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 Inst. Indus. 
 
 Relations 
 
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 1 -I 
 
 
 Schoenhof 
 Wages and trade
 
 ^ - ( 3 - ? 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES
 
 WAGES AND TRADE 
 
 Manufacturing Industries 
 
 AMERICA AND IN EUROPE 
 
 I J. SCHOENHOF 
 
 llTHOI! OK " WOOL AND WOOLLENS," AND Of" THE DESTRUCTIVE INFLUENCE OF THE TARIFF ' 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY R. R. BOAVKER 
 
 NEW YORK 
 PUBLISHED FOR THE 
 
 NEW YORK FREE-TRADE CLUB 
 
 BY G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
 
 27 & 29 WEST 23D STREET 
 1884
 
 QUESTIONS OF THE DAY— NO. X. 
 
 The Destructive Influence of the Tariff upo 
 Manufacture and Commerce, and the Figures an 
 Facts Relating Thereto. By J. Schoenhof. izmr 
 cloth, 75c.; paper, 40c. * 
 
 " He states his case clearly, and his argument is well fortified with fif 
 ures and worthy of attention." — Globe Democrat, St, Louis. ; 
 
 " Both friends and opponents of his doctrine will find the slender vo 
 ume a useful book of reference, owing to the admirably arranged tables an 
 statistics." — Picayune, New Orleans. 
 
 " Mr. Schoenhof brings forward ' figures and facts' that will be of ir 
 terest and value even to those who disagree with his conclusions. His a]: 
 pendixes, in particular, group data not easily to be had elsewhere." — Sta 
 New York. 
 
 "As an argument it is absolutely conclusive. * * * "Wg gay en 
 phatically of the whole pamphlet, read, mark, learn, and inwardly dige 
 it. " — Literary Chtirchinan. 
 
 " Packed with well-arranged figures and condensed arguments. "- 
 Nation. j 
 
 " We recommend the book to all who are interested in this great que? 
 tion of the day." — A'ews and Cotirier, Charleston. 
 
 " Books of this kind cannot be too widely distributed and careful!' 
 read, and not only read but thoroughly studied." — Times, Kansas City. 
 
 " An able presentation of the anti-protection argument. * * * Jt j 
 well to read it and get a clear idea of the free-traders' case." — Times, Tro} 
 
 " These figures •■ * * ought not to be hastily thrown aside. * * 
 We cordially welcome to the literature of political economy this brochure c 
 Mr. Schoenhof." — Post, Hartford. 
 
 G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, New York and London.
 
 vVAGES AND TRADE 
 
 Manufacturing Industries 
 
 AMERICA AND IN EUROPE 
 
 J. SCHOENHOF 
 
 THOR OF "wool AND WOOLLENS," AND OF " THE DESTRUCTIVE INFLUENCE OF THE TARIFF' 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY R. R. BOWKER 
 
 NEW YORK 
 PUBLISHED FOR THE 
 
 NEW YORK FREE-TRADE CLUB 
 
 BY G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 
 
 27 & 29 WEST 23D STREET 
 1884
 
 Press of 
 
 G. P. Putnam'. Sons 
 
 New Yc-rk
 
 HF 
 
 xc>n 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The question of labor and wages is the one question which 
 ought most to concern American economists and American states- 
 men. For the great body of our seventeen million male workers 
 are wage-earners averaging less than ^400 per year; and "the 
 greatest good of the greatest number " is the purpose of the 
 American nation. 
 
 The protectionists have claimed that a protective tariff raises 
 wages. This is the "last ditch " of their argument. There began 
 to be doubt about the truth of this claim. Consequently the New 
 York Tribune^ the organ of the protectionists, sent a special cor- 
 respondent to Europe to obtain evidence in support of it. Mr. 
 Robert P. Porter, who had been special agent of the Census as to 
 statistics of wealth and secretary of the Tariff Commission, was 
 secured for this purpose. 
 
 Mr. Porter did what he was sent to do. He presented a picture 
 of the distress of England under free trade and of the prosperity 
 of France and Germany under a protective tariff that was most of 
 a surprise to those who knew most of those countries. 
 
 But if a European traveller should to-day visit the cotton-mills 
 of Connecticut and inquire how much women earn there ; inves- 
 tigate the tenement-houses of New York and the making of cigars 
 and artificial flowers ; look into the Alaska St. slums of Philadel- 
 phia, and finally ask in Altoona and Pittsburg and other centres 
 of "protective" industries, in which the vestiges of the riots of 
 1877 are still to be seen, how many mills are shut down, and how 
 many hands are out of work, and how much the rest are earning, 
 he could easily convince foreigners that democracy is a failure 
 and the United States the unhappiest of nations. 
 
 " A lie which is all a lie can be met and fought with outright, 
 
 But a lie that is part a truth is a harder matter to fight." 
 
 iii 
 
 720620 
 WOT. ii«»w ^^
 
 IV 
 
 To meet these part-truths of Mr. Porter's, Mr. J. Schoenhof, 
 whose papers on " The Destructive Influence of the Tariff on 
 Manufacture and Commerce" have won deserved attention, was 
 asked to show the other side of the case. This he has done by 
 the statistics and facts now gathered together in these pages. 
 ' There is nothing more difficult than for the fair-minded econo- 
 mist to obtain absolutely certain comparisons of wages. Differ- 
 ences in hours of labor, in the purchasing power of money, in 
 neighborhood and circumstance, in the division of labor in the 
 same trades, in the modes of production, in the use of machinery, 
 are a few of the confusing elements. Mr. Schoenhof, a citizen of 
 the United States, a native of Germany, a merchant in and manu- 
 facturer of woollen goods, an employer of labor, a student of 
 economics and of industrial conditions, is, however, well qualified 
 to obtain the actual facts, and he carefully gives the authorities 
 for his tables. Mr. Porter has in some cases done the same ; in 
 other cases it is evident that a careful selection of fields of inquiry 
 supplied data such as he desired. 
 
 The general truth underlying the specific truths and half-truths 
 brought forward by these two witnesses is, as discerned by free- 
 trade economists, that wages are higher but product cheaper in 
 free-trade England than in protected France and Germany ; and 
 that wages are in some cases lower, in others the same, in most 
 happily higher, but product dearer (where raw materials are taxed, 
 though cheaper where they are not taxed) in the United States 
 than in England or any other country. I may add one striking 
 confirmation of the principle that wages may become higher as 
 prices become lower. More than a generation ago, in Plymouth 
 Co., Mass., the tack-makers were paid from 2 to 3 cents per 
 thousand, and earned ^1.25 to $1.50 per day ; the men who now 
 tend the labor-saving machines earn from $4 to ^6 per day, 
 though they are paid only f cent per thousand. 
 
 Mr. Schoenhof's deductions in his previous book are that wages 
 are determined more by the standard of living among wage- 
 earners than by any other consideration ; that this standard in- 
 creases when all agencies have free play, but decreases under re- 
 strictive laws ; that where the standard of living is highest, pro- 
 ductive power and inventions are fullest and production conse-
 
 quently cheapest. These deductions are borne out by the statistics 
 in the following pages. 
 
 I have had myself practical acquaintance with labor in America 
 and in England, and have seen that the nervous force, the 
 ingenuity, and other qualities of the American workman enable 
 him to work so much more effectively as to present this paradox 
 of higher wages and cheaper production. 
 
 The conclusion is that the natural prosperity of the wage- 
 earners in the United States has been decreased by " protective " 
 restriction and would be increased by free trade. That wages are 
 higher in England under free trade than in the old "protective" 
 days is shown in some of Mr. Porter's own figures, and the differ- 
 ence is something more than can be accounted for by other 
 reasons. Give American labor free raw materials to work upon 
 and it will get out of the vastly increased product then exported a 
 very much greater wage. Certainly in purchasing power, probably 
 in actual dollars and cents also. I heard, in Berlin, from a United 
 States officer of legation, a startling commentary on the effect of 
 " protection " on purchasing power. He said it was common talk 
 in that city that the cost of feeding, clothing, and housing the 
 German army was so much greater under the high tariff as to 
 overbalance all that the government gained from it. Mr. Porter's 
 ears were not open to such suggestions. Mr. Porter overlooked 
 another significant fact, which I learned at first-hand. In one of 
 the Peabody tenement buildings in London, meant for the lowest 
 wage-earners, the average earning of heads of families was 23s. 
 7|d. per week, or about $300 per year, more than in some of our 
 protected industries. 
 
 Mr. Schoenhof gives the facts which show that the decadence 
 of English commerce exists chiefly as a desire of American pro- 
 tectionists. The development of England in the prosperity of her 
 people during the free-trade era is shown by the facts adduced by 
 Mr. J. S. Moore from the Financial Reform Almanac. In 1840, the 
 birth-rate in England and Wales was 31.93 per thousand of popu- 
 lation and the death-rate 22.86, showing a balance of 9.07 ; in 
 1882, the birth-rate was 33.46 and the death-rate 1931, a balance 
 of 14.15. Since 1840, the consumption of articles which indicate 
 "solid comfort " has increased fourfold : In 1840, the consump-
 
 tion of currants and raisins was/^r capita 1.45 lbs., in 1882, 4.32 ; 
 raw sugar, 15.20 and 62.10 lbs. ; rice, .09 and 13.49 lbs. ; tea, 1.25 
 and 4.67 lbs. In 1840, there were in England and Wales 27,187 
 committals for crime out of 15,730,813 population, or i to 580 ; 
 in 1882, 15,260 out of 26,406,820, or only i to 1,730. From 1849 
 to 1882 the recorded paupers had decreased from 934,419 (or i to 
 18.26) to 799,296 (or I to 33.14). When we add to such evidence, 
 the fact that less than 700,000 workers in this country depend on 
 " protected " industries, that 2,000,000 depend on unprotected 
 mechanical industries, and that 7,670,000 are unprotected farmers, 
 it is a wonder that American wage-earners have so long suffered 
 themselves to be misled. 
 
 Many workingmen sympathize, many farmers do not sympa- 
 thize, with the views of Mr. Henry George as to the evils of our 
 land system. But workingmen and farmers can alike agree with 
 Mr. George that the protective system is holding us all down. Mr. 
 Schoenhof might well dedicate his book, as free-traders hope they 
 are dedicating their work, " to the greatest good of the greatest 
 number." 
 
 R. R. BOWKER.
 
 WAGES -AND TRADE 
 
 IN MANUFACTURING INDUSTKIES IN THE 
 
 UNITED STATES, GREAT BRITAIN, FRANCE, 
 AND GERMANY. 
 
 I propose to give the wages and earnings of working-classes 
 employed in factories by competing nations. Little progress can 
 be made toward a final adjudication of the tariff question until 
 the bugbear of " European pauper labor " is removed from the 
 vision of our public men. I shall bring the matter in divisions to 
 the reader, arranged according to the importance of the various 
 branches. 
 
 The tables which I shall give are from the best authorities I can 
 find in the United States, England, France, and Germany. My 
 authorities are : 
 
 FOR THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 Reports of the Bureau of Statistics of the United States. 
 '' " " " of Labor of Mass. 
 
 JNew Jersey. 
 
 FOR GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Leone Levi, " Wages and Earnings." 
 Statistical Abstract for the United Kingdom. • 
 
 Government Reports to Parliament. 
 Mulhall, Dictionary of Statistics, 1884. 
 
 Consular Reports to the Department of State of the United 
 States. 
 
 FOR FRANCE. 
 
 Moreau de Jonnes, " Statistique de 1' Industrie de la France." 
 Othenin d' Haussonville, " La Vie et les Salaires a Paris." 
 Report of Consul- General Walker.
 
 FOR GERMANY. 
 
 Report of Consul Du Bois and other Consuls to Department 
 of State. 
 
 Tables of Statistics of Wages of " Concordia." 
 Reports of Chambers of Commerce to Secretary-General. 
 Dr. Heinrich Frankel, " Die tagliche Arbeitszeit." 
 Statistisches Jahrbuch fur 1883. 
 
 I, THE TRUE CONDITIONS OF BRITISH TRADE, 
 
 In order to prove that the present tariff system of the United 
 States ought to be continued in force, the New York Tribune 
 sent ex-tariff-Commissioner Mr. Robert P. Porter abroad, to 
 collect statistics in the interest of " protection " ; or rather what 
 "American Protectionists " are pleased to call protection, " equal 
 protection to every thing," manufactured goods and raw materials 
 alike ; frequently .giving heaviest rates to the crudest and coarsest 
 fabrics, and lower rates as fabrics increase in fineness and finish- 
 ing process. Advocates of this doctrine seem to forget that the 
 heavy tax on the raw material and on the crude fabric makes the 
 " protective tariff " on higher branches absolutely nugatory. By 
 this system nearly two thirds of our vast industries have to suffer 
 at home from all the disadvantages arising from open markets for 
 the competing products of foreign industries, without at the same 
 time sharing in the advantages of free trade for their own prod- 
 ucts, made of these high-taxed materials.* In order to save this 
 
 * An analysis of the census report on manufacturing industries in the United 
 States, gf iS3o, and a comparison with that of i860, gives some interesting 
 facts. The large increase from $1,885,000,000 to $5,369,000,000 is ascribed to 
 protection by that school of economists who claim high and burdensome taxa- 
 tion as synonymous with protection. Now "manufactures" of the census 
 reports have to be subdivided into three classes : 
 
 1. Agricultural or mining products, or labor services with small additions 
 of materials, or work that has to be done on the spot, uninfluenced by any pos- 
 sible furtherance by the aid of the law-making power. This class contains such 
 items as : Blacksmithing, Bread and Crackers, Carpentering, Coffee-Roasting, 
 Cooperage, Fertilizers, Flouring, Food and Canning, Liquors, Lumber, 
 Slaughtering, Sugar Refining. 
 
 2. Manufactures which are dependent on manufactured material. These 
 materials are so largely protected that the product has no benefit from
 
 mongrel system of taxation from annihilation, which it so richly 
 deserves, the whole arsenal of the dictionary has been ransacked 
 to find names and sentences so as to make it more acceptable 
 than experience has proven it to the consumer and the producer. 
 Neither " horizontal reduction " nor " incidental protection " will 
 help the case, when the march of events categorically demands a 
 thorough and intelligent reform of the tariff, so as to give relief to 
 our manufacturing industries, and encourage the development of 
 the higher branches. 
 
 To bring all industries of a country into healthy development, 
 attention and encouragement must be given to the higher grades. 
 To these the lower branches must be made tributary. If the 
 higher branches are starved by excessive taxation on their mate- 
 rials, these materials will suffer equally. Other protective nations 
 have shaped their fiscal policy to this end a generation ago, while 
 
 the tariff, as the additional cost of the material is often higher than the " pro- 
 tection" on the product amounts to. 
 
 3. Manufactures of first process, which are wrought from raw materials, 
 such as textiles, crude iron and steel, etc. 
 
 They bear the following relation, according to a careful classification 
 which I have made, 
 
 i860 1880 
 
 Class I. $657,000,000 $1,800,000,000 
 
 " II. 462,000,000 1,790,000,000 
 
 " III. 770,000,000 1,800,000,000 
 
 Only the last class has been deriving any great benefit from protection. But the 
 advantage is equally illusory, if brought to the test of analysis. The tax on raw 
 material has dwarfed the development of this class more than any other. Lines 
 which depended on their own exertions have far exceeded the proportion of 
 development of class III. But this class III, if reduced to the valuations of 
 i860, would certainly not amount to more than three fourths of that sum. The 
 inflation of prices in consequence of the much higher cost of the material, with 
 the exception of cotton goods perhaps, would fully account for this difference. 
 Besides, it must be borne in mind, that iSSo was the notorious boom-year. 
 Were we to reduce values of census report to the valuations of 1879 or of 1884, 
 we could certainly not claim more than $1,350,000,000 of protected industries 
 as against the same class in 1S60 with $770,000,000, an increase of 75 per cent., 
 whilst our population has increased 50 per cent, in the meantime. Comparing 
 this increase of our productive strength with the rapid advance of other nations 
 not so hampered, we can only deplore the blindness of our law-makers and 
 people in obstinately refusing to strike at the real source of the evil : the 
 stupid tax on raw materials.
 
 we persist in the reverse. The present stagnation is too eloquent 
 a monitor. It would be well to seek other means of relief, than 
 picturing the miseries and suffering of free-trade England, and 
 painting in glowing colors the condition of protected Germany. 
 This will not bring the slightest aid and relief to our glutted 
 markets, and to our striking or locked-out operatives, even if the 
 doleful news sent us from England by the correspondent of the 
 N. Y. Tribune were true. He pictures the commerce of the 
 United Kingdom declining, its industries decaying, its work- 
 ing-people starving for want of employment, while all nations that 
 have adopted or retained the protective policy are happy and con- 
 tented. The latter take the trade away from the proud ruler of 
 the sea. Their workpeople are constantly employed, and in- 
 creased earnings are the result of the introduction of higher pro- 
 tective taxes against former lower rates. All this sad news is 
 repeatedly unrolled before our eyes, and in reading it our sym- 
 pathetic heart is moved at the sight of the decadence of this great 
 and mighty empire. The waves of destruction which England 
 for a generation has launched upon the commerce and industries 
 of rival nations are at last rolling back upon her, threatening to 
 unhinge that mighty creation of Cobden, Bright, Peel, Gladstone, 
 and their like. The advice given by the men who have discovered 
 this harrowing state of affairs to the English statesmen is, to 
 abandon their free-trade policy, and to adopt the principle of 
 protection and exclusion. But the advice remained unnoticed, 
 although " that strong man of the Tariff Commission " had 
 hurried back from his Continental mission to England, to admon- 
 ish the government and people, and give them warning of their 
 impending doom, unless they adopt the policy of their com- 
 petitors. " Is it not all plenty and happiness in the United 
 States ? " " It is true the latter have no foreign outlet for the 
 surplus product of their mills ; but what is the use of foreign 
 commerce ? The less you export the more you have at home." 
 
 Argument much like this appeared in the very columns of the 
 Tribime. Now what are the real facts of the case ? What are 
 the conditions of industrial nations so far as their commerce is 
 concerned in manufacturing industries, and what are the wages 
 paid to their operatives ? Is the protective or the free-trade
 
 policy more conducive to their happiness and the development of 
 trade ? Are wages determined by tariffs or by other agencies ? 
 What are these agencies ? What is it that gives preponderance in 
 industries and trade to the countries whose working-people are 
 used to shorter hours and to a higher standard of living ? All 
 these postulates are totally at variance with theories handed down 
 by protectionists. To prove their correctness, however, is the 
 aim of these brief papers. If correct, our fiscal policy must be 
 shaped accordingly, if we intend to keep a foremost rank in the 
 progress of nations. 
 
 The first and most prominent discovery of the protectionistic 
 press, the decline of the commerce and manufacturing industries 
 of Great Britain, has not the first semblance of truth. 
 
 I will give the exports of British manufactures for the three 
 years, 1880, 1881, 1882, from a Return to an order of the House of 
 Commons : 
 
 Exports of coal and of manufactures from the United Kingdom, year ending 
 December 31st. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1S81. 
 
 1882. 
 
 $15,420,000 
 
 $17,800,000 
 
 $20,000,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 6,670,000 
 
 6,850,000 
 
 7,000,000 
 
 7,200,000 
 
 5,650,000 
 
 4,600,000 
 
 5,250,000 
 
 5,600,000 
 
 11,500,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 10,700,000 
 
 4,000,000 
 
 4,500,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 40,000,000 
 
 42,000,000 
 
 46,000,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 16,500,000 
 
 16,000,000 
 
 1,400,000 
 
 1,600,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 
 57,000,000 
 
 64,000,000 
 
 62,000,000 
 
 276,500,000 
 
 284,000,000 
 
 266,000,000 
 
 29,000,000 
 
 33,000,000 
 
 36,000,000 
 
 9,600,000 
 
 10,100,000 
 
 10,600,000 
 
 4,400,000 
 
 4,600,000 
 
 5,200,000 
 
 16,700,000 
 
 20,000,000 
 
 21,000,000 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 18,600,000 
 
 19,800,000 
 
 4,900,000 
 
 5,300,000 
 
 6,400,000 
 
 136,000,000 
 
 132,000,000 
 
 151,000,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 12,500,000 
 
 12,000,000 
 
 13,500,000 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 18,250,000 
 
 33,000,000 
 
 33,500,000 
 
 34,000,000 
 
 44,000,000 
 
 47,500,000 
 
 58,000,000 
 
 13,000,000 
 
 17,500,000 
 
 17,000,000 
 
 6,300,000 
 
 9,700,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 TOO, 000, 000 
 
 103,000,000 
 
 107,000,000 
 
 $880,000,000 
 
 $925,000,000 
 
 $948,000,000 
 
 Apparel and Slops 
 
 Arms, Ammunition, etc. . 
 
 Bags and Sacks 
 
 Books 
 
 Chemicals 
 
 Caoutchouc Manufactures . . 
 
 Coal and Fuel 
 
 Copper, etc. 
 
 Cordage 
 
 Cotton, Yarns and Twist 
 
 " Piece Goods . . . . 
 
 " Other, Lace, Hosiery, etc. 
 
 Earthenware, etc 
 
 Glass 
 
 Haberdashery ...... 
 
 Hardware and Cutlery . . . 
 
 Hats 
 
 Iron and Steel 
 
 Jute Yarn and Manufactures 
 Leather and Manufactures 
 Linen Yarn and " . . 
 
 Machinery 
 
 Silk, Twist and Manufactures . 
 
 Telegraph Wires 
 
 Woollen, Worsted and Yarns 
 
 Total
 
 There has been a steady rise in the value of British exports of 
 this class since 1878. In bulk the exports were never so great as 
 in 1882, not even in 1872 and 1873, when they exceeded the 
 values of 1S82 by only five per cent. The valuation of English 
 exports of manufactures in 1873 was on the average fully twenty- 
 five per cent, above that of 1882. 
 
 Nor is the report that the English markets are filled increasingly 
 with foreign fabrics any nearer the truth than the statement re- 
 futed above. The same report of the British Government states : 
 
 Imports of foreign manufactures into the United Kingdom, year ending 
 December 31st. 
 
 18S0. 
 
 i88r. 
 
 1882. 
 
 Chemicals 
 
 Copper, Manufactured 
 Cotton, " . , 
 
 Glass and Manufactures . 
 
 Hats 
 
 Iron and Steel Manufactures 
 Leather and Manufactures 
 
 Paper 
 
 Silks 
 
 Tin, Blocks and Bars . • 
 
 Watches 
 
 Woollens and Yarns . . 
 
 Total 
 
 $5,200,000 
 11,600,000 
 12,100,000 
 
 8,400,000 
 
 200,000 
 
 18,000,000 
 
 31,500,000 
 
 5,600,000 
 64,000,000 
 
 8,250,000 
 
 2,000,000 
 45,500,000 
 
 $212,300,000 
 
 $6,400,000 
 10,000,000 
 12,000,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 160,000 
 
 18,200,000 
 
 32,000,000 
 
 5,400,000 
 56,000,000 
 
 9,000,000 
 
 2,200,000 
 35,000 000 
 
 $194,400,000 
 
 $7,200,000 
 11,600,000 
 11,800,000 
 
 8,000,000 
 
 230,000 
 
 19,000,000 
 
 36,500,000 
 
 5,750,000 
 54,000,000 
 12,000,000 
 
 2,300,000 
 37,000,000 
 
 $205,400,000 
 
 It will be seen from this, that there is great latitude between 
 the statements set afloat by the sources mentioned above and the 
 real facts of the case. Equal stress has been laid upon a decline 
 in wages in England and a corresponding rise in Germany. My 
 most diligent investigations have not been able to discover any 
 material foundation for these assertions. The relative conditions 
 of working-people in factories of the various nations coming under 
 the heading of this inquiry can best be estimated from an exam- 
 ination of the tables in the following subdivisions :
 
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 8 
 
 WAGES IN THE COTTON INDUSTRIES. 
 
 In the cotton industries the comparison of figures shows that 
 the wages paid in Massachusetts in 1878 were, on the average, not 
 more than 15 per cent, higher than wages of English cotton 
 operatives. English wages were somewhat higher in 1880 than 
 they were in 1865, higher in 1881 than in 1880. Counting the 
 difference of time and the steadier working habits of our people, 
 then we find American wages below the English — though the 
 weekly earnings are higher to the extent shown in the tables. 
 Applying within the United States the principle of higher 
 efficiency and cheaper production resulting from a high standard 
 of living,* we find Massachusetts holding the same position tow- 
 ard her sister States which England occupies toward the rest of 
 the world, — higher wages and shorter hours producing finer and 
 relatively cheaper goods. The Chief of the Bureau of Statistics 
 of Labor of New Jersey, Mr. Bishop, endorses the views of Mr. 
 Consul Shaw, whom he quotes in his report of 1881 : " The hours of 
 labor in the mills of the other New England States, where the 
 wages are generally less than in Massachusetts, are usually 66 
 to 69 per week. Undoubtedly, the inequalities in the wages of 
 English and American operatives are more than equalized by the 
 greater efficiency of the latter, and their longer time of labor," 
 Massachusetts produces more than one third of the whole prod- 
 uct of the United States in cotton goods : 74 millions out of 210 
 millions, and in woollens and worsteds 55 millions out of a 
 total of 196 millioTis. 
 
 It will be seen from the table that England pays more than any 
 of its two principal Continental competitors, Germany and France. 
 The industrial development of all other nations, excepting Bel- 
 gium and Switzerland perhaps, is far behind either. I take Ger- 
 many and France therefore as examples. English wages are 
 fully 50 per cent above those of Germany, and on the average at 
 least 30 per cent, above those of France. Besides, the English 
 working week is one of 56 hours, whilst that of Germany is from 
 66 to 72 (often 78) hours, and that of France of 72 hours. Yet 
 they all guard themselves by protective tariffs, not against their 
 
 * See the full illustrations of this principle in my book, "The Destructive 
 Influence of the Tariff," G. P. Putnam's Sons.
 
 weaker rivals, but against the very country which pays the high- 
 est wages and has the shortest hours. 
 
 In cotton goods the imports and exports are : 
 
 England .... 
 
 Germany (not containing yarns) 
 France " " " 
 
 Imports. 
 $12,000,000 
 
 Exports. 
 $380,000,000 
 23,000,000 
 15,000 000 
 
 19,000,000 
 
 England's position in the commerce of the world in cotton 
 goods is as follows : 
 
 Wages : from one half to one third higher than in any other European State. 
 Weekly hours : 56 against 66 and 72 on the Continent. 
 
 English exports in cotton goods and yarns .... $380,000,000 
 
 Germany " " " 
 
 " " hosiery, etc. 
 
 France " " and yarns 
 
 U. Stales " 
 
 Holland " " and yarns 
 
 Belgium " " 
 
 Switzerland " " and yarns 
 
 $21,000,000 
 10,000,000 
 19,000,000 
 13,000,000 
 11,000,000 
 5,500,000 
 10,000,000 
 
 90,000,000 
 
 Excess of English exports in cottons over the rest of the world $290,000,000 
 
 If we deduct the exports of yarns, because they are more than 
 balanced by imports from England — nineteen millions — then we 
 have $71,000,000 against $380,000,000. This is a striking illus- 
 tration of the fallacy of the " Pauper-Labor Theory" in the tariff. 
 
 The causes which lead to England's superiority over the rest 
 of Europe, in an industrial sense, are still more active in the 
 United States, and lead to similar results in all branches where 
 there are no taxes on the immediate raw material, such as cotton 
 goods, or where the labor cost is the greatest part of the value, as 
 in machinery or hardware. Wamsutta Mills J muslin is retailed 
 in London at 6d. The agent's price in New York is io|- cents 
 less 5 per cent., and two per cent, for cash. It is largely adver- 
 tised in London as such, and has no equal in English brands of 
 like superior quality and price. British manufacturers are not a 
 little exercised at this. Wamsutta (American) muslin is now a 
 well-established brand in the English home market. Germany's 
 old tariff (according to Commissioner Porter's view, a free-trade 
 one) of 30 marks per Zoll Centner on brown goods ($7.50 per no 
 lbs. avoirdupois) was raised in 1879 to 40 marks and on bleached
 
 goods from 48 to 50 marks. A 25-per-cent. protective tariff was 
 not sufficient to keep American cotton goods from the inhospita- 
 ble shores of Germany, whose low-priced labor is unable to com- 
 pete against the high-priced American labor, with its higher 
 standard of living. In Canada American cotton goods are sold 
 side by side with Canadian cotton goods, although the latter are 
 protected by a 25-per-cent. duty. Labor is lower in Canada than 
 in the United States. As far back as 1875 we had commenced to 
 gain a foothold in these very markets. 1 need not dwell here 
 upon the reasons why we are not more successful as exporters of 
 American mill produce. The causes are manifold, but the high 
 cost of American labor is not one of them. 
 
 WAGES IN THE WOOLLEN INDUSTRIES. 
 
 In woollens, wages on the average are about 30 per cent, higher 
 in the United States than in England ; in England, about 20 to 
 35 per cent, higher than in France, and fully 50 per cent, higher 
 than in Germany. A great deal more is done under one roof and 
 management in the United States than in England or Germany. 
 If the dead weight of the wool tax were removed, there is little 
 doubt that our woollen fabrics would soon find an outlet through 
 other markets than the present insufficient ones. 
 
 In woollen goods and yarns the imports and exports in 1881 
 were : 
 
 Imports. Exports. 
 
 England $35,000,000 $103,000,000 
 
 Germany ..... 25,000,000 64,000,000 
 
 France ..... 19,500,000 82,000,000 
 
 United States 38,000,000 400,000 
 
 England is still far ahead of its rivals in exports of woollens, 
 though, through the change in fashion, from hard lustrous goods 
 (in which she excelled all nations) to soft goods, a marked 
 decline is noticeable. English exports in 1865, were $122,000,000. 
 The decline is certainly not due to the higher wages paid in Eng- 
 lish mills.* The difference in wages in 1865 between English and 
 German labor was as great then as in 1880. The position of the 
 United States in the world's trade in woollens is rather humiliating. 
 
 * This decline in value is, however, more than balanced in bulk. The de- 
 cline in prices has been especially heavy in w^ooUens and worsteds.
 
 Under a protection of a tariff on woollens varying from 50 to 100 
 per cent., our imports are double those of France, 50 per cent, 
 above those of Germany, and 10 per cent, higher than those of 
 Great Britain. The labor cost of American mill hands is approx- 
 imating that of Great Britain, so much that the plea of higher 
 wages is no longer sufficient argument in upholding the present 
 rates. When the tax on wool is abolished, we may expect to 
 change the $400,000 of our exports into millions, and perhaps into 
 tens of millions. 
 
 A lucid illustration of the general workings of the tariff, pre- 
 venting exports, but rather facilitating imports, may be seen from 
 this : The tariff-rates on many manufactures, especially in the 
 woollen line, seem extreme. Knit goods, composed wholly or in 
 part of wool, or worsted, etc., pay a specific and an ad-valoretn 
 duty, averaging 70 percent., under the " Reform Tariff " of 1883, 
 — an exorbitant tax on so necessary an article of clothing as an 
 undershirt, a cardigan jacket, a knitted shawl, or the like. Sure, 
 the manufacturer of knit goods must roll in wealth. The guillo- 
 tine of " horizontal reduction " ought to be set to work at once 
 to correct this abuse. But the yarns used in these goods have 
 exactly the same rate of duty to pay. They come under the same 
 classification, — "knit goods, yarns, composed etc." 70 per-cent. 
 on Yarns^ wholly or in part of wool or worsted. There are 
 three parts to the material and one part to the labor in the 
 composition of the value of the manufactured article, and it 
 may be imagined what great margin of profit is left to the manu- 
 facturer, and what protection to labor after all these exor- 
 bitant charges have been paid, which are heaped upon Amer- 
 ican manufacture over and above what foreign competition has to 
 pay. Yarn comes next to the raw material. Protective Germany 
 has a tariff of 2]^ cents (24 marks per 100 kilograms) on a pound 
 of full-worsted yarn. This is equal to a little over 4 per-cent. 
 (against our 70 ^), if we take 60 cents (the average value, for 
 1880, of British exports of woollen yarns) as a basis of compari- 
 son. German manufacturers, however, are little pleased at this 
 imposition, and energetic complaints are found in the reports of 
 various Chambers of Commerce. They may often feel comforted, 
 however, when they look upon the 70 ^ tax on the raw material
 
 B.— wo 
 
 Values reduced to American dollars : English shil 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Great Britain. 
 
 
 
 1865. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1880. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF 
 OCCUPATION'S. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Huddersfield, 
 
 Batley. 
 
 Dews- 
 
 Huddersfield. 
 
 Leeds. 
 
 
 etc. 
 
 
 bury. 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 Week of Hours. 
 
 66 
 
 56 
 
 54 
 
 56 
 
 
 Wool Sorters, Men . . 
 
 $5 28 to 7 68 
 
 *$7 20 
 
 $6 24 
 
 $5 76 
 
 
 Scourers, Men . . . 
 
 3 84 to 5 04 
 
 5 28 
 
 5 76 
 
 5 28 
 
 
 Dyers, Men .... 
 
 3 60 to 5 04 
 
 5 28 
 
 5 28 
 
 5 23 
 
 
 Dyers, Foremen . 
 
 
 12 00 
 
 14 40 
 
 12 00 
 
 
 Teasers & Willyers, Men 
 
 4 00 
 
 5 28 
 
 5 04 
 
 
 $5 "76 
 
 Scribblers, Men . . . 
 
 6 00 
 
 
 6 72 
 
 
 
 " Women . . 
 
 2 16 
 
 3 36 
 
 3 00 
 
 2 64 
 
 
 Condenser Minders, Lads 
 
 
 2 40 
 
 3 00 
 
 2 64 
 
 2 52 
 
 Spinners, Men 
 
 5 "76 
 
 *7 20 
 
 7 68 
 
 *7 20 
 
 9 00 
 
 Spinners, Piecers, Lads 
 
 I 92 
 
 2 88 
 
 2 40 
 
 2 16 
 
 2 28 
 
 Spinners, Foremen . 
 
 
 12 00 
 
 9 60 
 
 10 80 
 
 13 20 
 
 Warpers, Women 
 
 3 26 
 
 3 60 
 
 3 36 
 
 3 61 
 
 
 Beamers, Men 
 
 
 5 52 
 
 
 
 6 25 
 
 Healders, Lads . 
 
 
 2 88 
 
 
 *2 40 
 
 
 Fettlers, Men . . . . 
 
 
 5 28 
 
 5 28 
 
 5 28 
 
 
 WEAVING. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Pattern Designers, Men. 
 
 
 14 40 
 
 14 40 
 
 14 40 
 
 
 Pattern Weavers, Men . 
 
 5 04 
 
 5 76 
 
 7 20 
 
 6 00 
 
 
 Furriers, Men . . . . 
 
 
 9 60 
 
 
 
 
 Weavers, Men 
 
 
 4 32 
 
 *4 80 
 
 6 00 
 
 *6 25 
 
 
 Weavers, Women 
 
 
 3 60 
 
 3 60 
 
 3 60 
 
 *4 32 
 
 3 50 
 
 Burlers, Women . 
 
 
 
 2 64 
 
 
 2 10 to 3 60 
 
 . . . 
 
 Knotters, Men 
 
 
 
 5 28 
 
 
 
 6 00 
 
 Menders and Sewers 
 
 
 
 
 3 00 
 
 
 Women 
 
 3 12 
 
 3 00 
 
 FULLING. 
 
 Fullers, Men . 
 
 • . . 
 
 *6 00 
 
 5 76 
 
 5 52 
 
 6 00 to 9 60 
 
 Fullers, Foremen . . 
 
 
 *g 60 
 
 14 00 
 
 8 40 
 
 
 DRESSING & FINISH'G 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Dressers, Men 
 
 6 24 
 
 5 28 
 
 5 04 
 
 6 24 
 
 . . . 
 
 Tenterers, Men . 
 
 
 
 *6 00 
 
 5 25 
 
 5 76 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cutters, Men . 
 
 
 
 5 72 
 
 5 52 
 
 5 76 
 
 
 
 
 
 " Lads . 
 
 
 2 15 
 
 2 40 
 
 2 88 
 
 2 88 
 
 
 
 
 
 Press Setters, Men 
 
 
 
 6 00 
 
 5 52 
 
 6 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 Steamers, Men 
 
 
 
 6 00 
 
 5 52 
 
 6 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 Drawers, Men 
 
 
 
 *8 40 
 
 9 60 
 
 7 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 Engine Tenders . 
 
 
 9 60 
 
 9 60 
 
 8 40 
 
 8 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 Stokers .... 
 
 
 5 14 
 
 4 32 
 8 40 
 
 5 28 
 
 6 48 
 
 5 28 
 
 6 48 
 
 
 
 
 
 Mechanics . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Carters .... 
 
 
 
 5 28 
 5 28 
 
 5 28 
 5 28 
 
 5 28 
 
 6 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 Warehousemen 
 
 
 Laborers . . . 
 
 
 
 
 4 80 
 
 4 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Piece Work. i. Le 
 
 one 
 
 Levi, " Wages a 
 
 nd Earn 
 
 ings." 
 
 2. Report to P 
 
 arlian 
 
 le 
 
 it 
 
 1883.
 
 13 
 
 OLLENS. 
 
 ling and German mark, 24 cents ; franc, 19 cents. 
 
 
 United 
 
 States. 
 
 France. 1 
 
 Germany. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1878. 
 
 i8Si. 
 
 1S70. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1882. 
 
 Stroud. 
 
 Mass. 
 
 Mass. 
 
 Elbcuuf 
 
 Rheims. 
 
 .\ix la Chapelle 
 
 Statistical 
 Tables of 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 
 7 
 
 Concordia. 
 
 56 
 
 
 60 
 
 72 
 
 72 
 
 76 
 
 601078. 
 
 *$6 50 
 
 $3 50 
 
 $9 43 
 
 
 $4 62 to 5 82 
 
 
 "^ S 
 
 3 84 
 
 6 66 
 
 8 84 $3 18 
 
 
 $3 00 
 
 ^ ^ c«^ 
 
 3 60 
 
 6 66 
 
 7 81 3 18 
 
 
 
 7 20 to 10 80 
 
 
 ...... 
 
 
 8 00 
 
 rt'rt U f^ 
 
 4 oS 
 
 
 • . ■ 4 37 
 
 
 
 ^r.-^^- 
 
 3 78 
 
 
 
 
 3 57 
 
 ^..B^ 
 
 2 52 
 
 
 ...... 
 
 
 
 
 *5 83 
 
 7 64 
 
 9 05 4 62 
 
 4 62 to 4 92 
 
 
 ^^H 
 
 
 3 00 
 
 4 81 I 74 
 
 
 
 l^::s 
 
 7 80 
 
 
 ...... 
 
 6 36 to 7 50 
 
 
 2 ^ 
 
 >-H ^ 
 
 *2 18 
 
 
 ... i 2 88 
 
 2 88 to 4 62 
 
 2 00 to 2 80 
 
 ^ ""2-5 
 
 *4 68 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S -rn 1- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ■g^^o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C rt :5o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 40 to 13 20 
 
 9 50 
 
 8 5.3 
 
 
 4 62 to 6 36 
 
 
 ^^ «• 
 --.J^^ 
 
 5 40 
 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 4 25 
 
 00 u rt 
 
 *4 32 
 
 6 95 
 
 7 45 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 g^t-'.-T: 
 = 15 S 
 
 *3 00 
 
 
 
 4 32 
 
 
 
 ■ 1 92 
 
 4 59 
 
 5 13 
 
 
 
 
 u 1:^ 
 
 2 88 
 
 6 34 
 
 5 09 
 
 
 2 08 to 2 70 
 
 • • • 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 C rt 2 M 
 
 3 60 to 4 82 
 7 20 to 9 60 
 
 6 89 
 
 7 35 3 48 
 
 • • • 
 
 2 90 
 
 _^ !U rt 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 £°3"° 
 
 3 60 
 
 7 08 
 
 7 53 
 
 
 
 
 5 ci ^ 
 
 3 84 
 
 
 
 
 . . . 
 
 
 •• rt •- > 
 C rt 
 
 3 60 
 I 44 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 g l-t d r- t/l 
 
 4 08 
 4 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 7 50 
 
 7 68 
 
 3 IS 
 
 
 2 85 
 
 
 5 04 
 
 10 50 
 
 II 07 
 
 
 5 82 to 6 96 
 
 4 30 
 
 
 3 60 
 
 8 78 
 
 7 97 
 
 
 4 62 
 
 3 60 
 
 
 6 12 
 
 12 33 
 
 13 43 
 
 
 
 3 90 
 
 ^ ;;^ i i 
 
 3 60 
 4 32 to 6 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 85 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 56 
 
 6 69 
 
 8 58 
 
 
 3 78 to 4 6: 
 
 2 90 
 
 €^ •+ oCi 
 
 4. Report of Carroll D. Wright, Commissioner of Labor, Mass. 
 Legislatif. 7. Report of U. S. Consul Dubois. 
 
 5. Report of U. S.
 
 14 
 
 of our manufactures of worsteds, knit goods, gimps, and trim- 
 mings of all kinds. The yarn-spinner, has, however, an equal 
 right to repudiate the imputation that he is benefited by the duty. 
 He has a charge of lo cents on every pound of grease wool. " Pro- 
 tection to the farming interest " exacts from 50 to 70 ^ of the 
 yarn-maker. Upon inquiry, I am informed by the Department 
 of Agriculture, that only one million ranchmen and farmers have 
 made returns of sheep. There are, however, over 4,000,000 of 
 farms in the United States, according to the last census. Natu- 
 rally, but few of the 1,000,000 sheep- owners have large interests ; 
 but giving to this class all the benefits of numbers, it is only 25 
 per cent, of the farms who derive any advantage from this tax, 
 the most hurtful of our cumbersome system. Which manufactur- 
 ing industry is enriched or protected by this " protective system," 
 I must leave to a subtler mind to calculate. I must confess that 
 I am not capable of it. 
 
 That the horizontal-reduction plan, now so popular among our 
 public men, is wofully out of proportion as a means of relief in an 
 emergency like this, must be clear to every mind. 
 
 In my book, " The Destructive Influence of the tariff," I have 
 shown the same absurdity of so-called tariff-protection to exist in 
 other lines of woollens — from the cloak-industry down to the raw 
 material. The same as to shawls, etc. 
 
 WAGES IN THE IRON INDUSTRIES. 
 
 In the iron industries, American wages average fully 75 per 
 cent, more than English wages. Wages in England are fully 75 
 per cent, higher than those paid in Germany for like work in 
 metals, and perhaps one third higher than in France. I have no 
 very recent tables for France at my command. Judging, how- 
 ever, from an article in the April number of the Revue des Deux 
 Monies by Mr. Othenin d'Haussonville, " La Vie et les Salaires 
 a Paris," and comparing living expenses of Paris and wages with 
 those of provincial towns of 1873, ^ consider myself justified in 
 making this average 
 
 Now what is the result of competition of high-wage countries 
 and low-wage countries in metal-work and machinery ? If the 
 theory assailed, that low-wage countries drive their high-labor
 
 15 
 C— MACHINERY. 
 
 
 
 England. 
 
 U. States. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 
 1865. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1880. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1881. 
 
 1880. 
 
 E a 
 
 1882. 
 
 Occupations, 
 
 
 E 
 
 
 
 <u 
 
 V 
 
 « 
 
 •S.d 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 bC 
 
 u 
 
 & 
 
 J3 
 
 J3 
 
 
 
 
 
 C 
 
 S 
 
 £ 
 
 •a 
 c 
 
 Q 
 
 5 
 
 
 Hi 
 
 m 1) 
 
 rt 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 DS 
 
 CO 
 
 Hours .... 
 
 66-72 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 Pattern-makers . 
 
 $7 92 
 
 7 92 
 
 6 96 
 
 7 56 
 
 15 24 
 
 18 10 
 
 c 
 
 rt rt d rt "^0 
 
 Iron-moulders 
 Brass-moulders . 
 
 8 64 
 
 8 40 
 8 40 
 
 7 20 
 6 72 
 
 
 12 30 
 
 13 25 
 
 16 10 
 
 15 75 
 
 0^ 
 
 6 ^ 'T,^' "^ 
 c<^ cnvO 
 
 Steam-hammermen 
 
 
 12 96 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 Forsfemen . 
 
 
 
 16 80 
 
 
 
 
 -:3 
 
 s of skilled me 
 towns : 8 at $2 
 , 21 at $3.36, 65 
 $4.08, 58 at $4 
 4 at $5.04, I at 
 4, I at $6.48, I 
 mpire, $3 82. 
 
 Smiths .... 
 
 
 8 16 
 
 6 48 
 
 7 T2 
 
 12 15 
 
 15 75 
 
 
 ( 
 
 3 36 
 
 
 Strikers . . . -j 
 
 to 
 4 32 
 
 5 04 
 
 4 56 5 04 
 
 7 50 
 
 8 64 
 
 .. ^ 
 G -^ 
 
 Planers .... 
 
 
 6 72 
 
 7 68 
 
 6 00 6 72 
 6 72 6 72 
 
 
 
 
 Turners 
 
 7 20 
 
 Fitters .... 
 
 7 20 
 
 7 68 
 
 6 247 14 
 
 10 66 
 
 12 82:s,^ jn 
 
 y earning 
 
 Dps, 232 
 
 at $2.87 
 84, 9 at 
 
 at $4.80, 
 I at $6.2 
 
 for the E 
 
 Stokers .... 
 
 
 4 80 
 7 20 
 7 20 
 
 5 146 12 
 
 6 72 7 03 
 
 9 60 
 18 00 
 
 i 2 g 
 
 16 50| D ^ p 
 
 Carpenters . 
 Bricklayers . . 
 
 
 ( 
 
 3 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 >^^-- 
 
 2-S <N^OOO JJ„ 
 
 Laborers . . - 
 
 to 
 4 So 
 
 4 32 
 
 3 84 4 08 
 
 7 38 
 
 8 II 
 
 Yeai 
 
 ops 
 illed 
 
 ^ jj 4 - 0' ^ 2 
 
 Boiler-makers . 
 
 8 16 
 
 
 6 48 
 
 7 32 
 
 
 
 "uj c/: 
 
 'u^' w4^ rt < 
 
 I. Leone Levi, " Wages and Earnings.' 2. Government Report to Parliament, 1883. 
 4. Report of Commissioner of Labor of Massachusetts. 
 
 competitors to the wall, is correct, then England ought to be the 
 first country to guard by a protective wall against the influx of 
 German and French cheap work. 
 
 But the imports and exports in hardware, cutlery, machinery, 
 and other mill- work, give an altogether different showing : 
 
 Great Britain (1882) 
 Germany (18S1) 
 France (1880) 
 United States (1882) 
 
 Imports. 
 
 $12,000,000* 
 
 6,500,000 
 
 11,500,000 
 
 5,000,000 
 
 Exports. 
 
 ^77,000,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 23,000,000 
 
 25,000,000 
 
 * This sum contains many items which do not belong to this class, but as im- 
 ports are not specified sufficiently, I have to take this lump sum.
 
 i6 
 
 In machinery, England excels all cheap-rate countries, both as 
 to price and quality. Consul-General Walker, in his report of 
 June 19, 1882, to the Department of State, gives an indication of 
 the cost of machinery in both countries by quoting from M. 
 Pouyer Quertier's testimony before the French Tariff Com- 
 mission : 
 
 Machinery bought in England for a cotton factory of 500 
 
 looms $40,322 
 
 Packing, transportation, and customs duty . . . 16,900 
 
 Total $57,222 
 
 so that it would still be less than if the plant were produced in 
 France. A great part of this difference in price is due to higher 
 coal, iron, and steel ; but the inferiority of French labor and mill 
 outfit is sufficiently attested by other testimony and by the high 
 protective tariff which France draws around her manufactures as 
 against Great Britain, from the lowest grade, like pig-iron, up to 
 the highest strata of the productive process. 
 
 Nor does England fear German competition and its still lower 
 labor. Although the latter possesses coal-beds and iron mines in 
 close proximity, with labor about one half the cost of British la- 
 bor, she still considered it necessary in 1879 to impose a duty on 
 pig-iron and other crude forms of iron, and to double the rates on 
 all other forrns. That the export of the products of German mills 
 is suffering under this system is attested by all the Chambers 
 of Commerce which represent manufacturing interests of this 
 kind. 
 
 But how do these low-wage countries affect American foundry 
 and machine-shop produce, hardware, etc.? We certainly have 
 nothing to fear from Germany. The sound and wholesome ad- 
 vice of Professor Reuleux, the German Commissioner at the 
 Philadelphia Exposition of 1876, may have borne fruitful results. 
 He found our goods excelling theirs in every way. The graceful- 
 ness and solidity of our work stood out in solid relief against 
 Germany's "cheap and poor " wares (" Schlecht und billig " — 
 often translated as " cheap and nasty "), " From all other na- 
 tions who were represented at the Exposition, we found some- 
 thing worth learning — from Germany, nothing." 
 
 American goods, stoves, ranges, hardware of all kinds, tools,
 
 17 
 
 machine-needles, machinery of all sorts, find a ready sale in Ger- 
 many over and above all the transportation charges and the tariff 
 rates which Germany feels compelled to exact so as to protect her 
 cheap labor against American high-cost labor, with its graceful, solid, 
 and at the same time low-priced productions of superior value 
 and finish, German makers are imitating American stamps on 
 their own fabrics — close imitations of ours, but of inferior qual- 
 ity, so as to palm them off for American goods — the best certifi- 
 cate they can give of American skill and genius. Our exports in 
 these higher branches are equalling those of Germany and France, 
 although the materials of which they are composed are subjected 
 to tariff rates ranging from 45 to 75 per cent. All grades of iron 
 are subjected by the American tariff, it should be remembered, to 
 specific rates, which bear the heavier against the manufacturer of 
 finished fabrics the more foreign prices decline in value, as has 
 been the case in all forms of iron. 
 
 The percentage of material and labor in these metal goods is as 
 follows (Census of 1880) : 
 
 Articles. Material. Labor. 
 
 Agricultural implements ..... 67 33 
 
 Cutlery 51 49 
 
 Fire-arms ........ 40 60 
 
 Sewing-Machines ....... 50J 49^ 
 
 Foundiy produce, machinery, etc. .... 60 40 
 
 The higher cost of the material, the much higher price of our 
 labor, every possible obstacle, is overcome by American genius, 
 nerve, and power. 
 
 Exports of such magnitude in face of all the difficulties that 
 were to be overcome by us only indicate what our condition might 
 be if the burden upon our industry of the tax on raw materials 
 were removed. 
 
 In metals of cruder form, where the labor cost is smaller, and 
 the material presents by far the highest proportion of cost (pig- 
 iron, bar-iron, stee-l, labor = 22 percent., material = 78 percent.), 
 we are heavy importers and not exporters. Imports in pig-iron, 
 bar-iron, etc., steel, and rails in 1882 were $43,000,000, and ex- 
 ports little over $1,000,000, against imports of only $5,000,000 
 and exports to over $25,000,000 in the above goods of finer 
 finish.
 
 i8 
 
 WAGES IN THE BOOT AND SHOE INDUSTRY. 
 
 D. BOOTS AND SHOES. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1882. 
 
 
 Great 
 Britain. 
 
 United States. 
 
 France. 
 
 Germany. 
 Tables of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Concordia. 
 
 
 1880. 
 
 1878. 
 
 1881. 
 
 
 <U C 1;^ t/J 
 
 Description 
 
 
 tfl 
 
 S 
 
 ake 
 ada 
 Sta 
 
 in t 
 aid 
 
 84, 
 latt 
 turi 
 
 of Occupation. 
 
 0) 
 
 V 
 
 
 S-^S 
 
 3 
 j3 
 
 i 
 
 1) i2 
 
 
 
 .0 M 
 'S'S 
 
 1 
 S 
 
 u 
 
 ranee wages of she 
 ween five and six f ran 
 t of Secretary Evar 
 or in Europe, 1S78.] 
 
 ages for m 
 y from $4 
 Karlsruhe 
 ) $3.00— t 
 irge manu 
 ine. 
 
 
 ^^ . 
 
 ^ 4 
 
 ^ 4 
 
 Hours .... 
 
 56 
 
 
 60 
 
 Sewing machinists, men 
 
 7.20 
 
 ti7.75 
 
 ti5.40 
 
 !». '' i-i 1 a .- 
 
 Sewing machinists, women 
 
 3.80 
 
 7-33 
 
 7.81 
 
 erman 
 dustry 
 ort(o.n 
 ach (0 
 tre of 
 y in th 
 
 Cutters, men . 
 Clickers, men 
 
 5.04 I 
 6.48 [ 
 
 T1.05 
 
 14. QI 
 
 Riveters, men 
 
 *6.oo 
 
 13-75 
 
 II 31 
 
 i; o-a 
 
 .£ ^ .j5 s i: 
 
 Machine operators, men . 
 
 6 72 
 
 
 
 In 
 
 are t 
 
 (Rep 
 
 of L 
 1 
 
 fl <u c 5 3 
 
 HH g{C lU'd 
 
 Finishers 
 
 *7 20 
 
 11.75 
 
 12.18 
 
 -SfeO-S.S 
 
 The boot and shoe industry is one of the most important of the 
 United States. In 1880, 133,000 persons were employed in mak- 
 ing boots and shoes at an outlay of $51,000,000 for wages, or 
 $383 per head. The grand total of production amounted to 
 $197,000,000. This rate of wages is higher than that in most of 
 our proteoted manufacturing industries, and largely above the 
 prices paid in Europe. 
 
 American wages, in fact, run to about double the English 
 rates, which in turn exceed both the French and German wages. 
 Nevertheless, Mr. Howard M. Newhall, of Lynn, Mass., states 
 that the labor to make a pair of shoes, though American machines 
 are in use there, is some cents less in America than in England. 
 
 Mr. Mulhall, " Dictionary of Statistics for 1884," says : " The 
 American machine enables a man to make 300 pairs of boots 
 daily, a single factory in Massachusetts turning out as many pairs 
 yearly as 32,000 bootmakers in Paris. The advance of these ma- 
 chines has been as follows : 
 
 * Piece work. f McKay operators. 
 
 ' Report of Government to Parliament, 1883. 
 
 * Report of Commissioner of Labor, Carroll D. Wright,
 
 No. of Mach 
 
 ines. 
 
 Mill: 
 
 ion Pairs Yearly, 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 1 
 If 
 
 470 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 1220 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 2300 
 
 
 
 100 
 
 3100 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 19 
 
 Year. 
 1862 
 1865 . 
 1870 
 1875 . 
 1880 
 
 The Austrian Government makes two million pairs yearly. These 
 machines are now in general use." 
 
 The French figures given in the table are more than double what 
 wages were in 1855 in France, according to Mr. M. A. Moreau de 
 Jonnes {Siatistique de l' I ndustj-ie de la France^, but still not more 
 than half the wages of shoemakers in a shoe factory in Massachu- 
 setts. But in France the manufacture of shoes, as carried on in the 
 United States, was until recently an unknown art. I know of a 
 case which tells at a glance the world-wide difference in the two 
 modes of production ruling in the two countries. The partner of 
 a New York leather firm, who resided at Paris, had a son, who, 
 like many a Parisian youth, needed a change of air. He was sent 
 to New York, with instructions to the New York partner to make 
 a man of him in the American sense of the word. The young 
 gentleman was willing enough, and he consented to go through 
 the full course of study in a Massachusetts shoe factory. After 
 a thorough apprenticeship — from the cutting to the finishing pro- 
 cess — he bought an outfit of a shoe factory of the Massachusetts 
 pattern, hired a foreman and a force of workmen (who, by the 
 way, would not have left their homes unless they had been sure of 
 receiving better pay than they could get in Massachusetts), took 
 machinery and men to France, and established a shoe factory at 
 Lyons. It need not be said that he is doing exceedingly well, 
 and I learn that he has a Government contract for army boots. 
 
 THE NEW THEORY OF WAGES AND TRADE. 
 
 It is not by reducing wages that America is making her con- 
 quests, but by her superior organization, greater efficiency of 
 labor consequent upon the higher standard of living ruling in the 
 country. High-priced labor means better food and better 
 living, and these supply the American workman with that energy 
 and nerve-power for which he is so justly celebrated. High- 
 priced-labor countries are everywhere beating "pauper-labor" 
 countries. The former never harm those where the high-standard
 
 20 
 
 labor is the rule ; but cheap labor is irretrievably ruined wherever 
 it attempts to fight an even battle with a well-situated antagonist. 
 Thus, while the doctors are consulting which mode of treatment 
 would most benefit their patient, Young America gets up from his 
 couch, puts on his hat, takes his samples of Yankee-notions, 
 machines, cotton goods, and boots and shoes, and tries to earn a 
 penny or two long before the doctors have concluded their able 
 discourses about their codes and the school that ought to have 
 him in hand. A clean bill of health would be a godsend to him, 
 as he could then start in business without having to pay excessive 
 fees in the shape of a heavy tax on his first raw materials. This 
 tax makes his starting-point so much above that of his foreign 
 competitors that his success in this field seems almost miraculous. 
 
 It is then no more a question of shielding American manufac- 
 turers against the influx of foreign manufactures, which we have 
 never been able to prevent under our ill-adjusted tariff (which 
 puts the highest rates on the coarsest grades), as shown in my 
 tables of imports ; but the question is, how to extend the field foi 
 the export of our manufactures. How change our congestive 
 state into active healthful life ? With many of our industries it 
 is not any longer a question of protection, but of existence. The 
 surplus yield of mills is oppressive, destructive even, and an outlet 
 must be found somewhere. 
 
 During the past season auction sales in dry goods were resorted 
 to to close out accumulations of stocks which found no ready sales 
 in the open market. They amounted to about 60,000 bales and 
 cases, valued by a trade paper at $7,000,000. This is a rather 
 low estimate, and I think $10,000,000 more nearly correct. The 
 quick succession of these sales not only reduced the bids offered 
 in each sale, but had an equally depressing influence on the prices 
 of all other domestic dry goods sold in the open market. Our 
 whole annual product of 1S80 in cotton goods, woollen goods, and 
 mixed textiles was $480,000,000, so that these auction sales repre- 
 sented but 2 per cent, of the entire output of these two great 
 industries. It was sufficient, however, to cause widespread loss 
 and ruin. Had we had a foreign market for this stuff, how dif- 
 ferent might be the situation. 
 
 I take the positive ground that there need be no reduction of
 
 21 
 
 wages below that paid in 1880, that all we need is llie raw 
 material at as cheap a rate as that at which competing nations pro- 
 cure it, in order to enable us to take as commanding a position 
 in the markets of the world as sellers of manufactured goods, as 
 we do in agricultural products. A tariff on manufactures does 
 not bear so heavily on consumers, when raw materials are free. 
 The prices of raw materials are easily kept up to the highest level 
 which the duty guarantees, and combinations to regulate the out- 
 put are more successful than elsewhere. We see this in coal- and 
 ore-mining and in sheep-raising. The multiplied manufacturing 
 interests have too much at stake even to attempt it, and under 
 limited outlets competition follows which reminds more of savage 
 warfare than of the brotherhood of men. With open markets for 
 the raw materials the price in Europe would rise to such a degree 
 that on the one hand the home producer would get but little, if 
 any, less than now in our depressed industrial condition, and on 
 the other hand our foreign competitors would have to pay more 
 for their raw materials. This would at once enable us to regard 
 with equanimity the outside competition, which now has us com- 
 pletely at its mercy, with its materials so much below ours. 
 
 For these reasons nobody is actually benefited by taxed raw 
 materials. It is a national waste — not protection. Taxing the 
 raw material, taxing the manufacturer who uses these raw 
 materials, is forcibly limiting its own (the raw material's) markets ; 
 in other words, killing the goose which lays the golden eggs. 
 
 What we are capable of has been shown already, and we have 
 hardly raised the fringe of the curtain which shuts the outside 
 world from us. Instead of doing barely 5 per cent, of the export 
 trade of Great Britain in manufactures we might divide honors 
 with her. That we are capable of doing so admits of no doubt. 
 Nor is this the vision of an enthusiast eager for the realization of 
 the great destiny of the Republic. So sober a mind and so able 
 and sincere a protectionist as Mr. ex-Secretary of State William M. 
 Evarts, in the letter of the Secretary of State to the Speaker of 
 the House of Representatives, Mr. Samuel J. Randall, states th's 
 in language so pertinent that I may be excused for giving a few 
 brief extracts : 
 
 *' In order to appreciate the fulness of the successes which have
 
 attended our exports of manufactures, we must bear in mind that 
 we essayed to reach the world's markets at a time when they 
 were glutted and flat, through the business depression and en- 
 forced idleness which prevailed everywhere, and when the several 
 peoples were too much engaged in providing the barest neces- 
 saries of life to pay any attention to the purchase of new and un- 
 known manufactures. Yet, in the very face of this universal 
 despondency, American manufactures have gone into favor every- 
 where, and have won the highest recognition for strength, grace, 
 and durability. 
 
 " This immediate and general recognition of the superior quali- 
 ties of American manufactures is a victory in itself pregnant with 
 future profits. All our consular reports agree in this one re- 
 spect, that American cottons, American tools and agricultural 
 machinery, and all the fine manufactures which enter into the ad- 
 vanced utilities of the day, especially in their happy combination 
 of the useful and the beautiful, are recognized as superior to all 
 others. * * * But we have advanced in manufactures, as in 
 agriculture, and we are being forced outward by the irresistible 
 pressure of our internal development, and we find it easier to meet 
 and overcome opposition in the various foreign markets than to 
 cry halt to progress at home. * * * We must win our way by 
 superiority alone — superiority in business, in manufactures, and in 
 all the subsidiary factors which go to build up a perfect commerce. 
 But our manufacturers and exporters possess all the necessary 
 elements to enable them to win the most brilliant success in this 
 branch of our foreign commerce. Happily this is so, for while 
 the European merchant is directed and aided to reach the foreign 
 markets in many essential ways — for that which is the life of all 
 countries, commerce, appeals to those governments for favorable 
 legislation as a first duty, — the American must inaugurate, intro- 
 duce, and develop the foreign commerce of his country as though 
 it were wholly a personal speculation in which the nation at large 
 had no interest." 
 
 We must develop our commerce, go abroad, study the wants, 
 the tastes, the modes of business of respective countries, adapt 
 ourselves to each case. The patterns, designs, weight, measures, 
 widths, lengths, packing and folding of dry goods, etc., etc., all
 
 23 
 
 are different in different countries, — all these things must be con- 
 sidcrtd. These arc matters of accommodation, they cost but lit- 
 tle, but they often determine a trader's preference for British or 
 other goods even if the price be higher than ours. Many and 
 various are the points .that militate against us ; they have to be 
 investigated and may be a fruitful subject of further argument, 
 but I cannot dwell upon them here. I only wish to demonstrate 
 the great strength of our competitive capacity as well as our weak 
 spot, — the tariff on raw materials, heaviest duties on crudest 
 fabrics and smallest on finest fabrics, discouraging the develop- 
 ment of the latter till it seems almost impossible to engage in 
 them. 
 
 The extension of exports in manufactures is imperative from 
 another point of view. Our exports in cereals and provisions 
 amount to 93°°)°°°.°°° ; o'^r exports of manufactures of all 
 sorts (including boards, laths, shingles, etc.) about $100,000,000. 
 Our cereals and provisions are bought only by England, Germany, 
 and France. All other countries, if industrial, produce sufficiently 
 for their home demand, or, if agricultural, are eager competitors 
 with us for the trade of the above-named buyers of food supply. 
 Germany and France are endeavoring hard to keep our grain and 
 provisions from the mouths of their poor by laying restrictive laws 
 against the imports-of our stores. England is certainly doing her 
 best to develop the resources of India and Australia, which are 
 beginning to become very formidable competitors of our agricul- 
 turists. The impending doom of the present land laws of Great 
 Britain, the more than probable substitution of proprietary farm- 
 ing for tenant farming, will undoubtedly throw a great deal of 
 now unproductive soil into the cultivators' hands. The black soil 
 of the Sarn?atian plain, and the Hungarian wheat-fields, all the 
 blessed rich lands from the Ural Mountains to the Adriatic Sea, only 
 wait for the iron-horse and the steam-boat to induce the dwellers 
 of these vast tracts of most fertile soil to rise from their lethargy 
 and become our most formidable rivals. Even now the Russian 
 Government is maturing a plan for the organization of a railroad 
 system which, if executed, will do more for the development of 
 this vast realm than conqueror or statesman has ever done for 
 Holy Russia since the Tartar invasion. The locomotive and
 
 24 
 
 steam-ship have made sad havoc with the Malthusian theory, 
 this cosy refuge of laisser-faire' s dull complacency. Every 
 spot of the globe held by civilized government is now tribu- 
 tary, or likely to become tributary, to the food-wants of any 
 country. The highwaymen of our food-exchanges, the " cor- 
 nerers " of the daily bread of the poor, are giving constant cause 
 to other countries for endeavoring to find more satisfactory 
 sources of supplies, sources that are not so apt to be stopped or 
 interfered with at the command of a chieftain of the stock or the 
 produce exchange. It is much more difficult to get back a trade 
 once lost than to create one new. To show the possibilities of the 
 yield of the above-mentioned new sources of supply, I may^tate 
 that the exports of cereals of Russia, Austria, India, Australia, and 
 Canada, which were in 1870 ^140,000,000, rose to ^350,000,000 in 
 1880, and although India had not more than 9,875 miles of rail- 
 roads in 1881, yet her exports of wheat rose from ^5,500,000 in 
 1880 to ^43,000,000 in 1882.* Meantime our exports in bread- 
 stuffs, which were $285,000,000 in 1880, declined to $185,000,000 
 in 1882, and $207,000,000 in 1S83. 
 
 The American farmer may be obliged one of these days to de- 
 pend on the home market, which only a fully developed export of 
 manufactures can give him. Wise statesmanship will take these 
 matters into serious consideration and will help to supplant a line 
 of commerce which may be fading away from us even now, by one 
 far more enduring and remunerative to the present and to future 
 generations. 
 
 * Statistical Abstract for Colonial Possessions of the United Kingdom, 1867 
 to 1881.
 
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 DDO
 
 THE NEW YORK FREE-TRADE CLUB. 
 
 INCORPORATED FEBRUARY, 1878. 
 * * OFFICERS FOR 1 883. 
 
 President: EVERETT P. WHEELER. 
 
 Vice-Presidents : 
 
 JOHN R. McNULTY. JAMES M. CONSTABLE, 
 
 CHARLES H. MARSHALL, HORACE WHITE, 
 
 E. J. DONNELL. 
 
 Treas. : LE GRAND LOCKWOOD. Ass't Treas.: JOHN C. LLOYD. 
 Secretary: TOULTNEY BIGELOW, 39 Nassau Street. 
 TRUSTEES: 
 elected for three years each. 
 Capt. John Codman, Thomas Holland, 
 
 Anson Phelps Stokes, Everett P. Wheeler, 
 
 Francis O. French. John S. Kennedy, 
 
 Prof. George B. Newcomb, Charles Tracy, 
 
 Geo. Haven Putnam, H. B. B. Stapler. 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM CONSTITUTION. 
 
 ARTICLE II.— OBJECTS. 
 
 The business and objects of the Club shall be : 
 
 First : The study and discussion of questions in political economy, 
 especially such as relate to the Laws of Trade, and the diffusion of informa- 
 tion thereon. 
 
 Second : The formation of a public opinion that will secure Congres- 
 sional action toward freedom of commercial intercourse. 
 
 Third : The furthering the establishment of similar associations, and of 
 fraternal relations with them, and the promotion of social intercourse among 
 its members. 
 
 ARTICLE III.— PLATFORM. 
 
 The New York Free-Trade Club holds : 
 
 First: That the only commercial policy which is in its nature perma- 
 nent and unchangeable, and which, therefore, assures stability in all kinds of 
 business, is free trade between nations as between the States of the Union. 
 
 Second : That the only tax on imports which should ever be tolerated 
 by a free people is a tariff for rerenue only. 
 
 Third : That the greatest burden now borne by the American people is 
 the unjust and unequal system of taxation called a protective tariff. 
 
 The Club invites the membership and cooperation of all advocates of 
 revenue reform to the following immediate purposes : I. To secure legisla- 
 tion which shall place upon the free list the raw materials required for 
 American manufactures. II. To effect the gradual reduction of duties upon 
 manufactured articles until every exactment is repealed which gives a bounty 
 to the manufacturer at the expense of the consumer. 
 
 It expects by this means to secure the abolition of all taxes which are 
 levied upon the whole people to swell the profits or make good the losses of 
 a comparatively small portion of the people. 
 
 It believes, further, that through the reduction of the cost of raw mate- 
 rials and the removal of the present artificial restrictions upon foreign trade, 
 American manufactures will be placed in a position to compete for the mar- 
 kets of the world. 
 
 The annual dues of the Club are five dollars. Members are entitled to 
 one copy each of all the publications of the Club.
 
 CHEAP FREE-TRADE LITERATURE. 
 
 Creed of Free Trade. D. A. Wells. N. Y. . . . . $o lo 
 
 The Protective System : What it Costs the American Farmer. 
 
 G. McAdam. N. Y lo 
 
 Free Trade vs. Protection. H. J. Philpott. Iowa ... lo 
 
 Freer Trade Essential to National Development. D. A. Wells. 
 
 Brooklyn .......... lo 
 
 History of the Free- Trade Struggle in England. Gen. M. M. 
 
 Trumbull. Iowa . . . . . . . . ' 25 
 
 Slavery z/j. "Protection." E.J. Donnell. N. Y. . . . 10- 
 
 Friendly Sermons to Protectionist Manufacturers. J.S.Moore. N.Y. 25 
 
 Our Revenue System and the Civil Service. A. L. Earle. N. Y. . 25 
 
 Free Ships. Capt. J. Codman. N. Y. 25 
 
 Why we Trade, and IIow we Trade. D. A. Wells. N. Y. . . 25 
 
 The Tariff Question. Horace White. N. Y 25 
 
 Protection and Wages. Graham McAdam. N. Y. . . . 05 
 
 The Destructive Influence of the Tariff upon Commerce and Manu- 
 factures. By J. Schoenhof, N. Y. . . . . . 40 
 
 Wages and Trade in Manufacturing Iiulusirics m Anicnca and in 
 
 Europe. By J. Schoenhof, N. Y 25 
 
 The above and a great variety of minor leaflets can be had at low prices 
 by the hundred, on application to the Secretary of the N. Y. Free-Trade 
 Club. 
 
 Readers desiring to go further in economic and political literature are 
 referred to the classified descriptive list of books on "Political Economy 
 and Political Science," published in a 25-cent pamphlet by the Society for 
 Political Education (Worthington C. Ford, Sec'y, 4 Morton Street, New 
 York City). A Pamphlet of " Subjects and Questions" for debate on these 
 topics is also published by that Society, at 10 cents. 
 
 The Aiiic7-ican Free Trader is published mid-monthly, at 50 cents a year, 
 by A. L. Earle, 137 Broadway, New York. 
 
 The books and leading pamphlets scheduled may be had by post, on 
 receipt of price, from G. P. Putnam's Sons, 27 West Twenty-third Street, 
 New York, or through most booksellers, or from the Secretary of the New 
 York Free-Trade Club. 
 
 POULTNEY BIGELOW, 
 Secretary of the New York Free-Trade Club, 
 
 39 Nassau Street, New York. 
 
 THE LIBRARY 
 
 iJNIVERSlTY OF CALIFORNbi 
 
 T.OS ANGELES
 
 LITHOMOUNT 
 ^ AMPHLET BINDER 
 
 Mmnufattutti tv 
 
 «AVLORD BROS. \m*.\ 
 
 SyrsctMt, N. T. 
 
 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY F 
 
 AA 001 008 2