or needles, soluble in alcohol and ether ; less so in water ; isomeric with pyrotartaric acid ; forms crystalline salts with alkalies ; lipate of am- monia yields precipitates with salts of lime, strontian, barvtes. iron, copper, and silver ; ob- tained by boiling oleic, stearic, or margaric acid, for twelve hours in a retort with nitric acid, heat- ing the acid liquor four or five times with fresh nitric acid, and evaporating to one-fourth of its volume. On standing, suberic and azoleic acids crystallize out. The mother liquor by evapora- tion, gives more suberic acid and pimelic acid. The supernatant fluid contains adipic and lipic acids, which separate by evaporation at a gentle heat. Warm ether dissolves the two acids, and boiling alcohol dissolves the ethereal extract, and by spontaneous evaporation allows the adipic acid to separate in warty, the lipic acid in foliated crystals, Lipyle. C 3 H 2 . The hypothetic radical of oxide of Lipyle. Lipyle, Oxide of. C 3 H 2 0. A hypothetic body supposed to form the basis of oils. When, saponified, 2 atoms of it unite with 4 atoms water to form glycerine (C 6 H 7 5 HO). Liquefaction. The conversion of a solid, vapour, or gas, into a liquid. Liquor of Cadet. Protoxide of Kako- dyle. Liquor, Dutch. (C 4 H 4 C1 2 ). Bichloride of olefiant gas. An oil by the action of chlorine on olefiant gas. Liquor, Fuming, of Libavius. Bichlo- ride of tin. Liquorice. See GLYCYRRHIZINE. Liriodendrine. F.P. 18l; rectangular tables or needles with a bitter taste ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; from the root bark of Lirio- dendron tulipifera. Liroconite. A synonyme of octahedral arseniate of copper. Lithamarie Acid. An acid resembling chinovasic acid, and said to exist in bezoar stones. Litharge. Protoxide of lead. Lithia. Oxide of Lithium. LO. Lithia exists in petalite, likewise in spodumene, lepidolite an ame- thystine variety of mica, tourmaline. It has been likewise detected in the mineral waters of Carls- bad, Franzbad, and Marienbad (Berzelius, Pog- gend. Ann. 4, 248) ; Pyrmont (Brandes Schwei^. 45, 369); Kissingen, Hall, Bilin, Kreuznach, Lavey, Slintsch. 337 LIT Hydrate of Lithia. LO HO ? White, with a ( r\ stalline fracture; not volatile; changes \ eatable blues to green, with a caustic taste ; not deliquescent, but absorbs carbonic acid in the air; soluble in water giving out heat; equally soluble in hot and cold water, but less soluble than potash or soda; scarcely soluble in alcohol of specific grav. '85; corrodes platinum. When alcohol in which lithia is diffused is ignited, it burns with a carmine flame. Process. 1. The finely pulverized mineral is mixed with a quantity of fluor spar equal to 2^ times the amount of silica contained in the mineral. The mixture is placed in a silver crucible, and made into a paste with sulphuric add. On the application of heat, silicofluoric arid passes away carrying off all the silicon; as soon as fumes cease to come off, and the mass is tolerably dry, the heat is gradually raised to ignition to drive off excess of sulphuric acid. The mass is digested in water, which takes up sulphate of lithia and sulphate of lime. The latter may be removed by boiling with oxalate of ammonia, filtering, and evaporating. The lithia may be thrown down from the sulphate by carbonate of ammonia, and the carbonate of lithia is then deprived of carbonic acid by means of caustic lime, in the same way as with the other caustic alkalies. 2. The finely powdered mineral may be fused with 4 times its weight of carbonate or nitrate of barytes, the fused mass dissolved in muriatic acid (HC1), evaporated to dryness, moistened with muriatic acid, water added, and the silica separated by filtering ; the alumina and earths separated by boiling with carbonate and oxalate of ammonia, filtration, and the filtered liquid ignited. Instead of barytes, caustic lime may be employed. Lithia Salts. 1. The salts of lithia are all soluble in water, but they are less soluble than potash or soda salts. 2. Carbonate of potash precipitates concentrated solutions of lithia salts, which disappear on the addition of water, of by boiling. 3. Bichloride of platinum, caustic pot- ash, prussiate of potash, infusion of gallnuts, do not precipitate salts of lithia. 4. Lithia is characterized by its conduct with phosphate of soda. When we mix this salt with a salt of lithia and evaporate, the solution becomes turbid. On the mass becoming dry by evaporation, if we add water, an insoluble white powder remains, which is a phosphate" of lithia and soda (NaO, LO HO P0 5 ). 5. An alcoholic solution of a salt of lithia burns with a carmine flame. 6. When a mineral or salt in powder containing lithia, is mixed with fluor 1 spar and bisulphate of pota.-h, and heated before the blowpipe, the flame of the lamp is tinged of a purple red. I'itliir Acid. Uric acid. liithioBpore. Sulphate of barytes. Lithium. L. -8125; 6-5. A rnetal resem- bling potaaekuaa obtained by the galvanic battery IV. mi lithia (Uayy). LIT Chloride. LCI 5-25, 5-225 r 41-8. Cubes with a taste resembling common salt ; fuses by ignition, and volatilizes .by a white heat ; less volatile than common salt, more so than chloride of potassium (Gmelin, Rose) ; obtained by dissolv- ing the carbonate or hydrate of lithia in muriatic acid, and crystallizing in the sun or from an alcoholic solution in vacuo. When it deliquesces in the air, it gradually forms rectangular prisms with 4-sided summits, which are bi- or quater hydrated crystals (LCI 2 HO or 4 HO. Kam- melsberg, Poggend. Ann. 66, 79 ; Hermann, ib. 15, 480). Iodide. Deliquescent needles, with 6 atoms water, often yellow from free iodine. Fluoride. Opaque crystalline grains, scarcely soluble in water. Bifluoride or Fluohydride. Small acid crystals, becoming fluoride on heat- ing. Sulphide. Soluble in water and alcohol ; ob- tained by heating sulphate of lithia with charcoal. BisulphoJiydride. By passing a current of sulpho- hydric acid through the sulphide, and evaporat- ing, long prisms result. Sulphate. LOS0 3 HO 7-925, 63-4. Shining rhombic prisms, with dihedral summits (Her- mann) ; long efflorescing tables (C. Gmelin) ; equally soluble in hot and cold water ; soluble in alcohol ; fuses with difficulty by ignition. When gypsum is present, it fuses below a red heat. I^ithofellic Acid. Bezoaric Add. F.P. of crystallized 401, of amorphous acid 225. HO C^Q&sijOf. Colourless 6-sided prisms ; in- soluble in water; soluble in 29 cold, 6|- boiling alcohol ; in 444 cold, 47 boiling ether ; soluble in strong acetic acid ; obtained by digesting oriental bezoars in soda, precipitating by an acid, and crystallizing the precipitate out of al- cohol. By dry distillation pyrolithofellic acid, C^H^OS, is obtained, and by nitric acid nitro- lithofellic acid, C4 H 28 N 2 22 , results. Liighonrarge. Spec. grav. 2*457, H 2-5. Yellowish earthy substance. Si0 3 55-5, A1 9 3 24-3, Fe 2 3 2-5, CaO 1-55, MgO -95, KO 9 : 25, HO 5-8. JLiihrodes. A synonyme of Nepheline. S jit :ii us. (Turnsole, Fr. ; Lackmus, Ger.) Blue cubical cakes imported from Holland, &c. It is prepared from the Leconora tartarea, and perhaps other lichens. They are pulverized and mixed with putrid urine, when the blue colour is developed. It is used in the form of infusion and tincture to detect acids, and when reddened to test for alkalies, and also in the form of lit- mus test paper, formed by immersing paper in the infusion, and drying it. Jjiorc or loiter. A French measure of capa- city; 4-54345794 litres are equal to 1 imperial gallon of 277-274 cubic inches; 1 litre is there- fore equivalent to 61-02709 cubic inches; 1 pint = 567932 litres; 1 quart = 1-135864 litre; 1 bushel = 36-347664 litres. The litre is = 1-760773 pint = '2200967 gallon; a decalitre 338 LIV = 2-200967 gallons; a hectolitre = 22-009 67 gallons. Liver. A term applied to certain roasted .metallic sulphides from their liver colour. (Lixivium and Lixiviation. Terms ap- plied to the water and process used in separating soluble from insoluble salts by digestion. Jdizaric Acid. C 30 HIQ O 9 . Crimson needles from Zealand madder, subliming; soluble in sulphuric acid with a blood-red colour. Loam. -A term usually applied to soil of a dark colour, due to vegetable matter. Lobelic Acid. From the decoction of the leaves of Lobelia inflata. Lobeliue. Yellow bitter matter from the root of Lobelia inflata by alcohol. Loboitc. A synonyme of idocrase. Logwood. The wood of the Hsematoxylon Campeachianum, growing on the American con- tinent. It sometimes contains fine crystals im- bedded in it, of the colouring matter hcematoxyline, q.v. Logwood is used by the calico printer for black and brown colours, with an alum mordant. The colouring matter is usually sold in the form of log wood liquor, a decoction in hot water strongly concentrated. Loiichiditc. Spec. grav. 4-925, H'6-5, 25 FeS 2 ,FeAs or S 49-61, As 4-4, Fe 44-23, Co -35, <'u '75, Pb -2- A variety of radiated pyrites: Freiberg, Schueeberg, Cornwall. Lophiue. C40H i(]N 2 . Silky crystals, with- out colour, taste, or smell ; insoluble in water, nearly so in alcohol and ether ; soluble in petro- leum, turpentine, and in alcoholic solutions of potash; forms salts with acids ; obtained by dis- tilling hydrobenzamide; ammonia is evolved and an oil. The residue solidifies, and consists of two bodies, one of which, lophine, is soluble in ether. By nitric acid it is converted into trinitrolophyle, ^46 HIS 3N0 4 N 2 , in orange crystals. Lotalilc. A variety of amphibole. Loxoclasc. Spec. grav. 2-61, H 6-25. A variety of felspar or albite. from Hammond, New York, containing SiO 3 C3-5, Al 3 8 20-29, Fe 2 3 -67, CaO 3-22, NaO 8-76, KO 3-03. Lowcitc. Bloedite? Spec. grav. 2-376, H 2-75.' 2MgO, S0 3 , 2 NaO, S0 3 , 5 HO? Yellowish- white tetragonal pyramids; taste feebly saline and astringent ; from Ischl. Con- tains NaO 18-97, MgO 12-78, SO 3 52-35, HO 14-45, Fe 2 3 , and Mn 2 O 3 -66. Luchoiiinc. A substance found in the sulphur wells of Luchon, identical with Bare- gin e(?); greenish; coagulates at 178, and by alcohol. Lucifer Matches are made by dipping wooden matches in a mixture of 2 chlorate of potash, 4 phosphorus, 7 gum arabic, and 2 glue or isinglass, coloured with indigo or minium. I, mini- Caustic. Nitrate of silver. Lupine Seeds. The seeds of various spe- cies of Lupinus. In the figs, are represented the ceils with starch, which resemble those of peas LYD and beans. The skin completely resembles that of the bean. The Levant lupine has been found Cells with starch. [Hooker. .] Skin cells. to afford an ash consisting of Si0 3 '87, P0>; 25-53, C0 2 '56, S0 3 6-8, Cl 2 11, MgO 6-18, CaO 7-75, Na 17-75. KO 33-54. Lupinine. A bitter substance from different species of lupine. I > si piil inc. Lupullte. Yellow bitter prin- ciple of hops (Humulus lupulus); soluble in 20 boiling water ; insoluble in ether ; soluble in al- cohol. It is a neutral body ; obtained by form- ing a tincture by means of alcohol with hops, distilling off the alcohol, adding water, which precipitates resin ; precipitating from the liquor the tannic acid by lime, evaporating, removing resin by ether, and taking up the lupuline by al- cohol. Lustre. (Eclat, Fr.) A term referring to the amount of light reflected by crystals. The spe- cies are metallic, diamond or adamantine, resin- ous, vitreous or glassy, pearly, or that of mother- of-pearl, fatty, silky. The intensity of lustre is said to be, splendent, shining, glistening, glim- mering, dull. Lute. (Kitte, Ger.) Cement for tube joints, usually made with fats. Fat lute is formed with pipeclay and linseed oil, and stands a high heat. A good lute for steam boilers and stills consists of equal parts of chalk and flour made into a paste with water. Luteogallic Acid. The yellow colouring matter of nutgalls, insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether. Luteoliiic. Yellowish needles, sublimable, slightly soluble in water ; soluble in alcohol, ether, and alkalies, barytes and lime waters, with a yellow colour ; soluble in acid without decomposition, as it is reprecipitated by water ; acts as a dye with alum ; obtained from the Reseda luteola or woad, by boiling for a quarter of an hour with water; luteoline separates in yellow flocks. Lycopodium. A yellowish powder found in the fruit vessels of the club moss (Lycopodium. clavatum), used in fireworks, and sometimes in pharmacy for covering pills. Lydiaii Stoiie. iJasanite, Touchstone* A 339 LYM dark-coloured quartz found in Lydia, Saxony, and Bohemia, used to determine the value of gold alloys used in jewellery, by judging of the impression made by touching the metal. Lymph. The fluid contained in the lym- phatic or absorbent vessels of animals. These vt'-M'ls absorb the lymph from the serous cavi- ties, and carry it to the thoracic duct, where it is mixed with the chyle. When the lymphatics cease to act, the lymph accumulates in the cavi- ties and causes dropsy. Lymph from a wound in the foot consists of spec. grav. 1037, water 969-26, fibrine 5-2, albumen 4-34, fat 2-64, Na Cl, KC1, KOC0 2 , CaOSOg, 3CaO, P0 5 , FeO=r 15-44 (Marchand and Colberg). From a young ass, water 965-36, albumen 12-, fibrine 1-2, ex- MAG tract (alcoholic) 2-4, aqueous extract 13-19, fat trace, salts 5-85 (Eees). The fluids left in the se- rous cavities in dropsy appear all to contain fibrine, for when mixed with serum of blood, or with a small morsel of moist fibrine, or many solids, the}' gelatinize (Dr. A. Buchanan), and I have collected large quantities of fibrine in this way. The fluids from the intestines in cholera I have found to be of an analogous character and to be distinct from serum, as in the following table : Salts. Organ. Matter. Water. 1. Serum, 11- 89 900 2. Cholera F, 6-75 6-75 986-5 3. HydroceleF, 7-82 4. Hydrocephalus F, 8-66 1-52 989-82 M ITIace. The exterior covering of the nutmeg. (Mvristica officinalis). Macerate. To steep in water, alcohol, &c. Made. A synonyme of Andalusite. The term macle of Brittany, has been given to a crystal deposited in mica slate in Bretagne. The black matter of these slates is placed regularly in the centre of the crvstals and in the angles. See fig- Maclurite. Chondrodite. Madder. (Krapp, Ger. ; Garance, Fr.) The root of theRubia tinctorum, principally grown for the use of dyers at Avignon in Alsace near Mas- tricht in Zealand, Holland, and in the Levant at Smyrna and Cyprus. In Europe the root is used in the third year, in the Levant in the fifth and sixth years. The amount of ash in Alsace madder is 8-14 to 8-42 per cent, in Levant madder 9-8, dried at 212. The composition of the Alsace ash is KO 26-64, NaO 11-67, CaO 29-25, MgO 3-68, Fe 2 3 3-36, P0 3 4-62 NaCl 13-25, S0 3 2-14, Si0 3 5-36. The nature of the origin of the colouring matter of madder has given rise to much investigation, but. hitherto without any very definite result. According to Robiquet, the colouring principle is alizarine, which exists in the root. Eunge considers that there are several colouring matters, madder red, purple, orange, and brown. Debus ascribes the properties of madder to the presence of lizaric and oxylizaric acids. Higgin found in madder, ali- zarine and purpurine distinguished by its solubi- lity in solution of alum. According to Schunck, when 1 Ib. of madder is exhausted with 16 quarts of boiling water, and sulphuric acid added to the filtered liquid, a brown precipitate falls, which consists of six substances. It is washed with cold water, and treated with boiling alcohol, which dissolves Alizarine, Rubiacine, Rubiane, and two resins. Freshly precipitated alumina is added until the liquor loses its colour; the col- oured alumina is filtered and washed with alco- hol. It is boiled three times in a solution of carbonate of potash, which leaves a compound of alizarine and alumina, and dissolves the other bodies. Boiling in chlorohydric acid takes up the alumina and leaves the alizarine, C 14 H 5 O 4 , , as a red crystalline powder. It is obtained in reddish-yellow prisms by solution in alcohol ; it sublimes at 420, and is soluble in ether, and slightly so in boiling water ; by nitric acid it is converted into Alizaric or phthalia acid, CnHgO?. The brown precipitate from the decoction of mad- der, when treated with perchloride or pernitrate of iron, chlorohydrie or sulphuric acids, yields Rubiacine, C 31 H 9 10 ,in yellow plates and needles. This substance, when oxidated, affords Rubiacic acid C 31 H 9 O ]7 , a lemon-yellow powder. By washing the brown precipitate of madder decoc- tion with cold water, Rubiane, the bitter principle of madder, is obtained. Madder also contains sugar, pectic acid, and xanthine, a brownish syrup procured by evaporating the decoction. From further experiments Schunck states that rubiane, by the action of a ferment existing in madder, erythrozyme q. v. is decomposed into Alizarine, Verantine, Riibiretine, Rubiajine, Rubi- aaine, and Rubiadipine q.v. Emulsine is the only substance which acts likewise as a ferment in de- composing rubiane. He considers alizarine the only colouring matter in madder, all the other colouring substances described containing aliza- rine in a state of greater or less purity. Madic Acid. HOC 32 H 30 O 3 rF.P. 130. Fatty needles from the oil of Madia Sativa by saponification. Magistcry of Bismuth. Trisnitrate of Bis- muth. Magistral. Roasted sulphur and copper pyrites in the amalgamation of silver. Magma. A pasty mass. Magnesia. Hydrocarbonate. See HYDRO- MAGNESITE. Magnesia, Calcareo Carbonate of. An- thraconite, Brown /Spar, inpm't, Bitter Spar, Dolo- 340 MAG mite, Conite, Gurhojian, Magnesian Limestone, Miemite, Muricalcite, Pearl Spar, Picrite, Tharan- dite. CflOC0 2 MgOC0 2 . Spec. grav. 2-815 to 2-884, H 3-5 to 4\ White inclining to red or green, also brown, gray, black masses, and rhombohedrons, with angles of 106 15'; streak grayish- white ; fracture conchoidal; structure foliated; lustre vitreous, inclining to pearly ; B.B. acts like calcareous spar. The two carbonates are often present in various proportions, affording an example of the isomorphism of lime and mag- nesia, but the angle slightly various from calc spar. It occurs amorphous hi the magnesian limestone strata of England. M agiiesia, Carbonate of. Magnesite, Bau- disserite.Spec. grav. 2-808 to 2-95, H 4-5. MgO CO 2 . White or yellowish masses, and rhombo- hedrons or needles, sometimes radiated. Occur- ring in liills in Salem, Madras, and in North America. Slowly soluble in acids ; B.B. shrinks ; with borax fuses into a glass ; becomes red with nitrate of cobalt Magnesia, Fcrrocarbonate of. Brown Spar, Misitine Spar. Spec. grav. 3 -to 3-112, H 4-25. White, gray, yellow, or brown rhomboids, with angles of 107 22'. From Salzburg, Tyrol, and Switzerland. Consists of various proportions of carbonate of magnesia and carbonate of iron, and is a good example of isomorphism, although the angles are somewhat different from calc spar. Magnesia, Hydrous Calcarco Carbo- nate of. Dolomite Sinter. 4(CaO MgO)2C0 2 4HO. Stalactitic yelloAvish- white globular masses from Vesuvius. Magnesia, Potash Silicate of. Spec. grav. 2-87. Yellowish- white crystals like treniolite; easily reduced to powder. Si0 3 58*16, MgO 26-48, KG 6-32, Fe 2 O 3 7-6, A1 2 O 3 '4, CaO -64, HO -4. From St. Yrieix. Magnesiie. Spec. grav. 2-096. Grayish- white unctuous mass in the marly limestone of Paris. Si0 3 50-7, MgO 23-65, A1 2 3 3-55, FeO 1-7, HO 20-6 (John Tennant). Magnesium. Mg 1.5, 12-11, 12-36, 8- hedrons. Specific gravity 1-87 (Pelouze), 2-24 (Playfair and Joule). White solid metal resem- bling silver, sinks rapidly in water; is permanent in dry air, but in moist air becomes covered with a crust of oxide ; it may be washed with cold water without being acted on ; boiling water is slowly decomposed by it, giving out a few bubbles of hydrogen less rapidly than the other metals ; due to the insolubility of the magnesia, for when the water is acidulated with sulphuric acid, the decomposition is accelerated ; and some salts have a similar effect. It is very ductile, and capable of being beat out with a hammer ; it is hard, but MAG yields to the file. When heated in the air it burns ; it is volatile at a white heat. Process. Davy, in 1808, succeeded inSeepa- rating magnesium by means of the galvanic bat- tery. _ In 1828, Bussy obtained it by igniting chloride of magnesium with potassium or sodium. The sodium may be placed in a porcelain crucible, and pieces of the chloride over it; heat being applied, the vapour of the sodium passes through ' the salt, and decomposes it (Mg Cl and Na be- coming Mg and Na Cl). The metal is washed first with water, and then with alcohol. The sodium may be placed in the closed end of a narrow tube, and the tube itself filled with pieces of chloride. The salt being ignited, the sodium is likewise heated, and its vapour made to pass through the salt. Magnesia, Oxide of Magnesium, Calcined Mag- nesia. MgO 2-5, 20=Mg 60, 040. Spec. grav. 2-3 (Kirwan), 3-2 (Karsten), 3-07 (Richter), 3-61 (Rose). A soft white powder, without taste and smell ; becomes somewhat agglutinated at a high temperature (D'Arcet) ; fuses in a stream of oxygen into a white enamel, and by electricity (Davy) ; more soluble in hot water than in cold water (Butini) ; solubk, according to different au- thorities, in 5760 water at 60 ; in 36,000 water at 212, in 5800 water at 59, 7900, 16,000, in 53 to 56,000 parts of hot and cold water ; changes reddened litmus paper t;o blue. With nitrate of cobalt, when heated before the blowpipe, magnesia acquires a red tint ; it is fixed at a red heat, but at very high temperatures volatile (Liebig). With fuming sulphuric acid it incandesces and unites. Hydrate, Brucite. MgO HO 3-625,29. Hard- ness 1. Spec. grav. 2-35 (Haidinger), 2-336 (Brewster). Crystal, occurs native in Unst, Scot- land, in low 6-sided prisms, needle-form crystals, rhombohedrons; colour white; texture foliated; lustre pearly. Before the blowpipe it loses water, but does not fuse. Artificially prepared, by pre- cipitating a salt of magnesia by caustic potash or soda, it is a fine soft white powder. Source of Magnesia. As usually prepared it is obtained from the bittern or mother liquor of sea water, which remains after the greater portion of common salt crystallizes out. This liquor is pre- cipitated by an alkaline carbonate, generally car- bonate of ammonia, obtained in working up the products of the distillation of coal and bones. Hence magnesia is frequently made by bone black makers. The product first obtained is magnesia alba, of the shops, 3 (MgOC0 2 ) MgOHO^HO, which, by calcination at a strong heat, loses its water and carbonic acid, and becomes caustic magnesia. It is likewise obtained from magne- sian limestone, which is a double carbonate of lime and magnesia. The mineral is decomposed by sulphuric acid ; the insoluble sulphate of lime separated from the soluble sulphate of magnesia, and the magnesia precipitated by an alkaline carbonate. By calcination the carbonic acid is removed. It may also be prepared from native 341 MAG caibonate, which occurs in the Salem district, Madras, or from serpentine. , of Jfaynesia. 1. The greater number of the salts of magnesia are soluble in water, and cr\ >tallizable. 2. Ammonia precipitates magne- sia, but not when ammoniacal salts are present in the solution, in consequence of the formation of an ammoniacal salt of magnesia. Caustic soda or potash precipitates it completely, except in presence of some organic substances. 3. If salam- moniac be added to a solution of a salt of magnesia, then caustic ammonia to the extent of one-eighth of the volume of the solution, and while the solution is clear, if phosphate of ammonia or soda be dropped in a crystalline precipitate of ammonia phosphate of magnesia falls (Wollaston). 4. A salt of mag- nesia mixed with nitrate of cobalt, when fused before the blowpipe, gives a flesh-coloured bead. When the acid is volatile or organic, it is neces- sary to mix with it borax or biphosphate of soda. Sexhydrated Chloride. Mg Cl 6 HO, 12-75, 12-68, 101-4. Large 4-sided prisms (Thomson), needles and prisms (Gmelin). Taste bitter, hot, and biting ; deliquescent ; soluble in -6 part cold and -273 hot water, in 5 alcohol (spec. grav. -900), 2 alcohol (spec. grav. -817). By heat it liquefies and changes to a white mass ; at 2 2 2 -8 acid begins to be evolved ; fuses at 246 (Brandes), is converted by ignition into magnesia, and a small portion of chloride of magnesium (Davy) ; the presence of common salt prevents this decom- position, but if chlorate of potash be present it is decomposed, and hence this method has been proposed for estimating magnesia. Process. It exists in sea water, and in several mineral waters, from which it may be extracted. It may be formed by dissolving native carbonate or magnesia alba in muriatic acid, and evaporat- ing. For the preparation of magnesium it may be formed by charring a mixture of equal parts of starch and magnesia, and passing chlorine over the ignited mass in a tube. It is best prepared by dissolving the carbonate in chlorohydric acid, and adding salammoniac, until, when evaporated to the consistence of syrup, it yields no precipi- tate with ammonia ; it is then evaporated to dry- ness, and ignited till the ammonia be dispelled. Use. It is employed to prepare magnesium, and in sea water it affords much of the magnesia alba of commerce. Septahydrated Sulphate. Commercial Epsom Salt MgO S0 3 ,7HO 15-375, 123, MgO 16-25, S0 3 32-52, HO 51-21. Right prisms, the bases of which to the eye appear squares, but when the crystals are very large the angles obviously deviate from right angles slightly, being 90 30' and 89 30' , M on M' 90 30', M on h 134 45', M on e 129, a pn a 120, the crystals refract double (Brooke, Ann. Phil. 2d Ser. 6, 40). Permanent in air ; effloresces in vvann dry air; soluble in -9 water at 5 5, in 1- at 60, in -66 at 212 (the volume of the water being increased T % by adding the salt), (Ann. MAG Phil. 2d Ser. 12, 403), in -799 water at 65f T having a specific gravity of 1-2932 ; a saturated solution at 46-4 has a density of 1-267 (Anthou). Taste intensely bitter. By heat it melts in its crystalline water; at 300 it loses 6 atoms of water, and does not part with the remaining one below 390. Process. Grew described sulphate of magnesia in 1675, and in 1723 Mr. Brown published an account of the process for extracting it from springs and purifying it. It was extracted from the springs of Epsom and Seydschiitz. 2. At La Guarda near Genoa it was made from serpentine (silicate of magnesia) rocks, containing sulphur and magnesia. These rocks are burned with a limited supply of air, as in alum-making. The calcined ore is digested in water^ the metallic substances precipitated by lime, and the salt crystallized. To remove iron and copper, it should be heated nearly to the decomposing point of the sulphate, and the oxides of these metals are thus rendered insoluble. It is then dissolved in water and crystallized. 3. It may also be formed from the magnesian limestone which is largely developed in England, commencing at Sunderland and extending southwards. It is digested in dilute sulphuric acid, the solution of sulphate of magnesia removed, evaporated to dryness, calcined to . remove iron, and then dis- solved and crystallized. It is sometimes conta- minated with iron, which may be detected by bisulphohydride of ammonia, or by yellow or red prussiate of potash. Use. Epsom salt is. used extensively as a pur- gative, and sometimes also for agricultural pur- Magnet. Loadstone. A form of iron or its oxides which has the property of attracting light pieces of iron towards it. The term magnet is de- rived from [AKywi;, the name of a shepherd who first discovered the loadstone on Mount Ida. Pliny mentions it under the name magnes, and gives an account of its property of attracting iron. Its polarity was unknown to the ancients. It occurs most frequently in primitive mountains, espe- cially in gneiss, mica slate, and limestone, under the name of magnetic iron ore. It is found in Europe, Asia, America, and Australia. Mr. Crichton of Glasgow has described a very power- ful magnet which was sent from Virginia in 1776 by Dr. Franklin to Professor Anderson, and is now in possession of Mr. Crichton. It weighs 2^ grains, and is capable of sustaining a load of 783 grains, or 313 times its own weight. It was known at an early period in China (British An- nual). A magnet may be formed artificially by drawing a magnet or loadstone along a bar of steel in the same direction several times, or by placing a bar of steel parallel to the axis of the earth, or parallel to the dip of the needle ; and by giving it some smart blows while thus placed it acquires magnetic properties. Iron railings are magnetic. If the steel bar thus magnetized be suspended in 342 MAG the middle on a pivot, one extremity points to the north and the other to the south. Scoresby re- commends the following method of forming mag- nets without the aid of other magnets : Two bars .of steel are taken 30 inches in length with two other plate bars of steel 8 inches long and inch broad and a long bar of iron, all of them desti- tute of magnetic power. The large bar of iron is first struck in a vertical position and then placed, without changing its direction, upon the steel bars, which have also been struck. They are then struck upon each other. Each of the small bars suspended vertically to the summit of one of the large steel bars is successively struck, and in a few minutes they acquire a considerable magne- tic power. Two more of the small bars united by two small parallelopepids are rubbed with the four bars, and are then replaced by two others, and these again by the two last. Each pair of bars being thus treated for a certain time is found magnetized. Attraction and Repulsion of Poles. When a magnet is placed in iron filings, the latter are attracted to the extremity of the bar and not to the middle ; and as each particle of iron becomes a magnet, and attaches itself to its neighbour, on a careful scrutiny we find that the particles are arranged in magnetic curves. Use of the Magnet in the Manufacture of Needles. In forming the points of needles, small fragments are broken oif, and are apt to be in- haled by the operatives. By placing magnets at the mouth and nose, the dangerous nature of this trade has been ameliorated. According to Mr. Barlow, the intensity of the action of iron on a magnetic needle is proportional to its surface and not to its solid contents, so that a hollow sphere of iron affects a magnet as much as a solid mass of the same volume. This is an important fact in reference to the action of masses of iron on board ship upon the needle. Barlow also found that white hot iron had no influence on the needle, but as the iron cools it begins to act, and possesses the greatest action at a blood- red heat. He also observed that if a magnetic needle be placed at a certain distance from a mass of iron, the needle is deflected, when the iron is put in rapid motion. Faraday has shown that while magnetic bodies, when freely suspended, point in the magnetic meridian, all the other bodies arrange themselves at right angles to the meridian, and are therefore termed diamagnetic. He has also shown that all bodies are more or less affected by magnetism. Magnetism. It appears from the varied ex- periments of electricians, that every current of electricity is capable of communicating magnetic properties to metals, and that all metals are sus- ceptible of magnetism while under the influence of currents, but iron is the only metal which ap- pears capable of becoming a permanent magnet ; nickel also seems magnetic. Magnus' Satt. PtClNH 3 . A green crys- MAL talline compound; insoluble in hot water; sol- uble in a boiling saturated solution of sulphate or nitrate of ammonia, and depositing on cooling in yellow crystals ; obtained by digesting proto- ehloride of platinum in ammonia. Maize. Indian Corn. The gram or seed of the Zea Mays, termed in America corn ; its flour being com meal. I have found it to contain 10-93 albuminous matter. Malachite. See GREEN CARBONATE OF COPPER. Malacolite* Green. Greenish-gray pyr- oxene. Malacolite, White. A synonyme of alalite, or white augite. Malacone. Hydro /Silicate of Zirconia. 2 Zr 2 3 Si0 3 HO. Sp. grav. 3-9 to 4-047, H 6-5. Brown, internally bluish- white square 8-hedrons, with angles of 124 49', and 124 57'; lustre vitreous ; somewhat resinous ; powder reddish- brown. B.B. infusible ; acted on by boiling sul- phuric acid. Si0 3 31-31, Zr 9 3 63'6, Fe 9 3 41, YO -34, CaO -39, MgO -11, HO 3 : 03. Hitteroe, Norway, and Haute Vienne. Malamide. C 8 N 2 H 10 8 . See ASPARAGINE. Malamidic Acid. See ASPARTIC ACID. Maleic Acid. 2 HO C 8 H 2 6 . F.P. 266. Clear colourless plates, or sharp rhombic prisms, with 8-hedral terminations; soluble in its own bulk of water ; by a continuous heat in a long- necked vessel at 275, it is converted into fumaric acid, which is isomeric with maleic acid ; heated in a retort at 320 water is given out ; if the residue be heated to 349 anhydrous maleic acid, fumaranhydride, or maleide, pass over, and some fumaric acid remains. Anhydrous maleic acid fuses at 134^; maleic acid is obtained by heating malic acid quickly up to 392 in a retort, when it loses 2 atoms water, and maleic acid dis- tils over ; if the temperature be only 350 fuma- ric or paramaleic acid is also formed, which has the same composition. It is a dibasic acid. Malic Acid. Sorbic Acid. C 8 H 4 8 2 HO, F.P. 181|. Granular crystalline mass; deli- quescent, the fluid decomposing ; at 248 it loses no water; at 302 it begins to change; at 349 maleic and paramaleic acids are formed in equal quantities ; malic acid reduces salts of gold, and is converted by nitric acid into oxalic acid. By sulphuric acid it is decomposed into acetic acid and carbonic oxide ; it does not precipitate lime water; it yields succinic, acetic, and carbonic acids by the action of yeast on malate of lime ; it is bibasic; it is obtained by expressing the juice of the berries of the Sorbus aucuparia, mountain ash or rowan tree, nearly saturating with milk of lime ; by the application of heat, malate of lime forms (2 CaO,C 8 H 4 8 ), which is removed by a colander; more mUk of lime is added, when more malate falls. The malate is washed with cold water, and dissolved in 1 nitric acid and 10 water, assisted by heat. Acid malate of lime (CaOHO,C 8 H 4 8 6 HO) crys- 343 MAL tallixc-s out, which may be purified by solution in l>oiling water and crystallization. The acid may be separated by sulphuric acid, or the bima- late is precipitated by acetate of lead, and the lead salt decomposed by sulphohydric acid. Malic acid is also contained in apples, rhubarb, and other acid fruits. Malleability. The capacity which metals possess of being extended under the hammer. Malt. (Jfofe, Gr.) The term applied to grain which has been allowed to germinate, and the v.-etutie removed by an intermediate vessel containing 1 milk of lime. When chlorides are present and sulphuric acid is added, chlorine is evolved (CaCl, Mn0 2 , 2S0 3 = CaO S0 3 ,MnO SO ? ,C1). When fused with caustic soda, or potash, in a crucible, MAN manganate of potash and sesquioxide of man- are formed. When ignited in an atmos- phere iif hydrogen, binoxide loses 1 atom oxy- ir.'n, and is converted into protoxide. The amount of oxvgen thus given out measures the value of the commercial binoxide and the amount of chlo- rine which it is capable of supplying by decom- posing chlorohydric acid. The finest Giessen manganese yields 17-79 oxygen = 78 -93 chlo- rim>. Kilpatrirk, 17-19 oxygen = 76-27 chlo- rine. Thuringia, 14-44 O = 64-07 Cl. New /-aland, 14-02 O = 62-20 CL Table Mountain, 11-39 O = 50-53 Cl (G. W. Brown, Proc. Phil. Soc. Glasgow, 3, 188). Process. It may be obtained artificially by boiling red oxide or ses- quioxide in strong nitric acid, by slightly igniting protonitrate of manganese, and boiling the residue in powder with nitric acid to dissolve sesquioxide. By igniting protocarbonate in the air to 500, and digesting in cold dilute chlorohydric acid to re- move undecomposed carbonate; binoxide remains. Testing value of Black Oxide. Into a light glass flask, weighing a few hundred grains, are to be introduced about 600 grains of water, 150 of sulphuric acid, and 75 grains of oxalic acid ; 50 grains of the sample of black oxide of man- ganese, finely pounded, are weighed out in a small tube, weighing about 30 or 40 grains, which is to be suspended in the flask by means of a thread, retained in its place by a cork, through which passes a small tube filled with chloride of calcium, the tube being closed at each end by a piece of cotton. (See apparatus under CAR^ BOXIC ACID.) The whole is then weighed ac- curately ; the tube containing the oxide is then lowered into the mixture in the flask. An effer- vescence takes place by the extrication of car- bonic acid (CO 2 CO, Mn0 2 , SO 3 becoming 2 C0 2 Mn S0 8 ). Every atom of black oxide (MnO 2 ), or 5-5 grains, will give rise to the extrication of 2 atoms of carbonic acid (2 C0 2 ) or 5-5 grains. When the action has ceased, which is denoted by the brown colour of the residue in the flask, the apparatus is again weighed. The loss of weight indicates the amount of C0 2 extricated. But as the weight of 2 atoms of carbonic acid (5-5) is equal to that of 1 atom of black oxide (5-5), it is obvious that the loss of weight is exactly equal to the amount of black oxide present in the sample (Dr. T. Thomson). Weight of black oxide, 50 grs. Weight of flask and materials, 1025 1075 Weigl 1 1 after effervescence, 1041 Loss of carbonic acid, 34 grs.=68 per cent. Mn0 2 . The following method of testing manganese by ini-.-iiis of copperas and bichromate of potash has Hcd by .Mr. William Blythe since Feb- ruary, 1837, in his manufactory: 1. Weigh MAN out 600 grains of pure and dry crystals of copperas ; put the salt into a flask with about 5 or 6 oz. of water, and about 2 oz. of muriatic acid. Let the flask be carefully heated till the copperas is dissolved, the flask being repeatedly shaken, to prevent the copperas "settling" to the bottom of the flask by the heat. 2. Weigh 100 grains of 'the sample of manganese crushed to powder, and put it into the flask. Let the mix- ture in the flask be boiled for five minutes, or till there is no black residue having the appearance of manganese. 3. The solution is now poured into a tall glass, and diluted with four times its volume of water. 4. A solution of bichromate of potash of a known strength is now poured from a graduated tube (a common alkalimeter is very convenient) till the solution does not change a solution of red prussiate of potash to blue. This is ascertained by putting a drop of a weak solu- tion of red prussiate upon a bit of cotton cloth, and then a drop of solution from the end of the glass-stirrer. The quantity of bichromate re- quired corresponds to the quantity of copperas not peroxidized by the action of the manganese. Example. Copperas, 600 grains ; manganese, 100 do. ; bichromate, 32 ; As 1 atom of bichromate 19 : 6 atoms copperas 104-25 : : 32 : 175 ; 600 175 = 425. 2 atoms copperas 34-75 : 5-5 :: 425 : 67 = per cent, of pure ore. Varvicite. 2Mn0 2 , Mn 2 3 , HO 22-125, 177% or MnO, 3 Mn0 2 HO. Spec. grav. 4-283 to 4*531. Consists of thin plates and fibres, without any regular crystalline shape ; hardness 2-5. It contains 81-12 protoxide; oxvgen 13-48; water 5-4. Manganic Acid. Manr/anesic Acid. MnO 6-5, 52; 6-459, 51-672 (Phillips's Phil. Mag. 2d, 5, 209). Scheele first discovered that when binoxide of manganese is strongly heated with potash or nitre, and the mixture dissolved in water, a fine red solution is obtained, which, from its tendency to decompose and change colour, lie called chameleon mineral. This acid has not been isolated, but it forms salts with potash, soda, barytes, and strontian, which have a bluish- green colour. The manganate of potash is iso- morphous with the- corresponding salts of sul- phuric, selenic, and chromic acids. Caustic soda, fused with binoxide of manganese, yields man- ganate of soda, which, however, is too soluble to be freed from the carbonated and caustic soda by crystallization. Nitrate of barytes, fused with bin- oxide of manganese, yields manganate of barytes, but it may be best formed by adding to a solu- tion of permanganate of barytes a solution of barytes, and allowing the liquid to stand a long time in a jar which it about half fills ; green crys- tals of manganate of barytes separate, which, like sulphate of barytes, are insoluble in water. The manganates of potash and soda form green solutions which are not decomposed if an excess of alkali be present, but if it be deficient, the solu- tion reddens, and the salt is converted into per- 346 MAN manganate and carbonate, while binoxide of man- ganese falls. Permanganic Acid. Hi/permanganic Acid. Mn 2 O 7 14-, 112 ; 13-918, 111-344. This acid has not yet been isolated, although, according to Frommherz, it is a carmine fluid, and accord- ing to Unverdorben a red gas. The perman- ganate of potash may be obtained as described under POTASH. When a manganate of potash is treated with a solution of caustic potash, and evaporated in vacuo, fine crystals of manganate are reproduced ; but if crystals of manganate are dissolved in water, the salt decomposes, a brown crystalline precipitate falls, which appears to be a combination of binoxide and potash ; by wash- ing, the potash is removed, and hydrous binoxide remains. The solution is deep red coloured, and when evaporated till crystals appear on the surface, the solution poured off from any precipitate which may have appeared into a warmed dish, then deep red crystals are obtained Avhen it cools. The same happens when a solution of manganate of potash is exposed to the influence of air and carbonic acid. Hence we obtain sometimes a mixture of these red crystals with manganate, if the latter solution is exposed to carbonic acid during eva- poration, 3(KOMn0 3 ), 2 C0 2 KOMn. ? 7 4- Mn0 2 + 2 KOC0 2 ). Protochloride. MnCl 8-, 64; 7-896, 62-168, Mn = 44-25 Cl = 55-75. Light pink or flesh- coloured broad thin plates, melting at a red heat without alteration, in close vessels and fixed ; but in the open air it decomposes, muriatic acid being given out, and red oxide remaining ; chlorine is not evolved ; converted into protosulphate by sul- phuric acid. Chlorine and heat yield binoxide ; bleaching, powder solution changes the solution to red and violet ; then carbonate of potash or soda renders it green, and lets fall carbonate of lime (Pearsall). Hydrogen does not decompose it at a red heat. The brown aspect which it sometimes possesses, may be due to iron or ses- quioxide by the action of air. Process. Obtained, 1st, by igniting manganese in chlorine gas ; 2d, by passing chlorohydric acid gas over pure car- bonate or protoxide of manganese, first when cold, and then at a low red heat ; 3d, by dis- solving binoxide of manganese in chlorohydric acid, evaporating and exposing the white salt to ignition in a glass tube with a capillary extre- mity ; 4th, by passing chlorine over a strongly heated mixture of charcoal, and protoxide, needles of protochloride are formed (Rose, Pogg. Ann. 27, 574). Quaterhydrous protochloride. MnCl, 4 HO 12-5, 100; 12-396, 99-168 (Brandes); Mn = 28-17, Cl 35-61, HO = 36-22; spec. grav. 1-56 (John). Fine flesh-coloured short 6-sided prisms, two of the opposite sides of which are much larger than the other four. Salts of Protoxide of Manganese. Most of the combinations of protoxide of manganese with acids are soluble in water, and form col- MAN ourless or flesh-coloured solutions; the latter depending probably on the presence of perman- ganic acid (Pearsall). Taste bitterish and saline, but not so disagreeable as that of most metallic salts. When sufficiently concentrated, many of the salts of manganese crystallize. The crystals generally have a flesh colour. 1. Ammonia forms a white gelatinous precipitate with protox- ide salts, which speedily becomes brown by oxi- dation, in presence of air ; partially soluble in neutral, but wholly soluble in acid solutions. 2. Caustic soda, potash, barytes, lime, strontian, form a similar precipitate, not soluble in excess. 3. Alkaline carbonates precipitate protoxide of manganese, in the form of carbonate, which re- tains its colour in air. The oxide is only com- pletely thrown down in these cases by boiling. 4. Sulphohydric acid produces no precipitate, except a slight white turbidness of sulphohydride, which is dissolved by acids. 5. Sulphohvdride of ammonia precipitates sulphohydride of man- ganese, of a flesh colour, insoluble in excess, but soluble in acetic acid. 6. Yellow prussiate (fer- rocyanide) of potash forms a white precipitate. Red prussiate gives a brownish-gray precipitate. Quaterhydrous Sulphate. MnO S0 3 4 HO 14,112; specific gravity 2-092 (Kopp), 1-834 (John). Contains 32-14 per cent, of water. Colourless or flesh-coloured right rhombic or 6- sided prisms ; the colour being due according to Brandes and Frommherz (Pogg. Ann. 31, 677) to the presence of a higher oxide. The red salt is obtained by igniting binoxide with fuming sulphuric acid, and the colourless salt by using common oil of vitriol, a statement not confirmed by Gmelin. The red colour may be removed by igniting and dissolving in water, or by boiling it when pulverized with alcohol or ether, and then dissolving in water. Sol- uble in 1 -78 water at 43^, in 2 parts water at 59, in 1 at 122; insoluble in alcohol. The colour is not removed by boiling with sugar, sul- phurous acid, sulphohydric acid. It is obtained by evaporating the solution of protosulphate be- tween the temperatures of 68 to 73 (John), or 68 to 86 (Mitscherlich, Regnault). In vacuo over oil of vitriol it loses 1 atom of water, and becomes terhydrate, and likewise when boiled in powder with absolute alcohol ; cold alcohol and boiling ether having no action (Brandes). This salt is isomorphous with sulphate of iron. Quintohydrated Protosulphate. MnO S0 3 5 HO 15-125, 121 ; spec. grav. 2-877 (T. Thom- son). MnO = 47-63, SO 3 = 52-37. Doubly- oblique prisms, with angles nearly of 148 and 32 (T.T.) resembling sulphate of copper and axinite. Manganese, Hydrous Binoxide of. Mn0 2 HO. Brownish-black dull masses ; choco- late powder ; loses 24 per cent, by heat, becom- ing reddish ; slowly soluble in sulphuric and sul- phurous acids. Groroi, Cautern, Vecdessos, mixed usually with other oxides. 347 MAN Manganese, Hydrous Sesquibinoxide of. Spec. grav. 3-312, H 4-25. Brownish-black pirn*, of the size of a pea; lustre ^perfect metallic, opaque; silica 22-9. Mn 2 3 23-48, MnOo 17-22, Fe 2 O 3 28-64, HO 8-05 ; Cork Manganese, Sulphide of. Manganese Blende, Blick !:rtL 16MnS,MnS 2 . Spec. grav. 3 "9 to 4-014, H 3-5 to 4. Iron-black; streak dark green; said to occur in cubes. B.B. fuses with difncolty. Nagyag, Transylvania, and Cornwall. manganese Diarsenide. Mn ? As. Specific gravity 5-55. Grayish - white foliated mass; fracture in one direction uneven, fine, granular, and shining ; in the opposite direction dull and warty, and in that direction easily frangible. B.B.' burns with a blue flame, and falls to- pow- der. Quite soluble in aqua regia. Saxony. Manganese Carbonate. Dialogite, Rhodo- crosite, Allagite, Photizite, Rhodonite. MnO CO., 7-25, 58, MnO = 62-07, CO 2 37-93. Specific gravity 3-55 to 3-59. Found native in the Saxon mines, in rose-red to brown obtuse rhomboids, with angles of 107 20'. Changes to gray, brown, or black, before the blowpipe, infusible; with borax forms a blue bead ; soluble in nitric and chlorohydric acids ; ignited in a close crucible it leaves green pro- toxide. By long exposure to moist air it becomes brown (Berthier). Semihydrous Carbonate. MnO C0 2 |HO, MnO=57-6, C0 2 =35-2, HO 7-2. White taste- less insoluble powder, forming colourless solu- tions with acids. Obtained by precipitating pro- tosulphate. manganese Subsesquisilicate. 3MnO, 2 Si0 3 = Si0 3 48-, MnO 48-98, CaO 3-12, MgO -22 Spec grav. 3-538 to 3-63, H 6-5. Rose-red masses, or oblique rhombic prisms, re- sembling augite, with angles of 87 5' ; fracture flat, conchoiclal; lustre between pearly and re- sinous; translucent on the edges, brittle; B.B. becomes dark brown. The silicates of manga- nese appear often to contain quartz interspersed, as the massive varieties from America I have found to contain, in the same mass, different pro- portions of silica. manganese, Carbosilicate of. Horn Man- ganese. Spec. grav. 3-89 to 3-1. MnO 54-86, SiO 3 34, CO 2 8-, HO 2-, FeO -5. Chestnut- brown masses; B.B. phosphoresces. ftlangano-Calcite. Rhombic prisms, from Schemnitz. MnO C0 2 67'48, FeO C0 2 3-22, CaO C0 2 18-81, MgO C0 2 9-97. manganese, Ferrophosphate of. Triplite, Zmeselite. 4 (MnO FeO), P0 5 . Spec. grav. 3-65, H 5-25. Brown imperfect crystals, at Limoges; streak yellowish - gray. See also Hi KKAULITE. mangano-Cyanogen. Cy 6 Mn 2 . A pro- bable organic radical. mangel Wurzel. Mangold Root. Beta r>//>/aris, var. campestris. The cells of this .ire large and transparent, and thin-sided- MAN The roots contain pitted and dotted tubes, accom- panying which are long prismatical cells. I find the Prismatic Cells. [Hooker.^ Cells. roots in the red variety to contain 91-57 per cent, of water, and 8-43 solid matter; and the white variety 87-63 water, and 12-37 solid matter. It has been found to contain nearly 25 per cent, of sugar. manna. Mannite. C 6 H 7 On, or C 12 H 14 12 . Colourless 4-sided prisms, with a sweet taste ; soluble in 5 cold, very soluble in hot water ; little soluble in cold, very soluble in hot alcohol ; in- soluble in ether ; unfermentable ; does not reduce oxide of copper ; soluble in strong sulphuric acid, formingmannasulphuricacid(C 12 H 11 O9 6 S0 3 ?) without charring. Mannite is extracted from commercial manna usually employed as an ape- rient, which consists of mannite 60, mucilaginous sugar 5-5, gummy extract -8; gum 1-5, albumen 2, water and loss 32-. Manna is extracted fey incision from the Fraxinus ornus, which grows in Sicily and Calabria. It occurs in commerce in the form of flake manna, manna in sorts and in tears. It occurs also on the surface of certain sea weeds, as Laminaria saccharina, Halidrys siliquosa, as ascertained, in 1815, by Gaul tier de Claubry. It also exists in Agaricus cantharellus, Phallus impudicus, Peziza nigra, Hydnum re- pandum, &c. It is also formed from grape sugar by fermentation at the temperature of 86, lactic acid, gum, and mannite being formed. Mannite is obtained from manna by boiling alcohol ; the crystals on separating are washed with cold al- cohol, and again dissolved in boiling spirit. When sugar occurs along with it, yeast should be added previously, so as to destroy that body. It unites with metallic oxides, the compound with lead being 2 PbOC(jH 5 4 , and forms conjugate acids with sulphuric and formic acid (Manna formic acid, C(]H 7 O 6 ,C 2 H03). When manna is dis- solved in sulphuric acid, and added to olive oil, it yields no colour ; while sugar gives a crimson. manna Croup. This is the name under which a preparation of wheat is imported from Russia. It is the same as Semolina. mannitrin. Ntiromannite. C ,H 4 3N0 4 ,O 6 . Colourless silky needles; insoluble in water; slightly soluble in cold alcohol ; soluble in hot 348 MAX alcohol and ether ; carefully heated it fuses with slight evolution of red fumes; explodes when struck with a hammer, but not when ground in a mortar ; formed by digesting 1 part of mannite in powder with nitric acid (spec. grav. 1-5) until it is dissolved ; sulphuric acid is then added until the proportions are 4| nitric and 10^ sulphuric acid; it is decomposed by metallic iron in its alcoholic solution ; by nitric acid converted into oxalic and saccharic acids. Manures. Substances applied to land for the purpose of serving as nourishment to crops. As plants remove from the soil a certain amount of inorganic salts, the study of the ash of plants affords a key to the proper manure for each plant. The best manure is obviously the decayed matter which has been grown on the soil, while all artificial manures should possess the same con- stituents. One of the most important manures is guano, which is valuable from its variety of con- stituents. The presence of organic matter, espe- cially of ammonia, in manures, has a powerful influence in stimulating the growth of plants, although it is not decided that it is indispensable. Marble. White variegated limestones em- ployed for ornamental purposes. Marcasitc. A synonyme of iron and arseni- cal pyrites. Marceline. A syn. of silicate of manganese. Marekaiiite. A synonyme of obsidian. Margaramide. Elamine. C 34 H 33 2 NH 2 . F.P. 140. White silky mass, soluble in alcohol; obtained by digesting olive or almond oil in an alcoholic solution of ammonia for some days at a gentle heat, and then heating to 90 to remove ammonia. Margarane. C 68 H 65 5 . F.P. 144. Soft waxy mass, forming a brown fluid Avhen heated ; obtained by heating anhydrous phosphoric and margaric acids together, boiling with water and alcohol to remove margaric acid. Nitric acid converts it into C C8 H 64 O 7 . Margaric Acid. Margarylic Acid, Meta- stearic Acid. HOC 32 H 33 O3, or HO(C 32 H 33 )C 2 3 . F.P. 140, 126 (Duffy). White pearly scales or fine needles, without taste and smell ; insoluble in water; very soluble in ether and absolute alcohol; soluble in hot weaker spirit, separating on cooling ; solution with an acid re- action ; distils over at 572 without decomposi- tion ; obtained by the saponification of human or goose fat ; the soap thus formed is dissolved in hot water, precipitated with acetate of lead, the dried salt treated with ether, and the residue decomposed with chlorohydric acid in alcohol; chloride of lead falls, and margaric acid dissolves. It may also be obtained from butter, and by boil- ing stearic acid for ten minutes with an equal weight of nitric acid (spec. grav. 1'28), and crys- tallizing out of alcohol ; by nitric acid it is con- verted into pimelic, suberic, succinic, adipic, lipic, and azoleic acids ; by brown oxide of lead it is oxidized into hyperuiargaric acid (HOC 34 H 33 MAR 4 ?) ; fusing at 109 J ; by anhydrous phosphoric acid it becomes margarane (C 68 H 65 5 ?). Mar- garic acid is probably monobasic. Margarine. AJargarate of Oxide of Gly- ceryleorLipyle. C 2 H 3 OC 34 H 33 3 ? F.P. 118; 104 to 132 (Duffy) ; solidifies at 106. White grains or porcelain-like mass ; slightly soluble hi boiling alcohol ; easily soluble in ether ; by heat it is converted into acroleine, margarone, and free margaric acid ; obtained by frequently crystalliz- ing human fat out of alcohol, or by melting but- ter, washing it with water and crystallizing, re- peatedly out of ether and alcohol. By the action of sulphuric acid on margarine two acids are formed, glycero- sulphuric acid, and margaro- sulphuric (sulphomargaric) acid, the last of which has not been obtained free from oleosulphuric (sul- pholeic) acid ; by the action of water on these acids, metamargaric or paramargaric acid is formed. Margarite. (&*&*? >-, a pearl.) Diphanite ? Spec. grav. 3-032, H 4-. A variety of mica, consisting of grayish, yellowish, or reddish-white micaceous plates, consisting of SiO 3 33-45, A1 2 3 58-0, Fe 2 3 0-42, CaO 7-5, MnO 0-03, MgO 0-05. In chlorite at Sterzing in the Tyrol. Sol- uble in acids. Margaritic Acid. Stearoricinic, Ricino- stearic. C 35 H 31 6 . F.P. 266. Pearly scales, by the saponification of the stearine of castor oil. Margarodite. Slaty Talc from Zilkrthal. Spec. grav. 2-872, H 2-75. Silvery-white mi- caceous scales, biaxial. Si0 3 47-05, A1 2 3 34-90, Fe 2 3 1-5, MgO 1-95, Na04-07, KO 7-96, HO 1-45. Margarone. Acetone of Margaric Acid. C 33 H 33 0. F.P. 170|. White pearly scales, decomposing by distillation ; soluble in 50 parts alcohol; 100 absolute alcohol dissolve 15 parts ; ether dissolves of its weight ; acetic ether and oil of turpentine have a similar action ; decom- posed by chlorine, and converted into a colourless fluid. Obtained by distilling margarate of lime or margaric acid with ^ of quicklime, the dis- tilled matter boiled with caustic potash, to re- move free acid, the residue dissolved in ether and crystallizing repeatedly from the same sol- vent, which is preferable to alcohol. Margaryle. C 34 H 33 or (C 32 H 33 ) C 2 . The hypothetic radical of margaric and stearic acids. If this substance be viewed as the base of the series, the following table may be constructed : Margaryle = M Margaryle oxide = MO Stearic acid = MOzj$ Margaric acid = M0 3 Hypermargaric acid = MO 4 Margaryle, Oxide of. Stearone, Marga- rone, Stearene. C 34 H 33 O (Bussy), C 33 H 33 O (Redtenbacher), C 28 H 28 O (Rowney). F.P. 168 8. C 82-2, H 13-8, O 4-. White pearly plates, soluble in alcohol and ether. Obtained' by dis- tilling stearic acid with f or ^ its weight of quick- lime and crystallizing out of ether. Considerable 349 MAS doubt still exist- respecting the nature of this lio.lv and others derived from the fats, from the remarkable changes which it seems to undergo in the process of preparation as regards its fusing point, and probably its specific gravity. Margarylene. Hydride, of Margaryle. C 32 H 3S H. A fluid obtained in the last stage of the distillation for margarone, procured by being re- tained in solution by ether while the margarone deposits. Marianitc. A synonyme of nitrate of soda. Marine Acid. A synonyme of muriatic or chlorohydric acid. Marine MctaL Spec. grav. 11-1. An alloy prepared for ships, consisting of 94-4 lead, 4-3 antimony, and 1-3 mercury. Marl. A mixture of carbonate of lime and earthy matter, frequently found in nature, pro- bably connected with organic deposits, and valu- able as a manure. Manuntite. Black zinc blende, from Mar- inato, near Popayan, consisting of 77'5 per cent. ZnS and 22-5 FeS = 3 ZnS, FeS. Marmolite. A variety of serpentine, with an additional amount of water. Marrow. The fatty matter which fills the hollow portions of the long bones of animals, consisting, in the ox, of pure marrow 96 ; skins and blood-vessels !; albumen, gelatine, extractive, peculiar matter, water 3-. Water takes up from it a substance with the smell of roast meat. When melted in water, and passed through a cloth, it is white, with a shade of blue; taste insipid and sweetish, melts at 113 ; when cooled slowly it crystallizes in sphericles, like olive oil ; by distillation it yields a yellowish oil, with carbonic acid, water, and an inflam- mable gas, and afterwards a white solid oil, with a disagreeable smell, reddening vegetable blues, and when boiled yielding some sebacic acid. The white oil amounts to about one-third of the marrow. Marrow is soluble hi strong nitric acid ; it saponifies with alkalies. Martial Ethiops. A synonyme of black oxide of iron. Martinsite. Common salt, containing 9 per cent. Epsom salt (Karsten). Martite. A sjTionyme of sesquioxide of iron, which is found in 8-hedrons in mica, and clay slates in Brazil, Tyrol, and Saxony. MEA Marum Camphor. Colourless plates, the stearoptene of the oil from Teucrium marum. Mascagamic. Native sulphate of ammonia. NH 3 SO 3 2 HO. Found in the fissures of lava at Etna, Vesuvius, and Lipari. Mash Tun, or Wort Vessel. See BREWING, Masonite. Spec. grav. 3-45, H 5-75. Si0 3 28-27, A1 2 3 32-16, FeO 33-72, MgO -13, HO 5-. A variety of chlorite, found in Rhode Island. Masopiiic. C 12 H 9 O. F.P. 311, after once fusion 158. Snow-Avhite powder or needles, feeling glutinous between the fingers ; yields, bv. distillation, a brown oily mass, with an acid re- action. On fusing masopine an agreeable odour is evolved ; it is insoluble in water ; very soluble in ether. Obtained from the dry sap of the DscMlte, a Mexican tree, by crystallizing out of alcohol. Massicot. Yellow protoxide of lead Masticine. Beta resin of Mastich. C 4 nH 31 O 2 . That portion of mastich resin insoluble in alcohol. Mastic Resin. Spec. grav. .1-074. Yellow transparent brittle grains, from the Pistacia len- tiscus, a tree growing in the island of Chios ; softens in the mouth, and has been used for stopping decayed teeth ; partially soluble in al- cohol ; (resin .) C^BL^O^ ; the insoluble por- tion is masticine, C4oli3iO 2 . Matcria PerlaSa. The alchemical name of hydrous antimonic acid. Matico, MaJiciaae. The leaves of a plant from Peru, which have been recommended in medicine as an astringent. When boiled in water a camphor oil separates, and a bitter sub- stance (maticine) remains in solution, which is soluble in alcohol, but not in ether. Matrass. The old name for a globular flask. Mayiias Kesin. Spec. grav. 1-12; F.P. 221. C 14 II 9 O 4 . Yellow acid crystals by solution in alcohol from the resin of the Calo- phyllum calaba, an American tree ; insoluble in water; very soluble in alcohol, ether, oils, cold sulphuric and acetic acids; strong nitric acid forms a yellow acid; acid of 1*31 forms with it butyric acid? Measures of Capacity. In the imperial weights and measures authorized in Great Britain, the following are the principal data : Cubic inch of distilled water at 62 in vacuo, = 252-72 grains. Cubic inch ditto, ditto, in air, = 252-458 Cubic foot ditto, ditto, in vacuo, = 62-3862 Ibs. avoird. Cubic foot ditto, ditto, in air, = 62-3206 1-73298 cubic inch water, = 1 ounce avoirdupois. 277-296 ditto, at G2, = 10 Ibs. 277-274 ditto, at 60, = 10 Ibs. Standard quart, = 2-5 Ibs. Ditto, pint = 20 fluid ounces, = 1-25 Ibs. Ditto, bushel = 8 gallons, 80 Ibs. Ditto, sack = 3 bushels, = 240 Ibs. Ditto, chaldron = 12 sacks, = 2880 Ibs. 350 MEG As the capacity of the measures depends on the weight of water at a certain temperature, the specific gravity of that fluid at different tempera- tures is an important consideration. The difference of temperature between 62 and 39, where water attains its greatest density, will vary the bulk of a gallon of water rather less than the third of a cubic inch ; and assuming, from the mean of numerous estimates, the expansion of brass 00001044 for each degree of Fahrenheit, the difference of temperature from 62 to 39 will vary the contents of a brass gallon measure just one-fifth of a cubic inch. The specific gravity MEG of clear water from the Thames exceeds that of distilled water in the proportion of about one- sixth of a cubic inch of a gallon, or in that of 1-0006 to 1. Table of /Specific Gravity of Water at different Temperatures. 70. ..-99913 56. ..1-00050 44. ..1-00107 68. ..-99936 54. ..1-00064 42. ..1-00111 66. ..-99958 52. ..1-00076 40. ..1-00113 64. ..-99980 50. ..1-00087 38. ..1-00113 48. ..1-00095 58. ..1-00035 46. ..1-00102 Measures of Capacity. Cubic Inches. Gills. Pints. Quarts. Gallons. Pecks. Bushels. Quarters 8-6G48076103 1 0-25 0-125 0-03125 0-015625 0-00390625 0-00048828125 34-6592304412 4 1 0-5 0-125 0-0625 0-015625 0-001953125 69-3184609825 8 2 1 0-25 0-125 0-03125 0-00390625 277-2738435700 32 8 4 1 0-5 0-125 0-015625 554-5476871400 64 16 8 2 1 0-25 0-03125 2218-1907485601 256 64 17751-2598848179 2048 512 256 Measures of Capacity, ENGLISH. FRENCH. Pint (1 of a gallon), 0-567932 litres. Quart ( of a gallon), 1-135864 litres. Imperial gallon, 4-54345794 litres. Peck (2 gallons), 9-0869159 litres. Bushel (8 gallons), 36-347664 litres. Sack (3 bushels), 1-09043 hectolitres. Quarter (8 bushels), .. Chaldron (12 sacks), FKENCII. Litre, 2-907813 hectolitres. .13-08516 hectolitres. / 1-760773 pints. \ 0-2200967 gallons. Decalitre, 2-200967 gallons. Hectolitre, 22-009667 gallons. Vor French measures, see METKE. Mecca Balaam. Opdbalsam, Balm of Gi- ead, True balsam. Spec, gi-av. -95. A balsam without much colour when fresh, from the Bal- samodendron Gileadense, a tree growing in Ara- bia. By keeping, it becomes whitish and turbid, and in the air dries completely up. It consists of volatile oil, hard resin, soft resin, a bitter colour- ing matter. Mechloric, or Mechloic Acid. C i4 H 7 10 ? F.P. 320. White pearly plates or 4-sided prisms, soluble in water, alcohol, and ether. Obtained by acting on fused meconine with chlo- rine heating the chlorine compound to 3 7 7 till it becomes oily, dissolving this in caustic potash, saturating with nitric acid, when mechloic acid crystallizes out. Mecouamidic White substance I acid. IVIccoasic Acid. crystalh'zed, and C^H Acid. C 84 H 30 N 7 7 s. ammonia on ethylomeconic C 14 H0 n 3HO, 6HO ,3110 at 21 2. Slightly 0-125 acid tasted white mica-like scales, needles, or rhombic prisms; at 212 loses 21-3 per cent. (6 atoms) water; very little soluble in cold water ; the dried acid is soluble in 4 parts boil- ing water ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; changed when boiled in water into comenic acid ; me- conic acid is readily detected in most minute quantity by salts of sesquioxide of iron, which yield a blood-red colour with it. It is prepared from the meconate of lime, the refuse of the pre- paration of muriate of morphine, by dissolving in 20 parts almost boiling water, to which 3 chlorohydric acid are added. The mixture is agitated and heated until all is dissolved; on cooling, bimeconate of lime crystallizes, which is thrown on a cloth and pressed. The salt is dis- solved in the same quantity of water and acid as before. By repeating the process frequently, the acid is obtained pure. The colour is got rid of by dissolving it in hot water, and adding caustic potash nearly to saturation (if in excess, the meconic acid is converted into oxalic and carbonic acids). The meconate of potash deposits on cooling, while the colouring matter remains in the mother liquor. It is dissolved in 16 hot water, and 2^ muriatic acid added ; bimeconate of potash crystallizes out ; a second similar solution yields meconic acid. Meconic acid is a bibasic acid. The most im- portant salts are the meconates of lime and iron. The lime salt is formed by adding an alkaline meconate to chloride of calcium, and is a crystal- line powder. The bimeconate of lime is in pearly scales. Sesquimeconate of iron contains 23 per cent, of sesquioxide of iron ; it is soluble in water, and therefore does not fall when meconic acid is added to a salt of iron, but forms a red solution. The presence of opium in any solution may al- ways be recognized by this colour. This colour is not destroyed by weak acids, even on boiling, 351 MEC nor by chloride of gold, which is the case with sulphocyanide of iron. Mrconine. C 20 H 10 8 . F.P. 194 ; not volatilized at 518. Fine colourless 6-sided prisms; without odour; with a sharpish taste; soluble in 266 cold, 18 boiling water, fusing into oily drops ; soluble in alcohol, ether, ethereal oils, acetic, muriatic acids, caustic alkalies, ex- cept ammonia ; precipitated from its solutions by carbonate of ammonia and by trisacetate of lead ; by nitric acid it is converted into nitromeconic acid (C 2 oH 9 N0 4 8 ). Chlorine changes it into mechlqic acid, and sulphuric acid apparently decomposes it Meconine is obtained by exhaust- ing opium by cold water, evaporating till the solution has the spec. grav. 1030 (6 Twad.), and adding dilute ammonia as long as a preci- pitate falls; the supernatant fluid is decanted in forty* eight hours, and the precipitate well washed with water. Additional meconine may be obtained by evaporating the mother liquors and wash waters. It is further purified by solu- tion and crystallization out of alcohol, and decol- ourization by animal charcoal. Ether dissolves meconine but not morphine, by which the two alkaloids may be separated. JHeconium. A dark pitchy matter found in the intestinal canal of the foetus. It consists of cholesterine 16, extractive and bile resin 10 '4, caseine 39, picromel 6, green biliary matter .4-, epithelial scales and probably albumen 26 (Si- mon), or water 72*7, mucus and epithelium cells 23 *6, cholesterine and margarine 7, biliary col- ouring matter and oleine 3' (J. Davy). Mecono-ethylo-meconic Acid. Ethylo- Umeconic Add. 3H0 2 (C 14 HOn) 2HO,C 4 H 5 0. Medal Alloy. Gold medals contain often 91-6 gold, 8-4 copper. Silver medals and plate contain 95 silver and 5 copper. Ulcdjidite. H 2 -5. Amber transparent masses, somewhat crystalline; fracture with glassy lustre ; found on pitchblende near Adrian- ople. U 2 O 3 Si0 3 ,CaOSi0 3 ,15HO. mCedulline. Cellulose, constituting the prin- cipal constituent of the pith of plants. U !.< haiim. Magnesite, Hydrous Tersili- cate of Magnesia. Spec. grav. 2-127, H 2: Colour snow-white, or yellowish; fracture fine, earthy, or conchoidal ; surface smooth, fine, gran- ular, dull, opaque. SiO 3 42-, MgO 30-5, CaO 2-3, A1 2 O 3 2-, HO 23-. Found in Natolia in carbonaceous or magnesian beds ; of the consist- ence of wax when first dug. Itteine. An oil by alcohol and ether from the root of Athamanta meum. iTf ciotiite. A synonyme of scapolite. IVIcIaine. A black matter resembling the black pigment of the eye, and obtained by depo- sition from the ink of the Sepia, or cuttle fish ; it is insoluble in most menstrua, and is decom- posed by nitric acid. .tlclnm. Ci 2 II..,Xii = 2 C 6 N 4 ,3 NH 3 = 2 atoms mellone and 3 ammonia. Heavy white MEL powder ; insoluble in' water, alcohol, and ether ; soluble in potash, nitric, and sulphuric acids ; obtained by moderately heating sulphocyanide of ammonium, dissolving the gray residue in boiling potash, and filtering ; melam deposits on cooling. vi< lainiiu . C 6 H 6 ]Sr 6 . 8-hedrons with a rhombic base ; easily soluble in hot, less soluble in cold water; insoluble in alcohol and ether; sublimes with heat, a small portion being decom- posed into mellone and ammonia, ammeline and ammelide ; fused with potash, cyanate of potash is formed, and ammonia is evolved; combines with acids, and forms acid salts; obtained by boiling melam in 20 parts water, containing 1 part hydrate of potash in solution, and evaporating. Melampyrine. Colourless and tasteless rhombic prisms; soluble in water, a little soluble in spirit; almost insoluble in absolute alcohol and ether; contains no nitrogen; obtained by forming a decoction of the Melampyrum nemoro- sum, and evaporating, when crystals of this sub- stance are formed. Additional quantities may be procured by precipitating by acetate of lead, filter- ing, precipitating the excess of lead by sulphohy- dric acid, decolourizing by animal charcoal, filter- ing, and evaporating. Melaiichlor. A synonyme of Dufrenite. Melangallic Acid. Metagallic Acid. A product of the action of heat on gallic acid. Mm basic water, not removed at 392 ; not altered by the air ; very acid taste ; burns with an aro- matic smell, and smoky flame; when distilled sublimes as pyromellitic acid; unacted on by cold, soluble in boiling sulphuric acid without change; insoluble in boiling nitric acid ; by boiling with alcohol converted into mdlit-ethylic acid. The salts of mellitic acid are monobasic ; mellate of ammo- nia, HONH 3 C 4 3 3HO, formed by boiling mel- lite with carbonate, crystallizes. When heated to 302 the salt is converted into acid euchroate of ammonia and paramide, ammonia and water being evolved; bimellate of ammonia, with 6 water, is obtained by heating paramide with water at 392; termellate with 6 water, by heat- ing euchroic acid to 392 in contact with water. Mellone. Mellane. C 6 X 4 . A grayish or yellowish powder, insoluble in water and alcohol; dissolved and decomposed by hot caustic potash ; decomposed by a strong heat into 3 vols. cyano- gen and 1 nitrogen ; by chlorine it yields a white 353 2 A MEL volatile matter acting on the eyes ; by nitric acid it a fiords cyanilic acid, isomericwithcyanuric acid; caustic potash converts it into cyamelurate of pot- ash ; it unites with bases, and forms mellonides. It is prepared by heating to low redness sxilpho- i-yanide of ammonium (C 8 H 1C N 8 S8, or 4 sul- p'lioryanide of ammonia become 2 bisulphide of carbon 084, 4 ammonia 4NH 3 , 4 sulphohydric acid 4 SH, and 1 mellone C C N 4 ). It is also formed by passing chlorine over a mixture of 1 sulphocyanide of potassium, and 2 common salt, at a red heat ; chlorides of sulphur and cyanogen are evolved, while mellone remains with chlorides of potassium and sodium (4C 2 NS 2 = C 6 N 4 , 2 CS 2 ,4S). It is also procured by heating mela- mine, ammeline, and ammelide, with the following reaction : Melamine C 6 H 6 N 6 = CgN^SNHg. Ammeline C 6 H 5 N 5 2 = C N 4 NH 3 2HO. Am- melide C 12 H 9 N 9 6 = 2C 6 N 4 NH 3 GHO. Mellonidc of Potassium. KC 6 N 4 5 HO. White efflorescent silky needles, with a bitter taste and neutral reaction ; insoluble in alcohol ; soluble in water ; the crystals contain 25*4 per cent, water, of which 4 are removed at 248, the remainder at 302 ; heated above its fusing point in close vessels it evolves nitrogen and cyanogen, and leaves cyanide of potassium ; fused in the air it is converted into cyanate of potash ; by chlo- rohydric acid it yields hydromellonic acid, C 6 N 4 H,. a snow-white powder; when mellonide of potassium is boiled with an excess of potash, ammonia is evolved, and, on the addition of acetic acid, a white crystalline body falls, unex- amined ; strong chlorohydric acid converts it into cyanuric acid and salammoniac. Mellonide of potassium is prepared by heating gently in a crucible 2 parts of dry yellow prussiate of potash, and 1 part of sulphur, till all the cyanide of potassium is converted into sulphocyanide; the heat is then increased until all the sulphide of carbon is removed, and cyanogen begins to burn wif% a purple flame. Liebig, but not Gmelin, recommends 5 per cent, of carbonate of potash to be added towards the end of the fusion. Mclopsitc. Greenish-white lithornarge, Neu- deck, Bohemia. inciting Points. The temperatures at which solid substances assume the fluid form. Membranes. These parts of animals are usually divided into Serous, or thin transparent S which form close sacs, and are kept moist In- an albuminous fluid secreted or diffused from the blood. When boiled they yield colline, or gelatine. The mucous membranes line open cavities, as the mouth and intestinal canal, and are moistened by mucus, which is a fluid diffused from the blood, and mixed with epithelial scales, &c. Mcnnchanitc. Menachane. The original name of titaniate of iron given by Mr. Gregor when he discovered titanium, from the locality in Cornwall. Meudipitc. Chloroxide of Lead. Oxy- MEN chloride of Lead. PbC12PbO. Rhombic prisms from the Mendip Hills, Somersetshire. Mciicghinite. 4PbS,SbS 3 . A variety of Jamesonite. Mengite. A synonyme of Ilmenite, and also of Monagite. Menilite. A brown opaque variety of opal in kidney-shaped masses from Menilmontant. Meiiispemiic Acid? A crystalline body from Menispermum cocculus, from the alcoholic mother liquor after the separation of picrotoxine. Mcnispcrminc. C 18 H 12 N0 2 . F.P. 248. White 4-sided prisms terminated by 4-sided pyramids, resembling cyanide of mercury ; in- soluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; nitric acid forms with it oxalic acid, and a yellow substance ; sulphuric acid forms with it a com- pound which fuses at 329, and at a higher tem- perature evolves sulphohydric acid. Menisper- mine is obtained by exhausting cocculus indicus, or the fruit of the menispermum cocculus with boiling alcohol of -833 ; the alcohol is distilled off, and the residue boiled with distilled water, and filtered while hot. From the filtered liquor another alkaloid also separates (picrotoxine), when a few drops of acid are added to it before cooling. The portion which is not taken up by hot water is extracted with dilute acid, and the extract precipitated by ammonia. The brown pre- cipitate is treated with water containing some acetic acid; a blackish- brown matter remains undissolved. The solution is again precipitated with alkali, and a granular precipitate obtained. By agitation with cold alcohol it is freed from a yellow basic substance ; it is then extracted with ether ; by evaporation the menispermine remains. The portion insoluble in ether is paramenispermine, which is isomeric with menispermine, crystalliz- ing in rhombic 4-sided prisms, fusing at 482. Menstruum. (Mensis, a month.) The fluid used for the solution of a substance, so named from the length of time during which it was formerly allowed to remain in contact with the solid. Menthcnr. C 20 H 18 . B.P. 325^. Spec, grav. -851 Clear colourless fluid with an agree- able taste and smell ; insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol, ether, oil of turpentine and pyroxylic spirit ; coloured yellow by cold, red by hot chlo- rohydric acid, violet by bromine, red by iodine ; chlorine converts it into C 20 H 15 C1 5 . Menthene is obtained by distilling the stearoptene of oil of peppermint (C 2 oH 2 o0 2 ) with anhydrous phos- phoric acid ; the result of the action is the removal of 2 atoms water. Men van th inc. Yellow bitter granular sub- stance, very soluble in water and alcohol ; almost insoluble in absolute alcohol and ether. Obtained from the root of the Menyanthes trifoliata by ex- hausting with rectified spirit, and distilling off the spirit; a resinous matter separates; the fluid is filtered, fermented with yeast, and then digested with hydrous oxide of lead, filtered, the excess of 3f>4 MEP lead removed by sulphohydric gas, and evaporated in a gentle heat, the dark extract taken up with alcohol, decolourized by animal charcoal, and evaporated in vacuo. Mephitic Air. The name given to nitrogen by its discoverer, Rutherford, in 1772. Mcrcaptan. A term now applied sometimes to a series of compounds Avith the type Cn Hra S, SH. The first of these disco veredVas the sul- phohydride of the sulphide of Allyk, or alcohol in which the oxygen is replaced by sulphur, and the water by sulphohydric gas. C 4 H 5 S,SH. Spec. grav. 0-842; B.P. 97. Colourless mobile fluid with a strong and disagreeable smell of gar- lic. It acts on red oxide of mercury, forming mercaptide of mercury, and an oxide of lead forming lemon-yellow crystals (ES, PbS). Mer- captan is formed by distilling equal measures of fluid sulphovinateof lime (spec. grav. 1-28) and of caustic potash of the same density, previously saturated with sulphohydric acid, or by passing chlorohydric ether tlirough bisulphide of pot- assium. When the product is distilled over oxide of mercury and chloride of calcium it is pure. Mercaptan-amylc. C 10 H 12 S 2 . Spec. grav. 835 ; B.P. 242J. Colourless, oily, with the odour of garlic ; by sulphide of ammonium on potato and grain oil. Mcrcurius Cinereus Blackii. A mixture of dicarbonate of mercury with mercurius solu- bilis Hahnemanni. Mercurius Cincrcus Moscati. Black oxide or dinoxide of mercury. Mcrcurius Cincreus Saunderi. Gray or black precipitate of mercury by ammonia on ca- lomel (Hg 2 d,Hg 2 NH 2 ). Mercurius Vulcis. A synonyme of calo- mel, or dichloride of mercury. Mercurius Phosphoratus Fuchsii. A white crystalline precipitate, generally a mixture of phosphate of diuoxide and protophosphate of HER mercury, by precipitating nitrate of mercury with phosphate of soda, Mercurius Precipitatus Albus. HgCl HgNH 2 . White precipitate of mercury by pre- cipitating corrosive sublimate by ammonia. Mercurius Precipitatus Rubcr. HgO. Protoxide of mercury. Mercurius Solubilis Hahnemanni. Hgo ON0 5 ,Hg 2 NH 2 . Black powder, by adding ammonia to nitrated dinoxide of mercury. Mercurius Violaceus. Obtained by sub- liming a fused mixture of 4 sulphur, 6 mercury, 4 salammoniac. Mercury. (Hydrargyrum), Quicksilver, Ar- gentvive. Hg 12-5,100. Known from the earliest ages in consequence of being easily reduced. Is a white silvery fluid, destitute of taste and smell. Spec. grav. 13-568 at 60 (Cavendish and Crich- ton); 13-596 (Regnault) ; when solid at 38-66, 14-465 (Biddle) ; when frozen it is malleable, and can be hammered without breaking. B.P. 660 (Crichton). When heated it readily vola- tilizes at this temperature, and can thus be freed from many impurities. Spec. grav. of its vapour 6-976 (Dumas). Mercury readily unites with many metals and forms amalgams, and from this property it is capable of permeating masses of tin, zinc, cadmium, lead, silver, gold, copper, bronze ; but not iron, platinum, palladium. Preparation. Mercury occurs in large quan- tities hi nature hi union with sulphur, under the name of cinnabar, in Carinthia, Saxony, in gneiss; in Transylvania in graywacke; the largest de- posits are, however, found in Idria, and Almaden in Spain. Its colour is red. Crystallizes in acute rhomboids and 6-sided prisms. 'Sp. grav. 8-098. When pure it consists of 84-5 mercury, and 14-75 sulphur (HgS). Mercury also occurs in nature with silver under the form of native amalgam, which contains 72-5 per cent, mercury, and 27-5 silver. The theory of the process for the separation of mercury from cinnabar, consists in combining the ore with a metal which has a greater affinity for I substances which answer the purpose best are the sulphur than the mercury has, so that by the j lime and iron. In the Palatinate the ground ore application of heat the mercury passes over. The ' and lime are mixed and introduced into a clay 355 HER retort, a series of which is placed in a furnace. The mercury is distilled into a receiver of the same nature filled with water ; the whole appa- ratus being similar to that used in the preparation of Nordhausen sulphuric acid. The other methods at present employed are equally rude, but might be easily improved. Retorts, such as are used in the preparation of nitric acid, might be employed with great advantage, or cylinders of iron, similar to those for preparing muriatic acid. The appara- tus exhibited in the figure has been employed several years. It consists of a, a number of re- torts resembling gas retorts, which are filled to two-thirds with a mixture of 4 parts cinnabar and 1 quicklime ; b, pipes for the escape of the mercury dipping into water in C, an iron in- clined condenser ; L, screw plugs for the intro- duction of a wire to clear the pipes. The con- denser is placed in i, a wooden trough, through which a current of water flows. The mercury passes into E by the pipe D, and its amount is indicated by the float L To purify the quick- silver it may again be distilled with iron filings in iron retorts. When red oxide is distilled, the metal passes over with a small portion of oxide, which may be removed by agitation with dilute nitric -acid. Dinoxide of Mercury, Suboxide, Black Oxide, Ethiops per se, Mercury of Moscati. Hg 2 O 26, 208. First obtained by Homberg, in 1699, by at- taching a bottle of mercury to a mill wheel ; it was first described byBoerhaave. Mercury is not oxi- dized by water, but on exposure to the air it tar- nishes, a black powder being formed, Hg 2 0. Itmay be prepared most conveniently by precipitating ca- lomel (Hg 2 Cl), the subchloride of mercury, by an alkaline solution, as potash, soda, or lime water. In the formation of the black wash of surgeons, the suboxide is precipitated by lime water by the following action: Hg 2 Cl-fCaO become Hg 2 O, CaCl. Caustic soda precipitates it very readily. The black precipitate is washed with water, and constitutes a pure suboxide. It is grayish- white, tasteless, and insoluble in water, and when ob- tained by the preceding process often contains metallic quicksilver in globules, which may be -.i-ily separated. When boiled with water it is converted into the red oxide (HgO). It dissolves in acids without effervescence, and is completely volatile. Spec. grav. 10-69. It forms salts with acids, which are generally colourless or white, and difficultly soluble in water. By alkalies the gray- ish-black oxide is precipitated. Oxide of Mercury, Protoxide, Red Precipitate, Deutoxide of Mercury, Peroxide, Precipitate per se HgO 13-5,108. When formed by heat it crys- tallizes in regular octahedrons. Colour deep red ; may be heated nearly to 800 without decomposi- lion, Imtaboveared heat is converted into mercury and oxygen (Priestley, 1774). It may be formed by Inviting mercury to 600 in the open air. Tin- form of tlic. oxide, formerly termed precipi- tate per se, was obtained by placing some mer- MER cury in a flask, the neck of which is drawn out to a capillary point, and subjecting the flask to a boiling temperature. The mercury gradually becomes red on the surface, and after some weeks the whole metal is converted into deep red crys- tals, octahedrons. By dissolving mercury in nitric acid, and heating the nitrate cautiously, it becomes red precipitate. The taste of this oxide is acrid and disagreeable. When pure it should give off no fumes if heated in a tube. It is de- composed by heat and light. With sulphur, when heated, it deflagrates ; heated with zinc or tin it sets them on fire ; slightly soluble in water, but. probably only when nitrate is present. It is used in medicine as an application to sores, as an es- charotic, to clean ulcers, by giving them a new surface, either by being sprinkled over the parts, or in the form of ointment. The salts of this oxide are colourless or yellow; some of them soluble, others insoluble in water, and are poi- sonous. The solutions of the salts are precipi- tated white by caustic ammonia, a hydrate of an amide and an 'oxide of mercury being formed (HgNH 2 4-2 HgO 3 HO). When corrosive sublimate is precipitated by lime water, a yellow powder falls, the mixture being termed in phar- macy yellow wash, and used as an application to syphilitic ulcers. The action in this case is pro- duced by HgCI and CaO becoming HgO and CaCl. The yellow oxide is isomeric or allotropic with the red oxide. The ammoniacal oxide of Mercury, 3 HgOHgNH 2 3 HO, may be formed by placing oxide of mercury in a flask, and filling it with ammoniacal solution, and stopping the flask. For this purpose either the yellow or red isomeric forms of oxide may be employed, but the yellow answers best. The hydrate, in a vacuum, loses its water, and also at the temperature of 266. The hydrate is in- soluble in water and alcohol ; cold caustic potash scarcely acts on it ; when boiling, ammonia is evolved. It absorbs carbonic acid as readily as lime and barytes; its carbonate is not decom- posed at 212, but loses its water at 284, and becomes the anhydrous carbonate. When sul- phate of mercury is thrown into ammonia it dis- solves in' large quantity. When the solution is diluted a white powder falls, which is ammoniacal turbith, or ammonia sulphate of mercury, 3 HgO HgNH 3 SO, 3 , but it is not constant in composi- tion. The following combinations have been ob- tained with the ammoniacal oxide acting as a base : Hydrated base 3HgO, HgNH 2 3HO Intermediate hydrate, HO Anhydrous base, Sulphate, Hydrous carbonate,.... Carbte. dried at 275, Oxalate, Nitrate, ... Bromate, 80s CO 2 HO C0 2 N0 5 HO Br0 5 356 HER Dichloride of Mercury, Siibcliloride of Mer- cury, Protocldoride of Mercury, Calomel, Draco ttiitiyatus, Sweet Mercury. Hg 2 Cl 29-437, 235-5. Known to the alchemists; the term calomel was first used by De Mayenne about 1616. Usually a dull white mass/ When slowly sub- imed it crystallizes in 4-sided prisms, termi- nated by pyramids, the primary form being a square prism (Brooke). Spec, grav. 7-175to6-992. 1 part is soluble in 12, 000 parts of water. Tasteless, not poisonous, but acts as a purgative ; it is diffused by being converted into the chloride, which is a soluble salt When calomel is mixed over night with a solution of an ammoniacal chloride, we find mercury in solution in the morning, indicated by the liquor giving a yellow precipitate with caustic soda or potash, and a white with ammonia, showing that the calomel has been converted into HgCl. Preparation. Calomel may be obtained either by dry distillation or by precipitation. 1. When 4 parts of corrosive sublimate, and 3 of mercury, are intimately mixed in a mortar, and sublimed in a flask, calomel is produced. 12-5 parts ofmercury, when converted into sulphate ofmercury, by heat- ing with S0 3 , the dried salt mixed with 2-5 parts mercury and 8 ?r parts of common salt dried, yield, by sublimation, calomeL If the sublimed calomel is allowed to come in contact with steam, it falls as a fine powder (Howard and Jewel), This process consists of three stages : 1, the formation of sul- phate of mercury by boiling mercury with sul- phuric acid,- 2, mixing each atom of sulphate with an atom of mercury ; 3, subliming the whole with an atom of common salt. The pro- cess is expressed by the following formulae : HgOS0 3 Nad' Hg 2 Cl The result is calomel sublimed, and sulphate of soda left as a residue. 2. It may also be ob- tained by dissolving the acid nitrate of mercury, in 16 parts of water, and adding a dilute solution of common salt, mixed with some HC1 to re- move nitrate, as long as any precipitate falls. This is to be thoroughly washed with cold water. Gray Precipitate. Hg. 2 ClHg 2 NH 2 . Is ob- tained as a dark gray powder, when calomel is digested in caustic ammonia, the action being as follows : 2 Hg 2 Cl, 2NH 3 = (Hg 2 ClHg 2 NH 2 )NH 3 HCl Chloride of Mercury, Corrosive Sublimate, Muriate of Mercury, Bichloride'. HgCl 16-937 ; 135-496. It is mentioned by Geber, in the seventh centurv, and was early known to the Chinese. Fine white semitranslucent mass of prisms, soluble in water, crystallizing in cubes or rhomboids on eva- MER poration, the primary form being a right rhom trie prism, the angles u on t being 138 -8, and u on 93-44 (Brooke). Sp. grav. 5-139 to 5-42. Taste acrid and caustic, with a styptic impres- sion ; virulent poison, of a corrosive nature, destroy- ng the integrity of the structures with which it comes in contact. It dissolves in 18 parts of cold and 2 or 3 parts of boiling water. It is very soluble in hydrochloric acid, and also in ether and alcohol. The solution reddens litmus paper. Preparation. 1. Corrosive sublimate may easily be obtained by dissolving red precipitate in hydrochloric acid. 2. Another process is to form the sulphate by heating S0 3 and Hg, and then subliming 5 parts of the dry mass, 5 parts of dry common salt, and 1 part of black oxide of man- ganese in a retort. In this process HgO S0 3 -|- NaCl become HgCl and NaOS0 3 . The manganese is added to convert any sulphate of suboxide of mercury into the sulphate of the oxide, as frequently happens in the dry sul- phate, as made in the manner recommended. 3. Another method for the preparation of corrosive sublimate is to add to a solution of nitrate of mercury hydrochloric acid, as long as a precipi- tate falls ; an equal amount of acid is then added, and the whole is boiled. The precipitate formed is again dissolved, and allowed to crystallize out. Tests. When pure it is white, dissolving in water, alcohol, and in from 4 to 6 parts of ether ; when heated it sublimes entirely. When dis- solved in HC1 and a solution of protochlqride of tin in the same acid is added, a precipitate falls, white at first, then becoming black, of metallic mercury. Alkalies, with the exception of am- monia, throw down a yellow precipitate (HgO HO) ; sulphohydride of ammonia a black preci- pitate ; iodide of potassium a scarlet precipitate. A plate of copper becomes brown hi a solution of , corrosive sublimate. Gold becomes white. Poisoning. When taken in over-doses it pro- duces violent irritation, pain in the pit of the stomach and bowels, and diarrhoea, with vomit- ing. When the dose is larger, these symptoms show themselves as soon as the salt is swallowed. The taste of the substance distinguishes it from arsenic, a fact of importance, since the other symptoms are closely analogous. Antidotes. The best antidotes for poisoning by mercury are albumen or white of egg dissolved in water. The curd of milk likewise unites with corrosive sublimate and neutralizes it. Iron filings may also be given with advantage. WJiite Precipitate, Chloramide of Mercury. Hg Cl Hg NH 2 , or N,HgH 3 Cl. A white powder prepared by adding caustic ammonia to a solution of corrosive sublimate, or by mixing 1 part of sal- ammoniac and 2 parts of corrosive sublimate in solution in water, and precipitating with carbonate of soda or potash. The salammoniac promotes the 357 MER solution of corrosive sublimate in water, and hence they are" often prescribed in connection. The nature of the action which occurs in the formation of white precipitate appears to be as follows : 2 HgCl 2 NH 3 = HgCl HgNH 2 , NH 3 HC1. It 13 a white poisonous powder, with a metallic taste. It is very insoluble in water and alcohol. It may be distinguished from calomel, which it re- sembles hi appearance, by its becoming a canary- yellow powder when boiled with water or alkalies, and salammoniac being dissolved in the water. 2HO,2(HgClHgNH 2 )=(HgClHgNH 2 2HgO) NH 3 HC1. It may also be distinguished from calomel by the circumstance that when boiled or heated with caustic soda, ammonia is evolved, and a yellow powder formed, which, under the same circumstances with calomel, is black. Diniodide, Subiodide.Kg 2 l 40-75, 326-. Yellowish- green powder, formed by dropping an iodide into a solution of the subnitrate of mer- cury, or by rubbing in a mortar 25 parts of mer- cury with 15| parts of iodine, with some alcohol. Iodide. (Hgl 28-25, 226-). Scarlet, crystalline powder, formed by adding iodide of potassium to corrosive sublimate, or by rubbing in a mortar 12^ parts Hg with 15-75 I, with the aid of alcohof, so as to form a red powder, which is to be boiled with a strong solution of common salt until it dissolves. On cooling it deposits in fine carmine scales. Slightly soluble in water, very soluble in iodide of potassium. Specific gravity of its vapour 15-68. Becomes a yellow fluid at 400. Both of these iodides are used in medicine, inter- nally and in the form of ointment. Cyanide of Mercury. (Kg Cy 15-75, 126.) Square prisms prepared by dissolving 2 parts yellow prussiate of potash in 15 boiling water, adding 3 parts dry sulphate of mercury, boiling for fifteen minutes, filtering while hot, and crystallizing out the cyanide. Additional crystals mav be obtained from the mother liquor. It is used for preparing cyanogen, and is poisonous. Black Bisulphide of Mercury. (Hg 2 S.) Black powder, obtained by precipitating the protonitrate of mercury by sulphohydric acid. Sulphide, or Red Sulphide. HgS. Cinnabar, Vermilion. Occurs in nature, but it may be pre- pared artificially by fusing 1 part of sulphur and 6 of mercury in a covered crucible, occasionally removing the lid and stirring the mixture. The residue, when sublimed, possesses a red colour, and constitutes the vermilion of commerce, al- though before sublimation it is black. We can prepare it at once of a red colour by moistening white precipitate with sulphohydride of ammonia ; the black sulphide is produced; but it passes after a little time into the red colour. Sulphate of Mercury (HgO SO 3 ) is formed in the process for calomel. When boiled with wa- ter, it becomes yellow, being converted into Tur- bitk mineral (3 HgO S0 3 ). Subnitrate of mer- <"/// (Hf&O N0 5 2HO.) Colourless prisms Inrincd by dissolving mercury in cold dilute nitric MER acid. Dinitrate of mercury (2HgO N0 5 2HO) is obtained by dissolving mercury in hot nitric acid. Dry Assay. To determine the amount of mer- cury when in the state of metal or oxide, all that is necessary is to distil in a tube retort 100 grs. or 150 grs. of the specimen to be examined into a receiver accurately fitted, and containing water. The tube should be made of hard Bohemian or English green glass. The retort is heated to redness in a charcoal fire, and the upper part kept hot to prevent the condensation of the mercury. The metal collects in the neck of the retort. If the water has been previously expelled by drying the mixture carefully, the amount of mercury may be estimated by weighing the retort before and after the experiment. But as the mercury collects in the neck of the retort, it is necessary to cut it off, to weigh it, and then to remove the mercury by means of a feather, and to weigh it again. The mercury is made to run into the water of the receiver. The water is poured off, the mercury dried and weighed. When the ore is in the state of sulphide or selenide, it is neces- sary to mix it with iron filings, to detach the sulphur. 100 grains of the cinnabar are inti- mately mixed with 50 grains of iron filings in- troduced into the tube retort, the surface covered with a layer of iron filings, and treated as before described. Instead of iron filings, 66 per cent, of black flux may be used, or 33 per cent, of caustic lime mixed with 10 parts of powdered charcoal. Wet Assay. To determine the amount of mer- cury in an ore, the specimen is digested with pure strong hydrochloric acid. It must not be heated too strongly, otherwise the mercury will be vola- tilized. The liquid is then decanted from the residue, and the latter washed. A solution of protochloride of tin is then added, which has been rendered transparent by hydrochloric acid, and the mixture is boiled quickly in a flask, corked, and set aside. The mercury falls as a black powder, the fluid is poured off, the mercury placed in a porcelain or platinum crucible, well washed, dried with blotting paper and with gentle heat, and weighed. Nitric acid should not be present in the preceding" analysis, but should be expelled by boiling with hydrochloric acid. To analyze calomel, it is necessary to dissolve it by the aid of pure nitric acid, to precipitate the chlorine by nitrate of silver, and the mercury by protochloride of tin. Corrosive sublimate (HgCl) may be analyzed in the same manner, and as it 358 MER is soluble in water, the addition of any acid is scarcely necessary. White precipitate (Hg 2 Cl NH 2 ) should be dissolved in pure nitric acid, the chlorine precipitated from one portion, the mer- cury from a second, and likewise the ammonia, if required, by bichloride of platinum. Mercury. Mercurius. A name given by the alchemists to all volatile bodies. The metal was termed common mercury ; alcohol, vegetable mercury. Mercury, Ores of. Native Mercury. Spec, grav. 13-568. Tin- white liquid, opaque; lustre metallic. B.B. entirely volatile ; soluble in nitric acid. Idria, in Carniola ; Almaden, Spain, &c. Native Amalgam. Sp. grav. 13*755, H 3*25. Hg 72-5, Ag 271- = 3 Hg, Ag. Silver-white rhombic 12-hedrons and 8-hedrons; the edges being frequently replaced by planes ; lustre me- tallic ; streak white, opaquey brittle ; gives a grat- ing sound when cut ; one amalgam is solid, another fluid. B.B. mercury is volatilized, and pure sil- ver remains. Palatinate; Hungary; Sala, Sweden; France; Spain. Sulphide, Sulphuret*, Liver Ore, Cinnabar. Hg S. Spec. grav. 8-098, H 1 to 4-25. Hg 83-8, S 14*25. Cochineal-red, sometimes inclining to gray ; streak scarlet ; in acute rhomboids, with angles of 72, or 6-sided prisms, but generally massive. There is a dark impure variety termed liver ore ; fracture conchoidal, seniitransparent, translucent on the edges, or opaque ; sectile. B.B. volatile; soluble in nitric acid. In gneiss at Reichenau ; in bituminous shale at Idria and in Spain. DicUoride of Mercury, Native Calomel, Cor- neous Mercury. Spec. grav. 6-482, H 1-5. Hg 84-74, Cl 15-26, Hg 2 CL Ash-gray or yellow- ish crusts and 4-sided square prisms, terminated by 4-sided pyramids ; the lateral edges of the prisms are often replaced by tangent planes ; lus- tre adamantine ; translucent on the edges ; sectile. Moschellandsberg, Deuxponts ; Idria ; Almaden. Iodide. Hgl. Reddish-brown particles on selenide of mercury. Casas Viegas, Mexico. Selenide. H 2-5, HgSe 23'1, HgS 75-1. Lead- gray masses, giving out the odour of selenium B.B. San Onofre, Mexico. Antimonite. Red powder from Chili. Sb0 4 12-5, SiO 3 26-5, HgO 14, Fe 2 O 3 22-3. Meroxydic Bodies. Those organic sub- stances the inorganic constituents of which are present, partly in an oxidized, partly in an un- oxidized condition ; such are peas, rapeseed, and wheat. Mesacoiianile. A hypothetic body not yet obtained. Mcsacoiiic Acid. Mesacic acid. MES H 4 6 . F.P. 392. Fine white shining needles ; sublimable above 400 ; soluble in 37 cold, in less than 1 hot water; -306 dissolves in 1 cold alco- hol (90 per cent.) -957 when boiling ; the solu- tions decompose carbonic acid salts; it forms bibasic salts ; prepared by heating near to boil- ing from a quarter to half-an-hour, a dilute solu- tion of citracic (citraconic) acid, with about a sixth part of strong nitric acid ; gas is evolved, and on cooling the acid separates in crystals ; from the mother liquor oxalic acid crystal- lizes ; it is isomeric with citracic acid ; in the above action nitracic acid C 10 H 3 N0 4 6 2 HO ? is also formed. Mesidinc. Ci 8 H n NH 2 ? A hypothetic body, probably derivable from Nitromesitylole. IVlesite. A fluid from the products of the distillation of wood, supposed by some to be a mixture of acetone and acetate of methyle. Mesiteue. A fluid obtained by distilling xylite (a mixture .of pyroxyldc spirit, acetate of methyle, and methol), with an equal portion of sulphuric acid. It is probably a mixture of methol with acetate of methyle. Mcsitic Alcohol. A synonyme of Acetone. iTIcttitic Aldehyde. C 6 H 4 2 ? A reddish fluid obtained by gently heating acetone with half its volume of strong nitric acid. By this process binitromesitylole alone has subsequently been obtained. Mesitic Chloral. Bichloracetone. C e H 4 C1 2 2 . Specific grav. 1-33; B.P. 160. A heavy oil smelling of chloroform and Dutch liquor; blistering the skin. With potash it yields pteleylic acid. Mesitinc Spar. A lenticular form of brown spar, or ferrocarbonate of magnesia. Mesityle, Chloride of. C 6 H 5 C1. By the action of chlorohydric acid on acetone. Mcsityleiie. Oenyle. C 6 H 5 . The hypo- thetic radical of Acetone. ITIesitylolc. Mesitylene, Oenole. Cj 8 H 12 . B.P. 3251 or 507$. Specific grav. of vapour 4-31 ; colourless fluid, insoluble in water; burn- ing with a smoky flame ; isomeric with cumole ; obtained by distilling a mixture of 2 vols. acetone, and 1 vol. oil of vitriol; two layers are obtained, the under aqueous, the upper oily, which is distilled ; the portions boiling between 248 and 300, being reserved and rectified. With chlorine are formed tricliloromesitylole C 18 H 9 C1 3 (chloride of pteleyle of Kane) ; with bromine, tribromomesitylole Ci 8 HgBr 3 ; with nitric acid, dmitromesitylole C 18 H 10 2 N0 4 ; and trinitromesitylole C 18 H 9 3N0 4 . Various acids act on acetone and form salts of mesityle. Mesitylosulphuric Acid. HOC 18 H n S 3 5 ? Formed by the action of fuming sulphuric acid on mesitylole. Mcsole. Flabelliform Kouphone Spar. Spec, grav. 2-370, 2-382. White uniform and globu- lar masses, radiated, with various shades of colour, grayish- white, yellowish-gray ; occurring 359 MES in basalt and amygdaloid, along with apophyl- lite, in Scania, Sweden ; Faroe and Greenland. Its composition is Si0 3 42-17, A1 2 3 27-, CaO 9-, NaO 10-19, HO 11-79 (Sweden, Berzelius). Formula NaO 2 Si0 3 , 2 CaOSi0 3 , 9 Al 2 3 Si0 3 , 8 HO. It differs from mesolite, which is a ter- silicate. ftfesoline. A granular zeolite from Faroe, without any determinate marks of crystalliza- tion ; fracture grained and exhibits irregular facets ; filling the cavities of lava in the form of the head of a pin. Si0 3 47-5, A1 2 3 21-4, CaO 7-9, NaO 4-8, HO 16-19 (Berzelius). Formula NaOSi0 3 , 2 CaOSi0 3 , 9 Al 2 3 SiO 3 , 14 HO. Mesolite. Specific gravity 2-125 to 2-333. White 4-sided prisms terminated by 4-sided pyramids. Needlestone from Faroe, consisting of SiO 3 46-8, A1 2 3 26-5, CaO 9-87, NaO 5-4, HO 12-3 (Berzelius). Mesotype. A synonyme of natrolite and Thomsonite. It is much to be desired that writers on mineralogy who are not chemists, should preserve the names originally given by experimenters. The preceding minerals on this account have in some works been lost sight of, and the labours of a valuable chemist sunk. Mesoxalic Acid. C 3 4 . Soluble, very acid crystals, unchanged by air and boiling; gives white precipitates with lime and barytes ; monobasic and bibasic salts; obtained by boiling alloxanic acid salts; by this action hydrous alloxanic acidC 8 H 4 N 2 10 is split into two bodies, mesoxalic acid C 6 8 , and urea C 2 H 4 N 2 2 . Mela, (JUT*., along with.) Originally ap- plied to metaphosphoric acid, to indicate that it was not simply phosphoric acid, but the acid to- gether with water. It is now used apparently at random, to denote a distinction between two ap- proximate acids. Metacetamide. A synonyme of Propio- namide. Metacetamidc. C 6 H 5 N0 2 ? Obtained by acting on propionate of ethyle with liquid ammo- nia; acetamide C 4 H 5 NO 2 is obtained by the action of ammonia on acetic ether, and is a fine white solid. F.P. 172| ; B.P. 430. ftletacetamine. A synonyme of Propy- lamine. Metacetic Acid. Metacetonic add. A synonyme of Propionic acid. Metacetone. Propione. C 12 H 10 2 or C 6 H 5 0. B.P. 183. A colourless oil with an agree- able odour, insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether, obtained by distilling 1 part sugar, 3 caustic lime (10 to 15 Ibs. at a time), at 285, and rectifying the product ; it also occurs in the dry distillation of lactate of lime, sugar, starch, gum, mannite, with caustic lime ; it has the same relation to metacetic or propionic acid that alde- hyde has to acetic acid ; it is changed into pro- pionic acid by distillation with bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid ; it is isomeric with oxide of mesityle. MET HEetacetonitrile. A synonyme of Propio- nitrile. Metacetyl-urea. Etliyle-urea. C 4 H 4 , C 2 H 4 N 2 O 2 . Fine prismatic crystals, fusing easily, soluble in water and alcohol; obtained by the action of a solution of ammonia on cyanate .of ethyle; heat is evolved, and by evaporation crystals separate. Metachlorite. A variety of chlorite from the Harz, containing SiO* 23-77, A1 2 O 3 16-43, FeO 40-36, MgO 3-1, CaO -74, KO 1-37, NaO 08, HO 13-75. Metacinnaiueine. CigH 16 O 2 . A crys- talline body often accompanying cinnameine, from which it may be separated by treatment with weak alcohol, and cooling below 32. Metafurfurole. An aromatic oil accom- panying crude furfurole, possessing a higher boiling point, becoming by distillation a brown resin, and yielding a purple colour ; with ehloro- hydric, nitric, or sulphuric acids, it may be separated from furfurole by rectification ; it forms no amide with ammonia, but becomes a resin. iVIetagallic Acid. Gallohiimic acid, Melan- gallic add. HOC 12 H 3 O 3 ? Black lustrous amorphous mass, tasteless, odourless ; obtained by heating gallic acid to 482, or pyrogallic acid above its vapour point. It may be viewed as pyrogallic acid deprived of 2 atoms water ; in- soluble in water, alcohol, and ether ; easily sol- uble in alkalies, aud reprecipitated in black flocks by acids; it displaces carbonic acid from the alkaline carbonates but not from carbonate of barytes ; heated above 500 it is charred ; it is monobasic. M etalbumine. A form of albumen con- tained in the fluid of ascites ; it is coagulated by boiling, and by acetic acid with heat ; but is not precipitated by yellow pmssiate of potash and, acetic acid, and the coagulum by alcohol dissolves in water. iVIetaldehydc. Long needles or 4-sided prisms ; volatilizing at 230, and condensing in snowy flocks ; insoluble in water, soluble in alco- hol ; possesses the same composition as aldehyde ; obtained by preserving aldehyde in close vessels at the usual temperature. ITIetalepsy . Theory of substitutions (A*STAj4,,; 3HO = 4S0 8 2S0 2 NH 8 3HO. An acid formed in union with potash, along with bisulphate of potash, by allowing sulphammonate of potash to stand. The latter salt is formed by the action of an excess of sulphurous acid on nitrite of pot- ash. When metasulphammonate of potash is boiled in water, it is decomposed into bisulphate of potash and sulphamidate of potash (S4NH3 O 10 2KO = 2S0 3 ,2S0 2 ,NH 3 2KO). Metaaulphazic Acid. 7S0 2 2N0 3 6HO. An acid formed by the action of sulphazite and sulphazate of potash on each other. Mctasulphazilic Acid. S 6 NH 3 20 3HO = 4S0 2 2SO 3 NO 3 3HO. An acid formed by the action of the brown oxide of lead, or of oxide of silver on sulphazotate of potash. Metasulphazotic Acid. S 8 Sr 2 H 6 28 6HO + 2HO = Sulphazous acid S 3 NH 3 Oi 2 , and sulphazotic acid S r ,NH 3 Oi6- Obtained by pass- ing sulphurous acid through nitrate of potash, when plates are often deposited, consisting of metasulphazotate of potash. This salt is very soluble in water ; reaction strongly alkaline ; it is only stable in an alkaline fluid, and by pure water is decomposed into sulphazite, and basic sulphazotate of potash; acids evolve from it binoxide of nitrogen. Metatartaric Acid. 2HOC 8 H 4 10 . Crys- tallized tartaric acid when exposed to the heat of MET an oil bath just until perfectly fused, is converted without loss of weight into metatartaric acid, resembling a transparent deliquescent gum, form- ing with potash and ammonia salts of different forms of crystallization, and of more solubility than the tartrates ; it does not precipitate lime salts by itself, and only slowly when neutralized by ammonia, producing a precipitate which is soluble in much water, and is of a crystalline form different from that of tartrate of lime; me- tatartrate of ammonia, NH 4 O,HO,C 8 H 4 10 , in needles, separates when ammonia is added to fused tartaric acid ; it is converted by boiling into tar- trate. Metatitanic Acid. Ti 3 6 . Small shining plates, separating when anhydrous bichloride of titanium is saturated with carbonate of barytes, adding water and boiling rapidly ; it is obtained amoi'phous by heating common titanic acid, or it is precipitated by boiling from its solution in sulphuric acid, the only acid that dissolves it. The acid precipitated by boiling, when dried at 284, has 12 per cent, water, and consists of Ti 3 6 2HO. The metatitaniates do not crystallize, and are insoluble. M.cia-toluidiiic. Metatohtole. CgoHirNg. Crystalline plates ; a resinous base ; obtained by passing gaseous chloride of cyanogen over toluole (2C 14 H, J N,C 2 NC1 = C 80 H ir N 8 ,HCl), little sol- uble in cold, more soluble in hot water; it is purified by crystallization out of alcohol. Metatungstic Acid. HO,W 3 9 . The am- moniacal salt of this acid is obtained by boiling for some hours bitungstate (paratungstate) of am- monia for some hours, and evaporating the solu- tion to the consistence of syrup; on cooling it deposits very soluble 8-hedrons; its solutions are not precipitated by strong chlorohydric acid. Metaxite. Sp. grav. 2-4212, H 3-5. Green- ish-white silky oblique prisms, half-an-iuch long, with angles of about 99 and 81 ; rather sectile. B.B. fuses without colouring the flame; yields water by heat ; with soda fuses into a white bead ; gives a lilac with nitrate of cobalt, SiO 3 45-04, MgO 34-, Fe 2 3 5-28, HO 15-4 (Dr. T. Thom- son, jun.) It is allied to serpentine. Met-elaic Acid. A synonyme of Meta- oleic acid. Met-ellagic Acid. Rvfiogallic Acid. See GALLIC ACID. Meteoric Dust. A sandy matter which has been observed to fall on vessels in the Atlantic. Si0 8 37-18, AloO 3 16-74, Fe 2 O 3 7-65, Mn 2 3 3-44, CaOCO 2 9-59, MgO 1-8, KO 2-97, NaO 1-9, CuO -25/HO, and organic matter 18-53 (Gibbs). It often contains infusoria. Meteorites. See AEROLITES. Meter. An instrument for measuring the amount of gas consumed. There are two kinds water and dry meters, Meter. Metre. The unity of the French measures, amounting to the 40 millionth .part of 363 MET the length of the earth's meridian, or the 10 mil- lionth part of the distance from the equator to the pole. The toise of Peru, which is 6 Paris feet in length, or 443,296 lines on a platinum rod at 61-25 F. is the length of the metre, and forms the basis of the French measures. The follow- ing tables give the corresponding English and French measures : 1 yard = 144 lines. 1760 yards = 1609-315 metres. English- French. 03937 inches Millimetre. 393708 Centimetre. 3-937079 Decimetre. 39-37079 ) 3-2808992 feet V Metre. 1-093633 yards ) 1093-63 yards Kilometre. 6-2138 miles Myriametre. French metres and English feet. Metre. 3248394 3047945 3138535 2918592 2920947 2831901 2853b24 2876991 2864903 3000000 3161109 2846000 2500000 English Feet. 3-280899 1-065765 1- 1-029722 0-9575606 0-9583333 0-9291180 0-9262453 0-9439117 0-9399459 0-9842697 1-037128 0-9337440 0-8202247 French cubic metres and English cubic feet. Cubic Metre. 1- 03427727 02831531 03091584 02486109 02492133 02271088 02323755 02381307 02351418 0-02700000 0-03158774 0-02305179 0-01562500 English Cubic Feet. 35-31658 1-210556 1- 1-091842 0-8780087 0-8801360 0-8020706 0-8206707 0-8409962 0-8304405 0-9535476 1-115571 0-8141105 0-5518216 1 cubic metre = 1 stere for measuring wood. 001 =1 litre = 1 cub. decimetre. 1 litre = 1000 cub. centimetres = 50-412416 Par. cub. inch. 100 litres = 1 hectolitre. TI < t ha in i ii <. A synonyme of Methyl-amine. vi< thionir Acid. Formed, when acting on solid sulphuric acid, with the vapour of ether, so as to form sulphate of ethyle; on boiling with MET water isaethionic and methionic acids are formed ; when the fluid is neutralized with carbonate of barytes and evaporated, crystals of methionate of barytes separate, while isaethionate of barytes re- mains in solution. Methionate of barytes con- sists of 2 BaO C 2 H 6 O 2 4 S0 3 . The acid may be separated from it by sulphuric acid, and is ob- tained as an acid solution not decomposed by boiling. Ulethole. C 12 H 9 ? Colourless aromatic oil, unchangeable in air, distilling at 347; taste burning ; smell resembling that of oil of turpen- tine ; by sulphuric acid it is acted on, forming, on adding water, in some days, 3 layers ; the lower aqueous layer consists of metholo-sulphuric acid, the two upper, undecomposed methole and methole resin (C 24 H 16 O). Metholo-Snlphuric Acid. C 12 H 9 S0 3 HO S0 3 ? Obtained on one occasion in a mixture of methol and sulphuric acid, in the form of small crystals. When saturated with lime, a salt re- sults with the formula CaOS0 3 , C 12 H 9 S0 3 . Methostann-ethyle. Sn 2 ,3C 4 H 5 . A radi- cal formed in union with sulphuric acid in prisms by action on Staunethyle. Methylal. Formal, Formomeihylal C 6 Hg04j specific gravity -8551, of vapour 2-625; B.P. 107 j. Colourless aromatic fluid, soluble in 3 parts water, from which it is separated by potash and partly by chloride of calcium ; miscible in all proportions in alcohol and ether; formed by distilling equal parts of pyroxylic spirit and binoxide of manganese with l part of sulphuric acid, diluted with an equal weight of water ; the product consists of methy- lal, formate of methyle, aldehyde, formic acid, and undecomposed pyroxylic spirit. The first portion of the distilled fluid alone is rectified over chloride of calcium, till it boils at 107| con- stantly. JTIcthylaminc. Methylamide, Methamine, Me- thyliaque. C 2 H 3 ,H 2 N. Spec. grav. 1-08, 1-0731. Colourless gas, with smell of ammonia, mixed with that of putrid fish ; reaction alkaline ; burns with a yellowish flame ; yields a white vapour when mixed with chlorohydric gas or carbonic acid ; it liquefies below 32, and is then heavier than water; it is the most soluble of all gases ; 1 vol. water dissolves 1150 vols. gas at 54-5, 960 vols. at 82 ; the solution having all the characters of the gas ; the solution precipitates salts of chro- mium, uranium, magnesia, iron, manganese, cop- per, bismuth, zinc, and tin, as ammonia does ; it redissolves zinc and copper, giving a fine azure blue with the latter. It precipitates without re- dissolving cadmium, nickel, and cobalt; acetate of lead is scarcely rendered turbid, but nitrate of lead is precipitated ; mercurial salts are precipi- tated. A black substance falls with silver salts, which is analogous to fulminating silver, but is not explosive ; chloride of gold gives a yellowish precipitate soluble in excess ; bichloride of plati- num gives an orange precipitate, crystallizing in 364 MET plates in a concentrated solution ; when passed through an ignited porcelain tube it is converted into cyanide of ammonium, prussic acid, carbur- etted hydrogen, and hydrogen ; by potassium it is converted into cyanide of potassium and hydro- gen. It forms generally equiatomic compounds with acids. The chlorohydride (C 2 H 6 N,HC1) one of the most important, is a colourless salt in plates, fusing at 212, and volatilizing in white vapours, and is obtained by saturating the gas with chlorohydric acid, or by boiling cyanate or cyanurate of methyle with potash, saturating with chlorohydric acid, and evaporating. Process. Methylamine is obtained by decomposing cya- nate or cyanurate of methyle with alkalies, (C 2 H 3 0,C 2 NO,2HOKO = 2KOC0 2 ,C 2 H 5 N). The cyanate of methyle is formed by passing cyanic acid into pyroxylic spirit. Methylamine is like- wise obtained by the action of ammonia on iodide of ethyle ; in the action of chlorine on caffeine ; in boiling caffeine with potash, by heating mor- phine at 392 with excess of potash, and mixed with propylamiue by heating codeine to 248 to 347, and^probably in the destructive distillation of gas asphalt, as I have observed a large amount of ammoniucal smelling gas disengaged in this process with an alkaline reaction. It is distin- guished from ammonia by its ready inflam- mability, burning with a yenWish flame into carbonic acid, water, and nitrogen, mixed sometimes with cyanogen and prussic acid. Di- methylamine and trimethylamine are formed in small quantity in the action of iodide of methyle on ammonia. Methylc. C 2 H 3 . Spec. grav. 1-0365 = 1 vol. carbon, -8292, and 3 vols. hydrogen = 2073. Colourless and odourless gas, almost insoluble in water, and little soluble in alcohol ; not condensed at 3 -2; burns with a bluish flame ; not acted upon by sulphuric or fuming nitric acids, or by caustic potash ; chlorine, mixed with it in equal volumes -In daylight, unites without change of bulk ; the product con- sists of equal bulks of chlorohydric gas, and of a gas (C 4 H 5 C1) isomeric with chloride of ethyle, or of a mixture of unacted on methyle and of a gas C 2 H 2 C1. There is some doubt as to the for- mula for methyle; some considering it to be C 4 H(>, and it has been contested whether it is the basis of the methyle compounds. It is isolated by ex- posing iodide of methyle to the action of zinc in a hermetically sealed tube, at 302, iodide of zinc being formed together with methyle and zinc methyle ; it is also formed by passing a gal- vanic current from a Bunsen's battery of 4 plates through a strong solution of acetate of potash, when hydrogen separates at the negative and me- thyle with carbonic acid at the positive pole, and also oxygen as the action advances. It forms compounds with various bodies ; by displacing hy- drogen in ammonia we have methylamine, C 2 H 3 NH 2 . By displacing hydrogen from phosplra- retted hydrogen, there are formed phospho-tri- MET methyle 3(C 2 H 3 ) P and pliospho-dimethye 2C 2 ) H 3 ) P obtained by the action of chloride of methyle on phosphide of calcium. Zinc methyle, C 2 H 3 Zn, a colourless fluid, is fonned in the action described. Methyic-amy le-phenylaminc. C 2 H 3 ,C , Hn,C ]2 H 6 N. An oily alkaloid, nearly insol- uble in water, with a high boiling point, by heat- ing methyl-ethyle- amyle-phenylammonium . Methyle-aniline. Methyle phenylamine. C 2 H 3 ,C 12 H 6 ,H,N. B.P. 377 J. Transparent oil becoming blue with chloride of lime ; formed by mixing aniline and bromide of ethyle. Methyle-butylainine. C 2 H 3 ,C 8 H 9 ,H,N. Methyle-butyle-amylaminc. C 2 H 3 ,C 8 H 9 , C 10 H 1]L ,N. Dimethyle-Propylamine. 2C 2 H 3 ,C fi H 7 lSr. Methyle, Cyanide of. See ACETONITRILE. Methyle -diethyle-amyle - ammonium. C 2 H 3 ,2(C 4 H 5 ),C 10 HnK An alkaline fluid, formed by treating diethyle - amylamine with iodide of methyle; a compound of the above base, with iodine results, from which the iodine is removed by oxide of silver. Formed on the model of ammonium. Methyle-ethylc-amylamine. C 2 H 3 ,C 4 H 5 , C 10 H 11 N. B.P. 275. Clear oil, with an agree- able smell and taste ; little soluble in water, to which it gives an alkaline character ; by heating the methyle-diethyle-amyle-ammonium. Methyle-ethyle-amyle - ph eny lammoni- um. C 2 H 3 ,C 4 IJ 5 ,C 1 oH 11 ,C 12 H5N,HO. The hydrate is an oily base, obtained by heating ethyle-amyle- aniline, and iodide of methyle, in a hermetically sealed tube for three or four days ; two layers are formed, the lower containing the iodide of this base; when this is treated with oxide of silver, ethyle-amylamine remains, mixed with the iodide of silver while the ammonium base remains in solution. It is formed on the type of ammonium (NH 4 ), each atom of hydrogen being replaced by an alkaloid. Methyle - ethyle - aniline. Methyle-etliyle- phenylamine. C 2 H 3 ,C 4 H 5 ,C 12 H 6 N. Volatile oil bv the reaction of iodide of ethyle, and ethyle- aniline. Formed on the type of ammonia, all the bvdrogen being replaced by alkaloids. Methyle-ethyle-Campheric Acid. HO, C 2 H 3 O,C 20 Hi 4 O 6 . F.P. 154s. Long needles or plates decomposing by heat into campheric acid, carbon, and a glutinous fluid ; obtained by substituting pyroxylic spirit for spirit in the pre- paration of etiiercampheric acid. Methyle-ethyle-urea. C 2 ,H 2 ,C 2 H 3 ,C 4 H r> , N 2 2 = C 8 H 10 N 2 2 , by the action of cyanate of ethyle on methylamine. Methyle, Hydrous Oxide of. Methi/Kc Alcohol, Pyroxylic Spirit, Bihydrate of Me- thylene, Wood /Spirit, Wood Naphtha. Said to have been observed in 1812 by Philip Taylor. Dr. Thomas Thomson used it in lamps in 181 6^ and found it at Glasgow in 1817. In confirmation of this, Mr. John Turn- 365 MET bull informs me that it was manufactured as an article of commerce in that year by Turnbull & Jlanisav of Glasgow. It was first described hi print by P. Taylor in 1822. C 2 H 3 OHO, or CoH, 2 HO. Spec. grav. -798 (Dumas), at 68~f -807 at 48 (Deville), -8207 (Pierre), 81796 (Kopp); of the gas 1-12.- B.P. 150 (Thomson), 151-3 (Pierre), 149-9 (Kopp), 150-4 (Andrews), lol-7 (Person). Tension of vapour 3-27 inches mercury. Colourless fluid, with a peculiar odour; soluble in all proportions in water, alcohol, ether, and fat oils ; burns with a pale blue flame; it dissolves many substances like alcohol, as caustic alkalies, salts, alkaloids, resins, &c. ; it dissolves a small portion of phos- phorus ; it dissolves chloride of calcium, forming a crystalline compound (CaCl, 2 C 2 H 4 2 ), ses- quichloride of iron, bichloride of tin. The follow- ing table gives the specific gravity and composi- tion of pyroxylic spirit of different strengths (Ure):- Spec. Orav. Per Centage. -8136, 100- 8418, 90-90 8674, 82- 8822, 77 8984, 70-42 9116, 65- 9218, 60-24 9296, ..'. 56-18 9414, 50 9484, 46 9564, 40 9620, 35-71 When dropped on spongy platinum, pyroxylic spirit is converted into formic acid by oxidation (C 2 H 4 O 2 and0 4 = C 2 HO 3 and3HO); converted by distillation with sulphuric acid and binoxide of manganese into formic acid and aldehyde (?) with sulphuric acid it forms hydrosulphate of me- thyle (HOS03,C 2 H 3 OS0 3 ), which, by heating, yields gaseous oxide of methyle (C 2 H 3 O), which burns with a blue flame; nitric acid converts it into formic acid and nitrate of methyle ; by chlorine an oily fluid is formed (C 6 H 3 C1 3 O 2 ?), by chlorides of tin, iron, and antimony it is con- verted into chloride of methyle; by phosgene gas, oxichlorocarbonate of methyle (C 2 H 3 OC 2 C10 3 ) is formed, a colourless fluid, yielding with ammonia needles of carbonate of methyle (urethy- lane) C 2 H 3 O, CO 2 , NH 2 , CO ; with chloride of lime it forms chloroform ; with solid potash and lime, gently heated, it gives hydrogen and for- mate of potash. Dr. T. Thomson first showed, in 1826, that the basis of pyroxylic spirit was a carbo-hydrogen (Edin. Roy. Soc. Trans.) Methyle, Iodide of. C 2 H 3 ,I. Spec. grav. 2-199, of vapour 4-883 ; B.P. 110|. A colour- less fluid, neutral, not miscible with water ; burns with difficulty, giving out iodine fumes ; soluble in jiyroxylic spirit, alcohol, and ether; by chlo- rine converted into chloride of methyle. MIA Ulethyle-narcotine. C 44 H 23 NOi 4 . From opium. Methylene. CH C 4 H 4 , or 22 . ,t0y, wne and i'x, wood.) The hypothetic base of the me- thyle series (Dumas). ITIethyle-piperidine. C 2 H 3 ,C 10 H 10 N. Sp. grav. of vapour 3-544. B.P. 244^. Colourless oil with ammoniacal odour; soluble in water; by acting on piperidine with iodide of methyle in closed tubes, and heating the crystalline body formed with caustic potash. Ethyle and amyle- piperidine may be similarly formed. .VI oihy !<>-<{ ii iiioli iic, or Quinine? C 2 H 3 OHO,C 18 HgN = C 20 H 12 N0 2 . Quinoline C 18 H 8 N is obtained by the action of fused potash on quinine, and if we subtract this formula from that of quinine, or C 20 H 12 N0 2 , Ave obtain C 2 H 3 0, HO, or pyroxylic spirit. Methyle - triethy le - ammonium . C 2 H 3 , 3C 4 H 5 ,N. The hydrate is a strong alkaline base, soluble in water ; crystalline in vacuo ; by heat- ing triethylamine with iodide of methyle, and removing the iodine from the resulting compound by oxide of silver. Tetramethyle-ammonium. 4C 2 H 3 N. The hydrate is a crystalline body, attracting carbonic acid rapidly from the air; obtained by heating iodide of methyle, with strong solution of ammonia, in a close tube ; after the reaction has continued hydriodides of methylamine, dimethylamine, trimethylamine, and iodide of tetramethylammonium, are formed ; the latter remains after evaporation, and is ob- tained as a hydrate by treatment with oxide of silver. Ulethyle-Urea. Dimethyh Urea. CoH 2 ,2C 2 H 3 ,N 2 O 2 . F.P. 206. White crystalline mass ; volatilizing by heat ; soluble in water and alcohol, and forms a nitrate (CHgN s O 8 HONO fi ). Methyle Urea. Cyanate of Methylamine. C 2 , H 3 ,C 2 H 3 N 2 2 . 4-sided prisms, soluble in water; by evaporating a solution of sulphate of methy- lamine and cyanate of potash. Methylocitric Acid. Citrotrimethylic acid. 3C 2 H 3 O,Ci 2 H 5 4 . Prisms obtained by passing dry chlorohydric gas into a saturated solution of citric acid in pyroxylic spirit, and heating to 192, pressing the crystals in paper, and drying in vacuo. Methylodithionic Acid. See HYPOSUL- PHOMETHYLIO ACID. Methylol. A synonyme of carburetted hy- drogen, or Marsh gas. Mcthyloxamic Acid. C 6 H 4 N0 5 . A crys- talline sublimate, by heating binoxalate of me- thylamine. iVIethyloxamide. C 2 H 4 N,C 2 2 . Long needles, by the action of methylamine on oxalic ether, or by subliming oxalate of methylamine in a retort. Melylene Stannethylc. Sn 2 2C 4 H 5 . See STAXNETHYLE. Miargyritc. (^s/w, less ; agj^of, silver.) Bi- sulphoantimoniate of silver. Hem/prismatic ruby 366 MIC blende. Spec. gray. 5-234, H 2 to 2-5. Iron- black flat 4-sided prisms, one of the angles at the base being replaced by a 3-angular face; streak dark cherry-red ; lustre between metallic and adamantine ; opaque except in thin splinters, when it is blood-red. B.B. behaves nearly as dark red silver ore. Sulphur 21-95, antimony 39-14, silver 36-4, copper 1-06, iron -62. Form. AgS,SbS 3 . Mica. (Aftcore, to shine). (Glimmer, Ger.) Common Mica, Binaxial Mica, Muscovy Glass, Glades m,ariae, Chlorite Earth. Sp. grav, 2-824, 2-949, 3-08, H 2 to 2-5. Various shades of gray passing into green, brown, or black, scales, or oblique rhombic prisms, with angles of 98 40/, 81 20', and 60. The acute edges of the prism e are often replaced by tangent planes, which con- vert the crystal into a 6-sided prism ; it occurs also in right rectangular prisms ; lustre pearly ; structure foliated. SiO 3 47-19, A1 2 O 3 33-8, Fe.>0 3 4-47, MnO 2-58, CaO -13, F -29, KO 8-35, HO 4-07. Form. KOSi0 3 ,4,Al 2 3 SiO3 ? B.B. fuses into a yellow blebby glass; fuses with salt of phosphorus and with borax. Micaceous Iron. Iron Mica, A variety of sesquioxide of iron, or specular iron ore, found in connection with igneous rocks. Mica rdthia. See LEPIDOHTE. Mica Magnesian. Uniaxial Mica, Hexa- gonal Mica, Rubellane, Black Mica of Siberia. Spec. grav. 2-8 to 3-, H 2-5. Black, brown, or dark green rhomboidal plates, with a pearly lustre ; thin folise, flexible ; transparent, opaque ; B.B. fuses into a black glass. SiO 3 40-, A1 9 7 12-67, Feo0 3 19-03, MgO 15-7, KO 5-6, F 2% Mn 2 3 63, TiO 3 and Fe 2 O 3 1-63. Form. 3 RO, Si0 3 , Al 2 3 Fe 2 3 SiO 3 . Micaphyllitc. A synonyme of Andalusite. Micarelle. A synonyme of Finite. Mica Slate. Spec. grav. 2-74. A meta- morphic slate occurring abundantly in Scotland and other primitive countries. It consists essen- tially of quartz and mica, but has intermixed with it garnets. From Ben Lawers it consists of SiO 3 66-63, A1 2 3 17-12, FeO 13-34, CaO 1-16, MgO -95, KO -29, HO 1-, PO 5 trace (R. D.T.) Michaelite. Randanite, Gelatinous Silica. HO, 4 Si0 3 and H02SiO 3 . Occurs as a fine earth, consisting of infusoria at Ceyssat, Algiers, and probably at Farnham, in chalk. The silica "is soluble in potash; it consists of HO, C0 2 10-, sand -8, gelatinous silica 87-2, oxides, iron and alumina, 2; lime and magnesia traces. Microcosmic Salt. Salt of Phosphorus, Na- tive Salt of Urine, Ammonia- Hydro -trisphos- phate of Soda. NaO, NH 4 OHOP0 5 -f 8 HO. Colourless fine rhombic efflorescent tables, soluble MIL in 1 part hot, 6 cold water; loses ammonia when ignited, and leaves acid phosphate of soda in the form of a clear bead, and hence its use in blow- pipe experiments. It is formed by neutralizing a portion of phosphoric acid with ammonia, and another equal portion with soda, and evaporating the united solutions ; or dissolve 6 parts crystal- lized phosphate of soda in 2 parts water, add 1 part salammoniac, and crystallize. It is deposited also from ammoniacal urine. Microlite. Apparently the same as pyro- chlore. Middletonite. Spec. grav. 1-6. C 20 ,H U 0. A fossil resin of a reddish-brown colour, soluble in sulphuric and boiling nitric acids, with decomposition ; colours ether, alcohol, and turpentine yellow. Found on the surface of Yorkshire and Staffordshire coal. Miemite. A variety of brown spar from Miemo, Tuscany. Miesite. A synonyme of phosphate of lead. Mildew. (Mehlthau, Ger.) A white dewy aspect which the leaves of plants and grapes as- sume by the deposition of a fungus. Milk. The white secretion from the mam- mary gland of the mammalia, for the support of their young. It consists of minute white glo- bules, suspended in a clear fluid. These globules are formed of butter, surrounded by a vesicle, and when treated with dilute acetic acid, allow the butter to separate, as may be seen under the microscope. After parturition the milk contains, in addition to the milk globules, irregular drops of fat, termed colostrum (beist, Scot.) Milk has an alkaline reaction. The specific gravity of cow's milk, from experiments repeated twice daily on two different cows, for several months, I have found to be 1030-. The specific gravity of human milk is 1020-3, of the mare 1034-6, ass 1035-5, goat 1034-1, sheep 1040-9. When milk is allowed to stand, the cream rises in the form of a white oily layer to the top, increasing in quantity in proportion to the shallowness of the vessel ; the milk soon becomes acid, from the conversion of the milk sugar into lactic acid, which is hastened in warm electric weather, and speedily it becomes curdled from the coagulation of the caseine by the action of the acid. The same effect is pro- duced by rennet, see CHEESE, ACIDS, ALCOHOL. It then separates into curds and whey, the former constituting, when pressed free from the whey, cheese. The following is the composition of different kinds of milk: Woman. Goat. Water, 871-9 884 916-5 856 Sugar, 43-5 47 60-8 50 Butter, 37- 25 ll-l 42 Caseine, 41-6 37 18-2 45 Soluble salts, 1-5 2 ( - ( Insoluble salts,.... 4-4 \ 3-4 \6-8 Cow, R.D.T. ; woman, Simon ; ass and goat, Henry and Chevallier. 367 MIL The salts of cow's milk are soda -042, chlo- ride of sodium -024, chloride of potassium -144, phosphate of lime -231, phosphate of magnesia 042, sesquiphosphate of iron -007 (Haidlin); or per 1000, KC1 14-18, NaCl 4-74, KO 23-46, NaO 6-96 united to PO 5 , SO 3 , and C0 2 . For the influence of food on milk, see my Experi- mental Researches on the Food of Animals. The amount of milk given daily by a cow may amount in summer to 20 imperial pints, or 2fy Ibs. weight ; but it often much exceeds this, and at other seasons falls below it. Milk is now sold in white cakes as portable milk; it is understood to be prepared by adding 4 oz. of sugar to a gal- lon of milk, and evaporating in vacuo, or at a temperature of 120 ; and pressing it into cakes. Analysis of milk. Milk may be analyzed by evaporating 1000 grains to dryness at 212; the loss, when it ceases W lose weight, is water ; the residue is digested in other, which takes up the butter ; on igniting the butter, any soluble salts dissolved by the ether will be obtained ; the sol- uble salts and sugar are removed from the resi- due by water and by ignition, the caseine disap- pears, and the insoluble salts remain. Milk of Cow Tree. A white fluid derived from the Galactodendron utile of Venezuela, South America. Spec. grav. 1012-42. It consists of water 573, albumen 40, wax (C 35 H330 3 ) 58, resin (galactine C 33 H 29 O 2 ) 314, gum and sugar 47, salts 4-. Milk Sugar. See LACTINE. Millerite. A synonyme of nickel pyrites. Millet. The seed of the Milium Sorghum, used in Africa as food, and as a source of spirits. Miloschine. Green oxide of chromium (0 2 3 ). Mimetene. Mimetesite. A synonyme of ar- seniate of lead. Mimotannic Acicl. See CATECHUicAcm. Mindererus, Spirit of. The solution of acetate of ammonia in water. Mineral Alkali. Old name of soda. Mineral Caoutchouc. Elastic Bitumen. C 35 H 3 2 and C 41 , H 2 2 ? Spec. grav. 1-233 to 9053. Black, glistening, soft, sectile, elastic, flexible substance, catches fire readily, and burns with a yellow flame, and bituminous odour. Found in the lead mine of Odin, Mamtor, Derby- shire; Montrelais, France; Neufchatel; Zante. Mineral Charcoal. A form of charcoal associated with coal. I have fine specimens from the coal of Glasgow, from the neighbourhood of trap dykes and blind coal. Mineral Green. Mountain Green. Hydrous dicarbonate of copper. See GREEN, BRUNSAVICK. Mineral Oil. Rock Oil See NAPHTHA MINERAL. Mineralogy. (Mineral and Xeys?, a dis- course). That branch of chemistry which treats of the form and composition of native minerals and salts. It must not be confounded with mere crystallography, which is equally applicable to MOL chemistry. The total number of species of min- erals known at the present time is upwards of 600 ; of these 45 belong to the acid radicals, 557 to the basic radicals, and 5 are neutral. The different species are described in this work under then 1 appropriate names. Mineral Pitch. See ASPHALT. Mineral Waters. See WATERS. Minium. Red Lead. See LEAD. Mirabilite. A synonyme of glauber salt. Mirror Metal. Ancient mirrors were com- posed of Cu 62, Sn 32, Pb 6. Modern speculum metal for telescopes is formed of 2 copper, 1 tin. Misenite* or native bisulphate of potash, from Cape Misen, Rome. Mispickel. Arsenical Pyrites, Marcasite, Danaite. Spec. grav. 6-127, H 5-75. FeS 2 , Fe As. Right rhombic silver-white prisms, yielding by heat fumes of tersulphide of arsenic, and smell of garlic. Misy. 2Fe 2 3 5S0 3 6HO. Rhombic pearly yellow plates, accompanying sulphates of zinc, magnesia, and potash, near Goslar. Mizzonite. A variety of Meionite or Sea- polite. Mocha Stone. Moss Agate. A species of quartz, or chalcedony, with the appearance of mosses imbedded in it. Mohringa Oil. See OIL OF BEN, BENIC, and MORINGIC ACIDS. Mohsite. Mohsile. A synonyme of Urn enite. Molasses. A dark syrupy fluid, not readily crystallizable, which constitutes the mother li- quors of sugar in the West Indies. It is now largely imported into this country, and from it is extracted the crushed sugar of commerce ; the uncrystalline mother liquor forming treacle- Molecule. (Molis, a hill). An assemblage of atoms. It has been suggested by Ampere and Prout that the atoms of simple gases are not all isolated and repulsive of each other, but that a certain number of the atoms may be associated into a molecule, as a b c d, and that this many-sided solid may then repel a similar formed molecule. This view might enable us to explain the fact that many bodies of the same per centage composition have totally different properties. Molybdatc of ILcad. Yellow Lead Ore. PbO MoO 3 . Spec. grav. 5-706 to 6-760, H 2-75. Wax-yellow, siskin-green, olive-green, orange- yellow, yellowish-gray, grayish- white 8-hedrons with a square base, with angles of 99 16' and 131 15', and in crystals approaching to cubes, in tables, and in 4, 6, and 8-sided prisms ter- minated by 4-sided pyramids, structure lamellar, fracture conchoidal. B.B. assumes a darker MOL colour, leaves some metallic lead en charcoal; with borax fuses into a transparent glass, dark and opaque on cooling ; with salt of phosphorus into a green glass or black in greater quantity. I have found in it PbO 59-60, Mo0 3 40'4; Ca- rinthia; Mendip. Hlolybdeim. Molybdenite, Bisulphide of Mo- lybdenum. MoS 2 - Spec, grav. 4-569 to 4-7385, H 1 -25. Lead-gray 6-sided prisms, or foliated me- tallic-looking mineral ; the plates are easily sepa- rated, and are flexible, but not elastic; splen- dent; streak unchanged; opaque. B.B. is not reduced, but on charcoal it emits sulphurous fumes, which distinguishes it from plumbago, to which it bears a close resemblance even staining paper when rubbed on it. Occurs in granite or gneiss at Altenberg, Saxony; Zinnwald, Bohe- mia; Cornwall; United States; Norway. Molybdenum is obtained by reducing molyb- dic acid by means of charcoal at a very high temperature. It appears in the form of globules or a porous mass resembling spongy platinum. The source of the metal in general is molybdena, which is first roasted and passed through a seive. The powder is dissolved in ammonia, the solution filtered and evaporated to dryness; the residue moderately heated with some nitric acid, be- comes a white powder, the oxide of molybdenum (MoO). The oxide is then made into a paste with some oil or charcoal, and exposed to a powerful heat. It may be procured by passing a current of dry hydrogen over molybdic acid, heated to redness in a porcelain tube. It is a grayish powder, and has not been procured in a button. Its colour when in cohering masses is, however, silver-white, sp. grav. 8-615. By roasting it becomes brown (the oxide), then blue (binoxide), and lastly white (molybdic acid); i i;ric acid converts it into the acid. Sulphuric acid in contact with it is converted into sul- phurous acid and oxide. Protoxide of Molybdenum. Brown oxide. MoO 6-75, 54. Is formed when the metal is heated in the air. It may be prepared in a pure state by dissolving a molybdic acid salt in a small portion of water, adding hydrochloric acid till the precipitate which at first appears is redissolved, and then digesting the solution with distilled zinc ; the liquid becomes gradually blue, reddish, brown, and finally black. Ammonia is then added, when the hydrate precipitates in the form of black flocks. This is washed, away from the air, in water containing NH 3 , and then dried in vacuo. It is a black powder, insoluble in acids when it has been ignited, but soluble in the hydrous state. When heated in air it takes fire, and is converted into molybdic acid. The hydrate also dissolves in carbonate of ammonia, but the other alkaline carbonates have no action on it. Binoxide, Deutoxide. MoO 2 7-75, 62. When molybdic acid is allowed to digest with chloro- jjydric acid and copper the liquid assumes a red nt. On adding ammonia the binox'de pre- MOL cipitates. It may be prepared also by mixing 2 parts of molybdate of soda with 1 of salammoniac in a red hot crucible, which is to be covered. The soda is converted into common salt, and the molybdic acid into the deutoxide. The salt may be taken up by water. When dried it has the colour of the peroxide of iron, and by exposure to the air becomes green ; it is slightly soluble in water, giving it a yellow tint, and hence in washing, it is necessary to use water holding salammoniac in solution, and it should be dried in vacuo. It is insoluble in caustic alkalies ; the alkaline carbon- ates and bicarbonates readily dissolve it ; it red- dens litmus paper, but does not possess acid properties. What was formerly termed molybdous acid is a bimolybdate of the deutoxide, spec. grav. 3-46. When 'ignited in the air it volatilizes and may be sublimed in yellow scales ; sparingly sol- uble in water, 570 parts of that fluid dissolving 1 part of acid, and reddening litmus paper ; dis- solves before ignition in acids, and forms salts ; it dissolves in cream of tartar. The alkaline molybdates are colourless and soluble in water ; the other salts are insoluble in this fluid, but are readily soluble in strong acids, and the alkaline molybdates are in general precipitated by strong acids ; the precipitate is soluble in ex- cess of acid, with the exception of nitric acid. Molybdate of Ammonia is very soluble in water. Molybdates of potash and soda are prepared by dissolving the acid in solutions of carbonate of potash or soda, the latter resembles tungstate of soda ; chromate and molybdate of lead are isomor- phous; hence there is a connecting link be- tween tungsten, chromium, and molybdenum. Molybdenum, Chlorides of. Chloride of mo- lybdenum (Mo Cl) is obtained by dissolv- ing the hydrous protoxide in hydrochloric acid ; a deep blue substance remains on evaporation. The bichloride (Mo C1 2 ) is produced in black crystals resembling iodine when dry chlorine is passed over the heated metal ; it deliquesces in the air, becoming blue, red, and yellow. It unites with salammoniac. Chloromolybdic add (Mo0 3 -)- Cl or MoOgCl), a substance corresponding with chloro^ehromic acid is formed when chlorine is passed over binoxide of molybdenum, at a red heat; it condenses in yellowish- white scales. Sulphides. The bisulphide has been already de- scribed as molybdena. The tersuphide (MoSs) corresponding with the acid, is procured by satu- rating an alkaline molybdate with sulphuretted hydrogen gas ; on the addition of an acid the potash sulphate of molybdenum is decomposed, and the tersulphide falls, in the form of a blackish-brown compound. The quatersulphide (MoS 4 ) is procured by passing SH through the bimolybdate of potash. Salts of molybdenum are distinguished by their affording before the blow- pipe with salt of phosphorus a green bead, in the reducing flame with borax a reddish-brown bead. Bimolybdate of Soda.SaQ 2 MoO 3 7 HO. Colourless crystals, obtained by fusing in an iron 369 2B MOL crucible 5 parts of molybdate of lead with 2 of carbonate of soda, and treating the fused mass with water. The lead remains partly reduced and partly oxidized. The solution is evaporated to separate the carbonate of soda by crystallization. The liquor is saturated with acetic acid, when acetate of soda is formed, and molybdate separates in crystals. Trismolybdate. See LEAD. Tiolylnlir Acid. MoO 3 8'75, 70-. Spec. grav. 3 '5. White porous mass or powder, fusing into a yellowish mass ; separating into silky crys- talline scales in water. It forms by heat and access of air into fine white plates and needles ; add reaction; sour taste; with difficulty soluble in water ; it unites with strong acids, and forms a base to them ; these salts are yellow coloured, with a metallic taste. The purity of molybdic acid is ascertained by its completely volatilizing. The molybdates are white or yellow, partly sol- uble, partly insoluble, in water. It is obtained by roasting native molybdena (MOS 2 ) until the sul- phurous acid ceases to be evolved, the colour, changing from black to y ellowish- white ; the residue is dissolved in ammonia and crystallized; the resulting molybdate of ammonia by heat leaves the acid ; it may be also obtained by the action of nitric acid on the bisulphide, or on the binoxide. It occurs native (molybdic ochre) with bisulphide. ITIomia . Mummy. A specimen of mummy has been found to consist of water 10-4 ; azulmic acid 35*17 ; azulmate of ammonia, carbonate of potash, chlorides of potassium and sodium, sul- phate of potash, phosphate of soda 2-72 ; am- moniacal soap, resin, 12-71 ; phosphate of lime, carbonates of lime and lead, silica and sand 39-. IVf omoMite. A synonyme of Dolomite. Moiiazite. Mengiie, Edwardsite, Eremite. Spec. grav. 4-922 to 5-019, H 4-5. Clove-brown, MON reddish-brown, dirty brownish-red oblique rhombic prisms with angles of 92 30' and 100 25' 13". B.B. loses colour, becoming pearl-gray, and fuses on the edges with great difficulty to a glass ; with borax it turns white and forms a yellow-green glass when hot, colourless when cold ; tinges the flame green with sulphuric acid. Oxide of cerium (thorina ?) 2 6 ; oxide of lanthanum (thorina ?) 2 3 -4, thorina 17-95, SnO 2-1, MnO 1-86, CaO 1-68, P0 5 28-5, TiO 2 trace, KO trace. Slataoust, Ural. Monazitoidc. Spec. grav. 5-281, H 4. Prisms of 92. 'Associated with monazite near Lake Ilmen. CeO 49-35, LO 21-3, CaO 1-5, P0 5 14-94, columbic acid ? 6-27, HO 1-36, MgO and FeO traces. OTonesinc. A bitter gummy substance, -by alcohol, from the bark Monesia, occurring in com- merce, from South America; its source is not known. Iffonometaphosphoric Acid. A name given to the common form of metaphosphoric acid, HO P0 5 , to distinguish it from a series of other compounds which have been termed dimeta, trimeta, tetrameta, and hexameta phosphoric acids, where the atoms of acid and base are multiples of the atoms in the monometaphosphate by 2, 3, 4, and 6. Money. Stamped or cast pieces of metals used as a circulating medium. I am indebted for the following tables of British money to Mr. Mushet of the Mint : English Copper Coins. Number of Denomination Pieces per of Coin. Pound Avoirdupois. Pence 24 Half-pence.... 48 Farthings 96 Farthings... 192 J Farthings... 288 Value of One Pound. Number of Pieces in a Ton. 53,760 107,520 215 T 040 430,080 645,120 Value of 1 Ton of Coined Copper, 224. English Silver Coins. Number of Pieces in the Pound Troy. Sta ndard Weight of each Piece. dwt. gr. 792 Pence 7 2727 1 396 2 Pences ... 14 5454 264 3 Pences 21 8181 198 4 Pences 1 5 0909 132 6 Pences -J 19 6363 66 Shillings 3 15 2727 9fi & \ 1 - ' * OG Shilling > Crowns... 9 2 1818 1 13 & Shilling V Crowns 18 4 3636 SB Florins 7 6 5454 Fine Silver in each Piece. dwt. gr. 7272 6 id 20 2 1(5 4545 1818 9090 3636 7272 8181 16 19 63G3 6 17 -4644 dwt. Alloy in each Piece. 5455 0909 6363 1819 2727 5455 16 -3637 8 -7273 13 -0910 BRITISH STANDARD OF SILVER. O/.. 11 dwt. 2 Fine Silver ) ~ 18 Alloy per Pound Troy. ..-.-ays of silver are reported in pennyweights the lowest report being pennyweight. 370 MON MOR English Gold Coins, Nurnter of Pieces in the Troy Pound. Standard Weight of each Piece. Fine Gold in each Piece. Alloy in each Piece. 93^ ^ Sovereigns.. Oz. dwt. 2 pr- 13 637 Oz. dwt. 2 8 500 Oz dwt. gr. 5 -137 JW 5 Sovereigns.... ... 5 3 274 ... 4 17 001 10 -27? 23 -/ j 2 pieces ... 10 6 548 9 10 003 20 -545 W 5 -5 ? 1 5 16 372 1 3 13 008 ..23 -364 178 Guineas 1 8 3595 1 5 6629 133^ 1 ^ 1 19 1460 1 15 5505 89 4- ... 2 16 7190 ... 2 11 3258 44^- Guineas 5 9 4382 ... 4 22 6516 22 2 Guineas.... ... 10 18 8764 ... 9 21 3034 8 5 Guineas.... 1 6 23 1910 1 4 17 2584 GOLD STANDARD. N.B.- 22 Carats, or 44 fine gold ) 2 ,,',,Xalloy | F-r Pound Troy. -The assays of gold are reported in carats and carat grains. The lowest being of a carat grain=7 troy grains. Iff onephane. A synonyme of Epistilbite. Monoxy-mcrcnr-azotiiie. HgO (Hg 3 N 2HO). A base by the action of aqueous ammo- nia on oxide of mercury. A tri-base also exists with 3 instead of 1 atom of mercury. Monradite. Spec. grav. 3-2673, H 5'75. Yellowish massive or foliated ; cleavage inclined to 130, lustre vitreous. B.B. gives out water; with borax the presence of iron is indicated; with phosphate a silica skeleton ; with soda a grayish pearl. Bergen, Norway. Si0 3 56-17, MgO 31-63, FeO 8-56, HO 4-04=4 (MgO FeO), 3 SiO 3 3 HO. Monrolitc. Spec. grav. 3*045 to 3-096, H to 7-25. Greenish, gray, and whitish mineral re- sembling sillimanite, SiO 3 40-92, A1 2 3 56-618, MgO, 285, HO 3-091. Monticellite. Yellow crystals of 132 34', gelatinizing with acid ; in granular limestone at Vesuvius, supposed to be olivine or chrysolite. Moonstone. Adularia, which when polished reflects a variegated surface. Mordant. (3/orefere, to bite). The chemical base employed to fix a colour on cloth in calico printing. Moreine. A volatile oxide of morine in yellow plates, obtained by boiling morine in water. Moriudine. C 2 8H 15 O 15 . Yellow silky crystals ; slightly soluble in cold, more soluble in hot alcohol ; insoluble in ether ; slightly soluble in cold, more soluble in hot water; soluble in alkalies with a red colour ; in sulphuric acid with a purple colour ; precipitated by lead, barytes, strontian, lime, and iron salts ; from the bark of the root of Morinda citrifolia by alcohol ; it is. nearly allied to ruberythric acid in madder. Morindone. C 28 H 10 Oio- Red n insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether, alkalies and oil of vitriol ; precipitated by alum cobalt blue; it is obtained by sublimation by heat from morindine, and seems identical with aliza- Morine. White crystalline powder, yellow by ammonia ; soluble in 4000 water. One of the colouring principles of the Morus tinctoria or fustic ; soluble in acids with a yellow colour ; sublimes ; obtained from the deposit of the aqueous decoction by solution in alcohol, and the addition of oxalic acid to decompose the compound of lime and Moringic Acid. C 3 oH280 4 . Spec. grav. 908 ; F.P. 392. Colourless oily acid obtained by saponification from the oil of Mohringa or ben ; solidifies at 32 ; it is homologous with oleic acid ; it contains 2 atoms hydrogen less than benic acid ;. soluble in alcohol. Morintannic Acid. C 18 H 8 10 . The yellow crystalline colouring matter of the Morus tinc- toria ; obtained by treating the central part of the wood with boiling water with a little chloro- hydric acid ; in the course of time the acid sepa- rates as a yellow crystalline powder ; soluble in 6-4 water, in 2-14 boiling water ; very soluble in alcohol, ether, and sulphuric acid ; when heated up to 518 it loses carbonic acid, and a clear fluid smelling of phenole or carbolic acid, passes over, speedily crystallizing into pyromorintamiic . acid (C 12 H 6 O 4 ), which seems to be identical with pyrocatechine; it has been termed oxyphenic acid. Morione. Black resinous quartz. Moroxite. Moropite, Apatite, or Phosphate of Lime. Morphine. Morphia. C 3 4H 19 N0 6 . Col- ourless pearly 4-sided rectangular prisms, the primary form being a right rhombic prism; soluble in 500 boiling water, in 40 cold and 30 boiling alcohol, hi fat and essential oil?, and in caustic alkalies ; insoluble in ether ; taste bitter; it differs from codeine byC 2 H 2 less: it forms crystalline salts with acids, which consti- tute narcotic poisons ; nitric acid turns morphine and its salts red, a characteristic property ; iodic acid renders it brown by the separation of iodine; sesquichloride of iron renders it blue, 371 MOB wlm-h soon disappears ; by sulphuric acid it is r,>ii verted into sulpho-mOrphide ? when heated it loses 2 atoms water, and at 570 is decomposed ; heated with potash it yields methylamine. Process I. Motor's. 1. Macerate the raw opium, cut into pieces, with 3 times its weight of water, press the solution through a cloth, and repeat the maceration and filtration three or four times; meconate, with some sulphate of morphine which exists in opium, is thus obtained in solu- tion, with colouring matter. 2. The solution, after concentration, is mixed with one-fifth of caustic lime, previously made into a cream with water, and boiled for a few minutes. The colour- ing matter is thus precipitated, meconate of lime formed, while morphine remains in solution. 3. The mixture is then filtered and washed with boiling water, and the liquor evaporated till it reaches double the weight of the opium em- ployed, filtered rapidly through paper, boiled, and an ounce of salammoniac added for each pound of opium. The muriate of morphine crystallizes out; it may be further purified by boiling with milk of lime and reprecipitating by salammoniac. To obtain the morphine from the muriate, a solution of the salt is exactly saturated with ammonia, when the alkaloid falls. II. Robertson and Gregory's Method. 1. Dissolve out the meconate of morphine from opium by frequent maceration in water. 2. After concentrating the infusion, add a slight excess of chloride of calcium ; meconate of lime is thus formed and precipitated, while muriate of mor- phine remains in solution, contaminated with much colouring matter. 3. The muriate is crystallized out by evaporation, and filtered in a bag, subjected to pressure; the dark mother liquor thus squeezed out contains narcotine, while the brown cake consists of impure muriate of morphine. 4. The cake is dissolved in hot water, and passed through a filter of animal charcoal, and frequently crystallized. The mor- phine may be separated from the salt by am- monia, and thus isolated from codeine, which is usually contained in the salt. The muriate, M,HC1 6 HO, in silky needles, is used in medi- cine extensively as a narcotic, in doses of from one-eighth to one-fourth grain ; it is soluble in 18 cold water, in its own weight of boiling water; soluble in alcohol; 1 Ib. opium yields 1^ ounce muriate. That it contains codeine is ob- vious, from the fact that I have sometimes found it in commerce to contain less nitrogen than it ought to possess, as follows : Atoms. At Weight. C, 34 25-5 H, 19 2-375 N, 1 1-75 O, 6 6- HC1, 1 4-569 110,... . 6 6-75 Theory. Expt. 54-32 55-36 5-05 5-00 3-73 3-19 12-78 13-53 9-74 9-92 14-38 13- 46-944 100-00 100. MOR In six determinations the following numbers have been obtained for the nitrogen: 2-74, 2-901, 2-969, 2-81, 3-19, 2-881. This is per- haps sufficiently explained by the fact, that the formula of morphine has hitherto been estimated too high. It loses almost exactly 13 per cent, water at 212. Sulphate of Morphine. MSOgGHO. Feathery- soluble crystals ; acetate, difficultly crystallizable in prisms ; altered by keeping ; taste bitter ; very soluble in water ; formed by dissolving morphine in acetic acid ; dose to grain. Morpholite. A name given to the marls of Sweden, containing nearly half their weight of carbonate of lime. Morsine. Animal matter from the nests of the swallow, consisting of C 54-81, H 7-02, N 11-64, 26-53. Mortars. Common mortar may be distin- guished from hydraulic mortar or that kind of mortar which sets under water by the fact that when treated with chlorohydric acid it yields no gelatinous silica, which is always present in hydrau- lic mortars. The solidity of common mortar de- pends on the union of carbonic acid slowly with the lime. When it unites too rapidly the build- ing is not so strong. Sometimes the mortar in the interior of a wall does not solidify, but remains soft. Common mortar in contact with water falls to pieces. Hydraulic mortars, which contain 8 to 12 per cent, of clay, yield a mortar which hardens in fifteen or twenty days under water. When it contains 15 to 18 per cent, it hardens hi eight days ; with 25 per cent, it hardens on the third or fourth day; when 30 to 40 per cent, of clay are present, the mortar is Roman cement, and hardens in a quarter of an hour; first manufactured in London in 1796 from the Septaria in the Isle of Thanet. When these clayey limestones are calcined, the theory is that the silica unites with the alumina, lime, and magnesia forming a silicate, which when mixed with water takes up water of crystallization, like plaster of Paris, and becomes as hard as rock. The temperature during calcination must not be raised too high, otherwise a fritt, as in glass- making, would be produced, which is incapable of uniting with water. Artificial Hydraulic Mortars are made in Paris by treating in water 1 part of Passy clay and 4 parts of chalk by means of millstones. The deposit is formed into small bricks which are dried in the air, and then moderately calcined. This mortar when slaked increases in volume only two-thirds, while common burned lime triples its volume. Lava and Puzzolano are also mixed with lime to form hydraulic mortar. A hydraulic mortar is made by mixing liquor of flints or sili- cate of potash with lime. Hamelin's mastic con- sists of 62 Portland stone, 35 sand, and 3 litharge. Morveiiite. A species of harmotome from Strontian, consisting of Si0 3 64-75, A1 2 3 13-425, 372 MOS CaO 4-16, FeO 2-59, HO 14-47. Damour has analyzed what he calls morvenite, but upon what authority he does not say. SiO 3 47-59, A1 2 3 16-71, BaO 20-45, FeO -56, HO 14-16. mosaic Gold, The old name for bisulphide of tin. Mosaiidrite. Spec. grav. 2-96, H 4-. Red- dish flat prisms, and in masses fusing to a greenish- brown bead ; it contains silica, titanic acid, ox- ides of cerium and lanthanum, manganese, lime, magnesia, potash, and water. Brevig, Norway. Moss, Iceland. The Cetraria Islandica. Moss, Irish. The Chondrus crispus, a sea weed. See CARRAGHEEN. Moss, Reindeer, or lichen. The Cyno- myce (Cladonia) rangiferina. Mother Iiiquor. The manufacturing term for the fluid from which crystals have deposited. Mother-of-Pearl. The iridescent shell of certain mollusca, containing 66 CaOC0 2 , and 34 animal membrane. Mother of Vinegar. A species of plant, formed in impure acetic acid. See FERMENTA- TION. Mould. Humus and Ulmic Acid. In perfectly dry air wood keeps perfectly entire. When wood is exposed to moist air it gradually decomposes by an action which Liebig has termed eremacausis. It is a slow process of combustion in which the combustible parts of a plant unite with the oxygen of the atmosphere. The lignine in contact with air or oxygen gas converts the latter into an equal bulk of carbonic acid, and its decay ceases with the disappearance of the oxy- gen. If the carbonic acid is removed and oxygen replaced, its decay recommences. Woody fibre in the state of decay is termed humus. The pro- perty Avhich lignine has of converting oxygen into carbonic acid diminishes as its decay advances, and at last it becomes brown, when it is termed mould. Its decay may be prevented not only by oxygen, but by metallic salts, as in Kyan's pa- tent, HgCl, Burnett's patent, ZnCl. We can ac- curately observe the nature of the decay by com- paring the formulae : Oak wood, C 36 H 22 O2 3 Humus, C 34 H 18 () 18 2 44= 2C0 2 + H 4 The humus has lost 2 CO 2 and 4 H, oxidized bv the air to form water. If humus be examined at different stages of decay, the elements will be found diminishing in number, and it has been found that in vegetable moulds, these different states are acids containing various quantities of ammonia in combination. Wood coal is a stage of decay under certain circumstances, consisting of C 33 H 21 16 . It seems to have lost 1 atom hyd- rogen, and 3 carbonic acid. The decay of plants is a subject of extreme interest in agriculture ; and who is there who is not interested in this subject, indebted as we are to it for our comforts and daily bread ? We observe decay well exemplified in MUG old oak and elm trees, which are hollow and rotten in the heart. The rottenness is merely the common term for the absence of oxygen and hydrogen, and the preponderance of carbon. Next in point of decay we may range the organic con- stituents of soils which have their origin in the manure thrown on the soil, and in the decayed crops. We can render these apparent by simple experiment. Experiment. Digest a soil in caus- tic soda, filter and precipitate by acid. Turf is another example of decayed vegetable matter. Mulder has given the following formulae : Acid from the soil of a garden, C4 H 12 1 4 Humic acid from willow, C 40 H 12 Oi2 Ulmic from fresh turf, QoHuO^ These acids were obtained by treating the sub- stances with water and alcohol, and then with carbonate of soda, and precipitating by means of an acid. It is an interesting fact that in the neigh- bourhood of the brown coal deposits, as in Ger- many, mineral waters containing abundance of carbonic acid are particularly met with. I refer to the districts north of Francfort, immediately east of the -Rhine. The carbonic acid of these wells may be derived from the gas formed by the union of the oxygen of the air with the carbon of the wood. It is obvious, however, that the carbonic acid of volcanic springs must be derived from a different source. Similar products in com- position are obtained by the action of sulphuric acid upon sugar, but they are not identical, al- though very closely approximating, The products of the decomposition of vegetable matter are de- scribed under HUMUS, HUMINE, HUMIC ACID, GEIC ACID, ULMINE, ULMIC ACID, CRENIC and APOCRENIC ACID. Mountain Green, or Malachite. Green car- bonate of copper. Mountain leather. Spec. grav. 1-334. Light buffspicular crystals, obvious to the naked eye, but most distinct under the microscope (R. D.T.) ; felted so as to resemble leather ; absorbent of water; tough, soft, opaque. B.B. curls up and fuses into an opaque bead ; with soda into a transparent yellow bead ; with borax into a col- ourless glass. Si0 3 51-65, A1 2 3 9-505, CaO 10-, MgO 2-065, FeO and some MnO 5-8, HO and organic matter? 21-7. Strontian, Argyll- shire. Mountain Soap. A synonyme of bole or soapstone. Mountain Tallow, or Hatchettine. Mountain Wood. A mineral from Sterzing, resembling asbestus in appearance, but differing in composition, containing water; it is decom- posed by acids, leaving silica of the form of the mineral. Fe 2 3 3Si0 3 , 2 MgO SiO 3 , MgO 5 HO. Mucamide. C 12 ,NH 2 ,H 8 Oip,O 2 . Sp. grav. 1-589. Rhombic 8-hedrons; little soluble in water ; insoluble in alcohol and ether ; by adding ammonia to mucic ether. 373 MUG Mucic Acid. Saccholactic Acid. Saclactic Add, Ci 2 H 8 14 2HO. Spec. grav. 1-0015 (Morveau). White crystalline powder, with a slightly acid taste ; soluble in GO boiling water (Scheele), one part in 80 (Morveau), one part in 6 ; obtained by treating sugar of milk, gum, or mannite, with moderately strong nitric acid, the strongest or weakest acid forming oxalic acid ; 100 parts of milk sugar produce 36 (Hagen), 60 to 65 (Guckelberger). The mucates are bi- basic. Mucate of potash (2KO,Ci 2 H 8 14 HO) is in white crystalline grains. When dissolved in water, and heated for a long time, mucic acid becomes modified and more soluble in water and alcohol, from which it separates in square plates ; when its solution is saturated at 212, it deposits as common mucic acid ; its combinations are more soluble than the mucates ; when exposed to dry distillation, pyromucic acid is formed in white scales, by the removal of 2 C0 2 and 6 HO. TTIucilage. Ci 2 H 8 Oi ? A gummy matter obtained from several plants; that from linseed is obtained by digesting the seed in hot water, and concentrating the infusion in a steam bath ; it forms brown brittle crusts, with a pecu- liar odour; it reddens vegetable blues and thick- ens water; insoluble in alcohol; one portion being soluble in water resembles arabine, and forms mucic acid with nitric acid ; the other is insoluble, and gives no mucic acid when oxi- dized; under this term have been classed the products from Irish moss, lintseed, quinceseed, althaea root, symphitum, and salep. Muciiic. Transparent grains obtained by boiling water on the gluten of wheat, and filter- ing while hot. Mucine deposits on cooling ; it burns like animal matter, and is more soluble in water than gluten (1 mucine in 25 hot water) ; insoluble in ether ; precipitated by infusion of nutgalls; converts starch into dextrine and sugar. Mucus. The slimy fluid matter secreted by the mucous membranes of the body, as in the mouth, nose, trachea, stomach and intestines, gall bladder, urinary organs. All of these secre- tions contain an animal body, which does not dissolve in water, but which absorbs that fluid, swelling up, and becoming soft and viscid, and which appears to possess nearly the ultimate composition of an albuminous body; it is usually alkaline, from the presence of soda; acids, by neutralizing the alkali, cause it to coagulate, and hence, in all probability, produce false mem- branes. There seems strong evidence of the exis- tence of an acid and alkaline secretion from the mucous membrane, which, in the healthy state, is characterized by a predominance of alkali, and in the inflamed condition by a preponderance of acid. Of the latter fact "l have had abundant evidence, and have long ago suggested the use of alkalies as a counteracting agent, especially in the seminal and urinary organs ; I believe the experience of others has confirmed the justice of MUR my recommendation. The mucus of the bile consists of C 52-84, H 7-09, N 15-4, O and S 24-67. iVludariiic. A brown extract obtained by digesting the bark of Calotropis (procera, Hamil- tonii, and gigantea), Indian trees, in alcohol ; in- soluble in ether, essential, and fat oils. It& aqueous solution gelatinizes when heated to 95, and becomes fluid on cooling. It coagulates at high temperatures, a. pitchy matter separating. It is used as a diaphoretic in India. Mudesic Acid. Ci 2 H 5 10 . A brownish- yellow soluble and deliquescent acid, giving yel- low precipitates with metallic salts; obtained by oxidizing mudesous acid with nitric acid. Mudesous Acid. Ci 2 H 5 8 . Dark brown soluble organic acid, united to alumina in the granite caves of Cornwall ; in the mineral pigo- tite a brown incrustation, insoluble in water and alcohol ; the acid on separation unites with bases, and gives with metallic salts brown precipi- tates. Ma Ale. A hollow vessel of fire-clay, with a flat bottom, arched roof, and apertures at the side for the admission of air, closed behind, and open in front. It is used for the oxidation of substances, over Avhich a current of air passes when the muffle is placed in a furnace. Mulberry Calculus of Oxalate of Lime. See URINE. Muller's Class, or Hyalite. Stalactitic opal. Mullerine. Mullerite. White or yellow ore of tellurium. Mullicite. Spec. grav. 1-787, H 1-. Bluish- black radiating needles, from the centre of a cylinder; opaque, sectile. POs 24, FeO 42-65, HO 25, sand 7-9, 3 FeO, PO 5 8 HO. Allied to vivianite. Mundic. A synonyme of bisulphide of iron, or iron pyrites. Muiijeet. The root of the Rubia munjista (cordifolia), used in India for similar purposes to madder. It occurs in commerce from 1 to 3 feet long. By the natives of India it seems to be preferred to madder for many purposes. Mil ufz's Metal. When first issued, its com- position was, copper 60, zinc 40 ; afterwards it was 50 copper, 40^ zinc, of lead. Muracite. A synonyme of anhydrous sul- phate of lime, or anhydrite, when it is crystallized in broad plates. Murchisoiiite. Specific gravity 2-509, H 6-. Yellowish 4-sided prisms, with angles of 90, 374 MUR 106 50', 90 , one of its cleavage faces has a pearly lustre, with a spotted golden-yellow reflec- tion ; texture foliated ; in thin laminae, transpar- ent. SiO 3 68-6, A1 2 3 16-6, KO 14-8. In new red sandstone at Dawlish, near Exeter. Allied to felspar. Miirexaue. Purpuric Acid of Prout, C 6 N 2 H 4 O 5 , is prepared by dissolving murexide in potash, applying heat till the blue colour disap- pears, and saturating with sulphuric acid. It consists of silky scales, insoluble in water and dilute acids; soluble in cold alkaline solutions without neutralizing them; soluble in strong sulphuric acid, and precipitated without change by water. A solution of murexane in ammonia, when exposed to the air, becomes purple, and de- posits murexide in crystals ; with excess of am- monia the solution becomes colourless, and con- tains oxalurate of ammonia. 2 atoms murexane 1 NH 3 and 3 contain the elements of 1 mur- exide and 3 water. Murexide. Purpurate of Ammonia. C 12 N" 5 II C O 8 . When uric acid is dissolved in dilute nitric acid, and evaporated until it becomes flesh- red, it is allowed to cool to 160 ; it is then treated with dilute ammonia, slightly in excess, diluted with half its volume of boiling water, and allowed to cool. It is proper, in this pro- cess, occasionally to saturate a small portion of the uric acid solution with ammonia ; if it be- comes turbid, and deposits a red powder, it is proper to add a little nitric acid to the uric acid solution ; if it gives a yellow slimy precipitate, it will be necessary to pass SH through the solu- tion before murexide will separate. It may be procured by dissolving 7 grains of hydrous al- loxane, 4 of alloxantine, hi 240 grains of water, and adding 80 grains of a cold saturated solution of carbonate of ammonia. Crystals of murexide precipitate (Gregory). If it does not succeed at once, add a little water, and try it again, and so on till a solution of the carbonate is obtained, which gives a good result. In this case 1 atom alloxane, 2 alloxantine, and 4 ammonia, contain the elements of 2 murexide and 14 of water. A solution of uric acid in nitric acid contains al- loxantine, urea, and nitrate of ammonia. When evaporated to a red solution, a portion of the alloxantine becomes, by the action of the nitric acid, alloxane. The crystals of murexide are short 4-sided prisms, with a fine green colour by re- flected light, resembling cantharides ; by trans- mitted light the crystals are red. Insoluble in ether and alcohol ; soluble in boiling water, with difficulty hi cold water ; decomposed by the acids and alkalies. Murexoine. A synonyme of C olestro- phane. Muriatic Acid. See CIILOROHYDRIC and HYDROCHLORIC ACID. Muricalcite. A synonvme of dolomite, or calcareo-carbonate of magnesia. iVIuromomite. Spec. grav. 4-2G5, II "-. 375 MUS Black or greenish grains, found hi felspar at Boden, Marienberg, mixed with Bodenite; streak grayish - white lustre glassy. SiOo 31-089, yttria 37-143, FeO 11-231, MnO -905. LaO 3-536, CeO 5-544, A1 2 3 2-235, glu- cina 5-516, MgO -424, CaO -707, NaO -651, KO 17, HO and loss -849. B.B. glows like gado- linite; slightly fuses on edges; shows soda in flame. Allied to Bodenite. Muscle. Flesh. (Fleisch, Ger. ; Chair, Fr.) The name of the fibrinous parts of animals, constitut- ing their motory apparatus, from which it may be inferred that the force capable of being exer- cised by an animal is proportional to his muscu- lar mass. Muscle or flesh has been found to con- sist of Ox, 15-43 1-99 4-98 Human. Fibrine, vessels, nerves, 15-54 Albumen and hsematosine, 1-93 CeUular tissue, 2-07 Extractive matter, 3-71) Fat, 2-30) Ash, - -88 Water, 74'45 76-72 Besides these substances, we find in minute quantity present, lactic and phosphoric acids, creatine, inosic acid, inosite. The ash amounts to about -88 of the fresh muscle, or 3^ pe'r cent, of the dry muscle. The ash consists of PO.- 36-27, KO 38-87, Cl 8-63, K 9-4, S0 3 3-59, RO 4-23, phosphate of lime 3-06, phosphate of magnesia 5-76, phosphate of iron -57. Muscular matter, or fibrine, appears to characterize even the lower classes of fish, as I have found it in oysters. The following is the result of my ana- lyses of different fish, when they were washed with water and treated with alcohol and ether: Oysters. 53-98 Herrinprs. 53-77 7-44 16-23 22-56 Cod. 53-67 7-00 16-89 22-44 Muscoide. A synonyme of moss-green phosphate of lead. Muscovy Glass. A synonyme of mica. Mushroom. (Cliampignons, Fr.) Well- known ephemeral cryptogamous plants. The Agaricus arvensis contains 9 0-6 2 water, 9 -4 solid matter, including 1-08 salts, 0-77 nitrogen. The dry plant therefore possesses 8-3 per cent, of ash and 11-6 per cent, of nitrogen. Various other species have been examined with analogous re- sults. The cellular portion has sometimes been termed fungine; it appears to be a modification of cellulose or liguine. Mushroom Sugar. According to analyses t appears that mushrooms contain both ferment- able sugar and mannite. Musite. A synonyme of Farisite or carbonate of lanthanum. MUS musk. A substance formed in the follicle of the prepuce of the musk deer (Moschus moschi- ferus). It is imported from China, Tibet, Russia, and Bocharia. It contains 45 per cent, of water, 36-5 per cent, of an organic substance united with ammonia, also fats, cholesterine, and a peculiar odoriferous substance which is supposed not to be very volatile, but to be carried in small por- tions along with ammonia evolved from the musk. musk, Artificial. C 15 H 8 NO r ? A resin obtained by the action of 3 fuming nitric acid on 1 part of oil of amber ; soluble in alcohol, ether, and essential oils. Mussel. A molluscous animal consisting chiefly of fatty matter and fibrine. mussite. A grayish-green variety of Py- roxene from Mussa in Piedmont. must. The unfermented juice of the grape. mustard Seed. The fruit of the Sinapis nigra contains myronic acid, united with potash, myrosine, fatty matters, gum, colouring matter, sugar, sinapine. The essential oil of mustard (C 8 H 5 NS 2 ) does not exist in the seeds, but is formed by distillation with water by the ferment- ing action of myrosine, which is liberated from its union with potash and lime. The same oil is obtained from the root of the horse-radish. Vlustard, Black Oil of. Sulphocyanide of Allyle. C 6 H 5 , C 2 NS 2 . Spec. grav. 1-01, of vapour 3-54 ; B.P. 298. Clear oil, insoluble in water ; soluble hi alcohol and ether ; obtained by digest- ing the seeds of mustard in cold water and then distilling and rectifying. By the action of barytes solution, or hydrous protoxide of lead, sinapoline is obtained; by ammonia thiosinna- mine is formed, which, when acted on by oxide of lead, is converted into sinnamine. Mustard,' White Oil of. Contains sulpho- sinapasine, erucine, and a fixed oil. mycomelic Acid. C 8 N 4 H 5 O 5 . When a boiling solution of alloxane is mixed with an ex- cess of ammonia and neutralized with dilute sul- phuric acid, the boiling being continued for a few minutes, mycomelic acid falls as a yellow gela- tinous precipitate, which, on drying, becomes a yellow absorbent powder; it is soluble in hot water and gives an acid reaction ; it decomposes the alkaline carbonates, and dissolves readily in caustic alkalies. With oxide of silver it forms a yellow compound insoluble in water. There ap- pear to be produced by the action of ammonia in this reaction, 1 atom mycomelic acid and 5 water. Ittyricinc. F.P. 149. That portion of bees' wax which is insoluble hi cold alcohol was formerly so called. When saponified it yields palmitic acid and hydrous oxide of melissyle, the acid having been in union with oxide of melissyle in the myricine. myriospcrmic Acid. An acid by saponi- fication from myriospermine, allied to chmamic MYR myriospermine. A fluid oil soluble in boil- ng alcohol, existing in the Balsam of Peru, affording by saponitication with potash myrios- Dermic acid. Myristic Acid. Sericic Acid. C 28 H 27 O3 HO. F.P. 119. White pearly plates, soluble in alcohol and ether ; obtained by the saponifica- tion of myristine, the solid part of the butter of nutmegs. myristine. C 118 H 113 O 15 4C 28 H 27 3 ,C 6 gOs. F.P. 88. A white vegetable fat, ob- tained from butter of nutmegs (Myristica officin- alis) by heating it with cold alcohol, and crys- tallizing the residual myristine from ether ; de- composed by saponification into myristic acid and glycerine. myristonc. C 3 oH 50 O 2 . Pearly scales by distilling myristate of lime. myrobalaiius Citrina. This tree in Ben- gal supplies a fruit containing tannin, which comes to this country under the names of yellow, black, brown, ash, &c. myrobalans. myronic Acid. An acid syrup having a bitter taste, consisting of carbon, hydrogen, ni- trogen, sulphur, and oxygen, and forming crys- tallizable salts ; it is soluble in alcohol, slightly so in ether ; obtained by expressing the fat oil from flour of mustard seed, treating the residue with alcohol, which removes foreign matters; the residue is then treated with water, which takes up myronate of potash ; this is evaporated, and the crystals washed with alcohol, and decom- posed by tartaric acid ; the acid is taken up by alcohol. myrosiue. An albuminous substance ana- logous to emulsine and synaptase, existing in black and white mustard, and many other seeds, as Raphanus sativus, Brassica napus, Erysimum alliaria, Cheiranthus cheiri, Draba verna, Carda- mine pratensis, &c. ; obtained by digesting white mustard with cold water, evaporating under 100 to a syrup, precipitating by alcohol, dissolving the precipitate hi water, and evaporating to dry- ness. A solution of myrosine, when mixed with myronic acid salts, evolves the odour of oil of mustard in five minutes. myroxiliue. A thick oil, in Peruvian balsam, insoluble in alcohol, changed by 1 alkalies into cinnamic acid and a resin. myroxocarpine. C 48 H 35 06. Rhombic prisms by alcohol, from the balsam of a species of myrospermum ; insoluble in water ; soluble in ether. myrrh. Spec. grav. 1-36. The gum resin of the Balsamodendron myrrha from Arabia, in the form of tears or irregular pieces ; transparent, colour reddish-brown, brittle, taste bitter and aromatic; does not fuse by heat; forms with water a yellow opaque solution soluble in alka- lies ; distilled with water it yields an oil. Oc- curs as, 1st, myrrh electa (selected), 2d, myrrh in sorts of second quality, and, 3d, as indica or nova in fragments. It contains oil, gum (half its weight), 376 MYR resin, and mucilage. It is used in medicine as an antispasmodic and astringent. Myrrh Resin. C 21 H 16 O 3 ? F.P. 200. Ob- tained from myrrh by alcohol ; yellowish-brown, hard and brittle, without taste and smell ; con- verted by heat into an acid resin. Myrrh, Oil of. C 22 H 17 2 ? Colourless or yellowish by keeping; smells of myrrh; thickens in the air into a varnish ; soluble in alcohol ether, and the fixed oils ; forms a red liquor with NAP the mineral acids by which myrrh is distin- guished from bdellium. Ittyrtle Wax. Spec. grav. 1-015 ; F.P. 109. Pale green wax; alcohol dissolves ^ but ether dissolves one-fourth, depositing it on cooling in white plates like spermaceti, the ether retaining the green colour ; obtained from the berry of the Myrica cerifera, a shrub of North America. Idysorine. A synonyme of native anhydrous carbonate of copper. Nacrite. Anhydrous Bisilicate of Alumina, Taldte, Earthy Talc. Sp. grav. 2-788 to 2-793, H 2'75. Silvery-white, or light greenish-white, soft, silky, flexible, non-elastic scales, or long 4- sided prisms, with angles of about 89 to 91, intermixed with scales ; lustre splendent, trans- lucent. Si0 3 64-44, A1 2 O 8 28-844, FeO 4-428, HO 1-. In mica slate at Brunswick, in Maine; Wicklow, Ireland. . Nanccic Acid. Zumic Acid. A synonyme of lactic acid. Naphtha. Petroleum, RocTc Oil, Stone Oil, Mineral Naphtha. Persian naphtha is nearly colourless. Spec. grav. -753; B.P. 320, rising to 352 ; smell bituminous. Rangoon naphtha is of the consistence of lard at the usual tempera- ture; spec. grav. -880 ; but is liquid at 80 or 90; by distillation it yields one-sixth naphtha and paraffine; rectified naphtha has a specific gravity of -765, and boils at 200 ? When treated with sulphuric acid and strong caustic potash, its specific gravity was -744, and its boiling point 180. Its specific gravity has also been found 775, and its formula C 6 H 5 . Derbyshire naphtha, or petroleum, according to Mr. James Young, is of a dark brown colour as it comes out of the rock (a coal measure sandstone) ; its specific gra- vity is -900. When cooled to the freezing point of water it becomes very thick from the paraffine crystallizing. On distilling there first came over a small quantity of very light naphtha, spec. grav. 715; next a light oil of spec. grav. -778; this was used for burning in lamps, and contained no paraffine ; next came the oil containing the paraf- fine, the spec. grav. of which was -860; this was used for lubricating machinery. The first two products were colourless, the last was reddish- yellow. German naphtha has been found to con- sist of at least three oils, one distilling at 203, a second at 233, and a third at 600. Its spec, grav. is -753 ; it evaporates in the air ; insoluble in water ; miscible in all proportions with absolute alcohol and ether, fat and volatile oils ; decom- posed by chlorine, forming an oil. It is used to preserve sodium and potassium, to prevent their oxidation. Naphtha is believed to be produced by the action of fteat and pressure in the earth on organic matter, pally of benzole. Coal naphtha consists princi- Naphthalase. C 20 H 7 0. Yellow substance by heating nitronaphthase with 10 moistened lime ; with sulphuric acid it produces a fine blue ; insoluble in water and alcohol. Naphthalic Acid. G 2HO F.P. 221. PhthalicAcid. C 16 H 4 Silky plates but slightly soluble in water ; unites with bases, and is con- verted by ammonia into pthalmide, C 16 H 6 N0 5 ; it is formed by acting on chloride of naphthaline with nitric acid and heat ; when heated with lime it becomes benzole and carbonic acid. Naphthalidine. C 20 H 9 N. Napthalidam =. C 20 H 7 ,4-NH 2 . F.P. 86; B.P. 582. A strong base in white needles, forming crystal- line salts. Obtained by acting on nitronaptha- lase with sulphohydric acid in presence or ab- sence of ammonia. When heated it remains fluid at 32, and absorbing oxygen becomes violet. Naphthalidine-Carbamide. C 28 H 8 NO. Light white body, in small needles, distilling at 572; insoluble in water, slightly soluble in boiling alcohol ; formed by heating dry oxalate of naphthalidine when it distils over. Naphthalimide. C 20 H 5 C N = C 20 H 4 O, NH = an imide. Colourless fibrous mass, sub- liming into crystalline plates ; nearly insoluble in cold water ; somewhat soluble in boiling water, crystallizing on cooling in needles ; soluble in sulphuric acid, leaving, on adding water, naph- thalic acid; potash disengages ammonia. Ob- tained by heating naphthalate of ammonia, when napthalimide sublimes. Naphthaline. Ci H 4 orC 90 H 8 . Spec. grav. 1-048, of vapour 4-528; F.P. 174; B.P. 410 to 413-6 and 428. Crystalline plates or scales with a peculiar odour; burns with a smoky flame ; reaction neutral ; insoluble in cold water ; slightly soluble in hot water ; soluble in 4 boil- ing alcohol ; very soluble in ether, fat and vola- tile oils ; separates from its solution in oil of tur- pentine in prisms with pyramidal terminations ; it distils over with water, and evaporates in the open air like camphor. It is obtained in distilling the last portion of coal tar and crystallizing out of alcohol, or by acting on the coal tar oils with chlorine, which destroys most of the oils, leaving solid naphthaline. When subchloride of naphtha- line is acted on by potash in alcohol, it is con- verted into chlonaphthase orchlornaphthaline, C 2 o 377 NAP H 7 C1, where 1 atom chlorine replaces 1 atom hydrogen. Chlonaphthese, or diclornaphthaline, or dicklornapkthine, C 20 H 6 Cl2, is formed by the further action of chlorine. In the second com- pound it is remarkable that it occurs in seven different isomeric forms, but that no two of the forms are alike in physical characters, proving that different atoms of hydrogen are replaced by chlorine in each. It was in acting on naphtha- line by various substitutional bodies that Laurent laid the basis of the theory of substitutions which has been so fertile in the development of organic chemistry. Other compounds with chlorine are trichloronaphthine, C 20 H 5 C1 3 ; tetrachloronaph- thine, C 2 oH 4 Cl 4 ; penta and octochloronaphthine, C 20 C1 8 . With bromine 1, 2 and 3, hydrogen are replaced by bromine, and sometimes a new body is formed by replacement of hydrogen by bromine and chlorine at the same time, as chlorebronaph- thise or dichlobronaphthine, C 20 H 6 Cl 2 Br; chlore- bronaphthese or dichlodibronaphthine, C 2 0H4C1 2 Br 2 : bromechlonaphthose or trichloro-dibronaph- thine, C 20 H 3 Cl3Br 2 . Sulphuric acid forms with naphthaline hyposulphonaphthalic, hyposulpho- naphthic, hyposulphoglutinic acids, sulphonaph- thaline and sulphonaphthalide. With nitric acid are formed nitronaphthase, nitronaphthese, naph- thionic acid, thionaphthamic acid, nitronaph- theise, nitronaphthise, nitronaphthale, nitronaph- thesic, nitronaphthaleisic, and nitronaphthisic acids ; oxide of chloroxenaphthose, chloronaph- thisic, oxide of chloroxenaphthalise, chloroxe- naphthalesic acid, phthalic or naphthalic acid, nitrophthalic acid, chlorophthalesic acid. In dis- tilling benzoate of lime naphthaline is obtained, and two isomeric solid compounds, one fusing at 198 and the other at 149. Naphthatneine. Purple powder similar to orceine; insoluble in water and alkalies; little soluble in alcohol ; very soluble in ether ; forms a blue solution with sulphuric acid. Obtained by precipitating muriate of naphthaline with chloride of iron. Naphthcinc. A kind of asphalt, found on limestones on the Maine and Loire. Naphthene. C 16 H 16 . B.P. 233. That por- tion of mineral naphtha which comes over second in distillation^ depending on its boiling point. Naphthidinc. Seminaphthalidam. C 10 H 5 N. Yellow needles by SH on nitronaphthalese. Naphthionic Acid. HOC 20 H 8 NS 2 O 5 ,HO. White bulky, silky powder or needles, soluble in 2000 cold water; scarcely soluble in alcohol; soluble in boiling water, separating in needles ; soluble in oil of vitriol ; forms crystalline salts with a reddish tinge ; obtained from the mother liquor of thionaphthamic acid as naphthionate of ammonia, which is decomposed by chlorohy- dric acid. Naphthole. C 24 H 22 ? B.P. 374? 600? The last oil in naphtha which comes over in distillation. Naphtylamijue. See XATIITHALIDINE. NAT Naphtyle. C 2 pH 8 . The hypothetic radical of naphthaline, which would be a hvdride. Naples Yellow. A pigment prepared by calcining together 1 Ib. antimony, 1^ Ib. lead, and 1 oz. alum and salt. Napoleoiiitc. A variety of felspar. Narceiiie. C 4fi H 29 N0 18 . F.P. 197 -6. Silky needles and 4-sided prisms, with a bitter taste, and without smell ; decomposes about 230 ; de- composed by strong acids. Obtained from the mother liquor of morphine, in separating that base from opium ; it is rendered blue by chloro- hydric acid, but not by chloride of iron ; unites with acids, and forms salts. Narcitine. A white body, soluble in water, alcohol, and acids, obtained from different species of Narcissus. Narcogeniiie. CsgHjgNOjo. A body known only in combination ; obtained by acting on nar- cotine by the bichloride of platinum, with which it unites, and forms orange needles ; 2 atoms narcotine give, with 5 oxygen, 2 atoms narco- genine, 1 opianic acid and 3 water; resolved, when separated, into narcotine 'and cotarnine. It is very probably a double salt of chloride of pla- tinum and narcotine with chloroplatinate of co- tarnine. Narcotic Acid. Isomeric with narcotine, or differing from it only by 1 or 2 atoms water ; it is known only in combination, and is formed by heating narcotine with hydrate of potash. Narcotine. C 40 H 2 oN0 12 , or C 46 H 25 N0 14 . F.P. 338. White pearly needles, or powder ; a weak base ; insoluble in water and alkalies ; sol- uble in alcohol, ether, and acids ; it has no bit- ter taste, and strikes no blue with chloride of iron ; nitric acid does not turn it red, by which it is distinguished from morphine ; obtained by digesting the aqueous extract of opium in ether, which takes up narcotine ; digesting in muriatic acid and animal charcoal, and precipitating by ammonia, or from the mother liquor of muriate of morphine by ammonia, or by digesting the in- soluble part of opium in acetic acid, and precipi- tating by ammonia; it is purified by crystalliza- tion from alcohol. It is the most abundant base in opium next to morphine ; it forms crystalline salts with bases. It is poisonous. When oxi- dized it affords opianic acid, opiammon, xan- thopenic acid, opiano - sulphurous acid, sulph- opianic acid, hemipic acid, cotarnine, humopic acid, apophyllic acid, opianyle, teropiammon. Natrocalcite. Colette. CaOC0 2 96-4, CaO S0 3 1-9, FeO and MnO 1-3. From Sanger- hausen. Natrolite. Crocalite, Edelite, Feather Zeolite, Hoganite, Soda Mesotype. Spec. grav. 2-139 to 2-2303, H 4-5. White, with a shade of brown, right rhombic prisms, of 91 10', terminated by a 4 -sided pyramid, or frequently by 8 faces; lustre vitreous, transparent to translucent, brittle ; electric by heat; B.B. gives a phosphorescent light, and fuses into a white enamel ; gelatinizes NAT in acids even after ignition. Si0 3 47-56, A1 2 O 3 26-42, FeO -58, NaO 14-932, CaO 1-4, HO 10-44, NaOSi0 3 , Al 2 O 3 Si0 3 2 HO. The minerals allied to it are Lelnmtite, Mesolite, Sco- lezite, Antrimolite, and Harringtonite. IN airoii. Nitrum of the ancients, Trona, Na- tive Sesquicarbonate of Soda, Urao. The natron of Tibet, which is a white crystalline powder, and no doubt produced as likewise in S. America, by the reaction of common salt on carbonate of lime, I have found to consist of insoluble mi- caceous matter 13-12, chlorine 1-26, carbonic acid 36-07, soda 30-57, water 18-98. Necronite. A variety of felspar, which ex- hales a disagreeable odour by friction. Necrosis. Ulceration of Bone. The radius has been found to consist in this disease of carti- lage 19-58, phosphate of lime 72-63, phosphate of magnesia 1-93, carbonate of lime, 4-03, NaCl 61. Needle Ore of Bismuth. See BISMUTH. Needle Spar. A synonyme of Arragonite. Needlestone. The old name of Thorn sonite and scolezite. Nenmlite. Brucite, Hydrate of Magnesia. MgOHO ; spec. grav. 2-35, H -1 to 2. White or green plates, or low 6 -sided prisms or needles, translucent on the edges, sectile. B.B. gives out water ; infusible except by oxy-hydrogen blow- pipe. MgO 67-98, HO 30-96, FeO 1-57. In serpentine, at Hoboken, New Jersey; Swina- ness, Unst. Neocatechu consists of tannin 32-2, gallic acid 35-, colouring matter 18-8, fibre, &c. 12-. Ncolite. Spec. grav. 2-77, H 1 to 2. Stel- liform green silky needles, from a mine at Nas- kel. SiO 3 47-35, A1 2 8 10-27, MgO 24-73, FeO 7-92, MnO 2-64, HO 6-28. Neoplase. A synonyme of red sulphate of iron, and also of arsenide of nickel. 'Nepheliiie. Beaudantite, Davyne, Covellinite, Carolenite, Fatstone, Pinguite, Rhomhoidal Fel- spar, Sommite. Spec. grav. 3-27, H 2-5. Grayish or greenish-white grains, or regular 6-sided prisms ; fracture conchoidal, lustre vitreous ; transparent to translucent ; brittle. B.B. the edges are rounded off, giving a colourless and vesicular glass ; becomes nebulous in nitric acid ix!, a cloud). Si0 3 44-11, A1 2 3 33-73, NaO 20-46, HO -62. Found in the cavities of granular limestone at Monte Somma, Vesuvius, and in the lava of Capo di Bove, near Rome. Nephrite. (yv$i<><, the kidney). Nephritic Jade, Beilstein, Ceraunite, Pierre de liache. Sp. grav. 2-9 to 3-1, H 6 to 7. Leek-green, greenish or whitish stone, worked into ornaments in China, New Zealand(?) and North America. Si0 3 50-5, MgO 31-, A1 2 O 3 10-, FeO 5-5, Cr 2 3 ? -05, HO 2-75. AUied to serpentine. The nephrite of lonahas a specific gravity of 2-595, H 3-5, SiO 3 44-85, MgO 36-05, FeO 3-6, A1 2 3 1-3, HO 13-55. Ncroli Oil. Orange Flower OIL Colourless, NIC becoming red in presence of air, obtained by dis- tilling orange flowers. It seems to consist of two oils, which have not been carefully examined, and a stearoptene which fuses at 122. Nerves. The nerves are analogous to the brain in function and in composition. As hi the brain the amount of water varies from 70 to near 80 per cent. The cerebric matter is about 4-4 per cent., the albumen 22-07, gelatinous matter 2-75, salts -4. But there is difficulty in sepa- rating the true nervous matter from the adjacent membranes. Neurolite. (ytvpov, a tendon). Sp. grav. 2-476, H 4-25. Greenish -yellow imperfectly foliated thin fibres, brittle; fracture uneven, opaque, or only translucent on the edges. B.B. yields water, becomes white, infusible ; with soda fuses into a transparent slightly yellow glass; with borax leaves a snow-white opaque matter in the centre of the colourless globule. Si0 3 73-, A1 2 O 3 17-35, CaO 3-25, MgO 1-5, Fe 2 3 -4, HO 4-3. Stam- stead, Lower Canada. Neutralization. The condition of an acid and a base by proper mixture, in which they exhibit neither acid nor alkaline properties. Neutral Salts. This term was originally applied to salts in which there is no acid nor al- kaline reaction to test paper, but the term proto or equisalts would be preferable, since several of the so-called neutral salts have an acid or alka- line reaction, as sulphate of zinc which is acid, and carbonate of soda which is alkaline. . Newkirkite. Spec. grav. 3-824, H 3-25. Brilliant black metallic-like needles in right rec- tangular prisms with square bases, occurring on red haematite at Newkirchen, hi Alsace. Mn0 2 56-3, Fe 2 3 40-35, HO 6-7. Niccne, Chloro-. C 10 H 5 C1. Sp. gr. 1-141, of vapour 7-52. B.P. 559. Amber liquid by distilling chloroniceic acid with lime. Nicene, Nitrochloro. C 10 H 4 C1N0 4 . Am- ber silky needles by the action of nitric acid on chlornicene. Nicine. A hypothetic alkaloid, to be derived from niceic acid. Nicine, Chloro-. C 10 H 6 C1N. An amorphous alkaloid isomorphous with nicotine, obtained by passing sulphohydric acid through nitronicene dissolved hi alcohol saturated with ammonia, and uniting the product with chlorohydric acid and crystallizing. Nickel. Ni 3-75, 30 ; 3-6875, 29-5. Sources. Nickel occurs in the form of sulphide of nickel, but it is generally associated with arsenic, as hi the different species of arsenical nickel, antirno- nide of nickel, sulphoarsenide of nickel, diarse- niate of nickel, and as carbonate of nickel on the surface of chrome iron ore (R.D.T.) Metallic Nickel. Spec. grav. 8-279, 7'807 (Brisson), when melted, but when hammered 8-666 (Richter). Tourte found the spec. grav. of Richter's nickel 8-402, and when hammered 8-932. Lampadius found this nickel to contain 379 NIC cobolt and arsenic 8-38 fused, 8-82 hammered (Tupputi), 8-51 (Phillips), 8-637 (Brunner), 9- (Vauquelin, Hauy), 8-477 (Baumgartner), 8-237 (Pelouze), 7-832 finely divided (Playfair and Joule). Colour. Pure white, resembling silver, inclining to steel-gray, and, like silver, it leaves a white trace when rubbed upon the polished sur- face of a hard stone (Fourcroy). It is rather softer than iron ; wears a file very rapidly. It is malleable both cold and hot, and may without difficulty be hammered out into plates not ex- ceeding -^ of an inch in thickness (Richter), and drawn out into wires -^ of an inch in diameter. It is magnetic, and capable of being converted into a magnet (Bergman, Klaproth, Tassaert, Hauy, Sage), and when delicately suspended points to the north ; its magnetic energy is to that of iron as 35 to 55 (Lampadius); accord- ing to Wollaston, as 2 or 3 to 8 or 9 ; ignition destroys its magnetic power (Tourte). It has not been crystallized ; it is not altered by expo- sure to the air, nor by being kept under water (Richter) ; at a red heat it oxidizes ; it does not decompose water at the usual temperature ; it decomposes water at a red heat, but more slowly than iron ; it decomposes water feebly, assisted by heat and sulphuric, chlorohydric, and phosphoric acids, hydrogen being evolved ; it is readily sol- uble in nitric acid, with extrication of binoxide of nitrogen, and in aqua regia ; it is oxidized by salt- petre and chlorate of potash ; it forms alloys with rnarty metals. The preparations of nickel appear to be irritant and poisonous (Tupputi, C. G.. Gmelin. Preparation. For the preparation of the pure metal, arsenical nickel may be employed, but an impure metallic substance, called Speiss in com- merce, is usually employed for this purpose. Speiss is a deposit which occurs in the formation of smalts, or silicate of cobalt. Cobalt and arsenical nickel are fused with carbonate of pot- ash and pounded quartz, so as to form a blue glass ; the speiss collects below this glass as an alloy the nickel not being so readily oxidized and united with silica as the cobalt. It contains about 50 per cent, of nickel, 30 of arsenic, and portions of sulphur, cobalt,, iron. Extraction of Nickel. Wohler's plan. Heat in a crucible, at a low red heat, 1 part of arsenide of cobalt, 3 carbonate of potash, and 3 sulphur. Treat the fused mass with water; sulphate of pot- ash, sulphide of potassium, and sulphoarsenide of potassium dissolve, while sulphide of nickel remains. Treat this with nitric acid or sulphuric acid and calcine ; or if copper is present, preci- pitate first with sulphohydric acid. The speiss which collects at the bottom of the smalts cru- cibles, consisting of an arsenic sulphide of nickel, may be readily purified in this way ; and also Kupfernickel, the arsenide of nickel. Thomson's plan. Digest pulverized speiss, an impure arse- nide of nickel, in dilute sulphuric acid, mixed with some nitric acid concentrate and crystal- NIC lize. Dissolve the crystals in water, and pass sulphohydric acid through the solution to separate copper. Crystallize again, and precipitate the oxide of nickel by an alkaline carbonate. When cobalt is present, it must be separated by the process given under COBALT. The metal is ob- tained from the oxide by mixing it with 3 per cent, of resin, and making it into a paste with oil, and then exposing it to a strong heat in a forge in a black lead crucible (Tupputi, Ann. de Chim. 78, 133). . Protoxide of NicM.NiO 4-75, 38; 4-6875 37-5. Spec. grav. 5-597 (Playfair and Joule) in powder; 6-605 in crystals (Genth). Colour. Blackish-gray (Tupputi), green or olive-green powder (Berthier), greenish-yellow (Erdmann), ash-gray (T. Thomson). It is not magnetic. By ignition converted into the black sesquioxide. Sulphohydric acid at a red heat converts it into sulphide. Ammonia dissolves it with difficulty, forming a peculiar violet-olue solution, and only in small quantities. It is very easily reduced by hydrogen, carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, and ar- senic. Before the blowpipe on charcoal with car- bonate of soda it is reduced ; with borax and a small quantity of oxide an olive-yellow glass is formed, and with, an excess, a red glass. Salt of phosphorus gives a similar glass. Preparation. The protoxide is formed by calcining the nitrate of nickel, latterly in a closed vessel, at a white heat (Berthier), or by dissolving nickel in nitric acid and precipitating by potash, or an alkaline carbonate, washing, and calcining. When pre- pared by the last process it is apt to contain ses- quioxide, which may be removed by passing hydrogen over it at a temperature of 212 (Erdmann). Sesquioxide. N 2 O 3 . Black powder by treat- ing the hydrous protoxide with a chlorite. Chloride. NiCl. Yellow crystalline scales like Mosaic gold, formed by passing chlorine at a red heat over nickel, or by heating oxide of nickel with salammoniac. Sulphide, Protosulphide, Sulphurel, HaarTcies, Capillary Pyrites, Hair Pyrites. NiS 5-75, 46-; 5-6875, 45-5. Sp. grav. 5-76 (Berthier), 5-278 (Miller), 5- (Breithaupt), 5-65 (Rammelsberg). Steel-gray 'or brass-yellow capillary regular 6- sided prisms, derived from an acute rhombohedron. First examined by Klaproth, who considered it pure nickel. Melts before the blowpipe, giving out sulphurous acid, leaving magnetic nickel (Berzelius) ; insoluble in chlorohydric and sul- phuric acids; soluble in nitric acid with heat; easily soluble in aqua regia ; loses little sulphur when heated in steam (Regnault), not decom- posed by cold chlorine, or hydrogen at a red heat (Rose). Occurs native in Cornwall and Ger- many. It may be formed artificially by heating the oxide of nickel to redness in a glass tube, and passing sulphohydric acid over it. It is then dark gray, and not magnetic (Arfwedson). By igniting the sulphate with carbon, or by heating 380 NIC nickel, the oxide or arsenide with an alkaline sulphide (Berthier). Ferrosulphide of Nickel 2FeS,NiS. Spec, grav. 4-6. Bronze masses or 8-hedral? not magnetic, usually mixed with magnetic and cop- per pyrites. Fe 41-95, Ni 22-1, S 35-95. Nor- way, Germany, and Inverary, Scotland. 'Arsenide, White Nickel Pyrites. NiAs 13-125, 105; 13-065, 104-53 (Hoffmann. Fogg. Ann. 25,491). Spec. grav. 6-735 (Rammelsberg). Colour tin-white, massive. Before the blowpipe it acts like copper nickel (Berzelius). It occurs in 6-hedrons with the angles and edges trun- cated at Riegelsdorf in Hesse, united with cobalt and iron, with the formula 6 NiAs, CoAs, Fe As, with a tin-white colour. Before the blow- pipe it yields arsenious acid, and fuses into a brittle button. With borax this button gives a blue glass, indicating cobalt; if after this the button be fused with biphosphate of soda, we have the reaction of nickel, viz. a clove-brown transparent glass in the outer, and a brown opaque glass in the inner flame (Booth, Silli- man's Journ. 29, 241, and Pogg. Ann. 32, 395), not magnetic. Diarsenide, Kupfernickel, Copper Nickel, JWcMme. Ni 2 As 16-875, 135; 16-75, 134; spec. grav. 7 -6 5 5, H 5-5. Usually in copper-red masses, but also in double 6 -sided pyramids and right prisms. Fracture conchoidal, uneven. Be- fore the blowpipe it emits arsenical fumes, and melts into a bead, which darkens by exposure to the air. When roasted in the air, a yellow-green remains, which gives, with carbonate of soda and borax on charcoal, a magnetic button of nickel. Soluble in nitric acid and in aqua regia. Ni 44-2, As 54-72, Fe -34, S -4, Pb -32. Occurs in Saxony, Cornwall, Lanarkshire? Triarsenide, artificial Cobalt Speiss. Ni 3 As or Ni = 52-7, As = 44-05, MnFe,CuS = 3-25. Occurs in pinchbeck, yellow 8-hedrons, with a square base, the summit of the pyramid generally being truncated so deeply as to give the crystals the appearance of a table with bevelled edges, like yellow prussiate of potash. Brittle, not mag- netic. Occurs in smelting houses, formed by the long-continued fusion of copper nickel. Diantimonide, Antirnonial Nickel. Ni 2 Sb 23-5, 188-. Spec. grav. 7-541. Ni 27, Sb 59-7, Fe 84, PbS 12-36. Copper-red short 6-sided prisms, sometimes terminated with 6-sided pyramids or 6 -sided plates, yielding a reddish- brown powder, and an antimonial sublimate before the blowpipe on charcoal ; soluble in aqua regia, less easily in nitric acid ; not magnetic. Nickel Antimony Sulphide. Spec. grav. 6-097, H 5-5. White cubes, or 8-hedrons, with the metallic lustre. S 15-76, Sb 55-11, Ni 27-7. Bisulphoarsenide. Nickel Glance. Ni 2 AsS 2 or NiS 2 + NiAs 20-75, 166; Ni = 30-8, S = 19-29, As = 48-06, Fe 2-99, Si0 3 1-. Spec, grav. 6-097 to 6-9. Tin-white massive, yielding a grayish-black powder. When heated, sulphide NIC of arsenic sublimes, while a mass like copper nickel remains ; it is found at Loos in Helsine- land, &c. Characters of Salts of Nickel The soluble salts of protoxide of nickel have an emerald-green colour, while that of the insoluble salts is usually light green, and in some cases leek-green. 1. Ammonia precipitates au apple-green hydrate of protoxide and redissolves it in excess, forming a violet-blue solution. 2. Caustic potash and soda precipitate nickel salts green, becoming dark by boiling. 3. Sulphuretted hydrogen yields no precipitate with acid salts of nickel, but completely precipitates the acetate, or other salts of nickel, when an alkaline acetate is present. 4. Sulphohydride of ammonia gives a black precipi- tate, slightly soluble in excess. 5. Carbonate of ammonia gives a green precipitate, soluble in excess ; carbonate of soda, a similar precipitate, insoluble in excess. 6. Yellow prussiate of pot- ash, a greenish- white. 7. Red prussiate, greenish- yellow. 8. With borax, salts of nickel give a red glass in the oxidizing flame a gray glass in the reducing flame. Sulphate of NicM.NiO S0 3 7HO ; NiO= 26-30, S0 3 28-16, HO 45-54 (Phillips); 17-625, 141 ; 17-5625, 140-5. Spec. grav. 2-037 (Kopp). Crystallizes in two forms 1st, Green rectangular prisms with square bases, from acid solutions ; and 2d, as right rhombic prisms resembling the crystals of sulphate of zinc ; the inclination of the lateral faces being to each other as 91 10' ; sepa- rates from neutral solutions. In the air, the rhom- bic crystals lose 1 atom water, and become white ; not so the square prisms, which contain 30 per cent, of acid, or 2 per cent, more than the rhom- bic crystals. When heated, the crystals swell up, but do not melt, and assume a yellow colour when the water is expelled. At 218 they lose 6 atoms of water, retaining the seventh till the temperature reaches 535, when the salt be- comes anhydrous; by ignition the acid is re- moved. Soluble in 3 cold water; insoluble hi alcohol and ether ; precipitated by the strongest acetic acid from its solution in water (Persoz). When the rhombic crystals are exposed in a close glass vessel to sunshine, or when placed on paper and exposed to the sun, they change their crys- talline form and become 8-hedrons. Obtained by dissolving oxide of nickel in oil of vitriol and crystallizing. Carbonate, Native. Thin green crystalline layers in prisms on the surface of chrome iron ore from Texas, Pennsylvania, and New Jersey (R.D.T. 1847), generally contaminated with magnesia and lime. Silliman, jun., has stated its formula to be NiOC0 2 2(NiO 3HO), and its spec. grav. 2-57 to 2-693. Nickel-Bismuth, Sulphide of.Ni 40-65, Bi 14-11, S 38-46, Fe 3-18, Co -28, Cu 1-68, Pb 1-58. Gray 8-hedrons and cubes (Griinau). For estimation of nickel see COBALT. Nicotiauine. The nitrogenous essential 381 NIC principle supplying nicotine, by distillation with potash, has been so named. C 71-52, H 8-23, N 7-12, O 13-13. Nicotine. C 20 H 14 N 2 or Ci H 7 N. Spec. grav. 1-027, of vapour 5-618; B.P. 585. Col- ourless, limpid oil; powerful base and poison; alkaline reaction ; mixes with water ; soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils; forms with acids diffi- cultly crystallizing salts; 100 nicotine dissolve 10-58 sulphur at 212 ; chlorine makes it blood- red, with evolution of chlorohydric acid, and de- positing needles at 46^ ; nicotine rapidly absorbs water from air. Different tobaccos contain dif- ferent quantities of nicotine: Virginia, 6-87 per cent.; Kentucky, 6-09; Maryland, 2-29; Ha- vannah, under 2-; Lot (France), 7-96; Alsace, 3-21. It is best prepared by concentrating the aqueous decoction of tobacco to the consistence of syrup, and mixing while hot with 2 vols. alcohol ; a thin layer collecting on the top is separated by decantation ; the alcoholic fluid is distilled, and the residue treated again with alcohol. This extract contains the nicotine ; it is separated from the spirit, agitated while hot with potash, and after cooling with ether, which takes up the nicotine, with some yellow-colouring matter ; the nicotine is precipitated from the ether solution by powdered oxalic acid as oxalate in a syrup, and washed with ether, agitated first with potash, then with ether, and lastly the ether is distilled off in the water bath, and the residue exposed to a current of dry hydrogen at 284 for several days, and then distilled at 356 ; at the boiling point it decomposes ; dry snuff affords 2 per cent, nicotine. A method of determining the amount of nicotine in tobacco is simple (Schloesing) ; 10 grammes (154-38 grs.), the moisture of.which is previously ascertained, are exhausted with am- moniacal ether in a displacement apparatus (see DISPLACEMENT), having a tubulated balloon of the capacity of one-sixth litre ; the ethereal ex- tract is boiled to remove ammonia, and the re- maining ether evaporated in the air ; the residue is neutralized with sulphuric acid of known strength. If a be the sulphuric acid used and b the nicotine (C 40 H 14 N 2 ), we have the proportion 5 : 20-25 : a : : b. Nigrine. A black variety of titanic acid, or rutilc. Nihil Album. An old term for flowers, or oxide of zinc. Niiiaphthase. C 20 H 7 N O 4 . Ninaphthese. C 20 H 6 N 2 O 8 . Niuaphthiiic. C 4 oH n N 5 09 . Ninaphthise. C 20 H 5 N 3 Oi 2 . IViobic Arid. NiO 3 ? Spec, grav., amor- phn*, 5-2545 to 5-262; crystalline 4-664 to 4*7633. Yellow powder when hot, colourless or white when cold; after heating it is highly shining, while columbic acid is a dull powder; converted by ammonia gas into a black powder, by sulphohydric acid into a black sulphide; little soluble in chlorohydric acid ; slightly soluble in NIT oxalic and fluohydric acids ; soluble in fused bisul- phate of potash or ammonia ; expels carbonic acid from carbonate of soda when fused with it ; alka- line niobates are soluble ; precipitated by acids at usual temperatures, while columbates require heat ; a blue colour is formed in niobate of soda with HC1 and zinc. Fused with alkaline carbonates forms acid salts ; soluble in water and in potash or carbonate of potash ; obtained from the chlor- ide, which is formed by heating the Bavarian columbite (tantalite), mixed with charcoal in a current of chlorine ; two chlorides are thus formed, yellow chloride of pelopium, which is very fusible and volatile, and white chloride of niobium, which is infusible and less volatile ; and these chlorides, when placed in water, yield pelopic and niobic acids ; the acid obtained from the infusible white chloride is again mixed with charcoal and heated in chlorine, and the process repeated. B.B. with borax niobic acid yields a colourless bead, be- coming opaque on flaming ; grayish-blue in the inner flame ; with salt of phosphorus a colour- less bead in oxidizing flame, a violet and blue in inner flame. Niobite. A synonyine of Torrelite, or Niobic- columbite. Niobium. Black powder converted into niobic acid when heated in air ; attacked by a mixture of fluohydric and nitric acids, not by aqua regia ; obtained by passing dry ammonia over chloride of niobium. Nitracrole. Colourless oil, decomposing at 212 ; by the action of nitric acid on choloidanic acid and oenanthole. Nitramidine. Xyloidine. C 12 H 9 O 9 NO 5 , or C 12 H 9 N0 4 ,Oio. A substance produced by the action of nitric acid on paper. Gun cotton is ternitramidine, C 12 ,H 7 3NO 4 O 10 , or C i2 H 7 07 3N0 5 . Nitraniliiic. C 12 H 6 NO 4 N. F.P. 230; B.P. 545. Yellow needles heavier than water, sub- liming at 212 in plates; reaction neutral ; colours pine wood and the skin yellow ; smell when heated like aniline ; a weak alkaloid, converted by bromine into nitrodibrom aniline ; by nitric acid by boil- ing into picric acid ; by chlorocyanogen into dini- tromelaniline ; little soluble in cold, more soluble in boiling water ; quite soluble in alcohol and ether, with a red colour ; obtained by dissolving dinitrobenzide in alcohol, saturating with am- monia gas and then with sulphohydric acid; chlorohydric acid is added and the liquor concen- trated and filtered ; potash precipitates the base which is crystallized out of alcohol and ether ; the dinitrobenzide is prepared by adding benzine drop by drop to equal volumes of nitric and sulphuric acids, and crystallizing from alcohol. Nitraniline-Urca. C 14 N 3 H 7 6 . Yellow needles by acting on an ether solution of nitra- niline with chloride of cyanogen. Nitranisic Acid. C 16 H 7 N0 4 6 . Crys- talline ; soluble in hot water and in alcohol ; by the continued action of nitric acid of 1*33 on 382 NIT anise camphor. Another acid, binitranisic acid C 16 H 6 2N0 4 6 , exists. Nitranisidc. C 20 H 10 N 2 Oi . By the action of nitric acid on anise camphor. Nitranisidine. C 14 H 8 N0 4 NO S Red needles, insoluble in cold, soluble in hot water and ether ; forms crystalline salts ; by the action of sulphide of ammonium on dinitranisole. Nitranisole. C 14 H G ,2N0 4 .O 2 . Yellow liquid by nitric acid on anisole ; by fuming acid a di- and tri-ole are formed. Nitranthracenese,or nitrate of anthracenase, &c. See ANTHRACENE. Nitrates. Combinations of nitric acid with oxygen bases. They are formed on the type ol semelhydrate of nitric acid (HON0 5 ), having the formula BON0 5 , and without water of crys- tallization. With magnesia and copper the salts are formed on the type of the quaterhydrate (4HONO 5 ), prismatic nitrate of copper being CuO NO,; 3 HO. The nitrates are all soluble in water, and can be decomposed by heat ; some of them yielding oxygen and nitrates ; others oxy- gen and hyponitric acid, or protohydrate of nitric acid. When heated with charcoal the nitrates deflagrate. When mixed with metals and sul- phuric acid, they yield binoxide of nitrogen, which changes in contact with the oxygen of the air into orange fumes of quaternitrous acid (NO 4 ). With muriatic they fonn aqua regia, which dis- solves gold leaf. When nitrates are mixed with sulphate of indigo and sulphuric acid, the blue colour is removed. In the neutral nitrates the oxygen of the acid is 5 times that of the base, but there are numerous basic salts in which the oxygen of the base is 2, 3, and 6 times greater than in the neutral nitrates. There is no acid nitrate. To distinguish the presence of a minute quantity of a nitrate, the protosulphate of iron is dissolved in water containing sulphuric acid. This is added to the nitrate, and a plate of iron intro- duced into the mixture. If a nitrate is present, the liquid is coloured pink or brown (Pelouze). Nitrazobenzide. C 24 N 3 H 9 O 4 . Yellow needles by nitric acid on azobenzide ; in the same action a dimtrazobenzide occurs. Nitrazoxybcnzide. C 24 N 3 H 9 6 . Yellow needles along with the preceding. Nitre. For potash and soda nitres, see POTASH and SODA SALTS. Nitrcthioiiessilc. C 25 H 7 N 2 8 S. Nitric Acid. Dissolutive water of Geber, Acid /Spirit of Nitre, Aquafortis, Azotic acid. Source. Nitric acid occurs extensively in nature, but always in union with bases in the form of nitric acid salts. Priestley and Cavendish showed that the oxygen and nitrogen of the atmosphere may be converted into nitric acid by connecting a eudiometer on one side with the prime conductor of a machine and the other by a chain with the earth, and placing in the tube litmus solution or potash. On turning the machine nitric acid is formed. Nitrates 383 NIT were detected in well water in 1754 by Margraf. Preparation. Nitric acid is usually prepared from nitrates of potash and soda. 1 . Protohydrate of Nitric acid. HO N0 5 7-875, 63- = 86- acid, 14- water; spec. grav. 1-522; boilingpoint 186-75. In preparing this strongest form of the acid if we use only one atom of sulphuric acid the mixture in the retort will yield, after heating, bisulphate of potash, protohydrate of nitric acid, and the half of the nitre not decomposed. When it is distilled the half of the nitric acid passes over in the form of the protohydrate at a temperature of 269-5, after which bisulphate of potash and nitre react upon each other. The residue in the retort becomes solid and cannot be distilled as nitric acid, because no water is present and nitric acid cannot exist without water at common tem- peratures. If we were to continue the heat to the solid mass binoxide of nitrogen and oxygen in union with it as hyponitric acid (N0 4 ) would alone pass over. The proper proportions and nature of the reaction are exhibited hi the follow- ing scheme : 2 Sulphuric acid. 5 1-125 5 1-125 S0 3 HO S0 3 HO Nitrate of potash. 5-90 6-75 KO N0 5 KO S0 3 HO S0 3 17-025 Bisulphate of HO N0 5 7*875 Protohydrate of nitric aid. The prdper amounts of the ingredients are 12| parts of oil of vitriol and 12-65 of nitrate of aotash, and the product amounts to 7-| of nitric acid (or 100 parts nitre and 98-6 acid). Convenient quantities in a laboratory will be found to be l b. oil of vitriol, H lb. pure saltpetre. Suersen and Bucholz (1819~Taschenb. 201) first pointed iut the importance of using 2 atoms of sulphuric acid. When nitrate of soda is employed the >roportion of the ingredients is 12| oil of vitriol and 10-622 (3-872 NaO'6-75 N0 5 ) nitrate of soda. When 2 atoms of nitrate of potash are dis- illed with 2 atoms of sulphuric acid only 1 is decomposed (2 KON0 5 2 HOSO 3 = KOSOg, HOSO 3 + HONO.5 + KON0 5 ). A high emperature is required to decompose nitrate of >otash by means of bisulphate of potash ; so high, ndeed, that the resulting nitric acid is decom- posed into hyponitric acid and oxygen (KONOg, HOSO 3 KOSO 3 = 2 KOS0 3 , NO 3 , 0, HO). The retort in laboratory experiments should be f glass, and the receiver a Wolfe's bottle with a afety tube, or a common receiver surrounded with a cloth upon which cold water is allowed o drop continuously from a vessel supplied with stop-cock. The distillation should be performed NIT by means of a sand heat, and the temperature need not exceed 260 or 300. Cliaracters. When nitre completely destitute of -water is employed in this operation the nitric acid produced contains only 14 per cent, of water, and possesses a spec. grav. of 1-522. Fuming nitric acid (HONO 5 ) may also be prepared by distilling the nitric acid of commerce (spec. gray. 1-33) with about 3 times its volume of oil of vitirol (HOS0 3 ). Only half of the acid employed is distilled over. It is distilled a second time with its own volume of sulphuric acid, and a third time with some nitrate of barytes to retain sulphuric acid which may have passed over. If 6 parts of oil of vitriol be used in the first operation the nitric acid decom- poses into nitrous acid and oxygen. Convenient quantities are 8 oz. nitric acid of commerce and 24 oz. oil of vitriol. It is then to be redistilled with its own volume of oil of vitriol ; it becomes solid at 40 ; it is a colourless liquid, but when exposed to the light it becomes yellow, giving out oxygen, while the nitrous acid unites with another part of the nitric acid. When the colour is yellow from the presence of nitrous acid, the acid may be rendered colourless by gentle heat, but the density is reduced to 1 '521, or the nitrous acid may be removed by distilling the coloured acid with nitrite of lead in fine powder. The portions containing nitrous acid pass over first, when the receiver is charged and the pure nitric acid collected in a second receiver. The last portions may also contain nitrous acid. It fumes when exposed to the air, has a peculiar smell, an intensely acid taste, and reddens vegetable blues. When placed on the skin it deprives it of all organization, and leaves a yellow stain, which only disappears when the cuticle desquamates. From this property it has been employed to afford a yellow border to the blue or green woollen cloths used in this country as table covers. There is no doubt that in this action there is a chemical union between the gelatinous part of the tissue and a portion of the nitric acid. It is on the same principle that nitric acid acts when it is used in surgery to destroy morbid growths and to clean the surface of phagedenic ulcers. 2. Quaterhy- drate of Nitric Acid. 4HON0 5 ll-25, 90'. Spec, grav. 1-422 ; boiling point 253| ; nitric acid NIT 60, water 40. If we add to the fuming nitric acid (HONOs) or protohydrate a small quantity of water and distil, introducing a thermometer into the retort, the fluid which comes over at first contains more acid than the liquid in the retort. The thermometer goes on ascending. till it reaches 2 5 3 -4, when it remains stationary, and the acid in the retort contains 40 per cent, of water. We may obtain the same quaterhydrate in the following manner: If we add 20 per cent, of water to the protohydrate and distil, the ther- mometer will at first stand at 212, but gradually it will rise to 2 53 -4, and remain stationary, showing that the acid is a permanent compound. The first portions distilled are nearly pure water, but it gradually becomes stronger, and when the boiling point in the retort is 253-4, the acid which passes over is of the same strength. Other Hydrates. Another hydrate containing 2 atoms of water (2HON0 5 ) obtained to the extent of 2 ounces by distilling 2 Ibs. of very concentrated acid, has been described, with spec. grav. of 1-484 and 25 per cent, of water, but its existence is doubtful. A third hydrate procured by distilling the last third of the nitric acid of commerce, has been stated to contain 4^ atoms of water or 42-77 per cent, of water with a spec. grav. of 1-405. Pharmaceutical Add. The London pharma- copoeia (1836) recommended 2 Ibs. nitre and 2 Ibs. oil of vitriol to be distilled together. The acid pass- ing over has a density of 1-503 to 1-504. The dilute acid of London consists of 1 ounce strong acid and 9 ounces water, spec grav. 1-080. 100 grains saturate 31 grains of crystals of carbonate of soda; each fluid drachm contains nearly 9 grams of concentrated acid and saturates 19^- grains of crystals of carbonate of soda (Phillips). Commercial Acid. On the larger scale nitric acid is prepared in iron cylinders identical with those described as being used in the preparation of chlorohydric acid. The charge for a cylinder of the dimensions described is 190 Ibs. potash nitre, tipon which are run on by a funnel 1 84 Ibs. of sulphuric acid (HOS0 3 ). The mouth-piece is luted on in the usual manner. The heat is so applied as to render the inferior portions of the cylinder red hot, and when red vapours appear the fire is to be urged. These shortly disappear and the process terminates. Soda nitre has long replaced potash nitre in this country. My friend Mr. William Blythe recommends the proportions 600 Ibs. nitrate of soda and 500 Ibs. oil of vitriol (spec. grav. 1-750). Anhydrous Nitric Acid. (N0 5 ). 6-sided right prisms with a rhombic base, fuses at 85, and boils at 113; obtained by passing dry chlorine over fused nitrate of silver in close vessels. Tests. 1. When chlorohydric acid is mixed with nitric acid, gold leaf is readily dissolved in the cold state. Neither of the acids singly has any effect on gold. The mixture of 1 nitric acid and 3 to 4 chlorohydric acid constitutes Aqua reyia 384 NIT or Xitro Muriatic Acid. With reference to the action by which it dissolves metals, Davy con- sidered the efficient cause was chlorine, which is liberated as can be detected by the odour. Ac- cording to Millon aqua regia if not concentrated or heated does not attack arsenic and antimony, even a current of chlorine has no action ; nitrous acid must be present. Chlorohydric acid by acting on nitric acid produces nitrous acid. Plat- inum is not dissolved. According to E. Daw, chloronitrous acid (N0 2 C1 2 ) is formed and dis- solves the gold. According to Gay Lussac, gold is dissolved by the free chlorine liberated in the action of nitric on chlorohvdric acid (N0>0 3 and 3 HC1 become N0 2 3 HO and 3 Cl). Two gases occur in this action, NO 2 C1 2 and N0 3 C1. 2. When a dilute solution of indigo in sulphuric acid is boiled with free nitric acid, the blue colour disappears. But as similar results occur with chloric, bromic, and iodic acids, it is neces- sary to secure the absence of these substances before drawing any conclusion. 3. An amalgam of 1 atom of zinc and 5 of mercury digested with protochloride of iron produces on the addition of a nitric acid salt a black spot (Runge). 4. If the liquid supposed to contain the nitric acid be mixed with a few drops of protosulphate of iron solution and then an equal volume of pure sulphuric acid be poured in cautiously so as to form a heavy layer at the bottom of the test-glass, when nitric acid is pre- sent, even in very minute quantity, a pink or black- ish ring will be formed at the point of junction of the sulphuric acid Avith the aqueous solution. 5. Oil of vitriol with a few drops of a nitrate solution when mixed with a minute quantity of powder of brucine becomes blood-red. Narcotine likewise yields first a yellow and then a red colour. 6. When the nitrate is in a solid state it is to be introduced into a test-tube and heated with sul- phuric acid, fumes of nitric acid are soon per- ceptible to the smell. 7. If a nitrate be mixed with twice its weight of caustic potash or soda and a small quantity of charcoal, and be heated to redness in a test-tube, carbonate of the alkali is formed, and ammonia is disengaged, which can be detected by the smell and by its changing moistened turmeric paper to a brown colour. 8. When nitric acid is heated with copper turnings binoxide of nitrogen is evolved. Table of the Strength of Nitric Acid. 3p. Grav. 1-522 1-498 1-478 1-434 1-422 1-376 1-353 1-300 1-283 1-252 1-234 Acid p- C. 86-0 84-2 72-9 G2-9 60-0 51-9 48-7 40-6 38-5 34-2 31-8 Sp. Grav. Acid p. c. 1-215 1-152 1-122 1-105 1-0708 1-0485 1-0375 1-0212 1-0159 1-0053 29-5 21-5 17-5 15-14 10-36 7-17 5-58 3-18 2-39 0-79 NIT Analysis. The amount of free nitric acid in a solution may be determined by weighing out 100 grains of the acid fluid, introducing it into a large stoppered flask of hard glass. 1000 grains of dry oxide of lead are then placed in the flask, and the lead dissolved in the nitric acid. The whole is evaporated carefully to dryness. The last traces of water may be vaporized and sucked out by means of a dry tube. The nitric acid unites with a portion of oxide of lead. Hence the in- crease in the weight of the original lead oxide gives the amount of nitric acid in the 100 parts of fluid. Nitricinnolic Acid. C 14 N 5 N0 8 . By boiling NOs on cinnamic acid. Nitric Oxide. Binoxide or deutoxide of nitro- gen or azote. Nitrification. The process in nature of the formation of nitric acid. At the present time it is supposed that ammonia is in the first instance evolved from animal matter which seems requisite for the production of nitre, and by the oxidation of ammonia nitric acid results. The formation of nitric acid from ammonia is abundantly illus- trated by the amount of this acid present in city wells, which appears to be derived from the oxidized ammonia of urea filtering with the urine into the welts through the porous earths and rocks. Nitriles. This term is applied to those nitro- gen compounds which may be represented as ammoniacal salts, deprived of all then- hydrogen and oxygen, which can be removed in the propor- tion to form water, and is the next step after an amide. An ammonia salt, as oxalate*of am- monia, becomes when heated, by the removal of HO, oxamide (NH 2 H,C 2 2 0=HO, NH 2 ,C 2 2 ), by further heat oxamide loses 2 HO and becomes cyanogen (NH 2 C 2 O 2 = 2 HO, NC 2 ). Cyano- gen is the nitrile radical of oxalate of ammonia. The more compound nitriles have been viewed as cyanogen compounds in which the cyanogen as chlorine in chloride of ethyle cannot be detected by usual reagents, and thus acetomtrile, C 4 H 3 N = acetate of ammonia 4 HO will be C 2 H 3 , C 2 N, or cyanide of m ethyle. In confirmation of this view it has been noticed that the boiling points of valeronitrile (C 10 H 9 N 257 = C 8 H 9 , C 2 N, cyanide of butyryle), and cyanide of amyle, (C 12 H n N 2 94 -8) differ by 37-8, which cor- responds with a difference of C 2 H 2 in com- position. Some of the other nitriles are chloro- acetonitrile, benzonitrile, butyronitrile, cumo- nitrile, &c. The term nitrile bases is applied to such organic alkaloids artificially prepared as are formed on the type of ammonia, when all the hydrogen has been replaced by other bases, and nothing remains of the original am- monia except the nitrogen. Thus NH 3 , typi- fied in ammonia-trimethyle-amine, is NMe 3 . Nitrilophile. C 46 H 14 N 5 () ]2 4 HO. Nitrindinc. C 16 H 4 N 2 () 7 = C 1<; H 4 NO 4 O, N0 2 . Violet powder by nitric acid on incline and hydrindine. 2C NIT Nitripicryle- C 42 H 11 N 4 16 . Nitrite!*. The nitrites of potash and soda may be obtained by heating the 'nitrates of potash and soda till their solution precipitates nitrate of silver, brownish. The difficultly soluble salt of nitrite of silver is then dissolved in water and fil- tered ; it crystallizes out on cooling. By mixing the nitrite of silver with the metallic chlorides the n'trites of these bases may be obtained. Nitrite of potash may be formed in a hard glass retort _by heating the nitrate of potash above 600, stopping the action when nitrogen begins to be given off; the nitrite may be dissolved out from the nitrate by alcohol. Nitrite of potash is deliquescent ; nitrites of barytes and strontian may be obtained in crystals by 'forming first the nitrite of soda by heat' from the nitrate, decomposing it by nitrate of silver and treating the crystallized nitrite of silver by the chlorides of barium and stron- tium. Nitroangelic Acid. Nitrovalerianic ? C 10 H 7 N0 8 , or 10 H 9 NO 8 . Rhombic plates, sub- liming at 212, soluble in water; by the action of nitric acid on valerianic acid Nitrobenzamide. Ci 4 H 6 N0 4 , N0 2 . Yel- low needles by long fusion of nitrobenzoate of ammonia. Nitrobenzanisididc, or inc. C 2 8H 12 N0 4 , N0 4 . Yellow insoluble needles by chloride of benzoyle on nitranisidine ; it is analogous to ben- zamide or benzanilide. Nitrobenzide. Nitrobenzole. C 12 H 5 N0 4 . See BENZOLE. Nitrobcnzocnase. Protonitrated Benzoene, or Toluidine. See NITROTOLUIDE. Nitrobenzoenese. Dinitrotoluole. C 14 H 6 N 2 8 . Nitrobcnzoic Acid. See BENZONITRIC ACID. Nitrobenzoic acid, benzoated anhydrous. By chloride of benzoyle on nitrobenzoate of soda. Nitrobeiizoile. Nitrobenzoyle. C 14 H 5 N. White crystals ; the residue insoluble in alco- hol in the preparation of azobenzoyle. Nitrobenzole. See BENZOLE. Nitrobenzoyle Hydride. C 14 H r ,,NO 4 ,O 2 . White needles by nitric acid on oil of bitter almonds. Nitrobichloroplicnic Acid. Nitrobicliloro- carholicAcid. C 12 H 2 C1 2 N05HO. Yellow oblique rhombic prisms, slightly soluble in water ; more soluble in boiling alcohol and ether; by acting on coal naphtha, which boils between 356 and 392, with chlorine, and then with nitric acid. Nitrobromophcnisic Acid. Binitrobromo- ctrbolic Acid. C 12 H 2 Br,N 2 O 9 . By the action of bromine on nitrophenisic or nitropicric acid. Nitrobutyric Acid. See BuTYBONITBIC ACID. Nitrocaprylonic Acid. Nitroenanthylic Add? Yellow oil by nitric acid of 1-4 on capry- lone. Nitrocarbolic Acid. Nitroplienok. C 12 II,-N0 4 ,O 2 . Fine crystals by nitric acid on NIT carbolic acid. See NITROPIIENESIC A OID. Ter- nitrocarbolic Acid, or Nitrophenisic Acid. See PICRIC ACID. Nitrocholic Acid. C 2 HN 4 9 . An oily acid by the action of nitric acid on choloidic acid. Nitrocinnamic. C 18 ,H 6 NO 4 ,O 3 HO. cold nitric acid on cinnamic acid ; its salts de ;onate. Nitrocinnaiiasidide. C 32 H 14 NO 4 , NO 4 Yellowish needles by nitric acid on chloride cinnamyle. Nitrococcussic. C 1C II 3 N 3 O 1G 2HO. Yd low rhombic prisms by nitric acid of 1-4 on car minic acid ; it is bibasic. Nitrocodeine. C 36 H 30 NO 4 NO 6 . Crys talline powder by heating codeine, under 212 with nitric acid of 1-060. Nitrocoiimarine. C 18 ,H 5 NO 4 ,0 4 . F.P 338. Fine needles, little soluble in water, alco hoi, and ether, by cold nitric acid on couma rine. Nitrocumidinamide. C j 4 H 5 6 2 ,C 18 H ] T ] 4 . By chloride of benzoyle on bromide nitrocumidine. Nitrocumidiiie. C 18 II 12 N0 4 ,N. F.P below 212. Radiated yellow scales after fusion insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether from binitrocumole. Nitrocuminic Acid. C 20 ,HnNO 4 ,O Yellowish needles, insoluble in water, soluble i alcohol and ether, by fuming nitric acid on cu minic acid. Nitrocuinole. C 18 H n N0 4 . By nitric aci on cumole. Nitrodibrom -aniline. C 12 H 4 Br 2 N() 4 ,]S By the action of bromine on nitraniline. Nitro-erythro-mannite. C 10 H 9 5N0 4 ,Oii. F.P. 142. Plates by cold fuming nitric acid on erythro-manhite ; burns when heated, and de- tonates when struck, corresponding therefore with nitro-mannite. Nitro-euxanthic Acid. See NITROPURREIC ACID. Nitrogen. N 1-75, 14. Mephitic air (Dr. Rutherford, 1772), Azote (Lavoisier, 1787), Al- kaligene, Nitrigene (Lavoisier, 1789), Nitrogen (Chaptal, 1790V> Physical Characters. A colourless gas, with- out taste and smell. Spec. grav. -9722 (Thcm- son), -972 (Dumas), -9713 (Regnault). Theore- tically 1-75 X -5528 == -9674; 100 cubic inches weigh 30-076 grs. (Thomson), 30-056 grs. (Reg- nault) ; 854 times lighter than water. Refractory power 1-02, that of air being 1 ; 100 cubic inches of water previously boiled absorb 1-47 cubic inch or 2 i of nitrogen. It has not been condensed by a pressure of 50 atmospheres. It is not combustible or respirable. Preparation. As common air consists of oxy- gen and nitrogen, if we cause a combustible body to burn in a limited portion of air over water, the oxygen will be removed, and the nitrogen 386 NIT will remain. 1. A bit of phosphorus may be placed in small cup of copper sup- ported on a stand, in a water trough ; when touched with a hot wire it will ignite. A jar of common air is then inverted over it, the mouth of which just dips under Avater. The oxygen unites with the phosphorus, and white fumes of phosphoric acid are produced which gradually dissolve in the Avater; the water of the trough rises in the jar, and occupies about one-fifth of the bulk of the jar. The residual gas amounting to is ni- trogen gas. 2. A cork is floated in water; a piece of copper foil is placed on its upper surface to receive a piece of ignited phos- phorus, and rapidly covered by a jar or receiA*er as in the previous experiment. 3. The oxygen may be removed by slow t'ombustion by inserting a piece of dry phos- phorus at the end of a platinum wire in com- mon air over mercury in a graduated tube in a warm room, the oxygen disappearing, and the mercury rising in the tube. 4. Chlorine gas may be passed through caustic ammonia (N H 3 ). The chlorine is evolved from a flask containing black oxide of manganese and chlo- rohydric acid, and passes into a second flask by means of a bent tube partially filled with dilute caustic ammonia. The chlorine unites with the hy- drogen of the ammonia form- ing chlorohydric acid, and the nitrogen is liberated. 4NH 3 -f C1 8 = N -f 3(NH 3 HC1). When the ammonia is strong slight explosions occur, Avhich are avoided by dilution. Protoxide of Nitrogen or Azote (Thomson), Dephloyisticated Nitrous Gas (Priestley, 1776), Nitrous Oxide (Davy, 1800), Oxidized Azote, Laughing Gas. Vols. Spec. Grav. Ms. Wts. P. C. Nitrogen D 1 -9713 1 1-75 14- 63-63 Oxygen D -5528 11- 8 36-37 1-5241 2-75 22- 100- Theoretical spec. grav. -5528 X 2-75 = 1-5202; refractory power 1-710; Ann. Chim. 31*166. Experimental spec. grav. 1-5269 (Thomson). Characters. A colourless and invisible gas, possessing the mechanical properties of common air. It has a peculiar and agreeable smell, and NIT a sweetish taste. 1. It is not a combustible gas, but is eminently a supporter of combustion. A glowing taper without flame, or piece of red char- coal, bursts' into flame when introduced into the gas. 2. Phosphorus, when touched with a hot wire, or previously ignited, burns with great bril- liancy in this gas. 3. Sulphur, and 4. iron wire, bum in protoxide of nitrogen as in oxygen gas. 5. Charcoal likewise burns at the expense of the oxygen. 6. A solution of chloride of strontium in alcohol, when ignited and immersed in the gas by means of a spoon, burns with a red flame. 7. A solution of muriate of copper in alcohol gives a blue flame. In all these cases the sub- stances require to be heated to a higher tempera- ture before immersion than in the case of oxygen. When this gas is exposed to a strong heat, it is resolved into nitrogen and quaternitrous acid (4NO = N0 4 and N 3 ). When heated with spongy platinum, it changes into nitric acid and nitrogen (5NO becoming N0 5 and N 4 ). Pro- toxide of nitrogen is not changed by admixture with air ; spongy platinum, when inserted in a mixture of equal volumes of this gas and hydro- gen, becomes red hot, and forms water and nitro- gen. 100 vols. of water absorb 78 of gas. Fluid State. When compressed by a pressure of 50 atmospheres at 45, it becomes a colourless fluid (Faraday), or by a pressure of 50 atmos- pheres at 59 (Xatterer), conducted by means of an iron pump. The liquid is sweet, amounting to ^J-Q- of its original bulk, destroys the skin, and may be kept some hours iinder the usual pressure of the atmosphere ; when placed on the hand it bums it. Metals, when dipped into it, produce a hissing sound ; potassium is not altered by it ; it mixes with ether and alcohol ; sulphuric and nitric acid and water freeze in contact with it. Solid. By exposing the liquid to a temperature of 150, it becomes a clear crystalline solid, blis- tering the hand. Effects on Animals. Like oxygen, the pro- toxide of nitrogen may be respired, but the effects of the two gases are very distinct upon the ani- mal system, although the result varies in indi- viduals of the same species. A rabbit, placed in the gas, exhibits no symptoms of uneasiness for some time, but after the lapse of a short period it becomes excited, pants, falls prostrate, and dies. But a somewhat similar effect is produced even by oxygen. The effects on man are quite differ- ent. Mr. Southey says When he took the bag from his mouth he immediately laughed ; the laugh was involuntary, but highly pleasurable, accompanied by a thrill, and a tingling in the toes and fingers, a sensation perfectly new and delightful. Preparation. 1. The protoxide of nitrogen may most conveniently be prepared from nitrate of ammonia, a salt which is formed by saturating the carbonate of ammonia of the shops with nitric- acid. On evaporation the nitrate crystallizes in long prisms. The nitrate deprived of free acid 38; KIT by the addition of an excess of carbonate of ammo- nia, is to be introduced into a retort, and heated up to the temperature of about 400. It speedily melts and evolves a gas in great abundance, which is the protoxide of nitrogen. If the salt is decomposed with too great rapidity, nitrogen, or binoxide of nitrogen, will be mixed with the protoxide, and an explosion mav even occur. The action is as fol- lows: NO,0,0 3 NH 3 HO = 2N0.4HO ; where an atom of nitric acid, and an atom of ammonia, with 1 of water, are resolved into 2 protoxide of nitrogen, and 4 of water, or 10 grs. of the salt yield 5 1 of the gas. Analysis. If we fill a gra- duated tube retort with 1 vol. of protoxide, in- troduce into it potassium, and apply heat to the metal, the potassium unites with the oxygen of the protoxide, but the gas does not dimmish in volume, and pure nitrogen remains. Binoxide or Deutoxide of Nitrogen, or Azote (Thomson). Nitrous Air or Gas (Priestley). Ni- tric Oxide. Vols. Nitrogen, a Oxygen, } a Spec. Grav. Ats. Wts. Per Cent. -4856 1 1-75 14 46-67 '5528 2 2- 16 53-33 1-0384 3-75 30 100- Theoretical spec. grav. == (-5528 X 3-75) -|- 2 = 1-0365. Refractory power 1-03. Characters. It is colourless, and similar to atmospheric air in its physical characters. It is impossible to as- certain whether it has any taste or smell, as it combines with an additional dose of oxygen whenever it is exposed to the air, and forms red fumes, which are very corrosive. It has no ac- tion on litmus, and seems to be a neutral body. This gas is not combustible, but it supports the combustion of some bodies. Phosphorus, when introduced into this gas in a state of active lu- ll animation, burns with almost as much vividness as in oxygen (Davy, Research, p. 135). A ta- per and burning sulphur are extinguished in it. If some drops of sulphide of carbon are poured into a jar filled with the binoxide, and a taper applied, combustion is produced, accompanied with a blue flame, and the deposition of sulphur. Hom- berg's pyrophorus, when introduced into it, takes fire spontaneously. When mixed with, hydrogen it burns with a green-coloured flame. Preparation. 1. The method of obtaining this ga.s depends on the mode in which nitric acid decomposes when brought in contact with metals, and on the stronger affinity of 2 atoms of oxygen than of the remaining 3 for nitrogen. Nitric acid can only exist at common temperatures in NIT union with water as a base. If we heat r.itric acid so as to drive off the water, the acid decom- poses and yields orange- coloured fumes of hypo- nitric acid (NO 4 ). The usual method of pre- paring binoxide of nitrogen is to bring cold nitric acid diluted to the specific gravity 1-1 31, or 1-25, in contact with mercury, silver, or copper. The latter is commonly employed, but the purest gas is obtained from mercury. It is necessary to use dilute acid, . since nitrogen is evolved when the acid is concentrated, together with protoxide of nitrogen and nitrous fumes. The decomposition may be effected in a retort, or in a flask with a bent tube, or in a Wolfe's bottle, care being taken not to collect the gas until the red fumes which first appear cease to be'formed. The action is as follows : 4 atoms of nitric acid, and 3 of metal- lic copper are resolved into one of binoxide and 3 of nitrate of copper Nitric acid. 3 Copper. 3 Nitric acid. 1-75, 2 3 12- 20-25 N0 2 O 3 3 Cu 3 N0 3 N0 2 3 (CuONO 5 )= 2-75 Binoxide of nitrogen. 35-25 Nitrate of cop- per. Analysis. This gas may be analyzed in the same way as the protoxide over mercury. Nitrous Acid, Ternitrous Acid, IlyponUrous Acid, Azotous Acid. N0 3 . (Discovered by Gay Lussac). Vols. Spec. Grav. Ats. Nitrogen, 1 -9713 1 1-75 14- 36-84 Oxygen, 1| 1-6584 3 3 24- 63-16 2-6297 4-75 38- 100- Characters. A bhie fluid, boiling nearly at 32 ; it decomposes readily Avhen water is brought in contact with it into nitric acid and bin- oxide of nitrogen (3NO 3 become N0 5 ,2N02). Preparation. 1. When \ vol. oxygen is mixed in a wide tube with 2 vols. binoxide of nitrogen, a compound is formed which is immediately ab- sorbed by water, and therefore consists of N0 3 , because, as it contains 1 vol. nitrogen and H oxygen, and as ^ vol. oxygen corresponds Avith 1 atom, it is obvious that 1 vol. nitrogen, and 1| vol. oxygen, must be equivalent to 1 atom nitrogen, and 3 atoms oxygen. 2. It may be prepared also by dissolving 1 part of starch in 8 parts of nitric acid, of specific gravity 1-25, and allowing the disengaged gases to pass through a chloride of calcium tube 2 feet long, and then into a dry glass tube, surrounded with a freezing mixture (see apparatus, HYDROCYANIC ACID); a liquid condenses which at a low temperature is colourless, but at the usual temperature of the at- mosphere is greenish. Hyponitric Acid, Quaternitrous Acid, Hypo- azotic, Nitrous Acid, Quadroxide, Peroxide of Nitrogen. 388 NIT Tola. Atoms. Wts. Nitrogen, ^ n '4856 1 1-75 14 30-43 Oxygen, 1 a M05G 44 32 69-57 1-5912 5-75 46 100- Theoretical specific gravity 5-75 X *5528 -=- 2 = 1-5893. Experimental spec, gravity = 1-62. Weiglit of 100 cubic inches = 49-233 < 5 grains. Physical Characters. In a gaseous state this acid occurs in the form of orange-coloured fumes, usually called nitrous fumes. In the fluid form it is orange-yellow at 60, fawn coloured at 32, almost colomiess at 14, and quite destitute of colour at 4. Taste very caustic ; smell very strong; specific gravity 1-451 to 1-42; it red- dens litmus, possibly only from its decomposition by water ; stains the skin orange, and destroys its texture. It boils at 82 -5, becoming an orange- coloured gas. Spec. grav. of gas 1-70 to 1-62 by experiment. Preparation. Hyponitric acid is most conve- niently prepared from nitrate of lead (PbON0 5 NO 4 , 0,PbO), which is dried at a temperature of 300. It is then pulverized, and introduced into a clay or bottle glass retort, to which is luted a II tube which terminates in a capillary opening to present some resistance to the escape of the gas. The tube is surrounded with a freezing mixture. Nitrogentiaiiine. C 14 , H 4 N0 4 , O 5 IIO. Green powder by nitric acid of 1-43 on gentianine; it is coloured red by ammonia. Nitroharmalidiue. Nitroharmaline, Chryso- harmine. C 2 7, Hj 3 N0 4 , N 2 O 2 . Yellow prisms by nitric and sulphuric acids on harmaline in alcohol, and decomposing the bisulphate by an alkali. Nitrohcllcuiiic. C 15 , H 9 N0 4 , 2 . By nitric acid on hellenine. Nitroheuiatic Acid. Deoxidized picric Acid. Brown crystallized grains by acting on picric acid with hydrate of barytes, and then with SH. Nitrohippuric Acid. C 18 , H 8 N0 4 , N0 6 . F.P. 306. Fine needles, soluble in 271 water ; by heat yields nitrobenzoic acid as a sublimate ; converted by chlorohydric acid into nitrobenzoic acid and glycocoll ; by the action of nitric and sulphuric acids on hippuric acid. rVitrokumic Acid. By N0 5 on humic acid. NIT I Nitrohydriluric. Nitroliudurilic Add. Cs, H 2 N0 4 , N 2 10 . Nitrohydrochloric Acid. See AQUA REGIA and NITRIC ACID. Nitrolcucic Acid. C 12 NH 13 ,HO,N0 5 . Needles by nitric acid on leucine. Nitrolinc. C 57-2, HG-32, N12-2, 24-28? The residue after treating rotten wood with alka- line carbonates, Nitro-ltfaniiite. See MANNITRIX. NilfOMiccoiaic Acid. Nitromeconine. C 20 , H 9 N0 4 ,0 8 . By nitric acid on meconine. Nitronicsiditic. C 18 ,H 12 N 2 O 4 . F.P. be- low 212. Golden volatile needles, isomeric with dinitrocumole by acting with sulphohydric acid on dinitromesitilole in alcohol; another base occurs by the action of SH on triinesitilole. Nitromesitylenc. C H 3 N0 4 . Nitromciacctic. Nilrometacetonic, Nitro- propylic. HO, C G , H 4 NO 4 O 3 . Aromatic in- flammable oil, by nitric acid on butyrone. Nitrometastyrolc. C 14 H 9 N0 4 . By N0 5 on metastyrole. Nitroiiaphthalase. NitronapltthaUne. C 2 o, H 7 N0 4 . F.P. 110. Sulphur prisms, sublimable; bySH andNH 3 converted into naphthaUdine, and by lime into naphthalase ; by nitrous acid on fused naphthaline. The method of distinguishing the addition of the displacing acid by the vowels, should be supplanted by a more precise nomen- clature. This has accordingly been presented in the subtitle. JYitronaphthalc. C 88 HS NS O n . F.P. 419. Colourless crystals, by nitric acid on the mother liquors of the preceding. mtronaphthaleisc. C 40 HiiN 5 O 20 ( = 5 N0 4 ) or C 20 H 5 ^ 2^ NO 4 . Very fusible. Yellow feathery needles along with the succeeding on adding in small quantities naphthaline to much hot nitric acid. IVitroiiaphtlialcsc. Dinitronaplitliuline. C 2 Q, H G 2 N0 4 . F.P. 365. Crystalline colourless powder, insoluble in water, little soluble in al- cohol ; by the action of nitric acid on the preced- ing. Nitronaphthaleisic Acid. C 51'5, II 2-G, N 14-4, O 31-5 = C 24 H 8 N 3 O 6 . From nitro- naphthaleise on nitronaphthalesic acid. Nitroiiaphthalesic Acid. C 32 H 9 N 3 O 8 . Blackish-brown, amorphous powder ; by boiling nitronaphthalese with potash in alcohol and pre- cipitating by nitric acid. Nitronaphthalic Acid. C ]G H 3 NO]p- Yel- lowish rhombic tables or 6-sided plates, from the mother liquor of nitronaphthalese. It is naphthalic or phthalic acid with N0 4 in place of H. Nitronaphthalidaiu. Nitronaphthalese. A carmine body by SH on dinitronaphthaline. Nitronaphthaliinide. Ci C , H 4 NO 4 , N0 4 . By heat on acid naphthalate of ammonia. mtronaphthalisc. TrimtronaphthnUne. C 20 , H 5 3 N0 4 . F.P. above 212 or 410. Yellow rhombic prisms or plates ; insoluble in water , NIT little soluble in alcohol and ether ; by boiling foi many days naphthaline with nitric acid. NitroiiaphthalisicAcid. C 12 H 3 N0 5 . From nitronaphthalise. Nitronicene. C 4 H 5 N0 4 . Nitropeucedanin-amide. C 24 H 10 2 N0 4 NH 2 ? Insoluble, rhombic prisms; soluble in ether ; by heating nitropeucedanine in ammonia gas at 212. Nitropencedanine. C 24 H n N0 4 , 6 Colourless crystalline plates, by nitric acid on peucedanine ; nearly insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether. Nitropheuamiglidinc. A crystalline base homologous with nitranisidine by acting on phenamylole with fuming nitric acid and treat- ing the resulting oil with sulphide of ammonium in alcohol. Nitrophenesic Acid. Binitrocarlolic acid, C 12 , H 3 2 N0 4 OHO. F.P. 237. Brownish- yellow doubly-oblique prisms by the mild action of nitric acid on carbolic acid, or by boiling dini- tranisole with potash in alcohol. Niirojthcnctidine. C 16 ,H 1( )N0 4 ,N02. A base by passing SH through dinitrophenetole in alcohol. Nitrophenctole. C 16 ,H 9 NO 4 ,O 2 . An oil along with dinitrophenetole in needles distil- ling over ; by nitric acid on phenetole. Nitrophcnisic Acid. Ckrysolepic acid, Ternitrocarbolic acid, Yellow bitter of Welter, Nitrophenic acid. See PICRIC ACID. Nitrophthalic Acid. Ci 6 H 5 NOip2HO. Nitropicric Acid. A synonyme of Picric acid. Nitropopulic Acid. HO,C 14 H 3 N 2 13 2 HO. Yellow needles ; soluble in water, alcohol, and sulphuric acid ; by boiling with nitric acid converted into picric acid ; with HC1 and chlorate of potash changed into chloranile; it is dis- tinguished from oxypicric acid (styphnic acid) by the last yielding with bleaching powder chloropicrine, and by the nitropopulate of potash being with difficulty soluble in cold water, and easily soluble in alkaline solutions, while picrate, chrysammate, and styphnate are less soluble in alkaline solutions than in water ; by heat it sub- limes and its saltsexplode; obtained by treating the watery extract of the bark of Populus balsamifera with nitric acid and heat for twenty-four hours, evaporating to dryness, dissolving in hot water, saturating with potash ; a yellow precipitate falls of picrate and nitropopulate of potash, from which the nitropopulate is separated by cold water (Stenhouse). Nitroprussidc of Sodium. C 5 Cy 12 3 NO, 5 N"a, 10 HO. Ruby rhombic prisms with angles of 105 17', 136 32', and 124 52' ; soluble in 2| cold water ; obtained by pouring 5 atoms nitric ncid (1'33) diluted with an equal volume of water on 2 atoms yellow prussiate of potash ; a coffee-coloured fluid forms with the evolution of biuoxide of nitrogen, cyanogen, prussic acid, nitrogen, carbonic acid, and cyanic acid (?) 390 NIT The solution contains red prussiate, nitroprusside of potassium, and nitre, and sometimes oxamide ; the mother liquor is poured off from the nitre and neutralized in the cold with carbonate of soda, heated to boiling, filtered and crystallized ; the nitre which separates being removed. Nitro- prusside of Potassium. Fe 5 Cyj 2 3 NO, 5 K, 3 HO. A salt similar to the preceding but deliquescent ; hence the sodium salt is best for preservation ; it is obtained by a similar process, neutralizing with carbonate of potash instead of soda. The nitroprussides are valuable reagents for the detection of the most minute quantities of sulphides, with which they form a magnificent red-purple or blue colour of a very ephemeral nature, but more permanent in alcohol. The composition of the precipitate was found to be Fe 5 Cy 12 N 3 3 , 5 Na, 3 NaS, 6 HO (?) (Playfair). Nilroprnssiiie. Fe<>Cy 5 N0 2 , 2 M or Fe 5 Cji2 N 30 3 , 5 M or Fe 2 Cy 5 N() 2 M. The base of the nitroprussides. Nitropurreic Acid. Nitro-euxanthic acid. C 4 Q, Hi5N0 4 ,0 2 i- By the action of nitric acid on purreic acid. Nitroquercite. White explosive resin by nitric and sulphuric acids on quercite. Nitrosaccharic Acid. Nitrate of GlycocolL C 4 H 6 N 2 1( ) G1HO, N0 5 HO. By the action of nitric acid on glycocoll ; insoluble in water, soluble in hot alcohol ; distinguished from nitro- mannite by not crystallizing. Nitrosalicylauide. C 14 HftN 2 O 8 . Yellow crystals by allowing nitrosalicylic ether to stand in close vessels. Nitrosalicylic Acid. Nitrosalicylide, Indiyotic Acid, Anilic Acid. HO, C 14 H 4 N0 9 . Yellow prisms by boiling nitrosalicylamide with potash, by nitric acid on hydride of salicyle or salicylic acid ; forms explosive compounds with bases. Nitrostyrole. C 16 H 7 N0 4 . By nitric acid on styrole. Niitrosulphalic Acid. S 2 G ,NO 4 ,H. Sup- posed to exist in the crystals of the sulphuric acid chambers. Nitrosulphobcuzidic Acid. C 12 , H 5 N0 4 2 SO 3 . By acting on sulphobenzidic acid with nitric acid. Nitrosiilphoiiaphthalic Acid. Q> H 6 NO 4 Os. By sulphuric acid on nitronaphthaliue and by nitric acid on sulphonaphthalic acid. Nitro . Sulpho - naphthalidamic Acid. 20 , H (i N0 4 , NH 2 2 SO 3 ? By SH on dinitro- sulphonaphthalic acid. Nitro-Niilphuric Acid. Nitro-Sulph'urous Acid. N0 2 S0 2 . An acid uniting with bases and forming nitrosulphites ; by the action of 2 volumes sulphurous acid and 4 binoxide of nitro- gen on a base ; in water it changes into protoxide f nitrogen and sulphuric acid. Nili olai las i< Acid. Silky crystals by the action of nitric and sulphuric acids on tartaric acid. NIT Nitrotheine. Asynonyme of Cholestrophane. Nitrotoluide. Nitrobenzoene, Nitrotoluole. Ci 4 HjrN0 4 . A fluid by acting on benzoene or toluole (C 14 H 8 ) with nitric acid; along with it occurs dinitrotoluole. By ammonia and SH it becomes toluidine. Nitrotyrosiiic. C 18 H 1( ), N0 4 , N0 6 . Yellow stellated needles by diffusing tyrosine through water and adding nitric acid drop by drop, stop- ping when the liquid is yellow ; in some hours yellow nitrate of nitrotyrosine falls ; it precipi- tates with nitrate of silver ; and the silver salt being decomposed by SH yields nitrotyrosine in crystals. Nitrous Acid. See under NITROGEN. Nitrous Ether. Hyponitrous Ether. EO,NO (C 4 H 5 ON0 3 ). B.P.62;spec.grav.-947. Light yellow fluid with an agreeable odour ; obtained by passing nitrous acid (N0 3 ) by the action of nitric acid on starch into dilute alcohol and con- densing in a Liebig's tube ; it is deprived of water by chloride of calcium. Nitrous ether of the shops, or sweet spirits of nitre made by boilin alcohol and nitric acid, contains some nitrous ether mixed with alcohol, aldehyde, &c. Nitrous Oxide. A synonyme of Protoxide or Semeloxide of Nitrogen. Nitrovalerianic Acid. C 10 H 9 N0 8 or Nitroangelic Acid C 10 H 7 N0 8 . Rhombic tables subliming at 212 ; very soluble in hot water. By boiling valerianic acid or caprone with nitric acid, &c. Nitroxylole. C 16 H 9 N0 4 . By nitric acid on xylole (C 16 H 10 ). Nomenclature, or system of naming chemical compounds. In alchemistical times names were given to bodies according frequently to their obvious characters or imagined functions. Thus mercury or quicksilver derived its name, which it still retains, from its liquid form and volatile character, and a similar plan was followed after- wards by scientific chemists. This was probably the best mode of proceeding in reference to simple or elementary bodies, but it was not applicable to compound substances. It was in the year 1787 that Lavoisier, as the head of a commission of the French Academy, laid the basis of the scientific system of nomenclature, which has been generally adopted, and in 1804 Dr. Thomas Thomson extended this system by endeavouring to represent the constitution of compounds in the most concise language by naming the formula? which he had introduced in 1798. Nomenclature of simple bodies and oxides. The termination of metals is in urn, as chromium, uranium, &c., espe- cially when their Latin designations are employed. Names ending in on denote elements which are not metallic, as carbon, silicon, boron. In naming the oxides it is desirable to express the number of atoms of oxygen present by means of the Latin language when these atoms are equal or greater in number than the metal with which the oxygen is united, and to apply Greek numerals when 391 I NOM the metallic atoms are in excess over those of oxygen. This can be well illustrated in the case of the oxides of lead. Pb or plumbum re- presents an atom of load, and O an atom of oxygen. Ratio of Lead to Oxygen. Moras, 2 to 1 Dinoxide of lead, 1 to 1 Proto, equi, or semeloxide, 1 to 1^ Sesquioxide, or 1 to 2 Binoxide, 3 to 4 Red lead, or PboO Pb U Pb 01 Pb 2 3 Pb 2 Pb OU 1 to 1 -j- 2 to 3 Protosesquioxide, PbO,Pb 2 0. ; It is very much to be desired that the use of Latin and Greek numerals should not be employed as if they were members of the same language, as is often done at present. Sometimes the ex- pression per, thorough or highest degree, is em- ployed. This term was introduced in 1804, when the number of oxides was exceedingly limited, but it is scarcely admissible at the present time, when the great object should be to have a con- cise expression for a formula indicative of the composition of the body. Any other method in the present state of the science will lead to con- fusion, and have a retrograde tendency. Nomenclature of the Acids. The highest degree of oxidation of an acid in the early state of the science, when such acids were limited in number, had the termination ic ap- pended to it, while the lowest oxide termi- nated in ous ; but as the number of acids in any series increased, other affixes were required, and although in some instances they answered their purposes sufficiently well, in others the confusion is considerable. The following illustration is from the oxygen salts of sulphur : The original known acids were sulphurous acid (S0 2 ), sulphuric acid (S0 3 ) ; but afterwards other compounds were dis- covered, hyposulphurous acid, S 2 U 2 or S0 2 S, and subsequently hyposulphuric acid, S02SO 3 , or S 2 O 5 . To the first the Greek prefix hypo (VT,) ider, was applied, to denote its containing less oxygen than sulphurous acid, and the next new compound was termed hyposulphuric acid, as it contained less oxygen than sulphuric acid. The table will stand thus : Ratio of Sulphur to Oxygen. 2 to 2 Hyposulphurous acid, S0 2 S 1 to 2 Sulphurous acid, S0 2 1 to 2| Hyposulphuric acid, SO 2 S0 3 1 to 3 Sulphuric acid, S0 2 O Should any acid occur with a higher degree of >xidation than any in the table it would be termed iyper (^s{), above. It is obvious, however, that :his is an attempt to accommodate new discos :o a nomenclature formed when the present extent NOM of the science could not have been contemplated. The scientific designations for the preceding acids would be sernelsulphurous, bisulphurous, bisesqui- sulphurous, tersulphuric. Nomenclature of Oxides and Salts. When simple bodies unite with others, it is usual to terminate the most electronegative element in ide ; thus oxide, chloride, bromide, iodide, fluoride, hydride, nitride, carbide, boride, silicide, phos- phide, sulphide, selenide, arsenide, antimonide, telluride, chromide, vanadide, uranide, molybdide, timgstide, columbide, titanide, are compounds of oxygen, chlorine, &c. with more electro-positive elements, as potassium, sodium, &c. The terms employed to indicate the different degrees of oxi- dation have already been given. When acids unite with oxides, the resulting salt termination is ite, when that of the acid is ous, and ate when that of the acid is ic, thus the preceding acids form hyposulphites, sulphites, hyposulphaZes and sulphates. To indicate the relative number of atoms of acid present in a salt the Latin num- erals 1 } seniel; 2, bis; 3, ter; 4, quater; 5, quin- que ; 6, sex ; 7, septem ; 8, octo ; 9, novem ; 10, decem, are employed ; and to express the number of atoms of base the Greek numerals are used for the basic atoms 1, apax, protos, ormonos; 2, dis; 3, tris; 4, tetrakis ; 5, pente; 6, hex; 7, hepta; 8, octo; 9, ennea; 10, deka; 11, endeka. Examples of this will be found among the ace- tates. Nomenclature of Organic Eodies. In such a novel branch of chemistry as that which treats of organic bodies, much confusion must be expected to prevail in reference to the names which they at first bear, from the impossibility of appro- priating to every substance on its discovery its pro- per position in a scientific arrangement. But even at the present time there are certain terminations which indicate the characters of certain classes of compounds. The termination in ine it would be well to restrict to alkaloids, which correspond with the metallic oxides. Sometimes the termi- nation ia is used hi this country, as morphine or morphia, brucine or brucia, &c. Neutral bitter principles should perhaps end in ite, as gentianite, &c. The terminations in yle, as in organic radi- cals ; in He, as nitrile ; in amide and imide, as in the classes of amides and imides ; in one, as in the series of cetones or ketones, designate com- pounds of peculiar character, which are described under these words, and the individual species of their classes. Nomenclature of Minerals. The names of minerals terminate in lite or ite, (xidos, a stone) ; NUX and it is desirable that this method should be adhered to. JVoutroiiitc. A synonyme of chloropal. Norium. A name proposed for a metal con- tained in Zirconia, from Zircons, which is thought to be a mixture of earths. The oxide of norium appears to be a sesquioxide ; its oxalate and chlo- ride are less soluble in acids than the oxalates of the others ; its acid sulphite is more easily crys- tallized than that of the others. Noseau. Nosine, Hauyne, /Spinellane, So- dalite. Spec. grav. 2-25 to 3, H 5-5. Si0 3 35-99, S0 3 9-17, A1 2 3 32-57, CaO 1-12, NaO 17-84, Cl -65, HO 1*85. Gray, blue or brown, or black, like Hauyne ; fuses B.B. on the edges and gelatinizes with acids ; it seems to be sodalite. Novaculite. A clay slate used as a hone- stone. Nucleus. The central point of a concretion ; likewise applied to the base or radical of organic compounds in the nucleus or kernel theory. Nussierite. Arsenio-phosphate of lead ; Nus- siere, Rhone, France. Niitgalls. Gallnuts. Spherical concretions produced by an insect, a species of cynips, on the bark of the Quercus infectotia and cerris. Aleppo galls contain about 75 to 80 per cent, of tannic, gallic, ellagic, and luteogallic acids, starch 1^, woody starchy matter 11. The tannic acid is extracted by displacement. Infusion of galls in water is employed to detect iron, and exten- sively in dyeing. Nutmep, Butter of. A solid oil extracted by expression from the nutmeg (Myristica aro- matica), in the form of cakes, consisting of tallow like oil (Myristine) 7, yellow oil 8|, volatile oil f = 16. The yellow and volatile oils are soluble in cold alcohol and ether, not the tallow; boiling ether or alcohol dissolves the whole, and deposits the tallow on cooling. Nutmegs yield by dis- tillation with water a volatile yellowish oil. Sp. grav. -920 to '948 ; soluble in alcohol and ether; deposits a solid stearoptene (myristicine of John). Nutrition. See ALIMENTARY BODIES and ANIMAL CHEMISTRY. Nuttalitc. Spec. grav. 2-748, H 7: White 8-sided prisms, cleaving in the direction of a right square prism ; lustre vitreous. SiO 3 37-8, ALO 3 25-10, CaO 18-33, Fe 2 3 7'89, KO 7-3, HO 1-5. Bolton, Massachusets; allied to scapolite. Nux Vomica. St. Ignatius '* Beans. The seeds of the Strychnos nux vomica, and ignatia. It is used for poisoning rats, and contains strych- nine, brucine, strychnic or igasuric acid, tartaric acid, gum, starch, resin, vegetable fibre. 392 OAT OIL O Oats. (Avoine, Fr. ; Hafer, Ger.) Avena Sa-\ isomeric with aniline ; obtained by fractional dis- tiva. The seed of the oat is extensively used as I tillation from bone oil (Dippel's oil), or by distilling food in consequence of the large amount of nutri- I about 311 piperine with 4 parts soda lime; it tive matter which it contains, and from the com- ; is also contained in coal oils ; it forms crystaDine parative hardiness of the plant in a northern cli- salts. mate. Oatmeal contains as much as 15 -61 or even more per cent, of albuminous matter. This circumstance is in some measure due, when com- pared with wheat flour, to the retention of the greater portion of the bran by the mode of grind- Odour. The well-known impression produced on the olfactory nerves by peculiar volatile matter. Oedclite. A synonyme of mesolite. OZiiauthic Aciil. (otvo t , wine; ,>9o ( , flower). C 14 H 13 2 HO. A solid resembling butter, found ing, wliile in flour, as commonly prepared, the j in union with ether in wines, to which it supplies bran is in a great measure excluded. Scotch j |the bouquet. It is obtained by distilling the ether oats, dried at 212, contain about 2 per cent, of j with potash, and then distilling the potash salt ash, French oats nearly 4 per cent. The ash ! with sulphuric acid ; it is soluble in alcohol and consists of silica 54-25, S0 3 2-15, P0 5 1-94, Cl ) ether. eEnanthic Ether. C 4 H 5 0,C 14 H 13 2 . Sp. . Colourless fluid, with 1-5, Fe 2 3 1-41, CaO 7-29, MgO 4-58, KO 12-18, NaO 14-69. The straw contains 5 per cent, of ash. Obsidian. Spec. grav. 2-363 to 2-372, H 6-5. Velvet-black amorphous mass, resembling bottle glass ; fracture conchoidal ; lustre vitreous, splendent, translucent on the edges; easily fran- j (Enanthal. C 14 H 14 () 2 . Spec. grav. -8271 ; if.P. gible; streak gray. B.B. fuses into a vesicular 314. Colourless fluid, refracting light strongly ; glass. The mean of two specimens from Iceland ; strong penetrating aromatic odour ; taste sweet, and Mexico gave me silica 83-38, FeO 5-46, A1 2 j acrid; soluble in all proportions in alcohol and O 3 3-79, NaO and KO 4-53, CaO 2 42, HO '15. I ether; little soluble in water; it is isomeric with grav. -862 ; B.P. 440 the smell of wine casks; obtained by distilling the oils of wine lees with carbonate of soda to remove acid, and then with chloride of calcium. CEnanthole. Hydrous Oxide of (Ena: My pupil, Mr. J. Murdoch, found a specimen from New Zealand to consist of SiO 3 73-2, A1 2 3 6-86, Fe 2 3 6-54, CaO and MgO 3-83, NaO and KO 7*57. It was named after Obsidius, a Roman, who first brought it from Ethiopia. The Mexi- cans made knives, sword blades, and razors of it. In the Canaries lance points wei-e formed of it, and in Quito looking-glasses. It is a product of volcanic action; it gelatinizes with acids. Ochrau. A species of halloyiite, consisting of Si0 3 31-3, A1 2 O 3 43, Fe 2 O 3 1-2, HO 21-. Orawitza. Ochre. A term applied to various states of sesquioxide of iron, and oxides of other metals. lied ochre is a form of specular iron ore, or an- hydrous sesquioxide of iron. Brown ochre is a variety of brown haematite or sesquihydrous sesquioxide of iron. The native oxides of cerium, molybdenum, lead, tungsten, chromium and ura- nium, are known as ochres. My pupil, Mr. Aitkin, found the ochre of New Zealand, used as a paint by the natives, to consist of Fe 2 3 64-36, Si0 3 13-92, HO 20-2, organic matter 4-72, with traces of alumina and lime ; it gelatinizes with acids. Ochroite. A synonyme of cerite. Octahedrite. A synonyme of anatase. Odmyle. C 8 H 8 S 2 , or C 16 Hi 8 S 4 ? B.P. 160. A clear fluid by distilling linseed oil and sulphur; unites with corrosive sublimate and bichloride of platinum. Odoviuc. PicoJine. GjfNH 2 H 8 ,Hj? Spec. grav. -955 ; B.P. Thin fluid oil, peculiar rancid smell, bitter taste, alkaline reaction ; forms a cloud with chlorohydric acid, not poisonous ; butyrone ; it absorbs oxygen, and becomes cenan- thylic acid. Meta-cenanthal is solid. CEnanthole is obtained by distilling castor oil; the first part of the distillate consists of elaiodic and ricinic acids, and then oenan thole ; it is first distilled with water, and then rectified over barytes. It is the aldehyde of oenanthylic acid. CEiianthylic Acid. Azoleic Add? C ]4 H 13 3 HO. B.P. 298i. Volatile oily acid, col- ourless, aromatic, inflammable ; obtained by oxi- dizing castor oil, wax, stearic acid, oleic acid, albumen, &c. by nitric acid, and by exposing oeuanthole to the air or hot nitric acid. OZnole. A synonyme of mesitylene. OZiiothionic Acid. A synonyme of sul- phovinie acid. OZiiylamine. C. t H 7 ,NH 2 . A fluid base by the distillation of narcotine with potash. CEnyle. A synonyme of mesityle. (Erateditc. Spec. grav. 3-269, H 5-5. Red- dish- brown square prisms, resembling the crystal of Zircon ; lustre splendent, adamantine ; opaque. SiO 3 19-716, CaO 2-612, MgO 2-055, FeO 1-141; titanic acid and zirconia 68-96, HO 5-33. B.B. infusible ; with borax a colourless glass ; not fused with soda. Arendal, Norway. OZtlitc. A synonyme of brown haematite. Oil of Vitriol. A synonyme of commercial sulphuric acid, consisting of 1 atom acid and 1 atom of water (HOS0 3 ). Spec. grav. 1-848. Oils. The term was originally applied to those bodies which left a greasy stain on paper when they sink into it. They may be subdivided into 1, solid oils, butters, or fats ; 2, into fluid fixed oils, which are not dissipated from paper by 393 OIL heat ; and 3, volatile oils or essences, which are volatilized at a comparatively low temperature. Extraction of Oils. The whole of the pro- cesses put in practice in the extraction of oils rnay be included under the pounding of the grain or substance from which the oil is to be extracted, and the extraction or expression of the oil. For the purpose of bruising or grinding the seeds, various methods are adopted in different coun- tries. In the neighbourhood of Lille, in the north of France, there are not less than 400 wind-mills employed in extracting oil, by means of a sort of pestles, which are formed of oak, armed with a head of iron. Instead of this method, in some! places a species of coffee-mills has been introduced for the purpose of crushing the seed. But the best method for grinding the seed is the common mill. After this operation the bruised grain is heated in vessels of copper or cast iron by means of steam. In a few minutes sufficient heat has been applied ; the object of this operation being to liquefy the oil and render it more easy of ex- traction. The oil is next extracted by pressure. Of course the hydraulic pressure is that to be re^ commended ; but on the continent this is seldom if ever employed, wind-mills being generally the moving force. The best presses employed are horizontal, and hollow in the middle, so as to ad- mit of the introduction of steam into their interior, which keeps up the heat. After being pressed once they are again ground, heated, and pressed as before. The oil obtained from the second pres- sure is more impure than the first extraction. Oils thus extracted always contain in suspension a quantity of mucilage, colouring matter, and resins. By allowing it to remain at rest, a por- tion of this impurity separates.' But chemical means are required to purify completely. 20^ part of sulphuric acid is added, which gives the oils a greenish colour. In twenty-four hours a quantity of water, at the tempt. 167, equal to | of the oil is added. It becomes milky. In two or three weeks the oil is clear, and is then drawn off'. Nature of Oils. If we take mutton fat and expose it to pressure between leaves of blotting paper, an oily stain is left on the paper. If the paper be now immersed in boiling water, the stain disappears, and a fluid oil is observed to float on the surface of the water. This substance is termed oleine, or oleate, of the oxide of glyce- ryle (GlyO ()1). There remains unacted on by the paper a white solid substance termed stearins or stearate of oxide of glyceryle (GlyO St 2 ). The cause, then, of the solid nature of mutton fat is the predominance of the solid stearine in it, while it contains only a small portion of the liquid oily body, oleine. Hence the difference between a liquid and a solid oil or butter depends upon the presence in the liquid oil of a large quantity of the liquid oleine, and a minute quantity of stea- rine, while in a solid oil the stearine is most abundant. To prove that a liquid oil contains a .solid substance in solution, we have only to ex- 394 OIL pose it to the action of snow or ice, when the stearine is deposited, and the oleine floats above. Thus it is that in winter olive and castor oils become thick and deposit a white solid matter. As the oleine and stearine consist each of an acid united to a base the oxide of glycervle, they may be considered as oily salts, and on this view the process by which they are converted into soaps becomes easy of appreciation The change pro- duced on mutton fat depends on replacing the oxide of glyceryle by an alkaline base potash, and thus converting the solid oily stearate of oxide of glyceryle insoluble in water into a stearate of oxide of potassium, a soap which is quite soluble in water, GlyO St 2 and KO be- coming KO St2, and GlyO set free. Saponiji- cation, or the formation of soap, is effected by boiling oils with a solution of caustic potash or soda. The experiment may be made on a small scale in an iron or silver basin. The boiling is kept up, using an excess of alkali until the whole of the stearic or other oily acid has been sepa- rated from the oxide of glyceryle, and has united with the potash. The matter contained in the basin should therefore dissolve completely m hot water if the soap is thoroughly formed. From this solution the soap may be precipitated by adding a strong solution of common salt to re- move from it oxide of glyceryle, and may be again dissolved in water, from which solution the fatty acid may be separated by the addition of HC1, or tartaric acid, which Avill unite with the potash, and set the acid free. Soaps thus made with soda, being firm, are called hard soaps ; those made with potash being soft and deliquescent, are termed soft soaps. Instead of the alkalies the fat acids may be united with metallic oxides, and plasters or metallic soaps formed. Litharge or diachylon plaster, which forms the basis of medical plasters, is produced by boiling 1 part of litharge (PbO), with 2 of olive oil. Oils, Drying. Fixed oils are termed drying oils when they retain their transparency on solidi- fying either by being dried up by the action of the oxygen of the air, or by the application of heat into a hard transparent varnish. The dry- ing oils are those which are employed for printer's ink. The principal drying oils are castor oil (Ricinus communis), spec. grav. '9611 or '9575, solid at ; cress oil (Lepidium sativum) ; croton oil (Croton tiglium); grape seed oil (Vitis vinifera); henbane oil (Hyoscyamus niger) ; hemp oil (Can- nabis sativa), spec. grav. -9276, solid at 17 ; linseed oil (Linum usitatissimum), spec. grav. 9347, solid at 17 ; nightshade oil (Atropa Bel- ladonna) ; poppy oil (Papaver Somniferum), spec, grav. -9249, solid at ; sunflower oil (Helian- ;hus annuus) ; tobacco oil (Nicotiana tabacum) ; walnut oil (Juglans regia), spec. grav. -9283, or -923, -947, solid at 17. Oils, Fat, are oils which become solid by long exposure to the air and absorption -of oxygen ; and then pi-oscnt the appearance of tallow. The OIL following are the principal : Almonds (Amyg- dalus communis), spec. grav. '918, '932; alys- sum or camiline (Myagrum or Alyssum sativum); beech (Fagus sylvatica), spec. grav. 9225 ; ben (Hyperanthera moringa), spec. grav. '917; bays (Laurus nobilis) ; cardamoms ; colza (Bras- sica campestris), spec. grav. '9136 ; cotton seed (Gossypium Barbadense) ; chestnut (horse) (Aes- culus hippocastanum), spec. gra. '927 ; cherry (Prunus cerasus), spec. grav. -9239 ; dolphin (Delphinus globiceps), spec. .grav. -918 ; hazel- nut (Corylus avellana), spec. grav. 926 ; mustard (sinapis (1), alba (2), nigra), (1) spec. grav. 9142, (2) -917 ; neat's foot oil, spec. grav. -8795; olive oil (Olea europaea), at 77, -9176, solid at 36; plum (Prunus domestica), spec. grav. -9127; porpoise (Delphinus phocena), spec. grav. -937 ; peach ; rapeseed, spec. grav. -91u9 ; rape (Bras- sica rapa '9107 and napus '9128), solid at 28 ; tea (Canlellia oleifera and probably Thea bohea), spec. grav. '927 ; train or whale (Balena mistice- tus) spec. grav. -927 ; B.P. 620. Oils, Solid. These oils are solid at the usual temperature of the atmosphere from the prepon- derance of the solid stearine. See FATS. Oils, Sulphur Volatile. Black mustard, C 8 H 5 NS 2 . Horse-radish, C 8 H 5 NS 2 . Coch- learia, C 8 H 5 NS 2 ? Garlic, C 6 H 5 S. Oils, Volatile. Essences, Essential oils. These oils are found in various parts of plants, and are contained in vessels or pouches. They are extracted by distilling the plants or flowers with water or suspending the plant in a bag or net to prevent it from coming in contact with the sides of the retort. They consist of a solid por- tion stearoptene or camphor and of a liquid oleop- tene ; the former may be separated by the appli- cation of cold and pressure. Hydrocarbon oils Certain of the essences possess the same per cent- age composition, and are said to be formed on the type of oil of turpentine. They contain carbon and hydrogen alone. Their formula is C 20 H 10 or C 5 H 4 or C 10 H 8 or C 15 II 12 . Hydrocarbon Oils. S.G. B.P. Amber, -879 Athamanta, '843 325 Andropogon, 297 Cedar, '980 507 Cedrat, Copaiva, '960 473 Cubebs, '929 490 Elemi, -852 330 Jumper, -839 311 Lemons, '850 343 Neroli, '930 Oranges, '835 356 Pepper, -864 333 Pine, '856 333 Portugal (orange peel), '835 356 Sabine, '915 315 Storax, Turpentine, '804 OLE Oxygen Volatile Oils. The following have been analyzed : C, 4 O CH0 C 10 H 9 O C 20 H 12 O 2 C 2 oH 12 O 2 GIO^O O C 32 H 2G CiffHuOg C 50 H 40 C 10 H 9 2 C ]2 H S 3 C 24 n 20 o 2 C 10 H 8 O CioH 3 2 C 20 H 1G CssHgjjO C 28 H 28 O 3 CH0 Asarabacca, Anise, Basil, Bergamot, Camphor, Cassia, Cedar (solid), Cinnamon, Cloves, Cajeput, Cumin, Fennel, Galangal, Juniper, Lavender, Marjoram, Meadow Sweet, Parsley, Peppermint, Pennyroyal, Sassafras, Sweet Bay, Spearmint, Rue, Rosemary", Tarragon, Valerian, Wormwood, Ointment. An oleaginous compound usually having as its basis lard or suet, sometimes flavoured by an essential oil. A cerate is a coin- pound of wax and oil or lard and wax. Oisanitc. Anatase from Oisans. Okeuitc. A synonyme of Dysclasite. Olaninc. A base found by Unverdorben in bone oil. Olcene. C ]2 H 13 . Spec, grav., vapour 2 -875 ; B.P. 131. Colourless ethereal fluid, lighter than water, very inflammable ; very soluble in alcohol and ether ; poisonous to man ; obtained along with elaene by distilling metoleic and hydroleic acids. Olefiant Gas. Bicarbonated Hydrogen, Hydro- guret of Carbon, Heavy Carburetted Hydrogen, deutoor tetartrocarbohydrogen, Hydride ofAcetyle, Elayle. Vols Spec. Grav. Atoms. Wts. Per Cent. Carbon, 2 -8468 -8333 4 3- 85-71 Hydrogen, 2 1384 1384 4 '5 14-29 9852 -9717 3-5 100- Probable composition, C^gH. Calculated spec. grav. 3-5-^2= 1-75 X 5528 -9674 ; refractory power 2'302. Weight of 100 cub, in. = 30-487 grains or 30-0692 grains. 100 water dissolve 15^ olefiant gas ; oil of vitriol 83 times its bulk. Olefiant gas (oleum, oil; and fieri, to be made;) has no colour, but it posees?es an ethereal odour. and burns with a fine white flame, which allord* 395 OLE much light. A red heat in a porcelain tube de- composes the gas into charcoal, which is deposited (Hecht and Vauquelin), and into carburetted hyd- rogen or hydrogen. By passing electric sparks through it, carbon is deposited and hydrogen set free. When sulphur is heated in defiant gas, sulpho- Ivydric acid gas is fonned and carbon deposited. When chlorine gas is mixed with an equal volume of olefiant gas, an oil is formed (the oil of the Dutch chemists) which is chlorohydride of the chloride of acetyl (C 4 H 3 C1 + HC1). If this oil be left in contact with potash dissolved in alcohol, for a few days, we have a gas formed, which is olefiant. gas, in which the fourth atom of hydrogen is replaced by chlorine (C 4 H 3 C1). This oil may be prepared by passing chlorine and olefiant gas from separate retorts into a common vessel, when it collects at the bottom ; or a more convenient method is to pass the gas into chloride of antimony until the latter is saturated, and then to distil over from it the Dutch liquor. When 2 volumes chlorine and 1 olefiant gas are rapidly mixed in a glass vessel under water and a taper is immersed in the mixed gases, combus- tion takes place with a red light, and carbon in the form of lamp black flakes is copiously de- posited (C 4 H 4 4 Cl become C 4 , 4 HC1), and chlorohydric acid is formed. Preparation. This gas may be obtained by the dry distillation of many organic substances, such as fats or in the ignition of coal in close vessels. It is usually prepared by distilling 1 part of alcohol with from 4 to 7 parts of oil of vitriol in a retort or gas bottle with the assistance of heat. In order to procure the gas free from carbonic and sulphurous acids, it may be passed through milk of lime. The fluid in the retort becomes first brown, and then black (melanic acid, Erd- mann), and the gas is latterly contaminated with sulphurous and carbonic acids. Fluid Olefiant Gas. To obtain it in a liquid state this gas is exposed to a cold mixture of solid carbonic acid and ether in glass tubes under the exhausted receiver of an air pump. To these tubes are attached two force pumps sufficient to apply a pressure of 40 atmospheres. When this is obtained, it is a clear colourless transparent fluid ; but it does not become solid. It dissolves resin- ous bodies, bituminous, and oleaginous substances. Aime has observed, that when introduced in a vessel sunk in the sea to sufficient depth, olefiant gas suffered diminution of volume by a pressure of 124 atmospheres, and has calculated its density in a liquid state at -44. Composition and Analysis. If we mix 4 volumes oxygen, 1 olefiant gas, and fire the mix- ture by an electric spark, 3 volumes remain. Caustic potash will absorb 2 of carbonic acid, while 1 volume oxygen remains, which may be removed by phosphorus. 1 volume olefiant gas therefore yields 2 volumes carbonic acid or 2 of vapour of carbon, while 1 volume oxygen has beea consumed by 2 of hydrogen to form water. OLI In every volume of this gas, there therefore exist 2 volumes of carbon vapour and 2 volumes hydro- gen. Oleic Acid. C 86 H 88 O 8 HO (Gottlieb), C 2C H 23 O 4 (Heintz). F.P. 57? solid at 40. Colourless neutral oil ; insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; oxidizes in air ; obtained by saponifying mutton fat with potash, decomposing the soap, by dilute sulphuric acid ; the fat acids dissolved in hot alcohol, the solution on cooling is expressed, and the operation repeated frequently ; the acid dissolved in alcohol, and precipitated by barytes and purified. Olcic acid when distilled gives sebacic, capric, caprillic, valerianic, butyric, and carbonic acids. By nitric acid it gives elaidic acid ; oxidized with nitric acid it yields azelaic, azoleic, adipic, lipic, and pimelic acids ; also, acetic, meta- cetic, butyric, caprillic, caproic, capric, cenanthylic, pelargonic, and valerianic acids. Sulphuric acid produces sulphoieic, metoleic acid; with alkalies it unites and forms soaps or oleates. Oleine. Oleate of Oxide of Glyceryle or Lipijle. C 79-5, H 11-9, O 8'6 ? Spec. grav. -91. Colourless fluid, without taste and smell ; insol- uble in water ; soluble in ether, alcohol, essential and fat oils ; needles at 19 ; obtained by boiling tallow in alcohol ; on cooling most of the solid fats (stearine) separate, Avhile the oleine remains in solution ; it is also obtained from olive oil by exposing it to intense cold, expressing the oleine, and purify ing it by solution in alcohol. It has not been obtained in a state of purity. It consti- tutes the more fluid portion of oils. Oleophosphoric Acid. Viscid yellow oily solid, insoluble in water, swelling up somewhat in boiling water; insoluble in cold; soluble in boiling alcohol and in cold ether ; decomposed by boiling in water into oleine and phosphoric acid ; it is purified from oleine by absolute alcohol, which does not dissolve this acid; obtained from the brain by treating it Avith hot ether ; on cooling cerebrate and oleophosphate of soda separate. These are dissolved in hot alcohol acidulated with sulphuric acid ; on cooling the two acids separate ; oleophosphoric acid dissolves in cold ether, while cerebric acid remains. It contains about 2 per cent, of phosphoric acid. The softening and de- composition of the brain may be owing to the separation of the oleine from the phosphoric acid. Olcoptcnc. Elaoptene. The fluid portion of essential oils corresponding with the oleine of fat oils as contrasted with the solid stearoptene of essential oils, and the stearine of fat oils. Olibaiuim. Frankincense. Dull resin, a, 040 H 32 6 . Clear resin, 6, C4oH 32 4 . W T hitish- yellow resin, usually covered externally with a whitish powder ; taste acrid and aromatic ; giving an agreeable odour when burned. It consists of volatile oil 8', resin 56, gum 30, insoluble sub- stance like gum 5-2. The oil (C 35 H 28 0) has a smell resembling oil of lemons ; the resin consists of two, one, a, of which exists in the rounded, 396 opaque* dull, olibanum of commerce; and the OLT other, b, clearer yellow, generally less brittle, and in long tears. Olibanum is a stimulating gum resin, used in unnatural secretions of the mucous membranes, and as a perfume. It comes from various trees 5 Amyris gileadensis, Boswellia ser- rata. Olidic Acid. An acid obtained by the action of fused potash on oleic acid, identical with pal- mitic acid. Oligiste Iron Ore. A variety of specular iron ore. Oligoclase. Soda Spodumene. Spec. grav. 2-64 to 2-66, H 6. SiO 3 63-55, A1 9 O 3 23-32, MgO -6, FeO -55, CaO 3-07, KO 1-1, NaO 8-03. Yellowish and greenish- white oblique rhomboidal prisms; lustre vitreous, pearly, and greasy; transparent to translucent ; fracture conchoidal, uneven. CaONaO,Si0 3 ; Al 2 3 Si0 3 . Dan- vickszoll, near Stockholm, in granite ; Arendal, Norway. Oligoii Spar. Ferro Carbonate of Mangan- ese. 3, EeOCO 2 ,2,MnOC0 2 . An isomorphous variety of spathic iron from Ehrenfriedersdorf. Olivene. The olive variety of chrysolite common in basalts and lavas. Olivenite. See COPPER ARSEXIATES. Olive Oil. Florence, Gallipoli, Lucca, Sweet, Salad Oil Spec. grav. -9109 at 77; solid at 36. Pale yellow oil, soluble in l time its weight of ether at 59; obtained by "expression from the pericarp of the fruit of the olive or Olea Europasa. Virgin oil is obtained by gentle pres- sure when cold; by stronger pressure and hot water an oil of second quality is obtained; while a third oil of inferior quality is procured by boiling with water, and used only for making soap. It is purified at Gallipoli by standing in contact with cold water. The peculiarity of olive oil is, that it becomes solid (elaidine) in contact with nitrous acid, which distinguishes therefore its adultera- tion with any other oil. A simple test is to dissolve 6 parts mercury in 7^ nitric acid, and mix 2 parts of this with 96 oil, and agitate ; in 7 hours it becomes a thick magma, and in twenty- four hours hard. The presence of poppy and other oils prevents solidification. It is an article of food, and used in liniments and calico printing. Oliviline. C 12 H 9 4 . P.P. 158, 248. White needles without smell; taste sweetish bitter; obtained by alcohol from the resin of the olive tree (Olea Europgsa), insoluble in ether. Oliviiie. Olivite. Colourless crystals by alco- hol from the leaves of the olive tree. Omichmyle. The hypothetic base of a brown organic matter, with a strong smell of castor in concentrated urine. Omphasite. Leek-green pyroxene. Onchosine. An apple-green massive min- eral, allied to agalmatolite ; lustre greasy. Spec. grav. 2-8, H 2-. SiO 3 52-52, A1 2 3 30-88, MgO 3-82, FeO -8, KO 6-38, HO 4-6. B.B. fuses to a blebby glass ; soluble in S0 3 ; not in HC1. OPT Onegitc. A variety of pitchy iron ore from Lake Onega, Siberia. Onion. The bulbous root of the A Ilium cepa. The juice undergoes, when kept at 60 to 70, fermentation, while mannite and acetic acid (lac- tic?) is formed, which do not exist naturally; it contains gum, gluten, sugar, an oil with sulphur. Onyx. A variety of agate, consisting of al- ternate horizontal bands of brown and white. Oolite. (*>*, small egg or roe.) The name of a limestone, consisting of spherical granules, extensively distributed in the oolite formation. Oosite. A decomposed pinite, from Oos, Baden. Opal. Alumocaldte, CacJiolong, Gyrasol, Geyserite, Hyalite, Hydrophane, Menilite, Mi- chaelite, Opal jasper, Semiopal, Sinter, Wood opal Spec. grav. 2-015, 2-21, H 6-75. A va- riety of siliceous minerals possessed of some trans- parency, but rendered in some measure opaque by a different colour floating, as it were, in the stone. Common opal is milk-Avhite, and also yellow, brown, red, and green; Precious opal exhibits a beautiful play of colours of blue, green, yellow, and red, when held in the light ; Fire opal exhibits a red play; Wood opal is fibrous ; Semiopal has a flat chonchoidal fracture and resinous lustre ; Mother-of-pearl opal has a pearly lustre. Common opal consists of silica 20-, wa- ter 1-125; precious opal of 93-9, Si0 3 and HO 6-1. Opal is generally soluble in caustic potash. Ophite. A variety of serpentine, which ap- pears to have been produced by the passage of a greenstone into a limestone ; it seems also to be sometimes converted into gypsum by the action of sulphohydric gas, since gypsum usually ac- companies ophite. Ophitone ? Opiammon. C 40 H 1 ) NO 1 o. Pale yellow powder by heating opianate of ammonia till the ammonia escapes. It loses NH 3 and 4HO. In- soluble in cold water; soluble at 302. Ter- opiammon, C (3 oH 29 N0 2C . Needles by nitric acid on narcotine. OpianicAcid. HOC 2 oH 9 9 . P.P. 284. Thin colourless prisms soluble in water ; displaces carbonic acid ; above its fusing point it has the same composition, but is insoluble in water, alco- hol, and dilute alkalies ; by the action of sulphuric acid and binoxide of manganese on narcotine. Opianinc. C C oH 3 oN 2 21 . Colourless rhom- bic needles ; insoluble in Avater ; soluble in much boiling alcohol, with an alkaline reaction ; preci- pitated from its solutions by ammonia ; soluble in N0 5 , not in strong S0 3 ; narcotic ; from Egyp- tian opium by precipitating by ammonia the aqueous solution and crystallizing from alcohol. Opiano Sulphurous Acid. CooHgOnSj HO. Crystalline bitter mass by the action of sulphurous acid on opianic acid ; forms crystal- line salts. Opianylc. C 20 H 10 8 . Needles, soluble in 397 OPI alcohol and ether along with chlorine, by the further action of nitric acid on narcotine. Opium. The inspissated juice of the Papaver somniferum or poppy. The following account of opium is by my friend and former pupil Dr. Eatwell of the Bengal army : The variety album is alone cultivated in Benares and Behar. The plant reaches a height of 4 feet, and requires (U- months to attain maturity, the seed being sown broadcast in November. When ripe, the capsules are scarified with a sharp iron instrument from to;> to bottom through the pericarp, and on the following morning the juice is scraped off with a kind of trowel ; the opium is now dried in the air for several weeks until it contains only 30 per cent, of water when dried at 200 ; it is then trod and formed into cakes. The juice of opium con- sists of morphine 5-5, narcotine 16-3, substances soluble in alcohol 260-5, insoluble matter or dry marc 112-6, water driven off at 200 605. When expressed at 200 till it acquired a standard con- sistence, opium Avas found to give morphine 24-9, narcotine 30-9, soluble in alcohol 546-7, insol- uble in alcohol 215-, water 182-5. The average morphine per cent, in Benares commercial opium is 3'21, and of narcotine 4-06 ; w r hile the portion soluble in cold water is 47-99, and the residue per cent after a temperature of 200 75-5. Turkey opium contains from 6 to 9 per cent, morphine, Egyptian 3 to 4 per cent. The alkaloids in opium are, codeine, morphine, narceine, narcotine, opianine, papaverine, porphyroxine, pseudomor- phine, thebaine, and besides meconic acid, brown extract, resin, fat, volatile oil, bassorine, caout- chouc gum, ligneous matter and salts. The pre- sence of opium in solution can always be detected by the red colour given by a sesqui salt of iron with the meconic acid. Oppbalsam. Meccabalm, Balm of Gilead. Spec. grav. -950, -876 at 71^. Yellow fluid of the consistence of honey, with an odour like oil of lemons or rosemary, becoming a resin in the air; it consists of volatile oil 30, hard resin 64, soft resin 4-, bitter colouring matter 4. The volatile oil is obtained by distilling with water ; odour agreeable ; the hard resin has a spec. grav. 1-333, fusing at 196; soluble in alcohol; the soft resin fuses at 233^, and is in- soluble in alcohol (burserine). Opobalsam is ob- tained from the Amyris Gileadensis and Opo- balsamum. Opopoimx. Spec. grav. 1-622. A gum resin in reddish-yellow lumps, white within, with a peculiar odour and bitter, acrid taste, forming a milky solution with water, one-half dissolving ; by distillation a brown oil is obtained Avith acetic acid ; it consists of resin 42, gum 33-4, wood 9-8, starch 4-2, malic acid 2-8, extractive 1-6, caoutchouc trace, wax -3, volatile oil and loss 5-9. From Pastinaca opoponax, Levant, by wounding the roots of the plant. Op*iitioHc. Altered Fowlerite or silicate of manganese. ORC Orange Flowers, Oil of, or Neroli Oil of the South of Europe. Spec. grav. -835, of vapour 4-65; B.P. 356. C=87-22, H 11-66, or C 2 oHi 6 . Very fluid yellowish or colourless oil reddening on exposure, lighter than water, wit the odour of orange flowers ; obtained by distilli orange flowers (Citrus aurantium) Avith water ; causes polarized light to deviate to the right With chlorohydric gas it forms a solid (C 20 H lff 2HC1) and liquid camphor. When the oil is mixed with alcohol of -842 Aurade falls in Avhite scales, which is soluble in ether and alcohol, not in wa- ter. The oil called petit grain comes from the berries and leaves of Citrus bigarea. Oraiigite. Spec. grav. 5-35, li 4-5. Orange coloured, translucent, foliated masses from near Brevig, Norway. Si0 3 17-69, Thorina 71-24, CaOCO 2 4-04, Fe 2 3 -31, Mn 2 3 -21, KG NaO -3, HO 6-9. The thorina at one time was supposed to be a new earth, and called donaria. Orceic Acid. A synonyme of Orceine. Orceine Alpha-. C 18 H 10 N0 5 . Red pow- der, little soluble in Avater ; colours it red, but is completely separated by a neutral salt; very soluble in alcohol, giving it a scarlet colour, and precipitated by water ; scarcely soluble in ether ; very soluble in potash and ammonia, with a fine purple colour; obtained by rendering orchil (Par- melia roccellcf), slightly acid by chlorohydric acid; evaporating to dry ness; exhausting the re- sidue by boiling alcohol; distilling the alcoholic fluids to dryness ; Avashing the crimson residue with cold water to remove salammoniac, and ex- hausting by ether. Orceine Beta-. C 18 H 10 NOg. Mixed with the preceding, the proportions varying Avith the age of the lichen ; it unites with 3 atoms oxide of copper and lead. Orchil. Archil, Orseilk, Purple ofAmoryos, Amorgis. A dyestuff prepared from the lichen Parmelia roccella from the Canaries, &c. The plant is pulverized, sifted, and moistened with stale urine, the mixture stirred daily, and soda added till it becomes clove-brown ; it is then cov- ered in a wooden cask Avith urine, lime Avater, and a solution of gypsum. Orceine is extracted from orchil as described ; the ether solutions are then evaporated, an oil remains, erythroleic acid. The residue of the lichen* resisting alcohol is boiled in Avater, which takes up yellow-colouring matter, and there remains azoerythrine, which is puri- fied by dissolving the residue in potash, saturating with an acid, and evaporating to dryness, and washing aAvay the potash salt. Orcine. C 14 H 8 O 4 2HO. Colourless flat 4- sided prisms, with dihedral summits ; taste sweet, disagreeable ; soluble in water and alcohol ; be- comes blood-red by nitric acid, and deep violet by ammonia and air ; reddish-brown by potash and soda ; obtained by boiling lecanorine Avith barytes water ; carbonate of barytes is deposited ; the excess of barytes precipitated by carbonic 333 ORC acid, the fluid filtered and evaporated, when or- ciue crystallizes. Orcino-lecanoric Acid, or Erythric acid. Oreoaeloiie. C 14 H S 3 . F.P. 374. Crystals isomeric with dry benzoic acid; tasteless and odourless ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; obtained by uniting athamantine with dry chlorohydric acid, and boiling with water ; crystals of hydrate of oreoselone deposit. It appears to be the gly- cerine of athamantine, of which it consists, united to valerianic acid, &c. Ores. A term applied to the compounds of metallic elements found in natui'e. Organic Analysis. Determination of Car- bon and Hydrogen. The object of organic analysis is to determine the weight of the elements present in an animal or vegetable body. The substance purified is first deprived of moisture, by drying it in a water or oil ORG bath. See BATH. The requisite quantity re- quired is then weighed out in a light glasn tube. It consists of carbon, hydrogen, and oxy- gen. To analyze it we require to convert the carbon into carbonic acid, and the hydrogen into water, by mixing and igniting it with oxide of copper, and collect the carbonic acid in caustic potash, and the water in a chloride of calcium tube. A quantity of black oxide of copper (pre- pared by igniting nitrate of copper, or heating copper hi air), is ignited in a covered clay cru- cible, and while still hot it is transferred into a hard glass combustion tube of the form deli- neated (15 to 18 inches long) in figure 2, a, which is filled three-fourths with it. The organic sub- stance is now triturated with the oxide of copper, poured from the combustion tube into a warm dry porcelain mortar. About an inch of pure oxide is allowed to remain at the closed end of the tube, and as much at the open end of the tube, free from the substance. A small air pump is then fixed to the tube, which is covered with hot sand, and the last traces of moisture thus extracted. A weighed tube, filled with chlo- ride of calcium, is then adapted to the com- bustion tube by means of a cork, and at the extremity of the chloride of calcium tube, a bulbed tube, p, m, (Liebig's potash bulbs), filled to r with a strong solution of caustic potash, is connected by means of a tube of caoutchouc, e. It is necessary before commencing the combustion to see that there is a free passage above the oxide of copper for the exit of the gas generated, and likewise that the apparatus is air-tight. This is ascertained by drawing out some air, byapplyingasc&m ( 7 tube, fig. 3, at p, so as to make the potash fluid stand higher in the limb m 6 than in r. If it remains perma- nently at a higher elevation, it is a proof that no air gains access along a to m. Heat is to be ap- plied by means of red hot charcoal, not flaming, in small portions at a time, by means of the fender g, and the combustion is gradually ex- tended along a, or till the whole tube has been heated, and the organic body oxidized. When bubbles of gas are no longer visible below m, the closed end of the combustion tube a is broken, a long tube, held so as to surround the broken extremity, and a current of air, drawn through the whole apparatus by means of the sucking tube at p. The tubes b and m are then de- tached, and, when cool, weighed; the increase in 6 gives the quantity of water equivalent to the hydrogen contained in the substance ana- lyzed. This weight, divided by 9, gives the amount of hydrogen. The increase in the pot- ash apparatus is due to carbonic acid. To ob- tain the carbon contained in it, we say as 2-75 : 75 : : x : y. For the analysis of fluids, a light glass bulb is employed, drawn out into a capil- lary point. The bulb is heated, and the open end immersed in the fluid, and filled in the same manner as a thermometer. Fatty substances are weighed on the concave side of the half of a split tube which is slid into the combustion tube, and by heat made to mix with the oxide of copper. When the organic substance contains nitrogen, as in animal substances, it should be dried at 250 to 300, and burned with chromate of lead instead of oxide of copper, or fused chlorate of potash may be mixed with the oxide of cop- per, or a current of oxygen may be passed from a gas-holder over the organic body. See Liebiys Hand-Book of Organic Analysis, an indispen- sable book to the organic analyst. Determina- 3 ( J9 ORG tion of Nitrogen. When a siibstance contains nitrogen, a separate process must be employed for its determination. The substance (about 10 grains) is mixed with oxide of copper as before, the mixture occupying half the length of the OEM combustion tube, fig. 4, E. One of the remaining fourths is filled with oxide of copper, and the rest with copper turnings, to decompose any biaoxide of nitrogen formed. The gases which pass over, consisting of carbonic acid and nitrogen, are re- ceived in a graduated tube, J3, filled with mer- cury. A series of these tubes (6 or 8) are thus filled and allowed to cool. They are severally transferred to a cylinder, A, filled with mercury, where, by means of a curved sucker, fig. , a solution of caustic potash is admitted in contact with the gases, which absorbs the carbonic acid and leaves the nitrogen. To get the weight of the nitrogen, we have only to reflect that 1 volume carbonic acid corresponds to 1 atom car- bon, and 1 volume nitrogen to 1 atom of this element. Hence the quantity of carbon, and the relation by volume between the gases obtained in the combustion being known, we can calcu- late the nitrogen from the atomic weight. A c- cording to the determination of carbon, caffeine contains 49-68 per cent. ; this substance fur- nished nitrogen and carbonic acid in the ratio of 1 to 4 ; it contains, therefore, 1 atom nitrogen and 4 carbon. Determination 'by Soda Lime. The nitrogen, except in nitrates and some organic alkaloids, &c. may be estimated by mixing the nitrogenous body with 1 part caustic soda and 2 parts caustic lime in a mortar, transferring the mixture to a tube a foot long, closed at one end, fig. E, and connecting it with a bulbed tube containing muriatic acid, On the application of heat, as in the preced- ing cases, the nitrogen is changed into ammo- nia, and is absorbed by the acid, and converted into salammoniac. On the completion of the combustion, the acid liquor is washed out, and precipitated by bichloride of platinum, as in the determination of ammonia. See AMMONNIA Orichalcum. Aurichalcum. The brass of, the ancients. Ormolu. An alloy employed for the orna- 400 OHP mental parts of lamps, &c. consisting of 52 zinc and 48 copper. Orpimcnt. Orpine. Tersulplride of arsenic. See ARSEXIC. Orsellic Acid. When the Roccella tinctoria from South America is digested with milk of lime, the solution filtered, and chlorohydric acid added, a white gelatinous mass falls, which when dried dissolves in hot alcohol, and deposits white needles of Alpha orselllc acid, q.v. ; insoluble in cold, little soluble in hot water. When this acid is mixed with water, carefully neutralized with lime or barytes, and boiled till dissolved; saturated with acid, the precipitate crystallized out of alco- hol, crystals of Alpha orsel/inic (alphaorsellesic) acid result, which yield with chloride of lime a transient reddish-blue. The Roccella tinctoria of the Cape of Good Hope, treated as above, yields Beta orsellic, and Beta orsellinic acids. The por- tion of gelatinous precipitate, insoluble in alcohol, is termed rocellitie, C 38 H 17 Oi5. Orthite. Spec. grav. 3-288 to 3-63 and 3-65, H 7'. Black masses, and in rhombic prisms ; pow- der gray, inclining to brown ; fracture small, con- choidal ; lustre vitreous, opaque ; brittle, easily frangible. B.B. froths like zeolite, and becomes yellowish-brown, and melts into a black vesicular glass ; fuses with difficulty with salt of phosphorus, leaving a silica skeleton, yellow in the oxidizing flame, disappearing on cooling ; a clear glass with borax, greenish in the reducing, blood-red in oxi- dizing flame; decomposed but not fused with soda ; gelatinizes with muriatic acid. SiO,3 36-25, CaO 4-89, A1 9 O 8 14-, CeO 17-39 (LaO?), FeO 11-42, yttria 3-8, MnO 1-36, HO 8-7. Finbo, in thin veins in gneiss. Orthoclase. Orthose. A synonyme of felspar. Osinazome. An old name for the savoury portion of meat, soluble in water. Osmelite. A synonyme of soda table spar, or Wollastonite, or pectolite. Osmium. Os 12-375, 99. Spec. grav. 10- to 7-6. Grayish-white porous mass with metallic lustre, laminated compact mass or black powder, assuming the metallic lustre when compressed ; procured by heating sesquichloride of osmium and ammonium to redness in a retort, or by passing a mixture of osmic acid and hydrogen through a tube partially ignited, or precipitating by zinc. Separation, of osmium from iridium. That por- tion of platinum ore which is insoluble in nitro- muriatic acid, consists of osmium and iridium ; it is pounded first in a steel, and then in a por- celain mortar ; the iron from the mortar removed by muriatic acid, mixed with its weight of nitre, aiid heated in a porcelain retort, first gently, and then to a full red heat as long as gas escapes ; the vapour of osmic acid being passed into a tubu- lated receiver, and thence into a bottle containing dilute ammonia ; the mass is mixed with water several times which is poured off, allowed to stand, decanted and distilled with chlorohydric acid; OST Protoxide. OsO 13-375, -107. Obtained by heating the hydrate, which is greenish -black, and formed by allowing a solution of potassio chloride of osmium to stand, when it deposits, but contains some potash ; by hydrogen the metal is obtained, Sesquioxide. Os 2 3 . Known only in union with ammonia. Solutions of potassio sesquioxide of osmium in acids, when mixed with potash, de- posit hydrous protoxide and leave in solution teroxide. Blue oxide, obtained along with osmic acid by igniting in a retort containing air, seems a mixture of a proto and sesqui or of proto and binoxide. Binoxide. OsOg. Black powder, by heating potassio-bichloride of osmium with an- hydrous carbonate of soda below a red heat The hydrate is obtained slowly by adding carbonate of soda to a solution of the preceding salt. The oxide and hydrate are insoluble in acids. Ter- oxide, Osmous acid. Os0 3 . Supposed to exist in the red solution on digesting a solution of potassio sesquichloride of osmium with pot- ash. Osmic Acid. Os0 4 . Colourless needles, sub- liming and fusing more easily than wax ; does not redden litmus ; taste acrid and sweetish ; acts on the eyes and lungs, exciting expectora- tion ; blackens organic substances ; a weak acid not replacing carbonic acid; with the alkalies forms yellowish-red salts; obtained by passing oxygen over ignited osmium ; by fusing osmio- iridimn with nitre, and distilling with sulphuric acid. Azo-osmic acid, Osman-osmic acid, Osmiamic acid. OsN,Os() 4 or Os 2 N0 5 . A powerful acid known only in combination, decomposing carbonates and chloride of potassium. Ob- tained by adding caustic ammonia to a solu- tion of osmic acid in an excess of potash, when a yellow crystalline powder separates; the acid may be obtained in solution by adding sulphuric acid to azo-osmate of barytes ; the solution pre- cipitates nitrate of silver, lemon-yellow, and crys- talline. The salt of barytes consists of soluble yel- low needles. The chlorides of osmium are OsCl ; OsClo ? OsCl 3 ? The sulphides are OsS; OsS 2 , OsS 3 ; OsS 3 ; OsS 4 . The sulphates are three in number, protosulphate, sulphate of blue oxide, sulphate of binoxide. Osmium-ii idiiim. See IRIDOSMINE. Ossifications. A result produced in carti- laginous structures, in which, by the deposition of bone earth, the flexible cartilages assume the consistence of bone. Osteosarcoma. (oir-nov, bone, and **?, flesh.) A species of tumour groAving on animals, consisting of water 87-86, cartilage 9-85, albu- men -3, fats -28, CaOCO 2 '67, bone earth :>',>, NaOS0 3 and KOS0 3 -21, CaOCOo -14, K and NaCl -1. Osthcolitc. Spec. grav. 3-06. A chalky-like variety of apatite, found in Hanau in dolerite, containing 86 per cent, of phosphate of lime. 401 2D OST Osfraiiitc. Spec. grav. 4-4, H 6-25. Brown rhombic prisms from the Zircon syenite of Fred- ericksvarn(?) B.B. infusible; fuses with soda with difficulty into a glass; insoluble in nitric acid. Ostreocolla. A synonyme of carbonate of lime. Otto. See ATTAR OF ROSES. Ottrelitc. Spec. grav. 4-4, H 6 ? Gray or greenish-black small brilliant plates ; streak pale green ; fracture uneven. B.B. fuses into a mag- netic bead; dissolves slowly in borax, showing iron, and manganese with soda. Si< ) 3 43*34, AloO 3 24-63, FeO 16-72, MnO 8-18, HO 5-66. Ottrez, Luxembvfrg. Ouwarowite. Emerald-green garnet ; Bis- sersk, Russia. Oxacids. Under this term are included all acids containing oxygen. They are divisible into two classes, those having a simple and those having a compound base. Thus the oxygen acids of sulphur have a simple base, sulphur, while the organic oxygen acids may be composed of two compound bodies united together. These may be termed conjugate or coupled acids. Thus tartar ic acid can be resolved into oxalic and acetic acids. Oxalatcs. Combinations of oxalic acid with basic oxides; they are semel, bin, and quater oxalates, the compounds being arranged in geo- metrical progression, and no intermediate salts being known; basic oxalates also exist as din- oxalate of lead (2PbO,C-> ( > 3 ) and tribasic oxa- lates. The alkaline oxalates and oxalates of glucina, chromium, manganese, and iron, are soluble in water, the others insoluble, or scarcely soluble. The anhydrous oxalates, when heated, leave oxides or metals, carbonic oxide and car- bonic acid being evolved. The alkaline and earthy oxalates, when distilled, leave a carbonate, and give out carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, water, acetic acid, acetone and tarry matters. The oxa- lates may be distinguished from other salts by their- yielding with hot sulphuric acid equal volumes of carbonic acid and carbonic oxide ; alkaline oxalates are resolved by ferments into carbonates. Oxalate of Lime or Mulberry calculus. See URINE. Oxal-azo-p!icnylaiiiic Acid. C 1fi II 7 No o, lamine on oxalic acid. Oxal-azo-phcitylamfde. C 12 H 5 N 3 8 . Oxalhydric Acid. A synonyme of Saccharic acid. Oxalic Acid. Acidum Sacchari (Bergman). C 2 O 3 or CO,C0 2 4-5, 36 ; in crystals C 2 3 3HO orHOC 2 O 3 2HO 7-875, 63. Spec. grav. 1-507. This acid was discovered in 1776 by Scheele, according to Ehrhart, Hermbstadt, and West- rumb (Keir's Diet, and Elwert's Mag. for Apo- thecaries, 1785, p. 1, 54), although its discovery was long attributed to Bergman. It occurs as a Yellow grains, by the action of azopheny- OXA bisalt with potash, as in Oxalis acetosella, Rumex acetosa, and also as oxalate of lime in the rhu- barb, a plant also which owes its acidity to malic acid. It exists as sesquioxalate of iron in Hum- boldtite. Oxalic acid consists of transparent crys- tals, commonly as flat plates, but consisting oi 6-sided irregular prisms, the primary form being an oblique 4-sided prism, with angles of 98 30', 63 5', 129 20', 103 15'. The crystals, when heated a little above 212, lose 28-57 per cent, (2 atoms) of water. The remaining 14-3 per cent. (1 atom) remains, and is not expelled till the heat be raised to 311, when carbonic oxide, car- bonic acid, and formic acids escape, and nothing remains. 12(C 2 O 3 HO) become by heat 10CO, 12CO 2 ,C 2 HO 3 HO (formic acid and 10HO). The simple hydrate of oxalic acid (HO,C 2 3 ) sublimes above 212 in the form of woolly flocks. Nitric acid converts oxalic acid into carbonic acid, and sulphuric acid causes the evolution of carbonic oxide and carbonic acid. Binoxide of manganese, sesquioxides of cobalt and nickel, brown oxide of lead and chromic acid, convert oxalic acid into carbonic acid (Mn O 2 2C 2 O 3 MnOC 2 O 3 , 2 C( ) 2 ) a reac- tion applied to determine the value of binoxide of manganese (q.v.). Crystals of oxalic acid dis- solve in 2 parts water at 65-7 (Bergman, 1-255), the spec. grav. of the solution being 1-0593, 8 parts of water at 60, in 4 alcohol at 60 (Lie- big) ; in their own weight of boiling water. 100 boiling alcohol dissolve 56 parts, cold alcohol 40 parts (Bergman). Test. When pure, oxalic acid should leave no residue when dissolved in water ; it should precipitate lime water and solution of sul- phate of lime white ; it should contain no nitric acid, and give out no NO 4 Avhen heated. Prepara- tion. 1. Oxalic acid may be prepared by heating 1 part of sugar or potato starch with 5 parts of nitric acid, spec. grav. 1-42, and 10 parts of Ava- ter with the aid of gentle heat, until the evolution of gas ceases. The liquid by evaporation affords crystals, which are to be drained from the mother liquor either on paper or on a tile, until they are dry, when they are again to be dissolved in water and subjected to a second crystallization. Starch yields about the eighth part, and sugar about half its weight of acid. 2. Oxalic acid may like- wise be prepared from binoxalate of potash, a salt in use in manufactures, by dissolving the salt in hot water and adding a solution of acetate of lead or of sulphide of barium. The precipitate is thrown on a filter, washed, and decomposed in the moist state with a slight excess of dilute sulphuric acid ; sulphate of lead or barytes falls, which is separated by nitration, and the oxalic acid solution concentrated and crystallized. Oxalite. A synonyme of Oxalate of iron or Humboldtine. Oxalmethylovinidc. Oxalate of Ethyh and Methyle, Oxalvino-Melhylide? CjoHgOg, Oxaloviuic Acid. See ETHYLE, BINOXA- J.ATE OF. OXA Oxaluranilide. C 12 ,C ( ;H0 4 ,3NH 2 H 2 ,0 2 White pearly minute needles by parabanic" acu and aniline. Oxaluric Acid. C 6 NH 2 4 , 4 . Whit( acid crystalline powder, obtained by boiling para banic acid dissolved in ammonia, and decompos ing the oxalurate of ammonia formed by a mm eral acid. Oxalyle. C 2 2 . The hypothetic base o oxalic acid. Oxainelanilc. C 30 H 11 N 3 4 . Yellow crusts by chlorohydric acid on dicyanomelaniline. Oxamethaiie. Oxamate of ethyle. C 4 NH 2 H^^Og. Pearly plates by passing dry ammonia through a tube in a retort containing dry oxalic ether. Oxamethylane. C 2 H 3 ,NH 2 ,C 4 6 . White crystalline body, by passing dry ammonia over heated oxalate of methyle (oxalic mether). Oxamic Acid. C 4 NH 2 HO 2 , 4 . White crystalline grains ; obtained by heating binoxa- late of ammonia in an oil bath till it fuses and begins to swell up. The cold aqueous solution of oxamic acid is then neutralized with ammonia, crystallized out, and decomposed with dilute sulphuric acid ; it is monobasic, and forms crys- talline salts. Oxamide. C 4 NH 2 2 ,0 2 . White granular powder, or crystalline plates, tasteless, odour- less, neutral ; in a retort incompletely fusible, partially subliming and partially decompos- ing into cyanogen and carbon; soluble in 10,000 cold water; converted by chlorine wa- ter into IIC1, C 2 O 3 ; by boiling with nitric acid into NO and 2C0 2 ; in a metallic tube hermetically sealed and heated to 590 it yields Oy,CO 2 and NH 3 . Obtained by adding ammo- nia to oxalic ether or by distilling oxalate of ammonia, when a portion passes into the receiver and a portion is sublimed, mixed with carbonate of ammonia, Oxamide is the type of the amides, and is oxalate of ammonia deprived of hydrogen and oxygen, in the proportion to form 2 atoms water; when heated with an alkali an oxalate is formed and ammonia evolved. Oxauiidc-Oxanilide. Oxanilamide. C^Hg ^ 2 O 4 . Crystals by chlorohydric acid on cyani- iue. Oxamylane. CioNHjHnC*^ ? Crystals jy dry ammonia on dry oxalate of amyle. Oxauilamide. C 12 (C 4 H0 2 ) 2 NH 2 H 3 2 . White silky flocks, by evaporating cyaniline and chlorohydric acid together. Oxanilic Acid. Cj 2 (C 4 H0 2 ) NH 2 H 4 O 4 . Fine acid plates, by heating aniline and an excess f oxalic acid for ten minutes. Oxanilidc. C 28 H 12 N 2 4 . White pearly scales, by the action of dilute acids on cyani- ine. Oxhaverite. Pale green Apophyllite from Iceland. Oxibromides. Compounds of bromine with in oxide. OXY Oxichlorides. Compounds of chlorine with an oxide. Oxidation, Oxygenation, Oxidizement, are terms which express the union of ox} r gen with another substance, and the formation of a com- pound body. If the product unites with acids it is termed an oxide, as when iron or zinc are burned in oxygen gas. If the product unites with an oxide, it is termed an acid. When oxygen is removed from a substance with which it is united, as for example when dry hydrogen is passed over oxide of copper at a red heat, the pro- cess is termed deoxidation or deoxidizement. The proportions in which oxygen unites with the same body are sometimes exceedingly numerous. See NOMENCLATUBE. Oxides. The oxides may be divided into basic oxides, which unite with acids, acid oxides, which neutralize basic oxides, that is, combine with them and overcome many of their properties, such as the character of the alkaline oxides to turn vio- lets green, and themselves lose the power of red- dening litmus. The neutral oxides, such as the binoxide of manganese (Mn0 2 ), do not unite with either bases or acids. The term saline oxides has been applied to those compounds whicli are produced by the union of two oxides of the same metal, as the protosesquioxide of man- ganese (MnOM 2 O 3 ) and lead (PbOPb 2 3 ). The protoxides (MnO and PbO) may be viewed as acting the part of basic oxides, and the sesqui- oxides (Mn 2 O 3 and rb 2 O 3 ) that of acids. Oxygen. 1, 100, 8. Syn. Spiritus nitro aereus (Mayow, 1672); air (Hales, 1724); de- hlogisticated air (Priestley, 1774) ; feuerluft, or empyreal air (Scheele, 1777) ; oxygen, from , acid; and yuvo^u.^ I form (Lavoisier, 1787); vital air (Condorcet). Source. Nearly one-fifth of the bulk of the atmosphere consists of oxygen gas. Water, .vhich constitutes the most abundant sujjstance >n the earth's surface, contains 1 part of oxygen n every 1-| part by weight. The rooks also, vhich form the crust of the globe, with the ani- aals and vegetables which subsist on it, contain xygen in abundance. Physical Characters. Oxygen is a transparent, )ermanent, colourless gas, without taste and mell, possessing all the mechanical properties of' oinmon air. Its specific gravity 1-1111 (Thom- on), 1-1026 (Berzelius and Dulong), 1-1057 Dumas, An. Chim. 8, 201), 1-1056 (Regnault, An. Chim. 3d ser. 14, 211). Weight of 100 ubic inches at 60, and 30 inches of pressure 1 cubic inches of air weighing 31-0117 grains), 14-1898 (Saussure and Regnault), 34-457 (Thom- on), 34-289 (Dumas), 34-2138 grains (Def- ault), that of air being 30-948824. Oxygen has lever been condensed into a liquid, although it has )een exposed to intense pressure of many atmo.-- heres (Faraday). 100 cubic inches of water, from vhich the air has been expelled by boiling, dis- olve 3-55 cubic inches of oxygen (Henry, Phil. 403 OXY Trans. 1808). When rapidly condensed in a syringe, it evolves a heat exceeding 390, pro- duces a bright light, and inflames the oil of the syringe (Thenard, Dobereiner). Its refracting power, in reference to light, is small, being to that of air as -924 to I (Dulong, An. Chim. 31, 1GG), or -861 (Biot and Arago). Its specific heat is -9765. When a body containing oxygen is exposed to the galvanic action, the oxygen always appears at the positive pole, and hence it is termed an electro-negative body, being the most electro-negative of any known sub- stance. Preparation of Oxygen Gas. This gas is pro- cured from various bodies, containing oxygen in a solid form. 1. From Binoxide of Manganese (Scheele, 1775). The most economical substance for supplying oxygen is binoxide, or black oxide of manganese (Mn0 2 ), a mineral which occurs in Devonshire and on the Rhine; 3 atoms of it yield 2 atoms of oxygen, and leave the red oxide (Mn 3 4 ), according to the following scheme : 3 Atoms Binoxide of Manganese. 3-447 Mn 3-447 3-447 Mn Mn 111111 000000 14-337 Mn 3 4 or Red Oxide. 6 2 2 Oxygen. 3 atoms of binoxide may be also represented by the formula Mn 3 6 . When ignited 2 atoms are removed and Mn 2 O 4 or MnO Mn 2 O 3 remains, usually termed red oxide of manganese. It is always formed when the oxides of manganese are exposed to a red heat. The process admits also of a simpler statement, viz. that the binoxide loses f of an atom of oxygen, so that 5-447 grains of black oxide are changed to 4-78 of red oxide (and yielding 12-3 per cent, oxygen). Commercial manganese, however, is seldom quite pure, and contains frequently carbonate of lime and other foreign matters, so that the product is inferior to those numbers. Manganite or sesquioxide of manganese (Mn(_)l or Mn 2 3 ) likewise yields a small portion of manganese. 5 grains being changed into 4*833 red oxide yield consequently only 166 grains or 6 atoms = 30 grains aftbrd 1 grain of oxygen or about 3 per cent. A convenient apparatus consists of an iron bottle, the mouth of which is ground so as to have a tube adapted to it. The bottle is nearly filled with binoxide of manganese in powder ; a tube Supplied with a joint is then luted to it by means of pipe-clay, the farther end of the tube being introduced into the lower aperture of a gas-holder ; the bottle is surrounded by h& coals in a furnace, and is raised to a bright red heat. The tube should not be inserted in the gas-holder until the common OXY air has been expelled from the bottle and tube, and until a glowing splinter of wood is re-ignited on being placed in contact with the gas issuing from the tube. When it is required that the gas should be thoroughly free from carbonic acid, an intermediate vessel filled with milk of lime should be arranged so as to wash the gas before it enters the gas-holder. 2. From binoxide of manganese and sulphuric acid. The theory of this process is, that sulphuric acid will only combine with manganese when It contains 1 atom of oxygen; consequently the second atom, or excess of oxygen, is evolved, as appears from the diagram. Sulphuric acid. 5 S0 3 Black oxide of mangan 3-447 1 1 = 10-447 Mn 9-447 Mn O S0 3 Sulphate of manganese. ol manganese. 1 == 10-447 = 10-447 1 Oxygen. Common oil of vitriol (HOS0 3 ) is poured into a retort or flask, and a sufficient quantity of black oxide of manganese in powder is added, to form a paste; the apparatus being adjusted (see GAS, COLLECTION OF), heat is applied to the retort and oxygen is evolved, while sulphate of manganese remains in the retort. Pure black oxide of man- ganese yields about 18-3 percent, of oxygen by this process, Avhilethe sesquioxide (MnOl = 4'947) loses '5 of an atom in 5 grains, of about 10 per cent. When the manganese contains common salt, or the sulphuric acid chlorine, that gas will contaminate the oxygen ; it will be absorbed by allowing the gas to stand for some time over water, with frequent agitation. 3. From Chlorate of Potash. Oxygen may be obtained in a pure state from this salt, which is a compound of chlorine, oxygen, and potas- sium, and occurs in commerce in the form of colourless crystalline plates. When heat is ap- plied to this salt, the whole of the oxygen con- tained in it* is removed, while the chlorine and potassium remain in the state of chloride of potas- sium (KO C10 5 = KC1 and O 6 ) . The chlorate of potash, in consequence of its property of yield- ing oxygen with facility, is much employed in the manufacture of lucifer matches. The salt is to be mixed with one-third its weight of dry black oxide of manganese, or, better still, black oxide of copper (Mitscherlich), well triturated in a mortar, and then introduced into a dry retort, by means of a funnel. The heat of a spirit-lamp or gas flame is then to be applied to the salt in the belly of the retort ; the beak of the retort being placed under an inverted jar filled with water, inserted in a gas or pneumatic trough. The first bubbles of gas which pass over are not to be collected, as they consist of the common air of the retort ; but as soon as the bubbles be- 404 OXY gin to succeed each other rapidly, they are to be collected. Chemical Characters. 1. Oxygen can be re- cognized by the peculiarity which it possesses of relighting a splinter of wood or taper, which has been made to gloAV, the flame being extinguished. When introduced into oxy- gen it bursts into a flame, with an audible sound. In this case the oxygen is said to support the combustion of the wood. It unites with the car- bon and hydrogen of the wood, and forms carbonic acid and water (C0 2 and HO). That carbonic acid is produced may be proved by pouring in lime water into the jar in which the experiment is made, when a white precipitate of carbonate of lime will fall. 2. That oxygen is a supporter of combustion, and not a combustible body, may be shown by inverting a jar full of this gas over a candle ; the oxygen does not take fire, but the flame of the candle increases in size and bril- liancy ; the carbon and hydrogen of the candle unite with the oxygen, and form carbonic acid and water, as in the former case. If we repeat this experiment with a jar filled with common coal gas, we shall find that the flame of the candle will be extinguished, but that the gas will burst into flame at the mouth of the jar, and burn only where it is in contact with the oxygen of the air. Coal gas is a combustible body, and oxygen of the air supports its combustion. The carbon and hydrogen of the gas unite with the oxygen in the combustion and form carbonic acid and water. 3. When an iron or copper dipper, sup- plied with a wire, is inserted in a cork, and some powdered charcoal ignited in the ladle over a lamp, is immersed in oxygen, the charcoal kindles, glows with great vivacity, and even bursts into flame, Charcoal is principally com- posed of carbon, one of the elements of na- ture, and oxygen being also an element ; when the two unite they form the compound, carbonic acid (CO 2 ). The presence of carbonic acid ma^^ be proved by means of lime water. Sulphur may also be burned in a similar manner. 4. So great is the affinity of oxygen for simple bodies, that iron can even be made to burn in it. Roll up a piece of iron wire spirally upon a thin tube, and insert one of the extremi- ties in a cork, and to the lower end fix a loop of cotton wick dipped in melted sulphur, or a piece of phosphorus, or glow- ing amadou, or tinder. The oxygen should be contained in a jar, the bottom of which is strewed with sand, and co- vered with water, or the jar may ue open at both ends. The wick or phosphorus being ignited, the fluid OYS is to be rapidly introduced into the oxygen, Avhen the wire will be found to burn with great splendour (Ingenhousz, 1782, Nouv. Exp. p. 411). Oxygen may also be obtained by heating red oxide of mercury, or red lead, or bichromate of potash with sulphuric acid. Oxygen is a term used by bleachers to desig- nate bleaching powder. Oxy-IIydrogen Blowpipe. A contrivance for projecting an ignited current of oxygen and hydrogen upon a body. The use of this blow- pipe for chemical purposes appears to have originated at the same time (1801) with Dr. Thomson and Dr. Hare. The ap- paratus of Dr. Thomson is very convenient for class-room experi- ments. It consists of two vessels of tin japanned, one for hydrogen, double the size of that intended to hold the oxygen. These are filled with gases, as in the common gas- holder. Connected with these gas- holders are two tubes which termi- nate above in a large reservoir of water, which, by means of stop -cocks, is al- lowed to pass down into the gas-holders to press out the gases when they are required. The two gases, when they are to be used, escape by two tubes into a common nozzle tipped with plati- num, at the point of which they are ignited. The gases being in separate vessels, there is no risk of explosion, except from a leakage in the hydrogen vessel, which would admit common air. The ignited hydrogen flame might then rush back into the mixture and explode it. Care should therefore be taken to have it perfectly air- tight, and, to prevent, all risk, the two tubes should be connected by Hemming's safety jet- All the illuminating and heating powers of the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe may be exhibited with- out much diminution of effect, by substituting common coal gas for the hydrogen. The two gases may then be kept in two separate gas- holders, or mixed in the same bladder sup- plied with a Hemming's jet, as already de- scribed. Oxylizaric Aeid. C 15 H 5 5 . Crystals from madder by the action of alum, in solutions of which it is soluble ; soluble in hot water, alcohol, ether, alkalies, and sulphuric actd. Oxymel. A mixture of vinegar and honey. Oxymiiriatic Aeiil, and Oxymuriatcg. The former name of chlorine and chlorides. Oxyphcnic Acid. A synonyme of Pyromo- rintannic, or Phenic acid. xypicric Acid. See STYPHNIC ACID. Oxyporphyric Acid. A synonyme of por- phyric acid. Oxyprussic Acid. A synonyme of Chloro- cyanogen. Oxysulphides. Compounds of sulphur with oxides. Oyster. Ostrea edulis. An excellent edible 405 OZA mollusc, affording pure fibrine when treated with water, alcohol, and ether. Ozarkite. A mineral from Ozark's moun- tains, Arkansas. The specimens I have seen are crystalline with the colour of sphene, with a specific gravity of 2-638; H 5-5, and about 37-5 per cent, of silica ; decomposed by acids. Ozokerite. Spec. grav. -946, -953. RP.143 to 183. B.P.260,410 570, CH. Brown re- sinous waxy substance, green by transmitted light ; slightly soluble in alcohol and ether ; obviously a mixture. Moldavia; Urpeth, Newcastle. Ozone. (Schonbein). The peculiar odour en- gendered when water is decomposed by the gal- vanic battery is due, according to Schonbein, to the isolation of a body, ozone. 1. It is readily pre- pared by introducing into large stoppered bottles, a thin layer of water, and allowing some sticks of phosphorus to stand half immersed in the water, and half in the air of the bottles, which are closed with stoppers. In twelve hours the phosphorus and water being removed, and the bottles washed out with pure water, the air of the bottles is charged with a peculiar smell, that of ozone (o&, I smell). 2. It is also produced by passing electric sparks through dry oxygen gas. . 3. The same odour is perceptible in dry air which has been passed from a gasometer through a tube 3|- feet long and inch in diameter, containing through- out its length sticks of phosphorus. 4. It is also formed in the decomposition of water by the gal- vanic battery. PAL Characters. Ozonized air may be tested che- mically by means of a piece of paper soaked in a paste of iodide of potassium and starch. When immersed in the ozonized air the iodine is set free, unites with the starch, and changes the paper to a blue or yellow colour, a result also of chlo- rine and nitrous acid. Yellow prussiate of potash immediately removes the odour from ozon- ized air, and is converted into red prussiate. It decomposes indigo, iodide, and bromide of potas- sium. In presence of water it converts iodine into iodic acid, sulphurous acid into sulphuric acid, protoxide of iron into sesquioxide. The vapour of ether Vhen burned in common air has a similar oxidizing effect; a jet of hydrogen burned in air also oxidizes, and likewise the flame of a common candle, and different com- bustibles. According to Schonbein it is a peculiar substance ; according to Marignac it is a modifi- cation of oxygen, or some peculiar compound of oxygen and hydrogen. According to Williamson it is a different substance, as prepared by the different processes. When furnished by the bat- ter}' it is a hyperoxide of hydrogen ; by the elec- tric spark in air it is nitrous acid ; by phos- phorus it is hyperoxide of hydrogen. When test paper for ozone is acted on in the open air, the presence of ozone it has been in- ferred is indicated; chlorine and nitrous acid in the ah* would, however, produce similar effects. Packfong. The Chinese name of Argentane. JPaco. A synonyme of Red Silver ore. Pagodite. A synonyme of Agalmatolite. Paints. See PIGMENTS. Palagonite. Spec. grav. 2-43, H 5-. Silica 39-98, Al 2 Oo, 8-26, Fe 2 O 3 17-65, CaO 8-48, MgO 4-45, KO -43, NaO -61, HO 18-25, matrix 1-89. Form. 3RO,2Si0 3 -j-2Al 3 3 Si0 3 -f-HO. Frollkonugil, near Hecla, Iceland. A yellow or brownish-yellow metamorphic rock, with a re- sinous somewhat glassy lustre, found in the tuff of Sicily, Iceland, Galapagos. It appears to have been produced by the action of lava on limestone ; and an analogous change appears to be produced wherever limestone comes in contact with pyroxenic rocks. It may be imitated by calcining together 1 part of levigated basalt with 13 of caustic lime exposed to the air. A pela- gonitic sand is formed by introducing powdered basalt into a great excess of fused caustic potash, pouring water over the whole, and washing ; it gelatinizes with acids (Bunsen). Palladammonium. Palladamine, N,PdH 3 . Microscopic 8-hedrons or brown amorphous resin- ous mass, not changed at 212 ; obtained by pre- cipitating a solution of chloride, bromide, or fluoride of palladium, &c. with ammonia; dis- solving the precipitate in an excess, and saturating with the acid required to form the peculiar salt. From the chlorine and bromine salts the hydrogen acids precipitate the palladammonium as yellow crystalline precipitates. The base may be isolated by mixing the chlorine compound with oxide of silver, or precipitating the sulphate with hy- drate of barytes ; a yellow alkaline solution is obtained, which by evaporation in vacuo yields the base ; when free from carbonic acid, it is quite soluble in water. Pallad-anil-aninionium. N,C 12 H 7 ,II 2 , Pd. By adding aniline to chloride of palladium. PaUad-etliylammonium. N,C 4 H 5 , U 2 ,Pd. Obtained by ethylamine on chloride of palladium. Palladi-ammonium. Palladiamine. N,NH 4 H 2 Pd. Crystalline mass ; a base formed on the type of ammonium (NH^, in which 2 atoms hydrogen are replaced by 1 palladium and 1 am- monium ; obtained by treating a palladium or palladammonium salt with excess of ammonia, and evaporating; colourless crystals separate, from which the base may be isolated, as in the preceding instance. Palladi-ethyl-ammonium. NJIj-N,!^, Pd. By adding ethylamine to chloride of pallad- ammonium. 406 PAL Palladiocyaiiogen. Cy 2 Pd. A radical obtained in union with potassium, when ferro- cvanide of potassium, is fused with palladium in powder. Palladium. Native. Sp. grav. 12-14; 11-8, H 4-75. Steel-gray fibrous 8-hedrons with a square base? or rhombohedrons. B.B. infusible per se, but readily melts with sulphur, and leaves a globule of metal ; opaque ; metallic lustre ; con- sists of palladium with some platinum and iridium. What has been described as a selenide appears to be native ore, and so does eugenesite. Palladium. (Wollaston, 1803). Pd 6-6625, 53-3 ; 6-75, 54'0. Specific gravity fused 11-04, 11-3 to 11-8, hammered 11-852, 12', 12- 148 ; G-sided tables as hard as platinum, or gray spongy mass ; infusible in a blast furnace ; ob- tained from the solution of palladium ore in nitro chlorohydric acid, by the addition of cyanide of mercury. The solution contains platinum, pal- ladium, rhodium, and some iridium ; cyanide of palladium falls which leaves on ignition palla- dium ; palladium is also obtained by igniting the ammonia-chloride. Protoxide, Semeloxide. Pd O 7'6625, 61-3. Black mass or powder, obtained by igniting pal- ladium, or the protonitrate of palladium, in the air. This oxide forms salts with acids, in which the hydrate is soluble. The hydrate is obtained by precipitating a solution of the protosalts of pal- ladium with carbonate of soda. Blnoxide. Pd, Q 2 . Black powder by pouring caustic soda, or its carbonate in solution, on the dry potash-chloride of palladium, boiling and washing the precipitate; soluble with difficulty in acids, and forming salts, the solutions being yellow. Protochloride. Pd Cl. Blackish-brown orrose sublimate, obtained by evaporating the solution of palladium in nitro chlorohydric acid, or by heating sulphide in chlorine gas ; decomposed by ignition ; a valuable test for iodides. Bichloride obtained only in solution by dissolving the bin- oxide in chlorohvdric acid. Iodide. Pd I 22- 4125, 179-3 = Pd 29-73 I 70-27. Black mass bv precipitating a protoxide salt with iodide of potassium, obtained in estimating iodine by chlo- ride of palladium. Bromide, also a brown mass, obtained by dissolving palladium in a mixture of bromohydric and nitric acids, and evaporating. Protonitrate is obtained also by dissolving palla- dium in nitric acid containing nitrous acid. Sul- phate. Brown crystals, procured by dissolving the metal or the oxide in sulphuric acid. The ammonia protockloride, NH 3 PdCl, or red salt, is formed in rose scales by adding a slight excess of ammonia to the protochloride of palladium. The yellow salt seems to possess the same composition, is in fine needles, and contains half its weight of palladium ; obtained by precipitating protochlo- ride with ammonia, redissolving the precipitate with excess, and evaporating or adding chloro- hydric acid, ^^diammonia protochloride, 2NH 3 , PAP PdCl,HO, white crystals, is procured by dis- solving the red or yellow compound in ammonia and evaporating, keeping up an excess of am- monia. Palinic Acid. HO,C 34 H 32 5 5 F.P. 113 to 114 -8. Small needles obtained by saponify- ing castor oil, and decomposing the soap by chloro- hydric acid ; the acids are then diffused" through dilute nitric acid, through which a current of nitrous vapour is passed; the fat acid becomes yellow and waxy, and is purified by crystalliza- tion out of alcohol. Palmiue. F.P. 151. C 37 H 34 O 6 . White waxy or resinous body, obtained by acting on castor oil with nitrous acid ; very soluble in al- cohol and ether. Palmitic Acid. C 32 H 31 3 ,HO. F.P. 140. Pearly scales, soluble in alcohol, procured by sa- ponifying palm oil or palmitine, or from coffee berries. Palmitiiic. C 35 H 33 4 . F.P. 118. White crystalline body ; soluble in hot ether ; little soluble in hot alcohol ; consisting of palmitic acid and oxide of glyceryle or lipyle. Palxnitonic Acid. C 31 H 30 3 HO. F.P. 125. White granular or star-like flakes ; pro- cured by exposing palmitic acid to a temperature of 482 to 572 in air; water and carbonic acid being evolved. Palm Oil. F.P. 90? A deep yellow oil from the fruit of the Elais Guineensis, the oil palm of the coast of Guinea. It is much used in this country for making palm soap, and for this purpose requires to be bleached. This may be effected by passing steam through a worm immersed in it in the open air, or by chlorine evolved by mixing the oil with bichromate of potash and muriatic acid. Paiiabase. A synonyme of gray copper ore. Pancreatic Juice. Spec. grav. 1008-2. A limpid, viscid, alkaline fluid, secreted by the pancreas or sweet bread, resembling saliva; it contains 917 to 963 water, 36 to 15 soluble in alcohol, 15-3 to 2-8 caseine, &c. soluble in water, and 35 to 22 albumen and salts. When mixed in a glass tube with some oil or fat, the latter becomes immediately an emulsion, a fat acid and glycerine being evolved. The white appear- ance presented by the chyle has been ascribed to this emulsion ; but it does not seem that the pre- sence of pancreatic juice is essential to the absorp- tion of fat by the chyliferous vessels. The pan- creatic fluid converts starch into sugar. Panificatiosi. (Pa/w's, bread ; facere, to make.) See BREAD. Papaverinc. C 40 H 21 NOg. Needles sol- uble in cold and hot alcohol ; insoluble in water ; slightly soluble in ether ; rendered blue by sul- phuric acid ; forms crystalline salts ; obtained by treating with alcohol the brown resinous mass from crude morphine precipitated by soda from the aqueous solution of opium ; the brown extract 407 PAP is evaporated, the residue digested with dilute acid, filtered and precipitated by ammonia. Papin's Digester. A strong iron box, fitted with a screw, by which water may be boiled and raised to a temperature above 400. Papyrine. Woody fibre. C 43-3, H 6-2 49-3. A membranous sxibstance, obtained bj steeping woody fibre in sulphuric acid for half-a- minute, and washing for a few seconds in wa- ter. Parabanic Acid. C 6 N 2 4 2HO. Crystal- line mass formed by heating alloxane or uric acu with an excess of nitric acid, or from the acic mother liquors of alloxane. Paracacodyle, Oxide of. C 4 AsH 6 An oil by distilling cacodylic acid. . Parachlorocyanic Acid, with NH 3 . A synonyme of Chlorocyanamide, CcN 3 Ad 2 Cl, ammonia on chlorocyanogen. Paracholic Acid. See BILE. Paracitric Acid. A synonyme of Citracic or Citraconic Acid. Paracolnmbite. In granite, containing columbic acid, in the United States ? Paracomeiiic Acid. Ci 2 H 4 Oi - Isomeric with comenic acid ; in feathery crystals by the dry distillation of meconic or comenic acids. Paracopaiba Oil. C^oHg. Spec. grav. 91 ; B.P. 485^. A variety of Copaiba oil. Paracyanic Acid. C 8 N 4 ? Paracyanogen. C 12 N 6 . Black substance without smell and taste, by heating some metallic cyanides in close vessels as cyanides of mercury, silver and ferrocyanide of lead ; soluble in hot sulphuric and muriatic acids, and caustic potash. Paraellagic Acid. By heat from ellagic acid. Paraffine. F.P. 115-3, 110; 105 to 115 (from coal, R.D.T.). C 20 H 21 ? Spec. grav. -87. White waxy body or silvery scales, obtained from the last portions in the distillation of coal tar, and crystallizing from ether ; it is procured in large quantity in the distillation of Boghead coal at a low red heat (J. Young), and in the distillation of peat. It is probably the type of a series to which methylene, butylene, &c. belong, which are the bihydrides of the radicals of their respective acids. It has little affinity for other bodies, and hence its name. Paraffine Oil. A clear transparent oil, lighter than water, used for machinery, appar- ently a mixture, consisting essentially of solid paraffine dissolved in an isomeric fluid oil ; ob- tained from bituminous coal, such as parrot, can- nel, or gas coal. The coals are broken into small pieces and introduced into a common gas iron retort supplied with a worm pipe passing through a refrigerator kept at a temperature of 55 by a stream of cold water ; the retort is heated up cautiously to a low red heat, which is never pushed higher than the point required for the separation of the fluid oil ; at a higher temperature gas is evolved. To purify the oil it is placed in a cis- 408 PAR tem and heated to 150, when impurities separate from it ; it is then distilled ; the distilled oil mixed with 10 gallons of oil of vitriol to 100 gallons oil, and allowed to stand for twelve hours in a lead vessel ; the supernatant oil is drawn off and mixed with 4 gallons caustic soda (spec, grav. 1-3) to 100 oil, and allowed to stand for eight hours in an iron vessel ; the oil is run off and again distilled ; a more volatile oil may now be separated by boiling the paraffine oil with water ; the steam carrying over the volatile oil. It is further purified successively by sulphuric acid and chalk. When the oil is cooled to 40 or lower it deposits solid paraffine. It is a valuable oil for lubricating machinery (J. Young). Parafumaric Acid. A synonyme of Maleic acid. Paragenesis of Minerals. The production of minerals depending on the existence of others. Paragoiiite The talc slate of St. Gothard. Without magnesia. Paraguay Tea. Yerva Mate. The leaves of the Ilex Paraguaiensis, used as tea in Brazil. They contain colouring matter, two resins, tannic acid, oil, albumen, and theine or psoraleine. Paralbumen. The albumen obtained from ovarian dropsy, precipitated imperfectly by acetic acid and boiling. Paramaleic Acid or Fumaric acid. Parameiiispcrmine. A base contained in Cocculus Indicus. Paramide. CgHN0 4 . A yellow substance like clay, obtained with euchroic acid by heating mellate of ammonia to 320. Paramidic Acid. C 24 H 5 lSr 3 Oi 4 . White needles by pouring ammonia on paramide and adding it to chlorohydric acid ; it precipitates. Paramorphine. A synonyme of Thebaine. Paramorphism. Bodies of a similar com- position, such as the naphthaline compounds, fhich crystallize in different systems, are para- morphous. Paramucie Acid. C 12 H 10 Oi , 6 - Rec- tangular tables, obtained by evaporating an aqueous solution of mucie acid to dryness, dis- solving in alcohol and evaporating spontaneously ; its salts are more soluble than the mucates ; its solutions in boiling water yield mucic acid. Parainylciie. A synonyme of Valerene. Paramylon. Ci 2 H 10 Oio- White granules ike wheat starch, insoluble in hot and cold water ; unacted on by diastase, till boiled with uming chlorohydric acid. At 392 turns brown without fusing and becomes soluble in water ; not coloured by iodine ; obtained from the Eugenia viridis by treating the green scum of stagnant waters with ether and alcohol, and then with boil- ng muriatic acid and alcohol. Paranaphthaliiie. See ANTHRACENE. Paraniccne. Spe 7-, 56; P 57-6O 43-3. White voluminous flocks, easily sublimed, with a garlic odour, a peculiar acid taste; reddening moist litmus paper. It is ob- 414 PHO tained by exposing phosphorus to the air. whe water is attracted, and an acid liquid forme* (Steinacher). The following has been re commended: A glass tube 10 inches long am half-an-inch wide, melted at one end so as t leave an aperture of the diameter of a pin, anc at the distance of half-an-inch or an inch fron the^end, the tube is to be bent at an obtuse angle a piece of phosphorus is to be introduced nea the narrow opening, and heated gradually, when it bums with a pale green flame, forming phos- phorous acid, which collects in the upper part o the tube in the form of a white powder. When phosphorus is heated in highly rarefied air, ac- cording to Sir H. Davy, there are formed phos- phoric acid, phosphorous acid, and oxide of phos- phorus. Hydrate of Phosphorous Acid. 3 II OPOo; PO 3 = 72-46, HO = 27-54. Transparent paralleli- pepicls, changing by heat into phosphoric acid and phosphuretted hydrogen. 1. When phosphorus is heated, and its vapour made to pass through corrosive sublimate, terchloride of phosphorus is formed. When this compound is mixed with water it is converted into chlorohydric acid and phosphorous acid (PC1 3 3HO=3HC1PO 3 ). By a moderate heat the chlorohydric acid is ex- pelled, and phosphorous acid remains. 2. It may also be formed by placing sticks of phos- phorus, fig. 1, iu tubes with a capillary open- ing,. and inserting them in a funnel, fig. 2; the whole being covered with a bell jar . Phosphorous acid collects in the bottle below! 3. It may be procured by rapidly evaporating the product of the reaction of terchloride of phos- phorus on water until the vapour of water and chlorohydric acid cease to be evolved ; the resi- due is gently heated until a slight odour of phos- phuretted hydrogen is perceptible. It is then evaporated in vacuo, and obtained in crystals. 4. It may likewise be obtained by heating* phos- phorus in a tube with capillary extremities, a, b. PHO Phosphorizcd Bases. Compounds of phos- phorus with bases. Phosphorite. Native phosphate of lime. Phosphorocalciie. Hydrous pentaphos- phate of copper. Phosphorus. P, 4, 32 (Thomson, Pelouze), 3-875, 31 (Schrbtter). Sp. grav. 1-748 (Thom- son), 1-896 '(Bockmann), 2-033 (Fourcroy), 2-089 (Bbttger), of vapour 4-355 (Dumas), 4-59 (Mits- cherlich, Pogg. 25, 218). Melting point 99, lllf(Schrotter), (Desairs), 108 (Thom- son), 1 1 2 (J. Davy), 1 1 5 (Heinrich). Boiling point 554(Pelletier), 550(Dalton),482(Hein- rich). Specific heat = -1740 (Regnault). Col- ourless, transparent when slowly cooled ; with a waxy lustre after rapid cooling. According to Schbnbein the vapour of phosphorus has no smell; the odour perceptible during the combustion or heating of phosphorus being due to the formation of ozone and phosphorous acid. Crystals regular 8-hedrons and 1 2-hedrons. In these forms it some- times occurs by simple fusion and cooling, but when dissolved in volatile oils it separates in 8- hedrons, and from phosphide of sulphur in 12- hedrons. Melted phosphorus often cools to 40 without solidifying (Bellain, Rose). Non-con- ductor of electricity. In the air it yields the odour of garlic poisonous inflammable. When kept some time in water it becomes opaque externally, and resembles white wax in ap- pearance and consistency. Its specific gravity is then 1-515 (Pelouze)". Insoluble in water ; slightly soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils. Red Phosphorus, Amorphous Phosphorus. White phosphorus appears to be free from oxygen, and so likewise is its red allotropic form. When phosphorus is placed in a tube, the common air displaced by dry carbonic acid, the tube heated to 212 to remove moisture, closed hermetically, and then exposed to light, the phosphorus becomes externally red in a few days at a tem- perature of 57. Nitrogen and other gases, except oxygen, may be used instead of carbonic acid. When phosphorus is kept at a temperature >f 464 to 482 during forty-eight or sixty hours, t separates into two layers, the upper being com- mon phosphorus, and the lower red phosphorus. On ntroducing water of 140 after the phosphorus has ooled, the upper layer melts, and may be sucked up in a tube. When the red phosphorus is dis- illed in glass balls free from air, it is converted nto fluid colourless phosphorus, which is capable >f remaining many hours iu a fluid state, and the onger in proportion to the frequency of distilla- ion. The red or amorphous phosphorus is in- oluble in bisulphide of carbon, in which common 'hosphoras is soluble. It may be further puri- ied by caustic potash, then with water contain- ng a few drops of nitric acid, and lastly with rater. When thus prepared and dried, it is an amorphous powder, varying in colour from scarlet o carmine, and even blackish-brown. It does ot alter in the ah- ; it is insoluble in bisulphide 415 mo of carbon, alcohol, ether, naphtha, protochloride of phosphorus ; oil of turpentine, and, in general, all liquids which have a high boiling point, dis- solve a small portion with heat. When heated in an oil bath it begins to return to the common state at 500. It does not unite with sulphur at the fusing point of that substance or 233, but with viscous sulphur at 44G. When it passes into the common state, light is evolved, as in the PHO case of arsenious acid. It is soluble in hot sul- phuric acid, with evolution of sulphurous acid, and in nitric acid. Hence there are five allotropic forms of phosphorus. 1. White phosphor vis, formed by light on phosphorus kept in water. 2. Transparent phosphorus in its usual fresh state. 3. lied phosphorus. 4. Liquid phosphorus, pro- duced by distilling amorphous phosphorus, some- times remaining liquid for thirty-six days, while A Clay retort covered with a layer of clay; b copper receiver half filled with water; t tube for disengaging gases ; F hearth of reverberatory furnace ; u horizontal flue ; T chimney ; T, x, y, front view of the retorts. the thermometer has been in the interval at 23. 5. Black phosphorus. When heated to 158 and cooled suddenly, phosphorus becomes black, due to a molecular change in the substance. Preparation. 1. Bones are deprived of their animal matter by being heated till they become white. Phosphate of lime remains, which is de- composed by oil of vitriol, triphosphate and sul- phate of lime being formed (8Ca03PO 5 -|-5HO SOo = 3 CaO, P0 5 , 5 CaO S< > 3 ) + 5 HO. The supernatant liquid is drawn off from the residual sulphate of lime, and evaporated to the consistence of a thick syrup. It is then mixed with one- fourth of finely powdered charcoal, and ignited in an iron crucible. The mixture is introduced into a porcelain retort, A. The retort is placed in a wind furnace and strongly heated, until the phosphorus cea.-^s to drop from the extremity of the copper tube into the water. It may be found advan- tageous to surround the clay retort with a coating of clay. It often happens that some of the phos- phorus sticks in the neck of the retort, which must be removed by means of a bent wire kept inserted into the tube of the retort. In this pro- cess the phosphate cf lime (3CaO,P0 5 ), cal- cined with an excess of lime, is changed into neutral phosphate of lime (2(Ja()P( );;), which is not decomposed by charcoal, and into carbonic oxide and phosphorus 2(CaOP0 5 ) 4- C 3 C 6 < > 5 /2(CaO,P0 5 + P> Purification. Phosphorus requires to be melted under hot water, to free it from charcoal and oxide of phosphorus; to deprive it of colour it is mixed, when melted, with animal charcoal ; it is also strained through chamois leather to free it from mechanical impurities. It is drawn into sticks by melting it in water, and sucking it up into glass tubes, either by aspiration or by the mouth ; the finger is applied to the upper end of the tube, and the whole transferred to cold water, when it solidifies. Applications. When taken internally phos- phorus is poisonous. In small doses of one-fourth of a grain it acts as an aphrodisiac (Leroi, Nicholson's Journ. 3, 85). Phosphorus is ex- tensively employed in the manufacture of lucifer matches. Hypophosphorous Acid. PO. An acid only known in union with water or bases ; obtained by placing phosphide of calcium or barium in contact with water ; phosphuretted hydrogen is evolved, while phosphate and hypophosphate of lime or barytes are formed. The type of the hypophosphates is P02HO or PH 2 ,0 3 . Dinoxide, Yellow Oxide, Red Oxide. P 2 O. Obtained by passing oxygen into phosphorus, fused under hot water ; but there is some reason to consider this red amorphous phosphorus. Qumtochloride. PClg. Obtained by burning phosphorus in chlorine gas, or by passing chlo- rine into phosphorus as long as it takes up any gas. MphoqoUde, Solid Phosphide HP 2 . A yellow substance, becoming red in the air ; obtained by exposing phosphuretted hydrogen to the action of water. Diphosphide. H 2 P. Colourless fluid, yola-' tilizing and decomposing at 86 ; formed by de-' 416 PHO composing phosphide of calcium in a Wolfe's bottle with water, and condensing the resulting fluid in a U tube surrounded with a freezing mixture. Its presence in phosphuretted hydrogen in vapour is the cause of its self-inflammability. Phosphuretted Hydrogen, Triaphosphide of Hyd- rogen. &J> 4-375, 35, 11 = 8-72, P = 91-28. Spec. grav. 1-185 (expt.), 1-1927 (cak.) = |P = 1-0885 -j- HH = -1042 = 1-1927. Colour- less gas ; smell peculiar, resembling that of gar- lic ; water dissolves the one-eighth of its volume; more soluble in alcohol, ether, and oil of turpen- tine ; not a supporter of combustion, but a com- bustible gas ; sometimes self-inflammable in con- tact with air, at other times non-inflammable until heated ; depending on the amount of liquid phosphide diffused through the gas ; has no action on litmus paper. The addition of small por- tions of binoxide of nitrogen to non-inflammable phosphuretted hydrogen renders it spontaneously inflammable (Graham), depending on the circum- stance that the binoxide in combining with oxv- gen from the air to form quaternitrous acid (NO 4 ), produces a sufficiently high temperature (212) to burn the non-self-inflammable gas; 1 vol. is decomposed by electric sparks into 1| hyd- rogen and a red film of phosphorus ; in contact with the air, emitted bubble by bubble under water or mercury, phosphoric acid is formed in fine rings after the combustion, and oxide of phos- phorus is deposited on the surface of the water. When the least inflammable gas is admitted, in bubbles into a glass filled with oxygen, a beauti- ful combustion occurs, the only products being phosphoric acid and water. When it stands over water containing air, the gas gradually decom- poses ; it ignites in contact with chlorine, heat and light being evolved with explosive effect; very severe when the quantities exceed a small amount. It is made by filling a flask three- fourths with strong caustic potash, not soda, and adding some pieces of phosphorus and applying heat. The gas bubbles through water, as in the fig. comes in contact with the air and takes fire, forming fine rings, phosphoric acid being produced. JPliowphoviiiic Acid, or Biphosphate of Ethyle. Phof izite, or subsesquisilicate of manganese. Photography. Talbotype. A mode of leav- ing impressions on paper by the influence of light on salts of silver. PIC Photolitc. Pectottte, Wollastonite, or Soda Table Spar. Phthalamic Acid. C lf) H 6 N0 5 HO. By dissolving phthalic acid in alcohol, and adding ammonia. Phtlmlanilc. C 28 H 9 lSr04. Needles by fus- ing aniline and phthalic acid, and crystallizing from alcohol. Phthalanilic Acid. C 28 H U N0 6 . Thin plates by boiling the preceding with ammonia, and adding nitric acid while hot. Phthalic Acid. See NAPHTHALIC ACID. Phthalimide. See NAPIITHALIC ACID. Phycic Acid. C 70-22, H 11-76, N 3-72, 14-3. Spec. grav. -896; F.P. 276-8; B.P. 482. White needles ; insoluble in water ; soluble in 15 boiling absolute alcohol, and in ether; by alcohol from Protococcus vulgaris. Phycitc. C 4 H 5 4 , or C 12 H 15 12 . F.P. 233^. Spec. grav. 1-59; B.P. 320. A sugar in right rectangular prisms ; fuses into a colourless fluid, giving out the odour of scorched starch ; if the heat be continued it entirely disappears, show- ing that it is at least partially volatile; hi its charac- ters it approaches orcine ; it is not altered by pot- ash ; it does not reduce sulphate of copper but with great difficulty. Nitric acid produces the same products as with sugar ; it does not ferment with yeast ; it has no action on polarized light ; it is neutral ; soluble in hot, and cold water. It is ob- tained from Protococcus vulrjaris (Phyceae) ; from the mother liquor of phycic acid ; hence its name. Phyllitc. (otas- sce,) is made by dissolving in an iron pan 1 Ib. of carbonate of potash (or bicarbonate of potash yields a still purer solution) in 10 Ibs. of boiling water, adding gradually Ib. of quicklime slaked and made into the consistence of a milk by water, boiling during the addition of the lime. The whole mixture is boiled for twenty minutes, withdrawn from the fire, the pan covered with a lid, and allowed to subside. The liquor is drawn off by a syphon when it has become clear. The alkaline liquor should be replaced by boiling water to wash out all potash from the lime. The liquor is then evaporated down in an iron or sil- ver basin until it begins to deposit crystals of sulphates. It is then, when cool, to be kept in stoppered bottles. Purification. Carbonate of potash very often contains silica and alumina, which, however, are removed by boiling the caus- tic lye during its preparation, for in the cold state lime forms a caustic alkaliVith carbonate of potash. The silica and alumina unite with the lime. Carbonate of potash is prevented from being reformed from the carbonate of lime by adding water, so as to preserve the original amount of fluid; that is never less than 10 Ibs. water to 1 Ib. carbonate of potash. "When properly made, especially from bicarbonate of potash, caustic pot- ash should not effervesce with acetic acid, and weak mineral acids. When neutralized by pure nitric acid it should give no precipitate with chlo- ride of barium, nitrate of silver. Caustic potash usually contains some alumina, dissolved up from the lime. /Salts of Potash. 1. The salts of potash are generally soluble in water, but less soluble than those of ammonia. 2. Many of them are crys- tallized, but they have a less tendency to assume a regular form than salts of soda. 3. Tartaric acid precipitates salts of potash in the form of bitartrate of potash, or cream of tartar. 4. Sul- phate of alumina, mixed with a salt of potash, forms octahedral crystals of alum. 5. When a solution of bichloride of platinum is poured into a concentrated solution of a salt of potash with muriatic acid, a yellow precipitate of potash chlo- ride of platinum fcvlls, which is converted by ig- nition into platinum and chloride of potassium. 6. Potash salts' are not volatilized by heat: its salts, with organic acids, are converted into car- bonate of potash and charcoal. 7. Salts of pot- ash impart to the flame of the blowpipe a violet tinge at the moment of immersion. A mixture of borax and oxide of nickel, with a salt of pot- ash, yields before the blowpipe a bluish bead. 424 POT 8. Fluosilicic acid forms a semitransparent pre- cipitate in solution of salts of potash. 9. Per- chloric acid in solution forms a crystalline pre- cipitate of perchloratc of potash with potash salts. Chloride, Febrifuge or Digestive Salt of Sylvius, Regenerated Sea Salt (Boerhaave), Muriate ofPot- as/i. 9-5 or 9-325 or 74-6, K 52-63, Cl 47-37. Sp. gr. 1-836 (Kirwan), 1-9153 (Karsten), 1-945 (Koy>p). Cubes and square prisnisby the elongation of the cubes ; taste more pungent than common salt; 1 part chloride dissolves in 2-89 water at 53^, in 2-87at56-8,in2-85at 60, and in 3-008 at C3^; 1 water at 32 dissolves -292 parts salt, and -0027838 for every degree upwards ; but slightly soluble in alcohol ; 1 part of chlo- ride, when dissolved in 4 parts of water, lowers the temperature 52^, while common salt only lowers it 35| ; a mixture may be thus ascer- tained. From this property chloride of potassium is used in freezing mixtures. It decrepitates when heated, fuses when ignited ; does not vola- tilize in close vessels, but volatilizes in open cru- cibles. Obtained by burning potassium in chlo- rine gas, by adding muriatic acid to carbonate of potash, but principally this salt is obtained by crystallization from kelp. (See KELP and IODINE.) Iodide, Hydriodate of Potash. KI 20-75 or 20-69 or 165-2. Spec. grav. 2-908 (Karsten), 3-091 (Boullay). Cubes, elongated cubes, pyra- mids, and 8-hedrons or square prisms. De- liquescent; alkaline reaction; 100 water dis- solve 136 salt at 54 J, producing 75-2 of cold; at 61 141 parts; at 64 143 parts; at 248 221 parts (Baup). At 54^ it dissolves in 5 times its weight of alcohol, spec. grav. -850, and in 39 or 40 times its weight of absolute alcohol at 56. It is much more soluble in hot alcohol, and crystallizes out in needles on cooling. A saturated solution in water boils at 248 (Baup). Changed by nitric acid into nitre. With chlorate of potash in fusion it becomes iodate. Steam re- moves iodine at a red heat, and leaves an alkaline mass. Chlorine converts it into chloride, and sets iodine free. Melts below a red heat, and vola- tilizes in free air ; unclecomposed at a moderate heat. Salammoniac, when heated with it, de- composes it partially. Colours paper bleached by chlorine brown. A dilute solution is coloured brown by chlorine, which affords a delicate test ; nitric acid has an analogous effect. Process. The method usually employed for the preparation of iodide of potassium for medical purposes is 1. To boil 3^ parts of iron wire or filings with 15;j of iodine in 10 ounces of water or half a pint, until the solution becomes colour- less, taking care to moderate the heat, when the iodine volatilizes. 2. The solution is then filtered, and precipitated with 8| parts of ignited carbonate of potash at a boiling temperature (FeI,KOCO 2 becoming FeOC0 2 and KI). The solution is evaporated after filtration in vacuo, or in a drv stove. It may also be prepared by mixing "2 parts iodine, 1 caustic potash, and 6 water, eva- POT wrating to dryness, and igniting to decompose odate. The iodide is then dissolved in water and crystallized. To decompose iodate, it has been re- commended to pass sulphohydric acid through the solution. Iodide may also be formed by decom- posing sulphuret of potassium by means of iodine, >r by saturating caustic potash or carbonate with odohydric acid. Purity. If carbonate of potash be present, acetic acid causes an effervescence, and it re- mains undissolved, when the iodide is taken up by alcohol. Iodate is detected by the brown colour which it gives when boiled with a salt of mor- phine. Chlorides give a precipitate with nitrate of silver, soluble in caustic ammonia, the yellow odide being insoluble. Cyanide, Cyanuret, Cyanodide. 'KCy or KNCa 8-139 or 65-112. White cubes and 8-hedrons; deliquescent ; very soluble in water, and soluble n boiling alcohol of 60 per cent. (spec. grav. 8952). Its aqueous solution decomposes into ammonia and formate of potash (KNC 2 and ' 4HO become KOC 2 HO 3 and NH 3 ). Process. If the yellow prussiate of potash, previously de- prived of water, be reduced to powder and heated to redness in a close iron vessel, supplied with a small aperture for the escape of nitrogen, it is converted into cyanide of potassium and charcoal with some carbide of iron. The cyanide is to be dissolved out with cold water, and the solution evaporated to dryness in vacuo, or at a gentle heat. The white saline mass resulting is then to be boiled with alcohol of 60 per cent, when the cyanide deposits in cubes on cooling. If the ex- periment be made in a clay retort, the beak having adapted to it a bent tube placed under an inverted jar filled with water, the operation is at an end when the nitrogen gas ceases to be evolved. It is used to dissolve cyanide of silver in electro- plating, and cyanide of gold in gilding; in medi- cine to form prussic acid by the extemporaneous process, and also by itself. Sulphocyanide (Porrett, 1813). KNC 2 S 2 or KCyS 2 12-139 or 97-112. Colourless channelled prisms or silky needles. Taste biting, resemblhii;- that of radishes, leaving a saline and cooling im- pression. Melts by heat into a transparent fluid, becoming crystalline on cooling ; is not decom- posed in close vessels, but in an open vessel it becomes sulphate of potash; deliquescent. Pro- cess. Fuse together at a temperature below igni- tion equal parts of dry yellow prussiate and sulphur, or 2 parts yellow prussiate and 1 sul- phur. Dissolve the fused mass in water, and add caustic potash, or carbonate of potash, till all the iron is thrown down, and the solution be- comes, from being red, colourless ; then filter and evaporate to dryness. If heated to redness, sul- phide of iron would be formed, and nitrogen and sulphocarbonic acid disengaged. Sulphide, Sulphuret. KS 7-or 6-889 or 55-112. Red, cinnabar fibrous mass ; deliquescent ; tasting of sulphohydric acid ; very soluble in water ; 425 POT burns very slowly in the air, leaving sulphate ; unites with many metallic sulphides, forming sul- phur salts. It may be formed by passing hydro- gen over ignited sulphate of potash, or by heating that salt with charcoal, (KOS0 3 and 4C becom- ing KS4CO). By the hydrogen process it is bright red, by the charcoal process flesh-red and crystalline. The compound formed by passing sulphohydric acid through caustic potash is a sulphohydride (KSHS) and sulphide. If the solution of the sulphide is coloured, it may be decolourized by agitating with mercury, by which is sometimes imparted a fine vermilion. Sulphate of Potash, (Oswald Croll, 1600), Specificum purgans Paracelsi, nitrum fixum, arcanum duplicatum, panacea holsatica, sal de duobus, Sal polychrestum Glaseri, alkali vege- tabile vitriolatum (Bergman), vitriol of potash (Morveau), vitriolated tartar. The duke of Holstein, some time before the year 1663, pur- chased the preparation of this salt for 500 dol- lars (<75) as a remedy in fevers, stone, andscurvy. KOS0 3 11- or 10-889, or 87-112; potash 64-07; sulphuric acid 45-93. Spec. grav. 2-636 (Watson's Essays, v. 67), 2-66 (Thomson), 2-66 (Kopp) ; 1 part soluble in9-3 water at 65| ; 100 water at 32 dissolve 8-36 salt ; and for every 1-8 degree above this 0-1741 (Gay Lussac). Crystalline form. Dimorphous. 1. Right prismatic. Primary form, a colourless right rhombic prism, the faces meeting at angles of 120 30'. Com- monly two of the opposite lateral edges are re- placed by tangent planes, converting the crys- tals into a 6-sided prism. The edges of the base of the prism are also replaced by planes, con- verting the end of the prism into a pyramid, either complete or without the apex, p, M and M' are the faces of the primary figure, h the face formed by replacing one of the lateral edges, and c, e, e, the pyramidal faces made by replacing the terminal edges. The measures of these faces are as follows : M on M, 120 30', M on h 120 45', M on e 146 22', h on c 146 10', c on e 13 12'. It also occurs in regular 6-sided prisms (Brewster, Mitsclierlich, Ann. de Chim., 23, 279) ; Giobert, Aim. de Chim. 10, 40). 2. JRhombohedral /System. In preparing the salts of kelp for iodine and alum-making, the kelp is dissolved in water heated by steam ; the solution is drawn oft' and concentrated ; on cooling light is evolved in the dark, the soda separates, and a crust of sidphate of potash forms at the surface crystallized in rhombohedrons. The extreme face o, which replaces the point of the rhombo- hedron, is well developed, exactly like tabular crystals of specular iron. In most of the crystals no faces are per- ceived except those of the rhom- bohedron ; but in some we observe an imperfect second rhombohedron, and sometimes the faces of the prism, with 6 sides, which depends from it. The inclination of the faces of the rhombohedron POT npon the face o, is 124. (Discovered by John Tennent, at Campsie ; and Profr. Mitscherlich, in 1842; L' Institut. 1843, 287). This light. is possibly connected with a change in its crystalline form to the rhornbohedral state, as occurs with arsenious acid, when it crystallizes from the opaque state in 8-hedrons ; the deposit of each crystal is accompanied with a spark. Decrepi- tates by a red heat ; converted into bisulphate by muriatic acid ; fuses at a red heat ; contains no- soda. A solution of sulphate in hot nitric acid gives oblique prisms of spec. grav. 2-381 ; fusing at 302 (2KOS0 3 ,HON0 5 , or KOII02SO 3 , HONOs) ; and phosphoric acid yields a similar result. Taste disagreeably bitter. This salt is obtained by saturating carbonate of potash with sulphuric acid, or by saturating with the lime salt, the bisulphate of potash remaining in the retort in, the preparation of nitric acid. Bisulphate. KO,2S0 3 ,HO, or KOS0 8 HO S0 3 17-125, or 17-025, or 136-2; potash 34-65, sulphuric acid 58-74, water 6-61. Crystalline form. Thin rhomboidal plates, the plane angles of the large faces of which are 97 20', and 82 40', and the faces of the prism inclined to each other at angles of 107 15'. Taste acid and sharp. Melts at 392 (Mitscherlich) when heated, and flows like an oil. It is obtained by fusing; together 11 parts of sulphate of potash with 6|- parts of oil of vitriol. This salt is much used in analysis for decomposing minerals containing; much alumina, as corundum, c. Nitrate, Saltpetre, Nitre, Potash Nitre. KO N0 5 12-639, or 101-112, potash 47-05, nitric acid 52-95. Spec. grav. 1-933 (Watson's Essays, 5, 67), 2-058 (Kopp), 2-100 (Karsten). 1. In 6-sided prisms terminated by 6-sided pyramids, be- longing to the right prismatic system. 2. Ob- tuse flattened rhombohedrons like nitrate of soda. The primary form is a rectangular 8-hedron of two 4-sided pyramids applied base to base, two of the sides being inclined to the other pyramid at an. angle of 120, the other two at 111. Taste sharp, bitterish, and cooling ; brittle. 100 water at 32 dissolve 13-32 parts, at 41 16-72 parts, at 5a 22-23, at 64^ 29-31, at 76-9 38-40, at 95| 54-82, at 113 74-66, at 130^ 97-05, at 149-8 125-42, at 175* 169-27, at 207-8 236-45 (Gay Lussac, Ann." of Phil. 15, 11) ; 1 part dissolves in 100 alcohol of spec. grav. 878. It is more soluble in water containing com- mon salt and nitrate of lime. When heated to redness oxygen is emitted first nearly pure, but afterwards mixed with nitrogen, forming a hypo- nitrite, and leaving latterly caustic potash. In this action platinum vessels are affected. Those of silver and gold resist best. When mixed with charcoal and ignited nitre detonates. When, this experiment Avas made by the alchemists in a retort, the Avater Avhich they obtained was called clyssus. Phosphorus, Avhen struck by means of a hot hammer with nitre, detonates (Brugnatelli, Ann. de Chim. 27, 74). Processes. 1. Nitre 426 POT occurs In the soil of various countries, as in Tirrhoot, Ceylon, Oliva, Madras, Spain, (espe- cially in La Mancha and Arragon.) The com- position of the nitre earth is as follows: nitrate of lime 0-0, nitrate of potash, 2-4; nitrate of magnesia 0-7, water 9-4, carbonate of lime 20-5, earthy matter 60-7, animal matter, sulphate of lime, common salt, traces. In Ceylon these are washed with an equal quantity of wood ashes, filtered, and evaporated. Theory of the Production of Nitre. From the importance of nitre in the production of gun- powder, and its occurrence in nature, much atten- tion has been bestowed on the theory of its forma- tion. Stahl considering that there was only one acid in nature, supposed nitric acid to be a com- pound of sulphuric acid and phlogiston, produced by putrefaction. Lemery, the younger, thought that nitre previously existed in animals and vege- tables, but the fact that plants only contained it when it existed in the soil, refuted this view (Bouillon). According to our present knowledge nitre may be formed, as in Ceylon, without ani- mal matter, if ammonia be present. Ammonia consisting of NH 2 H, the hydrogen is replaced by oxygen from the air NH 2 H, and 3 oxygen be- coming binoxide of nitrogen (NO 2 ), and 3 water (3 HO). The binoxide by additional oxygen becomes quaternitrous acid (NO 4 ). This, by the action of lime or potash, becomes nitrate and nitrite of base (2NO 4 = NO 5 , and N0 3 ). Chlorate, Oxymuriate. First obtained by Hig- gins, 1786 (on acetous acid 180), but first recog- nized by Berthollet. KOC1O 5 15-5, or 15-325, or 122-6. Spec. grav. 1-989 (Hassenfratz, Ann. de Chim. 28, 12), usually in small thin plates. The primitive form is an obtuse rhomboidal prism (Hauy), and belongs to the oblique prismatic system. Taste cooling, disagreeable, some- what resembling nitre. The chlorate when heated to about 673 gives off oxygen, and if the temperature is not increased perchlorate of potash (C1O 7 ), and chloride of potassium remain in equal proportions, chlorite being first formed; 2ClOs = C10 7 C1O 3 ; at a higher temperature nothing but chloride of potassium remains, the amount of oxygen lost being from 38-7 to 39-16. The presence of black oxide of manganese, or oxide of copper, and other bodies, assists the de- composition. 100 water at 32 dissolve 3-3 parts of salt, at 56 5-6, at 59f 6-03, at 76 8-44, at 95 12-05, at 1221 18-96, at 166-8 35-40, at 220-6 60-24. 1 part dissolves in 120 of alcohol of 83 per cent, at 61-8. Explosive action. 3 parts of chlorate, and 1 part of sulphur, triturated in a mortar, or struck on an anvil, detonate violently. Charcoal acts in a similar way, though less vio- lently. Hence Berthollet proposed it as a sub- stitute for nitre in gunpowder. A fatal explosion occurred in consequence at Essone, in 1788, dur- ing the trituration of the mixture, by which M. Letors and Mile. Chevraud were killed. Preparation. For the following process I am POT indebted to Mr. James Young : Chlorate of pot- ash is made by forming chlorate of lime, and decomposing this by a cheap salt of potash, such as the sulphate, or chloride of potassium. To form chlorate of lime, milk of lime is warmed to 150 Fahr. and poured into a stone vessel con- structed in the following manner : It may be of any size, according to that of the stones conve- niently to be had ; and in practice it is found that a vessel formed of flagstones, 6 feet long X 15 inches deep X 15 inches wide inside measurement, answers well for cwt. of dry lime. This flag- stone vessel is fitted with two or more inclined shelves formed also of flagstones, hollowed out on the under side so as to form an inverted shallow dish, according to the drawing shown in sec- tion, fig 1. 28 Ibs. of dry caustic lime are mixed with water into a milk of lime, suflicient to fill the stone trough up to the dotted line. The chlorine passes in by the stone- ware pipe a, escap- ing at the end 5, under the inclined shaft c, and there spreading itself out into a thin sheet, is rapidly ab- sorbed by the milk of lime. All unabsorbed chlo- rine passes through the hole J, to the under side of the upper shelf e, along which it passes, and ul- timately escapes by the hole f; but it is only towards the end of the process, when the caustic lime is nearly all converted into chloride and chlorate, that any chlorine gas will reach the hole f in the upper shelf. To keep the lime in suspension during the operation, a stirrer or agi- tator having a pendulous motion, like a weaver's lathe, and made of wood, is fitted into the stone trough, according to the drawings shown at fig. 2 and fig. 3. Fig. 2 is a longitudinal section of the apparatus and agita- tor, and fig. 3 is a cross section, showing how the motion is communicated by a crank, connected with a steam engine, by which the agitator is kept constantly in mo- tion. When the oper- ation is completed, all the lime is dissolved, and the absorption of chlo- rine ceases. This is known by the clearness of the lime solution, and by the quantity of uncondensed chlorine escaping to the hole/" in the shelf e. When the operation is fin- ished, the liquor should have little or no bleaching proper- ties ; this may be tested by a protosalt 427 POT of iron. The success of this process depends on the complete saturation of the lime with chlo- rine. As long as any free lime remains, there is little chlorate formed, but the well- known bleaching compound of chlorine and lime; on the whole lime being saturated, this changes into chlorate of lime and chloride of calcium. The quantity of chlorate in solution may be ascertained by first adding an excess of sulphuric acid, and then a measured quantity of protosulphate of iron, as in the usual way of test- ing bleaching powder. If sulphate of potash is used to decompose the chlorate of lime, much sulphate of lime is precipitated, which will re- quire first to be separated before proceeding to eva- porate the solution, after which the operation will be the same as when chloride of potassium is used. The solution is evaporated until it comes to 64 on Twaddel's hydrometer while hot (equal to spec, grav. 1-320); it is then run into iron vessels or coolers to crystallize, and after standing there for a week, the liquid, which is principally chlo- ride of calcium, is run off, leaving the impure crystals of chlorate of potash in the coolers. The chloride of calcium retains some chlorate of pot- ash in solution, but there seems no cheap method of separating it. It was tried to displace it by a cheap salt, such as common salt, but it failed. These crystals are lifted out of the coolers, and put upon a strainer made of wood or iron, pierced full of holes, to separate the solution of chloride of calcium as much as possible. They are then dissolved, and the solution evaporated in a leaden pan to 25 of Twaddel's hydrometer while hot, (equal to 1-125 spec, grav.), and run into lead vessels to crystallize. After standing a week the mother liquor is run off, and used instead of water, to mix up the lime described in the first part of this process. The crystals of chlorate of potash are redissolved, and the solution evaporated to the same specific gravity while hot (1-125), and run into leaden vessels to crystallize. In six or seven days the mother liquor is run ofi', and used to dissolve the impure chlorate of the first crystallization. The crystals of the chlorate of potash are lifted out of the leaden coolers, drained from the mother liquor as much as possible, and dried. These crystals still contain a trace of a chloride, but are pure enough for all manufactur- ing processes. If wanted quite pure they should be again dissolved in pure water, and crystallized, as described in the last operation. No oxygen is given off when the operation is properly conducted ; and the solution should therefore contain 1 equi- valent of chlorate of lime, and 5 equivalents of chloride of calcium. The chlorine is made as follows : a a, iig. 4, is the still formed of a salt- glazed stoneware muriatic acid receiver, fitted with a false bottom, o o, formed of pieces of stone placed 2 inches or so above the bottom of the stoneware still, a a, so as to prevent manganese escaping when the muriate of manganese is run off by the plug-hole k, as will be described far- POT ther on. The stoneware still, a a, is inserted into a steam chest, b b, kept full of steam by the pipe c, communicating with a steam boiler. The glass tubes h and e are fastened into the bottle f by a cork co- vered with pitch, and the end of the bent tube Ji< is secured to the still a a by sulphur or Roman cement this serves for running the muriatic acid into the still a a, acts as a safety vessel, and pre- vents the escape of chlorine, as the tube e dips near to the bottom of the bottle f, while the tube h only goes about half way; the tube h should be about 2 feet long, g is another safety vessel made of lead, about a foot in diameter and height, placed between the still and the lime apparatus. Manganese in lumps is put into the still a a, until filled within 6 inches of the top ; and nmriatic acid, of specific gravity 1-150, is run into it by the stoneware stop- cock d, until it also reaches within 6 inches of the top, and steam is then let into the box b b by the steam pipe c. Muriatic acid, of 1-150 specific gravity, acts vigorously upon lump man- ganese at the temperature maintained in this ap- paratus, and chlorine will be given off in great abundance, passing by the safety vessel y through the lead pipe h, which is connected with the stoneware pipe a b, described in the drawing No. 1, and thence through the milk of lime. When the muriatic acid becomes saturated, (which is known by chlorine ceasing to bubble into the milk of lime solution,) the solution of muriate of manganese is run out of the still a a by the plug Ic ; and more muriatic acid then run among the remaining lumps of manganese by the stop-cock d, and so on the process is continued, adding fresh manganese in lumps as required. The milk of lime saturated with chlorine as described, and now converted into chlorate of lime and chloride of calcium, is run into an iron evaporating ves- sel, (although the iron is slightly acted upon,) and rather more than 1 equivalent of chloride of potassium is added. Carbonate, Fixed Nitre, Salt of Tartar, Aerated vegetable Alkali. KO C0 2 8-75 or8-64 orGD-12, =potash. 68-57, carbonic acid 31-43; first accu- rately described by Bergman in 1774. White mass; spec. grav. 2-26 (Karsten) ; fuses at a red heat, volatile at a white heat; taste alkaline; renders litmus paper blue ; obtained in the purest form by heating to redness 2 cream of tartar and 1 nitre, digesting in water, filtering, evaporating the carbonate, and igniting, or by igniting the bicarbonate of potash. When these operations are performed hi a clay crucible, it is advisable 428 POT to line it with a mixture of starch and gum, or even paper, to prevent the silica of the crucible from uniting with the potash. Impure cream of tartar yields likeAvise cyanide of potassium from the vegetable matter present. Hydrous Carbonate. KO C0 2 2 HO II' or 10-9, or 87-2. Rhomboidal plates ; 8-hedrons with rhombic base, the angles of the rhomb being 122 and 58 ; obtained by crystallization from a concentrated solution of pure carbonate of potash. A very deliquescent salt; insoluble in alcohol, but very soluble in water; soluble at 37 0< 4 in 05 water, at 42-8 0-962 water, at 54 1-9, at 78-8 -747, at 158 -49 water. Potashes. The potash of commerce is obtained by burning plants, as the Salsola Kali, and trees. The ashes which remain are digested in water in wooden vats, by which carbonate, sulphate, sili- cate of potash, and chloride of potassium, are dis- solved. The solution is drawn off and boiled down to a brown mass, the colour proceeding from the vegetable matter of the wooden vessel. This mass is ignited in a reverberatory furnace, and is then known as potash of commerce the term being derived from the pots in which this operation used to be performed. It is a dark mass, mixed with black spots of charcoal. Pearl- ash. To convert potash into pearl-ash, the potash is dissolved in 2 parts of boiling water, filtered, allowed to stand till the sulphate crystallizes out. The clear liquid is poured off and evaporated down, and ignited in a reverberatory furnace. Chloride of potassium and sulphate may be fur- ther separated by crystallization. Silica may be removed by mixing the solution with charcoal, and allowing it to stand for twenty-four hours. Pearl-ash, so named from its lustre, is used in calico printing. Purity. In purchasing it, the amount of carbonate of potash present is required to be known, together with the amounts of chlo- ride, sulphate, and water. It might be adulter- ated with soda, and hence the quantity of potash must also be ascertained by means of bichloride of potassium. 50 grains are heated to 300 ; the loss is water. It is then heated to low redness, the loss is organic matter. The chlorine is pre- cipitated by nitrate of silver, from a solution of pearl-ash in nitric acid; the sulphuric acid by chloride of barium ; the carbonic acid by the amount lost on the addition of sulphuric acid. (See CARBONIC ACID, and ALKALIMETRY.) Bicarbonate. KO,2CO 2 HO 12-625, or 12- 525, or 100-2. Primary form, right oblique prism, the faces of which meet at angles of 103 25. Obtained by saturating a solution of car- bonate of potash with carbonic acid, evolved from carbonate of lime and chlorohydric, or sulphuric acids ; to purify the carbonic acid gas, an interme- diate vessel, with a small portion of Avater, may be used. On the small scale, a flask and bent tube, or gas bottle, may be employed. See CAR- BONIC ACID. Chromate. KOCr 3 12-5, or 12-237; POT 97-896. Sp. gr. 2-6115 (Thomson). Fine yel- low oblique 4-sided prisms, terminated by 4-sided pyramids ; two of the opposite lateral edges of the prism are often replaced by tangent planes. M and M' represent the primary faces of the prism meeting at angles of 107 26'. Not altered in air. 1 grain colours 40,000 of water yellow ; 1 of chromate and 20 nitre, dissolved and crys- tallized, yield nitre crystals of a fine yellow; 100 water at 60 dissolve 48-368 parts ;" soluble in all proportions in boiling water ; insoluble iu alcohol. When heated to 400 it does not change; ignited it becomes crimson, but becomes yellow on cooling; fused at an intense red heat* it be- comes permanently green oxide by losing oxygen. When any acid is added to its solution, the yellow colour is changed to orange by the removal "of half its potash ; 2(KOCrO 3 , and S0 3 become KO 2 Cr0 3 and KOS0 3 ). It is formed by adding potash to bi- chromate, a salt much used in calico printing (KO 2Cr0 3 and KO becoming 2 KO Cr0 3 ) ; or by fus- ing chrome iron ore in powder in a crucible or rever- beratory funiace with nitre. It is used as a test for lead, bismuth, silver, and mercury, and to sepa- rate barytes from strontian and lime (Smith). Bichromate. KO 2Cr0 3 19, 152; 18-574, 148-592. Specific gravity 1-9801 (Thomson). In fine orange crystals, of rectangular or square prisms, sometimes terminated with 4-sided py- ramids. (2d Syst.) Taste cooling, bitter, and metallic, leaving a hot impression in the mouth not lasting so long as the chromate. At 63 100 water dissolve 10-44 bichromate, the so- lution reddening vegetable blues; insoluble in alcohol. At 400 it loses 6 per cent, of hy- groscopic water. At a red heat melts into a transparent red liquid ; at a forge heat it is con- verted into a mixture of chromate and sesqui- oxide. The orange solution, on the addition of caustic potash or soda, becomes yellow from the formation of chromate, (K02Cr0 3 ) and KO be- coming 2(KOCr0 3 ). Process. The chrome iron ore in powder is mixed with quicklime or chalk, and exposed to an intense heat in a re- verberatory furnace ; it is then digested in hot water, and converted into bichromate bv the ad- dition of a salt of potash. This method has been long used in this country. The amount of potash in salts of potash is determined by bichloride of potassium. A yellow salt falls, which is insol- uble ha alcohol. When thrown on a weighed filter, washed with alcohol, and dried at 212, it consists of K 4-889, Cl 4-437 -f-Pt 12-335, C1 2 8-874=30-535. This quantity of salt, therefore", is equivalent to 5-889 potash. Analysis. Bichromate of potash has been long used in manufactories for testing the strength of binoxide of manganese, chloride of tin, oxides of iron, &c. See MANGANESE and TIN. Potato. (Pomme de Terre, Fr. ; Kartofftl, Ger.) The tubers of the Solanum tuberosum. They consist of water 77-5, starch 12-9, caseine 1-1," fibre 6-8, gum and sugar 1-7, ash 1-4. The 429 POT ultimate composition at 212 is C 44-8, H 5-1, O 30-, N 2-3, ash 17-8. When fresh potatoes are cut up and covered with water, they ferment^ a fermentation fungus appearing; the cellulose alone is effected; first the cells separate from each other, then the walls of the cells dissolve, and the starch particles fall out; twenty-four- hours renders a potato soft to the depth of two lines. The same process occurs in the potato disease, where the cellulose likewise, and not the starch, is dissolved. The fluid left in contact with diseased potatoes affects sound ones. This decomposition is, therefore, not the disease it- self, but the effect of it ; the cause depending on the death of the plant ; and as when the apices of roots die when too suddenly cooled, a sudden cold rain following a long warm winter may pro- duce a similar condition in the potato. The ash of potatoes consists of KO30-6, NaO 2-15,Ca04'34, MgO 2-15, Fe 2 3 4-21, S0 3 3-29, Si0 3 3-16, sand 11-51, Nad 1'49, C0 2 18-86, P0 5 18-24. Potential Caratery. The surgical name of solid hydrate of potash. Potstonc. Swedish potstone has a specific gravity of 2-88, and is a mixture of Venetian talc with a black substance in small black grains. Si0 3 49-01, MgO 30-2, FeO 11-4, A\ 2 O 3 6-08, HO 4-2. Sweden. Pottery. The generic term for all kinds of clayware. When the ingredients, consisting of clay and silica, are in such proportions that they do not fuse, the fractured surface adhering to the tongue, they constitute earthenware. The com- mon cups, &c. used in this country afford an illustration of this kind of ware. The propor- tions are 17 ball clay, 8 China clay (see CLAY), 6 flint, 2 stone, or decomposing granite. The "ball clay is mixed up with water, so that .a pint measure (holding 20 oz.) will weigh 24 ounces. The China clay, made up in the same way, weighs 26 ounces, and the stone 32 ounces. Ironstone contains an extra quantity of granite, and forms a fused mass, but is usually opaque and heavy. China or porcelain is made with the finer kinds of clay and bone earth. It forms a thin translucent fused body. Its composition often is 360 bone, 144 granite, 216 Rogers's China clay, 40 pitchers broken in glazed biscuit, 712 shavings of other vessels. True China from that country contains no bone earth, but is made of silica and alumina, or felspar so as to form a fusible mass. The following table exhibits the composition of different kinds of pottery, by my pupil, Mr. Roderick A. Couper: 1. 2. 3. 4, 6. Si0 3 , 39-88 40-GO 72-96 71-04 68-96 A1 2 6 3 , 21-48 24-15 FeO, 24-78 22-46 29-24 CaO, 10-06 14-22 1-04 3-82 1-60 MgO, -43 Fe 2 O 3 , > 3CaO,P0 3 ,j NaO and loss, 2-14 15-32 5-28 1-22 2-G8 POT (1) English China ware. (2) Do. No. 2. (3) Berlin porcelain. (4) Fine Chinese ware. (5) Inferior Chinese ware. The toqua, or blue-coloured ware, is coloured by cobalt, chrome, and oxide of zinc ; the sage, or greenish-blue coloured ware, by nickel and cobalt ; the drab by chromate of iron or nickel. The body for the cane or yellow-coloured ware is produced by a mixture of sandy clay and com- mon red clay. The same body is also used for Rockingham ware. Common black ware is made from red clay alone. Egyptian ware is composed of ironstone, stiff clay, manganese, and red clay. Salt glazed ware is made from sandy clay, and a little sand to keep the body open, and less compact. It is glazed with common salt. Glazes cover the external surfaces of pot- tery ; they are put on as a powder, which vitri- fies by heat. One of the best glazes for China ware is formed of 50 borax, 50 granite, 20 flint, and 25 whiting to form a frit. 180 parts of this are mixed with 55 stone and 65 white lead. A good glaze for earthenware and iron- stone consists of 18 borax, 18 flint, 9 whiting, 6 Cornish clay, well pounded, sifted, and calcined into a frit; 180 of this are mixed with 100 granite, white lead, with about 1 oz. cobalt to 100 Ibs. to counteract the yellow hue. The flint is brought from the chalk districts of England. The ingredients of pottery, viz. cal- cined flint, clay, and granite^ as above are all separately ground by large revolving granite stones, which are constantly kept moist. These in- gredients are diffused in separate vessels through water ; the solid particles are allowed to subside, and the supernatant liquor drawn off as it be- comes clear, by a series of holes in the extremity of the wooden vessel, which are filled up with moveable pins or bungs. The clays and flint thus being finely divided, are passed through a fine sieve, and are then mixed in the appropriate proportions, in a wooden square vessel, to the proper consistence by means of water. The mixture is then run off into a long sort of bath (slip kiln), floored by heated bricks, which cause the water to evaporate, and to reduce the clay mixture," or body, as it is called, to its proper condition for placing it in the workman's hands. By means of the potter's wheel, it is fashioned into variously formed vessels, such as ewers, jugs, mustard pots, &c. Flat vessels, such as plates, are produced by the whorler, a wooden wheel, to which a rotatory motion is given. Bowls and cylindrical vessels are turned and or- namented with the lathe, while finer vessels, and those requiring rapid motion, are formed by the jigger, which requires two persons to manage it, a boy to turn a handle communicating with a wheel and strap, and an experienced man to at- tend to the preparation of the vessel, which is placed on a wheel similar to that of the whorler. The vessels, after being turned, are dried in a room, in the centre of which is a stove at a tem- 430 POU perature of about 90. Such as require orna- menting or further turning are passed through the lathe. They then receive their first burning. This operation is performed by packing the ware in what are technically called seggars, ves- sels resembling footpails in form, made of common fire-clay. These are packed round the kiln in circles. Those goods which require the most moderate heat are placed in the centre, -while goods -which are capable of standing a higher temperature occupy the sides of the kiln. The fires are then lighted, and allowed to burn for forty-eight hours. After the first heating the porcelain is painted or printed on, and glazed, by mixing the ingredients of the glaze in what is called slop, that is much like whiting and water used for whiting rooms. The vessels are rapidly dipped in succession into the glaze con- tamed in a pail, and are then allowed to drip. The glaze completely obscures the painting or printing occupying the surface of the porcelain. But by being again heated in the gloss lain, the glaze fuses, and forms a glass, through which ornaments can be distinctly seen. Much art is required in mixing and forming the glaze ; for if too thick the figures never rise up properly, and the shading becomes too broad. The porce- lain, when heated in the gloss kiln, is placed on spurs, triangular pieces of ware, triangles, and stretchers to sepatate each adjoining vessel. When taken out from the kiln, each vessel retains the marks of these bodies, which are removed by means of iron chisels, in the hands of women engaged solely in this occupation. Poudrette. A manure used in France, con- sisting of solid excrement dried in the air and mixed with some copperas, gypsum, and char- coal, which have the effect of removing its odour. Powder. See GUNPOWDER, POWDER OF ALGAKOTH (Antimony). Powder, James's. An empyrical antimo- nic medicine, consisting of antimonious acid 38, bone earth 62 . Prase. Green variety of Quartz. Praseolitc. Spec. grav. 2-754, H 3'5. Si0 3 40-94, A1 2 3 28-79, FeO 6-96, MgO 13-73, HO 7-38, MnO -32, PbO,CuO,CaO,CoO *5, Ti0 2 *4. Brakke, Norway. Green prisms, fus- ing with difficulty on the edges into a green Prasilite. Spec. grav. 2-311, H 1-. Leek- green fibres forming a bed an inch thick in amyg- daloid, at Kilpatrick. Si0 3 38-55, HO 18-, MgO 15-55, CaO 2-55, Fe 2 3 14-9, MnO 1-5, A1 2 3 5-65, alkali 3-3? Precipitate. A term applied to a substance obtained from a solution by the action of a reagent. Predazzite. A bitter spar from Predazzo, Tyrol. Prehnite. Cape Chrysolite, Chiltonite, Kou- jpholite, Yu. Spec. grav. 2-9 to 2-953, H 5-. White, but generally apple, leek, jasper-green, &c. ; streak white, granular and fibrous or in PSE right rhomboidal prisms with angles of 100 and 91 30' ; lustre vitreous, semitransparent to trans- lucent on the edges. B.B. froths and passes into a green slag ; electric by heat ; does not gelatinize with acids, although partially decom- posed. Si0 3 43-048, A1 2 3 23-84, CaO 26-16, HO 4-6, FeO -64, MnO -42, KO and NaO 1'03, 2 CaO,Si0 3 ,Al 2 3 Si0 3 HO. Primary rocks, Cape of Good Hope (Col. Prehn). Amygdaloid, Kilpatrick, United States. Princes' Metal. An alloy of 75 Cu and 25 Zn. Proof Spirit. See ALCOHOL. Propione. C 5 H 5 0. Volatile oil resembling acetone; by distilling propylate of lime or ba- rytes. Propiouitrile. Cyanide of Ethyle. C 6 H 5 N. Volatile oil with the odour of garlic, obtained by heating propylate of ammonia with anhydrous phosphoric acid. Propiouylc. C 6 II 5 . Not isolated, but pro- pylaldide, has been obtained among the products of the oxidation of albumen. Propylamine. C 6 H 9 N. A base isomeric with ethyle-methyle-amine ; obtained from bone oil. Propylc. C 6 H r . The hypothetic base of butyronitrile or cyanide of propyle (C C H 7 ,C 2 N). Propylcne. C C H 6 . A gas obtained among the products of the decomposition of amylic alcohol yielding a series of substitution products with bromine and chlorine. Propylic Acid. Propionic acid, Pseudo- acetic add, Metacetonic acid. C 6 H 5 3 HO. An acid resembling acetic acid, but more oily, with which it is homologous, differing from it by C 2 H 2 ; formed by heating cyanide of ethyle with a solu- tion of potash in alcohol and distilling the pro- pylate with sulphuric acid. Proteine. A term applied to a substance obtained by digesting albuminous substances in weak caustic potash and precipitating by acetic acid. It was supposed to be destitute of sul- phur, but that substance can easily be detected in it by fusing it with caustic potash in a clean silver basin. The latter becomes black with sul- phur. No such body as proteine has yet been obtained. Protogine. Granite in which talc replaces mica. From Mont Blanc, it consists of Si0 3 74-25, A1 2 3 11-58, Fe 2 O 3 2-41, CaO 1-08, MgO,KO and NaO 10-01, HO -67. Proustite. A synonyme of Ruby Silver. Prussian Blue. See BLUE. Prussic Acid. See HYDROCYANIC ACID. Prunneritc. Violet Quartz from Faroe. Psatnrosc. Brittle Sulphide of Silver. Psendo Albite. See AXDESINE. Pseudoerytlirine. Erytkrine, Leconorate of Ethyle. C 20 H 12 8 or C 22 H 13 9 = C 4 H 5 O, C 18 H 8 8 . Crystals by boiling lecanoric acid with alcohol ; the solution after long boiling con- tains orcine. 431 PSE Pscudomalachitc. See PIIOSPHOROCAL- CITE. Pscudomorphine. C 27 H 1S X0 14 . Shining scales or plates, slightly soluble in water and spirit ; insoluble in alcohol and ether ; soluble in alkalies ; sometimes found in opium. Pseudomorphous Form. A false form of crystal produced by one body from solu- tion or otherwise being deposited upon another, and thus assuming the form of its crystal. Thus quartz, which belongs to the rhombohedral system, is sometimes found with the shape of fluor spar or in cubes. A large number of minerals have now been found in pseudomorphous forms. Cal- careous spar as Gay Lussite, cyanite as Andalu- site, steatite as hornblende, native copper as red copper ore, vitreous copper, as red silver ore, gypsum as anhydrite, &c., &c. Pscudoiicphclinc, or Gieseckite. Pscudoquiiiine. C 76-5, H 8-1, ST 10'2, 5-2. An alkaloid found in a bark of uncertain Pscudotriplite. 3(Fe 2 3 Mn203) 2 PO 5 2 HO. A mineral from Bodenmais like Triplite. Psilomclaiiite. Spec. grav. 4 to 4*328, H 5 to 6. Bluish and grayish reniform and botryoidal masses, streak brownish-black, lustre imperfect, metallic, opaque, brittle. Red oxide of manganese 69-795, O 7-364, BaO 16-365, Si0 3 -26, HO 6-216. Germany; Restormel, Cornwall ; Upton Pyne, Exeter. Psimmithium. The ancient name for "\Yliite Lead. Pteleyle. C G H 3 . The hypothetic base ob- tained by acting on acetone with nitric acid. Puchu Pal. A plant (Labiatse) used in the East to mix with tobacco for smoking. Puddiiigstoue Plum-. A conglomerate of rolled stones. Pumice. (Bimstem, Ger. ; Ponce, Fr.) A vesi- cular species of lava which floats on water. I have obtained a similar mineral from the vitrified forts in the Highlands of Scotland, the composi- tion of which agrees with granite or felspar which has obviously been intensely heated so as to cause fusion. Pumice consists of SiO 3 70-, A1 2 O 3 16, CaO 2-5, Fe 2 O 3 -5, KO 6-5, HO 3-. Puuicine. Crystals from the root of Punica granatum by alcohol. Purple Colours for Porcelain. Clear Purple. Dissolve in aqua regia 77 grains of tin turnings, evaporate in a water bath until it be- comes on cooling a crystalline mass. The chloride of tin thus prepared is dissolved in distilled water and mixed with 31 grains of a solution of chloride of tin, spec. grav. 1*700 ; made by boiling tin filings in an excess of chlorohydric acid down to the re- qiu'red strength. The mixture is then diluted with 2-2 gallons distilled water; sufficient acid being present to prevent turbidity. To this liquid are added 7 grains of gold, dissolved pre- viously in aqua rcgia and evaporated to dryness on the water bath, and then dissolved in water PYC and filtered away from the light. Add then 770 grains caustic ammonia ; if no precipitate falls a few drops of sulphuric acid will produce it. It is allowed to subside, and washed by decanta- tion five or six times. It is taken up while still moist with a silver spoon and mixed on a glass slab by means of a spatula with 310 grains of lead glass (made by fusing 2 parts minium, 1 quartzoze sand, and 1 calcined borax). It is dried in a moderately warm chamber, and then triturated with 46 grains carbonate of silver. By this process 508^ grains of clear purple are obtained. Deep purple. The cleat- solution of 7^ grains of gold in aqua regia is diluted with 2-2 gallons distilled water ; add then 115^- grains of the prepared solution of chloride of tin above mentioned, spec. grav. 1'700. It is washed in the same way and mixed with 155 grains lead glass ; it is dried and saturated with 7^ grains carbonate of silver. It yields 200 grains of deep purple. Purple of Cassius. See GOLD. Purple Copper. See COPPER. Purpuric Acid. See MUIIEXANE. Purpuriiie. A substance extracted from Garancine by Alum. Purpurissum. Probably the Tyrian purple dye. Purpiirissum Indicium. Probably Indigo. Purree. Indian Ytlloio. A yellow pigment from India. Purreic Acid. EuxantMc Acid. C 2 oHf)Ou. Silky yellow needles soluble in boiling water, alcohol, and ether ; forms precipitates with metal- lic salts ; obtained from Indian yellow by solution in acetic acid, precipitation by acetate of lead, de- composing by SH and evaporation. Piirrenoiie. C^H^C^. Crystalline sub- limate by heating purreic acid a little above 212. Slightly soluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether; neutral. Pus. The matter discharged from inflamed surfaces consists of water 88-064, cholesterine 1-046, oleine, oleic acid, chlorohydric acid 1-029, stearine '705, liquid albumen 1*987, coagulated albumen, fib.rine, 1-849, phosphate, carbonate, and sulphate of lime -62, NaCl 4-7, KOC0 2 KO S0 3 ,CaOS0 3 traces. Puschkinite. A variety of Epidote from Ural. Putrefaction. A process of decay attended with the evolution of volatile odoriferous matter. It is considei-ed by some to be% species of fer- mentation, by others to be due to the action of a vibrio. See FERMENTATION. Putty Powder. Oxides of lead and tin ; used in glass-making. Puzzuolnno. Volcanic ashes much used in mixing with mortar to produce hydraulic cement. It consists of Si0 3 44-5, A1 2 O 3 15, CaO 8-8, MgO 4-7, KO 1-4, KaO 4-1, FeO and TiO 2 12, HO 9-. It is partially decomposed by HC1. Pycuite. Schorlous Beryl, Sclwrlite. Spec. 4; "2 PYI grav. 3-5, H 7-5, Si0 3 38-43, A1 2 3 51, HF 8-84 (or 17-09). Yellowish or reddish- white 6-sided prisms, longitudinally striated, translucent, brittle, lustre shining, resinous. B.B. infusible ; with borax a transparent glass ; electric by heat 2 (A1 2 F 3 ) 4 A1 2 3 5 Si0 3 . Bohemia. Pyine. Mucine. A form of albumen in pus, soluble in water and weak alcohol; does not coagulate by heat ; precipitated by acetic and taimic acids and alum from an alkaline solution, by aqueous solution of iodine, and by distilled water. Pyr. ({, fire.) A term applied to many substances Avhich have been produced by the in- fluence of heat. Pyrallolitc. Tersilicate of Magnesia. Sp. grav. 2-555 to 2-594, H 3-5 to 4. White, in- clining to greenish, doubly- oblique prisms, with angles of 94 36' and 80"; the edges being 140 49'; lustre dull, slightly resinous, opaque, not translucent, in thin plates. B.B. becomes black, then white again, and melts on the edges into a white enamel ; with borax and soda forms a transparent glass ; with difficulty fuses with salt of phosphorus. Si0 3 56-62, MgO 23-38, A1 2 3 3-38, CaO 5-58, MnO -99, Fe 2 O 3 -99, HO 3-58, bitumen and loss 6-38. Storgord, Pargas, Fin- land, in limestone. Pyraiithnonife. A synonyme of Red An- timony, or Oxysulphide. Pyrargillite. Spec. grav. 2-505, H 3-25. Black, light and shining, or bluish granular, with lustre ; sometimes like a 4-sided prism ; often penetrated by scales of chlorite. Si0 3 43-93, A1 2 O 3 28-93, FeO 5-3, MgO 2-9, KO 1-05, Nad 1-85, HO 15-47. Allied to hydrous bucholzite. Pyrargyrite. A synonyme of dark red Silver Ore. Pyrcne. C 5 H 2 , or C 10 H 2 , or C 15 H 4 . F.P. 347. Khomboidal microscopic plates, without taste and smell ; insoluble in water ; little sol- uble in alcohol and ether ; very soluble in oil of turpentine ; distils without change ; charred by S0 3 ; obtained from coal tar ; fat and resinous bodies when distilled ; it occurs in the more vola- tile of the last matters distilled from coal tar. With nitric acid it forms nitrite of pyrenase (C 15 H 5 4 N). PyB'cncitc. A blackish variety of ferro- calcareous Garnet. PyrcJhrine. A resin from Anthemis pyre- thrum ; it seems to consist of 3 sub-resins, one soluble in alcohol, insoluble in water and pot- ash ;. a fixed oil, soluble in alcohol ; and a yel- low oil, soluble in alcohol, ether, and potash. Pyrgom. A dark variety of Sahlite. Pyrites. (Fire stone). A term applied to many of the metallic sulphides as arsenical, auriferous, capillary, cellular, cockscomb, copper, hepatic, hydrous, iron, magnetic, radiated, spear, tin, variegated white iron. Pyroacetic Spirit. A synonyme of Acetone. Pyrobcnzoliiic. See BENZOLONE. PYR Pyrocatechinc. See PYROMORINTANNIC ACID. Pyrochlorc. (cyj, fire; x*.>e;, greenish- yellow.) Spec. grav. 3-802, 4-206 to 4-216, H 5. Reddish-brown small regular 8-hedrons, im- mersed in felspar ; fresh fracture almost black ; in thin splinters, translucent and brown ; in larger pieces opaque; lustre resinous or vitreous; fracture conchoidal. B.B. fuses with difficulty into a blackish-brown slag ; with borax into a reddish-yellow bead, becoming opaque and yel- low ; a grass-green glass with salt of phosphorus when cold, yellow when hot ; with soda shows the green reaction of manganese. TiOo 62-75, CaO 12-85, protoxide of uranium 6 -18, CeO 6-8, MnO 2-75, FeO 2-16, SnO 2 -61, HO 4-2. It has been found frequently to contain thorina and columbic acid. In syenite at Federicksvarn and Laurvig, Norway; Brevig; near Miask. Pyrocitric Acid. A synonyme of Aconitic acid. PyrogaKic Acid. C 12 H G C . F.P. 240; volatile at 410. Bitter shining scales; soluble in water, less soluble in alcohol ; yields a deep blue solution with copperas, a reddish-purple with milk of lime ; forms a dark solution when dissolved in caustic alkalies, absorbing oxygen with great rapidity, which renders it a valuable means of determining the amount of oxygen in air (Liebig.) The acid dissolved in water is introduced in contact with the air to be analyzed over mer- cury, and then caustic potash is added ; imme- diately the absorption of the oxygen commences, and shortly terminates, the acid being converted into ulmic acid ; pyrogallic acid is obtained by cautiously distilling gallic acid, when it loses 1 C0 2 and sublimes. Pyroguaiacic Acid. See GUAIACYLE HY- DRIDE. Pyroligncous Acid. See ACETIC ACID. Pyrolusite. See BINOXIDE OF MANGANESE. Pyromachus. A synonyme of flint. Pyromaric Acid. 3-sided tables, easily soluble in alcohol by distilling pimaric acid in vacuo. Pyromecoiiic. C 10 H 3 Or,HO. Colourless prisms, becoming dark by moisture ; soluble in water; unites with oxides of lead, copper, and iron, and forms definite salts ; isomeric with pyro- mucicacid. F.P. 253; by heating meconic acid. Pyromeride. A bluish rock, with a fatty lustre, consisting of 88 percent, quartz, silica, and orthoclase. Corsica; Vosges. Pyrometer (*v;, fire ; J*STJI', measure-) An instrument for measuring intense temperatures, The best seems to be Daniel's. Pyromoriutaiinic Acid. Phenic, Phenylic Acid, Pyrocatechine. C 12 H G 4 . F.P. 212; B.P. 468. Rectangular bitterish prisms; sol- uble in water, verv soluble in alcohol, less so in ether ; reduces salts of gold, platinum, and silver ; gives a dark green precipitate with chloride of iron ; obtained by distilling morintannic acid. 433 2F PYR Pyromorphite. A synonyine of Phosphate of Lead. Pyromucic Acid. C 10 H 3 5 Hp. F.P 266. Long white shining plates ; soluble in 26 cold, 4 boiling water ; obtained by distilling mucic acid, which contains the elements of 1 atom pyromucic acid, 6 HO, and 2 CO 2 5 it forms monobasic salts. Pyropc. See BOHEMIAN GARNET. Pyrophorus. (;ru ? , fire; ft^u, I carry.) A substance which ignites in air. See II OM BERG. Pyrophosphoric Acid. See PHOSPHORUS. Pyrophyllife. Fibrous Talc. White radiated mass, with indistinct rectangular cleavage, and pearly lustre. B.B. spreads out like a fan, and increases 20 times in bulk; then is infusible; with soda forms a yellow glass, with nitrate of cobalt a blue colour. Si0 3 59-79, A1 2 3 29-46, MgO 4-, Fe 2 3 1-8, HO 5-62. Ural. Pyrophysalite. See TOPAZ. Pyroracemic Acid. Obtained by dry dis- tillation from racemic acid, as with tartaric acid. Pyrorthite. Specific gravity 2-19, H 2-75, Pitch-black long needles of 4-sided prisms, lon- gitudinally streaked with a large streak in the centre, giving the prism the appearance of being divided into two ; cross fracture uneven ; longi- tudinal fracture conchoidal or splintery ; lustre resinous, opaque. B.B. catches fire, and becomes white and very light ; fuses into a black enamel with difficulty ; with borax and salt of phospho- rus into a clear glass ; does not dissolve with soda ; soluble in acids, leaving a black powder. Si0 3 10-43, CeO 13-92, HO and volatile mat- ter 26-3, charcoal 30-, A1 2 3 3-59, CaO 1-81, FeO 6-08, yttria 4-87, MnO 1-39. With gado- linite in a granite vein at Korafsberg, near Fah- lun. Pyrosclerite. Specific gravity 2-74, H 3-. Green or grayish masses, with cleavage at right angles to base, translucent, fracture uneven; lustre pearly, faint. Si0 3 37-03, MgO 31-62, A1 2 3 13-5, FeO 3-52, Cr 2 3 1*43, HO 11-; decomposed by HC1 ; allied to serpentine. Pyrosiderite. A synonyme of hydrous ses- quioxide of iron. Pyrosmalitc. Spec. grav. 3'08,H 4*25. Liver- brown, gray, or pistachio green G-sided prisms, or tables ; streak paler ; fracture uneven, slightly brittle; lustre pearly. B.B. yields water and chloride of iron in a tube ; on charcoal fuses to a black magnetic slag. Fuses with borax, show- ing the presence of iron and manganese. Soluble in strong N0 5 . Si0 3 35-85, Feo0 3 35-48, Mn 2 O 8 23-44, A1 2 3 -6, Cl 3-76, CaO 1-21, HO 3-6. Bjelke, Nordmark, Wermland. Named from the odour of chlorine when heated. Pyrotarlaric Acid. HOC 5 H 3 3 . F.P. 212; B.P. 370. Long transparent prisms, soluble in water, alcohol, and ether ^ does not precipitate lime water ; precipitates diacetate of lead, but not acetate or nitrates of lead ; does not precipitate salts of mercury, "peroxide of iron, lime, &e. Obtained by distilling tartaric PYR acid in a retort at 374, when a fluid passes over, which yields pyrotartaric acid in crystals by evaporation; or by distilling tartaric acid between 392 and 572, and redistilling the dis- tillate. It is a monobasic acid, but also forms acid sal^s. Pyrotechnics or Fireworks. These con- sist of squibs and various kinds of fires, &c. Squibs are made of 24 mealed or finely ground powder, 4 charcoal, 1 sulphur, 3 nitre ; Chinese fire of 16 meal powder, 2 sulphur, 5 iron filings ; Ancient fire, of 16 meal powder, 2 charcoal ; Bril- liant fire, 16 meal powder, 4 iron filings. These are packed in paper cylinders or goose quills, and ignited. Gold rain, to descend from a rocket like a shower, consists of 16 nitre, 4 meal pow- der, 4 sulphur, 1 brass dust, 2 sawdust, \ glass dust. Pyroterebic Acid. C 14 H 9 O r . Pyroterebilic Acid. HOC 12 H 9 3 . Colour- less oily fluid, not solid at 4 ; possesses a pun- gent taste and a caustic reaction ; soluble in water, alcohol, and ether ; monobasic ; formed by heat- ing terebilic acid about 390, when it is resolved into carbonic and pyroterebilic acids. Pyrothonidc. A brown extract, with em- pyreumatic taste and smell, obtained by rolling up paper or linen into a cylinder, and inflaming it in an iron vessel, which is cooled by cold wa- ter. The residue is dissolved in water, filtered, and evaporated to an extract. It contains the constituents of soot, free from nitrogenous mat- ter. Pyroxanthinc. See EBLANIXE. Pyroxene. Asbestus in part, Augite, Bailcalite, Cocciolite, Euchysiderite, Fassaite, Pentaclasite, Pyraome, Vulcanite. Spec. grav. 3-233 to 3-349, H 4-75. Green, brownish, or black, 4 or G-sided oblique prisms, cleaving parallel to the faces of a rhomboidal prism ; streak white ; lustre vitreous inclining to resinous, sometimes translucent, but frequently opaque. B.B. fuses per se and with borax into a clear glass ; sometimes showing the presence of manganese or iron. Si0 3 54-08, CaO 23-47, MgO 11-49, FeO 10-02, MnO -61. Form. 3 (RO = CaO,MgO,FeO,MnO or NaO) 2 Si0 3 . This mineral includes under it a num- ber of crystalline substances varying in the nature of the bases which replace each other. Pyroxeiiite. A mixture of pyroxene in plates and of felspar. 431 PYR Pyroxylic Spirit. See HYDROUS OXIDE OF METHYLE. Pyroxyliiie. See GUK COTTON. Byrrite. H 6\ Orange, subtranslucent 8-hedrons with glassy lustre. B.B. infusible ; fuses into a clear glass with borax and salt of phos- phorus, becoming yellowish-green with excess QUI of flux; insoluble in HC1. Alabaschka Mur- sinsk in felspar cavities. Pyrrole. An alkaloid not examined in coal tar oils. Pyruvic Acid. C(jH 3 5 HO. Thick syrup, by distilling tartaric acid. Q (limitation. See GOLD. Quartz. The familiar term applied to several forms of silica occurring in primary rocks. See SILICA. The chief forms of what is called quartz are the milk-white and rose-red varieties, from ithe presence of titanic or organic matter. Smoky .quartz is found hi Arran hi 6-sided prisms, and a variety of it constitutes Cairngorum stone, found on that mountain. Nectic quartz or float stone is a vesicular form which floats on water. Granu- lar quartz is a rock formed of siliceous grains. Fibrous quartz or Siliceous wood is a pseudo- morphous form in which silica probably in solu- tion has replaced the woody texture of trees. It is found in the West Indies, Burmah, Van Die- in's Land. Kerguelan's Land, Loch Neagh, &c. Hyaline quartz, hyalite, or Muller's glass, has a white or colourless aspect, and is found hi grape-shaped masses or as stalactites. Quartzitc, or compact quartz, is applied to a variety consisting of SiO 3 97-75, A1 2 3 and Fe 2 O 3 5HO, and organic matter 1-75. Quassitc. Quassine. C 10 H C O 3 , White bitter prisms ; soluble in water (1 hi 200 water) and ether ; very soluble in alcohol ; precipitated white by tannin and corrosive sublimate ; dissolved but not decomposed by sulphuric and nitric acids ; obtained from the sliced wood of the Quassia amara and excelsa by evaporating the aqueous decoction to , adding dissolved lime for twenty- four hours, filtering, evaporating to dryness, dis- solving and crystallizing repeatedly out of alcohol. Qucrcitasmic Acid. A synonyme of Tan- nic Acid. Qncrcite. Quercine. White or yellow neutral bitter crystalline body from Quercus robur or oak ; soluble in water and alcohol ; insoluble in ether, absolute alcohol, and oil of turpentine; , precipitated by salts of silver, lead, tin, and pro- itoxide of mercury (Gerber). Qucrcitrinc. C 1G H 8 9 HO. Crystalline I pearly substance in small plates or scales, by . concentrating slowly the infusion or decoction of quercitron bark (Quercus nigra). It resembles in appearance mosaic gold ; very little soluble in water and ether ; more so in alcohol ; precipitated 1 by barytes water, acetate of lead, chloride of tin, iand acetate of copper; nitric acid renders it orange ; sulphuric acid dissolves it, and water reprecipitates it ; when distilled, crystals are formed in the receiver with the characters of quercitron, which is the colouring matter of the bark. It is 435 said to be converted by boiling into needles (Quer- citreine). Qncrcosc. Quercite, Acorn Sugar. C 12 H 12 10 . F.P. 455. Fine colourless prisms, losing no weight at 410; with nitric acid it gives oxalic acid and no mucic acid ; forms a conjugate acid with sulphuric acid, the lime salt of which does not crystallize; with a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids it forms a detonating compound, Nitro quercite, which is white resin- ous, insoluble in water, and differs from nitro mannite in not crystallizing ; quercose may be heated for some time Avith potash without pro- ducing a colour; it dissolves in barytes water and forms a compound BaO, C 12 H 12 10 2 HO ; by long boiling with sulphate of copper and caustic potash only a trace of dinoxide of copper is formed ; not precipitated by diacetate of lead except on the addition of ammonia and heat ; quercose does not ferment in presence of yeast or decaying cheese and water; it is obtained by alcohol from the acorn of the oak (Quercus robur). Quicksilver. A synonyme of Mercury. Quincite. Light carmine-red flocks forming a substance interspersed through a limestone de- posit at Mohun, France, and is obtained pure by dissolving the limestone in muriatic acid; loses colour by heat ; weak acids have no action on it ; the strong acids imperfectly dissolve it, silica gelatinizing. Si0 3 54, MgO 19, FeO 8-, HO 17. Quiiiic Acid. A synonyme of Kinic Acid. Qniuicine. A base procured by moistening disulphate of quinine with a little water and sul- phuric acid on exposing it to the heat of an oil bath at 248 to 266, for three or four hours ; the whole is converted into sulphate of quinicine except some colouring matter. Quinicine like cinchoni- cine is almost insoluble in water, both are very soluble in strong and weak alcohol ; both unite easily with carbonic acid and replace am- monia in its salts; both are precipitated from their solutions as fluid resins; both deviate the plane of polarization to the right ; they are bitter and febrifuge. Quinidine is a base which has been described as existing along with quinine in one of the new barks, but it appears to consist of two alkaloids, quinidine and cinchonidine. Quinidine is hydrous, efflorescent, isomeric w r ith quinine, and is coloured reen by chlorine and ammonia; deviates the plane of polarization to the right ; cinchonidine QUI is anhydrous, isomeric with cinchonine, exercises its rotatory power to the left, and is not rendered green by chlorine and ammonia; the salts of quinidine are easily distinguished from those of cinchonidine by their efflorescence. By heat they are converted into new isomeric bases, quini- cine and cinchonicine. Quinine. C 38 H22N 2 4 . F.P. 302. C 73-4, H 7-13 (Laurent). White flocks, silky tufts or needles, intensely bitter; soluble in 200 hot water; very soluble in alcohol, from which it is deposited as a resin ; more soluble in ether than cinchonine ; negatively electric by rubbing ; it crystallizes by spontaneous evaporation from alcohol of -815 or by adding a small quantity of ammonia to the hot alcoholic solution and setting it aside ; it is readily obtained by dissolving the disulphate in water acidulated with sulphuric acid and adding am- monia. When crystallized from alcohol it is a hydrate with 14 per cent, water, which it loses at 302, but it recovers its water by being placed in that fluid. When distilled with strong caustic pot- ash hydrogen is evolved and quinoline (leucoline) passes over. Quinine has been viewed as a con- jugate compound of hydrous oxide of methyle and leucoline (C 2 H 4 2 and C 18 H 8 N = C 20 H 12 O 2 N). This, however, differs from the above formula. Pseudoquinine. C 76-5, H 8-1, N 10*3, 5'2 to 4*7. Irregular prisms, tasteless, insoluble in water and ether ; soluble in alcohol ; neutralizes acids; becoming reddish-yellow by chlorine and ammonia ; from an extract of bark of unknown origin. 4. Quinine, IMsulphate of. Qu 2 S0 3 HO. White pearly, feathery crystals, slightly flexible and efflorescing in air ; soluble in 740 water at 55, in 30 boih'ng water, and 80 alcohol ( - 850) ; becomes red by heat; precipitated by tannic and gallic acids ; becomes fluid by heat, and like wax. This is the commercial salt so valuable as a tonic and febrifuge. It is prepared by boiling yellow Peruvian bark in 1 times its weight of water acidulated with 12 per cent, of sulphuric or 25 per cent, of chlorohydric acid. After an hour it is strained, and repeated additions of acidulated water are boiled with the residue till the bitter taste is removed. Add milk of lime in slight excess to the acid decoction. When the lime has deposited it is thrown on a cloth ; when the liquid passes through, the residue is pressed and the quinine dissolved up from it by alcohol (-847). The alcohol is distilled off and to this liquor sulphuric acid is added to form a disulphate. Oil of tur- pentine or pyroxylic spirit may be substituted for the alcohol. In this country it is usually made without alcohol. The colouring matter is some- times removed in part from the bark by digesting it in a solution of carbonate of soda. The re- mainder of the process is as above ; the colouring matter being further removed if necessary by ani- mal charcoal. Adulterations. The salt under the microscope should be entirely crystallized in QUI needles or prisms, and no amorphous masses should appear in it which would indicate quinoi- dine. The presence of gypsum in this salt may be detected by combustion when the former re- mains ; the presence of salicine may be detected by its giving a red colour with oil of vitriol ; boracic acid may be detected by digesting in alcohol and burning the spirit ; boracic acid will impart to it a green tinge ; sugar may be fer- mented by yeast and the alcohol detected by bi- chromate of potash and sulphuric acid ; margaric acid remains when the quinine is heated with water and chlorohydric acid. A beautiful test for quinine is the following : Dissolve the disul- phate in chlorine water, add a drop or two of caustic potash and allow the mixture to stand, a yellowish precipitate falls, which, especially if it possesses a greenish tinge, speedily becomes, purple on the surface and gradually imparts a magnificent purple-red colour to the supernatant fluid (R.D.T.) Another test is to dissolve the disulphate in chlorine water and add to it caustic ammonia, when a deep green precipitate falls. By this test quinine may be detected in bark ; boil a few grains of Peruvian bark with a drachm of water and a drop of oil of vitriol for a few seconds, add water chlorine and ammonia, when a green tinge will generally be obtained if the boiling has not been continued too long or the acid is not in excess (R.D.T.) Sulphate. Qu,S0 3 8 HO. Rectangular prisms with square bases, soluble in 11 parts water at 55, in 8 water at 72, at 212 in its water of crystallization ; more soluble in hot than in. cold alcohol ; obtained by adding sulphuric acid to a solution of the disulphate and evaporating. Quinoidinc. Amorphous Quinine, Chinodine. Isomeric with quinine, but uncrystallizable ; pro- duced in the manufacture of disulphate of quinine by the action of acids or heat ; it also arises from cinchonine ; insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol ; forms salts which do not crystallize ; procured from the mother liquors in the manufacture of quinine and cinchonine. It is said by some to answer as a substitute for quinine, as a tonic. In a variety occurring in Holland, a new base r Beta quinine, has been extracted to the extent of 50 to 60 per cent, by ether, in large prisms r which have the same composition as alpha or common quinine. Gamma quinine is obtained by dissolving quinine in absolute alcohol and evaporating spontaneously or in dilute am- monia. Qiiiiioilc. Chinoyle. A synonyme of Kinone. Quinoline. See LEUCOLINE. Qiiiiionc. See KINONE. Quioric Acid. Knioric Acid. An acid or bitter body, nearly insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether, existing in Calasaya and Peruvian barks. Quiuoviue. A synonyme of Aricine. 436 RAG REA Racemic Acid. Paratartaric Acid, Vinic Acid, Uvic Acid, Levoracemic Acid, Acid of the Vosyes. (Traubensaure, Ger.) (Kestner, 1822 to 1824.) HOC 4 H 2 5 or 2HOC 8 H 4 10 ? Although this acid has been supposed to have been found only in the Vosges, I have been in possession for at least fifteen years of many ounces of it. It was then pointed out to me by ; Mr. William Blythe, of Church, Lancashire, in ' whose company I picked it from the sides of the ! tartaric acid evaporators, at the Chemical Works, I in Manchester, of Mr. Edmond Thomson, at that | time under Mr. Blythe's charge. Specimens I have been in Dr. Thomson's Museum since 1833. [ Dr. T. Thomson and myself annually demon- j strated its characters in our lectures, and com- pared it with Kestner's acid, of whch I have some fine crystals presented by himself. The existence of this acid in this country is announced in my Records of Science (vol. ii. page 97), published in 1835, but seems, in fact, to have been unknown to the French chemists. Crystal Colourless doubly-oblique prisms of the Gth system which do not change in ah* except ^ when warm ; and lose all their water at 212 or at 302 in a dry stream of air; soluble in 5-7 cold water; its solution has no action on polarized light; begins to decompose at 383 with the evolution of a gas, 90 per cent, of which is soluble in potash. It contains when crystallized 10^ per cent, of water. Racernic acid is dis- tinguished from tartaric acid by the form of its crystal (tartaric acid belonging to the 5th or prismatic system) by its precipit- ating solution of gypsum in hour in fine needles ; it precipitates more rapidly chloride of calcium and nitrate of lime, results not obtained with tar- taric acid. By the action of heat racemic acid is converted into a series of acids similar to those obtained from tartaric acid. See PARATARTRA- LIC and PARATARTRELIC ACIDS. Whether race- mic acid is mono or bibasic is uncertain. Radical. (Radix, a root.) A term applied to the root or foundation of compounds. An acid radical is the base of a compound which is cap- able of uniting with bases. A basic radical is the root of a compound which unites with acids. A simple radical is synonymous with an elemen- tary body ; while a compound radical acts like an elementary body or simple radical, and forms the base of other compounds. Cyanogen is (C 2 N) an example of a compound radical. The name in this case is synonymous with a Salt radical. Organic radicals are typified by ethyle (G^tl^), methyle (C 2 H 3 ), &c., which are analogous in their position in the organic world to metals in the in- organic division of chemistry. They constitute Racemic. the base or radical of extensive series of salts. In accordance with this definition, inorganic- chemistry has sometimes been described as the chemistry of simple radicals, while organic chemistry has sometimes been characterized as that of the compound or organic radicals. Radicle. The incipient root of the germin- ating seed. Rndiolite. A variety of Mesotype from Brevig, Norway. Rain, Earthy and Red, are names which have been applied to powders which have appar- ently fallen from the atmosphere. The earthy rain fell in the south-east of France, and consisted of SiOg 52-, A1 2 3 7-5, CaOC0 2 26-5, FeO 8-5, MgOCO 2 2-, organic debris. 3 '5. The red rain fell in the kingdom of Naples, and consisted of Si0 3 33-, A1 2 O 3 15-5, CaO 11-5, chromium !, iron 14-5, C0 2 9', yellow resin 15*5? Rain Water. See WATER. Randan itc. A form of gelatinous soluble silica, in fine earthy compact masses, found at, 1st, Ceyssat, near Randan, Puy de Dome ; 2d, near Algiers; 3d, in England. The first consists of silica, soluble in potash 87-2, water, C0 2 and organic matter 10-, A1 2 O 3 and Fe 2 3 2-, sand 89 ; the second is formed of soluble SiO 3 80-, HO 9-, insoluble silica 6-48, A1 2 3 1-41, Fe 2 3 55, CaO -56, NaO,KO, &c., 2 7 ; the third was found lately at Farnham, and contained 28-7 of soluble silica. Randanite consists of the casts of infusoria. Raphilitc. Spec. grav. 2-85, H 3-75. White, with a shade of bluish-green, needle-formed crystals, apparently oblique 4-sided prisms, lustre between glassy and silky ; the needles or fibres are easily separable from each other, slightly flex- ible but easily broken. B.B. becomes opaque and white, but does not fuse ; fuses with soda into a white glass, with borax into a transparent colour- less glass, leaving silica, fuses imperfectly with phosphate of soda. Its composition I have found by two trials made many years ago to be SiO<; 57-06, 56-81, CaO 17-81, 14-81 ; A1 2 3 2-15, 2-08; FeO 9-3, 7-08; MgO 12-6, 16-8; HO 1'08, 242. A former analysis gave alkali, de- rived from sea water. Perth, Upper Canada. Rapidolite. A synonyme of Scapolite. Ratofkitc. A mixture of fluor spar and apatite occurring as thin plates at Ratof ka, Russia. Rnzoumoifckiii. Snow-white, masses, opaque, passing into green; adheres strongly to the tongue. Occurs at Kosemittz along with pimelite and chrysoprase. B.B. fuses into a trans- parent mass, soluble in HC1, leaving the silica. Silica 50, A1 2 O 3 16-88, HO 20-, NiO -75, MgO,FeO,CaO 2-, KO 10-3. Realgar. A synonyme of Bisulphide of Arsenic. 437 RED Red Antimony. Sb0 3 , 2 SbS 3 . See AN- TIMONY. Red Chalk, or Reddle. A soft form of ses- quioxide of iron used for drawing purposes. Red Clay Ironstone. Sesquioxide of iron mixed with clay, &c. Red Cobalt, or Octohedrous triarseniate of Cobalt. Red Copper Ore, or Dinoxide of Copper. Red Haematite, or Sesquioxide of Iron. Red Iron Vitriol. Native sesquisulphate of Iron. See BOTBYOQENE. Red r.ead Ore, or Chromate of Lead. Red liiqour. Commercial acetate of Alumina. Red Ochre, or Red Chalk. Red Silver Ore, 3AgS,SbS 3 , or Antimo- nial Sulphide of Silver. Red Zinc Ore. Native oxide of zinc mixed with some protoxide of manganese. Reddle, or Red Chalk, or Sesquioxide of iron. Reds for Porcelain. Rose. Dissolve 15| grains of gold in aqua regia, mix its solution with a solution of 770 grains alum in 4-4 gallons water and add 23 grains solution of chloride of tin,(spec. grav. 1*700) ; then add caustic ammonia in sufficient quantity to precipitate all the alum- ina. "Wash the precipitate by decantation 10 times at least, throw it on a filter and dry at a gentle heat. It weighs 207^ grains. It is now triturated with 38^ grains carbonate of silver and 1078 grains lead glass (2 minium, 1 sand, 1 calcined borax). It is only fit for very thin layers, otherwise it separates into gold and silver. Yelloiv red. Calcine copperas on a capsule in an open muffle, stirring with a spatula to remove the greater part of the sulphuric acid and until a sample rubbed in water on a glass slab, yields a yellow-red colour. Mix 7 parts of this with 24 lead glass (12 minium, 3 sand, 1 cal- cined borax) and triturate carefully. Brownish- red is prepared by continuing the calcination until all the acid is expelled and treating as in the preceding case. Bluish-red or Pompadour. When copperas is still further ignited it acquires a bluish tinge, although it is not easy to hit this point. The coloured residue is mixed in equal pro- portions with the lead glass (5 minium, 2 sand, 2 calcined borax). Flesh-red. 1 red oxide of iron, 4 deep yellow, 10 lead glass (12 minium, 3 sand, 1 calcined borax), are mixed and finely triturated on a glass slab. Venetian red for paint. Equal parts sulphate of iron and sulphate of lime are calcined in a reverberatory furnace until the mixture assumes a bright red colour on cooling. It is then levigated with water for twelve hours by agitation with millstones in water, then run off into cisterns and well washed to remove excess of sulphuric acid. It is then dried carefully at 145 and pulverized under an edge stone. Refining. A term applied to the purification of various substances, as sugar, silver, gold, &c. Refraction. A term sometimes applied to the determination of the purity of nitre. RES Regulus. An impure metallic sulphide. Reinmannitc. A variety of Allophane. Reiset, Suits of. See PLATINUM. Rennet. A fluid prepared by digesting the salted true stomach of the calf ha water for some weeks, when a portion of the fluid becomes capable of coagulating milk. Reiisselaerite A name given to a steatite which has asssumed the form of augite. Replacement. The power which one body possesses of being substituted for another and fulfilling the same functions. See METALEPSY. Resins. Oxides of essential oils in which the oxygen has replaced an equal amount of hydro- gen. The oil or basis of these resins has the formula C 10 H 8 , or a multiple of it, C 4 oH 32 . The simplest resin consists of C4 H 32 0. Common rosin, obtained by distilling off oil of turpentine from turpentine balsam, has the formula C 4 o H 2 g0 4 . Resins are divided into acid and neu- tral. 1. Add resins, when dissolved in alcohol,, redden litmus ; and, if ammonia is added, they precipitate nitrate of silver with a crystalline pre- cipitate,not redissolved by an excess of ammonia. The neutral resins are not affected in this way. Acid resins decompose carbonate of soda ; they dissolve in caustic soda and potash. Their solu- tion in spirit is not precipitated by NH 3 ; the. precipitate produced sometimes by water is sol- uble in NH 3 ; their soaps are not precipitated by common salt. The acid resins are common rosin or colophony, dammara, gamboge, sandarach, mastic, benzoin, copal, lac, &c. When the resins, are distilled they give oils of various constitution, which sometimes contain creasote, and are used to preserve timber. At higher temperatures they yield gases for lighting. 2. Neutral resins have their alcoholic solutions precipitated by ammonia : they do not redden litmus. To this class belong elemi, styracine, guiacum, dragon's blood. For gum resins, see GUM RESINS. Resin Asphalt. Retinasphalt. C 2 iH 14 3 ? Sp. grav. 1-135. F.P. 250 ; quite fluid at 320 ? Pale brown ochraceous yellow masses ; fracture imperfectly conchoidal ; it appears earthy exter- nally ; but when broken exhibits a slight resinous lustre, very soft and easily frangible; at first Avhen dug up,elastic, flexible, but loses this property in the ah- ; fuses when heated, smokes much, and burns with a fragrant odour ; the fused mass is black and brittle. Bovey resin asphalt consists of resin. 55, asphalt 41, earthy matter 3- (Hatchett), and sometimes 13 per cent. ash. Halle resin asphalt contains resin soluble in alcohol 91', in- soluble 9-. It accompanies Bovey coal; is found in vegetable earth near Helbra, Mansfield, and in brown coal near Halle. Rcsiiieine. C 20 H 15 Q. B.P. above 482. Light coloured oil, nearly destitute of taste and smell ; scarcely soluble in alcohol, not in water ; very soluble in ether. Obtained by distilling common rosin or colophony, Resineoiic. C 23 H 18 0. B.P. 298'5 an oil 433 Hour. 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 11 Mean C02 per cent, by Vol. 4-32 4-47 4-51 4-3G 4-35 4-27 4-37 4-21 4-13 4-12 4-22 47-33 4-30 Expirations per minute. 12-1 11-9 11-4 11-5 12-4 13- 12-3 12-2 11-7 11-6 11-1 KET 2. Influence of temperature. Tempe. 47M* F. Pulsations per minute, . 72-93 Expirations, .............. 12-16 Vol. of expiration, ...... 548- Vol. of expired air, ...... G672- C0 2 , ...... 299-33 CO 2 in 100 parts, ...... 4-48 67-" P. 71-29 11-57 510-8 6016- 257-81 4-28 3. Effect of digestion Mean of 18 days. Before 12 noon, 66-5 After dinner, 2 r.M.,.82-3 Expirations. COa p. C. 11-55 4-32 12-77 4-37 4. Effect of wine 18 days mean. Pulsation. Expirations. CO2 p. c. 12 noon, 68-3 2 P.M., after wine,... 8 5 -8 12- 13-22 5. Without Wine. 12 noon, 64-7 11-11 2 P.M., 77-8 12-33 4-33 4-20 4-31 4-52 Quick respiration diminishes the per centage amount of carbonic acid, for while 12 expirations in a minute yield 4-34 per cent., 96 in a minute give only 2-74 carbonic acid per cent. Very slow breathing, on the contrary, increases it ; 5 expirations per minute gave 6 per cent. COa, or as in the following table : EES with a less burning taste than resinone, and les soluble in alcohol. Resinite. Eetinite. See RESIST ASPHALT. Resinone. C 10 H 9 0. B.P. 172. Whit very liquid substance ; taste burning"; insolubl in water ; soluble in alcohol ; very soluble i ether ; burns like alcohol. Obtained by distillin 1 part rosin and 8 slaked lime ; an ethereal oi passes over, which, when distilled in an oil bath at 320 divides into two portions ; one remainhij in the retort is resineine and tar ; the distillat consists of resinone and resineone, which may b separated by distilling at a low temperature ; th resinone being most volatile. Respiration. The process of inspiring am expiring ah- in the lungs, is termed respiration Upon it depends the production of animal hea by the union of the oxygen of the air with the carbon and hydrogen of the blood. The air which enters the lungs is oxygen and nitrogen, and tha which is expired consists of oxygen, nitrogen and carbonic acid. The following data by Vier- ordt are important : In experimenting upon re- spiration, Vierordt uses as an expirator, a long glass flask, open below, fitted above with i stop-cock, and filled with a saturated solution o common salt. It is immersed in an exterior ves- sel, which is filled with a solution, of the same kind, capable of containing 9200 cubic centi- metres. When this is filled by 15 20 expira- tions, an anthrakometer is to be affixed to it, , 6 - Expirations per minute. filled with common salt solution. It consists of **?* C K.^o ent ' a flask of 2442 cubic centimetres fitted to a gra- 19 '" duated tube 1| metre long, and 228 cubic centi- 2 ^ '" '"3-3^5 metres capacity, and 2 centimetres in diameter. When the stop-cock is turned the expired air 96 " '"2-66? displaces the common salt solution. The stop- cocks are closed, and the. tube adapted to a flask 7. Effect of deep breathing. filled with caustic potash. The stop-cock is Vol. Expired, c 02 per cent. opened, and potash agitated in contact with the Common respiration, 591 4-69 expired air. After some minutes the anthrako- Double in depth, 4-00 meter is shut off, the extremity plunged in Common, 545 4-5 water, and the stop-cock opened, and the point Three times in depth,.... 3-38 at which the water stands is read oft". It is unne- Common, 584 4-75 cessary to close the nostrils in expiration, as, Eight times in 'depth,.... 2- according to Vierordt, air cannot pass from the e r j, 7 -,., lungs through the nostrils and mouth also, and 8 ' ^ mC aCld m dlfferent * art3 & the Lun ^ the same occurs in inspiration. lst half of expiration, *$%2* 1. Carbonic acid at different times of the day. 2nd do ^-44- Pulsations per minute- 9> g^ O f reta j ninff fa fr^fa nri.r- Time of Retention. Normal C 02. C02 in respd. Air. 'JfJ 20 seconds, 4-77 6-50 69-6 fiQ-9 25 4>/1 G ' 59 30 4-95 7-04 40 4-90 7-22 ott 50 - 4-91 7-23 ^.g 60 5-02 7-64 Retina. The portion of the optic nerves on Avhich the impression of visible objects is made. 74-G t consists of water 92-9, albumen 6-25, fat '85. Retiualite. Spec. grav. 2-493, H 3 -75. i0 3 40-55, MgO 37-688, A1 2 3 -3, Fe 2 3 -62, 439 RET HO 20-, with some soda. Yellow resinous-look- ing amorphous masses; texture compact, frac- ture splintery, translucent. B.B. does not fuse ; with borax and salt of phosphorus a clear bead. Allied to serpentine. Granville, Lower Canada (Dr. Wilson). Rctinaphtha. C 7 H 4 . Specific gravity -86, of vapour 3-23. B.P. 226. Limpid fluid; strong refractor of light ; obtained by rectifying the oils from resin. Retiniie. Resinite. See RESIN ASPHALT. Rctinole. C 32 H 16 . Spec. grav. -9, of va- pour 7-11. B.P. 460. Limpid oily fluid, with- out taste or smell, by distilling resin oils between 457 and 471. Retinylc. C 9 H (; . Spec. grav. -87, of va- pour 4-242. B.P. 302. Limpid and transpar- ent fluid, not altered by light ; obtained in the distillation of rosin at high temperatures. Retinylcne. C ]8 H 12 . From rosin. It yields with S0 3 an acid isomeric with sulphocmnenic acid (Ci 8 H n S 2 05HO). Retistcrciic. C 20 H 8 . F.P. 152. A solid from rosin. Rctoit. An apparatus for distilling. See GASES, PREPARATION OF. Rcussinc. White 6-sided prisms, radiated, efflorescing, with saline taste. KaO S0 3 66-04, MgO S0 3 31-35, CaO S0 3 -42, MgCl 2-19. Reverfoeratory Furnace. A furnace in which the heat is applied to the body heated by a flame playing on its surface. See IRON and COPPER. Rhaedic Acid. Dark red body; soluble in cold water, with a red colour. From red poppy flowers. Rhactizite. A synonyme of Cyanite. Rhauinine. Yellowish- white crystals ; bit- ter ; soluble in water, alcohol, and ether ; from Persian berries. Rhaniiioxaiithiiic. A yellow-colouring matter by ether from the bark of the Rhamnus frangula. It has not been analyzed, but it seems to possess the characters of Parietine. Rhaponticinc. Yellow crystals ; soluble in hot, insoluble in cold water, ether, and volatile oils; from rhubarb root. Rheinc. Rhdbarbarine. Apparently the same as parietic or chrysophanic acid. Rhenitc. Hydrous Phosphate of Copper. Rhodalitc. Spec. grav. 2*, II 2-. Rose-red masses ; texture earthy ; apparently a congeries of rectangular prisms, mixed with earthy car- bonate of lime, and apparently chabasite. B.B. infusible ; forms beads with the fluxes. ' Si0 3 55-9, A1 2 3 8-3, Fe 2 3 11-4, MnO trace, CaO 1-1, MgO -6, HO 22-. In amygdaloid, North of Ireland. R hod nil in c. A synonyme of Thiosinnamine. Rhodalose. Sulphate of Cobalt. Rhodcorctic Acid. C 42 H 36 2 i. Obtained by boiling rhodeoretine with ammonia or potash ; soluble in water and alcohol, not in ether. RHO Rhodcorctiue. Jalapine. C 42 H 35 O 2 o. -A. resin from jalap (Jalapa ipomaea) root; soluble in alcohol ; insoluble in water and ether ; forming a fine carmine colour with sulphuric acid. Rhodcorctiiiolc. C 42 H 35 29 . Obtained by boiling rhodeoretine with strong acids, when it is converted into sugar and rhodeore- tinole. Rhodium. R 6 -5, 52. Sp. grav. above 11-. Gray powder or silver- white brittle metal ; ob- tained from platinum ore by digesting the ore in nitro muriatic acid, precipitating the platinum by salammoniac ; the mother liquor is precipitated by metallic zinc, the black precipitate is digested in nitric acid to dissolve copper and lead ; it is then dissolved in aqua regia, and common salt added ; evaporated to dry-ness, and washed with alcohol, to dissolve out platinum and palladium oxides; the residue is a salt of rhodium, from which the metal is precipitated by zinc. Pro- toxide. RO 7-5, 60. Black powder by heating the metal in the air. Protosesquioxide. 3 RO R 2 3 . By heating the metal continuously in the air. Sesquioxide. R 2 3 . Black powder by fusing powdered rhodium with hydrate of potash, and digesting in chlorohydric acid. Protochloride. RC1. Grayish or rose-red, formed by passing dry chlorine over heated protosulphide. Sesqui- chloride. R 2 C1 3 . Blackish-brown mass, by de- composing chlororhodiate of potassium by hydro- fluosilicic acid. Protosulphide. RS. Bluish- white metallic mass, by heating rhodium in sulphur. Sesquisulphide. R 2 S 3 . Dark brown body, by precipitating chlororhodiate of sodium with sul- phide of ammonium. Ch lororhodiate of potassium. 2 KC1 R 2 C1 3 2 HO. Red rectangular prisms, by fusing rhodium with chloride of potassium, and passing chlorine over it in a tube. Sesqui- sulphate. Black powder by heating sesquisul- phide with fuming K0 5 , and evaporating. Rhodizitc. Spec. grav. 3-36, H 8. Gray or yellowish- white, with the form of boracite; lustre glassy, translucent. B.B. tinges flame first green and then red ; fuses with borax into a glass, and also with salt of phosphorus. On red tourmalines at Mursinsk, Siberia. Rhodizvic Acid. C 7 H 3 10 , or C 7 H 7 3HO. Colourless needles, soluble in water, alcohol, and ether; not decomposed at 212; forms red-col- oured salts; formed by passing carbonic oxide over potassium, and exposing the mass to the air, and decomposing by alcohol containing sul- phuric acid. Rhodochromc. A variety of serpentine, Avith a spec. grav. 2-668, H 3-5. It contains sesquioxide of chromium. Rhodocrolitc. A synonyme of Carbonate of Manganese. Rhodoisc. Arseniate of Cobalt. Rhodonite. Silicate of Manganese. . Rhodotannic Acid. C 14 H C 7 . Amber- yellow body by alcohol and lead salt, from the leaves of Rhododendron ferrugiueum. 440 RHO Rhodoxantkine. C 14 H 7 8 . Yellow or red substance by mineral acids on rhodotannic acid. Rhubarb Resins. The roots of the different species of Rheum contain a variety of resins. Aporetine, Phceoretine (C 16 H 8 Oo), Ei-ythroretine (C 19 H 9 O 7 ), and Rhdne. Rice. The seed of the Oryza sativa, is much used as food in tropical countries. I have found it to contain 8 per cent, of nutritive matter. Riciiioleic Acitl. HO C 38 H 35 0.- ( . Spec, grav. '94. Sherry-coloured syrupy acid ; mis- cible with alcohol and ether in all proportions ; solid at 21 to 14; yields by distillation not sebacic acid, but oenanthole and oenanthylic acid, which distinguishes it from oleic acid ; obtained by saponifying castor oil. " Ricinostearic Acid. A solid acid obtained from castor oil, fusing at 158, and corresponding with stearic or palmitic acid. Rieinaunitc. A synonym e of Allophane. Rioiiite, or Selenide of Zinc. Ripidolite. Spec. grav. 2-87, H 1-5. Green 6-sided prisms, or double pyramids ; plates flex- ible. B.B. acts like chlorite, of which it is a variety. Si0 3 25-37, A1 2 3 18-5, MgO 17-09, FeO 28-79, HO 8-96. Rivuliuc. The green globules of Rivularia tubulosa, resembling in their motions those of infusoria. Robiiiic Acid. Crystalline needles, from the root of the Robinia pseudoacacia, in which it exists as robinate of ammonia. Rocellic Acid. C 24 H 23 6 . F.P. 295 White needles, soluble in ether, from the Rocella tinctoria. Rocellinmc. CsgHj-Oi,.;. Neutral crystal- line body, from Rocella tinctoria. Rochclle Salt, or Potash tartrate of Soda. Rock Cork, or Asbestus. Rock Crystal. The crystalline form in I sided prisms of quartz or silica. Rock Milk. Ayarlc Mineral, Cede Tuff. A white earthy form of carbonate of lime, deposited from water. Rock Oil and Tar, or Mineral Naphtha. Rock Salt. Native common salt. Rock Soap. Sole, Bergseife. Allied to Halloylite. It consists of SiO 3 44, A1 2 O 3 26 -5, Fe 2 3 8-, HO 20-5, CaO -5. Thuringia. Romanzoritc. A variety of garnet, resem- bling cinnamon stone, from Kimito, Finland. Romcite. Romeine, Antimonlte of Lime Hyacinth or honey-yellow 8-hedrons in minute crystals; harder than glass. SbO 4 79-31, CaO 16-67, FeO 1-2, MnO 2-16, Si0 3 -64. B.B melts into a black scoria ; with borax a colour- less glass in the reducing, violet in the oxidizing flame; insoluble in acids. St. Marcel, Pied mont. Rosacic Acid. An acid said by Prouat t< exist in the red sediment of the urine. RUB Roscllitc. Resembles cobalt bloom, except hat it is in right rhombic prisms. Rose Quartz. Quartz with a rose tinge, robably from the presence of manganese. Roses, Oil of. See ATTAR. . Rosic Acid. A synonyme of Rosacic acid. Rosin. See COLOPHANE. Rosin, Oils of. See RESINONE, &c. Rositc. Rosellane. Polyaryite. Sp. gr. 2 '73 5, 1 2-5 to 4-. Red grains, foliated with a shining frac- ure, in limestone in Sodermanland. SiQ 3 44-901, A1 2 3 34-506, Fe 2 O 3 -688, Mn 2 3 -191, KO 3-628, CaO 3-592, MgO 2-448, HO 6-533. Rosolic Acid. An acid in coal tar not ex- amined. Rothoffite. A variety of Garnet. Rubellaiie. A variety of Mica. Rubcllite. Red Tourmaline. Rubcrythric Acid. A synonyme of Xan- liine? Rubiacic Acid. C 31 H r 15 . Yellow flakes and powder, slightly soluble in water and alcohol, converted into rubiacine by alkalies ; obtained by boiling rubiacine with sesquichloride of iron, and adding an acid. Rubiacine. C 31 H 9 10 ,orC 32 H 11 O] . Yel- low resinous plates and needles, with a greenish tinge, subliming in scales; slightly soluble in boiling water ; soluble in boiling carbonate of pot- ash with a blood-red colour, and in caustic potash ith a purple colour ; soluble in boiling sesqui- chloride of iron ; obtained by adding an acid to a decoction of madder roots ; a dark brown de- posit falls, which, when exhausted with boiling water, yields up alizarine, rubiane, pectic acid, and leaves rubiacine and a dark brown substance, which by treatment with nitric acid is destroyed, leaving the rubiacine; by boiling with sesqui- chloride of iron it dissolves and gives rubiacine by acids. Riibiadine. C 32 Hj 2 Og. Yellow or orange needles from alcohol, by the action of alkalies on rubiane ; insoluble in boiling water ; sublimes in yellow mica-like plates. Rubiadipiiic. C 30 H 24 5 . Yellowish-brown fatty body, precipitated by acetate of lead from its alcoholic solution ; it most resembles in ap- pearance and general properties rubiretine, but it is always soft ; obtained from rubiane by fermen- tation. Rubiafiue. C 32 H 13 Og. Yellow plates or needles by the fermenting action of erythrozyme on rubiane. Riibiagmc. C 33 IIi 4 OKC Citron-yellow grains, insoluble in boiling water, in nitric acid ; not converted into rubiacic acid by sesquichloride of iron, although it is dissolved, and thus distin- guished from rubiafine ; distinguished from rubi- anine by its insolubility in water, and from rubi- adine by its not subliming; it is not precipitated by acetate of lead ; formed in the action of ery- throzyme on rubiane. Rubiaue. CscHsiOso* Hard dry amorphous 411 RUB brown substance, easily soluble in water, less so in alcohol, insoluble in ether; the taste of the solutions is very bitter ; converted by nitric acid into alizaric acid ; decomposed by heat, and yields alizarine vapours by sublimation ; it is not a colouring matter, but yields colouring substances by fermentation ; by sulphuric acid it is decom- posed into alizarine, rubiretine, verantine, rubia- nine, and sugar ; prepared by making a decoction of madder, adding to the solution animal char- coal, washing the charcoal with cold water till the wash water gives no green colour with chlo- rohydric acid ; treating the charcoal with boiling alcohol and filtering ; the alcohol extract by eva- poration consists of rubiane with some chloro- genine ; from the latter it may be freed by fre- quent treatment with animal charcoal ; the rubiane is finally dissolved and precipitated by acetate of lead, and the lead compound decom- posed by sulphuric acid, or sulphohydric gas. Rubiaiiine C 32 H 19 15 ? Yellow silky needles by the action of sulphuric acid on rubiane. Rnbiccllc' Yellow or orange-red Spinelle. Rubichloric Acid. Ci 4 H 8 O 9 . Colourless tasteless substance, soluble in water and alcohol ; insoluble in ether ; obtained by alcohol from the supernatant liquor after precipitating madder de- coction by acetate and trisacetate of lead. Rubiuic Acid. Ci 8 H 6 Og. A red substance, obtained in union with potash by dissolving cate- chine in carbonate of potash, and exposing the solution to the air without heat ; excess of car- bonate of potash may be removed by acetic acid. Rubiretiue. Alpha Resin of Madder. Cj 4 H 6 4 ? Yellow resin, by the action of acids on rubiane. Rubi&annic Acid. Ci 4 H 8 9 . The tannic acid existing in madder roots. Rubrica. The ancient name probably for red ochre. Rnby. A term applied to various minerals. Almandine ruby is violet spinell ; balas ruby is rose-red spinell; spinell ruby is scarlet spinell, while oriental ruby is sapphire, Ruby Silver. Red Silver ore. Rnby Sulphur. Realgar or bisulphide of Arsenic. Rue, Oil of. C 2 oH 2 o0 2 . Spec. grav. -837, of vapour 7-69 ; B.P. 444. Yellowish or green- ish oil, the aldehyde of capric acid probably; converted by nitric acid into pelargonic acid, C 18 H 18 O4, and capric acid (rutic acid) C 2( )H 20 4 . Rue oil is formed by sulphuric acid on cod liver oil. Roiigallic Acid. Parellagic Add. C 7 II 2 4 . Brownish crystalline body, losing water at 248; soluble in 3500 water ; changed into oxalic acid by nitric acid ; into tannomelanic acid by potash; obtained by mixing 1 gallic acid with 5 strong sulphuric acid, and dropping it into water ; the acid falls in flocks. Runmoric Acid. C 14 H 7 8 . Dark red mass, easily soluble in alcohol, less so in water ; very RUT little soluble in ether, soluble in S0 3 with a red colour ; obtained by acting on morintannic acid by sulphuric acid ; it separates as a deposit. Rufine. A red substance left when phlorid- zine is distilled. Ruin. A spirit distilled in the "West Indies from the fermented product of the sugar cane. The name is said to be derived from the last syl- lable of saccharwm, sugar. Rtisot. The yellow aqueous extract of the Berberis lycium of India ; used as a substitute for bark. Rust. The sesquioxide of iron mixed with carbonic acid and ammonia, formed on the sur- face of iron by exposure to moist air. Ruthenium. Ru 6'5, 52'1. Spec. grav. 8 '6. Whitish-gray porous lumps with metallic lustre; infusible by oxyhydrogen bloAvpipc ; ob- tained from the osmide of iridium by heating it with common salt to low redness in a current of chlorine, the mass digested in cold water, the solution mixed with a few drops of ammonia, and heated in a porcelain capsule ; sesquioxide of ruthenium and oxide of osmium fall. This pre- cipitate is washed with nitric acid and distilled, when osmic acid passes over ; the residue is fused in a silver crucible with caustic potash ; the ig- nited mass digested in water, the solution allowed, to clear and then drawn off, when sesquioxide of ruthenium separates ; this is converted into the metal by passing hydrogen over it when ignited. Protoxide. RuO 7'5, 60-1. Gray metallic powder, reducible by hydrogen ; obtained by fus- ing bichloride of ruthenium with carbonate of soda and digesting in water. Sesquioxide. Ru 2 3 16-, 128-2. Blackish- blue powder, by heating powdered ruthenium in- tensely with a blowpipe; it unites with acids forming orange solutions. Binoxide. Ru0 2 8-5, 68-1. Bluish-black powder with a green tinge ; by igniting the bi- sulphide of ruthenium, or the bisulphate of bin- oxide of ruthenium ; it forms yellow solutions with acids. Chloride. RuCl. Black and crys- talline, by passing chlorine over the metal. Ses- quichloride. A metallic-looking substance, by dissolving sesquioxide in muriatic acid, and eva- porating. iSesquichloride of Ruthenium and Am- monium. 2,NH 4 Cl,Ru 2 Cl3.Redrhombohedrons, by adding salammoniac to muriate of sesquioxide. Sesquichloride of Ruthenium and Potassium. 2, KC1, Ru 2 C1 3 . Crystalline powder or orange cubes, obtained in the preparation of ruthenium. Bi- chloride of Ruthenium and Chloride of Potassium. KCl,RuCl 2 . Red rhombohedrons, by treating the preceding (2 KCl,Ru 2 Cl 3 ) with aqua regia, or chlorate of potash. /Sulphides. These appear to be a sesquisulphide and bisulphide and Ru 2 S;;. Sul- phate of Binoxide. Yellow substance, by treating the bisulphide with nitric acid. Rutheniate of Potash. An orange solution, by igniting the metal with nitre or chlorate of potash. ICnthcrfordit c. Titaniate of Lime. Spec. 442 BUT grav. 5-55, H 6-5. Ti0 2 58-5, CaO 10, CeO? Rutic Acid. A synonyme of Capric acid. Rutile. (Ritiilus, red.) Native Titanic acid. See TITANIC ACID. Rutinc. A substance by alcohol, from the leaves of the Ruta graveolens. Ryacolite. Glassy Felspar. Sp. grav. 2-576 to 2-582, H. equal to felspar. Grayish- white and oblique prisms ; fracture uneven, or small im- SAL perfect conchoidal ; internal lustre splendent and vitreous ; transparent ; optical properties different from those of adularia. SiO 3 66-6, A1 2 3 18-5, MgO 1-, KO 8-, NaO 4-, FeO -6. In lava. Rye. The seed of the Secale cereale. It con- tains gluten (caseine?) 9-48, albumen 3-28, starch 61, sugar 3-28, gum 11-09, cellular mat- ter 6-38. Its ash contains KO 11-43, NaO 18-89, MgO 10-57, CaO 7-05, P0 5 51-81, S0 3 51, Si0 3 -69, Fe 2 0,3 1-9. S Sabadillic Acid. See CEVADIC ACID. Sabadilline. C 20 H 13 N0 5 . White crystalline acrid base; soluble in hot water and alcohol; insoluble in ether ; obtained by alcohol from the seeds of Veratrum sabadilla. Saccharic Acid. OxdOiydric Add, C 12 H 3 O n 5HO, or C 12 H 10 Oi 6 . Colourless acid syrup, or colourless crystals, precipitating lime and barytes water, isomeric with mucic acid; ob- tained by dissolving 1 sugar or gum in 2 nitric acid diluted with 10 water with the aid of heat ; the acid fluid is neutralized with chalk ; neutral acetate of lead is added ; a white precipitate falls which is decomposed by sulphohydric gas, and evaporated. Saccharite. Spec. grav. 2-668. Granular variety of felspar in serpentine in Silesia, con- taining Si0 3 58-93, A1 2 3 23-5, Fe 2 8 1-27, CaO 5-67, MgO -56, KO -05, NaO 7-42, NiO 39, HO 2-21. Sac c barometer. An instrument for mea- suring the specific gravity of saccharine solutions. That used by the officers of the Scottish inland revenue, and known under the name of Allan's saccharometer, was invented by Dr. Thos. Thom- son, about the beginning of the present century. Saccharosulphuric Acid. A substance blackening on evaporation, obtained by dissolving sugar in oil of vitriol, and saturating with chalk. Saccbolactic Acid, or Sugar of Milk in combination. Sacchulmic Acid. C 30 H 15 Oi 5 . Light brown powder, insoluble in alcohol and ether, converted into sacchulmine by long boiling with water ; soluble in ammonia and the alkalies with a brown colour ; obtained by boiling sugar with dilute sulphuric acid, and taking up the acid by ammonia. Sacchulmine. A brown matter in the pre- ceding action, insoluble in ammonia. Safflower. See CARTHAMWE. Saffron. The petals of the Crocus sativus, containing about half of their weight of yellow- colouring matter (Polychroite.) Sagapenum. A gum resin in tears from Asia Minor (from Ferula Persica ?) Colour yel- low ; taste hot and bitter, with a garlic smell ; slightly soluble in water ; very soluble in alcohol ; yields an oil when distilled with water ; the resin can be divided into two by ether. Sagapenum is used in medicine as a substitute for ammonia and asafoetida. Sagenitc. A synonyme of Titanic acid. Sage Oil. From the Salvia officinalis ; seems to be a mixture of oxides of the radical C 6 H 5 . Sago. A granulated form of starch, derived, as imported from the East, from the pith of Sagus- raphia audRumphii, Phoenix farinifera, and Sagus genuina. It contains a very small amount of albuminous matter (see ALIMENT) and salts, which are washed out in its preparation. It is therefore by no means a nutritious substance. Sago- is made on the continent in smaller grains from potato starch. See STARCH. Sahlite. A greenish pyroxene from Sahla r Sweden. Sal Alembroth. See ALEMBROTH. Sal Ammoniac. See AMMONIA CIILORO- HYDRIDE. Salammouiac. See HYDRO-CHLORATE OP AilMONIA. Salamstein. A synonyme of the Sapphire. Saldanite* Native sulphate of alumina, con- sisting of S0 3 35-68, A1 2 O 3 , 14-98, HO 49-34. Sal de l>uobu*. Sulphate of Potash. Salep. Salop. The farinaceous portion of the tubers of the Orchis morio. It contains appa- rently bassorine or an analogous body, which renders it with hot water a tenacious paste. Sal Gemme. A synonyme of Native com- mon salt. Salhydramide. See SALICYLIMIDE. Salicine. C 26 Hi 8 Oi4 = C 12 H 10 O 10 H 8 4 . F.P. 230 to 248. Silky plates, scales, or needles, with a bitter taste; neutral; soluble in 5 cold, more soluble in hot water ; soluble in alcohol ; insoluble in ether and oils ; it has been used as a substitute for quinine, but apparently without success. When heated above its fusing point it becomes resinous and decomposes ; it is not pre- cipitated from its solutions by tannic acid, gela- tine, or disacetate of lead. By chlorine it is con- verted into 3 bodies clilorosalicine in the cold state, a yellow powder (C 26 H 17 C10 14 ) ; at 140 a red oil, dichlorosalicine (C 26 H 16 C1 2 04), and with the further action of chlorine, trichlorosali- cine (C 26 Hi 5 Cl 3 14 ). By nitric ^acid, when strong, salicine is changed into oxalic and nitro- 443 SAL picric acids ; when dilute, anilotic, anilic acids, helicine and helicoidine are formed. 13 y sulphuric acid, rutitine, a red substance, is formed, by which salicine is distinguished from quinine and its salts. Salicine is obtained by boiling willow bark with water, precipitating the decoction by acetate of lead ; diffusing the precipitate after washing through water, and decomposing it by a current of sulphohydric gas, filtering, evaporating, and crystallizing out the salicine, Salicor. The ash of the Salicornia annua, employed in France as a source of carbonate of soda, of which it often contains 15 per cent. Salicyl-amidc. C 7 H 5 O 2 ,H 2 N. Salicyl-bcnzoil-amide. " C 7 H 5 2 ,C 7 H 5 0, H,N. Needles insoluble in water ; scarcely soluble in alcohol ; very soluble in alkalies ; acid reaction. Sal icyl-cuniyl- amide. C 7 H 5 09,C 10 H n O,H,N. Salicyle. C 14 H 5 4 = Sa. The hypothetic base of the salicyle series. Salicyle Hydride. Salicylous Acid, Hy- dride of -Spiroyle. C 14 H 5 04H. Spec. grav. 1-1731, of vapour 4-2760. B.P. 380. Colourless oil, with an aromatic smell, burning taste, and colours the skin yellow ; becomes solid at 4 ; slightly soluble in water ; very soluble in alcohol and ether ; reddens litmus, and then whitens it ; decomposed by SQ$ ; potash converts it into salicylic acid, with evolution of H; isomeric with ben zoic acid ; with bases forms salicylides. "When strong ammonia is poured on it, salicylide of ammonium, SaNH 4 , is formed, a yellow solid ; with dry ammonia the compound 2 NH 3 , 3 SaH is formed. With potash it forms a salicylide (C^H^OsKO) yellow crvstals, and bisalicvlide (2 C 14 H 5 03,KO) in needles. The hydride of sali- cyle is obtained by distilling the flowers of mea- dow sweet (Spiraea ulmaria), or by distilling 1 salicine, 1 bichromate of potash, 20 water, 2| oil of vitriol. Salicyle Chloride C 7 H 5 2 C1. Salicylic Acid. C i4 H 5 O 4 O HO SaO HO. Thin prisms, subliming without decompo- sition ; formed by heating the hydride of salicyle with potash, when H is removed, or by acting on coumarine, or gaultheria oil, with potash ; dis- tilled with barytes, it yields carbolic acid ; by nitric acid it is converted into nitrosalicylic acid, and then into carbazotic acid. Salicylimidc. C 42 H ls N 2 O c . Golden prisms, formed by adding caustic* ammonia cau- tiously in drops to hydride of salicyle in alcohol. Salicylous Acid. A synonyme of Hydride of Salicyle. Salifiablc Base. The radical of a salt. Maligf'iriiie. C 14 H 8 4 . F.P. 180, vapor- izes at 212. Pearly rhomboids, with an unctuous feel. Soluble in hot and cold water, the solution giving an indigo colour with sesquioxide of iron ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; changed by heat and dilute acids into saliretine ; obtained by ferment- ing 50 salicine with 200 water and 3 synaptase at 106 for twenty-four hours; the saligeume sepa- SAL rates in crystals, being little soluble in water, while grape sugar remains in solution. From this it has been concluded that salicine consists of saligenine and sugar ; but this is scarcely con- clusive, since sugar might, with equal justice, be viewed as composed of carbonic acid and alcohol. Saline Taste. The impression on the sense of taste by the action of a salt. Saliretine. C 14 H G 2 . A resinous body obtained by boiling saligenine or salicine with dilute sulphuric or chlorohydric acids, or by heat at about 270 ; isomeric with the essence of bit- ter almonds and benzoine. Saliva. Spec. grav. 1003-8 to 1008-8. Col- ourless fluid secreted by the two parotid, the two submaxillary, and the two sublingual glands. The quantity of saliva secreted per day in man appears to be about 7^ ounces avoirdupois. During meals it has been found acid, at other times alkaline ; on standing, white flocks (mucus) separate from saliva (5 parts from 100,000 saliva); alcohol precipitates a white substance (ptyaline) from saliva; sesquichloride of iron often gives a red tint to saliva, due to sulpho- cyanogen. The constituents of saliva are Water, 992-9 988-78 988-1 Ptyaline, 2-9 -62G 1-8 Fatty acid, -5 Albumen and soda, !? Mucus, with soda,... 1-4 1-64 2-6 Alkaline chlorides, .. 1-7 1-8 1-4 Soda, -9 -5 Lactate of potash) or soda, / Phosphate of lime,... -17 -G Silica, -15 Chloride of calcium, -18 Sulphocyanide potassium, Sal marine. Common salt. Sal martis. Protosulphate of iron. Sal mirabilc. Sulphate of soda. Sal pei Indian. Phosphate of soda. Sal prunella. Nitre melted. Salscpariiie. Smilacine, Sarsaparilline, Pa- rilline, Parillic Acid, Pariyline, Sasseparine. C 18 H 13 O5. Neutral crystalline body, from the root of Sniilax sarsaparilla by alcohol ; soluble in hot water, alcohol, and ether ; with a bitter disagreeable taste. Salt. A combination of an acid with a basic oxide, or of an acid radical with a metal of such a nature that the characters of both the acid and the base are neutralized. An oxide is not usually viewed as a salt, because it is capable of uniting with an acid; but chloride of potassium seems likewise susceptible of a similar union, if we con- sider the chlorochromate of potash to be com- posed of KC1 2Cr0 3 ; and there are several other known parallel cases. The theories of saline com- binations are multifarious at the present time, but none of them, with the exception of the most common view, is more than empirical, since 1-18 444 SAL they throw no light on the mode of decomposi- tion of the constituents of a salt in the ordinary processes of analysis. 1. According to the usual theory, nitrate of silver consists of nitric acid united to oxide of silver (AgONO 5 ). 2. Ac- cording to the theory of Davy, its formula is AgNO fi , or nitroxide of silver. 3. According to Gerhardt's view, in order to assimilate the reac- tions with those which we observe among organic bodies, its formula will be N0 4 O,AgO, and when chloride of sodium reacts on it we have the dia- grams NO 4 , Na AgO Cl Nitrate of silver. Chloride of sodium. __ N0 4 O , Ag Nitrate of soda. Chloride of silver. Similar changes occur when we cause chloro- hydric ether (chloride of ethyle) to act on potash in alcohol, chloride of potassium and ether re- sulting C 4 H 5 , C 4 H 5 K O Cl Potash alcohol. Chlorohydric ether. _ C 4 H 5 , K C 4 H 6 Cl Ether. Chloride of potassium. Salt of Alcmbroth. Ammonia chloride of mercury. Salt of Amber. Succinic acid. Salt, Aimuoniacal Fixed. Chloride of calcium. Salt, Ammoniacal Secret. Sulphate of ammonia, Salt, Arsenical Neutral. Arseniate of pot- ash. Salt of Benzoin. Benzoic acid. Salt, Bitter Cathartic. Sulphate of mag- nesia. Salt, Digestive of Sylvius. Acetate of potash. Salt, Diuretic. Acetate of potash. Salt, English. Sulphate of magnesia. Salt, Epsom. Sulphate of magnesia. Salt, Febrifuge of Sylvius. Chloride of potassium. Salt, Fusible. Phosphate of ammonia. Salt, Fusible of Urine. Ammonia phos- phate of magnesia. Salt, Glauber's. Sulphate of soda. Salt, CJlazer's. Sulphate of potash. Salt of Lemery. Sulphate of potash. Salt of demons. Binoxalate of potash. Salt, Mycrocossnic, or Salt of Phosphorus. Ammonia phosphate of soda. Salt of Paris. Sulphate of potash. Saltpetre, Potash. Nitrate of potash. Saltpetre, Soda. Nitrate of soda. Salt, Polychrcstc. Sulphate of potash. Salt of Saturn. Acetate of lead. Salt, Sedative. Boracic acid. Salt, Seidlitz. Sulphate of magnesia. SAN Salt of Scignettc. Potash tartrate of soda. Salt of Sorrel. Binoxalate of potash. Salt, Spirit of. Hydrochloric acid. Salt, Sulphureous of Stahl. Sulphite of potash. Salt of Tartar. Carbonate of potash, Salt, Tin. Protochloride of tin. Salt, Vegetable. Tartrate of potash. Salt of Vichy. Carbonate of soda. Salt, Volatile. Carbonate of ammonia. Salt, Wonderful. Sulphate of soda. Sal Volatile. See CARBONATE OF AMMO- NIA. Samarskitc. Spec. grav. 5*45, H 5'5. A black mineral from North Carolina, containing niobic acid 54-81, U 2 O 3 17-03, FeO 14'07 y yttria 11-11, ceria 3-95" Samshoo. A spirit extracted by fermenta- tion and distillation from rice by the Chinese. I have found it to contain 2G per cent, of absolute alcohol. Sanadoinc. Si0 3 57'25, AL>0 3 23-5, CaO 2-75, Fe 3-25, MnO -26, NaO 8-1, HO 3-. Sand. Particles of silica mixed with other impurities. Sand Bath. See BATH. Saiidaraca. Realgar, or Bisulphide of Ar- senic. Saiidarach. JunlperRcsm. F.P. 308. Brown round resinous tears from the Thuya articulata of Barbary, resembling mastich, but crumbles when chewed. It consists of 3 resins ; a. C 20 H 31 05 T soluble in weak alcohol, ether, and oil of turpen- tine, ammonia and caustic potash; 1. C 20 H 31 02 T soluble in absolute alcohol and ether; c. C 2 o H 30 Cv,, soluble in alcohol of -82. These resins are obtained by dissolving sandarach in absolute- alcohol ; on adding hydrate of potash resin c falls, while the other two (a and 6) remain in solution in union with potash ; the two resins are preci- pitated by H Cl ; resin a is separated by weak al- cohol ; the white resin b is insoluble. Sanders. A red dyewood from Pterocarpus santalinus. See SANTAI.INE. Samliver. (Sain de Verre). The saline scum in glass pots. Sandyx. Probably a mixture of realgar and red chalk. Sang Dragon. See DRAGON'S BLOOD. Sanguinarine. C 35 -H 16 NOs- Yellow powder from Sanguinaria canadensis ; insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether. When dissolved in alcohol and a current of HC1 passed through the solution, a beautiful blood-red solution is formed. Sanidine. Glassy Felspar. Si0 3 68-18, A1 2 3 18-33, Fe 2 O 3 -71, CaO -51, MgO -46, KO 7-15, NaO 4-66. Santalic Acid. F.P. 219. Red prisms, in- soluble in water, soluble in ether ; soluble in SO S with a red colour, from sanders wood by alcohol. Santalic Oxide. Brown, tasteless, insoluble mass, from Sanders. 445 SAK Santalide. A red, tasteless, insoluble mass. Santalidide. Brown mass, soluble in water and hot alcohol ('912); insoluble in ether and absolute alcohol, from Sanders. Santaliiie. CigHgOs ? Appears to consist of two or more of the preceding resins. Santaloide. Yellow mass ; soluble in water and alcohol ; insoluble in ether. Saiitaloidide. Brown resin, soluble in boil- ing alcohol of -863, insoluble in water and ether. Santoiiine. C 5 H 3 0. Pearly prisms; insol- uble in water ; soluble in alcohol, ether, and acids; from several species of Artemisia by alcohol; it unites with bases. Santoriiie. A kind of tarras of volcanic origin, used as a building stone, from a Grecian island on the coast of Dalmatia. It contains 54 per cent, lime, and 22 per cent, silica. Sap of Trees, is a fluid generally colourless, and limpid as water ; that of the birch has a specific gravity of 1004 with a scarcely sweetish taste, although it contains above 1 per cent, of sugar ; that of the vine contains carbonic acid, tartrate of lime, bitartrate of potash ; that of the elm is composed of water and volatile matter 1027-9, acetate of potash 9-24, vegetable matter 1-06, carbonate of lime -796. The sap ascends from the roots to the leaves, and returns bv the bark. Sap Green. A colour composed of the col- ouring matter of the berries of the Rhamnus catharticus and lime. Sapait Wood. (Caesalpinia Sapan.) East Indian Dye Wood, False Sandal Wood, Lignum Sapan. The species are C. coriaria and C. puicherrima. Grown in India, Ceylon, Amboyna, and the Moluccas. The decoction under the name of Sapan liquor is used in calico printing for red colours. The specific gravity of the liquor is usually 1040, and it contains about 5897 grains of extract per imperial gallonl The composition of the wood is organic matter 987*083, carbonate and phosphate of lime 11-65, alkaline phosphate and sulphate -85, common salt -517 (R.D.T.) Sapoiiic Acid. See ESCULINE. Saponinc. C 32 H 46 32 . White brittle sub- stance, producing sneezing ; froths in water, in which it dissolves ; less soluble in absolute alcohol ; insoluble in ether ; existing in Agrostemma gi- thago, Anagallisarvensis, Esculushippocastanum, Saponaria oificinalis, Gypsophila struthium, various species of Dianthus and Lychnis, in Quillaia saponaria, and Silene inflata. Saponitc. A synonyme of Soapstone. Sappare. A name given by Saussure to cyanite, from an incorrect reading of a specimen marked sapphire, sent to him by a Scottish min- eral dealer. Sapphire. Adamantine Spar, Asteria(Pl\ny'), Oriental Amethyst, Corundum, Diamond Spar, Oriental Emerald, Emery, Oriental Ruby, Telesia, Oriental Topaz, Salamstein. A1 2 03. Sp. grav. 3-9511. Red (ruby), blue (sapphire), yellow SAR (topaz), green (emerald), violet (amethyst), acute rhomboids; the lateral edges being frequently replaced by planes parallel to the perpendicular axis of the rhomboid ; the common form of the corundum is a 6- sided prism; it often occurs as 12-hedrons, or 2 6-sided pyramids applied base to base ; structure in plates ; fracture conchoidal, uneven; lustre vitreous; transparent to opaque ; refracts doubly. Sapphire consists of nearly pure alum- ina ; but isomorphous substances some- times exist along with it, as sesquioxide of iron. Sirian, Pegu ; Saxony ; Bohemia ; Puy, France. The corundum is destitute of beauty, being gray, brown, or red. I have good specimens from India and China. Emery is a gray or black variety. SappMrine. Sp. grav. 3-450, H 7-5. Blue or green grains in plates; glassy, transparent. Si0 3 14-51, A1 2 3 63-11, MgO 16-85, CaO 38, Mn 2 O 3 -5, FeO 3-92, HO -49. B.B. per se, and with fluxes, infusible. Fisknaes, Greenland. Sarcocolliiie. C 57-15, H 8-34, O 34-51. Sarcocolla is in yellow oblong globules, like gum arabic, from the Penoea mucronata, a native of Persia and Arabia. When digested in ether a resin is dissolved, and absolute alcohol then takes up sarcocolline ; soluble in water and alcohol, and S0 3 ; insoluble in ether ; converted into oxalic acid by N0 5 ; precipitated by nutgalls, diacetate of lead (T. Thomson). Sarcolite. Hydrolite, Gmelenite. Spec. grav. 2-054, H 4-. Snow-white truncated double 6- sided pyramids ; translucent, frangible. B.B. in- creases in bulk, and becomes an enamel, but does not fuse. Si0 3 39-896, A1 2 3 12-968, Fe 2 O 3 8-27, KO 9-, HO 29-866. In the Vicentine ; Glen Arm, county Antrim. Sarcosine. ( ff e , flesh). C 6 H 7 N0 4 . F.P. a little above 212. Colourless rhombic prisms; neutral ; very soluble in water ; very little sol- uble in alcohol, and insoluble in ether; taste slightly metallic ; isomeric with lactamide, ure- thane, alanine, and homologous with glycocoll ; colours acetate of copper deep blue like ammonia ; forms needles with corrosive sublimate; forms salts with acids; obtained by adding 10 times its weight of a boiling saturated solution of hyd- rate of barytes to a solution of creatine, filtering, precipitating excess of barytes by carbonic acid, filtering, and crystallizing ; sarcosine is obtained pure by uniting it with sulphuric acid, decom- posing with carbonate of barytes, filtering, and evaporating. Sard. Deep brownish-red calcedony. Sardoine. A synonyme of agate. Saraaparilla. The root of the Smilax^ar- saparilla, c. containing oil, resin, starch, al- bumen, salts, &c. 446 SAS Sassafrinc. Brown crystalline grains, some- what soluble in cold water and ether, acting as a weak acid ; by alcohol, from the root of Laurus sassafras. Sassafrolc. Oil of Sassafras. Spec. grav. 1-09 ; B.P. 443. Yellow volatile oil by ether, from sassafras root. Sassepariiie. A synonyine of salseparine. Sassolinc. Native boracic acid. Satin Spay. Carbonate of lime in fibres, with a satin lustre. Saturation. When a fluid has dissolved as much of a soluble body as it is capable of taking up, the fluid is said to be saturated ; and the same expression is applied to the case where an acid is neutralized by a base, or a base by an acid. Saucy Bark. A bark from the coast of Africa, used there as a poison. Saussurite. Jade, Felspath tenace. Spec, grav. 2 '801, H 7'. Gray, reddish-gray, bluish or greenish-gray, granular masses ; fracture splin- ter}*, very tough, translucent on the edges. B.B. the thin edges soften, but do not fuse. Si0 3 82-168, AU0 8 5-072, FeO and some MnO 2-88, CaO 5-52, MgO 4-52, KO a trace. Along with diallage at the Lizard, Cornwall, also in the Verde di Corsica. Savinc, Oil of. The essence of Juniperus sabina, obtained by distilling the tops of the plant. Savite. Spec. grav. 2-45, H 3'2. Colourless 4- sided prisms, with difficulty fusible before the blowpipe. Si0 3 49-167, A1 2 3 19-663, MgO 13-5, NaO 10-52, KO 1-23, HO 6-575. In gabbro in Tuscany. Saxon JBlue. Sulphate of indigo. Scammony. Spec. grav. 1-235. A cathar- tic gum resin from the root of Convolvulus scammonia. The Smyrna resin consists of resin 29, gum 8', extractive 5, vegetable matter 58; : from Aleppo, of resin 60, gum 3, extractive 2, vegetable debris, bark, &c. 35. It is often mixed with chalk. Scapolitc. Arctizite, JBergmanite ? Chelms- Jbrdite, Dipyre, Meionite, Micarelle, Paranthine, Rapidolite, Spreusteinf Wernerite. Sp. gr. 2-612 : to 2-65 (Meionite), 2-709 to 2-749 (Scapolite), H 4-25. White, grayish- white (Meionite), some- times with a shade of green (Scapolite), fre- ! quently brownish-red right square prisms, ter- i minated by a low 4-sided pyramid, with angles of 136 22', and 112 5'; the surface of the prism is often streaked longitudinally ; the struc- ture is foliated; fracture imperfect, conchoidal, or uneven ; lustre vitreous ; from transparent to translucent on the edges; brittle. B.B. froths and fuses into an enamel or white glass. SiO 3 40-531, A1 2 O 3 32-726, CaO 24,245, KO and NaO 1-812, Fe 2 O 3 '182. Form. 3(CaONaO) 2 Si0 3 , 2 A1 2 3 SiO 3 . Arendal, Norway ; North America. Scarbroitc. Spec. grav. 1 '48. White earthy SCH substance, adhering to the tongue, in limestone at Scarborough. Si0 3 10-5, A1 2 O 3 42-5, Fe 2 3 25, HO 26-75. Schccle's Green. Diarsenite of copper. Scheclitc. Tungstate of Lime. Scheelitinc. Tungstate of Lead. Schecrcritc. Spec. grav. -65 ; B.P. 197 ; F.P. 111. C = 73, H24 = CH 2 . White or grayish fatty substance, or needles, with pearly lustre, without taste and smell, on brown coal at Uzuach, Switzerland; soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils; soluble in sulphuric acid with a red colour. Branchite. A variety has a spec. grav. of 1-; F.P. 167; is colourless, and soluble in alcohol. On brown coal at Mount Yaso, in Tus- cany. See also KONLJTE. Scheelstcin. Table Spar. Schiller Spar. Hydrous Bisilicate of Mag- nesia, Diallage Metalloide, Karstine, Ottrelite. Spec. grav. 2-668, H 2-75. Dark green foliated masses, which cleave in two directions, one of which is highly perfect and easily obtained, while the other appears only in slight traces. These cleavages are in the direction of a rhombic prism, with angles of 90 30', and 86 30'; lustre me- tallic, pearlj* ; colour olive-green and blackish- green, inclining to pinchbeck-brown ; streak gray- ish-white, inclining to yellow. B.B. loses its green colour and becomes brown and metallic ; the edges do not fuse, but are rounded off; gives off water in a tube with some ammonia; with borax fuses into a greenish bead from chromium; with soda infusible. Si0 3 43-9, MgO 25-856, FeO and Cr 2 3 13-021, MnO -535, CaO 2-642, A1 2 3 1-28, HO 12-626. Baste, Hartz, in ser- pentine. Schist, or Slate. Schlippe's Salt. 3NaS, SbS 5 18 HO. Schnciderite. H 3: White opaque foliated masses, along with Humboldtite, in Tuscany. B.B. fiises to a blue enamel; decomposed by acids, leaving gelatinous silica. Si0 3 47'794, A1 2 O 3 19-382, CaO 16-765, MgO 11-029, KO and NaO 1-621, HO 3-409. Form. 3R02Si0 3 -f Al 2 3 Si0 3 HO. Schorl. Black fibrous crystals of tourmaline. White schorl is nepheline ; blue schorl is disthene, vivianite, and anatase ; cruciform schorl is stau- rotide ; electric schorl is tourmaline ; octahedral schorl is anatase; red schorl is rutile, rubellite; green schorl is epidote, amphibole ; violet schorl is axinite. Schorlomite. Spec. grav. 3-862 to 3-783, H 7-25. Black 6-sided prisms, with indistinct cleavage ; lustre vitreous ; fracture conchoidal. Si0 3 26-09, Ti0 2 17-36, CaO 31-12, FeO 22-83, MgO 1-55. B.B. fuses with difficulty into a black mass, into a yellow glass with fluxes. Ozark mountains, Arkansas. Form. 2(3RO 2 Si0 3 ) 3(ROTiO 2 .) Schorlite, or Schorlous Beryl A synonyme of Pycnite. Schrottcrite. Spec. grav. 1'95 to 2'05, H 447 SCH 3-25. Green, yellowish masses, sometimes with brown spots, resembling allophane; soluble in acids. B.B. becoming white. Si0 3 11-95, Alo O 3 46-3, HO 36-2, Fe 2 O 3 2-95, CaO 1-3, CuO 25, SO 3 -78 = 4 Al 2 O 3 ,Si0 3 18 HO. Freien- stein, Styria. Schulzit e. A synonyme of Geocronitc. St-Iiuty.iK'. Sulphate of Strontian. Schweiiifurth Green, or AiiSEXio-AcE- TATE OF COPPER. Scillitiiic. A solid substance with a caustic taste ; soluble in sulphuric acid, with a purple and then black colour ; dissolved and decomposed by nitric acid ; obtained from the decoction of squills (Scilla maritima) by precipitating by acetate of lead ; decomposing the precipitate by sulphohydric acid and evaporating. Sclcrctiiiitc. (-*xijf, hard.) Spec. grav. 1-136, H 3-, C 10 H 7 O = C 76-95, H 8-95, O 10-42, ash 3-68. A fossil resin of a black colour, found on coal at Wigan; in thin pieces it has a dark reddish-brown colour, and is translucent; insoluble in water, alcohol, ether, and alkaline carbonates. Sclerotic Coat of the Eye, containing al- bumen but no fibrine, consists of C 50-995, H 7-075, N 18-723, O 23-207. Scolcca. So called from its assuming the shape of a worm, was an ancient mixture of alum, carbonate of soda, and white vinegar, from which probably resulted sulphate of soda, and acetates of soda, alumina, copper, &c. Scolexerose. A variety of Scapolite or La- bradorite (?) Pargas, Finland. Scolezitc. Needlestone, Lime Mesotype. Spec. grav. 2-214 to 2-27. White right rhombic prisms with angles of 91 20', frequently 6-sided, and often terminated by a 4- sided pyramid with angles oi 116 35'; soluble in nitric and chlorohydric acids ; electric when heated ; the apex of the pj'ramic positive, the other extremity negative; lustre vitreous ; scratches glass feebly. B.B. becomes opaque, and twists up like a worm (a-xoXrQ, anc then becomes a shining slag, and then a vesicular bead. Si0 8 46-47, A1 2 3 25-35, CaO 14-03 NaO -43, HO 13-63. Form. CaO Si0 3 , Al 2 r SiO 3 3HO. Iceland, Faroe, Staffa, Kilpatrick Hills. Scolczitc Anhydrous.. H 6'. White crys stals in scapolite, Ersby, Finland ; translucent fracture small conchoidal ; lustre vitreous ; diffi cultly fusible. B.B. behaves like scolezite. SiO 54-13, A1 2 3 29-23, CaO 15-46, HO 1-07. Scolopsite. Spec. grav. 2-53, H 5. Smoke- gray or pale reddish-white granular pieces. B.B fuses with frothing to a greenish-white glass decomposed by chlorohydric acid. SiO 3 44-06 A1 2 O 3 17-86, Fe 2 3 2-49, MnO -86, CaO 15-48 MgO 2-23, NaO 11-54, KO 1-3, S0 3 4-09 trace, NaCl -93. Kaiserthal in Breisgau. Scoparinc. C 21 H 11 O 10 . Pale yellow amor phous mass, or small starlike crystals, withou taste and smell ; action neutral ; little soluble in SEB old water, more soluble in cold alcohol ; soluble n caustic and carbonated alkalies with a greenish- r ellow colour ; precipitated by chlorohydric and cetic acids ; obtained in crystals by spontaneous vaporation from the alcoholic solution ; decom- >osed into a resin by boiling with alkalies and acids ; unsublimable ; converted into picric acid >y nitric acid ; obtained from the aqueous decoc- ion of broom (Cytisus scoparius) by dissolving in water and evaporating in the water bath, when, ihlorophyle remains undissolved. Scoria. A slag of semi- vitrified or crystal- ine dross. Scorilitc. Spec. grav. 1-708, H 2-. Reddish- brown, scoriaceous-looking matter ; internally dark brown, streak white ; feels harsh like slag> vesicular like a cinder. B.B. infusible, but be- omes whiter ; fuses with soda into a green glass. SiO 8 58-02, A1 2 3 16-78, FeO 13-328, CaO 8-62, HO 2-. Mexico. Scoroditc. See ARSENIATE OF IROX. Scorza. A variety of Epidote. Spec. grav. 3-289. Si0 3 38-6, A1 2 3 26-15, CaO 23'84, FeO 10-5, HO 1-3 Scotiiic Diagonal. See BuCKLAXDlTE. Scouleritc. Mineral allied to Thomsonite, having the same composition, but an amorphous brown aspect. Ballimony, Ireland. Sea-Foam. See MEERSCHAUM. Scaling- Wax. Red sealing-wax is made by melting together 48 shell lac, 19 Venice turpen- tine, 1 balsam of Peru, 32 cinnabar. Black wax consists of 60 shell lac, 10 turpentine, 30 levi- gated ivory black. Yellow wax is coloured with chrome yellow, blue wax with cobalt blue, green, wax with oxide of copper Sea-Salt. Chloride of Sodium. Scbacic Acid. C 20 HIS 8 C 59'25, H 9-07. Sp. grav. when fused, 1-1317; F.P. 2766. Crystals resembling those of benzoic acid ; very little soluble in cold, very soluble in hot water ; very soluble in alcohol, ether and fat bodies; sublimes unaltered ; with chlorine it affords two bodies, C 2 0)H 17 C1,O 8 and C 20 H 16 C1 2 ,0 8 ; sol- uble in hot water ; with nitric acid it yields suc- cinic acid ; - distilled with pyroxilic spirit and sulphuric acid sebacic acid forms, dimethyle sebacic acid, 2C 2 H 3 0, C 20 H 16 C , colourless needles, boiling at 545, fusing at 78. Seba- mide, and sebamic acid are formed by the action of ammonia on this methyle compound. Sebacio acid is formed by distilling oleine or oleic acid, and crystallizing the distillate out of water ; it forms a precipitate with acetate of lead. The salts are termed sebates, and are unibasic. Sebate of ethvle has the odour of melons ; becomes solid at 16, and volatilizes above 212. Scbamic Acid. Stearamic Acid. Coolly N0 fl . Granular body by adding HCl to the liquor in Avhich sebamide has formed. Sebainide. Stearamide. C 2 oH 2 0N 2 04. Gran- ular substance by digesting ammonia with stearic ether. 448 SEC Secaliuc. See ERGOTINE. Sedative Salt. Boracic acid. Scifllitz Powder. An effervescing powder sold in two separate parcels, one in white papers contains 2 scruples bicarbonate of soda, 2 scru- ples Rochelle salt ; the blue paper contains 35 grains tartaric acid. When dissolved in water they effervesce. Scigiiettc's Salt. Rochelle Salt. Potash tar- trate of soda. Selbite. A synonyme of Carbonate of Silver. Seleiialdine. An organic base, forming large crystals ; insoluble in Avater ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; forms crystalline salts ; obtained by passing seleniohydric acid through a solution of aldehyde-ammonia in ammonia. Sclcnide of Lend and Copper. Spec. grav. 5-6 to 7-, H 2-25. Pb Se, Cu Se. Lead- coloured powder or mass. B.B. fusible, and like PbS. Selenitic of Sulphur. Orange masses like sulphur. Lipari islands, and Hawaii. Seleniohydric Acid. HSe. Colourless gas, resembling in character and smell sulphohydric gas, precipitating metals as black selenides ; ob- tained by acting on selenide of potassium or iron with chlorohydric acid and water. Sclenio-Mercaptanc. C 4 H 5 Se,HSe. Col- ourless foetid fluid heavier than water, burning with a blue flame, unites with HgO with a hiss- ing noise ; obtained by distilling seleniohydride of selenide of potassium (KSe, HSe, formed by passing HSe through potash) with sulphethylate of lime. Sclcniopalladite. Native palladium. Scleniosulphide of iTlercnry. H 2*5. HgSe,4HgS. Lead-coloured masses, subliming by heat. San Onofre, Mexico. Selenitc. A compound of selenious acid with a base. Selenitc. Sulphate of lime. Selenium. Se 5, 40; 4-95, 39-6. Spec, grav. 4-3. Black or brownish-black masses, or 4-sided prisms ; lustre metallic ; powder red- dish; without taste and smell; easily fusible about 212, and volatile, with the smell of horse- radish ; non-conducter of electricity ; closely re- sembling sulphur in its characters and affinities ; obtained from some specimens of pyrites in Hun- gary and Germany; but has been obtained in largest quantity from a reddish precipitate in the sulphuric acid chambers near Stockholm. When dry chlorine is passed over this deposit, on the application of heat, chlorides of selenium and sulphur distil into water in the receiver; the filtered liquid, treated with sulphite of potash, deposits selenium. Selenides are obtained by heating together the metals and selenium. Oxide of Selenium. SeO. Colourless gas, with the smell of horse-radish, obtained by heating selenium in air or oxygen. Selenious Acid. Se02 White 4-sided prisms, volatilizing at the boiling point of sulphuric acid, SEE and yielding a yellowish vapour ; soluble in cold and hot water and alcohol ; formed by dissolving; selenium in nitro-chlorohydric acid, distilling the liquid off, and subliming in a retort. The selen- ites are decomposed by heat, and when heated on charcoal yield the odour of horse radish, by which they are distinguished from sulphates. The equisalts have an alkaline, the bisalts an, acid reaction, isomorphous with sulphurous acid. Selenious acid is reduced to selenium when heated with S0 2 . ^ Selenic Acid. Se0 3 . Sp. grav. 2-61. Clear fluid, decomposed by heat into selenious acid and oxygen, evolves heat when mixed with water f dissolves zinc and iron with evolution of hydro- gen ; forms seleniates with bases which are iso- morphous with sulphates, chromates, and man- ganates; obtained by acting on selenium with chlorine in water. Seleniate of potash is obtained by fusing selenium with potash nitre ; it has the same form of crystal with sulphate of potash. Seleniate of soda is formed by fusing selenium with soda nitre ; it is anhydrous ; seleniates of barytes, strontian, lime, and lead, are insoluble. Test. When selenic acid is boiled with HC1, the odour of Cl is evolved ; the solution is not pre- cipitated by SH. It gives a white precipitate with BaCl, insoluble in NO 5 . Scmelin. A synonyme of Sphene. Semen. Spermatine. The secretion of males. Spec. grav. heavier than water. Transparent substance like mucus ; at first insoluble in water, but afterwards spontaneously fluid; in contact with water, the water becomes precipitable by gall-nuts. It contains animalcule or sperma- tozoa ; it is alkaline. Human semen consists of water 90, spermatine G, phosphate of lime 3, soda 1. Scmi-Naphthalidiiic. C 10 H 5 N. Reddish- yellow prisms ; insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether; by the action of ammonia and SH on nitronaphthalese. Scmiopal. Opal with less opalescence than, precious opal. Semolina, A form of wheat in which the grains are broken down. Scnegine. A synonyme of Polygalic acid. Senna Ijcaves contain Cathartine. Scptaria. Nodules of limestone mixed with clay, forming hydraulic mortar. Serbiaiic. A synonyme of Miloschine. Sericic Acid. A synonyme of Myristic acid. Sericite. Spec. grav. 2 -897, H 1: Greenish- white talc in the Taunus slate, consisting of Si0 3 51-83, A1 2 3 22-21, FeO 7-5, MgO 1-38, KO 9-1, NaO 1-74, HO 5-56, P0 5 -31, SiF 1-88. Scrolinc. F.P. 97. Minute white filaments, with pearly lustre, becoming red with sulphuric acid; soluble in ether; insoluble in alcohol of 842, potash except after long digestion, and nitric acid; when distilled yields ammoniacal vapour, and is partly volatilized ; forms no emul- sion with cold water ; deposited from a hot alco- 449 2 G SER tolic decoction of dry serum on cooling ; supposed to be a mixture. Serpentine, Precious. Hydrous Sesqui- stticate of Magnesia, Picrolite, Ophites. Spec. grav. 2-5 to 2-591, H 3-5, and 2-25. Leek-green, mountain-green, or dirty straw-yellow masses, or oblique 4-sided prisms ; lustre resinous, inclining to pearly ; translucent on the edges. B.B. in- fusible, but becomes brownish-red ; fuses with "borax into a green glass ; with salt of phosphorus into a glass tinged with iron ; with soda into a yellowish-brown enamel. Si0 3 43-07, MgO 40-37, CaO -5, A1 2 O 3 -25, FeO 1-17, HO and C0 2 12-45. Sesquioxide of chromium and nickel are often associated with serpentine. Form. 9 MgO 4Si0 3 6 HO ? Cornwall, Ayrshire, New York, Pennsylvania. Serpentine is used for or- .namental purposes from the high polish of which It is susceptible, and, being decomposible by acids, It may be used as a source of magnesia in manu- factures. Serum of Blood. Spec. grav. 1028. The amber-coloured fluid which floats over the coagu- lum of blood on standing. It is blood from which the fibrine and blood globules have separated: See BLOOD. It consists of water 900, albumen 86-8, chlorides of potassium and sodium 6-6, mucous extractive 4*, carbonate of soda 1-65, sulphate of potash -35, earthy phosphates -6 (Marcet), or water 901, albumen 81-2, extract 4-6, fats 3-4, alkaline chlorides, 5-52, alkaline, carbonate, phosphate, and sulphate 2, carbonates and phosphates of lime and magnesia -87. Sesquiphosphoric Acid. Phosphoric acid, Tvhich forms salts with the formula 6 RO 4P0 5 . Severite. A variety of Halloylite. Seybertite. A synonyme of Holinesite or Clintonite. Shale. Slate containing organic matter. Shea. Butter. An oil brought from the coast of Africa, from a species of Bassia, fusing at 95 to 110. It contains margarine, the margaric acid fusing at 142. It is used in Africa for the purposes of butter, and when fresh is said by Mungo Park to be equal to the best English butter. (R.D.T.) Shear Steel. Steel originally employed to make shears for dressing cloth. Shell l.ac. Lac resin fused and reduced to the state of a thin crust. Shepardite. /Schreibersite. Cr 2 S 3 ?, H 4-. Brownish black prisms, in grains the size of a gram of rice, in South Carolina. B.B. emits S0 2 , and fuses into a magnetic glass ; with borax a yellow and green glass. Siberite. A variety of tourmaline. Siderite. Siderose. Rhombohedral carbonate of iron. Sidcritine. A synonyme of Pittizite, or Tetrarseniate of iron. Siderochalcitc. See ArHANESE and OLI- VENITE. SIL Sidcroschisolitc. See HYDROUS BISILI- CATE of IRON and CHAMOISITE. Sideroclepte. A synonyme of Peridote. Siderofen-ite. Metallic iron, found in a piece of fossil wood from an island in Smaland. Sidernm. Iron containing phosphorus (Bergman). Sicnite, or Syenite. A mixture of crystals of felspar, quartz, and hornblende. Sienna larth. (Terra de Sienna). Spec, grav. 2-1. An earth from Italy, consisting of hydrous sesquioxide of iron, with traces of arsenic, used after calcination as a pigment. In the brown state, at 212, it consists of Feo"0 3 66-, MnO 3-4, As0 5 8-7, Si0 3 8-, HO 13-3; in the yellow state, Fe 2 3 28-8, MnO 1-1, As0 5 -5, Si0 3 63-, HO 4-5. Silica. Silicic Acid, Silex. Silicon 49-72 r oxygen 50-28 (Rose); SiO 2-, 16 (Thomson); Si0 2 3-875, 31(Gmelin); Si0 3 5-8125,46-5 (Berzelius). Specific gravity 2-66 (Kirwan);. 2-65 (Royer and Dumas, Ann. Phil. 2d, 3, 392); fine powder from minerals 2-2 (Schaff- gotsch); of quartz 2-653 (ib.) Hardness 7 . White tasteless powder, feeling gritty between the teeth, soluble in water when formed bv the- combustion of silicon; insoluble after ignition. Crystal; in the form o rock crystal, 6-sided prisms, terminated by 6-sided pyramids, belong- ing to the rhombohedral system. When fused with several times its weight of carbonate of pot- ash or soda, it assumes on cooling the appearance- of glass, which dissolves in water. If we add chlo- rohydric acid to this solution to saturate the al- kali and concentrate, a white jelly is produced,, which, when evaporated, heated, and washed,, yields pure silica. Silica fuses before the oxy- hydrogen blowpipe into a clear bead, or in a powerful galvanic current, when it may be drawn into threads. It appears to volatilize with steam when exposed to a temperature above the melt- ing point of cast iron. It fuses with carbonate of soda before the common blowpipe into a trans- parent colourless bead. Pure silica is soluble in a boiling solution of carbonate of soda or potash^ It is hence capable of replacing carbonic acid. Source. Silica occurs in crystallized and amor- phous forms ; 1 Crystallized, Rock crystal. Sp. grav. 2-641 to 2-69, hardness 7. Primary form a rhombohedron; usual form a 6-sided prism, ter- minated by a 6-sided pyramid ; occurs generally in granite mountains, as in Dauphine, Tyrol, Savoy, Brazil, from whence the crystals used for spectacles are imported. When of different col- ours, rock crystal receives different designations. When violet, it is called amethyst; red, rose quartz ; green, from the presence of some epidote- >rase ; yellowish-green, cantalite ; yellow, Indian topaz, or cairngorum stone ; blue, siderite ; smoke- fjray, brown and black, or blackish-brown. 2. Amorphous, or semi-crystalline. 1. Quartz. A white, nearly pure fonn of silica, crystalline. 2. Calcedony. A stalactitic form of silica, ap- 450 SIL parently deposited from solution in water, and occurs most usually in the cavities of amygda- loidal rocks. 3. Carnelian occurs of red and white colours, principally in the trap rocks of India. 4. Onyx is formed of alternate layers of brown and white calcedony. 5. Heliotrope, or Blood stone, is green, with blood-red spots or streaks ; also abundant in India. 6. Chrysoprase, of an apple-green colour, due to the presence of oxide of nickel. 7. Mocha stone, is calcedony con- taining dendrites, or semblance of green mosses. 8. Agate, composed of alternate layers of calce- dony, quartz, jasper, heliotrope, or opal. 9. Flint. An impure form of silica, occurring in nodules in chalk. 10. Opal, wood opal, rendered somewhat opaque by a different colour, as it were floating in the stone. Precious opal affords a fine play of colours. 11. Jasper. A red-coloured form of silica. 12. Basanite, Lydian stone, or flinty slate. A dark slate, forming the basis of basalt. 13. Hyalite, with a glassy lustre, containing 6 per cent, of water. 1. Hydrate. HOSi0 3 . Contains 16 per cent, of water, obtained by precipitating at the usual temperature an alkaline silicate by an acid (Do- veri). 2. HO Si0 3 , formed by decomposing fluo- ride of silicon by water. 3. Ebelmen has obtained the terhydrate, 3 HO SiO 3 , in hard and transpa- rent masses like rock crystal, by acting on silicic ether by moist air. Spec. grav. 1*77. Theory of Siliceous Deposits. When we treat certain silicates with acid, the silica separates in union with water as a jelly, as in Thomsonite. In some, the silica separates as a powder as in stilbite, mesotype. In others, again, as in La- bradorite, it deposits partly as a jelly, and partly as a powder; and hence we may infer that it consists of 2 minerals. A silicate of soda, soluble in water from the presence of a great excess of base, will deposit in the coiirse of time a jelly; the latter, w r hen washed with water, containing only traces of alkali. This throws light on the formation of some forms of silica, as carnelian and amethyst, in which traces of potash and soda have been found. In hornstone there have also been observed alkalies ; and many of the forms of silica lose water by heat. Some species of opal yield ammonia when ignited, and banded opal is full of infusoria. Common quartz, when ignited and reduced to powder, is scarcely sol- uble in caustic potash, but powder of opal dis- selves rapidly. From this fact it may be shown that chalcedony is a mixture of quartz and opal, as only a portion of it dissolves in caustic alkali. From the solubility of alkaline silicates, we must 'explain, the circumstance that Ave frequently find silica in pseudomorphous crystals, that is, the silica, in gradually depositing from its solutions on other crystals, seems to have displaced the original matter and assumed its form. Thus quartz occurs in the form of rhomboids among calc spar crystals. On the other hand, brown spar occurs in the form of quartz, that is, rhom- SIL boids as 6-sided prisms. For Analysis of Sili- cates, see ANALYSIS. Siliceous JBismuth. See SILICATE OF BIS- MUTH. Siliceous Malachite. See SUBSESQUISILI- CATE OF COPPER. Siliceous Manganese. See SILICATE OF MANGANESE. Siliceous Sinter. Siliceous deposits from hot springs, of which geyserite and hyalite are species. Siliceous Zinc. See SILICATE OF ZINC. Silicide. Siliciuret, Silicet. A combination of silicon with a base. Silicified Wood. The replacement of woody fibre by the deposition of silica from its solutions. It occurs in the "West Indies, Birmah, Van Die- men's Land, Kerguelen's Land, Loch Neagh, Ire>- land, &c. Silieite. Spec. grav. 2-666. Si0 3 54-8, A1 2 3 28-4, CaO 12-4, FeO 4-, HO -64. Colour white, with a shade of yellow ; texture foliated ; fracture small, conchoidal ; lustre vitreous, resem- bling quartz or phenakite ; hardness nearly the same as that of quartz. B.B. with soda fuses into an opaque bead ; with borax into a trans- parent colourless bead. Coating a basaltic rock in Antrim. Silicon. SiUcium. Si. Sp. grav. above 1-837 after ignition. Deep brown powder, rather darker than boron ; destitute of lustre, even when sub- jected to friction ; stains the fingers, and adheres to glass and everything with which it comes in contact; infusible by heat, even of the blowpipe, but it becomes harder by ignition, and its proper- ties are altered ; before being strongly heated it is readily combustible hi the air, and burns with a lively flame ; one-third is converted into silica, while the rest is prevented from oxidizing by a crust of silica. When ignited it is heavier than oil of vitriol ; neither burns in air nor in oxygen gas ; not altered by the blowpipe, even in con- tact with chlorate of potash ; when ignited with nitre it does not burn ; fluohydric acid, or caustic potash, do not alter it even when boiling, but a mixture of fluohydric and nitric acids dissolves it easily, binoxide of nitrogen being evolved. The conditions before and after ignition have been con- sidered allotropic states of silicon; but the differ- ence may be due to the presence of hydrogen in the unignited substance, which is expelled by the heat. Preparation. 1. When potassium is heated in a hard glass tube, and silicofluoric (SiF 3 ) acid prepared from fluorspar, glass and sulphuric acid is passed over it, the metal becomes encrusted with a black layer, which at last breaks, while the potassium takes fire and burns with a red flame. When the brown scoriaceous residue is thrown into water, hydrogen is evolved, and a dark brown matter falls, insoluble in water ; it is silicon mixed with fluosilicate of potash, which may be washed away, though very insoluble, by the long-continued action of hot water. The 451 SIL silicon is freed from the hydrogen by heating it in a covered platinum crucible just below redness. 2. Mix dry silicon 1 uoride of potassium (heated above 212) with three-fourths of its weight of potassium in a glass or iron tube, and heat till the potassium melts ; stir the mixture intimately with an iron wire ; heat over a spirit-lamp, when the potassium becomes red hot with an audible sound, and reduction occurs. The liver-brown mass (KSi,KF) is thrown into much water, when hyd- rogen is evolved, potash is formed, and silicon set free. If too little water is used, the caustic potash dissolves up the silicon formed. The un- decomposed silicofluoride of potassium must be removed by cold water, and then by boiling with water. The silicon is then collected and dried on a filter. 3. The chloride of silicon may be decom- posed by potassium. Silicon, Chloride of. SiCl 3 , or SiCl = Si 16-71, Cl 83-29. Spec. grav. 1-53, of vapour 5-9; B.P. 138|. Colourless fluid, smoking in the air, and decomposing into chlorohydric and silicic acids ; obtained by passing chlorine over an ignited mixture of lamp black and silica. Silicon Bromide. SiBr 3 . B.P. 300. Colourless fluid, fuming in the air. Silicon, Fluoride of. Fluosilicic Acid, Sili- cated Fluoric Acid. SiF 3 . Specific gravity 3-57. This gas was first formed by Scheele, and was more particularly examined by Priestley. It can be readily prepared by mixing pounded glass, fluor spar, and sulphuric acid together in a retort or flask with bent tube, applying heat, and col- lecting the gas over mercury. The action in this process is as follows : 3 CaF, Si0 3 3SO 3 = SF 3 , 3(CaOS0 3 ). When passed into water with a globule of mercury at the bend of the exit tube, to prevent it from being choked up with silica, the silica is deposited in a gelatinous form, and affords this substance in a very pure state. Fluosilicic acid gas is colourless, smokes in the air like hydro- chloric acid gas, reddens litmus paper, and is not combustible. Its composition is as follows : Theory. Davy. Silicon, 11 2-5 2834 Silicon, 61'4 Fluorine, 3 G'75 7125 71'66 Fluoric acid, 386 7-75 9-625 It is not altered by exposure to a red heat ; pot- assium heated in it burns, and KF is formed with SIL a disengagement of silicon. Fluosilicic acid unites with twice its volume of ammonia, forming a volatile salt. The water into which this gas is passed contains a distinct acid, which has been termed Hydrofluosilicic acid. It unites with bases, forming a series of salts. Applications. Fluosilicic acid is the substance which is produced in etching glass. A mixture of fluor spar and sulphuric acid is heated in a vessel incapable of being corroded, such as lead or platinum, and over this is placed a plate of glass covered with wax, except on the points in- tended to be etched ; the hydrofluoric acid vola- tilizes by the heat, comes in contact with thes silica of the glass, and forms fluosilieic acid r l 3 HF, Si0 3 = SiF 3 , 3 HO. By this means we^ are enabled to detect fluor spar. It affords us also a method of determining the amount of alka- lies in a mineral by first volatilizing the silica with which the alkalies had been in combination, and thus obtaining soluble salts by means of a mineral acid. A certain quantity of the pounded mineral is mixed with fluor spar equal to two and a-half times the amount of the silica contained in the mineral ; the mixture is placed in a platinum crucible and heated with sulphuric acid, which is added in such quantity as to form a paste. So soon as the mixture ceases to give off white fumes indicative of the expulsion of the silica it is to be heated to red- ness, digested in water, and filtered ; the filtered liquor is to be precipitated with oxalate of am- monia, strongly heated, to decompose all the sulphate of lime in solution, and mixed also with some caustic ammonia to precipitate alumina ; or a good method is, after dissolving out the alka- lies, to precipitate the sulphuric acid with chlo- ride of barium or caustic bary tes, to throw down the excess of lime and barytes by oxalate or car- bonate of ammonia, and to evaporate the solution to dryness. If alumina and magnesia remain, they are separated by dissolving out the soluble salts in water and deducting the amount of the residue. r Silk. The product of the caterpillars, Pha- lena bombyx, and P. atlas. Silk exists in the body of the worm in a fluid state, and as it exudes hardens into a fibre, when it is termed raw silk. Hot water extracts from yellow silk 24-43 per cent, of albumen or caseine, and 20-66 gelatine; hot alcohol takes up, and deposits on cooling, 1-39 cerine. On evaporating the alcoholic solu- tion -05 colouring matter, and -1 fatty matter and resin remains. The substance unacted on by water and alcohol is fibroine. Sillinmnitc. Spec. grav. 3-238, II 6-. Dark gray long 4-sided prisms, with angles of 88 and 92 ?; structure fibrous ; lustre vitreous ; brittle ; easily frangible ; translucent on the edges. B.B. infusible. Si0 3 38-13, 37-8, A1 2 3 58-86, 59-53, Fe 2 O 3 2-75, 3- (R.D.T.) Allied to, if not iden- tical with, cyanite, fibrolite, and bucholzite (T. . Thomson). Saybrook, Connecticut. 452 SIL Silver. Argentum, Luna, Diana. (Argent, Fr.; sitter, Ger.) Ag 13-5, 108-. Spec. grav. 10-481 (Fahrenheit), 10-474 (melted, Brisson, 10-51 fused), 10-5 (hammered, Muschenbroeck), 10-4812 (plates, Thomson). F.P. 1893 (Mor- veau), 2233 (Daniell), 1830 (Prinsep), 1832 (Pouillet). White, with a shade of yellow, cubes softer than copper, harder than gold, remarkably ductile ; a single grain may be drawn out as a wire to 400 feet: a wire -078 inch diameter sup- ports a weight of 187-13 Ibs. ; becomes very bril- liant when heated ; boils and vaporizes above its ing point (Claveus, Vauquelin) ; cooled slowly, surface presents a crystalline appearance. Reduction and separation. Silver occurs in na- ture in the metallic state mixed with copper, likewise as sulphide in sulphide of lead or galena, and in various other states. Silver is separated from its ores by amalgamation. This process, as practised in different countries, is described under AMALGAMATION, and the method of separating silver from lead is detailed under LEAD. Assay of Silver. When silver is contained in an ore, the powdered mineral may be dissolved in strong or dilute pure nitric acid, and the silver thrown down with chlorohydric acid, and estimated as chloride of silver. In the dry assay the ore is fused with lead in a crucible, the silver is taken up by the lead, which is then placed in a cupel, ignited with a current of air directed over it ; the lead is oxidized and sinks into the bone earth cupel, while the pure silver re- mains, and may then be weighed. For assaying and cupelling the port- able furnace exhibited in the accompanying figure will be found very advan- tageous, especially near mines. The upright portion contains a fan, by which the fire can be urged up to a white heat. It is manufactured by Chaplin and Dixon of Glasgow. To purify silver from other metals, it may be dissolved in nitric acid precipitated by common salt, and the moist chloride decomposed by strong caustic potash solution and resin into the oxide which may be employed for making the salts, or the dry chloride may be fused with carbonate of soda and resin, and thus obtained in the metallic state ; or 3 chloride and 1 resin may be heated in a crucible, gradually raised to the fusing point of silver, and a small por- tion of borax added ; silver is speedily reduced (Mohr). Dinoxide. Ag 2 O. Gray powder from am- moniacal solutions of oxide of silver on exposure to light, and by heating oxalate and citrate of silver. Oxide. AgO 14-5, 116. Grayish powder, obtained by precipitating nitrate of silver by caustic soda. Spec. grav. 7-143. It. combines SIL with ammonia, forming an explosive compound, and is dissolved by an excess. The oxide does not form a hydrate. When the salts of this oxide in solution are mixed with mercury in a glass vessel, the silver is deposited in the form of a tree, called the Tree of Diana (Arbor Dianas). The experiment may be made by dissolving 15 grains of nitrate of silver in half a wine glassful of water, adding a few globules of mercury, and allowing the glass to stand at rest for some hours. The permanent ink commonly sold for marking linen, contains in one bottle caustic soda, or carbonate of soda, and in the other a solution of nitrate of silver. The spot to be marked is first moistened with soda, dried, and then written on with a pen dipped in the caustic solution. The oxide is precipitated. The salts of the oxide of silver are colourless, have a metallic taste, and are poisonous, the antidote being common salt. Copper, zinc, and mercury precipitate silver from its solutions. Ammonia redissolves the oxide when precipi- tated. Chloride of Silver, Horn Silver, Luna Cornea. AgCl 17-937, 143-496. Obtained by precipi- tating a solution of lunar caustic (AgON0 5 ) with HC1, or common salt. It is best to precipitate silver by common salt, as the chloride is soluble in HC1. A white curdy precipitate ; when moist insoluble in nitric acid; when dry, becoming purple and black. Melts at 500, and forms a horny mass. Soluble in ammonia. Crystallizes in 8-hedrons. When moist, it may be converted into oxide by boiling with caustic soda, and the addition of a little pounded rosin. The silver may be reduced by boiling the chloride in an iron pot with water, Spec. grav. 5*55. Iodide of Silver. Ag I, 29-25, 234. Yellow powder, formed by dropping iodide of potassium into ni- trate of silver. Cyanide. AgCy, 16-75. White curdy precipitate, resembling the chloride, but distinguished from it by its solubility when boiled with nitric acid. This is used for procuring hydrocyanic acid in medicine. Phosphate of Silver. 3 AgO PCV Yellow powder obtained by precipitating nitrate of silver by the common phosphate of soda. Diplwsphate or Pyrophos- pliate 2 AgO P0 5 . White powder from the mixture of ignited phosphate of soda, and a sol- uble salt of silver. Nitrate of Silver, Lunar Caustic, Lapis Infer- nalis. AgO NO 5 , 21-25, 170. Plates, obtained by dissolving pure silver in nitric acid, and eva- porating cautiously to drive off excess of acid. Used as a reagent and caustic. For the latter purpose it is fused and poured into tubes, where it solidifies. When free from organic matter it retains its colour, but if it has touched paper it becomes dark coloured. Alloys of Silver. English silver coin contains copper ; the quantity in a shilling which weighs 87-2727 grs. is 6-5455 grs. of alloy, or in 12 ounces of standard silver the copper amounts to 453 SIL 18 dwt. or 1 copper to 131 silver, 1 Ib. Troy yielding 66 shillings. French silver coin con- sists of 1 copper, 9 silver. Dutch, 1 copper to 11^ silver. Russian, 1 to 3J. Hamburg, equal parts. Silver is always estimated in the form of chloride of silver, every 18 parts of which con- tain nearly 13 of metallic silver. Silver Ores. Native Silver. Spec. grav. 10-338, II 4-25. White masses in strings and plates, cubes, and regular 8-hedrons, subject to tarnish, streak un- altered, shining, ductile, opaque. The composi- tion of native silver is, silver 90-, 72, 36, cop- per 10, or gold 28 to 54 per cent. In primary rocks in Mexico and Peru, Cornwall. Silver, Chloride of, Horn Silver. Ag Cl. Spec. grav. 5-552, H 3-5. Pearl-gray masses, or cubes and needles, with shades of yellow and green, becoming brown in light ; lustre resinous ; translucent on the edges ; fuses in the flame of a candle. B.B. almost entirely reduced on char- coal. It is also reduced when rubbed wet on zinc or iron ; soluble in NH 3 ; insoluble in KO 5 . Ag 76 to 67-75, Cl 24- to 27-32, FeO 6-, S0 3 5, A1 2 3 1-75. Freiberg; Joachimsthal, Bo- hemia. Silver, Iodide of. Spec. grav. 5-504. Ag I ? Yellow, with a shade of green, resinous flexible plates; translucent; in veins in steatite, in Mexico. Silver, Bromide of.-^-Ag Br. Spec. grav. 5-8 to 6, HI to 2. Green externally, yellow internally, in concretions, seldom crystallized. Ag = 57-56, Br 42-44. B.B. melts easily ; sol- uble in N" H 3 ; mostly dissolved by NOs. Mexico, Chili. Silver, Tetra-antimonide of, Antimonial Sil- ver Ore. Ag 4 Sb. Spec. grav. 9-4406 to 9-8, H 3-5. Silver and tin white 6-sided prisms, with convex faces, longitudinally streaked, and amorphous; structure foliated, lustre metallic, opaque. B.B. converted into a gray smoke and a brown slag, tinging borax green, on charcoal leaves a globule of silver. Antimony 23, silver 77'. Andreasberg, Hartz ; Swabia ; Casalla, Spain. Silver, Chlorobromide. See EMBOLITE. Silver, Arsenide of, Arsenical Silver Ore. Fe 44-25, As 35, Ag 12-75, Sb 4-. White or blackish globular and reniform masses, with a curved lamellar structure; lustre metallic; opaque, sectile ; harder than antimonide of silver. B.B. gives off arsenical fumes, leaving a globule of impure silver, surrounded by slag. Andreasberg, Hartz. Little known. Silver Bitelluride. Spec. grar. 8-412 to 8-465, H 2-25. Lewd or steel-gray masses; structure coarse, granular ; lustre metallic, splendent ; malleable. B.B. melts to a black globule, with white points of silver; melts in a tube, and colours the glass yellow; in an open tube it fuses, and gives some sublimate; with salt of phosphorus forms a bead, transparent while hot, SIL opal on cooling ; a bead of pure silver with soda. Ag 62-37, Te 36-92, Fe '37. Siberia. Silver, Ferrosulphide of, Flexible Sulplmret oj Silver. Black tabular crystals, of right oblique angled prisms, in thin lamina?, yielding to the knife. Himmelsfurst, Saxony. See also STERX- BERGITE. Silver, Sulphide of, Silver Glance, Vitreous Sil- ver. Glaserz, AgS. Spec. grav. 7-196, H 2-75. Blackish lead-gray masses; cubes, regular 8- hedrons and 12-hedrons, cleaving parallel to the faces of a cube; fracture imperfect, small con- choidal; malleable, lustre metallic ; opaque. B.B. fuses easily, and swells up, giving a silver globule by continuing the heat, Ag 85, S 15. Saxony and Bohemia, South America, &c. Silver Selenide. Spec. grav. 8, H 2-5. Black masses cleaving parallel to the faces of a cube ; lustre metallic, splendent; opaque; malleable; structure foliated ; streak unaltered. B.B. fuses; glows on cooling like magnetic pyrites; with soda on charcoal reduced ; soluble in fuming NO^. Ag= 65-56, Pb 4-91, Se 25-93. Hartz. Silver, Carbonate of. Selbite.AgO C0 2 ? Grayish-black masses ; streak bright ; lustre me- tallic; opaque; soft; brittle; heavy; effervesces with acids ; froths when heated with borax. Ag 72-5, Sb0 3 15-5, CO 2 12. Black Forest, in granite ; Suabia. Silver, Sulplio-Cupride of. Spec. grav. 6*258. AgS 2Cu 2 S. Blackish lead-gray masses ; lustre metallic, splendent; opaque; fracture flat con- choidal ; brittle or sectile (?) B.B. fuses readily. S 15-782, Ag 52-272, Cu 3-478, Fe -333. Siberia, Silver, Antimonio- -Sulphide of. Trisulphoanti- moniate of /Silver, Prismatic Melane Glance, Brittle Silver Glance. Spec. grav. 6-269, H 2-25. Iron- black 6-sided prisms, terminated by faces per- pendicular to the axis or 4-sided oblique prisms, having the acute edges replaced by faces, which render the prism 6-sided; fracture conchoidal, uneven ; lustre metallic ; opaque ; sectile ; streak unaltered. B.B. on charcoal gives a dark metallic bead, reducible by soda or n^tre ; soluble in dilute nitric acid. S 16-42, Sb 14-68, Ag 68-54, Cu 64. Schemnitz and Freiberg. Silver, Antimony, Siilpho-tersufyhide of. See MlARGYRITE Silver Ore, Dark Red. Ruby Silver, Black Silver, ^Erosite, Rothyultigerz, Subsesquisulpho- antimoniate of Silver. 3AgS-[- SbS 3 . Sp. grav. 5-8 to 5-9, H 2-25. Lead-gray, iron-black, and dark red obtuse rhomboids, with angles .of 108 30', or 109 56'; in 6-sided prisms, and Avith a 6-sided prism interposed between the two halves of the rhomboid, which constitute a triangular pyra-- mid at either extremity ; lustre metallic, adaman- tine ; translucent to opaque ; streak cochineal and aurora-red. B.B. decrepitates on charcoal, melts and emits fumes of sulphur and antimony, a globule of silver remaining. Ag 58*949, Sb 22-846, S 16-609, gangue -299. Saxony, Bo- hemia, Mexico. 454 SIM Silver Ore, Light Red. Subsesqui- Sulpho- arseniate of Silver, Sulpho Argento-tersulphidi of Arsenic. Spec. grav. 5-552, H 2-25. 3 AgS 4- As S 3 . Cochineal-red rhombohedrons ; streak light cochineal colour ; lustre adamantine ; trans- lucent on the edges or even semitransparent ; sectile. S 19-51, Sb -69, As 15-09, Ag 64-67 The composition and crystalline form are the same as the dark red ore, with the difference that arsenic replaces antimony: Saxony and Bohemian silver mines. This, and the preceding, when boiled with sulphide of ammonium, leave sul- phide of silver, while the tersulphide of arsenic is dissolved up. Silver Oreof Bismuth. White needles or hairs, often amorphous, opaque, tarnishing; sectile; soft. Pb 33-, Bi 27-, Ag 15-, Fe 4-3, Cu -9, S 16-3 ; soluble in XO S . B.B. fuses to a button, evolving sulphur. Silver, C up ro- Sulphide of Antimony, and Ar- senic. See EUKAIRITE and POLYBASITE. Silver, Su/pho Quintosulphide of Antimony and. See XAXTHOCONE. Similor. An alloy consisting of equal parts of copper and zinc, resembling gold in colour. Simplcsite. See SCORODITE. Sinapic Acid. C 22 H 12 0] . Prisms more soluble in hot water and alcohol than when cold, forms bibasic salts ; obtained by dissolving pure sinapine in potash, boiling, adding IICl, and purifying the precipitate by alcohol. Sinapiiic. C 32 H 26 N0 12 . An alkaloid, ob- tained in combination with sulphuric acid, by .adding that acid to sulphocyanide of sinapine which is obtained from mustard powder by ex- pressing the oil, treating the residue with alco- hol, when the sulphocyanide crystallizes out in the form of crystals of quinine, having the com- position C 34 H 25 N 2 S 2 10 . Siiiapisiiic. A neutral fatty substance in mica-like scales, from the evaporated alcoholic tincture of black mustard; soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils ; insoluble in acids and alkalies ; volatile. Siiiapoline. C 14 H 12 NT 2 2 . F.P. 212. Shining plates, soluble in hot water, alcohol, and ther ; formed along with sinnamine by the ac- tion of moist oxide of lead on thiosinnamine ; apparently derived from 2 atoms of oil of mus- tard, and 6 atoms water = 1 sinapoline, 2 C0 2 , and 4 SH. Siiicaline. Ci H 14 N0 2 ,HO. Deliquescent colourless crystalline mass, attracting carbonic acid, precipitates metallic oxides, alumina, and sesquioxide of chromium dissolving in an excess ; disengages methylamine (?) when strongly heated ; formed by heating sinapine with barytes water, and allowing the sinapate of barytes to deposit ; the filtered solution is acidified by SOs, and mixed with a solution of sulphates of iron and copper ; the sulphocyanide of copper is filtered off; the filtrate mixed with barytes water to precipitate excess of copper and iron, and the excess of barytes SMA removed by C0 2 . On evaporating the filtrate, carbonate of sincaline remains, which is converted into chlorohydride, and the HC1 then removed, by oxide of silver. Siu-ethylaiuine. C 12 H 10 N 2 . F.P. 212. Bitter needles; insoluble in water ; soluble in al- cohol and ether, with an alkaline reaction ; par- tially soluble in HC1 ; obtained by treating thio- sinethylamine with moist oxide of lead. Siunamine. C 8 H 6 N 2 . Hard 4-sided prisms, losing 9-5 per cent, water at 212; obtained by- treating thiosinnamine with oxide of lead. Sinopis. Red chalk or reddle. Sipeerine. An alkaloid said to exist in be- beeru bark. ; Sirieum. A mixture of sinopis and sandyx. Sismondiiic. Spec. grav. 3-565. Grayish- green variety of chlorite. Si0 3 24-1, Al 2 0o 43-2 T FeO 23-8, HO 7-6, Ti0 2 trace. St. Marcel. Sisserskite. The species of iridosmine con- sisting of IrOs4. Size. Gelatine employed for mixing with paper to destroy its porosity, and render it im- pervious to ink. It is usually mixed with alum to prevent it from putrifying. The best size is prepared from skins. See GLUE. Skate Idver Oil. Spec. grav. -928. Yellow oil by boiling the liver of the Raja clavata and batis with water ; soluble in boiling ether, from which it is deposited on cooling ; like cod liver oil it contains iodine. Slag. Scoria. A substance produced by the union of an impurity of an ore with a flux. Slate. A rock which splits into parallel leaves or folise. v Slate Spar. A slaty form of calcareous spar, with a silvery lustre. Sloauite. Spec. grav. 2-441, H 4-5. White pearly masses, cleaving in the direction of a rhombic prism of 105. B.B. fuses to a white enamel. SiO 3 42-187, AloO 3 35, CaO 8-119, MgO 2-67, NaO -25, KO : 03, HO 12-5. Tus- cany. Smalts. Azure, Zaffre, Cobalt Glass, Cobalt te. A fine- light blue colour, used as a pig- ment. It is essentially a potash silicate of cobalt, and is prepared by calcining cobalt ore. When, roasted it is called safflor; the roasted ore ground up with sand and washed is called zaffre. Smalts are made from the roasted ore by fusing 1 part with 2 parts silica or sand, and 1 part carbonate of potash. Some arsenious acid is added to per- oxidize the iron. The mixture is placed in a crucible in a furnace for five to eight hours. The upper portion of the fused mass is a light blue ; the lower portion is speiss, which contains nickel, and the intermediate stratum constitutes the smalt blue. The upper portion is removed, and the cobalt blue ladled out into water, passed be- tween rollers and washed. It is principally made in Prussia and Saxony. Smaltiiie. A synohyme of Arsenide of Co- balt. 455 SMA Snraragditc. A variety of Augite or Horn- blende, Smaragdochalcite. A synonyme of Diop- tase: Smaragdus. A synonyme of Beryl. Smectite. Allied to Halloylite, from Cilly, Styria. SiO 3 51-21, A1 2 O 3 12-25, Fe 2 3 2-07, MgO 4-89, CaO 2-13, HO 27-89. Smelite. Spec. grav. 2-168, H 2-5. Gray- ish white masses with a blue tinge. Si0 3 50-, A1 2 O 3 32-, Fe 2 3 2-, NaO 2-1, HO 13. Hun- gary. Smilacinc. A crystalline body obtained by alcohol from Smilax China. Smithsonite. A synonyme of Hydrous di- carbonate of Zinc. Snow, Inflammable. Said to have fallen in Russia. C 61-5, H 7-, O 31-5. Snow Red, of Idria. A red powder found in snow, consisting of Si0 3 36-75, A1 2 3 11-75, CaOC0 2 17-5, Fe 6-25, Ti 3-75, organic mat- ter, 24-. " Soap. (Savon, Fr. ; seife, Ger.) A compound of a fatty acid with a metallic oxide. From the remarks made under OILS, it will be easily un- derstood that the formation of a soap, that is, of an alkaline salt of stearic acid, &c. consists sim- ply in the displacement of the oxide of glyceryle, an oily base, by an alkaline one. Soap is first mentioned by Pliny, under the term Sapo. He states that the Gauls invented it, and that they employed it as a detergent for the hair. He says that it was a compound of wood ashes and tallow, and that there were two kinds of it, hard and soft (spissus et liquidus). The word soap is sup- posed to be derived from the old German word sepe, a term still used in Scotland. In the second chapter of Jeremiah, verse 22, we find the words : " Though thou wash thee with nitre (carbonate of soda), and take thee much soap" But it is con- sidered that the term soap here is a mistranslation. We meet in commerce with two kinds of soap commonly, hard and soft soap, as they have been well termed by Pliny. Hard soaps have a basis of soda, and are more difficult of solution in water. Soft soaps have a basis of potash, and readily absorb moisture from the air, which keeps them soft. It has been satisfactorily ascertained that soft soaps may be converted into hard soaps by add- ing to their solution in water a quantity of glauber salt or common salt. As stearic acid combines with most bases, there exists an extensive series of soaps, such as copper, lime, and iron soaps, &c. But the only soluble soaps are potash, soda, and ammoniacal soaps. The two former require to be made at a boiling temperature, and the latter at a low heat, in consequence of its vola- tilizing. The hard or soda soaps are usually prepared with olive oil on the continent, and in this country with tallow and other oils. The soft or potash soaps are made principally from vegetable oils, such as linseed and oil of colza, &c. In the North of France the soft soaps are SOA usually coloured green or black. These colours are imparted either by sulphoindigotic acid or by a mixture of protosulphate of iron, nutgalls, and logwood, or by sulphate of copper. The green and black soaps are principally used for removing grease from woollen stuffs. All oils are not sa- ponified with equal facility. Olive and almond oil are most readily saponified, then follow tallow and butter. Fish oil is difficult to convert into soap, but nut oil and linseed oil are still more refractory, and give only pasty soaps. Soda and potash soaps are very soluble in alcohol. They are also soluble in water, but in different degrees. Stearateof soda, or hard soap for example, scarcely undergoes any considerable change when brought in contact with 10 times its weight of water. The soda soaps exhibit a peculiar action with common salt. The soda soap is penetrated, or even dissolved, by a strong solution of common salt. If we bring common soap of commerce in contact with a saturated solution of common salt at the usual temperature, it swims about without apparent change ; but if we heat the solution, it divides into gelatinous flocks, which collect upon the liquid, and after cooling consolidate into a firm mass, out of which the salt solution flows like water from fat. If we take out the gelatin- ous flocks from the hot solution, they form into an opaque firm mass, which divides between the fingers into plates. If the solution be not satu- rated, a division of the water takes place ; the soap taking up a certain quantity of it, and the flocks divide by boiling in the solution. But if the water contain only the 400th part of common salt, none of the soap dissolves. Vauquelin ob- served that when a drachm of soap was dissolved in about a pint of water, the solution filtered, and mixed with a solution of common salt dissolved in 25 parts of water, on the mixture being made,, a coagulation and separation of a viscid matter took place. When the quantity of common salt is sufficient, the soap is entirely decomposed. The separated coagulum is fat, insoluble in water, and when heated it floats as an oil, and on cooling- crystallizes. The water in this case becomes alkaline, and if the liquid is evaporated, the com- mon salt is found to be mixed with carbonate of soda. Other salts have the same effect, as sul- phate of soda, which turns it like white of egg ; salammoniac, carbonate of potash, and caustic pot- ash act in the same way, that is, they produce a separation of a soap which is completely insol- uble in alkaline liquids, and what is remarkable is, that no trace of soap remains in solution. The manufacture of soap is divisable into several important operations. 1. The preparation of the caustic lye. 2. The boiling of the soap, 3. The cleansing of the soap, as it is technically called. 4. The division of the soap into large pieces. 1. The lye is prepared by mixing the artificial carbonate of soda, or the best soda-ash, with lime. For the best white soap, the maker employs 13 cwt. tallow, 4 cwt. soda-ash = 2 cwt. soda. For 456 SOA yellow soap, 9-75 cwt. of tallow, 3-25 cwt. rosin, 4 cwt. soda- ash. These mixtures are boiled in a cast iron boiler. Sometimes, especially with oils, the boiler resembles a funnel. These have brick walls, the bottom alone being formed of thick copper, which receives the action of the fire. When the soap is to be mottled, it is mixed with sulphate of iron and an alumino-ferruginous soap. During the boiling, the sulphate of iron is decom- posed, the soda precipitating abluish-green hydrate composed of protoxide and peroxide, separating from the sulphuric acid. Then the sulphide of sodium, which the soda of commerce always con- tains, fonns a black sulphide of iron, which re- tains the bluish tint of the hydrated oxides. This is far from being agreeable to the eye, and hence the process called mottling is adopted to throw the colour into veins. In this country this is obtained by pouring into the boiler, by means of a sort of watering-pan, a concentrated solution of crude soda which contains the sulphides. The density of the lye when passing through the pasty mass of soap accomplishes the mottling. The soap, after being properly boiled, is run off into the frames, boxes hi which the soap is allowed to cool. When allowed to become solid, and exposed to the air, soap loses in the course of a month about 20 or 22 per cent, of its weight; hence it is not economical to buy new soap. The specific gravity of the dif- ferent kinds of soap is as follows : White soap 1-0339, yellow 1-0340, silica 1-1368, clay 1-1408. Windsor Soap. This soap is made with mut- ton fat, or the fat or grease of bones. The finest French specimens now made contain above 30 per cent, of poi'k suet or olive oil. These are saponified with caustic soda. Before the boiling is finished, a mixture of essences, consisting of 6 parts essence of carvy, l essence of la vender, 1| essence of rose- mary, is added to every 1000~ parts of soap. The soap, when drawn off, becomes solid in twenty-four hours. In England Windsor soap is made with 9 parts of tallow and 1 part olive oil. Transparent soaps are made by using alcohol for a solvent instead of water. This plan is principally adopted on the continent, where spirit is cheap. In this country the duty on spirits, unless modified for applications in the arts, ren- ders this mode of manufacture impossible. Soapstoiic. A synonyme of Steatite. Sda. Protoxide of Sodium, Mineral Alkali, Caustic Soda. NaO 4-, 32- 3-8717, 30-9736, 3-888, 31-. Na r= 74-36, O = 25-64. Spec. grav. 2-805 (Karsten). Gray mass; non-conduc- tor of electricity; melts in a strong red heat; corrodes organic substances. Process. Obtained by igniting hydrate of soda and sodium ; soluble in alcohol. Hydrate of Soda. Hydrous Caustic Soda. XaO HO 5-025, 40-2. NaO 77-66, HO 22-34. White mass ; fusing point below incandes- cence ; less volatile than hydrous potash ; elevates SOD the temperature of water during solution like hydrate of potash ; distinguished from potash by its less deliquescence when exposed to the air ; the soda attracting carbonic acid from the air, and becoming efflorescent. Process. 1. It is procured by throwing sodium on water ; hydro- gen is evolved, and soda dissolves ; when boiling- water is employed so much heat is given out that the hydrogen inflames, and, volatilizing some of the sodium, a yellow flame characteristic of soda appears. 2. When crystallized carbonate of soda is added to 5 parts of water, and \ part quick- lime slaked and added gradually in the form of cream of lime by admixture with water, boiled in an iron or silver pan for twenty minutes, and allowed to stand, the supernatant liquor, when drawn off by means of a syphon, is found to con- tain caustic soda. It may be concentrated and any deposit separated, and then evaporated to dryness, when hydrous caustic soda (NaO HO) remains. Solution of Caustic Soda. Aqua or Liquor Soda, Soap -boiler's lye. When solid caustic soda or solid hydrate is exposed to the air, it attracts moisture at first, and then absorbs car- bonic acid when it effloresces; ! part of water dissolves at 64j -605 hydrate, or -414 soda ; at 89 -729 hydrate, or -457 soda; at 131 1* hydrate, or -635 soda; at 176 1-27 hydrate,, or -783 soda (Osann). When dissolved in water heat is evolved. Soda, Salts of. 1. Soda salts are generally more soluble in water than potash salts ; and they contain usually more water of crystallization than potash salts. 2. When heated they usually undergo the aqueous fusion ; by continuing the heat the water is volatilized and a white powder remains. 3. No precipitate is produced by tar- taric acid, or bichloride of platinum ; sulphate of alumina does not form crystals of alum. 4, Granular antimoniate of potash dissolved in cold water produces a precipitate in soda salts of anti- moniate of soda, requiring 300 water to dissolve it. 5. Before the blowpipe, soda salts impart to the flame a yellow tinge. 6. The septaiodate of potash produces a colourless precipitate in salts of soda. Peroxide. (Gay Lussac and Thenard, 1809) ; Sesquioxide (ib. and Davy) ; Binoxide (Millon). Teroxide (Gmelin.) Dirty greenish - yellow masses; fuses when heated to a high temperature ; in water is reduced to soda, evolving oxygen ; non-conductor of electricity ; decomposed by igni- tion with charcoal, or tin, phosphorus, and sul- phurous acids. Process. By heating sodium in dry air or oxygen ; by igniting caustic soda in oxygen (Recherch, Phys.-Chim. 1, 152). "Dinoxide, Suboxide. Na 2 ? Dark gray (Davy) or grayish-white mass (Gay Lussac and Thenard); decomposing water and being more combustible than sodium. It may either be a dinoxide or a mixture of sodium and soda. Sulphate. Glauber's Salt (1658), Sal Mira- 457 SOD bile, Thenardite (native and anhydrous), NaO SO 3 9- or 8-9, or 71-2. Sp. grav. 2-645 (Thom- son). Anhydrous Salt. 8-hedrons, consisting of 2 or 4-sided pyramids, with a rhombic base, united together, the angles of the rhomb being 123 43', and 104 18'. When ignited fuses, and on cool- ing concretes into a foliated brittle bitter saline mass. 100 water at 57 dissolve 10-58 parts, at 91 50-65 parts, being a maximum (Gay Lussac). First described by Dr. T. Thomson. Obtained from Messrs. W. & J. Wilson at Hurlet, from a furnace, and by Mr. Alex. Harvey, by evaporating Glauber salt in a stove at 1 2 0. Mitscherlich obtained it con- siderably under 212. This salt is the first product in the preparation of carbonate of soda on the large scale, when chloride of sodium is converted into sulphate of soda by the action of sulphuric .acid ; it is impure. It may be formed by satu- rating carbonate of soda by sulphuric acid, and heating to redness. It occurs native as Thenar- dite, at Espartinas, near Madrid (Casaseca) in 4- sided prisms, and as a frequent efflorescence on bricks containing about 2 atoms water, which have been called exctnthalose (Beaudant). With chloride of potassium and nitre yields sulphate of potash. Decihydrated Sulphate, Common Sulphate. NaOS0 3 10 HO 20-25, 20-15, 161-2. Specific grav. 1-35 (Watson), 1-349 (Thomson). Oblique rhombic prism; the base of the prism is inclined to the lateral faces at an angle of 101 20', and the two contiguous lateral faces to each other at 80 24'. (Brooke, Ann. Phil 23, 21.) The acute lateral edges are usually replaced by tangent planes, making the prism 6 or 8 -sided. The faces are usually channelled longitudinally and irregular, and are easily recognized by this char- acter, and their becoming efflorescent on exposure to the air. Taste bitter saline. At 60 in the air it loses all its water, about 56 per cent. (Wenzel), and likewise in vacuo over sulphuric acid; it absorbs no water in air except when the air is saturated with moisture. 100 water dissolve 48 -6 6 salt at 64|. Insoluble in alcohol. Nitrate, Cubic Nitre, Chili Nitre. NaONO 5 10-75, 10-65, 85-2; NaO 37-2 per cent., NO 5 2-8. Spec. grav. 2-069 (Hassenfratz, Ann.'de him. 28, 12). First accurately described by Margraff (Opusc. 2, 331), and repeated by Lewis (Phil. Com. 642). The crystal belongs to the rhombohedral system, being an obtuse rhomb. P on P' 106 30', P on P" 73 30' (Brooke, Ann. Phil. 2d. ser. 5, 452). Taste cool and sharp, somewhat more bitter than potash nitre ; fuses and gives out oxygen when heated like saltpetre, nitrite of soda being formed; subsequently ni- trogen and hyponitric acid fumes are disengaged. It attracts moisture from the air, and detonates less powerfully than potash nitre ; it is decom- posed in solution by salammoniac (Karsten), and chloride of potassium (Longchainp), which is therefore sometimes, when the price admits, used for its preparation, and sulphate of potash (Mor- SOD veau). 100 water at 21 dissolve 63-1 ; at 32 80 parts; at 50 22-7: at 61 55; at 246 218-5 ; its solubility at 32 is therefore more than three times greater than at 50 (Marx). Sources. 1. It is procured in commerce from a large deposit in South America, in the districts of Tarapaca and Atacama, 14 leagues from Iquique, in Peru, (lat. 20 12',) apparently along the margin of an ancient lake ; it fonns a stratum 2 1 feet thick, extending upwards of 150 miles, It is purified from sulphate of soda, common salt, and gypsum by repeated crystallization. As imported, it contains about 96 per cent, of nitrate, with some common salt, water, lime, and sulphuric acid. 2. It may be formed by neutralizing carbonate of soda, or caustic soda, with nitric acid. 3. By mixing nitrate of lime and sulphate of soda. -It is used largely in the manufacture of sulphuric and nitric acids. Decihydrated Carbonate, Common Carbonate. NaOCO 2 10HO 18, 17-9, 143-2. NaO 22-22, C0 2 15-27, HO 62-51. Sp. grav. 1'623 (Thom- son), 1-423 (Haidinger). Crystal. Oblique rhom- bic prisms. The apex of the prism is not visible in the common crystal, but it makes angles of 108 43', with the faces of the prism. M M' the two primary faces of the prism meet at angles of 76 12'. In the following measure- ment P denotes the base of the primary prism; P on M or M' 108 43'; P on e or c' 129 52'; P onh 121 20'; M on M' 76 12'; M onh 128 6'; M on K 141 54'; e on c' 79 44' ; e on k 140 8' (Brooke, Ann. Phil. 2d ser. 6, 287). Taste similar to that of carbonate of potash, but less caustic. In the air it effloresces into a white powder, form- ing the protohydrated carbonate. By heat it undergoes the watery fusion, the proto- hydrate separating, and leaving above a liquid containing more than 10 atoms water. By a heat of 100 the protohydrate is obtained, and by 42 the quintohydrate (Schindler). In vacuo over sulphuric acid the protohydrate is formed, and, if exposed to moist air, it reaosorbs nearly its original 10 atoms (Blucher, Watson). Specific gravity of a saturated solution at 58^ 1-075 ; 100 water at 58 dissolve 7-74 of the anhydrous salt, or 20-64 of the crystals (Thomson), or 50 parts (Gmelin). It dissolves hi rather less than its weight of boil- ing water, so that when dissolved in boiling water it crystallizes as the solution cools. Manufacture of Carbonate of Soda. Sources. Carbonate of soda was originally prepared from the ashes of different species of Salsola, especially from the Salsola soda, from which the alkali has obtained its name. This impure soda is also called barilla, from its Spanish name. Most sea weeds contain carbonate of soda, and un- der the name of kelp or ashes of sea weeds, a large supply was formerly obtained from the Western Highlands and North of Ireland. Pre- vious to 1822, the average price of kelp (Varec 458 SOD in France) for twenty-two years was 10 10s. but it sometimes rose to 22 per ton. The duty on foreign barilla being reduced in 1822, and on common salt removed in 1823, the price speedily fell to 2 and 3. In the six years, July, 1841-47, the average annual importation of kelp at Glasgow was 3232 tons (Glassford). Carbonate of soda is now obtained almost exclusively by the de- composition of common salt, although a small product is still separated in the manufacture of iodine and potash salts from kelp. Cohausen had suggested in 1717 that common salt might be decomposed by means of lime. In 1737 Du- hamel obtained carbonate from it by fusing it with charcoal, dissolving the fused mass in acetic acid, and calcining the acetate. About 1758 (?) Margraif endeavoured to decompose sulphate of soda by limestone. In 1768 Hagen decomposed it by potash, and afterwards Bergman by barytes. In 1775 Scheele partially decomposed it by oxide of lead. In 1782 Morveau and Carny used felspar. In 1781 Constantine employed alum. The sulphates of lime, magnesia, ammonia, pot- ash, bicarbonate of ammonia, iron filings, iron pyrites, alumina, steam, &c. decompose com- mon salt. The first important step was, however, discovered in 1784 by Le Blanc and Dize. Sul- phate of soda having been formed in 1658 from common salt and sulphuric acid by Glauber, the process patented by Le Blanc in 1791 con- sisted in fusing sulphate of soda with carbonate of lime and charcoal. It is this important dis- covery which has rendered the manufactures of this country so prosperous. The process was introduced at Glasgow by Messrs. Tennant and SOD all the ingredients of sea water. 6cwt. of the salt in fine white crystals is placed hi an iron reverbera- tory furnace (^.), and 5^ cwt. sulphuric acid (1 -75 sp. gr.) is allowed to run hi by a funnel at the top ; heat being applied below, the chlorohydric acid evolved passes up the chimney, or it is con- densed by causing it to pass through earthenware pipes to columns of moist coke, by which it be- comes fluid. The sulphate of soda, when freed from the greater quantity of its muriatic acid, is pushed fonvard into a reverberatory furnace, Avhere it becomes dry. It is then a white saline mass, and is drawn out. The composition of commercial salt and the sulphate of soda pro- duced from it are as follow : Commercial Salt. Sulphate Of Soda. 10-956 Ivnox in 1799. The following analyses were made by my lamented pupil Mr. John Brown in my laboratory : 1st Stage. Conversion of chloride of sodium into sulphate of soda, by sulphuric acid. The salt employed in this country is derived from large brine deposits situated in the new red sand- stone formation at Northwich in Cheshire. The salt, when first obtained, has a red colour, due to sesquioxide of iron. It is dissolved in water, the impurities allowed to subside, the liquor drawn off, evaporated down, the salt raked out into wicker baskets, and allowed to drain. The salt having been deposited from the sea, contains Chloride of sodium, 931-615 Chloride of potassium, trace. Chloride of magnesium,.... 1-066 Sulphate of lime, 10-098 9-731 Sulphate of magnesia, .....' 1-348 2 -893 Sulphate of soda, 962-170 Carbonate of lime, 1-500 Water, 54*373 Iron sesquioxide, 2-300 Sand, 3-100 Free acid, 8-850 2d Stage. Conversion of sulphate of soda into crude carbonate of soda or soda ball (a) substage. Production of sulphide of sodium. 2 cwt. 2 qrs. of the sulphate of soda formed in the preceding and 1 are mixed with 2 cwts. 2^ qrs. limestone and 1 cwt. 3 qrs. coal dross, and are introduced into a reverberatory furnace and strongly heated (in France, 4 sulphate, 4 limestone, 1 coal). The mixture is frequently stirred with long iron rakes, to expose a new surface to the flame. The effect of the heat and coal is to remove oxygen from the soda and sulphu- ric acid, and to form a sulphide of sodium, (NaO SO 3 and C 4 =NaS 4(CO)). (b) 2d substage. The heat is continued till the evolution of carbonic oxide, which burns with a blue flame, is observed to cease. The fused mass is then raked out on iron barrows or trays, and allowed to cool. In this portion of the process, for the sake of precision, we may consider that 3 atoms sulphide of sodium, hi the presence of 4 atoms carbonate of lime and 1 of carbon, are converted into 3 carbonate of soda, 1 oxysulphide of calcium, and 2 carbonic oxide, (SNaS -f- 4CaO C0 2 + G 3NaOCO 2 + (3(CaS),CaO) 2CO). The ball soda, or crude carbonate of soda, thus formed is dark coloured. Its composition is as follows : Soluble part. Carbonate of soda, 35-640 Caustic soda, 0-609 Aluminate of soda, 2-350 Sulphate of soda, 1-160 Sulphide of sodium, 1-130 Chloride of sodium, 1-913 459 SOD t Insoluble part. Ultramarine, 0-295 3CaS,CaO, 29-172 Caustic lime, 6-301 Sand, 4-285 Sulphide of iron, 4-917 Silicate' of magnesia, 3*744 Carbon, 7-998 Water, 0-700 100-214 The ball soda, it was first observed by Mr. Brown, when heated with alcohol, gives up no caustic soda ; but when water is added, it yields caustic soda and carbonate of lime. 3d Stage. Manufacture of soda ash from, ball soda The ball soda is introduced into iron square pans or keaves (cuves), five or six of which are usually worked together. They are so arranged that the water heated by steam, which runs into the first pan, passes over the six in suc- cession. From the last it runs into a large iron vessel to settle. The liquor containing carbonate of soda and other impurities is boiled down in an iron pan until it is nearly dry. It is then placed in a reverberatory furnace and oxidized, so as to convert sulphide into sulphate, and hydrate of soda into carbonate. The following are the analyses of the salt before and after furnacing : Before After Furnacing 1 . Fumacing. Carbonate of soda, 68-907 71-614 Hydrate of soda, 14-433 11-231 Sulphate of soda, 7-018 10-202" Sulphite of soda, 2-231 1*117 Hyposulphite of soda, trace. Sulphide of sodium, 1-314 Chloride of sodium, 3-972 3-051 Almninate of soda, 1-016 0-923 Silicate of soda, 1-030 1-042 Insoluble matter and sand, 0-814 0-316 100-755 99-496 The matter which remains undissolved in the hot water is termed soda ivaste, and is a great ob- stacle in the soda process, in consequence of its inutility for any purpose, and the difficulty of disposing of it. It consists principally of car- bonate of lime, and of a compound of sulphide of calcium with lime which is insoluble hi water, sulphide of calcium itself being insoluble in water. According to Dumas, Unger, and Brown, it is composed of 3 atoms sulphide of calcium united to 1 of lime. Soda Waste. Insoluble salts, = 74-741 Carbonate of lime, 24-220 3CaS,CaO, 20-363 Carbon, 12-709 Silicate of magnesia, 5-987 Sand, 5-746 Sesquicxide of iron, 5-716 SOD Soluble salts, == 25-382, Sulphate of lime, 4-281 Hyposulphite of lime, trace. . Bisulphide of calcium, 3-583 Sulphide of calcium, 8-527 Hydrate of lime, 5-582 Carbonate of soda, 1-309 Water, 2-100 100-123 The soda waste gradually oxidizes; in three years it is converted into sulphate, sulphite, car- bonate, and hyposulphite of lime. 4th Stage. Carbonate of Soda Process. The carbonate of soda ball is lixiviated in the same way with water as for soda-ash. The liquor is pumped up into evaporating pans placed over the reverberatory furnaces, and reduced nearly to dryness. The salt is taken out in colanders, placed in a heap, and allowed to drain. The sulphide and caustic soda drain off (1). It is then fur- naced (2). A finer kind of soda-ash is frequently made from (2), by dissolving in water, evapo- rating, and carbonating in a furnace. From this, crystallized carbonate is formed. It is dissolved in boiling water, the solution having a specific gravity of 1-250 (50 Twaddell). It is then run into a cistern, and diluted with cold water down to 1-21 (42 Twaddell). Earthy matter deposits. Bleaching powder in small quantity being now added, another deposition occurs. It passes inta another pan, when it is evaporated to 1-27 (54 Twaddell) ; then into a cistern, and lastly into iron crystallizing pans, where it remains for eight days or less, according to the weather : Carbonate of Soda. C ^&to oflsodiu 1. At 212 2. Furnaced. Hydrs. Anhydrs. Carbonate of soda,. ...79 -641 84-002 36-476 98-120 Hydrate of soda 2-712 T060 Sulphate of soda, 8-641 8'560 0'943 Sulphite of soda, 1 1-238 trace 1-076 Sulphide of sodium, . . trace Hyposulphite of soda , trace Chloride of sodium,.. 4-128 3222 0'424 0'742 Aluminate of soda,. .. 1170 1-013 Silicate of soda, 1 -234 0*984 Insoluble matter, P 972 0-716 Water, 62'157 99-742 99-557 100- 99-933 Sesquicarbonate, Trona, (Sukenanear Fezzan), Urao (Mexico), (Eivero and Boussingault, Ann. Chim. 29, 116). Natron, Nitrum. 2 NaO 3 C0 2 4 HO (Phillips' Quart. Journ. 7, 296). First described by Klaproth, in 1802 (Beitrage 3, 83). Crystal. Doubly-oblique 4-sided prisms, with angles of about 60 and 120. Spec. grav. 1'98 (Thomson), 2-112 (Haidinger). Taste alkaline, somewhat milder than common carbonate. It oc- curs native in considerable quantities in the pro- vince of Sukena, near Fezzan, in North Africa, and is called Trona by the natives. It is also found in the lakes of Debretzin in Hungary, in Columbia in the neighbourhood of Lagunilla 4GO SOD (Baudrimont). Process. To 100 grains of sim- ple carbonate, and 152 bicarbonate, dissolved in 4 ounces water, add 4 ounces of alcohol. Crystals of this salt separate in a few days (Winkler Re- pert. 48, 215). It crystallizes likeAvise from a solution of bicarbonate concentrated by boiling. The crystals are permanent in the air. Bicarbonate. NaO2C0 2 HO 10-625, 10-525, 84-2, NaO 37-51, C0 2 51-58, HO 10-91. Crys- tal. Oblique rectangular tables or prisms. Taste feebly alkaline; renders cudbear paper purple; logwood and reddened litmus paper blue, but its alkaline properties are very weak ; by ignition loses about 37 j percent, of water and carbonic acid, by which it is reduced to the state of anhydrous carbonate. At 64 100 water dissolve 9-33, or 1 salt dissolves in 10 water (Thomson) ; 1 in 13 water (Y. Rose) ; 1 in 8 water (Berthollet). Process. It may be obtained by suspending a saturated solution of common carbonate over a brewer's fermenting tun, or by exposing a solution of the carbonate in a large vessel or flask filled \vith carbonic acid. Hydro-trisphosphate, Common Phosphate. 2 NaO HO P0 5 24 HO 45-125, 44-85, 358-8. Crystal. Oblique rhombic prisms, with angles of 67 50'. The base of the prism is inclined to the lateral faces at an angle of 166 44'; P on M or M' 106 44'; P on c 129 12'; P on g 112 27'; P on h 121 14'; M on M' 67 30'; Monh 123 45'; M on k 146 15' (Brooke). Effloresces in the air between 51 and 64 (Clark); becoming white and opaque, but not losing its shape. By heat it fuses in its water of crystallization; and by ignition fuses and becomes pyrophosphate, giv- ing then a white precipitate with nitrate of silver ; previous to ignition it gives a yellow precipitate; very soluble in water, 100 water at 65 q dissolve 26-77 salt; in dry air it loses more than half its water (Gay Lussac) ; and if ex- posed to the air absorbs 14 atoms. Does not affect litmus, but renders cudbear violet. At 572, or in vacuo over sulphuric acid, it loses 24 atoms water, becoming a white mass ; chang- ing violet colours to green (2 NaO HO P0 5 ). When a solution is evaporated at 90, and crys- tallized, the quindecihydrate, 2 NaO HO P0 5 14HO, is obtained in right rhombic prisms, meet- ing at angles of 98 and 92. It does not effloresce when exposed to the air, but loses at 572 47- 6 per cent, of water, and by ignition 3-47 per cent. more. Process. Obtained by add- ing carbonate of soda to the phosphoric acid pre- pared from calcined bones at 212, till the solu- tion has an alkaline reaction. Bibasic Phosphate of /Soda, Diphosphate of Soda, Pyrophosphate (Clark, Brewster's Journal, 7,298). 2 NaOPO 5 10HO 27-975, 223-8 ; NaO 27-89, P0 3 31-90, HO 40-21. Crystal Oblique prism, alkaline reaction ; fuses by ignition to a glass, consisting of anhydrous diphosphate (2NaO It regains its crystalline water when SOD exposed to the air (10 atoms or 40 per cent.) It yields a white precipitate with nitrate of silver without liberating nitric acid (2AgOPOs), an< i when boiled with phosphoric, sulphuric, muriatic, nitric, or acetic acids, it gives a yellow, being changed into trisphosphate. When boiled for three weeks in a flask, which it corrodes, it changes into common phosphate. Process. Formed by igniting common phosphate, dis- solving in water, and crystallizing. Hydro-Trisarseniate. Common Arseniate. 2 NaO HO AsO 3 24 HO 50-625, 50-3, 402-4. Sp. grav. 1-759. Oblique rhombic prisms, isomor- phous with common phosphate of soda, effloresce in a dry atmosphere, and become white on the sur- face, but do not lose their shape. Taste cooling, resembling that of carbonate of soda; alkaline reaction ; 100 water at 45 dissolve 22-268 crys- tals ; insoluble in alcohol, but the surface of the rystals in alcohol becomes opaque from the re- moval of the crystalline water. Heat causes it to undergo the aqueous fusion, and ignition the leous fusion. Separation of Potash and Soda. If the alka- lies are in the state of chlorides in solution, eva- porate to dryness in a platinum capsule, ignite and weigh. Dissolve the residue in as small a quan- tity of water as possible ; add an excess of bichlor- ide of platinum from a concentrated solution in water ; add a considerable quantity of alcohol, and allow the whole to stand for some hours. The supernatant alcohol should be yellow coloured, indicative of an excess. The potassium bichlo- ride of platinum is then filtered, washed with alcohol, and weighed, from which the chloride of potassium weight is obtained, and deducted from the weight of the joint chlorides ; the remainder is the chloride of sodium. But the latter may be separated from the filtered liquor by evaporating away the alcohol slowly, igniting strongly in a covered capsule. During the ignition a few crys- tals of oxalic acid are added, which facilitates the decomposition of the sodium chloride of platinum. The chloride of sodium is then extracted with wa- ter, and the platinum left. If the aqueous solution is yellow, the salt has not been decomposed. It must be evaporated, and again strongly ignited ; the residue is the chloride of sodium when free from platinum. When alkaline sulphates are present, the same process answers, but it requires much caution. The weighed sulphates are dis- solved in a minimum of water, but no crystals must be seen. An excess of an aqueous solution of bichloride of platinum is now added, so as to convert both the potash and soda into double platinum salts. Some spirit and the requisite quantity of alcohol are added, and the whole allowed to stand. If a considerable excess of bichloride of platinum is not added, sulphate of soda falls from its insolubility in alcohol, which cannot be converted into the sodium chloride of platinum in its insoluble state. When the sul- phate of soda is seen to precipitate, the alcohol 461 SOD must be poured off, and water added to dissolve the whole, and then the bichloride added again in excess. The potassium salt is then filtered, washed, dried, and weighed. To obtain the sul- phate of soda, the filtered liquor is evaporated, the residue ignited with some oxalic acid, the residue exhausted with water. Chloride of ; dium (not sulphate, as might be supposed,) is taken up. This is to be evaporated with sul- phuric acid, ignited, and estimated as sulphate of soda. As by this process sulphate of soda may be present, if care is not taken, it is preferable to convert the sulphates into chlorides. The solution of the two sulphates (previously deprived of any free sulphuric acid by ignition) is precipitated with acetate of barytes in slight excess, the pre- cipitate allowed to deposit in a warm place, to prevent it passing through the filter in a milky state. The filtered liquor is evaporated in a pla- tinum capsule and ignited ; the residue digested in water, and filtered. Carbonate of barytes remains, while the carbonates of the alkalies are dissolved. These are saturated with chlorohydric acid, and the chloride of potassium separated in the manner described. The acetate of barytes must be quite free from chloride of barium. Soda Water. Liebig's apparatus of stone- ware for impregnating water with carbonic acid, usually known as soda water, is represented in the accompanying figures 1 and 2. In fig. 1, B is the carbonic acid generator, the bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid being introduced by the opening b, which is closed by a solid stopper by means of a bayonet joint resembling K E in fig. 2, or simply by means of a screw. The diaphragm A is pierced with a number of capillary aper- tures a, which allow the carbonic acid to stream into the water or wine placed in the upper divi- sion of the vessel c' a. The water is gradually charged with carbonic acid, which becomes thus soda water. The contrivance, in fig. 2 is the spring valve, at the mouth of the bottle, for delivering the water after it is formed. When the thumb is pressed on the tin piece and piston K, the spiral spring (which retains the bottom of the piston 462 SOD close up on the solid piece c when the bottle is closed) is depressed, the tube F e E is opened, and the soda water, impelled by the gas at c', is forced up the tube F, and discharged by E; into a glass, as in fig. 1 ; K a space resting on a < caoutchouc ring, u a ring of caoutchouc, B a ring of tin. Soda Alum. Alum containing soda in place of potash. Sodaitc. A synonyme of Elaeolite. Sodalife. Hauyne, Noseane, Sjnnellane. Sp. grav. 2-295 to 2-378, H 5-75. Green, greenish- white, or snow-white masses, and rhomboidal 12- hedrons ; streak white ; fracture conchoidal, un- even ; lustre vitreous, translucent, brittle. B.B. fuses with effervescence into a glass bead ; soluble in acids. First analyzed by Dr. T. Thomson, from Greenland. Si0 3 38-40, A1 2 3 32-04, JSTaO 24-47, Cl 7-3, CaO '32. Form. 3 NaO, SiO s -4- 3(Al 2 3 Si03) NaCL Greenland, Vesuvius. Soda Nitre, or Nitrate of Soda. Sofia Spodnmene, or Oligoclase. Sodium. Natrium 3, 24 ; 2-8717 ; 22-9736. Specific gravity -97223 (Gay Lussac and Then- ard), -9348 (Davy). White metal; shade in- termediate between silver and lead, crvstal- lizes in cubes ; solid and malleable at usual temperatures, so that it can be welded by pressure; still malleable at 32, and ductile- at 122, semifluid; at 194 quite fluid; re- mains fixed at the melting point of plate glass (Davy) ; less volatile than potassium (Gay Lussac and Thenard) ; more volatile (Mitscherlich) ; de- composes water, but does not bum unless the water be boiling or be rendered mucilaginous by means of gum to diminish the motion of the metal ; the hydrogen then burns with a yellow flame; good conductor of heat and electricity. Its vapour is colourless. Process. It may be prepared from caustic soda by electricity ; by heating in an iron bottle hydrate of soda and iron filings ; by igniting car- bonate of soda and charcoal by Brunner's plan r as described under POTASSIUM. Chloride, Common Sajt, Kitchen /Salt, Marine Salt, Rock Salt, Sea Salt, Muriate of Soda, Hydrochloride, Chlorohydrate. NaCl 7-5, 60-; 7-308, 58-46. Sodium 40, chlorine 60 per cent. Spec. grav. 2-125 (Fahrenheit, Phil. Trans. 1724 r 114), 2-257 (Mohs), 2-03 (Unger), 2-078 (Kar- sten), 2-15 (Kopp), spec, heat 0-214. Taste well known, and is what is commonly termed salt. As generally prepared it decrepitates from the presence of hygroscopic water between its plates j fuses by ignition ; volatilizes at a white heat ; is carried up by steam from boiling saline solutions, and likewise from the sea by winds, but not by simple evaporation; 100 water at 57i dissolve 36 salt ; at 140, 37 ; at 229i, 40-38 (Gay Lussac); at 77, 36 parts ^Kopp) ; at 65|, 33 parts (Karsten). Strong muriatic acid precipitates salt from a saturated solution ; common salt is slightly soluble in' SOD dilute alcohol; 5-8 in 100 alcohol of spec. grav. 900 ; 3-67 in 100 alcohol of -872 spec. grav. ; 0-5 in alcohol -834 (Kinvan) ; but nearly insol- uble in absolute alcohol. When heated with potassium it gives chloride of potassium and metallic sodium (Davy) ; with sulphuric acid it is converted into sulphate of soda and chlorohydric acid gas. When ignited with oxalic acid it yields the same gas and carbonate of soda (R.D.T.) Quaterhydrated Chloride. NaCMHO. Oblique rhombic prisms, striated, belonging to the oblique prismatic system, efflorescing in the air below 32, deliquescing above 32, and leaving a powder of small cubes. Obtained by exposing a saturated solution of common salt to a temperature of 14 ( 10 C.) (Lowitz), or by evaporating a dilute solution of salt at 59 on a glass plate ; large 6-sided tables of the hydrate separate first, and then cubes (Ehrenberg). Sulphate of mag- nesia and common salt at 26, become sulphate of soda and chloride of magnesium (Berzelius). Sources. 1. By heating sodium in chlorine gas perfectly pure salt is obtained. 2. Partly by spontaneous, partly by artificial evaporation salt is extracted from sea water, which contains about 3| per cent, of it, or from salt springs as in Ger- many and North America. It is extracted from the earth in large quantities from deposits situ- ated in the new red sandstone formation at North- wich, in Cheshire, in the Punjaub, &c. A large deposit of salt has recently been found at Carrick- fergus. Its composition, by the analysis of my pupil, Mr. A. Buchanan, is NaCl 94-166, HO -3-433, CaOS0 3 1-020, MgOS0 3 -153, CaOC0 2 1, MgOC0 2 '123, Fe 2 3 -585, Si0 3 "42. Iodide. Nal 18-75, 18-65, 149-2. Cubes, and with 4 atoms of water in striated oblique rhombic prisms ; it is less fusible than iodide of potassium ; above 122 it crystallizes in anhydrous cubes, be- low this in oblique hydrous prisms ; very deliques- cent; 1 water dissolves 1-73 iodide; it is less volatile than the potash iodide, but more so than common salt. When fused in the air iodine escapes and also when ignited with charcoal. The hyd- rate effloresces in dry air, fuses when heated and leaves the anhydrous salt; the hydrate deliquesces in moist air ; 1 part dissolves in 0-6 water and in alcohol. It is prepared like the potash salt by forming an iodide of iron and then decomposing this by carbonate of soda in equal atoms or by saturating iodohvdric acid with soda. Sulphide. NaS9HO 15-125, 15-025, 120-2. EecAngular prisms (Vauquelin, Berzelius), 8- hedrons (Vauquelin, Kircher), oblique rhombic prisms (L'hermina) ; acid reaction ; when fused gives out water and becomes anhydrous ; soluble in water, less soluble in alcohol. Prepared by passing sulphohydric acid through caustic soda, and evaporating in vacuo. Soils. The name applied to the soft materials lying on the surface of our globe on which plants grow. The soil must either be formed by the action of the atmosphere, &c. on underlying rocks, SOO or be derived from matter transported from a dis- tance by diluvial agencies. Soils are usually divided into sandy or light, characterized by a preponderance of sand ; clay where much alumina is present ; and loams, which contain much vege- table matter. Soimonite. A synonyme of Corundum. Solanic Acid, and Solaninc. C 84 H 68 NO 2 g. Plumose crystals with a pearly lustre and acid taste ; poisonous ; insoluble in water ; soluble in boiling alcohol; it forms crystallin& salts; extracted from the shoots of potato and several species of solanum by digesting in S0 3 ,. precipitating by NH 3 , and crystallizing from al- cohol. Solanoleic Acid? The acid of the fluid oil of potatoes, extracted by alcohol from the solano- stearic acid. Solanostcaric Acid. C 30 H 30 4 . F.P.. 122. Crystalline plates, obtained by saponify- ing the fat oil from potatoes. Solder. An alloy used for uniting metals, Soft solder consists of 67 lead, 33 tin, or 33 lead 67 tin; hard or brass solder consists of equal parts of copper and zinc ; silver solder is formed of 66 silver, 30 copper, 4 brass; gold solder of 66 gold, 17 silver, 17 copper. Solid. That condition of matter in which the particles of which it is composed are in closest contiguity. Solution. (Solutio, loosening.) The combi- nation or mixture of a solid, liquid, or gas, with a fluid ; it differs from mechanical mixture, that in the latter the diffused particles are visible, and may be removed by filtration, while in a solution the dissolved particles are invisible, (as when salt is dissolved hi water,) and cannot be mechanically removed. Solvent. (Solvens, loosening.) The liquid or medium by which a substance is dissolved. Somervillite. Yellow variety of Humboldilite, Vesuvius. Sommitc. A variety of Nepheline, Mount Somma. Sooranjee. The root of a species of morinda,, from India, containing a red-colouring matter. See MORINDESE. Soot. The volatile black carbonaceous mat- ter which rises from a coal or wood fire, and is deposited in the chimney. Water takes up v.1- inine f and deposits it on standing ; the portion dissolved in the water and not deposited, but ob- tained by evaporation, and exhausted with alco- hol, is a red substance destitute of taste (animal- ized matter); the portion soluble in alcohol is asboline. See ASBOLINE. Wood soot consists of ulmine 30-2, animalized matter 20-, asboline -5, water 12-5, CaOC0 2 and MgOC0 2 14-6,6, ace- tate of lime 5-65, CaOS0 3 5-, acetate of potash 4-1, charcoal 3-85, ferrophosphate of lime 1*5,. silica -95, acetate of magnesia -53, KC1 -36, ace- tate of ammonia -2, acetate of iron trace. It probably also contains creasote, capnomore, c. 463 SOB Sorbic Acid. When sorbine is dissolved in potash or ammonia, and precipitated by weak chlorohydric acid, red flocks fall which, when dried at about 280, constitute sorbicacid, which is isomorphous with sorbine ; insoluble in water, alcohol, and weak acids ; very soluble in alkalies. It consists of C 57 -96, H = 5-51, = 36-53. The lead salt consists of 3PbO C 32 HjsO^. With the alkalies it forms solutions of a deep rich sepia colour, a characteristic of the acid." Sorbine. Sorbite. C 12 H 9 9 3HO. Sp. grav. 1-654. C = 40-, H = 6-66, = 53-34. Col- ourless rectangular 8-hedrons. A species of sugar found in the berries of the mountain ash. When pure, exactly resembling cane sugar in sweetness, &c.; soluble in double its weight of water; slightly soluble in alcohol, from which it deposits in 8- hedral crystals ; it does not ferment with yeast. .It is prepared by expressing the juice of the berries, filtering, and allowing the juice to stand at rest for some months; a deposit forms; the supernatant liquor is decanted and evaporated to the consistence of a syrup, which deposits brown crystals. These are decolourized by twice treat- ment with animal charcoal. A solution of ace- tate of lead precipitates a white substance, which, dried at 212, consists of 4PbO,C 12 H 9 9 . It crystallizes in cubes with common salt. Weak sulphuric acid produces no change in it. Nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid ; it unites with barytes and lime ; it dissolves protoxide of cop- per, and deposits gradually red oxide ; tartrates of copper and potash are also reduced. Heated between 302 and 556 it leaves a deep red resi- due, which is sorbic acid. Sorbine deviates t6 the left the plane of polarization. Sorbine differs from inosite, the sugar of muscle, by the latter not colouring potash, and not reducing black oxide of copper, and forming a hydrate C 12 H 1G 16 . It would easily be confounded with glucose by its reducing action of salts of copper. Mordawalitc. Spec. grav. 2'58, H 2-75. , I drop.) A pendent depo- sit from water covering the roofs of caves in lime- stone rocks and then consisting of carbonate of lime, or deposited from siliceous water, and then formed of silica. Stalagmite. (frxX*^?, a drop.) A broad deposit on the floors or sides of caves, consisting usually of carbonate of lime. Stannamylium. Ci H n Sn. A m'etallo or- ganic alkaloid by the action of iodide of amyle on tin. Stannates. See TIN. Stannethyliiim. C 4 H 5 Sn. B.P. 302. Yel- low oil, obtained by acting on chloride of stanne- thylium by zinc. The chloride is obtained by dissolving oxide of stannethylium in dilute chlo- rohydric acid ; the oxide is again formed by acting 465 2H STA -with metallic tin on iodide of ethyle, so as to form iodide of stannethylium, which, by the influence of alkalies, becomes oxide. Stannic Acid. See TIN. Stniiuiice. A synonyme of Sulphide of tin. Stanuite. Spec. grav. 3*545, H 6-5. Yel- lowish-white masses ; lustre nearly dull ; fracture conchoidal; contains 36-5 per cent, oxide of tin, also SiO 3 , A1 2 3 . B.B. infusible. Cornwall ; pro- "bably a mixture. StaunmctEiylimn. C 2 H 3 Sn. Obtained by a similar process to stannethylium, by substituting iodide of methyle. Stanzaitc. A synonyme of Andalusite. Stapeline. A bitter principle in the juice of Stapelia hirsuta, resembling aloes in taste ; sol- uble in water, alcohol, and ether. Staphysinc. Staphysaine. C 32 H 24 NO 4 . KP. 392. Yellowish solid, acrid ; converted by NO 3 into a bitter resin ; little soluble in water ; de- prived of its taste at 300 by Cl ; obtained from the seeds of Delphinium staphysagria(stavesacre), in the process for delphinine, ^vhich is soluble ; while staphysine is insoluble. Starch. Fecula, Amylum, AmilinCj A.midine, Amylon. C 12 H 10 10 = C 44-26, H 6'7, 49-04. Spec. grav. 1-53. White granules, consisting of layers, without taste and smell ; insoluble in cold water, alcohol, and ether; with water of 212 converted into a thick paste produced by the swelling out rather than solution of the granules ; the granules vary from iiou tn f an inch in diameter; when treated with hot water and cooled it yields a blue colour with iodine in solu- STA tion; when boiled with diluted acids iodine gives a purple with it, and after longer boiling no coloura- tion (dextrine) ; the iodide of starch is soluble at 150; by continuing the heat the starch is converted into sugar ; nitric acid changes starch into ox- alic acid; bromine forms an orange compound with starch ; when heated in Papin's digester to 302, with 10 parts of water, starch is changed into small granules, T2 J 00 th part of an inch in diameter ; and at 356 sugar is formed ; solution of starch is precipitated by alcohol, disacetate of lead, lime, and tannic acid. Starch and Water. Water, at the usual tem- perature and pressure, does not dissolve starch but unites with it in different proportions. Dried between 212 and 284 iii a vacuum, starch retains its equivalent of constitutional water, and forms a very hygroscopic mobile powder. It absorbs from the air 2 atoms of water, the same degree of hydration obtained by drying recently pre- pared starch in vacuo at 60. When kept in store it absorbs in all 4 atoms, or 18 per cent, of water, and is then known as dry starch. In a damp room it absorbs 6 atoms, or 35 per cent, of water, and then the grains become adherent, arid do not pass through a sieve. The largest amount of water retained by starch is in green starch, or 45 per cent, when it is dried on a porous sub- stance. When in this state, and thrown on plates heated to 300, its granules swell, and ad- here together. Advantage is taken of this pro- perty to make imitations of sago, tapioca, &c. The different states of hydration of starch are as follows : Starch p. c. 100 2HO 90 4HO 81-82 10HO 64-39 1. Anhydrous starch, as united with lead, C^ H 9 9 2. Dried between 212 and 284, HO C 12 H 9 O 9 3. Dried at 68 in vacuum, HO Ci 2 H 9 9 4. Dried at 68 in air, HO C 12 H 9 9 5. In the air, saturated with moisture, HO C 12 H 9 O 9 6. Thoroughly saturated with moisture, HO C 12 H 9 9 15HO 54-55 Starch occurs abimdantly in the seeds of wheat r oats, barley, rye, &c. and in many bulbs, as po- I tato, &c. ; arrow root is from the root of Maranta arundinacea ; Cassava knd tapioca from the root of Jatropha manihot ; sago from Sagus rumphii and raphia"; salep from Orchis morio, &c. Starch may be heated to 320 without change ; at 390 it becomes amber-coloured, and is par- tially changed into dextrine, being soluble in cold water. Starch may be heated in 12 to 15- times its weight of water to 130 without change; at 134 the yoTinger granules begin to swell ; at 160 the liquid thickens, and this in- creases towards the boiling point, when it becomes a consistent paste. The starch granules now oc- cupy nearly 30 times their original volume ; cold caustic soda, and potash to the extent of T ^ of the weight of starch, cause the grains to swell to 75 times their bulk. Sulphuric, chlorohydric, and nitric acids swell and dissolve starch. Starch paste under the microscope shows the granules all split ; the interior layers in absorbing water swell out, 466 1. Starch of potato ; 2. beans ; 3. wheat ; 4. 3. maize ; 6. arrow root. STA and the granules have increased to 30 times their bulk. On cooling the paste to a temperature of 14, the internal layers contract under the influence of cold water, re-enter into their envelopes, the paste loses its consistence, and the liquid acquires its former fluidity. When starch is boiled with water, and filtered through fine paper, only pure water passes through. Preparation. In preparing starch from pota- toes, the first object is to separate the inferior potatoes from the good, the worst being used only for extracting starch. A solution of com- mon salt is made of the spec. grav. 16 Twad- dell, or 1080. The inferior potatoes swim in this liquor, while the superior sink. The former are then crushed by passing them over a cylindrical roller. The crushed matter is then thrown on a sieve, when the starch passes through. It is then placed in a series of channels, and water is run over it. It is then placed in a large cask, and further washed. It is dried in a temperature above 200. The refuse is rinsed in a trough, along which is arranged a horizontal strainer. Most of the starch is thus removed, but much of it is not separated, and is thrown away. To make wheat starch, the flour is placed in troughs with water, and is allowed to undergo the acid fermentation, the acid dissolving the gluten. It is then filtered and dried. The soluble starch is made by introducing the dry starch into 'hol- low revolving cylinders of iron. The cylinders are kept hot by flues from a furnace. In conse- quence of being pressed from behind by new additions of starch, the calcined starch makes its way to the other end of the cylinder, and dis- charges itself. Sago flour from Singapore is like- wise extensively used for the manufacture of sol- uble gum. To much of the starch a blue shade is given by the addition of a small amount of smalts. Instead of salt water for ascertaining the density or levity of the potatoes, a mixture of water and clay is often employed. Staurotidc. Grenatite, Staurolite. Sp. grav. 3-693, H 6-75. Reddish-brown, right rhombic prisms with angles of 129 20', the acute edges of the prisms being replaced by tangent planes, mak- ing angles with the adjacent planes of the prism of 115 20'; 2 crystals across each other in the form of a St. Andrew's cross ; fracture conchoidal or uneven ; lustre vitreous, inclining to resinous ; translucent, frequently only on the edges ; streak white. B.B. infusible, becomes dark. Si0 3 36-696, A1 2 O 3 39-88, FeO 18-144, MnO 4-046, MgO -686, H -08. Formula undetermined from the tendency to replacement in its constitu- STE ents. In mica slate, St. Gothard, Tyrol, Oporto, Aberdeen, United States. Stearic Acid. (Talgsaure, Ger.) C 36 H 36 O 4 (Heintz), or C3 4 H 33 3 HO, or C 18 H 1G 6 2 HO. F.P. 167, 156-4 (Heintz), 154-4 (Duffy); spec, grav., fused, -854; solid, 1-01; solidifying point 158. White, solid, in brilliant needles when fused and allowed to cool ; pulver- izable ; insoluble in water ; soluble in its own weight of alcohol and ether ; burns with a clear flame like wax ; from hot alcohol it deposits in white plates and needles; the solution reddens litmus paper ; without taste and smell ; by dry distillation passes over as margaric acid ; heated in contact with nitric acid it becomes margaric acid ; when long boiled with nitric acid it is con- verted into suberic and succinic acids ; it is prepared by boiling mutton fat with caustic potash or soda until a clear solution can be formed in water ; on adding an acid to the hot solution an oil floats on the surface, which solidifies ; on being passed between porous paper and hot plates it is de- prived of oleic acid, and by frequent crystalliza- tion out of alcohol and pressure it is obtained nearly pure ; but there are still doubts as to its true composition. Indeed, from the difficulty of separating fatty acids, their formulae are yet un- certain. Stearic acid candles consist of impure stearic acid, obtained by saponifying fat by means of lime. Stearic acid is the oily acid present in common white soap ; it may also be obtained by heating mutton fat with half its weight of strong sulphuric acid ; sulphate of oxide of glyceryle results, and impure stearic acid is set free. The stearates are neutral (MO, St) and acid (MO,HOSt) ; the neutral salts are soluble in 10 to 20 parts of hot water without change ; the alcoholic solution of the acid salts is acid. Stearic ether, a waxv solid oil, fuses at 85 (HO,EO,St), and decomposes at 329. Stearine. Stearate of Oxide of C 34 H 34 O4. According to Duffy, mutton stea- rine has 3 melting points, 125-6, 147-5? 157-5; solidifying point 125-; beef stearine 123-8, 145-4, 152-4; with a solidifying point of 122-9. White pearly plates, without taste and smell ; insoluble in water ; soluble in 6 parts boiling alcohol ; separating on cooling in white flocks ; very soluble in boiling ether, sepa- rating on cooling, only T |^ part remaining in solution. It seems a most difficult problem to purify stearine and other fatty bodies, or to know when they are pure. Mr. Duffy obtained only 123 grs. stearine from 4-4 Ibs. of fat ; after 32 crystallizations it fused at 147|, its solidifying point was much below this, or 128| ; but it fused again at 145-4, and had passed into another isomeric form. These characters bring to mind the phenomena exhibited in the melting point of lead and its alloys. Mr. Duffy has shown that the specific gravity varies in these and other isomeric forms of stearine, being sometimes less and at other times greater than that of water. Stearine 4G7 STE is obtained by melting mutton fat in the water bath and crystallizing out from ether, which is to be used to the extent of at least 10 times its volume. It is contained in many animal and vegetable fats and oils. Stearocoiiote. An impure form of cerebric acid. Stcarolauretiiie. Solid fat from Laurus nobilis, separating at from 39 to 50. Stearolanriiie. A firm fat oil, separating from the pericarp of the Laurus nobilis at 50. Stearolc Anhydrous. C G8 H C6 O 5 . F.P. 130 to 140. Yellow brilliant, solid, lighter than water ; very soluble in ether ; slightly sol- uble in alcohol. Stcaronc. C 68 H GO O 2 . F.P. 168-8, 187. Crystalline body, soluble in ether; by distilling 4 parts stearic acid with 1 lime. A substance, Stearene, C 28 H 28 O, in crystalline plates by the same process, has also been described. Stearophanic Acid and Stearophanine. C 3G H 36 4 orC 3 sH 34 3 . F.P. 154. By saponi- fying Cocculus indicus fat and spermaceti : is con- sidered by Heintz as identical with stearic acid. Stearoptene. The solid deposit from essential oils, frequently isomeric with the fluid oils ; but is sometimes an oxide. Steatite. Soapstone. Spec. grav. 2-411 to 2-396, H 1 to 1-5. Greenish-white or yellowish or variegated masses, soft at first and then soapy to the feel ; texture fine earthy, feel unctuous, lustre soapy ; sectile. B.B. infusible. Si0 3 43 -884, MgO 24-144, A1 2 O 3 9-872, HO 21-228. Corn- wall, United States. Steinheilite. See IOLITE. Stciiunannite. Spec. grav. 6-833, H 2-5. Lead-gray cubes and 8-hedrons; fracture uneven; surface smooth, lustre metallic ; botryoidal, mas- sive. B.B. decrepitates on charcoal leaving a metallic globule ; it contains lead, antimony, silver, and sulphur. Przibram. Stellitc. Spec. grav. 2-612, H 3-25. Snow- white stelliform crystals; oblique 4-sided prisms; tough, resembling asbestus or nemalite, lustre silky, shining ; translucent. B.B. forms a white enamel ; with soda a white bead ; with borax and salt of phosphorus a transparent glass. Si0 3 48'465, CaO 30-96, MgO 5-58, A1 2 O 3 5-301, FeO 3-534, HO 6-108. On greenstone, Kilsyth. Stercorite. A name applied to crystals of am- monia phosphate of soda found in guano. Spec. grav. 1-6151. NaO,NH 3 P0 5 10HO (Herapath). Sternbergite. Spec. grav. 4-215, H .1 to 1-5. Pinchbeck-brown, right oblique prisms with angles of 120 15' or short 6-sided prisms ; lustre metallic, splendent, opaque ; texture foli- ated ; laminae flexible ; very sectile. B.B. gives out SOo and fuses into a globule ; it affords evidence of the presence of iron. Silver 33-2, iron 36, sulphur 30=4 FeS-|- AgS 2 . Joachim- sthal, Bohemia. Stcthal, or Hydrous Oxide of Stethyle. C 30 ^38^2- -A- supposed constituent of spermaceti, STO which is then viewed as a combination of cetyle oxide and stethyle oxide with stearic, palmitic, cetic, myristic, and cocic acids. Stibctheue. C 12 H 15 Sb. The hypothetic base of the stibethyle salts (Laurent). Stibiconise. A synonyme of antimonious acid. Stiblite. A synonyme of dinoxide of anti- mony or antimonious acid. Stib-triethyle. 3 (C 4 H 5 ) Sb. Spec. grav. 1-3244; of vapour 7-44. B.P. 317-3. A clear thin fluid with a disagreeable smell; solid at 20 ; self-inflammable in air ; difficultly soluble in water ; very soluble in alcohol and ether ; ob- tained by the action of antimonide of potassium on chloride, bromide or iodide of ethyle ; by oxidation it yields oxide of stibethyle and stib- ethylic acid ; forms salts with acids. Stibtrimethyle. Sb, 3 (C 2 H 3 ). Obtained by the action of iodide of methyle and antimonide of potassium. In this action occurs also stibtetra- methyle Sb, 4 (C 2 H 3 ) or stibmethylium. Stilbcne. C 28 H 12 . Pearly scales, obtained by distilling hydride of sulphobenzoyle (C 14 H 5 S 2 H), a white deposit by acting on crude oil of bitter almonds in alcohol with NH4S. Stilbiiic. A synonyme of Tersulphide of Antimony. Stilbite. Desmine, Foliated Zeolite. Spec, grav. 2-133 to 2-143, H 3-5. White or red slender prisms in a sheaf-like form ; right prisms with rectangular bases or right rhombic prisms with angles of 101 36'; streak white; lustre vitreous ; semitransparent to translucent. B.B. an opaque vesicular bead ; decomposed by acids, but does not gelatinize. SiOs 54-805, AlpOs 18-205, CaO 9-83, HO 19- = CaOSi0 3 ,Al 2 3 3 Si0 3 , 6 HO. Kilpatrick, Skye, Sweden, Nova Scotia, Kerguelen's Land, Ghauts. Still. An apparatus for vaporizing and con- densing water and volatile fluids. A still for separating spirits from water, as used in many distilleries, is represented in the following cut, where the wash descending from the reservoir into the upright column meets with steam, which rectifies it (Stein). See fig. page 469. Stillistearic v Acid. C 30 H 29 O 3 HO. 'Spec. grav. '818 ; F.P. 142-7. Not altered at 572 ; above this it distils unchanged. Pearly plates ; by saponifying the oil of Stillingia sibifera or Chinese vegetable tallow. It is obviously margaric acid. Stillolite. Allied to Opal. Stilpiiomclaiac. Spec. grav. 3-35, II 3: Greenish-black foliated or radiated or compact mass ; lustre glassy or pearly ; streak greenish. Si0 3 46-17, FeO 35-82, A1 2 6 3 5-88, MgO 2-67, KO -75, HO 8-72. B.B. fuses at length to a black globule. Obergrund. Stilpnosidcritc. A synonyme of Proto- hydrous Sesquioxide of Iron. Stinkstoiic. See ANTHRACOLITE. Stolzite. A synonyme of Tungstate of Lead. Stomach. The organ in animals destined for the digestion of food. See GASTRIC JUICE. 468 STO STR [Wetter P.lstern Stein's Still. Siomoma. An ancient name for oxide of copper, formed by igniting copper. Storax. A fragrant resin, in the state of red tears or in large reddish cakes, brittle and soft ; soluble in alcohol; from the Styrax officinalis. It affords styracine, styrone, and styrole. The resin seems to consist of volatile oil, resin, styra- cine, and cinnamic acid. Strahlstein. A synonyme of Tremolite or Amphibole. Strahlzeolite. A synonyme of Stilbite. Htralite. A synonyme of Epidote. Stramonine. F.P. 302. White needles without odour and taste ; insoluble in -water ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; reddened by S0 3 ; unacted on by X0 5 ; found in Datura stramonium along with daturine. Strass. A volcanic rock from the Ehine. It consists of Si0 3 57-, A1 9 3 16% CaO 2-6, MgO 1-, KO 7-, NaO 1", FeO and Ti0 2 1-5, HO 9-6. fttrass, Artificial. A preparation with a fine lustre resembling diamond. Si0 3 3 8 -8, PbO 53-, KO andNaO 8-2. Strelite. A synonyme of Anthophyllite. Strogaiiowite. A green foliated variety of cancrinite from the river Sludanka in Dauria. Stromeyerite. Stromeyerine. See SELPHO- CUPRITE OF SILVER. Stromnitc. See BARYTO STRONTIANITE. Sirouiirtii. Strontia, Oxide of Strontium. SrO 6-5, 52 ; 6-475, 51-8. Spec. grav. 3 to 4 (Davy); 3-9321 (Karsten). Grayish- white por- ous mass; taste acrid, alkaline; converts vegetable blues to green ; infusible by ignition, fixed ;. soluble in 160 water at 60, forming strontian water ; it is much more soluble in boiling water. Tinges flame of a crimson colour (Dr. Ash, 1787). The experiment may be shown by placing nitrate of strontian in the wick of a candle (Vauquelin), or by igniting alcohol, containing chloride of strontium in solution (Pelletier). Process. Strontian may be obtained 1. By igniting the carbonate mixed with charcoal in a plumbago crucible (Hope). 2. By igniting the nitrate in a covered crucible. Protohydrate, SrOHO 7-625, 61, white powder or grayish fibrous mass, losing its water by intense heat (Smith, Phil. Mag. 9, 87) ; obtained by slaking strontian like lime. Novohydrate, Sr09HO 16-625, 133. Crystal Square prismatic system ; generally as thin quadrangular plates or parallelograms; some- times the edges are plain, but they oftener con- sist of two facettes meeting together like the roof of a house, and adhere together so as to form a plate one inch or more in length ; sometimes cubical. Primary form, a right square prism terminated by a 4-sided truncated pyramid, the face of the prism making with the corresponding face of the pyra- mid an angle of 132-12 (Brooke, Ann. Phil. 2d ser. 7, 287) Soluble in 51-4 water, at 60 ; in 2 boiling water (Hope) ; 2-4 (Bucholz) ; loses 50 per cent, of water at 212 (Smith), without melting ; fuses at a red heat, which is not the case with strontian from the nitrate (Bucholz). 469 STR Process. Obtained on cooling from a concen- trated hot solution of strontian. Hydrous Binoxide, Peroxide. Sr0 2 HO ? Pearly scales, obtained by mixing binoxide of hydrogen with strontian water. Chloride. SrCl 10-, 79-4; 9-912,79-296. Spec. grav. about 2-803 (Karsten). White pow- der or white semi-glass when ignited ; fixed ; non-conductor of electricity; taste sharp and bitter ; loses chlorine and absorbs oxygen when ignited in air (Kraus, Fogg. Ann. 43, 139); soluble in 116-4 cold alcohol of 99-3 per cent., and in 262 boiling (Fresenius, Quant. Anal.) ; obtained by dissolving the carbonate of strontian in chlorohydric acid and heating to redness. Sexhydrated Chloride. SrCl 6 HO 16-75, 16-675, 133-4 ; 6-sided needles or prisms, gene- rally with 2 faces larger than the other 4 ; deli- quescent ; soluble in -66 water at 60, in any quantity of boiling water, in 24 absolute alcohol at 60, in 19 boiling absolute alcohol, in -75 water at 60, in 6 alcohol (spec. grav. 833,) (Vauquelin). The alcoholic solution burns with a fine crimson flame. By alcohol it can be separated from chloride of barium. By heat it undergoes the watery fusion, and by ignition becomes an- hydrous. Process. It is formed by dissolving the sulphide of strontium, prepared from the sulphate or the native carbonate in chlorohydric acid and crystallizing. Salts of Strontian. 1. Salts of strontian are more soluble than salts of barytes, but less so than salts of lime. 2. Solutions of stron- tian salts are not precipitated by ammonia ; precipitated by soda ; by sulphate of lime only after some time. 3. Succinate of ammonia precipitates salts of barytes, but not salts of strontian. 4. Salts of strontian when heated before the blowpipe communicate to the flame a red colour, barytes rendering it green, and lime red. 5. Fluosilicic acid precipitates barytes, but not strontian. 6. Chromate of potash pre- cipitates barytes immediately, strontian slowly. Use. It may be employed in fireworks to produce a crimson flame. Sulphate, Ccelestme. SrOSO 3 11 '5 92-, SrO 56-52, S0 3 43-48. Spec, grav., artificial, 8-5883 (Karsten); native, 3 -8 6 (Thomson); 3-953 (Breit- haupt). Crystal Right rhombic prism, the faces meeting at angles of 104 and 76, having the same form as heavy spar, from which it diifers by about 2 20' of greater obliqxuty. Tasteless. Soluble in strong sulphuric acid and precipitated again by water, in 15,029 water at 51-8 (Brandes and Silber), in 3600 at 60, in 6895 at 57^ (Fresenius), in 3840 boiling water (Hope), in 9,638 boiling water (Fresenius). Its solubility is diminished by the presence of sulphate of soda and sulphuric acid (Andrews) ; soluble slowly in a solution of common salt, and thus distinguished from heavy spar, and again precipi- tated by sulphuric acid. Sources. Occurs in nature most commonly in the red sandstone STR formation, as at Bristol, and in North America, Paris, Sicily. Nitrate Anhydrous. SrOKO 5 13-25, 106. Spec. grav. 3-006. Crystal Transparent regu- lar 8-hedrons or cube 8-hedrons with an ada- mantine lustre. Taste sharp and cooling ; soluble in 1 water at 60, in little more than 5 boiling water ; insoluble in alcohol ; permanent in air ; deflagrates on hot coals, fuses by ignition and leaves strontian (Hope). Process. First ob- tained by Dr. Hope, in 1791 ; but most com- pletely described by Vauquelin, in 1797 (Journ. Min. Ann. vi. 7) ; by dissolving the carbonate in nitric acid and evaporating to dryness, dissolv- ing in water and recrystallizing. Nitrate Quintohydrated. SrOX0 5 5 HO 18-875, 151. Crystal. Oblique rhombic prisms, with angles of 103 40'; 66 20'. The edges are sometimes replaced by one or even two planes inclined to M and M' respec- tively, at angles of 150 ; the two new planes being inclined to each other at an angle of 126 (Brooke) ; lustre vitreous ; efflorescent ; by heat undergoes the watery fusion ; soluble in 5 cold and "5 boiling water ; insoluble in absolute alcohol, a property enabling us to separate it from nitrate of lime, which is soluble in alcohol. Process. It is deposited sometimes when an aqueous solu- tion of the anhydrous salt is set aside for crystal- lization. Use. It is employed by pyrotechnists in fireworks, the red fire being formed of nitrate of strontian well dried 40 parts, flowers of sul- phur 13 parts, chlorate of potash 5 parts, tersul- phide of antimony 1 part. Carbonate, Strontianite. SrOCO 2 9-25, 74. Spec. grav. native, 3-605 (Mohs). Right pris- matic system (Mitscherlich) as found native; commonly as brown and green radiated masses ; artificially prepared it is a white powder, fusing at 226 Wedgewood to a clear glass (Saussure, Jour. Phys. 45, 24) ; tasteless ; alkaline reaction when native (Pleischl); soluble in 18,045 cold water (Fresenius), in 11,862 water acidulated with chlorohydric or sulphuric acids, and in 1536 boiling water (Hope) ; soluble in cold solutions of salammniac, nitrate and succinate of am- monia (Vogel). When mixed with charcoal and strongly heated in a crucible (Hope), or simply by the heat of a powerful forge it is decomposed (Gay Lussac and Thenard) ; volatilizes by a stream of oxygen on charcoal ; fuses at the edges before the blowpipe, swelling up and becoming incan- descent, giving a red colour to the flame (Ber- zelius). Sources. It is found native, always, however, accompanied with carbonate of lime. It may be prepared by precipitating solutions of the soluble salts of strontian with alkaline car- bonates. Estimation of Strontian. 1. This earth may be estimated by adding sulphuric acid to a solution of the chloride of strontian in alcohol, and hash- ing with alcohol. 2. It may also be precipitated by an alkaline carbonate, and estimated as car-* 470 STR bonate of strontian. 3. Strontian may also be thrown down by oxalate of ammonia. The ox- alate of strontian is, however, somewhat more soluble in water than the lime salt. Separation ofBarytes and Strontian. 1. They may be separated imperfectly by converting them into chlorides and dissolving out the chloride of strontian by alcohol. 2. The barytes may be precipitated by converting the earths into chlo- rides or acetates, and passing fluosilicic acid through the solution, the barytes is precipitated as silicofluoride of barium, while the correspond- ing salt of strontian remains in the solution, dis- solved by the excess of acid. It is washed and estimated on a weighed filter. The strontian is separated from the filtered liquid by sul- phuric acid. In a dilute solution the fluosilicic -acid takes some time to act, the solution must therefore be allowed to stand. 3. Dilute neutral chromate of potash, free from sulphate, precipi- tates in very dilute solutions barytes, but not strontian. The strontian is removed from the filtered liquor by an alkaline carbonate or oxalate. Strontiauite. A synonyme of Carbonate of Strontian. Strontium. Sr 5'5, 44-; 5'475, 43*8. White solid, much heavier than water, resem- bling barium, ductile, rapidly absorbing oxygen in air or water, and becoming strontian (SrO). It is procured by similar processes to those for barium. Struvite. A name given to ammonia phos- phate of magnesia (NH 3 2 MgO,PO 5 , 13 HO) found at Hamburg. Strychnic Acid. White needles, soluble in water ; little soluble in alcohol ; by boiling 3 strychnine, 1 chlorate of potash, a few drops of sulphuric acid, and 10 distilled water. Strychnine. C 4 2H 2 2N" 2 p4. Not fusible; decomposes at 600 ; brilliant 8-hedrons or 4-sided prisms, terminated by 4-sided pyramids ; without smell ; with a bitter metallic taste ; soluble in 7000 cold, 2500 hot water; its solution in water when diluted 100 times is still bitter ; sol- uble in strong nitric acid, with a yellow or greenish-yellow colour ; red when brucine is pre- sent ; strong sulphuric acid colours it brownish- red, then yellow ; solutions of gold and silver render its solution brownish-red, and bluish ; it becomes green with the violet solution of chame- leon mineral ; tincture of galls renders it white ; spirit of -870 dissolves 5 per cent. ; of -934 ^i_ ; insoluble in ether and alkalies ; sulphocyanide of potassium forms white crystals with it ; heated with bases it yields quinoline (C 18 H 8 N). Strych- nine is prepared from, the seeds of the Strychnos nux vomica ; the bean of S. Ignatii, and wood of 3. colubina. An aqueous decoction is made with the addition of dilute sulphuric acid ; the decoc- tion is precipitated with milk "of lime, and the Drecipitate exhausted with boiling alcohol, which ieposits the alkaloid in crystals on cooling; micine being more soluble, remains in the liquid ; 471 SUB but it may be thoroughly separated by convert- ing both into nitrates ; the strychnine salt crystal- lizes while the nitrate of brucine remains in solu- tion. The sulphate, SrS0 3 8 HO, colourless rectangular prisms with a vitreous lustre, obtained by dissolving strychnine in S0 3 and crystallizing. Test for Strychnine. Moisten the powdered strychnine with a drop of strong sulphuric acid, adding a small portion of binoxide of lead or bichromate of potash, a violet colour is produced which disappears in a few minutes. Organic matter interferes with the production of the colour. The strychnine should be withdrawn, from organic solutions by animal charcoal, and the latter boiled with spirit of wine and distilled, when the alkaloid remains, which is purified with potash and ether. Stupp. A black matter mixed with mercury, obtained in the mercurial works of Idria. See IDKYLE. Stylobite. A synonyme of Gehlenite. Styphnic Acid. Oxypicric Acid. Ci 2 N" 3 H 3 16 . Yellow regular 7-sided prism; partly- subliming undecomposed ; fusible; carried off by the vapour when boiled with water; acid reaction; soluble in water and alcohol; stains the skin yellow ; taste bitter ; feels gritty between the teeth ; obtained by acting on asafcetida with sulphuric and nitric acids, or by acting on extract of Brazil- wood with nitric acid ; it forms mono- basic crystalline salts. Styracine. C24H n O 2 , or C 36 H 16 4 . F.P. 122. White neutral needles ; insoluble in water ; soluble in 3 boiling, 22 cold alcohol ; in 3 ether ; converted by distillation with NOs into cyano- bydric acid, hydride of benzoyle, benzoic acid, picric acid, cinnamic acid, and resin ; obtained by- distilling liquid storax with caustic potash and ivater. Styracone. Styrone, Hydrous Oxide of Styryje. C 18 H 12 O 2 . B.P. 428. An oil heavier than water; soluble in 95 cold, 30 hot water; obtained by distilling styracine with trong caustic potash ; it has the same relation to lydrous cinnamic acid as alcohol to acetic acid. Styrole. C 16 H 8 . B.P. 293. An ofl with an aromatic smell, evaporating at all tempera- iiires ; becoming at 399 in a close tube a solid (metastyrole), which is isomeric ; it is reconverted nto the oil by a stronger heat ; forms substitu- ion compounds with NOg, Cl, and Br ; it is pre- pared by distilling storax with water. Styrylc. C 18 H 9 . The hypothetic basis of the derivatives from storax. Sub. The Latin term under, as applied to )asic compounds. Snbcranilic Acid. C 28 H 19 NOo. F.P. 262. Crystalline acid from the mother liquor of suberanilide. Sub, 5 anil M! . C 2 oH 12 :N'0 2 = Suberate of aniline, minus 2HO. F.P. 361. Pearly scales >v aniline and suberic acid. SUB Suberic Acid. (Sw&er, bark, Lat.; kork- saure, Ger.) HOC 8 H G O 3 . F.P. 130 moist, 238 dry. White crystalline powder ; above its fusing point sublimes into an oil, which becomes solid in long needles ; soluble in hot, and spar- ingly in cold water ; soluble in hot alcohol, in 6 cold, in 10 hot ether ; the suberates are monobasic, the alkaline salts soluble, the earthy salts insol- uble ; ob tamed by boiling nitric acid with stearic, inargaric, or oleic acids, evaporating to one-half; on cooling, suberic acid separates. Suberic- Ether. EO,C 8 H 6 03. Spec. grav. 1003 ; B.P. 500. Colourless oil, formed by passing chlorohydric acid gas through a solution of suberic acid in alcohol. Subcrone. C 8 H 7 0. B.P. 367. Colourless pleasant smelling fluid, by distilling suberic acid with lime ; it may be the hydride of C S H C ; by air or NO 5 it is converted into suberic acid. Suberose. Suberine. See CORK. Snberyle. C 8 H G 0. The hypothetic radical of suberic acid. Sublimate, Corrosive. See CHLORIDE OF MERCURY. Sublimation. The volatilization and con- densation of a solid by heat. Subresin of Aninic. The portion of anime resin insoluble in cold alcohol. It crystallizes from hot alcohol. Substitution. See METALEPSY. Succinamide. C 8 ,NH 2 ,N 4 2 ,0 2 . White needles converted by cold NO^ into succinic acid ; soluble in 220 cold, in 9 boiling water; insol- uble in alcohol and ether ; decomposed at 392 : obtained by precipitating succinic ether witl: ammonia. Succinanilc. C 12 (C 8 H50 2 )NH 4 2 . F.P 311. Long needles, sublimable; soluble ii water, HC1, N0 5 , alcohol, and ether ; obtained by fusing succinic acid with excess of aniline and crystallizing out of ether. Succinanilic Acid. C 12 (C 8 H 5 02)NH 2 H 4 ,0 4 . F.P. 314-6. Crystalline plates, by dis- solving succinanile in boiling dilute ammonia neutralizing with NO^, and crystallizing out o alcohol. Succinanilide. C 24 (C S H 5 O 2 )X,NH 2 ,H O 2 . F.P. 428. Fine needles, insoluble in wa ter; soluble in alcohol and ether; formed by heating excess of aniline with succinic acid for te minutes, and separating the succinanile b water. Succinic Acid. (Bernsteinsaure, Ger.) HO -C 8 H 6 Oo,O fi . Spec. grav. 1-55; F.P. 356 sublimed acid 320; B.P. 455 ; sublimed 4G7 Fine rhombic prisms, evaporating by heat in va pours ; without smell, acid taste ; obtained b; distilling amber; by oxidating stearic acid o wax by NOa ; it remains in the mother liquo when suberic acid crystallizes, from which it ma; Jbe separated by sublimation ; also by fcrmenta tion from malic acid ; soluble in 24 cold, 2 boi] ing water; forms monobasic and acid salts SUG he succinate of ammonia is used to precipitate esquioxide of iron in separating it from man- aiiese. Succiniraide. Bisuccinamide. C 8 NH 3 ) 2 ,0 2 - White crystals by heating succinate of .mmonia Succinite, or Colophouitc, an amber- col- ured variety of garnet. Succistercuc. Probably idrialine, formed >y distilling amber; a solid rendered blue by S0 3 . Sucric Acid. See SACCHARIC ACID. Suet. A term applied to the most solid forms of fatty bodies. Sugar*. (Saccliarum, Lat. ; ziicJcer, Ger. ; swcre, Fr.) A term applied to a class of bodies which possess a sweet taste. Some of them are lecomposed in contact with a ferment, while others resist this action. The following are th sugars at present known : Fermentable. Cane sugar, Ci 2 H n On Glucose, including grape sugar and diabetine, C 12 H 14 Oi4 Lactine, C 24 H 24 2 4 Ergot sugar, C 12 H 13 Oi 3 Unfermentable. Mannite, C G H 7 O G Inosite, C 12 H 1C O 1G Sorbite, C 12 H 12 Oi 2 Quercite, CxoHioOio Phycite, C 12 H 15 12 Glycyrrhizite, C lc H 1 oO 6 Glycocoll,, C 4 H 4 3 NHO Cane Swjar. C 12 II 9 Oo 2 HO. Spec. grav. 1-6065 (Fahrenheit); 1-5629 (Thomson). F.P. 287^ (Proust), 356 (Peligot). Colourless 4= or 6 -sided rhombic prisms, evolving light when rubbed in the dark ; at 419 loses 2 atoms water, and becomes black caramel; above this, yields C0 2 and inflammable gases, acetic acid, and charcoal; 3 parts soluble in 1 cold, in all pro- portions in hot water, forming syrup, with a specific gravity of 1*086 ; when syrup is cooled the sugar separates in crystals ; when kept long above the boiling point it loses its tendency to crystallize ; the same effect is produced by the addition of oxalic, citric, and malic acids ; sol- uble in 80 boiling alcohol, in 4 spirit (-830) ; sulphuric acid dissolves sugar with a brown col- our ; when this solution is saturated with chalk a saccharo-sulphate is obtained; treated with dilute sulphuric acid and heat, formic acid, liumic acid or humus are formed; chlorohydric acid forms a blackish paste ; nitric acid converts it into oxalic acid ; 100 sugar yield 58 acid (Cruickshank), G7 (Thenard). Arsenic acid forms with sugar a red and then a purple colour ; sugar dissolves carbonate of copper to a green fluid ; hydrous oxide is soluble in sugar on the addition of an alkali ; all these when boiled with an alkali 472 SUG yield formic acid, and deposit metallic copper, or dinoxide of copper ; the last, united with a brown matter, soluble in ammonia ; nitrate of silver heated with sugar yields metallic silver, and black oxide (Vogel). All these are tests of the presence of sugar ; it unites with 2 atoms oxide of lead ; with NaCl and 3 HO, with 1 CaO and 1HO. West Indian Method of Manufacture. The juice of the cane is calculated to amount to 90 per cent, of the total weight of the plant, the remainder consisting of woody tissue and inorganic matter, and yet the amount of juice usually obtained by passing the canes through the sugar mill does not average more than 50 per cent, in the French colonies : 70 per cent, has, however, been obtained. The mill usually consists of 3 rollers, which are placed either horizontally or vertically. The hy- draulic press has been tried, but not hitherto successfully. It has been proposed to dry the canes, and send them to Europe for expression. Michiel proposed to cut the canes into slices, and to act upon them with lime and water, so as to coagulate albuminous matter. Liebig sug- gested the coagulation of the albumen by heat previous to the extraction of the juice, so as to leave the fermenting principle in the cane, and obtain the sugar free from it ; and I have excel- lent specimens of sugar prepared in Trinidad by this plan by Mr. Mitchell. Defecation or Clarification of Cane Juice. 1. The juice from the mill is placed in copper or wooden cisterns lined with lead, or at once run into the clarifiers, shallow copper pans almost flat, or arched slightly upwards at bottom, cap- able of holding from 250 to 500 gallons, each being hung over a separate fireplace. A tempera- ture of 140 is applied and slaked or milk of lime is added. To ascertain the amount of lime re- quired, it is usual to fill three or four wine glasses with cane juice from the clarifiers, and to drop into each increased quantities of lime water ; that which produces the clearest solution being taken as indicating the quantity required. On adding the lime the juice is stirred, the temperature in- creased to near the boiling point, and until a thick scum forms on the top which cracks, and shows the liquor below. The fire is withdrawn and the juice stands till it clarifies and becomes yellow. The lime precipitates mechanical im- purities, and together with the heat coagulates the albuminous matter. The lime also saturates acid formed, but still the lime may produce a change in a portion of the sugar, converting it into (jlucic, and mdassic acids. After the action of heat and lime it gives a precipitate with dia- cetate of lead, and possesses a colour. Various other methods of clarifying have been tried as by lime and filtration ; (2.) by nutgalls (2 oz. to 400 galls, of juice) ; (3.) by sulphate of zinc, (12 oz. to 300 galls.); (4.) by alum (4 Ibs. to 350 galls.) ; (5.) by sulphate of alumina, neu- tralizing with lime (1 Ib. to 100 galls.) ; (6.) by SUG a mixture of sulphates of alumina and zinc ; (7.) by alumina and sulphate of lime, adding chalk to 2 Ibs. alum till effervescence ceases, washing the precipitate, and adding it to 100 Ibs. juice; (8.) by sulphuric acid ; (9.) Messrs. Guync and Young have recommended the use of acetate of lead, nitration, and then diphosphate of lime to re- move excess of lead ; and, lastly, (10.) Dr. Scoffem has patented the use of the diacetate with sul- phurous acid to remove excess of lead. Oa the small scale this plan succeeds well, but on the large scale it generally leaves traces of lead ; (11.) by the bark of the wild elm (Theobroma guazuma.) Concentration of Syrups. In the West Indies the liquor is run from the clarifiers to the cop- pers, where renewed defecation and evaporation are carried on by means of double steam pans to the spec. grav. 1240. Filtration through A nimal Charcoal. The S}Tup thus concentrated is passed through beds of animal charcoal, arranged in a variety of ways, In Dumont's filter the charcoal is placed in a square pyramidal wooden vessel supplied with a false bottom. In Peyron's filter there is a series of copper vessels with double bottoms hermetically closed at the top, 6 feet high, and 3 in diameter. Evaporation in Vacuo. The syrup is concen- trated by boiling in a pan or in a copper vacuum, pan (Howard, 1819); and from thence passes into wooden coolers, where it becomes partially crystallized, mixed with molasses. It is then carried in buckets to the curing house, thrown into a hogshead, where it remains until the drain- age of the molasses is sufficiently complete to ad- mit of its being shipped, or the sugar may be placed in moulds for dripping. Claying, Liquoring, or Syruping. When fluid ceases to drop from the moulds, the means form- erly employed consisted in applying to the upper surface of the sugar a mass of clay beat up with water to the consistence of a thick cream. The clay, acting as a sponge, allows it to separate from it slowly, and to percolate through tho sugar, so as to replace the dark molasses. When the clay dries it is removed, and a new portion added, until the sugar is of the proper colour. Instead of claying, except in Cuba and Brazils,, the sugar in the moulds is washed with a satu- rated solution of sugar or syrup ; and washing is now conducted by introducing the moist sugar into a centrifugal machine, where the moisture is thrown off. Sugar of l, but if it contained either more or less water, it required a greater cold to freeze it. Dr. Thomson cooled it down in thermometer tubes to 36 before it congealed. When the vapour is passed through an ignited porcelain tube, 2 vols. of SOs and 1 vol. of oxygen are produced. Bihydrate of Sulphuric Acid. 2HOSO 3 7-25. Obtained by mixing 1 atom oil of vitriol with 1 atom water. Spec. grav. 1-78. When exposed to a temperature of 39^ it deposits in crystals. At 390 it loses 1 atom of water, and becomes common oil of vitriol. Terhydrate of S0 3 . Obtained by adding 1 atom of water to the bihydrate, when they un- dergo the maximum of contraction. When oil of vitriol is freely exposed to the air, it absorbs 15 times its weight of water. Eisulphate of Water, Nordhausen Acid. HO 2S0 3 11-125, 89. This acid is still prepared at Nordhausen in Prussia, and at Kraslitz in Bohe- mia. The process consists in first roasting gently the protosulphate of iron (copperas, or green vitriol), so as to remove the greater part of its water of crystallization, which amounts to about 45 per cent., the salt being composed of FeO, S0 3 -j-7HO. The amount of water removed by the heat is about 40 per cent. One and a-half to two Ibs. of the sulphate, now in the form of a reddish-yellow powder, are introduced into a stoneware retort, A, a number of which are set in pairs in a brick furnace, and connected with stone receivers, B. The heat is applied gradually at first, and the impure matter (spirit of vitriol) which comes over first is rejected. As soon as the white clouds of SO 3 appear, the receivers are connected with the retorts and the heat increased. In from thirty-two to thirty-six hours the process is ter- minated ; the heat being increased to whiteness (luring the last six hours. The retorts are then emptied of their colcothar, but the same re- SUL ceivers are retained during three distillations. The acid thus prepared is brownish-yellow, often brown, from the presence of cork, straw, or organic substances; oily, possessing a specific gravity of from 1-82 to 1-896 and 1-92 ; it smokes in the ah-, giving out thick white vapours. In this state it is known under the title of the smok- ing or fuming acid of Nordhausen, chiefly em- ployed to dissolve indigo for dyeing Saxon blue. When the acid is kept at a temperature under 32 it crystallizes, and the crystals are composed ofHO + 2S0 3 . Anhydrous or Solid Sulphuric Acid. S0 3 5, 40. When the fuming acid or bisulphate ol water is distilled by a moderate heat in a retort, to which a receiver is adapted, and kept cool with water below 50 or ice, the strong acid comes over, and if the process is stopped before the wa- ter begins to pass over, we obtain acid in a solid form. It presents the appearance of thin white silky filaments, which are tough and difficult tc cut, bearing a resemblance to asbestus, and hav- ing a waxy consistence. In the air it disappears in the form of vapour. It may be held in the hand for some time without producing any sensa- tion ; gradually, however, it absorbs water, and acts upon the skin. The solid acid liquefies when heated up to 64 (Bussy), and at 68 its spec, grav. is 1-97. The spec. grav. of its vapoui theoretically is 2-777, although it was found frv Mitscherlich 3-00. When allowed to fall intc water, a hissing sound is produced as by a hot iron. SulpJiates. When oil of vitriol is brought in contact with potash a case of substitution occurs by the alkali taking the place of the water, and instead of HO-j-S0 3 we have the anhydrous sail KO-j-SOo ( produced. Here then occurs, as hi al cases where oxygen acids unite with bases, the intervention of oxygen in union with the base, as we have no such compound as K-|-S0 3 . In this respect, therefore, there exists- a remark- able anomaly in the case of the oxygen acid salts when compared with the chlorine, bromine, iodine, or fluorine acid salts, for these substances all unite with metals without the aid of oxygen, To reconcile this incongruity, it was proposed fry Sir H. Davy to consider that the sulphate 01 water was, for example, not a sulphate of an oxide, HO-j-S0 3 , but a compound of H with a new radical SO,i, sulphoxygen, so that oil ol vitriol would then be a sulphoxide of H, the hydrogen and not the oxygen being the acidify- ing principle, since we can have no acidity with- out the presence of water. The compounds enu- merated would then be represented by Oil of vitriol, H S0 4 , sulphoxide of hydrogen. Sulphate of potash, K S04, sulphoxide of potassium. Applications. Sulphuric acid is of great im- portance in manufactures. It is used extensively 480 SUL in bleaching, to remove lime, &c. from the cloth in the operation called souring. It is also em ployed to a great extent in the decomposition o common salt, which constitutes the first stage in the process for making soda-ash and carbonate o soda, the basis of soaps, and an important articL in bleaching. It is likewise used in the prepara- tion of N0 5 for the decomposition of nitrate o soda or potash. In medicine it is employed ex- ternally ha the dilute form designated acidum sul- phuricmn dilutum, or dilute S0 3 acid, which made from the commercial acid, according to the London and Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, in the Following proportions : London. Edinburgh. Sulphuric acid, l- fluid oz. 1 fluid oz. Water distilled, 14$ 13 A fluid drachm of the London contains about 10 grains of the strong acid, and saturates 28 grains of crystals of carbonate of soda. The dose amounts to from 10 to 40 minims. It is employed as a tonic and astringent, and as a corrective in cases of deposition of phosphate of lime in the urine. When taken in too large doses, or as a poison, the antidote is lime water and chalk, or alkaline carbonates. Estimation. Sulphuric acid is estimated by precipitation by means of chloride of barium. The sulphate of barytes (BaO S0 3 ) which falls is insoluble in nitric acid, and contains in parts 5 of SO 3 . Sulphurous Acid, Volatile Spirit of Sulphur. S0 2 , atomic weight 4, 32. Spec. grav. 2-222. Stahl first examined this acid, and termed it phlogisticated sulphuric acid. Scheele and Priestley examined it about 1774. The latter first obtained it in a pure form. It is formed by burning sulphur in atmospheric air ; by heating sulphur with many metallic oxides, as with black jxide of manganese. The method of obtaining it in the purest state is to boil sulphuric acid in a retort with an equal weight of mercury or copper, ind collect the gas which is disengaged over mer- ;ury. The third atom of oxygen of one atom jf sulphuric acid combines with the mercury and forms oxide and sometimes suboxide of mercury, while the sulphurous acid is disengaged ; a se- jond atom of S0 3 uniting with the oxide, and producing sulphate of oxide of mercury, accord- ng to the following scheme: Hg 2S0 3 = S0 2 , HgOS0 8 . Liquid Sulphurous Acid. By means of a reezing mixture, Biissy has shown that it may )e condensed. He passes the gas through a ves- :el surrounded with ice to condense the aqueous rapour and dry it ; it is then made to go through i tube filled with chloride of calcium. It finally inters into a receiver surrounded by a freezing nixture, consisting of 2 parts of snow and one of iommon salt, where it condenses into a fluid. It toils at the temperature of 14. The cold pro- Luced by its evaporation is so great as to freeze 481 SUL mercury and sink the thermometer to 66. It is a non-conductor of electricity, but is converted into a conductor by the addition of a small por- tion of water. De La Rive observed that solid SO 2 is formed in the vessel containing the ice in Bussy's process in the state of thin plates, which consist of S0 2 -f- 10 HO. SO 3 absorbs SO 2 in considerable quantity. It is also absorbed by borax, according to the observation of Priestley, and in this way the separation of S0 2 and C0 3 may be effected. The sulphites are formed by passing the gas into water containing bases or their carbonates in solution. They have no smell, but when soluble in water possess a sharp taste. The single sul- phites of potash and soda have an alkaline, the bisulphites a neutral reaction. ft Characters. Sulphurous acid is a colourless gas possessing the mechanical properties of common air, having a specific gravity of 2-222, or being 370 times lighter than water. When acted on by a pressure of two atmospheres at 45, it con- denses into a colourless liquid, with a specific gravity of 1-42 (Faraday). The gas possesses a strong acrid and sulphurous taste; its smell is disagreeable and suffocating, and is well charac- terized by the smell of burning sulphur. It changes vegetable blue colours to red, and then destroys them. The petals of a rose become white in SO 2 and red in S0 3 . Water absorbs 33 times its volume of this gas (Thomson), or, according to Saussure, nearly 43f vols., alcohol absorbing 116f vols. The spec. grav. of the saturated solution is 1-0513. When oxygen and S0 2 are passed through a red hot tube S0 3 is formed. Its com- position is as follows : Atoms. Wt. Vols. Sulphur, 1 2 -| Oxygen, 221 Expt. Theor. P. O. 1-1117 1-1111 50 1-1057 1-1058 50 2-2174 2-2169 100 S0 2 is rapidly decomposed by potassium and sodium. When brought in contact with peroxide )f lead it receives oxygen from the peroxide, a sulphate of lead being formed. It is not decom- >osed by any degree of heat. In the cold state, 50 2 has no action upon any substance except he alkaline metals ; but with the assistance of eat it readily acts. When passed with hydrogen hrough an ignited porcelain tube, water is formed and sulphur deposited, while sometimes sulpho- "lydric acid also makes its appearance. Zinc in ulphurous acid and sulphuric acid yields sulpho- iy dric acid. With phosphuretted hydrogen it is de- mposed into water and sulphide of phosphorus, ^iquid phosphorous acid forms with it, when leated, phosphoric acid and SH. Sulphurous ,cid decomposes chloric, bromic, and iodic acids, ulphuric acid being formed, and chlorine, bro- nine, or iodine. Sulphohydric acid and sul- ihurous acid mutually decompose each other 21 SUL (S0 2 , 2 SH 3 S, 2 HO), water being formed and sulphur deposited. Applications. Sulphurous acid is an impor- tant agent in bleaching -\voollens, which do not readily lose their deteriorating colours by the action of common bleaching liquor. Blankets or other woollens to be bleached are suspended in rows upon wooden pins in the sulphur house. A pot of sulphur is then introduced and heated with hot bricks or a hot ball of iron. The apartment is then perfectly closed by cementing up the doors. The S(>2 acid fumes fill the chamber and act inti- mately upon the goods, which are thus decolour- ized in twenty-four hours or longer. The woollen goods being introduced in a moist state, the S0 2 is dissolved by the moisture, and comes in con- tact with the inmost fibres of the goods. It is necessary in the operation that no iron materials should touch the goods, otherwise, in consequence of the action of the S0 2 , they would be disco- loured. An important improvement has been made in this process. See BLEACHING. Sulphuretted Hydrogen, Sulphohydric Acid, HydrosuJphuric Acid, Hydrothionic Acid, Hepatic Air, Sulphuret of Hydrogen. SH 2-125, 17. Vol. Sp. Or. Ats. Weight. Expt.p.c. Calcd. S 1 1-1093 12 16 93-855 94-11 H 1 0-0692 1 -125 1 6-145 5-89 1-1785 2-125 17 100- 100- Spec. grav. 1-1912 (Gay Lussac and Thenard, Ann. Chim. 73, 229), 1-1967 (Davy), 1-1788 (Thomson). Refracting power 2-187 (Dulong, Ann. Chim. 31, 167). Characters. Colourless gas with the mechani- cal properties of air ; smell strong and fetid, re- sembling that of putrefying eggs; it does not support combustion but is combustible, yielding a blue flame and depositing sulphur. When electric sparks are passed through it sulphur is likewise deposited. It reddens litmus, the colour disappearing in the air. 100 vols. water absorb 108 sulphohydric acid gas at 50 (Henry), 253 (T. De Saussure), at least 300 (Gay Lussac and Thenard), 366 (T. Thomson). 100 alcohol of spec. grav. -840 absorb 606 vols. gas (Saussure); soluble also in ether (Higgins). The aqueous solution, which may be formed by passing the gas from a flask and bent tube through water, is colourless, possesses a strong odour of the gas and a sweet nauseous taste; converts vegetable blues to red ; the gas escapes when exposed to the air; when acted on by air the sulphur falls, while the hydrogen unites with the oxygen of the air (SH,O = S,HO), and some sulphuric acid is formed; chlorine, bromine, iodine, sul- phurous acid (2SHS02=S 3 2 HO), selenious acid, &c. precipitate sulphur. Preparation. 1. When sulphur is heated in hydrogen gas sulphohydric acid is formed (Scheele). 2. It is likewise produced in the de- composition of organic bodies containing sulphur. SUS 3. For practical purposes the best mode of pre- paring this gas is to form a sulphide of iron (FeS) by igniting an iron bar in a smith's forge or in a furnace, and then to press against it when nearly white hot, a roll of sulphur over water, so that the sulphide formed shall drop into the water. It may also be produced by igniting sulphur and iron filings in a covered clay crucible. The sul- phide in the state of rough powder is then intro- duced into a flask supplied with a perforated cork and bent tube. Water is poured over it and then sulphuric acid (FeS,HO,S0 3 = SH,FeOS0 3 ), sulphohydric acid is evolved, and sulphate of pro- toxide of iron (copperas or green vitriol) remains dissolved in the water of the flask. Sulpho- hydric acid thus obtained often contains hydro- gen, in consequence of the sulphide of iron often possessing an excess of iron. Sulphohydric acid is obtained as a colourless fluid of spec. grav. -9 by its own pressure in a strong tube, and as a solid resembling camphor by exposing the liquid to a cold of 122 and pressure by a forcing pump. Analysis. The gas, when heated in a tube re- tort (see fig. PROTOXIDE OF NITROGEN), in con- tact with tin, gives hydrogen and sulphide of tin without change of volume. In mineral waters the sulphur is precipitated by arsenious acid or nitrate of silver and caustic ammonia. Applications. It is a valuable reagent in test- ing and analysis. See ANALYSIS QUALITATIVE. Sulphoplicnyle - bciizoil - amide. ( - i;l 1 5 S0 2 ,C 7 H 5 0,H,N. Fine flat acid needles, little soluble in water, very soluble in alkalies, forming salts with bases. Sulphophciiylc - cumyl - ben zoil - amide. CcHsSOoAoHnO^HsO. Prisms. Sulpliophenyle-dibeiizoil-amide. C G H 5 S0 2 , 2 (C 7 H 3 O) K 8-hedron with diamond lustre. Sumac. Yoiing Fustic. The dried branches of the Rhus coriaria, grown in Italy and south of France, used for dyeing black in consequence of the amount of tannic acid which it contains, and which gives a black with salts of iron. Sumbul. The Persian musk root consists of water, essential oil, balsam, wax, gum, starch, &c. Numbulic Acitl. An acid found in the root of the sumbul, approaching in character to an- gelic acid, but it becomes blue on adding sul- phuric acid. Sumbulolic Acid. An acid obtained by distilling balsam of sumbul with solution of potash. Nuimdiaie. Sunstone. A synonyme of potash felspar. Sunstone. A variety of felspar with mica- ceous matter imbedded, giving a fine lustre. Super. A term applied to compounds with an excess of acid, oxide, &c., as contrasted with sub, which is applied to excess of base. Niiriiiaiuine. A crystalline alkaloid from Geoffroea inermis. Susnuiie. A synonyme of sulphato tricar- bonate of lead. 482 SWA Swaga. A synonyme of Borax. Sweat. /Sensible perspiration. A colourless turbid fluid excreted by the skin ; it contains ctates (?) of soda, potash, lime, magnesia, mmon salt, salammoniac, and chloride of pot- sium. I have found the sweat neutral in a ase where about a drachm was collected. Sweet Bay Oil. See LAUREL OIL. Swim-stone. Stinkstone. A variety of car- nate of limestone, from the odour which it ves out when breathed on. Syenite. A rock first obtained at Syene, in jypt, consisting of quartz, felspar, and horn- ;nde, differing from granite in the replacement mica by hornblende. Sylvanite. A synonyme of native tellurium. SylvicAcid* C 20 Hi 5 O 2 . F.P. 305f . A sin from common rosin, soluble in absolute cohol, ether, fixed and volatile oils. Sylvius, Salt of. Chloride of Potassium. Symbols. The first letters of the Latin terms r the elementary bodies are used as their brief presentatives. For example 0, Cl, Br, I, F, c., denote oxygen, chlorine, bromine, iodine, nd fluorine, &c. In organic chemistry, a line rer a symbol denotes the substance to be an id ; while a cross over it implies that it is an tkaloid. M represents malic acid, and Qu TAL quinine. Sometimes dots over a symbol denote oxygen. Thus S is sulphuric acid (S0 3 ). Commas sometimes represent sulphur, as Fe = bisulphide of iron. See ATOMIC WEIGHTS. Syniplcsite. Scorodite? Spec. grav. 2-957, H 2-5. Indigo or green oblique rhombic prisms, pearly lustre ; translucent ; consists of water, arsenic, and iron ; it is probably arseniate of iron. Syimptasc. C 20 H2 5 N 2 p 32 ? White powder, soluble in water ; insoluble in alcohol and ether ; precipitated by rennet coagulated at 140 heat, or by acetic acid ; obtained from sweet almonds. Synovia. Spec. grav. 1-05, (human knee) 1-099, (horse's knee) 1-027. Alkaline mucila- ginous fluid secreted in the capsular ligament of joints, consisting of HO 92-8, albumen 6-4, animal matter with NaOC0 2 and NaCl -6, phos- phate of lime, phosphate of soda, ammouiacal salts -15. Synthesis. (o-wQiiris, formation). Production of a compound body from its elements as con- trasted with analysis or determination of the composition of a body by taking it to pieces and ascertaining the nature of the elementary bodies of which it is composed. Syringine. The bitter principle of the Sy- ringa vulgaris or mock orange. Tabashecr. Spec. grav. 2-0824, HO 4-87, i0 3 90-5, KO 1-1, Fe 2 3 -9, A1 2 3 -4, CaO -1. luish-white masses with a pearly lustre, not alike chalcedony, but softer ; a concretion from ie joints of the Indian bamboo ; in water it ves out air with a crackling sound. Tabasheer om South America is said to contain 30 per mt. of alkali (Vauquelin). Table Spar. Schaalstein, Grammite, Wol- stonite of Hauy. Spec. grav. 2-805, 2-758, 895, 2-863, H 3 to 4. White with a shade ' gray doubly- oblique prisms with angles of 26, 93 40', 95 15' ; lustre vitreous, in- ining to pearly; semitransparent; structure foli- ;ed; streak white. B.B. fuses with difficulty io a semitransparent colourless glass ; with arax into a clear glass. Si0 3 52-58, CaO 4-45, FeO 1-13, MgO "68, HO -99, 3 CaO 2 3 . It occurs in limestone, often associated ith trap dikes, and I have been able to trace the nversion, in some instances, of limestone into ible spar by the agency of the silica of the trap, his is well illustrated near Girvan, in Ayrshire, nd near Gourock. In these localities it always ontains some soda. It occurs in Ceylon, Rhode (sland, &c. Table Spar, Soda. See WoLLAS'jpNiTE. Tabular Spar. Subsesquisilicate of lime. Tacamahac. A resin, one species of which 5 yellow translucent ; soluble in alcohol ; acrid ; is obtained from the Callophylluui inophyllum, in Madagascar ; the other is a light brown, brittle resin, with an aromatic odour, partially soluble in alcohol ; soluble in ether and fixed oils, and is derived from the Fagara octandra and Populus balsimifera. Tachylite. Spec. grav. 2-52, H 6'5. Velvet- brown or black masses and plates with a vitreo- fatty lustre ; opaque. Si0 3 50-22, Ti0 2 1'42, A1,O 8 17-84, FeO 10-27, CaO 8-25, MgO 3-37, NaO 5-18, KO 3-87, MnO -4, HO and NH 3 -5. B.B. fuses into a brown scoria, resembling obsi- dian. Sasebiihl, near Dransfielcl. Taddy, or Toddy. The fermented juice of a species of palm. Tagilite. Terhydrous Tetrapliosphate of Copper from Nischne Tagilsk. 4 CuO,POs 3 HO. Spec. grav. 3-5, H 3-. Green kidney- shaped masses. Tails. A name applied to lead ore. See LEAD. Talc Apatite. Spec. grav. 2-73. d-skled prisms, containing CaO 37-5, MgO 7-74,' PO 3 39-02, S0 3 2-1, Cl -91, F and loss 2-23, Fe 2 a 1- ; insoluble 9-5. It is probably a mixture. Talc Chlorite. See GLAUCONITE. Talc Earthy. See NACRITE. Talc Hexagonal. Spec. gray. 2'772, I 1-75. Bluish-gray, obscurely foliated, waxy G-sided prisms ; opaque ; feel greasy. SiOs 483 TAL 29-364, A1 2 3 17-808, MgO 12-144, CaO 3-092, FeO 26-016, HO 11-2. Ala, Piedmont. Talc Slate. Spec. grav. 2-877, H 2-25. White with a shade of yellow, massive and slaty ; fracture flat conchoidal ; opaque ; sectile ; lustre silky. Si0 3 57-56, MgO 27-216, CaO 7-944, A1 2 O 3 1-72, FeO 4-716, HO 1-6. Novorda, Piedmont. Talc Venetian. Spec, grav .2-697, H 1-. 4Mg03Si0 3 ? Apple-green, thin flexible plates with a silvery and pearly lustre; semitransparent; very sectile. B.B. infusible. Si0 3 62-588, MgO 30-328, FeO 3-848, HO 3-4. Salzburg, Tyrol, Vermont, &c. It was used as a cosmetic at "Venice. Talcite. See NACRITE. Tallow. The solid oil of various kinds of cattle. Tallow Mineral. See HATCHETTINE. Tamarinds. The fruit of the Tamarindus Indicus, is used from its containing citric acid when boiled with water as a drink in fevers, &c. Tanacetic Acid. A crystalline body from tansy decoction by acetate of lead and SH. Tauacetine. A bitter principle from Tana- cetum vulgare. Tancelite. Phosphate of Yttria. Tanghicine. Transparent plates from the fruit of Tanghinia Madagascarensis by ether; soluble in alcohol, ether; insoluble in water; bitter ; poisonous. Tanguc. Sand containing organic matter, found on the sea shore. TannaspidicAcid. C 2G H 13 Oi HO. Black substance by alcohol from fern roots. Tannic Acid. Tannine, Qitercitannic acid. Ci 8 H 5 9 3 HO. White uncrystalline powder, sol- uble in water, alcohol ; scarcely soluble in ether ; taste astringent but not bitter ; decomposes when exposed to the air in solution into gallic, ellagic, and carbonic acids, with a substance analogous to gum or sugar (Ci 8 H 8 12 = C 4 H 4 4 , Ci 4 H 4 O 8 = 2 gallic acid). This action takes place even in distilled water, by the influence of the fermenting principle pectase ; no decomposi- tion takes place if the tannic acid is perfectly pure, or when exposed for a long time to the heat of boiling water ; it is obtained by pounding nutgalls and exhausting them in a displacement apparatus (see DISPLACEMENT), with ether satu- rated with water. The fluid in the lower vessel separates into two strata, the lower containing tannic acid in water, from which it separates by evaporation in vacuo ; it is washed with ether ; redissolved in water and evaporated in vacuo. Tannic acid precipitates gelatine and forms leather, starch, albumen, and gluten; in the animal system it is changed into gallic and pyrogallic acids, and substances resembling humus ; it unites with bases and forms salts of irregular composition ; its aque- ous solution is precipitated by S0 3 ,HCl,POs, As05,B0 3 ; the precipitate contains tannic acid TAN and the acid used ; the compound with S0 3 , when boiled with potash, yields gallic acid. Tannic Acids. This term is applied to a particular acid (the quercitannic) existing in nut- galls, which seems to be the type of a series of tannic acids, existing in various plants, which, with gallic acid, would stand as follows : Quercitannic, Gallic, Callutannic, Viridic, Ehodotannic, Leditannic, Eubichloric, Caffeotannic, Eritannic, Tanningenic, Kinic, Mimotannic, Eubitannic, Aspertannic, Humotannic, Boheo tannic, Galitannic, Eufimoric, Ipecacuanhic, Morintannic, Pteritannic, Pyromorintannic, Kinovatannic, Tannaspidic acid, Kinovic, Melanotannic, Eufogallic, C 14 H 6 OIQ C 14 H 6 O 8 Ci 4 H 7 8 C 14 H 6 7 C 14 H 6 O & C 14 H 8 9 C 15 H 6 G ? Ci 4 H 8 8 Ci 5 H 5 O n 8 3 7 C 14 H 7 g C 14 H 8 O 6 C 24 H 12 O 8 C 14 H 8 7 C 14 H 4 T C 14 H 4 8 Tannigciiamic Acid. C 42 H 20 lSr 3 02 3 9HCv White fatty square tables ; difficultly soluble in cold water ; giving a blue with iron salts ; by sulphite of ammonia on tannic acid. Tannine. See TANNIC ACID. Tanningenic Acid. See CATECHISE. Tanuocafieic Acid. See CAFFEOTANNIC ACID. Tannoxylic Acid. RuUtannic Acid. Cj5 H 5 On. An amorphous substance by adding potash to a solution of tannic acid. Tansy Oil. Spec. grav. -952. Yellow or greenish bitter oil. Tantalite. Spec. grav. 7-236, 7-30. Iron- black amorphous mass ; lustre semi-metallic, hard, brittle ; streak grayish-black. Columbic, niobic, and pelopic acids 83-2, FeO 7-2, MnO 7-4, SnO^ 6. Skogsbole, Kimito, Finland. See IKON TANTALITE, TORRELITE, and COLUMBITK. Tantalite, Iron. Ferrotantalite, Columlate of Iron. Spec. grav. 7-936, 7-655. Black masses with a tendency to crystallization ; scratches glass ; powder reddish or cinnamon-brown ; un- acted on by acids. B.B. not altered ; dissolves slowly in borax into a green glass with white particles floating ; fuses with salt of phosphorus, not with soda. Columbic acid 85*85, FeO 12-97, MnO 1-61, Tn0 2 -8, CaO -56, Si0 3 -72. Kimito. 484 TAN Tantalum. See COLUMBIUM. Tapioca. The starch of the root of the cas- sava or Jatropha mauihot. It contains but a small quantity of albumen, and is therefore not nutritious, but may be employed as food in small quantity, in the same way that starch would be used. See ALIMENT. Taqua Nut. Vegetable Ivory. See IVORY, VEGETABLE. Tar. A mixture of heavy and light oils mixed with asphalt, obtained by distilling coal and wood. Tarandite. A dolomite consisting of CaO C0 2 54-76, MgOC0 2 42-1, FeOC0 2 4-19. Taraxacine. A crystalline bitter substance, soluble in hot water, alcohol, and ether; from the root of the dandelion (Leontodon taraxacum). Tarnowitzite. A variety of Arragoni from Hussia, containing 3f per cent, of carbonate of lead. Tartar, Cream of. Bitartrate of Potash, Tartrate of Potash and Water. See TARTRATE OF POTASH AND WATER. Tartar Emetic. Tartrate of antimony and potash. See ANTIMONY. Tartaric Acid. Tartrylic Acid, Vinic Acid, Essential Salt of Tartar. 2 HO,C 8 H 4 10 . Spec, grav. 1-75. F.P. 338. The crystals belonging to the oblique prismatic system (5th syst.) are in vertical prisms, with 4 faces M ; terminated by 2 basic inclined faces ; the angles M on m are 129 20', M on r 121 4', M on w 125 15' ; soluble in water and alcohol. When heated in a stove it becomes electric, ad- Tartaric acid, hering to paper ; boiled with alcohol, tartaric ether is formed ; potash and heat convert it into oxalate and acetate of potash (C 8 H 4 Oio 2 HO = C 4 H 3 3 HO and 2 (C 2 3 ) HO). Mn0 2 , and S0 3 change it into formic, carbonic acids, &c. ; it precipitates lime water, but not Chloride of calcium ; it precipitates potash salts, titartrate of potash falling. By the application of heat a series of acids is formed, which differ in their amount of basic water. The temperatures at which they are formed are placed beside them in the table (Frerny). Tartaric, C 8 H 4 Oi 2 HO, Tartralic, C 8 H 4 10 l HO, 390 Tartrelic, C 8 H 4 10 1 356 contd. Anhydrous Tartaric, C 8 H 4 10 356 contd. According to another view (Laurent, Gerhardt), tartaric acid by heat, without loss of weight, is converted into metatartaric and isotartaric acids (see these acids), while the anhydrous acid is an isomeric form of the hydrous acid. By a more elevated temperature it is converted into an oily and crystalline acid. Solutions of tartaric acid when allowed to stand become mouldy from the formation of a mucor, and are converted into acetic and butyroacetic acid; by nitric acid they are TAR converted into acetic, oxalic, and saccharic acids ; tartaric acid is a powerful deoxidizing agent, re- ducing chromic, vanadic acids, &c. to the state of oxides. Tartaric acid is largely used as a discharger by calico printers. When printed on the cloth in a starch paste, it unites with the lime of bleaching liquor, when the cloth is passed through a solution of this substance and sets the chlorine free, which removes the vegetable colour on those parts where it is printed. It is also used in effervescing draughts in mixture with bicarbonate of soda; it forms double salts and retains metallic oxides in solution, so that they are not precipitated by alkalies. Process. Tar- taric acid is prepared by dissolving cream of tartar in water, adding milk of lime to the solu- tion until the liquid is neutral ; the tartrate of lime is filtered off and decomposed by sulphuric acid. Anhydrous. C 8 H 4 O 10 . White powder, in- soluble in water, alcohol, and ether ; obtained by heating tartaric acid rapidly in a basin, and then in an air bath at 302 ; it is then washed and dried. Tartralic Acid. HOC 12 H 6 5 or C 8 H 4 10 1 ^ HO. White uncrystalline mass by heating tar- taric acid at 392 in a porcelain basin, dissolving- it in water, neutralizing with chalk, decomposing by SO S ; soluble in water and alcohol ; deliques- cent ; reconverted into tartaric acid by boiling with water. Tartranietfrone. Tartramate of Ethyle. Formed by the action of ammonia in alcohol on tartaric ether. Tartraiuic Acid. Obtained by passing dry ammonia over anhydrous tartaric acid. The salt of ammonia is soluble in water ; insoluble in alcohol. Tartraxnide. By the prolonged action of ammonia on tartramethane. Tartramylic Acid. Ci 8 H 16 12 . By the action of tartaric acid on fusel oil. Tartrates. These salts are bibasic. Tartrate of E thyle. Tartrovinic Acid. EO, HOC 8 H 4 Oi . Ehombic prisms, soluble in water and alcohol by boiling alcohol and tartaric acid. Tartrate of Potash. KO,C 8 H 4 O 10 HO. Rhombic prisms, soluble in '66 cold, hi 248 boiling water; very deliquescent; obtained by neu- tralizing cream of tartar with carbonate of potash. Tartrate of Potash and Ammonia. X JI 3 KO,C 8 H 4 10 2 " HO. Rhombic soluble prisms, obtained by neutralizing cream of tartar by am- monia. Tartrate of Potash and Soda. Salpoly- cJirestum, Rochelle Salt, Salt of Seignette. Spec, grav. 1-756 ; F.P. 167 ; B.P. 248. KONaO C 8 H 4 O 10 8 HO. Long rhombic prisms of 8, 10, or 12 sides, with their ends truncated at right angles ; taste bitter ; soluble in 2-62 water; obtained by neutralizing cream of tartar with carbonate of s5da, and used as an aperient. Tartrate of Potash and Water. Bitartrate^ Cream of Tartar, Tartar, Winestone. Spec. grav. 485 TAR 2-4. KOHO,C 8 H 4 Oio 23-525, 188-2. Irregular hard right rhombic prisms, with angles of 107 30', 126 15', 117 2', and 77; soluble in 234-6 or 240 parts cold water, in 14| boiling water ; its solubility is increased by the presence of acids; insoluble in alcohol; 100 commercial cream of tartar, by ignition, leave 40 of a mixture of 31| carbonate of potash and 8-75 CaOCOg, and with some carbon ; obtained by purifying the red argols of commerce by solution and crystallization ; argols are deposited on the inside of some casks, in consequence of their insolubility in alcohol. Tartrclic Acid. C 16 H 8 O 2 o 2 HO or C 8 H 4 10 HO. Crystalline monobasic acid by keepin tartralic acid for a considerable time at 356 ; soluble hi water and alcohol. Tartromethylic Acid. Tartrate of Metkyle and Water. C 2 H ? 0,HOC 8 H 4 p 10 . White 4- sided prisms, obtained by distilling pyroxylic spirit with tartaric acid. Tartronic Acid. C C H 4 ]0 . F.P. 320. Obtained by the spontaneous decomposition of nitro-tartaric acid in water. When heated to 356 it is' converted into glycollic acid (C4H 4 G ). Glycollide. C 4 H2O 4 . Insoluble body, procured from the dry distillation of tartaric acid ; it is converted into glycollic acid by alkalies. Glycol- amide. C 4 H t <;N 2 O 4 . Fine crystals by heating bitartronate of ammonia, or by adding ammonia to glycollide. Tarti-ovinic Acid. Tartrate of Ethyle and Water. C 4 H 3 O,HO, C 8 H 4 O 10 . White oblique 4 -sided prisms, deliquescent, heavier than water ; soluble in water and alcohol ; insoluble in ether ; decomposed by boiling into tartaric acid and alcohol; obtained by boiling together tartaric acid and alcohol, saturating Avith carbonate of barytes and precipitating the barytes by sulphuric acid. Tanrilic Acid. C 14 H 8 2 ? Obtained among the volatile products in the distillation of cow's urine ; isomeric with anisole and carbolic acid ? Taurinc. C 4 NS 2 H 7 O fi . Fine 6-sided prisms, terminated by 4 or 6-sided pyramids ; taste sharp ; neutral : soluble in 15^ parts cold water ; little soluble in alcohol ; gives oil and an acid liquor containing ammonia, by distillation ; sol- uble in NO.rj without change ; obtained by boil- ing bile with chlorohydric acid, concentrating to separate common salt, filtering, adding to the filtrate 5 times its weight of hot alcohol, when the taurine crystallizes out in radiated needles. Tautolitc. Spec. grav. 3-865, H 6-5. Allied to chrysolite, closely resembling hyalosiderite. Laacher See. Tea. The leaves of the Thea bohea. Tea is made from the Tea plant in the tea districts of China, between the latitudes 25 and 31 north latitude, the best districts being between 27 and 31. Green and Black teas are both made from the same plant. Green Tea. The leaves are brought in from the plantations and spread out from one to two hours, thinly on flat bamboo trays, in order TEE to dry off superfluous moisture. A portion is now thrown into each roasting pan, heated by a brisk wood fire ; they are moved about and shaken up with both hands. They emit a crackling sound and give out vapour for five minutes ; they are placed on the rolling table, made into the form of a ball with the hands ; this is rolled upon the rattan, work table, and compressed to remove moisture and burst the leaves. They are returned to the roast- ing pan, heated by a slow and steady charcoal fire and stirred by the workmen's hands. In an hour or Ij hour they are well dried, and the colour is fixed. " They are then passed through sieves of different sizes to remove dust and impurities, and divided into the different kinds known as twankay, hyson skin, hyson, young hyson, gunpowder, &c. During this process it is retired, the coarser kinds once, and the finest sorts three or ftmr times. Black Tea. The leaves brought from the trees are spread out upon large bamboo mats or trays for a night. The leaves are then tossed and beat with the hands of the workmen for a considerable time, and when they become soft and flaccid are thrown in heaps and allowed to lie for an hour oar more. They then are soft and moist, and emit a fragrant smell. They are thrown into an iron pan and roasted for five minutes, as Avith green tea, then rolled on the rattan table ; afterwards shaken out thinly on sieves and exposed to the air, out of doors, for three hours ; they are put a second time into the roasting pan for three or four minutes and again rolled. The charcoal fir^p are now got ready ; a tubular basket, narrow at the middle and wide at both ends, is placed over the fire. A sieA^e is dropped into this tube, covered with leaves, which are shaken on it to an inch in thickness. After five minutes they are remoA r ed from the fire and rolled a third time. They are again shaken on the sieves over the fire. Sometimes the last operation is repeated a fourth time, till the leaves have assumed their dark colour (Fortune). Faced Green Teas are made from black teas by means of prussian blue and sulphate of lime (Davis). They may be detected by the green aspect being confined to the surface. Hyson tea contains 2-4 per cent, theine ; another kind 2-56 ; gunpoAvder 6-22 ; another kind 3'5. The leaves also contain much caseine. Tears. The fluid secreted by the lachrymal 'lands of the eyes ; alkaline, clear liquid. It con- sists of 96 water with mucus, common salt, soda, phosphate of lime and soda. Tcctizitc. H 1-5 to 2: Clove-brown pyra- mids, needles and masses; believed to be sulphated sesquioxide of iron, from Schwarzenberg, Saxony. Teeth. The human tooth consists essentially of two portions, the enamel, forming a thin cover- ng on the crown of the tooth ; and the ivory, con- stituting the body of the tooth. There is a third body termed the crusta petrosa or cement, Avhich is most conspicuously observable over the fangs. 1. The Enamel (encaiistum, adamas, sttbstantia mtred) consists of earthy fibres, generally 6-sided, Avhicli 486 TEE have originally constituted delicate membranous tubes, formed of cells. The animal matter has, however, nearly disappeared, even in the tem- porary teeth, as is obvious from the analysis. The fibres run parallel to each other in a perpen- dicular direction to the surface of the ivory (Owen). 2. The Ivory (tooth lone, dentine) is fonned of tubes, which are perpendicular to the surface of the ivory, separated from each other by intertubular matter. When a trans- verse section is made of the ivory, the area of the tubes can be observed by means of the micros- cope, filled with calcareous matter, which dis- solves with effervescence on the addition of acid, and leaves the area empty (Owen). The tubes send off branches into the intertubular spaces, TEE which are more numerous in the fangs than in the crown. The cells of the ivory are somewhat circular, ^ o^th of an inch in diameter, and most abundant towards the external surface of the ivory. 3. The crusta petrosa or cement is con- fined to the exterior of the tooth, is thinnest on the crown, and gradually thickens towards the point of the fang. It consists of oblong cells, and contains no vascular canals. The following tables are the results of my analyses of teeth, sup- plied to me by the late Alex. Nasmyth, Esq. : The substances have, with the exception of those employed for the specific gravities, been dried at the temperature of 212. The quantity of water which the ivory naturally contains varies from 10 to 14 per cent. 1. Temporary. Table I. Enamel. 2. 3. Human Human Temporary. Adult. 4. Hindoo Adult. 5. Elephant. 6. Hippopotamus. Specific Gravity. 2-711 Organic matter, 8-218 Phosphate of lime, "\ Fluoride of calcium, ^ 90-489 Phosphate of magnesia,... ) Carbonate of lime, 0-831 Chloride of sodium, \ 0-940 Chloride of potassium, > 99-778 2-G21 3-76 85-00 I 11-24 100-00 Nos. 4 and 9 represent the composition of the teeth of the inhabitants of Bengal, living on 2-688 6-160 89-160 260 4-010 99-59 5-573 89-821 0-205 3-578 743 6-80 82-55 1-65 7-65 1-05 99-920 99-70 4-102 > 83-630 !" 0-850 10-620 0-800 100-000 a vegetable diet, and may be compared with the European or carnivorous tooth. 7. Human Temporary. Table II. Ivory. 9. 10. Human Adult. Hindoo Adult. Elephant Fine. 11. Elephant Coarse. 12. Walrus External. 13. Walrus Internal, tamus. 14. Hippopo- Specific Gravity. 2-090 2-105 1-728 1-794 1-909 1-866 Organic matter, ......... Phosphate of lime, ...... " Phosphate of magnesia, > 61-23 Fluoride of calcium, ..... } Carbonate of lime, ....... 4-71 Chloride of sodium, ...... \ o . Chloride of potassium,../ o . K i 28-20 26-81 45-65 60-16 66-42^ , 30 1-66 0-62/ 6J ( 7-04 2-66 5-63 0-10 1-35 0-06 44-00 54-35 1-13 1-33 0-09 39-28 52-80 2-10 4-38 0-69 38-16 33-41 59-04 55-90 0-67 1-19 1-02 0-53 9-14 0-36 100-00 99-72 99-58 99-36 100-90 99-25 99'42 100-00 Table III. Comparative table of Teeth and Bones. 15. 16. 17. 18. Ox Tooth Temporary. Ox Tooth Permanent. Tijrer Tooth. 19. Whale Human Rib. Thigh Bone. Specific Gravity. 2-102 Organic matter, 29-16 23-45 31-49 37:96 35-93 Phosphate of lime, \67-54 74-88 63-67 (52-81 51-12 Fluoride of calcium, j Phosphate of magnesia, 0-76 0-83 0-52 ( 0-63 Carbonate of lime, 1-62 1'03 3-64 9-46 9-77 Alkaline chlorides, trace trace trace 0-17 0-59 99-08 100-19 99-32 100-40 TEK Nos. 15, 16, and 17, enable a contrast to be formed of animals living on vegetable and animal food. The teeth in these cases were used entire without separating the ivory and enamel. A portion of the difference in the amount of the animal matter in No. 16 may be attributable to the presence of a portion of enamel. The quantity of alkaline chlorides present in different lands of teeth is always so inconsiderable, and yet con- stant, that there can be little hesitation in tracing their origin to the saliva with which the teeth must be always saturated, as is obvious from their absorptive power. Table IV. Composition of Teeth in Caries and of Tartar. 20. ' 21. 22. Caries. Caries. Tarta Specific Gravity. 1-533 Organic matter, 62-00 Phosphate of lime, ) 5 o o A Fluoride of calcium, | Phosphate of magnesia, 2*23 Carbonate of lime, 2-27 Alkaline chlorides, 1-28 62-78 34-79 1-11 0-52 99-20 3-93 0-28 0-14 98-24 Tekoreiine. C 10 H 9 . F.P. 113. A fusible volatile and crystalline resin, from the fossil wood of peat, in Denmark ; soluble in ether ; little sol- uble in alcohol. C 87-17, H 12-84. Teleoxydic Bodies are those organic sub- stances (as pea, rape, and wheat straw), the inor- ganic constituents of which are in a complete state of oxidation. Telcrythrine. C 2 2H 10 Oi9. A crystalline body, produced by the action of water on ama- rithrine or erythrine bitter. Telesite. Telesie. A synonvme of Corundum. Tellurethyle. C 4 H 5 Te. Red fluid, heavier than water, with a disagreeable odour ; poisonous ; by distilling sulphovinate of barytes and telluride of sodium. Telluric Bismuth. Telluric Lead, Telluric Silver. See these metals. Telluric Acid. Te0 3 . Orange crystal- line mass obtained by fusing tellurous acid with carbonate of potash, and passing chlorine through the solution, supersaturating with NH 3 and precipitating telluric acid by chloride of barium, and decomposing by SO 3 ; it is also formed by fusing tellurous acid with nitre; tellu- rate of potash in needles is formed by boiling telluric acid with carbonate of potash and evapo- rating. Chloride of Tellurium, a black sub- stance, is obtained by passing chlorine over tel- lurium. Bichloride, a yellow body, is formed by passing chlorine, in excess, over tellurium. Bromide, in black crystals, is obtained by dis- tilling tellurium and bromine. Iodide, in black TEN crystals, is likewise formed by distilling these two elements. Tellurium. Te 8, 64. Spec. grav. 6-115, 6-1379, 6-2445, 6-343. Brown powder or acute rhombohedron, colour tin-white; volatilizes at the melting point of glass, as a yellow vapour ; sub- limes in a retort in shining drops or elastic needles ; melts above the fusing point of lead ; obtained from telluric bismuth, by fusing with carbonate of pot- ash or soda made into a paste with olive oil; washed with water ; sulphide and selenide of tel- lurium are precipitated from the filtrate by bio wing air through it and decomposing the precipitates by chlorohydric acid ; the washed tellurium is then distilled. Ores of. Oraphic Ore of. Schrtfterz, Aurum grapliicum. Spec. grav. 5-723 to 8-28, H 1-5 to 2. Steel-gray, right rhombic prisms, with angles of 107 44'; fracture fine-grained uneven ; structure foliated ; sometimes the edges are replaced by faces which obliterate the ter- minal face, and form a 4-sided pyramid with scalene faces. B.B. fuses into a dark gray metal- lic globule, which becomes brilliant and malleable ; soluble in nitric acid. Te 52, Ag 11-33, Au 24-, Pb 1-5 Offenbanya, Transylvania. The name is derived from the crystals being arranged like written characters. Tellurium, Native. Spec. grav. 5-7 to 6-1, H 2-25. Tin-white regular 6-sided prisms, the edges at the base of the prism being replaced by planes. The angles of the lateral faces are 120; opaque; brittle; lustre metal- lic. B.B. melts before ignition, and on the increase of the heat, burns with a bluish-green flame, being almost entirely volatil- ized as a dense white vapour. It consists of Te 92-55, Fe 7-2, Au -25. Maria Loretto mine at Facebay, near Zalathna, in Transylvania. Tellurium, White or Yellow Ore of. Spec. grav. 10-678. Silver-white, inclining to brass-yellow, small right rhombic prisms, with angles of 105 30'; fracture uneven; lustre metallic ; opaque ; rather brittle ; soft. B.B. fuses into a metallic globule, and gives out a pun- gent odour. Te 44-75. Au 26-75, Ag 8-5, Pb 19-5, S '5. Nagyag, Transylvania. Tellurohydric Acid. Telluretted Hydrogen. Colourless gas, soluble hi water, with the odour of sulphohydric acid ; formed by acting on tel- lurides of potassium, iron or zinc with chloro- hydric acid. Tellurous Acid. Te0 2 . White crystalline crust of 8-hedrons ; becomes orange by heat, and then a dark yellow fluid, and volatilizes ; obtained by burning tellurium in air, or dissolving tel- lurium in nitric acid and evaporating. Tcnnantiie. Spec. grav. 4-375 to 4-53, H 3*. Blackish-gray cubes, 8-hedrons, and rhomboidal 12-hedrons; lustre metallic ; opaque; brittle. B.B. decrepitates, burning with a blue flame, emitting arsenical fumes, and fusing into 488 TEN a black magnetic scoria. S 28-74, As 11-84, Cu 45-32, Fe 9-26, Si0 3 , 5\ Form. 4 Cu 2 S, 4 FeS,AsS 3 . Cornwall ; Modum. Tcnorite. Melaconite, Black Oxide of Copper. CuO= C 80, 20. Steel-gray, 6-sided prisms, tables or scales with a black streak and metallic lustre. On lava, at Vesuvius. Tephroitc. Chrysolite containing manganese. Teratolite. Hard Lithomarge. Spec. grav. 2-5, H 2-75. Lavender or blue compact opaque earthy masses, with often white or red veins ; B.B. infusible. SiO 3 41-66, A1 2 3 22-85, Fe 2 3 12-98, CaO 3-04, MgO 2-55, KG -93, MnO 1-68, HO 14-2. Coal formation, Zwickau, Saxony. Terbium. The hypothetic base of terbia or Oxide of terbium, which has not yet been obtained in a state of purity. Its salts have a sweet and astringent taste, and an amethyst colour. The sulphate crystallizes ; the crystals effloresce at 122; the nitrate solidifies in reddish radiated crystals, which do not deliquesce. Terbia is ob- tained from a solution of common yttria by adding some free acid to its solution, dropping it into binoxalate of potash and stirring till the precipitate no longer dissolves ; the precipitate which separates is filtered ; binoxalate produces more precipitate in the filtrate ; the filtrate neu- tralized with an alkali yields nearly pure oxalate of yttria; the first precipitates contain much erbia, mixed with some terbia and yttria, the next chiefly terbia. See YTTRIA. Terebene. C 20 H 16 . Spec. grav. -86 ; B.P. 312-8. A colourless fluid with an odour of thyme. See COLOPHENE. Terebenthenc. Oil of Turpentine. Terebenthcne, Muriate of. (Liquid.') C 2 o H 16 HC1. Colourless volatile fluid, insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; lighter than water. Tercbenthene, Muriate. (Solid.') C 20 H 16 HC1.' F.P. 302; B.P. 329. Flexible needles, insoluble in water; soluble in alcohol and ether ; sublimes. Tercbenzic Acid. C 14 H 7 4 . F.P. 336. Needles resembling benzoic acid, which however consists of plates, and fuses at 248 ; decomposed by hot water ; by the action of nitric acid on oil of turpentine. Terebic Acid. Terebenic Acid. Ci 4 H 9 O 7 HO. 4-sided prisms, not volatile ; by the con- tinued action of nitric acid on oil of turpentine. Terebilcne. Peucyle. C 20 H 1C . Spec. grav. 843. Resembles camphilene, and is obtained from chlorohydride of terebene, by passing its vapours through caustic lime. Terebilic Acid. C 14 H 9 7 . F.P. 392 ; by nitric acid on oil of turpentine, soluble in hot water, alcohol, and ether ; above its fusing point decomposed into carbonic acid and Pyroterebilic Acid C 12 H 10 4 . A colourless oily fluid. Terechrysic Acid. HOC 6 H 3 4 . Orange mass ; deliquescent ; soluble in water, alcohol, and ether ; obtained by the continued action of TET nitric acid on oil of turpentine, along with tereph- thalic and terebenzic acids. Terenite. Spec. grav. 2-53, H 2. Yellowish- white or green masses, with a pearly lustre ; brittle. B.B. fuses into a white enamel ; becomes blue with cobalt ; allied to scapolite. Antwerp, New York. TercphthalicAcid. 2HOCi 6 H 4 O 6 . White tasteless body ; insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether ; changed by heating with slaked lime into C0 2 and benzole ; forms crystallizable salts ; isomeric with phthalic acid ; obtained by the pro- longed action of nitric acid on oil of turpentine. Tcretinic Acid. C 9 H 7 5 . White crystals by heating terpenole with litharge. Terhydrofluatc of Titanic Acid. Ti0 2 3 HF or TiF 2 , HF is formed by the decom- position of crystallised bihydrofluate of titanic acid in water, or by dissolving titanium in hy- drofluoric acid and nitric acid. Cyanide and nit- ride of Titanium consists of copper- coloured cubes found in the hearths of iron furnaces, having a specific gravity of 4-6. They were long supposed to be pure titanium. Teropiammoii. C co NH 29 2 6- White needles, sparingly soluble in any medium ; be- comes crimson when heated with sulphuric acid ; fonned by oxidizing narcotine with nitric acid of moderate strength ; it is derived from 3 atoms opianio acid and 1 NH 3 , with the separation of 3 HO. Terpenole. C 28 H 17 O. Spec. grav. -852 ; B.P. 334. Colourless oily fluid, smelling of hyacinths ; by dropping a few drops of a weak acid on hydrate of turpentine (Terpine). Terpine. Hydrate of Oil of Turpentine. C 20 H 16 6 HO. F.P. 217. Right rhombic prisms; soluble in 200 cold, in 22 hot water ; more sol- uble in alcohol and ether ; drops from oil of tur- pentine at low temperatures, or by nitric acid and alcohol on oil of turpentine; at 217 becomes a crystalline milky substance, boiling at 489, and subliming in prisms. Terra Alba. A fine white form of gypsum, used in the manufacture of confections. Terra de Sienna. See SiENNA. Terra JTaponica, or Catechu. Terra Sigillata. A kind of bole, formerly employed in medicine, impressed with a seal. Tesselitc. Cubic apophyllite, from Faroe, possessing, when examined optically, a tesselated or mosaic-like structure. Test. A reagent, which, when added to an- other body, indicates its presence by a striking physical character. See ANALYSIS QUALITATIVE. Tetartine. A variety of Albite. Tetr-amyle-ammoniuui. N,Ayl 4 . The base of the hydrate, an oil which crystallizes ; formed by the action of iodide of amyle on tri- amyle-amine, or on ammonia. Tetr - ethyle - ammonium. NE 4 . The oxide of this substance is a powerful alkali, forming soaps with oils ; having a caustic and bitter taste ; it precipitates metallic oxides, and 489 TET closely resembles potash ; formed in the action of bromide of ethyle on ammonia, having the type of ammonium. Tetraclasitc. A variety of Scapolite. Tctra-chloro-imphthaiic Acid. C 20 H 4 C1 4 . By chlorine on naphthalic acid. Tetra-chloro-sulphonaphthalic Acid. C2oH 3 ,S0 2 ,Cl 4 S0 3 . By dissolving tetrachloro- naphthalic acid hi fuming S0 3 . T etradymitc. Telluric Bismuth. Tctra-mcta-phosphoric Acid. 4 RO 4 PO 5 . By the action of phosphoric on oxide of lead. Tetra-mcthyle-aminonium. N,Me 4 4 (2113) X. The iodide is obtained by acting on iodide of metlryle with ammonia, and treating the resulting iodide with oxide of silver ; it is a powerful base and very caustic. Tetraphyliiee. See TRIPHYLINE. Tctrathionic Acid. S 4 O 5 = S0 2 ,S0 3 S 2 . A synonyme of bisulpho-hyposulphuric acid : obtained by heating hyposulphite of lead with hyposulphite of soda. Thakccloiic. A brownish-yellow mass, one of the products of the action of sulphur and am- monia on acetone. Thallite. Needle-formed epidote in Dau- phine and Isere. Thallochlorc. A green substance from the Citraria islandica. Tharandite. A variety of dolomite con- taining CaOCO 2 54-76, MgOCOo 42-1, FeO, MnO,C0 2 4-19. Thebainc. F.P. 300. Paramorphine. C 38 NH 21 6 . Grains or needles; insoluble in water ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; taste sharp, metallic ; reaction alkaline ; a base contained in opium. Thcinc. See CAFFEINE. Thenarditc. Native Anhydrous Sulphate of Soda. Spec. grav. 2-73. Rhombic 8-hedrons from Espartine near Madrid, accompanied with carbonate of soda. Thcnard's Blue. See BLUE. Thcobromine. Ci 4 H 8 N 4 4 caffeine C 1C HioN^ G 2 H 2 . Volatile above 482. White crystalline powder; little soluble in hot water, less so in alcohol and ether ; soluble in boiling barytes water ; obtained from the seeds of the Cacao theobroma by the same process as caf- feine. By means of the battery a body has been obtained from it with the formula C ]2 N 2 H 8 O 1( 5, and by binoxide of lead and sulphuric acid an acid, Ci 2 N 2 H 8 Oio, homologous with inosic acid and with alloxane. Theory. A term derived from the Greek Siuz'toc,, contemplation, or mode of viewing a sub- ject. Theories are advantageous in an experi- mental and advancing science by classifying masses of facts which would otherwise be isolated and comparatively unintelligible. The most impor- tant theories entertained in chemistry are the atomic theory, theories of affinity, amides, dimor- THE phism, polymorphism, metamerism, isomorphism, isomerism, polymerism, metalepsy or substitution, organic radicals cr bases, atomic volumes, types, all of which are described under the several heads. Theory of Amides. The following theory has recently been announced: Supposing that mono- basic acids are formed on the type of two mole- cules of water, then acetic acid will beC 4 H 3 H0 2 O 2 . When ammonia acts on a monobasic acid, 2 molecules of hydrogen are carried to the mole- cules of oxygen, water is formed, and the residue, NH, replaces the oxygen. Acetamide is acetic acid, in which 2 oxygen are replaced by NH. Diacetamide is derived from anhydrous acetic acid as acetamide is from protohydrous acetic acid. The following shows the beariner of this view (Wurtz) : C 4 H 3 2 II () Oxalic Acid. 2 H H Oxamide. C | 2 NH c 2 o 2 NH H *" Diaeetamide. cXoJ NI Oxamic Acid. C |^ 2 NH ^ 2 Theory, Radical. Binary Theory. According to this theory, every organic body is a compound radical, or is composed of a compound radical with oxygen or electro-negative element, or with water ; the radical in this theory is in place of the electro-positive element of inorganic com- pounds. Thus, in common salt, Nad, the so- dium, an electro-positive metal, is united with the electro-negative element, chlorine. In the chloride of methyle, MeCl, the methyle (C 2 H 3 ) occupies the same position as the sodium in the common salt. The objection to this theory, as applied to organic compounds, is, that in cases of substitution, electro-negative replace electro-posi- tive elements with regard to binary arrangements. Thus, by the action of chlorine on acetic acid we have chloracetic acid formed : Acetic acid, .................. C 4 H 3 3 HO Chloracetic acid, ............ C 4 C1 3 3 HO contrary to the notions of a binary theory. Theory of Nuclei or Kernels (Noyaux Kerne). According to this theory, organic compounds consist of kernels or nuclei, or of these nuclei united to various bodies. Nuclei consisting of carbon and hydrogen are termed primitive nu- clei, as naphthaline (C 20 H 8 ), but when the hyd- rogen is replaced by other elements, they are termed derivative or secondary nuclei, as chloro- naphthaline (C^Hj-Cl), dichloronaphthaline (C 2 o H C C1 2 ), &c. The compounds capable of replacing hydrogen in the nucleus are, hyponitric acid (NO 4 , often expressed by X), imidogene (NH= Im), amidogene (NH 2 or Ad), ammonia, (NH 3 or Am), arsidogene (AsH 2 or Ar), cyanogen (C 2 N or Cy). Laurent arranges organic com- pounds in six classes: 1. Nuclei, which "con- sist of a characteristic car. and the constant 490 THE = const. In methylene (C 2 H 2 ), C 2 is the clia racteristic, and H 2 is the constant. The primar} nucleus may be altered by the abstraction or re placement of the II 2 . 2. Protogenides. Com pounds of nuclei with 2 atoms hydrogen or oxy- gen, or with 2, 4, or 6 atoms of a salt radical Carburetted hydrogen (C 2 H 2 H 2 ), isaprotogenide of methylene (C 2 H 2 ). 3. "Monobasic Salts an formed by the replacement of 1 atom of hydrogen o the constant by a metal. Thus, acetic acid beinj, C 4 H 2 ,H 2 ,O 4 , a metallic acetate is C 4 H 2 ,HM,O 4 4. Dibasic Salts, or compounds of a nucleus with O c containing 2 atoms hydrogen, replacec by a metal. Oxalic acid being C 4 2 ,H 2 ,0 G , its metallic salts are C 4 2 ,M 2 ,0 6 . 5. Prometallides. Combinations of nuclei with 1 atom hydrogen : these have not been isolated, but their existence is a probable hypothesis, as cacodyle = C 4 H 3 Ar -f- H (Ar = As H 2 ). 6. Syndesmides resul from the union of two types of the same series (homodesmides), or of different series (heterodes- mides). Thus, benzoin (C 28 H 12 4 ), produced by 2 atoms of oil of bitter almonds uniting (C 14 HpOg), is a homodesmide ; and formobenzoilic acid (C 1C H 8 O C ), probably composed of oil ol bitter almonds with formic acid (C 2 H 2 O 4 ), is a heterodesmide. Thermometer. (6otash or caustic ammonia, and as much sulphate f potash added to it as it is capable of dissolving, md the precipitate washed on a filter with a aturated solution of sulphate of potash. The iotash sulphate of thorina is then dissolved in old water and precipitated by caustic ammonia >r potash in the state of a hydrate. It is still rellow from the presence of manganese, from which it may be nearly purified by solution in ulphuric acid as above. Hydrate of Thorina,. White, gelatinous, con- tracting much while drying; absorbs carbonic acid in the air ; it ought therefore to be dried in vacuo over sulphuric acid; readily soluble in acids when moist; much less soluble when dry; nsoluble in caustic alkalies ; soluble in alkaline carbonates; more soluble in cold than in hot car- bonate of ammonia ; ammonia does not precipitate ;horina from a saturated solution of carbonate of ammonia as it does zirconia ; it loses water by Ignition, and becomes hard and difficult to pul- verize ; in this state it is soluble in no acid except the sulphuric ; to dissolve it, the earth reduced to a fine powder, is digested for a long time in sulphuric acid diluted with half its weight of water. It is rendered soluble in acids by calcin- ing it with a caustic or carbonated alkali. Water added to this calcined mass forms a milky fluid. Salts. The hydrate is readily soluble in acids, but after ignition thorina is only soluble in sul- phuric acid. The salts of thorina are colourless, and have an astringent taste ; they lose then- acid by ignition, are precipitated by boiling, the sul- phate dissolving again on cooling. They are precipitated by caustic ammonia, soda, and potash; insoluble in excess of the reagent by which thorina is distinguished from alumina and glucina. They are precipitated by sulphohydride of ammonia ; precipitated and redissolved by alkaline carbonates. They form with sulphate of potash a double sul- phate, which is soluble in cold water, a distin- guishing character from the potash sulphate of zirconia, which is almost wholly insoluble. The thorina double salt is insoluble in a saturated solution of sulphate of potash, which distinguishes it from yttria. Yellow prussiate of potash preci- pitates thorina salts, but not zirconia salts. From protoxide of cerium it is distinguished by not be- coming reddish-brown, but continuing white when calcined; and by not forming a coloured bead before the blowpipe, either with borax of biphos- phate of soda. Thorina salts are precipitated by oxalates and oxalic acid. Chloride. ThCl? 12, 96; 11-886, 95-088. White crystalline mass, or brilliant colourless crystals, by a second sublimation. Obtained by exposing a mixture of carbonized thorina and sugar to the action of chlorine. 492 THO Thorinniu. Thorium. Th 7-5, 60 ; 7-449, 59-592. A dark iron-gray heavy powder with a metallic lustre when pressed, evolving a little hydrogen when first immersed in water, from the formation of some potash ; apparently malleable like aluminum; not oxidized by water even when heated ; burns in the open air when ig- nited, and becomes thorina, a snow-white earth without any appearance of fusion ; dilute sulphu- ric acid produces at first an effervescence with thorium, but it speedily ceases, and so slight is its action that it may be used to remove thorina from thorium. Nitric acid has little action ex- cept by long digestion. Chlorohydric acid dis- solves it rapidly, especially when assisted by heat, hydrogen gas being evolved; fluohydric acid possesses but a slight action ; it is not acted on by caustic alkalies. Process. Chloride of tho- rinum is first obtained by passing a current of dry chlorine through a mixture of ignited thorina and charcoal in a porcelain tube. The chloride of thorinuni is then heated in a platinum crucible or glass tube with potassium ; a slight detonation occurs, and heat but no light is evolved. The residue is washed with water, thorinum remains. The double potash fluoride of thorinum may also be used along with potassium. Thorite. Spec. grav. 4-63 to 4-8. Black masses resembling gadolinite; streak reddish- gray; powder brownish- red ; easily frangible; lustre of new fracture vitreous, of old resinous ; opaque; easily scratched by the knife. B.B. infusible ; becomes pale red ; ignited gives out FH in a tube ; fuses with borax into a bead, clear when hot, opaque when cold coloured by iron ; the addition of nitre, showing the presence of manganese ; with carbonate of soda decomposed without fusion. ThO 57-91, SiO 3 18-98, CaO 2-58, Fe 2 O 3 3-4, Mn 2 O 3 2-39, MgO -36, U 2 3 1-61, PbO -8, SnO -01, HO 9-5, KO -14, NaO 1, A1 2 O 3 -06, powder undecomposed 1-7 = 3 ThO,Si0 3 3 HO ? In Syenite, Lovo, Brevig, Norway. Thraulitc. Hisingerite, Hydrous-sesqui- silicate of Iron. Sp. grav. 3-045. Black roundish nodules ; powder brownish-yellow ; fracture un- even, or imperfect conchoidal ; splendent; opaque; brittle. B.B. edges rounded, but the lustre un- altered ; after ignition attracted by the magnet. SiO 3 31-28, Fe 2 O 3 43-42, FeO 5-7, HO 19-12. Form. 3FeO, Si0 3 , 2Fe 2 O 3 , SiO 3 6HO. Rid- darhyttan, Westmanland ; Bodemnais, Germany. Thrombolitc. Spec. grav. 3-39, H 3-5. Emerald or green masses with a glassy lustre; opaque. P0 5 45-22, CuO 37-68, HO 17-1 = l|CuO,P0 5 3HO. Retzbanya, Hungary. B.B. turns the flame blue and then green; on charcoal gives a bead of copper. Thulite. Spec. grav. 3-1055, H 5- to 6. Hose-red granular masses, or with a tendency to the crystalline structure of an oblique prism, with angles of 87 30', and 92 30'; lustre vitreous; translucent on the edges. B.B, fuses with soda TIN into a transparent bead, giving a violet on add- ing nitre, indicating manganese. Si0 3 47*9, A1 2 3 27-54, CaO 17-8, Fe 2 3 2-9, HO 1-17; loss 2-69 (KO?) (R.D.T.) Souland, TeUemark, Nor- way. Allied to epidote. Thumitc. A variety of axinite from Thum,, Saxony. Thiiringitc. Spec. grav. 3-153, H 2-25. Olive-green masses with pearly lustre; soluble in HC1, forming a jelly. B.B. indications of iron ;. allied to hydrous yenite. SiO 3 22-41, Fe-jOg. 21-94, FeO 42-6, MgO 1-16, HO 11-89. Saal- field, Thuringia. Thnyone. B.P. 329 to 347. Acarbohydro- gen oil by the action of iodine on oil of thuya r from the Thuya occidentalis. Thyme, Oil of. From Thymus vulgaris. Consists of 2 oils, C 34 H 26 O ; B.P. 346, and C4oH 30 O 7 ; B.P. 455; Spec. grav. of vapour 5-511 ; when distilled with anhydrous phosphoric acid, C4oH 26 (Doveri). Thymcne. C 2 oH lc . An oil isomeric with oil of turpentine, having the same density of vapour ; from essence of thyme by fractional dis- tillation. Thymolc. C 20 H 14 2 . F.P. 111; B.P. 446. The stearoptene of oil of thyme ; oblique prisms with a rhombic base; little soluble in water ; very soluble in alcohol and ether ; pos- sesses no rotatory power on light; soluble in S0 3 , forming sulphothymic acid, C 20 H 13 S 2 5 O 2r which is monobasic; chlorothymole, C 2 oH 8 Cl G 2 , a viscid fluid. Tin. Sn 7-25 58. Sources. Tin is found native in the state of peroxide or tinstone, in Corn- wall ; in the mountains separating Galicia from Portugal; in the mountains between Saxony and Bohemia; in Malacca, Mexico, and at Oruro in Upper Peru, mined for two hundred and fifty years in primary mountains. Char. Spec. grav. 7-285 (Herapath, Phil. Mag. 64,. 322), 7-291 and 7 -2 9 9 (by hammering, Brisson), 7-178 (crystals, Miller), 7-293 (fused, ib.), 7-291 (KupfFer). Melting Point. 512-6 (Morveau), 442 (Crichton, Phil. Mag. 15, 147), 446 (Kup- fFer), 432-5 (G. A. Erman), 442 (Rudberg). When cooled slowly it separates as a rhomboidal prism (Pajot, Journ. de Phys. 38, 52). Colour. Fine white colour like silver, and when fresh its brilliancy is very great. Crystal. Square prisms, 8-sided needles, 6-sided prisms ; very malleable^ Tin foil, or leaf tin, is about T^oth part of an inch thick, and it might be beat to half this thickness. Its ductility and tenacity are "inferior. A bar of tin ^ inch in diameter is broken by a weight of 296 Ibs. (Rennie). Hence a tin wire, y oth of an inch in diameter, would be broken by 47-36 Ibs. A tin wire 0-078 inch diameter sup- ports 34-7 Ibs. (Morveau). Taste slightly dis- agreeable ; tin emits a peculiar smell when rubbed^ depending on its action on the substance with, which it is rubbed. It has been obtained in crystals by passing a weak current of electricity 493 TIN through a solution of protocliloride of tin, form- ing the positive pole of a plate of tin, also by melting and slowly cooling it. It boils at a white heat. It is very flexible, and emits a peculiar crackling sound when bent. Tin is not acted on by the air ; but heat speedily causes it to oxidize, protoxide being first formed, and then binoxide. Purification. The purest kinds of tin are Malacca, Banca, and English grain tin ; the least pure, common grain tin, block tin. The metals which usually contaminate it are arsenic, antimony, iron, copper, zinc, lead, bismuth. When tin is free from arsenic, it dissolves completely in chlorohydric acid ; if that metal is present, it re- mains as an insoluble residue, which when heated yields a garlic smell. Lead, &c. may be detected by treating the tin by nitric acid, the binoxide of tin remains insoluble, while nitrate of lead, &c. dissolves. Sulphuric acid precipitates the lead, yellow prussiate of potash the iron as Prus- sian blue, and a plate of iron detects copper by being covered with a yellow coating. Antimony and arsenic may likewise be detected by the usual tests for these metals. Preparation of Tin. Mode of Smelting. Tin ore, binoxide of tin and iron, occurs in two kinds of deposits in Cornwall, in veins accompanied by other ores, and in loose grains or sand in allu- vial matter in detached fragments. The tin re- duced from the ore occurring in veins is most impure, and is called common block or mine tin. The purest grain tin, or stream tin, is procured from the alluvial ore, which is free from every impurity, except nodules of haematite. 1. Grind- TIN ing or stamping. The ore is reduced to powder by means of stamping mills driven by steam power. The state of division is regulated bv a plate of iron pierced with small holes, through which the whole passes from the stamping mill, being washed through by a rapid stream of water. 2. Washing. The ground ore is then carefully Avashed and dressed. When the ore is rich there is little difficulty in washing away earths in con- sequence of the greater specific gravity of the tin ore, but in poorer ores this is more difficult, espe- cially when they are mixed with copper and other ores, which are likewise heavy. 3. Roasting for the removal of Sulphur and Arsenic. The ores after being made clean on the dressing floors are taken to the burning house, where they are placed in small reverberatory furnaces, and exposed to a moderate and regular heat. They are frequently turned over by an iron rake to expose fresh sur- faces. Sulphurous acid and arsenious acid being volatilized, the sulphurous acid escapes, and the arsenious acid is condensed in long horizontal flues constructed for the purpose, 4. Washing. After the ores come from the burning house, the process of dressing is completed by further wash- ing. After this operation the ore presents the appearance of a brown moist heavy powder ; the washing removes by gravitation certain other im- purities, and sulphate of copper, from the solution of which the copper is gained by a plate of iron, (as recommended by Dr. T. Thomson, in 1813. Ann. Phil. 2, 352.) The ore as now prepared is sold to the smelter. 5. Smelting, or Deoxidation, (Conversion of Sn0 2 into Sn.) The furnaces a furnace door; b grate ; c door for ore ; e grate for admitting air ; 'd working door ; i chimney Avitli good draught. for smelting tin are of the reverberatory kind, and hold from 12 to 16 cwt. of ore. The charge is prepared by mixing it with coal or Welsh culm and slaked lime, and heated so as to bring the whole into a state of fusion, which is kept up for seven or eight hours, when the charge is ready to draw. The lime unites with the silica and earthy matters still mixed with the ore and forms a slag, which floats on the surface of' the melted metal reduced by the coal. The slag is raked off" through a door, c, while the melted metal is run off by a tap-hole in the bottom of the furnace, and laded into moulds, so as to form plates of a moderate size, and put aside for more refinement. The slag is broken up, stamped and washed, and a quan- tity of tin taken from it, which is called Prillion, and is smelted again. 6. Refining, or removal of iron, copper, arsenic, tungsten, and a portion of undecomposed oxides, sulphurets, or arseniates, and of some earthy matter or slag. The plates of tin are heated in a refining furnace to a very moderate temperature, and are melted gradually. 494 TIN The metal flows from the furnace into a kettle, which is kept hot by a small fire placed beneath. The more infusible substances are left in the fur- nace, and a further purification of the tin is ob- tained by agitating it for some time by an oper- ation called tossing, which consists in lifting some of the metal in a ladle, and allowing it to fall back upon the fused metal from such a height as to put every part in motion. Refining is also pro- duced by heating it with blocks of unseasoned wood. It is then slammed, and being laded into granite or cast iron moulds, is formed into blocks of 3 cwt. Grain or stream tin is smelted by charcoal, and the fire is urged by bellows in a blowing house, being thus distin- guished from smelting houses in which common tin is made. The furnaces consist of a cylinder of iron standing upon one end, and lined with clay. The upper end is open for receiving the fuel and ore which are thrown in alternately, and a hole at some distance from the bottom of the back of the cylinder is provided to admit the blast, and another lower down, and opposite to it, allows the metal to flow out regularly as it is reduced. The only purification it seems to require is the separation of mechanically mixed impurities. For this purpose it is laded into an iron pan or kettle, where the fusion is kept up by a gentle heat beneath, and the mass is continually agitated by plunging into it pieces of charcoal soaked in water, and retaining them at the bottom of the kettle by an iron tool. The Avater in the charcoal is rapidly converted into steam, and gives the mass the appearance of boiling. It is allowed to rest and skimmed, when it has a brilliant appearance. It is then laded into moulds. Grain tin is some- times put into a different form by heating it ; the blocks being so heated as to render the metal brittle, are let fall from a height, when they break into fragments resembling prisms or basal- tic pillars. Protoxide, Black oxide. Sn08'25,66-. Black powder; tasteless; insoluble in water. Spec. grav. 6-66. Protoxide of tin is obtained by heating the oxalate of tin, or by dissolving tin in HC1, and precipitating the solution by carbonate of soda, washing the precipitate well, and igniting it in close vessels or in COs- When heated in the open air it catches fire, burns, and becomes binoxide (SnO 2 ). It is insoluble in NH 3 ; sol- uble in NaO ; precipitated brown by SH ; preci- pitated brown and redissolved by NH 3 SH. It dissolves in S0 3 , HC1, and dilute N0 5 ; by strong N0 5 it becomes binoxide (Sn0 2 ). Binoxide, Deutoxide, Peroxide, White Oxide, Stannic Acid, Tinstone. Sn0 2 , 9-25; 74. Occurs in nature in yellow or black 8-hedrons, or more commonly as a 4-sided square prism. Hardness, 6-5, sp. gr. 6-55 to 6-945. Artificially it is pre- pared by acting on tin with NOs, or by heating tin to whiteness in the open air, when the metal takes fire and is converted into the yellow oxide. When prepared by either of these methods, it dis- TIN solves with difficulty in acids. When prepared by precipitation with an alkaline carbonate or alkalies from the bichloride, it dissolves easily in acids. Deutoxide of tin is precipitated by NH 3 , and redissolved by a great excess, also by NaO, and NH 3 SH. From copper furnaces I have artificial stannic acid in long brilliant acicular square prisms. Native tinstone contains some portion of sesquioxide of iron. Sesquioxide. Sn 2 3 . White gelatinous precipitate, obtained by digesting hydrous sesqui- oxide of iron with a solution of protochloride of tin. Stannate o/Stannous oxide. SnO 3(Sn0 2 ). Orange-yellow powder, formed by digesting me- tastannic acid in a solution of tin salts. Metastannic Acid, Hydrous. 5 (2 HO T Sn0 2 ), or 10 HO, Sn 5 O 10 , consisting of Sn0 2 = 88-64 HO = 19-36 (Thomson, Ann. Phil. 10, 149). White friable, semitransparent, with a vitreous fracture, or as a white powder ; obtained by treating tin with diluted nitric acid, washing the precipitate and drying in a dry current of air, at the common temperature. It is quite in- soluble in caustic ammonia (Fremy). When dried in a vacuum it loses 5 atoms of water, and becomes 5 HO Sn 5 0i , containing 11-3 percent, of water. When dried at 292, it loses another atom of water, and becomes 4 HO Sn 5 0i , with 8-8 per cent, of water ; at 320 it parts with another atom of water. If any of the pre- ceding hydrates are dissolved in an alkali, and precipitated by an acid, metastannic acid insoluble in nitric acid, results, but it possesses the pro- perty of dissolving in ammonia. The most con- stant hydrate is 5 HO, Sn 5 O 10 , which, when reacted on by soda, becomes NaO Sn 5 O 10 , 4 HO. The latter salt is difficult to obtain, but the anhydrous salt (NaO, 8115010); is formed by acting on metastannic acid with a cold solution of soda and drying on a tile. It is white, granular, crystalline, dissolves in a great quantity of cold water, but decomposes with a slight elevation of temperature; at 140 decomposes into caustic soda and metastannic acid. Metastannic acid, according to Fremy, is represented by the for- mula Sn- OK). When treated with chlorohy- dric acid, it dissolves in a hydrous state, but produces a compound which does not possess any of the properties of bichloride of tin. Stannic Acid, SnOg, is prepared by de- composing bichloride of tin by an alkali, or by treating the bichloride by carbonate of lime or carbonate of barytes. It falls as a jelly, and should be washed rapidly on a filter. It is easily soluble in chlorohydric acid, and repro- duces bichloride of tin ; soluble in sulphuric acid even Avhen dilute ; but the solution is decomposed by boiling, and the stannic acid is completely precipitated. When precipitated, washed, and dried spontaneously in air at the usual tem- perature, its composition is 7 HO, 3(SnO 2 ), con- taining 21-5 per cent, of water. When this hydrate is dried in vacuo, or at 284, it loses 5 495 TIN atoms water, and becomes metastannic acid with 2 water, containing 7-4 per cent, water. In this state it does not reproduce bichloride of tin. When stannic acid is dissolved in an alkali, and precipitated by an acid, stannic acid falls, which is soluble in ammonia, while, before solution in alkali, it was insoluble in ammonia. It loses its solubility by drying, or by boiling for a few minutes. Bichloride of tin changes stannic acid into a yellow body resembling that afforded by metastannic acid (Sn 3 O G SnO 3 HO). The stannates of potash and soda crystallize very easily, while the metastannates are always gela- tinous and uncrystallisable (Fremy). Stan- nates of potash and soda are obtained by dis- solving stannic acid precipitated from bichloride of tin in caustic potash or soda, or by calcining metastannate of potash or soda with an excess of alkali. That the metastannic acid has been thus converted into stannic acid is proved by precipitating by sulphuric acid. A jelly falls which dissolves at once in chlorohydric acid, and forms bichloride of tin, which is not the case with metastannic 'acid ; even carbonic acid precipi- tates hydrous stannic acid. Stannate of Soda occurs as a dry powder in commerce. When crystallized, it consists of NaO Sn02 9 HO, with a crystalline form re- sembling that of Augite. This salt is exten- sively used in calico printing, as a "prepare " for the cloth, which is dipped in a solution of it, and then passed through weak 803. Protochloride of Tin, Salt of 7% SnCl 2 HO = 13-937, 111-496. Formed by dissolving tin in HC1, with an excess of the metal until the acid is saturated. The solution is evaporated, when the protochloride separates, in long needles or 4-sided prisms. The anhydrous chloride is formed by distilling equal parts of tin and calomel ; a gray body passes over, which becomes solid on cooling. The crystals are employed in dyeing, to remove oxygen, as in indigo, and also as a mordant, in calico printing. It sometimes occurs with 1 or 3 atoms water. Bichloride, Permuriate of Tin, Fuming Liquor ofLibavius SnCl 2 , 16-124, 128 -9 9 2, is obtained by distilling 6 parts of tin, rubbed with 1 mercury, and 33 corrosive sublimate; it is also formed by placing tin in chlorine gas. It is colourless like water. Spec. grav. 2-25; smokes in the air; 3 parts of this liquid mixed with 1 water, form butter of tin, a thick fluid, which dissolves in more water. It acts on oil of turpentine. It does not precipitate gold. Sulphide of TinSnS 9-25, -74. Gray brittle substance, forming, by fusing tin with sulphur. Bisulphide, Mosaic Gold.SnS 2 11-25. Gold- coloured substance, obtained by subliming a mix- ture of tin, 6 parts; mercury 3; salammomac 3 ; flowers of sulphur 3 J. Muriate of ammonia, cinnabar, and protochloride, are volatilized, while Mosaic gold remains. TIN Native Cupreous Sulphide of Tin, Tin Pyrites. Spec. grav. 4-35, H 3-25. Steel-gray, yellowish- white, or brass-yellow, masses, or in regular 6-hedrons ; streak black, lustre metallic ; opaque ; brittle. B.B. sulphur is expelled, and a black scoria remains without a metallic button; soluble in aqua regia. S 25, Sn 34, Cu 36, Fe 2. Huel Eock, parish of St. Agnes, Cornwall. Estimation Tin is usually estimated by con- verting it into binoxide, by an excess of NOs- For estimating the value of protochloride of tin, bichromate of potash has been long used by Mr. William Blythe, Mr. Dale, and Mr. James Young, of Manchester. I first saw it in use hi the hands of Mr. Young, several years ago, and it has been in general use in the manufacturing: districts for many years. It has also been used in Germany for estimating the oxides of iron when mixed. I am indebted to Mr. Blythe for the following note: "I find the first experiments to have been made April 1st, 1836. In these experiments it is shown that 120 grains of the crystals of pro- tornuriate of tin are required to reduce the chro- mic acid in 50 grams of bichromate of potash. Previous to this date, in examining chrome ores, 1 reduced the chromic acid, precipitated the green oxide, and weighed it ; but after this date, the protomuriate of tin was always used. I give the following from my note-book as an example. " 'July 18th, 1836. Examination of a sample of chrome ore from St. Petersburg. '"33 grains, carefully pounded, were fluxed with 200 grains carbonate of soda, and 40 grains of nitrate of potash. The fused mass was edulcor- ated till everything soluble was taken up. The yellow solution was now neutralized with nitric acid, and the chromic acid tested with protomu- riate of tin. The quantity required was 72 grains, equivalent to 30 grains bichrome = 90 per cent., 47-3 of green oxide.' " It appears from my note-book that 1 first be- gan to use bichromate in the testing of mangan- ese, February 6th, 1837. After this, in all my examinations of samples, I have merely entered the respective quantities of copperas, manganese, and bichromate used. January 19th, 1839. Sample of Swedish manganese, from Thomas Boyd, Liverpool. " Copperas, 600 grains ; manganese, 100 grains j bichrome, 20 grains. 20 Bichrome = 110-73 copperas. 600110-73 = 489-27. 2 At. Copperas. 1 At. Mn0 2 . 34-75 : 5-5 489-27, : 77 per centage of black oxide." Tincal. Said to be a native name for borax. Tin Ore. Native binoxide of tin. Tinplate, Sheet Tin, or White Iron, 13 made by heating sheet iron in a reverberatory furnace, dipping it in dilute muriatic acid, and reheating in the furnace. The iron is then passed 496 TIT through cold rollers, immersed in fluid ferment- ing bran, dipped in dilute sulphuric acid, and then in a bath of melted tallow. It is dipped into fused tin for an hour or two, is then removed, allowed to drain on an iron grating, and rubbed with a hemp brush. The figured appearance which it sometimes presents, is obtained by the action of N0 5 . Titanic Acid. Ti0 2 5125, 41. Specific gravity 3-9311 (artificial), 4-249 (titanite or rutile). Specific gravity 3-826 3-927 (anatase), 4-13 (R.D.T.), 4-166 (Brooldte, Arkansite). It is dimorphous; being square prismatic in rutile and anatase and right prismatic in Brookite; artificially, prepared, it is a white powder ; be- coming yellow when heated, and resuming its white colour on cooling. B.B. yields a colour- less or yellow glass, with borax ; acquiring a bluish colour in the reducing flame; with salt of phosphorus a colourless or yellow glass, in the oxidizing flame; by long exposure to the reduc- ing flame on charcoal, this glass is yellowish while hot, and violet on cooling. Titanic acid occurs in two forms: Alpha is precipitated from solutions by ammonia, and is soluble in dilute acids, both when moist and dry, and incandesces when ignited. Beta is obtained by dissolving the preceding in an acid, and boiling, when beta precipitates ; it is slowly soluble in oil of vitriol, &c. Titanic acid is obtained from its native minerals, by fusing them with caustic potash, or carbonate of potash, or carbonate of soda; the fused mass washed with water, and dissolved in strong muriatic acid; the solution is diluted with water and boiled, when the titanic acid falls. This process may be repeated until the iron is completely separated. Titanic acid precipitated from an alkaline solution by boiling with an acid, is the hydrate; it is a white flocculent and bulky precipitate; when precipitated by am- monia, it contains an atom of water. Titanic acid is a feeble acid in union with bases ; it occurs as titaniate of iron in iserine. It is like- wise a feeble base when dissolved in acids, the combination being destroyed by simple boiling. A solution of a salt of titanic acid gives with metallic salts of zinc, iron and tin, a blue colour, probably a sesquioxide of titanium Titanic Iron. See ISERINE and ILME- NITE. Tiianiferoiis Cerite. A black minera from Coromandel, resembling gadolinite, contain- ing CeO 36-5, FeO 19-8, CaO 8-, A1 2 3 6- HO 11-, MnO.1'2, Si0 3 19, Ti0 2 8-. Titanite. Crispite, Gallizinite, Nigrine, Rutile Sagenite, Titanic Acid. Specific gravity 4-18 4-249, 4-256, H 6-75. Brownish - red ^ righ striated square prisms, frequently terminatec by a 4 or 8-sided pyramid, with angles 132 32', 161 40', 122 45'; fracture foliated B.B. unaltered; forms with borax a hyacint: bead; does not fuse with salt of phosphorus it is titanic acid' with some iron. It i TOB ound in quartz in primary rocks, as at Craig n halliach and Glen Tilt, Perthshire. Titanium. Menakane. Ti 3-24, 3-125, 25. Jlack powder, obtained by heating a mix- ure of potassium and anhydrous fluoride of 'tanium, and washing away the fluoride of po- assium, or by heating in a tube the ammonia hloride of titanium, Protoxide, TiO, a probable xide by heating titanic acid in a charcoal cru- ible. Bichloride. TiCl 2 . B.P. 275, a colour- ess heavy fluid with a pungent odour ; obtained y passing chlorine over titanium, or over a mixture of titanic acid and charcoal at a red heat. Bisulphide. TiS 2 . A dark green mass or bronze cales by passing bichloride and sulphohydric cid through an ignited tube. Tiza. The native name of Boronatrocal- ite. Toadstone. A species of earthy basalt. Tobacco. The leaves of the Nicotiona taba- um go under this name. It is a native of Vir- ginia and Mexico, from Tobaco, a province of which country, it derives its name. The constitu- ion of the leaves is as follows : Nicotine '06, licotianine -01, slightly bitter extract 2-87, gum, with some malate of lime 1-74, green resin -267, albumen -26, gluten 1-048, malic acid -51, ma- ate of ammonia -12, KOS0 3 '048, KC1- 063, malate and nitrate of potash -095, phosphate of ime -166, malate of lime -242, silica -088, lig- line 4-969, starch trace, water 88-28. The poisonous and stimulant principle of tobacco is nicotine, which seems closely analogous in its characters to aniline. The mean composition of ;obacco is water 10-09 ; ashes 18*64, consisting of alkaline salts 5-15, earthy salts soluble ha acids, 11-27, siliceous earth and sand 2-18. In consequence of the duty, tobacco is frequently adulterated, and principally with sugar, which is added in solution. The mode of detecting this sophistication is by fermenting the hot infusion, distilling off the spirit, and estimating its equiva- lent of sugar. The following table affords a view of the amount of revenue derived from tobacco and snuff: Account of tobacco Irought into home consumption during the last ten years. Founds weight Tobacco Imported for Consumption. Manufactured, T>nfv and Snuff. Duty ' Ibs. 172,431 3,500,560 184,748 3,667,292 191,361 3,896,378 183,430 4,143,721 192,221 4,259,750 189,981 4,279,561 191,246 4,432,640 194,368 4,377,419 196,681 4,415,250 209,588 4,470,334 200,031 4,549,982 Years. 1842,. 1843,. 1844,. 1845,. 1846,. 1847,. 1848,. 1849,. 1850,. 1851,. 1852,. 497 Unmanufactured. Ibs. , 21,788,954 , 22,827,253 , 24,250,010 . 25,852,199 . 26,557,143 . 26,701,911 . 26,777,399 . 27,297,903 27,538,104 . 27,853,253 . 28,358,908 2 K TOB Duty on unmanufactured tobacco 3s. per Ib. and 5 per cent., about 3s. 2d. per Ib. Duty on cigars, cavendish, &c. 9s. per Ib. and 5 per cent. Foreign snuff 6s. per Ib. and 5 per cent. The following table gives the composition of some kinds of common snuff as occurring in the trade : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Water, 28'94 35'88 28'70 29'G8 36'34 Soluble salts 11-80 14-00 7'84 12'40 19"20 Insoluble salts, 7'31 12'4l 10-78 9'64 9'58 Vegetable matter, 51-95 37-72 52'68 48'28 34 '88 1. Thirty-sevens, 2. black rappee, 3. imperial rappee, 4. London brown, 5. brown rappee. Tobcrnitc, Torbenite. A synonyme of chal- colite, or phosphate of uranium. Tolcnc, C 10 H 8 . Spec. grav. -858; B.P. 338. Volatile colourless fluid ; obtained by dis- tilling balsam of tola with water. Toln, Balsam of. A reddish-brown thick- ish balsam, derived from incisions made in the bark of the Myroxylon toluiferum ; when exposed to the air it becomes solid and brittle ; the smell is fragrant ; it affords, when distilled with water, benzoic acid, tolene, and cinnameine; it is sol- uble in alcohol, ether, and volatile oils ; it yields by destructive distillation toluole and an oily fluid with the characters of benzoic ether; it gives also benzoic and cinnamic acids. Two resins have been described as derivatives from the balsam, viz. alpha resin, CgflH^Og, F.P. 140, a brown substance yielding toluole and benzoic acid by dry distillation ; beta resin, a dull yellowish- brown tasteless resin, slightly soluble in alcohol and ether. Toluidiiie. C 14 H 9 ^, or N,Tyl,H 2 . F.P. 104 ; B.P. 388. Colourless plates, slightly sol- uble in water ; very soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils; renders fir wood and elder pith yellow. It may be represented as ammonia in which 1 atom H is replaced by toluyle ; it is homologous with benzole and aniline, &c. ; it is obtained by the action of ammonia in alcohol and sulphohydric acid on toluole. Toluole. Benzoene. C 14 H 8 . Spec. grav. 870, of vapour 3-26; B.P. 226. A thin colour- less fluid ; insoluble in water ; slightly soluble in alcohol; more soluble in ether; obtained from the volatile portion of the products of the distilla- tion of balsam of tolu by fractional distillation. "When heated with nitric acid it yields nitrotoluole, C I4 H 7 NO 4 , anddimtrotolwk, C 14 H 6 2NO 4 ; the first is analogous to nitrobenzide, and its vapour, in contact with ignited lime, is converted into aniline and carbonic acid. Toluylic Acid. HO,C 16 H 7 3 . A siibstance corresponding closely with benzoic acid, with which it is homologous, differing from it only by 2(CH); obtained by acting on cymole with NOg ; with nitric acid it affords nitrotoluylic acid (C 16 H C N0 4 ) O 3 HO ; diluted with lime it gives toluole (Noa). TOR Tombac. An alloy of 85 copper and 15 line. Tombazitc. A synonyme of nickel glance. Tomosite. Silicate of manganese. Toaika 15 can*. The seed of the Dipterix odorata, used to flavour snuff, from its containing coumarine. Topaz. Fluosilicate of Alumina, Physaltie, Pyrophysalite. Spec. grav. 3-641, 3-499, H8-. White, yellow, green, blue, right rhombic prisms, differently modified. The principal angle mea- sures 124 22' ; the angles of the base are usually replaced by tangent planes, forming a 4-sided pyramid; structure foliated; fracture conchoidal; lustre vitreous, from splendent to glimmering; transparent to translucent on the edges. B.B. the faces of crystallization blister ; with borax forms a transparent glass ; crystals possessing different faces of crystallization at opposite ends, acquire different kinds of electricity when heated ; by friction it acquires positive electricity. The topaz of Brazil consists of SiOo 34-01, AU0 3 58-38, FH 7-792 A1F 3 , 5 Al ? 3 ,Si0 3 . Ural; Altai, Brazil; Mucla, Asia Minor; Aberdeen- shire ; Down mountains. The term oriental topaz is applied to the yellow sapphire, and false topaz to a yellow rock crystal. Topazolitc. A synonyme of colophonite. Tophus. A concretion described by John as derived from the joints of the arms, consisting of animal matter 73-, CaOC0 2 10, 3 CaO,P0 5 17. Topiiiambour. The Helianthus tubero- sus, or Jerusalem artichoke. The root used as an esculent consists of water 772, sugar 148, inuline 30, cellulose? 12-2, gum 10-78, cit- rate of potash 10-7 ; peculiar body pro- ducing viscous fermentation 9*9, phosphate of lime 1-44, KOSO 3 1-2, citrate of lime -8, KO HC1 -8, KOP0 5 -6, oil -6, cerine -3, malate of potash -3, Si0 3 -24, tartrate of lime -14. The ultimate elements are C 43-02, H 5-91, 43-56, N 1-57, ash 5-94. Torrclitc. American Columbite, or Tanta- llte. Spec. grav. 4-8038, H 4-25 to 5-4. Black or dark brown masses, or 4-sided oblique prisms, with angles of 157 29' ; surface iridescent ; lustre imperfectly metallic, almost resinous; cross fracture granular ; opaque. B.B. fuses with soda and borax into a dark red bead ; with ex- cess of soda, indications of manganese. Colum- bic, niobic, and pelopic acids 73-9, FeO 15-65, MnO -8, HO -35. Middleton, Connecticut. It was the determination of the specific gravity of this mineral, and of the other columbic acid minerals, by Dr. T. Thomson, that led H. Rose to discover niobic and pelopic acids, which he now, 498 TOU however, considers to be only one acid, for which the term niobic is retained. Touchstone. A synonyme of Lydian stone, or basanite. Touloiicoima Oil. F.P 110. A solid buttery oil of a yellowish-red colour, from the drupas of the Carafa touloucouna in Senegal ; it excites vomiting when swallowed, and is used by the natives to anoint the skin, and thus ward off insects. Tourmaline. Achroite, Aphrizite, Apy- rite, Cockle, Daurite, Indicolite, Picolite, Rubel- lite, Schorl, Siberite. Spec. grav. 3-, 3-06, 3-076, H 7'5 to 8. Brown, green, blue, red, white, black obtuse rhomboidal prisms (3d syst.) The figures represent G-sided prisms of tourmaline, TRI differently modified; fracture conchoidal; lustre vitreous; transparent to translucent; B.B. intu- mesces, but does not fuse ; the black variety be- comes a scoria ; the transparent varieties, when heated, become electric, the termination of the prisms with most planes becoming positive, and the other end negative. Tourmalines receive different names according to their colours, &c. Aphrizite consists of small crystals from the Hartz ; achroite white crystals from St. Gothard; indicolite, indigo coloured; rubellite, red variety; schorl, black varieties. They have been divided into five different groups, dependent on their com- position, with the following formulae : 1. 3 RO, 2 Si0 3 , 3 (R 2 O 3 Si0 3 ) 2. 3 RO, 2 Si0 3 , 4 (R 2 3 , SiO 3 ) 3. 3 RO 2 Si0 3 6 (R 9 3 , Si0 3 ) 4. RO Si0 3 3 (R 9 "0 3 SiO.) 5. RO Si0 3 4 (R 2 3 Si0 3 ) and the composition of these groups per cent, is given in the following table : S. grav. F P0 5 .... Si0 3 .... B0 8 .... A1 2 O 3 .. F a 8 ... Mn.,0o , FeO .... MgO ... CaO.... KaO ... 1. . 3-049 . 2-28 . trace .38-35 . 8-25 .31-32 . 1-27 .0-00 . 0-00 .14-89 . 1-GO ,. 1-28 2. 3-043 2-36 0-20 38-45 8-48 34-56 3-31 o-oo 0-09 9-11 0-71 9. 3-226 1-54 0-00 35-74 8-00 34-40 7-61 0-00 8-60 1-76 0-86 1-02 4. 3-107 2-09 trace 38-55 7-29 38-40 5-13 0-00 2-00 0-73 1-14 2-37 5. 2-998 2-70 0-22 41-16 8-56 41-83 0-00 0-97 0-00 0-61 0-00 1-37 KO -26 MnO 0-00 LiO 0-00 2. 0-73 0-00 0-00 3. 4. 5. 0-47 0-37 2-17 0-00 0-73 0-00 0-00 1-20 0-41 1. Brown variety ; 2. black, Texas ; 3. black, Ala- baschka ; 4. green, Brazil ; 5. red, Rozena (Ram- melsberg), Trachyte. (rpux,v;, rough.) A volcanic rock or lava, consisting of a mass of felspar, in which glassy crystals of felspar are imbedded ; it often contains also augite, hornblende, and magnetic iron. It is found on the Rhine, Auvergne, Cau- casus, America. Tragacanth. Specific gravity 1-384. A gum in hard white worm-like masses, from the Astragalus tragacantha, a thorny shrub of Can- dia and the Levant ; becomes easily pulverizable at 115; swells up in water, and forms a muci- lage; it consists of water 11-1, ashes 2-5, ara- bine 53-3, bassorine and starch 33-1. Transposition of Oases. See DIFFUSION. Trnpp. (Trappa, a stair, Swed.) Ancient volcanic rocks, consisting principally of horn- blende, albite or felspar, augite, &c., and consti- tuting a class which includes basalt, amygdaloid, greenstone. See GEOLOGY. Trass. Dukstein. A volcanic ash or scoria, consisting of a portion decomposed and of another undecomposecl by muriatic acid. Travertine. A form of deposited carbonate of lime. Treacle. That portion of sugar syrups which cannot be crystallized. Trem elite. Grammatite. A species of amphi- bole. (Found in the Tremola valley.) Spec. grav. 2-9257 to 3-2, H 4-75. White, greenish, bluish, or reddish oblique rhombic prisms, with angles of 130 15', and 124 30'; generally in fibrous crystals; lustre vitreous; always translucent; sometimes semitransparent; easily frangible. B.B. fuses easily into a semitransparent glass; with borax a glass ; not decomposed by salt of phos- phorus. SiO 3 60-1, MgO 24-31, CaO 12-73 A1 2 3 -42, FeO 1-, MnO -47, FH -83, HO -15. Raphilite is a gray tremolite. Switzerland ; Canada, United States. Tremolite, Norwegian. Spec. grav. 3 -2, H 6-. White or bluish- gray amorphous masses; lustre pearly ; translucent on the edges ; struc- ture foliated. B.B. fuses with difficulty on the ges. Si0 3 63-7, CaO 27-2, Mg08-9. Triamylamine. C 30 H 33 N. B.P. 498. Light oil of peculiar aromatic smell and burning taste, by the action of bromide of amyle on dia- mylamine. Tribromaniliaie. Tribromophenylamine. C 12 (H 4 Br 3 )]Sr. By treating aniline with bromine. " Tribromobciizidc. Ci 2 Br 3 H 3 . Silky needles, very soluble in alcohol and ether, by dis- tilling bromobenzine with lime. Tribromocarbolic Acid. Tribromopheni- sic Acid. Ci 2 H 3 Br 8 2 . White needles, by bro- mine on carbolic acid. 499 TRI Tribromocodeine. C 3G H 18 Br 3 NO G . Tribromomesitilolc. C T8 Hj)Br 3 . Tribromosixaldid. C 6 Br 3 H 3 O 2 . Amber oil, heavier than water, by bromine on solution of citraconate of potash. Tricetylamine. C 06 HgoN = 3C 32 H 33 ,K F.P. 102-2 White needles, formed by the action of ammoniacal gas on iodide of cetyle. Ti-ichloranilinc. C 12 (H 4 C1 3 )N'. A vola- tile crystalline body, obtained when aniline is treated with chlorine gas. Trickloroacetic Acid. See CHLOROACETIC ACID. Trichlorocarbolic Acid. See CHLORO- PHENISIC Aero. Trichloroiilixic Acid. C 26 H 13 Cl 3 Oio. Yellow powder, insoluble in water, melting in hot water ; soluble in alcohol, ether, fat, and volatile oils. By chlorine on filixic acid. Trichlorohydrokinone. C 12 H 3 C1 3 4 (?) Fuses a little above 266. Delicate colour- less plates; soluble in hot water, alcohol, and ether. By excess of sulphurous acid on trichloro- Mnone. Trichlorohydrokinone. Yellow. C 24 C1 6 H 4 8 . By a deficiency of sulphurous acid on trichlorokinone. Trichlorokinone. Ci 2 ,HCl 3 ,O 4 . YeUow prisms; sublimes above 266; fuses at 320 Obtained along with other compounds when kinic acid is distilled with a chlorine mixture. TrichloromcMitilolc. C 1S H 9 C1 3 . Trichloroiuethyl-sulphurous Acid. Co C1 3 H0 2 2S0 2 . Trichloropteritannic Acid. C 24 H 12 C1 3 Qg. By dry chlorine on pteritannic acid. TrichlorosulphoiiaphthaUc Acid. C 20 H 4 (S0 2 )C1 3 ,SO 3 . Crystalline substance; soluble in water and alcohol. By dissolving trichloronaph- thalic acid (C 2 oH 5 Cl 3 ) in hot fuming sulphuric acid, distilling with water, saturating with pot- ash, then with acetate of lead, microscopic needles are obtained, which by decomposition by S0 3 yield this acid. Trichlorofannaspidic Acid. C 2G H 10 ^3 Oi3- By chlorine on tannaspidic acid Trichlorovalerianic Acid. See CHLORO- VALERISIC ACID. Trichloroxaniidc. Chloroacetamide. C 4 !NH 2 C1 3 O 2 . Trichloroxitannaspidic Acid. C 26 H 10 C1 3 Oj 4 . By the action of muriatic acid and chlo- rate of potash on tannaspidic acid. Triclasite. A synonyme of Fahlunite. Triethylaminc. Ci 2 H 15 N". Colourless, in- flammable liquid, very alkaline ; soluble in water. By the action of bromide of ethyle on diethyla- mine. Triethy 1 - amyl-ammoniiim, Hydratcd Oxide of. C 22 H 27 NO 2 . The iodide of triethyl- amyl-ammonium is formed when triethylamine is boiled with iodide of amyle. Triethyl-phenyl-ammoniiiBti. 3 C 4 IT.,, TRI C 12 H 5 ,X. By iodide of ethyle on diethylani- line. Triethylstibiii. Sb, 3(C 4 H 5 ). B.P 317. Transparent very mobile liquid, with the penetrat- ing odour of onions. In contact with air emits dense white fumes, and frequently takes fire, burning- with a white brilliant flame. Formed when iodide of ethyle is distilled with an alloy of antimony and potassium. Trigeiiic Acid. Radiated prisms, little sol- uble in water, insoluble in alcohol; yielding- quinoline by heat; obtained by the action of cyanic acid on aldehyde. Tri-iodo-codeine. C 36 H 21 NO 6 I 3 . Ruby prisms by the action of iodine on codeine dissolved in alcohol ; insoluble in water and ether ; soluble in alcohol. Trimetaphosphoric Acid. A modification of metaphosphoric acid, only found in the crys- tallization of a fused mixture of equal equiva- lents of phosphoric acid and soda, by allowing it to cool gradually. Trimethylamine. CcHgN". Readily ob- tained by heating the oxide of tetramethyl- ammonium (C 8 H 13 ISrO 2 ). It is a gas at com- mon temperatures, but liquefies at about 4 8 -2 to- a mobile fluid of very powerfully alkaline reac- tion. Trinicthylaminc-Aluni. C 6 H 9 NS0 3 ,AI^ 3 3SO 3 24HO. 8-hedrons, obtained by mixing sulphate of trhnethylamine with sulphate of alu- mina. Trinitranisole. C 14 H 5 N 3 14 . F.P. 138-2. Brilliant tables, slightly yellowish ; insoluble in water; soluble in ether and hot alcohol. By heating 1 part anisic acid with 15 parts of a mixture of equal weights of sulphuric and nitric acids. Triuitro-ainarine. C 42 H 15 N 5 O 12 . White warty crystals, soluble in boiling water and, alco- hol. By heating trinitrohydrobenzamide with potash. Trinitrobenzophenide. C 26 H 73 (N0 4 )0 4 . By heating gently an intimate mixture of picric acid (C 12 H 33 (NO 4 )O 2 ), with chloride of benzole,, till HC1 ceases to be evolved, the product washed well with cold alcohol, and then crystallized from boiling alcohol. Golden-yellow rhombic plates,, fusing at an elevated temperature, and deflagrat- ing when very strongly heated. Triiiitrocarbolic Acid. See PICRIC ACID. Trinitrocthionic Acid. C 4 H 2 3 N0 4 O r HO? Trinitrohydrobeiizaniidc. C 42 H 15 3NO 4 ET 2 . A white powder, by ammonia on hydride of nitrobenzoyle ; insoluble in water, ether, and oil of turpentine. Trinitromesitilolc. C 18 H 9 3(N0 4 ). Triiiitroiiiceic Acid. Ci 2 H 2 3N0 4 O 3 HO ? Triiiitrosalitholc. A synonyme of Trini- tranisole. Trinket Gold. An alloy of gold 75, and copper 25. Spec. grav. 14-78. 500 TRI Trioxymcrcurazotin. 3HgO(Hg 3 N)2HO. By the action of ammonia on oxide of mercury. Tripestone. A synonyme of Anhydrite. Triphaiie. A synonyme of Spodumene. Triphylinc. Tetraphyline, Perowskine. Sp. grav. 3-6, H 5. Greenish-gray masses, or im- perfect prisms; subresinous; translucent when thin. B.B. fuses into a magnetic bead ; gives a green glass with borax ; soluble in acids. FeO 48-57, MnO 4-7, LiO 34, HO -68, Si0 3 -53, P0 5 4147. Bodemnais, Bavaria. Triplite. Ferrophosphate of Manganese, Pitchy Iron Ore in part. Spec. grav. 3439 to 3-775, H 5-25. Blackish-brown resinous imper- fectly crystalline masses ; streak yellowish-gray; opaque, or somewhat translucent. B.B. melts into a dark scoria ; a glass with borax, coloured by manganese ; soluble in NO 5 . P0 5 32-8, MnO 32-6, FeO 31-9, 3 CaO, P0 5 3-2 = 4(MnO FeO) P0 5 . Limoges. Tripoli. Tripoleene. Spec. grav. 1-86 to 2-2. Coarse dull earthy mass, rough ; does not adhere to the tongue; consists of 80 to 90 silica, A1 2 O 3 7% Fe 2 0s 3-. Composed of the shields of animalcules. Tripoli, Africa ; near Prague, &c. Used in polishing metals, &c. Tris, or Trite. Applied to a compound which has 3 atoms of base united to 1 of acid. Trithionic Acid. Sulpha - hyposulphuric Acid. S 3 5 = S0 2 S0 3 S. A sulphur acid, obtained in aqueous solution by decomposing the potash salt. It has never been seen in the solid state. Tritomite. Spec. grav. 4-16 to 4-66. Dark brown 4-hedron at Lamo, Norway. B.B. intu- mesces and becomes white ; with borax a clear bead; decomposed by HC1. Si0 3 20-13, A1 2 3 2-24, C 2 3 40-36, LiO 15-11, YO -46, CaO 5-15, MgO -22, FeO 1-83, Mn, Cu, Sn, W 4'62, volatile matter 7-86. Trityle. Propionic Alcohol C 3 H 7 HO. B.P. 204-8. Spec. grav. of vapour 2 -02. Colourless liquid lighter than water, pleasant odour. Tritylc-sulpho-carbouic Acid. By add- ing sulphide of carbon to the hydrate of trityle in potash. Tritylc-sulphuric Acid. C 3 H 7 S0 3 . Trombolite. Terhydrous Subsesqu'^hosphate of Copper. H CuO,PO 5 3HO. Trona. Nitrum. Native sesquicarbonate of soda. Troostitc. Silicate of zinc. Truffles. Tiiber clbarium. An esculent fungus. Tsantjaii. A preparation of Fucus cartila- ginosus, used as an esculent in the east instead of edible birds' nests. Tschewkiiaitc. Tscheffkinite, Uralorthite. A variety of Allanite. Specific gravity 4-5, by which it is separated from Allanite, the specific gravity of which is 3*6, H 4*25. Black masses, opaque ; phosphoresces by heat. B.B. fuses into a black bead. It contains SiOs 35-49, A1 2 TUN O 3 18-21, Fe 2 O 3 ,FeO 13-03, CeO 10-85, LaO 6-54, CaO 9-25, MgO 2-06, MnO 2-37, HO 2*. Ilmen mountains. Tuesite. Spec. grav. 2-558, H 2-5. Milk- white masses ; opaque ; lustre resinous, nearly dull ; sectile. B.B. becomes bluish and brittle ; with soda becomes an opaque mass ; with borax and salt of phosphorus forms a glass. SiOg 44-3, A1 2 O 3 404, CaO -755, MgO -5, HO 13-5. Used for slate pencils. Banks of the Tweed, near Mehrose. Allied to halloylite (R.D.T.) Tufa, Calcareous. A variety of deposited carbonates of lime. Tuff. Tufo, Trap tuff, Earthy tuff, Granular tuff, Stone tuff. An Italian name for a volcanic rock, consisting of agglutinated scoriae and loose matters ejected from volcanoes. Stone tuff is reddish-brown, with orange streaks, from inter- spersed pumice, and forms the summit of the Tarpeian rock at Rome ; it contains leucite crys- tals, brown mica, pyroxene, and sometimes fel- spar. Granular tuff is a blackish or brownish substance composed of thick grains, slightly ag- glutinated, intermixed with scales of leucite, pieces of augite, mica scales. The composition of volcanic tuff is Si0 3 44-5, FeO 6-5, A1 2 O 3 12-, MgO -7, KO 5-5, NaO 1-5, insoluble in acid 16-4, HO 11- (Pausilippo, Berthier). Tuggkada Resin. A resin found in the pine in Sweden, is chewed by the country people ; it has a milky fracture, and becomes soft by mastication ; by boiling with water a new acid is taken up and deposited in crystals. Tugilitc. A synonyme of hydrous sesqui- oxide of iron. Tumour. Excrescences on the soft tissues or bony parts of animals. A tumour of the brain consisted of water 65-, fibrine 13*23, fatty matters 1-20, mucous matter? 12-2, os^azome 8". A tumour of the cheek was formed of. fib- rinous matter 18-3, soluble albumen 1-, glutine? 3-7, extractive? 2-5, fat 3-1, water 71'4. Tuiigstate of ILead. See LEAD. Tungsten. "W or Tn 11-75, 94- or 95'. Scheelium, Wolframium. Tungstic acid was first discovered by Scheele in 17-81, in a mineral termed tung-sten, or ponderous stone, now known to be tungstate of lime (Scheele). The Messrs. De Luyart obtained the same acid from wolfram (tungstate of iron and manganese), and reduced it to the metallic state. Tungsten occurs native in the form of tungstate of lime, a yellowish mineral found in octahedrons, consisting of (CaO Tn0 3 ) as tungstate of lead, (PbO Tn0 3 ) found in octahedrons, and as wolfram, of which there appear to be two species, as under : i. ii. in. Spec, grav., 7-00 743 7*54 Tungstic acid, 75-33 74-66 75-85 FeO, 9-30 17-59 19-26 MnO, 15-13 5-64 4'89 Silica, , 2-10 501 TUN The first of these species may be termed De Luyarts' wolfram, or zinrnvaldite. It occurs at Zinmvald. The specimen analyzed gives the same locality as the original specimen exa- mined by the Spanish chemists (R.D.T.) Mr. Richardson (Records of Gen. Science, i. 449, 1835) first showed the existence of at least two species, and Schaffgotsch has confirmed this view. The two species may be detected by the specific gra- vity ; that of the De Luyarts was 6-8, and the amount of red oxide of manganese obtained 22 per cent, or 20 per cent, of protoxide. The second species may be named Cumberlandite, the ori- ginal specimen being from that county. The for- mulae of these two species is : Zinwaldite, 3 (FeO Tn0 3 ) MnOTn0 8 Cumberlandite, 2 (FeO Tn0 3 ) 3(MnOTn0 3 ) Montevidite, 4 (FeO TnO 3 ) MnOTn0 3 The third species, from Montevideo, contains binoxide of tungsten, according to the views of, Schaffgotsch. Tungsten, in the metal- lic state, may be obtained by fusing wolfram in powder and carbonate of potash in a crucible ; the tungstate of potash is taken up by water, the salammoniac added to the solution, and the whole evaporated to dry-ness and ignited in a Hessian crucible. On digesting in water, oxide of tungsten, a black powder, remains, which when ignited takes fire, and is converted into tungstic acid. The acid can then be reduced to the metallic state by passing hydrogen over it at a red heat. Tungsten is a grayish-white metal, resembling steel. Specific gravity 17-4, and therefore approaching that of gold, pla- tinum, &c. Oxide of Tungsten, Broicn oxide. Tn0 2 . When we fuse a mixture of 1 part of wolfram and 2 of carbonate of potash, dissolve the residue in water, add 1^ part salammoniac, evaporate to dryness, ignite in a Hessian crucible ; on dissolv- ing the fused mass in water, a black powder re- mains, which is the oxide of tungsten (Wb'hler). It may be also procured by passing hydrogen over tungstic acid until the latter assumes a brown colour. It has then a metallic lustre. When tungstic acid is placed in hydrochloric acid, and a plate of zinc is brought into the solution, cop- per-red flocks of oxide fall. When ignited the oxide catches fire, burns like tinder, and becomes tungstic acid. The oxide thus exists in 2 forms, as fine copper- coloured plates, and as a black powder, assuming the metallic lustre by fric- tion. Soda Oxide of Tungsten. NaO 2 Tn0 2 . A yellow salt crystallized in cubes ; obtained by passing dry hydrogen over bitungstate of soda, this salt being formed by fusing tungstate of soda, and dissolving in it as much tungstic acid as it will take up. The product of the action of the hydrogen is treated with water to dissolve neutral tungstate of soda, and there remains a golden crystalline powder. It is then boiled with TUN HC1 to decompose the adhering tungstate, next with pure potash ; and lastly, with pure water. It is a beautiful substance. When suspended in water, in the state of powder, it is transparent, and of a green colour ; acids and alkalies do not decompose it. When heated in the air it changes colour, softens and changes partly into tungstate of soda. Tungstic Acid. Tn0 3 or W0 3 14-75,, 118. A pale yellow powder, infusible, taste-- less; insoluble in water; spec. grav. 6-12, Before the blowpipe it gives with borax a yellow glass ; with salt of phosphorus, also a yellow bead in the oxidizing flame ; blue in the reduc- ing flame. When ignited, is not soluble in acids ; in the hydrous state it is soluble in HC1 and NH 3 . It may be prepared by boiling wolfram, powder, with a mixture of HC1 and N0 5 , which dissolve the iron and manganese, and leave tho acid. The acid may be further purified by dis- solving it in caustic ammonia and precipitating by nitric acid, or it may be dissolved by sulpho- hydret of ammonia and decomposed by NO 5 , sulphuret of tungsten falls, which is converted by roasting into tungstic acid. It may be procured from tungstate of lime by nitric acid. Lau- rent represents the different salts as modifications of tungstic acid, and thus explains some singular reactions. Thus, we know that certain tung- states allow their acid to precipitate on the addition of NO 5 or HC1, while others give no precipitate. According to this view, the common tungstates, MO TnO 3 , contain an insoluble acid ; while MOTn 3 0(5 and MOTngOjg contain an acid which is soluble in water. All the salts, witli the exception of the neutral salts, retain a certain amount of water essential to them. The follow- ing are the types : Type. 1. Tungstates, HOTn 3 2. Isotungstates, HOTn 2 G 3. Metatungstates, ... HOTn 3 9 2 HO 4. Paratungstates, . . . 2 H OTn 4 Oi 2 Paratungstate of Potash, (KO HO) Tn 4 12 2HO 5. Homotungstates of Ammonia, (NH 3 lHO)Tn 5 Oi 5 8HO 6. Poly tungstates,.... 3 HO Tn 6 18 Bichloride of Tungsten, TnCl 2 20-689, is formed by heating metallic tungsten in chlorine gas, th metal catches fire and is converted in cinnabar red needles, which melt easily and volatilize in red fumes. Water turns it violet and finally, red, produces oxide and hydrochloric acid. Caustic potash decomposes it, hydrogen being evolved, and the same result accompanies the action of ammonia, the brown oxide being deposited. Terchloride, TnCl 3 , makes its appearance in the form of yellowish-white scales, resembling boracic acid, when the brown oxide is heated in chlorine gas. It is very volatile, and rises in yellow fumes. When exposed to the air it 502 TUN changes into tungstic acid and hydrochloric acid. A red chloride appears along with the bichloride, in fine red needles, more volatile than the pre- ceding chlorides ; it bubbles up when thrown into water and gives out much heat. Its composition has not been determined. Bisulphide of Tungsten. TnS 2 . Formed by passing SH over tungstic acid, ignited in a por- celain tube, is a grayish-black powder, having when rubbed a metallic lustre. The tersulphide, TnS 3 , makes its appearance when tungstic acid is dissolved in bisulphohydride of ammonia, and the solution precipitated by N0 5 ; it is a black powder when dry ; it dissolves in water. None of the compounds of tungsten appear to exercise any deteriorating influence on the animal system when swallowed. Tunstate of lame. See LIME. Turf. Peat. The decomposing remains of plants. It yields when distilled illuminating gases (CH 2 ) and solid paraffine. In Denmark it is associated with the resins boloretine, phyl- loretine, tekoretine, and xyloretine. It yields a large amount of ash, and sometimes affords a considerable quantity of potash. Turgite. A synonyme of sesquioxide of iron. Turkey Bed. See CALICO PRINTING. Turmeric. The root of the Curcuma longa, a plant found in India, used in powder as an in- gredient in curry powder ; when its colour is impressed on paper, it is employed as a test for ammonia, wich renders it brown. The colouring matter is curcumine qv. Turnerite. H above 4". Brownish-yellow oblique rhombic prisms, the lateral faces of which are inclined at an angle of 96 10' ; lustre nearly adamantine ; transparent to translucent ; con- sists of Al 2 3 ,CaO,MgO and FeO, with some silica. Mont Sorel, Dauphine. Turnip. The bulb of species of Brassica. The fig. represents the appearance of the turnip under the microscope. The yellow turnip con- tains 83| to 87| water. Dried at 212 it consists of C 45-31, H 6-61, N 1-45, O 42-59, S -1. The nitrogenous matter amounts to 9-25 of the dry mass, and to 1'54 of the fresh turnip. 503 TWI Turnsole. The French name for Litmus. Turpentine. A semifluid resinous body, from various species of Pinus. Common turpen- tine comes from the Pinus abies and sylvestris, and consists of oil of turpentine and two resins, pinic and silvic acids. Venice Turpentine is a light yellow fluid, extracted from Pinus larix (larch), and contains ^ of oil of turpentine, besides succinic acid, &c. French Turpentine from Pinus maritima, resembling the last. Stras- burg Turpentine is a pale yellow fluid, from Pinus picea. Canada Balsam, from Pinus canadensis. Turpentine, Oil of. CsH 4 or C 2( )H lfi . Spec. grav. -865, of vapour 4-764 ; B.P. 312. Thin colourless fluid with a peculiar well-known smell ; slightly soluble in water, more soluble in alcohol and ether ; mixes in all proportions with fixed oils ; obtained by distilling crude turpentine with water and rectifying. It constitutes the type of the turpentine class of oils. When dry hydrochloric acid gas is passed into it a solid artificial camphor is formed, a muriate of oil of turpentine C 20 H 16 HC1, and the mother liquor contains a fluid isomeric muriate. "When the solid and fluid muriates are distilled with lime, camphylene and terebylene result. Colophene is procured by distilling oil of turpentine with strong sulphuric acid. Hydrate of oil of turpen- tine (C 20 H 1C 6 HO), in prisms, is formed often in oil of turpentine bottles. Turpcth. Turlith Mineral. Subsulphate of Mercury. Turquoise. Agaphite, Birousa, Calaite, John- ite. Spec. grav. 2-6296 to 3-25. Is softer than quartz ; bluish-green masses occurring in a con- glomerate at Mount Madan, 40 miles N.W. from Nishapore, near Meshid, in Persia ; lustre dull ; vitreous, admits of polish. Blue turquoise consists of Alo0 3 47-45, P0 5 27-34, CuO 2-02, FeO 1-1, HO 18*8, 3 CaO,P0 5 3-41, MnO -5 ; the green is fonned of A1 9 3 50-75, P0 5 5-64, CaO 1-42, FeO 1-1, HO" 18-12, phosphate of lime 18-1, Si0 3 4-26. Tutenag. Chinese Silver. See PACKFONG and ARGENTANE. Tweers. Tuyeres. See IRON SMELTING. Twin, or Compound Crystals, are well illus- trated by Staurolite, in the prismatic system f where four crystals are united on planes parallel to a plane on two terminal edges of an 8-hedron- Carbonate of lead exhibits combinations of several crystals parallel to the planes of a vertical prism. Arragonite frequently is formed of several crystals consisting of a vertical and horizontal prism. TYP Type Metal. An alloy of 80 lead and 20 an- timony ; or 77 lead, 15 antimony, and 15 bismuth. Types, The Theory of, expresses the fact that certain compounds which possess the same number of atoms in the same relative position, and the same fundamental properties, are said to belong to the same chemical type. Acetic acid, C 4 H 4 4 , and chloracetic acid, C 4 HC1 3 4 , are 1. According to some views, water is the type of a series of compounds, if we represent its atoms as corresponding with its volumes H 2 O. The following compounds will be written according to the annexed formula by this theory : Water, H 4- H + O Hydrate of potash, H + K + O Dry potash, K + K +O Alcohol, C 2 H 5 + H +O Ether, C 2 H 5 + C 2 H 5 + O Compound ethers (^ 2 ^ 5 + S S 3 + 2 2. A mmonia constitutes another type of organic radicals or bases, in which nitrogen remains con- stant, but the hydrogen may be replaced entirely or in part by organic bases or radicals. We have thus a series of ammonia, amide, imide, and nitrile bases, according to the amount of hydrogen replaced. ABC indicates the bases replacing the hydrogen. Ammonia, NHHH, Amide base, N A H H . Imide base, NABH, Nitrile base, N A B C The replacing bases may be different atoms of the same base, as in the following examples : Ethylamine, C 4 H S ,H 2 ,N Diethylamine, 2C 4 H 5 H, N Triethylamine, 3C 4 H 5 , N 3. Ammonium is likewise the type of a series of organic radicals or bases: Aram. N H H H H. 1st replacd. base N H H H A 2dbase,NHH A B. 3d base, N H AB C 4thbase,NA,BCD The examples of these substitutions will be found under organic bases. The hydrate of oxide of ammonium may also be represented as the ammonia type united to the oxide type, thus : NHHHH,04-HO=: NH 4 0-fHO ULT 4. 2 atoms Hydrogen have also been regarded as a type, thus : Hydrogen, H, H Hydride of methyle (marsh gas), C 2 H 3 , H Hydride of ethyle, C 4 H 5 , H Hydride of acetyle (alde- hyde), C 4 H 3 2 Methyle, C 2 H 8 ,CaH 8 Ethyle, C 4 H 5 ,C 4 H 5 Acetyle, C 4 H 5 2 ,C 4 H 3 2 Acetylide of methyle (ace- tone), C 2 H 3 ,C 4 H 3 2 5. Chlorohydric add is also a type. Chlorohy dric acid, H, Cl Chloride of potassium, K Cl Chloride of methyle, C 2 H 3 , Cl Chloride of acetyle, C 4 H 3 O 2 C1 Typolite. See NOVOHYDEOUS PENTAR- SEXIATE of COPPER. Tyrosiiie. C 18 H n N0 6 . Needles obtained by adding to fused caustic potash an equal weight of dry fibrine, and heating till the colour changes from brown to yellow ; the matter is then dis- solved in water, neutralized with acetic acid and allowed to deposit. It may also be prepared by boiling albumen or fibrine with 5 parts chloro- hydric acid for six hours, or with sulphuric acid diluted with 4 parts water, evaporating the solu- tion, the remainder dissolved in water, mixed with an excess of lime, boiled to remove am- monia, and filtered ; by concentrating the solu- tion, a mass of crystals is left, the syrupy portion of which is removed by alcohol of '830 ; a mixture of crystals of leucine and tyrosine remains, which are separated by their different solubilities in water ; a third crystalline body also occurs in the action of acids on fibrine, &c. ; tyrosine likewise appears hi the putrefaction of fibrine, along with a volatile crystalline substance ; tyrosine, likewise, can be formed by the action of potash or sulphu- ric acid on horn ; it is also found in cochineal. Tyrosine is, therefore, a product from all albu- minous bodies; and is probably a proximate constituent of them ; it is a base, and unites with acids. Nitrate of nitrotyrosine, Ci8NH 10 N0 4 0(5 -4- HON0 5 , consists of yellow crystals ; by the action of dilute nitric acid on tyrosine. U Ullmannite. See ANTTMCOTAL NICKEL. Ul marie Acid. C 24'66, H 1-95, O 15-32. Ulntic Acid. C 4 oHi 4 Oi 2 . A brown powder or gelatinous flocks, precipitated by an acid from the solution produced by the action of potash or soda, on mould, or soil ; it becomes anhydrous at 383 ; it unites with bases, and forms amor- phous salts ; it is also produced by the action of sulphuric acid on sugar. Ulininc. C 4 oH 16 4 . A name given by Dr. T. Thomson, in 1804, to an exudation on the bark of the elm ; afterwards ulmic acid. Ultramarine, Blue, was formerly obtained from Hauyne or lapis lazuli, but is now prepared artificially, in consequence of the demand for it 504 UMB in calico printing. It is said to be successfully formed by evaporating 100 Ibs. of a solution of sulphide of sodium, mixed with 25 Ibs. dry china clay, and ^ Ib. crystals of copperas ; the dry mass is then heated in a muffle to a red heat, washed, and again heated. Umbcllic Acid. HOC 16 H 7 5 . Colourless needles, a product of the oxidation of oil of anise, identical with anisic and draconic acids. Umber. An earth composed of Si0 3 33-1, HO 10-5, Fe 2 3 46-2, MnO 9-8. Upas Poison. The dried j uice of the Antiaris toxicaria, a tree in Java. It contains the poison Antiarine (Ci 4 H 10 Os)j colourless crystalline scales; soluble in 251 water, 70 alcohol, and 2792 ether, in 27 hot water. Uraconisc. A synonyme of sesquioxide of uranium or ochre. Uralite. A pseudomorphous form of Augite. Ural Orthite. A synonyme of Tschewkinite. Uraiuilc. C 8 H 5 N 3 6 . Crystalline powder or feathery crystals ; soluble in NH 3 and KO, oxygen being absorbed, becoming purple, and depositing murexide ; boiled with oxide of mer- cury it yields murexide ; changed by potash into uramilic acid ; obtained by the action of acids on thionurate of ammonia. Uramilic Acid. CjgHioNsOjs ? Fine prisms by boiling uramile with potash. It has only once been obtained. Uran, Green. Chalcolite, Cupreophosphate of Uranium. Spec. grav. 3-55, H 2-25. Emerald and grass-green scales. P0 5 15-57, U 2 O 3 61-39, CuO 8-44, HO 15-05. B.B. fuses into a black mass, colouring the flame greenish, a green glass with borax. Guunis Lake, near Callington; and in Corrarich, Tincroft, &c., mines, Cornwall. Urancolumbitc, or Tantalite, or Niobite. See SAMARSKITE. Uranic Acid. Sesquioxide of Uranium. Uran Mica. See URANITE. Uranite. Uran Mica, Calcareophosphate of Uranium. Spec. grav. 3-12, H 3-25. Lemon- yellow to brown, 4-sided prisms, and in 4, 6, and 8-sided foliated tables ; lustre pearly on the face of the prism ; adamantine on the other faces ; sectile ; transparent on the edges. BaO 1-51, CaO 5-66, MgO MnO -19, U 2 O 3 59-37 P0 5 14-63, HO 14-9 ; stony matter 2-7, F and NH 3 , no change. Uranium. Discovered by Klaproth, in 1789 in pitch blende. The oxide may be obtained from this mineral by treating it with NO 5 ; the solu- tion is evaporated to dryness, and digested in cold water ; the solution filtered. Nitrate of ura- nium crystallizes. By calcining this nitrate we obtain the black oxide. This oxide may, b acting on it with Cl, be converted into the chloride. By treating the chloride with potas sium, pure metallic uranium is separated. It i a black powder, having somewhat of a metallic lustre ; very combustible ; burning with a white light. URA Suboxide. U 4 O 3 . A brown precipitate, ob- ained by pouring NH 3 into the subchloride. Protoxide. Mistaken until lately for a metal, has been shown by Peligot to be an >xide. Obtained by decomposing the yellow ox- ilate by passing hydrogen over it at a red heat, t has a great tendency to combine with oxygen. When obtained from the double chloride of ura- lium and potassium it is in crystalline plates, laving a metallic lustre. Biprotosesquioxide, Black Oxide. Obtained by calcining the nitrate. Protosesqidoxide, or Olive oxide. By heating ,he preceding oxides to redness in contact with ixygen. Yellow Oxide. This oxide has not (U 2 2 )0 U 2 2 Cl U 2 O 2 OC 2 O 3 3HO U 2 2 N0 5 6HO yet been isolated, but exists in the yellow salts of uranium. ' Suboxide, ^0 3 Black protoxide, U O Biprotosesquioxide, U 4 Os Olive oxide, U 3 Yellow sesquioxide, U 2 3 The protoxide, which has been hitherto considered as the metal, differs in its combinations from other oxides; the protoxide of uranium combines directly with chlorine. In 1 atom of this compound me- tallic radical thus combined, there are 2 atoms of protoxide of uranium, or an atom of peroxide of uranium. The base Peligot terms uranyle. One atom of uranyle unites with one of oxygen, to form the peroxide which enters into the salts of the oxide of uranyle. The following represents the series : Oxide of uranyle. Chloride Oxalate Nitrate Oxide of uranium, and uranate of potash and ammonia, have been employed to colour glass. The glasses have an orange-yellow colour, or greenish and opaline. The uranate of potash, obtained by calcining nitrate of uranium and ni- trate of potash, affords a splendid orange for ar- tists. Potash Chloride of Uranyle. U 2 2 C1, KC1 -{- 2HO crystallizes in large rhomboidal tables of a greenish-yellow colour, and is very soluble in water. The double salt of ammonia possesses a similar composition, and crystallizes in rhombo- hedrons. The oxalate of uranyle, U 2 2 0,C 2 3 -j- 3HO, is obtained by pouring a satu- rated solution of oxalic acid into a solution of nitrate of uranyle. The double oxalate of am- monia may be crystallized in yellow prisms by digesting a hot solution of oxalate of ammonia on oxalate of uranyle. The double sulphates of uranyle and potash and of ammonia crystallize each with 2 atoms of water. Uranite has been employed when deprived of its matrix to colour glass. It has also been proposed to employ the uranate of potash as a pigment, prepared by the 505 UIIA calculation of a mixture of nitrate of uranium and nitre. It possesses a rich orange colour. The salts of the sesquioxide, when not viewed as con- taining uranyle, have the following formulas : Nitrate, U 2 3 NO 5 GHO Sulphate, UgC^SOsSHO Bisulphate, U2O 3 2S0 3 HO Potash sulphate,. .(U 2 3 S0 3 ) (KOS0 3 )2HO NII 3 carbonate, ...(U 2 3 C0 2 ) 2(NH 3 C0 2 HO) Oxalate, .... U 2 O 3 C 2 3 3HO Potash oxalate,....(U 2 3 C 2 3 ) (KOC 2 3 3HO) Uranium Ore, or Pitch blende. Uranium, 8ulphatcd Protoxide of. Emer- ald-green flattened prisms, with a vitreous lustre ; soluble in water; found native in Elias mine near Joachimsthal. Uranium, Sulphatcd Peroxide of. Sul- phur-yellow botryoidal masses, friable, soiling the lingers; partly soluble in water, the remainder soluble in NOs ; found along Avith the preceding. Uranochre. Uraconise. U 2 O 3 ? Yellow powder on pitch blende, in Comwall and Bohemia ; soluble in acids, and precipitated yellow by NH 3 . B.B. becomes orange; in the reducing flame turns green ; infusible. Uranphyllite. A synonyme of Uranite. Urao. Natron. South American name of native sesquicarbonate of soda. Urea. A substance derived from urine, but also denoting a class of bodies connected with organic radicals, forming parallel compounds to that of the urine. There exist ethyle urea, me- thyle urea, anilo urea, acetyle urea, amyle urea, &c. Urea, or Anomalous Cyanate of Ammo- nia. C 2 NO, NHoHO, or C 2 2 N 2 H 4 7-5, GO. Specific gravity 1-35 (Prout); F.P. 248. C 20, H 6-67, N 46-67, O 26-66. Narrow transparent 4-sided flattened prisms. Characters. Urea is a neutral body, as it pro- duces no change on vegetable blues. When heated it melts ; one portion sublimes without decompos- ing, while another part is decomposed. See BIUKET. Water at 60 dissolves rather more than its own weight of urea ; water at 212 dissolves any quan- tity of it. 4 parts of alcohol of -816 dissolve 1 part of virea. Boiling alcohol dissolves more than its weight of urea. Urea deliquesces in moist air, but is permanent in dry air. It melts at 248 into a colourless liquid, but by a higher tempera- ture it is decomposed into ammonia, cyanate of ammonia, and dry cyanuric acid. Alkalies cause the evolution of no ammonia from urea in the cold state, but when a solution of urea is eva- porated with nitrate of silver, cyanate of silver and nitrate of ammonia are formed ; and when a similar experiment is made with acetate of lead, carbonate of lead and acetate of ammonia are the result. When heated with caustic potash or soda, urea is decomposed into carbonic acid and am- monia, by taking up the elements of 2 atoms of water ; nitrous acid decomposes urea into nitrogen, URE and carbonic acid; chlorine decomposes it into hydrochloric acid, nitrogen, and carbonic acid. The composition of urea is equivalent to 2 atoms of carbonate of ammonia, deprived of the elements of 2 atoms of water ; and when it remains in con- tact with water it is converted into 2 atoms dry carbonate of ammonia, Co N 2 H 4 Oo -[- 2HO = 2NH 4 2CO 2 . History. Urea was first described as obtained from urine under the title of soapy matter by Rouelle, jun. It was afterwards obtained by Cruickshanks, and by Fourcroy and Vauquelin. It is the second substance of animal origin formic acid being the first (Dbbereiner) which has been prepared in the laboratory (Wohler). Preparation. 1. Urea may be obtained by mixing aqueous cyanic acid with ammonia and heating the mixture, or by spontaneous eva- poration. A solution of cyanogen in water also yields urea. Cyanate of lead, heated with a solution of carbonate of ammonia,, and cyanate of silver, with a solution of salam- moniac, produce urea (Wohler), or when uric acid is distilled. 2. The easiest process for ob- taining -urea is to evaporate urine to the consist- ence of a syrup with a moderate heat. Small portions are to be occasionally tested with nitric acid of 1-42 spec. grav. free from nitrous acid (N0 3 ). If the liquor thickens on the addition of the acid to a crystalline mass, the whole urine should be mixed with an equal measure of the acid. The crystals which result of nitrate of urea are to be purified by washing them with dilute nitric acid, and drying them on a porous tile; they are then to be dissolved in water, de- colourized with freshly heated animal charcoal, and crystallized. A solution of these colourless crystals is then to be mixed with carbonate of barytes until the solution is neutral. The liquor being evaporated, the nitrate of barytes crystal- lizes out first, and then the urea. To obtain the urea perfectly pure, it may be dissolved and crys- tallized from alcohol. 3. Evaporate the urine to a syrup, dry it at 212, dissolve up the urea by absolute alcohol, and distil off the alcohol at 212. Dissolve the residue in water, and decolourize by animal charcoal; filter; heat to 122, and add as much oxalic acid as it is capable of dissolving at that temperature ; oxalate of urea deposits on cooling, which increases by evaporation. When the solution thickens, and has no strong acid taste, heat to -122, and add more oxalic acid, when a new crop of oxalate is obtained. Dis- solve the oxalate in boiling water, add animal charcoal, filter and evaporate. White oxalate is obtained. Dissolve these in water and add car- bonate of lime, when oxalate of lime is formed and urea set free ; filter and evaporate, and free the urea from an alkaline oxalate by absolute alcohol, which dissolves the urea but not the oxalate. 4. 28 parts yellow prussiate of pot- ash (ferrocyanide of potassium), completely dried, are mixed with 14 parts of black oxide 506 UEE of manganese, both finely pulverized ; the mix- ture is to be heated on an iron plate over a charcoal fire to a low red heat, where it catches fire, and gradually burns away. Its concretion is prevented by stirring it ; the access of air is thus also promoted. The burned mass is, after cooling, to be treated with cold water, and the solution mixed with 20^ parts of dry sulphate of ammonia, either as it occurs in commerce or pre- pared by saturating carbonate of ammonia with S0 3 and evaporating to dryness. It is proper to set aside the first strong lye from the burned prussiate; to dissolve the sulphate in the last washings, and then to mix the first washings with the rest. A copious precipitation of sulphate of potash generally takes place, from which the solution is to be poured off; It is then to be evaporated in the water bath without boil- ing. Crusts of KOSOs form, from which the solution is to be poured off. The last portion is to be evaporated to dryness and treated with boiling spirit of 80 to 90 per cent., which dis- solves the urea. This is to be crystallized out by cooling, and diluting the spirit while the sulphate and salts remain in solution. From a Ib. of prussiate 4 oz. of pure urea may be ob- tained. It sometimes happens that the solution containing the sulphate of potash and urea is coloured yellow by the ammonia or potash cyanide of iron, which dissolves in the spirit, and colours the urea yellow. This may be removed by the addition of some solution of sulphate of iron. After the subsidenceof the Prussian blue, carbonate of ammonia is added to the solution, by which the excess of iron is precipitated, and the solution becomes clear and colourless ; it is then evapo- rated and treated as above. Analysis for Urea. Lecanits Process. Evaporate in a water bath 900 grains of urine. Dissolve up the urea by strong alcohol; evaporate again in the water bath; adc quaterhydrate of nitric acid. Place the nitrate of urea crystals on a porous tile over lime ir a vacuum; next day change the tile, and allow it to remain for some days. Weigh. The nit- rate contains 48-84 per cent, of urea. Milton's. Prepare nitrate of mercury by digest- ing 2604 grains of nitric acid on 1937 grains mercury. The mercury dissolves almost com- pletely in the cold, but towards the end a gent! heat may be applied. Two volumes of wate are then added to one volume of fluid. Thi may be preserved in stoppered bottles for month without decomposing. 40 to 45 cub. centimetres of the mercurial solution are poured into a flask and about 300 grains of urine are added. Th< flask is then connected with an aspirating appara tus. The urine mixture is brought just to tin boiling point, and the heat stopped, when N0 4 ap- pears. The carbonic acid is absorbed by potash the water being dried up by tubes filled with pumice moistened with S0 3 . The weight of the CO 2 give the weight of the urea by multiplying by 1-731 URE Bunsen's Process consists in heating urine vith chloride of barium in anammoniacal solution, i a sealed tube, at a temperature of 464, in an >il bath. The urea being converted into carbo- ate of ammonia, throws down its equivalent of carbonate of bary tes. LieUy's Test for Urea. Add a solution of the nitrate of mercury to a solution of urea, and neu- ralize the liberated acid by barytes or caustic soda. When, by repeated additions of salt and neutralization, the whole of the urea is sepa- rated as a white precipitate, a further quantity of nitrate gives the yellow oxide of mercury. The presence of common salt in urine presents some difficulties (see Liebig, Ann.) Practical Applications Urea exists in consi- derable quantity in the urine of the inferior ani- mals, and is of great value as a manure ; but as it readily changes in a few hours into a volatile carbonate of ammonia, it is necessary to fix it in the form of a more permanent salt, by means either of sulphuric or hydrochloric acids. To convert 7$ parts of urea into sulphate of ammo- nia, it is necessary to add 12 parts, or 2 atoms, of oil of vitriol, or sulphuric acid of commerce. Now, according to experiment, it appears that the urine of the cow contains 4 per cent, of urea. Hence every 100 pounds of cow's urine would require to fix its urea in the form of sulphate of ammonia, 6-53 Ibs. of oil of vitriol, or about 6 Ibs. The urine of the horse contains 0-7 per cent, of urea ; every 100 Ibs. of it would, there- fore, only require 1-14 Ibs. of oil of vitriol to fix the ammonia. To collect the urine of horses and cows, the liquid from stables, cowhouses, and dunghills should be allowed to ran into tanks, properly placed for the purpose, and covered in from the external air. The acid should be placed in the tank, and the quantity to b added can be judged of by the capacity of the re- servoir, and the quantity of liquid contained in it. Nitrate of Urea. UrN0 5 -f HO (Regnault). Pearly plates, difficultly soluble in NO 5 , and not decomposed by boiling in the same acid. Whea heated up to about 220, it decomposes, am- monia being formed. It consists of urea 48-86, N0 5 43-85, HO 7-29 (Heintz, Poggendorff, Ixvi. 122). This salt was first discovered by Cruickshanks in 1797 (Rollo, Cases of the Dia- betes mellitus, and Philosoph. Mag. ii. 240, 1798). Oxalate of Urea.Ur, Oxal. HO (Ur,C ? 3 , HO). Long slender plates. Taste cooling j when heated melts, boils, ammonia being evolved, and cyanuric acid formed. Ureide. A compound containing the ele- ments of a salt of urea, minus water ; thus ben- zoyle ureide, C 50 H 2 8N 8 8 , a white powder by the action of oil of bitter almonds on urea. Urethaiic. Carbamic Ether, Carbamafe of Oxide of Ethyh. C G H 7 NO 4 = C 4 H 3 O, C0 2 , CONH 2 ? Crystalline body, isomeric with lac- tamide, sarcosine, and alanine, and homologous 507 URE with glycocoll ; obtained by acting on chlorocar- bonic ether with ammonia, and subliming. Urethylane. Carbamate of Oxide ofMeihyle. C 4 H 5 NO 4 = C 2 H 3 O, C 2 NH 2 O 3 . Crystalline compound, formed by acting on pyroxylic spirit with chlorocarbonic acid, and mixing the pro- duct with ammonia. It is isomeric with glycocoll. Uric Acid. Lithic Acid. C] \H 2 N 4 O4 2HO, or C 5 HN 2 O 2 ,HO. This acid was discovered by Scheele in 1776. It was termed lithiasic acid by Morveau before 1789, and lithic acid by Lavoisier in 1789; uric or ouric oxide by Dr. Pearson in 1798 ; and ouric acid by Four- croy in 1798. It was first observed in urinary calculi, and in all urine by Scheele; in the excre- ment of snakes by Vauquelin ; in that of silk worms by Brngnatelli ; in cantharides by Robi- quet. It also exists in the urine or excrement of the common fowl, and various sea birds, as xemplified in guano. Preparation. It may be obtained pure by boiling the excrements of serpents or birds (which consist of urate of ammonia mixed with phos- phate of lime) in caustic potash or soda, filtering, r and then precipitating the solution at a boiling temperature with hydrochloric acid. The pre- cipitate is thrown on a filter, and washed with cold water. To purify it still further, it may again be dissolved in potash or soda, and boiled for fifteen minutes with hydrochloric acid. Uric acid may be procured from the urine in crystals by adding to it a few drops of nitric acid, and allowing the liquid to stand at rest for a day ; the crystals of uric acid collect on the sides of the glass. Characters. Uric acid obtained by this process is frequently in the form of a fine white powder, and also falls in fine minute silky prisms, destitute of taste and smell, or in scales. It dissolves in 1,400 times its weight of boiling water (Dr. Henry), the solution reddening litmus paper ; and it requires more than 10,000 tunes its weight of cold water to dissolve it. It is slightly soluble in hydrochloric acid ; soluble in sulphuric acid, from which it separates on add- ing water. It dissolves in alkaline carbonates. Nitric acid dissolves it ; equal volumes of carbo- nic acid and nitrogen being evolved, and alloxan, alloxantin, urea, parabanic acid, ammonia, re- maining in the solution. According to Bensch, 1 part is soluble in 14 to 15,000 parts of cold, and in 1,800 to 1,900 of boiling water. Uric acid may l>e distinguished from other bodies by the fact, that when the nitric acid solution is mixed with ammonia and evaporated, a fine purple colour is produced. When subjected to dry distillation, the volatile products ai-o urea, cyanic acid, cya- melide, hydrocyanic acid, and carbonate of am- monia, while there remains in the retort a coaly azotized substance. When fused with solid caus- tic potash, there are formed carbonate and cyanate of potash, and cyanide of potassium. When boiled with brown oxide of lead and water it is converted into allantoin, urea, and oxalic URI acid (Liebig and Wbhler). Sulphuric acid forms with uric acid a crystalline compound, 1 uric acid + 4SO ? -f- 4HO (Fritsche). When dis- solved in this acid, and water added, uric acid falls in granular crystals. Uric acid has been viewed as composed of a hypothetic uryle, C 8 N" 2 O 4 (4CO, 2 C 2 N,) and urea ; alloxantine = Ul -{- -f 5 HO > ; alloxan Ul + O 2 and 4 HO. Salts. The bisalts contain an atom of base and an atom of water; while the neutral salts, as those of potash, soda, lime, lead, containno water, simply an atom of base ; the strontian salt con- tains 2 atoms HO, the barytes salt 1 atom HO (Bensch). Urate of Lime. The acid urate is the most soluble of the urates likely to occur in animals. It dissolves in 276 hot, 603 cold water. Cause of Uric Acid Calculi. Children, and particularly those of gouty and dyspeptic per- sons, or who inherit a tendency to urinary dis- eases, are liable to uric acid deposits. The pre- sence of gravel of this description is a frequent cause of involuntary micturition at night among children. After puberty this tendency dis- appears. In these individuals the tendency is again apt to occur after the age of forty. It has been observed that this disease is closely connected with what is termed in common language a scor- butic habit of body, that is, a tendency to disease of the skin. In those predisposed to the disease, an excess of food is apt to produce an attack, and more especially food difficult of digestion as doughy bread, and doughy dishes of all kinds. Malt liquors, strong and sweet wines, have a similar influence. The same observation applies to hard and impure waters. Exercise imme- diately after a meal, and what operates so as to interfere with the digestive process, is very apt to cause the deposition of uric acid. Want of exer- cise at the proper time is also liable to occasion this disease. Products of tlie Oxidation of Uric Acid. Allantoin, C 4 H3N 2 Og, colourless rhombic prisms, obtained by boiling 1 uric acid, 20 water; brown oxide of lead is to be added as long as its colour changes. The allantoin is obtained by filtration and evaporation; this substance occurs in the allantoic fluid of the cow. Alloxan, C,c;N 2 H4 OIQ, colourless right prisms, efflorescent, obtained by dissolving uric acid in N0 5 (1*45), and allow- ing the mother liquid to drain off. Alloxanic acid, C 8 N 2 H 2 O 8 2HO, radiated needles, obtained by treating alloxan with alkalies. Leucoturic acid, CcNaHsOfl, white powder, obtained by eva- porating a strong solution of alloxanic acid at a certain temperature. Difluan is found in the liquid which deposits the preceding acid. Mes- oxalic acid, formed by heating alloxanate of barytes to the boiling point. Mycomelic acid, prepared by heating alloxan with an excess of ammonia. Parabanic acid, formed by heating alloxan or uric acid with NOg, and evaporating. Oxaluric acid, obtained by heating parabauic acid 508 UEI with NH 3 ; the acid may be separated by S0 3 . Thionuric acid, formed by causing sulphite of NH 3 to act on alloxan. Uramile is prepared by treating thionurate of NH 3 with HC1. Ura- milic acid, prepared from the preceding by treat- ing with S0 3 . Alloxantine, Cg^HsOjO) oblique 4-sided prisms, formed by adding dilute NOs to uric acid, and evaporating down one-third ; or by passing SH through alloxan. Dialuric acid, ob- tained by passing SH through a boiling solution of alloxantine and adding NH 3 ; dialurate of NH 3 separates in silky crystals. Allituric acid, pre- pared by boiling alloxantin with HC1,N0 5 . Dili- turic acid, obtained from the mother liquor of the preceding body by SH. Murexide, C 12 N 5 H G O S , purpurate of NH 3 , of Prout, 4-sided prisms, with a beautiful green metallic lustre, obtained by dis- solving uric acid in dilute NOs, and evaporating till it acquires a flesh colour ; it is treated with NH 3 in slight excess; it is then diluted with half its weight of boiling water, and allowed to cool. It may also be obtained by mixing 7 grs. alloxan, 5 alloxantine, dissolved in 240 grs. water, with 80 grs. of a cold strong solution of carbonate of ammonia. Murexan, C 6 N" 2 H 4 O5, purpuric acid of Prout, silky scales, insoluble in water ; prepared by dissolving murexide in caustic pot- ash, and adding S0 3 in excess. Xanthic oxide, C 5 X 2 H 2 02, a rare calculus, dissolves in N0 5 , leaving a yellow residue, which is not redissolved by NH 3 ; somewhat soluble in water. Cystic oxide, an organic base, CgNHgC^Sg, yellowish white crystals ; a rare calculus, soluble in alka- lies, decomposed by heat, with evolution of SOo, and NH 3 . Guanine, Ci H 5 ]Sr 5 2 , white crys- talline powder, extracted from guano by HC1, and precipitated by alkalies ; it is a base uniting with acids and forming salts. Hyperuric acid (C 10 N 4 H 3 7 2HO) by oxidating guanine. See also LANTANURIC ACID, HIDANTOIC ACID, UEOXANIC ACID, UROXILE. Uric Oxide. See XANTHIC OXIDE. Urinary Calculi. The deposit of granular matter in the bladder is termed gravel. When the deposits are larger, the term calculus or stone is applied to them. Calculi are divisible into two classes : 1. Calculi soluble in Caustic Soda or Potash. 1. Uric Acid, Lithic Acid. These have usually a yellow tint and smoothish surface, and are deposited in layers. They dissolve in soda, and afford a precipitate when an acid is added to the soda solution. They dissolve with effervescence in nitric acid, and yield a fine purple colour when ammonia is added to the acid solution (fig. 2). 2. Urate of Ammonia is soluble in caustic soda, with evolution of ammonia, and likewise yields the same results as uric acid. It is also soluble in alkaline carbonates (fig. 1). 3. Cystic Oxide, or Cystine (fig. 5). Pale yellow compact rounded masses; insoluble in water, alcohol, acetic, tartaric, citric acids, and bicarbonate of ammonia ; soluble iii HC1, NO^, URI S0 3 , P0 5 , and C 2 3 ; also in potash, soda, am- monia, lime water, bicarbonates of potash, and soda; it unites with acids, and forms crystals; before the bloAvpipe emits a peculiar odour. Con- sists of C 30-01, H 5-1, N 11-, S 25-51, O 28-38 = C 6 H C NO 4 S 2 (fig. 5) ; in 6-sided scales. 4. Xanthic Oxide, Xanthine, Uric Oxide. Reddish cinnamon-coloured, compact, hard, and laminated calculus ; the colour being heightened by soda ; soluble in boiling water with acid reaction ; insoluble in bicarbonates of potash and ammonia,, insoluble in chlorohydric and oxalic acids, by which it is distinguished from cystine ; soluble int caustic soda, and reprecipitated by acetic acid ; soluble in S0 3 with a yellow colour. The solu- tion in nitric acid leaves by evaporation a lemon residue, partly soluble in water, to which it gives its colour ; caustic potash turns the yellow residue? red, while the addition of an acid destroys it. When purified by dissolving in potash and preci- pitating by C0 2 , it consists of C 39-28, H 2-95 r N 36-35, O 21-42 = C fi H 2 N 2 2 . II. Calculi insoluble in caustic potash or soda. 1. Phosphate of Lime or Bone Earth. Pale brown masses with a smooth surface, consisting, of concentric laminae, which easily separate ; sol- uble in nitric acid, and reprecipitated in flocks by ammonia ; insoluble in acetic acid, which dis- tinguishes it from ammonia phosphate of magne- sia. B.B. becomes black, turns white, and is fusible at a very high temperature. 2. Ammonia Phosphate of Magnesia, or Triple Phosphate. (NH 3 2 MgO, P0 5 -f- 10 HO) (fig. 8). Crystals and calculi. The crystals which occur Fi.i:-. I. Urate of ammonia (soda?) ; 2, uric acid; 3, yeast plant in diabetic urine; 4, oxalate of lime; 5, cystic oxide; 6, Wood globules in urine ; 7, pus globules in urine ; 8, ainm o nia phosphate of magnesia, or triple phosphate. frequently in ammoniacal or alkaline urine are shaped like the roof of a house ; they are soluble in acetic acid, and are reprecipitated in stars on the addition of ammonia to the acid solution. 509 URI B.B. ammonia is disengaged, and diphosphate of magnesia remains. The larger calculi are com- posed of accumulations of these crystals, and often contain some phosphate of lime. 3. Fusible Calculus, or mixture of Ammonia- Phosphate of Magnesia, and Phosphate of Lime. ' White and friable calculi resembling chalk, leaving a powder on the fingers ; they separate frequently into laminae, the interstices of which are studded with triple phosphate. B.B. they fuse into a glassy globule, in consequence of the reaction of the phosphate of magnesia on phos- phate of lime. Acetic acid dissolves up the am- monia phosphate of magnesia ; the solution may then be treated by caustic potash ; the phosphate of lime remains, which may be dissolved by chlo- rohydric acid. 4. Oxalate of Lime Crystals, or Mulberry Calcu- lus (fig. 4). Oxalate of lime occurs very frequently in the urine in the form of 8-hedrons or dumb- bells, even when there appears no deviation from health ; insoluble in acetic acid. The mulberry calculus is a brown concretion with a tuberculated surface, usually forming the nucleus of a uric acid surface ; soluble in nitric and chlorohydric acids ; with caustic potash it forms oxalate of potash, and lime is precipitated ; with carbonate of pot- ash, oxalate of potash in solution, and carbonate of lime, precipitated. B.B. becomes carbonate of lime, which dissolves with effervescence in acetic acid. 5. Rare calculi of carbonate of lime have also been described. Urine. The descending aorta in its course gives off the emulgent arteries which proceed to the kidneys, and secrete the urine, a yellow or amber- coloured fluid with an aromatic odour and acid reaction. The specific gravity of urine has been differently stated. Urine when evacuated has a temperature of 94 or 96. The following table of specific gravity was taken when the urine was emitted : 40 Experiments 1015 18 16 14 1G 15 20 19 158 8 | 8129 1016 I found that when the temperature fell to 60 there was a difference in the specific gravity in the 4th place to the amount of 3, so that if we add this we shall get for the mean of 158 experi- ments 1019 as the average specific gravity of healthy urine. These experiments were made in winter when the urine may be expected to be lighter than in summer when so much of the URI fluids of the body escape by the skin. This agrees almost exactly with the result of Dr. Prout's conclusions, that the average specific gravity scarcely reaches 1020. Dr. Jas. Gregory makes the specific gravity 1022J. Dr. Thomson made it 1014. My number is intermediate. Bec- querel makes the mean 1017. The mean specific gravity of the urine of 163 patients in St. Thomas's Hospital, determined in my laboratory, was 1018. Quantity of Urine. Experiments made by me during a series of weeks gave the following re- sults in fluid ounces : 2d. 3d. 4th. 5th. Cth. 52 357 314 380 369 341 Total = 2118"! fluid ounces. = 353 fluid ounces per week. Average of six weeks = nearly to 50|- fluid oz. per day, or 51 - 4 ounces avoirdupois. According to Becquerel the average quantity in twenty-four hours is 1319 grammes=:42g- ounces avoirdupois. Accord- ing to Rayer the extremes in health are 21 and 57 ounces. The smallest quantity obtained by me in the experiments alluded to was 32 fluid ounces in a healthy person, when the thermometer was at 30, and the fluid ingesta amounted to 53 fluid ounces ; the largest amount was 6 8 fluid ounces, under ordinary circumstances, or 3 -2 1 Ibs. Dr. T. Thomson makes it 3,307 Ibs. avoirdupois = 52*9 oz. avoirdupois. The urine is easily increased by certain articles of diet, such as coffee, if it be taken of a certain strength. The following diary shows the effect of this beverage : Ingesta. Egesta. Sp.-Grav. 5th. 9 a.m. 18 fluid oz. fluid oz. 10 2 12 1GJ 1007 5 p.m. 12 6 12 coffee 18 1015 6th. 1 a.m. 10 strong coffee 28 1013 3,, 18 1005 8 , 8 1017 54 fluid oz. 89 oz. By a mean of forty-two days it was found that the number of times that a person passes his urine is three times daily. All these ob- servations are made on the understanding that the person experimented on abstains from fer- mented liquors. Next we may turn our atten- tion to the relation between the fluid ingesta and luid egesta. 510 URI I have found the relation of the fluid ingesta to the egesta as follows : Fluid ounces. Fluid ingesta, 46 ,, egesta, 50 or a greater amount of fluid excreted than is in- troduced into the system. But we must recol- lect that the greater portion of our food consists of water in a solid state, amply sufficient to account for this excess. Table of Urine in Health and Disease. Health. Fevers. Anaemia. ^fa^ 8 Dial3etes - Spec. grav.... 1017 1022 1010 1012 'l045 Water, 97?38 963-T 983*15 984-3 835'5 Urea, 11'58 13'1 6'4 7'8 S'3 Uric acid,") hippu. acid > '47 creatinine, j Animal mat.,. 8'65 Chlorine, 0'50 Sulphuric 1 , J 0-85 acid,. Phosphoric 1 acid, 3 Potash 1-30 Soda ) Lime, [ nesia,.) 0-32 3-95 1-4 14-3 7-5 6-10 4G 6-3 11-7 5-14 8-1 134 sugar Magnesia, . Becquerel. Thomson. Weight of water in 24 hours, . . 1 9801 grs. 2255 1 grs. Weight of solids, 569 598 Total weight, 20370 grs. 23149 grs. or 52'9 oz. av. Total weight, R.D.T., 22487 grs. or 51'4 oz. avoird. Salts of Urine. When the food has been bread or flesh, the ashes of which contain only phos- phates, the urine contains the alkalies in the state of phosphates. If the food has consisted of roots, green vegetables, and fruits, the ashes of which contain as soluble salts only alkaline carbonates, the urine contains alkaline carbonates ; bitartrates, tartrates, malates, and acetates appear in the urine as carbonates, and render it alkaline ; and it has long been observed that after eating juicy fruits, cherries, strawberries, apples, &c., the urine be- comes alkaline. The presence of alkali tends to the combustion of organic substances. Urate of potash, when given to a rabbit, was converted into oxalic acid and urea, the latter correspond- ing with C0 2 , and the former only wanting one of oxygen to convert it into CO 2 . Hence in herbivora, in consequence of the alkali, no uric acid is found in their urine. We have thus a key to the treatment of uric acid diathesis by the use of alkalies. Gallic acid, when taken without alkali, can be detected by copperas in the urine, but with alkali it is not detectable. These facts show us how much is to be gained in our treat- ment of disease by the judicious use of diet. The urine of a pig fed on potatoes, Avhich is alkaline, becomes acid as soon as it gets com or peas. When we examine the ash of the healthy blood, and also that of the urine of the same person, \ve find the soluble salts the same; hence we UEO may expect to be able by analysis of the urine to reason backwards on the condition of the blood in disease. By treatment with hydrate of lime and distillation, urine affords carbolic, taurilic, and damaluric acid. Analysis of Urine. The water is obtained by evaporating a weighed quantity at 212, the uric acid by adding a few drops of chlorohydric acid to a weighed quantity, and allowing it to stand for twenty-four hours. The crystals which deposit on the sides of the vessel in needles are thrown on a weighed filter, washed, and dried at 212. The urea is estimated by evaporating a given weight of urine to the consistence of syrup, and adding an equal bulk of nitric acid ; nitrate of urea falls, which is thrown on a weighed filter, and washed once with ice-cold water, dried, and weighed, or by any of the methods given under urea. Hippuric acid is obtained by evaporating to a syrup, adding chlorohydric acid, and then ether; the acid is dissolved. The acids and bases are obtained by the methods described un- der these heads. Urinary Deposits. The flocky deposits com- monly observed in urine are three in number. 1. The huffy jyrecijntate has been termed the precipi- tate of health ; it is dissolved by the application of heat, and is described by some as urate of am- monia, and by others, apparently with accuracy, as urate of soda. It appears as fine cellular granules, or as star-like spiculse (fig. 1) ; it is not a product of disease, but an increased quantity of a salt always existing in the urine. It is accom- panied with traces of urates of lime and ammo- nia. It falls sometimes when there is an insxiffi- ciency of exercise. Carnivorous animals confined in cages frequently deposit it. It occurs in em- physema, in heart disease, enlargement of liver. The deposition which occurs of uric acid appears to originate from the urate of soda by standing. In gout we have calculi of this nature ; but uric acid also occurs in the blood in Bright's disease. 2. Red Sediment. When of a light tint, this deposit often appears after drinking ; but when brick-red it indicates inflammatory action in some part of the system. It is believed to be urate of soda, mixed with purpurate of ammo- nia (murexide). 3. Pink Sediment occurs in chronic diseases of the viscera, in hectic and irri- tative fever. Besides these, there are deposited uric acid in orange diamond-like crystals, oxa- late of lime in dumb-bell and 8-hedral crystals (fig. 4), &c. ; ammonia phosphate of magnesia (fig. 8) in alkaline urine. Urocrythriuc. The red-colouring matter of urine. Uroglaucinc. Cyamirine. The blue-colouring matter of urine. Indigo has been detected in urine. Urostcalite. An urinary calculus insoluble in water ; soluble in ether, hot alcohol, and in car- bonate of soda and caustic soda ; soluble in nitric acid, leaving a residue by evaporation, which be- comes yellow with ammonia or potash ; when 511 URO heated gives out the smell of benzoin and shell lac (HeUer). I roxaiiie Acid. CjoHgNgO^. 4-hedra or plumose crystals ; obtained by allowing a solution of uric acid in excess of potash to stand, -when this acid is deposited along with urate of potash. Uroxauthinc. A yellow-colouring matter in urine of Bright's disease and in cholera. Uroxile. CgHyNgOg. Yellowish mass, by heating uroxanic acid to 212 ; carbonic acid and water separate. VAN Urrhoidiiie. A ruby-red matter, formed by oxidation from uroxanthine. VJryle. C 8 N 2 4 =4CO,2C 2 N. The hypo- thetic radical of uric acid. Urylic Acid. A synonyme of uric acid. llsnic Acid. C 32 H 18 14 . YelloAvish-white needles with metallic lustre, extracted from Usnea barbata and other lichens by alcohol or by lime, and an acid and crystallization out of alcohol ; by distillation it yields betaorcine Uvarowitc. See OUWAROWITE. Vaccic, or Vaccinic Acid. C 20 H 2 o0 6 . Ap- parently a conjugate acid of capric and butyric acids, obtained on one occasion along with capric and butyric acids by saponifying butter, distilling off the volatile acids, and saturating with barytes. Valc, or Wad. Binoxide of manganese. Valencia mie. A variety of Felspar. Valentitiite, or White antimony. Valcr-accto-nitrile. C 2G H 24 N 2 G . Spec, grav. -79; B.P. 156. Volatile oil; obtained by distilling the products of the oxidation of gelatine by bichromate of potash and sulphuric acid. Valcraldchyde. Valeral C 10 H 10 2 . A fluid obtained in the oxidation of vegetable fibrine, polymeric with capric acid. Valeramide. CioHnN0 2 . Large crystals by the action of strong caustic ammonia on valer- ate of oxide of ethyle. Valcranilitlc. C 22 H 15 N0 2 . F.P. 239. Shining rectangular plates, by the reaction of valerianic acid on aniline. Valerene. CjoHjo- A volatile oil pro- duced in the action of zinc on iodide of amyle. Valerianic Acid. Valeric Acid. (Bal- driansaure, Ger.) Delpfwnic, Phocenic Acids. C 10 H 9 3 HO. Spec. grav. -932, -937, of va- pour 3-67; B.P. 347. Thin colourless oil, smelling of butyric and acetic acids, with an acid taste, corroding the tongue; burns like a volatile oil ; converted by chlorine into chlorine acids, chlorovalerisic and chlorovalerosic acids; forms monobasic salts with water ; obtained by distilling valerian root (Valeriana officmalis) and neutralizing the product with magnesia; distilling off the fluid oils, and distilling the valerianate of magnesia with sulphuric acid; also by distilling angelica root ; likewise by heating oil of grain or potatoes with hydrate of potash to 392, or by treating it with bichro- mate of potash and sulphuric acid till no more hydrogen is evolved; valerianate of potash re- mains, which is distilled with dilute S0 3 ; like- wise from Viburnum opulus ; anhydrous valerianic acid is obtained by the action of oxychloride of phosphorus on valerianate of potash. Valerianobenzoic Acid. C 10 H 9 O 3 , C 14 H 5 3 . Oily fluid, heavier than water, by the action of chlorobenzoyle on valerianate of potash. Valerine. Valero- Glycerine. 1. Monovalerine. Spec. grav. 1-100. C 16 H 16 O 8 . Neutral vola- tile oil, changing into valeramide by NH 3 . 2. Divalerine. C 2G H 26 12 . Spec. grav. 1-059. Disagreeable smelling oil, with a bitter taste. Both of these bodies are formed by the action of valeric acid on glycerine ; the first at 400, the second at 500. Valerole. Oil of Valerian. Ci 2 H 10 2 . F.P. 68. Colourless prisms at 32 ; smells in the oily state of hay ; metameric with oxide of mesityle ; changes in the air into valerianic acid and resin ; forms a resin with N0 5 ; with S0 3 forms a red solution and sulphovalerolic acid; little soluble in water ; easily soluble in alcohol, ether, and volatile oils ; obtained along with va- lerianic acid and borneene in distilling valerian root with water ; it is the least volatile product. It is separated by fractional distillation. Valerone. Ci 8 H 18 2 . B.P. under 212. Colourless thin fluid, lighter than water, of agreeable ethereal smell ; neutral ; burns with a smoky flame ; obtained by distilling valerianic acid with excess of lime, and rectifying o^er fresh lime. Valeronilrilc. Cyanide of Butyle. C; H N Spec. grav. -81 ; B.P. 257. Volatile along with valeracetonitrile in the oxidation of gelatine. Valeryle. Ci H 9 . The hypothetic radical of valeraldehyde. Valyle. Butyle. C 8 H . B.P. 226. Oily fluid produced hi the decomposition of valerianic acid by the galvanic battery. It is a homologue of methyle, ethyle, &c. Vanadium. V 8-5, 68. Discovered in 1830 by Sefstrb'm, and so termed from Vanadis, a Scandinavian deity. It was first observed in the iron ore of Taberg in Sweden. It occurs in the form of vanadiate of lead at Zimapan in Mexico (Del Rio, Berzelius, Wohler, at Wanlockhead in Scotland (Johnston), in Wicklow, Ireland (R.D. T.). In 1801 Del Rio announced the existence of a new metal in the Zimapan mineral, and termed it erythronium ; but Descotils having also exa- mined it, and considering it a compound of chromic acid, Del Rio abandoned his original view of its constitution. The metal may bo obtained by passing dry ammoniacal gas over the chloride of 512 VAN vanadium. Salammoniac is formed, which vola tilizes on the application of heat, and leaves th metal. The chloride is prepared bypassing chl rine gas over a mixture of oxide of vanadium an charcoal. Vanadium, is a white metal resemblin .silver, or more strongly molybdenum. It is good conductor of electricity, and is decided! negative. It dissolves readily in nitric an hydrochloric acids, affording a blue solution There are three oxides. Protoxide of Vanadium, VO 9 '5, 76-, is obtained by passing hydrogen gas over vana die acid at a red heat, or by heating it witl charcoal. It is a black semi-metallic powde resembling plumbago ; and is a good conducto of electricity. It does not combine with acids When heated in the air it takes fire, and is con verted into a black fused mass (V0 2 ). By the ac tion of chlorine it is converted into VC1 and VO 3 Binoxide of Vanadium, V0 2 10*5, 84, maj be obtained by exposing to a white heat in ar atmosphere of carbonic acid 9-^ parts of protoxide of vanadium with ll parts of vanadic acid, o by heating vanadiate of ammonia in a retort til the gas is all evolved, or by reducing vanadic acid by sulphuretted hydrogen, oxalic acid or sugar, as in the case of chromium. The solution is precipitated with carbonate of soda. This is thrown on a filter and washed. When dried in vacuo it is the hydrate of binoxide a gray powder. When ignited away from the air it it a black powder. It is insoluble in water, but when allowed to remain in contact with that fluid it colours it green, by undergoing a higher oxi- dation. It dissolves completely in acids, and forms salts. It also unites with bases and forms compounds. The salts are precipitated by car bonate of soda, and by solution of nutgalls like iron. Ihe sulphate of vanadium exists as a pale blue crystalline crust, and contains 17^ per cent, of water. Few of the salts are capable of crys- tallizing. Vanadic Acid, V0 3 11-5, 92, may be pre- pared from the vanadiate of ammonia by igniting it in an open crucible ; the salt decomposes, be- coming first black, then reddish-brown, and lat- terly a rust-coloured powder. It is destitute of taste and smell, but reddens moistened litmus paper. When ignited it fuses, and crystallizes on cooling in needles. It is a non-conductor of electricity. It is scarcely soluble in 1000 parts of water. When heated per se on charcoal before the blowpipe it gives the protoxide resembling plumbago ; a green glass with ammonia, phos- phate of soda, and borax. It unites with bases, and also with stronger acids ; the acid salts have an orange colour ; the neutral salts are colourless and yellow. The yellow salts have generally a tendency to lose their colour by heat. It com- bines in 2 proportions with potash. The vana- liate of ammonia is almost insoluble in a solution 3f salammoniac, and precipitates in the form of a ivhite powder. 513 VER Other Oxides. By combinations occurring be- tween the two oxides we have various other states of oxidation produced. A purple oxide is pro- cured by the action of air and moisture upon the hydrate of the binoxide. A vanadiate of the binoxide, a bivanadiate of the binoxide, and an orange vanadiate of binoxide exist. Sulphide of vanadium, VS 3 , is obtained by dissolving van- adic acid in an alkaline hydrosulphuret, and. precipitating by sulphuric or hydrochloric acids. Phosphide of vanadium is produced by igniting phosphate of vanadium. Vanadiobronzitc. A mineral identical with bronzite, in which vanadium oxide and soda re- place protoxide of iron. Si0 3 49-5, A1 2 O 3 5-55, CaO 18-126, MgO 14-12, FeO 3-28, VO 3-65, XaO 3-75, HO 1-77. Bracco. Varec. See KELP. Variegated Copper. See COPPER. Varioline. Variolarine, Picrolichenite. Spec, grav. 1-176. Rhombic 8-hedrons, bitter, neutral ; insoluble in cold water ; slightly soluble in boil- ing water ; very soluble in alcohol, ether, bisul- phide of carbon, turpentine ; soluble in S0 3 ; soluble in caustic potash, with a red colour ; obtained by alcohol from the Variolara amara lichen. Variolite. A variety of Felspar. Variscitc. Apple-green kidney-shaped masses, allied to turquoise. B.B. becomes white, colours he flame bluish-green ; with borax and micro- 2osmic salt forms a yellowish-green glass. Mess- bach, Voigtland. Tarnish. (Firniss, Ger. ; Vernis, Fr.) A solution of a resin, &c. in alcohol, ether, or naphtha ; which, when applied to a surface, coats t by the evaporation of the solvent. One of the, nost valuable is copal varnish, which is dissolved ither in spirit or in turpentine. Varvicite. See MANGANESE. Vauquelinite. See CUPREOCHROMATE OF LEAD. Vegetable Ivory- See IVORY. Vegetable Tallow, Chinese. F.P. 80. A solid oil extracted from the seeds of Stillingia, ebifera, in China ; contains margaric and stearic cids. Velvet Copper. See LETTSOMITE. Venetian Red. See REDS. Verantine. A substance produced from mad- er by the action of alkalies, and also by the iflueuce 6f acids on rubiane. Veratric Acid. Ci 8 H 9 O r . From the seeds f the Veratrum sdbadilla. Allied to the vola- le fatty acids ; soluble in alcohol and water ; nsoluble in ether. Veratrine. C 34 H 2 gNOp. F.P. 239. A oisonous alkaloid existing in the root of Helk- ore and in the seeds of Sabadilla. White powder, tluble in alcohol, less so in ether, and but very ightly in water. Vertl Antique. Serpentine mixed with car- onate of lime. 2L VER Vertlic Acid. A reddish-brown substance ; obtained by exposing verdous acid, saturated with an alkali, to the action of the air, and then de- composing by means of an acid. Yerdates are green. Verdigris. See ACETATE OF COPPER. Verditer. See GREEN BREMER. Verdous Acid. Yellow brittle body, ex- tracted from the roots of the ScaUosa sttccisa," and existing also in various other families of plants. Yerdites are yellow. Verjuice. The acid liquor from unripe grapes. Vcrniiculite. Hardness 1'. Spec. grav. 2-5252 (Thomson); 2-756 (Crossley). Mica- ceous plates, disseminated through a mealy mag- nesian substance; lustre soapy; feel greasy; sectile. B.B. infusible ; with carbonate of soda in the reducing flame, gives a greenish ; in the oxidizing flame, an amethyst- coloured glass. Si0 3 49-08, MgO 16-964, F 2 3 16-12, A1 2 3 7-28, HO 10-276, Mn trace "(Thomson), Si0 3 35-74, MgO 27-44, Fc 2 8 10-02, A1 2 3 16-42, HO 10-3 (Crossley). Vermont, United States. Vermilion. See MERCURY, SULPHIDE OF. Vcsnvian. See IDOCRASE. Vesuvian Salt. A synonyme of sulphate of potash. Vienna Green. Arsenic acetate of copper. Vignite. Probably a mixture of magnetic iron, carbonate and phosphate of iron. Villarsitc. H 3, 3'5. Spec. grav. 2-975. Yellowish- green rhombic octahedrons of 139 45'. Subtransparent ; B.B. infusible; with borax a green enamel ; decomposed by strong acids. SiO 3 39-40, MgO 45-33, FeO 4-3, MnO 2-86, CaO -54, KO -46, HO 5-8, At Traversella, in Piedmont. Vinegar. See ACETIC ACID. Vinester. A German term, sometimes applied to compounds of ethyle with acids. Vinous Fermentation. See FERMENTA- TIOX. Violnn. Spec. grav. 4-233, H 5 6. Amor- phous ; cleavage giving a rhombic prism ; lustre waxy ; colour dark violet ; opaque ; fracture uneven to imperfectly conchoidal ; B.B. fuses to a clear glass, with borax in the outer flame a brownish-yellow glass, violet-red when cold ; in the inner flame a yellow glass, colourless when cold. It is a silicate of alumina, magnesia, lime, containing much FeO,NaO and MnO. With magnesian epidote, at St. Marcel, in Piedmont. Violine. A substance analogous to Emetine, extracted from the Viola odorata; renders litmus paper green ; insoluble in ether and oils ; precipi- tated by nutgalls ; acts as an emetic. Virgiucic Acid. A peculiar fatty acid, forming the principal part of an oil which exists in considerable quantity in the root of the2 J oltfr/(i/, Senega, a native of Virginia. This oil has a reddish-brown colour, a syrupy consistence, a bitter rancid taste, and disagreeable odour ; red- dens litmus. YOL ;. By the oxida- Gives with BaO a Viridic Acid. C^H tion of caffeptannic acid. bluish-green precipitate. Viscine. Bird Lime. A substance exuding from the epidermis of a species of Acacia, and from the involucrum of the Atractylis gummifera, and several other plants. Soft and elastic, with a greenish or brownish colour, and adhering firmly to the fingers ; insoluble in water and fixed oils ; slightly soluble in alcohol, and very soluble in ether and oil of turpentine. When heated melts and burns with a white flame, giving out much smoke. Artificial Bird Lime is prepared from the middle bark of the Holly, by boiling in water till it becomes soft, allowing it to ferment for several weeks, and then pounding and washing with water. ViteUine. C 52-264, H 7-249, N 15*061, S 1-170, Phosphorus 1-020? O 23-236. The albuminous body constituting 15-76 per cent, of yolk of egg. Tt is very similar to albumen, with which it was long confounded. Like albumen, it has a soluble and insoluble condition. The former is precipitated by HC1 and S0 3 , but not bv organic or phosphoric acids. At 140 it becomes milky, and about 166 deposits flakes. It is only distinguished from soluble albumen in being coagulated by heat, without the addition of acetic- acid or salts ; in not being precipitated by the salts of oxide of lead or copper ; and in being thrown down by ether. The other modification of vitel- line possesses the same properties as the corres- ponding form of albumen. Yitelline seems to be one of the first stages in the metamorphosis of albumen by oxygen. Vitriol, Blue. See SULPHATE OF COPPER. Vitriol, Cobalt. Sulphate of Cobalt. Vitriol, Crreen, or Sulphate of Iron. Vitriol, Lead. Sulphate of Lead. Vitriol, Ochre. See BOTRYOGEX. Vitriol, White. A synonyme of Sulphate of Zinc. Viviaiiitc. Phosphate of Iron, Mullicite, Blue Iron Earth. 3 FeO,P0 5 -f 8 HO. Spec. grav. 2-661, H 1-5 to 2. Primary form a right oblique prism ; thin lamina? flexible, but not elastic ; sectile ; lustre pearly ; almost metallic on the sinnmit of the prism ; the other faces vitreous. At first translucent, but opaque on keeping. Colour between blue and green. Becomes white when heated, and then exfoliates and melts into- a black enamel, which becomes magnetic by con- tinuance of the heat. P0 5 31-1825, FeO 41-2266, HO 27-4843. Huel kind, at St. Agnes,. Corn- wall. Volatile Rases. See BASES. Volatile Oils. See OILS. Volborthite. Spec. grav. 3-459, 3-860, II 3-, 3-5. Green or gray tables, often aggregated together in globules ; lustre pearly to vitreous ; streak, clear yellowish-green, nearly yellow ; translucent, VO 8 36-58, CuO 44-15, CaO 12-28, MgO -5, MnO -4, HO 4-62, gatigue -1 (green VOL variety), V0 3 39-02, CuO 38-27, CaO 16-65, MgO -92, MnO -52, HO 5-05, gangue -76. Friedericksrode, in Thuringia. Volcanic Ashes. The following analyses of two portions of volcanic ashes from Barbadoes in 1812, and preserved in my museum in St. Thomas's Hospital, were made by my assistant, Mr. David Walker. They present the appear- ance of an organized or crystalline structure. 1st. SiO 3 58-8, A1 2 O 3 19-2, Fe 2 3 9-4, CaO 6-608, MgO-2-743, HO 1-88, NaO 1-897. 2d. Si0 3 59-36, A1 2 3 19-40, Fe 2 3 12-88, CaO 4-3, MgO 2-97, HO 1-24, NaO 2-85. I have in my museum a portion of the vesicular matter of which Graham's Island was composed. This island rose suddenly to the S. of Malta in 1831, in lat. 37 11' N. long. 12 44' E., and as suddenly disappeared. The specimen was taken up by A. Gilchrist, Esq. E.N., from the surface of the sea. Mr. D. Walker obtained Si0 3 48-3, A1 2 3 and Fe 2 3 31-, CaO 7', MgO 2-27, NaO and KO 6-43, HO 5-. Volcanic Glass. See OBSIDIAN. Volcanite. Sden Sulphur. Resembling sul- phur, but of an orange or brownish colour. B.B. on charcoal yields fumes of selenium and sulphur- ous acid, and burns readily. From Vulcano. one of the Lipari Islands. Volkonskoite. Amorphous ; dull ; shining ; bluish-green ; streak bluish-green and shining ; feel resinous ; fracture subconchoidal ; adheres slightly to the tongue ; very fragile. Si0 3 37-01, CrO 3 17-93, FeoOo 10-43, A1 9 O 3 6-47, Mn 2 3 1-66, MgO 1-91, HO 21-84, PbO 1-01, KO trace. A silicate of chromium. Okhansk. Volkucrite. 6 MgO, A1 2 3 + 15 HO. Spec. grav. 2-04. Hexagonal ; cleavage basal, eminent, lateral distinct ; colour white ; lustre pearly ; feel greasy. B.B. exfoliates, and gives out light ; infusible. With cobalt solution a weak rose-red. With the fluxes a clear colourless glass. Schischimsk mines, Slatoust. Voltaite. 3 (FeO,KO) S0 3 + 2 A1 2 3 , 3 S0 3 + 12 HO. 8-hedrons ; allied to iron alum ; colour brown or black ; soluble in Avater with difficulty, and decomposing. A1 2 3 3-27, FeO 28-69, IvO 5-47, S0 3 45-67, HO" 15-77, gangue 46. Solfatara, near Naples. Voltzite. 4 ZnS + ZnO. Spec. grav. 3-66, H 4-5. Implanted spherical globules ; structure, thin curved lamellar ; lustre vitreous to greasv; opaque; B.B. like blende. ZnS 82-92, ZnO 15-34, Fe 2 3 1'84, resinous matter, trace. Kosieres, in Puy de Dome ; and in the iron slags of Freiberg and Altenberg. Volumes, Theory of. Soon after the dis- covery of the fact, by Dalton, that simple sub- stances unite with each other in definite weights to form compound bodies, it was announced by Gay Lussac that gases unite with each other in definite volumes or measures, when they form combinations. Thus water, by electricity, is re- solved analytically into 1 volume oxygen and 2 VOL hydrogen, or volume oxygen and 1 volume hydrogen ; and the same proportions may be demonstrated synthetically. Thus, volume oxygen and 1 volume of hydrogen, when fired by the electric spark, are resolved into 1 volume of steam or vapour, and the specific gravity of the steam will be found equivalent to half the specific gravity of oxygen = -5528, added to the specific gravity of hydrogen = -0692 = -6220, the specific gravity of steam. To this important fact, the title of the theory of volumes has been given. Illustrations of its application will be found throughout the work, under the various compound gases. An example from the com- pounds of nitrogen and bxygen, may here suffice to exhibit the importance of the doctrine : Tola. Relation Oxygen. Nitrogen, of Vols. Protoxide of nitrogen 1 ^ or 2 to 1 Binoxide \ or 2 to 2 Ternitrous acid 1 1^ or 2 to 3 Quaternitrous acid.... I or 2 to 4 When we are acquainted with the composition, by volume, of a compound gas, we can thus readily determine its specific gravity. But the specific gravity of a gas may also be obtained by multiplying the atomic weight of the compound gas by half the specific gravity of oxygen, -5528. Thus, the atomic weight of the protoxide of nitrogen is 2-75, according to the oxygen scale ; which, multiplied by -5528, gives 1-5202 as its specific gravity, which we also obtain by adding 9713, the specific gravity of nitrogen (equivalent to 1 volume), to half the specific gravity of oxy- gen, '5528 (corresponding with half a volume) = 1-5241. This method of calculating the spec. grav. of a body from its composition has only been successfully applied to a limited extent. Various theories have been suggested for the purpose of solving this problem in regard to organic fluids. Kopp's Theory endeavours to institute a relation between the specific gravity of a sub- stance and its composition, and thus to deter- mine its density. Thus alcohol may be viewed as composed of ether (C 4 H 5 0) and water (HO) ; the specific gravities of these substances, at their boiling points, have been ascertained to be water -931, ether -695, and alcohol -739. When these densities are divided by the atomic weights on the hydrogen scale respectively, 9, 37, 46, there result the atomic or specific volumes 9-37, 53-24, and 62-25. If now we add the specific volumes of water and ether, 9-37 + 53-24, Ave obtain 62-61, the specific volume of alcohol. If Ave take the specific gravities of these fluids at equal numbers of degrees from their boiling points, the same correspondence Avill be observed. The specific volumes of carbon being 6-24, hydrogen 4-68, and oxygen 4-68, the specific A'olume of alcohol is 62-4. But the specific volumes of C; II, and vary at different degrees beloAV the boiling point. A table of these altera- 515 VOL tions being formed, Kopp endeavours to calculate the specific gravity of organic fluids at any re- quired temperature. Thus, acetic acid (C 4 H 4 4 ) boiling at 118 C., its specific gravity at 16 C., or 102 C. below the boiling point, may be calcu- lated. At that temperature the specific volume of C being 5-585, 4 C = 22-34 ; 1 spec, volume H and = 4-19, and 4-19 X 8 = 33-52. Then 22-34 -j- 33-52 = 55-86 = spec, volume of acetic acid. Dividing the atomic weight of acetic acid = 60 by 55-86, we obtain 1-074 = specific gravity acetic acid at 16 C. The ex- perimental number is 1-0 6 3, 'which differs much from the theoretic amount. Schroder's Theory. The specific volumes of C, H, and O being supposed to be equal, alcohol C4H G 2 contains 2 double atoms of C, 3 double atoms of H, and 1 double atom of ;. dividing 46, the atomic weight of alcohol, by '9395, its specific gravity, -we have 62-2 = the specific volume at the boiling point ; dividing by 6 (the number of atoms), there results 10-379, = the specific volume of a double atom of C, H, and 0. Lowig's Theory. The specific volumes of the different elements are directly related to the atomic weights. If the atomic weights of C, H, 0, N, and Cl be 1, 6, 8, 14, and 36, the specific volumes will be 1, 3, 4, 7, and 9. The specific volumes are estimated as follows, by the oxygen scale : H 44, C 132, N 308, 176, &c. The volume of H is susceptible of condensation in organic compounds of f , ^, or ; or even f and ^ ; and then, instead of 44, becomes 33, 22, or 11, &c. For example, benzine, C 12 H G , spec. grav. 85, atomic weight = 975 -f- -85 = 1147 = spec. vol. By adding 12 spec, vols., C con- densed to f- = 1056, and 6 spec. vols. H, .con- densed to , = 132 there results 1188, = spec. vol. benzine. By dividing the atomic weight by this spec. vol. 975 -f- 1188 == -821 = calculated spec, grav., a considerable difference from the true gravity. According to Lowig, the specific volume of a compound is not changed by the addition of oxygen ; for example, aldehyde, C 4 H 4 O 2 = atomic weight 44, spec. grav. -79 ; and acetic acid, C 4 H 4 4 , at. weight 60, spec. grav. 1-063. The spec. vol. of aldehyde is 44 -H -79 = 55-7, and that of acetic acid 60 -J- 1-063 = 56-4. It appears, therefore, that none of these theories afford very striking results. Playfair and Joule's Theory. According to experiment, they infer that "the atomic volumes WAG of bodies stand in a simple multiple relation to each other. The volumes of solid bodies are mul- tiples of a submultiple of the volume of ice (9-8), which for convenience is adopted as a standard. The force of cohesion with metals prevents the assumption of their natural volumes, which, how- ever, appear when they are placed in a position not to yield to the solicitation of cohesion. It is probable that the differences from the natural volume produced by cohesion could be expressed by a submultiple of the volume of ice. The dif- ferences between unlike forms of dimorphous, polymorphous, and allotropic substances are ex- pressed by a submultiple of the volume of ice." It appears that the volumes of salts are multiples of 9-8 and 11 ; 9-8 (the volume of ice) being composed of 1-225 X 8, and 11 of 1-225 X 9- The volume of magnesian sulphates is 22 (11 X 2) ; the magnesian metals have a volume of 1-225 X 3. Now, if ~Rv be the volume of any radical, Ow that of oxygen, and Av that of an acid, then Ry-|- Ov =. 6-12 =. magnesian oxide; oxygen being 1-225 X2, and sulphur 8-57, sulphuric acid will be Sv -j- Ov X 3 = 15-921. The magnesian sulphate volume is therefore RO =: 6-12, S0 3 = 15-92, ROS0 3 = 22-04. It is to be regretted that Messrs. Playfair and Joule have not continued their laborious and valuable researches to a conclusion, as the accuracy of the data established by them, so far as they went, appears undoubted. Voraulite. A synonyme of Lazullte. Vosgite. 3 ROSi0 3 + 3 A1 2 O 3 2 Si0 3 . Spec, gravi 2-737, H 6-. Massive or in thin tables ; lustre greasy or pearly ; colour whitish, with a shade of green ; translucent ; fracture con- choidal ; B.B. swells up and fuses to a white glass ; transparent bead with borax. SiO 3 49-32, A1 2 O 3 30-07, Fe 2 O 3 -7, MnO -6, CaO 4-25, MgO 1-96, KaO 4-85, KO 4-45, HO 3-15. Ternuay, in the Vosges ; Corsica. Vulcanite. Pyroxene. Vulpiliiie, or Vulpinic Acid. Transparent rectangular prisms, of a fine yellow colour ; little soluble in cold water; very soluble in boiling water and alcohol, and also in ether. Reddens litmus; would constitute an important yellow dye. Extracted by alcohol and ether from the Lichen vulpinus, a native of the south of Europe. Tulpinitc. A siliceous anhydrite, called marble of Bergamo. See ANHYDKITE. Wackc. A soft mineral, intermediate between basalt and clay. Colour greenish-gray ; by long exposure becomes hard; no lustre. B.B. melts. In its composition bears considerable resemblance to basalt. Often contains crystals of hornblende and mica. Wad. See MANGANESE, BINOXIDE. Wajjnerite. Fluopkosphate of Magnesia. 3MgOP0 5 -fMgF. Spec. grav. 3-068, 2-985,' H 5, 5-5. Lustre vitreous ; streak white. Colour yellowish, often grayish; translucent; fracture uneven and splintery. B.B. fuses with difficulty to a dark greenish-gray glass. With borax, or salt of phosphorus, forms a colourless pearl; 516 WAL with X0 5 or S0.3 gives out fumes of HF. PO/j 40-61, MgO 46-27, FeO 4-59, CaO 2-38, F 9-36. "Werfen, in Saltzburg, Austria. Walkcrde. A synonyme of Fuller's Earth. Walmstedtite. A variety of brown spar. Walnut Oil. Freezing point 17. A green- ish oil, becoming pale yellow by keeping; without smell ; taste agreeable ; absorbs 15^ times its vol. of oxygen, giving out carbonic acid amounting to T 2 r of the oxygen ; used in painting. From the fruit of Jugians regia. Warwickitc. See ENCELADITE. Wash. See DISTILLING and BREWING. Washingtosiiie. A synonyme of Ilmenite. Water. HO 1-125, 9. Spec. grav. 1000- or 1-. Water in a pure state is colourless; trans- parent, and destitute of taste and smell. In large quantities it possesses a violet-blue colour by re- flected, and a green colour by transmitted light, as may be shown by viewing any brilliant white object upon a white ground through a column of water 6.7 feet long contained in a tube blackened internally, or by allowing the sun light to fall through such a column of water upon a white object (Bunsen). The specific gravity of water is taken as the standard of comparison, being reckoned 1- at the temperature of 60. Its freez- ing point is 32 F., C. Its boiling point 212 F., 100 C. A cubic inch of water at 62, baro- meter 30 inches, weighs 252-458 grains, and in a vacuum 252-722 grams. The weight of a cubic inch of water at 60 will therefore be 252|- grs. nearly. The imperial gallon of distilled water weighs 10 Ibs. or 70,000 grains, and has a capa- city of 277-274 cubic inches. A cubic foot of water weighs at 62 62'3862 Ibs. avoirdupois. In France the unit of the scientific system of weights and measures is a gramme (15-438 grs.), which is equal to a cubic centimetre of water at 4-l C., or 39-38 F., the point at which water has the greatest density. When the temperature of water falls to 32 an irregular prism is formed, from which others shoot out on both sides at angles of 60 and 120. Hail crystallizes in the form of two 6- sided pyramids applied base to base (Smithson). Crystals of ice have been observed which were rhomboids resembling calcareous spar (the usual form being 6-sided prisms, terminated by 6-sided pyramids), the faces of which were inclined at angles of 60 and 120 (Dr. E. D. Clarke). The specific gravity of ice is -920 (Thomson), 918 (Brunner, Playfair, and Joule). As the density of ice is less than that of water, it is obvious that water in freezing expands in volume. As water is capable of transmitting sounds the conclusion was drawn that it was compressible. The amount of this has been found by Canton,. iuo 4 ooob' f its vol. Perkins, TooVooo n Oerstedt, TooVooo Colladon and Sturm,. ...j 00 4 o 8 oo WAT and by correcting the error proceeding from the contraction of the glass this number becomes 51-3 millionths, which appears constant for 16 atmos- pheres. Water, as found in nature, always con- tains a quantity of oxygen and nitrogen gases hi solution, which may be removed either by the air pump or by boiling in a retort. The air rises to the upper part of the retort. In rain water it amounts to 1\ per cent. But the proportion of oxygen is greater than in common air, reaching from 24 to 33 per cent., while in snow water as much as 34| per cent, have been found (Hum- boldt and Gay Lussac). The air in the water of the river Clyde amounts to 3*113 per cent., and it consists of 70-9 nitrogen and 29-1 oxygen (T. Thomson). Boussingault found snow water at 16,877 feet to contain air yielding only 16 to 17 per cent, of oxygen ; while Bischoff, in the Alps, found it as low as 10 per cent. The absence of fishes in the elevated Swiss lakes has been attri- buted to deficiency of oxygen dissolved hi the water; but it is a curious fact that Dr. Thos. Thomson, junr., found large fishes in Thibet, at an elevation of 14,600 feet, in a stream near Hanle, discharging itself into the Indus. The water had the temperature of 69, being mixed with discharges from hot springs. These "large fish," he says, "apparently enjoying the hot water, dart about hi great numbers, and in every direc- tion." (Epist.) It has been inferred that air is necessary in water for the respiration of fishes, because, when the water is boiled, they are no longer capable of subsisting in it ; but boiling will also destroy animalcules which may serve as then* food. The following table presents a view of the absorption by water of various gases according to the best authorities (Dalton, Henry, and Saussure). 100 vols. of water at 60 and 30 inches pressure, absorb of the following gases : Fluoboric acid, 70,000 Chlorohydric acid gas,., A... Sulphurous acid, 3,700 Sulphohydric acid, 253 Chlorine, 20G Carbonic acid, 100 Bmoxide of nitrogen, 76 Protoxide of nitrogen, 76 Olefiant gas, 12-5 Oxygen, 3-7 Hydrogen, 1'56 Nitrogen, 1-5,6 Carbonic oxide, 1-56 Hydrates. Water unites with certain bodies and forms hydrate (i'S^, water, Proust). See HYDRATE. The purest water is, 1. Rain Water, which besides a certain amount of common air in solution, contains likewise carbonate of am- monia (Saussure ; W. Stark, Ann. Phil. 3, 140, 517 WAT 1814; Liebig, 1825); and during thunderstorms traces of nitrate of ammonia (Cavendish, Liebig). The former of these may be detected by the addition of acetate of lead. If carbonate of ammonia is present, a white precipitate of car- bonate of lead falls. In distillation, the am- monia may be fixed or detained in the retort by the addition of a few drops of sulphuric acid or a few grains of alum. Rain water has been found to have an alkaline reaction (Stark, Dr. M'Lelland in Kamaon). 2. River water is next in purity. It generally contains common salt, sulphate of lime, carbonate of lime, and mag- nesia, with portions of clay diffused, or silica and alumina. In river water, besides mud, which is contained in it in a fine state of division, diatomaceous plants, in the form of a green de- posit, are abundantly present. These consist principally of siliceous shields indestructible by heat. The following table gives the composition of some large rivers, per imper. gallon : Carbonate of Lime 6-17 Magnesia 2'29 Sulphate of Lime . T39 Magnesia Soda Potash Chlor de of Calcium Magnesiun Sodium . C Nitrates . . . traces. Silica, Alumina, Fes Os '55 Organic matter . . traces. Seine. Thames. Clyde. f. :-G9 12-76? 1-033 0-45 0-25 5-13 631 Isere. 7-277 0175 1-459 2119 200 66 trace. _ 1-75 18 .10 0-050 1-84 0250 indications 0-27 0-54 0-515 3-48 1-49 ? 11-78 2240 9-53 12'476 Pont Notre Twicken- Water Grange. Dame. ham. Works. Lime and magnesia are detected by adding a solution of soap ; a curdy precipitate falling. River water is usually employed for manufacturing pur- poses, and likewise for the supply of water to towns, although such a source is highly objectionable when the sewerage of a district is run into the river above the point at which the water is taken for the purposes of food. In consequence of its condition of continual movement, river water generally contains earthy matter distributed through it, which can be partially separated by allowing the water to stand in a cistern and deposit the diffused particles. The water of rivers and streams usually contains suspended in it a certain amount of vegetable matter (diato maceae) in addition to the earthy matter. These can be separated by filtration. See FILTRA- TION. 3. Well ivater. The most impure variety of water is derived from wells. This often contains 100 grains of saline matter in the gallon. The most abundant ingredients are carbonate and sulphate of lime and common salt. The latter is always present to a greater or less extent. It has been observed that the lime of well water may supply nourishment to the bones, and it has therefore been recommended for this purpose (Boussingault) by non-medical men. On the WAT contrary, Dr. Prout, the best authority on such subjects, strongly cautions against the use of hard waters as being dangerous, where urinary deposits, or calculi, have any tendency to form. Lime deposits in the form of oxalate of lime are exceedingly common in the urine. Distilled water is strongly advocated by Dr. Prout in many cases, and next to it soft or rain water. Margraff, in 1751, found nitre in the wells of Berlin, but none in those at some distance from the city ; and afterwards Liebig found nitrates in the wells of Giessen, a town in Hesse Darmstadt, with a popu- lation of 8000 persons. I have found it in all the wells situated within the city of Glasgow, to the extent in some of 8*64 grs. in the gallon, but not in those at a distance from the sewers, or at most in mere traces. I have likewise found it abundantly in the wells in London and Liver- pool, and in numerous other towns where I have examined the waters. This nitric acid is derived from the virea of urine, which it is therefore obvious gains access to city wells. Table of Solubility of Salts in Water. 100 Water at 00 Dissolve Ammonia, Nitrate, 200- Ammonia, Chlorohydride, 33;6 Ammonia, Sulphate,.... 50 Potassium, Chloride, 35 Potassium, Iodide, 141 Potash, Sulphate, 9-6 Potash, Nitrate, 27 Potash, Chlorate, G Potash, Carbonate, 121 Potash, Bicarbonate, 25 Potash, Bichromate, 9-94 Sodium, Chloride, 37 Soda, Nitrate, 43'G Soda, Sulphate, 83-6 Soda, Carbonate, 20J Soda, Bicarbonate, 8| Soda, Phosphate 24| Soda, Biborate (Borax), 8Jf Barium, Chloride, 43| Strontium, Chloride, 151 Calcium, Chloride, 400 Lime, Sulphate, -217 Magnesia, Sulphate, 114 Iron, Protosulphatc 70 Copper, Sulphate, 39 Silver, Nitrate, 100 Zinc, Sulphate, 102 Mercury, Chloride, 55^- The above salts are supposed to be in the usual pure forms in which they occur with water of anhydrous, or supplied Avith the water of crys- tallization. Water, Sea. The following table contains the constituents in 1000 grains of different sea waters : 518 WAT WAT English Channel. Specific gravity, 1027-4 Chloride of Sodium, 27-059 Potassium, 0-765 Magnesium, 3*666 Calcium, Aluminum, Bromide of Magnesium, 0-029 Sulphate of Lime, 1 -406 Magnesia, 2-295 Carbonate of Lime, 0*033 Ammonia, trace Fixed Salts, 35-253 Water, 904-747 1000-000 I. 1156 76-50 23-30 95-60 22-45 0-24 2-31 0-86 traces 1000-00 1153 87-192 11-000 101-748 22-824 3-251 2518 1-026 229-559 770-441 1000-000 Water of English Channel, spec. grav. 1027-4, \>y Schweitzer. Dead Sea 1. This water was taken in April, 1847, on the western shore of the lake, about a mile from the mouth of the Jordan ; analyzed by my pupil Mr. R. M. Murray, spec. grav. 1156. 2. Taken about the end of April, 1853, nearly from the same place as the preced- ing, and analyzed by my pupil, Mr. George William Brown, specific gravity 1153. Waters, Mineral. 1. Saline Waters per imperial gallon. Airthrie. Cheltenham. Leamington. Sulphate of Magnesia, 106-08 Lime, 16-062 43-40 Soda, 144-G6 323-19 Chloride of Calcium, 300-883 164-49 Magnesium, 9-234 26-93 _ Sodium, 363-825 482-20 326-16 Fixed Salts, G90-004 776-34 840-75 R.D.T. Brande and Parkes. T. Thomson. 2. Chalybeate Waters per imperial gallon. Tunbridge. Moffat. Spa. Chloride of Sodium, 1-5 0-768 Calcium, 1-848 Magnesium, 0-348 , Free Sulphuric Acid, 5-202 Sulphate of Soda, 1-7G8 0-744 Sesqmstilphated Peroxide of Iron, 591-025 Sulphate of Alumina, 112-726 Carbonate of Lime, 0-328 6-240 Soda, 1-716 Magnesia, 1-260 Protoxide of Iron, 2-748 1-0.08 Alumina, 0-228 Manganese, Silica, &c 0-528 1-680 9-068 708-953 13-644 Scudamore. Thomson. G. Jones. 3. Sulphureous Waters. Aix-la-Chapelle. Harrowgate. Moffat. Spec. Grav. 1034-9. Spec. Grav. luO-5'1. Spec. Grav. 1002-55. Chloride of Sodium, 2-63940 462-00 176-569 Calcium, 47-20 Magnesium, 21-8 Bromide of Sodium, .'.0-00360 Iodide of Sodium, 0-00051 Sulphide of Sodium, 0-00950 Carbonate of Soda, 0-65040 519 WAT WAT Aix-la-Chapelle Harrowgate. Moffat. Spec. grav. 1034'9. Spec. Grav. 1005-1. Spec. Grav. 1002-55. Bicarbonate, 11-00 Sulphate of Soda,... 0-28272 14-00 16-562 Potash, 0-15445 Lime, 11-579 Magnesia, 5-474 Carbonate of Lime, ,.0-15851 Magnesia, 0-05147 Iron, 0-00955 Silica, 0-06611 Organic Matter, 0-07517 Carbonate of Lithia, 0-00029 Strontia, 0-00022 Manganese, ") Phosphate of Alumina, ! , Fluoride of Calcium, f t] Ammonia, J Fixed Salts in 1000 parts, =4-1090 In gal. 556-0 In gal. 210-184 Gases Nitrogen, 669-8 10-10 cuk. in. Carbonic Acid, 308-9 3-35 Carburetted Hydrogen......... 18-2 4-80 Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 3-1 5-75 21-29 cub. in. Oxygen, 0-0 1000-0 24-00 Liebig. Hunter. Thomson. 4. Acidulous Waters. Eger. viflii Spec. Grav. 1004-883. Sulphate of Soda, 196-154 51-57 Chloride of Sodium, 79-933 21-17 Carbonate of Soda, 47-467 320-46 Lithia, 0-245 Lime, 12-936 14-91 Strontia, trace Magnesia, 7-273 2-78 Manganese, 0-112 Iron, 0-644 0-74 Phosphate of Lime, \ Subphosphate of Alumina, / Silica, 4-473 Fixed Salts in gallon, 349-461 = 411-63 Carbonic Acid per gallon, 446-17 cub. in. (?) = 132-84 cub. in. Berzelius. Mossier. Applications of Water in Medicine. There can be but one opinion as to the beneficial and extensive influence of water, when judiciously employed, in all departments of medical practice. The effect which may be produced upon the fluids by introducing water into the stomach may be readily appreciated, when we know that it passes through the coats of the stomach with the greatest rapidity ; while its influence upon the exterior of the body, in the form of baths, is understood, to a certain extent, in most diseases. Water also may be employed to com- anunicate cold and heat to various parts of the body, as in the form of cold and hot lotions ; but it has also been recently used, to some extent, in the form of local steam applications ; in which condition it seems to possess a remarkably soothing influence in many skin diseases. It is necessary, in this case, to choose the diseases judiciously. If vapour of water at 212 come in contact with an ulcerated surface, the condi- tion of the sore will probably be exasperated ; whereas, the same application made to a part affected with tic, or gouty rheumatism, would be very efficacious. It would be necessary in such cases to diminish the temperature of the vapour, 520 WAV and perhaps to mingle it with some soothing or narcotic preparation. The diseases in which it has been found chiefly efficacious are, wliite swelling, synovial inflammation of the knee, chronic rheumatism, and various species of skin disease. It may be applied locally by means of artificial bags or boxes, merely covering the part affected. In conjunction with such applications, it is ne- cessary to apply proper treatment in reference to the adjustment of any functions which may have been impaired. The great fallacy into which many persons are apt to fall, in the use of remedies, is that of one-sidedness. It is to this contempla- tion, of only one aspect of the picture, that the errors of hydropathy and other novelties are attributable. The importance of water to the animal system is at once apparent, from the fact, that the muscles of the body contain 79 per cent, of water, and that an adult Guanche, when dried and converted into a mummy, weighed only a pound or two. Plants consist, likewise, princi- pally of water ; the vinegar plant (Mycoderma aceti) containing 95 per cent, of this fluid. Wavellite. Devonite, Lasionite, Hydrous dipJiosphate of Alumina. 4 A1 2 O 3 , 3P0 5 19 HO. Spec. grav. 2-337, 2 -25, 2-3616, H 3-25. White, greenish, gray, yellow, brown, and black minute radiated crystals of right rhombic prisms in the form of globular masses ; the angles of the crys- tals are 122 15', and 107 26'; lustre of cleav- age planes pearly to vitreous. B.B. loses its lustre, infusible ; with boracic acid and iron wire yields a globule of phosphide of iron. Soluble in NOs, S0 3 ; sometimes yielding fluohydric acid. P0 5 34-65, A1 2 3 34', Fe 2 3 andMn 2 O 3 2-15, Water 28-75, F ? In clay slate at Barnstaple, Devon; near Cork; Shiant isles; Brazil, Bohemia, Mount Vesuvius, Susquehanna. "Wax. A solid greasy substance derived from plants and animals ; a kind of deoxidized oil. Wax Andaquics. C 24 H 24 O. Spec. grav. -917; F.P. 170|; from the Orinoco and Amazon districts. Wax, Bees'. Spec. grav. -960, -8203 ; F.P. 142, 143 (unbleached), 155 (bleached); WEI yellow or snow-white; scarcely soluble in cold alcohol ; partly soluble hi 20 hot alcohol (see CERINE) ; ether dissolves ^th ; by alcohol it is resolved into cerine soluble, and myricine, insoluble in alcohol. Cerine consists principally of cerotic acid united to oxide of cerotyle. This acid also exists in Chinese wax, but not in bees* wax of Ceylon. Myricine is palmitate of oxide of melissyle, C 6 N 6 O ? By bees it is produced from sugar (John Hunter). Wax, Brazil. Spec. grav. -980 ; F.P. 206. Greenish body, soluble in alcohol, ether, and oils ; from an unknown tree in Brazil. Wax, Caruauba. C 3G H 36 2 ? F.P. 185. From the leaves of a palm in Brazil ; soluble in hot alcohol and ether. Wax, China. C 10 & H 108 4 . F.P. 180^. White crystalline, probably the product of the in- sect coccus ceriferus (?) inhabiting Ehus succida- neum ; it contains cerotine, and yields by distilla- tion cerotene and cerotic acid (Brodie). Wax Ibucuiba. The product of the Myris- tica bicuiba. Wax of Ceroxylon Andicola. C 35 Ho;) O 2 . F.P. above 212. A yellow wax from the Andes ; it contains resin which alcohol retains hi solution. Wax of Chamaerops Ilumilis. West In- dies. Wax of Cow-tree. See GALACTINE. Wax of Japan. See JAPAN WAX. Wax, Myrtle. See MYRTLE WAX. Wax of Ocnba. F.P. 98; from the Myris- tica ocuba of Brazil and French Guiana. Wax, Sealing. See SEALING- WAX. Wax of Sugar Cane. See CEROSINE. Websterite. See ALUMINITE. Weha-litc. Spec. grav. 3'9, H 6*25. Black granular masses; lustre inclining to metallic; streak greenish; magnetic. B.B. melts with difficulty on the edges. Si0 3 34-6, Fe 2 3 42 -38, FeO 15-78, CaO 5'84, MnO 2 '28, A1 2 O 3 -12, H01-. Allied to Lievrite. Zemescher district, Hungary. Weights. 1. TROY WEIGHT. 2. APOTHECATIES' WEIGHT. Grains. Pennywe'ghts. Oz. Lb. Grains. 9 3 I Lb. 1 0-0416 0-00208-3 0-0001736-1 1 0-05 0-016 0-002083 0-00017361 24 1 0-05 0-00416 20 1 0-33 0-0416 0-003472 480 20 1 0-083 60 3 1 0-125 0-010416 5760 240 12 1 480 24 8 1 0-083 5760 288 96 12 1 3. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. Grains. 27-34375 , 437-5 7000 196000 784000 Dr. 1 16 256 7168 28672 0-0625 1 16 448 1792 0-00390625 0-0625 1 28 112 15680000 473440 35840 2240 0-0001395089 0-002231428 0-35714285 1 4 80 0-0000348772 0-00000i74386 0-000557857 0-0000278928 0-0892857842 0-0044642857 0-25 0-0125 1 0-05 521 WEL WHI ENGLISH. TROY. FRENCH. Grain (24th of a pennyweight), 0-06477 grammes. Pennyweight (20th of an ounce), 1-55456 grammes. Ounce (16th of a pound), 31-0913 grammes. Imperial pound troy, 0-3730956 kilogrammes. ENGLISH. AVOIRDUPOIS. FRENCH. Drachm (16th of an ounce), 1-7712 grammes. Ounce (16th of a pound), 28-3384 grammes. Imperial pound avoirdupois, 0-4534148 kilogrammes. Hundredweight (112 pounds), 50-78246 kilogrammes. Ton (2 hundredw eight), 1015-649 kilogrammes. Gramme, Kilogramme,. Weissite. Spec. grav. 2-808, 2-826, H 1-75. Ash-gray, kidney-shaped masses in chlorite slate at Fahlun ; texture foliated, perhaps rhomboidal ; powder, white; lustre, pearly to waxy. B.B. becomes white, and fuses on the edges ; on char- coal gives out a zinc smoke; with borax and salt of phosphorus a colourless glass ; with soda, an opaque slag, finally fused into a bead. Si0 3 59-69, A1 2 0. 3 21-7, MgO 8-99, FeO 143, MnO -63, KO 4-1, NaO -68, ZnO -3, HO and NH 3 3-2 (Wachtmeister), Si0 3 55-05, Alo 3 22-6, MgO 5-7, FeO 12-6, CaO 1-4, HO 2-25 (J. Tennent). Weld or Woad. The stem and leaves of Reseda luteola, long used as a dye even by the ancient Britons. It contains luteoline Wernerite. Spec. grav. 2;77, 2-712. Dark- ish coloured variety of scapolite, from Pargas and Ersby. SiO 3 45-1, A1 2 3 32-76, CaO 17-84, NaO -76, HO -68, KO~1'04. Wheat. The seed of the Triticum hyber- num. Vienna wheat has been found composed of C 45-74, H 6-7, 42-23, S -23, H 3-, ash ~, HO 13*85. The proximate constitution of /lour is starch 902, fibrine 116-8, caseine 5-27, glutine 3-04, albumen 14-, gum 60-4, sugar 16-3, water 189-4. The ash is composed of KO 30-12, CaO 3-, MgO 33-12, Fe 2 3 16-26, P0 5 48-3, S0 3 1-01, Si0 3 1-31. Whey. The serum of milk. (See MILK.) It consists of 96-3 water, sugar 3-5, salts -2. Whisky. (Usquebaugh, Gaelic, pronounced wisky bay or ooisky bay.) A spirit distilled from the fermented infusion of malt, barley, or oats, etc. The barley is ground, the malt bruised and mixed in the proportion of 40 bushels barley, 20 bushels malt, in the mash tun ; 750 wine ENGLISH. 15-438 grains troy. 0-643 pennyweights. 0-03216 ounce troy. 2-68027 pounds troy. 2-20548 Ibs. avoirdupois. addition consists of 500 gallons aa above. To remove all the soluble matter from the grains, about 800 gallons of boiling water are let in for the third worts. The law of Scotland required' that 19 gallons of spirits (-90917) should be pro- duced from 100 gallons of fermented wort; now it is 13 gallons. The worts are passed into the coolers, which are shallow wooden vessels, cover- ing an extensive area, in which the worts are placed to the depth of 1, 2, or 3 inches ; or the hot worts are passed through a great extent of pipe, which is immersed in a running stream of water. The first worts are let down to 70, the second worts to 60 or 65. To the quantity of barley and malt mentioned, when converted into wort, 27 gallons of good porter yeast are added, a portion only being added on the first day, the remainder on the second, third, and fourth days ; the fermentation lasts from nine to twelve days, according to circumstances. During the first five days the fermenting tuns are left open at top, but on the sixth day they are shut up close. The wort increases 20 to 25 in temperature, generally attaining the highest heat on the fourth day. As the fermentation proceeds, the specific gravity of the wort diminishes or attenuates, and by the amount of attenuation, as indicated by the hydro- meter, the distiller calculates the amount of spirit in the wash. It is usual to reckon that every 11^- Ibs. of saccharine matter fermented will yield a gallon of spirits of spec. grav. '90917 at 60. As soon as the fermentation ceases, the wash should be distilled, otherwise acetic acid will be formed at the expense of the alcohol. A great variety of stills is now in use. The common still is most commonly used, and next to it Cof- fey's (see Thomson's Records of Gen. Science, gallons of water at 150 are run on, and | vol. 3, p. 32), and Stein's (see STILL) stills are in thoroughly mixed or mashed by agitation for one-and-a-half hour; 500 wine gallons of water at 190 to 205 are added at intervals to keep up the heat, and the whole allowed to infuse for two hours ; of the wort is drawn off from the top of the mash tun and the grains or residue washed with repeated additions of hot water. The first most requisition. The wash being placed in the still, heat is applied, and the spirits being most volatile, pass over first, and are condensed by the refrigeratory in the common still. In Coflfey's and Stein's still, the alcoholic fluid meets with steam introduced from the opposite end of the apparatus from a boiler, which takes the water 522 WHI from the spirit, and drives the spirit into a proper receiver. In the common still the dis- tillation is continued till the liquid which flows from the worm is as heavy as water, as is ascer- tained by the hydrometer. The liquor remaining in the still is termed spent wash, containing sac- charine matter and spirit. This is used as a feed for cattle, but by the evidence of large dairy- keepers is found to be prejudicial to animal life when used in any considerable quantity. The product of the first distillation of worts is termed low wines, the spec. grav. being -978. The low wines are distilled again, a process termed doubling ; the first portion which comes over is milky, and is termed foreshot. When the spirits run clear, they are collected separately. As soon as the specific gravity begins to rise, the product is caught in a different receiver. This third pro- duct is termed feints, and is mixed with the low wines, and again distilled. The foreshot contains hydrous oxide of amyle or fusel oil, a poisonous oil, which should therefore be carefully separated from all distilled fluids. The strength at which the duty is levied on whisky is from 1 to 10 above hydrometer proof, or about -90917 specific gravity. The present duties on British spirits are in England 7s. 10d., Scotland 3s. 8d., Ireland 2s. 8d. The following table gives the number of gallons of spirits charged with duty in the three kingdoms in the three years 1850-52 (A. Young) : 1850. 185L 18-52. England- Exported 77,825 57,654 90,452 Home consumption.. 9,331,512 9,595,368 9,820,608 Scotland- Exported 209,395 194,073 227,204 Home consumption.. 7,122,987 6,830,710 7,172,015 Ireland Exported 43,418 37,754 33,497 Home consumption.. 7,408,086 7,550,518 8,208,256 24,193,223 24,266,077 25,552,032 "White Antimony. See TEROXIDE OF ANTIMONY. White Arsenic. See ARSENIOUS ACID. White Copperas. See COQUIMBITE. White Garnet. See LEUCITE. "White Indigo. See INDIGO. White Iron Pyrites. See WHITE BISUL- PHIDE OF IRON. White Iron Sinter. See TETRARSENIATE OF IRON. "White Lead. See CARBONATE OF LEAD. White Precipitate. See CHLORAMIDE OF MERCURY. White Stone, or Granular Granite. See GEOLOGY. White Vitriol. See SULPHATE OF ZINC. "Whiting. Common Whiting, Spanish White, and Kentish White. London chalk is triturated in a mill with water and carefully dried, care being taken to remove sand by means of sieves. What is termed best whiting, consists of the finer particles of the chalk diffused through water; the coarser particles, or common whiting, falling WIN to the bottom. Whiting is dried on a kiln. It is used for making putty, cleaning plate, and for various colouring purposes. Paris white is made by the same process, using Hull clift'stone, or compact limestone, instead of chalk, and drying it in dishes. Wichtisite. See WICHTYNE. Wichtyne. Wichtisite. Spec. grav. 3-03. Black masses or rectangular prisms (?); lustre dull ; fracture angular or conchoidal. B.B. fuses into a black magnetic enamel. SiO^ 56-3, A1 2 O3 13-3, Fe 2 3 4-, FeO 13-, CaO 6-, MgO 3-, NaO 3-5. Wlchtis, Finland. Williamsite. Wilhelmite, Wilkmite, See ANHYDROUS SILICATE OF ZINC. Willuite. Willenite. A variety of Garnet. "Wine. The fermented juice of the grape. The spirit which wines contain, and to which they owe their stimulating properties, is derived from the fermented sugar. (See VINOUS FERMENTATION.) The odour and flavour of wines depend on certain combinations which are produced during fermen- tation. Old Rhenish wines contain acetic ether, many of them a very minute proportion of butyric ether, which impart to them a peculiar and agree- able odour. All wines contain oenanthic ether, upon the presence of which depends their vinous smell. These compounds are partially formed in fermentation and partly in the casks, by the influence of acids on the alcohol of the wine. (Enanthic acid appears to be produced by fer- mentation, at least it has not been detected in the grape. The free acids which are present in the fermenting juice, take a decided part in the for- mation of those aromatic substances upon which odour and flavour depend. The wines of Southern countries are produced from perfectly ripe grains ; they contain tartar and no free acids, and are characterized by a different flavour from the wines of France and the Rhine (Liebig). Table I. gives the amount of absolute alcohol in wines as ascertained by Brande, and Table II. the de- terminations of Fontenelle : TARLE I. Name of Wine. Spec. Grar. Port Wine 0-97616 Do 0-97200 Mean 0-97460 Madeira 0-97810 Do 0-97333 Sherry 0-97913 Do 0-97700 Bordeaux, Claret 0-97410 Do '. 0-97092 Calcavella 0-97920 Lisbon 0-97846 Malaga 0-98000 Bucellas 0-97890 Red Madeira.., 0-97899 Malmsey 0-98090 Marsala... .. 0-98190 Absolute Alcohol per cent. 19-82 23-92 21-75 17-91 22-61 17-00 18-37 11-95 15-11 16-76 17-45 15-98 17-22 17-04 15-91 14-31 523 WIN Absolute Xame of Wine. Spec. Grav. Alcohol per cent. Marsala, 0-98000 15-98 Champagne (rose) 0-98608 10-46 Do (white).... 0-98450 11-84 Burgundy 0-98300 13-34 Do 0-98540 11-06 White Hermitage 0-97990 16-14 Bed do 0-98495 11-40 Hock 0-78290 13-31 Do 0-98873 8-00 Vinde Grave 0-98450 11-84 Frontignac 0-98452 11-84 Cote-Roti 0-98495 11-36 Rousillon 0-98005 15-96 Cape Madeira...., 0-97924 16-77 Muscat 0-97913 17-00 Constantia 0-97770 18-29 Tinto 0-98399 12-32 Schiraz 0-98176 14-35 Syracuse 0-98200 14-15 Nice 0-98263 13-64 Tokay 0-98760 9-15 Raisin wine..! 0-97205 23-86 Drained grape wine 0-97925 16-77 Lachryma Christi 18-24 Currant wine 0-97696 19-03 Gooseberry wine 0-98550 10-96 Elder wine ~) Cider V- 0-98760 9-14 Perry ) Brown stout 0-99116 6-30 Ale 0-98873 8-00 Porter 3-89 Rum 0-93494 49-71 Hollands 0-93855 47-77 Scotch whisky 50-20 Irish whisky 49-91 TABLE II. Absolute Wine. Alcohol per cent. jRoussillon (Eastern Pyrenees). Rive-salts 18 years old 9-156 Banyulls 18 9-223 Collyouvre 15 9-080 ...10 .. 8-580 WOL Department of the Aude. Fitou andLeucate..lO years old.... Lapalme 10 ,, .... Sejeau 8 . Narbonne 8 ,, .... Lezignan .10 ,, .... Mirepeisset 10 Carcasonne, 8 Department ofVHerault. Nissan. 9 years old..., Beziers 8 ,, .... Montagnac 10 Meze 10 Montpellier 5 8-568 8-790 8-635 8-379 8-173 8-589 7-190 7-896 7-728 8-108 7-812 7-413 Absolute Alcohol percent. 7-564 7-098 5-848 7-056 6-195 5-838 5-880 5-145 4-956 6-186 Toulouse... .. 5-027 Lunel 8 years old Frontignac 5 Red Hermitage 4 White do 4 Burgundy 4 Grave 3 Champagne (sparkling) Do. white do. Do. rose Bordeaux... Wiiitergreeij. See GAULTHERIC ACID. Wiserite. A variety of hydrous carbonate of manganese. Gonzen, Switzerland. Witlmmitc. Spec. grav. 3-137, 2-857, H 6-. Carmine-red and pale straw-yellow masses and minute crystals in truncated pyramids, with angles of 128 20' and 16 40' ; streak white. B.B. intumesces and fuses at length into a greenish- gray scoria ; with salt of phosphorus with effer- vescence fuses into a globule containing a skeleton of silica, and becomes opaque on cooling ; it cor- responds in many properties with the epidote of Arendal. Si0 3 55-28, A1 2 O 3 16-74. Fe 2 O 3 21-13, CaO 8-13, HO 3-25. Glencoe, on the surface of a reddish trap rock. Witherite. A synonyme of carbonate of Barytes. Woad. Pastel. The blue dye formed by fermenting the leaves of the Isatis tinctoria. Woehlerite. Sp. gr. 3-41, H 5-5. Yellow or honey-coloured tables, rectangular prisms, or grains ; streak yellowish- white ; transparent ; sub- translucent ; fracture conchoidal, splintery. B.B. fuses into a yellowish glass when strongly heated, and gives the reaction with fluxes of iron, manga- nese, and silica ; soluble in HC1. Si0 3 30-62, Cm O 3 14-47, Zr 2 3 15-17, Fe 2 3 2-12, MnO 1-55, CaO 26-19, MgO -40, NaO 7-78, HO -24 = 3Zn 2 O 3 ,CmO 3 , 5(NaOSi0 3 ) 3CaOSi0 8; Found with elseolite, on zircon syenite, at Brevig, Nor- way. Wcelchite. Spec. grav. 5-75, H 3-. Lead- gray masses, with a tendency to rhombic cleav- age; fracture uneven; fragile. S 28-602, Sb 16-647, As 6-036, Pb 29-902, Cu 17-352, Fe 1-404. Woelch, Carinthia. Wderthitc. Spec. grav. above 3, H 7*25. White foliated masses, with the lustre of cyanite; translucent. B.B. infusible; a colourless glass with borax; a silica skeleton in microcdsmie salt; a blue with a cobalt solution. SiO 3 40-58, A1 2 3 53-5, MgO 1-, HO 4-63; near St. Peters- burg. Wolchonskoite. See VOLKONSKOITE. Wolfram. See TUNGSTEN. Wolfsbergitc. Spec. grav. 4'748, H 3 to 4. CuS,SbS 3 . Lead-brpwn, gray, tabular or right rhombic prisms, with truncated edges ; lustre metallic ; opaque ; fracture conchoidal. B.B. de- 524 WOL crepitates; soon fuses; evolves fumes of antimony on charcoal. S 26-34, Sb 46-81, Cu 24-46, F 1-39, Pb -56. Wolfsberg, Hartz. Wollastonitc. A synonyme of Table spar. Wollastonitc. Soda Table Spar, Pectolfa Spec.grav. 2-850 to 2-876, H 5-25. White, with a shade of green, fibrous tufts, diverging from a centre ; lustre inclining to silky ; translucent on the edges ; fracture splintery. B.B. fuses with some difficulty, and Avithout frothing, into a white enamel ; with borax into a bead, yellow while hot, colourless when cold; with salt of phos- phorus forms a colourless bead with a silica skele- ton, with soda an opaque bead I first analyzec this mineral in 1830, when it was named and de- scribed by Dr. T. Thomson. It seems to be the same mineral which Dr. Kennedy had analyzec from the castle rock of Edinburgh, about thirty years before, and which afterwards Karsten de- scribed from an imperfect analysis under the name of pectolite. Its constituents are i. Si0 3 , 51-50 CaO, 32-00 NaO, 8-50 MgO, FeO, 0-50 A1 2 3 , 0-5 HO, 5- 52-744 31-684 9-600 1-520 1-200 672 2- 52-059 32-817 1-624 2-682 1. Edinburgh, Dr. Kennedy; 2. Kilsyth, R.D. T. ; 3. Bishopton tunnel, J. C. Stevenson. Wongshy. A red or yellow-colouring prin- ciple, the seed capsule of a Batavian species of gentian. Woulfe's, Wolfs, Bottles. See HYDRO- CHLOKIC ACID. Wootl. The solid portion of trees is so termed, which consists essentially of cells (cellulose) lined or incrusted on the interior of their walls with at hard matter which yields a variety of results to chemical agents. Table I. gives the solubilities of the ligneous matter of the cells in different fluids ; Table II. the ultimate analyses of woods. TABLE I. Ligneous Matter Incrusting the Cells. Insoluble in Lignose,.... Lignone, ... Lignin, Lignireose, .. Water Water Water Water Alcohol Alcohol Ether Ether Ether NIL Cellulose,.... Water Alcohol Ether Lignose, ... Lignone,... Lignin, .... Lignireose, Soluble in Potash Soda Potash Soda Ammonia Potash Soda Ammonia Alcohol Potash Soda Ammonia < WOO TABLE II. Composition of Woods. St. Lucia,... 52-90 Ebony, 52-89 Fir,.:.. Oak,... Beech, Poplar, 51-79 50-00 49-25 47-00 Cellulose,... 44-44 11. 6-07 6-00 6-28 6-20 6-40 5-80 6-17 41-03 41-15 41-93 43-80 44-65 47-20 49-34 Equivalent in Charcoal. 55-35 53-75 54-70 53-30 51-40. 47-20 44-44 Protection of Wood from Decay. Every one is acquainted with the fact, that when wood is buried in the earth it gradually becomes rotten or decayed. This decay may be checked or delayed by charring the exterior surface of the wood, a method frequently adopted for the preservation of stakes, rails, posts, and other preparations of wood employed in agriculture ; and sailors have long known how to preserve their spars, by means of oil and tar. It was found, however, manv years ago, that a more effective preservative action could be attained by the influence of corrosive subli- mate ; and the practice of soaking wood intended for ship-building, in tanks containing a solution of corrosive sublimate, is now pretty general. The chloride of zinc has also lately been introduced. This is a very deliquescent salt, and of a caustic nature, and may be readily detected by heating it on charcoal before the blowpipe, when it affords a sublimate of the oxide of zinc. In order to cause the complete impregnation of the wood by a solution of the salt, it is now the practice to introduce the wood into a vacuum, and to force the solution between the fibres in this situation. The view of the action of these bodies at present entertained is, that they combine with an albu- minous matter in the sap, or accompanying the cellulose, and thus prevent it from producing a species of fermentation leading to that decay, so well known under the title of dry rot. It is therefore certain that all the metallic salts, as recommended to the Admiralty forty years ago, bv Dr. T. Thomson, and all those substances which form compounds with the albuminous matter of vood, will prove equally efficacious. Various resi- nous and coal oils are now used. I lately examined some oils produced from resins by listilling them at a high temperature which were manufactured for this purpose, in which detected a considerable quantity of creasote, a substance well known as capable of combin- ng with albumen, and as a powerful antidote o decay. Eaw pyroligneous acid has also >een recommended as an antidote to dry rot, and rom the quantity of creasote which it contains must undoubtedly be of service. Common salt as been long used for preserving both vegetable nd animal substance. Tar, sulphate of iron, yrolignate of iron, arsenious acid, Fuchs' soluble ?lass, &c. have all been employed with various egrees of success. To preserve wood, and also 525 woo to give it variegated shades, M. Boucherie has recommended the introduction of various solu- tions into the current of the sap, either imme- diately after the tree is felled, or before this operation is performed. In the former case it is necessary to leave some tufts of leaves at the summit of the tree, and then by cutting a crucial notch at the foot, and immersing it in the solu- tion, the whole ligneous matter becomes impreg- nated with the liquor. To produce hardness, a solution of pyrolignate of iron is employed. A solution of chloride of calcium possesses a good preservative action, at the same time that the tree retains its suppleness, and is rendered less combustible. The mother liquid of salt marshes is equally efficient. By introducing solutions of tannic acid, prussiate of potash after pyrolignate of iron, we obtain black and blue colours respec- tively. Acetate of lead, and chromate of potash, introduced in succession, produce the yellow chro- mate of lead colour ; and by the use of pyrolig- nate of iron, prussiate of potash, acetate of lead, chromate of potash, one after the other blue, green, yellow, and brown tints are formed. To insure the preservation of timber it should be felled when the least amount of sap is contained in its vessels. This period is of course during the winter. It requires then to be seasoned, that is, gradually dried spontaneously, so as to enable as much as possible of the water of the sap contained in it to evaporate. To remove the sap more completely, it has been recommended that the wood should be steeped for a fortnight in clear water, or running water; and then sea- soned in the ordinary way. Wood for buildings requires two or three years' seasoning before it is adapted for its object. The wood in ships is often preserved by packing rock salt betAveen the timbers. In this way I have known as much as 20 or 30 tons of salt stowed away in a large vessel. From careful inspection I have not found this method to produce corrosion of the ship's iron when due attention has been paid to its protec- tion. XAN Wood Opal. Opal, a form of silica, which has replaced the woody matter of trees, and as- sumed its fibrous aspect. Wood Tin. A fibrous variety of binoxide of tin or tin ore found in Cornwall and Brazil. Woody Fibre. The ligneous fibres of which, wood is composed. Wool. The hairy matter of the skin of sheep is so called. It differs from cotton or linen in being a minutely jointed tube, uniting with. Wool. colouring matters without the interposition of mordants, and in not being properly decolourized by chlorine but by sulphurous acid; its spe- cific gravity is 1*614, that of cotton being 1*549. Woorara. An extract obtained by digesting the Strychnos toxifera in water, and employed by the South American Indians as a poison on their arrows. Wormwood. See ABSINTHINE. Wormwood, Oil of. Spec. grav. *973, of vapour 5 '3. Colourless oil, pungent and bitter; isomeric with camphor from wormwood. Wort. The saccharine aqueous infusion of grain. See BEER. Wulfcnite. A synonyme of Molybdate of lead. Wootz. Indian steel. Xantlmmylatc of Potash. 2 CS 2 -j- CIQ HnO,KO. Citron-white crystalline scales ; greasy to the touch ; soluble in water, alcohol, and ether ; anhydrous. By adding CS 2 dissolved in amylic alcohol, to a solution of potash, in the same solvent. Xantharinc. C 8 H 8 S0 4 . Xanthateof,ead. PbOCqHflS^O. Colour- less crystals, by mixing bisulphide of carbon and hydrous protoxide of lead, in a solution of potash, in alcohol ; insoluble in cold water, alcohol, and ether. Xanthate of Oxide of Ammonium. NI^O,C 4 H-O, 2 CS 2 . Lustrous crj-stals like urea, formed when dry ammoniacal gas is passed into an alcoholic solution of binoxisulphocarbonate of ethyl. Xanthcite. A substance obtained as sul- phide in the decomposition of tersulphocyano- hydric acid by heat. Formula of the sulphide, C 3 N 2 H 2 S 2 . Xanthic Acid. A transparent colourless fluid, heavier than water, possessed of a strong odour resembling sulphurous acid, and an acid taste. Catches fire when approached by a lighted body. Obtained by adding C So to a solution of potash in alcohol till the alcohol is neutralized, and then decomposing the xanthate of potash by dilute HC1 or S0 3 . Xanthic Oxide. See URINARY CALCULI. 526 XAN Xanthic Oil. A yellow limpid liquid, -with a strong peculiar smell and sweet taste ; soluble in weak alcohol, and burning with a blue flame. Obtained during the distillation of xanthate of ! potash. Xanthilc. C 4 H.,O 10 . Xanthin. A yellow colouring matter, said by Kuhlmann to exist in madder root. It has the i appearance of an extract ; very soluble in water, its solution having a sweet odour ; very soluble in alcohol, and very little in ether. Xamhitc. 5 (2 CaOSiO 3 ) -4- 2 (2 A1 2 3 SiO 3 ). Spec. grav. 3-221, H 2. Hounded grains or foliated masses, yielding by cleavage doubly- oblique prisms, whose faces are inclined to each other. Colour yellow ; translucent ; sometimes transparent. B.B. fuses with borax into a glass, which is yellow while hot, but colourless on cool- ing. SiO 3 35-092, CaO 33-08, A1 2 O 3 17-4-Js, Fe 2 O 3 6-308, MnO 2-801, MgO 2-001, HO 1-08. Amity, Orange County, New York. Xaiithobctic Acid. An amorphous reddish- yellow mass, attracting moisture from the atmo- sphere; soluble with difficulty in ether, more readily in alcohol and water. Extracted from the root of the red-beet, Beta vulyaris. Xauthocoiic. (3 AgS -f AsS 5 ) + 2 (3 AgS + AsS 3 ). Spec. grav. 5, 5-2, H 2. Reni- form masses ; colour dull red to clove-brown ; streak yellow ; B.B. fuses, and AsS 3 sublimes ; on charcoal gives a bead of silver. S 21-798, As H-322, Ag 63-88. Near Freiberg. Xanthogcnaimdc. C G H 7 NS 2 2 . F.P. 96-8. Formed in the process for xanthate of ammonia, as au oil, but obtained in large pyra- mids by dissolving in alcohol ; soluble in alcohol and ether ; not easily soluble in water. Xauthopcuic Acid. A lemon-yellow crys- talline powder, by the action of alkalies on opi- ammon, a derivative of narcotine. Xanthophyll. Existing in seared autumn leaves, and from which they derive their yellow colour. Xanthophyllite. Light coloured mineral j resembling clintonite or holmesite, in. globular and columnar masses at Slatoust, Ural ; con- taining Si0 3 16-20, A1 2 3 44-96, CaO 12-15, MgO 19-43, FeO 2-73, NaO -55, volatile matter 4-33. Xaiithopicrite. A body of a greenish-yel- low colour ; silky lustre ; destitute of smell ; taste bitter and astringent; little soluble in water; soluble in alcohol ; insoluble in ether. Extracted by alcohol from the bark of the Xantkoxylon earylxeum. XAN Xanthoproteic Acid? 2 C 36 H 2r N 4 Oi2 + NO 3 . An orange-coloured powder, insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether ; inodorous ; combines with acids and bases ; produced by nitric acid on protein. Xnmhorlianmiiie. C 23 H 12 14 . Brown matter, obtained by boiling Chrysorhamnine (ex- isting in the Rhamnus tinctoria, or Persian berries) in water, with free access of air ; insoluble in ether ; soluble hi alcohol and water. Xaiithoroea. Botany Bay Resin. The yellow resin of the Xanthorcea hastilis ; soluble in ether and alcohol. By the action of alkalies, cinnamic and benzoic acids are formed ; and by nitric acid, picric acid results. Xanthorthitc. See ALLANITE. Xanthosideritc. An impure sesquioxide of manganese from Ilmenau. Xeuolitc. See BUCHOLZITE. Xcnofimc. Phosphate of Yttria. Xuthcnc, Sulphide of. C 10 Hj;N n S, 3 SH. A substance produced hi the decomposition of per- sulphocyanohydric acid, which is insoluble in NH 3 , and is thus distinguished from sulphide of phaiene. Xylidinc. C 16 H U X. Xylite. See XYMTIC ACID. Xylite. (CaO,MgO) Si0 3 -4- Fe 2 3 Si0 3 -J- HO. Spec. grav. 2-935, H 3. Nut-brown ; opaque ; asbestus like. B.B. fuses on the edges to a black mass. Si0 3 44-06, Fe 2 O 3 37*84, CaO 6-58, MgO 5-42, CuO 1-36," HO 4-7. From the Urals ? Xylatic Acid. C 12 H 12 0. y A volatile fluid from pyroxylic spirit. Xylitic Naphtha. C 12 H 12 3 . When an excess of potash is added to xylitic acid. Xylitic Oil. C 12 H 9 0. By potash on xyli- tic acid. Xylitic Resin. C 8 H G 0. By the action of caustic potash in excess on xylitic acid. Xylocryptito. See SCHEERERITE. Xyloidin. A white insipid powder, by di- gesting sawdust of wood or potato stai'ch in concentrated nitric acid, and then precipitating by water. Xyloictin. C^H^O.!. Fossil resin found in the remains of pines, in the peat of Denmark. It is also prepared by extracting turf with alco- hol, and then adding ether, when xyloietin falls ; which, when crystallized, fuses at 327. Xylolc. C 1G II 10 . A hydrocarbon homo- logous to benzole and toluole. Found in wood tar and coal gas naphtha. TAX Yanolitc. A synonyme of Axinite. k'east. See FERMENTATION. Yellow, Cassel. Hexachloride of Lead, or PbCl, 6 PbO ; obtained by fusing together 1 :ilammoniac and 10 litharge; used as a pig- ment. Yellow Copperas. See COPIAPSITE. Yellow- Chopper Ore. See COPPER PYRITES. Yellow, English ; or Turner's ; or Patent. Probably a mixture of dichloride of lead and oxide of lead ; prepared by mixing 1 common salt with 7 litharge in water ; the precipitate is washed free from soda and ground. Yellow Lead Ore. Molybdate of Lead. Yellow Tellurium. Aurotellurite. See TELLURIUM, GRAPHIC ORE OF. Yellows for Pottery. Clear Yellow for browns and greens; gray flux 79, antimoniate of potash 14, hydrous carbonate of zinc 7, triturate and fuse. Jonquil Yellow. Pebble flux 86, mixture (of 1 tin, 3 lead) 8, calcined carbonate of soda 3, antimoniate of potash 3. Deep Yellow for browns and greens. Gray flux 75, antimoniate of potash 17, hydrous carbonate of zinc 4, red oxide of iron 4. Uranium, Yellow. Pebble flux 75, pure oxide of uranium 25. Chrome Orange Yel- low. Minium 75, chromate of lead 25. Imperial Yellow, or inferior chrome yellow, for paints. Add acetate of lead to water containing whiting or Paris white, diffused through it to the consistency of cream, and precipitate by bichromate of potash ; dry carefully. Yenite. See ILVAITE, SILICATE OF IRON, LlEVRITE. Yle. The termination of organic radicals, from ixj, a substance from which a body is derived. Yolk of Eggs. The yellow portion of eggs, consisting of vitelline. See EGG. Y pad ii. Coca. Leaves of the Erythroxylon Coca,, an herb much valued by the Indians of Peru. See COCA. Ypolcime. See COPPER PHOSPHATE. Ytierbite. See GADOLINITE. Ytterspath, or Xenotime. Yttrite. See GADOLINITE. Yttrium. Y (Gadolin, 1794). This sub- stance is always accompanied with erbium and terbium, so that no accurate description of its characters has been published. When to a solution of a salt of yttrium, as usually prepared from yttria, is added gradually a solution of an alkali, at first there falls a precipitate, which is rendered yellow or orange by ignition, consisting of oxide of erbium, with oxides of terbium and yttrium. The second precipitate is paler yellow on ignition, consisting principally of oxide of terbium. The third precipitate remains quite white on ignition, and is yttria. The salts of erbium are red ; of terbium pale red ; of yttrium colourless. Yttrocerite. Fluate of Yttria. YttrocolumMte. There are three varieties of this, the black, the yellow, the brown. Slack. 3 (YO,CaO,FeO) Cm0 3 Tu0 3 . Indistinct 4 or 6-sided prisms and plates ; spec. grav. 5*395, H 5-5. Lustre submetallic ; colour iron-black ; streak gray; opaque. Cm0 8 57', Tn0 3 8-25, U 2 3 -5, YO 20-25, CaO 6-25, Fe 2 O 3 3-5. Yellow. Spec. grav. 5-882, H 5-, 3 YO (Cm0 3 U 2 3 ). Occurs in fissures in felspar ; not crystalline; lustre, resin- ous on the surface, vitreous in the fracture; colour yellowish - brown to greenish ; streak white ; opaque. CmO 3 59-5, Tn0 3 1-25, U 2 3 3-23, YO 29-90, CaO 3-29, Fe 2 3 3-50. Brown. 3 (YO,CaO) Cm0 3 , H 4-5, 5-. Plates; lustre vitreous to resinous; colour black, with a shade of brown ; streak white. Yttrocolumbite is infusible per se before the blowpipe ; but decrepitates and becomes light coloured. Ytterby, Broddbo, Finbo, Sweden. Yttroilmenite. Samarslcite, Uranoiantalite. Yttrotantalite. A synonyme of Yttroco- lumbite. Yttrotitanitc, or Kilhauite. Zaiire, or Smalts. See COBALT. Zala. A. synonyme of Borax. Zeagonite. See GISMONDINE. Zeasitc. A synonyme of Opal. Zeilanite. A synonyme of Spindle. Zeolite. The following minerals are such as have the term zeolite appended : Needle Zeo- lite, or Thomsonite ; Foliated Zeolite, or Heulan- dlt.e ; Compact Zeolite, or Lehuntite ; Crystalline, or Radiated, and fibrous, and mealy, and pulveru- / ethyl- ammoiium > C 2 (,TT 24 NO HO (hydrate), ) BDE Methylamin-urea, C 4 H 6 N 2 2 Methylamylanilin, C 24 Hi9N Methyl-biplatosamin, C 4 H 10 PtN 2 O Metoluidin, C 30 Hi7N 3 Bdellium. Substitute Heudelotia for Hen- dolotia. Benzo-heUcine. C 40 H 20 O 16 . Needles by NOs of 1-30 on populin; containing benzole acid hydride of salicyle and sugar. Benzoycine. C 20 H 12 8 . Spec. grav. 1-228. By benzoic acid on glycerine at 392 to 518. Bismuth Teroxide. For soluble, read in- soluble in caustic soda. Butic Acid. C 4 oH 4 o04 ? An acid said to exist as butine in butter. Butyrine. There are three butyrines. Mono- butyrine, Ci 4 H 14 8 , spec. grav. 1-088, by ex- cess of glycerine on butyric acid at 392 ; dibu- tyrine, C 22 H 22 12 , spec. grav. 1-081, at 392 to 500 ; and butyridine, C 14 Hi 3 07, spec. grav. 1*084, oily fluid by 4 butyric acid on 1 glycerine at 392. Butyrolinmodic Acid. C, 2 H 32 4 . Silky crystals by saponification from bog butter Caffeone. Brown liquid oil ; slightly soluble in water; heavier than water ; soluble in ether; obtained by distilling infusion of coffee. Camphorine. By glycerine on camphoric acid. Carbanilidic Acid, or Benzamic Acid. Carbothiacetonine. C 20 H 18 N 2 S 4 . Yellow crystals formed by allowing acetone, carbide of sulphur, and ammonia to stand in contact with each other. It is formed by the replacement of 3 atoms acetone, by 2 atoms carbosulphide of am- monium ; it is therefore the sulphohydride of a sulphur base. Castelnaudite. Hydrous phosphate of Yttria. H 4-5. Grayish-white 4-sided prisms, termi- nated with 4-sided pyramids, with angles of 96 35', and 124 23' 30''. B.B. infusible ; gives a colourless opaque bead with borax and microcos- mic salt ; soluble in sulphuric acid. Chiriatite. Spec. grav. 6 -92. 2(PbS,Cu 2 S) 3Bi 2 S 3 , or S 18-, Bi 60-95, Pb 16-73, Cu 2-42, Fe 1-02, Ag trace, insol. mat. -59. Lead-gray mineral with metallic lustre, cleaving in the direction of a plane to which the second is in- clined at 153, and the third at 133. B.B. be- haves like needle ore of bismuth. Civiato, Peru. Chlorhydrine. C 6 H 7 C10 4 . Sp. grav. 1-31. Neutral oil by heating glycerine with HC1 gas at 212 for thirty-six hours. Citranilide. C 4 8H 23 N 3 8 . Colourless trun- cated prisms = tribasic citrate of aniline deprived of 6 atoms water ; by the action of citric acid on aniline. Citrenc. C 20 Hi C . Spec. grav. -847, of va- pour 4-73; B.P". 325. Obtained by passing HC1 gas into oil of lemons and distilling the camphor (C 2 <)H 16 HC1) with water, and then HID passing it through a tube filled with lime at 320 ; has not the property of deviating the rays of polarized light to the right. Citrilene. Citronile. Spec. grav. -88, of vapour 5-08 ; B.P. 331 to 347. Volatile oil by decomposing the liquid camphor of oil of lemons. Citrobianile. C 36 Hi 6 N 2 O 8 . 6 -sided plates = bibasic citrate of aniline, less 6 atoms water ; hi the formation of citranilide. CitrobianiOc Acid. C 36 H 18 N" 2 10 . Silky needles = citrobianile ~\- 2 HO ; by adding anv- monia to citrobianile. Citromonanilic Acid. C 24 H U N0 10 = equicitrate of aniline 4 HO ; by heating equi- citrate of aniline between 284 and 302. Copper, p. 184. For column under, " after calcining," substitute copper 16'42, sulphur 4-56, Fe 2 3 40-, silica 38-. Cyanoxysulphide. A synonyme of Sulpho- cyanogen. Elaoptene Oleoptene. Fluid part of essential oils. Erythroleic Acid. C 26 H 22 8 . Purple fluid; soluble in ether and alcohol, but almost insoluble in water ; soluble in alkalies ; obtained by evaporating the ether solution from Orchil. Ethers. A number of compounds have been obtained by replacement, formed on the type of water. Ethyl-cenanthyle ether = C 2 H 5 ,C 7 H 15 ,O ; Methyl-cenanthyl ether, C 2 H 3 ,C 7 H 15 O; Amyl- cenanthyle ether, C 5 H 1:L ,C 7 H 15 ,O, by treating oenanthylic alcohol with iodides of ethyle, me- thyle, and amyle. Ethyle-toluidine. By the action of iodide of ethyle in a closed tube on toluidine four bases have been obtained, three of the ammonia, and the fourth of the ammonium type. FInavile. F.P. 212. Yellow resin from gutta percha by alcohol. Fluosilicanilide. C 48 H 3g F n Si 4 6 . White body by terfluoride of silicon on aniline. Oeoceraine. C5 6 H 56 4 . Wax by distilling brown coal. Oeoceric Acid. C 56 H 56 O 4 . Gelatinous mass by alcohol from brown coal. G-eocerinone. CuoHuoC^. 6-sided tables from the distilled matter from yellowish brown coal. Oeomyricine. C 68 H 68 4 . Hair crystals by alcohol from brown coal. . Oeoretic Acid. C 24 H 21 O 7 . Needles by ether and alcohol, from the wax and resins of brown coal from Gerstewitz. Hetcrologous. Dissimilar bodies which re- sult the one from the other. The formic, acetic, and propionic series are examples. Hidrotic Acid. C 10 H 8 N0 13 . Syrupy fluid, obtained from sweat by alcohol, in which it i* soluble. 538 HIP Hipparaffine. Ci 6 H 8 N0 2 . F.P. 392. Prismatic needles, little soluble in boiling water ; neutral ; soluble in alcohol ; very soluble in ether; not decomposed by boiling HC1 and S0 3 ; de- composed by NO 5 ; slightly sublimable ; formed along with benzamide by treating hippuric acid with binoxide of lead. Homologous. Bodies are said to be homo- logous when their composition differs by a con- stant quantity or multiple of it. Thus the for- mula of methyle differs from that of ethyle by C 2 H 2 ; and a series of homologues exist of which methyle may be viewed as the simplest term. The fatty acids enumerated under that title are liomologues. The organic radicals, their alcohols and derived acids, are examples of homologous bodies. Hydrargyromethilium and Methidc, in- stead of Hydrargyromethylnine and Methose. I radium and Ammonia. New bases. The ammoniacal protochloride of iridium, yields with N0 5 the base IrClN 2 H 6 0, corresponding with the platinum base of Gros, and with S0 3 the base IrONH 3 . Another base is IrON 2 H 6 . Iron, page 305, 2d column, line 23, intro- duce, instead of the " carbon is," " the carbona- ceous iron is." Isologous. Similar bodies are so termed which do not present the same relation in their differences as in homologous bodies. Acetic and benzoic acids are isologous. I^eucene, Sulphide of. C 6 H 5 N 5 S 2 . Gray- ish product by heating persulphocyanohydric acid to 437. I^cncopetriii. C 50 H 42 O 3 . Needles from the brown coal of Gerstewitz by ether and alco- hol. ijiliaciiic, substitute for Lilaicne. Iff anganate and Permaugate of potash. Manganic Acid. Mn 3 6-5. Formed by fusing equal parts of black oxide and saltpetre or caustic potash ; a black mass results, which becomes in water green, blue, purple, and reddish- brown, turning into the red oxide. This sub- stance is termed the chameleon mineral, in con- sequence of the changes of colour depending on the absorption of oxygen. Hyperinanganic acid, Mn 2 O 7 14-, prepared by heating 3| parts chlorate of potash, 4 parts black oxide of manganese, and 5 parts dry caustic potash dissolved in water. (Gregory). The whole is evaporated to dryness in a porcelain crucible, and exposed to a low red heat, but not fused. The powder is taken out, digested in water, the clear liquor poured off and evaporated ; black crystals of hypermanganate of potash crystallize out. The solution of these crys- tals in water is finely red, but cannot be concen- trated, in consequence of the tendency of the acic to give out oxygen. When gassed through filter- ing paper it decomposes. STE Margarine. C 40 H 40 8 . F.P. 132-8. Formed at ordinary temperatures by margaric acid hi glycerine. Tetramargarine is obtained by leating monomargarine at 212 with eltcess of margaric acid. Niobium. It has been recently ascertained by H. Rose that niobium and pelopium are dentical; he proposes to retain the name of niobium. Octyle. A synonyme of Hydrous oxide of capryle. Oleine. C 42 H 40 O 8 . Spec. grav. -947 ; F.P. 59. Diokine. C 78 H 74 Oi 2 . Spec. grav. -921; F.P. 59, by oleic^acid on glycerine. Organoleptism. The effect produced on the organs of sense by bodies, as touch, taste, smell. &c. Othyle. A hypothetic radical. The othyle theory represents acetic acid as containing the radical C 2 H 3 (derived from ethyle C 2 H 5 by the substitution of O for h 2 ). It connects the formulae of the acetic series with that of water hh,O, by writing them hi the following man- ner: Formic Acid. Oh0 Acetic Acids. C 2 h 3 O h Palmitine. C 38 H 38 8 . F.P. 136. Dipalm- itine, C 70 H 70 4 , F.P. 138. Tetrapalmitine, F.P. 140, are obtained by the action of palmitic acid on glycerine. Phalene, Sulphide of. C 12 H 12 N 12 S 2 . A body produced in the decomposition by heat of sulphocyanide of ammonium. Pigments. See blue, black, green, red, yellow, &c. colours. Poliene. C 4 H 4 N 4 . A substance formed in the decomposition of sulphocyanide of ammo- nium. Pyropine. C 53-3353-5, H 7-527-66, N 15, O 23-63, ash -52. A beautiful ruby-coloured substance, formed in the ulterior of the tusk of an elephant ; insoluble in water, but becoming- soft in it, and sometimes smelling of glue ; the ash is red. Salicyle-methyle, Benzoate of. C 7 H 4 (CH 3 )0 2 + C 7 H 6 0,0. Salicyle-methyle, Cuminate of. C 7 H 4 Hydrate of. C 7 H Salicyle-methyle, (CH 3 )0 2 HO. Sebine. C 32 H 30 10 . Crystals by glycerine on sebacic acid at 392. Stearine. By heating equal parts stearic acid and glycerine at 500 for twenty-four hours, monostearine in needles results = C 42 H 42 8 : equal parts heated to 212 for a hundred and fourteen hours, give distearine in plates ; by heat- ing natural stearine with excess of glycerine^ 539 TAR 392 for twenty-two hours, tetrastearme is formed (C 15 oHi 46 16 ). Tartroiiic Acid. C 6 H 4 Oi . F.P. 320. Obtained by the spontaneous decomposition of nitrotartaric acid in water. When heated to 356 it is converted into glycolic acid (C 4 H 4 6 ). Glycollide. C 4 H 2 O 4 . Insoluble body proceeding from the dry distillation of tartronic acid ; it is converted into glycolie acid by alkalies. Glyco- lamide. C 4 H 5 N 2 O 4 . Fine crystals by heating bitartronate.of ammonia, or by adding ammonia to glycollide. Theory of Acids and Bases, &c. Ac- cording to Gerhardt the greater number of or- ganic compounds at present known are derived from a limited number of types in inorganic chemistry, viz. water, chlorohydric acid, ammo- nia, &c. The derivatives of these types form a series, the properties of each differing, but being in progression. The acids are placed at one ex- tremity, which may be termed the negative end, XAN the bases at the other or positive end, while the neutral bodies placed in the intermediate space constitute the transition point of the series. Thus methyle, ethyle, &c. when replacing hydrogen in the above types, produce positive or basic deri- vatives; while benzoyle, acetyle, cumyle, give origin to negative derivatives or bodies more or less analogous to acids. The following is an illus- tration of water as a type, viewing its formula asH 2 0: m H/ U Acetic Acid Do. Anhydrous. ITydrous. C 2 H 3 O\ n C H / u C 2 B 3 Oj Train Oil. From the Balena misticetus and rostrata. Spec. grav. -927; B.P. 600. 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