LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA Deceived APR 10 1 893 . 189 ^Accessions No. SrQ 5 ?> ^. Class No. LONDON: PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE AND PARLIAMENT STREET UKI7BRSIT7 THE SCHOOLS FOR THE PEOPLE CONTAINING THE HISTORY, DEVELOPMENT, AND PRESENT WORKING OF EACH DESCRIPTION OF ENGLISH SCHOOL FOR THE INDUSTRIAL AND POORER CLASSES BY GEORGE C T. HARTLEY H EXAMINER SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT AUTHOR OF 'THE ONE SQUARE MILE IN THE EAST OF LONDON' ETC. If the iron be blunt, and he do not ivhet the edge, then must he put to more strength : but wisdom is profitable to direct Eccl. x. 10 ; [THU7BESITY] LONDON HKI.L & DALDY, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN 1871 ieht PREFACE. THE publication of this volume on the subject of Education at a time when the topic has been dis- cussed by so many great authorities, requires perhaps an explanation as to how it originated, and the circumstances which led to its preparation. Having been engaged under the Science and Art Department for eleven years, the subject of Schools, their history and development, has constantly come under my notice in the course of my official duties. In not a few instances has it happened that I have experienced difficulty in arriving at facts bearing on the general relation of Schools of different descriptions with the Educational System of the country. As a matter of private study, and quite apart from my official work, I became much interested in the subject of the condition of pauper children and the modes which exist for their improvement. I was thus led to consider the working of Workhouse, District, Industrial, Ragged, Reformatory, and such like Schools. One branch led me on to another, and the complete history of Education in England during the last three hundred years, seemed so interesting and instructive that I commenced a series of articles on the rise and progress of the chief descriptions of Schools for the industrial and poorer classes. Four or five of these were published in the Journal of the Society of Arts, and the interest which they created encouraged viii Preface. me to proceed. The subject, however, soon assumed such dimensions as far to exceed the capacity of that Journal. I was on this account recommended to bring out the series in a complete form, and a compliance with this advice has resulted in the publication of the present volume. It may, perhaps, strike some who have not studied the subject of Education very deeply, that the number and variety of Schools which appear in the table of contents must be sufficient to meet every possible case, and that after all England is not so far behind in the provision she has made for the training of her children. A closer investigation, however, unfortunately will soon dispel any such delusion. Schools are certainly in existence for almost every class of child, but the accommodation which they provide is far below the requirements, as may be seen by the table at page 26. This, however, is not the worst feature in the case, for so great is the apathy and indifference of parents, caused, it is true, by long neglect, that the provision already made in existing Schools is not taken advantage of to nearly its full extent, in spite of the hundreds of thousands who are growing up in absolute ignorance. As an example of the complete impotency of the recent regulations to reach children neglected by their parents, I may mention the following case, which came under my special knowledge. In pursuing enquiries at the East end of London in February 1870, I took par- ticular interest in a sharp little fellow with whom I became acquainted. He was about twelve years of age, and his residence, if it could be called such, was within a mile of the Bank of England and the Mansion of the Lord Mayor. It was also within fifty yards of a Church of England and a Vicarage. Taking his home as a Preface. ix centre and striking a half-mile radius, the following Insti- tutions were to be found : at least twenty Churches of the National Establishment, with vicars, curates, district visitors, Sunday Schools, &c. ; a still larger number of Dissenting Chapels, with numerous ministers and other helpers ; nineteen Elementary Schools aided by Govern- ment grants, twenty-seven other Elementary Schools, and an innumerable number of Dame and such like places of instruction. In spite of all this machinery this wretched boy did not know his own name, except that he was generally called ' Diddlego ; ' could, of course, not read ; nor had he the slightest knowledge of the very elements of religion. Were this an exceptional instance it would stand for nothing, but within that very half-mile radius at least twenty thousand children are at this moment quite in the same position, or one but very slightly removed from it. Without doubt, the Education Bill of 1870 has a vast field for labour, unfortunately not on a virgin soil, but on one rank with the growth of many years of ignorance and neglect. The complete change in the Educational aspect of the country which this new measure must produce, will before very long, it is to be hoped, make great alterations in the existing Schools for the People I have attempted to describe. This consideration, however, has not induced me to give up the work, a large part of which was written before the Act of 1870 was framed. That measure has indeed rather stimulated me to hurry on its completion, as I ventured to hope that in issuing a succinct account of each description of School I should save others many a weary search for information connected with educational matters. The tracing of the history of each educational system becomes more and more difficult as the action of the State tends to assimilate all Schools to one common x Preface. mould, and the characteristics which once were so marked in individual schemes gradually get softened and reduced to one uniform standard. It is feared that the severe critic will fail to find novelty or originality in these pages. To this omission I must indeed plead guilty. My object throughout has been to secure accuracy, and as rarely as possible to draw deduc- tions of my own, but rather to state facts as they existed at each period and to leave my readers to form their own con- clusions. In investigating the history of most Schools I have received cordial assistance from those particularly interested in them, both by the loan of rare and original documents and early publications as well as by their personal co-operation. Without this I need hardly say my task would have been very much more arduous, and the result of my investigations far less satisfactory. I should be ungrate- ful to my own Department if I failed to mention the great use which the Educational Library at the South Kensington Museum has been to me. In concluding a work which for nearly two years has almost entirely absorbed every moment of my spare time apart from my official duties, I would wish thus publicly to thank my esteemed friend the Rev. J. Cornford and my brother Dr. Bartley, to whom I am so much indebted for helping me in the somewhat tedious task of revising and seeing these pages through the press, and for many valuable suggestions which I have received from them throughout the progress of the work. GEORGE C. T. BARTLEY. HERNE HILL, SURREY : January, 1871. CONTENTS. PAGE 1. THE SCHOOLS FOR THE PEOPLE i 2. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF IMPORTANT EVENTS BEARING ON THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE . 24 3. STATISTICS OF CHILDREN IN EXISTING SCHOOLS FOR THE PEOPLE 26 4. STATISTICS OF TEACHING STAFF REQUIRED FOR THE FUTURE SCHOOLS FOR THE PEOPLE . . 27 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN CONNECTION WITH THE COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION. 5. THE COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION REGU- LATIONS CONCERNING ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS . 31 6. STATISTICAL TABLE SHOWING THE DEVELOPMENT OF STATE AID, &c., TO EDUCATION. . . .49 7. NATIONAL SCHOOLS ...... 50 8. BRITISH SCHOOLS 59 9. WESLEY AN SCHOOLS 69 10. ROMAN CATHOLIC SCHOOLS . . . . . 78 11. CONGREGATIONAL SCHOOLS . 87 xii Contents. PAGE 12. JEWS^ SCHOOLS ... ... 95 13. INFANT SCHOOLS . . .107 14. EVENING SCHOOLS . .116 SCHOOLS IN CONNECTION WITH THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT OF THE COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION. 15. THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT . .121 1 6. SCIENCE SCHOOLS . . . . . . .124 17. SCHOOLS OF ART ....... 140 18. TRADE SCHOOLS ....... 155 19. NAVIGATION SCHOOLS . . . . . . .162 SCHOOLS UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE LORDS COMMISSIONERS OF THE ADMIRALTY. 20. THE ADMIRALTY . . . . . . .175 21. TRAINING SHIPS FOR THE ROYAL NAVY . . 177 22. SCHOOLS ON BOARD HER MAJESTY'S SHIPS . . 187 23. ROYAL MARINE SCHOOLS. . . 192 24. DOCKYARD SCHOOLS . 199 25. GREENWICH HOSPITAL SCHOOLS FOR THE ORPHAN CHILDREN OF SAILORS 210 Contents. xiii SCHOOLS UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR WAR. PAGE 26. THE WAR DEPARTMENT 221 27. ARMY SCHOOLS . . ... 223 28. SCHOOLS FOR THE ORPHAN CHILDREN OF SOLDIERS . 233 SCHOOLS UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE HOME DEPARTMENT. 29. THE HOME DEPARTMENT . . 241 30. CERTIFIED INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS . . 243 31. CERTIFIED REFORMATORY SCHOOLS . . 254 SCHOOLS UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE POOR-LAW BOARD. 32. THE POOR-LAW BOARD . . . . . .269 33. WORKHOUSE SCHOOLS ... . 272 34. DISTRICT SCHOOLS . . .285 SCHOOLS UNDER THE INSPECTION OF THE COM- MISSIONERS OF LUNACY. 35. THE COMMISSIONERS OF LUNACY . . . .299 36. SCHOOLS FOR IDIOTS AND IMBECILES .301 xiv Contents. SCHOOLS NOT AIDED BY PUBLIC GRANTS. PAGE 37. INTRODUCTION' TO SCHOOLS NOT AIDED BY PUBLIC GRANTS ........ 311 38. CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS 316 39. PAROCHIAL CHARITY SCHOOLS 325 40. WARD SCHOOLS . . . . . . .332 41. ORPHAN SCHOOLS . . . . . . .336 42. SCHOOLS FOR THE BLIND 342 43. SCHOOLS FOR THE DEAF AND DUMB . . 354 44. SCHOOLS FOR CRIPPLES 362 45. SUNDAY SCHOOLS . . . . . . .368 46. FRIEND? FIRST-DAY SCHOOLS . . . 375 47. RAGGED SCHOOLS . . ... . . .382 48. MECHANICS' INSTITUTION SCHOOLS . . . 39 ! 49. DAME SCHOOLS ... ... 400 50. PRIVATE ADVENTURE SCHOOLS . . . .408 51. EVENING SCHOOLS . . 414 52. BIRKBECK SCHOOLS . . 419 Contents. xv TRAINING COLLEGES IN CONNECTION WITH THE COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION. PAGE 53. THE COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION REGU- LATIONS CONCERNING TRAINING COLLEGES. . 429 54. NATIONAL SOCIETY 1 S TRAINING COLLEGES . . 439 55. THE BRITISH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY'S TRAIN- ING COLLEGES 447 56. WESLEY AN TRAINING COLLEGE . . . .456 57. ROMAN CATHOLIC TRAINING COLLEGES . . .464 58. CONGREGATIONAL TRAINING COLLEGE . . - 473 59. HOME AND COLONIAL TRAINING COLLEGE . . 481 60. ART TRAINING SCHOOL UNDER THE SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT OF THE COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION . . .... 489 61. THE TRAINING SCHOOL FOR ARMY SCHOOLMASTERS, UNDER THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR WAR 500 EDUCATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS AND INSTITUTIONS SPECIALLY INTERESTING. 62. THE FAVERSHAM EDUCATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS . 507 63. THE SALTAIRE EDUCATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS. . 516 64. ORPHAN SCHOOL, ASHLEY DOWN, BRISTOL . . 523 65. THE MILITARY SCHOOL OF MUSIC AT KNELLER HALL, NEAR HOUNSLOW 53' INDEX . 539 ILLUSTRATIONS. 1. PRACTICAL CHEMISTRY CLASS, ISLINGTON PUBLIC SCHOOL ....... Frontispiece. 2. KINDERGARTEN INFANT SCHOOL, GRAY'S INN ROAD ....... Page 40 3. DRILL ON BOARD HER MAJESTY'S TRAINING SHIP ' IMPREGNABLE' . . . 112 4. PLAN OF THE REFORMATORY FARM SCHOOL, REDHILL ,,152 5. MARCHING INTO DINNER, HAN WELL DISTRICT SCHOOL . . . . . . 204 6. DRILL, HAN WELL DISTRICT SCHOOL . . . ,,252 7. A SHOP LESSON, EARLSWOOD ASYLUM . . ,,302 8. A MUSIC LESSON TO THE BLIND, ASYLUM FOR THE INDIGENT BLIND, SOUTHWARD . . ,,348 9. TEACHING THE DUMB TO SPEAK, OLD KENT ROAD ASYLUM . . . . . . 398 10. AN INDUSTRIAL LESSON TO CRIPPLES, MARY- LEBONE ROAD . . 45 n. A LONDON DAME SCHOOL IN 1870 . . . 500 12. SALTAIREPLAN OF TOWN, AND EDUCATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS . 5 l8 1. THE SCHOOLS FOR THE PEOPLE. The Reformation. It is usually admitted that the first step towards educating the great mass of the population of this country was taken about the period of the Great Reformation. Although the efforts put forth for the diffusion of knowledge at an earlier date were not inconsiderable, little progress in learning was perceptible among the people at large. The endeavours of King Alfred the Great, who must be looked upon as the father of English education, were chiefly directed to the improvement of those of his subjects who were in a superior position, and did not reach the working classes. This is shown, indirectly, by his enactment, that all freeholders who possessed two hides of land or upwards ' should send their sons to school and give them a liberal learning.' At the time this was considered a most ex- tensive measure, and as embracing everyone who could possibly benefit by attendance at school. It is evident, therefore, that in those days the idea of all, even the agricultural labourer, receiving a sound education, could hardly have existed. After the death of Alfred the spread of education among the upper classes seems to have been arrested, and the work he had com- menced appears gradually to have decayed, so that, for many years, learning was chiefly confined to the Universities he had founded, and to the Episcopal or Cathedral Schools. Religious Houses London in the Thirteenth Century. At the commencement of the thirteenth century the great increase of religious houses to which in most cases a school was attached 2 i. The Schools for the People. led to an important revival in learning. According to Bishop Tanner no fewer than 557 of these religious houses were esta- blished between the Conquest and the death of King John. The salutary influence which these Institutions exerted upon the people generally appears to have been considerable, even allowing for the somewhat exaggerated mode of expression prevalent at that period. Roger Bacon states, that ' there never had been so great an appearance of learning, and so general an application to study in so many different faculties/ as in his time, when ' schools were erected in every city, town, burgh, and castle ; so many schools being founded, and so many sciences taught, in London and its environs, that it was not very impro- perly called a third University.' Degeneration in Fifteenth Century. This state of things, which, if literally true, might excite the envy of modern London, does not appear to have continued very long. The public schools decayed, and the grossest ignorance prevailed among all classes during the fifteenth century. So much was this the case that in the reign of Henry VI. four clergymen petitioned Parliament to allow them to set up schools in their respective parishes, and to take other and more extensive measures to arrest the progress of the evil. This petition, the original of which is still in existence, set forth so convincingly the great need of some measures being taken that it was granted. The schools thus formed, if they did not effect any other good, are said to have had some beneficial influence on the behaviour and manners of the Londoners, remarkable for the rudeness ' which characterised the features of that period.' Printing Grammar Schools. During the thirty years imme- diately preceding the Reformation, the art of printing, which had been invented but seventy or eighty years, was rapidly producing an effect on the educational aspect of this country. So much was this the case that, coupled with other influences, it gave a fresh impetus to learning, and led, in this short space of time, to the erection and endowment of a larger number of Grammar Schools than had been brought into existence through- out the previous three hundred years. It is usually allowed that the diffusion of knowledge which resulted through the instrumentality of these schools had no small effect in clearing away the mists of ignorance which darkened this period, and in introducing the light of the Reformation. i. The Schools for the People. 3 Ignorance in the Sixteenth Century. The following anecdotes serve as examples of the ignorance which then prevailed, even among the higher classes. It is recorded that in 1563 only two divines at Oxford were capable of preaching before the Univer- sity. In 1570 the Records show that ' Home, Bishop of Winton, enjoined to his Minor Canons tasks almost beneath the abilities of an ordinary schoolboy.' In 1567 Archbishop Parker, in his directions for the foundation of three scholarships at Cambridge, provides that they were to be given to the most considerable schools in Kent and Norfolk, and to 'the best and aptest scholars, well instructed in the grammar, and (if it may be) such as can make a verse.' Reformation the Commencement of Schools for the People. The influence which the Reformation produced on education is stated thus by Nicholas Carlisle, in his famous work on Grammar Schools : ' Before the Reformation it has been remarked that learning was much confined to the monasteries, but after their dissolution it came forth from thence, and began to diffuse itself more widely among the great body of the people, and the im- portant object of literature soon became a measure of general policy.' Accepting this view of the history of English educa- tion, it may be fairly taken for granted that ' Schools for the People ' date from the era in which the religious aspect of our country was so completely reformed. Educational Epochs. In tracing the progress of national education from the Reformation to the present time, it will be convenient to notice distinct periods, during each of which important changes were made with a view to its extension for the benefit of the people. 1st. The Grammar-School Period. This commenced shortly before the Reformation, but what little direct influence it had on the education of the masses practically ceased previous to the eighteenth century. 2nd. The Parochial Charity School Period. This commenced with the beginning of the eighteenth century, and continued to hold its special features for about a hundred years. 3rd. The Educational Society Period. This commenced in 1808, and retained its more special and exclusive features until the introduction of State aid in 1833. 4th. The period from 1833 to 1846, during which public grants were made to encourage education, but were limited to 4 i. The Schools for the People. erecting school buildings, teachers' houses, and aiding Training Colleges. 5th. The period extending from 1846 to the present time, during which public grants have been made towards the annual expenses of schools, in addition to the former assistance for buildings. ist. THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL PERIOD. Rapid Extension Intention of Founders. The establishment of Grammar Schools commenced, as before stated, a short time before the Reformation, but their extensive development dates subsequently to that period. Nicholas Carlisle thus writes : ' We now arrive at that mild period of the Reformation when the piety and charity of Protestants in the foundation of Grammar Schools prevailed so much that in the succeeding age there wanted rather a regulation than an increase of them.' The original intention of the founders of the greater number of these schools was undoubtedly that they should be ' Schools for the People,' that is, channels for affording instruction to the poorer classes. Those called Free Grammar Schools were gener- ally open gratuitously to persons residing in their immediate neighbourhood, or within a specified distance. Some do not appear to have made even this limitation, but were free to all comers, as the one at Wimborne, in Dorsetshire, which was open to ' all the King's subjects in England for instruction of their sons.' Fees. In some instances, the founders seem to have parti- cularly provided against the possibility of any fee being charged. Thus, for instance, at the Manchester Grammar School, the master and usher were to ' teach grammar freely and indiffe- rently ' to every child or scholar attending the school, without receiving ' any money or rewards, as cock-penny, victor-penny, potation-penny,* or any other.' Again, the foundation-deed of the Horsham Grammar School provided, that the sixty scholars were to be of the poor of that parish, or of the one adjoining, and specially enjoined that they were to be educated without any payment whatever. On the other hand, at some even of the so-called Free Grammar Schools, a small fee was charged, as at Warrington, where a cock-penny or three potation-pennies were required from each pupil in the year ; in many cases, how- ever, the poor were specially excluded from this charge. * Terms originally applied to money paid to defray the expenses of the national sport of cock fighting ; subsequently the fees to the teacher. i . The Schools for the People. 5 Numerous instances might be given, showing that the original intention was, that the poorest class should be able, if they thought proper, to avail themselves of the opportunities afforded by the Grammar Schools. Not confined to the Poor. Although the Grammar Schools thus provided specially for the poor, the early records at the same time show that pupils of a superior social position in life were not intended to be wholly excluded. In the foundation-deeds of some schools the ' rich and poor ' are mentioned, as at Wye, which was for ' the instruction of youths gratis, both rich and poor.' In other places, provision is made for ' those that be of ability to pay,' who were to be admitted as well as others in more humble circumstances. General Intention of Founders. The main idea in most of the founders' minds seems to have been to secure that their schools should always be well filled with pupils. When established in large towns, having a population amply sufficient to maintain a due supply of children, there is often a provision in the deeds that certain other persons, from neighbouring towns or parishes, should be admitted, if the accommodation were not taken advantage of to its full extent by the classes for whom it was primarily intended. At first sight this might appear strange, particularly as it has been stated that the artisan class was to be freely admitted to Grammar Schools. It is, however, not to be wondered at, inasmuch as in the days when serfdom was practically unabolished, it was not likely that founders would think it probable that their school would be taken advantage of by a large number of the working classes. They seem, how- ever, in many cases to have had considerable foresight, and to have wished to secure, by their liberality, such a provision that no clever boy should be debarred from rising because of his poverty. This is alluded to in the Report of the Schools' Inquiry Commission, as follows: 'If we sum up briefly the purpose of the Grammar Schools, we may describe it to be, an education higher than the rudiments, conducted under religious influences, put within the reach of all classes, with an especial preference for the poor boy who is apt to learn.' Not used by the Poor. For the first century, or perhaps a cen- tury and a half after the Reformation, these schools continued to be founded in great numbers. The education of the poorer classes, however, dues not appear to have been thereby much 6 i. The Schools for the People. improved, as the schools were attended principally by boys of a higher grade. No doubt this arose chiefly from the poor not really caring to take advantage of the instruction provided. This was so much the case that in time, from their uniform absence, the fact that they were included in the original scheme seemed almost to have been forgotten. The loss to the people was, nevertheless, not very great, for, unfortunately, the majority of these Grammar Schools gradually sank into decay, through egregious mismanagement, and they were for many years of little benefit either to the rich or poor. Cause of Decay. The large funds in the possession of the trustees of these Schools, instead of being made use of to increase their efficiency, were applied in such a way as to have the oppo- site effect. Teachers were paid a fixed salary without reference to the success of their work, and they consequently became careless in their teaching, and indifferent to the importance of keeping the Institutions up to the progressive requirements of modern times. The number of scholars sensibly decreased, and the instruction given so seriously degenerated that, after the end of the seventeenth century, they must be regarded as having practically ceased to be what they were originally, ' Schools for the People.' 2ND. THE PAROCHIAL CHARITY SCHOOL PERIOD, FROM ABOUT 1700 TO 1800. Causes which were at work. The increase of learning brought about in the seventeenth century by the spread of literature and the comparative cheapness of books, was instrumental in leading to what may be considered the next epoch in the history of Schools for the People. Nor must the indirect influence of the Grammar Schools just considered be overlooked. These Schools, though themselves failing as direct agents in educating the poorer classes, were the means of keeping alive an amount of interest in educational subjects, which, but for their existence, would probably have been much slower in developing itself. Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. The clergy of the Established Church may fairly claim the merit of first awaken- ing public feeling to the absolute necessity of something being done, with the special object of improving the educational con- dition of the working classes. One of the original objects of the i . The Schools for the People. 7 ' Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge/ was the spread of schools among the poor. It is true at the time of its establish- ment the education it promoted was the inculcation of the religious views of the Church of England, and any idea of religious liberty or independent opinion was as far as possible suppressed. However, from whatever source it originated, the first years of last century marked the commencement of a great educational movement, having for its object the establishment of a School for the Poor in every parish in the kingdom. This was carried on in the way described under the chapter on Parochial Charity Schools. The clergy were not long in establish- ing these Institutions in all parts. Before the end of twenty years, some sort of Charity School was in operation in nearly every large parish of importance, in London, and in the chief provincial towns. Taken advantage of by the Poor. These Schools differed from the Grammar Schools, inasmuch as they were taken advantage of exclusively by the working classes. They were more within the reach of the poor, and the endeavours of the clergy in their respective parishes had the effect of securing that the accommo- dation was made use of by those for whom it was intended. In this sense, the Parochial Charity School Period forms a more practical commencement of the ' Schools for the People ' than the class of Institution which has been previously considered. Cost prevented Extension. Although the increase in the number of Parochial Charity Schools was great, yet they provided for only a small portion of the children growing up in ignorance ; nor could they reach the agricultural and remoter parts of the country. Inasmuch as the pupils were clothed, as well as educated, the necessary expenses were heavy, and as the whole cost fell on private subscriptions, a want of funds seriously im- peded their extension. Sectarian character of Schools. One feature which these Schools possessed was that they were in all cases rigidly sectarian in their teaching, and Dissenting parents either had to strain their consciences, or else give up nearly the only available means with- in their reach for the education of their children. Towards the middle and end of the century, the Dissenting population became more and more numerous, and the absolute necessity of some more liberal measures was felt to a greater extent year by year. i. The Schools for the People. No atte'mpt appears, however, to have been made by Dissenters to establish any regular system of Day Schools for them- selves. Their Sunday Schools, however, rapidly increased from the year 1783, and they were even in advance of the Church of England in their desire to adopt this means of imparting Christian knowledge, according to their own particular tenets, to the rising generation. Pestalozzi's System. The influence exercised by Pestalozzi during the last part of the eighteenth century, though not at the time felt so much in England as on the Continent, should be noticed as an important fact in the history of the development of education. To his teaching must be attributed the commence- ment of a complete change in the aspect of Elementary Schools. His views were introduced into this country chiefly by the Home and Colonial School Society, and are so important that the following brief summary of their principles, as endeavoured to be carried out by that Society, may be quoted : ' ist. That Education relates to the whole man ; and consists in the drawing forth, strengthening, and perfecting all the faculties with which an all-wise Creator has endowed him physical, intellectual, and moral or, to use Pestalozzi's own words, " Education has to do with the hand, the head, and the heart." ' 2nd. That these faculties should be developed progressively, harmoniously, and simultaneously. To effect this, instruction should be carefully, but not too minutely, graduated. Care should also be taken to exercise every faculty, not singly, but in combination, and all in that proportion which ensures harmony in the whole ; following, as far as practicable, the order in which they are naturally developed, and bearing in mind that the moral powers take the precedence, and require the most care- ful and unremitting culture. ' 3rd. That, with a view to ensure healthy activity in the faculties, the teacher should not commence with symbols and abstractions, but with realities and particulars he should proceed from the known to the unknown from particulars to generals from examples to rules. This is inverting the old order of teaching. But who does not now acknowledge it to be the most rational and philosophical course ? '4th. That the child must not be treated as a mineral, which can only increase by accretion ; but as an organic being, that i. The Schools for the People. 9 progresses to maturity by the unfolding of all its powers, exercised on the materials presented to them. '5th. That, as the child advances in age, the character of his instruction should be suited to a more matured state of mind : thus the process of induction is substituted for that of deduction ; and whilst the elements of knowledge are the materials of the earliest lessons, subjects as a whole, and in their complex character, must be presented to the advanced pupil. Pestalozzi's expression is, " that we should commence instruction at the natural point dc depart, and at a later period start from the artificial/^/;// de depart" '6th. It follows that the work of the teacher ought to be analytical that he should reduce his subjects to their elements ; whilst that of the learner ought to be synthetical the latter should build up his knowledge himself under the guidance of a superior mind, and thus, in fact, be his own educator. 4 Finally. The same principles equally apply to moral as to intellectual culture. Precepts should be deduced from actions ; and what objects are to intellectual instruction, actions should be to moral. But the Christian educator must never forget that the precious germ to be expanded has a disease the child has a fallen nature it inherits the disease of sin, and the only remedy to besought is the Gospel of Jesus Christ.' Institutions for those Physically afflicted. The rise of many of the noble institutions, supported by charity, for the education of those members of the community who are the subjects of various misfortunes, followed the introduction of the Parochial Schools. The Royal Asylum of St. Ann's Society, established in 1702, the Asylum for Female Orphans, and the Clergy Orphan School, &c., were among the first ; and later, the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb originated in London in 1792, and the School for the Indigent Blind in 1799. These last inaugurated a system which endeavours to overcome physical defects fjy the appliances of science. The results of some of these institutions, which have gradually spread over the country, are but too little known. Operations which, at one time, were looked upon as miraculous, such as the teaching of the deaf and dumb to speak, instructing the blind to read and write and use the most delicate musical instruments, are now accomplished as everyday occurrences in hundreds of Institutions. In later years, idiots have been taught, and made, to a considerable extent, useful io i. The Schools for the People. members of society; and cripples have been so trained as to be rendered capable, in many cases, of carrying on some profitable occupation. Results of these Institutions. This branch of education, which has been the means of converting thousands of helpless, useless creatures into intelligent and useful members of society, has been established by, and, up to this moment, continues de- pendent solely on private benevolence. Of all the works of charity in this country, these schools may perhaps be regarded with the greatest satisfaction. They require little more than some systematic or even official supervision to ensure careful vigilance in the expenditure, which, whilst it should provide liberally for all legitimate wants, should, at the same time, guard against any waste or unnecessary staff. With these provisions, nothing is more to be desired than such an extension of this work of philanthropy as would embrace all who are so unfor- tunate as to be eligible for admission to such institutions. 3RD. THE EDUCATIONAL SOCIETY PERIOD, EXTENDING FROM 1808 UNTIL 1833. Leading Features, and Causes which led to its Origin. Towards the end of the last century, the great majority of the Parochial Charity Schools appear gradually to have lost much of the life and energy which had originally characterised them, and to have fallen into the torpid condition which the Grammar Schools ex- hibited. The work, however, of a hundred years, spent on the education of the people, had not been lost. Coupled, as it was, with the great increase in the diffusion of literature, through the introduction of cheap printing, it tended materially to bring about the British School System in the early years of the present century. This liberal scheme of education was the natural re- action from the exclusive principles of the Parochial Charity Schools. It owed its origin to the Quaker, Joseph Lancaster ; and, because of the liberty of conscience, which was one of its chief features, a British School was considered to be exclusively and necessarily in connection with the Dissenters. Such, how- ever, was not the case, as, from the first, British Schools, both on their Board of management and among their pupils, were sup- ported by a considerable proportion of members of the Church of England as well as by those of other persuasions. i. The Schools for the People. 1 1 Rapid Extension of Sunday Schools. The British Schools spread with even greater rapidity than the Parochial Charity Schools had just a hundred years before. So great was the success of the movement, that Lancaster's work must be considered as forming the commencement of the next educational epoch. The same period also witnessed the extension of Sunday Schools in con- nection with all denominations. This took place after the system of voluntary teachers had become almost universal. The National Society Rivalry. Zealous efforts in the cause of education on the part of the Church of England were once more kindled by the success which had attended the work of Lan- caster, and, a few years later, the National Society was formed, for educating children on what was called the Madras system. The schools connected with this system were exclusively and specially founded on the religious principles of the Established Church, as set forth in the Liturgy and Catechism. The motive which led to this movement was, to a great extent, the desire of spreading the religious opinions of the Establishment, as the clergy felt that, without the counteracting influence of the Church of England, the views likely to be inculcated by an uninterrupted extension of British Schools would be prejudicial. So far their convictions must be respected, and their conduct commended. But, reviewing the circumstances after the lapse of sixty years, it cannot but be regretted that the rival systems should have given rise to such hot dispute, or that the merit of priority should have become so serious a cause of dissension. Abundant work existed to tax the energy and resources of both Societies, and to give ample scope to the carrying out of either plan. Friendly rivalry, and a respect for the conscientious opinions of each other, would have stimulated the action and increased the operations of both during the next thirty years, for which space of time they were the practical workers in extending the educa- tion of the country. Religious Intolerance still a difficulty. This feeling of antago- nism between those professing different religious views in carrying out the work of educating the poor, is unfortunately the great difficulty to be contended against, even at the present day ; nor, in this respect, do persons seem likely to profit by the experience of those who have gone before them. This may be seen by a reference to the parliamentary debates of the last session, and the opinions expressed by different persons at educational meetings 12 i. The Schools for the People. held during the discussion on the Act of 1870. The clergy, both of the Established Church and of all denominations, have, unfortunately, been somewhat conspicuous in this matter. This is the more to be regretted, inasmuch as to their exertions must be mainly attributed the bringing about of the various educa- tional improvements, and extending them largely to the poor. So exclusive and illiberal, however, at times have members of their order been, that many persons deny them the credit to which they are justly entitled namely, that of being, as a class, the pioneers of education. Work of the Societies Parliamentary Action. For nearly thirty years that is, from 1808 to 1834 the transactions of the National Society, and of the British and Foreign School Society, form almost the only leading features in the chronicles of the spread of education among the working classes in England. During this period, the subject was repeatedly brought before the notice of Parliament, chiefly by the energy of the late Lord Brougham, when a member of the House of Commons. In 1816 he moved for a committee to inquire into the state of education in London, Westminster, and Southwark. As a result of this investigation it appeared that there were no fewer than 130,000 children within the area embraced for whom no means of instruction were provided. Two years later a Select Committee was appointed ' to inquire into the education of the lower orders/ and in the same year a Commission was formed to investigate the application of charitable funds for the purposes of education in England and Wales. Commencement of Training System. An important branch of the work of both Societies, and one in which they showed them- selves to be considerably in advance of the times, was their endeavour to improve the qualifications and to increase the supply of teachers of Elementary Schools. One of the first works undertaken by them was that of affording facilities for young persons of both sexes to come to London and there to undergo a course of a few months' training, with a view to qualify them for teaching. This measure, though far from meeting the requirements, was the commencement of a general system of training, and so far developed, under the private management of the Societies, that at the time when Government assistance was introduced a number of Institutions were in existence, on which i. The Schools for the People. 13 the new system could be readily grafted and made to produce excellent results. The 1st Educational Bill, 1820 These two inquiries preceded the introduction in 1820 of Mr. Brougham's 'Bill for better promoting the means of education for His Majesty's subjects in England and Wales.' This was the first Elementary Education Bill ever submitted to Parliament. By this measure it was proposed to levy, in addition to the poor's-rate, a tax of not more than 4^. in the pound, which was to be applied to the re- muneration of local schoolmasters. These schoolmasters were to be members of the Church of England, and were to be appointed by the ratepayers in vestry assembled, subject to the examination by the rector, vicar, or curate of the parish, as to their qualifications. The Treasury was also to be authorised to issue building grants to schools in places where a complaint was made at the quarter-sessions of a deficiency of school accommodation. One penny per week was to be paid by each scholar, who was to be instructed in the Catechism and Liturgy, in addition to the ordinary elementary subjects, and to attend church on Sunday. The children of parents objecting to this last proviso were, on application, to be excluded from the religious teaching. The Bill met with great opposition from the Dissenters, who considered it entirely a Church of England measure, and it was withdrawn. The subject of national educa- tion, in connection with public aid, was not again considered for thirteen years, namely, until after the passing of the Reform Bill in 1832. 4TH. THE PERIOD DURING WHICH PUBLIC GRANTS WERE MADE, TO ENCOURAGE EDUCATION, BUT WERE LIMITED TO THE ERECTION OF BUILDINGS AND THE PARTIAL AID TO TRAINING COLLEGES FROM 1834 TO 1846. Mode of controlling Grants. The Fourth Educational Period, in which grants were made for the building of schools from the public funds, began a year after the great political event^ above referred to. This period may be subdivided, namely, from 1834 to 1839, when the Lords of the Treasury acted as dis- pensers of the grants ; and from 1839 to 1846, when the Com- mittee of Council was entrusted by Parliament with the entire responsibility. From 1834 to 1839 tne sums voted for educa- tion amounted to 2O,OOO/. each year, with an addition of io,ooo/., 14 i. The Schools for the People. in 1838, to Scotland. The work of recommending for the Treasury's approval the mode in which money should be ap- portioned to schools was, during these years, carried out by the two Educational Societies which had been so prominent during the Third Period. From and after the year 1839, tne responsi- bility of selecting and deciding on applications for aid was removed from the Societies, and was undertaken by the Com- mittee of Council, which had been specially formed for that purpose. Training of Teachers, From the commencement of the present century, as has been already remarked, an important agency had been at work, whereby the progress of education and the spread of schools had been materially aided. This was the establishment of colleges for the training of teachers for ele- mentary schools. Early in the eighteenth century (about 1710), some feeble efforts were made to improve those teachers who were engaged in the Parochial Charity Schools. No regular system of training, however, was adopted, chiefly on account of the expense and the difficulty of forming central institutions, owing to the cost and tediousness of travelling. Importance of a Supply of Teachers, The want of teachers and the difficulty of obtaining them are so often met with that it is feared the repeated references to them in almost every branch of the subject may appear tedious to the reader of these pages. It is clear, however, that the extension of schools can only keep pace with the supply of persons qualified to take charge of them. The organisation of a proper system of training is a somewhat lengthy process and cannot be accomplished hastily, even with ample pecuniary resources. .Many schemes for the advancement of education have been frustrated by the difficulty of supplying the required machinery for instruction. The time absolutely necessary to complete the training of a competent teacher varies considerably, but it usually extends over several years. It is found better to train from childhood expressly for the occupation of teaching, as is done under the Pupil-Teacher System, rather than to employ those who choose it for their vocation later in life. Such being the case, it is evident that the adoption of means for supplying teachers must always precede any effort for the extension of schools. The carrying out of this object involves the exercise of a considerable amount of patience and foresight ; and for such work, the fruits of which i. The Schools for the People. 15 cannot be reaped for several years, it is never easy to obtain a very large amount of voluntary assistance. Bell and Lancaster's Training Improvement by Public Grants. The period of training, as originally defined both by Bell and Lancaster, was usually limited to a few months, their object being not so much to systematically educate, as to accustom the young teacher to that particular technical mode of impart- ing instruction to others which was carried on at the Model Schools founded by them. As the education of the country advanced, considerable improvement was made in the method of training. It was not, however, until the introduction of State aid that a thorough education, specially framed with the view of enabling a person to teach others, could be obtained in the manner now considered necessary. As long as schools con- tinued to be badly supported, and dependent almost entirely on charity, it was not reasonable to expect that young persons of promise would select an occupation offering such uncertain prospects, and involving at the same time considerable pre- liminary expenses before they could be competent to under- take it. Importance of State Aid to Training. The supply of teachers has gradually increased, as the pecuniary prospects of the occu- pation have improved. The assistance granted by Government towards the necessary expenses of training has also greatly en- couraged persons to adopt the profession of Elementary School teaching. This aid begins with the first year in which a Pupil Teacher commences his work, and continues until he leaves the Training College a highly educated man, which he may become, if he take advantage of his opportunities. Children's Fees Evidence of the Societies. Among the details in the history both of the National and British Schools, impor- tant experience is to be gained regarding the subject of children's fees. A very large number, if not nearly all the schools first established by these Societies, were free schools, the feeling of their founders being that, as their object was to teach the children of the poor, they would place no difficulty in the way * of attendance by requiring the parents to supply even so small a sum as a penny a-week for schooling. Before the year 1830, however, nearly all schools had adopted a system of enforcing some small weekly fee from each child. It is true that the object which at first led to this being resorted to was, in most 1 6 i . The Schools for the People. instances, to increase the resources of the schools ; but it was universally found that the attendance became more regular, and the children's progress more satisfactory, when they were paying something for the instruction which they received. STH. THE PERIOD DURING WHICH PUBLIC GRANTS HAVE BEEN MADE IN AID OF THE ANNUAL EXPENSES OF SCHOOLS FROM 1846 TILL THE PRESENT DAY. Great Results obtained. The practical results of the work effected during this last epoch in the history of English educa- tion, extending over twenty-five years, far exceeds those of the previous century and a half, and the quality of the instruction imparted to the children has improved in a like proportion. During this time nearly all Elementary Schools have accepted the assistance offered out of the public funds. The improved methods of teaching, and the general advance in the art of school management, must be attributed to a great extent to the action produced by an influential and independent branch of the Government, established for the purpose of attending to this matter. It seems to be generally accepted, that the voluntary principle, had State aid not been introduced, could not have accomplished, single-handed, results equivalent to those which have been attained with the assistance thus afforded. Development of Schools for Physical Defects. Throughout this same period the extension of Institutions for various modes of training those suffering from physical defects and other mis- fortunes, already alluded to, such as Blind Schools, Deaf and Dumb Schools, &c., has gone on rapidly. In spite of the deficient state of the education of the country at the present time, the improvement in it which has been effected since 1846 is immense. The details of the regulations of the Education Department during these years, and the history of the various schools, are so fully given in this volume that it will be merely necessary in this place thus briefly to consider their general and collective influence on the social aspect of the country. Science and Art Education. It was chiefly in this period that the subject of an advanced and special scientific training came more under consideration. As early as 1836 the development of Art was encouraged by the formation of Schools of Design. Their action, however, was not great before 1846, nor indeed did i . The Schools for the People. 1 7 it become important until the Great Exhibition in London, in 1851, had shown incontestably that in manufactures the Art of this country was inferior to that of the Continent. As regards the teaching of science bearing on industrial pursuits, up to the formation of the Science and Art Department in 1853, little or nothing had been attempted. The steady working of that Department in science, especially after the introduction of the general scheme in 1860, has gradually produced important results, and in no small degree impressed the public mind with the necessity for an advanced education. The inferiority of the English manufactured goods exhibited at the Paris Exhibition in 1867 was so clearly attributable to the deficient education of the artisan, that much alarm was spread in consequence. This agitation immediately produced a marked increase in the number of pupils at the Science Schools, as well as convinced the public that no scheme of national education could be complete without providing ample means for scientific instruction for the artisan class. Commencement of a new Epoch. The year 1870 must be looked upon as the commencement of another epoch in the history of English education. Hitherto, the assistance of Government towards the work of teaching the poorer classes has been con- fined to those places eligible to receive grants on account of their fulfilling the necessary conditions, by producing a certain amount of voluntary local effort. Where nothing has been done by private energy, the State has not interfered, but allowed the children to go without the opportunities for improvement. The change now about to commence will be more important than any which has yet taken place. Voluntary effort, largely aided by the State, has led to the present condition of affairs, but has been manifestly unable to reach the lowest and most numerous class of society. Every feasible plan has been suggested, by which these thousands may be included amongst those receiving the benefits of education, and it rjas been decided that nothing will avail but the power of a compulsory measure, even though it be unnecessary to enforce it except in rare instances. Such is the main object of the Act passed last Session, by which it is hoped that those hitherto neglected may be duly cared for, even in places where local philanthropy and voluntary assistance are unknown. 1 8 i . The Schools for the People. Difficulties already overcome General Prospects. The inaugu- ration of such a scheme has raked up all the discussions which have taken place from time to time even as far back as 1820, when Lord Brougham first introduced an Educational Bill into Parliament; and religious zeal has again been too frequently perverted into bigotry, and allowed to become the cause of ill- feeling and paper warfare. Nothing but the public determina- tion to throw over all other considerations except that of requiring that children should be taught, enabled the present measure to be settled at the end of last Session. Many of the details of this new Bill will no doubt undergo changes before, in practical working, it is found to accomplish all that is desired. In spite of this, however, the operation of the enactments cannot fail very shortly to be felt, and this sixth period now dawning upon us bids fair to make such a change in the condition of all, that its operation in a few years must influence for good a larger number than that affected by the efforts of former epochs. If, the one principle on which it was framed is maintained and carried out, namely, that in some way or other every child in the kingdom shall be taught, if only the rudiments of know- ledge, the year 1870 will have to be looked back upon as not only inaugurating a new system of education, but as commenc- ing a Reformation in Society in no way second in importance to the great religious event of the sixteenth century. Past Experiences. What the effect of the late Act will be upon the future prospects of the Schools for the People is the con- sideration which at the present time is uppermost in the minds of all who are interested in educational matters. The history of the past is generally useful in directing operations which are to come, and perhaps few subjects afford more profitable ex- perience and suggestions for action than the varied plans by which the educational edifice now existing has been built up. Existing Difficulties. The great defect of present educational arrangements is not as regards the quality of the instruction or their capability of affording the means of improvement to almost all varieties and classes of persons. A careful study of the schools included in this volume will convince all that a ma- chinery is already at work designed to meet the educational requirements of almost every class of child. It cannot even be said that the provision is insufficient for the demand, inasmuch as the school accommodation, except in some few places, is i. The Schools for the People. 19 much in excess of the number of children in attendance. The evil lies in the fact that the provision is more than sufficient for the demand that, in spite of the myriads of children growing up in ignorance, no means have been forthcoming for filling schools, the managers of which are willing and anxious to take in as many pupils as they are able to receive. Nothing would be hailed with greater pleasure by all who are working in this direction, than that a cry should arise from the people them- selves, complaining that their children were refused admission for want of room. This difficulty would soon be surmounted, and Schools for the People would rapidly spring up equal to the demand. Before such a happy result can be obtained it may be necessary to resort to some compulsory measures as provided in the new Act ; but whatever these means effect, the ultimate aim must be to make all value education for its own sake. To induce persons to receive an advantage which now they do not appreciate, and would in many cases rather be without, is there- fore one of the great difficulties which this Sixth Epoch will have to remove. Statistics of Teachers required, &c. Whenever the enactment is carried out, which requires that all children from three to twelve years of age shall be at school, an increase in the number to be taught, to the extent of about 2,150,000, is anticipated. Judging from the past, the great difficulty will be to obtain an adequate supply of teachers for the large number of new schools which will have to be brought into existence. No plan seems to have been so effective for creating efficient teachers as the Pupil Teacher system. With the multiplication of schools, a corresponding increase in the number of Pupil Teachers may be fairly anticipated, and thus in the course of a few years, when these have served their apprenticeship, a considerable addition to the number of candidates for admission to the Training Col- leges may be looked for. It is to be feared, however, that this will be insufficient. The Training Colleges are not now full, though the present complement of Pupil Teachers, even not taking into account those who enter to be trained without having been apprenticed, would be ample to supply the 1,250 annual vacancies, were they all, or a fair proportion of them, to continue the vocation of teaching. Taking the number of scholars to each certificated teacher as 85, the training system of the country must furnish about 2,000 new teachers u-year, in c 2 20 i. The Schools for the People. order to keep up the number necessary for all the schools now at work, and for those which will have to be formed. Besides this, a staff of 27,000 Instructors, in addition to those already at work, must be provided, to start with. Mistresses can be obtained. The question is, how is this to be accomplished ? The experience of the past may assist in finding a solution of the problem. The number of good Teachers has of late years gradually increased, partly owing to the augmen- tation of their stipends, and partly to the importance of their employment being duly recognised as entitling them to take a higher social position. Formerly, when Teachers were depen- dent solely on voluntary subscriptions, few young persons of promise entered on the occupation. It was literally true that f when too old to feed the pigs, swineherds took to keeping the schools.' Since the introduction of State aid, however, matters have considerably improved. There seems to be every proba- bility that, with the inducements now held out, a sufficient supply of young women to train as Mistresses may be obtained. This is the more fortunate, as, from the statistics on page 27 it is evident that, at the present time, the branch which requires to be most added to is that composed of Infant Teachers and Mistresses. Masters: how to obtain a Supply. There is still, however, a great scarcity of Masters, and the male Training Colleges cannot be filled. From the Education Department Report, 1867-8, it appears that the average annual earnings of the Masters was 88/. iSs. $d. from all sources, and that ioo/. a-year was the maximum which any Teacher, except some very few, could ever hope to attain. It is true that they are not liable to loss or much fluctuation in salary, that they have good holidays and short hours, and, in many cases, a house or lodging is provided for them, rent free. Notwithstanding these advantages, the occupation cannot be looked upon, in a pecuniary point of view, as superior to that of a first-class mechanic ; and while it remains so, it is not likely that many, except persons belonging to the industrial class, will enter on it. Even these, however, must find considerable difficulty in encouraging the bent of their inclinations in this direction, as the average payment to a Pupil Teacher is, generally, barely equal to what he might earn, if a sharp lad, at an ordinary calling. It must also not be forgotten that, during the time a youth is at the Training College, he is i. The Schools for the People. 21 earning next to nothing, and it must require a very great effort for the parents of a poor family to supply him with clothes and other necessaries for the two years he has to be under instruction. Prospects of Advancement for Masters Besides an increase of salary, the prospect of advancement for extra ability might be urged as an inducement to eligible persons to come forward and qualify as Teachers. The recognised necessity of combining scientific instruction with the ordinary training of the artisan class, would seem to suggest a means of carrying out this idea. A superior Training College might be established, to which a certain number of the most efficient Elementary School Teachers might, by competition or otherwise, be admitted, to pursue their education in advanced science subjects. Superior appointments, fairly remunerated, such as Science Teachers in provincial towns or districts, might be open to those who had passed through this higher course of training. This would induce many to enter the profession who are now discouraged from a knowledge that, even with the utmost zeal and perseverance in their duties, their position, in a pecuniary point of view, can never rise beyond that of a first-class mechanic. Combination and Mutual Working in Schools. Another point which the experience of the past seems to suggest is an in- creased amount of combination and mutual working between schools. Without advocating the formation of colossal institu- tions, except perhaps in some crowded districts, a saving of teaching power, a more efficient management, and many other advantages would accrue, were the education of the children of a district concentrated in one building, instead of being split up into innumerable little schools, with ten or twenty pupils in each, such as are now to be found in all parts of the country. The collection of children in fewer buildings, accommodating a larger number, has many advantages. It is likely to ensure regular systematic teaching, and proper division into classes ; and it would tend to check that migrating from one school to another which is now so common and so destructive to all progress. Gradation of Schools, In another way also this combination and mutual working between schools might produce great benefit, particularly in large towns. It would enable regulations to be made, by which children should be required to pass through the course of instruction given at one school before 22 i. TJie Schools for the People. entering another. We should not then find an infant of four or five sitting with a boy of nine or ten, as is now so common. Each would have his place, decided by his age and acquirements, and be compelled to pass from a lower to a higher stage, accord- ing to his proficiency. The effect of this would be that all children of ordinary intelligence might read, write, and master the first four rules of arithmetic by eight or nine years of age. That this is possible is shown by the result which has followed the teaching of children brought up at an efficient Infant School and passed on to a Day School, the two having worked to- gether harmoniously on the same system. Time for Science Instruction. If this alone were effected, and all children at eight or nine years of age could read, write, and do the first four rules of arithmetic, it would revolutionise the condition of the working classes. The time, however, which after this age will in future remain before children are to leave school, would enable almost every one of them to go through what is now considered an advanced course. Time will be secured in the Primary School for inculcating the elementary principles of Mechanics and the various sciences connected with Industrial occupations. A knowledge of the rudiments of Animal Physiology, and of the laws which regulate the functions of the human body, is desirable for all, particularly for girls ; and a course of instruction in these subjects might well be in- troduced, even at ten or eleven years of age. During these three or four years a skilful Teacher will be able, without any undue strain or cramming, to pass a child through those portions of the study of these subjects which are tedious and wearying when commenced by an adult The practical working of such instruction with children of these ages cannot be seen to better advantage than at the Birkbeck School, Peckham, under Mr. Sheilds. Advanced Evening Classes. Having been at school until twelve years of age, children will have received a training qualifying them for the practical duties before them, in whatever branch of industrial occupation they may be placed. The boys will have advanced sufficiently to take an interest in what they learn. They will be able, and many, it is hoped, will be anxious, to continue to devote one or two evenings in the week to a further prosecution of their studies. Evening Classes will then afford them every facility, and it will soon become necessary to I . The Schools for tlie People. 2 3 extend the instruction at these schools to more advanced subjects, instead of confining it to reading and writing. Scholarships and Exhibitions. Little will then remain but the conversion of the Grammar Schools and other educational charities into Institutions giving a sound and advanced course of education, open by competition or otherwise to the best pupils of Elementary Schools. A certain part of the funds will, it is hoped, be set aside for Scholarships, so that the poorest lad, if he has the ability to gain admission, may not be debarred by poverty from prosecuting his studies. The regulations of the Science and Art Department for Scholarships and Local Exhibitions already enable a boy of over twelve years of age to receive a small grant while continuing his studies. The Exhibitions from the Grammar Schools to the Universities will, it is hoped, be made to supply the final link in the chain ne- cessary for securing to all the means of the highest advance- ment in learning. Ability will then be the main requisite. Poverty, or the want of opportunity, will not be urged by any, as means will exist to bridge over the difficulties which now impede the progress of a deserving child from working his way from the Elementary Infant School to the highest position to be attained at the University. Conclusion. Such, in a few years, may be the practical result of two Acts of Parliament, namely, the Endowed Schools Act, 1869, and the Elementary Education Act, 1870. The motive power has been created, and the determination of the country is taken ; nothing remains but to design the necessary machinery wherewith to carry out the work. It is not likely that this country, so advanced in enterprise and intelligence, will be wanting to this end, now that it is fully alive to its importance. The Schools of the People will then afford instruction not only to the poorest class, but to every individual member of the poorest class, and not only to those whose parents desire to see them improved, but to those who are so unfortunate as to be the offspring of persons too ignorant to know the value of education, or utterly callous and apathetic as to their welfare. They will also give an opportunity to all to develope any talents they may possess to the greatest extent, and at the same time guide them in using such advantages not only for their own benefit, but for their country's welfare and advancement. 2. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF IMPORTANT EVENTS BEARING ON THE EDUCATION OF THE PEOPLE. YEAR IMPORTANT EVENT PERIOD 1449 1534 1698 1702 1712 1730 1745 1783 1791 1792 I 79 8 1802 1803 1808 1811 1811 1811 1812 1814 1816 1818 1819 1819 1820 1824 Printing Invented. The Reformation in England. Formation of Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge. First Parochial Charity Schools opened. Greenwich School for Orphans of Sailors commenced. Circulating Schools commenced in Wales. Pestalozzi born. Sunday Schools begun in Gloucester. First School for the Blind opened in Liver- pool. First Deaf and Dumb School opened in London. Joseph Lancaster established his first School. First Factory Act for regulating the employ- ment of children in the manufacture of textile fabrics. Sunday School Union formed. Royal Lancastrian Society founded. Systematic arrangements made for Army Schools. National Society founded. First School exclusively for Adults opened in Bala, Wales. First Adult Schools opened in Bristol. British and Foreign School Society founded. Mr. Brougham's Committee of the House of Commons to inquire into educational condition of London, Westminster, and Southwark. Mr. Brougham's Committee on Education of lower orders generally. Ragged Schools originated by John Pounds. Charity Commissioners appointed at the instance of Mr. Brougham. Mr. Brougham's first Education Bill. London Mechanics' Institution founded. Grammar School Period. Parochial Charity School Period Educational Society Period. 2. Chronological Table of Important Events. 25 YEAR IMPORTANT EVENT 1834 First Parliamentary vote for Education. 1834 Select Committee of House of Commons to inquire into means for establishing a National System of Education. 1836 First Parliamentary vote to Schools of Design. 1836 Home and Colonial Infant School Society instituted. 1838 Select Committee on Education of Poorer Classes in England and Wales. 1839 Formation of Committee of Council on Education. 1840 Wesleyan Education Committee founded. 1843 Sir J. Graham's Factory Bill rejected by Parliament. 1 843 Congregational Board of Education founded. 1844 Ragged School Union established. 1846 Committee of Council Minutes passed to make Annual Grants to Schools. 1847 Roman Catholic Poor School Committee founded. 1852 Department of Practical Art formed. 1853 Science and Art Department formed. 1856 Sir J. Pakington's Education Bill. 1856 Lord J. Russell's Education Bill. 1856 Mr. Cobden's Education Bill. 1856 Office of Vice-President of the Committee of Council on Education constituted. 1857 Industrial Schools Act passed. 1858 Duke of Newcastle's Commission to inquire into the state of popular education in England appointed. 1 86 1 Report of Duke of Newcastle's Commission published. 1864 Act passed to extend the Factory Acts. 1865 Report of Select Committee of House of Commons on Education. 1866 Appointment of Schools Inquiry Commis- sion. Report issued 1867. 1866 Report of Select Committee on Education. 1867 Factory Acts extended to every kind of trade. 1868 Report of Select Committee of House of Commons on Scientific Instruction (Mr. Samuelson). 1868 Duke of Marlborough's Education Bill. 1869 Endowed Schools Act passed. 1870 ELEMENTARY EDUCATION ACT PASSED. PERIOD Period of Parliamentary Grants towards the Building of Schools. Period of Parliamentary Grants towards the Annual Expenses of Schools. 3. STATISTICS OF CHILDREN IN EXISTING 'SCHOOLS FOR THE PEOPLE.' Estimated Population receiving weekly wages or falling within the classes for whose benefit the Parliamentary Grants were voted in 1 869 1 8, 745 , 3 7 8 Of these there must be aged from 3 to 12, all of whom should be either at Day or Infant School ..... 3,936,513 NUMBERS KNOWN TO BE IN AVERAGE ATTENDANCE AT SCHOOL. I. SCHOOLS RECEIVING STATE AID OR INSPECTED ONLY. i. EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. I. Schools connected with National Society "| or Church of England 808,364 2. British, Wesleyan, and other Schools not r I >93,57 connected with Church of England 217,438 3. Roman Catholic Schools . 67,768 j Schools Inspected only : I. Schools connected with National Society ^ or Church of England n,346 2. British, Wesleyan, and other Schools not } 14,216 connected with Church of England 2,803 3. Roman Catholic Schools . 67 J 2. SCIENCE AND ART DEPARTMENT. The 180,000 who are taught Science and Drawing are practically all either above 12 years of age or are attending Day Schools and are therefore included in some other category ..... ... Nil 3. THE ADMIRALTY. With the exception of the orphans, &c. , at Green- wich, these are all above 12 years of age . ... 500 4. THE WAR DEPARTMENT. Soldiers' children, say 20,000 5. THE HOME OFFICE. Industrial Schools .... 3,565 | Reformatory Schools .... 4,889 j 8,454* 6. THE POOR LAW BOARD. Workhouse Schools .... 37,738 ) District Schools .... 3>477 j 41,215* 7. THE COMMISSIONERS OF LUNACY, say 1,000* II. SCHOOLS NOT RECEIVING STATE AID. Birkbeck Schools ..... 2,000 1 Schools for the Blind .... 748 Schools for Cripples . . . ... 200 5,248 Schools for the Deaf and Dumb I,OOO Ward Schools ..... I,3OO J Evening Schools . . . . ) Practically all s Mechanics' Institutions \ Cathedral Schools .... these are over 1 2 years of age. Parochial Charity Schools (not in connection with j Impossible to give the num- the Education Department) ber exactly. A 200,000 1 Orphan Schools .... great many are Ragged Schools J over 12 years of age. Dame Schools. Private Schools. J Sunday Schools. Friends' First-Day Schools. Total number of Scholars in Schools for the People . 1,384,203 * A large number of these are over 12 years of age. t This number is a rough estimate and is probably much in excess of those who can be said to be properly instructed. It would also include those few National and other Schools not under the Education Department. t Impossible to give the number, but the instruction is in most cases worth very little. The numbers attending these are largely made up of those in one or other of the above categories. Those who attend these Schools, and not Day Schools, receive but little, if any, secular instruction. 4. STATISTICS OF TEACHING STAFF REQUIRED FOR THE FUTURE 'SCHOOLS FOR THE PEOPLE.' Estimated Population in England and Wales for whom 'Schools for the People' are required . . . 18,745,378 Proportions of these who are within the ages of 3 to 12 . 3,936,513 Estimated number of these under instruction in existing Schools for the People .... 1,384,203 Estimated number to be instructed in the future Schools, after deducting 10 per cent, for absentees of all kinds 2,158,659 Of these about one-third are Infants aged from 3 to 6, say. 720,000 Another third, Girls, are aged from 6 to 12, say . . 720,000 Another third, Boys, are aged from 6 to 12, say . . 720,000 Allowing that one trained Teacher is required for every 85 Pupils, this would involve a staff, in addition to that at present at work, of 8,500 Infant Mistresses, 8,500 Mistresses, and 8,500 Masters. Total . . 25,500 To maintain this extra staff, when formed, calculating that each Teacher's work averages 20 years, it would be necessary to train each year425 more Infant Mistresses, 425 more Mistresses, and 425 more Masters. Total . I ? 2 75 If the existing Male Colleges were full they could provide for 400 more Students, or give a two years' course to 200 Students a year more than they do at present. Additional male accommodation would therefore be required for . . . . . 450 Existing Female Training Colleges are full. To keep up the staff, when formed, additional accommodation would therefore be necessary, as follows : Infant School Teachers undergoing a one year's course of training . . . . . . 425 Elder Girls' School Teachers having a two years' course of training ...... 850 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN CONNECTION WITH THE COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION. NATIONAL SCHOOLS. BRITISH SCHOOLS. WESLEYAN SCHOOLS. ROMAN CATHOLIC SCHOOLS. CONGREGATIONAL SCHOOLS. JEWS' SCHOOLS. INFANT SCHOOLS. EVENING SCHOOLS. 5. THE COMMITTEE OF COUNCIL ON EDUCATION. REGULATIONS CONCERNING ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Origin of Committee of Council Previous Regulations. The his- tory of the Education Department dates from April 10, 1839^ when Her Majesty was pleased, by an Order in Council, ' to appoint a Committee of Council to superintend the application of any sums voted by Parliament for the purpose of promoting Public Education.' For several years previously, amounts had been taken on the estimates for this object, and their expenditure entrusted to the Lords of the Treasury, who were empowered to aid in the building of school premises, through the agency of the two great Educational bodies the National Society and the British and Foreign School Society. Conditions of Building Grants Inspection Religious Teaching. The Committee of Council continued to give aid in the building of schools, but decided not to limit their grants to those in connection with the two above-named Societies. The indis- pensable condition for receiving aid, which was laid down almost at the outset, was, that ' grants to schools should, on no account, be made, unless the right of inspection were permanently retained by the State, in order to secure a conformity to the regulations and discipline established in the several schools, with such im- provements as may, from time to time, be suggested by the Committee of Council.' The Committee also resolved that aid should only be granted to schools which were in connection with some religious body, or in which the Holy Scriptures were read daily. This was enforced by the Instructions to Inspectors of Schools, dated August 1840, which, although they did not authorise the Inspectors to examine into the religious instruction given in the schools, yet directed them to ask for such infor- mation as should satisfy them that no plan of education was 32 5- The Committee of Council on Education. encouraged in which intellectual instruction was * not subordinate to the regulation of the thoughts and habits of the children by the doctrines and precepts of revealed religion.' Educational Inquiry. During the first year of the Committee's existence, a considerable sum was expended on inspection with a view to obtain a thorough knowledge of the educational state of England and Wales. Regulations for Inspectors Bishops' Sanction. The rules for the appointment of Inspectors for visiting schools in connection with the National Society, which had received assistance from the Committee of Council, were settled at a Council meeting held August 10, 1840. These provided that the Archbishops and Bishops should be at liberty to propose persons to act as In- spectors ; that, without their consent, no one should be appointed, and further, that, at any time, they were to have power to revoke an appointment. The instructions issued by the Committee of Council to the Inspectors, as far as related to religious teaching in the schools, were to be framed by the Archbishops, and were to form a part of their general instructions. Duplicates of the Reports furnished on all Schools in connection with the National Society or the Church of England were to be transmitted by the Inspector to the Archbishop of the province, and to the Bishop of the diocese in which the school was situated. Regulations for Building Grants. The building grants to schools, at this period, were made in proportion to the number of chil- dren proposed to be educated, and the amount of money raised for the object by private subscription. In certain cases as, for instance, in very poor localities this last condition was waived, at the discretion of the Committee of Council. In deciding on applications, an investigation was first made as to the require- ments of the locality, the nature of the title to the land, and particulars concerning the plans, mode of building, &c., six square feet at least being in all cases required for each child. The grant was made on the completion of the premises, subject to the following conditions : 1st. That for every ten shillings to be granted by the Com- mittee of Council, the means of educating one child (at least) should be provided. 2nd. That the amount of private subscriptions should be received, expended, and accounted for before the public grant was paid. 5. JUcmcntary Schools. 33 Duties of Inspectors. Very careful directions were drawn up in 1839 for the guidance of the Inspectors, whose duties were threefold, viz. : 1. To inquire concerning applications for aid to erect new schools. 2. To inspect schools already aided. 3. To make inquiries into the educational condition of par- ticular districts. Only in schools connected with the National Church were Inspectors to inquire into the religious teaching. In these, they were to ascertain with special care, how far the doctrines and principles of the Church were instilled into the minds of the children. Building Plans Information on Modes of Teaching. A series of plans and specifications, &c., for school buildings of various sizes, approved by the Committee of Council, was drawn up in 1840, which proved of great assistance to different localities. A paper was also prepared, about the same time, for the use of Teachers, and those interested in education, on the ' Constructive Methods' of teaching, reading, writing, and vocal music, and on the way in which English Primary Schools differed from the best models in the Protestant States of Europe. Schools to be Visited Twice a Year. In 1843 a scheme was framed, by which it was arranged that an Inspector should visit and report on each school in his district once every half-year. A separate officer, in no way connected with the Established Church or under the influence of the Bishops, was appointed to visit the British Schools ; and, as at that time only seventy- eight had placed themselves under inspection, it was possible for this one officer to see them all twice within the twelve months. Building Grants extended to Teachers' Houses An important additional means of aid was provided in 1843, by extending building grants towards erecting Teachers' houses. Hitherto, assistance of this nature had been limited exclusively to the building of class-rooms. The conditions were : 1. That the school for which such a house was required had been conveyed to trustees for the education of the children of the poor. 2. That the school was efficient. 3. That the right of inspection of the school attached was secured to the Committee of Council. D 34 5- The Committee of Council on Education* 4. That the site and premises as a residence for the Teacher were conveyed to trustees. 5. That the building was approved ; and, 6. That the local contributions were satisfactory to the Com- mittee of Council. Aid towards School Furniture. About this same time, grants were offered to managers, to enable them to provide suitable school furniture and apparatus. This was done with a hope that such aid might prove an incentive to the exertions of the Masters, and be the means of improving and stimulating languishing schools. Statistics of Increase in Schools. Up to the year 1844, it was computed that the grants of the Committee of Council had amounted to i7O,ooo/. With the exception of a few grants for Masters' houses, this had been entirely devoted to school build- ings. During the same time, private subscriptions had been collected to the extent of about 430,0007. It was further calcu- lated that from the year 1834, when the first public grant was made, no less than 29O,ooo/. had been provided by the State, in addition to between 7oo,ooo/. and 8oo,ooo/. raised by private liberality ; so that the whole amount devoted during this period to building schools was more than a million sterling. Deficiency of Income of Schools. This mode of promoting the education of the poor continued for some years without ma- terial alteration ; and the number of schools throughout the country was largely multiplied. The remuneration of the Teachers was in most cases precarious and insufficient, and as a consequence, the supply of eligible candidates for training as Teachers was inadequate to the requirements. In 1844 the Committee of Council directed their Inspectors to make in- quiries respecting the incomes of the schools, the way in which they were raised, and the manner in which they were expended ; with a view to their augmentation, either by judicious economy or improved arrangements. The results of these inquiries showed that, without some further assistance, the condition of a large number of the schools was such that many of them would probably, sooner or later, have to be given up. Commencement of Annual Grants Pupil Teachers. Such being the condition of the schools so many of which had been erected to a large extent out of the public purse the Com- 5. Elementary Schools. 35 mittce of Council determined to supplement the local resources by annual grants, thus commencing a new and most important era in the history of English education. This was done by the Minutes of August 25, and December 21, 1846. They esta- blished the system of Pupil Teachers and Stipendiary Monitors, and of payments to Teachers on account of certificates obtained by them at an annual examination. PUPIL TEACHERS. General Regulations. Memorials had often been received by the Committee of Council, representing the serious loss to schools arising from the early withdrawal of promising children who were acting as assistants. It was in order to secure for these some means of support during the continuance of their school duties, and thus prevent them from giving up the occupation of teaching for which they showed promise, that the following regulations were adopted. It was laid down that, in any school under inspection, which was properly supplied with books and apparatus, and had a competent Teacher, these young assistants, if thirteen years of age, might, after passing a satisfactory examination before an Inspector, be appointed Pupil Teachers. The number in any one school was not to exceed one to every twenty-five pupils ordinarily attending. They were to be apprenticed for five years, during which time they were to assist in the school ; and the Master was to give them instruction daily for at least an hour and a-half for five days in the week. At the end of each of the five years of apprenticeship, the Pupil Teacher was required to satisfy the Inspector in a course of study laid down for that purpose. It was proposed that at the termination of the five years a certificate should be issued, showing that the course had been completed. Objections, how- ever, were found to the formal certificate, and the Education Department merely answered inquiries concerning the Pupil Teacher's previous history, to persons proposing to engage them. In Church of England Schools an examination was to be held in the Holy Scriptures, Liturgy, and Church Catechism, at which the parochial clergyman was to be invited to assist. In other schools, the state of the candidate's religious knowledge was to be certified by the managers. Payments to Pupil Teachers and their Teachers, The payments D 2 36 5- The Committee of Council on Education. to those Pupil Teachers who passed this annual examination were as follows : * At the end of ist year . . . .100 2nd . . . 12 10 3rd . . . 15 o 4 th . . . 17 10 5th . . . . 20 o The remuneration to the Teacher for instructing them was at the rate of 5/. per annum for one Pupil Teacher, 9/. for two, I2/. for three, and 3/. more for each additional one. A further gratuity was granted to the Master if his Pupil Teachers were skilfully trained in some mechanical arts suitable to a School of Industry, and to the Mistress if her Pupil Teachers were in- structed in cutting out clothes, cooking, baking, washing, as well as in the more usual arts of sewing and knitting. These payments were made if the Inspector reported that the Pupil Teachers were in a satisfactory course of training for the management of a School of Industry, and the amounts granted varied according to the degree of skill and care displayed in each case. STIPENDIARY MONITORS. Regulations and Payments. These were to meet the case of schools where the Master had not sufficient ability to teach a Pupil Teacher the prescribed course, and were only contemplated as a provisional arrangement until the imperfectly qualified Teachers had been superseded by duly-qualified trained Masters. The appointment was for four, instead of for five years ; and the instruction given by the Teacher to the Monitor was much more elementary in its character than that given to the Pupil Teachers. The payments to the Monitor were 5/. for the first year, 7/. lew. for the second, io/. for the third, and I2/. IQJ. for the fourth. The grants to the Master were 2/. 10^., for one Monitor, 4/. for two, 61. for three, and I/, icxr. for each additional one under his tuition. Queen's Scholarships. After the completion of the five years' apprenticeship, the Pupil Teacher might be examined before the Inspector and the Principal of a Training College under inspection, and if successful, receive an Exhibition, called a 5. Elementary Schools. 37 Queen's Scholarship, whereby 2O/. or 25/. was paid to one of these colleges to defray the expenses of his training as a Teacher. The course of study might continue for one, two, or three years, and certificates could be obtained at the end of each year entitling the holders, when they taught in Elementary Schools under inspection, to an annual allowance from the State, varying from 157. to 3 made great strides in spreading its views all over the country. It based its method of teaching on what was called the Madras System of Education, a plan adopted with success by Dr. Bell in India, and one which was similar to the Lancasterian System, of instructing by Monitors. The rival claims of these two educationalists as to originality have often been fully argued, and will not therefore be touched upon here. Details of the Madras System of Education. It will perhaps be well, seeing there has been so much controversy on the subject, to give the details of the system as described by Dr. Bell him- self in 1823, in a work he published for the use of the National Schools. ' SCHEME OF A SCHOOL ON THE MADRAS OR NATIONAL SYSTEM. ' i. The entire Economy of a Madras School is conducted by a single Master or Superintendent, through the agency of the scholars themselves. For this purpose, 7. National Schools. 51 ' 2. The school is arranged into forms or classes, each com* posed of members who have made a similar proficiency, and are occasionally paired off into tutors and pupils ; the superior being tutors to the inferior boys. * 3. The scholar ever finds his level by a constant compe- tition with his fellows, and rises and falls in his place in the class, and in the forms of the school, according to his relative proficiency. ' 4. To each class is attached a Teacher, and, if numerous, an Assistant Teacher ; who are perpetually present with their class, and are responsible for its order, behaviour, diligence, and improvement. In large schools an Usher or superior Teacher is set over every three or four classes, and a Head Usher over the whole. ' 5. Monitors are appointed to the charge of the books, slates, pencils, paper, pens, ink, and of the various departments and offices of the school-room. ' 6. In Charity, Free, or other Schools supported by endowment or voluntary contributions, there often presides over all, as in old times, a superintendent or chaplain, or one of the trustees, directors, or visitors, whose province is to inspect, regulate, and control the scholastic machine in all its departments. What goes before properly constitutes the Madras System of Edu- cation, or the machinery of the new school as founded on Self- Tuition or Mutual Instruction. What follows is for the purpose of ensuring accuracy and precision, and for checks and instru- ments of discipline. ' 7. The daily lessons are marked in the Teachers' books, and registers are kept of admission and of the progress of each class, and of the relative and individual proficiency of each scholar. ' 8. If any gross misdemeanour should occur, the accused is tried by a jury of his peers, and the sentence is inflicted, miti- gated, or remitted, at the discretion of the Superintendent, Visitor, or Master. But when the laws of the school are duly administered, there will hardly ever be occasion for this instru- ment of discipline. Such, in brief, is the scheme of a Madras School, wherein the system hinges entirely on the tuition by the scholars themselves! Growth of the Society First Work. The movement of the National Society was well supported at its outset, the Arch- bishops, Bishops, and many influential persons at once being E 2 52 7- National Schools. enrolled as members, with the Prince-Regent as Patron. The first efforts of the Society were to form a Central School in London, where the Madras System might be fully carried out, and be seen in operation under the most favourable circum- stances. This was commenced temporarily at 45 Holborn Hill with 100 children, and was shortly afterwards removed to the permanent premises, for 1,000 children, at Baldwin's Gardens. System of Society to aid Localities, not itself to found Schools. It was originally intended that when this one school was in suc- cessful working, a number of similar establishments in different parts of the Metropolis should be commenced by the Society, and remain under its management. This idea, however, was afterwards abandoned, as it was considered of greater advan- tage to aid localities by grants and annual donations, than for the Society in all cases to take the initiative, which would pro- bably tend to prevent a full and healthy development of that local interest and supervision without which schools could not be expected to flourish. Spread of Schools Improvement in Buildings. The spread of National Schools in the early years of the Society was very great. In 1815, no fewer than 564 were in active operation, containing over 100,000 scholars. A large number of these were instructed by Teachers who had been trained by the National Society, or rather, who had attended a course of instruction, and seen the Madras system in full operation, at the Central School in Baldwin's Gardens. During the same year a sum of no less than 4,4607. was granted by the Society in aid of the erection of 55 local schools. The style of school-house at this time, how- ever, was not such as is seen at the present day. This may be judged of from the description given in 1816 of the Central School, which was stated to be ' perfectly plain,' and fitted up in the ' simplest manner, the walls lime-whited, and the floor level,' showing that nothing had hitherto been expended in ornament, extravagance, or luxury in connection with school premises. Diocesan Branches of the Society. An important means, adopted almost from the commencement of the Society, for the spread of its schools, was the formation, in every diocese, of a District Branch in connection with it. These Branches carried on the work by encouraging and stimulating local effort, and also by forming schools in the larger towns on the system of the Central 7. National Schools. 53 Schools in London. This was the more readily accomplished, owing to the Bench of Bishops being on the Committee of the Society, and taking great interest in its working. Through the action of the clergy in many of the parishes of their dioceses, an effective and complete organisation was begun, which worked energetically for many years. Schools usually Free. Nearly all the National Schools when first commenced were free. In a few cases, as, for example, in Exeter, a charge of one shilling a quarter was made ; but this was quite exceptional, as the majority of them depended entirely on local subscriptions, and an occasional grant from the parent Society. Information on Trust Deeds. In consequence of the difficulty and legal expense experienced by many persons in the country concerning the proper arrangement of the Trust Deeds of Schools, they proposed to open the Society in 1816, published information on the subject, and, at the same time, drew up a table of speci- fications suitable for such buildings, which proved of great benefit to places where schools were about to be established. Extent of Operations. Grants, varying from 2O/. to 3OO/., con- tinued to be made by the National Society towards the building of Local Schools, and up to the end of 1821 the sum thus ex- pended amounted to more than 3O,ooo/. In that year it was computed that from 1,700 to 1,800 National Schools, with 300,000 scholars, existed in the country, started mainly at the instigation of the Society, whose whole support during this time had depended entirely on private subscriptions. Issue of First King's Letter. In the year 1823, the novelty of the Society's operations having somewhat worn off, and the donations having accordingly decreased in proportion, the whole of the funds of the Society became exhausted. In this emer- gency King George IV. was appealed to, and he consented to issue a Royal letter, addressed, through the Archbishops, to the parochial clergy, directing them to promote contributions throughout their parishes in aid of the Society's funds. In this way over 27,ooo/. was raised, besides a great impetus being given in all parts towards the spread of schools, by the attention thus publicly drawn to educational matters. The greater part of this sum was gradually expended in aiding the erection of local school buildings, the Society acting from a conviction, as stated 54 7- National Schools. in their Report for 1826, that the best way in which they could promote education was : ist. To maintain the Central School in a highly efficient state ; and, 2nd. To make grants in aid of the erection of schools, based on similar principles, in different parts of the kingdom. In the following year they accordingly granted no less than 5,766/. for this latter object, and it was found that the schools united to the Society had increased to 2,199, with 330,000 pupils under instruction. Dr. Bell on Payments on Results. An interesting fact concern- ing the question of the advisability of imposing school fees occurred about this time. It was ascertained that some of the schools had fallen into irregular and lax modes of teaching, were not as energetically conducted as was desirable, and had, in many particulars, departed from the original scheme of the National System, whereby a considerable falling off of the pupils had ensued. In consequence of this, a memorandum was sent out, drawn up by Dr. Bell, in which was laid down, among other things, the desirability of connecting the duty and interest of the Teachers by rendering their emoluments in some way or other dependent on the number and the general improvement and good conduct of the scholars. The Society became so im- pressed with the soundness of this policy that, in the following year, the Report recommended the institution of small weekly payments from the children, not only with this object, but also as a means of supporting the schools, and of inducing parents to send their children with greater regularity. Removal to Westminster. In 1832 the Central School was removed to the new site at Westminster, where it was continued for many years until finally given up. Second King's Letter The proceeds of the subscriptions ob- tained in consequence of the first King's Letter having become exhausted, a second one was issued by King William IV., after an interval of ten years. By this means a sum of 23,5007. was raised, which was expended by the Society in the same manner as before. Shortly after this, the first Educational vote was made by Parliament, whereby 2O,ooo/. was granted towards the erection of school-houses. This vote, which was continued for some years, was administered, as explained elsewhere, by the 7. National Schools. 55 Treasury in building grants to schools recommended by the National and the British and Foreign School Societies. The amounts thus granted by the State to National Schools in the undermentioned years were as follows : 1111834 . . . ,11,151 to 65 Schools. 1835 . . . . 14,155 122 1836 . . . 16,778 225 1837 . . 11,446 136 1838 . . . 16,592 159 Total . . . ^70,122 707 Evidence in Favour of Fees. The Report of the Select Com- mittee of the House of Commons on the state of education in 1834, contained valuable information on the working of National Schools. Several witnesses were examined as to their opinion of the desirability of charging a small weekly fee to the children for admission to the schools. From their answers, it appeared that all agreed as to its being advantageous, not only as a means of increasing the income, but also of inducing the parents to value the education given, and to insist on the children attend- ing with greater regularity. The Rev. W. Johnson, super- intendent of the National Society's Central School, stated that he did not believe that the small payment, even from the poorest children, was really a cause which prevented their attending, if they had the desire to do so. He said he had made careful inquiries in a school of 1,000 of the poorest children, and found that in one year they spent no less than 25O/. on sweetmeats. It was evident that if they could get this sum from their parents for such a purpose, it was not too much to assert that they were in a position to pay \d. per week for their education. Grants towards Schools and Teachers' Houses. For the next ten years (to 1846) the National Schools continued to increase in number, being assisted by building grants both from the State and also from the National Society. These grants were not confined to the building of school premises only, but were also made towards erecting the Teachers' residences. In cases of need, the Society made small supplemental grants towards defraying the annual expenses of existing schools. To meet this great outlay several special funds were raised during these years, including those resulting from the issue of several Royal Letters. The grants in 1844-5 fr m the Society alone amounted to 63,267/1 56 7- National Schools. Travelling Organising Master*. In order to secure an efficient and uniform mode of conducting the National Schools, and also to afford Teachers the advantage of the advice and experience of persons qualified to be useful in this respect, the National Society, about this time, appointed five organising Masters, whose duty it was to travel to the various schools and districts, and who thus assisted largely in the spread of the National Schools. Deficiency in School Funds. In 1845 ^e National Society re- ported that the one great difficulty which they found in all parts of the country was the obtaining of sufficient funds for the support of the schools. They hoped that increased resources would follow as the efficiency improved, and as the Teachers became better qualified. They gave it as their experience that in proportion as the qualifications of the Teachers improved, so the schools obtained better support, both from the poor, as shown by the children's payments, and from the rich, as indicated by the increased annual subscriptions. Commencement of State Aid to Support Schools However true this opinion might be, it was nevertheless certain that the resources at the command of school managers continued, in the majority of cases, to be very much below what was required, and the regulation laid down in the Minutes of 1846, whereby the Committee of Council undertook to grant annual payments to all schools with certified Teachers, was a great relief and assistance to the National Schools throughout the country. In 1847, 35 r received an annual grant, which amounted to 49,272/1 Since that time, an increased number each year has received support from the State, and, as a consequence, they have to an extent ceased to be dependent on the National Society, and in but few cases now receive assistance from it Those, however, which are in union with that body, and have obtained grants for Building or other purposes, continue to form a distinct class of schools as regards their religious teaching, which is, of course, conducted strictly on Church of England principles. In other respects, they are generally similar to the schools inspected by the Education Department. Conditions of Grants from National Society. The terms of con- nection with the Society, and on which alone these grants are now made, are at present as follows : 7. National Schools. 57 1. That the children shall be instructed in the Holy Scrip- tures, the Liturgy, and Catechism of the Established Church. 2. That with respect to such instruction, the schools are to be subject to the superintendence of the parochial clergyman. 3. That the children are to be regularly assembled for the purpose of attending Divine Service in the Parish Church, or other place of worship under the Establishment, unless such reason be assigned for their non-attendance as is satisfactory to the managers of the school. 4. That the Masters and the Mistresses are to be members of the Church of England. 5. That a Report on the state and progress of the schools is to be made at Christmas in every year to the Diocesan Board, the District Society, or the National Society. The schools are also, with the consent of the managers, to be periodically inspected by persons appointed either by the Bishop of the Diocese, the National Society, or the Diocesan Board of Education. 6. That in case any difference should arise between the parochial clergy and the managers of the schools with reference to the preceding rules respecting the religious instruction of the scholars, or any regulation connected therewith, an appeal is to be made to the Bishop of the Diocese, whose decision is to be final. The Conscience Clause. The Society for a long time opposed the ' Conscience Clause ' when introduced in 1860. This it did as the representative of the Church of England, and from the fact that it depended for support almost entirely on those who at the time had strong feelings against the clause being intro- duced into the trust deeds of National Schools. By carrying out the regulation involved in the ' Conscience Clause,' the Com- mittee of Council directed that in small places where two schools would be unnecessary, a clause should be 'inserted in the trust deed of any proposed school seeking the aid of public funds, allowing parents to withdraw their children from the religious instruction if they thought proper to do so. The National Society objected to this, as opposed to their fundamental rules, and declined to assist by their private grants any school having this clause in its trust deed. Public feeling in this respect has fully borne out the action of the Education Department. Building Grants still given by the Society. The Building Grants 5 7- National Schools. made to National Schools through the Society have continued up to the present day, and supplement the Government aid to those schools in connection with the Church of England which comply with the rules above given. In 1868-9, a sum f no less than I3,i/i/. was thus granted towards erecting 216 new schools, and enlarging 40 others. Gradual Increase of National Schools. For the last ten years, with the exception of the changes brought about by the Re- vised Code and other alterations in the Government regulations, the work of National Schools has continued without any im- portant feature, and their number has gone on steadily and rapidly increasing. By the assistance of the local clergy of the Established Church, who have always been foremost in en- deavours for improving the condition of the poor, schools have been started in the most remote and out-of-the-way parishes. This is so much the case, that although there are hundreds of thousands of children who are completely ignorant, yet parishes in England without some sort of school are scarce. Great Results of the National Society's Work. Since the year 1811, when the National Society commenced its labours, it has expended no less than 86o,ooo/., collected entirely from private sources, towards creating schools and Training Colleges having for their chief object the education of the poor on the prin- ciples of the Established Church. It would be difficult to trace the good results which must have been produced in this country by these operations, nor is it possible to estimate the benefits which the Society's actions have conferred on all classes of society. They have certainly left an indelible mark on the page of history, and influenced in the highest degree the welfare of the entire population of these islands. 59 8. BRITISH SCHOOLS. British Schools first called Lancasterian Schools. The British, or as they were originally called, the Lancasterian Schools, have had a great influence during the last 70 years in raising the state of education in the country among the poorer classes. Without entering into the disputed claims of Dr. Bell and Joseph Lancaster, as to who was the first to originate the peculiar system pursued at these schools, there can be no doubt but that by the energy of the latter a practical step of great importance was made towards developing a regular, efficient, and economical plan of teaching. Religious Liberty a Fundamental Rule. One essential and dis- tinctive feature of British Schools/in addition to the special mode of teaching claimed to be originated by their founder, was that of their religious liberty. The fundamental rule has always been that the Sacred Scriptures, or extracts therefrom, should be read daily; that no catechism or other formulary peculiar to any religious denomination should be introduced or taught during the hours of instruction ; and that every child attending the Day School should be at liberty to attend any Sabbath School or place of worship preferred by its parents. British Schools not Confined to Dissenters. These rules were for many years considered objectionable by a large number of well-meaning persons, and the clergy of the Church of England were so strongly opposed to them that, mainly by their in- fluence, the National Society was brought into existence to establish schools in which the religious teaching was of a more strictly dogmatic character. In consequence of this an incorrect impression prevailed that the British Schools were almost entirely under the control of the Dissenters, whereas, as a matter of fact, on the Committees of management which have 6o 8. British Schools. been elected ever since the commencement of the Society members of the Church of England will be found in considerable numbers, and with them Dissenters of almost every denomina- tion. Public opinion concerning religious teaching of children has of late undergone a change, resulting in the adoption, as the national system of education, of a plan nearly identical in its religious aspect with that on which the British Schools were first started, and which was then so fiercely attacked. First Lancasterian School Fees. The first school commenced by Lancaster was in 1798 at his father's house in St. George's Fields, which stood nearly opposite the present Training College and Model Schools, into which this small beginning was destined eventually to grow. Lancaster seems to have had a remarkable aptitude for teaching, and in a very short time his school was full to overflowing. The fee he charged was about half that required at most other places, though it amounted to a con- siderable sum, viz. I/, is. a year, of which about 6s. was to defray school expenses, books, &c. From the first, however, a large number of the pupils who were in needy circumstances appear to have been admitted free. Increase in the School Partial Abolition of Fees, When the scholars numbered about one hundred, new premises were taken. A season of scarcity following shortly after this period, Lancaster opened the school to all without requiring the payment of any fee ; and as a means of supporting it, he induced several persons to guarantee the payment for a certain number of children, at the rate of a guinea a head per annum. The Institution con- tinued to enlarge, or, as Lancaster expressed it, the children ' came in for education like flocks of sheep,' until it became quite impossible for one teacher, however zealous, to instruct them. In consequence of this, in 1803 the new Monitorial System was adopted. Principles of System. The distinguishing features of this sys- tem, as described by Lancaster himself, were as follows : 1. ' That by the system of order and rewards, together with the division of the school into classes and the assistance of Monitors, one Master was able to conduct a school of one thousand children. 2. ' That by printing a spelling-book, or any other lessons for reading, in a large type upon one side of the paper, and pasting 8. British Schools. 61 the sheets thus printed on pasteboard, they could, when sus- pended from a nail against the wall, be read by any number of children, a method whereby one book served for a whole school instead of for one child only. 3. ' That by the introduction of writing on slates, and one boy spelling to his whole class a certain word, the boys in the class could instantly write it, going on in this manner for an hour or more ; thus boys could write and spell one hundred words in the course of a morning, a method whereby five hundred boys could spell arid write the same word at the same instant of time. 4. ' An entire new method of instruction in arithmetic, wholly superseding the former method of setting sums in ciphering books, or using books for the four first rules ; a plan whereby any child who could read might teach arithmetic with the utmost certainty. 5. ' The expense of education being reduced to a very trifling sum, so that schools for three hundred children could be sup- ported at the rate of *js. per annum for each child. 6. 'Though inculcating religious and moral principles, all controverted theological points were excluded, the Holy .Scrip- tures being the only religious book taught in the schools.' Abolition of Fees Great Success of Schools. Shortly after adopt- ing this system the school doors were thrown open freely and gratuitously for all children, and so great was its success that visitors were attracted from all parts, noblemen, Royal dukes, and even the King himself became subscribers, and in every way in their power assisted the work. As the amounts received during this time did not more than cover the expenses entailed, Lancaster supported himself to a great extent by the sale of his books, which rapidly became popular. Foolish Conduct of Lancaster Assistance from Fox and others. Success to such an unlooked-for extent seems, however, to have somewhat unsettled the mind of the simple Quaker, who never was remarkable for possessing a large share of worldly wisdom. The rash expenses into which he now plunged, not for his own selfish gratification, but for the purpose of carrying out what he considered the plan best adapted to develope his school system, not only ruined him, but even endangered the very existence of the work he had so well commenced. In addition to these troubles, party feeling, and the opposition of those who did not agree with his views, chiefly concerning the religious teaching, 62 8. British Schools. tended to weaken his cause so much that at one time it seemed highly probable the career of the founder of the schools would be cut short by his incarceration in a debtor's prison. At this juncture, in 1808, Joseph Fox stepped forward, and, by advancing 2,ooo/., and by rendering himself liable for considerably more, was instrumental in having the whole of Lancaster's affairs handed over to trustees, and, shortly after, in starting the asso- ciation entitled ' The Royal Lancasterian Institution ' for pro- moting the education of the children of the poor. Travels of Lancaster. From 1807 to 1810 Lancaster continued to teach in the Borough Road, and also to travel from place to place spreading a knowledge of his scheme, and awakening people to a sense of the deficient state of education then existing in the country. In 1807 he travelled 710 miles (a considerable distance in those days), and started 8 schools, having 1,500 pupils. In 1808 he journeyed 1,028 miles, starting 22 schools, with 3,650 pupils; and in 1809, 1,324 miles, starting 15 schools, with 6,150 pupils. The year 1810 he seems to have devoted almost entirely to travelling, and explaining his system in various districts, leaving the Borough Road School to be con- ducted by his assistants. No fewer than 50 new schools were commenced, with 14,200 pupils, Lancaster himself having tra- velled during the year 3,775 miles. In 1811 he visited Ireland and other places. This work he continued until 1813, the number of schools considerably increasing, though his mode of travelling was sometimes peculiar, and his general conduct at the towns in which he lectured was frequently extravagant and eccentric. British and Foreign School Society. On May 21, 1814, the name of the Society was changed into that of the ' British and Foreign School Society,' which it has retained ever since. Main Objects of the Society. The two main objects which the founders of the Society had in view were, as stated in the Report for 1813, ist. To offer a practical example in the Borough Road Schools of the benefits resulting from Lancaster's plan of educa- tion when applied on a very extended scale. 2nd. To train up and to maintain a sufficient number of young persons of both sexes of promising abilities, and to qualify them to undertake the charge of schools in different parts of the 8. British Schools. 63 country of a similar character to the model one in the Borough Road. Rules Lancaster's Position He Resigns and Leaves England. At this period "it was necessary to lay down more clearly the rules of the Society, and a code was accordingly drawn up in which Lancaster's duties also were defined. He was appointed superintendent of the Borough Road establishment, under a Committee of the trustees. This arrangement necessarily put him in a very different position to that which he had hitherto enjoyed, but his lavish expenditure had rendered some such step absolutely necessary. The change, however, did not long suit him, and he consequently resigned in 1814, and at that time altogether ceased his connection with the Society he had largely been the means of creating. After a series of misfortunes, brought on chiefly perhaps by his eccentric disposition, he sailed for America in 1818, leaving behind him an imperishable record of his twenty years' labours, blemished only by his own want of common sense. The Management of the Society. The management of the British and Foreign School Society, or as it was also called in these early days, ' The Institution for Promoting the Education of the Labouring and Manufacturing Classes of Society, of every Religious Persuasion,' was vested in a Committee of forty- eight members, who were elected annually by the subscribers at the general meeting. This Committee, which is still appointed in the manner prescribed in the first rules, has absolute power over all the concerns of the Society. Relation between Society and Schools. Its action with schools which were to a certain extent in connection with it, was not in any way one of control. A condition was laid down by Rule IV. of the original Code, that all schools which had been supplied with Teachers at the expense of the Institution should be open to the children of parents of all religious denominations ; that the lessons for reading should consist of extracts from the Holy Scriptures, and that no catechism or peculiar religious tenets should be taught, but that every child should be enjoined to attend regularly that section of worshippers of which his or her parents were members. This rule has in the majority of cases been observed, but it was impossible for the Committee to enforce compliance when a Teacher who had been trained by the Society 64 8. British Schools, thought proper to accept a situation at a school not strictly complying with these conditions ; and British Schoolmasters are occasionally found at strictly sectarian places of instruction. Statistics of British Schools. The number of schools under the British system, at this period, it is impossible to determine with exactness. A list of the chief ones, containing about 150, was published in 1813. Many others were known to be in active operation, though not in connection with the Parent Institution, and were consequently omitted from the above list. It was estimated that half of the pupils in these 150 schools were members of the Established Church. The amount of subscrip- tions to the Society during its early years shows fairly its progress ; it was as follows : 1808 ... 248 1809 . . . 1,407 1810 . . . 1,921 1812 . . . 2,732 1813 . . y 2,522 1814 . . . 2,697 1811 . . . 2,923 Extension of British Schools. The extension of the British School movement continued steadily during the next thirteen years, not only in England, but in all parts of the world. In 1817 there were 260 schools in England, and in 1827 the num- ber had increased to about 400. All of these were in connection with the Parent Institution, whose work in preparing Teachers went on uniformly at a cost, including the Central Model School, of somewhat over 2,ooo/. a-year, which sum was entirely raised by private subscriptions. Introduction of Weekly Payments from Pupils. During the first years of the British and Foreign School Society, nearly all the British Schools were started on the free system, the example of Lancaster's Model School being followed. In 1816 a change in this respect took place, which is noted in the Report for that year, thus : ' The Committee have also with pleasure remarked, that in several places the plan of receiving small weekly pay- ments from the parents for the instruction of their children has been successfully adopted.' The testimony of many of the schools, such as those of Horncastle, Sheffield, Shrewsbury, &c., goes to show that the attendance was thereby increased, and the discipline improved. General Adoption of Fees. From this period, the plan of charging a small fee grew into general use ; but in the Central 8. BrifisJi Schools. 65 Schools, in which were educated about 500 boys and 300 girls, it was not adopted until many years later. These Schools were the first work of Lancaster, and, as before stated, were expressly made into Free Schools by him in 1804, and consequently the Committee felt some little reluctance in effecting so important a change. In 1827, however, the Committee became fully con- vinced of the expediency of the alteration, and it was determined to charge a small fee of 2ii. a-week per head, or 4^. a-week for three children from one family. The reasons urged were partly the low state of the funds, and also a conviction that the ope- ration of the pay system was highly beneficial, as it gave the poor a more direct interest in the education of their children, induced them to value it, and was likely to ensure more regular attendance. In order that the step should occasion as little opposition as possible, a meeting of the parents was held to consider the subject, and they entirely agreed with the proposal. Experience soon fully proved the correctness of the views of the Committee, for in the first year no less than 22O/. was taken, and the attendance of the scholars increased ten per cent. In 1869 the receipts under this head amounted to 3/2/., viz.: 1 i//. from the girls, and 2557. from the boys. Effect of Pestalozzian System. In 1828 the general proficiency of the British Schools, more particularly of the Model Schools in the Borough Road, was reported as having been considerably raised by the success of the introduction of improvements on the Pestalozzian System. Commencement of Public Building Grants. In the year 1834 a new era may be said to have begun in the history of British Schools. The whole cost at this time fell on local private con- tributions, with the assistance sometimes of a small grant from the Parent Society. In most cases the main difficulty had been in obtaining the necessary premises, owing to the heavy and immediate outlay required for building. By the zealous efforts of Lord Brougham and others, a Parliamentary grant of 2O,ooo/. was made in this year, to aid in the building of schools. This money was to be expended by the Treasury, and only in localities applying through, and whose schools were to be in connection with, the British and Foreign School or the National School Societies. , Applications for Building Giants. The effect of this grant was, that memorials for building 211 schools were very shortly sent F 66 8. British Schools. to the Treasury by the two Societies. The localities thus apply- ing undertook to subscribe no less than 29,383/., in addition to the Government subsidy. The population of the 169 places whose applications the Treasury selected as worthy of conside- ration, amounted to 1,599,263, the number of pupils to be pro- vided for 30,326; and the total cost 48,6257., of which the amount asked for from the Treasury was 23,4527. During this year 32 British Schools received promises of grants, to the amount of 9,5 36/., which was to be paid to the British and Foreign School Society on the completion of the buildings. Continuation of State Aid in Building Grants, In 1835 a second grant of 2O,ooo/. was made by Parliament, and as a means of making a fair selection, preference was given to applications from those places where, by a small outlay of public money, a proportionably large number of scholars would be provided for. When this list was exhausted, priority was given to places whose voluntary efforts secured that the pupils in the proposed schools would be in the proportion of two to every I/, asked for from Government. This mode of State assistance continued for six years, during which a sum of i2O,ooo/. was granted in aid of school buildings. The amounts to each place were fixed in the manner above-mentioned, under the authority of Her Majesty's Treasury. Inspection a Condition for State Aid, In the year 1839 the control of the Government Grants for erecting school premises was transferred from the Treasury to the Committee of Council. One of the first conditions imposed by this new body was, that in all cases of grants the right of inspection by Government should be secured in perpetuity. It was also laid down, that in future applications for building grants would be received by the Committee of Council direct from the localities, and that such assistance would not, as before, be in all cases confined to schools in connection with the two Societies. Discussion on Inspection of British Schools by the State. The regulation which required permanent Government inspection, led to a long and sharp correspondence between the Education Department and the British and Foreign School Society, owing chiefly to the mode in which it was proposed to appoint the officers to perform this duty. The Society considered, that as the Inspectors were to be subject to the approval of, and liable to be removed, by the Archbishops, who were officers of the 8. British Schools. 67 National Society, the British Schools would be inspected by those who had a strong 1 bias for the National System. This they feared would tend to damage their mode of teaching, and to lessen the influence of the Parent Society. It was conse- quently arranged by the Committee of Council, that copies of Inspection Reports concerning British Schools should be sent to the Society for its information, and also that Inspectors' sugges- tions for improvements should be communicated to the Society, in order that it might assist, if it thought proper, in recommending their adoption. First Inspector's Report objected to Modified Government Arrangements. In spite of this arrangement, the first Report on British Schools by Mr. Tremenheere was not approved of by the Society, who thought that it was written without due con- sideration for their experience, and the system which they upheld. They considered that it showed sfgns throughout of a bias in favour of the plan of the National Society. The consequence of this was, that the correspondence with the Education Depart- ment on the subject of Inspectors, which had commenced in 1839, was re-opened, and lasted until December 12, 1843. It was then settled that no Inspector should be appointed without the full concurrence of the Committee of the Society. Government Inspection now Satisfactory to the Society. Since this period, the Inspector difficulty seems to have disappeared, for in the Report for 1853 the Committee of the British and Foreign School Society makes the following remarks : ' The inspection of your Local Schools by the Committee of Council is increasingly approved and valued. Everywhere testimony is borne to the fairness and kind co-operation of Her Majesty's Inspectors ; to their laborious discharge of the responsible duties devolved upon them, and to their consideration for the wishes of the local supporters of the Schools.' At the present time, by far the larger number of the British Schools are inspected, and receive Government Grants. The Pupil Teacher System. The Pupil Teacher system may be said to have grown out of the monitorial plan of Bell and Lan- caster. It was first suggested about 1844, anc * is now adopted in nearly all the British Schools, which really, from an educational point of view, are identical with National, Wesleyan, and other Schools in connection with the Education Department. The 68 8. British Schools. uniform requirements of State aid have thus to a considerable extent abolished the peculiar features of British Schools. Beligious Principles of British Schools now Acknowledged. The chief principle on which they were formed, however, not only remains, but a more enlightened age has fully endorsed it, and decided that the promotion of the education of the labouring- classes of society of every religious persuasion must be * with liberty of conscience, and the utter abolition of religious tests in connection with common day-school education.' 9. WESLEYAN SCHOOLS. Wesleyans possess a Special System of Education. The important religious body founded by John Wesley has a complete educa- tional system of its own. The course of teaching is very similar to that pursued by the National and the British and Foreign School Societies, being equally influenced by the action of the Education Department. The Schools, however, must be classed in a separate category, and the work of the Wesleyan Methodists cannot but be regarded as having an important bearing on the subject of National Education. Early Efforts of John Wesley. In his very early days Wesley seems to have been strongly impressed with the necessity of establishing some means for improving the educational condition of the children of his followers. Even before he had absolutely seceded from the Established Church, his efforts in this direction had commenced. After his return from Georgia, in 1739, he built a School for the children of the Kingswood colliers. In 1748 he wrote (referring to the sadly immoral state of the few schools which then existed) : ' At length I determined to have them (the children) taught in my own house, that they might have an opportunity of learning to read, write, and cast accounts (if no more), without being under the necessity of learning heathenism at the same time. After several unsuccessful trials, I found two such Schoolmasters as I wanted, men of honesty, and of sufficient knowledge, who had talents for and their hearts in the work. They have now under their care near sixty children. The parents of some pay for their schooling, but the greater part being very poor, do not, so that the expense is chiefly defrayed by voluntary contributions/ Sunday Schools. No systematic course of Secular teaching among the Wesleyans seems, however, to have been pursued for 7 J 94 1868 . . . 110,086 76 9- Wesley an Schools. Importance of Religious Teaching. The style of teaching has necessarily remained very similar to that pursued at all the other State-aided Schools, except, of course, as far as the reli- gious instruction is concerned. The feeling of the Wesleyan Education Committee is very strong on this point, and although, as just stated, from the very first they adopted a conscience clause, or an arrangement which practically amounted to it, yet they did not disguise their conviction that religious instruction should form an integral part of any system of teaching, and should, in fact, be interwoven with what would be popularly termed ' Secular Education.' Resolution on Sir J. Pakington's Bill. In reference to the Edu- cational Bill introduced by Sir J. Pakington in 1856, the Wes- leyan Committee passed the following resolution > ' That, while it has ever been the fixed rule in Wesleyan Schools, during the teaching of the Catechism, to permit the absence of any child whose parents should object to his being taught such formulary, and to leave all children free to attend, on the Sabbath, whatever Sunday School and place of worship their parents may prefer, this Committee believes that the Wesleyan community will never consent that the teaching of religion itself in their schools shall be subject to restriction. Their experience shows that besides the Scripture lessons with which their schools daily open, and in which it is sought to make Divine truth intelligible to children of all capacities, an able Christian teacher will find throughout the day, when teaching Geography, History, Physical and Moral Science, and the knowledge of common things, fre- quent occasion to illustrate and enforce the truths of religion, and that religious teaching may be made to impart life and spirit to the whole process of education.' Sunday Schools. The Wesleyan Sunday Schools have been gradually increasing in number, though not to so great an extent as the Day Schools. This may be owing to the fact that twenty years ago the Sunday Schools, which formed almost the only means of instruction in many places, were, even at that time, teaching a very large proportion of the children who were ever likely to take advantage of them. In 185 I, they numbered 4,275, with 82,804 teachers and 441,741 pupils ; whilst in 1868, 5,240 schools were in operation, with 102,718 teachers and 582,020 pupils. 9. Wesley an Schools. 77 Evening Schools. The attendance at the Evening Schools, a record of which was first published in 1859, in the returns of the Wesleyan Committee, appears to have slowly increased, but not at the rate which is to be expected when the new system of examination by local Committees has been in existence a few years longer. In 1859 there were 1,150 evening scholars, and in 1868 the number had increased to 4,435. General Excellence of Wesleyan Schools. Such are the existing Educational arrangements of the Wesleyans ; and it must be acknowledged that, for efficient instruction and harmony in working, the schools under the management of that body are equal to those of any section of English Elementary Schools. 10. ROMAN CATHOLIC SCHOOLS. Commencement of Roman Catholic Schools in England Ancient Restrictions. Roman Catholic Schools for the poorer classes have existed in this country for about fifty years. Until a priest was allowed to read mass publicly, those professing the Roman Catholic religion were placed by the laws under such stringent and unjust privations and penalties that it was impossible for any one openly to teach a child that faith, and much less to keep a Roman Catholic School. According to the 23 and 27 of Elizabeth, Roman Catholics were forbidden, under severe penalties, either to provide an education for their children at home, or to procure it for them in foreign lands. If any Roman Catholic should keep or maintain a Schoolmaster, he was to forfeit io/. per month, and the Schoolmaster was to suffer im- prisonment for one year ; Roman Catholics directly or indirectly contributing to the maintenance of foreign Catholic seminaries, were liable to forfeit their lands and possessions, and be con- signed to prison during the pleasure of the Sovereign ; and no person professing that faith could send his child for education beyond the sea, without special licence,. under forfeiture of one hundred pounds for every such offence. Comparatively Modern Liberal Facilities for Schools. These ex- treme and harsh penalties had not been in practical operation for many years before they were absolutely repealed. Full liberty of conscience, however, in the matter of schools, is com- paratively recent, and may be said to date from the passing of the Emancipation Act in 1829. It was not until some sixteen years after the Government system of aid to schools had been granted to the Church of England and to the Dissenters, that equal assistance was provided for the education of the Roman Catholic poor. io. Roman Catholic Sc /tools. 79 Consequent Deficiency of Education. Owing to these restric- tions, the Roman Catholic children in the country were left almost totally unprovided for, except those who attended the schools of other denominations, and the few here and there who were enabled to receive the benefit of the priest's private in- struction. The laws had been originally framed with the view of preventing the spread of Romish doctrines, and with the hope that by these means all children might be brought within the pale of the Church of England. The Catholic Institute Statistics. Reliable statistics respecting Roman Catholic Schools do not exist previous to 1845. In that year the * Catholic Institute,' a body formed in order to assist in promoting the education of the Roman Catholic poor, obtained returns of all the schools in existence in England and Wales. From these it appears there were about 220 schools, many, however, hardly meriting the title. The following me-: moranda appear in the returns alluded to : ' No regular School- rooms ' ' Not adapted, being a mere cottage' ' No School ; the Mistress teaches in her own house' 'School, a room 13 feet square in Master's house ' ' Twenty children excluded (though only twenty in the School) for want of room ' ' A dark, damp room under altar end of Chapel, and a rented room near, roof open, and not weather-proof 'School in small room over a Stable ' ' School inconvenient, being a loft over a Cooper's Workshop,' &c. &c. All were either hampered, or almost entirely crippled, for want of funds. No Government Grants. At this time no assistance was re- ceived towards the erection of Roman Catholic Schools from the Education Department, as, by the trust deeds required, it was found impossible by the Roman Catholics to accept the aid without sacrificing what they considered the fundamental prin- ciples of their teaching. Catholic Poor-School Committee Government Assistance. A new era in the history of these schools began in 1847 by the forma- tion of the ' Catholic Poor-School Committee.' This body was formed by the Roman Catholic Bishops in England and Wales in September 1847. They issued a pastoral letter, dissolving the 'Catholic Institute' previously referred to, and directing that all moneys, &c., standing to the credit of the Educational account of that society, should be transferred to the new Com- mittee. This body at once became the representative of the 8o TO. Roman Catholic Schools. Roman Catholic Educational work in the country ; and on the following December 18, 1847, tne Committee of Council passed the Minute which was the first step towards the grant of Govern- ment assistance to these schools. Conditions of aid. This Minute contained the following pro- visions : 1. That the Roman Catholic Poor-School Committee be the ordinary channel of communication with the Committee of Council on such general inquiries as may be necessary, on any Roman Catholic School applying for Government aid. 2. That Roman Catholic Schools receiving aid from the Parliamentary Grant be open to inspection, but that the In- spectors shall report respecting the secular instruction only. 3. That the Inspectors of such Schools be not appointed without the previous concurrence of the Roman Catholic Poor- School Committee. 4. That no gratuity, stipend, or augmentation of Salary be awarded to Schoolmasters or Assistant-teachers, who are in Holy Orders, but that the Education Department reserve to themselves the power of making an exception in the case of Training and Model Schools. Annual Government Grants. The annual payments to Roman Catholic Schools from the public funds were made, after this, according to the ordinary regulations of the Committee of Council. Trust Deed. A very lengthy correspondence, however, ensued, which continued until 1851, on the subject of the Trust deed, and as to the arrangements required to be entered into between the local Committee of a school, and the Education Department, previous to a Building Grant being made in aid of erecting a Roman Catholic School. The great difficulty was found to be in settling legally the exact sphere of action of the Managers of the School. The laws of the Roman Catholic Church required that the Bishops should, in all cases of dispute, be the ultimate court of appeal, whereas the Education Depart- ment preferred a method of arbitration by a lay umpire. The discussion was finally settled in the following manner. The Roman Catholic Priest of the district, acting under faculties from the Roman Catholic Bishop (so long as such faculties con- tinued in force), had the management and superintendence of the religious instruction of the scholars, with power to use the ic. Roman Catholic Schools. 81 premises on Sundays for the purpose of such religious instruction exclusively. In other respects the management, including the selection, appointment, and dismissal of the Teachers, was vested in a Committee composed of a Priest and six Roman Catholic laymen ; any vacancy occurring in this Committee was filled up by the remaining members, until the Bishop directed that the election should be by subscribers ; after which, persons who con- tributed to the school funds were entitled to votes in proportion to the amount of their donations. No one, however, was to be allowed to have more than six votes. The Priest was the Chairman of the Committee, with a casting vote, and no persons could vote at any election, or be appointed to or continue a Master or Mistress in the school, or be employed therein in any capacity whatsoever, who was not a Roman Catholic. The Priest also had the power of suspending any Teacher from his office, and of excluding any book on religious grounds, provided that he presented a written statement before the Committee giving his reasons for so doing, Such suspension or exclusion was in force until the ' decision of superior ecclesiastical autho- rity could, with due diligence be obtained, and when laid before the Committee in writing, under the hand of such superior ecclesiastic, was final and conclusive in the matter.' If the superior ecclesiastic authority directed that any Teacher should be dismissed, such direction or decision was to be considered as tantamount to a dismissal, and was to prevent the Teacher from having any further interest in his office under the deed. Subsequent Harmony between Committee of Council and Roman Catholics. The agreement on this deed, over which there was so much controversy, settled the position of Roman Catholic Schools in England, and from that time to this the Roman Catholic Poor-School Committee and the Education Depart- ment have worked in harmony. Building and Annual grants have been made, subject to the above regulations, indiscrimi- nately to Roman Catholic and Protestant Schools. Action of the Roman Catholic Poor-School Committee. The Roman Catholic Poor-School Committee, besides its duties as correspondent with the Government on all Educational matters, assists largely in directly increasing the Roman Catholic Schools throughout the country. It votes money towards the building and support of schools, and in the first year of its existence it thus assisted 138 localities, at an expenditure of 4,94 2 /- So G 82 io. Roman Catholic Schools. voluminous, indeed, did the correspondence become on the subject of the necessary conditions concerning its private grants, that the Committee established a sort of periodical on Educa- tional matters called ' The Catholic School.' Arrangements to improve School Organisation. The Committee was early impressed with the conviction of the ignorance of the Teachers as to the most advantageous modes of school organi- sation, and the systematic arrangement of the instruction. With a view to improve this state of things, an organising Mistress was appointed in 1849, whose duty it was to visit dif- ferent schools with the express object of improving the system and manner of instruction. The length of her visit, whether of three months or more, was left to her discretion. Inspection First Public Grants. In the year 1849 a Govern- ment Inspector was appointed, and, for the first time in the history of Education in England, grants were made from the public funds in aid of Roman Catholic Schools. The sum thus expended in that year amounted to 97/. IQS. 9-^., being chiefly for the purchase of books. The public grants rapidly increased year by year, and in 1851 they reached nearly 5,ooo/. Assist- ance was also afforded by the Catholic Committee to the amount of some 4,ooo/. in addition to the above. The Progress not equal to the Requirements. In reviewing these results, the Committee in 1851 remarked very justly in their Report, that though the progress had been most satisfactory, they could not rest content with what had been attained, seeing that thousands of poor Roman Catholic children in some of the lowest portions of our large cities were growing up in complete ignorance. Conditions of Aid to Schools from Poor-School Committee. The conditions which usually are made in granting aid by the Catholic Poor-School Committee are as follows : 1. The sanction of the Bishop of the diocese is indispensable, and the Clerical Nominee of the diocese is expected to know the peculiar features of the claim. 2. Two support-grants are not made in one year to the same school. 3. Before any second grant is made to a school, a voucher for the expenditure of the previous grant is in all cases required. 4. No Building Grants are payable until the promoters present io. Roman Catholic Schools. 83 a certificate, stating that they have expended on the school two- thirds of the amount coming to them from other sources. 5. Grants are made subject to the state of the Committee's finances. Building Grants Second Inspector. In 1851 the first Building Grant towards a Roman Catholic School was made by the Education Department, and the spread of schools was so considerable, that a second Roman Catholic Inspector was appointed in the following year. School Books. The efforts of the Committee were directed for some time to the selection of a series of School Books, in order to form the nucleus of a Roman Catholic Poor-School literature, and arrangements were made with the publishers to enable the schools to obtain them at the lowest possible cost. Statistics. According to the calculations of the Committee in 1851 it was estimated that there were 1,000,000 Roman Catholics in Great Britain. Of these it was computed that 160,000 were between the ages of 5 and 15, and that a large proportion were of the poorest class. Deducting the 35,000 which were calcu- lated by the same authority to be at Roman Catholic Schools, it followed that at least 125,000 were being brought up, certainly without any knowledge of their own religion, and in all proba- bility without any education at all. Increased Efforts Reformatories. These facts, and the fear that all the street Arabs found idling about the large towns were to be placed by the Reformatory Act, then just passed, into some description of school (Protestant or otherwise), induced the Roman Catholic Committee to use every effort to increase the number of their own Institutions, and an additional i,3OO/. was raised by the Society for this object in the following year. This fear, however, was allayed by the formation, two years later, of Roman Catholic Reformatory Schools, aided in a similar manner to the Protestant Schools, by grants from the public funds. Public Building Grants not taken advantage of. It is not a little remarkable that, although the rules for obtaining Building Grants for Roman Catholic Schools were approved by the Bishops and consequently sanctioned by the Committee, yet they were not, and even now are not, taken advantage of to the same extent as by Protestant denominations. This is alluded to in the Report of 1855, and the attention of Local Committees is drawn to the 84 io. Roman Catholic Schools. fact in the Report for that year with a view of urging them to make use of the grants as much as possible. Means to Increase Importance of Religious Teaching. It was thought that the encouragement given by the State to Secular Instruction had a tendency to elevate it above the Religious portion of the training. To counteract this evil the Roman Catholic Poor-School Committee, whose endeavours were en- dorsed by the Council of Oscott, made every effort to organise a system of ecclesiastical inspection of schools. They proposed to appoint competent persons to examine the scholars in the religious part of their education in a formal and somewhat im- pressive manner. This endeavour was not at first successful, many difficulties arising to prevent its being carried into effect until the year 1856, when the first step was taken by several of the Roman Catholic clergy visiting the schools. Shortly after a systematic method of examination in religion was adopted, and prizes and medals, both in bronze and silver, were awarded to those who distinguished themselves. Increase in State Aid. In 1856 the schools inspected by the Education Department had increased to 430, with 42,558 children, 201 Teachers, and about 600 Pupil Teachers. The grants from the State amounted to 19,1857., as compared with 7,5 59/. in 1852. In 1858 the increase in the grants was very great, the amount reaching 36,2587., or io,ooo7, more than the previous year. At the same time Building Grants were also made to the amount of 4,3787., or almost as much as had been granted in all the former years put together. Statistics from Duke of Newcastle's Commission. The informa- tion collected by the Duke of Newcastle's Commission in 1860 is important. It appears that at that time there were 85,866 Roman Catholic children in 743 schools in England and Wales, besides 8,413 in 96 Evening Schools. Of these more than half were in the two Counties of Lancashire and Middlesex, A large number of children, whose religion was unknown, were neces- sarily not included in these returns, and a proportion of I in 18 was accordingly claimed by the Roman Catholic Committee as belonging to their communion. These facts showed that not more than half of the Roman Catholic children were at the time nominally on the rolls of any school. Effect of Revised Code. The effect of the Revised Code on the io. Roman Catholic Schools. 85 Roman Catholic Schools themselves does not appear to have been so disastrous as was at first anticipated. The grants in many cases were certainly reduced, but not materially. The Committee reported in 1865 that, 'The more specific examina- tion, of not the higher classes only, but of all the children in the school, brought about by the alteration in the Code, was found to produce an improvement in the instruction of the pupils.' The worst effect, as will be seen in the account of the Normal Roman Catholic School, was manifested in the diminished supply of Pupil Teachers, an evil which seems to have been universally deplored. Building Grants. The Roman Catholic School Committee since that period has continued without any very important alteration in its system, the only remarkable feature being the gradual diminution of the applications for Committee of Council Building Grants, which were as follows, viz. Schools s. d. \ Schools s. d. 1858 . 10 10,369 15 l86 4 . I 835 4 1859 . 8 6,986 1865 . I 334 ii 2 1860 7 4,100 o 1866 . Nil. 1861 . 10 5> 6 5 8 1867 . Nil. 1862 2 340 10 1868 . I "5 1863 I 475 1869 . I 652 15 10 In other respects the number of schools and the amount of grants paid to them out of the public funds have increased, as may be seen from this table, which gives the whole grant to Roman Catholic Schools, under every head, in Great Britain, and the whole number of schools, that is, departments under separate Teachers. Schools Grants ' * 1860 3 I 94 I I 7 * 1864 . ... . . 28,781 o 4 1868 734 3 2 >9 JI X 4 2 1869 773 36,950 9 6 Work of Roman Catholic Poor-School Committee. To the energy of the Roman Catholic Poor-School Committee, assisted by the grants from the Education Department, must be attributed the rapid extension of the education of Roman Catholic children which has taken place in this country during the last quarter of a century. Roman Catholic Opinion of Compulsion. The feelings of this section of the community on the subject of compulsory educa- 86 TO. Roman Catholic Schools. tion are important, as showing what they hold to be essential if such a system were established. In its last Report the Com- mittee states that if compulsion is introduced it considers that, as far as the Roman Catholics are concerned, the ' denominational system is an absolute right.' However much others may differ on this and other points concerning the religious teaching of schools, it is impossible to ignore the views of a body such as the Roman Catholic Poor-School Committee, which has done so much to raise the educational state of the poor belonging to its own communion. 77. CONGREGATIONAL SCHOOLS. Congregationalists formerly connected with the British System. The body of Dissenters called ' Congregationalists ' for many years had no special system of education. The children of their poorer members were brought up almost entirely in schools connected with the British and Foreign School Society. Many of the schools in connection with Congregational Chapels are even now called ' British Schools,' and hence there is extreme difficulty in obtaining exact statistics as to the number strictly in connection with this particular body. State Aid the Cause of the Separation. The formation of a dis- tinct and separate class of schools must be traced to the com- mencement of Government assistance to education. When this question was first mooted it met with numerous and in- fluential opponents, both among Churchmen and Dissenters. Many argued that it would be detrimental to the cause, both of religious and civil liberty, for the public funds to be appropriated in any way for the aid of education, which was considered as specially the work of the various religious bodies. Differ- ence of opinion on this point led to an unfortunate rupture in the British and Foreign School Society. The result was, that a large number of influential members, calling themselves Volun- taryists, set to work to establish the formation of schools apart from the general system of the British and Foreign School Society, the essential feature being absolute freedom from State interference and control. Formation of Congregational Board of Education. The educa- tional movement in 1843, and the excitement caused by the unsuccessful attempt to pass Sir James Graham's Factory Bill, induced a large section of the Voluntaryists, in protection of their interests, to form the Congregational Board of Education. 88 n. Congregational Schools. This was done at the thirteenth annual assembly of the Congre- gational Union of England and Wales, a body, composed of Independent Ministers and others, which meets annually for conference, but which does not profess to exercise any control or authority over the Congregationalists. Outline of Scheme. The outline of the resolutions passed at this meeting on October u, 1843, was as follows : 1. That each Congregational Church, having adequate re- sources, should support a Day School for boys, and another for girls. If the funds at the disposal of any church were insuffi- cient, co-operation with other Nonconformists, or with liberal members of the Established Church, should be offered. To avoid delay, rooms in which Sunday Schools were held were to be used for week-day instruction. 2. That Ministers were to impress on all the importance of education, and themselves assist to the best of their ability in carrying out the work. 3. That assistance should be given to the British and Foreign School Society, more especially with a view to support its Normal and Model Schools. 4. That a Committee of General Education should be ap- pointed to collect statistics, correspond on the subject of edu- cation generally with other bodies of Christians, and watch the progress of any educational measure introduced into Par- liament. Great Efforts to raise Funds for Education. The General Com- mittee lost no time in endeavouring to carry out its extensive programme. Communications were sent to all the churches of the connection, and strenuous efforts at once made to raise funds, both to aid the smaller church districts, and to give encouragement wherever it was most needed. These early movements of the Congregationalists were carried on almost entirely in union with the British and Foreign School Society, as up to the year 1843 that Society had not obtained Govern- ment assistance, though many individual British Schools had received Building Grants. The Fundamental Principles of the Schools. Two fundamental principles seemed at this time to have guided the Committee in their efforts namely, that the schools should be free from anything approaching an exclusive and sectarian character, ii. Congregational Schools. 89 and that they should be carried on entirely without the assist- ance or interference of Government. Extent of Operations. It was considered that a sum of 25O,ooo/. would have to be raised in the first five years of the Committee's work in order to establish sufficient schools for the Congregational body. During the first two years about ioo,ooo/. was subscribed, and out of this numerous grants were made to different parts of the country. The practical work effected during this same period is recorded in the second Re- port of the Board. It is there stated that 100 new school houses had been erected, and 47 old buildings adapted for school purposes, thereby providing for the accommodation of 25,552 children. This was done at a cost of 33,3217., in addi- tion to the annual aid granted in maintaining existing schools. The Rules of the Board of Education. The Rules of the Board of Education, which were carefully drawn up and printed in 1848, show perhaps in the best manner the main principles which governed this body. After premising that the Board was ex- pressly constituted to promote popular education, partaking of a religious character, and under no circumstances receiving aid from public money, administered by Government, they stated that its chief objects were : 1. The establishment of Normal Schools. 2. The inspection of Day Schools in connection with the Con- gregational body. 3. The collection of statistics concerning Day, Sabbath, and Infant Congregational Schools. 4. The establishment of, or the occasional aiding of, existing schools by grants of money, books, or otherwise. 5. The recommendation of the most approved books for schools, and if practicable the compilation of such others as might from time to time be found to be desirable. The rules further stated, that while the Board was constituted in special connection with the Congregational body, it was willing to act in unison with all other Evangelical denominations, provided they rejected Government assistance, and were willing to co- operate in friendly emulation for the public welfare. The Religious Instruction required to be Evangelical. The religious education given in Congregational Schools was in all cases required to be conducted on Evangelical principles, but 9O ii. Congregational Schools. neither the adherence to the use of any denominational formu- lary, nor the attendance at any particular place of worship, was enforced as a condition of admittance into them. At the same time it was directed that any Committee would not be acting otherwise than in conformity with the spirit of the rules of the Board if they admitted members of other denominations to share in either the support or management of their schools, and that schools thus managed or supported would be equally eligible for aid from the Congregational Board. Opinions on Fees and Subscriptions. At a meeting at Sheffield in 1849 one of the Board made some important remarks con- cerning its experience up to that time in conducting its system of education. From these it appears that the subject of the payment of fees by the parents, as well as that of the assistance of private liberality in the shape of subscriptions, had been anxiously considered. The Report states that 'one point of importance is, the desirability of endeavouring to make education more a matter of self-support and less one of charity. After giving some thought to the subject, the conviction of the Board is deepening, that education has been hitherto too much pauperised ; that it has assumed too much of an eleemosynary character ; and although it has not usually been given as a gratuity, yet that the demand made for weekly payment has been so far below its real value, that false ideas have been given, and a wrong estimate formed of its importance. That the effects of this have been to induce carelessness on the part of parents, to impose heavy burdens upon School Com- mittees, to reduce the salaries of Teachers to the minimum point, to bring into disrepute the scholastic profession with those who would be its brightest ornaments, and to present the subject before the public mind in a mendicant aspect, as a thing always begging, and unable to pay its way.' Proposed Improvements in Managing Fees and Subscriptions, The Report suggested remedies for these evils, which unfortu- nately exist to a considerable degree even at the present time. It proposed ist. That subscriptions should be paid to the Central Board or to the General Committee, and not to individuals or to par- ticular schools. 2nd. That although no doubt desirable that in particular cases of poverty education should be given for little or nothing, ii. Congregational Schools. 91 rather than withheld for the nominal fee, yet as a rule payments from parents should be required of such an amount that they might to a greater extent measure the instruction thereby, and value it proportionately more. Raising of the Children's Fees. In the following year, in half of the old schools, the children's fees, which varied from 2d. to ()d. per week, were accordingly considerably raised, and in the new schools a still higher scale was adopted. The Board re- ported that they believed as many children had availed them- selves of the advantages of the schools as would have done so had only the lower fees been demanded. Apathy of Parents Plan to Remove. One of the great diffi- culties in making the schools as successful as they might have been, arose from the apathy and indifference of parents, which led to irregular attendance, carelessness in the execution of home work by the children, and other drawbacks to efficiency. The Board felt this to be a great evil, and endeavoured in every way to evoke the parents' interest in their children's education. A plan which appears to have been adopted with success in some places, was that of having an annual meeting of the parents, at which five were elected to co-operate with the Committee in the management and superintendence of the schools. Alteration in System of Teaching. About the year 1850, the method of teaching underwent a gradual change ; the monitorial system of Bell and Lancaster giving place to the more efficient teaching of Pupil Teachers. The Board sought to supersede the use of Monitors by the adoption of the Glasgow Training System, which devolved a large portion of the instruction on the principal Teacher. Petition against State Aid. A petition to the House of Com- mons was presented by Mr. John Bright in 1850 from the chief members of the Congregational Education Board, repeating their arguments in favour of the Voluntary System strongly condemning the granting of public aid to schools and urging the discontinuance of the Committee of Council on Education. Salaries of Teachers. The average annual salaries of the Schoolmasters in the Congregational Schools at this time, derived from fees and subscriptions, are given at /o/. ; three of them reached ioo/. and nine upwards of 8o/. Statisticsof Schools from Census of 1851. The Educational Census Reports for 1851 give some interesting information concerning 92 ii. Congregational Schools. the state of Congregational Schools. There were then 453 belonging to this denomination, containing 50,186 children, 185 being still called ' British Schools.' The amount raised up to 1851 for educational purposes is given as i6o,ooo/., exclusive of the annual grants for maintenance. These statistics show that the Congregationalists had a larger number of schools in con- nection with them than any other Dissenting body. The dates at which these Congregational Schools were commenced, as far as was then known, were as follow : Before 1801 . . .8 Schools. 1801 to 1811 . . . 9 1811 1821 . . 12 1821 1831 . . 21 1831 1841 . . 95 1841 1851 . . . 269 Inspection. A plan of inspection by one of the ministers of the communion was organised in 1854. The object of the visits of the clergyman appointed by the Board for this duty was partly to add to the funds of the Board, and where possible to see the parents and others interested in Voluntary Education, and thus to stimulate the respective congregations to exert themselves on its behalf. Lord John Russell's Resolutions. In 1856, the discussion in the House of Commons on Lord John Russell's resolutions on National Education, led to serious opposition on the part of the Congregationalists, who were more urgent than ever in protest- ing against State aid, and in advocating the Voluntary System, by which the people should of themselves provide adequate means of instruction for all classes. In the debate Sir James Graham took a prominent part, largely quoting from a pamphlet by the Rev. W. J. Unwin, M.A., ' Education the Work of the People,' of which he said ' A more able pamphlet than this I will undertake to say never issued from the press, and I am sure there could be none more worthy of our consideration.' This outcry was not diminished by the increase in the cost of the Committee of Council on Education, which had risen from 20,ooo/. in 1843 to 45i,ooo/. in 1856. Fear of Religious Education being Neglected. The fear which was so strongly entertained by the Roman Catholics, that secular instruction was tending to displace that of a strictly religious character, seems also to have been felt by the Congre- 1 1. Congregational Schools. 93 gationalists, who, in 1857, stated clearly that they would prefer anything rather than the substitution of a purely secular educa- tion, in the place of one founded on a religious basis. Varying State of Efficiency in the Schools. The mode of teach- ing pursued was very similar to, if not identical with, that adopted in most of the State-aided schools, though the Pupil Teachers' System, culminating in the Training College, was necessarily not so efficient as when public payments were made and regular inspection required. In some of the schools the teaching was excellent, but in others, particularly those with untrained Teachers, it was very inferior. The Congregational Inspector accounted for these latter by the inaction of many of the local Committees, and the employment, for economical reasons, of the Teacher in various duties in addition to his school work. Revised Code Favourably Received. The changes proposed by the Revised Code were favourably received by the Congregational body. They considered that although they did not fully agree with their own principles, yet they were at all events in the right direction, and likely to throw the support of schools more on the localities than on the public funds, and also to proportion the payments to the merits of each individual school. Complete Change of System State Aid Received. The system of the Board continued in an uninterrupted course for some years, its prominent feature, that of refusing and protesting against all State aid, being steadily adhered to ; though from the severe competition created by State-aided schools the difficulties of maintaining schools declining all such assistance were largely increased. In 1867, the constitution of the Board in relation to Government aid was altered. A Special General Meeting was held, and the following resolution was moved by Rev. G. Smith, D.I)., and seconded by Edward Baines, Esq., M.P. : 'That it is expedient that the constitution of the Congregational Board of Education be altered, and that the rejection of aid from public money administered by Government for educational purposes be no longer indispensable to membership or participation in the benefits of the Institution. That to effect this object, the rules >f the Society be altered in the following manner, viz., that the words " and under no circumstances receiving aid from public money administered by Government" shall be struck out from the first rule/ This resolution was carried by a decided majority, 94 ii. Congregational Sc /tools. and thenceforth the distinctive feature of the Congregational Educational Board ceased. Slight Differences to other Schools as concerns State Aid, Assist- ance was subsequently given from the Public Grants, not only for creating and supporting Congregational Schools, but also for their Normal School at Homerton, in the usual manner, and under the regular system pursued by the Education Department. The regulations as to Government inspection differ somewhat from those in force in other schools. Managers are not required to enter into an engagement ' that besides secular instruction, the Scriptures shall be read daily from the authorised version ; ' but the religious instruction and culture are committed entirely without any restriction to the Managers of each school. Exact Number of Schools not Known. The exact number of schools at present in connection with the Congregational Board it is difficult to determine. The reason of this is that although a friendly intercourse has in most cases been kept up between the Board and each individual school, which the annual meetings tend to cement, yet no direct authority has at any time been exercised by the Board over the schools to which it has supplied Teachers. Consequently it has not been easy to compile accurate statistics respecting them. Important Practical Experience afforded by the Congregationalists. The experiences of the Congregationalists in the matter of education are very instructive. Without doubt they commenced with the best intentions, and acted from a conviction that they were right in opposing State aid. It seems probable that the great success of a few individual schools, conducted by excellent Masters and Mistresses, in no small measure led them to sup- pose that the same success would follow all their efforts, and that gradually the masses might thus be educated without the aid of State bounty. As an experiment the movement has been eminently useful as showing, that however desirable it would be to carry out the Voluntary System, yet that for many years at any rate, and until the educational aspect of the country has altogether changed and the importance of instruction has become fully recognised, it will be absolutely necessary that a large por- tion of the cost of educating the poorer classes should come out of the Public Taxes. 95 12. THE JEWS' SCHOOLS. Jews in Connection with Early English Education. This country in the early days of its history owes no small debt of gratitude to the action of the Jewish community for promoting Education. Shortly after the Conquest there was a considerable immigra- tion of Jews into England. Among these were many Rabbis, men of learning connected with the Synagogues, and Jewish Professors, who, according to Nicholas Carlisle, soon established schools in London, York, Lincoln, Lynn, Norwich, Oxford, Cambridge, and other large towns. To these Academies Christian youths were admitted. In consequence, however, of the cruel treatment to which Jews were subjected in subsequent periods, this work appears to have been completely arrested, and for many centuries schools conducted by them ceased to exist, nor would public feeling have tolerated their establish- ment. Jewish Population. Though Jews were expelled from the country on more than one occasion, their number always appears to have been considerable, and since liberty has been given to all to settle in these Islands, the population of Hebrew extrac- tion, particularly in some of the larger towns, has been gradually increasing. At the present time it is estimated at 60,000, of whom probably two-thirds reside in London. That part of the metropolis in the vicinity of Houndsditch may be said to be peopled almost entirely by members of this per- suasion, and the number is constantly increasing by the immi- gration of foreigners, chiefly from Germany, Holland, Russia, and Poland. School Accommodation Considerable. From these facts it is evident that considerable school accommodation is required for the children of this large section of the community. It is true that 96 i2. The Jews Schools. some of these, and perhaps not a few, attend Christian Schools; but the nature of their religion is such that a distinctive teach- ing is almost indispensable for them, and the rich members of the body have not been behindhand in freely providing for the educational wants of their poor. Schools in London and Provinces. In London, the following are the chief Schools for Jewish children : The Jews' Free School, Bell Lane. The Westminster Free School. The Jews' Infant School, Spitalfields. The West Metropolitan Schools. The Stepney Jewish Schools. The Borough Jewish Schools. The Jews' Orphan Asylum. The Jews' Hospital, Lower Norwood. Throughout the provinces there are also numerous schools, as at Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Manchester, Hull, and in most of the other large towns. In the less populous parts, and in agricultural districts, very few Jews are found, or not in such numbers as are sufficient to support independent schools of their own. No General Board. Although so large and important a work is being carried on by the Jewish people in this country for the improvement of their poor, and notwithstanding the Jews are proverbial for the way in which they combine and mutually assist each other, it is not a little remarkable that no General Educational Board has ever been established among them. Want of such a Board. The National Society, the British Society, the Congregationalists, the Wesleyans, and other bodies, have each a representative Board for educational purposes, and the benefits which have resulted therefrom are considerable. In the case of Jews' Schools, though most of them are individually excellent, yet, owing chiefly to this want there does not appear to be any co-operation between them. Thus the Infant Schools in Spitalfields, and the celebrated Free School in Bell Lane, do not act in any way in unison, although only a few yards apart. In fact, to a stranger it might appear that the two Institutions were almost purposely kept distinct, and that instead of the former being preparatory to the latter, they were conducted as if they had hardly an object in common. 12. The Jews Schools. 97 Arrangements with the Committee of Council. Most of the schools for Jews are under the inspection of the Educational Department of the Committee of Council, and receive the Govern- ment assistance in the usual manner. According to the regula- tions defining the conditions on which building grants from the public funds are made, and which were arranged conjointly by a committee of the Jews and the Educational Department, it was mutually agreed that the Government Inspector of Jewish Schools should be a layman, and that he should confine his reports to the secular instruction given therein. Religious Instruction Conscience Clause, The religious instruc- tion, which in those schools under the Education Department is, under a conscience clause, not compulsory on scholars whose parents do not profess the Jewish religion, is usually superintended by the Chief Rabbi. This functionary, however, holds no official connection with the School Committee, though he often voluntarily examines the children from time to time. Each of the Schools is, in all respects, both as regards religious and secular teaching, under its own Committee, which appoints and dismisses Teachers, and otherwise regulates the manage- ment of the School. The Committee, whose members must all be Jews, is elected annually for each individual school by those who subscribe towards the support of that particular Institution. Importance of Hebrew. The fundamental difference between ' a Jewish and a Christian School is, that, in the former, Hebrew constitutes an indispensable part of the instruction. This language is taught to all Jews in the school, even to the lowest, poorest, and most unpromising child who enters. In the Infant School, Spitalfields, about nine hours weekly are devoted to the study of Hebrew, and in the Free School, Bell Lane, no less than twelve. From a Christian point of view, this may be thought strange, particularly as many of the children are so deficient in their everyday language ; and as a large proportion of them are foreigners chiefly German, French, and Polish it might be thought that instruction in these latter languages should occupy any spare time which could be found in pre- ference to the dead language, Hebrew. Regarding it, however, in its true light, and taking into consideration its effect on the Jews, we must in justice acknowledge that it forms the most important part of their instruction. In truth, Hebrew to the H gS 12. 77/6' Jews Schools. Jew is not a mere study of the language, but it is a necessary part of his religion. The Christian can pray in any language, but not so the strict Jew ; he prays in Hebrew, and everything of a sacred character is associated in his mind with the language of his forefathers. Course of Instruction in Hebrew. In all the Jewish Schools, therefore, as soon as a child enters, instruction is given in the Hebrew alphabet, concurrently with the English, and the two languages are thus studied together. When sufficiently ad- vanced, the scholars are obliged to commit to memory the Com- mandments and the Articles of Jewish Faith, in both languages. This is done word by word as it stands, and not as a trans- lation. In the higher classes, for those who stay long enough, the verbatim translation is taken up, as also the reading of the Scriptures. Comparatively few attain this proficiency, but all who stay even a few months receive important instruction from a religious point of view. Schools nearly all Confined to Jews. A feature in which the Jews' Schools differ from most others is, that they are prac- tically limited to members of their own religion. It is true that those schools which are under Government inspection are re- quired to admit Christian or other children, should any such present themselves, but, as a matter of fact, few but Jews apply for admission. In November 1870, at the West Metropolitan School there were nine Christian boys and eleven Christian girls under instruction. These were the only cases in London at the time, and they were excluded from the religious and Hebrew instruction. Jews' Schools only exist in certain densely popu- lated districts, where members of the Jewish persuasion are numerous ; and consequently Jews are frequently found in Christian Schools. Foreign Jews in England. The rapid and ever-increasing im- migration of foreign Jews causes considerable difficulty to the teachers in the schools. Very many of the children are Germans, unable to speak a word of English. In the Bell Lane School in April 1870, it was ascertained that out of some 1,500 children, nine only were wanted to make exactly twenty-five per cent, who had been born out of England. In addition to this, a very much larger number were of parents who had recently come to this country, and who were, consequently, but very slightly acquainted with the English language. 12. 77/6' Jews Schools. 99 Division of Schools. The Jews' Schools for the Poor may be divided into the Infant and the Day Schools, each of which will be specially considered. Tin: JKWS' INFANT SCHOOLS. Where located. There are two Institutions in London exclu- sively for infants, namely, that situated in Commercial Street, Spitalfields, and the Leman Street School, Whitechapel. These are both conducted on a similar plan ; and a brief sketch of the first-named, which is the more important of the two, will there- fore, perhaps, be the best means of explaining their general action. The Spitalfields Infant School History. The Spitalfields School was opened in Houndsditch on September 14, 1841, for the reception of 200 infants, from the ages of two to six. On the very first morning, no fewer than 136 names were entered on the books. In 1853, it was enlarged to contain 70 more children ; but this still not meeting the requirements, in 1856 a branch was established near the present site. Two years later, on July 23, 1858, the present premises having been erected for the purpose, were consecrated by the Chief Rabbi, and the opening ceremony was presided over by the late Earl of Carlisle. Attendance Fee Clothes Dinners. The average daily atten- dance varies from 350 to 400, and a weekly fee of \d. is charged to those who are able to pay it, but remitted in cases of distress. The amount raised by this means in 1869 was 74/. gs. lid. Clothes are not provided systematically, though by the gene- rosity of ladies, occasional assistance in this way is given, but more in the shape of a private present to individual children. In the winter a daily dinner is supplied for the very poor, on payment of a \d. each. Beyond these two occasional helps, no bribes are held out to the children or the parents. The days of attendance are Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, and Thursday, from 9 to 12, and from 2 to 4 ; and on Friday and Sunday, from 9 to 12 only. Course of Infant Instruction. The course of instruction consists of Hebrew, English, Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, and Singing, with Needlework for the girls. The first subject, as previously .stated, is taught to the youngest children, and before they leave, H 2 ioo 12. The Jews Schools. at seven years of age, if they attend with fair regularity, all can read the language tolerably well. In English a similar result is obtained. The Writing, though superior to the Arithmetic, is hardly up to the standard of some Infant Schools. The most forward class in the establishment is taught by object-lessons of an elementary character, though the instruction here savours, perhaps, rather too much of the cramming system. Classification might be improved. A practical difficulty seems to exist in classifying the children according to their merits, attainments, or regularity of attendance. Each room is in fact a separate school, containing children in all stages of progress, and under instruction in all the subjects. The most backward in the School are not classed together, and gradually brought forward ; nor does the Head Teacher in each room devote her attention to one particular subject at a time. In reality, she is the Head Mistress of a comparatively small school, with or with- out an assistant to undertake the classes. The adoption of this system readily accounts for the backwardness of the children in the more difficult subjects of Writing and Arithmetic, as it has a tendency to curtail the individual teaching of each child, par- ticularly of those who are naturally slow or idle. Training of Teachers. The mode of training the Teachers is one which can hardly be said to be satisfactory. With the ex- ception of the plan adopted at the Free School, chiefly for sup- plying that Institution with assistant instructors, and which is more fully mentioned hereafter, the Jews have no colleges of their own specially set apart for training Teachers. There are many circumstances which prevent them from attending, except partially, for individual lessons at any of the Institutions con- ducted by Christians. The result is, that considerable difficulty is, at times, experienced in obtaining suitable persons as teachers. Those who present themselves as candidates have usually been brought up in the School, and consequently have but little idea of teaching. If they are accepted, they have to qualify them- selves chiefly in their own way, aided by the direction of the zealous Head Mistress, whose time, however, is amply occupied in other ways. In some instances, they have been sent to the Home and Colonial Training College for a few hours each day, the result of which has been most satisfactory in improving them in their teaching power. 12. 77/6' ews Schools. 101 School Premises. The School premises are convenient, and most attractive-looking in every respect. The rooms are very lofty, and the walls are plainly but pleasantly coloured in dis- temper. The general appearance of the children is good, and they seem to be remarkably clean, care being taken to enforce upon them the necessity of attention to personal cleanliness. Children are constantly sent away who present themselves in a dirty and untidy condition. Their conduct, and the happy countenances which they have during school hours, indicate that the work imposed upon them is anything but irksome. The difference between this and some other Infant Schools, in these respects, is remarkable; showing that if the teachers are not trained as systematically as could be wished, they are never- theless chosen with much discrimination as regards their ability to interest children. Encouragement to Saving Pence. A method of saving the farthings and pence, which would otherwise be wasted by the children in sweetmeats, has been in operation for some years. The children are encouraged to entrust to the Teacher's care any sum, however small, to be put by for them ; and each child has a book in which the amounts thus deposited are entered. Twice a year the accumulations are distributed, with a small addition by way of interest, and they are usually laid out for the children's advantage in clothes and other useful articles. In this way, between sixty and seventy pounds are annually saved. Inspection. This School is now under Government inspection, and was visited this year by Mr. Arnold, though no grants have as yet been made to it from the public funds. THE JEWS' DAY SCHOOLS FOR ELDER CHILDREN. Most Important School. As before stated, these exist in very many parts, but the most important School, and one which stands out conspicuously from among all others of a similar character, is the Jews' Free School, in Bell Lane. History of Bell Lane School. This Charity was founded in 1817, being engrafted on to the Talmud ToraJi, an ancient Foundation for instructing and clothing about twenty-one children. The Talmud Torah was probably the first Institution in this country having for its object the improvement of Jewish children ; and 102 i2. The Jews Schools. the Free School above referred to was one of the earliest orga- nised schools established for them. At that time the education was conducted on the plan then extensively in vogue, namely the monitorial system of mutual instruction, established by Bell and Lancaster. The number of children was 270, and they were instructed by one Master in Reading and Writing, Hebrew and English, and in the rudiments of Arithmetic. The whole cost was borne by the leading men of the Jewish per- suasion, and so much was it appreciated by the poor Jews in the neighbourhood that in three years larger premises were erected, for 600 boys and 300 girls, together with residences for Masters and Mistresses, playgrounds, &c. Extension of the School. For many years the school continued to flourish. In consequence of the improved method of teach- ing introduced by the employment of Pupil Teachers it was decided to give up the monitorial system, and to teach by Masters and Pupil Teachers only, and at the same time to make the curriculum of study more extensive. To effect this, two upper divisions were added to the School ; in the first of which the standard in both Hebrew and English was con- siderably raised ; and in the second, the course was of a character to fit the pupils to become teachers and efficiently to fill various offices connected with the Jewish Community. Statistics. In 1848, the premises were again enlarged, to con- tain 800 boys ; and some years later, a further increase took place to 1,100; accommodation for 600 girls was also provided, thus making room for a total of 1,700 children. The number is still on the increase, as this year 1,600 boys and 1,000 girls are in attendance, and the growth of the School seems to be limited only by the size of the premises. How Supported Inspected by Government, but Receives no Aid. The whole cost of the buildings, as well as the annual charges, are defrayed by private subscriptions and the interest from funded property. This last source of income is considerable, and within the last few months it has been increased by a legacy of 3O,ooo/. from the late Treasurer, Mr. Alfred Davis. The School is inspected by the Committee of Council, and is reported on annually ; but, according to the Regulations of that Depart- ment, the richness of the endowments precludes it from obtain- ing grants. 12. The Jews Schools. 103 Clothes Provided. l>y the generosity of members of the Rothschild family, every child at school, on a certain day in the spring of the year, is offered a suit of clothes. Some few are fairly well off, and do not take advantage of the offer, though, if a child presents himself to be measured, no questions are asked as to whether his parents are in circumstances to render such assistance necessary or not. Some request to have boots alone, as they are too proud to appear in the clothes ; if this be the case, they are not allowed to have any portion of the gift, unless they undertake to wear the whole dress. Some receive two suits a year from the Talmud Torah Funds, and are accordingly called the Talmud Torah boys. Fee. The nominal fee is one penny per week for each child, which is paid by the greater number of the pupils. It is re- mitted, however, in cases of poverty. Age of Admission Reasons why Evaded. The minimum age at which children are admitted, according to the strict rule, is six years, but this is very often disregarded. Parents are merely asked if their children are six years old, and, unless they say they are not, they are at once received. The reason that these young children are sent to this School, in preference to the Infant School close by, is in order that they may obtain the clothes, which, as before stated, are very rarely given at the latter place. This points strongly to the desirability of having some common Board of Managers for all the Jews' Schools. The presence of very young children in an elder school retards the progress of the others, and it would be far better if they were sent to a judi- ciously conducted Infant School. Course Pursued at the School. The plan adopted on a child's admission into the School is as follows. He is first received into the Great School-room, as it is called. Here he is exa- mined, and, if found to be qualified, is at once placed in such a class as his attainments justify. If as is the case with nine out of every ten he be totally ignorant, he remains in the Great School- room, and commences a course of instruction in the rudiments of Hebrew, English, and Writing. Here he remains until quali- fied to pass into the first or lowest standard of the Education Department Code; and so he continues passing on to the second, third, and fourth standards. In each he is taught Reading and Writing in Hebrew and English, together with Arithmetic In the fifth and sixth standards, History and Geography are added. 104 I2 - The Jews Schools. Highest Instruction. The seventh standard is the highest to which the few who remain at school the longest can attain. This includes an elementary knowledge of Animal Physiology, and the laws of Health ; a certain amount of Chemistry ; some acquaint- ance with Social Science, Grammar, Mathematics, including Arithmetic to Proportion, Algebra to Simple Equations, the first book of Euclid, Hebrew Grammar, and translations from Hebrew into English. Those who really go through the in- struction of this class have an education superior to that given in many schools with considerably higher pretensions. Effect of Regularity of Attendance. This upper division, or the seventh standard, consists of about seventy children, varying in age from eleven to fifteen. It affords a good example of the satisfactory results which can be obtained by good instruction, when the attendance of the pupils is regular. No fewer than ten of those who happened to be present on the 28th of June of this year (1870) were under eleven years of age, and yet were competent to be members of this class. Eight of them had commenced in the * Great School-room,' which, as before stated, implies complete ignorance on entering the School. Fund for Ornamenting the Class-rooms. The Teacher of this class, with a view to encourage frugal habits, has established a fund, to which each boy contributes one halfpenny a week for purchasing flowers, maps, and ornaments for the room. Any surplus is expended in a trip either to the Zoological Gardens or elsewhere. Girls' Instruction. The education of the girls is very similar to that of the boys, and includes nearly the same amount of Hebrew. They have of course the addition of instruction in needlework, but the seventh standard is not attempted, though History, Geography, and Grammar are introduced into the fifth and sixth standards. The Effect of Irregular and Short Attendance. A large number of the children remain only a few months in the School, which causes much annoyance and anxiety to the Head Master. It is an evil experienced at all Elementary Schools. A certain amount of information is necessarily imparted to the pupils even during their short stay, but the results attained in the seventh standard class show what could be done for most children by eleven years of age, if by some means they could only be retained in regular attendance for three or four years. 12. The Jeius Schools. 105 Lending- Library. An excellent lending library of books of reference is connected with the School, as well as a select collec- tion of valuable works for the use of the Teachers. This has been to a great extent formed by the liberality of the late Mr. Davis. Summer Open-air Class-rooms. The School premises, though very spacious, appear hardly large enough for the daily in- creasing number of children. An excellent plan has been adopted both in the Girls' and Boys' Schools for holding classes in the covered playgrounds during the summer months. This reduces the number remaining in the School-rooms, and ensures proper ventilation. Teaching Staff. The teaching power is as follows. In the Boys' School the staff consists of one Head Master with fourteen Assistant Teachers and twelve Pupil Teachers. Of the Assistant Teachers ten are Graduates or Undergraduates of the University of London, and three hold certificates of merit under the Com- mittee of Council. In the Girls' School there is a Head Mis- tress, who has under her one principal and eleven ordinary Assistant Teachers (of whom two hold certificates of merit), and twelve Pupil Teachers. Training of Teachers. In addition to performing the duties of Head Master, Mr. Angel trains the Pupil Teachers and those who afterwards assist in the School. In this way the present staff has been created ; for all, or nearly all, have been brought up in Bell Lane, and not a few made their first acquaintance with the Institution in the Great School-room. Several hours each day after his regular duties, Mr. Angel devotes to this work, and although it is not intended to train Teachers for the country as in a regular Training School, it must be owned that as regards the Free School itself a most efficient body of Teachers has been produced. Provincial Schools requiring Teachers often apply to the Head Master, and in many cases he has been able to supply them with efficient Teachers trained in this way. General Conclusion. Such is the working of the Jews' Free School. It is a remarkable Institution in many ways, and from what has been said some will be inclined to doubt whether the instruction in Hebrew, though taking much time, really reduces the amount of learning in other subjects finally gained by the children during the same period of instruction. io6 12. The Jews Schools. Provincial Schools. The other Jews' Schools which are spread over the country, though none of them has attained to the importance of the one just described, are nevertheless doing good work. Some of these are under the inspection of, and receive aid from, the Committee of Council ; whilst others, as the Stepney and the Borough Schools, do not do so. The weekly fee at the last-named Institution varies, amounting in some cases to 2s. 6d, At Stepney it is fixed at is. a week, but in cases of distress, or of several children from one family, it is reduced. Co-operation between Schools Necessary. The only point in which an economy of time, and consequently an increased advan- tage to the pupils, might be obtained seems^ to be in a larger amount of co-operation between the different schools. In the case of two of the chief ones in London, namely the Free School in Bell Lane, and the Infant School in Spitalfields, it is obvious that they do not work as harmoniously as they should, or as it is to the interest of both to do. Children from two to three years of age and up to six, if properly trained at the Infant School, should at once enter the first or second standard in the Free School, and the latter should admit none under the maximum age of the Infant School. General Want of a Central Education Board. The only way in which such a system of mutual arrangements could be adopted, seems to be by the formation of a. joint Committee for both, legislating for the two as branches of one Institution. Such a body, were it enlarged, might be so constituted as to embrace the whole country, in the same way that other bodies have long since arranged. As a ready method for obtaining Masters for different schools, and also for encouraging the spread of educa- tion among the Jews, such a system would be invaluable. It would seem that but little difficulty would be experienced in carrying out some such educational plan if supported by the leading members of the Jewish faith. ID; 73. INFANT SCHOOLS. Circumstances render Infant Schools Necessary and Useful. This class of School is of a comparatively recent date, more particu- larly in England, and although, when well conducted, they are one of the most valuable branches of the educational system for the industrial classes, yet their development at the present time is not such as might be desired. As a general proposition it may be asserted that the imperfect condition of the homes of most of the Working Classes has given origin to these Schools. The best training for a child of the tender age of two years should be undoubtedly that of the mother, and where the home influence is good, and the education of the parent satisfactory, Institutions of the character now under notice would at best be unnecessary. Unfortunately, however, such a state of affairs is never likely to exist, and the Infant School is not only a useful preparation for the Advanced School, but is also an excellent means of profitably taking charge of children while their parents are engaged in their domestic and other duties. Pestalozzi's System. To Pestalozzi must be accorded the merit of being the first to organise the Infant School system of train- ing, if not actually to originate it. His aim was to stimulate the pupil to use his own efforts in the acquisition of knowledge, while he was being trained in the use of his moral, intellectual, and physical faculties, and not merely instructed by the me- chanical addition of so many facts and figures to his memory. Dame School Opposition. The want of Infant Schools has for a long time been evident from the number of Dame Schools which have for so many years existed in all parts of the country, nominally for educating, but really only for taking charge of the children while their parents were at work. The fees received by these 'Dames' amounted to 3 799 *20,000 o ii 8 3 6 o u 7 * Approximate. Cause of Success of Present System. The real cause of the success of the plan, which, with the various modifications thus sketched out, has been in operation since 1860, is that, without irksome conditions, offers have been held out to enterprising teachers to form classes. The plans from 1853 to 1860, all seemed to aim at awakening the locality to a sense of its duties and responsibilities to perform the task of educating its artisan classes, not only without profit to itself, but at a sacrifice of both time and money. The new plan held out pecuniary induce- ments direct to teachers. It said, ' If you will qualify yourself to teach, passing such and such an examination, the State will remunerate you for every artisan you can succeed in educating up to a certain standard ; the amount of the remuneration to be in proportion to the instruction imparted ; if, on the contrary, the teaching is deficient, and brings forth no fruit at the annual examination, no payment is to be made.' The country desired science instruction for its artisans, and it obtained it at first cost, without the establishment of any expensive machinery. All the risk of success, the chief work of organising the schools and getting the pupils together, fell upon the teachers, whose pecuniary interest it was to make the classes successful. Education of Teachers. It must be considered also that this 1 6. Science Schools. 139 system has been a means of educating teachers at no cost to the State, such as an outlay on Science-training Colleges would have involved. Pupils of superior ability have prosecuted their studies for several years in a science class, and in numerous cases have become successful teachers. Conclusion Professor Huxley's Opinion. Such is a brief account of the history and present action of Science Schools. The frequent and rapid alterations in the rules of the Science and Art Department respecting them have been caused by the novelty of the scheme, and the desirability of immediately correcting mistakes as they were discovered. It is the opinion of Professor Huxley, as stated at the Conference on Technical Education held at the Society of Arts, that the system is having an important and lasting effect on the state of the scientific education of the working classes throughout the country. 140 77. SCHOOLS OF ART. Origin of Schools of Design, Schools of Art, or, as they were at first called, ' Schools of Design/ may be said to have been ori- ginated in this country in 1835. A Select Committee of the House of Commons was appointed in that year 'to inquire into the best means of extending a knowledge of the Arts and of the principles of Design among the people, especially the manu- facturing population of the country ; also to inquire into the constitution, management, and effects of Institutions connected with the Arts.' House of Commons' Committee, 1835. The Report of the Com- mittee for the first year merely set forth that the subject of inquiry had been divided into three heads, viz. : 1. The state of Art in this country and in other countries, as manifested in their different manufactories. 2. The best means of extending among the people, especially the manufacturing classes, a knowledge of and a taste for Art. 3. The state of the higher branches, of Art, and the best mode of advancing them. Committee of 1836 Want of Art Instruction, The Committee was re-appointed in the following year, and completed its labours by publishing another Report, to which was appended copious evidence from the chief authorities on such matters, both English and foreign. It was, however, forcibly pointed out that the want of instruction in Design, and the absence of public and freely open galleries containing approved specimens of Art, was the chief cause of the difference between the artistic feeling of the English manufacturing districts, and that of similar districts in France and other countries of the Continent. As a proof that manufacturers and work-people were aware of this deficiency, and were alive to the importance of removing it, 1 7. Schools of Art. 141 this evidence further showed the interest taken in the subject by the labouring classes in Birmingham, Sheffield, London, and Coventry. This was particularly shown at the latter place, where the manufacturing workmen had gone so far as to petition the House of Commons for instruction in Design. Recommendations Public Galleries Art should be a part of National Education. The Report recommended that a Normal School should be created ; and also that Government assistance should be granted towards establishing Schools of Design similar to that which was given to Elementary Schools. At the same time it was carefully laid down that ' the interposition of the Government should not extend to interference, it should aim at the development and extension of Art, but it should neither control its action nor force its cultivation.' The formation of public galleries of Art was also strongly advocated. These, it was thought, should be open freely to the people, and should contain casts of the best works, examples of ornament, and also the most approved modern specimens of art manufactures, both foreign and domestic. The Committee stated its opinion that, with a view to extend a knowledge of Art among the people, it was most desirable that the principles of Design should form a portion of any permanent system of National Education. Such Elementary Instruction should be based on an extension of the knowledge of form, by the adoption of a bold style of geo- metrical and outline drawing, such as was then practised in the National Schools of Bavaria. First Vote for School of Design. The evidence before this Com- mittee all tended to show the advantage likely to accrue to the country by some systematic plan of Art-education among the working classes. In consequence of the publication of these statements, endorsed as they were at the time by considerable public interest manifested on the subject throughout the country, the first vote of i,5OO/. was taken in 1836 for the establishment of a Normal School of Design. First Meeting at the Board of Trade, Parliament having thus granted the necessary funds, the practical carrying out of the Scheme devolved on the Board of Trade : a meeting was accordingly held at the Treasury on December 19, 1836, to consider the best means of establishing a School of Design in Ornamental Art, ' in consequence of the present low condition of the Art of the country.' At this meeting the chair was taken 142 1 7. Schools of Art. by the President of the Board of Trade, the Right Honourable Sir C. Poulett Thomson, and the following gentlemen, having re- ceived special summonses, were present : A. W. Callcott,Esq. R. A.; Sir Francis Chantrey, R.A. ; C. R. Cockerell, Esq. R.A. ; Alder- man Copeland, M.P. ; C. L. Eastlake, Esq. R.A. ; H. Bellenden Ker, Esq. ; Apsley Pellatt, Esq. Opening of School of Design, 1837- At this meeting Committees were formed to arrange the various branches necessary to com- plete the scheme and bring it into working order. This was accomplished by the opening of the Government School of Design at Somerset House on June I, 1837, the number of pupils being twelve. Staff Payments on Results, The staff of the School was as follows Mr. Papworth, Director, with a salary of 25o/. to 5oo/. ; Mr. Papworth, junior, Secretary and Librarian, with a salary of 7 **" (o&{ Machine f Applied Drawing 1 Mechanics Wednesday M ii Mensuration < Inorganic f Chemistry \ Architectural f Drawing | Experimental Physics Thursday Euclid Organic f Chemistry \ Descriptive f Geometry \ Applied Mechanics Friday Algebra < Inorganic f Chemistry \ Machine / Theoretical Drawing \ Mechanics Evening Classes for Elder Students. Evening Classes, not open to the Day Scholars, are also held for elder students. These were attended in 1870 by about 200 students, who were in- structed in the following subjects : Subject of Instruction No. of Pupils Practical Plane and Solid Geometry Machine Construction and Drawing Building Construction . Elementary Mathematics Acoustics, Light, and Heat . 52 55 40 30 10 Magnetism and Electricity . Inorganic Chemistry Organic Chemistry Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology Systematic and Economic Botany '9 63 32 19 19 Other Trade Schools, The School at Worcester, which is of more recent origin, is carried on on a very similar plan. Wandsworth Trade School Scheme. In 1856 it was proposed to establish a Trade School at Wandsworth. The subjects in which instruction was given, in addition to those of an elementary character, were as follows : I. FOR THOSE PROPOSING TO ENGAGE THEMSELVES IN THE BUILDING TRADES. 1. Builders Drawing, or the drawing to scale, plans, eleva- tions, and sections of buildings. 2. Builders Arithmetic, or the principles upon which estimates for the cost of constructions and contracts are made. 3. Builders Geometry, or the measurement of the sites, levels, workmanship, and materials of buildings. 4. Builders Mechanics, or the principles of stability of struc- tures ; the selection, strength, and economical use of materials. 160 1 8. Trade Schools. 5. Builders' Natural Philosophy, or the principles of ventilation, sewerage, heat, and light, as applied to buildings, &c. II. FOR THOSE PROPOSING TO ENGAGE IN MECHANICAL AND ENGINEERING TRADES. 1. The principles of Carpentry and Scaffolding. 2. The principles of the Mechanical powers : the lever, the wheel and axle, the inclined plane, the pulley, the wedge, and the screw. 3. The principles involved in the construction of the pump, of locks, sluices, and embankments. 4. The principles of Machinery in motion. 5. The Steam-Engine. III. FOR THOSE PROPOSING TO ENGAGE IN THE CHEMICAL AND MANUFACTURING TRADES. 1. Chemistry applied to manufactures and manufacturing processes. 2. Chemistry applied to Agriculture, and the properties of soils and manures, &c. Rules for Admission Failure. The terms of admission to this School varied according to the position of the parents. For children of workpeople, and tradesmen not employing journey- men or assistants, the fee was 8<, and for others u. a week. No one was supposed to be admitted who had not some ac- quaintance with the rudiments of Arithmetic, and who could not read fluently and write a fair hand. This school was not, how- ever, very successful. It continued for about three years, but, before the end of that time, it had merged almost entirely into an Elementary School. The special teaching was altogether a failure, and in 1859 it was closed. Combination of Navigation with Trade Schools. The original idea of Canon Moseley was, to amalgamate Navigation Schools with Trade Schools. It was thought that the staff of teachers, particularly in Mathematics and Mechanics, would be able to assist at the instruction in both, and that by this means a considerable saving of expense and teaching power would be effected. As a matter of practical experience, however, the experiment has not proved successful. * 1 8. Trade Schools. 161 Trade Schools and Mechanics' Institutions. In theory, the course of study proposed to be pursued at Trade Schools is almost identical with that originally contemplated for the Mechanics' Institutions. They differed mainly in this respect, that whilst those of the Mechanics' Institution character admitted young lads in the evening after their day's work, Trade Schools were chiefly for boys during the day, devoting their whole time to study. Need of more Schools like Bristol, &c. The success which has attended the Trade Schools of Bristol, Worcester, and other places, now that the Government aid through the Science and Art Department has become regularly organised, might with advantage induce other Diocesan Schools, similar to that at Bristol, to follow their example, and thus utilise their small endowments. Whether the initiative be taken by the Managers of existing Institutions or not, it may be anticipated that with the advance of elementary education, regular Day Schools, having a systematic course of Science teaching, will be formed in almost every populous place, to supplement the mere elementary teaching at the Primary Schools. M I 62 79. NAVIGATION SCHOOLS. Origin First Schools. About the year 1853, two Schools for the improvement of sailors were established under the Marine Department of the Board of Trade ; namely, one in Liverpool and the other in London. Previously to this, a few Institutions, having a somewhat similar object, had been in operation ; as for example, the one under the Trinity House at Hull, established in 1785. In the majority of instances, however, these were little more than Elementary Schools for the children of seafaring men, and did not do anything for the benefit of the adult sailor when on shore. Work of Schools Training of Boys. The two Schools above referred to, under the Board of Trade, were at first chiefly engaged in preparing apprentices, mates, and masters for the examinations for certificates of competency in seamanship, as 'required to secure their promotion in the service. When the Science and Art Department was formed in 1853, it was deter- mined to transfer these Schools to its management, and to make considerable changes in their constitution. In addition to the training of masters and mates, it was proposed to open schools during the day for the nautical education of boys, who intended to pursue a seafaring life, and further, to give instruction to adult sailors. Means of supplying Teachers. With a view of extending Navigation Schools to the chief seaport towns, based on these principles, arrangements were made with the Admiralty by which five or six Pupil Teachers who had completed their term of instruction at the Royal Naval School, Greenwich, should attend the courses in the Metropolitan Schools of Science and Art. They were there to be instructed in those sciences more especially bearing on their future duties as masters of Schools 19- Navigation Schools. 163 of Navigation. In this way it was hoped that seaport towns, desirous of commencing Navigation Schools, might be provided with thoroughly qualified Teachers. Deficiency in Elementary Education. The great obstacle to the spread of any regular Navigation Schools, was the very deficient preliminary education of those attending the classes. Pupils came for instruction in Navigation, the very rudiments of which re- quire some previous Mathematical and Astronomical knowledge, and an acquaintance with Physical Geography, without having even a tolerable familiarity with the first four rules of Arithmetic, or even, in many cases, being able to read and write properly. It therefore became necessary to establish a junior division, in which higher Arithmetic, Bookkeeping, Elementary Mathematics, and Physical Geography should be taught. In this way, the pupils, after being prepared in the elementary branches, were qualified to pass on to the advanced or regular scientific division of the school. Three schools were started in 1855 under this system, one at Sunderland, one at Leith, and another at Blackwall. They provided for the instruction of 98 boys, and 1,356 mates, seamen, and apprentices. Training of Boys most important. The fact that adult sailors obtained little beyond a mere smattering of scientific knowledge in the short and broken periods of their stay on shore, induced the Department of Science and Art, acting from a ' national point of view,' to recognise the importance of securing an atten- dance at Navigation Schools, of boys who were preparing to enter the sea service, rather than of adults, whose early education having been neglected, could rarely hope to acquire the science of their profession. First Rules for aiding Navigation Teachers. The regulations for granting assistance to Navigation Schools were settled by the Minute of February 25, 1856. This offered augmentation grants as below, up to a maximum of 5O/., to those Teachers who obtained certificates in one or more of the following groups of subjects, and who taught these subjects in a school under the inspection of the Science and Art Department. Group I. A general acquaintance with the branches of Mathe- matics, bearing on Navigation, 5/. Group II. General Navigation and Nautical Astronomy, I5/. Croup III. Adjustment and skilful handling of instruments, 5/. Group IT. Physical Geography, io/. M 2 164 iQ. Navigation Schools. Group V. Physics, Mechanics, and the Marine Steam Engine, io/. Group VL Chemistry, 5/. Group VII. Natural History, 5/. Group VIII. Chart, Freehand, and Mechanical Drawing, 5/. Examinations for Certificates. The examination for certificates in these subjects was to take place twice a year, in January and July, either in London or elsewhere. The system of payments of the augmentation grants was to be similar to that pursued by the Committee of Council for Elementary Schools ; and no one was admitted for examination to become a Navigation Teacher, unless he had a certificate from the Committee of Council, or had passed a special examination as an Elementary Teacher. Work confined to Cramming Admiral Ryder. Under these regulations the Navigation Schools continued until 1859, but their spread was not rapid, nor their action satisfactory. The adult classes for Masters and Mates were carried on under a system of ' cramming ' and the instruction in the boys' schools was of the most elementary character. The number of pupils on the books in 1858 was 2,554. In that year Captain (now Admiral) Ryder, R.N., was appointed Inspector of Navigation Schools. Alterations in Rules of Aid in 1859. The alterations in the system of aid to Science Instruction which took place in 1859, and which are fully described in the chapter on Science Schools, were accompanied by a revision of the regulations for Naviga- tion Schools under the Minute of July 14 of that year. By this, three classes of Navigation Masters were established, viz. : Head, First-assistant and Second-assistant Masters. These classes were again divided into three grades, and each Teacher was placed in one or other category, according to his success at a qualifying examination held as before in January and July. The subjects were as follows : 1. A general acquaintance with Mathematics. 2. General Navigation and Nautical Astronomy. 3. Adjustment and skilful handling of Instruments. 4. Physical Geography. Those who passed ' first class ' in all these subjects were styled First gfade Head-Masters, and were qualified to earn I2O/. per annum, paid in quarterly instalments. Others, who were 19- Navigation Schools. 165 less successful, were capable of earning sums varying according to the following table : ist Grade 2nd Grade 3rd Grade Head-Master 120 100 80 First Assistant 80 70 60 Second Assistant. 60 50 40 To these payments was added any amount of certificate allowance which a Teacher might hold from the Committee of Council on Education. Further Regulations. The subjects embraced under Navigation in the former regulations, viz., Physics, Mechanics, the Steam Engine, Chemistry, Natural History, Chart, Freehand, and Mechanical Drawing, were henceforth considered under the general Science Minute of June 2, and payments in addition to the above were made, on the Science Scale, to Navigation Masters who held certificates in any one or more of these subjects. Further, on the pupils of Navigation Schools who obtained prizes at the Science examinations, the Teachers thus qualified were able to claim additional payments on results, in the ordinary way, under the Science Minute. Pupil Teachers, at the rate of one to every thirty pupils, might also be appointed in Navigation Schools, and 2O/. per annum was paid to them, on the favourable report of the Inspector, together with 61. for the Teacher, as a return for the instruction imparted by him to them. Means to secure Efficiency. The bulk of the payment to the Navigation Schools, under these regulations, it will be remarked, was fixed, and in no way depended on the exertions of the Teachers. In order to prevent the schools degenerating, it was determined, that before they became entitled to payment, a certain minimum amount of results should be attained ; thus : 1. In schools situated in large seaport towns, each should be required to have an Evening School, with at least five appren- tices. 2. In Schools for Boys, a certain number were to be sent to sea annually. 3. In Schools for Adults, a certain number of men were to have passed before the Marine Board examination. 4. In Schools for Boys and Adults, the minimum amount 1 66 19. Navigation Schools. was to be adjudged by the Inspector, on his visit. It was laid down as a sine qua non that in future, no fresh boys should be admitted to a Navigation School under ten years of age, nor should any boy be received unless the parents were willing to give a guarantee that he would be allowed to go to sea. These regulations, however, were never very strictly carried out. Payments on Results. The system of payment on results began, soon after this, to be considered as the proper basis on which all schools were to be aided by public money, and although it was not thought desirable to make any change in the existing Schools for Navigation, which had so recently been called into action, yet for new ones a Minute was passed in 1860, by which the result system was introduced. This was done by a payment of 6/., 4/., or 2/., being made for each boy who had attended at least one year, and had been apprenticed on board a ship, after having passed before the Navigation Inspector either as first, second, or third class. Also a sum of I/, for every Seaman, Master, or Mate, who having received twenty lessons at least, succeeded in passing an examination at the Local Marine Board. The payments were not to exceed the Teacher's augmentation certificate allowance. Evening Navigation Schools. In December of this same year, a Minute was issued, for the encouragement of Evening Naviga- tion Classes independent of Day Navigation Schools. Teachers were to qualify at an examination at South Kensington, or before the Inspector, and obtain certificates of the value either of 2O/., I5/., or io/. This was to be earned by a capitation grant for teaching an evening class. The payment, which in no case was to exceed the maximum certificate allowance, consisted of IQS. for each bond fide sailor, seaman, or apprentice, who at- tended at least 200 evenings in the year. Should any pupil of such a class obtain a prize, a further payment of 5^., ios., or 2os. was to be made for each, according to its grade, and in this case there was no limit to the number to be paid on. A responsible committee was to be formed, and suitable premises were to be provided, in the same way as with Science Classes. This regula- tion, however, was taken very little advantage of. Statistics of Schools. After this, until 1863, little or no changes were made in Navigation Schools. They were in existence in the following places, viz., Aberdeen, Dublin, Glasgow, Hull, ig. Navigation Schools. 167 Leith, Liverpool, Wells Street London, Poplar, Shadwell, New- custle-on-Tyne, Sunderland, Waterford, and Great Yarmouth. Others, under the payments on results system, were nominally at work at Belfast, Carrickfergus, and Greenock, though their un- important character may be judged of from the fact, that during the year 1862, the three received but 4/. from the public grants. Inefficient Condition Captain Donnelly's Report. In conse- quence of the unsatisfactory condition of the Navigation Schools, in spite of the large annual salaries paid to the Teachers, a careful investigation was made in 1862 as to their working. Early in the following year, at the direction of the Science and Art De- partment, a Report was prepared by Captain Donnelly, R.E. It appeared from this, that their work was divisible into four heads, viz., the instruction given to 1. Masters, Chief Mates only, and Second Mates. 2. Seamen and Apprentices. 3. Boys going to sea. 4. Others, such as Mechanics, &c. The practical results under each of these headings appeared in 1861 and 1862 to be as given in the table on the following page : Explanation of Table. To judge of these figures, however, it is necessary to consider what the results amounted to, and what they really represented. In the first two classes, columns I. and II., having a total of 2,201 pupils, the instruction consisted of a mere system of ' cram,' to enable the 848 Masters and Mates to pass the Board of Trade examination. It must be understood that the Board of Trade requires Masters, Mates, &c., to pass this special examination before obtaining promotion, and in many cases considerable fees are paid by persons to be ' got through.' At each large port, there are men who make this a business, and in not a few cases receive their fees only on the passing of the pupil. The standard of acquirement, as far as Navigation and Nautical Astronomy are concerned, was at that time, and indeed even now consists of, little more than an empirical or rule-of- thumb knowledge of certain practical rules. ' Seamanship ' was not, of course, taught in the schools at all, but picked up by the men on board ship. The work of the Teachers, therefore, in State-aided Navigation Schools, was thus far simply a compe- tition with the ordinary crammers at the different ports, and as 168 19. Navigation Schools. Amount of Aid received from the Science and Art Department 1 ^ o OOOOOOO^OVOOQO tjO O OOOOOOOcoOcOQvO to " * o O ^" *-O 10 co to N OO O ON vo 1 -O CO ! 1 >-, u"> 8 ON 8 | III s s j 1 coN "ON" jvO 0\ 1 vO co in. Boys under Instruction. No. gone to Sea ( ) 1 t-. ro <- >H O co TJ-VO C4 w ON IN CO 1 xrjOO >-" vO '1-11-1 " *vONO>--> +- 2" 1 rj-co; vo:;t^-ivnNco ^oo w M : : : co -H HH ! | Schools for the Orphan Children of Soldiers. The cost, which, like the Dublin Institution, is entirely defrayed by Parliament, it is impossible to separate from that of the Normal School for TrainingTeachers situated on part of the same premises. A sum of I2,ooo/. is taken in the Army Estimates for carrying on the two Institutions ; to this must be added not less than /oo/. a year for furniture supplied by the Board of Works, and about 2,3OO/. for clothing, which is paid for out of the general vote for the Army. Regulations of Royal Warrant of 1846. The rules and regula- tions have not been materially altered since they were settled by a Royal Warrant dated December 21, 1846. This arranged the necessary staff of officers, teachers, and servants; their salaries, and almost every detail required for the management of the Institution, and appointed a Board of Commissioners to super- intend the school. A few days before this Warrant was issued, a new Charter was granted to the Royal Hibernian School in Dublin, putting it on a somewhat similar footing to the School at Chelsea. General Direction of the Two Institutions, The two Institutions are managed much on the same plan, and consequently remarks on the one in London will apply in principle to its sister esta- blishment in Dublin. A Report on both schools has, for some time past, been made every two years by the Council of Military Education, to H.R.H. the Field Marshal Commanding-in-Chief, and to the Right Honourable the Secretary of State for War ; this Report has been presented to Parliament, and published as a Blue Book. Since April I, 1870, however, the Council on Military Education has ceased, and all the Educational matters connected with the Army are placed under the Director-General of Army Schools, in a similar manner to that which existed previous to 1860. Conditions for Entrance to Schools. Both the London and the Dublin Schools, as stated over the portico of the building at Chelsea, receive only the children of soldiers of the regular Army. Those are eligible to become candidates who have been born during their father's period of service, who are over seven and under twelve years of age, and are free from any mental or bodily defect or infirmity. Four classes of children fulfilling these conditions are received : 28. Schools for the Orphan Children of Soldiers. 235 From 6 to 7 years 7 8 8 9 9 10 10 ii ii 12 12 U '3 14 14 15 1. Those who have lost both parents. 2. Those who have lost their father. 3. Those who have lost their mother. 4. Those whose fathers are on foreign service. As may be imagined, the applications for admission are nume- rous, but the selection is made according to the urgency of each case ; hence, all who come within Class I are generally pretty sure to be provided for. Ages of Children. The children at Chelsea vary in age from seven to fifteen, and were classified in 1869 as follows : 27 40 66 68 6 4 101 78 ii Total 456 Of late the age of admission has been somewhat raised, averaging from nine to ten. This change is approved of .by some ; others, however, are of opinion that, although a larger number are by this means disposed of each year, since all but the musicians leave at fourteen, yet the good derived by the children them- selves is proportionately decreased. The difficulty of beginning a boy's education at the age of ten is greater than at seven or eight, and the year or two which is thus cut off from his stay at school is just the period when he would derive the greatest benefit from the instruction. How Applications for Admission are Decided on. The admission of children is entirely in the hands of the Commissioners of the Royal Military Asylum, who superintend the school under the Secretary of State for War. The applications are decided on the recommendations of the Commanding Officers of the Regi- ments in which the candidates' parents have served. The parent or guardian of each child applying for its admission is required by the terms of the Royal Warrant to sign an under- taking that such child shall remain in the Asylum so long as the Commissioners think fit. This agreement also states that when the child is of the proper age he shall be disposed of at the discretion of the Commissioners. If physically qualified, he is to be placed with his own free consent in the regular Army 236 28. Schools for the Orphan Children of Soldiers. as a Drummer, Trumpeter, or Bugler. If, after having volun- teered, he fails to pass the medical examination, he is to be apprenticed to some trade. Those who do not volunteer for the Army are sent away to their friends, and nothing more is done for them. School Instruction, The instruction in the school is divided into five sections. The first is the one into which all new comers are drafted, and from this they are transferred to one of the other four, according to their qualifications. The subjects of instruction for all the children are: religious knowledge, reading, writing, English grammar, arithmetic, history, geo- graphy, drawing from models, and vocal music. The outline drawings of the elder boys show that great care is given to this subject, and that most of the pupils profit rapidly by the instruc- tion. The religious education of the children is committed entirely to the Chaplain. Hours Devoted to Study Staff of Teachers. The hours of school study each day are about four for the younger, and three and three-quarters for the elder boys, viz. : in the morning, from 9.30 to 12 with short breaks, and in the afternoon, from 2 to 3.30. The Upper Master is assisted by four Masters, and by the requisite number of Pupil Teachers or students from the Normal School, provided that not more than twenty altogether are thus engaged. These last must have served in this capacity for six months or a year before obtaining their appointments as Army Schoolmasters. Industrial Work Music, &c. The industrial training of the elder boys consists in repairing the shoes and clothes of all the children in the Institution ; this work is done from 4 to 6 P.M. each day. The musicians and the drummers and fifers practise, while the younger children amuse themselves in the playground. A small payment is made for the industrial work, consisting of a few pence weekly, to those boys who have worked well, and are favourably reported on. No other prize of any sort is given in the school. On March 31, 1868, 100 boys were being instructed as Musicians, 68 Drummers and Fifers, 63 Tailors, 79 Shoemakers. Daily Work of Children Drill. The boys make their own beds, and clean their own shoes, but they do not assist in washing, 28. Schools for the Orphan Children of Soldiers. 237 cleaning the rooms, cooking, &c. Nor do they help in painting, whitewashing, or repairing any part of the premises. This work is performed entirely by regular tradesmen. A complete course of drill is carried on, and the boys can go through all the evolu- tions of a Regiment of the Line. The Band is in a flourishing condition, and the boys who succeed in entering it are allowed to remain a year longer at the school. Ranks in the School. The best conducted boys are promoted to be Lance-Corporals, Corporals, and Colour-Corporals. They are allowed id., 2d., and ^d. per week. In the school drill they rank as non-commissioned officers, and take their places accord- ingly. They look after the smaller children, and are employed in various duties requiring trust. The stripes thus earned are highly valued, and in some instances the boys are allowed to continue to wear them when they enlist into the Army. Every boy on leaving receives a school-report card of his conduct and progress. On this is stated the classes in which he has received instruction, and his general behaviour. To those who enlist this is especially valuable, as the Army Schoolmaster, who has been trained in this same Institution, can then know exactly how to continue each boy's work in the Regimental Schools. The Health of Children. The health of the children is excellent, and the annual death-rate is but three in the thousand. The number on the sick list on March 31, 1868, was 8 per cent. ; but a large proportion of these were only suffering from chilblains, cut fingers, and other trifling ailments. The dormitories are unusually spacious, and not less than 500 cubic feet is allowed for each bed, in which but one child sleeps. A boy Corporal is appointed for every room, the general discipline of each com- pany of boys being under the supervision of a Serjeant. Final Disposal of the Children. The disposal of the children after they leave the school is a matter which gives little diffi- culty. The musicians remain till they are fifteen years of age, and then nearly all enter the Army Bands, where the demand far exceeds the supply. In almost every band in the service, and especially in those of the Household Brigade, the Artillery, and Engineers, may be found musicians who received their early training at the Royal Military Asylum ; many of them are leading players on their instruments, and some remarkable for their superior execution. Amongst others may be mentioned 238 28. Schools for the Orphan Children of Soldiers. Mr. Lazarus, the great clarionet-player, though not now in the Army, who was brought up at this school, and belonged to the Guards' Band ; Mr. Lawson and Mr. Hisson, the cornet-players in the Artillery Band, &c. All the other children leave at fourteen, and a considerable number enlist. In the eight years ending December 1869, the number discharged from the school was 706 ; of these 537 were fit for the Army, and 435 volunteered as recruits. In the two years 1868 and 1869, 150 boys left the Asylum, and of this number 135, or 90 per cent., were reported as fit for the Army, and of these 121, or 80 per cent, volunteered. When boys enter the Army from the Chelsea Duke of York Schools, they are invariably called 'Dukeys' by their companions for the rest of their career. The physical requirements for recruits are so stringent as sometimes to exclude those who are anxious to enlist. The eyesight is often found to be defective, and since good sight is more than ever required with the new long-range fire-arms, it would not be surprising if this difficulty increased. Of recruits enlisting from the Hibernian School, only 5 per cent, are found to be disqualified by physical infirmity. After-Conduct of the Boys thus Brought up. Those who become soldiers are reported on at regular intervals, and it is found that they turn out well. This may be best seen from the following extract from the Report by the Council of Military Education on Army Schools. It relates to 616 individuals, who were reported on in 1866-7 as serving in the Army, and who had been educated at the Royal Military Asylum. Two have risen to the rank of Commissioned Officers, 57 of Staff Serjeants and Serjeants, 3 Bandmasters, 13 Drum and Trumpet-Majors, 49 Corporals and Bombardiers, 164 Drummers and Trumpeters, 328 Privates. Their characters were given as follows : 32 ex- emplary, 545 very good and good ; 30 indifferent, and 9 bad. Important Use of Schools as a Means of Recruiting the Army. These two excellent Institutions at Chelsea and Dublin are useful in no small degree by annually feeding the Army with a considerable number of highly eligible recruits already trained in the various branches of a soldier's drill. With the advantages they give, it will be acknowledged that the orphan children of soldiers of this country are not altogether unprovided for. SCHOOLS UNDER THE DIRECTION OF THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR THE HOME DEPARTMENT. CERTIFIED INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. CERTIFIED REFORMATORY SCHOOLS. 241 29. THE HOME DEPARTMENT. How Connected with Education, The Home Office, presided over by the Secretary of State for the Home Department, is not, strictly speaking, an Educational body. It has, however, the management of criminals under its jurisdiction, of whom a considerable number are juvenile offenders. Until recently, children committed to prison for the first offence were treated in the same manner as the elder and more hardened prisoners, with whom they were obliged to associate. No special provision for educating them was even contemplated. Children not Trained until quite Recently. To the indefatigable labours of Howard during the last century, and to those of Mrs. Fry during the early part of the present, the country is indebted for special attention having been directed to the condition of prisons, and for the measures which have been taken for the amelioration of the criminal class of the community. Notwith- standing their exertions, however, very little was done until a comparatively recent period for the improvement of the juvenile inmates of our Gaols and Bridewells. In the Report on Newgate made by the Inspectors of Prisons in the year 1836, it is stated as follows : ' The association of prisoners of all ages, and every shade of guilt, in one indiscriminate mass, is a frightful feature in the system which prevails here ; the first in magnitude, and the most pernicious in effect. In this prison, we find that the young and old, the inexperienced and the practical offender, the criminal who is smitten with a conviction of his guilt, and the hardened villain whom scarcely any discipline can subdue, are congregated together, with an utter disregard to all moral distinctions, the interests of the prisoners, or the welfare of the community.' First Action of the Home Office. The frequent Reports of the Inspectors on this subject, and the general interest taken by the R 242 29. The Home Department. public in the establishment of Schools and Reformatories for those who were bordering on crime, induced the Home Office in 1845 seriously to consider the question of criminal education. This led to the necessary power being obtained for granting pardons to the boys who were at Parkhurst and other prisons, on condition of their being sent to the Redhill Reformatory for a certain period. During their detention at this Institution, payments from the Treasury were made on their behalf. This system continued for some years, and simultaneously the development of Ragged and Industrial Schools under the Com- mittee of Council was taking place. These Schools were started with the hope of preventing children from becoming criminals, whereas the Reformatories were established with a view to reclaim those who had gone a step farther, and had actually fallen into crime. Inspectors, &c. In 1854 the Reformatory School Act passed ; and one of the Inspectors of Prisons under the Home Office was directed to inspect all such schools, and to Report on their fitness for being certified under the Act. Shortly after this, in 1857, Prison Inspectors were specially appointed by the Home Office for the task of inspecting and reporting on both the Reformatory and the Industrial Schools. % Changes in Management, The latter, from the passing of Dunlop's Act in 1854, were partly under the Home Office, and partly under the Committee of Council, until 1861, when the Home Office undertook their entire management. Since that time no general change has been made in the administration of this branch of the Educational system of the country. The detailed regulations of Reformatory and Industrial Schools, and their effects on the criminal population, are considered in the following chapters. 243 30. CERTIFIED INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. Early History, Industrial Schools have been in existence for many years ; though the chief impulse to their spread was mainly due to the example of M. de Fellenberg's School at Hofwyl, in Switzerland. The feature peculiar to them all was that they aimed at securing the attendance of the poorest and most degraded classes, and that they were either limited to giving instruction in industrial work, or combined this as an essential portion of their ordinary school exercises. There was for a long time really no distinction between Ragged and Industrial Schools, but both terms were practically synonymous. Mr. Tremenhere's Report Government Assistance. In 1843, at the request of several of the supporters of such schools, Mr. Tremenhere was directed by the Committee of Council to report on the success which he considered had attended the operations of the existing Institutions. Other Reports followed in 1844 and 1845 on the Norwood School of Industry, by Mr. E. Carlton Tufncll ; and in the year 1846, when the general scheme came into force for annual grants to Elementary Schools, a branch of the Minute was devoted to terms on which assistance would be given to Day Schools of Industry. By this, subject to the Committee of Council's approval of the Teacher, and the mode of Instruction, aid was given towards the rent, the cost of tools, and the Teacher's salary, of the following descriptions of schools, viz. : 1. School Field Gardens. 2. Workshops for Trades. 3. School Kitchens and Washhouses. Grants for Industrial Training. This continued until 1852, when the Committee of Council reconsidered the subject of aiding in the formation of these Industrial Institutions, in the K 2 244 3- Cer lifted Industrial Schools. hope of putting them somewhat on the same footing as ordinary Elementary Schools. Accordingly, a grant was made of los. a year on each student, in aid of the expenses attendant on his industrial training, in addition to the assistance towards the rent, &c., of the premises. These grants, however, were taken advantage of to a very small extent. Committee of Council's Objections to Boarding Grants. Two years later, when Certified Reformatory Schools were intro- duced, giving board and lodging to their inmates, it was repre- sented to the Committee of Council that to offer instruction without providing food, or food and lodging, would be almost useless for the class of children contemplated to be trained in the Industrial Schools. The Committee of Council, however, considered that to extend these grants for food, without any proper means of supervising them, would expose them to great abuse, the danger being that, instead of being educational, the grants might really become merely supplementary to the poor rates. Objections waived Grants for Boarding, By the Minute of June 2, 1856, the Committee of Council, however, waived these objections, and offered aid not only as before, on rent, tools, the raw materials required, and half the salaries of the officers but undertook to make a Capitation grant of 5cxr. a head per annum on all children boarded and lodged who did not receive the grants from the Treasury under the Reformatory Acts. It was, however, required that the schools thus aided should either belong to a Refuge or Reformatory, or be in connection with an ordinary Elementary School. Further, in order to guard against abuse, the Minute declared that ' no school should be admissible which was not industrial in its character, and unless its scholars were taken exclusively from the criminal and abandoned classes.' Alterations in Begulations Act of 1857. These arrangements, however, were not satisfactory, and the commingling (often on the same premises) of criminal children under the Secretary of State, and of vagrants under the Committee of Council, was not only prejudicial to the children themselves, but required a double inspection, and a twofold administration of public funds, for almost the same object. Accordingly, on August 17, 1857, the 30 and 2 1 Viet., cap. 48, was passed, entitled f An Act to make 30. Certified Industrial Schools. 245 better Provision for the Care and Education of Vagrant and Disorderly Children, and for the Extension of Industrial Schools.' Arrangements for Certifying Industrial Schools. The intention of the Act was to withdraw the action of the Education Depart- ment from the Reformatories, which were to continue under the management of the Home Office, and to encourage the trans- formation of those Ragged Schools which were organised as Asylums or Refuges into Certified Industrial Schools. It em- powered the Committee of Council to certify any school, not being a Reformatory, in which industrial training was given, and in which food as well as education was provided. Children under fifteen years of age, taken into custody on a charge of vagrancy, might, if orphans and destitute, be at once sent by a justice of the peace to such a certified school. Those who were thus charged, and were not orphans, but whose parents or guard- ians refused to give an assurance for their good behaviour for twelve months, might also be sent to the same class of Insti- tution, and their parents be required, according to their means, to pay for their keep any sum not exceeding 3^. a week. Power was also given to the managers to allow children to go home at night, provided they were boarded, and in all other respects treated the same as those who slept on the premises. Details of State Aid. The Minute of December 31, 1857, settled the amount of aid which the Education Department was prepared to give to these schools in carrying out the new Act of Parliament, namely, as follows : 1. One half of the rent of the school premises. 2. One third of the cost of tools and raw material. 3. Five shillings per annum for each scholar. 4. Assistance in the purchase of books, maps and apparatus. 5. The ordinary rate of augmentation of any certificates the Teacher might hold. These payments were made to any Industrial School which thought fit to be certified, even if it did not receive children sent by a magistrate's order to be detained there. To those which did receive such children, in addition to the above, a sum of 5/. each per annum was granted. This was raised the following year to 7/. los. In schools with over forty children, a payment was made on account of each pupil trained as a Teacher ; and in some cases, building grants, instead of an allowance for rent, 246 3- Certified Industrial Schools. were also given. This last was limited to a maximum of 3C. Lewis prepared a Bill, which, mainly by his influence, was passed in 1861. This to a very great extent met the difficulty, and the Schools slowly increased throughout the country, numbering thirty at the end of 1866. The Bill remained in force as an experimental measure for five years, when it was renewed with certain modifications and improvements, and all schools of this description are now regulated by the Industrial Schools Act, 1866. Classes of Children in Industrial Schools. The children under instruction in Certified Industrial Schools may be divided into four classes : 1. Those who are apparently under fourteen years of age, and who have been sent under a warrant from a magistrate or two justices, on account of (a) Begging or receiving alms in the streets. (b) Having been found wandering about without proper guardianship or home. (c) Having been found destitute, either as orphans, or the children of imprisoned criminals. (d) Having been found in the company of reputed thieves. 2. Those under twelve who have been charged before a magistrate with an offence punishable by imprisonment, but who have not been convicted of felony. 30. Certified Industrial Schools. 247 3. Those apparently under fourteen who have been repre- sented before a magistrate by their parents as too unruly to be controlled at home. 4. Those apparently under fourteen who are refractory in the Workhouse or the Pauper School, or whose parents (one or both) have been convicted of crime, and punished with penal servitude. In all these cases, a magistrate has power to send such children for a certain time to a Certified Industrial School ; but the period of detention must in no case extend beyond the time when the child attains the age of sixteen years. Objects Sought to be Attained Ages, &c. The object aimed at in these regulations is to remove children from temptation and evil company, at an age when they are most susceptible for good, and while habits of industry and usefulness may still be engrafted. As such training is effected better at an early age, and as it is a condition of entrance into an Industrial School that the children should not have been convicted of felony, it is not surprising to find that they are taken in considerably younger than at the Reformatory Schools. The average ages of 2,488 children were as follows : Per Cent. Under 7 years of age . . . . . . -37 Between 7 and 9 years of age . . . . . 21*0 9 II . . . . . 30-8 ii 13 33'8 Above 13 years of age ...... 10-6 Proportion who were illegitimate ..... 3 who had lost both parents . . . .12 one parent . . . . .40 been wholly deserted . . . .11 one or both parents destitute or criminals . 3 parents living, and able to take care of them . 30 Advantages of these Schools Compulsory Attendance Require to be Combined. A large number of the inmates being thus re- ceived at an early age, and the attendance being compulsory, and subject to no interference on the part of parents or others, it follows that these Schools have great advantages over such Institutions as the one at Hanwell, where the pupils are con- stantly coming and going. In another respect, however, they labour under a disadvantage, and that is from their having so small a number of pupils. At the 69 Schools respecting which the details are published in the annual Blue Book, there was, in 1868, an attendance of 8,659, or an average of 125 at each 248 3- Certified Industrial Schools. school. This number is too small for a well-organised Industrial School ; but when the larger Institutions are taken away from the calculation, such as the Middlesex School, with 732 pupils ; the Kirkdale, with 549 ; and ten others, each with more than 200 pupils, the average attendance at the remaining 59 schools is reduced to 77. Some, indeed, have as few as 50, 40, 28, 26, 1 7, and even 8 pupils. The staff of Teachers in a school with 8 pupils is two, and that with 28 (Shustoke) as many as four. At Leeds, with an average attendance of 221 children, a staff of eight only is required, at a cost, for salaries and rations, of IQ8/. \2s. $d., or eighteen shillings per head. The four officers to look after the 28 boys at Shustoke cost no less than 99/. 4.$-. 5 that is, 1,319 boys, and 330 girls ; and the percentages of the ages of these children were as follows : Boys Girls Under 10 years .... 1-28 60 From 10 to 12 years 15-60 I5-I5 12 14 ... 39-27 39-09 14 16 ,, ... 4374 45^5 Criminal Status. The criminal status is shown by the number of previous convictions. It stood thus : Percentage Boys Girls Not before convicted 48-82 77-27 Once 34'34 17-87 Twice . 1 1 -06 3'3 Three times ,, . Four times ,, . . 4-09 83 !$ 03 Five times and upwards *! From these facts it would appear that the average age of the girls on entering the schools is greater than that of the boys ; but that, nevertheless, their criminal status, as judged of from the number of times they have been previously convicted, is considerably lower. It is an interesting fact to note the differ- ence between the criminal status of the children admitted in 1868, and that of those admitted in 1858, as shown by Mr. Sydney Turner's interesting report : 258 31. Certified Reformatory Schools. Number in each Category Number actually Committed in 1858 Category which would have been Admitted in 1868 if the Scale of 1858 Number actually Admitted in each Category in 1868 had been Preserved Not before convicted . 395 646 8 99 Once ,, 3ii 5 08 5 12 Twice ,, 148 242 156 Thrice ,, 7 114 59 Four times and upwards 85 139 23 Total 1,009 1,649 1,649 Decrease of Crime, and Increase of Offenders. There can be no doubt, therefore, that juvenile crime has decreased in intensity, though, unfortunately, the total number of offenders under six- teen years of age has considerably increased since 1860, as will be seen from the following table : Juvenile Offenders under 1 6 Years of Age. Years England and Wales Scotland Total i860 8,029 ,062 9,091 1861 8, 80 1 ,212 IO,OI3 1862 8,349 ,120 9,469 1863 8,459 ,075 9,534 1864 8,857 ,036 9,893 1865 9,640 ,041 10,681 1866 9,35 6 ,061 10,417 1867 9,631 ,070 10,701 1868 10,079 ,186 11,265 Juvenile Offenders. It is much to be regretted that, of these 11,265 criminal children under sixteen, only rather more than half, or 6,248, are in Reformatory Schools. In England, Wales, and Scotland together, the number of criminals under sixteen, as compared with the number of adult criminals, is about in the proportion of one to fifteen ; but in England and Wales alone, it is as one to thirteen ; whilst in Scotland alone, it is but one to twenty-two. Licence System. The regulations concerning the Licence System at the Reformatories are similar to those in force at the Industrial Schools. In 1868, there were 749 boys, and 78 girls, thus satisfactorily disposed of. Combination of Schools. The remarks made concerning the 3 1 Certified Reformatory Schools. 259 advisability of combining Industrial Schools into larger Institu- tions apply equally to Reformatory Schools. Comparatively few provide for more than 100 children. The largest, namely that at Redhill, contains on an average 300. At this Reforma- tory the average number of children to each officer is a little over nine, but in many places it is much larger, as is shown by the following table computed from the Report for 1869 : Schools Number of Children Number of Officers Number of Children to each Officer Monmouth . 19 3 6'3 Dorset. 42 3 M Hants . . . 54 7 7-7 Liverpool Farm in 9 12-3 Kings wood . 125 ii 11-3 Brook Green 131 ii 11-9 \Vanclsworth 134 H 9'5 North-Eastern J57 12 Market Weighton 211 1 8 n-6 Mount St. Bernard Redhill . . . X 23 33 1 1 -2 8-4* Variations in Cost. The cost per head varies at different Insti- tutions apparently without reference to the expensiveness of the locality, being as low as ill. 6s. 6d. at Toxteth Park, Liverpool, with 48 girls, and as high as 3//. iSs. gd. in Glasgow, with 129 boys. Even deducting the somewhat exceptional loss on indus- trial work, namely 5/. ys. id. per head, the cost of each child at this latter Institution still amounts to 32/. 1 1 s. 8d. Considering that a large part, if not all, of the cost of these Schools falls on the public, and that the children are not liable to be removed when once admitted, it would seem clearly advisable to concentrate these establishments in cheap and healthy neighbourhoods. It is liable to suppose that, if at Toxteth Park, with 48 children, each costs but ill. 6s. 6d., large Institutions with 1,000 children or more might be conducted at the same, or even at a slightly less, rate. The average cost per head for all the Reformatory Schools is i8/. igs. lod. ; and were this, by some better organi- sation, reduced to, say, ill. igs. iod., which is more than each child at Toxteth Park costs, a saving of no less than 43,7367. per annum would be effected, a sum sufficient to provide for 3,740 more "children than are at present benefited, or nearly all the remaining juvenile offenders under sixteen years of age. It l>c stated th;it in this, every Official is included, even a Messenger. s 2 260 r. Certified Reformatory Schools, i6-6 per cent, were re-convicted. 15 Results of Training. The results of the Schools, as is found invariably the case with Institutions combining mental and physical training, are highly satisfactory. Of the 11,402 chil- dren discharged up to the end of 1868, only 554, or 4-8 per cent, were re-convicted. Here, again, great variations exist in different schools. Thus : Of the boys : At the Monmouth School . Clarence Ship Parkhead School . . .14-6 Leeds , . . .11 Glamorgan , . .10-2 Berks , . . . None Sunderland , . . None Hants , . . None Leicester , . . None Northampton , . . None Of the girls : At the Dairy School Paisley Rescue ,, Ipswich ,, It is also found that fewer girls than boys are re-convicted, the figures being : 1 2 per cent, were re-convicted. 8.0 8 None ,, None England Scotland Boys 4-41 8-37 Girls 2-96 5 '5 The Scotch Schools are not so successful as the English, nor do the Roman Catholic Institutions produce results equal to the Protestant ones, as 7*3 per cent, of the children from the former are re-convicted, to 4*2 from the latter. After-Occupation of Children. During the year 1868, 1,300 chil- dren were discharged from the sixty-four Reformatory Schools ; that is, 1,032 boys and 268 girls. Their occupation, showing the percentage under each category, is given in the following table : Boys Girls For employment . Returned to friends 31-10 2974 47-01 40-67 Emigrated . 9-88 ... Sent to sea . 1579 ... Enlisted 1-26 Discharged on account of disease 1-26 2-61 Discharged as incorrigible, or to penal servitude Transferred to other schools .... 58 174 1-49 I'49 Died 3-10 3-35 Absconded, and sentence expired .... 5*03 3'35 31. Certified Reformatory ScJwols. 261 Hedhill School History. The Reformatory School at Red- hill is one of the best, and it is the largest Institution of this description in the country. It was founded in St. George's Fields, Southwark, about the year 1790, its principal purpose being, as before stated, to take charge of the children of crimi- nals executed at the Old Bailey. In those days it must be remembered that a large number of persons were hung for com- paratively small offences, and consequently the number of children left absolutely destitute was considerable. Of late years it has been converted into an ordinary Reformatory Institution, where farming is the chief occupation. The cha- racter of the children provided for is also changed, as they are now all criminals, and not merely, as formerly, the children of such. Premises of School. The School Farm consists of 300 acres, 40 of which are rented, and is situated in a beautiful locality about a mile and a half from Redhill Junction. The buildings comprise the Chaplain's house, chapel, hall, Secretary's house, infirmary, laundry, bakery, and five distinct houses, named Queen's-house, Gladstone's-house, Garston's-house, Waterland's- house, and Gurney's-house. The arrangements of the land and buildings will be best understood by a reference to the plan at page 152. The School began work at Redhill in 1849 with two houses. The rest have been built from time to time. Two of them, Gladstone's in 1856, and Gurney's in 1860, were founded by private liberality. Each of these houses contains accommo- dation for about sixty boys, and is quite a distinct school, having a separate Master and independent domestic arrangements, so that the whole Institution must be considered as comprised of five different schools under one Head Master. Course of Training. The mental training of the boys does not occupy much of their time, being limited to three hours every alternate day in summer, and rather more in winter ; the rest of the time is entirely taken up with industrial occupation. Of the 78 new boys admitted in 1869 34 could neither read nor write. 1 2 could read only very imperfectly. 1 1 could read and write imperfectly. 20 could read and write fairly. i could read and write well. The occupations of the boys are as follows : 262 3 1 - Cer lifted Reformatory Schools. Field . .... 204 boys Cow-house boys . . . . 14 ,, Shepherds . . . . . 2 ,, Stable . . . . 3 ,, Garden . . . . .10,, Brickfield . . . . .16,, Tailors . . . . .13 Shoemakers . . . . .11 Carpenters . . . . .3 Blacksmiths . . . . .3 Bakers . . . . .2 Bricklayers' labourers. . . i House-boys . . . . 13 Laundry . . . . .3 Cooks' boys . . . . .2 Total 300 ,, Mode of Work Payments to Boys. The work is done in gangs of boys, under an industrial trainer, who reports every week to the Master the manner in which each boy has behaved, and a payment varying from 2d. to ^d. is accordingly allowed. The field labour is also measured up every week, and paid for at a fixed price. This money is kept in a separate account for each boy, who is permitted to spend it on certain articles. No boy, however, may have any money in his possession at all, but must, on pain of forfeiting all his earnings, give up to the Master any sum which may be presented to him by friends or otherwise, his account being credited with all such items. Postage-stamps, periodical publications, hair-oil, gloves, treacle for puddings, expense of holidays, &c., are the usual items of expenditure. The boys' balances vary in amount from a shilling or two to as much as a sovereign. The total amount thus paid the boys for labour was, in 1869, no less than IQ4/. 19^. ^d. On leaving the School for employment, this becomes the property of the boy, but it frequently remains in the hands of the Chaplain for some time, being drawn upon as occasion requires. By this means the after history of each inmate is often known for some years. In addition to this pay, an allowance of \d. a week is made for each good-conduct stripe. These stripes are awarded to those who, for a certain period, have not received any bad marks ; and their names, with the number of months they have been on the good list, is printed on a board, placed over the fire-place in each school. The honorary pay for high-standing, in 1869, was 3.- UTS attend the National or other Charity School. Gloucester 8 8 Educated in the College School. Norwich 8 8 Rochester 8 8 Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic. Westminster . 8 8 Hereford " 7 8 Classical education in the Cathedral School, a small charge for Writing and Arith- metic. Winchester 6 8 Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic, Carlisle . 6 6 Chichester 6 6 No school maintained by the Dean and Chapter. St. David's . 6 6 Classical education in the Cathedral Gram- mar School. Peterborough . 6 6 Classical education in the King's Grammar School. Wells . 6 6 Taught Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic at an ancient Foundation School. Ripon . 6 6 Attend the Grammar or National School. St. Asaph 4 4 None. Llandaff. 4 The revenues of the choir sequestrated for the repairs of the fabric. Manchester 4 4 Value of the Instruction. In judging of the value of the Classical education of many of the above, it is necessary to remember the condition and discipline of most Grammar Schools at the time the pamphlet appeared. This would pro- bably render the ' Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic ' of Canter- bury and Durham superior in many respects to the more highly sounding descriptions above given. Discussion of 1850. About the year 1850 a good deal of dis- cussion took place in reference to Cathedral Schools, owing chiefly to the writings of the Rev. Robert Whiston, the Head Master of the Rochester Cathedral Grammar School. This gentleman showed clearly, by reference to the original Charters, and by a comparison between that portion of the cathedral income devoted to education and that expended for other purposes, that the trusts had not been carried out according to the spirit, even if the letter of the law had been complied with. Royal Commission, 1852 Reasons of Decay of Schools. In 1852 a Royal Commission was appointed to inquire into the state and condition of the Cathedral Churches. This body sat for several years, and issued three Reports, giving copious information as to the condition of the Schools. In its final Report it stated that, although in some instances laudable efforts had been made to \ 322 38- Cathedral Schools. reinvigorate the Schools in recent years, yet for the most part they were not in a flourishing state, nor did they occupy the position which their founders had intended for them. The reasons the Commission assigned for this were : 1. The fact that the amounts paid for the Masters and scholars had been more or less fixed at a certain sum in the original foundation ; and though it had often been afterwards raised from time to time, yet this increase was not in proportion to the altered value of money, or the improved condition of the cathedral property. 2. The sum originally provided for the maintenance of boarders was not sufficient for that purpose, and had been com- muted for a money payment to the choristers at a very early period. Proposed Improvements. The Commissioners, looking at all these circumstances, considered that, if competent Masters were appointed, they would be compelled to take day boys and boarders, in order to make up for their insufficient stipends. In this way the foundation boys were frequently looked oipon with disfavour as compared with those who were admitted to the schools by payment. To obviate this state of things, the Commissioners recommended that in all Cathedrals where a Grammar School was part of the original foundation, and suffi- cient funds could be obtained, a Head Master and an Assis- tant Master should be appointed. The salary of the former was to be I5o/. per annum, and of the latter ioo/., in addition to which each was to be provided with a house, rent free, for the reception of boarders. They also suggested that the foundation boys should be entitled to a liberal education free of expense, and that, if possible, Exhibitions should be founded in connection with the Universities. In addition, the Commis- sioners proposed that a Choristers' School should be attached to each Cathedral. At this, a liberal and sound religious education was to be provided, and proper attention given to musical training. The chorister boys were to be selected according to their musical ability, preference being given to those who seemed likely afterwards to pursue their studies at the Grammar School, which they were to enter, if duly qualified, as foundation boys. Those who did not thus pursue their studies were, on leaving the choir, to receive the necessary premium to apprentice them to some trade. 38. Cathedral Schools. 323 Management. It was proposed that both the Grammar and Choristers' Schools should be under the Dean and Chapter, and that one of the canons residentiary should examine the boys at least once every six months. This was the general scheme, as proposed by the Royal Commission, subject to modification according to the varying circumstances of different Cathedrals, each of which would require to be considered in detail. Present Condition. The recommendations of this Commission, although from various causes they have not been carried out in their entirety, have had a salutary influence on the working of Cathedral Schools. In all cases, the choristers are now required to attend school regularly, and at several of the Cathedrals the instruction provided is of a high standard. At Salisbury they are maintained, and receive a good Classical education ; also at Lincoln, and at St. Mary Magdalene's, Oxford. A larger number of the Cathedrals, however, do not board the pupils, but allow them a certain sum annually, varying from io/. to $61. per annum, in addition to free instruction. At other places, as for instance at Exeter and Winchester, they are required to pay a fee for their education, though it is usually about half that charged to the other boys who attend the School. Choristers are Town Boys. Owing to the Church services usually requiring the attendance of the boys almost every day in the year, it is necessary that the choristers should reside in the immediate vicinity of the Cathedral. It therefore rarely happens that any but town boys are appointed as choristers. Care in selecting Choristers. In the selection of chorister boys, much greater care is now usually taken than formerly, when the quality of the voice was the sole consideration. Private charac- ter is strictly inquired into, in addition to the vocal powers being carefully tested. In Exeter Cathedral, the appointment of chorister is one much sought after, although a payment of io/. icxr. per annum is required. It often happens here, that boys are sent to the Cathedral School with a hope that they may be appointed choristers on a vacancy occurring. Musical Teaching Efficiency of some Schools. The great ob- stacle to the efficient education of boys in Cathedral Schools is the short attendance they can give at school. Their duties at the daily services, and their practice in singing under the Choir- master, occupy so much of their time that but little can be Y 2 324 3 & Cathedral Schools. devoted to improvement in general knowledge. This is urged as a reason why, as a rule, their progress is anything but satis- factory. As an exception, it may be mentioned that a large proportion of the chorister boys at Exeter have successfully passed the Oxford and Cambridge Middle-Class Examination. This would suggest the idea that deficient teaching has more to do with this matter than the system of the schools itself. Mode of overcoming Difficulties. The great difficulty with Cathedral Schools, which merely educate the boys who sing in the daily service, arises from the small number under instruction. It is impossible to have a regular school with ten or twelve pupils; and except at some of the Cathedral Schools, as for instance at Salisbury and Exeter, it does not seem that the progress of the choristers is altogether satisfactory. As has been already stated, there is no reason why a fair amount of general knowledge may not be attained in spite of the time devoted to music. The experience of Exeter would seem to prove that efficient schools might be established in all the Cathedral towns, where the parents of boys with good voices would be willing to allow their children to act as choristers without receiving any remuneration, if they enjoyed merely a slightly relaxed scale of school fee in consideration of their services in the Cathedral. If any difficulty were still felt, owing to the great time devoted to music and attendance at church, it would perhaps be met by establishing two sets of boys to take duty in the Cathedral on alternate days. 325 39. PAROCHIAL CHARITY SCHOOLS. The Reformation, The Reformation in England, and the con- sequent suppression of the Monasteries and Religious Houses, reduced the scanty means which then existed for the education of the children of the poorer classes. It cannot, however, be said that the Reformers were altogether forgetful of the im- portance of a proper training of the young, nor did they probably desire that the funds placed at their disposal should be diverted from the educational purposes for which they had been originally intended. First Provision Public Bibles. In the preamble of a Bill dated 1539, the following passage occurs: 'That the religious houses would be converted to a better use, that God's word might be set forth, and children brought up in learning' This result, however, was never realised, and although the great advantages secured by the Reformation of having Bibles in the ' Vulgar Tongue ' fixed to the reading-desks in all churches, and the consequent free opportunity afforded of using them in every parish, tended indirectly to improve the secular instruction of the people, yet for a century and a half after the Reformation was complete, with the exception of Grammar Schools, whose effects, however, were but slight, schools specially adapted for the lower classes to obtain instruction in Reading and Writing, can hardly be said to have been organised. Early Attempts. Efforts in this direction by far-seeing persons had indeed been made, as, for instance, in 1663, by a Mr. Nedham. He proposed that some allowance should be made to parish clerks for instructing the children of the poor, and even sug- gested that it should be an integral part of their duties, and that they should only be appointed to the post of Clerk if they 326 39- Parochial Charity Schools. had sufficient ability to perform this duty under the super- intendence of the Minister. Condition of People then much as now. It is not a little remark- able how circumstances recorded at this period (nearly two hun- dred years ago) have their counterpart at the present day. A writer, in advocating the adoption of some plan of improvement, says, ( Take notice only of the rabble we meet in the streets ; it must needs pity any Christian heart to see the little dirty in- fantry which swarms up and down the alleys and lanes with curses and ribaldry in their mouths and other rude behaviour, as if they intended to put off their humanity and degenerate into brutes. . . . The public have their part in this guilt and neglect little has been done, and that little, too, has been so little looked after and observed.' Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, The Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge was formed in 1698, and almost its first effort was the ( good design of erecting Catechetical Schools in each parish in and about London.' At the first meeting of the Society, a resolution to carry out this work was adopted, and efforts were at once made to collect subscriptions for the purpose. The course of instruction proposed to be given at schools started by the Society included Reading, Writing, and a thorough knowledge of the Catechism. The qualification for admission appears to have been simply the poverty of the parents. This is expressed in their early records, which state that the schools were 'for poor children, whose parents or friends were not able to give them learning.' First School Eapid Extension. The first English Charity Schools were established at St. Botolph, Aldgate, Norton Fol- gate, and Westminster in 1698. The rapid growth of the schools under the Society may be judged of from the following table, giving the number in London in three different years. : Year Number of Schools Number of Boys Number of Girls Total Number of Boys Apprenticed Number of Girls Ap- prenticed 1704 1709 It 1,386 2,181 745 1,221 3,' 402 3 06 963 75 405 I7H 117 3,77 .,74i 4,818 1,650 824 In 1714 the total number of such schools in England and Ireland was 1,073, with 19,453 scholars. 39- Parochial Charity Schools. 327 Cost of Schools Clothes for Children. This success, it must be remembered, was produced without recourse to Government aid ; indeed, such assistance as is now received as a right, at that period does not seem even to have been suggested. To support schools which, in addition to the education given to the children, frequently lodged, and boarded, and always clothed them, was a very heavy tax on the resources at the command of the clergy. A school of fifty boys, including the Master's salary, room, firing, books, clothing, and all expenses, required an annual sum of 75/., and one with the same number of girls 6o/. Although this, in our day, appears but little, yet if all the children whose education is now assisted by the Education Department could be trained at this low cost, and if the whole expense had to be paid for by private contributions, as it then had, the subscription lists to schools in the country would have to be trebled. Mode of raising Funds. The zeal of the clergy was largely exercised in supplying the necessary funds. Sermons were preached, lectures delivered, and charity boxes were placed in the churches, persons were appointed Clerks on condition that they would open cheap schools, and subscriptions were raised in every possible manner. An annual gathering of the children took place in London, at which a sermon was preached in aid of the funds. The first of these gatherings was held in 1704 at St. Andrew's, Holborn, when 2,000 children were pre- sent. They have been continued to the present day, and have been held annually since 1782 at St. Paul's Cathedral. Other Sources of Income. Other and more dubious modes of * raising funds appear also to have been adopted in the zeal for the good cause. Some of the trustees of the schools belonging to St. Katherine by the Tower (the site now occupied by the London and St. Katherine Docks) were made collectors of the land-tax, on condition that their poundage was given to the schools ; the other trustees agreeing to take their turns in the arduous task of collecting, in order to secure the whole profits for their support. The public lamps were farmed at St. Paul's, Shadwell, for the same end. In one parish, the clergyman 'hath provided two palls, the one of which is let out for 2s. 6d., and the other for is. a time, for the more decent funerals of the dead, and the money so arising bears a good part of the charge of teaching the poor children there.' Periodical Examinations. Means were taken throughout the 3 2 $ 39- Parochial Charity Schools. country, as early as 1710, to secure that the education provided in these Chanty Schools, which were rapidly increasing in num- ber, should be sound, and also that it should not degenerate. For this end, weekly, monthly, or quarterly examinations of scholars were held in the country towns by the clergy. These examinations not only proved a source of income to the Schools, by bringing them before the public, but also served to enhance the value set on the instruction by all classes of persons. Teachers Scarcity Their Qualifications. The difficulty of finding suitable teachers, which up to the present day is so serious a hindrance to the spread of education, was equally felt in those days, and in order to meet it as far as possible, teachers were sent from London to the newly established Provincial Schools. The qualifications required from Teachers were some- what exacting. All had to be members of the Church of Eng- land, and to be over twenty-three years of age ; to be able to pass an examination in the principles of the Christian Religion, ' to be of meek tempers, and humble behaviour ; to have a good government of themselves and their passions ; and to keep good orders.' They were also to have a peculiar aptitude for .teaching ; to write a good hand, and to understand Arithmetic. It is re- markable that the early instructions require the same qualifica- tions for Schoolmistresses, except ' that part which relates to the Writing a good hand, and understanding Arithmetic.' Training School Culminating Grammar School, The idea of establishing a sort of Training School was proposed by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, but owing to the want of funds, it was never carried out systematically. A second scheme for starting a Grammar School, to serve as a culminating school for clever boys who should be transferred from the local Charity Schools, was also contemplated, but failed to be carried out. Had the scheme succeeded, it was hoped that it would serve as a Training School for Masters and Mistresses. First Inspector in 1700. In 1700, the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge ' appointed the Rev. Mr. Coghan, Inspector of all the Chanty Schools in and about London and Westmin- ster.' This was probably the first instance of a systematic edu- cational inspection being made, and to this is no doubt largely due the early efficient state of these Charity Schools. This in- spection appears to have been very searching, not only from an 39- Parochial Charity Schools. 329 educational point of view, but also as bearing on the habits and conduct of the Teacher and children. Disposal of Children when educated. How best to give employ- ment to the children when they were ready to leave the School was felt at first to be a serious question ; and persons occasionally were led to doubt the expediency of educating them at all, as by so doing they considered themselves to a certain extent respon- sible for starting them in life. A large number were apprenticed to various trades, and in many instances persons left money for this purpose, apart from bequests to the Schools themselves. The Navy afforded a means whereby many of the children were provided with useful and profitable employment, and it does great credit to the foresight of the managers of some of these Schools, in that Navigation was taught at St. Dunstan's-in-the- West, Brighton, Southampton, and Exeter, and that, at the last- mentioned place, instruction was also given in Mathematics. Half-time System in 1712. The greater number of the children, however, necessarily became labourers, or engaged in ordinary agricultural and other pursuits. Bearing this in mind, a circular was sent by the Society, in 1712, to all the Charity Schools, urging the adoption of what might be called a half-time system of education. They proposed that instruction should be given in Spinning, Sewing, Knitting, Gardening, Ploughing, Harrow- ing, and other labour on alternate days with ordinary School- work. This it was considered would better fit the children for their duties, and train them in habits of labour and industry. Evening Classes for Adults. The advisability of forming Adult Evening Classes, in connection with these Charity Schools, was considered as far back as 1711, when the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge issued another circular, recommending Masters and Mistresses to appoint 'some hours in the evening on certain days of the week, to teach such grown persons to read as have been neglected in their youth.' Children required to be baptized, &c. As a matter of course in the early days of these Schools, all the children were required to be christened according to the ritual of the Church of England, and also to attend the service of the Church on Sundays. This rule is even now observed in several places. Efficiency of System when started. It will be seen from what has been stated that the original scheme of Charity Schools, 330 39- Pdrockial Charity Schools. though at the present day it may appear somewhat narrow and exclusive, was, notwithstanding, highly efficient, and displayed remarkable foresight on the part, of its founders and an intimate acquaintance with the requirements of the times. Their manage- ment, though left almost entirely to local effort and individual energy, was to a certain extent directed by the ' Society of Patrons of the Anniversary of Charity Schools,' a body which sprang out of that of the ' Trustees of the Charity Schools,' and was originally a sort of Committee of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge. Decay Caused partly by Increase of Funds. The zeal and energy which were employed at the commencement of the eighteenth century in the formation of these Schools seem to have diminished throughout the reign of George I.; and although the number of schools gradually increased during the century, as the requirements for education expanded, yet their efficiency appears somewhat to have degenerated. This may, to a con- siderable extent, be accounted for by the wealth which they in time accumulated, and which led to a large number of them being provided for by endowment. The local interest conse- quent on the necessary efforts to keep up the funds, died out, and the Teacher's remuneration in no way depended on his energy, but remained the same, whatever might be the success of the School. Merging into National Schools. For more than a century these Schools remained the only ones at which the poorer classes could be educated. In spite of their deficiencies, however, the important work which they effected in preparing the way for the improvements of the National Society must not be forgotten. This Society, formed under the auspices of the Society for Pro- moting Christian Knowledge, in 1811, was the next event in the history of Charity Schools ; though it tended to remove from them their distinctive character, inasmuch as a great number merged into National Schools. This change has con- tinued even to a greater degree since the formation of the Education Department, and now nearly all, except those which are so richly endowed as to be disqualified from receiving Government grants, have been placed as National Schools under the management of that Department. Conclusion Necessity of Inspection, &c. Although these Pa- 39- Parochial Charity Schools. 331 rochial Chanty Schools mark an important epoch in the history of English Education, and have done an excellent work in leading up to the present system, yet it may be said that, as originally started, they have had their day. The main causes of their becoming obsolete are certainly traceable to their wealth and the absence of external and impartial inspection. The former has made the Teacher's remuneration independent of his energy and success ; and the latter has prevented the instruction from ever getting out of the old groove, which though good a hundred and fifty years ago, required to be occasionally modified according to the experiences of modern times. It would, there- fore, seem desirable at the present day, to concentrate all these smaller endowments, and to require that in all cases provision should be made for regular inspection of the Schools by the Education Department ; and also that the Teacher's salary should bear some proportion to the amount of instruction afforded, as shown by the results obtained. 332 40. WARD SCHOOLS. Origin of Schools. This class of school is very closely allied to the Parochial or Charity School. It may be said to stand in the same relative position to a Ward of the City of London as the Charity School does to one of the larger parishes. Even in the days when persons resided at their places of business together with their servants and dependents, the City parishes were usually too small to furnish a sufficient number of children for the maintenance of a separate school for each. It was in con- sequence of this that the Ward Schools were established ; whereby the education of the poor residing in several parishes included in one Ward, was carried on in one common place of instruction. Existing Schools. Nearly all the Ward Schools were com- menced about the beginning of the last century, at the period when Charity Schools first became numerous. Several of them have, since that, been combined, owing to the decrease of the resident population. At the present time they exist in the fol- lowing places, namely : Aldersgate. Aldgate. Billingsgate. Broad Street. Castle Baynard. Cornhill and Lime Street. Cripplegate Within. Cripplegate Without. 4 Farringdon. Langbourn. St. Ethelberga Society and Bishopsgate Within. Tower. Vintry and Queenhithe. Changes in Mode of Teaching No State Aid. For many years they continued in operation on the old-fashioned system of the last century, and were exclusively devoted to the education of boys, who were clothed, as well as taught, without charge. At the period when the National Society was formed, in 1811, most 4O. Ward Schools. 333 of them adopted the so-called Madras system of education, as advocated by Dr. Bell and fully described at page 50. Some also became connected with the National Society, not so much with a view of obtaining pecuniary assistance, as from the cir- cumstance that they were founded on the same religious basis, all being in connection with the Established Church. In modern times the character of the instruction has changed with the improvements gradually introduced in the mode of teaching. The Schools do not receive pecuniary assistance from the State, and only one or two of them, as the Tower Ward School, avail themselves of the benefit of public inspection by the Education Department. Source of Income. The income of the Ward Schools is de- rived from endowments and private subscriptions. Some of the Schools possess considerable funded property, but others, as for instance, that of the Vintry and Queenhithe Wards, are mainly dependent on the amounts received from annual subscriptions. The contributors are principally persons belonging to the par- ticular Ward to which the School is attached. Rules for Admission. The rules for admitting children are usually much the same in all the Schools. Those who have the first claim are the children of persons residing in the Ward. These are now rarely if ever sufficiently numerous to occupy the whole of the accommodation, and the children of parents at work during the day within the same area are next admitted. If there be still room, as there usually is, outsiders are then taken. These frequently come a considerable distance, leaving perhaps good schools in their own neighbourhood, and tramping through the back lanes of London in order to go to a Free School and be eligible to obtain the suit of clothes which is granted annually to each child. In some instances preference is specially given in the rules to certain parishes or Wards from the remembrance of service conferred at some remote period. For instance, the regulations of the Vintry Ward School pro- vide that in admitting outside children preference shall be given to residents in the Cordwainers' Ward, in consequence of the School having formerly received much pecuniary benefit from that district. The rules generally require that all children are to be sent ' well washed and combed, with their hair cut short and their clothes well mended.' 334 4- Ward Schools. Insufficient Attendance Combination. Modern changes in the City of London have rendered it impossible for the poorer classes to live within its boundaries. The practice has also become universal of well-to-do persons residing with their dependents at a distance, and merely attending during the day at their place of business. The consequence of this has been that the Wards themselves cannot in all cases supply a sufficient number of children to form separate schools, even by the above liberal interpretations being put on the rules for admission. Several of the Ward Schools are accordingly not full, and others have, as before stated, combined their action, two or three being placed together as one Institution. Subjects of Instruction Hours Attendance. The instruction given is chiefly confined to that of an elementary character ; although most of the schools include Grammar, Geography, and History in their course of study, t The hours of attendance are generally from 9 to 12 in the morning, and from 2 to 5 in the afternoon. Few of the schools receive children under seven years of age, and according to the regulations of all Ward Schools, the pupils are bound to remain until they are fourteen. Considerable difficulty is, however, experienced in carrying out this requirement ; for no sooner are the children old enough to earn something, than they are at once taken away from school. At those Institutions which have funds at their disposal for apprenticing the pupils, or for providing them with an outfit on leaving, this difficulty is not so much experienced. Parents keep their children at the schools a year or two longer, in order to obtain this advantage ; for it is usually laid down as a condition, that the child must complete his time before he can be eligible to obtain the benefit of the apprentice fee or outfit. In some places special bequests have been left for this purpose. Teaching Staff. The staff of teachers is usually limited to the Master and his Wife, the latter acting as Mistress to the girls. In the Aldersgate, Cripplegate, and Tower Ward Schools, an Infant Mistress has also been added. None of the Schools avail themselves of the benefit of Pupil Teachers. Religious Teaching Strictly Sectarian. The religious teach- ing is attended to with considerable care, and all the Ward Schools are in connection with the Church of England. The pupils are instructed in the Liturgy and Catechism, and are required, according to the rules, to assemble at the school-house 4O. Ward Schools. 335 on Sundays, Christmas Days, and Good Fridays, at ten o'clock in the morning, half-past two o'clock in the afternon, and six o'clock in the evening ; to proceed alternately to the various churches situated within the boundaries of the Ward. This regulation is not, however, usually carried out strictly, on account of many of the children coming from a considerable distance ; and also as several of the churches are not opened in the after- noon. Those children who are clothed are, as a rule, obliged to attend church at least once on Sunday. If the pupils are thought to behave themselves well, and are not known to get into mischief on Sundays, attendance is only enforced at the Morning Service. It is usual to require that the pupils shall have been baptized, and in some schools this is still rigidly adhered to ; but in others, the matter is not carefully investi- gated, any more than the question of legitimacy, which was originally always a condition of entrance. Free Admission Management. As a rule, the admission to Ward Schools is free ; and not only so, but clothes are gratui- tously provided. In these they walk to church, some few of the girls still continuing to wear the old-fashioned cap. Outsiders, not belonging to the Ward, have to pay a fee, as at the Castle Baynard School, where it amounts to threepence a week. The management of each of these Schools is vested in a Committee, which usually consists of the Alderman and Common Council of the Ward, the Trustees of whatever funded property the Charity may possess, and a certain number of the Subscribers, who are elected annually at a General Meeting. Conclusion. Modern times have necessarily brought with them changes in the requirements which Ward Schools, like most of the Endowed Charity Schools, supplied during the first century of their existence. Their history is an argument in favour of an opinion which is now almost universally accepted, namely, that, to secure efficiency, all public Elementary Schools, such as those connected with the City Wards, and which depend on eleemosynary aid, should be subject to regular inspection. There seems no reason why Ward Schools should not form part of one general scheme, instead of being managed independently, and being subject only to the varying and uncertain chances of local supervision. 00' 41. ORPHAN SCHOOLS. Orphan Schools a fitting Work for Charity. The taking charge of destitute and orphan children has always been regarded as one of the noblest works of philanthropy. Many excellent Institutions having this object are to be met with in all parts of the country. One of the most noted, namely, Miiller's Orphan- age at Ashley Down, near Bristol, is fully described in a sub- sequent part of this volume, on account of the remarkable nature of its origin and development, and the extent of its present operations. Statistics only of London known. Owing to the absence of any system which provides for the registration of Charities, it is impossible to ascertain, with any degree of accuracy, how many of the orphan children of the country are being educated in schools specially provided for them by public or private benevo- lence. From Mr. Fry's interesting list of the London Charities, it appears that in and about the Metropolis there are no fewer than forty Institutions exclusively for the education of orphans. Some of these are on a very large scale, as, for instance, the Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead, having an income of i6,4OO/., and providing for 560 children; and the London Orphan Asylum at Clapton, with an income of I2,287/., and providing for 420 children. Others accommodate only twenty or thirty inmates, and might, with advantage be absorbed into larger establishments at a great saving of expense, and with a prospect of increased efficiency. No class of charity appears to be more readily capable of combination than this, which has one uniform object, namely, that of providing for orphanhood. The total number of children under instruction in thirty of these London Schools, which supply the statistics, appears to be 4,362 ; while the annual income of twenty-nine of them, derived almost 41. Orphan Schools 337 entirely from voluntary contributions, amounts to no less than 71,1427. Mixed Charities, including Orphans. In addition to these esta- blishments, which provide exclusively for Orphans, a much larger number exist which combine the training of Orphan children with other works of benevolence : thus, the Benevolent Society of Blues, for the Widows and Orphans of those educated at Christ's Hospital ; the Dissenting Ministers' Widows' Fund, for Widows and Orphans ; the Shipwrecked Fishermen's and Manners' Royal Benevolent Society ; the Patriotic Fund ; and many others. For the reasons before given, it is impossible to ascertain the exact number of such Institutions throughout the country ; but for London, owing to the indefatigable exertions of Mr. Fry, in the little work above referred to, accurate infor- mation has been collected. The number in the Metropolis appears to be about forty-five, and the aggregate income of the thirty-seven which publish their accounts is no less than 150,0007. The number of Orphans who are provided for in London by this means cannot be separated from, but it must amount to a large proportion of, the 22,406 individuals benefited by these Charities. Early Schools. The period during which these Institutions have been formed extends over the last hundred and fifty years. The earliest founded were the Royal Asylum of St. Ann's Society, commenced in 1702 ; the Royal Society of Musicians of Great Britain, in 1738 ; the Royal Naval Benevolent Society, in 1739; the Clergy Orphan School, in 1749; and the Orphan Working School, Haverstock Hill, in 1758. Their increase during the last forty or fifty years has been very rapid ; and in the Metropolis alone hardly a year passes without one or more being added to the list. Subjects of Instruction. The course of study pursued is similar to, though more extensive than, that adopted at other Elemen- tary places of instruction. In most of the Institutions the number of years during which the children are retained renders it easy to secure for them an extended course of education. At the Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead, in the Senior School, where the ages of the boys vary from seven to fifteen years, and those of the girls from eight to fifteen, the subjects taught are as follows : z 41. Orphan Schools. Scripture Instruction. Mathematics. Reading. Writing. Grammar. Dictation. Composition. History. French. Vocal Music. Needlework. Mensuration. Mental Arithmetic. Drill. Geography. Some of the senior girls also receive instruction in Instrumental Music and Drawing. The educational advantages enjoyed by Orphans when admitted to these Institutions are considerable. They are exempt from any interference in their studies ; they are not liable to be removed from one school to another ; their daily attendance is very regular, owing to their residing on the school premises ; and their guardians or friends are not allowed any voice in the selection of the subjects of instruction, such matters being entirely under the control of the Committee of the Institution. Not aided by Government Inspection. As a rule, Orphan Schools are not qualified to receive Government grants, as they not only educate, but also board and lodge the children. Several, however, are inspected by the officers of the Committee of Council, who report annually on their progress and efficiency. These inspections are not official, but are undertaken as private matters by the Inspector. Mode of Admission, The rules for admission into Orphan Schools necessarily vary. Some schools are limited to the orphans of persons who have been engaged in particular callings or professions, as, for instance, those of the clergy, of sailors, of commercial travellers, &c. Other schools confine their attention to infants and those within certain ages. Few Institutions admit children who have been the recipients of parish relief, as it is considered that the Workhouse School should be available for such. In nearly all cases admission is obtained by the votes of the subscribers to the charity at a half-yearly election. The payment of a certain sum, generally los. 6d. a year, entitles the subscriber to one vote. This vote he is at liberty to give to any child who is eligible. However many objections this plan may have, it is certainly popular with managers. This is no doubt the case from the inducement which it holds out to persons to subscribe to the funds of the charity. The periodical election 41. Orphan Schools. 339 brings the claims of the Institution more immediately before the subscriber, whose privilege of voting is given as a sort of return for his donation. Parentage of Children. Some interesting facts are published in the Report for 1866-7 f tne Infant Orphan Asylum at Wanstead, giving the parentage of the pupils at that time in the Institution. From this it appeared that scarcely any profession or respectable calling was unrepresented. There were : 15 children whose fathers had been Clergymen. 30 20 14 22 7 22 8 26 II 21 9 2 10 5 9 160 6 9 Medical Practitioners. Barristers and Solicitors. Architects and Surveyors. Farmers. Artists. Merchants. Officers in the Army and Navy. Captains of Vessels. Persons holding Government appointments. Schoolmasters. Clerks. Warehousemen. Independent Gentlemen. Hotel Keepers. Tradesmen. Railway Officials. Civil Engineers, &c. Religious Teaching. The religious teaching in many Orphan Schools, particularly in the smaller Institutions, is sectarian, and depends upon the particular denomination to which the School belongs. In the majority, however, and almost invariably in the large Schools, it is conducted in a liberal spirit, and is based somewhat on the original British System. In one or two Institutions, for instance at the Commercial Travellers' Schools, a plan somewhat like the following is adopted. All are required to attend the public worship of the Church of England ; /but before any child is admitted, its parent or guardian is required to answer this question, ' Which of the two following catechisms do you wish your child to be taught, viz., the Catechism of the Church of England, or that of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster ?" At the Haverstock Hill School, the Sunday services are taken by ministers of almost all denominations in rotation. Thus on one Sunday, the Committee arrange for a Church of England clergyman to attend ; the next for a Z 2 340 4i. Orphan Schools Wesleyan ; the next for an Independent, and so on. No difficulty is ever experienced in consequence of the adoption of this plan, forcibly showing how the so-called ' religious difficulty ' would vanish, if only met in a really Christian spirit. Management. The management of these Charities is usually left in the hands of a Committee, elected annually by the sub- scribers. By this system, fresh blood is being continually infused into the management ; and thus the life of the Institution is kept vigorous. At the same time new and improved systems of teaching are introduced, and the arrangements of the School adapted to the varying requirements of the age. Cost Variations. The annual cost of Orphan Schools does not always bear a proportion to the number educated, but varies considerably. Thus at the Income No. of Children Accom- modated Cost per Head Infant Orphan Asylum, Wanstead London Orphan Asylum, Clapton Orphan Working School, Haverstock ) Hill j s. d. 16,400 o o 12,287 o o 8,630 o o 560 420 353 ' d. 29 5 o 27 18 4 24 10 o In smaller Schools, the cost per head is so much greater in some than in others, that it can only be attributed to errors in management, involving an unnecessary outlay. Advantages of Combination of Small Schools. It certainly is not desirable to conduct Orphan Schools on the same strictly economical principles which should be adopted for those of the pauper class ; but the funds of these charities are often expended, not in giving the recipients greater educational advantages, but in carrying on the school in too expensive a manner. The cause of this is usually to be found in a want of knowledge among the managers as to the best mode of organising the teaching power and the domestic staff, as well as in an absence of a rigid economy in small, and apparently unimportant, details of housekeeping. The elements of economy and success appear to be obtainable to best advantage in the larger Institutions, and even then only when they are conducted by persons practi- cally acquainted with school organisation and general domestic arrangements. 41. Orphan Schools. 341 Entirely supported by Private Benevolence. The Institutions which exist in the Metropolis are largely supported by country subscribers ; while those in the Provinces are almost wholly dependent on local eleemosynary aid from the various districts in which they are situated. The whole of this good work has been brought into action by the efforts of private benevolence ; and the success with which it has been carried on, year after year, shows the widespread interest exhibited in the welfare of the orphan and destitute, and recognises their peculiar claim to the sympathising charity of those desiring their prosperity and happiness. Suggestions for Registration and Mutual Working. Without for a moment disparaging these efforts, it would seem highly desirable that all the Institutions should be conducted on some general and uniform principle. This would prevent new ones from being established with an entirely fresh staff, &c., except when it is evident that no existing school could accommodate the children. It would undoubtedly be desirable that all Institutions having for their object the training of the young, whether supported by public or private liberality, should be inspected annually by an officer appointed by the Committee of Council. It would also be well if some arrangement were introduced, by which all such schools were required to be registered and certified as to the number they could accommodate, &c., in a similar manner to that at present provided for Certified Industrial Schools. 342 42. SCHOOLS FOR THE BUND. ' Chief Institutions now in Operation. The Education of the Blind is a subject which has for many years occupied the careful attention of many eminent philanthropists, and numerous methods have been adopted in order to facilitate the means of instruction. The success of some of these has been very great, and in conse- quence of the singular quickness of a large number of the Blind, remarkable results have been attained. These successes in endeavouring to relieve the monotony of the sufferers' existence have stimulated many to prosecute the work, and, as a conse- quence, Schools for the Blind are to be met with in various parts of the country. Amongst the chief of these may be mentioned the following : Schools Boarders Day Scholars The Indigent School, Southwark 160 The Edinburgh Asylum 132 ... Portobello Catholic 100 ... Manchester 78 ... Liverpool 67 ... ,, Roman Catholic 80 ... Dublin National Institution 62 22 The London Society . 54 15 Brighton 60 Birmingham 64 ... York . 70 ... Newcastle-on-Tyne 38 ... Nottingham 45 II Edinburgh 3i 4 Ulster 3i ... Bristol 26 8 Dublin, Richmond Institution 20 2 Bath School . 18 I Norwich 38 ... Exeter . 5o IO First School Societies for the Blind. The Institution at Liver- pool was the first school established in the United Kingdom 42. Schools for the Blind. 343 which had for its object the ' instruction of the Blind in some art or trade by which they should be enabled to earn something at their own homes towards their subsistence.' In addition to these regular schools, a large number of Societies are engaged in the work 'of educating the Blind in various trades and other useful occupations, either at their own homes or at some central Institution. Chief Object aimed at. The general object of these Charities is to enable the indigent Blind, in spite of their affliction, to do something towards their own livelihood, and also to qualify them to share in such social enjoyments as Reading, Singing, Playing Instruments, &c. In not a few cases, it has been found that, when properly educated, the Blind are able entirely to support themselves by their work, after leaving the Schools or Institutions in which they have been taught. School for the Indigent Blind, London Origin. The School for the Indigent Blind in St. George's Fields, Southwark, is the largest Institution of the kind in the kingdom. It is so good an example of the mode of teaching the Blind, and of the practical benefit effected by a judicious system of training, that a de- scription of it may perhaps afford the best means of illustrating the subject. It was established on its present site as far back as 1799, and was incorporated in 1826. The building, which is excellently adapted for the purposes required, stands on several acres of land, and belongs to the Corporation, which is also possessed of a capital of about 8o,ooo/., invested in the English funds. Conditions of Admission. The inmates of the Asylum are elected by the votes of the subscribers to the Charity. It is a necessary condition that they shall not have a greater amount of sight than is sufficient to enable them to distinguish light from darkness ; they must not be deficient in intellect or physical power ; they must otherwise be in good health, unmarried, and able to wash and dress themselves without assistance. The limits of age at the time of admission are from ten to twenty, but the Committee have power to take in exceptional cases, cither at nine or up to twenty-two. Persons in the receipt of parochial aid are admitted, provided such allowance is continued as a contribution towards their maintenance in the School. Last year IQI/. 9.5-. was thus received. In all cases it is 344 4 2 - Schools for the Blind. required that a respectable householder shall engage to be respon- sible for the removal of the pupil when the time of instruction at the School is over, or before that period, if for any reason the Committee think it necessary to discharge him or her. Half-time System Pursued Instruction. The system in the School is what may be called the half-time system ; that is, the pupils are divided into two equal sections, and these sections are alternately engaged half the day in theoretical and half in industrial pursuits. The theoretical subjects taught are Read- ing, Writing, and Arithmetic. The Religious instruction, which all receive, is conducted by the Chaplain. READING. Mode of Instruction. In all cases, it is necessary to commence the instruction of the children by teaching them the alphabet ; and inasmuch as the shape of each letter has to be learned by the sense of touch, it may readily be imagined that this process is often a tedious one. It generally takes three or four years to enable them to master one of the raised letter books with suffi- cient ease to be able to read aloud to their companions. The way they are taught is by requiring them to pass the tips of the fingers (principally the forefinger) over raised or embossed letters, and so, by the sense of touch, to acquire the power of reading. Women learn more readily than men, on account of the greater delicacy of their sense of touch. - The men's fingers are coarse and hard, and they do not so easily acquire the tactus eruditus. Children, of course, are quicker than either men or women. There are several systems in use at different Institu- tions, some having the embossed writing in the common Roman letter, and others making it into a shorthand of signs represent- ing words or syllables. A good deal of difference of opinion exists as to which method is the best. Opinion of Rev. W. Taylor. The Rev. W. Taylor, formerly Director of the Wilberforce School for the Blind at York, says, in a letter addressed to the Committee of the Bristol Asylum for the Blind, in 1847 : ' It is now 27 years since I first turned my attention to the education of, and printing for, the Blind. I have visited most of the Institutions in England and on the Continent; I have tried numerous experiments with different plans, and everything tends to confirm me still more in the opinion which I 42. Schools for the Blind. 345 have always had, and which I have so often expressed in various ways, of the undesirableness of the stenographic character. . . . With respect to the demand for books in raised letters, I am quite sure that, if printed in the common Roman character, the various Institutions in England, America, and several other countries would readily take all that could be supplied. . . . There are punches now made of the English letters both " capital " and " lower case," and most of the printing and "getting up " of the books can be done by the Blind themselves. In educating the Blind, I do fervently hope that everything will be done to unite them as much as possible with their seeing brethren, and not cause them to be looked upon as a set of foreigners, unacquainted with even the shape or form of those symbols which, since the time of Giittenberg, have served to convey to us so many of our greatest advantages and amusements.' In reference to the argument that the shorthand can be read more rapidly than the words spelt at full length, Mr. Taylor says : ' If the Blind can read a book with such facility as to be interested in it, they read quickly enough. To do more than that would be no benefit to them, for their stock of books must for a long time be very limited ; and as occupation is as valuable to them as amusement, it is desirable to make reading go as far in that way as possible.' The stenographic character necessarily requires to be taught by persons who have learned it for the express purpose of teaching the Blind, while the letter in common use can be taught by any child who can read. WRITING. Mode of Instruction. This subject is imparted at the same time as reading, but is always a slower process. The plan adopted at the South wark School is by means of two alphabets of capital letters, arranged in partitions in a box, similar to a very small case of printers' type. These letters are made of a number of pins, let into a little square piece of wood, and are so formed that, when pressed into paper, they make an indentation with a burr on one side. The paper is then placed on a pad and fixed with a frame, having wooden bars across, to secure that the letters are written in the same line. The writer discovers by practice in which partition of the box each letter lies, just as a printer does, and he accordingly takes each one out as he requires it to prick the paper, taking care to leave the last letter 346 4 2 - Schools for the Blind. in the frame until he has written the next. He of course makes a point of ' looking to see/ as he himself calls it, whether the correct letter he wants is in its proper position in the box, before he stamps the paper with it, as they are necessarily apt to get disarranged. This he does by running his finger over the letters, which operation informs him in a moment of any mistake. When finished, the pricked burrs form a raised writing, which, with some little practice, the blind writer is able easily to read. However quick they are at this exercise, it is at best but a slow process, and is mainly employed for writing down directions of work, and such things, for reference, their epistolary correspon- dence being necessarily limited. ARITHMETIC. Difficult for the Blind How Taught, This is a subject which the blind pupils have great difficulty in acquiring. Some are said to attain considerable proficiency, and to work common rules as rapidly as most persons with sight, but these are few. In the first place, it is comparatively rare for them to know anything beyond the names of the numbers, when they enter the school. The mode adopted for their instruction is as follows. The ' Slate ' consists of a piece of iron in a wooden frame, completely covered with rows of pentagonal holes at right angles to one another. Small pieces of metal, shaped as pentagons, having at one end two points, and at the other a slit cut, serve as the numbers. According to the position of the end with the slit, when the piece of iron is put into the pentagonal hole, that is, as one of its sides alternately touches each side of the pentagonal hole, so it represents I, 3, 5, 7, and 9, and if the piece of iron be inverted, the two pointed ends which then project in similar positions represent 2, 4, 6, 8, and o. In this way, any common arithmetical expression can be formed, and the first four rules worked out. As may be imagined, it often takes a long time to enable the pupils to understand the multiplication table, but, if this is once mastered, they usually get through the four rules pretty well. THE INDUSTRIAL WORK. Articles Manufactured. This is the most important branch in the Institution, though little success can be attained without at 42. Schools for the Blind. 347 least some mental training. The articles made comprise door- mats of all kinds, plain and fancy worsted rugs, rope and cocoa- nut fibre matting, basket-work of all descriptions, brushes, patent sash and clothes lines, knitting, netting, crochet, tatting, fancy hair-work, and worsted socks, &c., &c. All the articles are sold at the ordinary shop prices, either by retail or wholesale, a large part of them being made to order. The manufacture of the patent sash and clothes lines is a profitable one, and is learned without much difficulty. Two girls are able to make about three yards in an hour. It is sold for ^d. a yard, which leaves a good profit after paying for the material. Perhaps the making of baskets is more easily taught than any other trade, and it has the further advantage of being remunerative, inasmuch as there is always a large demand for common baskets, and visitors are not unwilling to pay a fair price for such really useful articles. Out-Door Shop Self-supporting. The Adult Shop for out-door workers, chiefly those who have been brought up in the School, is a most beneficial branch of the Institution. It is entirely self- supporting, the only aid given by the Charity being the neces- sary accommodation for the people to work in. The men em- ployed are paid by piece-work, at a fixed price, and their occupation entirely depends on the number of orders received. By this means they realise, on an average, as much as from 12s. to 2Os. a week, and consequently earn more than sufficient to support themselves. Musical Instruction. The musical instruction is a special feature in most Blind Schools, and at the Southwark In- stitution it is pursued with great earnestness and success. Many of the Blind have excellent ears for music, and the power of playing some instrument, which they acquire with remarkable facility, is a great source of amusement to them, tending agreeably to vary the monotony of their existence, and in many cases enabling them to earn their living as orga- nists, &c. Nearly all are taught to sing, and those who show any particular talent are allowed to learn some instrument, though it is quite optional, and treated as an amusement. A band has been formed, which numbers about thirty, and their performance shows that they have received most excellent train- ing. The labour of teaching a blind pupil the elements of music is great. He is first taught the scales and the general theory of music ; but as soon as possible he is allowed to play simple airs, 34 8 4 2 - Schools for the Blind. in order that he may be interested in the pursuit, and not too wearied with the elementary drudgery. When he is thus far advanced, he joins all those who are playing the same instrument as himself, and they practise together in a separate room, under the Teacher, until they know their part by heart. The different parts then practise together, and are taught to keep in time by the Conductor counting aloud, or rapping with a stick. The illus- tration at page 348 shows how this part of the instruction is per- formed. It is astonishing how soon, and with what precision, they play even difficult music, and with what accuracy they attend to the most complex 'passages in point of time. The concerts which they occasionally give are excellent. The organ at the chapel is played by one of the pupils, and several good organists have been sent out from this School. Every piece of music they necessarily learn by heart, but it is surprising how soon they pick up a tune, their memory in all things, and especially in music, being particularly acute. The careful instruc- tion in music, even if somewhat expensive, should undoubtedly form a part of the work of all Schools for the Blind. Teaching by * Seeing ' Persons. The teaching and the superin- tendence at this School, and at the Schools throughout the country generally, with one or two exceptions, are carried on by * seeing' persons, who receive salaries for their work. An un- successful attempt was at one time made to train some of the blind pupils to act as monitors ; but it was found that advantage was taken of a monitor suffering the same infirmity, and so the attempt was abandoned. Time at School. The period for which each pupil is elected is six years, though in some cases a little longer stay is allowed, if thought desirable. A limited number are retained for life, as servants or assistants. These are chiefly selected from the poorest pupils, who have made themselves useful, but who are not sufficiently quick to get their own living, and who would, if sent away, undoubtedly have to enter the workhouse. Holidays. At Christmas and Midsummer, a week's holiday is given to those who have friends, and who like to go away. The larger number take advantage of the privilege, and the breaking- up reminds one of the scene before the vacation at a large school. On these occasions, each is allowed to make something (the materials for which do not exceed a certain value), which he QS 42. Schools for the Blind. 349 is at liberty to take away with him, and give, as a present, to his friends.* After-history of Pupils not sufficiently known. The future history of most of the pupils, after they leave the Southwark School, except of those few who continue in the Adult Shop as journey- men, is not known as fully as could be desired. At some places, as at Bristol, the first engagement is noted, but that appears to be all, in the majority of instances. It would be interesting to have some careful record of their career, as it is important to know the permanent effect of the training on all, for unless it enables them to keep in a better position than they otherwise would have been in, its value is very much reduced. Profits on Trade Occupations. The industrial occupations, though successful as a means of employment, are not always made commercially profitable. During the year 1867, the value of the goods sold at Southwark was I,7I2/., which sum also re- presented very nearly the value of the quantity manufactured. After deducting materials, wages, and provisions of teachers, &c., a loss of i62/. accrued to the Institution, or just I/, per head for the pupils. The work of teaching a trade to those who have lost their sight is necessarily much more tedious, and conse- quently more expensive, than the same task in other Industrial Schools ; but, in spite of this, a loss is by no means the invariable rule. At the London Society Institution for the Blind, a profit is made, as also at the Richmond Institution, Dublin, and other places. Cost of the Southwark School. The outlay involved in main- taining an Institution for teaching the Blind is necessarily greater than that of a District School for pauper children. The pupils, when they first enter, require much attention, and a greater amount of superintendence than that given to those blessed with all their faculties. There seems, -however, no reason why the cost should be higher than that of the Earls- wood Asylum for Idiots, as is the case at Southwark and some other Institutions. From the last published report, it appears that the expenditure of the former School in 1867 was 8,777/. 6^. 2d., in addition to the loss on industrial work of i62/. icxr. lod. Leaving out the item for costs of the two elections, and law * At some of the schools, Bristol for example, when the pupil leaves for good he is supplied with a stock of basket-making or other tools, at the expense of the In- stitution. 350 42. Schools for the Blind. charges on account of legacies, as also the items for wages, rations, and other expenses of the industrial training, the total cost of the Institution proper was 8,758/. 6s. This amounts to 54/. 14*. 8^. for each of the indigent blind students, without any allowance for rent, as the premises, with the exception of a ground rent of i6/. 19^. 3^., are free. Details of Cost. This charge is made up as follows : Item Total Cost Cost per Head Corresponding Cost of Boys at the Norwood District School Maintenance Clothing Staff Salaries and Wages . House expenses, Gas, Coals, Wash ing, &c Medicine .... Music, Instruments, &c. . . Taxes s. d. 2,545 9 ii 799 H 5 1,654 9 6 1,043 14 10 72 5 o 212 14 9 568 o 6 s. d. 15 18 2* 4 19 ii 10 6 9 6 10 5 090 i 6 7 311 O , s. d. 8 17 6 i 14 5^ 4 3 of 1 i 3 6 Incidents, repairs, materials, &c. Prizes to Students Loss on Industrial Work 1,508 2 I 191 4 2 162 10 10 986 i 3 10 i o 3 ) 13 6 Total 8,758 6 o 54 H 5 16 ii ii * This probably includes the rations of the resident officers and teachers, which the 8/. 17*. 6d. does not. At the Norwood School these rations are included under ' Staff, 4/. 3$.' t This includes the Industrial Teachers, which the corresponding sum of io/. 6s, gd, does not. Comparison of Cost with other Places. Although a comparison is drawn above, between the Norwood School and the Indigent Blind School, it is not to be supposed that the latter could be carried on at the same rate in every respect as the former. In maintenance, clothing, and several items, there does not seem to be sufficient reason for any great difference, except perhaps that the average ages of the Blind are a year or two higher than those of the Norwood children. This, however, must to a certain extent be balanced by the saving during the holidays given at Christmas and Midsummer to the Blind, which are not given in the District School. The staff must be more expensive at the Institution under consideration, as the pupils require greater supervision, and are incapable of attending to many matters, which have consequently to be performed for them. Even allowing for this, however, the cost of the Southwark School seems great as compared with many other establish- ments, as, for instance, the Earlswood Idiot Asylum, where the pupils require even a still more careful watching and a more costly staff. As before stated, the appointed time for each 42. Schools for the Blind. 351 pupil to remain at the School is six years, but many are kept a little longer. It follows, therefore, that the cost of educating each of these indigent blind persons, without any consideration of rent, is at least six times 54/. 14$-. 5 requirement was not very strictly enforced however. 444 54- National Society s Training Colleges. No. of School- masters in Training No. of School- mistresses in Training Period of Training Canterbury 4 4 Six months at least York 36 8 One to three years Durham I 3 ... Six months to two years Winchester J 9 ... Six months at least Chester 4i 20 One year at least Chichester 10 II Two years Exeter 19 Three years Bristol 6 ... Three years Lichfield 26 ... Two years ' Lincoln 60 Two years Newport 2 Three to twelve months Norwich 3 7 Three months Oxford H 6 One year Salisbury 26 One year Worcester "6 One year and a half Total . 259 82 Increase of Accommodation of Colleges by State Assistance. In consequence of the liberal Government arrangements made in 1846 for aiding in the support of Training Colleges, the National Society determined the year after to enlarge their London In- stitutions ; and several of those in the provinces at this same time considerably extended their accommodation. The great demand for Teachers caused by the offer of annual grants to schools may be judged of from the fact that in this year the Society received 598 applications for Teachers which it was unable to supply, either from the Metropolis, or from any of the Local Diocesan Establishments. Pupil Teacherships Preparation for Teacherships. The action of the new Minutes of the Committee- of Council, both by enlarging the sphere and extent of the Training Colleges, and by their regulations for supplying eligible candidates for ad- mission, in time led materially to decrease this want. The Pupil Teacher System, which it brought into existence, supplied good material for Queen's Scholars, who were well prepared to enter the Colleges to be trained as Teachers. Increase of Salaries Reduction of College Fees. The salaries of Masters in Elementary Schools increased about 1851, when the Society reported that they varied from ioo/. to 5liy and Animal Physiology are conducted at the Faversham Institute, by the Masters eon- nected with this establishment. These elates are open to all the pupils in the S at a nominal charge. 512 62. Faversham Educational Arrangements. Between 12 and 13 . . . . . . .28 13 ,, 14 . . . 21 H 15 -9 15 16 . . . . . . .5 Distances from which Boys Attend. Some of the children come from considerable distances to attend the classes. The parents of 59 of the boys reside in Faversham; 16 within four miles; 14 at Whitstable ; 2 in, the Isle of Sheppey ; I at Maidstone ; 3 at Woolwich ; 3 at Dover ; 3 at Deal ; 4 at Sittingbourne ; 4 at Chatham ; I in London. Many of these necessarily reside with the Head Master, but it is interesting to know that 96 reside, either with their parents or in lodgings, within one mile of the School ; 3 within three miles of the School ; 7 within four miles ; I within five miles ; and 3 within seven miles, going backwards and forwards daily. Mixture of Social Classes. The mixture both of grades of society and also of sects in this School is noteworthy, and makes it evident that supposed difficulties from these causes are more imaginary than real. The scheme for the management of this School contains a conscience clause. Of the 110 boys in the School, in May last, 14 were sons of professional men; 15 the sons of farmers ; 5 1 of tradesmen ; 8 of ship-owners and mer- chants ; 7 of clerks ; 1 3 of artisans ; and 2 of mariners ; and, further, the parents of 60 of them belonged to the Church of England ; 28 to the Wesleyan body ; I to the Baptists ; 20 to the Independents ; and I to the Jewish community. THE GRAMMAR SCHOOL. Not in a Satisfactory Condition. This is, unfortunately, at present, the part of the Faversham scheme which does not fulfil its proper duties. It might be expected to form the culmination of the educational arrangements of the town, and so, probably, will be made to do by the Endowed Schools Commission. The vital question as to who are the Managers is somewhat disputed between the Trustees of Public Charities, the Corporation, and the Warden of All Souls College, Oxford, so that any improve- ments are difficult to carry out. The present Head Master is a gentleman of very advanced age, and, consequently, too old to perform his duties, which have to be attended to by deputy. Statistics. The number of scholars, up to the beginning of the 62. Faversham Educational Arrangements. 513 year, was eight, each paying a fee of 8/. per annum ; and, as the endowment is 28o/., the cost per student is as high as 43/. per annum. For this they are merely taught by one Master, and receive no board whatever, and there can be no doubt but that the education at the Commercial School at 3/. is as much better as it is cheaper. This state of things will, no doubt, be shortly changed, as the feeling in the town is strongly against it, and in 1869 a deputation waited on the Right Hon. W. E. Forster on the subject. Recent Increase, It is only fair to state that through the exertions of the present Deputy Head Master, the number of scholars had increased in November to 19, and that the School has recently been subjected to an examination under the authority of the College of Preceptors. Exhibitions to Universities. The Trustees of Public Charities have power to give two exhibitions to Oxford and Cambridge, of the value of 6o/., to the best scholars in the School, but owing to the small attendance, in consequence of the inefficient state of the Grammar School, this has never been done until within the last few months, during which one exhibition has been awarded. THE MUTUAL RELATION OF THE SCHOOLS ONE TO ANOTHER. Means of Advance from School to School. The peculiarity of the Faversham Schools is their connection one to another, and the means they afford to a promising boy of rising, even from the lowest rank, to a position culminating even in a University diploma. This final step will be more satisfactorily arranged when the Grammar School has been remodelled. From Infant to Commercial School. The Infant and National Schools receive the children of the poorer classes, the payment being but one penny per week. A sound education is here given until the age of twelve ; at this age they must leave, though the greater number unfortunately give up school long before that period. To those who show any promise, a free admission is given by competition to the Commercial School, and by this means a boy rises at least one step, and may have the advantage of an excellent advanced education, until he is sixteen years of age. L L 514 62. Faversham Educational Arrangements. To Grammar School. So far, the promotion of a clever boy is secured, and the next step is an exhibition to the Grammar School. The Trustees have power to grant 5O/. a-year, in sums not exceeding io/. each, for this purpose. Were the Grammar School what it shortly will be, this step would be an immense advantage, and be the means of bridging over the widest gap which at present separates the poor genius from the way to usefulness. / To the University. To the most distinguished, a further opening would present itself after this, in the shape of a 6o/. scholarship to Oxford or Cambridge, the funds for this, as for every previous step, being obtained from Wreight's Charity, thus happily snatched from being appropriated to the creation of pauperism, and applied to the only sound way of reducing poverty, namely, the improvement of education. Hardly Possible to have a better Scheme, It is difficult to con- ceive a better system, or a more admirably drawn scheme for providing for the education of a town, than the one which has been thus sketched out as existing at Faversham, and, as far as it has gone, the results have been quite successful. The culmi- nation in the Grammar School, being at present in an unsatis- factory state, is to be regretted, though it cannot be looked upon as permanent. From the energy and ability displayed by the inhabitants in the National and Commercial Schools, it is not likely that they will remain much longer in getting the Grammar School completely re-organised, and put on a proper footing. Suggestions for fully Carrying it out, It would seem proba- ble that the office of Head Master of the whole set of Schools, including Grammar, Commercial, and National, might be en- trusted to one officer, charged with general superintendence, and remunerated partly by a fixed salary, and partly by fees ; and not only so, but it would be clearly advantageous if the Schools were under one Educational Board, composed of representatives of the interests of the Trustees of Public Charities, the College, the Corporation, and the Subscribers to the National Schools. The classes in the Grammar School should be as superior to those in the Commercial, as the Commercial are at present to the National. None should be admitted to the Grammar School unless they had passed through the other schools, or, at any rate, were sufficiently educated to benefit by the classes, which 62. Faversham Educational Arrangements. 515 should be only of an advanced nature. At present, considerable time is spent at the Grammar School in giving elementary instruc- tion in Reading and Writing. The resources of the Schools, when combined, would supply sufficient funds to provide an ample staff of Teachers of various subjects, including Physical Science, and there could be no doubt but that, with these advantages, coupled with the attractions of the exhibitions to the Universities, which might be thrown open to all the inhabitants of Kent, the Faversham educational system would be second to few in the country. Statistics. Several points are worthy of note in the Institu- tions under consideration. They show chiefly what may be done, even in a small place, by the proper use of endowments, and by organisation and combination. The Schools are much more efficient than half-a-dozen small ones in different parts of the town would be. The religious sect difficulty is here practi- cally got over, and, further, a step is made of inducing parents to allow their children to be educated together, though their station in life may be somewhat different. This Plan might be Pursued in many Places. Faversham in no way differs from many other towns. A large number of places have funds at their disposal, which are yearly wasted or spent in fostering idleness, under the cloak of charity. Were they all to take a lesson from Faversham, and adopt this system, by com- bining the small District and Party Schools into large and well organised Institutions, the charity funds thus used would soon bear their own fruit, and more effectually relieve distress than any number of Sunday doles. I. I. 2 63. THE S ALTAI RE EDUCATIONAL ARRANGEMENTS. Peculiarities of Locality. The town of Saltaire is situated about four miles from Bradford, in one of the most beautiful parts of Yorkshire. The estate on which it is built attracted the attention of the present owner, Sir Titus Salt, from its possessing unusual facilities for the transport of goods, and at the same time being so near the very centre of the Worsted Manufacturing District. It is remarkable for many reasons, and has been entirely built within the last twenty years, the first stone having been laid in the year 1851. Sir Titus had at that time become one of the largest Yorkshire manufacturers, chiefly by his successful introduction of Alpaca as an important addition to the supply of raw material for the Bradford Trade. Size of Mills, &c, Being in want of new premises, Sir Titus purchased the estate, and erected gigantic mills, which are among the largest in the world. Some idea may be formed of their size when it is known that in one shed no fewer than a thousand looms are at work. Along one side of the mills the Midland Railway passes, and along the other the river Aire ; whilst between the two, and dividing the manufacturing pre- mises, is the Leeds and Liverpool Canal. With these con- veniences, it is not to be wondered at that the site was considered so eligible for laying the foundation of a colossal manufactory. Erection of Town, &e, The erection of the mill, with its neces- sary belongings, was not the limit of the scheme projected by the owner. The whole estate was planned out so as to form a complete Model Town, where all the workpeople employed could reside, if they thought proper to do so, and where every facility for social enjoyment and relaxation should be provided. With this view, in the course of a few years, no fewer than 820 model cottages were built, each being supplied with gas, water, &c. 63. Saltaire Educational Arrangements. 517 A certain number of shops were also erected, so that most articles in daily use can be obtained without necessitating a journey to Bradford. No Public House on Premises. Sir Titus has always refused to allow any public-house or beer-house to be located on any part of his property. This he has done, not from a desire to prevent the inhabitants from drinking beer, but because he considers that the public sale of intoxicating drinks as now carried on is not conducive to the welfare of the people. Many of the workpeople have their supply of beer in casks direct from the brewery, and this is not at all interfered with, thereby showing that Sir Titus does not act on any narrow-minded principles. The salu- tary effect of thus limiting the number of licensed houses, and at the same time giving every facility for legitimate wants, is recog- nized by all who have resided in the neighbourhood. Statistics Almshouses. The general statistical information concerning the town is as follows : Number of cottages, as before stated, 820. Of these, 45 are almshouses, founded by Sir Titus Salt, ' in grateful remembrance of God's undeserved goodness, and in the hope of promoting the comfort of some who, in feebleness and necessity, may need a home.' The popu- lation is 4,356, including 75 residents in the almshouses. The area covered by the mills, sheds, &c., is nine acres one rood and twenty-seven perches. The cottages occupy twenty-five acres two roods thirty-seven perches, and the park, fourteen acres* The whole town therefore includes forty-nine acres and twenty- four perches. Provision for Religious Worship. The arrangements for reli- gious worship in the town have also been provided for in a liberal spirit A Congregational Church erected at the sole expense of Sir Titus, at a cost of over I2,ooo/., seats about 700 persons. This building has been conveyed to Trustees. A Wes- leyan Chapel, built by that denomination, accommodates about the same number. Sir Titus gave the land for this place of worship, and subscribed ioo/. to the funds. These places of worship provide for a large section of the population, and those who are members of the National Establishment attend at the Parish Church, about a quarter of a mile distant. Besides this, various Dissenting Chapels exist in the parish of Shipley. 63. Saltaire Educational Arrangements. Educational Arrangements. With so much consideration for the welfare of the workpeople, it is not likely that the educa- tional wants of the children would have been forgotten. By a reference to the plan at page 518 it will be seen that ample school accommodation is provided. In laying out the town, a central and most convenient position has been set apart for the blocks of buildings devoted to the various branches of study. In fact, these form the most marked feature of the town. Mr. Fitch, in his Report for 1868, stated that the School Buildings, for beauty, size, and completeness of equipment, had no rivals in his district. The outlay on the school accommodation alone has amounted to no less than 7,ooo/., a sum defrayed entirely by the private liberality of Sir Titus. Provision for Advanced Instruction. The educational arrange- ments provide for almost every branch of instruction requisite for a place of the size of Saltaire ; and include all grades, from infant teaching, to the advanced subjects of a Science and Art School. They divide themselves somewhat naturally into those carried on in the Elementary School Buildings adjoining the main road, and those for which the Club and Institute has just been erected, at a cost of over 2O,ooo/., immediately opposite. THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS. Description of Buildings. These are subdivided, as usual, for Infants, Girls, and Boys. Each class of children has a separate Schoolroom, to which is attached the necessary Class-rooms. There is also a large playground, and a covered recreation-shed for wet weather. The Boys' and Girls' Schools are under the inspection of the Education Department, and receive the public grants. In 1869, Mr. Fitch, in his Report, stated that the Saltaire Boys' School was rapidly becoming one of the best, as it was already the handsomest, schools in his district. Statistics Fees. The number of children in average attend- ance in 1 870 was as follows : Infants ...... 200 Girls . . . . . -380 Boys . . . . . -43 Total . . 1,010 and the grants received from Government amounted to 2447. <* / ^3?^ 63. Saltaire Educational Arrangements. 519 The usual weekly fee charged to those children who are not half- timers is 2d. for the Infants, -$d. for the Girls, and 3^. and 4^. for the Boys ; as, however, nearly all the scholars are half-timers, who pay no fees, the income to the School from this source is not great. All deficiencies are paid by the firm of Sir Titus Salt, Sons & Co. Irregularity of Attendance Cause, &c. The progress of the children in the Boys' and Girls' Schools, nearly all of whom are engaged at the Saltaire Works, is fairly satisfactory, but the Teacher does not think their improvement equals that of the whole-timers, although it is undoubtedly more than half as rapid. Considerable trouble is experienced from the irregular attendance both of the boys and girls, who are constantly join- ing the School for a short time, and then leaving it again. The reasons for this are somewhat different from those which produce a similar evil in London, and other places in the South of England. The pupils in the Schools, though not limited to those at work at the Saltaire Mills, are composed very largely of those children who are necessarily half-timers until they are thirteen years of age. The children who reside in Saltaire, and are constantly employed, attend regularly, but it repeatedly happens, that when neighbouring works are slack, and discharge their hands, some of the children obtain employment at Saltaire, and while thus engaged, of course attend the School. Directly the mills adjacent to their own homes begin to work again for longer hours, or as soon as they can get work nearer their own doors, they leave Saltaire, and consequently their teaching has to be begun afresh at another school. This sometimes happens two or three times a year, and is a serious impediment to progress. Drill not Sufficiently Attended to. Drill is attended to only to a limited extent, and in this respect perhaps some improvement might be made among both the girls and boys, who would not be at all the worse for the systematic instruction of the Drill Sergeant. THE ADVANCED SCHOOLS. Class of Students Where Held. These consist chiefly of Even- ing Classes, under the regulations of the Science and Art De- partment, formed for the benefit of the workpeople. Hitherto they have been carried on in the premises occupied by the ffS^ OF THE XT v. & V ffW ** 11 520 63. Saltaire Educational Arrangements. Elementary Schools during the day. They are, however, about to be moved to the magnificent block of buildings, * The Saltaire Club and Institute,' now just complete, which will provide accommodation for these classes, such as is rarely met with in any Provincial Town. The instruction may be divided into that given in Science, and that given in Art. i. The Science Classes. Statistics. In these, there are twenty-four pupils ; twenty-two of these are studying Chemistry, and twenty Magnetism and Electricity. At the last examination, three obtained prizes in the Elementary Stage of Chemistry. The fees paid are 2s. a session. 2. The Art Classes. Statistics Outside Day Classes, In these there are thirty under instruction in Freehand, Geometrical, and Model Drawing, each paying a fee of 2s. 6d. a session. At the last examination twenty-seven pupils were examined, and twelve were successful. It is hoped that when the new building is quite finished, Day Classes will be formed, composed of persons coming from the surrounding parishes, who can afford to pay a fair fee for in- struction in Drawing. The arrangements both for the Science and Art Classes are very complete. Every care has been bestowed on the lighting of the Art Rooms, and in storing all divisions with what is requisite for the illustration, and efficient carrying out, of the lessons and lectures. Advantages Provided at the Club. In addition to these class rooms, the building is to serve as a Workman's Club. There are spacious reading rooms, lecture theatre with laboratory attached, libraries, billiard rooms, bagatelle and chess rooms, and an excellent gymnasium, extending under the whole of the large concert and lecture hall which forms the centre of the building, and is capable of accommodating 800 persons. All these advantages, with the extra fees above mentioned, for admission to the Science and Art Classes, are open to members of the Institution for a yearly payment of from 4^. to 8s., according to age. There are also rooms for the use, at a small charge, of the various sick and benefit clubs and other societies unconnected with the Saltaire Club and Institute. The gynma- 63. S a It air e Educational Arrangements. 521 sium room also serves as a winter drill hall for the corps of volunteers composed of men in the town, and commanded by Mr. Titus Salt. Educational Provision Ample for all Children. From what has been stated, it will be seen that almost every educational requirement for a small town has been provided. In this respect, Saltaire perhaps does not differ from many other places ; but in the extent to which provision is made for educating the population, and the proportion of the inhabitants whose children take advantage of it, it is an exception from most districts. The school accommodation is amply sufficient for the wants of the town, and nearly every child is under instruction. The exact popula- tion is 4,356, all of whom must be considered as of the' industrial class. Estimating that 22 per cent, of these are children within the school ages of 3 and 12, there should be accommodation for teaching about 1000. The regulation accommodation in the Elementary Schools is for 7 50, so that as a considerable proportion of these thousand must necessarily be half-timers, the provision would be more than sufficient for the requirements. Extra Proportion of Children. There is one point, however, to be considered, and that is, that the proportion of children to adults is in excess of the ordinary average. When a house becomes vacated, it is usual for several families to apply to be received as tenants, and, as a rule, preference is given, caeteris paribus, to that which has the largest number of little ones. This must somewhat throw out the above calculation, but probably not very much, and certainly not sufficiently to overstep the broad margin which is allowed for in the above calculations. Saltaire a Model Town. Saltaire must therefore be regarded as a model town as regards its educational arrangements, for it provides for teaching all its children, and has provision for an advanced instruction to those who think proper to avail them- selves of it. In other respects also, it has been shown that it possesses many advantages rarely met with in so small a place. The Park and Dining Hall. Some allusion should also be made to the park of 14 acres at one end of the property, which has been laid out for the recreation of the inhabitants. Here a large cricket ground is provided, and in daily use in the summer, as are the bowling greens and croquet grounds. The dining hall must also be mentioned as a flourishing institution. It was 522 63. Saltaire Educational Arrangements. started on the Glasgow Penny Dinner System. A fixed tariff is published, and breakfast and dinner can be had of the very best description, at wonderfully low rates : a good plate of meat 2d. ; a cup of tea or coffee, \d* ; a bowl of soup, id., and so on. Persons preferring to bring their own food and to make use of the hall, are allowed to do so, and they may also have anything cooked without payment. The management of the whole Institution is placed in the hands of a Superintendent, who has a fixed salary, without reference to the profits of the concern. He consequently is not tempted to stint the allowances. The leavings at every meal are carefully collected, and it is surprising how very wasteful the people are. Their prodigality, however, has its advantages ; for without these remains it is doubtful whether the balance at the end of the year would be on the right side. All sweepings go to feed a large family of pigs kept on purpose to eat the sweepings, and so profitable is this arrangement that 5O/. a year is thus realised towards the funds of the Dining Hall. Conclusion. The general working of a town such as Saltaire is especially interesting in many ways. The consideration bestowed on everything likely to improve the condition of the working-classes, and the great attention given to, and the ample provision made for, education, show that the founder of the town was fully alive to the great responsibilities incident to so colossal an undertaking. The development of his works at Saltaire shows that his princely liberality, though emanating from unselfish motives, has produced most successful results even in a commercial point of view ; and the blessings which he has been instrumental in bestowing on others have been returned into his own bosom a hundredfold. 523 64. ORPHAN SCHOOL, ASHLEY DOWN, BRISTOL. Reason for Considering this Institution. The Ashley Down Orphan School deserves special attention for several reasons. It is the largest Boarding School in England, and no other establishment on so extensive a scale is in existence for edu- cating children until they are fit to earn their own living. The way in which it has been gradually developed under the care and management of a single individual, and the method he adopts for its support, are such as to make it one of the most remarkable Institutions in these Islands. Origin and Development. The work was commenced in a small way in an old house in the city of Bristol, about five and thirty years ago, by Mr. George Miiller, who is still its sole manager. By degrees it grew so much as to require regular school premises, and a large building was accordingly erected at Ashley Down ; to this, in a few years, a second of like pro- portions was added, then another, and another, and now a fifth, at a total cost of no,ooo/., and capable of accommodating 2,000 children. The appearance of these fine premises is certainly imposing ; they are built of excellent stone, and in the most substantial way. They are nevertheless perfectly plain, and both externally and internally show that every penny has been most carefully and judiciously laid out. It was wished to have a set of the plans showing how the buildings are arranged in- cluded in this volume, but Mr. M tiller appeared to have objec- tions to such a course. This is to be regretted, as a study of them would doubtless be useful to those purposing to build schools. The proportions of the ages and sexes of the children are as follows : Girls. Under eight years of age . . . 280 Over eight ..... 822 1,102 Boys. Under eight years of age . . . 208 Over eight ..... 290 _49 Total 1, 600 524 64. Orphan School, Ashley Down, Bristol. Income How Raised Money Never Asked for, The income of the School, as well as the large sum already expended in buildings, has always been derived entirely from subscriptions and donations, a great part of which have been given anonym- ously. In the mode of obtaining this money Mr. Miiller's con- duct differs from that of most other School Managers. He has never asked for aid, and indeed such an act on his part would be quite contrary to the avowed principle on which he entered on the work on which he has been so long engaged. He considers that all the support which he has received has been given in answer to prayer. At times, during the history of the Schools, the orphans have been reduced almost to their last day's meal, and even then, Mr. M tiller has taken no steps, beyond praying for assistance. At these times, by some donation at the very moment when it was most required, their larder has been again replenished. An account is published quarterly, giving the date on which each donation is received, and the quarter from which it comes. The average amount thus obtained is somewhat more than 3e> at Conference, 139 Arts, Science applied to. See Government School of Mines, &c. and Sciences, Mechanics' Institution founded to instruct mechanics in, 391 Edinburgh School of, opened for in- struction in Science to artisans, 393 Ashley Down Orphan School, Bristol, account of, 523-530 .Wistaut Teachers in Army Schools se- lected from the ranks, 227 versus Pupil Teachers, correspon- dence concerning, at District Schools, 293 to have Queen's Scholarships after three years without further exami- nation, 432 BAL Associate and Fellow of Royal School of Naval Architecture, 208 Association. See First-clay Asylum for Deaf and Dumb, foundation of, 9 Asylum for Female Orphans, foundation of, 9 of St. Ann's Society, founded in 1702, 9 Royal Naval, history of, 21 1 for the Dumb, London, 356 See Royal Military Asylums eligible to receive aid under Re- formatory Act, 255 Attendance of children improved by charg- ing fees, 1 6 increased by fees, evidence of, in British Schools, 64 mode of removing apathy of parents causing irregular attendance by giving share in management of Schools, 91 effect of regularity in, at Bell Lane Jews' School, 104 of Boys at School on board ship, 189 irregular, plan to remove. See Apathy of Teachers at First-day Schools, 381 alterations in arrangements for, cpm- pulsory at Dockyard Schools, 204 at Army Schools, how secured with the children, 227 at Adult Army Schools not suffi- ciently regular, 229 irregular, of youths, at First -day Schools, 378 irregularity of, at Ragged Schools, suggestions to diminish, 385 irregular, at Saltaire, causes, 519 of scholars at First-day Schools, and how secured, 379 Aubin, Mr., his School of Industry first District School, 287 B Bacon, Roger, statement of educational condition of London in thirteenth century, 2 Badge Boys in Navy, 1 79 Baines, Edward, M. P., seconds resolution that Congregational .Schools receive State aid, 93 Baker Street, shop in, to dispose of Cripples' work, &c., suggested com- bination with other Institutions, 364 Baking, &c., payments for teaching Pupil Teachers, 36 Bala, First School for Adults exclusively, .started at, 414 542 Index. BAL Baldovan Institution for Idiots and Imbe- ciles, 301 Baldwin's Gardens, mode of teaching a Sunday School in, 372 National Society's first Training Col- lege at, 439 National Society's School in, 52 Bands at Southwark Blind School, 347 Army, relation to officers and regi- ment, 531 Army, most of the musicians at Chel- sea School from, 237 drum and fife, at Bristol Industrial School, 251 good effect of, on Idiots, 307 none at Mr. Miiller's Orphan School, want of, 526 excellency of, at Duke of York's School, 236 excellent, at the District Schools, 293 military, Kneller Hall established to improve, 531 Bands of Hope at Ragged Schools, 388 Bandmasters, Army, Kneller Hall esta- blished to train, 531 course of training, 535 position of most, before Crimean War, 532 Bandsmen, course of training for, 533 Bank for Savings, at First-day Schools, 379 Banks in Ragged Schools, 386 Baptized, children required to have been, in Charity Schools, 329 Barnaby, Mr., educated at a Dockyard School, 209 Barnes, Mr., educated at a Dockyard School, 209 Baskets of all sorts made by the Blind, 347 Bate, Miss, opened one of the earliest Sunday Schools, 369 Baths, warm, each Cripple, at the School, required to take one twice a week, 366 Battersea Training College, first Building Grants made to, 430 history of origin, 442 Homerton Congregational College based on, 476 Bedford correspondence on teaching pau- per children Reading only, 273 Bedminster anecdote of Workhouse School, 284 Beer-houses none in Saltaire, 517 Beggars, if under sixteen, may be sent by magistrates' order to Industrial School, 246 Bell, Dr., on payments on results, 54 the Madras System, 50 Bell and Lancaster's training of Teachers, originally limited to a few months, 15 BIS | Bell Lane Jews' School, history of, 101 | Benedictine Monk. See Pedro Ponce, the Beneficial results produced at Norwood District School, 294 in Reformatory Schools, statistics of, 260 . at Industrial Schools, 252 on Idiots by training must be perma- nent to be really successful, 305 Benevolent Evening School Society, for- mation of, 414 Berlin, one of first Reformatory Schools started at, 254 Beverley, St. John of, taught a dumb boy to speak in fifteenth century, 355 Bible to be read daily an essential con- dition of State aid from the first, 3 1 made too much a dry lesson book in Infant Schools, 1834, 109 also in Sunday Schools, 374 only book used in 1853 for teaching reading in Marine Schools, 193 memorial for aid to Secular Schools, where not read, 313 advantages of having it in the churches in the vulgar tongue, 325 considered essential in British teach- ing, 453 how taught in British Schools, 454 Society for instructing adults to read, 414 Bill. See Education Bill Birkbeck, Dr., his action with reference to starting Mechanics' Institutions, 391 Birkbeck Schools, history of, 419-426 a- classification of, 313 Peckham. See Peckham Birmingham, one of the first Science Schools at, 125 Saltley, near, first certified Reforma- tory established at, by Mr. Adder- ley, 255 First-day Schools, account of, 376 Female Training College for Roman Catholic Teachers, 464 Bishop Hinds suggests State aid to Evening Schools, 116 was usually chief, if not only Teacher, in Cathedral Schools, 316 his house was the chief seat of learning, 316 St. John of Beverley taught a dumb boy to speak in fifteenth century, 354 formerly required to license all Teach- ers, 368 no one was formerly allowed to teach in any School without authority of Bishop, 408 Bishoprics, Henry VIII., scheme of, 317 Bishops, Roman Catholic, efforts to improve Training College, 470 Index. 543 BIS Bishops, their relations to the Inspectors of Schools, 32 and Archbishops give support to the National Society, 51 Black Board, use of, at Birkbeck School, 423 Blind Schools for the Indigent, foundation of, 9 recent increase of, 16 classification of, 312 history of, 342-353 Board for Jews' Schools throughout the country, want of, 96 Board, Poor Law, educational history of, 269 Board ship, Industrial Schools on, 250 Board Schools on H.M.'s ships, 187-191 Board of Education, Congregational, for- mation of, 87, 473 Boarding children in Charity Schools were sometimes boarded, 327 Grants, Committee of Council's objec- tions to, 244 out of pauper children, 284 School, Bristol School largest, 523 Bonet, Juan Paulo, published a book on teaching the dumb, in 1620, 355 Bonnets, straw, made by Cripples, 364 Bonus, payments to Workhouse Teachers. See Results Books, aid in the purchase of, 1847, 38 &c., Grants for, from Wesleyan Com- mittee, 72 for Roman Catholic Schools, prepara- tion of list of, 83 maps, and apparatus for Workhouse Schools, aid in the purchase of, 279 &c., aid to Queen's Scholars in pur- chase of, 434 granted to Trained Army School- masters, 502 Borough Road Model School. See British Schools first Training School of J. Lancaster in, 447 Botolph St., Aldgate, one of the first Charity Schools established at, 326 Bowstead, J., H.M.'s Inspector Report on efficiency of Wesleyan Schools, 74 Boys on board ship obliged to go to Srhool, 189 at Dockyard attend school regularly, 206 in Army obliged to attend school, 229 are younger than girls at Reformatory Schools, but more criminal, 257 more re-convicted than girls from Reformatory Schools, 260 . and men, objection to mixing in F. veiling Schools, 417 BRI Bradford, proportion of Dame Schools at, which teach writing, 404 Braidwood, Thomas, directed the first Dumb School in Edinburgh, 355 Breakspear, Nicholas, afterwards Pope Adrian IV., refused admission to an abbey for want of learning-, 317 Brecon Training School of Congregation - alists, 475 Brewers' Green, Westminster, early Infant School at, 1 08 Bribes to induce children to go to school, doubtful policy, 387 Brickmaking at Redhill Reformatory, pro- fitable, 264 Bridewells, condition of, in 1836, 241 Bridges, Mr. . assists to start the Home and Colonial Society, no Brigade of Shoeblacks attached to Ragged Schools, 388 Bright, Rt. Hon. John, M. P. , presents peti- tion against State aid from Congre- gationalists, 91 Brighton, Navigation taught at the Charity Schools, about 1710, 329 Brigs, Training, for the Training Ships, 182 Bristol, early Adult Evening Schools at, 414 first Private Evening School for Boys and Girls, 414 one of the first Science Schools at, 125 Trade School, history of, 156 Industrial School, account of, 250 tools given to blind pupils at, on leaving, 349 one of earliest Friends' First-day Schools at, 375 Ragged School received Public Grants in 1850, 382 Institution for instructing Adults to read the Holy Scriptures started, 414 Orphan School, Ashley Down, account <* 523-530 British Endeavour first name of Royal Naval Asylum, 211 British and Foreign School Society, formed, 62 main objects of, 62 otherwise called the Institution for Promoting the Education of the La- bouring and Manufacturing Classes of Society of every Religious Per- suasion, 63 Training Colleges of, history of, 447-455 worked with the Congregationalists for many years, 473 British and National Schools, evidence in favour of charging fees, i 5 544 Index. BRI British and National Societies, rivalry between, n British Schools supported by Church of England and Dissenters, 10 rapid extension of, 1 1 special Inspector of, 33 history of, 59-68 British Society. See British and Foreign School Society British System, Wesleyan Schools carried on under, until about 1845, 70 for many years Congregational Schools were under, 87 causes which led to, 10 Brittany, establishment for training Roman Catholic Teachers, 464 Bronze medals and prizes given for students' works, 151 Brougham, Lord, brings educational ques- tions before Parliament, 12 encourages formation of Infant Schools, 1 08 introduces the first Education Bill to Parliament in 1820 provisions of, 13 proposal for Itinerant Lectures for Mechanics' Institutions, 398 votes for education passed mainly by his efforts, 65 Brushmaking at Bristol Industrial School, 250 Buchanan, Mr., commences Infant Schools at Westminster, 108 Buildings, cost of, for District Schools, 291 Building Grants from Treasury, proposed under first Education Bill, 1820, 13 continued by Committee of Council, 31 regulations for, in 1840, 32 to Teachers' Houses commenced, 33 to Schools of Industry, 37 for Science and Art rooms in 1858, in Elementary Schools, 42 limited to ioo/. for Teacher's i*esi- 'dence, &c., 43 reduced to 4^. , and afterwards to 2s. 6d. per foot, 43 limited to 2s. 6d. per foot under Revised Code, 45 from National Society, 55 still made by National Society, 57 Public, commencement of, to British Schools, 65 first to Roman Catholic Schools, 83 not taken much advantage of by Roman Catholics, 83 to Roman Catholic Schools, statis- tics of, 85 to Training Colleges first made to Battersea, 430 . to Training Colleges suspended, 436 plans, specimen sets prepared, in 1840, 33 CAT Callcott, A. W., R.A., at first meeting to establish Schools of Design, 142 Cambridge, H.R.H. the Duke of, said to be the originator of Kneller Hall, . 532 Candidates, deficiency of, for Wesleyan Colleges, by action of Revised Code, 461 for National Society's College reduced in number by Revised Code, 445 Canterbury, anecdote on advantages of education to the poor in sixteenth century, 318 Capitation Grants, alterations in, 1857, 42 extension of, to large places, 43 extended to Scotland, but not carried out, 43 under Revised Code, 45 to Mixed Schools, 40 1853 Minute, 38 Cappe, Mrs., opened one of the earliest Sunday Schools, 369 Captain of a ship great influence on the Schools of that ship, 187 Cardan, Jerome, the first who showed that teaching the dumb was not impos- sible, 355 Card well, Right Hon. E., suggests the formation of a Department for Science, 124 Carlisle, Nicholas remarks on foundation of Grammar Schools, 4 states that the Bishops' houses were the chief seats of learning, 3 1 6 the educational effect of the Refor- mation, 3 Carpenters, training of, for the Navy, 182 Casts and models for Students in Art Schools, 144 Catechetical Schools commenced by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 326 Catechising in church on Sunday, curates directed to conduct, 368 Catechism, objections of Dissenters to learn Church of England conscience clause, 46 of Church of England, groundwork of teaching of National Society, 1 1 choice of one of two left to children at Commercial Travellers' School, 339 prohibited from Schools where British Teachers were sent, 448 Cathedral Schools, classification of, 312 history of, 316-324 learning confined to them after death of Alfred, I Catholic. See also Roman Catholic Index. 545 CAT Catholic Institute formed to promote the education of the poor, dissolution of, 79 Poor School Committee assists Schools in building and other grants, 81 formation of, and object, 79, 464 School, The, a periodical, commence- ment of, 82 Catterick, the Vicar of, opened one of the earliest Sunday Schools, 369 Causes of dumbness, 356 which led to Educational Society Period, 10 which led to the Revised Code, 44 Census 1851 statistics of Congregational Schools, 91 Centenary. See Wesleyan Methodist Central School of Mathematics. See Ports- mouth, 201 Central Society of Education remarks on Sunday School teaching, 1837, 372 Certificate allowance first regulations, 37 for drawing, 433 for 3rd grade Art course, 495 of Elementary Teachers with Drawing certificate increased, 493 to Art School Teachers, 150, 494 to Science Teachers, 127 to Teachers, commencement of, 35 to Training College Teachers granted, 43 ' for Workhouse Teachers, 279 Certificate for Bandmasters, 535 Certificated Teacher. See Teacher Certificates for Navigation Teachers, 164 granted to Trained Army School- masters, 502 in Science abolished reasons, 131 of competency to Bandsmen trained at Kneller Hall, 535 of merit to Congregational Colleges,478 Science, Examinations for, 126 to Adult Army Schools regulations and object, 229 to be granted to Evening School Teachers after three years, 41 to Infant Mistresses under Minutes of 1854, approved by Home and Colonial Society, 486 to Pupil Teachers, not given, 35 to untrained Teachers, 38 Certified Industrial Schools, history of, 243-253 Reformatory Schools, history of, 254- 265 Certifying, regulations for certifying Refor- matory Schools, 256 Chancellor. See Lord Chancellor Chancery Lane, Mechanics' Institution. See London Chantrey, Sir F., R.A., at first meeting to establish Schools of Design, 142 CHU Chaplain on board Training Ship super- intends educational arrangements, 1 80 - Superintendent of Educational work on board Sea-going Ships, 189 Chapman, Mr., Teacher at Kneller Hall, 534 Character of Teachers in Private Schools, 409 Charge for Cripples at School, 8/. per annum, paid by Patron, 365 Charitable funds for education, Commis- sion to enquire into, in 1820, 12 Charities at Faversham, 507 Charity Commissioners, Education Depart- ment, to assist in educational ques- tions, 41 Charity, Congregational Board considered that education should depend more on Fees than, 90 Charity Orphan Schools. See Orphan Schools Charity School. See Parochial Charity School Charles, Rev. T., commences first Adult Evening Classes, 414 Charlotte, Queen, heads subscription list for aiding Sunday Schools, 370 Charterhouse, St. Thomas', one of the first Science Schools at, 125 Chelsea Training Colleges, St. Mark's and Whitelands, formation of, 441 Chemistry, College of. See Royal lectures to Dockyards Schools unsa- tisfactory in 1858, 203 Practical, payments to encourage for- mation of classes in, 1 36 taught in Edinburgh School of Arts in 1821, 393 Children, Orphans of Soldiers, Schools for, 233-238 statistics of number of, in existing Schools, 26 to be taught, statistics of, 19 payment or pence. See Fees Chimney-sweep started Ragged School at Windsor, 384 Choristers' Schools, history of. See Cathe- dral Schools Christian Knowledge. See Society for Promoting Chronological table of important events bearing on education, 24 Church, children at Ward Schools required to attend, 335 Church of England doctrine, licensing of Teachers to spread, 408 Church of England, clergy of, first took steps to improve education of the Poor, 6 half of the pupils in 1813 at British Schools were members of, 64 N N 546 Index. CHU Church of England, large number of mem- bers of, always on staff and among pupils of British Schools, 454 always largely supported British Schools, 10 doctrine of, taught at Home and Colonial College in 1841, 484 doctrine, the Inspectors to enquire into teaching of, at National Schools, 33 Home and Colonial School in con- nection with, 482 members of, always largely supported British Schools, 10 National Society formed to educate children on principles of, 1 1 Schools, the Inspectors' Reports on these to be sent in duplicate to the Archbishop and Bishop of the diocese, 32 Sunday School Institute, formation of, 371 Churches, Ragged, in London, 384 Cioffi, Mr., formerly Teacher at Kneller Hall, 535 Ciphering. See Arithmetic 'Circe,' H.M.S., School for Navy Carpen- ters, 182 Civil Service Commissioners hold compe- tition for Engineer Students at Dockyards, 206 system of examining candidates for Dockyard apprenticeships, 202 Civilians, formerly nearly all Bandmasters were, 532 Class of Preparatory Pupils for Roman Catholic Training Colleges, 471 Classification of scholars in Workhouses in 1838, 276 of Unaided Schools, 312 Class-rooms in open air in Summer in Bell Lane Jews' Schools, 105 Clause. See Conscience Clause Clergy of Established Church first took steps to improve education, 6 Clergy Orphan School, foundation of, 9 Clergy, secular and religious teaching for- merly confined to, 368 their occasional intolerance to be re- gretted, 12 Parochial, to be asked to assist in religious examination of Pupil Teachers, 35 Clerks. See Parish Clifton Parish Workhouse School girls wash in the cottage manner, no machines used, 528 Clothes and dinner in Jews' Schools, 99 at Greenwich Schools all made by pupils, 214 &c. , made at Redhill Reformatory, 262 COM Clothes, &c., repaired at Duke of York's School, 236 food, &c. , doubtful whether advanta- geous to offer, as an inducement to go to School, 387 provided in Jews' Schools in Bell Lane, 103 usually were given at Charity Schools, 3 2 7 Clothing Clubs attached to Ragged Schools, 387 Club and Institute at Saltaire, account of, 520 Cobbler started Ragged School in Kent Street, 384 Cockerell, C. R., R. A. , at first meeting to establish Schools of Design, 142 Cockpenny. See Penny Code, Revised. See Revised Code Coghan, Rev. Mr. , first Inspector of Charity Schools in 1700, 328 Cole, Dr. John, ' founder of Favershnm Grammar School, 509 Henry, C.B., Address on Art Schools, in 1852, 149 Collective classes at Peckham Birkbeck School, 423 lessons to Idiots, 303 versus Monitorial System of Teaching Rev. J. MorelPs Report, 72 Collectors of Land Tax made to give their poundage to Charity Schools, 327 College of Chemistry. See Royal of Science. See Royal Colleges. See Training Colleges Colliers .of Kingswood, Wesley's School for, in 1739, 69 Colonial Society. See Home and Colonial School Society Combination and Mutual Working between Schools, 21 of Industrial Schools desirable, 247 of Male and Female Congregational Colleges, advantages, 476 of Reformatories desirable, 258 of Schools for pauper children, 289 of small Orphan Schools desirable, 340 Commander-in-chief, Tsaid to be originator of Kneller Hall, 532 Commanding officer, his influence on Army Schools, 224 of a ship, great influence on the Schools, 187 Commercial and Industrial pursuits Birk- beck Schools started to increase knowledge of, 419 School, Faversham, history of, 511 Travellers' School, Religious teaching at, 339 Commission on Cathedral Schools, 1852, 321 Index. 547 COM Commission, Schools Inquiry. See Schools Inquiry Commission on Popular Education. See New- castle's (Duke of) Commission to enquire into Greenwich Schools, 1859, 212 Commissioners of Lunacy, 269 See Charity Commissioners See Civil Service See Poor Law Inquiry Committee of Council on Education, in 1852., declines to increase aid to Ragged Schools, 383 managed Pauper Schools, 269 arrangements in 1846 for aiding Schools of Industry, 243 formed to dispense grants for educa- tion, 13, 14 regulations concerning Elementary Schools, 31-48 Training College regulations, 429-438 Committee on Greenwich Schools, 1870, 212 See Catholic Poor School Committee See Patriotic Fund See Preventative and Reformatory School See Wesleyan Education See Local Commons, Committee of House of. Sef House of Comparison of cost of different Blind Schools, 351 Competition and nomination for Dockyard apprenticeships, 202 between Private and State-aided Schools, 409 Compulsion found to be absolutely neces- sary in some cases, 1 7 Compulsory apprenticeship of pauper children, 275 attendance at Dockyard Schools alterations in regulations, 204 Condition, Educational, of Boys at Redhill Reformatory on admission, 261 Conditions of aid to Training Colleges, correspondence on, 430 Training Colleges receiving public aid, correspondence with British Society concerning, 450 Congregational Board of Education, 87, 473 Schools, history of, 87-94 Training College, history of, 473-480 Congregationalists formed a large section of the Voluntaryists, 45 1 Conscience Clause approved by Wesleyans, in first Education Bill, 1820, 13 in Jews' Schools, 97 opposed by National Society reasons, 57 . N N COS Conscience Clause, terms of, and intro- duction of, 46 the Faversham National School has none, but no religious difficulty, 510 Consort, the Prince, distributes Art Prizes, 1841, 144 Construction, Practical, Technical Art Class in, 494, 496 Constructive method of teaching, Paper on, prepared in 1840, 33 Consumption cause of death of three- fourths of parents of children at Bristol Orphan School, 525 Continent, Art Teachers while under training to travel on, 490 Paper on Education on, in 1840, 33 Contractors for pauper children, 287 Cook, Rev. Mr., H. M. Inspector's Report on domestic occupations in Female Training Colleges, 435 Report on Home and Colonial Col- lege, 487 Cooking, objection to Patent Stoves as a means of instruction in, 528 *- &c., payments for teaching Pupil Teachers, 36 Copeland, Alderman, M.P., at first meeting to establish Schools of Design, 142 Correspondence between Government and Roman Catholics on Trust Deed, 80 on the granting of aid to Training Colleges, 430 Cost, &c., statistics of, Training Colleges, 437 great increase in, before the Revised Code, 44 great, of Parochial Schools, as they clothed, &c., 7 of Bristol Industrial School, 252 Buildings for District Schools, 291 Charity Schools, 327 Cripples' Schools, 366 different Blind Schools, 35 1 District Pauper Schools when pro- perly conducted, 286 Earlswood Institution for Idiots, 304 instruments, &c., of a Regimental T.and, how defrayed, 531 Bands much instruments for Army reduced, 536 management of District Schools, 291 Norwood District School, 294 Orphan Schools, 340 Redhill Reformatory, 264 Reformatory Schools, 259 Southwark Blind School, 349 the Deaf and Dumb Schools, 360 training for the Navy, 184 per head of Grammar School, Faver- sham, 513 per head of orphans at Bristol, 524 2 548 Index. cos Cost to artisan family, if a boy becomes a Pupil Teacher and then a Teacher, 20 , varying, at Industrial Schools, 248 Cotton Mills, first Infant Schools at Owen's, 108 Council of Military Education, 222 Council. See Committee of Council See Lateran See Lord President of the Counting scholars, anecdote of Dame on the ill-luck of, 401 Country Dame Schools no better than London ones, 406 Cousins, frequent cases of dumb children from the marriage of, 356 Mr., Teacher at Kneller Hall, 535 Coutts, Miss Burdett, efforts to improve Female Teachers, 460 Cranmer, Archbishop, anecdote on the advantages of education to the poor in sixteenth century, 318 Crimea, arrival of bands without Band- masters, 53 2 Criminal status of children in Reforma- tory Schools, 257 Criminals, children of, executed at the Old Bailey, Redhill School originally to take care of, 254 under the Home Department, 241 Cripple, account of a Private School con- ducted by, 411 Cripples, Schools for, history of, 362-367 trained to get their living, 10 Crisis caused by Capitation payments, 39 Crossland, Mr., educated at a Dockyard School, 209 Crown and Anchor Tavern, Strand, first meeting at, to consider formation of London Mechanics' Institution, 394 Cumin, Mr., anecdote showing interest taken by pupils in Army Schools, 415 . description of a Workhouse School, 283 remarks on a Dame School accom- modation, 402 Report on unsatisfactory system of apprenticeships to Dockyards, 202 Curates, Rectors or Vicars to examine Schoolmasters under first Education Bill, 13 directed shortly after the Reformation to instruct children in church on Sunday, 368 Curious mode of teaching Infants, 1 10 Currency, the, Principles of, taught in Birkbeck Schools, 419 Cutting-out dresses, &c., candidates for Female Colleges to be examined in, 436 DEM D Dalmeny, Lord, Committee on Greenwich Hospital Schools, 212 Dame School opposition to Infant Schools, 107 classification of, 313 the opposition of to better Schools, 3H history of, 400-407 Dantzic, one of first Reformatory Schools started at, 254 Darwinian System, explained in Peckham Birkbeck School, 425 Dates of important events bearing on Education, 24 Davies, Rev. E., Principal of Brecon Training School, 475 Davis, Alfred, legacy to Jews' School, 102 Dawes, Dean, anecdote of his Industrial School, 528 Day Industrial Schools might be beneficial, 253 Deaf and Dumb Asylum, foundation of, 9 Schools, recent increase of, 16 classification of, 312 history of, 354-361 Deal Marine Schools, outside children admitted, 195 the Marine Receiving Station, 197 Death-rate at North Surrey District Schools, low rate of, 292 at Bristol Orphan Schools, Ashley Down, 525 Debt on 'buildings of Mechanics' Institu- tions, 396 Decay of Grammar Schools, cause of, 6 Charity Schools, cause of, 330 Mechanics' Institutions, first signs of, 396 Declaration required of Students in train- ing that they wotild teach, 460 Decorators trained with National Scholar- ships, in 1869, 498 Deduction should not be the process of Infant Teaching, according to Pestalozzi, but Induction, 9 Deeds. See Trust Deeds Defects, Schools for Physical, recent development of, 16 Deficiency of Income of Schools, 1844, 34 School Funds in National Schools in 1845, 56 candidates for Wesleyan Colleges by action of Revised Code, 461 Roman Catholic Teachers, 464 supply of students in Male Roman Catholic Colleges, 468, 469 Degree. See University Demand for School accommodation now less than the supply, 18 Index. 549 DEM Demety, M., established Reformatory Schools in France, 254 Denominations, British Schools to be open to all, 63 of Sunday Schools, statistics of different, 373 at British Colleges, statistics of differ- ent, 454 at Faversham National School, sta- tistics of different, 510 Department Education Department formed, 41 of Science and Art, history of, 121-123, I 5 I for War, educational history of, 221 Home, educational history of, 241 of Practical Art, formation of, and commencement of system of training Art Teachers, 148, 491 Deputation to Lord Wharncliffe from British Society on aid to College, &c., 452 Derby, early Female College for Roman Catholic Teachers at, 464 Description of a Dame School, 401 Design, Schools of, commenced in 1836, 16, 489 first name of Schools of Art, 140 ;ners trained with National Scholar- ships in 1869, 498 Desirability of all Teachers being obliged to qualify, 412 Desks and floors, limit of aid to, 43 Destitute, Schools for the, started by Miss Howell in Westminster, 383 Development of Schools for Physical Defects, 16 State aid to education, statistics of, 49 Diagrams, &c., aid in the purchase of, 1847, 38 Difference between District and Workhouse Schools, 289 Difficulties, present, with educational matters, 18 overcome in passing 1870 Act, 18 to overcome by the Act, 19 of Religious Intolerance still felt, 1 1 of obtaining Teachers, a continual source of trouble, 14 of obtaining good Infant Teachers causes Dame Schools to be so plenti- ful, 403 of obtaining good Teachers for Evening Schools, 417 of obtaining Teachers, 426 of obtaining students to train in Colleges, 448 to obtain due supply of pupils to train in British College, 453 to obtain lay Roman Catholic Male Teachers, 468 DIS Difficulties of obtaining good Teachers caused by insufficient payment, 470 of finding students to train in Con- gregational College, 478 Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. See Society Dining hall, Saltaire, account of, 521 Dinner and clothes in Jews' Schools, 99 on board Training Ship, scene at, 185 at Ragged Schools, doubtful policy, 387 Diocesan branches of National Society formed in all Dioceses, 52 School, Bristol, converted into Trade School, history of, 1 56 or District Societies sent up pupils to be trained as Teachers in 1812, 439 Diocese. See Scholastics of Diplomas at Royal School of Naval Archi- tecture, 208 to Congregational Colleges, 477 Directions to Inspectors in 1839, 33 Director-General of Army Schools, 222 superintends Soldier Orphan Schools, 234 Disadvantages and advantages of Voluntary Teachers, 371 Discipline an important means of training Idiots and Imbeciles, 303 of Cripples' School, 366 on board the Training Ships, 184 Discussion on name for Mechanics' Institu- tions, 395 Dismissing pupils for irregular attendance at First-day Schools salutary, 379 Disorderly and vagrant children, Schools for, 245 Disposal of Charity children about 1 700, 329 pupils on leaving Cripples' School, most apprenticed, 365 Disraeli, Rt. Hon. B., M.P., letter to, from Sir. J. Whitworth, proposing to found Scholarships, 134 Dissenters, their difficulties in attending Parochial Schools, 7 not exclusively connected with British Schools, 10 difficulty in small places in religious teaching Conscience clause, 46 British Schools not confined to, 59 most Infant Schools were in connec- tion with, in 1836, 482 Distances in miles from which boys attend daily at Faversham Commercial School, 512 District Elementary Schools of Art, formed 1853. '5 District Schools, remedy for evils of Work- house Schools, 277 or separate Schools, best means of educating pauper children, 284 Schools, history of, 285-296 and Workhouse Schools compared, 289 550 Index. DIS District School, Norwood, comparison of cost with Southwark Blind School, 350 District or Diocesan Societies, sent up pupils to be trained as Teachers an 1812, 439 Districts, educational, condition of, to be enquired into by Inspectors, in 1 839, Division of British Society on receiving State aid, 451 Dockyard Schools, Education Department to inspect for Admiralty if desired, 41 Schools, history of, 199-209 Doctrine of Established Church, the In- spectors to enquire into teaching of, at National Schools, 33 all religions, excluded from Birkbeck Schools, 425 of Church of England, means taken to spread by licensing Teachers, 408 Doles, Sunday, should be applied to edu- cation, 515 Domestic duties objections to machines, &c., in training girls, 527 occupations, increased attention to, in Female Colleges, 1858, 435 Donaldson's Hospital for Deaf and Dumb, Edinburgh pupils brought up with ordinary children, 358 Donnelly, Captain R. E., Report on in- efficiency of Navigation Schools, 167 Dorset Square, Hill Street, first premises of Cripples' School, 362 Drainage of Redhill Reformatory, dry earth system, 263 Drawing, Geometrical, recommended as a subject for Dockyard Schools, 203 to form part of curriculum of Train- ing Colleges, 432 regulations for making a part of Training College course, 433 Infant Teachers to be examined in, 435 attention given to, in Congregational Training Schools, 475 Elementary, to form part of attain- ments of Masters and Mistresses, 492 Mechanical, Technical Art Class in, 494, 496 not taught at Mr. Miiller's Orphan School, 527 Dresses, cutting out of, &c., candidates for Female Colleges to be examined in, 436 Drill on board Training Ships, 183 carried on most efficiently at Duke of York's School, 236 systematically carried on at Bristol Industrial School, 252 EAR Drill, importance of, at District Schools, 293 not much attended to at Peckham Birkbeck School, 423 time devoted to, with students in training as Army Schoolmasters, 502 not sufficiently attended to at Saltaire, 519 little or none at Mr. Miiller's Orphan School want of, 526 Druet, his farming establishment for pauper children at Tooting Cholera his trial, 287 Drum and Fife Band, excellency of, at Duke of York's School, 236 . at Bristol Industrial School, 251 Dry Earth System of Drainage at Redhill Reformatory, 264 Dublin College of Science. See Royal Richmond Institution for the Blind makes a profit on Industrial work, 349 Duke of York's School. See Royal Military Asylum Dukeys, nickname in army for the children from Duke of York's School, 238 Dumb. See Deaf and Dumb Dumbness, causes of, 354, 356 Dunn, H., evidence of difficulty in obtain- ing good Infant Teachers, 108 objections to Hothouse or Prodigy System of Infant Schools, 109 evidence concerning Sunday Schools in 1835, 371 Dunstan, St., navigation taught at the Charity School, in 1710, 329 Duplicates of Inspectors' Reports to be sent to Archbishop and Bishop of diocese, 32 Durrant, Mr., one of first Art Teachers trained, 489 Duties of Inspectors in 1839, 33 Earlswood Idiot Asylum, Surrey, account of, 301 not so expensive as Southwark Blind School, 349 Early hour of meeting of Birmingham First-day School, ? 7-30 A.M., 377 Earn a livelihood, most trained dumb pupils can, 360 Earnings of Masters, 89/. on an average insufficient, 20 Pupil Teachers less than those of a sharp lad, 20 Index. EAR Earth, dry, system of Drainage at Redhill Reformatory, 264 East End of London character of Teachers in Private School, 410 statistics of Private Schools at, 411 Eastlake, Sir C. L., R.A., at first meeting to establish Schools of Design, 142 Economy of combining small Orphan Schools, 340 Social and Political, Instruction given in, at Birkbeck Schools, 419 Edinburgh, attempt to establish Scholar- ships at, in 1853, 125 first School in these Islands for the Dumb started there, 355 See Williams' Secular School School of Arts, opened for the in- struction in Science of artisans, 393 Education Act, 1870. See Elementary, &c. Bill of Sir J. Pakington, resolutions of Wesleyans on, 76 Bill, the first, 1820, provisions of, 13 See Congregational Board of Charitable Funds, for commission to enquire into, 1820, 12 See Committee of Council on Committee. See Wesleyan Council of Military, 222 Department, at one time managed Reformatory and Industrial Schools, 242 Department formed, 1856, 41 Department proposal to assist War Department in inspecting Schools, 222 Department, transfer of District Pau- per Schools from, 290 important to many Idiots, 299 in Art and Science, commencement of, 1 6 in Science, the want of, among ar- ti.-ans, shown by the Exhibition 1867, 17 in the Army, need of, tables showing, 231 in Training Colleges, thought about 1851 to be too theoretical, 432, 433 National Religion considered by National Society as the basis of, 50 of Paupers, superior class, effect on Mr. Tufnell's opinion, 274 of the Lower Orders, Parliamentary Commission to enquire into, 1820, 12 of the people, table of important events hearing on, 24 on the Continent, Paper on, in 1840, Sec Duke of Newcastle's Commission on Popular suggestions on Popular. Sec Senior Technical, Agitation concerning, in 1867, 131 ELE Educational arrangements at Faversham, 507-515 arrangements at Saltaire, 516-522 condition of boys at Redhill Refor- matory on admission, 261 conditions of districts to be enquired into by Inspectors in 1839, 33 Epochs, description of, 3 functions of Mechanics' Institutions, decline of, 397 Fund, Wesleyan, started, 72 Inquiry in 1839, 32 Rate proposed in 1820, 13 Societies recommended Schools for grants from 1833-39, 14 Society Period, definition of, 3-10 state of working classes, first drawn attention to by Clergy, 6 use of Charities at Faversham, 508 uses of Museums, &c., 122 Effect of Charities at Faversham as former- ly dispensed, 507 permanent, of Industrial Schools to children, 252 of regular habits on sickly children, 525 Efficiency of Army Schools depends on Commanding Officer, 224 of Schools increased by combination and mutual working, 21 Efficient Infant Schools should take the place of Dame Schools, 406 Efforts frequently made by working classes to send one child to a good School, 421 Elections for admission to Charity Schools, 338 Elementary Drawing to form part of at- tainments of Masters and Mistresses, 492 Elementary Education Act, 1870 its ob- ject, 17 effect of in a few years, 23 Elementary School at Saltaire, 518 Development of Science Instruction depends on, 122 Teachers, proposal to train the best as advanced Science Teachers, 21 Teachers, regulations for their instruc- tion in Art, 492 Elementary Schools, Art teaching in, regu- lations to encourage, 1856, 42 time for Science instruction where good Infant Schools exist, 22 attached to Mechanics' Institutions were originally somewhat advanced, 394 Building Grants for Science and Art rooms in 1858, 42 commencement of Training Teachers for, 12 encouragement for Art instruction being given in, 149 552 Index. ELE Elementary School, Regulations of Com- mittee of Council concerning, 31-48 Scholarships and Exhibitions to Uni- versities should be open to, 23 their aspect changed by Pestalozzi's System, 8 Elementary Schools of Art, District, formed 1853, 15 Elementary School Scholarships regula- tions, 133 Elliptical plan of Infant-teaching pursued at Glasgow Normal School, 484 Ellis, Wm. , establisher of Birkbeck Schools, 419 Emancipation Act, commencement of full liberty to Roman Catholics, 78 Emigration encouraged at Reformatories, 264 Endeavour. See British Endeavour Endowed Schools Act, effect of in a few years, 23 Endowed Schools, aided by Revised Code if under 30.?. a scholar, &c. , 46 classification of, 312 eligible for grants, if partly supported by subscriptions, 40 Endowment often the cause of decay of Charity Schools, 330 Energy of members of Mechanics' Institu- tions when first formed, 395 Engineer students must attend Dockyard Schools, 206 England, Church of. See Church of Eng- land Engraving on Wood, Technical Art Class . in, 494, 496 Engraving, Female Class for Wood, opened, H5 Entertainments at Mechanics' Institutions, 397 Epee, Abbe de 1', opens School for the Dumb in Paris, 355 Ephemeral character of Private Schools, 410 Episcopal Schools, learning confined to them after death of Alfred, I Epoch, new, commenced in 1870, 17 Epochs, Educational, description of, 3 Erections, cost of, for District Schools, 291 Essay, Oxford, Dr. Temple's, on the Capi- tation Minute, 39 Established Church. See Church of Eng- land Estimated number of children in existing Schools, statistics of, 26 staff of Teachers required, 27 Etching Class, establishment of and object, 498 Etty, Mr., R.A., proposal for training Art Teachers, 490 EXE Evangelical, the Religious teaching of Congregational Schools to be, 89 Evangelical views of Religion at present the leading feature of Congregational College, 480 Evening, opening of Museums in, advo- cated by Science and Art Depart- ment, 122 Evening Schools at Bristol Trade School, 159 Classes, efforts to commence, by Wesleyans, 75 how they would be improved by the effect of good Infant Schools, &c., 22 in 1711, 329 . Navigation, arrangements for, 166 Ragged, 385 Capitation Grants to, 43 Development of Wesleyan, 77 extended aid to, in 1855, 40 history of unaided, 414-418 holding of examination by localities, 46 ~. . Teachers to obtain Queen's Scholar- ships, 41 unaided, classification of, 313 under Committee of Council, history of, 116-118 Events, table of important, bearing on Education, 24 Evidence of Mr. H. Dunn on Sunday Schools in 1835, 371 Examination for certificates for Navigation, 164 for Teachers' certificates in Work- houses, 279 of individual children recommended by Duke of Newcastle's Commis- sion, 44 of Infant Teachers in practical ability to instruct, 433 ~ of Queen's Scholars 431 of Schoolmasters, provision for, in First Educational Bill, 13 for certificates in Adult Army Schools, regulations and object, 229 in Charity Schools, arrangement for, in 1710, 327 in Congregational Schools, 477 in General Knowledge for Art Teachers, 494 written, increased attention given to, by Wesleyan College in 1854, 458 Examples, Art, aid in the purchase of, to Elementary Schools Training Master to explain use of, 149 of improvement in Idiots, 305 Exeter, advantages of the system of the Cathedral School, 324 Bishop of. See Temple, Dr. choristers have to pay a fee, 323 National School not started as a Free School, 53 Index. 553 EXE Exeter, Navigation and Mathematics taught at the Charity School about 1710, 3 2 9 Exhibition in Paris, 1867, showed the want of scientific education for artisans, 17, 131 a collection of Reports on Blind Schools at, 351 of Art students' works, 144 1851, great effect in showing the inferiority of English Art, 17 of students' Art works, 151 of 1851, purchases from, for Museum of Manufactures, 151 Exhibitions and Scholarships, advantages of Grammar School Funds, Science and Art Department, 23 and Scholarships to keep lads and girls at school longer, 132 for female students at National So- ciety's Colleges, 443 . for training Art Teachers, 489 See Queen's Scholars See Royal See also Scholarships See Whitworth Exhibitions to the University under Henry VIII. 's Scheme for Cathedral Grammar Schools, 317 to University at Faversham, 513 Existing Schools, statistics of number of children in, 26 Expenditure on Schools up to 1844, 34 Expenses, annual, Period of Public Grants for, 1 6 to an artisan family if a boy becomes Pupil Teacher and then a Teacher, 20 Experiences, useful, in arranging future regulations, 18 Experiments introduced as much as pos- sible in Science-teaching at Peckham Birkbeck School, 425 Extension of period of Training at Home and Colonial College, 485 Eyesight often a difficulty in accepting recruits from Soldiers' Orphan Schools, 238 Factory Bill, Sir J. Graham's, led to the formation of Congregational Board of Education, 87 boys at Dockyard attend School regularly, 206 FEE Faculty of Industry, Sir J. Whitworth's suggestion to establish, 136 Falk, John, started one of the first Reform- atory Schools, 254 Fanny Step anecdote of a Workhouse girl, 283 Farm School at Redhill Reformatory, his- tory of, 261 Farming out of pauper children, 287 Farriery taught in Edinburgh School of Arts, 1821, 393 Faversham Educational arrangements, his- tory of, 507-515 Fees Grammar Schools usually free some of the Free Schools charged a small fee, 4 proposed to be id. a- week in first Education Bill, 1820, 13 evidence of Societies to show advan- tage of improved attendance caused . b y> j s. in Evening Schools to equal Public Grant, 41 . none charged in National Schools when started, 53 a system of weekly, recommended by Dr. Bell to secure attendance and good teaching, 54 evidence in favour of, in Committee of House of Commons, in 1834, 55 abolished partly by Lancaster, and School supported by persons gua- ranteeing a payment for each pupil, 60 charged by Lancaster, in 1798, 2or. a-year, 60 abolition of, in Lancaster's School, 61 means taken by British Schools to adopt testimony in favour of, 64 Wesleyan rules for, to prevent Teachers charging too much, 73 Congregational Board's recommen- dations concerning, 90 opinion of Congregational Board in favour of, in preference to subscrip- tions, 90 raising of, in Congregational Schools in 1850, 91 charged in Jews' Infant Schools, 99 one penny a week charged in Bell Lane Jews' School, 103 in Dame Schools high, 107 not made a condition of Science Grants, but strongly encouraged, 127 Teachers of School of Design to be paid at first partly by, but this given up, 142 at School of Design, 143 at Marines' Schools very low, 195 to Army Schools for men who at- tended in 1811, 223 from children in Army Schools, 227 554 Index. FEE Fees none paid by Soldiers for instruction, 228 none at Ward Schools for those eligible to enter, 335 charged at Cripples' School, 87. per annum, paid by patron, 365 none in Ragged Schools, 383 in Edinburgh School of Arts when opened, 393 subscription to Mechanics' Institu- tions, 397 charged in Dame Schools usually high, 400 . in Private Schools usually high, 409 charged in Evening Schools often so much as ^d. per lesson, 416 at Birkbeck Schools, 422 at National Society's Colleges when first opened, 441 an ample supply of students at St. Mark's College in 1843 willing to pay, 443 at St. Mark's College for students in training reduction in, 444 increase of, to National Society's Col- leges after introduction of Revised Code, 445 in Wesleyan College reduced after Revised Code, 461 charged to students at Home and Colonial Society's Training College, 482 no payment for upper class of School of Design, 490 of Schoolmasters, &c., at Art Train- ing School, 1853, 493 Private, students paying at Art Train- ing School, 496 at National School, Faversham, 510 at Commercial School, Faversham, 511 of children at Saltaire, 518 Fellenberg, M. de, his first Industrial School, 243 Fellow and Associate of Royal School of Naval Architecture, 208 Female and Male Training College at Homerton, proposal to combine, 476 Art School commenced in 1842, 145 British Training College, removal to Stockwell, 453 orphans, asylum for, foundation of, 9 students at National Society's Col- leges, exhibitions for, 443 Teachers, efforts of Miss Burdett Coutts to improve, 460 in reduced circumstances, Infant Teaching as an occupation for, after a systematic training, 488 Fiddler on board Training Ships to pro- mote cheerfulness, 185 FRE Field Gardens, grants to School of In- dustry, 37, 243 Fife and Drum. See Drum and Fife Band Fines at Redhill Reformatory, 263 First-day School Association, formation of, 375 action of, 380 Schools, Friends', history of, 375-381 Fitch, Mr., H. M. Inspector, Report on the Saltaire Schools, 518 Flagships, Schools on board, 187 Fletcher, Mr., the Prodigy or Hothouse system of Infant School teaching, 109 Flogging at Redhill Reformatory, 263 on board Training Ships, 184 Floor-level mentioned as a feature in 1816, showing condition of premises at that time, 52 Floors and desks, limit of aid towards, 43 Flower Shows at Ragged Schools, 388 Food, grants for. See Boarding Grants clothes, &c., doubtful whether advan- tageous to offer, as an inducement to go to School, 387 Foreign. See British and Foreign School Society Education, Paper on, in 1840, 33 Jews in England, great number of, 98 Forgery, fear of people committing, if taught writing on Sundays, 372 Foster, Mr., experiences at a Dame School, 402 Foundation boys at Cathedral Schools why looked upon with disfavour, . 322 Founders of Grammar Schools, their inten- tions, 4, 6 Fourth year, arrangements for apprenticing of Pupil Teachers at, 43 Fowler, Mr., Teacher at Kneller Hall, 534 Fox, Joseph, saves Lancaster from ruin, 62 Fraser, Rev. J. anecdote of the practical working of a Dame School, 402 want of qualification in Private Teachers, 410 considers Mistresses of Dame Schools a respectable class, 401 Free Grammar Schools, usual regulations as to admission, 4 Free Schools, most of National and British at first started as, evidence in favour of fees, 15 Schools, most of National Schools were when started, 53 Schools, most of the Ward Schools are for those eligible to enter, 335 all Ragged Schools are, 383 Free apprenticeships to National Society's Colleges, 442 Free studentships at Royal School of Naval Architecture, 208 Index. 555 FRI Friars' Quaker, where Friends' First-day School was held, in Bristol, 375 Friends' First-day Association, formation of, 375 Schools, history of, 375-381 Fry, Herlxnt, list of Orphan Schools from his work on Charities, 336 Fry, Mrs., labours for prison reform, 241 Fund Wesley an Educational General Fund started, 72 for ornamenting class rooms in Bell Lane Jew School, 104 of Patriotic Committee. See Patriotic Fundamental rule of British Colleges, reli- gious liberty, 453 Funds. See Sick Funds charitable, for education, Commission to enquire into, in 1820, 12 deficiency of School Funds in National Schools in 1845, 5 6 Schools unaided by Public, introduc- tion to, 311-315 how raised for Charity Schools, 327 of Ward Schools, how derived, 333 to Training Colleges out of, corre- spondence with British Society con- cerning, 450 Funeral palls to be used and let out to supply funds for Schools, 327 Furniture, &c., grants for, from Wesleyan Committee, 72 grants towards Schools, 34 Galleries of Art. See Public GaoK, condition of, in 1836, 241 Gardening, infraction given in, in Charity Schools about 1712, 329 Gardens, School Field. Sec Field General regulations for Pupil Teachers, first, 35 Inspector of Army Schools, 222 knowledge, examination in, for Art Teachers, 494 Geology, a knowledge of, required for certain Evening Schools to obtain grair netrical drawing recommended as a subject for Dockyard Schools, 203 Geometry taught in Edinburgh School of . 1821, 393 George IV., King, issue of a Royal Letter for National Society, 53 Genteel, Dame Schools thought to be more so, 402 Genteel, Private Schools considered more, than Government, 409 GRA Genteel, Private' Schools considered more so than Faversham National School for Girls Gentlewomen in reduced circumstances, infant teaching as an occupation for, after a systematic training, 488 Gilbert's Act, improvements in Poor Law under, 275 Girls. See Separate Girls' Schools are older than boys at Reformatory Schools, but not so criminal, 257 fewer re-convicted than boys from Re- formatory Schools, 260 Industrial instruction in Ragged Schools almost confined to, 386 proficiency in Arithmetic at Peckham School, 424 School, pleasing effect of all pupils wearing a pinafore, at Faversham, 509 Glasgow, Andersonian University, Dr. Birkbeck professor at, 391 Glasgow Normal School, difference in infant teaching at, and at the Home and Colonial College, 483 System, Wesleyan Training College based on, 457 large part of the instruction devolves on principal Teacher, 91 Training College, Wesleyans first sent there to be trained, 456 Training College, Homerton Congre- gational College somewhat similar to, in mode of teaching, 477 Glass Painters trained with National Scho- larships in 1869, 498 Glenie, Rev. J. M., Principal of Hammer- smith College, 465 Gloucester, Mr. Raikes of, originator of Sunday Schools, 369 Ragged School received Public Grants in 1855, 382 Sunday Schools shut up after Raikes' death for want of funds, 370 Governesses, Nursery, plan of training at Home and Colonial College, 483 Government Grants. See Public Grants of Wesleyan Schools, 7 1 School of Mines. See Royal School of Mines Gradation of Schools by mutual working between, 21 Grade, Third, Art Certificates, establish- ment of, 495 Graduated course of study, by Canon Mosely, approved by Wesleyans, 458 Graham, SirJ., his Factory Bill led to formation of Congregational Board of Education, 87 opposed Lord J. Russell's Resolu- tions, 1856, 92 Grammar Schools, great extension of, be- fore Reformation, 2 556 Index. GRA Grammar Schools, N. Carlisle's work on, 3 Period, definition of, 3, 4 many cases show that poor were in- tended to be admitted, 5 not confined to poor, 5 not used by poor, reasons, 5 opinion of Schools' Enquiry Commis- sion as to founders' intentions, 5 cause of decay, 6 indirect effect in spreading education, 6 to be hoped that part of their funds will be devoted to scholarships, 23 cathedral, under Henry VIII. 's scheme, 317 attempt to start as a Training School under Christian Knowledge Society, about 1700, 328 Faversham, history of, 509 Faversham, in an unsatisfactory con- dition, 512 Grant, Horace objections to hothouse and prodigy system of Infant Schools, 109 Grants, Annual. See Annual Grants Building. See Building Grants Public. See Public Grants See Capitation Grants See Boarding Grants towards School Furniture, 34 to Schools to 1844, 34 to Schools of Industry regulations in 1846, 37 to maintain Schools under Revised Code, 45 commencement of Public Building, to British Schools, 65 for books, &c., from Wesleyan Com- mittee, 72 to Pauper School Teachers from pub- lic funds, 278 Schools unaided by Public, introduc- tion to, 311-315 on account of Queen's Scholars to Training Colleges, 431 Granville, the Earl, Report on School of Mines, 128 opens Bristol Trade School in 1856, 158 supports Miss Burdett Coutts' endea- vour to improve Female Teachers, 460 Gray's Yard, one of the early Ragged Schools, 383 Great Exhibition of 1851. See Exhibition Greenwich Hospital Schools Education Department to inspect for Admiralty if desired, 41 thought by some to afford better means of recruiting Navy than Train- ing Ships, 1 86 Pupil Teachers to be trained at Jer- myn Street for Navigation Master- ships, 162 HEA Greenwich Hospital Schools to supply Navy with Schoolmasters, 188 history of, 210-218 Groups of Evening Schools, organising Teachers for, 416 Guardians, Government Grants to Pauper School Teachers independent of, 278 their action in farming out of pauper children, 287 Gunnery instruction on Training Ships, 181-183 Guns, firing of. See Practical Gunnery Gymnastic exercises, importance of, to Marine recruit, 197 H Hall, dining, Saltaire, account of, 521 Hall, R. , Report on inefficiency of Work- house Teachers, 1838, 276 advocates District Schools for pauper children, 286 Half-time, system introduced into Charity Schools, about 1712, 329 pursued at Blind School, South wark, 344 Capitation payment, regulations con- cerning, 40 at Earlswood Idiot Asylum, 302 as pursued at North Surrey District School, 292 at Greenwich Schools, 214 objected to by Mr. Shields evidence, 424 Half-timers, progress at Saltaire Schools, 5 J 9 Hammersmith Lay Roman Catholic Male College, establishment of, 467 Roman Catholic Training College, commencement of, 465 Han way, Jonas Repeal of Acts relating to the poor, known as Jonas Hanway's Acts, 287 Hare, Mr., qualifications of Teachers in Private Schools, 410 Harrowing, instruction given in, in Charity Schools about 1712, 329 Hartman, Mr., formerly teacher at Kneller Hall, 535 Hatcham Ragged School started by a tinker, 384 Haverstock Hill Orphan School, religious teaching at, for all denominations, 339 Health of Children at Bristol, how im- proved by system, 525 ; laws of. See Animal Physiology Index. 557 HEB Hebrew, importance of, in Jews' Schools time given to, 97 to be taught in some cases in Cathedral Grammar Schools, 317 Henry VI. Educational condition of Lon- don during his reign, 2 Henry VIII. his scheme of Bishoprics, 317 Hibernian Military School for the Orphans of Soldiers, history of, 233 Higher standard, the 7th, introduced in 1867, 47 Hill Street, Dorset Square, first premises of Cripples' School, 362 Hinds, Bishop, suggests State aid to Evening Schools, 116 Hisson, Mr., trained at Chelsea School, 238 History of Blind pupils after leaving not sufficiently recorded, 349 Hodgson, Dr., remarks on condition of Dame Schools, 404 reports that Private Teachers often complain of State interference, 412 Hofwyl, first Industrial School at, 243 Holborn Hill, No. 45, first premises of the National Society, 52 St. Andrews, first gathering of Charity children at, 327 Holidays at the Blind School, 348 on board Training Ships means of obtaining recruits, 183 Holy Scriptures. See Bible Home and Colonial School Society first introduced Pestalozzi's System into England outline of the system, 8 Training College, Jew Teachers attend some of the instruction, 100 formed to improve Infant Teachers, no Infant School Society, 481 Training College, history of, 481 Training College supplies many of the Army Schoolmistresses, 502 Home Department, educational history of, 241 Homerton Training College, establishment of, 476 Homes eligible to receive aid under Refor- matory Act, 255 Honours examination in Science, to enable Teachers to show any high pro- ficiency, 134 Hope, Bands of, at Ragged Schools, 388 Home, Bishop of Winton his records show ignorance in sixteenth century, 3 Horsham Grammar School, special provi- sion to prevent fees, 4 Hospital Schools. See Greenwich Hothouse, or Prodigy, System in Infant Schools, 109 Hours of meeting of Birmingham First-day Schools, 7-30 A.M., 377 INC Hours of meeting of First-day Schools, 380 House of Commons, Committee on Art, 1835, 140 1836, 140 of, on Schools of Design, 147 Committee, 1834, decided in favour of fees, 55 on Art Schools, 1864, 152 in 1837 suggests District Schools for pauper children, 285 Household duties objections to machines, &c., in training girls, 527 Houses. See Religious Teachers, Building Grants extended to > 33 Howard, Mr., labours for prison reform, 241 Howell, Miss,|her Schools for the Destitute, in Westminster, 383 Hughes, Mr., formerly Teacher at Kneller Hall, 535 Hull, Trinity House, Navigation School in connection with, 162 Huxley, Professor, opinion of working of Science Classes, 139 Idiots and Imbeciles been taught and often made useful by training, 9 proportions who can be trainee!, 299 Schools for, history of, 301-308 Ignorance of sixteenth century, anecdotes concerning, 3 of Evening School pupils discour- agement from this cause, 415 Imbeciles. See Idiots Importance of Infant Schools, 488 Important events bearing on education, table of, 24 Impregnable, H.M. Training Ship, drill on board, 183 Improvement in Teachers by State aid, 15 Idiots, examples of, 305 Incapacity of Teachers of Sunday Schools, about 1837, 373 Income of Schools, deficient, 1844, 34 sources of, in Ward School, 333 of Orphan School, Bristol, how raised, 5 2 4 Increa.se in cost for education, before the Revised Code, 44 of Schools to 1844, statistics of, 34 558 Inder. IND Independent inspection reason of superi- ority of State-aided Schools, 314 Indifference of parents, plan to remove. See Apathy Indigent, Blind School for, formation of, 9, 343 Individual children, examination of, recom- mended by Duke of Newcastle's Commission, 44 Induction, and not deduction, should be the process of Infant Teaching, ac- cording to Pestalozzi, 9 Industrial and commercial pursuits, Birk- beck Schools started to increase knowledge of, 419 class. See Artisan Class Evening School at Weston, account of, 418 Instruction in Ragged Schools, 386 occupations in Workhouse Schools, not successful, 282 payments for teaching Pupil Teachers, 36 School Act, Refuge girls under Act as Assistants in Cripples' Schools, 363 Industrial Schools, Certified, history of, 243- 2 53 Day, might be beneficial, 253 for the Soldiers' children, 225 grants to, 37 Inspectors of, 242 profit on work at, 249 Regulations for aid revised 1856, 42 Teachers, aid in salaries of, for Work- house Schools, from public funds, 282 Industrial work, a Half-time System intro- duced into Charity Schools about 1712, 329 anecdote on, 528 at Chelsea, Duke of York Schools, clothes, &c., repaired, 236 at Greenwich Schools, 214 for the Blind, articles manufactured, 346 for Cripples, 363 most important and most successful branch of Idiot-training, 306 not attempted at Dumb Schools, 359 not attempted at Mr. Miiller's Orphan School, 526 payment to boys for, at Redhill Re- formatory, 262 profits on, at Blind School, 349 profits on, at Bristol Industrial School, 250 to Idiots, 302 Industry, Faculty of, Sir J. Whitworth's suggestions to establish, 136 INS Industry, grants to Schools of, regulations 1846, 37 Norwood School of, Mr. Tufhell's Report on, 243 Mr. Aubin's School of, first District School, 287 Inefficient Teachers in Workhouse Schools, 1838, 276 Infant. See Model Infant School of Home and Colonial Society School Society. See Home and Co- lonial Infant School Society Infant Schools, Teachers of, most required at the present time, 20 effect of, in enabling Science to be taught by eleven or twelve years of age, as shown at Birkbeck School, Peckham, 22 Mistresses, staff of, required, 27 regulations for aiding, in 1854, 40 Jews', 99 History of, 107-115 Marine, establishment of, 194 for Soldiers' children, 225 Teachers for, difficulty of obtaining, causes Dame Schools to be so plenti- ful, 403 efficient, should take the place of Dame Schools, 406 the Home and Colonial Society formed to improve, 481 importance of, 488 means of advance for a clever boy from, to University, at Faversham, 513 Infant School Teachers, a due supply can be obtained to train, 20 alterations in Regulations for Training, in 1857, 435 Home and Colonial Society formed to train, 481 improvement in Regulations in, 1854, 433 Infants, most, might read, write, and cipher at seven or eight years old, 22 should only be at Infant Schools advantages of mutual working among Schools, 22 Inquiry Commission. See Schools' Inquiry Commission Commissioners. See Poor Law In- quiry. Educational, in 1839, 32 Inquiries made by Inspectors into income of Teachers, in 1844, 34 Inspection by Government in perpetuity, an essential condition of State aid from the first, 31 a condition of State aid to British Schools, 66 long correspondence with British and Foreign Society concerning, 66 Index. 559 INS Inspection by Government now satisfactory to British and Foreign Society, 67 first Report on, by Mr. Tremenheere, objected to by British and Foreign Society, 67 Inspection of Wesleyan Schools, arrange- ments for, by Wesleyan Committee, 72 first Government, of Roman Catholic Schools, in 1849, 82 private system adopted by Congre- gationalists, 92 of Jews' School, loi of Navy Schools duties of Inspector concerning Training Ships, 181 of Royal Marine Schools since 1853, 192 independent, Reason of superiority of State-aided Schools, 314 of Orphan Schools desirable, 341 right of, in perpetuity, to Training Colleges, the subject of much dis- cussion, 430 of Training Colleges, discussion on, with British Society, 450 change of opinion of British Society concerning, 453 of Training College of Congregational - ists, 477 of Infant Schools by Home and Co- lonial Infant School Society in 1836, 481 of Infant Schools, Home and Co- lonial Society urge in 1839 pre- vented by want of funds, 484 to be twice a-year, in 1840, 33 Inspector for British Schools, special, 33 first Government one appointed for Catholic Schools, in 1849, 82 of Navigation Schools, Admiral Ry- der, 164 of Training Ships, iSl of Regimental Schools, 222 of Army Schools appointed in 1846, 224 appointment of, for Pauper Schools, 278 first appointed in 1 700, by Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 328 Inspectors' instructions concerning Religious teaching in Schools, 31 Reports to be sent in duplicate to Archbishop and Bishop of diocese, 3 2 regulations of, or rules for, their ap- pointment relation to l;i>h<>ps, 32 duties of, in 1839, 33 make inquiries into income of Teachers, in 1844, 34 now give satisfaction to British and Foreign Society, 67 JOH Inspectors, special arrangement for those for British Schools, 67 of Reformatory Schools, 242 of Pauper Schools, appointed in 1846, 270 of British Training Colleges and Schools, special arrangements for, 451 mode of testing Drawing Instruction in Elementary Schools, 492 Institute. See Catholic Institute Club and, at Saltaire, account of, 520 Institutes. See Lancashire Union of Institution. See London Society Institution for the Blind Royal Lancasterian, formed, 62 for Training Marine Recruits, Deal, 197 Institutions for Physical -Defects, rise of, 9 results of, 10 Instructing adults to read Holy Scriptures. See Bristol Institution Instruction in Science, want of, as shown by Exhibition 1867, 17 in seventeenth century, almost entirely of a Religious character, 369 in Religion. See Religious Instruction Instructor. See Naval Instructor Instruments granted to Trained Army Schoolmasters, 502 for Army Bands How supplied to reduce the cost to Regiments, 531, 536 Insufficiency of Salaries reason why Ro- man Catholic College not full, 470 Insufficient supply of Teachers. See Diffi- culty Intention of Founders of Grammar Schools, 4-6 Interest in Industrial work, plan of giving to children pecuniary, 251 taken in instruction at Evening Schools, 415 Intolerance, Religious, still a difficulty, 1 1 Ireland, College of Science for, See Royal Lancaster visits, 62 Irregular attendance. See Attendance Itinerant Lectures, scheme for, by Lord Brougham, for Mechanics' Institu- tions, 398 J Jews' Schools, history of, 95-106 John, of Beverlcy Saint, taught a dumb boy to speak in fifteenth century, 355 560 Index. JOH Johnson, Rev. W., evidence in favour of School fees, 55 opinion of deficient Infant School Teaching, 109 Juvenile offenders, statistics of numbers, &c., 258 School Society extension of Home and Colonial Infant School Society, 485 K Katherine Street. See Tower Kensington Museum. See South Kensington. See South Kent Street Ragged School, started by a Cobbler, 384 Ker, H. Bellenden, at first meeting to es- tablish Schools of Design, 142 proposes Exhibitions to train Art Teachers, 489 Kindergarten exercises at Model Infant School, description of, 113 in connection with Home and Colonial College, 487 King George IV., issue of Royal letter for National Society, 53 King's letter, second, 54 Kingswood Colliers. Wesley's School for, in 1739, 69 Kitchens, Dame Schools held in, 401 and Wash-houses, Schools, arrange- ments for aiding, 1846, 243 and Wash-houses, grants to Schools of Industry, 37 Kneller Hall Training School for Work- house Teachers, a failure, 37, 281 School for Military Music, history of, Knight, Mr. , extract from ' Encyclopaedia ' concerning origin of Birkbeck Schools, 420 Knitting, &c. , payments for teaching Pupil Teachers, 36 Instruction given in Charity Schools, about 1712, 329 Knowledge, Examination in General, for Art Teachers, 494 See Society for Promoting Christian See Society for Diffusion of Useful Kruitzlingen School in Switzerland, Bat- tersea 'College started on same system as, 442 LAY Laboratory practice, payments to encour- age formation of instruction in, 136 fitting up of, by Wesleyan College, 459 Ladies in reduced circumstances, Infant- teaching as an occupation for, after a systematic training, 488 Lads, reasons why they do not become Pupil Teachers, 20 Laller, Mr., evidence of teaching at Sun- day Schools, 372 Lambart, Mr., one of first Art Teachers trained, 489 Lambelette, Mr., Drawing Master of vSchool of Design, 142 Lamps farmed to supply funds of Charity Schools, 327 Lanark, New, Owen's Cotton Mills at, first Infant Schools, 108 Lancashire and Middlesex, more than half the Roman Catholic population of England reside in these two coun- ties, 84 Lancashire system of organised Evening Schools, 416 union of Institutes, its effect on Evening School instruction, 416 Lancaster and Bell's training of Teachers originally limited to a few months, 15 Lancaster, J., found difficulty in obtaining Teachers, 447 * originator of British System, 10 his travels to spread a knowledge of his system, 62 made Superintendent of Borough Road School resigns and goes to America in 1818, 63 system of teaching, 60 Lancasterian Institution, Royal, formed, 62 Schools, the early name of British Schools, 59 Land Tax, Collectors of, made to give their poundage to Charity Schools, 327 Lansdowne, Marquis of, encourages forma- tion of Infant Schools, 108 Larbert Institution for Idiots and Imbe- ciles, 301 Lateran Council defines source of remune- ration to Scholastics, 316 Laundry work at Bristol Industrial School, 250 Lawson, Mr., trained at Chelsea School, 238 Lay Training Colleges, Roman Catholics establish, from necessity not choice, 466 Index. 561 LAZ Lazarus, Mr., Teacher at Kneller Hall, 534 trained at Chelsea School, 238 Lectures, Grants for, in Training Colleges, 43 2 on Art to Schools, 151 on Chemistry to Dockyard Schools unsatisfactory in 1858, 203 on Design at School of Design, 143 See Itinerant Lectures to artisans commenced in Glasgow by Dr. Birkbeck, 392 to Teachers on mode of Science teaching, 128 Leeds Mechanics' Institution one of the first started, 394 one of the first Science Schools at, I2 5 Lefroy, Col., R.A., Report on condition of students for training as Army Schoolmasters, 501 Leigh, James, Modeller at School of De- sign, 142 Lending Library. See Library Leonard's, St., Lay Roman Catholic Fe- male College, establishment of, 467 Roman Catholic College, closing of, 469 Lessons, Progressive, of Mr. Ellis, 420 Shop and Collective, to Idiots, 303 Letter from a Dame School, specimen, 405 Letter, Royal. See King's Letter, Royal. See Queen's Level floor mentioned as a feature in 1816, showing conditions of premises at that time, 52 Lewis, Sir George C., his Industrial School Act, 1 86 1, 246 Liberton Institution for Idiots and Imbe- ciles, 301 Liberty. See Religious Liberty Library, Art, commencement of, 151 attached to most First-day Schools, 379 Lending, in Jews' School, Bell Lane, 105 at Ragged Schools, 388 good effect of, in Mechanics' Institu- tions, 398 on board Training Ships one pro- vided by Admiralty, and others by subscriptions, 185 License system for Industrial Schools, 249 for teaching once required from hop, 408 system in Krf muUories, 258 Limehouse School of Industry, 277 Lincoln, choristers are maintained at, Lindsay, Rev. T., opened one of the earliest Sunday Schools, 369 Literary and Scientific Institutions. See Mechanics' Involutions LOR Lithography, Technical Art Class in, 494, 496 Liturgy of Church of England groundwork of teaching of National Society, 1 1 Livelihood, most trained Dumb Pupils can earn their, 360 Liverpool, one of first Navigation Schools at, 162 first School for the Blind started at, 342 Lay Roman Catholic Female College, establishment of, 467 Roman Catholic Female College, Science teaching at, 47 1 Ragged School received Public Grants, in 1855, 382 Street Congregational Training School, formation of, 475 Lloyd's. See Patriotic Fund Committee Local Committees of Science Schools, ex- cellent work in conducting examina- tions, correspondence, &c., 130 examination of Evening Schools, 46, 117 Infant Schools, not assisted much in money by Home and Colonial Society, 484 Scholarships and Exhibitions, to keep lads and girls at school longer, 132 Scholarships to Art Training School, regulations, 1863, 497 Training Colleges of National Society, statistics of, 443 London and Country Dame Schools much alike, 406 Asylum for Dumb, 356 Educational condition in fifteenth century very deficient, 2 First-day Schools, 380 one of first Navigation Schools at, 162 Mechanics' Institution, debt on, 396 Mechanics' Institution, present work- ing* 399 Mechanics' Institution, proposal for, 394 Private Schools, very deficient, 410 Society, Institution for the Blind, make saving on industrial work, 349 the third University, in thirteenth century, 2 two-thirds of the Jews in England rt->ide there, 95 Westminster and Southwark, Parlia- mentary enquiry into educational state of, in 1816, 12 Lord Chancellor evidence concerning history of Infant Schools, in 1834, 108 Lord President of the Council, Education Department placed under, 41 ^62 Index. LOR Lord President opens Bristol Trade School, 1856, 158 Deputation to, from British and Foreign School Society, 452 Lothersdale, one of the earliest Friends' First-day Schools at, 375 Lowe, Rt. Hon. R., Report on School of Mines, 128 Lower Orders, education of, Parliamentary Commission to enquire into, 1820, 12 Lunacy, Commissioners of, 299 M Madras System of Education, started by National Society, n, 50 Magazine, the Mechanics', suggests a Lon- don Mechanics' Institution, 394 Majesty, Her, speech from the throne in 1852 concerning Science instruction, 124 Male and Female Training College at Homerton, proposal to combine, 476 students as Infant School Teachers, system of training them given up, 482 Management of District Schools, cost of, 291 of Wesleyan Schools, 71 Managers of Schools, Duke of Newcastle's Commission recommended that Government should not interfere with, in relation to Teachers, 45 Manchester artisans, change in their feelings concerning Science instruction, anecdote of, 132 Grammar School, special provision to prevent fees, 4 Mechanics' Institution, one of the first started, 394 Mandel, Mr., Teacher at Kneller Hall, 535 Mann, Mr., Teacher at Kneller Hall, 534 Manners of Londoners very bad in fifteenth century, improved by Schools, 2 Mansion House, meetings held to encourage formation of Trade Schools, 155 Manufactures, Art, effect of Exhibition, 1851, on showing inferiority of, 17 Exhibition, 1867, showed the want of Science training among artisans, 17 Museum of, at Maryborough House, J 5 J Technical Art Instruction to improve, 'SO Maps, c., aid in the purchase of, 1847, 38 MEG Maps, &c., aid in the purchase of, for Workhouse Schools, 279 Marine, Royal, Artillery. See Artillery Schoolmasters, improvement in pay of Dr. Woolley recommended some system of result payment, 194 Schools, history of, 192-198 Schools, Education Department to inspect for Admiralty if desired, 41 Mark's, Saint, Training College, formation of, 441 Marlborough House, Museum of Manufac- tures at, 151 removal of Art School from Somerset House to, 493 removal of Art Training School from, to South Kensington, 495 Married students at Home and Colonial College, system of, given up, 482 Teachers required for Mixed Evening Schools, 41 Martin, Mr., Teacher at Kneller Hall, 534 Mason, Rev. H. Cox, a founder of the Dumb Asylum, London, 356 Masters, their duties to Pupil Teachers, 35 to organise Science Schools appointed, 130 scarcity of good ones. See Teachers, 20 staff of, required, 27 travelling, organising of National Schools, 56 and mates, work of Navigation Schools almost confined to cram- ming, 164 as well as Mistresses originally trained at British College, 448 as Infant School Teachers, system of training them given up, 482 Mates and Masters, work of Navigation Schools almost confined to cramming, 164 Mathematics and Navigation taught at the Exeter Charity School about 1710, 329 Central School of. See Portsmouth taught in Edinburgh School of Arts, 1821, 393 Mayo, Dr., assists to start the Home and Colonial Society, no Miss, manages Infant School of Home and Colonial Society, no Mechanical Arts, payments for teaching, to Pupil Teachers, 36 drawing, Technical Art class in, 494, 496 Philosophy, lectures on, by Professor Millington, first set given at Me- chanics' Institution, 395 Mechanics, &c., time for Science in Primary Schools where good Infant Schools exist, 22 Index. 56. MEG Mechanics' Institutions, evening classes may become similar to the original classes at, 118 theory of Trade Schools very similar to original yiea for, 161 history of, 391-399 classification of, 313 Mechanics at Glasgow, Dr. Birkbeck's ex- periences with, 391 taught in Edinburgh School of Arts, 1821, 393 Lectures to, commenced by Dr. Birkbeck at Glasgow, 392 Magazine suggests a London Mecha- nics' Institution, 394 Medals for Religious Knowledge in Roman Catholic Colleges, 468 and Prizes in Science Schools, 127 and Prizes given for students' works, IS' Meeting, hours of, of First-day Schools, 380 Meetings of Mothers at Ragged Schools, 388 Memorial to increase public aid to Ragged Schools, in 1852, 382 for Secular Schools to receive public aid refused, 313 Men and Boys, objections to mixing in Evening Schools, 417 Merit, Certificates of, to Congregational Colleges, 478 Methodist. See Wesleyan Centenary Metropolitan School of Science, the Go- vernment School of Mines, &c., to act as, 124 Michaelmas examination of Infant Teachers, 435 Middlesex and Lancashire more than half the Roman Catholic population of England reside in these two coun- ties, 84 Migration from School to School stopped by mutual working between Schools, 21 of pupils from one Ragged School to another, 385 Miles, distance in, from which boys attend daily at Faversham Commercial School, 512 Military Music, School for, at Kneller Hall, history of, 531-537 Orphan School. See Hibernian Education, Council of, 222 Asylum. See Royal Millington, Professor, gave first course of Lectures at Mechanics' Institution, 395 Mills, Owen's Cotton, first Infant Schools at, 1 08 size of those at Snltaire, 516 Minerals, children must not be treated as, by Pestalozzi's System, 8 o o MON Mines, School of. See Royal Miracle of St. John of Beverley in making a dumb boy speak, 355 Mistresses, payments to, for instructing Pupil Teachers, 36 to organise Roman Catholic Schools appointed in 1849, 82 to Army Schools, payments, 225 a due supply could be obtained to train, 20 staff of, required, 27 untrained, certificates to, 38 peculiar qualifications for, in Charity Schools, 328 training of, attended to by National Society, 440 as well as Masters, originally trained at British College, 448 no special School for training Army, 502 Mixed Boys' and Girls' Wesleyan Schools most desirable in small places, 75 Schools, Capitation payments to, 40 Schools for Soldiers' children, 228 Training College at Homerton, 476 Evening Schools, regulations for married Teachers for, 41 Mixing men and boys in Evening Schools objected to, 417 Mixture of classes at Faversham Commer- cial School, 512 of classes at Faversham National School, 509 Mode of teaching pursued by Lancaster, 60 Model Infant School of Home and Colonial Society, formation of, 112, 482 Models and casts for students in Art Schools, 144 Monasteries, the effect of suppression of Schools attached to, by Reforma- tion, 325 Moncrieff, Rev. G. R., Report on efficiency of Faversham, 509 Monitorial plan of Education by Lancaster, 60 System developed into Pupil Teacher System, 67 versus Collective System of Teaching, Rev. J. Morell's Report, 72 Monitors, great care in selection, at Peck- ham Birkbeck School, 423 in Ragged Schools, 387 Stipendiary, commencement of, 35 Stipendiary, regulations and pay- ments, 36 in Ragged Schools, 385 Monitresses in Soldiers' Children Schools, 227 Monk. See Pedro Ponce, the Benedictine Monks, their great learning, 316 Monopoly of the State against Private Schools suggestions, 412 2 5leyan College, 458, 460 SCI Schools of Industry. See Industry Schoolmaster. See Superintending See Teacher Sergeant the Duke of York's pro- posal for one to each battalion, 223, 224 Schools Inquiry Commission opinion of the intentions of founders of Gram- mar Schools to put superior educa- tion within reach of poor, 5 Schools to be inspected twice a-year, 1840, 33 for Physical Defects, recent develop- ment of, 1 6 of Mines. See Royal Scene at dinner on board Training Ship, 185 Science and Art Department, to be under Lord President, &c., 41 history of, 121-123 formation of, 151 examines many Mechanics' Institu- tions, 398 several Birkbeck Schools examined by, 426 examination of Liverpool Roman Catholic Female College in Science by, 471 Art Training School, history of, 489-499 Science Classes at Saltaire, 519 Science and Art Education, commencement of, in Elementary Schools, 16 Science and Art rooms in Elementary Schools, Building Grants for, 1858, 42 Science and Arts, Mechanics' Institutions founded to instruct Mechanics in, 391 Science and Art Scholarships, regulations, 133 Science Scholarships and Exhibitions, ad- vantages of, 23 Science certificates, examinations for, 126 Science Evening Classes, at Faversham, 51 1 Science applied to the Arts. See Royal School of Mines, &c. College of. See Royal instruction, time secured for before the age of twelve years by good Infant Schools, 22 depends on development of Elemen- tary Education, 122 in Birkbeck Schools, 425 in \Vesleyan College, early arrange- ments, 459 at Army Training School, 502 knowledge of, required in Evening School Teachers, 41 See Metropolitan School of reason for excluding, from curriculum of Training College, 441 574 Index. SCI Science not taught in Commercial School, Faversham, 511 Social, instruction given at Birkbeck Schools, 419 Science and Navigation School, rules com- bined, 129, 171 Science Schools, increase after 1867, agita- tion, 17 history of, 124-139 , . . at Saltaire, 520 Teachers. See Payments Training of, 138 Teaching in Liverpool, Female Roman Catholic College, 471 Science, Trade and Navigation Schools, now under similar rules as regards State aid, 121 Science Masterships, proposal for the advancement of Teachers to, 21 Scientific apparatus, increased supply for Dockyard Schools, 206 Institutions. See Mechanics' Institu- tions Education, Exhibition of 1867 showed the want of, to artisans, 17 Scotland, extension of Capitation grants to, but not carried out, 43 Scriptures. See Bristol Institution for in- structing Adults to read the See Bible Seamanship, instruction on Training Ships, 181, 182 Sectarian character of Parochial Schools, religious teaching of Ward Schools, 334 Secular instruction, importance of com- bining Religious teaching with, in Wesleyan Schools, 76 in Sunday Schools, 371 Secular and Religious teaching formerly confined to Clergy, 368 Secular Schools, memorial for aid in, 1854, 313 See Williams Secure that trained persons taught, regu- lations to, 460 Seeing Teachers in Blind Schools blind ones not found to answer, 348 Seminaries attached to Cathedrals, oldest Schools, 316 Senior, N. W., letter to, from Bishop Hinds, suggesting State aid to Eve- ning Classes, 116 Report on training of paupers in 1840, 274 extract from ' Suggestions on Popular Education,' on state of Workhouse Schools, 277 refers to letter on the difference be- tween District and Pauper Schools, 280 SID Separate Girls' Schools thought by Wes- leyans to be only desirable in large places, 75 Schools for several Unions, 283 Separated District Schools best means of educating pauper children, 284 Sergeant Schoolmaster, the Duke of York's proposal for one to each battalion, 223 . See Trained Schoolmaster Service. See Civil Service Commissioners Service, public. See Public Service Seventh standard introduced in 1867, 47 Sewing, &c., payments for teaching Pupil Teachers, 36 instruction given in, in Charity Schools about 1712, 329 Shad well, means taken to supply funds for Schools at, 327 Sheffield, meeting of Congregational Board of Education at, opinion as to fees, 90 Shields, Mr. See Birkbeck School evidence of results to be attained in good Infant Schools, 112 Head Master of Peckham Birkbeck School, 422 objects to half time, 424 Ships, H. M.'s, Schools on Board, 187-191 Training for the Royal Navy his- tory of, 177-186 Ships, Industrial Schools on board, 250 Shoeblack Brigade attached to Ragged Schools, 388 Shoemaking at Bristol Industrial School, 250 Shop lesson to Idiots, 303 Shops, to dispose of Cripples' work, &c., suggested combination with other institutions, 364 Shore, advantages of training sailors on, 217 Shoreditch, evidence of discouragement of evening pupils on finding their ignorance, 415 Show, ill-effect on children when a School is made a, 529 Shows of Flowers at Ragged Schools, 388 Shuttleworth, Sir J. P. K., advocates for- mation of District Schools, 277 Report on training pauper-children, advocates District Schools, 285 one of the originators of Battersea College, 442 first suggested form of Conscience Clause, 46 Sick Funds attached to some First-day Schools, 379 Sidmouth, Lord, letter from Admiralty to, on combining Greenwich Hospital School and Royal Naval Asylum, 211 Index. 575 SIG Signs, uses and abuses of, in teaching Deaf and Dumb, 357 Singing and Music considered important means of training at District Schools, 292 attention given to, in Congregational Training Schools, 475 Situations, prizes in Ragged Schools to those who retain, 386 Slate for blind pupils, descriptions of, 346 Small Schools, disadvantages of, 21 means to relie\e expenses of, 47 under Revised Code did not require Pupil Teachers, 46 Smith, Rev. G. proposes that Congrega- tional Schools receive State Aid, 93 Smith, William, commenced Evening Schools for Adults in Bristol, 414 Snelling, Mr., Teacher at Kneller Hall, 534 Social feeling detrimental to arrangement of Peckham Birkbeck School, 422 Social and Political Economy, instruction given in, at Birkbeck Schools, 419 Social Classes, mixture of, at Faversham Schools, 509, 512 Societies, general work of Educational, from 1808 to 1833, 12 evidence in favour of charging fees, 15 Society of Arts. See Arts Society. See Benevolent Evening School See British and Foreign School Society See Central Society of Education See Educational Society See Home and Colonial School Society See London Society Institution for the Blind See National Society of Patrons of the Anniversary of Charity Schools duties in connec- tion with Charity Schools, 330 for Promoting Christian Knowledge originated Parochial Schools, 6 for Promoting Christian Knowledge first work to establish Schools, 326 Royal Asylum of St. Ann's, founded in 1702, 9 for Diffusion of Useful Knowledge scheme for itinerant lecturers for Mechanics' Institutions, 398 Soldier Assistant Teachers, regulations, 227 Soldier Bandmasters, 532 Soldiers pay no fee> for instruction, 228 Orphan Children, Schools for, 233-238 Somerset House, removal of Art School from, to Marlborough House, 493 South Kensington Museum, Educational use of. 122 commencement of, 151 STA South Kensington, removal of Central Art School to, 151 removal of Art Training School to, from Marlborough House, 495 Southampton, Navigation taught at the Charity School about 1710, 329 Southwark, London, and Westminster, Parliamentary inquiry into Educa- tional state of, in 1816, 12 St. George's Fields, Redhill Reform- atory first started in, 261 School for Indigent Blind at, history of, 343 Blind School, cost of, 349 Speak, teaching the Dumb to mode pur- sued, 358 Speech from the throne in 1852, in which Her Majesty advocated Science In- struction, 124 Specifications. See Trust Deeds specimen sets prepared in 1840, 33 Specimen of a Dame School in 1870, 405 letter from the Mistress of a Dame School, 405 Spinning, instruction given in, in Charity Schools, about 1712, 329 Spitalfields, Infant School commenced at, by Mr. Wilderspin, 108 the first Local School started at, 144 Spratt, Mr., Drawing Master at School of Design, 142 Staff, varying cost of, at Industrial Schools, 248 proportion of, to children in Refor- matory Schools, 259 Standard, the Seventh, introduced in 1867,47 State aid to Education. See Public Grants cause of separation between Congre- gationalists and British Society, 473 to Home and Colonial Society, com- mencement of, 486 State-aided Schools superior to private reasons, 314 Station for receiving Marine recruits, Deal, 197 Statistics of Teachers required if all children are to be educated, 19 children in existing Schools, 26 teaching staff required, 27 increase in Schools to 1844, 34 development of State aid, 49 National Schools which received Public grants in 1847, 56 Wesleyan Schools to 1851, 73 Wesleyan Schools in 1859, 75 Wesleyan Schools for twenty years, 75 Roman Catholics and number at School, 83 Roman Catholic Schools from Duke of Newcastle's Report, 84 Congregational Board's operations, 89 Congregational Schools in 1851, 91 576 Index. STA Statistics of growth of Bell Lane School, 102 Infant Schools in 1859, in results of Public Examinations in Evening Schools, 117 Science classes payments, 137-138 attendance of pupils at Schools of Design, 143 Art Schools to 1844, 145 Art Schools in 1851, 151 Art Schools in 1863, 152 Art Schools in 1870, 153 Navigation Schools in 1863, 166 numbers examined in Navigation, 171 Marine Schools in 1857, 193 Marine Establishment at Deal for recruits, 197 Dockyard Schools in 1859, 204 Royal School of Naval Architecture, 208 Reformatory Schools in 1868, 257 juvenile offenders, 258 occupation of children after leaving Reformatory, 260 condition of Education in Army, 231 Industrial Schools, 250 Earls wood Idiot Asylum, 301 Cathedral Schools in 1824, 320 growth of Charity Schools, 326 Blind in United Kingdom, 352 the Deaf and Dumb, 356 Deaf and Dumb under training, 361 Cripples in England, 363 Sunday Schools, 370, 371 Denominational Sunday Schools, 373 First-day Schools in 1847, 375 attendance of Scholars at First-day Schools how maintained, 379 Ragged Day Schools in London, 384 Sunday Ragged Schools in London, 384 First-day Schools in 1870, 381 prizes from Ragged Schools to those who retain situations, 386 Mechanics' Institutions in 1841, 398 Dame Schools in 1819, 400 Private Adventure Schools, 408 fees in Private Schools, 409 Private Schools at the East-end of London, 411 Evening Schools, 1861, 415 Local Training Colleges of National Society, 443 Training Colleges cost, students, 437 training by the National Society, 440 British College in 1834, 449 Denominations at British Colleges, 454 early training of Wesleyans, 456 Wesleyan College Students in 1855, 458 work of Roman Catholic Colleges, 469 STU Statistics of Art-training School in 1853, 493 Teachers under Art-training in 1854, 494 Art-training School, 1860, 496 Denominations at Faversham National School, 510 Grammar School, Faversham, 512 general results at Faversham, 515 Saltaire, 517 Schools at Saltaire, 518 of Science and Art Classes at Saltaire, 520 Status, criminal, of children in Reformatory Schools, 257 Stenographic character objected to by Mr. Taylor as a means of teaching the Blind to read, 345 Step, Fanny anecdote of a workhouse girl, 283 Stepney Union, the Limehouse School of Industry for, 277 Stieglisle, Mr., formerly a Teacher at Kneller Hall, 535 Stipendiary Monitors, commencement of, and regulations, 35, 36 Stock, Rev. W., assisted Mr. Raikes in starting Sunday Schools, 369 Stockport Sunday School taught writing on Sunday in 1837, 372 Stockwell, removal of Female British College to, 453 Stoke, one of the first Science Schools at, 125 Stokes, Mr., H. M.'s Inspector, report in 1854 of the want of Roman Catholic Teachers, 466 Stow, D., Wesleyans first sent to his College at Glasgow to be trained, 456 difference in teaching infants at his College at Glasgow, and at Home and Colonial College, 483 Strain on Pupils, Evening Schools are not too great a, 416 Straw work, bonnets, mats, &c., made by cripples, 364 Strictness encourages regularity of atten- dance in Ragged Schools, 385 Strikes, principles of, taught in Birkbeck Schools, 419 Stripes given to boys at Duke of York's School, carried by them to the regiment, 237 good conduct, extra pay for, at Red- hill Reformatory, 262 benefits of good conduct, at Redhill Reformatory, 263 Students' works, Art, exhibition of, 144 number of, &c. , at Training Colleges, statistics of, 437 in Roman Catholic Training Colleges, personal allowances to, 471 See schedule of Index. 577 STU TEA Students, scarcity of, in Congregational College, 478 Studentships free, at the Royal School of Naval Architecture, 208 Sturge, Joseph, mainly instrumental in founding Birmingham First-day Schools, 376 Subscribers' privileges in electing children for Orphan Schools, 338 Subscriptions, private, entirely supported Parochial Schools, 7 towards building Schools regulations with respect to Public Grant, 32 to Schools to 1844, 34 to Schools, Congregational Board suggests that they should be to a general body, and not to individual Schools, 90 for members of Mechanics' Institu- tions, 397 Suggestions to improve attendance at Ragged Schools, 385 on Popular Education by N. Senior, 277 Sullivan, Mr., formerly Teacher at Kneller Hall, 535 Summer, open-air class rooms in, Bell Lane School, 105 Sunday doles should be applied to educa- tion, 515 Sunday Schools, rapid extension of Dissen- ting, 8 rapid extension of, 1 1 Wesley an, 69 increase of Wesleyan, 76 classification of, 313 history of, 368-374 of Ouakers. Sec Friends' First-day Schools Union, formation of, 371 Sundny Ragged Schools, account of, 384 Superintending Schoolmaster, duties, rank, 226 Superior class, how affected by the educa- tion of paupers Mr. Tufnell's opinion, '274 tendency of, to enter Ragged Schools, 389 Supply of Students at St. Mark's College in 1843, ample and willing to pay a f , 443 pupils to train, difficulty to obtain a due, at British College, 453 Roman Catholic Teachers in-uftidem, 464 Roman Catholic students for Male 'k-ges deficient, 468 Teachers insufficient. S# Diffi- culty Teacher> gradually increase ! with State aiti. Teachers required, statistics of, 19 Sweep started Ragged School at Windsor, 384 Swineherds as Teachers, 20 Switzerland, Kruitzlingen, School in, Bat- tersea College started on same system as, 442 System of Teaching, Lancaster's, 60 of Licenses for Industrial Schools, 249 Systematic teaching secured in large rather than in small Schools, 21 Tailoring at Bristol Industrial School, 250 Talmud Torah, an ancient foundation for educating Jewish children, 101 Boys, advantages of, in Bell Lane Jews' School, 103 Tanner, Bishop, statement concerning Re- ligious Houses in thirteenth century, 2 Taxes, local, proposed, for Education in 1820, 13 Collectors of, made to give their poundage to Charity Schools, 327 Taylor, Rev. W., opinion on mode of teaching Blind to read, 344 Teach, practical ability to, not sufficiently considered in Training Colleges about 1851, 432, 433 Teachers, all should be obliged to qualify, 3I5.4I3 apprenticing of, at National Society's Colleges, 441 of Army Schools, payments to, 225, 231 attendance at First-day Schools, 381 See Assistant certificated, average number ol scholars to each, 85, 19 both Masters and Mistresses, trained originally at British College, 448 cannot expect large supply of, when salary less than a mechanic's, 20 certificates in Science, abolition of -oils, 131 commencement of State aid to train, 429 certificate allowance to Training Col- lege, granted, 431 deficiency of Roman Catholic, 464 difficulties of training, for Marine Schools, 194 difficulty of obtaining good, causes Dame Schools to be so plentiful, 403 578 Index. TEA TEM Teachers, difficulty to obtain, such as the ones at Peckham School, 426 difficulties to obtain Male Lay Roman Catholic, 468 estimated staff of, required, 27 . Female, efforts of Miss Burdett Coutts to improve, 460 for Army Schools, suggestions for supplying, 503 for Provincial Art Schools, necessity to train, 489 grants to Pauper Schools, from public funds, 278 their duties to Pupil Teachers, 35 houses, Building Grants extended to, in Blind School generally ' seeing ' persons, Blind Teachers found to be unsuccessful, 348 incapacity of Sunday School, about 1837, 373 inefficient, in Workhouse Schools in 1838, 276 insufficient payment cause of scarcity of, 470 at Kneller Hall Musical School, the best that can be obtained, 534 licensing of, under Bishop, to spread views of Established Church, 408 Male, average earnings in 1868, SQ/. insufficient, 20 and Managers, Duke of Newcastle's Commission recommended that Go- vernment should not interfere be- tween, 45 means to increase ratio of, to scholars, 47 mode of training for Jews' Schools, 105 . for Navigation Schools to be trained at Greenwich and then sent to Jer- myn Street, 162 of Infant Schools, difficulty to obtain, 108 of Infant Schools, mode of supplying, 488 See Infant Teachers of first Sunday Schools paid, 369 organising, for a district of Evening Schools, 416 payments to Science in 1860, 127 pensions, proposal for, 37 proposal to train best for advanced Science Teacherships, 21 qualifications for, in Charity Schools, 328 qualifications of, in Private Schools, 409 regulations to secure that trained persons taught, 460 remuneration uncertain, 1844, 34 required, statistics of, 19 Teachers. See Registered voluntary, in Sunday Schools, 1 1 salaries of, in Congregational Schools, 91 salaries, increase of, 1845, 443 salaries, increase of, 1851, 4/14 salary so small in 1828 prevented persons entering Colleges, 448 suggestion of Duke of Newcastle's Commission to examine and grant certificates to Private, 412 . supply of, increased with State aid, 15 trained at British College conditions on which they were sent to Schools, 448 the Bishops were usually the chief, if not only, ones in Cathedral Schools, 316 in Science, trained at School of Mines and Dublin, 121 training of. See Training training of, commencement of, 12 training of, for Jews' Schools, 100 trained to give instruction in Science, 138 untrained, Certificates to, 38 voluntary ones for Sunday School, commencement of system of dis- advantages and advantages, 370 want of good ones for Evening Schools, 417 for Wesleyan Schools, qualifications, &c., 71 residences. See Residences Teaching by elder scholars successful in Birmingham First-day School, 377 by Question and Answer advocated by Mr. Ellis, 423 in seventeenth century almost entirely of a Religious character, 369 Infants, curious mode of, no Lancaster's System of, 60 power, saving of, by combination among Schools, 21 Religion. See Religious Instruction staff required, statistics of, 27 staff of First-day Schools unusually great, 375 staff at Ragged Schools, 387 Technical Art Instruction, provision for, in Schools of Art, 150 Technical Education, agitation for, in 1867, 131 Classes at Art Training School, giving up of, 494, 496 Temple, Dr., his Oxford essay on the Capitation Grant Minute, 39 Principal of Kneller Hall, when a Training College for Pauper School Teachers, 281 opinion on payments on results in Workhouse Schools, 281 Index. 579 TER TRE Term of training at Congregational Col- lege, 477 Textile Ornament, Technical Art Class in, 494, 496 Theft on board Training Ships, 184 Theoretical Education in Training Colleges about 1851 thought to be too theo- retical, 432, 433 Thieves, children in company with reputed, if under sixteen, may be sent to In- dustrial School, 246 Third Grade Art Certificate, establishment of, 495 Thompson, Mr., one of first Art Teachers trained, 489 Thomson, Right Hon. Sir C. P., takes chair at first meeting to establish Schools of Design, 142 Time for Science Instruction, before the age of twelve years, secured by good Infant Schools, 22 Blind are usually under instruction, 348 'Times' Newspaper Letter from Dr. Playfair on deficiency of English artisans as shown in 1867 Exhibi- tion, 131 Tinker, a, started Ragged School at Hatcham, 384 Tools, aid in the purchase of, for Schools of Industry, &c., 37 given to Blind pupils at Bristol on leaving, 349 Tooting, Druet's farming establishment for pauper children, 287 Tower, St. Katherine by the, means taken to supply funds for Schools at, 327 Town of Saltaire, erection of, and size, 5i6 Townsend, Rev. J., a founder of the Dumb Asylum, London, 356 Toxteth Park Reformatory School, cost of, 259 Travels of Lancaster to spread a knowledge of his system, 62 Travellers. See Commercial Travellers' School Travelling Organising Masters of National Schools, 56 proposed to be a part of training of Art Teachers, 490 Trade, Science, and Navigation Schools were under similar rules as regards State aid, 121 Schools, history of, 155-161 and Navigation Schools, proposed to combine, but unsuccessful, 160 Trades. See Workshops for Trained Schoolmaster Sergeant, origin of, 224 persons, regulations to secure that they taught, 460 Training of Art Teachers, Exhibitions for, 489 of Bandsmen, 533 of Bandmasters, 535 Brigs for the Training Ships, 182 at Home and Colonial College, 1836, too short, 482 of Infant Teachers, arrangements for, in 1836, 481 Institutions for Marines, Deal, 197 period of, at Home and Colonial College, extended, 485 in Reformatory Schools, statistics of results, 260 Training Colleges, regulations of Committee of Council concerning, 429-438 Male not full, causes of, 20 Introduction of Drawing instruction into, regulations, 492 of National Society, history of, 439-446 for Teachers of Pauper Schools. See Kneller Hall payments on account of Pupil Teachers, sent to, 1867, 47 period of partial aid to, 13 public, the idea of forming given up from religious difficulty, 429 regulations of Committee of Council, 429-438 superior one for Science, to train best Elementary Teachers, 21 Training Ships for the Royal Navy, history of, 177-186 boys from Greenwich School must now pass through training at, seems unnecessary, 217 Training School, attempt to start at beginning of eighteenth century, 328 for Army Schoolmasters, 500 Training of Teachers, commencement of, 12 early efforts in 1710 difficulties before State aid, 14 time required, 14 Bell and Lancaster's originally limited to a few months, j 5 for Jews' Schools, 100, 105 in Science, 138 for Marine Schools, difficulties, 194 Treasury to make Building Grants, pro- posed under first Education Bill, 1820, 13 dispensers of Grants for education at, from 1833 to 1839, 13 Tremenheere, Mr., his Report on British Schools objected to, 67 Report on Industrial Schools in 1843, 2 43 Trevelyan, Sir C. E., Report on School of "Mines, 128 T P 2 580 Index. TRU Truro, one of the first Science Schools at, I2 5 Trust Deeds, Conscience clause for, 46 model drawn up by National Society in 1816, 53 for Roman Catholic Schools, 80 Trustees of Charity Schools, duties of the Society of, 330 Tufnell, E. C., H.M. Inspector Report on the advantages of Infant Schools, 114 Report on Norwood School of Indus- try, 243 evidence on giving paupers better education than agricultural labourers, 2 73 opinion on effect of paupers' educa- tion on superior class, 274 advocates formation of District Schools, 277 opinion on payments on results in Workhouse Schools, 280 urges formation of District Schools, 286 letter to, on the difference between District and Workhouse Schools, 289 opinion of importance of Singing and Music at District Schools, 293 evidence before the Duke of New- castle's Commission on results of District Schools, 295 one of the originators of Battersea College, 442 Report on Home and Colonial Col- lege, 487 Turner, Sydney, statistics as to condition of children in Reformatories, 257 Twice a year, each School to be inspected, 1840, 33 U Unaided Schools, introduction to, 311-315 Unincorporated towns, Capitation payments to, 38 Union of Institutes. See Lancashire Union, Ragged School, formation of, 383 Union, Sunday School, formation of, 371 Unions, combination of several to make one School, 283 of pauper children of two small, 289 Universities, means of throwing open, by Scholarships, to all of ability, 23 University Degree the possession exempts from undergoing examination to qualify for Science payments, 129 Exhibitions to, at Faversham, 513 the Third, London, stated to be, in thirteenth century, 2 WAN Unruly children under sixteen may be sent to an Industrial School, 247 Untrained Teachers, Ceitificates to, 38 Unwin, Rev. W. J., Pamphlet on Educa- tion the Work of the People, 92 Principal of Liverpool street Training School, 475 Use of Dame Schools, anecdote of, 402 Useful Knowledge. See Society for Diffu - sion of V Vacancies in Training Colleges, means by Scheduled Students to fill, 435 Vagrant and Disorderly Children, Schools for, 245 Veterinary Art taught in Edinburgh School of Arts, 1821, 393 Vicar, Rector, or Curate to examine Schoolmasters under First Educa- tion Bill, 13 Vice-President of the Committee of Council on Education formation of office, 41 Victor penny. See Penny Vocal Music, Infant Teachers to be ex- amined in, 435 Voluntary System could not have accom- plished single-handed results which State Aid has, 16 Voluntary Teachers for Sunday Schools, commencement of system of, dis- advantages and advantages, n, 370 at Ragged Schools, 387 Voluntaryists, a section of the British Society, origin of, 451 Votes. See Parliamentary Votes W Wallis, Mr., one of first Art Teachers trained, 489 Walsham, Sir J., Report in 1855 on Industrial occupations in Workhouse Schools, 282 Wandsworth, one of the first Science Schools at, 125 Trade School, scheme and history of, 159 Wanstead Orphan School, parentage of children, 339 Index. 581 WAR War Department Education Department to assist, if desired, in inspecting Army School-,. &c., 42 Educational, history of, 221 Ward Schools, classification of, 312 history of, 332-335 Warrington Free Grammar School, usually a small fee charged, 4 Washing, &c., payments for teaching Pupil Teachers, 36 Wash-houses and kitchens, Grants to Schools of Industry, 37, 243 Waterford, the first District Elementary School of Art, 150 Watson, Dr., first Principal of the London Dumb Asylum, 356 Watson, Mr., son of Dr. Watson, second Principal of the London Dumb Asylum, 356 Watson, Rev. J. H., son of Mr. Watson, third Principal of the London Dumb Asylum, 356 Watt Institution, attempt to establish Scholarships at, in 1853, 125 Weekly fees. Sec Fees Welsh Training School of Congregation- nlists, 475 y, John, his early efforts in educa- tion, 69 Wesleyan Educational Committee formed, 1837, 70 Educational Fund started, 72 . Methodist Centenary, education of this body dates from, 456 Sabbath School Society, 70 Schools, history of, 69-77 Schools, the Conscience clause of their Schools formed basis of general Conscience clause, 46 Training College, history of, 456-463 Westminster, Early Infant School com- menced at Brewers' Green, 108 London and Southwark, Parliamentary enquiry into Educational state of, in 1816, 12 one of the first Charity Schools es- tablished in, 326 removal of National Central School to, 54 Training College. See Wesleyan Training College \Yeston-super-Mare, Industrial Evening School at, 418 Wharncliffe, Lord, deputation to, from British Society on aid to College, - 452 Whiston, Rev. R., extract from his 'Ca- thedral Trusts ' anecdote concern- ing advantages of education for the poor, sixteenth century, 318 Whiston, Rev. R. discussion on his writings on Cathedral Schools, 321 WOR Whitelands Training College, formation of, 441 supplies many of the Army School- mistresses, 502 Whitmore, Miss, Superintendent of Ro- therhithe Training School, 475 Whitworth Exhibitions given temporarily until Whitworth Scholarships came regularly into working order de- tails, 136 proposal to establish Faculty of In- dustry, 136 Scholarships, foundation of general scheme, 134 Wigan, one of the first Science Schools at, 125 Wilderspin, Mr., efforts to promote Infant Schools, 1 08 Wilkinson, Mr., account of a Private School conducted by a cripple, 411 William IV., issue of second King's letter, 54 Williams' Secular School, Edinburgh, me- morial for aid in 1854 refused, 313 Wimborne, in Dorsetshire, regulations for admission to Grammar School at, 4 Winchester choristers have to pay a fee, 323 Bishop of, his records show igno- rance of sixteenth century, 3 Windsor Ragged School started by a chimney sweep, 384 Winter, Mr., description of a Dame School, 401 Winton, Bishop of, his records show igno- rance of sixteenth century, 3 Wood engraving, class for females opened, H5 Technical Art Class in, 494, 496 Woolley, Rev. Dr., duties as Inspector of Navy Schools concerning Training Ships, 181 formerly Principal of Portsmouth Mathematical School, now Inspector of Dockyard Schools, 203 his Report on state of Marine Schools in 1853, 193 Inspector-General of Royal School of Naval Architecture, 207 recommends increase of supply of Scientific Apparatus for Dockyard Schools, 206 recommended that Marine School- masters should depend partly on re- sults, 194 Report on insufficient accommodation for Marine Schools, 194 Worcester Trade School, 159 Work. See Industrial Work. Workhouse and District Schools compared, 289 582 Index. WOR Workhouse Schools, aid to, in 1846, 37 history of, 272-284 Working classes, attention first drawn to educational condition of, by the clergy, 6 frequent efforts made to send eldest boy to Birkbeck School, 421 Working Men's Clubs. See Mechanics' Institutions Working of a Dame School, anecdote of, 402 Workmen at Glasgow, Dr. Birkbeck's experiences with, 391 Workshops, Evening School with, at Weston, 418 for Trades, grants to Schools of Industry, 37 arrangements for aiding, 1846, 243 Works, Art Students, exhibition of, 144 Worship, religious, provision for, at Saltaire, 517 Wreight's Charity, founded Commercial School, Faversham, 507, 511 Writing, excellence of, at Peckham Birk- beck School causes, 424 mode of teaching the Blind, 345 objections to teaching on Sunday lest people should learn to commit forgery, 372 proportion of Dame Schools which teach, 404 reading and ciphering might be taught by seven or eight in a good Infant School, 22 ZIE Written examinations, increased attention given to, by Wesleyan College in i54, 45 8 Wye Grammar School for 'rich and poor,' 5 York, H. R. H. the Duke of, proposals for a system of Army Education, 223 originated the Duke of York School, 233 York's Schools, Duke of. See Royal Military Asylum York, opinion of Mr. Taylor, Director of School at, on mode of teaching Blind to read, 344 Yorkshire system of organised Evening Schools, 416 Ziess, Mr., formerly Teacher at Kneller Hall, 535 LONDON I PRINTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE AND PARLIAMENT STREET RETURN CIRCULATION DEPARTMENT TO *> 202 Main Library LOAN PERIOD 1 HOME USE 2 3 4 5 6 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS Renewals and Recharges may be made 4 days prior to the due date. Books may be Renewed by calling 642-3405 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW APR 9 7 T.T.J AUTO DISC CIR( SEP OA*94 - FORM NO. DD6 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY BERKELEY, CA 94720 U. C. BERKELEY LIBRARIES -Si THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY