w >t**" HORACE A. SCOTT 2208 N. Ross s[reet Santa Ana.Calif. * V ^- imtlM|lf W| pilHM5lltHffBinHffllilll""llilllllllll»^ imu;iiiiih,i:niiii['niiimilltlll»miiilll;ii. i[i[iinmiH»umiiiiniiiiiiniMi|imtr[imimiiiiiiiiLr)iiinuini»n mnin' GEO GKAPHY» »iiiiiiai«M mi II I m i III I nil I in I III I in_ I j^ i»» iraTMijiiM^MliBB^^ iiimi imilllllNmil lllllllllllllllll mullimillllliniMi illilllli»iiiliiinlliwiiwi«iliilliiiiwiiillll»lllgiim^^ WITH MAPS AND^ ILLUSTRATIONS PREP.\RED EXPRESSED? FOR THIS AVORK BY EMINENT AMERICAN ARTISTS I NEW YORK HARPER & BROTHERS iSS6 PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT. In presenting to the public this work on geography, the publishers respectfully invite the attention of Boards of Education, teachers, and parents to the following statement of its plan and leading features : The study of geography is now, much more than at any former pe- riod, an essential element in education. It is second in importance only to reading, writing, and rudimentary arithmetic. The newspaper is and must continue to be the chief source of that knowledge of cur- rent events which is indispensable to every intelligent person. Its telegrams and other items and articles necessarily assume that the reader possesses a knowledge of certain geographical facts. It is the aim of this work to present and impress these facts. To this end the careful selection and arrangement of topics have been regarded as matters of prime necessity in order to insure such a unity of plan as to present a simple, yet practical, definite, and coher- ent view of the subject. The geography of commerce has been made the leading line of thought, because commerce, domestic and foreign, is becoming more and more a dominant interest in the affairs of the leading nations of the world, and because no other department of the general subject presents in such bold relief their rivalries and mutual dependencies. It involves a systematic presentation of the resources and industries of countries as dependent upon climate, soil, mineral deposits, and other physical conditions. It also includes all important information concerning cities and towns as commercial, manufacturing, and mining centres, and an outline of the system of transportation, domestic and international. The tables of reference show the total imports and exports of all the maritime nations, and particularly the commerce of each of these countries with the United States. The work is essentially in two distinct parts — a physical geography and a political geography. The physical geography is treated with sufficient fulness, and presents no difficulty greater than the de- scription of a chain of mountains or of the course of a river. A systematic outline of this department will be found in the questions of the general review. Each of the two parts has a series of special maps, exercises, and descriptions. Each series is complete in itself, and may be so taught if it be thought desirable. Again, by a differ- ence in type and by the arrangement of the questions, each series pre- sents the choice of a simple outline or a fuller course. The questions are so clearly related to the maps and the text as to avoid the serious difficulties which frequently arise from obscurity in this connection. The cities and towns called for by the text are at once pointed out both by the prominence of the type and by a peculiar device of color which will be found upon the maps. Among the many other original matters of great practical importance to pupils and teachers are the map showing the divisions and subdivis- ions of the United States, and the Industrial and Commercial Map of the United States, exhibiting the leading industries and resources of the country, and its various existing and proposed systems of transportation by railroad, coast lines, and interior water-ways, the whole for the first time so simply and clearly presented as to be easily committed to memory. The definitions are few and brief, and, like the rest of the work, are expressed in the simplest language which the subject will allow. The map-drawing exercises and the tabular reviews are simple and practical, and will commend themselves to teachers. The perfect clearness and legibility of the maps and the character of the type used in the text prevent injury to the sight of the pupil and teacher. In view of the limited time which can be given to geography in school, this treatise has been made as concise as possible, without lim- iting its comprehensiveness. This is not only very desirable in itself, but was made necessary by the large type and the great space given to the instructive pictorial illustrations. While great care has been taken to reject all matter not strictly relevant, it is believed that no other School Geography presents so many essential facts and principles in so few words. The character of the type and the quality of the illustrations, maps, paper, and binding of this work leave it without a rival in the beauty and excellence of its mechanical execution. The work in all its details shows that the author is a practical teach- er, to whom the difficulties of the class-room are thoroughly familiar. Franklin Square, New York, January, 1876. Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1875, by Uarpbr & Brothers, in the OITce of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. Patent for color-mark used on Maps applied ft>r. Copyright, 1885. by Hakper & Brothers. MAP LIBRARY n TABLE OF CONTENTS. 8 10 10 PACE I. The Earth : Its Shape and Size, . ... 1 II. Motions of the Earth, 2 III. Circles of the Earth, 3 IV. Latitude. — Longitude. — Zones, ... 3 V. Globes and Maps, 4 VI. Divisions of the Land 5 VII. Elevations of the Land, 5 VIII. Divisions of the Water, 6 IX. Divisions of Geography, 6 Map-Drawing, 7 X. Questions on the Map of the Western Hemi- sphere, ........ XI. Review Exercises, XII. Questions on the Map of the Eastern Hemi- sphere, XIII. Review Exkrcises, XIV. Continents, 12 XV. Islands, 12 XVI. Mountains 13 XVII. Plateaus or Table-lands, 13 XVIII. Lowland Plains 14 XIX. Oceans, 14 XX. Drainage Waters. — Rivers, 14 XXI. Lakes. — Glaciers and Icebergs, . . . 15 XXII. Ocean Currents, 16 XXIIL Winds, 16 XXIV. Climate, 17 XXV. Races of Men, 18 XXVI. Conditions of Society, 18 XXVII. Government, 18 XXVIII. Questions on the Physical Map of North America, . 21 XXIX. Description of Physical North America, . 19 XXX. Climate, Vegetation, and Animals of North America, 19 XXXI. Questions on the Political Map of North America . . 22 XXXII. Review Exercises 22 XXXIU. Questions on the Physical Map of the United States 24 XXXIV. Position, Area, and Surface of the United States, 24 XXXV. Western Half of the United States, . . 24 XXXVI. Eastern Half of the United States, . . .26 XXXVII. Divisions AND Subdivisions OF the United States, 29 XXXVIII. Review of Political Map of the United States, 32 PAGB XXXIX. Description of Political United States, . . 33 XL. Government of the United States 35 XLI. Questions on the Map of the North Atlantic States, or New England, .... 37 XLII. Review Exercises, 37 XLIII. Description of the North Atlantic States, or New England, 37 XLIV. Questions on Map of the Middle Atlantic States, 41 XLV. Review Exercises, 41 XLVI. Description of the Middle Atlantic States, . . 41 XLVII. Questions on the Map of the South Atlantic and South Central States, 44 XLVIII. Review Exercises, 44 XLIX. Description of the South Atlantic States, . . 46 L. Description of the South Central States, . . 47 LI. Questions on Map of the North Central States, 48 LII. Review Exercises, 48 LIII. Description OF THE North Central States, . . 50 LIV. Questions on the Map of the West Central States AND States of the Plains : Northern Divisions, 53 LV. Review Exercises, 53 LVI. Questions on the Map of the West Central States AND States of the Plains : Southern Divisions, 54 LVII. Review Exercises, 54 LVIII. Description of the West Central States, . . 53 LIX. Description of the States of the Plains, . . 56 LX. Questions on the Map of the Western or Highland States, 59 LXI. Review Exercises, 59 LXII. DcscRiPTioN OF THE Western States: Rocky Mount- ain Division, 59 LXIII. Description OF the Western States: Basin Division, 61 LXIV. Description ofthe Western States: Pacific Division, 62 LXV. Industries of the United States, .... 64 LXVI. Transportation, . , 64 LXVI(7. The Old, OR Local Standard, Time, . . . 129 LXVI^. The Railroad or Hour-belt System, or New Stand- ard Time, 129 LXVI I. Questions on the Map of the Dominion of Canada, 68 LXVI 1 1. Review Exercises 68 LXIX. Description of Canada and Newfoundland, . . 68 LXX. Questions on the Map of Mexico, Central America, AND THE West Indies, 73 LXXI. Review Exercises, 73 LXXII. Description of Mexico, 71 LXXIII. Description of Central America, . . . .71 11 TABLE OF CONTENTS. LXXIV. Description of the West Indies, ... LXXV. Questions on the Physical Map of South Amer ICA, LXXVI. Surface of South America, LXXVII. Questions on the Political Map of South Amer ICA, LXXVIII. Review Exercises LXXIX. Description of Political South America, LXXX. Questions on the Physical Map of Europe, LXXXI. Description of Physical Europe, LXXX II. Questions on the Political Map of Europe, LXXXIII. Review Exercises, LXXX IV. Governments and Population of Europe, . LXXXV. Questions on the Map of the British Isles, LXXXVI. Review Exercises, LXXXVII. Description of the British Isles, . LXXXVIII. Questions on the Map of Western and Central Europe LXXXIX. Review Exercises, XC. Description of Western and Central Europe, . XCI. Description of Austria, Turkey, Greece, and Denmark XCII. Questions on the Map of the German Empire, Netherlands, and Belgjum, . . . . XCIII. Review Exercises, PACH 73 V8 78 83 83 86 86 88 88 88 90 93 93 93 95 97 98 XCIV. Description of the German Empire, Netherlands, and Belgium, 98 XCV. Questions on the Physical Map of Asia, . . 101 XCVI. Description of Physical Asia, 103 XCVII. Questions on the Political Map of Asia, . . 103 XCVIII. Review Exercises, 103 XCIX. Description of Political Asia, .... 105 C. Description of British India and Indo-China, . . 107 CI. Description of Persia, Afghanistan, Beloochistan, Arabia, and Turkey, 108 CII. Questions on the Map of Oceanica and the Phys- ical Map of Australia, 110 CII I. Review Exercises, 110 CIV. Description of Oceanica, 112 CV. Questions on the Physical and Political Map of Africa, 115 CVI. Review Exercises, 115 CVII. Description of Physical Africa, . . . .116 CVIII. Description of Political Africa, . , . .117 CIX. Description of Caucasian Africa, . . . .118 ex. Description of Negro Africa, 119 CXI. General Review Exercises, .... 122,123 Cartography, 124 Tables, 125 Pronouncing Vocabulary, . . . . 126,127,128 MAPS. PAGE Western Hemisphere, 9 Eastern Hemisphere 11 Physical North America, 20 Political North America, 23 Physical United States, 25 United States in Groups 28 Political United States, 30,31 North Atlantic States, or New England 36 Middle Atlantic States, 40 South .Atlantic and South Central States, ... 45 North Central States 49 West Central States and States of the Plains : Northern Division, 52 West Central States and States of the Plains : Southern Division, 55 Western or Highland States, 58 Commercial and Industrial United States, Dominion of Canada, Mexico, Central America, and West Indies, Physical South America, .... Political South America, .... Physical Europe, Political Europe, . . - . British Isles, Western and Central Europe, German Empire, Netherlands, and Belgium, Physical Asia, ...... Political Asia, Oceanica and Physical Australia, . Physical and Political Africa, . Map of the Principal Ocean Trade Routes of the World, 120,121 PAGB 66,67 69 72 74 79 82 87 89 92 97 100 102 111 114 MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. I. THE EAKTH: ITS SHAPE AND SIZE. 1. (Geography is a description of the surface of the earth, and of its countries and their inhabitants. 2. The shape of the earth is nearly that of a ball, globe, or sphere. The earth does not appear to be shaped like a ball, but looks like a large plain, stretching out in every di- rection. The reason of this is that we see only a small part of it at one time. Note.— To ensure correct conceptions on the part of the pupil, it is recom- mended that the lessons on Mathematical Geography be illustrated by means of a globe. 2 3. We know that the earth is shaped like a ball from the following facts : First. Ships have sailed around it. Second. When a ship sails away from the la^d, the hull or body first disappears from sight, then the sails, and last the tops of the masts. When a ship is coming in from sea, the tops of the masts are seen first, then the sails, and lastly the hull or body. If the surface of the water were flat, the hull would be seen as soon as the masts. In like manner, in travelling across broad plains we see the tops of distant mountains long before their bases are visible. THE EARTH: SHAPE, SIZE, AND MOTIONS. Third. The shadow ■which the earth casts upon the moon is always circular. A ball or sphere being the only body that always casts a circular shadow, we conclude that the earth has the shape of a ball or sphere. 4. A diameter of a sphere is any straight line drawn through the centre from surface to surface. The diameter of the earth is nearly eight thousand miles. 5. A circumference of a sphere is the greatest distance around it. The circumference of the earth is nearly twenty-five thousand miles. 6. The surface of the earth contains nearly two hun- dred millions of square miles. 7. The horizon is that circle upon which the earth and the sky appear to meet. That point of the horizon towards which your shadow falls at noon is called north.* The opposite point is called south. If you face the north, your right hand is to- wards the east, and your left hand is towards the west. 8. North, east, south, and west are called the cardinal points of the horizon. The points midway between these are called northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest. 9. The compass is an instru- ment used by mariners and sur- veyors. It consists of a circular card representing the horizon and its points. Over the centre of the card is a magnetic needle, balanced on a pivot : this needle points to- wards the north. NORTH SOUTH Questions. — What does this section tell about? — 1. What is geography? — 2. What is the shape of the earth? How does the earth appear to us? Why is this? — 3. What is the first fact by which we know that the earth is a globe ? The second fact? The third fact ? — 4. What is a diameter of a sphere ? How long is the earth's diameter? — /i. What is a circumference of a sphere? How long is the earth's cir- cumference? — 6. How many square miles in the surface of the earth? — 7. What is the horizon? Which way is north, south, etc. ? — 6. Which are the cardinal points? The points between these ? — U. Describe the compass. " This is true only in the Northern Hemisphere. II. MOTIONS OF THE EAETH. 1. The earth has two constant motions, the daily and the annual. 2. The daily motion of the earth is its rotation on one of its diameters. The direction of the motion is from west to east : this causes the sun to appear to move from east to west. The sun appears to rise in the east because the place where we are is moving towards it ; it appears to set in the west because the place where w-e are is moving from it. The diameter on which the earth turns is called its axis. The time in which the earth turns on its a.xis is called a day. 3. The daily rotation causes the succession of day and nig^ht. Each place is carried into the sunlight, and then into the shade of the earth. 4. The poles are the points at the ends of the axis. One is called the North Pole, the other the South Pole. 5. The swiftness of the rotation has caused the earth to be slightly flattened at the poles, and to bulge out a little midway between them. A globe flattened at the poles is called an oblate spheroid. The length of the earth's axis, or shortest diameter, is 789U miles ; the longest diameter is 7925 miles. The greatest circumference is 24,899 miles. Note. — The polar diameter is about one three-hundredth less than the equatorial. 6. The earth moves around the sun in a nearly circu- lar path, called its orbit. The time in which the earth j-evolves around the sun is called a year. It contains nearly 365^ days. This motion is called the annual revolution. 7. The axis of the earth is inclined to its orbit. This inclination never changes. 8. The annual revolution of the earth and the inclina- tion of its axis cause the change of the seasons. Questions. — What does this section tell about? — 1. How many motions has the earth? What arc they? — 2. What is tlie daily motion of the eartli? In what direction is it ? How does the sun appear to move ? Why does it appear to rise and set ? What is the axis of the earth ? What is a d.iy ? — 3. What is caused by the daily rotation cf the earth? — I. What are the poles? Wh.at are they called? — ,".. What effect has the swiftness of the rotation? What name is given to the true shape of the earth ? What is an oblate spheroid ? How many miles difference between the longest and the shortest diameter ? How long is the greatest circumference ? — G. What other motion lias the earth ? What is the shape of its path ? Its name? What is a year? How long is it? — 7. Wh.at is the position of the cirth's a.\is? Does the inclination change? — 8. What cause the change of the seasons? South Pole THE CIRCLES OF THE EARTH.— LATITUDE.— LONGITUDE.— ZONES. III. THE CIRCLES OF THE EARTH. 1. The circles of the earth* are lines imagined to be drawn on its surface. These circles are of t\vo kinds — great circles and small circles. 2. A great circle is one that divides the earth into two equal parts. Each of these parts is called a hemi- sphere, which means a half-sphere. 3. A small circle is one that divides the earth into two unequal parts. 4. Every circle is divided into 360 equal parts called degrees ; each degree is divided into 60 equal parts called min- utes ; and each minute into 60 equal parts called seconds. ^80° The smaller the circle, the short- er are the decrees. Degrees DEGREES OF THE CIRCLE. ■ are marked °, minutes ', and seconds ". Thus twelve degrees, fifteen minutes, and ten seconds are written 12° 15' 10". 5. The Equator is that great circle which is midway between the poles. It divides the earth into a Northern and a Southern Hemisphere. NORTH POLE. NORTH POLE- SOUTH POLE. SOUTH POLE. 6. Meridian circles are those great circles which pass through the poles. Each divides the earth into an Eastern and a Western Hemisphere. 7. A meridian is half of a meridian circle, and ex- tends from pole to pole. 8. Parallels are small circles parallel to the Equator. The principal parallels are the two tropics and the two polar circles. * In Geometry, a distinction is made between the circle and its boundary line or circumference. The circle is really the space or surface bounded by the circumfer- ence. This distinction is not necessary in Geography. 9. The tropics are those parallels which are 23^ de- grees from the Equator. The northern is called the Tropic of Cancer, and the southern the Tropic of Cap- ricorn. 10. The polar circles are those parallels which are 23-^ degrees from the poles. The northern is called the Arctic Circle, and the south- ern the Antarctic Circle. ■o)i«. SOUTH POLE THE CIRCLES OF THE EARTH. Questions (T.)—l. What are the circles of the earth? How many kinds of circles? What are they.' — 2. What is a great circle? What is a hemisphere? — 3. What is a small circle .> — t. How is every circle divided ? How are degrees divided ? How are minutes divided .' — 5. What is the Equator ? Into what docs it divide the earth .' — 6. What are meridian circles ? Into what does each divide the earth ? — 7. What is a meridian.' — 8. What are parallels? Which are the principal parallels. — 9. What are the tropics? Give the name of each.' — 10. What are the polar circles? Give the name of each ? . (II.)— Read 32° 1.5' 47" ; 49° 1 1' 37". Which is larger, a degree of the Equator or of a tropic? Why? Of the Equator or of a meridian ? Why? Of a tropic or of the Arctic Circle ? Why? Which is the greater, the Eastern Hemisphere or the North- ern ? Why ? How many meridian circles may there be ? How many Equators ? How many parallels ? How many meridians ? IV. LATITUDE.-LONGITUDE.-ZONES. 1. Latitude is distance north or south from the Equa- tor. It is measured, in degrees, on a meridian. Places between the Equator and the North Pole are in north latitude ; those between the Equator and the South Pole are in south latitude ; those on the Equator have no lati- tude. The poles have the greatest possible latitude, which is 90 degrees. 2. liongitude is distance east or west from a selected meridian. It is measured, in degrees, on the Equator or any parallel. The selected meridian is called the first meridian. The meridian in most common use is that which passes through Greenwich Observator\% near London. In the United States the meridian of Washington is sometimes used; in France that of Paris ; in Germany that of Berlin ; etc. Places on the first meridian have no longitude. The greatest longitude is 180 degrees, east or west. A degree of any great circle measures CO geographical miles, or about 69* statute miles of the United States. A degree on the parallel of 60° is just half as long. 3. Zones are broad belts or divisions of the earth's surface parallel to the Equator. They are bounded by the tropics and the polar circles. ZONES.— GLOBES AND MAPS. 4. There are five zones : one Torrid, two Temperate, and two Frigid Zones. 5. The Torrid Zone extends from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn. Torrid means hot. This zone is the hottest part of the earth, because the sun is always shining directly down upon some part of it. It is 47 degrees wide, or 23^ degrees on each side of the Equator, and is the largest zone. 6. The North Frig^id Zone extends from the Arctic Circle to the North Pole. The South Frig^id Zone extends from the Antarctic Circle to the South Pole. Frigid means frozen. The Frigid Zones are the coldest parts of the earth, because the sun shines upon each of them during only a part of the year, and with very slanting rays. Each extends 23i degrees from the pole at its centre. They are the smallest, least important, and least known of the zones. The South Frigid Zone is not known to have one human inhabitant. 7. The North Temperate Zone extends from the Arctic Circle to the Tropic of Cancer. The South Temperate Zone extends from the Antarctic Circle to the Tropic of Capricorn. Temperate means moderate. Each of the Temperate Zones is 43 degrees wide. The North Temperate Zone is the most impor- tant portion of the world. It contains nearly three fourths of the human race. Note. — The axis of the earth is inclined 23A degrees towards its orbit. This determines the breadth of the several zones, the tropics being 23i degrees from the Equator, and the polar circles being 23^ degrees from the Poles. The four seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and win- ter, are found only in the Temperate Zones. MAP OF THE ZONES. NORTH POLK. SOUTH POLB. SOUTH POLE. Questions (I.)— 1. What is latitude.' How is it measured ? On what ? In what directions? What pUices are in north latitude? In south latitude? What places have no latitude ? What places have the greatest latitude ? Mow many degrees ? — 2. What is longitude ? How is it measured ? On what ? In what directions? What is the name of the meridian from which longitude is reckoned ? What places have no longitude ? What is the greatest longitude a place can have .' — 3. What arc zones ? By what are they bounded ? — I. How many zones are there ? Name them.— .i. Where is the Torrid Zone ?— . Which zones are the coldest parts of the earth ? Why? What does their name mean ? What point in the centre of each? How wide are they .' — 7. How wide are the Temperate Zones ? What does their name mean ? — Which is the largest zone? The smallest? The hottest? The least important? Why? The most important ? Why? Where are the coldest parts of the Temperate Zones? Where are the warmest parts? GLOBES AND MAPS. MAP OF THE WORLD. AKTARC TIC OCEAN ^ixDny I CSEAy^ 1. The surface of the earth may be represented by globes and maps. 2. A g^lobe is a sphere representing the form of the earth, its circles, and the principal divisions of the land and water. 3. A map is a representation of the whole or a part of the earth's surface on a plane. A plane is a flat surface. The surface of a sphere can not be exactly represented upon a plane. Small portions of the earth's surface can be more correctly represented upon maps than very large ones. 4. Parallels cross the map from side to side ; meridians, from top to bottom. East is in the direction of the par- allels towards the right; west, towards the left. North is in the direction of the meridians towards the top; south, towards the bottom. 5. Figures showing the latitude are placed on the sides of the map; those showing the longitude are placed at the top and the bottom. Exception. — In the maps of the Eastern and Western Hemispheres the longitude is marked on the Equator. Questions (I.) — l. How may the surface of the earth be represented ? — 2. What is a globe? — 3. What is a in.ip? — 1. How are parallels represented upon a map? How are meridians represented ? Which way is east ? West ? North ? South ? — 5. Where are the figures showing the latitude placed ? Those showing the longitude? What exception ? (11.) — 3. What is a plane ? Can the surface of a sphere be exactly represented upon a map? Why? (Experiment with the peel of half of an orange.) Which can be made the more accurate, a map of a large portion of the earth's surface or one of a small portion ? Why ? Which represents the earth with mure exactness, a globe or a map ? Why? PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY: DIVISIONS AND ELEVATIONS OF THE LAND. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. VI. DIVISIONS OF THE LAND. 1. The surface of the earth con- sists of land and water. About one fourth is land, and about three fourths LAND AND WATER HEMISPHERES. NORTHERN AND SOUTHEU.N HEMISPHERES. VVatCr. The Northern Hemi- sphere contains about three times as much land as the Southern ; the Eastern Hemi- sphere about two and a half times as much as the West- ern. The earth may be so divided that nearly all the land would be in one hemisphere, and the other would be nearly all water. 2. The land sur- face of the earth is divided into continents and islands. 3. A continent is a very large body of land. 4. There are six continents. Four are in the Eastern Hemisphere — Europe, Asia, Africa, and Australia. Two are in the Western Hemisphere — North America and South America. The three large continents of the Eastern Hemisphere are joined into one great land-mass called the Old World (see map on page 4). The united continents of the Western Hemisphere form the New World. It is so called because discovered only a few centuries ago. Some geographers call the Old World the Eastern Continent, and the New World the Western Continent or the American Continent. 5. An island is a body of land entirely surrounded by water. Australia, the smallest continent, is much larger than the largest island. The chief distinction between a continent and an island is the difference in size. 6. An archipelago is a group of islands. 7. A peninsula is a body of land nearly surrounded by water. 8. A cape is a point of land extending into the water. A mountainous cape is called a promontory. A cape is usually much smaller than a peninsula. 3 NATURAL DIVISIONS OF LAKD AND WATER. 1. Island. a. Isthmus. 9. Lake. 2. Peninsula. 6. Archipelago. 10 Sound. 3. Bay. 7. River. 11 Hill. 4. StraiL a Delia. Vi. Crater 13. Mountain. 17. Shore. 14. Mountain Raofie. 18. Cape. 15. Table-land. 19. Volcano. 16. Plain. 20. Sea. A coast or shore is the land bordering on the water, often broken by peninsulas and capes. Coasts are 9. An isthmus is larcer bodies of land. a neck of land connecting two Questions (I.) — 1. Of what does the surface of the earth consist? How much is land.' How much is water.' — 2. How is the land surface divided.' — 3. What is a continent.' — I. How many continents are there? How many in the Eastern Hemi- sphere ? N.ame them. How many in the Western Hemisphere ? Name them. — 5. What is an island ?— 6. What is an archipelago ?— 7. What is a peninsula .' — 8. What is a cape ? — 9. What is an isthmus ? (TI.) — 1. Which has the more land, the Northern Hemisphere or the Southern? How many times as much ? The Eastern Hemisphere or the Western ? How many times as much ? What is meant by the land hemisphere ? — 4. What is meant by the Old World ? What other name is given to it by some geographers ? What is meant by the New World ? Why so called ? What other naine has it ?— 5. How does the smallest continent compare with the largest island? What is the chief distinction between a continent and an island? — 7. What is a promontory? What is the chief difference between a cape and a peninsula ? What is a coast or shore ? By what are coasts broken ? VII. ELEVATIONS OF THE LAND. 1. The chief elevations of the land surface are mount- ains, table-lands or plateaus, and lowland plains. Mountains and plateaus are sometimes called highlands. The height of elevations is reckoned from the surface or level of the sea. 2. A mountain is a verj' high elevation of land. If the elevation is not very high, it is usually called a hill. The summit of a mountain is its highest point ; the base is its foot ; the slopes are its sides. 3. A ransc or chain is a line of mountains or hills. 6 ELEVATIONS OF THE LAND.-DIVISIONS OF THE WATER.— DIVISIONS OF GEOGRAPHY. 4. A volcano is a mountain which sends forth flames, melted rock, clouds of steam, ashes, or other heated sub- stance, from an opening called a crater. f). A table-land or plateau is a broad extent of high land. Table-lands are often crossed or bordered by mountain ranges. The breadth of a mountain is generally less than that of a plateau. 6. A lowland plain is a broad extent of land not much above the level of the sea. A valley is land between hills or mountains. A desert is a barren tract of land. An oasis is a low fertile spot in a desert. 7. The natural divisions of the land are continents and islands. Their shores have peninsulas, capes, and isthmuses; their surfaces have mountains, plateaus, and lowland plains. If we imagine a division of land to be cut through from side to side and down to the level of the sea, the outline representing the edges of such a cut is called a section. IMAUI.NAKV StCTIuN UI- CONTINENT. Questions (I.) — 1. N.ime the three chief elevations of the land. — 2. What is a mountain ? — 3. A range or chain ? — J. A volcano .' A crater .' — 5. A table - land or plateau ? — G. A lowland plain ? — 7. What are the natural divisions of the land .' What projections have their shores .' What elevations have their surfaces ? (II.) — I. What are mountains and plateaus sometimes called ? From what are their heights reckoned.' — 2. What is a hill? What is the summit of a mountain? The base? The slopes? — 5. Which is broader, a mountain or a plateau? By what are table-lands sometimes crossed or bordered? — 6. What is a valley? A desert? An oabis? — 7. What is a section? VIII. DIVISIONS OF THE WATER. 1. The waters on the surface of the earth are divided into ocean waters and drainage waters. 2. The ocean is the great body of salt water that sur- rounds all of the continents. Its five principal divisions are also called oceans : namely, the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Indian, the Arctic, and the Antarctic Oceans. ','>. A sea is a large division of the ocean nearly enclosed by land. The ocean itself is sometimes called the sea. 4. A gulf or bay is a body of water in a bend of the coast. As there is but little difference between seas, gulfs, and bays, these names are sometimes given to similar bodies of water. A haven or harbor is a small bay in which ships are safe from storms. 5. A strait or channel is a narrow passage connecting two larger bodies of water. A sound is a shallow channel or bay. 6. An ocean current is a great stream of water flow- ing through the ocean. 7. The drainage waters, or waters on the surface of the land, are rivers and lakes. 8. A river is a large stream of fresh water. A river flowing into another is called a branch or tributary. The place where a river begins or rises is its source : the place where it flows into a sea, lake, or another river is its mouth. 9. A lake is a body of water wholly or nearly sur- rounded by land. 10. The natural divisions of the water are oceans, rivers, and lakes. The subdivisions or arms of the ocean are called seas, gulfs, bays, sounds, straits, and channels. Questions (I.) — I. Into what two great divisions may the waters be divided? — 2. What is the ocean ? To what else is the name given ? Name them. — 3. What is a sea ? What is the ocean sometimes called .' — i. What is a gulf or bay .' — ,5. A strait or channel? — G. An ocean current.' — 7. Which are the drainage waters? — 8. What is a river ?^9. What is a lake ? — 10. Name the natural divisions of the water. What are the subdivisions or arms of the ocean called ? (II.) — 4. What three names are sometimes given to similar bodies of water? Why? What is a haven or harbor? — .'). What is a sound.' — 8. What name is given to a river flowing into another ? What is the source of a river ? The mouth ? IX. DIVISIONS OF GEOGRAPHY. 1. Geography may be divided into Mathematical Geog- raphy, Physical Geography, and Political Geography. 2. Mathematical Geography is a description of the form, size, position, motions, circles, and zones of the earth, and of the relative positions of places on its surface. 3. Physical Geography is a description of the nat- ural divisions of the surface of the earth. It treats, first, of its simplest divisions into land, water, and atmos- phere ; second, of the position, distribution, and extent of the land and water, and of the great currents in the water and in the atmosphere ; third, of the character of the climates in dif- ferent parts of the earth, and the distribution of minerals, plants, and animals ; and, fourth, of the laws, causes, mutual relations, and consequences of these facts, and of many of those of Mathe- matical Geograph}'. 4. Political Geography is a description of the nations and peoples of the earth, their social condition, and the countries they inhabit. It includes an account of towns, cities, states, industrial produc- tions, and commerce. The Political Geography of a country is so closely dependent upon its Physical Geography that the two should be studied together. Questions (I.) — 1. How may Geography be divided? — 2. Wliat is Mathematical Geography.' — 3. What is Physical Geography? — 4. What is Political Geography? (II.) — 3. Of what does the first part of Physical Geography treat? The second? The third? The fourth? — 4. What docs Political Geography include? Upon what is it dependent? MAP DRAWING: TO THE TEACHER.— SKETCHING FOR REVIEW. M AP-D RAW I N G. TO THE TEACHEE. Map-drawing, as a branch of the study of Geography, presents itself under two aspects and as two distinct exercises. First and most important, SkeUJiing. This is an e.xercise by means of which the leading facts of local geography are rapidly and efficiently reviewed in the construction of quickly drawn outline maps, appro-x- imately correct, and showing the actual condition of the pupil's knowl- edge of the location of mountains, rivers, railways, towns, etc. The ex- ercise is best prepared for in the class-room ; it can then be gone over at home by the pupil, if thought desirable ; and should finally be re- viewed and repeated in the class- room as the equivalent of a recita- tion. An illustration of the method is given below. // should be remem- bered that the chief object of this exer- cise is not to test the pupil's skill in map -drawing, but his knowledge of location. The second kind of exercise in map-drawing is that known as Car- tography. This is much more elab- orate, exact, and deliberate than sketching, and aims to present an accurate copy of some particular map. It is a valuable exercise, training the pupil to close and mi- nute observation both of the prin- cipal and of the less important con- tents of the map, and to careful and artistic manipulation. The simplest and most efficient method of pursu- ing this exercise is illustrated in the concluding portion of this book. Where circumstances will permit, it is advisable that the exercises in sketching should precede those in cartography. Those, however, who choose to begin with cartography, and omit sketching until a later stage, may readily do so. SKETCHING FOR KEVIEW. Preparatory. — .-^fter the map questions relating to any state, let it be Maine, for instance, have been carefully studied, all the pupils of the class should take their slates and pencils and sketch the simple outlines of the state with the map open before them; the sketch should be drawn upon as large a scale as the size of the slate will conveniently allow. In the first lessons it will be well to let each pupil be furnished with a slip of stiff paper or card-board, divided into equal parts, to be used in measuring. A model is furnished at the foot of this page. In the second and more important review, in which the map is to be drawn froin memory, the measure should not be used. The exercise will then be a sort of free-hand drawing. The work will be quite crude in the first attempts, but with repetition, practice, | and reasonable pa- tience, very neat I I I | | | work can be pro- OUTLI.se .map of the state of MAINE. duced. One or more of the class should draw the map on a large scale upon the blackboard. First Step. — Teach the pupils to estimate, approximately, of course, the proportion or relation between the length of the state and its breadth, measuring in the direction of the meridians and parallels whenever pos- sible. Let the estimate first be made by the eye only, then stated, and lastly tested by the measuring-slip. Questions. — Is Maine longer from east to west or from north to south .> (.Xorih to south.) How much longer.' {One fourth.) Second Step. — Lead the pupils to observe the number (usually four), direction, and length of the lines bounding the state, and whether they are straight or curved or otherwise. This step will usually require more time and care than any other. Questions. — How many lines form theboundary of Maine.' (Five.) How many of them are partly or entirely straight.' In what general direction does each lie .' Which is the shortest line? (The northern.) Which is the longer boundary, the northwestern or the western .' The eastern bound- ary or the coast line.' Third Step. — Dra-w the outline boutidary. First draw lightly the line of great- est length, A A, and that of greatest breadth, B B; many states are so simple as not to require these lines. Draw the northern boundary ; the northwestern ; the western ; the east- ern; the coast. As soon as the tliiid step is complete, it will be well to inspect the work. Do the same at the close of each succeeding step, or even after each separate item. Fourth Step.— Sketch the mount- ains, if there are any. Questions. — What mountains in Maine, and w here are they .' Draw them. Fifth Step. — Draw the rivers, first noticing the direction of each. Questions. — What boimdary river on the north .' Draw or go over it. On the east ? Name the three chief riv- ers in the state. Draw the Penob- scot. The Kennebec. The Andros- coggin. Two or three chief lakes. Sixth Step. — Locate the principal cities and towns, beginning with the- capital. Use a star (*) for the cap- ital, and a small circle or dot (o o) for the other cities and towns. Questions. — What city is the capital .' On what river ? Locate it. Name and locate the largest city. What city on the Penobscot .' On which side of the river .' Locate it. Where is Lew- iston .' Biddeford .' (Other cities and towns may be drawn if required.) Seventh Step. — Draw the chief railroads. Question. — Between or through what towns and cities is each .' A further step, involving another form of review, is to require the pupils to add initial letters to the several points drawn : Rivers — A. R., K. R., P. R., St. J. R., St. C. R. Cities— A., P., L., B. In rapid work, — — " I the writing or print- ing of the full name I I I I I I will take too much ' ' time. PHYSICAL WESTERN HEMISPHERE: QUESTIONS ON IIIK MAP.-RKVIKW EXERCISES. PHYSICAL WESTERN HEMISPHERE. X. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Continents. — \Vh.it two continents are in the Western Hemisphere ? By what isthmus are they connected? What three oceans wash the shores of North America? Which one is on the north? On the east? On the west? What ocean bounds South America on the north and east ? On the west ? What ocean south ? Islands. — What large island northeast of North America? What island is east of it? What archipelago between Greenland and the continent? What island near the eastern point of North America? Wiiat group southeast? What archipelago between North and South AniL-rica? Which are its two largest islands? What group north of Cuba? What group northeast? What group at the southern end of South America? What group east? What group in the Pacific Ocean near the parallel of twenty north? Of fifty north? Of forty south? What general name is given to the islands of the Pacific ? Peninsulas. — What peninsula in the northwestern part of North America? In the eastern part? In the western part? What two near the island of Cuba ? Capes. — What cape at the southern point of Greenland ? At the eastern point of Newfoundland ? At the southern point of California? What cape of North America is near Asia? What cape opposite? What cape is the northern point of South America ? The eastern point? The southern point ? The western point ? Mountains. — What chain of mountains in the western part of North America? In the eastern part? In the western part of South America? In the eastern part? On which side of South America are there many volcanoes? (See red dots on the map.) On which side of North America? Plains and Plateaus. — What plateau in the northern part of North America? What low plain? In the central part? What high plains west of the central plain ? What plateau west of the Rocky Mountains ? What is the name of its southern part? What plateau in the eastern part of South America? In the northern? In the western? What plains in the southern part? North of the plateau of Guiana? South? Seas, Gulfs, and Bays.— Wiiat bay west of Greenland ? In the Arctic Plain? What gulf west of Newfoundland ? South of North America? What island and two peninsulas nearly close that gulf? What sea south of the West Indian Archipelago? Between Alaska and Asia? Straits. — What strait connects Behring Sea with the Arctic Ocean ? At the entrance of Baffin Bay? Of Hudson Bay? Between Cuba and Florida? Between Tierra del Fuego and the continent? Rivers. — What river flows through the northwestern part of the Arctic Plain ? Into what ocean ? What river flows into the Gulf of St. Law- rence? From what lakes? From wliat plain ? What other river flows through that plain? Into what gulf? What branch has it? What river of North America flows into the Pacific Ocean ? From what plateau ? Into what ocean do the rivers of South America flow ? Which is the greatest river of South America? Through what plains does it flow? What river north of the Amazon? What river in the southern part of South America? Ocean Currents.— What current flows from the Gulf of Mexico? Across what ocean ? In what direction ? What current flows from Bafiin Bay? What current northeast of South .America? Southeast? West ? What current crosses the Pacific near the Equator ? Near the parallel of fifty north? Zones. — What circle crosses the northern part of North America? In what zone is Cuba? The Sandwich Islands? The Mississippi River? In what zones is North America? South America? XI. EEVIEW EXEECISES. Continents. — How bounded I Model for stati.ng Boundaries.— Snuth America is bounded on the north by tlic Caribbean Sea, on the east by the Atlantic Ocean, on the south by the Antarctic Ucean, and on the west by the I'aciUc Ocean. North America? South America? Islands. — In tc/iat direction f/om the nearest land l By what waters surrounded I Model. — Newfoundland is east of North America, and is surrounded by the Gulf of St. Lawrence and the Atlantic Ocean. Arctic Archipelago? Greenland? Iceland? Newfoundland? Azores? Bermuda Islands ? Bahama Islands ? West Indian Archipelago ? Cuba? Hayti? Falkland Islands ? Tierra del Fuego ? New Zealand Islands? Sandwich Islands? Aleutian Islands? Oceanica? Peninsulas. — Frotn what part of the continent docs it project ? Into what water, or between what waters ? Model. — California projects from the western p.irt of North America, between the Gulf of California on the east and the Pacific Ocean on the west. Labrador? Florida? Yucatan? California? Alaska? Capes. — From wliat laud does it project ? From ivhat part of it ? Into what body of 7uater i Model. — Cape Race projects from the e.istern part of Newfoundland into the Atlantic Ocean. Farewell? Race? St. Lucas? Prince of Wales? Gallinas? Horn? St. Roque ? Blanco ? East Cape ? Mountains. — /// what part of the continent are they 7 In what direc- tions do they extend ? Model — Appalachian, in the eastern part of North America, extend northeast and southwest. Appalachian? Rocky? Brazilian? Andes? Plains and Plateaus. — Where situated ? Model. — .Arctic Plain is in the northern part of North America? Arctic Plain ? The Great Plains ? Central Plain ? Plains of the Orinoco ? Plains of the Amazon ? Plains of La Plata ? Arctic Plateau ? Western Plateau ? Mexican Plateau ? Plateau of Guiana ? Plateau of Brazil? Plateau of Bolivia? Oceans. — Of what continents does it rvash the shores? or, around what pole is it ? Model. — Pacific Ocean washes the western shores of North and South Amer- ica ; Antarctic or Southern Ocean, around the South Pole. Arctic or Northern ? Antarctic or Southern ? Atlantic? Pacific? Seas, Gulfs, and Bays. — What coast docs it indent or wash ? Of what ocean or other body of tvater is if an arm t Modei.— Hudson Bay indents the northeastern coast of North .America, and is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean. Bafiin Bay? Hudson Bay ? Gulf of St. Lawrence ? Gulf of Mexico? Caribbean Sea? Behring Sea? Straits. — Between what lands ? JFhat waters docs it connect ? Model. — Behring Strait, between .\sia and North America, connects the Arctic Ocean with Behring Sea. Behring? Davis? Hudson? Florida? Magellan? Rivers. — /n what continent does it rise ? In what part of it ? In 70 hat mountains I In what direction does it flow? Into what tvaierl MiiDtx. — Missouri River rises in the Rocky Mountains in the western part of North America, and flows southeast into the Mississippi River. Mackenzie? St. Lawrence ? Mississippi? Missouri? Columbia? Orinoco? Amazon? La Plata ? Ocean Currents. — In what ocean ? In what part of it ? In ivhat direction does it floic ? Model.— Brazilian Current, in the southwestern part of the Atlantic Ocean, flows towards the southwest. Polar? Gulf Stream? Equatorial? Brazilian? Peruvian? Japan Stream ? -^yi O WfiSTERJV HEMISPHERE. >0 EXPLANATION". Low Plains Plateaus Very High Kind Volcanoes Direction of Currents [Copfri^, 1875, &y Harj^r ^ £rolAfr».]-R*vttfi to Novca.ltr, lP?i. 10 PHYSICAL EASTERN HEMISPHERE: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES. PHYSICAL EASTERN HEMISPHERE. XII. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Continents.— What four continents are in the Eastern Hemisphere? Which three are united into one great land -mass? What isthmus between Asia and Africa? Which is the largest of these four conti- nents? The next in size? The smallest? What ocean bounds Europe and .\sia on the north ? What ocean east of Asia ? What three oceans border on Australia ? What three continents border on the Indian Ocean ? What ocean west of Europe and Africa ? Islands. — What two groups of islands are east of Asia ? What archi- pelago southeast? What four great islands in the Malaysian Archipel- ago? What island north of Australia? South? Southeast of Africa ? \V hat group west of Europe ? What island northwest ? What islands in the Arctic Ocean ? What islands west of Africa ? Northwest ? What lands in the Antarctic Ocean? Peninsulas. — What peninsula in the northeastern part of Asia? In the eastern part ? Southeastern ? Southern ? In the southern part of Indo-China? What island south of Hindostan ? What peninsula in the southwestern part of Europe? In the northwestern part? Capes. — What cape at the northern point of Europe? At the northern point of Asia ? At the southern point of Malay Peninsula ? Of Hin- dostan ? At the eastern point of Africa ? At the northern point ? The western point ? The southern point ? Near Cape Agulhas ? Mountains. — What mountains in the southern part of Europe? Be- tween Europe and Asia? In the southern part of Asia? For what are the Himalaya Mountains remarkable? {They are the highest in the worU.) How high is the highest peak? {About h\ mites.) What mountains near the centre of Asia? In the northern part of Africa? In the western part? In the southeastern part of Australia? What archipelago contains many volcanoes? Plains, Plateaus, and Deserts. — What is the chief plain in Europe? What plain in the north of Asia? What plain south of the Arctic Plain? What plain in Eastern Asia? In Southern Asia? What plateau north of the Himalaya Mountains? South of the Altai? What plateau in the westerTl part of Asia? What one southwest of the plateau of Iran? What other peninsula of Asia contains a plateau? Which continent is nearly covered by plateaus? What desert in the plateau of Mongolia? In what part of Africa is the great desert of Sahara? For what is it remarkable? (// is the largest desert iti the world.) In what other part of Africa is there a desert ? Seas, Gulfs, and Bays. — What sea west of Kumtchatka ? Of the Japan Islands? OfCorea? Of the Philippine Islands? In the Malay- sian Archipelago? West of Hindostan ? Of Arabia? Between Africa and Europe ? East of the British Islands ? Northeast of the Mediter- ranean ? East of the North Sea ? What gulf west of Africa ? East of Arabia ? What bay east of Hindostan ? West of Europe ? Straits. — What strait between Java and Sumatra? Between Tas- mania and Australia? Between Australia and New- Guinea? At the entrance of the Mediterranean Sea ? At the entrance of the Red Sea ? What channel between Madagascar and Africa ? Rivers. — What three rivers of Asia flow into the Arctic Ocean ? What four rivers in Eastern Asia? U'hat river flows into the Bay of Bengal ? The Arabian Sea ? What river of Africa flows into the Gulf of Guinea? The Atlantic Ocean? The Mediterranean Sea? What river of Europe flows into the Caspian Sea ? What rivers flow into the Black Sea ? Lakes. — What lakes in South Central Africa ? What two lakes in Western Asia are called seas ? What lake in Australia ? Ocean Currents. — What current flows westward through the Indian Ocean ? \\'hat current southwest of Africa ? Northwest of Europe ? Zones.— ^Vhat circle crosses the northern part of Asia? What circle crosses the desert of Sahara? What continents does it cross? What great circle crosses Borneo? What continent does it cross? AMiat circle crosses Australia? What other continent does it cross? 'What circle bounds the South Frigid Zone? What lands does it cross? In what zone is Sumatra? Nova Zembla? Cape of Good Hope? The Mediterranean Sea? In what zones is Africa? Asia? Europe? Aus- tralia? XIII. KEVIEW EXERCISES. (For method of recitation, see XI.] Continents. — How bounded 1 Europe? Asia? Africa? Australia? Islands. — In what direction from the nearest land? By luhat waters surrounded ? Japan Islands? Malaysian Archipelago? Philippine Islands? Java? Celebes ? Sumatra ? Borneo ? New Guinea ? Tasmania ? Mada- gascar ? Ceylon? British Islands? Iceland? Spitzbergen ? Nova Zembla? Madeira Islands? Canary Islands ? St. Helena? Peninsulas. — From 'what part of the continent does it project 1 Into what water, or between what 'waters 1 Kamtchatka? Corea ? Indo-China? Malay? Scandinavian? Hin- dostan? Spanish? Capes. — From what land docs it project 1 From 'what part of it ? Into 'what body of water 1 North? Northeast? Romania? Comorin ? Bon? Good Hope? Guardafui? Verde? Agulhas? • Mountains. — /// what part of the continent are they 1 In what direc- tion do they extendi Alps? Ural? Altai? Himalaya? Atlas? Kong? Blue? Plains, Plateaus, and Deserts. — Where situated 1 Great Plain of Europe ? Arctic Plain ? Siberian Plain ? Plain of China? Plain of the Ganges? Plateau of Mongolia? Plateau of Thibet ? Plateau of Iran ? Plateau of Arabia ? Desert of Gobi ? .Arabian Desert ? Sahara Desert ? Oceans. — Of 'what continents does it wash the shores 1 or, around 'what pole is it 2 Arctic? Pacific? Antarctic? Atlantic? Indian? Seas, Gulfs, and Bays. — What coasts does it indent or 7vash ? Of what ocean or other body of water is it an arm i Okhotsk? Japan? Yellow? China? Java? Bengal? Arabian? Red? Persian? Guinea? Mediterranean? Black? Biscay? North? Baltic? Straits. — Between ivhat lands 1 What waters does it connect 1 Sunda? Bass? Torres? Gibraltar? BabelMandeb? Mozam- bique? Rivers. — In what continent does it rise? In 7i'hat part of it? In 7ivhich their swift currents may be ascended. Commerce is less expensive by water than by land. In the hill countries, rivers whose falls or rapids in- terrupt navigation furnish valuable water-power for man- ufacturing purposes. Some rivers overflow their banks at certain seasons, and by a rich deposit of mud fertilize the low lands through which they run. Where rivers run through lands whjch are very dry during the summer, their water is sometimes used to ir- rigate the soil. Questions (T.) — 1. What is the source of all the waters which are on the surface of the land .' — l. Where do many large rivers h.ave their sources ? — 3. What is a river system.' What is a b.isin or valley? What is a water-shed.' — i. State some of the uses of rivers. (II.) — I. How is water constantly taken from the surface of the ocean.' In wh,it form does it fall again .' In how many and what ways does it leave the land snrface again .' — 3. At what do most rivers begin ? How are they enlarged ?— 3. What is a divide? An estuary? A delta? .\ canon ? What are rapids ? Falls? Cascades? Cataracts ? 4. The plains of North America and the plateaus of Southern Africa have the largest fresh-water lakes in the world. Their principal outlets are the St. Lawrence and Nile Rivers. Titi- caca, on the plateau of Bolivia in South America, is the most elevated of the large fresh- water lakes: it is 13,000 feet above the ocean-level. 5. Glaciers are vast river-like fields of ice. They are formed from snow, which is solidified by the pressure of its own weight, and by melting and freezing. They are formed in the high mountain valleys in the regions of per- petual snow. They mo\e very slowly down the valleys — only a few rods in a year. In the Temperate Zones they are found in the highest part of the highest mountains, as in the .Mps and the Himalayas. In the Frigid Zones their lower edges project info the sea ; the tides and waves here wash away their bases, and the overhanging portions at last break off by their own weight and fall into the sea : they are then called icebergs. XXI. LAKES -GLACIERS AND ICEBERGS. 1. Lakes are of two kinds — salt and fresh. 2. A salt laiie is one that has no outlet. Small quantities of salt are washed out of the soil by the rains , if carried to a lake having no outlet, the salt is left in the lake by the evaporation of the water. 3. The plains and plateaus of Asia have the largest salt lakes in the world. The largest of these are the Caspian and Aral seas. 6. An iceberg is a large floating fragment of an arctic or antarctic glacier. The great glaciers of Greenland are famous for the numerous ice- bergs which they send off, many have been seen projecting more than 300 feet above the sea, seven eighths of tiieir mass being under water. Icebergs are largest and most numerous in the •Antarctic Ocean ; they are formed in the unknown lands around the South Pole. Questions (I.) — 1. How many kinds of lakes? What are they.' — 2. What is a salt lake.' — 3. Where are the largest salt lakes in the world.' — t. Where are the largest fresh-water lakes in the world.' — 5. What are glaciers? How are they formed.' — (>. What is an iceberg? (H.) — 2. How is a salt Lake formed .' — 3. Xame the two largest salt lakes. — 4. What are the outlets of the largest fresh-water lakes? Which is the most elevated of the large freshwater lakes? Where is it? How high? — n. Where are glaciers formed? Describe the origin of an iceberg. — fl. What can yon say of the glaciers and icebergs of Gieenland? Of the .\ntarctic Ocean? Where arc they formed? IG OCEAN CURRENTS.— WINDS. XXII. OCEAN CUKRENTS. 1. An ocean current is a broad stream of water flowing throusfh the ocean. The great ocean currents are so connected with each other as to form a circulatory system ; some of them are of great depth. 2. Constant currents are those that always flow in the same direction. Some of them have been traced many thousands of miles. All the rivers in the world are insignificant when compared with some of these currents. The chief cause of ocean currents is the dif ference of temperature of the ocean waters in the Torrid and Frigid Zones : the warmer and lighter water flows towards the poles, an equal quantity of the cold and heavier water flowing at the same time towards the Equator. The ocean currents thus assist to cool the tropical and to warm the polar regions. The direction and velocity of currents are modified, first, by the revolution of the earth on its axis ; second, by the constant winds of the Torrid Zone ; third, by being turned aside by the shores. 3. The Equatorial Currents are the widest and long- est of the constant currents. They are found in the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and move from east to west. 4. The best known and most important current is the Gulf Stream. It begins in a branch of the Equatorial Current of the Atlantic, sweeps around the Gulf of Mexico, and again enters the Atlantic as a swift and deep stream through the Straits of Florida. It then crosses the Atlantic in a northeasterly course, and, with the winds which sweep over its warm waters, gives a mild climate to Western Europe. 5. The Japan Ntreain is a current similar to the Gulf Stream, and passes from Japan towards Alaska and California. G. The Polar Currents are the cold currents passing from the polar regions towards the Equator. They bring vast quantities of ice from the polar regions. But little is known of the cold currents which flow at the bottom of the ocean. The ocean water at great depths in the Torrid Zone is nearly as cold as that in the Arctic Ocean. The two broad oval spaces between the Equatorial Currents on the south and the Gulf Stream and the Japan Stream on the north are called Sargasso or Grassy seas, because C9vered with floating sea-weeds. Questions (T.)— 1. Wh.it is an ocean current?— 2. What are const.int currents?— 3. Which are the greatest of the constant currents?— t. Which is the best known cur- rent?— 5. Describe the Japan Stream. — 6. Describe the Polar Currents. (II.)— 1. How are the ocean currents connected > What is said of their depth ?— 2. How far have some been traced? How do they compare with rivers? What is their chief cau.se ? Of what use are they ? How are their direction and velocity modified ?— 3. Where are the Equatorial Currents found ? What is their general direction ? — t. Describe the origin and course of the Gulf Stream. How does it affect the climate of Western Europe.'— 6. What do the Polar Currents bring from the polar regions ? What is said of the deep cold currents ? Of the deep water in the Torrid Zone? Where are the Sargasso or Grassy seas ? Why so called? XXIII. WINDS. 1. The atmosphere covers the earth to a height of about fifty miles. The upper portions of the atmosphere press upon the lower, and make them denser. Nearly all the moisture and all animal and vegetable life are found within three and a half miles of the level of the sea. Above this the thinness and dryness of the atmosphere, and the intense cold, render plant life, and conse- quently animal life, impossible. The mountains of Thibet have been ascended above four miles. A balloon has reached an elevation/of five and three-quarter miles. These are the greatest heights ever reached by man. In both cases the suffering was very great. 2. Heat causes air, first, to expand and become lighter ; and, second, to absorb and render invisible large quanti- ties of water. Cold produces opposite effects. _> 3. The heat of the sun produces ascending currents of hot air, particularly in the Torrid Zone ; other air flows in below to fill the space. 4. "Winds are currents of air. The currents from the polar regions tend at first directly towards the Equator ; as they pass towards and into the Torrid Zone, the revolution of the earth on its axis causes them to turn more and more towards the west : these currents are then called the Trade Winds. 5. The Trade Winds are constant winds between the parallels of 30° north and south latitude, and always blow from an easterly direction. They carry immense quanti- ties of vapor from the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian oceans. The masses of heated air rise some miles from the surface of the earth, and flow over in two sets of currents, one towards each pole, to fill the places left vacant by the Polar Currents ; thej^ gradually cool and settle towards the surface, striking it beyond the parallels of 30°: they are then known as the Return T»ade Winds, or Counter Trade Winds. 6. The Counter Trade W^inds are the prevalent winds beyond the thirtieth parallels. In the Northern Hemisphere they blow from the southwest, and in the Southern from the northwest. ,'-' The Trade Winds and Counter Trade Winds are similar to the' ocean currents both in cause and general direction. Questions (I.) — 1. To whet height does the atmosphere extend.' — 2. What are the effects of heat upon air ? Of cold ? — 3. What are the effects of the sun's heat ? In what zone is this effect most marked? What other effect follows? — 4. What are winds? — .5. What and where are the Trade Winds? What is their direction? What do they carry? — 6. What and where are the Counter Trade Winds? In what direc- tion do they blow ? (II.) — 1. How do the upper portions of the atmosphere affect the lower ? What art- found only within three and a half miles of the level of the sea? Why is there no life above this height ? What are the greatest heights ever reached by man? What was the effect.' — i. In what direction do the Polar Currents at first flow? In what direction afterwards ? What causes this change ? What are they then called .' — .5. De- scribe the cour.se of the ascending currents of the Trade Winds. Where do they .ngain strike the surface of the earth ? What are they then called.' — 0. In what respects are the Trade Winds similar to the ocean currents? CLIMATE: WINDS, OCEAN CURRENTS, AND RAIN-FALL. 17 CLIMATE. 1. The climate of a country is the general condition of its atmosphere in regard to heat and moisture. 2. CUmate depends upon distance from the Equator, elevation above the sea level, the prevailing winds and ocean currents, and distance from the sea. 3. The Frigid Zones have an intensely cold climate. 4. The low plains in and near the Torrid Zone are very hot. If they are open to the ocean winds, their climate is moist ; if not, it is dry. 5. The high plateaus within and near the tropics have a mild, spring-like climate. 6. The high mountains in the same regions have their tops covered with perpetual snow. The lower limit of perpetual snow is called the snow-line ; it is of less and less elevation towards the poles. 7. Winds and ocean currents mod- ify climate. The winds have by far the more marked effect. When a warm ocean 7i'iii(l strikes the sides of a \\\g\\ mountain chain, it passes up the slope, growing colder and gradually losing its moisture in rain or snow as it ascends, and at last passes over the range and down the opposite slope as a cold and dry wind. The warm and moist Return Trade Winds of the Atlantic blow upon Western Europe, and the warm waters of the Gulf Stream reach its shores ; in the same latitude, the shores of Greenland and Labrador are washed by the icy waters of the arctic cur- rents and swept by the polar winds. The one region has a mild climate, and is occupied by the most enlight- ened nations of the world ; the others are frozen wastes, sparsely inhabited by degraded savages and a few Eu- ropean traders. 8. The rain-rail of a country is the quantity of water that falls upon it as rain or snow. In the Torrid Zone the average annual fall is about 100 inches, but in some places in that zone it is four or five times as much. In the Temperate Zones it is from 35 to 40 inches, or little more than one third as much as in the Torrid Zone. In the Frigid Zones it is much less. The rain -fall usually diminishes as the distance from the sea increases. 9. The tropical rain-belt is a broad movable belt of rain extendins: around the world. It is about 1000 miles wide from north to south. 7 The sun is vertical to a place when it is directly over that place. This can happen only in the Torrid Zone. As the sun passes from one tropic to the other, the parts of the zone over which it is vertical have their greatest heat, and conse- quently their greatest evaporation. In those regions which arc open to the Trade Winds, a heavy thunder-storm begins early in the afternoon, and continues until near sunset ; the sky then becomes cloudless until the next day about the same hour. After some weeks, the sun being no longer vertical, the rains become less frequent, and at last cease for months, till the sun again returns. The only seasons of the Torrid Zone are the wet season while under the rain-belt, and the dry season during its absence. Places near the Equator have therefore two rainy seasons and two dry seasons ; other parts of the Torrid Zone have one rainy season and one much longer dry season. The heat and moisture of the tropical rain-belt produce the most lu.xuriant vegetation in the world. A great belt of deserts stretches across the Old World from the Atlantic nearly to the Pacific Ocean : it is caused by the ab- sence of rain-bearing winds. These rains of the Torrid Zone are called periodical rains ; the more irregular ones of the Temperate Zones are called variable rains. THE TROPICAL RAIN BELT AND THE DISTRIBUTION OF RAIN. AwTABCTie Circle kKfKfKTlt C1WC1.C Questions (I.l— 1. What is climate.'— 3. Upon what does it depend?— 3. What is the climaic o.'' the Frigid Zones ? — i. Of the low plains in the Torrid Zone ? When is it moist ? When dry ? — 5. Of the high plateaus in that zone ?— 6. Of the high mount- ains ?_7. W'hat effect have winds and ocean currents ? Which have the greater effect .> —8. What is the rainfall of a country ?— 9. The tropical rain-belt ? How wide is it .> (n.>— 6. What is the snowline.' How does its height vary?— 7. Describe the effects of high mountains upon ocean winds. What two principal causes modify the climate of Western Europe ? Of Greenland and Labrador ? W'hat are the effects ?— 8. What is the average annual rain-fall in the Torrid Zone .' In the Temperate Zones ? In the Frigid Zones? What effect has distance from the sea ?— 9. When is a place said to have a vertical sun ? In what zone can this occur ? How does it affect the heat ? The evaporation ? Describe the tropical rains. Which are the only seasons in the Torrid Zone? What seasons at the Equator? In other parts of that zone? What effects do the heat .and moisture produce ? Where is the great belt of deserts? By what is it caused ? W hat are periodical rains ? Variable rains? Where do they occur ? 18 RACES OF MEN.— CONDITIONS OF SOCIETY.— GOVERNMENT. XXV. RACES OF MEN. 1. The nnniber of inhabitants upon the earth is estimated at about 1380 millions. 2. They are divided into five great races — the Cauca- sian, the Mongol, the Ethiopian, the Malay, and the Amer- ican or Indian. 3. The Caucasian or white race is the most widely spread. It occupies Western y\sia, Europe, Northern Af- rica, and large parts of North and South America and Australia. It is the most restless, intelligent, and poweiful of the races, and includes all the great historic nations. 4. The 9lon&:ol or yellow race is found chiefly in East- ern and Northern Asia. 5. The Ethiopian or black race is found chiefly in Central and Southern Africa. G. The Malay or brown race inhabits Southeastern Asia and most of the islands of the Great Archipelago and the Pacific. 7. The American or red race inhabits portions of the American Continents from Cape Horn to the Arctic Ocean. The Caucasian and Mongol races are about equal in numbers. Together they constitute more than four fifths of the whole hu- man family. The Ethiopian race comprises about one seventh, the Malay about one twenty-fifth, and the American about one one-hundredth of manUind. Questions (I.) — 1. What is the number of inhabitants upon the earth? — 2. Into how many races are tliey clivided ? What are they ? — 3. Which is most widely spread i' What regions does it occupy ? — i. Where is the Mongol or yellow race found ? — ^5. The Ethiopian or black race? — 6. The Malay or brown race? — 7. The American or red race? (II.) — 3. For what is the Caucasian race distinguished ? — 7. What part of mankind is comprised in each race ? POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY. XXVI. CONDITIONS OF SOCIETY. 1. Xations and tribes may be divided, in respect to their social condition, into five classes : savage, barbarous, half civilized, civilized, and enlightened. 2. Havages are those w-ho live in tribes, and obtain their food by hunting and fishing. 3. Barbarians are those who possess flocks and herds, and practice a rude agriculture. Those who live in tents, like the Bedouin Arabs, are called nomads. 4. Half - civilized nations are those that depend chiefly upon agriculture, have made considerable advance in the mechanic arts, and have towns and cities. 0. Civilized nations are those that encase in com- merce, practice the art of writing, and have made con- siderable progress in knowledge and morality. G. Enli$;°litened nations are those civilized nations that possess a thorough division of labor, have established general systems of education, and have made the greatest progress in knowledge and morality. Many nations are partly in two or more of these classes. The enlightened and civilized nations are nearly all Caucasian. Questions (I.) — 1- Into how many classes may nations be divided in respect to social condition ? What are they.' — 3. What are savages? — 3. What are barbarians? — 4. What are half-civilized nations? — 5. What are civilized nations.' — 0. What are en- lightened nations ? (II.) — 3. What are nomads? Name some nomads.— G. Does each nation belong exclusively to one of these classes ? To which race do most of the civilized and en- lightened nations belong ? XXVII. GOVEENMENT. 1. The principal forms of government are the repnba lican and the monarchical. 2. A republic is a country governed by men who are chosen by the people. The chief magistrate is usually called a president. Nearly all the governments of the New World are republican. 3. A monarchy is a country in which one person succeeds to the chief power by inheritance, and holds it for life. Nearly all the governments of the Old World are monarchical. An unlimited monarchy or despotism is one in which the will of the monarch is the supreme law. A limited monarchy is one in which the power of the ruler is limited by a system of laws called a constitution. 4. A kingdom is a country governed by a king or queen. 5. An empire is a monarchy, usually of great extent. Most empires are unlimited monarchies. The sovereign is called an emperor, sultan, shah, czar, or mikado. G. Tlie capital of a country is the seat of its govern- ment. 7. The metropolis is the largest city. Questions (I.) — 1. What arc the princip.-\l forms of government ? — 2. What is a re- iniblic ? What is the title of its chief magistrate ? — 3. What is a monarchy ? — *■ What is a kingdom ? — 5. An empire ? Is it limited or unlimited ? — 6. What is the capital of a country ? — 7. The metropolis ? (II.) — 3. What is the form of most of the governments of the New World ? — 3. Of the Ukl Wiirld? What is an unlimited monarchy.' What is a limited monarchy.' — 5. What title has the sovereign of an empire? 1. The surface of Xorlh America is naturally di- vided into four parts : the Western Highland, the Eastern Highland, the Low Central Plain, and the Atlantic Plain. 2. The Westeru Highland, or Great Plateau Belt, extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Isthmus of Tehuan- tepec. The Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges are on its western border, and the Rocky Mountains divide it into two nearly equal parts. These ranges are the highest in North America, and reach their greatest elevation, about 14,000 to l.'>,000 feet, in the broad, mid- dle region of the table-land ; the table-land itself is quite low in the north, but rises gradually to nearly 8000 feet in the plateau of Mexico. At the ends of this highland are many volcanoes. Of these, St. Eiias in the north and Popocatepetl in the south are the highest peaks on the continent. The long and mountainous isthmus of Central .Vmerica may be re- garded as a continuation of this plateau belt. 3. Tiie Eastern Highland extends from Labrador nearly to the Gulf of Mexico. Its mountains are the low ranges of the Appalachian system. The highest peaks are from COOO to 6T00 feet in elevation. It has very little table-land. 4. The Atlantic Plain is the strip of low land be- tween the Appalachian Mountains and the ocean. 5. The liOW Central Plain lies between the two highlands, and extends from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. It is crossed nearly midway by a low swell called the Height of Land, which divides it into two gentle and opposite slopes: the northern slope is the Arctic Plain ; nearly all of the other slope, or Southern Plain, lies in the basin or valley of the Mississippi. Questions (I.)— I. How is the surface of North America naturally divided ? Name them.— 2. Where is the Western Highland? What and where are its principal mount- ain.s.'— 3. Where is the Eastern Highland? What mountains has it.' — i. Where is the Atlantic Plain .'—.5. The Low Central Plain ? (11.)— 2. Which are the highest ranges in North America ? Where is their greatest elevation? How high are they? Describe the table-land. Where are volcanoes found? Name two. For what remarkable? What is .said of Central America?— 3. How high are the highest peaks of the Appalachian system ? Has the Eastern Highland any table-land.'— .5. By what is the Low Central Plain divided? Into what? What name has each ? In what basin is the southern slope ? •XXX. CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND ANIMALS. 1. The West Indies, Central America, and a large part of Mexico have a tropical or constantly warm climate. The season of tropical rains lasts many weeks, the rest of the year being dry. The vegetation is luxuriant — coffee, sugar, maize, cotton, and to- bacco are extensively cultivated, and the banana, pine-apple, lemon, orange, and other tropical fruits are produced with little labor. European grains are grown on the plateaus. The forests abound in mahogany, rose-wood, and palm-trees. 2. The northern third of the continent has a very cold climate, excepting a strip along the western coast. The Polar Current passes along the eastern coast to Newfoundland. Ice nearly closes the broad entrance to Baffin Bay, and Hudson Bay is open only about six weeks in the year. The western coasts, from Alaska to the Columbia River, have a Lontritiidc "West 31) from "WaaMngton. !0ir1r^(}^,li^!>,h If^fp"'^ av^vA-t..]— i;i-\i»e'i i*i.Suvt>iihor, iiO'S. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND ANIMALS. 21 JtAL- — - ——'-—--»- T^TTJ!S=^, " POLAR 8EA [For continuation of page iC, see next co'umn.] XXVIII. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Outlines. — What three oceans wash the shores of North America? What great ishiiul northeast of the continent? What archipelago between them? What is the general direction of the Arctic coast? What great bay breaks this coast? What island at its en- trance ? What strait ? What bay south ? What island near the eastern point of the continent ? What gulf and strait cut it off? What is the general direction of the Atlantic coast ? What two peninsulas partly enclose the Gulf of Me.\ico? What strait and what channel lead to that gulf? What island at the en- trance? In what archipelago ? What ocean current passes through these waters? What is the general direction of the Pacific coast? What peninsula near its northern extremity? What peninsula and gulf break the southwest shore? What long isthmus con- nects North and South America? Between what smaller isthmuses does it extend ? High Surface. — What two great highlands in North America? Which is the greater? What is its general direction ? At what ocean does it end on the north ? At what isthmus on '.he south ? {Teliiian- tepee.) What mountains near its western border? What high plain forms its eastern part ? \Vhat mountains separate this plain from the rest of the highlands ? What high plateau in the southern part of the highland? What plateau basin near the cen- tre? In what direction does the Eastern Highland extend ? What moimtain system does it contain ? Near which coast of North America are there volca- noes ? Near what river is the central group? Where is the greatest group? Where the northern ? Name one in each group. What volcano in Iceland? Lowlands and Drainage.— What plain between the two highlands? What ocean north of it ? What gulf south ? What name is given to its northern portion ? What name to its southern portion? What low swell of land separates the Southern from the Arctic Plain? What low plateau north of the Arctic Plain? What rivers drain the Arctic Plain ? What lakes connected with them ? What river drains the greater part of the Southern Plain? Name its four chief branches? What chain of lakes in the Southern Plain ? What river drains them ? What lowland plain between the Eastern Highland and the Atlantic Ocean? Name the chief rivers which drain the Western Highland. much milder climate and frequent rains, the effect of the warm ocean currents and counter trade-winds of the Pacific. 3. The remaining portions of the conti- nent have a more varied climate — warm in the south, colder in the north, and very dry in the Western Hit^hland. o Moist winds from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean cause frequent rains in the Southern and Atlantic Plains and in the Eastern Highland. Excepting the prairies, these regions were originally one vast forest of oak, chestnut, pine, and other trees, of which a large part in the lowlands has been cleared away. This forest extends into the southern part of the Arctic Plain, where the trees are mostly pines and firs ; farther north the trees are small, and at last disappear, and mosses and lichens are the only vege- tation. In winter the tropical rain-belt passes to the south and the counter trade-winds of the Pa- cific shift in the same direction (see pages IC and 17). This gives a rainy season of sev- eral months to the region between the Pa- cific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains. The greater part of the moisture falls between the summits of the Sierra Nevada and the coast, and is a chief cause of the vast crops of wheat and other grains grown in that region. The moist regions in the Rocky Moimtains, on the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada, and from the Columbia River to .Maska, are cov- ered with forests of gigantic pines, cedars, and other evergreens. 4. The polar bear, reindeer, musk-ox, moose, walrus, grizzly bear, and many fur- bearing animals, are found in the northern parts of the continent, and great herds of the bison, or buffalo, roam over the high plains east of the Rocky Mountains. Among other wild animals are the deer, wolf, fox, beaver, and alligator. Great numbers of oo VEGETATION.— POLITICAL NORTH AMERICA: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES. domesticated animals, such as the horse, ox, sheep, and hog, are possessed by the civiUzed inhabitants ; these were originally introduced from Europe. 5. Cotton is the chief production of the lowlands near the Gulf of Mexico, and maize of the central, and wheat of the northern portions of the Mississippi Valley. The rain-fall upon the slopes of the lofty mountains bordering the Western Highland leaves but little moisture to be carried over to the table-lands ; these, including those parts of the plateau of Mexico that are not visited by the tropical rain-belt, are there- fore extremely dry. Though scattered trees border many of the streams, and some of the higher mountains are covered with forests, by far the larger part of this vast region is nearly desti- tute of vegetation — the sage-bush and cactus are the principal plants which the parched soil produces. Questions (I.) — I. Wh.it p.irts of North America have a tropical climate? — 2. Wh,it pans have a cold climate? What exception to this? — X What is the climate of the rest of the continent? — ♦. What wild animals are found in the Arctic I'lain.' In the high western plains? What other wild animals are found? What is said of domesticated animals? — ."i. Where is cotton the chief production? Afaize? Wheat? (11.) — 1. What is said of the tropical rains ? Of the vegetation ? What staples are cultivated? What fruits ? Wh.at grains? Name some of the forest trees. — 2. How do the polar currents afifect the northeastern coasts of the continent? What is the climate of the western co.ast north of Columbia River? Whv .' — 3. What are the chief sources of the rains of the southeastern portions of the continent? l)escril>e these regions. What is said of the vegetation of the Arctic Plain ? What is the cause of the r.ainy season in the region between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mounlains? What is its effect? What is said of the forests of the moist regions.' — j. Why is the Western Highland so dry ? How docs this affect the vegetation ? POLITICAL NORTH AMERICA. XXXI. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. (Capital cities are primed in Gothic t;-pe, as WASHINGTON.] Countries. — What two countries occupy the greater part of North America? Which is farther north? What country northeast of British Ainerica? Northwest? Southwest of the United States? Southeast of Me.xico? Name the countries of North America. Danish America.— To what countrj' in Europe does it belong? (Denmark.) Name its two principal islands. What is the capital of Ice- land ? Whicii is the most northern town in North America? British America. — To what countrv in Europe does it belong? {Great Britain.) What islands off the western coast of British Amer- ica? What peninsula in the eastern part? In the southeast? Name four capes of British America. What mountains in the western part ? What name is given to the greater part of British America? {T/te Dominion of Canada.) What is the capital? What two cities on the St. Lawrence River ? What city in Nova Scotia ? United States. — What country north of the United States ? South- west? \Vii.it gulf south? What islands southeast of Florida? Name the capes on the east coast of the United States. What cape at the south- eastern point of the United States ? What capes on the west coast ? What mountains west of the Sierra Nevada? What two bays on the east coast of the United States? What river flows into the Atlantic Ocean near Sandy Hook? What river between Me.xico and the United States? Into what does it flow? What mountains does the Columbia break through? AVhat lake between the Colorado and the Columbia? What two cities near the head of Chesapeake Bay ? W'hat is Wash- ington ? {The capital of the United States.) What city northeast of Baltimore? Northeast of Philadelphia? Northeast of New York ? At the mouth of the Mississippi? Near the mouth of the Missouri? On Lake Miciiigan ? On the Pacific coast ? On the north bank of the Ohio? To what country does Alaska belons; ? What is the name of its chief river? Into what does it flow? What islands in the southern part? What town on Baranoif Island ? What town on Kodiak Island ? Mexico. — What peninsula and gulf in the northwest of Me.xico? What cape at the end of the peninsula? ^Vhat bay west of Yucatan ? What mountains in Northern Me.xico? What is the capital ? What volcano near it ? What 'city east of Mexico ? Central America.— What waters wash the shores of Central America ? W'hat lake in Central America ? What city in the northwest ? Name the four principal islands in the West Indies. What city in Cuba? XXXII. KEVIEW EXEECISES. [For models, see Review of Western Hemisphere, page 9.] Countries. — Where is iti How bounded? What is the capital? Model. — Mexico is in the southwestern part of North America. It is bounded on the north by the United .States, on the e.ast by the Gulf of Mexico, on the south by Central .America and the Pacific Ocean, on the west by the Pacific The capital city is Mexico. Danish America? British America? United States? Mexico? Cen- tral America ? Islands. — Arctic Archipelago? Southampton, B. ? Greenland, D. ? Ice- land, D.? Newfoundland, B. ? Bermuda Islands, B. ? West Indies? Bahama Islands, B. ? Jamaica, B. ? Cuba, S. ? Hayti, I. ? Porto Rico, S. ? Vancouver, B. ? Queen Charlotte, B. ? Baranoff, U. S. ? Note. — The countries to which they belong .ire thus indicated : Denmark, D. ; Great Britain, B. ; Spain, S. ; United States, U. S. ; Independent, I. Peninsulas. — L.ibrador? Nova Scotia? Florida? Yucatan? Alaska? California ? Capas,— Farewell ? Race? Sable, iV:? Cod? Sandy Hook? Hat- teras? Sable, 5. .? St.Lucas? Prince of Wales? Mendocino? Flattery? Isthmuses. — What countries does it connect ? Tehuantepec? Panama? Isthmus of Central America ? Mountains. — Appalachian? Rocky? Sierra Madre? Sierra Nevada? Cascade? Coast ranges? Popocatepetl (v.)? Hecla(v.)? Seas, Gulfs, and Bays.— Baffin ? Hudson ? James ? St. Lawrence ? Delaware? Chesapeake? Mexico? Campeachy? Honduras? Behr- ing? Caribbean? California? Straits.— Davis ? Hudson? Belle Isle? Florida? Behring? Rivers. — Yukon ? Mackenzie ? Churchill ? Nelson ? Severn ? St. Lawrence? Hudson? Mississippi? Missouri? Arkansas? Ohio? Rio Grande ? Red ? Colorado ? Columbia ? Lakes. — Where situated ? What outlet has it ? Great Bear? Great Slave? Athabasca? AVinnipeg? Superior? Michigan? Huron? Erie? Ontario? Great Salt? Nicaragua? Cities and Towns.— /// what country is it I In zvhat part of it? On or near what water ? Reykjavik? Upernavik? Halifax? Ottawa? Montreal? Quebec? Washington? Philadelphia? Boston? New York? Baltimore? New Orleans? Cincinnati? St. Louis? Chicago? San Francisco? Mexico? Vera Cruz? Guatemala? Havana? ^Ot/yrufk:, IS75,ty //a/7,.tri frUAt^.J-Krvi^-a U Kctirui.rj, lfW6. 24 PHYSICAL UNITED STATES: QUESTIONS ON THE MAR— POSITION, AREA, AND SURFACE. W H < H OQ Q W H 1 — ( < o CO X •a c "5 o 01 3 O V n. 4J '^- "O « i: « § g^ (J *j 3 5) U rt "^ « 2 rt OS S ,v. 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OJ > o tn c >^ h -c rt = « rt U C 15 C (LI rt .5 " to 1^ C o u rt tn rt H ^ 15 < 3 bc •-=: .£ E -rt tn -rt < X C V 3 .2 rt .4-* r (L> c ^ c s T -a ^. 11 ,<" H) rt ^ •n fa ^ n > 7 OJ i A.. «-rt c OJ 1 J^ t rt rs H H C CJ a: < 3 rt ■X. a B n 0) 1/5 rt pi T 1 d _tn '3 3 P ^ rt M --^^^^•^^ X,- ^ s* 26 WESTERN HALF OF THE UNITED STATES.— EASTERN HALF OF THE UNITED STATES. 4. Three large and rapid rivers drain the greater part of this Plateau Belt: the Columbia River on the north breaks through the lofty Cascade range, and flows into the Pacific ; the Colorado on the south reaches the Gulf of California after passing through a number of great caiions, which are a series of the most frightful mountain gorges in the world ; the Rio Grande flows from the mount- ains bordering the Colorado Plateau through a long, nar- row, and elevated valley to the Gulf of Mexico. The beds of nearly all the rivers of the entire high- land region are far below the general level of the country through which they flow. 5. The "Western Highland has a warm and very dry climate. The warm southwest winds from the Pacific discharge most of their moisture as rain or snow on the high cold slopes and sum- mits of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges, and much of the remaining portion upon the lofty sides and tops of the Rocky Mountains. The plateaus are consequently dry and barren, while the coast regions have abundant rain and, particularly to- wards the north, are covered with dense forests. In like manner, the winds from the Atlantic and the Gulf of Mexico lose their moisture before they penetrate so far inland, and in conse- quence a large part of the Great Plains at the foot of the Rocky Mountains is one of the most desolate and arid regions of the continent. The cactus and the sage-bush are the characteristic vegetation ; they indicate a very dry climate. Wherever the streams from the melting snows of the mountains can be used for irrigation abundant crops can be raised, but the greater part of the entire highland is hopelessly barren. 6. The chief wealth of the Western Highland is in the exhaustless mines of gold, silver, and other valuable minerals with which the entire mountain district abounds. Nowhere else on the globe is there known to be so extensive a de- posit of the precious metals. There are hundreds of thousands of square miles rich with ores of gold and silver. 7. The most remarkable animal is the bison, or Amer- ican buffalo. Vast herds of these animals, sometimes numbering scores of thou- sands, still roam the Great Plains, feeding on the short dried buffalo-grass, the growth of the brief spring rains. They are eagerly hunted for their skins, and must ere long be exterminated. 8. Between the Western Highland and the Pacific lies the small rich lowland of the California Basin. Questions (I.)— 1. What is the character of the western half of the United States > By what and liow is it divided?— 3. What and where are the Great Plains?— 3. What is the western half of the highland called? What mountains border it ? What high mountains parallel and close to the Coast ranges? Where is the Great Basin? Where is the Colorado Plateau? Where is the plain of the Columbia?— 4. How many great rivers drain the Plateau Belt? What is said of the Columbia? Of the Colorado? What are the canons? Which is the third great river? What is said of most of the river beds?— 5. What is the general character of the climate of the Western Highland .>— 6. In what is the chief wealth of the highland?— 7. Which is the most remarkable animal?— «. What and where is the California Basin? (II.)— 3, What is said of a large part of the Great Plains? Where are the plains highest? How high are they? Which of their rivers are navigable? Which are not? Why? — :i. Which are the highest mountains in North America? How high are they? How many principal plateaus? With what is the whole tract ribbed? To what has it been likened? What does the Great Basin enclose? By what separated from the Colorado Plateau? How high is it? How high is the Colorado Plateau? How high is the plain of the Columbia? — 5. What kind of a climate has the Plateau Belt of the Western Highland? Why? The Great Plains? Why? The Coast re- gions? Why? What plants are characteristic? W'hat do such plants indicate? What is said of irrigation? What is the source of the water that may be used for this purpose? What portion of the region is barren ?— C. What is said of the quan- tity of gold and silver? — 7. What is said of the buffaloes and their food? XXXVI. EASTEEN HALF OF THE UNITED STATES. 1. The eastern half of the United States presents a strong; contrast to the western half. It is fertile and well watered throughout. It contains the Eastern Highland and two important lowland plains. 2. The Eastern Highland is small and low in com- parison with the Western. It consists of the several parallel ranges of the Appalachian system, and extends from the Dominion of Canada almost to the Gulf of Mexico. Its highest peaks are about as high as the plains at the foot of the Rocky Mountains. It contains many fertile ele- vated valleys, but no extensive plateaus. • This highland is rich in water-power and in mines of coal and iron. At its nearest approach to the Atlantic coast it is intersected by a remarkable depression, which contains the valleys of the Hudson and the Mohawk, and forms the most important natural highway of commerce on the whole continent. 3. The Eastern Highland divides the lowlands into two unequal plains — the Atlantic Plain on the east, and the Great Central or Mississippi Plain on the west. 4. The Great Central Plain lies between the two highlands. It extends from the Gulf of Mexico, where it joins the Atlantic Plain, to the Great Lakes, where it unites with a narrow belt of lowland in the St. Lawrence Valley. The Valley of the Mississippi includes not only most of the Great Central Plain, but all of the land between the crests of the Rocky Mountains on one side and those of the AUeghanies on the other. It therefore embraces a large part of both highlands. It has been likened to a broad trough, the Mississippi lying in the lowest part. 5. The ]flississippi and its branches together con- stitute the most extensive system of navigated ri\crs in the world. The Amazon system, in South .-Vmerica, is larger, but is as yet but little navigated. The Hissonri is by far the most important of the trib- utaries, being longer than the entire course of the Missis- sippi itself, and, like it, navigable almost to its source. EASTERN HALF OF THE UNITED STATES: CLIMATE, VEGETATION, ETC. 27 6. The Atlantic Plain is a long belt of lowland be- tween the Eastern Highland and the ocean. It is widest at the south, but narrows rapidly towards the mouth of the Hudson River, where it almost disappears. Farther east it again widens to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The rivers of the Atlantic Plain cross it at right angles to the line of the highland, in which they have their sources. Most of them are navigable till interrupted by falls or rapids at some distance from the sea. These falls furnish valuable water- power, and have determined the location of many important cities. The Atlantic Plain is drained by numerous short, separate, and parallel rivers, and all the rest of the country by a few great river systems. 7. The climate of the low eastern half of the United States is in general much cooler than that of the Western Highland in the same latitude. Frequent rains are brought at all seasons by the moist winds from the Gulf of Mexico, the Atlantic, and the Great Lakes. The rain-fall on the Atlantic coast increases towards the south ; on the Pacific coast towards the north ; Lower California in Me.xico is almost rainless. The winters of the eastern half are long and severe in the north, but mild in the south ; the summers are generally hot. 8. The fertile soil, warm summers, abundant rains, and great range of latitude make the eastern half of the United States, in the quantity, variety, and value of its agricultural produc- tions, the richest large section of the globe inhabited by a single nation. The value of these advantages is greatly increased by the other physical conditions already considered. The average fall of the Mississippi, the Missouri, and their chief branches in the Central Plain, is only about four inches to the mile ; that of the St. Law- rence, including the Great Lakes, is still less: this opens the whole region to steam navigation. The generally level face of the country makes it easy to construct railroads, canals, and common roads. Of railways there were at the close of 1879 more than 86,000 miles in operation, or two thirds as many as in all the rest of the world. It will therefore be seen that — 9. The physical geography of the eastern half of the United States gives it agricultural and commercial advantages unequalled by those of any other country on the globe. 10. The eastern half of the United States may be divided into two regions differing remarkably in vegeta- tion, in consequence of difference in rain-fall. Dense forests cover the Atlantic Plain, the Eastern Highland, and the neighboring parts of the Great Cen- tral Plain, except where cleared for the purpose of cultiva- tion. If from Toledo on Lake Erie two lines be drawn, one to Galveston on the Gulf of Me.xico, and the other to the head-waters of the Red River of the North, nearly all the forests in the United States east of the Cascade Mountains will be east of these lines. The southern portions of both plains constitute the region of abundant summer showers ; without these cotton could not be cultivated. Rice, sugar-cane, Indian corn, and tobacco are also characteristic agricultural productions. (See Rain Map.) Immense prairies occupy the rest of the Great Central Plain. The prairie region is broad in the north and narrow in the south. It has long and frequent summer droughts. These do not pre- vent the extensive cultivation of wheat and other grains, which are produced in enormous quantities. The prairies are rapidly being converted into farms covered with hedge-rows, orchards, and forest trees. 1 1 . Large wild animals, such as wolves, wild-cats, pan- thers, bears, and deer, once abounded. Though still found in some districts, they are greatly reduced in numbers. The country now contains millions of domesticated ani- mals, among which are cattle, sheep, swine, and horses. Questions (I.)— 1. What is the character of the eastern half of the United States? In what two particulars? What subdivisions does it contain? — 2. How does the Eastern Highland compare with the Western? In what is it remarkably rich? By what is it intersected? What valleys in this depression? What does it form? — 3. How does this highland divide the lowlands? What name is given to each.' — 4. Where is the Great Central Plain? — .5. What is said of the Mississippi River? Of the Missouri River? — 0. What and where is the Atlantic Plain? How do its rivers cross it? — 7. What is said of the climate of the eastern half of the United States? — [For the remaining questions on this section, see page 29.] POLITICAL UNITED STATES: DIVISIONS AND SUBDIVISIONS. 29 O "- 4J O "Z V ^ > ■f (J ^« ^ ^ u, nt a T3 a > J= 'k ^ Ji > .£ w- ^ d *- X -^ 7 ai O 2 2 o X .= j= c ? o E? o u g ^ i 4^ OJ ' ?3 •- i" ; fc, C rt I j£ -a o ■ ■- rt ^ ' — , ^ "^ ■ ^ rt i; > a. o ^ -= ;s o "1 S; o rt >> " r i; '«> I .2 t» £ ' tn — S I «* O 2 : (u -^ ■ jz ^ I w, in ^ , o i' C i = j: c ■ •s - § i «) .2 u • S» - u J ■=: a V a a •- W 1, !U = •5- S <3 c ^2 .^■- .22 ^ S E .^ « o si ,• i :=: /v. u .s 2 «i " 5 "o Cft ^_, u .c o j= o rt n 5 „ 1^ — — "5 " C - rt - - S I »-< u c > /v. j2 o J5 -^^-5 2 J. e " 3 'rt 'E. j3 C ^ -5; O = 1^-2 rt .' -^^ -^ r: '« ^ ^ eg" u — 3 -S O 2 ^ S .2 -a ^ .5 ° -s :^ f^ = « 1-- .S ^ c "^ t: "■• u u .2 ~ .a -S ? ,b: •" -a rt Ci. - rt J= r1 4» > a> w C -a u w :a c T " .2^ It t: *— c: M « T3 £ 2 a. J= > 'K 1 rt I*' u .— "" u n.. -T3 -a OT •> h — c c JZ. 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What sronp of slalcs lies fanheslcasl? What is the capital of cacli? Wliete situated? Na.m o„e other city .0 each. Wliete situated? Which of these states has t»o capitals > Name the capital and Ohe o, ,„„ other cities in each of the Middle Atlau- IK States. „ the South Atlantic Stales, I„ ,he Notll, Central Stales. In the South Central 1,, he C",lral. In the Slates of the Plaiits. In IlK! Rocky Mountain States. In the Basin States. In the the Atlantic Ocean? The Gulf of Mexico? On the hC> a^L m' '^"'' Chatnplain? On the Ohio K.e? On the Mississippi Rive,? On the Missouri tie R„ckl"M°' "'" '^' ?°'''^ Mountains? Between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada and Cas- cade Mountains ? West of these las. chains? In what direction from '"•"'"^P"''* ' ,^i,t1 Cincinnati? Pittsburgh? Cleveland? U«™ . cage? Milwaukee? In what direction trom is Milwaukee? Davenport? ^'J .'.j; Buffalo ? In what direction from Sr. ^'"" „■ F.vansville? Memphis? Louisville? •■, . what direction from New Orleans is L.ai» bile? Vicksbtirg? Montgomery. Which is the largest state c Tin' est-' The most northeasterly ? Southeasterly? South- ■^rly? Southwesterly? Northwesterly? Which state has the longest sea coast ? Lake coast? What states arc separated by the Mississippi River? By the Ohio Missouri River? What parallel hounds the United Stales on the north? H90.I On the south? (25°.| In what longi- tude from Greenwich is its eastern point ? Its western ^ ' What states are crossed by the meridian of Washington > What is the longitude of Washington .»• Of Boston? NewVork? Philadelphia? Charleston? Cincinnati? Chicago? St. Louis ? New Orleans? What cities on or near the parallel ■10° N. ? In what zone is the United States ? What is the general direction of the rivers east of the Appalachian Mountains? Name river of the North Atlantic States. Name three in tl • Um lungnudc fr"m Greeo«ich. Middle Atlantic States. Seven in the South Atlantia Three flowing into the Gulf of Mexico cast of Missis- sippi River. Five west of it. Name four cistern br.inclies of Mississippi River. Five western branches. Four southern branches of the Ohio. Three northern branches. Three western branches of the Missouri. TwobranchesofthcColiimbia. The chief branchof the Colorado. Two river* in California. Whatriverfornia part of the boundary l)ct ween Minnesota and Dakota? J D J 32 REVIEW OF THE POLITICAL MAP OF THE UNITED STATES. Northern Division. 5. Rhode Island. . }.. . Providence. Middle Division. Southern Division. XXXVIII. EEVEEW OF POLITICAL MAP OF UNITED STATES. Bound the state. Name the capital. The largest city. THE LOW HALF. ATLANTIC STATES. Capital. Largest City. 1. Maine Augusta Portland. 2. New Hampshire. Concord Manchester. 3. Vermont Montpelier Rutland. 4. Massachusetts. . . Boston Boston. ( Providence 1 ( Newport 6. Connecticut Hartford New Haven. f\. New York Albany New York. 2. New Jersey Trenton Newark. 3. Pennsylvania Harrisburg Philadelphia. 4. Delaware Dover Wilmington. 5. Maryland Annapolis Baltimore. 1. Virginia Richmond Richmond. 2. North Carolina. . .Raleigh Wilmington. 3. South Carolina. . .Columbia Charleston. 4. Georgia Atlanta Atlanta. -5. Florida Tallahassee Key West. CENTRAL STATES. 1. Ohio Columbus Cincinnati. 2. Indiana Indianapolis .... Indianapolis. 3. Illinois Springfield Chicago. 4. Wisconsin Madison Milwaukee. 5. Michigan Lansing Detroit. 1. West Virginia Charleston Wheeling. 2. Kentucky Frankfort Louisville. 3. Tennessee Nashville Nashville. 4. Alabama Montgomery .... Mobile. t5. Mississippi Jackson Vicksburg. 1. Minnesota St. Paul Minneapolis. 2. Iowa Des Moines .... Des Moines, 3. Missouri Jefferson City . . . St. Louis. 4. Arkansas Little Rock. . . . Little Rock. L5. Louisiana .Baton Rouge.. . . New Orleans. Northern Division. Southern Division. Western Division. States of the Plains. Rocky Mountain States. Basin States. Pacific States. J THE HIOH HALF. WESTERN or HIGHLAND ST.\TES. Capital. Largest City. f \. Dakota T. Bismarck Fargo. 2. Nebraska Lincoln Omaha. 3. Kansas Topeka Leaven worlli. 4. In./ian T.. . . . '{'i^i^^m— Vinita. 5. Texas Austin Galveston. \. Montana T. Helena Helena. 2. Wyoming T. Cheyenne Cheyenne. 3. Colorado Denver ... ... Denver. 4. AWf Mexico T. . . . Santa Fd Santa Fe. 1. Idaho T. Boise' City Bois^ City. 2. Nevada Carson Virginia City. 3. Utah T. Salt Lake City. . Salt Lake City. 4. Arizona T. Prescott Tucson. Alaska T. .-^±^'i St. Paul. Washington T. Olympia Walla Walla. 3. Oregon Salem Portland. 4. California Sacramento San Francisco. w Mountains. — Where situated i Appalachian? White? Adirondack? Catskill ? Alleghany? Blue Ridge? Cumberland? Rocky? Wahsatch ? Sierra Nevada? Cas- cade ? Coast range ? Rivers. — Where does it rise ? In what direction does it flow i Through what states t Into what body of water ? Atlantic System. — St. Lawrence ? Connecticut ? Hudson ? Del- aware ? Susquehanna ? Potomac ? James ? Roanoke ? Cape Fear ? Santee ? Savannah ? Altamaha ? Gulf System. — Appalachicola ? Mobile ? Pearl ? Mississippi ? Sabine? Trinity? Brazos? Colorado? Rio Grande? Mississippi System. — Yazoo? Ohio? Illinois? Wisconsin? Min- nesota ? Des Moines ? Missouri ? Arkansas ? Red ? Ohio System. — Tennessee ? Cumberland ? Kentucky ? Monon- gahela? Alleghany? Scioto? Wabash? Missouri System. — Yellowstone? Platte? Kansas? Pacific System. — Columbia? Willamette? Snake? Sacramento? San Joaquin ? Colorado ? Gila ? Lakes. — Where situated ? St. L.wvRENCE System. — Champlain ? Ontario? Erie? Huron? Michigan? Superior? LARGEST CITIES IN THE UNITED STATES. (CENSUS OF 1880.) Albany, N. Y 00,758 Allegheny, Pa 78,682 Atlanta, Ga 37,409 Baltimore, Md 332,313 Boston, Mass 302,839 Bridgeport, Conn 27,643 Brooklyn, N.Y 566,663 Buffalo, N.Y •. .. 155,134 Cambridge, Mass 52,669 Camden, N.J 41,659 Charleston, S.C 49,984 Chicago, 111 503,185 Cincinnati, 255,139 Cleveland, 100,146 Columbus, 51,647 Covington, Ky 29,720 Dayton, 38,678 Denver, Col 35,629 Detroit, Mich 110,340 Elizabeth, N. J 28,229 Erie, Pa 27,737 Evansville, Ind 29,280 Fall River, Mass 48,961 Fort Wayne, Ind 26,880 Grand Rapids, Mich . . 32,0 1 6 Harrisburg, Pa 30,762 Hartford, Conn 42,015 Hoboken, N. J 30,999 Indianapolis, Ind 75,056 Jersey City, N.J 120,722 Kansas City, Mo 55,785 Lawrence, Mass 39,151 Louisville, Ky 123,758 Lowell, Mass 59,475 Lynn, Mass 38,274 Manchester, N. H 32,630 Memphis, Tenn 33,592 Milwaukee, Wis 115,587 Minneapolis, Minn. Mobile, Ala Nashville, Tenn. . . . Newark, N. J New Bedford, Mass. New Haven, Conn. . New Orleans, La. . . New York, N. Y. . . . Oakland, Cal Omaha, Neb Paterson, N. J Peoria, 111 Philadelphia, Pa . . Pittsburgh, Pa Portland, Me Providence, R. I. . . . Quincy, 111 Reading, Pa Richmond, Va 46,887 29,132 43,350 130,508 26,845 62,882 216,090 1,206,299 34,655 30,518 51,031 29,259 847,170 150,389 33,810 104,857 27,268 43,278 63,600 Rochester, N. Y 89,366 Salem, Mass ■. 27,563 •San Francisco, Cal.. . . 233,959 Savannah, Ga 36,709 Scranton, Pa 45,850 Springfield, Mass 33,340 St. Joseph, Mo 32,431 St. Louis, Mo 350,518 St. Paul, Minn . 41,473 Syracuse, N.Y 51,792 Terre Haute, Ind 26,042 Toledo,© 50,137 Trenton, N.J 29,910 Troy, N.Y 56,747 Utica, N.Y 33,914 Washington, D. C 1 47,293 Wheeling, W. Va 30,737 Wilmington, Del 42,478 Worcester, Mass 58,291 POLITICAL UNITED STATES. XXXIX. DESCEIPTION. 1. The United States consists of thirty-eight states, ten territories, and a federal district. 2. The population in ISSU was more tlmn 50,000,000. Over 48,000-000 were in the low and fertile eastern half of the country; and, of the remainder,' about 1,400,000 were west of the Rocky Mountains. 3. The white race numbered about 43,500,000. They are chiefly the descendants of emigrants from England, Ire- land, and Germany. Negroes and mulattoes, the descendants of slaves brought from Africa, nui^bered nearly 6,500,000. Of Indians there were about 350,000 ; they are nearly all in the Western Highland. The Chinese numbered about 100,000. 4. Agriculture is the leading industry. Its chief seats are the Central and Atlantic Plains and the California Basin. Among the principal agricultural products are the grains, which, in the order of their latitude, are rice, maize, wheat, rye, oats, and barley ; maize and wheat are t!ie most abundant. The other chief products in the same order are sugar, cotton, tobacco, hemp, hay, and potatoes ; of these cotton is commercially the most important. 5. Grazing is an important occupation in the agri- cultural regions. The prairie and the maize districts of the Central Plains furnish lO large quantities of live stoclc, beef, pork, and wool. The chief supplies of butler and cheese are from the northern half of the Eastern Highland. G. mining is an industry of great and growing impor- tance. The principal mines of coal and iron are in the Eastern Highland ; those of gold and silver in the mountains of the Western High- land ; those of lead in Nevada, Utah, and the valley of the Upper Mississippi ; and those of copper in Arizona and on the shores of Lake Superior. -Agriculture, grazing, and mining supply most of the raw materials for manufactures. 7. Manufacturing industry has its chief seats in the states north of the Potomac and the Ohio. This is be- cause of their abundant water-power, fuel, and labor. The principal manufactures are cotton and woollen goods, leather, tools and machiner}^ flour, lumber, and salt. Fishing Is a leading interest in some of the Atlantic States. 8. Commerce is of two kinds — dom.estic and foreign. The domestic commerce of the United States is the distribution within its own limits of imported articles and domestic manufactures in exchange for agricultural, graz- ing, mining, and forest products. 9. Three great water routes to the sea and many lines of railway are the principal channels of this commerce. The first water route is by the Great Lakes and the St Lawrence to the ocean. 84 POLITICAL UNITED STATES: DESCRIPTION. The second water route is by the Great Lakes, the Erie Canal, and the Hudson River to New York. This is the principal commercial route of the continent. The port of New York is reniarkabfe for the peculiar advantages of its position and for its excellent harbor. It is the chief natu- ral doorway to the populous eastern half of the United States. It lies at the outlet of a narrow valley which is the only deep cleft and water-way entirely crossing the Appalachian Highland. By the broad and deep Hudson and the canal through the Mo- hawk Valley it has easy access to the group of inland seas known as the Great Lakes. By the Chaniplain and Hudson Canal it connects with the Lower St. Lawrence. Through this valley the tide of emigration from Europe and the Atlantic States has rolled for more than half a century, spreading out over the fertile plains south of the Great Lakes, and changing a wilderness into the home of industrious millions. As one of the results of their industr}', the commerce of this region al- ready greatly exceeds in value the entire foreign coininerce of the nation. The third water route is by the Mississippi and its branches to New Orleans. By this route the grain, flour, pork, beef, coal, and machinery of the North find a market in the Cotton States, the West Indies, and Europe. AH these water routes radiate from or converge towards the low plains of the Upper Mississippi and its branches, so rich in grains and live stock. CANAL AND LOCKS. 10. The railway routes are much more numerous and complicated. The principal lake-ports, seaports, and other cities are connected by railroads. These railroads and their branches cover the low half of the country, and especially its northern part, like a net- work of iron. The navigation of the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence is prevented for several months of each vear by ice : this gives still greater importance to the railway system. Four great railroads across the Western Highland already unite the commercial system of the East with that of the Pacific coast, and others are in process of construction. Thousands of vessels ply between the principal ports, and thus complete the means for the transportation of goods, passengers, and mails. This coasting trade is much greater than the entire foreign commerce. 1.11,11 r-HnL:b,E AND PILOT-BOATS. At the entrance of harbors, on capes, and at dangerous shoals of the ocean and the lakes, the General Government maintains light-houses to guide and warn vessels at night. Thousands of miles of telegraph wires convey the information by which this great commercial system is regulated, and the news- papers promptly report the state of distant markets. Domestic commerce is the chief means by which the different parts of the United States are firmly and peaceably united through mutual interests and mtitua! dependence. It is itself dependent upon the physical geography of the country. 11. Foreign coininerce is the exchange of commodi- ties between different countries. The foreign commerce of the United States is chiefly with England, Germany, and France in Europe ; with Canada, the West Indies, and Brazil in America; and with China and Japan in Asia. 12. The principal exports are cotton, breadstuffs, provisions, petroleum, gold, and tobacco. The greater part, especially of the cotton, goes to England. South America and the West Indies take large amounts of provisions, flour, lumber, and other manufactures. 13. The leading imports, and the principal countries from which they come, are dry goods from England and France, sugar froin the West Indies, coffee from Brazil, hides from South America, tea from China and Japan, and iron and tin from England. The greater part of the foreign commerce centres in the sea-ports of the northern half of the Atlantic coast ; these have the best harbors. At least two thirds of all the imports and nearly one half of all the exports of the United States pass through the port of New York. Other leading sea-ports are Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, New Orleans, and San Francisco. This foreign commerce is chiefly carried on by means of large steam vessels. It is in large part directed and controlled by means of several submarine telegraph lines, tiie cables lying upon the bed of the ocean. One line is to England by way of Newfoundland and Ireland ; another is to France by way of Massachusetts and the island of St. Pierre, near Newfoundland. Questions (I.)— 1. Of wliat does the United States consist? — 2. Wlmt w.is the population in l,SH(i.' How distriljiited ? — 3. How many belonged to the white r.icc? — 4. Wliat is the le.ndinp; industry ? Where are its chief seats .' Name tlie grains in the order of tlieir latitude. Wliich are the most abundant? Name the other chief GOVERNMENT OF THE UNITED STATES. 35 products in the same order. Which is the most important ? — .5. What is said of graz- ing? — 0. What of mining? — 7. Where are the chief seats of manufacturing industry? Why? Name the principal manufactures. Where is fishing a leading interest? — 8. How many kinds of commerce? What is domestic commerce? — 9. What are its principal channels? Which is the first water route? The second? What is said of it? The third? What is said of it? — 10. What is said of the railway routes? — 11. What is foreign commerce? With what countries in Europe is the greater part of the foreign commerce ? With what countries in America ? In Asia .' — 1'2. Name the prin- cipal exports. What share is taken by England? By South America and the West Indies.' — 13. What are the chief imports? From what countries? (11.) — 3. From whom are the white inhabitants of the United States descended.' How many negroes? From whom descended? How many Indians? Where are they? How many Chinese.' — 5. Where are the chief supplies of animal food and of wool obtained? Of butter .ind cheese.' — 6. Where are the principal coal and iron mines? Of gold and silver ? Of lead? Of copper? What industries supply tlie raw materials for manufactures? — 9. What is said of New York? Of the valleys of the Hudson and Mohawk? Of the Chami)lain and Hudson Canal? Of emigration? What is one of the results? From what part of the country do the great w.iter routes radi.ate ? — 10. What is said of the railroads? Why is the railroad system important? What is said of the railroads to the Pacific? Of the coasting trade? How does it compare with the foreign commerce? What is said of light-houses? Of telegraphs and newspapers? What is said of domestic commerce ? Upon what is it dependent? — 13. Where does the greater part of the foreign commerce centre? Why? What part of the imports are received at New York ? Of the exports ? Name other leading ports. How is the foreign commerce chiefly carried on? How is it directed and controlled? Where are the ocean cables? XL. GOVERNMENT. THE CAflTUL AT WASHINGTON. 1. The General CJovernineiit of the United States and the several state governments are all republican, or representative, in form. The United States is the most extensive and powerful republic in the world. A republican government is one under which those who make the laws and those who execute them are elected for limited periods by the people. A state is a division of the United States, controlling its own internal affairs, but united with the other states under the Gen- eral Government. A territory is a portion of the country not yet admitted as a state, because it has not sufficient population. 2. The General Government has tliree distinct depart- ments — the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. 3. The legislative department, or Congress, consists of two distinct bodies — the Senate and the House of Repre- sentatives. lO* A law is made by the consent of both Houses and the approval of the President of the United States. If the President returns a bill without his approval, he is said to veto it ; it may afterwards become a law if two thirds of each House again approve it. 4. The Senate consists of two members from each state. The senators are chosen by the State Legislatures, and hold office for six years. 'I'heir present number is 70. The Vice-President of the United States is the presiding officer. 5. The Honse of Representatires consists of mem- bers chosen directly by the people of the several states. They are the only officers of the General Government so chosen. They hold office for two years. There are at the present time 325 members, each state being entitled to one for every 151,912 of its inhabitants. The representatives elect one of their own number as presiding officer or Speaker. Each organized terri- tory has a delegate in this House ; he may take part in the dis- cussion of all matters relating to his territory, but has no vote. fi. The President of the United States is the chief executive officer. The President and the Vice-President are chosen by electors. The people of each state choose as many of these electors as there are members of Congress from that state. The President and the Vice-President hold office for four years. The President is commander-in-chief of the Army and the Navy. By and with the advice and consent of the Senate he appoints the judges of the Supreme Court and certain other civil and military officers, concludes peace, and makes treaties with other nations. 7. The Supreme Court, or judicial department, con- sists of a Chief-Justice and eight Associate Judges. 8. The complete statement of the plan or arrangement of the orovernment is called the constitution. i>. Each state has a complete political organization or constitution, similar in most respects to that of the United States. It has a Governor elected directly by the people, a Legislature in two departments, and a Supreme Court. Neither the General Government nor any state government can make a law which is contrary to the Constitution of the United States. An organized territory has a government similar to that of a state, except that the governor and the judges are appointed by the President of the United States. Questions (I.) — 1. What is the form of the government of the United States? Of the several state governments? How does the United States compare with other republics ? — 3. How many and wh.at departments has it ? — 3. Of what does the legisla- tive department consist ? What are they called ? — i. Of what does the Senate consist ? — 5. How are the members of the House of Representatives chosen? — 6. Who is the chief executive oflSccr.' — 7. Of what does the Supreme Court consist? — 8. What is the Constitution of the United States.' — 9. What is said of the state governments? (IT.) — 1. What is a republican government? What is a state? What is a terri- tory? — 3. How are laws made? When is a bill said to be vetoed? How may it af- terwards become a law.' — i. How are the senators cho,sen? For how long a time? What is their present number? Who is President of the Senate? — 5. In what par- ticular is the election of tnemliers of the House peculiar? How long do they hold office? How many members are there at the present time? What is the basis of representation? Who is the Speaker? What is said of territorial delegates? — 6. By whom are the President and the Vice-President of the United -States chosen ? By whom are the electors chosen? How many are there? How long do the President and the Vice-President hold office ? Who is the he.ad of the Army and Navy ? What other powers and duties has he ? — 9. What laws can not be made? What can you say of territorial governments f , lOj^Li ,4r^- -or i' \55 ^ o V ^ •a- ,yi ■M'^ fV A^l dV /*-$<» ,-;■ *#5 iL I H«|ulton> fEsn'imsMjGou,' '■ |Mt. Kafbhdinl /; i W''iiJ»«.AIbans ,^fJ €"5^1 LynOnn j •'i^-^ ir ^^^'^0/!luuTc?S^''^C-C!I,'^^ Washington "^^^ri^ \/ (jRanddlph SkMv° *'"'' W^ST!/^ ^' ™iiv.?jgooM„,^'>a'™^°,,i»W^^^^^^^ %: Lacoiijii 'eiT giddeford, Kenm-bi CAPE ELIZABEIB '"J- T'Lat/^a^ KenneljuDkport N I ^^ ,^^^ [|fewburyport ■'laveVitHI t>J Mt. Evere^ Ji'JK' Wat jV-i MlproqM Holyd 'f \ I 4**^«-,.. r< CArE_iNN (Gkiucester „ -Derry JS!*.-. ^lasl F,„,,,',?i,£f„'",^:^^?;TOOSTON s^r rblehL'ad ^LASSACSVSE TTS ■,. qVINKVAUIJI. 'monomoy point MAP or THE NORTH ATLAIN^TIC STATES. WANTUCKEt I. OR i Ix>iigituiUi ia»t 6 from. 'Wnshiiiitou. NEW ENGLAND. lOOSciuart- AIlli-9- Scale of 'SU\Ke. -I — i — I — r [O'pyril/fil, \mh, hj/ Uarptr Ji flfw(/i»rjr.] — Ri-vuuil to Nov.iii.b«r, lH?t5, NORTH ATLANTIC STATES: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 37 XLI. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. General. — Name the North Atlantic States. Which is the largest? Which is the smallest? Which has no sea-coast? Which has the most broken coast ? What mountain system covers a large part of New Eng- land ? (See Physical Map of U. S., page 2-5.) Which state has no mountains? In what general direction do the rivers flow? Which is the largest river ? What states does it separate ? What states does it cross ? Which state has the greatest number of lakes ? Maine. — What river forms part of the northern boundary of Maine ? Vpf the eastern ? Of what lakes is it the outlet I Name four other principal rivers. From what lake does the Kennebec flow ? What bays on the southern coast ? What cape ? What island ? What city on Casco Bay? On the Saco River?' On the Androscoggin? On the Kennebec? On the Penobscot? Which is the capital? New Hampshire. — What mountains in the northern part of New Hampshire? What celebrated peak? What lake near the centre of the state?) Which is the principal river in the state? In what state is the moutli of the Merriniac? What three cities in New Hampshire are on the Merrimac? Which is the capital? What sea-port in the south- east? At the mouth of what river? What city near the Piscataqua? Vermont. — What parallel forms the northern boundary of Vermont ? What lakes does it cross? A\'hich of these forms part of the western boundary? In what direction do its waters flow? Through what branch of the St. Lawrence ? What mountains in this slate? Into what other stales do they e.vtend ? Name the two highest peaks in Vermont. What town is the capital? What city on Lake Champlain' 1 What town north of Burlington ? What town southwest of Montpelier ? Massachusetts. — What two large islands belong to the state ? What bay east ? What two bays southeast ? What three capes on the coast ? I What peak in the southwest ? In the northwest ? What two near Con- necticut River?, What river enters the state from New Hampshire? VVhat cities on the Merrimac ? Which of these is a seaport ? '\\hat city is the capital ? What city northwest of Boston ? What two cities northeast ? What town on Cape Cod Bay ? What city on Buzzards Bay ? What city northwest of New Bedford ? ' What city on tire Con- necticut ? Midway between Springfield and Boston ? Rhode Island. — Name the two capitals of Rhode Island. On what island is Newport ? {Rhode?) On what bay ? What two towns north of Providence ? What cape on the coast ? Connecticut. — What water south of Connecticut ? What three rivers enter it from this state? What city is the capital? What two cities on the Thames ? What two on or near Long Island Sound ? What city northwest of New Haven ? What three cities near the centre of the state? Voyages and Travels. — What cities, capes, rivers, and islands would you pass in a coasting voyage from Bridgeport to Providence ? From Providence to Boston? Boston to the St. Croix River? Through what cities by railroad from Bridgeport to Boston by way of Springfield ? By way of Providence ? Boston to Bangor ? Boston to St. Albans by way of Nashua? XLII. EEVIEW EXEKCISES. States. — How bounikd I W/iat is the capital I The largest city f Area in Popi'Iation „ _ S"">=- |Sq.M,les- inissu. | Stales. Area in Sq. Miles. PopulalioD in ISSu. Maine 33,040 G+8,!)3G !' Massachusetts . 340,991 Rhode Island. . 332,280 ' Connecticut . . . 8,31.-. 1,250 4,990 1,783,085 27G,531 622,700 New Hampshire. . 9,305 Cities and Towns. — /;/ what part of the state i How situated? AuGUST.\ ? Portland ? Lewiston ? Bangor ? Biddeford ? Concord ? Manchester ? Nashua ? Dover ? Portsmouth ? Montpelier? Rutland? Burlington? St. Albans ? Boston ? Lowell ? Worcester ? Cambridge ? Fall River ? Law- rence ? Lynn ? Springfield ? Salem ? New Bedford ? Plymouth ? Providence? Newport? Pawtucket ? Woonsocket? H.\RTFoRD ? New Haven? Bridgeport? Norwich? Waterbury? Islands — Jl'here situated? Nantucket? Marthas Vineyard ? Mount Desert? Capes. — J^rom what coast docs it project! Elizabeth? Ann? Cod? Monomoy ? Judith? Mountains. — Where are they? Green' \Vhite? Mount Washington ? Mount Mansfield? Mount Everett? Mount Tom' Mount Holyoke? Bays, etc. — Jl'here is it ? Passamaquoddy ? Massachusetts? Cape Cod ? Buzzards? Narra- gansett ? Long Island Sound ? Penobscot ? Casco ? Rivers. — Where docs it rise ? In what direction does it flow ? Through li'hat states ? Into what body of water 1 St. John ? St. Croi.v ? Penobscot? Kennebec? Androscoggin? Merrimac ? Connecticut ? Thames ? Housatonic ? Lakes. — Where situated? What outlet? Moosehead ? Winnipiseogee ? Champlain ? Grand ? NORTH ATLANTIC STATES. XLIII. NORTH ATLANTIC STATES, or NEW ENGLAND: DESCRIPTION. 1. Position and area. — The North Atlantic States extend from the Atlantic Ocean to Lake Champlain and the valley of the Hudson. Their area is about two fifths of that of California. Maine is nearly as large as the five other states taken together. 2. Surface. — The surface is generally rough, being broken by the mountains and numerous hills of this part of the Eastern Highland. There are two principal ridges forming the sides of the long val- ley of the Connecticut River. The Green Mountains, near the western border, are the only continuous range. The irregular eastern ridge contains the White Mountains, the highest in New England. The Atlantic shores are low in the south, and bold and rugged in the east. They furnish many good harbors. 3. Lakes and rivers. — The lakes and rivers are very numerous. Some of the lakes are celebrated for their 38 NORTH ATLANTIC STATES: DESCRIPTION. beauty. The frequent rapids and falls render the rivers unnavigable beyond a short distance, but furnish the ex- tensive water-power which has made New England one of the greatest manufacturing districts in the United States. 4. Climate and soil. — The winters are long and se- vere; the summers are short, but hot. The soil is stony, and not very fertile, except in the valleys. 5. A^ricnltnre. — The agricultural products are not sufficient to supply the wants of the population. The greater part of the breadstuffs and provisions used by the people of this section is brought from the Great Centra! Plain. Large quantities of live stock and wool are produced. 6. Occnpatioiis. — Manufactures and commerce are the leading pursuits. The manufactures comprise fabrics of cotton, wool, leather, metal, and wood, together with machinery, tools, and other articles in great variety. The fire-arms, cutlery, sewing-machines, and boots and shoes of New England find a market in a large part of the civilized world. The forests of hemlock and pine, especially in the southeast of Maine, furnish valuable lumber. 7. Commerce. — rThe many excellent harbors, the com- parative nearness to Europe, and the abundance of ship- timber have contributed to establish an extensive foreign commerce. The domestic commerce consists in the exchansre of lumber, marble, granite, ice, and manufactured articles for coal, breadstuffs, provisions, and cotton, iron, wool, and other raw materials. For this purpose Southern New England possesses more coasting vessels and more miles of railroad than any other equal area in the United States. 8. People. — The people of New England are chiefly of English descent. They are distinguished for industry and intelligence, and for the general diffusion of education. The numerous colleges, high-schools, normal and common schools are unsurpassed in excellence by any in the Union. Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Rhode Island are the most dense- ly peopled portion of the United States. SHIP-BUILDING. KAILKUAU HI- MOUNT WAliHINUTOH. 9. Maine. — Maine," the Pine-tree State," is noted for its ship-building, for its trade in lumber and ice, and for its excellent harbors. It has more good harbors than all the coast from the Chesapeake Bay to the Rio Grande. Portland, the largest city, is at the termination of the Grand Trunk Railway of Canada, and is noted for its ex- cellent harbor and its extensive commerce. It is the prin- cipal eastern gateway to the St. Lawrence Valley in the winter. Lewiston is largely engaged in manufacturing. Dangor is a great lumber depot. Augusta is the capital. 10. IVeiv Hampshire. — New Hampshire, "the Granite State," is remarkable for the beauty of its lakes and for the grand scenery of its mountains. 'J'hese mountains and lakes are much visited by tourists in sum- mer. Mount Washington, the highest peak of the White Mount- ains, is 0288 feet high ; the view from its summit is more exten- sive than any other east of the Mississippi. Of the lakes, Win- nipiseogee, near the centre of the state, is the most beautiful. Concord, the capital, is famous for its manufacture of coaches and wagons. Manchester, the largest city, and Nashua are noted for the manufacture of cotton and wool- len goods. The Merrimac River is said to be more extensively used for manu- facturing purposes than any other river in the world. NORTH ATLANTIC STATES: VERMONT, MASSACHUSETTS, RHODE ISLAND, CONNECTICUT. 39 11. Vermont. — Vermont, " the Green Mountain State," is chiefly a grazing country. It is also noted for its rich quarries of marble, soapstone, and slate. Rutland is the largest town. Burlington, on Lake Cham- plain, is a great lumber market. Montpelier is the capital 12. JMassacIinsetts. — Massachusetts, " the Bay State," is the third in the Union in the value of its manufactures; it is also noted for its extensive fisheries. Its area is less than one thirtieth of that of Texas. The popula- tion of the two states is nearly equal. Boston, the capital, situated at the head of Massachu- setts Bay, is the largest city in New England. In foreign commerce it ranks next after New York and New Orleans. It is the centre of a railway system which includes the Bos- ton and Albany Railroad and many other important lines. In the suburbs are many beautiful towns, large and small, connect- ed with the city by railroads: such towns may be called resi- dential /owns, as they contain the homes of many thousands of the mercantile population of the city. It has sometimes been called the " American Athens," on account of the excellence of its literary institutions. Lowell, Lawrence, and Fall River, famous for cotton manufactures ; Worcester, a great railroad and manu- facturing centre ; Cambridge, the seat of Harvard Uni- versity, the oldest and richest in America ; Lynn, famous for its manufacture of boots and shoes ; New Bedford, the first sea-port in the world in the extent of its whale fisheries; and Springfield, containing the greatest arsenal in the United States, are among its chief cities. 13. Rhode Inland. — Rhode Island, the smallest state in the Union, is extensively engaged in the m.anufacture of cotton, wool, iron, and jewelry. This state contains a limited supply of antiiracite coal. FI:iHiNG-SClluON£IiS. A MANUFACTURING TOWN. Plymouth is celebrated as the landing-place of the Pilgrims, who formed a settlement there in 1G'20. Lexington and Concord are famous for the opening eng.agements of the War of the Revolution, April 19, 17 To. 1 1 Providence, the second city in New England, is one of the capitals. Newport, the other capital, is famous as a summer resort. Pawtucket and Woonsocket are impor- tant manufacturing towns. 14. Connecticut. — Connecticut is noted for a greater variety of manufactures than any other state, and for its extensive coasting trade. New Haven, the seat of Yale College, is the largest city. Hartford, at the head of navigation on the Connecticut, is the capital. Questions (I.) — 1. What is the position of the North Atlantic Slates.' How do New England and California compare in size? — 2. What is the cliav.actcr of the sur- face ? Why .' — ^5. What is said of the number of the lakes and rivers .' For what are some of the l.ikes celebrated ? What is the effect of the falls and rapids of the rivers ? Why are they valuable? — 4, What is the character of the climate? Of the soil.' — 5. What is said of the amount of agricultural products.' — 0. What are the leading pursuits .' — 7. What is said of the foreign commerce ? Of domestic commerce ? Of the number of coasting vessels? Of railroads.' — 8. Of what descent are the people of New England ? For what arc they distinguished? — 9. For what is Maine noted? Portland? Uf what is it the principal gateway? What is said uf Lcwiston? Hangor.' Augusta? — 10. New Hampshire? Concord? Manchester and N.ashua? — 11. Ver- mont? Rutland? Burlington? Montpelier? — 12. Massachusetts? Which is the largest city in New England? What is its rank in foreign commerce? Of what is it the centre ? Name one of the most important lines of railroad. Name some of the other chief cities. For what is Lowell noted ? Lawrence? Fall River? Worcester? Cambridge? Lynn? New Bedford? Springfield.' — i:l Rhode Island? Providence? Newport? Pawtucket and Woonsocket? — U. Connecticut ? New Haven? Hartford ?yl (II.) — 1. What is the relative size of Maine.' — 2. What form the sides of the Con- necticut Valley ? Which is the only continuous range ? What is said of the eastern ridge? What is the character of the surface near the Atlantic' — 5. Where arc the breadstuff's and provisions obtained ? Name the chief grazing products. — 6. Name some of the principal manufactures of New England. The forest product — 8. What is said of the colleges and schools? What is said of the population of the three smaller states.' — I). What is said of the harbors of Maine ? — 10. What is said of the mountains and lakes ? Of Mount Washington ? Of Lake Winnipiseogee ? Of the Merrimac River.' — 12. How does M.i.ssachusetts compare with Texas in area and population? What is said of the suburbs of Boston ? What may these be called ? What is Boston sometimes called? For wh.at is Plymouth noted? Lexington and Concord.' — 13. What mineral in Rhode Island? 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The most western belt contains the Blue Ridge and the Iron or Smoky Mountains, with the high valleys between. This elevated district is mostly covered with forests of deciduous trees — oak, hickory, chestnut, maple, etc. It has an abundance of water-power, coal, and iron, but is yet undeveloped. Second. East of the mountain belt lies a broad strip of fertile country. It produces tobacco in the north and cot- ton in the south. Third. Farther to the east is a low sandy belt, called the " Pine Barrens," covered with forests. It supplies lumber, tar, pitch, and turpentine. It extends nearly to the Mississippi on the west, and may be traced towards the north through New Jersey and Long Island. Foiirih. The low, unhealthy coast region contains a chain of great swamps, extending from the Dismal Swamp of Virginia to the Everglades of Florida, and along the shores of the Gulf of Mexico to Te.xas. In some parts of this belt rice is extensively cultivated. It also contains forests of live-oak, which is valuable ft)r ship-building. 3. Climate. — The summers are long and hot. The winters are mild in the mountains and in the north ; in the southern part there can hardly be said to be any winter. The moist winds of the Atlantic and of the Gulf of Mexico give to Georgia and the Gulf States the largest rain-fall known in any part of the United States excepting Pusfet Sound and Alaska. O The production of cotton, the great staple of the South, and one of the chief exports of the United States, is de- pendent upon the frequent summer showers. 4. Occnpation and productions. — Agriculture is the leading occupation. The principal products are wheat, corn, sweet potatoes, and tobacco in the north ; rice and cotton in the south. 5. Tirp:inia. — Virginia, " the Old Dominion," is the second state in the production of tobacco, and has a large trade in garden vegetables, Southern agricultural staples, and in oysters from the Chesapeake Bay. The country between the Blue Ridge and the Alleghany iMountains is called the Great Valley of Virginia, and is one of the most fertile districts in the United States. Richmond, at the falls of the James, is the capital and chief manufacturing and railroad centre. It is the largest city in this group of states, and has an extensive trade in iron manufactures and tobacco. ^,_____,_,,,^,^,_^_^,,,.,.,.,,,^__,,,^^,^ Norfolk, the second city of the state, and a leading cot- ton port, has the best harbor in the United States south of the Potomac. (1. IVorth Carolina. — North Carolina, "the Old North State," is noted for its extensive pine forests. Wilmington, the largest J All. • ■ ^ ^ t^ ^f*j r^j ,. y J . I ^JT K mm^^^-^^- •ff-'i:-:...^ city, exports turpentine, tar, pitch, rosin, lumber, rice, and cotton. Raleigh is the capital. 7. Sonth Carolina.— South Carolina, "the Palmetto State," produces more rice than any other state. Charleston, the largest city, is an important cotton port. Columbia is the capital. ATLANTIC STATES : GEORGIA, FLORIDA.— CENTRAL STATES : SOUTHERN DIVISION. 47 8. Creor^a. — Georgia has a larger population and more extensive manufactures than any other sea-board state south of Virginia. The manufactures are chiefly of iron and cotton, and are rapidly increasing. Atlanta, the capital and largest city, is an important railroad centre. Savannah, the second city and chief port, has a laree cotton trade. Columbus, on the Chattahoo- chee, has abundant water-power, and manufactures a large amount of cotton goods. 9. Florida. — Florida is noted for its mild climate and its orange-groves and other tropical vegetation. The population is nearly all in the northeast, and witliin 100 miles of the northern boundary. The southern half of the state is a low morass. St. Augustine, next to Santa Fe, is the oldest town in the United States. Pensacola has the best harbor on the Gulf. Key West, the largest city, is a wrecking station, and is largely engaged in sponge-fishing and in the man- ufacture of cigars. Tallahassee is the capital. Questions (T.) — 1. What is the area of the four northern states of the South At- lantic grou]i ? Of Georgia? — 2. Of what divisions does the surface consist.' What constitutes the western belt ? The second belt .' What docs it produce .'' What is the third belt.' What does it supply .' What is the fourth belt .' What are the produc- tions of this belt .' — 3. What is the character of the climate .' What is said of the rain- fall .' Of the production of cotton.' — t. What is the leading occupation ? Name the chief productions. — 5. For what is Virginia noted.' Richmond.' Norfolk.' — 0. North Carolina? Wilmington? Raleigh? — 7. .South Carolina? Charleston? Columbia? — S.Georgia? Atlanta? Savannah? Columbus? — !). Florida? What is said of St. Augustine? Pensacola? Key West? Tallahassee? (II.) — 2. What is said of the forests of the mountain belt? Of its water-power and minerals ? What is the extent of the third belt ? — .">. Where and what is the Great Valley .' — I). Where is most of the population of Florida ? What is the character of the southern half of the state ? THE CENTRAL STATES : SOUTHERN DIVISION. 1. Sarfkce. — This group of states has a diversified surface, but the greater part is in the low Central Plain. West Virginia lies in the Eastern Highland, and Mississippi in the Great Plain. Kentucky, Tennessee, and Alabama have large highland districts. 2. Climate. — The climate of the highlands is mild and delightful ; the lowlands have long and hot summers. 3. Soil. — The greater part of the plain is very fertile. 4. Occapations. — Agriculture is the chief occupa- tion. The leading staples are cotton, corn, tobacco, and hemp. All but West Virginia produce cotton. The mountains and numer- ous rivers of the Eastern Highland give West Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee unlimited water-power, coal, and iron : these are as yet but little used. 5. Commerce. — The Cumberland, Tennessee, Alabama, 14 and other large navigable rivers radiate from the highland and fall into the Ohio, the Mississippi, and the Gulf. These rivers and the numerous railways furnish excellent com- mercial facilities. Louisville, Knoxville, Chattanooga, Nashville, Memphis, and Mobile are the leading railroad centres. 6. West Virginia. — West Virginia has a mountain- ous surface. It is rich in bituminous coal, iron, salt, and petroleum. Wheeling, on the Ohio River, is the largest city. Park- crsburg is an important town. Charleston is the capital. 7. Kentncky. — Kentucky is the most populous state south of the line of the Ohio and Potomac rivers. It surpasses every other state in the production of tobacco, and produces half of the hemp raised in the United States. TcBACCO rLANTATICN". Louisville, on the Ohio, is, after New Orleans, the largest city south of the Ohio and the Potomac ; it has a large trade in flour, pork, hemp, and tobacco. Covington and Newport are opposite Cincinnati. Frankfort is the capital. 8. Tennessee. — Tennessee has three physical divisions, known as East, Middle, and West Tennessee. East Tennessee is a mountainous country, and is re- markably rich in coal, iron, timber, and water-power. Knoxville, on the Holston, and Chattanooga, beautifully situated on the Tennessee, are the chief depots of this im- portant region Middle Tennessee, the most populous division, is famous for its production of corn, tobacco, and live stock. Nash- ville, its depot, is the capital and- largest city in the state. West Tennessee is the lowest and warmest part of the state. Cotton is the chief staple. Memphis is the largest city on Mississippi River except New Orleans, St. Louis, Minneapolis, and St. Paul. 48 CENTRAL STATES: SOUTHERN DIVISION.— QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES. m ^m^ ■,-*<%^ f 'A, 9. Alabama. — The valleys of W\^^.-^'/_%:w^' the Alabama, the Tombigbee, J'm^P^^^* and the Tennessee include most of the state. Cotton is the chief product. Selma, Tuscaloosa, and Montgomery, the capital, are important depots for cotton. Mobile, a cotton port, is the largest city. 10. Mississippi. — Mississippi is noted as the leading state in the production of cotton. Vicksburg is the most important city. Jackson is the capital. Altlioiigh the richest in the most important export of the United States, this is the only Gulf State with no sea-port of its own. It has no large city. Questions (I.) — 1. What is the character of the surface of this division ? Where (Joes tht greater part lie .' — 3. What is the character of the climate ? — 3. Of the soil ? — 4. What is the chief occupation .> Name the leading staples. — 5. What is said of the chief rivers of this group.' What commercial facilities has this section? Name the leading railroad centres. — C. What kind of a Surface has West Virginia? In «h.it minerals is it rich? What is the largest city? The capital? — 7. For what is Ken- tucky noted ? Louisville? Covington? Frankfort.' — 8. How many physical divisions has Tennessee ? Name them. For what is East Tennessee noted ? Knoxville and Chattanooga ? Middle Tennessee ? Nashville ? West Tennessee ? What is the principal staple? What is said of .Memphis.' — 9. What river valleys include most of the State of Alabama? What is the chief product? Name the principal cotton depots. For what is Mobile noted? — 10. For what is Mississippi noted? Name the most important city. The c.ipital. (II.) — 1. Which of these states has no lowland ? Which no highland ? WhichKhve large highland districts? — J. Which of these states does not produce cotton? Which are rich in water-power, coal, and iron ? — 7. How docs Kentucky rank in the production of tobacco ? Of hemp ? — 10. Has Mississippi any sea-ports ? Any large citiesi — LI. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. General. — Name the states of this group. Which border on the Ohio River? On the Mississippi? On Lake Superior? On Lake Michigan ? On Lake Erie? What water connects Lake Superior with Lake Huron? Lake Huron with Lake Michigan? What lake between Lake Huron and Lake Erie ? What rivers connect these lakes ? Which of these states has no river belonging to the Mississippi system ? X)hio.— Name the three chief branches of the Ohio River in this state. What river in the northwest ? What city on the Alaumee ? What two cities on Lake Erie ? On the Ohio ? On the AR ami ? ^^'hat city on the Muskingum ? On the Scioto ? West of Columbus ? W ha t thF ee southeast of Cleveland ? What city is the capital ? Indiana. — Which is the chief river of Indiana? What is the chief branch of the ^Vabash ? What large citv on the west fork of the White ? What two cities on the^Wabash-? What two on the Ohio ? What~erty on the Maumee ? U'hat city is the capital ? Illinois. — Name the three chief branches of the Mississu^pi in this state. What is the capital ? What city on Lxike Michigan ?(^What two cities southwest^ ( On Mississippi River? 'What city on Rock RTverJ/ On Illinois Rivejf? fNorthwest of Peoria J /' Southeast of Peoria ?i Wisconsin. — Which is the chief branch of the Mississippi in this state? What lake in the eastern part? What river is its outlet? Into what bay does it flow? What two cities on Lake Winnebago? On Lake Michigan ? What city on Mississippi River ? What city is the capital ? Michigan. — Of what does Michigan chiefly consist? {Of two great peninsulas.) What large island in Lake Superior belongs to this state ? Which is the chief river of South Michigan ?) Twhat river north of J Grand River? What three cities on Grand River^i Which of these is the capital ?' What city on Muskegon River?/ What bay on the eastern shore ? What river flows into it?jCwhat two cities on Saginaw River? J \\hat city on Detroit River? / Voyages and Travels. — Through what waters would you pass, and near what cities, in a coasting voyage from Chicago to the head of Lake Superior ? Chicago to Cleveland ? What cities would you pass between Cincinnati and the mouth of the Ohio? By rail from Chicago 'to' Osh- kosh ? Chicago to St. Louis? Chicago lo Evansville? Chicago to Louisville by way of Logansport ? Chicago to Cleveland? Cleveland to Cincinnati ? Cleveland to Grand Rapids by way of Detroit ? States. - LII. EEVIEW EXEECISES. -How bounded 1 What is the capital t The largest cityt States. Area in Sq. Miles. Population in ISbU. Slates. Area in Sq. Miles. Population in 1S60. Ohio 41,0G0 36,350 5(;,G.">0 3,198,0G2 I,978,.;01 3,077,871 Wisconsin Michigan .-i(:,04o ."is.aio l,31.-.,4;i7 1,630,937 Indiana Illinois Cities and Towns. — In what part of the state i How situated? Columbus? Cincinnati? Cleveland? Toledo? Dayton? Spring- field? Zanesville? Akron? Sandusky? Indianapolis? Evansville? Fort Wayne? Terre Haute? New Albany ? Lafayette ? Springfield? Chicago? Peoria? Quincy? Bloomington ? Rock- ford ? Aurora ? Galesburg ? Madison? Milwaukee? Racine? Oshkosh ? La Crosse ? Lansing? Detroit? Grand Rapids ? Bay City? East Saginaw ' Jackson ? Bays. — Where is it I Green? Saginaw? -BXvers.— Where does it rise I In 7chat direction does it flow ? Through what states ? Into what body of water ? Scioto? Wab.ash? White? Illinois? Wisconsin? St.Mar)'S? Fox? Grand? St. Clair? Detroit? Maumee? Saginaw? Lakes.— Where situated i What outlet I Win nebago ? St. Clair ? 15 {Copyri^Al, I. Climate. — The winters are severe, especially in the north ; the summers are hot. 4. Slinerals. — The hilly region near Lake Superior contains an abundance of iron-ore and the richest copper- COPPEK-MINlNti. mines in the world; that near the Ohio is equally rich in iron, and contains very extensive deposits of coal. An important lead region covers the adjacent parts of Wis- consin and Illinois near the Mississippi. Michigan pro- duces more salt than any other state. 5. Occupations. — Agriculture and grazing are the leading pursuits. Of wheat, corn, wool, and live stock the quantity produced is unsurpassed by that of any equal area on the globe. Manufacturing and mining are important, and are rapidly increasing in tlie coal and iron districts. 6. Commerce. — The commercial advantages of this group are remarkable. Three of the principal water- ways of the continent — the Mississippi, the Ohio, and the Great Lakes — form an almost complete boundary. On or near this margin lie all the largest cities in the United States west of Atlantic tide-water excepting San Francisco and New Orleans. Milwaukee, Chicago, Detroit, Toledo, Cleveland, and Cincinnati are on the inner mar- gin of the district ; and Minneapolis, St. Paul, St. Louis, Louisville, Pittsburgh, and Buffalo are just outside of it. The chief business of the large and important inland city Indianapolis, and of all these lake and river ports ex- cept Pittsburgh, and of the systems of railways of which they are the centres, is the collection and transportation of the agricultural and grazing products of this vast granary and those of the equally productive adjacent states west of the Mississippi River. Canals connect the rivers flowing into the Great Lakes with navi- gable branches of the Mississippi and the Ohio, the Wisconsin with the Fox, the lUinois with the Chicago, and the Wabash with the Maumee. The falls in the St. Marys River, at the entrance of Lake Superior, are passed by a ship-canal in Michigan. Most of the rivers of the Mississippi system have high banks called bluffs. The depth of water in these rivers varies greatly during the year, the Ohio sometimes having a " rise " of fifty feet. 7. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are chiefly descend- ants of immigrants from the North Atlantic and Middle Atlantic States ; most of the remainder are European immigrants. No part of the world possesses a larger proportion of intelligent, industrious, self-reliant citizens ; and no equal area surpasses this group of states in the excellence of the common schools and the general interest in public education. The Germans constitute the greater part of the foreign-born popu- lation ; the Irish are next in numerical importance ; there are also many thousands of Swedes, Norwegians, and Danes. 8. Ohio. — Ohio is the first state in the Union in the production of wool, the third in that of coal, and is the third in population. In the amount and variety of its manufactures it exceeds every other state west of the Appalachian Mountains. Cincinnati, the largest city, and the metropolis of the Ohio Valley, has an extensive trade in provisions and grain, and is one of the principal manufacturing cities in the United States. Cleveland, the second city, is one of the five Great Lake ports. Toledo, also a lake-port, Dayton, and Columbus, the capital, are among the numerous large cities. NORTHERN CENTRAL STATES: INDIANA, ILLINOIS, WISCONSIN, MICHIGAN. 51 9. Indiana. — Indiana is the sixth state in population, and has a level surface, fertile soil, and valuable mines of block-coal. It is the second state in the production of wheat, and produces a large amount of other grains and Hve-stock. Indianapolis, the capital and largest city, is a great rail- road centre, and one of the most important and rapidly crowine cities of the Central States. Evansville and Fort Wayne are next in population. 10. Iliinois. — Illinois is the first state in the Union in the iDroduction of corn and wheat, the second in that of coal, and is the fourth in population. It possesses one of the most extensive coal-fields in the world. This state is mostly prairie, with low liiils on the Ohio and bluffs on the Mississippi. Chicago, the largest city in the state, and the commer- cial metropolis of the St. Lawrence basin, is the chief lumber and pork market in America, and, next to London, the greatest grain market in the world. A large number of railways radiate from it as a centre. The city is of recent and remarkably rapid growth, its population hav- ing increased nearly seventy per cent, in the last ten years. Originally built on low ground, it has become, in its grading, drainage, and water-supply, a monument to the energ)% sagacity, and public spirit of its citizens. In October, 1871, a fire, one of the most destructive in modern times, swept away three and a quarter square miles of its most valuable storehouses and residences. The direct loss was esti- mated at ne.irly §200,000,000, and the loss of business at $90,000,000 more. Notwithstanding this sudden calamity, the most extensive and disastrous that ever befell an American com- munity, the new Chicago that has already sprung from the ashes of the old is in every respect a grander city. Among other important cities are Peoria and Quincy. Springfield is the capital. 11. W^isconsin. — Wisconsin resembles Illinois in the abundant production of wheat, and Michigan in that of lumber. This state has a large number of beautiful lakes ; it also has an abundance of water-power, that of the Fox River, between Winnebago Lake and Green Bay, being anions: the most valuable in the United States. The population is mostly in the south. Milwaukee, the largest city, is one of the five Great Lake ports, and has a large commerce in breadstuffs, provisions, and lumber. Racine, Oshkosh, La Crosse, and Fond du Lac are important places. Madison is the capital. 12. Michigan. — Michigan consists of two peninsulas. It is bordered by four of the five Great Lakes, and has more coast than any other state excepting Florida. The population is mostly in the south, which is fertile. The north- ern part of the southern peninsula is sandy, and covered with valuable forests of white pine. The North Central States furnish a ready market for the salt of Saginaw and for the lumber of Saginaw and of the eastern shore of Lake Michigan. Other l6 *'*'*'H'iX REAPING SCENE. important productions are white-fish from the Great Lakes and copper and iron from the shores of Lake Superior. The country along the western coast of the southern peninsula is known as the Fruit Belt. In winter the cold winds from Wisconsin become partly warmed in sweeping over the broad and open waters of Lake Michigan, and give to these shores so mild a winter climate that fruit trees are seldom injured by e.xtreme cold. Detroit, the eastern entrance to Michigan and the upper lakes, is the largest city. Grand Rapids, the second city, is noted for its lumber and water-power. Lansing is the capital. Questions (T.) — 1. Where is this group situated? — 2. Wh.-it peculiarity has its surface? Where are the prairie regions? The forest regions? — 3. What is the char- acter of the chmate.' — 1. What minerals in the hilly region near Lake Superior? In that near the Ohio ? Where is the lead region ? Which of these states produces salt ? — 5. Name the two leading pursuits. What is said of the products? Of manufactur- ing and mining.' — 6. What is said of the commercial advantages? Name the three great water-ways. What do they form? What is said of this boundary ? What cities are on the inner margin of this district ? What cities are just outside of it ? What is the chief business of these cities? — 7. Who are the inhabitants? — 8. For what is Ohio noted? Cincinnati? Cleveland? What cities are next in size ? Which of these is the capital .' — 9. For what is Indiana noted ? Indianapolis ? What other important cities ? — 10. For what is Illinois noted ? What is said of its coal-fields ? For what is Chicago noted? What other important cities? What city is the capital? — 11, What are the principal productions of Wisconsin? What is said of its lakes and water- power? For what is Milwaukee noted ? What other important pl.ices? What city is the capital? — 12. For what is Michigan remarkable? Where is its fruit belt? For what is Detroit noted? Grand Kapids? What city is the capital? (II.) — 2. Where are the hilly regions.' — 6. What is said of the canals? Of the ship-canal ? Of the banks of the rivers of the Mississippi system ? Of the depth of w.iter ? How high is the rise of the Ohio .' — 7. What is the char.icter of the people of this group ? Of the common schools ? Name the chief elements of the foreign-born population.— 10. W'hat is the character of the surface of Illinois? Of what is Chicago the centre ? What is said of its growth ? Of its grading, drainage, and water-supply ? With what calamity was it visited in 1S71 ? What was the estimated loss? What is said of its present condition ? — 11. Where is most of the population of Wisconsin ? — 12. Where is most of the population of Michigan ? Where are the forests? For what products do the North Central States furnish a market? What others are im- portant ? What part of the state is favorable to the production of fruit? ::^ SS ioix^imde ^Vett 9G frum Gre(rumclL ',ii V/INNIPE A N I f\[o B A xAlre 0/ f Ae ; TTooda WEST CENTRAL STATES — STATES OF THE PLAI^^S, ]VORTnER]V DIAISIOJV. 50 prookslon i.\^i} rc^' _Piei're ,;S3-iii-!;^<^ J,. Jimberlaih FlandreauS Scale of Miles. ..-^'^ Sagnnaffa X. S *< ,s'2 r'J "-all, .^ MICH exkDdna trN\' /r Ponca oLAli/ lioux Iforfolk \ CP JliXn Cily CliaWcsYJUy Vest Polajfr"'"' rptDcdgeS |^\BooDe8boro Iv^ 'Vinton^^i^'v"*%..-'^-ZA^3(jiiluoT? _ « "VTeteler lilBluffi X"r™'K»ox.me ?w,„>..H^WMa ._ Keokuk ptuiwa -, \ iPadji to arnettTT-'v — v°pn i p'rilnton jC> M TSIa= , [oniboldtff ^^T Nfcva\la ;.*, \ Salem )> iron Mil- ' :St X41*ll.K%?^Vft(Pnot Knob .38 )CPtti«i.iiXlS'"'K? i \a A R K A^>-^- S ■ A/-S I-onsitudfi ^West 19 from W^aahrag [ton. 17 {r^vripAi, 1875. by fiaj^r dc iSvuJAi-M.J— Revi»*d lo -Nuvouibor, loai. WEST CENTRAL STATES AND STATES OF THE PLAINS. 53 LIV. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. General. — How many states and territories on this map? Wiiich is the territory? Which three belong to the West Central Slates? (See page 29.) To what do the other three belong? Which is the smallest ofthesi-x? The largest? Which are crossed by the Missouri ? Which are partly bounded by it ? Minnesota.-l-What chain of lakes forms the northeast boundary of Minnesota? What ridge in the northern part of the state?) What great river rises in this state? In what lake? What branch crosses the southwestern part of this state ? What river has its source very near that of the Minnesota? Why is the Red River of the North important? (Because it is the nati(ral ivatcr route to the most fertile part of the Dominion of Canada.) Into what lake does it flow ? Wliat city is the capital? What city west of it? WhaFTTfj^ iirthe-sotrih- cnsr on the Mississippi? In what part of the state are most of the towns ? Iowa. — Between what rivers is Iowa ? What river crosses it ? What city is the capital ? What city on the jSIissouri ? What four cities on -the Mississippi ? Missouri. — What mountains in the southwestern part of Missouri? What two mountains in the southeastern part? What river crosses the state ? What city is the capital ? What two other cities on the Mis- -sottH ? What two on the Mississippi? Dakota. — What mountains in the southwestern part of Dakota? What name is given to the country south of the Black Hills ? What river crosses Dakota ? Name two northern branches. WhaHiighlandtietweeTi tlie Dakota River and the Missouri? What is the capital of Dakota? What city on Missouri River? A\'hat town on Red River of the North ? Nebraska. — What boundary river has Nebraska? What branch in the northern part of the stale? What river crosses the state? In what part of the state are most of the towns' What city is the capital? What cities on the Missouri River? Kansas. — What river crosses the southwestern part of Kansas? What river north of the Arkansas ? Of what river is it a branch ? Wiiat two cities on the Kansas River ? Which is the capital ? W4»arnvoTnti«9- oft-tbe Missewi L In what part of the state are most of the towns? Travels. — What cities would you pass in a steamboat voyage from St. Louis to St. Paul ? From St. Louis to Yankton ? By rail from St. Louis to Topeka? States.' EEVIEW EXERCISES. -How bounded i What is the capital} The largest city? WKST CENTRA!. STATES: KOBTHEKX DIVISIOX. STATES OF THE PLAINS: ^ouTllt:u^ division. Slates. Area in Sq. Miles. Population in ISSti. States. Area in Population Sq. Miles. | in ISSO. Minnesota Iowa 83,3G5 780,773 5C,025 1,024,615 G'J,415 a-lrW-.^fiO Dakota T. Nebraska 149,100 7fi,855 82,080 13.5,177 452,402 9'JG,09G Missouri ' ' 1 Cities and Towns.— /« what part of the state / How situated i St. Paul? Minneapolis? (Winona?; Des Moines ? Dubuque ? Davenport ? Burlington ? Council Bluffs ? Keokuk ? Jefferson City? St. Louis? Kansas City? : St. Joseph? Hannibal? BIS.MARCK? Yankton? Fargo? Lincoln ? Omaha ? Nebraska City ? Topeka ? Leavenworth ? Atchison ? Lawrence ?* Mountains. — Where are they? Height of Land ? Ozark? Pilot Knob? Iron? Black Hills? Rivers. — Where does it rise? In 7i 11 '5 s a a 5 « W ^ -P o C o *-» (/) 3 O K c o c <: c n W3 I b « •g ^ o ^ ^ /v. .Si -- „. H p -1 pq ' O :/l a" Q nT: c/^ rt D H < c ^ « a to c '3 , O ..§ o d O ^ ^ « -^ *^ ai ^ ^<' I ? S " > ^ -^ O rt I < o O J> ^ > 3 O "a S -a c o a o &i p r! o -C O c ^ O (J > ■4-J n r! ^ g V flJ .a r» r*— & o ti 1) ?^ n m CQ CO ^ 1— 1 C C-) %i H ^ .^ H M ■v* > W ^ ^ f-l ^ •-^ M (-H t> H it rt ^ ?» ,^ oa c o . 05 ^ r S t^ l-H 3s o .:; rH X '^ M S .sJ J5 QO &^ fc -*^ i-'T ^g < & •J -J tn o s H (M B K : S ;^ w ^ SS E-i 5 *" CQ <; r- oa o . "ft o Eh . 5 30 ^5 -;h **! g S'a O CO EH S oa » o< 00 05 ►^ E: c S O O < « 3S < 6- CO t- Eh as eo CO O B ^ ^ < J a, oj 5= "^ ^ ^ H M W EH is; o CZ2 !2; o I— I Eh SQ M t=) c 5 o 13 I J -^^ ^- ■— t, - §2 c _ i; « Si u, (DC t; <" « S « ;^ 3 O Q. £1 Si's 5 c o J3 rt .r; u , r: ►—( ~ o a, JZ o <-i c y 3 5i > ^ rt.. w u ._' « J: - •> *- c S XI a. > "3 w^ g-g ' o r3 /v. Cu tu , 5i ca ~ H c .2 - g •5 h:i ■5 x: >>■= •S o J? >- o r^ ^^ *- ^ rt ^. Eh ^ 'V 2 '5, C4 O « 5 VEH S « rt •M C/) O 1) ^ ,->, c o o I/) D O (U bO C > O 1-H OJ _ CO ^ t/2 Oh a, .= oj y c o u o TO QJ OJ «-■ ■ — I O) O -t-J S-i a; ^ r^ i-f-i H o I t« i .i-l --H -4-1 -n "S "rt i^ c OJ -rt ^ ~ -.c (/T -M 3 O o a! S-i '35 O rt ;: OJ rt >- i- -4-1 2 c 5 '^ c« ^ 01 OJ ^-, s &^ 5 'n H 1 ~ 01 3 U c o t: E •^ o ~ "5 £ « O ■" ?^ .5 E c E _o be 2 .<£ _^ .2 -^ ^ "2 13 a 0) ca x; ^ CJ N p o 5 -2 ~ ° ^ g OJ s B, -a " E 1, u o _t« a, o •A 'in tu rt be D rt u rt o M-H 3 o a. o n OJ txjx: ■'-' .3 .o c u » c - X S " c — E c/5 .3 QJ b/D o -Q 1—1 Ul R a o £ < •" t: =: o -z; c ;3 " _. ji' u be o 3 OJ c CJ !^ y i: p -a o ■ t- 42 in o CO QJ ii ^ rt rt -4-1 > CO J ^ QJ ^ cS CJ ;-< -;<-» C QJ O QJ >^ 3 5i « •3 fcx -o =^ C 3 a o 9 ■o x: a, 3 tn o .12 in (A CO OJ 1- ■4-1 c QJ • •= .^ t/) c/) .2 QJ o bo i: 2 a a e .b/D rt C >^ c rt C rt > rt '0 -4-. O o .S "-^ 3'.S rt •^ 3 -t-i rt CO Ji . O I ^ O QJ C 3 ^ 3 O -J 3 O o, QJ 4-1 3 a rn E 3 o o o o 1> >, f^ >^ >- .3; QJ O 1^ >;: Oh r^ O tn 'O •— u JS Pi ■3 >-. It in _0 ;•■'* W S is c " 3 i-M :;; bs -^ rt o -r •3 hj 3 t/i CJ t« t^ 3 -3 -4-4 o 2 £ rn ^r nj rt n: o " 2 o OJ x: -= hJ '« ^3 ^ JJ O M ■£ T3 3 t/) rt OJ o a. n 3 •^^ -4-1 rt S LI ,bC . 3 rt 3 rt -J-» < M-4 a -J-t CO '71 QJ M— 1 cS ^ 4H QJ to -U o 3 CO rt <5 o ri QJ 3 QJ t/2 3 rt 56 WEST CENTRAL STATES AND STATES OF THE PLAINS. make it the centre of many thousands of miles of river naviga- tion, about 1000 miles being within the limits of the state or on its boundaries. Twenty-four lines of railway centre at St. Louis, and connect it with all parts of the country, from Galveston and Mobile to New York, Boston, and San Francisco. A great rail- road bridge, with arches of steel, connects it directly with the railroads east of the Mississippi. Other important places are Kansas City and St. Jo- seph. The capital is Jefferson City. 1 0. Arkansas. — The great staples are cotton and corn. Arkansas is rich in water-power, timber, and coal, and in valuable ores of iron, zinc, lead, and silver. The development of these great resources has but laiely begun. Little Rock is the capital and largest city. 11. liouisiana — Louisiana was settled by the French. Their descendants, who still constitute a considerable part of the population, speak the French language, and are called Creoles — that is, natives. This state is in the lowest part of the Great Plain. The surface of the Lower Mississippi during the annual floods is several feet higher than the country through which it passes, especially in Louisiana, and broad walls of earth, called levees, have been constructed to confine it and its tributaries within their banks. Sometimes the water breaks through the levees, and hundreds of square miles of valuable sugar, rice, and cotton plantations are ruined. Such a breach is called a crevasse. The state has no mineral wealth except a vein of pure rock-salt, singularly situated in a low island m the southern marshes. 3;tS- New Orleans, the lar- gest city, is the greatest cotton port in the world. It has also an extensive trade in sugar, breadstuffs, grain, and provisions. Ba- j^ ton Rouge is the capital. •';^~.~~ New Orleans is about one hundred miles from the SCENE ON THE MISSISSIPPI RIVER. River. Trunk railways connect New Orleans, on the one hand, with the whole system of roads east of the Mississippi, and on the other with the great transcontinental lines which extend into Mex- ico and to the ports of the Pacific Ocean. It is also connected with the Gulf through lakes Pontchartrain and Borgne by canals for vessels of light draught. Questions (I.) — 1. What do tlie five st.ites of tliis group form? — 2. In what re- spects do tliey resemble each other .' What river forms their eastern boundary ? By what is each divided? — 3. In what do they chiefly differ? — 1. What other differences arise from difference in chmate? What is the leading interest? Name the great staples in the order of their latitude. What other important products? — 5. What is said of the population of the northern half of this group ? Of public education ? Of the common schools? Of the population of the southern half? — G. What commercial advantages has this group? What is the chief commercial centre? What other two important depots? — 7. What elevation does Minnesota contain? For what is Min- nesota noted? St. Paul? Minneapolis? — 8. What kind of a surface has Iowa? What are its products? Which is the largest city? What other important towns? — 9. For what is Missouri noted ? For what is St. Louis distinguished ? What other im- portant places ? What is the capital .' — 10. What are the great staples of Arkansas? What city is the capital ? — 11. By whom was Louisiana settled ? Who are the Creoles ? For what is New Orleans noted? What other trade has it? What is the capital? (II.) — 3. What is the general character of the surface of the West Central States ? What elevations have they? — 1. W'hat does each of these states resemble.' — 7. How is the Height of Land drained? Where are the lakes? — 9. How does Missouri rank in population ? What is said of its coal and iron ? Which is the leading mineral inter- est? What remarkable iron-mines has it? W'hat is said of its lead-mines? What manufactures has St. Louis? What other business has it? Of what is it the centre? What is said of its railway connections? — 10. What is said of the resources of Arkan- sas.' — 11. Where is Louisiana situated? How does the height of its surface compare with that of the Mississippi? What are levees? What is their use? What is a crevasse? VVIiat mineral lias this state? Where is New Orleans situated? What is said of its railways ? In what other way is it connected with the Gulf? iiU'T VniPPlNO THE CROP. mouth of Mississippi LIX. STATES OF THE PLAINS. 1. Sitnatiop.— This group of three states and two ter- ritories lies chiefly in the eastern division of the Great Western Highland. 2. Snrfiicc. — It consists principally of rolling prairies, and is part of the high plains that extend west to the Rocky Mountains. WESTERN STATES: DIVISION OF THE PLAINS. 57 In Texas these plains are called the Llano Esta- cado, or " St.aked Plain," from the stake-like stems of a plant that still grows in abundance on those plains. 3. Inhabitants. — The civilized inhabitants are mostly in the eastern part, near the great rivers, the country here being lower, better watered, and more fertile. 4. Dakota. — Dakota is next in area after Texas and California. It is divided into two nearly equal parts by Missouri River, which crosses it diagonally. Nearly the whole of this territory is a vast prairie, broken with bluffs and low, wide plateaus. Grain and live-stock are the chief staples. Bismarck, on the Missouri, is the capital. The eastern half is exceedingly fertile, and is noted for its pro- duction of wheat and other Northern agricultural products. The rest of the territory contains many large tracts of equally fertile soil, but consists mainly of excellent grazing lands. In the Black Hills, which are low mountains in the southwest, are many valuable mines of gold and other metals. Dakota is filling with settlers with a rapidity unprecedented, and must soon become a state. This is chiefly owing to its fertility, and to the ease of access furnished by the Northern Pacific Railroad, which crosses the territory, and by the numerous other railways lately constructed in the eastern part. 5. Nebraska. — Nebraska exceeds in area all of New England and New Jersey, taken together. The principal products arc wheat and corn, cattle, and other live-stock. The state is a vast diversified plain, more than half of it being a rolling prairie. E.xcepting in a few districts the soil is highly fertile ; the eastern part is the most productive region, on ac- count of its greater rainfall. Among many railroads is the Union Pacific, which passes through the entire length of the state, and is a part of a great transcontinental trunk line. Omaha is the largest city; Lincoln is the capital. G. Kansas. — Kansas, the "Central State," is about twice the size of Ohio. In soil, climate, and productions it greatly resembles Nebraska. It is rich in coal, lead, zinc, and other valuable minerals. No other state has a smaller proportion of useless land. The eastern half of Kansas is covered with a network of railroads ; two transcontinental lines, the Kansas Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe, traverse the state from end to end. Leavenworth is the largest city ; Topeka is the capital. 7. Indian Territory. — Indian Territory is a country set apart by Congress as the home of certain Indian tribes, or nations, most of whom once resided east of the Missis- sippi. It is unorganized. Tahlequah is the capital of the Cherokee nation. 8. Texas. — Texas is the largest state in the Union, and is noted for its great extent of fertile soil. As an agricultural state its resources are immense. Corn, cot- ton, cattle, and wool are the chief staples. The area of Texas is more than five times that of New York, or more than thirty times that of Massachu.setts. The population is rapidly increasing by immigration from the states east of the Mississippi and from Germany. There are no very large cities. Texas has at least 25,000 square miles suitable for the cultivation of cotton. It has an equal area adapted to the cultivation of wheat. It has a very large trade in cattle, more than 600,000 having been driven to the North, through Indian Territor)', Kansas, and .Missouri, in a single year. The northern part of the slate has an abundance of coal, iron, and copper. Galveston is the chief port and largest city. Houston and Dallas are railway centres. Austin is the capital. Galveston has railway connections with St. Louis and New Orleans. It is also connected with the railway systems of Mexico and California. i-i^V- SNUW- PLOUGH O.S PACIFIC RAILROAD. Questions (I.) — 1. Where is this group situated .'—2. Of what does it principally consist .'—3. Where are most of the inhabitants located ? Why ? — t. Describe Dakota. What are the chief staples.' Wliat town is the capital.' — ."). Describe Nebraska. Name the principal products. Which is the largest city ? The capital ? — fi. Describe Kans.as. Which is the largest city.' The capital? — 7. What is the Indian Territory? — S. For wh.it is Texas remarkable? What is said of its resources? What are its chief staples ? Its largest city ? Its important railway centres ? Its capital ? (II.) — 2. What name is given to these plains in Texas? Why ? — t. What is said of the eastern half of Dakota ? Of the rest of the territory ? Of the population ? — .V What is said of the soil and rainfall of Nebraska? Of the railro.ids? — C. Of the railroads of Kansas? — 8. What is the comparative size of Texas ? What is said of the population? Of the cities? Of the production of cotton? Ofwlieat? Oflhetrade in cattle? In what part of the state are the minerals? What is said of Galveston? t -^^ *^ ^*-^lkeh M». ^f D A MAP OF THE AVESTERN OR HIGHLAND STATES. HOCKY MOUNTAIN DIV., BASIN DIVISION, PACIFIC DIVISION. ^ "nond Pk / '^^ #1 Wj ^""Uy^X *3n Francisc, PIcTT Br uhan u ^' 6i^/^tT*S^"° !ll.: sALT tAKE„ MfS : CTY ,j-(t~^ — Op iniaCity Of. \ 1 -^D i. \ i 1,a. fle 1^ "Tt King >^ ) ^ 4?5 J5iiii ge -Centra/ q >- B°S'f B.irl)at» / - •«; mi. San > '^n Diego w gi w w pn jwi JOOO Squuri.- Miles. Scale of %li1eit. JliVf fcimirrtn ' 4^/.._li iK 1 Xongitude "West 37 from W^aahtn^lon. [Cojiyri^/it , lslD,6y llarj-r A BrUhcT».\^\i6\\t»^\ u> l-ebruary, ISSU. WESTERN STATES: ROCKY MOUNTAIN DIVISION. 59 QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. General. — How many groups of states and territories on this map ? (See page 29.) How many states and how many territories in each ^roup? What territory on the Pacific is not on this map? {Alaska.) In what direction do the Rocky Mountains extend in Wyoming and Mont.ina? In Colorado and New Mexico? Which is the principal mountain range in Washington and Oregon ? What is it called in Cal- ifornia? What mountain ranges along the coast? In what states? What great river breaks through the Cascade Mountains? Which are its two chief branches? Through what territories does the Colorado How? What two rivers form it? What branch near its mouth? Montana. — Name the t^vo chief rivers of Montana. What railroad crosses it? What town is the capital? \\'hat two tow'ns south of He- lena ? In what part of the territory are most of the towns ? Wyoming. — Wliat mountain range in the western part of Wyoming . What peak in this range? What great rivers have their sources in this range? Wliat park is mostly in Wyoming? In what part? What lake in the park? What railroad crosses this territory? In what part? What town is the capital ? What town northwest ? Colorado. — What four natural parks are in Colorado ? What moun- tain peaks in this slate? \V'hat great rivers flow from Colorado? What city is the capital? What two towns west of Denver? What town southwest of Georgetown ? On which side of the parks are most of the towns? What great railroads wholly or partly in Colorado? New Mexico. — What river passes through New Mexico ? Which are the chief railroads of this territory? What town is the capital? What town southwest of Santa Fe ? Idaho. — Wiiich is tlie chief river of Idaho? Its chief railway? What town is the capital? What town north of Boise City? Nevada. — In what part of Nevada are most of the towns? What is the capital ? What two towns north of Carson ? What railroad ? Utah. — What chain of mountains in the northeast of Utah ? What chain southwest of the Uintah ^[ountains? What lakes in this terri- tory? AVhat city is the capital? What city north of Salt Lake City? What railroads in Utah? In what part are most of the towns? Arizona. — What two rivers cross .Arizona? What canons in the Col- orado River ? Where are most of the large towns ? What town is the capital? What two towns southeast? What railroads cross Arizona? Alaska. — What is the principal river of .Alaska? (See Map of North America.) What are the chief towns ? On what islands ? Washington.— What cape in the northwestern part of Washington Territory? -At the entrance of what strait? In what part of the terri- tory are most of the towns? On what sound? What is the capital? Whatcityeast of Columbia River? What railroad crosses this territory? Oregon. — What two boundary rivers has Oregon ? In what part of the state are most of the towns? What city is the capital ? What city north of Salem ? On what river ? Of what river is it a branch ? In •what river valleys are most of the railways ? California. — Which is the chief mountain range in California ? What peak at the northern end of the Sierra Nevada Mountains? What two peaks near their southern extremity ? ^Vhich is the largest lake in the state?. Which are the two chief rivers? Through what famous valley does a branch of the San Joaquin flow? What river in the northern part of the state separates the Cascade Mountains from the Sierra Nevada ? What strait at the entrance of the Bay of San Francisco ? W'hat city is the capital? What city nearly south of Sacramento? North of Sacramento ? West of Stockton ? West of Oakland ? South of Oakland ? North of Oakland ? What two towns on the southern coast ? LXI. KEVIEW EXEECISES. States and Territories. — J/oui houndedl What is the capitaU The largest city i BOCKV MOUM'X DIVISIOS. Stntirs nr Terrilori*^. Are« in P"p. in S<). Miles. I860. Montana T. . . U^'^yotfiifg T. . Colorado I HC.nso nr.^'.ift BASIN DITISIOX. Sutw or Area in T«rrit4^riM. Sq. Mile* 3;i,159 Idaho T. . 2n,78«J Nevada.. 103.925 104,327'! i/^a-; T.. New Mexico y. 122,5ftrt UO.Sft.'JL^rwfM T. ± 84,80n iin.Too 84.9T0 iis,o-2n Pop. in I8S0. 32,01(1 C2.2r.r I4S,!I6' 4(1,441 PACIFIC DIVISION. SUUsor TerritoriM. Aren in Sq.Mila Atnska T. ' 577,400 lltishmet<"' t\ O'-'^ Oregon 00.030 California 158,300 Pop. ID leeo. S0,178 75.110 1 74,768 804,694 Cities and Towns — /// what part of the state 1 How situated i H em;n A ? BTHteXity ? Cheyenne? liaramreTTity ? Denver ? LeadvtHeT' — Georgetown ? Santa I''£? Albuquerque? Boise City^ Idaho-City? Carson? Virginia City ? Gold Hill? Salt Lake City? OgdenCity? Prescott? Tucson? ToiilCstoneT Sitka? St . Paul ? Olvmpia? VValla Walla? Salem? Portland? Sacramento ? San Francisco ? Oakland ? San Josd ? Vallejo ? Los Angeles? Stockton? Marysville? San Diego? Mountains. — U'liere are they I Rocky? Wind River? Uintah? Wahsatch ? Cascade? Sierra Nevada .' Coast ranges ? Frcmonts Peak ? Pikes Peak ? Mount Shasta? Mount Tyndall ? Mount Whitney? JMount Lincoln? Rivers. — Where docs it rise 7 In what direction does itflojv 1 Through wliat slates I Into what body of water i Missou'i? Yellowstone? Colorado? Gila? Green? Grand? S.acra- mcnto? San Joaquin? Klamath? Columbia? Snake? ClarkesFoik? Lakes. — Where is it t Yellowstone? Great Salt? Tulare? Utahf WESTERN STATES. LXII. WESTEEN STATES: ROCKY MOUNTAIN DIVISION. 1. Surface. — This group contains the great water-shed of North America. The Rocky Mountains, one of the highest ranges in North .America, under various names, cover the greater part of tJiis division. 10 g Tlie Great Plains constitute the eastern part of the group, and ex- tend to the base of the mountains. 2. The most important valleys enclosed by the Rocky Mountains arc the four parks of Colorado. Soine of these are as large as Connecticut or New Jersey. In the front range or eastern wall of the parks are several peaks over 14,000 feet high. The great central chain of the Rocky 60 WESTERN STATES: ROCKY MOUNTAIN DIVISION. GEYSER OF THE YELLOWSTONE. Mountains, known as the Sierra Maclre or N.ational range, reaches a great elevation on the west side of the parks. From the top of Mount Lincoln the e\-e sweeps over a wilderness of high peaks, at least t\vo hundred of which are nearly 13,000 feet, and not less than twenty-five over 14,000 feet high. 3. Rivers. — The only navigable rivers are the Missouri and the Yellowstone in Montana. The snow on the sides and summits of the lofty mountain ranges, melting under the summer sun, is an unfailing supply to the rivers during the months of drought. These rivers are invalua- ble as means of irrigation. 4. Cliiuate. — The mildness of the winter climate on the east side of the Rocky Mountains, especially in the North and far into British America, is a remarkable fact in the physical geography of this group. It is of exceed- ing importance in relation to the settlement of these re- gions. In the higher regions the summers are cold. Notwithstanding the latitude and the elevation, the climate grows milder and the snow disappears from the plains as we approach the great range. This is rapidly becoming the great grazing region of the continent. Cattle unhoused can live all winter upon the rich grass that covers these plains. They have for ages been the feeding-ground of millions of buffaloes. The im- mense herds of these valuable wild animals will probably soon be exterminated. Timber is scarce except on the slopes and in the enclosed valleys of the ranges north of Central Colorado. Towards the south the country grows more and niore arid, till in New Mexico the land- scape is generally one of desolation. 5. Population. — The total population of this group in 1880 was a little less than three fifths of that of Con- necticut, which has about one one-hundredth of the area. 6. Occupations. — Mining and stock-raising are the chief occupations, although agriculture is rapidly develop- ing in Colorado. This group is very rich in metals and other valuable minerals. 7. Montana. — Montana has a fine climate, immense areas of rich soil and of valuable timber, and great mineral wealth. It produces a large amount of gold, silver, copper, and live-stock. Helena, the capital, is on the Northern Pacific Railroad. 8. Il^yoming'. — The greater part of the population of Wyoming are in the towns on the line of the Union Pacific Railroad and its branches. Wool and immense quantities of live-stock, chiefly cattle and sheep, are shipped to eastern markets. ■ This territory includes the greater part of the Yellowstone National Park, which surrounds Yellowstone Lake, and has an area of about .3600 square miles. Its deep canons, lofty falls, and nu- merous bathing-pools, geysers, and lakes, make it in many re- spects the most wonderful portion of the continent, and even of the world. It has been set aside by Congress as a "perpetual reservation for the benefit and instruction of mankind." Cheyenne is the capital and largest city. 9. Colorado. — Colorado contains the Great Parks and the loftiest ranges of the Rocky Mountains. It is rich in inines of gold, silver, copper, lead, coal, iron, and salt. The mountain "pineries" furnish a large amount of lumber. Grazing and coal-mining are becoming leading industries. Irri- gation is extensively employed in agriculture. Denver, the capital and largest city, is about 5000 feet above the sea. 10. New THexico. — New Mexico was settled more than three centuries ago (1550) by the Spaniards. The inhabitants are chiefly a mixed race, descended from civilized Indians and the Spanish settlers, and speak the Spanish lan- guage ; they are mostly in the fertile Valley of the Rio Grande, a narrow, swift, and shallow stream, nearly all the waters of which are consumed in irrigation in dry seasons. The popula- L'lTLR FALL OF THE VELLOW.STO.NE. WESTERN STATES: BASIN DIVISION. Gl tion of the territory has lately begun to increase by immigration. Two transcontinental railways now cross New Mexico, and com- mon schools have been established. Santa Fe, G840 feet above the sea, is the capital and largest city. It is the oldest city in the United States. Questions (I.) — 1. What does this group contain? — 2. Which are the most im- portant valleys? — 3. Which aie the only navigable rivers? — i. What remarkable fact in regard to climate ? Why important ? — 5. What is said of the population ? — (J. What are the principal occupations? What partial exceptions? In what is this group rich ? — 7. What is said of Montana? Name its chief resources. What is the capital? — 8. What is said of the population of Wyoming? What are its chief products ? What is the capital? — 9. For what is Colorado noted? What is its capital and largest city? — 10. When and by whom was New Mexico settled? ^^__— What is its capital and largest city? What is said of it? (II.) — 1. What mountains in this division ? What is the character of ihe eastern part? — 2. What is the yize of these parks? What peaks east of them? What mountain chain west of the parks? What is said of the view from Mount Lincoln ? — 3. What are the effects and uses of the snow? — 4. What is the character of this part of the plains ? To what is it best adapted? Why? What is said of the buffaloes? Wheie is limber found ? What is the character of the coun- try towards the south ? — "What does Mon- tana produce ? — S. What is said of the high- est mouutain chain of Wyoming? Of the National I'ark ? — 'J. What minerals has Col- orado? What other industries? — 10. W'ho are the present inhabitants of New Mexico? Where are they located ? What is the character of the Rio Grande ? What is said of the population ? What is said of the railways of the Territory of New Mex- ico ? LXIII. WESTEEN STATES: BASIN DIVISION. 1. Sitaation. — Nevada and the three territories Ida- ho, Utah, and Arizona occu- py the central and larger part of the Great Basin, which is nearly enclosed by the Si- erra Nevada, Cascade, and Rocky Mountains. 2. Sarface. — The surface is very rugged and uneven. Numerous short parallel chains cover nearly the whole region. The lofty Wahsatch chain divides the high plateau of the Colo- rado, the waters of which flow to the Gulf of California, from the lower plateau of the Great Basin, where the swift streams are lost in salt lakes near the foot of its mountain walls. 3. Climate. — The climate is exceedingly dry. This is particularly the case in the south, where the summers are very hot ; in the extreme north the winter is cold, with deep snows. The temperature is very variable. In consequence of the great GKANU CANO.N ul- TlIU COLUKADO. e.\tent of dry soil and naked rock, an intensely warm day is followed, even in midsummer, by a cold night. 4. Yeg:etation. — Timber is found cnlv on the hio-hest • ^ & mountains. The brown sage-bush in the north and the cactus in the south are the characteristic vegetation. 5. Popniation. — More than half the population of this group of states is in Utah. G. Occupations. — The chief occupation in Utah is agriculture ; in the remaining regions, mining. 7. Idaho. — Idaho produces large amounts of ^\ gold and silver. Boise City is the capital. 8. IVevada — Nevada is chiefly re- markable for its mineral wealth. For several years it produced more than half of the lead mined in the United States, and nearly one third of the silver. Virgin- ia City and Gold Hill are fa- mous for rich mines of silver. A single vein of one of these mines is said to have yield- ed over S:iL',000,000 in tour- teen months. Carson is the capital. The towns are at the silver- mines, on the eastern slope of the Sierra Nevada. 9. Utah. — Utah is remark- able as the home of the Mor- mons, or Latter-day Saints ; they constitute four fifths of the population. Their religion has many pecu- liarities, the most important of which is polygamy. The Mormons occupy fertile val- leys at the western base of the \\'ahsatch range, and carry on an extensive agri- culture by means of irriga- tion. Salt Lake City is the cap- ital and largest citv. 10. Arizona. — Arizona and Southern California have a drier climate than any other part of the United States. The annual rain-fall near the mouth of the Colorado is only about three inches ; that of Southern Alabama is sixty-three inches. The canons of the Colorado are the greatest and deepest river gorges in the world. The river is navigable to Cailville; beyond this for more than three hundred miles the river and its tribu- taries flow with great swiftness through narrow chasms with nearly perpendicular walls, and over rocky beds from 3000 to COOO feet below the general level of the plateau. 63 WESTERN STATES: PACIFIC DIVISION. Arizona is very rich in mineral treasures. Tiie mining of silver and of copper is the leading industry. Coal, salt, and gold are abundant. Two transcontinental railways cross the territory. In the eastern part of the territory are large pine forests. Prescott is the capital. Tucson is the largest town. Questions (I.)— 1- What region does this group occupy ?— 2. What is the char- acter of the surface ?— 3. Of the climate ? What is the cliniale in the south ? In the north? t. What is the vegetation? — ."(.Where is most of the population? — 0. The chief occupation in Utah? In the remaining regions? — 7. What does Idaho Territory produce ? What is the capital .' — 8. For what is the State of Nevada remarkable ? For what .nre Virginia City and Gold Mill famous? What is the capital?— 0. For what is Utah Territory remarkable ? What city is the capital ?— 10. For what is Arizona Territory remarkable ? What is the capital ? (I[.) 3. What is said of the mountain chains? How does the Wahsatch chain divide this section ? — 3. What is said of the temperature ? — S. Of the .amount of silver yielded by a single vein ? Where are the towns ? — 9. What peculiarity has the religion of the Mormons ? Where .are the Mormons located ? What is their chief occupation ? 10. How does the rain-fall of Arizona compare with that of Southern Alabama? What is said of the canons of the Colorado ? What is said of the minerals of Ari- zona? Of the fore.-ts? What two railways cross the territory? LXIV. WESTERN STATES: PAOiriO DIVISION. 1. SarfUce. — The lofty range known in California as the Sierra Nevada, and in Oregon and Washington as the Cascade, passes through this entire group of states. It is nearly as high as the Rocky Mountains, but has fewer passes. East of these mountains is a portion of the great interior plateau ; in Washington it is called the Great I'lain of the Columbia, and is about ■20U0 feet above the ocean. Near the coast is a series of short, low chains, called the Coast ranges. They are parallel to the great interior chain. The coast is very bold, and without islands. Between the high chains and the Coast ranges are three important lowlands : the Valley of Paget Sound, in Washington; the Valley of the Willamette, in Oregon ; and the Cal- ifornia Basin in California. Each of these is the most fertile and im- portant part of the state or terri- tory in which it is situated. 2. Climate. — The climate west of the great mountain range is mild and equable in temperature, but has great extremes of moisture. Piiget Sound has a greater rain -fill than any other part of the United States except Alaska. 3. Occupations. — Agriculture, manufacturing, mining, and lumber- ing are the leading pursuits. 4. Commerce. — Internal com- merce, except over the Pacific railroads, is quite limited. There are few navigable rivers. The Columbia is naviga- ble to where it breaks through the Cascade Mountains, and again beyond them to Priest Rapids ; its great branch, the Snake, to Lewiston, Idaho; the Sacramento and San Joaquin are navigable for a large part of their course ; the Colorado more than 300 miles, to the mouth of the Grand Canon; and the Yukon in Alaska, with its great branch, the Pelly, nearly 3000 miles. 5. Alaska. — The great territory of Alaska, including the Aleutian Islands, was purchased of Russia in 18G7. Mountain chains extend along the whole coast and through the islands ; they contain many volcanoes. The area of Alaska is over 500,000 square miles. The greater part has a severe Arctic climate. The west coasts have a mild, rainy climate. The rain- fall at Sitka is about ninety inches a year; there are but few clear days. In the south are heavy forests. Tiie political organization of Alaska is very simple. A governor, collector of customs, and a few other officials reside at Sitka, and are appointed by the President of the United States. It has no legislature. The inhabitants are mostly Indians, Esquimaux, and half-breeds. They live on the coasts and islands, being almost exclusively de- pendent upon the fisheries, which are among the most valuable in the world. The skins of the fur-seal are tiie chief article of e.vport. 6. Washinjfton. — Washington has the most extensive and valuable lumber forests in the United States. In the number and excellence of its bays and harbors it is unsurpassed. The eastern half is noted for wheat and live-stock ; owing to the mild and moist climate, the western half is densely covered with valuable forests of pine and cedar. Tlie short streams falling into Pnget Sound furnish exhaustless water-power. Coal is abuiulanl. The principal exports are lumber and wheat. Olympia is the capital. 7. Oregon. — The greater part of the population of Oregon is in the fertile Valley of the Willamette. Wool-growing and stock-raising are the principal occupations. The salmon fisheries of the Co- lumbia are of great and increasing importance. Wheat, lumber, and canned salmon are the chief exports. Though in the latitude of New England, cattle spend the winter in green fields. The Northern Pacific Railroadconnects Oregon and Washington with the Great Lakes and the Mississippi Valley. The coast is deficient in harbors. Portland, on the Willamette, is the largest city. Salem is the capital. BIG TREJLj, uF L.ILUuKNlA. WESTERN STATES: PACIFIC DIVISION. 63 8. Calirornia. — California produces more gold and more wine than any other state in the Union. In manu- factures it surpasses every other state west of the Missis- sippi except Missouri. It contains the great double Val- ley of the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, which is con- nected with the Pacific Ocean by the Golden Gate at San Francisco, and with the Mississippi Valley by the Cen- tral, Union, and Southern Pacific Railroads. The variety and value of the agricultural and mineral riches of this valley are beyond brief description, and make California a proverb for wealth and fruitfulness throughout the world. The yield of the vast gold-fields of the Sierra places California among the first of the gold -producing countries ; yet the annual value of manufactured prod- ucts already greatly exceeds that of the mineral products, while the results of agricult ure nearly equal all the others together. Wheat, barle)-, wine, and fruits are excellent in qual- ity and wonderful in quan- tity. The soil and climate of the southern part of the state are favorable to the cultivation of the orange, olive, fig, almond, and other tropical fruits. They are also favorable to the growth of the mul- berry - tree, whose leaves are the food of the silk- worm. The fertile soil, the equabl. temperature of its climatr and the succession of rain\ and dry seasons which form its year, give to Cali- fornia the most productive agriculture in the United States. The area of the state is nearly equal to that of New England, New York, and Pennsylvania. Its population in 18S0, including more than 7-i,000 Chinese, i was a little more than one fifth of that of the State of New ' York. The Big Trees and the Yosemite Valley are two of the chief wonders of nature. These trees are gigantic evergreens, some of which are more than 100 feet around, 400 feet high, and :5000 years old. The Yosemite Valley is a remarkable chasm ten miles long and three in greatest width, with perpendicular walls of granite from 3000 to 5000 feet high, over which the Merced River falls, in three leaps, more than 2000 feet. 20 San Francisco, famous for its magnificent harbor and its export of gold and wheat, is the largest city of the Pacific coast from Cape Horn to Japan, and is the fourth city of the United States in foreign commerce. Sacra- mento is the capital. San Francisco is at the western end of the Central Pacific and Southern Pacific railroads, and has an e.xtensive and growing commerce with Europe, the Mississippi Valley, and the .-\tlantic States, and with the countries and islands of the Pacific Ocean. A large part of the trade with the Atlantic States is carried on by means of ocean steamers and the Panama Railroad. It imports tea and silk from Japan and China in exchange for grain. Questions (I.) — 1. What lofty mountain range passes through lliis Rfoiip of st.ates .> What ranges near the coast.' What three important valleys between the high chains and the Coast ranges.' What is said of these val- leys .' — 2. What characteristics has the climate west of the great range .' — 3. What are the leading pursuits.' — 4. What is said of internal com- merce ? Of the mountains .' Of the railroads and rivers.' How far is the Columbia nav- igable? The Sacramento and .'^an Joaquin.' The Colorado ? The Yukon ? — 5. How was Alaska obtained? When? Desciilw ilie political org.anization of Alaska. Who are the inhabitants.' — G. What is said of the forests of Washington? What is the principal export? What town is the cap- ital ? — 7. Where is most of the population of Oregon? What are the principal oc- cupations? What is said of the salmon fisheries of the Columbia? Of its ex- ports ? Which is the largest town ? The capital ? — 8. For what is California noted ? W'hat is its rank in manufactures ? What important valley has it ? By what is it connected commercially with the Pacific? With the Mississippi Valley ? What is the area of this state? What natural wonders does it possess ? For what is San Francisco famous ? W hat city is the capital ? (II.) — 1. How does the Sierra Nevada compare in height with the Rocky Mount- ains? What is there east of these mount- ains? By what name is it known in Washington Territory ? How high is it .> To what are the low chains parallel ? What is the character of the coast.' — ? What is said of the rain-fall of Puget Miund ? — .1. What is the character of the coast and islands of Alaska? What is its area? What is the climate of the greater part ? Of the west coasts ? W hat V0SE.M1TE vAL^t.. is the amount of rain - fall at Sitka? Where are the forests? Where do the inhabitants live? Upon what are they dependent? What is the chief article of e.vport .'— G. What is said of the bays and harbors of Washington Territory ? For what is the cistern half noted? What is said of the western half ? Of the rivers? What mineral is abundant ?— 7. How does the climate of Oregon compare with that of New England? W'hat is said of its railroad connections ? Of its coast .'—8. What is said of the agricultural and mineral riches of California ? How does California rank amonR the gold- producing countries? How do the m.nnufactures compare with the mineral products ? How do the agricultural products compare with the manufactures and the mineral products ? What is said of the wheat, barley, wine, and fruits ? Of the tropi- cal fruits? Of the nuilberry-tree? What causes give C.ilifornia the most productive agriculture in the United States? How does the population of California compare n-ith that of the State of New York ? Describe the Big Trees. The Yosemite V.il- lev. What is said of the commerce of San Francisco? W'hat other trade route lie- tween. San Francisco and the Atlantic States ? In what does the trade with Japan and China consist? 64 COMMERCIAL UNITED STATES: INDUSTRIES.— RAILROAD AND WATER TRANSPORTATION. COMMERCIAL UNITED STATES. LXV. INDUSTRIES OF THE UNITED STATES. I. — ^1. Agriculture, the chief source of food, and the basis of all other inchistries, is by far the most important occupation of the people of thu United States. The following are the leading products. 2. Maize or Indian Corn is the principal grain. In some years the product has e.vceeded 1 770 millions of bushels. Comparatively a small part is e.\ported ; the greater part is used in fattening catfle, swine, etc. :3. Wheat, the chief bread grain, is the second in quantity and in value. The annual export is greater than that of all other grains, and some- times exceeds one fourth of the product. Great Britain is the chief foreign purchaser. A much greater part is distributed to the manu- facturing, mining, and cotton districts of the United States. 4. Oats, barley, rye, buckwheat, and rice are the other grains. Barley is used chiefiy in the manufacture of beer ; a considerable part of the wheat, rye, and maize is converted into whiskey, starch, and glucose. 5. Hav and Potatoes are of great total value, but are too bulky to pay for long transportation. G. Tobacco is a very important product, and is one of the chief articles of export. More than one third of it is produced in Kentucky. 7. Cotton is the largest and most valuable export of the United States. Great Britain buys much the greater part, but large quantities are sent to nearly every country of Europe. The crop has amounted to nearly 6 millions of bales, of 47.5 pounds each, and is still increasing. 8. Sugar is a limited crop. Nearly all of it is produced in Louisiana. Note. — Products ia 1879, and Leading States. — /l/i?/:t', 1773 millions of bushels; Illinoi.s, low.i, Ohio, Missouri, lucli.ina, and Kansas. — IVheat, 4fiO millions; Illinois, Indi.ina, Ohio, Michigan, Minnesota, Iowa, and California. — Oals, 408 millions; Illinois, Iowa, New York, Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. — Barley, 44 millions ; about one h.alf from California and New York. — Kye, 20 millions; Pennsylvania, Illinois, New York, and Wisconsin. — Ditclnulieal, 12 millions; about two thirds from New York and Pennsylvania. — A'w, 110 millions of pounds ; South Carolina, Georgia, and Louisiana. — Hny, 3G millions of tons; New Y'orlc, Pennsylvania, Illinois, and Ohio. — Potatoes, 2(10 millions of bushels; New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Illinois. — Tobacco, 473 millions of pounds ; Kentucky, Virginia, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. — Cotton, nearly (i millions of bales ; Mississippi, Georgia, Te.xas, Alnbama, and Arkansas. — Cane Sii^ar, 2."i0,000 hogsheads ; Louisiana, Texas, Tennessee, and South Carolina. II. — 1. Grazing is a department of agriculture. 2. Butter and cheese are produced in great quantities in the hay dis- tricts of the Middle Atlantic and North Central States, and are among the leading articles of export. 3. Cattle Axe: also raised for beef, hiWes, and talloto in many parts of the country, but chiefly between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mount- ains, and in the Pacific and North Central States. 4. Sheep are raised chiefly for mutton, wool, skins, and talhnc. Cali- fornia, Ohio, and Illinois are the leading states in wool-growing. .5. Swine are raised lor pork and lani. The chief supply is from the corn country. St. Louis, Chicago, Cincinnati, Boston, New York, and other, cities are extensively engaged in the packing oi pork, lard, and beef. The greater part is sent to the cotton states and to the mining and manufacturing districts, and there is a large export trade to Europe, the West Indies, and South America. III.— Forest products. — Lumber, turpentine, and bark are (he chief forest products. Maine, North Carolina, and Canada furnish the chief supply of lumber for the Atlantic States ; Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota for the Central; and Oregon and Washington for the P.acific States. Turpentine is chiefly obtained from the Carolina pine-forests. The bark of the oak and the hemlock is of great value for tannincr. IV. — Fishing. — The North Atlantic States furnish the chief supply of fish, including cod, mackerel, herring, shad, salmon, and lobsters. Be- sides these varieties are oysters from the Chesapeake, white-fish from the Great Lakes, and salmon from the Pacific coast. V. — 1. Minerals. — Coal and iron are the most important of minerals. In these two substances the United Slates is the richest country in the world. The chief deposits of coal are found in a broad belt extending from Maryland and Eastern Pennsylvania to Kansas and Nebraska. There are also valuable deposits in the Rocky Mountains. The princi- pal iron-mines are in the Appalachian Mountains, on the borders of Lake Superior, and in Missouri. Pennsylvania exceeds all other states in the production of both coal and iron. The production and the man- ufacture of iron are among the most important industries of the United States, especially in the Ohio Valley and in Missouri. 2. Petroleum is supplied chiefly by western Pennsylvania. The refined oil, known as kerosene, is one of the leading exports, and is sent to near- ly every civilized country. 3. In the production of gold and silver the United States surpasses every other country in the world. The chief supply is obtained from the Western Highland. California produces the greatest amount of gold, and Colorado of silver. 4. Among the other important mineral products are copper from Ari- zona, Montana, and Northern Michigan ; lead from Nevada, Utah, and Missouri ; and salt from Michigan, New York, West Virginia, and Ohio. VI. — Manufactures. — The principal manufacturing district of the United States lies east of the Appalachians, and between Portland and Baltimore. The second district is in the North Central States. The leading manufactures of the several states have already been described. Questions. I. — 1. What is said of agriculture ? — 2. Which is the principal grain ? What is said of it ? — 3. Which grain is second in importance.' What is said of the export ? What country is the chief purchaser .' How is the rest distributed .> — 1. Name the other grains in the order of their importance. What is the chief use of barley? What grains are in part converted into whiskey .' — 5. What is said of hay and potatoes .> — (). Of tobacco ? — 7. Of cotton .> — S. Of sugar ? II. — 1. What is said of grazing? — 2. Of butter and cheese? — 3. For what other pur- poses are cattle raised ? Where .' — 4. Which are the chief sheep products ? The prin- cipal wool states ?— .5. The chief swine products ? What is said of the packing tr.ade ? III. — Name the leading forest products. Name the chief sources of the supply of lumber. Ol turpentine. What barks are used in taiuiing? IV. — Where are the chief supplies of fish obtained? V. — 1. Which are the most important of minerals? What is said of the co.al and iron of the United States i" Where are the chief coal deposits? The principal iron- mines? Which is the leading state in coal and iron ? What else is said of the iron industry .'—2. What is said of petroleum? Of kerosene?— 3. Of gold and silver.' — 4. What is said of the other important mineral products? VI.— Where is the principal manufacturing district? The second district? LXVI. TRANSPORTATION, RAILROADS. I. — The principal or trunk-line railroads of the LTnited States may be divided into Eastern, Central, Southern, and Western. II. — Eastern Trunk Lines.^The principal eastern trunk lines lie chiefly in the Middle Atlantic States. They are si.x in number, and .Tie of leading importance in the railway system of the United States. The greater part of the surplus products of the northern half of the Mississippi Valley finds its way to a market over these lines. 1. Grand Trunk — from PoriLmd, through Montreal and Toronto, to De- troit (siil m.). It lies mostly in Canada. •2. New York Central and Hudson River— from New York, through Poughkeepsie, Albany, and Rochester, to Buffalo (440 m.). The Boston and Albauv exlends it lo Boston (201 m.). :>. New York, West Shore, and Buffalo — from New York to Buflfalo (420 m.), parallel to Hudson River and Ne^o York Central. 4. New York, Lake Erie, and Western— from New York, through Elmira and Hornellsville, to liuff.iln (424 m.), wilh a branch to Dunkirk. 5. Pennsylvania— from Philadelphia, through Harrisburg and Altoona, to Pittsburgh (.3o4 m.). The A'ew Jersey Railroad, from Philadelphia to New York (90 m.), is its eastern extension. RAILROAD AND WATER TRANSPORTATION. G5 C. Baltimore and Ohio — from Baltimore, through Cumberland, to Par- kersbur<5, with a branch through Wheeling to Chicago (852 m.). III. — Central Trunk Lines.— These lines lie in the North Central States. Among many important lines the following are prominent : 1. Michigan Central — from Detroit, through Jackson and Kalamazoo, to Chicago (2^i m.). Extension of the principal Canada roads. 2. Lake Shore and Michigan Southern — from Buffalo, through Erie, Cleveland, and Toledo, to Chicago (.539 m.). Extension oi New York Centrai and Hudson Rirer, and other New York trunk lines. 3. Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific — from Detroit and Toledo, through Logansport, Springfield, and Keokuk, to Kansas City (713 m.) and Omaha (744 ni.). Extension o{ Lake Shore. 4. New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio— from Salamanca, through Mans- field and Dayton, to Cincinnati (448 m.). Extension oi A^ezu York, Lake Eric, and Western. 5. Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago — from Pittsburgh, through Mansfield and Fort Wayne, to Chicago (4G8 m.). Extension of the J'ennsylvania. 6. Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and St. Louis, or " Pan -Handle Route" — from Pittsburgh, through Columbus, to Cincinnati, and through Richmond to Indianapolis. Continued in the St. Louis, Vandalia, Terre Lfaiite, and Indianapolis Road, through Terre Haute to St. Louis (G19 m.). Extension of the Pennsylvania. 1. Cincinnati, Washington, and Baltimore and Ohio and Mississippi — from Parkersburg, through Cincinnati, to St. Louis (536 m.). Exten- sion of Baltimore and Ohio. 8. Illinois Central — from Cairo, through Centralia, to Chicago (365 m.), and through Bloomington and Dubuque, to Sioux City (784 m.). 9. Chicago and Alton — from Chicago, through Bloomington, Springfield, and Alton, to St. Louis (280 m.). IV. — Southern Trunk Lines. — The following groups include most of the chief lines of the South Atlantic and South Central States : 1. Aline from Washington through Knoxville to Chattanooga; a line from Washington and Richmond, through Atlanta, to Mobile and New Or- leans; and a series of railways which, under many names, connect all the Atlantic and river ports from Jacksonville, Fla., to Portland, Me. 2. In the second group are lines extending westward from Charleston, Savannah, and other southern Atlantic ports, and crossing the Mis- sissippi at New Orleans, Vicksburg, and Memphis. 3. The third group includes lines extending north and south from Louisville to Mobile, Memphis, and New Orleans ; from St. Louis and Columbus, Ky., to New Orleans and Mobile ; and from Evansville, through Nashville and Montgomery to Mobile, and through Chat- tanooga and Atlanta to the southern Atlantic ports. The chief business of these lines is the exchange of the cotton and other products of the South for the manufactures and imports of the Northern and Central Atlantic States, and the breadstuffs, provisions, and manufactures of the country north of the Ohio and the Missouri. V. — Western Trunk Lines. — These lines lie mostly west of the Mis- sissippi. The A^orthern Faeijic extends from Duluth and St. Paul to various ports on Puget Sound and the Columbia. It unites the railway and water-way systems of the Upper Mississippi and the Lakes with those of the Pacific region. The Central IWific extends from San Fran- cisco to Ogden, is continued thence by the Union Pacific to Omaha (1914 m.). The Kansas Pacific, from Cheyenne through Denver, ter- minates at Kansas City. The Southern Pacific extends from San Francisco through southern California and Arizona to Deining in New Mexico, and thence by the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa /•? to Kansas City. It is connected with New Orleans by the Texas Pacific and by Galveston, LLarrisburg, and San Antonio. From Omaha, Kansas City, and St. Paul a number of important roads extend these great trans- continental routes to the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. Among these are the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy, the Chicago, Rock Lsland, and Pacific, the Chicago and A'orthwestern, the Chicago and Alton, and the Wahish, St. Louis, and Pacific. 21 The Chicago, Mihvaukee, and St. Paul and the St. Paul, Minne- apolis, and Manitoba are parts of a system of important lines con- necting the chief ports on Lake Michigan with the great wheat region lying between that lake and the Upper Missouri and extending into Manitoba. Texas, California, and Oregon also have important lines. WATER-WAYS. VI. — The principal interior water-ways of the United States are the Atlantic System, the Mississippi System, the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes, and the Canals. 1. Atlantic System. — The rivers of the Atlantic system are connected with the extensive coasting trade. They are navigated by thousands of sailing vessels and steamers. A fall or a rapid at the head of navigation is usually the seat of a manufacturing city or town. Note. — The entrances of the rivers of the Atlantic sy-^tcm arc more or less obstructed by broad banks or shoals of mud and sand, brought down by the rivers and deposited in the sea just at their mouths. These shoals are called bars. They frequently make it dangerous and sometimes impossible for ves- sels to enter even at high tide. Most of the rivers between Chesapeake B.iy and the Rio Grande can be entered only by vessels of very light draught. The Mississippi admits the largest ocean steamers. 2. Mississippi System. — The Mississippi has fifty-five great tributaries, nearly all of which have navigable branches. Numerous steamboats and barges furnish cheap transportation for the bulky products of the valley. Note. — The Mississipj)! system has nearly 17,000 miles navigable by steam- boats, and more than 20,(1U0 by barges. The waters of the great river and its branches are subject to great changes of level, in consequence of the annual floods and droughts. Below the mouth of the Ohio the Missi.ssippi sometimes rises more than fifty feet. At low water some of the biaixhcs can be nav- igated only by steamers of light draught, and some not at all lor several months. 3. The St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes.— The Great Lakes are fresh- water seas, and are traversed by a great number of sailing vessels as well as numerous large steamers. They are closed for several months by ice, but are not affected by tides, floods, or droughts. 4. Canals. — The Great Lakes are connected with the Mississippi and Atlantic systems by canals. The Erie Canal in New York is the only one of any present importance. A short ship-canal in Michigan enables vessels to pass the falls at the entrance of Lake Superior. The Falls of Niagara and the rapids in the St. Lawrence are passed by means of ship-canals in Canada. Note. — A number of important ship-canals have recently been proposed : one to connect the Hudson and Lake Champlain with the St. Lawrence, others to connect the Ohio with the James and the Potomac, the Tennessee with the Alabama and the Altamaha, the Illinois and the Wisconsin with Lake Michi- gan, and the Minnesota River with the Red River of the North. Questions. I. — What are trunk lines.' How may the trunk lines of the United States be divided .■' IL — Where are the principal eastern trunk lines.' How many are there? Name them. Why important? — Describe the following roads.* — 1. Grand Trunk.' — 2. New York Central and Hudson River.' — 3. New York, Lake Erie, and Buffalo.' — \. New York, Lake Erie, and Western?— 5. Pennsylvania? New Jersey .' — G. Baltiuiore and Ohio? III. — Where are the central trunk lines? Name the most important of these lines. Describe them.* — \. Michigan Central? — 2. Lake Shore and Michigan Southern.' — 3. Wabash, St. Louis, and Pacific? — t. New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio? — a. Pittsburgh, Fort Wayne, and Chicago? — G. Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and St. Louis? — 7. Cincinnati, Washington, and Baltimore? Ohio and Mississippi? — 8. Illinois Central .' — 'J. Chicago and .Alton? IV. — How many groups of southern trunk lines? — 1. Describe the first group. — 2. The second. — 3. The third. What is the chief business of these lines? V. — Where do the western trunk lines mostly lie? Describe the transcontinental routes. The Chicago, Milwaukee, and St. Paul, and the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba. What is said of other western lines? VI. — How are the interior water-ways of the United .Slates divided? — I. With what trade are the Atlantic rivers connected? By what navigated? Of what is a fall or rapid at the head of navigation usually the seat.' — 2. What is said of the branches of the Mississippi ? By what navigated ? What is said of the importance of the system ? Of the mouth of the Mississippi ? — 3. Of the Great Lakes? What effect has winter u])on all the northern water-w.iys .' — 4. How are the first three systems connected? W'hich is the most important of these canals? Where are the ship-canals? * Ask the following questions about each of these roads: In what state or states? Between and through what cities? With v.hat other trunk lines connected? M G U tl T A I N TIME QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. What etca. railroad icniimits at Poillaiid, Me ' Throng], what foreign country tloes it pass> What lakcpott of Michigan is at its western end > Thi lanL-)ioiL Ol JXICniGan Is at Ite iu»cta.„ l> ^. .....«.....,,.„= cen.rai part 01 the State of New York> lelween what two cities are they t Which of these is a of these SIX great t is the genera] dircctioi What lake-port is the chief railroad centre of Il]i- tiois' What road connects Chicago with Detroit? Ol what great eastern roads is the Michigan Central ar. extension? What road connects Chicago with linf- it: ^':?°E^"I>'" <"!'" lake-ports does the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern pass? With what great railways docs it connect in New York? What road Wale, nf i,'",,'''"'''"^'' P'^^" *™Sl> Fo" ITL T, I^™"'''™- road i, i, a continna- r,o ^1 """' '""^ '^'''^fo passes through Wheel- TowSa, ™h "' =■"" ■"dianapolis to St. Looisi "■""'■ ^^l"' '»>'! fram Toledo passes thr oirgh 1 W'licre sissipiji ? What road runs north Ironi ^■"•"- ^^i does it fork? In what city does 'h'ff.'j mo- branch? Whatroaj With IndianaH" terminate ? The western nects St. Louis with Chicago Pittsburgh ? With Cincinnati ? Whal road connects Chicago with 0"^^^, „,J what more western road does it co"™"' „ „ pnii- continties the Union Pacific from Ogdeii'°=" . „ Cisco? What road extends east '"»". ,,„, []».» what city does a branch from ^'T'. L asl""^ Pacific ? What city on the M's^""" „ ' eds »»■; of the Kansas Pacific ? What road conn ^^^^^^, City with Deming? Demnig wi"> - \" "rgecilyon llic Mississi, '"I'Mdwith Kansas City > "«'fromSt.Loni - '■ ppi is connected by What road runs south- <"" »f a li„e?''"wi,' ^? "■''" Eulf-Po" does it form . 'a line? What other road form! '""» St. Lou tvhat What s part of: , sl„„,i "™ Cairo to Galyeslon? Through Slates does this line run ? P»rt' b'™'' '"';,'."'""' '^'°'"'''*'"™'i' To'what WtlCha.iV,!! ,'*"''""""i and Atlanta? Norfolk '"I'andu rfV ^"i"i"^ and Memphis? Loois- »M Cairo? »,'■ V"'" and New Orleans ? Mobile ^Vliatcol '' ""'"^''"'=*""'' "'•ieable > r' °", ""' ""f ^^"'^^ '"'"' far a river is "'"lyallthen ',, ''»"°f "« United Sl.ates are ">" 'Ite na,ical,]e ,;..„..-. Nearly all the rail- roads? Why can most of the rivers of Ihc Atlantic coast be ascended only a short distance? In what part of the United States arc the longest navigable rivers ? Name the chief navigable rivers of the North Atlantic States. Of the Middle Atlantic The South Atlantic. The South Central. The North Central. The West Central. What rivers of the western half of the United States are partly navigable ? Which is the most important navigable river of Canada? What three stales contain nearly all Ihe canals. IJVh,, nri. Pmrnvlvama. find OhM Which is the principal canal? ' {Tht Eri,.^ What waters does it conned ? What other canals are connecled with llie Hudson River? ( Tilt Clutmflmn and J/udmi mI It, Dtlnmr, and H,,ds„n.) Wh.il port on Like LJil- tario is at the month of a branch of ihe Eric Canal? On Uke Erie at the monlh of Ihe Erie Canal ? At ,he mouth of a canal from Pillsburgh? From Ports- moulh.Ohio? From Cincinnati? From kvaiisv.lle? Low many onals connect the Ohio Ri.er with Ukc Erie ' What river of Illinois is connected by canal wilhLakeMichig.™? At what port? „„-j ,„ unite ibe follfwinp watera by itiip- srs;rctopi™.-.i-s,.u«..<» and Gcorpi.Ti Nri-ra-— p.„my. "J™"'", p Th. Tc.ne»« ■"J il"*!"- « Rmt .™J lb' """"«"■ .'■ „^ H. Tb= MiDOCMUaad bim.1. G. The Wl^rmsin and ibe roi. o • Ihe Red River otlbiNoOb^ c G8 BRITISH AMERICA: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. LXVII. QUESTIONS ON 1*HE MAP. General. — What province of the Dominion of Canada is a peninsula? What one north of Nova Scotia is an island ? What one is west of Prince Edward Island ? Northwest of New Brunswick ? West of Quebec ? West of Ontario .' On the Pacific ? What districts border on Manitoba.' On British Columbia? AVhat is the capital of the Dominion? (Ottawa^ Where situated? What large island east of the Dominion ? {NetvfouniUand^ What provinces and districts are crossed by the Canadian Pacific Railway ? Nova Scotia. — What island in the eastern part of Nova Scotia ? What four capes on the coast? What bay west? What city is the capital ? What town on Northumberland Strait ? Prince Edward Island. — What waters surround Prince Edward Isl- and ? A\hat town is the capital ? New Brunswick. — What three boundary rivers has New Brunswick ? Which is the principal river? What cities on it? What bay on the north ? On the south ? What city is the capital ? Quebec. — In the valley of what river does the Province of Quebec lie ? What river separates Quebec from Ontario ? VVhat branch of the St. Lawrence is the outlet of Lake Champlain ? Name the two chief cities on the St. Lawrence. Which is the capital ? Ontario. — What lakes border on the Province of Ontario ? In what part is the peninsula? What bay north of the peninsula? What lake in the peninsula ? What cities on or near Lake Ontario ? Which is the capital ? What city southwest of Hamilton ? Manitoba. — What river enters Manitoba from the south? What large lakes in this province ? What is the capital ? British Columbia. — What mountains form part of the eastern bound- ary of British Columbia ? What is the capital ? Which is the principal river? What islands on the coast? What waters surround Vancouver Island? VVhat town on Frazer River? Northwest and Northeast Territories. — What is the capital of Assin- iboia ? Of Saskatchawan ? What river flows into Winnipeg Lake from the west ? Newfoundland. — What waters surround Newfoundland ? What city is the capital ? What capes on the coast ? What small islands south ? LXVIII. EEVIEW EXEECISES. Countries. — Where is it 1 How bounded 1 What is the capital 1 Provinces. Area in Population Sq. Miles, in ISSl. Provinces. Area in Sq. Miles. Populattoa in IbOI. Nova Scotia Prince Edward New Brunswick Quebec 21,000 440,572 2,100 108,891 27,000 321,233 189,000 l,3r)9, 027 12:5,000 G.5,954 341,000 49,4r.9 102,000 1.923.22H Territories of Atha- -. b.isca. Alberta, [ Saskatchawan, V Assiniboia, and 1 Keewatin ■' Northea.st Territories. Newfoundland 40,200 75,000 181,7.-.3 Manitoba Hiitish Columbia Ontario Cities and Towns. — In what part of the province? How situated? — Ottawa ? Halifax ? Pictou ? Frederickton ? St. John ? Char- lotte Town ? Quebec? Montreal? Toronto? Hamilton? Lon- don? Kingston? Winnipeg? New Westminster? Victoria? St. Johns? Battleford? Regina? Islands. — Where situated ? — Newfoundland ? St. Pierre ? Miquelon ? Prince Edward ? Cape Breton ? Vancouver ? Queen Charlotte ? Capes. — From what coast docs it project 1 — Race ? Bauld ? Ray ? North ? Canso ? Sable ? Breton ? Gulfs and Bays.— Where is it .?— St. Lawrence ? Fundy ? Chaleur ? Georgian ? Georgia ? Straits. — Between what lands? What waters does it connect? — Belle Isle? Northumberland? JuandeFuca? Queen Charlotte Sound ? Rivers. — Where does it rise ? In what direction does it flow ? Into what body of water ? — St. John ? St. Lawrence? Richelieu? Ottawa? Saskatchawan ? Frazer ? St. Croix ? Restigouche ? Red River of the North? Lakes. — Where situated? What outlet ? — Winnipegoos ? Manitoba ? Simcoe ? Winnipeg? BRITISH AMERICA LXIX. CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND : DESCRIPTION. 1. Divisions. — British America comprises about one third of the continent of North America, together with many adjacent islands. Its chief divisions are the Do- minion of Canada and the Province of Newfoundland. Besides these there are the Bermudas, the Bahamas, Jamaica, and many other colonies in the West Indies. 2. The Dominion of Canada has an area of about three and a half millions of square miles, or nearly the same as that of the United States. Its population is about four and one third millions. It is a confederation, consisting of the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edv.'ard Island, British Columbia, Manitoba, and the Northeast and Northwest Territories or Districts. Newfoundland is not included in the confederation. 3. Government. — The chief executive officer is the Governor-General, who is appointed by the sovereign of Great Britain. The Legislature consists of two branches. The members of the lower branch are elected by the peo- ple; the members of the other branch are appointed by the Governor-General. Each province has a similar gov- ernment under a Lieutenant-Governor. 4. Climate. — The winter climate is severe, except in the southern parts of British Columbia and of Ontario. 5. Surface. — British Columbia and the provinces east of Manitoba are great forest regions. Between the Rocky Mountains and Manitoba are extensive prairies. f ^«/'^f■'>*^ l»"5, by Uarptr A BrUArn.]~IUviMd tO No»«iDt«r, I8*i. 70 BRITISH AMERICA: DOMINION OF CANADA AND NEWFOUNDLAND. 6. Commercial ronfes. — The chief commercial water route is the St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes. The rapids of the St. Lawrence above Montreal, and the falls of the Niagara and St. Marys rivers, are passed by means of canals ; the St. Marys Canal is in the United States. The Grand Trunk Railroad passes from Detroit, Mich., through the chief cities of the Dominion and douji the St. Lawrence to Quebec, with a branch to Portland, Maine. In winter the com- munication of the interior wiih the ocean is through the United States. 7. Trade. — The principal trade of the provinces is with Great Britain and the United States. The chief exports are fish, coal, grain, and lumber. 8. Xova Scotia. — Nova Scotia has many good har- bors and valuable fisheries, and exports sheep, coal, and gypsum, or plaster of Paris, fialifax, the capital and largest city, is an important British naval station. 9. Prince Edward li^Iand. — Prince Edward Island has a fertile soil, and agriculture is the leading occupa- tion. Charlotte Town is the capital. 10. Kew Brunswick. — New Brunswick is noted for its timber forests. Its chief exports are lumber and fish. St. John is the principal city. Frederickton is the capital. IL ((ucbcc. — The Province of Quebec is noted for its picturesque scenery and severe climate. Montreal, the chief city, and, after Chicago and Buffalo, the largest in the St. Lawrence basin, has an extensive commerce, and experts a large amount of grain to Europe. Quebec, the capital, is the second city in population, and has a large maritime commerce. 12. Ontario. — Ontario produces a great amount of grain and .lumber. Toronto, the capital and largest city, has a fine harbor and a large lake trade. 13. 9Ianitoba. — Manitoba is noted for the production of wheat. The population is rapidly increasing by immigration. Win- nipeg is the capital and chief town. The Red River of the North, a navigable stream flowing from the United Slates, is the best wa- ter way to the province. It is connected through Winnipeg and other large lakes with Saskatch- awan River. Together they furnish more than 2000 miles of inland navigation through one of the most fertile sections of the continent. 14. British Columbia. — British Colum- bia abounds in salmon, timber, and coal, gold, and other metals. New Westminster is an important town. Victoria is the capital. British Columbia will soon be connected with the eastern provinces by the Canadian Pacific Railway, a gr.ind transcontinental line about three thousand miles long, from Montreal to the Pacific Ocean. 15. Northeast and IVorthwest Territories, or Districts. — Athabasca, Alberta, Saskatchawan, and Assiniboia are Provisional Districts. The number of inhabitants is small, but is gradually increasing by emi- gration from Europe. 16. IVewfoundland. — Newfoundland is a sterile, rocky island, and has a bold and broken coast. The ocean fish- eries are almost the only source of support to the inhab- itants. The chief exports are cod- fish, seal-skins, and oils. The fish are caught near the coasts, and in shallow places in the sea, which are called banks. During a large part of the year the coasts and the banks are covered with dense fogs. St. Johns is the capital and chief town. Its population varies from 10,000 during the winter to 25,000 or even 30,000 during the fishing-season. Labrador, a name properly applied only to the eastern shore of the peninsula, belongs to Newfoundland. Its fisheries find em- ployment for about 1000 small vessels and 30,000 men. Questions (I.) — 1. Wliat does British America comprise ? What are its chiif divisions i" — 2. What is the area of the Dominion of Canada.' Its population.' — 3. Describe the government. — 4. The climate. — 5. The surface. — fi. What is the chief commercial water-route? — 7. With what countries is the principal trade of the prov- inces? What are the chief e.\ports? — 8. What is said of Nova Scotia? Halifax? — 9. Of Prince Edward Island ? What is the capital ? — 10. For what is New Brunswick noted' What are its chief exports ? What is the principal city? The capital.' — 11. For what is the Province of Quebec noted? Montreal? The city of Quebec' — 12. What are the productions of Ontario ? For what is Toronto noted?— 13. Wh.it is said of Manitoba? What is the capital? — 14. In what does British Columbia abound ? What important town ? The capital ?— 1.">. What are Northeast and North- west Territories ?—U;. What is Newfoundland? What is the ch.aractcr of the coast? \Vh>at is the principal busniess? The chief e.vports? The capital? (II.)— 1. What other colonies h.as Biitish America? — 2. What is the Dominion of Canada? Of what does it consist? What large island is not included in the con- federation ? — G. What is said of the rapids and falls in the rivers of this route ? What railro.ad forms another great commercial route? What is the channel of trade in the winter.'— 13. What is said of the Red River of the North?— 14. With what states arc the chief commercial interests of British Columbia? What connection with the Great Lakes is proposed? — 10. Where are the fishing-grounds of Newfoundland? What is said of the fogs? Of the ])opulation of St. Johns ? To what province does Labrador belong ? What is said of its fisheries? MEXICO; CENTRAL AMERICA. 71 MEXICO; CENTPxAL AMERICA; WEST INDIES. [Fur Sections LXX. and LXXI., see page 73.] LXXII. MEXICO : DESCRIPTION. 1. Area and Popula- lioii. — The area of Mexico is about one eighth less than that of all the United States east of the Mississippi. The pop- ulation is about 10,000,000. 2. Surface. — The great plateau of North America covers most of the country, the highest part being near the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. The plateau is here crossed by a line of tliirteen volcanoes, which are among the loftio: in the world ; Popocatepetl and Orizaba are over 17,000 feet in elevation, and their tops are covered with snow. 3. Climate. — Mexico has the greatest possible variety of climate: cold on the high mountains, temperate on the plateaus, and hot and moist on the coast. Tiie plateaus north of the Tropic of Cancer are dry and barren, like those of the United States. Those south of the tropic have four months of tropical rains. 4. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants are chiefly in the southern half of the country, and consist of Indians, mixed races, and Spanish Creoles. The Creoles are descendants of the early Spanish settlers, and form only a small part of the population. 5. Commerce. — The foreign commerce is limited, and is mostly with England and the United States. There are no navigable rivers. The best harbors are on the coast of the Pacific. Mexico has about .3000 miles of railroad. The National Mexican line extends from Vera Cruz to Mexico. 6. GoTernment. — Mexico is a federal republic of twenty-seven states, one territory, and a small federal dis- trict which contains the capital. It was for three centuries the most important colony of Spain. 7. Mexico, the capital and chief city, is beautifully situated in a fertile plain, 7500 feet above the sea, and POPOCATErETL, MEXICO. surrounded by lofty mount- ains. Leon, Guadalaxara. Puebla, and Guanaxuato arc large cities on the table-land; Vera Cruz and Acapulco are the principal ports. The chief exports are silver, dye- woods, cochineal, and vanilla. The mines of Mexico were the chief source of the world's supply of silver for nearly three hundred years. QuestionB (I.) — 1. What is the area of Mexico .' The population ? — 2. What is said of the surface ? — 3. Of the climate ? — 4. Where are most of the inhabitants .' Of what do they consist? — 5. W'hat is said of the foreign commerce .' — 0. Describe the government. Of what country was Mexico once a colony? — 7. What is the capital and chief city? How situated? What olhcr important cities? What are the principal ports ? What are the chief exports ? (II.)— 2. By what is the southern part of the plateau cossed? — 3. What is the climate of the plateaus north of the Tropic of Cancer ? South of it ?— t. Who are tlie Creoles? — 5. What is said of the ro.ids, riv- ers, and harbors? — 7. What is said of the silver-mines ? LXXIII. CENTRAL AMERICA. Republics. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. Republics. /"'.;" 1 Population. Sq. Miles. 1 Guatemala San Salvador Hondums 40.800 7,400 47,100 1,227,000 482,422 351,700 Nicaragua Costa Rica Belize (Colony) -.8,200 1 300,000 21,. -00 1 18.".,000 13,500 1 24,710 1. Central America, as a natural division, is a long isthmus. It includes the smaller isthmuses of Panama in South America and Tehuantepec in Mexico. It is chiefly important because it contains the principal routes con- necting the commerce of the two great oceans. 2. As a political division it is of less extent. It includes five independent republics, which are really military des- potisms: viz., Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, Nica- ragua, and Costa Rica, together with Belize, or British Honduras, which is a colony of Great Britain. 3. These republics are similar to Southern Mexico in surface, climate, productions, population, and social con- dition. t(.i./i/rijjA/, 1B76, hy Uarptr . Of the foreign commerce? Which are the most important exports ? — G. Name the capitals of the five republics. (II.) — 1. Why is Central America important? — 3. What are its principal mount- ains ? What is said of them ? — t. Why is the San Juan River important ? THE WEST INDIES. 1. Sifnation. — The West Indian Archipelago extends from Florida to South America. The islands are the summits of mountain ranges which are partly under the sea, and parallel to the great chains of the western continents. 2. Area. — The land surface of the archipelago is about equal to that of New York and Pennsylvania. 3. Dirii^ions. — The Bahamas, the Greater Antilles, and the Lesser Antilles arc the three principal divisions. The Bahamas are low coral islands. One of them, San Salvador, is said to be the first land discovered by Columbus in 1492. The Greater Antilles have forest-clad mountains and a fertile soil. The Lesser Antihes include all the islands between Porto Rico and South America ; several of them contain lofty volcanoes. 4. Climate. — All these islands, except a portion of the Bahamas, are in the Torrid Zone. The intense heat of the tropical climate is modified by the ocean and the trade-winds. 5. Prodacfions. — The principal exports are sugar, coffee, cotton, tobacco, and tropical fruits. Most of the fruits come from Cuba, which is also the chief sugar-pro- ducing country of the world. 6. Ownership. — Cuba and Porto Rico are colonics of Spain; Jamaica, the Bahamas, and most of the Lesser Antilles belong to Great Britain ; the rest to France and other European countries. Hayti .was once divided be- tween France and Spain ; it now consists of two inde- pendent negro republics — Hayti and San Domingo. 7. Population. — The total population of the West Indies is about equal to that of the State of New York, the greater part being negroes. 8. The three largest cities, Havana, Matanzas, and San- tiago de Cuba, are all in Cuba. Havana, the capital of Cuba, is larger than any six other cities in the West Indies. Questions (I.) — 1. Where is the West Indian Archipel-igo ? — 2. What is its area ? — 3. Name its principal divisions. — 4. In what zone are they? What is said of the climate? — 5. What are the principal exports? For what is Cuba noted? — G. To what countries do the West Indies belong? To what two countries did Hayti once belong ? Of what does it now consist ? — 7. What is said of the population of the West Indies.' — 8. Where are the three largest cities ? Name them. What is said of Havana? (II.) — 1. What are the islands of the West Indian Archipelago? — 3. What is said of the Bahamas? Of San Salvador ? Of the Greater Antilles ? Of the Lesser Antilles? LXX. ^ QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Mexico.— What country north of Me.\ico ? What country southeast ? What gulf in the northwest ? What peninsula? What gulf east ? What bay? What peninsula in the southeast? What isthmus in the southern part of Me.xico ? What gulf? What mountain chain extends through Mexico ? ^Vhat river forms part of the northeast boundary ? What city is the capital ? Name the seaports of the eastern coast. Of the Pacific coast. What city near the mouth of the Rio Grande ? What city southeast of Mexico? What three northwest? What two in the northern part of Mexico? Central America. — Name the divisions of Central America. Which is farthest south? Farthest north? What British colony northeast of Guatemala ? What is the capital ? What bay north of Honduras ? What name is given to the eastern coast of Nicaragua? What two lakes in Nicaragua? What is the outlet of Lake Nicaragua? Name the capital of each state. West Indies. — What are the three principal divisions of the West In- dies? {Greater Antilles, Lesser Antilles, and the Bahamas.) Name the four Greater Antilles. Which is the largest group of the Lesser Antilles? What group near the coast of South America? What small group east of Porto Rico ? What islands north of Cuba ? What town is their cap- ital? On what island? What city is the capital of Cuba? What city east of Havana? On the southern coast? What strait between Cuba and Florida? Between Cuba and Yucatan ? Cuba and Hayii? What two countries in Hayti? Name their capitals. What strait separates Hayti from Porto Rico ? What is the capital of Porto Rico ? Wiiat island nearly west of Hayti ? Its capital ? What other city in Jamaica? LXXI. EEVIEW EXERCISES. Countries. — Where is it? Jfow ho nmied? What is the capitall — Mexico? Belize, or British Honduras? Guatemala? Honduras? San Salvador? Nicaragua? Costa Rica? San Domingo? Hayti? Islands.— W^/4 KBttrunry, lKa6. PHYSICAL SOUTH AMERICA. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. Through what part of South America does the Equator pass? In what zone is the greater part of the continent? What tropic crosses it ? What cape at its northern extremity ? Its eastern extremity ? Southern ? Western ? Along which coast is the belt of highest mountains and narrow plateaus? What name is given to the broadest part of the plateau of the Andes? What lakes in it? What broad plateau in the eastern part of the continent? What mountain ranges in this plateau? AVhat smaller plateau in the north ? What mountains are in the plateau of Guiana? In what part of South America are the volcanoes? What name is given to the northern part of the Great Central Plain ? With what are they covered? What river drains the llanos? What name is given to the central part of the Great Plain ? With what are they covered? What river drains the selvas? What island at its mouth? What river east of Joannes Island? What name is given to the southern part of the Great Plain ? What river drains a large part of the pampas ? What branch of the Amazon is connected with the Orinoco? What branches drain the plateau of Brazil ? What branch of the Para? \\'hat river drains the eastern part? What two the southern part? Which of these is the main river ? What name is given to the forest region between the Paraguay and the Madeira? To the plain between the Mutto Grosso and the pampas? Where is the rainless coast? How long is it? What metals are obtained from the Andes? What two valuable minerals from the plateau of Brazil ? How many principal diamond districts ? What valuable woods are obtained from the forests of the Amazon and its branches? What gum? \\'hat vegetable productions from the northern coast ? From the eastern coast ? \A'hat grain from the southwestern coast? What animal products from the pampas and Southern Brazil ? What valuable manure from the rainless coast ? From what islands is it obtained? Note. — It will assist to memorize the physical maps of both the American con- tinents to note the following points of similarity : Shape of continents. Position of the three coast lines. Volcanoes on the west. Rocky and Nevada Mountains. Appalachian Momitains. Western Plateau Pelt .Andes chains. Brazilian Mountains. Andes Plateau Pelt. Great Basin. Plateau of Bolivia. Great Salt Lake. Lake Titicaca. Labrador. Plateau of Guiana. Eastern Highland. Central Plain. Arctic Plain. Great Lakes. Southern Plain. Plateau of ISrazil. Central Plain. Llanos.* Sclvas.t Pampas.} Mackenzie River. Nelson. St. Lawrence. Mississippi. Magdalena. Orinoco. Amazon. La Plata. * Llanos, a Sp.inish word ine.ininR plains, t ScU'ns, from a Latin word meaning wot(U. X Pamras, an Indian word meaning plains. El Gran Cknco, means llie great liunting-ground. .Andes Ifoun tains W.000 l-'.SM/'^ A C ENTRAL PLAIN 8. E 9PINH ACO PLATEAU or BRAZIL 25 FHOFIUB SBCTION OF SOUTH AMERICA. 16 PHYSICAL SOUTH AMERICA: OUTLINE, SURFACE, AND CLIMATE. DESCRIPTION. LXXVI. OUTLINE, SURFACE, ETC. 1. Ontline. — South America is nearly a right-angled triangle, of which the Pacific coast is the longest side. It is nearly twice the size of the United States, and has a population of about 33,000,000. Its coasts are unbroken by great gulfs or by enclosed seas. 2. Surface. — The surface of South America is natural- ly divided into four parts — the Andean plateau on the west, the plateaus of Brazil and Guiana on the east, and the Great Central Plain. The Andes Mountains stretch along the entire western coast, generally in parallel chains. Between them is a belt of plateaus, the broadest and loftiest being that of Bolivia. These gigantic border walls of the plateaus are the loftiest ranges in America, and are exceeded in height only by the great chains of Central Asia. They are highest in the northern portion of the table-land of Bolivia, where the loftiest peaks reach an eleva- tion of 25,000 feet. They are unbroken, except at the Isthmus of Panama, where the western chain subsides into low hills, and towards the southern extremity of the continent, where the mountainous coast becomes a line of rocky islands. The Andes contain several groups of lofty volcanoes. 3. The Great Central Plain extends alonsf the whole eastern base of the Andes. This plain extends eastwardly to the shores of the Atlantic, except where interrupted by the low mountains and plateaus of Guiana and Brazil. Three great rivers, the Orinoco, the Amazon, and the La Plata, with their numerous branches, drain this plain and the mountain slopes which surround it. The remarkable rain-fall of this region is due to the tropical rain- belt and the trade-winds which sweep westwardly from the At- lantic and across the continent. 4. The northern part of the Great Central Plain, the llanos of the Orinoco, is treeless and very flat. It is about four times the size of Ohio. At the close of the tropical rainy season it is a vast meadow, and is called by the inhabitants the "Sea of Grass." It supports millions of cattle and horses. Before the end of the dry season it has become a scorched and arid desert, swept by hot winds that whirl the dry soil into the air in dense clouds of dust. During the extreme drought the horses and cattle are driven to the foot of the mountains, and the great reptiles with which the ))lain abounds bury themselves in the mud of the dry- ing pools, and await in a torpid state the return of the tropical rains. 5. The central part, the selvas of the Amazon, is by far the largest. It is nearly covered with a dense forest of flowering trees, inter- woven with gigantic vines, and alive with birds and insects of brilliant colors, and with millions of monkeys and other animals of the Torrid Zone; it is almost unoccupied by civilized man, and can be traversed only by means of the rivers. This great forest, the largest in the world, also spreads far up the sides of the mountains by which the plains are surrounded. MONKEYS AND CROCODILE. 6. The southern part, the pampas of the La Plata, is more than three times as large as the llanos. It is similar to the llanos in many res]3ects, but is fiir colder ta- wards the south. It supports vast herds of cattle and million;; of .sheep and horses. These animals constitute the chief wealth of the inhabitants of the llanos and the pampas, and determine their principal occupations and exports. 7. Climate. — The greater part of South America lies within the tropics, where its broad plains have a hot and moist, and therefore sickly climate. The great moisture is caused not only by the trade winds and PHYSICAL SOUTH AMERICA: CLIMATE, VEGETATION, AND ANIMALS. 7V 0OA coNSTRicron \. ?^I^ :0 U tropical rains, but by llie evaporation from tlie large amount of river surface and from the immense area covered by vegeta- tion. Tlic high and cool ta- ble-lands of the Andes are noted for their health- ful climate. Partly for this reason, they contain a large part of the civilized injiabiiants of the continent, and a remark- able line of elevated cap- ital cities, which are from one to two miles above the level of the ocean. The extreme southern part of the continent,west of the Andes, is shrouded in clouds and drenched with rains. These rains are caused by the counter trade -winds of the South Pacific. The arid plains east of the Patagonian Andes are swept by violent cold winds from the icy sum- mits of the mountains. Farther to the north these plains are warmer, but their streams dry up or end in salt lakes instead of reaching the ocean. About one half of the western coast is a dry desert. The trade-winds from the east, in crossing the .Andes south of the Equator, become extremely dry, and, passing down to the Pacific, cause a rainless coast nearly two thousand miles long. A large district of the high plateau of Bolivia is called " the Despo- blado," or " the Uninhabited," from the dryness and severity of its climate. 8. Te^etation. — The richness and variety of the trop- ical vegetation arc indescribable. The dense forests of the plains and mountains abound in India-rubber and palm trees, and in rose-wood, mahogany, and dye-woods. Other products, such as coffee, cocoa, indigo, tapioca, cotton, and sugar, are limited only by the amount of labor and cultiva- tion bestowed upon them. 9. Animals. — Among the remarkable animals arc the llama, a beast of burden, and the alpaca of the Andes; they are something like small camels. Besides these are the puma, the jaguar, and the monkey, the boa, the condor, the nandu, or American ostrich, the penguin, and the humming-bird. Insects are more numerous and brilliant than in any other continent. Horses, cattle, and sheep were introduced from Euroioe. Questions (I.) — 1. What is the shape of South America.' Its area? Population? — 2. Into how many parts is its surface divided.' What arc they? What is said of the Andes Mountains.' What is Ijetneen them.' — 3. What is said of the Great Central Plain ? How is this plain drained .' — \. What is the character of the northern part of the Great Central Plain ? What is it called .' What is the meaning of llanos? What is its area ? — 5. Which is the largest part ? W'hat is the central part called ? W'hat ia the meaning of selvas? — (!. What is the area of the southe.n part? What is it called? What is the meaning of pampas ? — 7. What is the climate of the greater part of South America ? Of the table-lands of the Andes ? Of the southern pait of the continent ? Of the western coast? — 8. What is said of the vegetation? In what do the forests abound? What is said of other products .'—9. Which are the most remarkable ani- mals? What is said of the insects? Of the horses, cattle, and sheep? (II.)— 1. What is the character of the coasts of South America ?— 2. What is said of the Andes Mountains? Where are they highest? How high are the highest peaks? Where are they broken? What do they contain ?— 3. How far does the Great Central Plain e.vtcnd towards the east? To what causes is the rain-fall due? — t. W'hat is the condition of the northern p.art of the plain at the close of the rainy season? What does it support? What is its condition before the end of the dry season? What is done with the horses and cattle during the drought?— 5. Describe the central part of the plain ? What is the extent of the great forest ?— 6. To what is the southern part of the plain similar ? What does it support ? What is said of the animals of the llanos and the pampas?— 7. What is the cause of the moist climate of the plains? What do the table-lands of the Andes contain? Why? What is the cause of the rains west of the Patagonian Andes ? Of the dryness east of these mount- ains? What is the condition of these plains farther to the north? What is the cause of the extreme dryness of so large a part of the Pacific co.ast of S.mih America? What n.amc h.as been given to a part of the plateau of Uolivia? 78 POLITICAL SOUTH AMERICA: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. LXXVII. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. General. — What countries of South America border on the Caribbean Sea ? On the Atlantic Ocean ? On the Pacific ? Through what coun- tries do the Andes extend ? What countries are drained by the Orinoco and its branches ? By the Amazon ? By the La Plata ? What countries are crossed by the Equator ? By the Tropic of Capricorn ? Brazil. — What countries border on Brazil ? AVhich country of South America does not border on it? What river drains the northern part of Brazil? Which is its chief northern branch' Its chief southern branch? What island just south of the Equator? Between what two rivers ? What mountains near the northern boundary ? What mount- ain chains near the eastern coast ? What river breaks through the Serro Espinhaco Mountains ? ^Vhat branches of the La Plata rise in -Brazil? What city is the capital? What cape is near it? What city south of Cape St. Roque? On the Para? Between Para and Pernam- buco ? Between Pernambuco and Rio Janeiro ? On what bay ? Guiana. — How many divisions in Guiana? To whom do they be- long ? \\ hat is the capital of each ? Venezuela. — What countries border on Venezuela ? What sea on the north? \\'hat lake and what gulf in Venezuela? What large river? What island near its mouth? What city is the capital ? What town is its port ? What other port on the coast ? What town on the Orinoco ? Colombia. — What countries border on Colombia ? What cape at its northern extremity? What waters ? Which is its chief river? What city near its mouth ? What city is the capital ? What city in the south- west ? What isthmus in Colombia ? What two ports on it ? By what railroad are they connected ? (See small map.) Ecuador. — What countries border on Ecuador? What gulf on its shores? What volcanoes are in Ecuador? What city is the capital? How situated ? What city is its port ? Peru. — What countries border on Peru? What lake partly in it? What cape in the northwest ? What islands near Cape Blanco ? What city is the capital ? What city is the port of Lima ? What city north- east of Lima ? What city in the southwest ? What city north of Arequipa ? Bolivia.— What countries border on Bolivia? What mountain near Lake I'iticaca? What city is the capital? What other cities in Bolivia? Chili. — What countries border on Chili? What country is partly included in the southern portion of Chili? {Patagonia.) To what country does the rest of Patagonia belong? What large island be- longs to Chili? What small islands west? For what is one of these i-slands famous ? {For having ban the solitary residence of Alexander Selkirk, 7i>hose story was aftenuards written as Robinson Crusoe.) What desert west of the Andes? In what part of Chili is the Desert of Atacama? What group of islands south of Patagonia? What group east ? What cape south of Tierra del Fuego ? \Vhat city is the capital of Chili ? What large city is its port ? Wliat port north of Val- paraiso ? Argentine Confederation. — What countries border on the Argentine Confederation ? What rivers form parts of its boundary ? What city is the capital ? What city near the centre ? North of Cordova ? South- east of Cordova ? Near the Andes ? Uruguay. — What countries border on it ? What rivers? What city is the capital ? Paraguay. — What countries border on it ? What rivers form parts of its boundary ? What city is the capital? LXXVIII. EEVIEW EXERCISES. Countries. — W/iere is it? How bounded 1 What is the capital 1 Names. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. Names. Area in Sq. Miles. Population. Brazil 3,434,887 88,497 47,710 48,565 451,046 ,■550,000 11,108,291 248,110 63,525 36,000 2,400,000, i 3,000,000 250,000 448,000 518,920 214,874 1,164,387 74,728 95,316 1,100,000 3,:iO<).000 2,000,000 2,420,000 2,540,000 438,245 293,290 British Giii.ma. . . Dutch Guiana. . . French Guiana. . . Venezuela United States of Colombia Peru Chili Argentine Confed. Urugu.iy Paraguay Cities and Towns, — In what part of the country 1 How situated 1 — Caracas ? La Guayra ? Maracaybo ? Angostura ? Bog ota ? Po^ payanj" Cartagena? Panama? Aspinwall ? QriTO ? Guayaquil? Lima? Callao? Pasco? Cuzco? Arequipa? Sucre? La^Eaz-? Cochabamba? Potosi? Santiago? Valparaiso? Coquimbo? Buenos AyresX Rosario? Mendoza? Cordova? Tucuman? Montevideo? Asuncion? Rio Janeiro ? Bahia ? Pernanibuco? Maranham? Para? Georgetown? Paramaribo? Cayenne? Islands. — Where situated 1 — Trinidad? Joannes? Tierra del Fuego? Falkland? Chiloe? Juan Fernandez? Lobos Is. Capes. — From 7il,a...; •'' Colombia is the most important of the fi\'e northern republics. This is due to its geographical position. It contains the Isthmus of Panama, which is the most direct route for the rapitlly increas- ing commerce between the countries bordering the two great oceans. A short railroad from Panama to Aspinwall is now the route of this commerce. A great canal for the largest vessels is now under construction. It will shorten the ocean route be- tween the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of the United States at least 10,000 miles. Its opening will constitute one of the most impor- tant conmiercial and political events in the history of the world. The chief exports arc Peruvian bark, from which qui- ECUADOR.-PERU.-BOLIVIA.-CHILI.-ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION.-URUGUAY.-PARAGUAY. 81 nine is extracted, tobacco, and coffee. Bogota, the capital and largest city, is nearly 9000 feet above the sea; Popayan, the second city, is (5000 feet. Cartagena, Savanilla, Pan- ama, and Aspinwall, also called Colon, are the chief ports. 9. Ecuador. — The exports of Ecuador are cocoa, India- rubber, Peruvian bark, and vegetable ivory nuts. Guaya- quil is the chief port. Quito is the capital and largest city. INDIA-RUBBER TREES. 10. Peru. — Peru has more miles of railroad than any other state of South America. Its chief exports are guano and silver. Lima, the capital, is the largest city. Its sea-port is Callao. Pasco, 1.3,000 feet above the sea, the most elevated city in the world, is surrounded with silver-mines. Cuzco and Arequipa are large cities. Lake Titicaca, on the borders of Bolivia, i;i,0()0 feet above the sea, is the highest large mountain lake in the world. Its waters flow into Lake Auliagas in Bolivia. 11. Bolivia. — Bolivia, having no sea -coast and but little commerce, exports Peruvian bark and silver -ore through Buenos Ayres. The large cities Sucre, Potosi, Cochabamba, and La Paz, the capital, are all on the plateau. 12. Chili. — Chili is the most enterprising country of South America, and has a large proportion of European inhabitants. It has a coast-line of about 2500 miles. The chief exports are guano, saltpetre, copper-ore, silver, and wheat. Guano is obtained from the Lobes Islands and other parts of the rainless coast ; saltpetre from the southern part of the same rgen- Santiago, the capital, is the largest city. Valparaiso, the second city, is the largest sea-port on the Pacific coast of America, excepting San Francisco. Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego form the southern part of South America. The western portion of this extensive region belongs to Chili, the eastern to the Argentine Confederation. The native inhabitants are savage tribes. 13. The Argrentine Confederation.— The A tine Confederation stands next to Chili in enterprise. Emigration from Southern Europe, and commerce, are increasing. Education is advancing more rapidly than in any other country in South America. The chief exports are wool, shee{>skins, hides, tallow, and other cattle prod- ucts. Two thirds of the hides are sent to the United States. The capital, Buenos Ayres, is the largest city in South America, and a great sea-port. Other important cities, Rosario, Mendoza, Cordova, Tucuman, and Corrientes, are on the great trade-routes to Chili, Bolivia, and Paraguay. 14. Crugruay. — Uruguay is similar in its leading ex- ports to the Argentine Confederation. Montevideo, the capital, has a large trade in cattle products. 15. Parag:nay. — Paraguay is the weakest of the nine republics, and, like Bolivia, having no sea-coast, has but little commerce. Asuncion is the capital. Questions (I.)— 1. By whom was South America settled?— 2. What is said of its commerce? Of the Panama Raihcid? — 3. How may the countries of South America be considered? What are the divisions? — i. Which is the largest? What are the principal productions of Brazil ? What is the extent of its trade with the Vnilcd States? What city is the capital? For what is it noted? W'hat other important ports? — .5. To what countries do the Guianas belong? What are the chief exports? What cities arc the capitals and centres of commerce? — 6. What does Spanish South America comprise ? Name them. Of what does each republic consist ? What is said of the inhabitants of the republics of Spanish America ? Why is this an important fact? — 7. What are the exports of Venezuela? What city is the capital? What is said of it? — 8. Of the United States of Colombia? What are the chief exports? What city is the capital ? What is said of it? Of Popayan? What are the chief ports.' — 9. What are the exports of Ecuartor ? The chief port ? What is the capital ? — 10. What is said of the railroads of Peru? W'hat are the chief exports ? What city is the capital? What is said of it? What is its sea-port.' — U. What is said of the commerce of Bolivia? What are the exports? Which are the large cities? Where are they? — 13. For what is Chili noted? What are the chief exports ? What is the capital and largest city ? For what is Valparaiso noted .' — 13. What is said of the Argentine Confederation? Of emigration and commerce? Of education? What are the chief exports? Where are most of the hides sent? What city is the capital? What is said of it ? Which are the other important cities? Where are they.' — 14. W'hat are the exports of Uruguay? What is the capital? What is said of it? — 15. Of Paraguay ? What is the capital ? (II.) — 1. In what part of South America are most of the civilized inhabitants' Where are the large cities ? What is said of the Indians .' — 2. Why has South America so little commerce ? What is said nf the ro.ids ? — i. What is said of Brazil ? Where is most of the pojiulation? Of what does it consist? Where are most of the negroes? What is said of the raihonds of Brazil ? Of the telegraphs.' — G. What is said of the An- dean portion of the Spanish Republics ? Of what country were these republics once col- onies ? What language is spoken ? — 8. W'liy is Colombia the most important of the five northern republics? What commercial route does it contain ? What is the present route of this commerce? What other route is being constructed? What is said of it? — 10. For what is Pasco noted? 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Govcriiiiienfs. — Europe contains four empires, Russia, Turkey, Germany, and Austria; two republics, France and Switzerland ; twelve independent kingdoms, Norway, Sweden, Great Britain and Ireland, Spain, Portu- gal, Italy, Greece, Roumania, Servia, Denmark, Belgium, and the Netherlands; and one independent principality, Montenegro. Russia and Turkey are absolute, Ger- many, Austria, and the twelve kingdoms are limited monarchies. Besides these, there are in the German Empire the kingdoms of Prussia, Saxony, Bavaria, and Wiirtemberg ; in the Austrian Em- pire, Bohemia, Galicia, Hungary, and Croatia and Sla\'onia ; and in the Turkish Empire the principality of Bulgaria. Andorra in Spain and San Marino in Italy are small but old republics. 2. Popnlation. — The total population of Europe is estimated at 316 millions, three fourths of it being in western Europe. It is nearly all Caucasian. The three chief branches of the Caucasian race in Europe are the Celts in the west, the Teutons from the Alps to Scotland and northern Norway, and the Sclaves in the Great Plain. The people of the eastern half of Europe belong mostly to the Greek Church ; those of the northwestern regions are princi- pally Protestants ; nearly all the rest, including more than half the population, are Roman Catholics. Near the Black Sea are several millions of Mohammedans. 3. JVorway and Sweden. — Norway and Sweden occupy the Scandinavian peninsula. Norway is the smaller and more mountainous, and has less than one half as many inhabitants as Sweden. The kingdoms are separate, but the same king rules over both. 4. The maritime commerce of Norway is extensive and important. The exports are lumber and fish. 5. In Sweden railways and a system of canals from the Baltic to the Cattegat unite the internal with the maritime commerce. The exports are grain, iron, and copper. 6. Christiania, the capital of Norway, and Bergen, its largest Atlantic port, have a large trade in lumber and fish. Hammerfest, the most northern town in the world, is dependent upon the cod-fisheries. The Norwegian cod- fisheries are the greatest in the world. Stockholm, the capital of Sweden, is situated on several small islands. Gottenburg is an important port and man- ufacturing city. Norrkoping is a grain port. 7. Rnssia. — The Russian Empire, next to that of Great Britain, is the most extensive dominion in the world. It includes about one half of Europe and more than one third of Asia. The monarch is called the Czar, or em- peror. The inhabitants are mostly Sclaves. [For remainder of Section LXXXIV., see page CO.] LXXXV. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. England and Wales. — What three countries on the island of Great Britain ? What waters between Great Britain and Ireland ? England and France? What island in the Irish Sea? What hills between England and Scotland ? What mountains in Wales ? What bay west of Wales? What two rivers flow into the North Sea? For what is the Thames remarkable ? {For the largest maritime commerce in the world?) What river flows into the Bristol Channel ? Into the Irish Sea ? What city on the Thames ? What port on the Humber ? What city northwest of Hull ? Southwest of York ? West of Leeds ? Near the mouth of the Mersey ? South of Leeds ? In the northern part of England ? Near the centre ? Near the Severn ? What two cities east of Liverpool ? On the south coast ? In the southern part of Wales ? Scotland. — What islands northwest of Scotland ? What groups north of Scotland ? What hills in Scotland ? What peak of the Grampians is the highest in Great Britain? {Ben Nevis, ^^"iQ feet.) What name is given to the bays of the coast of Scotland ? (Firtl/s.) Name the five chief firths of Scotland. What firth, hills, and river form the boundary between Scotland and England ? What river flows into the Firth of Clyde ? What canal in the northern part of Scotland ? What three cities on or near the east coast ? On or near the Clyde ? Ireland. — What bays on the western coast of Ireland ? Which is the largest river? What port in the northern part? In the northeastern? In the eastern ? What city in the southern part ? What sea port near it ? What port on Galway Bay ? On the Shannon ? Travels. — Through what cities would you pass in travelling by railway from Edinburgh to London by way of Newcastle ? Plymouth to Hull by way of Birmingham ? Newcastle to Liverpool by way of Leeds ? EEVIEW EXEECISES. Cities and Towns. — In what part of the country 1 How situated 1 — London? Liverpool? IManchester? Birmingham? Leeds? Sheffield? Bristol? Bradford? Newcastle? Salford? Hull? Portsmouth? York? Plymouth? Merthyr Tydvil? Swansea? EDiNBURtsH? Glasgow? Dundee? Aberdeen? Paisley? Greeneck? Dublin? Belfast? Cork? Londonderry-? Galway? Limerick? - - Islands.— ?f//ivr«/«rt/i-(//— Man ? Hebrides? Orkney? Shetland? Mountains. — Where are theyl — Grampian Hills? Cheviot Hills? Cambrian ? Ben Nevis ? Seas, Gulfs, and Bays. — Where is ?V?— North Sea? Irish Sea? St Georges Channel? English Channel? North Channel? Strait of Dover ? Bristol Channel ? Firth of Clyde ? Firth of Forth ? Solway Firth? Moray? Pentland? Cardigan Bay? Galway? Donegal? Rivers. — Where does it rise! In what direction docs it flow! Into what body of water 1 — Thames? Severn? Mersey? Clyde? Shannon? fi l.xmginnle ^Vcst 4 fmrn Grec-uwii^h. J MAP or THTC BEITISH ISLES. Scale of Uiles. 50 75 BUETL L2n> 13.. ydrL^ SHETLAND ISLANDS, Same ital of Russia; and Warsaw, the chief city of Poland. The last two are manufacturing cities. Riga and Cronstadt, on the Baltic, export grain, hemp, flax, and lumber; Odessa, on the Black Sea, is a great grain port ; Astrakhan, on the Caspian, is noted for its fisheries and its caravan trade with Asia; Arch- angel, on the White Sea, exports oats, rye, flax, and forest prod- ucts. Questions (I.) — 1. How many and what empires in Europe? How many and what re- publics? How many and what kingdoms ? Which are absolute monarchies ? Which are limited ? — L'. What is the population of Europe ? In what part is most of it ? Of what race? — 3. Where are Norway and Sweden? How does Norway compare with Sweden in size ? In surface ? In population ? What political connection have they ? — i. What is the commerce of Norway? What are its principal exports ?- -5. How IS the interior commerce of Sweden connected with the maiitmie ' What are the exports ? — G. What is said of Chnstiania ' Bergen ? Hammerfest ? Of the fisheries of NorHa\ ' Of Stockholm? Gottenburg? Norr- koping' — 7 What is said of the extent of the Russian Empire ' What does it include ? What is the title of tlie monarch ? Of what race are most of the in- habitants? — 8. What are the leading exports? With what countries is most of the foreign trade ? — 9. For what is St. Petersburg noted ? Moscow? Warsaw? Riga and Cronstadt ? Odessa? Astrakhan ? Archangel ? (II.) — 1. What kingdoms in the German Empire? In the Austrian? What small republic in Spain? What one in Italy? What is said of them.' — 2. What branches of the Caucasian race in Europe? What religions? GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. DESCRIPTION. 1. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland includes these two great islands and many neighboring small ones; it has also extensive colonial possessions in other parts of the world. The kingdom with its depend- encies is generally called the British Empire. The most important colonies are British America, Australia, Tas- mania, New Zealand, British India, and Ceylon. Among its otiier possessions are Gibraltar, Malta, and Cyprus, in the Mediterra- nean Sea, South Africa, parts of the western coast of Africa, with St. Helena, Mauritius, and other African islands, many of the West India Islands, and parts of Central and South America. 2. Occiipatious. — The chief wealth of Great Britain is in its manufactures, mines, and extensive maritime commerce. Agriculture is carried to a high degree of perfection ; in Ireland it is the leading occupation. 3. nines. — The mines of Great Britain supply nearly one half of the coal, iron, and tin used in the world, one third of the lead, and great quantities of copper and salt. 4. ]flnnnractiires. — It surpasses every other country in the amount and variety of manufactures. The most important are of cotton, wool, and iron. 5. Coiiiincrce. — It has also a greater maritime com- merce than any other nation. It has at least 25,000 merchant vessels, and more than 200,000 seamen. They carry its manufactured products to every country on the globe, and bring in return food and raw materials. A large part of the food and two thirds of the raw cotton are ob- tained from the United States, which takes in return a greater quantity of manufactures than any other country. Tiiis commerce GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 91 is protected by the largest navy that has ever existed. Fortified naval depots for coal and provisions have been established on all the great routes of maritime trade. Among these depots are Gibraltar at the entrance, Malta in the middle, and Cyprus in the eastern part of the Mediterranean Sea ; St. Helena, Cape Town, and Mauritius on the South African route, and Aden at the mouth of the Red Sea ; Singapore at one end of the China Sea and Hong Kong at the other ; Jamaica and other islands of the West Indies ; Halifa.x, the Bermudas, and the Bahamas on the coasts of the United States ; with many others in India and Australia, besides home depots. the empire; if opposed by a majority of the House of Commons, he resigns, and the sovereign appoints his successor. 7. London, the capital of the kingdom and of the em- pire, is the most populous and wealthy city in the world ; it is also first in commercial importance; it covers 122 square miles. Liverpool has a very large foreign com- merce, especially with the United States; Manchester manufactures more cotton goods than any other city; iL^-'m^^^^" ' BRITISH NAVAL RE\TEW The several countries of Europe, and in many instances parts of the same country, differ widely in race, language, and religion. There are also intense commercial and political rivalries. As a result, mutual distrust and jealousy exist among the several governments, and Europe has become on^e great camp. In a time of professed peace between three and four millions of sol- diers stand ready for war, and the military service is so arranged that this vast number of armed men can be more than doubled at the outbreak of hostilities. Besides all this, great navies, that of Great Britain being the most powerful, are ready to extend upon the sea the destruction which may at any time begin upon the land. These enormous armaments are maintained by a grinding taxation and, in many countries, by a merciless conscription that with- draws millions of young men for years from all productive in- dustry. In consequence of this, in every part of Europe thou- sands of women are obliged to work in the fields, and to en- gage in other forms of the hardest and rudest labor. In con- trast with this state of affairs, the United States, though equal in area to all Europe, has but a small navy and a widely scattered army of about 25,000 men. 0. GoTerniiient. — Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy. The Legislature, or Parliament, has two branches — the House of Lords and the House of Comtnons. The members of the House of Commons are elected by the people. l"he execu- tive power and the entire responsibility of the government are in the hands of a small body of men called the Ministry ; they are appointed by the sovereign, through the influence of the Commons. The Prime Minister is practically the real ruler of Leeds and Bradford are noted for woollen manufactures, Sheflfield for cutlery, Birmingham for general hardware, Newcastle for coal. In W^ales, Merthyr Tydvil and Swansea are the largest cities. In Scotland, Glasgow is the largest city ; it is also the leading manufacturing city and the chief seat of com- merce. Edinburgh, the capital ; Dundee, which manu- factures sail-cloth and other coarse fabrics ; and Aber- deen, a large sea-port, are important cities. In Ireland, Dublin is the capital and largest cit}'. Bel- fast manufactures more linen goods than any other city in the world. Cork and Limerick are also important cities. Questions (I.) — 1. Wh.it does the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland include? What other possessions has it? What is meant by the British Empire? — 3. In what does the chief wealth of Great Britain consist ? What is said of agricult- ure ? — 3. Of the mines of Great Britain ? — i. Of the manufactures ? Name the most important. — 5. What is said of the commerce? — 6. Of the government? — ~. What is said of London ? Liverpool ? Manchester ? Leeds and Bradford ? Sheffield ? Bir- mingham ? Newcastle ? Merthyr Tydvil and Swansea ? Glasgow ? Edinburgh ? Dundee? Aberdeen? Dublin? Belfast? Cork and Limerick? (II.) — 1. Name the most important British colonies. What other possessions has the United Kingdom? — 5. How many merchant vessels has Great Britain? How many seamen? In what are they engaged? With what country is the chief trade? How is the foreign commerce nrotectcd ? How is the navy made effective? Name the depots. In what do the several countries of Europe differ ? What rivalries exist ? What is the result? What is said of the standing armies? Of the navies? What country of Europe has the most powerful navy ? By what means are these armies and navies maintained ? What is the consequence ? What is said ef the army and navy of the United Stales? — 6. Describe the government of Great Britain. WESTERN AND CENTRAL EUROPE: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. 93 H w so I— I o H H I— I H I rt •5 O ii c C'> i: - ^ p bl r! OJ ^> 1) m. in o ^ C ?> be x; •a o - o /%.. Oh ^ O f\.. c 1) 3 /v. u - W < < •Xi U C3 n i; L- ^ m cn ri.. ai '■^ U ( 1 ^ n r3 -a ►J « O r*.. ;i. D (d N "^ c (-1 M _1 ^. M :j U ^ a. O /v. c^ *-H Tl f/1 p ;C „ zj bjo >5 rt rt c rt ■^ « -Q ^ ^ ^'-« ;:i I -^^ = E O ■*s. c <; O « tn h- c o S >> 5 ^ 2 tt :« If < H 2 o u 5 3 — tJO is I- r" c ^— X ^ J"^ 3 .' 3 ji: J2 ■*» ^ c/; ffl S;2o 2 > /v. .Si < CO O o ^ 5 E «.2-^ 1-1 ^ J3 •«:;5 I- 3 w 3 ^ ^ I. 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The chief colonial possessions of Spain are Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippine Islands ; those of Portugal are the Azores, the Cape Verde, and the Madeira Islands, and Lower Guinea in Africa. 4. France. — The greater part of the people of France are engaged in agriculture. In the extent of its commerce and the value of its manufactures it is second only to Great Britain. Coal-mines near Belgium and in the Cevennes furnish an abun- dance of fuel for steam-power. The country is covered with a network of railways. Its four great rivers, the Garonne, the Loire, the Seine, and the Rhone, are navigable for small steamers, and are connected by canals. The leading exports are wines and liquors, silks, woollens, cot- tons, jewelry, and hardware. 5. Paris, the capital of France, is the largest city on the conti- nent of Europe. It is a great centre of learning, fashion, and the fine arts. It is noted for its magnificent public buildings, its numerous and excellent literary and scientific institutions, and its varied and tasteful manufactures. It is the central point of nearly all the railways of the country. Lyons, the second city, is the chief seat of the silk manufacture. Anions? the other large cities are Marseilles, the most important port ; Bor- deaux, the principal depot for wines and brandies ; Lille, noted for its cloths and cotton and linen goods; and Ha\'re, the port of Paris. The foreign possessions of France are quite extensive. Algeria, in Africa, and the island of Corsica are provinces having represent- atives in the French Legislative Assembly. Besides tliese there are colonies in Africa, the West Indies, Guiana, tlie Indian Ocean, Polynesia, India, and Indo-China. 6. Italy. — Italy has a large export trade in olive-oil, fruits, sulphur, and in manufactures of silk, linen, and straw. The Po and the Adige arc the only navigable rivers. The fertile plain through which they flow produces a large amount of wheat, maize, and rice. 7. Rome, the capital of Italy, is the most celebrated city in history. It was the capital of the ancient Roman Em- pire. It is the residence of the Pope, who is the head of the Roman Catholic Church. Its magnificent ruins, its collections of ancient sculptures and paintings, the splendor of its churches, and its religious im- portance attract great numbers of visitors from every part of the world. Naples the laigest cit} is distm- guisliLd foi the btaut) of its situation and for its manufactures of silk. Among other important cities are Mi- lan, noted for its silk trade and its cathedral ; Palermo, the largest city in Sicily ; Turin, re- cently the capital of Italy; Florence, containing one of the finest collections of paintings and statuary in the world ; Genoa, the birthplace of Columbus ; and Venice, SWITZERLAND.— AUSTRIAN EMPIRE. 95 [N VENICE. remarkable for its situation on several small islands, and for its numerous canals, which take the place of streets. 8. Switzerlautl. — Switzerland, the highest part of Europe, is chiefly a land of mountains. The ranges of the Alps, with their intermediate valleys, cover two thirds of the country. A high plain between the Alpine system and the Jura Mountains constitutes the remaining third. This plain and most of the Alpine valleys are carefully cul- tivated, and flocks and herds abound. 9. Switzerland is a federal republic of twenty-two small states called Cantons. About three fourths of the inhabitants are Germans, about one sixth are French, and most of the remainder Italians. 10. The manufacture of small articles, such as watches, jewelry, silk -stuffs, ribbons, and to3's, is the chief occupation ; these articles, and cattle, butter, and cheese, are the chief exports. The foreign trade is carried on chiefly through Germany and France. 11. Geneva, noted for its manufacture of watches and for its beautiful situation at the outlet of Lake Geneva, is the largest city. Basle, the second city, and Zurich are largely engaged in the manufacture of silks. Berne is the capital. Questions (I.) — 1. W'hat is said of the commerce of Spain and Portugal? Of the rivers ? Of the railways .' What are the chief e.\|)i)rts of Spain .' Of Portugal .' — li. Fur what is Madrid noted .' Barcelona ? Seville .' Valencia ? Malaga? — 3. Lisbon? Oporto? — 4. What is the chief occup.'ition of the people of France ? What is said of the commerce and manufactures ? Of the coal- mines? Of the railways? Of the rivers? What are the principal exports? — ,"). What is said of Paris? Lyons? Marseilles? Bordcau.\? Lille? Havre? — (J. What are the chief exports of Italy ? What arc its chief rivers? W'hat are the productions of the plain of the Po? — 7. What is said of Rome ? Naples? Milan? Palermo? Turin? Florence? Genoa? Venice? — 8. Which is the most elevated country in Europe? What is the general character of the country.' — 0. What is the form of government ? How many states are there? What are they called? Who are the inhabitants.' — 10. What is the chief occupation? What arc the chief exports? How is the foreign tr-tde carried on .' — 1 1. What is said of Geneva ? Basle and Zurich ? Berne ? (n.) — ;!. What is said of the foreign possessions of Spain and Portugal? — .'>. Of France? What other possessions.' — 7. What are the chief attractions of Rome? — 8. What niount.iins cover a Urge part of SwiUcrlanU? Where is the high plain? XCI. AUSTEIA.-TUEKEY.-GEEECE.-DENMAEK. 1. Aa»«trian Empire. — The proper official title of Austria is " The Austro-Hungarian Empire." It is divided into two distinct and nearly independent groups of provinces. Each group has a government of its own ; there is also a general government for the whole empire. The Kingdom of Hungary and its dependencies con- stitute nearly one half of the empire. The Emperor of Austria is King of Hungary. The provinces differ so much in nationality, race, language, and religion that the empire is with difficulty held together. One fourth of the people are Germans, and are mostly in the prov- inces bordering on Germany ; one sixth are the Magyars of Hungary (Mongols); one half are Sclaves; the remainder are Jews, Gypsies, Greeks, etc. 2. The Danube and its navigable branches form an important system of water-ways, extending entirely across the empire. There are also numerous railways. 3. The country is rich in a great variety of agricult- ural productions, valuable minerals, and extensive forests. SCENE IN SWITZ5KLAND. The chief exports are wheat, wine, salt, wool, and manufactures of linen, cotton, iron, and fjlass. The wines are among the most cel- ebrated in Europe. 96 ROUMANIA, SERVIA, AND MONTENEGRO.— TURKISH EMPIRE.— GREECE.— DENMARK. 4. Vienna, the capital of the empire, is the largest city ; it is the chief centre of manufactures and domestic com- merce, and is connected by railways with every part of the empire. Buda-Pesth is the capital of Hungary, and the great emporium of the kingdom. Prague is the third city of the empire in population. Trieste, the principal seaport of the empire, has an extensive commerce. 5. Roamania, Servia, and 9Iontene?ro. — These countries were recently parts of the Turkish Empire, but are now independent Christian states. C. Turkish Empire. — The Turkish or Ottoman Empire includes European Turkey, Asiatic Turkey, a large part of Northeastern Africa, a part of Arabia, Crete, and other islands. Though possessed of unsurpassed natural advantages for agricult- ure, commerce, and other industries, an oppressive government has made Turkey the lowest of European countries in the scale of civilization. 7. The inhabitants of European Turkey are of many races, languages, and religions. The Turks are the gov- erning race, though they constitute only a small part of the population ; they are Mongol Mohammedans from Asia. Bulgaria is a self-governing but tributary prin- cipality. 8. The chief exports of Turkey are tobacco, wine, olive- oil, cotton, fruits, silk, wool, carpets, and Morocco leather. CONSTANTINOPLE. 9. Constantinople, beautifully situated on the Bos- porus, is the capital of the Turkish Empire, and the residence of the Grand Sultan, or Emperor, who is also the head of the Mohammedan religion. Adrianople and Salonica are the chief commercial centres, and are noted for the manufacture of carpets, silks, and leather. 10. Greece. — Greece may be divided into Continental Greece and Insular Greece. Continental Greece includes the mainland and the peninsula of the Morea, or Pelopon- nesus; Insular Greece includes the Ionian Islands and those of the Grecian Archipelago. Insular Greece is comm.ercially the more important. It contains one third of the population, and all the larger towns except Athens and Patras. Greek merchants and seamen conduct the greater part of the commerce of the Black Sea and the Levant, or eastern part of the Mediterranean. The principal exports are olive-oil, honey, silk, wax, wine, currants, figs, and raisins. The ancient Greeks were celebrated above all other peoples for their valor and patriotism, and for their genius in literature, phi- losophy, and the fine arts. Their poets, philosophers, orators, historians, architects, and sculptors have never been surpassed. 11. Athens, the capital and largest city, was noted in ancient times for its pre-eminence in art and literature. Syra, or Hermopolis, is the commercial centre ; it is the chief station of the lines of steam vessels navigating the Eastern Mediterranean. Zantc, Corfu, and Patras are important ports. 12. Denmark. — Denmark consists of a number of islands and the northern half of the peninsula of Jutland. The islands contain the greater part of the population. 13. Agriculture and fishing are the principal occupa- tions. Horses, cattle, butter, cheese, pork, and grain are largely exported. The colonial possessions are Greenland, Iceland, the Faroe Islands, and several small islands in the West Indies. 14. Copenhagen, on the island of Zealand, is the cap- ital and largest city. Questions (I.) — I. Wh.it is the official title of Austria? What kingdom is a part of the (.mpire.' Who is its liing? — 2. Wh.it system of water-ways is there? What other means of transportation? — 3. In what is Austria rich? Wh.at are the principal exports? What is said of the wines? — 4. For what is Vienna noted? Bnda-Pcsth? Prague? Trieste? — .5. What is said of Rouinania, Servi.a, and Mon- tenegro? — G. What does the Turkish or Ottoman Empire inchide ? — 7. How do the inhabitants differ? What is said of the Turks? What is said of Bulgaria?— 8. What are the exports of Turkey?— 9. For what is Constantinople noted? Adrian- ople and S.ahmica? — 10. How may Greece be divided? What docs Continental Greece include ? Insular Greece ? Which is the more import.int division of Greece ? What is said of it? Who conduct most of the commerce of the Black Sea and the Lev.int? What does Levant mean? What are the exports of Greece?— 11. For what is Athens noted ? Syra ? What important ports ?— 12. Of what does Denmark consist? Where is most of the population ?— 13. What are the chief occupations? Exports ? — 1 4. For what is Copenhagen noted ? (11.)—!. How is the empire divided? Howgoverned? Why is Austria governed with difficulty? Wh.at part of the people are Germans? Wh.at part Mongols ? What . race is most numerous? What other peoples in Austria? — C. What is the rank of Turkey in the scale of civilization ?— 10. For what were the ancient Greeks celebrated? — 13. What colonial possessions has Denmark? QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF THE GERMAN EMPIRE, NETHERLANDS, AND BELGIUM. 97 iOrpyriffAt, IS75, kf /larpr i V'olSrrt.] RevistJ lo Ffbruan.', 1S36, XCII. QUESTION a ON THE MAP. Germany. — What two seas bound Germany on the north ? What kingdom? What empire east ? What empire south ? What republic ? What three countries on the west? What German state north of the Prussian province of Brandenburg ? What one nearly enclosed by Hanover? What kingdoms between Prussia and Austria? What group of small states west of Saxony? (I'/ic Siixis.) What kingdom west of Bavaria? What state west of Wurteniberg? What state be- tween Baden and Prussia ? {Hase.) What German province west of Baden ? (Alsace-Lorraine.) Prussia. — What five rivers cross Prussia ? \\'hat mountains in Prus- sian Sa.xony? What city in the Rhine Provinces? Which are the two chi2f branches of the Rhine ? What city on the Main ? In Westphalia ? In Hanover? In Prussian Sa.xony? On what river is Magdeburg? A\'hat city is the capital of Prussia ? On what river is Berlin ? What port near the mouth of tlie Oder ? What city in Silesia ? What raount- ains between Silesia and Bohemia ? What city on the Gulf of Dantzic? What one in the northeastern part of Prussia? Bavaria. — What mountains east of Bavaria ? What Austrian prov- ince? What river crosses Bavaria? What German states form the northern and western boundaries? What city is the capital? On what river? What city nearly west of Munich? What one in the northern part of the kingdom ? Saxony. — What German states border on Saxony? What Austrian province? What mountains between them? What city is the capital? What city in the northern part? Other States. — What city is the capital of Wurt^berg ? Of Baden ? What city in Alsace? What port on the Elbe neaFits mouth? What city on the Weser ? On the Baltic northeast of Hamburg? Netherlands. — What water on the west and north? What country south? What three provinces of Prussia on the east? What sea in the Netherlands? What great river crosses the kingdom ? What city on the ZuvdcrZee? What one south of Amsterdam ? West of Utrecht? South- west of Leyden.? Southeast of The H.igue ? What city is the capital ? 08 THE GERMAN EMPIRE .AND NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM: REVIEW EXERCISES.— DESCRIPTION. Belgium. — What German provinces east of Belgium ? What one south.' What country southwest.' What two rivers in Belgium? Into what do they flow ? What mountains near the French border .' What cities on or near the Scheldt? What city west of Antwerp? Northwest of Ghent? On the Meuse ? What city is the capital ? XCIII. REVIEW EXERCISES. Cities. — /« what part of the country 1 How situated 1 — Berlin? Breslau? Cologne? Magdeburg? Konigsberg? Hanover? Frankfort- on-Main ? Daiitzic? Stettin? Barmen? Posen ? Munich? Nurem- berg? Augsburg? Dresden? Leipsic ? Stutigart ? Hamburg? Bremen? Lueec? Carlsruhe? Strasbourg? The Hague? Am- sterdam? Rotterdam? Utrecht? Leyden ? Brussels? Antwerp? Ghent? Liege? Bruges? Mountains.— ^F//<'ri?tfr,f///r>'?—Bohmerwald? Erz? Riesen? Harz? Ardennes? Rivers.— W7/(rr^ does it rise? In what direction does it Jlffiv? Into what body of water? — Rhine? Moselle? Main? Weser ? Elbe? Oder? Vistula? Meuse? Scheldt? Seas and Gulfs.— JF/wv is ///—North Sea? Baltic Sea? Zuyder Zee? Gulf of Dantzic? GERMAN EMPIRE and NETHERLANDS AND BELGIUM. XCIV. DESCRIPTION. BHRBNBREITSTEIN. 1. The German Empire is a confederation of twenty- six states, and is the greatest miHtary power in the world. It contains four kingdoms — Prussia, the largest and most populous, Saxony, Bavaria, and Wurtemberg. Besides these kingdoms there are grand duchies, duchies, princi- palities, and the free cities Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubec. 2. Government. — The general government of the empire is a limited monarchy. All the separate states are also limited monarchies, excepting tlie three free cities, which are democratic republics. The King of Prussia is the German Emperor. The Legislature of the empire consists of two bodies — the Federal Council, consisting of 59 members, and somewhat resembling the English House of Lords ; and the Reichstag, consisting of 397 members, who are elected bv universal suffrage. The Kingdom of Prussia is one of the most powerful monarchies of Europe. It is noted for its great and efifi- cient armies, the general intelligence of its people, and the most complete and comprehensive system of public schools in the world. 3. Population. — The total German population of Europe is about fifty-four millions. Of these about forty- three millions are inhabitants of the empire. Austria has about eight millions, Switzerland two millions, and Rus- sia one million. The Germans are remarkable for their attainments in science, literature, and art, and for their military skiU. 4. Iflannfactares. — The manufactures are varied and extensive. The exports are wheat, wine, zinc, and manu- factured articles. Prussia furnishes about half the zinc used in the world. 5. The principal cities of the German Empire are Berlin, the capital and largest city of Prussia ; Breslau, the principal wool market on the Continent of Europe ; Cologne, the chief city of the Rhine Provinces, noted for its cathedral and its trade in wines; Konigsberg and Dantzic, the principal grain ports of Prussia ; Stettin, an important port ; Coblentz and Magdeburg, famous for their strong fortifications ; Barmen, celebrated for its ex- tensive cotton manufactures ; and Frankfort, the financial THE GERMAN EMPIRE.— HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 99 centre and the emporium of inland trade. Of the three free cities, or Hanse Towns, Hamburg is the chief commer- cial city of the continent of Europe, and the depot of trade with America and Great Britain ; and Bremen is the principal port for the German emigra- tion to the United States. Dresden, the capital of Saxony, is noted for its art galleries ; Leipsic, for its extensive manufacture of books and for its annual fairs. Munich, the capital of Bavaria, is noted for its art gal leries and its manufacture of telescopes and other scien tific instruments. Among other cities of Germany are Stuttgart, cele- brated for its vineyards ; and Strasbourg, for its cathedral and for its famous sieges. 6. IVetlierlands and Belg:iiiiii. — These countries are densely populated, Belgium being the most crowded part of Europe. 7. Possessions. — The colonial possessions of the Neth- erlands arc, next to those of Great Britain, the most ex- tensive and valuable in the world. They include the most important portions of the East Indian Archi- pelago, Dutch Guiana, and several islands in the West Indies. 8. Snrface. — A considerable portion of Belgium, and a still larger part of the Netherlands, lie below the level of the sea. The waters of the ocean are kept out, in part, by long hills of sand called " dunes," which have been thrown up by the waves and winds, and in part by great banks of earth called dikes, which face the sea and extend up the rivers. The southern part of Belgium is mountainous, and is rich in timber, coal, and iron. These supply the elements of mechanical power, and, together with the abundance of labor and the number of the ports, railways, navigable rivers, and large canals, place these countries among the foremost in the world in all the forms of mechanical industry, in foreign and domestic commerce, and in wealth. 9. Occnpations. — Agriculture is the principal occu- pation in the Netherlands, and manufactures and mining in Belgium. 10. Commerce. — The foreign trade is one of the largest in the world. The Netherlands export fish, dairy products, and the produce of their extensive East and West Indian colonies. Belgium exports a great amount and variety of fine manufactured goods, includ- ing those of silk, cotton, wool, linen, leather, and iron. 11. Amsterdam, the largest city of the Netherlands, is remarkable for its many street canals, its great dikes, and its extensive maritiine commerce ; and Rotterdam, the second city, for its distilled liquors. The Hague, Utrecht, and Leyden are important cities. The chief cities of Belgium are Brussels, the capital and largest city, celebrated for its manufactures of lace and carpets; Antwerp, the principal port and fortress of Belgium ; Ghent, second only to Manchester in England in the manufacture of cotton goods ; Liege, noted for fire- arms and cutlery ; and Bruges, celebrated for its manu- factures of linen and lace. Questions (I.) — 1. What is the German Empire .' How many and what kingdoms (Iocs it contain .' — 2. What is the government of the empire .' Of the separate states ? Of the free cities.' Who is the German Emperor.' What is said of the Kingdom of Prussia ? For what is it noted .' — 3. What is the total German population of Europe ? Of the German Empire? Of Austria? Of Switzerland ? Of Russia? For what are the Germans remarkable? — 4. What is said of the manufactures? What are the ex- ports ? — ,">. What is said of Berlin ? Breslau ? Cologne ? Konigsberg ? Dantzic ? Stettin? Coblentz and Afagdeburg? Barmen? Frankfort? Hamburg? Bremen? Dresden? Leipsir? Munich? Stuttgart? Strasbourg? — «. What is said of the popu- lation of the Netherlands and Belgium .' — 7. Of the colonial possessions of the Nether- lands ?— 8. Of the surface of the Netherlands and Belgium ? Of the southern part of Belgium ? In what is it rich ? — 9. What are the leading occupations in these countries ? —It). What is said of the foreign trade ? What are the principal exports of the Nether- lands? Of Belgium.'— U. For what is .Amsterdam noted? Rotterdam? What other large cities? For what is Brussels noted? Antwerp? Ghent? Liege? Bruges? (II.)— 1. What other political divisions are included in the German Empire ? — 2. Of what does the legislature consist?^". Which are the colonial possessions of the Neth- erlands .'—8. How are the Netherlands and Belgium protected from the waters of the ocean ? In what respects are these countries amonj the foremost in the world ? What arc the causes? PHYSICAL ASIA: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— ANIMALS. 101 ■K.5it:f;E2t?':;£££;i'2S g - «^ S •= j= £ 9 u ir, .^ -^ Jl o c 3 I" t/: o /v. t/i 1/1 ^ (U c 5:2 fin Ol 1- 1, u 4-. 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" 2 > r^ rt"'.5 - - B o a.: U o CJ 3 n •a cs. >- 3 e c CJ -£ '-' >- S ^ o i; K S O T" T* •* ^ — rj rt rt CJ o. a. c n '^ .2 .a- ^ 3 o •- CJ = rt E C c CJ a.-_5 ■n CJ CJ CJ -3 V in in -a "3 c 3 •-' - « rt ^ 3 C 3 b- X *^ r 'sort CJ O -17 os .2 n ■§ Si •^ JZ r. -2 .-^ ■« pq — C2 o o 104 PHYSICAL ASIA. In [he south and southwest are immense grassy regions, called steppes, the liotne of barbarous nomadic Tartars, who subsist principally upon sheep and horses. Between these belts is a vast ever-green forest, abounding with fur-bearing and other wild animals. Its cleared portions are in- habited by Europeans. 4. Desert Asia is a broad belt of high and dry pla- teaus, extending from the Red and Mediterranean seas almost to the shores of the Pacific Ocean. The plateau of Thibet is the highest in the world. Nearly the whole of this belt excepting Ar.nbia has great extremes of climate — hot and dry summers and severe winters. The belt of deserts is broken by the low and fertile plain of the Euphrates, once the seat of powerful empires. The mountain slopes and other fertile portions of the plateau contain populous agricultural communities, civilized but not enlightened. The remaining por- tions are inhabited by nomadic tribes. SANU-Si'OUlS IN run bEsERT. 5. Peninsular Asia is the most important division of the continent. It crosses and includes the western part of the Plateau Belt. Its southeastern peninsulas, Hindo- stan, Indo-China, Corea, with the projecting portion of China, contain at least one half of all the human race. The densest populations are found in the low plains. Palestine, in the southwestern part of Turkey, is noted not only as the Holy Land of the Bible, but also for its physical peculiarities. It contains the Dead Sea, which IS situated in a most remarkable depression of the earth. The surface of this sea is about 1300 feet below the level of the Mediterranean. Its waters are intensely salt, and, except near the mouth of the River Jordan, which flows into it, contain no animal life. East of the Indus River the climate is hot and moist ; west of the Indus it is hot and dry. Judaism, Christianity, Mohammedanism, Brahminism, and Bud- dhism, which are the chief religions of mankind, originated in Peninsular Asia. 0. Insular Asia includes the richest and most im- portant archipelagoes in the world. Note. — With the exception of Ceylon and Japan, Insular Asia will be described in a separate division, under the name of Malaysia. 7. Two races, the Mongol and the Caucasian, occupy nearly the whole of Asia. The Himalaya, Hindoo-koosh, and Caucasus Mountains separate them. Nearly all to the north of these mountains are Mongols ; nearly all to the south are Caucasians. Malay Peninsula and parts of Insular Asia are occupied by the Malay race. 8. Vegetation. — The bamboo, aloe, ebony, and san- dal-wood, among trees ; the banana, date, fig, olive, tam- arind, and cocoa, among fruits; cinnamon, cloves, and nutmegs, among spices; be- sides sugar, hemp, flax, rice, opium, tea, coffee, and cot- ton, indicate the great diver- sity of Asiatic vegetation. '.•. AnlmaLs. — Among the chief animals of Asia are the tiger, elephant, tapir, buffalo, rhinoceros, orang- outang, arctic fox, pango- lin, or ant-eater, zebra, and camel. Poisonous serpents, the crocodile, and other rep- tiles abound in southern Asia. Our domesticated animals, the lior.se, ass, goat, sheep, ox, bog, our common fouls, all of our grains excepting maize, and mnny of our most important fruits and vegetables, were deiived from Asia. Questions (T.l — 1. What is said of the size of Asia? In what pnvticnlare docs Asia surpass all other continents? — 2. Into how many and what physical bells may it be divided?— ;>. What plain occupies the greater part of Arctic Asia? — 1. What is Desert Asia? What is its extent? Which is the highest plateau? — .i. Which is the most important division of the continent? What other belt does it partly include? What is said of the population ? For what is Palestine noted ? What remarkable sea does it contain ? What is said of the surface of the Dead Sea? Of its waters? — f>. What does Insular .\sia include ? — 7. What two races occupy nearly the whole of Asia? By what are they separated ? Where arc the Mongols? The Caucasians? The Ma- lays.' — S. What is said of the vegetation? — It. Name the principal animals of Asia. (II.) — 3. Hctwecn what limits does the Silxirian Plain extend ? What is the char- acter of its clim.atc ? (Jf wh.at does it consist ? Describe the northern lielt. Somhern belt. Middle belt. — t. What is the climate of Desert Asia? By what is the belt of deserts biokcn? liv whom are the plateaus inhabited? — .■>. What is the climate east of the Indus Kiver? West? What religions have originated in Pcninsulai- Asia? — J. What aniuuls were derived from .Asia? What other things? [For Sections XCVll. and XCVIII , see p. 103J POLITICAL ASIA. XCIX. DESOEIPTION. 1. Asiatic Rnssia. — Asiatic Russia covers more than one third of Asia. It includes Siberia, Russian Turkestan, and Georgia or Trans-Caucasia, and extends from Behring Strait to the Black Sea. 2. Niberia. — Among the resources of Siberia are furs from the forest belt; gold, chiefly from East Siberia; cop- per, iron, and gold from the Ural ; and fossil ivory from the islands of New Siberia. The longest inland commercial route on the globe ex- tends from Pekin, through Maimatchin, Irkoutsk, Tomsk, and Tobolsk, to Moscow and St. Petersburg. The population of Siberi.a is about 3,500,000 mostly occupying the river-valleys in the south. A large part are exiles or descendants of exiles from European Russia, whence about 12,000 criminals are banished every year. The worst are condemned to labor in the mines. Most of the others take their families with them, and receive small grants of land. Irkoutsk is the principal city. Tobolsk, Tomsk, Omsk, Barnaul, and Tinmen are important commercial towns. 8. Russian Tiiriiesfan. — Russian Turkestan in- cludes the greater part of the country between the Caspi- an Sea and the Altai Mountains. It contains a number of districts called khanates, and several populous cities. Many of these khanates have been recently annexed by Russia. The native rulers are continued, but only as vassals of Russia. The inhabitants arc Mohammedan Tartars. 4. Georgia, or Trans-Caucasia, has a population nearly as large as that of Siberia. The people are said to be the handsomest in the world. Tiflis is the chief city, and has a great caravan trade with Persia. 5. Independent Turkestan includes those Tartar khanates that are not yet annexed by Russia. C. Cliinese Empire. — The Chinese Empire includes China, the dependent provinces of Mantchooria, Mongolia, Kashgaria, and Thibet, and the tributaiy kingdom of Corea. The Chinese Empire is one of five great governments which together cover more than half of the land surface of the clobe. These are, in the order of their area, the British Empire, the Russian Empire, the Chinese Empire, the United States, and Brazil. 7. Population. — The total population of the empire is estimated at 435,000,000, and consists chiefly of Mongols. The dependent provinces contain only about 30,000,000 ; all the rest are in China, five sixths of them being in the eastern half of it. This is the densest population in 106 POLITICAL ASIA. the world. Nearly three millions li\e in boats and in floatine gardens and houses on rafts in the rivers and canals. 8. Government and Religion. — The government is an absolute monarchy. The prevailing religion is Bud- dhism. 9. Occnpations. — Agriculture, which is regarded as the noblest of employments, is the chief occupation of the Chinese. The implements used are very rude and simple. STREET IN CHINA. 10. Productions. — Rice, tea, cotton, and silk are the great staples, and furnish the principal food, drink, and clothing. All the manufactures are the products of hand labor; those of silk and porcelain are the most valuable. 11. Commerce. — The domestic commerce of the Chi- nese Empire is unparalleled in extent. Its chief water- routes are the large canals and the navigable rivers and lakes. The mountains, steppes, and deserts of the interior plateaus are crossed by caravans of camels. A great cara- van trade with Russia has its depot at Maimatchin, where tea is cxchanfjed for furs, woollens, etc. The extensive maritime commerce is in the hands of foreigners. The principal exports are tea and raw silk. The chief imports are cotton and woollen goods, opium, and wheat. 12. Education. — Education is compulsory. All adult males are able to read and write, and possess a knowledge of the elements of arithmetic. Government officers of all grades below the emperor are selected by means of a public competitive examination to test their schol- arship, and may be of the most hnmble parentage. The Chinese are not surpassed by any people in the world in frugality and industry and in skill in their various occupations. They have possessed the mariner's compass and practised the arts of printing, silk-making, and paper-making from time im- memorial. They were also very eaily acquainted with the man- ulacture of gunpowder, but did not make use of it in war. The people are unwarlike. When not on duty the soldiers are employed in useful trades. Among the more important public works are excellent roads, great canals, and the famous wall, more than I'.'OO miles long, completed B.C. 21], to keep the Mongol Tartars out of China. 13. No other country contains so many great and walled cities as China. Their population is variously reported, and changes rapidly. Pekin is the capital and largest city. Shanghai, the chief port, is the principal depot of the great basin of the Yang tse Kiang, and has three fourths of the foreign com- merce. Han-chau, a triple city, is the great depot of in- ternal trade. Canton is the second cit}- in foreign trade. Fuh-chau is the chief place of shipment of black tea. Nankin, once the populous capital of China, is now nearly all in ruins. Among other places are Seoul, or King- kitao, the capital of Corea ; Maimatchin, the depot of the Russian trade ; and Lassa, the capital of Thibet and the residence of the Grand Lama, or Buddhist chief-priest. 14. Japan. — The Empire of Japan consists of four large mountainous islands and many smaller ones. 15. Productions. — The agricultural and manufactured products and the exports are similar to those of China. 1(5. CJorcrnment. — The government of Japan is a constitutional monarchy. The emperor is called the Mi- kado. After centuries of nearly complete exclusion, for- eigners have recently been admitted to Japan. Since that time the Japanese ha\e been quick to appreciate and adopt the arms, uniform, naval and military systems, light- houses, steam power, and telegraph of Europeans. They surpass the Chinese in intelligence, and equal them in me- chanical skill. They are of the same Mongol race, and have similar religious beliefs, but differ greatly in lan- guage and political institutions. In many respects their civilization compares favorably with that of any other nation. The elementary education of males is universal, systematic, and compulsory. JAPAN.— BRITISH INDIA AND INDOCHINA. 107 17. Tokio, known as Yedo un- til 18G8, is the national capital and largest city, and has an ex- tensive commerce ; its port, Yo- kohama, is the chief depot of the foreign trade ; Kioto was former- ly the capital and the residence of the emperor; Ozaka, the sec- ond city, is the principal port of the domestic commerce of the empire. Questions (I.) — 1. How much of Asia is occupied by the Uussi.in Empire? What coun- tiies does it include? What is its extent? — '_'. Name the principal resources of Siberia, and whence derived. What long route of inland commerce, and through what cities? What is said of Irkuutsk? What other towns? — 3. What does Russian Turkestan include ? How is it gov- erned? Who are the inhabitants? — 4. What is said of the population of Georgia? What is said of the Georgians ? Of Tiflis? — '). What is said of Inde- pendent Turkestan ? — (>. What does the Chinese Empire include ? Name in their order the five most extensive governments of the globe. What part of the land surface do they cover ? — 7. What is the total population of the empire ? Of what race are they? How is the population distributed? What is said of the water population? — 8. What form of government in China? What is the prevailing religion? — 0. What is the principal occupation ? How is it regarded ? What is the character of the iniplenienis used ? — lOi Name the staple productions. What do they furnish ? What is said of manufactures? Which are the most valuable? — II. What is said of the domestic commerce of China? What are its w.ater-routes ? Where are caravans employed? How is the trade with Russia conducted? WHiich are the principal exports? The l)rincipal imports? — 12. What is said of education .' — 13. What is said of the cities of China? Of their population? What is said of Pekin? Shanghai? Han-chau ? Canton ? Fuh-chau ? Nankin ? Seoul or Kingkitao ? Maimatchin ? Lassa .' — U. Of what does the Empire of Ja|ian consist? — 1.5. W'hat is said of the agricultural and manufactured products and the exports.' — IC. Of the government? What is the emperor called? What has been the policy of the Japanese towards foreigners? What European inventions have the Japanese adopted? How do the Japanese compare with the Chinese? What is said of their civilization? Of education.' — 17. For what is Tokio or Ycdo noted ? Yokohama? Kioto? Ozaka? (H.) — 3. W'hat is the population of .Siberia? Where located? What is said of the exiles.' — 12. How are the government officers of China selected? For what are the Chinese distinguished? What arts have they long practised? What is said of the character of the Chinese ? Of their public works ? This plain contains the Valley of the Indus, the lower half of which is mostly desert, and the Valley of the Ganges, which is one of the most fertile and populous countries in the world, being surpassed only by portions of China. .f.-:.^. GATHERING TEA. c. BRITISH INDIA AND INDO-CHINA. 1. British India. — British India includes nearly all Hindostan and most of the wiestern coasts of Indo-China. It is the richest and most important dependency ever possessed by any nation. 2. Sarrace. — Hindostan consists of the Himalayan highlands in the north, the plateau of the Deccan in the south, and the great plain between them. 3. Tnhabitanis. — The inhab itants number about 253 millions, being about four fifths as many as in all Europe. Six sevenths are Hindoos, whose religion is Brahminisni; most of the remainder are either Buddhists or Mohammedans. There are also Parsees, or Persian fire-worshippers, Jews, and European Christians, and many whose religious be- lief is the grossest heathenism. The greater part of the Europeans are in the British army of India. The Hindoos have possessed a wonderfully rich poetical, philo- sophical, and religious literature from times long before the Christian era. British India is rapidly adopting the civilization of Europe. 4. Government. — The country is under the control of a Governor-General and a Supreme Council appointed by the British Government. The Queen of England is " Empress of India." The capital is Calcutta. The rich and populous island of Ceylon is a separate colony. 5. Prodiietions. — The principal vegetable productions are rice and other grains, cotton, sugar, opium, indigo, jute, and spices. Rice is the principal article of food, and cotton the chief material for clothing. (3. Commerce. — The maritime commerce is chiefly with Great Britain and China, and is controlled by native and British merchants. The routes of an extensive car- avan trade radiate from Hindostan to all tbe countries of Central and Western Asia. Among the most impor- tant articles of export are cotton, opium, sugar, jute, indigo. 108 BRITISH INDIA, INDOCHINA, PERSIA, AFGHANISTAN, BELOOCHISTAN, AND ARABIA. fine fabrics of silk and cotton, and costly Cashmere shawls. Ceylon is noted for its export of coffee and cinnamon. 7. Railways, etc. — The principal cities are connected by railways, by means of which the cotton and other produce of the interior are brought to the ports. Nearly all the railways and telegraph lines of Asia are in British India. Steamboats ply on the principal rivers. 8. Calcutta, the capital and largest city of British In- dia, is the chief commercial centre of Hindostan ; Bom- bay is the chief cotton port; and Madras is the centre of an extensive trade. Benares, the chief seat of Hindoo learning and religion, is the most sacred city of Hindo- stan. Among other important cities are Lucknow, Patna, Hyderabad, Delhi, Surat, and Cashmere. 9. Indo-China. — Indo-China includes Burmah, Siam, Anam, and man}^ smaller independent states. All have despotic governments. The southeastern coast is called Cochin China. The interior of these countries is but little known to Europeans. 10. Inhabitants. — The inhabitants resemble the Chi- nese in race, religion, and civilization. 11. Commerce. — The foreign commerce is chiefly with China and by inland routes. The productions and exports are similar to those of Hindostan. 12. Bankok, a large part of which consists of houses built on floating rafts of bamboo, is the capital of Siam and the largest city in the peninsula; Mandalay is the capital of Burmah, and Hue the capital of Anam. l;i The British possess parts of the west coast of the Malay peninsula, and the island and fortified city of Singa- pore, one of the most important ports of the East. It controls the Strait of Malacca, the chief gateway of Asiatic maritime commerce, and is the great depot for tin, which is obtained from neighboring mountains and islands. The Frenoh possess an important province in Indo-China; Sai- gon, a fortified port on the southern coast, is its capital. Questions (I.)— 1. What does British India include ? What is said of it ?— 2. De- scribe the surface of Hindostan. — 3. How many inhabitants in British India? What portion are Hindoos? What is their religion? What other religions are found in India? With what are most of the Kmopcan residents connected? — 4. By whom is the country governed ? What city is the capital ? What island is a province of British India?— 5. What are the principal vegetable prcduclions? The chief article of food ? Of clothing? — C. With what countries is the maritime commerce? What is said of the caravan trade? What .are the most important exports? — 7. What is said of the means of communication ?— 8. For what is Calcutta noted? Bombay? Madras? Benares? Name other important cities. — 9. What countries are included in Indo- China? What is the character of their governments? What name is given to the southeast coast? What is known of the interior ?— 10. What is said of the inhabit- ants?— 11. Of the commerce? Of the productions and exports .'—12. For what is Bankok noted ? Mandalay ? Hue .'—13. What and where are the British possessions ? Their port? Why important? Of what is it a depot? What other liuropean nation has possessions in Indo-China? What and where is the capital? (II.) — 1. What two valleys does it contain? What is the character of each? — 8. What is said of Hindoo literature? Of the civilization of British India? CI. PERSIA, AFGHANISTAN, BELOOCHISTAN, AEABIA, AND TURKEY, 1. Persia, Afghanistan, and Beloochistan. — Per- sia, Afghanistan, and Beloochistan occupy the desert plateau of Iran, between the valleys of the Tigris and the Indus. Persia is the largest and most important. They are traversed by many high mountain ranges. 2. The high plateaus of the central region contain broad steppes and deserts, with many rich oases which determine the caravan routes. o. Beloochistan is mostlv a barren wilderness. Afsfhan- istan is of commercial and military importance because it contains the chief routes from India to Western Asia. 4. Gorernnients. — The gov^ernments are extremely oppressive. The supreme ruler of Persia is called the Shah. Afghanistan is noted for its frequent and cruel civil wars ; the monarch is called the Khan. Beloochistan consists of a number of small states, under the headship of the Khan of Kelat. 5. Inhabitants. — The inhal-itants are of various Mo- hammedan races, and live mostly in towns and villages. The deserts and oases have a large nomadic population, mostly robber hordes of Arabs, Turks, and Afghans. The Persians, on account of their polite manners and comparatively high civilization, are sometimes called the French of Asia. 6. Exports. — Persia exports silks, woollens, shawls, carpets, and cotton, silk, and wool. 7. The chief cities of Persia are Teheran, the capital ; Ispahan, once one of tlie most splendid cities of the East, but now fallen into decay ; Tabriz, noted for its great trade with Russia ; Bushire, the principal port on the Persian Gulf; and Meshed, the Holy City of Persia. Kelat, the capital and chief town of Beloochistan, and Cabul, the capital and largest city of Afghanistan, Herat, and Kandahar are important as military stations and as depots of the great cara\an routes. 8. Arabia. — Arabia is about one third as large as the United States. It consists of three regions: a great plateau, having many large and fertile valleys, occupies the interior ; surrounding this is a broad belt of deserts, covering more than one third of the peninsula; along the coasts is a low and narrow sandy plain containing a few fertile districts. 9. tiiovcrnment. — The interior contains several inde- pendent states governed by despots called sultans. POLITICAL ASIA: TURKEY. 109 About five sixths of the population live in towns and villages ; the remainder are tribes of plundering nomads, called Bedouins. The heads of the tribes are called sheiks. They are nearly all subject to the sultans. The principal state is the Nedjed, which occupies the greater part of the interior plateau. Riad is the capital and the residence of the Sultan. Muscat, the capital of Oman, is the largest city of eastern Arabia. 10. Yemen and Hedjaz, on the western coast, are prov- inces of the Turkish Empire. Yemen is very fertile. Hedjaz contains the holy cities of Mecca and Medina. Mecca is the birthplace of Mohammed, and contanis the Kaaba, the most sacred of mosques. It is annually crowded with caravans of pilgrims from all parts of the Mohammedan world. An im- mense amount of trade is at the same time carried on. The camel, "the ship of the desert," is the principal beast of burden. The horses of Arabia are famous for speed and beauty. 11. Besides the cities al- ready mentioned are Sana; Jiddah, the port of Mecca; Mocha, noted for its coffee ; and Aden, belonging to Great Britain. The most valuable pearl fishery in the world is at Bahrein Island, near the Strait of Ormus. 12. Asiatic Turkey. — Asiatic Turkey is the most important part of the Otto- man Empire. 1:5. GoTernineiit. — It is divided into provinces, which are governed by pachas aj> pointed by the Sultan. Turkey was for centuries one of the richest regions of the world. The arbitrary and oppressive nature of the gov- ernment has long since reduced it to utter poverty and degra- dation. Provinces once flourishing and densely populated are now dry and solitary wastes. 14. Coininerce. — Maritime commerce is in a low con- dition. The caravan -trade connects the chief cities with Arabia and Persia. There are few roads. The Lebanon Mountains in the southwestern part produce large quan- tities of raw silk. 15. The principal cities are Smyrna, the. chief com- mercial city of Western Asia, noted for its exportation of figs and other dried fruits ; Bagdad, the centre of the caravan trade with Arabia and Persia ; Bassorah, the chief port, near the Persian Gulf ; Damascus, a depot of the caravan trade with Persia, and said to be the old- est city in the world; Beirut, the sea-port of Damascus; and Jerusalem, the sacred city of Christians, Jews, and Mohammedans. Aleppo, Brusa, and Trebizond also are important cities. Japan, China, and India have possessed extensive commerce, books, and definite systems of religion and government from the earliest ages. For many centuries the social condition of these countries remained unchanged. Important and rapid changes are now taking place in consequence of the adoption and introduction of the railway, the telegraph, and other prac- tical applications of the sciences and arts of Europe. Questions (I.)— 1. Where are Persia, Afghanistan, and Beloochistan ? Which is the most impurlam? By what are they traversed ?— 2. What is the character of the central region ?— 3. Of beloochistan } Why is Afghanistan important .'—4. What kind of government have these countries? What is the title of the Persian monarch .» For what is Afghanistan notedi" What is the monarch called .' Of what does Beloochistan consist .' Under what leadership ? — .5. W hat is said of the inhabitants .' Of the popu- lation of the deserts and oases? Of the Persians? — 6. What are the e.vports of Persia? — 7. For what is Teheran noted ? Ispahan? Tabriz? Bushirc? Meshed? Kelat? Wh.1t other caravan depots.' — 8. How large is Arabia? Of what docs it consist? What is the interior? What surrounds it ? What surrounds the whole? — !). What does the interior contain ? By whom governed ? Which is the principal state ? Where is it? What city is the capital ? What is said of Muscat.' — 10. Of Yemen and Hedjaz? — 11. Name some other cities. For what is Bahrein Island noted? — 12. What is said of .Asiatic Turkey? — 13. How is it divided? By whom are the provinces governed? — 14. What is said of the maritime commerce? Of the caravan trade? Of the roads? Where is silk produced.' — ir>. What is said of Smyrna? Of Bagdad? Of Bassorah ? Of l)am.iscus ? Of Beirut? Of Jerusalem? What other important cities. (II.) ^9. What part of the popuhition is not nomadic? Who are the Bedouins? To whom arc the liedonins subject.' — 10. For what is Mecca noted? What is said of the pilgrims ? Of trade ? Of the camel ? Of Arabian horses ?— 13. What was once the condition of Turkey? What is its present condition ?— 1.5. What is said of the social condition of Japan, Cl.ina, and India' What changes are now going on ? .110 OCEANICA: QUESTIONS ON THE MAP.— REVIEW EXERCISES. m^t W) ^ '^^^fg^K^ j^^^'^^^f^ i k.. , A '-'^ T) -,', -a '^' *^ o. u (A JJ (U _:; C M ;" 3 .c (D .™ .3 £■ rt S c OJ O o rt 'E. r: O c "o CJ nd. What strait s at range of mounta le colony ? What ot land? imall islands scatte northeast of New C s, see small maps ; untry do they belo; Slame the three larg Hawaii? What gr argest ? V *— rt ^ ofth ith Is the s mds istion at CO ;r? 1 o in the 1 x; _o .■3 cfl ii ~ cr ? 3 o _ rt.. O o he cap ity on given What owing ) To c of Ca lat vol Whicl- ^j o o > o C ta c (/: chief islan 1 has many hat city is ? What ( : name is Polynesia.) nd the fol emisphere f the Trop pital ? W Islands? 3 >-u g — ^KOSi^ O rt sz ■;: « > ^. .2 c: ■£ OJ "? c — o j: s iz: £ 4) /v. ._. South Island ? y on North Is Polynesia. — \ er the Pacific nia? (For th ap of Westeri hat group sou hat city is th st of the Frie: ^ > /\.. .- (U r- >- ^ - 'o E « .s -S § -o s ^ ^ s rt (J u .ji rt -ji ". -J) Vhat se What ? Nam What i Malacc What i It three What i ^. c 3 n " rt :S bp s of Asia rgest isla st of Bor Mindanai the Strai n Sumatr lorneo ? :iva belon bes? • EH theast the la orthea On nd in Dorts i hof B and J: f Celel H H o sou his ds n on ? isla ree \ Sout itra st ol Q rchipelago its? Whic up of islan ,ty on Luz It city and What th Borneo ? ip do Sum: it group ea 2 EH A "£S":i:'::T30.S 3 Malaysia. — What Malaysia ? What st in Borneo ? ^Vhat g tw-o largest. W'hat west of Borneo ? \\ long to Great Britaii between Sumatra an has it? To what gr east of Borneo ? W O C E A N I C A. CIV. DESCEIPTION. 1. Oceanica. — Oceanica includes all the islands of the Pacific Ocean south of the Tropic of Cancer. It consists of the great archipelagoes of Malaysia and Melanesia, the continent of Australia, together with the islands of Tas- mania and New Zealand, and Polynesia. 2. Malaysia. — The population of Malaysia is about 30,000,000, or nearly five times as much as that of all the rest of Oceanica. The people are mostly Moham- medan Malays, and are brave, intelligent, and in part civ- ilized. The climate is similar to that of the West Indies. 3. The Philippine Islands, the most northern group of Malaysia, belong to Spain. The capital, Manila, is a great emporium ; its exports include sugar, tobacco, ci- gars, indigo, Manila-hemp, cordage, and hats. Java, Celebes, the Moluccas, many smaller islands, and parts of Sumatra and of Borneo belong to the Nether- lands, and are called the Dutch East Indies. They arc rich in spices and tin, and, next to British India, are the most magnificent of colonial possessions. Java, the most important of these islands, contains about eighteen millions of inhabitants. Batavia, the capital and the chief com- mercial depot, exports the tin of Borneo and Banca, the pepper of Sumatra, the cloves, nutmegs, and other spices of the Moluccas and Celebes, and other tropical products. 4. Helanesia. — Melanesia, or " Land of the Blacks," is a long group of islands extending from New Guinea to New Caledonia. It is inhabited by a cannibal, negro- like race called Papuans. 5. Australia. — The continent of Australia and the islands of Tasmania and New Zealand are British posses- sions. The area of Australia is nearly equal to that of the United States, excluding Alaska. Its colonial divi- sions are Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, West Australia, and South Australia, with its dependency. Northern Territory. Victoria, the most important, equals in area all the New England States, together with New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland. The greater part of the interior of Australia is yet unexplored. It probably consists mainly of low desert plains. The continent is nearly encircled by a rim of low mountains, the highest being on the eastern side. Between these and the almost unbroken coasts is a narrow belt of lowlands. There are but few rivers. G. Population. — The European population is about two millions, the greater part being in Victoria and New South Wales. The original savage inhabitants are nearly exterminated. 7. Ciovcrmucut. — The colonics are politically inde- OCEANICA: AUSTRALIA AND POLYNESIA. 113 pendent of one another, and are governed by representa- tives chosen by universal suffrage, and by executive offi- cers appointed by the Crown. 8. Climate. — The northern part of Australia has a tropical climate ; the southern part is subject to sudden and great changes of temperature, and to an irregular succession of floods and droughts. 9. Yegetatioii. — In the wooded regions the trees, which are chiefly evergreens, stand wide apart, have few leaves, and cast little shade. Some exceed in height the great trees of Cahfornia. 10. Animals. — Many of the native quadrupeds are pouched animals, some being as tall as a man, others no larjjer than a rat. Anions: the most sinorular are the kangaroo, the wombat, and the duck-bill; the last has webbed feet and a broad bill like a duck. Amons: the birds are the apteryx, which has no wings, and the lyre- bird, the tail-feathers of which resemble a lyre. 11. Productions. — Australia produces wheat, indigo, cotton, sugar, coffee, tin, and copper. The scattered but rich grasses support many millions of sheep and cattle. It is the chief wool-growing country in the world, and is second only to the United States in the production of gold. 12. Commerce. — Nearly all the maritime commerce is with Great Britain, and is carried on by steamers. Railways and telegraph lines connect the two largest cities, Melbourne, the capital of Victoria, and Sydney, the capital of New South Wales, with other towns. Other important towns are Ballarat, Geelong, Paramatta, Ade- laide, Brisbane, and Perth. The chief exports are wool, cotton, wheat, gold, and copper. The Australian Colonies and New Zealand, though distant nearly half of the circumference of the globe from Great Britain, are in telegraphic communication with that country. A land line from the principal cities crosses the middle of the continent to the northwestern coast, and is continued by an ocean cable to British India. Other lines and cables connect this latter country with London. A line of ocean steamers, plying between Australia, the Feejee and Sandwich Islands, and San Francisco, connects the commercial system of the United States with that of Aus- tralia. 13. Tasmania and Now Zealand are very moun- tainous. The productions of Tasmania are similar to those of Australia. The capital is Hobart Town. New Zealand is a little larger than Great Britain. Gold, wheat, and New Zealand flax are the chief exports. Wellington is the capital. 14. Polynesia. — Polynesia consists of many thousands of small oceanic islands situated in the Pacific Ocean and within the Torrid Zone. These islands are mostly in parallel chains, and appear to be the tops of mountain ranges whose bases are deep in the ocean. If the mountain is entirely below the sea, the island u.sually consists of an irregular oval ring or reef of coral, enclosing a lagoon, having one or more openings to the sea, and crowned with cocoanut-palms and bread-fruit and other trees* Such an island is called an atoll ; many hundreds of atolls some- times constitute a single group. • ,- •■*-_,','«."' 'dfeKts^ ' >iii M W: Snffi .^^,5^-V<^;^^ ^^ i^ -. . M . -. "f CORAL ATOLU 15. The Polynesians are mostly Malays and Pagan sav- ages. The Sandwich Islands, Tahiti, the Feejee Islands, and the Samoan Islands have become Christian states. 16. The Sandwich Islands, the most important group, produce sugar and cotton of an excellent quality. They contain many volcanoes ; one of these, Mauna Loa, has the largest crater in the world ; its black lava wall en- closes a lake of fire. The government is a limited mon- archy. The capital, Honolulu, is an important port. Note. — The trade of the United St.ites with the countries on the shores of the Pacific Ocean and witli the islands scattered over its surface is rapidly grow- ing in importance. From some of these islands the exports are already large in quantity and of great value. No other equal area of land surface on the globe is capat)le of yielding a larger amount of sugar, cotton, and other trop- ical products, and no people are so well situated to engage in this commerce as those occupying the western coast of the United States. Questions (I.) — 1. What does Oceanica include? What great archipelagoes? What continent? What islands? What other division.' — 2. What is the i)opulation of Malaysia? Of what race and religion? Of what character and social condition? What is said of the climate ?— ;!. What islands belong to Sp.iin ? What is the capital ? What is said of it ? What are the exports ? What islands belong to the Netherlands? What is said of them? Of Java? Of Batavia?—!. What is Melanesia? By whom inhabited ?— 5. To what country do Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand belong? What is the area of Australia? Name its colonial divisions. What is said of the area of Victoria.' — G. What is said of the European population of Australia? Of the original inhabitants? — 7. How are the colonies governed?— 8. What is the climate of Australia ?— !). What is said of the trees of Australia ?— 10. Of the native animals ? —II. Of the productions? Of the sheep and cattle? Of wool? Of gold ?— 12. How is the maritime commerce conducted? W'ith what country? W'hat are the means of internal communication ? Name the important towns. What are the chief exports ?— 13. What is the character of the surface of Tasmania and New Zealand? What are the productions of Tasmania ? Its capital ? What is the size of New Zea- land? What are the chief exports? What city is the capital?— 14. Of what docs Polynesia consist ?— 15. Of what race are the Polynesians ? In what social state ? What three important exceptions ?— 16. What is said of the Sandwich Islands? Of their volcanoes ? Government? The capital? (II.)— .5. What is said of the interior of Australia? Of the mountains? Of the lowlands? Of the coasts? Of the rivers ?— 13. How do the Australian colonies com- municate with Gre.it Britain ? How is the commercial system of Austr.ilia connected with that of the United States ?— 14. How arc the islands arranged? What do thej seem to be? What is an atoll? W "Weit 10 Looeltiids Crom Or««Dwl<-h A T L' A K T I G ,AZOBE9 Oi C £ A ir XADEIBA IS. (Zb nmgali Mogadon Mor '3lca CAN ART I ft. IC. man •/" /; /■: s A n £ I. TIMBUCTOO i,E o N E ^^oy: ■.",•-—-■;_, "-^ i MONROVI EROON MTS. EQUATOR Fernando Pol. ii-*^^ ,^ G r J X z* A ghto/Jim/ra jynX CAPE I-. AKIJAFO S i T J E cf&?i(Sfca_^jfe St-ThoiiiasI./i'^'-'^boon^gaTo;;. Ascension I. 9 C. Lopez C x^ ^ & )XGOtV«f>,..' *o=> ;r_;._ p E S E R T BEL' ''~ 'M/>w ■ "-~' ".- I.,,,, ■^ SAHARA ohGRE /nr^:^.E S E R T V ,1 t^■* THE SAHEL „ A', "'"''' 7 "^ ;r= -.JCUcmlia {.mbiloj^ S-'' Njaro Y '■^^ivrtlinda □ flal ijJQuiloa -■.-7-^AS«.#^w V«A. /<7/ \~„Bj^CJ)ilgado tA.V(,A-y,l-^^lV^KOI«l rnVSJCAL MAI* OP AEHICA s C.St-M«rj St.lt*lrM B.\ o.ooodr '09TB.CM wool K AL A II A III ^A D r. S E H T tei £*.<.v<>ij TBANSVAAlL i "^S-^ PRETORIA^ /\ f tj^ if. /r. is /< nirieoles ^ * y 'JO'i / C.St.Mar 1 Mj>E('oi,aNA: ■!*\. lAiDcItuile EmI 00 from GrucnitlctL MASCARENE IS. Keunlon BL (To Itluil Ro.lrlKUei I. Troiilo of I DpHrnra POLITIC^VL MAP OF AFRICA Srnle of 1111*^0 nw sno 300 100 iKTO v^v io H I O J : 4i.u6u ' iooKlmde EttHt »7 from WaBliliiKtoti lO? {'"{•yri^M, IBlv, fty ll'ifptr <* A'r.MfM.J R«vi»ed lo tcbruJirj, Ib^ti. cv. QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. In what zone is most of the continent of Africa ? (See Physical Map.) What waters surround it ? What cape at the northern extrem- ity ? At the eastern ? The southern ? The western ? Near Cape Agulhas? What great island is nearly parallel to the eastern coast? What channel between them ? What mountains parallel to the south- ern coast ? To the Gulf of Guinea ? To the Mediterranean Sea ? What desert is crossed by the Tropic of Cancer ? By the Tropic of Capricorn ? What river in the northeastern part of Africa ? Name its three principal branches. What plateau is partly drained by the Blue Xile? What lakes by the White Nile? Name other lakes in the Lake Region. What river flows into the Mozambique Channel ? What rivers flow into the Atlantic Ocean ? What islands northwest of Madagascar ? East of Madagascar ? (Mascarcne Islands.') Name the two largest. What solitary islands in the Atlantic Ocean south of the Equator ? What general name is given to the countries forming the northwest- ern border of Africa ? (See Political Map.) Name the Barbary States. What country occupies the northeastern part of Africa ? What prov- ince in the southern part? In the southwestern part? What country southeast of Nubia ? Northwest of Madagascar ? North of Mozam- bique ? What three British colonies in Southern Africa ? \Miat state northeast of Cape Colony ? What general name is given to the western coast north of the Equator ? South of the Equator ? What countries west of Upper Guinea ? What name is given to the coast north of Sierra Leone ? To the countr}' south of Sahara ? What city is the capital of Eg)-pt ? At the western mouth of the Nile ? At the eastern mouth ? What name is given to the triangular piece of lowland having Cairo, Alexandria, and Damictta at the angles? {The Delta, from its resemblance to A, the Greek letter D.) VV'hat towns on the Suez Canal ? What three cities in Abyssinia ? What is the capital of Zanguebar ? On what island ? What is the capital of Mada- gascar? Name the capitals of Cape Colony and Natal. Of Orange Free State. Of Liberia. Of Sierra Leone. What city is the capital of Morocco ? What city southwest of Fez ? What three cities in Algeria ? What is the capital of Tripoli ? Of Tunis ? Of Fezzan ? Barca ? What four cities in Soudan ? CVI. EEVIEW EXEECISES. Principal Divisions and Subdivisions. — Where is it? — Barbary States ? Morocco ? Algeria ? Tunis ? Tripoli ? Barca ? Fezzan ? Egypt? Nubia? Egyptian Soudan ? Abyssinia? Zanguebar? Mo- zambique ? Cape Colony ? Natal ? Transvaal ? Orange Free State ? Upper Guinea? Senegambia? Sierra Leone? Liberia? Lower Guinea ? Sahara ? Soudan ? . Rivers. — Il'here docs it rise I In what direction docs it Jlow f Into what body of water /—Nile ? White Nile ? Blue Nile ? Atbara ? Zambesi? Orange? Congo? Niger? Cities. — In what part of the country! How situated 1 — Cairo? Alexandria? Damietta ? Port Said? Suez? Gondar ? Antalo ? Ankobar? Zanzibar? Tananarivo? Bloemfontein ? Cape Town? PlETERMARITZBL'RG? PRETORIA? MONROVIA? FrEE ToWN ? FeZ ? Morocco? Algiers? Constantine? Oran ? Tunis? Tripoli? MouRzouK? Bengazi? Timbuctoo? Kano? Sokoto? Kuka? Atlas JI13. SAHARA OR GREAT DESERT ABYSSINIAN PLATEAU S(l.)(-!(00 Where arc the longest mountain chains? What peaks do they contain ? What other important ranges ? — 4. What is said of the rivers ? Of the lakes ? THS SUEZ CANAL. POLITICAL AFRICA. CVIII. DESOEIPTION. 1. Population. — The population of Africa is estimat- ed at 206 millions. The inhabitants of the Sahara and the countries north and east of it are mostly of the Caucasian race, though much darker than Europeans. The negro race occupies nearly the whole continent south of the Sahara, and forms much the greater part of the population. 2. Gorernnient. — All the native governments are despotisms, and, except in Egypt and the Barbary States, are of the rudest and simplest description. 3. Coniincrce. — The limited commerce of Africa is in the hands of the white race. Caravans cross the Great Desert from the Barbary States by the lines of oases, and barter European and Asiatic manufactures for the gold, gums, ivory, and ostrich feathers of Cen- tral Africa. • Similar articles from the interior are brought to the eastern and western coasts. The Suez Canal and 118 CAUCASIAN AFRICA. the Alexandria and Suez Railway are a part of the com- mercial systems of Europe and Asia. Questions. — 1. What is the population of Africa? How is it distributed? — 2. What is said of the native governments ? — ;5. What race controls the commerce of Africa? ])escribe the caravan trade. 'I'o what commercial systems do the Suez Canal and UaiUvay belong? CIX. CAUCASIAN AFEICA. 1. Egypt. — Egypt and its dependencies, Nubia and Eg>'ptian Soudan, occupy the Valley of the Nile from the Equator to the Mediterranean. They are a portion of the Turkish Empire. 2. The Wile. — The heavy tropical rains in Abyssinia and farther south cause the Lower Nile to overflow its banks from June to December. The water slowly rises for three months, and as slowly subsides, leaving a narrow river for the rest of the year. A belt of low land from one to seven miles wide, crossing the desert region from the mountains to the sea, is thus alternately a continuous lake and a broad green ribbon of grasses and cotton. Not a single stream joins the Nile for the last 1200 miles of its course, rain being almost unknown except in the Delta. This remarkable valley was for thousands of years the seat of a powerful empire, famous for its wealth, industry, learning, and skill in the arts. The pyramids and temples of ancient Egypt have been preserved by the dry climate, and are the most stu- pendous and magnificent ruins in the world. Egypt is by far the most important country in Africa. It is the only one that resembles Europe in its manufactures, agriculture, education, railways, and telegraphs, and in the organization of its army and navy. 3. Government. — The government is a despotism. The chief ruler is called the Khedive, or Viceroy. •i. Commerce. — Alexandria and other cities export large quantities of grain and cotton. The Suez Canal, recently completed, belongs to Egypt, and is the most important maritime trade route in the world. It con- nects the commerce of Europe with that of southern and eastern Asia. An important railway connects- Alex- andria, Cairo, and Suez, and forms a portion of the over- land route to India. 5. Population. — The population of Egypt and its de- pendencies is about seventeen and a half millions ; four and a half millions are in Egypt. Most of these are of Arab descent ; the remainder are Berbers and other African tribes, with a small number of Copts, who are de- scended froin the ancient Egyptians. The Turks are the ruling class, and Mohammedanism is the prevailing religion. G. Cairo, the capital, is the largest city in Africa. Alex- andria is the second city and largest sea-port, Port Said and Suez are at the ends of the sjreat canal. 7. Barbary States. — The Barbary States are Mo- rocco, Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli, and Barca. The Barbary States are so called from the Berbers, a pastoral and agricultural people occupying the Atlas region. The other prin- cipal races are the Moors, the Arabs, the Turks from Asia, and the Erench from Europe ; all but the last are Mohammedans. The fertile valleys and slopes of the Atlas are called the "Tell," or (jrain Country. South of the Tell is the Sahara, or Country of Oases ; it abounds in dates. The name Sahara is also given by European geographers to the Great Desert. 8. Alorocco. — Morocco derives its name from the Moors. It is a semi-barbarous country, governed by a sultan. It exports wool, hides and skins, wheat, and almonds. Fez, the capital, is the western depot of the caravan trade be- tween Europe and Central Africa. 9. Aljs^eria. — Algeria is a pio\ince of France. It ex- ports grain, dates, cotton, indigo, and sugar. The chief cities are Algiers, the capital, Constantine, and Oran. Europeans form but a small part of the population, and are mostly in the sea-port towns. The rest of the inhabitants are about equally divided between the Berbers of the Tell and the Arabs of the Sahara, which here contains many small oases. 10. Tunis. — Tunis, Tripoli, and Barca are unimpor- tant states, and are dependencies of the Turkish Empire. They export olives, oil, grain, and dates. Fezzan is a dependency of Tripoli. Tripoli, the capital of Tripoli, has a large caravan trade with Central Africa. 11. Sahara. — The Sahara is the most extensive desert on the globe. It is the western portion of the desert belt that extends from China to the Atlantic Ocean. It consists of rocky plateaus and mountain ridges, separated by broad tracts of gravel or shifting sand. Rain falls during certain parts of the year in the mount- ain regions, and oases occupy the low and moist spots. In the higher plateaus the people are said to wear furs in the winter. 12. A line of oases from Tripoli through Mourzouk in Fezzan to Lake Tchad is the principal cara\'an route. ABYSSINIA.— NEGRO AFRICA: SOUTH CENTRAL AFRICA AND AFRICAN ISLANDS. 119 This line divides the Sahara into two parts. The western, called the " sahel," or "plain," is sandy, and has few oases; it furnishes Soudan with salt. The eastern is the Libyan Desert, and has many oases. East of the Nile is the Nubian Desert. 13. Popnlation. — Sahara is sparsely populated. The inhabitants are similar in their habits to the Bedouin Arabs. 14, Abyssinia. — Abyssinia is the most elevated country in Africa. Many of its mountain peaks are covered with snow during the greater part of the year. The country is in a barbarous condition, and has little or no com- merce. Gondar, Antalo, and Ankobar are the chief cities. Questions (I.) — 1. Where are Egypt and its depcntlencies situated? Name the dependencies. Of what empire is Egypt a part ? — 2. How do the tropical rains affect the Lower Nile? — 3. What is the government ?— 4. What are the exports? What is said of the Suez Canal? What railway in Egypt? — 5. What is the population of Egypt? — 6. What city is the capital? For what is Alexandria noted? Where are Port Said and -Suez ? — 7. Name the Barbary States. — 8. From what does Morocco derive its name ? What is its social condition ? Its government ? Its exports? Its chief trade centre? Its capital.' — 9. Of what country is Algeria a province? What are its exports ? Its capital and other cities ? — 10. What is said of Tunis, Tripoli, and Barca? What are their exports ? What is said of Fczzan ? What is the capital of Tripoli ? For what is it noted .' — 11. How does the Sahara compare with other deserts ? — 13. Where is the great line of oases.' — 13. What is said of the population of Sahara? — 14. Which is the most elevated country in Afiica? What is the social condition of the country ? Name the chief cities. (II.) — ~. Describe the effect of the tropical rains upon the Lower Nile. For what was ancient Egypt remarkable ? What is the present condition of the country ? In what respect does it resemble Europe ? — 5. To what races do the people belong ? Who are the ruling class ? What is the prevailing religion ? — 7. Why are the Barbary States so called? What are the other principal races ? Of what religion are they ? Where and what is the Tell? The Sahara.' — 9. What part of the population of Algeria is European? Who are the rest of the inhabitants.' — 11. Of what is Sahara a part? Of what does it consist? What and where are the oases? — 13. How does the line of oases divide the Sahara? What is said of the western part? The eastern part? What other desert east of the Nile ? ex. NEGEO AFRICA. 1. Coast Regions and Climate. — The greater part of the lowlands along the western and eastern coasts has a hot, moist climate. North of the mouth of the Orange River the coast for seven hundred miles is entirely desert. The interior is little known. 2. Colonies. — A line of European colonies and trading towns extends from Cape Verde to the Cape of Good Hope, and thence to Mozambique. Cape Colon}-, Natal, and Caffraria are the most important, and belong to Great Britain. Transvaal and Orange Free State are independent Dutch republics. On the western coasts are Senegambia, in part claimed by the French ; Sierra Leone, a British colony of negroes rescued from slave-ships ; Liberia, an independent repub- lic of negroes from the United States. The rest of the Guinea ports belong to England, Portugal, and Spain. On the eastern coast Mozambique is partly in possession 37 of the Portuguese. The coast of Zanguebar is held by the Arabs; Zanzibar, the capital, is the residence of the Sultan. 3. Exports. — The principal exports from the eastern and western coasts are the palm-oil of Guinea, gums, spices, sugar, ivory, ostrich feathers, and gold ; from the southern coasts wool, hides, tallow, ostrich feathers, and diamonds. 4. Soudan. — Soudan is a broad fertile belt crossins: the continent south of the Great Desert. The principal cities are Kano, Sokoto, Kuka, and Timbuctoo. They have a great caravan trade to the Mediterranean coasts. The exports are gold, ivory, ostrich feathers, and gum-arabic. In its heavy tropical rains, extensive forests, fertile soil, and great heat, Soudan somewhat resembles the selvas of the Amazon. It contains a large number of populous, semi-barbarous states. Most of the inhabitants are Mohammedans, the rest Pagans. The religion of the Pagan negroes combines a belief in evil spirits, witchcraft, and magic charms, and is known as Fetichism. 5. South Central Africa.— The central plateau south of Soudan is but little known. Ivory is the principal arti- cle of commerce. Large fresh-water lakes lie south of the Equator and towards the eastern side of the continent. The Victoria Falls in the Zam- besi River are exceeded in grandeur only by those of Niagara. In the extreme south is the Kalahari Desert. 6. African Islands. — Madagascar is about equal in area to the five North Central States of the United States. The government is a despotic monarchy. The capital and largest city is Tananarivo. Tamatave, the chief port, exports cattle and rice. Mauritius, belonging to Great Britain, exports sugar, and is a stopping- place for vessels crossing the Indian Ocean. Reunion, or Bourbon, is a French colony. The Atlantic Islands are of small size, and are pre- cipitous, volcanic rocks. St. Helena and Ascension belong to Great Britain. The Cape Verde and the Madeira Islands, belonging to Portugal, and the Canaries, belong- ing to Spain, export wine, 5ugar, and coffee. Questions^.) — 1. What is the character of the climate of the eastern and western coasts of Africa ? What long desert coast ? What is said of the interior ? — 2. W here are the European colonies? Which are the most important? To what country do they belong ? What are Transvaal and Orange Free State ? What other colonies are there? What republic? To what nations do the other pons belong? Who hold the eastern coast ? What is the capital of Zanguebar ? — 3. What are the exports ?— 4. What is Soudan ? Mention its chief cities. With what coasts do they trade, and how? What are the exports.' — 5. What region of Africa is yet but little known? Wh.it is the principal article of export ,'—6. To what states is Madagascar equal in surface ? What is the government ? Which is the capital city ? The chief port ? Its exports? W'hat is said of Mauritius? Of Reunion? What is the character of the Atlantic Islands ? To what country do St. Helena and Ascension belong ? What other islands? To what countries do they belong? W'hat are their exports? (II.) — 1. What does Soudan resemble? What does it contain? Of what religions are the inhabitants of Soudan? Describe the religious belief of the Pagan negroes. *■ — 5. Where are the fresh-water lakes? What is said of the Victoria Falls? What desert in the south? ^ „^„J, ;v 1.1. f„.,n ») C-nrtA. M c;-^ QUESTIONS ON THE MAP, Name the chief Atlantic ports cf Norlii America. Which one is the most important? What ports on or near the Gulf of Mexico ? Name the chief Pacific ports of North America. Which is the most important.' Which are the two chief river-ports of the St. Lawrence? Of the Mississippi ? Which is the most northwesterly port of South America? |7a») What port near the eastern extremity of South America ? What ports between Aspinwall and Fernamhuco? Between Pernambuco and Cape Horn? Name the principal Pacific ports of South America. Which one is farthest north? Near what Caribbean port IS It? By wha t arc they connected ? (80) * The numben in tlii» leuon nlei to pages in ibe boolc where the answeis may be found. Name the two principal ports of the llritish Islands. For what is the port of London remarkable ? (ill) What pons in Ireland > (sn) In Scotland ? (Sa) Which is the chief port of the north of France ? (tl2) What ports of Europe are on or near the North Sea? (87, 92) On or near the Baltic ? (S7, U-J). In Iceland ? (87) Name the chief ports of Kurope between the Strait of Dover and the Strait of Gibraltar. (»2) Name three Spanish ports on the Mediterranean. ("= P'ol"tly export drygood-s ana ii^^.^^j , ^»8_ She then sails from New York for London: " ~ '1 her cargo now probably be ' steamer from New York to Rio Janeiro touches at Why does not New York export drygooo-j •■•- ^^^.^^j i ^^^^ Great Britain? (tlO) What other ports 01 '",,.,,) States have an important share of the foreign traa ^ St. Thomas, W. I., and other intermediate ports : "li" "■ tides is she likelv to carrv out ?• To bring b.ick.' W hy not cotton ? Wiiat cargoes from New York to Monte- video and Buenos Avres? What return cargoes? How far by steamer from New York to Aspinwall? To New Orleans ? At what port rlo New York and New Orleans steamers touch? (Havana.) Name the chief exports of western South America. wk.,. What are the chief exports of San Francisco? W here is most of the gold and silver sent ? (To New \ ork-^=i.d China) Of the wheat and flour? (To England.) Will wh" Chinese ports has San Francisco an importan Tr de? What Japanese ports' ,«'i.h wlia. i:or^, ° Aust ralia? New Zealand? Sandwich Islands . South " • Remember that the mmof.etores of oearlv aU "™"""°"?; thoK of W..tem Europe, Eastern NonbAmen* aod E-rem A... are very limited ^^^^^^^ America? Mexico? Why does the steamer-route from Yokohama to San Franci>co differ from the route by sail > Whence does San Francisco import most of its coal > (Australia and Uritiih Columbia.) Name six of the chief cities on the great railroad routes between San Francisco and New York. (Clj, IJ.) Wh" arc the chief export, of Tasmania, New Zealand, and Australia? To what country? What articles arc probably imported m return ? 3i%£S^ffwhencf" = "h« par« of the world is traffic still carried on b, caravans ? k 122 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY— GENERAL REVIEW. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY-GENERAL REVIEW. How is the earth known to be a globe ? What has caused it to be flattened at the poles? What is the length of the polar diameter.' Of the equatorial diameter ? Of the circumference? Describe the general physical condition of the earth. {Ans. The earth is by many supposed to be a slowly cooling and shrinking ball of matter, which was once entirely in a molten state. Its cooled and hardened crust is comparatively thin, and is the surface upon which we live. Mountain ranges are the folds, ridges, and lines of fracture of the crust. The broad hollows of the surface are partly filled by the ocean. Volcanoes are openings to the still melted interior of the earth, and are mostly found upon the lines of fracture.) What evidences have we of the heat of the interior of the earth? (Ans. Volcanoes, hot-springs, earthquakes, and the gradual increase of heat with the depth in deep borings and mines.) Name the two great land masses. What is the position of the line of direction of each? How many continents in each? What separate continent is there? Name the six continents in the order of their size. How are most of the islands arranged? How many classes of islands are there ? What are continental islands? Where are the principal chains? What are oceanic islands? Where are the principal chains? What are volcanic islands? Coral islands? Where chiefly found? Name two of each class of islands. What is a mountain system ? Where is the longest system in the world ?* What is its direction ? Where is it highest ? Name the piincipal mountain chains of North America. Of South America. Where is the chief mountain system of the Old World ? Where is it highest? Name the principal mountain chains of Asia. Of Europe. Of Africa. Of .-\ustralia. Where are most of the volcanoes of North America? In what countries ? Where are the volcanoes of South America ? What island chains of Asia abound in volcanoes? What can you say of the volcanoes of Malaysia? (Ans. They are more numerous than in any other equal area in the world.) What volcanoes com- plete the "fire circle" of the Pacific? (Ans. Those of Melanesia and New Zealand.) What oceanic islands of the Pacific contain volcanoes? Which has the greatest crater in the world? What volcanoes are in the Mediterranean Sea? In Iceland? What is a plateau? Which continent has the greatest proportion of plateau sur- face? Which the least? Where are the great plateaus found in each continent? Describe the great plateau belt of North America. How high is it? W'hat great mountain system rests upon it ? Through what countries does it extend ? Describe the Eastern Highland. What mountain system does it contain? Name some of the ranges. Where is the highest plateau belt of South .America? What countries lie wholly or partly in it? In which is it highest and broadest ? How high is it? What mountain system rests upon it ? In what country is the broadest plateau of South America? Is it high or low? What mountains does it contain? Where is the chief highland belt of Europe ? What countries lie wholly or partly in it? Which are its chief mountain chains ? For what are the plateaus of Asia remarkable ? In what parts of the continent are they ? Name some of them. Which is the highest ? How high is it? W'hat mountain chains rest upon these plateaus? .Which is the highest plateau of Africa? What mountains rest upon it? What can you say of the plateaus of Australia? What is a lowland plain ? Where is the great low plain of North America? By what is it divided? Into what two plains? Which way does each plain slope? How can you tell this by the map? What plain east of the .Appalachian Mountains? Where is the great low plain of South America? Name its three principal divisions. What countries lie wholly or partly in each? Describe the llanos. The selvas. The pampas. Where is the great plain of Europe ? What mountain walls partly enclose it? What countries lie wholly or partly in it? What other plains in Europe? In what countries? Where is the great lowland plain of Asia? With what other plain connected? What countries are in it ? What great lakes in its western part? What plains in other parts of Asia? For what are the plains of China and Hindostan re- markable ? In what part of Africa are the plains ? Name the five chief divisions of the ocean. Which are the three great oceans? Which is the largest? For what else remarkable ? The Atlantic? The Indian? The Arctic? The Antarctic? Name the chief islands, border seas, and gulfs of the Pacific. Of the Atlantic. Of the Indian. From what level are all heights estimated' What can you say of it ? (Ans. After allowing for the temporary effects of tides, winds, etc., the surface of the sea stands at the same level in all parts of the world.) What are ocean currents ? What can you say of their extent ? Of their causes ? Name some of the principal currents. Of what use are they? Describe the equatorial currents. The Gulf Stream. The Japan Stream. The polar currents. How high does the atmosphere extend ? W here is it most dense ? Why ? At what height does plant life cease? Why? What can you say of the composition of the atmosphere and of the use of each part ? (Ans. The atmosphere consists chiefly of a mixture of three gases. Dry air contains about one fifth part oxygen, nearly four fifths nitrogen, and about one five-hundredth p.irt carbonic acid. There is also a variable quantity of watery vapor, which is the source of all rains and dews. The oxygen is the vital element in the breath of animals, but would destroy life if it were not so greatly • For mounuins, plateaus, and plains, consult Ihe physical maps and Ihc sections of tlic continents. diluted with nitrogen. Carbonic acid furnishes all plants with carbon, of which they are chiefly composed.) What is the chief source of the watery vapor? What arc the effects of the heat of the sun upon air ? In what zone are these effects the most power- ful ? What are winds ? Describe the trade-winds. The counter-trades. In what re- spects are wind^ similar to ocean currents ? Of what uses are winds ? What is climate ? Upon what does it chiefly depend ? How afl'ectcd by latitude ? By elevation ? By sea winds ? By land winds ? By ocean currents ? By distance from the sea? What is meant by the annual rain-fall of a country? In which zone is it greatest ? Describe the tropical rain-belt. How does it aflTect climate and vegetation ? How do high mountains aff'ect climate? What is the chief cause of deserts? Where is the great desert belt? What states or countries in each continent have a very dry climate ? What is a river system? A basin or valley? What great rivers flow into the Arctic Ocean ? W'hat plains do they drain ? What great rivers flow into the Atlantic and its seas, etc ? What plains or what plateaus do they drain ? Which is the most extensive river system of North America? Name some of the principal branches. Of South America? The chief branches? What great rivers flow into the Indian Ocean? What plains or what plateaus do they drain? Into the Pacific? What plains or plateaus do they drain ? What rivers of Europe and Asia do not flow into the ocean ? Into what do they flow? Why are such lakes salt? Are there any salt lakes in the United States? Where? In any other part of the world? Where? Where is the Dead Sea? For what remarkable? In which continents are the two chief systems of fresh- water lakes? With what rivers and ocean are they connected? What is meant by "perpetual snow?" By the "snow-line?" How does its height vary? What are glaciers? How formed? Where found in Europe ? In Asia? In North America? What is Greenland supposed to be? (Ans. An archipelago in which both land and sea are filled with glaciers.) What are icebergs? How formed? (See page 15.) (Another cause is that the lower ends of arctic and antarctic glaciers are sometimes pushed forward along the sea-bottom and into very deep water. Being lighter than the salt water, they have a tendency to float, and thus break off.) Upon what does the character of vegetable lite chiefly depend ? (Ans. Upon climate and soil.) Where is the principal forest region of North America? What parts of it abound in pines and firs? Where are the prairie regions? What vegetation is found on the great western plains? Near the shores of the Arctic Ocean? W'here is the western forest region ? Which are its principal trees? Where are the largest trees in the world ? What is the character of the vegetation of the West Indies and the low parts of Central America? Name some of its trees. Where are the grassy regions of South .America ? The desert regions ? The great forest region ? Name some of its most useful trees. The chief forest regions of Europe ? Of Asia? Name some Asiatic plants. Where is the principal forest belt of Africa? Name the chief food plants of the temperate regions of North America. Of the warmer regions and the West Indies. Of South America. Of southern Europe. Of the rest of Europe. Of southern Asia. Of Africa. Of Australia. Which is the principal grain of the world ? (Ans. Rice ; it supports more than one third of the human race.) Name some quadrupeds foiind in the colder parts of North America.* What other quadrupeds are found in that continent? Name its largest reptile. The most remarkable birds. The most remarkable quadrupeds, birds, and reptiles of South America. Some of the quadrupeds of northern Europe. Of other parts of Europe. From what continent were most of our domestic animals originally derived ? Name some of the most remarkable animals of northern Asia. Of desert Asia. Of southern Asia. What peculiarity have most of the Australian quadrupeds ? Name some of the pouched animals. Some of the birds of .Australia and their peculiarities. How is .Africa remarkable in regard to its animals ? Name some of them. Name the five races of mankind. Which two are the most numerous? Which is the least? What part of mankind is comprised in each of the five races? Where is the Caucasian race found? The Mongol? The Ethiopian? The Malay? The American ? For what is the Caucasian race distinguished ? What races are found in North America ? In what part of the continent are the Caucasians chiefly found ? Of what race are the Esquimaux ? (^^/w. Mongol.) Where are they ? (4«J. On the shores of Alaska .and of the Arctic Ocean.) The Ethiopians? The Americans? What two races occupy Europe? Which are the chief European branches of the Caucasian race? Where are the Celts? The Teutons? The Sclavcs? To which branch do the Irish belong? The Welsh? The Germans? The English? The Russians? What peoples of Europe are Mongols? (Ans. Lapps, Finns, Turks, and Magyars.) What three races occupy Asia? What mountains separate the Mongols from the Caucasians? Of what race are the Persians? The Chinese? The Arabs? The Hindoos? The Japanese? The Tartars? In what part of the continent is the Malay race found? In what archi])elago is the greater part of that race? What two r.aces occupy Africa? Which is the more numerous? In what part is the Ethiopian race ? The Caucasian ? • In the illustrations the animals of each continent are arranged in the general order cf their latitude. POLITICAL AND COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHV— GENERAL REVIEW. 123 POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY-GENERAL REVIEW. What is Political Geography? What does it include? Which are the principal forms of government ? W'hat is a republic ? A monarchy? A limited monarchy? An unlimited monarchy? A kingdom? An empire? Give an example of each form of government. What form of government prevails in the New World? In the Old World? What empire in America? What republics in Europe? What title is usually given to the chief magistrate of a republic? Of a state? Of a city? To the sovereign of Russia ? Of Prussia ? Of Germany? Of Turkey ? Of Eg)'pt? Of Japan ? What is the capital of a country ? The metropolis ? What countries and islands of North America and the West Indies belong to Great Biitain? To Spain? To Denmark? Which are independent? Name the capital of each country of North America. Its largest city. What language is spoken in the City of Mexico? Quebec? New Orleans? Havana? Guatemala? Which of the countries of South America are European colonies? Where are most of the civilized inhabitants of that continent? Name the capital of each country. The largest city. What language is spoken in Caracas? In Lima? In Rio Janeiro? In Valparaiso? In Bogota? In Buenos Ayres? How do the Creoles of Spanish America compare with the other races in numbers? Which state of South America has the largest projxjrtion of Europeans ? Which countries of FZurope are empires ? Which are republics ? Which are king- doms ? Which is the most extensive monarchy in the world? Which is next in ex- tent ? Which of these two has the greater population ? What countries are embraced in the Russian Empire ? In what country is the greater part of its population ? Of what races and religions are they? What countries are included in the British Em- pire ? Of what races and religions are its inhabitants ? In what country arc the greater part of the inhabitants? Of what countries does the kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland consist? Name the capital and one large city in each. What language is spoken in London? In Edinburgh? In Dublin? In Wales? {A its. Cymnc) In Western Ireland ? (Aiis.Erse.) In St. Petersburg ? In Christiania? In Stockholm ? In Copenhagen ? In Amsterdam ? In Brussels ? In Paris? In Berlin? In Vienna? In Berne? In Lisbon? In Geneva? In Venice ? In Naples? In Athens? In Constantinople? {Ans. Many languages.) Name the foreign possessions of France. What name is given to the Swiss states? What peoples inhabit Switzerland? What is the proper title of Austria? What provinces are included in the empire? (See map.) What peoples consti- tute the population? Which is the most numerous? What kingdom is on the Danube and the Save? On the Adriatic Sea? What can you say of the population of European Turkey ? Which is the governing people ? Of what race, origin, and religion? Name the provinces of European Turkey. Who is the head of the Mo- hammedan religion? What countries are included in the Turkish Empire? What titles are sometimes given to the Turkish government? (Aiis. The Ottoman Porte and the Sublime Porte.) What are the character and effects of the government? Name the colonial possessions of Denmark. What two separate kingdoms of North- ern Europe have the same king? Which of these is the more populous and powerful? Name the countries of Asia. The capital of each. What European nations have possessions in Asia? Which are the Asiatic possessions of Russia? Of Great Britain? Of France ? Of Turkey ? Of the Netherlands ? Of Spain ? Name the divisions of Asiatic Russia. Which is the most populous? Name its capital. Describe the European population of Siberia. What countries are included in the Chinese Em- pire ? Name in their order five governments which occupy more than half of the land surface of the globe. Where are the greater part of the inhabitants of the Chinese Empire? What is the form of government ? Name the chief islands of Japan. What is the character of the government? By whom is British India governed? Who is Empress of India ? What countries are included in Indo-China? What is the char- acter of the native governments of Asia ? Who are the Bedouins ? To whom do the Philippines belong? What is the capital? What city is the capital of the Dutch East Indies? Name the colonial divisions of Australia. What other Briti.sh colonies are near Australia? To whom do the Fcejee Islands belong? The Society Islands ? The Sandwich ? What is the character of the native govern- ments of Africa? Name its most important countries. Name the capital of each. What countries of Africa are dependencies of Turkey? Of Egypt? Where are the Portuguese posscs.sions ? The English? The French? Name the Barbary States, Which of them is independent? What three independent republics in Africa? What coast is held by the Arabs? What African islands belong to Great Britain? To France ? To Spain ? To Portugal ? How many states in the United States ? How many territories ? What is the form of government ? What city is the capital? What is a state? A territory? Name the physical groups into which the United States may be divided. Name the states in each group, and the capital and largest city in each state. What provinces constitute the Dominion of Canada ? Describe its form of govern- ment ? Name the capital and the largest city of each province ? COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY-GENERAL REVIEW. What is domestic commerce? Foreign commerce? What articles of commerce do the New England States supply to other parts of the country ? The Middle .Vtlantic States ? The South Atlantic ? The South Central ? The North Central ? The West Central ? The Pacific States? The rest of the Great Highland ? Which is the chief article of export of the United States ? Name other leading articles of export to Eu- rope. To South America. To Asia. To the West Indies. Name the principal im- ports of the United .States. Name in their order five of its chief sea-ports. With what country is our principal foreign commerce? Which are the chief articles of import from England? Scotland? France? Germany? Italy? Brazil? United States of Colombia ? Venezuela ? Mexico ? Cuba ? Canada ? China ? Japan ? British India? Dutch E.nst Indies?* From what countries do we import coffee ? Tea ? Sugar and Molasses ? Wool- len goods? Cotton goods? Linens? Silk goods' K.iw silk? Iron and steel goods? Salt? Spices? Fruits? Rice? Hides and skins? Dye -woods? India- rubber ? Name the chief Mediterranean ports of Spain. Of France. Of Italy. Of Aus- tria. Of Turkey. Of Eg)'pt. Of the Barbary States. Name the southern ports of Russia. The most northern port. The Baltic ports of Russia. Of Sweden. Of Denmark. Of Germany. The chief Atlantic ports of Norway. Of Germany. Ofihe Netherlands. Of Belgium. Of France. Of Spain. Of Portugal. Of England. Of Scotland. Of Ireland. Of British North America. Of the United States. Of Brazil. Of Guiana. Of Uruguay. Of the Argentine Confcderntion. Of Iceland. Name the chief port or ports of the Gulf of Mexico or of the Caribbean Sea belonging to the United States. To .Spain. To Mexico. To Great Britain. To Venezuela. To the United States of Colombia. What ports of the Pacific Ocean are in China ? In Indo-China? In Japan? In the United States ? In Mexico? In the United States of Colombia? InEquador? In Peru ? In Chili ? In Australia? In New Zealand ? In the Sand- wich Islands ? Which is the chief port or ports in the Dutch East Indies ? In the Spanish East Indies ? On the southern coast of Africa ? On the eastern coast ? On the Red Sea? The Arabian Sea.' The Persian Gulf? The Bay of Bengal ? ' For valuable statislics uf the commerce of the world, sec page 125. 38 Tabular Revie'wrs. — In addition to the numerous map reviews found in the text of this work, it may Ix; found expedient to introduce topical reviews in the form of tabu- lar synopses. Models are given below. The headings for the columns may be greatly varied. The number of topics for each lesson is left to the judgment of the teacher. COUNTKIES. NORTH BOUNDABV. EAST BOUNDARY. SOUTH BOUNDARV. WEST BOUNDARY. Mexica j United States. Rio Grande and Gulf of Mexico. Central America. Pacific Ocean. United Stales. . . | Dom. of Canada. Atlantic Ocean. Gulf of Mexico and Mexico. Pacific Ocean. COUNTRIES. SURFACH. MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS. RIVERS. LAKES. CLIUATE. Chili j Mountainous. Andes. None. None. i°7 '".'*- ' Ramy m S. Argentine 1 Confederation^ Level. Pampas. La Plata, Parana. Cold and dry Salt Lakes. in S. Trop- ical in N. COUNTRIES. COVERN- UENT. RULER. CAPITALS. LARGEST QTIES. EXPORTS. Austria j Limited Monarchy. Emperor. Vienna. Vienna. Wheat, wine, and manu- factures. IlaJy { Limited Monarchy. King. Rome. Naples. Oil and manufactures. STATES. MOUNTAINS. RIVERS AND LAKES. RArLROADS. PRODUCTS. CAPITALS and CHIEF CITIES New York... j Adirnnd.ick, CatskiU. Hudson R.. Genesee R. Seneca L., Cayuga L. N.Y.C.&Hud-l Iron, Salt, sonR , NY , L. Buller.Chcese, Erie, & W. 1 M.^nufactures. Albany, New York. . ( Allechanv, Pennsylvamal B,uj^eic. Susquehanna R., Pennsylvania Alleghany R., MoDongahela R. j Iron. Coal, Petroleum, Manufactures. Harri^burr, Philadeli-hia. 12 t CARTOGRAPHY. CARTOGRAPHY. Order of the Maps —To obtain the best results it is advised that the maps be talven in the following order: 1. The several states of the United States; 2. Groups of states ; 3. The continents ; 4. Separate countries of Europe ; 5. The United States ; 0. The hemispheres. Materials and Conveniences.— 1. Suitable paper. 3. Lead-pencils— No. 2 will generally be found the best for the work ; keep sharp with fine file. 3. Ruler- one with a scale is best. 4. A flexible ruler will be found convenient, but is not in- dispensable ; it should be a thin and narrow strip of cedar, or some other even-grained wood ; a good piece of whalebone may be made to answer. 5. Dividers are con- venient, but may be dispensed with. 6. Ink for going over the penciled coast-lines, and all other details; India ink is the best. 7. Colors: three colors— blue, yellow, and red— are indispensable ; by proper mixtures of these all other necessary colors may be made. 8. brushes, or hair-pencils, of different sizes, for laying on the colors —two or three are enough. It is also important to have two or more right-angled rulers of different sizes, for making true corners to the maps, etc. They may be readily constructed of cardboard in the following manner : Upon a stiff piece of cardboard draw a straight line, A B, and meas- ure off two equal parts, P A and P B. With P .as the centre, draw the semi- circle A E B. From any point on the circumference, as D, draw lines to A and B. The angle D is a right- angle. Cut the card on the three lines forming the triangle ; use a sharp knife. It will often be necessary to divide a straight line into a certain number of equal parts. 1. To divide a line into 3, 4, 8, or 16 equal parts, when you have neither scale nor dividers : take a strip of writing-paper having a straight edge and just as long as the line to be divided ; fold it very carefully once for halves, twice for fourths, etc., and then measure and mark these divisions upon the line. 2. To divide a straight line into any mimher of equal parts. Suppose A B to be the line, and that it is to be divided into five equal parts. From either end draw . ^ ^ J_ a straight line, A C, of any convenient length, and, begin- i~ ning at A, measure off upon A C as many equal parts (.5) of any length as there are to be in A B. Draw a line from the last point (5) to B. Now from points 4, 3, 2, and 1 draw lines paral- lel to the line 5 B. They will divide A B into five equal parts. To draw these lines exactly parallel, cut from a card an angle that will exnclly fit into the angle at ."J. Put one side of this card-angle upon the line A C, with the point exactly at 4, and draw the line 4 b. Do the same at 3, 2, and 1. METHOD OF DRAWING. Many plans have been devised to facilitate the accurate copying of maps. The simplest and most efficient is the method of equal squares. It has long been used in copying maps, pictures, plans, etc. The following example will sufficiently illustrate the method ; To dra^v the Map of North America — 1. Divide the map into equal squares. Divide the upper and lower inner margins into four equal parts, marking the points lightly in lead-pencil. Commencing at the upper corners, measure off on the right and left margins distances equal to the divisions of the upper and lower margins. Connect e.ach point with the point opposite by a lightly drawn pencil line. Observe that one of these lines is the central meridian of the map. The map is now divided into twenty equal squares and four parts of squares. These last may be omitted in drawing, if it be thonght desirable. If retained, notice that they are about one quarter as wide as they are long. 2. Prepare the paper. — If the scale of the map is to be the same as that in the book, construct the twenty sqnares, using the same measures. If the map is to be on a larger or smaller scale, draw a line of suitable length for the upper margin, and divide it into four equal parts, .^t the ends of this line draw two others at right angles to it, and measure off upon each five parts equal to those of the upper line ; join the opposite points, and complete the diagram as before. Let all the lines be drawn lightly, so as to be easily removed with the rubber. 3. To copy the map, begin with the upper left-hand square, and draw the out- lines lightly in pencil, being careful to observe in what parts of the square they are to be, and where they cross the sides of the square, and so proceed with each square. While drawing, rest your hand upon a piece of paper, so as not to soil your map. Always work from above downward. If very great accuracy is de- sired, subdivide each of the squares, both of the original and the copy, into four or more smaller squares, and proceed as before. The greater the number of squares, the more accurate may the copy be made. To prevent mistakes, it is de- sirable to number or letter the squares in some regular order. If the meridians and parallels are to be inserted, mark lightly the places where they cross the sides of the squares, and draw them either with the flexible ruler or with the free hand. In drawing the outlines, include only the coasts, islands, lakes, rivers, and the boundaries of countries. To fill in the details and complete the map, observe the following order : 1. Go over the meridians, parallels, and outlines slowly and carefully with a fine pen ; use thin India ink. 2 Draw the mountains. — Use the lead-pencil. Practice first on a piece of paper: observe that the lines used are very fine; that they are divergent, not parallel ; that they are in small groups, each of which has a blank space in the middle ; that the higher mountains have two or three sets of lines and are darker near the blank centre. 3. Letter the map. — Use the lead -pencil. Practice first on paper : be very careful as to spacing the letters, and use the simplest styles. Begin with the names which are in large capitals ; then insert the names of lakes, rivers, cities, capes, etc. As far as possible let the lines of letters follow the direction of the parallels. Go over mountains and letters with ink. Clear all pencil marks from the map before coloring. 4. Color the jnap. — Use only clean water to mix the colors. Do not color too strongly. If the first coat is too weak when drv, add another. To avoid drawing pencil lines across the engraved map. — This may readily be done in any one of several ways. The following is the easiest and best : Procure at the stationer's a sheet of gelatine paper, such as is used in copying plans, etc. It is nearly as transparent as glass. The piece used may be of the same size as the map in the book, or it may be of one half or even of one quarter of that size. If of the full size, rule it into squares, as directed in 2. Blacken the lines carefully with ink, and let them dry, and repeat the process if necessary. To use this sheet lay it upon the map with the lines upon the under side, so that the central meridian and margins of the map exactly correspond with the lines upon the paper. If a sheet of one half or one quarter the size is used, each large square must be divided into four smaller ones. Lay it upon the map so that its edges correspond wMlh the central meridian and the margins, and, after drawing that half or fourth of the map, follow the same plan with the remaining portions. Another method, very suitable for home work, is to use a small pane of glass of the half size or quarter size, and ruled into squares with a common pen filled with ordinary black paint mixed with varnish. Or the ruling may be done with a diamond, and the lines blackened. Use with the ruled side down. Still another plan is to make a frame of cardboard, or some other suitable material, and divide the enclosed space into squares by means of fine threads or wires. Additional Hints.— Never begin to draw a line initil yon have carefully made up vour mind as to just 7fliere it is to be and what it is to be. Sm.ill squares will be found best for maps of separate states. Observe that the meridians are not the same distance apart at the top of the map as at the bottom, and that only one of them is a perfectly straight line. It will be useful to remember that a degree on the central meridian is about sev- enty miles. The single-page maps in this book are all of one size, but arc not drawn on the same scale. STATISTICAL TABLES. POPULATION OF SOME OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES OF THE WOULD. [For the PupulatioD of the Priacifal Citira of the lTi,ii«tl SlAU«, C«dbiu of 1)V>0, G«e pose ^■i.^ NOBTH IXEBICA. Britixh America. Montrea],Queb. . . 1 -HNSfiS roronto, Onl 8«,445 Quebec, Queb. .. . 6?,44H Halifax, N S... 36,1«0 Hamilton 3.S,96I Otiaua, Ont 'i7,7ia St. Johns, N. F. . 22,5S3 Mexico. Mexico 2.',0,OflO Leon 9(>,IKI0 (iuadalaxara 8ll,uU0 Puebla (j.">,ifin Guanaxuato 6'i.unO S. Luis Potosi 40,WP;) Central America. Guatemala. ..... ^','2^ Sin Salvador U.crai banjos; l.'.OOJ West Indies Havana, Cuba . . . 2:10.009 S intiago .S6,7.">2 Kingston, Jamaica 34,314 Port au Prince, Hayti 27,000 St. Johns, Porto Rico 18,132 San Domingo ltj,UO0 Paramaribo 25,000 Cayenne 7,632 SOCTH AXEBICA. Tenezuela. Caracas 68,000 Maracaybo 21,'Jd4 r. S. of Colombia. Hogola 4fl.S'*3 Panama 1S378 Popavan R,4S.'i Cart.agena 7,800 Ecuailor. Quito 80,000 Guayaquil 20,000 Pern. Lima 101,4.88 Callao .13,.-i02 Cuzco 18,370 Boliria. la Paz 7(i,37-> Cochabaraba 4'>,li78 Sucre 23,979 Chili. .■Santiago 160,167 Valparaiso '.I7,737 Argentine ronfctlera- tion. Buenos Ayres. . . 28S.fl00 Cordova 28,623 Kosario 23,000 rrnKnay. < Montevideo 73,303 PaniEaAy. Asuncion 19,463 Brazil. Rio Janeiro 274,972 li.lhia 128,:l«i Pemambuco .... 1 1 ti, 07 1 Maranham 31,G04 Guiana. Georgetown 35,000 E I' IS O P F. Norway. Christiania 76.800 Bergen 34,38,1 Sweden. Stockholm I76,74.'> Gotlenburg 78,ol3 Kussia, .St Petersburg 876,5?.', Moscow- 611,974 Warsaw 3:19,341 Odessa 19:f,613 Ri;a I6ti,68:i Kishenev 112,137 Astrakhan 57,704 Cronstadt 47, ItlO Archangel 20,178 Great Britain and Ire- land. London 3,814,571 I -iverpooi .5.62,425 (i.asgow 511,6,12 Hirmingham 4(Hi, 757 Manchester 393,i;7C Leeds 30!l,12G Sheffield 284,410 Dublin 2411,486 Edinburgh 228.190 Belfast 2"7,«7l Bristol 206,.6I)3 Bradford 180,4.69 Hull 1(11,619 Newcastle 145,228 Dundee 143,4.54 Brighton 128.407 Portsmouth 127,9,63 Sunderland 124,960 Leicester 122,351 Swansea 10.6,949 Aberdeen 10.6,0.64 Nottingham 111,631 Cork 78,361 Denmark. Copenhagen 273,323 Netherlands. Amsterdam 328,047 Rotterdam 157,270 The Hague 123,499 Belgium. Brussels 399,930 Antwerp 163,011 Ghent 132,839 Liege 121,787 France. Paris 2,209,023 Lyons b7(;,613 Marseilles 36U.099 Bordeaux 2^1,::05 Lille 178,144 Toulouse 140.289 St. Etienne 12:1.813 Nantes 124.319 Rouen 105,91111 Havre 10.6,867 Keims 93,823 Roiibaix 91,787 Spnin. Madrid 397,690 Barcelona 24'i,ln6 Valencia 143,8.66 Seville 133,938 Malaga 116,882 Granada 76,108 Cadiz 6»,iijS Portugal. Lisbon 2,33,389 Oporto 108,346 Germany. Berlin 1,222,360 Hamburg 410,127 Bres.au 272,390 Munich 230,023 Dresden 220,818 Klberkld-Barmen.189,364 Frankfort-on-the- Main 149,309 Leipsic 149,081 Cologne 144.751 Kimigsberg 140,896 Magdeburg 137, 109 Hanover 122.800 Stuttgart 117,3"3 Bremen 112.1.68 Danlzic 108..649 Strasbourg IO1.6OI Nuremberg 99,519 Aostria. Vienna 1,103,857 lluda-Pesth 3.69, v.-] Prague 162,318 Trieste 144,437 Lemberg. 110,250 Gratz 97,726 Switzerland. Geneva 60,043 Basle 01,399 Beme 44,087 Zurich 21,199 Italy. Naples 4.V8, Milan 292, Rome 289, P.ilermo 236 Turin 213 Genoa 178, Florence 146, Venice 131, Messina 120. Bologna Ill, Leghorn 97, Ronmania. Bucharest 1 77,646 Jassy 90,0110 Galatz 80,000 Serria. Belgrade 26,970 | Turkey. \ Constantinople. . .600,000 ,614 524 ,321 .679 ,6:16 006 ,2(17 ,276 ,709 933 410 Salonica 80,000 Greece. Athens 63,374 AFRICA. Barbary States. Tunis 12.6.000 Fez 100.000 Algiers 52.702 Morocco 6(1,000 Mequinez 30,000 Egypt. ] Cairo .327,462 Alexandria 16.6,7.62 Damietta 32,7,30 Suez 11,327 Port Said 3,854 ASIA. Turkey. Sm>Tna. 150,000 Damascus 1,60,000 Beirut 65.000 Brusa 60.000 Erzroom 60.000 Jerusalem 28,(i00 Asiatic Russia. Tiflis 1(14.024 Tashkeud l(in.O(Hi Bokhara 7((.000 Irkoutsk 33.8011 Tomsk 33,795 China. Pekin 1.6.60,000 Canton l,,60(i,0(Ki Tientsin 96(1.000 Han-chau 60(t.0(io Knh-chau Ooo.ooo Nankin 45().(IU(i Shanghai 278.000 Ninppo 120,000 Hong Kong 102.O00 Amov 88,000 Varkand 80,000 Kashgar 70,000 Japan. Tokio (Yedo) 811,510 Ozaka 291,086 Kioto 22;i,8IO Yokohama 67.499 Nagasaki 40,601 Hindostan. Calcutta 794,045! Bombay 753,000 Madras 40.6,948 Hyderabad 263,005 I.tieknow 261 ,486 Benares 207,570 Patna 1.68,900 Delhi 154,417; Indo-Cbina. B.inkok 600,600 Singapore' 97.111 8aigon..- 70,(i(Hl Hue 50,000 Afghanistan. Cabul 60,000 Kandah.ir .60,000 Herat 45,000 Persia. Teheran 2Of(.0flO Tabrilz 12(i,tKio Mejherf 60,000 Ispahan 60,000 Arabia. Mecca 4.6.000 Muscat 35,000 Malay Islands. Manila 270,000 Surabaya 1K.S24 BaUvia 97,585 I AuBtralia. ! Melbourne 280,836 Sydney 220,427 .Auckland 39,966 Adelaide 38,479 B,lllarat 30,705 HobartTown.... 21,118 MILITAKV STATISTICS. (.Pi>r Arc* ud Popalatioo of Conatriea CoQRtrlca. Armj. North America. Dominion of Canada. . . ' Brit!sh West Indies Mexico United States , Central America I Cuba and Porio Rico..| Hayti and San Donuugo: South Americi. Argentine Confed Bolivia Brazil ! Chill j U S of Colombia- Ecuador Hcru Uruguay Venezuela Kurope. Aiisiro-Hungary Belgium iJLMimark France German Empire Gt. Britain and Ireland. Greece Italy Netherlands Portugal Russia Spain Sweden and Nor»*ay... Switzerland Turkish Empire .iHia, Africa, etc. China Japan Perriia I'-rirish Eist Indies... Piritish Wc^t Indies. . .. Dmch East Indies Dutch West Indies Eiypt Ausiralia, etc Sandwich Islands Armf. I t'ootimg. 25,000 2&,tH>U 3,IC5,000 6,500' 8,500 3,1100 15,000 3,000 1,200 4,700 2.riOO 2,240 N«»y 300,000 32/100; SO,itliOj 31,000 40,6(I0' 2.S,(HK)' lS5,0Uoi COMMEKCIAL STATISTICS. and Sut««, M« Tables [a ibe T«xt.] Trad« Willi tlie United Stiit««. Import*. I Export*. $40,657,000' $40,347,000 $119,800,000 $101,000,000 9,636,(100 10,635,0(10 ' 289,000 I 46,000 35,(100 503,000 1445,000 132,000 12,000 734,000 65,000 3,5,000 975,000 95,000 41.000 ur.ooo ,350,000 300.000 37.000 58.000 190,000 1,126,0001 106,0(H)i 49,000 3,7.53,00,OIIO 6S,$4«.(iOO 6,242,000 B2,78:i,000 3,4(11,000 6,515,000 782,000 4,16.5,000 6,894,000 1,416, OflO 12.634,000 921,000 88,027,000 84,492,000 217,S39,(K10 5,52.IHKI 11,644,0(«1 6,899,000 7,58,OOfl 2,887,000 6,934.000 948,00' 1,K12,000 22,359.000 15,122,000 18,012,000 9.636,000 7,2.50,000 3,124,000 11,173,(KIO lJ8lio,000 14,066.(H«| 6,393,000 2,428,000 9,252,000 1,794,000 6,6I4,0(;.i4S.iioo 1 29.101,(100 244„'>4.8,000 3.38.680,000 ,34,046,000 395,467,000 88,68(1,000 102,855,000] 20,000.000 650,618,'.I99 66,497,000 0,647,01)0 102,029.000 34;.62O,0O0 13.712,000 8,6,34,000 45,000,000 19,7.52,(100 11,300,000 330,000,000 428.149,000 42,577,000 080,130,000 705,375,000 ,432,072,000 17,9;i2,(iOO 225,129,000 232,680,000 20..',02,000 418.467,000 100,9SO,Of(0 79,624,000 107.900.000 99,250,000 118.940.0001 116,825,000 32,C.:il,0(iOi 28,304,000 .5,Ci25.000, 2,812,000 244,287,000 324,699,000 32,7.50,0001 04,916,000 236,894,0((0 806,1.50,000 3,673,00((| 4,968,000 LENGTH AND AREA OF BASIN OF THE PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF THE WORLD IN ENGLISH MILES. OLD -WORLD. LiMictb ! BofiD. Niie, Africa Obi, Siberia Yenisei, Siberia YaiiK tse Kianc, Cliina Zambesi, South Africa Niger, Central Africa ; Lena, Siberia Amoor, Amcoria Volga, Russia I Murray, S. Eastern Australia . Brahmapootra, South India. • . Orange. South Africa Ganges, Ind.a 4,000 3,000 3,400 3,320 1,600 3,000 2,700 2,650 2,000 1,500 2,300 1,000 I.&lfl 1,425,000 1,2.50,000 1,040,000 950,000 900,000 800,000 800,000 786,000 600,000 6011,000 460,000 446,000 416,000 NEW ■WOKL.D. , Lenetb , Arc* I of of Rirer*. I Buin. Amazon. South America I 3,750 Mississippi (entire), U. S 4,200 La Plata, South America 2,300 Mackenzie, British N. America . 2,300 St. Lawrence, Canada 2,0*>0 Saskatchawan, Brit. N- America. 1,900 Orin»«u, ^outh .America 1,550 Columbia, North Amunca 1,020 Colorado, U.S., N America 1,000 San Francisco, Brnzi', S. Amer. . 1,.550 Rio Grande, U.S,,N. A 1,500 Yukon. Alaska 1 1,600 Colorado. Texas 600 2,275,000 1,244,000 1,242,(KM 690,000 480,000 478,000 340,000 298,000 267,000 260,000 240,000 200,000 38,000 Area and PopuLition of the World. Continent*. CHIEF BELIOIOXS OF THE WORID.— Christians, 394,000,000 : Buddhists (Asia), 300,000,000 to 500,- OdO.mKI; Brahmins (India), 14.5,000,000: Relipon of Confucius (China). (••0,(i00,0(KI to 100,000,000; Shinto Religion (Japan', 12,000,000 to 20,000,000; Mohammedanism, 199,000,000; Judaism, 7,000,000. Europe Asia lAfrica ,. .. [North America iSouth America. jAu^tralia, etc. . . Whole earth. PopQltUon. 3,892,000 17,832,000 11,929,0110 8,07.3,000 7,316,000 3..5S1,000 64,416,0(;o 327,744,000 795,.591,OO0 205,800,000 67,049,001 33.366,(l(H 4,2.32,0(K l,4.33,888,(KM Aver. Pnp In Sq. Mir< Chief Divisions of Christians. n ., Romm „ . . . E«*l«ni ConUoMil*. c.lholir.. rrolMUnU. Chnrth... 84 44 IT 8.3 4.5 1.1 26 3 Europe North America. South America. Asia Africa Atist. and Polyn. 148,000,000 24,000,000 23,000,000 6,000,000 1,000,000 800.000 72,000,000 32,000.000 1,000,000 2,000,000 2,000,000 2,200,000 09,000,000 9,000,000 3,000,000 Totals ,201,800,000,111,200,000,81,000,000 HEIGHTS OF SOME OF THE PROaPAL MOCNTAENS OF THE WORLD. North Aineriu. Foot. Mt St. Elias Coast Mountains 17.900 Popocatepetl Mexico . Onzaba " Whitney Sierra Nevada Rainier Cascade M ountains . Shasta (vol.) '* " Tyndall Sierra Nevada ^lt. Harvard Rocky Mountains. . . Grays Pe.ik " " Mt. Lincoln " *' . . . Longs Peak " '* Uncompahcre Peak.. " " Yale " PikesPeak. " " 17.S40 .17,176 .14,900 .14,444 .14,440 .14,386 .14,384 .14,341 .14,2!I7 .14,271 .14,2:15 .14,1.50! 14,147 Korth Americft— Continaetl. FmI. Mt. Holy Cross. Rocky Mountains 14,000 South America. .Andes 22,422 . •• 22,350 . " 21,424 . " 21,286 . " 21,145 19,500 •' 19,137 Aconcagua Sahama (vol.) .. .. Chimborazo (vol.). Sorata lllimani Cotopaxi (vol.). . . . Antisana (vol.) — Mt. Blanc. Europe. .French Al|>s 15,780 Earope — Contlnnetl. Fwt. Mt. Rosa Swiss Alps 15,223 Matterhorn " '^ 14,835 Finster Aarhom " " 14,ii25 Jungfrau " " 1,3,718 Mt Is^ran French Alps 13,271 Mt. Nlulhacen Sierra Ne\-ada 11,660 P. Nethou Pyrenees 11.168! Etna (vol.) Sicilv 10,8»o ' Vesuvius (vol.) Italy 3,948 Asia. I Everest Himalara 29,062 1 Dapsan.i; Kara Korum 28.278 Kinchinjunga . . Himalaya. 28,166 Asia— Con tinned. F«»t. Dhawalaghiri Himalaya. 26,820 H indoo-koosh . 2(i.('00 Mt. Elburz Caucasus 18,572 Mt. Demavend Persia 18,.500 Mt. Ararat Turkey 16,960 Fujiyama (vol.) Japan 14,000 AfHca. Kilima Njaro.. Mt. Kenia 20,0C5 18,000 AnstnlU. Mt. Kosciusko Australian Alps . Mt. Hotham. " . T,176 C,4U 126 STATISTICAL TABLES.— PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURE IN THE U.MTED STATES-CENSUS OF 1880. MAKLFACTUKING. MIKING. SUUm and TerritoriM. Improved lind. iDdtan Cora. Whe.1. Oau. Whit. Potatoea. SwMt Polaloca. Tobacco. Cotton. Wool BotUr. CbecM. Hay. Capital. Piodncl. rndoct. llu>»>li. SudtiU. B'J5,C03 24,15,70fi 383.123 2,684.202 "bis 14,044; 0.52 3, 197.391 230,133 860,379 8,198,9!I6 10.807 826.195 85,002 6.57.8IW 4,311,714 120.480.275 14.-260.159 186.697,211 20,-290,622 Connecticut 147,799 Delaware 716,958 3.894,204 1,175,272 878,,508 283.804 196,937 1,278 97.946 1,870,276 1,712 49,(^2 15,055.822 20.614.4:18 169,803 Florida 947,640 3.174,234 422 408.112 20.221 1.687.013 21,182 54.997 102,810 353, 1.56 2.400 149 3.210.t'>.sO 6.640,448 8,M 4,720 2t;,U5,154 23,202,018 325,792.481 3,169.771 61.110.502 6.548,743 63,189,200 249,690 10.305.707 4,397.778 249.407 228,590 3,935,-25 814,441 1,289.500 i;,033.733 115.482.300 i 47,284.853 15,599,518 6,232,240 244.930 8.872.842 6.107.498 37,377,797 367.601 1,361,0.83 6.5,742.962 118.006,411 2.165,384 Imva 19,SW„';41 27.5,014.247 ; 31.154,205 50,610. .591 9.902.537 122.308 420.477 2,971.975 65.481,9.58 1.07.5,988 3,013,941 33,987,88.'. 71. -04.5, 9-20 2.492,327 10,739,nr.O 10.%729,325 i 17,324,141 8.180.385 2,894.198 195.225 191.609 2,855,832 21.671.702 483,987 1,.589,987 11,19-2.316 30.843.777 2,436,841 Kentucky 10.731,6s;) 72,852,2a 11.350.113 4.680.738 2,209,890 1,017.854 171,120.784 i.307 4,592,670 18,211,904 68,468 218,739 46,813,03! 75.48:).377 1,211,970 Louisiana 2,739,972 »,S-t9,r,89 5,034 229,810 180,115 1,318,110 65,9.54 E08.3C9 400,078 910,0SU 7,018 37,0-29 11.41.2.408 24.20.5.183 3,484,903 3,342,700 960,633 15,908,533 66.5,714 8,004.804 2.205.575 1,794,872 7,999,625 1,497,017 329,690 05(1 26.082,147 2.776.407 850,084 11,103.960 7,18,5,871 1,167,730 17,410 1,107,788 •.i64,408 49.988.171 58.742.: 81 79.8.J9.793 106.780..56;) 39,239 2,869,008 Maryland Massachusetts. . . . 2,12S,311 1,797,708 15,708 04,5.159 3,070.389 450 5,309,436 299,0<9 9,ii"i5,587 829,52.'- (;84,679 303.800.185 031.l:!6.284 328,100 Michii^nn, H,29li,Kr,2 32,401.452 35,532,543 18.190.793 10.924,111 4,904 83,969 11,8.58,497 38,821,890 440, .540 ], 393, 888 92.9:i0.9.59 l.'0.715,0.25 14,306,296 Minnesota 7,2ir,,r,9;! 14.831,741 34,601,030 23.382.158 6,184,070 69.922 1.352,124 19,101,385 623. 13^ 1,030,912 31.001.811 76,006,198 Mississippi 5,2ir.,937 21,340,800 1 218,890 1.9.59.020 303.821 3,010,060 414.663 963.111 734.643 7,454.057 4.23" 8,894 4.7-27.600 7,518,302 Missouri 10,745,0 U 202.414,413 24.96fi.027 20.070.9.58 4,189.094 431,484 12,015.6.57 20,318 7,313.924 28.672,124 28:f.484 1,077,4.58 72.507.844 105,386.205 4,828,845 Nebraska. 65,450.135 12,891 13,847,007 69,298 0,656.875 180.800 2,150.893 302.143 786,433 4.881,1.':0 12.627.336 7ro Nevada 314,423 1,.500 655 012 335,188 17,420 95,853 1.323,300 2.179.626 17,31R,f09 New Hampshire-. 2,30<,112 1,350,248 109,316 1,017.020 3.358,828 170.843 1,000.589 7,247,272 807,070 .583,069 51,112,-263 73.978.0-28 145.542 New Jersey 2,0nil,297 11.150,705 1,901,739 3. 7 10, .573 3.503,793 2,086,731 172.315 441,110 9,513.835 60.518 518,990 106,226,.593 251.380.-236 3,391,782 New York 17,717,HG2 25.090,156 11,587,760 37,576,500 33,644.R07 6,833 6,481,431 8,827,195 111,922.423 8.362.590 5,240,503 614.'240,.575 1.080.696.590 6,122,143 North Carolina... 6,4S1,101 28.019.839 3,397.393 3,838,008 722.773 4.676,148 20.986,213 389,598 917,7.50 7,212..507 67,380 93,711 13,045.039 20.095.0:17 B.54,4.';0 Ohio 1S,0<1,I)91 111,877,124 46.014.809 28.604.505 12.719.216 239,578 34,735,235 25,003,756 67,634,203 2,170,245 2,210,923 188.9:)9.014 318..298.;i90 8,077.488 Oregon 2,l'.n,045 126,802 7.4H0.010 4,385,050 1.3.59.930 17.325 6,718.524 2,443,725 1.53,198 200,187 6.312,056 10.931.232 1,227.883 Pennsylvania 13,423,007 45,821,531 19,462,405 33,841.439 16,284.819 184,142 36,943,272 8,470,273 79.336,012 1.008,080 2,811.6.54 474.610,993 741.818.445 66,5.59.676 Rhode Island 298,416 372.967 240 159.339 000.793 714 786 65.0.80 1,007.103 67,171 79,328 76.575,943 104.163.621 1.5.440 South Carolina — 4.132,050 11.767.0;i9 902,3.-.8 2.71.5,505 144,942 2.189,022 45.678 622.648 272,758 3. 196.851 16.018 2,700 ll.-205,894 16.738.008 40.805 Tennessee 8,490.550 62.704.429 7,331,3.53 4,722.190 1,3.54.481 2.309.901 29,305,0.52 330,021 1,918.295 17.886.309 98,740 180,098 20.092,846 37.074.886 786,548 12.050,314 3,280.401 29.005.172 2.014,271 2,507.737 337,257 4.893,3.59 3.742,282 228.832 4,438.172 1,460,079 221.28:) 131,432 805,284 6,928.019 2,661,113 13,899,320 25,240,826 68,460 1,545.789 69,699 1,051,183 9,246.661 23,-265.224 20.719.928 31..364.360 Vermont 621.033 8,510,113 29,1 19,761 7.826.174 6,333.181 2.010.760 1,901, .521 79.988,868 19,595 1,830.673 11,470,923 85.635 287,266 26,908,990 61.780.992 730,640 West Virginia 3,792.327 14,090.009 1 4.001,711 1,908, .505 1.398,,539 87,214 2,296,146 2.081.444 9.30'.l,617 100.300 232,338 13,883.390 22,807.126 2,0I)4,91'; 9.102..528 34,230.579 24,884,089 32.905,320 8.60iniii Ab is sin' e a. AcMpiilco Ac a poiil'cu. Acamy '.Ah cah ri'. Acjiri . . .'. Ac a rce'. Acheen A checii'. AcDiicagiia Ac on cah'gwa. Acre A' ker. Adtrbiide Ad' e lade. Aden .-Vh'deii. Adii:e Ad'e je. Adirniidack Ad e run' dark. Admiralty Ad' me lal ty. Adiian A' dre an. Adrianople .\ dre an i/pM. Adrialic A die at' ic. Aegean E je'an. Afiilianisran Af t;un is Ian'. Aguas Calicutes... Ag' was Cal e eu'- lus. Agnlhas .\ gt)or yas. AiHie Ane. Aix-la-ChapelIe...AkH-lfl-Sha pel'. Ajaccio A yat' cho. Akaba Ak' a bab. Akron Ak'r<»n. Alabama Al a bah' ma. Aland AW land. Ahu«ka A las' ku. Albania Al ba' ne a, Albany Awl'ba ny. Albemarle Al be niaile'. Albert, Nyauza Al' bert N'yahii'- 7,a. Albuquerque Al boo ker'kay. Alderney Awl' der ny. Aleppo A lep' po. Alenilan A I'yu' she an. Alexandra Al ex an' dra. Alexandria Al ex an' die a. Ali^iers Aljeerz'. Alicante Al e can' te. Ailejjbany AT le j;ay ny. Allegheny Al' le giiy ny. A Isace A 1 sahce'. Altai Al ti'. AliamaUa Al la ma haw'. Alton .Vwl' ton. Al[(nm Al' to na. Altoona Al too'nn. Amazon Am' a zun, Anicsbury Amz' ber ry. Amherst Am' erst. Aniien? .Am'e enz. AniDo A moit'. Amonr. ...A moor'. Amsterdam Am' Pter dam. Anam A nam'. Ancoria An co' na. Andaman An da man'. Andee An' dee>!. Andorra An di»r' ra. Andover An' do ver. Androscoggin An dros cog' gin. Angara An ga lab'. Anglcsea Ang' g'l ge. Angola An go' la. Angostura An gos foo'ra. Anhalf AhTi'hnhlt. Ankobar An ko' ber. I Annapolis Anialo Antarctic I Auticosii I Antietam Antilles! Anrioqnia Antwerp Apenninet^ Apostle Ajfpalachian... Appalachee — A|ipalacbicola. Appomattox . . Arab Aragnay ....... Aral Aiarat Archangel Archipelago. .. Ardennes Arequipa Ar-jentine Argyle Anca Arizona , Arkansas Arnheini Aroostook AeceiiPion A.*.hantee , Ashtabula Asia Aspiiiwali Assiueboin. Astrakhan Astincicm Atacama , Atbara Atcbafalaya Atchison Athabasca Atoll. , Anburn Auckland Augusta , Augsburg Aurora An Sable Ausierlif/, Australia Auvergne Avignon Avon Azof Azores Uaalbec IS:il)-el-Mandeb. Kabylon Badajos IJaden Bagdad Bahama Bahiii , Babrehi Baikal Balaklnva , Balearic Balkan Balkash .ki\ nnp'o li.-f. An [ah' lo. .Am arc' tic. . .An te cob' te. .An tee' tarn. .An teelz'. .An le o kee' a. , . Ant' werp. . . .\p' en nUiz. , .A pos' 1. ..Ap jia la' die an. .Ap pa lach'e. . Ap pa lach e co'la. ..'\p po mat' tux. .Ai'ab. , Ar a gway'. .Ar'al. . Ar' a rat. -Ark ane'jel. .Ark e pel' a go. . Ar den'. . Ab ray kee* pa. .Ar'jeii tine. , . Ar ghyle'. . A ree' ca. .Ar i zo' ua. , ,Ar' kan saw. ..Am' nime, , ..\ roos' took. . ..'Vs ceo' ."Imn. , .Ash an tec'. .Ash la bu' la. , . A'she a. .As' pin wall. . As sin' e boin. -As tra kan'. ■ Ah soon ^a one'. .At a cab' ma. .At brdi'ra. .Aiih a fa li'a. ..'\tcli' e son. .Aih a bas'ca. .A'tol. .Aw' burn. . Awk' land. • Aw gu^^' ta. ..\wgs' bnrg. . .^w ro' III. ..Osah'b'l. . .Aws' ler Itlz. , . .V ws tra' le a. , .0 vairn'. , ..^h vcen yong'. ..A' vuii. . Az' of. . A zOrz'. .Bahl'ber. Bab-el-Man' deb. .Bab'eh.n. .Bad a hoFc'. .Bah' den. .Hag dad'. , .Ba ha' ma. .Bah ee' a. .Bah rinc'. .Bi'kal. .Bnl a klah'va. ■ Bal e nr'ic. Hal kan'. .Bahl kahsl/. Balkb Bahlk. Ballston Spa Bawl/' ton Spab. Balmm-al Bal mo nil'. Baltic Bawl' tic. Baltimore Bawl' te more, Banca Bani;'ca. Bang.)r ... Bang'gor. Baiucnuassin Balinyer niaUssin', Bajikok Ban kok'. Baranoflf Ba ran' oft". Barbadtie.s Bar ba' doze. Barbary Bar' l)a ry. Barbuda Bar bn' da, Barcelona Bar ce lo' na. Barfleur Bar trytire'. Barnaul Bar iiowl'. Barnegat Bar' ue gat. Basle Bahl. Bassorah Bas' so ra. Bathnrst Bath' erst. Baton Rouge Bah t'n Roozh'. Bavaria Ba va' re a. Bayonue Bah yon'. Bayou Sara Bi' oo Sa' ra. Beaufort B.".' fort (S. C). Beaufort Bo' iVirt (A [.;. Bedouin Bed oo fiMx'. )Jebring Beer' ing. Beirut.'. Bi' roiit. }ielfast Bel fast'. Betgrium Bel' je nm. Belgrade Bel L'rade*. Belize Be leez'. Belle Isle Bel lie'. Beloit Be loit'. Beloochitttan Be loo rhis tan'. Benare."^ Be nah' res. Bencoolen Ben coo' leu. Henevento Ben c ven' lo. Bengal Ben gawl'. Bengazi Ben gab' ze. Benirntla Ben ga' la. lieniiia Be iii^li' e a. Ben I.oniond Ben Lu' nmnd. Hen is'evis Ben Ne' vi?. Herbera lier be' ra. Beigen Ber' gen. Berlin Ber lin'. Bermuda Ber niu' da. Berne Bern. Besanpon Bav z-ihtig'sOng. Bilboa Bii Ix.'a. Bingen Bing' en. Hinningham Bir' niing ham. Biscay liis' cay. Blanco Bhing' ko. Blauquilla Blahn keel- ya. Hlenheim Blen' hime. Bogota Bo go tab'. Boint' Bwah za'. Bojador Hod ja d»>re'. Hokbarn Bik hah ra. Holivar Bol' e var. Bolivia I-lo liv' r a. B lone'ya. Bombay Bcmi hay". BnnifiK-io Bon e lab' cho. Boothia Bon' the a. Bordeaux Bore do'. Borgne Born. Bornholm — Born liJimp Bmiieo Botna Serai . . . . Bosnia Bosporus Bosum Bothnia Buulo^iue Bowdoin Bowling Green., Boyne Brahmapooiia.. Brandenburg. . . I Brauiifeis \ Brazil Brazos , I Bremen j Breinerhaven.. . I Breslau \ Bretagne I Breton j Brindisi ' Britain I Brookline. , Brooklyn I Bruges Brunai ' Brunu I Brusa ! Brussels I Bucharest ; liuda : Budweis ; Buenaventura.. I Jinena Vi^in. . .. ! Bnt- no8 Ayres.. IJnffalo : Bulgaria I Burgundy I Bin inah i Bu^hile Cahnl Tadiz ! Caen 1 Caernnntlieu..., Caernarvon .... Ca<:liari «»... Caicop Cairo (Esrypi)... Cairn (U.S.) Calais Calrntta California , Callao Canibray Cambridue C'ampagna C^ampeachy Canandaigua. . . Canaries Canaveral Candia Cafion Canterbnrv Canton ftt S.)... Canton (China).. Capo Oirardeau. Capricorn Cirnfft« Caidin* Caribbean . .Bor'ne o. . .Bos' ua ^e t i'. .. Boz' ne a. . .Bos' po J us. ..Bos' ton. ..B»>th'ne a. . .Boo lone'. ..Bu'd'n. ..Bo' ling Greeu. .Boin. . . Hrah nui poo' trju . .Bran' den booig. . .Brown' fels. . . Bra zee!'. . . Braz' 08. ..Biem'eu, . .Bra'mer h;;h feu. . . Bres' law. ..Bre tahn'. . Hie' ton. ..Brin'de se. ..Brit' t'n. ..Broidi'line. ..Brook' lin. . .Brod'jiz. . .Broo ni'. . . Broon. . .Broo'sa. ..Brns'selz. . .Bo<) ka test'. ..Bn'da. ..Bood' wise. . .Bway naveu too ra, . .Bwa" na V'ees' ta. . . Bo' nos Air'ez. ..Buffalo. ..Bui ga' le a. . .Bur' gun dy. . .Bur' nia. . - Bu sheer'. , .Cabool'. . .Ca'diz. . .Ca' en. . .Car iiKii' then, . .Car luu' von. . .Cahl' yar e. . . Ki' ct>se. ..Ki'ro. ..Ca' ro, ..Cal' is. ..Cal cut' tn. ..Cal e for nc a. ..Cal lab' o. . .Cam' bray. . .Came' brij. ..Cam palm' yn. ..Cam pe' che. ..Can an da'gwa. . .Can a' liz. ..Can yav'e ral. ,.C'aii'icr Chicopee I Chihuahua — -Chili IChillicoibe.... ! (^hiloe i Chimborazt)... \ ChiiKlia \ Chippewa ; Chowan i Christiauia I Cieiifiiegos I Cimarron ! Cinriiinati Ciiidad Real..., — Car ebee'. — Car lile'. . ..Carlz' I'oo. .. . -Cur o li' na. . . . Car pa' the au. , . . C'ar la je' na. Cash mere'. — Cab' pi an. Ca? leel'. . .. .Cat a saw'qtii . . . .Cab lo'cha\. Cat'te gat.' . .. Caw ea' .'hun. Caw'ra sns. ...Ki eu'. ■ ..Ki man'. Ca yno'ga. CJei'e heez. . .. Se rahni'. , . . Ce:'e go. — Chet iceii' yay, — Say ven'. — Ce lone'. . ..Chah' gres. .. .Sha t'ynie'. — Sba irijig'. ,. . Sham plane'. ...Sham i)iiiie'. .. .Shan de I'yure'. , . ..Sbar't'i-. ...Slia lau'qna. .. .Chat ta hoo'chea . ..Chat la noo'ga. . . Sho de air'. . .Che ah' pa. ...Chel'se. . . .Chell' nam. .. .Keni' nils. . .Sbe mnng'. . . .Shi- naiig'go. ...Sher'boui.j. ...Che.-' a peak. . . .Cliev'e ul, . . .Shi en*. . . .she caw' go. . ..Chi( ir es ler. . . .Chic' o |.ce. .. .Che wah' wah. Cleveland C.)atzacoalcos. Cohija Cobleiilz Cocbabnnib;!. . , Cohoes Coimbra Cohhesier Cologne ...Chil le coth'e. ..Chelo a'. . .Chini bo rah' Z(X ...Cbii.'i-ha. . .Cbip'pe way. . -Cho H jiWIl'. . .(-■Ill is If ah' Tie a. . Si- en U\n\' :roce. . .Ciin ar roi'e'. . I'iii cin nali' te. ..The <.o dahd'Rar all!'. . .Cleev'land. ..Co aht tab co nM' c<»se. ..Co be'hn. ..C-d)' letits. ..Coch a bam'ba. ..Co hoze'. . Co im' bra. ..Cole'chos ter, . Co luue'. PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. 127 Colombia Co lorn' be a. Coliirado Col o nili'do. Cnmayji^ua Co ini iih'ywa. Citnioi'in Cum' «> riu. Concepcion C«tii sep ^e one'. Coneiiiaiigh Con' e 111:1 w. Coiigjiiee Cou;; izn leu'. Cotiifo Coii;;' j;o. Couiian;;ht. Coii'uawl. Connecticut. Con nei'e cut. Consej^uina Con f^aghe'iia. Constantine Con stan teen'. CoMstniiiinople Con slan te no'p'l. CooiiDissie Coo mas' se. Copenhagen Co pun hn'f^en. Coptiipo C* pe ah'po. Coqnitnbo Co Keeni'bi>. Coi-dt>v!( Cor' ilo va. Corea Co re' a. Corfu Cor foo'. Corlnlh ....Coi-'iMlb. Corpns Chrisii Cor' pus Kris' te. Corrienles Cur re en' te;*. Corsica Cnr' >e kn. CorviiUia Cor val' lis, Costa Uica Cos' ta Re' ka. Cotopaxi Co to pax'e. Coven iry Cnv'en try, Covington Cnv'ing tiin. Co/.uniel Cu zoo niel'. Cracow Cra'co. Crimea Cri nie'n. Croatia Cro a' she a. Croustadc Cron'siat. Ciienpa Kwen'sa. Cnmaoa Coo ma nab'. Ciirapoa Coo ra so'. Cuyahoga .Ki a ho'ga. Ctizco C'>oz'co. Cycladed Cyc' la deez. Cyprus Ci'prus. Cxar Zar. Dahlonepa Dah Jon'e irn. Dahomey Dah hi/ may. Dili Nippon Di Nip' pone. Dakota Dah ki>' ta. Dalhoiisie D;il hoo'ze. Dalles Dal/.. Dabnatia Dai ma' t^he n. D.imietta Dam e et'ta. Dampier Land Dam' peer Laud. Danbtiry Dan' her re. Dani!>h Da'nii*li. Daiitzic Danl'f»ik. Danube Dan'yoob. Dardanellu-'* Dar da ue.z'. Darfiir Dar foor'. Darien Da' re en. Diirnisladt Dai m' ^tat. I)rtrtmouth Dart' miilh. ]);ir\Tiii Dar' win. Diuphiny Daw' riii e. D.ivenpurC Dav'en port. D ly ton Da' ton. Deccan Dec' can. Di'^itiware Del' a ware. DeIlii{Asia) Del' le. Delhi (U.S.) Del'hT. Demcrara Deuierah'ra. Denmark Den' mark., Dej-eiet Dez e rei'. Dea Moines De -Moiu'. Di'tmit De troit'. Diamantina De a mabn te'na. Dieppe De ep'. Dijou De zhniig. Dnieper Ne' per. Dniester Nees' ter. Drmiinica Oom e ne'co. Dt»netjal Don' e ^awl. Dorchester D<>r'Llies ler. Douay Don' ay. Don<>his Dug' las. Donro Doti' ro. Dovrefietd Duv re feeld'. Dowa;^ine Do wa' je ac. Drnve Draliv. Dresden Drez' deo. Dro'^hedji Dro;;' e da. Droiitheim Fiord . . Dnm' teem Fe ord. Dnbiifpie Du book'. Duluib Doo looth'. Dninitartou Dum bar' ton. Dumfries Dun» frees'. Duiia Dcu>' na. DiiJile** Dun dee'. Dunedin Dn ned' in. Dunkirk Dun kirk'. Duiiniore Dnri more'. Duqiiesne Du kane'. Du Quoin Du Kwoin'. Durham Dur' am. Dusseldorf Dus' -el dorf. Dwina Dwi'ua. Eaii Claire O clair'. Ebro E' hro. Ecuador Kc wa dore'. Kdiiibur';h Ed' in bur ro. Ediato Ed' is lo. Esypt E'jipt. Ehrenbrettsteiu ...A len brite'sline. Kider 1' der. Eisenach {' za nabk. EMie Elb. Ellterfehl El'berfcld. EHiurz Kl b«i>iz'. E'euthera K Ivoo' the ra. El Paso EI Pah' so. KIsinore El ye nore'. Ems Emz. Englaii'l Inir'^'Iand. En^^lish Ini:'slish. Eniknle En kah' lay. Evjuator Eqna' liu'. Enuri Kr'I'oort. Erie E're. Eiz . . Ercji. Krzrooni Ivi i« room'. i;-Lurial E?t coo tv ahl'. E-nieialda E^ nier aid' diu E>pinhavo. Et* pin yas' o. E-ipiimaux IW ke inu. E^Keinadura E^ ire ma du' ra. Eiiliea Yoo he' a. Eiifiiula Yo4» faw' la. Kiiphrales Yi»o frji' leez. Eureka Y*m» re'ka. Kurope Yoo' rnp. European Y'oo ro pe'an. Eutaw Yoo' law. Kveresi Ev'er esi. Eylaii riaw. Eyre Air. Fahliin Fab'binn. Falkirk Fal'kirk. Falkland Kawklaiid. Falnionih FaT niiiih. Fai ihault Fai e ho'. Faroe Kah' ro. Fayal ..Fi awl'. Fayeiteville Fay et vil. Feejee Fe'jee. Feliciana Fe ie ce nh'na. Fernaudina Fer nan de' na. Ferrara Fer rah' ra. Ferrol Fer rolf'. Fezzan Fez zan'. Fin:r!tl Finj^ ^awl'. Fiiiisicric Fin it* Tare'. Fiord Fe ord'. Flanders Flan'derz. Florence Flor'ence. Florida Flor'eda. Foix Fwah. Fund iln Lac Fond dn Lac'. Foiitainehlcau Fon tane bio', Foiiienoy Fuu le noi', Fiu-uioga For mo'sa. Fort Yuma Fort Y'oo' ma. Frankfort Frank' fort. Frederickshall .... Fred' er iks bawl. Kri^dericklon Fred' er ik ton. Fieinuiit Fre' monl. Kreiburg Fri' buij;. Friedland Freed' laud. Frie^^laud Frees' bind. Frio Fre'o. Frobisher Frob' ish er. Ftih-c'hau Fu chow'. Fujiyama Fu je yah' ma. Gaetn Gah a'ta. Galapagiis Ga lap' a gnsc. Galaiz tJalaiB'. Galicia -Ga li?hen. Gotha Oo'iah. Gothland... Goth'land. Gh. . Hindostan. .Hell^e J ..net's. ..Him a li'a. ..Hni'iloo koosh. . liin dos 1:111'. iloang-Ho Ho aiiL'-Hn Hoboken Ho bo' ken. Hodeida Hodi'da. Ilouue ling. Hohenlindeii Ho lien liu'deu. Hohenzollern Ho hen t^ol' Icrn. I Himduras Hon doo' ras. j Hong Kong Hong Ki'. I Ilmeii II men'. ' luagua E nab' gwa. I India lude a. j Indian In'de an. j Indiana in de an' a. Indianapolis In de an ap'o lis, I Indies In'diz. I Iiigo|.«tadt Ing'gol Stat. 1 Itinsprnck Ins' prook. ! Iitterlachen . ! Inverary ', luveruess . .. ' Iowa Ip!^wich I Iran Ireland i Irkoiiisk Irontou ..In ter lab' ken. In ve ra' re. In ver ncss'. I'o wa. Ip;*' wich. ....E rahn'. Ire' land. ....Il koMi^k'. .1' ron ton. j Iroqnois I ro kwoi'. Irtish 1 Iser — I Islay (Scotland I I>lay (S.A.)... j Ismail Ismniliu 1 Ispahan I^ pa ban'. ] Isthmus I**!' mup. I Itasca I las'ca. I Ithaca Dh'a c». I Ivry E' vry. Ir'iish. . ..K'zer. ...riav. ...Tzii*. . . -I^ mah eel'. . .Is mah eel ya. Jaeu Jalapa Jamaica Japan Ja^sy Java" Jedburgh Jena Jei>ey Jerusalem Jess<» Jiddab Joannes Johannishci'g Ji.liei Jnan Fernandez. Juba Juiiijfrau Juniata Jura Kalahari Kalamazoo Kamtrhnlka Kanawha Kankakee Kano Kansn« Kara Korum — Karroo Ka?.h'jrar Kaskaskin Katahdin i Kearney 1 Kc.iisar'jc .Hah en'. .Ha lah'pa. .Ja ma' cu. .Ja pan'. . Yas' ^y. .Jah' v«. .Jed' bur o. .Ya' na. .Jer'ze. .Je roo'salem. .Ye*' so. .Jid'dn. .iino an' neez. Yo hahn' js berg. Jo'lcei. .J<'o'au Fernan'dez. .Zhooba. .Yoong' frow, .Ju ne ai'a. , .J<)o' ra, .Kah la hnh'rr. . .Kal a ma 700'. , .Kam trbat' kn. , . Ka naW wa. , .Kan kaw' ke. .Kah I")'. . .Kan'zas. .Kah rah Ko'rnm. . .Kar rihi'. . .Kash gar'. , .Kas kas'ke a. . .Ka tah'din. .Knr' nc. . .KcCi'sarj. Kelat Kennebec Kenuebunk .... Keiiii>ha , Kentucky Keoknk Kewaunee Keewaiiu Khan Khanaie Khaitoom Kheiiive , Khiva Kbora-sau Kiildei minuter . Kiel KifV Kildare , Kilima Njaro. . . Kilkenny Killaiiiey Kinu'k.tjKi Kioien Kioto Kinlienev Ki^>in;;en Kittaniiing Kitiaiinny Kiiicry..! K Uhhui Klamath K'ldiac Knkomo K'il|iL"^lM'lg Konig;;i«:z Knell Liin Kurdistan Kurile Labrador Laccadive Lackawanna .. . La Crosse Ladoira Ladrone La Fayette Lagoou Lagos La Gunyra La Hogiic Lammeimoor .. Lanark Lancaster Lnndaii LaiiL'uedoc Lansing Laos La Paz Lapeer I^i Plata Laramie Laredo La Kochelle.... La Salle Lassa Lausanne Leavenworth... Leghorn Lehigh Ibo». L'lch l^vcui Loch Lerk Lucerne LuckuMW Liitzen r.iixeinbmg . . Luzerne LuZ'm Lycoming Lyons Macap<:ar Mnchias. ■ ■ .Kelat'. .Ken ne bee'. .Ken lie bunk'. -Ken o'^ha. .Ken luck' y. .Ke'okuk. ..Ke waw'iiee. . Ke wa' tin. , . Kawn. ..Kawn'ate. ,.Kar loMiii'. ..Ka'div. . .Ke' va. . .Ko ras sail'. ..Kid' der miii ster. ..Keel. . .Ke ev'. ..Kildair'. . .Kil e malm jah ro'. . .Kil ken'iiy. .Kil lar'uey. . .King ke lab'o. . .Keer' leu. ..Keo'io. ..Kisli en eV. . .Ki-^s' ing en. ..Kit tan iiing. ..Kit la tin' tiy. ..Kit' ter y. . .Koo'shoo. ..Klah'raat. . -Ko'de abk. ..Ko'ko mo. . .Ka' iiigi* berg. . .Ka'iiig gteis. . . Kwen Loon'. . .Koor dis lau', ..Koo'reel. ..Lnb ra do*-e'. . .Liic'ca div. ..Lack a waw' na. , .Liih Cross'. ..La d.»'ga. ..La drone'. ..Lab Fay et'. ..La goon', ..Lab' gose. ..Lab Gwi'ra. ..La Hug'. . . Lam nier moor'. . . Lan' aik. ..Lanc'a> ter. , .Lan daw'. ..Labn gbe dok'. ..Lan' sing. ..Lab' OS. ..Lab Pabz'. . . La peer'. ..Lab Plah'ta. ..LSr'a me. ..La ra'dt>. ..LahRi>sher. ..Lab SabI'. ..Lahs'sa. ..Lo zan'. ..Lev'en worth. ..Leg horn'. ..I|auch Chunk.. . Mauinee. Manna I^>a Mauritius Mayence Mazatlan Medina . .. . Mediterranean .. Alelanesia Melb'Uinie AJemphieuiagog. Menai Meudocinu Meudoza ]Mequinez Meiida IVIerthyr-TydvlI.. Me.'-Mna Meiise Miami Michigan Micbilimackinac. Altkado Milan Milwaukee Mindanao Mindnro M qiieloii Miramichi Missisqnoi Mis>oloiighi .Mi-'i-onri .Miivb'iie M.-hile Mocba M''ga' si», ..Mawk Cbiink'. ..Maw mee'. . Mow'na Lo'a. ..Maw risb'e u^. ..Mall yahiice*. . Maz at lan'. ..Me de'ua. ..Med e ler ra' Tie an. ..Mel a lie '^lle a. ..Mel' burn. ..Mem fie ina'gng, . .Men'i. ..Men dose' no. ..Men do' za. ..Mek'e nez. . .Mer'e da. ..Mer'ibyi-Tyd'viL ..Mesye'Da. . . M 11 ze. . . Mi am'e. ..Mish' e '..'an. ..Mich e le mack' o- nac. ..Mekah'do. ..Mil'aii. ..Mil waw'ke. ..Mill da nail' o. ..Mill do'ro. ..Mikehm'. . .Mir a me she'. . .Mi.>' ^is kw4>i. . .Slis so long' ghe. ..Mis Koo' re. ..Mil V le'ne. ..Mobcel'. ..Mo'ka. ..Mog a dore'. ..Mo tuc'caz. ..Mon'gul. ..Mo lion ga he'la. . . Moll lah' na. ..Moll tawk'. . Mon te na'gro. ..Mon le ray . .,M>m te vid' e o. ..Mont mo ren'ee. ..Moiii peel' ver. . .Moiii le awi'. ..Mo re' a. ..Mos'co. ..M.zei'. ..Monni Dez'ert. ..Moor zo. k'. ..Mo zam beek', ..Mil' pik, ..Mils cal'. ..Mils kiiii:''gum. ..Mysore. Xacogdoche!*.. Nahaiil Namiir Nankin Naiding Naniec Naples Na>)iua Nassau Natal Natchez Nalchitoche"... Navariuo NeaL'h Nedjed Nel|^e Neva-la Newark New Heme New Briiain. . - Newbinirh Newbuiyport. . ...Nac ng do' die*. ...Na haiil'. . . .Na' iiiiir. . ..Nan keen'. . ..Nabiiliiig'. .. .Naiitf*. , Na'pl'z. ...Na>b'u a. ...Nas'sHw. ...Na'tal. ...Natch' ex. ...Natch e locb'ez, ...Nav a ic'iio. ..Na.^ .. .Nej'ed. ...N'vnse. . .-Niiy vah'da. .. .New' at k. . ..New' Bern. . ..New Hril't'rt. . .New' bii'g. . .Newber le port 128 PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY. Newfonndlftnd .... New' ftiud land. New(iniiiiida New Gia unli'da. New Giiintrii New Ohtii'ue. New OrlemiJ* New Or'leaiiz. New Kochelle New Ki> sliell'. New Zenlaiid New Ze'laud. NLjami N>ulj' ine. Niagara Ni ag' a ra. Nicatagna Nic a riih gwii. Nice Neece. Nicitliar Nic o bar'. N iemeii Ne' meu. Niger Ni' jer. Nineveh Nin'e veh. Niobrara Ni o bra' ra. Nipissiiig Nip' is tting. Nippon Nipptme'. Nisines. Neeinz. Norf.tlk Nor'fok. Norrkopiog Nnr'ko ping. Nurwalk Nor' w.ik. Norwich Nor' rij. Notre Dame No'i'r Ualini'. Nova Scoitn No'va Sen' she a. Nova Zeinbia No' va Zem' bliu Novgorod Nov go rod'. Nyunza N'yahn' za. Nyastffl N'yahd' sa. Oiihn Wali'hoo. Oasis O'a sis*. Oaxaca Wuh hab'ka. Obi O'be. Oceaiiicii O she an'e ca. Ocmiilgee Oc inul' ghee. Oconee O co'nee. Oder O'der. Odessa O dc;*' pa. 0''eechee u ghee' chee. oP^e Waliz. Okeechobee O kee cho' bee. Okhotsk Ok hotsk'. Olmulz Ol'miiiP. Omaha O'ma haw, Oneida O ni'da. Oinindaga On ou daw'gn. Ontario On ta' re o. Opelika O pel'e ka. Opelonsas Op e loo'^as. Oporto O por'lo. Orau O rahn'. Oregon Or'e gnn. Ori noco O re no' co. Orizaba Ore /uh' ba. Orkneys Ork' niz. Orleans Or' le aiiz. Ornitiz Or'ninz. Oitegal Or'ie gahl. 0:*iige O sage'. Osiikosh Osh'kosh. Osnaburg Oz' na bui-g. Ossawaitomie Os sa wot o me. Osteud 08 lend'. O-iwe-^o Os we' go. Oiaheiie- O'ta tiite. Otranto O tran'm. Ottawa Ot'ia waw. Ottnnnva Ot'inni waw. Oiide Oud. Oiise Onz. Owasco O wjis'co. Oziika 0'/.ah ca. Ozark O zark'. Pacarainia Puh cah rah e' m:ih. P.icha I*a >i<* Pap'u a. )*ara Pa rah'. I'Mra^iiay Pahr a gwny'. I'-irahyba Paiir ah e' buh. ParamHfibo Par a ma re' bo. Piiriina Pahr a nali'. P.issaic Pas pa ' ic . Passam:iquoddy...Pa8sa mn qnnd'dy. Patagonia Pat a go' ne a. Patos Pah' lose. Paira* Pa irap'. Pecos Pa' ko.^e. Pedee Pe dee'. Peipu*.. Pa'e pns. Pekin Pe kin'. Peliiig Pa ling'. Pemliina Pt-m'be ua. Peniigewaseei Pein e je wos'&j(. Pensiicola Pen sa cola. Pepin Pfp'in. Pernambiico Per nam boo'co. Persia Per' she a. Pesib Pest. Pbilippi Phe lip' pi. Pliilippine Phe lip' pin. Picardy PIc'ar de. Piciou Hie loo'. Piedmonf. Peed' niont. Pieiermariizburg-.Peetermai'itzbnrg. PIqna PIk'wa. Pisa I'ee'za. PIscataqna Pis cat' a kwa. Pitcairn .Pil kairn'. Plaqiiemine Plak njeen', PJaiean Pla to'. Phiiie Pl:it. Plymouth Plim ' nth. Poitiers Pt)i teeiz'. Polynesia Pi)l e ne' she a. Pompeii Pom pa'e. Pontchartrain Pom shar train', Popavan Po pa yan'. Poponileiierl Pi>p o cjih' te pci'I. Port an Prince Port o Prince'. Porte P. rt. Porio Rico Por' to Re' ko. Porto V'ecchio Por' to Vek' ke o. Portugal Por'lu gal. Posen Po'zen. Potomac Po to' mac. Potosi Fo to' se. Pouirhkeepyie Po kip'se, Poyang Po yang'. Prague Pralg. Prairie dn Chien.Pra're dn Sheen'. Presqne Isle Presk Eel'. Prussia Prash'ya. Puebla Pwa' bla. Puerto Principe... Pware' to Preen'ce- pay. Pyrenees Pir' eu eez. Qnatre Bras Kaht'r Brah'. Quebec Kue bee'. Quenluu Kwen loon'. Queretaro Kay ray taU'ro. Qniloa Ke'Io a. Qnincy Kwin'ze. Quinebang Kwiu e bawg'. Quito Ke' to. Riidiie Ra seen'. Ragusa Kah i;oo' sah. Rah way Raw' way. R.iiiiier K.i' neer. Rjiisin Ra'zin. Raleigh Raw' le. Rangoon Rang goon'. Rapidau R;ip id au'. Rappahannock — R.ip pa hau'uock. Raritan Rar' it Tm. Raiisbon Ral' is hon. iiavenna Ra ven' na. Heading Red'ing. iteims .Reemz. Rensselner Ren sel er. UcsacadelaPahna.Ray sah' ca day la Pahr ma. Resligouche Res le goo sha', ItevUjavik Rike'3-a vik. Rhone Ron. Riad Re ad'. Richelieu Reesh'e ID. Riesen Re' zen. RicsenGebirge Re'zenGebere'ge. Riga Ke' i;a. Riride la Plata.. ..Re'odny In Plah'tn. Rio Grande Re'o Grahn'day. Rio Janeiro Re' o Ja nay' ro. Roanoke Ro an nke'. Romagua Ro mahn' ya, RoncoBvalles Ron se vahl'yes. Rosaiio Ro sab' re o. Rotterdam Rot' ter diim. Rouen Roo'en. Ronmania Roo mah' ne a. Roiitnelia Roo nie' le n. Rouf'es Point Row.ce' ez Point. Rowan Ro' an. Russia Rii-li'a. Ryswck Kiz' wik. Sflflfbrnck Sabinas Sabine Sable Saco Sacramento Sadowa Saghalin Saginaw Sui^uenay Sahainu Sahara Said Saigon Salamanca Salisbury Saloiiica Saniana Samarang Saniarcund Sanioan San Bennirdino . San Uietjo Sandu.-ky Sun Felipe Sangamon San .loaquin San Josi! San J.inin Siin Luis Obispo. SauLuisPotosi.. San Mnrino S.in Miguel San Salvador Santa Hari>ara... . Santa Cliira Santa Cruz Sinia F6 Santee Santiago Santiago de Cuba Siione Siiragossa Saratt)v Sarawak Sarniienio Saskaichnwan. . .. Sanlt St. Marie... Save Scheldt Schenectady Schoodic Si-hroon Schuylkill Scliweidnitz Schwerin Scilly Scioto Scliivee Scotia Scutiiri Seattle Seliiigo Sebastopol Sedan Seidlilz Seine Senegal Senegambia : Sennaar Seoul Serro Espinhafo. . Severn Seville Shanghai Shawangnnk Shenandoah Shikokn Siam Sicily Sierra Leone Sierra Mndrc Sierra Nevada. . . . Si hon Silesia Sinai Sinaloa Sinope Singapore sjoux SkML'er Rack Skaneiiteles Slavonia SIcxwick llol^iein Smolen>k .Sahr'broiik. .Sah be' nas. Sa lieeu'. .Sa'b'l. , .Saw' CO. .Sac ra men' to. .Siih'do wa. . Sag ha leen'. , .Sag'e n»w. .Sag' nay. .Sa hah' ma. , .Sa bah' ra. ..Sah eed'. ,.Si gon'. ..Sal a than' ca. . .Sawlz' ber re. , .Sal o ne'ca. . .Sa niah'na. , .Sam ar ang'. . .Sam ar rand'. , .Sa mo' an. ..San Ber nar de'no. ..San L>e a' go. , .Sjin das' ke. ..San Fay le pay. , .S.in' ira nion. .San Hn a keen'. ..San Ho zav'. ..San iitJo ahJt'. ..SiOi Looees'Obis'- p«t. ..San Loo ees'Po lo- se. .San Ma re' no. • San Me glie!'. .San Sal va dore'. .San'ta Bnr' ba ra. .San' ta Clah'ra. San' ta Cntose. .San' ta Fay'. .San tee'. .San te ah' go. .San le ah go diiy C.'i ba. .Son. .Sar a gos'sa. • Sar a tov'. .Sahr a wahk'. .Sar me en' to. .Sas katch'a wawn. .Soo Sent Ma' re. .Sahv. .Skelt. .Ske nee' ta de. .Shoo' die .Skroon. .Skool'kill. .ShwTt'nits. .Swa reeu'. .Sil'le. .Si o'to. .Sklahvz. .Sko'she a. Skoo' ta re. Se' t'l. . Se ba' go. .Se bas'to pol. .Se dahn'. .Sed'lite. .Sane. .Sen'e gnwl. .Sen 6 gam' be a. -Sen nahr'. .Sa ool'. .Ser' ro Es peen- ynh' so. .Sev'ern. .Sev'il. .Shnnglii'. .Shoiig'gnm. .Shen an do' a. .Shi ko'koo. .Si am'. .Sis'e le. .Se er' ra Le n'ne. .Se er'ra Mah'clray. .Scer'raNe vah'da. .Se boon'. .Si le'se a. .Si'na T. .Sin a lo'a. .Sin' o pe. .Sing ga pore'. Se o(t'. Skag'er Rnck. ..Skan e at' e les. . .Sla vo' ne a. .Sle>'wikH"»retiD©, .Snio lensk'. Smyrna Socoira Sokoio Somali ?>onora Soiata Soiel Soudan Spii spc^er Spheroid Sporades St, Anthony Staien Island. .. S;. Augustine... St, Croix Steiliicm St. Elias St. Etienne Stettin , St. Genevieve. . . St. Helena St. Lawrence... St. Louis St. Pierre Stralsund Strasbourg Sinnnboli St. Roque Stuttgart Sucliau Sucie , sutnatra.. Sunda Surabaya , Snrar Suriiniui Snwanee Swansea Syracuse , ...Smir'na, ...Sii co' ira. ...Soko' to. . ..So maw'le. .. .Si> no'ra. . ..So rah' tab. ...Sor' el. . ..Soo dan'. .. .Spidi. ...Spi'er. . ..Sphe'roid. .. .Spor'a deez. .. .Sent An' to ny. ...Stafn I'land. ...Sent Aw giis teen'. ...SentCroi . . ..Sti la coom'. ...Sent E li' as. ...Sent Et e cu'. — Stet teen'. . ..Sent Jen e veev'. . ..Sent He le'na. ...Sent Law'reuce. .. .Sent Loo' is. ...Sent Pe nir'. ...Strabl'stHmd. ...Stras' bipurg .. .Strom' bo le. ...Sent R..ke'. Stoot' gart. Soo chow. Soo' Cray. Su mnb tra. . ..Sun' da. — S.'. ra hi' ah, — Su rat'. Sar e nam'. .. .Su waw' nee, Swjiwn'ee. Syracuse'. Tabriz Ta breez'. Tahiti Ta he' te. 'Pablequah . Talladeu'a Tathibassee. . Tamaqua Tainaiave Tampico Tanan.-u'ivo .. Tanganyika. . Tangier". ..Tab' le kwah. .Tal la de'ga. -Tal la has' see. .Tam aw' kwa. ,.Tam'a tahv. .Tarn pe'co. .Tan ati a re vo'. ,.Tahn gahu ye'kn. .Tan jeer'. Taos Tah'ose. Tapajos Ta pah' ynpe. Tashkend Tash kend'. Tasmania Tnz ma'ne a. Taunton Tnhn'lou. Tauris Taw'ris. Tchad Chad. Teheran Tee he rahn'. Tehuanlepec Te waliu' te pec. Tegucigalpa Ta goo se gjihl'pa. TeneriflV Ten'e rif. Terre Haute Ter' re Hole. Tezcaco Tez coo'co. Thames Teinz. 'I'liebes 'I'beebz. Theiss Tice. Thermopyl^^ Ther mop' e le. Thian Shan Te ahn' Sliahu. Thibet Te bet'. Thibodeaux Tib o do'. Tientsin Te ent seen'. Tierra del FuegcTe er'ra del Fwa'- go. Tiflis Tlf'lis. Tilsit Til'sit. i'imbuctoo Tim hue too', Tirnova Teer' no va, 'Titicaca Tinmen Tobolsk Tocauiins. .. T..kio Tombigbee.. 'Tcuiquin Topekii Ton- .Tit e call' ca. .. . .Te u men'. ....Tob.lsk'. ....To can leenz'. ....To'keo. Tom big' bee. ....Ton keen'. ....To pe'ka. .Tor' res Torlng.'i Tor too' ga. Toulon Too long . Toulouse Too looz'. Ti)urniiy Toor na'. Tours To(ti-. Trafalgar Trnf al gar'. Transvaal Trahns vahl'. Trcbizond Treb e zond', Trieste Tre est'. Trinidad Trin c dad'. 1 Tripoli Trip' o le« Troyes Trwah. Truxillo Troo beel'yo, Tuernnvik \.Oo' per nah vik. Upsnl Up' sal. Ural (to' ral. LTrbana Ur ba' nn. Uruguay Yoo roo gwoy', Utah .Yoo'iah. Utica Yoo'te ku. Utrecht You'iiekt. Valladolid Val la do Iced'. Vallejo Val ya' ho. Valencia Va leii'she a. Valparaiso Val pa ri' zo. Vancouver Van coo' ver. Venetia Ven e'sbe a. Venezuela Ven e zwe' ia. Venice Ven' ice. Vera Cruz Va'ra Kroos, Vergeniies Ver jenz'. V'eimiliou Ver mil' yon. Verona V^e ro'na. Versailles Ver salz'. Vesuvius Ve soo' ve as. Viceroy Vice' roy. Vienna Ve en' na. Vinceniies Vjn cenz'. Vistula Vis' tn la. Vopges Vuzh. Wabaph Waw' bash. Wachupell Waw cbu'sett, Wahabee \V;di hab'l)e. \V;ihsatch Wail saich'. Wallnchia Wal la'ke a. Walla W'alla Wol'ln Wol'la, Warsaw War' saw. Warwick Wor' ik. Washita Wosh'e taw. Wateree W'aw ler e'. Waterloo Waw ler loo'. M aukesha Waw'ke bbuw. Wener Wa' ner. We^^er We' zer. Westphalia West pba' le a. Wie>biulcu Wees bah' den. Wilke^barre Wilks' bar te. Willamette Wil lam'et. Winnebago Win ne ba'go. Winnipeg Win'ue peg. Winnipegoos Win e pe goop'. Winnipisengee Win ne pe sok'e. Winona We no'nii. Winooski We noos' ke. Woonsocke Woim snck'et. Worcester Woos' ter. \\'urtemberg Wer' tem berg. Wyandotte Wy an dot'. Wyoming Wi o'ming. Tnblouoi Ya bio noi'. Yang-tse-Kiang . . . Yang'-tse-Ke ang*. Y"arkand Y'ar kahud'. Yazoo Y'a zoo'. Yedo Yed' o. Yemen Ycm'en. Yenisei Yen e sa'e. Y>zo Ya'zo. Yokohama Yo ko hnh'mn. Y'osemite Yo sem' e te. Yonghiogheuy Yoh bo ga'ne. Y'psilanli Ip se lau' le. Yulm \iut' bah. Y'ucatan Yoo ra tan'. Yukon Yoo'kou. Zncntecns Zac a ta'cas. Zambesi Zam ba'zee, Zanguebar Zabng ge bar'. Ziinte Zau' te. Zanzibar Zau ze bar'. Zealand Ze' land. Zurich Zoo'rik. Ziitphen Zoot' fen. Znyder Zee 2i' der Zee. THE OLD AND NEW SYSTEMS OF RAILROAD TIME. LXVI a. THE OLD, OR LOCAL, STANDARD TIME. 1. Solar Day. — The interval between two successive crossings of the meridian by the sun's centre is called a solar day. True Noon at any place is the instant at which the sun's centre crosses the meridian of that place. 2. Solar Days vary. — If the axis of the earth were tx?LC\.\y perpentiiai- lar to the plane of its orbit, and if the orbit itself were a circle, all solar days would be of the same length. But the inclined axis and elliptical orbit of the earth cause a considerable variation in the length of the solar days. For this reason, a perfectly regulated clock or watch does not and cannot keep time with the sun. Such a clock shows the time that would be shown by the sun, if, as above supposed, the axis of the earth were perpendicular and its orbit circular. From one noon, or 1 2 o'clock, to another, as siiown by such a timepiece, there are always and exactly 24 x GO x Go seconds. The length of the day thus shown is the exact average length of all of the solar days of the year. This average, regular, unchangeable day is called the mean solar day, its noon is called mean noon, and the clock is said to keep mean time. 3. Owing to the position of the axis of the earth and its varying rate of motion in its elliptical orbit, true or solar noon sometimes lags be- hind mean noon, losing a little each day, until it is sometimes about 15 minutes behind the regular mean noon; at other times of the year it gains on the tnean noon, little by little overtakes it, and at last gets about 15 minutes ahead of it. Thus, when the shadow is just on the noon or meridian mark on the 27th of October, a good watch will show 10 minutes of \i, and on the 10th of February, 15 minutes /rtJ'/ 12. Only four times in a year will they agree. 4. Mean Solar Time, therefore, is the time shown from day to day by a good clock or watch, not that shown by the sun. This mean solar time has been in general use about a century. Before that, clocks had to be reset daily by the sun or noon mark. 5. Local Time. — Since the earth turns on its axis from west to east, the sun will come to the several meridians of our western cities after it has already passed those of the eastern ones. Since the whole revo- lution through 300 degrees is performed in 24 hours, a change of 15 degrees of longitude changes the time one hour. The same moment that it is 9 o'clock at Memphis (90" W.) it is 10 o'clock in Philadel- phia (75° \V.) and 8 o'clock in Denver (105° W.). The mean solar time shown at a given place is called local time, and has until recently been in universal use. All places having the same longitude must have the same local time. Questions. — I. What is a sular day? True noon? — 2. Why do solar days vary in length? What is a me:in solar day? Mean noon? What kind of time does a good clock show .' — 3. How and how much do true noon and mean noon differ on the 27th of October? On the 10th of February? How often do tliey agree.' — t. What is mean solar time? How long in use.' — 5. What difference in longitude produces an hour's difference in time? Give illustration. What is local time? LXVI b. THE RAILROAD OR HOUR -BELT SYSTEM, OR NEW STANDARD TIME. 1. Dangers. — Local time sufficed for all social purposes until within a few years. The introduction, multiplication, and interlacing of rail- roads soon led to difficulties and clangers arising from the use of local time. Safety and system require that every railroad must have a care- fully constructed time-table to regulate the running of its trains. The time shown in the table was the local time of some important place on the road, usually one of its termini. The watch of every conductor and other employee on that road must show the local time of this ter- minus. This time necessarily differed from the local time of all other places on that road. On long roads this difference was sometimes more than an hour. It thus happened that trains running through the same railroad centre from various termini had three or four, and some- times even a greater number of different standards of time. These considerations led, by general agreement, to the adoption, in 1883, of the following system of time for the railroads of the United States and Canada. It is based upon the system of local time already explained. 2. Standard Meridians. — Meridians 75°, 90°, 105°, and 120' west of Greenwich are selected as Standard Meridians. They are 15° apart. The local time on any one of them, therefore, differs exactly one hour from the local time on either of the two others between which it is situated. Hour-belts. — Each standard meridian is the middle line of a belt 15' wide, extending T^° east and 7^° west of that standard meridian. Belt Time. — Whatever may be the local time at a given instant on any standard meridian, that is taken to be the time at every place in the belt through which that meridian runs. That is, if it is 10 minutes of 5 local time on the standard meridian, every watch in every place in that belt should at the same instant show 10 minutes of 5. Agreement. — Since the standard meridians are 15°, or exactly one hour apart, if it is 10 minutes of 5 in one belt it is 10 minutes of 4 all over the belt next west of it, and 10 minutes of 6 all over the belt next east of it. Therefore, whatever be the place of the hour hands, the minute hands of all watches in the United States and Canada will point to the same figure. Terms used. — The time shown in the belt of the 7oth meridian is known as Eastern Time ; in that of the 90th meridian as Central Time ; in that of the 105th meridian as Mountain Time ; and in that of the 120lh meridian as Pacific Time. The 00th meridian, proposed for Inter-colonial Tiine, is not yet in use. 3. Adoption. — Many great cities lie quite near some standard meridian. This promptly led to a wide adoption of the new standard time for al! social purposes, the change at New York being less than 4 minutes, and at Philadelphia and St. Louis only about 1 minute. But places on or near the borders of the hour-belts required a change of about 30 minutes. Besides this, some of the long railroads have been obliged to push the time of a terminus lying in one belt far over into an ad- joining belt. This has caused the lines separatitig the belts to be very irregular, and the belts to vary greatly in width, thus departing from the simplicity of the original plan. The standard time at Bismarck, Da., is 43 minutes earlier, and that at Erie, Pa., is 40 minutes later than the local time ; so that the new standard noon at the former place some- times comes 58 minutes before, and at the latter place 55 minutes after, the sun crosses the meridian. For these and other reasons, among which is the fact that many occupations are practically dependent upon the sun's light, many cities, and some large districts of countrj', have not yet adopted the new standard of time for general social purposes. 4. The Astronomical, or Navigators', Day is the mean solar day that begins at noon on the 1st standard meridian, that of Greenwich. A ship's chronometer shows Greenwich time, and thus enables a navi- gator to know his exact longitude on the ocean from day to day. This is the same as spreading the local time of Greenwich, not over an hour- belt, but all over the world. 5. The Local Civil Day is the mean solar day of 24 hours which be- gins at midnight. It is the day that is dated in the calendar. The change of date occurs first at an irregular line passing from pole to pole through the PacifiG Ocean. (See map, page 120.) 0. In place of the present local civil day it is proposed to establish a Universal Civil Day which will begin at mean noon at Greenwich, and will extend by 24 hour-belts quite around the globe. Questions. — 1. What causes led to the hour-belt, or railroad system of time ? — 2. Which are its standard meridians? Describe the hour-belts. Belt time. In what do the belt times agree? What name for each? — 3. Where is the system used? Why? Where not used? Why.' — 4. Describe the navigators' day. — 5. The local civil dav.— G. The universal civil day. GEOGRAPHY OF THE PACIFIC STATES. DESIGNED TO ACCOMPANY HARPER'S SCHOOL GEOGRAPHY. WITH MAPS OF THE STATES AND ILLUSTRATIONS PREPARED EXPRESSLY FOR THIS WORK. Cttlirornia.— Ik.i.M.l (.alilomi.v 1 part ol tlie sl.itc * In the wcslt-rn p.irl? Souili of lilt (.'o.ist Range ? Name the chiel tli l.nins t)( the Coiksl Kung<:. Chief peaks ol the Sicrr.i -Nc< vada. Other peaks in thasutc? What ckserts wholly or partly in the stJtc? What large double valley? What plalciu in the north } iA'/,im,itA.) Name the chief capes. What group of islands south ul the L.'imst KdU4;e * What bays north of Snn Francisco ? What bay» south .' Whst wo rivers drain a large pari ol ihc slate f Name the chief branches o( each. What rivcnt enter the north ol San Francisco f South of San Francisco > What river forms pan o( the boundary* What lakes in the nonheasicm part oi the state? In what region f What lakes on or near the cnslem boundary ► In the San ]oiquin valley? What other lAcs in the stale ? e the toast counties north of S^n Frinci>to South ol San Frandsco. On the northern bound.iry. f)n the caaicrn boundary. On the southeastern. On the south «ro. In (he eastern part ol the Saci the western part. In the San Joaquin valley. Un San Francisco Bay and its branches. c the cities and towns near the nortlicrn Ixiundary of the Slate. On the coast north of San Francisco, On >r near the railroads terminating at San Pablo Bay, On San Francisco Itay and its branches. On or near ihe coiist south of San Franci.sco. East of Los Angeles Northeast of Tulare Lake. On the railroad bctwi I-rancisco and Monterey. Elclwccn Sacramento and Visa- li.i. East of Stockton. East of Sacramento. Northwest of Sacramcnio. On or near Sacramento ttJvcr. Oe heather Rikcr. Bclneen Marysville and the Nevada line. What city is the capital ? Nevtdft.-^ Bound Nevada. Name the chief mountain ranges in the state. What deserts are wholly or partly in the slate ! Where is the highest plateau of the state f What rivers dr.iin the northern slope of the plateau F >f what river arc Ihey branches? ISitatfA What tivct liiins its southern slope? Name ils chief hranchcs, A 'i jl riveri Mow from the eastern slope of the i.iita? What river croues the southeastern biiiinitary? [-'orms a part ol (he southern boundary? Name lis chrd br.-inch in (he stale. Name the chief lakes and sinks. What rivers flow Irom or into each of ihese Jakes t Ihe northern boundary? Ori Ihe The southwestern ? The ocsicm ? What other re there ? ities and towns near the western angle ol (h« hal railroad crosses the stale? iC*»/ra/ /'itq/$r.) near (his raitro.id? On its branches? North of the railroad? North of Eureka? Northeast ' Souilicasi ? West ? Southeast ol Treasure City ? SouiL of Austin? Souuwesi of Belmont ? tVlut u the capital r ^- GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA. Psi*%af^ t — I O I — I < o O >^ X < a: o o w o <: I— ( o w CO ^- o c 1- O COO 1) c o 4-1 a. ■ii c — ' nl •? 'So ' ^ •■ __^ ^ = >, lU tf) fcfl 3 « *> Zi T! S o <« c bj3 Cu n "O o .2 "^ O I- i3 a o -e -r .2 i W " J3 '^ S — .- -T G ~ — O ^ o - CQ O t- "'► CI ^J -r -.1 ■— £ '-' i-- c « X .2 '/■- *. •T3 _. i: <-> ■" to 4_» 3 C O > to c -^ -*-• tU (11 *4H ^ 3 !" J= o _> (/) (U tX) M-l o 5 ^ ^ r-: u, 4-» , bJ5 c o -i -^ 1^ 7^ rt 9 I' J= 3 0) o ;? ~ y > ■ o tu fc/) ^ ■s :S -y -— to X C tu ^ >^ o 3 3 rt .:<; E to >, a^ P ^ H t; rt _5; ,£ bi c HJ to rt > _ 3 G. — tu u) rt rt T3 U rt S ° O jD >-. rt (U ^^ to > s 1) 3 O k^ 1) 3 5 3 tu b/3 ■ 3 3 rt (U rt rt o e rt o 3 u< rt >, u. O o *^ O ^_j rt c/: *-' tu 3 -x rt to c rt u rt "" ■S O D U B « "E _ O tu ^ rt rt o , O XI - I 3 g^ ■- E a c O OJ j3 . 4^ (O 3 O (U o 0) tu _3 -3 ■SO-" "c o o >^ ^ — -^ - OJ 5 H o tU rt S .. O . x: o lu c« rt CO k- {U bX) ■^ x:-,i5 6x1 c tu rt _ --^ >^ 0) 3 S c o rt T3 ^ 5 "o ■" ^ -^ 3 42 ^ 0) c rt -^ S «J P O u ^ ■^ bX3 X3 3 >.| •5 X2 '=; bX) JJ — •S = S 1) 3 2 3 O 3 30-5 P .., " 0) . rt o I. ^ ci rt o ■* tu cc O to 3 OJ -73 — , 3 Uc to O f^ rt ti 0) ? T3 C s t bX) c O .S rt ■— bD '" 3 .2 ~ rt Ji .£ bi 3 rt _ -3 to fe 5f £ ^ E 3 "rt u o -* tu j- t:^ rt t^ £^ T)" 3 s o y = Cfl XI o ■? x: c *-* -*-» ^ c4 OQ ^^ 2 to —■ -o -o ii 3 c -3 tu OJ rt X rt V4 (u C* V C O o rt aj k4_ ^ J! 4^ tu i; ■*-» o -' '^ ^ [1 O rt ^ — t! -^ "3 rt rt * '5 -^ 3 rt rt rt _> 3 'f^ >^ ai . to |_ 5 3 .2 be lu ,, i- Q_, tu rt ^ o ~ -a J2 to 3 T- ' - rt 3 T! ' ■" 3 -tf tu rt S jC 3 > 7 .2 S I — u aj ^ 04 QJ " JJ tu ^ x: 3 4-" rt ■*-• tu !-: a 3 a* n ^ rt 3 c 3 (U E O OJ n fc J) o 0) iO ^ xi tu 5 4-' 4-> CQ rt M 2 rt pi" O GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA. to tn GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA. in the coast regions. Sometimes the fall is nearly twice the average. In such years, though considerable damage is done in some places by floods, the total agricultural production of the state is greatly increased. In sunimci- the Return Trade-winds, descending from tlie liigli regions of the atmosphere, strike southern .ind central California as southwest winds. They here mix with the hot currents ascending from the broad area of deserts and plains, their capacity for absorbing and retaining moisture is gieatly increased, and they am give no rain. California has, therefore, a very dry sninmier. In winter and early spring the northern portions of the same broad belt of winds have moved so far to the south (see pages IG and 17) as to strike the moun- tain chains on the western coast of Mexico. These great ranges change the direction of the winds, force them through the long Gulf of California and along the Pacific co.ist, and they pass over the state as southeast winds. Though these winds are warm and moist, the winter temperature of the Colo- rado and Mohave deserts is not low enough to cause rain. Passing farther to the north, the winds slide up the western slopes of the Sierra and the Coast Kange, and consider.ible rain falls. In the Tulare region, partly from the deposit of rain on the western slope of the Coast Kange and l>artly from the less elevation and higher 'vinter temperature, these winds give little or no rain, and the San Joaquin has no western tributaries. Still farther to the north the winds meet with a lower and lower temperature, and discharge an enormous amount of rain or snow. For these reasons there is more rain in the north than in the south ; more on the mountain slopes and tops than on the plains and valleys ; more on the western slopes than on the cistern ; and but little or no rain in the deserts and sheltered valleys, where the air is warmer even in winter than the rain-bearing winds. A land-wind, noted for its remarkable dryness, occasionally sweeps from the north to the south throughout the whole length of the Gre.at Valley. Begin- ning as a polar wind, it passes over the Japan Stream in the north Pacific, and becomes warm and moist. When it strikes the mountainous coasts of Alaska, British Columbia, and Washington Territory, it loses most of its moisture. It then passes inland and southward along the Cascade Range, becoming warmer with the more southern latitude. Though its capacity for moisture rapidly increases, it finds none in its course. Entering the head of the Sacramento Valley, it soon becomes a wind of exceeding dryness, and probably terminates in the Colorado Desert. It occurs in the spring and fall, and usu.ally lasts three d.ays. In se.asons of little rain-fall it produces disastrous effects by abstracting a large amonnt of moisture from the soil. The whole coast is remarkable for its equable temperature. Though the daily variations of temperature are considerable, and sometimes quite sudden, yet, in the greater part of the coast region, the average temperature of the coldest month, January, is only 10° lower than that of the hottest month, July. The average temperature for the year at San Diego is 62°, at Humboldt Bay it is 52°, at San Francisco 56°, at Sacramento 58°. The chief causes of the mild and rainy winters of California and Oregon arc, first, the broad and warm waters of the Japan Stream, wliich flow southward at a short distance from the coast ; second, the Return Trade-winds, which sweep landward over these w.iters and carry from them an immense amount of water which is deposited as rain in the valleys and on the foot-hills and mountain slopes, and as snow on the Sierras; and, third, the position of the great mountain systems of North America, which, bending round to the ex- tremity of Alaska, protect the western coast from the cold pol.ir winds, and turn tliem to sweep unresisted over the low Central Plain, from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. At San Francisco the average temperature for January is 40', for July it is .">"', for the year 5G°. During nearly the whole year, but especially in the sum- mer months, a strong, cool ocean wind blows from the northwest through the broad gap in the Coast Range. It is most violent in the afternoon. It brings in from the sea cold, dense fogs, which in June, July, and August be- come heavy, wet mists. It is this wind and its fogs that cause the remarka- bly low and even summer temperature. South of Point Arguello, at the great bend in the coast, there are no fogs, and the climate resembles that of Italy. The cause of the wind and the fog is twofold. Close along the coast flows a cold deep-sea current, the temperature of the sea-water at the Farallones never varying, summer or winter, more than a degree or two from .'i'J^. In the east is the broad, low, and dry plain. In the southeast is the burning Colorado Desert. The ascending currents of hot air over these vast regions draw in a colder current of air from the ocean to supply their place. This second cur- rent, in passing over water far colder than itself, is cooled down. A laige part of its invisible moisture is thus condensed into fog and mist, which are carried to the shore, wheic they arc soon reabsorbed by the driti air. In the Great Valley there are greater extremes of temperature. The Coast Range excludes the cold fogs, and the cold sea-winds are gradually tempered. In some places 110° to 112° are occasionally reached. The dry atmosphere prevents all injurious effecis, and al- lows a rapid radiation, which, with the cooling winds from the snows of the neighboring Sierra, makes the nights cool even in midsummer. All these climates are healthy, and epidemic diseases are almost un- known. Forests. — The trees of California are mostly evergreen conifers, many of the species being the largest and most beautiful in the world. Forests are found only in those parts of the state that have more than the average rain-fall. The western flanks of the Sierra, and those of the coast mountains north of 35°, have fine forests. The foot-hills and the coast valleys have beautiful groves of oaks. The entire southern part of the state, the eastern slopes of the Coast Range south of .35°, and the greater part of the Great Valley are destitute of forests. The mammoth tree, the most gigantic of conifers, is among the wonders of the world. It is found only on the western slopes of tlie Sierra. In the Calaveras grove one of these was cut down. It was ilC feet in ciicumference, and over .100 feet high. Its concentric rings showed its age to be about 3000 years. In the same grove lies a fallen tree estimated to have been, when living, 1 10 feet in circumference and iSr> feet high. Another gigantic species, the redwood, resembles the mammoth tree, but forms vast forests. It is found only in the Coast Range, from Monterey Bay north- ward to Oregon. It is commercially the most important of all the trees of California, and furnishes an unlimited supply of valuable lumber. Some specimens are 15 feet in diameter and 300 feet high. In Santa Cruz County is one 27r> feet high and 19 feet in diameter at six feet above the ground. Next in size, quantity, and importance are the various species of pines, also the largest of their kind in the world. The sugar pine, a beautiful tree, has some- times a diameter of 20 feet, but is of less height than the redwood. Animals. — The wild animal j are of many species. Among the mam- mals are the grizzly bear, black bear, cougar, wildcat, coyote, gray wolf, fox, badger, raccoon, opossum, pine - marten, weasel, squirrel, spermo- phile, gopher, deer, antelope, mountain-sheep, hare, otter, mink, sea-lion, sea-elephant. Among the birds are the vulture, eagle, hawk, owl, quail, grouse, duck, goose, and swan ; among the fishes, the salmon, halibut, turbot, mackerel, rock-fish, and sturgeon. Minerals. — Among the many wonders of California, there is nothing more extraordinary than the variety, abundance, and richness of her mineral treasures. Chief among these are those great deposits of gold which first made the state famous throughout the world. These de- posits are diffused from the Oregon line to the Colorado Desert, but by far the greater part are found in the " foot-hills '" drained by the nu- merous branches of the two great rivers. In lumps or nuggets, in scales, grains, and minute particles, this metal is found imbedded in the hard veins of quartz which seam the solid rock of the Sierra ; in the vast beds of clay, gravel, and boulders which cover the lower parts of its western slope ; in the banks, beds, and bars of the swift rivers and their tributaries ; and even in the sand of the sea-shore. Extracting gold from the quartz veins is known as quartz mining. Extracting it from the beds of sand, gravel, and boulders is called placer mining. Much the greater part of the gold is obtained by placer mining, the chief method of which is called hydraulic mining. Ilvdraulic placer mining is one of the most extraordinary of human indu.stries. The swift stre.ims formed by the rains and melting snows of the Sierra have in the course of ages worn thousands of valleys and gorges into the sides of the mountains. Near many of these streams are v.ist beds of gravel resting upon the solid rock, and containing clay and boulders. They are sometimes hundreds of feet thick. The gold is found in these beds, most of it near the bottom. By ditches, fluines, and pipes, placed at a suitable height, the water of a stream- is led sometimes fur miles, and then, by means of a strong hose and pipe, is directed as a stream several inches in diameter, and under great pressure, upon the side of the gravel-bank. The bank is rapidly torn out down to the solid rock, and is washed away as a torrent of mud, pebbles, and boulders through a long sluiceway of timbers into the valley below. The GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA. sluiceway has a false bottom and vaiious other contrivances into which the particles of gold fall by tlicir greater weight. Many thousands of years .ago the Sierra was more keavily capped ivilh glacieis and snow masses than now, and its rivers flowed in channels difl'erent from those they now occupy. About the close of this period, by some tremendous effort of nature, the crust of the earth over a vast area in the vicinity of the Sierra Nev.ada, Cascade, and other mountains of western North America, was torn open in huge cracks or tissures, and enormous masses of liquid lava were poured out into the ir.ountain-valleys and over the plains, gradually cov- ering hundreds of thousands of square miles to the depth of hundreds, and sometimes of thousands, of feet. The heat thus evolved, or some other equal- ly potent cause, rapidly melted the thick icy cap of the Sierra, and vast bodies of water rushed down the mountain slope, breaking, rolling, and grinding the solid rocks, and tilling the river-beds to a great depth with boulders, pebbles, and gravel. Over all this the lava flood itself at l.ist found its way. The river-courses were filled to the brim, and the beds of boulders and gravel were buried beneath the fiery flood. In the course of time the glaciers were renewed on a yet grander scale, and the streams flowing from them have cut out for themselves new channels far deeper than before, some of them cross- ing the old beds and revealing the successive steps of their formation. These ancient river-beds, capped with earth and other substances to the depth of 40 to 3jO feet, are found to be very rich in gold. Ky galleries cut into the hill-sides, of which the beds now form a part, and by shafts sunk through the earth, this treasure is reached, and the gold-bearing gravel is brought to the surface. This is known as "deep mining." Next in importance among the metals of the state is quicksilver. The ore, which is called cinnabar, has been found in many places in a broad belt of country extending from Santa Barbara to Lake County. The most productive mines are all in the Coast Mountains. Silver is found in many places, but the only productive mines are east of the main divide of the Sierra. Copper ore is known to be abundant in va- rious parts of the state. Coal is found in various places, but much of the coal used is imported. Other metals and minerals are found in exhaustless quantity. Among them are sulphur, borax, soda, salt, petroleum, asphaltum, bitumen, iron ore, chrome, tin, plumbago, granite, and limestone, including hydraulic lime, and marbles in great variety. Agriculture. — The agricultural capacity of California is its most important and remarkable characteristic. There are, at the least, from twenty millions to twenty-three mill- ions of acres, or about thirty - six tliousand sqi'.are miles, of tillable land, and quite as much more well suited for pastur- age. But a small part of this is yet used. In the variety of its agricultural products Califor- nia has no equal ii any other state ' I the Union ; of the most impor- tant of these prod- ucts, the quantity that can be fur- nished is limited only by the sup- ply of labor and the facility in find- ing profitable mar- HVDRAULIC MINING. kCtS. ^ '^" The quantity produced is enormous. The crops are mainly dependent u\->an the distribution of the rain -fall. As the annual amount of rain is frequently much less or much greater than the average, in some years floods, in others droughts, chiefly the latter, have great- ly reduced the total agricultural proSS,31fl Horses (1S80) Pease .iiid Beans (bushes) (ISS.i) T70,1R4 | Mules and Asses (IftSO). .. Polaloes (bushels) (ISSO) 4..V.n,,v.5 j Catlle (ISSii) Wine (gallons) (tSS3) =,00(1,0(10 Sheep " Borax (pounds) " 4,(;S.V''O0 1 Swine " " S,S03,6I10 (ISSO) 3.720,513 237,710 2S,3fr4 (i«4,307 4,152.349 603,650 Manufactures. — California has great natural advantages for manu- facturing, in the unlimited water-power, in the undeveloped coal mines, and in the abundance and variety of raw materials. These advantages are, as yet, but little employed. The greater part of the manufactured products, excepting lumber, flour, and liquors, are made in San Fran- GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA. cisco. The wines are important among the manufactures of the United States, and rival the best made elsewhere : and the raisins, a rapidly increasing product, are noted for their excellence. ARTKullutal Implcmenls. I tags, otiier than Paper. l!«MHs and .Shoes Itread and other Baking Products. . Itrick and Tile.. f."»sr.,H.s '2, Ht2,.*ill0 3,(H9,5.51 2,41,ll44,Sll9 Coffee and Spices, Roasted and Ground. l,4'24.>iTS Confectionery "'21,797 Coo])erage 7'21.034 Drugs and Chemicals 6'23,041 Fl.iuring and Grist Mill Products 12,701,477 Foundery and Machine-shop Produ< is. 4,797,232 Fruits and Vegetal>les, Canned and Pre- served 1,3S9.79S Furnishing Goods, Men s 744, 24,^ Fumiture l,SS7,mO Cun|iowdei S9o,ll«(l Principal Manufactured Products, t1,76S.S63 7sO,(ino 94s.onfl 6,lii;f..'.73 637,298 liv^h Kxplosives. i run and Steel ... Lead, Bar, Pipe. Sheet, and Shot Leather, Tanned, Curried, etc. . . . Liquors, Distilled Liquors, Malt 3,862^43 1 Liquors, Vinous ti2'2,llf<7 Lumber, Sawed and Planed 4,42;i.:t4.'> Printing .and Publishing 3,14S,9TS Saddlery and Harness l,l71i,Sfi."i Sash, Doors, and Blinds l,.%41.'it*-t> Shipbuilding l,797.6:-(9 Slaughtering and Meat-packing 7,9.'i3.9I4 Soap and C.indles. 1,193,41'4 Sugar and Molasses, Refined 6,932,000 I'm-ware, Copper-ware, and Sheet-iron- ware l,C2'2.i;32 Tobacco, Cigars, and Cigarettes 3,947,3,')3 Woollen Goods 1,6»»,S58 Commerce. — The commerce of California is varied and extensive. In proportion to its population, no other state imports so large an amount of foreign merchandise, or exports so large a share of its agri- cultural and mineral products. The chief imports are teas from Japan and China ; coffee from Central America and the Spanish and Dutch East Indies ; rice from China, Japan, and the Sandwich Islands ; sugar from the Sandwich Islands, the East Indies, and Central America ; coal from British Columbia and Australia ; and general merchandise from Great Britain. In exchange for these, California e.xports the great staples of ihe western coast : wheat, wine, tiour, lumber, gold, sil- ver, quicksilver, mineral ores, wool, salmon, and canned goods. Traffic with the rest of the Union is carried on by land and by sea, and is a principal department of the general commerce of the state. The commercial advantages of Califovni,i are unequalled by those of any other part of the western coast. San Fi .incisco and .San Diego have the only large, deep, and safe haibors from Mazatlan in Mexico to Victoria in Vancouver, a distance of about '2001) miles. At Wilmington the United States government has constructed an extensive artificial haibor of great value. Numeious light- houses and fog-horns add to the safety of navigation. Besides the ocean highways, the facilities for transportation include the great STRCBT SCRNB IN SAN FRANCISCO. bay of San Francisco and its tributary tide-waters ; the two great navigable rivers of the state and their navigable branches ; and a triple system of rail- w.ays, of which the principal lines converge upon the chief commercial centre of the state. The first group of these roads extends northwardly from the noithern arms of the great bay. The chief of these lines follow the Sacr.i- mento valley, and will soon unite the system of California with that ofOie- gon. The second group includes the Central Pacific Railroad, a great trans- continental line. It has many branches. This ro.ad passes from Oakland, through Benicia and Sacramento, and over the Sierra. It unites the trans- portation system of the state with the systems of the Mississippi basin and the Atl.antic slope. A branch of this road extends up the San Joaquin valley to the vicinity of Visalia. Here it unites with the third group of railwavs, the Southern Pacific and its branches. This road begins at San Francisco, and passes through seveial important valleys to Yuma, on the Colorado, and to Deming, in New Mexico. Here it connects with other lines leading to St. Louis, Galveston, and New Orleans. Telegraph lines connect the state with Vancouver, Arizona, and the Atlantic ports, and tlience through the ocean cables with the rest of the civilized world. The completion of the proposed ship-canal across the Centr.-il American isthmus will greatly en- hance the commercial interests of California. Principal Railroads. NAMK9. BEirveES MILIS. Central Pacific Oakland to Ogden. Utah S91 Divisions, Branches, etc Oakland, z'l'tt Benicia to Sacramento. SC .Amador Branch Gait to lone 27 San Jos^ Branch Niles to Tracy 42 California and Oregon Sacramento to Redding 17tl ( South Vallejo to Calistoga 49 California Pacific K South \'allejo to Suisun 20 ( Davisville to Knights Landing 19 Northern Railway Woodland to Tehama. 1(>2 Stockton and Copperopolis Stockton to Oakdale 34 S.'ci aniento and Placerville Sacramento to Shingle Springs 49 North Pacific Coast San Rafael to Duncans Mills SO San Francisco and North Pacific San Rat'ael to Cioverdale 70 Southern Pacific San Francisco to Vuma, Ariz 731 Divisions, Branches, etc San trancisco to Soledad 143 Castroville to Monterey 42 Gilroy to Ties Pinos ino Los Angeles to Wilmington 22 Los Angeles to Santa Ana 33 .Santa Cruz Railroad P.ijaro to Santa Crur. 22 South Pacific Coast Oakland to Santa Cruz 81 T.05 Angeles and Independence Los Angeles and Santa Monica 18 Pacific Coast Railway Port Harlord and Los .Alamos M Political Organization. — The executive officers of the state are a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secre- tary of State, Controller, Treasurer, Attorney-General, Surveyor-General, and Superintendent of Public In- struction. The official term of each is four years. The legislative power of the state is vested in a Senate of forty members, whose terms are four years each, and an Assembly of eighty members, whose terms are two years each. The Legislature meets every sec- ond year. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, Superior Courts, Justice's Courts, and such inferior courts as the legislature may establish. All the ex- ecutive officers, legislators, and judges are elected by the people. California is represented in Congress by two Sena- tors and six Representatives, and has therefore eight elcctor.il votes. The state comprises fifty-two counties, and the fol- lowing chief cities and towns : San Francisco is the chief commercial centre and largest city of the western coast of America, and the fourth city of the United States in foreign commerce. It is situated on the western shore of the bay of the same name, in latitude 37° 40' north, longitude 122° 23' west. The city limits extend over the whole county, and include about forty-two square miles ; the settled portion covers about nine square miles. The popula- tion is 233,959, including a little more than 75,000 Chinese. GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA. San Francisco is built just within the Golden Gate, and at the northern end of one of the two small hilly peninsulas which separate the bay from the ocean. Telegraph Hill, L"Jt feet, a bold headl.and projecting into the harbor, Rincon Hill, 120 feet, and Russian Hill, SCiO feet high, and lying farther inland, hctc partly enclose a sort of amphitheatre, their summits, their slopes, and espe- cially tlic low plain between their foot and the water's edge, being covered with the more densely populated parts of the city. The business part of the city is built chiefly of brick, iron, and stone. Several of the streets are among the finest in the world, and are lined with splendid hotels, banks, stores, churches, theatres, and other public buildings. The fine climate, the pleasant drives, the beantiful private dwellings and grounds, and the varied social advantages afforded by the numerous churches, schools, libraries, and places of amusement, combine to make San Francisco unusual- ly attractive as a place of residence, and as a summer resort. The chief public pleasure-grounds are the Woodward Gardens and the Golden Gate Park, the latter containing 1043 acres. Local travel is accommodated by eight lines of street railro.ids, and by steam ferries and railroads to the neighboring residential cities and towns. The chief of these are Oakland, Alameda, San Rafael, Berkeley, Vallejo, and Saucelito. Most of these are the termini of railroads. The Southern P.acific Railroad is the only one terminating within the city limits ; the Cen- tral I'acific terminates at Oakland ; the other railroads of the state, at San P.ablo B.ay, north of the city. A conduit nearly thirty miles long supplies the city with water from Pilarcitos Creek in the San Bruno Hills, San Mateo County. Excepting lumber, flour, and liquors, much the greater part of the manufactures of the state are produced in San Francisco. Chief among these are woollens, carriages, boots, shoes, and leather, fur- niture, candles, soap, malt and distilled liquors, acids, wirework, castings of iron and brass, refined sugars, tobacco and cigars, silk goods, glass, sashes and doors, newspapers, books and other printed matter. San Francisco is pre-eminently a commercial city. In proportion to its population it has a larger and more e.vtensive trade than any other city in the world. Its export trade is about §90,000,000 a year. The foundation of its lasting prosperity is its noble bay, which furnishes the only first-class harbor from San Diego to Puget Sound, a distance of nearly 1201) miles The entrance is through the Golden Gate, a deep strait, 35 feet at low tide, with bold shores, and a mile wide in its narrowest part. Through this gateway sailing vessels and steamers from every maritime nation on the globe are continually coming and going. To these are added a vast fleet of coasting vessels which visit every port of the eastern and northern Pacific, from Chili to the fishing-grounds of Al.aska and the Okhotsk Sea, and assist to make the city the chief collecting and distributing depot for at least a third of North America. Within the strait the broad bay extends its arms to the south, and to the north and e.ast, where it receives the waters of the double system of rivers, which furnish cheap transportation to the chief mineral and agricultural districts of the state. In addition to this, the conformation of the continent, and the fa- cilities which the city possesses for e.tport and import, make it the natural focus of the chief part of the railway system of the Interior Basin and the Pa- cific slope of the United Slates. Angel, Goat, and Alcatraz islands lie in the bay Tind near the city, and have been reserved by the general govermncnt for defensive purposes. Fort Point has the heaviest fortifications on the Pacific coast. At Hunters Point, just south of the city, is a large dry-dock. It w.as hewn out of the solid rock, and is one of the best in the world. The public-school system of San Francisco is well organized, and the schools are widely known for their efficiency. In 1883 there were 41 primary, 1.". grammar, and 2 high schools, and 4 even- ing schools. The number of pupils enrolled was 40,722; the average daily attendance 30,827, taught by G87 teachers. Among other educational and literary institutions are m-iny corporate and private schools of a high order. Sacramento, in Sacramento County, on the Central Pacific Railroad, is the capital of the state. It is built on the east bank of the Sacra- mento and the south bank of the American, which here unites with the main stream. The site, which is part of an extensive and fertile plain, has been raised about ten feet above its natural level in order to pro- tect the city from devastating floods. Population 21,420. Sacramento River is navigable to this point for large steamboats and sailing vessels, and for steamers of light draught to Red BlufT, 240 miles farther up. The city is further important as the meeting-place of the Central Pacific, California Pacific, Sacramento and Placerville, and Cal- ifornia and Oregon railroads, which, with the river and the numerous radiating stage routes, make it a great centre of travel and trade for both the agricultural and the mining regions. The business interests are large and varied, the sales of manufactured products and other merchandise amounting, in some years, to more than $35,000,000. Among the chief manufactures and manufacturing establishments are agricultural imnlemenis, carriages, furniture, wooden- ware, potter)', wine, brandy, and beet sugar ; iron works, smelting and refining works, and planing, flouring, and woollen mills. The car works and chief shops of the Central Pacific Railroad are located here. Sacramento is one of the pleasantest of cities. Its climate is dry and semi-trop. ical. Its streets are planted with fine shade trees, and its many tasteful resi- dences are surrounded by beautiful gardens in which flowers bloom all the year. The capitol is one of the grandest and most beautiful public buildings in the United States. The public schools include a high-school, two grammar- schools, several intermediate, and a large number of primary schools. Among other educational and literary institutions are the Normal Institute, the Business College, St. Patrick's College, and the -State and Association libraries. Ciiico, in Butte County, is on the California and Oregon Railroad, and on Chico Creek, six miles from Sacr.amento River. It ha.s valuable water-jjower. The lumber trade is the leading interest. From the mills in the heavily timl>ered region of the Sierra, a vast quantity of lumber is floated through a "V" flume, .3.'> miles long and terminating in the vicinity of the town. Numerous stage lines radi.ite from this point. Population. 33110. Euri:ka, a city of Humboldt County, is on Humboldt Bay. It is the most im- portant town on the north coast of California. It occupies an elevated site two miles from the beach, and overlooks the bay and the ocean. It has a large export trade in lumber and agricultural products, and is the distributing point for a large amount of general merchandise. Population, 2G3'J. Grass Valley, in Nevada County, 2.')(K) feet above the sea-level, is on the Nevada County Railroad, thirteen miles northwest of the Central Pacific Railroad. It is the chief quartz-mining town of California, and contains some of the richest mines in the state. Population, 4.-100. Los Anc.ei.es, in Los Angeles County, on Los Angeles River, is one of the most important cities of the state. It is built on a gentle slope at the base of the Santa Monica Mountains. Five lines of railroad have here a common centre. One of these, the Southern Pacific, connects the city with the gen- eral railway system of the state and of the Union. The lines to the neigh- boring ports, Santa Monica and Wilmington, give ready access to the ocean. The facilities for transportation by land and .sea, together with the extraordi- nary fertility of the neighboring country, and its salubrious climate, make the city a favorite winter resort and the chief centre of trade for southern Cilifor- nia. The excellent artificial harbor at Wilmington and the long wharf at Santa Monica accommodate the coastwise traffic and travel. The city is beautiful with gardens and orchards, which contain a remarkable variety of tropical and semi-tropical fruits and trees. Among ihcm are hun- dreds of thousands of orange, lemon, lime, and fig trees, and millions of grape- vines. Besides these are the pomegranate, the banan.a, the palm, the cypress, the live-oak, and many others. Among the exports aie wine, brandy, fresh and dried fruits, wheat, barley, corn, bacon, honey, and wool. The public buildings, and the educational .and religious institutions, arc among the best in the state. Population 11, 183. Marvsville, a city in Yuba County, is at the junction of Yuba and Feather riv- ers. The latter stream is at all times navigable to this point by light-draught steamers. The surrounding country is a low and level plain, and the site of the city has been r.iised several feet for protection against floods. Marysville is one of the largest towns north of Sacramento River, and is the centre of a large trade with the mining towns of the Sierra, and with the agricultural district with which it is surrounded. It h.as a consider.ible manufacturing interest, and ships a large quantity of lumber. Population, 4321 . Napa, in Napa County, is on the Napa Valley branch of the California Pacific Railioad, and at the head of tide-water on Napa River, here navigable for vessels of light draught. The town is the business cenije of a great agricult- ur.il v.iUey, which is also rich in mines of cinn.ibar. Wine .and brandy are manufactured. Hot springs, sulphur springs, and a fossil forest of large pet- rified trees are fmmd in the county. Population, 3731. Nevada Citv, in Nevada County, is 2350 feet above the sca-lcvel, fifteen miles 10 GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA. from the Central Pacific Railroad, and at the terminus of the Nevada County Railroad. It is in one of the richest gold fields of the state. Quartz and hydraulic mining are e.xtensively carried on here. Population, 402l'. Oakland, in Alameda County, is the cliief railway terminus of the state. It is a rapidly growing city, and is already the second in population on the Pacific co.ast. It is noted for its elegant private residences, its parks and gardens, its profusion of m.ajestic live-oaks, its fine drives, and the picturesque beauty and variety of the scenery by which it is surrounded. It has a good haibor and other great commercial advant.ages. Two piers, nearly three miles long, extend the Central Pacific Railroad to the deep water of the b.ay, and furnish facilities for loading and unloading the largest ocean steamers. Steam fcriies connect with San Francisco. There are six street railroads. Manufacuning is a leading interest, the products being of great variety and of large total value. 'I'he educational and literary institutions of Oakland, and its subuiban villages, are among the greatest of its many attractions, and ir.clude a large number of public and private schools, and the University of California at Berkeley, which is the most important on the Pacific coast. Pupulaliun, 34,.'>ii"i. Petaluma, in Sonoma County, on the San Francisco and North Pacific Rail- road, at the head of navigation on Petaluma Creek. It is an important shipping point for wlieat, barley, dairy products, lumber, and oats. Pojiulation, ;5;i2G. San Hkrnardino, in San Bernardino County, occupies a beautiful position, on a hi"h and gently sloping plain, at the base of the lofty San Bernardino Mountains. It is four miles from the Southern Pacific Railroad. Its streets have irrigating ditches, fed with the melting snows o( the neighboring hills. It is surrounded by extensive gardens, vineyards, and orchards, and is the centre of numerous routes leading from the mining regions. Be- sides the mineral products, it exports wine, wool, and barley. Population IG73. San Uiego, in San Diego County, is built on a beautiful and commanding site on the bav of the same name, sixteen miles north of the national boundary. In the vicinity there are numerous important gold-mines, and an .abundance of other metals. The harbor is the best on the coast after that of San Fran- cisco. The spacious bay, over twenty miles in length, is entered by a deep strait, about one third of a mile wide. Whaling is carried on just outside the entrance to the b.ay, and there are other important fisheries in the vicinity. San Diego is on the California Southern Railroad, and expects to become the ocean terminus for a southern trans-continental railroad. Whale-oil, hides, and wool are the chief exports. Population, '2ij'67. San Josk, in Santa Clara County, is situated at the junction of the Southern Pacific Railroad with the San Jose branch of the Central Pacific. Coyote and Guadalupe rivers flow through the town. It is a place of considerable trade, and has a variety of manufactures. The Alameda is a beautiful ave- nue, three miles long, lined with fine shade trees, and reaching to Santa Clara. San Jose has an unusual number of large and handsome public buildings. Among other institutions are the State Normal School, College of Notre Dame, San Jose Institute, and Business College. Population, 12,u67. Santa Bai{Bara, in Santa Barbara County, is noted as a health resort and for its export of wool. The town fronts on the ocean, and is surrounded by a beautiful undulating country. In the vicinity are important deposits of gold, iron, quicksilver, and petroleum. Population, :U60. Sani'A Cruz, in Sanla Cruz County, is situated on Monterey Bay, and on a branch of the Southern Pacific Railroad. .Santa Cruz is a fashionable water- ing-place, and has fine be.ach-bathing and drives. The vicinity is mountain- ous, well timbered, and adapted to grazing. Population, ;58!)8. Santa Rosa, in Sonoma County, is on the San Francisco and North Pacific Railroad. Fruits and grain are produced in unusual variety and quantity, and, with butter, cheese, wine, and brandy, form the chief staples of an exten- sive tr.ade. The neighboring mines produce gold, copper, and quicksilver. The town is the site of two colleges. Population, lilJK!. Stockton, in S.in Joaquin County, on the Central Pacific Railroad, is on Stock- ton Slough, a short and navigable branch of San Joaquin River. It is the head of navigation for large vessels in the San Joaquin valley. The Stock- ton and Copperopolis Railroad here joins the Central Pacific. Abundant water for irrigation and other purposes is supplied by numerous wells .and wind-mills, and by a fine artesian well. Besides a large trade in wheat, wool, and other agricultural products, the city has extensive manufacturing interests.. Population, 10,282 TitucKKF., in Nevada County, is on the east slope of the Sierra Nevada, and on the Central Pacific Railroad. The surrounding country is grand, romantic, and heavily timbered. Donner Lake and Lake Tahoe, noted sunmicr resorts, are a few miles distant. Truckee River flows through the town and furnishes w.atcr-power by which an immense amount of lumber is furnished for the trade with Nevada. Sashes, doors, and other wood-work are manulactured, and large quantities of ice shippetj. Population, 1 147. Vallejo, a city of Solano County, is, on Vallejo Bay. The bay is a fine harbor, deep enough for the largest vessels. Vallejo is the southern terminus of the California Pacific Railroad. A large amount of grain is here shipped to Europe. Immediately across the bay and half a mile distant is Mare Island, the site of the United States Navy-yard, the naval depot of the Pacific coast. It is connected with Vallejo by a steam ferry. Pojjulation about .')!)!S7. Woodland, in Yolo County, on the California Pacific Railroad. In summer it is in the midst of a v.ast wheat-field, and has an extensive trade in that grain. Wine, brandy, and malt liquors are manufactured. Population, 22,")7. Among the other principal cities ant] towns are — Beilicia — in Solano County, on the northern side of the Strait oi Carquinez, at the head of navi- gation for large vessels. Government depot for arms and sui'plies for the Pacific coast. Cement, flour, leather, gloves. Population, 17'.I4. Colasn — in Colusa County, on the Sacramento. Large trade with fanners, graziers, and quick- silver miners. County noted for wool, \vlie:U, barley, and pork. Population, 1719. Folsom — in Sacramento County, on American River, at the base of the Sierra. Extensive granite quarries. Population, 1(100. Oilroy— in Santa Clara County, on the Soiuhem Pa- cific Railroad. Agricldtural and dairy region. Centre of tobacco cultivation. Manufactures tobacco and cigars. Population, 10*21. llt^allisburg: — in Sonoma Coimty, in Russian River valley, which is noted for its yield of wheat and vegetables. Trade with neighboring quicksilver mines. Population, 1133. Ilollister — in San Benito County. On a branch of the Southern Pacific Railroad. Has a large trade with the New Idria Quicksilver and other mines. Population, 10 4. Merced — in Merced County, in the San Joaquin valley, on a branch of the Central Pacific Railroad. Shipping point for an immense amount of wheat, barley, cotton, and tobac- co. District has a great immber of irrigating ditches. San Joaquin and Kings River Ca- n.al, 100 miles long, OS feet wide, and 6 feet deep. Population, 1446. Modesto — in Stanislaus County, on San Joaquin branch of Central Pacific Railroad. Inijiort- ant shipping and trading depot for a large agricultural region. Population, 1603. Monterey— a town of Monterey County, on bay of same name, and on Monterey and Salinas V.al- ley Railroad. The capita] of California under Spanish and Mexican rule. Whale fishery. Shipments of wlieat. Population, 1396. Oroyille— in Butte County, on Feather River and the Northern California Railroad. Trade in live-stock, wool, peanuts, raisins, wine, and brandy. Population, 1743. Placeryille — in El Dorado County. In mining district, twelve miles from terminus of Sacra- mento and Placerville Railroad. Fruits, wine, and brandy. Population, 19r.t. Ued BlnlT— in Tehama County, on west bank of Sacramento Kiver. Large wood, lumber, and flour trade. Population. yHI6. Reilirood Citj— in San Mateo County, on Redwood Creclt and a branch railroad. Lumber, cord- v. ood, tan-bark, and grain. Population, 13.S3. Nau RueiiAfeiiturn—in Ventura County, at mouth of San Buenaventura River. Ships barley and corn. Also wool, wheat, fiuit, and petro- leum. Population. 1.170. .San LuU Obispo— in San Luis Obispo County, nine miles from landing. Centre of trade of a fertile valley. Ships cattle, hides, wool, and dairy products. Population, '2"J4:i. San Itiifaol- in Marin County, near the northeni end of the Bay of San Francisco, flfieeii miles north of the metropolis. A favorite place of summer residence and a pruminenl pleasure resort. Population, '230(1. Santa I'lara— in Santa Clara County, three miles west of San Jos^. Site of CoUepe of Sanla Clara and of the University of the Pacifc. Population, 2410. Sonora— in Tuolumne County, on Woods Creek. Finely located mountain town. Chiefly agri- cultural. Population, 1492. St. Helena— in Napa County Agricultui-al and mineral region. On Napa Valley Railroad. Wine and fruit. Population, 13311. TIsalia— in Tulare County, on Mill Creek. On a spur of the San Joaquin branch of Central Pacific Railroad. Extensive trade in grain, cattle, and wool. Country largely irrigated and very productive. Population, 141'i. WfttsonTllIe- in Santa Cruz County, on P.ajaro River, three miles from Watsons Landing. Centre of trade for Pajaro valley. Ships a large amount of produce. Population, 1799. ffilminston— in Los Angeles County. Port and harbor of refuge, on navig.able arm of San Pedro Bay. United States goveniment has constructed a breakwater, about a mile and a half long. Shipping point for Los Angeles. Population, 911. Trcka — in Siskiyou County, on Yreka Creek. In Shasta valley, 2450 feet above the sea. Most northeni large uiland town of California. On the main road between California and Oregon. Extensive gold and agricultural region. Population, 1C59. Education. — Public education is liberally provided for. The pub- lic schools are open to all between six and twenty -one years of age, and are under the general control of the State Board of Educa- tion, which consists of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, the Governor, and the principal of the State Normal School. In 1883 there were nearly 4000 teachers and 174,011 enrolled pupils. The system etiibraces primary, grammar, and high schools, the State Normal School, and the University of California. History. — For several centuries after the voyage of Columbus (1492) California remained an unknown land. In 1542, Cabrillo, a Spanish officer, made the first northward voyage along the coast as far as the 44th degree of latitude. Upon this voyage the claims of Spain to Cali- fornia were founded. Thirty-seven years afterwards (1 579), Sir Francis Drake, a famous English navigator, visited the coast and entered a bay, generally supposed to be that now bearing his name. It was not until 1T09, 227 years after the voyage of Cabrillo, that the Spaniards began to explore and occupy the region whose coast he had seen. England had recently added nearly all of what we now call British America to her extensive American colonies, had conquered and occupied a large part of Hindostan, had opened her Cliina trade, and had sent Captain Cook to explore the hitherto unknown islands and shores of the Pacific. Among the bold and far-seeing plans of her merchants and statesmen was the occupation of the Pacific coasts of Australia and North America. It was the knowledge of these things that at last aroused the activity GEOGRAPHY OF CALIFORNIA. 11 of Spain. As the simplest and most expeditious plan for securing possession of the country, it was resolved to establish a line of mission stations among the Indians of the coast, with the further purpose of their conversion to the Christian faith. The establishment and con- trol of these missions was confided to the monks of a Mexican convent of the Order of St. Francis,, by whom the first settlement within the limits of the state was formally established at San Diego on the ] Ith of July, 1709. Other similar establishments soon followed, and the whole coast was explored. On the .'id of June, 1770, Monterey was founded, and on the 7th of November, of the same year, Crespi sailed through the strait now called the Golden Gate, discovered the mag- nificent bay, and gave it the name it still bears. By degrees a great part of the Indian tribes were assembled about the missions and be- came partly civilized, and the grain, fruits, and domestic animals of Europe were introduced. For the better control of the Indians, immi- gration was discouraged, no one being allowed to own any part of the soil. The mission rule continued about sixty-four years. In 1822, after a long contest, Mexico established her independence of Spain. In lS3:i, the loyalty of the monks of California to the repub- lic being distrusted, the control of the country was taken from them, a Mexican governor was appointed, and California was thrown open to immigration. Numerous large tracts of land were granted to individ- uals, to become, in after-years, the cause of endless litigation. Monte- rey was made the capital. The missions rapidly declined, and the greater part of the Indian converts dispersed. In the course of a few years the frequent civil wars in Mexico, and the consequent weakness and instability of the distant central govern- ment, made it obvious that, sooner or later, California would probably become a possession of France, England, or the United States. Be- tween 184;5 and 1840 a large number of immigrants entered the coun- try, most of them Americans from Oregon and the Mississippi valley. The revolt of Texas, and its subsequent admission into the Union, led to the Mexican war. In June, 1840, the commander of the American fleet lying at Mazatlan, on the west coast of Mexico, received infor- mation of the first battle on the Rio Grande. He promptly set sail for Monterey, and, on the 7th of July, took formal possession of that place and of California. On the next day the port of Verba Buena was oc- cupied, and became at once the chief military and naval station of the United States on the v;est coast. In January, 1847, its name was changed to San Francisco. By the treaty of February 2, 1848, a vast region, extending from Texas to the Pacific, and including California, was formally ceded by Mexico to the United States. On the Iflth of January, 1848, Marshall found gold in the race of Sutter's mill at Coloma. This led to further search, and the richness and vast area of the deposits of that precious metal were soon made apparent. In a few weeks the news had spread over the Pacific coast, and, in a few months, over the whole civilized world. An unparalleled excitement and migration soon followed. From Asia, Australia, Eu- rope, and the United States, thousands and tens of thousands hurried to the land of gold. In May, 1849, at least 20,000 men marched from Missouri River, and for several subsequent years the perilous route across the Plains was a principal road to California. The position of San F'rancisco at the ocean doonvay to this vast treasury at once raised that place to great importance. The harbor was crowded with ships from every maritime nation, and a great city, at first of tents and sheds, and afterwards of more substantial materials, sprang up as if by magic. A little later, and from the Atlantic ports came great fleets of sailing vessels of a size and speed never before known, crowded with eager gold-hunters, and freighted with everything that might find a market among a people made recklessly extravagant by the sudden acquisition of apparently exhaustless wealth. Shorter routes to the golden land were soon found. Lines of steamers ran to the narrow isthmus of Panama frcm the .Atlantic ports on one side and from San Francisco on the other. On the 2Ud of January, 1854, the Panama Railroad was completed, and thenceforth communication with the Atlantic shores was relatively easy. Meanwhile the most mi.xed multitude ever assembled moved forward with unexampled rapidity to permanent political organization. On the 1st of September, 1849, a constitutional convention assembled at Mon- terey. Its work was adopted by the people, and, on the 9th of Septem- ber, 1 850, California was admitted as a state of the Union. Social perils, unavoidable in such a community, soon developed themselves. In December, 1849, and again in May and June, 1851, fires, supposed to be of incendiary origin, swept away large parts of the city and of its wealth. Crimes of violence were of daily and open oc- currence. With the crowds of industrious miners there had come a horde of idle, vicious men, many of them the banished outlaws of other lands. Their numbers gave them local political power. Through their blighting influence justice was perverted and corrupted, and the very foundations of social order were in peril. In 1850 these evils had be- come intolerable, and the better elements of society rapidly organized for its preservation. A large body of the citizens formed themselves into an armed and disciplined force, and an executive committee was appointed. Many of the most notorious criminals were arrested ; others fled the state. No one was punished without full and fair trial. Four were executed and many others were banished. When its work was done, the organization quietly disbanded, and affairs peacefully re- sumed their natural course. The annual production of gold, which had risen to about ?!G5,000,000 in lS5:i, soon after began to decline. The most accessible and easily wrought placers were exhausted, and discoveries of gold and silver in adjacent or distant territories and in Australia called away a large part of the mining population. In 1859 the production had fallen to about $50,000,000 ; in 1801 to .§40,000,000 ; and in 1880 to $17,500,000. In the meanwhile immigration continued, and steadily increasing numbers came with their families to mike California their permanent home. Various new industries in mining and manufactures were de- veloped. The extraordinary agricultural capacity of the state was recognized, and it became evident that the grain, wine, fruits, lumber, and wool of the state were a greater and more lasting source of pros- perity than the gold had been. In 1807 the value of the merchandise exported already equalled the entire gold product of the state. The discovery of the rich silver mines of Nevada added greatly to the pros- perity of California, and especially of its chief port, and it was still fur- ther increased by an event which marks a new era in the history of the state and of the country. This was the completion of the first great transcontinental railw.iy, in September, 1809, by which the whole Mis- sissippi valley and the Atlantic seaboard were brought within a few days' easy reach of San Francisco. A still more rapid increase of the immigration followed, and has already largely affected the development of the resources of the state. Other events of moment have subsequent- ly occurred; among them are the great extension of the local railroad system, the rapid increase of irrigation and hydraulic mining, and the adoption, in 1879, of a new state constitution, which went into effect January 1, 1880. The immigration of very large numbers of Chinese has given rise to new social and industrial problems, the solution of which is yet in the future. During the Civil War California remained faithful to the Union, and her treasures were generously poured forth for the national cause, and in aid of those whose sufferings in the field and the hospital justly demanded her sympathies and her assistance. Questions.— Describe the situntion of Cnlifornia. Its mountain surface. Its double valley. The Lake Region. Klamath Plateau. The islands. The drainage. The climate. The forests. The animals. Minerals and mining. Agriculiure. The leading staples. Manufactures. The leading products. Commerce. Its staples. Coast advantages. Transportation. Political organization. Describe San Francisco. .Sacramento. Other important places. What is said of education .' Give an outline of the history of California. 12 GEOGRAPHY OF OREGON. o o u PC o o X < PC :- O o ^ w o I— I o a. ri o o > D c B tJD !/l u ^ o en ';3 C B -a <« c a; S O OJ r- o i; bo 1) >-. 4I, 1) .i "5 c ^ rt .^ •S ■" rt s s s .£ .5 M) rt o b ^ O — (/) OJ IJ 1) J3 H -T 3 in 3 O . o tn 11 C3 c -i-- ■= ». > J2 o I, — hC 0^ C ^ 3 u. <^-4 0> 3 M >-• J= a> H J3 1) s rt bJ] ■u a! ■a in "u 1) u tn -C .3 rt 3 c o o — c tn 3 O « O M 3 '^ i 5 ° ^ 5 "" ■a 3 >- o o d tn 0) (U o ^1 •S O u Q tn O j= p ^ .3 ^ « 11 ■" ^ O Jii J3 .ST; -^ ^ ^ ji .y S u O rt 'to ^ 3 a r\ d t; tJ 5 ■" r^ ^ OJ -r i) < -^ ~ ~ O a ^ 3 = > -f, 33 « 3 rj 1) O 3 -^ i; o rt ■ ^ ::2 " bC 5 ,1 .2^^-53- 2i t« -3 1) ■£ooj;.icrt:5_ ■3 " ^ 3 2 ii ' -p "S rt 3 O ° "in "< 5 S to in _ I.. 4-> 3 5 ■" K ^ -H C3 ^ tn O -a tn '^ .-X !5 3 o > tl) tn 13 h f-H &p u .3 (1) > > a E i-. E tn 3 3' .2 o .a ^ o ^ S ^ s P< ^•■ rt ■- bO X CD u ° .£1 XI O o o '0 P-, -S ^ — 3 D tU bO .3 3 ■" 4-. 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P ;o ^ G. « p -^ rt itrH 3 T3 Ul ^ tn rt OJ L^ tu bn bl) • QJ 3 rt 4J J= 1^ >_ "C ^-4 !2i o I — I I — I W -^ .-5 f .i:; ."3 -2 3 a ^ O "I" B ot ai o bOo c< 3 ^ 10 a) bO ^ r3 ^ c ■f-* F— ' C* '*■ -^ ■ r E n J?( c P-. 'y; (J OJ JJ ;^ r> a) o IN tn 3 O " I 3 to «■ '^ ::: O o tl •* ° .-^^ O C "-si o ^ a; 3 ta o o r- ai ii .„ tn ° 2 a; a; <^. o "I ft rt >> o rt a) a; o -n tt! a; ■^ ft .4 Si 2 14 GEOGRAPHY OF OREGON. or April. Snow occasionally fulls, but is seldom deep, and soon disappears. Ice is rarely more than an inch or two in thickness. In some winters, flowers bloom in the gardens throughout the season, even as far north as the mouth of the Willamette. The dry season is longer in the south than in the north. During this part of the year the sky is generally clear. From June until October very little rain falls. The summer nights are always cool, the days never op- pressive. The coast region has the most humid climate. The climate of East Oregon is marked with greater extremes of temperature than that of the rest of the state. Winter begins late in December, and lasts about three months. The high Cascade Range shuts out the moist winds of the Pacific. While the annual rain-fall at the mouth of the Columbia is about CO inches, in East Oregon it is only from 15 to 20 inches. Snow falls to the depth of 6 to 12 inches in the valleys, but is much deeper in the high mountain regions. Con- siderable rain falls in the spring. During the summer there is ver)' little rain or dew. Occasionally the thermometer rises during the day to 100°; but even then the heat is not oppressive, owing to the dryness of the atmosphere ; the nights are cool. In the high Klamath valley, 4200 feet, the deep snows lie from three to five months, and frost occurs in every month of the year. Forests. — The forests constitute one of the most important re- sources of the state. They e.xtend along the whole coast region, and from 15 to 20 miles into the interior, except where broken by the prairies in the valleys. They are most dense where exposed to the ocean winds. They are also found along the Columbia to just beyond the Dalles, and clothe the slopes of the Cascade Range. Even in East Oregon, the Blue Mount ini-^ inA their principal spurs are well-wooded. LUMBERING. Most of the trees arc evergreen conifers of species peculiar to the Pacific Coast. Trees six feet through the trunk are very common, and among the cedars and hemlocks are many that are from eight to ten feet in diameter and nearly 300 feet high. Some of these species furnish ship timber of the highest quality. Animals. — Among the wild animals are the grizzly bear, black bear, cougar, gray wolf, coyote, mountain-sheep, elk, deer, and antelope. The eagle, buzzard, vulture, swan, goose, duck, albatross, and gull are the principal birds, and the salmon, cod, halibut, sturgeon, herring, and smelt the most important fishes. Lobsters, oysters, and clams abound. Minerals. — The development of the mineral wealth of Oregon has, as yet, scarcely begun. There are extensive deposits of gold, silver, lead, copper, iron, salt, coal, marble, granite, soapstone, slate, clay, glass- sand, and other minerals. Agriculture. — Agriculture is the leading interest of the state. The chief staple is wheat. The yield is large and of excellent quality. The greater part is raised in the Willamette valley. Many millions of bushels are annually exported. There are also large crops of bar- ley, oats, potatoes, fruits, and garden vegetables. Cattle-raising and sheep-farming are also important branches of industrj-, the large wool crop of Oregon ranking among the best in the world. Principal Mineral and Agricultural Products. Gold and silver. . Whe.it (bushels). B.irley Oats •• . Pot-itoes .tl.Srili.illNi Woolipounds> 5,71S,S«4 7,4Sll.lllll ! H.ly(tons) VOIi.lST 9JO,'.l77 I Horses 124.1l'7 4.:iS.M;.'>() Laltle B52,.'.«l l,3.'iS,93ll Sheep l,(lSS,I6-i Buuer (pounds). 2,44)S,7-.'5 i Swine 156,2a« Manufactures. — In the production and exportation of flour and lum- ber Oregon already holds a high rank. Among other articles largely produced are canned goods, woollens, salmon oil, packed beef and pork, tar, pitch, and turpentine. Fisheries. — The neighboring ocean furnishes an abundance of oys- ters, cod, and halibut. The salmon fisheries of the Columbia are the most extensive in the world. Commerce. — The foreign commerce of Oregon is already an element of importance in the prosperity of the state. From ports on the Co- lumbia and the Willamette, many vessels sail ever}' year to Great Britain, China, the Sandwich Islands, South America, New Zealand, and Aus- tralia, loaded with wheat, flour, wool, ship- timber, canned goods, and other products. A large export and import trade is carried on through San Francisco, and there is an extensive general coasting trade with California, Puget Sound, British Columbia, and Alaska. The navigable rivers furnish cheap transportation for hundreds of miles through rich farming, lumbering, and mineral regions. Columbia River is navig.ible for large vessels to Portland, on llie Will.Tmelle, 112 miles from the sea, and to Vancouver, about the same distance. Vessels of "JOO to 300 tons ascend to the head of tidewater at the C.ascides, KiO miles from the mouth. Here is a railroad portage of si.v miles. Beyond this, the river is navigable forty miles, to the Dalles, where there is a second railroad portage. Above this point, small steamers ascend Snake River to Lewiston, in Idaho, 470 miles, and tlie main river to Priest Rapids, in Washington Ter- ritory, .">1H! miles from the sea. On the Willamette, small steamers run to Salcm all the year, and to Eugene City, 138 miles from Portland, during high water. At Oregon City the river falls 40 feet over a ledge of rocks. Locks allow direct passage to these ves- sels. There are other n.avigable streams, but none so important. The most important railroad in the state belongs to the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, and extends from Portland along the south bank of the Columbia River to Wallula, where it connects with the Northern I'.acific Railroad from Dulnth, on Lake Superior. From Umatilla a branch ex- tends in a southeasterly direction to Huntington, where it meets the Oregon Short Line Railroad, a branch of the Union Pacific, forming continued rail- w.ay communication between Portland and Omaha. The Oregon and Cali- fornia Railroad extends from liast Portland southwards to Ashland, in the southern part of the state. The Oregon Centr.al Railroad, on the west side of the Willamette River, runs from Portland to Corvallis. The Northern P.icific Railroad extends from Portland to the Cohnnbia River opposite Kalamn, in Washington Territory. Political Organization. — The executive officers of the state are a Governor, Secretary of State, a Stale Treasuier, and a Superintend- GEOGRAPHY OF OREGON. 15 ent of Public Instruction, who hold office for four years each. The Secretary of State is also, ex officio. Auditor of Public Accounts. The legislative power is vested in a Legis- lative Assembly, which comprises a Senate of thirty members, and a House of Representa- tives of sixty members. The term of a Sena- tor is four years, that of a Representative two years. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, Circuit Courts, County Courts, and Justice's Courts. All the executive of- ficers, legislators, and judges are elected by the people. Oregon is represented in Congress by two Senators and one Representative, and has, therefore, three elec- toral votes. The state comprises twenty-seven counties and contains the follow- ing cities and towns : Portland, in Multnomah County, is the commercial metropo- lis of the Columbia valley, and the largest city in Oregon. It is on the left bank of the Willamette, about 13 miles from its junction with the Columbia, and at the head of ship navigation. It was founded in 1844, and became a city in 1855. Population, 17,579. Portland is built on a plateau, from the higher parts of which fine views are presented of the city and its shii)ping, of Mt. Hood in the distance, and the fertile Willamette valley. Its manufacturing establishments in- clude founderies, saw and planing mills, and soap, carriage, furniture, and other factories. In 18S4 the wholesale trade of Port- land amounted to $40,(;."iO,0()0. It is the shipping-point for the large wheat crop of the Willamette v.alley, to which is added a great and rapid- ly increasing amount from far up the Columbia. Ocean steamers and sailing-vessels carry on a direct ex- port and import trade with Gre.at Kritain, China, Japan, New Zealand, and Australia, and regular lines of coasting-vessels run to San Francisco, Victoria in British Columbia, the various ports on Pugct Sound, and to Sitka in Alask.a. It is also the western terminus of the railroad belonging to the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company, which is a link of the great Northern Pacific Railroad joining the railway systems of the liastern States with those of Oregon. Portland has an efficient system of public schools, including high, intermediate, and grammar grades, and is the seat of the Medical De- partment of the Willamette University. Salem, in Marion County, is the capital of the state. It is situated on the Oregon and California Railroad and the east bank of \\'illamctte River. Steamers run regularly from this point to Portland during about three fourths of the year. Mill Creek furnishes a great water- power. There are several large mills producing woollen goods, flour, and linseed-oil. There are also machine-shops, tanneries, founderies, etc. The city is the seat of Willamette University. Population, 2538. Albany— in Linn County.on the Oregon and Cllifor- iii.-» Railrtxid. .ind on ihe east bank of the Wil- lamelle- Shipping port. In a rich agricultu- ral section. \ canal 13 miles long and S.'i feet wide brings the water of South Santiam River for tnanufacturing purposes. Saw, planing, and flouring mills; machine-shops; sash and door, carnage and wason factories. Eleva- tors and grain warehouses- Population, *J4(Ht. Aslllnild — in Jackson County.on BearCreek. south- ern lemiiims of Ihe Oregon and California Railroad. Stages to Redding, in Caiii'omia- )ron foundery, saw, grist, and woollen mills Popul.it ion, 1000. ABtoria— in Clatsop County, at mouth of the Co- lumbia. Important seaport. Headquarters of the Salmon fisheries of the Columbia. Summer rcsoit. Great facilities for lumber- ing and ship-buildin". Population, CUOO. Ilftker City — in Baker County, on the Oregon Short Line Railroad and south fork of Pow- der River. In a fertile valley. Large trade with mining and agricultural districts. Pop- ulation. ll'iUll. CorTallis— in Benton County, on the Oregon Cen- tral Railroad, and west bank of the WilKv metle. A trading and manufacturing centre. In fine farming region. Seat of Slate Agri- cultural College. I'opulation, K-tUO. Dallns — in Polk County, on La Creole Creek. XLiny manufacturing establishments. Leath- er, wagons, flour, etc Population. SOO. The Dalles— in Wasco Coimty, on Columbia River, at t-'pper Cascade Rapids. River narri>wed here to a width of ll.S feet between walls of rock. Connected with Portland and the east by railroad. Unlimited water-power. Popu- lation, It^OJ. East Portland -in Multnomah County. Terminus \ Oregon City— in Clackamas County, on east bank of the Oregon and California Railroad and of the line of the Oregon Railway and Naviga- tion Company. On Willamette River, oppo- site Portland. Beautiful residences, exten- sive warehouses, factories, machine-shops, etc. Population, SHOO. Engene t'lty— in I.anc County, on the Oregon and California Railroad and left bank of Willa- mette. River navigable to this point. Ships an immense .imount of agricultural products. Seat of Stale University. Population. aOIXl Forest OrOT» — in Washington County, on the Oregon Central Railroad, and in the fer- tile Tualatin Plains. Scat of Pacific Uni- versity and Tualatin Academy. Population, ."ill. Jacksonrille-in Jackson County.on Bear Creek, and ihe Oregon and California Railroad. Cen- tre of trade of a great and fertile valley Gold and silver mines. Veins of copper and mag- netic iron ore. Population. S39. Harshfleld— in Coos County, on Coos River. Ter- minus of a -short railroad from coal-mines. Pni.ulation, CM. HcSIinilTille - in Vamhill Counlv, on south fork of Yamhill River. Seat of McMinnville Col- lege. Population, 670. of Willamette River and on the Oregon and California Railroad. River here flows through a deep cafion. Chief |iart of the city is in the canon. River made navigable for steamers by a series of costly locks on opposite bank. Mills for manufacture of flour and lumber. W'oollen-mills. Population. IWWl. Pendleton - in Umatilla County, on Umatilla Riv- er and the line of Ihe Oregon Railway and Navigation Company. Several large agri- cultural vallej-s radiate from this poinu Pop- ulation. 1S<"0. Bosebnrp — in Douglas County, on east bank ol Umpqua River, on the Oregon and California Railroad Excellent water - (>nwer. Grain and wool market. Population. liMKt. ITmatllla' in Umatilla County, on the Columbia and on Ihe line of the Oregon Kaiiw^vand Navi- gation Company, and junction with branch to Huntington. Freight depot for eastern Ore- gon and Idaho. Lines of river steamers. Large shipments of wool. Population, 14t». Brownsville, Canon C'ity, Davton, Empire City, Halsey, Harrisburg. Hillsboro, Indepen- dence. Junction. Lalayetlc. f iaklaiid. I'nion. Weston, and Wheatland are also importanl places. Education. — The State Board of Education consists of the Gov- ernor, the Secretar)' of State, and the Superintendent of Public In- struction. County superintendents and boards of district officers are elected by the people. History. — The coasts of Oregon and Washington were probably first visited, by Spanish navigators, about the middle of the sixteenth centu- ry. In 1591.' Juan de Fuca, a Greek commanding a small Spanish vessel, entered the strait which still bears his name. In 1775 a Spanish expedition was the first to reach the 58th degree of north latitude. In 1778 the celebrated English navigator Captain Cook sailed along the western coast of America a distance of more than 2000 miles and minutely explored the shores of Washington and of British Cc- lunibia. He was followed, in 1792, by Vancouver. In 1791 Captain Robert Gray, an American fur-trader command- ing the ship Columbia, of Boston, entered and partly explored a great river, to which he gave the name of his ship. The purchase of Louisiana in 1803, and the report of the important discover)- made by Captain Gray, led the United States government to send out an explor- ing expedition under Captains Lewis and Clarke. They ascended the Missouri to its source, and thence passed over into the valley of the Columbia, which they descended to the sea in 1805. In 1810 John Jacob Aster, of New York, organized the Pacific Fur Company, which, in 181 1, established a trading settlement at Astoria, near the mouth of the river. During the war of 1812-15 it fell into the hands of Great Britain, but was restored at the conclusion of the war. In 1819 Spain ceded Florida to the United States, together with "all rights, claims, and pretensions to any territory north of the parallel of 42°, and westward to the Pacific Ocean." Upon the explorations of Cook, Vancouver, and others. Great Britain claimed the west coast between 42° and the Russian possessions in Alaska. The United States laid its claim to a large part of the same region upon the discoveries of Gray, the explorations of Lewis and Clarke, the establishment of Astoria, and the acquisition of the rights of Spain. In 1840, after a prolonged and threatening controversy, a treaty with Great Britain established the northern boundar)- - line as it now exists. In 184.3 and 1844 large bodies of emigrants from the Missouri entered Oregon after a perilous overland journey, and liberal grants of land subsequently attracted still larger numbers. The Territory of Ore- gon was organized in 1848. In 1857 a state constitution was adopted. On the 14th of February, 1859, Congress admitted Oregon as a state with its present limits. Questions. — Describe the situation of Oregon. The surface. The drainage. Climate. Forests. Animals. Minerals. .Agriculture. Manufactures. Fisheries. Coinmercc. Political organieation. describe Portland. What is feaid of ctlucation.' Of the history of Oregon. 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O •y; 3 4-. ^ n ^ > o 3 rt O be ~ o ^ p °-, .2 ;; Mrt CI ^ >- 3 ij « g § 4> ~ U a> ct rt k. p: Cfl t^^ rt c ji: rt 4j CQ in -t; -r 5^ 3 rt ^ rt O 3 CO x; be rt O ^- _3 CI ~ £ x; o § .£ <= o en rt o .,- ° -^ £ " O *- 3 en -Ji CI 3> • — ■— rt "aJ S 3 = I 3 O 4^ . 3 be 5 - o aj 3 X ^ C 5 - a; 3 -"• 5 — Q Ci O •^ z. <- '■S o •« rt i< -^ rt a t"* n £ ?• CI n be « — — • i' 3 en 5; • V, a) ^_ .3 3 .i! > 'en 3 rt a) 3 C "w CI CI a. 3 ti *- rt CI 11 n en k. .11 ^ _a to <»• > rt ■*-• rt a) < ^ ^4-1 .S2 a. ^ 18 GEOGRAPHY OF WASHINGTON. cougar, wolf, elk, deer, mountain -sheep, beaver, otter, and fox; among the birds, the hawk, eagle, crane, plover, grouse, swans, geese, and ducks. The waters swarm with fish, the most valuable of which are the salmon, cod, halibut, herring, and sturgeon. On the coast and arms of the sea are whales and seals, besides lobsters, clams, and oysters. Minerals. — The mineral resources are as yet but little developed, but they are already known to be very valuable and in great variety. The bars and banks of the Columbia and its tributaries for a period furnished a large amount of gold, but the product has greatly dimin- ished. The deposits of coat are very extensive and of great value. It is extensively mined at Bellingham Bay, Seattle, Lake Washington, and other localities, and already constitutes an important article of export to San Francisco and other markets. Agriculture. — Much of the forest land is exceedingly fertile, and, when cleared of timber, highly productive. There are also large tracts of prairie and of other open land which have a rich soil, and are ready for the farmer. They are mostly in the valleys. The agricultural lands of the territory are capable of supporting a dense population. Large crops of wheat, barley, oats, and rye, and of potatoes, turnips, and other vegetables, are produced ; and fruits, such as apples, pears, plums, and cherries, are of excellent quality. In East Washington much of the land in the Columbia valley is suitable for agriculture, and a much larger quantity is remarkably well fitted for the raising of sheep and cattle. The climate is not severe, and the nutritious bunch- grass furnishes an abun- dance of food throughout the year. In some parts peaches and Indian -corn thrive. But the chief staple is wheat. In Walla Walla and Columbia counties, and the parts adjacent, an an- nual surplus crop of be- tween two and three mill- ions of bushels is exported, and the quantity is rapidly increasing year by year. It is estimated that this por- tion of the territory is ca- pable of furnishing an an- nual supply of between forty and fifty millions of bushels. Manufactures. — The chief /*-x f " ' manufactures are lumber and flour. The annual export of lumber ex- ceeds 'J50,000,000 of feet, and is valued at, at least, two and a half millions of dollars. Most of it is made in the Puget Sound region. Fisheries. — The fisheries are of considerable importance. The chief products are salmon, barrelled and canned, cod, and oysters. The chief salmon fisheries are on the Columbia, near its mouth. Commerce. — The extraordinary extent of protected navigation on I'uget Sound and its adjacent waters, the great number of excellent MUliNT KAINIER, OK TACOMA. AtS'i bLliNli UN CUIA'MCIA KIVEK. harbors, and the numerous navigable rivers give easy access to a very large part of the territory, and an abundance of the cheapest form of transportaiion. The Northern Pacific Railroad furnishes direct and rapid communication between Puget Sound and the Great Lakes and Mississippi valley. Its western division — from Tacoma, on Puget Sound — extends to Portland via Kalama, on the Columbia. There are also branches of the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company extending from Wallula to Walla Walla, and to Riparia and Dayton, a portage road at Cascades, and short roads from tide-water on Puget Sound to the coal-mines in King and Pierce counties. An immense amount of lumber is exported, together with coal, fish, grain, provisions, and live-stock. The coal and lumber are chiefly from Puget Sound ; the grain is from Walla Walla, Columbia, Garfield, and Assotin counties, the richest and most populous in the territory. Political Organization.— The chief executive officers of the territory are the Governor and Secretary, who are appointed by the President of the United States with the consent of the Senate. Their terms are four years each. There are also an Auditor and a Treasurer, who are appointed by the Governor and Council for terms of two years each. The legislature consists of the Council of nine members and the House of Representatives of thirty members. The judicial power is exercised by the Supreme Court, the judges of which are appointed by the President and Senate of the Ignited States, and serve for four years each. There are also District Courts, County Probate Courts, and Justice's Courts. The legislators, probate judges, and justices are elected by the people. The territory comprises thirty-three counties. The three most pop- ulous districts are Puget Sound, the Walla Walla valley, and the lower part of the Columbia valley. There are fifteen Indian reservations, and an Indian population of over 10,000. They comprise about 40 small tribes. Tlioiigli there are as yet no large towns in Wasliington, sonic of tliose given in the following list are alicaily important centres, and give iiuinii-.e of continued and rapid advance in population and wealth. Olvmpia, in Thurston County, is the capital of the territory, and is one of its most enterprising towns. It is the terminus of an important branch of the Northern Pacific Railroad, and is advantageously situated on Rudds Inlet, the most southerly arm of Puget Sound. It is ;200 miles from the sea, and 80 miles south of Port Townsend, at the entrance of the sound. It has a remarkable harbor. Owing to the peculiar con GEOGRAPHY OF WASHINGTON. 19 formation of the shores, the tide here rises and falls about 24 feet. This affords unusual advantages for the construction of dry docks, and for the repair of shipping. Olympia is beautifully situated at the foot of forest-clad hills and mountains. On one side is the snow-capped Mount Olympus, and on the other the lofty Mount Rainier lifts its summit above the clouds. The whole presents a view of mountain and valley, land and water, remarkable for its beauty and variety. In and around the city are fine orchards which add greatly to its attractiveness. About a mile to the south are the Falls of Tumwater, three beautiful cascades, where the Des Chutes falls to the lower level of the sea. Population, 1967. Kalama, ill Conlilz County, is on the b.ink of the Columbia, 77 miles from its mouth, and on the Pacific division of the Northern Pacific Railroad, which extends from opposite Kalama to Portland, Oregon. A wharf 701) feet long presents facilities for the largest vessels. Steamers run to Portland and other points on the Willamette and Columbia. Excellent coal is mined near the town. The canning of salmon is one of the local industries. PoRr Townsi-;ni) in Jefferson County, is connnerci01»0. Vancouver, in Clarke County, is situated on the Columbia, about 100 miles from its mouth. It is one of the oldest towns in the territory. The river is here a mile wide, and the port admits the largest vessels. Population, I7.'i0. Walla Wai.la, in Walla Walla County, is situated on a river of the same name, and on the line of the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company. It is the largest town in the territory, and is the chief depot of one of the richest agricultural districts of the Pacific Coast region. From this point excellent roads radiate in every direction to the mining and grazing regions. It ships a great amount of wheat and wool. Population, .'5500. CaNrndeR — in Skamania County. Point of transfer of cargoes by railroad [xtrtagc of six miles to the he.id of the first rapids. Kivcr here con- tracts to a narrow cliannel. t'olrix — in Whitman County, on branch railroad. Trade with rich aj;ricullural region, and an immense grazing crmnlrj'. Population, 4C'I. P«ylOll— in Columbia County. Easlcrn tenninns of one of the branches of the Oregon Railway and N.ivigation Conil>any. L-arge trade with farming and grazing country. Woollen, saw- ing and planing, and flouring mills. Popu- lalion, iMK. OjrslerTllle— in Pacific County, on narrow pcnin- sula between Shoalwater Bay and the ocean. Large oyster trade. Oiher fisheries. Spokan Fills- -in Spokan County, on the North- ern Pacific Railroad. Rapidly growing town, in a rich agricultural and lumber district. mines. Excellent water-power. Population, LVifl. Stellaroom — in Pierce County, near the head of Pa- get Sound. Near Northern Pacific Kai!r<,ad. Kxports beer, ship-knees, lumber, woout SO feet in less than a quarter of a mile. Great water-power. Flour and saw mills, saslies and doors. Population, 25(HI. Wallaln — in Walla Walla County, on Columbia River, at the junction of the Northern Pacific Railroad and the line of the Oregon Railway and Navigation Company. Important sliij)- ping point for Walla Walla valley. Post of Hudson Hay Company in lS"2tt. Whatcom— in Whatcom County, on east shore of Belliugham Bay, near the national boundary- line. Ships coal and timber. Distributing point for the Cu:ur d'Alcnc Among other places of importance in the Puget Sound district are lil.tkely. Port Madison, Port (".amble, Snn Juan, and Snohomish City ; in t!ie l.owcr Columbia district, Cathlamet, Waitsbtirg, and North Yakima ; Port Colvillc, on the Upper Columbia ; and Cheney, Spiagnc, Pa.sco, and .\ins\vtuth on the N<;r!hern Pacific Kailro.ad. Education. — The public schools are under the supervision of the Superintendent of Common Schools, appointed by the Governor and Council for two years ; County Superintendents, elected in each county ; and School District Directors. The Territorial University is located at Seattle. Forty-si.x thousand and eighty acres of the public lands were assigned by the United States government for its establishment and support. One eighteenth of all the public land in the territory, about 3000 square miles, is set aside for school purposes, but cannot be sold until the territory becomes a state. History. — The Territory of Washington was organized by act of Congress, March 2, 1853. Previous to this it formed a part of the Ter- ritory of Oregon. In 18-59, when Oregon be- came a state, the eastern part of the territory of that name was annexed to Washington. Subse- quently Idaho and a part of Wyoming were cut off from Washington. The first American settlement was made at Tumwater, in 1845, by a few families who had made the long and perilous journey across " The Plains." Before this its only white inhabitants were the employe's of the Hudson Bay Fur Com- pany of Great Britain. The treaty of 1840 between that country and the United =«^'- "' "-^""^'•t^x- f. States contained a clause in relation to the national boundary- line the meaning of which was disputed. After a long contro- versy the matter was referred, by both governments, to the ar- ^- bitration of the German emperor, who, in 1872, decided that the boundar\--linc ran, not through Rosario Strait, but through the Canal de Haro. By this decision the islands between these two straits were awarded to the United States. In 1873 they were politically organized as San Juan County. In 187'.> the people of Washington decided, by popular vote, to establish a stale con- stitution, and within a brief period the Territory will, without doubt, become a State. SAW-UILU Questions. — Describe the situation of Washitigton Territory. The surface. Coast. Drain.ige. Climate. Forests. Animals. Mitierals. Ag- riculture. Manufacttires. Fisheries. Political organization. Describe Olympia. What is said of education .> Give an account of the history of Washington Territory. Longitude West 112 from Qreenwlcli J L.\(^\)(yf, rail jMineralA P". S ,^, ^ , .- Mt.Kendrick li'i^" r ;^^ ' Mt.F -., ^S''lijolaaYe City ♦Cross Mt. Pp .^.'. Bill ,.. ^Sj-Z , "-fJ' .x^' YWilliamsMt. ^ l^'Tliriber ^li. A Cy^nuJPk. I «/.>/'-..■' ^>l "GtanltfPk.i -y- unset Cy, Zun n'«i£ „VV»^ ^ ,,,£1"- ■/ MuWhipple "ory «'/~ ^ (fc- SignalCityj'/Sif ^^y g CaiyvWljIpple *ESCOTT *' Squ \ubr«y jt/^^iK icX Butte ^^^ (Ct>,eylonsl8Mtt« ''' ' Babliefs But ™o«t Rrtlller/vCp , •„ ^ ZZX***J^-^ PkV' f Ives Pk." "^''-<... .■Date Cf.-/» i PICi. Turret f. North Pk ' Wamit ) Grove Br^vdshaw if-tr ■■-_ Canon Butte .•■-.'../ ^..'•■^^ .P^»OKflatf 3ut^ IIS"^ Pk,i ^iOtft *,. i^_ M^' iPkiv ■ I. " J V- /V/? \ Jl(t.Bulor(i loiac.Ti'ciio % C- G\ \^^ f vs.- ^ Sug'aflbfif I Butte '. ;T'Sprii%e; illp..., Xone TSilver Ball ."Ji^ XJir/,- CjVu,/u K. t, : , Pk. i iSf Ord Rk. Thofflas Pk. ! h^ ^KelJe^Pk. I -XjW^gjjLE " •^■'■»' • "-'^ (7WA J'h" Msy Ri^gMcopa '«''«^^-gfi^.-^-— -F^ ^':-- =»> >ntin^ 4^'cottonwood>l\ M^BJcopa .v;.?,.°V:Wp^^ mIvWC^ Gila Pk Triplets,.^ 6an CnJ-io; 'r,'= 7tu'n''d?nT* Texas Hill Gi;±^:\ ' . Hills i5<,P°?t c? ^ J ciirtjoti , --Xe.Tt'»m«'>iKK7<> s('*;/~M>iJVI''"en: '5(»,oro~--'Vr5°''* ^so V'^-^^.^e. >.V>^e Bu„e Mv % IX Quav^',?>i javi^? ^.Nl. ^ dijbezifPrlelo \ '•''^V.Oi.blo Hills -^\[^ -— o-Cprral V^ j tP. u.nbUlJI Black tiock /^ W ..^•'. ,• <{.» I X^ableMt.^O" A./OA Ssffo™ pueblo ,J^-tJ\J "AS^h^-hoSta. i J^^ lu> X't ! ^,. &, Pk. \\i^'^C'*"'<< TP-^ ^V %a^irhoPk e SV ^^4 Y%Cafip.8rai-'^% >.... vs. A OesertPk, , ^^ \u _ '. . ^ ' 1 X^^ Oran^ O^ L%- / ^?< A Pk. u MAP OF A E I Z O N A Scale of Miles. 6 10 20 aO 10 50 60 Capital Kalli-oud County Seat ts, Kiver CltyorTow-n o Sta^ Routes 37 -i r LongituUe West 35 from AVukhinptoa itoj'yngnt, itSI /,y /;r ^ B'U/.cra.] -UvviBed li> Ajiril. IMti. SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF ARIZONA. [Copyright 19S0, by IIakpkb & Dbothkiul) QUESTIONS ON THE MAP. What territory north of Arizona ? What territory east ? What country south ? What two states west ? What is the general character of the surface of Arizona? Wliat large river forms most of the western boundary of the territory? Through what part of the territory does it flow ? Name the three ciiief branches of the Colorado in Arizona. Which branch crosses the southern part of the territory? What river flows into the Gila from the south ? Name one other branch of the Gila. What river flows into Sak River from the north ? Name the counties of .Arizona. What tliree counties border on Utah? What three on New Mexico? What three on Mexico? What two on California and Nevada? What two counties not already named are crossed by Ciila River? What one by Salt River? What is the capital of .Arizona ? What town northwest of Prescott ? .Southwest? Name five towns on Colorado River. One on Salt River. 'I'hree on or near Gila River? What five towns in the southeastern part of the territory ? What three in the southwestern part ? DESCRIPTION. [Area, 1 13,020 square miles. Popul.ition 40.440, besides over 20,000 Indians on tlie Reservations.] Situation. — .Arizona lies between the parallels of 31° 3'?' and 37° north latitude, and between 109° 3' and 114° 2.5' west longitude. Its surface is about equal to the combined area of New York, Pennsyl- vania, New Jersey, Maryland, and Delaware. Surface. — .Arizona consists of a series of successive wide plateaus, the lowest in the southwest, the highest in the northeast. The highest part comprises the southern half of the Colorado Plateau (see page 24), which covers about two fifths of the territory. This portion of Arizona consists of three broad benches or platforms, the Mogollon Mountains form the steep edge of the lowest bench. The platforms, which, with other similar elevations, are called mesns, have an aver.age elevation of from 4lK)i) to (iOOO teel. They present a generally level snrface, upon which stand a great number of short ranges, isolated peaks, and bluffs. Among these is Humphrey's Peak, in the San Franci.sco Mountains, a snow-covered volcanic cone ll',r>Ul feet in height. It is the highest in Arizona. ROCKV MESA ON THE GILA. Into these platforms the Colorado and its numerous branches have cut l>road valleys and deep cations, whose perpendicular walls rise from 100 miles long, by 30 to 100 miles broad. There are also immense dis- tricts in the middle and north- east, where the sides of moun- tains are covered with nutri- tious grasses which furnish un- limited pasturage. Of the re- maining and by far the larger area of the territory, much the greater part is almost destitute of vegetation. In favorable places along the streams, iron- wood, mesquite, and cotton- wood are found, and upon the desert mesas, the sage bush, tlie prickly pear, and giant cactus. Minerals.— Although the min- eral treasures of Arizona are as yet but partly explored, it is al- ready known that in variety and value they are not excelled by any equal area of the Pacific Slope. Gold and silver mining is the leading industry of the territory. .The chief silver belt is a very large region, and a much larger district abounds in copper ores of remarkable richness. There are extensive deposits of salt. The coal-fields are of inestimable value, and occupy more than 30,000 square miles. The best-known beds are in the northeast, where some of the veins are over twenty feet in thickness. Agriculture. — Only a small proportion of the land of Arizona can be profitably cultivated. This is the result of the light rain-fall in some parts and the extraordinary char- acter of the drainage in others. Nearly the whole arable land lies in the lower parts of the chief river valleys, especially those of the Gila and its branches, the Salt and the Santa Cruz. Even here and in the park -like valleys of the high eastern border the land must be irrigated by canals or artesian wells. Yet so extensive is the territory that these various arable lands amount to several millions of acres. An irrigating canal 41 miles long has been recently constructed from the mouth of the Verde on Salt River to Cave Creek, a point some 17 miles north of the Gila. It will convert an un- productive desert into a rich agricultural region. The agricultural products vary with the climate, and range from the grain, roots, and fruits of the middle- temperate to those of sub-tropical regions. Commerce. — For much of the territory the ineans of communicalion are as yet scanty. The Colorado is the only navigable stream. Steam- ers and barges ascend to Hardyville, and occasionally to Callville, at the mouth of the Grand Canon. It is the chief trade route for a great mineral district. The Southern Pacific, and the Atlantic and Pacific railroads, cross the territory, and connect a large region with the Pa- cific ports and the markets of the eastern parts of the Union. The leading towns and the military stations are connected with the Colo- rado and the railroads by a system of stage routes. Political Organization, — The territory comprises ten counties. The following arc among the chief towns, but many additions and great changes are rapidly made by new and increasing immigration. Tucson, in Pima County, on the Southern Pacific Railroad, is the largest town in Arizona, and one of the oldest in the United States. It is in the fertile Santa Cruz valley, the best-known part of Arizona, and is the centre of many stage routes. It has an extensive and varied trade, both with the territory and with northern Mexico. Cattle are an important item. The altitude of Tucson is 2.500 feet. Population, 6904. Tubac, in the same county, is an old settlement. Prescott, in Yavapai County, is the capital of the territor}'. It is well laid out and well built. Its altitude, G318 feet, gives it a cool climate. Light snows fall in the winter, but not enough for sleighing. Prescott lies in a small valley surrounded by high ranges which contain good grazing and timber lands. It has a large trade. Population, 183G. Tombstone, the county seat of Cachise County, is surrounded by rich silver- mines. Since little or no snow falls here, the mines can be worked during the entire year. The mills for crushing the ore are situated on the San Pedro, ten miles distant. Cattle-raising is also a profitable industry in the neighborhood of Tombstone. Po|)ulation about 4000. Yuma, the chief town of Yuma County, is on the Colorado, 178 miles from its mouth, and 20 miles from the Mexican boundary. The Southern Pacific Rail- road here crpsses the Colorado. The town has an extensive business with the mining districts both by the river and the railroad. Population, ICOO. In the same county, and on the Colorado, are Castle Dome Landing, a port of shipment for ores of silver and copper, and Ehrenberg, the freight depot of the mining districts near WicUenburg and Prescott. Gi.oBlc, the county seat of Gila County, is situated in the centre of an important silver and copper mining district of the same name, e.ast of the Piual Moun- tains. Population, 704. Phcenix, in Marcopa County, is the business centre of Salt River v.allcy and of neighboring important mining districts. WicUenburg, in the same county, is .among the silver-mines. Population, 1708. Florence, in Pinal County, is the centre of a rich agricultural district in the vallev of the Gila. Small streams of water are led through its streets, which are planted with shade trees. It has stamping-mills and furnaces, and an extensive trade with the mines. Population, 902. Safford, in Graham County, on Gila River is a place of growing importance. Mineral Park, an important mining centre, and Hardyville and Aubrey, in Mohave County, are points of shipment on the Colorado. History.— The part of Arizona north of the Gila is a portion of the cession made by Mexico in 1848. The Gadsen Purchase, which in- cludes the portion south of the Gila, was inade in 1853. On the 24 th of February, 1803, the territory was organized. The numerous hostile savages and the difficulty of ac- cess long de- layed the settle- ment of the coun- try. Within a very recent peri- od these obsta- cles have been removed, and the territory is rapid- ly increasing in population. CAftON OF SAN PBUFrO. Questions. — De- scribe the situation of Arizona. Its surface. Drainage. Climate. Vegetation. Miner- als. What is said of its agriculture? Coin- merce ? Describe the political organization. Describe Tucson. Prescott. Tombstone. Yuma. Globe City, rha-nix. Florence. Give an outline ol the history of Ari- zona. GEOGRAPHY OF NEVADA. 23 TIMBER FLUME. NEVADA-DESCRIPTION. [For Map Questions, see page 3.] [.\rea, I in, 700 square miles. Population, C2,2G0.] Situation.— Nevada is, next after Texas and California, the largest state in the Union. It lies between the 114th and li'Oth meridians of west longitude. The northern boundar)' is the 42d degree of north latitude. The southwestern boundary is a line drawn from the intersection of the 39th parallel with the 12(ith meridian to the point where the 3.5th par- allel crosses Colorado River. The boundary of the state is completed by a line which follows the middle of that great stream to where it crosses the 114th meridian. Surface. — Nearly the whole area of Nevada lies in the Great Basin. The greater part of the surface is a plateau, having an average elevation of 4000 feet above sea-level. Nearly half of this plateau is covered with parallel chains of mountains, which rise from Idoo to 8000 feet higher, and lie in a general north and souih direction. Between these chains are great valleys, from five to twenty miles in width, in some cases 100 miles long. Easy passes from one of these to another are furnished by the numerous deep ravines intersecting the mountains. Valleys occasionally unite with other valleys, or expand into broad plains, which are dotted with buttes or with groups of rugged hills. The lowest parts of the Basin are immediately east of the Sierra Nevada, which has an elevation of from TOOO to 13,000 feet within the state. 'J'he lowest parts of the state are in the southern portion, outside of the Basin, in the valleys of Colorado and .Amargosa rivers. .'\ small sec- tion in the northeastern part of the state lies in the valley of Snake River, a great branch of the Columbia. Drainage. — The Owyhee, Salmon, Bruncau. and other branches of the Snake, and the Virgin, a branch of the Colorado, are the only streams of Nevada whose waters reach the ocean. By far the greater number, including thousands of those formed from the melted snows of the mountains, are lost by evaporation in the dry air. All the rivers are small and unnavigable, excepting the Colorado, which may be as- cended to Callviile. Some end in beautiful lakes ; others in vast shal- low swamps called sloughs or sinks. Nfany disappear by sinking, to reappear at lower levels a few miles farther on. Humboldt River, the longest in the st.ite, rises in the high northeastern plate.tu, antl, after a winding course of about 3.">(> miles, is lost in the Ilumbokit Sink, a shallow lake or marsh of vast extent, its waters brackish with salt and soda. 24 GEOGRAPHY OF NEVADA. Carson River, a large stream from the Sierra Nevada, loses its waters ill the Carson Sinks or Lakes, which are similar to the Humboldt Sink. Tahoe is a fine mountain lake on the western border and partly within the state. It is 22 miles long by 1+ broad, and more than 1800 feet deep. Its surface is C202 feet above the sea. It is drained by Truckee River, whose waters, after a course of about DO miles, flow into Pyramid Lake. This is another fine sheet of water, 3."i miles long by !."> broad, and :!(I00 feet deep ; it is named from one of its islands, a singular pyramidal rock .ibout 600 feet high. Walker River, another large stream from the -Siena, flows into Walker Lake. All the streams mentioned are largely used in irrigating the fertile valleys through which they flow. Climate. — The climate is rem.irkably healthy, and for so elevated a region singularly mild and equable. E.xtremes of heat and cold arc unknown. There is little dew and no malaria. Snow falls deep upon the mountains, but is very light in the valleys, notwithstanding their ele- vation. Thunder-storms and cloud-bursts sometimes occur in the eastern parts ill July and August, and sand-storms and sand-pillars are common on the plains. The nights are cool in summer in all parts of the state. Forests. — The eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada lie partly within the limits of the state, and are its chief lumber region. They are cov- ered with heavy forests of pine, spruce, tir, and other trees, which are rapidly disappearing under the great demand for mining, building, fuel, and other purposes. White Pine Mountains and some other ranges in the east have a considerable amount of good timber. Minerals. — Mining is the great interest of the state. In value and variety of I'Mnerals, vastness of deposits, and amount of bullion prod- ucts, especially of silver, Nevada has surpassed all other countries. Veins of gold and silver of greater or less value are found in nearly every mountain range in the state. The famous Comstock lode of Mount Davidson, in Storey County, is remarkably rich in a mi.xture of gold and silver, in proportion of forty-three per cent, of the former to fifty-seven per cent, of the latter. Two of the mines of this lode together furnished more than ill 00,000,000 in the five years from 1874 to 1878 incUisive, and from their opening in 18.59 to 1885 the Comstock mines have yielded more than $300,000,000. Among other rich mines in the state are those in Esmeralda, Lander, White Pine, Nye, and Lincoln counties. Since 1858 Nevada has produced more than |i600,000,000 in gold and silver. In proportion to the population, no other commu- nity has ever furnished a product so great in value in so short a time. Other minerals besides gold and silver are of great importance. Eureka, in Eureka County, and Tybo, in Nye County, are the centres of the two chief lead districts of the United States, the lead here annually pro- duced being nearly equal in value to the combined annual production of the Missouri, Iowa, and Illinois lead regions. Copper-bearing veins of great size are found in Washoe, Esmeralda, Hnmboldt, and Elko counties, and immense m.isses of iron ore in Nye and White Pine. Salt in extraordinary abundance is found in Humboldt, Churchill, Esmer.ikla, Lander, White Pine, and Lincoln counties. It is found in beds spread over the surfaces of low valleys, or in crystalline masses beneath the surface, and in solid blocks in the mountains. One of these deposits in Esmeralda County covers about fifty square miles. Immense deposits of borax and carbonate of soda are found in Churchill and Esmeralda counties. Nevada produced nearly 24,000,001 pounds of borax from IST;") to I81S3. Among other valuable minerals found in the state are sulphur, antimony, arsenic, manganese, graphite, gypsum, asbestos, mica, cinnabar, nickel, cobalt, and alum ; kaolin and other cl.ays ; building-stone, marble, and glass materials. Coal h.as been found in White Pine County. The state abounds in springs, cold and hot. The hot springs at Carson, Genoa, Steamboat, and Elko are favorite resorts for invalids. .Steamboat Springs, in Washoe County, occupy a rocky mound which is half a mile long and a quarter of a mile wide, and rises fifty or sixty feet above the valley. Their temperature varies greatly, that of the hottest spring being 204° K. They emit a souiul like that of a boiling cauldron. Animals. — t)f the wild animals the principal mammals are the moun- tain sheep, antelope, bear, wolf, and coyote ; the principal birds are the grouse, quail, and prairie-chicken. Trout abound in all the streams, and salmon are found in the branches of the Owyhee. Other valuable fishes have recently been introduced into some of the lakes and rivers. Agriculture. — All the cereals, fruits, and vegetables adapted to the latitude can be raised in abundance, and are of superior quality. Many of the valleys, particularly those of Truckee, Carson, and Humboldt rivers, contain a large area of land adapted to agriculture. Owing, however, to the dryness of the climate, irrigation by mountain streams and artesian wells must always be the chief dependence of the tillage of the state, and is already largely practised, especially in Washoe, the leading agricultural county. The sage-brush grows almost everywhere, from the lowest valleys to the mountain-tops, and when of large size and lu.xuriant growth indicates the best quality of soil and more than the ordinary amount of moisture. The cattle-ranges are some of the finest in the world. The many nutritious grasses not only form excellent summer pasturage, but pos- sess the property of curing themselves into a natural hay, which, with certain varieties of the sage-brush, furnishes an excellent and abundant supply of winter food for cattle, horses, and sheep. San Francisco and other cities of California are largely dependent upon Nevada for the supply of beef. The principal agricultural products are wheat, oats, potatoes, barley, hay, Indian corn, wool, butter, and cheese. The specially excellent qual- ity of the first three of these makes them important articles of export. Commerce. — Nevada is crossed from northeast to southw^est by the Central Pacific Railroad, a great trans-continental line. This road, with a network of telegraph wires, furnishes the chief connection with the commerce and trade of the rest of the world. Four other roads branch from this main line, namely : the Virginia and Truckee road from Reno, through Carson and Gold Hill, to Virginia City, 52 miles; the Nevada and California Railroad, narrow gauge, from Reno to Moran, Cal- ifornia, 37 miles; the Eureka and Palisade road, narrow gauge, from Palisade to Eureka, 90 miles, with a short branch to Ruby Hill ; and the Nevada Cen- tral, from Battle Mountain to Austin, 93 miles. Besides these are the Carson and Colorado Railroad, narrow gauge, from Mound House, on the Virginia and Truckee Railroad, to Keeler, on Owen's Lake, Cal- ifornia, 298 miles ; length of line in California, 192 miles ; and the Lake Tahoe Railroad, from Lake Tahoe to the summit of the east ridge of the Sierra Ne- vada, 10 miles, where it connects with a great V flume which carries timber to Carson Valley. The long valleys and numerous passes make it easy to construct both railw.ays and wagon roads, and st.age lines connect the railways with all the mining districts. Political Organization. — The chief executive officers of the state are a Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, Con- troller, Surveyor -General, Attorney -General, and Superintendent of Public Instruction. Each of these officers is elected for a term of four years. The legislative department consists of a Senate of twenty members, elected for four years, and an .Assembly of forty members, elected for two years. The judicial power is vested in a Supreme Court, District Courts, and Justices of the Peace. All the judges are elected. Nevada is entitled to two Senators and one Representative in Con- gress, and therefore has three electoral votes. The state comprises fourteen counties. The chief towns are the following : Virginia City, in Storey County, is the largest city in the state, and the most important mining town in the world. It is built along the Comstock lode, on the, precipitous eastern slope of Mount Davidson, at an elevation of about ClOO feet above the sea. The discovery of the silver-bearing rock in 1859 quickly led to the formation of the state of Nevada out of an unknown wilderness. Virginia City soon grew to be a large town, but afterwards declined, until the discovery of the chief treasures of the Comstock in ls7o. It then rapidly increased in pop- ulation aiul wealth. The greater part of the inhabitants are employed in the deep mines that are under and near the city. The product of these mines varies in amount, and has been as high as ^30,000,000 in a single year. Population, about 10,000. GEOGRAPHY OF NEVADA. 25 In the vicinity is the Suiro Tunnel. This is a remarkable engineering work, iiiiendecl to drain, ventilate, and extend the mines of the Comstock lode. A tunnel nine feet wide and seven feet high is cut through solid rock, commenc- ing at Sutro, I.")0 feet above Carson River, in the Carson River Valley. It h.as a length of 20,489 feet in a direct line towards the base of Mount David- son, with 9000 feet of lateral branches. The tunnel discharges an average of (•.900,000 gallons of water every 24 hours. It connects with the lG40-fect level of the Savage mine of the Comstock lode. The cost of construction was $.->,000,000. Carson, in Ormsbj' County, on the Virginia and Truckee Railroad, is the capital of the state. It is pleasantly situated in Eagle Valley, four miles from Carson River, and in the midst of a fertile section. The lofty, snow-crowned Sierra Nevada, its slopes green with pines, rises abruptly on the west, and the broad valley of the Carson stretches away to the north. The Capitol and the United States Branch Mint are large and beautiful buildings. Population, about 4000. Gold Hill, in Storey County, is on the Virginia and Truckee Rail- road, one mile south of Virginia City, and on the line of the Comstock lode. It is built in a deep canon. There are many important mines within the limits of the town, and many quartz mills. Gold Hill and Virginia City are supplied with an abundance of pure water from the Sierra Nevada by an extraordinary piece of hydraulic engineering. From Lake Marlette, in the mountains, the water is brought by a large flume to the upper end of a strong iron pipe, seven miles in length. Through this it descends and ascends the walls of twelve steep canons, and finally descends and crosses a deep gorge, then ascends the cliff on its eastern side to the height of 1.540 feet, whence a second flume conducts it to a reservoir for distribution. It furnishes about two millions of gallons a day. Population, about 3000. Austin— ill Lander County, terminus of Nevada Central Railroad. Centre of trade of Reese River mining district. M.nny silver-mines. Railroad to Battle Mountain. Population, 2001. Battle Mountain— in I.ander County, on Central Pacific Railroad, at junction of Reese River Valley with Humboldt Valley. Depttt lor a large number of mining districts. Railroad to Austin. Population, 40n. Candflnria— in Esmeralda County, on Carson and Colorado Railroad. A rich mining district. Town supplied by water bi ought from the White Mountains, -1 miles. Population, 821. Carlln— in Elko County, on Central Pacific Rail- road : its machine shops located here. Cop- per mines in vicinity. Good grazing country. Population, 500. Elko— in Elko County, on Central Pacific Railroad and north bank of Humboldt River. In the heart of a rich grazing country. Depot of supplies for many mining districts. Two flouring mills. A number of medicinal hot springs in the vicinity. Population, 121.10. Eureka- in Eureka County. Centre of one of the richest mining districts. Ores, chiefly galena, bearing silver, gold, and copper. Railroad to Palisade. L.irge trade; surrounded by good grazing country. Eureka has snflfered severely from fires and floods. Population, 4'.'0r. Genoa— in Douglas Cfeunty. At the base of the Sierra Nevada. Settled in 1S.W, and the oldest town in the state. Centre of a fine farming region. Population, 400. Hawtliome — in Esmeralda County. At the fot of Walker Lake, and on llie Carson and Colorado Railroad. Important distributing point for Inyo and Mono counties, California. Many rich mining districts in the vicinity. Population. 500. Pioclic — in Lincoln County, in the Ely mining dis- trict, famous for the richness of its silver- bearing veins. Fine farms in the vicinity. Population, 500. Reno — in Washoe County. Important depot and shipping [Ktiiit on the Central Pacific Rail- road, and terminus of the Virginia and Truckee, and of the Nevada and California railroads. On Truckee River, at base of Sierra Nevada. Centre of the best farming region of the stale Site of the State Uni- versity. The town has been twice destroyed by fire. Population, 3500. Rnbj Hill — in Euteka County, two miles from Eu- reka. Rich mining district. Population, IJMlO. Tuscarora — in Elko County, three miles from Owyhee River. In the midst of a rich min- ing district, some good agricultural and graz- ing lands in the surrounding country. Pop- ulation, Clio. ffadsiTorth— in Washoe County, on Central Pa- cific Railroad. Shipping point for Churchill County, and for Pyramid Lake, Indian Res- ervation. About 100 tons of trout are shipped from here every winter. Central Pacific machine shops and car repair shops are located here. Population. GOO. Winueniucca— in Humboldt County, on the Cen- tral Pacific Railroad, and Humboldt River. Centre of trade to mining towns and agricul- tural valleys, and to the principal towns in southwestern Idaho. Arable land along ilic river. An iinportant point for wool and cat- tle. Extensive workshops of Central Pacific Railroad. Population, 1800. Among other places of importance are Aurora, Belleville, lielmont. Cherry Creek, Columbus, Dayton, Empire, Glenbrook, Grantsville, Haniiltnn, Lewis, Lovelocks, Palisade, Silver City, Stillwater, Toano, Wabiiska, Wells, and Wellington. EducatioH. — Edijcational facilities are as complete and as far ad- vanced as could be expected in a sparsely settled state. The State Koard of Education, consisting of the Governor, Superintendent of Public Instruction, and the Surveyor-General, prescribes the text-books and course of study, and grants diplomas and certificates to teachers. A County Superintendent of Public Schools is elected in each county, to serve two years. A Board of School Trustees in e.ach district has direct control and supervision of the schools. The law requires that the schools shall be kept open at least six months in the year, and that all children between eight and fourteen years of age shall attend school at least sixteen weeks in each year. The schools are divided into primary, grammar, and high schools. The State University is located at Reno, and is under supervision of a Board of Regents, elected by the legislature. In addition to the higher branches of an f^nglish education, instruction is given at the university in metallurgy, mining, and assaying. History. — Nevada is a part of the extensive territory ceded to the United States, in 1848, at the close of the Mexican War. It formed a part of Utah until March 2, 1861, when Congress established it as a separate territorj'. After various additions to its limits, it was admit- ted as a state on the 31st of October, 1804. The first settlements within the limits of the state were made by Mormons, in 1848, in Carson, E.igle, and Washoe valleys. In 1849 gold was found near Dayton, in Lyon County, and the search thus stimulated led to the discovery, in 1859, of the rich silver-bearing ledge now famous as the Comstock lode. A long-continued mining excite- ment followed, and led to extensive explorations of previously unknown regions. Thus were found the rich mines of Esmeralda, Humboldt, Reese River, Pahranagat, and White Pine. Gold and silver were dis- covered in Aurora in 1860; in Austin in 1862; in Eureka in 1864. Numerous well-travelled roads now lead through most parts of the state ; and cities and towns, farms and mining camps, exist where re- cently there was only a silent and barren wilderness. The discovery of the Comstock lode was only second in importance to the discover)' of gold in California eleven years before, and deter- mined the route and hastened the construction of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railroads, which formed the first great trans-conti- nental highway. The bullion yield of the Comstock lode is supposed to have exerted a great influence on the monetary system of the civ- ilized world. The production of bullion in Nevada not only greatly assisted the embarrassed finances of the United States at a critical pe- riod of our national history, but also largely stimulated and aided the commerce of the world. Questions. — Describe the situation of Nevada. Its surface. Drainage. Cli- mate. Forests. Minerals. Name the chief localities of silver, gold, lead, copper, s.tlt. Other minerals. Name the principal animals. What is said of agriculture.' ("ommercc.' Describe the political organization. Describe Virginia City. Carson. Gold Hill. What is said of education } Give an outline of the history of Nevada. Note. — The elevation of some of the mountains, lakes, towns, etc., in the state are given bilow: Teaks; Jeff. Davis, 13,07.-. feet; Grafton, 10,llfi4 ; Charleston, 10,874; Rose, 10,8-.'0; Genoa, ill. ■>.■>; Qu.artz, 87(10 ; Toh.akum, 8174 ; Olcott, 71174 ; Ophir Hill, 78(;i-, Spanish, 7401 ; Gnss, (il'Otl.— Mountaill^s: Prospect, IIGOO; Tiin- pah-ute,yiiOO; Como, U0I7; Grant, UtWO; Granite, SUUO ; Uaw, 8403, Zion, 8300; Peavine, 8281 ; Davidson, 7941 ; McClellan, 7.".31 ; Butler, ".IS."); Emma, G4:».— Lakes: Tahoe, G202; Washoe, .".04.".; Pyramid, 3848; Winnemucca, 3820; Sink of the Humlxildt, 3!12'J. — Towiis: Uelmont, 80112 ; Ruby Hill, 7300; Tnscaror.i, 7200; Austin, C.">00 ; Eurek.i, G500; Virginia City (C Street), GlOll; Piochc, .V.II2; Elko, 50C3 ; Carson, 4i;30; Reno, 44'J" ; Winnemucca, 4332; Genoa Hot Springs,4702; Mouth of Sutro Tunnel, 44GG. Longitude ll'J AVi-st from III Greenwich -J 1 L_ « m r«r7or '■J ,«" Kelton >?■ MAP OF XT T A. H Scale of MHes 5 10 20 aO 40 in, 60 Strong ^' Fremnnt Murtl. Capital ^ Kailroad County Seat ® River City or Town o Stage Itoutcs Glil'^y BalS.Mt. 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Baring ^ .En»f, . ^ / ^p< ^'Ar'ifeftin I ST.I.\\VKENCE I. -* C.NaviirIn y ' :.Opunl.k >>/ AjC.Bom.njo' •fc.PoiatcUinaic'i'.-C i-i. — i < l\ e> '■"OoV F..„tV.,e.r,«M)j>\3!y^j3i e » QrB>pam Qn.Charlott JUoreuby Qn.Charlclt» A'iL Vancouver Juan lie Pu P A C I F I MAP OF ALASKA O C E A K l\ I A \lnUt A 5u ..Btior. WARIIIT^GTON CUWUHUU COrTord? mamath HX CMemloclnor SliActa San Francisco 103 Longitude 93 "West from 83 WasJilngton 73 [CjijynyUl, IWU, by IlAurtc ii. liu.>iiit.iL QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF ALASKA. What water north of Alaska? What country east? What water south ? What sea on the west ? What strait ? What peninsula hi the southwest? What islands southwest of the peninsula? Which is the most westerly of the Aleutian Islands ? About what is its longitude ? Is Attoo in the western hemisphere? What islands are in Lehring Sea? What island southeast of the peninsula? What island east of Kodiak Island? What volcano in the southern part of Alaska. What mountain ranges in Alaska ? Name the highest peaks of the Coast Range. What great river in Alaska? Into what water does it flow? What town on liaranolT Island? What town on Kodiak Island? QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF UTAH. What territories north of I'tah ? What state on the cast? What territory on the south ? What state on the west? Which is the chief mountain range of Utah? What mountains in the northeastern part? What mountains in the eastern part? What desert in the northwestern part? Which is the chief river of Utah ? What two rivers form the C'olo- lado? What branch of the Colorado in the southeastern jiart of the territory? What river in the southwestern part? What lake in the northwestern part? AVhat river flows into it from the north ? What lake southeast ? What river connects Great Salt Lake and Utah Lake ? What lake southwest of Utah Lake ? What river flows into it? Name the counties of Utah. What counties border on Great Salt Lake? In what county is Utah Lake? Sevier Lake? What counties are crossed by Green River? By Grand River? By the Colorado? What counties border on Arizona ? Nevada ? Idaho ? AV'yoming ? What city is the capital ? What five towns are north of Salt Lake City ? What town southeast ? What two towns southwest ? What three near Utah Lake ? What two south ? What town east of Sevier Lake ? Southeast ? What two southwest of Beaver ? QUESTIONS ON THE MAP OF IDAHO. AMiat country north of Idaho ? What territories on the east ? What park ? V\'hat state and what territory on the south ? On the west? Name tlie chief mountain ranges in Idaho. \\'hat river crosses the southern part of the territory? Name two branches of Snake River? What lake in the southeastern part of the territory? Name the counties of Idaho. What county in the north? What counties border on Montana and Wyoming? On Nevada and Utah? On Oregon and Washington? What large county north of Snake River? AVhat small county northwest of Alturas County? A\'hat is the capital? What three towns northeast of Boisd City? Wiiat town southwest? What town at the junction of Snake and Clearwater Rivers? What two towns southeast? What two towns in the southeastern part of the territory? Name four mountain ranges in Yellowstone National Park. Name the two chief rivers. Through what large lake does the Yellowstone River How ? Through what canon ? ^ « _L. C 1> ^ c/: o o %1 rt ^ rt OJ " s ^ ;^ 6 Pi v*-< a; ^ k« "jC ■a ^ <^ rt (U 4-* (ft 3 -X* H ^ C rt (U k- 2 *! <; i-H c c •2% rt (ft rt 1 rt' rt •3 c VI ^ k. C ^ b a (U 12; rt U •a rt 5 rt £ '■J rt >-» c .vJ c (ft _£ "rt o o ^ 1> S V .5 > =^ rt L« (ft k- t/: C rt SJ u-i , i) OJ ^ (ft \~ 1) rt > ■; .g £1 ^ c ■c u 3 t§ S c c 1- C rt o (ft Cu c •§ ^ _u !S n o a C rt "fcjo 3 O rt u c rt .1 u 1; c -. 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E (J (ft c _o "(ft > OJ rt E rt E ex *j-. rt C a> (U 'C rt > E rt E c c .2 rt a k- ' rt F^ ^ 3 /2 p (ft <-t- *j »-- *-' ^ SPECIAL GEOGRAPHY OF MONTANA. [Copyright, 1S85, by lUsrEU & UuoTiiitUii.] MONTANA -DESCRIPTION. [Area, 145,310 square miles, or '.(2,000,000 acres. Population in 1880, 3D,150; 18H5, 85,000 (estimated). Mean altitude, 3900 feet. Greatebt length (E. to \V.), 510 miles ; greatest width (N. to S.), olO miles.] Surface.— Two fifths of Montana are a plains countiy, three fifths moun- tainous. The eastern and northern portions are rolling plains, rising from an altitude of 2000 feet at the mouth of the Yellowstone to about 4000 feet at the base of the mountains, occasionally broken by low ranges of hills or isolated groups of mountains, or by the deeply worn valleys of the streams. The southern and western portions are filled with numerous mountain ranges, belonging to the Rocky Mountain system, with a general trend west of north, and enclosing a number of valleys or parks with an average alti- tude of 8500 to 5000 feet. There are three principal systems or ranges : 1. The main range, or continental water-shed. I'lns forms the southern boundary to the line be- tween Beaverhead and Missoula counties, where it turns abruptly east nearly a hundred miles and then resumes its usual north-northwestern course to the British boundar>-line. It separates the waters of the Missouri from Ciarkes Fork of the Columbia. When making its sudden eastern bend, its course is continued by '2. The Hitter Root, or Cceur d'Al^ne Mountains, which form the western boundary of Montana, and separate the waters of Ciarkes Fork from those of Lewis Fork or Snake River- 3. Tlie eastern system leaves the main range northwest of Yellowstune Lake, and extends under the name of tlie Gallatin Mountains to the southeastern corner of Gallatin valley. It is con- tinued from here, usually as two parallel ranges, under the names of Bridger, Great and Little Belt, and Highwoods Mountains, to the great bend of the Missouri opposite Fort Benton. These ranges separate the waters of the Upper Missouri from those of the Yellowstone, Mussel- shell, and Judith rivers. The extreme southern parts of Montana are penetrated by spurs of the Rig Horn Mountains, which send a high, rugged range through the northeast corner of the National Park along the right bank of the Yellowstone, terminating at the big bend of this river opposite Livingston. This range and the Crazy Mountains, an isolated group immediately north of the Yellowstone, have the highest peaks in Montana (exceeding 11,000 feet), and are of a truly Alpine character. Among the isolated mountain groups are the Pryor and Wolf Mountains, south of the Yellowstone ; the Bull, Snowy, Judith, and Mocc.isin Mountains, between the Yellowstone and Missouri ; and the Bear's Paw and Little Rocky ranges, north of the Missouri. Numerous minor ranges exiend between the main range and the Bitter Root Mountains, aud divide the western part of the terri- tory into separate valleys. South of the Hellgate River these ranges run from south to north. North of that river their general trend is from east to west. Descriptive. — The plains are a grassy table-land, sloping gently north and east. The surface is generally rolling, except where broken by small mountain groups or isolated "buttes.'^ The water-courses are few. and all which are not fed by the almost perennial snows of the high mountains go dry in summer. The soil is friable, and the rocks soft and easily eroded, so that the streams run usually in valleys 300 to 800 feet deep. The escarp- ment of the plateau on the edge of these valleys is exposed to the continual wear of the water, frost, and wind, and assumes in many places the appear- ance of " bad lands,'' but this extends back from the rivers a few miles only. The mountains of Montana are low comi^ared with those of Colorado and New Mexico, and are crossed by numerous low passes. These make travel and connnunication easy between the dilTcrcnt basins, although the valleys are generally mountain locked, the drainage finding an outlet through narrow canons. The scenery is in many places grand, in others very beautiful aiul attractive. Especially rugged and magnificent are the ranges east of Flathead Lake, where true glaciers are found. Drainage. — That part of Montana lying on the Pacific slope is drained by Ciarkes Fork of the Columbia and its tributaries. This river is first called the Deer Lodge. From the junction of the Little Blackfoot to the mouth of the Big Blackfoot it goes under the name of the Hellgate. Thence to the junction of the Flathead it is called the Missoula, and here only assumes the name of Ciarkes Fork. Its character is throughout that of a bold, rapid mountain stream, falling nearly -'000 feet in the 400 miles of its course from Deer Lodge to the Pend d'Oreillc Lake. Its principal YKLLOWS'i tributaries are, from the left: Flint Creek, Rock Creek, and Bitter Root, from the right: Little Blackfoot, Big Blackfoot. and Flathead. Tlie Kootnai, a largo tributary of the main Columbia, crosses the extreme norlhweslem comer of Montana. The Missouri aud Yellowstone drain the Atlantic section. The Missouri is formed by the "Tlnee I'"orks," the Jefferson, Madison, aud Gallatin, all heading in the extreme wouthcru part of the territory, the fiirihest sources of the two latter being in the National Park within the boundary of \\ yoniiug. The Jefferson is formed by llie Big Hole, P>eaverhead,and GEOGRAPHV OF MONTANA. 31 Ruby: the Gallatin by the East and West Gallatin. The Missouri runs north and northeast to williin 71) miles of the boundary, when it is entirely clear from the mountains and takes an easterly course, which it kee|)s until it leaves Montana. It is navigable for light-draught steam- boats to its head ; but the continuity of navigation is broken by the great falls, about 23 nnles above Fort Ueiiton. These falls are a series of cascades and rapids, extending 10 miles, in which the river falls about HW feet. The principal fall is 911 feet. From its head to the mouih of the Yellowstone, about KKXI miles, the river falls 2II0I) feet. Its principal tributaries are. from the right: Sixteen Mile, Deep Creek or Smith Kiver. Judith, and .Musselshell; from the left: Prickly Pear, Sun, Teton, Marias, and Milk rivers. These are all clear, bold streams in the mountains, but these which enter the plains assume there a different characier. 'ilicir waters become impregnated with alkali, and they lose volume during the dry season by ev.i|«- talion and sinking of the water, so that the Judith, Musselshell, and Milk rivers are often en- tirely dry at their mouths in August and September. Just east of the boundary the Miss, uri receives its largest tribuLiry — the Yellow- stone. This river rises in the Shoshone Mountains,soulh of the Yellowstone Lake. Emerging from the lake it has two great falls, UO and 400 feet high, and traverses the N.itional Park in a remarkable canon, 25t)i) feet deep. .At the foot of this canoo it enters Montana with a northwest and north course, and through three additional caiions finally breaks its way through the mountains, when it turns abruptly east into the plains, and flows rapidly in an east and northeast course to its junction with the Missouri. While the bed of the Missouri is mostly sandy and muddy, that of the Yel- lowstone above Powder kiver is gravelly, and free from the sand-bars which seriously obstruct the navigation of the former : but the rapidity and shallowness of the Yel- lowstone are still more formidable obsta- cles, and it is barely navigable during hijh water to the mouth of Prj-ors Creek. From Livingston to its mouth, about mil miles. It falls nearly 20 t'eet. Its princi- pal tributaries are, from the left ; Shields River, Big Timber, Sweet Grass, and the Great and Little Porcupine ; from the right : E.ast Fork, Uoulder, Stillwater, Clarkes Fork, PryoiS, Big Horn, Rose- bud, Tongue, and Powder rivers. Lakes and Springs. — The only consiiliT;il)l(; lake is Flathead, in northern Missoula County; but the mountains arc full of beautiful tarns ani;l lakelets. Warm and medicinal springs are abundant. A few of the best known are located as follows: on Lulu Fork in Missoula County, on Hot Spring Creek in Deer Lodge, on Ruby River in Madison, on Ten Mile River near Helena in Lewis and Clarke, on the North Fork of Sun River in Chotcau, White Sulphur Springs in Meagher, Hunters and Matthews Springs in Gallatin. Climate. — The climate shows great extremes and frequent sudden variations, but is not nearly so severe as might be e.\pected from the great latitufie and altitude. The cold waves from British America are met and often driven back by a warm west wind, the so-called "chinook." This air- current leaves the Pacific laden with moisture. This is dis- charged as rain and snow on the in- tervening mountains, and when the current reaches the valleys of Mon- tana it is warm and dry, and fre- quently melts all the snow in mid- winter. Its tempering influences are not so strongly felt in the extreme eastern and northern sections. The greatest rain -fall is in April, May, and June. The total varies in differ- ent sections from 13 to 2.i inches. The summer and fall are dry and pleasant, and throughout the year Montana is a land of sunshine average vearly temperature is from 42° to 48'. Vegetation.— The plains are nearly treeless, except a scanty fringe of Cottonwood and willows along the larger streams. The scattered moun- tain groups furnish, however, a tolerable supply of fuel and lumber. The mountain ranges are all well timbered with fir and pine, and in Missoula and parts of Deer Lodge counties large tracts are covered with valuable forests of different species of evergreens, which here attain a ver>' great size. Of deciduous trees only a few species of Cottonwood, poplar, and alder line the banks of the streams. .-Xsh, elm, and bo.x-eliler grow in a few places along the lower Missouri and Yellowstone. The wild grasses of the valleys and plains are very valuable. They are the so called hunch and bulTalo grasses, which are exceedingly nutritive. The summers arc so dry that these grasses The mature very early, cure standing, and retain, when dr>', all their strength. On the plains tho vegetation has all the characteristics of dry, continental plains elsewhere. There is no con- tinuous greensward. All vegetation grow-s in " bunches," showing the naked ground between the plants. The grass is short, and the flora comprises very few s[)ecies. The vegetation is very luxuriant in the mountains, where moisture is abundant, and the wild flowers of early summer cannot be surpassed in beauty or variety. In the mountains and along all the streams wild fruits arc abundant, such as strawberries raspt>crries, currants, gooseberries, service-berries, bufTalo-berries, huckleberries, and choke cherries. In the southeastern part grow wild plums and grapes. Animals. — Game of all kinds is plentiful. The buffalo is nearly ex- tinct; but there is .still an abundance of grizzly and black bears, mountain lions, lyn.xes and wildcats, wolves and coyotes, moose and elk, deer and ^ antelope, mountain sheep and goats, — -^P!^^i--'r~- ■.-"-- ' I foxes, hares, beaver, otter, marten, squirrels, prairie-dogs and prairie- squirrels, and mountain rats, while the house rat is found only along the Missouri River, (iame birds are also abundant : swans, ducks, geese, prairie chickens, sage-hens, blue and ruffed grou.se. Nearly all the streams are well stocked with brook and sal- mon trout and whitefish, while stur- geon and catfish are found in the Missouri and lower Yellow.stone. Minerals. — Mining is the leading industry-. The wonderful placer- mines of Alder, Last Chance, Con- federate, and other almo.st equally rich gulches first attracted emigra- tion to Montana. These are now mostly worked out, although the placer-mining product of Montana is still considerable, yuartz-mining, a more permanent industry, has largely taken its place. Especially has the silver product grown rapidly during the last few years. Gold and silver bearing leads are found in al- most ev'Cry inountain range, but as yet developed in comparatively few places, while the output of copper of the rJulte group of mines is second only to that of the Lake Superior mines. Iron-ore of superior quality is found in many places, but is as yet undeveloped. Large quantities of lead are produced in the silver- bearing galena mines. A very large part of Montana, cast of the main range, is underlaid with bituminous coal and lignite. Much of it is of inferior quality, although of great local importance as fuel : but in the Gallatin and bell mountains are tound considerable quanti- ties of a true bituminous coal, suitable for coking. Its development is as yet hardly begun. Many other valti.nble minerals are found, but are still undeveloped. Lime- stone and excellent building-stones are found everywhere in the mountains. Montana produced in IKtl nearly J lo.dOfl.tKIO ing(;ldand silver, and its product h,as since been largely increa.sed. It $tand.s third among the states and territories as a pro- ducer of precious metals, surpassed by Colorado and Califoniia only. Agriculture. — Where not too gravelly, the soil of the valleys and plains is everywhere fertile ; but ir- rigation is usually necessary for the successful raising of crops, although good crops of winter wheat are in f^ec'cit^Bli;) 1991 MO.: '^-- .N'W^' /': :i^M h. .>>R- t4 ,.U',l'tH>< -" rt' ii, son's Si- • ; I'lRs: Bo , kr's Second Isouk in Ari i i%^ s l„v:avAr.\i Series: ;on's 1 ,i:ltr<;< Primfv.— SwintonV New Lan- ,,i^,M. : ■\ew,.'i(i.oo! i" -li- .X i! K^ON ri FlKST L .^.^^.^ilSToRY AND, Lan 1! >.1 '" . ..line. — i lai »" , y. — Nati'.ral Philosophy. — >ii:. lui Gtrology. — Niftural ilistoiy- m BUII <•; ARiTintf-XiCAL I'jo CHOOL AND -CotXEClC v„ I S PkINOIVIA T,ATiNA. AUfENRIKTli'S HOMKRtC DlCtrONA; V. AIarcIVs Anglo-Saxon 'Grammar. March\ Axgt.o-Sa^on Keaper. ♦ Ml I .^»ral terhisl'or firsfinlrodnrtior. Copies foi ojtami OP. receipt of the retai'. ,.rice, less a 'lisoount of twentv-fne r «r»f. . ^^ Uefcriptive C'rfiilars <' ks mailf ofRo : i.i A-\r) nination .^ent 'o tea crs anc. &chool-oi?.'-ers