*nia I ^IDSANCfl^^ ^Of;CAUFO«^ ^OfCAUFOIZ^ ^a3AlNQ-3V^^ <5a^UNIVER% ^tfOJnVDJO^ %l]DNVS01'^ ^0FCAIIF0% "^iimm0 ^^MEIINIVER%. <. ^JJUONVSOl^ "^^ 5*t 1 ^^^^w^ ^^ ^J^uoNvsov^^ "^jMAiNnawv %3AIN(13WV^ -J5^l■UBRARYGc, %0JnVDJO^ <4,0FCAIIF0% ... 5=3 . ^ ^g ^5ji\EUNIVER%. j^lOSANCElfX^ -^UBRARYOc. ^Vi n Q ,^^l)NIYERS; "^UDK PROGRESS RELIGIOUS IDEAS. \ T II y. PROG 11 ESS RELIGIOUS IDEAS, L. MARIA CHILD. God sends Ijis tcacliers unto every age, To every clime, and every race of men, With revelations fitted to their Growth And shape of mind, nor gives the realm of Tuutu Into the seltisli rule of one sole race : Therefore, each form of worship that hath swayed Tlie life of man, and given it to grasp Tlie master-key of knowledge, Ehverkxok, Enfolds some germs of goodness and of right. J. E. Lowell. IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL. I. FOURTH EDITION. NEW YORK : JAMES MILLER, PUBLISHER, 779 BROADWAY. Entered sicorrilnf; to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, hy C. S. Francis ano Company, m tne Olerks Office of the District Lv,nrt ol tlie United States for tlie Southea District of New York. -J" CONTENTS OF VOL. I. PAGt Preface vii HINDOSTAN 1 Antiqiiity of Hiiulostan, 2. Ancliorites, from 4 to 10. Pantheism, 10. Gods and Goddesses, from 10 to 18. Sacred Emblems, 16, 94. Bramins, 20 to 24; 47, 120, 132, 133. Castes, 19, 34, 89, 117. Transmigration, 24 to 26 ; 114. Heavens and Hells, 26 to 30. Sacred Books, 31 to 76. Crishna, 52 ; 60 to 74. Bouddha, 83 to 87. Sects, 57 to 93. Temples, 93 to 104. Holy Cities, 105 to 108. Festivals, 108, 126. Hindoo "Wo- men, 109 to 113. Sacred Animals, 114 to 116. Degeneracy of Hindoos, 117. Fakeers, 118. Magic, 122. Nadac Shah, 91. Narayua Powar, 127. Rammohun Roy, 136. EGYPT 139 Ethiopians, 139. Resemblances between Hindoos and Egyptians, 141 to 144; 183, 191. Ancient travellers to Egypt, 145. Antiquity of Eg\ pt, 146, 148, 188. Hieroglyphics deciphered, 147. Gods and Goddesses, 149 to 157 ; 145. Heavens and Hells, 158 to 161. Castes, 161, 195. Priesthood, 163 to 16S. Eg}-ptian Women, 168, 195. Oracles, 141, 168. Transmigration, 158, 160. Festivals, 169 to 172. Sacred Books, 173 to li 176. Pantheism, 175, 195. Sacred Animals, 176 to 180. Sects, 180. cv^ Temples, 182 to 194 ; 196. Pyramids, 140, 142, 188. Alexandria, 196. CHINA 199 Antiquityof China, 199. Confucius, 200 to 205. Lao-tseu, 213. Sacred Books,' 205 to 214 ; 221. Religion of Fo, the Chinese name for Boud- O dha, 215, 217. Lamaisni, 216. Transmigration, 219. 4646S8 Vi CONTENTS. PAOT. THIBET AND TARTARY 22i Famous Buddhist Hermit, 221. Lamaism, 223. Lamas, 224, 231 to 238. Grand Lama, 223, 240, 24L Sacred Books, 222, 248. Lamaseries, or Monasteries, 224, 226 to 242. Anchorites, 228. Caste abolished, 225. Prayer-wheels, 23G. Temples, 242 to 244. Buddhist Worship, 244. Pantheism, 246. Transmigration, 247. Heavens and Hells, 230, 247. Sects, 249. Date of Buddhist Religion, 250. Its rapid extension, 25 L CHALDEA 252 Antiquity of Chaldea, 252. Resemblanees between Chaldea, Hindostan, and Egypt, 253. Priesthood, 254. Magic, 254. Gods and Goddesses, 255. Temple, 255. PERSIA 2oG Zoroaster, 256 to 259. The Sacred Book called Zend-Avesta, 258 to 269. Gods and Spirits, 259 to 26L The Magi, 269 to 273. Sects, 273. Fire- worshippers, 275 to 279. Devil-worsliippers, 279 to 283. GREECE AND ROME 284 Hesiod, 286. .Homer, 287. Gods and Goddesses, 289 to 295. Heaven and Hell, 296. Priesthood, 298 to 301 ; 306. Women, 300. Modes of Worship, 301 to 314. Festivals, 308 to 314. Oracles and Prophecj-, 314 to 322. Temples, 323 to 330. Sects of Philosophy, 330, 367. Orpheus, 333. Pythagoras, 335 to 342. Socrates, 344 to 352. Plato, 352 to 363. Resemblances between Hindoo, Egyptian, and Grecian Ideas, 289 to 291 ; 363. Aristotle, 364. Cicero, 365. Stoics, 367. Decline of Faith, 370. CELTIC TRIBES 3V3 Druids, 374 to 380. Women, 377. JEWS 381 Abraham, 381 to 387. Patriarchs, 387 to 390. Moses, 391 to 395. Manetho, 393. Resemblances between Eg3'ptian and Hebrew Ideas, 396 to 401. The Laws and Writings of Moses, 402 to 411. Joshua, 411. Gideon, 415. Frequent Appearance of Angels, 384, 387, 416. Priest- hood, 405, 421. Idolatry, 414 to 418 ; 439 to 449. Times of the Judges, 414 to 422. Samuel, 421 to 425. David, 425 to 431. The Temple, 427, 431 to 438; 449. Solomon, 431 to 440. Kingdoms of Israel and Judali, 440. Book of the Law, 447. The Kings after Solomon, 440 to 449. Exile to Babylon, 449. PREFACE. I woci.D candidly advise persons who are conscious of bigoted attach- ment to any creed, or theory, not to purchase this book. Whether they are bigoted Christians, or bigoted infidels, its tone will be likely to displease them. My motive in writing has been a very simple one. I wished to show that theology is not religion ; with the hope that I might help to breakdown partition walls ; to ameliorate what the eloquent Bush- nell calls " baptized hatreds of tlie human race." In order to do this, I have endeavoured to give a concise and comprehensive account of religions, in the liberal spirit of the motto on my title page. The pe- riod embraced in my plan extends from the most ancient Hindoo re- cords, to the complete establishment of the Catholic church. While my mind was yet in its youth, I was offended by the manner in which Christian writers usually describe other religions ; for I ob- served that they habitually covered apparent contradictions and absurd- ities, in Jewish or Christian writings, with a veil of allegories and mystical interpretation, while the records of all other religions were unscrupulously analyzed, or contemptuously described as " childish fables," or " filthy superstitions." I was well aware that this was done unconsciously, under the influence of habitual reverence for early teaching ; and I was still more displeased with the scoffing tone of sceptical writers, who regarded all religious as founded on impos- ture. Eithei way, the one-sidedness of the representation troubled my strong sense of justice. I recollect wishing, long ago, that I could become acquainted with some good, intelligent Bramin. or JNIoham- medan, that I might learn, in some degree, how their religions ap- peared to them. This feeling expanded within me, until it took form in this book. The facts it contains are very old ; the novelty it claims is the point of view from which those facts are seen and presented. I Vili riiEFACE. have treated all religions with reverence, and shown no more favour to one than to another. I have exhibited each one in the liglit of its own Sacred Books ; and in giving quotations, I have aimed in every case to present impartially the beauties and the blemishes. I have honestly tried never to exaggerate merits, or conceal defects. I have not declared that any system was true, or that any one was false. I have even avoided the use of the word heathen ; for though harmless in its original signification, it is used in a way that implies conde- scension, or contempt ; and such a tone is inconsistent with the per- fect impartiality I have wished to observe. I have tried to place each form of worship in its own light ; that is, as it appeared to those who sincerely believed it to be of divine origin. But even this candid method must necessarily produce a very imperfect picture, drawn as it is by a modern mind, so foreign to ancient habits of thought, and separated from them by the lapse of ages. The process has been ex- ceedingly interesting ; for the history of the religious sentiment, strug- gling througli theological mazes, furnishes the most curious chapter in the strange history of mankind. I offer the results of my investigations with extreme timidity. Not because I am afraid of public opinion ; for I have learned to place ex- ceedingly little value on anything the world can give, or take away. But I have been oppressed with anxiety, lest I should not perform the important task I had undertaken in the right spirit and the most ju- dicious manner. I have conscientiously tried to do it with great care, fearless truthfulness, perfect candour, reverence toward God, and ten- derness for human nature. I have sought out facts diligently, and stated them plainly ; leaving the reader to draw his own conclusions freely, uninfluenced by suggestions from me. The inferences deduced from my statements will vary according to the predominance of the reverential, or the rationalistic element in character. I have con- tented myself with patiently digging out information from books old and new, and presenting it with all the clearness and all the honesty of which T am capable. To write with the unbiassed justice at which I aimed, I was obliged to trample under my feet the theological under- brush, which always tangles and obstructs the path, when the soul strives to be guided only by the mild bright star of religious sentiment. It is never pleasant to walk directly through and over the opinions of the age in which one lives. I have not done it sarcastically, as if I despised them ; because such is not my feeling. I have done it in a straight-forward quiet way, as if I were unconscious of tlieir exist- ence. 1 foresee that many good and conscientious people will con- siiicr it a great risk to treat religious history in this manner. If T PREFACE. IX could have avoided giving them pain, and at the same time have written with complete impartiality, I would most gladly have done 60. For myself, I have firm faith that plain statements of truth can never eventually prove injurious, on any subject. Milton has expressed this conviction with rare eloquence : " Though all the winds of doctrine be let loose to play vipon the earth, so Truth be in the field, we do injuriously to doubt her strength. Let her and falsehood grapple. Who ever knew Truth put to the worse by a free and open encounter? Mcthinks I see in my mind a noble and puis- sant nation rousing herself like a strong man after sleep, and shaking her invincible locks. Mcthinks I see her as an eagle muing her mighty youth, and kindling her undazzled eyes at the full mid-day beam ; purging and unsealing her long abused sight at the fountain itself of heavenly radiance ; while the whole noise of timorous flocking birds, with those also who love the twilight, flutter about, amazed at what she means, and in their envious gabble would prog- nosticate a year of sects and schisms. What would ye do then? Should ye suppress all this flowery crop of knowledge, sprung up, and yet daily springing up ? Should ye set an oligarchy of twenty engrossers over it, to bring a famine upon our minds again, when we shall know nothing but what is measured to us by their bushel ? Believe it, they who counsel you to such suppressing, do as good as bid you to suppress yourselves." If scholars should read this book, they may perchance smile at its extreme simplicity of style. But I have written for the popular mind, not for the learned. I have therefore aimed principally at conciseness and clearness. I have recorded dates, and explained phrases, sup- posed to be generally understood, because I know there are many in- telligent readers not familiar with such dates and phrases, and who cannot conveniently refer to cyclopedias, or lexicons. I am aware of having inserted very many things, which are perfectly well known to everybody. But this was unavoidable, in order to present a continu- ous whole, from the same point of view. Doubtless, a learned person could have performed the task far better, in many respects ; but on some accounts, my want of learning is an advantage. Thoughts do not range so freely, when the store-room of the brain is overloaded with furniture. In the course of my investigations, I have frequently observed that a great amount of erudition becomes a veil of thick clouds between the subject and the reader. Moreover, learned men can rarely have such freedom from any sectarian bias, as the circum- etances of my life have produced in me. It is now more than eight years since I first began this task. Had 1 X PREFACE. foreseen how far my little boat would carry me out to sea, 1 certainly should not have undertaken tlie voyage. Unexpected impediments in- terrupted the labour during three years ; but even then my thoughts and my reading were continually directed toward it. I have been diligent and patient in procuring and comparing facts, from sources deemed perfectly authentic, and I have been scrupulously conscien- tious in the statement of them. I may have made mistakes ; for it is not easy to arrive at the exact truth amid a mass of obscure and often contradictory statements. But I have done my best ; and if there are errors, they have not proceeded from intention, or from carelessness, have not asked any person what I should say, or how I should say it. My natural love of freedom resisted such procedure ; and foresee- ing that I might incur unpopularity, I was unwilling to implicate others. I have, therefore, merely stated to learned men, and women, that I wished for information on specified subjects, and inquired of them what were the best books to be consulted. I have sometimes con- densed quotations, for the sake of brevity, but 1 have never misquoted, or misrepresented. I am not aware that any one, who truly reverenced the spirit of Christianity, has ever before tried the experiment of placing it pre cisely on a level with other religions, so far as the manner of repre- sentation is concerned. Even wise and candid men, more or less unconsciously, adopt a system of withholding evidence on one side, and accumulating it on the other; as the most honest lawyers do, when pleading a cause. The followers of all religions practise self- deception of this kind. They forget that most human beings would seem great and holy, in comparison with others, if all the weaknesses were carefully concealed on one side, and protruded into prominence on the other; if all the excellences were rendered conspicuous on one side, and kept out of sight on the other. I have tried to avoid this tendency. 1 have given beautiful extracts from Platonic philosophers, and from Christian Fathers. I have portrayed the benevolence of bishops, without veiling their ambition, or intolerance. I have not eulogized any doctrines as true, or stigmatized any as false. 1 have simply said so it was argued, and thus it was decided. I knew of no other method by which complete impartiality could be attained. Some may consider the sketches of Apollonius, Philo, Cerinthus, Plotinus, and others, as irrelevant to the history of Christianity. But in order to trace the progress of religious ideas, it was necessary to de- Bcribe the prominent cliaracters, and external inlliiences, which inodi- ficd their growtii ; for the surrounding spiritual atmosphere airect.s the formation of all opinions. I have therefore endeavoured ta show what rREFACK. XI degree of preparation there was, in the Jewish and Gentile world, for the coming of Christianity, and then what kind of resistance it met, in- ternally and externally. I may have misunderstood some theological statements : for it is not easy to draw a continuous thread from the landed skein of polemical controversy ; which constantly reminds me of the Scotch definition of metaphysics: "It is ane mon explcening to anither what he dinna weel understand himsel." The perfect openness with which I have revealed many particulars generally kept in the back ground, will trouble some devotional people, whose feelings I would not willingly wound. But I place great reliance on sincerity, and have strong faith in the power of gen- uine Christianity to stand on its own internal merits, unaided by con- cealment. My own mind has long been desirous to ascertain the plain unvarnished truth on all these subjects ; and having sought it out, I felt prompted to impart it to those who were in a similar state. Those who wish to obtain candid information, without caring whether it docs, or does not, sustain any favourite theory of their own, may perhiips thank me for saving them the trouble of searching through large and learned volumes for scattered items of information ; and if they complain of want of profoundness, they may perchance be wil- ling to accept simplicity and clearness in exchange for depth. In order to do justice to the book, if read at all, it ought not to be glanced at here and there, but read carefully from the beginning to the end ; because the links of a continuous chain are preserved throughout. Constant reference to authorities would have loaded the pages with notes, and unpleasantly interrupted the reading. I have therefore given, at the end of the volume, a list of the principal books I have used, which can be examined by any one who doubts the accuracy of my statements. Sustained by conscious integrity of purpose, and having executea my task faithfully, according to the best of my ability, I quietly leave the book to its fate, whether it be neglect, censure, or praise. PROGRESS RELIGIOUS IDEAS. HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. "The countries of the far East had also their age of glory. At their fire was lighted a torch, which passing from tiie hands of Eg3-ptians to the hands of Jews, and from the hands of Jews to the hands of Christians, still casts its gleams nj)on the earth." The name of this country was derived from one of its principal rivers. Stan signifies land ; hence it came to be called Indus-Stan, land of the Indus. Hindoos themselves called it by a name signifying " The Central Land ;" some- times it was designated as " The Land of Righteousness." Within the last century their literature has attracted much attention, and the careful investigations of Oriental scholars prove them to have been a civilized people at a period ex- tremely remote. In times coeval with the earliest authentic records, they could calculate eclipses, and were venerated for their attainments in several arts and sciences. Some of their very ancient buildings contain the twelve signs of the zodiac, represented by almost precisely the same em- blems now in use among us. According to the learned astronomer, M. Bailly, their observations of the heavenly Vol. i— 1 A 2 PKOGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. bodies may be dated as far back as four thousand nine hundred and fifty years. The Sanscrit language, in which their Sacred Books are written, is of such remote antiquity, that no tradition remains of any people by whom it was originally spoken; and their mj^thological sculptures, cov- ering immense masses of rock, are said to be " works which make the pyramids of Egypt seem young." The Hindoos believed themselves to have been the first inhabitants of this earth ; and their traditions place the creation of the world many millions of 3^ears farther back than we do. First, there was an age of purity, called the Satya Yug, when men lived to an immense age, and were more than thirty feet high. They were too innocent to have need of government, and so unselfish that all the goods of life were equally distributed. " Delightful times ! because Nature then veigned, and Nature's laws ; And this grand truth from none was hidden, What pleaseth hath no law forbidden." A great Deluge swept away all the memorials of this age. In the second age, called Treta Yug, men began to be vicious. The term of their existence was much shortened, and Brahma gave them rajahs, or princes, to rule over them. In the third age, called the Dvvapar Yug, vice and virtue became equally mingled, and the lives of men were again shortened one thiixl. Tiie fourth age, called the Cali Yug, though much shorter than the others in duration, is to embrace a term of four hundred and thirty-two thousand years. According to their Sacred Books, it commenced about five thousand years ago, when there was a remark- able conjunction of the planets. In this age, the longest term of man's life is limited to one hundred years, and his stature, already greatly diininislied, will be gradually re- duced to pigmy size. Wickedness will more and more abound till the end comes. Hindoos liave no history to sustain these dates, com- i)risinK such enormous intervals of time. Lists of kinffs, HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 3 preserved in various parts of the country, have been cal- 3ulatecl to go back between four and live thousand years. It is a recognized fact that some indiviiluals have tem- peraments more inclined than others to veneration and mysticism ; and the remark is equally applicable to nations. Tlie Hindoos are peculiarly ardent and susceptible, and as usual with such organizations, they have strong devotional tendencies. We find their wise men of ancient time neg- lecting historical records, and pajnng comparatively slight attention to the external sciences, but meditating earnestly, in. the loneliness of stately forests, on the origin and des- tiny of the human soul. Ecstatic delight in nature, exu- berant wealth of imagination, a pervading reverence for the supernatural, characterize every department of their literature. The same religious impress is on their history. They have been patient and docile under every foreign yoke, so long as they were unmolested in usages deemed sacred ; but the moment there was any interference with devotional practices, they were roused at once, and defended them with the ferocity of tigers. The first question which perplexed the old sages of India, standing as they did on the threshold of time, was one which no subtilty of human intellect has yet been able to solve. They asked. Whence came Evil ? Con- ceiving, as we do, that the Great First Cause of all things must be good, they knew not how to account for disease and wickedness. They did not ascribe tliem to a Bad Spirit, almost as powerful as God himself; but they sup- posed that Matter was Evil, and that the union of Spirit with Matter v/as the origin of all sin, sickness, and sorrow. This visible world, including mortal bodies, they regarded as mere phantasmagoria, without any reality ; a magic- lantern show, by which the Divine Mind, for inscrutable purposes, deludes us into the belief that we are independent existences, and that the things around us are real. Hence they called creation Maya, or Illusion. This theological theory, acting on temperaments natu- rally plaintive and poetic, produced melancholy views of 4 PKOGRESS OF KELIGIOUS IDEAS. life, and a strong inclination toward religious ecstasy; while at the same time warmth of climate and facility of procur- ing sustenance predisposed to lassitude and gentle reverie. In times ancient beyond conjecture, there were men among them who withdrew altogether from the labours and pleas- ures of the world, and in solitary places devoted them- selves entirely to religious contemplation. This lonely existence on the silent mountains, or amid the darkness of immense forests, infested by serpents and wild beasts, and as they believed by Evil Spirits also, greatly excited popular imagination. The human soul, unsatisfied in its cage of finite limitation, is always aspiring after the good and the true, always eagerly hoping for messengers from above, and therefore prone to believe in them. Thus these saintly hermits came to be objects of extreme veneration among the people. Men travelled far to inquire of them how sins might be expiated, or diseases cured; for it was believed that in thus devoting themselves to a life beyond the tumult of the passions, occupied solely with penance and pra3^er, they approached very near to God, and re- ceived direct revelations of his divine wisdom. In the beginning, these-anchorites were doubtless influ- enced by sincere devotion, and made honest efforts to attain what seemed to them the highest standard of purity and holiness. Their mode of life was simple and austere in the extreme. They lived in caverns, or under the shelter of a few boughs, which they twisted together in the shadow of some great tree. Their furniture consisted merely of an antelope skin to sleep on, a vase to receive alms, a pitcher for water, a basket to gather roots and wihl l)crries, a hatchet to cut wood for sacrifices, a staff to help them tliro\igh the forest, and a rosary made of lotus seeds, to assist in repeating their numerous prayers. The beard and nails were suffered to grow, and to avoid trouble with tlicir hiiir, it was twisted into peculiar knots, resem bling th(! close curls of an African. In later times, they sliaved their licads, probably froni motives of cleanliness. However high might have been their caste in the society HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. $ Df the Avorld, tlicy retained no ornament, or badge oi' dis- tinction. They wore simply a coarse yellowish red gar- ment made of the fibres of bark. Their food consisted of wild roots, fruit, and grain ; and of these they must eat merely enough to sustain life. They might receive food as alms, or even ask for it, in cases of extreme ne- cessity ; but they must strive to attain such a state of indifference, that they felt no regret if refused, and no pleasure if they received it. They were bound to the most rigid chastity, in thought as well as deed. So far as they coveted the slightest pleasure from any of the senses, so far were they from their standard of perfect sanctity. Some made a vow of continual silence, and kept a skull before them to remind them constantly of death. Their occupations were to cut wood for sacrifices by fire; to gather roots and berries for daily food, deducting a portion to be offered on the altars; to recite prayers three times a day, morning, noon, and evening, always preceded by ablution; to repeat sacred sentences ; to go through daily ceremonies for the spirits of departed ancestors ; to offer sacrifices at the new moon and full moon, at morning and evening twilight. In addition to this routine, they prescribed to themselves tasks more or less severe, accordino; to the des^ree of holi- ness they wished to attain, or had courage to pursue. Some fasted to the very verge of dissolution. In summer they exposed themselves to the scorching sun, or sur- rounded themselves with fires. In winter they wore wet garments, or stood up to the chin in water. They went forth uncovered amid frightful tempests. They stood for houis and da\'s on the point of their toes, Avith arms stretched upward, motionless as a tree. Tliey sat on their lieels, closing tlieir ears tight with their thumbs, their eyes with the forefingers, their nostrils with the middle fingers, and their lips with the little fingers; in this attitude they remained holding their breath till they often fell into a swoon. These terrible self-torments resulted from their belief that this life was merely intended for exj^iation ; that the Vol. I.— 1* 6 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. body was an incumbrance, and the senses entirely evil ; that relations to outward things entangled the soul in temptation and sin ; that man's great object should be to withdraw himself entirely from Nature, and thus become completely absorbed in the eternal Soul of the Universe, from which his own soul originally emanated. Penances undertaken for sins committed were supposed to procure no otlier advantage than the remission of future punishment for those sins; but sufferings voluntarily in- curred, merely to annihilate the body, and attain nearness to the divine nature, were believed to extort miraculous gifts from supernatural beings, and ultimately enable man to become God. Aiming at this state of jDcrfection, they gradually at- tained complete indifference to all external tilings. They no longer experienced desire or disappointment, hope or fear, joy or sorrow. Some of them went entirely naked, and were reputed to subsist merely on water. The world was to them as thousrh it did not exist. In this state the w^ords they uttered were considered divine revelations. They were believed to know everything by intuition ; to read the mysteries of past, pi-esent, and future; to perceive the thoughts of whoever came into their presence ; to move from one place to another by simply willing to do so ; to cure diseases, and even raise the dead. Some of this marvellous power was supposed to be imparted even to tlie garments they wore, and the staffs with which they walked. The Hindoo Sacred Writings are filled with all manner of miracles performed by these saints. There are traditions that some of them were taken up alive to heaven; and impressions on the rocks are shown, said to be f()ot{)rints they left when they ascended. By extraor- dinary ])uriri(;;iti()n and suffering, some were reputed to have; ()btaiiii'(l such ])ovver, even over tlie gods, that they could c'ouij)el them to grant wliatevcr they asked. For this reason it was sup])osod the deities were not well ])li'as(-d when a lici'mit vowed himself to remarkable cllbi'ts; ami they sli'ove to seduce him from his purpose HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 7 by all manner of temptations. Hindoo poems abound with legends of beautiful nymphs sent on such missions, and often proving successful. The holy hermit Visvami- tra was so fascinated by the nymph Menaka, that live years passed in her society seemed to him but a single moment. " Alas !" exclaimed he, " what has become of my wisdom, my penitence, my firm resolution? Behold all destroyed at once by a woman! Seduced by the sin which pleased Indra, I see myself deprived of the advan- tages I had gained by all my austerities." But the mission of these nymphs was a dangerous one for themselves also; for if the holy recluse did withstand their attractions, and pronounce a curse upon them, his words must inevitably take effect, however terrible they might be. Thus the nymph Rambba, striving to seduce Visvamitra, was, by the foi-ce of his imprecations, changed to a pillar of stone for a thousand years. The most power- ful kings feared the malediction of these highly sanctified mortals, and sought their blessing as the greatest earthly good. One of the sacred legends thus describes the recep- tion given to some of these celebrated anchorites, by the king of Lilipa: — "Penetrated with inexpressible joy and reverence, he bowed his face to the earth before them. Having caused them to be seated, he washed their feet, drank a portion of the water, and poured the remainder on his head. Joining his hands upon his forehead, he male a profound obeisance, and thus addressed them : — ■ ' Tlie happiness I this day enjoy can only be in reward for some good works I have performed in a previous state of existence. I possess all desirable good in seeing your sacred feet. My body is now perfectly pure, since I have had the happiness to behold you. You are the gods whom I serve. I recognize no others but you. Henceforth, I am as pure as the waters of Ganges.' " The site chosen for hermitages was usually in the midst of picturesque scenery, on the side of mountains com- manding an extensive prospect, or amid the cool shadows of majestic groves. It was considered peculiarly desirable 8 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS, to be near the meeting of two sacred rivers, for the per- formance of prescribed ablutions and ceremonies. A very ancient sacred poem, called The Mahabharata, contains tlie following description of a traveller in the forest approach- ing one of these holy places : — " The distant cry of deer, the song of birds, the hum of bees, resounded gently in his ear, and conveyed to his soul an inexpressible feeling of calm happiness. Graceful trees bent under the weight of fruits and flowers. Their flexible branches balanced themselves to the breath of the breeze, which, in passing, took from them the sweetest fragrance, and spread it through the atmosphere. On the enamelled turf, troops of Gandharvas* and Asparas,f brilliant with youth, pur- sued each other in froUcksome play, gliding from space to space, as light shadows. He was bewildered with delight under the immense bowers of verdure, through which quivering rays of the sun penetrated with gentle light, and gave only warmth enough to temper the freshness of their deep shadows. Plunged in soothing reverie, his uncertain steps wandered toward a spot where all the beauties of the scene united. The river Malini rippled and played with many couples of brilliantly white swans, and on its borders he perceived a sacred grove, which he conjectured might be the retreat of some holy personage. This happy corner of the earth did in fact enclose a peaceful hermitage ■within its bosom." These hermits, in obedience to the injunctions of Hindoo religion, imparted freely of all they had to men and animals. Thus their places of retreat came to be con- sidered open asylums for the poor, and for travellers. The saints were gradually classified into different orders, bear- ing various names, indicating progressive degrees of sanc- tity ; such as, "the dweller in the forest," "the man vowed to contemplation," " the man who has subdued himself," •' the man who is absoi-bed into the Divine Soul." The * Musicifuw of t.lic air, tlie Spirits of Singing Stars, f Kyiiiplis who dance and sing in Paradise. IIIXDOSTAN", OR INDIA. 9 more a hermit was renowned for holiness, the greater num- ber of disciples he attracted toward him; till in many places his solitary grotto, or hut, came to be surrounded by a small village of rude huts. Younger men, who sought him for instruction, were bound to treat him with unlimited reverence, and implicitly obey all his injunctions. Tims sometliing resembling monasteries, or theological schools, was established in the forests of llindostan, at a very remote period of antiquit\\ Seven of the most ancient of these hermits, peculiarly renowned for wisdom and holiness, transmitted their privileges to descendants, and thus became the germ of seven classes in an hereditary priesthood still existing under the name of Brahmins. There were many hermits not vowed to their ascetic vocation for life. It was common for men who had com- mitted crimes to retire into the forest for a certain number of months, or years, and undergo painful penances, to escape future punishment for their fliults, and be restored to society with renovated character. Sometimes kings, who had been dethroned by conquest, or merchants who had lost their wealth, retired from the world and performed sacrifices to regain their lost fortune. This course was respected as pious and meritorious ; but it was deemed a great sin for such men to represent themselves as belong- ing to the class of voluntary saints. They often became so attached to their secluded life, that they were reluctant to return to the world, when the period of their vow had expired. One of them is represented as thus bidding fare- well to Irts retreat : — " Oh, mountain, perpetual asylum of holy hermits, who have given themselves up to the medi- tation of virtue, and the practice of pure works ! Oh, king of mountains, rich in purifying streams, adieu ! I have passed happy days upon thy heiglits. I have nourished myself with the delicious fruits thou hast produced, and have quenched mj^ thirst with the clear waters that flow from thy summit. Oh, mountain pure from sin! Like unto a living child happy on the breast of his father, have I enjoyed myself upon thy bosom, peopled with grorpg 10 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. of Nymphs, and resounding with praises of Brahma." The most spiritual portion of the Hindoo Sacred Books teach the existence of one invisible God, whom they call Brahm. They make no images of him, and build no temples for his worship. His name is never uttered by a pious Hindoo. None of their traditions represent him as incarnated in any form ; because they believe him to be entirely above human comprehension, and altogether in- capable of the slightest change in his existence. Nature is the inferior, passive portion of him. " Brahm and Nature are one, as the soul and body of man are one. All things emanate from him, all is he, and all returns to him. As plants grow out of the earth and return to it again, so does everytliing in the universe emanate from this divine essence, subsist continually by it, and finally return to it." This law of alternate emanation and absorption governs all things, from a musquito up to planets, and celestial Spirits. Their vast divisions of time, called Yugs, are founded on the apparent revolution of the fixed stars. Four of these Yugs, including millions of our years, form their Great Astronomical Year. When this period is com- pleted, their Sacred Books declare that the god Siva, with ten Spirits of Dissolution, will roll a comet under the moon, set the earth on fire, and reduce it all to ashes. After a time the elements will resume their order, and the world, restored to pristine beautj^, will again pass through a similar succession of Yugs. One thousand of these great cycles form only a single day in the life of Brahma, the Creator, who was the first Spirit that emanated from Brahm. At the end of this long day, he falls asleep; and then not only this earth, but all things in the universe, dis- solve into their original elements. His night is of the same immense duration as his day. Wlien he wakes up tlic universe is renewed, to travel through a similar course, and again arrive at universal dissolution. Thirty such days make one month of Brahma; twelve months his year; a hundred such years his age; of which they assert fifty have already elapsed. When the other half of this IIINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 11 destined term is completed, he himscif will be again absorbed in Brahm ; Matter will be totally annihilated, and the invisible Supreme Being, called Brahm, will alone exist. After another vast period there will commence a new series of emanations of gods, subordinate spirits, worlds, men, and inferior existences. Tliis idea of God in all things, and all things in God, is called Pantheism, from Greek words signifying God in All. When the mind is strongly impressed with this belief, and conscientiously acts upon it, the effect is great tenderness toward animals, and reverence for Nature ; because the minutest form of being is regarded as a por- tion of Deity. Thus the Hindoo saint extends hospitality alike to friends and enemies. When he eats, he shares his food with whatever creature presents itself. He re- fi-ains from honey, from reluctance to deprive bees of their nourishment. He will not eat flesh, because he shrinks from causing the death of any animal. He avoids lighting a candle at night lest insects should be drawn into the flame; and he filters the water he drinks, lest he should incautiously swallow some creature. He will not even pluck fruit with violence, but eats only such as falls of itself, because in trees and bushes also he beholds living beings, portions of the Universal Soul. They believe that all life, whether in essence or form, proceeds constantly from Brahm, through a variety of mediums. If any creature imagines ft)r a moment that he has existence in himself, out of the Divinity, it is the effect of magical illusion, by which Brahma himself, for incom- prehensible reasons, takes captive his senses. The action of Brahm upon Nature, and upon human souls, is through a variety of Spirits, presiding over the planets, the elements, and all the forces of Nature. All in the scale of being are emanations from him, in success- ive gradations. The highest of these emanations are Brahma, the Creator, Vishnu, the Preserver, and Siva, the Destroyer, who is likewise the Reproducer of forms. Brahma is represented in poetry, and in painted sculpture. 12 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. as a golden-coloured human figure, with three heads and four arms. He is never described as assuming the form of any of the inferior orders of beings, or as living upon the earth in a visible body. His name is held in exceeding reverence, and none but the Brahmins utter it. They make daily invocations to him, and sometimes offer him a flower. No sect of worshippers bears his name, and no temples or festivals are appropriated to hira. This may be because his high rank inspires awe, and seems to carry him beyond the range of human sympathies ; or. it may be that his work as Creator being finished, mortals do not feel the need of his interference. He is represented as in- habiting a magnificent temple, called Dheira, near the Sea of Milk, in the upper celestial regions. Thither Vishnu, and other deities, repair in emergencies, to consult his oracle ; but the response becomes audible only after days of devotion and prayer. All seems to indicate that Brah- ma was the expression of a more spiritual idea, than the other deities. Poets and sculptors represent Vishnu as a handsome young man of blue complexion, with four arms. One holds a shell, another a lotus blossom, another a mace, another a ring, which radiates a stream of light. He is clothed in yellow, with a jewelled crown, and a necklace of gems. When asleep, he floats on the surface of the ocean, cradled in the folds of the huge star-covered ser- pent Seshanaga, whose thousand heads serve him for a pillow. He has a multitude of names, and is represented in a great variety of ways. He seems much nearer to the human heart than Brahma ; for his power and mercy are supposed to be constantly exerted to uphold the universe, to prevent calamity, and relieve distress. He is revered as a household god, and is invoked to avert family misfor- tunes, or to obtain blessings when about to occupy a new dwelling. He is believed to have been repeatedly incar- nated on earth, for beneficent purposes. His beautiful v/ife Lacshmi on such occasions assumes a female form and accompanies him among mortals, till his mission is com- HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 13 pletcd. No bloody sacrifices are offered to him, but obla- tions of fruit, flowers, water, clarified butter, sweetmeats, rich garments, and jewels. Siva has a vast variety of titles, among which the most common is Malia Deva, the Great God. Tlie sculptures represent him in many different ways; but he may always be known by certain symbols that belong to him. He is sometimes painted red, sometimes silver-coloured: seated on a tiger's skin, and clothed with an elephant's hide. Sometimes he rides on a white bull, his eyes inflamed with intoxication. Sometimes he is painted with one head, sometimes with five ; always with three eyes, one in the middle of his forehead. Sometimes he is represented as half man and half woman. As the reproducer of forms, he is usually accompanied by the male Emblem of Gene- ration. As a personification of time, the Destroyer, he is a dusky youth, with red garments, a chaplet of sculls about his neck, and a trident in his hand. Because he repro- duces forms, as well as destroys them, he is often painted with the venomous serpent Cobra de Capello, emblem of death, in one hand, and a Lotus and Pomegranate, emblems of renovation, in the other. Hindoos, accustomed to the pomp and retinue of their earthly princes, assigned a vast number of agents to supe- rior deities. Indra, God of the Firmament, is represented as a beautiful youth, whose garment is covered with eyes, to represent the all-seeing Spirits of the Stars. He rides on a white elephant, and is armed with a thunderbolt. Three hundred and thirty-two millions of Spirits, divided into classes, of various ranks and employments, acknow- ledge him as their leader. Poets and painters represent Surya, God of the Sun, in a golden car, drawn by seven green horses, with the Dawn for charioteer, followed by Spirits of Singing Stars chanting his praises. There are various legends of his descending to earth in a human shape, and becoming the father of a numerous progeny. Two of his sons are always painted as Twins, said to have been born of a marc impregnated by sunbeams. The Vol. I.— 2 14 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Moon is a male deity, sometimes called Soma, but more frequently Chandra. Their most ancient sovereigns were called Surya-bans and Chandra- bans, Children of the Sun and Moon, to imply a descent nearer to the gods than that of other mortals. Genesa, God of Wisdom, is greatly re- vered. They never build a house, or commence any im- portant business, without offering him flowers, or sprin- kling his image with oil. They do not even write a letter, or open a book, without uttering a brief invocation to him. He is painted with an elephant's head, and is always at- tended by a rat, which they consider a very sagacious and prudent animal. Nareda, God of Music, who invented the vina, or Hindoo lute, is not only a musician of admirable skill, but also a wise legislator, an eloquent messenger of the gods, and renowned in arts and arms. Parvati, God- dess of Enchantments, was born of the foam of the sea. Her son Cama, God of Love, is painted riding on a parrot, attended by dancing nymphs, the foremost of whom carries his flag, a fish painted on a red ground. His bow is made of sugar-cane, his string is made of bees, and his five ar- rows (the senses) are each pointed with some heating plant. His wife is Reti, Goddess of Affection. Pavana is God of the Winds ; Agnee of fire ; Varuna of the Waters. In their state of astronomical knowledge, the luminaries named by us Sun, i\Ioon, Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Sa- turn, were considered the seven planets. Successive days were set apart to offer sacrifices to the presiding Spirits of these orbs ; each of which is supposed to have particular superintendence over the day assigned to him. Each sign of the Zodiac has its deity, with various subordinates. There are genii of the hours, and even of the minutes. Every mountain and river has its guardian Spirit. One god is the protector of soldiers, another of travellers. One is prayed to for a ha}ii)y marriage, another for the ])reservation of health. Tlio dark goddess Cali, wife of Siva the Destroyer, is the chosen patron of robbers and murderer.s. Their most ancient Sacred Books mention but few niXDOSTAN, OR IXDIA. 15 Spirits, and command sacrifices to be offered to each, without neglecting any. This was perhaps intended to prevent any one of them from becoming elevated above the idea of a mere symbol, or instrument, of the Supreme Being. Poets afterwards indulged in great luxuriance of imagination, and a long train of deities were added, whose adventures came to be regarded as sacred history. Among the innumerable Intelligences emanating from Brahm in successive gradations, they believe that some fell into lower spheres, because they turned away their minds from contemplating the Supreme One. Through the intercession of Spirits, who had not fallen from their original state, this world was created as a place of proba- tion for these wandering souls, and mortal bodies were provided for them to enter. Through this penance, if faithfully performed, they might work their way upward to the primeval condition from which they fell. But if they sinned without making due atonement for their offences, they must fall still lower in the scale of being, and thus their penance might be renewed and prolonged through indefinite ages. A legion of Evil Spirits, called Rakshasas, had a prince named Ravana. Numerous classes of Good and Evil Spirits, called Sooras and Assooras, are represented as step- brothers in perpetual hostility, to illustrate the supposed antagonism between Spirit and Matter. Wicked Spirits are generally described as giants, and are often said to have a Great Serpent for their leader. They were con- tinually aiming to do injury to mankind, and fought des- perate battles with ludra. and his Spirits of Light. They would have taken his Paradise by storm, and subverted the whole order of the universe if Brahma had not sent Vishnu to circumvent their plans. To perform this mis- sion successfully, he assumed various forms at different times, and ^\as twice incarnated in a human body, and dwelt among mortals. The wonderful and universal J30wer of light and heat have caused the Sun to be worshipped as a visible emblem IGt PROGRESS OP RELIGIOUS IDEAS. of deity in the infancy of nearly all nations. "Water, wbich cleanses from pollution, and performs such an im- portani part in sustaining animal and vegetable life, is recognized as another obvious symbol of divine influence. Hence the sacred rivers, fountains, and wells, abounding in Hindostan. The Air is likewise to them a consecrated emblem. Invisible, pervading all space, and necessary to the life of all creatures, it naturally suggests the spirit of God. Nearly all languages describe the soul by some phrase similar in signification to "the breath of life." Brahm is sometimes called Alma, or the Breathing Soul. Regarding the air as his breath, it forms part of their religious exercises to retain it in their lungs as long as possible, as one means of prolonging contact with the Universal Soul. Other emblems deemed sacred by Hindoos, and wor- shipped in their temples, have brought upon them the charge of gross indecency. But if it be true at the present time, it probably Avas not so in the beginning. AVhen the world was in its infancy, people spoke and acted with more of the simplicity and directness of little children, than they do at present. In the individual child, and in the childhood of society, whatever is incomprehensible jDroduces religious awe. As the reflective faculties de- velop man is solemnly impressed with the wonders of creation, in the midst of which his soul wakes up, as it were, from a dream. And what so miraculous as the ad- vent of this conscious soul into the marvellous mechanism of a human body? If Light, with its grand revealings, and Heat making the earth fruitful with beauty, excited wonder and worship in the first inhabitants of our world, is it strange that they likewise regarded with reverence the great mystery of human Birth ? Were thei/ impure thus to regard it? Or are ive impure that we do not so regard it? We have travelled far, and unclean have been the paths, since those old anchorites first spoke of God and the soul in the solemn depths of their forest Banctuaries. Let us not smile at their mode of tracing the HLVDOSTAX, OR INDIA. 17 Infinite and Incomprehensible Cause tlirongliont all the mysteries oi" Nature, lest by so doing we cast the sliadovv of our own grossness on their patriarchal simplicity. From time immemorial, an emblem has been wor- shipped in Ilindostan as the type of creation, or the origin of life. It is the most common symbol of Siva, and is universally connected with his worship. To un- derstand the original intention of this custom, we should remember that Siva was not merely the reproducer of human forms; he represented the Fructifying Principle, the Generating Power that pervades the universe, produ- cing sun, moon, stars, men, animals, and plants. The sj'm- bol to which we have alluded is always in his temples. It is usually placed in the inmost recess, or sanctuary, sculptured in granite, marble, or ivory, often crowned with flowers, and surmounted by a golden star. Lamps are kept burning before it, and on festival occasions it is illuminated by a lamp with seven branches, supposed to represent the plauets. Small images of this emblem, carved in ivory, gold, or crystal, are often worn as ornaments about the neck. The ^^ious use them in their jirayers, and often have them buried with them. Devotees of Siva have it written on their foreheads in the form of a perpendicular mark. The maternal emblem is likewise a religious type, and worshippers of Vishnu represent it on their foreheads by a horizontal mark, with three short per- pendicular lines. The serious impression made on the minds of ancient devotees by the great mysteries of conception and birth, is everywhere observable in the metaphysical theories and re- ligious ceremonies of Ilindostan. They suppose that Brahm comprised within himself both the masculine and feminine principle, therefore his name is in the neuter gender. By thought he separated the two, and produced Brahma, who is often called the "First Male of the Universe." His wife is Sereswaty, Goddess of Imagination and Invention, from whom proceeded first music, then language, litera- ture, and the arts. By her aid Brahma formed the mun- VoL. 1.— 2* 18 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. dane egg, which produced our world. Every masculine deity has a feminine companion, through whose agency new forms of being are produced. Lacshmi, Goddess of Abundance, who presides over harvests, is mate of Vishnu, the Preserver. Siva has numerous wives, according to liis various titles in the multifarious departments of de- struction or change. Under the name of Iswara, he is wedded to Isa, or Isi, supposed to rei^resent Nature, which in all languages is metaphorically called she. As changer of the seasons, and promoter of germination, he unites with Parvati, Goddess of Illusions or Enchantments. As Time, the Destroyer, his mate is the dark goddess Cali, with four hands, full of deadly weapons, a necklace of human siculls, and a girdle of slaughtered giants' hands. There is a very striking difference in the habits of the Asiatic and European mind with regard to ideas deemed by us indelicate. Hindoo Sacred Writings abound with metaphors drawn from sexual love, to illustrate the in- timate and fruitful union of God with Nature. So com- pletely do they mingle natural and spiritual ideas on this subject, that even volujituous scenes in their amorous ])oetry are often allegorical descriptions of the blessed absorption of a sanctified human soul into the Divine Soul of the Universe. Sir William Jones remarks; — "It never seems to have entered the heads of Hindoo legisla- tors, or peoi)lo, that anything natural could be offensively obscene; a singularity which pervades all their writing and conversation, but is no proof of the depravity of their morals." Hindoo theology teaches that there exists an eternal unchangeable relation of mutual dependence between all things in the universe. The gods cannot exist without offerings from men, and men cannot subsist without gifts from the gods. Their Sacred Books declare that "the virtuous guid(! the. sun by their truth, and sustain the enrtli by their iioly sacrilices." Departed souls are de- y)endent on the good offices of those who survive them; liiereforc it is enjoined that sacrifices be performed for the IIINDOSTAX, OR INDIA. 19 Bouls of ancestors as fur back as the third generation. There must be daily offerings of water, witli prescribed prayers ; and on the first day of every new moon more elaborate ceremonies and prayers. It is supposed that these help to abridge the term of punishment for sins committed in the body. If neglected, the desolate spirit may be left to hover about the grave of its buried form, or linger long in some inferior animal, or suffer torment in the infernal reoions. The division of society into castes is a part of their system of regular gradation and mutual dependence. Tliey consider their own nation set apart from others, a pre-eminently pure race, to whom the laws of divine wisdom have been peculiarly intrusted. They regard other nations as barbarian, and consider it pollution to intermingle with them by marriage, or even by eating Avith them. Foreigners are not allowed to read their Holy Books, or approach their consecrated groves and fountains. Sir James Forbes speaks of a Mahometan who, bathing in one of their sacred pools, unconscious of prohibition, had both his hands cut otf. If a member of any other nation happens to enter the hut of one of his Hindoo servants, the furniture is tossed out of doors, because it is deemed polluted by his presence. Bishop Heber says: — "We came to a shed where a man with his wife and children were cooking their supper. The man called out to us for heaven's sake not to come near them, for he was a Bramin, and our approach would oblige him to fling away his food." Among themselves, they are divided into four great castes, and these again are subdivided into several branches. The highest are the Bramins, or priests, supposed to have issued from the mouth of Brahma, to pray, read, and in- struct. The second are Cshatriyas, princes and warriors, sprung from the arms of Brahma, to fight and govern. The third are Vaisyas, from his belly and thighs, to sup- ply the necessities of human life by agriculture and com- merce. The fourth are Soodras, from his feet, to serve as 20 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. meclianics and labourers. Numerous inferior classes have sprung up from unlawful intermixtures. The lowest and most degraded of all these are the Pariahs, who now con- stitute about one-fifth of the population. They are obliged to bury the corpses of criminals, and are allowed to hold no property but dogs and asses. They are forbidden to enter the temples, or dwellings of any of the other castes; to eat in their presence, or even to drink from their wells. The Code of Menu says : " Let no man who regards his duty, religious or civil, hold any intercourse with them." Each caste is perpetually separated from another by the strictest prohibitions. One must never presume to perform any business or duty that has been appropriated to another. It is a disgrace and a sin to intermarry or intermingle. They are not even allowed to eat with each other. It is a heavy punishment to be degraded into a lower caste ; for it involves a social stigma, banishment from family and friends, and transmission of disgrace to posterity. No de- gree of talent or merit can regain the position forfeited by an ancestor's fault. The Bramins, above all others, are endowed with ex- clusive privileges. Religious ceremonies, public or private, can be performed only by their ministry. They offer sac- rifices and prayers for themselves and for others. Every important epoch in human life, and every national emer- gency, require their aid. The civil law is all contained in the Sacred Books, which they alone are allowed to study and explain; consequently, they are the only lawyers and judges. All knowledge of medicine is derived from the same volumes; and sickness being considered a punish- ment for transgression, penances and religious ceremonies are imposed as remedies ; therefore they are the only phy- sicians. Astronomy, of which astrology forms an impor- tant portion, is also revealed in their Holy Books ; hence the priests are relied upon to make astronomical calcula- tions, and ])redict future events by the stars. This exclu- sive possession of such knowledge as exists, has, of course, ])(.'cn a source of perpetual emolument. HINDOSTAX, OR INDIA. 21 Every Hindoo priest is a Bramin ; but all the Bra- mins are not priests. Those who expound the Sacred Books take precedence of other Brainins. The highest order of this powerful hierarchy are called Guroos. At stated seasons, these princely Pontiffs travel through their respective districts, to examine seminaries, visit inferior priests, attend great festivals, administer })rescribed rites in tlie temples, or perform solemn ceremonies in the sacred groves. Their retinue and equipage are very magnificent. Pioneers precede the splendid procession, to level high places in the roads, and fill up ravines. The lower castes retire to a distance while they pass by, lest their shadows should happen to touch them, or the consecrated air be polluted by inferior breath. The most sanctified among these priests are not only venerated, but absolutely wor- shipped with low prostration, when they appear in public. Some of them are believed to be incarnated deities. The rajahs, or princes, belong to the warrior caste ; but they are^ restrained and regulated by the High Priests, whom they treat with profoundest reverence. Princes who be- come holy devotees acquire spiritual rank in addition to their hereditary dignity ; but even under such circum- stances, they are bound to treat Bramins with deferential huinilit}'. It is deemed an act of the highest piety to de- fend the priesthood from any danger, to bestow alms upon them, or make them heirs of worldly wealth. They are exempted fi'om taxes and from corporeal punishment. To kill a Bramin intentionally is an inexpiable crime, and even to kill one b}^ accident requires to be atoned for by tiu'i'ible penances. The funeral pile for them must be lighted, as it is for the holiest sacrifices, with fire obtained by the friction of wood from the sacred groves. The ob- sequies must be solemnized with sacrifices to the Sun and the Planets, consisting of a ram, or a he-goat, without ble- mish. These ceremonies must be performed in a place previously consecrated by prayer, and sprinkled with holy water. Soodras, and the castes below them, are expressly for- 22 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. bidden to devote themselves to a life of religious contem- plation, to read the Sacred Books, or hear them read. The inequality of laws resulting from these lines of demarcation in society may be easily conjectured. If a Bramin kill one of his own caste, it is ordained that he perform severe penances in the forest during twelve years. If a Cshatriya involuntarily kills a Bramin, his term of penance is twenty-four years ; if a Vaisya does the same, it is thirt}''- six years ; if a Soodra, it is forty-eight years. The education of a Bramin, if conducted with strict- ness, is somewhat arduous. In his youth, he is bound to be scrupulously chaste, to learn Sanscrit, study tbe Sacred Books, which are very voluminous, and treat his spiritual teachers with the most implicit obedience, however severe their requirements ma}^ be. In manhood, it is his duty to marry and rear up children to succeed him in his holy office. As he may contract pollution by the approach of a foreigner, or coming near any dead body, or touching any vessel or garment that has been used by one of inferior caste, or having an insect get crushed in the folds of his priestly robes, it is necessary to spend a great deal of time in performing ablutions and ceremonies of purification, lie is forbidden to cause the death of any creature except for sacrifice, and therefore eats no flesh except that of victims. Wine and strong drinks are forbidden. He is required to be strictly virtuous, modest in conversation and manners, benevolent in his social relations, and faith- ful in the discharge of religious functions. If a Bramin has obeyed these rules, he may, if he chooses, transfer the duties of his sacerdotal office, and retire into the forest, to devote himself to a life of spiritual contemplation. If he intends to do this, he makes a feast for friends and rela- tives, and bestows farewell presents on them. The priests perform a great variety of ceremonies and recite prayers. lie lays down tiie trij)le cord, which he has always worn as the external sign of his superior caste, assumes the her- mit's coarse garment of woven bark, and bids adieu to the world. If his wife and children choose to accompany him, HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 28 in order to render his solitary life more comfortable by their attentions, it is considered a mark of great devotion on their part. But whether his fomily are with him or not, the hermit must live perfectly chaste, and devote him- self entirely to religious meditation and sacrifices. If, after years of fasting, mortification, and prayer, he should break his vow of chastity, he loses all the fruit of his past labours. If he aims at being one of the highest order of saints, lie must become still more ascetic. lie must renounce his family, give up every species of property, sleep on the ground, and annihilate his body by such self-torments as ingenuity can devise. By this process he may finally at- tain absorption into The Divine Soul, which is the great object of devotional efforts among the Hindoos. They describe it as by no means a state of deadness, but as peaceful, free, and happy ; sei'enely independent of all the Avorld can give or take away ; a state of unchangeable beatitude, which can only be understood by those who have experienced it. Arrived at this stage in the spiritual pilgrimage, there is no more need to offer sacrifices or study the Vedas. Truth constantly reveals itself by its own inward light, and the divine fire continually burning within the soul is sufficient worship. This complete abstraction of the soul from the body, by solitude, pi'olonged fasts, and physical torture, may well be supposed to occasion strange states of nervous irritability and exaltation; but the promised bliss, the miraculous power, and the saintly renown, are so much coveted, that devotees usually endure their sufferings with great courage and perseverance. One of them told the Abbe Dubois: "Every day mj- spiritual master obliged me to gaze fix- edly at the firmament, without changing my posture or winking my eyes. This gave me a terrible headache. I thought I saw sparkles of fire, flaming globes, and other meteors. My teacher had himself become blind of one eye by these exercises." Another said: "I was ordered to keep awake most of the night, striving not to think of any thing at all. I was 24 PROGEESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. instructed to hold my breath as long as nature could possibly endure it. Once at midday, I found myself sur- rounded by thick darkness ; at another time, I saw a very clear moon that appeared to move. My master con- gratulated me upon my progress, and prescribed more painful exertions. But I became fatigued, and returned to my former mode of life." One of those hermit-schools in the forest, where pilgrims resorted, and saints served their noviciate, is thus described in the ancient poem Mahabharata, believed to have been written more than a thousand years before Christ : — " The king advanced toward the sacred grove, image of celestial regions. The river was filled with pilgrims, while the air resounded with voices of pious* men repeating portions of the sacred writings. Followed by his minister of state and his grand priest, he advanced toward the hermitage, animated with desire to see the holy man, inexhaustible treasure of religious knowledge. He heard mysterious sentences, extracts from the Vedas, pronounced with rhyth- mical cadence by priests most learned in sacred maxims and religious ceremonies. This place was radiant with glory from the presence of a certain number of Bramins skilful in the preparation of sacrifices; while others of ex- emplary life chanted portions of the Vedas. All were men of cultivated intelligence and imposing exterior ; men "who possessed the principles of morality, and the science of the cultivation of the soul ; men skilful to reconcile sacred texts, which do not agree together; men versed in grammar, poetry, logic, and chronology ; men who un- derstood causes and effi!cts, who had penetrated the essence of matter, of movement, and of quality ; who had studied the language of birds and bees [for omens] ; who reposed their faith upon the works of Vyasa, and offered models of study from books of sacred origin. These places resemble the dwelling of Brahma." The most ancient writings of the Hindoos teach the immortality of the soul, and its transmigration through various forms of being. Man is taught to consider the niNDOSTAN, OR IXDIA. 25 numerous evils which afflict him in this life as the in- evitable consequences of sins committed, either in his present form of existence, or in some previous state. lie was sent into the world again to expiate them by penances and good works. The duties of his caste are a portion of his penance, and if he performs them faithfully, he will have a certain degree of reward thereunto belonging. If he accomplishes meritorious works in addition to these, his account will stand still more favourably, and when he is born into the world again, it may be into a higher caste. If he commits sins, instead of performing duties, he must make haste to expiate them by painful penances here, lest he receive the appropriate punishment in hell, and when that is finished, his soul be sent back to earth, to dwell in a lower caste or a barbarian nation, perhaps even in the form of a woman or an animal. The highest Bramin may gradually sink himself lower and lower, by sins and neglect of duty, until he is condemned to reappear in the world as a Pariah, or a reptile. But the desired good can be attained sooner or later by all, though it may be through manifold progressive changes. If the Soodra per- forms faithfully the duties of his station, he may return to earth as a Vaisya. If he fulfil this mission conscientiously, and adds meritorious works according to his knowledge, his soul may enjoy Paradise for a season, and when the recompense is completed, he may perhaps be born into the favoured caste of Bramins, bringing with him the ac- cumulated wisdom and goodness acquired by his past ex- periences on earth or in Paradise. The Soodra, thus elevated to a Bramin, may finally, by annihilating his senses, and devoting himself entirely to religious con- templation, attain to complete absorption into the Universal Soul, and enjoy immortal beatitude, without any further necessity of submitting to birth or death. One of their sacred poems represents the Supreme Being as saying : " Those who seek refuge near me shall not perish. Tiiough they be born of ignoble parents, though they be women, or Vaisyas, or Soodras, they are upon the road to Vol. I.— 3" B 26 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. supreme felicity ; much more the pure Bramins and pious royal sages." They believe that every man is accompanied from birth to death by two attendant Spirits, one of whom keeps re- cord of his good actions, the other of his sins. That within the external mortal body is a subtile invisible body, the seat of the spiritual faculties, the mediator between the soul and the senses. At death, this interior body is not laid aside with the material form. It accompanies the human soul through all its transmigrations, until the soul is finally absorbed into the Supreme Being, from whom it emanated. This invisible interior body, after successive sojourns on earth, in paradise, or hell, for ages, is finally cast off by the soul's complete absorption into Brahm. Then the spiritual body returns to be again born on earth, and the organization of the external body it takes depends on the character of the soul it had previously ac- companied. It is a common assertion among Hindoos that "Brahma inscribes the destiny of every mortal on his scull, and the gods themselves cannot avert it." However, man is not entirely a passive machine in the hands of fate. Various spiritual influences act upon him while he is in the body. Some will lead him into the illusions of the passions, some into the shadows of ig- norance and lethargy, and some to the calm regions of truth and virtue. By resolute efforts, they say, man can turn away from the shadows and illusions, and follow the real and unchangeable. The Sacred Books describe fourteen spheres, the abodes of souls, many of whom have fallen from their original glory, and are returning to their primeval home, more or less slowly, through manifold transmigrations. This earth is one of the scenes of expiation and progn^ss. It has six spheres above it, successive gradations of Paradise, and seven spheres below it, successive gradations of punishment, for purposes of purification. These abodes arc dreary and dark, each more horrible tlian the other. In some, the ground is composed of deep mud, in others it is made of HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 27 hot copper, or planted thick with thorns, or crowded with venomous reptiles, such as serpents and vipers. The cruel are to be tormented by snakes ; drunkards thrown into baths of liquid lire ; seducers embraced by images of red-hot iron ; the inhospitable are to have their eyes torn out by vul- tures; and despisers of Bramins are to stick fast in filthy mire with their heads downward. The seventh and deeptot pit is of red-hot charcoal. Evil Spirits come up thence to re- ceive the souls of wicked men. When souls come into the presence of Yama, Judge of the Dead, two attendants place before him the records of their lives; one of which enumerates their good deeds, the other their sins. If wicked thoughts and actions predominate, Yama delivers the trem- bling souls to Evil Spirits with orders to scourge them, or drag them over rocky paths, or expose them to be torn by awful beasts, or gnawed by fiery worms, or plunged into pits of flame. These abodes of suffering are always de- scribed as situated in the South, and the blessed regions in the North. The first sphere above this earth is the Paradise of Indra, appropriated to those who have been charitable to the poor and zealous in the performance of religious cere- monies. Above this, are successive ascending spheres, for men of greater and greater degrees of holiness. Those who have died martyrs for religion, or performed very ex- traordinary acts of piety, inhabit the Paradise of Vishnu, in the fifth sphere. The sixth and highest is the Paradise of Brahma, reserved for men who never uttered a falsehood, and for women who burn themselves on the funeral pile of their husbands, a voluntary self-sacrifice, to expiate the sins of the deceased. Indra's Paradise is more frequently described than the higher ones, perhaps because it is more generally hoped for, being attained by the easiest process. Ilis resplendent pal- ace, called Vaijayanta, is in the midst of blooming gardens, where grows the celestial fruit Amrita, which confers im- mortality on whoever tastes it. Ever-playing fountains preserve perpetual verdure. There is Camada, the cow of 28 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. abundance, the sacred horse Sajam, and the white elephant Airavata. Indra and his wife are seated on a throne of gold, blazing with gems. They are surrounded by Spirits of Singing Stars, called Gandharvas, and by the Genii of Musical Instruments, called Ginarers, who make celestial harmony with the voices of dancing nymphs, called Aspa- ras; and as they sing, the air is perfumed with their fra- grant breath. They mingle together in dances, and delight the eye with graceful evolutions. Kalaisa, the palace of Siva, is on a silver mountain above the lofty peaks of Himalaya. " It is surrounded by an infi- nite variety of trees, which yield delicious fruit all the year round. Roses and other flowers fill the air with fra- grance. The lake at the foot of the mountain is enclosed with pleasant groves of umbrageous trees. Peacocks and beautiful women delight the eye, and birds charm the ear with multifarious melody. The surrounding woods are filled with saints, who spend their time in contemplation and sacrifices to the gods. They are fiiir to look upon, with long white beards and graceful drapery. Round about the mountain are seven ladders, by which you ascend to a spacious plain, over which hangs a silver bell, self-sus- tained in the air, and a table too brilliant for mortal sight, with nine precious stones of various colours. Upon this table lies a silver rose, which contains two women, bright and fair as pearls. In the centre of the rose is the Sacred Triangle, that mysterious emblem, of which no mortal tongue may declare the significance." The Mahabharata describes the Paradise of Vishnu as "eighty thousand miles in circumference, and formed of pure gold. The pillars of his palace, Vaicuntha, are entire gems; its architraves and pediments blaze with jewels. On a throne, radiant as the meridian sun, sits Vishnu, with his wife Lacshmi, reposing on lotus-blossoms. The god- dess shines like a continued blaze of lightning, and hei beautiful form exhales a fragrance which is dill'used through Paradise. Lovely lakes surround the palace, and on their surface float myriads of red, blue, and white water-lilies, HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 29 The praises of Bralirna are continually chanted by beau- tiful spirits, and the gods sometimes unite their voices with the worshippers. Garuda, the eagle god, guards the door." The Hindoos, endowed by nature with keen susceptibil- ity to pleasure, are eager to arrive at these paradisaical re- gions, where life is not for penance, and enjoyment is no sin. To obtain the promised rewards, they go through an immense number of religious ceremonies and severe pen- ances. Almost every event of human life, and every portion of the day, has some prescribed prayer or sacrifice. They attribute an inherent value to acts of devotion, en- tirely independent of the spiritual state of those who per- form them. If not accomplished exactly according to prescription, the desired effects will not follow. Even if this happen by some unavoidable accident, the reward will be lost, whatever might have been the purity of intention. But if the ceremony be performed strictly according to rule in every particular, the gods are unable to prevent the recompense thereunto belonging, however wicked the pe- titioner may be, or however bad his purpose in the power he wishes to acquire. An eternal necessity binds every act to its effect, which must manifest itself sooner or later. Their Sacred Books declare: "If fire is touched without thinking of fire, it burns him who touches it; j^oison will kill, though taken by accident ; thus the name of God con- tains in itself essentially the virtue to consume sins." But each effort has its limited consequences, and can receive no more than belongs to it. When two giants asked Brahma for immortality, as a reward for terrible self-inflic- tions, he replied: " Your object in undertaking these peni- tential enterprises was to rule over three worlds. You have secured that object; but immortality cannot be granted you." The three attributes of Brahm, called Brahma, Yishnu, and Siva, are indicated by letters corresponding to our A. U. M., generally pronounced Om. This mystic Word is never uttered except in prayer, and the sign Avhich represents it in their temples is an object of profound adoration. Their Vol. I.— 3* 30 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Sacred Books declare it to be the first Word uttered by Brahma, and call it " the first-born of the Creator," "Like the pure ether, it encloses in itself all the qualities, all the elements of Brahma. It is the name and the body of Brahma. It is consequently infinite, like him, and is the Creator and Euler of all things." " Brahma, meditating upon this Divine Word, found therein primitive water." " All ordained rites, such as oblation to fire, and solemn offerings, pass away ; but A. U. M. passes not away ; since it is a symbol of the Most High, the Lord of all created things." In the Sacred Books called Vedas, The V/ord utters a soliloquy, in which he praises himself as " the Universal Soul." There is likewise a prayer in the Yedas, called Gaya- tree, which consists of three measured lines, and is consid- ered the holiest and most efiicacious of all their religious forms. Sir William Jones translates it thus: "Let us adore the supremacy of that Spiritual Sun, the godhead, who illuminates all, who re-creates all, from whom all pro- ceed, to whom all must return ; whom we invoke to direct our undertakings aright in our progress toward his holy seat." lie gives the following paraphrase as expressive of the meaning it conveys to a devout' Hindoo : " What the sun and light are to this visible world, the Supreme good and truth are to the intellectual and invisible universe; and as our corporeal eyes have a distinct perception of ob- jects enlightened by the sun, thus our souls acquire certain knowledge, by meditating on the light of truth^ which em- anates from the Being of beings. That is the light, by which alone our minds can be directed in the path of beat- itude." One of the celebrated Hindoo saints thus expounds the Gayatree : " We meditate on the Supreme, Omnipre- sent, Internal Spirit of this splendid sun, who is earnestly sought for by such as dread further mortal birth ; who re- sidea in every body, as the all-pervading soul and con- troller of the mind, and constantly directs our intellect toward the accpiisition of virtue, wealth, physical enjoy- ment, and final beatitude." HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 31 This prayer should be pronounced with Oni at the be- ginning, and Om at the end. If omitted at the beginning, the desired reward will fail; if at the end, the reward will be of short duration. Their eonunentators affirm that " whoever repeats these once, or ten times, or a hundred times, shall obtain bliss in a proportionate degree. After the repetition let him meditate on him who is One only, and all-pervading ; thereby all religious observances, though not performed, shall have been virtually per- formed." According to their Sacred Books, "whoever repeats them every da}^ for three years, without negligence, shall approach the Most High God, become free as air, and. after death acquire an ethereal essence." Tliis form of worship is deemed so holy that it shocks a Bramin to hear it uttered by a foreigner, or one of inferior caste. An English gentleman, who had learned the Gayatree in San- scrit, began to repeat it, unconscious of doing harm, in the presence of a pious Bramin, who, with terrified aspect, in- stantly stopped his ears, and hurried from the room. No people in the world manifest greater veneration for I'eli- gious subjects than the Hindoos. A learned Bramin, read- ing a sacred poem to Sir William Jones, omitted the por- tions relating to Brahma, because it was deemed profana- tion to make them known to any but priests ; and so sincere were his devout feelings, that his voice was often interrupted by tears. The most ancient and honoured of all their Sacred Books are the Vedas; a name signifying Laws, or Ordinances, and derived from a root meaning Light, Fire. They be- lieve them to have existed in the mind of Brahma himself, before the creation, and that the first man received them directly from his mouth. They are divided into four books, called the Eig Veda, the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda, and the Atharva Veda. Portions of the last contain fewer obsolete terms than the other volumes, and are therefore supposed to be less ancient. Few, even of the most learned Bramins, can read all passages in the three oldest Vedas. Copies of the original manuscripts are now 32 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. exceedingly scarce. Numerous commentaries have been written upon them, from time immemorial, called Shas- tras; a common designation for all their Sacred Writings. The Vedas are written in Sanscrit, which means The Perfect; it is likewise called Deva Nagara, or the Divine Language. Scholars jDronounce it the most copious and excellent of all the ancient tongues ; and this fact is a plain indication that it was formed by a people considerably ad- vanced in civilization, who had many ideas to express. But its origin extends too far back into the darkness of antiquity to be traced by history. The people who spoke it passed away from the face of the earth such a very long time ago, that it has been a dead language beyond the memory or the records of man. The knowledge of it was confined to learned Bramins, until it attracted the atten- tion and employed the industry of European scholars, in the last century. The Hindoos believe that the Vedas are as old as the creation of the world. Learned Bramins profess to find traces of their existence as far back as two hundred and sixty years after our date of the Deluge ; that is, two thou- sand and eighty-eight 3'ears before the Christian era. Sir William Jones says: " That the Vedas were actually writ- ten before the Flood, I shall never believe; but they arc very ancient, and far older than other Sanscrit composi- tions." He thinks the Yajur Veda can be traced as far as one thousand five hundred and eighty years before Christ; that is, one hundred years before the birth of Moses. He arrived at this conclusion from certain astronomical state- ments therein contained. The learned Heeren says : " There is no reliable data by which to ascertain the pre- cise period, either when the separate parts were written, or when they were arranged in their present order. Their origin is involved in deepest obscurity. They are without doubt the (eldest works composed in Sanscrit. This is suf- ficiently attested by the obsolete idiom in which they are written. Another proof is derived from the fact that all the Sanscrit writings, even the most ancient, allude to the HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 33 Vedas as already in existence, and cite numerous passages from them, at almost every page." The various Hindoo sects all profess to find authority for their doctrines in these Sacred Oracles ; but the Vedas themselves give no indica- tions of separation into sects. They do not even allude to the great sects of Siva, and of the two incarnations of Vishnu, called Eama and Crishna, though Hindoo monu- ments prove them to be of extreme antiquity. The manuscripts of the Vedas made forty -two volumes, folio. On account of their great bulk, the obsolete expres- sions, and the metaphorical obscurity of style, they were condensed and arranged in their present form, by a learned Bramin. This collection is called the Vedanta, or Sub- stance of the Vedas, and is generally received as of equal authority with the original. There is no certain evidence when this compilation was made : but Oriental scholars agree that it must have been more than two thousand years ago. The work is attributed to Vyasa, which is a common term applied to all compilers, Heeren says : — " Vyasa had numerous disciples, who instructed others in their turn. At last, the variations in the manner of read- ing and reciting the text are said to have given rise to no less than one thousand one hundred different schools. These alterations would, for the most part, only concern outward forms of pronunciation ; and they must have been made many centuries ago ; for the numerous quotations in the oldest writings agree with the modern copies of the Vedas." Nothing can exceed the reverence paid to these Sacred Writings. It is not allowable to bring them into contact with animal substances, such as leather or woollen. He who uses them must first perform prescribed ablutions and other religious ceremonies. It is deemed sacrilege to read them in the presence of a wicked man, or within the sound of whipping, or in a place through which a corpse is car- ried. Bramins alone may study or explain them; and they have always had it in their power to communicate to other castes as much, or as little, as they pleased. The B* 31 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. next caste, comprising princes and nobles, arc allowed to hear them expounded, and even to read portions, under the superintendence of Bramins. The third caste, of mer- chants, who are generally correct grammarians, and often good poets, are permitted to hear only such parts as relate to medicine. The lower castes are rigorously excluded from all knowledge of them. The Code of Menu ordains : "If a Soodra reads the Vedas to either of the three other castes, or if he listens to them, heated oil, wax, and melted tin shall be poured into his ears, and the orifice stopped up ; and if he learns the Vedas by heart, he shall be put to death." But " the Bramin, who knows all the Vedas by heart, and recites them three times with devotion, will be delivered from all sin. He would incur no punishment, though he had eaten food from the most unclean hands, or even if he had killed the inhabitants of three worlds." Devout men, who have thus read and recited the Vedas, are called "twice born," in allusion to a new spiritual birth, in addition to their natural birth. Inherent sacredness and supernatural power are ascribed to the identical Sanscrit words, and it is considered sacri- lege to make the slightest alteration in the arrangement of the sentences. Ilence, the Bramins have evinced an al- most insurmountable reluctance to have them translated into foreign la,nguages. Probably no one of them would have dared to show the manuscripts for such a purpose, had it not been for their hopeless conviction that every- thing is going to predestined destruction in this present Call Yug, and therefore it matters little what is done with anything this perishable world contains. But though this view has reconciled some to imparting a knowledge of their religion to foreigners, the stricter sort have always regarded . translations of their Sacred Books with mingled feelings of terror and sadness. The Vedas arc collections of detached pieces, by differ- ent authors, whose names arc therein cited. They purport to be the utterance of certain very ancient and celebrated saints, called llishis, who received them directly from Di- HINDOSTAN, Oil IXDIA. 85 vine Beings. Some of these authors were Bramins, and some were royal personages, who had attained to complete sanctity. They are represented as holy anchorites in the forest, a circumstance which indicates the extreme antiquity of that mode of life in India. Heeren says : "The worship prescribed concerns a religious system, which, according to the unanimous opinion of all who have studied the sub- ject, has for its foundatiqn the belief in One God. This Divinity, however, was manifested in the grand phenomena of Nature, which were themselves separately invoked as deities. In this sense, we might consider it a kind of nat- ural religion, but it is interwoven with a tissue of refined speculations on the infinite, on the origin of things, the emanation of beings, and their absorption into the God- head ; and this constitutes their peculiarity." The names of Vishnu and Siva are only mentioned two or three times; but the "One Immutable Being" is mentioned much more frequently. The prayers are mostly addressed to Sun, Moon, Fire, Air, Water, and other forces of Na- ture, wdiose presiding Spirits are supposed to be subordi- nate agents of the Supreme, and different manifestations of his being. The Vedas contain civil laws, moral precepts, treatises on medicine, astronomy, astrology, and divination, dialogues concerning God and the soul, and a prescribed ritual for external worship. Each Veda is divided into two parts. The first part, called the Sanhita, contains hymns, prayers, invocations, rules concerning sacrifices to be offered to Spirits of the Planets iand of the Elements, and to the souls of departed ancestors ; and various other things connected with the ceremonials of religion. The second por- tion is called the Upanishad, which signifies The Knowledge of God, or the Science of God. These portions contain moral precepts, and dialogues between the Kishis and the Deities, concerning the existence of God, the origin and destiny of the soul, and other kindred topics. They teach the existence of One Invisible Being, and urge subjugation of the senses, and devout contemplation, as the means of obfeiining from above intuitive perceptions, which they call S6 PKOGKESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. "science," by whose divine agency the human soul i» brought into perfect and blessed union with the Supremd One. In the first two Vedas, there is but a small proportion of this spiritual teaching. The third comprises the most detailed and abstract researches of that description ; and even in the fourth, which is not so highly esteemed by European scholars, they occupy more than half the whole book. The Sanhita, or Liturgy, of the first and second Vedas, contains hymns and prayers to be recited at sacri- fices, festivals, the consecration of Bramins, the inaugura- tion of kings, and other public ceremonies. Some of them are said to be composed by the ancient Eishis, others are ascribed to various Deities. The hymns of the third Veda are exclusively intended for chanting. The fourth con- tains more than seven hundred and sixty hymns and prayers. A large proportion are forms of imprecation, for the punishment of the wicked and the destruction of ene- mies. There are also numerous invocations to the Spirit of the Sun, of the Air, of Water, and of other forces of Nature, to procure rain and good harvests, or to avert sickness and calamity. The following extracts will serve to give some idea of the more spiritual portions of the Vedas. Where the word science occurs, it must be remembered that the writers in- tended thereby to express percej^tions of divine truth, ob- tained by immediate revelations from God to the soul. " Any place where the mind of man can be undisturbed, is suitable for the worship of the Supreme Being," "The vulgar look for their gods in water; the ignorant think they reside in wood, bricks, and stones ; men of more extended knowledge seek them in celestial orbs ; but wise men worship the Universal Soul." "There is One living and true God; everlasting, with- out parts or passion ; of infinite power, wisdom, and good- ness; the Maker and Preserver of all things." " What and how the Supreme Being is, cannot be ascer- tained. We can only describe him by his effects and HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 37 works. Ill like manner as wc, not knowing the real nature of tlie sun, explain him to be the cause of the succession • of days and epochs." " That Spirit, who is distinct from Matter, and from all beings contained in Matter, is not various. He is One, and he is beyond, description ; whose glory is so great, there can be no image of him. He is the incomprehensible Spirit, who illuminates all, and delights all; from whom all proceed, by whom they live after they are born, and to whom all must return. Nothing but the Suj^reme Being should be adored by a wise man." "He overspreads all creatures. He is merely Spirit, without the form either of a minute body, or an extended one, which is liable to impression or organization. He is the ruler of the intellect, self-existent, pure, perfect, omni- scient, and omnipresent. He has from all eternity been assigning to all creatures their respective purposes. No vision can approach him, no language describe him, no in- tellectual power can comprehend him." " Heaven is his head, the sun and moon are his eyes, the earth is his feet, space is his ears, air is his breath, the Ye- das are his speech, and the visible creation is his intellect; for he is The Soul of the Universe." "He by whom the birth, the existence, and the annihi- lation of the world are regulated is The Supreme Soul. The sun and all the luminaries borrow their light from him." "As a thousand riiys emanate from one flame, thus do all souls emanate from The One Eternal Soul, and return to him," " As the web proceeds from the spider and is absorbed again by her, as vegetables proceed from the earth, as hair and nails grow from animate beings, so is the universe evolved from the One Eternal Supreme Soul." " The Supreme Soul dwells in the form of four-footed animals, and in another place he is full of glory. He lives in the form of the slave, he is smaller than the grain of barley. He is the smallest of the small, and the greatest of the great ; yet he is neither small nor great." Vol. I.— 4 88 PROGliESS OF KELIGIOUS IDEAS. " Without hand or foot, he runs rapidly, and grasps firmly; without eyes, he sees all; without ears, he hears all. He knows whatever can be known ; but there is none who knows him. The wise call hira the Great, Su- preme, Pervading Spirit." "From him emanates the firmament, illustrated by the sun and moon ; the moon accumulates clouds in the sky ; the clouds descend in rain, which brings forth vegetables from the earth; the essence derived from the nourishment of these vegetables, man imparts to woman ; through these progressive physical causes, numerous offspring proceed from the omnipresent Supreme Soul." " He who considers all beings as existing in the Supreme Spirit, and the Supreme Spirit as pervading all beings, cannot view with contempt any creature whatsoever," " God has created the senses to be directed toward ex- ternal objects. They can perceive only these objects, and not the Eternal Spirit. The sage, who desires an immor- tal life, withdraws his senses from their natural course, and perceives the Supreme Being everywhere present." " This body formed of bones, skin, and nerves, filled with fat and flesh, is a great evil, and without reality. It ought to perish. Of what use then is it for the soul to seek corporeal pleasures?" " The inhabitants of this body are cupidity, anger, de- sire for wealth, error, anxiety, envy, sadness, discord, dis- ajipointment, aflQiction, hunger, thirst, disease, old age, death. Of what use is it then to seek the pleasures of this body?" " Through strict veracity, uniform control of mind and senses, abstinence from sexual indulgence, and ideas de- rived from spiritual teachers, man should approach God, who, full of glory and perfection, works in the heart, and to whom only votaries freed from passion and desire can a])proximate." " Material objects have no duration. As the fruits of the trees grow and perish, so do these objects. What is there in them worthy to be acquired? Great things and small, commanders of powerful armies, kings who govern HINDOSTAN", OR INDIA. 39 the earth, have relinquished their riches and passed into the other world. Nothing could save them. They were men, and they could not escape death. The Gandharvas, the Sooras, the stars themselves, do not endure forever. The seas will one day be dried up, the high mountains will fall, even the polar star will change its place, the earth will be swallowed in the waves. Such is the world ! Of what avail is it to seek its pleasures? One may perform meritorious works, from self-interested motives, during his whole life, he may enjoy all pleasures, still he must come back into the world. lie can only continue passing from one world to another. There is nothing desirable, except the science of God. Out of this, there is no tranquillity and no freedom. To be attached to material things is to be chained ; to be without attachment is to be free." " May this soul of mine, which is a ray of perfect wis- dom, pure intellect, and permanent existence, which is the unextinguishable light fixed within created bodies, without which no good act is performed, be united by devout medi- tation with the Spirit supremely blest and supremely in- telligent." "0 thou, who givest sustenance to the world, unveil that face of the true sun, which is now hidden by a veil of golden light! so that we may see the truth^ and know our whole duty." " He wlio inwardly rules the sun is the same immortal Spirit wiio inwardly rules thee." "That All-pervading Spirit, which gives light to the visible sun, even the same in kind am I, though infinitely distant in degree. Let my soul return to the immortal Spirit of God, and then let my body return to dust." "I am in this world like a frog in a dry well. Thou only, Lord, art my refuge ; Thou only art my refuge." " By one Supreme Ruler is this universe pervaded ; even every world in the whole circle of Nature. Enjoy pure delight, O man, by abandoning all thoughts of this perishable world ; and covet not the wealth of any crea- ture existing." 40 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. " God, who is perfect wisdom and perfect happiness, is the final refuge of the man who has hberally bestowed his wealth, who has been firm in virtue, and who knows and adores the Great One." *' To those regions where Evil Spirits dwell, and which "Utter darkness involves, surely go after death all such men as destroy the purity of their own souls." " Preserve thyself from self-suflSciency, and do not covet property belonging to another." " The way to eternal beatitude is open to him who with- out omission speaketh truth." "If any one assumes the garb of the religious, without doing their works, he is not of the religious. Whatever garments he wears, if his works are pure, he belongs to the order of pure men. If he wears the dress of a penitent, and does not lead the life of a penitent, he belongs to the men of the world ; but if he is in the world, and practises penitential works, he ought to be regarded as a penitent." "Those who observe religious rites, but attend only to the worship of the sacred fire, or offerings to saints, or sac- rifices to the souls of departed ancestors, or to men and other creatures, without attending to the worship of the celestial gods, enter into the region of shadows. But those who habitually adore the celestial gods only, neglecting the worship of the sacred fire, offerings to the saints, to the souls of ancestors, to men and other creatures, enter into regions of still deeper shadow." "Hold the breath, remain without movement, repeat in- wardly A. U. M. twelve times, thinking that the soul is one with God ; draw in a full supply of breath, and hold it while inwardly repeating A. U. M. twenty-four times; afterward, hold the breath while inwardly repeating the same as many times as possible, thinking meanwhile of God as perfect Being, which can be revealed only by its own light. Con- tinue this exercise three months, without fear and without idleness. In the fourth month, good Spirits will appear to you; in the fifth, you will acquire the qualities of good Spirits ; in the sixth, you will become God." HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 41 " He who offers sacrifices, at the prescribed times, is by them transported to the Paradise of Indra. His offerings make entrance for him into this heaven, and say to him: It is the summit of the heavens ; there is the fruit of thy good works." " All works ought to be regarded merely as means of purifying the intelligence, as means to guide the traveller to his home." "No man can acquire knowledge of the soul without abstaining from evil acts, and having control over the senses and the mind. Nor can he gain it, though with a firm mind, if he is actuated by desire for reward. But man may obtain knowledge of the soul by contemplation of God." "The science of God, leading to absorption in him, is one thing; rites, which procure enjoyments, are another. Divine science, and rewards belonging to the observance of rites, both present themselves to the choice of man. He who prefers faith, and despises reward, is endowed with wisdom. Little wisdom has he who devotes himself to rites for the sake of reward, and thus excludes himself from the enjoyment of eternal beatitude. The wisest com- prehend that the science of God and the practice of works are altogether opposite to each other." " The ignorant suppose that the digging of wells, and other good works recommended in the Vedas, and the sac- rifices therein prescribed, are the most meritorious. They have no idea of the science of God, which is the only source of true happiness. By excessive desire for reward, they are deprived of this knowledge. They will assuredly ob- tain the objects they seek by the practice of works and ceremonies; but when the period of their recompense in Paradise has expired, they must descend to the world again, subjecting themselves to new transmigrations, into tlie forms of men, or animals, or plants ; liable to birth, sorrow, disease, and death. These foolish ones, plunged in ignorance, believing themselves wise, resemble the blind leading the blind. But men who have maturely considered Vol. I.— 4* 42 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. the perishable nature of all advantages that works can pro- cure, hermits who live in the forest upon alms, fathers of families, endowed with wisdom, worshipping Brahma, prac- tising austerities, subduing the senses, these are delivered from all sin, and ascend to the highest heaven, where reigns the immortal Brahma, as ancient as the world." " Though man finds pleasure in that which he sees, hears, smells, tastes, and touches, he derives no benefit from the pleasure, because the soiil, in attaching itself to external objects, forgets its high origin, which is The Universal Soul." "It is the nature of the soul to identify itself with the object of its tendency. If it tend toward the world, it becomes the world. If it tend toward God, it becomes God." "Men endowed with penetrating insight, with a spirit full of wisdom, having withdrawn their senses inward, annihilate them. They annihilate the interior senses, by subjecting them to the control of intelligence; they anni- hilate intelligence, by submitting it to the soul ; they anni- hilate the soul in the collection of souls ; and the collection of souls in the One Universal Soul." "Saints wise and firm, exempt from ptission, assured of the soul's divine origin, satisfied solely with the science of God, have seen God everywhere present with them, and after death have been absorbed in him ; even as the air within a jar, by the destruction of the jar, returns to uni- versal space." " The science of God is not acquired by study of the Vedas, nor through retentive memory, nor yet by constant hearing of spiritual instruction; but he who seeks to ob- tain it, finds it. The soul renders itself manifest to him." " When man has withdrawn heart, soul, and senses, from external things, and keeps himself without impulse coward them,. it is the great degree of union. Then man will not fall into error by mistake or negligence, lie watches incessantly to preserve himself from it. If all do not see the soul, it is because their soul turns the senses HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 43 from her, and makes them tend outward ; for the soul is the true controller, and does all she wills." " When the sage perceives the Eternal Cause every- where present, then abandoning the consequences of good works and of bad works, he becomes perfect, and obtains complete absorption. The sage who recognizes that God resides in all creatures, forgets all idea of duality. He is convinced that there is only One real existence, and that is God. He directs all his senses toward God only, the origin of his own consciousness. He concentres upon him all his love, detaches his spirit from all earthly objects, by fixing his soul continually upon God. A person thus de- voted to God is esteemed the most perfect among the adorers of the Divinity." "To know that God is, and that all is God, this is the substance of the Vedas. When one attains to this, there is no more need of reading, or of works; they are but the bark, the straw, the envelope. No more need of them when one has the seed, the substance, the Creator. When one knows Him by science, he may abandon science, as the torch which has conducted him to the end." The following is one of the numerous prayers contained in the Vedas : " Where they who know the Great One go, through holy rites and through piety, thither may fire raise me. May fire receive my sacrifices. Mysterious praise to Fire ! May air waft me thither. May air increase my spirits. Mysterious praise to Air ! May the sun draw me thither. May the sun enlighten my eye. Mysterious praise to the Sun! May the moon bear me thither. May the moon receive my mind. Mysterious praise to the Moon ! May the plant Soma lead me thither. May Soma bestow on me its hallowed milk. Mysterious praise to Soma! May Indra carry me thither. JSIay Indra give me strength. Mysterious praise to Indra ! May water lead me thither. May water bring me the stream of immor- tality. Mysterious praise to the Waters ! Where they who know the Great One go, through holy rites and through piety, thither may Brahma conduct me. May Brahma 44 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. lead me to the Great One. Mysterious praise to Brahma!" The Code of Menu is next in antiquity to the Vedas, and ranks the next highest as sacred authority. It is called Menu Dherma Shastra, which signifies Ordinances of God. Sir Wilham Jones dates its existence one thousand two hundred and eighty years before Clirist; about three hun- dred years later than his date of the Yajur Veda. This Code embraces political regulations as well as religious, and up to the present day it forms the basis of the whole civil policy of Hindostan. It rests everywhere on the authority of the Vedas, quotes them at every page, and is regarded with similar reverence. When India came under the gov- ernment of Great Britain, it was very desirable to have an English translation of their Sacred Laws, that the ad- ministration might avoid unnecessary interference with the ancient customs of the people. But the Bramin, who read them to Sir William Jones, earnestly begged to have his name concealed ; so great was the offence of making those holy words known to a foreigner. On no account would he read them on a forbidden day of the moon, or without first performing the ceremonies prescribed in the Vedas, previous to reading the Sacred Writing. When the Eng- lish obtained leave to translate this Code, they were re- quired to promise that it should be bound in silk, or vel- vet, and by no means in any kind of leather, which, being the skin of an animal, was deemed unclean. The Bramins at Benares positively and unanimously refused to assist in the translation. The book takes its title from Menu Satyavrata, called likewise Vaivaswata, or Child of the Sun, also Grandson of Brahma, whom Hindoos believe to have escaped from a great deluge, and reigned over the whole world in the earliest ages of their chronology. He is represented as saying: "Brahma, having created this code of laws, him- self taught it fully tome in the beginning. Afterward, I taught it to Marishi and the nine other holy sages." lie thus describes creation: — "This world was all dark- ness, undiscerniblc, undistinguishable altogether, as in a niNDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 45 profound sleep, till the self-existing, invisible God, making it manifest with five elements, and other glorious forms, perfectly dispelled the gloom. Having willed to produce various beings from his own divine essence, he first with a thought created the waters, and placed in them a produc- tive seed. This seed became a golden egg blazing like a thousand suns. In this esrsf he was himself born in the form of Brahma, the great Father of all Spirits. The Great Power remained inactive in the egg a whole year, at the close of which he caused the egg to divide itself, and from its two divisions he framed the heavens above and the earth beneath. In the midst he placed the subtile ether, the eight regions, and the permanent receptacle of Avaters. From the Supreme Soul he drew forth Mind, ex- isting substantially, though immaterial, and unperceived by sense." Vishnu is described as assisting in the creation of the world, under the name of Narayana, " The Spirit Moving on the Waters." In common with other Asiatic nations, they suppose creation to have taken place in six successive periods, and that man and woman were formed last. The following extracts will serve to give some idea of the Code of Menu : " To patriarchs, to deities, and to mankind, the Scripture is an eye giving constant light. The Veda Shastra could not be made by human faculties, nor can it be measured by human reason." " The birth which man derives from his parents is merely human ; that which the Vedas procure for him is the true birth, exempt from age or death." " To a man contaminated by sensuality, neither the Vedas, nor liberality, nor sacrifices, nor strict observances, nor pious austerities, will procure felicity." '• A wise man must faithfully discharge all moral duties, even though he does not constantly perform the ceremo- nies of religion. He will fall very low, if he performs cere- monial acts only, and fiiils to discharge his moral duties." " By honouring his father, mother, and sister, a man effec- i6 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. tually does whatever ought to be done. This is the high- est duty, and every other is subordinate. All duties are performed by him who completely honours these three ; but to him by whom they are dishonoured, all other acts are fruitless." " Whatever oblations a man actuated by strong faiih piously offers, as the sacred laws have directed, become a perpetual unperishable gratification to his ancestoiB in the other world." ** Those rulers of the earth, who, desirous of defending each other, exert their utmost strength in battle, without ever averting their faces, ascend after death directly to Paradise." "He whose sins are mostly corporeal, will assume after death a vegetable or mineral form ; for sins mostly verbal, he will assume the form of a bird or beast; for sins merely mental, he will again assume a human form, but in some of its lower conditions. An unauthorized teacher of the Sacred Books will return into a dumb body. He who steals a lamp, will be born blind." "A Bramin Avho drinks spirituous liquors, shall migrate into the form of a worm, or a fly feeding on ordure, or of some ravenous animal." " Any twice-born man, who has intentionally drank spirit of rice, through perverse delusion of mind, ought to swallow more spirit in flame, and thus atone for his offence by severely burning his body." "Should a Bramin, who has once tasted the holy juice of the Moon-plant, so much as smell the breath of a man who drinks intoxicating spirits, he must remove the taint by thrice repeating the Gayatree, while he suppresses his breath in water; and by eating clarified butter after that ceremony." " He who explains the Law to a man of servile caste, and instructs him in the mode of expiating sin, (except by the aid of the Bramins,) sinks with that man into the hell called Asamorita." " A Soodra, though emancipated by his master, is not re- HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 47 leased from a state of servitude ; for such a man was cre- ated by tlie Supreme Being for the purpose of serving Bramins. No superfluous collection of wealth may be made by a Soodra, even though he have power to make it; since a servile man who has amassed riches becomes proud, and gives pain even to the Bramins," "If a wife speak unkindly to her husband, she may be superseded by another without delay." " A woman is never fit for independence." "A man untainted with covetousness may be sole wit- ness, and may have more weight than many women ; be- cause the female understanding is apt to waver." " Whatever exists in the universe is all, in effect, though not in form, the wealth of the Bramin ; since he is entitled to it by his primogeniture and eminence in rank." "He who mentions a Bramin with contumely should have an iron style, ten fingers long, thrust red-hot into his mouth. He who, through pride, attempts to give instruc- tions to the Bramins concerning their duty, should have hot oil dropped into his mouth and ears." "Let not the king, though in the greatest distress, pro- voke the Bramins to anger; for, if once enraged, they could, by sacrifices and imprecations, immediately destroy him, with his troops, elephants, horses, and chariots." "No greater crime is known on earth than killing a Bramin. The king must not even form in his own mind the idea of sla3nng a priest. He "must never put a Bramin to death, though convicted of all possible crimes. He may banish the offender from his realm, but with all his prop- erty secure, and his body uninjured." "Let the murderer of a Bramin voluntarily stand as a mark for the most skilful archers ; or throw himself into the fire three times, his whole length; or walk a hundred leagues reciting a Veda, eating little, and keeping all his senses subdued; or make a pilgrimage to the source of the Sarawasti, nourishing himself only on wild seeds; or recite the collection of Vedas three times, without- taking nour- ishment ; or expose his life to save a cow, or a Bramin, 48 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Thus may he expiate the unintentional murder of a Bra min ; but if the crime be committed with premeditation, there is no way in which it can be expiated." "He who has committed incest, ought to walk constantly in a south-west direction, till he falls dead from exhaustion ; or embrace a red-hot statue ; or lie on a burning fire ; thus will he be purified by death." "lie who, having committed a sin, makes parade of penances and meritorious acts, concealing his crime under an appearance of sanctity, thus deceiving women and ser- vants, such Bramins are accursed in this life, and after death, by all those who pronounce the name of Brahma." [That is, by Bramins.] "Let no father, who knows the law, receive a gratuity, however small, for giving his daughter in marriage. The man, who through avarice takes a gratuity for that pur- pose, is a seller of his offspring." "Let a widow emaciate her body, by living voluntarily on pure flowers, roots, and fruit. When her lord is de- ceased, let her not even pronounce the name of another man. Let her continue till death forgiving all injuries, performing harsh duties, avoiding every pleasure of the senses, and cheerfully practising the incomparable rules of virtue, which have been followed by such women as were devoted only to one husband. Many thousands of Bra- mins, having avoided sensuality from early youth, though they have left no issue in their families, have nevertheless ascended to heaven. And, like those abstemious men, a virtuous wife ascends to heaven, though she have no child, if, after the decease of her lord, she devote herself to pious austerity. But a widow, who, from a wish to bear children, slights her deceased husband by marrying again, brings disgrace on herself here below, and shall be excluded from the seat of her lord." " The Bramin who has not caused the least fear to any creature whatsoever, has nothing to fear after he has quitted his body." "In whatever occupation Brahma first employed any « HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 49 vital soul, to that occupation the same soul attaches itself spontaneously, when it receives a new body, again and again. Whatever quahty, noxious or innocent, harsh or mild, just or unjust, false or true, conferred on any being at its creation, the same quality enters it of course on its future births." " The sacrifice required of Bramins is to gain knowledge and instruct others; of the Cshatriyas, that they protect others; of the Vaisyas, that they supply wants by com- merce ; of the Soodras, that they serve others." "Some make sacrifice of their breath, by instructing others of God; some make sacrifice of their speech, by meditating upon God in silence. In speech and breath, thus employed, they perceive the imperishable fruits of true sacrificial offerings." "Thoughts, words, the actions of the body, produce fruits liappy or pernicious. From these result the superior, middling, and inferior transmigrations of men." ^^ By overcoming the senses, by suppressing joy and hate, man obtains immortality. Let the anchorite not re- joice to die, or wish to live; but wait for death. as a day- laborer waits for him who assigned his task. Let him endure injuries, and despise no person. Let him be care- ful to commit no hostile action, out of care for his own preservation. Let him not be offended with those who are angry with him, but reply gently to those who curse him. Finding his pleasure in the contemplation of the Supreme Spirit, let him attach himself to nothing; but seek happi- ness in communion with himself." "Like a tree carried far from the river which saw its birth, like a bird that flies from the branch where it rested, man ought to free himself from the body; for thus will he see himself delivered from the devouring monster of this world. Leaving the reward of good works to those who value it, and to his enemies the weight of his fixults, he passes from contemplation to the bosom of eternal di- ■\'inity." " The soul itself is its own witness and its own refuge. Vol. I.— 5 c 50 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Oflend not tHy conscious soul, the supreme internal wit- ness of men ! The sinful have said in their hearts, None see us. Yet the gods distinctly see them, and so does the Spirit within their own breasts. The guardian deities of the firmament, of the earth, of the waters, of the human heart, of the moon, of the sun, and of fire, of punishment after death, of the Avinds, of night, of both twilights, and of justice, perfectly know the state of all spirits clothed with bodies. Oh, friend to virtue ! that Supreme Spirit, which thoii believest one and the same with thyself, resides in thy own bosom perpetually, and is an all-knowing in- spector of thy goodness or thy wickedness. If, by speak- ing falsely, thou art not at variance with Yama the sub- duer of all, with Vaivaswata the punisher, with that Great Divinity that dwells in thy own breast, go not on a pil- grimage to the river Ganges, nor to the plains of Guru ; for thou hast no need of expiation." Next to the Vedas, and the Code of Menu, the most an- cient and the most venerated of the Sacred Books are two epic poems, called The Ramayana, and The Mahabharata. The extreme antiquity of both is proved by sculptures on exceedingly ancient temples, carved in solid rock. The subject of the Ramayana is the victory of the divine hero Rama, over Ravana, prince of the wicked genii, called Rakshasas. Evil Spirits came near gaining ascendancy over the benevolent Deities, because the latter had bound themselves by a promise to make their adversaries invul- nerable, and they could not violate their word. There- fore, no one but a mortal could subdue the Prince of Evil ; and it must be a mortal of superhuman endowments. In this emergency, the gods besought Vishnu to become a man. lie accordingly divided himself into four parts, and assumed the mortal shape of four brothers, of whom Rama was chief. But all the time that he was on earth in a hu- man body, he remained the same Vishnu in celestial regions. In tlie course of his adventures in this world, he was ban- ished by the king, and retired into a forest with his bro- ther Lakshman and his wife Sita. There they all led the HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 51 life of holy penitents, and became renowned for miracles. After various contests with Evil Spirits, the god-man at last destroyed their prince Ravana, and brought them all into subjection. He then returned in glory to his celestial abode, taking with him those who had assisted his labors' on earth. Tlie Ramayana is principally occupied with the battles and miracles of Rama, but moral maxims and theological doctrines are occasionally interspersed. The following precept is an antique gem: — '-I'he sacrifice of a thousand horses has been put in the balance with one true word, and the one true word weighed down the thousand sacri- fices. No virtue surpasses that of veracity. It is by truth alone that men attain to the highest mansions of bliss. Men faithless to the truth, however much they may seek supreme happiness, will not obtain it, even though they offer a thousand sacrifices. There are two roads whicti conduct to perfect virtue ; to be true, and to do no evil to any creature." The primitive cit}-, founded by Menu, the first ruler of mankind, is thus described in the Ramayana : "It abounded with merchants of all sorts, male and female dancers, ele- phants, horses, and chariots. It was filled with riches, decorated with precious stones, abundantly supplied with all manner of provisions, beautified with temples and pal- aces, whose lofty summits equalled the mountains, adorned with baths and gardens, and thickly planted with mango trees. The air was fragrant with the perfume of flowers, with incense, and the sweet-smelling savour of sacrificial offerings. It was inhabited by twice-born men [the regen- erated], who were profoundly learned in the Vedas, en- dowed with excellent qualities, full of sincerity, zeal, and compassion, and perfectly masters of their passions and de- sires. There was no covetous person in the city, no liar, no deceiver, no one of an evil or implacable disposition. None of the inhabitants lived less than one thousand years, and all left a numerous offspring. None of them went without ear-rings, necklaces, garlands, perfumes, and rich- 52 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. ly ornamented garments. No one gave the Bramins less than one thousand rupees; and none flinched from per- forming the duties appropriate to their respective situa- tions." The Mahabharata commemorates a later incarnation of Vishnu in the form of Crishna, and is supposed to be some- what less ancient in date. Bramins attribute it to V3'asa, and say it was written before their era, the commencement of the Cali Yug ; consequently more than five thousand years ago, Wilkins, the learned Oriental scholar, thinks there is satisfactory evidence of its being four thousand years old. Sir William Jones places it seven hundred years later. Sculptures on the old rock temples prove that they have not assigned too great antiquity to either of these poems. They abound with the adventures of gods, goddesses, and heroes, described with the vast accu- mulation of incidents and glittering redundancy of me- taphor characteristic of Asiatic writings. The veneration iu which they were held introduced many new ceremonies into worship, and greatly complicated theological machi- nery. Heeren says : " The Vedas were the real source of Hindoo religion ; but their mythology came from later epic poems." The subject of the Mahabharata is the contest between two branches of the royal famil}^, the Coros and the Pandos ; during which Crishna sustains his relatives, the Pandos. This event is as famous in their ancient tra- ditions, as was the Trojan war among the Greeks. The poem contains a celebrated episode, called the Bhagavat Geeta, from which extracts will be given in the following pages. It relates the history and conversations of Vishnu, while on earth in the form of Crishna. The subjugation of the passions and desires, as a means of attaining to com- })lete holiness, forms its moral system. Heeren observes that " the poetry of no other nation exhibits the didactic character in such a striking manner as that of the Hin- doos ; for no other peo[)lc were so thoroughly imbued with the persuasion that to give and receive instruction was the sole ultimate object of life." HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 58 There is a set of loss ancient Sacred Books, called Pou- ranas, wliicli means Old Legends. They consist princi- pally of traditions concerning gods and men; such as the history of the Deluge, of their holy city Benares, the ad- ventures of Siva, and the various incarnations of Vishnu. These books form the basis of modern popular theology in India. They have nearly superseded the Vedas, and being far less spiritual, they indicate the degeneracy which they have rapidly hastened. Sir William Jones gives a list of eighteen ; believed to have been composed by holy men, who, through devout contemplation and self-annihi- lating practices, received inspiration directly from the Di- vine Source. They contain internal evidence of being written at different epochs, but there are no means of arriv- ing at correct dates. Oriental scholars suppose they were not collected too^ether until after the time of Alexander the Great, who was born three hundred and fifty-six years be- fore Christ. Some of them ascribe more honour to Yishnu, others to Siva, whose adventures are described with the wildest rano;e of imagination. The ancient doctrine of One Invisible God is almost entirely lost sight of. Large portions of them are filled with rules for external ceremo- nies ; but in some of the dialogues such questions as these are started : "What are the Three Principal Powers? How came Brahma into existence? How did he create the world? How is the soul united to the body? How is it absorbed into the Godhead? What are the various forms assumed by Vishnu? What is holiness? Whfit are good works? What is the object of all these things ?" Father Bouchet, in his "Letters from Hindostan," quotes the following account from one of the Pouranas : " The inferior Spirits, who, ever since creation, have been multiplying themselves almost to infinity, did not at first enjoy the privilege of immortality. After numberless ef- forts to procure it, they had recourse to a Tree, which grew in Paradise, and by eating its fruit they became immortal. A Serpent, called Chien, appointed to guard the Tree of Vol. I. — 5* 54 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Life, was so exasperated bj their proceedings, that he poured out a great quantity of poison. The whole earth felt the terrible effects of it; and not one mortal would have escaped, had not the god Chiven taken pity on the human race, revealed himself under the shape of a man, and swal- lowed the poison." In their old sacred places, this tradi tion is commemorated by representations of a Tree, a Ser})ent, and human figures eating of the fruit. Menu Satyavrata, author of the Code of Menu, is reprc- resented as a saint who attained to such extreme spiritu- ality, that he subsisted entirely on water. The following account of his escape from the Deluge is taken from the Bhasravat Geeta: — ''One dav, when Brahma was inclined to slumber, the giant demon Hayagriva stole the four Vedas, swallowed them, and concealed himself in the sea. Vishnu, the Pervader and Preserver of the Universe, discovered the deed, and, assuming the shape of a small fish, he ap- peared to Menu. The saint recognized him to be an in- carnated divinity by his immense growth in a few days. Suspecting him to be Vishnu, he thus addressed him : ' O thou Lotus-eyed, let me not approach in vain the feet of a deity, whose perfect benevolence has been extended to all, when, to our amazement, thou hast shown thj'self in bodies, not indeed existing in reality, but successively ex- hibited.' " The Lord of the Universe, loving the holy man, and in- tending to preserve him from the sea of destruction, caused by the wickedness of the age, thus addressed him : ' thou tamer of enemies, in seven days from this time, the three worlds will be plunged in an ocean of death. But in the midst of the destroying waves, a large vessel, sent by me for thy use, shall stand before thee. Then shalt thou take nil medicinal herbs, all variety of seeds, and accompanied by seven saints, with your respective wives, encircled by pairs of all brute animals, thou shalt enter the capacious ship, and continue in it, on an immense ocean, secure from tiic flood, and without light, except from the radiance of thy lioly companions. When the ship shall be agitated HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 55 bj impetuous wiuds, thou slialt fastcu it with a large sea- serpent to my horn; for I will be near thee. Menu Saty- avrata complied with these directions; and the Primeval Male [Brahma], speaking aloud to his own Divine Essence, pronounced for the instruction of Menu a Sacred History, explaining the principle of the soul and of external being. Vishnu then slew the demon, and recovered the Sacred Books. But the appearance of the horned fish was an illu- sion." The ancient temples of liindostan contain representa- tions of Vishnu sustaining the earth while overwhelmed with the waters of the Deluge and convulsed hy demons. A rainbow is seen on the surface of the subsiding waters. The following is translated from the Padma Pourana: — " To Menu Satyavrata, that sovereign of the whole earth, were born three sons. The oldest was Sherma, then Charma, then Jya[)eti. They were all men of good morals, excel- lent in virtuous deeds, skilled in the use of weapons, either to strike with, or be thrown, brave men, eager for victory in battle. But Satyavrata, being continually delighted with devout meditation, and seeing his sons fit for domin- ion, laid upon them the burden of government, whilst he remained honouring and satisfying the gods, and priests, and kine. One day, by the act of destiu}'-, the king, having drunk mead, became senseless and lay asleep naked. Thus was he seen by Charma, and by him were his two brothers called. To whom he said: ' What now has befallen? In what state is this our sire?' By those two was he hidden with clothes, and called to his senses again and again. Having recovered his intellect, and perfectly knowing what had passed, he cursed Charma, saying: 'Thou shalt be the servant of servants; and since thou wast a laughter in their presence, from laughter shalt thou acquire a name.' Then he gave to Sherma the wide domain on the south of the snowy mountains ; and to Jyapeti he gave all on the north of the snowy mountains. But he himself, by the power of religious contemplation, attained supreme bliss." One of the Pouranas contains the following description 56 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. of the wedding between Siva tlie Generator, and Parvati, Goddess of Enchantments. It is probably a poetical al- legory, to commemorate the beautiful phenomena of Na- ture's renovation in the Spring. " All the inhabitants of the celestial regions were summoned to arrange the ce- remonials of marriage between Siva and Parvati. First came Brahma, mounted on his swan ; next, Vishnu, riding his eagle. The rivers Ganges and Jumna, and the seven seas ; the Gandharvas, and the Asparas ; Vasooke, and other serpents ; all ornamented with superb chains and ceremonial dresses, in obedience to the commands of Siva, were to be seen in the glittering cavalcade. Siva set out from the mountain Kailasa with the utmost pomp and splendour. His third eye flamed like the sun, and the cres- cent on his forehead assumed the form of a radiated diadem. His snakes were exchanged for chains of pearls and rubies, his ashes for sandal-wood and perfumes, and his elephant's skin for a silken robe. The Gandharvas and the Asparas joined in melodious songs, and the Ginarers with the magic of their musical instruments. Nature as- sumed the appearance of renovated youth ; the earth exulted with acclamations of glory and triumph ; fresh moisture invigorated the withered victims of time ; a thousand happy and animating conceptions inspired the hearts of the intelligent, and enlightened the wisdom of the thoughtful ; the kingdom of external forms obtained glad- ness ; the world of intellect acquired brightness. The dwellers upon earth filled the casket of their ideas with jewels of delight, and reverend pilgiums exchanged their rosaries for pearls. The joy of those on earth ascended up to heaven; and the tree of bliss in heaven extended its branches downward to the earth. The eyes of the gods flamed like torches at sight of this enrapturing scene, and the hearts of the just kindled like touchwood while they listened to the ravishing symphonies. Siva set off like a garden in full bloom, uud Paradise was eclipsed by his procession." In relation to the amours of the gods, the Pouranas say : HINDOSTAX, OR INDIA. 57 " Adulter}'- is a sin against the laws established in our societies,- but Divine Beings are not subject to our laws of convenience. The incomprehensible views of God ought not to be confounded with those of men. There are ac- tions of which the end is unknown, which would be crim- inal for us, but would not be so for either gods or saints ; for holiness, like lire, purifies all things." The episode from the Mahabharata, called Bhagavat- Gecta, forms one volume of the Pouranas. It is more beautiful in style, and more spiritual in its teaching, than any of the others. According to the triple division of duties common among Hindoos, it prescribes three kinds of penance. " Penance of the hodi/, to be chaste, and free from all offences ; penance of ivords^ to speak always with kind- ness and truth, and to read the Sacred Books diligently ; penance of thoughts, to subdue one's self, to purify the soul, to be silent, and disposed to benevolence." " To practise penance to obtain dignity or fame, or to give one's self an air of sanctity, is a penance little worth, and has its source in inferior influences on the soul. Pen- ances performed by a man attached to foolish doctrines, or those which consist in self-torment, or those whose end is to do injury to another, these have their source in the region of shadows." " God resides in the heart of all creatures." " When thy spirit shall have become perfectly free from the labyrinths in which it is involved, then thou wilt ar- rive at indifference concerning the Vedas and the sacred traditions." It is stated in the Pouranas that the Vedas were carried from India to Egypt, by. a noble and blameless race of men, called Yadavas, who emigrated thither on account of the persecutions of a tyrant named Causa ; and that after- ward a race of men called Pali, or Shepherds, went from India and conqnsred Egypt. The idea that a dead uniformity of opinion prevails in Asiatic countries, is a mistake, originating in our ignorance of their internal history. There is certainly far less acti- c* 68 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. vity of mind than in Europe, and of course changes are more slow and limited in elt'cct. But the so.me questions, which have agitated the theological schools of Europe, have disturbed the East also, under forms modified by their circumstances. They have an immense number of com- mentaries on their Sacred Books, filled with nice metaphy- sical distinctions and intricate arguments concerning dis- puted texts. The division of the Yedas into two distinct portions, one teaching spiritual doctrines concerning the unity of God and the communion of the soul with Him, while the other prescribed elaborate ceremonials and the worship of many symbolical deities, originated in the idea that it was impos- sible to elevate the minds of the populace to the contem- plation of One Invisible Spirit, and, therefore, it was neces- sary to clothe religious ideas in forms suited to their com.- prehension. Thus while higher doctrines wei'e reserved for sages, the worship of external symbols was not only al- lowed to the ignorant, but absolutely prescribed, though always represented as far inferior to the contemplation of One Unchangeable Being. The people accustomed to worship images of symbolical deities, soon chose one or another of them for a favourite, and regarded it as God himself. Thus, there grew up a very large body of worshippers of Siva, called Sivaites. All that the Vedas ascribe to the Supreme Bei-ng, they as- cribe to Siva. When they speak of the final state of holi- ness at which a perfect saint arrives, they call it the ab- sorption of his soul into Siva. They have a Sacred Book, which they say is a revelation from Siva; and they deny the possibility of salvation to those who do not believe in his incarnation therein described. Whenever one of his true worshippers dies, they believe he sends some of his attendant Spirits to usher the soul into his presence, and become a sharer of his felicity. Another sect, nearly as numerous, adore the Supreme Being under the name of Vishnu, and are therefore called Vishnuites. Bramius alone officiate as priests among niNDOSTAN", OK INDIA. 59 them, as among the other sects ; but they allow people of all castes to devote themselves to the contemplative life. They eat no flesh, refrain from bloody sacrifices, and are peculiarly distinguished by their tenderness towards ani- mals. That portion of the Pouranas which favours this worship declares: "The devotees of Vishnu alone are in a situation to surmount the illusion of appearances. It is advantageous and meritorious to be born man ; still more so to be born a Bramin ; but a Bramin may corrupt him- self and become abject. There is incomparably more merit and more nobleness in the practice of true devotion ; but rigorous penances, long prayers, frequent ablutions, alms- giving, vows, and sacrifices, have no merit, and confer no beatitude, without this devotion to Vishnu." "To avoid the pains of hell there are no means more efficacious than to remember Vishnu, and invoke his sacred name. Yes, his divine names have so much virtue, that even if pronounced without design, or by mistake, they will not fail to produce salutary eftects." The author of this Pourana goes on to tell the history of a Bramin, who had given himself up to all manner of vices. One of his sons was named Narayana, a title of Vishnu, signifying Moving on the Waters. When the wicked Bra- min was dying, he called this son, without thinking that he was repeating one of the names of Vishnu. But the sacred word, thus carelessly pronounced, saved him from all his sins, and immediately opened for him the gates of Paradise. All Hindoo theology teaches the pre-existence of souls, who are gliding through the universe, and assuming mul- tifarious forms, till they complete the great circle of des- tiny, and become the Supreme Soul again, as they were at the beginning. The belief that Spirits descended from their original sphere and became men, that by holiness they might become beatified spirits in Paradise, and then retui-n to earth to be born again in some new form of mortal ex- istence, naturally gave rise to the idea that men i-cmai'k- able for wisdom or holiness Jiad descended from some 60 PIIOGRESS OF JIELIGIOUS IDEAS. higher sphere, and were in fact gods incarnated in a hu- man form to fulfil some great mission. The Invisible One, who could only be contemplated by an abstraction of the intellect, was too far removed from a great majority of minds; and even the powerful emanations, Vislmu and Siva, appealed to their sympathies far more strongly when brought down to them in the persons of mortals who lived in their midst. Hence we meet everywhere with warriors and saints, who were believed to be deities in disguise. History and mythology consequently mix together in such a confused tangle, that it is often impossible to tell where the adventures of the king or warrior end, and those of the god begin. The Vishnuites split into two principal sects. One is more devoted to Vishnu in the form of Eama; the other be- lieves that his eighth incarnation in the form of Crishna was the most perfect and the most efficacious. Both were princes, and holy men, and great workers of miracles. The advent of Vishnu under the name of Crishna is the most poetic and the most remarkable. The Bramins date it be- fore the Call Yug ; that is, more than five thousand years ago. The following account is abridged from the Bhaga- vat Geeta, which Sir William Jones supposes to have been Avritten one thousand four hundred and fiftj^-one years be- fore the birth of Christ : — The earth was so oppressed by the dominion of Evil Spirits, that she could no longer endure their injustice. Assuming the form of a cow, she appeared before Indra, and complained of her wrongs. He referred her to Siva, who, in his turn, sent her to Vishnu, Vishnu escorted her to the Temple of Brahma the Invisible, on the borders of the Milky Sea. There the oracle commanded him to be- come a man, and be born in the city of Matra, under the name of Crishna. Vishnu replied: "I will become incar- nate in the house of Yadu, and will issue forth to mortal birtli from the womb of Devaci. It is time I should dis- ))laY niy power, and relieve the oppressed earth from its load" HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 61 Devaci was tlie sister of a tyrannical king named Cansa, whose oppressions are said to have caused the first emigra- tion to Egypt, lie married her to a Bramin named Vasu- deva, descended from the Yadus, or Yadavas, the oldest and noblest line in India. Returning from the wedding, Cansa heard a prophetic voice declare, " The eighth son of Devaci is destined to be tiiy destroyer." Alarmed at this omen, he put his sister and her husband into a strong prison guarded by seven iron doors, and whenever a son was born to them he caused him to be immediately de- stroyed. When Devaci became pregnant the eighth time, her countenance was radiant with celestial light. Brahma and Siva, with a host of attendant spirits, came to her and sang : " In thy delivery, O favoured among women, all na- ture shall have cause to exult. How ardently we long to behold that face for the sake of which we have coursed round three worlds!" The seasons preceding this mar- vellous birth were uncommonly regular and genial, the planets were unusually brilliant, strong winds were hushed, rivers glided tranquilly, and the virtuous experienced ex traordinary delights. In the month Bhadron, at deep midnight, when the Sustainer of All was about to be born, the clouds emitted low musical sounds, and poured down a rain of flowers. When the celestial infant appeared, a chorus of heavenly Spirits saluted him with hymns. The whole room was illuminated by his light, and the counte- nances of his father and mother emitted rays of glory. Their understandings were opened, they knew him to be the Preserver of the World, and began to worship him, But he soon closed their minds, so that they thought he was merely a human child born unto them. While his mother was weeping over him, and lamenting the cruel decrees of her tyrannical brother, a voice was distinctly heard, saying: " Son of Yadu, carry this child to Gokul, on the other side of the river Jumna, to Nanda, whose wife has just given birth to a daughter. Leave him, and bring the girl hither." Vasudeva inquired: "How is that pos- sible in a prison so closelv guarded?" The voice replied: Vol. I.— G 62 PKOGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. "The doors will open of themselves, and I have caused a deep sleep to fall upon all the guards." Then Vasudeva took the child in his arras, the doors opened, and he passed out. Being in the rainy season, the current of the river Jumna was rapid and strong; but when the divine child approached, the waters rose up to kiss his feet, then re- spectfully retired on either side and left a dry pathway. The great hooded serpent of Vishnu held her head over him all the way, instead of an umbrella. When they ar- rived at Nanda's house, the door opened of itself. He and his wife were asleep. He took their infant daugliter in his arms, and left the boy with them. When he returned, the river again separated to offer him free passage, the prison gates opened, the guards were all asleep, and he delivered the girl to his wife. Eepresentations of this flight with the babe at midnight are sculptured on the walls of ancient Hindoo temples. Nanda, who had long wished for a son, was delighted when he woke and found a beautiful boy sleeping by the side of his wife. He named him Crishna, in allusion to his colour, which was blueish black. Even in infancy he attracted attention by the miracles he performed. His foster-father had many herds, which Crishna assisted in tending. On one occasion, a great serpent poisoned the river, so that the cows and the shepherd-boys, who drank of the water, lay dead on the banks in great numbers. Crishna merely looked on them with an eye of divine mercy, and they all came to life, and rose up. Afterward he destroyed the great serpent. On another occasion the cattle and the shepherd-boys were all stolen and carried (AY. Crishna, by a simple exertion of his will, created others so exactly like them, that no one could discern a dilferencc. Once, when the dairy-maids complained to his Ibster- mother that he had been eating the curds and drink- ing the milk, he opened his mouth and asked her to see if there were any curds there. She looked in, and, to her great astonishment, beheld the whole universe in the plen- itude of its maguiliccnce. [This alludes to their doctrine •fllNDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 63 that the Suprcir.e Being contains the whole universe in himself.] Once, seeing a festival in preparation, he inquired the reason. They told him it was in honour of Indra, by whose pro])itiation rain would descend to revive vegetables, and refresh man and beast. He asked whether any rain fell in those places where men did not propitiate Indra; and he received no answer. He then told them that rain fell by the power- of an Ahnighty Being, of whom Indra himself stood in need. That good and evil, pleasure and pain, were the ordained lot of each individual, and Indra had nothing to do with it. He therefore proposed that a por- tion of the offerings prepared for the festival should be given to the Bramins, another portion to the cows, and the remainder distributed among the poor. This proposal was greatly admired by wise men in the assembly, but those of more narrow views deemed it improper that a child should presume to interfere with the affairs of the gods. However, they were in the end governed by his advice. Indra, displeased at the loss of his offerings, sent a deluge of rain. Crishna told the people to take refuge on a moun- tain, with their flocks and herds. When they had done so, he lifted the mountain on his little linger and held it above the storm, with as much ease as if it had been a lotus-blossom. In the performance of tliese miracles, he assumed no other appearance than the infantine one, which belonged to him when he took on himself the veil of mortality, lie wore no panoply but the sacred shell, and the innocence of a little child. Men, seeing the wonders he performed, told Nanda he could not possibly be his son ; that hi must be the Great Being, who is exempt from birth and death. He replied: "Yes, it must indeed be so. When I named him Crishna, on account of his colour, the priest told me he must be the God, who had taken different bodies, red, white, yellow, and black, in his various incarnations, and now he had assumed a black colour again, since in black all colouj's are absorbed." 6-1 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. When Intlra discovered who was disguised in tlic form of that wonderful cliild, he was abaslied at his own pre- sumption, and threw himself at his feet with most submis- sive aj^ologies. Crishna readily forgave him. The Gina- rers and Gandharvas, who accompanied Indra, threw down a shower of blossoms ; new leaves burst forth from trees and shrubs ; the waters of the river rose up with transport, and sprinkled rubies and diamonds. Meanwhile, a prophetic voice had told Cansa : " The boy who is destined to destroy thee is born, and is now living." As soon as he heard that, he gave orders that all the male children throughout his kingdom should be put to death. Among the sculptures in the cave-temple at Elephanta, is a conspicuous figure with a drawn sword, surrounded by slaughtered infants. It is supposed to al- lude to this part of Crishna's history. All methods taken to destroy the divine child proved ineffectual. The mes- senger, whom the king sent to kill him, found him near the river. As he approached, he saw reflected in the water an image of Crishna radiant in celestial beauty, and innu- merable Spirits standing before him, with their hands joined in adoration. He immediately did the same, and thus united in their worship of the incarnate god : "0 thou Supreme One ! thy essence is inscrutable, but its shadow is in all bodies, like the image of the sun reflected in vases of water. If the vase be broken, where is the image? Yet the sun is neither increased by the vases, or dimin- ished by their fracture. In like manner, thou art all in all. The understanding of finite man cannot reach thy almighty power. Well may it escape the sight of myself and other mortals, who are a prey to earthly desires, when the mightiest spirits, even Brahma and Siva, are lost in astonishment, I, who know nothing, fly to thee for pro- tection. Show mercy upon me, and enable me to see and know thee." When Crishna asked why he seemed so amazed, he replied : " O Sovereign Lord, thou well knowest wliat I have seen in the water." The divine child merely Kmiled, and passed on. HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 65 lie knew the secret thoughts of all who came into his presence, and could at once detect Evil Sj)irits under any disguise they might assume. A terrible bull with fiery eyes was sent to destroy him. But he said calmly: "I know what Evil Spirit thou art in that disguise. If any disease makes thee thus frantic, I will cure thee." The fu- rious beast rushed forward to kill him, but Crishna seized him and twisted his enormous head from his body. At another time he was swallowed by a crocodile, but h3 burned him so intolerably^, that the ravenous animal threw him up, and cast him from his mouth unhurt. He is described as a youth of perfect beauty ; with breast broad and high, waist of elegant proportions, grace- ful limbs, a foot like tlie lotus-blossom, smooth skin, ruby lips, and a smile of ineffable sweetness. Women left their work unfinished, to run and gaze after him, as he passed by. In the family of Nanda, he had for companions young dairy-maids, called Gopias. In early youth, he selected as favourites nine of these damsels, with whom he spent his leisure hours in dancing and playing on the flute. Cama, God of Love, found no greater joy than spending his nights with them in dance and song. Crishna played so ravishingly, that the animals gathered round him, enchanted by his tones. In that beautiful season when earth resumes the green livery of spring, and the bow of heaven beams benediction on the human race, he peculiarly delighted in music. One delightful evening, when a warm sweet air breathed around, when the moon was shining in meridian splendour, and Spirits in honour of it clothed themselves in rose-coloured robes, with chains of pearl and rubies, he wandered forth playing on his flute. The waters stood still to hear him, hungry calves let their mother's milk drop on the ground while they listened, and the birds lost all power over their wings. The Gopias all left their occupations to hurry after those fascinating sounds. He advised them to return home, and not risk their comfort in this world and happiness in the next, by neglect or ill conduct toward their husbands ; since the :'0L. I.— 0* d6 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Vedas, which are the very words of Brahma, declare that a husband, however defective or criminal, is in the place of the Supreme to his wife. They replied that when frenzy seized the mind, all duties and all worldly motives were forgotten ; that intoxicated as they were by the sound of his flute, it was in vain to preach to them duty to their husbands ; that when he ordered them to leave him, their feet would not move, but if he called them to- ward him, they flew. So ardent and concentrated was their affection, that their souls became illuminated, and they comprehended who Crishna was. Tliey told him they well knew he was the Supreme Being, and that who- ever would be united to him must renounce all other con- nections, as they did; that he might separate himself from them corporeally, if he would, but he could not escape from their hearts and minds, which would remain forever fixed on him. Perceiving them thus sincerely inflamed, and hurried away from themselves by the ardour of desire, he took each of them in his arms, and treated them all with equal tenderness. All the transport and happiness to be found in the world were in the hearts of the Gopias. They exclaimed : " happy trees of this wood, under whose thick shade Crishna delights to slumber. Honoured above all animals are these, which the Almighty himself leads to pasture. Happy above all is the flute, which rests forever on his divine lip, from which he produces those heavenly sounds that steal away the souls of Sooras and Assooras. How blest are we, whom he condescends to love!" When Crishna promised always to continue his kindness to them, they became elated with the happiness and elevation of the fourteen spheres of the universe. They all rose uji, and taking hold of his hands began to dance. His form multiplied in proportion to the number of his partners, and he gave his hand to each. Every one believed he was close by her side, and all their eyes were directed toward him alone. If one became fatigued, she Bat down, liolding his hand and Itjoking toward him, or Btood with her arm round his neck, leaning on his shoulder HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 67 in the most graceful and afTectionate manner. Brahma, Siva, and subordinate Deities came as spectators, and of- fered all manner of flowers. Many of the blossoms fell to the ground, from the bosoms of the dancers, and bees, at- tracted by their fragrance, swarmed around them. The listener who once came within sound of that flute, or heard the musical tinkling of the dancers' feet, was unable to depart, nor could the birds stir a wing. After a thousand sports, they all went to bathe, and renewed their caresses in tlie river Jumna. The enjoyment of Crishna with the Gopias, and of the Gopias with Crishna, is a mystery, and cannot be described. Causa heard tlie fame of this wonder-working youth, and tried various means to entice him to his palace, that he might employ him in some task sure to end in his de- struction. Crishna always eluded his snares, till he knew the predestined time had arrived for him to kill the tyrant. He then quitted his pastoral life, and returned to the place of his birth. After conquering in all maimer of perils, contrived by the jealousy of the king and the malignity of wicked Spirits, he at last attacked Causa, tore the crown from Ills head, and dragged him a long way on the ground by his hair. While thus dragged along, the soul of the tyrant became liberated of the three worlds; for whether sleeping or waking, he had never, for one moment, been able to refrain from thinking of his predestined destroyer, and at the moment of death he had beatific visions of him; for whoever, constantly and sincerely, whether in love or en- mity, bent his heart toward the Deity, incarnated as he was in that human form, was sure to obtain liberation. When Crishna heard the lamentations of the king's wives and brothers, he pitied them, and advised them to strive for resignation to the unavoidable decrees of fate. Then he went to the place where his father and mother were imprisoned, fell at their feet, and said: "Be happy in the life of that son, for whose sake his eartldy parents have suffered so much danger and distress." At that moment, they knew he was the Almighty, and worshipped him with 68 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS lOEAS. prayers and praises. When he perceived that they knew him to be the Universal Lord, while so much remained for him to fulfil as an avatar on this earth, he again plunged them into forgetfulness, so that they once more supposed him to be their son. As his youth had been passed among shepherds, they deemed it necessary to commence an educa- tion for him, suited to the caste of Cshatryas, or rajahs, to which he belonged. They accordingly procured a learned Bramin to teach him all the Vedas. To save appearances, he staid awhile with his tutor, though in reality he learned the whole circle of sciences in one day and one night. At parting with his teacher, he requested him to ask whatever boon he most desired. He replied: "Above all things, I desire to have my two dead sons restored to life." Crishna assured him it should be done. He descended to the abodes of departed souls, summoned the god of those regions, and demanded the two sons of his tutor. His commands were obeyed with profound submission. He restored the .young men to life, and brought them to their father. He was constantly performing similar miracles of beneficence. He lulled tempests, cured lepers, and restored the old and crippled to youth and beauty. His mother having expressed a wish to see her infant sons, who had been murdered by command of their cruel uncle, he went to the regions of departed spirits, and brought them to her. As soon as she saw them, the milk began to flow in her breasts. When the babes had tasted of the milk, and Crishna had passed his hand over them, an eagle descended from above and bore them up to Paradise, in sight of all the people. The Coros were enemies of the Yadavas, and persecuted them greatly. Crishna conquered them in a great battle, and placed the rightful prince on the throne. But though lie fuHilled his destined mission in fighting against oppres- sors, his prevailing characteristics were benevolence and tenderness. His kindness was freely extended to all If he visit(!d a pious rajah, who olfcred him chains of gold and strings of finest pearl, he was often at the same mo- HTNDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 69 mcnt in some humble sliecl with a devout Bramin, who was too poor to offer him anything but fruit and flowers. He gave no preference to one over the other, knowing that their religious merits were equal, though their external conditions were so very different. It is said that Bhrcegoo, a celebrated saint, wishing to test his divinity, kicked him, to see whether it w^ould make him angry. Crishna stooped and examined his foot with the utmost tenderness. " This breast of mine is extremely hard," said he. " You surely must have hurt yourself." Bhreegoo, weeping with joy, exclaimed: "This must in- deed be the true Lord of the three worlds," To certain princes, who bowed low before him, he de- clared that he took more pleasure in repentant sinners, than he did in stainless devotees, who had passed their whole lives in austerity and prayer. In all the concerns of life, he strictly obeyed the injunc- tions of the Vedas. Morning, noon, and evening, he per- formed the prescribed ablutions and prayers. He washed the feet of Bramins wdth all humility, and distributed among them cows with gilded horns. He neglected none of the purifications appointed for actions proper to human nature, which are every day committed. If it be asked how that divine essence could have any need of purifica- tion, the answer is, that it was by reason of his material form. He took part in the public business of the Yadavas, and when he sat in council Avith them, it would be degra- ding to that assembly to compare it to the moon and stars shining in midnight glory. After performing his public and private duties, musicians and singers were introduced, and every kind of innocent and elegant diversion beguiled the remaining hours of the day. He lived in the midst of beauty and magnificence. His carriage, studded with jewels, glittered like the sun; and when he rode forth, women mounted on the roofs of the houses, to gaze after it as long as it was possible. The father-in-law of Cansa had solemnly sworn to revenge his death, and he accordingly attacked the city of Matra 70 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Crishna, to save the inhabitants from all danger, called up an island from the ocean, and transported them all thither. By his command, Visvakarma, the architect of his celestial Paradise, constructed a wonderful city called Dwarka. The walls were of gold, and the pavements glittered with precious stones. The houses were pure crystal,- supported by pillars of coral, with canopies of golden cloth, festooned with strings of pearl. The apartments were illuminated with resplendent rubies, and over the roofs floated clouds of fragrant smoke, from the constant burning of aromatics. Numerous temples towered toward the sky, and incense from their altars perfumed the whole atmosphere. Learned Bramins were everywhere chanting the Vedas, like intox- icated bees buzzing round aromatic Nenuphar. Peacocks sported among the trees, and nightingales sung. In the garden was a river, whose banks were all gold and jewels. It appeared red, from the reflection of the rubies, but it was perfectly white. It was the \Yater of Life. In the most splendid of the palaces lived his first wife Bakmini, who was an incarnation of his celestial consort Lacshmi. In this city dwelt Crishna, with his sixteen thousand wives, like lightning in a cloud. Beautiful children played in the courts, and graceful slave-girls attended on their mistresses. When Nareda, god of music, visited this Pa- radise, Crishna rose from his seat and stepped forward to welcome him. He caused water to be brought, and him- self washed the feet of his guest, pouring the remainder of the water on his own head. Nareda was oppressed by such marks of distinction, and replied reverently: " If it be thy august will to perform these services for me, it is as a father and mother perform services for their children, out of their own voluntary good wilh No one can measure thy mercy and benevolence. Thy avatar is for the pur- pose of protecting the good and punishing the wickel. Men, who are buried in the pit of their passions, have no possibility of escape from their control, except by thy mercy in consenting to be born into this transient world." Having curiosity to know whether Crishna lived with his IIINDOSTAN', OR INDIA. 71 sixteen tliousaial wives in rotation, or was alwaj^s present with each of tliein, he resolved to take the lirst opportunity of going into their various liouses. In one, he found Crishna at a banquet; in another, listening to the Poura- nas ; in another, he had set the women to quarrelling, and amused himself with loolving on; in another, he was lis- tening to the songs of beautiful slave-girls; in another, giving orders for digging a well ; in another, distributing milch cows to the poor. Go as quickly as he would, he found Crishna everywhere present. Each of his wives thought he preferred no one to herself, and that he wished for no other. [This is probably an allegorical allusion to the intimate union of Deity with multifarious forms of the universe.] After the Coros were conquered, the rightful prince of the Yadavas reigned thirty-six years in peace and pros- perity. Then came calamities and bad omens of eveiy kind. A black circle surrounded the moon, and the sun was darkened at noonday; the sky rained fire and ashes; those animals which it was reckoned fortunate to meet on the right hand were met on the left; flames burned dusky and livid; demons carried away the orna- ments of the women and the weapons of the men, and no one could impede them ; at sunrise and sunset, thousands of figures were seen skirmishing in the air; Crishna's horses took fright, and ran away with his carriage into the pathless regions of the atmosphere, fxr be_yond the ken of mortals; Spirits hovered in the air, wailing, and crying out, "Arise ye and flee!" Crishna knew that these pro- digies foreboded the extinction of the Yadavas, and his own exit from his material form. He remembered the prophecy concerning himself, "0 Crishna, take care of the sole of thy foot." He seated himself in a jungle, full of melancholy thoughts, and summoned all his force, mental and corporeal, while his spirit stood ready to depart. A hunter, seeing him there, mistook him for an animal, and discharged an arrow, which pierced him in the foot. Im- mediately a great light enveloped the earth, and illumined 72 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. the whole expanse of heaven. Crishna, attended by Ce lestial Spirits, and luminous as on that night when he was born in the house of Vasudeva, pursued, by his own light, the journey between earth and heaven, to the bright Para- dise whence he had descended. All men saw him, and exclaimed, "Lo, Crishna's soul ascends its native skies!" One of the titles of Crishna is " Pardoner of Sins ;" another is "Liberator from the Serpent of Death." In allusion to this last title, and likewise to his death-wound in the foot, the image of Crishna is sculptured in their ancient temples, sometimes wreathed in the folds of a ser- pent, that is biting his foot, sometimes treading victoriously on the head of a serpent. Hindoo theology is everywhere intimately connected with astronomy. Each planet had its presiding Spirit, supposed to be interested in the affairs of men, and there- fore to be propitiated by prayers and offerings. In the following prayer, Crishna is addressed as the Spirit of the Sun : " Be auspicious to my lays, O Crishna, thou only god of the seven heavens, who swayest the universe through the immensity of space and matter. 0- universal and resplendent Sun ! Thou mighty governor of the heavens ; thou sovereign regulator of the connected whole; thou sole and universal deity of mankind; thou gracious and supreme Spirit ; my noblest and most happy inspiration is thy praise and glory. Thy power I will praise, for thou art my sovereign Lord, whose bright image continually foi'ccs itself on my attentive, eager imagination. Thou art the Being to whom heroes pray in perils of war; nor are their supplications vain, when thus they pray ; whether it be when thou illuminest the eastern region with thy orient light, when in thy meridian splendour, or when thou majestically descendest in the west." All the Hindoo avatars are painted bluish-black, or dark azure. In allusion to Crishna's being the Spirit of the Sun, his col(Mir is called " the brilliant pupil of the eye of the universe." He is represented as more splendidly dressed than any of the avataivs. lie wears robes of golden yeb HINDOSTAN", OR INDIA. 73 low, with a coronet on liis head, containing a jewel of in- estimable value, lie is adorned with garlands of flowers, and rich strings of pearls. He is the favourite deity of Hin- doo women, who are enamoured with the accounts of his beauty and tenderness of heart. Throughout India, he is worshipped with enthusiastic devotion. He is believed to have been Yishnu himself, perfectly and entirely incarnated in a human form ; whereas other avatars were only en- dowed with portions of his divinity. They ascribe to him all the wisdom and power of the Supreme Greater and Euler of the Universe. In the Bhagavat Geeta, Crishna is represented as saying to his friend and disciple Arjun : "Both thou and I have passed through many births. Mine are known unto me, but thou knowest not of thine. Although I am not in my nature subject to birth or deca}^, and am the Lord of all created beings, j^et having command over my own nature, I am made evident by my own power; and as often as there is a decline of virtue, and an insurrection of vice and injustice in the world, I make myself evident. Thus I appear from age to age, for the preservation of the just, the destruction of the wicked, and the establishment of virtue." "I am the creation and the dissolution of the whole universe. There is nothing greater than I. All things hang on me, even as precious gems on a string. I am moisture in the water, light in the sun and moon, inspira- tion in the Vedas, sound in the atmosphere, fj-agrance in the earth, human nature in mankind, glory in the source of light. I am all things; I am Life. I am the eternal seed of all nature. I am the understanding of the wise, the glory of the great, the strength of the strong. I am free from lust and anger; and in animals I am desire, regu- lated by moral fitness." "He who adores with sincere faith any object whatso- ever, infallibly obtains from me the object of his belief. Firm in his faith, he seeks by his own means such or such a fixvour, and I grant the object of his desires. Worshippers Vol. I. — 7 d 74 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. of ilie inferior Deities are with the inferior Deities ; wor- shippers of the souls of their ancestors aj'e with tlie souls of their ancestors; they who sacrifice to Spirits are with those Spirits. Bat these fruits, sought by men but little endowed with science, are limited in their duration. Those who worship the inferior Deities with faith, worship me also ; but not in the true manner. I enjoy their sacrifices. I am the Lord to whom return all the works of ]'eligion. ]3Ut they do not know me according to the truth ; there- fore they fall back into the world of mortals. The igno- rant believe me visible, whilst I am invisible. They do not know my superior, imperishable nature. I am ani- mated with equal benevolence toward all beings. I know neither hatred nor predilection. But those who adore me devoutly are in me, and I in them. Even he who has led a bad life, if he adores me without adoring any other thing, is to be reputed virtuous. It is entirely accomplished. He will immediately have a just soul, and obtain eternal tran- quillity. Have faith in me. No one who worships me can perish. Forgetting all other duties, address thyself to me as the only asylum. I will deliver thee from all sin." The same book declares: "Crishna is at all times present everywhere; just as fire, though concealed, is always pres- ent in wood. Whoever is night and day thinking of him becomes exalted above all the three worlds. AVhoever, at the moment of expiring, shall retain him in remembrance, will infallibly be thrice blessed." Hindoo Sacred Writings abound with allusions to an age of innocence and bliss, long passed away, and prophesy an age of holiness and happiness, that will come at the end of all things. Strabo, the. Greek geographer, records that a philosopher, named Oncsicritus, was sent into India, I'y Alexander the Great, to learn the doctrines and mode of life of the hermit sages in that region. He found a Bra- niin, nam('(l ('alamis, who taught him that in the beginning of th(! woi'ld, milk, wine, lioney and oil flowed sjiontane- ously from fountains, and peace and plenty reigned over all nature. I'ut men having; made bad use of tliis felicitv. HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 75 the Creator deprived them of it, and condemned them to labour for subsistence. In consequence of the disorders produced by Evil Spirits, leagued with men, Vishnu was obliged to appear on earth, at various epochs, in different forms; as a fish, a lion, a dwarf, and holy sages among men. His eighth incarnation in Crishna was the most perfect that has yet been ; but more glorious still will be his tenth and last avatar. Their Sacred Books declare that in the last days, when the fixed stars have all apparently returned to the point whence they started, at the beginning of all things, in the month Scor- pio, Vishnu will appear among mortals, in the form of an armed warrior, riding a winged white horse. In one hand, he will carry a scimetar, " blazing like a comet," to destroy all the impure, who shall then dwell on the flice of the earth. In the other hand, he will carry a large shinino- ring, to signify that the great circle of Yugs, or Ages, is completed, and that the end has come. ' At his approach, the sun and moon will be darkened, the earth will trem- ble, and the stars fall from the firmament. The great ser- pent Seshanaga will pour forth flames from his thousand mouths, which will set the universe on fire, consume the spheres, and all living creatures. Tlie white horse is repre- sented as standing with one foot raised. When he stamps it upon the earth, it is predicted that the dissolution of na- ture will take place. Some Oriental scholars consider this as an astronomical allegory ; a white horse being the uni- versal symbol of the sun among ancient nations. A Sacred Book, called the Barta Shastra, contains tho following prophecy: "At the end of the Cali Yug, a Bra- min will be born, who will understand the Divine Writ- ings, and all the sciences, without spending any more time to learn them than is sufficient to pronounce a single word. They will give him a name signifying He who excellently understands all things. By conversing with those of his own race, he will purge the earth of sinners; a thing im- possible to any other than himself. He will cause justice and truth to reign everywhere, and will subject the uni- 76 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. verse to the Bramias. When he becomes old, he will re- tire into the desert and suffer penance. He will confirm the Bramins in virtue and truth, and keep the four castes within the bounds prescribed by Sacred Laws. Then will the First Age return again. All the virtues will march in the train of truth ; and the Light of the Divine Writings will be diffused everywhere. The earth will be inebriated with prosperity and gladness, and all people enjoy ineffable delights." So strongly is this hope of a blissful future impressed on the minds of the people, that thc}^ commemorate the prophecy by a festival, during which they saci"ifice a sheep, and repeat, with a loud voice: "When will the Helper come? When will the Deliverer appear?" The more spiritual portion of the Vedas represent ab- sorption in God as the great end and aim of all human exertions ; and this absorption is to be attained by pure life, devout contemplation, and a complete withdrawal of the senses from all outward things. It attaches little value to works in themselves, and none at all, unless performed with purity of intention, and a heart devoted to God. But the less spiritual portion of the Vedas prescribe many works and ceremonies, and promises appropriate rewards in Paradise for each ; though it represents as un- wise those who prefer such rewards to the eternal beatitude gained by pious sages. It is said : — " For a spirit self- interested as thine, there is no other means of salvation than the observance of rites. Continue to practise them as long as you feel a desire to enjoy the rewards they can procure. It is the way to obtain the recompense you ex- pect for your works." These two as{)ects of the Vedas produced theological schools of 0{)positc tendency. The word hnrma^ in the sig- nification of which they include loonls and tlioiiglits as well as loorks of the body, has given rise to endless disputations. A sect founded by Djaimini is called Purva; sometimes Karma Mimansa, or Investigators of the doctrine of Works, because they occuny themselves nuicli with prov HINDOSTAX, Oil INDIA. 77 ing, both from reason and the Vedas, the efficacy of the works and ceremonies of religion. Their teachers define with great exactness how these works ought to be per- formed, and what degree of reward must follow each, by inevitable necessity. They present religion like a sum in arithmetic ; so many merits subtracted from so many faults, and so much of punishment still remains due. This sect not only allows the killing of animals for food, but pre- scribes it, provided a portion be lirst offered to the gods. They elevate the worship of the symbolical deities to great importance, and thus express the popular tendency to Po- lytheism, or the worship of many distinct gods, rather than Pantheism, or the worship of all things in One God, Some of this sect consider works of expiation as efficacious only in cases of involuntary sins ; others think the testimony of the Yedas prove them to be effectual in case of those that are voluntary. An extreme reaction from this tendency to overvalue works, and overload religion with ceremonies, exists in the mystical sect called Vedantins, said to be founded by Vyasa, collector of the Vedas. In common with all Hin- doos, they prescribe penances as aids to holiness, such as painful postures, holding the breath while repeating Om, &;c. But they discountenance those terrible bodily inflic- tions, to which the popular mind of liindostan is so exceedingly prone, and dwell more on the force of will, by which a holy man subdues his passions and directs his thoughts. They represent the worship of the symboli- cal deities as useful for those who cannot rise above it ; but speak almost disdainfully of those who consider pleasure and power, and the joys of Paradise, a desirable recom- pense for their multitude of works. Their favourite theme is the surpassing excellence and supreme beatitude of that state of absorption, in which the soul of man floats serenely above all desire for reward, all reliance upon works, all necessity of instruction from the Vedas. This spiritual reaction was nievitably produced by the popular tendency to bury religious feeling under a mass of Vol. I.— 7* 78 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. mechanical ceremonies; and everywhere there is a class of minds ready to carry principles to an extreme result. The Vedantins declared works insufficient for salvation ; and straightway other teachers arose, who pronounced works not only insufficient, but pernicious ; real obstacles in the way of holiness, and therefore to be utterly neglected and des- pised by all true saints. Endless were the debates on this question of faith and works. Traces of them are every- where conspicuous in their sacred literature. " It is ne- cessary to act," says the author of the Bhagavat Geeta, "because otherwise the body could, not be nourished. It is necessary to act, because God, in creating the world, has arranged it in such a manner that beings reciprocally sub- sist by their works and actions. But he who acts without regard to reward, without any other motive than duty, without any end in view but God, he is the perfect man." " The saint, who has purified his soul, who has subdued his senses, whose soul is The Soul of All Beings, is not sullied by the practice of works. He never imagines it is himself who acts. In seeing, hearing, touching, breathing, eating, walking, sleeping, talking, in opening his eyes, or in shutting them, he says to himself, 'These are the senses, not myself, which are occupied with external things.' He attributes his works to God, and can thus act without stain, as the leaf of the lotus is not stained by the water-drops that fall upon it. In renouncing the fruit of works, he obtains tranquillity." The sects above mentioned are considered orthodox, be- cause they all ackn'owledge themselves bound by the Ve- das, and each strives to sustain its position by texts thence derived. But many causes were at work to give birth to lieretical opinions. In the first place, the Holy Books themselves declared that man might arrive at a state of holiness, in which pcrj)etual inward revelations rendered the Vedas uniu^cessary ; and the Vedantins had spread abroad the idea by reiterated assertions. In the next place, rational investigations and philosophical theories are al- ways going on, more or less openly, by the side of theo- HINDOSTAX, OR INDIA. 79 logical speculations. But stronger than both these causes was an increasing jealousy and aversion to the* hereditary prirsthood. In the beginning, it is probable that any very lioly hermit could become a priest: and when the office was first made hereditary, every Bramin was professedly a rehgious man, and felt bound to devote the latter part of his life to contemplation in the forest. But as the caste grew numerous and wealthy, many of them were not priests, and very few devoted their declining years to as- cetic practices. Thus there were many Bramins who were not saints, and man}^ renowned saints who were not al- lowed to become Bramins, The possession of almost un- limited authority had its usual effect to produce selfishness, arrogance, and oppression; and though there were alwa^ys good and great men among the Bramins, many disgraced their high calling by utter abandonment to vice. Still, however degraded their characters, holy and learned men of the other high castes were bound to submit to their au- thority, and treat them Avith the utmost reverence. The populace, immersed in ignorance, and spell-bound by sacred traditions, considered disobedience to a Bramin as the sum total of sin, and tliought no method so sure to open the Gates of Paradise for themselves as to bestow propert}^ on members of that consecrated caste. In such a state of things, any doctrine that undermined their exclu- sive privileges would of course find adherents. A school of rationalists appeared in Hindostan, many centuries ago, called Sankhya ; a word signifying In- telligence, Reason. They deny the authority of the Vedas ; urging that the command to sacrifice animals cannot be of divine origin, because it is contrary to the laws of be- nevolence. They reject the doctrine of God everywhere present »? Nature; and maintain that Nature, though an emanation fi'om God, is an entirely distinct and inde- pendent principle, not created, but containing within herself the laws that regulate all her motions. This theory of two principles, God and Nature, is called hy philosophers Dualism. 80 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. They bold the common opinion that true holiness and happiness are to be obtained only by withdrawing the senses entirely from external things; but they assert this can be accomplished by reason, self-control, and con- templation, without aid from the Vedas. T'hey do not deny the existence of subordinate deities, but represent them as beings very inferior to human saints, who have freed themselves from nature by. contemplation and virtue. These rationalists separate into two sects; one diverging from orthodox opinions more widely than the other. The ultra school do not believe in One Supreme Soul, but in a multitude of souls, each enjoying independent existence. They say there is no other revelation than the wisdom of good men, which consists of souvenirs laid up by them in various progressive anterior existences. They believe the soul can raise itself above passion and imaginalion, by reason, experience, and the instruction of such sages. The more orthodox school place small value on this ac- cumulated knowledge of wise men, as a means of becoming at one with God. They believe in a Supreme Soul, and think the human soul, by contemplation and self-re- nunciation, can attain such a state of mystical union there- with, that direct revelations are constantly received from the Divine Source. All souls tend to this state, and all souls can become God. These views open the religious life to all castes, and strike directly at the priesthood ; for if the Yedas are rejected, there is no more need of Bramins to explain them, or to perform the ceremonies they prescribe; every man can become his own priest. It is obvious that from various sources the Hindoo mind early became fomiliar with the idea that holy men could arrive at a state of elevation transcending the gods. This led to the theory of divine incarnations in the human form ; tlie next step was to worship saints as gods. This is done by the Djinists, or Jains. The word Djina is merely one iA' the numerous woi-ds a])|)li('d to saints, to express their various degrees of holiness; but in process of time it was HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. SI appropriated to tliis sect only. They hold most of the orthodox o])inions concerning God and the soul, but reject the Vedas, because they prescribe bloody sacrifices. They believe God and Nature to be one indivisible existence. By a law eternally inherent in this existence, it passes from activity to repose, alternately, like day and night. Active, it produces creation, without however being de- pendent on creation, in any way. The material world, which emanated thus, is subject to successive changes, though its essence never perishes. It is alternately de- stroyed and renovated ; never by any exercise of divine will, but by an inherent necessity. The duration of a world is divided into six periods. We are in the fifth, which began six hundred and forty-three years before Christ. In each of these periods appear twenty -four saints, to reform and purify mortals. These saints are Spirits de- scended upon the earth. One named Vrischaba, whom they peculiarly revere, has many sacred titles ; such as " Lord of All the Saints," " Supreme over Gods and Spirits." According to their traditions, he was a prince, who abdicated in flavour of his son, retired into the forest, and became entirely absorbed in the Divine Being. They attribute to him four Sacred Books of their sect, called Yoga. They likewise regard with especial reverence the anchorite Sramana, who is said to have been absorbed in the Divine Essence, about six hundred years before the Christian era. They opened the religious life to all castes, except Soo- dras ; and the saints of their own sect were their priests. In old times, their hermits bound themselves by very rig- orous vows, and oftentimes showed their indifference to the world by going naked. The statues of these saints in their temples are always without clothing. It is asserted that some of them never died, but gradually dissolved away into phantoms, and thus imperceptibly mixed v/ith the Universal Soul. In later times, the religious among them are less strict. They merely promise to be poor, honest, chaste, truthful, and benevolent toward all croa- 82 PROGEESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. tiires. For this last trait the Jains are very remarkable. They offer no sacrifices except fruit, flowers, and incense. A prince of this sect allowed himself to be defeated, rather than march his army in the rainy season, when the fires of the camp would destroy insects then swarming. Another prince forbade printers, potters, and pressers of oil, to ex- ercise their trades during four months of that season, when they must inevitably crush many insects. For a long time they were much persecuted by the or- thodox sects. In a contest between them and the adhe- rents of the Bramins, some of the Jain priests and their most zealous disciples were ordered to be ground to death in oil-mills. Yet the same people who exercised this cru- elty reverenced life in a bee, a bird, or a monkey, as a por- tion of the Central Soul ! In 1367 the Jains obtained peace by a formal reconciHation with the Vishnuites, whose creed resembles theirs in many particulars. They employ the Bramins in their religious ceremonies, and are mostly quiet, industrious citizens. They are divided into sects among themselves, and some- times carry their opposition so far as to fight with each other when they meet in religious processions. Bishop Heber asked a Jain merchant what was the difference be- tween his views and those of another sect. He coloured up to the eyes, and answered with bitterness: "As much as between Hindoos and Christians; as much as between Christians and Mahometans." But a Jain priest, who was present, said more calml}^: "We worship the same God; but they are ignorant how to worship him." The Buddhists are by far the most important sect that have appeared in India. They have points of similarity with the Jains, and some writers have confounded the two together. But the Jains have always persecuted the Budd- hists with great bitterness. They had too much tenderness to press oil, for fear of crushing insects in the process, but they slaughtered fellow-beings without mercy, luidcr the influence of theological hatred. The Buddhists worship Spiritual Intelligences descended on earth in the form of HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 83 saints; and the greatest of these is Bouddlia Sakia ]\[()uni, from wliom they derive their name. I'he words Bouddlia and Mouni both mean a Saint, or a holy Sage ; thus his name is Sakia, and his titles are, the sage and the saint, the wise and the holy. European seholars suppose him to have been a great saint and reformer, who tried to restore the spiritual doctrines of the Vedas, and abolish distinctions of caste, including the priesthood. The popular belief is that he was an incarnation of a portion of Vishnu, and that he had previously appeared on earth, at various epochs, for the instruction and salvation of mankind. Mercmy is reckoned among the beneficent planets in India, and the name given to it is Boodh, or Bouddha. The dav conse- crated to that luminar}^, corresponding to our Wednesday, is the holy day among worshippers of Bouddha. Some Hindoo writers say he was the planet j\[ercury, born of the ]Moon and the bright star Aldebaran. Perhaps this means that the presiding Spirit of Mercury was a ray from Vish- nu, and that he occasionally descended to our earth, and took a human form. The date of his last birth, in the character of Bouddha Sakia, varies among different nations that have adopted his religion. In Cashmere they say he appeared only two hundred years later than Crishna, whose advent they place more than five thousand years back. According to Mongol records, he was born two thousand one hundred and thirty-four years before the Christian era; but the Chinese say it w^as one thousand twenty-nine years. In Ce3'lon, the era from which they date is the in- troduction of Buddhism into that island, six hundred and thirty-eight years before Christ ; and this they mistake for the date of Sakia's birth. The learned generally give their verdict in favour of the Chinese date ; from which the opinion of Sir William Jones varies only twenty-nine years. That the sect prevailed extensively in India, at a very remote period, is abundantly proved by numerous gigantic temples bearing marks of great antiquity. His statues, found in such edifices, give the same indication ; for they represent him as a man buried in profound niedi- 84 PllOGKESS OF liELIGIOUS IDEAS. tation, with bair knotted all over his bead, after the man ner of hermits in very ancient times, before the custom of shaving the head was introduced. From this peculiarity, some travellers have mistaken him for an African. Cole- brooke, the learned Sanscrit scholar, conjectures that the Buddhists were in existence before the great sects of Siva or Crishna. Tliat they were sufficiently conspicuous to excite hostility before the Ramayana was written, is proved by the following extract from that ancient poem : " As an atheist fallen from the path of rectitude, as a thief, so is a Buddhist." Ilis mother Maia is said to have been a virgin, who con- ceived him from a ray of light. As Maia was one of the names for the Goddess of Illusions, this might have merely signified that he only appeared to be living in this world ; that his mortal existence was an illusion to the senses. Tradition affirms that his mother was married to a rajah ; and of course her son belonged to the same royal caste that Crishna did during his existence on earth. The advent of Bouddha is thus recorded: "It was at the close of the , Dwapar Yug, that he who is omnipresent and everlastingly to be contemplated, the Supreme Being, the Eternal One, the Divinity worthy to be adored, appeared in this ocean of natural beings, with a portion of his divine nature." It is said that a marvellous light shone at his birth, and the Ganges rose and fell in a remarkable manner. The mo- ment he was born, he stood upright, walked forward seven steps, pointed one hand upward and the other downward, and distinctly said, "No one in heaven, or on earth, de- serves liigher adoration than I." On a silver plate, found in a cave near Islamabad, was written a curious inscrip- tion concerning him. It states that a saint in the woods learned by inspiration that the ninth incarnation of Vish- nu had just appeared in the house of the rajah of Cailaa. He flew through the air to the place indicated, and said^ "I came hither to sec the new-born child." The instant he looked at him he declared that he was an avatar, and destined to introduce a new religion into the world. HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 85 To fulfil the requisitions of tlie law, Sakia was inari'icd at sixteen years of age. His parents bestowed upon liim a maiden named Ila, Avhose father was one of the seven saints saved from the universal Deluge, in the miraculous ship sent by Vishnu. As soon as a son was born to him, he renounced his princely rank, and went to live as an an- chorite in a wild forest, flourishing with noble trees and fragrant flowers, but infested with lions and tigers. Many stories are told of the austerities he practised there. His spiritual teacher having one day remarked that religious instructions took no root unless accompanied by mortifica- tions and sufferings, he covered his body with thousands of matches, which he lighted ; at another time, he drove thousands of sharp nails into his flesh; at another, he went into a fiery hot furnace. Having one day encountered a tiger and her young perishing with hunger, he offered him- self to them for food ; but the beast being too weak to eat him, he pierced his veins, that she might strengtiien her- self with his blood, and afterward allowed himself to be devoured by her. Once, his soul entered a fox, which was so extremely beautiful, that the king threatened his hunt- ers with death if they did not bring him the skin of that remarkable creature. He therefore allowed himself to be caught, on condition that they would skin him alive, to save themselves from the crime of murder. They did so, and this gave him an opportunity to gratify his benevo- lence by feeding swarms of hungry insects, who imme- diately fastened on his raw flesh. It is recorded of him that he spent six years in continual silent contemplation, resist- ing manifold temptations sent to try him. During this tithe, five Holy Scriptures descended to him, he was en- dowed with the gift of prophecy, and could alter the course of nature whenever he chose. His worshippers believe that the severe austerities he practised had a higher and more benevolent object than the attainment of perfect holiness and complete absorption for himself. He was a Heavenly Spirit, dwelling in re- gions of light and beauty, who, of his own free grace and Vol. I.— 8 86 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. merc}', left Paradise, and came down to earth, because he was filled with compassion for the sins and miseries of mankind. He sought to lead them into better paths, and. he took sufferings upon himself, that he might expiate their crimes, and mitigate the punishment they must inevi- tably undergo. Ilindoos of all sects believe that every cause has a certain effect, which must follow it by inherent necessity ; thus every sin must have its exact amount of suffering; what is endured in this world will be deducted from punishment in the next; and what one voluntarily endures for another will be placed to the account of him he wishes to benefit. For these reasons, JBouddha inflicted terrible penances upon himself So great was his tender- ness, that he even descended into the hells, to teach souls in bondage there, and was willing to suffer himself, to abridge their period of torment. The renown of Bouddha's wisdom and holiness attracted many disciples, to whom he imparted his doctrines and precepts in the silent depths of the forest. There is a tra- dition that he taught, as a secret doctrine, to his most con- fidential disciples, that all things came from nothing, and would finally return to nothing. A charge of atheism has been founded on this. But some suppose the story was fabricated by his enemies the Bramins, while in reality he merely taught their own doctrine that after an inimense interval of revolving ages, all things in the universe, even Brahma himself, would be absorbed in the original Source of Being; which Buddhists name The Void. Before his departure from this world, he intrusted his disciple Mahakaya, a Bramin of Central India, with all his precepts and doctrines. At the age of seventy-nine years, Bouddha Sakia's whole nature attained to sucl) com})letc absorption in the Divine Being, that he ascended to celestial regions without dying. They show marks on the rocks of a high mountain, believed to have been the last impression of his footsteps ou this earth. By ])rayers in his name, his followers expect to receive the rewards IIINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 87 of Paradise, and finally to become one with him, as he be- came one with the Source of Life, It is said his disciples composed five thousand volumes in honour of him. The titles bestowed upon him are in- numerable; such as ''Son of Maia," "The Benevolent One," "Lord of the Earth," "Dispenser of Grace," "Saviour of all Creatures," and "Lion of the Race of Sakia." There is a tradition that a celebrated sage named Amara, prime mifiister to the king, and called " one of the nine jewels" of his court, recognized Bouddha to be an incarna- tion of Vishnu, and sought to propitiate him by supe- rior service. He lived in the forest twelve years upon roots and wild fruit, and slept on the bare ground. He committed no sin, and devoted his whole soul to pious contemplation. One night, he heard a voice saying: " Ask whatever thou wilt." He replied : " Let me see thee in a vision." The voice answered : " How can there be visions in the Call Yug? But the same benefit may be derived from seeing and worshipping the image of a god, that might be derived from seeing and worshipping the ffod himself" A vision of the image was revealed to him. He caused a likeness of it to be made, and worshipped it with perfume and incense, accompanied by the following prayer: "Reverence be unto thee, Lord of the earth! Reverence be unto thee, thou incarnation of the Eternal One, in the form of Bouddha! Reverence be unto thee, God of Mercy, who overcometh the sins of the Cali Yug! Reverence be unto thee, possessor of all things, ruler of the faculties, bestower of salvation ! Thou art he who resteth upon the fiice of the Milky Sea, who reposeth on the serpent Seshanaga. Thou, who art celebrated b}^ a thousand names, and under various forms, I adore thee in the shape of Bouddha ! Be propitious, Most High God !" An inscrii)tion to that effect was found carved on the rocks in a wild and solitary part of Behar, not far from the Ganges. Its date corresponded to nine hundred and forty-nine years after our era. bo PR0GEES3 OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. The doctrines taught by Bouddhn, and his disciples bear a general resemblance to the Braniinical religion, from which they sprung, but depart from them in several par- ticulars calculated to have an important influence. M. Bochinger, a learned and discriminating French writer, says : — " Like all men who have given a new direction to the religious ideas of their cotemporaries, Sakia did. not invent a system altogether new. He merely pronounced, strongly and clearly, that which many of his cotemporaries had obscurely felt. He made himself the representative of opposition to Braminism, which had for some time ex- isted among them." The Buddhists believe in One Absolute Existence, in- cluding both God and Nature. When they speak of Pro- vidence, tbey mean an intelligence inherent in Nature, by which her movements are regulated. Philosophers call this doctrine Naturalism. To avoid attaching any idea of form, or limit, to the original Source of Being, the Budd- hists called him by a name signifying The Void, or Space. On this subtile question, they are, however, divided into several schools. Some call this Absolute Existence The Supreme Will, The Supreme Intelligence. They supposed him to have alternate states of activity and repose. When active, he produced creation ; not from any will to do so, but from inherent laws of development. Thus emanate successive worlds, all changeable, illusory, and unreal, and destined finally to return to The Void again. Spiritual existences are evolved in descending gradations down to man. Human beings may become so plunged in error and ignorance as finally to lose all power of perceiving what is good and true. From this low condition they could never be raised without the aid of Superior Intelli- gences. The Supreme cannot descend to their relief, for he is incapable of motion or change. But his first emana- tions, a high oixlcr of spiritual existences, charge them- selves with this mission of salvation. They descend to the inferior worlds, even down into the lowest hells, to give wretched creatures an example of virtue, explain tlie HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 89 cause of their misery, and teach them how to attain su- j)reme happiness. Such have been all the great saints they adore ; but such in a pre-eminent degree was Bouddha Sakia. They beheve the world has been successively destroyed by wind, water, and fire ; that its essence, which never dies, has been renewed in form, and will be again de- stro^'ed, to be renewed again. The degree of perfection of a world, be it more or less, depends on the moral char- acter of those who inhabit it. In proportion as the beings of an inferior world are all saved and raised to superior worlds, that world disappears. Thus, after infinite ages, all return to the Supreme Essence, to reappear in new successive emanations. All this ascending and descending movement has its source in laws of inherent necessity. Hence religious Buddhists compassionate sinners, as beings impelled to crime by their unfortunate destiny. It has been remarked that Hindoos considered them- selves a pure and privileged race, set apart from other na- tions, and polluted by contact with them. But Bouddha Sakia and his disciples, having risen above the Yedas, re- jected the limitation of castes in religious life. The road to saintship in this world was freely opened, through a course of devout contemplation, to all nations and all classes ; to foreigners or natives, Bramins or Soodras, young or old, men or women. Bramins naturally regarded this as a wicked and very dangerous innovation; for it was contrary to the Sacred Books, and, if it prevailed ex- tensively, must strike a powerful blow at the privileges of their consecrated order. When and how Buddhists came to liave a separate priesthood of their own cannot be traced, '^riie animosity of Bramins would naturally drive them to the expedient of having religious ceremonies performed by their own holiest men. These men were not holy by birth, like the Bramins, but had attained to sanctity by strict celibacy and other ascetic practices. By this process, it seems likely that celibacy of the clergy came to be es- tablished, as a mark of distinction between them and other Vol. I.— 8* 90 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. sects. This peculiarity would of course increase the abhor- rence of Braniins, who regarded offspring as one of the greatest blessings, both temporal and spiritual. The Sa- cred Books strictly enjoined it on children, as a religious obligation, to offer stated prayers and sacrifices, to assist the souls of ancestors through stages of probation after death. Other castes might procure this advantage by pay- ino- for it; but Bi'amins alone were authorized to perform religious ceremonies. In a worldly point of view, the es- tablishment of celibacy would also be a great misfortune ; for their vast possessions and inviolable privileges would all be scattered, if they had no families to inherit them. No wonder the Bramins peculiarly detested a sect which thus struck at the root of hereditary priesthood. The more people manifested interest in their tidings of spiritual emancipation, the inore were its messengers slandered and persecuted. The Pouranas charge them with denying the authority of Vedas and Shastras; condemning animal sacrifices ; declaring it useless to worship the gods ; not believing in transmigration, but teaching that the five ele- ments of the body dissolved at death, never to reunite ; that this life alone was worth caring for; that pleasure ought to be the chief aim; that worship, abstinence and charity were useless. But bitter words and unjust charges were the smallest evils they had to endure. They were hunted like wild beasts. At one time, orders were issued to put to death all Buddiiists and their families, even old men and infants, from the Himalaya mountains, on the northern frontier, to the bridge of Kama, at the soutliern extremity, near Cey- lon. They lingered longest in Southern India, where the Bramins were not so supremely powerful as elsewhere. But Mahometans assisted in the relentless warfare, and in till! ninth century Buddiiists were expelled from eveiy part of Ilindostan. Zeal, stimulated by persecution, had im- jxdled great numbers of them to wander abroad, centuries before, scattering seeds of doctrine as they went. This final expulsion sent forth a still greater swai'm of mission- HINDOSTAX, OR INDIA. 91 aries to other nations. How extensively they proj^agated their religion in Eastern Asia will be seen in the (Chapter concerning Thibet and Cliina. Tlie niost remarkable modern sect among Hindoos is that of the Sikhs, or Seiks; fonnded by Nanac Shah, born in the year one thousand four hundred and sixty-nine of our era, and belonging to the noble caste of Cshatryas. When very young, he met with some devotees, who strongly impressed his mind with the idea that the wor- ship of One Invisible God was alone worthy of wise men. Seized with an earnest desire for knowledge, he travelled through liindostan, Persia, and Arabia, and visited Mecca and Medina. He became acquainted with the Mahometan mystics called Sufis, and was particularly attracted by the writings of one of them, named Cabik, who earnestly en- joined universal philanthropy and religious toleration. Imbued with these rational and benevolent ideas, Nanac Shah resolved to devote his life to the project of uniting Hindoos and Mahometans, on the common ground of a simple faith and purity of morals. He treated both reli- gions with great respect, but in his own teachings dwelt solely on the worship of One God, and love to all mankind. He used to say : " Hundreds of thousands of Mahomets, millions of Brahmas and Vishnus, and hundreds of thou- sands of Ramas, stand before the throne of the Almighty, and they all die. God alone is immortal. He only is a good Hindoo who is just, and he only is a good Mahom- etan whose life is pure." The Fakirs, and the people, being accustomed to impute supernatural power to saints, called upon hiin for miracles. But he answered: "I can show none worthy of attention. A teacher of sacred truths needs no defence but the purity of his doctrines. The world may alter, but the Creator is unchangeable." He was a pure deist; that is, a believer in natural religion, who reverently found in God the cause of all things, and considered as unimportant the authority of written revela- tion, about which he everywhere saw men contending so violently. He died about 1540, and was buried at Kirti- 92 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. pur, where a relic of liis dress is preserved in one ol' their temples, and exhibited to pilgrims. His benevolent desiarn of bringinoi: Hindoos and Mahom- etans together on a common ground of toleration and benevolence was utterly defeated. One of his successors published the writings of Nanac, the first sacred book of the sect, under the title of A'di Grant'h. It attracted the attention and excited the jealousy of the Mahometan gov- ernment, and they put to death the collector of these writings. His son roused the sect to vengeance, and changed the benevolent believers into fierce warriors, who thenceforth received the name of Seiks, or lions. Long and bloody wars ensued, and the Seiks at last retreated to the Punjab, where a Hindoo chief received them kindl\^ There they established a sort of independent state, in which they entirel}'' abolished castes, and placed Soodras and Bramins on the same level. They always go armed, and to distinguish themselves forever from Mahometans and Hindoos, the}^ wear a blue dress, and let their hair grow. The Mahometan government, determined to extir- pate them, offered a price for their heads, and every one who could be taken was immediately put to death. It is said not one of them could be persuaded to abjure his religion to save his life. They now govern quite a large district in the north-west of Hindostan. Among the numerous minor sects is one called Sander, which means Worshippers of God. They are quiet, orderly citizens, mostly merchants and husbandmen. They adore but One Divine Being, to whom they offer only hymns. They abstain from wine, tobacco, and dancing, ofi:er no violence to man or beast, and are enjoined to practise in- dustry, secret almsgiving, and prayer. In Hindostan, as elsewhere, there have always been classes of minds who doubted or disbelieved the popular forms of faith. Some learned Bramins of the present day smile at tcrril)lc descriptions of the hells, in their Sacred Bo(jks, as bugbeai's fit only for the ignorant. Even so far back asCrishna's time, he had occasion to dechire : "There HINDOSTAN, OR IXDIA. 93 arc those who know not what it is to proceed in virtue, or recede from vice. They say the world is without begin- ning, without end, without a Creator." The universal power of the religious sentiment is mani- fested in the immense labour and expense bestowed on places of worship in all ages and nations. Stupendous works of this kind remain as vestiges of ancient Hindo- stan. The sight of them fills the beholder with astonish- ment, especially when he reflects that they were produced by the persevering toil of an indolent people, whose favour- ite maxim is, " It is better to sit still than to walk, better to sleep than be awake, and death is best of all." The most remarkable are subterranean temples cut through the heart of mountains, inch by inch, in the solid rock. On the island of Salsette, likewise called Kenner}^, near Bombay, are celebrated excavations of this description, capable of containing thousands of inhabitants. The largest temple is ninety feet long and thirty-eight wide, with a spacious portico, and a lofty, fluted, concave roof, which gives it a majestic appearance. Two rows of col- umns, thirty-four in number, form an area in the centre; the capitals of many of them are elephants' heads, others formed of lotus leaves and blossoms. On each side of the portico stands a colossal statue, and various groups of smaller figures face the entrance. This was consecrated to Bouddha, and contains manifold representations of him. His principal image, sitting cross-legged, with hair knotted all over his head, is surrounded with small sculptured fig- ures in relief, probably intended to illustrate his history. There are two other temples nearly as large, numerous chapels, and apartments apparently intended for hermits; also benches, open courts, and tanks for rain-water, all hewn out of very hard stone, and ornamented with sculjv tures. There are some inscriptions on the walls, but the characters bear no resemblance to any of the various al- phabets now used in India. It is a language lost to the memory of man, and has not yet been deciphered. In an- other grotto temple between Bombay and Poonah, Boud- 94 PROGRESS OF REUGIOUS IDEAS. dha is represented in the sinie attitude, with knotted hair, and surrounded by crowds of worshij)pers. Bramins as- cribe its construction to Evil Spirits, called Kakshasas, and forbid any religious ceremony to be performed in it. The island of Eleplianta, not far from Salsette, takes its name from a huge stone elephant, in ruinous condition. The excavations here are truly wonderful, though the de- sign and execution is more rude than the architecture at Salsette. The principal temple is itself one hundred and thirty feet in length, and the same in breadth; not includ- ing numerous apartments and chapels connected with it. The whole is hewn solely out of rock, and forms a com- plete grotto. Being lower than the great subterranean temple at Salsette, it has a more cavernous appearance. Twenty-six pillars and sixteen pilasters support the mass of rock which serves for a roof. At the entrance is a statue of the Hindoo Trinity, Brahma, serenelj^ majestic, is in the centre; on one side is Vishnu, with a mild coun- tenance ; on the other is Siva, with a severe aspect, holding the serpent Oobra do Capello in one hand, pomegranates and lotus-blossoms in the other. This colossal image, thirteen feet high, almost fills the space from floor to roof. Ganesa, god of Wisdom, is near Brahma, with a style in his hand, ready for writing. Several gigantic figures are in attendance. Serpents are everywhere twisting about, enfolding the statues. The figures on the walls are in such bold relief, that they merely adhere to the rock by their backs. Among the numerous symbols, the Triangle is conspicuous, Hindoos attached m3'stic signification to its tliree sides, and generally placed it in their temples. It was often composed of lotus plants, with an Eye in the centre. Every thing indicates that this temple was dedi- cated to the worship of Siva. The Symbol of Generation is ])]aced in one recess, and another is occupied by a huge image of his Sacred Bull. His own likeness occurs in every variety. In one place, he is represented half man and half woman; in another, he appears as the Destroyer, with a sci'pent, a sword, and a necklace of skulls. On th(j fllNDOSTAX, OR INDIA. 95 ricli]v-scn][)tarc(l walls, ho is represented as receiving liis bri(U' Parvati, from Cama, God of Love, and conducting her to his Paradise of Kailasa. They are accompanied by a numerous train of gods and goddesses. A great variety of small aerial beings hover round them in graceful atti- tudes, but generally with a heavy, sleepy look. The num- ber of statues and sculptures in relief is immense. Ad- joining the temple are two baths, with walls beautifully carved, the roof and cornice painted in mosaic patterns, the colours of which are still brilliant, Bramins confess that it is impossible to assign any date to these wonderful structures. All tradition of their origin is lost in the misty past. Every thing proves their antiquity to be ex- ceedingly great. The rock is of clay-porphyr}^, one of the very hardest species of stone. It is supposed that it could not have been cut without the aid of a peculiar kind of steel, called Wudz, for which India was celebrated, even in ancient times. Yet this material, apparently indestruc- tible, is yielding under the slow pressure of ages. IVlany of the sculptures are so dissolved by action of the atmos- phere, that it is difficult to trace their forms. What a long h\pse of time it must have taken to corrode such a flinty material ! "At Carli," says Bishop Ileber, "is another remarkable cave hewn in a precipice. The apartments were evidently intended for hermits, and some of them are ornamented with great beauty. The -entrance to the temple is under a noble arch. Within the portico are alto-relievo figures of colossal elephants; heads, tusks, and trunks very boldly ])rojecting from the wall. On each side of them is a Ma- hout, or driver, very well carved, and a houdah with two persons seated in it. The screens on each side the door are covered with alto-relievos of men and women, whom the Hindoos explain to be religious enthusiasts, attendants on the deity. The columns inside are carved with singular beauty. Each of the capitals consists of a large cap, like a bell, finely carved, and surmounted by two elephants, \vith their trunks intertwined, each carrying a man and 96 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. woman on their backs. These are likewise explained to be saints." The image of Bouddha, surrounded bj worship- pers, occurs in many places in this grotto, consequently Bramins say it was made by Evil Spirits. There are nu- merous inscriptions in unknown characters. But the most marvellous of all grotto temples are those at Ellora, almost in the exact centre of India, nearDeogur, which signifies The Holy Mountain. These excavations are hewn within a chain of mountains, embracing a circuit of six miles, arranged in horse-shoe form, and principally composed of very hard red granite. Here are a series of temples cut in rock, some of them two and even three stories high. The largest takes its name from Siva's Para- dise, called Kailasa. It is a hundred feet high, and a hun- dred and forty-two feet long. On each side of the colon- nades at the entrance are huge Sphinxes. A row of enor- mous elephants seem to sustain the superincumbent rock, and produce an imposing effect. There are many large temples, sometimes joining each other, sometimes separated by intervals, occupied with smaller temples. The extent and number of these extraordinary subterranean works can hardly be imagined. There are entire pyramidal temples, standing in open courts, peristyles, staircases, bridges, tanks, chapels, porticoes, obelisks, columns, and a great number of colossal statues, from ten to twelve feet high. On the right and left of the temples are chambers cut out of the rock, apparently for the convenience of priests be- longing to the sanctuary. In some places, a large enclo- sure is surrounded by rows of columns, which sustain three galleri(^s, one above another. An immense number of small grottoes seem to have been intended for the reception of thousands of pilgrims. On some of the walls are in- scriptions in Sanscrit. Porticoes, columns and walls are everywhere covered with sculptures, many of them painted in bright colours, which still retain theii- brilliancy. Trav- ellers declare that "the variety, richness and skill displayed in these ornaments surpass all description." Mr. Erskine Bays : " The first view (jf this desolate religious city is grand HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 97 and striking, but melanclioly. Tlic number and magnifi- cence of the subterranean temples, the extent and lofti- ness of some, the endless diversity of sculpture in others, the variety of curious foliage, of minute tracery, highly wrought pillars, rich mythological designs, sacred shrines, and colossal statues, astonish and distract the mind. The empire, whose pride they must have been, has passed away, and left not a memorial behind it." The images of deities, either entire statues, or carved in bold relief, are counted by thousands. In fact this collection of temples seems in tended to embrace the worship of them all. One is conse crated to Siva and Parvati, whose marriage festival is rep- resented on the walls. Another is dedicated to Vishnu and his beautiful consort. Another contains a colossal statue of Indra seated on a recumbent elephant, and his wife Indrani on a recumbent lion, Eama and his wife Sita occupy another, whose walls are sculptured with his battles, described in the Ramayana. One of the temples is dedicated to Visvacarma, the celestial architect, said to have built Vishnu's palace in Paradise. The age of these stupendous structures is as difficult to be determined as those at Elephanta and Salsette, but the superior work- manship is supposed to indicate that they are less ancient. At whatever epoch they were commenced, it must have taken centuries to complete them. As the Bramins have no record of their origin, they say they were built before the Call Vug, by Visvacarma himself, assisted by Vishnu. Beside these subterranean excavations, there are won- derful structures, hewn in solid rock, above the surface of the earth. Such are the Seven Pagodas, very ancient monuments on the Coromandel coast, about thirty-five miles south of Madras. On the summit of a hill is a vast collection of temples and other buildings, columns, porti- coes, and massive walls, almost entirely cut from the solid rock of the hill. As one approaches the coast, it has the appearance of a royal town, A large proportion of the buildings are covered by the sea, and may be seen far out under the water. It is conjectured that they were en- Vol. I.— 9 e 98 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IPEAS. gulfed bj an earthquake, or some other terrible convulsion of nature. Bat it happened so long ago, that all recollec- tion of the catastrophe is completely lost. The defacement and complete obliteration of some of the ornaments, by the operation of the atmosphere, likewise indicates great antiquity. The style and workmanship of some of the temples is said to be very grand and striking. There are many colossal images of deities, and of elephants, lions, and other animals connected with their history. Human figures like dwarfs are often placed in striking contrast with these huge creatures. The Symbol of Generation in some of the temples indicates that Siva was worshipped there. But the buildings are principally consecrated to Yishnu, espe- cially to his incarnation in the form of Crishna. There is a colossal image of Vishnu sleeping on his thousand-headed snake covered with stars. In one place Crishna is repre- sented enfolded by the Serpent of Death ; in another, tread- ing the Serpent under his feet, in allusion to his victory over death. He is also represented with the Nine Gopias dancing round him. In fact, whole scenes from the Ma- habharata are sculptured on the walls. There are inscrip- tions over several of the statues, but they have not yet been deciphered. Tradition attributes these edifices and Cyclopean walls to kings of the race of Pandos, relatives of Crishna, and conspicuous in his history. At Tanjore, in the south of India, is a very celebrated old temple, formed of massive hewn stones, piled one above another, without exterior decoration. It is in the form of a pyramid, two hundred feet high. The interior contains a large hall, lighted by lamps, where the Bramins assemble to perform certain religious ceremonies. The worship of Siva is indicated by the Symbol of Generation, and a colossal image of his Bull, called Nundi. It is formed of an t^itire block of brown porphyry, sixteen feet long, and twelve feet high. This animal was an object of religious worsliij), and liis annual festival was observed with much })()ni]), during wliich \\k' pcx)|)le went to his tem])le in processi(jn, with liulcs, cymbals, and garlands. HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 99 There is no determinate account wlien this structure wag erected ; and that circumstance, togetlier with its primitive style of architecture, indicates high antiquity. At Chalambron, in the district of Tanjore, are a collec- tion of sacred buildings, within a double enclosure. On each side is a magnificent gateway, formed of large blocks of stone, with pilasters thirty-two feet high, surmounted by a pyramid one hundred and fifty feet high, ornamented from top to bottom with sculptures. There are three chapels within a separate enclosure. One contains no religious symbol to indicate the deity to whom it was con- secrated. One is dedicated to Vishnu, the other to Siva. A large tank occupies the centre of the area, with a colon- nade and steps of stone, by which pilgrims descend into the holy water. On the right side is the largest temple, dedicated to Parvati, whose statue stands immediately facing the entrance. The portico is supported on six rows of columns, covered from top to bottom with carved figures. The sanctuary is lighted by numerous lamps, and before it stands an image of the Sacred Bull. The pilasters which form the entrance are connected by a chain, curi- ously carved from one piece of stone. On the other side of the tank is a chapel standing in the middle of an enor- mous hall, three hundred and sixty feet long, and two hundred and sixty broad. The flat roof is formed of im- mense blocks of stone laid horizontally, supported by up- wards of one thousand pillars. Every part of this hall is ornamented with sculptures, representing scenes from the Mahabharata, and other Sacred Writings. These various halls and chapels were intended for the reception of statues, conveyed on huge cars, during some of the annual festivals. Three thousand Bramins were employed in the services of this sanctuar}^ The enormous expenses were defrayed by the vast concourse of pilgrims that flocked thither. One of the Pouranas record that these edifices were erected six hundred and seventeen years before our era; but portions are believed to be of later date. One of the large gate- 100 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. ways was rebuilt not many 3^ears ago, by a pious widow, at the cost of about seventy-five thousand dollars. On the river Bunas is a magnificent temple to Crishna, called Nathdwara, or The Portal of God. It contains a statue of Crishna, said to have been in existence many ages, if not from the time when he was himself on earth. No terrible austerities are practised here, no animals sacri- ficed ; but from all points of the compass are poured in offerings to this most popular incarnation of compassionate Vishnu. Some give large landed estates, others bestow rich coronets and costly jewels to adorn his image. Spices are sent from the Indian Isles, frankincense from Tartary, dried grapes from Persia, rich shawls from Cashmere, silks from Bengal, grain and I'ruit from tlie husbandmen, flowers from women and children. The presiding Bramin ap- points consuls in all the great commercial cities to collect and transmit the donations of millions of votaries. One of the oldest and most venerated temples is that of Jaga Nath, commonly called Juggernaut ; one of the titles of Vishnu, signifying Lord of the AVorld. It is at Orissa, on the northern extremity of the Coromandel coast. Europeans generally call it the Black Pagoda, because its dark colour, relieved by the sandy shore, makes it a con- spicuous object to mariners a great distance off. It is a huge grotesque pyramid of granite blocks, three hundred and fifty feet high, crowned with copper balls and orna- ments, flashing in the sunshine. It is covered with sculp- tures, among which is a large Sphinx, and many sexual emblems. An enormous Bull carved in granite projects from the front, which is toward the east. There is a tra- dition that when it was built it was ordained that distinc- tions of caste should be laid aside in the worship conducted there, and consequently that superiors and inferiors might eat together without })()llutioii. This jilace is the scene of one of the most sliocking festivals observed in modern times, as will be seen in succeeding pages. On an island between the continent and Ceylon are three pagodas within one enclosure, with a gate forty feet 1 IIINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 101 high. One temple is dedicated to Siva, another to Rama, another to Sita. The grand entrance to the largest is a truncated pyramid formed of rough blocks of stone. The exterior of these buildings is painted red, and adorned with a surprising amount of sculpture. Lord Valentia says: "They present a magnificent appearance, which we might in vain seek adequate language to do3cribe." They are regarded as among the most ancient sanctuaries of the nation, and no foreigner is allowed to enter within the hallowed precincts. In the vicinity of Kotah is the beautiful temple of Barolli, made of close-grained quartz-rock. Like many other of the old edifices, it is covered with a kind of stucco that hardens with time, and has the appearance of fine marble cement. It is in excellent preservation, though it bears marks of great age. The temple is not hirge, being only fifty-eight feet high, but it is remarkable for the profusion of sculpture with which every stone is covered, and for the ease and gracefulness of the figures. The gateway is adorned by two uncommonly fine statues of Siva and Parvati. Colonel Tod, who first visited the place, says there are some heads on the walls that would be no disgrace to the chisel of Canova. He says: "It would require the labour of several artists, for six months, to do anything like justice to the wonders of Barolli." The Jains have many handsome temples. Bishop lieber thus describes one of them: — "The priest led us into a succession of six small rooms, with an altar at the end of each, over which was a large basso-relievo in marble. The last apartment contained twenty-five figures, all of men sitting cross-legged, one considerably larger than the rest, and represented as a negro.* The priest said he was their God, and the other figures were the different bodies * This appearance was probably occasioned by liair twisted and knotted ftU over tlie head, according to the ancient fashion of lierniits. The larger fi.'.ze of one of these figui-es indicated liis superior wisdom ; it being com- mon among them to represent greatness of chai'acter by bigness. Vol. T.— 9* 102 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. he had assumed at different epochs, when he had become incarnated to instruct mankind. The progress made in the mysteries he taught entitle a man to worship in one or more of the successive apartments shown to us. In the centre of each room was a large tray with rice and ghee strongly perfumed, apparently as an offering; and in two of them were men seated on their heels on the floor, with hands folded as in prayer, or religious meditation." The Hindoo attitude of worship is with the folded hands raised to the forehead, or the face laid prostrate on the ground. The following is a description of the private family chapel of a wealthy Hindoo :—" Though small, it was as rich as carving, painting and gilding could make it. The principal shrine was that of Siva, whose Emblem rose amid the darkness of the inner sanctuary, crowned with scarlet flowers, with lamps burning before it. Under the centre cupola was the Sacred Bull richly painted and gilded, in an attitude of adoration, likewise crowned with scarlet flowers. On the walls were paintings of gods and goddesses. Over all hung a large silver bell, suspended from the roof, like a chandelier." "Hermitages in the rocks abound in every part of Hin- dostan. The situation is always picturesque, in the midst of water, and under the shade of trees. Many of them are on cliff's above the rivers, with bamboos hanging gracefully over the entrance. Inside is a low stone couch and a bracket for a lamp or idol. Some of them are elaborately carved." A volume might be filled with descriptions of the nume- rous temples in Hindostan, but enough has been said to convey an idea of their grandeur, and of the religious zeal of the people. The most ancient are in the form of a py- ramid. The great porch, or entrance, is a truncated pyra- mid, running out at the top into the shape of a half moon. The four sides face the cardinal points, and the front is toward the east. This form is prescribed by their Sacred Laws. The gigantic proportions, low massive })i liars, and the deep shadows made by projections, produce a solemn HINDOSTAX, OR INDIA. 103 effect, while a feeling of vastness and infinity is impressed on the mind by the almost endless repetition of small figures, delicately carved. The sun, moon, bulls, rams, goats, serpents, and other representations of planets and constellations, abound everywhere, showing that astronomy was very intimately connected with their religious ideas. The interior of these old pyramidal temples is very awful; for light being excluded, the colossal statues of gods, often of frightful aspect, the huge serpents and enormous ani- mals carved in stone, are fitfully revealed, in the midst of black shadows, by the wavering light of lamps or torches. Many of the grand old edifices, which stand above ground, seem destined to perish. The wild fig-tree sows its seed in the crevices, and being a sacred plant, it is deemed sin- ful either to root it out or cut off its branches. In the course of a few years its rapid growth makes the temples Icjok extremely picturesque, but it eventually destroys them. Sometimes large slabs of stone, covered with sculp- tured images and emblems, become incorporated with the substance of the tree, and are completely encased in wood. Ul)per India has been so ravaged by conquerors that few vestiges of its religious monuments remain. Many circumstances tend to prove that part of the country the cradle of Hindoo civilization ; therefore, notwithstanding the vast antiquity of some of the structures still remaining, it is conjectured that they are not so ancient as were some that have disappeared. In Ilindostan, the temples are called Dewals. The term Pagoda, generally used by Europeans, is said to be a cor- ruption of one of their words, signifying a Holy House. In all periods of their history the devotion of the people has led to the construction of new ones, and so it is at the present time. A Hindoo village is generally a mere col- lection of bamboo huts surrounding a Pagoda. Modern temples have lost the ancient character of grandeur. The ornaments are generally tawdry and the sculptures shock- ing specimens of deformity. Few of these buildings have more than three or four rooms, and some have only one, 104: PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. large enough for the images, and a few attendants. On the occasion of great ceremonies, the crowd of people stand in an open area in front of the gates. The Banian, or Indian Fig-tree, droops its branches, which take root as soon as they touch the ground. As they grow to amazing size, and apparently never decay, magnificent groves are formed, with agreeable vistas and cool recesses. The large green foliage is lively with squir- rels and monkeys, and brilliant with parrots, peacocks, and scarlet figs. Sometimes, " This pillared shade, High overarched, with echoing walks between," is spacious enough to shelter a thousand people. The Hindoos consider its far-stretching arms, its beneficent shadows, and its long life, emblematic of Deity, and they pay it almost divine honours. They plant it near their temples, and in villages where there are no temples, these groves are consecrated as places of worship. Here are placed blocks of black or white marble, or common upright stones, on which they pour oil for sacrifice ; altars sur- mounted by vases containing consecrated plants; images of the sacred cow ; and the emblem of Siva. To these groves worshippers bring their oblations of flowers, grain, fruit, incense, and spices. Here repose the high priests and their retinue, travelling with Oriental pageantry to take part in some grand religious festival ; and here rests for a while the naked devotee, on his way to fulfil some vow; perhaps walking thousands of miles in silence, with only a parroquet for his companion. It is common to build temples in close vicinity to these Banian forests; especially if there be a lake or river near by. To provide such places for the people is deemed an act of great piety, likely to ensure a long enjoyment of Paradise. A wealthy man, who was living at Alia Bhaug in 1834, presented to the public extensive groves and gar- dens, filled with fountains, flowers, fruit-trees, and aro- niatic shrubs, including a lake covered with a profusion ITINDOSTAN, OR INDIA, 105 of lotus-blossoms. In the midst of all this beauty, ho erected a temple, declaring that he did it " as an accept- able sacrifice to the benevolent deity, and a useful charity to his fellow creatures." As usual in their sacred build- ings, the outer portion is for public worship, while the inner sanctuary is entered only by Bramins, who wash and dress the images, and adorn them with jewels and flowers, among which the lotus is always conspicuous. In front is a large tank of hewn stone for ablutions, with an obelisk at each corner, illuminated at festivals. The surrounding groves are lively with troops of musicians and dancing girls, devoted to the service of the temple. The Hindoos have several holy cities, among which Benares is most esteemed. They call it "the Lotus of the world," founded not on common earth but on the point of Siva's trident. They consider the soil so blessed that whoever dies there, of whatever sect, is sure of salvation. Even if he has eaten beef, which they regard as the great- est of sins, he will be saved, provided he is charitable to poor Bramins and dies at Benares. Hindoo princes keep agents there to offer sacrifices for them. The very aged are carried thither and left near the Ganges, esteeming themselves most fortunate, if they can be carried away by the sacred stream, or devoured by its crocodiles. Wealthy men in the decline of life often go there to reside, to wash away their sins in the holy river, and secure rewards in a future existence by their benevolence to pious pilgrims. Bishop Heber speaks of " a man of vast fortune, who on his name-day (by which they mean the day on which his patron god is worshipped) always gave a lai'ge measure of rice and a rupee to every Bramin, and to every blind or lame person, who applied to him between sunrise and sun- set. This person was reputed to be really kind and good ; munificent from principle, not from ostentation." It may readily be imagined that under these circumstances Benares is- a great place of resort for pious beggars. The number of temples is exceedingly great. " They are most- ly small, and stuck like shrines in the angles of the streets, E* 106 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. and under the shadow of the lofty houses. Their forms, however, are not ungraceful, and many of them are en- tirely covered over with beautiful and elaborate carvings of flowers, animals, and palm branches, equalling in mi- nuteness and richness the best specimens of Gothic or Gre- cian architecture. Bulls sacred to Siva, tame and familiar as mastiffs, walk lazily up and down, or lie across the nar- row streets. Any blows given to rouse them must be of the gentlest kind, or the whole population would rise in wrath against the offender. Sacred monke3^s, and the di- vine ape who conquered Ceylon for Rama, are numerous, clinging to all the roofs and projections of the temples, putting their hands into every fruiterer's or confectioner's shop, and snatching food from the children at their meals." There was at Benares a famous pillar called Siva's Staff, a beautiful shaft of one stone, covered with exquisite carv- ing. It originally stood inside a Hindoo temple; but when Mahometans conquered the country, they pulled down the temple and built a mosque over it. But pilgrims were still allowed to visit the ancient pillar, on condition of giving half their offerings to the Mahometans. Upon the occasion of some great religious festival, a quarrel arose in the street between two processions, one Mahometan and the other Hindoo. The Mahometans in their fury broke down Siva's Staff, and the Hindoos revenged themselves by burning a mosque. . Not far off was a consecrated well, the waters of which were deemed peculiarly holy, and all Hindoo pilgrims were enjoined to drink of it and use it for ablution. The Mahometans, exasperated by the burning of their mosque, killed a cow, the most sacred of all animals, and threw her blood into this well. The Hindoos retaliated by throwing bacon into all the mosques ; well knowing that pork was held in utter abomination by Ma- hometans, and deemed to pollute whatever it touches. A general fight ensued, which was finally quelled by the in- terference of British troops. Bishop Hebcr says: "After the tumult subsided, there was great mourning among the nindoos. The holy city of Benares was profaned. The HINDOSTAX, OR INDIA. 107 blood of a cow had been mixed with the sacred water, and salvation could be obtained at Benares no longer. All the Bramins in the city, many thousands, went through the streets in melancholy procession, naked and fasting, with ashes 'on their heads ; and for two or three days they refused to enter a house, or taste of food. The gaunt, squalid figures of the devotees, their unaffected anguish and dismay, and the screams of the women who sur- rounded them, formed a very impressive scene. The British magistrates tried their utmost to reason with and console them. At last, they concluded that Ganges was Ganges still, and that a succession of costly offerings in the temples might possibly wash out the stain the holy city had received. Over the prostrate pillar they mourned much. Tradition declared it had been twice as high, and had been gradualh' sinking into the ground ; and there was a prophecy that when it became level to the earth, the religion of Brahma would come to an end, and all men be of one caste. Sorrowfully the Bramins gazed upon it, and said, * Alas, Siva's Staff has its head level with the ground. We shall all be of one caste shortly. What will be our religion then ?' " The Coast of Orissa is perhaps the most important of the holy places of Ilindostan. It is said that one million two hundred thousand pilgrims flock thither annually, to the great festival of Juggernaut. Immense numbers die of the hardships of long travel ; of famine, from scarcity of pro- visions to feed such a multitude; by imprisonment, for non-payment of tribute to the Bramins ; and by suicide, to expiate sins, or secure future rewards in Paradise. ]\[iles of this country are covered with human bones, whitening in the sun. Juggernaut is represented by a gigantic wooden image, with black face, blood-red distended mouth, golden arms and diamond eyes. It is renewed every three years. The bones of Crishna are deposited within it; and when the Bramin takes them out, to transfer them to the new image, he shuts his eyes lest a sight of the holy relics should strike him dead. The image of Boloram, brother 108 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. of Juggernaut, is painted white, and his sister Shubudra yellow. A hundred lamps are continually burning before them, and fifty-six Bramins attend upon them. They present to them offerings of various kinds of food, bathe them six times a day with water, oil, and milk, and dress them each time in fresh clothes. At the great annual fes- tival, these three images are gorgeously decorated, seated on thrones of nearly equal height, and placed in a huge car, sixty feet high, adorned with costly ornaments, and sculptured all over with sexual emblems. On each side are sixteen enormous wheels, which cut deep into the ground, as it slowly rolls along. It is preceded by ele- phants, dressed in crimson, bearing flags, and decorated with bells, that sound musically as they move. Mul- titudes of Bramins wave palm branches, recite extracts from their Sacred Books, and sing hymns in honour of Jug- gernaut. Troops of Devedasses dance around the car, while swarms of devotees, many of them naked, perform innumerable ceremonies, and make gestures, which to an unbelieving spectator seem very indecent. The crowd thrust each other violently for the privilege of seizing the ropes by which the chariot is drawn. Many throw them- selves across the street, deeming themselves sure of sal- vation if they can be crushed to death by the wheels ; and whenever this occurs, the multitude shout aloud in ap- probation. At this festival all distinctions arc laid aside for the time ; Bramin and Pariah can eat together without pollution. On ])ilgri mages to these holy places, processions of dif- ferent sects often fight by the way, to determine whose temples shall be enriched by the taxes levied on pilgrims. At one of their great religious festivals in 1760, a battle occurred between the Sivaitesand the Vishnuites, in which the latter had eighteen thousand men killed. Thousands of people arc employed in carrying water to the tetn[)le of Juggernaut from an aperture in the rocks, called the Cow's Mouth, whence the Ganges issues. They travel more than two thousand miles, with two flasks of HIXDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 109 water slung across their shoulders on a piece of elastic bamboo. The labour thus expended would long since have converted the whole country into a highly cultivated garden. It is often done as penance for the lighter sorts of sins. Women of rank, not venturing to appear in public, pay others to carry it for them. Princes and wealthy persons have this holy water conveyed to them in all parts of Hin- dostan. It is used at feasts, as well as upon religious festivals. A gentleman in Ceylon drank this water daily, brought three thousand miles, at the expense of five thousand rupees per month. x\s the Ganges is supposed to descend from Para- dise, its waters increase in holiness the nearer they approach its source. At certain seasons of the year, millions of pil- grims, from various districts and countries, visit the place where two rivers unite to form the Ganges; and many thousands scramble up the steep precipices of the Himalaya mountains, where a shrine is erected over the spot whence it issues from under eternal snows. Women have never been admitted to the priesthood by any of the sects. The Code of Menu forbids women and children to devote themselves to the ascetic life. But in the Pouranas are mentioned some who retired into the soli- tude of the forests, and became celebrated saints. The mother of Crishna vowed herself to perpetual contempla- tion, and attained to complete absorption in God. A story is likewise told of a child five years old, who went into the forest and performed most painful penances in honour of Vishnu. But this was an exceptional extravagance, origi- nating in the popular admiration for ascetics, which fired the boy's imagination and tempted him to imitation. In Malabar, the memory of several saintly women is held in high veneration; particularly one named Avyar, whose wise sayings have become proverbs. The ancient Jains denied that a woman could attain the highest degree of holiness, and discountenanced their devoting themselves to the religious life. But this might have arisen from jealous care of their modesty; for in later times, when it was the custom for the saints to wear white robes, instead of 2:oinor Vol. [.—10 110 PEOGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. naked, thej granted tliat women also might arrive at a state of perfect sanctity. From the most ancient time, a class of women called Devedasses were devoted in early childhood to the service of the temple. They are often infants consecrated by their mothers to some god, in fulfil- ment of a religious vow. Being deemed an honourable way of providing for daughters, as well as a sacrifice highly acceptable to the deity, even princes are desirous of ob- taining the situation for their children. It is required that they should be health}', wdth pleasing features and grace- ful forms. The Devedasses bathe the little novitiate in a pool belonging to the temple, dress her in new robes, and ornament her with jewels. The presiding Bramin puts into her hand an image of the deity, and teaches her to re- peat a solemn vow of dedication to his service. Her ears are then bored and the seal of the temple imprinted on her with* red-hot iron. She is taught to read, write, dance, sing, and play on musical instruments. No other women in Hindostan, not even those of the highest rank, are al- lowed to read and write. Many frightful stories are in cir- culation concerning the disasters sure to befall a woman bold enough to attempt such an innovation. Even Deve- dasses are not permitted to look into the Sacred Books. Their scanty education is employed in learning verses and legends concerning the gods, to recite at public solemnities. It is their business to gather flowers for the temple, light the lamps, and perform the dancing and singing in reli- gious ceremonies. About the waist, arms, and ankles, they wear little bells of silver or gold, which make a monotonous tinkling as they move, and mingle rather pleasantly with the small drums, tambourines, and silver cymbals, to which they keep time. They hold wooden castanets, which they strike in cadence, all making precisely the same move- ments and gestures at the same moment. At the end of each dance, they all turn toward the idol, and adore him with hands clasped before their faces. They receive food, clothing, and pay, from the funds of the temple. Five or six hundred arc employed in the temple of Juggernaut, HIXDOSTAa^, ok INDIA. Ill At the great annual festival, one is chosen for a bride to the god, to whom it is supposed he comes in the night and reveals whether it will be a fruitful year, and what kind of feasts, processions, prayers and contributions he requires from the people in order to secure it. She is placed in the chariot with the idol, and as it slowly rolls along, she proclaims tliese oracles to the believing multitude. The Devedasses are not allowed to quit the precincts of the temple, or to marr3^ Some say they are allowed to receive no lovers but Bramins; others declare they are at liberty to choose among any of the three higher castes. The money thus obtained is put into the treasury of the temple. If they have daughters, they are brought up in the same way as themselves; if sons, they are trained to play on musical instruments and assist the priests. When these women become old or unhealthy, or the Bramins wish to have them leave for any reason, they are dismissed ; but they are ever after received in society with peculiar re- spect. A degree of sanctity is attached to them, and it is considered an honour to marry them. Sometimes, however, if they are old when they retire from service, they are re- duced to poverty, unless they have a handsome daughter, on whose earnings they can rcl}'. In no part of the world are suicides so extremely com- mon as in India. Thousands perish every year by drown- ing in the sacred rivers, lying in wait for crocodiles, starving, burning, and causing themselves to be buried alive. This doubtless originates in the prevailing idea that the connection of spirit with matter is an evil, and the destruction of the body a sacrifice acceptable to the deities. The number of women who voluntarily seek death is much greater than that of men ; for in addition to their belief in the same melancholy creed, life is far lesa free to them, and their abject situation requires more severe repression of all the natural sentiments and instincts. To be born again into a female form thej^ dread as one of the worst punishments. To avoid it, they perform innumera- ble religious ceremonies, and subject themselves to most 112 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. painful penances. Wlien the custom first began of women barning themselves on the funeral pile of their husbands, is unknown. It probably originated in the univei'sal prac- tice of offering sacrifices at funerals, and at tombs, to expiate the sins of the deceased. Perhaps some zealous devotee voluntarily set the example, and many motives would naturally combine to fix it as a custom. This self- immolation is called Suttee, more properly Sati, a Sanscrit word meaning purification. It is not enjoined in any of their Sacred Writings, but some of their celebrated saints commend it as highly mei'itorious ; as may be seen from the following extracts: — "So long as a woman does not burn herself after the death of her lord, she will be subject to transmio-rations into the female form." "The woman who follows her lord in death expiates the sins of three races; her father's line, her mother's line, and the family of him to whom she was given a virgin." "Even though her husband had slain a Bramin, or returned evil for good, or killed an intimate friend, the woman expiates his crimes." " Possessing her husband as her chiefest good, herself the best of women, enjoying the highest delights, she shall partake of bliss with him as long as fourteen Indras reign." The professed rule is that the immolation must be per- fectly voluntary; and since such rewards were offered in Paradise, in addition to the applause of multitudes on earth, while on the other hand law and custom condemned every widow to an extremely secluded and gloomy life, it is not surprising that great numbers rushed on such a fate with religious ecstasy, or the courage of despair. A Bramin of Bngnapore had more than a hundred wives. Twent3'-two of them were burned with his corpse, though several of them had seldom even seen the man for whom they died. The fire was kept burning three days, waiting the arrival of successive victims. A woman is never al- lowed to marry again, or even to mention the name of another man, after the death of her husband or betrothed. As tiiey are often mated by parents in infancy, they may HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 113 be left widows while very small cliildren : but nevertlielcss they disgrace themselves if they depart from a life of per- petual chastity. Those who are thus left desolate often sacrifice themselves, eitlier from religious zeal or weariness of life. A girl whose betrothed died when she was six years old, is mentioned as having performed the Sati at fifteen. No entreaties could prevail upon her to relinquish her project. An immolation performed with great firm- ness was a subject of family pride, and recounted to suc- ceeding generations. AVidows sometimes mounted the funeral pile with heroic enthusiasm, laid the husband's head on their knees, and themselves brandished a torch to light the pile. But these sacrifices were not always volun- tary, even when they appeared so. Husbands, clinging to the idea of exclusive possession, even after death, often left injunctions to their wives to make the offering, and to their heirs to urge them to it. Women hold no property, and it was the interest of relatives, on whom the widow would depend entirely for support, to excite their religious zeal sufficiently to make them brave the terrors of this fiery ordeal. If the courage of the poor creature failed at the last dreadful moment, and she succeeded in making her escape, she sunk into irretrievable disgrace, which was reflected on her kindred. Therefore, when such symptoms were discovered, Bramins tied down the victim with strong cords, and while the flames rose, her screams were drowned in the din of musical instruments. After a long contest with Hindoo prejudices, the British government at last succeeded in abolishing this cruel cus- tom wherever they had jurisdiction. The women were generally most grateful to them for the change. They are gentle, affectionate, and devotional ; extremely fond of carrying oiferings to the temples, and performing religious ceremonies in the sacred groves. The belief in a universal interchange of souls throughout sreation produces singular ideas and customs with regard to animals. Vishnu assumes their shape as frequently as he docs that of man. They are not only represented as Vol. I.— 10* 114 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. constant companions and friends of the deities, l)ut often as being themselves of divine intelligence, dwelling iu Paradise, and occasionally incarnated on earth, to assist the god to whose service thej were devoted. Garuda, prince of the eagles, is supposed to guard the entrance of Vishmvs Paradise. Hanuman, prince of the monkeys, assumed the form of an ape, and rendered important ser- vices to Vishnu while on earth in the person of Rama. There are numerous other similar instances. In the Ra- mayana it is stated that Garuda, having sinned in thought against his divine master, went in penitent guise to seek counsel from the crow Bhusanda, who dwelt on the lofty summits of the Blue Mountains, and had been devoted to the service of Rama from his birth. This crow was "ex- perienced in virtues and vices; well acquainted with all that had happened since the beginning of time ; sometimes wrapped in profound meditation on the being of God ; at others pouring forth invocations, and proclaiming the praises of Vishnu to the birds of land and water." He became the instructor of Garuda, and informed him that he had once been a Bramin, but had passed into a crow, in consequence of maledictions pronounced upon him by a powerful saint. With these ideas, no wonder the brute creation are regarded with tenderness and reverence. Bulls and cows are sacred in the highest degree, espe- cially tlie latter, on account of a cow in Paradise, styled, " Mother of the gods, and of three worlds." Even the dung of this animal is sacred, and is used in many religious ceremonies. Hindoos will die rather than taste of beef ; a fact which has been often proved on board vessels where all the provisions were expended except salt beef. The pun- ishment for selling a bullock to a European is to be impaled alive. Monkeys are sacred, on account of Hanuman, famous in th(3 exploits of Rama. Rajahs and nobles often expend larger sums to celebrate a festival in honour of those animals. A monkey, or an ape, on such occasions, ia seated in a splendid pulanquin, and followed by musicians, singers, and dancing girls, amid a goi'geous shower of IIIXDOSTAX, Oil INDIA. 115 tire-works. Two British officers, who shot a monkey during one of their huntiwg excursions, were driven by a mob of devotees into the river Jumna, where they perished. In Jaianapatan, an ape's tooth, believed to be Hanuman's, was preserved for centuries as a rehc in the temple, and many ])ilgrimages were made to see it. After the Portu- guese conquered that part of the country, the Hindoos sent an embassy to them offering three hundred thousand ducats for the recovery of this treasure. But, by advice of the Catholic Bishop, the tooth was burned in presence of the ambassadors, and its ashes thrown into the sea. A cunning man afterward persuaded them to buy another tooth, repre- senting that an invisible power had substituted a false tooth to be burned by unbelievers, and miraculously saved the true one. The Crocodile is another of their sacred animals. Hindoo mothers are remarkable for passionate love of offspring, yet they often throw their infants into the jaws of these monsters, believing they thus propitiate the deities and secure the' child's salvation. The hooded serpent Cobra do Capello is sacred, on account of its asso- ciation with Vishnu. Some other species of serpents are regarded by them as peculiarly the protecting Spirits of gardens and vineyards, and therefore they will not consent to destroy them. Indeed all animals have a degree of sacredness to a devout Hindoo, arising from the belief that each one is a manifested portion of God. Voracious and unclean creatures they believe to be the residence of malig- nant Spirits and bad souls. Those that subsist on vege- tables are supposed to be favoured by divine beings. They peculiarly venerate ants and bees, conceiving the Spirits which animate them to be gifted with superior intelligence. Tiiey believe every animal is endowed with thought and memory, and has some comprehensive mode of communi- cating ideas to its own species. At Surat is a Banian hospital, enclosed with high walls and divided into courts, where diseased and aged animals are watched with tenderest care. When an animal breaks his limb, or is otherwise disabled, his master carries him 116 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. to the hospital, where he is received without reference to the caste or nation of his owner. If he recovers, he cannot be rechiimed, but remains to draw water for other creatures not able to work. When Sir James Forbes visited this place, it was full of horses, oxen, sheep, goats, monkeys, poultry, birds, and an aged tortoise, known to have been there seventy-five years. One ward was appropriated to rats, mice, and vermin. The overseers frequently hired beggars for a stipidated sum to pass a night among fleas and bugs, on condition of allowing them a feast without moles- tation. Pious pilgrims are often met on the road carrying a soft broom to sweep the ground, lest they should tread on in- sects, and with nostrils covered to avoid inhaling them. A learned Bramin, much interested in science, took great de- light in exploring the library of an English resident, who one day showed him a solar microscope, to convince hira that the precautions of devotees were useless, inasmuch as every draught of water was filled with animalculas. The Bramin became very thoughtful, and offered large sums for the instrument. Being difficult to obtain in India, the owner for some time refused; but at last, overcome by re- peated importunities, he gave it to him. He instantly seized a large stone and dashed the microscope into a thousand atoms. In answer to the angry expostulations of his foreign friend, he said : " O that I had remained in the happy state of ignorance wherein you found me ! As my knowledge increased so did my pleasure, until I beheld the wonders of that instrument. From that momeiit I have been tormented with doubt and perplexed by mj^stery. I am now a solitary individiud among millions of people all educated in the same belief with myself; all happy in their ignorance. So may they ever renuiin ! I shall keep the secret in my own bosom, whei'e it will corrode my peace and disturb my rest. Forgive me, my valuable friend; and, O, bring here no more implements of knowl- edge and destruction." Many causes have been at work to produce a gradual niNDOSTAX, OR INDIA. 117 degeneracy in the manners, customs, and opinions of the Hindoos. Knowledge of the Vedas is confined to the learned, and few ever heard of such a doctrine as the unity of God. The great mass of tlic people are neglected by the Bramins, who are either taken up Avith the acquisition of temporal power, or striving to obtain spiritual elevation for themselves, by contemplation and penances. Such in- struction as the populace do receive, rather serves to con- fuse their moral perceptions. Thefts, perjury, or murder, may be atoned for by presents to the priests, and the per- formance of prescribed ceremonies, without farther incon- venience to the culprit ; while killing a cow, selling beef to a European, offending a Bramin, or being converted to a foreign religion, involves either the penalty of death, or total excommunication from society by loss of caste. Everywhere the limitations of caste come in to narrow the sympathies and impede the progress of intellect. Hindoos are by nature remarkably kind, gentle, and charitable; but their tender-heartedness disappears the moment it comes in collision with the laws of caste. If a Bramin sees a Pariah drowning, he must not even extend a long pole to save him ; for by so doing he would incur pollution in- volving loss of caste. A Christian missionary ventured to employ a converted Pariah to teach other Hindoo con- verts; but they protested strongly against such an innova- tion. " How is it possible," said they, " to allow a Pariah to come into our houses to pray?" Four hundred persons left the congregation in consequence, but twenty remained to hear the Christian Scriptures read by a man who was socially their inferior; and those twenty were more val- uable than the four hundred would have been, with the Pariah silenced. Hindoo worship makes no provision for the instruction of the people in religious ideas or moral duties. It con- sists of a routine of ceremonies. Every image is regularly sei'ved with rice, fruit, and flowers, which after a prescribed time are removed for the use of priests and their attendants. Perfumes and incense are considered among the most acceptable offerings. Large quantities of frankincense were 118 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. carried from Arabia to Ilindostan at a period so remote that the use of it is mentioned in the ancient poem, Rumaj^ana. Among consecrated plants, the Soma, or Moon Plant, is peculiarly sacred. The juice is a holy drink which Bramins taste on certain religious occasions, after having offered prescribed prayers. They say it is not necessary to understand the prayers which they mechani- cally repeat from the Vedas. It is sufficient to know what deity is addressed, and what event is the occasion for sup- plication or thanksgiving. In many cases, mysterious virtue is ascribed to reciting the form of words alternately backward and forward. Religious models for the people are of a lower character than they were in the ancient times. There are now i'ew devotees who attempt to copy the austere virtue of old hei'mits ; but popular reverence for such characters has produced a swarm of mendicants, who imitate only their extravagancies. These are often described by travellers under the name of Fakeers, or Yogees. On their forehead and arms they usually wear the perpendicular line emblem- atic of Sivaites, or the horizontal line of Vishnuites. It is marked by the priests with a composition made of burnt sandal-wood, tumeric, and cow-dung. Doubtless many of these devotees sincerely believe that they expiate their own sins and those of others, by their severe suffer- ings. Some dig a grave and remain buried in the earth, leaving only a small aperture for the admission of food. An English gentleman in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, perceiving a strange-looking creature in a hole of the ground, beat it till the blood flowed, without causing any movement, or any remonstrance. It was a Fakeer who had vowed himself to that mode of torture. Some stand in one constrained posture for years and years. Others crawl on their hands and knees round an extensive empire. Some roll their bodies over the ground from Indus to Ganges, collecting money to dig a well, or build a temple, in atonement for some sin. Many of them go entirely naked, and come to look like wild beasts, with nails of IIINDOSTAX, OR IXDIA. 119 twenty 3'cars growth, dirty matted hair, and arms withered by being held aloft for years. Women of distinction com pete with each other for the honour of feeding such saints. All of this class do not renounce the world so completely. There are communities of them, on whom the devout bestow houses and lands. They make money by agricul- ture and trade, and send out beggars to procure alms. There is a community of Sivaite saints, who are accus- tomed to sell their military services to the highest bidder: being willing to fight against everything but their own religion. They stimulate their courage by excessive use of intoxicating herbs and drinks, though wine and spiritu- ous liquors are strictly forbidden by their Sacred Books, and ceremonies of purification are prescribed for a religious man who has merely drank water from vessels that have contained such liquors. Associations of female devotees, said to be far from austere in their lives, reside in some of the temples of Siva. The Fakeers usually wear garments of yellowish red, similar in colour to the bark-cloth worn by ancient anchorites. There appears to be sacredness attached to the colour; for there is an express law forbidding Bramins to sell red cloth, or woven bark. Like the ascetic sages of ancient time, these modern Fakeers are great travellers. They are met everywhere, from the confines of Russia to Cape Comorin, from China to Bombay. They wander about in armed troops, on pil- grimages to holy cities and sacred wells, levying contribu- tions as they go. To extort charity from passengers, they stun their ears with loud bells, or strike together plates of brass. Some of them are handsome, robust men. They eat everything but beef, and are often immoderate in the use of food and intoxicating liquors. When they arrive at villages, they dance and sing songs describing the amours of Siva or Crishna, for which they receive a reward of food or money. On one occasion, Bombay was so infested by these mendicants, that they became an intolerable nuisance. The governor deemed it imprudent to make any direct attempt to disperse them. But he issued an order that all 120 PKOGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. beggars and idlers should be set to cleaning the great ditch surrounding the fortifications, and the next day not one of the saintly fraternity was to be found. Bishop Heber, speaking of the sacred city of Benares, says: " Fakeers' houses occur at every turn, adorned with idols, and send- ing out an unceasing tinkling of discordant instruments; while religious mendicants of every sect, offering every conceivable deformity, which chalk, cow-dung, disease, matted locks, distorted limbs, and disgustino- attitudes of penance, could show, literally line the principal streets on both sides. I saw repeatedly men who had kept their handS^ clenched till the nails grew out at the backs; or hopping on one foot, the other having shrunk close up to the hams, from a vow never to use it. Devotees go about with small spears thrust through their tongues and arms, or with hot irons pressed against their sides. Their coun- tenances denote sufltering, but they evidently glory in patient endurance, thinking doubtless that they are exjiia- ting sins by their agony. These beggars keep up the most pitiful cry for alms." Among some sects, persons of every caste, even Pariahs, can become Fakeers. These are little respected by the higher classes of Hindostan, and the Bramins especially avoid them. Yet some of the Bramins themselves are by no means worthy of the reverence which their station and office demands. Within the temples they not unfrequently fight and scratch each other, scrambling for the fees and oflPerings. In days of primitive simplicity a Bramin was not allowed to take a second wife, unless the first bore him no children, or committed some great mis- demeanc^r ; but they now marry fifteen, twenty, or a hundred wives, as suits their convenience. The Code of Menu strictly forbids receiving money or gifts in exchange for a daughter or female relative; but in these days, parents, even of the highest castes, do not scruple to dis- ])OSC of young daughters to whoever will pay the most, tliough lie be old or diseased. The expenses for the main- t(Miance of the ])rifstli()od an; enormous. One temple in the Dcccaii mainlaiiied forty thousand olficiating Bramins. HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 121 besides a great number of Devedasses. Of course it is for their interest to inculcate a blind unquestioning faith in all they teach, and to load }3opular worship with images and ceremonies, for all of which they receive pay. It being admitted that images were necessary for the ignorant, as pictures are for children, and these images commanding a ready sale, they of course multiplied rapidly. They are of every variety of size and material, from gold to wood and clay, from thirty feet high to a finger in length. They are generally grotesque, deformed things, made by the smith and the potter, or rudely fashioned by the humble worshippers in preparation for some festival. The Bramins reconcile this with the Veda doctrine of God's unity, by saying these are mere subordinate agents fulliUing various offices in the universe under One Ruler. But the populace have no such idea. They believe all these gods and goddesses to be independent deities, with supreme power over the departments they govern. When a Hindoo buys an image, he goes to the priest to have certain ceremonies performed over it, which are supposed to endow it not only with life, but with supernatural power. If the idol be masculine, another ceremony must be performed to marry him to the image of some goddess. Not only their temples but their houses are full of these idols, some of which are extremely hideous. They offer them a portion of their food, fan them in warm weather, cover them from cold, and put them to bed every night. The Bramins tell many legends of their assuming various shapes and colours, and working miracles ; all of which are readily believed. There is universal belief in Evil Spirits, of various ranks and degrees of power, from gigantic demons, who attack the orbs of light, down to the malicious little Pucks, who delight in small mischief They suppose these enter the minds of men, producing bad thoughts and criminal ac- tions, and also take possession of the body, producing in- sanity, fits, and all manner of diseases. They can be cast out only by some form of holy words pronounced by the priest, with ceremonies prescribed for such occasions. Vol. I.— 11 F 122 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. While Sir James Forbes was presiding judge in a Hindoo district, a petition was sent to him stating tliat a certain woman had been for a long time possessed by two Evil Spirits; and that the petitioner's daughter, having beeu with this woman, and witnessed certain conjuring tricks, and heard the devils talk, came home and fell down on the bed without sense or motion, and continued so for hours. She continued to have these fits for two months; at the end of which time, she told her parents that one of the devils had come out of the woman and entered into lier, tormenting her all the time to offer it food and sacri- fices. Dr. Buchanan mentions a man in Mysore supposed to be possessed by one of these demons, which caused him to fall down in fits. The whole village was in an uproar, and could only be appeased by the presence of a Bramin, who recited prayers, and strewed consecrated ashes over the individual. Amulets and charms, duly prepared by religious ceremonies, are worn as a protection against Evil Spirits, likewise against witchcraft. They have many ma- gicians, most of whom are women. It is said they can be- witch people by keeping their eyes steadfastly fixed on them ; that they can travel through the air invisibly ; can bring intelligence from remote places with incredible swift- ness; can read secret thoughts; and if tlirown into the river with a stone tied to them, they will not sink. Sir James Forbes mentions several individuals who were in possession of a singular power, seemingly supernatural ; particularly a Bramin, who could see what was occurring in distant places, and read the thoughts of people who came into his presence. He confesses himself much puz- zled by prophecies and revelations of this kind, which most undoubtedly occurred during his residence in India. Some degree of chemical knowledge has existed among the liramins for many ages. They are acquainted with tlio antidotes to niiiny poisons, and have a cluiinical prepa- ration, called Tantra, with which they rub the skin to en- able it to resist tlie action of fire. When people are sns- pected of crime, Bramiiis arc often called in to detei'mine HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 123 the question by ordeal. Sometimes the accused individual is ordered to swallow poison ; sometimes he walks on red- hot fron ; sometimes a coin is put in a vessel of boiling oil, into which he plunges his arm and brings out the coin. The arm is previously washed by Bramins, who supplicate the appropriate deities, and afterward pronounce a bene- diction. If these dangerous experiments prove harmless, it is considered a sufl&cient proof of innocence. Now, as in ancient times, they are firm believers in astrology, and watch the motions of birds and bees for omens. When a child is born, they consult the aspect of the stars to ascertain what were the signs of his destiny. When a ship is about to sail, or a bargain to be concluded, they go to a Bramin or a soothsayer, to decide whether a day is lucky or unlucky. Some days are proper for going to the north, others for going to the south. Some are supposed to be so entirely under evil in- fluence, that they abstain from all manner of business. They have lucky hours, and even minutes, which they carefully appropriate to the transaction of very important afiiiirs. The Bramins annually prepare an astrological al- manac, defining what days are lucky or unlucky, for the various actions of life. But even if all other signs are propitious, a clap of thunder will usually make them re- linquisli any undertaking. At the commencement of an eclipse, people rush to the rivers to bathe, and throw water toward the sun, with many invocations. Prayers on such occasions are worth a hundred times as much as at any other time; for they believe that a powerful demon seizes on the sun and puts him in great anguish, from which he may be relieved by the praj'ers and donations of human beings purified by ablutions. When they travel, they often carry with them the image of a serpent wreathed round a pole six or seven feet high ; and every morning the whole company pay adoration to it. The death of a cow or calf is thouo-ht to be a sure indi- 124 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. cation that the deities are offended. On such i)ccasioris there is great lamentation in a family. The o\yner of the animal often leaves home for two or three years, to perform long pilgrimages of expiation. The water of a cow is used in various ceremonies of religious purification ; for similar purposes, they likewise make a preparation from the dung of a perfectly black cow. When it has lain in the shade till it has become perfectly dry and hard, Bramins carry it to some of the sacred places, burn it on a pile of chaff, and gather the ashes into vessels. They then sift it three times, recite prayers over it, sprinkle it with clean water, and make it into small lumps, which they dry, and perfume with the essence of flowers. They dissolve them in water, and, turning toward the sun, sprinkle it on their foreheads and breasts, with appropriate prayers. They use it to avert misfortunes, and peculiarly to keep off the Spiiits of Death, who are sent for human souls. Bramins and saints keep a large supply of this article for devotees. They have great horror of touching the dead, or any thiuL' that has been in contact with a corpse. If a man even hears that a relative has died in a distant country, he is deemed unclean, and must purify himself by religious ceremonies. If a whole year has passed since the death, merely touch- ing water is considered sufficient purification. Water is supposed to cleanse the soul, and guard from evil. When a child is born, priests sprinkle it, and sprinkle the dwelling, and all the inmates of the house bathe. Tliey do this from an idea that it keeps off Evil Spirits. People perform ablutions before they eat; and priests purify them- selves with water, accompanied with prayers, on innumer- able occasions. When a man is dying, Bramins hasten to plunge him into a river, believing that the departing soul may be thus freed from impurities before it quits the body. Some rivers arc deemed more peculiarly holy and effica- cious than others ; such as the Ganges, the Indus, and the Crishna. The water of the Ganges is used on all the most solemn occasions. Imagers of the deities are washoil with it; and Bramins are sprinkled with it, when inducted into HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 125 the priestly office. Happy above other men is he who is drowned in that sacred stream. Once in twelve years, the waters of Lake Cumbhacum are supposed to be gifted with power to cleanse from all sin. As this period approaches, Brarains send messengers in every direction to announce when the great day of ablution will take place. The shores are crowded with a vast multitude of men, women, and children, from flir and near. They plunge at a signal from the officiating Bramin, and in the universal rush, many a one is suffiacated, or has his limbs broken. Water from Ganges is kept in the temples, and when people are dying they often send from a great distance to obtain some of it. Before devotees put their feet into a river, they wash their Lands, and utter a prayer. In some processes of purification, the Bramin rubs mud on the man, and then plunges him three times, throwing in a handful of rice each time as an offering. During this process, he says: "O Supreme Lord, this man is impui'e, like the mud of this stream ; but as water cleanses him from this dirt, do thou free him from his sin." Fire is deemed a still higher degree of purification than water. Thus whole families were supposed to be redeemed from sin by the self-immolation of a widow on the funeral pile. Saints who destroyed themselves by fire were believed to ascend to the higher degrees of Parndise, and enjoy an immensely long period of heavenly bliss. In honour of some of their deities, they walk over burning coals, to the sound of musical instruments, faster or slower, according to their degree of zeal. Some carry their children in their arras, that they also may receive a share of the benefit. If sins which require fire are not purified in this ^^•orld, it is supposed they must pass through a fiery jjrocess in the next. Blood, being the seat of life, was always considered a very efficacious atonement for sin. The gods were sup- posed to be propitiated according to the number and value of the victims. When great national benefits were to be obtained, or evils averted, they sometimes sacrificed Vol. I.— 11* 126 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. a thousand horses at once. It was an ancient custom for Bramins to lay the sins of the nation on the head of a horse. It was done with solemn imprecations and religious ceremonies, and then the animal was turned loose to carry off the sins of the people. Bulls were rarely sacrificed, on account of their veneration for those creatures. Men, being higher than animals in the scale of existence, their blood "was deemed more excellent as an expiation ; and by being sacrificed it was supposed that they secured Paradise for themselves also. One of their most solemn sacrifices con- sisted of a man, a bull, and a horse. There is a tradition that in ancient times a young man and woman, richly decorated, were thrown into the Ganges, as an offering to the god of the river. In later times, they substituted images, instead of living beings. Human sacrifices were abolished at an early period, and animal sacrifices are totally disapproved by numerous sects. Men, horses, and bulls were formerly ofifered to the grim goddess Cali ; but now her altars flow with the blood of kids only. To re- concile this custom with their tenderness for animals, a belief is inculcated that the human soul imprisoned in the brute is thus purified from all its sins, and, freed from degrading transmigrations, rises to the Paradise of Indra, and becomes a musician in his band. Hindoos have many religious festivals, most of them observed either at the new moon or the full moon. They have six successive festivals, in commemoration of the six periods in which Brahma completed the work of Creation. On the twenty-fifth of December, people decorate their houses with garlands and gilt paper, and universally make presents to friends and relatives. This custom is said to be of very great antiquity. In November, they have a festival, during which they light up vast fires by day, and illuminate all their houses at night. At the full moon in October, they commemorate the circular dance of Crishna with the Gopias, which some learned men suppose to have an astronomical significance. Daring the great festival called Kamayana, the streets arc filled with gorgeous processions, HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 127 accompanied by dancers and musicians, playing on horns, gongs, cymbals, and drums. Dramatic representations illustrate the wonderful adventures of Kama; an incarna- tion of Vishnu, at different periods of his life, prince, con- queror, and holy hermit. Three children are dressed with high tinsel crowns, and painted with verinillion, to imitate the statues of Rama, his wife Sita, and his brother Lakshman,.. Hanuman, Rama's great general, is represented by a man armed with a club, with a mask like an ape, and an ape's tail tied to his back. In ancient times, it is said, these three children were poisoned at the end of the feast, that their souls might be absorbed in the deities they repre- sented ; but this was afterward prohibited. The ignorance and credulity of the people have been at all periods j)ractised upon by artful or self-deluded men. About the end of the year 1829, appeared an extraordinary child named Narayun Powar. He was the son of a peasant, and born in a village belonging to the Rajah of Sattara. When only eight years old, he was famous for his extra- ordinary power over snakes. lie enticed them from among rocks, stones, and ditches, played with them, and ran about naked with them twisted all round his neck and arms. Whether he fondled or chastised them, they took it all in good part. They came when he called, and went away at his bidding; but he was seldom easy without some of his favourite animals around him. Why they had this pre- dilection for each others' company, and how he obtained such singular power over them, each one must explain according to his own theory ; but it is a fact that several similar instances of serpent-taming have occurred in the East. In the time of the ancient anchorites, one of the signs of having become perfectly holy, completely identified with God himself, was the power of handling serpents without harm. Whether the parents of Narayun and the Brarains in his neighbourhood really believed his power was derived from such a source, or whether they saw fit so to represent it from motives of self-interest, is known to them- selves. There was an old prediction by the poet Toolseedas 128 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. tliat an extraordinary person would arise and redeem Hindostan from foreign dominion. He was not to be a mere man, but an incarnation of Indrajit, a hermit of such exalted holiness that he had the sublime reward of dying by the hand of Rama himself. Brarnins sought to prove that the period predicted was precisely that of Narayun's birth. Mysterious words were said to have dropped from the child at various times, giving hints of his divine nature, and the purposes for which he had come to earth. He certainly did not seem to be much absorbed in heavenly things ; for like other boys he was full of play and mischief, and particularly fond of gambling with small shells called cowries. However, they called him " Narayun the Holy," and finally " the living God Narayun." In his name they established a place of sacred bathing, where the sinful and the sickly were invited to come and wash away diseases and crimes. Rumours spread through the country that many cripples had been cured, and many blind received their sight. Bramins composed hymns in his praise, and four were appointed to keep record of all his words and actions. His disciples taught that men ought no longer to worship images of wood and stone, but place all their faith in this living divinity, come to deliver them from all foreign yokes, as Rama had rid the world of giants. In a few months, ten thousand pilgrims, many of them of wealth and rank, came to lay their offerings at the feet of Narayun ; and many who could not come, forwarded vows and offer- ings. On every one who bathed in the waters, or bowed to the divinity, a tax was levied. His parents and the administering Bramins grew rich rapidly. A little girl, said to be an incarnated goddess,was chosen for liis bride ; and it was rumoured that on a certain day he would cause a magnificently caparisoned horse to rise out of the cartli, on which he would ride forth to meet her. The enthusiasm Bpread wonderfully, and infected all classes more or less. It is even said that a European resident iu India, a dis- tinguished scliolar, and a lirm believer in Chi'istianity, being asked his opinion, answered : " The facts 1 have heard IIINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 129 quite stagger me. The whole Hindoo population are thoroughly convinced of the divinity of this child, and are going mad after him. It is impossible to say what extra- ordinary means God may adopt for the spiritual recovery of the Hindoos. Ordinary means and missions seem to have failed with them." The llajah of Sattara manifested great uneasiness at the pretensions of Narayun, The wife of one of his ministers, who for several years had been subject to singular trances, had prophesied that he was destined to restore the old Hindoo empire ; and the rival claims of the peasant boy excited his jealousy. But while the enthusiasm was at its height, the child died. He was one day exhibiting as usual his perfect control over snakes, which were brought to him in great numbers by strangers, when a Pariah pro- duced a very large one, declared to have been brought all the way from Benares. Narayun seized hold of it boldly, but for the first time he found a serpent he could not manage. It became irritable and bit him mortally. His death was attributed to magic, and it was confidently predicted that he would rise on the third day. AViien this hope failed, they said it would certainly occur on the eighth day. A crowd of pilgrims waited to witness his resurrec- tion, and finally dispersed disappointed and sorrowing. Kumours were afloat that he had actually ap})eared in different places. Some tried to propagate the belief tliat his soul had lodged in the body of a Bramin, who would eventually fulfil all that had been promised of him. But iinally it all passed away, and his worshippers came to the conclusion that he was merely an incarnated demon, who came on earth for a while to amuse himself with mortals. The Christian missionaries of various sects, who have been in India for many years, have made little perceptible progress in changing the faith of the people ; but many causes are at work to fulfil the prophecy connected with the fall of Siva's Staff" at Benares. Hindostan being the seat of very lucrative commerce, a vai'iety of foreign na- tions have contended for possession of it. Mahometans 130 PEOGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. from Tartary began their conquests as early as A. D. 976 ; and after a long succession of bloody wars, during which they destroyed a vast number of temples, and carried off' immense treasures, they firmly established their religion in large districts of the country. Many adopted the faith and costume of their conquerors, and others were finally allowed freedom to worship in their own way. One of the principal mosques was formerly a Hindoo temple. They killed a cow in it to prevent any of the natives from en- tering; it. On the Malabar coast are more than two hundred thou- sand Nestorian Christians, whom the Hindoos call Naza- renes. They have had a regular establishment of bishops and clergy there for more than a thousand years. In the fifth century, Jews, fleeing from the oppression of Chris- tian countries, were allowed by a compassionate Brarnin to settle in Hindostan, They are now numerous in some portions of the country. Fire- Worshippers, escaping from the Mahometan conquerors of Persia, in the seventh cen- tury, begged for a shelter, and had their claim allowed, on condition that they would eat no beef, and never kill ox or cow. They have scrupulously kept this promise, and large numbers of them reside in India, under the name of Parsees. The Portuguese, who have long had possessions thei'e, established the Inquisition at Goa, and Catholic mis- sionaries have been scattered through the country. France and Denmark have settlements there. Great Britain has conquered several kingdoms, and her laws govern millions of the people. She has had Episcopal bishops resident there for many years, and numerous missions from dissent- ing sects. Consequently, the landscape of India is dotted all over with Hindoo pagodas, Mahometan mosques. Jewish syna- gogues, Catholic cathedrals, and Protestant churches. The Hindoos, though remarkable for tenacious attachment to their own forms of faith, are very ready to admit that all modes of worship arc acceptable to God, if performed with sincerity of heart. It is a common maxim with them that HINDOSTAK, OK INDIA. 131 " Heaven is a palace with many doors, and each one may enter in his own way." The Bi'arains, who compiled the Code of Gentoo Laws, say in the preface, that " the Supreme Being is sometimes employed with tlie attendant of the mosque, in counting the sacred beads, and sometimes in the temple at the adoration of idols. He is the friend of the Hindoo, the intimate of the Mahometan, the compa- nion of the Christian, and the confidant of the Jew." Sir William Jones says: "It is their firm opinion that the Deity has a})peared innumerable times, and by innumer- able avatars, not only in many parts of this world, but of all worlds, for the salvation of his creatures ; and that both Christians and Hindoos adore the same God under different forms." Actuated by this kindly feeling, their women and children often gather fruit and flowers for the mosque and the cathedral, as well as for their own sacred groves. When men of difierent creeds are brought into frequent contact, they cannot avoid mutually giving and receiving. Their prejudices gradually soften and finally melt away. The interfusing of religious ideas from various sources is conspicuous in the teaching of many modern Hindoos. One of these, named Swaniee Narain, attracted consider- able attention about 1820. He went through various dis- tricts teaching and exhorting the people ; and many vil- lages of bad character became virtuous and orderly under his influence. He inculcated temperance and purity, and forbade his disciples to look upon a woman. He taught the existence of one invisible God, who made and sustains all things, and whose especial dwelling is in the hearts of those that diligently seek him. But he likewise taught that there is a Spirit, who was with God from all eternity, who cometh from God, who likewise is God, and who hath made known to man the will of God. This Spirit he said <;ame down to earth in ancient times in the form of Crishna, whom wicked men put to death by magic. He was the same as the Sun, and was to be worshipped as God's image or rei)resentative. Since his death there had been many pretended revelations and false divinities set up. 132 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Bishop Heber, in conversation with him, remarked that he had spol^en truly when he said there was but one God, He tried to convince him that one incarnation of that God was sufficient for mankind, and existed in the person of Jesus Christ, who was the Word of God, proceeding from him, and one with him from all eternity. But Swamee Narain insisted there had been many incarnations, suited to the wants of different nations ; one for Christians, another for Mahometans, others for Hindoos. He said he regretted the prevailing worship of images ; but symbols were necessary for the ign(^rant, and he feared to offend their prejudices by preaching against them. The Hindoos are extremely averse to any change from ancient customs and opinions. The description given of them in the time of Alexander the Great, more than two thousand years ago, would nearly describe them now. But notwithstanding this strong conservative tendency, innovations of various kinds have been gradually intro- duced; especially in Bengal, which is more subject to a mixture with foreigners in the relations of government and commerce. When Hindoos were invited to dine with European magistrates or merchants, they ate at a table by themselves, and had their food cooked by one of their own nation, according to the rules of their religion. This scruple still remains with a majority of the people ; but here and there liberal individuals have set it aside, saying: " We think the Christians are as pure as we are, and cer- tainly some of them are wiser." The higher castes, who formerly abstained from animal food, now eat fish, mutton, and kid's flesh ; and the lower orders eat almost every- tliing except beef. The spirit of caste still exerts a tremen- dously strong influence, but its barriers are thrown down in numerous instances. In the extensive districts under British control, Bramins are executed for capital crimes, the same as other men. Some of the wealthiest families are of Soodra origin, and the descendants of Bramins may sometimes be found among cooks, or serving as soldiers in the army. Though intermixture with foreigners is for- HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 133 bidden as a great sin, large classes of half European parentage have sprung u]\ and are early accustomed to a foreign languat^e and a foreign faith. The lower orders manifest an increasing neglect of the rules of caste, and are generally desirous to send their children to schools established by the English. It is predicted that English Avill become the prevailing language. The upper classes now generally speak it with fluency, and take great interest in its literature. It was formerly considered very wrong to give foreigners access to their Sacred Books ; but there is now an established profession of Hindoo teachers in Bengal to instruct Europeans in Sanscrit, that they may examine the Vedas, the Shastras, and the Pouranas. At- tendants on the temples begin to complain that the offer- ings are of little worth, compared with former times One of them lately told a missionary that he was unable to procure means to repair the roof, in consequence of which water was dripping on the image of the god during all the rainy season. He reported this to the people, but they seemed quite indifferent about it. He thought they were all becoming unbelievers. Bramins strive to reconcile themselves to this state of things, on the ground that they are living in the Cali Yug, when religion is reduced to naught by decrees of Deity, and therefore it is useless to try to screen their Sacred Books from the profanation of foreign hands. Atrocious murders have often been confessed and extenuated in their courts, on the plea that it is the Cali Yug, when crimes must abound. No priesthood in the annals of the world have retained BO much power, for such a long series of centuries, as the Bramins. That as a class they have abused this power, is the inevitable result of possessing it; but there are among them intelligent, learned, and exemplary men, whose characters would do honour to any nation. Bishop Heber says : " In one of the temples I saw a Bramhi who passed the whole day on a little pulpit, about as high and large as a dressing-table. At night, he sleeps on the pavement Vol. I.— 12 184 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS, beside it. His constant occupation is reading or lecturing on the Vedas, which he does to as many as will hear him, fj'ora eight in the morning till four in the evening, lie asks for nothing; but a small copper basin stands near the pulpit, and he subsists entirely on the alms which the charitable are disposed to drop into it. He is a small, pale man, of an interesting countenance, said to be eloquent and extremely learned in the Sanscrit." Some of the Bramins of Malabar wrote to the Danish missionaries: " God alone rules all the world, and all that is therein. It is he who rules the eight hundred and forty thousand kinds of living creatures ; but because of his various appearances, he has different names. Hence we say Brahma creates, Vishnu rules, Siva destroys ; all which different expressions denote but One Supreme Being. And when we attribute the pro- tection of towns and villages to tutelar gods, our meaning is that the Great God does mediately protect towns and countries by his vicegerents and governors. For there is not the least motion in the world without the will of the First Cause. Indeed there are many gods, but they cannot so much as move a straw out of its place, without the assistance of the First Cause; therefore, he is justly called the Lord of the World ; for it is his power that rules all things, and he is infinite and incomprehensible." This statement doubtless represents the general views of en- lightened classes of Hindoos at the present time ; but they cannot yet believe that ideas which elevate priests and princes would also elevate the people. They argue that to present the doctrine of a purely spiritual Deity to men absorbed in tlie cares of animal existence, would inevitably make them attieists. Strongly attached to their ancient religion, from force of education, Bramins maintain that it is entirely misunderstood by Europeans, whose modes of thought prevent them from having any conception of the spiritual significance of their allegorical writings and sacred ceremonies. Intelligent worshippers of every age and nation might urge the same plea with perfect justice ; for every symbol, even the rudest, was originally made sacred HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 135 as the embodiment of some idea, and the spiritual-minded long continue to reverence the adulterated form for what it originally signified. A transition state, when society is preparing to cast its old skin, is unpleasant and difficult for timid and reveren- tial temperaments. Sacred laws appropriate to one age, do not supply the wants of another age. They become in- convenient or impossible of application when progressive centuries have introduced manifold changes. Theologians of India have expended great learning and patience to make some old maxims of their Sacred Books harmonize with the new wants of society, graduall}^, though slowly, changing. In the process, several of those maxims have been formally abrogated by legal enactment ; others have fallen into disuse, with the remark that " they were doubt- less intended for a more perfect state of the world." Some of the Bramins manifest great earnestness and candour in examining other modes of faith. Among these none have been so remarkable as Rammohun Roy, a wealthy Bramin, born in Bengal, in 1780. He was well acquainted with Sanscrit, Hebrew, Persian, Arabic, Greek, Latm, and English. While quite young, he published a book, "Against the Idolatry of All Religions." In this he gave great offence to Hindoos and Mahometans, by the freedom with which he animadverted upon what he con- sidered the defects in both their religious systems. His gentle nature was pained but not discouraged by the enmity he excited. In 1816 he translated the more spiritual por- tions of the Vedas from Sanscrit into Hindostanee and Bengalee, two of the most widely spread languages of Hindostan, and circulated them wherever he could, free of cost. In the Preface he says : " I have never ceased to contemplate with the strongest feelings of regret the obstinate adherence of my countrymen to their fatal s3'Stem of idolatry ; violating every humane and social feeling, for the sake of propitiating their supposed deities, especially by dreadful acts of self-destruction, and the immolation of nearest relatives, under the delusion of conforming: to sacred 136 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. religious rites. In these practices I view with sorrow the moral debasement of a race capable of belter things, whose susceptibility, patience, and mildness of character, render them worthy of a happier destiny. Under these impres- sions, I am impelled to lay before them genuine translations of portions of their own Scriptures, which inculcate not only the enlightened worship of One God, but the purest principles of morality. It seems to me that I cannot better employ my time than in an endeavour to illustrate and maintain truth, and render service to my fellow-creatures; confiding in the mercy of that Being to whom the motives of our actions and the secrets of our hearts are well known." This attempt to restore the primitive simplicity of the Hindoo religion made Eammohun Roy as unpopular as if he had sought to introduce an entirely new system. But still following the great impulses of his liberal soul,'wishing to see all mankind acknowledge themselves children of One Father, he translated an abridgment of the Vedanta into English ; in order, as he says in the Preface, to prove to his European friends "that the superstitious practices which deform the Hindoo religion have nothing to do with the pure spirit of its dictates." He saj^s: "By taking the path which conscience and sincerity direct, I, born a Bramin, have exposed myself to the complaints and reproaches even of some of my relations, whose prejudices are strong, and whose temporal advantages depend upon the present system of idolatry. But these, however accumulated, I can tran- quilly bear; trusting that a day will arrive when my humble endeavours will be viewed Avith justice, perhaps acknowledged with gratitude." lie studied the Christian Scriptures with profound atten- tion, and held their maxims in great veneration. But the mischiefs he had seen result from a plurality of gods, led him to reject the doctrine of the Trinity, which he saw would inevitably degenerate into a new form of Polytheism, if received into minds trained like the Hindoos. But ho believed that Christ was pre-existent, and of a nature superior to angels, which is extremely analogous to ideas HINDOSTAN, OR INDIA. 137 entertained hy various Hindoo sects concerning their own saints. He translated into Sanscrit and Bengalee the parables and moral teachings of Christ, entitled " The Precepts of Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness.'' He omitted the miracles and doctrinal })ortions of the Gospels. In the Introdaction he says: "Belief in a Supreme Super- intending Power, the author and preserver of this har- monious system, prevails generally ; being derived either from tradition and instruction, or from an attentive survey of the wonderful skill and contrivance displayed in the works of nature. A due estimation of that law which teaches man to do unto others as he would be done by, is also partially taught in every system of religion with which I am acquainted ; but it is principally inculcated by Christianity. This essential characteristic of the Christian religion I was for a long time unable to distinguish as such, amid the various doctrines I found insisted on in the writings and convei'sationof Christians. I feel persuaded that the moral precepts of the New Testament, separated from other matters contained in that book, will be more likely to improve the hearts and minds of men of different persuasions and degrees of understanding. The historical, and some other portions, are liable to the doubts and dis- putes of free-thinkers and anti-Christians; especially the miraculous relations, which are much less wonderful than the fabricated tales handed down to the natives of Asia, and consequently apt at best to carry little weight with them. The Hindoos have records of wonderful miracles performed by their saints and incarnated gods, in the presence of cotemporary friends and enemies, the w^ise and the ignorant, the select and the multitude. The orthodox sects can even support them with authorities from their inveterate enemies, the Jains, who acknowledge entirely the truth of these miracles, and only differ in maintaining that the power to perform them was derived from Evil Spirits, while the orthodox believe it was given by the Supreme Deity. But moral doctrines, tending evidently to the peace and harmony of mankind at large, are beyond Vol. 1.-12* 188 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. the reach of metapl}3-sical perversion, and intelligible alike to learned and unlearned. This simple code of religion and morality is so well fitted to regulate the conduct of the human race, in the discharge of their various duties to God and society ; it is so admirably calculated to elevate their minds to high and liberal ideas of One God, who has equally subjected all living creatures to disappointment, pain, and death, without distinction of caste, rank, or wealth, and equally admitted all as partakers of the boun- tiful mercies he has lavished over nature, that I cannot but hope the best effects from its promulgation in the present form." Doubtless seed scattered from such friendly motives will produce good fruit in the great harvest-field of the future. But during the life-time of Rammohun Roy his suppres- sion of the miracles, and the reasons assigned for it, in- volved him in protracted controversies with Christian missionaries, and occasioned, as he says, " much coolness toward him in the demeanour of some whose friendship he held very dear." At the same time, his high estunate of the Christian religion rendei'cd him an object of persecu- tion to his own countrj^men. They instituted legal pro- ceedings to deprive him of caste; but he was enabled to defeat them by his profound knowledge of Hindoo law. In 1833 he was induced to visit England; and on that distant shore his great soul depai-ted from its earthly habi- tation. When he found himself dangerously ill, he deemed it prudent to guard against further attacks on his property and the caste of his children. He therefore called his Hindoo servant and charged him to observe well all his words and actions, that on his return to India he might testify he had never changed his religion or forfeited his caste. For the same reasons, he expressed a wish not to be buried in a Christian cemetery. His remains were ac- cordingly placed in a grove belonging to the house where he died. The followers of the Rraminical religion arc comj^JUteJ at over one hund'-ed and fifty niilli(Mis. EGYPT. 139 EGYPT. "The fiiculty of reverence is inherent in all men, and its naiural exei • else is always to be sympathized with, irrcspe'Jiive of its objects. I did not wait till I went to Egy[)t, to become aware that every permanent reverential observance has some great idea at tiie bottom of it; and tliat it is our business not to deride, or be shocked at the method of inavifesta- tiou, but to endeavour to apprehend the idea concerned." — H. Maktixeau. IIlSTOEY and poetry have preserved traditions of an extraordinary race of men, called Ethiopians. The name is from Greek words signifying burnt faces ; and the an- cients appear to have applied it to people browned by the sun, whether their complexions were black, or merely dark. According to a map made to represent the ideas of Ilerodotus concerning the world, as expressed in his History, about four hundred years before our era, there were two nations of Ethiopians ; one in Asia, on the banks of the Indus, another in the northern portion of Africa. There is evidence that these people were powerful and illustrious, as far back as the Trojan war, about one thou- sand one hundred and eighty-four years before our era. Memnon then reigned over them, and it is recorded that he assisted Priam, king of Troy, against the invasion of the Greeks. Homer calls them "the blameless men ;" and relates that Jupiter, at certain seasons of the year, left Olympus and w^ent to spend twelve days in that pious and hospitable region, Egyptian annals are full of allusions to them. Persia, and other old Asiatic nations, mingle Ethiopian legends with songs composed in honour of their own heroes. Herodotus says they worshipped the gods with extremest veneration. The ancient historian, Diodo- rus Siculus, declares that they were the religious parents 1-JO PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. of the Egyptians, the inventors of pompg, sacrifices, and solemn assemblies. The Hebrew poets gejierally mention Ethiopia in connection with Egypt. Isaiah speaks of " the labour of Egypt, and the merchandise of Ethiopia." Jere- miah describes "the mighty men, Ethiopians and Libyans, that handle the shield," as coming forth with the Egyp- tians to battle. Ezekiel says: "Great pain shall be in. Ethiopia, when the slain shall fall in Egypt." It is re- corded that Meroe was the capital of the ancient Ethiopia in Africa. Current tradition declared that Thoth, whom Greeks called Hermes, founded this state, more than five thousand two hundred years ago ; and the date is said to be authenticated by a very old astronomical observation. Traditions handed down by the Egyptian priesthood agreed that in Meroe was laid the foundation of the most ancient states of Egypt. Thebes, the first civilized state of Egypt, is believed to have been founded by a colony from thence. The obscurity which rests on this part of history has been somewhat enlightened within the last century, by the dis- covery of the site of ancient Meroe, in the country now called Sennaar, and comprised within African Ethiopia on the map marked according to Herodotus. Many small pyramids were found there, which, from their number, are supposed to indicate a burial-place. They are constructed like the Hindoo pyramids, fronting the east, and the four sides facing the four cardinal points. They have external marks of greater age than the huge pyramids at Memphis. Herodotus says: "The only gods worshipped in Meroe are Amnion and Osiris. They have also an oracle of Am- nion, and undertake their expeditions when and how the god commands." The temple where these oracles were delivered is recorded to have been in the desert, at a little distance from the city. Modern travellers have discovered the ruins of a temple in the desert, near the collection of small pyramids, liams' horns are sculptured in many places on the stones; and the I'am is well known to have Ix'cn an emblem sacred to Ammon, and the distinguishing ni;irk iA' liis temples. In the inmost sanctuary of these EGYPT. 141 temples was a Sacred Sliip, enclosed in a, shrine, and screened by a veil. When the oracle was to be consulted, a procession of priests carried about this Ship, in its porta- ble sanctuary, placed on poles, which thej rested on their shoulders. From certain movements of the ship, durino- their religious ceremonies, omens were gathered, according to which the High Priest delivered the oracle. The government of Meroe was in the hands of a caste of priests, Vvdio, guided by the oracle, selected one of their own order for king. When this choice was announced to the people, they fell down and adored him, as the repre- sentative of their god Ammon, who had appointed him to rule over them. He was obliged to live and govern according to laws prescribed by the priests. When the oracle intlicated that a change of rulers was necessary, the High Priest sent a messenger that the god commanded him to die, and that mortals must not seek to evade divine decrees. AVhence did this powerful priesthood come? Many learned men maintain that they came from that part of Ethiopia said to be on the banks of the Indus ; that is, from Indus-stan, which we call Hindostan. The points of resemblance between the opinions and customs of India and Egypt are too numerous and too obvious to be over- looked by any one who even glances at the subject. Some scholars, with less probability on their side, maintain that Egypt is the oldest, and that Hindostan was settled by colonies from thence. One thing is certain and undisputed, namely, that a very ancient and very intimate relation existed between the two countries. Meroe, by its location, was the centre of a great caravan trade known to have been carried on in very early ages, between India and Egypt and Arabia. It has been already stated that the Pouranas of Hindostan contain records of two remarkable emigrations from that country to Egypt, at a ver^^ remote period. The first were the "Yadavas, or sacred race," who fled from the oppressions of Cansa, the same tyrant who caused so many children to be slaughtered when he 142 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. was seeking the life of Crishna. The date they assign to this event agrees very well with the date which tradition ascribes to the first settlement at Meroe ; and the Yadavas are conspicuous in the history of Crishna. The other emi- gration recorded in the Pouranas is that of powerful tribes, called Pali, or Shepherds, who governed from Indus to Ganges, and enlarged their empire by conquests in Misra- stahn [their word for the Land of Egypt], where one of their princes became so wealthy that " he raised three mountains, one of gold, one of silver, and one of gems." This is snpposed by some to describe the three great Pyramids, at Memphis, one of which was originally overlaid with white marble, another with yellow marble, and the third with spotted marble, of fine grain, susceptible of exquisite polish. Many scholars consider the Pali identical with the powerful tribes of Asiatic Etliiopians, described by Herodotus, and supposed to dwell on the banks of the Indus. Others conjecture they were Assyrians, or Phoenicians. Manetho, who was High Priest at Heliopolis in Egypt, about three hundred and four years before the Christian era, wrote a history of Egypt from the earliest times, in the Greek language. He professed to have taken it from inscriptions engraved by Thotli, or Hermes, on stone pillars, in the sacred characters. These he declares were afterward written in books, and laid up in the inmost recesses of the temples, to which he, of course, had access. A few fragments of Manetho's History have been handed down to us. In these it is stated that Egypt was overrun "by a race of Shepherds from the East," in the reign of their king Timoeus; which some computations ])lace four thousand two hundred and sixty years ago, and others much earlier. He informs us that some said these invaders were Arabians. Among the ])roofs (jf a very intimate connection, in some way, between India and ]^^gy|)t, the following may be men- tioned. In both countries there was a powerful hereditar_y priesthood, who had exclusive possession of the tSacred Books, and ul" all the learning extant in their time; con* -cYi'.. 148 8equ(>ntly, lliev were tlio only judges, pliysicians, and ustroiioiiieiw. jlu dulu uoiuilmcs, lue leligiun Oi lug [Jiic&ia was carefully kept secret from the people; and the conse- quence was that the most grotesque and monstrous forms a})peared on the surface of society, while high spiritual allegories and profound metaphysical inquiries were con- cealed behind the veil. Both countries were originally governed by priests, and afterward kings were chosen from the warrior caste, but were regulated and controlled by the priests. In both countries society was divided into castes, of which the sacerdotal was the highest. In both, the priests married, but there was no female priesthood. Both had a language for sacred purposes, which was different from the vernacular tongue. Both believed that bathing in holy rivers, or being drowned in them, would confer peculiar sanctity. Both believed there was an immense reservoir of waters above the firmament, whence those rivers flowed. Both believed in a fifth element above our atmosphere, called ether, which the gods breathed, as mortals breathe air. In both places, priests taught to the higher castes that all souls emanated from One Universal Soul, in successive gradations. Both taught that there were ascending spheres of existence above this earth. Both taught the transmigration of human souls into animals. The same animals were considered sacred in both places. There was similarity in their religious festivals and pro- cessions, especially in the custom of carrying their sacred images from one temple to another, in great four-wheeled cars. The architecture of ancient Egypt bore a striking resemblance to that of India. Both suggested the idea of grottoes or caverns, and were characterized by the same style of ornaments. The pyramid was a form prescribed for sacred buildings in both countries, therefore a truncated pyramid generally formed the main entrance to the temples. There was always a sanctuary into which none but the priests entered, and the outer courts were for the people. Both decorated their temples with flags on festival occasions Both made similar offerings to the ffods. The trial of 144 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. departed souls by the Judge of tlie Dead is sculptured on Hindoo and Egyptian walls, and they are so similar that one might be mistaken for the other. Their astronomical systems were alike. They represented the signs of the zodiac by tlie same emblems, consecrated a day to each of the seven planets successively, and made the same calcula- tions concerning alternate destructions and reproductions of this world. It is said by the learned, that the Egyptian language bears very few and slight analogies to the Sanscrit ; and no traces of the hieroglyphic writing have yet been discovered in India. But Bruce, the traveller, says that the language spoken at Masuah, not far from Meroe, is substan- tially Sanscrit. Many places mentioned by Mango Park, in liis Second Journey to Africa, have Sanscrit names, which are actually current in India at the present day. The Nile was formerly designated by a Sanscrit word, signifying dark blue ; and the same name was anciently given to the river Indus. Alexander the Great thought he had dis- covered the source of the Nile in India. He was probably inisled by the coincidence of names, and the crocodiles and lotus-blossoms, which abounded in both rivers. Blumen- bach, the celebrated naturalist, had in his possession the skull of an Egyptian mummy, and of a Hindoo; and he said they bore a more striking resemblance to each other than any other two skulls in his collection. Paintings on the walls convey the same idea of similarity in their persons. In both places, the higher castes are represented with a lighter and brighter colour than the lower, who are more darkened by exposure to sun and wind. Denon says the ))ictures of couches, chairs, and other articles in ancient Egyptian tombs, obviously indicate that they were made of a species of wood brought from India. If tlie Egyptians still existed as a nation, and had pre- served their old customs and Sacred BooLs, as the Hindoos have done, it woidd doubtless be easy to find many more resemblances. But Egypt has passed away from the face of tIk! earth, and only l)y persevering industry has learning been able to trace a lew of her footsteps. What we know EGYPT. . 145 of her history and opinions is mainly derived from the testimony of wise and illustrious men, who were drawn thither by her renown for knowledge in arts, sciences, and religious mysteries. Abraham is supposed to have lived nearly four thousand years ago. That Egypt was already famous in his time is testified by Josephus, historian of the Jews, who informs us that Abraham went down thither, to become an auditor of the priests, and compare their religious ideas with his own. Herodotus, the oldest Greek historian, visited Egj'pt about four hundred and forty-eight years before Christ, to collect materials from the priests, who were celebi^ated for having carefully preserved the records of past ages. His history has come down safely to the present time. In less than a hundred years after, Plato, the most cele- brated of the Gi-eek philosophers, was drawn to Egypt by the renown of priestly schools at Heliopolis, and resided there several years. Many of his writings are preserved, and they contain frequent allusions to the Egyptians. Strabo, author of a Greek geographical work, describing the manners and customs of different nations, went to Egypt about fifty years after the Christian era. Heliopolis, eclipsed by the new city of Alexandria, was then going to decay, and the priests were no longer among the most learned of their age ; but they talked of departed glory, and pointed out to him their once famous schools, and the house where Plato had resided. This book is also extant. The ancient Egyptian priests claimed immense antiquity for their country. They told Herodotus that Egypt was originally governed by gods; of whom there first reigned a series of eight, then a series of twelve, then a series of twelve more; that these rulers had uniformly one Superior among them; and the last of them were Osiris and his son Horus. By this government of gods it is naturally su])- posed they meant successive orders of j^riests, each with a Sovereign Pontiff, bearing the name of the deity to whose service he was devoted, and by whose oracular directions Vol. I.— 13 a 146 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. lie professed to govern. Thus if a priest of Ammon was chosen ruler, they called it being governed by Ammon ; if a priest of Osiris was elected, they called it the govern- ment of Osiris. From the reign of Osiris to their king Amasis, they reckoned fifteen thousand years; and Amasis reigned five hundred and sixty-nine years before Christ. Herodotus says: "On this subject, the Egyptians have no doubts; for they profess to have always computed the years, and to have kept written accounts of them with the minutest accuracy." It was customary for every high priest of Ammon during his life-time to deposit in the great temple at Thebes a statue of himself. They pointed out to Herodotus three hundred and forty one of these colossal wooden images, assuring him that no one of them was the statue of a god, but all were mortal men, and priests, in a direct line of succession from father to son ; all of them after the reign of the gods. Allowing three generations of men to be equal to one hundred years, he computed that this succession required an interval of eleven thousand three hundred and forty years. We are in the habit of calling the Greeks the ancients, but they considered themselves a nation of yesterday com- pared with the Egyptians. Plato visited Egypt about three hundred years later than Solon, the lawgiver of Athens; and he informs us that when Solon inquired of the priests concerning ancient affairs, he perceived that, compared with them, neither he nor any other of the Greeks had any knowU^dge of very remote antiquity. AVhen he began to discourse concerning what seemed to him the most ancient events, such as the Deluge of Deucalion, one of the oldest of the priests exclaimed: "Solon, Solon, you Greeks are always children. All your souls arc juvenile; neither containing any ancient opinion derived from remoter tradition, nor any discipline hoary from its cxisteiiee in remote periods of time. You mention one deluge only, whereas many have happened." Thcsc! statciiiciits of Kgyi>tian priests are rejected aa fabulous ; but the great antiquity of their counti'y is proved EGYPT. 147 beyond dispute hj sculptures and liieroglypliic wrilinji, cut into the solid rock of ancient temples, tombs, and palaces. The dry climate and sandy soil were favourable to their preservation. There was no frost to heave them, no rainy season to corrode the durable material. For centuries after this wonderful people had passed away, their gigantic memorials stood in the solitude of waste places, seldom seen by the eye of man. The marvellous accounts of travellers at last attracted general attention toward them, and within the last half century, France and England havo devoted much money and learning to the careful investiga- tion of these stupendous monuments. The task was attended with difficulties apparently insurmountable; for the secret of hieroglyphic writing had been lost for ages, and no man could reveal it. But when the French army were digging the foundations of a fort, at Eosetta, in Egypt, they found a large block of stone containing an inscription in three different characters ; one in Greek, one in the common Egyptian writing, and one in the sacred characters used only by the priests. Underneath them all, it was recorded that the same inscription had been ordered to be engraved in three forms. The Greek language was familiar to scholars, and a clue to the other unknown characters was thus obtained. But the stone was much mutilated, and though several names remained in the Greek portion, un- fortunately only that of Ptolemy remained in hieroglyphics. The base of an obelisk, with an inscription in Greek and in hieroglyphics, was afterward discovered at Philoe. The names of Ptolemy and Cleopatra in hieroglyphics were well preserved, and the letters common to both were written in the same manner; they were therefore con- cluded to be signs of sound, which we call letters. This feeble ray of light was applied by learned men of different nations, with inconceivable perseverance and ingenuit3\ One after another added something to the stock of knowl- edge, until at last an available system was formed. The Coptic language is a relic of the old vernacular tongue of Egypt, and various writings were preserved in it. M. 148 PilOGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Champollion, an acute Frenchman, had studied it almost from boyhood, and was thus enabled to bring another ray of light to the investigation of hieroglyphics. lie dis- covered that the alphabet consisted of images of external objects, and represented the first letter of that object's name in the common Egyptian language ; as if in English we should make a dog for D, a cat for C, and a serpent for S. Many and great difficulties remained. One of the most troublesome was the custom of omitting vowels in hiero- glyphics, and writing only the consonants. AVithout attempting to give a detailed account of the numerous obstacles, it is sufficient to say that by great learning, labour, and patience, several inscriptions on the ancient monuments have been satisfactorily deciphered. On a stone tablet discovered at Karnak are engraved the names of a successive series of sixty-one kings. We suppose that Moses lived about three thousand four hun- dred and forty-nine years ago; and the latest of these kings was prior to the date we assign to Moses. Several ancient authors agree in testifying that Menei, commonly called Menes, was the first king; and their statement has been confirmed by engravings on monu- ments, and writings on papyrus. Menei is an abbreviation of Amun-ei, signifying "he who walks with Amun ;" by which his cotemporaries understood " he who walks with God." According to Manetho's list of kings, he reigned seven thousand seven hundred and sixteen years ago. The statements of that old historian concerning many of the later kings, though long doubted, have of late years been remarkably corroborated by the monuments ; but his testimony with regard to Menes is rejected. Josephus says tiiis ancient king lived more than one thousand three hun- dred years before Solomon, who was born one thousand thirty-three years before Christ. Some modern scholars carry the date of Menes as far back as two thousand eight liundred and ninety years before our era; others bring it as near to it as two thousand two hundred years. The learned on this subject su])pose two thousand seven huQ' EGYPT. 149 dred and fifty years before Christ to be a near approxima- tion to the truth. The Italian Marquis Spineto, who carefully investigated this subject, says: "The first period of Egyptian history begins with the establishment of their government, and comprehends the time from Misraim to Menes, during which all religious and political authority was in the hands of the priesthood, who laid the first foundation of the future power of Eg3^pt, founding and embellishing the great city of Thebes, building magnificent temples, and instituting the Mysteries of Isis." The ancient religion of Egypt, like that of Hindostan, was founded on astronomy, and eminently metaphysical in its character. In common with other oriental nations, they supposed the origin of the world was from a dark chaos. Soul existed from eternity, and by its action upon Matter, chaos was brought into form, and out of darkness beamed forth light. The fiery particles ascended and formed the firmament of luminaries; the heavier portions descended, and formed earth and sea, whence animals and plants proceeded. From the Eternal Soul were evolved successive emanations of Spiritual Intelligences, more or less elevated in character and office, according to their nearness or remoteness from the Central Source. The Source of Being was never represented by any painting or sculpture. Those who understood the religion of Egypt, considered the deities mere emblematical repre- sentations' of his various attributes. The first emanation from him was Amun, whom Greeks called Jupiter Am- nion. He was supposed to dwell in a radiant upper sphere, far above the subordinate deities. He is described as "The Male Origin of all things;" "The Spirit of the Supreme, moving on the face of the waters ;" " The Spirit who animates and perpetuates the world, by mixing him- self with all its parts;" "He who brings to light hidden things;" "Lord of the Three Regions-'' "The King of Gods." His image Avas always painted dark blue, and represented with a Ram's head and horns ; probably with Vol. 1.— 13* 150 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. 6ome reference to the constellation, wliich bears that name; therefore a ram's head became a sacred amulet, worn by the devout as a protection against evil.. As Creative Wis- dom, he was named Amun-Cneph. As the Intellectual, or Spiritual Sun, he was called Amun-Ea. His worship was universal, but he was peculiarly the presiding deity of Thebes, which was founded by a colony from Meroe. Tradition declared that the Ethiopians were his first ■worshippers ; and it is supposed that Homer's legend con- cerning Jupiter's visit to "the blameless men," had refer- ence to an annual procession of the priests of Jupiter Ammon at Thebes, up the Nile to some place consecrated by the worship their ancestors had offered. The image of the god was probably carried on a great car, according to Hindoo custom. Phtha, belonging to the higher class of gods, was called the son of Amun Gneph, and said to have proceeded from an egg formed by him. To Phtha was attributed the invention of science, by which the laws of nature were arranged. He was considered the founder of the dynasties of Egypt: therefore kings often took the title "Beloved of Phtha." In the royal city of Memphis, which was consecrated to him, he had a magnificent temple, splen- didly adorned, where the grand ceremony of the inaugu- ration of Egyptian kings was performed with great pomp. Of all Egyptian deities, Osiris is the name most familiar to modern ears. He was formerly supposed to be a mere representation of the visible sun; but increasing knowl- edge on the subject proves that he embodied a more com- prehensive idea. It has been already shown how the Hindoo mind deified the active and passive powers of f>:encration. The same tendency was manifested in Egypt. Osiris did not represent this power in any one department of nature. He ap])oars to have been, like Siva in his ^'(•iiial ca])acity, The Fructifying Power of the Universe, 'i'iie emblems of the sun were sacred to him, and astro- nomical ceremonies of worship typified him as the sun, to whose rays the earth owes her fi-uitl'ulncss. His worship EGYPT. 151 was mingled with that of the god of their holy river, named Nilus; and the sculptures often represent him as sprinkling manure on the earth, because to his pervad- ing warmth the river, at its annual overflow, owes its fertilizing power. Because plants cannot germinate with- out water, vases full of it were carried at the head of processions in honour of Osiris, and his votaries refrained from destroying or polluting any spring. This reverence for the production of Life introduced into his worship the sexual emblem so common in llindostan. A colossal image of this kind was presented to his temple in Alex- andria, by king Ptolemy Pliiladelphus. Crowned with gold, and surmounted by a goWen star, it was cariied in a splendid chariot in the midst of religious processions. A Serpent, the emblem of Immortality, always accompanies the image of Osiris. The Hawk was considered a bird of the Sun, and was therefore sacred to him ; and his body was often represented with the head of a hawk. The emblem which signilicd his name was the orb of the sun on the head of a hawk. This formed the winged globe, so conspicuous in Egyptian architecture. Osii-is was called "the oldest son of Time, and cousin of the Day." Being a general representative of the Gen- erating Principle, whether existing in sunshine, water, or the production of animal life, there was a mingling of ceremonies and emblems in his worship, which has greatly puzzled those wdio seek to understand the mythology of Egypt. To increase the difficulty, he is often represented as a beneficent ruler on earth, at whose birth it was said a loud voice proclaimed, " The Lord of the World is born !" He taught men how to prepare corn and cultivate grapes, and went forth t(j carry arts and agriculture to other nations, leaving his wife Isis to govern in his absence. On his return, his brother Tj^pho, by a successful stratagem, shut him up in a chest and threw him into the sea. Isis wandered about in mourning garments, seeking for the body, which she at last found; but Typho discovered it, and tore it into fourteen pieces. Isis gathered the fragments 152 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. ind gave tliem burial. Osiris, having thus performed his benevolent mission on earth, descended into Amenti, the Kegion of the Dead, and liaving passed through its stages, ascended to a higher hfe, where he remained to dispense blessings to the world, in answer to their prayers in his name, and finally to overcome the Evil Principle, that had destroyed him. Henceforth, one of his principal offices was to judge the dead, and rule over that heavenly region where souls of good men were admitted to eternal felicity. It is not easy to determine whether this account is an alle- gory, containing some hidden meaning, or whether it indicates a belief in the incarnation of Osiris. He was universally worshipped, but peculiarly at Philoe, where he was supposed to be buried. At stated seasons, the priests went in solemn procession and crowned his tomb with flowers. So sacred was the island, that no one was permitted to approach it without express permission from the priests. Here were celebrated the Great Mys- teries of Osiris, carefully guarded from all eyes and ears, save of those who had been initiated by severe probation. In a ruined temple at Philce is a chamber, on the walls of which the mysterious life of Osiris is represented in a succession of sculptures. Twenty-eight Lotus plants indi- cate the number of years he was supposed to have lived on earth. His passage from this life is shown by the at- tendance of deities and genii, that presided over funerals. lie is then represented with a crook in one hand, and a flagellum, or Avhip, in the other, as Judge of the Dead : the office which he held ever after his ascension to a higher life. Cliampollion says the double destiny of the soul was symbolized by the march of the sun through the upper and lower hemisphere. This might be an additional reason why O.siris, as Judge of Souls and Lord of the Heavenly Region, where they received reward, should have the em- blems and worship of the sun. On the walls of ruins in various places occur representations of the dead at their Jast ordeal. Osiris, seated on his throne, accompanied by Isis, receives a tablet on which the god Thoth has recorded EGYPT. 153 tlie actions of the deceased, after they have been weighed ill the balance of Thinei, goddess of Truth. Horus, al- ways represented as a child, is sometimes seated on a Lotus before the throne, sometimes on the crook of Osiris. He was the symbol of resuscitation, or new birth ; and was placed there to express the Egyptian idea that nothing is ever annihilated ; that to die was only to pass into a new form. As Judge of the Dead, who assigned to souls new bodies, celestial or terrestrial, Osiris was the dispenser of Immortal Life, and this was probably the reason why a Serpent was always one of his appendages. Though he belonged to the third series of gods, he was more revered than even the eight highest deities. Amun Ra is represented in the scul})tures as making offerings to him. It was deemed irreverent to utter his name. He- rodotus mentions him as "one whose name I am not at liberty to disclose." The most sacred form of oath was, " I swear by him who was buried at Philce." This pecu- liar sacredness appears to indicate that he was the only god in their mythology represented as incarnated in a human form, and dwelling among men. Every human soul was considered as an emanation from the Divine Soul, and eternally a portion of it. But that was quite different from the idea of a Deity voluntarily descending from blest abodes, performing a benevolent mission among men, suf- fering death, and rising again to the higher reoions, thence to dispense blessings on his faithful worshippers. This history of the incarnation was one of the most important of their I'eligious mj^steries; and so carefully was it guarded by the priests, that little can now be learned of its purport. It may be that some wise and beneficent ruler, perhaps a Higii Priest of Osiris, was believed to be the Deity himself descended on earth for the benefit of mankind, as Hindoos believed concerning their princes Rama and Crishna. Wilkinson, in his valuable work on the Ancient Egyptians, pronounces the whole story purely allegorical. Herodotus sa3'S that when the priests of Amun showed him the three hundred and forty-one J* 154 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. statues, they assured him that every one of them was a man and the son of a man ; and " they asserted that during all that time no Deity had appeared in a human form ; but they did not say the same of the time anterior to that account, or that of the kings who reigned after- ward," The worship of Osiris must have been of extremely ancient date ; for he is I'epresented as Judge of the Dead, in sculptures cotemporary with the building of the Pyra* mids, centuries before Abraham was born. Among the many hieroglyphic titles which accompany his figure in those sculptures, and in many other places on the walls of temples and tombs, are " Lord of Life," " The Eternal Euler," "Manifester of Good," "Eevealer of Truth," " Full of Goodness and Truth." Ea, the son of Plitha, represented the visible Sun, and presided over the physical universe. Heliopolis, which means the City of the Sun, was consecrated to him. His worship was performed there with great splendour, and his priests were renowned for learning. The Moon was a masculine deity in Egypt, as in Hin- dostan. Thoth, whom Greeks call Hermes, is supposed to have represented its beneficent qualities. He also presided over learning, was supposed to impart all mental gifts, and to be the medium of communication between gods and human beings. He is represented as the secretary of Osiris, standing before him with a pen or stylus, in his hand, writing on a tablet. To him are attributed the invention of the alphabet, astronomy, arithmetic, music, dancing, writing, and laws. Listead of one deity who alternately destroyed and reproduced, like the Hindoo Siva, Egyptians represented the Destroyer as twin brother with Osiris, and named liim Typho. He was god of Darkness and Eclipse. All bad influences were attributed to him, such as drought, disease, deluge, and conflagration. The sea was considered under his dominion, on account of its being such a dan- gerous and destructive clement. He is represented in the EGYPT. 155 sculptures as a fi'ii^litful monster, with tlie ravaging hip- popotamus for a symbol. Among the goddesses, the highest was Neith, who reigned inseparably with Amun in the upper sphere. She was called " Mother of the Gods ;" " Mother of the Sun." She was the feminine origin of all things, as Amun was the male origin. She presided over wisdom, philosophy, militarj' tactics, and the moral attributes of the mind. Her s\mibol was a vulture, by which the Egyptians, for some unknown reason, represented maternity. She held the same rank at Sais that Amun did at Thebes. Her temples there are said to have exceeded in colossal grandeur anj-- thing ever before seen. On one of these was the celebrated inscription thus deciphered by ChampoUion : "I am all that has been, all that is, and all that will be. No mortal has ever raised the veil that conceals me. My offspring is the Sun." Isis, supposed to be the same as the Hindoo Isa or Isi, was universally worshipped, and held in peculiar reverence, though she belonged to the inferior series of deities. She was the daughter of Time, twin sister and wife of Osiris, with whom she is everywhere inseparably united. It was formerly supposed she signified the Moon ; but her office, like that of Osiris, was much more extensive than the benefits of any one luminary. She was the universal Pas- sive Principle of Generation, as he was the Active Principle. She was the recipient, or mould, of the Life he imparted. To her was ascribed the/orm of all good in the universe, as to Osiris was ascribed the soul of all good. She was Nature, the fruitful mother and nurse, containing within herself germs of the reproduction of all forms of life. Hence her symbol was the egg. Both she and Osiris are frequently represented holding the Egyptian Cross, Emblem of Life. This universal benefactress is said to have had ten thousand titles ; the most common was the Potent Mother Goddess. She presided over agriculture, and men no longer butchered each other after she had revealed to them the valuable qualities of wheat and barley, which had till then grown 156 riiOGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. wild ; therefore they presented to her the first sheaves of their harvests as an offeriusr. The dew that refreshed the earth was venerated as the tears of Isis, in memory of her lost Osiris. A ship was carried in the celebration of her festivals ; perhaps to indicate that her worship was im ported into Egypt. As goddess of health, she was believed to heal human diseases. Many medicines continued to be called by her name, even as late as the time of Galen, a famous Greek physician, who lived a hundred and thirty- one years after Christ. She was particularly worshipped at Memphis, where her Mysteries were celebrated with much pomp and ceremony. The festival continued eight daj's, during which some of her votaries scourged them- selves severely at her altars. The sculptures represent this favourite goddess in a great variety of forms and offices. Sometimes she has a human head with horns, sometimes a cow's head. Sometimes she wears an Egyp- tian hood, sometimes she is crowned with Lotus blossoms; often she is shrouded m a dark blue veil. She holds in her hand a staff like a crosier, or a Lotus stem, or the sacred musical instrument called sistrum. Sometimes she is nursing her infant Horus, son of Osiris ; sometimes she has the babe seated on her knee, receiving worship from those around her, with a guardian hawk over her head, encircled by radii of water-plants. This holy family of Egypt seems to have been a favourite subject with those old artists. Sometimes they represent Isis protecting the body of Osiris with her outstretched wings. She is always by his side in Amenti, where he presides as Judge of the Dead. She reigned with him while he was on earth, and when she died, they believed her soul Avas transferred to Sirius, which they call Sothis. Divine honours were paid to this resplendent star, which was consecrated to Isis, and deemed the Birth Star of our world. At the season when it rose before the sun, and could therefore be visible in its own light, commenced the inundation of the Nile, which spread fertility all over the land. One of the titles of Isia was, " Sh(! who rises in the Dog Star." Prayers addressed EGYPT, 167 to her were believed to have great efficacy. Plutarch relates that Garmathone, Queen of Egypt, having lost her son, prayed fervently to Isis, at whose intercession Osiris descended to the region of departed souls, and restored the prince to life. Egyptians believed in a host of subordinate deities, with attendant genii in each department. Tlie twelve months were governed by the Spirits of the twelve signs of the zodiac. Each day was under the guardianship of the planet to which it was consecrated. The stars were ani- mated with Souls, supposed to take an active interest in the affairs of this world. In hieroglyphic writing, a Star signifies a Ministering Spirit. Canopus, God of Waters, was an object of grateful worship ; so was old Nil us, the deity of their fertilizing river, who was always represented by a black image. Kham, with the goddess Ranno, pre- sided over the fruitfulness of Gardens and Vineyards. Her symbol was a small serpent, which they, as well as the Hindoos, supposed to protect such places, , Anouke, guar- dian of purity and household ties, is represented with a Lotus in one hand, and the Emblem of Life in the other. Every human being had an attendant Spirit, from birth to death. Beneficent Spirits preserved health ; evil ones en- tered into men, and produced fits and other diseases. Air. earth, water, stones, plants, and animals, were all supposed to be under the influence of genii, good or bad. Eeverence for the mystery of organized life led to the recognition of a masculine and feminine principle in all things, spiritual or material. Every elemental force was divided into two, the parents of other forces. The active wind was masculine, the passive mist, or inert atmosphere, was feminine. Rocks were masculine, the productive earth feminine. The presiding deity of every district was repre- sented as a Triad, or Trinity. At Thebes, it was Amun, the creative Wisdom ; Neith, the spiritual Mother ; and a third, supposed to represent the Universe. At Philoe, it was Osiris, the Generating Cause ; Isis, the Receptive Mould ; and Horus, the result. The sexual emblems Vol. I.— 14 158 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. everywhere conspicuous in tlie sculptures of their templea Avould seem impure in description, but no clean and thoughtful mind could so regard them while witnessing the obvious simplicity and solemnity with which the sub- ject is treated. Concerning future states of existence, they held views very similar to those taught by the Bramins. The human soul was regarded as an emanation from the Universal Soul, and a portion of him. It had fallen from a state of purity and bliss, and was sent into this world for expiation. Eventuall}^, it would be absorbed in the Eternal Source, after many transmigrations through a great variety of forms. Herodotus says, " The Egyptians are the first of mankind who asserted that the soul of man is immortal. When the body perishes, they believe it enters the form of a newly-born animal ; but when it has passed through all animals of the earth, water, and air, it again returns to a human body. They affirm that this series of transmi- grations is completed in three thousand j^ears." The expression of Herodotus seems to imply return to a new human body. But it is generally supposed that they expected the soul would come back, at the end of that period, to the same body it formerly inhabited ; and there seems no other way of accounting for the great care and expense bestowed on embalming the dead, the size and magnificence of the tombs built for their reception, and the numerous convenient and valuable articles usually deposited therein. Biodorus Siculus says: "The Egyptians consider this life as of very trifling consequence, and they therefore value in proportion a quiet repose after death. This leads them to consider the habitations of the living as mere lodg- ings, in which as travellers they put up for a short time; while they call the sepulchres of the dead everlasting dwellings, because; the dead continue in the grave such an immeasurable length of time. They therefore pay but little attention to the building of their houses, but bestow cost and care, scarcely credible, upon their sepulchres." EGYPT. 159 Before a funeral, a tribunal of forty members was assem- bled to inquire into tlie cliaracter of the deceased, and decide whether he was worthy of burial. Every one was free to appear as accuser, but false charges were severely punished. If the departed one was adjudged worthy of sepulture, deities were invoked to receive him among the just, and with many solemn ceremonies he was consigned to the tomb. All the dead, both men and women, were spoken of as Osiriana; by which they intended to signify "gone to Osiris," Their belief in One Supreme Being, and the im- mortality of the soul, must have been very ancient; for on a monument, which dates ages before Abraham, is found this epitaph : " May thy soul attain to the Creator of all mankind." Sculptures and paintings in these grand re- ceptacles of the dead, as translated by Champollion, repre- sent the deceased ushered into the world of spirits by funeral deities, who announce, " A soul arrived in Amenti !" Forty two Assessors of the Dead presided over the fort3^-two sins to which Egyptians believed human beings were subject. Each of these assessors in turn question the spirit that has just parted from its body: " Have you blasphemed ? Have you stolen sacred property ? Have you lied y Have you been licentious? Have you shaken your head at the words of truth ?" (meaning, "Have you been sceptical ?") Thoth produces the Book of Life, on which he has recorded the moral life of this soul. The S3'mbols of his actions are put in scales of Thmei, Goddess of Truth and Justice, " who weighs hearts in the balance ; no sinner escapes her." These records are presented to Osiris the Judge, and if they are favourable, he raises his sceptre as a signal to pass into the abodes of the blest. Little is now known concerning the nature of the happiness supposed to be in those regions. It is mentioned that Osiris ordered the names of some souls to be written on the Tree of Life, the fruit of which made those who ate it to become as gods. Eathcr more is known concerning the nature and degrees of punishment. They believed there 160 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. were tliree zones for the residence of souls. The lowesi was this earth, a zone of trial ; the second was the zone of the air, perpetually convulsed by winds and storms, a place of temporary punishment; the third and highest was an ethereal zone of rest and peace. In several of the sculptures there are indications of punishment by transmigration into inferior forms. Spineto speaks of one, where, on a flight of steps, which formed a communication between Amenti and the world, the deceased was represented in the form of a dog, with his tail between his legs, striving to escape from the god Anubis, who was driving him back to tliis world. Harriet Marti neau thus describes another which she examined : " A hopeless-looking pig, with a bristling back, was in a boat, the stern of which was toward the heavenly regions. Two monkeys were with it, one at the bow, the other whipping or driving the pig. This was a wicked soul sent back to earth under the conduct of the agents of Thoth. The busy and gleeful look of the monkeys, and the humbled aspect of the pig were powerfully given. This was the lowest state of the punished soul ; but it would have to pass through some very mournful ones, and for a very long time ; to be probably a wolf, scorpion, kite, or some other odious creature, in weary succession." In some of these monuments, the deceased is represented with a chain round his neck, led by a procession of Spirits, each with a star over his head. Progressive states of the soul, after it leaves this lower zone, are indicated by a series of twelve small apartments, the entrance of each guarded by a Serpent, with his name over him, and the inscription, " He dwells above this great door, and opens it to the God Sun." According to Champollion, one series of these abodes bear this inscription : " These hostile souls see not our god when he casts the rays from his disk ; they no longer dwell in the terrestrial world ; and they hear not the voice of the great god, when he traverses their zones." Over another series is written : " These have found grace in the eyes of the Great God. They dwell in the abodes of glory; those in which the heavenly life Ls led. The EGYPT. 161 bodies wliicli they have abandoned will repose forever in their tombs, while they will enjoy the presence of the Supreme God." Egyptians considered their own country as peculiarly privileged, and set apart from others. They called it "The Pure Land ;" " Kegion of Justice and Truth." They were extremely courteous to foreigners in all things unconnected with religious scruples ; but they considered it unclean to eat or drink with them. They were more partial to the Grecians than any other nation, but they deemed it pollu- tion to kiss a Greek, or touch the knife with which he cut his food, or to use any of his cooking utensils; because Greeks were accustomed to eat the beef of cows, the most sacred of all animals in Egypt. It is recorded in the Hebrew Scriptures that when the brethren of Joseph were invited to eat, " they set on for him by himself, and for them by themsel ves, and for the Egyptians by themselves ; because the Egyptians may not eat bread with the Hebrews ; for that is an abomination unto them." Though Joseph was so high in favour with Pharaoh, he was excluded by the same custom which now prevents wealthy Hindoos from dining at the same table with their British governors. The idea of successive grades of emanations from the Deity introduced a distinction of castes into Egypt, as it did in Ilindostan. Priests and kings were believed to have emanated before labourers, who, on account of being further removed from the Divine Source of Being, were supposed to have received a smaller and more attenuated influence of his Pure Spirit. Priests, warriors, and labourers con- stituted the principal castes ; but the latter were subdivided into various classes. Fishermen, and those who tended herds and flocks, were among the lowest. The caste of swine-herds was the most despised, and their situation seems CO have been similar to the wretched Pariahs of Hindostan, They were not allowed to enter the temples, to come in contact with the priests, or to hold any communication with the higher castes. They were obliged to live in places set apart for them, and it was pollution to touch any vessel Vol. I.— 14* 162 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. . they had used. Egyptians supposed that Evil Spirits, and the souls of impure men, entered into swine, which they regarded as the most unclean of all animals. The higher castes had great horror of tasting the flesh, and if they hap- pened to touch the creatures, even by accident, they went through religious purifications to cleanse themselves from pollution. They were, however, necessary ; for when they sowed their lands, soaked by inundation of the Nile, herds of swine were driven over the fields, to trample the seed into the earth. Because they thus assisted the Fructifying Principle, a hog was annually sacrified to Osiris in every house. The soul imprisoned in the pig, for punishment, expiated its sins by being sacrificed ; thus a debt of gratitude was paid to the animal. In addition to pride of caste, there were other reasons for Egyptian prejudice against sliepherds. Their policy was opposed to the nomadic life, which they knew was fatal to the progress of civilization ; therefore, the descend- ants of Jacob were required to settle in one territory, which would lead to the necessity of building towns. They had^ moreover, a strong national animosity to wandering herds- men, in consequence of what they had suffered by the ir- ruption of Pali, or Shepherds, from the East. The monarchs. who compelled them to toil in building the great pj-ramids, were of that odious race. Herodotus says they had such an extreme aversion to their memory, that they avoided men- tioning them, and called their pyramids by the name of a shepherd who fed his cattle in those places. Thus there was a threefold reason why Joseph should sa}'-, " Shepherds are an abomination unto the Egyptians." They made a dis- tinction in favour of their own herdsmen, who tended cattle connected with agricultural pursuits in their villages. Such men, though humble in rank, were not detested like tribes of roving shepherds. To a certain degree, they were cared for by the jiriests, who prescribed such food for them as they deemed suitable ; bread made of bran, fish, the flesh of some few animals, and barley-beer for drink. Circumcision, being closely connected with their ideas of EGYPT. 163 health and cleanliness, was another barrier between Eg)^p- tians and foreigners. It is said Pytliagoras was obliged to conform to thiscListom before liecould gain admission to their religious Mysteries, and that he nearly died in consequence. Herodotus says : " As this practice can be traced, both in Egypt and Ethiopia, to the remotest antiquity, it is not possible to say which first introduced it. The Phoenicians and the Syrians of Palestine acknowledge that they bor- rowed it from Egypt. Male children, except in those places which have borrowed the custom from hence, are left as nature formed them." Sir J. G. Wilkinson says: " That this custom was established long before the arrival of Joseph in Egypt is proved by the ancient monuments." The Egyptian states, like their Ethiopian ancestors at Meroe, were originally governed by priests only. Each district had a High Priest, who reigned in the name of some god, and had subordinate priests under him. The caste of warriors afterward raised themselves to the royal dignity, and Menes was the first king. But though the I'ulers were thenceforth from the military caste, the priests kept them in almost complete de|)endence. They were not allowed to administer punishments according to their own will, or judgment, but in conformity to laws which the gods had prescribed through the medium of priests. QMiey had constant supervision over affairs of the State and the army ; they made daily regulations concerning religious ceremonies to be performed by the royal household, and even concerning the food upon their tables. None but the sons of High Priests were allowed to be in attendance upon the king's person. Before he could be anointed, he was required to enter the priesthood, and be initiated into their religious mysteries. He was called Phra, which sig- nifies of the Sun. In this manner was indicated the divine origin of government, and the universal and equal benefi- ccmcc which ought to characterize it. The hierogljqjhic title of kings was " Son of the Sun." Phra, which we call Pharaoh, was applied to all their monarchs as the title of Czar is to the Emperor of Russia ; hence, it is often diffi- 164: PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. cult to ascertain which particular Pharaoh is meant on the monumental records. Not only was the priest caste generally hereditary, but also the priesthood of each particular deity ; and in each of these orders the High Priesthood descended lineally in some particular family. The son of a priest at Memphis could not become a member of the college of priests at Ileliopolis, and a priest at Thebes could not join the sacer- dotal order at Memphis. This arose from the fact that each temple had large landed property attached to it, to defray the expenses of religious service. The revenues were drawn by priests, and transmitted to their posterity as a perpetual inheritance. These extensive estates were let out to the subordinate castes, and the rents formed a treasury for the common use of the sacerdotal order be- longing to the temple. From this fund, priests and their families v>^ere supplied with free tables. In addition to this fixed income, there were the daily sacrilices and offer- ings of fruit and grain at the temples ; they also carried on many profitable branches of business, in consequence of being the only depositories of such knowledge as ex- isted. Herodotus says : " So many dishes were furnished daily of those kinds of meat which their laws allowed them to eat, and a certain quantity of wine ; for they had the privilege of enjoying that luxury, which was forbidden to the lower castes. Thus there was no need for them to contribute anything from their private means toward their own support." The priestly families were in fact the high- est and wealthiest in the countr}', except the king. They were exempted from taxation, and it is said that one-third of tlie land of Egypt was allotted to them. When Josepli bought up the lands, it is recorded that he left the portion of the priests untouched. The places of interment be- longed to them, and as the use of them was paid for, they must have been sources of considerable emolument. As the civil law was included in the Sacred Books, ])ri(\sts were the only jiulgcs. IMic Chief Judge, who was also High Priest, wore a golden chain on which was sus- EGYPT. l(io pcnded an image of Thmei, Goddess of Truth and Justice, graven on a sapphire, and set round Ayith precious stones of various colours. He pronounced his decision by toucli- ing the successful applicant with this ligurc. Several representations of these breast-plates are extant in Euro- pean museums, or to be seen on Egyptian monuments. Some of them contained two figures, an image of Ra, the Sun, and of Thmei; the signification being Light and Truth, or Light and Justice. Priests were also the only physicians. They prescribed the articles of food to be used by each class of people ; and according to the testimony of Herodotus the Egyptians were remarkably healthy. Each part of the body was believed to be under the especial care of some particular deity, who must be invoked, with prescribed offerings and ceremonies, in case of disease. Invalids were carried to the temples, and it v/as supposed they would be cured, if the priest laid his hands on them, and recited appropriate prayers. They probably had some knowledge valuable for the preservation and restoration of health ; for their medical schools became renowned. Tliere are indications that some of their remedies were of a magnetic nature. Solon, who had been in Egypt, says, " Touching with the hands will immediately restore health." ^schylus, the famous Greek poet, makes one of his characters in the tragedy of Prometheus say, when speaking of the shores of the Nile, " There Jupiter Ammon will render you sane, stroking you with gentle hand, and simply touching you." A high degree of cleanliness, both in person and clothing, was a distinguishing characteristic of the ancient Egyp- tians; habits which they doubtless owed to the instructions of their priests. As all the sciences were deemed direct revelations from the gods, a degree of sacredness was attached to knowl- edge, of which we in modern times can form no idea. Such learning as the priests had, manifested itself in results which seemed to the uninitiated like divination dnd magic. Perhaps they themselves, with the scanty information of 166 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. that time, and their reverential Egyptian tendencies, thought many things miraculous, which to us would appear very simple. Whether they were honest or not, in assuming to be supernaturally gifted, the people most devoutly believed they had magical power to bring birds from the air at their bidding, to lure serpents from their hiding-places, to cast out Evil Spirits, and cure the dis- eases. They placed the utmost reliance on their interpre- tation of dreams, their predictions from tlie aspect of the stars, and the prophecies they made from examining the entrails of victims sacrificed to the gods. There were many gradations of rank among the priest- hood. Those devoted to the service of the great gods were regarded with far more veneration than those who attended upon minor and local deities. Some were distin- guished above others by their vocation. There were bands of Musicians among them, trained to chant the hymns, to sing in chorus, to perform on harps, flutes, and a ringing instrument called the sistrum. The skilful among these were held in much honour. But the Prophets were the highest class of priests. On public occasions, they took precedence of all others, except the High Priests of the great temples. They made astronomy their pecu- liar study. They knew the figure of the earth, and how to calculate solar and lunar eclipses. From very ancient time, they had observed the order and movement of the stars, and recorded them with the utmost care. Ramses the Great, generally called Sesostris, is supposed to have reigned one thousand five hundred years before the Chris- tian era, about coeval with Moses, or a century later. In the tomb of this monarch was found a large massive circle of wrought gold, divided into three hundred and sixty- live degrees, and each division marked the rising and setting (jf the stars for each day. This fact proves how early they were advanced in astronomy. In their great theories of mutual ilcpcnilancc Ix^tween all things in the universe was incduded a belief in some mysterious relation between the Spirits of the Stars and human souls; so that EGYPT. 167 the destiny of mortals was regulated by the motions of the heavenly bodies. This was the origin of the famous system of iVstrology. From the eoiijunetion of planets at the hour of birth, they prophesied what would be the temj)erament of an infant, what life he would live, and wliat death he would die. Diodorus, who wrote in the century preceding Christ, says, " They frequently foretell with the greatest aeeuracy what is about to happen to mankind ; showing the failure or abundance of crops, and the epidemic diseases about to befal men or cattle. Earth- quakes, deluges, rising of comets, and all those phenomena, the knowledge of which appears impossible to common compreliensions, they foresee by means of their long-con- tinued observations." Plato informs us that they believed tliis earth had been, and would be, subject to destruction bv water and lire ; and that the tradition of Phaeton's having borrowed the cliariot of the sun, and set the world in flames, contained an historical fact in a fabulous form. The returns of such catastrophes were fixed by them according to the period of their Great Astronomical Year, when the sun, moon, and all the planets returned to the same sign in the zodiac whence they had started. This astronomical cycle included ages in its revolution. In its winter occurred a universal deluge, and in its summer, a conflagration of tlie world. After this destruction, they believed all things would be renewed, to pass through another succession of changes. In early times, priests lived with great simplicity. Sometimes they slept on the bare ground, sometimes on mats spread on frames of wicker-work, with a half cylinder of wood for a pillow. Thej^ married but one wife, and she was often their sister, on account of the prevailing idea that such marriages were fortunate. They ate very plain food in stated quantities. In xcry ancient times, the priests, including kings, used no wine; but in later times, a Tuoderate portion, prescribed by law, was dealt to them. Their diet was strictly regulated, so careful were they that " the body should sit light upon the soul." Peas, leeks, 168 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. garlic, onions, fish, and salt were forbidden. Pork waa their abhorrence, and they had such an aversion to beans that they would not even touch them, or allow them to be sown in Egypt. Their cleanliness was extreme. They shaved their heads, and every three days shaved their whole bodies. They bathed two or three times a day, often in the night also; and the most devout among them used water consecrated to the sacred bird Ibis. They wore garments of white linen, deeming it more cleanly than cloth made from the hair of animals. If they had occasion to wear a woollen cloak or mantle, they put it off before entering a temple ; so scrupulous were they that nothing impure should come into the presence of the gods. There were no ])riestesses in Egypt, but women were devoted to the service of the temple, the same as in Hindostan, to perform in sacred music and dances, gather fresh flowers for the altars, and feed the consecrated animals. The office was deemed so honourable, that it was reserved for the wives and daughters of kings and priests. The sculptures often represent them assisting in religions ceremonies, or playing on musical instruments in proces- sions to the temple. Oracles were frequently delivered by women. The daughter of Sesostris is said to have been so skilled in divination, that she foretold to her father his future brilliant success. The monarch, being himself a priest, had access to all their secret sciences; nevertheless, his conduct on important occasions was n^ucli influenced by her predic- tions. Her prophecies were noted and respected in the temj)le itself Oracles were of very remote date. The most ancient was the oracle of Amun at Meroe. ']''!iere was a vory celebrated one at the teni])le of Amun in Thebes. It was consultcfl hy many nations, and great re'liance was placed upon its authority. Tlic divini; gift was supposed to be ini])arted to a woman coiiscri'iitcd to tlie service of the di'ity. She slept in tlic temple where Amun Ra was believed also to be present. Oi'aeles were supposed to be EGYPT. 169 revealed by dreams in the temples of Osiris, Isis, and Horus. Apis was sometimes consulted. A coin was deposited on his altar, with certain ceremonies and invocations, and the first words, or exclamations, heard afterward were deemed prophetic. In fact, oracles seem to have been the main- spring, that regulated all the machinery of the state. The reverential tendencies of the Egyptians are mani- fested in all memorials of their public and private life. The indications of it often show a tendency to excess; probably the result of a fervid African temperament. At some of their religious festivals, the people abandoned themselves to the most tumultuous joy; and the number of their expiatory sacrifices show a tendency to the extremes of penitence. Their kings dwelt in temple-pahaces, full of sacred emblems and statues of the gods. No nation ever surpassed them in the grandeur of religious festivals. After a great victory, the king went up to the temple with liis whole army to give thanks. Harps, flutes, and the shrill ring of the sistrum, accompanied the chorus of sacred singers, clapping their hands to mark the rhythm. The king rode in a splendid chariot, followed by trains of cap- tives. The priests, in fringed robes of linen, carried banners, shrines, and other sacred emblems. The proces- sion closed with men leading animals for sacrifice, and women carrying incense and flowers. Through long avenues of colossal sphinxes and gigantic statues, they marched up to the temple. The troops drew up in files outside, and when the trumpet announced that the king and priests were offering sacrifice within, they worshipped in regular succession at altars provided for them. They hailed the New Moon and the Full Moon with religious lionours, ani.I most of their great festivals occurred at those periods. At Spring time and Harvest they had joyful processions of thanksgiving, leading their children in bands to the temple, with sheaves and flowers for offerings. The Nile was as sacred to them as Ganges to the Hindoos. There is a tradition that in ancient times they had the same cus- tom of offering to the god of the stream a virgin richly Vol. I.— 15 h 170 PEOGEESS OF EELIGIOUS IDEAS. dressed. At a later period, an image of wax was thrown into the river, instead of the human victim. Wlien foreign kings married their princesses, it was customary to send them water from the Nile, however great the trouble or expense might be. At the annual rising of the river, the priests went in grand procession, to strew it with lotus- blossoms, and chant hymns in its praise. They burned frankincense to the Sun, at its rising, meridian, and setting, and offered to it solemn sacrifices on the fourth day of every month. Tliey carried offerings to the temples in token of gratitude for recovery from sickness. They seated an image of the dead at their banquets, to remind them of their own mortality. They built their tombs with upper apartments richly sculptured and painted. There the priests went on stated occasions to perform religious ceremonies, accompanied by relatives bringing offerings to the departed, not to his mortal remains, but to the portion of divinity that was in him, and had gone elsewhere. They consecrated the very rocks with which their sacred edifices were to be built. Tiiey dedicated each montli and each day to the service of some particular deity. Their ancient attitude of worshijD was sitting with the tliighs resting on the heels. Many of the statues were in this position. The sculptures represent kings and priests worshipping with hands uplifted before their faces, the palms turned toward the deity. Their common oblations were wine, oil, meal, cakes, turtle-doves, young pigeons, fruit, flowers, vases, jewels, or whatever they had vowed. On important occa- sions they burned incense and sacrificed red bullocks. If a single black hair was found on the animal, or if every hair did not grow in its natural and proper form, the priest rejected it; but if he found it without blemish, he put his seal upon it. Wine was ])ourod on the altar, a fire kindled thereon, and the god solemnly invoked. Then they cut the head from the victim, saying: " If there be any evil to come upon any part of P]gypt, may it light on this head." On account of this custom, no Egyptian would eat the head of a beast. If there were Greeks in the market, it waa EGYPT. 171 Bold to them; if not, it was thrown into the river. The entrails of the victim were taken out and consulted by the priests for auguries. The legs, shoulders, and loins Avere' cut off for food, and the body was burned as an offering, after being stuffed with bread, honey, figs, raisins, and various aromatics. On some occasions, the spectators scourged therhselves while it was burning. The priests commenced the sacrifice after a fast, and finished by feast- ing on the portions set apart for them. There was a grand celebration, called the Feast of Lamps, held at Sais, in honour of Neith. Those who did not at- tend the ceremony, as well as those who did, burned lamps before their houses all night, filled with oil and salt; thus all Egypt was illuminated. It was deemed a great irrever- ence to the goddess for any one to omit this ceremony. At Bubastis was an annual festival in honour of its pre- siding goddess. It was probably connected with some holy object of pilgrimage ; for people flocked to it from all parts of the country. It sometimes brought together a concourse of " seven hundred thousand men and women, not to mention children." The Nile, overspread with highly ornamented barges, resembled a floating city, and the air resounded with choruses and musical instruments. When these companies approached a city, they landed to frolic and bandy jests with those on shore. The women danced, played on musical instruments, and sometimes threw aside all their garments. In autumn, they had mournful processions in search of the lost Osiris, weeping and lamenting as they went. One of the ceremonies was to lead the Sacred Cow seven times round the temple. From the astronomical character of their worship, it is a natural inference that the circuits round the temple, indicated the passage of the sun through the seven signs of the zodiac. When the genial warmth of spring returned, they had joyful processions, exulting over Osiris found. The twenty-fifth day of December was a festival in honour of the birth-day of Ilorus. The commemoration of that 172 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. day, both in ancient liindostan and ancient Egypt, was probably owing to tiie fact that the sun at that period begins to return from the winter solstice. Of all their religious festivals, none were so grand and solemn as those consecrated to Osiris and Isis, called the Greater and Lesser Mysteries. Little is known of them, on account of the profound secresy with which they were ob- served, and the penalty of death which awaited any one who should divulge them. None but priests were initiated, until the later times, and then the exceptions were very rare. The honour of ascending to the Greater Mysteries was difficult to attain, and very highly appreciated. Even a prince could not approach them until he had entered the priesthood ; and not all the priests were admitted. The candidates must be of unsullied moral character, and go through a long process of study and purification. When initiation commenced, they were required to prepare them- selves by long fasts, and to undergo a series of very severe ordeals, during which they were required to manifest the most perfect obedience and resignation. The blazing suns at midnight, fiery serpents, visions of the gods, and other splendid and sublime pageantry employed during the cele- bration of these Mysteries, are supposed to have been sym- bolical of the origin of the soul, its fall to earth, its travels through successive spheres, and final return to its home of tranquil glory. Some of the ceremonies and hymns to the gods, said, to have been immodest, doubtless originated in their mystical ideas concerning the masculine and feminine principles that pervade the universe ; ideas little likely to be rightly understood or appreciated, when viewed through the medium of modern habits of thou<2;ht. Jn all the religious observances of Egypt, the priests alone understood the meaning of what they witnessed; for great care was taken to hide theological theories under a thick veil of mysterious emblems. They had moreover two sets of written characters. One, called the sacred or sacerdotal writing, was a concise abridgment of the hiero- gly{)hics, applied to all religious and scientific subjects, EGYPT. 173 and known only to the priests. Another, called the epis- tolary or common style, was used for social and commercial purposes, and taught only to priests and merchants. If the names of deities occurred, they were always expressed by symbolic characters, not by the letters which formed the name; it being deemed irreverent to write them like other words. Chainpollion says the name of their princi- pal deity was pronounced by sounds which expressed the written symbol, and were quite different from the holy name itself. The laws of Egypt were handed down from the earliest times, and regarded with the utmost veneration as a por- tion of religion. Their first legislator represented them as dictated by the gods themselves, and framed expressly for the benefit of mankind by their secretary Thoth, usually called Hermes. "An idea," says Diodorus, "adopted with success by many other lawgivers, who have thus insured respect for their institutions." By Thoth, the priests doubtless understood merely the agency of intellect in producing laws, but the people took it literally. The Sacred Books of Hermes, containing the laws, science, and theology of Egypt, they declared to have been all composed during the reign of the gods, preceding that of their first king Menes, Allusions on very ancient monuments prove their great antiquity. There were four of them, and the subdivisions of the whole made forty-two volumes. These numbers correspond exactly to those of the Yedas, which the Pouranas of Plindostan inform us were carried into Egypt by the Yadavas. The subjects treated of were likewise extremely similar ; but whether the Books of Hermes were copies of the Vedas, it is now impossible fcr the learning of man to discover. They were deposited in the inmost holy recesses of the temples, and none but the higher order of priests were allowed to read them. They were carried reverently in all great religious processions. The Chief Priests carried ten vol- umes relating to the emanations of the gods, the formation of the world, the divine annunciation of laws and rules Vol. L— 15* 17-i PPvOGP.ESS OF RELiniOUS IDEAS. for the priesthood. The Propliets carried four, treating of astronomy and astroh)gj. The leader of the sacred mu- sical band carried two, containing hymns to the gods, and maxims to guide the conduct of the king; which the Chanter was required to know by heart. Such was the reputed antiquity and sanctity of these Egyptian hymns, that Plato says they were ascribed to Isis, and believed to be literally ten thousand years old. Servitors of the tem- ple carried ten volumes more, containing forms of prayer, and rules for burnt-offerings, sheaf-offerings, fruit-offerings, festivals and processions. The other volumes treated of philosophy and sciences, including anatom}^ and medicine. These books were very famous in their day, and gave rise to theories of astrology and alchemy, by which people, even on the borders of our own time, have sought to foretell destiny from the aspect of the stars, and make gold by some mysterious chemical process. The Roman em- peror Severus collected all writings on their Mysteries, and buried them in the tomb of Alexander the Great; and Diocletian destroyed all their books on alchemy, lest Egypt should become too rich to remain tributary to the Roman empire. The once world-renowned Books of Hermes have been lost these fifteen hundred years. Euse- bius. Bishop of Cassarea, who flourished about three hun- dred years after Christ, says these volumes contained the question, "Have you not been informed that all individual souls arc emanations from the One Soul of the Universe?" Jamblichus, a celebrated Platonic philosopher of nearly the same period, gives the following extract from one of these books: "Before all things that essentially exist, and before the principles of all things, there existed One God, iinmovca])le in the solitude of his unity. He is established self-begotten, the only Father, who is truly good. lie is the fountain of all things, the root of all primary int(>lli- gible existing forms. Out of this One, the self-ruling God made himself shine forth; wherefore, he is the father of himself, and self-ruling; for he is the First Principle and God of gods. This Indivisible One is venerated in si- EGYPT. 175 Icnce." These extracts resemble portions of the Yedas, but it is doubtful whether they are authentic; for at that late period spurious books of Ilennes were extant. That the d(.)Clrino of .One Supreme Being was taught by the more enhghtcued of the ancient priests, togetlier with other ideas for more elevated than the external worsliip indicated, seems not to admit of doubt. Plutarch, who wrote in the first century of our era, says: "The end of all the Egyptian rites and mysteiies was the knowledge of that First God, who is tlie Lord of all things, to be dis- cerned only by the mind. Their theology had two mean- ings; the one holy and symbolical, the other vulgar and literal ; consequently, the figures of animals, which they had in their temples, and which they seemed to adore, were only so many hieroglyphics, to represent the divine attributes." Damascius, a Platonic philosopher of the fifth centur}'', says: "The Egyptian philosophers of our time have declared as a hidden truth, found in their ancient writings, that there was One Principle of all things, praised under the name of the Unknown Darkness, and that thrice repeated." When the French army were in Egypt, they brought to light an important roll of papyrus written in hieroglyphics. It treated of the transmigration of souls, and ceremonies in honour of the dead. The soul on its long journey through the celestial gates, from sphere to sphere, is described as giving utterance to con- fessions, invocations, and prayers. The first fifteen chapters form a separate whole, with the general super- scription, "Here begin the sections of the glorifications in the light of Osiris." This papyrus was found in the tombs of the kings of Thebes. It bears traces of having been compiled at different periods; but the learned Lepsius says the original plan unquestionably belongs to the re- motest age. He dates the writing one thousand five or six hundred years before the Christian era, and sa\'s it is .doubtless a fi'agment of the Sacred Books ascribed to Hermes. The Pantheistic idea that a portion of God is in every 176 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. creature, and belief in the transmigration of human souls into animals, produced effects similar to those in Ilindostan. Egyptian priests had a great horror of blood. Tlie_y never shed it except in sacrifices to the gods, and that only upon very important occasions. Herodotus says : " The Egyp- tians put no cattle to death ;" and he informs us that ves- sels were kept to convey away the bones of those that died, and bury them in an island appropriated to that purpose. Why some animals were worshipped, and others not, and why some of the favoured ones should have been the least sagacious or agreeable of beasts, Avas perhaps known to themselves and the Hindoos, but is likely to remain an unsolved riddle for us. In their complicated system of an eternal relation between all things in the universe, each deity had certain stars, plants and animals, mysteriously allied to him, and under his peculiar protection. Thus the Cow and the Lotus were sacred to Isis ; the Bull and the fragrant blossom of the Golden Bean were sacred to Osiris. Each of the genii presiding over the signs of the zodiac had some plants or animals under his especial care. If we understood their sj'stem, we might perhaps discover why constellations are represented in the shape of animals, and why the Ram of Amun, the Bull of Osiris, and the Goat of Kham, mark successive signs in the zodiac. In some such way, animals were first introduced into the temple as emblems ; and afterward when mystical worship degener- ated into lifeless superstition, they adored the emblems as deities. Some of these animals were universally wor- shipped, others only in particular districts ; and some were more sumptuously provided for than others. Public buildings and parks, warm baths, carpets, rich furniture, and beautiful female companions of their own species, were procured f)r them. They were perfumed with fragrant oils and fed on dainties. To kill or maltreat them was the greatest crime, and when they died, they were embalmed and magnilicently buried. Men and women were set ap.irt to take charge of them. The office was hereditary, and considered exircmely honourable. AVhcn these func- EGYPT. 177 tionaries passed through villages, with the saered banners of the animals they served, people bowed to the ground before them. AVhen chihlren recovered from sickness, ])arents shaved their hair, and gave the weight of it in gold or silver for the support of those animals. Even in time of famine, wdien driven to eat human flesh, tlie poj)u- lace refrained from destroying any of these consecrated creatures. If they accidentally found one dead, they stood lamen'ing, and proclaiming with a loud voice that they found it so. When Cambyses, the Persian, invaded Egypt, he took advantage of their customs, and protected his army by a vanguard of sacred animals. Of all creatures the cow was held in the greatest venera- tion throughout Egypt. On great occasions, they sacrificed unblemished bulls or bullocks to the gods, but never heifers. Whoever killed one, even involuntarily, was punished with instant death. A Bull called Apis, supposed by some to represent the celestial bull of the zodiac, was inaugurated with many ceremonies, and worshipped by the people as a God. Op- posite the temple of Phtha, at Memphis, was a magnificent edifice where he was kept when publicly exhibited. The walls w,ere richly sculptured, and the roof su|)ported by colossal statues. He was generally seen only through the windows, but on some occasions he was led out into the vestibule, where his sacred mother was fed. He had ex- tensive parks for exercise, and the most beautiful cows for companions. His food was carefully regulated, and he drank from a clear fountain, because the water of the Nile was deemed too fattening. He had access to two stables. If he entered one it was a good omen ; if the other, it was an evil sign. If he ate readily, it was deemed fortunate for him who offered the food ; but if he rejected it, they foreboded calamity. Those who wished to consult his oracle, deposited a coin on his altar, with certain ceremo- nies ; and the first exclamation they heard afterward was deemed a voice from heaven for their guidance. They paid particular attention to the exclamations of little eliil- II* 178 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. dren, especially if they were playing within the precincts of temples. It was suj)posed that children who smelled the breath of Apis received the gift of prophecy in a pre-en:ii- neiit degree. At the annual rising of the Nile, a festival was held in commemoration of his birth. It continued seven days, and brought to Memphis a vast concourse of spectators. He was led through the city by priests in solemn procession, with troops of children singing hymns before him ; and as he passed, all the people came out to welcome him. A golden shell was thrown into the Nile, and crocodiles were said to be tame while the feast lasted ; probably because they received so much food. Notwith- standing this extreme veneration. Apis was not allowed to survive twenty-five years. If he lived till that age, the priests drowned him in a fountain, and all the people mourned till a new Apis was found. This limitation of his existence is supposed to have reference to some period in their astronomical calculations. He was embalmed, and great sums were lavished on his funeral. In 1816, Belzoni discovered, among tombs excavated in the mountains near Thebes, a huge sarcophagus of purest oriental alabaster, transparent and sonorous, covered with beautiful sculp- tured ornaments and hieroglyphic inscriptions, within and without. It contained the embalmed body of a bull. When Apis was dead, the priests went in search of an animal to succeed him. The Sacred Books required that he should be black, with a white triangle on his forehead, a white crescent on his right side, and a bunch like a beetle under his tongue. When such a calf was found, it was said the cow conceived him by a ray from the sun. He was fed four months on milk, in a building facing the rising sun. At the end of the new moon, he was carried to Heliopolis in a richly gilded ship. There he was fed by women forty days. Thence he was conveyed with much pomp to his stately edifice at Memphis. The man from whose herd he was selected was deemed the most fortunate of mortals. When Cambyses conquered l^^gypt, having the Persian EGYPT 179 liorror of idols, he defaced the statues of the gods, and stabbed Apis with his sword. -Ochus, one of liis succes- sors, served up Apis at a banquet, and put an Ass in the temple in his stead ; for which outrage an Egyptian as- sassinated him and threw his body to the cats. Viewed calmly at this distance of time, the spirit manifested by one seems scarcely more commendable than that of the other. A variety of animals were venerated only in particular districts, Thebans abstained from sheep, because the ram was an emblem of their god Amun. They never put one to death, except on the annual festival of that deit\-, when they sacrificed a ram with many ceremonies, and placed the skin upon his image. At Mendes, the presiding deity was Kham, God of Generation, who was represented with the head of a she-goat, and the legs of a male ; therefore goats were sacred in that region. The god Anubis was represented with a dog's head. Wherever his worship prevailed, the dog was sacred, and they shaved their heads in token of mourning when one died. In some places, apes and monkeys were sacred, being connected with the history of the god Thoth. At Heliopolis, they detested the crocodile and assigned it to Typho, the Destroyer ; but in the vicinity of Lake Moeris they worshipped the ugly ci^eature. They kept a crocodile in a tank at the temple, and fed it with portions of the sacrifices. The priests, having rendered it perfectly tame by kind treatment, adorned it with bracelets of gold and necklaces of artifi- cial gems. Worshippers brought offerings of bread and wine. In those districts they deemed it a mark of favour from the deity to be devoured by these monsters. A story is recorded of a woman who brought up a young crocodile, and her countr3-men considered her the nurse of a divinity. Her little son played fearlessly with the beast, but when it grew large it devoured the boy. His mother exulted, con- sidering his fate peculiarly blest in being thus incorporated with tlie household god. In some places small serpents were kept in the temples, fed on honey and flour. It was considered a mark of divine favour to be bitten by any 180 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. of this species. At Bubastis they Avoi\shii)ped a goddess represented with the head of a cat; and in that region cats were sacred. When one of them died, they sliaved their eye-brows in sign of mourning. If a person killed one, even accidental!}^, a mob gathered round him and tore him to pieces without trial. When they went to foreign wars, they embalmed dogs and cats that died on the way, and brought them home for honourable burial. Belzoni found entire tombs filled with nothing but embalmed cats, care- fully folded in red and white linen, the head covered by a mask representing its face. Each district held to its own worship with the bigotry that everywhere characterizes disputes about religious faith. A civil war arose between two districts, because one ate the fish that the other worshipped. They did each other much mischief, and were severely punished by the Romans. The inhabitants of Ombos attacked those of Tentyris, because they had killed a crocodile ; and the war was car- ried on with all the fury of sectarian zeal, Joseph us de- clares that as early as the time when Abraham was in Egypt " they despised one another's sacred and accustomed rites, and were very angry one with another on that account." W^hat theological tenets among the priests of different deities were at stake in these contentions cannot now be traced ; but the great resemblance existing between their religion and that of Ilindostan naturally leads to the conclusion that similar causes were at work to produce similar effects. Doubtless they had their formalists and spiritualists, their atheists and fanatics. It is recorded that the i^eople of Thebais paid divine honours to nothing in mortal form, but adored only Cneph. Plutarch says the inhabitants of that region, on account of their more spirit- ual worship of One Invisible God, "without beginning or end," were excused from paying the public taxes levied on other Egyptians for maintenance of the sacred animals. It n:ay readily be conjectured that such sects, like the Vcdantins of Ilindostan, regarded with pity those minds which had need of images and external symbols. But EGYPT. 181 elevated ideas of God and the soul were supposed to be above the comprehension of the populace, and incom- patible with their employments. The priests, who were the only educated class, feared that if such knowledge were revealed to them, they would pervert it by all sorts of ignorant misconceptions. Therefore, they were left to obey laws without knowing why they were ordained, and to ob- serve the ritual of religion without comprehending its import. Egyptians were conservative in the extreme. They had the greatest possible objection to introducing foreign cus- toms or opinions, or innovations of any kind. But they could not resist that law of our nature which has written decay, death, and resurrection, on all material things and all forms of opinion. The primitive faith of every people has always a tendency to degenerate into unmeaning forms ; and the progress of corruption must be greatly accelerated where religious ideas, studiously hidden from the people, become a monopoly of power in the hands of a privileged class. In the beginning, the priestly style of living was very simple, but what we afterward hear of their grand establishments indicates a change. During the last daj's, when Egypt became a province of Rome, we have means of knowing that many abuses crept in. Old mystical ideas were almost buried under a mass of grotesque fancies. The influence of the priests declined. They still had charge of the national records, the education of youth, and the super- intendence of weights and measures; but they no longer swayed the councils of government, or presided in courts of justice. Their servility to wealth and power is implied by the fact that when Alexander the Great consulted the oracle at Thebes, his ambitious wishes were gratified by hearing himself declared the son of Jupiter Ammon. In such a state of things, the character of the deities became degraded, and the animals regarded as deities were some- times treated with contempt. If prayers and sacrifices proved unavailing to counteract drought, famine, or epi- demics, people reproached the gods, and insulted their Vol. I.— 1G 182 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. imao:es. Priests conducted the sacred animals to dark places, where they terrified them with threats, and some- times even put them to death, if the evils continued. Still people clung to the outward ritual hallowed by so many ages of observance. The temples continued to swarm with animals, and images of animals, such as silver and brazen serpents, and gilded or golden calves. If a foreigner asked the meaning of their religious customs, the answer depended upon whether he addressed the initiated or the uninitiated ; and in either case it was likely to be coloured by sectional prejudice. To one whose education did not enable him to sympathize with the blind reverence of the populace, and who had no means of knowing that more spiritual minds attached mystical significance to their strange symbols, the worship of Egypt must have seemed absurd in the extreme. No wonder it became a mark for the arrows of Grecian and Roman satire. It was common in Rome to call a foolish, pompous fellow "an Eg_yptian temple," which had such a magnificent exterior, and a monkey for the deity within. Thus every growth passes away, and dreary looks the stubble when the grain is gone. But it is necessary to remember that their faith was once a solemn reality to millions of men, whose minds it swayed for ages. Powerful indeed must have been the feeling, which prompted men to expend so much wealth, labour, and ingenuity, in the service of their gods. The effect pro- duced by their sublime temples on those sincerely under the influence of their national belief, may be partly con- jectured from the wonder and reverence their ruins still inspire in men of other religions and a distant age. Those who see drawings, or fragmentary specimens in museums, can form no idea of the general etTect of their architecture. Deities wearing the heads of rams, hawks, and cows, seem uncouth and ridiculous to us, who attach no meaning to tlie emblems. There is moreover a want of perspective in Egyptian art, a monotonous straightness in tlie position of the figures, and a barbai'ous taste in their uid)armonized masses of colour. Sucli was their respect for pivscribed KGYPT. 183 rules, tliat tiiiio ami intercourse witli otlu^r nations protlnced little cluino-e in these jiarticulars. Plato, in his Republic, introduces the following remark in a dialogue: "The plan \vc have been laying down for youth was known long ago to the Egyptians ; that nothing but beautiful forms and fine music should be permitted to enter into the assemblies of young people. Having settled what those forms and that music should be, they exhibited them in their temples; nor was it lawful, either in painting, statuary, or any branches of music, to make any alteration, or invent any forms different from what were established. Upon ex- amination, therefore, you will find that the pictures and statues made ten thousand 3'ears ago, are in no one par- ticular better or worse than what they now make." But after all these deductions, the Egyptian ruins are not only sublime and impressive, but often extremely beautiful. Many of the sculptured animals are spirited, and all travellers agree that the countenances of gods and mortals are remarkable for simplicity, sweetness, and serenity of expression. Harriet Martineau says: "I was never tired of trying to imprint on my memory the char- acteristics of the old Egyptian face ; the handsome arched nose, with its delicate nostril ; the well-opened, though long eye] the placid, innocent mouth, and the smooth- rounded, amiable chin. Innocence is the prevailing expression, and sternness is absent. Thus the stiffest figures and the most monotonous gestures convey only an impression of dispassionateness and benevolence. The dignity of the gods and goddesses is beyond all description, fi'om this union of fixidity and benevolence. If the traveller be blest with the clear eye and fresh mind, and be also en- riched by comprehensive knowledge of the workings of the human intellect in its various circumstances, he cannot but be impressed, and he may be startled by the evidence before him of the elevation and beauty of the first concep- tions formed by men of the Beings of the unseen world." The architecture of Egypt greatly resembles that of Hindostan. There are the same gigantic proportions, the 184 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. same flat roofs of ponderous stone, supported bj the same massive columns ; the same herculean labour in the ex- cavation of tombs and temples through the solid rock of everlasting hills, the same gloomy cavernous effect of the interior, the same colossal images, the same infinity of sculptured figures everywhere, painted in the same bright colours. The ruins of Egyptian Thebes are well known as the most wonderful in the world. Its date ascends beyond the records of history. Homer celebrates it as " the city with a hundred gates;" and he wrote nearly a thousand years before Christ. Existing monuments prove that it must have been in full glory more than three thousand years ago. Belzoni says: "The most sublime ideas that can be formed from the most magnificent specimens of our present architecture would give a very incorrect picture of these ruins. It appeared to me like entering a city of giants, who, after a long conflict, were all destroyed, leav- ing the ruins of their various temples as the only proofs of their former existence." The most celebrated of these structures is now universally known under the name of El Karnac. It faces the Nile, with which it is con- nected by an avenue a mile long, with gigantic sphinxes on each side all the way. Diodorus describes the walls as twenty-four feet thick, and a mile and a half in cir- cumference. They have twelve pi'incipal entrances, each composed of several towers and colossal gatewaj's, beside other buildings attached to them, in themselves larger than most other temples. On each side of many of the towers are colossal statues, from twenty to thirty feet high. The large building, supposed to have been the royal palace, was built more than three thousand years ago, by Ilamses the Great, commonly called Sesostris. It is entered through an open colonnade, and up an ascent of twenty- seven steps. These lead into a covered hall, so spacious that a large European church might stand within it. The ceiling, of unhewn blocks of stone, is sustained by one hundred and thirt3^-four columns, sixty-five feet high, and EGYPT. 185 thirty in circumference. The whole hal], from top to bot- tom, is covered with sculptures relating to religious wor- ship. In several places an Ark is represented, as carried on poles, resting on the shoulders of priests, and followed by a procession of people. There are likewise branciied candlesticks, tables with loaves of bread, and cherubim with extended wings. The number of these sculptures is so great that no one has been able to count them, much less to copy them. Another colonnade beyond leads to a succession of apartments covered with sculpture repre- senting domestic scenes, mixed with religious ceremonies. All these are painted in vivid colours, which still retain their brilliancy. The ceiling of the central room is painted blue, studded with constellations of stars. Denon says : "One is fatigued with writing, one is fatigued with read- ing, one is stunned with the thought of such a conception. It is hardly possible to believe in so much magnificence even after having seen it." The ancient existence of libraries is proved by these ruins. Champollion found on a doorway representations of Thoth and a feminine deity, who presided over arts, science, and literature. Above their heads were, "Lord of the Library," and "Lady of Letters," carved in hieroglyphics. Fragments from the History of the Greek Hecataeus inform us that he saw this grand edifice more than five hundred years before Christ. He says it then contained a library of Sacred Books, over the entrance of which was inscribed, "The Eemedy for the Soul." Near the palace is the great Temple of Karnac, one of the sublimest specimens of Egyptian architecture. It has a lofty magnificent gate- way, more than sixty-two feet high, of richly sculptured sandstone. This leads to a gallery of colossal rams, which indicate that the precincts were sacred to Amun, com- monly called Jupiter Ammon. The grandeur of the inte- rior corresponds to the external decorations. Ileeren sa^^s: "This temple is without doubt one of the most ancient that now exist in Egypt, yet both this and the palace are built of materials taken from edifices more Vol. I.— 1G* 186 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. ancient still." Every year tlie statue of Amun was car- ried in solemn procession into Libya, over a space of nine or ten miles. Almost the entire road was lined with temples, colossal statues, and long avenues of gigantic sphinxes. Eichardson says: "It is impossible to conceive anything more impressive than tlic view wliich must have burst upon the sight of the enraptured votaries, when, at the close of the solemnity of bringing back their god, they entered the grand Temple of Karnac to replace liiin in his shrine, with harps and cymbals, and songs of rejoicing." About two miles from El Karnac is the great Temple of Luxor, supposed to have been built two centuries earlier. Here likewise deities are represented surmounted by the inscriptions, "Lord of the Divine Writings," and "Lad}^ of Letters." Belzoni, describing this place, says : " The avenue of sphinxes leading to the great temple inspires the visitor with devotion, and their enormous size strikes him with wonder. Each side of the gate leading to the inner courts are seated immense colossal figures, as if guarding the entrance of the holy ground. Farther on is the mag- nificent temple dedicated to the Great God of Creation, I entered it alone. The sun was rising, and long shadows from groups of columns extended over the ruins, while rays of light struck on the masses in various directions, forming views that baffle all description. How can I describe my sensations ! I seemed alone in the midst of all that is most sacred in the world. A forest of enormous columns adorned all round, from top to bottom, with beau- tiful figures, and various ornaments; the graceful shape of tlie Lotus, which forms their capitals; the gates, walls, pedestals, everywhere adorned with symbolical figures, rcpi-esenling battles, processions, feasts, offerings, and sacrifices, all rrlating no doubt to the ancient history of the country ; the sanctuary formed of fine red granite, with vari(Kis obelisks standing before it, proclaiming to the dis- tant passenger, 'Here is the seat of holiness;' the high portals seen from afar thn^ugh the o[)cnings to this vast EGYPT. 187 labyrinth of edifices; the various groups of ruins of other temples within sight; all these had such an effect upon my soul, as to separate me in imagination from the rest of mortals, exalt me on high over all, and cause me to forget the trifles and follies of life. My mind was impressed with such solemnity that for some time I was unconscious whether I was on terrestrial ground, or on some other planet." In the vicinity of Thebes are wonderful excavations in the granite of mountains, similar to those described at Ellora and Elephanta, in Ilindostan, Some are very ex- tensive, with winding stairs leading to small apartments in all directions. Some have deep shafts or wells, and at the bottom of the wells passages to smaller apartments, with endless winding recesses. In these cavernous depths are a multitude of colossal statues of all the gods. The various halls and chambers are covered with hieroglyphic writing and painted sculptures, the colours of which are still fresh and glowing. Here Belzoni discovered the alabaster sar- cophagus. Speaking of the apartment where it was found, Harriet Martineau says : "We enjoj^ed seeing the whole lighted up by a fire of straw. I shall never forget that gorgeous chamber in this palace of death. The rich colours on the walls were brought out by the flame ; and the won- derful ceiling, all starred with emblems, and peopled with countless yellow figures, was like nothing earthly." One priestly tomb in these excavations occupies an acre and a quarter of the heart of the rock. Here is the sepulchre of the Pharaoh who pursued the Hebrews into the Bed Sea. " Five lines of tribute-bearers show how extensive was his dominion. They are of various costumes and complexions, bringing ivory, apes, leopards, gold, and among other ofterings a bear ;" as if the extreme North also acknowledged his power. The faces of the Pharaohs on these monuments are likenesses. This carries back the art of portrait-sculp- ture into high antiquity'. Memphis, much farther down the Nile, was founded by the first king Menes, who, all agree, must have lived between 188 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. four and five thousand years ago; and some place him much earlier. Here was a magnificent temple to Phtha, which it took sevei'al generations of kings to complete. Many titles of this once famous city are found among the hieroglyphics; such as, "The Abode of Good," "Land of the Pyramid," "The Habitation of Pthah." Here Abraham was a guest, and Sarai, his beautiful wife, was lodged in the palace of the king. Here Joseph rode through the streets in the royal chariot, clothed " with fine linen, and a chain of gold about his neck." The fine linen and the wrought gold show that even then Memphis was old in civilization. Here Moses was educated in the house- hold of Pharaoh, and became " learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians." There are now scarcely any remains of this mighty city ; but Abdallatif, a traveller from Bag- dad, thus describes it, as he saw it about seven hundred years ago : " The ruins occupy a space which is half a day's journey every way. As for the idols that are found among them, whether one considers their number, or their prodigious magnitude, it is a thing beyond all description, and of which no idea can be conveyed. But there is a thing yet more worthy of admiration ; and that is the pre- cision of their forms, the justness of their proportions, and their resemblance to nature." Speaking of the famous pyramids near the city, he says : " The stones are covered with writing-, the import of which is at this day unknown. More than ten thousand pages of paper would be filled, if only the inscriptions seen on these two pyramids were copied." It is now known that these huge monuments have stood more than four thousand years. It is proved to a certainty, from the hicroglyi)hics, that they were built, at the least calculation, three hundred years before Abraham was born, and seven or eight hundred years before the time of Moses. In 1837 the name of the king who built the Great Pyramid was found written on the rough stones. He lived near the time of Menes, and is the Cheops to whom Herodotus attri- butes the construction of this vast })ilc. In his time, the EGYPT. 189 outside was covered with writing, wliicli Abdallatif says he saw as late as the twelfth century after our era. Unfortu- nately, before the attention of European scholars was drawn toward Memphis, the marble casing of the pyramids was destroyed, and the writing lost. But we cannot lose pos- session of the fact that in those very remote times Egyp- tians must have had wonderful machinery, graving tools, an alphabet, and a knowledge of writing. Among the multitude of tombs in tliis vicinity are some coeval with the pyramids. A liieroglyphic record in one of them de- clares that it was built for " Eimei, great priest of the habi- tation of king Shoophoo" (called Cheops by the Greeks). Inkstands and reed-pens are common among the emblems here. A papyrus is now in Europe, of the date of Shoo- phoo ; which proves alphabetic signs, and written docu- ments, and that kind of paper to have been in use when the Great Pyramid was built ; nearly a thousand j^ears before Moses was born. Herodotus declares the pja-amids were built for sepul- chres ; and the learned now agree in opinion that for a long series of years every Egyptian monarch caused one of these royal tombs to be built for himself The sarco- phagi found in them proves that they were used for burial- places ; but the immense size of some of them, the various chambers, the shafts or wells, and the deep subterranean passages, have led to various conjectures concerning the possibility of their being likewise used for other purposes. Some have supposed that great religious Mysteries were celebrated there. Mr. Wilford, during his residence in Hindostan, described the Great Pyramid to several learned Bramins. He says : " They at once declared it to have been a temple. One of them asked if it had not a com- munication under ground with the river Nile. When I mentioned that such a passage was said to have existed, and that a well was at this day to be seen, the^^ unanimously agreed that it was a place appropriated to the woi'ship of Padma Devi, and that on certain festivals her priests used to fill the trousfh with sacred water and lotus-blossoms." 190 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. It has already been stated that it was a custom in Egypt for families, acoompanied by priests, to visit the tombs of reLatives at stated seasons, and oifer obkations and prayers for the departed, Perhaps something of this kind might have been done on a scale of exceeding grandeur in the pyramids, for the royal ones whose bodies rested there. On the island of Elephantina, in the Nile, there is a great accumulation of columns, obelisks, portals, and two small temples, covered within and without with hieroglyphics, executed in a style of great excellence. Denon supposes these to belong to the earliest ages of Egypt of which any trace remains. At Edfu, on the Nile, are also remarkable structures of great antiquity ; but the temples in these and in other places are now discovered to be partly built of the ruins of other temples more ancient still. At Dendera are the remains of large temples, compara- tively modern. They were first discovered by Bonaparte's arm}', and are supposed to have been erected nearly two thousand years ago. They are distinguished for lavishness of ornament, extraordinary beauty of execution, and bril- liancy of colouring. French writers say: "All that you see here, from the colossal statues of Isis to the smallest hieroglyphic, appears to have come from fairydand." The soldiers declared with one voice that this sight alone was enough to indemnify them for all the fatigues of their campaign. On the ceiling of the principal temple was painted a zodiac, which attracted great attention among the astronomers of Europe. This and other Egyptian zodiacs gave rise to much controversy concerning the astronomical ])roof of antiquity they conveyed. In 1822 the police of Paris suppressed some Essays, which started theories at vai-iance with the chronology of the Hebrew Scriptures. It is now generally decided by the learned that none of these zodiacs are much older than the Christian era. Caj)tain Jiurr, of the British army, who went to Egypt with East India troo[)s, was struck with the resemblance in costume and the manners represented, between the sculp- tures at Dendera and those he had seen in llindostan. Ilo EGYPT. 191 came to the conclusion tluit "a closer connection must have formerly existed among the nations of the E;ist, wlien they were yet united by the same worship." The Hindoo soldiers who accompanied him were filled with awe and amazement. TJjey believed themselves to be in the presence of tlieir own ancient deities, and were indignant at the neglect into which their worship iiad lallen. They exclaimed: "Surely Hindoos must have lived in tliis country!" Some thought the wonderful edifice might have been built by Kakshasas, or Evil Spirits; that being the usual account given of Buddhist temples by the Bra- mi ns The ancient Egyptian temples were always of solid mas- sive stone, without cement, and enclosed by thick walls. In time of war they were used as fortifications, and places of i-efuge for the inhabitants. Vestiges of tanks, or ponds, for ablution, are generally found near them, and many of them have deep sockets, apparently used for flags on festi- val occasions. The entrance was a porch in form of a truncated pyramid, very grand and massive. Through this they passed into an o[)en court surrounded with col- umns, with partition walls about half of their height. This outer court was probably intended for the people, where they might see the ceremonies and processions from a certain distance. Next to this came a portico, supported by rows of immense pillars. Through this they passed into vast saloons, three or four in succession, supposed to be intended for the religious processions and ceremonies which are pictured on the walls. At the extremity was a niche of granite or porphyry. This was the sanctuary, approached by none but the priests. Sometimes it con- tained the statue of the deity to whom the temple was dedicated ; sometimes an im;tge of the Bull, Apis, or some other sacred animal ; sometimes the Oracle Ship of Amun, in its shrine. In the great temples this Sacred Ship was often very magnificent. Sesostris presented one to the temple of Amun at Thebes, made of cedar, the inside lined with silver, and the outside covered with gold. 192 PROGRESS OP RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Sometimes the sanctuary contained a shrine or Ark, sur- mounted by a small image overshadowed with wings , sometimes the wings of Isis, sometimes of the Goddess of Truth, sometimes of the sacred bird Ibis, On each side of the saloons were corridors, which led into apartments where the priests lived. The walls, columns, and ceilings, were covered with sculpture. The capitals of the pillars were generally composed of native plants ; Lotus leaves, and Palm branches, arranged in endless variety. The tigures on the walls were usually in bold relief, represent- ing deities and their worshippers engaged in some religious cerem.ony. Near them were long explanatory inscriptions in hieroglyphics. All these sculptures were painted yellow, red, blue, green, and white. The colour of each deity, and of every other object, was established by rules, which ad- mitted of no deviation. Denon says : " An Egyptian tem- ple is, as it were, an open book, where science unfolds, where morality teaches, where the useful arts are set forth. Everything seems to speak ; all seems animated, and all in the same spirit. The doorposts, the most secret corners, give a lesson, or a rule ; and the whole is in most Avonderful harmony." The Oracle Ship in its shrine, or the Ark overshadowed with wings, occur very frequently in all the sculptured re))resentations of religious ceremonies. Sometimes the king is kneeling before it at his devotions ; sometimes he is coming toward it with an offering of frankincense. More fre([uently the priests carry it resting on long poles, sup- ported by their shoulders. They arc followed by bands of men and women, dancing, singing, playing on musical instruments, and clapping their hands in cadence, as they a|)proach the temple. Everywhere are emblems to remind the traveller of similar buildings on the banks of the Ganges. The beautiful water-lily called Lotus is repre- sented in every stage of growth. Deities arc seated on a Lotus, crowiuMl with Lotus, and carry a Lotus stem for a sc('j)lre. Li both ccMintries it was an emblem of the gener- ative power, and of the creation of the world I'rom water. EGYPT. 193 Serpents are winding about the ceilings, or interwoven in rings, to represent vast astronomical cycles. There are serpents \vitli the heads of deities, and serpents with the legs of human beings ; serpents winged, and serpents crowned. In both countries, this creature was the symbol of wisdom and immortality. Three was a mystical and significant number, and the Triangle is found in all their sacred places. Perhaps its three sides were a type of their Divine Triad, or Trinity, consisting of the masculine prin- ciple of the universe, the feminine principle, and the off- spring, or result, of the two. The Emblem of Life, so often found on Egyptian monuments, is explained by Sir J. G. Wilkinson as the union of the perpendicular line and the horizontal line, already mentioned as in use among Hindoos ; one being a representative of the masculine emblem of generation, the other of the femi- nine ; both together signifying the reproduction of life, or birth. It is surmounted by a ring, which is sometimes formed of eggs. This cross of Hermes, as it is called, is in various ways connected with the hieroglyphics of the planets, and is everywhere placed in the hands of deities, especially of Osiris. The sculptures often represent them offering it, with a cornucopia of fruit and grain, to kings at their inauguration ; perhaps to signify the bestowal of abundant harvests, numerous flocks, and many children. It was generally worn by the devout, and was considered an amulet of great virtue, a protection from Evil Spirits. When this Cross was twined with a Serpent, it was the emblem of Immortal Life. The Mundane Egg occurs often among the sculptures ; and so does an Eye to represent the all-seeing Osiris, and the Sun. There are apes and dwarfs looking pigmy and strange in the presence of colossal companions. The mysterious emblem called the Sphinx was much more frequently introduced in Egypt than in India. It is supposed to have been a royal emblem, manifesting their ideas of what a king ought to be. It had a lion's body with a man's head, or a ram's head ; perhaps to signify the union of physical strength with Vol. I.— 17 i 194 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. intellect in one case, and with innocence in the other. In these antique records of deceased generations, the greatest discords occur, as they do everywhere else in the manifestations of our unharmonized nature. There are deities serenely majestic, and in their sublime presence priests are kneeling before a monkey or a beetle. In one ph^ce are pleasing pictures of domestic life, men, women, and children with countenances innocent and mild; in another are heaps of human hands and ears cut from enemies in battle. Sometimes a man is represented kneeling, with his hands bound, while a priest points a knife to his throat. Sometimes there are men wuh knives thrust through their foreheads, or with heads flying from their shoulders. These may signify the execution of criminals, or the immolation of human victims. Such sacrifices were offered in ancient times. The priest examined the victim and put his seal upon him, as he did to animals intended for the altar. It is said the custom was abolished in Upper Egypt before the- time of Moses ; but it remained in other parts of tlie empire till the time of Amasis, who reigned five or six hundred years before the Christian era. He ordained that wax images should be substituted for human beings. Long pilgrimages to holy places were considered effica- cious for the expiation of sin ; but there are no records of such self-tortures as are practised by Hindoo devotees. Philostratus, a Greek writer, about two hundred years after Christ, describes an association of men who lived in a grove not far from the Nile. He calls them Gymnoso- phists, which means naked philosophers. Perhaps they discarded clothing in sign of superior sanctity and indiffer- ence to the world. He says they worshipped the god of the Nile, and believed in the immortality of the soul. Kach one lived by himself, and studied and sacrificed ai)art; but they sometimes met together in assemblies. If a man at Memphis had by any chance killed another, he was exiled till th(\se Gymnoso[)hists had absolved him by ceremonies of purification. The laws of caste appear to have been less rigid in EGYPT. 195 Egypt than in Hindostan. Solomon, though a foreigner, married a daughter of one of their kings ; a degree of toler- ation which perhaps originated in the fact that Egyptians and Jews were both circumcised nations. The condition of women in Egypt was prodigiously in advance of their enslaved sisters in Hindostan, It was customary to marry but one wife. Trade was carried on by women. The sculptures represent them buying and selling in the markets, and meeting with men at feasts, apparently on terms of equality. AVhen kings died without sons, daughters suc- ceeded to the throne; and in some of the sculptured pro- cessions, queens take precedence of kings. When Alexander the Great conquered Egypt, three hundred and thirty-two years before Christ, he founded a new city, and gave it his own name, Alexandria. Among its many splendid edifices for worship, the most magnificent was dedicated to Serapis, tutelary deity of the city. Sesostris, after his return from extensive conquests, is said to have introduced into Egypt the worship of this new god. It has been conjectured that he was the emblem of Pantheism, combining in himself the attributes of all the gods, and therefore considered by Sesostris a desirable point of unity for many nations, with distinct religions, all under the control of his government. For the same reason he was a peculiarly appropriate deity to preside over the great commercial city of Alexandria, where worshippers of various gods were wont to congregate. That he repre- sented all things seems to be implied by the fact that his image was made of all metals fused together, and inlaid with all sorts of precious stones. A great variety of emblems were connected with the figure. A huge ser- pent entwined the whole, and rested his head in the hand of the god. When Nieocreon, king of Cyprus, inquired who Serapis was, the god replied, through the voice of his oracle: "My head is heaven, my ears the air, my eyes the sunlight, my belly the sea, and my feet the earth." Severe penalties were incurred by any one who ventured to say Serapis had ever been incarnated in a human form. This 196 PROGKESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. law of the priests might have originated in the idea that it was blasphemy to suppose any one being coiihl combine in himself all the attributes of the Universal Soul. The Temple of Serapis is described as one of the stiiteliest the world has ever seen. A great mass of buildings were in- cluded within its enclosures, and there were vast subter- ranean passages underneath, where it is supposed some of the great religious Mysteries were celebrated. In the centre of the enclosure stood the Temple, on an artificial elevation, surrounded with a magnificent portico. Tlie ]ofty ceiling was supported by immense marble pillars, of beautiful proportions. The statue of the god was of such colossal size that the right hand touched the wall of the sanctuary on one side, and the left on the other. An aperture in the wall was so ai'ranged that the first gleams of the rising sun fell directly on the fixce ; and worshippers thought he smiled to meet the god of that luminary. A small image of the Sun, seated in a chariot, with four horses, was suspended from the ceiling, and at the close of day was drawn up by a powerful magnet, to represent his farewell. The temple was surrounded by a great number of galleries and apartments devoted to the priests, and to devotees, who had taken vows of celibacy. This s|»lendid structure was totally destroyed in the fourth ce n t n ry o f o u r era. Alexander the Great was imbued with the Grecian free- dom of thouglit, and facility of adaptation to new things. He was moreover desirous of attracting the enterprise, wealth and learning of the world to his new city. He commanded that the laws and religion of Egypt should be respected, but he encouraged Greeks and Jews to settle there, and extended the same toleration to their opinions. The site of the city was consecrated by solemn sacrifices both to the deities of Egypt and of Greece. As the great commercial route from India to various portions of the lioman empire lay through Alexandria, it became the great focus of trade; a connecting link between the un- changing East and the ever-changing West. It grew so EGYPT. 197 rapidly, that in a short time Rome was the only city that surpassed it in wealth and grandeur. In the century fol- lowing Alexander, those two liberal kings of Egypt, Ptolemy Soter and Ptolemy Philadelphus, founded and enlarged an academy and museum, with a royal library of seven hundred thousand volumes. It was the first establishment of the kind ever known in the world. Scholars of all nations and creeds flocked thither to enjoy its advantages. A general indulgence was granted to this promiscuous crowd to teach their respective doctrines to whoever was inclined to listen. Disciples of diverse sys- tems met together in the library, and at meals, and had ample opportunities to compare theories of religion and philosophy. Under these influences was formed a new set of teachers, who carried to distant countries the ideas they had received, and thus shook up and mixed together the forms of human thought everywhere. Old Egypt, once called the "image of heaven, and the temple of the whole world," dwindled away. All the nations had borrowed of her religion and science, but she was too conservative to borrow of them. Successively conquered by Persia, Greece, and Rome, and largely settled by Jews, she gradually lost her strength. Her princes were Grecians, her children attended Greek schools. Her religion became a lifeless body, her language utterly ex- tinct, her sacred writing an unknown cipher, and half her monuments buried in the drifting sand. But traces of her customs still exist on tlie shores of the Nile. Modern jugglers know the trick by which her old magicians ren- dered serpents motionless or stiff. They compress the cervical spine of the animal between the finger and thumb and call it changing the serpent into a rod, or stick. When thrown down, the pressure being removed, it be- comes a serpent again. Idiots are considered holy, and their exclamations prophetic. In this form lingers the ancient reverence for unpremeditated speech. The dif- ferent sections of Cairo are now under the guardianship of genii, as thev were formcrlv each under the protection of Vol. I— 17* 198 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. some tutelary deity. An image of a ram's head is still worn as an amulet against evil, and so is the golden beetle, once sacred to the sun, and an emblem of creation. The star of Isis looks down brightly as ever on the land that was once her own. The Sphinx stands dark and solemn in the desert twilight, a huge phantom of the miglity past, unable to reveal her mystery, "There sits drear Egypt, *mid beleaguering sands, Half human and half beast; Tlie burntout torch -within lier mouldering hands, That once lit all the East." CHINA AND THIBET. 199 CHINA AND THIBET. "I compile and transmit to posterity, but write not anything new. I believe and love the ancients, taking Laou Pang for my pattern." CoxFUcms. The Chinese claim for themselves almost unlimited an- tiquity. Their traditions go back millions of years, to a time when they were governed by the gods; but their early history is enveloped in thick darkness. It is the universal belief in Benares that they emigrated from Hin- dostan, and this opinion is said to be sustained by a passage in the Code of Menu. Their historical books, translated by Frenchmen of science, exhibit a regular chronology, ex- tending back three thousand years before our era. Con- siderable knowledge of astronomy existed among them at a very early period. One of the Jesuit missionaries in China, who had read more than a hundred volumes of their annals, assures us that they observed the motions of the heavenly bodies soon after our date of the Deluge ; and European scholars have satisfied themselves that they accurately calculated an eclipse two thousand one hundred and fifty-five years before Christ. They named successive days for tlie same seven planets that Hindoos and Egyp- tians did. Their learned men have always occupied them- selves with history, political maxims and external sciences, without manifesting much interest in metaphysical in- quiries or mystical theories. They have changed less in the course of ages than any other nation on earth, partly owing to the peculiarity of their language, which impedes the introduction of foreign literature, and parti 3^ owing to their extreme veneration for everything ancient. Opinions must be sustained by precedent and authority, and once 200 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. received they are cast into an exact mould, the pattern of which must never change. Their minds are never troubled with the query, which, in one form or another, has dis- turbed the repose of the priesthood all the world over; no restless activity of intellect Induces them to inquire : " Why must I always wear my grandfather's hat? My head was not measured for it." Unquestioning obedience to su- periors, in church, state, and household, constitutes their morality. Their emperor is called Holy Son of Heaven, and Sole Guardian of the Earth." His subjects prostrate themselves in his presence, and do homage to his image and his throne. He is, and always has been, at the head of ecclesiastical affairs. A belief in the divine origin of kings, so universal among the ancients, is expressed by the Chinese in a tradition concerning their first monarch, Fo-hi. They say he had no mortal father ; that his mother conceived him encompassed by a rainbow. Men remarkable for holiness or wisdom are generally called Tien-tse, Sons of Heaven. It is a common opinion that the}'' had no mortal fathers, but derived their existence from some heavenly source. The greatest name among Chinese sages is Kong-Fou- tseu, Latinized into Confucius. He was born five hundred and fifty-one years before Christ. In bo3^hood he was re- markably serious, and manifested no taste for childish amusements. His ancestors held offices under government for six generations, but in youth he was poor, and obliged to support himself by manual labour. He had but one wife, to whom he was married at nineteen years of ago. When twenty years old, he was appointed superintendent of grain and cattle in his native province, as a reward for intelligence and virtuous conduct. vYfterward he held the rank of Afandarin at court, but as the king would not follow his advice in what he deemed for the good of tlie people, he resigned his office, went into a neighbouring province, and became a teacher of morals. He is said to luive had several thousand disci])les, by whom he appears to have been regarded with the deepest veneration. They CHIXA AND THIBET. 201 said: "Since men existed, there has never been one to be compared to Confucius." " As the heavens cannot be scaled, even by the highest ladder, so no man can attain to Confucius. Were he to obtain the throne, he would es- tablish the people, and they would be correct." " He may be compared to heaven and earth, in their supporting, containing, and overshadowing all things; to the regular revolutions of the seasons, and the alternate shining of the sun and moon." But it is not likely that such trans- cendent merit would have been accorded to him in any other countr3^ The formality of Chinese etiquette is stamped on all that is related of him. His moral teachings are mixed with many rules how to regulate the countenance, and how to stand or walk in the presence of elders, or superiors in rank. It is recorded, as very important, that on the first of every month he always put on his court robes, and ■waited on the prince. " When he entered the palace door he crouched down, as if the door could not admit him. Holding up his robes, he ascended the hall, bending his body, repressing his breath, as if he did not dare to breathe. When he passed by the empty throne, his countenance changed suddenly, and he walked with grave and meas- ured steps, as if fettered. When he went out, and descended one step, he relaxed his countenance a little, and assumed a mild and pleasing deportment. When he reached the foot of the stairs, he let fall his robes, and expanded his arms like a bird's wings." " When he met any person in mourning, he bowed even to the front cross-beam of his carriage ; he did the same to a person bearing the census of the people. If the mat was not laid straight, he sat not down. When old men, who walked with canes, withdrew from a feast, he rose and retired also." He never drank wine enough to confuse his mind ; and whatsoever he ate or drank, he first offered a portion to the gods. It is re- corded that he turned back from a journey, on account of meeting unlucky omens by the way. He was fond of music, and often recommended its cultivation ; particularly 1* 202 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. that of their famous monarch, Shun, which so excited him, when he first heard it, that he knew not the taste of hia food for three months after. His doctrines are based on the idea that human nature is good and beautiful, unless obscured by the darkness of ignorance, or sullied by the contasfion of vice. As the best means of restoring its ori- ginal lustre, he inculcates reverence toward the Supreme Euler, justice and kindness toward others, temperate indul- gence of the appetites, and a due regard to the medium of propriety in all things. His respect for parental authority was carried to such an extreme, that he thought parents had a right to sell their children. He encouraged mar- riage and agriculture, but was less favourable to commerce. On religious subjects his recorded sayings are very inde- finite. He appears to have conformed to the usages of his country as he found them. He alludes reverently to a Supreme Kuler, and it may he inferred that he had belief of some kind in the immortality of the soul. He inculcates the worship of Spirits, and ceremonial observances to the souls of ancestors. He wrote no books, and his literary merit, as he himself says, is merely that of a compiler. Being desirous to hand down to posterity the worship and the principles of political wisdom, practised by their pattern-princes, Yaou and Shun, who lived fifteen hundred years before him, he collected and arranged the scattered fragments of old books relating to the laws and manners of ancient times. Therefore, the Chinese consider him superior even to those revered nion- archs ; for " they benefitted one age only by their wise and benevolent government; while Confucius, by transmit- ting their principles to ten thousand ages, possesses ten thousand times their merit." The Chinese sage lived seventy-thi'ce years, and toward the close of his life mourned much over modern degeneracy. A few days before his death, he said to his disciples : " Kings refuse to follow my maxims, and since I am no longer useful in the world, it is best I should depart from it." Many of his disciples erected a tent near his grave, CHINA AND THIBET, 203 and remained there three years, mourning for liim, and offering prayers and sacrifices; one of them lingered six 3'ears. llis descendants inherit the oflice and title of ]\ran- darins, and, to this day, religious honours are paid to his memory, as if he were an illustrious ancestor lately de- ceased. The following are samples of his maxims, as recorded by his disciples : — *' Not to correct our faults is to commit new ones." " Be rigid to yourself and gentle to others, and you will have no enemies." " The wise man loves to be by himself, the fool seeks company." "By the very errors of men, we may judge whether they are virtuous or not. If a good man eiTs, it is gener- ally through excess of affection or gratitude ; but the errors of a vicious man commonl}^ proceed from excess of hatred and ingratitude." " Life and death depend on the law of Tien, which is immutable. Poverty and riches are dispensed by Tien, wdio cannot be compelled. A wise man reveres the dis- pensations of Tien, and thus enjoys inward tranquillity and peace." " How vast is the power of Spirits ! An ocean of in- visible Intelligences surround us everywhere. If you look for them, you cannot see them. If you listen, you cannot hear them. Identified with the substance of all things, they cannot be separated from it. They cause men to purify and sanctify their hearts ; to clothe themselves with festive garments, and offer oblations to their ancestors. They are everywhere above us, on the right and on the left. Their coming cannot be calculated. How important that we should not neglect them !" " Worship the gods, as though they were visibly present. Sacrifice to ancestors as if they were here." "He who knows right principles is not equal to him who lovers them ; nor is he who loves them equal to him who delights in them." "Coarse rice for food, water for drink, and one's bended 204 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. arm for a pillow, even in the midst of these there is happi- ness; but riches and honours gained bj injustice arc to mo like fleetinsf clouds," '•To know that a thing is right and not to do it, is weakness." " Have not a friend morally inferior to yourself." " If you err, fear not to reform." "Be not sorry that men do not know you, but be soi'ry that you are ignorant of men." "The highest exercise of benevolence is tender affection for relatives." " Teach all, without regard to what class they belong." "To be thoroughly instructed in music and rites, to teach others principles of virtue, to possess the friendship of many wise men, these are useful satisfactions. But satisfactions derived from pride, vanity, idleness, and sen- sual pleasures, are injurious." " How wise is Hwuy ! He has only a bamboo vase for his rice, a cup to drink from, and a mean narrow lane for his habitation. Other men could not endure such priva- tions; but it disturbs not the serenity of Hwuy !" "Fix the thoughts on duty, practise without ceasing the virtue of humanity, and, if you have leisure, cultivate the arts." " To keep invariably in the due medium constitutes vir- tue ; men rarely persevere in it." " The nature of man is upright. If in the course of his life he loses this natural uprightness, he removes far from him all happiness." " If wise and virtuous men were to govern a state for a hundred years, they could put an end to tyranny and punishments." "Abroad, do your duty to your prince and his magis- trates. At home, obey your father, mother, and elder brothers. In funeral and sacrificial rites, do not pennit any negligence. Allow yourself no excess in the use of wine," "I see no defect in the character of Yu. He was sober CHINA AND THIBET. 205 in eating and drinking, and eminently pious toward Spirits and ancestors. His common apparel was coarse, but his sacrificial robes were beautifully adorned. He lived in an humble dwelling, but employed his strength in making ditches and water-courses for the good of the people." There was an old tradition that the Yu here referred to by Confucius was born of a virgin, who conceiv^ed him from the rays of a star. He is said to have been employed b}^ the emperor to drain off the waters of a great deluge, which, according to Chinese chronology, occurred two thousand two hundred years before Christ. When Confucius was asked what might be said in favour of rewarding hatred by kindness, he replied : " In that case, Avith what will you reward kindness? lleturn bad treat- ment with equity, and recompense kindness with kindness." One of his disciples begged that he would teach him to die well. He answered : " You have not yet learned to live well ; when you have learned that, you will know how to die well." Some person inquired of him what one maxim expressed the conduct proper for a whole life. He re- joined : " Never do to others what you do not wish them to do to you." One day, when he had gone out from among his scholars, a question arose concerning the general purport of his teaching. One of them said : " The doctrine of our master consists solely in integrity of heart, and treat- ing his neighbour as he himself wishes to be treated." There is a tradition that Confucius was often heard to repeat: "In the Land of the West will the holy one be found." This declaration coincides with a prophecy in their old Sacred Books, and was afterward brought into general notice when the religion of Fo was introduced from India, which they are accustomed to designate as the Land of the West. The compilation of ancient history and laws made by Confucius is called, by w^ay of pre-eminence, " The Five Volumes." They date four hundred years before Moses, about two thousand years before the Christian era, and refer continually to a religion long established at the time Vol. I.— 18 206 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. they were written, which they merely seek to preserve and impress upon the minds of the people. They arc univer- sally considered to be very sacred authority, though they do not claim to be divine revelations, and a comparatively small portion of their contents are of a strictly religious character. They contain the fundamental laws of the empire, rules for rites and ceremonies, moral maxims, and memoirs of princes. Apparently, their chief object was to preserve tranquillity in the state, by a precise regulation of manners and the inculcation of perfect obedience to government. They preserve a tradition concerning a mys- terious Garden, where grew a Tree, bearing Apples of Im- mortality, guarded by a winged Serpent, called a Dragon. They describe a primitive age of the world, when the earth yielded abundance of delicious fruits witliout cultivation, and the seasons were untroubled by wind or storms. There was no calamity, sickness or death. Men were then good without effort; for the human heart was in harmony with the peacefulness and beauty of nature. After this happy time, men degenerated by progressive stages. But finally Tien-tse, a Son of Heaven, would be born into the world, do away all sin, and restore oi'der. These ancient books contain no specific doctrine concerning God, but they make frequent mention of One Invisible Being, under the name of Chang-ti, which signifies the Supreme Emperor. Sometimes he is called Tien, meaning the visible heaven. Their interpreters explain this by saying: " The firmament is the most glorious work pro- duced by the Great First Cause." Chang-ti is described as the Original Principle of all things, almighty, omni- scient, knowing the inmost secrets of the heart, watching over the conduct of the universe, and permitting nothing to happen contrary to his will ; rewarding virtue and pun- ishing wickedness, raising up and casting down kings, and sending public calamities as a warning to nations to repent and forsake their sins. When an unjust emperor was struck by lightning, these Sacred Volumes represent it aa a direct and visible punisliment, sent by Tien, or Heaven, CIIIXA AXD THIBET. 207 as an admonition to mankind. Tlic}^ contain many solemn invocations to Cliang-ti, for the recovery of a good emperor from dangerous illness, to obtain rain after a severe drought, and other similar benefits ; and they relate many instances to assure devout readers that such prayers are generally heard and answered. They likewise affirm that no out- ward adoration can be pleasing to Tien unless it proceeds from a sincere heart. From their most ancient times the Supreme Emperor of Heaven has been" worshipped at stated seasons, with great solemnity. When a new emperor succeeded to the throne, it was always considered, his duty to plough a portion of the ground, in token of humility, and cultivate a crop to be offered in sacrifice to Chang-ti. The empress feeds silk worms, and assists in manufacturing and embroidering rich silks, to be used as ornaments when these sheaf-offerings are carried in procession, and devoutly presented, by royal hands, to the Emperor of Heaven. Whenever these cere- monials have been omitted, or negligently performed, the Sacred Books declare that the displeasure of Chang-ti has soon after been manifested by extraordinary public calami- ties. Some of the early emperors, in addition to the cus- tomary agricultural offerings, kept a domestic park to rear six sorts of animals for sacrifice, twice a year, at the winter solstice and the summer solstice. On these occasions, the people were enjoined to do nothing, and think of nothing but joining with the emperor in w(^rship of Chang-ti. In the reign of Tching-tang there was a distressing famme for seven years, occasioned by drought. The emperor having in vain offered a multitude of sacrifices, at last resolved to devote himself as a victim to appease the anger of Heaven. He took off his imperial robes, and, accompanied by the grandees of his court, went to a mountain some distance from the city, where with bare head and naked feet, in the posture of a criminal, he prostrated himself nine times be- fore the Ruler of the Universe, and uttered the following prayer: "O Supreme Emperor, all the sacrifices I have offered to implore thy mercy have been in vain ; therefore 208 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. it is doubtless I myself, who have drawn down so much misery on my people. May I dare to ask wliat my fault is? Is it the magnificence of my palace, or the luxuries of my table ? Is it the number of my concubines ? which, however, are not more than the laws allow me. I am sincerely desirous to repair all my faults by modesty, fru-' gality, and temperance ; and if tliis be insufficient, I offer myself as a victim to justice. Let me be punished, and my people spared. I shall be content to have thy thun- derbolt fall on my head, if at the same time rain descends upon the earth, to relieve the miseries of my people." Ilis prayer was answered. Clouds overspread the sk}^, and genial showers moistened the earth, which brought forth abundant harvests. These Five Sacred Books favour belief in a multitude of Spirits, pervading the universe. They say nothing definite concerning future rewards and punishments ; but a belief in the immortality of the soul is implied by the fact that they prescribe ceremonials to be performed for the souls of deceased ancestors, and speak of the virtuous de- joarted as being near Chang-ti. The Golden Age of the Past is much dwelt upon by their ancient commentators. One of them says : " All places were then equally the native country of every man. Flocks wandered in the fields without any guide; birds filled the air with their melodious voices ; and the fruits grew of their own accord. Man lived pleasantly with the animals, and all creatures were members of the same family. Ignorant of evil, man lived in simplicity and perfect innocence." An- other says : " In the first age of perfect purity, all was in Ijarmony, and the passions did not occasion the sHghtest murmur. Man, united to sovereign reason within, conformed his outward actions to sovereign justice. Far from all du- plicity and falsehood, his soul received marvellous felicity from heaven, and the purest deliglits from earth." The first man is called by the Chinese Tai Wang, and the first woman Pao Sec. In one of The Five Volumes, called Chi King, it is said: "Tien ])laccd man u})ou a high CHINA AND TPIIBET. 209 mountain, which Tai Wang rendered fruitless by his own fjiult. He filled the eartli with thorns and briars, and said, I am not guilty, for I could not do otherwise. Why did he plunge us into so much misery? All was subjected to man at first,, but a woman threw us into slavery. The wise husband raised up a bulwark of walls; but the woman, by an ambitious desire of knowledge, demolished them. Our misery did not come from Ucaven, but from a woman. She lost the human race. Ah, unhap|>y Pao See! thou kindled the fire that consumes us, and which is every day augmenting. Our misery has lasted many ages. The world is lost. Vice overflows all things, like a mortal poison." The commentator Lopi says : " After man had acquired false science, nature was spoiled and degraded. All creatures became his enemies. The birds of the air, the beasts of the field, the serpents and the reptiles, con- spired to hurt him." The Five Volumes arc full of prophecies concerning a Golden Age in the Future. All these relate to the glory of the Chinese empire, which is one day to extend over the fice of the whole earth. It is the universal belief that a Divine Man will establish himself on their Holy Mountain, and everywhere restore peace and happiness. This moun- tain is called Kou-En-Lun, and is supposed to be in the middle of the world. One of The Five Volumes, called Chan-Hai-King, thus describes it: "All that could be de- sired, wondrous trees, marvellous fountains, and flow^ery shades, are found in the hidden garden on that sacred hill. This mountain is the inferior palace of the Sovereign Lord. The animal Kaiming guards the entrance." " The Lord looks with pleasure upon the Holy Moun- tain. It is the abode of peace. There grow none of the trees employed to make warlike instruments. It is an eternal kingdom. It is the work of the Most High. The Kingdom of the Middle is where the Holy Son of Heaven will come to reign. He allows no wicked men to enter there. He banishes them into the dark abodes of beasts and monsters. The subjects of that kingdom are called Vol. I.— 18* 210 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. heavenly people, because they are governed by the Holy k5on of Heaven, who perfects them from within cixu] without, and nourishes them by his supreme virtue and celestial doctrine, so that they cry out with joy. The Son of Heaven is truly the Father of his people, and Lord of the Universe." "This is the Mountain of the Lord: these living foun- tains are the pure waters wherein the subjects of the Prince of Peace are to quench their thirst. He himself has chosen this mountain. He himself has opened the clear streams. It is hither that all the faithful nations must come. It is here that all the kings will meet." One of the ancient commentators on the Sacred Books says : " We have learned from our ancestors that there as- suredly is a mountain called Kou-En-Lun ; though hitherto no one has found it." Another says : " A delicious garden, refreshed with zephyrs, and planted with odoriferous trees, was situated in the middle of the mountain, which was the avenue of heaven. The waters that moistened it flowed from a source called the Fountain of Immortality. He who drinks of it never dies. Thence flowed four rivers. A Golden River, betwixt the south and east; a Red River, between the north and east; a Peaceful River, between the south and west; and the River of the Lamb, between the north and west. These magnificent floods are the spiritual fountains of the Sovereign Lord, by which he heals nations and fructifies all things." " If you double the height of Kou-En-Lun it will become the Supreme Heaven, where S[)irits live, the palace of the Great Lord and Sovereign Ruler." • The Five Volumes state that "the Source and Root of all is One. This SelfExistcnt Unit\- necessarily produced a second. The fii'st and second, by their union, produced a thinl. These Three produced all." "Tiie ancient em})erors solemnly sacrificed, every three years, to Him who is One and Three." "Tien helps people of the infri'ior worlds. He gave them a •jiiide and teachei', the niithrul minister of the CHINA AND THIBET. 211 Supreme Lord, to whom, out of love, lie intrnsU-d tlic government of the universe. Tien is The Holy One ivitliout a voice. The Holy One is Tien speaking vjitli a voice." [That is, the Word.] One of the old commentators says : " By consulting the ancient traditions, we know that though the Holy One will be born upon earth, yet he existed before anything was made." One of the Five Volutiics, called Y King, says: "The Holy One will unite in himself all the virtues of heaven and earth. By his justice the world will be re-established in the ways of righteousness. He will labour and suifcr much. He must pass the great torrent, whose waves shall enter into his soul ; but he alone can offer up to the Lord a sacrifice worthy of him," An ancient commentator says : " The common people sacrifice their lives to gain bread ; the philosophers to ac- quire reputation; the nobility to perpetuate their families. The Holy does not seek himself, but the good of others. He enriches others and impoverishes himself. He dies to save the world." In one of The Five Volumes, called Chu King, it is written: "Tien, the Sovereign Lord, said to Venwang [The Prince of Peace] : I love pure and simple virtue, like thine. It makes no noise, it does not dazzle from without. It is not proud or forward. Seeing thee, one Avould say thou hadst no light, no knowledge, but to conform thyself to m}^ laws." " AYe expect our king. When he comes he will deliver us from all misery. He will restore us to new life." A nephew of Confucius writes: "We expect this Divine Man, and he is to come after three thousand years " Another disciple of Confucius adds: "The people long for his coming, as the dry grass longs for the clouds and the rainbow." The following extracts are from the Book of Chu King: "The Sovereign Lord of Heaven produced all the nations of the world, and reigns over them. He makes no excep* 212 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. tion of persons, but esteems virtue alone, loving men only so far as they worship him sincerely. lie hears the prayers of the merciful, but he destroys the wicked. We ought to pray to liim for immortal life." "Perfection consists in being reunited to the Supreme Unity. The soul was at first luminous, but it was after- ward obscured. It should be our earnest endeavour to restore it to its primitive light ; and it is oidy by destroying all wrong desires, and all self-love, that we can perceive celestial reason. What is called reason is properly an attribute of Tien, the Supreme God. The light which he communicates to men is a participation of this reason. What is called reason in Tien is virtue in man, and, when reduced to practice, is called justice. The truly wise man remains within himself, and piety rules all his conduct." " To think that we have virtue, is to have very little of it. Wisdom consists in being very humble, as if we were incapable of anything, yet ardent, as if we could do all." " When thou art in the secret places of thy house, do not say, None sees me ; for there is an Intelligent Spirit, who seeth all. Tien, the Supreme, pierces into the recesses of the heart, as light penetrates into a dark room. We must endeavour to be in harmony with his light, like a musical instrument perfectly attuned. We must receive from his hand, as soon as he opens it. He seeks to en- lighten us continually ; but, by our disorderly passions, we close the entrance to our souls." " Mankind, overwhelmed with afflictions, seem to doubt of Providence ; but when the hour of executing his decrees shall come, none can resist him. He will then show that when he punished, he was just and good, and that he was never actuated by vengeance or hatred." These Five Books, and other volumes containing the recorded sayings of Confucius, are the standard literature of China, the basis of all their moral and political wisdom. Every schoolboy in the empire has committed them to memory from time immemorial, and to call in question any- thing they assert would be deemed the most alarming heresy. CHINA AND THIBET. 213 There has always existed in China a tribnnal called tlie Court of Kites, invested with full autliority to condemn and suppress any hurtful innovations ; and this has greatly contributed to the preservation of the ancient religion. But the plain practical teaching of Confucius had no mar- vels to overawe the imagination, and it prescinbed no ascetic practices, or elaborate ceremonials, by which the sinner could mitigate remorse, and hope to reconcile him- self with Divine Powers. Consequently, the populace manifested an inclination to adopt other forms of faith. Lao-kiun, sometimes called Lao-tseu, is supposed to have been the first who introduced foreign belief into China. lie was cotemporary with Confucius, and founder of the sect called Tao-tse. Tradition reports that he voluntarily renounced the advantages of rank, and retired into the solitude of the forest, in the Land of the West ; their name for India. The doctrines he taught indicate that he was a Hindoo devotee, but to what sect he belonged is unknown. He believed in the existence of One Supreme Being, in- visible, eternal, and incomprehensible, called Tao, which means Reason, or Wisdom. Successive emanations from him were subordinate Spirits, who produced the world, and governed it as his agents. It was liis favourite maxim that " Tao produced one ; one produced two ; two pro- duced a third ; and three produced all things." The science of Tao was the means of arriving at felicity and perfect freedom. This science could be obtained by severe morti- fication of the body, entire subjection of the passions, and devout contemplation. AVhen a man arrived at this holy state, he was an immortal while he yet remained upon the earth. It was believed that he could foretell events, fly through the air, put back the course of the years, and ascend to heaven without dying. Lao-kiun was accus- tomed to say: "The Holy pronounced these words: He that takes upon himself the dust and filth of the kingdom, shall become king of the universe." He acquired great reputation for sanctity, and marvellous stories were told of his birth. It was said that he had existed from all eter- 214 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. nitj ; that he descended to earth, and was born of a virgin, bUick in complexion, described " marvellous and beautiful as jasper ;" that when his mission of benevolence was com- ])leted, he ascended bodily alive into the Paradise above. His statue was placed in the emperor's palace, a sj)lendid temple was erected to him, and he was worshipped as a god. His disciples were called, " Heavenly Teachers." They inculcated great tenderness toward animals, and con- sidered strict celibacy necessary for the attainment of per- fect holiness. One morning a book filled with magical formulas and invocations to Spirits was found suspended on the principal gate of Pekin. The followers of Lao-kiun said it had descended from heaven in the night-time. The emperor Tchin-tsong, being among the converts to the new doctrine, went on foot to the city gate, in token of humility, received the volume with all reverence, enclosed it in a golden box, and carried it back to the palace, where it has ever since been carefully preserved, as the oracle of the sect, under the title of Tao-teking. From revelations contained in these writings, the teachers profess to know how to cast out Evil Spirits from those afflicted with diseases, to pre- dict events from the aspect of the stars, and make gold by some mysterious process of alchemy and magic. They even persuaded one of the emperors that they had dis- covered how to distil a liquor which would confer immortal life on whoever drank it. The teachers of this sect have great influence with the populace, to whom they sell amu- lets to preserve them from evil, and innumerable small images of Spirits, and of saints who have become God. The successors of Lao-kiun are always honoured with the title of chief Mandarins. The head of tiie sect resides in a magnificent palace in the district of Kiang-si. A great concourse of people, among whom are some persons of rank, flock thither from the neighbouring provinces, to have diseases cured, or their fortunes told. Such practices have always been ridiculed by the school of Confucius, and tlie Court of Bites has uniformly con- CHINA AND THIBET. 215 demiied them. In the third century after Confucius, the emperor, anno3^ed by the power thus obtained over the credulous multitude, ordered all books of magic to be burned, and put many professors of it to death ; but some of the writings were secretly preserved, and afterward brought to light. A new religion was subsequently introduced, concerning which the following traditions are preserved. In the twenty-fourth year of the reign of Tchao-Wang, on the eighth day of the moon, a light from the south-west illu- mined tlie palace of the king. The monarch summoned sages skilled in predicting the future, and inquired the meaning of this splendour. They showed him books wherein it was prophesied that such a light would be seen when a great saint was born in the West, and that one thousand years after his birth, his religion would spread into China. This was one thousand and twenty-nine years before Christ. Sixtj^-five years after Christ, the emperor Ming-ti dreamed that a man ten feet high, of the colour of gold, and glittering like the sun, entered his palace, and said: "My religion will spread over these parts." When the sages were consulted, they opened the annals of the empire and showed him how his dream corresponded with the prophecy which had been read to Tchao-Wang a thou- sand years before. He was so much impressed by the coincidence, that he immediately sent ambassadors to India, with directions to seek for the Holy One, and not return until they found him. These messengers encountered some of the disciples of Bouddha Sakia, and brought back his Sacred Books, with teachers to explain them. The doc- trines of this sect have been described in the chapter on Hindostan. They have been very generally adopted in China, where Bouddha is known under the name of the God Fo. Five centuries after the introduction of this religion, there were three thousand temples of Fo in the Chinese empire, and the emperor himself was so attached to the new faith, that he resigned the government into the hands of his adopted son, that he might withdraw from all 216 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. worldly affairs, and devote himself entirely to meditation on divine things. In one of the Sacred Books brought by the ambassadors, Bouddha is understood to refer to a master more ancient than himself, called by the Cliinese Om-i-io, and by the Japanese Am-i-da. It is said this name, in Sanscrit, sig- nifies The Infinite. It is apparentl}^ a variation of Om, which Hindoos hold so peculiarly sacred as the Word which issued from the mouth of Brahma, and produced all things. In China, it is written thousands and thousands of times on all their holy places. In their prayers, they pronounce it with Fo, believing they can thus obtain re- mission of sins. Phu-sa, a follower of Bouddha, who lived early in our fourth century, is worshipped in China, as one of those saints who had become a Spirit of Light, and voluntarily descended to earth again from motives of benevolence. He is called "The son of Bouddha, born of his mouth," because his allegorical writings are supposed to have perfected the doctrines of his master. Bodhidhorma, another of his fol- lowers, who fled from persecution in Hindostan, in our fifth century, took refuge in China, where he was received with distinguished favour by the emperor, and became his spiritual teacher. His name is held in religious veneration, and his office of imperial counsellor was the origin of an order of priests still existing, called Spiritual Princes of the Law. The emperors of the Tartar dynasty have all embraced Lamaism, a branch of Buddhism, which will be presently explained. But whatever may be their personal predilec- tions, the law obliges them to conform to the rites and ceremonies prescribed in the ancient Sacred Books of China, in common with all magistrates and public officers. The festivals of the old religion are scrupulously observed p]very n(;w emperor guides the plough with his own hands, to rais(! grain for an offi-ring to Chang-ti. At the winter solstice, the last week in December, and the summer solstice, the last week in June, all the shops are shut up, CHINA AND THIBET. 217 the courts are closed, and no person is permitted to begin a long journey. The religious solemnities celebrated at those seasons are called Festivals of Gratitude to Tien. At the spring equinox, they set apart a day to implore the blessing of Tien on the fruits of the earth. At the autumnal equinox, they offer the first-fruits of the harvest, and return thanks. Though the worship of Fo has been the prevailing religion of all parts of the Chinese empire for more than fifteen hundred years, it has never gained favour with a majority of their learned men, who are mostly of the school of Confucius. One of them argues thus : " This person, so cried up, who has come out of the West into China, passed, as they say, nine years on a mountain, in continual contem- plation. He remained immoveable, with his eyes fixed upon the wall, without changing his position. Suppose every private person should take it into his head to follow this example, who would take care of cultivating the fields, and making the useful products of the loom? Whence would they have garments, and food to support life? Can it be imagined that a doctrine whose practice, if it were universal, would put the whole empire in confusion, is the true doctrine ?" A letter from one of them, addressed to the emperor, says: "If the worship of Fo is tolerated, the people will go by hundreds to give their money and cloth- ing to the priests; and I fear that young and old will finish by entirely neglecting their occupations. If you do not forbid these things, there will soon be persons who will mutilate their members to offer them to Fo, thus destroy- ing our morality, and exciting the ridicule of people around us." Another writes thus to a believer in the popular doctrines : " If you do not burn paper in honour of Fo, if you do not place offerings upon his altar, he will be angry with you, and make punishment fall on your heads. Your god Fo must then be a miserable creature." But these are merely the opinions of the learned. The populace have always been so attached to the religion of Fo, that the Court of Eites have deemed it prudent to ex- VOL. I.— 19 K 218 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. press no opinion against it. When they meet annually at Pekin, they merely condemn heresy in general terms, and leave the people free to follow their own opinions, pro- vided they do not infringe upon any of the established laws of the empire. Many, who consider themselves dis- ciples of Confucius, have mixed his maxims with various ideas borrowed from the Sacred Books of Fo. The women are almost universally attached to the popular worship. They have an altar in the most honourable part of the house, covered with gilded images of gods and saints ; and not unfrequently husbands, who profess the old conserva- tive faith of China, are seen bowing the knee to these household deities. One of the most universal of these images is that of Shing Mou, the Mother Goddess ; the same title bestowed by ancient Egyptians on Isis with her infant Ilorus. It represents a woman with a glory round her head, and a babe in her arms, or seated on her knee Tradition describes her as a virgin, who conceived by sim- ple contact with a water-lily. The child, exposed in his inf^ancy, was found and brought up by poor fishermen. He became a great man, and performed wonderful miracles. In wealthy houses, the sacred image of the Mother Goddess is carefully kept in a recess behind the altar, veiled with a silken screen. Every Chinese believes he has an attendant Spirit, his own peculiar guardian. An image of it is kept in the house and worshipped three times a day, with prayers, and the fragrant incense of sandal wood. Sun, moon, fire, water, earth, and every department of nature, has a presiding deity. So has each trade and profession. Homage is often paid to some high mountain, or remarkably large tree, from tlie idea that a powerful Spirit resides therein. The image of a great Dragon, or monstrous Serpent, occurs everywhere in their temples, and on domestic altars. They say it lives in the sky, and has great influence over the affairs of men. Originally it doubtless represented the constelkition of the Serpent, and they preserve this fragmentary form of the CHINA AND THIBET. 219 old astronomical religion of India, Chaldca, and Egypt, without understanding the idea it embodied. According to the statements of ^Jesuit missionaries in China, the doctrine of the transmigration of souls some- times manifests itself in singular results. Father Le Comto says: " One day two priests of Fo passing the dwelling of a rich peasant saw three large ducks before the door. They immediately stopped before the house and began to weep bitterly. The peasant's wife came out to inquire the cause of their grief They replied : ' We know that the souls of our fathers have passed into those creatures, and the fear that you may kill them renders us wretched.' The woman promised they should be carefully tended, and neither killed nor sold. J3ut they answered : ' Perhaps your husband may not be so compassionate as you are ; and if any accident should happen, it would be a great affliction to us.' After some further conversation, the woman felt such sympathy with their filial anxiety, that she gave them the ducks." The same writer says : " They called upon me one day to baptize a sick person, an old man of seventy, who lived upon a small pension given him by the emperor. When 1 entered his room, he said : ' I thank you. Father, that you are going to deliver me from a heavy punishment.' I replied : ' That is not all. Baptism not only saves people from hell, but conducts them to a life of blessedness.' 'I do not comprehend what you say,' rejoined the invalid ; ' and perhaps I have not sufficiently explained myself I have for some time past lived on the emperor's benevolence. The priests, who are well acquainted with what happens to the soul after death, assure me that I shall be obliged to repay tlie emperor's generosity by becoming a post-horse to bring despatches from the provinces to court. They exhort me to perform my duty well, when I assume this new form of being, and to take care not to stumble, or wince, or bite. They tell me if I travel well, eat little, and am patient, I may by that means excite the compassion of the deities, who often convert a good beast into a man 220 PROGRESS OF RKLIGIOUS IDEAS. of qualit}^, and make him a considerable Mandarin. I cannot tliink of all this without trembling. Sometimes I dream that I am harnessed, and ready to set out at the first stroke of the rider. I then wake in a sweat, and am very unhappy, not being able to determine whether I am a man or a horse. Alas ! what will become of me, when I shall be a horse in reality? Tliey tell me. Father, that people of your religion are not subject to such miseries ; that men continue to be men in the next world, as they are in tliis. I beseech you to receive me among you. I am ready to embrace your religion ; for, whatever it may cost me, I had rather be a Christian than become a beast." The Jesuit Father baptized him, and the poor old man de- parted from this life happy in the belief that he should not be obliged to reappear on earth in the form of a post- horse. In some places assemblies of women are held, to perforin certain religious ceremonies as a preparation for death. A venerable old priest comes to preside over the meeting. He arranges the sacred images, and covers the walls of the house with paintings representing the various torments of the wicked after they leave the body. He sings anthems to Fo, while the women strike small kettles at intervals, and devoutly repeat the names of Omi-to and Fo. These festivals continue seven days, during which their principal care is to prepare and consecrate treasures for the other world. They build small houses with paper, and fill them with a great number of boxes ])ainted and gilded. In these boxes they put iiundreds of little rolls of gold and silver pnpcr. They secure them with padlocks of paper, and fasten the house carefully. When the person who made the house dies, they burn it, with all its chests and keys, with many solemn ceremonials, for which the priests are paid. Tiiey believe the house will become a real house in the other world, and the rolls of paper will become genuine ingots of gold and silver. In the house they expect to reside, and with the treasures they hope to propitiate the eighteen guardians of souls in the regions of the dead. CHINA AND THIBET, 221 With a view to laying up a store of rcligioiis merit, tliej rei)eat many prayers, and make many genuflexions before images; for the due performance of which the priests give them sealed certificates, varying in price, according to cir- cumstances. These certificates are placed in a box, which is sealed up when the person dies, and is carried to the funeral with much ceremony. They call it Lou-in, which signifies a passport for travelling from one world to another. They annually publish astronomical calculations of the motions of the planets, for every hour and minute of the year. They consider it important to be very exact, because tlie hours, and even the minutes, are lucky or unlucky, according to the aspect of the stars. Some days are con- sidered peculiarly fortunate for marrying, or beginning to build a house ; and the gods are better pleased with sacri- fice offered at certain hours, than they are with the same ceremony performed at other times. The doctrines of Fo, and the ritual of his worship, are contained in an old book, called Kio, which his numerous followers receive as sacred. An immense number of com- mentaries have been written upon it. It is said there is likewise a very ancient book in China, called Yekim, attri- buted to Fo himself; but it is written in hieroglyphics, and cannot be deciphered. All their holy books, and religious formulas, are written in a sacred language, called Pali, bearing a very close resemblance to the Sanscrit. It is supposed to have been about four hundred years after the Christian era, that a holy hermit went from India and established himself on a mountain in Central Thibet, thenceforth called Bouddha La, which signifies the Moun- tain of Bouddha. He soon attracted numerous disciples, wlio listened reverently to his teachings. Such was his reputation for holiness, that after his death tlie belief pre- vailed that he was Bouddha himself, who had again de- scended from Paradise, and assumed the form of a pious Vol. I.— 19* 222 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. anchorite, in order to effect the salvation of the people of Thibet. He taught them their forms of prayer, and left them a book called, " The Body of Doctrine," ascribed to Bouddha, and also some works of his own, which are held in great veneration. These, and all the other Sacred Books of Eastern Asia, are written in a modification of Sanscrit. The worship of Bouddha remained confined to the region about Bouddha La until six hundred and twenty- nine years after Christ, when prince Srong Dsan Gambo, the founder of Thibetian greatness, married a princess of China, and a pr'incess of Nepal, both educated in that religion. They brought with them images of Fo, Sacred Books and relics, and caused a great number of temples and buildings for devotees to be erected. The king estab- lished himself on the sacred mountain, called Bouddha La, around which soon grew up the city of Lassa, the present capital of Thibet. This popular prince, who had achieved so much for the prosperity of his countr3\ was believed to be the identical old saint, who more than two hundred years before had taught on Bouddha La, and who had now come back again into a human body, to establish his religion permanently in Thibet. Sects arose in opposi- tion to the new doctrines, either from attachment to some older form of faith, or from jealousy of the priestly power. Once the new religion was nearly overturned in a civil war between two rival brothers, contending for the throne, one in favour of Buddhism, and the other opposed to it. It suffered vai'ious vicissitudes until the close of our ele- venth century, when a son of the reigning monarch became a devotee of that religion, and his father made him Superior of a monastery built for him. He afterward succeeded to the throne, and was the first one in that country who united in himself llic ollices of High Priest and King. He also was declared to be the renowned old hermit of Bouddha La, who had reap[)eared on earth yet again to govern his bi'lovcd Thibet. ^riiis was tin; origin of that form of Buddhism called CHINA AND THIBET. 223 Lamaism. Lama means Pastor of Souls, and is the name applied to all the priests. Dalai Latna, or Grand Laina, means the Great ]*astor, the Supreme Pontiff", who is at the head of all ecclesiastical and civil affairs in Thibet. The highest object of worship is Shigemooni, which is tlieir variation of the name of Bouddha Sakia Mouni. The next is his disciple, the famous old hermit of Bouddha La, whose soul is supposed to be regularly transmitted through tlie succeeding Grand Lamas of Thibet, to watch over tlic people, whom he loved so well that he left Paradise to in- struct them in the true religion. When the Grand Lama dies, it is necessary to ascertain into what body his soul has passed. This can be done only by other Lamas, who fast and pray, and perform various ceremonies, to be guided aright. Those who think there are signs of his having ap- peared in their family, give information of it to the proper ecclesiastical authorities. The names of the candidates are written on little golden fish, which are shaken in an urn, and the first one taken out is proclaimed Grand Lama. He is carried to Lassa in triumphal procession, all the people prostrating themselves before him as he passes along. Disputes have sometimes arisen concerning the succession, and in some cases there have been blood}^ wars, causing the destruction of whole villages. But the belief remains deeply rooted that the immortal head of the church, by miraculous transmission of his soul, is always visibly present in the person of the Grand Lama, wlio is both pope and king. He is regarded as the vicegerent of God, with power to dispense divine blessings on whomsoever he will, either directly, or through the medium of subordinate Lamas. It is said fountains will flow at his command, even in the most parched deserts; that flowers spring up wherever his feet have passed, and that his person exhale^^ celestial fragrance. He is supposed to see and know everything, even in the deepest recesses of the heart, so that he never has occasion to inquire on any subject. He is called, "The Immaculate," "The active Creator and Governor of the present World," "He who has clair- 224 PEOGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. voyant eyes," " The Word which produced the World." Thibet, China, the Mongols, and the Calmuck Tartars, nc knowledge his sway. Crowds of pilgrims come with offer- ings from all quarters, to pay him homage, and obtain his blessing. Princes make the same prostrations and perform the same ceremonies as pilgrims of the meanest rank. He receives them seated on a splendid divan, in the attitude of the sacred images. He treats no one with more respect than another. He never rises, or uncovers his head, or salutes any one ; but merely lays his hand on the head of the worshipper, who believes he has thereby obtained pardon for his sins. He sometimes distributes little pieces of consecrated dough, which are used for amulets to charm away Evil Spirits. At stated seasons he visits some of the great theological establishments, to expound the Sacred Books, and his expositions are received as divine authority. On state occasions, he wears a yellow mitre, and a purple silk mantle fastened on the breast with a clasp. In his hand he carries a long staff in the form of a cross. Though Thibet is politically subject to China, the Chinese empe- ror is subject to the Grand Lama in all ecclesiastical mat- ters. There are two other Lamas in Eastern Asia, believed to be incarnations of Bouddha, receiving his soul, or portions of it, by a similar process of transmission from generation to generation ; but their holiness is of inferior degree, and they are in all respects subordinate to the Grand Lama at Lassa. It is a very common thing for persons belonging to the religious orders to be regarded as resuscitations of deceased saints. These are distinguished by the epithet "twice born," or "thrice born." The powerful hierarchy, of which the Grand Lama is the head, consists of various ranks and classes. A High Lama is sent as nuncio to the Court of China, and supported there. Tiicre is an order called Spiritual Princes of the Law, and Masters of the Kingdom ; these are the confi- dential advisers of the em|)erors. There are many largo theological establishments called Lamaseries, exceedingly CIIIXA AND THIBET. 225 similar to tho monasteries in Eni-ope, The origin and growth of these assoeintions may be briefly stated. It has already been said that in very aneient times Hindoo de- votees, in order to attain perfect lioHness, withdrew from the world, and vowed themselves to chastity and poverty. The fiime of their sanctity attracted disciples, many of whom lived in grottoes or cells, in the vicinity of their teacher, thus forming a brotherhood of saints. When a distinct order of priests grew out of this beginning, young men and boys were sent into the forest to be educated by them f()r the priesthood. These were temporary associa- tions, which dispersed with change of circumstances. But the followers of Bouddha, being placed in opposition to the orthodox Hindoo religion, and relentlessly persecuted by its priests, naturally sought support and consolation by living together in congregations. As they were all de- votees in the beginning, they naturally adopted a regular routine of prayers and ceremonies, as their models, the Hindoo hermits, had done. Afterward, when whole nations adopted their faith, the worldly gave up the entire manage- ment of religious affairs to them. Thus they became a new order of priests, whose appropriate business it was to educate successors to the offices they held. Bouddha's greatest offence against the orthodox Bramins was that he opened the religious life to all castes and all nations. He is represented as saying: "All men are equal; and my doctrines are a favour and grace to all mankind." This was a fruitful source of reproach ^^■ith the Brainins, who were wont to say, contemptuously : " He and his followers teach even mean and criminal men, and receive them most im- properly into a state of grace," Wherever his doctrines ]>revail, there is no hereditary priesthood, and the only distinctions are those which arise from difference of char- acter. Women, also, were included in his unpopular doc- trines of emancipation from the laws of caste. His followers could not overcome the prejudices of their native country in this respect, but in China and Thibet there are nany associations of devout women, gt)verned by the same law? K* 226 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. that regulate the Lamaseries. Such establishments are under the spiritual direction of a man, there being no such claes of women as the ancient priestesses, or modern abbesses. There were formerly convents of women in the Birman Empire, but government suppressed them as pre- judicial to population. Only old women are allowed to devote themselves to a life of celibacy. They shave their hair and wear white robes. They at first lived in the same building with men who had vowed themselves to a re- ligious life, but to prevent immoralities they were afterward divided into separate establishments. These women keep the temples in order, accompany funerals, bring water for ceremonies of purification, and other similar offices. Women in Buddhist countries, as in all parts of Asia, are in an enslaved condition. Polygamy is allowed, and the v/ealthy sometimes have harems. In the Lamaseries there is a complicated division of ranks, each with appropriate duties, and all are bound to obey the Superior implicitly. It is common to place children of five or six years old in Lamaseries, where they learn to read and write, and perform various services about the house. At twenty-one years of age they can be re- ceived into the brotherhood, after examination. On these occasions the candidate is required to affirm solemnly that he is of the required age, that he was born in wedlock, that he has consent of parents, is in debt to no one, free from hereditary disease or bodily defect, not sprung from a race of dwarfs or giants, and not under the influence of sor- cerers, or Evil Spirits from the woods and mountains. These preliminaries being settled, the parents give a feast. Afterward, the young man shaves his head, and in token of renouncing old ties, he drops his name and takes an- other. If asked to what country he belongs, he replies: "I have no country. I spend my time in such or such a Lamasery." Every one is free to quit, whenever he judges it best to return to the world. Each member brine nights, praying and CIIALDEA AND PERSIA. 277 performing ceremonies for the temporal and eternal welfare of the child. It is washed three times, with water pre- viously consecrated by various forms of blessing and prayer. AVhoever touches the new-born before this ablution, must go through a process of purification. Some parents still consult the priests concerning the aspect of the stars at the birth of their offspring. When a child is frightened, or has a fit, or is troubled with any disease, they obtain from the priests, a spell thus worded, and tie it on his left arm : " In the name of Ormiizd, I bind this fever, and all other evils produced by Arimanes and his wicked Spirits, by magicians, or by Peris. I bind these evils by the power and beauty of fire ; by the power and beauty of the planets and fixed stars." Peris are supposed to be descendants of fallen Spirits, doomed to wander about the earth, and ex- cluded from Paradise, till their penance is accomplished. When a man has a fever, or any other malady, they recite prayers similar to the above, clapping the hands seven times. It is supposed that Evil Spirits enter a lifeless body as soon as the animating fire from Ormuzd has gone out of it. Therefore, whoever touches a corpse, even accidentallv, must purify himself by ablutions, prayers, and ceremonies. On stated occasions, they offer oblations of flowers, fruit, rice, wine, and sometimes meat, to the souls of departed ancestors, and employ priests to accompany them with prayers. During the last ten days of the year, they believe the spirits of the dead come to earth and visit their rela- tives ; therefore they never leave their homes at that season. They have their houses purified by religious cere- monies, and ornamented with garlands for their reception. Intelligent Ghebers and Parsees acknowledge that the original Zend-Avesta was lost in the course of their various wars and migrations. Scattered fragments were collected and published, and to this day it is regarded with great veneration, as a book from heaven. A copy is kept in every temple, and portions of it are read to the people at stated times. Anquetil du Perron, a zealous Oriental scholar, spent several years among the Parsees, and trans- VoL. I.— 24 278 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. lated into Frencli a part of the Zend-Avesta, wliicli waa published in 1771. The learned men of Europe generally acknov.dedge it as the ancient Zend-Avesta and an au- thentic record of the doctrines of Zoroaster. The priesthood is not hereditary among the Parsees. The son of the poorest labourer may be educated for the sacred office. But these simple devotional people regard their religious teachers with the utmost veneration. They are considered polluted by the touch of foreigners, or even by men of their own faith. If a phj'sician cures a priest of any dangerous illness, he is considered amply repaid by his prayers, so very efficacious are they deemed. Before reciting a prayer, the priests always wash their hands, saying: "I repent of all my sins. I renounce them." To render their supplications more powerful, they use a formula to unite them with all souls who have ever been pleasing to Ormuzd, or ever will be so, till the day of resur- rection. The priest also declares that he takes part in all the good actions of all the just, who have ever lived in the world, and that he joins his actions to theirs. This com- munion of prayers is everywhere conspicuous in all their ceremonies. The ancient doctrine concerning Arimanes has become modified. They now teach that he was an in- ferior Spirit, who rebelled against Ormuzd, his Creator. A spirit of benevolence pervades their maxims. Their writings declare " there is no greater crime than to buy grain and keep it till it becomes dear. He who pursues this course, renders himself responsible for all the famine and rriisery in the world." Of all known religions, that of the Parsees is the only one in which fosting and celibacy are never enjoined as meritorious, but are, on the contrary, expressly forbidden. They say the power of Arimanes is increased by punishing the body and rendering it feeble and sluggish ; that Ormuzd is best ])leased when the body is kept fresh and vigorous, as a means of rendering the soul more strong to resist the attacks of evil. They believe that a man in good health and Hpirits can listen more attentively to the Sacred Word, CIIALDEA and PERSIA, 279 and lias more courage of heart to perform good works. They consider Large favnihes a blessing, and keep all birth- da^^s as holy festivals. They say beneficent genii gave fragrance to flowers, and flavour to fruit, on purpose that man might enjoy them. They take cheerful and benevolent views of death. To the good it is only a passage into Paradise; to the wicked it is the beginning of penances that will finally atone for their sins, and from which the living can help to deliver them by their prayers. When a man commits crimes, it is ordained that relatives and friends should perform pious rites and make donations to the poor, in expiation of his faults, because they believe such obser- vances will diminish his period of punishment. They have a tradition that a holy personage, named Pashoutan, is waiting in a region called Kanguedez, for a summons from the Ized Serosch, who in the last days will bring him to Persia, to restore the ancient dominion of that country and spread the religion of Zoroaster over the whole earth. In the northern districts of Kurdistan there is, at this present time, a sect called Yezidis, or Devil-Worshippers, greatly despised by the Mahometans and Christians around them. They are kind and simple people, extremely devout, according to the faith which they believe was delivered to their saints. They have a tradition that they came from the banks of the Eui)hrates, and their worship indicates a Chaldean or Persian origin. They believe in One Supreme Being, but have a reverential awe of talking about his ex- istence or attributes. The}'- believe Satan Avas once chief of the angelic host. He is now suffering punishment for his rebellion against the Supreme, but will eventually be restored to his high estate in the celestial hierarchy, lie has under his control seven S[)irits, who exercise great in- fluence over the affairs of this world. They sa}' it is necessary to conciliate him, because he now has means of doing much evil to manlcind, and he will hereafter have powei to reward them. ^\^hen they allude to him, they do it witli great reverence; calHng him Melek el Kout, the 280 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Mio'htv Anoel. They will not mention his name, or even utter any word which resembles it in sound. It iri'itates them to hear it spoken by others, and it is said they have put to death some who wantonly persisted in doing it to annoy them. The bronze image of a bird, consecrated to him, is treated with great veneration. The Slieik carries it in all his journeys, and his deputies have small copies of it made in wax. They practise circumcision, and baptize a child in water, if possible, seven daj^s after birth. They consider Abraham and Mahomet great prophets, and be- lieve that Christ was a heavenly Spirit, who took on him- self the form of a man, for benevolent purposes. They say lie did not die on the cross, but ascended living to lieaven, whence he will come a second time on this earth. They have very great reverence for the Hebrew Scriptures, and a lesser dearree for the New Testament and tlie Koran. They practise frequent ablutions, and have great abhor- rence of pork. They have a volume in Arabic, containing chants, prayers, and directions for the performance of re- ligious ceremonies. They consider this very sacred, and will not show it to strangers. Their holy day is "Wednes- day ; they do not abstain from work, but some always fast. They have four orders of hereditary priesthood, and, what is very remarkable in Asia, these offices descend to women as well as men, and both are treated with equal reverence. The higher orders of priests generally wear white linen garments, the inferior wear black, or dark brown. Every district has a religious head, called a Sheik. The office is hereditary in his family, but the descendant best qualified by character is chosen to succeed him. An order of priests called Pirs, or Saints, are much reverenced. Their intercessions for the peo])lc are sup- posed to have great influence, and it is believed that they are invested witli power to cure insanity and disease. They arc expected to lead a very pure and holy life. The Yczidis always turn toward the east when they pray, and kiss the first objects touched by the rays of the rising sun. On great festivals they sacrifice white oxen to the CIIALDEA AND PERSIA. 281 Sun, and distribute the flesh among the poor. They venerate fire, and suffer nothing unek^an to be tlirown into it. Sheik Adi is their great suint. They have many traditions of his interviews with angels. The valley where he is buried is a place of pilgrimage. AVorshijtpers wash themselves and their garments, and take the shocks from their feet, before they step on the hallowed ground. A yearly sum is paid to priests, who guard the sacred valley from all pollution, keep lamps lighted, and perforin the appointed ceremonies. The badge of their office is a girdle of red and yellow, the colours of fire. On the door of the tomb are rudely carved a lion, a serpent, a man, a hatchet, and a comb. The serpent is particularly con- spicuous. Balls of clay taken from this tomb are sold as relics, and believed to be very efficacious against diseases and Evil Spirits. A chapter from the Koran is written on the interior walls. Only Sheiks and high priests are per- mitted to be buried in the vicinity. Near by is a reservoir of water, which they believe the saint brought miraculously from the holy well of Zcm Zem, at Mecca. It is carefully guarded from all impurities, and eagerly drank by crowds of pilgrims. A low edifice, with a small white spire, is called the Sanctuary of the Sun. On a slab, near the door, is carved an invocation to the Spirit of the Sun, and it is so built that the first rays of that luminary fall U]wn it. The interior is continually lighted by lamps, and is con- sidered a very holy place. There are no buildings in all the valley, except those for worship and the dwellings of resident priests. They are kept very pure with repeated coats of whitewash. On the evening of festivals, lamps are placed in all the niches of the walls, and in apertures of the rocky mountains that enclose this sacred valley. They are generally votive ofierings from pilgrims, who have prayed to the saint in time of danger or distress, and found relief from his supposed intercessions. As priests walk by car- rying these lamps, pilgrims crowd round them, striving to pass their right hands through the flame. They devoutly kiss the hand thus purified, and rub the right eyebrow Vol. [.— 24* 282 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. with it. They hold out little children to have their right hands purified in the same way. Those who cannot reach the flame, strive to touch the hands of others who are more fortunate. They reverentlj'- kiss the very stones blackened by the smoke of these lamps. On the festival of Sheik Adi, his tomb is visited by long processions of priests in white linen robes, musicians with pipes and tambourines, and pilgrims from all their dis- tricts. Peddlers congregate there to sell their wares. Sheiks and priests walk familiarly among the people, or sit talk- ing with them in the shadows of the trees. Seven or eight thousand usually meet together on this occasion, and it is a picturesque sight to see them wandering about among the trees and rocks with their lighted torches. Layard thus describes some of the religious ceremonies he witnessed at this festival : " Thousands of lights danced in the distance, glimmered among the trees, and were reflected in the foun- tains and streams. Suddenly all voices were hushed. A solemn strain of sweet pathetic music came from the tomb of the saint; the voices of men and women in harmony with flutes. At measured intervals, the song was broken by the loud clash of cymbals and tambourines; and then those without the precincts of the tomb joined in the melody. The same slow and solemn strain, occasionally varied, lasted nearly an hour. Gradually, the chant gave way to a lively melody, ever increasing in quickness. Voices were raised to the highest pitch ; women made the rocks resound with their shrill tones; men among the multitude without joined in the cry ; tambourines were beaten with extraor- dinary cp.ergy ; musicians strained their limbs in violent contortions, till they fell exhausted on the ground. I never heard a more frightful 3'ell than rose in that valley. It was midnight. There were no immodest gestures or un- seemly ceremonies. AVhcn musicians and singers were ex- hausted, the sounds died away, groups scattered alxiut the valley, and resumed their previous cheerfulness." The Yezidis are remarkable for tenacious attachment to their religion. A i)ci'S(;n of mature age among them never CHALDEA AND PERSIA. 283 renounces his faith. They have often been subjected to tei-rible tortures, but have invariably preferred death to the adoption of any other form of worship. Even when young children are carried off and sold to Turkish harems, they often cherish through life the religion of their childhood, and contrive to keep up a secret communication with their priests. .284: PROGKESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. GREECE AND ROME. Man gifted IS'ature witli divinit}', To lift and link her to the breast of love ; All things betra^-ed to the initiate e^-e The tracks of gods above. Not to that ciiltni-e gay, Stern self-denial, or siiarp penance wan. Well might each heart be happy in that day ; For gods, tlie happy ones, were kin to man. SciuLLEu's Gods of Greece. Greece was the oldest European nation. Its liistory extends a little more than one thousand eight hundred years before Christ ; two hundred years earlier than Moses ; but they Avere a rude people at that time, dwelling in huts and caves. Being settled by colonies from Egypt, Phoe- nicia, Thrace, and other countries, their religious customs and opinions varied considerably in different states; but the general features were similar. They worshipped many deities, all intended to represent the divine energy acting in various departments of the universe. A few enlightened minds among them taught that these all proceeded from One Central Source of Being; and this belief, confused and dim at first, became more distinct as knowledge in- creased, Athens was founded by a colony from Egyi)t, and the intercourse between that countr}- and Greece was alwaj^s iVequent. '^IMie efl'ect of this on their religion and philoso- phy is very obvious. ])Ut in the Grecian atmosphere of thought and feeling all things were tinged with more cheeri'ul and poetic colours. Egyptian reverence for sta- bility and power was here changed to worship of frcedcn GREECE AND ROME. 285 and beauty. Strong, active, and viv'acions tliemselves, the Grecians invested their deities with the same characteristics. They did not conceive of them as dwelHiig apart in passion- less majesty, Hlce Egyptian gods, with a solemn veil of obscurity around them. They were in the midst of things, working, fighting, loving, rivalling, and outwitting each other, just like human beings, from whom they differed mainly in more enlarged powers. No anchorites here preached torture of the body for the good of the soul. How to enjov' the pleasures of life with prudence, and in- vest it with the greatest degree of beauty, was their moralit}'. In the procession of the nations, Greece always comes bounding before the imagination, like a o-raceful young man in the early freshness of his vigour; and nothing cun wean a poetic mind from the powerful attrac- tion of his immortal beauty. Gay, imaginative, pliable, and free, the Grecians received religious ideas from every source, and wove them all to- gether in a mythological web of fancy, confused and wav- ering in its patterns, but full of golden threads. They seem to have copied external rites from Egypt, without troubling themselves to comprehend the symbolical mean- ing, which priests concealed so carefully. '^I'hey added ceremonies and legends from other countries, broken into fragments, and mixed together in strange disorder. They had no Sacred Books, in the usual meaning of the term. Minos, their first lawgiver, was believed to have received his laws directly from Jupiter ; and popular veneration invested with a certain degree of sacred author- ity the poems of Hesiod and llonier, supposed to have been written about nine hundred years before Christ. These works were believed to be divint-ly inspired by Apollo and the Muses. This was not a mere poetical figure of speech with the Grecians, as it would be with us; for they had a lively and undoubting foith that Apollo and the Muses were genuine deities, who took cognizance of the affairs of men, and filled the souls of prophets and poets with divine inspiration. It is said by some that 286 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Hesiod was a, priest in the temple of the Muses, on Mount Helicon. He seems to have been desirous to inculcate religious reverence, and a love of agriculture. He con- demns licentiousness, irreverence to parents, and riches procured by fraud or violence. He strongly insists on the sacredness of an oath, and the laws of hospitality. He teaches to love those who love us, and to return gifts to the generous. He recommends withliolding friendly offices from enemies ; but declares that Jupiter will certainly punish those who refuse to pardon a suppliant offender. He gives a rather unintelligible account of the creation of the world from chaos. One of the most conspicuous agents in the work is Love, by which he probably meant the Principle of Attraction, drawing the elements into union, and producing a series of offspring ; thus by the marriage of Heaven and Earth, Ocean was born. The deities, whom he describes as intermarrying, fighting, and plotting against each other, were the popular Gods of the country, the Spirits supposed to preside over planets and elements. He tells of huge giants called Titans, born of Heaven and Earth. One of them, named Chronos by the Greeks and Saturn by the Romans, dethroned his father Coelus, or Heaven, and governed the universe. He is represented as devouring his own children ; an allegorical way of saying that '^'ime, whose Greek name is Chronos, destroys what- ever he produces. One of his sons, named Jupiter, who escaped by artifice of his mother, expelled his father, and reigned in his stead. Tlie Titans made war upon him, but he succeeded in chaining them all in the dungeons of Tar- tarus. These legends are supposed to be symbolical of the Btrugglc of the elements when the world was formed. Hesiod describes the administration of Saturn as the Golden Age of the world. Men lived like gods, without vices or passions, vexation or toil. In hapjiy companion- ship with divine beings, they passed their days in tran- quillity and joy, living together in perfect equality, united by mutual confidence and love. The earth was more beau- tiful than noWj and spontaneously yielded an abundant GREECE AND EOME. 287 variety of fruits. Uuman beings and animals spoke the ,iirc manners of immortal gods. An(jn llicy bend their footsteps toward the mounts GREECE AND ROME, 295 Rejoicing in their beauteous voice, and song Unperisliing. Far round, tl>c dusk^- earth Rings witii their Ji\'inning voices ; and beneatii Tlieir many rustling feet a pleasant sound Ariseth, as tiiey take their onward way To their own father's presence." In the same temple with the Muses were worshipped the Graces, likewise called Charities; three beautiful nymphs, presiding over gracious manners and all kindly offices. Tliis united worship was an instructive custom, since cul- tivation of mind should always lead to moral graces. There were countless genii to take care of hills, and streams, and flowers. Oreads frequented mo-untains, wherci they sat "listening to the talking streams below," sounding "sweet echoes to the huntsman's horn." Napeads pro tected valleys and shaded nooks. Dryads loved the groves, where the imaginative eye saw them dance in the bright play of sun and shadow. Ephydriads reclined near springs and fountains, lulled by the rippling waters. N"aiads swam playfuUj^ in the rivers, and Nereids careered on the ocean billows. Olympus, which early Greeks considered the loftiest mountain in the world, was believed to be the dwelling- place of the gods. Over its top there was supposed to be an opening into the metallic dome of heaven. In after times, when their ideas of the universe enlarged, they said divine beings dwelt in the exterior sphere of the heavens, revolving round the space which included the planets; and tills residence above the firmament they called Olympus also. The Hindoo idea of a subtile invisible body within the material body, reappeared in the descriptions of Greek poets. They represented the constitution of man as con- sisting of three principles : the soul, the invisible body, and the material body. The invisible body thev called the ghost or shade, and considered it as the material portion of the soul. At death, the soul clothed in this subtile body went to enjoy paradise for a season, or suffer in hell till its 296 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. sins were expiated. Then if the Judges of tlie Dead had decreed it to exist again on earth, it returned and took a material body, more or less honourable, according to its sentence. Bat when the souls of heroes joined the gods, to return no more to earthly habitations, they parted with this subtile body, and it wandered in Elysium. Ulysses de- clares that he saw there the divine Hercules ; " or rather his shade, for he himself was with the immortal gods, as- sisting at their festivals." The paradise, which they called Elysian Fields, some supposed to be part of the lower world, some placed them in a middle zone of the air, some in the moon, and others in far-off isles of the ocean. There shone more glorious sun and stars than illu- minate this world. The day was alvva3's serene, the air forever pure, and a soft celestial light clothed all things in transfigured beauty. Majestic groves, verdant meadows, and blooming gardens, varied the landscape. The river Eridanus flowed through winding banks fringed with laurel. On its borders lived heroes who had died for their country, priests who had led a pure life, artists who had embodied genuine beauty in their works, and poets who had never degraded their muse with subjects unworthy of Apollo. There each one renewed the pleasures in which he formerly delighted. Orpheus, in long white robes, made enrapturing music on his lyre, while others danced and sung. The husband rejoined his beloved wife; old friendships were renewed; the poet repeated his verses, and the charioteer managed his horses. Some poets, rather sensually inclined, describe luxurious feasts, and say noth- ing can be more mean than the entertainments in Tartarus. In a retired valley, through a dark grove, drowsil}' glided the sluggish stream of Lethe. When the time arrived for souls to return again to earth, they were presented with a cup of its waters, which made them forget all they had seen and heard. 'JMie subterranean I'ealin whci-o Pluto ruled, was called by the Greeks Hades, and 1)y the Romans Tartarus. It was a deep, dark, awful region, encircled by a river of fire, GREECE AND ROME. 297 unci surrounded by a triple wall. Here in the deepest pits were chained the proud S{)irits called Titans, who rebelled against Jupiter. Here the condemned were scourged with snakes by the Furies; or were seated under a huge stone for ever rendy to foil, wishing to move, but unable ; or hungry wolves gnawed the liver, which for ever grew again ; or they were consumed with thirst, standing in water that constantly eluded their touch. Some souls wandered in vast forests between Tartarus and Elysium, not good enough for one, or bad enough for the other. Some were purified from their sins by exposure to search- ing winds, others by being submerged in deep watei's, others by passing through intense fires. After a long period of probation and suffering, many of them gained the Elj^sian Fields, When they had enjoyed a period pro- portioned to their merits, they were sent back to earth to take mortal bodies again. A few of the purest and noblest ascended to the gods. The dead were represented as being ferried across the dark river Acheron to the regions of Pluto, by the boat- man Charon, for whom a small coin was placed under the tongue of the deceased. He refused to carry over those who had not received burial in this world ; they were ob- liged to wander on the banks for a whole century. In al- lusion to this, Yirgil says : "There stood tlie gliosts, and stretched their Iiands and cried, Imploring passage to the other side." The shade of Patroclus thus spoke to Achilles in a dream: "Thou sleep'st, Achilles; and Patroclus, erst Thy best beloved, in deatii forgotten lies. Haste, give me burial ! I would pass the gates Of Hades; for the shadows of the dead Now drive me from their fellowship afar." These ideas originated in Egyptian customs; a fact which may be traced even in the names. On the banks of the Nile was a beautiful plain, surrounded by groves, and in- 298 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. tersected witli canals. It lay beyond Lake Acliernsia, and being a celebrated place of interment, it was called Elisiicns, meaning Kest. On the borders of the lake was a tribunal to inquire into the character of the deceased. If his life had been wicked, they refused to convey his body to the cemetery, and it was thrown into a ditch prepared for the purpose, called Tartar. If the decision of the judges was favourable, eulogiums were publicly passed on his memorj'', and after the priests had received a small fee, his remains were conveyed across the lake into Elisi'ajns. The Greeks had an ancient tradition concerning a Tree which grew in gardens of Paradise, and bore the golden Apples of Immortality, It was guarded by three nymphs, and a great Serpent. It was one of the labours of Hercules to gather some of these Apples of life. Ancient medallions represent the Tree with a Serpent twined round it. Her- cules has gathered an Apple, and near him stand the three nymphs, called Hesperides. There were several hereditary classes in Greece, but there was no law of caste to exclude men from any em- ployment they chose, or from the investigation of any sub- ject. In times as ancient as Homer, any man venerable f(jr aw'c or wisdom offered pravers and sacrifices to the gods, and performed religious ceremonies for the people. As the country grew older, the priesthood became more established and conspicuous; but an element of freedom was always preserved, which rendered their influence veiy dili'erent from that of the exclusive caste of priests in Ilin- (loslan and Egypt. This circumstance doubtless contri- buted much toward that intellectual energy and freedom of inquiry wdiich so eminently characterized the ancient Greeks. In some places, the priesthood was hereditary in certain families. In others, the prince conferred the olhce on whomsoever he deemed worthy. Sometimes priests were elected by lot, sometimes by votes of the people. They were required to be of good moral character, in fiound health, and not deformed in any way ; it being deemed irreverent to consecrate to the gods any thing im- GREECE AND ROME. 299 pure or defective. They were usually clioscn from the upper classes, and on all public occasions they took their places with kings and the highest civil oflicers. In most of the cities the care of worship was intrusted to chief magistrates, who were often themselves consecrated to the priesthood. In some places the king was high priest, and all important sacrifices for the good of the commonwealth were performed by him only. On private or ordinary oc- casions, the father of the family, or the oldest and most honourable man present, might perform religious rites. But when any great calamity was to be averted, or extra- ordinary blessing to be obtained, they sought the services of the priesthood ; believing that the gods had especially commissioned them, and were more ready to hear their prayers than those of other men. On such occasions, they often ascended mountains to ask counsel of the gods ; such places being invested with peculiar sanctity, and deemed nearer to the deities than other portions of the earth. They often performed ablutions in running streams, or were sprinkled with consecrated water, as a necessary prepara- tion for religious ceremonies. All those intrusted with re- ligious affairs were summoned at stated periods to appear before certain magistrates and give an account how they had discharged their duties. In small plafces, one- priest fulfilled all the sacred offices, but in large cities they had various grades of assistants. Each god had a chief priest and subordinate priests; and in every state was a Supreme Pontiff", whose duty it was to superintend the others, and preside at the highest and most sacred rites. Some, who were devoted to the most elevated functions of worship, lived retired from worldly affairs, and observed the strictest temperance and chastity. They drank juice of hemlock and other herbs, to keep the blood cool and the passions in subjection. Some even deprived themselves of manhood, from the idea that they could serve the gods with more purity. A class of them were called Prophets, and ex- pounded oracles. In some places, these never tasted ani- mal food, or any thing boiled. Some orders were allowed 800 PEOGRESS OF KELIGIOUS IDEAS. to marry, but second unions were deemed disreputablci Indeed, in the early days of strictness, to have been twice married excluded a man from the priesthood. A tenth part of the harvests, the mines, and the spoils taken in war, were appropriated to the service of the gods. The priests had a prescribed share, and many of them were wealthy. From Egypt was introduced an order of priests called Asclepiades, descendants of ^Esculapius, god of medicine. The results of medical experience acquired in the temples, they divulged only to the initiated, under solemn promise ofsecresy. A healing and prophetic serpent was kept in their temples, and the staff of ^sculapius was represented wreathed with a serpent. These medical priests applied magnetic remedies by the motion of their hands, sought to induce soothing. dreams, and operated on the huagination of patients by charms and conjurations. They carefully observed the course of diseases, and noted down the results of their practice. The populace considered them both prophets and physicians. Aristides eulogized their skill at Smyrna, and the first practical physician in Rome, twenty years before Christ, was of their order. In later times foreigners were freely admitted to their schools. They were the founders of modern scientific medicine. Women were admitted to the Grecian priesthood, shared its highest dignities, and in such capacities were regarded with great veneration. Several of them are mentioned ns wives and mothers, and they seem generally to have been dignified and exemplary matrons. They were of various orders, superior and inferior, and were assisted by young girls of the highest families, who gathered flowers, wove mirlands, and embroidered veils for the statues. In the temples of Venus, and also of Cybele, were troops of young men and women employed as dancers ; mostly slaves sent as gifts to the goddess. They are often represented oh antifpie vases, standing on tiptoe, with arms gracefully raised, turning their sle-nder forms in the undulating move- ments of some sacred dance. All the money these women received from their lovers was j)aid into the treasury of GREECE AND ROME. 301 the priests. Several temples of Venus were built with funds thus obtained. The Romans instituted an order of priestesses, six in number, called the Vestal Virgins. Tliey were required to be of good family, free from bodily defects, and not more than ten years old, or less than six, at the time of consecration. They took a vow of strict chastity, the breach of which was supposed to bring calamities on the whole people. If any one was detected in breaking this vow, she was buried alive. In the course of the thousand years, during which this order existed, only thirteen were thus punished for violation of their oath. They wore long white linen robes, with a white vest edged with purple. Their hair was cut short and bound with a close fillet. It was their business to keep the sacred fire of Vesta burning perpetually on the altar of her temple day and night, to offer prayers and sacrifices for the good of the state, and instruct their successors in office. If the fire chanced to go out, it Avas deemed an omen of some, great national calamity. In such a case, the careless Vestal was severely scourged by the High Priest, and the fire was rekindled from rays of the sun brought to a focus with something like burning glasses; the process being accompanied with solemn ceremonies and prayers. When these priestesses appeared in public, they were treated with the greatest veneration. Any insult to them was a capital offence. If they met a criminal on his way to execution, he was set at liberty, if they declared the meeting accidental. They were handsomely maintained at public expense, and after thirty years of service, were at liberty either to remain in the temple, or go out and marry. Polygamy was discoun- tenanced in Greece, and forbidden by law in Rome. Oblations and sacrifices to the gods varied at diiferent epochs of time, and according to the characters of the deities. In the rude ages, it was customary to sacrifice beautiful girls to Cybele ; but afterward, in lieu of this, they made a present of slaves to her temi)le. Young maidens used to be sacrificed to Diana, but afterward they Vol. I.— 2G 802 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. were merely scourged at her altar. It was often supposed the gods demanded the sacrifice of a human being, to atone for some sin, or avert some calamity. AVhen the Greek army was detained at Aulis, by contrary winds, the augurs being consulted, declared that one of the kings had offended Diana, and she demanded the sacrifice of his daughter Iphigenia. It was like taldng the father's life-blood, but lie was persuaded that it was his duty to submit for the good of his country. Tlie maiden was brought forth for sacrifice, in spite of her tears and supplications; but just as the priest was about to strike the fatal blow, Iphigenia suddenly disappeared, and a goat of uncommon beauty stood in her place. The priests judged by fovoarable omens that the gods accepted the animal for sacrifice, and the princess was consecrated to the service of Diana's tem- ple. In Sparta, it being declared upon one occasion that the gods demanded a human victim, the choice was made by lot, and fell on a damsel named Helena. But when all was in readiness, an eagle descended, carried away the priest's knife, and laid it on the head of a heifer, which was sacrificed in her stead. The Spartans henceforth abol- ished such immolations, considering this an omen that they were not acceptable to the deities. Such sacrifices were always rare among the Grecians, and when they did occur, it was usually in obedience to some oracle. The infernal gods, and the manes of ancestors, were supposed peculiarly to require human victims. Prisoners taken in war were frequently offered to appease the ghosts of those who had been slain by their countrymen. Achilles sacrificed tvrelve young Trojans at the funeral of his friend Patroclus. Aristomencs sacrificed three hundred captives at once, one of whom was a king of Sparta. The custom was never favoured at Home. Numa, who succeeded Romulus, mani- fested extreme reluctance to offer human sacrifices. Len- tulus, Consul of Home about seventy years before Christ, prohiV)ited the practice. Tiberius, fourteen years after our era, and Adrian one hundred and seventeen years after, publislicil edicts to the same cd'cct. Comniodus, more GREECE AXD ROME. 303 Ihan half a century afterward, offered a human victim to Mithra. Yery rare instances are said to have occurred in some parts of the Koinan empire as late as our fourth century. The old Braminical idea that every sin must have its prescribed amount of punishment, and that the gods would acc':pt the life of one person as atonement for the sins of otl ers, prevailed also in Greece and Eome; but there it mimly took the form of heroic self-sacrifice for the ])ublic gotxl. Cicero says: "The force of religion was so great aroong our ancestors, that some of their commanders have, "w i'';h their faces veiled, and with the strongest expressions c[ sincerity, sacrificed themselves to the immortal gods to yave their country." An oracle having declared that the Athenians would overcome the Thracians if the daughter of the king was sacrificed to the gods, she cheerfully offered to die. Afterwards, his three other daughters volunteered themselves as victims, to avert a pestilence, supposed to be sent in punishment for the sins of the people. The plague was stayed, and the public testified gratitude by erecting a temple to their memory. In times of calamity it was common in some parts of Italy for u young man to offer himself as an expiatory sacrifice to Apollo. He was very richly dressed, and after certain religious ceremonies ran full speed to a precipice, whence he threw himself into the sea. Codrns, the last king of Athens, sought death in the fore-front of the battle, be- cause an oracle had declared that they Avhose general should be slain would gain the victory. It is recorded tiiat three hundred and sixty-two years before our era, the earth opened in the Roman forum, and pestilential vapors issued from the chasm. An oracle declared it would close whenever that which constituted the glory of Rome should be thrown into it. A noble youth, named Marcus Cnrtius, inquired whether anything in Rome was more precious than arms and courage. The oracle having answered in the negative, he arrayed himself in armour, mounted a horse richly caparisoned, solemnly devoted himself to 304 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. death in presence of the people, and leaped into the abvss, which instantly closed over him. In primitive ages, when men lived mostly on vegetables, they offered only water, grain, salt, fruit, and flowers to 'the gods, to propitiate them, and thereby obtain temporal blessings. But when they began to eat meat and spices and drink wine, they offered the same ; naturally supposing the deities would be pleased with whatever was useful or agreeable to themselves. They imagined that some gods were partial to human victims, some to animals, others to fruit and flowers. To the celestial gods they offered white victims, at sunrise, or in open day. To the Manes, and infernal deities, they sacrificed black animals in the night. Each god had some creature peculiarly devoted to his worship. They sacrificed a bull to Mars, a dove to Yenus, and to Minerva, a heifer without blemish, which had never been put to the yoke. If a man was too poor to sacrifice a living animal, he offered an image of one made with bread. The aerial deities were thought to delight in h;(r- inonious sounds ; therefore, while they sacrificed to them, they played on musical instruments, and danced round the altar, singing sacred hymns. Most of the ancient nations believed the gods were affected by music, the same as men. The temples were full of votive offerings, such as garlands, crowns, vases, and golden cups. In the temples of JEscu- lapius were a multitude of e3'-es, ears, hands, feet, and other nr.cmbers of the human body, made of wax, silver, or gold, and presented by those whom the god had cured of blindness, deafness, and other diseases. Sailors carried small ships to Neptune, in token of gratitude for being saved from shipwreck. Fishermen suspended nets in honour of the Nereids. Groves consecrated to Pan were hung with pij)os and garlands, by shepherds, thankful for the multiplication of their flocks and herds. Sometimes tablets were affixed to the walls of temples, explaining the cause of the ofi'd-ing. In solemn promises and contracts, men invoked the gods, and women tlie goddesses. They Bwore by the Manes of ancestors, l)y the Spirits oi' sun, GREECE AND ROME. 305 moon, stars, eartli, and rivers; but tlicy deemed it irrev- erent to do so on slight occasions. Before every under- taking, great or small, all classes invoked the assistance of the gods. They burned incense, or poured libations of wine on the altars, with prayers, before they started on a journey, or entertained a stranger, or retired to sleep. At the rising and setting of the sun or moon, people throughout Greece might be seen prostrating themselves, and uttering invocations to the deities. Humble depen- dence on the gods, and frequent prayers, were everywhere strictly inculcated. Mortals were taught to expect divine assistance in the hour of need in proportion to the number and value of their offerings. Some carried their devotional feelings to such an extreme degree, that they spent nearly all their time in offering prayers and sacrifices. The most universal and earnest entreaty was that their children might survive them ; it being considered a great misfor- tune to leave no one in the world who would consider it a sacred duty to perform religious ceremonies for their de- parted souls. The Spartans never used but one form of prayer, and that was very laconic : " May the gods grant whatever is honourable and good for us, and enable us to endure misfortunes." In every part of Greece the hearth- stone was sacred to Vesta, goddess of fire. If an}^ wan- derer took refuge there, though he might be the most deadly enemy, he was safe from hostility, and had his wants supplied. They not only scrupulously observed all the religious rites handed down by their ancestors, but in Athens they kept a solemn feast every new moon in honour of all the gods, including those of nations with whom they were connected by commerce. So fearful were they of omitting any, they even erected altars to unknown gods. The welfare of individuals and the pros- perity of the state was supposed to be hazarded by any neglect of the established worship. Cicero says: "We may be assured that Borne owes her grandeur and success to the conduct of those who were tenacious of their reli- gious duties." Vol. I.— 26* 306 PROGRESS OF RELTGIOUS IDEAS. On some great national occasions, they sacrificed a hun- dred, or even a thousand, animals at a time. All persons admitted to solemn sacrifices were required to abstain from sensual pleasures for several days previous, and perform ceremonies of purification with water brought from fi-esh, flowing streams. In the vestibule of temples stood a marble vase filled with holy water, with which all who were admitted to the interior were sprinkled as they passed. Water consecrated by priests was considered efficacious as a preservative from evil, and to cleanse from all pollution. It was called Lustral Water, from a word signifying to purify. It was used to sprinkle the markets, the fountains, and the streets of cities, in time of pestilence, and was always employed at funerals; the presence of death being regarded as contaminatino-. The priests wore rich robes, of colours suited to the occa- sion, and not bound by any girdle. They sacrificed to Ceres in white, to the celestial gods in purple, and to the infernal ones in black. If they had touched a dead body, or a diseased person, or their garments had been in any way polluted, it was unlawful for them to officiate. Some- times they wore a mitre, and were always crowned with laurel, or other garlands. While they prayed, they held green branches in their hands, usually of laurel or olive. If doubtful whether their petitions would be granted, they touched the knees of the statues with these boughs ; if hopeful, they touched the right hand, but never the left, because that was deemed unlucky. Sometimes, in extreme humility of supplication, they kissed the feet of the statue, and knelt or prostrated themselves on the ground. They prayed to the celestial gods with hands uplifted toward heaven, or the image of him they addressed, and concluded by kissing their right hand to the statue; but wlien they invoked the sid)1cn-ancan deities, they turned their hands downward. I'he aniuKils to be sacrificed, having been examined by the ])i'iests and ])ronounccd unblemished, were led to the temple covered with gai'lands. Sometimes, on occasions of solemn thaidvsgiving, their horns were GREECE AND EOME, 807 gilded. The altar was tlirce times sprinkled by dipping a laurel branch in holy water, and the people assembled round it were three times sprinkled also. Fraidcincense was taken from the censer with three fingers, and strewed upon the altar three times ; that number being scrupulously observed in most religious ceremonies, because an oracle had declared that all sacred things ought to be in threes. Before the sacrifice, the chief priest called upon the assem- bly to unite with him in prayer that the gods would accept their offerings, and grant them health and happiness. He then took a cup of wine, and having tasted it himself, he caused the people to do the same, and poured the remainder between the horns of the victim. If the beast escaped the sacrificing stroke, or struggled, or bellowed, it was thought an unlucky omen. Portions were reserved for the priests and servitors of the temple, and the remainder was burned with frankincense and wine. When the ceremonies were all completed, they had a grand feast. They used awful forms of imprecation to invoke the infernal deities. The curses of parents, kings, priests, or prophets, were peculiarly dreaded; it being thought there was no possible way to avoid the effects. Homer thus describes a woman whose son had killed his uncle : "She beat the grournl, and called the Powers beneath On her own son to wreak her brother's deatli. Hell heard her curses from the realms profound, And the red tieuds that walk their nightly round." Alcibiades being accused of mutilating the statues of Hermes, and imitating the Mysteries of Ceres, was sen- tenced to exile from Athens, and to be cursed by all the })riests and priestesses. They all obeyed except Theano, who said she was appointed to the priesthood to bless and not to curse. It was a common opinion that prayers were more efficacious in an ancient tongue, because gods better liked the primitive language of men, as being nearer to nature. Hence it was usual for magicians to pro- iK^unce their incantations in words unknown to the people. 308 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. The religions festivals in Greece were very numerous, and some of them exceedingly magnificent. They had flowery processions in the spring-time, and processions with sheaf-offerings iu the autumn. The days observed in honour of deities and heroes were innumerable. It was a law that during any of their great religious festivals uo person should be insulted or slandered. The most solemn of them all were the Mysteries of Isis, introduced from Egypt, and called by Greeks the Eleusinian Mysteries, sacred to Ceres. The men and women initiated into these Mysteries were thought to be peculiarly under the care of the gods in this life, and secure of the best places in Elysium. Not to ob- serve them, was a reproach to any public man. The ene- mies of Socrates brought it as a heavy charge against him. No foreigner was admitted, and if any uninitiated person happened to be present by mistake, he was put to death. If a member divulged any portion of the secrets, he was condemned to die; and it was deemed unsafe to remain under the same roof with him, for fear of some divine judgment. The poet Jj^schylus was in great danger of losing his life, because he was suspected of having alluded to the Mysteries in one of his dramas. No person who had accidentally killed another, or been guilty of any crime, or convicted of witchcraft, was allowed to enter. To some of the interior mysteries, none but priests were ever ad- mitted. The High Priest wlu^ olTiciated on these occasions, was vowed to celibacy, and required to devote himself en- tirely to divine things. This festival was observed every five years, and continued nine days. On the last day, the candidates for initiation having gone through a probation of fasting, purification, sacrifices, and prayers, were ad- mitted for the first time to the Mysteries. What these were is unknown, but some of the external circumstances are recorded. At eventide the priests led them to a vast edi- fice called the Afystical Temple. At the entrance, they washed their hands in consecrated water, being admonished to present themselves with pure minds, without whi(;h ex- ternal cleanness would be of no avail. With a loud voice, OREKCE AND ROME. 309 the i)ricsts warned all the profane to retire, and the vvor- shii){)ers remained alone. Thunders rolled around them, lightning flashed across the thick darkness, and revealed startling apparitions as it passed. At last, the inner doors were opened. The interior of the temple burst upon them in a blaze of light, and strains of ravishing music floated through the air. The statue of Ceres stood in the midst, splendidly adorned. On her head were the horns of the lunar crescent, and her robe was covered with shin- ing stars. In one hand she held a basket of grain, in the other, the Egyptian musical instrument called a sistrum. One foot rested on the ocean, the other was stepping on the earth. At the foot of this statue, priests crowned the no- vitiates with garlands of sacred myrtle. Then followed a series of stately pageants, which it is supposed were in- tended to represent the creation of the world, the progress of society out of barbarism, the passage of the soul through death, frightful pictures of tortures in Tartarus, and en- chantinsf visions of the Elvsian Fields. Whatever mig-ht have been the purport of these things, the writings of the ancients indicate that they made a profound and solemn impression on those who witnessed them. The garments worn at initiation were deemed very sacred. They were never laid aside till much worn, and then they Avere pre- served as swaddling clothes fc^r their children, or consecrated to Ceres. The Unity of God, the immortal progress and destiny of the soul, and other secret doctrines, were taught in the sanctuary, to an initiated few ; but elsewhere, they were veiled in symbols. Nearly all the religious hymns and odes used on this and similar occasions are entirely lost. The sublimity of their character may be inferred from the following prose translation of a Hymn to Jupiter, written by Cleanthes, a stoic philosopher, who died two hundred and forty years before the birth of Christ : "Hail, Great King, and Father of the Gods! Thou, who hast many names, but who art One, sole, omnipotent Virtue ! Jupiter, Author of Nature, who governest all things by thy wisdom! allow mortals to call upon thee; 310 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. for all tilings that exist are thy offspring, images of thj being, echoes of thy eternal voice. I will sing to thee, and exalt thy power without end. The whole universe moves by thy influence. The infinite variety of soids that in- habit earth, sea, and the ethereal spheres, are subject to thy wise control. The lightnings are thy ministers. Tliey flash from thy powerful hand, and all nature trembles. Thus thunder-armed, thou guidest creation by an unerring law, and through the present admixture of evil thou guidest all to good. Thou curbest all excess, and wilt cause all confusion to result in universal and eternal order. Unhappy are mortals ignorant of thy law, which, if they obeyed, would lead them into a virtuous and happy life. In blind frenzy they stray from the chief good, tempted by thirst of glory, or shameless avarice, or voluptuous pleasures. But oh, great Jupiter, giver of all good, who dwellest with lio;htnino;s in the clouds of heaven, save mankind from these dreadful errors ! Eemove all shadows from our minds, and enable us to understand thy pure and righteous laws. Thus honoured with a knowledge of thee, we shall be fitted to return the gift in praises of thy mighty works; and neither mortal nor immortal beings can be more blest than in singing thy immutable, universal law with everlasting hymns." The Greeks had four national games, intended to excite to honourable ambition, and preserve manliness of char- acter in the citizens. The most solemn and magniticent of these were the Olympian, dedicated to Jupiter. Prizes were given for wrestling, leaping, chariot-racing, music, poetry, eloquence, painting, and sculpture; thus consecrat- ing to the gods all strength of body and cultivation of mind. The prize was simply a crown of olive l(\\ves, but he wdio obtained it was cai'ried lioinc in a triumphal chariot in the midst of acclamations, was honoured with a high place on all great occasions, and ever after niaintained at the j)ublic cxpi^nse. They were celebrated every fourth year, and continued live days. No women excerpt priestesses of Ceres were allowed to be present. All hostilities ceased GREECP] AND ROME. 311 during tliese games, and states at deadly >var witli each other met in friendship. By general consent of all Greece, no war or violence was ever allowed to enter the sacred territory of Elis, where this festival was observed. Pau- sanias says: "Many things may a man see and hear in Greece worthy of admiration; but above them all, the do- ings at Eleusis and the sights of Olympia have somewhat in them of a soul divine." The Panathenaja was a festival dedicated to ]\[inerva, in which the citizens of Athens of all classes and ages were represented. It was observed once iu five years, and lasted several days, during which they had a race through the streets with torches, a mimic sca-light, performances on musical instruments, circular choruses of many hundred voices, dramatic representations, and dances by young boys in armour. The sacred garment of Minerva, em- broidered with gold by two young virgins appointed to that service, was carried in pi'ocession through the streets of Athens to her magnificent temple called the Parthenon. There were troops of young girls wreathed with flowers, carrying baskets and vases ; the most vigorous old men carrying olive branches, animals for sacrifice covered with garlands, middle-aged men with shields and spears, young men crowned with millet, singing hymns, foreigners and their families bearing little boats, and bands of young children in festal robes. This occasion was considered so holy that all })risoners were released, and men distin- guished for bravery or wisdom received a crown of gold. At Rome, games in honour of the Great Gods were an- nually performed in the Circus. The festival, which lasted ten days, began with a magnificent procession. The statues of the Great Gods were carried throngh tlie princi[)al streets to the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Mi)unt. The splendid chariots in which they were conveyed were drawn by superb horses, camels, elephants, stags, and sometimes by lions and tigers. The chief magistrate led the van, and before him was carried the winged Goddess of the Fortune of Rome. There was an immense concourse of nobles on 812 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. horseback, boys leading horses for the races, musicians playing on a variety of instruments, women and youths winding through the mazes of a dance, and people dressed as Nj^niphs, Fauns, Satyrs, and Sileni, carrying large gar- lands of flowers. The procession closed with the High Priest, the Augurs carrying the Sibylline Books, a long train of subordinate priests, and the Vestal Virgins, After sacrifices to the gods were performed in the Circus, music struck up, and the games commenced. The expense at- tending these exhibitions was immense. At one of these festivals, it is said that five hundred lions and eighteen elephants were slain in five days, in the combats of wild beasts. The Dionysia, or Bacchanalia, in honour of Bacchus, were celebrated when the vines be^an to bud. Magistrates and chief priests presided. In the da3^time they had feasts, music, and dramatic representations. In the evening, pro- cessions of men and women went about dancing, shouting, feii>'ninc< intoxication, and makinij: all manner of antic mo- tions. They were masked, crowned with ivy or grape leaves, and dressed in fawn skins, to imitate Pan, Silenus, the Satyrs, and other attendants on Bacchus. They made a great noise with drums, pipes, and rattles. Tliey carried drinking cups, and spears twined with ivy, and poles ter- minating in a pine cone, or surmounted by the emblem of generation, to signify the fructifying power of tlie sun upon the earth in spring time. From the worship of Osi- ris, in Egypt, this emblem was transferred to Grecco, where it was called the phallus; thence U) Rome, under the name of the lingam. It was sometimes made of gold, twined with garlands, and surmounted by a golden star. The thyrsus, or pine cone of Bacchus, often terminated in the Egyptian Cross, whicii has already been explained to have a similar signification. llomans o\)served a festival called Saturnalia, to com- memorate th(^ primeval equality of mankind in the Golden Age of Satuii;. It continued five days, during which masters waited up(^u theii' servants. Slaves were richly GREECE AND ROME. 31S dressed, and assumed the cap usually worn only by free- men ; a custom in which the modern Liberty Cap origi nated. All labour was suspended, many prisoners were lib- erated, people interchanged presents with each other, and indulged in all manner of jests with their superiors, with- out fear of giving offence. The temple of Saturn was bril- liantly illuminated, and festivities abounded everywhere. At the festival of Cybele, Mother* of the Gods, a whole day was spent in blowing trumpets. lier image, seated in a chariot drawn b}^ lions, or oxen, was carried in procession, accompanied by the clash of cymbals, and the thundering sound of numerous drums. Like Isis, she was the Goddess of Fruitful Nature, who, under one name or another, was adored in almost every country. Her worship was intro- duced from Asia Minor, and was characterized by several savage and gloomy customs, inharmonious with the smil- ing and graceful character of Greece ; but it had a place, because it met the wants of stern, fanatical temperaments. Her priests, called Corybantes, deprived themselves of man- hood. They excited themselves into strange frenzies, by wild and clamorous music, and their utterance, while under this inspiration, was deemed prophetic. In some parts of Greece, bands of mendicant devotees were continually wan- dering about, wearing images of Cybele on their breasts, and making a great noise with cymbals, to extort alms. There were generally soothsayers among them, who gained money from the people by predicting their fortunes. The festivals of Apollo and Diana were celebrated with great pomp at the sacred island of Delos. It was unlaw- ful to put any criminal to death during the preparation and celebration of these ceremonies. When the splendid pro- cession returned through the streets of Athens, people ran to their doors and made profound obeisance as it passed. On the twenty-fifth of December, a festival in honour of Bacchus was held to commemorate the return of the sun from the winter solstice, to revivify the vineyards and give flavour to the wines. In later times, when many Persian ceremo- nies were introduced into Eome, the same day was held Vol. 1.— 27 o 314 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. as a festival in honour of Mithras, their Spirit of the San. Of all the Grecian states, Sparta alone had a law that men should serve the gods with as little expense as pos- sible. Being asked the reason of this, Lycurgus answered : "Lest at any time the service of the gods should be inter- mitted;" for he feared, if religion were as expensive as in other parts of Greece, it might happen that out of poverty of some, and covetousness of others, worship would be neglected ; and he conceived sincere devotion to be more pleasing to the deities than costly sacrifices. The Athe- nians being several times defeated by the Spartans, sent to the temple of Jupiter Ammon, to inquire why they, who served the gods with more pomp and splendour than all the other Grecians, were conquered by Spartans, who were so mean in their worship. The oracle mei'ely replied, that the simple'sincere service of Spartans was more acceptable to divine powers than the costly offerings of other people. Two species of divination were employed by the Greeks. The first was supposed to be a direct inspiration of the gods, without any human effort ; the second was by the performance of certain mysterious rites, the rules of which were believed to have been made known by the gods to holy men in ancient times. Prophecy by direct inspiration was of three kinds. First, through people believed to be possessed by Si)irits, that spoke out of their breast or belly, they themselves remaining motionless and speechless all the wdiile ; second, by those who were seized with a sudden and inexplicable frenzy; these were called enthusiasts; third, by those who fell into stupors and trances, and spoke of strange things they saw and heard. '^IMie s[)cecli of all tliese classes was deemed oracular. Music was often resorted to to excite prophetic frenzy. Cicero says : " They whose mhids, scorning the limitations of the bod}', fly and rush abroad when inflamed and incited by some ardour, l>ehold things which they ])redict. Such minds which inhere not in their bodies, are inflamed by various causes. Some are in- cited by a certain modulation of voices and l^hrygian songs." Of oracles from those in trances, Kpin\enides of Creto GREECE AND ROME. 315 is an example. It is said, that being sent by his father to tend sheep, he entered into a cave, where he fell asleep and slept for fifty years. After that, he had the power of send- ing his soul out of his body, and recalling it at pleasure. During such seasons, he appeared perfectly s'enseless and entranced. The gods held familiar intercourse with him, and endowed him with powers of prophecy. A terrible plague desolated Athens, and people believed the city was infested by Evil Spirits. Having heard the fame of Epi- menides, they sent a vessel to bring him to their shores, though Solon strongly disapproved thereof It is not re- corded what medical remedies he advised on his arrival, but he performed many religious ceremonies to cleanse the city. He scattered a flock of black sheep and white sheep, and wherever the white ones lay down he ordered the Athenians to erect an altar and sacrifice to some celestial god ; wherever the black ones rested, similar honours were paid to the subterranean deities. The altars "to unknown gods" are said to have originated in this circumstance. The plague ceased soon after, and it was attributed to his influence. It is likewise said of Hermotiraus, a famous prophet of Clazomense, that his soul often separated itself from his body, wandered in every part of the world to explain futu- rity, and after a time returned again. On one of these oc- casions, his wife burned the insensible body according to the custom at Greek funerals, probably supposing him to be really dead. He received divine honours in a temple which no woman AV'as permitted to enter. It is not recorded whether Cassandra, princess of Troy, was subject to trances, or any peculiar afiection of the nerves ; but it is stated that her countrymen considered her insane, and disregarded her predictions, which, never- theless, came true. Tradition says, that when a child, she and her little brother played in the vestibule of Apollo's temple, and staying too late to be conveyed home, were put to sleep in the temple on a couch of laurel leaves. In the morning, their nurses found them unharmed, though 316 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. two serpents were licking their ears. From that time hence- forth their hearing was so acute that they could distinguish the voices of the gods. Another tradition was, that Apollo was enamoured of Cassandra, and imparted to her the gift of prophecy ; but when she refused his solicitations, he added that her words should never be believed. In all this we can only discover that Grecians believed Apollo, serpents, and laurel, to be in some way connected with prophetic inspiration. She continually foretold the destruc- tion of Troy, and warned her countrymen against the stratagem of the wooden horse, by which the city was taken- She truly foretold the manner of her own death, and that of the Grecian conqueror, who carried her away captive, ffinone, the first wife of Paris, is said to have possessed the gift of prophecy, and to have been able to perceive the medicinal qualities of plants. But we have no information by which we can conjecture the state of her health or the condition of her nerves. Almost as little is known of the Roman Sibyls, a name bestowed on women supposed to be inspired by the gods. It was believed that Apollo threw them into a kind of ecstasy, in which they could foresee the future. Some philosophers attributed their prophetic power to disease, or a melancholy state of mind. The most famous of them was the Cumjcan Sibyl, said to have written the collection of verses known under the name of Sibylline Books. An unknown old woman offered nine of these books to Tar- quin, who refused to buy them, on account of the great price. She burned three, and returned to offer six for the same money. Being again refused, she burned three more, and came back to offer the remainder on the same terms she had originally proposed for the whole. The king being struck by her mysterious conduct, sent to consult the augurs. When they had examined into the matter, they lold him that what he had despised was a divine gift. The books were accordingly bought at the jirice demanded, and laid up in a st^main as it was. Others believed that deluges and conflagrations de- stroyed the earth at long intervals, returning as regularly as summer and winter; that all the forms of nature were renewed by energy of the indwelling Divine Soul, and so would be dissolved and renewed forever; that at every renovation the first race of men would be innocent and liaj)py, and gradually degenerate more and more to the end. Some pliiloso})hers were absorbed in seientilic studies and abstract nietapliysical questions. Others renounced all science and speculative philosophy as useless and troublesome, and attended solely to the inculcation of GREECE AND ROME, ^31 moral habits and proper manners. Some held that pleas- ure was the object of existence, and wisdom valuable only because it taught the means of rational enjoyment. Others relied entirely on the sufliciency of virtue to happiness, preached stoical submission to irresistible fate, said pain was no evil, and suicide, under some circumstances, a noble action. Some delighted in harmonious sounds, graceful forms, and rich clothing, believing that cultivated taste and love of beauty helped to elevate the moral character. Others held all external advantages in con- tempt, practised rigid abstinence, wore coarse clothing, and carried a wallet to beg for daily bread. One class j)rided themselves on proving that nothing could be proved ; that there was no such thing as good or evil, truth or falsehood, but everything was a matter of opinion. Enlightened minds understood the numerous deities sym- bolically, and regarded them merely as names of various eftects produced by One Great Cause. Employed in upper ether, it was Jupiter ; in the lower atmosphere, Juno ; in the sciences, Minerva; in the sun, Apollo; in the sea, Nep- tune. That which to us appears absurd in their mytholo- gical legends, they explained satisfactorily to themselves, by regarding them as allegories; a method universally em- ployed by the human intellect when devoutly inclined to discover sacred meaning in incomprehensible traditions. Philosophers of all opinions conformed more or less to ])opular observances ; partly from the hold which the re- ligion of one's age and country generally keeps upon the soul, and partly from motives of personal safety ; for the priests, who lived by offering prayers and sacrifices for the ])eople, were naturally very jealous of any teaching that lessened the importance of prescribed ceremonies. That some of the philosophers looked very sceptically upon their religious rites, may be readily conjectured. When Crates asked Stilpo whether he thought the gods took pleasure in the honours paid to them by mortals, he replied : " You fool, do not question me upon such subjects in the public streets, but when we are alone," The friends of DiaLroras 832 PEOGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. showed him many votive tablets suspended in tlie temj)lcs by those who had escaped dangerous storms at sea. He replied : " I see the offerings of those who were saved, but where is the record of those who were wrecked, notwith- standing their supplications to the deities ?" Protagoras be- gan a treatise with these words: "Concerning the gods, I am unable to arrive at any knowledge whether the)^ exist or not; for there are many impediments to our knowledge ; especially tJie shortness and uncertainty of human life." The Athenians considered this sentiment so impious, that they banished the writer, and ordered his books to be burned in the market-place. The celebrity of Egypt drew thither the inquiring minds of Greece, both in her ancient and modern times. In later ages, they came directly in contact with Oriental philoso- phers and devotees. Alexander the Great, in his Asiatic expedition, was attended by Grecian philosophers, some of whom he sent to hold conferences with the wise men of the East, particularly the Persian Magi, and the Bramins of India. The continual communication between India and Egypt by commerce, through the city of Alexandria, tended to spread a knowledge of the East among the Greeks. Their later writers mention East Indian and Ethiopian de- votees, whom they describe as Gymnosophists, which means naked philosophers. They speak of them as divided into two sects, Brahmans and Sarmans, both of whom refrained from animal food, practised great austerities, and sought to unite themselves with Deity by constant meditation and complete subjugation of the senses. One of them wandered as fur as Athens, where he voluntarily burned liimself to death, to purify his soul from all con- nection with matter. Another did the same in the pres- ence of Alexander's army. Being asked by the emperor whether he wished to say anything before he died, he re- plied : " 1 shall see you again shortly." This answer made a great impiossion, for it was generally believed that at the approach of death the soul could converse with GREECE AND ROME. 666 Spirits, and was gifted with propliecj ; a belief strengthened by the fact that Alexander died soon after. The earliest of the Grecian tcaehers of whom we have any record is Orpheus. The general testimony is, that he was a native of Thrace, who, some twelve hundred years before Christ, founded a colony in Greece, and spent most of his life there. Being well acc^uainted with the religious tenets and ceremonies of his own country, he travelled into Egypt, where he obtained some knowledge of their religious mysteries, and became skilful in music, poetry, philosoph}^, astrology, and medicine. Thus accomplished, he returned to the Greeks, who were at that time in such a rude con- dition, that any man of modei'ate attainments would have seemed a prodigy. Accordingly, he became as famous among them as was Hermes among the Egyptians. It was said his music allured birds, tamed wild beasts, calmed whirlwinds, and drew rocks and trees after him. When liis wife Eurydice died, he descended to Tartarus, charmed by his music the tliree-headed dog tluit guarded its gates, melted the heart of grim Pluto, and obtained leave to have his beloved wife follow him back to earth, provided he did not look behind him till he arrived in upper air; but, in his eagerness to see Eurydice, he looked too soon, and she disappeared for ever. It has been suggested that this merely signified his great skill in medicine, whereby he rescued his wife from dangerous illness, and afterwai-s anew into Matter, and thus becomes incapable of reascending toward pure regions, and uniting with her essence." The soul of a depraved man might, in its second condition, assume the form of a woman, and finally even descend into that of a beast. An animal might become a man, if his soul had once been that of a man; but a soul vvhicli had never, in some period of its existence, perceived eauty, which is simple, pure, and immutable, without form, colour, or human qualities. It is the splendour of the divine image. It is the Deity himself. Love of this Su- })reme Beauty renders a man divine. When the soul rises above herself, and becomes united with it, she brings forth, not the shadows of virtues, but the virtues themselves. She becomes immortal, and the friend of God. There is no one so bad, but love can make a god of him by virtue ; so that his soul becomes like unto the Supreme Beauty." " Look at the sun, and the stars, and the moon ! at the earth, with its changing seasons, and all its beauties ! Are they not in themselves a power beyond you? a power more grand, more permanent, more lovely, than anything you can create ? Is not the very essence of religion, tlio acknowledgment of such a power? The external world may be but a shadow of the Deity ; a symbol of a far higher Power beyond it ; a veil to hide his presence ; a school to lead you up to him. But in itself it is divine ; therefore, there is a Deity, and all mankind believe it." " How can we, without indignation, reason against men, who compel us to argue, to prove the existence of Deity ? In infancy, when lying on the breast, they used to hear, from their nurses and mothers, stories told to soothe or awe them, and repeated, like charms, above their cradles. At the altar they heard these stories blended with prayers, and with all the pomps and ceremonials so fair to the eye of childhood. They saw those same parents offering up their sacrifices with all solemnity, and heard them earnestly and reverently pra3nng for themselves and their children, and with vows and supplications holding communion with Deity, as indeed a living Spirit. AVhen the sun and the moon rose and set, they witnessed all around them the kneeling or prostrate forms of both Greeks and barbarians ; all men, Vol. I.— 31 q 362 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. in their joys and their sorrows, clinging as it were to the Deity, not as an empty name, but as their all in all ; and never suffering the fancy to intrude that God has no exist- ence. If they have despised all this, and, without one justi- fying cause, would now compel us to reason, how can such men expect that with calm and gentle words, we should be able to teach them the existence of a Deity ?" " The heavens, the stars, the earth, the souls of men, the divine beings who teach us the religion of our fathers, all these are the Deity." Much has been said concerning Plato's ideas of Three in One, in the Deity. According to the general testimony of scholars familiar with his writinsrs in their original Ian- guage, allusions of that kind are exceedingly few, and very vague. The following are examples : "God gave a Mind to the soul, and a Soul to the body, and constituted the whole world after these, the most per- fect and eX'^.ollent in Nature." "All things are about the King of all, and all things are for the sake of him, and he is the author of every thing that is fair and good. But the second are about the Sec- ond, and the third are about the Third." " We may call that which receives, the Mother; that from which it was derived, the Father; and the offspring between them is Nature." " The Divine Word established the movements of the celestial orbs." "God is the Governor of all things that are, and that are to come; and the Lord is the Father of the Governor." This dark mode of expression was, doubtless, intentional, and was resorted to either to veil mysteries forbidden to be revealed, or from fear of collision with popidar and estab- lished opinions. Such is a very imj)erfect sketch of the elevated philo- soj)hy of Plato. Ideas derived from ancient sources became gloriously transfigured in the light of his jioetic mind, and infci-jor natures cannot give a ti'ue rellcction of them. The divine and indestructii)le nature of the soul was the central GREECE AND ROME. 363 point in liis system. rurific;ition from the contagions of animal life, by the principles of divine wisdom, he regarded as already a beginning of the immortal life of the gods; and this inward unity with celestial natures, he thought ought to be manifested in outward beauty. Therefore, he loved to be surrounded by majestic and graceful statues, to hear harmonious sounds, to wear clothing made of soft and fine materials, and to observe a becoming propriety in his words and actions. A short time before his death, he is said to have dreamed that he was changed into a swan. He fell gently asleep among his friends at a wedding banquet, a healthy old man, on his eighty-first birth-da3^ Some of the Eastern Magi, who happened to be at Athens, are reported to have thought it very significant that his mortal life should have exactly completed the most perfect number: nine times nine. Long after other Grecian sects had fallen into ob- livion, his doctrines kept their hold upon the minds of men, and they remain interwoven with much of the philo- sophy and theology of the present day. Proclus, one of his followers, several centuries after his death, expresses the opinion that all theology among the Greeks originated in the mystical doctrines of Orpheus, lie says: " What Orpheus delivered in hidden allegories, Pythagoras learned when he was initiated into the Orphic Mysteries; and Plato next received a perfect knowledge of them from Orphic and Pythagorean writings." All three of these men had been in Egypt to obtain in- struction concerning spiritual theories. All their systems have the same outline, and harmonize with what can be gathered from Egyptian monuments, and the scanty records that remain concerning the ancient faith of that remarkable people. Plato, therefore, may be taken as a sublimated specimen of Egyptian theology as it existed in their high- est and purest minds. The resemblance to Hindoo doctrines must strike every observing reader who compares Plato's theories with the extracts from the Vedas. Strabo, who had good opportunities to become acquainted with the 36-i PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. most prominent ideas prevalent in India, notices the simi- larity between them and the veiled teaching of Plato. This adds one more to the many proofs already adduced to show that the religions of Ilindostan and Egypt were sub- stantially the same. Aristotle, contemporary Avith Plato, was more prone to look outward for the evidence of things; being more logical than poetic. But he also accepted the conclusions at which contemplative Hindoos had arrived concerning God and the soul. He describes Deity as " The Eternal Living Being, most noble of all beings ; distinct from Matter, without extension, Avithout division, Avithout parts, and Avithout succession ; Avho understands everj^thing, and continuing himself immoveable, gives motion to all things, and enjoys in himself a perfect happiness, knowing and contemplating himself with infinite pleasure." " There are many inferior deities, but only One Mover. All that is said about the human shape of those deities is mere fic- tion, invented to instruct the common people, and secure their observance of good laAvs. The First Principle is neither fire, nor earth, nor Avater, nor anything that is the object of sense. A Spiritual Substance is the cause of the universe, and the source of all order, all beauty, all the motions, and all the forms, which Ave so much admire in it. All must be reduced to this One Primitive Substance, Avhich governs in subordination to the First." " There is One Supreme Intelligence, who acts with order, proportion, and design ; the source of all that is good and just." " This is the genuine doctrine of the ancients, which has hap[)ily escaped the Avreck of truth, amid the rocks of vulgar errors and poetic fables." " After death, the soul continueth in the aerial body till it is entirely purged from all angry and voluptuous j)as- sion ; then doth it put off, by a second death, the aerial body as it did the terrestrial. Wlierefore the ancients say tiierc is another heavenly body always joined Avith the soul, which is immortal, luminous, and star-like." 'J'his " aerial body" nienlioued by Aristotle, is the samo GREECE AND ROME. 865 as llie "sensuous soul" described by Plato. It was this which seems to have been the "sAarfe" of Hercules in the Elysian Fields, while his soul was on Olympus with the gods. The " sensuous soul" was the seat of the passions and sensations. The ancients supposed that this subtile vehicle of the "rational soul" exercised all the functions of sense, in every part of it ; that it was " all eye, all ear, all taste." Cicero, the Roman orator, who died forty-three years before Christ, was so great an admirer of Plato, that he was accustomed to call liim " a god among philosophers." Like his Grecian model, he conformed to the religious in- stitutions of the country, and sincerely believed in the divine origin of prophecy ; but he attacked several of the popular opinions of his time with so much boldness, that many thought his works ought to be suppressed. He be- lieved in One Supreme God, who controls the universe, as the human soul controls the body. He rejected the idea of anything vindictive in the future punishment of the wicked, considering it a blasphemy against Deity to sup- pose him capable of anger, or any other passion. He re- garded the numerous tutelary deities as subordinate agents of the Supreme Being, and ridicuh^d the stories told of them by poets. He thought all knowledge was a remi- niscence of experience obtained in former states of being. The eternal nature of the soul seemed to him fully demon- strated by its longing for immortality, its comprehensive faculties, its recollections, and its foresight. His writings were very extensively known, and greatly contributed to raise the previous standard of morality. He says : " No man was ever truly great without divine inspiration." " Whatever name custom hath given to the gods, we ought to reverence and adore them. The best, the purest, the most religious worship, of the gods, is to reverence them always with a sincere, unpolluted, and perfect mind." " The true primeval law is the Supreme Keason of the great Jupiter. It is eternal, immutable, universal. It does Vol. I.— 31* 366 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. not vary according to time and place. It is not different now from what it was formerly. The same law sways all nations, because it proceeds from the King and common Father of all. A crime is none the less criminal because there is no human law against it. The law imprinted on the hearts of all men is to love the members of society as themselves. Love of order is the sovereign justice, and this justice is excellent for its own sake. Whoever loves it for its utility, is politic, but not good. The highest in- justice is to love justice only for the sake of recompense. The eternal, unchangeable, universal law of all beings is to seek the good of one another, like children of the same Father." Cicero informs us that philosophers of all schools agreed in believing the Supreme Deity incapable of inflicting pun- ishment, or feeling resentment; that anger toward one, and favour toward another, were equally inconsistent with an immortal, wise, and happy nature. Therefore, they all agreed that fear could have no place in the mind of man with regard to God. Like Plato, he was very conservative with regard to established forms, regarding them as necessary for the pre- servation of good order. He says: "When religion is in question, I do not consider what is the doctrine thereon of Zeno, Cleanthes, or Chrysippus, but I am guided by what the Chief Priests say of it. From you, who are a philoso- pher, I am not unwilling to receive reasons for my faith ; but to our ancestors I trust implicitly, Avithout receiving any reason at all." ]Ie thought those who disturbed popular belief in the auguries ought to be punished. For that reason he entered a complaint against two men who sailed contrary to the auspices; because, according to his views, the established "religion is to be obc^ycd, and the customs of our foi'e- fathers arc not to be discaidcd." The Stoics, (bunded by Zcno, about three hundred years before Christ, had numerous adherents, especially among the Uoniaiis, to whose st<'ru and lolly ehai'acter their doc- GREECE AND ROME. 367 trines were well adapted. They explained virtue as the true harmony of man with himself, and with the laws of nature, without regard to reward or punishment. This state was to be attained by mastery over the passions and affections, and complete indifference to external things. Self-denial and resolute endurance were prominent points in their moral teaching. They were characterized ly abstemiousness, plainness of dre.ss, and strict regard to decorum. They held that a man was at liberty to lay down his life whenever he deemed it no longer useful. Zeno, and others of their teachers, committed suicide in old age. They believed the universe was pervaded by a Divine Intelligence, as by a soul. The elements and the heavenly orbs partook of this divine essence, and were therefore suitable objects of worship. They did not adopt the common doctrine of successive transmigrations of the human soul, but held that it returned to the Supreme Soul, after death. Epictctus says : " There is no Tartarus. You do not go to a place of pain. You return to the source from which you came, to a delightful reunion with A'our primitive elements." They were taught not to deprecate impending calamities, but to pray for resignation and forti- tude to endure them. Marcus Antoninus says: "Either the gods have power, or no power. If they have no power, why do you pray? If they have power, why do you not rather pray that you may be without anxiety about an event, than that the event may not take place?" In common with many of the Grecian sects, they believed in the old Hindoo, Chaldean, and Egyptian calculations concerning the destruction of the world by water and by fire. This universal devastation was to take place at stated intervals, with vast astronomical intervals between. All was to be restored to a state of order, innocence, and beauty ; the old tendency to degeneracy would end in similar destruction, to be again renovated; and so on alter- nately for^ever. Seneca says: "A time will come when the world, ripe for renovation, will be wrapi)ed in flames: when the opposite powers in conflict will mutually destroy 868 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. each otlier. The constellations will dash together, and tlie whole universe, plunged in the same common fire, will bo consumed to ashes. The world being melted and re entered into the bosom of Jupiter, this god will continue for some time concentred in himself, immersed in the contemplation of his own ideas. Afterward, a new world Avill spring from him, perfect in all its parts. The whole fece of nature will be more lovely; and under more favourable auspices, an innocent race of men will people this earth, the worthy abode of virtue." The 2'eligious doctrines and customs of Greece were adopted by Rome without essential alterations. Sometliing of their Q;racefulncs3 was lost under the influence of her less poetic character, but a stronger moral element was in- fused. In the days of the Roman Republic, temples were erected to Concord, Faith, Constancy, Modesty, and even to Peace. Venus Yerticordia presided over the purity of domestic morals, and the most virtuous woman in Rome was chosen to dedicate her statue. Religion was intimately connected with the state. The Emperor was the Supreme Pontiff; and High Priests were chosen among the most illustrious senators. The priests, both of the city and the provinces, were mostly men of wealth and rank, who re- ceived, as an honourable distinction, the care of some celebrated temple, or some public sacrifice, or the sacred games, which were frequently exhibited at their own ex- pense. They acted as magistrates, and claimed none of the peculiar sacredness which so strongly riveted the power of Hindoo and Egyptian priests. Numa, second king of Rome, forbade the people to put images or pictures in their temples; giving as a reason that God was to be apprehended only by the mind, and it was wrong to represent the most excellent being by such mean things. For one hundred and sixty years, their temples contained neither statues nor paintings. It was the })()licy of government to exclude foreign worship, and .for a time they tried to enforce it rigidly. But Rome, being the cen- tre of power, was the point of confluence for all nations of GREECE AND ROME. 369 the earth, and it became necessary to allow foreign resi- dents and visitors the practice of their own religious rites. This toleration was easily granted, because it was a common opinion among polytheistic nations that every country had the religion best suited to its climate and character, and that the deity it worshipped, whoever he might be, was one of many beneficent Spirits, appointed to preside over vari- ous divisions of the earth, and manifold departments of tiie universe. From Egypt, Carthage, Gaul, Persia, and nu- merous other countries, the conquering armies of Rome brought back foreign customs and opinions with the spoils of war. The popular feeling in favour of adding the gods of other nations to their own established worship became too strong for the policy of government or the wisdom of sages to resist. The worship of Serapis was first celebra- ted in private chapels at Rome, then publicly prohibited; the first temples erected to him were ordered to be des- troyed ; afterward, it was permitted to build them within a mile of the city; and at last he was formally acknowledged and established among the deities. The Persian Mithras was enrolled in the same calendar. The Magi, resident in Rome, introduced his Mysteries, which were solemnized in a cave. In the process of initiation, candidates were sub- jected to severe ordeals, such as long fasts in solitude and darkness, passing through deep waters and through fire. It is said that one of the ceremonies of admission was to eat bread and drink wine, and to receive the mark of a Cross on the forehead ; probably the Hindoo and Egyptian Cross, already described. When the Jews became tributary to Rome, they were protected in their own forms of worship ; it being readily admitted that Jehovah might be a true na- tional deity, though not the only Governor of the Universe. Solemn embassies were sent to invite Cybele from Phry- gia, and J^^sculapius from Greece. The image of Astarte v/as brought from Carthage to Rome, to be married to the image of the Sun ; and the day of their mystic nuptials was kept as a festival throughout the empire. ■ It was a com. rnon custom to tempt the deities of besieged cities, by 870 PKOGRESS OF KEUGJOL'S IDEAS. promising them more distingaished honours in Rome than they received in their own country. Roman priests, as well as those of Ilindostan, were ac- quainted with a chemical process, which enabiCd them to resist fire. Strabo says that many persons, every year, walked barefoot over burning coals without receiving the slightest injury, and crowds assembled to see it. The more rational citizens of Rome strongly disapproved of nocturnal assemblies, as occasions for revelry and licentiousness, un- der the disguise of religion. They discountenanced the impure rites practised in temples of Venus, and the mad orgies connected with the worship of Bacchus ; and at last their influence so far prevailed, that the festivals of Bac- chus were prohibited by law. Rome was the great gathering-place for all the nations of the earth. To the general admixture of religious forms and creeds was added almost unlimited freedom of inquiry in the philosophical schools. The ceremonies consecrated by long established custom were observed for reasons of state, and to satisfy the requisitions of the populace ; but they gradually degenerated into mere lifeless forms. Cicero argues that it was impossible the oracle at Delphi could have gained so much reputation in the world, and been enriched with such costly presents from almost all kings and nations, had not the veracity of its prophecies been confirmed by the experience of ages. But he informs us that it had declined very much before his day ; the Pythia being often accused of taking bribes of the rich and power- ful. A bi'licf iu the existence of the soul after death was indi- cated in all j)eriods of the history of Greece and Rome, by the fact that they were always accustomed to address prayers to the Spirits of their ancestors, Avhen overwhelmed with trouble, or about to undertake any important enterprise. 'J'hey likewise offered sacrifices for the benefit of the dead, and i)erformed such games at their tombs as they most (l(;lighted in while living on this earth. But though they tlius implied a belief that spirits of the departed were pres- GREECE AND ROME. 371 ent, and took cognizance of the affairs of this world, their writers never urged the rewards of another life as induce- ments to vii'tue, or its punishments as furnishing motives to avoid crime. 'JHiey inculcated a stoical resignation to the will of the gods, and reconciled themselves to death because mortals were thus released from the calamities of this world. In the latter times of Greece and Home, educated minds retained very little belief in the popular forms of theology. Philosophers had long risen above them to the contempla- tion of One Supreme Mind, and poets had long been accus- tomed to play with them as mere graceful fancies. Still the idea prevailed that fables were necessary for the populace. Strabo says : " It is im]x)ssible to govern a mob of women, or the whole mixed multitude, and to exhort them to piety, holiness, and faith, by philosophic reasoning. We must also employ superstition, with its fables and prodigies. The thunder, the aegis, the trident, the serpents, the torches, the thyrsi of the gods, are fables, bugbears to those who are children in understanding; as is all the ancient theology." Cicero represents an Epicurean as sa}- ing : " It is mar- vellous how one of the Augurs can look another in the face without laughing." Plutarch thus describes a philosopher of the same school : " lie hypocritically enacts prayer and adoration, from fear of the enemy. He utters words directly opposite to his philosophy. While he is sacrificing, the ministering priest seems to him no more than a cook ; and he departs, utter- ing the line of Menander: 'I have sacrificed to gods in whom I have no concern.'" Juvenal tells us that poets indulged their imagination to such a degree concerning future rewards and punishments, that even the Roman children ceased to believe them. "The silent realm of disenibodieil gliosts, The frogs that croak along the Stygian coasts, The thousand souls in one crazed vessel steered, Not hoys believe — save boys without a beard." 372 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOL'S IDEAS. Pliny the Younger, in the opening of his Natural His- tory, speaks of the immortality of the soul as an idle notion, a mere vision of human pride; equally absurd whether under the form of transmigration, or that of existence in another sphere. The custom of deifying great nien was carried to such an extent, that it became a regular custom for the Roman senate to decree divine honours to every emperor, after death, without reference to character. Vespasian, being ill, said jestingly : " I am a god, or at least not far from it." All the old forms were occasionally a theme for mirth or satire, except the Eleusinian Mysteries. Down to the latest period of their religion, Greek and Roman writers alwaj^s approached that subject with the deepest rever- ence. The declining oracles continued to be occasionally con- sulted till the fourth century of our era, when the Roman emperors became converts to Christianity. The oracles were soon after silenced, the order of Vestals abolished, the sacred fire extinguished, and most of the temples de- stroyed. Thus passed away from the fi\ce of our earth the beau- tiful pageantry of a religion which for more than two thousand years had expressecl the aspirations of the human soul in its search after the infinite unknown. Its solemn train of priests and prophets disappeared; its voice of prayer and music no longer descended from the mountain tops, or rose in swelling chorus from processions winding through the valleys. But such truth as there was in it fell into the bosom of philoso|)hy, and brought forth flow- ers, which still cast their seed into the future. Even its allegories linger in our literature, like the illustrious shad- ows in their own Elysian Fields. School-boys of every nation are familiar with the Grecian gods; Cupid rides on roses in our Valentines; Diana holds our lamps; the Italian peasant still swears by Bacchus; and the American poet of yesterday invokes the Muses. ci:ltic tribes. 373 THE CELTIC TRIBES. Yet shall it claim our reverence, that to God These jealous ministers of law aspire, As to the One sole P'ouiit, whence wisdom flowed ; And yon thick woods maintain that primal truth, Debased by many a superstitious form, That fills tlie soul witli unavailing rutli. Wo rj)s WORTH. There was a country in Asia called Scytliia, the boun- daries of which are extremely uncertain. Tribes migrated thence, and gradually spread over a large portion of Eu- rope. They bore a variety of names in different places; but those who settled in the countries now called Germany, France, Spain, and Great Britain, were known by the general appellation of the Celtic tribes. The religious doctrines of the Celts were known only to the priests, who never allowed them to be committed to writing. Therefore we have only slight information con- cerning them, obtained from Komans who came in contact with those nations by conquest. Tacitus says the ancient Germans, called Teutones, believed in the existence of One Supreme Being, to whom all things were obedient. The whole universe was animated by this Divinity, por- tions of whom resided in all things. For this reason, they worshipped sun, moon, stars, earth, and water. They kept a sacred fire burning in their forests, and had a religious festival, during which they universally lighted great fires. Tacitus says : " They suppose Hertha, or Mother Earth, to interfere in the affairs of men, and visit different nations. In an island of the ocean stands a sacred and unviolated grove, in which is a consecrated chariot, covered with a veil, which the priest alone is permitted to touch. lie Vol. I.— 82 374. riiOGiiEss of kkligious ideas, perceives when the goddess enters tliis secret recess; and witli profound veneration he attends the vehicle, which is drawn by yoked cow^s. At this season all is joy. Every place which the goddess deigns to visit is a scene of fes- tivity. No wars are undertaken ; every hostile weapon is laid aside. Then only are peace and repose known, then only are they loved. After a time the same priest recon- ducts the goddess to her temple, satisfied with mortal intercourse. The chariot and its covering, and, if we may believe it, the goddess herself, then undergo ablution in a secret lake. This office is performed by slaves, whom the lake instantl}^ swallows up. Hence proceeds a mysterious horror, and a holy ignorance of what that can be, wliich is beheld only by those who are about to perish," The ancient Germans worshipped a deity called Tuisco, or Teut, from whom they derived their name, Teutones. Their traditions affirmed that Tuisco produced mankind by marrying Hertha, or the Earth ; which of course had an al- legorical meaning concerning the union of Spirit and Mat- ter, The image of a woman with a child in her arms was common in their consecrated forests, and was held pecu- liarly sacred. They had magnificent religious processions in honour of the sun, and greeted the New Moon and the Full Moon with torchlight processions. They held the river lihine in great veneration, and threw rich gifts, sometimes silver and gold, into- rivers and lakes, as an oficring to the deity presiding over waters. They believed in a multitude? of Spirits, gliding about every- where, and animating all things, great and small. Among these were the elves, some good and some evil. One of them delighted in producing the nightmare ; others caused various diseases and inconveniences. The Celtic priests were called Druids ; supposed to be derived from a word meaning an oak, because they wor- shipped in groves of oak. Greek and Roman writers be- lieved ihem to have been a very ancient order, a branch of the ('haldean Magi, or Hindoo Bramins. It is recorded by several authors that they made their appearance in Europe, CELTIC TRIBES. 6tD from eastern parts of the world, soon after the time of Abraham. JuHiis Cicsar, who was a close observer of the nations he conquered, says they believed in the immortal- ity of the soul, and its transmigration into different bodies. Tlieir austere lives, in the solitude of mighty forests, im- pressed even him with awe. They were a distinct heredi- tary caste, and elected their own chief, who retained his office during life. Tlieir employments divided them into three classes. Bards, who chanted hymns to the gods, and sang the praises of heroes, to the accompaniment of the lyre; another class, who decided judicial questions, and at- tended to the education of youth; and a still higher order, who superintended religious ceremonies and magical rites. All things appertaining to worship were intrusted solely to them. They alone were exempted from taxes and military duty. They administered justice, and pronounced decrees of reward and punishment. The power of striking and binding criminals, and of inflicting the penalties they had decreed, was vested in them. No important enterprise was undertaken till the prophets among them had been con- sulted. In all cities they appointed the highest oflicers, who never ventured to do anything without their advice. If any one refused to submit to their ordinances, they pub- licly excommunicated him from all share in sacrifices and worship, and declared him to be henceforth one of the pro- fane. B}^ this process, he was rendered incapable of hold- ing any honourable office, and was deprived of the benefit of the laws in questions of property. Such persons were deemed so intamous, that their most intimate friends did not dare to talk with them, even at a distance, for fear of being infected with the terrible curse that rested upon them. Sometimes the Druids pronounced solemn maledictions against a whole city or nation ; and this was dreaded as a great public calamity. They studied the course of the stars, and predicted future events from their motions. Such knowledge as there was of medicine was confined to them. They had various magical rites for casting out Evil Spirits and imparting mysterious power to plants and minerals. 876 TROGRESS OF RELICxIOUS IDEAS. The oak was to them the most sacred of all trees. On oc- casions of solemn ceremony they always crowned them» selves with garlands of its leaves. The mistletoe, a para- sitic plant, which takes root in the trunk of oaks, they re- garded with peculiar veneration, and believed it to be a panacea for all the diseases of mankind. They always cut it with a golden knife. Black hellebore was another I'emedy much in use among them. None but Druids might gather it, and they must be sure to go barefooted, dressed in white. Before they plucked the sacred plant, they offered oblations of bread and wine, and covered the right hand with their robe. It was considered extremely efficacious to rub dis- eased people with juice of vervain. Sprinklings of it, ac- companied by prayers, were supposed to reconcile hearts at enmity, and make the melancholy cheerful. They were careful to gather the herb at the rising of Sirius, or of the sun. The Lunaria, or Moon-Plant, was gathered only when the moon shone on it. Plindoo Sacred Books make rever- ent allusions to a Moon-Plant. Indeed the general resem- blance between the Celtic and Hindoo religions is observ- able. The Druids had schools in the forest, where 3^ouths com- mitted to memory certain maxims in verse, inculcating the worship of the gods, bravery in battle, respect to the chas- tity of women, and implicit obedience to Druids, magis- trates, and parents. These verses sometimes contained al- legorical meaning, which was explained, under an oath of secresy, to those educated for the higher orders of the priest- hood. It was not allowable to commit them to writing ; and even if they had been written, few could have spelled them out; for princes and warriors in those days did not know how to sign their names, and labouring people were almost in the condition of animals. The Druids were in full power in Gaul and Britain at the time of Julius Caesar's conquests, half a century before Christ. Our English an- cestors at that })eriod lived in huts and covered themselves with skins of beasts. Women performed an impoilant part in the Druidical CELTIC TRIBES. 377 religion. The highest order of priestesses were vowed to perpetual celibac}'-, and lived in consecrated places. A second order were allowed to live with their husbands on certain days, when their services were not wanted in re- ligious ceremonies ; some say it was only one day in the year. A third order, attendants upon the others, resided Avith their families, and reared children for the priesthood. Among Asiatic nations, voluptuousness is the only feeling excited by women ; and the female character is conse- quently feeble and shallow. Never allowed to think or act for themselves, the intellectual and high moral qualities of human nature slumber in complete inaction. The cus- toms of Celtic tribes in Europe were remarkably the re- verse of this. ]\Ien were themselves in a rude and barba- rous condition, but such as it was, women were on the same level. Both sexes held consultation together in councils of state, and fought in battle with equal bravery. Among the Teutones, women were the only physicians. In Asia, there were always ten prophets to one prophetess. But Celtic nations believed that women were endowed with su- pernatural powers in a pre-eminent degree. Tacitus says : "The Germans suppose some divine and*prophetic quality resident in their women, and are careful neither to disre- gard their admonitions nor neglect their answers." Strabo relates that the Cimbri were followed to war by venerable gray-haired prophelesses, barefooted, in white linen robes, fastened with clasps and girdles of brass. "These go with drawn swords through the camp, strike down the prisoners they meet, and drag them to a brazen kettle. The priestess ascends a platform above it, cuts the throat of the victim, and from the manner in which the blood flows into the vessel, she judges of future events. Others tear open the bodies of captives thus butchered, and from inspection of the entrails presage victory to their own jiarty." The Druids alone had power to determine whose blood would be most acceptable to the gods. They generally sacrificed captive enemies or convicted criminals; but sometimes innocent natives were chosen for that purpose, Vo],. I.— 32* 373 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. and the dread of sucli a fate greatly increased the fear and reverence which the populace entertained toward priests and priestesses. In all cases where the life of a man was concerned, they supposed the deities could be appeased only by the life of a man. Thus, if one man had shed the blood of another, his own must be shed. If a man was in danger from desperate illness, or about to incur uncom- mon perils, they supposed the danger was incurred by sins, and that they might be atoned for by the sacrifice of an- other man. In such cases they made vows to the gods to sacrifice a human victim, if their own lives were spared ; and such vows they were religiously bound to perform. Sometimes, to atone for national sins, or avert national calamities, they sacrificed whole hecatombs of human beings, as the Hindoos used to sacrifice a thousand horses at once, and the Greeks a hundred oxen. On such occa- sions, they made a huge image of basket-work, in tlie shape of a man, and filled it with men, women, and children. Then they surrounded it with combustibles, and they all perished in the flames. These victims were generally cap- tives and criminals, who were sometimes reserved for several years, till an occasion occurred to offer them all to- gether. The cruelty of this custom was softened to their own minds by a belief that victims ofi:ered to the gods were purified from all mortal stain by tlie process, and raised to an equality with superior natures. It was the universal faith that all events happened ac- cording to unalterable laws of destiny, known onl}'- to the gods, and revealed by them to certain favoured mortals. They fully believed that criminals could be detected by subjecting suspected persons to ordeals, such as walking on red-hot metals, or plunging the arm into boiling oil. If they were guiltless, people believed that Good Spirits would interfere for their j)rotection, and they would escape un- liarmcd. Eartliquakcs, tempests, and other convulsions of nature, were su])posed to be occasioned by the death of gome great man. Their morality was rather of an external character, but CELTIC TRIBES, 379 extremely strict in its laws. Bravery was the crowning virtue in men, and chastity in women. A high proud Bense of personal honour was tlie restraining principle in both. Licentiousness was much detested, and of rare oc- currence. Plerocs, who died fighting for their country, were perfectly certain of passing at once into a paradise of eternal joy, whatever might bo their character in other respects. This belief inspired men with wild and furious courage, and a reckless contempt of death. They gave strong proof of faith in a future existence; for they fre- quently loaned money on a solemn promise that it should be repaid to them in another world. It was likewise com- mon to put letters in the hands of the dead, with the fullest belief that they would deliver them to departed souls, ac- cording to direction. If people killed themselves, from a wish to accompany deceased friends, it was supj)Osed that their souls would dwell together. Druids had the Persian feeling concerning statues. Tliey never represented the gods by images. Their religious cer- emonies were performed in consecrated caverns and groves of the forest. They supposed such dark and solemn places were the favourite resort of powerful spirits, from whom oracular communications could be obtained by the per- formance of appropriate rites. Alilitary standards were kept in the hallowed recesses of these sacred caverns. When the Druids delivered them to warriors going to battle, they pronounced terrible imprecations on the heads of tlieir enemies, devoting them all as victims to Tuisco, god of war. The consecrated groves were approached with religious awe. Men would have been terrified with fears of vengeance from offended deities, if they had cut down one of the trees, even by mistake. They hung them ■with garlands and trophies, and the remains of victims that had been offered. On altars among tlie trees were placed oblations of fruit, grain, and flowers; and through thickly interwoven boughs rose the smoke of burnt-offer- ings; of men and animals sacrificed to propitiate the gods. Celtic nations adopted some of the Roman deities, after 880 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. they became a portion of that empire ; but they worshipped them according to their ancient foshion, in caverns, or groves, or on huge altars of stone reared in the open plain. Many vestiges of these old Druidical monuments remain in France and England. On the island of Anglesea are the ruins of a temple, that enclosed twenty-two acres; and a single one of the stones, when broken in pieces, made twenty cart-loads. The famous ruins at Stonehenge, in England, are supposed to have been an ancient Temple of the Sun. The masses of stone are so- immense, that the neighbouring peasantry to this day believe they must have been brought together by agency of the devil. In some places, rocks of prodigious size are poised on small ones, in such a manner that they can be easily put in motion, though the strength of a giant could not destroy their bal- ance. There were but few temples erected for this wor- ship, and some of them are said to have resembled those of Hindostan. Another proof of the Asiatic origin of these tribes is found in the fact that the ancient language of Germany, called Teutonic, bears a very sirong resemblance to Sanscrit. In the century preceding the Christian era, Roman em- perors abolished human sacrifices among these people, and deprived the Druids of power, on account of their danger- ous political influence. JEW.s 331. JEWS. Jehovah ! shapeless Power above all powers, Single and one, tlie omnipresent God, By vocal utterance, or blaze of light. Or cloud of darkness, localized in heaven ; On earth enshrined within the wandering Ark; Or out of Zioii thundering from his throne Between the Cherubim. WOUDSWOUTU. The history of the Jews commences with Abraham, their most celebrated patriarch, the tenth generation from Noah. It is supposed he was born in Chahlea, about two thousand years before Clirist. lie was doubtless edu- cated in the planetary worship of the Chaldeans, and accus- tomed to adore the images by which thc}^ represented the Spirits of sun and stars. Joshua, addressing the tribes of Israel, long after Abraham's da}-, says : " Your fathers dwelt on the other side of the flood [the river Euphrates] in old time; even Terah, the father of Abraham, and the father of Nahor ; and they served other gods." The Greek historian, Suidas, asserts that Terah was a statuary, and made images of the gods for sale. Among tlie traditions of Jewish Rabbis, it is recorded that Terah, having occasion to take a journey, left his business in the care of Abraham. A man, who came in, apparently to purchase, asked Abra- ham how old he was. lie replied: "lam fifty." "Yet you worship an image made but yesterday !" rejoined the stranger. These bold words made a deep impression upon Abraham. Some time after, a woman brought flour as an offering to the gods; but Abraham, instead of presenting the oblation, placed a hatchet in the hands of the largest 882 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. image, and broke all the others in pieces. When his fatlicr returned and asked the meaning of this destruction, he re- plied that the gods had quarrelled which should have an oblation of flour, and the strongest one had destroyed the others. "You are banterinor" said Terah : "for images have not sense to do that." " Say you so ?" rejoined Abra- ham; " then how absurd it is to worship them !" The same traditions declare that Abi'aham was persecuted by the Chaldean government, on account of his intidelitj'' ccncerning the popular gods; that he was condemned to pa^s through fire, but escaped from the ordeal unharmed. Terah afterward removed to Haran, in Mesopotamia, ac- companied by children and grandchildren. Abraham was then seventy years old. According to Josephus, historian of the Jews, " he was a person of great sagacity, both for understanding all things, and persuading his hearers ; and not mistaken in his opinions. For which reason he began to have higher notions of virtue than others had, and he determined to renew and to change the opinion all men had concerning God. He was the first who ventured to publish the idea that there was but One God, the Creator of the universe ; that as to other god,-"., if they contributed anything to the happiness of men, they each afforded it ac- cording to His appointment, and not by their own power. His opinion was derived from the irregular phenomena vis- ible both at land and sea, as well as those that happen to the sun, moon, and all the heavenly bodies. If, said he, these bodies have power of their own, they would certainly take care of their own regular motions ; but since they do not preserve such regularity, they make it plain that, so far as they co-operate to our advantage, they do it not of their own abilities, but as they are subservient to Him, who commands them, to whom alone we ought to oiler honour an tain-head of wisdom and science. Knowledge was shut up from the common people, and monopolized by the priesthood, which included the royal family within itself. Moses, as the adopted son of the king, who was always inducted into the sacerdotal ranks before his inauguration, must necessarily have been educated by priests, and of course familiar with the secret doctrines taught at the solemnization of their Great Mysteries. From fitful gleams of light, which history throws on the subject, there is reason to suppose these Mysteries inculcated a belief in One Invisible God, whose attril^utes were merely symbol- ized by the numerous popular deities. Similar ideas would be instilled by his mother and Hebrew relatives, when they repeated Abraham's abhorrence of images, and traditionary prophecies that his descendants were destined to become a mighty nation under the especial guidance of the "God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob." Thus trained in sympathy with his people, and educated fiir above their level, he was peculiarly prepared to be their leader; an ofTice which he is supposed to have undertaken when ho was about eighty years of age. The only light we have concerning the departure of the Israelites from Egypt, is imparted by Hebrew Sacred Books and fragments of Manctho, an ancient historian of Egypt, as quoted by Josephus. The book of Exodus in- forms us that Pharaoh became jealous of their increasing numbers, lest in case of war they should join with his TEWS. 393 enemies. This was a very natural fear, considering how much Egypt h:id suffered from the irruption of a Slieplierd race from the East, and their consequent dread of wander- ing and predatory tribes; but it produced a policy so oppressive toward tlie Hebrews, that God commanded Moses to bring them out thence, and take possession of the promised land of Canaan ; and when they went out, "a mixed multitude went with them." Manetho, as quoted by Joseph us, states that the pro- vinces of Egypt rose against the Shepherd race, who had subjugated them. A long war ensued, wliicli ended in the expulsion of the Shepherds. They were permitted "to depart from Egypt with all their families and effects, in number not less than two hundred and forty thousand, and bent their way through the desert toward Syria. But as they stood in fear of the Assyrians, who then had do- minion over Asia, they built a city in that country which is now called Judea, of sufficient size to contain this multi- tude of men, and named it Jerusalem." Some suppose the name of Palestine to be derived from Pali-stan, the Land of the Pali, which means of Shepherds. Manetlio goes on to say : " The king Amenophis was desirous of beholding the gods, as Orus, one of his predecessors in the kingdom, had seen them ; and he communicated his desire to a priest, who seemed to partake of the divine nature, both in his wisdom and knowledge of futurity. He told the king that it was in his power to behold the gods, if he would cleanse the whole country of lepers, and other un- clean persons that abounded in it. AV^ell pleased with this information, the king gathered together out of Egypt all that laboui'ed under any defect in body, to the amount of eighty thousand, and sent them to the quarries, which are situated on the east side of the Nile, that they might work in them, and be separated from the rest of the Egyptians. Among them were some learned priests, who were affected with leprosy. The prophet, fearing the vengeance of the gods would fall both on himself and the king, if it should appear that violence had been offered to these priests, R* 394: PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. added, also in a prophetic spirit, that certain people would come to the assistance of these unclean persons, and would subdue Egypt, and hold it in possession thirteen years. He dared not communicate these tidino;s to the kino;, but left in writing what would come to pass, and then de- stroyed himself, at whicli the king was fearfully distressed. When those sent to work in the quarries had continued some time in that miserable state, the king was petitioned to set apart for their habitation and protection the city of Avaris, which had been left vacant by the Shepherds ; and he gi'anted their desire. But when they had taken posses- sion of the city, and found it well adapted for a revolt, they appointed for themselves a ruler from among the priests of Heliopolis, one whose name was Osarsiph, and they bound then^iselves by oath tliat they would be obe- dient to him. Osarsiph, in the first place, enacted a law that they should neither worship the gods, nor abstain from those sacred animals which Egyptians held in vene- ration, but sacrifice and slay any of them; anil that they should connect themselves with none but such as were of their own confederacy. When he had made such laws as these, and many others of a tendency directly in opposi tion to the customs of the Egyptians, he gave orders that tliey should employ the multitude of hands in rebuilding the walls about the city, and hold themselves in readiness for war with Amenophis the king. He then took into his counsels some others of the priests and unclean persons, and sent ambassadors to Jerusalem, to those Shepherds who had been expelled by king Tethmosis. He informed them of the position of affairs, and requested them to come up unanimously to his assistance in this war with Egypt, lie promised to provide a plentiful maintenance for their host, and reinstate them in their ancient city Avaris, assuring them that he could easily reduce tlie country and bring it under theii' dominion. The Shep- lierds received this message with great joy, and quickly mustered to the number of two hundied thousand men, and came up to Avaris." The king of Egypt retreated jp:ws. 395 into Ethiopia, fearing tlie vengeance of the gods if he attaeked the lepers, on account of the sacredness of the priests, who were among them. " AV^hcn tho^e ])e()|)le from JerusaU^m had come down, with the unclean of the Egyptians, they treated the inhabitants with snch bar- barity, that those who witnessed their impieties believed their joint sway was more execrable than that wdiich the Shepherds had formerly exercised alone. For they not only set fire to the cities and villages, but committed every kind of sacrilege, destroyed the images of the gods, and roasted and fed upon those sacred animals that were wor- shipped; and having compelled the priests and prophets to kill and sacrifice them, they cast them naked out of the country. It is said that the priest who ordained their polity and laws was by birth of lleliopolis, and his name Osarsiph, from Osiris, the god of Heliopolis; but when he went over to these people his name was changed, and he was called Moses. After this, Amenophis and llampses his son came with a great force, and encountering the She|)herds and the unclean people, they defeated them, and slew multitudes, and pursued them to the bounds of Syria." Such is the Egyptian version of the story, and Josephus quotes it to prove that his ancestors were de- scended from the Shepherd kings. Whether Moses ever was an Egyptian priest, it is now impossible to ascertain. But it seems likely that the Israelites departed from Egypt about thirty years after Cecrops left the same country, to found the city of Athens. A man called ]\[oses bound them together by laws, which gave a new impress to their character, and strongly influ- enced the whole of their future destiny. These laws are in many respects obvious copies of what he had learned in Egypt; but he infused some elevated ideas, greatly in ad- vance of his time; ideas which dawned upon his soul by the same divine influence which in all ages and all nations has guided every human being who has been enabled to help the world forward even one single step in its slow progress. All surrounding nations had adopted some of 896 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. the subordinate Spirits for their especial guardians, while priests, or philosophers, taught among themselves the secret doctrine of One Invisible God. Moses declared to the Hebrews that the One Supreme God was t.Itnlr tutelary deity ; their peculiar guardian and friend, and the sworn enemy of all their enemies. He was wiser and stronger than any of the gods who protected other nations ; how- ever powerful those deities might be, he ruled over them all; and therefore the people whom he had chosen for his own would rule over other nations, if they obeyed him, lie himself chose their ancestor Abraham to be the founder of a great nation. He himself had spoken to the Patri- archs with his own voice, and guided them in every step of their wanderings ; he had appeared to them visibly, and in dreams, and had pledged his word that their posterity should possess the land of Canaan. Again and again Moses repeated : " Thou art an holy people unto the Lord thy God. The Lord hath chosen thee to be a peculiar people unto himself, above all the nations that are upon the earth." In the name of the Lord he prophesied : " Thou shalt lend unto many nations, but thou shalt not borrow ; and thou shalt rule over many nations, but they shall not reign over thee." Such were the doctrines and promises which fired the zeal and concentrated the ener- gies of the Hebrews, and at the same time produced an exaggerated estimate of their own importance. But though one undivided object of worship was pre- sented, instead of a multitude of deities, the ritual pre- scribed by Moses bore very strong resemblance to the Egyptian models, with which his mind had been long familiar. When the ])eople inquired the name of the great God who had chosen them, he told them it was Je- hovah ; a word which contains the present, past, and future tenses of the Hebi-cw verb to be; and therefore signifies I am, was, and will l)e. On a very aiicient temple in Egypt lias been found the inscrii)tion, "I am whatever is, was, and will be." Hebrews had such reverence for the name of Jehovah, that it was never uttered except by the High jKws. 397 Priest; and wlun the people beard it, tlicy all fell pros- trate to the ground. They never wrote it, but expressed it in their Saered Books by a short mark, which they pronounced Adonai, meaning the Lord. The names of Egyptian deities were never written in the popular lan- guage of the country ; they were always expressed by symbols ; and even in their sacred language the names of some divinities were always written in one way, and pro- nounced in another. Hindoos had similar scruples con- cerning the name of Brahm. Judges in Egypt, who were always priests, wore a breastplate ornamented with jewels, containing the images of two deities, Thme, goddess of Truth or Justice, and Ra, god of the Sun, signifying Light, or Manifestation. The Urei, or Asps, were emblems of royalty in Egypt, and often affixed, in hieroglyphics, to the disc of the sun, because he was the king of planets. Moses ordained that Hebrew High Priests should wear a breastplate set with precious stones, and that the Urim and Thummim should be placed therein. There has been much controversv among commentators concerning the Urira and Thum- mim. The sun in Hebrew is Aur; plural, Aurim. Truth is Thm(^; plural, Thmim. When learned Jews translated their Sacred Scriptures into Greek, they translated Urim and Thummim into Greek words signifying Manifestation and Truth. Philo, a learned Jew, informs us that the breastplate of their High Priest contained "images of the two Virtues, or Powers." The portable temple, which Moses made in the form of a tent, and called the Tabernacle, was constructed on the same principles as Egyptian temples. It faced the east ; it had a tank of water for ablution; it had an outer enclo- sure, another within, called the Sanctuary, or Holv, and another inmost, called Sanctum Sanctorum, or Holy of Holies ; veiled from the congregation by a gorgeous cur- tain of blue, purple, and scarlet. In the inmost sanctuary of Egyptian temples was a chest or shrine, surmounted by a sacred image, overshadowed by creatures with wings. Vol.. I.— 34 398 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. In the Sanctum Sanctorum of the Tabernacle was a chest, or ark, plated with gold, and overshadowed b}' the wings of clierubini, touching each other. There has been much discussion concerning these cherubim. Josephus says they were "fl^'ing animals, Hke to none which are seen by men, but such as Moses saw figured in the throne of God." Ezekiel, alluding to these emblems, describes the same face in one place as the face of an ox, and in another as the face of a cherub. The word cherub in Hebrew means to plough. It is now the general opinion of scholars that the Hebrew cheriibim were creatures resembling the winged bulls, so common as sacred en^iblems in Chaldea and Egypt. The Hebrew Ark had rings, through which poles were slipped, that it might be carried on the shoulders of priests. In many of the religious processions sculptured in ancient Egyptian temples, priests are represented carry- ing their sacred shrine in the same manner. Kings and priests in Egypt were anointed with sacred oil. Moses prepared fragrant oil, consecrated it, and laid it up in the Tabernacle to anoint the Hebrew priests. In Egypt, the Hio;h Priesthood descended in the same femilv ; it was the same with the Hebrews. In Egypt, portions of land were set apart for the sacerdotal order, and the same pro- vision was made for Hebrew priests. In both countries, the priests wore pure white linen, and performed many ablutions. In both countries, the government was a the- ocracy ; everything being decided by oracles delivered to priests in the temple. Egyptians welcomed the New Moon with religious cere- monies; so did the Hebrews. They had harvest festivals, during which they offered the first sheaves of their grain to Isis ; Hebrews did the same in the service of Jeliovah. Sculptures in Egypt, made long before the time of Moses, rej)resent priests olfering cakes, meal, wine, turtledoves, and young pigeons, to their gods; and precisely these obla- tions to Jehovah are prescribed by the Hebrew Law. Hindoos and Egyptians had an idea that the fumes of animal sacrifices were acceptable to the deities, and in some JEWS. 399 sort necessary to them. In tlie Laws of Moses, burnt- offerings of animals are continually called "a sweet savour unto the Lord." Hindoos and Egyptians believed fra- grance was peculiarly agreeable to divine beings; and Hebrews were commanded to wave incense before the Lord. Egyptian priests, with solemn ceremonies, laid the sins of the nation on the head of a bullock, sacrificed the victim, and removed far from them the head, on which the sins were supposed to rest. Moses ordained that the sins of the priesthood should be laid oa the head of a bullock, to be afterward sacrificed; and the sins of the people to be laid on the head of a goat, who was afterward thrown over a precipice, that he might carry the sins off with him. Both Hindoos and Egyptians attached peculiar sacredness to cows. The ashes of cow-dung, prepared with solemn ceremonies, is prescribed in the Vedas to be mixed with water as an appropriate purification to keep away the Spirits of Death. Moses commanded the chil- dren of Israel to burn a red heifer, "skin, flesh, blood, and dung." The ashes thus obtained was gathered np, and kept for purposes of purification. The priest mixed it with water, and sprinkled it with a bunch of hyssop upon whoever had touched a haitian bone, or a grave, or a dead body, or had entered a tent where a corpse was lying. From time immemorial it has been the custom for tra- velling parties in Ilindostan to take with them a pole with the image of a serpent wreathed round it. Serpents of brass and serpents of silver abounded in Egyptian tem- ples, and were mysteriously connected with their ideas of the healing art. From them Greeks learned to attach similar medical importance to the serpent; and the em- blem of their yEsculapius, god of medicine, was a serpent wreathed round a pole. Hebrew Sacred Books tell ua that Moses made a serpent of brass and j)ut it upon a pole; "and it came to pass that if a serpent had bitten any man, when he beheld the serp(Mit of brass, he lived." 400 PKOGKESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Egyptians had great abhorrence of swine, and considered the flesli unclean above all other food. Priests purified themselves with religious ceremonies if they touched the beast, even accidentally; for it was the common belief that Evil Spirits were peculiarly prone to talce up their abode in them. Moses said to the children of Israel : " The flesh of swine shall ye not eat, and their carcass shall ye not touch ; they are unclean to you." If they luappened to touch one, they went through ceremonies of purification before they ventured to approach any sacred place. Why Moses was not circumcised, being a descendant of Abraham, and adopted by Egyptians in infancy, is not explained ; but the fact is implied by his saying to the Lord: "Behold I am of uncircumcised lips; how then shall Pharaoh hearken unto me?" The question plainly indicates that the rite was deemed of importance by the Egyptians. While Moses dwelt with Jethro, priest of Midian, he seems to have neglected the circumcision of his son. But when he was about to return to Egypt, the rite was performed, though Zipporah, his wife, appeared averse to tlie custom. Hindoos and Egyptians, being ignorant of the fact that rain is caused by continued exhalations from the earth and ocean, supposed that there was a great reservoir of waters above the sky. That Hebrews entertained the same idea, is shown by their statement that when Jehovah created the world, "he divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firma- ment." Many more points of resemblance would doubtless be- come obvious, if Egyptian records had come down to us as fully as the Hebrew. But Moses took some very im- portant steps in advance of the country where he was educated. The descendants of his ancestor Levi were ordained a line of hereditary priests; and the family of his brother Aaron was instituted a perpetual order of High Priests. But with this exception, he did not divide the people into castes. Egyptian priests kept the higher por* JEWS. 401 tions of their religion as mysteries carefally coneealed from the populace. But the religion taught by Moses was equally open to all classes. In the name of the Lord, he announced to all the Hebrews: "Ye shall be unto me a kingdom of priests, a holy nation." When one ran and told him that two men were prophesying in the camp, he nobly replied: "Enviest thou for my sake? Would God that all the Lord's people were prophets, and that the Lord would put his spirit upon them." Some of the Le- vites took advantage of this equalizing doctrine, and said to Moses and Aaron : " Ye take too much upon you, see- ing all the congregation are holy, eveiy one of them, and the Lord is among them." Nevertheless, a line of separa- tion was, to some extent, established between the initiated few and the rude tribes they governed, Moses and Aaron, and all the succeeding series of High Priests, are repre- sented as in possession of some means of direct communi- cation with Heaven, unknown to tlie common people, and carefully preserved fi-om them. The greatest step in advance was the idea of God as an Invisible Being, never to be represented by any image or svmbol. There is much reason to suppose that enlightened Egyptians also believed in One All Including Being, from whom Amun and the other deities emanated. But their Supreme Cause was probably a mere abstraction, like the Hindoo Brahm, and the Persian Zeruane Akerene. And even that metaphysical idea was known to the priests on!/, while the multitude were left to worship cats and dogs, bulls and crocodiles. Moses, on the contrary, reprebcnted the One Invisible God as living in the midst of the peo- ple, sustaining, protecting, rewarding, and punishing them. In most contemporary nations, the division of the gods into masculine and feminine, had led to many gross ideas and licentious practices in religious ceremonies. There were no traces of such in the teachings of the Hebrew law- giver; and the consequence was a much higher and purer worship than belonged to any of the surrounding nations. But their ideas of God were not sufficiently elevated fot Vol. I.— 34* i02 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. them to imagine him above all liuman passions. Anger, jealousy, and revenge, are perpetually imputed to him. Of a Hebrew who offered any liomage to the gods of other nations, it was said : " The Lord will not spare him ; but the anger of the Lord, and his jealousy, shall smoke against that man." And God said : " If thou aiUict any widow, or fatherless child, my wrath shall wax hot, and I will kill you with the sword." It was common, in describ- ing offenders, to say: "The Lord rooted them out in anger, and wrath, and great indignation." Sometimes he is represented as changeable of purpose, repenting of the evil he had done, or intended to do. When the golden calf was made, the Lord said unto Moses: "Behold it is a stiff-necked people; now, therefore, let me alone that my wrath may wax hot against them, and that I may consume them. And Moses besought the Lord his God, and said, Lord, why doth thy wrath wax hot against thy people, which thou hast brought forth out of the land of Egypt? Wherefore should the Egyptians say. For mischief did he bring them out, to slay them in the mountains, and con- sume them from the face of the earth ? Turn from thy fierce wrath, and repent of this evil against thy people. Remember Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, thy servants,, to whom thou swarest by thine own self, I will multiply thy seed as the stars of heaven, and all this land will I give unto your seed, and they shall inherit it forever. And the Lord repented of the evil which he thought to do unto liis people." AYhen the children of Israel murmured in the wilderness, " the Lord said unto Moses, IIow long will this people provoke me? I will smite them with the pestilence, and disiidierit them. And Moses said unto the Lord, Then the Egyptians shall hear of it, and they will tell it to the inhabitants of this land. They have heard that thou Lord art among this peo])lc, that thou art seen face to face, that thou goest before them by day in a })illar of cloud, and in a ])illar of hre by night. Now if thou fihalt kill all this people, then the nations which have beard of thee will say, 15ecausc the Lord was not able to JEWS. 403 bring this peo[)le into the land whicli he swarc unto thoni, therefore he hath slain them in the wilderness. I beseech thee pardon the iniquity of this people, according unto the greatness of thy mercy. And the Lord said, I have par- doned, according to thy word." Tlie commands and actions attributed to God constantly manifest the same tendency to judge of the Supreme Being as if he were like unto themselves. He is represented as commanding them to "buy bondmen and bondwomen of the heathen round about. They shall be your bondmen forever. And if a man smite his servant, or his maid, with a rod, and he die under his hand, he shall be surely punished. Notwithstanding, if he continue a day or two, he shall not be punished ; for he is his money." " Thus saith the Lord of Hosts, Go and smite Amalek, and utterly destroy all that they have, and spare them not; but slay both man and woman, infant and suckling." "Of the cities of these people, which the Lord thy God doth give thee for an inheritance, thou slialt save alive nothing that breatheth. Thou shalt utterly destroy them." " If a man cause a blemish in his neighbour, as he hath done so shall it be done unto him. He that killeth a nian, he shall be put death. Breach for breach, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe ; as he hath done, so shall it be done unto him again." While the children of Israel were dwelling in the vicinity of Moabites, they were invited to attend some of the festivals of the gods of Moab. They consented, "and did eat, and bowed down to their gods." "And the anger of the Lord was kindled against Israel ; and he said unto Moses, Take all the heads of the people and hang them up before the Lord against the sun, that the fierce anger of the Lord may be turned away from Israel." Concerning those who were drawn toward other modes of worship than the Hebrew, the Lord commanded: "If th}' brother, the son of thy mother, or thy son, or thy 404: PEOGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. daughter, or tlie wife of thy bosom, or thy friend, wliich is as thine own soul, entice thee secretly, saying, Let us go and serve other gods; thou shalt not consent unto hiin, nor hearken unto him ; neither shall thine eye pity him, neither shalt thou spare, neither shalt thou conceal him. But thou shalt surely kill him ; thine hand shall be first upon him to put him to death, and afterward the hand of all the people. And thou shalt stone him with stones, that he die." While the children of Israel were in the wilderness, they found a man that gathered sticks upon tlie Sabbath day. "And the Lord said unto Moses, Tlie man shall surely be put to death. All the congregation shall stone him with stones without the camp. And all the congre- gation brought him without the camp, and stoned him with stones, and he died." The remarkable familiarity with God which character- ized patriarchal times, is likewise conspicuous in the his- tory of Moses. Hebrew Scriptures declare that " the Lord spake unto Moses face to face, as a man speaketh unto his friend." On one occasion, Moses and Aaron, and seventy of the elders of Israel, went up unto the Lord. " And they saw the God of Israel: and there was under his feet as it were a paved work of a sapphire stone, and as it were the body of heaven in his clearness. And upon the nobles of the children of Israel he laid not his hand ; also they saw God, and did eat and drink." On another occa- sion, Moses said unto the Lord : " I beseech thee show me thy glory. And the Lord said. Thou canst not see my flice; for there shall no man see me and live. Behold there is a place by me, and thou shalt stand upon a rock, and I will cover thee with my hand as I pass by ; and I will take away mine hand, and thou shalt see my back parts; but my face shall not be seen." Among all ancient nations, mountains were venerated, partly owing to the awful majesty they imparted to scenery, and pailly from a conviction that the higher the earth ascended, the nearer it approached the residence of JEWS. 405 divine beings, and the more certainty was there that they would hear the invocations and jirayers of mortals, llenco we find anchorites and pro})hets of all lands had the cus- tom of ascending mountains, in order to receive spiritual communications. Moses went up Mount Sinai and re- mained forty days in the midst of its awful solitudes, to inquire of God what laws he should give the Israelites; and the people were told to tany for him in the valley below. During this interview, as related in Hebrew Sacred Books, he received ten commandments graven on. stone. " And the tables ^vere the work of God, and the writing was the writing of God." Not only the moral precepts and the civil code, but all the ceremonies, and minutest practical details, rules for weaving cloth, for trimming the hair and beard, the length and breadth of the Ark, fringes on the priests' garments, the number of branches on the golden candlestick, and the number of knobs on each branch, were all prescribed by God, in familiar conversation with Moses. When envy was ex- cited because Moses held the office of Lawgiver, and his brother Aaron that of High Pi'iest, the Lord gave Moses special directions how to act in this emergency. He com- manded that the chief of each of the twelve tribes should bring a branch of almond tree to Moses, who was in- structed to write every man's name on his branch, and deposit them all in the Tabernacle. And the Lord pro- mised to show the people whom he had chosen for the priest, by causing his branch to blossom during the night. Accordingly, in the morning, the branch which Aaron had brought for the tribe of Levi was covered with buds, blos- soms, and fruit; and by this miracle the family of Aaron became an hereditary priesthood during the national ex- istence of the Hebrews. In some cases, the divine commands are represented of a contradictory character ; as when God commanded the Israelites to borrow ear-rings and other jewels of the Egyptians, and carry them away, though He had jrevi ously commanded them not to steal. •tOG PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. On one important occasion, the Hebrew lawgiver acted upon the suggestion of Jethro, his father-in-law, and no mention is made that either of them took counsel of God. Jethro, seeing Moses wearied with settling the innumera- ble cases brought before him from morning till night, advised him to choose elders from among the people to settle minor questions. Moses acted upon his suggestion, and appointed seventy elders, called the Sanhedrim. Trial by ordeal was prescribed in the law of Moses, as it was in the Hindoo, and other ancient codes. If a man was jealous of his wife and wished to test her innocence, it was ordained that he should bring her to tlie priest, who took " holy water in an earthen vessel, and put into the water dust from the floor of the Tabernacle." He then administered an oath to the woman, and solemnly pro- nounced curses upon her, if she said she was guiltless, and swore falsely. He wrote the curses and blotted them out with the water, and then gave it to the accused to drink. " And the Lord said to Moses, When he hath made her drink the water, then it shall come to pass that if she have done trespass against her husband, the water that causeth the curse shall enter into her and become bitter, and her belly shall swell, and her thigh shall rot; and the woman shall be a curse among her people." One passage in the Mosaic dispensation ap])ears like a recognition of human sacrifices. It is as follows: "No devoted thing, that a man shall devote unto the Lord of all that he hath, both of man and beast, and of the field of his possession, shall be sold or redeemed. Every de- voted thing is most holy unto the Lord. None devoted,, whicli shall be devoted of men, shall be redeemed: but shall surely be })ut to death." Jephthah l>urnt his daughter as a sacrifice to the Lord ; but there is no record that Moses sanctioned such a ])ractice, or that it prevailed among the Hebrews at any period; unless the slaughter commanded by Moses, as atonement for worshipping the golden calf, be considered as a human sacrilice. He ordered the sons of Levi to "put every man his sword by JEWS. 407 his side, and go in and out from u-ato to i2'atc tlirouulioiit the camp, and slay every nian his brotlioi-, and cvi'i'v man his companion, and every man his nci-hhoui-. And the children of Levi did according to the word of Moses; and there fell of the people about three thousand nu>n. Foi Moses- had said, Consecrate yourselves to-day to the Lord, even every man upon his son, and u[)on his br(jther; that he may bestow upon 3'ou a blessing this day." The first- born of all cattle were set apart to be sacrificed to the. Lord, but the first-born of human beings were redeemed by consecrating an equal number of men to the religious services of the Tabernacle. This substitution was the origin of the order of Levites. Moses counted the whole tribe of Levi, and then counted all the first-born of the Israelites, from a month old and upward. The first-born of the people exceeded the tribe of Levi, by two hundred and seventy-three; and these were redeemed by paying five shekels each to the priests. The same sum continued ever after to be paid for all first-born children. All the tribe of Levi were consecrated to the service of God ; and this was considered in the light of an atoning sacrifice for the sins of the whole people. But as they were not put to death, and as it was supposed God required blood for atonement, two bullocks were sacrificed in their stead. The Levites laid their hands upon the heads of these vic- tims, that the sins, which the whole nation laid upon the tribe of Levi, might be transferred to the beasts, whose blood was shed as an expiation. God said to Moses : " The life of the flesh is in the blood; and I have given it to you upon the altar to make an atonement for your souls ; for it is the blood that maketh atonement for the soul." Li the Avritings ascribed to Moses, nothing is said con- cerning the immortality of the soul, nor is there any record by which his opinions on that subject could be ascertained. The rewards promised to the Israelites, and the punishments threatened, are altogether of a temjioral nature. It is declared that " God will visit the sins of the fatheis upon the children, unto the third and fourth gen- 408 PKOGRESS OF KELIGIOUS IDEAS. eration." " If thou shalt hearken diligently unto the voice of the Lord thy God, to observe and do all his command- ments, the Lord shall make thee plenteous in goods, in the fruit of thy body, and in the fruit of thy cattle, and in the fruit of thy ground. The Lord shall cause thine enemies that rise up against thee to be smitten before thy face : they shall come out against thee one way, and flee before thee seven ways. Thou shalt lend unto many nations, and thou shalt not borrow. And the Lord shall make thee the head, and not the tail. But if thou wilt not hearken unto the Lord thy God, to observe and do all ^lis commandments and statutes, cursed shall be thy basket and thy store. Cursed shall be the fruit of thy body, and the fruit of thy land, the increase of thy kine, and the flocks of thy sheep. The Lord will smite thee with con- sumption, and fever, and inflammation, and extreme burn- ing, and with the sword, and with blasting, and mildew. And the Lord shall cause thee to be smitten before thy enemies : thou shalt go out one way against them, and flee seven ways before them. The Lord will smite thee with the botch of Egypt, with the emerods, with the scab, and with the itch, whereof thou canst not be healed. The Lord shall smite thee with madness, and blindness, and astonishment of heart. Also evei-y sickness, and every plague, which is not written in the book of this Law, them will the Lord bring upon thee, until thou be destroyed. As the Lord rejoiced over you to do you good, and to multiply you, so the Lord will rejoice over you to destroy you, and to bring you to naught." That the policy of Moses was illiberal toward foreigners, is to be attributed to the circumstances in which he was placed. He appears to have been a wise and far-sighted man, greatly in advance of the age in which he lived; but lie had to deal with ignorant and barbai'ous tribes, incapa- ble of appreciating his motives, or understanding the high d(\stiny marked out for tiicm. All the (Miei-gics of his gieat soul were emj)l()yed to lorni them into a distinct nation, and raise their religious ideas above the worship JEWS. • 409 of images. To promote these objects, it was necessary to forbid marriage with other nations and tribes, to incalcate detestation of their worship, to discourage commerce, to avoid foreign literature and the arts, with all of which the worship of imag(?s was intimately connected. In preserv- ing themselves a distinct and peculiar people, the Hebrews necessarily became narrow and exclusive. In all their regulations, there was a marked distinction between them- selves and foreigners. At the end of every seven years, all debts due from one Hebrew to another were released ; but debts due from a foreigner might be exacted. If a Hebrew became very poor, he might sell himself, and one of his own nation might buy him for a term of years; "not as a bondservant, but as an hired servant." At the end of every seven j^ears he might go out free, if he wished, and the master was enjoined to sup])ly him liber- ally with grain, wine, and flocks. Tlie Lord said to Moses: "They shall not be sold as bontlmen. Both thy bondmen and thy bondmaids shall be of the heathen that are round about you. Of the children of the strangers shall ye buy. And ye shall take them as an inheritance for your children after you, to inherit them for a possession; they shall be your bondmen forever. But over your brethren the children of Israel 3^e shall not rule with rigour." Though it was not allowable for one Hebrew to sell another to a person of any otlier nation, a poor Hebrew might sell himself as a servant to a rich sojourner, who dwelt in the midst of them; but he had the privilege of being redeemed at any time, either by himself or his rela- tives. There were gleams of a kindly spirit even toward foreigners. Moses ordained : " If a stranger dwelleth with you in your land, yc shall not vex him. lie shall be unto you as one born among 3^ou ; and thou shalt love him as thyself; for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt." In all that related to their own internal policy, great liberality is manifested. All the regulations tended to promote equal distribution, moderate abundance, respect for do- mestic institutions, and unstinted kindness to the poor Vol. I.— 35 s 410 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. If a man had built a new house and not dedicated it, or planted a vineyard and not eaten of it, or married a wife and not taken her home, he was not required to go forth with the tribes to battle, lest he should die without a taste of his promised happiness. To prevent the land from passing into the hands of strangers, or becoming accumu- lated in large estates belonging to a few of the wealthy, there was a great Jubilee appointed every seven times seven years. If any Hebrew had sold his estate, and been unable to redeem it, the land was returned to him, or his heirs, at the Jubilee. All Hebrews who were sold as servants, either to their own people, or to sojourners, became free at that joyful festival. The Lord said : "Thou slialt hallow the fiftieth year, and proclaim liberty throughout all the land, and unto all the inhabitants thereof. Ye shall re- turn every man unto his possessions, and unto his family." "The land shall not be sold for ever; for the land is mine, saith the Lord." • " Thou shalt not make clean riddance of the corners of thy field, when thou reapest the harvest of thy land, neither shalt thou gather any gleaning of thy harvest. If thou hast forgot a sheaf in the field, thou shalt not e"o aarain to fetch it. Thou slialt leave thein unto the poor and the stranger. When thou beatest thine olive tree, thou shalt not go over the boughs again; it shall be for the stranger, for the fatherless, and for the widow. When thou gatherest the grapes of thy vineyard, thou shalt not glean it afterward; it shall be for the stranger, the fatherless, and the widow." In addition to these benevolent provisions for every year, a portion of the proceeds of ever}^ man's land was set apart for the poor every third year. Six "Cities of Ilefuge" were provided, where he who had killed a man might remain in safety, till the matter was fairly investigated by established tril)unals. The ])urity of women was carefully guarded I'rom sucli customs as contaminated the worship of many neighbouring countries. For these humane and e(|ualizing regulations, lor teaching the same I'cligion to priests and people, and for holding up the doctrine of one Supremo JEWS. 411 Being, in the midst of most discouraging obstacles, our gratitude and reverence are due to Moses, Deservedly he stands conspicuous among the agents, whom God has chosen in all ages, and from all nations, to bring the world gradually out of darkness into light. After the death of Moses, Joshua led the people over Jordan, and conquered many of the tribes of Canaan, lie taught the Israelites, as his predecessor had done, that they were the chosen agents of Jehovah, to exterminate idolaters and take possession of their lands. But tribes, who had cities and vineyards thus violently wrested from them by foreign invaders, naturally viewed the subject in another light. Procopius, a Greek historian, native of Cassarea, in Palestine, supposed to have died six hundred and fifty years after our era, speaking of a nation in Libya, says: "They were the Gergesites, Gebusites, and other nations, who were driven out of Palestine, by Joshua the son of Nave." [Nun.J He testifies that he himself saw the following sentence, engraved in Phoenician characters, near a fountain in Libya: "We are they who fled from the face of Joshua the robber, the son of Nave." The author of Ecclesiasticus calls Joshua the "son of Nave," that being a change in the name by Jews who spoke Greek. When Grecians represented their deities as conniving at falsehood, and assisting to break solemn treaties, their perfidy was sanctified to popular imagination, by its being always done in favour of the Greeks, who believed them- selves especial favourites of the gods. In a similar spirit, Hebrews represented Jehovah as commanding his chosen people to steal from the Egyptians, and to kill by thou- sands, men, women, and infants, from whom they had received no injury; and when the bloody work was accom- plished, they devoutly thanked the Lord, because he had given them "vineyards they had not planted, and harvests they had not sowed." Hebrew Sacred Books declare that Joshua was "full of the spirit of wisdom ; for Moses had laid his hands upon 412 PROGKESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS, him : and the children of Israel hearkened unto him, and did as the Lord commanded Moses." He also is said to have acted under the immediate and perpetual guidance of Deity. " After the death of Moses, it came to pass that Jehovah spake unto Joshua." Concerning the rite of circumcision, we are told that "the Lord said unto Joshua, Make thee sharp knives and circumcise the children of Israel the second time. And this is the cause why Joshua did circumcise. All the people that came out of Egypt were circumcised, and they had all died in the wilderness by the way ; but all those that were born in the wilderness they had not circam- cised." The fact that Egyptians considered all uncircum- cised men unclean, is implied in the record of this transac- tion ; for after the rite had been performed on all the Hebrews, " the Lord said to Joshua, This day have I rolled away the reproach of Egypt from off" you." The directions Joshua received from God are .character- ized by the same austerity as those to Moses. He was commanded to exterminate the Canaanites; "to destroy them utterl}^, and leave nothing to breathe." When one of the Hebrew soldiers concealed under his tent some gold and silver taken from images or temples, among the spoils of war, " the Lord commanded Joshua to burn him, and all that he had, with fire. So Joshua, and all Israel with hiin, took him, and liis sons, and his daughters, and his oxen, and his asses, and his sheep, and his tents, and all that he had, and all Israel stoned them with stones, and burned them with fire, after they had stoned them with stones." Th(i '^rabcrnacle had been carried with the Isrnelites in all their wanderings tlirough the wilderness. AVherever it restetl, there they pitched tlieir tents; and whenever it moved, though in the middle of the night, they rose and followed it. This j^rompt obedience originated in their lK!lic;f that it was God's house, where he actually dwelt; and that He himself went before them as a gui(l(\ in the form of a cloud by day, and a })illar of fire by night. JEWS. 413 Joshua broiiglit the Tabernacle into the Land of Canaan. Seven years it remained at Gilgal, guarded by a strong force, while the Israelites encamped there. When thev went to battle, the Ark Avas taken out of it and carried before them, that the Lord might be always present with them, ready to be consulted in case of difficult emergencies. When Israel had more quiet possession of the land of Canaan, the Tabernacle was removed to Shiloh, and en- closed within walls. At Mount Ebal, Joshua built an altar of whole stones, and wrote on the stones a copy of the Law of Moses, and "read all the words before all the congregation of Israel, with the women and the little ones, and the strangers that were conversant among them. And they offered upon the altar burnt-offerings, and sacrifices, and peace-offerings, to the Lord God of Israel." The Hebrews, and "the mixed multitude" who, accord- ing to their Sacred Records, came up with them from Egypt, were so imbued with the customs of that country, that even Aaron consented to make a golden calf for them to worship, and himself erected an altar before it. Not- witlistanding the severe edicts of Moses, and the efforts of Joshua to impress them on the minds of the people, they manifested in Canaan the same |)roneness to idolatry. Joshua found it necessary to assemble the tribes and earnestly remind them of the temporal blessings they had received fi-om their tutelary God: "Thus saith the Lord God of Israel, I brought 3'our fathers out of Egypt. And I brought you into the land of the Amorites. And I sent the hornet before you, which drove them out before you, even the two kings of the Amorites; but not with thy sword, nor with thy bow. And I have given you a land for which ye did not labour, and cities which ye built not, and ye dwelt in them; of vineyards and olive yards, which ye planted not, do ye eat." And Joshua said: "Now tlierefore fear the Lord, and serve him in sincerity and truth ; and put away the gods, which your fathers seiwed on the other side of the flood, [the river Euphrates] and in Egypt. But if it seem evil to you to serve the Vol. i.— 35* 414 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Lord, choose ye this day whom ye will serve ; but as for me and my house, we will serve the Lord. And the people answered, The Lord our God brought our fathers out of the land of Egypt, and drove out from before us all the people, even tlie Amorites, which dwelt in the land; therefore will we serve the Lord. And Joshua said to the people, He is a jealous God ; he will not forgive your transgressions nor your sins. If ye forsake him and serve strange gods, he will turn and do you hurt, and consume you, after that he hath done you good. Now therefore put away the strange gods that are among you, and incline your heart to the God of Israel. And the people said, We will serve the Lord our God, and his voice will we obey. And Joshua made a covenant with the people, and set then"! a statute and an ordinance, and wrote the words in the book of the Law of God, and took a great stone and set it up there under an oak, that was by the sanc- tuary of the Lord. And he said. This stone hath heard all the words of the Lord, which he spake unto us; it shall therefore be a witness unto you, lest ye deny your God." Hebrew records declare that tlie veiy next generation of " the children of Israel forsook the Lord God of their fathers, and served Baal and Ashtaroth." The first is supposed to have been the Chaldean representative of the Sun, and the other the Syrian representative eitlier of the Moon, or of the planet Venus. Wild and troubled times followed the death of Josliua. Israelites intermarried with neighbouring tribes, and "forgat the Lord their God, and served Baalim and the groves. Therefore the anger of the Lord waxed hot against Israel." The king of Mesopotamia conquered them, and they served him eight years before they were delivered out of his hand. Foi-ty years after, the king of Moab conquered them, and they served iiim eighteen years. He was finally murdered by one of the tribe of Benjamin, and the Israelites had rest for eighty years. After that, they were conquered by the king of Canaan. At that period, Hebrews were governed by JEWS. 415 judges ; and it is a very remar'cable feature in such un- settled times that " Deborali, a proplietess, the wife of Lapidoth, judged Israel." By pursuing her advice the king of Canaan was conquered, and " the land had rest forty years." Then the Midianites conquered Israel and kept thein in subjection sf.veu years, so that they were compelled to "hide in dens in the mountains." In their distress, they cried unto the Lord, and a prophet named Gideon rose up to remind them of the God who brought their fiithers out of Egypt. " The Lord said unto Gideon, Throw down the altar of Baal, which thy father hath, and cut down the grove that is by it; and buihi an altar unto the Lord th}^ God, and take thy father's young bullock and offer a burnt-sac ifice with the wood of the grove, which thou shalt cut down." Gideon obeyed the command; but so popular were the foreign gods, that he did it in the night-time, not daring to do it by day. When the men of the city discovered wlio had done it, they insisted he should be put to death ; but his father warded off the pre- sent danger, and Gideon afterward secured tlie affections of the people by fighting successfully against the Midi- anites. He requested the men of Israel to bring him all the golden ear-rings they took with the spoils of war, and they willingly gave them, " beside ornaments, and collars, and purple raiment, that was on the kings of Midian, and chains that were about their camels' necks. And Gideon made an ephod thereof, and put it in his city." There is no explanation concerning the use made of this ephod, but the natural supposition would be that it was consulted as an oracle. That it came in some way to be regarded as an idol, is implied by the remark tliat "all Israel went thither a whoring after it; which thing became a snare unto Gideon and his house." " As soon as Gideon was dead, the children of Israel turned again, and went a whoring after Baalim, and made Baal-berith their God." When the Ammonites conquered them, " and vexed and oppressed them eighteen years," they began again to cry unto the Lord. But "the Lord 416 rROGKP:ss of heligious ideas. said, Go and cry unto tho gods wliicli ye have chosen. Let them deliver you in the time of your tribulation. And the children of Israel said, We have sinned against thee, both because we have forsaken our God, and also served Baalim. And they put away the strange gods from among them, and served the Lord ; and his soul was grieved for the misery of Israel." Jephthah, "a mighty man of valour," was raised up to rescue his countrymen from the Ammonites. He ruled over Israel six years, as judge and general. In his history occurs the only instance of human sacrifice recorded in the Hebrew Sacred Writings. Before he went forth to battle, he made a vow that if "he were victorious, he Avould sacrifice to God, as a burnt- offering, whatever should first come forth from his house to meet hirn on his return. His daughter, his only child, came out to welcome him, and "he did with her according to his vow." This circumstance is told in the Book of Judges, without any expressions of disapprobation. During the times of Joshua and the Judges, the visits of anejels are still described as common occurrences. " It came to pass when Joshua was near Jericho, that he lifted up his eyes and looked, and behold a man was standing beside him with his sword drawn in his hand. And Joshua went to him and said, Art thou for us, or for our foes? And he said. Neither; for I am come as the prince of Jehovah's host. And Joshua fell on his face to the earth, and did homage to him, and said. What would my Lord say to his servant? And the prince of Jehovah's host said to Joshua, Loose the shoe from thy foot, for the place thou standest upon is holy." An angel, who came up from Gilgal to admonish the nation, speaks as if he were Jehovah himself, saying: "I made you go out of Egypt." An angel of the Tiord came and sat under an oak, and talked with Gideoi^ while ho was threshing wheat. Gideon pre- ])ared food for him, and was told to spread it on the rock. When the angel touched it with his stalf, fire came out of the rock and consumed the food, and the angel vanished, Such visits a])p('ar to have been regarded as omens of JEWS. 417 deatli ; for Gideon was alanncil, ami said: "Alas, because I have seen an angel of the Lord face to face!" And the Lord said to him: "Fear not; thou shalt not die." An angel appeared to the wife of Manoah and })redieted the birth of Samson. She described him to her husband as "a man of God, whose countenance was like an angel of God, very terrible." Afterward he appeared to her again, and she ran to call her husband, who offered liim food; " for he knew not that he. was an angel of the Lord." The mysterious visitor refused to eat, or tell his name ; but commanded that the kid prepared for food should be burnt on the rock, as a sacrifice to the Lord; and when the flame rose, the angel ascended in it. Manoali and his wife fell on their fliccs to the ground, and said: " We shall surely die, because we have seen God." A regular, established priesthood was incompatible with such unsettled times. Men consecrated their own priests, who were sometimes of the tribe of Levi, sometimes of other tribes. It is to be presumed that the people received little instruction in the Laws of Moses, for it is obvious enough that they were perpetually infringed, without meeting the punishment he affi.xed to such offences. It is recorded that a man of Mount Ephraim, whose name was Micah, took eleven hundred shekels of silver from his mother, and afterward restored them, confessing the theft. "And his mother took two hundred shekels of the silver, and gave them to the founder, who made thereof a graven image and a molten image ; and they were in the house of Micah. And Micah had an house of gods, and made an ephod, and teraphim, and consecrated one of his sons, who became his priest. " And a young man of the family of Judah, who was a Levite, came to the house of Micah and sojourned there. And Micah said, Dwell with me, and be unto me a father and a priest, and I will give thee ten shekels of silver by the year, and a suit of apparel, and thy victuals. And the Levite was content to dwell with the man, and Micah consecrated the Levite, and he became his priest." He was probably called a Levite merely be- 418 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. cause lie was acquainted with the prescribed Levitical ritual ; for he is said to have been of the tribe of Judah. Tluit it was considered fortunate to obtain possession of such a private chaplain, is iniplied by Micah's remark: " Now I know the Lord will do me good, seeing I have a Levite to my priest." Yet Moses would have "stoned him with stones till he died ;" for he was priest to "a graven image and a molten image." At that time the tribe of Dan were looking about to seize land wherever it best suited them to dwell. Hebrew Sacred Books tell us that when their messengers came to Laish, they found that the inhabitants thereof dwelt quiet and secure, had no commerce with other men, were too far from the Sidonians to be protected by them, and had no magistrate in the land to put strangers to shame for any- thing they might do. These were deemed suitable reasons for seizing on their possessions for the tribe of Dan. Ac- cordingly, when the pioneers went back and gave infor- mation concerning the state of tilings, their brethren mustered six hundred men, with weapons of war, and went to attack Laish. Their ancestors had slaughtered rncn, women, and children, because Moses and Joshua tuld them it was the divine command that they should utterly exterminate idolaters. But" these warriors were impelled by no such zeal in the service of one invisible God. For when they came to Mount Ephraim, and passed the house of Micah, the messenger, who had previously been sent to spy out the land, said: " Do ye know there is in these houses an cphod, and teraphim, and a graven image, and a molten image? And they came in thither and took the graven image, and the nit)lten image, the ephod, and the teraphim. Then said the priest unto them, AVhat do ye? And they said, IL^ld thy peace; lay thine hand upon thy mouth, and go with us. Is it better for thee to be a priest unto one man, or that thou be a priest unto a tribe and a family in Israel? And the priest's heart was glad ; and he took the ephod, and the teraphim, and the graven image, and went in the midst of the JEWS. 419 people. Wlicn they were a good way from the house, Micah and his nci"libours overtook them. And Micah said, Ye have taken away my gods which I made, and the priest and ye are gone away; and what have I more? And the children of Dan said unto him, Let not thy voice be heard among us, lest angry fellows run upon thee, and thou lose thy life, with the lives of thy household. And when Micah saw they were too strong for him, he turned and went back to his house. And the children of Dan went their way, and came unto Laish, unto a people that were quiet and secure, and they smote them with the edge of the sword, and burnt their city with fire. And they called the city Dan, after the name of their father, who was born unto Israel, And they set up Micah's graven image, and Jonathan and his sons were priests to the tribe of Dan," The people publicly resorted thither, to worship and consult the teraphim of Micah, until the tribes of Israel were cari'ied away captive. We are told that, in the days of the Judges, " every man did that which was right in his own eyes;" and some of their recorded transactions certainly prove a very savage state of societ}^ There is a story related in Hebrew Sacred Books, concerning a young Levite, who v/as bring- ing home his concubine from his father's house in Bethle- hem-Judah, In the course of their journey, the}^ came among the Benjamitcs, who had not sufficient hospitality to offer them a shelter for the night. An old man of Mount Ephraim, seeing them in the street, invited them to his house. In the course of the night, some Benjamites came and beat at the door, and made indecent demands concerning the traveller. Frightened by their violence, he at last ay-reed to let them have his concubine. The O poor woman died in the hands of the brutal multitude, and in the morning her corpse was found at the door. Her husband cut her in pieces, and sent a fragment to each of the tribes of Israel, calling upon them to revenge the wickedness done by some of the Benjamites. In obedience to this summons, the tribes came up to battle against 420 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. Bertjamin; but they were defeated, with twenty-two thou sand shain. Phineas, the priest, a descendant of Aaron stood before the Ark of the Covenant, where oraeles were received from God. There " he asked counsel of the Lord, saying. Shall we again go up to battle against the children of Benjamin our brother? And the Lord said, Go up against them." Accordingly, they went forth the second day, and were defeated, with eighteen thousand slain. The priest again inquired at the Ark whether the children of Israel should go to battle against Benj^miin. And the Lord answered, "Go up against him." They attacked the Benjamites a third time, and destroj^ed twenty-five thousand and a hundred of them. The sequel of the story implies that the women of Benjamin, though not implicated in the olfence, were slaughtered almost to extermination. "The men of Israel had sworn in Mizpeh, saying, There shall not any of us give his daughter unto Benjamin to wife." But after the Benjamites were near)}'- destroyed, " the people wept sore, saying, Lord God of Israel, why has this come to pass, that there should be one tribe lacking in Israel? They repented them for Benja- min their brother, and said, How shall we do for wives for them that remain, seeing we have sworn by the Lord that we will not give them of our daughters for wives?" In this dilemma they concluded to send twelve thousand valiant men to attack Jabesli Gilead, and destroy all the men, and all the married women. They did so, and brought away captive four hundred maidens, and gave them to the Benjamites for wives. But the number did not suffice them. And "the eldei's of the congregation said. How shall we do for wives for them that remain ? There must be an inheritance for them, that a tribe be not destroyed out of Israel. ITowbcit, we may not give them wives of our (laughters; for the children of Israel have sworn, saying, Cursed be he that giveth a wife to Benja- min." The people of Shiloh annually observed a festival, and came forth with songs aiul dances in honour of some deity; and it happened that the time for this festival waa JEWS. 421 near at hand. The elders of Israel advised the Benjamite Avidowers to wait for this opportunity, and hide themselves in the vineyards, in order to catch the )'oung women as they came out to dance. " And the children of Benjamin did so, and took them wives of them that danced, whom they caught." In such unsettled and marauding times, the priesthood could not have been in a very flourishing condition. The only mention made of them is in connection with Eli ; and his children are described as "sons of Belial, who knew not the Lord." " It was the priests' custom with the peo- ple, that when any man offered sacrifice, the priest's servant came, while the flesh was in seething, with a flesh-hook of three teeth in his hand ; and he struck it into the pan, or kettle, or caldron, and all that the flesh-hook brought up the priest took to himself." But when any of the Israelites went up to Shiloh to sacrifice, the sons of Eli, who were priests by hereditary right, sent their servant to say : "Give flesh to roast for the priest; for he will not have sodden flesh of thee, but raw." And if the sacrificer asked him to. wait till the fat was first burned on the altar, a sacrifice to the Lord, he answered: "Nay, thou shalt give it to me now ; if not, I will take it by force." Such conduct made the people abhor to offer sacrifices to the Lord; and .their aversion to the young priests was in- creased by the charge brought against them, that " they lay with the women who assembled at the door of the Tabernacle." Hebrews, in common with most nations of antiquity, had the custom of dedicating their children to the service of a Deity, by vows made in some peculiar emergency. Hannah, the wife of Elkanah, was exceedingly grieved because she had no children. She went up to Shiloh to worship, and wept before the Lord, saying: "If thou wilt give unto thine handmaid a man-child, then I will give him unto the Lord all the days of his life." She afterward gave birth to Samuel. As soon as he was weaned, his parents took him up to the house of the Lord, in Shiloh, Vol. I.— 86 422 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. and offered three bullocks, and an ephah of flour, and a bottle of wine; and they left the little boy with Eli the priest, saying : " As long as he liveth, he shall be lent to the Lord." "And the child was girded with a linen ephod, and ministered before the Lord. Moreover, his mother made him a little coat, and brought it from year to year, when she came up with her husband, to offer the yearly sacrifice." Hebrew Sacred Writings declare that God chose him, and appointed him to an especial mission, even in his childhood. One ev^ening, when lie lay down to sleep, he heard a voice calling him ; and he rose and went to Eli, saying: "Here I am; for thou didst call me." The aged priest made answer: "I called thee not, my son. Lie down again." And " the Lord called yet again. And Samuel went to Eli and said. Here am L And he answered, I called thee not, my son. Lie down again. The Lord called Samuel the third time. Now Samuel did not yet know the Lord, neither was the word of the Lord yet revealed to him. xind he went to Eli and said. Here am I ; for thou didst call me. And Eli perceived that the Lord had called the child." He told him to lie down, and when he again heard the voice, to answer: "Speak, Lord, for th}'- servant heareth." He did so; and the Lord in- formed him that he would visit the family of Eli with heavy judgments, "because his sons made themselves vile, and he restrained them not." As Samuel grew to manhood, he spoke boldly against the evil practices he witnessed, and became famous, as "a prophet to whom the Lord had revealed himself." At that time, the Israelites renewed their attacks on the Philistines. No reason is assigned for it ; but it probably arose from their abiding conviction that they had a divine right to take possession of their neighbour's laud, on account of the promise made to Abraham. According to custom, the army took with them the Ark of the Covenant, that the presence of God might ensure to them the victory. But the event proved disastrous. A messenger came to Eli and t(>ld him that Israel fled before the Philistines, tliat his JEWS. • 423 two sons were slaughtered, and the Ark of God was taken. At these tidings the old priest fell down and died ; and the wife of one of his sons gave prematnrc birlh to a boy, whom, with her dying breath, she named Ichabod, wliich signifies departed glory. "The glory is departed from Israel," said she ; " for the Ark of God is taken." It was the universal opinion of ancient nations that tempests, famine, pestilence, and all other remarivable afflic- tions, were owing to the anger of some deity, on account of his neglected worship. The Ark of the Hebrews re- mained seven months with the Philistines, and they kept it in a temple which they had built to a god called Dagon. In the course of these seven months, their land was un- usually infested by mice, and a troublesome disease, called the emerods, prevailed extensively. It was suggested among them that the God of the Hebrews sent these plagues, because the Ark, in which he dwelt, had been taken away from the people whom he protected, and he was thus deprived of his accustomed worship. Their priests and divines, being consulted, advised them to put the Ark of the Hebrews into a new cart, drawn by two 3'oung cows, which had never worn a yoke; and to make five golden images of mice, and five golden images of the emerods, one for each of their five cities, and put them in a box beside the Ark, as a trespass-offering to the god of the Hebrews, whom the}^ had probably offended. They were further instructed to send the cows away without a guide ; and if tliey of their own accord took the road to Beth-Shemish, then they should know for a certainty that the pestilence had been sent upon them b}^ the Hebrew god. When the cows were fastened to the cait, they went straight to Beth-Shemish, whose name signified the House of the Sun, probably on account of some temple to the Sun erected there. It was one of the cities apportioned to jiriests of the tribe of Judah, after the conquest of Canaan. The men of Beth-Shemish were reaping wheat when the cart con- taining the Ark stopped in a field near them, and stood by a great stone. They were rejoiced at the sight, and Levites 421 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDZAS. went and took the Ark, and the box cont;iiiiiiig tlio golden images, and laid them on the great stone. And the men of Beth-Shemish cnt np the wood of the eart, and with it burnt the two young eows, as an offering to the Lord. Some of the men of the place had the curiosity to peep into the Ark. It is not stated whether they were Israelites who did this ; but the record declares that the Lord pun- ished their curiosity by the death of more than fifty thou- sand men. When the people saw that the Lord had smitten them with such great slaughter, they became afraid of the Ark, and sent to the inhabitants of Kirjath-jearim, begging them to come and take it away. So it was carried thither, "to the house of Abinadab in the hill; and it is said, "the men of Kiijath-jearim sanctified Eleazar, son of Abinadab, to keep the ark." For twenty years it remained tluis obscurely in the hands of a private family. The more pious among the Israelites felt deeply hu- miliated under the conviction that the presence of Jeho- va was withdrawn from them on account of their sins. They sought counsel from Samuel, in whom they found a second Moses. The office of Judge was conferred upon him, and he ruled Israel for twelve years. He earnestly repeated, what had so often been impressed upon the lie- brew mind, that Jehovah was a jealous God, and if they would propitiate him, they must put all other gods entirely away. Under the influence of Samuel, the children of Israel again resolved "to put aw\ay Baal and Ashtaroth, and serve the Lord only." They gathered together unto Samuel, and poured out a libation of water before the Lord, and Samuel prayed for them. It is supposed that he first established seminaries, called Schools of the Pro- phets, where young men of all the tribes were instructed in the Law of Moses, in the history of their own nation, in medicine, music, and sacred poetry. The course of teaching did not embrace general information, but was entirely con- fined to subjects connected with the Hebrew religion. In Samuel's old age, the peoi)le became discontented, on account of the corruption of his sons. They demanded to JEWS. 425 have a king, and he anointed Saul to rule over them. More than four hundred years before that time, the tribe of Amalek had laid wait for the children of Israel as they came up out of Egypt, and fought with them. Samuel said to Saul : "The Lord sent me to anoint thee king over his people Israel. Now, therefore, hearken unto the voice of the Lord. Thus saith the Lord of Hosts. I re- member that which Amalek did to Israel, when he came up fi-om Egypt. Now go and smite Amalek, and utterly destroy all that they have, and spare them not; but slay man and woman, infant and suckling, ox and sheep, camel and ass." Saul accordingly went up against the Arnale- kites and destroyed them ; but he was induced to save Agag their king, and the best of the sheep and oxen. Samuel was exceedingly offended that his orders had not been literally obeyed. When Saul humbly acknowledged his error, and pleaded in excuse that the people wished to spare the fattest of the sheep and oxen, to sacrifice to the Lord their God, he sternly answered : " To obey is better than sacrifice." Then he ordered Agag to be brought, " and he hewed him in pieces before the Lord." Samuel afterward consented to appear at a public sacrifice with Saul ; but thenceforth there was coolness between the powerful prophet and the king whom he had anointed. It is recorded that "the word of the Lord came to Samuel, saying, It repenteth me that I have set up Saul to be king." Soon after the Lord told him to fill a horn with oil, and go to Bethlehem, and secretly anoint David the son of Jesse to be king. David had his own armed band of followers, and became an object of great jealousy to Said. Nob was then tlic chief town of the priests, where reli.L:ious ceremonies were daily performed by descendants of Eli, though the Ark still remained at Kirjath-jearim. David and some of his followers came to Nob, and being hungry, asked the priests for bread. They replied that they had none, except the sacred show-bread, which was dedi- cated to the Lord. But when David reprcvsented that his necessities were very pressing, they gave him five loaves Vol. J.— 3G* 426 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDKAS. of the lioly bread, and armed him with the sword of Goliah, which had probably been kept in some sacred place as a trophy. When Saul heard of this, he sent soldiers to Nob, who slew eighty-five priests, and all the men, women, children, oxen, and sheep. In the second year after David became king, he went with thirty thousand chosen men to bring the Ark of the Covenant from Kirjath-jearim, and place it in a new Tab- ernacle on Mount Zion. The Laws of Moses expressly required that the Ark should always be carried on staves, slipped through rings, and borne on the shoulders of Levites. But on this occasion, it was placed in a new cart drawn by oxen, after the fashion of surrounding nations, who were accustomed thus to carry images of their gods, and other sacred symbols. David and all the people went in procession before the Ark, dancing and playing on a variety of musical instruments. When they came near Mount Zion, the oxen jostled the Ark, and Uzzah, a Levite, put forth his hand to steady it. Now, by the Laws of Moses, a Levite was not allowed to see the Ark un- veiled, much less to touch it. " And the anger of the Lord was kindled against Uzzah, and God smote him there for his error; and he died there by the Ark of God." This sudden disaster excited such consternation, that David did not dare to have the Ark brought into Jerusalem. It was accordingly "carried aside into the house of Obed- Edom the Gittite." When it had remained there three months, it was told king David that the Lord had blessed the house of Obed-Edom, because of the Ark. These tidings removed his fears, and again he went forth with a great multitude, and brought it to Mount Zion with songs and dances, and the sound of trumpets. The king himself danced before it, having taken off his royal robes, and girded himself with the linen ephod of a ])ricst. With David's reign commenced a new and important era in tiie history of the Hebrews. Li the time of Abraham, there was a city called Salem, said to have been governed by a king named Melchisedcc. David found it in the posses- JEWS. 427 sion of the Jcjbusitcs. PcM'ceiving that its situation was well adapted lor a central point of union to all the tribes of Israel, he conquered it and fortified it, and named it Jeru-Salem, from Hebrew words signifying He shall sec Peace. When the new city was well established, lie opened commerce with his neighbours the Tyrians, a much more wealthy and cultivated people than the Hebrews. The character of the laws given by Moses, and the subsequent wandering and predatory habits of the tribes, had been ex- tremely unlavourable to the cultivation of the sciences, or the arts. Architecture was in the rudest state among Hebrews, but the Tyrians were skilful workmen. Tliere- fore, when David "grew great," and wished to build him- self a palace, he was obliged to send to the king of Tyre for cedar-trees, carpenters, and masons. While the Israelites themselves dwelt in tents, they had made a tent-temple for the Ark of God. But now, when the king had built a royal house for himself, it seemed to him that the Deity he worshipped ought not to dwell less honourably. He said to Nathan the Prophet: "See now I dwell in an house of cedar, but the Ark of God dwelleth within curtains." Nathan at first encouraged his idea of building a temple, but in the night the Lord revealed to the prophet that it was his will to have the temple built by a son of David, whose posterity he promised should be forever established on the throne. In one place, Hebrew records declare that David could not find time to build a temple, on account of "the wars that beset him on every side ;" in another place, it is said the Lord forbade him to do it, " because he had shed so much blood upon the earth." He was successful above all the leaders of his nation. He took rich spoils in war, and kings who sought his alliance rewarded his powerful assistance with treasures more splendid than had ever been seen in Israel. He con- secrated a large portion of these to religious uses, as thank- offerings to Jehovah for his great prosperity. So that at his death there was a large supply of gold and silver, marble and cedar, in readiness for the temple. In the 428 PKOGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. mean time, he introduced great improvements into the public worship. Trumpets were the onlj instruments pre- scribed by Moses; but David, who was himself a skilful pla3^er on the harp, introduced into the service of the Tabernacle trained bands of singers and musicians, who performed on harps, psalteries, cymbals, and an instrument with small tinkling bells. He encouraged the cultivation of sacred poetry, and himself composed religious songs, which breathed devout aspirations in some of the sublimest language of lyric poetr}'. This illustrious monarch, the object of so much pride and reverence to Hebrews, is called in their Sacred Writ- ings, "a man after God's own heart." The ideas men formed of God at that period are therefore indicated by the prominent points of his character. He was a man of great energy and powerful passions ; fierce and revengeful to- ward his enemies, but endowed with susceptibility of feeling, which made it natural for him to weep over a fallen foe. He was constitutionally ardent, with the devout tendency which usually belongs to such temperaments; hence he rushed into sins, and then " humbled himself before the Lord," with repentance as earnest as his crime. The generosity of his character, and the strong attachment he inspired, are implied by the following anecdote related of him: During one of his severe campaigns among the Philistines, being sorely afflicted with thirst, he expressed a longing for some water from the well of Bethlehem, his native town. Three of his followers, who heard the wisli, forced their way through the enemy's host, at peril of their lives, and brought the water he so much desired. Touclied by this proof of their affection, he refused to drink it. Famishing as he was, he poured it out a libation before Jeliovah, saying. Be it far from me, O Lord, that I should do this. Is not this the blood of the men who went in jeopardy of their lives?" By his wise policy he cemented tlie tribes together in strong bonds of union. His success flattered their pride; and his constant habit of attributing all good fortune to Jehovah, greatly strengthened their re- JEWS. 429 liance on that powerful God, who had chosen them for his especial favourites. The reverential tendencies of the royal Psalmist are abundantly indicated by his forbearing to kill Saul when he was in his. power, because he was "the Lord's anointed," by the tone of his grand old temple-songs, by his careful observance of religious cere- monies, and by the frequency with which he sought counsel of God, through the agency of oracles and prophets. But his devout aspirations and pious resolutions were far above his practice. He prayed like a saint, and j)oured forth sublime poetry like an inspired prophet, and he did so sincerely and earnestly; yet in many things he acted like an ambitious politician, and a ferocious man of blood. During the conflict between his followers and the ad- herents of Saul, Jonathan, the beloved friend of David, and son of Saul, had a child of five years old who was lamed in both his feet; for his nurse let him fall when she was fleeing from tlie horrors of civil war. It was not till the royal house of Saul were entirely subdued, and David had nothing further to fear from them, that he inquired whether any of the descendants were left, to whom be could "show kindness for Jonathan's sake." The lame, disin- herited boy had by that time grown to manhood, and become a father. He was proffered a seat at the royal table all the days of his life, and received back the estate which belonged to his grandfather. After the war occa- sioned by Absalom's rebellion, there was famine in the land. This might very naturally arise from neglect of crops during civil .commotions ; but David, according to the prevailing ideas of his time, believed it to be the direct vengeance of God, in punishment for some sin. Accord- ingly, he inquired of the Lord what was the cause of the fiimine. And the Lord answered: "It is for Saul and his bloody house, because lie slew the Gibeonites." It seems the Israelites had sworn not to molest the Gibeonites; but Saul, for some unmentioned reason, had slain a number of them. He had been thirty years in his grave, wdien David was informed that the Lord was punishing all the 430 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. people for his old transgressions. He went to the Gibeonites unci asked what atonement would satisfy them. They re- fused to take gold or silver as a ransom for their slaughtered brethren, and demanded seven of Saul's descendants, that they might " hang them up unto the Lord ;" in other words, offer them as a human sacrifice. David spared the de- scendants of Jonathan, on account of an oath he had sworn to his early friend. But he gave up two of Saul's sons by a concubine, and five sons of Michal, Saul's daughter. " And the Gibeonites hanged them on the hill, before the Lord." Michal had loved David in his days of compara- tive obscurity, and had been the first wife of his youth. Afterward, when there was civil war between Saul and David, her father gave her in marriage to another man, by whom she had these five sons. When David became king, he demanded her again, though he then had two other wives. Perhaps he thought his regal power would be more securelj^ established, as the acknowledged son-in-law of Saul. Michal's second husband seems to have loved her tenderly, for when she was carried away from him, " he followed her weeping," until the king's messengers ordered him to turn back. From what is recorded, she and David do not appear to have lived on good terms after this forced reunion. Still worse was liis conduct to one of his generals, named Uriah. Having accidentally seen his beautiful wife, while she was bathing, he fell in love with her, and caused her to be brought to his palace, while Uriah was absent fighting his battles. When she afterward inf )rmed him that she was likely to be a mother, he sought to shield himself from disgrace, by bringing Uriah home. Failing in that attempt, he caused him to be slain, and afterward married the beautiful widow. His acts of cruelty were not always of a kind to be excused as hasty impulses uf a zealous temperament. A fierce spirit of re- taliation often marked his conduct and his writings, and in some cas(!s it seems to have been cherished by him for years. When he conquered the Moabitcs, he caused the inhabitants of all their cities to be executed by various JEWS. 431 modes of torture, described as "])uttiug tliem under saws, and under harrows of iron, and passing them through the briek-kihi." On his deatli-bed, when he was a very old man, he charged his successor not to let the hoary liead of Joab go down to the grave in }3eace. Joab had brought odium on David's administration by some unauthorized a(;ts of military zeal against the house of Saul; he had likewise slain Absalom, the beautiful son of David, in the days of his rebellion. At that time, Shiniei, who belonged to the same tribe as Saul, cursed David, and expressed his gratification that one of his own sons had risen against him, as he had formerly risen against Saul, his benefactor. Shimei afterward humbly asked forgiveness, and David solemnly promised, before all the people, that he would do him no injury. But ten years after, when he was dying, he charged Solomon to " bring down the hoary head of Shimei to the grave with blood;" saying that he himself could not do it, because he had sworn to him by the Lord that he would not put hira to death. Yet Hebrew Sacred Eecords, after recounting all these things, declare David did that which was right in the sight of the Lord, and turned not aside from anything he commanded him all the days of his life, save only in the matter of Uriah the Hittite!" Solomon fulfilled the sanguinary injunctions of his dying father, and likewise put to death a brother, whose priority of birth gave him a claim to the throne. These transac- tions do not seem to have made him too much "a man of blood" to be a fitting instrument in building the projected temple. In the fourth year of his reign he began this great work, on which an army of labourers are said to have been employed. lie numbered the foreigners in Israel, who were probably made bondmen by conquest. Hebrew Sacred Records inform us that eighty thousand of these were employed to hew and work stone, and seventy thousand to bear burdens, under the control of three thousand six hundred overseers. Thirty tliousand Israel- ites cut timber in Lebanon, by courses; ten thousand in 432 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. eacli month, while the others rested. The ornamental work was done by skilful artificers from Tyre, Notwith- standing the number of workmen, it was seven years be- foi'e the temple was completed. The wrought stones were so fitted to their places before they were brought to Jeru- salem, that they were put together without noise. He- brews had a tradition that the}' were not hewn or smoothed by any instrument, but a worm called Samir was created by God on purpose to do that business; and the stones, thus miraculously prepared, moved to the temple of their own accord, where angels laid them in their places, A mass of buildings for the priests, and various other religious purposes, was enclosed within a wall. In the centre, and overlooking them all, was the famous temple. It had an outer court surrounded by a wall, and an inner court separated from the outer by colonnades with brazen gates. Sacrifices and prayers were offered in the inner court, which contained a brazen altar for burnt-offerings, and an immense tank, or basin of brass, supported on the backs of twelve brazen oxen. This was for the conveni- ence of the priests, who were required to perform ablutions before they entered the temple. A pipe supplied it with water from a well, and it contained enough for two thou- Sixnd baths. There were likewise ten large lavers of brass, supported on small pillars, and engraved with likenesses of bulls, lions, and eagles. These were for washing por- tions of the animals offered in sacrifice. The temple was an oblong building of white stone. According to the dimensions given, it must have been about the size of a small European cathcdi'al. On three sides were corridors rising above each other to the height of three stories, supported by stately pillars, and containing apartments in which sacred utensils and treasures were kept. The fourth and i'ront side was open, with a portico at the entrance supported by two brazen pillars, highly ornamented with representations of palm trees, lilies, and pomegranates. The body of the temple, separated and veiled from the porch, was called the sanctuary, or holy JEWS. 433 place. The doors were carved with cherubim, pahu trees, and flowers, gilded, and covered with an embroideied curtain. The walls were carved with the same figures, laid in gold, and in some places adorned with j)recious stones. Ilere stood an altar of gilded Arabian wood, used solely to sustain a golden dish, in which frankincense burned perpetually. It was a Hebrew tradition that fra- grance diffused from this table might be smelled from Jerusalem to Jericho. The great number of animals slaughtered, and the blood poured out and sprinkled in multifarious religious ceremonies, would probably have been disagreeable without this precaution. On a golden table was laid an offering to the Lord of twelve loaves of bread, one from each tribe. These were renewed every Sabbath, and the old loaves divided among the priests. Ten branching candlesticks of gold sustained golden lamps, filled with pure olive oil, not pressed out in a mill, but such as exuded, drop by drop, from bruised olives, and was thus perfectly free from sediment. They were kept burning day and night, the sanctuary not being lighted by any other means. Within the sanctuary was a secret apartment, called the sanctum sanctorum, or holy of holies. The floor was of cedar overlaid with gold. The ceiling was covered with plates of gold fastened with golden nails. The walls were of polished marble lined with cedar, carved with cherubim, palm trees, and flowers, richly gilded. The door, carved and gilded after the same patterns, was separated from the sanctuary by chains of gold, and an embroidered curtain of blue, purple, and crimson. In the inmost recesses of this holy place, Solomon put two gigantic images of cheru- bim, fifteen feet high, of gilded olive wood. Their outer wings touched the wall on either side, and the inner wings met together. Immediately under their wings was placed the Ark of the Covenant, whose golden cover was called the Alercy Seat, because God there showed himself propi- tious, after being appeased by the blood of sacrifices. Golden images of cherubim were on the Mercy Seat, ore Vol. I.— 37 t 434 PKOGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. on either end, bending toward eacli other, and forming with their outstretched wings a kind of seat, called the Throne of God. Over it was a visible cloud, called the Shechinah, or Divine Presence, in which Jehovah was sup- posed to be actually present. Hence he is often spoken of, in the Hebrew Sacred Books, as " dwelling between the cherubim." The Ark was the same one constructed by Moses, from money, ear-rings, and other jewels, which the people dedicated for that purpose. All other things con- nected with the temple were made anew by Solomon, ac- cording to patterns prescribed by Aloses, though greatly exceeding them in splendour. The colossal cherubim placed on each side of the Ark, and the representations of bulls, lions, and eagles, seem like an infringement of the com- mand that no graven images should be made. They were probably additions suggested to Solomon by his intercourse with Tyrians and Egyptians. A great number of gold and silver utensils were made for the use of the temple, and these were continually in- creased by gifts from devotees, who expected thereby to gain favours from their God. Before the building could be fit for worship, the altar for burnt-offerings must first be purified from pollutions it had acquired by the hands of workmen and the touch of tools. For this purpose, a bullock was sacrificed, and the priest put some of the blood on the horns of the altar with his finger. When this had been repeated seven days, the altar was ready for sacrifice, and thenceforth sanctified everything that touched it. The altars, and all the utensils, were anointed with oil made fragrant by spices; a quantity of which had always been kept in the holiest place, by com- mand of Moses, to be used only for consecrating kings, high priests, and vessels belonging to the House of God. When everything was duly prepared, all the tribes of Israel assembled with their elders, and, with the king at their head, went in procession to Mount Zion to bring thence the old Ark of the Covenant. When it was opened, it was found to contain only the two tables of JEWS. 435 Btoue, with graven commandments, wliicli Moses had placed therein at Horeb. Priests, sanctified for the pur- pose, tooli up tlie Arlc, carried it to the new temple, and })laced it in the holy of holies. At that moment, a hundred and twenty priests in the sanctuary sounded their silver trumpets ; bands of musicians began to play, and Levites, clad in white linen, sang, " Praised be the Lord ! for he is good ; for his mercy endureth for ever." " The trumpeters and singers were as one, to make one sound to be heard in praising the Lord." While this great chorus was resound- ing through the temple, the Shechinah, or Divine Presence, which five hundred years before had descended over the Mercy Seat in the Tabernacle, descended in the same visible form of a cloud, and rested over the Mercy Seat in the Temple. It was probably accompanied by sudden light ; for it is stated that " the glory of the Lord filled the house ; so that the priests could not stand to minister by reason of the cloud." When Moses offered a burnt-offering to the Lord, " fire came out from before the Lord, and consumed upon the altar the burnt-offering and the fat." The flame thus kindled was not allowed to go out, and no other was used for religious purposes. When two sons of Aaron burned incense before the Lord, kindled with common fire, Hebrew Sacred Writings declare that " fire came from the Lord and devoured them, and they died." Whether the sacred fire was afterward lost, in the course of their wanderings and their wars, is not stated. But when Solomon offered his first burnt offering on the new altar of the temple, we are told that fire came running out of the air, and consumed the sacrifice. And when all the children of Israel saw it, " they bowed themselves with their faces to the ground." This heavenly fire was tended night and day by priests, who fed it with perfectly clean wood, stripped of its bark, and free from all imperfections. It was deemed sacrilege to resuscitate this holy flame by blowing upon it with the breath. " The king and all the people offered sacrifices to the Lord, 436 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. twenty-two thousand oxen, and a hundred and twenty thousand sheep ; so the king and all the jjeople dedicated the House of God. And Solomon kept the feast fourteen days, and all Israel with him." Kneeling on a high plat- form above the crowd, he spread out his hands and prayed: " O Lord God of Israel, there is no God like unto thee, in the heaven, nor on the earth. But will God in very deed dwell with men upon the earth? Behold heaven and the heaven of heavens cannot contain thee ; how mucli less this house which I have built! But hearken unto the sup- plications of thy servant, and of thy people Israel, which they shall make toward this place. Hear thou from thy dwelling place, even from Heaven, and when thou hearest forgive." It was an universal custom to choose the highest site within a city for the temple of its presiding deity. Solo- mon's temple stood on Mount Moriah, in the centre of Jerusalem, which was thenceforth called the Mountain of the Lord's House. According to Hebrew traditions, it was the place where Cain and Abel offered oblations, and where Abraham made ready to sacrifice Isaac. People believed the temple was actually God's house ; that he had a local and personal residence in the Holy of Holies, and mani- fested himself in the form of a shining light. Tlie High Priest went there to ask questions of him, and received answers, which were considered oracles. They spread a golden table with bread for Jehovah, as they would have done for a temporal king in his own palace. They sup- posed he enjoyed the fragrance of incense and the savour of burning sacrifices ; and Jerusalem was considered pre- eminently safe, happy, and glorious, because he was sup- posed to be more peculiarly and permanently present there than elsewhere. Before the temple was built, the people had always been accustomed to sacrifice in "liigh ])laces." Hills that sup- plied the shade and solemnity of groves were preferred by the devout of all nations; and in such places altars and images were sure to abound. The extreme proncncss of JEWS. 437 the Israelites to pay homage to these foreiirn gods, ami to consider the 2;roves themselves holv, induced ]\[oses to command them not to pLant any trees near an altar of the Lord their God. Afterward, such localities seem to have been deemed allowable, amid the inconveniences of their unsettled condition, provided they were careful not to direct their worship toward any other object than the God of the Hebrews. But when the temple was built, the old caution against groves was renewed, and it was expressly forbidden to plant a sir gle tree on the mountain where it stood. The entire hill was considered holy ground. Any unclean action, immodest gesture, idle talking, or laughing, was deemed sacrilegious there. If a leper, or a person who had eaten unclean food, or touched the dead, or stepped on a grave, entered the court of the temple without purifica- tion, he was driven out and severely scourged. None of the Gentile nations were allowed to pass in farther than the outer court. All who came from a foreign land, even if they were Hebrews, were obliged to go through a process of cleansing before they were allowed to enter the sacred enclosure ; amono- these ceremonies were ablutions and cut- ting off the hair. Neither priests nor people were allowed to sit or lean within the precincts of the temple, however weary they might be. Only kings of the house of David were allowed to sit there. It was contrary to the policy of the Hebrew government to multiply temples, because the constant object was to consolidate the tribes into a nation, and there was no bond of union so strong as one central place of worship, and the habit of consulting the same oracle in all cases of emer- gency. Those at a distance from Jerusalem built courts f)r prayer, generally in high solitary places, but they always prayed with faces turned toward their Holy City. If they prayed within the cii'cuit of Jerusalem, they always turned toward the temple; if within the precincts of the temple, they always turned toward where the Ark stood. Three times a year, on the recurrence of great annual festivals, every man was required to go up to Jerusalem to Vol. I.— 37* i38 PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS IDEAS. present offerings to the Lord, and tithes to tlie priesthood. Both piety and pride bound the Israelites strongly to this centre of national worship. Moreover, the public services of religion were more in- teresting than they had been in the olden time. In schools of the prophets, poets composed songs for the temple, and music repeated them with its inspiring voice, on which the souls of devout listeners rose into high calm regions, far above the prosaic routine of extern? '. ceremonies. Solomon perfected the work his father had begun. Four thousand singers were employed in the service of the temple, to sing in courses, by turns; and twenty-four bands of musical in- struments, each under the care of a presiding officer. Both men and women were employed in this service, for we are told of "damsels playing with timbrels" in religious pro- cessions, and it is recorded that Heman, a musician of the temple, had fourteen sons and three daughters, " all under the hands of their father for song in the House of the Lord." The service was hereditary, the duties and emolu- ments descending from father to son. When Nathan the prophet announced to David that the Lord had appointed his son to build a temple, he likewise told him that God had sworn to establish his family on the throne forever. This promise, so flattering to the king, and to the hopes of the people, was often repeated in songs for worshij), composed by the royal troop of poets and musicians. David himself alluded to it in one of his latest compositions. When the temple was completed, and Solomon dedicated it with prayer in the presence of all Israel, he publicly reminded Jeliovah of the covenant he ha