REESE LIBRARY 
 
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 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. 
 
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 Accessions No. ??- ^ & Shelf No. 
 

A PHILOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO 
 
 GREEK AND LATIN. 
 
AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH SPEECHCRAFT. By WILLIAM 
 BARNES. Crown 8vo. Cloth, price 4.?. 
 
 THE LIFE AND GROWTH OF LANGUAGE. By WILLIAM 
 DWIGHT WHITNEY, Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology 
 in Yale College, New Haven. Third Edition. Crown 8vo. Cloth, 
 price 55. Copyright Edition. Volume XVI. of the International 
 Scientific Series. 
 
 ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. By WILLIAM DWIGHT 
 WHITNEY, Author of " Life and Growth of Language." Crown 8vo. 
 Cloth, price 3$. 6d. 
 
 ENGLISH GRAMMAR FOR BEGINNERS. By. H. C. Bow EN, 
 
 Author of " Studies in English," etc. Fcap. 8vo. Cloth, price is. 
 
 LONDON: KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, & CO. 
 
A PHILOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 
 
 TO GREEK AND LATIN 
 
 FOR STUDENTS. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN OF 
 
 FERDINAND BAUR, DR. PH., 
 
 Professor in Maulbronn. 
 
 C. KEGAN PAUL, M.A., OXON, 
 AND E. D. STONE, M.A., 
 
 Late Fellow of Kings Collegf^muArMgi^ ** Assistant-Master at Eton 
 
 THIRD EDITION REVISED. 
 
 LONDON: 
 KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, & CO., I PATERNOSTER SQUARE 
 
LONDON AND AYLESBURY 
 HAZELL, WATSON, AND VINEY, PRINTERS. 
 
 (Thf right s of Translation and Reproduction are reserved.) 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 THE translators of the following little treatise 
 have simply endeavoured to put Professor Baur's 
 ideas before English students. The only liberty 
 they have taken is that of breaking up the 
 German sentences, and thus in some degree 
 making the work less difficult than the original, 
 although it has not even now the doubtful merit 
 of easiness. English equivalents are given for 
 Greek and Latin words wherever Professor Baur 
 has given German renderings. 
 
 The translators' best thanks are due to the 
 Rev. A. H. SAYCE and the Rev. G. W. Cox 
 for many valuable suggestions while the work 
 was passing through the press. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 I. The Nature and Origin of Language , . . I 
 
 II. The Elements of Language . 4 
 
 III. The Divisions of Philology . , , , . 6 
 
 IV. Classes and Stages of Language 7 
 
 V. The Indo Germanic, or Aryan Family of Languages . 8 
 
 VI. The Gmcco-Latin Language ..... 9 
 
 PART I. 
 THE SCIENCE OF SOUND. GLOTTO LOGY. 
 
 I. VOWELS. 
 
 VII. Analysis of Sounds in Greek and Latin . ' J? . II 
 
 VIII. Changes of Vowels . . . . .- . .12 
 
 IX. Change of Vowels under Consonantal Influence . * 14 
 
 II. CONSONANTS. 
 
 X. The Greek Consonantal System . . . . 17 
 
 XI. Spirants and Aspirates . . . . 18 
 
 XII. Significance of Consonants to Philology , , 20 
 
viii Content*. 
 
 SECTION PAGS 
 
 XIII. Etymolu-y . . .* ' V> ' - * V . 21 
 
 XIV. Consonantal Change in the Indo-Germanic Languages 23 
 XV. Consonantal Relation between Greek and Latin 25 
 
 THE CONSONANTS AS ROOT CONSONANTS. 
 
 A. MUTES. 
 I. TENUES. K. T. II. 
 
 XVI. The Guttural Tenuis K, corresponding to the Latin 
 
 c, q, also to Gothic g> and H. G. and E. h . 27 
 XVII. The Dental Tenuis T, Latin /, Gothic th, II. G. d, 
 
 tmdE.t ) tti,t. . . .. . ' . 30 
 
 XVIII. The Labial Tenuis II, Latin/ ; for this H. G. and 
 
 E. have/" in the beginning of a word . . . 31 
 XIX. Change of the Guttural, Labial, and Dental Tenuis, 
 
 K, II, T, in Greek and Latin .... 34 
 
 2. MEDIALS. T. A. B. 
 
 XX. The Guttural Medial F, corresponding to the Latin g t 
 
 Gothic k t English k . ' * . . ... 37 
 XXI. The Dental Medial A, corresponding to the Latin d, 
 
 Gothic and Lower German /, German z t English t 38 
 XXII. The Labial Medial B. . . ^ . f , . , . 41 
 
 3. ASPIRATES X. 9. $. 
 
 XXIII. The Guttural Aspirate X, corresponding to the 
 Latin k, / 9 , in the beginning of a word g, 
 Gothic g . . 42 
 
Contents. ix 
 
 SECTION PAGE 
 
 XXIV. The Dental Aspirate 6. On account of the want 
 
 of a dental aspirate the Latin equivalent for this 
 is often/ in the beginning of a word, d and b in 
 the body of it ; Gothic d, German /, English d 45 
 XXV. The Labial Aspirate <!?, corresponding to the 
 Latin/ = M, at the beginning of a word b, in 
 German and English b . . v . . 46 
 
 B. SEMI-VOWELS. PERSISTENT SOUND OF CONSONANTS. 
 i. LIQUIDS. 
 
 XXVI.--The Nasal and Dental Liquid N . . . 49 
 
 XXVII. The Nasal and Labial Liquid M . . 50 
 
 XX VIII. The Lingual Liquid A. / 51 
 
 XXIX. The Lingual Liquid P. r ; . 53 
 
 2. ORIGINAL SPIRANTS. S (SPIRITUS ASPER). f. JOD. 
 
 XXX. The Sibilant S and its Substitute the Rough 
 
 Breathing . 56 
 
 XXXI. The Labial, Semi- Vowel Spirant f, correspond- 
 ing to the Latin z>, sporadically represented by 
 the rough breathing in Greek, at the beginning 
 
 of a word .60 
 
 XXXII. The Palatal, Semi- Vowel Spirant Jod has dis- 
 appeared in Greek, and is retained as the 
 Latin/, English y, g . .61 
 
 XXXIII. Greek Pure Vowel Roots . , *' . 63 
 XXXIV. Consonantal Laws of Sound .... 63 
 XXXV. The Laws of the Ending ' .; _ ,'.' , V : ' [ . 68 
 
x Contents. 
 
 PART II. 
 FORMATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS. 
 
 SECTION PAGE 
 
 XXXVI. Conception of Roots and their Formation 
 
 Reduplication Primary and Secondary Roots 70 
 
 XXXVII. Marks and Peculiarities of the Root . ', "' . 74 
 
 XXXVIII. Stems of Words . v .' . v. . 76 
 
 XXXIX. (i) Verbal Stems ."..', . . . 78 
 
 XL. (2) Nominal Stems, including Participle and 
 
 Infinitive . . . , .. . . . 81 
 
 XLI. Comparative and Superlative Stems . * . 83 
 
 XLII. Stems of the Numerals . . . 85 
 
 PART III. 
 WORD-FORMATION OR INFLEXION. 
 
 XLIII. The Word . . ". ^ . ; , ,. 87 
 
 I. THE NOMINAL INFLEXION. DECLENSION. 
 XLI V. Elements ..'... .... 88 
 
 XLV. Signs of Gender . . . . . . 89 
 
 XLVI. Declensions . . . / .. , 90 
 XLVII. Case-endings . - ; > . . . . 91 
 
 XLV 1 1 1. Pronouns and Pronominal Declension . .97 
 XLIX. Adverbs and Prepositions ^ - .. ' . . 99 
 
 II. THE INFLEXION OF VERBS. CONJUGATIONS. 
 
 L. Elements . . . . . . , . ioi 
 
Contents. xi 
 
 I. PERSONAL ENDINGS. 
 
 SECTION PAGE 
 
 LI. Primary and Secondary Personal Endings. 
 
 Augment. Imperative , ' v IO 3 
 
 LIT. Personal Endings of the Active ... . 105 
 
 LIII. Greek Middle-Passive . , . . m 
 
 LIV. Latin Middle- Passive . . . ,112 
 
 2. MODAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 LV. Greek Conjunctive and Optative . . . 113 
 
 LVI. Latin Conjunctive-Optative . . . .115 
 
 3. TENSE-STEMS. 
 
 LVII. Idea and Classes of Tense . . . 117 
 
 (i) SIMPLE TENSE-STEMS. 
 
 LVIIL The Greek Simple Perfect and Pluperfect . .119 
 
 LIX. Latin Simple or Strong Perfect . - 122 
 
 LX. Greek Simple or Strong, so-called Second, Aorist 125 
 
 LXI. Greek and Latin Present Stems . V ' 127 
 
 LXII. Greek Imperfect . , , . . . , 134 
 
 (2) COMPOUND TENSE-STEMS. 
 A. GREEK COMPOUND TENSES. 
 LXIII. Compound Aorist. Weak or Sigmatic (so-called 
 
 ' First ') Aorist . . . . .. 135 
 
 LXIV. The Greek Future . . . .. . . 137 
 
 LXV.~ The Compound or Weak Greek Perfect and Plu- 
 perfect, together with the Futurum Exactum . 140 
 LXVL The Greek Aorist and Future Passive . . 141 
 
xii Contents. 
 
 B. LATIN COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 SECTION PAOR 
 
 LXVIL Summary . *,." '-* . H3 
 
 LXVIIL Weak Latin Perfect . * . , / * .144 
 
 LXIX. Tenses and Moods formed from the Perfect . , 146 
 
 LXX. -Future in bo . . v .. . 148 
 
 LXXI. Imperfect Indicative . . ./.. 149 
 
 LXXII. Imperfect Conjunctive . * . 150 
 
 The following abbreviations are used : 
 
 E. English. O. H. G. Old High German. 
 
 H. G. High German. O. L. Old Latin. 
 
 O. E. Old English. O. L. G. Old Low German. 
 
 O. G. Old German. Skr. Sanskrit 
 
A PHILOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION 
 
 GREEK AND LATIN 
 
 I. THE NATURE AND ORIGIN OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 i. T ANGUAGE is the phonetic representation of 
 J ^ thought : thought vocalized. 
 
 It is no work of human art, arbitrarily invented for 
 the purpose of communicating thought; but a product 
 which has grown naturally out of the essential develop- 
 ment of human reason : it has originated <vo-ei, not decree,. 
 
 There are two current theories on the origin of lan- 
 guage (a) the so-called onomatopoeic, which refers 
 language to the mere imitation of sounds, as cuckoo ', 
 rataplan, tomtom; (ft) the interjectional, which refers 
 it to the sounds arising from sensation, mere animal 
 cries ah, ache, axs. 
 
 Neither of these can independently and alone explain 
 the origin of language. 
 
 Reason and language are inseparable. Without lan- 
 guage, there is no reason; without reason, there is no 
 
 I 
 
2 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 language. Or, to put this in other words, there are no 
 definite and clear thoughts, except such as can find 
 expression in articulate sound; there are no articulate 
 sounds except such as are intimately connected with 
 definite conceptions and ideas. Thought which can be 
 grasped is impossible without language. Words and con- 
 ceptions exist only for each other, words being the 
 phonetic embodiments and the only exponents of con- 
 ceptions. 
 
 2. All phonetic expressions are originally the reflex 
 of impressions on the senses, and this is true whether we 
 consider them under the form of an imitation of sounds, 
 or of interjections, i.e. sounds arising from a sensation. 
 
 The phonetic expressions which, primarily, are either 
 imitations of sounds, or interjections, are, secondarily, 
 tokens of the object which produces the sound, or causes 
 the sensation. 
 
 A number of phonetic expressions for identical impres- 
 sions on the senses are fused into one collective ex- 
 pression, and this becomes a sign of a general conception 
 which includes them all. 
 
 From an unlimited number of such possible concep- 
 tions, together with their phonetic expressions, a limited 
 selection is made by language; each of these selected 
 expressions, or phonetic types, becomes the sign of some 
 one conception or object essential to human life. 
 
 The process by which these are selected is instinctive 
 and rational, not arbitrary or conventional. 
 
 These phonetic types are the fundamental elements 
 
Phonetic Types or Roots* $ 
 
 of language ; and to discover them is the goal and result 
 of philology. They form, for us, the irreducible residuum 
 of linguistic analysis, or, in other words, that which can- 
 not be further explained. 
 
 3. These elementary phonetic types or roots represent 
 originally impressions on the senses, and convey concrete 
 material meanings. 
 
 They then become signs of ideas, which, though 
 concrete, are extremely wide and general, and may 
 therefore be called abstract. 
 
 The same idea being connected with a variety of 
 objects some concrete, others abstract all such objects 
 may be ranged under a general category. 
 
 Thus, for example, equus, LOTTOS, anciently IKKOS, Sanskrit 
 a$vas, from the root ac, sharp or quick, may be com- 
 pared with, acus, a needle. 
 
 All abstract words, which express immaterial concep- 
 tions, had originally material concrete meanings, and 
 are borrowed by metaphor from phenomena of the world 
 of sense. 
 
 Thus compare avc/xos, animus ; spiritus, spirare; 0v/xo<, 
 0i'o), / boil; cutov, aevum, time, which last originally came 
 from the root /, to go. 
 
 Metaphor is the transference of a name from the 
 object to which it properly belongs to other objects 
 which appear in some measure to participate in the 
 peculiarities of the first. 
 
 This is done by means of the imagination, which is 
 especially vigorous in the early periods of language. 
 
4 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 Metaphor is an essential implement of language, a 
 powerful means of linguistic development. 
 
 II. THE ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 1. Single letters, vowels, and consonants, are not the 
 elements of language. Letters in themselves have nc 
 meaning ; they contain no intelligible principle. Lingual 
 sound only can be analysed in them, not language 
 itself. 
 
 The elements of language are those sounds which are 
 full of significance, or complex sounds, the so-called roots, 
 or " exponents of conceptions/' Through the union of 
 these, whether in one word, or in a number of words, 
 thought can find expression. 
 
 2. Complete lingual sound, however, as exhibited in 
 any one language, expresses two things 
 
 (a) Meaning, that is to say, perceptions, ideas, and 
 
 conceptions. 
 (/?) Relation to something else which lies beyond, 
 
 and is not contained in the sound. 
 Complete lingual sound then contains a material, or 
 radical, and a formal element, a predicative and a 
 demonstrative root ; and to discover these is the work 
 of a complete grammatical analysis. 
 
 Complex sounds, which express meaning only, and 
 which remain when all principle of relation is abstracted 
 from a given word-form, are roots, in the narrow sense 
 of the word. Roots are tne indivisible atoms of Ian- 
 
Formation of Words. 5 
 
 guage, the primitive and ultimate elements of words, 
 which cannot further be analysed. 
 
 But the word, the complete form of language, is com- 
 posed of meaning and relation, predicative and demonstra- 
 tive elements united in a phonetic whole. The root and 
 t>.e word are the two poles between which the analysis 
 of language moves. 
 
 The root is the expression of a general idea. If on 
 the one side we consider this analytically, and from the 
 stand-point of complete language, it is a pure abstraction 
 of diffused and indistinct meaning. It is, therefore, not 
 used by itself in more developed language. 
 
 On the other side, however, if considered synthetically, 
 and followed from its origin through all its phases and 
 changes, it is an original word. It existed for itself in 
 the creative period of language ; it is a real living germ, 
 growing, and ever thrusting forth new shoots. 
 
 But when words are formed, whatever is added to the 
 root as an affix, was itself, originally, an independent, 
 self-existent word. It has<\coalesced with the root as its 
 suffix, in virtue of the innate power of growth possessed 
 by the root, and in the process of amalgamation has been 
 worn down to mere syllables and letters. 
 
 3. The word is the single phonetic expression of a 
 complete and independent perception. It allows this 
 perception to appear either as an existing entity or as 
 an incident of time, as a noun or as a verb. 
 
 The noun and the verb are both, for us, equally 
 original forms of lingual expression. In itself, however, 
 
6 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 the distinction between the parts of speech must be con- 
 sidered as a product of the development of language. 
 
 The root, considered abstractedly, is not concerned 
 with this distinction. It necessarily takes to itself further 
 elements of language, and thus out of the universality 
 of its meanings it gradually assumes nominal and verbal 
 expression ; differentiates itself into noun and verb. 
 
 All the relational elements of the noun and of the 
 verb that is to say all nominal and verbal suffixes, all 
 inflexions, whether of cases or persons are themselves 
 originally roots, demonstrative or pronominal. 
 
 4. Between the root and the word lies the stem, that 
 which remains after grammatical analysis has taken away 
 the inflexional endings. It is not a mere root, therefore it 
 is not unconcerned with the difference between noun and 
 verb ; it has in itself, over and above the root, a general 
 nominal or verbal formative element. This is far more rela- 
 tive than the root, and is negative only to the more definite 
 conceptions. Thus there are nominal and verbal stems. 
 
 The word then may be defined as the complete com- 
 bination of sounds which express meaning and relation. 
 It contains, so far as root and stem are not coincident, 
 Sec. 38, 2, three elements the Root, the Stem, the 
 Inflexion. 
 
 III. THE DIVISIONS OF PHILOLOGY. 
 
 The material basis of sound, which is originally phy- 
 siological, underlies the complete linguistic form as well 
 as its elements. 
 
Divisions of Philology. 7 
 
 It is conditioned by the constitution of the human 
 organs of speech, and is again, in each language, indi- 
 vidually modified by usage. The sounds which are its 
 separate constituents, enter into union with each other 
 in part, only according to the definite laws of each lan- 
 guage and the laws of sound. 
 
 The science of sound treats these laws as its element- 
 ary part, and thus results the division of Philology into 
 the science of sound Glottology, and the science of 
 form Grammar. 
 
 The latter, considered generally, in the widest sense 
 of the science of lingual form, is in part the science of 
 root and stem formation, in part the science of word 
 formation or inflexion. 
 
 IV. CLASSES AND STAGES OF LANGUAGE. 
 
 1. Isolating or radical languages. These consist of 
 sounds of unalterable meaning, susceptible of no modifi- 
 cation mere roots. There is in them no difference 
 between root and word, or between noun and verb; 
 every word is a root ; there are no inflexions. Such is 
 Old Chinese. 
 
 2. Agglutinative languages. In these, two or more 
 roots grow together in a single word. One of these main- 
 tains its radical independence, and remains unaltered 
 by phonetic decay. The others constitute a dependent 
 affix, as prefix, suffix, or infix, that is to say the addition 
 of a sound of relation at the beginning, at the end, or in 
 
8 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 the middle of a word. The word is thus a conglomerate 
 without strict unity. Such is the Turanian family of lan- 
 guages. 
 
 3. Inflexional languages, of which the following are 
 the steps. The root and the modifications made in it by 
 the sounds of relation are blended together, Sec. 2, 2, ft. 
 The root is capable of a regular alteration with a view to 
 the expression of relation, and of the addition to the root 
 of the sound expressing relation. These are the Semitic and 
 Indo-Germanic branches of language. The two branches 
 are thoroughly different in grammatical construction, but 
 this does not exclude the possibility of an original identity 
 of their material elements, that is to say of the roots. 
 
 The characteristic tokens of these languages are 
 
 (a) A regular change of the root vowel, strictly limited 
 to a definite order of vowels. 
 
 (ft) The addition of the expression of relation exclu- 
 sively at the end of the root in the form of suffixes. To 
 this the only exceptions are the verbal augments and the 
 reduplications, of which more hereafter. 
 
 (y) That all their roots are monosyllables. 
 
 V. THE INDO-GERMANIC, OR ARYAN FAMILY or 
 LANGUAGES. 
 
 [The word Aryan is here used in its widest sense.] 
 
 The original Indo-Germanic language the existence 
 of which is inferred from a consideration of known allied 
 languages divides into, 
 
Aryan 
 
 1. The Asiatic or Aryan group, 
 here used in its narrower sense.] 
 
 (a) The old Indian language of the Vedas, which 
 was afterwards the written language Sanskrit. 
 This was the elder sister and not the parent of 
 the other languages of the family. 
 
 (/3) The Iranian languages. The word Iran or 
 Eran is derived from Arya. These are the 
 old Bactrian or Zend (East Iranic), and old 
 Persian (West Iranic, the language of the 
 Achaemenid cuneiform inscriptions). 
 
 2. The south-western European group : Greek, Italian 
 including Latin, Umbrian and Oscan, and Keltic. 
 
 3. The northern European group : Slavo-Lithuanian 
 and German, this last including Gothic, Low German 
 and English, High German and Scandinavian. 
 
 VI. THE GR^ECO-LATIN LANGUAGE. 
 
 i. The Grasco- Italian group of languages is a link in 
 the chain of language which extends from India to 
 Western Europe. It is further removed from the original 
 Indo-Germanic language than is the old Indian, but is 
 nearer to it than is the Slavonic-German group. 
 
 Sanskrit, Greek, . and Latin are sisters, belonging to 
 the same order and class of languages, but the first has a 
 character of greater originality. Greek, however, exhibits 
 high antiquity, especially in the preservation of the old 
 tense and mood forms. 
 
io An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 2. In the Greek language the Doric and ^Eolic dialects 
 are older than the Ionic- Attic. 
 
 The Greek forms, as we find them in classical authors, 
 have arisen through phonetic decay, through degradation 
 and mutilation of an older and fuller form. They have 
 gone through a series of processes of paring and decom- 
 position, by which the meaning of the language is refined 
 in the same proportion as are its forms. Its historical 
 development, at the same time, lies under the physical 
 law of vis inertia. The original simple and fundamental 
 vowels become changed and modified. 
 
 3. The sounds of Latin and the Italian languages are 
 so far as the consonants are concerned in much 
 closer relation with the original sounds than those of the 
 Greek. 
 
 Compare, for instance, ves in vestis with I in e^w/xt =. 
 fcoT/u/u, Sanskrit vas ; ^//,i, semi, originally semis ; CTTTOI, 
 septem, Skr. saptdn ; reWapcs, quattuor, Skr. katvaras ; 
 TI, quid, originally ki ; fyrap, jecur, Skr.jakrt; vc'os, novus, 
 Skr. navas ; 7ro/xat, sequor, Skr. root sak ; ITTTTOS, nearly 
 the original IKKOS == t/cfos, equus, Skr. a$vas ; ovAe, salve ^ 
 105, virus ) etc. 
 
 On the other hand, in the case of the vowels, Latin 
 is monotonous and weak, in comparison with the manifold 
 development and subtle divisions of the Greek vowel 
 system. It is poor in diphthongs, and original old Latin 
 diphthongs become modified into single sounds. 
 
PART L 
 
 THE SCIENCE OF SOUND. GLOTTO LOGY. 
 
 I. VOWELS. 
 VII. ANALYSIS OF SOUNDS IN GREEK AND LATIN 
 
 1. The Indo-Germanic fundamental vowels are a, i, u 
 The first of these, made by opening the lips as widely 
 as possible, is clear and hard, and incapable of any 
 transition into consonants. The last two, made by con- 
 tracting more and more the opening of the lips, are 
 weak and fluid, nearly related to the semi-vowels /, or 
 jod, and/ or vau. [N.B. The letter/ is retained through- 
 out the following pages because of necessity so printed 
 in Latin words. It answers, however, to the sound of the 
 English yJ\ 
 
 These fundamental vowels are originally short, and 
 therefore short in all roots : they have been gradually 
 extended and lengthened by the reception of formal 
 elements. The diphthongs ai and au are made by the 
 combination of the hard a with the weak / and u. 
 
 2. A was first modified into e and 0, or rather was dif- 
 ferentiated into a, e, o. Then arose further diphthongs, et 
 and ot, connected with <u ; cv and ov connected with av. 
 
12 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 From the gradual change of a, c, o, to a, 77, w, there arose 
 other spurious diphthongs from the combination of these 
 hard vowels with i. These had a/ sound, which is now 
 wholly lost, and hence the iota subscript a, 7;, a>. Others 
 arose through the combination with v dv, rp, cm; ; dv 
 Attic- Doric, rjv Attic- Ionic, cov Ionic. 
 
 3. The old Latin diphthongs were au, ou, en ; ai, oi, 
 ci ; which were modified into the single sounds o, u; ae, 
 oe, e, 1. Compare Claudius Clodius ; jous -jus ; Lucius 
 = Aermos : aquai aquae; ploirumeplurinn ; 71-00/77 
 poena punio ; oenus unus ; populei populi ; foidos 
 foedus ; hoi hi; otvos vinum ; OIKOS vicus ; am em = 
 amaim, an archaic form. 
 
 VIII. CHANGES OF VOWELS. 
 
 i. A-Series. The original a vanishes altogether, as in 
 TrtTTTco = TrtTTCTco from 7TCT = pat / in the same way, ytyvo^cu 
 from ycv = gan. 
 
 It is weakened or thinned into /, generally before two 
 consonants : to-^t, connected with OTCO = asdhi from 
 the root cs = as ; Icrrtr] Ion. connected with cori'a, Vesta 
 from vas = us in uro = uso ; LTTTTOS, Sec. 6,3; Ktpny/xt 
 
 7TtTV77/Xt - 7TTaVW/X.l j TTtAl/a^ttt, TTtXl/aO) - TTcXa^O) \ 
 
 ((TKCLTr) - tr/Ct/XTTTO), l/<TKt/X7TT(0, II. XVII. 437 ; 
 
 TTccrcti/ -/^/, /^z// rtKTw TCK, tak. This takes place 
 regularly in the present reduplication, Sec. 61, 3; and 
 in Latin compounds: facto 9 conficio, compare Juppiter. 
 
Changes of Vowels. 13 
 
 It is modified into e : c&o = admi, o/x,ai from c8 = 
 sed= sad ; l<rn = asti ; into o : TroSo's from pad ; cucoo-i = 
 FLKO.TL ^Eol. ; aKpts o/cpis ; op^a/xos apx* j ayKwv oy*os ; 
 a/A 6/jtov. 
 
 The original a is retained in OKCOKT; (*w) : ayo> (ag) ; 
 Aa//,j9av<0 A.a/2 ; TrarT/p, Stem Trarcp, patar. 
 
 a and are interchanged : in arcpos Dor. crepes ; era/xov 
 ITC/AOV ; Tpe<<o erpa<t>ov ; icrciva) (KTCV/'CO) eKravov, Kravoi. 
 
 Gradual changes. First stage : c to o, especially in the 
 formation of noun stems : </>opos from <epw bhar ; TOKOS 
 from T/< ^ Xoyos from Xey ^ c/crova from KTCI> ^ a to a, 77 
 (a the older and Doric ; 77 lon.-Att. form gradually 
 descended from a) ; XtXrjOa, \y6rj from Xa^ ; laya, oyya 
 from fay ; ctA^a from Xa^ ; ctA.r/<a from Xay5. Compare 
 plango, pldga ; ago, ambages, egz; tango, contdgio. Second 
 Stage : d, r; to w : Ippwya, prjywfju., fpay ; TTTW, TTTWO-OTCO, 
 TTTaxTKa^cD II. IV. 372 TTTT/cra-a) Trra/c ; dpwyos, dpr/yco ; 
 rpaiyo), erpayov j dfCWKTy, WKVS from d/< in a/c?y, aKpos. Com- 
 pare a^V^, J#/.r, ^//^?, ^<?r, J^r / labare, labi, Idbes =fall 
 and jtoX XW^T; shame. 
 
 2. I-Series. The fundamental vowel is in 
 = imasi, Wi from the root t /^? go ; eXiTrov from 
 ITTI^OV from iriO. The first stage is into , J / el/ 
 orct^o), o-rt^ in ortx o? - The second stage is into ot : 
 ot/u,os from c7/xt, t ; XcXotvit, TrtiroiOa, oroT^os > otSa ciSai. 
 ctScw connected with tSca), II. XIV. 235, as tSma is con- 
 nected with ctSma wr/xev = tS/x,ei/, 5t8 * a[Wi/3r} d/At)8(o. 
 Compare /^fer, fid, perfidus, fldo =feido, infzdus, foe- 
 dus, foidos; Xts, Atros, smooth, Xetos, lev is, leivis ; incus, 
 fotKos ; vlnum, otvos = Fotvos. 
 
14 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 3. U-Series. The fundamental vowel v, u in o-v, ///, 
 originally //// c^vyov, <vyiy, </>vy, .//<gv fvyoV, yV/g- in 
 jugum,jungo. The first stage is into cu : <cvyo>, cvywp,i, 
 pcv/x,a, from the root pu, 7rvcu/xa TTW. The second stage is 
 into ov, . \vO cAcvcro/xat c 1X77X0 v#a ; <rirov&rj o-TrcuSa) ; 
 connected with o-cvopu, root o-u ; or into <o : <oi/- 
 faxrr?7p, from the root ^v == ^vy in ^vyw^L ; 
 from ^eto = x*Fa> = x c ^ w > r ot X u< Compare /$, 
 7^<f, bond=.jous, fromju =jug= v , vy, to bind, \njungo ; 
 jus, soup =jous, from ju = fu, to mix, in 
 uro = <?^^, from us, compare evw, cvco, 7 singe. 
 
 IX. CHANGE OF VOWELS UNDER CONSONANTAL 
 INBXUENCE. 
 
 i. The vowels were affected by the original Indo- 
 Germanic spirants j, v, s, Sec. n. The Greek language 
 re&isted their influence, and hence, 
 
 (a) They were changed into vowels : /into t : nominal- 
 suffix ja in TraTpios, ayios ; comparative-suffix toi/, origi- 
 nally jans, in ^SiW, stem T^IQV ; genit. sing, of the O-stems 
 into oio from ojo, originally osjo, Sec. 47, 2 ; optative- 
 element it] from ja : ctrjv = cor/V/v = cq/'^/x, = as jam ; 
 Doric future into <no> from cr/w, Trpa^to) = 7rpayor/a>. Z/ 
 
 spirant f to v vowel : &x>, ^w^ = 8fa>, Sanskrit dva, bis 
 = ^/W / x 6 ^' wveiJai -^ol., from X*^, TrvcFo), x 1 ^? 7n/r > 
 compare avta\os II. XIII. 41 = dftfax ; tavw from d. ; ; 
 Od. IX. 464 = ravafTro ; raXavptvo?. j to c : 
 co/xat = cr/bfiai ; SO also <^>evf otJ/xat ; 
 compare KCI/CO? = KCV/'O?, o-rcpcos, fjvoptrj. 
 
 (b) /, z/ were transposed as the vowels t, v before con- 
 
Changes of Vowels. 15 
 
 sonants : t, in KTiVo>=KTi//a> ; so </>awo, <0ip<i>, 6<i'Xa> ; //,c- 
 Xatva = av/a J SO again (jiuLKaipa, Xeaiva, ScVTrotva = SCCTTTOT- 
 v/a, vciaipa, ^/^ abdomen , Soretpa, Tcpewi J xeipa>v=xp/W, 
 , Kpcicnrtov = icpcr/cov from the Stem Kpar in 
 y/, o-o- = T/), strictly speaking therefore t is epen- 
 thetic, or is a doubled power of // it affects the conso- 
 nant, which becomes a mixed sound, Sec. 34, 3, and at 
 the same time passes over as t into the preceding syllable ; 
 compare <otVios from <ovos, connected with </>otvos II. 
 XVI. 159- V F ' yowds = yovFos from ydi/v, yowa, 
 compare genna, Bovpa ; ovXos, Ion. = oXfos, 0X09, salvus^ 
 old Latin sollus; cXaww = cXavfw; compare nervus, vcvpov. 
 
 (c) y, z/, j disappear, whence it follows that vowels are 
 massed together and contracted, s, <f>tprj 
 fJL&ovs from fjLV<ros j ctryv from CCT/T/V ^ CITTO/XT/V from 
 from CTT = CTCTT, compare sequor ; CI/STTOV = eo-cprrov from 
 epTro) = o-cpTra). Z/ = f, Vos == vefo?, 1IOVUS ; flpyacrdfjLrjv 
 = efcpy; CITTOI/, ICITTOV = cfefcTroi/, redupl. aor. from the 
 root FCTT. y, in so-called contracted verbs in ao> cw 
 co), from a/o), /o>, q/(o. 
 
 2. A syllable was lengthened in compensation for 
 the loss of consonants: of f; the lon.-Ep. genit. 
 /^oo-tX^os, To/djos, 1/770$ = ySao-tXefos, vafos, and thence with 
 a change in quantity came the Attic form ews; of j in 
 Homeric 7rdX?;os = TroXc/bs, Attic TrdXews ; of v in Ionic 
 ^etvos, from ^Eolic f cwos = Doric ^ei/fos, Attic eVos ; of 
 v before <r : <j>ipov<n = c^cpovcri = <^>epovTt ^ TOV? = rovs j TTCI? 
 
 contracted TI/^S, not rt/x^?, II. IX. 605, since the t is 
 not organic, = TI/XWOTS ; of cr ; ct/xt from eV/u, connected 
 
1 6 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 with the ^Eolic c/x/xi, t/xat=eo-/Aat ; in the compound aor. 
 when (r disappears after X, /A, i/, p : o/ci/^a = cvc/xcra ; c^i/a 
 = <av(ra from the root <av eoretXa = crreX<ra, crreX in 
 orcXXco = orcX/co, connected with the ^Eolic coreXXa with 
 assimilation of the o- ; cKaOapa ; in the nomin. singul. 
 when s disappears : TTOI/X^V = TTOI^CVS ; Trarrjp = Trareps ; 
 
 Compare /<^f /#& connected with pedis ; cdsum = 
 cadtum ; abies, abietis ; examen, exdgmen ; fl amen, flagmen, 
 compare flagrcre, ^Acy; contamen = contagmen; ajo = 
 agio ; major = magior ; jumentum from jug j on the other 
 hand, stimulus, stilus, connected with instlgare, from J//g/ 
 /0>z0 from posno, posino. 
 
 3. The sound of t was introduced into the preceding 
 syllable when the word ended in en : in the dat. plur. rats, 
 rots from rato-i, roto-t, lon.-Ep. Trjo-i, =tast, tost, pronoun- 
 stem ta, suff. o-i ; in 2 pers. sing. <epee,s = </>epco-t, 
 
 4. A vowel was inserted after p and X: 6peyo> con- 
 nected with opy in opywa; dpT/yw from dp/c apa/c in dp/<eo) ; 
 Tapacroro) from the root Tpa^, Tcrpr^a rpa^vs ; ^Xv^ov or 
 ^A0ov; dXefco, dX in dXaX/ceti/; compare /xoXvySo? plumbum . 
 
 5. A vowel was prefixed occasionally before one, 
 oftener before more than one, consonant: a<rraxvs 
 
 s> do-TT^p Stella, root o-rop, ^/^r, Sec. 17, do-rpaTrra) 
 ) j d<Xoi07/,09 II. XV. 607, </>Xotor/2os ; d 
 
 > weak ; lyvvri, poples, II. XIII. 212, 
 H. G. braue; E. brow; i^Qis, \6^ ; before simple 
 liquid, and nasal letters: d/xwo) /XWT;, d/^aXo? ^^taXa/co?, 
 ea, ci/vcfa, i?^w, j/ being doubled after c 
 
Greek Consonants. 17 
 
 prefixed ; oyu , unguis, H. G. nagel, E. nail; ovo/xa, origi- 
 nally oyvo/xa, noinen ; cpetVw, piVrw; cpvOpos, rubcr ; epeirye- 
 cr#ai, ructare ; dpao-cra), pr)(rcrw ; tpwij, pcoo/xat ; opeyw, rcgo ; 
 before f: cpcn;, fepoTy, cepoT; = fpa^, II. XXIII. 598; 
 /oy<o, Sec. 2o ; LKO<ri, cfeucoo-i, or etKocri, {[KCLTI ; ceSvov, 
 connected with ISvov, FcSvov; before gutturals : 080^9, 
 6Saf , SoKva) ; oSvpo/xat, 8vpo/xat ; before labials : 
 
 II. 
 
 CONSONANTS. 
 X. THE GREEK CONSONANTAL 
 
 The consonants fall naturally into classes regulated by 
 the nature and duration of their sound ; that is to say, 
 according as they are audible or inaudible without a 
 vowel, and according as their sound is momentary or 
 lasting. These classes are, 
 
 ( i ) Mutes, or soundless, momentary consonants. These 
 are divided (a) according to the organs which produce 
 hem, into Gutturals, K,y,,\; Dentals, T, 8, ; Labials, TT, 
 /5, <. (b) According to their harder or weaker pronun- 
 ciation or degree of sound, into Tenues, i/aAa=" without 
 a breathing," *, T, IT ; Medials, or weak, y, 8, (3 ; Aspirates, 
 or mutes with a breathing added, x 6, <. These last do 
 not exist in Latin, and are designated as foreign sounds 
 by ck, th,ph (on </> = % /j Sec. u, 4). 
 
 2 
 
1 8 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 (2) Semivowels, or lasting sounds. These are (a) Liquids, 
 and are partly nasal, y (before gutturals), v also a 
 dental, /x, also a labial ; and partly lingual, X, p. 
 (b) Spirants and Sibilants, breathing and hissing sounds, 
 ' (h\ p (v), <r s. To these must also be added Double 
 Consonants, double sibilants or mixed sounds, era- (ss), 
 (x = ks) y \l/ = 7T<r, ps, = 80-. 
 
 XI. SPIRANTS AND ASPIRATES. 
 
 1. J, one of the three original spirants of the Indo- 
 Germanic languages, J, V, S, has disappeared in Greek, 
 and is now only to be recognized by its effects. It is 
 sometimes turned into a vowel, Sec. 9, i ; sometimes 
 assimilated, Sec. 34, i ; sometimes fused down with 
 other consonants into a mixed sound, Sec. 34, 3 ; some- 
 times changed at the beginning of a word into the 
 rough breathing; sometimes ic disappears altogether in 
 the beginning, Sec. 32, and in the middle of a word, 
 Sec. 9, i, c. 
 
 2. V is retained as f, the digamma, the old vau, in 
 the older language that is to say, in the Doric and 
 ^Eolic dialects. In the later language, as we find it in 
 the Homeric text, the digamma becomes an aspirate 
 at the beginning of a word, or is altogether absorbed, 
 t/>ta, ayw/xt. In the body of a word it is sometimes 
 absorbed, 019 = ovis, vcos = novus, 1/1709 = i/??fos ; some- 
 times weakened into the vowel v \_y J, -as in j/avs, 
 
 v, /3ovs, Zcv9, compare Jov, Sec. 9, i ; sometimes 
 
Spirants and Aspirates. 19 
 
 assimilated in contracted syllables, Sec. 34, i, b ; or it is 
 thrust aside by the strengthening of the preceding vowel, 
 oSAos = 6Xfos, yowa; compare Sec. 9, i, b. 
 
 This spirant, however, f = v, survives in its effects, 
 partly in the syllabic augment before a vowel, eayiy, 
 o>vo^ot, even in the Attic dialect, eoXcDv, <opo>v, eon/ov/^v, 
 partly in the dialect of the Homeric poems. In these 
 its influence is felt both in the quantity of the preceding 
 syllable, and in the elision. In this latter case, how- 
 ever, some wavering may be noticed between the older 
 and more recent Ionic dialects for example, in avaf and 
 fai/o. Digammated words originally made the pre- 
 ceding syllable long by position II. I. 108; IV. 18, 
 214; V. 7, 836; XIII. 495; XVI. 502; Od. IX. 
 196; XIV. 479; long vowels at the end of a word 
 remained long before it II. III. 392 ; VI. 91 ; VIII. 
 513; XVIII. 473; Od. X. 510; XL 108; XVIII. 
 56 ; XXI. 405 ; short vowels were not cut off II. I. 
 462; V. 161, 757; IX. 40; XV. 288; XVI. 178, 
 424; XXI. 309, and there was instead only an apparent 
 elision. 
 
 3. The original s remains predominant in Greek at 
 the end of words only, compare Sec. 35, and before 
 mutes. At the beginning of a word it is usually changed 
 into h, and between vowels it is wholly thrust out, Sec. 
 9, i, c, Sec. 30. 
 
 The elision and excision of the original spirants their 
 alteration, assimilation, and fusion with other consonants 
 cause remarkable changes in the character of the 
 
2O An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 original sounds, and are a very noteworthy peculiarity of 
 the Greek language. All the dentals disappear before <r s. 
 So also does v, with a compensatoiy lengthening of the 
 preceding vowel, Sees. 9, 2 ; 34, 7. 
 
 In Latin, s, between vowels and at the end of a word, 
 is simply changed into r : Lares Lases, eram from 
 esam 9 erit '-estt, quaero quaeso, arbor arbos ; it dis- 
 appears in the middle of a word before m, ;z, /, d, 
 compare cano, Camena (Casmena), connected with car?nen, 
 idem^ and between vowels, diet, spei, Sec. 47 ; at the end 
 of a word, parricida(s\ familiai(s), Sec. 47, and after 
 /, #, r, sol, vigil) puer, leo = Icons. 
 
 4. Greek is averse to the accumulation of aspirates, 
 Sec. 34, 5 ; 9- 
 
 Latin has no aspirates ; their place is taken by the 
 corresponding breath-sounds. Instead of the dental 
 aspirate 0, we have in Latin at the beginning of a word 
 simply f, Sec. 25. This / is not an aspirated tenuis, 
 ph y but a labial breath-sound = bh* and often used 
 for dh and gh. Only in later periods of the language 
 / = <, Sees. 22 25. For the difference of sound 
 between <j> andyj see Quintilian xii. 10, 29. 
 
 XII. SIGNIFICANCE OF CONSONANTS TO PHILOLOGY. 
 
 i. Consonants are the stable element, the skeleton, 
 as it were, of language, which remains generally the 
 same through all the changes of a root. This is true 
 
 * Therefore the reduplicated perfect \sfef elli t notpefclli. 
 
Consonants in relation to Philology. 2 1 
 
 not only within each single language, but also in the 
 languages which are akin to each other. 
 
 Consonants not only form, phonetically, the fixed 
 bodies of words, but they are also the exponents of 
 thought, the significant elements, which have naturally 
 become interwoven with the conception of a word. They 
 make, therefore, stronger resistance to phonetic changes 
 than do the vowel elements of words. Vowels are exposed 
 to far greater changes ; they are fluctuating, tend to melt 
 into each other, and are therefore less easy to grasp. 
 
 2. But the consonants of the same root are also 
 subject to numerous changes. These occur in the tran- 
 sition from one Indo-Germanic language, group of lan- 
 guages, or stage of linguistic development, to another, as 
 well as within the same language, during the process of 
 word formation. These changes can be reduced to laws. 
 
 3. These laws relate to the consonantal change of 
 sound in a root or a stem, partly in the passage from one 
 Jndo-Germanic language to another, according to their 
 grades, partly within each separate language. 
 
 The first is the law of sound- shifting ; the last is the 
 consonantal law of sound in Greek and Latin. 
 These laws are the foundation of scientific etymology. 
 
 XIII . ETYMOLOGY. 
 
 i. Etymology is the science of what is true and genuine 
 in language, of vrhat is ITU/XOV; it is the knowledge of the 
 
22 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 true and original signification of a word in conformity 
 with its derivation, and the tracing it down from its 
 stem-word and root-word. 
 
 It does not merely show by analysis that a word is 
 generally derived from one which is more original and 
 simple, that is to say from a root ; but, starting from 
 the root, follows the word synthetically and genetically, 
 tracing it through all its wanderings, both within the 
 several languages, and from one to another of those 
 which are related. It explains how one word has been 
 gently and gradually altered into another by the regular 
 law of phonetic change. It discloses especially the 
 laws or analogies which regulate and direct the con- 
 sonantal changes of sound in the history of language. 
 
 2. Therefore the identity or resemblance of the sound, 
 as well as of the meaning of two words, are only of sub- 
 ordinate importance for methodical etymology. Words 
 of quite different sounds, which have not a single letter 
 in common, may be shown by scientific analysis to be 
 words of the same origin ; compare, for example, \i& 
 fundo, Sec. 23, wqp ventus, t)ua vestis. Sec. 31; and 
 others, again, of wholly different meaning, as, for 
 example, Trero/Aeu TrwrrcD peto, Sec. 1 8, 37, <?7yos, the 
 esculent oakfagus, the beech. The last is an example 
 of the way in which a word may alter its meaning by 
 change of language, time, and country. 
 
 In the development of language the successive changes 
 of meaning go hand in hand with phonetic change. 
 
Grimnfs Law. 23 
 
 3. But through all changes of form and meaning the 
 original condition of a language, or family of languages, 
 remains unaltered in its essential elements. These con- 
 stantly produce new forms with modified meaning, and 
 enrich the language with words and conceptions, but 
 nothing whatever can be arbitrarily added to them. 
 
 The observation of these changes of form and meaning 
 is a peculiarly delightful study, and opens a glimpse into 
 the wondrous household of human language which is able 
 to subsist on such simple means. 
 
 XIV. CONSONANTAL CHANGE IN THE INDO-GERMANIC 
 LANGUAGES. 
 
 Almost the entire consonantal structure of the Indo- 
 Germanic languages is conditioned by the phonetic law 
 discovered by Jacob Grimm. 
 
 This law of sound- shifting concerns the common roots 
 or words of this family of languages, and explains the 
 changes of sound gradually made in the mutes from 
 tenues to aspirates, from aspirates to medials. It also 
 explains the changes of sound in the guttural, dental, 
 and labial groups of consonants in the various stages of 
 language. 
 
 1. Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Slavonic, Keltic. 
 
 2. Gothic, with Low German and English. 
 
 3. Old High German. 
 
 These rules are especially valid for consonants at the 
 beginning of words, and in a far less degree for those in 
 
24 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 the middle and at the end of words : they are thus ex- 
 pressed : 
 
 i. Where there is a tenuis, , /,/, in the first stage of 
 development in language, its place is taken in the second 
 stage by the corresponding aspirate or spirant, and in the 
 third stage by the corresponding medial. The medial is 
 however retained only in the dental class ; compare Sec. 1 7, 
 r-; in O. H. G. // and /were used instead of g and b. 
 
 2. Where aspirates, x> #> & occur in the first stage, 
 their place is taken in the second stage by medials, 
 g, d, b y and in the third by tenues, , /, /. Compare 
 Sec. 24, 0?/p, Ovydrrjp ; Sec. 20, pay -frag. But instead 
 of the k and /, which might be expected, g and b often 
 remain in H. G. ; compare Sec. 25, root <v ; Sec. 23, ^; 
 the dental d, on the contrary, becomes changeable into /. 
 
 3. When medials, g, d, b, occur in the first stage, the 
 corresponding tenues appear in the second stage, and 
 aspirates in the third ; compare Sa/cpv, Sec. 2 1 ; duco, 
 Gothic tiuhan, O. H. G. ziohan, H. G. ziehen ; z = ts, 
 the dental spirant for the dental aspirate. 
 
 . This law undergoes modification through the want of 
 strict aspirates in Latin, Sec. n, 4, and Sec. 15, as well as 
 to some extent also in Gothic and Old High German. 
 The aspirates thus lacking are generally replaced by the 
 corresponding breath-sounds or spirants. 
 
Relation of the rteio fcangtiages. M 2$ 
 
 7 ' 
 
 XV. CONSONANTAL RELATION BETWEEN GREEK AND 
 LATIN. 
 
 The consonantal differences between identical roots or 
 words of these two languages, which are related, and 
 stand on the same linguistic stage of development, are, 
 in regard to their relation with each other, mainly con- 
 ditioned by the following characteristic peculiarities : 
 
 1. By the fact of the exchange of the guttural, labial, 
 and dental tenues , /, /, both in the transition from one 
 language to the other, and within the boundaries of each 
 of the two languages, Sec. 19. 
 
 With this is closely connected the development of the 
 guttural tenuis k in Latin into the guttural tenuis with 
 a labial secondary sound ; that is to say into qu = kv, 
 which often arises within the bounds of Latin from the 
 fact that c = k. This qu is a transitional sound from 
 the guttural to the labial tenuis, that is, from k to /, 
 and explains the frequent interchange of k and / in 
 Latin and Greek. 
 
 2. By the want of a proper aspirate in Latin, Sec. 
 ii, 4. In the place of the Greek aspirates, x, 0, <, the 
 corresponding breath-sounds are used in the beginning of 
 a word, often/, or even the medial, for x and 0. In the 
 middle of a word d and b are found in the place of 0. 
 For examples, Sees. 23 25. 
 
 3. By the tendency of the Greek language to dispense 
 with spirants, and the entire absence of the spirant /, 
 
26 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 which has only a latent effect, Sec. n, i. J is, on 
 the contrary, very prevalent in Latin, both in the begin- 
 ning and in the body of a word, as in the root jug, and 
 in ajo, major. It often however becomes a vowel, and 
 disappears both between vowels and after consonants, 
 cuncti = cojuncti ; deicit = deficit; obex, obids = objex, 
 objicis ; minor minjor. 
 
 4. By the frequent transition of s in Greek into the 
 rough breathing at the beginning of a word, though it 
 may also pass into the smooth breathing, Sees, n, 
 3 ; 30. On the other hand, s is changed into r between 
 vowels, and at the end of a word in Latin, Sec. n, 3. 
 Compare H. G. war, waren = was, wasen; E. was, were; 
 H. G. kiiren = kiusen ; E. choose. 
 
 5. By the continuance of the old vau. This was a 
 half-vowel, and as such was frequently weakened into 
 vowels in the body of a word, as in the diphthongs au 
 and ou, and disappeared altogether between vowels. 
 
 But it remained at the beginnings of words in Latin, 
 Sec. 31, while it completely disappeared in the written 
 language of Greece, or passed into the rough breathing, 
 Sees, n, 2 ; 31. 
 
 6. By the sporadic weakening of d in Latin to /. Sa*pv 
 lacrima ; lingua = dingua, Gothic tuggo, H. G. zunge, 
 E. tongue ; 'OSvo-crevs Ulysses; Sarjp levtr ; olor odor, 
 o8a>8a ; silva = 1877 ; compare conversely adeps dXei^xo ; 
 for the change of ft and g, ft and v, ft and /, see Sec. 22. 
 
Root Consonants. 27 
 
 7. By the different law in regard to the endings oi 
 words in the two languages. Compare for example lac 
 = lact and yaXa = yaAa/cr, Sec. 35. 
 
 In the following chapters the consonants are arranged 
 as the elements of Greek and Latin roots and words, 
 which partly remain unchanged, and partly change in the 
 passage from one realm of language to another, according 
 to known laws. A survey is made of the roots and stems 
 common to two or more Indo- Germanic languages, ac- 
 cording to the classes of consonants arranged on the basis 
 of Greek. This is the etymological part of linguistic 
 analysis. 
 
 THE CONSONANTS AS ROOT CONSONANTS. 
 
 A. MUTES, 
 i. TENUES. K. T. II. 
 
 XVI. THE GUTTURAL TENUIS K, corresponding to 
 Latin c, q, g, Gothic, H. G. and E. h. 
 
 a K OK?;, oKax/xepog, irporjiajs, CV^KT/S, ve^K^s, Doric veafoys, 
 piT/KTys, d/cawa;, a/c/Ltiy, a/cony, d/cpos, aKpis and o/cpis, 
 ; acus, acuo, acies, deer, odor. 
 d p K dX/c dp/coo, apKios, dp^ya), Sec. 9, 4 \ aXicij, 
 dXoAKctv, dA.^a) ; arceo, arx, area, Herculus, originally god 
 of hurdles or sheep-folds. 
 
 I K O CT I = FlKOO-l = SflKCKTl, ^Eolic FiKOTLj viglflti, 
 2. 
 
 K a T 6 v, centum ; Gothic huna ; E. hundred. 
 
28 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 F K CKOn>, aCKCDV (ZKWV, CKIJTl, dc/O/Tl, CK^X 
 
 invltus *= invic(i)tus ? 
 
 K v p o s, ftta?r / Gothic svaihra, Greek rough breathing 
 for <rf, as I, fc = <rfc, JZtf, thence se. 
 
 iK flK COlKtt, flKnrjV, ^tKTO, IK (from a prCSCnt CIKO) ?) 
 
 II. XVIII. 520, cto-Ko) causative, ctKa<o ; tKcXos, ct/ccXos, 
 
 cVtctKcXos, diKois II. XXI I. 336, dctK7ys, /xcvoct/o;?, 
 
 cwcwv. 
 
 FlK tKO), IKCLVO), lKVCO/W,at, tKCTT/S, IKnjp, tKCT^CTtO?, 
 
 TrpotWo/xai (on the other hand see below irpol), l/c 
 
 IK/XCVOS. 
 
 K a ^ a p d s, KaOaLpd) casttlS = Cddtus. 
 K a t with locative i, ^//^ see below re. Sec. 19, 3. 
 K a X /caXco), KX^o-ts etc. ; calare, kalendae, nomenclator, 
 dassis, clamare. 
 
 K a TT KWTH; ; capw^ capulum ; H. G. and E. //d[/?, ^^/?. 
 
 K tt 7T KttTTVW, KCKtt^WS, /CttTTI/OS. 
 
 K d TT 77 X o s, <rtf///0 / H. G. kaufen, without any shifting 
 of sound at the commencement, which proves that the 
 word is strange to the language. 
 
 /cap a, Kaprj etc., Kpyvij', cerebrum; H. G. him. 
 
 KapS KT}P, Kcap, KapStia, KpaSti; ; <r^r (coni), cordajus, 
 vecors ; Gothic hairto ; H. G. ^<?rz/ E. ^^r/. 
 
 Kav /caf cKT^a, Kai^/xcvat, Kavo"a, Kai'co, Kavyuia, K^Xov 
 = KaXov, KTyXcos, K^'Xctos II. XV. 744 K^wSiy 
 reduplicated and with a nasal sound, II. XXI. 364. 
 
 K X KeX^s, KcX^rt^o) II. XV. 679 ; ^/fr, Celeres ; 
 Sec. 19. 
 
 K c < a X 17; r^////, cctpillus; Gothic haubith; H. G. 
 E. head. 
 
Root Consonants. 29 
 
 K i KCI Kt/x,ai, Kcarai, Kearo, fcotrry, icoifiaa), KOJ/AOS, KM/XT? ; 
 //ir, quiesco, avis ; H. G. helm ; E. ^0;#s. 
 
 K t KtO), KIWI/, //.TKia#OV, K(,V0) j #0, /<?<?, CltUS* 
 
 K \ a /cXaco, K\aSo5, /cX^pos. 
 
 K X t fcXtW, /cXt/xa, KXlfjiat;, K\LTVS , inclino, etc. , ctivus. 
 
 K \ v fcXvco, /cXvros, xXeos = /cXefos, KXeo/>tat, c^Xco II. 
 XXIV. 202; ^r/7^, inclutus, cliens, gloria = do sia (?) \ 
 H. G. hint, laut ; E. /^^. 
 
 K X v KXva>, KXvSwi/ ; clueOy duo, cloaca, fossa Cluilia , 
 PI. G. hlutar, lauter. 
 
 K o X KoXovco, KoXos ; incolumis. 
 
 KOTT K07TTO), KO7TOS ; fatigUC = Striking doWH, 
 
 Gothic haunjan ; H. G. praeterite hieb, E. hew. 
 KOCT KOO-/X05, KOO-/X(I) ; como = Cosmo, comptus. 
 KpL KpLvo) cerno, certus, crimeii. 
 
 K V 7T KUTTTO), KVTTTJ, KVTTcXXoV, KV^a^O'S = 
 
 most, and the crown of a hdmet ; cupa, cumbo, cubare : 
 H. G. kufe; E. coif. 
 
 KV p Kvpos, Kvpws, KVp6<a, KOVptScos, KovpiSirj 0X0^05 *= 
 housewife, not from Kovprj, Koprj. 
 
 ^ curvus. 
 
 V, cants ; Gothic hunds ; E. hound. 
 X a K e\a/cov, Xa<TKa> ; loquor, Locutius. 
 X a K Xa/cos, XaKe/309 ; /^^r, lacero, lacuna. 
 o 7 K o 5, FOIAC, fwc, see above ; vicus ; E. w/V/^ = a village. 
 
 (T K 7T <TK7TTO/Xat, (TKOTTTJ, (TKO7TO5 J J^tf" SpeCW SptClO, 
 
 specula, spedes, suspido from suspedo, as sub fill's from 
 /<f/<^, conindum convodtim, not == suspidtio. In Greek 
 there is a metathesis between / and c y the Latin root- 
 form is the original 
 
3O An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 K is weakened into y ; typdyyv from <pacr<ra> = </>paK/a>, 
 7r\dyrjv from 
 
 XVII. THE DENTAL TENUIS T, Latin /, Gothic th, 
 H. G. d, and E. /, th, d. 
 
 OTTO, crru Zfrrqv, to-Tr//xt = crtcmy/xt, ciemy/ceii/ = co-ear., 
 oracris, wrros^ CTrtbra/MU = CTri-ora/jKU without reduplica- 
 tion, for the meaning compare the H. G. ver-stan, 
 verstehen; OTCVTCU,; formations from the extended stem 
 oTa0 ora^/Aos, orafyw;, etc. ; j/^?, ^f/^>, status, static, 
 stamen, stabulum, stabilis, vestibulum = /^ outstanding 
 place, forecourt ; s disappears in tabula, st in /#<;#.$, 
 anciently stlocus from the extended root j/0/, .r//# Sec. 37 
 = stlocus ; compare Its, originally stlis = stilts, O. H. G. 
 strit, Sec. 29, 3 ; H. G. stan, stelle, stuhl ; E. stool, stand. 
 
 cr T e TT OTC'<O>, (rTM-)iia, oT(^avos ; stipare, stipator, 
 stipulari. 
 
 o-TL y <ma> = orty/o), (TTty/ia, (mypfj j distinguo, 
 instlgare, stimulus, stilus ; H. G. j/&#/ E. 
 
 (TT Op J//'^, i'/^/', OTOpW/U, CTTOpeWVjAl, 
 
 o-rpco/Aa, orparos ; dcrr^p, Sec. 9, 5 ; sterno, stratus, stramen, 
 stella = sterula, H. G. stern; sir ages, struo, strues ; H. G. 
 5/r^ / E. J/^r, strew, straw. 
 
 ra rav rev -riy, rao-t?, Taw//,cu, ravvo), TtTatVo), rctVa), 
 TOVOSJ ravaos, Tavav?ro8es Sec. 9, I, a, ravr;Xcyiys j CTri-r^Scs, 
 cTrtnySctos , /<?^?, /ifta?, /^//^, protinus, tonare, tonitru ; 
 H. G. donar, donner ; E. thunder. 
 
 ray reraycut/ Homeric; toflgv, contagio> contdmen, con- 
 taminare. 
 
Root Consonants. 31 
 
 T a *c Tiy/co) ; td- bes, tabes co. 
 
 T a X rXa tol rX^vat, raXa?, eraAacra, raXai/rov, 
 raXavpivos, roX/x-aoj ; tuli, anciently tetuli, latus, from tlatus 
 = rXrjrds, tollo, tolero. 
 
 ra< era<ov, ra<os ; variation of the root in 0a?r 
 T^7ra, nasalized into ^a/x^8os, 0a/A/2ea>. 
 
 T e y y CD, //flfgtf, //^Z/^. 
 
 T K - IrCKOV, TCKVOV, TOKOS, T^K?/ ^ TVK - TV^ - TCTV/CCtV, 
 TTVKOVTO, CTU^OV, TV\TfJ t TVy^CtVa), TVp(<i) j HgHUm, tclllM = 
 
 teclum, texo, tela = /6#/<z (compare a/<^ axilla, mala 
 maxilla, velum vexillum), subtemen, subtilis = subtelis, 
 Sec. 1 6. 
 
 T //, rap. r/xa re/xvw, lra/>tov, T/xiyya) ; simple form of 
 the present without consonantal suffix, re/m, II. XIII. 
 707; to this also certainly belongs TCT/XCIV 
 
 C, & M, in spite of the difference of meaning : 
 
 r p Tcpryv, Tctpo), rtperpov, TtrpcuVa), rpav^s j 
 tercbra; E. ^jr/7/, //^r/7/. 
 
 T c p cr Tcpo"o/x,at, Tpo"atvo>, rapo-os j rapt^os, 
 torreo ; Gothic thaurstei = durst ; O. H. G. darru, H. G. 
 dbrre ; E. /^/rrf. 
 
 /^/w^, Gothic thiuda, people, thiudisko ; H. G. 
 diutisk, popular, thence deutsch ; E. dfo/, a 
 assembly. 
 
 XVIII. THE LABIAL TENUIS H, Latin// for this H. G, 
 and E. have /in the beginning of a word. 
 
 cAir fX?r eXTrofuu, loXTra = FeFoXTra, cXirts ; allied to 
 
32 An Introduction to Greek and Latin 
 
 this, cXS, FeXS in IXSo/xcu, ccXStop, IXSwp, 8 for TT; volupis 
 archaic, voluptas. 
 
 p7ra>, serpo ; repo from j/r^? by metathesis 
 
 XITT Xnra, Xirrog, X-nrapos, XiTrapr;?, XtTrapeco, dXci<a>, 
 aXet<ap, aXct^a ; 0dfc^f, an unusual transition, X into </, 
 and on the contrary 8 is weakened into /in Sa*pv, lacruma, 
 Sec. 15, 6, Sec. 21. 
 
 ?ra TraT /b nourish TTOT Trarco/xat, cTracrajiL^v, awao-- 
 TO9, TraojLtat /^7 acquire^ 7r7ra/xat, CTraora/XTyv, Tra/r^p j Trocrt? 
 /# /<?r^/ t?/" M^ ^^//J<?, M^ husband, Sco-TrorTy?, 
 TTorva; /fl&r, Juppiter, pasco, pascor inceptive, 
 pastor, panis, penus, penates ; compos, potis, potens, possum^ 
 potior ; Gothic fadar; O. H. G.fatar; E. father. 
 
 Tray Tra* cTrayr/v, Trfjyw^i, -Trayog, Trayy^, TTT^uXt?, Od. 
 XIV. 476, TracrcraXos =7raK/aXo5, Tra/croa) ; paciscor, pan^o, 
 pax, pignus, pinguis, Tra^v? ; E. ^/. 
 
 7ra# ?ra -iraOtiv, Trao-^to = 7ra^or/cw, or = 7ra07c<o? wa^ 
 a further extension of the root TTO, compare Tnj^a ; patior. 
 
 TrcS WSov, TreStov, Trors St. TroS, pes St. ^^/, /X7rcSov = 
 oppido, oppidum ; H. G. /#0s, ///^/ E. ^/. 
 
 7TV -Trevo/Aai, TTC^^S, Trevt^pos, Trevta, Trcvcarat, 
 TTCtva, Tretvaw \penuria; compare cnrav in cnrdvis, ( 
 Sec. 30. 
 
 Trcp Trepaa), to press through, ?ropo9, "Jmpa, 
 StaTrpro-tos ; porta, portus, experior, peritus, periculum ; 
 Gothic faran; H. G. erfahrung, gefahr, wohlfahrt, 
 compare cvTropta ; Trcp in Trcpaw, /d7 ^r/;?^ ^7'^r, is cer- 
 tainly identical ; 7rcpv^/At, TrtTrpaovco) (Trpa), Trpta/xat = TTi- 
 Trpa/xat (?) /<? ^r/;/^ A? oneself, to buy. 
 
 TTCT Trra Trero/xat, CTTTO^V, eTrraro, TTTT/V, etc., cvr 
 
Root Consonants. / 33 
 
 II. XXI. 169, a later and kindred form 
 
 = 7TWTT. J 7T(TCtV, DOT. CTTCTOl/, SuTTCT^S, TTtTTTO) = 
 TTtTTCTO), TTtn/CCD, TTTOJ/Aa, 7rT<0(rt9, TTOTftOS j TreTTT^WS See TTTttK , 
 
 //<?, impetus, penna = petna, praepespets, on the other 
 hand bipennis = bipinnis from /zVz^fl = pitna, a pin- 
 nacle, compare TITTVS, Sec. 19, 3 ; H. G. fedara, feder, 
 fittig; E. feather. 
 
 TTCTttVVV/Al, TTLTVrjfJLLf SeC. 8, I, 7TTOCrO5, TTCTttXcV j pateO, 
 
 patitlus, patina. 
 
 TTVKfi,pinus ; H. G.fiuhta,fahte, Sec. 19, 3, TTIK TTCT. 
 
 7T t - 7TO - TTtVCO, TTCTTtOKO, 7TO(rt9, 7TOTOS, TTCO/Att ; pdtUS, 
 
 potare, potio, poculum ; bibo weakened and reduplicated. 
 
 t^w ; yfokr, Fidius, foedus, Sec. 8, 2. 
 i/f , //Ztf ; H. G. //2, E. /^//. 
 
 TTtwv, Triapos, Trtetpa, Trtap, ?rt/>tcAr/, TTtatW^ Opimus. 
 
 7T\a TrXeos, TrXcto?, TrAcws, TrifJLirX'irjpJL. TrX^w, 
 7r\r)0v<5, 7rX?7p?7s; //^, plenus, plerusque, locuples, plebes, 
 populus, publicus, Publicola, plus, plurimus. 
 
 TrXaK weakened TrXay, reduced to ?rXa ; TrXiyo-o-w 
 = 7r\rjK/\i)j 7rXay7yv, TrXrjyrj, 7rXtta> =f= TrXayjw I strike off front 
 the path, Tc^co-tTrXTyr^s, SacrrrX^Tts torch- swinging, Od. 
 XV. 234 ; TreX is interchanged with this in TreXas, con- 
 nected with Tr\7j(TLov, TrcXafw ; TrcXayos /^ 5^z laid flat (f)\ 
 plango, plaga, plecto ; E.flat. 
 
 TrXv TrXea) = TrXefca, TrXcva) ^EollC Sec. 9, I, 7rXeu(ro//.at, 
 TrXoos, TrXoi)?, TrXotov \ TrXoko = TrXofa), eTrXwv, CTrtTrXw? ; 
 TrXvvco ; pluit, pluvia ; O. H. G. fliozan, fluot ; *&. float. 
 
 TTW Tired) = TTvcFco, 7rvV(ro//,at, TreTrwfJicu, a/ATTVuro, pres. 
 form, a/uiTrvuc II. XXII. 222, Tircv/xa, TTIVVTOS, 7rtrvo-<r(u 
 
 3 
 
34 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 to make prudent^ II. XIV. 249, TrowiWo), with diphthongal, 
 reduplication. 
 
 TT/DOtKCl, TTpOlKTrjS, TrpOUTCrOfUU, 866 SeC. 1 6, FlK ' } 
 
 , precor, proco, procus, procax. 
 
 TTTttK TTTtt CTTTaKOV, TTT^CTOra) = TTT^/C/O), KaTOLTmfrnjV II. 
 
 VIII. 136, TTCTTTT/WS, TroTtTTCTrnyvtat Od. XIII. 98, TraTrraivct), 
 
 7TTO>|, TTTOKTO-a), TTTOXTKO^O). 
 
 TTTe'pva, Gothic fairzna ; H. G.ferse. 
 TTTvo) ^^7, pituita, s has disappeared at the beginning 
 of the word as in Greek ; H. G. spihan, speien ; E 
 
 irvovpus; puteo, putidus ; H. G. 
 
 7TVK - TTuf , TTU/CTTyS, TTVy/Aiy ; pUgHUS, pUgH, ptlHgO, 
 
 pugio; O. H. G.ftist; E./rf. 
 
 XIX. CfHANGE OF THE GUTTURAL, LABIAL, AND DENTAL 
 
 TENUIS, K, n, T, in Greek and Latin. 
 
 i. Greek K in the middle of a word = Latin/.- 
 
 O-KCTT spec by metathesis, see Sec. 16. 
 
 a-KvXov, 0-KvA.ao), (r/cvXeuo) spoliuM) spoliare, on the 
 other hand O-KT>TOS scutum. 
 
 O-UK sap OT;KOS, Doric o-aKos ; saepes^ saepio, praesepe, 
 sepelio. 
 
 XVKOS, lupus ; Gothic vulfs ; E. wolf. 
 
 OK ocro'e = OK/, ocrcro/xai = OAC/O/JUM,, Tr/oortoo'orcTO Od, 
 XIV. 219 ; opinor, inopinus^ opinio, see below OTT. 
 
 Greek K at the beginning of a word = Latin / / 
 
 ); /<?//<?, appello, connected with procella. 
 
Root Consonants. 35 
 
 2. The Greek TT is still more common for the original 
 k, Latin c, q : 
 
 C7T FeTT 7TOS, CITIW, IctTTOV == eFcFcTJW, Ol/T Stem 6V, 
 
 o, f ar- sounding ; vec in zwc stem zw, zw0, 
 = invidto from z/#r = FCTT, convlcium by assimilation 
 of vowels from convocium ; so too the Greek * in ocnra = 
 oK/a; to-Kcv, he spake, Homeric, Od. XXII. 31, = o-wrc/ccv 
 
 from (T/C = 0-67T = FCTT, COmpare n/7r = eVO-7T, &T7TCTC = 
 
 <reo'7rT, ertoTrcs, evtcrTre, evtcrTnyora)^ cvicTTrctv, Oicnri^ Occnri- 
 <rtos ; c^ <rex i n ^X 00 ? ^^^j ^"X ^ ^^j is analogous to 
 this variation of roots ?r O-CTT. 
 
 7T 0-67T 7T(D, 7TO/Xai = (TeTTO/Aat, 6OTTOV, COTTO/AT^/ = 
 
 o-co-cTro/xryv, ea</>^7/ (?) II. XIII. 543 j XIV. 419, with syl- 
 labic augm. on account of the original cr at the begin- 
 ning of a word, a instead of c as era/x/^v from T/>TTO/A(U, 
 OTT\OV; sequor, seats, secundus^ socius ; so too the Greek * 
 in Homeric 0,00-0-77x77/0 = do-oK/TTr^p, compare as-sec-la. 
 rJ7rap,jecur, see Sec. 6, 3. 
 
 t^TT tTTTO/Xat, CVtWa), ^VtVaTTC, kvilff]^ l/7rt7TT II. XV. 55 2; 
 
 *V0 / so too the Greek K in c^to-o-w = cvt/c/w ; ta7rr<o, jacio, 
 see Sec. 32, 4. 
 
 tTrTros, ticKos ; <?^^, Sec. 6, 3, connected with Epcma 
 Juven. VIII. 157. 
 
 A.ITT //V Awrctv, XctVco, Xot7ros; Unquo, reliquus (lic\ licet. 
 
 O7T 0)1^, OTTOWra, OTTOWny, O7TIS, OJJLfJLO. OTT/Att, OTTTTp, Ol^O/Xttt, 
 
 6^to), desiderative, II. XIV. 37, 6<0aX/A05, CVCDTTT/, cva)7ra 
 
 IL XV. 320, CISCOTTOS IL XV. 653, vTrawria, 6Vt7Tva> redupli- 
 cated, mip0a/o7rt7ra II. XI. 385 ; #:#/*tf / so too the Greek 
 K in oo-o-c, oo-o-o/Attt ; Latin / in opinor. 
 
 ^Eolic TTCjLtTre, Tre/xTTTos, -TreftTTct^o) ; the Oscan ad- 
 
36 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 verb of time fomptis, compare the Sabine Pompihus , 
 quinque; Gothic fimf ; E. five. 
 
 7TC7T - TTeTTTO), TTG/fO), TTCTTWV j OTTTCMO, O7TTOS = 7TO7TTO5, 
 
 o\l/ov ; connected with TTCK in Trcoro-w = TTCK/CD ; coquo, cocus, 
 coquina ; connected with doubled p in popa, popina, 
 popanum, TTOTTOLVOV, pastry. 
 
 TTO relative and interrogative pronominal- stem whence 
 
 7TOV, 7TO01, TTtoS, 7TO>, 7TOT, 7TO06V j Ionic KOU, KW5, KOTC, KOOTO?, 
 
 KOTcpog ; Latin stem ^#0 ^ ; quod, quid Oscan fid, 
 ubi=quobi, enclitic cubiinalicubi, sicubi, necubi; necunde, 
 quantus, uter = quoter, neuter = ne-cuter, alicunde ; Oscan 
 stem po . 
 
 rpcTT TpcTTw ; torqueo by metathesis ; so too the Greek 
 K is retained in arpcKcws, arpcKes, perhaps also in rpcwenys 
 a sharper, not greedy ', as if from rpa)ya> ; Od. XIV. 289 ; 
 tricae, trico, intricare, extricare. 
 
 3. T = TT and stands for the original k : 
 
 draXos = aTraAos; Trerrc, quinque ; Trofca, o*a, Doric * 
 TTOTC, ore ; TC = ^^ see above /cat Sec. 16, compare ^TTWV, 
 ^icwrra, ^crcrwv = T^K/. 
 
 7TIT - TTtK - TTtTVS, TTCVJtt/, TTLCTVOL = TTITJOL Or TTtK/tt, TTlKpOS, 7TU- 
 
 icdXt/xos, 7reuK8avo9, C^CTTCVK^S j pinus, pix Stem^/V/ H. G. 
 fiuhta^fichte ; peek without shifting of sound, a foreign word, 
 
 4. The change of to TT, /, and from TT, / to T takes 
 place in : 
 
 quattuor, Skr. chatur rriVupcs Homeric, 
 lic, TreTTapcs Boeotian, Attic Terrors, rcVo-apc? 
 
 quinque TTC/ATTC ^Eolic, irerrc, see above. 
 
 ^ /j- stem /, ^)/>, Neuter//^, Oscan and Umbrian, rt9. 
 
Root Consonants. 37 
 
 2. MEDIALS. P. A. B. 
 
 XX. THE GUTTURAL MEDIAL T, corresponding to the 
 Latin g, Gothic , English k. 
 
 dy dyo>, dyayciv, dyos, dyivc'u), fjycla-Oai \ ago, COgO^ COdgO, 
 cogito, coagito, agmen, exdmen Sec. 9, 2, exiguus. 
 
 ay ay ayo?, Ion. dyos, ayios, OO/ACU = dy/o/uu, cvayiys; 
 aya/LUU see below. 
 
 Fay dyFu/Jii, dyiy, Idya = Fcfaya, Ion. ^ya, cdyjyv, 
 a/en/, twy?; Od. XIV. 533 = ftfcoyT/ with reduplication, 
 compare wo?; = wofy from df, Sec. 31, Kv/Aarwyiy. 
 
 dpy dpyds, dpyiys, dpyewos, dpyvpos, d/^ylXos ; argUO, 
 argutus, argentum, argilla. 
 
 ya yaf yav yatco, /Souydi'e vocative II. XIII. 824, 
 ydvufuu, yovdw, ydvos, yrj^co), yeyjy^a; gaudeo, gaviSUS. 
 Related to this is the Stem dya in dyaj*at, dydo/^at, 
 dyato/xat, acprjTos, ay?/, dyav, dyavos, dyavos, dyavpos. 
 
 y ap y^pvs, y>7pv'a> ; garrio, garrulus. 
 
 yv yva ya yei/os, yty()vo/xat, yn/erto?, ycya<o9, 
 vT/ydrcos, ywry; ^wf, gig(e)no, gnascor, natura ; Gothic 
 kuni ; O. H. G. chunni, chunning, H. G. konig; E. 
 originally = father , O- H. G. #&/, H. G. kind = 
 E. ^/w. 
 
 yews, yeWov, yydflos; ^//^/ Gothic kinnus ; H. G. 
 /##/ E. ^/. 
 
 y v ycvojitat ; ^/5/^7, gustus ; Gothic kiusan, kustus ; 
 O. H. G. Musu, chust ; H. G. kiese, kiise, koste. 
 
 y v o Originally gna, lyi/cov, ytyi/oxr/co), ovofjia == oy/o//,a, 
 yi/ajcrts, yvwfji.-rjy yj/ai/Ltcov ; gnosco, gnarus, ignorOy archaic 
 gnarigare, narrare, nobilis ; agnitus, cognUus with weaken- 
 
38 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 ing of the vowel, ndtus, ignotus, gndrus with strengthening 
 of the vowel; Gothic kannjan^ "kunths^kunthi ; E. hen. 
 
 y 6 v v, yvv , 7rpo^yv 9 yowo O/MU, yowos, i-yvvy, Sec. 9, 5 ) 
 genu ; Gothic kniu ; E. TZ^. 
 
 epy Fepy Fpcy cpyov, copya = FcFopya, ewpyci Od. 
 XIV. 289 = ctopyei from eFeF. ; IpSw = Fepy/a), for p<*>, 
 pc^w = Fpcy/a), dpyos from dcpyos ; Gothic vaurkjan ; 
 H. G. werk ; E. m>r/. 
 
 Fcpy ctpyw, pyo>, ^o^arat, ccp^Tat, cp^aTocovro Od. 
 XIV. 15; if/go;. 
 
 vyjugsee Sec. 32, i. 
 
 X v y X v y p o s, AcvyaAco?, Xotyos ; /gft?, luctus. 
 
 p a y Fpay p7yyKU/*t, pr/y/AtV, pcoyaXcos ; pax in p^(rcra>, 
 cTTtpp^o-ora) ; fragfrango,fragilis; Gothic brikan ; O. H. 
 G. prichan ; E. ^r^^. 
 
 pcy opeyw, opyuta ; r^?, r^C, ra/^, ^r^, <^ r^Z, / 
 /fo direction ; H. G. recken> richten. 
 
 CTT ey rcy areya), rcyos j fegO ; O. H. G. dfo , H. G. 
 &, decke ; E. //^, thatch. 
 
 XXI. THE DENTAL MEDIAL A, corresponding to the 
 Latin */, Gothic and Low German ^, German 2, English /. 
 
 1 8 FaS SVad eaSov = FcFaSov, euaSoi/ = cFaSov, IdSa, 
 avSavw, eeSvov (rFcSvov, cSavos II. XIV. 172, ^Sos from 
 which the rough breathing has disappeared, compare 
 below tSos oo-fievos, a participle become an adjective, like 
 Sorty, ^So/Aat, ^Svs, yvp,o$ = vr^Sv/ios (?) ; suavis = 
 iS) suadeo. 
 apS paS apSco, Homeric cppaSarat with the radical 8, 
 
Root Consonants. 39 
 
 compare ep^pe'Sarai, veapSifc, patVw = pa8i//a). Instead of 
 the medial the aspirate appears in pa0a/xiyf, pa0<uva>, 
 
 8 a SeSac, Sa?Jvai, Saigon/, dSa^/xwv, 80/80X09, SaiSaXXa), 
 with diphthongal reduplication, 8oi<jf>po)v prudent, Odyss. j 
 root Sox in 8i8ao-Ka> = 8i8ax-o-Ka>, SiSax>7, compare dfor in 
 disco = dfofttf, dfom?, see below St*. 
 
 8 a Saia>, I divide, cSacrapyv, 8019, Saa), Sarco/xat, 8cur- 
 fios, Satrpos. 
 
 3 a /L_S ata)> I kindle, SCOTCH II. XX. 316, ScSrya, 0<T7ri- 
 8a^9, Sao-TrX-^ris see above TrXcuc ?rXa Sec. 1 8, Safe, 
 
 apocop. dat. 8af, SaAos, Saves Od. XV. 322, &u<p<oj/ II. 
 warlike ; Srytos, S^toa), S^tonys, Sr/Xco/xat; d??/^. 
 
 SaKp v, lacruma see Sec. 15, 6 ; Gothic fogr; O. H. G. 
 zahar ; E. /tor. 
 
 Sa/x, Sa//,7}r<u, Sa/^aco, Sa^tafa), Sa/xny/ti, 8a/wip, dS/A^?, 
 8/Aak; domare, dominus, dominari ; H. G. zahm ; E. 
 tame. 
 
 8 e K a, dfeim / Gothic taihun ; O. H. G. 0^^7 / jS. /^. 
 
 8 //, Sc/AtD, Se/xa?, SO/AOS, 8w/xa j domus / Gothic timr- 
 jan; H. G. zimmer; E. timber. 
 
 817 = jam = dja-m, compare Janus, Diana. 
 
 8 1 stem See in StVu II. XXIII. 475, /StWv XVIII. 
 584, SiWai XVII. no, SIOITO Od. XVII. 317; perf. 
 SeSta, SaSia ; pres. SctSo) = SaStw, thence ScSoiica, 8Sio-- 
 o^o/jtat. 
 
 8 1 F ^//V, dju = light, God, heaven, day : STos, 
 eVStos, cvStos, 8tt7rcT>/9 ; Zcvs = A/Vus, Atos, AtoSv?/, kindred 
 form with nasal suffix Zip/, ZT/VOS, ace. Zfy II. XIV. 265, 
 from the stem dja, as in Janus ; 877X09, SecXos, Searo Od. 
 
40 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 VI. 242, Soaoro-aro, stem dev ; deus, divus, divinus, Dius 
 fidius, Dialis, Juppiter = Djuppiter, the vowel being 
 weakened in consequence of the deeper sound of the 
 second word in composition, Jovis = Djovis, Diana = 
 divana, the heavenly one ; Janus, Janus-pater ; dies, diu, 
 by day in noctu diuque, a day long, long time, inter diu, 
 diutius, diutinus, stem diuto, dum = dium ; O. H. G. Zio, 
 Dienstag = Ziestag ; E. Tuesday. 
 
 8 1 K 81*17, Sctfcw/u ; dido, condicio, diets in diets causa, 
 indtco, duo, causidicus, maledicus, judex jusdecs ; disco 
 dicsco, doceo see above 8a; Gothic ga-teihan ; H. G. 
 zihan, zeihen, zeigen. 
 
 So SiSayu, originally da, dadami ; Sonjp, 800-15, 8cupov; 
 stem da in do, dos, donum ; duim, duam ; see below under 
 Moods ; for the relation between 80 and 0e = dha, see Sec. 
 15, 2 A. ; Sec. 24, Of, cedo, give here, compounded of the 
 demonstrative ce and do = da ; cette ce-dite = date. 
 
 8 vo, 8ts = Sfis; duo, bis as bellum from duellum = dvis, 
 fas ; Gothic tvai ; H. G. zwei, zer / E. twain, two. 
 
 e8 ?So), 18/Acvat, without tach-vowel, compare below 
 est, 80)877, c8^n;5, co-^to, co-^to) ; nJo-Tt?, w/AryonJs ; ^<?, est = 
 edt, esurio = edsurio, esca = edsca. 
 
 c8 o-cS e8o?, cto-a = re8o-a, co-o-at, co-at, ceo-o-aro = 
 cVcSo-., c^o/Aai (8/'.) ; -8o{5/xat, ta> with present reduplication 
 = te8/o>, cSpa; sedsedeo, sido = sisedo, sedes, sella (sedla)} 
 Gothic sitan, sitls ; O. H. G. sizan, sezal; E. sit, settle. 
 
 1 8 fc.8 tSctv, cT8oi/ = cftSov = a8ov, oT8a, ?8/xev, Ion. 
 
 tcr/ACV, tcrrcDp, 18/315, t8/3t^, tv8aXXo/xat, atoros, atOToo), 'Aufys, 
 08175, 1^15 H. VII. 198, Od. VIII. 179 ; video, visus, viso, 
 vitrum. 
 
Root Consonants. 41 
 
 5, iMu, j&ov Od. XX. 204, tfyck, 
 , sudor; O. G. jw/s/ E. sweat. 
 S KocaSov, nothing to do with ^a^? K^Sw, /oJSos, 
 o9, active = careful, passive = of value, dear. 
 68 oSwSd, ow = 68/0), oS/Ltry ; odor, oleo, d being weak- 
 ened into /, see Sec. 15, 6. 
 
 68ov?, stem oSoi/T with vowel prefixed, Sec. 9, 5 ; dens ; 
 Gothic tunthus ; II. G. zand, zahn ; E. tooth. 
 
 crKcS cr/ccSavi/v/xt, (r/aSv^/u, (T/ctSvajitat for the weak 
 vowel see Sec. 8, i ; scandula. 
 
 o-Kt8 (T^t^ cr^w, (rx^ a ; scindo, sddi, anciently j- 
 f/^/ see below simple Latin perfect, scida ; root cid 
 caedO) caementum, caespes ; O. H. G. sceidan, sceit, H. G. 
 schdt; E. ^/. 
 
 v8 ^ z;^ 8<op; /^^z, Gothic z/^/^/ O. H. G. 
 wazar ; E. water. 
 
 XXII. THE LABIAL MEDIAL B. 
 
 In Greek /? is seldom original, and then = Latin b; more 
 often = an original g. 
 
 j8a fiato pay/t*, ^vat, )8t^as with pres. -reduplica- 
 tion, /Jao-Ke, /Sifidfa, /3i/3d(r6<i)v, /&J/xa, fidSrjv, )8c/?at05, 
 ySe^Xos; ^/^^, arbiter ; instead of ^, z; in zwwb/ Gothic 
 qiman ; O. H. G. koman, kommen y points back to the 
 original g in Sanskrit, root gd, to go. 
 
 /?ovs, Doric )8o)9, /frwyai'e, Sec. 20, ya; ^ stem bov ; 
 O. H. G. chuo, which points back to the original g in 
 Sanskrit, gaus ; E. <r^e/. 
 
 )8 = b in /?Xr;x^ balare ; Ppaxvs, brevis = bregvis, 
 
42 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 compare IXaxys, levis = legyis Sec. 23 \ ftapftapos, 
 balbus. 
 
 ft = Latin g in ftaXavos, glans ; fta.pv<s, gram's. 
 
 ft i in ftios, ftiow = yh, the y disappears and the f is 
 hardened into /? ; Epic future without the characteristic 
 tense-letter /?e'o//,at, /2eio/xeu, vivam, ftey II. XVI. 852; 
 wiw? reduplicated verb = gvigvo, vixi, vig-si, with the 
 guttural retained, #Jmj, vita, victus ; H. G. $w&r, quick 
 in er quicken, quecksilber ; E. //fo ^^/V^ ^^ ^^, quickset- 
 hedge ; Sanskrit root jiv. 
 
 ft = original and Latin v : 
 
 fto\, ft6Xofj.oLL II. XL 319, Od. I. 234, XVI. 387, 
 ftovXofjiai, ftovXy etc. ; volOj nolo = ne-volo, malo = magi- 
 volo, voluntas ; voluptas, see Sec. 18, I\TT ; O. H. G. 
 wellan, willo ; E. will. 
 
 aftetySo), Doric d/xeva), apoifty ; original root w/z/ in 
 moveo, motuS) momentum, muto. 
 
 ft = <^> =f: ftao-Kawto, ftdcrKavos ; fascinare, fascinum^ 
 from the root <t>a,fa, Sec. 25 = fascination. 
 
 3. ASPIRATES X. . <. 
 
 XXIII. THE GUTTURAL ASPIRATE X, corresponding to 
 the Latin h, f, g, in the beginning of a word g, 
 Gothic -. 
 
 O,K dyx 09(09, **'X o l JLaL y 
 aKayy)<Tt, d/cd^/xttt, dKa^/jtcvos, dfc^cSarat, with change of 
 quantity, d/caxciWo, ouca^SaTO, d/ca^t^oj, d^i^/iai, ayOop.a.i y 
 a-xOos, dyxtj &<r<rov = ayx/ov, cTracrcn/rcpos ; ^^v, angor, 
 angustus, anocius ; H. G. ^^f/. 
 
Root Consonants. 43 
 
 X a % v 5, eXacrcrajv, XJ^ V > ^^ s ~ hgvis. 
 x Fex OXQS, o^o/>uxt, o\rjfjLd j veho, via (vea\ vexo, 
 velum = veglum, vexillum, vectis ; H. G. wagen, weg ; E. 
 
 X - <TX - X<*>, (TXOV 
 
 torxto present reduplication = o-re;(a> ; further formation 
 in <r\c6<a = (T\0(D 9 tCT^avao), do^aXaa) ; o^a compare o^w/ca 
 *= o/cw^a, e^vpo?, o^vpo?, (r^/xa, er^eSov, CTTio^cpco, c^ct-^5. 
 
 X t ^ Xeix<o, At^/xaa), Xt^vos ; //Vj^?, ligurio ; Gothic ^/* 
 claigon / H. G. /;&ia / E. //V^. 
 
 O-TLX o" 1 "^ 09 * crretxa), orot^os; vestigium, vestibulum 
 see (rra Sec. 17 , fa-stigium ; Gothic and H. G. steig , 
 steg ; E. step. 
 
 ^ a \av X*&**9 x < ^ (TK(t) t xa-frp-O' J /ca^a^w reduplicated, 
 Kayxofw, KayxaXaw reduplicated with nasal sound = 
 achinno ; hio, hisco, hiatus, hiulcus ; fatisco (?) ; O. H. G. 
 kin gin H G. gahnen ; E. yawn. 
 
 X<x8 e^aSov, ^avSavo), K^avSoTa II. XXIII. 268, *- 
 XavSct XXIV. 192 ; prehendo =prae-hendo, praeda = prat 
 hida, praedium = praehendium, compare praebere =prae- 
 hibere, debere = de-hibere. 
 
 \aB X**!* *' KCKaSovro II. XV. 574 = c^ao-arro ; cedo, 
 necesse, successus from ne-ced-tis, suc-ced-tus. 
 
 X a ft at, feminine locative, ^a/ia8i9 
 X^wv ; humus ; humt, humilis ; homo, anciently ^1 
 = ne-hemo ; Gothic ^/w^ / O. H. G. ^w<?, H. G. #w in 
 brdutigam ; E. groom. 
 
 Xap 9(a^, x^paTO IL XIV. 270, X^P^J X 
 tct? ; gratus, gratia ; O. H. G. ^r, giri, gerdn. 
 aiv, hirundo ; compare x<iXafa> grando. 
 
44 An introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 X P X*W> XtP^i according to the meaning = ircro 
 compare mancipium, x*petW, ^ctpwi/, cv^cp^s, xpd<>> to attack^ 
 
 ) ; herus, heres, herctum, herds co. 
 yv'} ansertoi hanser ; O. H. G. kans, H. G. gans ; 
 Bohemian hus; E. goose. 
 
 adfatim, adequate, according to desire, fames , fatigo, fessus ; 
 fatisco (?), see above x<*. 
 
 X^9, ex#s; ^^r/ for te/, compare eram = esam, Sec. 
 15, 4, hesternus ; Gothic gistra ; O. H. G. kestre, H. G. 
 gestern ; E. y ester. 
 
 ^l JLa i X L t JL{ * )V > \tiiAafy) hieniS) hibernus. 
 = hel; O. H. G. kalla, H. G. galle ; E. gall. 
 X o p 8 77, chorda, a foreign word in Latin ; stem 
 ^#ra, /^ ^w/, in haruspexj hariolus connected with 
 fanolus. 
 
 Xopros; hortus, cohors, a close army corps ; Gothic 
 gards ; O. H. G. karto, H. G. garten ; E. garden. 
 
 hosti s, also fostis, hospes = hostipes ; Gothic gasts ; 
 O. H. G. kast, H. G. gast ; E. guest. 
 
 X p i xP t/w > XpV 01 ? x/ 3 " 7 "/* ^ ^ 7<J7 ^^> fricae, frivolus. 
 Xpvo-ds; Gothic ^/M/ O. H. G. hold, H. G. and E. 
 gold. 
 
 X v x&a = X 6 ^ 00 ? ^Eolic \ev<D, 9(va, cxca = 
 
 ^ 01 ? X c V a > X O1 7> tox^atpa, x^o/>tat, compare ^T 
 confundoT) to be troubled ; Latin stem ^^ in 
 nSyfutiSy futilis, confuto, refuto, effutio ; Gothic 
 giutan ; O. H. G. kiuzu^ H. G. giesse, guss ; E. 
 
Root 
 
 XXIV. THE DENTAL ASPIRATE . On account of the 
 want of a dental aspirate the Latin equivalent for 
 this is often /in the beginning of a word, d and b in 
 the body of it ; Gothic d, German /, English d. 
 
 al0 9 originally 20 ai$o>, at#a>v, aiOrjp, aWoij/, Al6Co\ff ; 
 flfl&r, originally meaning a fireplace, aestus = aedtus, 
 aestas. 
 
 IpvOpos, with c prefixed, Sec. 9, 5 ; r#&r, r#/^.r, 
 robigo, ru-tilus ; O. H. G. n?// E. red, ruddy. 
 
 aOipOai Homeric = to suckle, O^a-aro II. XXIV. 58, 
 OrjXrjy 01/Xus, yaXaOrjvos, TiOrjvrj, nOacro^ rt^at/^ojcrcra) Od. 
 XIII. 1 06, aTtTaXXw; femina, films, fetus , fenus, fecun- 
 dus (?) see below <v. 
 
 B a v Ova Oavtiv, Odvaros, Ovrj(TK^ Ovrjros, reOvrjKa ; 
 Gothic dauthus ; O. G. tod ; E. dead. 
 
 Of Skr. dha rt'&j/u, #ca> in Trpotfcoucrtv II. I. 
 291, ^eo-ts, 0e/xis etc. compare So, Sec. 21 ; in the Latin 
 root da> to give, and dha = 0c, A? ^, have coalesced ; 
 this last meaning is retained in condo, abdo, trado, etc. ; 
 9 = f in famulus, familia, certainly also facto, with the 
 root extended by the addition of c, compare jacio, root c ; 
 O. H. G. tuom, a judge's sentence, tat ; E. doom. 
 
 B v 0ciVw ; fendo in offendo, defendo. 
 
 p 0po>, ^cpos, 0/3/*os ; O. L. formus, formucapes, 
 thence forceps, fornus, furnus, fornax ; Gothic varmjan , 
 O. H. G. waram, H. G. and E. warm. 
 
 Orjp, <f>Yip, JEolic ; ferus, fera, ferox ; Gothic dius ; O. 
 H. G. tior, H. G. tier; E. deer. 
 
 ; fingo, figulus, figura, fictile. 
 
46 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 Op a Oap Opapvs, Odpcros, Oapptiv ; E. dare ; fretus, 
 fortis. 
 
 @v 0uo), OveXXdy OvjJLOSy OvfJLa, Ovos, flv^zis, Ovoeis j suf- 
 fire, fumus, funus, burning incense for the dead ; Gothic 
 dauns ; O. H. G. town, H. G. dunst. Compare Sec. 37. 
 
 Ovydrrjp; Gothic dauhtar ; O. H. G. tohtar, H. G. 
 tochter ; E. daughter. 
 
 Ovpa; fores, foris, foras, French Jiors ; Gothic dauro ; 
 O. H. G. turi, H. G. thor, thure ; E. door. 
 
 ovOap; uber ; O. H. G. Mar; E. udder. 
 
 vrvOprjv ; fundus ; O. H. G. bo dam, H. G. Bodensee ; 
 E. bottom. 
 
 XXV. THE LABIAL ASPIRATE <, corresponding to the 
 Latin / = bh, in the middle of a word b, in 
 German and English b. 
 
 v, cLX^xxvo), aX^iycrnys, dA.</>eo-t^otat II. XVIII. 
 593 ; labor (labos), laboro ; O. H. G. arabeit, H. G. arbeit. 
 
 a ft $ CD ; ambo ; H. G. ^/^/ E. both. d/A<^t, d:/^ am 
 an in composition, ambio, ambages, amplector, anquiro. 
 
 a <^> c v o s, d<^i/etos ; stem <?/ in ops, </> in the middle of a 
 word =/, opulentus, vol-up-tas(f) see Sec. 22 /?oX z/^7, 
 Sec. 1 8 cATr, r^/^ = coopia ; stem / in apiscor, aptus, 
 coepi = coepi from the original coapio. 
 
 v<^>os, vc^eXry; nebula, nebulo, nubes, nubo, but on 
 the other hand, pronuba, nubilus, nubila, nimbus; 
 O. H. G. **&i/, H. G. nebel. 
 
 o/A^aXo?; umbilicus; O. H. G. nabulo, H. G. nabel ; 
 E. 
 
Root Consonants. 47 
 
 op<avds; orbus, or bare ; O. H. G. arbja, H. G.erbe. 
 o<pvs; O. H. G. prawa, H. G. braue ; E.&row. 
 <j>a <aF <av ^>T//xt, <j5>aros, < 
 
 ac Od. XIV. 502, 
 
 7rat</>a(rcr(i), I flash, II. II. 450, 
 <ai/pos, ^>atVa), Trc^TyorcTat II. 
 XVII. 155, Tra/x^atW with nasal reduplication, <aoyxa; 
 from <^>aF by hardening the digamma, giving a nasal 
 sound, and changing the a into e, comes <eyy in 
 <eyyos; <^>a is further formed into <a\ in <f>a\.rjp6s, Doric 
 </>aAapo5, <t>aX.TrjpL6(tiVTa II. XIII. 799 ; fari, fama, fanum, 
 fatum, Bonifatius, compare E<^/uo5, fatuus, fas, fateor, 
 fetialis, a speaker = herald, infitias (ire), infitiari, fabula, 
 praefica, facundus, facetus ; fax, fades. 
 
 </> a <ev <^>aTos, Trc^arat, Tre^avrat, Trc^cur^at, TTC^- 
 cro/xat, 7rpos<aT09, oSvF^^aros, dp^t</)aTO5, /ivX^aros; cTrec^voi/, 
 <ovos, <^>o/tos, = <#)oj//* with epenthetic t on account of the 
 retention of it in the following syllable ; O. H. G< /##<?, 
 murderer ; (?) E. &z/z. 
 
 <cp, Skr. M0r, <^>epw, <^>epT without tach- vowel = 
 ferte, ^>eperpov, </>aperpa, </>opos, </)opro5 ; y^r^, ferculum, 
 Feretrius, jertilis, ferax, fors, for tuna, fortuitus ; Gothic 
 bairan ; O. H. G. //># =fero, purdi = burde ; Gothic 
 gabaurths; O. H. G. <^nz , H. G. &*A/v, ^r, in composi- 
 tion ; E. ^r, iVrM. 
 
 <Hyos> f a gus; Gothic ^^/ O. G. poucha, H. G. 
 buche ; E. &?<?<r^, Sec. 13, 2. 
 
48 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 Sec. 9, 5 ; flare, flos,floreo,fluo ; Gothic uf-btesan ; O. H. 
 G.pldsan; Gothic bloma ; O. H. G. pluomo, H. G. blume , 
 E. bloom; O. H. G. pluohan, H. G. bluhen. 
 
 < X c y <Ae'yo>, <Xo ; flagrare, flamma, flamen ; fulgeo, 
 fulgur,fulmen. 
 
 <f>pa K </>ptto-cro) = <pox/a>, </>pay/xa ; farcio, farcimen, 
 frequens ; Gothic baurgs ; O. H. G. puruc, H. G. berg, 
 burg ; E. borough. 
 
 <f> p a T a) p, <f>paTr)p, <^>parpa, Ionic ffrpryrprj, (frparpiOL ; 
 f rater, Gothic brothar ; O. H. G.pruodar, H. G. bruder ; 
 E. brother. 
 
 <f>pap, Sec. 37, i ; Gothic brunna; O. H. G. prunno, 
 from brinnan, to burn. 
 
 />v c<w, <^>i;(o, ^>v>y, Averts, <^>ws = /^ breeder^) , ^ITIXO; 
 fufuam, fui, fore; fi in /f^? = /zw compare ^Eolic 
 </>vto), ^/Kff/, anciently fiere, fierem not a passive form ; fe 
 fev fetus, effetus from feo, fevo; fecundus, femina, 
 filius, felix,fenum,fenus see above Sec. 24, 0a; Gothic 
 bauan, to dwell ; O. H. G. /zw, H. G. and E. bin. 
 
 II. XXI. 6, ^Ca/civo's II. XIII. 102; j^, fugio; 
 Gothic biugan ; H. G. biege. 
 
 <l>ijX\ov; folium ; O. L. G. flto/, O. H. G. flat, H. G. 
 blatt; E. 
 
Root Consonants. 49 
 
 B. SEMI-VOWELS. PERSISTENT SOUND OF CON- 
 SONANTS. 
 
 i. LIQUIDS. 
 XXVI. THE NASAL AND DENTAL LIQUID N. 
 
 The Greek v is primitive and radical, answering to the 
 Latin n, and in the following roots, stems, and words cor- 
 responds to the n of the other Indo-Germanic languages : 
 
 dv avcftos ; animus, anima. 
 
 dvr/p, stem drop, dvSpcios, for the 8 in di/Spos Sec. 34, 
 6, rjvoperj, dy^vcop, avflpawros the countenance of man. 
 
 vaF vav vavs, Epic and Ionic vjyvs, vrjios, Doric 
 vdtos ; navis, nauta, nausea. 
 
 V veo>, vrjfjia, vry0a>, \pvfjri<s II. XII. 433; neo ; 
 O. H. G. naan. 
 
 Vf VC'OS, VOT7;9, VfOLfJ II. XXIII. 604, VCttpOS, VtdTOS, 
 
 vctoiTOS, vctatpa, veoo-cros, veavta?, vc^pos = vcfp. with 
 hardened digamma ; novus^ denuo, nuper. 
 
 V K VCKV5, VKp09, VC/CVttt J IICCO, nCX. 
 
 vcft v/Aw, vo/A05, voftt^ w > vp,<Tt<s " imputatio ? Numa, 
 numerus, nummus. 
 
 V<T vc veo/xat, vtVo-o/xat, vooro?, NeWwp. 
 
 vi ^ /z/ ;//^ vt</>a), vt<#)a acc., vt<^ci9, VK^CTOS ; /:r 
 = w ^> gen. 0/zw == nigyis, mngit, nasalized = nigvit ; 
 Gothic snaivs, O. H. G. sneo, H. G. schnee y E. j^'. 
 
 v v vcvcu, vev/xa ; nuo, tinmen, nutus. 
 
 ovo/^a = oyi/o/ia from the root yi/o, Sec. 20, compare 
 Sec. 9, 5, Ionic owo/xa, ^Eolic ow/xa, di/aW/xos, I/WVU/AVOS ; 
 nomen homgnomen, compare cognomen, ignominia ; Gothic 
 namo, H. G. namen, E. name. 
 
 4 
 
50 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 o v v , unguis ; H. G. nagal, nagel, E. nail. 
 
 wvos, wcofiat, Greek root fa>v, hence the syllabic 
 augment in OWOU/MTV ; venum eo, do, veneo, vendo. 
 
 Changes of v before mutes : 
 
 v, which is a nasal and also a dental liquid, is affected 
 before the mutes according to the classes to which they 
 belong; it remains unchanged before the dental mutes in 
 Korea), (nro'ScD, Xav6dv<D ; is changed into the labial and 
 nasal liquid p. before the labial mute in KC^TI-TO), a/xca>, 
 Aa/x/Sai/a), nasalized from Xaft ; and becomes a guttural 
 before a guttural mute, ayKvpa, ayyeXos, Xay^ava>, a na- 
 salized present form of the root Xa^. 
 
 XXVII. THE NASAL AND LABIAL LIQUID M. 
 
 This is original and fundamental in : 
 
 a p. d//,ao>, a/x^ros; meto, messis, messor ; H. G. mat, 
 E. math. 
 
 ap, sam ajua, ^olic a//,vSis, O/AOV, O/AOS, O/AOIOS ; simul^ 
 similis, simultas ; H. G. ^w, sammt ; E. same : Sec. 30. 
 
 d//,t/2a>, moveo, Sec. 22. 
 
 d/xvvw, /xvn; Homeric; munio, moenia, murus. 
 
 p. a /xao/x,at, /x,w/xat, /xe/x-aymev, /xat/xaco, /xareua), aTT/oort- 
 /x,a(TTOS II. XIX. 263. 
 
 jx, c w<3r /JL^I/ = ft?;vs, Ionic ^cts, pjn?, = /^^ measurer, 
 /xcrptn/, /u/Ao//,ai, thence imitor, imago = mimago ; mensis, 
 metare, metiri, modus, mos, nimis, ni-m-is comparative 
 adverb, without measure ; Gothic mena, menoth, O. H. G. 
 manot, H. G. mond, monat, E. moon, month. 
 
 fji y W^ /AttK /Ac'yas, /xa/cpos, /XT}KO?, d/x,atftaKTos ; 
 magnus, major, magis, macto, mactt. 
 
Root Consonants. 51 
 
 /x, 6 v fiav fiva /xeo), fiefos ; /xatyofuu, /mvia ; 
 p,vrjp,r) ; maneo, memini, mens, comminiscor, moneo. 
 
 /xp /Aap /xcpi/zra, /Ap/A77ptu> ; memor, memor ia. 
 
 /A o- o 5, /Aeoxros, /AeWaTos, /xo-(TcxTtos, /Ae(To^yvs ; mcdius, 
 dimidius, meridies, euphonic substitution of r for *// 
 H. G. mi//;, E. mid(dle). 
 
 prJTrjp, Doric //.cmyp; mater ; O. H. G. muotar, H. G. 
 mutter, E. mother. 
 
 p* i y e/uyr/v, /uyS^v, /x,tyw/xt, /xto^yca = /uycrK(o, /xtf is ^ 
 misceo, mixtus, mistus ; O. H. G. miskiu, H. G. mischen^ 
 E. w/^. 
 
 /xtv fjLivvw, /xtiAu^a), /uVuv#a, /xctW; minuo, minor ^ 
 minister ; Gothic minnists = minimus, E. w//. 
 
 /xoX ^/xoXciv, jSAojor/co) = /x^AaxTKco, compare 
 and Sec. 34, 6, /xe/x^XwKa, compare a^poros. 
 
 /A o p /xap /Sporos = /x/3poros, mortuus, a/xjSporos, a^ 
 TOS = d/xp. ; /xapaiVw J /JL^OTTCS (?) y rather root /xap7r(TO>) ; 
 morior, marcesco. 
 
 p. v /xvw, /xvorrys ; mutus, musso* 
 
 XXVIII. THE LINGUAL LIQUID A. /. 
 
 a A avaXros Homeric ; #/<?, alumnus, coalesce, also 
 
 ?, compare ^? from ^^?, ^/z/^^ / so too 0/ i 
 olesco, olus, abolitus* adultus = adolitus, exolesco, proles 
 from pro-olo, suboles. The root d\ is extended to dXS 
 dX^ in dXSatvw, 7 nourish, aX0o/xcu r dX^atVco, / 7/^// 
 H. G. *#, E. ^ d^r. 
 
 dX dXr;, dXaor^at y dXoy, aXeo/xat, aXvaprjv r dXcctVctv 
 dXcwp^, -^Xeos, rj\iOLo<s, dXtrctv, dXcm/s, dXtTiy/xwv r dXtr^/xci/09, 
 
52 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 y a X a, Stem yaXa/cr = yXaKT, yXayos, yXa/CTO<ayo9 II. 
 XIII. 6, yuXatfryvos, see 0a Sec. 24 ; toe, stem /#<:/. 
 
 fcX FaX to throng, eiXoo, caX^v, dXet's, ccX/mi, cTXap, 
 tX>7, o/uXos ; 0X19, dXia, dXta>, ^Xiata, eiXr/s, aoXX^?, dcXX^?, 
 doXXia>. 
 
 fcX eXvw I revolve, etXvw I enwrap, tXv<^aa) II. XL 
 156, tXvcaa), tXXas II. XIII. 572, oXooiVpoxos, ^ rolling 
 stone, ib. 137 (ouXai, ovXoxvrac, dXew, I grind?); IXtWw, 
 IXtf , eXtKojTres ; for the digamma compare II. XVI. 569 ; 
 volvo ; O. H. G. wellan. 
 
 Xa X^a, XtXato//,at, XeXt'r/ju-at, Xtiav, Xwtov, Xuxrros, Xapo?^ 
 iasrivus ; Xaf Xacov, Xa = Xaf. Od. XIX. 229; Xau 
 uTroXavo/xat, Xcta, XT/I'S ; lucrum ; H. G. and E. lust. 
 
 Xaos, X^tro?, Xctrovpyta; O. H. G. ///. 
 
 Xcy Xeyco, Xoyos, Xecr^^ ; lego etc., also Itgumen, dili- 
 gens, neglego, intellego, religens, God-fearing, compare dXeyw 
 II. XVI. 388, opposed to neglegens, religio, or from ligare 
 = a chained conscience (?). 
 
 Xctos, Xctorrys, XetatVw ; levis, levigare. 
 
 Xexptos, Xe)(pt9 J Xt/cp/>t9 II. XIV. 463, Od. XIX. 
 451, with suffix <t </ and s of the plural, compare 
 Latin bus, Xofos; obliquus, stem //V, /^^^, disjointed; 
 H. G. and E. link. 
 
 Xix Xet^w, Xtx/^ao), Xt^vos, 7TL\iySr)v ; lingo, ligurio ; 
 O. H. G. /*#&?, E. //^, lickerish. Sec. 23. 
 
 X v /0 /^^, Xva> 5 ^/z/^7 = seluo, luo, I expiate ; X v 
 /^? r/^, X{5/xa, Xv/xatVo/xat, XOVGJ from Xoew, thence 
 Xocoxrai, Xorat contracted from Xoerat or XoveTai ; hi in 
 pollno, diluo, adluo, alluvies ; lav in lavere, lavare, 
 lautus ; lustrum. 
 
Root Consonants. 53 
 
 XVK Xv^yosj XCUKOS, Xcixrcrw, oxr from KJ, 
 Xv/ca/3a9, light-path =y ear ; lux, luceo, lucidus, diluculum, 
 lumen = lucmen, luna = lucna ; O. H. G. lioht, H. G. 
 licht, E. />&/. 
 
 Xufirj, Idbes, fall, shame, stain, labor, Idbarc, compare 
 Sec. 8, i. 
 
 oXos, ovXos Ionic, entire, compact, ovXe = ^/^<?, ouXiJ a 
 healed wound ; oA.od<p<ov Odyss. from 0X005, of sound 
 mind ; salus, salvus, anciently sollus = entire, safe, sellers, 
 solidus ; H. G. salig, selig, E. silly, O. E. seely. 
 
 o- a X o-oXos, o-oXcvw ; salum. 
 
 <r<f>a\ o-^aXijvat, o-<^aXXa) ; fallo; H. G. fallen^ E. 
 fail, fall. 
 
 XXIX. THE LINGUAL LIQUID P. r. 
 
 a p dpoa), a/ooros, aporpov, apovpa ; cpa, Ipa Jc (?) ; #r0, 
 aratrum, armentum, arvum ; Gothic arjan, O. G. ^mr# 
 (arare) ; Gothic ^/>//w5, O. H. G. erda, H. G. erde (?), 
 E. <?0r,* ^r//5, year. 
 
 dp apa, Homeric pa, ap, apiypa, dpapetv, dpaptcrKO), 
 cpiiJpT/s j aprt, dpTto r 7 dprva) ; dpctW, apxo-ro?, dpcr>/, apt 
 e.g. in apiSstKcros ; dp//x>s, dp/x6a>, apfJLovirjy Homeric, ^ 
 fastening ; arma, artus, ars, iners. 
 
 p cpro~a), cpenys, d//.<^/prys ; ^pt^os ^ hired servant (?) j 
 remus, remex, remigium, ratis, E. r^e/. 
 
 Fcp pa>, tpa), tlprjKa = efp., Ipp-^Orjv = cfp., prjrpa 
 ctp^vr/, oapi'a> (?) ; verbum ; Gothic vaurd, H. G. 
 
 E. 2WY/. 
 
 * The young oxen that A" the ground. Isaiah, ch. v. 
 
54 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 etpofuu, epeV&u, to ask, are different from this, and have 
 no trace of the digamma. 
 
 ep (rep ep/xa, op/xos, crcipa, cipto, thence Taipei/ II. X. 
 499, wit* 1 tne lengthening of the syllabic augment to rj 
 to compensate for the absence of the consonantal 
 beginning, cep/zo/os ; sero, sera, sertum, series, servus. 
 
 6 p opwpa, aipTo, opa-o, opcreo, opw/xt, optVa>, opovto, ovpov 
 <? stretch, Od. VIII. 124, oYcncovpa II. XXIII. 523; 0wr, 
 variation ep in cpxo/xat = cpo-/c. 
 
 op fop /<? watch, opovrat Od. XIV. 104, ovpo?, 
 
 )pOVpOS = TTpOOpO?, Tl/XttOpOS, Tt/XO)pO5, 
 
 TrvXdopo? with varying quantity, TnAwpos, 
 os, wpct, 6paa), wpa)v, instead of the digamma, 
 ovSevo<ro>pa II. VIII. 178, Suoxopryo-axni/ X. 183 ; H. G. 
 7/dr/, warten, E. /^r^/. 
 
 pcTr FpcTr pew, poTH/, poTraXov, makes the foregoing 
 syllable long by position Od. IX. 319, piWw, KaXavpo^, 
 a shepherd's crook, II. XXIII. 845 ; repens. 
 
 piy Fpty ptyos, ptycw, Ipptya, ptytoi/, Karapty^Xo? in 
 which the second syllable is long by position on account 
 of the digamma Od. XIV. 226, t is universally long ; <pi/c 
 i', <piWo> ; frlgus, frigeo, frlgidus ; on the other hand 
 r/^<?, rigidus ; H. G. friusan, frier en (?), E. freeze, 
 frore. 
 
 pv pcto, pevcro), cppv^v, pvftTy, pcv/xa, po?y, pwo/xat, cpco?;, 
 pv^/utos; ?w; O. H. G. stroum points to an original root 
 <rpv, H. G. strom, E. stream. 
 
 Only a few Greek roots which begin with p correspond 
 with roots which begin with r alone in kindred languages. 
 The roots which in those languages begin with r have in 
 
Root Consonants. 55 
 
 Greek a vowel often prefixed to the p, compare e.g. 
 cpevyw, ructo ; opcyw, rego, see Sec. 9, 5. The Greek roots 
 which begin with p have for the most part a digamma at 
 the beginning as p'u>, see Sec. 20 fcpy Fpey, prrywpi, 
 franco, ptyco), peTrco, or a o*, as po, pwo/xat, ./ stream. 
 Hence the p is doubled in the augment, eppec, cppvryv, 
 cppr/fa. Compare for j/r instead of ,rr the Old Latin stlis, 
 $//>, whence /&, H. G. j/ra/, E. 
 
 Interchange of the Lingual Liquids r #//^ 1. 
 
 This change, which is caused by the weakening of r 
 to /, is not confined to Greek, but takes place also partly 
 between Greek and Latin, and partly between one of these 
 and the Teutonic languages. 
 
 i. Within the limits of Greek: apK dX*c in opKcw, 
 dAjoy etc., see Sec. 16; apipTavw, rj//,/2porov, ^wrAaKov ; 
 a//,pya>, d/xeXya), mulgeo, H. G. milch, E. W//^; ^pva> 1 'swell \ 
 / bubble out, compare </>A.v, Sec. 25 ; Kvp KV\ in 
 curvus and ^cvXiw, Kv/cAos, compare circus ; 
 II. X. 360, /cap^aAcos, rough^ sharp ; 
 /otoXww / defile ; ^pap.o's a cleft, ^Xa/xos* name of a 
 mountain ; Seiptos, o-eXas ; cp eX in Ip 
 
 2. Between Greek and Latin : /2ap/2apos, balbus, 
 balbutio ; Kv/cXos, a'mtf see above ; o-cXas, serenus; yth&w, 
 hirundo. 
 
 3. Between Greek and Latin on the one side and the 
 Teutonic languages on the other: /Aappipos, marmor, 
 
 * Liddell and Scott say this is a corrupt form, 
 
56 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 H. G. marmel, E. marble; p.op/j.vpa>, H. G. murmeln, E. 
 murmur ; TrAarv's, H. G. brdt, E. broad ; x/wo-os, Gothic 
 gulth, O. H. G. kold, H. G. and E. gold, see Sec. 23 ; /w 
 from j/w, stlis, stem j////, O. H. G. strit, H. G. tfra*/, E. 
 strife. Compare dX< arbeit Sec. 25. 
 
 2. ORIGINAL SPIRANTS. S (SPIRITUS ASPER). f. JOD. 
 
 XXX. THE SIBILANT 5 AND ITS SUBSTITUTE THE 
 ROUGH BREATHING. 
 
 i. The original s is retained in Greek at the end of 
 words, before mutes at the beginning and in the middie 
 of words, less often before a vowel at the beginning. 
 
 a. At the end, so far as the Greek laws of termination 
 permit, compare Sec. 35 : e.g., in /xei/os, stem /ACVCS, Skr. 
 manas, yo/os ; as suffix of the nom. sing. masc. and fern. 
 = TTOTIS, patisy 6\l/ = foTrs, and of the genit. sing. 
 
 ft. At the beginning and in the middle generally before 
 mutes : 
 
 Root cs, to be; 2 sing, com Homeric ; 3 sing, com'; i pi. 
 
 x.o', 2 pi. core ; imp. foOi = ccrtfi, OTTO) etc., impf. dual 
 V, 2 pi. ^crre connected with ^rc ; Latin sum 
 = esum, estj estis, etc. ; Gothic, H. G. ist, E. is. 
 
 c s Fes vasj Latin ves in vestis, ci^v/it = fcor. with 
 assimilated o-, cr is retained in Icrcro, IOTO pluperfect, as 
 also in o-0?fc> wJ/w, see below, Sec. 31; instead of the 
 assimilation of o- there is a compensatory lengthening in 
 or -ctwov II. XXIII. 135. . 
 
Root Consonants. 57 
 
 <rra LcrrrjfjLi, where the or has disappeared at the 
 oeginning of the reduplicated syllable, ewmjKv = eo-c- 
 (mjKtw, see Sec. 17; crop in (rropfvwfu Sec. 1 7 ; <rria, 
 Sec. 31. 
 
 y. At the beginning before a vowel : 
 
 <r a o 5, o-ws, <raoa>, o-a>a>, etc. ; sanus ; O. H. G. gasunt, 
 H. G. gesund, E. sound. 
 
 <r a < 77 5, o-<xos ; j-a//<?, sapor, sapiens, sucus; O. H. G. 
 .ra/5 H. G. ^^/?, E. sap ; s has disappeared in OTTO?, j0/ f 
 E. opium. 
 
 W, serenus, root . 
 
 or ty a o), o-tyry, o-iya, Cretan tya; H. G. swigen, schweigen^ 
 the Greek or here = the original sv, for which the rough 
 breathing ' was used in Greek, compare topws, Sec. 2 1 and 
 below. 
 
 o-vs, connected with s; sus, Gothic, svein, O. H. G. su 9 
 H. G. J^w, E. sow, swine. 
 
 2. Instead of the original and Latin s in the beginning 
 before a vowel, Greek for the most part used the rough 
 breathing ', often interchanged with the smooth breathing. 
 
 aSrjv, aJfyv, aSo^v, a6\>s, OO^KOTCS II. X. 98, also aftcvat, 
 aom, acrao-tfai II. XIX. 307, from da> ; ^//V, satur, satias, 
 satio ; Gothic saths, H. G. satt. 
 
 aXXo/Aai, aXfta, Homeric aorist with the smooth 
 breathing 0X0-0, oXro, eoXro, cTroX/xcvos; salio, saltus, 
 salto. 
 
 a X s, aX/M/, dXjuvpds ; ^/, ^//<?, sa/sus, insulsus, compare 
 H, G. sulza, sulze; H. G. salz^ E. salt. 
 
58 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 a /w,a, a/xuSis, oftov, etc.; simul ; H. G. sam, sammt, 
 see Sec. 27. 
 
 aTraf, root a = set, cbrXovg, semel, simplex. 
 
 IS j#/ in 1809, lo/xai; jtt&r, etc., Sec. 21. 
 
 c K v p d s, JWZT, Sec. 1 6. 
 
 f vos in In; KCU vea, j#2#, etc., compare O. H. G. sinis- 
 kalkus, seneschalk, E. seneschal. 
 
 , IKTOS ; 5<f^c / Gothic saihs, H. G. ^^, E. six. 
 
 O, ^8o/>tos; sept em ; Gothic j/^w, H. G. sieben, E. 
 
 CTT ciro/u,at, sequor ; o- before a mute is retained in 
 rctv, compare IO-TTCTC, see Sec. 19, 2. 
 IpTTw, serpo / etpTTov = ccre/arrov, see Sec. 1 8. 
 ^ 8 L' s, suavis, ' = sv ; not aspirated ^8os, OLCT/ACVOS, see 
 8, Sec. 21. 
 
 17 A t o g, ^cXtos, auselius ( Aurelius) ; as vA^, 7^, J//^. 
 s, semi , semis ; O. H. G. ,$w;// . 
 
 not aspirated TSos, ffiwo, see Sec. 21. 
 6 X K d s, IA.KO), having lost the rough breathing o>\f, ace. 
 wX/ca, Doric wAaf , Attic 0X0^ ; sulcus. 
 
 0X05, not aspirated ovXos Ionic ; salvus, anciently 
 sollus. Sec. 28. 
 
 o v, ot, I, pronoun stem I, cos, os, ^^wj / ^^/, sibi, se, 
 originally sve y crFe, hardened into o-^c, suus ; tStos = 
 
 v I o s, Gothic sunus, H. G. .ft?^, E. 
 
 V1TO, V7Tp, VTTTtOS, VTTttTOS J .w 
 
 mus, summus. 
 
 VTTVOS, somnus = sopnus, sopor; the Gothic 
 differs from this, O. H. G. sla/an, E. 
 
Root Consonants. 59 
 
 6, 77, article, a form with the rough breathing from the 
 original pronominal stem sa, see Pronouns. 
 
 3. <r has disappeared : 
 
 a. In the beginning of words before vowels, besides the 
 cases of change from the smooth to the rough breathing 
 noticed above, in oXoxos, also dSeA<o9; the so-called copula 
 d = d in aTras, a7Ta|, a/*a = sa, sam, Sec. 27, instead of this 
 also 6, compare O/AOV, a/*a, in OTrarpos = o/xoTrarpos, oyacrrwp; 
 ex <rx in e^co, Sec. 23 ; erraA/ca = ear. = (rear. 
 
 /:?. At the beginning before liquids : /u*pos, ayujcpos, 
 Ionic and Old Attic ; vea> = orcFw, / swim, thence the 
 Homeric impf. eWeov II. XXI. n ; vevpa, O. H. G. snuor, 
 vuos, nurus, O. H. G. snur ; vi<j>a, nix, O. H. G. sneo, E. 
 j^^e/ / pv o-pv in pew, thence cppi/^v, H. G. strom, E. 
 stream, Sec. 29, compare /, Sec. 29; compare the dis- 
 appearance of j/ in locus, anciently stlocus. 
 
 y. In the beginning before mutes : TTTWD, spuo, speien, 
 spit, Sec. 1 8 ; TrcVo/xai, TTOVOS, compare o-vravts ; K^dwv^i 
 
 S., KtSva/xcu orfctSv.; reyos, tectum, crrcyos; ravpos, H. G. 
 E. j/^^r/ the 5 disappearing in tabula, root j/0. 
 
 8. In the middle of a word before //, : ct/xt = ecr/u, for 
 compensatory lengthening, Sec. 9, 2, compare el/xat = 
 cr//,at, or directly from the ^Eolic l^i by the preceding 
 assimilation of the o-; ayx is moreover a common collocation 
 of sounds in the middle of words, compare TreVetcr/Acu. 
 
 c. In the middle of a word between vowels, see Sec. 9, 
 i, c ; with regard to the change of the Latin s between 
 Towels into r, Sec. n, 3. 
 
 The repugnance of Greek to o- is especially shown 
 
60 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 before vowels at the beginning of words, and between 
 vowels in the middle of words. There is found also a 
 partial and cautious abandonment, even in the Old ^Eolic 
 and Ionic dialects, of the /-sound, which frequently took 
 the place of <r, by weakening it into the smooth breathing. 
 
 XXXI. THE LABIAL, SEMI- VOWEL SPIRANT f, cor- 
 responding to the Latin v, sporadically represented 
 by the rough breathing in Greek, at the beginning 
 of a word. 
 
 i. The Greek F has disappeared, or is turned into the 
 vowel v, and is only now to be recognized by the traces 
 it has left, and by comparison with kindred languages, 
 Sec. n, 2. 
 
 d F arjfjiL, arjro, OL^TOS, d^rr/s, Sucrcnys, d^p, dcXXa, avpa 
 xuXr} ; avcu / call, diWs, di5r^, dvrea>, thence the Homeric, 
 xvcws = dVaFos, 10017 with reduplication ; dcom to sleep, wuxo 
 reduplicated present; at<rOv 1 breathe out ; dvr/^, H. G 
 atum, athem ; ventus, Gothic vinds, E. wind. 
 
 a T au dt(D = dFtw, alorOdvofjiaiy probably also cTnyn/?. 
 Od. XIII. 332, eTnyrvs XXI. 306 ; ovs, <OTOS, ovara 
 Homeric ; audio, oboedio, auris, ausculto ; Gothic auso, 
 H. G. ohr, E. ear. 
 
 a t L = aifet, locative form, atoii/, dtStos, 
 aevum, aetas aevitas ; Gothic /z/j, /m<?, O. H. G. 
 law, wedlock, E. ^ztfr, H. G.je, nie = ni-aiv, E. 
 
 c a p = Fea/s, ^p 
 
 Fep cppw, eppe, cppeVa), Ippwv, Homeric 
 etc. ; z/^r^?, 7 
 
Root Consonants. Oi 
 
 ft vi irea, willow i vitis, vimen, vietus, pliant, withered, 
 O. H. G. wid, H. G. weide ; thence olvos, vinum = voinum, 
 vinea ; H. G. wein, E. wine. 
 
 Compare Fi8 vid in i8//,v, oTSa, rra>p, ft&ft&, Sec. 21. 
 cAvo), volvo ; O!KOS = FOIJC., vicus ; (pyoi/ = Fcpy., H. G. ze/r, 
 E. work ; FCTT in en-os, Z'^Jcy /xca>, vomo ; tov, viola; 109, 
 z//>fcs / ts, /s, with suff. t<^)t, thence adj. t^tos, wV ; F in the 
 middle of a word : 6ts = oFis, ovis ; wdv = wFtov, ovum ; vcos 
 = vcFo?, novus; TrXcw = TrXcFw root TrXv, //w^7 =pluio,pluvia. 
 
 2. Original F, Latin #, is represented by sp. asp. ' : 
 F c <r ves cwvfjii = Fcorvu/u, ct//,a, ^Eolic l/x/ta = Fctr/xa, 
 Od. III. 348. The digamma is traceable in 
 Trtct/xei'o?, rcraTO ; lavos, ctavo? subst., ctavos 
 pliant ; vestis, vestio ; ' has disappeared in o-0?fc. 
 
 Compare IcrTrepos, vesper ; Icrrta, Ion. tort??, cortao), Attic 
 imperfect clomW = cFeor., ^/d:, root 7^^, #j in r^7, 
 Sec. 33 ; tbrwp, connected with to-ra>p = Fi&rop, urro^ta 
 from Ft8, z>/. 
 
 / vad, Sec. 21. 
 
 3. For the change of F to a vowel see Sees. g. n. 
 
 XXXII. THE PALATAL, SEMI-VOWEL SPIRANT JOD has 
 disappeared in Greek, and is retained as the Latin 
 >, English y,g. 
 
 See Sees. 9. n. 34, for examples of/ becoming a 
 vowel, for its disappearance, assimilation, and amalgama- 
 tion with other letters. 
 
 The original / as the beginning of a root is represented 
 in Greek : 
 
62 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 i. By the mixed sound , which has arisen from dj, 
 
 vy -jug^vyov, fcvywjui, foWv/u ; jugum, jungo, 
 jumentum, jugis, united together, therefore lasting, juxta 
 a superlative form = jugista ; Gothic juk, H. G. jock, E. 
 yoke ; original rootju v&jus, right = bond. Perhaps iden- 
 tical with this is : 
 
 v ju, to mix = to bind together, in fup? leaven, 
 tppv^jus, soup. 
 
 f cor =jas in few I seethe, efco/Aai, fcW; O. H. G. 
 gerjan, zlsojesan, H. G. gischt, compare jast, E. yeast. 
 
 Z c v s = S/'cvs, Juppiter = ^/. from the root ^w, ^V, 
 Sec. 21. 
 
 8t^r//xat reduplicated form = StS/'^at, so too 8:'w II. 
 XVI. 713, probably also Si<ao> ibid. 747 ; root fa, 77 = 
 d^'0 ja, to go, strive, seek, C^rcw. 
 
 fa ^Eolic in composition = S/'a = Sta : fa^o? 
 
 2. By 8 alone instead of 8j in f : 
 8a = the above-named fa for 8ta in Sacr/ctos, 
 &y = djainjam. 
 
 3. By the rough breathing e in ^Tra/s, jecur, Skr. yakrt, 
 Sec. 6, 3, Sec. 19, 2 ; os, 17, o = ^^ relative and demon- 
 strative pronoun, see below. 
 
 kja LrjfjiL reduplicated =jijami, causative form of ja, 
 to go, see above impf. IT/I/, 2, 3 sing, tcis, tct according to 
 the analogy of contracted verbs, Epic aorist cry/cei/ with 
 syllabic augment instead of the/ at the beginning of the 
 root ; el//,ev with augment, e/x,ev, d^enyv without augment, 
 
Consonantal Laws of Sound. 63 
 
 II. XIX. 402 I aytcv = W/ACV ; thence ^//,a, ^LUDV II. XXIII. 
 886, 891. 
 
 4. By the smooth breathing, or it disappears in la?? 
 reduplicated =///. compare jacio, an extension of the 
 root/# to/cwr, La tin jac. 
 
 XXXIII. GREEK PURE VOWEL ROOTS. 
 
 av eu avo) / burn, I dry, aa> I wither, cvw, cva> J 
 avos, avaXcos, avcm/pos, av^/Aos J e<os, ^<os, avcos 
 vptov, ^P l > ^cptos ; ?AT in an? == ^?w<?, w/, ustus, 
 aridus, aurora = ausosa ; original root vas = us in Vesta, 
 orta, Sec. 31, 2. 
 
 ^ ^in ^t, 3 sing, rjri Doric, pret. 1 sing, ^v, 3 sing. 
 r) ; ajo = agjo, adagium, nego. 
 
 I et/xt, i pi. ifiev, 3 pi. tcuri, imperf. ^ta, Att. -gctv, 
 ^/Av with temporal augment, CIO-O/AOI, eto-aro, tros, t^a, 
 
 OITOS, ot/Aos, ot/xa, ot/xaa) ; fw^ //WW / ?, Z^/, ^w/ with 
 
 assimilation of the radical vowel i before o and to e, 
 tier, indutiae = induitiae, compare the archaic induperator 
 = imperator ; from the root / in the last instance cer- 
 tainly also atet, aevum, aetas, Sec. 31. 
 
 XXXIV. CONSONANTAL LAWS OF SOUND. 
 
 These relate to the changes which take place in con- 
 sonants under the influence of other consonants. They 
 are as follows : 
 
 i. Assimilation (a) regressive, of the preceding sound 
 to that which follows : er to the following v, /A, in 
 
64 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 from FOT., C/A/U Doric = e<r/u, ct/u' ; of the originally ex- 
 isting spirants o-, F to pin eppvTjv, Treptppvros from pv, <rpv, 
 appr/KTOS = dfp ; of the labials to /A, rerpijuju-ai from Tpt/?a>, 
 Ko/A/105 = KOTT/X,., ypd/A//,a = ypa</*,a ; of the dentals to a or 
 <r <r (for the most part to one only) : TTOO-OT, Trocrt = 71-080-1, 
 = 1780-., Sioju,curt = rcrt, awo-ts = T<rt5, /copvcrt = 
 Sat/xocrt = overt ; 
 () Progressive, of the following sound to the preceding : 
 f,y in ei/vos ^Eolic from fo/fo? Doric, rerrapcs from rerf., 
 tTrfos, iKfo?, equus^ -^Eolic Kew>5, KTW(n from KCV/'OS, 
 = /xaA/ov from /x,aA,a, compare melius, 
 a\j. compare W/b, aXXos = dX/. a//^, (rrcAAo 
 = crreX/'co ; TT = T/ : ^TTO)]/ = ^r/W, originally T7/c/W, com- 
 pare rJKLo-Ta ; eXaTrojv = r/W, originally cXa^/W, compare 
 IXaxvs', instead of the assimilation of the <r of the first 
 aorist to X/utvp preceding, a compensatory lengthening 
 of the syllable takes place : corciXa, ^Eolic lorcXXa, from 
 corcAcra, t<^ryva = </)avcra, T^TT 6 ^ 1 == ^yycXcra, cyctvaro, 
 ^Eolic eyei/varo, from cycvo-aro. 
 
 2. The approximation (0) of the foiegoing sound to the 
 following : before T arid o- only a tenuis (XCKTO? from /Xcy, 
 A efts = AcKo-ts, SCKTOS from Sc^), before 8 a medial (ypa/28>?v 
 from ypa<), before ^ an aspirate (eAcx&yv). The dentals 
 8, T, change into the spirant o- before /x. Tjwoyxat (avvr), 
 TrcVctcr/xat (TTI^) ; on the other hand tS/xci/ Ionic, con- 
 nected with tcr/Aei/, oS/xiy, KCAcopvfyxeVos ; the gutturals K, x 
 into y, 8oy/xa from 8o/c, Truy/xat from TV^> like tK)u,ei/os, 
 d/ca^eVos (reduplicated root d/c) Ionic ; T before t in the 
 endings of stems and inflexions, except in Doric, changes 
 
Consonantal 
 
 into o-, ^qo-i, Doric fart, on the contrary TI of the 3 p. 
 sing, is retained in eort ; <epovo-i, Doric </>poi/ri, Ti0eio-i = 
 TiOevTi, <ao-i, Doric <ai/ri, ctKocrt, Doric Ft/cart, yepovo-ia = 
 ycpovTta, avaurOrjo'ia from dvatcr^ros, TrXovcrtos from TrXovros, 
 OT;, Doric TV. () Of the following sound to the prece- 
 ding, 07(6^0), from cr/aS, scindo, scidi (from the aspirated 
 tenuis, under the influence of the preceding spirant a-), 
 irdoyo) from TTOO-KO), TraO&Ku, cp^o^ou = cpcr/c. after the dis- 
 appearance of the o-. 
 
 3. The blending of two sounds in one mixed and 
 hissing sound : fy\ yj into f ; at the beginning of a root, 
 vs, ^a ^Eolic, Sec. 32, i ; in the beginning of a word, 
 , (T^o) = o^(t8;o>, Tpa?rc^a = TTpa7re8/a, 
 = ay/., ayios, /cpafw = /cpay/'a), oria>, 
 Sec. 17, /Act^wv = /xey/W, /xeya?, magnus ; on the other 
 hand, IpSw from fcpy/w instead of ep^w, by metathesis 
 pefo), Sec. 20. T/, #/, /c/, ^/, into o- o- (assibilation) ; 
 Aicrcrofwu = AIT/., compare A.iTC(r0ai, XtTiy ; /xeXtcro-a = 
 = i//,avT/a>, where the i/ disappears before <r, 
 T/CO, epcT/xos ; Kpcticrcroiv = Kptrjuv " 9 Kopvcrcra) 
 #/o>, y8dcro-a>v = ^afy'. from /3aOv<s J -Treororw = 7reK/a> from 
 K (^) connected with TTCTT, Sec. 1 9 ; ?rtWa == TrtK/a, 
 /Jr y oo-o-e = oK/e (pculus\ SO too oWo/xat ; oo-o-a = oK/a 
 Sec. 19, 2); ^o-o-cov = rjKJwv, yXiJcro-wv from yXv/cvs ; 
 from 7rXa/c, Trp^o-o-co, Trpdo-o-co from ?rpafc, <^>pdo-o-a> 
 from <pa,K (K weakened to y in 7rX^y^v, 7T7rpaya, c<^>pcty>;v), 
 <picro-a> from <^>ptK, avao-Q-a = dvaK/a ; cXdo-o-wv 
 
 * from ^pa^v?, bre(g)vis (not 
 from Ta^vs. A single instance of oxr = /' occurs 
 
 5 
 
66 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 in 7rpo</>pocro-a Homeric feminine of 7rpo<pa)v = 7rpo<paoy/ca 
 instead of the expected as in 
 
 4. Dissimilation to avoid identity of sound : change of 
 dentals before T and into or ; to-rop from FtcV., dworos 
 
 = dvVT-TOS, TTIOTIS, "TTtOTTOS == 7T10T., 7TMT^Vai = 7T100. J 
 
 the same also happens when the v disappears before <r ; 
 from the stem KCVT, iriiroa-Oe for 7rc7rooT for 
 
 5. Phonetic law of the aspirates: avoidance of aspirates 
 at the beginning of two syllables which follow each 
 Other: mOrjv, eruOrjv, from the roots Oe, Ov, auOrjTL for o-o)^- 
 #i, compare d//,7rxo>, e/ccxetpta ; on the other hand, xvOrjv 9 
 <f>dQi. When according to the laws of sound a loses its 
 aspirate at the end of a root it is transferred to a at the 
 beginning of a root, rptxos Op, rpexw 0peo/*at, TO^? 
 0ao-cra>v = rax/., on the other hand when san aspirate if 
 retained at the end of a root before 0, still stands at 
 the beginning instead of r ; 
 
 6. Insertion of a sound : between vp, /*p, /x\ in avSpos =* 
 dvpos, notice however the remarkable shortening of the 
 first syllable in dvSpor^-a II. XVI. 857. XXIV. 6, which 
 takes no notice of the consonant which is inserted, 
 ya/x/?pos = ya/xpos, /AGO7//,/2pta = ftpta, a/x/?poro5, short- 
 ened into a/Spores II. XIV. 78, = d/xporos from /xpo = 
 (morior) ; ^/x^porov = ^/xporov, by metathesis from 
 
 v, thence d^pord^o/xcv II. X. 65, compare 
 KOV J /A/x.^X(OKa = (JL(j.\. from /x-oX, 
 
Consonantal Laws of Sound. 67 
 
 Homeric = /x,e/*A. = p,cp.eX.r)Tai, lp.cp.eX.rjTO. In 
 the beginning /3p, fiX, instead of />tp, //A; /?poros = ^ipor., 
 /?X<ikrKa> = //AoxTKO), /xoXcii/. vTTfjiv^vK with epenthetic 
 v, II. XXII. 491, as in I/WU//.VGS, is an exception. 
 
 7. The loss of consonants : cr between vowels see 
 above ; between consonants ren;<0 = <o-0 ; of T 
 in Kcpws = Kcparos, stem Kepar, <^>ep6t = ^cpcrt, see below ; 
 of v between vowels in /*i'ovs from /mfoveg, before o- in 
 </>cporcrt, with compensatory lengthening of sound, KCOTOS 
 from KCVOT ; of IT, v8 in ycpovcrt = rrcrt, (TTrctcra) = 
 Sec. 9, 2 ; 1 1, 3. 
 
 8. Change of position, or metathesis of the root conso- 
 nants : Qav Ova in flavctv, Ovrjo-KM, Opa Oap in ^pao-o?, 
 ^apo-os ; Se'SopKa, ISpaKov, see Variations of Roots, Sec. 
 37.4- 
 
 9. Law of reduplication : Of two consonants at the 
 beginning of a word the first only is reduplicated ; of the 
 aspirates the first only of their component parts the cor- 
 responding tenuis K, T, TT, yeypa^a, -rrc^uKa, 7re<i/ov = 
 
 KcxupriKa ; present reduplication with the vowel t, 
 OTO-T., r#fy/u, KLxwtu- For further details see 
 below on Present and Perfect Stems ; the metathesis of 
 the reduplication c/x/^opc = ftc/xope, is like that in stems 
 which begin with p. 
 
68 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 XXXV. THE LAWS OF THE ENDING. 
 
 i. The Greek language dislikes consonantal endings. 
 No word ends in a mute, except OVK from ov\i, and IK 
 from e| = /cs, but semi-vowels only v, p, <r (i/r, ) close 
 the word. Other consonants are discarded, or changed 
 into v, cr ; c</>epe(T), <jf)pov(T), Xyot(r), Xcyera^r), 805 = 
 S = 8o0i, yaXa = yaXa/cTj TTCU vocative = 7rai8, yvvai = 
 yuvai/c, ai/a = di/a/cr, ycpov = ycpovr ; T disappears in the 
 neuter pronoun TI = TIT, compare quid ; T at the end of 
 a word is changed into s in the neuter participle, ci8o, 
 from etSor, and in adverbs in us, originally COT. So o- dis- 
 appears before consonants at the end of a word ; in oimos 
 arpe/xa, ax/ot ', in <t as suffix of the plural, on the other 
 hand compare Xi/cpi^fe, nobis. 
 
 2. Greek endings do not allow every combination 
 of the final o- with the foregoing consonant ; TTOVS from 
 TroSg, <r6r]<; = ecr^rs, rcpas == rcpars, Sat^cov oi/s, 
 
 - Ol/TS, CtSwS == - FOTS, /U-T/T^p - /3S, TTOl/X^V - 
 
 COTS, rt^cts = Tt^evrs, a compensatory lengthening ; on 
 the other hand, however, </>aXay, Xvyf, <Xof, KoXa^, oi/^, 
 aXs. 
 
 3. The original m in ist pers. sing, and ace. sing, 
 becomes v or is discarded ; v in person-endings from /*,. 
 
 ^v, connected with ^a? c> ?> compare eram from 
 in the optative of verbs in /xt cfyv ; 
 compare 8oi from 8o/x,, ycyova(/At), oT8a, ^olic 
 
 ; Trare/oa, original form pataram ; compare 
 
Laws of Endings. 69 
 
 4. The so-called ephelkystic v, or v suffixed, is not 
 original, but a supplementary extension of a word ending 
 with a vowel by taking v to avoid the elision and strengthen 
 the final syllable; in eXeyo/ the v appears after the r which 
 originally ended the word is discarded. This v becomes 
 fixed in ist pers. plur. of the verb /ACV, from the original 
 ^ S = m as, mast, after the disappearance of the s; 
 from <^>epo/xe, original and Doric 
 
 5. Latin is less capricious in its endings. It allows 
 the guttural and dental tenues even in combination with 
 other consonants, lac, hunc, sunt, est, and differs from 
 the Greek in admitting m, d, I. It avoids only the labial 
 tenuis, as well as the combination of two mutes, lac instead 
 of fact; d is discarded in the ablative singular and adverb, 
 paired, fadllumed, but retained in the neuter pronoun 
 quid) id; with regard to the disappearance of s see Sec. 
 n, 3; and in case-endings, Sec. 47. 
 
PART II. 
 
 FORMATION OF ROOTS AND STEMS. 
 
 XXXVI. CONCEPTION OF ROOTS AND THEIR FORMA- 
 TION REDUPLICATION PRIMARY AND SECONDARY 
 ROOTS. 
 
 i . A root is the simplest combination of sounds which 
 contains a meaning without the help of any elements of 
 grammatical relation. It expresses an idea without any 
 sort of close and concrete definition or application. 
 
 It has no pronominal suffix this first appears in forming 
 stems and words to express the noun and verb ; it is 
 therefore in itself neither nominal nor verbal, but ex- 
 presses indifferently the sense of naming or of affirming 
 denoted by the noun and verb ; it is purely abstract. 
 
 For example, the primitive root da is the common 
 source of the verbs 6Y8o>/u, do, of the nouns Sor^p, SOTO'S, 
 800-19, dator, datus, dos, donum. Apart, therefore, from 
 those noun and case endings which go to form the stem, 
 and simply by reason of its general signification, it can 
 designate, though in a non-differentiated and vague manner, 
 the giver, the recipient, and the gift. Deprived, however, of 
 the predicative verbal suffixes it can mean nothing so 
 
Roots and their Formation. 71 
 
 precise as "he gives" etc. The bare root can no more 
 contain such a synthesis of a subject with a predicate 
 denoting a judgment, than it can imply the distinction 
 between the thing done and the doer of it, or the defini- 
 tions of sex and case. 
 
 2. Since the root is unable to express relation or con- 
 crete definition, it follows that it is not admitted by itself, 
 as a mere root, into developed language. By linguistic 
 analysis, it is artificially discovered and made clear, so 
 that 
 
 (a) From a word can be subtracted not only all elements 
 of grammatical relation, or pronominal suffixes, but also 
 their influence on the sound of the root, as conditioned 
 by the laws of sound. 
 
 (/?) The root-vowel also, which has been lengthened 
 or increased, can be traced back to its simple and short 
 fundamental vowel. 
 
 (y) Lastly, a sound which has been in any way lost at 
 the end or from the body of a word can be supplied through 
 the comparison of fuller and more original root-forms of the 
 same or cognate languages. Compare for example, con', 
 root es ; riOrip.1 Of. ; umy/u ora ; vywp,i vy, jungo jug , 
 Zev's, Jupp. div> dju (ju, jov)\ o/x,<u sed; fy/u c, ja\ 
 , Trams iriO ; cl/u, otros t ; ct/u, cl-rjv, la cs, 
 
 /x,ao-(ro)v, /A->7/co9, magnus, major JU^XK, mag ; laSa, 
 
 suavi sva ; tSta>, [Spws, sudor, sveiz svid ; o^, vox 
 T, voc ; pew, eppvryi/, O. H. G. stroum, E. stream from 
 o-pv, etc. 
 
J2 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 3. Closely connected with the lengthening and increase 
 of the root-vowel is a further amplification of the root in 
 order to express relation. This also must be removed 
 in order that the pure root may be reached, and is called 
 
 REDUPLICATION. It consists of a full or partial itera- 
 tion of the root in order to express a more intensive 
 meaning, and is found both in the noun and in the verb . 
 In the noun, for example in d/cw/o; root ok, dycoy^ root ay, 
 St8a^ root 8aK, oy>7 root fay, 10)77 root <*F, tov0os, not 
 Homeric, from the root avO ; partly with increase of the 
 vowel in the root-syllable, as in T?/TV/X,OS, partly with the 
 reduplicate vowel weakened to i, compare ciconia, cicatrix^ 
 analogous to the verbal present reduplication, partly with 
 both; without this in //.ap/xapos root //,a/>, Kayjcavos root 
 Kaf, Kapxapos root x a p m x 01 / ^ " "^ with which compare 
 furfur ; lastly in nouns such as XatXai^, SatSaXcos, TratTra- 
 Aoeis, d/jiaiju,aKTos with diphthongal reduplication. 
 
 The verbal reduplication is partly variable, and so to 
 speak transitory, attaching to individual tense stems. In 
 the present tense it expresses duration, in the perfect, 
 conclusion of the action, in the aorist it simply intensifies 
 the meaning. Partly it is stable, and in one sense goes 
 back to the root itself, as especially in certain Latin verbs ; 
 bibo root -m in 7riVo>, po \i\potus, Sec. 18, coquo reduplicated 
 root coc, compare TTCK, TTCTT, Sec. 19, 2, vivo reduplicated 
 root gvig, vig in vixi, compare quicken, originally gi=* 
 /2i in /5tos, vi Sec. 22. The Greek verbal reduplication 
 on the other hand, except for example in toAAw, to 
 iavo), is almost peculiar to certain tense-stems, 
 
 , as compared with IOT^I/, root ora; Kixprjju, as 
 
Primary and Secondary Roots. 73 
 
 compared with e^ryo-a root ^pa ; TTITTTW, Trcorctv, root 7T6T ; 
 
 V, TTCti^O). 
 
 4. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ROOTS. Other exten- 
 sions of the original root exist in guttural, dental, 
 and labial affixes to the original vowel- ending, which 
 have coalesced more or less firmly with the root, and 
 are universally or partially retained in the verbal in- 
 flexions. 
 
 These are the so-called root-determinatives, which 
 stamp with greater distinctness the idea of a root. Com- 
 pare firy> u Sec. 32, TTTOX, TITO, Sec. 1 8, Sax in SiSaovca) from 
 theoriginal So, in Se'Sac Sec. 21, //,a0, iraO in /xa0eti/, 
 from the original /x,a, ?ra, TrAa, TrXaO in TrtJaTrX^ 
 rrX^os ; /W in ///^^?, tutudi and TVTT in TT/TTTO), lead back 
 to a common primitive form tu> TV, which combined the 
 idea of thrusting and striking. 
 
 The shortest form of the root is the most original, and 
 also of the most general meaning : compare /, to go, ed, to 
 eat, da, to give, ju in jus, law and jus, brcth = to bind and 
 mix, vy, jug, to bind together. 
 
 All polysyllabic so-called roots are derivatives, compare 
 aXei< in dXct^xo and Awr in AiVa, cAax in cAa^vs, etc., and 
 leg in levis from legvis. The present stem is very fre- 
 quently a root which has been extended by reduplication 
 accompanied by a nasal sound and a verbal suffix, for 
 example : ytyvo/>tat from yev, Aa/AySava) from Aa/x/2 from Aa/J 
 with suffix av, Aay^ava) Aa^, rumpO, rup. 
 
74 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 XXXVII. MARKS AND PECULIARITIES OF THE ROOT. 
 
 i. Generality of meaning. 
 
 The root is a pure abstraction, Sec. 2, 2, of vague and 
 indefinite signification, capable of further extension, often 
 difficult to bring under a precise and single expression. 
 
 The root begins to differentiate itself as soon as it 
 enters into the use of actual language, so as to denote 
 essentially different and distinct objects and modes of 
 action. Examples : root TTCT, pet; the general idea is that 
 of hasty movement through empty space, thence, (i) Trero/uu, 
 Ifly> P enna (petna), (2) peto, 1 strive, (3) 7rwrra>, I fall. 
 
 Root <a, fa (secondary root <ai/, <af) ; the general idea 
 is of giving knowledge, thence (i) ^i?/u, fan, etc. (2) 
 <aiVo), <cos, fax, etc. 
 
 Root d/o, ep, to plough, to row ; the general idea is of 
 labour in a yielding substance ; taken together with op, the 
 general idea is of stirring up. 
 
 Root 6v, fu, to roar, to bluster, to smoke, to sacrifice, in 
 Ov<*), 0v/Aos, Ovos, fumus ; the general idea is that of violent 
 movement. 
 
 Root ter, in TCI'/OW, re/oew, tero, terebra, to rub and to bore; 
 the general idea is that of friction. 
 
 Root <pu, $vp in (i) $piap = <pfap, Gothic brunna, 
 H. G. brunnen, (2) in O. H. G. brinnan, to burn, (3) 
 7rop<t>vp<i> to wave, (4) Trop^vpa purple ; the fundamental 
 meaning comprises in it the general idea of to well, to wave, 
 to burn, to shimmer. 
 
 Root i>, ju in vyoV, jungo, jus ; root TV, tu in 
 b, see above. 
 
Classification of Roots. 7$ 
 
 2. The root is always and unconditionally a mono- 
 syllable, and the vowel is short, Sec. 7 : /, to go ; es, to be, 
 da, do, to give; ed, to eat; bi,pi, po, to drink; vi, fit, to live; 
 vid, to see; ves, cs, to clothe; sta, to stand; alO, originally 10 
 to kindle; vas, us (ev), to burn; pet, to fly, to fall; <t>v,fu, to 
 become; Of. (dha), to place, to do; sed, to sit; fa, to speak, to 
 shine ; mor, mro, to die ; die, to show ; stor, ster, stra, to 
 strew ; fop, ver, war, to wait; spec, CTKCTT, to spy ; vart, ver, 
 to turn; tore, rpe/c, rpeTr, to twist; plu, TrAv, to flow ; pv, o-pv, 
 to stream; scand, to climb; scid, to cleave; ta, ten, to stretch; 
 er, to rub, to bore; tud, TVTT, to strike; ar, op, to plough; etc. 
 
 3. Roots may be classed according to their function as 
 (a) verbal and (ft) pronominal, or roots which express 
 ideas and relations, also termed predicative and demon- 
 strative, or material and formal. These two classes of 
 root sometimes do not differ in form ; as in /, to go, 
 which is also demonstrative, KI in KCI/MU, quies, also inter- 
 rogative and indefinite in quis, TIS = KIS, ta, to stretch, 
 also demonstrative = he. 
 
 4. Varieties of form in a root, occasioned not only by 
 the change of the primitive vowel a into e and o ; but 
 also by 
 
 (i) Metathesis or change in the position of the sounds, 
 af in arip, va in ventus ; dA.<, lab, dA<ava>, labor ; dpS, paS 
 Sec. 2 1 ; /3aA, ft\a in /SaXctv, /Se^X^at ; cp ra in 
 cpeo-ora), raffs ; yev, yra in ytvos. yi/^crios, gnascor ; gna } 
 gno, in gnosco, gnarus, Gothic kannjan ; Oav, Ova in Oavelv, 
 ; Oap, Qpa, Sec. 34, 8 j KCL^ Kfia in Ka/Atv, 
 
76 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 cer, ere n Kptw, cerno, crevi ; men, /*va, mens. 
 ] ', fio\, pXo'j mor, /xpo, Sec. 34, 6; OTT, Tre, redupli- 
 
 cated TTCTT, in O7TTO5, TTeTTTCD, TTCTTCDV, SeC. 1 9, 2 j 7TCT, TTTtt 1R 
 
 TTero/x-at, lirrfiv\ Spec, CTKCTT, Sec. 1 6 ; orop, J/^*, J/ra, Sec' 
 17; rXa, raX ; re/i, ra/x, r/^a ; rep, rpa Sec. 17; <Xey, y^ 
 in ^Xcyw, fulgeo. <pv, </>vp, see above. 
 
 (2) By the change of consonants into vowels and the 
 hardening of vowels ; df, av, diyp, dvw, tavw ; ^, div y to 
 gleam , Sees. 21. 32 j yav, yaf, Sec. 20 ; i y to go, thence/^ in 
 Zrjfu =jijdmi causative, jacio; Xaf, Xav; Xv, /^, /z/, A? scour^ 
 to wash, Sec. 28; S, ^/, z/^, Sec. 21; us, vas, eu, av, 
 Sec. 33. 
 
 (j) By change of consonants : dX/c, dp/c, Sec. 29 ; TVTT 
 
 /2/4 Sec. 36, 4; fll", )Si, Sec. 36, 3; ep, eX ill epxo/xat, 
 
 eX^etv ; displacing the aspirate in ra</>, ^a?r, ^a/x^, Sec. 1 7 ; 
 weakening the tenuis into a medial in 7rXa/c, Trpa*, pax, 
 ^paK, <pt*, Sees. 18. 20. 29. 34, 3. 
 
 (4) By strengthening the consonant or extending the 
 root, icra, KTCV in /crd/Aevat, /crcti/a) ; ra, TCV, /^ / ^v, yV^, ^vy, 
 /^, compare Sec. 36, 4; <^>a, <ev, Sec. 25 ; <^>a, <aX, Sec. 
 
 25; Oe>fat, Sec. 24; ora, ora^, J/^/, J//^, Sec. 17. 
 
 (5) By taking away the original consonant at the begin- 
 ning, in x= <TX, r = O-CTT, epTr = serp, Sees. 18. 19. 23, 
 compare fpay, pay, frag, Sec. 20, a-pv, pv, Sec. 29. 
 
 XXXVIII. STEMS OF WORDS. 
 
 i. The root, in its further construction into a word, 
 passes generally, but not necessarily, through the stem, as 
 a middle stage. By certain definite extensions of the 
 
Stems of Roots. 77 
 
 root, which are in part nominal, and in part verbal suf- 
 fixes, the stem shows a tendency towards becoming either 
 a noun or a verb. It is therefore not indifferent to the 
 distinction between noun and verb, but is not as yet a 
 complete word. 
 
 Considered analytically, the stem of a word is that 
 which remains after the removal of the nominal and verbal 
 inflexional endings of the declensions and conjugations. 
 Yet it is not the simple root, but has the stamp on it of 
 either noun or verb e.g., opwfu root op, inflexional 
 ending ju, w verbal suffix of the present stem, verbal stem 
 opw ; TrooT?, drink, root TTO, s suffix of the nominative, 
 noun suffix <ri = rt, nominal stem TTOOT ; <a-ri-s. 
 
 2. The stem may however coincide with the root, on 
 the one hand in the case of primitive or root verbs, 
 <a/AO', t/xcv, on the other hand in the case of nouns 
 which have the naked root for a stem, or at least differ 
 from it only in the quantity of the vowel, vox, dux, so 
 that a particular suffix is not necessary to the formation 
 of the noun. 
 
 Such primitive nominal stems, which have no nominal 
 suffix, are entirely independent of the difference between 
 the categories of nomina agentis and nomina actionis, as 
 they are of that between genders, voc-s fern, duc-s masc. 
 
 3. When root and stem are different the distinction 
 between nominal and verbal stems is shown by the func- 
 tion of particular suffixes which find their place between 
 the root and the inflexion. These are partly pronominal 
 
78 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 roots, partly syllables, or even mere letters, whose meaning 
 cannot be fixed. They take part, however, in the forma- 
 tion of nouns and verbs alike, as, for instance, the pro- 
 nominal stem ta serves both to stamp the nominal stem, 
 OITOS, Soros, and, in a weaker form, makes the third person 
 singular of the verb. The suffixes /a, av, va, etc., appear 
 both in verbal and nominal stems. Compare aytos, 
 Si/catos, Ti//,aa> Ti/xa/w, /x,av0ava>, i/cavos, Sa/>u/aa), 
 
 4. Besides these pure roots, many nominal stems are 
 also direct verbal stems. In these the present stem 
 alone takes a special stem-forming verbal suffix. This is 
 usually ja in its many changes conditioned by the laws 
 of sound. The rest of the tense-stems show the pure 
 nominal stem. See below, Sec 39, 2. 
 
 XXXIX. (i) VERBAL STEMS. 
 
 i. Stem or root verbs containing only the root-stem 
 and tense-stem. This last includes the present stem, 
 and, generally, the extension of the root by means of the 
 reduplication which for the most part takes place in the 
 present stem. The end of the root is strengthened by the 
 verbal stem- suffixes, and the vowel is strengthened. 
 
 Pure root verbs in fu: ^y/u, eT/u, cfyu, with present 
 reduplication fy/u, rflfy/u compare 0c/*v, IO-T^I compare 
 compare I8o/x,i/, 8ctjcw/u, ^cv'yyv/u compare 
 
 Root verbs in <o with tach- vowel o, c : vowel forms, 
 a<o I satiate* 8t<o, Ov<a I sacrifice^ rtco, p(/oa<o j consonant 
 
Verbal Stems. 79 
 
 forms, e&o, Xeytt>, <epu>, etc. ; with lengthening of the 
 vowel or extension of the root in the present ; <vyo>, 
 TT/KOJ, Xei7ro>, compare dlco^ duco ; SaKva>, TVTTTO); suffix ja 
 forming i in eo-0ia), Sato/xat ; /3aXXa> (X X = A/), *p7Vw, 
 
 TCtVCO ; (TV = KJ XCVO-O-O), 7T(r(7(J, TrX-tyO-OXD, <plCTCra> J CTOT = T/ 
 
 AtVcro/xai ; = S/, y/ ; fo//,at, aa>, /cpaa), peco. For 
 
 further details see below, under Present Stem. Compare 
 Latin verbs in io,fugio, rapio in the third conjugation. 
 
 2. Nominal verbal stems, with unaltered and unformed 
 nominal stem, which is not a mere root. In these the 
 present stems alone take suffix ja ; all the other tense 
 stems are pure nominal stems : verbs in fo>, o-<ru> ; eA 
 
 = 8/co, ^A-Trio-a Sera, stem cAmS as in cATri's, so also 
 
 Stem epiS, <povTi<D J 7rai(o, Tratf o/xai, connected with erraicra, 
 Stem Traty in Tratyviov, TratS in Trats ; ju,ao"Tt^o) 'X/Wj Stem 
 /x-ao-Ttfo), apTra^o), stem apTray, Homeric future 
 
 >, (raA7ri'a>, Stem craATrty J crcr = ^/ in Kopvcrtra), KKopv6- 
 ; = K/ in /o/pvo-o-a), stem KT/PVK, ^vAao-o-w, stem 
 (f>vXa.K ; = T/ in t/x,a(r<ra) avr/<o, Stem t/xavr in t/xa?, 
 t/xai/Tos ; = ^y in jLtctAto-o-o) x/ 00 ' stem /ActAt^ in fteiXt^os. 
 Verbs with nominal stems in es, rcActw from eor/o>, stem 
 rcAcs in reAo?, so also veiKto> ; in av ; ^eAatVco ai//w, 
 Stem fji\av in /xeAas, /xeAavct II. VII. 64 ; in ap ; Ka$atpa> 
 a /CD, stem KaOap, re/c/xatpo/xat, Stem rc/c^iap ^ in X j ayyeXXa) 
 (XX = X/) stem dyycX. 
 
 3. Denominatives, derived from nouns with formed 
 nominal stems ending with a vowel. These retain the 
 vowel stem-ending of the noun in the inflexions of the 
 verb, as a verbal extension of a complete nominal stem. 
 
8o An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 In other forms, therefore, than the present, they exhibit, 
 besides the root, the vowel elements which betray their 
 nominal derivation. 
 
 The so-called contracted verbs, from the original o/<o, 
 /o>, o/o) = ajami, formed by the syllable or auxiliary verb, 
 ja, with causative meaning, or meaning of duration, come 
 under the head of denominatives ; they are also some- 
 times intransitive, Tt/x,ao> = rtjua/w, from the nominal stem 
 rt/xa, <op<o, o^eoo, from the stems </>ope <opo, 6^0, /2ioa>, 
 6p$oa>, from the stems /3io, 6pOo. Compare amo = amajo, 
 moneo = monejo, statuo = statujo, nominal stem statu ; 
 verbs in o with t persistent in all tense-stems ; iSuo 
 from the root 18 = crfiS in T8os, tStcra, /cvXtw, /x-^j/ta), KOVO 
 = I/CD (Z = i/), compare Latin verbs of the fourth conju- 
 gation with contracted i as sapio tjo, opposed to the 
 conjugation vifodio, cupio, etc. To this head belong also 
 verbs in ao>, oa>, tfco (so far as is a mere extension of 
 
 y), vw, vo>, ova) : a,ya7raeo, ap/x-o^co, Stem dpfto in dp/>tos, 
 v^ptfa), ve/jccrt^a), 8a/cpvco, t#v'a>, tcr^va), dpwrTcva), KoXovco 
 stem KO\O, KoXoF = KoXor/co. Lastly, verbs in aivco, wa> : 
 XaatVco, ^apo-ww, ^SvVw. Latin desideratives in /^w from 
 the nomen agentis in /0r, ///r^j' ; esurio = edturio^ parturio 
 from partor. 
 
 4. Manifold interchanges in flexion between forms of 
 primitive and derived verbs ; /cvpew existing by the side 
 of Kvpw, e/cupcra ; y^^eco, yeyrjOa ; So/cew, ISof a ; atSo/xat, 
 atSeo/xat ; l/xa^oi/, /xa^^oro/xat ; cycvo/xryv, ycv>}cro/>iat ; yoaw 
 connected with cyoov, /xr;/ccxo/xat connected with /Ac/x^/ca, 
 connected with /XC/AVKCI. Compare the Latin 
 
///0, video, juvo juvare by the side tffugi, cuperem, 
 vidi,juvi; lavo, Idvi, Idvavi ; saepio, saeptus. 
 
 XL. (2) NOMINAL STEMS, including Participle and 
 Infinitive. 
 
 The nominal stem = the root ; there is then no nominal 
 suffix, but there is, on the contrary, a change or increase 
 of vowel in many possible ways : cty FCTT, <Ao <A.cy, 
 Zevs A/u (dju, div\ xep~vt.il/ vi/?, airopp^ root Fpay, 
 vox voc = f CTT, nex nee, lex leg, dux due, pax 
 pac, rex reg. 
 
 Suffix a, o in A- and O- stems, to denote an agent as 
 well as a thing : dyds, rayos, Ipyov Fcpy, <jf>opo?, 
 
 <*p, faff) ^^7? fuyov ^iry, AOITTOS A.ITT, 
 reduplicated, aK ; vadum stem ^^?, //^f , jugum, 
 coquus, vtvus, dlvus, deus == devos, deivos from ^/z; / toga 
 
 teg, advena, collega. 
 
 Suffix v, #.- (OKUS (a*), /?apvs, TrXarvs; ^r^5/ in Latin sy- 
 stems are transferred to the / declension, levis 
 brevis ftpaxys, suavis ^Svs. Suffix/^ : aytos, 
 = pop/a, oo-cra = 6/c/a ; eximius, conjugium, ingenium ; ja 
 is a secondary suffix and denotes the feminine : StWios, 
 <xA/^0cia = or/a, (j>epovcra = ovr/a, XcXotTrvta = 
 vor/a, //.cXatva, 8ortpa. 
 
 Suffix ?; z/0, z/^ = Fo, Fov : atwv = atFw^ ; aevum, 
 aetas = aevitas, root / to go ; arvum (ar), alvus (al\ va- 
 cuus. Suffix Fcvr: x a P t/ts ? x a P t/a/TOS x a P t/crcra =s 
 FcT/'a. Suffix For : ctSais = Fors, 
 
82 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 Suffix ma, mo, mon, mat, meno: TI\MI, 0v/*ds, 
 et/ia = Fccr/iaT, o/x/Aa (oTT/xar) ; forma, animus, sermo(n). 
 Middle participles, StSo/xcvos compare alumnus, ferimini 
 (sc. <//>). Inf. IS/^evot, with locative t as in ^a^ai. 
 Suffix ra la : Xa/x/7rpds, /cuSpds, Xapds, on^X^ ;, ruber, 
 scala (scandla), ala, tela, telum, velum, Sec. 17, querela. 
 
 Suffix tf# tf## na: rip-rjv (evs), pecten ; o/oyavov, 
 Uai/os, ^Sovr;. Infinitive vat, ci/ttt, XcXotTrei/at, crr^vat, 
 SoOfjvai with locative t, <friptw = <^pcvt cvai ; donum, 
 somnus (sopnus). Gerund-suffix ondo, undo, endo. 
 
 Suffix ta, to, Sec. 38, 3, tat in adj., subst, part, pass., 
 and verbal adjective: TroAt-nys; /cotros, ,rig/#, noxa (eta); 
 K\VTOS, yvwTos, status, potus ; veor^g (vcon^r), civ it as. 
 
 Suffix tor, ter, /<?r, /r<3r, etc., in words expressing kindred 
 and nomina agentis : TraTTyp, <paYa>p, o-wr^p, torcop, tarpos, 
 piyrpa ; /^/^r, z//^<?r. Part. fut. stem turo. Denomina- 
 tive verbs in turio, Sec. 39,3. Feminine nomina actionis; 
 sepultura, usura. 
 
 Suffix //, si, tu, etc., in nomina actionis: //^ns (/A<X), 
 <^>aTt5, Averts, ^pwrvs, ftviy/Aocrwiy ; ^^f^r (met-tis\ vectts, 
 potis, compo(f)s, dos (dots), mens, superstes (stif)\ further 
 extension in statio, initium, justitia ; supine in u um ; 
 casus = cadtus ; further extension in tuo tua, mortuus, 
 statua, tut in servitus, altitude. 
 
 Suffix ant, ent, ont, in part. act. pres., fut., aor. : <5i/ = 
 co-ovr, covo-a = ccroi/T/a, ta-ras = to-ravr, 0a's = ^J/T, Xvo-wv 
 = OVT, Xvo-acra = avrja ; praesens from ^y^/ from the 
 root f / ient, eunt (tens, euntis), from the root // further 
 extension praesentia, prudentia. 
 
 Suffix Ka, ^; #77*07 (#c), secondary ^ixrt/cos, compare 
 
Nominal Stems. 83 
 
 under perf. in *a ; cloaca, fecundus, locus, anciently stloc 
 from stla, stal, further extension from the root sta ; 
 secondary civicus, etc. 
 
 Suffix es, us, os : y/os (yci/es), /AC^OS, i^cvS^s (es) ; genus, 
 corpus, opus anciently opos , foedus, robur anciently robus, 
 vetus veteris ; masculine in or = os: sopor, etc., aurora 
 = ausosa, change from s to r between vowels in Latin ; 
 sedes, caedes, labes, the other cases as in /-stems. 
 
 The Latin infinitive active in ere was originally ere, per- 
 haps the shortened dative of a noun in es; vehere = vehesei, 
 fieri anciently fiere, not a passive form, =fiesei, esse, root 
 es = es(e)se, esse root ed=* edse, ferre =ferse, velle = velse, 
 fore = fuse, Ire == else, root /, present stem I, ei. Inf. 
 perf. ; esse is added to the perfect stem in -/, peperi-sse, 
 dixisse = dicsi-esse, the archaic dixe being formed by the 
 apocopated esse attached to the bare root, compare 
 dixim. Inf. pass, did from dicier, by metathesis = dicise, 
 did dative of a noun, from the bare root die, se perhaps a 
 reflexive pronoun ; amari, amarier = amasise, inf. act. 
 in / instead of the original e, ei, with the addition of the 
 reflexive se (?). 
 
 The Greek infinitive middle in o-0<u comes from the 
 original suffix dhjai = Ojau, whence <r0<u was formed by 
 assimilation and dissimilation. 
 
 XLI. COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE STEMS. 
 
 (a) The original comparative suffix was jans. The s 
 disappears in Greek, and/ becomes a vowel or is blended 
 with the preceding consonant of the adjective- stem into 
 
84 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 <r<r (TT), , Sec. 34, 3 ; KOLKLOV, stem of the comparative 
 and neuter, masc. fern. /ca/ctW = /ca/aovs, compare 
 TroifjLyv, ^StW from rj$vs from the root dS, svad ; 
 the root/uv/u, Sec. 27 ; dpciW, x^pw, Epic ^cpctW, from 
 which <r has disappeared, from the stems apes, x P cs ^ n 
 Xe/37/9, Sec. 23 j the comparative formation in from 8;' is 
 wanting ; on the other hand //.eif ov = ptyjov with epen- 
 thetic t, Sec. 9, i, b, 6\%w=6\iyj, II. XVIII. 519; 
 o-o-coi/, fipdo-o-uv, TroVcron/, /3dcr<rQ)V Doric, K/OCO-- 
 Jonic = Kp&j ; Qdcrarwv, /xao-o-coj/ (fta/c, Sec. 27), 
 connected with yXv/ctW, acrcrov = ayx./ ol/ > Sec. 
 34, 3. In Latin without nasal strengthening ios tor, 
 neuter ius with original s; suavior = svadvios, anciently 
 melios, meliosem, levior = legvior (eXaxus), major = magior, 
 pejor, minor = minior ; so too ius is shortened into us in 
 minus ; to *> in w^w- = magius^ adverb connected with 
 majus = magius neuter, weakened mage ; the same short- 
 ening takes place by the paring down to iu to / in the 
 comparative suffix is of satis , mmis, tantisper ; plus = 
 plo(e)jus = TrXetov, root//<?, to fill ; plures anciently pleiores, 
 \hvs\plerique, the most part, where que= qued abl. of the 
 indef. qui = somehow ', a generalizing signification. 
 
 (/?) The original suffix ra, tara: eWpoi, superus, in- 
 ferus; repo in yXv/ci^rcpos, x a P L ^ " r P ^) />tcXavTcpos > </>tXr- 
 pos by the side of ^tXatrcpos ; in adjective-stems in cs, 
 dXT/^cWcpos, so too cvSai/AoveWepos; the same suffix appears 
 in TTorcpos, Ionic /corepos ; uter = quoteros. Compare dexter, 
 inter, terrestris, pedestris ; sinister, minister, magister, 
 doubly comparative forms from is + ter. 
 
Comparatives and Superlatives. 85 
 
 Superlative, (a) Original suffix ta, doubled tata, TO, 
 raro : TO in ordinal numbers -Trpwro?, quartus, quotus ; 
 ra.ro in /xecro-aros, by assimilation from //.cor, /^o-o-oraros, 
 /A(ratraT09, SevraTos, Tptraros Epic ; the regular superlative: 
 to the comparative in rcpo, ^tXraros to ^tXrcpos, by the 
 side of ^tXatraros ; TO is added to the comparative suffix 
 is = tovs compare Latin is, in superlatives of which the 
 comparatives end in tov : KCIKIOTOS, TyStoros, <iXeoTos, Soph. 
 Aj. 842, <iAiW Homeric, oAiyioros, /2apSt<rro9 II. XXIII. 
 310, fjKurra of ^o-o-a>v, ^KIO-TOS of the adverb rjKa Ib. 531. 
 Compare juxta = jugista, exta, the entrails = exista con- 
 nected with the comparative form exterus, extra; praesto 
 = praeis-to. 
 
 (ft) The original suffix ma, mat a /AO, /ACITO : c/?8o/*o5, 
 s, compare the noun-formations KoAAt/xos Homeric^ 
 ; minimus, infimus, primus, septimus, summits 
 (supm.\ dextimus, plurimus == plus-imus* 
 
 (y) Suffix /^^dJ, Latin tumo, time, simo : maximus = 
 magt., optimus, veterrimus, from ersimus, pulcherrimus, 
 simillimus, facillimus from Isimus. Compare the ad- 
 jectives maritimus, finitimus, legitimus ; in doctissimus^ 
 levissimus, the superlative ending simus is added to the 
 comparative stem is from ius. 
 
 XLIL STEMS OF THE NUMERALS. 
 
 Cardinal numbers, i. els = cvs, Doric ^s, stem and 
 neuter w (ovSei/) = c/x, in a//,a = the original sam in j<?w^/, 
 simplex, simul, singuli, compare airat; (a = sa), Sees. 27. 
 30, 2. Feminine /xta, /was = o-/wa = samja, ja being the 
 
86 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 feminine suffix ; on the other hand the Homeric fa, dative 
 masculine to>, so too 0109, unus, stem oi-no with suffix na, 
 Gothic ains from the demonstrative /. 2. 8vo from dva, 
 Sec. 21. 3. Stem rpi, tri, rpeis, tres ; Gothic threis, H. G. 
 drei, E. three. 4. Te'oxrapcs, quatuor. 5. TTO/TC, quinqne, 
 Sec. 19, 2. 4. 6. e, wx 7. CTTTOI, septem, Sec. 30, 2, 
 compare Sec. 35, 3. 8. o/crw, ^/^?, Gothic ahtau ; 078009 
 = oySoFos, octavus. g. ewea, novem, Sec. 9, 5. 10. 6V/ca, 
 decent. Sees. 21. 35, from an original dakan =dva-kan = 
 2x5 ( ? ) etitocri, Sec. 9, 5. Sec. 16. Sec. 34, 2. viginti= 
 dvtginti, dvidecenti. Fundamental form dvidakati = 2 x 
 10. cKarov, Sec. 1 6. The same syllable ko = ha, 
 shortened from Se/ca, has the meaning 10 in the tens, 
 but in the hundreds, where it springs from eKon-oV, it 
 has that of 100. There is no common Graeco- Italian 
 word for 1000; yi\wi and mille are both obscure. 
 
 Ordinals have generally the superlative forms, Sec. 
 41. The comparative suffix rcpo is kept in Sevrcpos; 
 oySoos see above, with weakening of the tenuis to a 
 medial as in 2/38o/>ios. 
 
PART III. 
 WORD-FORMATION OR INFLEXION. 
 
 XLIII. THE WORD. 
 
 The stem is not, like the root, an abstract of indefinite 
 meaning, neither is it a complete and finished assemblage 
 of sounds which can express a concrete conception, or 
 a judgment including the synthesis of subject and pre- 
 dicate. It is made into a true word by the addition of 
 the elements of relation the inflexional endings. 
 
 Every real word expresses the idea of a thing existing 
 by itself in a state of rest, or of an action taking place in 
 time. It contains either an appellation or an assertion, 
 a conception or a judgment, is either a noun, or name- 
 word, or else a verb, or time-word. It has, therefore, 
 besides the vague nominal or verbal suffixes which form 
 the stem, nominal or verbal inflexion -endings. 
 
 A nominal inflexion expresses an attributive relation 
 to the noun, and is the case-ending; a verbal inflexion 
 expresses a predicative relation, betokening the subject of 
 an action, and is the personal ending along with the 
 tense-stem and mood-element, Sees. 55-57: these two 
 are the factors of word-formation. 
 
 These inflexional suffixes, both of the noun and of the 
 
88 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 verb, contain original pronominal or demonstrative forms 
 and stems. 
 
 Adverbs, particles, and prepositions are also originally 
 case or verbal forms. 
 
 Interjections, (so far as they are not verbal forms, em- 
 bodying an imperative), and vocatives the mere noun- 
 stem in form of an interjection are not real words. 
 They express mere indefinite feelings and emotions with- 
 out concrete relations, and have therefore no suffixes. 
 
 L THE NOMINAL INFLEXION. DECLENSION. 
 XLIV. ELEMENTS. 
 
 The inflexional endings of the noun denote more dis- 
 tinctly a thing which the nominal stem describes in- 
 definitely. 
 
 1. According to its sex as a person, or as a thing which 
 may be regarded according to the analogy of the differ- 
 ence of sex a tree for instance, as a fruit-bearing thing, 
 presents itself to the mind as female, or expressly as 
 wholly destitute of sex, that is neuter. 
 
 2. According to number as unity or plurality. 
 
 3. According to its relation to an action or motion 
 expressed by the verb. 
 
 The inflexions consist of signs of gender, case, and 
 number. The dual is a variety of the plural. The 
 vocative is not a case, but a mere nominal stem, and in 
 the neuter and plural = the nominative. No alteration 
 of the root or stem takes place in the inflexions of the 
 
Gender. 89 
 
 noun, except such as the laws of sound demand when 
 the inflexional suffix is added to the stem. 
 
 The declensions of the pronouns show essentially 
 weaker forms than those of the nouns. 
 
 XLV. SIGNS OF GENDER. 
 
 Gender, originally not denoted by any variation of 
 sound, is designated by secondary expedients in conso- 
 nant stems, in diphthong stems, and in / and u (v) stems, 
 e.g., 6 TTttTT/p, fj prfrrjp, rj vavs, ^ TroXts, 6 VCKUS. In 
 stems in the original a, the so-called O and A-stems, 
 where Latin u = o, a is lengthened in the feminine to 
 0, d, 17, Sec. 7, dSeX^os, dSeX^ ; in Latin also the final 
 a of the feminine stem was originally long, compare di 
 drum, dbus. 
 
 Forms also of the A-stems do duty as masculines with 
 lengthened endings, as TroA/nys. In Latin the final s is 
 dropped as in the ancient form parricidas, and the original 
 d is shortened in advena, terrigena as in lirirora from 
 ITTTTOTT/S. On the other hand the A- stem is used as 
 feminine without the stem (in o or u) being lengthened, 
 as 6Sos, oXoxos ; humus, mdlus. 
 
 Certain case-suffixes are appropriated to the expression 
 of only a particular gender. The genitive singular mas- 
 culine and neuter of the A and O-stems the so-called 
 second declension has the original ending ojo, Sec. 
 47, while the feminine has the simple genitive suffix s. 
 The neuter differs from the masculine and feminine in 
 
90 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 the singular by the want of the nominative form, instead 
 of which it employs either the form of the accusative, 
 or the bare stem, damnum^ 8o/8pov, ju,e0u ; though in 
 Latin many neuters take the s of the nominative, as 
 vulgus, virus, and it takes the suffix a, originally d y in 
 the nominative and accusative plural ; the rest of the cases 
 have similar forms for the neuter and masculine. In the 
 declension of pronouns the neuter has the original suffix 
 Y, the masculine and feminine s, rt, quid '== kit; rts, quis 
 = KIS. Certain stem forms are fixed also for the feminine ; 
 thus Stems in ja y tfrepovcra = ^epovr/a, Soreipa cg/a 
 by the side of the older stem-form used as masculine 
 80x77/3 = SoT/o9, T^Seta feminine of -^Svs ; in tS in SCCTTTOTIS, 
 avXrjrpis like the masculine SCO-TTOT^S, avXrjrrjp ; compare 
 also 7rpo0pa>v, irpo^pacrara ; the Latin stem in ic in victrix 
 with the masculine victor. 
 
 XLVI. DECLENSIONS 
 
 Difference of declension is conditioned by the final 
 sound of the nominal stem. This is either a consonant 
 or a vowel, which latter may be divided into hard vowel 
 sounds, in a, o ; weak vowel sounds, in t, v \ and diph- 
 thongal, in av, cv, ov. 
 
 Consonant stems: i. Consisting of a mere root, or 
 unformed nominal stem, without any stem-forming suffix; 
 oi/r, vox, root OTT, vocj *fjpv, stem TD/OUK, TTOVS = 7ro8j, with 
 compensatory lengthening,/^ stern ped, eXms, stem eATrtS, 
 2. With stem-suffix originally^, Greek os. cs, Latin 
 
Declension. 91 
 
 os, us, is; /*eW, Svo-/xei/^s; genus genitive generis = genesis, 
 genesos, tints, arbos (r), vetus ; in Greek the s at the end 
 of a stem is thrown away before the case-suffix which 
 begins with a vowel; s is original and belongs to the 
 stem also in the fifth so-called Latin declension, dies, spes, 
 genitive diet = diesis, it disappears in the oblique cases ; 
 for the transition in the so-called E-declension, Sec. 47. 
 3. With stem-suffix in ;// TTOL^V ey, TCKTWV ov, 
 8ai)u,a>v ; nomen, sermo (ri), homo stem homen. 4. With 
 stem -suffix in dentals OVT, ent, for, ar, a8 ; yc/xov, ^epwv, 
 ctSws = Fors, <ra>//,a, Xap.7rds ; ferens. 5. With stem-suffix 
 in r in Sonjp, iraryp (cp), p^rwp, dator, pater. 
 
 Vowel-stems : i. A and O-stems, capable of no tran- 
 sition into the consonant declensions; ITTTTOS, vyov; ^j 
 equ(o)s, jugum =jugo(m) ; feminine x^P a > ^^^- 2. 
 Weak vowel J and U-stems and diphthongal stems, 
 passing into the consonantal declensions, in single case- 
 forms by changing vowels into consonants ; 
 avis, ovis ; VZKWS, 6<f>pvs, <rvs ; fructus ; vavs, /S 
 
 XLVII. CASE-ENDINGS. 
 
 i. The nominative, accusative, and vocative, both of the 
 singular and plural, are cases of the subject and imme- 
 diate object, of the starting point and goal of an action 
 or motion. These cases are identical in the neuter. 
 Suffix s or m, or none. 
 
 The nominative singular masculine and feminine suffix s, 
 the sign of personality, of something conceived, as living, 
 
92 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 is the relic of a pronominal root sa, in Greek 6, 17. When 
 this falls away the vowel is long by compensation, Sec. 
 9, 2, TraT-rjp from Trarep?. It is lost in feminine A-stems, 
 X<upa compare masculine iTnrora a is shortened after 
 consonants, yXoWa. Latin mater ia coexists with the form 
 materie-s ; pes=peds, mors = morts, root mor suffix ti; 
 s disappears after r and /, acer by the side of acris, 
 vigil(s\ 
 
 Nominative plural masculine and feminine, es, ori- 
 ginally as ; 8vs/Ai/ts e<res, yXv/ccts = cfcs, TroXtcs Ionic, 
 iroXcig from 7roXe/s, lengthened in the Homeric 
 ir^cs = vafeg. The weaker form in O and A-stems, I^ 
 X^/oat, ot, at, the older rot, rat, compare TO>S, where the 
 stem widened by /, with suffix as, is cut down to ot, at. 
 In Latin hostes, hostls, hosties compare TroAics, hosteis^ 
 TroXets ; according to the analogy of the J-stems, also 
 all consonant stems, voces from vocies ; fructus from fruc- 
 tues, compare T/CKVC?. O and A-stems are analogous to the 
 Greek ; equi from equei, equoi (oe\ equois ; equae, anciently 
 eqttai, from equais ; anciently magistreis, filis from filieis ; 
 in the so-called fifth declension dies, species = dieses. 
 
 Dual nominative and accusative c, originally a, a 
 weakening of the plural form as ; SVS/ACV^ from eo-c, 
 TroXee from c/c. In O and A-stems the original a of 
 the case-endings coalesces with o, a of the stem- ending 
 into a>, d, ITTTTO), vya), x<*>p a ' The only Latin duals are 
 duo, ambo, compare octo. 
 
 Accusative singular originally am, or, when the stem 
 ends in a vowel, m ; v occurs instead of m according to 
 the Greek law of sound, Sec. 35, and a when the stem 
 
Case Endings. 93 
 
 ends in a consonant ; Trarcpa by casting off the v, for a is 
 a tach- vowel, = pataram. Neuters have no case-suffix, 
 <f>epov = <f>cpovr. Naw from the vowel stem vav, Homeric 
 rijfa from the consonant stem i/af ; iroXiv vowel stem, by 
 the side of the Epic 71-0X7701 from Ti-oXc/a, consonant stem, 
 compare v^os, 770X7705, and Sec. 9, 2 ; ev/oe'a Homeric, stem 
 cvpw. 
 
 *S of //fo accusative plural masculine and feminine is 
 affixed to the accusative singular. Neuters have a. 
 N-tyfas, vavs (raws) ; TroXcts = 7roXe/as, Homeric 7roX?ias, 
 compare from TroXvs the Homeric TroXeas = TroXefas, by 
 the side of -n-oXXous, Ionic TroXtas =avs, ^WJ/ TTTTTOVS, Doric 
 ws, = ovs, TOVS = TOVS, x^P as == avs > fructus = fructuns, 
 equos = equons, equas = equans. 
 
 The vocative, as distinguished from the nominative, has 
 no suffix, and leaves the stem unaltered : cv/xcvcs, 8cu//.oi>, 
 cuorep, TToXi, TTplafiv, vav ; yet in consonant-stems the 
 nominative often serves as vocative, <v r Xaf ; on the other 
 hand, the ending of the stem is thrown away in accord- 
 ance with the laws of endings, in ava = ai/a/cr, TTOL = TratS ; 
 in O-stems the original a is weakened into c, tTnrc ; x^P a > 
 yXwcro-a are the same as the nominative ; vv^rj, vocative 
 a Homeric; in masculines in 779, a : TroXtra, 
 
 2. The other cases denote partly the relations between 
 one object and another, expressed by a noun, partly an 
 attachment of one object to another by motion from the 
 one to the other. These endings were originally local in 
 their signification, and often interchanged their functions. 
 
 The ending of the genitive singular was originally as, 
 
94 -An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 Greek os, often lengthened into o>s in J- and U-stems 
 treated as consonant- stems, and in diphthong-stems, in 
 consequence of the disappearance of j and f and the 
 change of quantity thence resulting; vavs, consonant- 
 stem raf, genitive vaFos, vaos Doric, 1/1705 Epic Ionic, 
 Attic, SO Epic /3o(r(Xrjos, Attic /ScwriXews, ao-Tecos = 
 on the other hand yAv/ceos = cFos ; TroXis is treated as 
 vowel-stem, TroXtos Ionic, but was originally a consonant- 
 stem, 7roX/os, thence 770X770$ Homeric, TroXews Attic ; in 
 X^pas the a of the genitive coalesces with the ending of 
 the stem. The genitive of the O-stems ended originally in 
 oq/o (o/os?) thence ojo, Homeric ITTTTOLO, Attic ITTTTOV, from 
 171-71-00; compare II. II. 325, Od. I. 70, oo = ov more 
 correct than oov, compare nerecoo II. IV. 327; TroXtrov 
 according to the analogy of the O-stems instead of the 
 original ao (a/o, aoy'o), Homeric ao, along with ca>, 
 where there is a change of quantity, whence eo. The Latin 
 os, archaic in senatuos, becomes />, us, as generis = 
 genesos, fructns = fructuos, by the side of the archaic 
 fiuituis, senatuis, also senati according to the analogy 
 of the O-stems. The terminal s disappears in O- and 
 A-stems : equi from equeis, equois compare illius, istius ; 
 the ancient filial, aquai, familial modify ai into ae, 
 as aquae ; there was an old form with s ; famllias, terras. 
 Just as s of the stem disappears, so also does s, in geni- 
 tive forms in ei of the so-called 5th declension, as diet by 
 the side of the old form dies as a genitive, instead o 
 diesis; in the so-called E-declension the transition into 
 ie ies (mat erics) exists by the side of the form ia; 
 materiel compare the old familial. 
 
Case Endings. 95 
 
 The original form of the genitive plural was am, sam, 
 Greek o>v, in A-stems originally cr<ov, ^wpwv = ^(o/aaorwv ; 
 old Greek and Homeric awv, can/, Doric av; Latin urn 
 in consonant-stems, generum genes-urn, turn from the 
 original J-stems, as well as those treated as such ; in O- 
 and A-stems, rum from som, equarum = asum, by the 
 side of forms without s as agricolum. 
 
 The dative and locative singular. The dative proper, 
 the case of the more remote object, betokens a relation 
 of interest, the entrance of a person or thing into the 
 sphere of operation of an action ; the locative betokens 
 rest in a place. In Greek the two cases have for the most 
 part coalesced, since the dative relation was originally 
 considered also as locative. The dative ending was 
 originally at, ei, the locative ending was the demonstra- 
 tive root i; Trarpt with short t being locative, patrl dative. 
 The true Greek dative is found only in O- and A-stems 
 tTnra) = l7nra)t, x^P? == ^ l > from aai. The former have 
 special locative-forms as adverbs, ot*ot, Trot, ot ; the single 
 example of a locative feminine is x/^t. The difference 
 of meaning between the pronominal locative "whither" 
 and the nominal locative " where," is not original. True 
 Latin datives are senatui = ##, patri old form patrei, diet 
 connected with die diesei; O- and A-stems equo =equoi, 
 old form populoi, cut = quoi, equae equdi. The only 
 Latin locative in / used adverbially coalesces with the 
 genitive in O- and A-stems, in consequence of the dis- 
 appearance of the s of the genitive ending as humi^ 
 domi, belli, Corinthi (i ei = ot, compare ot/cot) ; Romae 
 locative = Romai^ as x^a!, only occasionally = genitive 
 
96 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 originally Romais ; further adverbial locative forms are 
 heri, run, peregri, postri-die from did, temperi. By per 
 mutation of e and i the Latin locative has been confused 
 with the ablative form which has lost its original d ; rure 
 = rured, an ablative like peregre. 
 
 The ablative singular originally ended in at, t. In 
 Greek this termination is retained only in the endings of 
 adverbs in o>g, ra^ew?, Travrcos, a>s, TWS, TTCOS, Ionic K0)9, 
 originally kat. The Latin d is archaic in senatud, 
 hosteid, sententiad, but was cast away at a later period, 
 and the ablative in consonant-stems thenceforward 
 ended in e. The Latin adverbs in e were originally 
 ablatives, compare the archaic adverb facillumed; ante 
 = antid in antidhac, post = postid in postidea, thence 
 postea, extra, supra, ita = it ad, etc., enclitic que in quis- 
 que, usque, plerusque, etc. from qued the ablative singular 
 of the indefinite pronoun qui with the meaning somehow, 
 in which way, thence. Sec. 41, i. 
 
 Locative dative plural. Greek in cro-t (o-ft), o-t: TroSeo-o-i, 
 TTOcrcrt, Trocrt (TroSor), ITO\I<TI Ionic, TroXtecrcrt Homeric. O- 
 and A-stems were lengthened by the phonetic or resonant 
 t, Sec. 9, 3 : iTm-own, ^wpatcrt, thence tTTTrots, ^topat9, Epic 
 and Ionic ^o-t, #s (77 originally d) ; old forms without 
 this t are 'OXv/xTTido-t, 'A^i/^o-t, Ovpao-i. This case does not 
 exist in Latin. 
 
 7/fc ablative singular and plural suffix <i(v) = bhi, a 
 descriptive case formation, with local, copulative, instru- 
 mental, or ablative function, for singular and plural, o^eo-^t, 
 vav<t, 'lA.io^u', ptrj<l>i 9 fcXto-n/^t, Ocofav ; Doric and 
 Homeric rcfv = T^>/, compare tibi. Latin pronoun 
 
Pronouns. 97 
 
 dative singular tibi, sibi ; ibi locative of the demonstrative 
 /, alibi) utrobi; mihi = mibhi. Dative and ablative plural 
 in bos, bus, with the s of the plural, anciently bios, fies, as in 
 XiKpi<j(>is, Sec. 28; acubus, ovibus, ambobus ; nobis, vobis 
 are weaker but original forms. In A- and O-stems b 
 disappears ; equis from eis, ois (obios) ; mensis eis, ais 
 (abios) ; compare deabus, filiabus, and rebus, diebus. 
 Closely connected with this case are the 
 
 Greek dative and genitive dual. The suffix <n/, with <f> 
 lost and contracted to ou>, aiv from o<u/, a<u/, in O- and 
 A-stems, passes into the other stems ; iroSoui/, 
 
 XLVIII. PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL DECLENSION. 
 
 i. Personal and reflexive pronouns without difference 
 of gender : cyw, cycov \ Skr. aham ; ego ; Gothic ik; 
 thoroughly independent of and different from ma, the ist 
 personal verbal pronoun ; <, weakened from TV, Doric, 
 coexisting with TVVTJ ; tu stem tva ; compare the possessive 
 reds. The accusative forms c/xe, /xe, o-e, Doric re (= rfc), 
 reflexive I, Homeric cc, ^Eolic fc (= o-fc), Latin se = svt, 
 with no sign of case, show the real stems of these pro- 
 nouns, ma, tva, sva. Locative and dative c/xot, o-ot (= rfot), 
 ot, compare ot/cot ; Doric e/xtV, Homeric rctv, -^Eolic ct^, 
 from c/x<ti/, etc., compare w//^/, tibi, sibL ablative me, te, 
 se med, ted, j^also used as accusative. Genitive c/xcto, 
 from original case-suffix or/'o, c/^eo, c/xev, e//ov j rcoto, o^cto, 
 crco, orcv, crov ; eto, Io, ci), ov (for o-feo), without elision and 
 hiatus, as in Od. IX. 398, making the foregoing syllabic 
 
 I- 
 
98 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 long by position, so also the possessive os ; met, tut, sut, 
 genitive of the personal pronoun. Plural nominative 
 a//,/As, v/x^es, accusative a//,/* like the singular; 
 ^as, etc., treated as J-stems. The dative ^lv has 
 arisen from the locative <iv. Nobis with bi, as in tibi, 
 and the s of the plural. Dual nominative and accusative 
 i/<o from the stem vo, vok according to the analogy of the 
 dative ; o-<w, o-<u>i from rfw ; o-<<oe ; genitive and dative 
 vwtv, vu>v ; <r<^o)tv, o-<o>i/ ; o-<a>iV with suffix <i. 
 
 The possessive pronoun is derived from the stem of 
 the personal pronoun : 2nd person Doric and Epic TCOS 
 = rfos, tuus, in Ionic Attic weakened into o-os. 3rd person 
 os, eos Homeric = o-fos, hardened into o-<os Doric, suus, 
 makes the preceding syllable long by position as o, II. 
 VIII. 406. XVI. 542. Plural 'a^os, 'v/xds, o-<o?, Homeric 
 Doric, a/x/xos, vft/xos ^Eolic. 
 
 2. Demonstrative pronouns with difference of gender : 
 6, in later language, and sometimes in Homer, employed 
 as an article, = sa, see for the rough breathing, Sec. 30, 
 2, instead of o-os the final s of the nominative masculine 
 being dropped ; yj~sd; neuter TO = TOT, the r at the 
 end of the word having disappeared as in rt, compare 
 istud, illud. The rest of the case-forms ending in a dental 
 are derived from the pronoun-stem ta, etymologically the 
 same as the German article der, den ; besides ot, at we 
 find rot, rat, older forms, Doric and also Homeric; 
 rovs = TOVS ; from both forms o8e, roSe, rotsSccro't 
 Homeric, with inorganic case-ending. The pronominal 
 stem ta, or in its less common form sa, is the foundation 
 
Pronouns. 99 
 
 of the article, and both stems are the basis of the demon- 
 strative forms. The forms of the article beginning 
 with r were used in the Ionic dialect, and by the Attic 
 tragedians, who also employed this form as a relative, to 
 avoid a hiatus. Different from this is the 
 
 Relative pronoun os, ^, o jas, jd, jat from the pro- 
 noun ja, root i; this also was originally demonstrative, 
 compare the Attic ^ 8* os, *al os $77, os K<U os. Compare 
 Sec. 32, 3. 
 
 The indefinite interrogative is -us = KIS, rt = kit, guts, 
 quid, Sec. 19, 4 ; the same d which = /, belonging to the 
 pronoun-stem ta, is found in other neuter forms of the 
 declension of pronouns : id, illud, quod, aliud = aXXo(r) j. 
 qui ablative = quo compare alioqui, nequiquam. 
 
 The Latin demonstrative is comes from the pronominal 
 stem i; ea, ejus, arise from the modification of i into e 
 before a, o, u, compare eo, earn, eunt, from the verbal root 
 /, deus from the root div, coexisting with dius 67os. Hie 
 from the pronominal stem ho, suffix / and ce; if ne follows 
 the e is changed into /, hicine, hoc = hodce; haec, quae 
 feminine and neuter = haice, quai with the demonstrative 
 pronoun /, thence without it aliqua, si qua, compare 
 antehac. The archaic ibus, hibus = eis, his ; hoc archaic 
 for hue. 
 
 XLIX. ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 
 
 i. Adverbs are nominal or rather pronominal word 
 forms. They are employed originally to designate relations 
 of place, and afterwards those of manner and time. They 
 
ioo An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 are undeclined, formed partly from pronominal stems and 
 partly from those of nouns both substantive and adjec- 
 tive. They are petrified case-forms, standing alone, and 
 for the most part declare themselves by their endings as 
 definite cases of nouns or pronouns. E.g., pronominal 
 adverbs from the stem of the demonstrative 6, TO, of the 
 relative os, of the indefinite TTOS = Ionic KOS, are o>8e, w?, 
 Tcos, TTWS, ablative forms ; ot, Trot locative ; compare the 
 Homeric adverbs dvtSpom, drat//,am, etc., with locative 
 ending n used in a modal or instrumental signification 
 ov,7ro9 genitive, with local suffix OL, 6cv 7 8e; the ending of the 
 temporal adverb ore, Tore, TTOTC, Doric o/ca, etc., is identical 
 with re, que ; compare /cat, Sees. 16. 19. For adjectival 
 adverbs in us, w, Latin in e (ed), see, under the ablative, 
 Sec. 47. For substantive adverbs with local suffix t, see 
 under the locative, OL, Oev, 8e Sec. 47. Modal suffix a, rj 
 in the pronominal 17, TH}, TT}, iravr-rj ; a in a//,a, /^aXa, raxa, 
 etc. Many adverbs are identical with the accusative 
 singular and plural of neuter adjectives. 
 
 2. Prepositions are in fact adverbs, and as such con- 
 tain case-elements. In Homer they are still used in 
 their original adverbial character; they were afterwards 
 united to verbs and nouns as prefixes, and finally came to 
 govern certain cases. E.g., CTTI, ci/t, di/rt, d/A<^t, Tro/xu ; prae 
 prat are locatives ; pro =prod, ante(d), apud are abla- 
 tives ; Trapos is a genitive ; compare coelitus, antiqidtus ; 
 for the so-called instrumental adverb in a, as dva, 
 
 a, see above under Adverbs. 
 
Inflexion of Verbs. 101 
 
 3. The whole of the many forms of the infinitive, 
 Sec. 40, are also to be considered as petrified forms of 
 Nomina actionis (locative or dative), just as participles 
 and verbal adjectives are Nomina agentis, or declinable 
 nominal-forms from verbal-stems with the nominal stem- 
 suffix added. 
 
 II. 
 
 THE INFLEXION OF VERBS. CONJUGATIONS. 
 L. ELEMENTS. 
 
 i . The idea of action or motion is expressed only in 
 an abstract form by the verbal stem. It receives its 
 closer definition and formation into a word, 
 
 a. Through the reference to definite persons, as sub 
 jects of the action or motion ; this is expressed in the 
 personal endings. 
 
 /3. Through the indication of the mode in which some- 
 thing is done or has happened, in its relation to fact 
 either as what has really occurred, or as what is merely 
 thought of and willed ; this is expressed in the mood-ele- 
 ments. The indicative is the objective mood, without 
 special mood -elements. The subjective moods are the 
 conjunctive and optative with special mood- suffixes. 
 
 y. Through the relation of the action to a definite 
 time, as well as its indication as lasting, momentary, and 
 finished the last difference is thoroughly carried out 
 in Greek only ; this is expressed in the tense-stems. 
 
IO2 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 2. Genus Verbi. The action which is expressed by 
 the verbal stem may regard the subject which is desig- 
 nated in the personal ending as a more immediate or 
 more distant object. 
 
 This reflexion of the action on the subject, which there- 
 by bears a receptive passive relation to the action, is 
 denoted by the middle forms of inflexion, whose reflex 
 signification is shown by more extended and stronger 
 person-endings. They differ from the verbal forms of the 
 active, which express an exclusively active relation of the 
 subject to an action. 
 
 But since this mixed, middle, partly active, partly pas- 
 sive relation of the subject to the action may be also 
 considered as exclusively passive, the middle verbal form 
 serves secondarily also to express the passive medio- 
 passivum. 
 
 3. The forms of the passive show a tendency towards 
 new formations. This occurs primarily in Greek, where 
 only the compound aorists and the future passive are 
 peculiar forms of passive meaning differing from the 
 middle, but also in Latin, which has no original middle 
 voice. In Latin, the passive forms, which, in the so- 
 called deponents, simply perform the office of a middle 
 voice, are produced by affixing the reflexive pronoun 
 to the active personal endings, and by the passage of 
 the reflexive into the passive signification. 
 
Personal Endings. 103 
 
 i. PERSONAL ENDINGS. 
 
 LI. PRIMARY AND SECONDARY PERSONAL ENDINGS. 
 AUGMENT. IMPERATIVE. 
 
 i. The synthesis of a subject with a predicate, which is 
 essential to a verb in order to give it predicative force, is 
 accomplished by the amalgamation of the pronominal stem, 
 serving as a subject, with the predicate, a stem implying 
 meaning in its simplest verbal form. Weakened forms 
 of the pronominal stems in the three persons of the singular 
 without reference to gender, appear in the personal endings 
 as enclitics at the end of the verbal stems. By means of 
 the accent of the word they make up with the root or the 
 verbal stem the unit called a word. They are ma, com- 
 pare ft accusative of the personal pronoun ; tva, compare 
 tu, Doric TV, <rv; ta, compare TO, stem of the article. 
 
 Root as, to be, mi weakened from ma, I, as-mi, being 
 /, I am. Root da, to give, pronominal stem ta, that, he; 
 da-ta, giving he, he gives ; da-tva, giving thou, thou gives t. 
 Weakened form of the pronoun in the personal endings ; 
 mi, si, ti. The endings of the plural consist of a combina- 
 tion of two pronouns of the singular. Personal endings : 
 i st plural masi=matvi, I and thou = we; 2nd plural tvasi 
 tvatvi, thou and thou ye ; 3rd plural anti, nti, either a 
 strengthened form of //, or compounded with the pro- 
 nominal stem an = he and he, they. E.g. asmasi, we are; 
 astasi, ye are ; asanti, they are; compare the doubling of 
 the pronominal stems in another, that is to say, a con- 
 structive see Sec. 53 sense in the personal endings of 
 the middle voice. 
 
1O4 An Introduction to Greek, and Latin. 
 
 ...*,- 
 
 These so-called primary personal endings are found in 
 the tense-stems of the present, future, and perfect (in this 
 last case the primary personal ending is smoothed away 
 in consequence of the reduplication), and in all forms 
 of the conjunctive. 
 
 2. A further shortening and weakening of the personal 
 endings takes place under the influence of the augment in 
 the historic tenses imperfect, aorist etc. and in all the 
 forms of the optative. These are the so-called secondary 
 personal endings ist pers. mi to m, v according to the 
 Greek phonetic law, 2nd pers. <n to s, 3rd pers. to T, which 
 disappears at the end of a word ; 3rd pers. plural v from nti* 
 
 The augment consists of the syllable a, in Greek , a 
 pronominal stem having reference to distance. It is pre- 
 fixed to the root as a particle relating to past time, and 
 thus differs from the suffixes of the personal endings which 
 denote the subject. It also coalesces with the following 
 word into one sound. It differs in meaning from the 
 reduplication of the perfect because it does not, like the 
 reduplication, denote completion, but past time only, it 
 differs also in its looser relation to the tense-stem. Thus 
 it does not, like the reduplication, coalesce with the whole 
 tense-stem, but only with the indicative, and, as in Homer, 
 does not necessarily attach itself even to this. The 
 original form of the verb with augment is as follows, 
 root da, adam^ adadam, instead of adami, adadami. Greek 
 eStSwv instead of cSiSoyu. 
 
 On syllabic and temporal augment see the grammars. 
 A syllabic augment where there is a vowel at the begin- 
 
Personal ^^u^^/>S 
 
 ning of the root, and a temporal augment where this is 
 lengthened to t instead of ^, point to a rejected consonant 
 at the beginning of the root F, /, or: examples, Sec. n, 
 2; Sec. 21 tS Fi8; Sec. 20, Fay, Fepy; Sec. 23, cj(, o-c^; 
 Sec. 30, 2, Sec. 31, Sec. 32, 3, e; a syllabic augment with 
 doubling of the p, points to a rejected F or o- before p, Fpay 
 Sec. 20, pv, orpv Sees. 29. 30, 3. 
 
 3. The imperative, a verbal interjection (by which the 
 subject expressed in the personal terminations is to be 
 considered as a vocative), is in the 2nd pers. singular of 
 many primary verbs in -/a characterized by aspiration of 
 the personal termination, OL from dhva tva, compare in 
 2nd pers. singular; see below for the remaining personal 
 terminations of the imperative. 
 
 LII. PERSONAL ENDINGS OF THE ACTIVE. 
 
 Here we have first to consider the difference of the in- 
 flexional forms, in the present and the strong aorist. 
 These differences exist between (a) the primitive verbs, the 
 so-called verbs in /a, which have, with the exception of 
 ci/u = ecr/u and fjp.cu = ^oyu, exclusively a vowel root- 
 ending and a monosyllabic original stem (to which 
 also as far as regards the inflexion of the present stem 
 belong verbs with a stem-suffix w added to the bare stem 
 or to the root, as Sei/o/v/u, ^vyw/xt), and which affix the 
 personal ending immediately to the root, and (ft) verbs 
 ending in the ist sing, in o>, which insert between the root 
 and the personal ending a tach-vowel, originally a in the 
 
io6 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 Greek, uniformly interchangeable with the vowels 
 and o (ist sing. o>, see below). The latter class of verbs, 
 by far the most numerous, contains, besides consonantal 
 root-verbs in <o, as ayo>, TrXeVw, ^XeVa), TreVoftat, /xa/a>, also 
 a considerable number of roots with vowel-endings, so- 
 called ' verba pura ' as TIO>, Svo), Aixo, Ovu, <vo>, in which 
 however the irregularities in the quantity for the most 
 part, or the length of the root-vowel in the present, even 
 though it only occurs sporadically, indicate the loss of 
 a j which served to lengthen the present, and has 
 fallen out from its place between the vowel root-ending 
 and the person-endings : <vw, JEolic <wo), so Ova = Ovio* 
 compare Ai/ci Od. VII. 74. Other verbs in -w whose 
 roots end in vowels, as eo>, i/co/uu, rpe'o), see Sees. 32. 26, 
 imply the loss of o-; or F, Aae, <ae, Sees. 25. 28, and 
 appear as consonant -root verbs in o> with spirant re- 
 jected. So while the existence of original present forms 
 of primitive verbs in <o with vowel root-ending but 
 without any lengthening of the presen is doubtful, the 
 existence of the so-called tach- vowels, as phonetic inter- 
 mediaries between consonant root- endings and per- 
 sonal endings, which later on were introduced in the case 
 of stems with vowel-endings, must be regarded as certain. 
 Forms such as est, volt^fers^ferris^ see below, are the rem 
 nantofan inflexion without tach-vowels in Latin. 
 
 The primary form of the \st person singular is /u, from 
 the original ma. The original form from the root as is asmt, 
 thence ci/At = coyu, ^Eolic l/x/xt; ineT/At the vowel is strength- 
 ened from the root t; ^Eolic /AI also appears in the con- 
 tracted conjugation ^tA^/xt, oprjfju. The at disappears after 
 
Personal Endings. 107 
 
 a consonant root-ending, or after a tach-vowel (a-e-o) 
 which is added to the verb-stem, Tipaj in Ti/iao) = Ti/xa/a>, 
 and the tach-vowel itself is intensified into w; Xcyw = legomi 
 instead of legmi, Latin lego. Perfect a from a/u, AcAoiTra 
 from A.cAoi7ra/xi, compare the JEolic FotT^/u. In the con- 
 junctive the original personal endings are retained in the 
 Homeric forms ?8o>/x,i II. XXII. 450 tSco/mi(?), cO&wfju, 
 cwrw/u. In the optative, which elsewhere shows a second- 
 ary personal ending, the ist singular primary form in fu 
 has been introduced, as ^epot/xt, older forms with secondary 
 ending rpc^otv, etc. ; v on the other hand, appears in 
 the optative of the verbs in /u, ciryv, Ti0ei7/v compare 
 tfriAoirjv. The secondary form is v for ft in the ending of 
 the imperfect, without tach-vowel in to-r^i/, with tach- 
 vowel affixed to the stem in !<epov. The v for p is dropped 
 and a tach-vowel is found in the first aorist in a, as 
 
 In Latin the m of the original mi is kept in sum = esum- 
 tsm, esmi = clp.t, in inquam, in the imperfect in bam (see 
 below), eram, in the conjunctive-optative veham, sim = 
 .f/Vtfz, ft>#2, compare cirjv = coyV ; elsewhere the termi- 
 nation is o : fero = ferom. Derived verbs with stem-ending 
 a, ama, voca, contract this a with the o of the termina- 
 
 tion ; VOCO VOCOO) VOCOJO, as TLJJLU from Tt/>taa), TtyLta/w. 
 
 In the 2nd person singular the pronominal stem is 
 tva\ with expulsion of v, ta as in the Latin impera- 
 tive in to ; 0i aspirated in KXvBi imperative, Qa in ola-Oa 
 = FotSra with dissimilation and aspiration of the T under 
 the influence of the spirant a- ; rjo-Oa with radical o- ; 
 through assibilation we get from this, swa, swi, si, s. 
 
loS An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 In Greek we find the primary form CTL in eoW Ionic = 
 original form assi, from which comes the Homeric els, 
 the personal ending being entirely lost in the Attic form 
 ct, thou art, and = thou wilt go. <epc6<?, <f>pys from 
 <t>cp<rL, <t>prj<ri, with transposed or epenthetic i. More- 
 over we find the termination <r0a in the Homeric con- 
 junctive in e#%7o-0a, in the Epic and yolic indicative 
 TiOrja-Oa, <t>fj<rOa, Si'Soi<r0a, c^Lo-Oa, in the optative /?aAowr0a, 
 in the imperfect rjcrOa, ty-rjo-Oa, ^arOa Attic compare 
 Latin perfect 2nd singular and plural sti, stis, and ist plural 
 ju,(r0a for jue#a, where 0-6 represents the simple aspirate. 
 The secondary form is s as in Ityepcs, Depots, as also in 
 urn??, riOrjs, 8i5o>s. Perfect AeAoiTras. In Latin legis 
 Icgesi, the optative sis = sies ; es, thou art = ess , essi, assi ; 
 es, thou eatest=eds, root ed; vis=*ves, vels, compare the 
 conjunction vel, originally an imperative. The 2nd 
 singular perfect is sti, compare above, a-Oa. 
 
 Imperative Oi : Wi, lo-Qi = eo-^t, la-Oi = ftS^t, dissimilation 
 from the root FtS, yvoi^t, opwOi, iX-qOi, ava>x0t, or^6, ccrra^t 
 by the side of Ocs, Sos, for 0eri, So^t, t being rejected and 
 s instead of at the end of a word; n'tfct, Si'Sov, tern? 
 instead of 'urraOi alter the analogy of the so-called con- 
 tracted verbs, Homeric 8t'So>0i. OL disappears in verbs 
 which have a tach-vowel : Xeyc, rt/xa = rt/xa/e, compare 
 /^ ^^<7. The bare stem appears in the Latin impera- 
 tives die, due, fac,fer, compare the conjunction vel, origin- 
 ally an imperative. The emphasised form in Latin in 
 to, esto, memento, is an imperative perfect from tod '= tat 
 reduplicated. The 3rd person pronominal stem is used 
 for the 2nd and 3rd persons. 
 
Personal Endings. 109 
 
 The demonstrative pronoun of the $rd person singular 
 is ta compare TO, rot, Sec. 38, 3, and in Latin turn, tarn, 
 talis, tantus is weakened into ti and mostly softened to 
 si. The original form asti, he is, dadati, he gives, becomes 
 eon', StoWt. Tt is retained in ccrrt compare TTI'O-TIS, and in 
 the Doric StSo>Tt, riO^ri, to-art ; o-t is found in <^>^o 
 
 evywon, and in the Homeric conjunctive ay 
 -t, 0\?7o-t, &3o-t, Swryo-t, with transposed or epenthe- 
 tic t in the preceding syllable (and hence the c, subscript 
 is to be retained). The indicative of verbs in w is as e^cto-t. 
 Forms in vja-i as c^o-t are doubtful. The termination is 
 dropped in <epet from c^cpem, ^cpcrt, <epo-i with ellipsis of 
 the or between vowels (?), and in the perfect yeyove. In the 
 secondary forms of the historic tenses and optative T must 
 be dropped according to the law of final sounds : !/fy, cStSoo, 
 <^p, ^e, </>pot, cny. Imperative TO> from T<OT, to-raYo), per- 
 fect co-Taro), Tt^eVo), compare the Latin /0. In Latin the / 
 of the secondary personal ending is retained, as est, legit = 
 leget(i\ amat, erat, pepigit, compare TrcVryyc. And though 
 in Latin the / of the 2nd person is softened to the spirant s, 
 the / of the 3rd person has kept its sound as a dental tenuis. 
 
 The original ist person plural was masi= matva, matvi, 
 see above, whence mas, ma, original form asmasi, we (1+ 
 thou) are. From the Doric /ACS in cfyo/xcs, we find /iev 
 in Ionic and even in ^Eolic, with the spirant dropped, 
 originally ma. A nasal sound was afterwards introduced 
 to strengthen the ending : co-fto/, fyiev = imasi, imatva; 
 <epo//,o/, with a bare and therefore short tach-vowel. 
 Latin legimus from legumus, compare sumus = esumus, so 
 volumus, quaesumus. 
 
no An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 The 2nd person plural was tvasi, tasi, see above, original 
 form astasi, you are. In Greek a bare re remains, as in 
 core, ire dropping entirely the sound of the 2nd person 
 pronominal stem, which is weakened first to <n, then to 9, 
 and finally altogether abandoned. The Latin tis shows a 
 trace of the 2nd person pronominal stem, legitis = legetes, 
 AyT(s). The imperative shortens into te, legite = legete, 
 emphatic tote, avco^c, by the side of dvwycre, ey/oiy- 
 yop#e. The dual originally = 2nd person plural TOV from 
 tasi) as the ist person plural //,/ from mast. 
 
 The yd person plural was anti, nti, see above. In Greek 
 the primary form is avrt, vrt, original form asanti, they are, 
 thence edo-t Ionic instead of ecravrt, Doric am, and finally 
 curt = ecr-vrt, tdcri from tavrt, tfracrL from the Doric 
 v being dropped and a lengthened, Attic Si&W 
 8iKi/va<rt = Tt^cavrt, StSoavrt, icrraort = loraavrt J the 
 Homeric riflcto-t, teta-t, StSovcrt, prjyvvo-L, are from the Doric 
 , StSovrt ; <t>epovo-L is from the Doric ^epovrt, compare 
 -ta from yepovna. The Latin sunt esonti,ferunt= 
 feronti, tremunt archaic tremonti. The secondary form is 
 tf/z/, /, T being dropped in the Greek termination, ^o-av = 
 ^o-avT, l^epov, the optative tev == o/VT, ff>poiv. In Latin 
 / is retained as erant ; the termination crav in l^acrav, 
 e'Soo-av, etc., equals lo-av, shortened, and without the aug- 
 ment ; so toraoyo-av, connected with t(rratev, is a form 
 composed with vav = asant; ciiyo-av, by the side of clcv, 
 is a compound of the root as, c? with itself; to-o<rt = 
 so ctfao-t = ct/ca-avrt ; with the primary form in 
 asanti compare dederunt from dedisonti. Impera- 
 tive OVTWV with the addition of v, compare legunto ; 
 
Middle Passive. in 
 
 is a late form from T<O of the singular and crai/ shortened 
 from asant. 
 
 The primary form of the 3rd person dual is TOV, the 
 secondary form in the historic tenses is rrjv : rjo-rov, rjo-rrjv, 
 compare r/ore with the <r of the root retained, connected 
 with rjrov, y-nivy compare ^re. 
 
 LIII. GREEK MIDDLE-PASSIVE. 
 
 The personal endings of the middle voice are lengthened 
 active forms which have a reflexive force. Original forms 
 maty saiy taiy from mamiy tvatvi, tati = I myself, or to 
 myself y thou thyself y or to thyself y he himself the con- 
 structive combination of two personal pronouns acting as 
 subject and object, which is either nearer or more remote, 
 in distinction from the copulative combination, I andthoiiy 
 thou and thou, in the plural active. 
 
 The primary form of the ist person singular is />wu from 
 mami; the secondary ^v from mam ; T$e/x<u, 
 
 The primary original form of the 2nd person singular 
 is o-at from the original tvatvi y svasviy svai ; the secondary 
 is o-o with the 2nd pronoun entirely lost. 
 
 a. Forms with the sibilant retained in conjugations in 
 /u and in the perfect j rifleo-cu, To-rao-ai ; SvVacrat, oi/ocrat 
 Homeric; imperfect enflco-o, foraoro; imperative 
 
 ft. Forms where o- is dropped without contraction of the 
 vowels: AtAou'eat, S^ai Od. XI. 100, op^at XIV. 3431 
 secondary: e/iapvao, wSwao Od. I. 62 ; imperative 
 
112 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 TraptoTao; aorist 0eo, 0e'o, 0e9 from the Homeric tfco-o; on 
 opo-o, Se'fo, vide Sec. 63, 3. 
 
 y. Forms without <r with contraction of the vowels in 
 the * tach-vowel ' conjugation : <ep#, Attic $tpei from 
 <cpecrat, Epic Repeal ; the secondary form e<epov from 
 o, Attic imperfect of the /xt conjugation cSww, 
 , Homeric c/cpc/xw ; imperative CTTIO-TO) ; aorist !0ov, 
 ISov Attic; imperfect <epov, aorist 0ov, Sov from 0eo-o, 
 Socro. 
 
 The primary form of the $rd person singular is rat from 
 fo#, secondary TO from tat, imperative o-0<o from TTCD, by 
 doubling the T<O of the active ; the o- is due to dissimilation 
 and the aspirate to the influence of the breathing, <aor0o>. 
 
 The i st person plural is /A0a, //,co-0a, from madhai= 
 matvai, matasi = I thou thyself. The 2nd person plural 
 <r0e from .r/zvz/ contains the pronoun of the 2nd person in 
 three forms = thou thou thee. The 3rd person plural, 
 antai, ntai, from antati he he him, with v dropped 
 becomes atai. In Epic and Ionic ar<u, aro, a is an 
 original element of the personal ending; Kcarai, Kcaro, 
 /3cj3XJaTat, carat, old Attic only after a consonant </>0a- 
 parai ; elsewhere primary i/rat, secondary VTO. 
 
 LIV. LATIN MIDDLE-PASSIVE 
 
 In the place of the lost primitive middle-forms come 
 new formations and periphrases, compare Sec. 50. 
 
 a. New formations by adding to the verbal stem with 
 a tach-vowel the accusative of the reflexive pronoun se 
 (sva), here joined to the ist and 2nd persons as well as 
 
Conjunctive and Optative. 113 
 
 to the 3rd, reduced to s, r. ist person singular legor from 
 lego- se. 2nd person singular legeris from legesi-s(e), legere = 
 leges-se. 3rd person singular legitur from legeti-s(e). ist 
 person plural legimur = legimus-se. 3rd person plural 
 leguntur = legunt-(u)-se. Imperative amare = ama-se, 
 legere = lege-se. 
 
 (3. Periphrases in the 2nd person plural by the par- 
 ticipial middle-stem in mino in the plural, estis being 
 omitted, as amamini, legimini. This participial form takes 
 also inorganic characteristics of mood and tense in lega- 
 mini = legimini sitis, legemini = legimini eritis. 
 
 2. MODAL ELEMENTS. 
 
 LV. GREEK CONJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE. 
 
 The subjunctive mood in Greek is formed by the simple 
 insertion of the modal suffix, or by intensifying the vowel 
 which conies between the verbal stem and the personal 
 ending. 
 
 In Latin the subjunctive is generally formed by com- 
 pounding the verbal stem with a suitable conjunctive 
 form of the auxiliary, Sec. 67. The mood of objective 
 reality, i.e., the indicative, is characterised by the lack of 
 a special modal element, and by the immediate junction 
 of the verbal stem to the personal ending. 
 
 The conjunctive is the mood of fact conceived as 
 happening or likely to happen, indicated in the present 
 as a continuous, in the aorist as a momentary action. 
 The original suffix was #, or in combination with the 
 
 8 
 
114 ^ Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 tach-vowel a. So the radical form, asdmi, I may be, from 
 indicative asm/, asdsi from as si, etc. In Greek the primary 
 personal terminations are o> or 77 for a. The conjunctive 
 also of the primary verbs in /u without a tach-vowel in 
 the indicative is formed after the analogy of the verbs 
 in a) with a lengthened tach-vowel, which is amalgamated 
 with the final vowel of the root, w, Ionic lo> from c<ro> = 
 asdmz, 77$, Ionic 075 from 0-770-1 = asdsi t $> Ionic 07, 070-1, 
 fieri = asdti. 3rd person plural fieri, Ionic com, Doric 
 lo>rrt from ecrcwrt = asdnti. <o) = <ao>, <T}S = ^0177$ (with 
 77 instead of d), to> = !eo>, rt0co = Tt$--o>, torco = tcrrao) ; SO 
 the aorist Ow, Epic ^eo>, dcuo ; Sw, 8o>(o, Sco/xat = Sow^icu. 
 The Homeric dialect still exhibits isolated remains of 
 ormations with short vowels of the conjunctive of primary 
 verbs, which in the indicative were destitute of a tach- 
 vowel. to/iei/ Homeric conjunctive passes into tftev, later 
 ?(oju,ei/, after the analogy of the forms with the tach-vowel. 
 In the O-conjugation the ist person singular conjunctive 
 does not differ from the indicative, </>epo> from bhardmi. 
 2nd person singular ^ep^s from </>prj<ri, 3rd person 
 singular <t>cpy = faprjTi, ist person plural <^epa)/xev from 
 bhardmasi, 3rd person plural ^cpwo-t, Doric </3on/Ti = 
 bhardnti. 
 
 The optative is the mood of wish and of mere concep- 
 tion of fact, a verbal stem strengthened by the verbal suffix 
 ja, to go, serving as an auxiliary verb with the idea of effort 
 compare the verbal periphrases venum ire, amatum iri. 
 Original form as-ja-m ; in the Greek the modal suffix is 
 irj i, ie. Secondary personal ending efyv = coy'^/x, cfys = 
 , Lr)=coJ7jT (by the side of lot?, lot Ionic and Epic), 
 
Conjunctive and Optative. 115 
 
 after the analogy of the conjugation with tach-vowel, see 
 below, cfy/iev, clfJLtv = or/r//x,s, etev = ecr/evr; SO Icfyv, 
 Ti0ci?7v> lorcuV* S&ofyv ^ rom present stem U, Tt0e, tora, 
 &8o; 3rd person plural ija-av, as cfyo-av, etc., vide Sec. 52; 
 the simple aorist is like the present, Sonyi/ root So, 0V 
 root 0c, orcuV root ora. Optative of the so-called con- 
 tracted verbs rtftw^v from TI/>UXO-I??-V, connected with 
 TI^HI = Tt/tao-t-fw as in the O-conjugation ; lastly, 
 the conjugation with the tach-vowel has for modal ele- 
 ment only t, which is contracted with the tach-vowel into 
 the diphthong ot. ist singular primary personal endings, 
 Sec. 52 : </>p<w/u with older form tfripow, otherwise 
 secondary endings ; middle ^epot/^T/v. tofyi/, optative of 
 ct/xt, unites the tach-vowel a and the suffix 177, besides ki?? 
 II. XIX. 209 (tew/?), Tot as in the O-conjugation. 
 The strong aorist of the O-conj. ends like the present, 
 AtTToi/u, Aa/2oi/w for Aa/Soiv. The compound aorist retains 
 a, XiWtfu, Xvoraifjirjv ; the passive follows the conjugation 
 in fjn which has no tach-vowel, 
 from 
 
 LVI. LATIN CONJUNCTIVE- OPTATIVE. 
 
 I. The Latin conjunctive, as the only subjective mood, 
 is fused with the optative, since the distinction of meaning 
 between the various forms of the conjunctive and optative 
 in Greek, became obliterated in Latin. The forms of the 
 conjunctive and optative thus mixed with one another 
 are also applied to the expression of the future. 
 
n6 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 2 The forms of the Latin conjunctive mood in a 
 correspond with the Greek conjunctive in <o, rj. With the 
 original conjunctive suffix a are made the conjunctive 
 forms of the 3rd, 2nd, and 4th conjugations, ist singular 
 legam, differs from the indicative lego ; so also the archaic 
 forms fua m, creduam, perduam ; doceam, audiam ; legdmus 
 s, legatis = Xeyryrc. 
 
 3. Remains of the optative forms in Latin. The mood 
 forms with /, <?, from the original modal suffix ja, ia, by 
 contraction te, J, e, are optative in form and in origin. 
 
 Forms in i: sim = siem, esiem, ecr/iy//,, CIT/V; so sis, sit, the I 
 was afterwards shortened, stmus, sitis, sintfiGm sies = efys, 
 stemus = efy/4v, sient=tv from eq/evT. So vclim, edim = 
 ediem, besides edam, duim = SotV by variation of the 
 root da to du = So, besides ducim, compare the archaic 
 forms perduim, creduim, along with the conjunctive forms 
 perduam^ creduam ; dederim = dedi-sicm, with a strange 
 shortening in the plural dederimns ; faxim=facsisim, Sec. 
 69, 2. 
 
 Forms in e ; the so-called future of the stem-verbs 
 or the so-called 3rd conjugation was in the ist singular 
 in the older language dicem^ legem (e from tf/=the Greek 
 ot, o tach -vowel, i modal element) ; this e was retained 
 by the later language in the other persons dices, dicemus 
 etc., which are to be considered as pure optative forms. 
 The so-called conjunctive present of derived verbs in o =* 
 ao, ajo, of the ist conjugation, amem from ama-i-m, com- 
 pare rt/xcor/v ^^ Tt/xo>/?7-i/, is an original optative form . 
 
Classes of Tense. 117 
 
 4. Where both forms in a and in e are found, as in 
 legamus, legemus, audiamus^ only the conjunctive form in 
 a has the signification of the subjective mood, the opta- 
 tive form in e retaining the signification of the future, that 
 is for the 3rd and 4th conjugations. The optative ist 
 singular form legem, audiem was however displaced by 
 the conjunctive form legam, audiam, which was then 
 changed into the expression of the future. The ist person 
 singular conjunctive present, and the ist person singular 
 indicative future in conjugations 3 and 4 have conse- 
 quently one and the same form which is used for the 
 double purpose of denoting a wish and expressing 
 futurity. % 
 
 3. TENSE-STEMS. 
 
 LVII. IDEA AND CLASSES OF TENSE. 
 
 i. The tense-stem of a verb is that which remains of a 
 given verbal form after taking away the personal termina- 
 tions and the characteristic of the mood. It coincides 
 with the root present forms in the case of root-verbs 
 which contain the simple root without any sort of 
 amplification or any intensification of vowels to express 
 the present, e.g., ifiei/, <a//,ej/, Acyo/tev; and also in the 
 unaugmented forms of the strong aorist, Aa/3o>, Aa/?oi/u, 
 AI'TTC. In the one case the form is marked as a present 
 by the absence of the usual elements for the formation of 
 other tense-stems ; in the other case as an aorist by the 
 want of the amplification of the present of the given verb 
 
Ii8 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 which belongs to the tense-stem (XctVu), Aa//,/?ai/o>). In 
 sill other cases the tense-stem is distinguished from the 
 root and consists of the root, plus reduplication, vowel- 
 intensification, and additions to the termination. 
 
 2. A tense-stem can therefore be formed (a) from 
 a simple amplified or non-amplified root, uncom- 
 pounded with any other secondary verbal root, that is to 
 say, without auxiliary. The simple tense-stems are the 
 Perfect formed by reduplication of the root; the Simple 
 or Strong Aorist, bearing usually the stamp of the simple 
 root in contradistinction to the various amplifications 
 expressive of the present, and characterised by a demon- 
 strative adverb referring to past time, that is, the augment 
 in the indicative, as well as by secondary personal termi- 
 nations belonging to the tense. The Present is charac- 
 terised by various extensions of the root, at the beginning, 
 at the ending, and in the middle, as well as by primary 
 personal endings. The Imperfect is derived from the 
 present by means of the augment and secondary per- 
 sonal endings. The above are the Indo-Germanic and 
 also the Greek simple tense-stems. 
 
 (/3) By compounding the verbal root with the root as, 
 5, to be, which serves as an auxiliary verb ; the Com- 
 pound tenses include the Compound or WeakAorist, Future, 
 and Pluperfect, to which also belong certain forms of 
 the perfect resulting from other combinations, as well as 
 of the aorist passive. 
 
 3. Greek, however, in the first-named tense-stems, the 
 
Greek Perfect and Pluperfect. 119 
 
 perfect, aorist, present, and imperfect, has retained more 
 simple forms than Latin, and has preserved a more primi- 
 tive character in the formation of tenses. In Latin the 
 present is the only tense which is formed simply through- 
 out; in the perfect active it fluctuates between the two 
 kinds of tense formation ; it has lost the aorist with the 
 exception of a few uncertain traces ; its imperfect is a 
 later formation by means of an auxiliary verb. On the 
 Latin future, see Sec. 56, 3. 4, and under Compound 
 Tense-Stems. 
 
 (i) SIMPLE TENSE-STEMS. 
 
 LVIII. THE GREEK SIMPLE PERFECT* AND 
 PLUPERFECT. 
 
 i. The root is lengthened at the beginning of the 
 word by means of reduplication. Reduplication was 
 originally the doubling of the root or the compounding 
 it with itself, with the view of intensifying and enhancing 
 the verbal notion, and in its weaker form as the redu- 
 plication of the perfect, it is a sign to denote an action 
 finished and completed at the present moment, while 
 the augment denotes a momentary action in past time. 
 The original form of the root is da, sta, thence dada, 
 stasta. 
 
 The first root is shortened in the final sound, as in 
 
 * This is inserted here as the first tense-stem, because, with the 
 omission of reduplication and vowel-intensification, it exhibits the 
 pure verbal root, while the present stem in so many formations 
 departs further from it, and the simple aorist betrays a secondary 
 character in the augment and secondary personal endings. 
 
I2O An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 a; in the commencing sound, as TrerrX/fya; the 
 aspirate is dropped, as irc^ip/a; the first sound of the 
 reduplication is dropped, as IKI-OVO, ; instead of the root- 
 vowel c is the vowel of the reduplicated syllable. The 
 .so-called Attic reduplication in verbs which begin with 
 a, e, o is partly the doubling of the whole root, as o8o>Sa, 
 oTTw^ra, in simple root-verbs; and partly the doubling 
 of the first part of the verbal stem, as 
 secondary root of dXct^w), dXrjXovOa stem IXvO, 
 d/CT/Koa, dp^po/xevos II. XVIII. 548, ep^peSarcu XXIII. 
 284, compare dpaipi/Ka Ionic ; further see the Grammars 
 and Sec. 34, 9. 
 
 2. The root vowel is lengthened sometimes in the first, 
 sometimes in the second stage, Sec. 8 : as \\t]0a from 
 the root Aa$ ; eclya, Ionic e?7ya = FeFaya, Fay ; c/crova, KTCV J 
 copya = fcfopya, fepy; 7r^>vya,^>vy ; Ippwya, Fpay ; oT8a, Ft8 ; 
 the lengthened vowel is dropped in the plural, tS/xev, tcr/xcv ; 
 coiKa from et/c, Ft/c, dual etxrov : compare the pluperfect plural 
 iTreTnO^ev from TreTroLOa and the shortened plural forms of 
 the perfect yS^Sa/xev, re^va/xcv, TerAajLtci/, cora/xcv, 
 from the singulars rerX^Ka, SeSotKa, etc., syncop. 
 
 3. Stem termination a ; yeyoi/a(/xt), oT8a, ^Eolic 
 shortened personal endings under the influence of the 
 reduplication, as in the compound aorist ; 3rd plural acrt 
 = ##//, primary ending; 3rd plural middle Epic and Ionic 
 ftrat for the original ai/rat, Sec. 53, also in vowel root- 
 endings. Consonant root-endings are in part aspirated, 
 (ctpyco), 
 
Greek Perfect and Pluperfect. 121 
 
 4. A later peculiarity of the perfect stem, unknown 
 as yet to Homer, is the aspiration of the final conso- 
 nant of the root in one class of verbs ; SeSi/xa from root 
 8aic ; iAox a for AcAoya from Aey ; TreTrpd^a, transitive, 
 and intransitive TreTrpaya ; KKo<a, by the side of an older 
 Homeric KCKo-rrtos from KOTT. 
 
 The simple Greek pluperfect which expresses the 
 idea of completeness in past time is formed from the 
 perfect stem with the augment and secondary personal 
 endings. This formation is found in the active only in 
 isolated instances, and is confined (a) partly to plural 
 forms which themselves differ from those of the perfect in 
 augment only, under the influence of which the lengthened 
 vowel also disappears, as eTreVt^r*/ from the perfect 
 TreTroiflo, eSciSt/Aev, cSci'&c, with ending o-av in the 3rd person 
 plural, as erlOvao-av, without augment /x^ao-af ; (/?) partly 
 to forms from the ist person singular with the secondary 
 personal ending ov in analogy to the imperfect ; as 
 from the perfect fji^Ka, from root /ia/c in 
 , rjvwyov from ava>ya, which is not to be regarded 
 as an imperfect from di/coyw a present formed from avo>ya ; 
 on ^vwyca, rjvwyci, dvtayei, see Compound Pluperfect ; com- 
 pare this form of the pluperfect from the compound per- 
 fect TT<f>vKov ; dual forms et'K-n/v, e/cyeyar^v. The middle 
 always has, on the other hand, simple forms of the pluper- 
 fect in the ist person singular pip from the perfect in 
 /AGO, with secondary personal endings and augment, as 
 from 
 
122 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 LIX. LATIN SIMPLE OR STRONG PERFECT. 
 
 In Greek only, where the aorist exists side by side 
 with the perfect for the purpose of expressing momentary 
 action in past time, the perfect serves exclusively to 
 express completion in present time. In Latin, since 
 there is no aorist, the perfect serves a double office, 
 to indicate the completion of an act in present time 
 the perfect proper ; and its momentary occurrence in past 
 time historic or aorist perfect. The chief method of 
 formation is here also originally the reduplication of the 
 root to express immediate action, which is then at once 
 removed to the past. The reduplication is only partially 
 adopted. 
 
 The stem-ending or tach-vowel is i (<?/). ist singular / 
 (et) for dm, zsfero fromferomi. 2nd singular and plural 
 sti, stis; compare the combination o-O in the Greek personal 
 endings tfrfjo-Oa, TiOrjo-Oa, ist person plural middle pta-Bo., 
 infinitive crOai. 3rd singular //from dt with original length- 
 ening of the /, which is shortened in the ist person plural 
 imus; i is elided in syncopated forms as dixti, scrip sti iuyn> 
 dicsi-sti, scripsi-sti. The long / in the 3rd person singulai 
 is retained in vixit> vendidit, dedit, etc., in Old Latin, 
 and in part by the later poets. 3rd plural erunt, ere, 
 dederunt from dedi-sont, compounds with esonti, compare 
 To-curt, Sec. 52, where the i is transformed into e by the 
 influence of the r which takes the place of s between two 
 vowels. 
 
Latin Perfect. 123 
 
 i . Perfect forms in which the reduplication is retained. 
 The root-vowel retained in the reduplication : tutudi, root 
 tud, pupugi, poposd, momordi, didici from disco = dic-sco, 
 compare doceo, root die, as dak in 8iSacrka>, and the 
 archaic forms, peposci, memordi. 
 
 Reduplicated vowel e, especially when the root-vowel 
 is a or a vowel derived from a through intensification 
 or weakening : dedi from da, cecini, pepigi, ceddi, fefelli, 
 tetigi, peperi, peperd, tetini archaic ; ceddi from caedo (ae 
 = at), tetuli archaic tuli, from root tol in tollo = tal, rXa in 
 rX^vat ; pepuli from pello, compare TroAAw. Where the 
 root begins with st, sp, sc, the root-syllable loses the s 
 and retains only the mute : steti root sta for stesti (dis- 
 similation), so also spopondi, scicidi archaic form in con- 
 nection with scidi ; compare the reduplicated present 
 sisto = wm/fu, sistami. 
 
 The reduplication is for the most part found only in 
 simple verbs ; it is dropped in compound ones, as expuli , 
 yet it is retained in verbs derived from do, sto : abdidi, 
 abstiti ; syncope occurs after the prefix re, as reppuli 
 t=repepuli, rettuli, rettudi, repperi^ where there is no 
 assimilation arising from the original red. 
 
 TJie vowel of the root-syllable. The vowel of the pre- 
 sent a becomes <?, or /, before two consonants and before 
 r; fefelli, peperd, peperi, cecini. The present-vowel e 
 becomes u before / as pepuli, but compare tetendi. 
 Roots ending in a lose the root-vowel in the root- 
 syllable : da dedi, sta steti, after monosyllabic 
 prefixes the vowel of the reduplication becomes /; 
 dbdidi, condidi. Compare the change of the root- 
 
124 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 vowel in the compound verbs, caedo, occido, cecldi ; 
 impingo, pepigi ; cado, inctdo, cecidi ; cano, occino, cecini* 
 The influence of the reduplication as well as of the 
 prefixes weakens the vowel because the accent is thrown 
 back. 
 
 The amplification of the present is dropped in the 
 reduplicated perfect: tutudi^.pupugi, present pungo, pepigi 
 pango, peperi the i in par io being dropped, which belongs 
 to the present stem only, Sec. 39, momordi by the 
 side of the denominative present form mordeo, pepuli, 
 in which the second 4 which originated in /, /, is 
 dropped. 
 
 2. Perfect forms in which the reduplication is dropped: 
 tuff, scidi, from tetult, scicidi ; fidi from fid, findo ; in 
 compounds as comperi, see above ; as well as in those 
 perfects whose stem coincides with the present, as /#/, 
 plui, pandi, cudi (cudo\ verity scandi, prehendi, these 
 probably arose from reduplicated forms such as fufut, 
 veverti. 
 
 3. Perfect forms in which the vowel of the root-syllable 
 is lengthened to compensate for the dropping of the redu- 
 plication ; a from a: lavi, cavi, favi, pavi ; e instead of 
 a from a: fed =fefai, cepi, frtgi, ject, egi, pegi ; e from 
 e; veni, sedi (from original stem-verbs, venere, sederc^ 
 compare sido ; venio, sedeo are presents with denominative 
 stem forms, legi, edi, emi ; I from i: vidi root via 
 (video denominative), via, liqui ; u from u: fudi, fugi , 
 iuvi, rupi ; o from o : fodi, movi, vovL The length of the 
 
Strong Aorist. 125 
 
 vowel of the root-syllable is occasioned by the dropping 
 of the first consonant : jed=jejici, egi^egigi, legi=leligi. 
 All simple perfects therefore have originally sprung 
 from reduplicated ones. The reduplication was either 
 retained with a shortened root-vowel or dropped and 
 the root-vowel lengthened instead. 
 
 LX. GREEK SIMPLE OR STRONG, SO-CALLED SECOND, 
 AORIST. 
 
 The stem of the strong aorist is, with a few excep- 
 tions, the same as the simple verbal root. This in its 
 unmodified state, as distinguished from the present stem, 
 expresses momentary and transient action. Further forma- 
 tive materials are, for the indicative mood, the augment ex- 
 pressing past time inserted as a prefix before the root, and, 
 through its influence, secondary personal terminations. 
 An aorist form, like e/fyi/ root /?a, coincides, as in tyrjv, 
 with the imperfect of a verb, which in the present also 
 shows only the bare root; but this is, like /?, fiairjv, etc., 
 in distinction from <, </>airjv, to be recognised as an aorist 
 from the fact, that from the root fla no present form 
 with naked root, such as /fy/u, is in use ; Zfirjv therefore, 
 coexisting with the present /Wvo>, is used as an aorist, 
 while tyrjv with an original durative signification is used as 
 an imperfect. The Homeric dialect frequently employs 
 the reduplication in an intensive signification, with or 
 without the augment, in order to form the strong aorist : 
 
 7T7T1001/, letTTOV = cfefcTTOV, C7T</>VOV With SynCOpC Of the 
 
126 An Introduction to Greek and Latin* 
 
 root- vowel, root <ev; o-7ro/o?v= O-CO-CTT., Epic and Attic 
 ctTrov = FcFcTT., ^yayov uyaycu/ ; fjviTraTrov, fjpvKaKOV redupli- 
 cated Epic aorist with repetition of the final consonant 
 instead of the first root consonant. 
 
 i. Forms from the root-ending, without a tech-vowel, 
 are almost entirely confined to roots with vowel-endings : 
 /??7v, <t*0rjv 9 <r/3ir]v, erX^i/, cyixov, eaXtoi/ stem aXu>, c^StW, 
 c6W, <]>vv, 3rd person singular 2/cro, ovra, ist person plural 
 c0e/xev, eSo/xo', 3rd person plural /2av ; Z0t<rav in composi- 
 tion, Sec. 52. Conjunctive-optative, Sec. 55, 0o> = 
 0eo>(/u), 077*> ^etr;s = ^cT/o-t, ^ctr/v? etc. Imperative 
 , reduplicated /cexXv^t, Sec. 52. Middle c 
 v, optative $&tiv(]v, 3rd singular TrX^ro, A.VTO, 
 a^7n/vTo. Epic middle forms from verbs with con- 
 sonantal root-endings without a tach-vowel : yeVro, SeWo, 
 ACKTO, 7raA.ro, 0X0-0 2nd singular, oXro 3rd singular, wpro, 
 irfJKTO. Infinitive TrepOai = TTpO-(r6aL, Xe^at, opOai, 
 . Participle aXfto/os, ap/xevos, 6Vy/x,evo5, acr/^vo9, 
 Sec. 21, used adjectivally with or from 8. Imperative Xe^o, 
 oVo, 0/30-0, Sec. 63, 3. 
 
 2. Forms with tach-vowel : IXtzror, !<vyoi/, 
 Middle eXiTro/^v. The moods correspond to those of 
 the present. For reduplicated forms, see above. To 
 these forms with unaltered short root-vowel (Xt?r, <#>vy), 
 the ear itself attaches the idea of momentary action, 
 whereas the lengthened present-imperfect form by its 
 sound and length expresses the idea of duration, com- 
 pare eXtzre, 
 
3. Forms with change of vowel with syncope of the 
 radical vowel or metathesis, as in tTrpaQov from Wp0<o, a 
 special change of the root in the strong aorist in order 
 to distinguish the aoriet from the imperfect : CKTCII/OI/, root 
 /cTi/, IrpaTTov, imperfect IT/S^TI-OV. 
 
 The aorist formation has been lost in Latin through the 
 want both of the augment and of the distinction between 
 primary and secondary personal endings. The following 
 verbal forms are regarded as sporadic remnants of the 
 simple aorist; parentes, parents, in meaning = ot TCKOVTCS, 
 in contradistinction to the strengthened present form 
 parientes = ol TIKTOVTCS \ the archaic indicative tago, tagit 
 with the present tango, compare the Homeric reduplicated 
 aorist rcraytov ; pagunt with the present pango, root pag, 
 compare Tn/yw/xi, passive aorist lirdyyv. An aorist form 
 distinct from the present cannot exist in Latin except 
 where the present stem is strengthened by /, /, or by 
 the introduction of nasal sounds, the omission of which 
 makes the recognition of the aorist possible. 
 
 LXI. GREEK AND LATIN PRESENT STEMS. 
 
 The present stem comprises a very numerous series of 
 forms. These are caused by the addition of vowels and 
 consonants to the root, by lengthening the root at the 
 beginning, in the middle, and at the end, and they often 
 differ very widely from the root. Each of these forms has 
 its peculiar meaning, denoted by the suffix or the infix, 
 which need not here be more fully specified intensive, 
 
128 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 durative, inchoative, iterative, desiderative, causative, 
 intransitive, passive. The present is distinguished by 
 the primary personal endings both from the imperfect, 
 even where this latter has no augment, and from the 
 strong aorist, and especially from the latter by its 
 lengthened root. 
 
 i. Present stems identical with the simple root, to which 
 is added the personal ending, (a) Forms without tach-vowel. 
 Vowel-root t, </>a : plural fyicv, ITC, tacrt = imast, itasi, ianti ; 
 </>a//.ei/, <are, <a(ri = </>avri Doric, with compensatory 
 lengthening <a#i. In the singular the root-vowel is 
 lengthened, eT/u, <r;/u, etc. There is a change of 
 quantity between the singular and plural in such primi- 
 tive forms ; the stem is strengthened in the singular where 
 the termination is lighter, but lightened in the plural, 
 the terminations of which were originally heavier. Com- 
 pare Perfect, Sec. 58, 2. Consonantal root cs, thence 
 ct/xt = CO-/AI, JEolic e/A/u, Sec. 52. Latin sum, etc., Sec. 52. 
 From the root /, to go, the supine itum shows the bare root ; 
 ed, to eat, for the 2nd singular, see Sec. 52, 3rd singular 
 est = edt, dissim. = edti, so volt, fert, dat, stat ; ist plural 
 damns, datis ; passive ddtur ; so se is joined immediately 
 to the root in the infinitive in esse, to be, esse, to eat = edse, 
 ferre =ferse, velle with progressive assimilation = velse, 
 wise, Sec. 40. (ft) Forms with a tach-vowel : TI'W, rto/x.ci/, 
 compare t/tei/, ^cpw, A.yo>. Latin root /', to go, in ist 
 singular to to, 3rd plural eunt = iunt, conjunctive earn 
 = iam, participle tens, with inflexion of the tach-vowel 
 (/ is changed to e, except in tens, but on the other 
 
Present Stems. I2C 
 
 hand compare euntis, before all endings beginning with 
 a vowel) ; veho, lego. 
 
 2. The vowel of the simple root is strengthened (a) 
 where there is immediate addition of the personal ending. 
 Sporadic strengthening occurs in the indicative singular 
 of primitive verbs : root i, present stem , thence ct/xt, 
 ct9, t = eto-t, eto-0a, 3rd singular eto-t. Conjunctive and 
 optative to>, tots, are inflected with a tach-vowel ; to^ev, 
 loit]v, Sec. 55. Root <a, present stem <f>rj, <f>rjfj,i, <]fs, 
 <t>rj<ri. Latin root /, strengthened to J = d : is, it, imus, 
 itis, (compare on the other hand t//,ev,) passive itur, im- 
 perative /, lie, infinitive ire. Compare das, stdmus, statis, 
 stare ; famur, fari. Also in Greek, rj remains in the plural 
 of verbs in vy/xt, which are secondary forms of verbs in cw, 
 as the ^Eolic opry/u, ^>opr//xt, atr?;ftt. (/?) Where inflexion 
 with the tach-vowel occurs the strengthening of the vowel 
 is universal : <pvy<D, </>vy ; XetTrw, XLTT ; \rj0<i)j XaO y T^KO), 
 TttK } TCV^O), TV% j rporyo), rpay ', Tt o), also with t, Tt. 
 Verbs in cw, as pew, x^ 7rA.eo>, from a root in v, pv, x v ? 
 TrXv, had in the present an original vowel -strengthening 
 from v to cv, but the v changed into F afterwards dis- 
 appeared, compare yXv/cv?, genitive yXv/ccos from cfos; 
 further strengthening in TrAoxo, paiw, x^o/xat, besides the 
 more frequent Epic TrXctw, Latin //^^? from due in dfo#, 
 ^wr/> / dico from ^//V in indicare, causidicus, veridicus, male- 
 dicus ; fido from fid m fides, ferfidus ; nubo co-existing 
 with pronuba. 
 
 3. Reduplication of the root with the vowel i of the 
 
130 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 present-tense reduplication, which has an intensive-dura- 
 tive signification, while the vowel of a root which ends in 
 a vowel is lengthened in the singular : root So, present 
 Stem StSo, singular 8tSo>, Si'Soyu ; crra, [o-ra, tar?;, fcrny/xi j 
 0, Ti0c, TiOrj^i ' } I, t = te, 117, f?7//,i jijdmi. Compare 8t^/x.at, 
 Sec. 32, with = ; Plural without lengthening, SiSo//,ev, 
 fora//,o>, ri0e/xv, te/xev. Root Sc, /0 /#//, StSiy imperfect II. 
 XI. 105, StSen-an> Od. XII. 54; root /?a, /fySas; root 
 Xpa, KLXprjpi. Nasalised reduplication Trt/xTrX^/xt, 7rt/Mrp77/u 
 from TrXa, ?rpa in TrX^a), Trp^oo. 
 
 Reduplicated present stems with a tach-vowel : yiyvop.au 
 root yei/ = yiycv. , TrtTrro) = TriTrero), /At/xi/o) = /u//,i/o> j t^co 
 root 18, J#f = teS;w, compare jf^ == >/<?, see also (by 
 reason of the suffix /^) see under 5 below; XtXato/^at, 
 yiyvwo-Kco, SiSpao-KO), TtTvo-/co/xat, Trt^avo-KO) with suffix <TK. 
 The present reduplication maybe retained in other tense- 
 stems : tavo) root df , Sec. 3 1 , ta7rra>, ia^w = Ftfc% tcxAAw, 
 Ttratvw, StSacrica); compare future StSwcrco Od. XIII. 358. 
 Diphthongal reduplication in SaiSoXXw, TratTraAAw, ?rat- 
 <^aa-o-a>, TTOITTI/VO), 8etS(o, SetStWo/^at ; the simple root-vowel 
 is repeated and nasalised in Tra/^aiW More uncertain 
 and irregular reduplication in TraTrraiW from root 
 Trra, TrTaK in Trrrjcrcra), dpapto-KW, ftapftatpw, jnep/^pt^o), Sec. 
 27, KaxXa^w, Tra^Xa^o) II. XIII. 798, root </>Xa, Sec. 25, 
 root ^>vp, Sec. 37? OTrtTreva) root OTT, Sec. 19, 2, 
 II. IX. 1 80, TiyXe^aw root ^aX, a7ra<iovca> Stem 
 a7ra<^, aorist a,7ra^)tv, root a<, v^vew from vcw in Trapo^- 
 vcov Od. I. 147. 
 
 Latin gigno=gigeno, as ytyvo/xai, j/db, mA?, compare 
 the perfect reduplication j/^// Sec. 59, i, jm?, / j^zf/, 
 
Present Stems. 131 
 
 *= seso, siso, with ^ before r for / as dederunt = dedisont, 
 root sa, sdtum, compound perfect se-vi. Verbs with 
 original and stable reduplication, coquo Sec. 19, 2 ; bibo 
 =pipo, root pi, TTI in irWi compare potus Sec. 18; vivo 
 Greek root fii Sec. 22 ; dedo^ according to the analogy of 
 the perfect reduplication. 
 
 4. Present stem with consonantal suffixes : w with in- 
 tensification of the root-vowel, cvyn;/u, SCI'ICW/M, p^yw/At, 
 mjyvv/u ; without intensification, opw/u, ewv/u, in which 
 the first v is assimilated from <r, oAAv/xt from 6Xv, with pro- 
 gressive assimilation ; o-roporvftt = oropeoT. Stem o-ropeo-, 
 etc. These are all denominative. Suffix i/a : 
 
 KLpVTJjJLL (Kpa.WVfJil), (T/CtiSl^ftt by the side Of 
 
 ; also with the suffix /#/ tfcveo/xa 
 
 /x/tyv). Suffix v : TrtVa) (Trtetv, Trt^t), TO/O>, 
 8a//a), Tc/x.i/0), <t>6dv<o, <f>6w<i). Suffix av : t/cd'va> compare 
 t/cavds, /ct^avco, auf avw, a/xapravco j with nasal infix Aay^ctvw, 
 Xa/A/?ava>, ^tyyavw, /iai/^ava>, ^avSai/co, compare 
 afjLptw, ra^os, cra^ov, root ra<, nasalised 9ap,/3. 
 Latin //<?, /<?-#/, j/^^, 5f-z//, sUum, cerno, cre-vi, sterna, 
 stra-vi, sperno, spre-vi, pono, from posno, posino, po-st-tus. 
 Present stem with nasal strengthening without suffix : 
 tafigtf (tag), findo,f undo, rumpo, sdndo, (undo. The nasal 
 consonant grows into the root and becomes fixed infingo, 
 finxi,pingo,jungo, by the side of figulus, pictum, jugum. 
 
 5. Suffix/^, /, /, according to the different changes 
 determined by the laws of sound. J vocalised Scuo/x,eu 
 root 8a, cSao-a/xi/v ; tStw with fixed t Sec. 39, 3 / thrown 
 
132 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 back as /, /?atVo> = /?ai//a> root /?a, suffixes v and /, <ai'voo, 
 
 TCtva), 7Ttp<o (frcp, eTrapoi/, 7T7rap/xat), ciXw = cX/eo (dA^vat), 
 *pu/a> = K/oti//a> future Kp/to, /cpti/ea), aorist participle Kpt0ei?, 
 TrAvVco TrAwu), /cAlVo) /cXivai, ZKXiOrjv \ j as a mixed sound 
 according to Sec. 34, 3 : oo> 68;'., co/Aai cd/., <paw 
 aorist 7re<pa8ov, Kpaa> root /cpay ; raorcrw root ray, ra/c, 
 root TrraK, TTTVcrcro) root TTTV^, (^ptVcrw root </>ptK, 
 root Atr; / assimilated in oAAo/xat compare 
 
 o-reXXw, o^eXXw Homeric, connected with 
 6<a r X<D, as ctXw with tXXw; / is dropped between the vowels 
 in OTTVO), by the side of OTTUIO), also <v'w, ^Eolic <^>i;tw, ^vo>. 
 Compare Latin verbs in /<? of the 3rd conjugation with / 
 syncopated as ^/0 cupimus, capio, fugio^ fodio, morior, 
 patior, gradior, as opposed to the fixed / contracted to I 
 in the 4th conjugation ; ero = esjv, erunt = esjunt, as 
 co-cro/^at = eor/., which is a present with future significa- 
 tion. J is dropped in derived verbs in uo, as statuo, 
 tribuo, in verbs in eo as moneo, in ^^?, or 0, as <z#z<? for 
 amajo, amas = amais. J is assimilated in pello compare 
 TraXXco, percelh) fallo compare or^oXXw, vello, curro. 
 
 6. The suffix ovc has generally an inchoative sig- 
 nification which may easily be recognised, compare the 
 diminutive suffix LO-KO in veavtV/cos and adolescens ; 
 ) y OvrjarKd), reduplicated ytyvcocr/co), StSpacr/cco, TTt 
 it is found with a subsidiary vowel 
 dpaptcTKco, cvptorKw, cTravptcrKw j in denomina- 
 lives yrjfjao-Kw. One of the root consonants is some- 
 times dropped before OTC, as StSao-Kw from stem 
 
Present Steins. 133 
 
 root &)% Sox, see So, Sec. 21, SCI&'OTCO/LUU root &*, 
 
 etcncci) root IK, TiTvovco/tae, root TVAC, TV^ Sec. 17, Xacr/cw 
 root Xa/c j ITK is aspirated in Trao^o) root ?ra0 or TTO, ; 
 instead of <TK we find x i n cpx ^ 011 f rom epo-K root lp = 6p 
 in opvvfu, connected with eX in eX0e/ ; K is weakened to 
 y in /uo-yw, compare //>^? root /uy, ^/V, Sec. 27. An 
 iterative signification of this suffix appears in the Epic 
 and Ionic iterative forms of the imperfect and aorist to 
 denote that a continuous action is repeated or that an 
 action is begun in time past ; C^CO-KOV, SOOTCOI/. Compare 
 Latin nascor, pasco, nosco, cresco, disco = dicsco^ posco = 
 porcsco root pore, proc, prec in precor, procus, Sec. 18 \ 
 apiscor^ adipiscor, paciscor, profidscor, revivisco, nasalised 
 nanciscor ; of denominatives obdormisco, concupisco, obli- 
 viscor, invelerasco, aresco> maturesco> delitesco. 
 
 7. The dental suffix ta or further formation of the root 
 by means of the determinative / compare / in passive 
 participles and verbal adjectives is mainly found after 
 labials ; TT/TTTO) root TVTT, KpvTiTO) compare Kpv<f>a, p 
 compare pa^, OOLTTTW cra^r/v, ySaTrro) ySa^ry, a^mo 
 )8Xa7TTO) IfiXdfirjv fiXdfirj, taTrro), Sec. 32, 4, 
 nasalised; after gutturals, TIKTW TCK, TTCKTW TTCK; after a 
 vowel dvvrco connected with avvw. Compare pecto, nccto, 
 
 flecto ; t is weakened to d in tendo, -fendo root Qw Sec. 24. 
 
 8. The aspirated suffix or root determinative is 
 found in Trp^w, 7rA^0o>, Sec. 36, 4, <j>6wv0<i>, co-^o) eo-^tw 
 by dissimilation from the stem eS0, dto-0<o, fiapvOo), OaXiO^ 
 lengthened Homeric forms ^yc/oe^ovrat, participle with 
 
134 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 present reduplication, /2i/:?ao-0a>j/, eo-^e^ov from aorist 
 TXOV, imperfect ope^Ocov II. XXIII. 30, of opeyco, 
 
 p.TKldOoV Od. I. 22. 
 
 9. In Greek and Latin the present stem very generally 
 exhibits the form of derived verbs, the other tense stems 
 that of primitive verbs, Sec. 39, 4; but the inverse rela- 
 tion also exists, e.g., in Trero/xat TrcT^o-o/xat, petimus petlvi 
 petitum, cupimus cupivi. 
 
 LXII. GREEK IMPERFECT. 
 
 The imperfect, which expresses duration in past time, 
 *s formed by annexing the prefix of past time to the 
 present stem which conveys the idea of duration, as well 
 as to stem-lengthenings, expressive of this idea and its 
 modifications, with secondary personal endings. (a) 
 Formation without tach- vowel : eri'^i/, eStcW, fcm/i/, fyi/, 
 eSci/cvw ; l$i]v Sec. 60. Root es ist sing, fy with the 
 cr dropped, ^ with the v rejected, ^a, ea Ionic, 2nd sing, 
 with the radical cr, yarOa, fycrOa ; 3rd sing, ^v, ^e(i/), Zrjv, 
 rjrjv. i st plural ^/x,v, Doric ^5; 2nd plural ^re, 
 compare dual Sec. 52 ; 3rd plural rjo-av from 
 without augment co-av, but retaining the or of the root : 
 on the other hand the Ionic present is cacrt : early im- 
 perfect with a tach-vowel lov. 
 
 i, Epic imperfect rjia, Attic $a, ^ctv, Attic plural 
 with augment and present-tense intensification 
 by the side of Epic myv, I/ACC, torav j Epic ^o/xev, rjiov 
 by the side of rjio-ai/ Sec. 52, with transition to the 
 
Compound Aorist. 135 
 
 tach-vowel conjugation. Compare Latin eram from esam> 
 asam, with m in the ist person singular as in sum, inquam, 
 and in the compound imperfect in bam from fuam, a 
 formation which, in default of the augment, and different 
 primary and secondary personal endings, the language 
 readily adopts. For the conjunctive optative of the 
 imperfect eram, essem, sem, rem in composition, see 
 Sec. 72. 
 
 (ft) For the inflexion with tach-vowel e^epov, see Sec. 
 52. Contracted verbs cTipw, etc., from ertjuaov, /being 
 dropped between the verbal stem and the personal 
 ending. Forms of inflexion without tach-vowel, as erects, 
 cSi'Sow, Teis, follow the example of the contracted verbs. 
 3rd plural crav Sec. 52. Middle forms Sec. 53. 
 
 (2) COMPOUND TENSE-STEMS. 
 
 A. GREEK COMPOUND TENSES. 
 
 LXIII. COMPOUND AORIST. WEAK OR SIGMATIC 
 (SO-CALLED 'FIRST') AORIST. 
 
 i. E elation to the strong aorist. Its function is the 
 same as that of the simple aorist, to express momentary 
 action in past time. But as the latter can only be formed 
 from such (mostly root) verbs as have a present stem 
 different from the bare stem or the root, whether this 
 stem be vocalic, as 7Ti0<o, or consonantal as rvrrnD, 
 /?oAA.o), fjiavOdvw, Trao^w, the compound aorist, originally 
 a supplementary one, is annexed to pure verbs, denomi- 
 native verbs, and all verbs whose present stem is 
 
136 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 the root itself, as in ap^u, Aeyco, ypa<o>, or a mere 
 nominal stem, lengthened by /, as in eA7riu>, <uAao-<7w, 
 TcAc'w, Sec. 39, 2. Only a comparatively small number 
 of verbs, e.g. those with vowel lengthening or a dental 
 suffix in the present, as 7m0o>, AdVo), TVTTTCD, and verbs 
 in fu 9 have both aorist forms, in some cases with 
 the difference of an intransitive, or neutral, and a 
 transitive, or active signification, as for example Tcrr?//^ 
 /3<uW On the other hand the same verb very fre- 
 quently has, besides the weak aorist active, the so-called 
 second or strong aorist passive formed from the bare 
 root, that is, from the stem of the strong aorist active 
 with , 17 annexed, as evyi/v/u, e^evfa, l&yjjv, /SAaTrra), 
 l/?Aai/ra, ipxdfirjv. The formation of the compound aorist 
 has, in the later period of the language, even where the 
 strong aorist might have existed, displaced and over- 
 grown the latter. 
 
 2. Formation of the compound aorist. The past 
 tense of the root as, es (asam) l to be ' is annexed to the 
 verbal stem as auxiliary verb, with a long vowel in vowel 
 stems, together with the augment. The vowel which 
 begins the auxiliary verb is dropped, p. or v falls away 
 in the ist sing. The stem- ending is a, only in 3rd 
 sing, c, eSeife adik-s-a(f). Second sing, imperative ov. 
 Original form from root dik was adiksa(m) y conjunctive 
 diksami, optative dik-saimi. So cAvo-a, Xvo-a>, Av'o-ai/u. 
 Middle eXvcra/x^v, Xvo-wfJiai, \v(raifjir)v. 2nd Sing. e/Xvcrco 
 from cAixrao-o. Imperative active AOow, with fixed v 
 and o instead of a; middle A^orat instead of, as would 
 
Greek Future. 137 
 
 be expected, Xv<ra<ro, Xvoxo, compare the present form 
 Xvou from Xuco, Xvco-o. cr is doubled in lo-o-a, root Fes, 
 creXeo-o-a, connected with creXco-a, stem reXes, rcXc'a), 
 TeXeq/a). o- is dropped after F in IKT/O, = e/o/Fa, 
 Homeric l^cva = excFa, root x*> ; after stems ending 
 in X, pj v, p, with compensatory lengthening, as coreiXa, 
 <f>r)va for corcXcra, c//<ra, ai/o"a, fjp,vva 9 e/cptva, 
 by the side of Homeric cKcXo-a, wpo-a, ecepo-a, 
 The o- is assimilated in the ^Eolic l^e/x/Aa, 
 corcXXav, lyewaro. Denominatives with /^, and con- 
 tracted verbs, have, as in the future, a long vowel before 
 the auxiliary verb, and a at the end of a stem is 
 generally lengthened to rj; tyforjo-a, eriprjo-a, c&JXoxra, 
 except TJpoo-a, cfcaXco-a, r/vco-a, and also, in analogy to 
 verbs with the nominal stem es, ereXeora. ^Eolic optative 
 forms are Xvcreta, Xva-ctas, Xvcrctc, 3rd plural Xixreiav, 
 instead of, as would be expected, Xuo-co/v, Xvo-ctr/?, 
 in analogy to tcfy 
 
 3. The earlier sigmatic aorist formation had a tach- 
 vowel instead of the stem- ending a as in the imperfect and 
 strong aorist of the O-conjugation ; Homeric tfov, tfes 
 = war., c^o-cTo, SVO-CTO, more frequent in the imperative 
 
 Xcf 0, of T, OpO-CO, OpVCV , OpCTO, 8cf O, Xc^O with elided 
 
 from opcrccro, etc. j otcrc, oto-cre, ^o-co, Svcrco. 
 
 LXIV. THE GREEK FUTURE. 
 
 This is formed like the compound aorist by means of 
 an auxiliary verb from the root cs, but in the form of 
 
138 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 a present lengthened by the suffix /#, which as in many 
 present stems, Sec. 61, gives it a future signification. 
 Original form asjami, in the Greek cor/w, weakened to 
 eo-a), o-w compare Latin ero from esio. This form is 
 preserved as an independent word in the middle 
 voice, CO-O-O/ACU. = ccr/., whence eo-o/xai. Original form of 
 the compound tense-stem dasjami = Swo-oo. Primary 
 personal-endings as in the present. The various forms 
 of the future are determined by the fuller or weaker 
 form of the auxiliary verb, which is always added to 
 the verbal stem after the final letter (a) by retaining or 
 dropping the o- of the root of the auxiliary verb, (fi) 
 by vocalising / into t, (7) by changing t into c, or (8) 
 by dropping the original/. 
 
 1. The original Doric future in <rio> = cr/<o, as 
 
 from TT/oaycr/, <vAaio/xes, Saxri'oo ; compare desideratives 
 in crcuo. 
 
 2. The so-called Doric future, with t changed to c in 
 the Attic middle forms, as <eufofyuu from ^cvyo-eo/Acw, 
 irXevcrovfJiai, SO also ecro-emu, by the side of ccrcreTai. 
 
 3. The ordinary form in which / is dropped, and the 
 ending shortened to <rw in stems which end in a mute 
 Or a vowel, as A.v'cro), crnjoxo, Scoo-cu, cacrw, Tipjora>; TVI/^O), 
 Xcfya>, ir/oa^o). The stem-vowel is lengthened as in the 
 present in <;o//,<u, independently of the present in 
 TrAcixro/Aat, Tevo^ai, TTCVCTO/X-CU, cXcvcro/xat, tfrOrjorofJicu, Aiy^o/x-at 
 etc. The present reduplication is sometimes retained in 
 
Greek Future. 139 
 
 the future; Homeric SiSoxrw Sec. 61, 3. Futures with a 
 short vowel-stem-ending a/ooorw, KaXcVw ; see also Com 
 pound Aorist. 
 
 4. The asigmatic future results from dropping the a- 
 between vowels, and the insertion of a tach- vowel e 
 between the stem and the ending, which can also be 
 considered as a retention of the first sound of the auxiliary 
 verb CO-CD. In liquid stems, uncontracted Epic and Ionic 
 TVw from Ti/cr(o, KTvo, ftcvco), or contracted ySaXw, 
 <ai/a>, afjLwu Attic, by the side of isolated Epic forms 
 where <r is retained without a tach-vowel, ^epo-o/^at, 
 Kvp<T<D, jceXcra>, Kcpo-a>, <f>\)pcrtt) in stems in /> and A; in 
 other stems, as cSor/xat from coWo/xai, /x,a^ov/u,at, Epic and 
 Ionic p,ax<rofj.ai, Trco-ov/xat Epic -rrco-eoftai, rcXca) Epic, rcXoi 
 Attic, so too reAeVo-a), TcXeo-w, like the present, which it- 
 
 self indeed =TXcr/o>, SeC. 39, 2 ; KOfttOJ, K0/Xt(0, KOjJLltOfJLeV 
 
 from KO/UO-CO),* without subsidiary vowel /fy&u from /&- 
 )8ao-a), cXco, eXa?, Sa/xcu from Sa/xacra), Sa/xas. This IS the 
 so-called Attic future in which tr is rejected and the 
 word contracted. Future form without o- and contraction 
 in verbal stems in v, as dvvco for dvvo-co II. IV. 56 ; epvw 
 XI. 454 et passim; ravvw Od. XXI. 174. The latter 
 by dropping the original or pass into future forms which 
 resemble the present. 
 
 * So Curtius, Gramm. Sec. 263. Perhaps more correctly from 
 KOfu-cw, stem KO/J.I, connected with KOfjudj, whence Koplfa = 
 Kqmyu, by the side of KO^U in KO/JL^LV Od. VI. 207 ; so there 
 lies at the root of the future forms ATrtw, 0/xwrtcD, by the side of 
 ATTiVw. 0poj/rtVw, ^p/o-w, from 5<rw, the weaker nominal stem 
 for frwid, thence the future eXTTieo-w, e\7rtu>. 
 
140 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 5. The future without tense-characteristic. As such 
 t/u Epic, Ionic, and Attic is especially used ; the Epic 
 verbal forms /?o/&cu, /?6to/uu, 2nd singular /Jeg f root 
 fit. Sec. 22, 8770), ISo/xat, irto/u,cu, VCO/ACU, by the side of 
 the future form vtVo/xat II. XXIII. 76, xeo/^u compare 
 aor. e^ea with loss of both o- and f, as 
 from 
 
 LXV. THE COMPOUND OR WEAK GREEK PERFECT 
 AND PLUPERFECT, TOGETHER WITH THE FUTURUM 
 EXACTUM. 
 
 i. The perfect in KCL is found in Homer only when 
 the root ends in a vowel, and then not in all forms. 
 fttfirjKa coexists with ist plural /2e/3a//,i/, 3rd plural 
 /2e/?aao-i, /?e/3aajs ; cor^Ka, ecrra/Acv, 2nd plural also 
 TT\rjKa root rXo, rerXajnev, TerXiyo)?; TtOvrjKa root 
 Homeric infinitive T0va/x,v ^ K^KIJ^KCL root K/ 
 7T^>v/ca 3rd plural Tre^vWt, SeSotKa plural SeSt/xcv. In the 
 later language KO, is found after vowel, dental, and 
 liquid Stems, as TreTretKa, ecrraX/ca, <0apKa, K/cpt/ca, reraKa, 
 moreover cS^So/ca from the lengthened original stem eS 
 side by side with eSrjSws. Akin to this form of the perfect 
 are the aorist forms ZOrjKa, eSw/ca, ^/ca from the vowel 
 roots 0e, So, I, confined however to the indicative. In 
 regard to K lengthening the stem in oXe* 6XeKu>, compare 
 the perfect 6Xa>XcKa, and in ^KO> from root c in f^/x,i with 
 a fixed perfect signification compare IX^KW in IX^/oyo-i Od. 
 XXI. 365. As regards the root-form TH-CIK in Tmjo-o-o) by 
 the side of irra in TTT^T^V, 8a/c, Sa^ in 8tSao-Ko> by the side 
 
Aorist and Future Passive. 141 
 
 of 8a in Safjvai, epvKa> by the side of />va>, the * of the per- 
 fect comes to be considered as an original root deter- 
 minative applied to form the tense. 
 
 2. The compound pluperfect in the earlier language 
 is found chiefly in intransitive verbs, the perfect of which 
 has the signification of the present. It is formed by the 
 addition of a past tense from the root cs to the perfect 
 stem; ist sing, originally eo-a(/x), compare fy la eram 
 Sec. 62, thence ea, rj, tw : en-eW^a Ionic and Epic, 
 thence 17, civ Attic, compare TroAcis from TroAeas. 2nd 
 sing, originally co-as, thence cas Ionic and Epic, 77$, as 
 Attic. 3rd sing, originally co^r), thence ce(v) Ionic, ci, 
 17, civ Attic. 3rd plural ccrav in which or is retained. 
 
 3. The middle-passive futurum exactum, which ex- 
 presses completion in futurity, is formed by the addition 
 of the future ending in the middle form to the perfect 
 stem, which implies the idea of completion. 
 
 perfect Stem XcXv from XeXv//,ai, TTCTrpa^erat Stem 
 ycy/aai/ferai, SeS^o-erat. Isolated forms of the futurum 
 exactum active from the perfect in *a : 
 
 LXVI. THE GREEK AORIST AND FUTURE PASSIVE. 
 
 i. The simpler form of the passive aorist, and the 
 form more closely allied to the strong aorist active 
 whence it also is called ' strong/ or the so-called 2iid 
 aorist, is formed by the addition to the root of the auxiliary 
 
142 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 vowel e (or perhaps the auxiliary verb c, to go, in 
 with causative signification ?), which is lengthened to f\ 
 in the indicative and imperative ; it takes the augment, 
 and the active personal endings without tach-vowel; 
 it is almost confined to verbs which have no strong 
 aorist active : e.g. root $av tydvrjv etc., conjunctive 
 <ava>, optative <av-t7/-v faveirjv. Imperative 
 
 2. The weaker aorist passive, the so-called ist aorist 
 passive, only differs from the former in taking 6 before c, 
 77, or in annexing, conformably to the laws of sound, the 
 syllable 0e to the verbal stem partially lengthened as in 
 the present \ lirpd^Orjv, cAeic^^i/, tyeuo'Orjv, Kpi6rjv. This 
 06, perhaps the root 0e, to set, to do, is here used in a 
 passive signification, compare veneo, venum ire. Cognate 
 to this may be the formation of the German preterite of 
 the weak conjugation by compounding the stem with 
 the root of tuon, to do, answering to the Greek 0c 
 Gothic do, O. H. G. to: thus Gothic salboda, O. H. G, 
 salbota, H. G. salbte, though here certainly only with an 
 active signification. Compare in Greek, the lengthening 
 of the stem or formation of the present with in 
 
 root Trpa, <l>QwvQu, aorist form l<r^9ov, imperfect 
 Od. V. no(?). 
 
 3. The passive future forms are formed by annexing 
 the future ending of the middle to the stems of the two 
 passive aorists, or the middle form of the future from 
 the root 0e 07/o-opu to the verbal stem ; as 
 
Latin Compound Tenses. 143 
 
 Xv0T?o-o/A(u. The Homeric dialect knows no future form 
 in Orjo-ofjLai, a passive future in rja-ofjiai occurs clearly only 
 once, /uyjyo-eo-flcu II. X. 365 on Sc^o-cpu compare per- 
 fect SeSaT/Ko, everywhere else in Homei the passive 
 future is expressed by the middle forms. 
 
 B. LATIN COMPOUND TENSES. 
 LXVII. SUMMARY. 
 
 On account of the poverty of the Latin language 
 in forms of original verbal inflexion compound tense- 
 stems and new formations are more numerous in it 
 than in Greek. They are the following : (a) the two 
 forms of the weak perfect in si and ui, vi ; (fi) the tense 
 and modal forms derived from the perfect stem, that is 
 to say, thefuturum exactum, optative- conjunctive perfect, 
 infinitive perfect, indicative and conjunctive pluperfect. 
 These are compounds of the perfect stem with the 
 future properly the present with future signification, 
 Sec. 64, the optative -conjunctive present, the infinitive 
 present, and the indicative and conjunctive-optative im- 
 perfect of the auxiliary verb esse. (y) The indicative and 
 conjunctive imperfect. (8) The future in bo. With re- 
 spect to the auxiliary verbs employed in these formations 
 these verbal forms divide themselves into those with 
 root or auxiliary verb esse and the endings si, so, ro, 
 sim, rim, sem, rem, and those with root or auxiliary verb 
 fu, Greek <v, and the endings -ui, vi, bam, bo ; both 
 
144 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 roots are amalgamated in the endings ssv, from visa, 
 uero, vero, uissem, vissem. 
 
 LXVIII. WEAK LATIN PERFECT. 
 
 i. The perfect in si = esi, which is a remnant of a 
 perfect form from root es, original dsa ? appears in pri- 
 mitive or stem verbs with consonantal root endings 
 whether these be gutturals, dentals, or labials : lexi = 
 legsi in intellexi, or legi, panxi from present stem /##, by 
 the side of the earlier pepigi, punxi by the side vlpupugi, 
 fluxi from stem flug, vixi from vig, traxi, vexi, rexi ; 
 after / only in vulsi> after n in mansi, after m in sumpsi ; 
 lusi, clausi, misi from lud-si etc. ; the guttural is dropped 
 between r or /and s in alsz, stem alg, fulsi fulg, indulsi, 
 fulsi fulc, sparsi, mersi, torsi. Regressive assimilation in 
 /itsst frOTDLfU^si, cessi, pressi; ussi from us in uro Sec. 33, 
 gessi; hausi, haesi from haus-si. Syncopated forms dixti, 
 scripsti with which compare the archaic infinitives dixe, 
 detraxe, despexe^ surrexe. 
 
 2. The perfect in ui, vi, from the perfect of the auxiliary 
 verb fui with initial / dropped ; u remains after a con- 
 sonantal ending of the root or stem, after vowels it is 
 hardened into the semi-vowel v in vi. (a) This form of 
 the perfect is chiefly found in derived verbs analogous 
 to the contracted verbs in Greek in are, ere, ire, as 
 amavi from ama-fui, delevi, audivi; verbs with infinitive 
 in are and perfect in ui instead of avi, as the archaic 
 form necui instead of necavi, sonui from sonare, form the 
 
Weak Latin Perfect. 145 
 
 perfect from the present stem which is identical with 
 the simple root nee, son, hence the ending is ui instead 
 of at ; avi is from the present stem of derived verbs 
 ama, amo from amao ; verbs of the so-called 2nd conjuga- 
 tion in eo with perfect ui instead of evi form the perfect 
 by dropping the stem-ending e as if from a consonantal 
 stem : thus monui instead of monevi, so the participle 
 passive with short tach-vowel monitus, habitus; ferveo 
 hardens v to b in the perfect ferbui; e is retained in 
 abolevi, delevi, and in verbs with an inchoative present 
 form suesco, quiesco. The formation of the perfect of 
 verbs in io, infinitive ire, by apocope of the i of the 
 present stem is analogous; thus salui, aperui instead 
 of aperi-vi; with syncope throughout in rapio, perfect 
 rapui, infinitive rapere. On the other hand the perfect 
 ivi of present stems in esso, as if from essio, in arcessivi, 
 capessivi, lacessivi, coexists with the simple perfect facessi, 
 participle Itus, infinitive ere, by the side of arcessire. Per- 
 fects analogous to the /-stems where the present stem = 
 the root: petivi, quaesivi. (ft) The perfect form in vi, ui, 
 is however found also in a number of root or stem verbs 
 with a partially lengthened present stem in no, sco ; to 
 these belongs eo, im, which except in the supine itum 
 and in the changing of / to e before the vowels a, o, u 
 passes over into the J- conjugation, Sec. 61, i. 2 ; also 
 sero = stso, perfect sevi, Sec. 61, 3, lino livi levi, cresco 
 crevi, sino sivi, gnosco gnovi ; certain verbs whose root 
 ends in a consonant make by metathesis in the perfect 
 sterno stravi, sperno sprevi, tero trivi ; the perfect m 
 after roots ending in / m n r : calui, colui, volui, con- 
 
 10 
 
146 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 sului, exeellui, fretnui, vomui, genui, tenui, supine tentum, 
 compare tetini Sec. 59, serui; strepui; mposui frompono 
 from posino, posno, where the root consonant s has been 
 dropped, s reappears, hence the archaic form posivi, and 
 / is then dropped, and we get the ending ui in posui ; ui 
 follows double consonants texui, stertui. (y) Lastly, 
 denominatives in uo from a noun-stem in u form the per- 
 fect in ui instead of uvi by syncope of v and shortening 
 the 11, like the derived verbs in to; as aeuo, arguo, 
 statuo, tribuo ; argui from arguvi, statui from staluvi 
 stem statu, tribu compare audivi. 
 
 3. A combination of the two forms of the compound 
 perfect, the sigmatic in si and that in ui, takes place in 
 perfect forms in sui, as messui, root met, compare messum, 
 from metsui, nexui co-existing with next from necto stem 
 nee, pexui a rare form for pexi from pee-to. 
 
 The v of the perfect ending vi disappears between 
 vowels and it is contracted to I in isti, It, isse, peristis, 
 redisscm, nossem, audit, audissem compare dis from dives^ 
 ditior, sis, from si vis; v is also dropped in the plu- 
 perfect and futurum exactum. 
 
 LXIX. TENSES AND MOODS FORMED FROM THE 
 PERFECT. 
 
 i. Second future or futurum exactum. (a) The shorter 
 and earlier form. To the bare verbal stem is annexed 
 he future so, sis, sit from root es (compare ero from esio* 
 or/o>, OXD Sec. 64) with the signification of the future 
 
Tenses formed from Perfect. 147 
 
 or more properly futurum exactum, as axo, cap so, faxo, 
 rapso. (/?) The longer and more recent formation : so 
 is annexed to the perfect stem in i or si, s between 
 vowels becoming r: dedero from dediso, dederunt from 
 dedisontt, stetero, scrips ero ; syncopated forms of the per- 
 fect in si, dixis = dicsi-sis, jussit = jub-si-sit ; so in the 
 perfect stem of derived verbs in vi, amasso from amaviso, 
 where s is doubled to compensate for dropping the per- 
 fect suffix vi, or by syncope and assimilation, peccassit, 
 habessit from hdbevisit from the original perfect of the 
 2nd conjugation in evi. Instead of these archaic forms 
 in which s is retained and v is assimilated to ss, the more 
 developed language constructs forms with r as amavero, 
 habuero ; the last being produced by syncope of e at the 
 end of the root and by vocalisation of v. (y) In con- 
 sideration of the clear and thorough-going signification 
 of even the shorter forms, etc., as futura exacta, these 
 also are to be regarded as early future forms of the 
 futurum exactum constructed from the perfect stem with 
 / syncopated, as faxo = fac-si-so, faxim = fac-si-sim. 
 There lies at the root of these forms a hypothetical 
 perfect form in si faxi, axt, capsi, by the side of the 
 perfect forms proceeding from the original reduplication 
 fed, egi, cepi, Sec. 59, 3. 
 
 2. Conjunctive-optative perfect. The optative from 
 root es, sim from stem, esiem, is annexed to the perfect 
 stem : fecerim from feci-siem (or fec-esim ?), legerim from 
 legisim, dederim = dedisiem, tutuderim = tutudisim. Ar- 
 chaic syncopated forms are faxim =fac-si-sim (see above, 
 
148 An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 faxo), dixim, taxim (indicative tetigi\ axim, comessim, con- 
 jexim, ausim = audsi-sim, compare indicative ausi by the 
 side of ausus sum ; negassim from negavi-sim, as negaverim 
 with r instead of s and e instead of * before r, habessim 
 from habevi-sim ; habuerim. 
 
 3. For the infinitive perfect see above Sees. 40. 68, i. 
 Syncopated form dixe, archaic from dtc-si-sse, dixim, 
 dixis, dixti. 
 
 4. The pluperfect indicative ends in ram from eram 
 ^ tsam, compare ^v, ?a, ca Sec. 62, annexed to the 
 perfect stem in /. feceram, dederam^ steteram = dedi-sam. 
 Compare the passive amatus eram. Conjunctive sem 
 optative of the imperfect (e)sam, esaim compare amem 
 from amaim, Sec. 56, 3 is annexed to the perfect stem 
 in ./, with the s doubled as in essem, legissem = legi-sem, 
 fetissem, fuissem indicative fueram. Earlier syncopated 
 forms axefaxem horn fac-si-sem (see above, faxo> faxim) y 
 intellexem, dixem. 
 
 LXX. FUTURE IN b. 
 
 Besides the originally optative form in e of the stem- 
 verbs of the 3rd conjugation, and the originally optative 
 form of the derived verbs in io of the 4th conjugation which 
 have a in the ist sing., both of them optative forms which 
 came to be used as futures, besides also the termination 
 so from the root es applied to the perfect stem to form 
 the futurum exactum; the Latin language forms another 
 
Imperfect Indicative. 149 
 
 special future, simple and precise in its signification, from 
 derived verbs in a, e of the ist and 2nd conjugations, 
 by annexing fuo of the present fore, root fu (<jf)v), to be- 
 come, to the present stem as the Greek future suffix in tro) 
 comes from the root cs. From/k? comes by aphseresis uo, 
 after vowels vo, which is hardened to bo, bis, bit (com- 
 pare bis = dvis), compare also the imperfect bam from 
 fuam Sec. 7 1 ; amabo, docebo. This form of the future is 
 rare in stem-verbs, as ibo, ddbo, stdbo ; archaic also dicebo, 
 audibo, scibo ; everywhere else, in conjugations 3 and 4, 
 in consonantal, J and U stems, the optative form, with 
 ist sing, in a instead of e, elsewhere e, which has passed 
 into a future signification, is used as legam leges, audiam, 
 statuam. 
 
 LXXI. IMPERFECT INDICATIVE. 
 
 The imperfect from root/#, fuam, compare eram from 
 esam is annexed to the root or present stem like the 
 future in bo by dropping the first letters and hardening 
 the- u by transition from v to b, Ibam, ddbam, stdbam ; 
 stem verbs with a mere tach-vowel lengthen it anoma- 
 lously to eas legebam, as also do derived verbs of the J 
 conjugation audiebam, compare dederunt from original 
 dederunt ; derived verbs in a and e join bam without 
 a tach-vowel to the vowel-ending of the stem : amdbam, 
 docebam, and so do derived verbs in i in the earlier and 
 later poetical language, scibam, audibam. 
 
I SO An Introduction to Greek and Latin. 
 
 LXXII. IMPERFECT CONJUNCTIVE. 
 
 As the optative form sem> see Sec. 69, 4, is annexed to 
 the perfect stem in the conjunctive pluperfect, to express 
 the subjective idea of completion in past time, or in 
 other words to denote the conditional preterite, so in the 
 conjunctive imperfect it expresses subjectively duration 
 in past time, that is the conditional present, by being 
 annexed to the present stem. The conjunctive imper- 
 fect of the auxiliary verb as an independent verb is 
 essem from esaim with ss instead of esem, erem, as might 
 have been expected, (a) sem with s changed into r is 
 annexed to a root ending in a vowel, as forem from 
 fosem> irem, darem, star em = stasem. (ft) s is retained 
 without tach-vowel when the root ends in a consonant, 
 as essem from ed> to eat = edsem, possem from potsem 
 with regressive assimilation ; with assimilated s (pro- 
 gressive assimilation) in ferrem, vellem, from fersem, 
 velsem^ compare fert, vult. (y) In stem-verbs ending in 
 A consonant, in those in io of the 3rd conjugation with 
 syncopated inflexion, in those in uo, as well as those with 
 a tach-vowel e, and in derived verbs in #, e, z, sem is 
 changed into rem after a vowel, as dicerem from dicesem> 
 caperem, acuerem, amarem } docerem, audircm. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Page 
 Adverbs -99 
 
 For 
 
 Affixes .... 7 
 
 
 Analysis, linguistic -71 
 
 Ger 
 
 Aorist, Compound (or First) 16 
 
 Glo 
 
 Aspirates - - - 18, 42 
 
 
 ,, phonetic law of - - 66 
 
 Gra 
 
 Assimilation of sound, pro- 
 
 
 gressive - - 64 
 
 Gri 
 
 ,, regressive - - 63 
 
 
 Case ----- 91 
 
 Ima 
 
 Conjugations - - . 101 
 
 
 Consonants . -17 
 
 Infi 
 
 ,, as root consonants - 27 
 
 T_.fl 
 
 classes of - - - 17 
 
 inn 
 
 Greek system of - 17 
 
 Tnfl 
 
 , resistance of, to pho- 
 
 inn 
 
 T_ f 
 
 netic changes - 21 
 
 Inte 
 
 significance of, to phi- 
 
 Iota 
 
 lology - - - 20 
 Consonantal relation between 
 
 ) j 
 > 
 
 Greek and Latin - 25 
 
 Lan 
 
 Cuneiform Inscriptions . 9 
 
 
 Declension - 88, 90 
 
 i 
 
 Denominative stems (in 
 
 
 which the verbal suf- 
 
 ' 
 
 fixes are attached to a 
 
 > 
 
 noun stem ending in a 
 
 ' 
 
 vowel) - - -79 
 
 
 Digamma, the - - - 18 
 
 
 Diphthongs, Old Latin - 12 
 
 i 
 
 
 Ending, the laws of - .68 
 
 
 Ephelkystic v, or v suffixed - 69 
 Etymology, "the Science of 
 
 Lan 
 
 what is true and 
 
 
 genuine in Language " 21 
 
 
 Page 
 
 Page 
 
 99 
 
 Formal Elements - n 
 
 7 
 71 
 
 Gender - - . - 89 
 
 16 
 
 Glottology, " the Science of 
 
 5, 42 
 
 Sound " - - 7, ii 
 
 66 
 
 Grammar, "the Science of 
 
 64 
 
 Lingual Form " - 7 
 Grimm's law (or "law of 
 
 63 
 
 Sound-shifting") 21, 23 
 
 
 Imagination vigorous in the 
 
 IOI 
 
 early periods of lan- 
 
 
 guage ... 3 
 
 J 
 
 Infinitive, the - - 8 1, 83 
 
 * 
 
 Inflexion, the (Word-forma- 
 
 f 7 
 
 tion) - - 6, 87 
 
 1 7 
 
 Inflexional suffixes - - 87 
 
 21 
 
 Interjections - - 2, 88 
 
 
 Iota "a double power of j" 15 
 
 2O 
 
 ,, epenthetic -15 
 
 
 ,, subscript - - -12 
 
 25 
 
 Language and reason in- 
 
 9 
 
 separable i 
 
 
 , classes and stages of - 7 
 
 >, 90 
 
 , elements of - 4 
 
 
 , Inflexional - - 8 
 
 
 , tokens of- - 8 
 
 
 , Interjectional,"Sounds 
 arising from Sensa- 
 
 79 
 
 tion" ... i 
 
 18 
 
 , nature and origin of - 4 
 
 12 
 
 , onomatopoeic, "the 
 
 
 mere imitation of 
 
 68 
 
 sounds" - - I 
 
 69 
 
 Languages, agglutinative. 
 
 
 "In these two or 
 
 
 more roots grow to- 
 
 21 
 
 gether in a single word' ' 7 
 
152 
 
 Index. 
 
 Letters 
 Liquids 
 
 Page 
 
 4 
 . 49 
 
 37 
 
 Medials .... 
 Metaphor, its importance in 
 the formation of lan- 
 guage ... 3 
 Metathesis, * * a change in the 
 
 position of sounds " - 75 
 Mood, Conjunctive and Op- 
 tative (Greek) - 113 
 ,, Conjunctive and Opta- 
 tive (Latin) - - 115 
 Subjunctive (Latin) 113 
 
 Nominal stems (those in 
 which the verbal suf- 
 fixes are attached to 
 a noun stem which 
 ends with a consonant) 
 
 Noun, the - 
 
 Numerals, Cardinal - 
 ,, Ordinal ... 
 
 Participle, the - 
 Philology, divisions of 
 Phonetic decay, "Degrada- 
 tion and mutilation 
 of an older and 
 fuller form'* 
 
 Types or Roots, "the 
 fundamental ele- 
 ments of language " 
 , Types or Roots, "the 
 irreducible resi- 
 duum of linguistic 
 analysis " 
 
 Prepositions ... 
 Pronouns - 
 
 79 
 
 86 
 
 Si 
 6 
 
 3 
 100 
 
 97 
 
 Reason and Language Inse- 
 parable I 
 Reduplication, law of - - 67 
 ,, "An amplification of 
 the root in order to 
 express relation " 72 
 
 Page 
 Root, the, "the expression 
 
 of a general idea " - 5 
 Roots, "always and uncon- 
 ditionally monosyl- 
 lables"- - - 75 
 classes of - - - 75 
 ,, formation of - 70 
 
 ,, Greek pure vowel - 63 
 ,, marks and peculiari- 
 ties of - - - 74 
 ,, or phonetic Types - 2 
 ,, primary and secondary 73 
 ,, pronominal - - 78 
 , , " The indivisible atoms 
 of language, the 
 primitive elements 
 of words which can- 
 not be further ana- 
 lysed" ... 5 
 
 Sound, Consonantal laws of 63 
 ,, Complex 4 
 
 Lingual ... 4 
 ,, formal elements 
 
 of - - -4 
 ,, material elements 
 
 of - - -4 
 ,, radical elements 
 
 of- - 4 
 
 -shifting, law of 
 
 (Grimm's law) 21, 23 
 ,, the material basis of - 6 
 ,, the science of (Glot- 
 
 tology) ... 7 
 
 Sounds, analysis of - - 1 1 
 
 Spirants - - - 18 
 
 ,, original - - -56 
 
 Stem, the - - - 6 
 
 Stems, Comparative - 83 
 
 formation of - 76 
 
 Nominal - - - 81 
 
 ,, Superlative - -85 
 
 Verbal - 78 
 
 ,, Nominal verbal - -79 
 
 ,, a-stem - -91 
 
 o - -91 
 
 uj,, . , - 91 
 
Index. 
 
 153 
 
 Page 
 
 Tense, Aorist passive Greek 141 
 ,, Compound Greek - 135 
 
 Latin - - 143 
 f , ,, Perfect and 
 
 Pluperfect (Greek)- 140 
 Future Greek - - 137 
 ,, ,, passive Greek - 142 
 ,, ,, in bo Latin - 148 
 ,, Futurum Exactum 
 
 Greek - - - 141 
 ., Imperfect conjunctive 150 
 Greek 134 
 
 ,, indicative 
 
 Latin - - - 149 
 Perfect, the, tenses and 
 
 moods formed from 146 
 Present Greek and 
 
 Latin - - - 127 
 
 simple or strong A< 
 
 (Greek) - 
 simple or strong A< 
 
 (Latin) - 
 
 .orist 
 
 - 125 
 
 .orist 
 
 simple Perfect and 
 
 Pluperfect (Greek) - 1 19 
 
 ,, weak Perfect (Latin) - 144 
 
 Tenses, compound - - 118 
 
 ,, of verbs - - 101, 117 
 
 Tenues - - - - 27 
 
 Verb, the - - - 5 
 
 Contracted - - 80 
 
 ,, Denominative - 79 
 
 ,, Desiderative - - 80 
 
 Verbs, moods of- - - 101 
 
 Page 
 
 Verbs, personal endings of 103 
 
 ,, persons of - - 101 
 
 tenses of - - 101, 117 
 
 ,, voices of - - - 102 
 
 Vis Inertiae (Laziness), effect 
 
 of - - - - 10 
 Voice,Middle-passive (Greek) 1 1 1 
 (Latin) 112 
 
 Vowels - - - - ii 
 ,, changes of - - 12 
 ,, ,, under conso- 
 nantal influence - 14 
 ,, exposed to greater 
 changes than conso- 
 nants - - 21 
 ,, fundamental (Indo- 
 
 Germanic) - - n 
 
 Word, the - - - 5, 87 
 
 ,, "the complete form 
 
 of language - - 5 
 
 ,, " The complete com- 
 bination of sounds 
 which express mean- 
 ing and relation " - 6 
 
 ,, " the single phonetic 
 expression of a com- 
 plete and indepen- 
 dent perception " - 5 
 
 ,, -formation or inflexion 87 
 Words "The phonetic em- 
 bodiments and the 
 only exponents of 
 conceptions'* 2 
 
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UNIVERSITY OF TAUKOKXIA LIBRARY 
 
 THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE 
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 APR 30 1926 
 APR 6 1P4 
 SEP 10 1947 
 
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 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY