S?ieldoH & Compayty's Text-^ooJi's FRENCH AND GFRMAM The C Gust Frenc [The , the stud The Or mau}'^ res It teacl so from t He nev ellbrts, h( The Ics Uflaplud 1 scholars ( The tej entertain In lino. are equal! piopovtio the Oi-al J "I And Method o Mmwood A Wen By Je in the A Kei This w< language, sons uro i studen^g. which the Grammar every sub dent, and introduce A Con the af late o nectady. Pi rederick Slate Professor of Physics /^ JNew odition, revised, 316 pages. Price $1.75. 6'/iclciou d- Company s 2'ext':Books, STODDARD'S FULL MATHEMATICAL SERIES EMBRACES TUB rOLLOWING BOOKS : Stoddard's Primary Pictorial Arithmetic $0 30 Stoddard's Juvenile Mental Arithmetic 25 Stoddard's American Intellectual Arithmetic. O 50 Stoddard's Rudiments of Arithmetic 50 Stoddard's Combination School Arithmetic O 80 Stoddard's New Practical Arithmetic 1 00 Stoddard's Complete Arithmetic 1 25 " I have a?ain examiued ' Stoddard^s Complete Arithmetic,' and find my first impressions of its merits fully confirmed. If I were called upon to rccomiiKMjd an Arithmetic for general us^e in our schools, I should unhesitatingly recom- mend ' Stoddard's Cempleta Arithmetic' " — Prof. Olnky, of Michigan Uni- versity. STODDARD'S SHORTER COURSE. The Teacher's Combination Series, A full course for Graded Schools is obtained in the tliree books, tlie Primary Pic- torial, Combination School, and Complete Arithmetics, price $3.35. For Academies, the Complete and Intellectual furnish a high school course, for $1.75. For District Schools, the Com- bination School Arithmetic alone will be a good, practical text- book of Mental and Written Arithmetic, for 80 cents. Stoddard's Conijdete School Algebra, for the use of Schools and Academies. This book will have many new and important features, and will, it is believed, fully sustain the high reputation Stoddard's Arithmetics now enjoy. 12mo. Price $1.25. Nearly ready. TJie nigher Algebra and advanced hooks of Stoddard's Mathe- matical Series will soon he published. Stoddard's Series of Mathematical Text-Books liave many fea- tures which justify the high estimation in which they arc held by teachers. The use of these books induces careful attention and continuous application of the mind, at the same time relieving study of its usual irksomeness, by such lucid explanations and a proper presentation of the subjects as make them apprehended easily by scholars. Any of Vie ahooe sent by mail, post-paid, on receipt of pi^c. Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2007 with funding from IVIicrosoft Corporation http://www.archive.org/details/analyticalpraGtiOObullrich ANALYTICAL AND PRACTICAL GRAMMAR. PRACTICAL GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE; WITH AI^ALYSIS OF SEI^TTEITOES. BY Rev. peter BULLIONS, D.D., - LATB PB0FKS80R OF LANGUAGM W^iH3 Il^ANT ACAEEMT,jCnD AUTHOR OF THB BEBIBS or GEAMMAK8, GEBEK, Z.A.Zil^l ASiD JsKtrUSH, 0« TfiB SAME PJUAN, BTO. BE VIS E D EDITION. ITEW YORK: SHELDON & CO., No. 677 BROADWAY AND 214 & 216 MERCER STREET Ukdeb Grand Central Hotel, 1871. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1862, by PETER BULLIONS, D.D., ta the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Northern District of New York. Entered, according to act of Congress, in the year 1S67, by EXECUTORS OF PETER BULLIONS, In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Northern District of New York. BULLIONS' SERIES OF GRAMMARS, ETC. Buti.TONS' English Grammar, 90 cents. Bullions' Exercises in Analysis and Parsing, 25 cents. Bullions' Latin Grammar, $1.50.* Spencer's Latin Lessons, $1.00.* Bullions' Latin Reader, $1.50. 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Comstock's Natural Philosophy, $1.75. Chemistry, $1.75.* Schmitz's Ancient History-, $1.75.* Ancient Geography, $1.75.* Shaw's Outlines of English Literature, $1.75.* Shaw's New Manual of English Literature, $2.00.* "We furnish to Teachers, postpaid, a copy of any of the above books, not having a * annexed, at half price. Those marked with a * we send on receipt of the prices annexed. PREFACE It is now nearly a quarter of a century since the first publication of Dr. Bullions's "Principles of English Grammar." The history of that book, and of the " Analytical and Practical English Gram- mar" which followed it, has been contemporary with the progress we have made in mastering the principles, laws, and usages of the language itself ; and it is safe to say that we are indebted to no one more than to the ajithor of this treatise for the results that have been achieved. Among the first to discuss the Analysis of Sentences, he has given a clear and succinct statement of the principles relating to this department, and reduced all elements, and even idioms, to a simple, yet comprehensive system. This treatise is therefore not the work of a day, but the fruit of twenty-five years c^ intelligent thought, aided by the daily prac- tical experience of the school-room. In the present revised edition of the "Analytical and Practical English Grammar," the order of subjects, method and classification, which had given the former work such enviable reputation among a large class of our most successful teachers, have been for the most part retained. The language, even, has been generally preserved, and only such changes have been admitted as the present wants of the school-room seem to demand. It is hoped that the few alterations which have been thought necessary will enhance, rather than diminish, the value of the treatise as a text-book of practical grammar. The most radical departures from the text of the author's edition have been made in the divisions of the verb, and the classification of sentences ; yet these present, in point of fact, little else than a change of nomenclature, — the distinctive characteristics, illustrations, and examples being retained. Tables of the different parts of speech have been given, for the purjwse of presenting to the eye of the learner, at one view, the dis- tinctions which are more fully discussed under the separate heads. Tabular classifications of the finalysis of the sentence have \m&i presented, for the sake of greater clearness. ctfm^fi7 IT PREFACE. The alterations wliicli have been cautiously admitted in the phraseology of the rules of Syntax will, it is hoped, meet with favor. The brief divisions of accent and structure of words in their places, pp. 16 and 18, and the fuller discussion in the Appendix (1) can not but enhance the value of the book, and afford facilities for a more intimate acquaintance with the integral structure of our lan- guage, to many who will have access to no other source of sucli information. It is believed that little is omitted that would add value to this treatise as a text-book for general use, whilst much is presented, not found in books of its class, but so tersely and clearly stated, and so judiciously arranged, as not to make the volume cumbersome. As to the general plan and scope of the work, the following, from the author's Preface, is suggestive : — "The subject of the Analysis of Sentences * * * is here introduced in its proper place, and to an extent in accordance ^vith its importance. Many questions on disputed points have been examined with much care; and something, it is hoped, has been done to contribute to their settlement : and when this required more srace than was proper to be taken up in the body of the work, the discussion has been thrown into the Appendix. A variety of exer- cises has been introduced at every step, with directions for the manner of using them. To every part of speech, an oral exercise, of the inductive kind, has been annexed as a specimen of the way in which the mind of the learner may be trained to think and reason on the subject, and prepared to profit more by the exercises that follow. " By adopting the plan of a running series of numbers to mark the paragraphs, reference from one part to another is rendered more con- venient, and is employed wherever it was thought to be profitable. " In the Syntax, * * * the rules are arranged so that all that belongs to one subject is collected under one head, instead of being scattered in different places ; and the proper subordination of parts is exhibited in a series of subordinate rules, wherever it was necea- siry. * * * In the rules and definitions throughout, accuracy, brevity, euphony, and adaptation to the practical operations of the school-room have been particularly attended to. No startling novel- ties have been introduced ; at the same time, where it was thought that a change would be an improvement, it has been made." August, 1867. TABLE OF CONTENTS PA«B. Jjangnage 3 GrammaVf Definitions and Divisions 8 PART I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. Letters, Divisions and Power of 5 Elkmentary Sounds 6 Phonetic Classification 8 Sf/llables 9 Spelling, Kl'les for 11 Capitals, Use of 14 Accent 16 PART n.— ETYMOLOGY. Words, General Divisions of 17 Structure of 18 Parsi NG OF 22 Parts of Speech 23 Nouns, Definition and Division of 23 Observations on 24 Table of, and Exercises 25 Accidents of 26 Person of— Observations on 27 Okndes of 28 Observations on 30 Exercises on 81 NiTHBES, Definition of 32 Plural, Rules for 82 Irregular 83 Exercises on 86 Observations on 87 Plural of Proper Names.. 8S Case of, General Rules for 89, 40 Nominative, Use of 39 Construction of 190, 211, 213, 219 Possessive, Use of— how formed ..." 89 Observations on 40 Construction of 232 Objective, Use of 40 Following Transitive Verbs 221 Prepositions 224 Without a Governing Word 226 COKTEIf TS PA9B. Nouns, Inflection of 40 Oral Exkkcises on 41 Pakstng of 42 exkhcises on 44 Article, Definition and Classes op. 45 Pabbing of— Exercises on , 46 Construction of 201 Adjectives, Definition of , 47 Division of 48 Table of 51 Comparison of 51 ^ulesfor 52 Irregular Comparison 53 Not Compared 54 Parsing of 55 Oral Exercises on 56 Exercises on 57 Construction of 196 FronoUJis, Definition and Division of 58 Table op 59 Personal 59 Simple 60 Declension of. 61 Observations on 61 Compound 64 Parsingof, and Oral Exercises on 64 Exercises on 65 Construction of % 206 Bblative 66 Inflection and Use of.... 67 Compound 69 Parsing of 70 Exercises on 71 Construction of 209 Iktbeeogativb and Eesponsive 72 Parsing of, and Exercises on 73 Adjbctivk, Definition and Division of. 74 Possessive , 75 Distributive -76 Demonstrative 67 Indefinite 77 Parsingof, and Exercises on.. 78 Construction of 196 nfr6», DEPTNmoN of 79 Classification op 80 Oral and other Exercises on ; 82 Formation of Tenses 88 Auxiliary 88 Use of "Shall," "Will," etc...,, '. 84 OONTEKTS. Til PAGB. T«rbsy Pabsikoof 85 Auxiliary, Exercises on 85 Anomalous Use of 89 Inflbction of ; Accidents op 80 YoicB, Active 90 Passive 90 Moods, Division of 93i Indicative 93 - Potential 93 Bubjunctive 94 Ckvnstruction ot 237 Imperative 95 InfiniUve 96 Construction of 239 Tknsks, Division of, 96 Of tlie Indicative Mood 97-100 Of the Potential Mowl 100 Of the Subjunctive Mood ioi Of the Imperative Mood 103 Of the Infinitive Mood 103 Construction of 239 Connection OF 246 Pastioipudb, Division of 104 In tngr in a Passive Sense 105 as a Verbal Nona . 107 Construction of. 243-246 ITUMBER AND PeBSON OF 107 CJOMJUGATION OF 108 Table of 109 Of the Irregular Verb "to be" 112 Sentences — the Subject 116 Of the Regular Verb " to love," Active Voice 117 Parsing of 118 Oral Exercises and Exercises on.... 119 The Objective Case 121 Negative Form 123 Interrogative Form , 124 Progressive Form 125 PboGBBSSIVB Fobm, Exercises on 125 Passive Voice 126 Observations on, Exercises on 128, 129 Ibregitlab, List of 130 Defective. • 136 Impersonal 136 Exercises 137 CoNSTRueTiON OF 215-219 ^idverbsyDzri^niov or 133 Classification of 183 Con JUNCTIVK , 140 yiii cojS^TEi^TS Adverbs, Formation akd Derivation of 140 Comparison of 142 Parsing of, and Exercises on 142 Construction op 253, 254 Prepositions, Definition 142 Table— List 145 Observations on 146 Parsing of, and Exercises on.... 147 Construction of 228 Interjections, Definition and List of 148 Parsing 118 Construction of 253 Conjunctions, Definition and Division of 149 Conjunctions, Table op 150 Parsing OF, and Exercises on 151,152 Construction of 253' Parsing, Different Kinds of 153 Ettmoloqioal, Method of 153 Model of 154 Exercises in 156-161 PAKT IIL— SYNTAX. Syntax, Definitions 162 Sentences, Classification op 163 Elements of 1C5 Analysis of 166 A Single Sentence, Its Parts 167 Observations on 163 Subject of 170 Modiflcations of 172 OfModifyingWords 173 Predicateof 174 Modifications of 175 Limiting Clauses 177 Ck)MPOTnn), Definition of 180 Members, Connection of 181 Analysis, Directions for 1 82 Models of 183 Exercises in 187 Construction of— General Principles 188 Surtax, Parts of .189 KuLES OF 190-193 EULE8. Rule J.— Substantives in Apposition 193 Mule JJ,— Adjective with a Substantive 196 Comparatives and Superlatives ,, !-• COlNrTEITT s. ix PAOR. Jtule III.— Amicvn and its Noun 201 Utile IF. — Pkonoun AND ITS Antecedent— Special Rules 206 Jiule v.— Relative and it3 Antecedent 209 llule FjT.— The Subjkot-Nominative 211 Hule FJJ.— Tub Nominative Absolute or Independent 213 Special Rules for 213 JRule FJXT.— The Veeb and its Subject 214 Special Rules for 215 Jtnle IX. — The Predicate-Nominative 219 Jiule X.— The Object after Tbansitivb Vbbbs 221 Special Rules 221 Jiule XI.—TiiK Objective after Prepositions 224 Jtule XII. — Puepositions after Certain Words 223 Utile XIZJ.— Possessive Limiting Substantives 232 Utile XJF.— Subjunctive Mood 287 Jtule XV. — Infinitive Mood 239 Special Rules 239 Jtule XFX— Part[ciple3 242 Special Rules 24:3 Hide XVII. — Connection of Tenses 24G /^MZeXFZJX.— Adverbs— Special Rules 249-251 Mule XXX.— Conjunctions 253 Special Rules 264 Rule XX.— Prepositions 258 R ule XX J. — Interjectiom* 258 General Rule 259 JSlUpsis — When Admissible 26D "When not Ad.mi6Sible 262 JVirsinflr, Syntactical, Definition of, Model of. 263 Exercises, Promiscuous, on Rules of Syntax 266-269 Inii)roj)er Expressions, List of 269, 270 Punctuation 270 Comm A, Rules for 271 Semicolon, Rules for > 273 Colon, Rules for 274 Period 275 Interrogation 275 Other Marks used in Writing 276, 277 figures. Different Kinds of 277 Op Etymology 278 Of Syntax 278 Of Rh etorio 279 Poetic License 281-2S3 PAET IV.— PROSODY. JfVoaoefy, Division of 284 Elocution ^284 Ybbsification 285 CONTENTS PA OK, Prosody, Versification, Feet 285 Poetic Pauses 292 Composition 203 The Use of Grammar in Composition 295 TukLaw of Language 205 Kules for 296. 297 Hints fob Correct and Elegant "Writing 298 TuEMEs FOB Composition 8O5 Appendix, I. — Suffixes 807 II.— Gender of Nouns 816 III.— The Pronouns, Mine, Thine, etc 8I7 IV.—" What," as a Relative 813 V. — "As" AS A Relative 319 VI.— Adjective Pronouns .• 320 VII.— The Verb 322 VIII.— Division of Verbs 823 IX. — Passive Participle. Analyse* of tub Vbbb 324 X.— First and Second 330 XI. — Two First, Thrf^ Last, etc 331 XII. — Abbreviations \ 833 ZIIL— Foreign Words , 836 INTRODUCTION". Before a text-book is put into the hands of the pupil, he is already in practical possession of the elements of his mother-tongue. Grammar should supplement this practical knowledge, by reducing it to fixed laws ; classiiying its elements, and establishing canons of criticism for the preservation of the purity of its forms, and giving power and ele- gance to expression. A series of preparatory exercises in a simple, and, at the first, some- what informal, manner, both in the discussion of the meaning and use of words in familiar sentences, and in the construction of such sen- tences, will be found of incalculable value, as tending to awaken a definite interest in mastering the successive steps of the science. These exercises should develop at least — I. The ^neauhif/8 and uses of the '' construction-words'* of the language, as — 1. Such verbs as do, be, have, inay, can, shall, etc, that are Bo closely connected with our existence, our experiences of the exter- nal world, and our modes of thought and speech in regard thereto. The words of this class have a conventional use, not for themselves, but chiefly as aids in expressing the relations of ideas represented by other words. Thus, in the expression, " Grass is green," the use of is is not to express existence, for that is assumed, but to indicate rela- tion. So, do means to acty and it is hence used to strengthen or give emphasis to the expression of another act ; as, " I do desire." Have means to possess, own, etc., and in some sense, it never loses this force, even as an " auxiliary." [See discussion of the auxiliaries, 329, et seqJl 2. The meaninf/ and force of connectives; as — (1.) Conjunctions. — And means added, in addition to; but, separation, and the like. (2.) Prepositions, or words that relate by expressing a limita- tion ; as — " The book is on the table." — " The book is under the table." — " The book is beside the table." — " He went to the house, from the house, iiito the house," etc. In the same grammatical structure, the force of the phrase de];)end8 upon the tneaning of the particles on, under, beside, etc. TT, The Nature of the Sentence. — Grammatical distinc- tions, of words merely, are of little account, save as they lead to correct forms of speech in accordance with the laws of language. * IKTROD UCTION". 1. It may be readily sliown by simple illustration— (1.) Tha* every word is tke sigi% of an idea. (3.) That related ideas are expressed by related words, (3.) That & judgment of the mind may be put into the form of a proposUioUf and that such proposition is expressed by a sen' tence. Every sentence consists of two parts — (1.) The word or phrase that names the subject of thought ; (2.) The word or form of words that uffirfns or tells something of the subject ; and this is a universal law After a clear exemplification of this by a sufficient number of ex- amples, the pupils may have practical exercises in framing sentences — second parts for given first parts ; and first parts of which given sec- ond parts may be predicated. 2. It will be found of interest, not only as leading to a more critical imderstanding of the use of language, but as a preparation for the classification of verbs, to show the three forms of sentences, by the nature and use of their principal verbs, thus — {a.) " Horses eat grass." — (&,) " Birds fly." — (c.) •*' Sugar is sweet." In the first of these, the fiieaning of the affirming verb is such that the act can not be done without involving the existence of some person or thing as receiving it, (590). In the second, the meaning is satisfied by naming the actor and the act. in the third, the chief office of the verb is to connect an attri- hntCf expressing some quality or circumstaiise of the subject. iSee Syntax, Classification of Sentences. III, The relation of tvords in a phrase or sentence follows the order of the relation of the ideas which they express. 1. Words may be united without any sign; as, good boy horse runs. 2. In a few instances the iii/Zec^iow^ is the sign of relation t, as children's shoes. 3. When words have no natural relation, they may be put in rela tion by another word; as, "love of country," "grass is green," *' John and James study," etc. At the proper time, a classification may be made of these distinctions. IV, It should always be borne in mind, that, in order to the intelli- gent study of Grammar, whose office it is to teach " to speak and write correctly," pupils must be constantly exercised in this practical use, that the principles which the Grammar teaches may be prac- tically exemplified, and power be gained in their application. ENGLISH GRAMMAR 1. Language is the means by which we express our thoughts. 2. G^ram^nar treats of the laws of language, and the right method of using it. Grammar is both a Science and an Art. As a Science^ it investigates the principles of lan- guage m general : as an Art^ it teaches the right method of applying these principles to a particular language, so as thereby to express our thoughts in a correct and proper manner, according to established usage. 3. English Grammar is the art of speaking and writing the English tanguage with propriety. 4. Language is either spoken or written. 5. The elements of spoken language, are vocal and articulate sounds, (25 and 26). {?. The elements of written language are characters or letters which represent these sounds. 7. Letters are formed into syllables and words : words into sentences ; and by ihese, properly uttered or written, men communicate their thoughts to one another. 8» Grammar is divided into four parts : OrtJiog- rapTiy^ Etymology^ Syntax^ and Prosody, 9. Orthograi^hy treats of letters and syllables ; Etymology 9 of words ; Syntax, of sentences ; Prosody f of elocution and versification. 4y ; /J *-'• ^•*^'. *rf fB t Gf L I&H GRAMMAB PART I. OBTHOG-KAPHr 10, Orthography treats of letters, and of the mode of combining tliem into syllables and words.* 11, A. Letter is a mark, or character, used to represent an elementary sound of the human voice. 12, There are Twenty-six letters in tlie Englisli Alphabet. 13, Letters are either Vowels or Consonants, 14:, A Vowel is a letter wliich represents an unobstructed sound (25) ; and, in a word or syllable, may be sounded alone. Tlie vowels are a, e, if o, it, and tv and y not before a vowel sounded in the Bame syllable, as in law, hay, m, K Consonant is a letter which represents an obstructed sound (26) ; and, in a word or syllable, is never sounded alone, but always in connection with a vowel. The consonants are b, c_, d, /, (/, hf J, kf If nif Qif p, ahvays vowels, and represent respectively the sounds of oo and e, as w\b\i (Go-ish), yet (c-et). They are sometimes called coales(xnts\ 10, A. Diphthonf/ is the union of two vowels in one soimd, as oi, in oil ; ou, in found. 1 7. When a letter in a word is not used in pronunciation, it is called a Silent letter, as h in Aour ; a in bread ; e in mate. * Orthography is properly a part of Grammar, as it belongs to " the art of speaking and writing a language with propriety," Yet as the whole subject is treated more fully in the spelling-book and dictionary, a brief synopsis of its principles only is here given, rather as a matter of form, than with a view to its being particularly studied at this stage. The teacher may therefore, if he thinks proper, pass over Part I. for the present, and begin with Part II. ORTHOGRAPHY — LETTERS, 5 18, A union of two vowels in the same syllable, only one of which is sounded, is called a digraph, and sometimes, an improper diph thong, as oa in boat ; ou in court. 19, A. Triphthong is the union of three vowels in one sound, as eau in beauty . ^ The Powers of Letters. , 20, In analyzing words into their elementary sounds, it is neces- sary to distinguish between the tianie of a letter and its power. 21, The na^ne of a letter is that by which it is usually called; as A, be, se, de, etc. 22, The power of a letter is the effect which it has, either by itself, or combined with other letters, in forming a word or syllable. 23, Each of the vowels has several powers. Several letters have the same power ; and certain powers or elements of words are re- presented by a combination of two letters. 24:, The elementary powers or sounds in the English language are tihoviX forty -three, and are primarily divided into unobstructed sounds or Vocals, represented by vowels and diphthongs ; and obstructed sounds (Subvocals and Aspirates), represented by consonants, single or combined. 2i>, Vocals or tonics are unobstructed sounds produced by the organs of voice, with the mouth more or less open, and with no change, or but slight change, of position in the organs of speech, 20, Subvocals or subtonics are soimds produced by the organs of voice, obstructed or modified by certain changes in the position of the organs of speech. 27 » Aspirates or atonies are mere whispering sounds without vocality, but which still have an audible effect in the enunciation of words. Tliey are all obstructed except h, 28, The elementary powers of letters can not be exhibited to the eye, but must be learned from the living voice. 20, The name of a vowel is always one of its powers (except w and y), and if from the name of a consonant, we take away the voweJ Sound, what remains is generally the power of that consonant. 80, A full view of the elementary powers of letters in the format 6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, tion of words, is exhibited in the following table. In the words aiv nexed as examples, the letter whose power is indicated is printed in Italic. By pronouncing the word distinctly, and then leaving out all but the power of the Italic letter, and uttering that alone, we have the power of that letter. SI, Elementary Sounds in the English Language. Table I. VOCALS. SUBVOCALS. ASPIRATES. A. «le, able.* B. Iiat, orl». F. fix. A. art. D. do, did. H. liat. A. all. G. flfone, doflf. K. leeep, booJk. A. at. J. Judge. P. ^en, top. A. ask. L. lie. S. sun. E. me. M. wtan. T. fop, bal. E. met, egg. N. no. Th. fai#^. I. ire. NG. Ting. Sh. show. I. in. R. far. Ch. chide. 0. old. Rf rope. Wh •t tchen. 0. move, ooze. Th. f/*is. 0. odd. V. f?an. U. ticne, use. z. ^inc. U. •Mp. z. a^ure. - U. fMll. Oi. oil. On. thotf. W. tre. Y. yes. The following analysis exhibits the nature of the different sounds : 1. Classified by the ear; 2d. By the position of the organs in forming them. * Some make a in care a distinct element. It is only long a modi- fied by the r following. f R before a vowel has a hard or trilling sound ; as, rat, rough ; after a vowel, a soft and liquid sound ; as, arm, far. X Wh is a combined sound, nearly equivalent to h-oo, and is classed here only for convenience. ORTHOGRAPHY — LETTERS. 1. There are two general classes, unobstructed and obstructed Bounda fOO 1: in mood. a in late. 'Long, . in go. ah in father. in me. atv in fall. Medial,. . ■a in grass. e in her. % 'Simple, . . .- Short, . . coo Y in book, in tin. a mfat. in tub. TJnobstruct Sennas are Coalescent, Wliispered, (e h in met. in wish, in hat. o y in not. in yet. 1 Sehtat., , (Open, . . < Close, , . ou in out. U in tube. oi i in oil. in fine. ■s EXPLODENT, A 'Mutes, . . P in pin. in time. ch k in church, in king. stracted Sonn are -Sonants, 'EQsses, . id (th in bad, tub in do. in fan, life, in think. J 9 8 8h injoj. in go. in sin. in show. o Buzzes, . . I in vine. X in zone. i Continuant, .- Liquids, in the. in lifo. xU r in azure, in far. Trill, . . r in rich. . -Nasals, . . m in man. tig m sing. ( n m no. 2. The organs chiefly employed in the formation of soimds are the lips, tongue, teeth, gums, palate, and throat. It is imjwssiblo x>er- fcctly to separate the functions of these organs, but an approximate reference of the sounds is made in the table subjoined. I Remakk. — The ordinary distribution of long and short vowels in f English is arbitrary ; for it must bo noticed that short i is not th« 8 EI^GLISH GEAMMAR. short sound of long i, but rather of long e. The corresponding lon^w and short sounds are those made with the organs in the same posi tions, as indicated in Table II. Table II. Phonetic Classification, H' O CJ 3 k) ^ H O g c3 I a CD w UNOBSTRUCTED Simple LSetiial Long Medial . . Short . . oo Coalescent. ^v Whispered j Open . . (Close . . . oo o € a ah a-m e a i € a u o y h au oi fExPLOD- (Mutes . ENT . ( Sonants . I OBSTRUCTED Contin- uant Hisses . Buzzes . Liquids . Trill. . ^Nasals . p t ch b a J . fthssh vth xzh I r m ti tig 32. Certain letters in the English Alphabet have no power of their own, but represent the sound of others in the preceding table, aud may therefore be called Equivaletits, Equivalents of vowels and diphthongs are nimierous. 33. Of the Subvocals and Aspirates, eight pairs are Correla^ tives. In soimding the first of any of these pairs, the organs of voice* * The Organs of Voice are those parts (called by physiologists the larynx and its appendages) which are employed in the produc- tion of simple vocal sounds. The Organs of Speech are those parts employed to obstruct or modify whispering or vocal sounds. These are the tongue, lips, t«eth, gums, palate, and throat. ORTHOGRAPHY — SYLLABLES. 9 and speech are in the same position as in sounding- its fellow, but the first, or subvocal, has vocality ; the second, or aspirate, has not. 34, Equivalents and Correlatives* Table III. EQUIVAT,KNTS. CORRELATIVES. Subvocals. Aspirates, W =u cmo, mew. V. vow. F. fame. Y =i tyrant, system. G. gone. K. keep. Chard =k cat. B. bat. P. pen. Q =k liguor. Z. zinc S. sin. C soft =s cent. D. do. T. top. G soft =j gin. Th. this. Th. thick. X =k8 fia;. Z. azure. Sh. show. J. judge. Ch. chide. 3o. The elementary sounds of the human voice, some- times simple, but more commonly combined, are formed into Syllables and Words, Syllables. 36. A Syllable is represented, in written lan- guage, Iby a letter or combination of letters nttered by one impulse of the voice, as farm^ farm-er, ea-gle^ a-e-ri-al, 37* Every word contains as many sjllahles as It has distinct vocal soimds, as gram-ma-ri-an. 38, A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable, 39, A word of two syllables is called a Dissyllable, 40, A word of three syllables is called a Trisyllable, 41, A word of more than three syllables is called a Polysyl- lable, 10 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. ^ 42. The division of words into sjUal^les is called Division of Words into Syllables, le divis Syllabication. GENERAL RULE. 43. Place togetlier in distinct syllables, those letters wliicb. make up the separate parts or divisions of a word, as heard in its correct pronunciation. 4:4:, The only definite rules of much value on this subject are the following : — 45. Rule 1. Two or more consonants forming but one elementary sound, are never separated ; such as, ch, tch, th, sh, ng, ph, wh, gh, silent, or soundiiig/, Ik sounding k, etc. ; as, churcJi^cs, watch-es, wor- thy, fis7i-es, sing-ing, philoso-phy, eigh-ing, cough-in g, walk-ing. 4G» Bute 2. The terminations, cean, dan, ceous, cious, cial, Hon, tious, Hal, geon, gian, geous, sion, are hardly ever divided ; as o-cean, gra-cious, na-tion, coura-geous, etc, 47* Ruled. Compound words are divided into their simple ones ; las, rail-road, 'bee-hive, hope-less, thank-ful, etc. 48, Rule 4. The terminations of words, when they form a sylla- ble, are usually separated from their roots ; as writ-er, teach-es, think-ing, cold-er, old-est. 49, Two separate words combined as one name, are usilally sepa- rated by a hyphen ; as, glass-house, hee-hive. To this rule, according to modern usage, there are some exceptions. 50, In writing, a word of more than one syllable may be divided at the end of a line, but a monosyllable or a syllable, never. _^ Spelling. 51. Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its proper letters. 52. The Orthography of the English language is so anomalous, and in many cases arbitrary, that proficiency in it can be acquired only by practice, and the use of the spelling-book or dictionary. The following rules are of a general character, though even to these thero may be a few exceptions : — ORTHOGRAPHY — SPELLING. 11 General Rules for Spelling Words, RULE I. ^V^:^, Monosyllables ending with /, l^ or s, preceded by a >ring"ttj vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff, mill, pass. 54, Exceptions. — Of, if, as, is, lias, was, his, gas, yes, this, us, thus, pus. RULE II. ^^. Words ending with any consonant except /, l^ or 8, do not double the final letter ; as, sit, not, up, put, ihat, in. 56, Exceptions. — Add, bunn, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd, purr. RULE III. d7» — 1. Words in ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into i before an additional letter or syllable ; as, spy, spies ; happy, happier, happiest ; carry, carrier, car^ riecl ; fancy, fanciful, 58. Exception 1. But y is not changed before ing ; as, deny^ denying. SO, — 2. Words ending in y preceded by a vowel, retain the y unchanged ; as, boy, boys, boyish, boyhood. Exception 3. But lay, pay, say, make laid, paid, said ; and day makes daily. RULE IV. GO, Monosyllables and T\'ords accented on the last sylla- ble, ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant before an additional syllable beginning with a vowel ; as, rob, robber ; admit, admittance, admitted. Exception. — But a? and h are never doubled. Ql, But when a diphthong or a double vowel precedes, or the accent is not on the last syllable, the consonant ia l3 El^GLISH GRAMMAR. not doubled ; as toil, hoiling, boiler ; wool, zvoolen ; fool, foolish ; visit, visited. 62» Exceptions. — In about fifty words ending in I witli a vowel before it, and not accented on the last syllable, many writers, con- trary to analogy and without necessity, double the I improperly before an additional syllable. These are such words as travel, trav- eller, travelling, travelled.* 03. So also s and p are generally, though improperly, doubled in Mas, worship, and kidnap; as Massing, icorshipper, kidnapping. Webster, and many writers following him, in these words conform to the general rule. EULE V. 04, Silent e is preseired before the terminations, mentf lesSf ly^ andful; sl^, paleness, peaceful, abatement, etc. 65. Exceptions. Duly, truly, awful, and, generally, judgment, ac knowledgment, lodgment, abridgment, are excepted. Argument, from the Latin argumentum, is not an exception. RULE VI. do. Silent e is omitted before terminations beginning with a vowel ; as, slave, slavish ; cure, curable ; sense, sen- sible ; lodge, lodging ; love, lovest. 67* Blame, move, reprove, sale, and their compounds, sometimes, though improperly, retain e before able ; as, UameaUe, etc. 08, But words ending in ge and ce retain e before able, in order to preserve the soft sound of g and c ; as, changeahle, peaceable^ etc. For the same reason we have singeing and swingeing : dye has di/eing, to distinguish it from dying. So also words ending with c hard in- sert Jc before a syllable beginning with e or i to preserve the hard sound ; as, frolic, frolicked, frolicking. * The words referred to are the following : Apparel, bevel, bowel, cancel, carol, cavil, channel, chisel, counsel, cudgel, dishevel, drivel, duel, embowel, enamel, empanel, equal, gambol; gravel, grovel, handsel, hatchel, imperil, jewel, kennel, label, level, libel, marshal, marvel, model, panel, parcel, pencil, peril, pistol, pommel, quarrel, ravel, revel, rival, rowel, shovel, shrivel, snivel, tassel, trammel, travel, tunnel, unravel. OBTHOGRAPHY — SPELLING. 13 69, The letters ie at the end of a word, are clianged into y before ing ; as, die, dying ; lie, lying. BULE yii. 70. Words ending with double I drop one I before the terminations less and ly^ to prevent trebling ; as, sMll- shilless ; full, fully ; and some writers before ness and ful ; as, fulness^ skilful. 71* But words ending in any other double letter pre- serve the letter double before less^ ly^ fiess, and full ; as, harmlessly y stiffly, gruffness, etc. RULE VIII. 72, Simple words ending in double ?, when joined to other words, generally drop one I when they lose the ac- cent ; as, awful, hopeful, handful, careful, already, 73, But when they are under the accent, the double I should be retained; as, fulfill, willful, recall, foretell. But, U7itil, welcome, always, also, withal, therewithal, wherewithal, have single I. 74, In words under this rule, however, usage is far from uniform fulfU and fulfill ; willfal and wilful ; recal and recall ; foretel and foretell, and similar varieties are common. 75, Other compounded words are generally spelled in the samf manner as the simple words of which they are formed ; as, glass-house, millwright, thereby. 76, Many words in English admit of two or more different modes of spelling ; as, connection, connexion ; enquire, inquire ; chemistry, chymistry ; etc. In such cases, prevailing usage and analogy must be our guides. The orthography of 'primitive words of Saxon origin — the root words of our language — can be learned only from the spelling-book or dictionary ; yet even in regard to them, there are certain modes of classification by which the intelligent teacher will much facilitate their mastery by the pupiL U Ei^GLISH GRAMMA.Il. Capital Letters. 77» The letters commonly used in printing are distin- guished and represented as follows : — (1.) CAPITAL LETTERS. (2.) Small Capitals. (3.) Italic letters. (4.) Lowercase (small letters). Formerly, every noun began with a capital letter, both in writing and in printing ; and in the German lan- guage this usage is still retained : but at present, only the following words begin with capital letters : — 1. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other piece of writing. 2. The first word after a period; also, after a mark of interrogation or exclamation, when the sentence before, and the one after it, are independent of each other. (585). But if several interrogatory or exclamatory sentences are so con- nected, that tlie latter sentences depend on tlie former, all of them, except the first, may begin with a small letter "Hovr doth the city Kit solitary that was full of people ! how are her habitations become as desolate 1 how is she become as a widow ! (589). 3. Proper names, titles of office or honor; as, George Wasliington, General Jackson^ Judge Story, Sir Walter Scott, America, the Ohio, Sheldon S Co., New Yorlc. Also, when the title is used without the proper name, it is custom- ary to use the capital ; as, " O King, live forever !" But when such words are used as common nouns, or adjectives, they commence with small letters .: as, " The king, and the lords, and the people." Names of the months, and of the days of the week, etc., begin with capitals. East, West, South, etc., when used to denote a district of country, or its people, commence with capitals ; as, " The West is rap- idly increasing in population ;" but when used to indicate direc- tion, they commence with a small letter ; as, " Buffalo is west from Albany." OETHOGKAPHT — CAPITALS. 15 The words river, lake, bay, etc., used as common nouns, commence with small letters ; as, " There are many beautiful lakes and navigable rivers," etc., but when joined with a proper name, designating an in- dividual, a capital is generally used ; as, " The Ohio River, Great Salt Liake," etc. 4. The pronoun I^ and the interjection O, are written in capitals. 5. The first word of every line of poetry ; as — " Hark ! how the sacred calm that breathes around Bids every fierce, tumultuous passion ceiase ; In still, small accents whispering from the ground, A grateful earnest of eternal peace." 6. The appellations of the Deity ; as, God, Most Highy he Almighty y the Supreme Being, etc. ; also, the personal pronouns thou and he, when standing for his name ; as, " Praise Him, all ye people !" But when such words are used in a general sense, they commence with small letters, as, " The proyidence of God is over lords and peasants." " The gods of the heathen bow before our God." 7. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; as, Grecian, Roman, English, etc. 8. The first word of a direct quotation (1123), when the quotation would form a complete sentence by itself; as, " Always remember this ancient maxim : * Know thyself/ " When a quotation is not introduced in the direct form (1124), but follows a comma, the first word must not begin with a capital ; as, " Solomon observes that 'pj'ide goeth before destruction.' " 7. Common nouns, when personified ; as, " Come, gentle Spring." (1046, 1). 10. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books ; as, " Euclid's Elements of Geometry ;" " Goldsmith's Deserted Village" 11. Historical eras, events, extraordinary physical phe- nomena, written instruments, and generally, all worda 16 EKGLISH GRAMMAR, which are used in a specialized sense ; as, the Iron Age, Magna Charta, the Polar Sea, Aurora Borealis, the Day of Judgment, etc. 78. Otlier words, besides tlie preceding, may begin with capitals, wlien they are remarkably emphatic, or the principal subject of the composition. In cases where there is any doubt as to the proper usage, employ a email letter. Accent. In the pronnnciation of words of more than one syllable, accent is the superior /or c^ of voice upon some par- ticular syllable, to distinguish it from the others ; as, ten'- der, suppress', temperance, indus'trious. The place of the accent sometimes serves to distinguish words of the same orthography , but of different signification ; as, con' duct (behavior), conduGt', (to lead) ; db'ject (an end, purpose), object', (to oppose) ; gal'lant (brave), gallant' (a gay or fashionable man). JDerivative ivords (84) generally take the accent upon the primitive part or root; as, boy, boy'ish. But when the primitive words consist of several syllables, a prefix or suffix has often the effect of changing the accent; as, chastise', chas'tisement. Some compounds take tivo accents; but many permanent compounds have only one ; as, mankind', gen'tlemcn. ^ Many 2>oly syllables have two accents^ called primary and secondary ; as, dis"-com-pose', cir"-cum-spec'- tion, sig"-ni-fi-ca'-tion. MonosjfUahles, as separate words, have no distinction of accent ; but, in composition, a periodic stress, analogous to accent, designates particular words. This is more noticeable in poetry, but ig also recognized in prose ; as, " And it came' to pass'." This distino Hon is called rhythm (1060). ETYMOLOGY — WORDS. PART II. ETYMOLOGY. 79. Btymology treats of the different sorts of words, their various modifications, and their deri- vations. WORDS. 80, A Word is an articulate sound used Iby com- mon consent as the sign of an idea. 81. A few words consist of vocal or vowel sounds only; as, /, ah, moe, oh, owe, eye, etc. 82.-1. Words in respect of their Formation^ are either Primitive or Derivative, Simple or Com- pound. 83. A I*rhnitive word is one that is not derived from any other word in the language ; as, hoy, just, father. 84. A Derivative word is one that is derived from some other word ; as, boyish, pistice, fatherly. Derivatives are usually formed either by prefixing or aflSxing sylla- bles to simple words. 8fj. A Simple word is one that is not combined with any other word ; as, man, house, city. 86. A Compound word is one that is made np of two or more simple words ; as, manhood, horseman. " ui:)wards ; as, withhold, withstand. as, underlay, undervalua as, uplift, upstart. Latin Prefixes, A,ab,abs " from; as, avert, abstract. Ad"^ to; as, admit, adhere. Atite\ before ; as. antecedent, anticipate. Bene " well; as, benevolent. Bis {hi) two, twice ; as. biped, bisect. Circiun " around ; as. circumference. Cont ^ with, together ; as. connect, consent. Contra against ; as. contradict. Be down ; as. descend, degrade. Bis (di) apart; as. disperse, diverge. E, ex, ef " out (from) ; as, eject, expel, efiect. Bqui equally ; as. equilateral. Extra beyond ; as. extraordinary J/i(withv'b)" in or into ; as, include. B\{'' adjec.)" not ; as. indecent. Inter between ; as. intersperse. Bitro within ; as. introduce. Non not ; as, nonsense. Oh% against or in way of; as. obstruct, oppose. Per through ; as, persecute. Post after ; as. postpone. Bre{pr(x) " before ; as, prejudice. Breter beside, past ; as. pretermit. Pro forth ; as, propel. Me back; as, remit. * Ad sometimes changes d for the sake of euphony, and takes the forms, ac, af, ag, al, an, up, ar, as, at ; as, accede, «/fects, aggressor, aZlude, arinex, <7|jpend, arrest, assent, «rtend. f Antl sometimes, but to be distinguished from the Greek anti, against. X Con, for euphony, takes the forms, CO, com, col ; as, cohere, compel, coZlect. § For euphony, oc, of, op ; as, occur, o/fend, ojjposite. ETYMOLOGY— PREFIXES. %\ Retro backward ; as, • retrograde. Se apart; as, seduce. Sub* under; as. subject. Subter « underneath ; as. subterfuge. Super over ; as. superfluous. Sur over; as. surcharge. Trans across ; as. transport. ^ TJlt^ra beyond ; as. ultramaiine. Greek Prefixes. A or an (d, av) signifying not ; as. anarchy. Amphi (a/Kpc) both ; as. amphibious. Ana (ava) up; as, anagram. Auti {avTi) " against ; as, antichrist. Apo {ano) " from ; as. apostle. Arch {apxo^) " cliief; as. archbishop. Auto (avTog) self; as, autobiography. Cata (Kara) down ; as. catastrophe. Via (dm) through ; as, diameter. En {ev) in; as. encourage. Epl (eiri) upon ; as. epigram. Ex {e^) out of; as. exodus. Eu {tv) weU ; as. euphony. Henil (vfic) half; as. hemisphere. Hetero {cTepog) different ; as, heterogeneous. Hyper {vnep) " over ; as, hypercritical. Hypo (vT^o) " under ; as. hypothesis. Meta (iiera) " change ; as, metamorphose. Para {Tvapa) " beside ; as. paradox. I'erl (TT-ept) " around ; as, perimeter. Syn\ {ovf) with ; as. synthesis. These prefixes have other meanings in composition ; the particular sense can be determined only by use !. Many derivatives, and especially ■ those of ' foreign roots, are used * Euphonic forms, sue, suf, sur, as succor, «w/fer, «^rreptitioua. f This takes, also, for euphony, the form, syin, syl ; as sywpathy^ sy'logism. 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. in a somewhat tropical, or conventional sense, but their mean, ing always bears a relation to the original root. Some derivatives have many special meanings, according to the subject to which they refer, and their relation to other words in composition. It is recommended that at stated times the pupil be required to prepare lists of words under each of these prefixes, and that the teacher show how such as are used in a modified sense have lost their literal meaning. For an additional exercise, some native or foreign root may be given, which will combine with each of several prefixes, — the pupils to form a list, and write out their meanings. Suffixes, A suffix is a letter or syllable, placed after d root, or x)rimitive, to modify its signification. The sufiixes are so numerous, and of such varied form and mean- ing, that they are more appropriately presented in separate works on the " Analysis of Words." It has been thought desirable, however, to present what may be regarded as their graniinatical fea- tures in the structure of the different Farts of Speech (98), and the discussion has, therefore, been removed to Appendix I., which see. -/ PARSING-. 93. JParsing is the art of resolving a sentence into its elements or parts of speech (91. 3). I 94, Parsing is distinguished into etymolofjical and syntactical, (575). 95, A word is parsed etyinologically by stating the class of words to which it belongs, with its accidents or grammatical properties. (576). ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS. 23 96. A word is parsed Syntactically by stating, in addition, the relation in which it stands to other words, and the rules according to which they are combined in phrases and sentences. (983). 07, These two, tliougli related, are perfectly distinct; and in tlia early part of the student's course, nothing should be anticipated wliich he can be supposed to know only at a more advanced stage. Let the student learn one tiling at a time, each thing thoroughly in its proper order, and continue to combine things learned, as far as it can he done tcithout anticipating what is future. In this way the pro. cess will be simple and easy ; every step will be taken in the light, and when completed, the result will be satisfactory. Besides, the student must be able to parse etymologically with great ease and promptness, before he can with any advantage begin the study of syntax. For this purpose the class should be properly drilled on the exercises furnished at every step in the following pages. PARTS OF SPEECH. 98. The I^arts of Speech in English are nine, viz. : Noun^ Pronoun^ Verb, Article, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition, Interjection, and Conjunction, 99. Of these, only the iVbz^Ti, Pronoun, and Yerb^ and some Adjectives and Adverbs, are inflected. NOUNS. 100. A ^oun is the name of any person, place, or thing, when used in connection with other words -j as, Jolin, London, booli. Hence, The names of persons, 2olaces, or things, are Nouns. 101. Nouns are of two kinds, Proper and Com^ 9non, 102. A Proper Worm is the name applied to aii individual only ; as, John, London, America, th^ Ohio, 24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 103» A Common Wounis, a name applied to al] tilings of the same sort ; as, man, chair, table, book. 104. Kemaeks. — Proper nouns are used to distinguish individuals of the same class from one another. Common nouns distinguish sorts or classes, and are equally applica- ble to all things of the same class. Thus, the common noun, boy, is equally applicable to all objects of that class; but the proper nouns, John, James, Eobert, etc., are appH- cable only to particular mdividuals of a class. Observations on Nouns, 105, V/hen a proper noun is used to denote a whole class, it is usually reckoned common, and generally has an article before it. In such cases the noun becomes the type of a class, and forms a kind of transition between the proper and the common noun ; as, " The twelve Ccesars,^' " He is the Cicero of his age," " A Daniel come to judg- ment." A Campbell, i. e. one of the Campbells. lOa, Common nouns become proper when personified (1046, 1), and also when used as proper names ; as, Hail, Liberty! The Parh, 10 T. Under common nouns are usually ranked — 1. Class names, which can be used to designate any sin- gle individual of the class. 2. Collective nouns, or nouns of multitude, which signify many in the singular number ; as, army, people. . 3. Names of materials. 4. Names of measures, etc. 5. Abstract nouns, or names of qualities. An abstract noun is the name of an attribute which the mind conceives apart, or abstracted from, its object; as, wJiiteness, sleep, luisdom, etc. The names of actions, as reading^ writing, etc., are some- times called verbal nouns. ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS 25 Class nouns, derived from other nouns, and denoting a small one of the kind; as, stream, streamlet ; Idll, hUlock ; are also called diniluutive nouns. Table of Nouns, . Proper • . ] 2. Common 1. Class names as Washington. a Sampson. Book. Scholar. Army. Iron. Foot, etc. Goodness. Flight. Sleep. Particulak names . . In transition state . j Sensible V Rational , 2. Collective names . , 3. Names of materials . 4. Names of measures, etc. {1. Names of qualities 2. Names of actions 3. Names of states . 108. To the class of nouns belongs ever3i;Mng, whether word, letter, mark, or character, of which we can tliink, speak, or write, re- garded merely as an object of tliought, even when, as sometimes hap- pens, we do not give it a name. Thus when we say, " Good " is an adjective, a is a vowel, 6 is a consonant, ^ is a capital, 4 is an even number, ^ is a fraction, ? is a mark of interrogation, + is the sign of addition, — of subtraction, = of equality — Oood, a, b, A, 4, i, ?, -f> — , =, are all to be regarded as nouns. 109, Remark. — A noun is also called a substantive. But this term for convenience is here used in a more comprehensive sense, to mean a noun, a personal pronoun, or a plirase, or seri- fence used as a noun. Thus in such a rule as this, "An adjective qualifies the substantive," etc., the word substantive may n»ean either a noun, pronoun, substantive phrase, or substantive sentence. EXERCISES.* 1. In the following list, distinguish proper nouns from com~ nion, and give a reason for the distinction : — * The exercises furnished here, and throughout this work, are in- tended merely as a specimen of the way in which the leading truths and facts in Grammar may be wrought into the minds of pupils, by means of exercises properly devised. It is not, however, expected or 2 26 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. Albany, city, tree, nation, France, Philip, dog, horse, house, garden, Dublin, Edinburgh, London, river, Hudson, Ohio, Thames, countries, America, England, Ireland, Spain, sun, moon, stars, planets, Jupiter, Venus, Mars, man, wo- man, boy, girl, John, James, Mary, Susan, mountain, stream, yalley. 2. In the following sentences, point out the nouns. Say why they are nouns ; tell whether they are proper or common, and why. Thus : " Table" a noun, because the name of a thing ; common, bo cause applied to all tilings of the same sort. [In subsequent exercises, the pupil may designate more particu' larly the sub-classes to which the nouns belong : — ] The table and chairs in this room belong to John ; the book-case, writing-desk, and books, to his brother. — Time and tide wait for no man. — The largest city in Europe is London; in America, New York.-=— The northern states produce wheat, oats, barley, rye, corn, and potatoes ; while cotton, tobacco, rice, and sugar, are the products of the south. 3. Write down ten nouns, or names of persons or things, and say something respecting each, so as to make a sentence ; thus : — Summer. — Summer is the warmest season of the year. 4. Tell what words in the sentences so made are nouns, and why ; which are proper, or common, and why. Accidents of the Noun, 110, The accidents of nouns are I*erson^ Gen- det'f Number f and Case. A desired that the teacher should limit himself to these. Every activQ and ingenious teacher ^vill de^dse such new and various methods ot exercising his pupils as their age, capacity, and circumstances, and his own judgment and experience may suggest, as best calculated to draw out their powers, and cultivate in them a habit of thinking and reasoning for theiy selves. ETYMOLOGY — NOUNS — PERSON. 27 Note. — These accidents belong also to personal and rela- tive pronouns (239). Person. 111, Per son f in Grammar, is the distinction ol nouns to denote the speaker, the person or thing spoken to, or the person or thing spoken of. (120). Hence, 112, There are three persons, called First, Second, and Tliird. 113, A noun is in the first person, when it denotes the speaker ; as, " I, Paul, have written it." 114, A noun is in the second person, when it denotes the person or thing addressed; as, "Thou, God, seest me."—" Hail, Liberty !" lis, A noun is in the third person, when it denotes the person or thing spoken of; as, " Washington was brave." — " Truth is mighty." lid. Remark. — The third person is used sometimes for the j?r5^/ as, " Thy «er»rt7i? became surety for the lad to my father." Gen. xliv. 33. Sometimes, particularly in the language of supplication, it is used for the second ; as, " O let not the Lord be angry." Gen. xviii. 80. " Will the Lord bless us 1 " Observjations on Person, 117, The first and the second person can belong only to nouns denoting persons, or things personified ; because persons only can speak or be spoken to. The third person may belong to all nouns, because every object, whether person or thing, may be spoken of. 118. A. noun can be the subject of a verb (G^O), only in the tbird person. A noun in the first or second person is never used as the subject of a verb, but only in apposition (608) \vith the first or second personal pronoun, for the sake of explanation or emphasis ; and sometimes in the second jierson, without a pronoun, as the object jjddressed. 28 EKGLISHGRAMMAB. 110* A noun in the predicate (629), is generally, thougli not always, in the third person, even when the subject is in the first ol second , as, "I am Alpha,^' etc., " who is." So with the pronouns 1 and thou ;■ as, " I am hef " Thou art the man." 120, Remark. — Person makes no change either in the meaning or form of a noun, but simply denotes the manner in which it is used, as above stated. Moreover, as the name of the speaker, or of the person spoken to, is seldom expressed (the pronouns I and tliou, we and you, being used in their stead), it seems to be a useless waste of time, in parsing, to mention the person of a noun, unless it be in the first or second person, which will not happen more than once in a thousand times. Much time therefore will be saved, and no loss sus- tained, if it be considered as taken for granted, without stating it, that a noun is in the third person, unless it be otherwise mentioned. Grender. 121. Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. Appendix II. 122. There are three genders, Masculine, Fem^ ininef and Neuter. 123. l^^ouns denoting males are ilffascw7me; as, man^ boy. 124. Nouns denoting females are Feminine; as, woman, girl. 12 5. Nouns denoting neither males nor females, i. e., things without sex, are Neuter; as, house, booJc, tree. 120. Nouns which denote either males or females, such as parent, neiglihor, friend, etc., are sometimes, for the sake of convenience, said to be of the Common Gender^ i. e., either masculine or feminine. 127* There are three ways of distinguishing the sexes. ETYMOLOGY— KOUNS — GEKDEB. 1, By Different Words; as, Mageuline. Feminine. Masculine. Feminine, Bachelor maid Horse mare Beau belle Husband wife Boy girl King queen Brother Bister Lord lady Buck doe Man woman Didl cow Master mistress Drake duck Nephew niece Earl countess Ram, buck ewe Father mother Son daughter Friar nun Stag hind . Gander goose Uncle aunt Hart xoe Wizard witch 2. By a IUfference of Termination; as. Masculine. Feminine. Mascvline. Feminine. Abbot abbess Arbiter arbitress Actor actress Author authoress Administrator administratrix Baron baroness Adulterer adulteress Bridegroom bride Ambassador ambassadress Benefactor benefactress Count countess Peer peeress Deacon deaconess Poet poetess Duke duchess Priest priestess Elector electress Prince princess Emperor empress Prior prioress Enchanter enchantress Prophet prophetess Executor executrix Protector protectress Governor governess Shepherd shepherdess Heir heiress Songster songstress Hero lieroine Sorcerer sorceress Hunter liuntress Sultan { sultana, or \ sultaness Host liostess Jew Jewess Tiger tigress Landgrave landgravine Traitor traitress Lion lioness Tutor tutoress ^Marquis marchioness Viscount viscountess Mayor mayoress Votary votaress Patron patroness Widower widow 2a 30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. By Brefixing a Distinguishing Word; Masculine. Feminine. Sparrow. A cock sparrow. A hen sparrow. Goat. A he goat. A she goat. Servant. A man servant. A maid servant. Child. A male cliild. A female child. Descendants. Male descendants. Female descenda as. Observations on Gender, 128, Many masculine nouns have no corresponding feminine ; as, haTcer, hreiver, etc. : and some feminine nouns have no corresponding mascuhne; as, laundress, seam- stress, etc. 120, Some nouns naturally neuter, are often, by a figure of speech (1046, 1), converted into the masculine or femi- nine; as, when we say of the sun, "i/e is setting;" of the moon, " She is eclipsed ;" or of a ship, " 8he sails." 150, Remahk. — This inferior species of personification, peculiar to the English language, is often used with great beauty to impart animation and liveliness to the^style, without rendering it inflated or passionate. No certain rule, however, can he given as to the gender assumed, except that nouns denoting objects distinguished for strength or boldness, are usually regarded as masculine, while, on the other hand, those denoting objects noted for softness, beauty, and gracefulness, are considered feminine. 151, In speaking of animals whose sex is not known to us, or not regarded, we assign the masculine gender to nouns denoting those distinguished for boldness, fidelity, generosity, size, strength, etc, as the dog, the horse, the elephant. Thus we say, " the dog is remarka- bly various in his species." On the other hand, we assign the femi- nine gender to animals characterized by weakness and timidity ; as the hare, the cat, etc. ; thus, " The cat, as she beholds the light, draws the ball of her eye small and long," 132. In speaking of animals, particularly those of inferior size, we fr^xjuently consider ihem without sex, and use the neuter pronoun. Thus, of an infant, we say, " It is a lovely creature ;" of a cat, " It la cruel to its enemy. 133, When the male and female are expressed by distinct terms, ETYMOLOGY — NOUI^S — GENDER. 31 as, shepherd, shepherdess, the masculine term lias sometimes also a general meaning, expressing both male and female, and is always to be used when the office, occupation, profession, etc., and not the sex of the individual, is chiefly to be expressed. Tlie feminine term is used only when the discrimination of sex is necessary. Thus, when it is said, " the Poets of this country are distinguished for correctness of taste," the term " Poets" clearly includes both male and female writers of poetry. But, " the best Poetess of the age," would be saiil when speaking only of females. 134:. Collective nouns, when the reference is to the ag- gregate as one whole, or when they are in the plural num- ber, are considered as neuter; as, "The army destroyed everything in its course ;" but when the reference is to the objects composing the collection as individuals, they take the gender representing the sex of the individuals re- ferred to. EXERCISES. 1. What is the feminine o/— Father, prince, king, master, actor, emperor, bridegroom, stag, buck, hart, nephew, friar, priest, heir, hero, Jew, host, hunter, sultan, executor, horse, lord, husband, brother, son, bull, he-goat, etc. ? 2. What IS the masculine of — Lady, woman, girl, niece, nun, aunt, belle, duchess, abbess, empress, heroine, wife, sister, mother, hind, roe, mare, hen-sparrow, shepherdess, daughter, ewe, goose, queen, songstress, widow, etc. ? 3. TeU of what gender the following nouns are, and why. Man, horse, tree, field, father, house, mother, queen, count, lady, king, prince, castle, tower, river, stone, hen, goose, seamstress, mountain, cloud, air, sky, hand, foot, head, body, limb, lion, tiger, mayor, countess; — friend, neighbor, parent, teacher, assistant, guide; — sun (129), moon, earth, ship ; — cat (132), mouse, fly, bird, elephant, hare. 4. Take any of the above words, and say something respecting the person or thing which it denotes, so as to make a sentence ; thus^ " MyfatJier is at home." 82 ENGLISH GKAMMAE. Number. 135. Nurtiber is tliat property of a nonn "b^ wMcli it expresses one, or more tlian one. 136. Nouns have two numbers, the Singular and the JPlural. The singular denotes one ; as, hooli^ tree : the plural, more than one ; as, hooJcs^ trees. GENEKAL RULE. 137. The plural is commonly formed by adding 8 to the singular ; as, hoolc^ hooks. SPECIAL EULES. 138. EuLE 1. — ^Nouns in «, sJi, ell soft, ^, oc^ or o, form the plural by adding es ; as, Miss, Misses ; hrush, trushes; match, matches; topaz, topazes; fox, foxes; hero, heroes. 130. Exceptions. — Nouns in eo, io, and yOy have s only, as, cameo, cameos; folio, folios ; embryo, embryos. So also, canto, cantos. Junto, tyro, grotto, portico, solo, halo, quarto, formerly had s only in the plural ; but now more commonly es under the Rule ; as, junto, juntoes, etc. Nouns in ch sounding U, add s only ; as, monarch, monarchs. See also 144. 14:0. Whenever s or es will not coalesce with the final syllable, it adds a syllable to the word ; as, age, pi. ages ; box, boxes. But where s or es will coalesce, it does not add a syllable ; as, book, books ; cargo, cargoes. The s will make an additional syllable only after e final, preceded by g or an **-sound ; as, cage, cages ; race, races ; rose, roses. Es will coalesce, and so not add a syllable, only after o ; as, echo, echoes. 141. EuLE 2. — ^ouns in y after a consonant, change 2/ into ies in the plural ; as, lady, ladies. But Nouns in y after a vowel, and all proper nouns in y, fol- low the general rule (137); as, day, days; the Pompeys, the Tullys, etc. ETYMOLOGY — KOUNS — NUMBEE. 33 142. Rule 3. — ^Nouns in / or fe^ change / or fe into ves in the plural; as, loaf, loaves; life, lives, 143* Exceptions. — Dwarf, scarf, reef; brief, cliief, grief; kercliief, handkercliief, iniscliief; gulf, turf, surf; safe, fife, strife; proof, hoof, reproof, follow the general rule. Also nouns in ff have their plural in .s ; as muff, muffs ; except staff, plural, staves ; but its compounda are regular; as, flagstaff) flxigstaffs ; wharf has either wharfs or wharoea. EXERCISES. 1. Give the plural of the following nouns, and the rule for forming it; thus, Fox, plural, /oa-^s. Rule — Nouns in «, sh, ch soft, z, x, or o, form the plural by adding es. Or, more briefly ; Nouns in x form the plural by adding es. Fox, book, leaf, candle, hat, loaf, wish, fish, sex, box, coach, inch, sky, bounty, army, duty, knife, echo, loss, cargo, wife, story, church, table, glass, study, calf, branch, street, potato, peach, sheaf, booby, rock, stone, house, glory, hope, flower, city, difficulty, distress, wolf. " Day, bay, relay, chimney, journey, valley, needle, enemy, army, vale, ant, valley, hill, sea, key, toy, monarch, tyro, grotto, nuncio, punctilio, embryo, gulf, handkerchief, hoof, staff, muff, cliff, whiff, cuff, ruff, reef, safe, wharf, fief. 2. Of what number is — Book, trees, plant, shrub, globes, planets, toys, home, fancy, mosses, glass, state, foxes, houses, prints, spoon, bears, lilies, roses, churches, glove, silk, skies, hill, river, scenes, stars, berries, peach, porch, glass, pitcher, valleys, mountain, cameos ? 3. Take six of the above words, and say something respecting eash ; first in the singular, and then in the plural. Nouns Irregular in the Plural, 144, Some nouns are irregular in the formation of their plural ; such as — 34 EN^GLISH GRAMMAR. Singular. Plural. Singular. PlurdL Man men Tooth teeth Woman women Goose geese Cliild children Mouse mice Foot feet Louse lice Ox oxen Cow forme 3rly kine but now regular, cows 145 • Some nouns have both a regular and an irregular form of the plural, but with different significations ; as — Singular Plural. Brother jone of the same family) brothers Brother (one of the same society) brethren Die (a stamp for coining) dies Die (a small cube for gaming) dice Genius (a man of genius) geniuses Genius (a kind of spirit) genii Index (a table of reference) indexes Index (a sign in algebra) indices Pea (as a distinct seed) peas Pea (as a species of grain) pease Sow (an individual animal) sows Sow or swine (the species) Bwine Penny (a coin ) pennies Pennj (a sum or value) pence 146. NoTE.- —Though pence is plural, ye t such an expr( fourpence, sixpence, etc., as the name of a sum, or of a coin repre- senting that sum, is often regarded as singular, and so capable of a plural ; as, " Three fourpences, or two sixpences, make a shilling." ** A new sixpence is heavier than an old one." 14:7' Compounds ending in ful or full, and generally those which have the important word last, form the plural regularly ; as, spoon- ful, cupful, coachful, handful, mouse-trap, ox-cart, court-yard, camera- obscura, etc. ; plural, spoonfuls, cupfuls, coaehfuls, etc. 148. Compounds in which the principal word stands iSrst, pluraL Ize the first word ; as — Plural. commanders-in-chief Singular. Commander-in-chief Aid-de-camp Knight-errant aids-de-camp knights-errant ETYilOLOGY — NOUNS — NUMBER. 35 Singular. Plural. Court-martial courts-martial Cousin-gennan cousins-german Father-in-law, etc. fathers-iu-law, etc. Man-servant changes both; as, men-servants. So also, icomenr tervants, knights-templars. 149. The compounds of man form the plural as the simple word; as, fisherman, fishermen. But nouns accidentally ending in man, and not compounds of Tuan, form the plural by the general rule ; as, Turcoman, Mussulman, talisman; plural, Turcomans, Mussul- mans, etc. 150. Proper names, when pluralizcd, and other parts of speech used as nouns, or mere names, form the plural like nouns of similar endings ; as, the Aristotles, the Salons, the Mariuses, the Pompeys, the Giceros ; the ayes and noes, the ins and the outs ; by sixes and sevens, \iy fifties ; three fourt/is, two halves ; "His ands and hia ors;" " One of the huts is superfluous." 151. Exception. — Such words ending in y after a consonant, fol- low the general rule (137), and not the special rule (141) ; as, the Litys, the Tullys, the Henrys — " The whys and the bys." 152. Letters, marks, and numerical figures, are made plural by adding 's ; as, " Dot your Vs, and cross your Vs." — " Your s's are not well made." — " The 4-'« and — 's are not in line." — " Four 6's =eight 3'«." — " 9'« give place to 0'«." 153. Note. — Some good writers form the plural of proper names, etc., in this way ; as, the Marius's, the Pompey's — the why's and the wherefore's. But this is unnecessary and should be avoided. 154:, Words adopted without change from foreign languages, gen- erally retain their original plural. As a general rule, nouns in um or on, havei a in the plural. Latin nouns in is, in the plural change is into es ; Greek nouns in is, change is into ides : Latin nouns in a, change a into r granted that a noun is common when not otherwise mentioned. This appears to be sufficient for every purpose. ETYMOLOGY — NOUJ^S. 48 PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. 181, In proceeding to parse the noun, the teacher, if he tliinks proper, may begin by some such inductive process as the following : The class having gone through the preceding definitions and rules, the teacher may call on some one to mention the name of any thing he sees, or happens to think of; and suj^pose he mentions the words hovse, tree, book, desk, pen, etc., let these words be written on the blackboard. He may then call on another, and another, in the same way, still writing the names as mentioned. In this way the pupils will furnish a list of exercises for themselves. The teacher may then take the first of these, " house," and write it by itself on the board, at the left hand, and proceed with some such questions as the following, the answers to which, from what has been previously learned, will be obvious, and readily given : — Is House the name of any thing? What part of speech is the name of a thing ? Then, what part of speech is House ? Ans. "A nounJ* (After the word hovse on the board now write the word " noun") What is a noun ? — How many kinds of nouns are there ? What is a proper noun ? — what a common noun ? Is the word 7i^w«e proper or common ? Ans. Common. Why? (Then after the word " noun " write the word common, as before.) What are the properties or accidents of the noun ? What is gender? — How many genders are there? What nouns are masculine? — what feminine? — what neuter? To which of these does the word A<>Mse belong? Kus. Neuter. Why! (Then write the word neuter after common, as above.) What is the next property of the noun ? What is number? — How many numbers are there? What does the singular denote ? — the plural ? Does Jiouse denote one or more than one ? Of what number then is home ? Ans. Singular. (Xow add as above the word singular.) What is the next property of a noun ? How many cases are there ? Name them. Inflect house in the singular: in the plural. Which of these cases is used when a noun is mentioned simply a^ the name of an object? (16 G — Note). Honse being used in this manner here, in what case is it ? Ans. In the Nominative. (Then write nominative at the end, as above.) 44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. There will now have been written on the blackboard the follow, ing:— House, Noun, Common, Neuter, Siiigular, Nominative. The teacher may then ask, as a sort of review : Why do you call house, a nounf — why, common? — why, neuter f — why, singular? — why, the nominative ? — requiring a distinct answer to each question. And lastly, he may require the pupil to state these reasons in order, without the questions being asked ; thus : — House — a Noun, because the name of a thing ; Common, because it belongs to all tilings of the sort ; Neuter, because without sex ; Singular, because it denotes one, x^lural, Jiouses ; Nominative, because it is used only as a name (166). By repeating this process a few times, occasionally, all that belongs to the parsing of a noun will become so familiar, and so clearly un- derstood, as to be always easy. 182, In parsing, these accidents may be -stated, either in the order above, or in such as the teacher prefers. Some say, " A common neu- ter noun, in the nominative singular." Others prefer, as giving more prominence to the accidents, and sujfficiently euphonious, to say, " A noun, common, neuter, in the nominative singular ; — or omitting the kind of noun, except when a proper noun occurs, for reasons stated (180), to say more briefly, "A noun, neuter, in the nominative singu- lar." This last method is the one here recommended, as being brief and sufficiently descriptive. EXERCISES. 1. State the gender, case, and number of the following nouns, and always in the same order ; thus, " Father, a noun, masculine, in the nominative, singular." Father, brothers, mother's, boys, book, loaf, arms, wife, hats, sisters', bride's, bottles, brush, goose, eagles' wings, echo, ox's horn, mouse, kings, queens, bread, child's toy, grass, tooth, tongs, candle, chair, Jane's boots, Robert's shoe, horse, bridle. 3. Go over the same list, giving a reason for everything stated ; thus, "Father, a noun, because the name of an object; masculine, be- cause it denotes a male ; nominative, because mentioned simply as the name of an object (166) ; singular, because it denotes one." ETYMOLOGY — AETICLja. 45 THE ARTICLE. 183. An article is a word put before a noun, to fiidicate the manner in which it is used (707, etc.). 184. There are two articles, a or an and the. ^ 18a. A or an is called the indefinite article, be- cause it shows that its noun denotes a person or thing indefinitely, or without distinction ; as, A man, i. e., any man, or some man, without stating which one. 186. A is used before a consonant; as, a looh: also before a vowel or diphthong, which combines with its sound the power of initial y, or w; as, a unit, a use, a eulogy, a ewe, many a one. 187. An is used before a vowel or silent h; as, an age, an Jiourj also before words beginning with h sounded, when the accent is on the second syllable; as, an heroic action, an historical account ; — because h in such words is but slightly sounded. 188. Note. — The primary form of this article is An (ane). The n has been dropped before a consonant, from regard to euphony. 180. A or an is sometimes used in the sense of one^ each, every ; as, "Six cents a pound;" "two shillings a yard;" "one dollar a day;" "four hundred a year" (192). 190. Remark. — In the expressiops a hunting, a fishing, a going, a running, a building, and the like ; also, in the expressions, now nearly obsolete, " a Wednesdays," " a nights," " a pieces," etc., a is equivalent to at, to, in, on, and is to be regarded, not as an article, but as a preposition (548) ; or the entire expression may be taken together as an adverbial i)hrase (548). _ 191. The is called the definite article, because it shows that its noun is used definitely, and refers to some particular person or thing ; as, the man, i. e., some particu- lar man ascertained or pointed out. See S3nitax (707-2). 192. Note. — The article is sometimes said to limit the significa* 46 ENGLISH GRAMMAB. tion of a noun, and is therefore called a " definitive." This is scarcely correct. A noun with a or an prefixed, is always used in an individ- ual sense, to denote one, of a class. But this being for the most part sufficiently indicated by the singular number, the use of the article to mark the individual is necessary only in the few cases in which the noun, in the singular number, is used in a generic, as well as individ- ual sense. Thus, the terms man, woman, oak, etc., without an article, mean the species ; but with a or an prefixed, they mean the individ- ual ; as, a man, a woman, an oak. So far only can a or an properly be said to limit, or perform the part of a definitive. In other respects, it rather shows the want of limitation. 103, In like manner, the article the commonly indicates that its noun is limited, and refers to some particular person or thing, but still the article is not the limiting word. A noun may be limited in a variety of ways ; by notoriety or eminence, by previous mention, by an adjective, a possessive, a relative clause, a preposition and its case, etc., but never by the article, except perhaps in the case of previous mention, and even that is doubtful. Thus, when we say, " The red book," " the hoy's book," " the book which we lost," " the book on the tahle," we perceive that the word look, following the, is limited — not, however, by the article, but by the words red, hoy's, etc. This fact constitutes a specific difference between the article and the adjective : the adjective always describes or limits its noun (195) ; the article does not, but is only a sort of index, to give previous notice that the noun is used in a particular way. JParsing the Article. 194. The article is parsed by stating whether it is definite or indefinite, <£iiid to what noun it belongs ; thus, ''A book." A is the indefinite article, and belongs to booJc, Is it proper to say- -a man, or an man? why? a apple, or an apple ? why? a house, or an house ? why? a hour. or an hour ? why? a unicorn. or an unicorn? why? a ewe, or an ewe? why? ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 47 1. Prefix the indetinite article a or an correctly to the followmg words. 'Z. Tell which words are nouns, and why — parse them (177) — inflect them. Chair, table, horse, cart, book, house, garden, bird, owl, egg, oar, eye, tree, cow, unit, use, old man, young man, word, hook, pot, bench, desk, room, oven, oak, eulogy, ewe, uncle, aunt; — open wagon, useful contrivance, round stone, old hat. 3. In the following', correct such as are wrong, and give a reason for the change ; — parse the articles and nouns. An cup, a door, a apple, a pear, a ounce, a pound, an hat, an wig, an eulogy, an youth, a honor, a heir, a crow, a os- trich, a pen — a ugly beast, a useful tree, an humming-bird, an neat cottage, a upper room, an huge monster. THE' ADJECTIVE. 195, An Adjective is a word nsed to qualify a substantive (109); as, *'A good boy;" ''a square box ;" " ten dollars ;" "we found him poor.'^'' 19 S, A noun is qtuilified by an adjective, when the object named is thereby described, limited, or distinguished from other things of the same name. This is done in two ways : — 1. Certain adjectives connect with their nouns some quality by which the objects named are described or distinguished from others of the same kind; as, "A red flag;" "an amusing story." Such are common and participial adjectives (203, 206). 2. Others merely limit, %vithout expressing any quality ; as, " An American book ;" '• ten dollars ;" " last week ;' " this year ;" " every day," etc. Such are circumstantial, numeral, and definitive adjectives O>04, 205, 206, v.). 197. Adjectives, as predicates (586), may qualify an infinitive mood (393), or clause of a sentence (585) used as 4:8 EKGLISHGRAMMAR. a substantive ; as, " To play is pleasant" — '*' That the riJi are happy is not always true " (684). 198. Several adjectives sometimes qualify the same noun ; as, "A smooth, round stone" (583, 1 ; 716). 199» An adjective is sometimes used to qualify the meaning of another adjective, the two forming a sort of compound adjective ; as, "A hright-red color ;" " a dark-blue coat ;" " a cast-iron baU " (618). 200. When other parts of speech are used to qualify or limit a noun or pronoun, they perform the part of an ad- jective, and should be parsed as such; thus, JSoufi; as, A gold ring; silver cup, sea water, a stone bridge. l^ronoiins ; as, A he bear; a she wolf. Adverbs ; as. Is the child well ? for very age ; the then king. Prepositions ; as. The alove remark; the under side. 201* On the contrary, adjectives without a substantive are sometimes used as nouns ; as, " God rewards the good, and punishes the had." — " The virtuous are the most happy" Adjectives used in this way are usually preceded by the, and when applied to persons, are for the most part consid- ered pluraL Division of Adjectives, 202, Adjectives are sometimes divided into the follow- ing classes, viz. : 203. I. Adjectives denoting quality^ called Common Adjectives ; as, good, sweet, large, short. Various kinds of qualities may be expressed: — 1. Those which are recognized directly by the senses^ aS; white snow, flowing stream. ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 49 2. Those which we can affirm of anything only as com^ pared with others; as, large man, short pencil. 3. Those which express a i^elation in which any thing stands to ourselves or others; as, an agreeable acquaintance. ^04. II. Adjectives denoting quantity; as, one, imicli, little,^ Note. — When adjectives of magnitude refer to distinct individuals, they indicate qaalUy rather than quatUity ; as, great lion, a »mall tree. Of adjectives denoting quantity, there are four classes : 1. Definite numeral adjectives, denoting some exact number; as, seven men. Numeral adjectives arc of two kinds, Cardinal and Ordinal, The Cardinal numbers indicate Jiow many ; they are one, tivo, three, four, etc. The Ordinal numbers indicate which one of a num- her ; they are fa'st, secotid, third, etc. In compound num- bers, the last only has the ordinal form; as, tiventy-^mST; tivo hundred and fifty-TKinD, etc. Numeral adjectives, being also names of numbers, are often used as nouns, and so have the inflection and con- struction of nouns ; thus, by tivos, by tens, by fifties. For ten^s sake, for twenty^ s sake. One and one are tivo. Two IS an even number. Five is the half of ten. Three fives ARE fifteen. Fifteen is divisible by three. Twice two is four.* Four is equal to twice two. Three fourths. * In some arithmetics, the language employed in the operation of multiplying — such as " Twice two are four, twice three are six " — is incorrect. It should be, " Twice two is four," etc. ; for the word tioo is used as a singular noun — the name of a nimiber. The adverb " tuice " is not in construction with it, and consequently does not make it plural. The meaning is, " The number two taken twice is equal to four." For the same reason we should say, " Three times 3 50 EKGLISHGRAMMAB. 2. Indefinite mimeral adjectives are such as do not denote any exact number; as,feiv, many, several, certain, etc. 3. Distributive numeral adjectives are such as point out a number of objects individually; the principal are each, every, either, neither. These are sometimes called adjective pronouns (296.) 4. Those denoting quantity as applied to materials; as, mtcch, little, some, any. 205, III. Circuntstantialf which express circum- stances of time, place, nation, etc. 206. IV. I^articipialf consisting of participles, or compounds of participles, used as adjectives ; as, an amusing story, an unmerited rebuke ; to pass unmolested. The former of these loses its verbal character, and simply describes ; the latter sometimes performs the office of a participle, although evi- dently compounded after its derivation. [To these some add — V. Definitive or distinguishing adjectives, which do not express any property of an object, but merely point it out, or limit in various ways the meaning of the noun. To this class belong such words as this, that, these, those, former, latter. These sometimes ac^ company the noun, and sometimes refer to it understood, or stand instead of it, after the manner of pronouns, and hence are sometime© called Pronominal adjectives, and sometimes Adjective pronouns. (See 289.)] Kemark. — The articles, a or an^ and the, are sometimes classic fied as adjectives. (See 192, 193.) two IS six," because the meaning is, " Two taken three times is six." Tf we say, " Three times one are three," we make " times " the subject of the verb, whereas the subject of the verb really is ''one," and " times " is in the objective of number (828). 2 : 4 : : 6 : 12, should be read, " As 2 is to 4, so is 6 to 12 ;" not " As two are to four, so are," etc. But when numerals denoting more than one are used as adjectives, with a substantive expressed or understood, they must have a pluraj construction : as, " Two are better than one." ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 61 207. Table of Adjectives. rl. Sensible Red. 1. Op Quality . . <2. Comparative Long. ( 3. Relational Pleasant ^DefinUe numeral i Cardinal . One. (Ordinal .First. 2. Of Quantity A Indefinite Few, many. Distnhutive Each. 'Measure Much. / Time Daily. 3. Circumstantial •! Place Eastern. \ Nation, eXc American. (Proper adjectives.) .4. Participial. . P^«c^^«^«^ Amusing. ( Vei'bal (Comjwund) .... Unmerited. 20S, Adjectives in English are inflected only to express degrees of comparison ; as, wise, wiser, wisest. Comparison of Adjectives. 200. Common and participial adjectives for the most part have three forms, called degrees of com- parison ; namely, I*ositlve, Comparative^ and Sii2}erlative. 210. The JPositive expresses a quality, simply ; as, '' Gold is heavy. ^^ 211. The Cmnparative expresses a quality in a higher degree in one object than in another, or in several taken together; as, "Gold is heavier i\\2in silver." '* He is wiser than his teachers." 212. The Superlative expresses a quality in one object in the highest degree compared with M E1S"GLISHGKAMMAK. several othei-s ; as, *'Gold is the most precious ot the metals." Sometimes, in the comparison of two objects, the quahty compared is not named, but the meaning of the adjective sufficiently indicates the quahty ; as, " My barn is larger than your house ;" that is, the size, etc., is larger. 213. Remark. — The superlative degree, wlien made by prefixing tlie adverb most, is often used to express a very high degree of a quality in an object, vidthout directly comparing it with others ; as, " He is a most distinguished man." Thus used, it is called the super- lative of eminence, and commonly has a or an before it, if the noun is singular ; and is without an article, if the noun is plural. The same thing is expressed by prefixing the adverb very, exceedingly, etc. ; as, " a very distinguished man ;" " very distinguished men." The super- lative of comparison commmonly has the before it. KULES POE COMPARISON. 214:, Rule 1. Adjectives of one syllable form the com- parative by adding er to the positive, and the superlative by adding est ; as, sweet, sweeter, sweetest. Words ending in e mute, drop e before er and est ; as, large, larger, largest. (66). 215, Rule 2. Adjectives of more than one syllable, are commonly compared by prefixing unore and most to the positive ; as, numerous, more numerous, most numerous. 210, Remauk, — Though these rules indicate the prevailing usage, yet adjectives of two syllables are not unfrequently compared by er and est; as, "Our tenderest cares;" "The commonest materials;" and some adjectives of one syllable, as loise, apt, jit, etc., from regard to euphony or taste, are sometimes compared by more and most Dissyllables in le and y are generally compared by er and est ; as as, ahle, abler, ablest. All adjectives in y after a consonant, change y into i before er and est ; as, dry, dHer, driest ; ha/ppy, happier, hap- picst (57) ; but y after a vowel is not changed ; as, gay, gayer, gayest. 217. A. lower degree of a quality in one object compared with . another, and the lowest compared with several others, is expressed ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVE 53 by prefixing less and least to the positive ; as, sweet, less stoeet, least sweet. This, by way of distinction, is sometimes called the compari* son of diminution, or comparison descending. 218, The meaning of the positive is sometimes diminished with- out employing comparison, by annexing the syllable ish ; as white, whitish ; block, blackish. These may be called diminutive adjectives. So also various shades, degrees, or modifications of quality are fre- quently expressed by connecting with the adjective such words as rather, somewhat, slightly, a little, too, tiery, greatly, etc., and, in the comparative and superlative, by such words as much, far, altogether, by far, etc. 21iX, Such adjectives as superior, inferior, exterior, interior, etc., though derived from Latin comparatives, and involving the idea of comparison, are not considered the comparative degree in English, any more than such words as preferable, previous, etc. They have neither the form nor the construction of the comparative (963-2). Irregular Co7nparison, 220, The following adjectives are compared irregularly, viz.: Positive. Comparative, Superlative, Good better best Bad, evil, or ill worse worst Little less, (sometimes lesser) least Much or many more most Late later, (irregular, latter) latest or last Near nearer nearest or next Far farther farthest JForth (obsolete) further furthest Fore former foremost or first Old older or elder oldest or eldest 221, 1. Much, is applied to things weighed or meas- \ired ; many, to things that are numbered ; more and 7nosty to both. 2. Farther and farthest generally denote place or dis- tance ; as, " The farther they went, the more interesting was tlie scene f further and furthest refer to quantity or addition ; as, " I have nothing further to say.'' 54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. Older and oldest are applied to persons or things, and refer to age or duration ; as, " Homer is an older poet than Virgil ; " The pyramids are older than the pantheon." 4. Elder and eldest (from the obsolete eld) are applied only to persons of the same family, and denote priority of birth ; as, " An elder brother." 5. Later and latest have respect to time ; latter and last, to position and order. 222. Some superlatives are formed by annexing most, sometimes to the comparative, and sometimes to the word from which the comparative is formed ; as, upper, upper- most or upmost, from up ; oiether, nethermost ; inner, innermost, or inmost, from in; hinder, hindermost, or hindmost, from hind ; outer, outermost, or utmost, from out, X Adjectives not Compared. 223. Adjectives whose signification does not admit of increase or diminution, can not properly be compared. These are — 1. Numerals ; as, one, two ; third, fourth; each, all, S07ne, etc. 2. JProper adjectives ; as, English, American, Roman, 3. Adjectives that denote fiffure^ sliape, or mate- rial / as, circular, square, wooden, etc. 4. Such adjectives as denote posture or position ; as, perpendicular, horizontal. 5. Definitives ; as, this, that, etc. 6. Adjectives of an absolute or superlative signi- fication ; as, true, perfect, universal, chief, extreme, infinite, complete. 224. Remark.— Of these last, however, comparative and superla- tive forms are sometimes used, either to give greater force to the ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 55 expression, or wlien the words are used in a sense not strictly abso" lute or superlative. The following are examples : — Extreme. — " The extremest of evils." — Bacon. " The extreniesi verge." — Shakes. "His extremest state." — Spencer. [So in Greek iaxnTuTaro^']. Chief.—" Chief est of the herdsmen."— J5t&?-1). What part of speech are words used to qualify nouns? Then what part of speech are tall, short, old, young, etc. ? Prefix an adjective to each of the nouns in the list above, so as to make sense. Prefix as many adjectives to each noun separately, as you can think of, to make sense ; thus : Horse — a large horse, a smallhorse, a young horse, an old horse, etc. What part of speech is large^ small, young^ etc.? Why? ETYMOLOGY — ADJECTIVES. 57 COMPARATIVE DEGREE. Are all men equally taUf Ans. No; some men are taUer than others. When you say, " James is taller than John," in what form or degree is the adjective taller ? What does the comparative degree express (211)? How is the comparative degree formed ? When is the comparative formed by annexing er? When, by prefixing more? What is the comparative form of tall, short, old, young, etc. ? What is the comparative form of learned, unlearned, foolish, tirtuous, etc.? Put the adjectives prefixed to nouns in the list above, in the compara- tive form. — Form sentences, each of which shall contain a noun, and its adjective in the comparative degree. SUPERLATIVE DEGREE. When you compare James with several other persons, and find that he exceeds them all in tallness, how would you express it ? Ans. I would say, " James is the tallest." What form of the adjective is tallest? What does the superlative express? In how many ways is it formed ? When by annexing est to the positive ? When, by pre- fixing most ? What is the superlative of taU, short, old, young, rich, poor, etc. ? — of learned, unlearned, beautiful, virtuous, etc. ? Put the adjectives prefixed to the nouns, in the list above, in the superlative form. Form sentences, in each of which there shall be one of the above nouns, and its adjective in the superlative degree. EXERCISES. 1. Compare — Bright, diligent, thin, noble, bad, pretty, fearful, brave, warm, active, worthy, cold, large, industri- ous, affable, wise, obedient, gloomy, able, sad, little, strong, near, dutiful, serene, big, good, careless, hot, late, fruitful, lovely, gentle, pleasant, sagacious, prudent. Add to each one of these adjectives a noun wlych it can properly qualify ; as, "A bright day," "a diligent student," etc. 2. In what form are the folloiving adjectives ? — Mildest, better, high, more, uttermost, happiest, worthless, least, whiter, lowermost, worse, cruel, eldest, gentle, magnificent, best, many, less, gayest, peaceful, virtuous, sweetest, evil, inmost, happier, miserable, temperate, useful, delicate, hon- orable, meek, proud, amiable, morose. 58 EI^GLISH GRAMMAR. Compare each of these adjectives. To each of these add a noun which the adjectives can properly qualify. 3. In the following phrases, tell which words are nouns, and which are adjectives. Parse as directed (182, 194, 225). A good man ; a kind heart ; a clear sky ; the benevolent lady; the highest hill; a skillful artist; an older compan- ion; man's chief concern ; a lady's lap-dog; most splendid talents; the liveliest disposition; a pleasant temper; the raging billows ; temples magnificent ; silent shades ; excel- lent corn; a loftier tower; a happier disposition ; the third day ; a round ball ; a square table ; one good book is better than many bad books. 4. Take a paragraph in any book ; point out the articles, nouns, and adjectives. Parse them ; but, in nouns, omit the case. PRONOUNS. r 228. A Bronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, ''John is a good boy ; he is diligent in his studies." 229. The noun instead of which a pronoun is used, is called its antecedent^ because the pronoun refers to it as previously mentioned, or in some way understood (236). 230. Pronoune of the third person are used in writing and speak- ing, to prevent the frequent and awkward repetition of the noun. Thus, without the pronoun, the above example would read, " John is a good boy ; John is diligent in John's studies." 231. A pronoun is sometimes used instead of another pronoun ; as, " You and /must attend to our duty." See 730. 232. Pronouns may be divided into Personal, Itelativey Interrogative^ and Adjective, ETYMOLOGY — PROI^^OUNS. Table of Pronouns, 59 ' Simple . . . i I, thou, he, she, it, one. * We, you, they. L Pebsonal . . .- Myself, thyself, himself; .Compound .- herself, itself. Ourselves, yourselves, themselves. Who. Sirrvple, . .- Which. That. II. Relative • . -i ^What. no ( Who(so)ever. fjj .Compound . \ Which(so)ever. O . ' . (what(so)ever. ^ o /Who? Ph III. INTEKTIOGATIVE I Which? (what? My, thy, his, her, its. 'Possessive . one's. Our, your, their. 'Each. Distributive .- Every. Either. LIV. Adjective. . A ^ Neither. . Demonstra- ( This, these. (That, those. tive . . . None, one. .Indefinite. .- Any, other. All, another. ^Such, etc. (305). 1. Personal Pronouns. 233, JPersonal I^ronouns are those wMch dis- tinguisli the person 'by their form. They are either Simple or Compound, W ENGLISH GKAMMAR. Personal pronouns, or pronouns substantive^ are simple substitutes for the names of persons or things, and have the same person, gender, and numier as the nouns for which they stand. Every personal pronoun lias a possessive pronoun answering to it, which is joined to a noun in the same way as an adjective (291.) Simple Personal Pronouns. 2S4, The simple personal pronouns are J, tJwiif he^ she^ it; with their plurals, we^ you^ they, J is of the first person, and denotes the speaker ; Thou is of the second, and denotes the person addressed; He, she^ it, are of the third, and denote the person or thmg spoken of (111). 235, The word one, standing for a person not named, may be regarded as a kind of indefinite personal pronoun ; as, " One can neyer know," etc. The plural form, ones, is used in a more definite sense ; as, " The great ones of the earth." 236, 1. The pronouns I and tliou denote the speaker, and the person addressed, without previous mention, or even knowledge of their names, the persons intended being sufiiciently indicated by their presence, or some other cir-* cumstance. 2. The pronouns of the third person refer to some person or thmg previously mentioned, or easily understood from the context, or from the nature of the sentence. 237, He, she, it, and they, are frequently used as general terms in the beginning of a sentence, equivalent to " the person," etc., without reference to a noun going be- fore ; as, " He [the person] that loveth pleasure shall be a poor man." " How far is it [the distance] to the city." 238, They is also used in a vague sense for " people ' • ^ ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 61 in such expressions as " They say," [Uke the French on, or the German man]. 239, The accidents of personal pronouns, like those of nouns (110), are JPerson^ Gender ^ Nam- her*, and Case, They are thus inflected : — SINGULAR. PLURAL. Nom. Poss. 0&/. Norn. Poss. Ohj. 1. M. or F. I mine me We ours us 2. M. or F. Thou (244) thine thee You (245) yours you iMasc. He his him They theirs them 3. tive clauses. 269. Which is sometimes used as a demonstrative adjective pronoun (3^2), equivalent to tliis or these, and qualifies or limits the substantive following it (676) ; as, " Which things are an allegory "= " These things are an- allegory." 2 7-9. What is, also, sometimes used in the same way ; as, " What money he earned was given to his mother." [Remark. — In English, a relative must always be in the same sentence with its antecedent, and, if restrictive, in close connection with it. In Latin, the relative often has its antecedent in a preceding sentence, and connected with it by a conjunctive term. When this is the case, it should be rendered into English by a demonstrative, or personal pronoun. This diflFerence of idiom should be carefully marked by classical students. See Lat. Gr., 295. Bullions and Morris', 701, 271' In such sentences as the following — "Shun such as are vicious " — " Send such as you have " — some grammarians consider the word as a relative : in the first example, as the subject of are ; and in the second, as the objective, after have. Others, more properly, regard it, in all such sentences, as a conjunction, and the expressions as elliptical — to be supplied thus : " Shun such as [those who] are vicious." " Send such as [those which] you have." — See Appen- dix V. \\ Compound Relative Pronouns, 272, The relatives tvho^ whichj and ivhat, with eiwr or soever annexed, are called compotmd rela- tives. They are used Instead of the simple relative and a general or indefinite antecedent ; as, " Wliosoever com- mitteth sin is the serv^ant of sin;" that is, ^^ Any one or every one who committeth sin," etc. " Whatever is evil should be avoided ;" that is, " Every thing which is evil," etc. They are inflected like the simple relatives from which they are derived ; but the compounds of lohich and %vhat have no possessive case. 70 ENGLISfiGRAMMAR. 27s, Like the relative what, the compound relatives are used only when the indefinite antecedent is omitted. Whenever that is expressed, the simple relative who, which, or that, should be used as in the preceding examples. 274:, It is therefore not correct to say, either that these relatives include the antecedents, and so have two cases, or that the antecedent is understood. The same reasoning that is applied to the relative wJiat (266), is equally applicable to the compound relatives, only it must be remembered that the antecedent referred to in these, and to which one of the cases properly belongs, is always a general or indefi- nite term. 275- In old writings, the antecedent word is sometimes expressed, either before or after the compound relative, for the sake of greater emphasis or precision ; as, " Blessed is he, whosoever shall not be offended in me." — Eng. Bible. " Whosoever will, let Mm take the water of life." This usage, however, is now nearly obsolete, except with the word whatever ; as, " Whatever you do, let it be done well." 27 a* Whoso, formerly used in the sense of whoever, or whoso- ever, is now obsolete. 277 * Whatever, whatsoever, whichever, and whichsoever, are often used before substantives, as a sort of itidefinite adjective / as, " Whatever course you take, act uprightly." When thus used, the noun is sometimes placed between what, which, or whose, and soever; as, " What course soever" — " Into whose house soever ye enter " (856). Parsing, 278. The relative is parsed "by stating its gender, number, case, and antecedent [the gender, number, and person being always the same as those of the antecedent (742)] ; thus :— " The boy who studies ivhat is useful, will improve." Who is a relative pronoun, masculine, in the nominative singular, and refers to " boy," as its antecedent. What is a relative pronoun, neuter, in the nominative singular, and refers to " thing," or " that," as its antecedent, omitted : if supplied, what must be changed into which (2fJ0) ; thus, the thing which, or that tohich. ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 71 The pupil may assign reasons for the statements made in parsing, as exempHfied (253). EXERCISES 01^ RELATIVE PRONOUN'S. 1. Write on the blackboard a list of nouns, arranged in a column on the left side, and write after each its proper relative ; thus, " The man — who ; " The hird — which." 2. In the following sentences, point out the relative, and the ante- cedent or word to which it relates. Also state whether it is additive or restrictive (267) : — A man who is generous will be honored. — God, by whose kindness we live, whom we worship, who created all things, is eternal. — That is the book which I lost. — He who steals my purse, steals trash. — This is the boy whom we met. — This is the man that did it. — These are the books that you bought. — The person who does no good, does harm. — The woman who was hurt, is well. — This is the cat, that killed the rat, that ate the malt, that lay in the house that Jack built. 3. In each of the following sentences, point out the compound rela- tive — mention the antecedent omitted, to which it refers. Insert the antecedent in each sentence, and make the necessary change in the relative (273) : — Whoever steals my purse, steals trash. — Whoever does no good does harm. — Whatever purifies the heart, fortifies it. Whatsoever ye would that men should do to you, do ye to them also. — ^AYhoever sins, will sufier. — I love whoever loves me. — ^Now whatsoever God hath said to thee, do. — Whose- soever sins ye remit, they are remitted. 4. In the following sentences, wherever it can be done, change the relative and antecedent for the compound relative : — Bring with you every thing which you see. — Any one who told such a story, has been misinformed. — Any thing that is worth doing at all, is worth doing well. — Any thing that gives pain to others, deserves not the name of pleas- ure. — ^Every one who loves pleasure, will be a poor man. ^ E N G 1. 1 S H G ii A AI il A K 3. Interrogative Pronouns. 279. Who, which, and what, when used in asking questions, are called .Interrogative Pro- nouns; as, ''Who is there?" ''Which will you take ?" " What did lie say «" 280. Who and which are inflected like the rela- tive (258). 281. In questions, ivho is equivalent to what per- son ; which and ivhat have a noun following, to which, like an adjective, they belong ; or tliey refer to one under- stood, but easily supplied ; thus, " Who [what person] is there?"— "Which book will you take ?"—" What [thing] did he say ?" 282. Who applies to person only; which and what, to persons or things. 283. As applied to persons, who inquires for the name ; which, for the individual ; what, for the character or occu- pation ; as, " Who wrote that book ?" — " Mr. Webster." — *• Which of them ?" ''Noah Webster."—" What is he ?"— " A lexicographer." 284. The same pronouns used responsively, in the be- ginning of a dependent clause (635), or in what is called the indirect question (i. e., in a way which, in an indepen- dent clause, would be a direct question), are properly neither interrogatives nor relatives, but a sort of indefi^ nite pronouns (306). This will be best illustrated by an example : — Interrogative. — " Who wrote that letter ?" Relative. — " I know the person who wrote that letter f that is, I am acquainted with him. ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 73 Indefinite. — " I know who wrote tliat letter ;" that is, I know by whom that letter was written. 283, It is necessary to these words being regarded as indefinite— 1. That they begin a dependent clause (585) ; 2. That they do not ask a question ; 3. That an antecedent can not be supplied without changing the sense ; 4. That the whole clause be either the subject of a verb, or the object of a verb or preposition. These remarks will apply to all the following examples : " I know ijcho wrote that letter ?" — " Tell me who wrote that letter ?" — " Do you know iJcho wrote that letter?" — "Nobody knows who he is." — " Who he is can not be known." — " Did he tell you who he is ?" — " We can not tell which is he." — " I know not what I shall do." — " It is imcertain to whom that book belongs." — " Teach me what is truth and what is error." JParsinff. 280. Interrogative pronouns, in both the direct and the indirect questions, are parsed^ by stating their gender, number, and case ; thus : — " Who comes ? I know not ivho comes." Who is an interrogative pronoun, mascuHne or feminine, in the nominative singular. Who is an indefinite pronoun (or an interrogative pro- noun used responsively), masculine or feminine, in the nominative singular. Reasons may be assigned for each statement, as exem- plified (253). j:XEECISES ON INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 1. Point out in which of the following sentences, who, which, and what are relatives ; in which, interrogatives ; and in which, indefinites. Who steals my purse, steals trash. — To whom did you give that book ? — What I do, thou knowest not now. — Wlio you are, what you are, or to whom you belong, no ona knows.— What shall I do ?— Who built that house ?— Do you know by whom that house was built ? — Is' that the 74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. man who built that house ? — Which book is yours ? — Do you know which book is yours ? — I saw a book which was said to be yours. — I know which book is yours. — What in me is dark, illumine. — What is crooked, can not be made straight. — What is wanting, can not be numbered. — What is wanted ? — I know what is wanted. 2. Write sentences, each of whicli shall contain one of these pro- nouns in one or other of these different senses. 4. Adjective Pronouns. 287, Adjective JPronouns are words used, sometimes like adjectives, to qualify a noun, and sometimes like pronouns, to stand instead of nouns. 288, Adjective Pronouns are divided into four classes : Possessive^ Distributive, Demonstra- tive and Indefinite, 289, Adjectives used as nouns, or with a noun under- stood, commonly take the article the before them (201) ; as, the young; the old; the good, etc. Adjective pronouns d^ot. 29 O* Of the adjective pronouns, the JPossessives (291) clearly have a double character. As an adjective, they qualify a noun, and as a pronoun, stand instead of a noun. The distributives, Demonstratives, and Indefinites, as adjectives, qualify a noun expressed or understood, or they stand instead of a noun, and thus may be regarded sometimes as adjectives, and sometimes as pronouns. Hence they are classed by some grammarians as adjectives, and called prononiifial adjectives ; and by others as pronouns, and called adjective pronouns. The latter classification and name are here pre- ferred, because they have been admitted into the grammars of almost all languages ; and because a change of established nomenclature is an evil of so serious a kind, that it should not be incurred imless for the most urgent reasons. Still, it is a matter of little moment, in itself, whidi of these classifications is adopted. The principal jwint ETYMOLOGY — PRONOUNS. 75 for the learner is, to know what words are adjective pronouns [or pronominal adjectives], and their character and i^se; and every teacher may adopt that classification and name which he prefers. For the convenience of auch as prefer to consider them pronominal adjectives, they are classed with adjectives (207). Possessive Adjective Pronouns. • 291. The Possessive Pronouns are such as de- note possession. They are myy thy, Ms, her, its, — our, your, their. One's, in modem usage, has the office and construc- tion of a possessive pronoun ; as, one can not believe one^s senses. This form, though common, is not to be admired. 292. The possessive pronouns are derived from the personal, and comhine the oflBce of the adjective and pronoun, for they always limit one noim denoting the object possessed, and stand instead of another denoting the possessor. They agree with the possessive case of the personal pronoun in meaning, but differ from it in construction. The possessive pronoun, like the adjective, is always followed by its noun ; as, " This is mp book ;" the possessive case of the personal is never followed by a noun, but refers to one known or previously ex- pressed ; as, " This book is mine." The possessive case of noims is used both ways ; as, " This is John's book ;" or, " This book is John's." 293. Formerly tnine and thine were used before a vowel, or the letter h, instead of my and thy ; as, " Blot out all mine iniqui- ties ;" " Commune with t/iine heart." This form is still in use. 294. HiSf her, and its, when followed by a substantive, are possessive pronouns : not followed by a substantive, ?iis is the posses- sive case of he ; her, the objective case of she ; and its, the possessive case of it. In the English Bible, his is neuter as well as masculine, and is used where its would now be used. See Proa, xxiii. 81 ; Is. Ix. 22. 295. Own is not used as a possessive by itself, but is added to the possessive pronouns, or to the xx)ssessive case of nouns, to render the possession expressed by them emphatic ; as, " My own book ;" " The boy's omn book." Own is properly an a^ective, but is by som« 76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, grammarians erroneously parsed as part of the possessive. The pos- sessive pronoun, with own following it, may have its substantive understood ; as, " This book is my own." Distributive Adjective I*ro7iouns, 296. The Distributive Pronouns represent ob- jects' as taken separately. They are each, every, either, neither, 297 • Each denotes two or more objects taken sepa- rately. 298* Every denotes each of more than two objects taken individually, and comprehends them all. 299* Hither means one of two, but not both. It is sometimes used for each ; as, " On either side of the river." 300» Neither means not either. 301. The distributives are always of the third person singular, even when they relate to the persons speaking, or to those spoken to ; as, " Each of tis — each of you — each of them — has his faults." Denionstrative Adjective Pronouns. 302. The Demonstrative Pronouns point out objects definitely. They are this, that, with their plurals, these, those (692-694). The when emphatic has the force of a demonstrative ; as, " That is the man." 303* Yon and which, before a noun, seem mors properly to belong to this class of words than to any other; as, "Yon trembling coward;" "Yon tall cliff;" " Which things are an allegory f=" These things," etc. 304:, Fomner and latter.^ first and last with the pre- fixed — though often used like that and this — referring to words contrasted, are properly adjectives (201). ETYMOLOGY — PHONOUI^'S. 77 Indefinite Adjective Pronouns, 303, The Indefinite Pronouns designate objects indefinitely. They are none, any, all, such, tvhole, soine, both, one (used indefinitely), other, another. The three last are declined lie nouns. 306, To these may be added, no, much, many, few, several, and the like ; also, who, which, and ivhat, used responsively (284). 307* One, denoting a definite number, is a numeral adjective (204) ; as, " One man is sufficient." But one, referring indefinitely to an individual, is an indefinite pronoun. Thus used, with its noun following, it is indeclinable like the adjective, as, " One man's interest is not to be preferred to another's." Without its noun following, it is either singular or plural, and is declinable, like the substantive ; as. " One is as good as another." " He took the old bird, and left the young 07ies." The same remark is applicable to the indefinites, other and anotJier. The expressions the one — the other, denoting contrast (692), have the singular form only ; but they sometimes refer to antecedent words denoting more than one, regarded, however, either distribu- tively or as a class ; thus : " For that which befalleth the sons of men, befalleth beasts — as the one dieth, so dieth the other." — Eccl. iii. 19. See also Pliilippians, 'i. 16. For these words the French have a plural form, les uns — les autres, literally, the ones — the others. 308, None \pio one] is used in both numbers ; and is never followed by a substantive; as, "None is so rude;" " Among none is there more sobriety." 309, Another is a compound of the article an and other; sometimes written separately, an other, 310, Some is used with numerals, to ^igm^j aloiit ; as, " Some fifty years ago." This should not be imitated. 311, The expressions, each other, and one another, form what may be called reciprocal pronouns, and express a mutual rela- tion between difierent persons. They have this peculiarity of construc- tion, that the first word of each pair is in the nominative, in apposition with the plural subject, which it distributes ; and the second, in the objective, governed by the transitive verb or preposition ; as, " They 78 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. loved each other" i. e. ; They loved each the other; " They wrote to one another," i. e., one to another (673). Each other applies to two ; one another, to more than two. 312. Some of these indefinites, and words of similar sigTiification, are sometimes used adverbially with the comparative degree ; as, " Are you any better ?" " I am some better ," " He is none the better — all the better," i. e. ; "Are you better in any degree ?" etc. Parsing, 313, Adjective Pronouns are parsed by stating the class to which they belong, and the word which they qualify, thus : — " Every day brings its own duties." Every is a distributive adjective pronoun, qualifying « day." Its is a possessive adjective pronoun, emphatic, quahfy- ing " duties." [Own is a dependent adjective ; joined with its,io render the possession expressed emphatic (295) ]. EXERCISES Oiq- ADJECTIVE PROKOUKS. 1. Point out the adjective pronouns in the following phrases and sentences, and parse them ; — Every man is, to some extent, the architect of his own fortune. — Do good to all men — ^injury to none. — All things come alike to all. — Your own friend, and your father's friend, forsake not. — This one, or that one, will answer my pui-pose ; both are good. — Some men love their money more than their honor. — Every one of us has his weak points (301). PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES OJT PROKOUKS. In the following phrases and sentences, point out the pronouns, and parse them — each as already directed : — Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old, he will not depart from it. — Kemember now thy ETYMOLOGY — PROl^OUNS. 79 Creator in the days of thy youth. — He is an object of pity, who can not respect himself. — Feeble are all those pleasures in which the heart has no share. — You may read the lesson yourself. — John and he lost themselves m the woods. — You and he may divide it between you. — You and she and I will divide it among ourselves. i:XERCISES Oiq- ALL THE PRECEDIN-G PARTS OF SPEECH. In the following sentences, point out the nouns, articles, adjectives and pronouns, in the order in which they occur, and parse them : — My son, forget not my law ; but let thy heart keep my commandments: For length of days, and long life, and peace, shall they add to thee. — Let not mercy and truth forsake thee : bind them about thy neck, write them upon the table of thy heart. — Honor the Lord with thy substance, and with the first-fruits of all thine increase : So shall thy barns be filled with plenty, and thy presses shall burst out with new wine. — Happy is the man that findeth Wisdom. — Length of days is in her right hand, and in her left hand, riches and honor. — Her ways are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace. — The sluggard will not plow by reason of the cold ; therefore shall he beg in harvest, and have nothing. — The hand of the diligent maketh rich. THE VERB. 314, A Verb is a word used to express the act^ heing^ or state of its subject (315) ; as '' John runs f^ ' ' He is loved /" " The boy sleeps ; Grass is green. ' ' Hence — A word that expresses the act, leing, or state of a person or thing, is a Verb. Thus, we say, runs is a verb, because it expresses the act of JohUy etc. — See Appendix VIL ^ 80 EifGLISHGRAMMAR. 315. The subject of a yerb is that person or thln^, whose act, hemg, or state, the verb expresses. Thus, in the preceding example, " runs," expresses the act of " Jo/m" — "is loved," the state of "Ae," as the object acted upon (3G9) — " sleeps," the state of " loi/^ — and " is " affirms the exist- ence of the quality '^ green^' in grass. In like manner, in the sentences, ^"^ Let Mm come ;" " I saw a man cutting wood ;" *'/ef' expresses the act of thou understood, denoting the pei^on addressed — " come" the act of " liim,'^ and " cutting'^ the act of ''manr (760, 762). Classification of Verbs, \ 316. 1. In relation to their rueanhig and of- fice in a sentence, Verbs are of three kinds, Trans- itivCf Intransitive^ and Attributive.* This division corresponds with the three forms of sentences as pre- sented in Introduction, page 2. 2. In relation to their form, they are divided into three classes, Megular, Irregular ^ and. Defect- ive. 3. In the formation of compound tenses, they are distinguished as Principal and Auxiliary. 317. A Transitive verb expresses an act done by one person or thing to another ; as, '' James sir [Ties the table ;" ''The table is struck by James" (367). [See, also, 319, Eemark.] 31H. An Intransitive verb expresses the being or state of its subject, or an act not done to another ; as, "lam/" ^^'Rq sleeps f^ "Yon run.^^ * The division of verbs into transitive and intransitive has been so generally adopted and approved by grrammarians, that the aftribn- tive verb may be regarded as one form of the iutra^isitive verb. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 81 319, An attributive verb asserts and connects an attribute with its subject ; as, '^ Snow is white ;" '' Man is mortal." The term attribute is here used to signify a quality or other limitation asserted. Verba otherwise intransitive become attributive when the sense is incomplete without an attribute ; as, " It looks round;" " It appears new." Remahk. — An analysis of the passive voice, separating the partici- ple from the verb to be, will exhibit the latter as an attributive verb, and the former as an attribute of its subject ; as, Snow is white. — John is a scholar. — He is hurt. Established usage, however, makes it desirable to retain the dis- tinction of passive voice of transitive verbs. 320a, In this division. Transitive (passing over) verbs include all those which express an act that passes over from the actor to an object ; or the meaning of which has such a reference to an object, as to render the expression of it necessary to complete the sense ; as, "He LOVES us;" "IwKARyou;" " James liESEMiBi^s his brother ;" "He HAS a book." 32 Oh. These three classes of verbs may be thus distinguished : — 1. Transitive verbs in the active voice, require an object after them to complete the sense ; as, " James stnhes the table. " In- transitive verbs do not require an objec*^ or any other word after them ; but the sense is complete without it ; as, " He sits ;" " You ride;" " The wind blows;" " The wheel turns." Attributive verbs require after them to complete the sense, some word or phrase, not an object, to limit or explain the subject; as, " Man is mortal." 3. As the object of a transitive active verb is in the objective case, any verb which makes sense with me, thee, him, her, it, them, after it, is transitive. When a verb in the active voice has an object, it is transitive : when it has not an object, it is intransitive or attributive. 3. In the use of transitive verbs, three things are always implied — ^tlie actor, the act, and the object acted upon : in the use of the intransitive verbs there are only two — the subject, and the being, state, or act, ascribed to it — in the use of the attributive verbs, there are three — ^the subject, the assertor (verb) and attribute- B2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. S21, Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendere(i transitive — 1. By the addition of another word ; as, intransitive, " I laugh; transitive, "I laugh at" (375). 2. "When followed by a noun of the same, or similar Bignification, as an object; as, intransitive, "I runf transitive, " I ru7i a race." 322, The same verbs are sometimes used in a transitive, and sometimes in an intransitive sense. Thus, in the sentence, " Charity thinheth no evil," the verb is transitive. In the sentence, " Think on me," it is intransitive. 323, So also verbs, really transitive, are used intransitively, when they have no object, and the sense intended, being merely to denote an exercise, is complete without it. Thus, when we say, " That boy reads and writes well " — " reads " and " writes " are really transitive verbs ; because, a person who reads and writes, must read and write something. Yet, as the sense is complete without the object, nothing more being intended than simply, " That boy is a good reader and writer," the verbs, as here used, are intransitive. 324, PRELIMIl^ARY ORAL EXERCISE. When we say, " John runs," what part of speech is John ? — ^Why ? Wliat is the use of runs in the sentence ? It tells what John does. Is what a person or thing does, the act of that person or thing ? What part of speech are words that express the act of a person or thing ? Verbs. Then what part of speech is runs ? — Why ? Of what is it that verbs express the act, being, or state ? Of their sub- ject. Whose act does runs express ? Then what is John to the verb runs ? When you say, " John runs," does it mean that he does any- thing to another ? What sort of verbs express an act not done to another ? What kind of a verb, then, is runs ? If you say, " John cuts wood," wliich word tells what John does ? Then what part of speech is cuts f Is it transitive or intransitive ? Why ? EXERCISES. 1. In the following sentences, tell which words are verbs, and why — ^which are transitive, and why — which are intransitive, and why ?— which are attributive, and why ? ETYMOLOGY — VERBS. 83 fhe boy studies grammar. — The girls play. — Grass grows m the meadows. The farmer ploughs his field, and sows hifcf gi'ain. — Victoria is queen of England. — Romulus built Eome. — The sun shines. — Honey is sweet. — The winds blow. — The tree fell. — Bring your books, and prepare your lessons. — The apple tastes sour. — Have you recited ? — Who read last? — God created the heavens and the earth. — Columbus discovered America. 2. Write a list of nouns, or names of persons or of things, in a column on the left side of the blackboard ; write after each, a word or words which tell something that each of them does or is; tell what part of speech that word is, and why : if a verb, whether transitive, intransitive, or attributive, and why ? Formation of Tenses. 32o. In respect of form, verbs are divided into Regular, Irregular, and Defective, 326* A JRegular verb is one that forms its past tense (415) in the indicative mood (376) active (366), and its past participle (459), by adding ed to the present; as, present, aci j past, acted; past participle, acted. Note. — Verbs ending in e mute, drop e before ed ; as love, loved, loved (66). See 494. 327. An Irregular verb is one that does not form its past tense in the indicative active, and its past par- ticiple, by adding ed to the present ; as, present, write; past, wrote ; past participle, written, 328. A Defective verb is one in which some of the parts are wanting. To this class belong chiefly Auxiliary and Lnpersonal verbs. Auxiliary Verbs, 320, Auxiliary (or helping) verbs are those, by the help of which other verbs are inflected. They are, do. 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. have, he; — shall, will; — may, can, must; — and, except be, they are used only in the present and the past tense; thus: — Present. Do, have, shall, will, may, can, must Fast, Did, had, should, would, might, could, 330. JBe, do, and have, are also principal verbs, and, as such, belong to irregular verbs (512). Be is used as an auxiliary in all its parts (354). For the inflection of auxiliaries with the principal verb, see 494, 507, and 516. The Use of Auxiliaries. 331. Some verbs, now used as auxiliaries only, were probably at first independent verbs, and combined syntactically with the fol- lowing verb, in the infinitive — the sign to being in process of time omitted, as it now is after such verbs as see, hear, feel, etc. (877) ; thus, " I can [to] do " — " They will [to] write " — " We could [to]go," etc. ; and some grammarians contend that they should be so considered still (381). 332. Shall f tvill, may, can, and their past tenses, should, would, etc., as auxiliaries, retain the personal endings of the second person singular; thus, shall, wilt, mayst, canst — shouldst, wouldst, mightst, couldst. But in their present they do not retain the personal ending of the third person singular ; thus, we say, he shall, will, may, can — not he shalls, wills, mays, cans. This will be seen by their use in the inflection of verbs. 333. Do is used as an auxiliary in the present tense, and did in the past, to render the expression emphatic ; as, " I cZo love " — " I did love." Also when the verb in these tenses is used interrogatively, or negatively; as, " Z^o^s he study ?"—" He does not study."— "i)*(Z he go '?" — " He did not go." — I)o is used as an auxiliary in the second person singular of the imperative ; as, " Do thou love." 334. Have is used as an auxiliary in the present-perfect tense, and had in the past-perfect. For further remarks upon the analysis of compound tenses, with do and have as auxiliaries, see Appendix IX. ETYMOLOCfY — AUXILIARIES. 85 Shall and Will — Should and Would.* S3S, Shall, primarily and strictly, denotes present obligation ; as, " I shall go," i. e., I am under obligation to go ; and tvlll, pre- sent inclination, purpose, or volition ; as, " I will go," i. e.. It is my purpose to go, (I will to go) ; from wliicli the futurity of the act, etc., is naturally inferred. But, as auxiliaries, the primary signification is nearly lost sight of, and they are used to denote futurity — still modi- fied, however, in their use, by their primary signification. They are usually distinguished as follows : — Shall and Will, expressing kesolution, purpose, etc. 330. Will denotes the purpose, resolution, or inclination, of a person, in reference to his own acts ; and shall, his purpose, etc., in reference to the acts of others over whom he has authority or power. As the purpose expressed may be that of the speaker, of the person addressed, or of the person spoken of, hence will arise the three fol- lowing forms, viz. : — First Form. — Expressing the resolution of the speaker. It is my purpose or intention that — I will write — you shaU write — he shall write. Or, without a preceding clause : I wiU write — ^you shall write — he shall write. Second Form. — Expressing the resolution of the person addressed. It is your purpose, etc., that — I shall write — you mill write — ^he shall write. Third Form. — Expressing the resolution of the person spoken of. It is his purjxjse, etc., tJnat — I shall write — you shall write — he (him- self) icUl write— he (another) shaZl write. The second and third forms can not be used without a preceding clause. 337 » Hence it is manifest that will expresses the purpose, resolve tion, promise, etc., of the subject of the verb. Thus : — I will go, '\ i My resolution, etc. Thou icilt go, >• expresses •< Thy resolution, etc He vyill go, ) ( His resolution, etc. 338, Fixed purpose or determination, however, is expressed in a more positive and absolute manner in the first person by shall than by * Pupils may be required to analyze these as other compound tenses of the verb, giving the distinctive meaning of each part. Such an exercise will tend to produce critical accuracy in the use of these auxiliaries. 88 EKaLISH GRAMMAR. tcill, because in this way, the person, an it were, divests himself of will, and puts himself entirely at the disposal of another. Thus, a person may say, " I shall go, though much against my inclination." For this reason, shall is more polite and respectful in a promise, and more offensive in a threat, than will. Interrogatively. 339, In asking questions, these auxiliaries, in this sense, are used with reference to the will of the second person, to whom a question is always supposed to be addressed, and hence are used as in the second of the above forms ; thus — S/iall I write ? Will you write ? 8h.^AUXILIARIES. 87 clause (267-2) ; as, " If thoy sTiaU enter into my rest"—" When he %haU appear" — " There is nothing covered which shaU not be ro' vealed" — " Whoever shall put away his wife." 344* Should, the past tense of shall, and ivoiild, the past tense of vyill, are auxiliaries of the past potential ; and, in dependent clauses, are used in the same manner after a past tense, that sJmll and will are used after the present or future. Hence, in the preceding examples (336 to 338), if the verb in the preceding clause is put in past time, should will take the place of shall, and would, the place of vnll, in the dependent clause ; thns — First Form. — It was my purpose that I wotUd write — ^you should write — ^he should write. So also in the other forms : but when there is no dependence on a proceding clause, these words will be used as in the first form. Mat/, Can, Must^Might, Could— To he, 345» May denotes present liberty or permission ; carif pr(»sent ability ; and tnast, present obligation or necessity. They are used fts auxiliaries in the present potential, to express these ideas. 340. ]May sometimes denotes mere possibility ; as, " He may write, perhaps" — " It may rain to-morrow." 347 • May, before the subject of the verb, is used to express a wish or prayer ; as, " May you be happy !" 348, Can, in poetry, is sometimes used by euphony for canst; as, " Thou trees and stones can teach." — Davies. 349. flight and could express, in past time, the same ideas generally that are expressed by may and can in the present. They are used as auxiliaries in the past potential. 350. JMight, before the subject, is also used to express a wish ; as, " Might it but turn out to be no worse than this !" 351, Sometimes, in the English Bible, might is used for m^y; as, " These things I say, that ye might be saved." — John v. 34. 352. Combined with have, these form a new series of compound auxiliaries ; thus, shall have and will have are auxiliaries of the future- perfect indicative ; may have, can have, and must have, of the present- perfect potential ; and might have, etc., of the past-perfect potential. 353, But though may denotes present liberty, in ay have does not denote pa^t liberty, but only the present possibility ; thus, " He m^y have written," means, It is possible that he has written. So^ 88 EITGLISH GRAMMAR. also, must have does not denote past necessity, but present cer- tainty ; thus, " He must have written," means, There is no doubt he has written ; it can not be otherwise. 354:, The verb ^* to be," in all its moods and tenses, is used as an auxiliary in forming the passive voice ; as, " I am loved ;" " He was loved, etc. (507). Also, in the progressive form of the active voice ; as, " I am writing ;" " He was writing," etc. (506). 855, All these auxiliaries are sometimes used without their verb, to express, by ellipsis, the same thing as the full form of the verb, together with its adjuncts, when that is used immediately before, either in the same or in a dififerent tense ; thus, " He writes poetry as well as I do ;" " I can write as well as he can ;" " If you can not write, I will ;" " He will do that as well as I can ;" " James can get his lesson as well as ever I could ;" " He envies me as much as I do him." 356. The verb do (not auxiliary) is sometimes used as the sub- stitute of another verb or phrase previously used ; as, " We have not yet found them all, nor ever shall do" — Milton. — " Lucretius wrote on the nature of things in Latin, as Empedocles had already done in Greek." — Acton. EXERCISES. 1. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give a reason for the correction : — I will be a loser by that bargain. — I will be drowned and nobody shall help me. — I will be punished if I do wrong. — You shall be punished if you do not reform. — It shall pro- bably rain to-morrow. — If you shall come I shall come also. — Will I assist you ? — I will be compelled to go home. — I am resolved that I shall do my duty. — I purposed that if you would come home, I should pay you a visit. — I hope that I will see him. — I hoped that I would see him. — You promised that you should write me soon. — He shall come of his own accord, if encouragement will be given. 2. In the following, tell which expressions are right, and which are wrong, and why : — It is thought he shall come. — It will be impossible to get ready in time. — Ye will not come to me. — Ye shall ETYMOLOGY — AUXILIARIES. 89 have your reward. — They should not do as they ought.— We are resolved that we will do our duty. — They are re- solved that they shall do their duty. — I am determined that you will do your duty. — I am sure you will do your duty. Anoifialous Usage. 3fj7» Several of these auxiliaries are sometimes used in a way which it is diiJicult, perhaps impossible, to explam in a satisfactory manner, and which may justly be regarded as aiiomalous. The following are a few of these : — S58. Had is sometimes used in poetry for would ; as, I had rather," " I had as lief," for, " I would rather," " I would as lief." Sometimes it is used for would have ; as, " My fortune had [would have] been liis." — Dry den. Sometimes for might ; as, " Some men had [might] as well be schoolboys, as schoolmasters." 350, Will is sometimes used to express what is customary at the present time ; as, " He vyill sometimes sit whole hours in the shade ;" *' He will read from morning till night." 300, Would, in like manner, is sometimes used to express what was customary in past times as, " The old man would shake his years away ;" " He'd sit him down." 361, Would, is sometimes used as a principal verb, equivalent to the present of u:ish or desire ; as, " When I make a feast, I would my guests should praise it — not the cooks." — " When I would [when I wish to] do good, evil is present with me. Thus used, the subject in the first person is sometimes omitted ; as, " Would God it were even," =" I pray God ;" " Would to God,"=" I pray to God." 362, Would, with a negative, used in this way, is not merely negative of a wish or desire, but implies strong opposition or refusal ; as, " How often would I have gathered thy children — ^but ye would not ;" " Ye would none of my reproof." 363, Should is used in all persons to denote present duty, and should have, to denote past duty ; as, " You should write ;" " I should have written ;" " The rich should remember the poor." It often denotes merely a supposed future ev«nt : as. " If he shmld promise, he will perform." 90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. It is sometimes used in an indefinite sense after that ; as, " It is surprising that you should say so." 364. Should and would are sometimes used to express an asser- tion in a softened manner ; thus, instead of saying, " I tMnk him insane " — " It seems to be improper," it is milder to say, " I should think him insane " — " It would seem to be improper." Inflection of Verbs. S65. Tlie Accidents of verbs are Voices^ Moods^ TenseSf Ifumhers, and JPersons (473"^). Of Voice. 366. Voice is a particular form of the verb, which shows the relation of the subject or thing spoken of, to the action expressed by the verb (494, 507). 867 > Transitive verbs have two voices, called the Active and the Passim. 368. The Active Voice (494) represents the sub- ject of the verb as acting ; as, "James strikes the table." 369. The I^assive Voice (507) represents the subject of the verb as acted upon ; as, " The table is struck by James." In other words, the verb, in the active voice, expresses the act of its subject ; — in the passive, it expresses the state of its subject, as affected b}^ the act. In the active voice, the subject of the verb acts — in the passive, it is acted xipon. 370. It is manifest from these examples, that whether we use the active or the passive voice, the meaning is the same, except in certain ETYMOLOGY — VERB S — VOICES. Ol rerbs in the present tense (509). Tliere is the same act, the same actor, and the same receiver of the act. The difference is only in the form of expression. With the active voice, the actor in the nominative case is the subject of the verb (760) ; with the pas- sive, the actor is in the objective case after a preposition (818). — In using the active voice, the receiver of the act is in the objective case, as the object of the verb (801) ; in using the passive, it is in the norri' inative case, as the subject of the verb. 37 !• It is manifest, also, that when we know the act done, the person or thing doing it, and that to which it is done, we can always, by means of the two voices, express the fact in two different ways ; thus, " God created the world ;" or, " The world was created by God." Also — 372. When the active voice is used, we may sometimes omit the object ; thus, we can say, " John reads," without saying what he reads (323) ; and when the passive is used, we may omit the agent or actor ; thus, we can say, " The letter is written," without saying by whom. 373. Hence, the following advantages arise from these two forms of expression : — 1. We can, by the form alone, direct attention, chiefly, either to the actor, or to that which is acted tipon — to the former, by using the active voice — " God created the world " — to the latter, by using the passive — " The world was created by God." 2. By means of the passive voice, we are able to state a fact, when we either do not know, or, for some reason, may not wish to state, by whom the act was done. Thus we can say, " The glass is broken," though we do not know who broke it ; or if we know, do not wish to tell. 3. By this means, also, we have a variety, and of course, a choice of expression, and may, at pleasure, use that which to us appears the most perspicuous, convenient, or elegant. 374. Intransitive verbs can have no distinction of voice, because they have no object which can be used as the subject in the passive. Their form is generally active ; as, " I sta7id ;" " I run." A few are used also in the pas- sive form, but with the same sense as in the active ; as, 92 EKGLISIIGRAMMAE. " He is come ; " They are gone ;" equiyalent to, " He hj& come ;" " They Jiave gone." 37S. Intransitive verbs are sometimes rendered transitive^ and so capable of a passive form — 1. By the addition of another word : thus, " I laugh" is intransitive ; " I laugh at (him) " is transitive ; passive, " He is laughed at (by me)." In parsing such examples, it is generally better, in the active voice, to parse the words separately — laugh, as an intransitive verb, and at as a preposition, followed by its object ; but, in the passive voice, they must be parsed together as one word — a transitive verb, in the passive voice. 2. Intransitive verbs become transitive, when followed by a noun of similar signification as the object ; as, intran- sitive, "Irunj" transitive, active, "I run a race;" passive, " A race is run by me." 3. Intransitive verbs become transitive, when used in a Causative sense ; that is, when they denote the causing of that act or state which the verb properly expresses ; as, " Walk your horse round the yard." — " The proprietors run a stage-coach daily." Passively, " Your horse was walked [made to walk] round the yard " — " A stage-coach is run [made to run] daily by the proprietors." Intransitive verbs, used in this way, are called Causatives. 4. Many verbs in the active voice, by an idiom peculiar to the English, are used in a sense nearly allied to the passive, but for which tlie passive will not always be a proper substitute. Thus, we say, " This field ploughs well " — " These lines read smoothly " — " This fruit tastes bitter " — " Linen wears better than cotton." The idea here expressed is quite different from that expressed by the passive forfli : " This field is well ploughed " — " These lines are smoothly read." Sometimes, however, the same idea is expressed by both forms ; thus, " Wheat sells readily," or, " is sold readily at an advanced price." (Expressions of this kind are usually made in French by the reflected verb ; thus, Ce champ se Idboure bien," — " Ces lignes se lisent aisement "). When used in this sense, they may properly bo ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — MOODS. 03 ranked with intransitive verbs, as they are never followed by an ol> jective case. 3Ioods. 376. 3Iood is the mode or manner of expressing tlie signification of the verb. 31i7. In English Grammar, the moods are six;^ namely, the Indicative, Potential, Suhjunetive^ Itnperative, Infinitive^ and Particij)ial (397). 378. The Indicative mood declares the fact expressed by the verb, simply and without limita- tion ; as, ''He^5," — "HeZo??e5," — "He is loved"^^ (486, 494, 507.) 379. In other words, the indicative mood attributes to its subject the act, being or state, expressed by the verb, simply and without limitation. 380. The I*otential mood declares, not the fact expressed by the verb, but only its possibilit?/, or the liberty, power, will, or obligation, of the subject with respect to it; as, '*The wind may blow-'' — "We may waW — "I can swim'''' — "He would not stay " — " Children should obey their parents."' In other words, the potential mood expresses, not what the subject does, or is, etc., but what it may, can, must, might, could, would, or should do, or he, etc. 381. The auxiliaries may, can, etc., in the potential mood, in all probability, were at first independent verbs in the indicative, fol- lowed by the verb in the infinitive, without the sign to before it, as it is now used after such verbs as see, hear, feel, let, etc. (877). This is apparent when we consider that, "I can go"=" I am able to go," etc. Grammarians now generally combine them as one word, con- stituting a particular form of the verb, to which (from its leading use) they have given the name of potential mood. The indicative and poten- tial both declare, but they declare diflTerent things ; the former declares what the subject does, or is ; the latter what it may or cam, etc., do or 94 ENGLISHGEAMMAB. he. The declaration made by the indicative is simple ; that made by the potential is always complex, containing the idea of liberty, power, etc., in connection with the act." " He tcrites," is the indicative of the verb to write. " He can write," is the indicative of the verb can, with the infinitive to write j or, combined, the potential of the verb to write.'* 382» Both the indicative and the potential mood are used inter^ rogatively ; as, " Does he love ?" — " Can he write ?" They are also used without dependence on another verb, and express a complete idea in themselves. " James writes a letter," and " James can write a letter," are equally complete and independent sentences. SS3, The Subjunctive mood represents the fact expressed by the verb, not as actual, but as con- ditional, desirable, or contingent ; as, if he study., he will improve."—" O that thou wert as my brother V 384:, This mood, as its name implies, is always siibjoined to and dependent on another verb expressed or understood. " If he study, he will improve." — " O (I wish) that thou wert," etc. 385. The idea of contingency, expressed by the subjunctive mood, is rather a relation of syntax than a distinct mood of the verb (891). (See, also, 392). 386, The subjunctive mood differs in form from the indicative in the present tense only ; in the verb to be, in the present and past. 387* Both the indicative and the potential, with a conjunctive particle prefixed, are used subjunctively ; that is, they are used to express what is conditional, or contingent, and with dependence on another verb ; as, " If he sleeps, he will do well " — " He would go if he could " (go). 388, In parsing, that only should be called the subjunctive mood which has the subjunctive form. When the indicative or potential is used subjunctively, it should be so stated. 389, The conditionality or contingency, etc., expressed by tliis mood, is usually intimated by such conjunctions as if, thougJi, lest, unless, so, etc., prefixed, which, however, make no part of the verb. 300, The same thing is sometimes expressed without the con- junction, by merely putting the verb or auxiliary before the subject or nominative ; as, "Had I," for "If I had" "Were lie," for "If he were " — "Had he gone," for "If he had gone " — " Would he but reform" for " If he would but reform," etc. 391. 1. The subjunctive present is only an abbreviated ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — MOODS. 86 form of the future indicative, or the past potential, and the supplement may always be made ; thus, " If he study, ^ etc., that is, " If he shall (or should) study," etc. — " Though he [should] come," etc. Instead of the regular form of the past indicative, usage has sanctioned a peculiarly distinct form of the verb to be, in the past tense ; as, " If I ivere, for " If I should." For though we might say, " If I should be," for " If I be," yet we can not say, " If I should were ;" and there are some cases in which the present subjunctive form seems to be indispensable ; as, " See that thou do it not "— " K he do but try, he wiU succeed." Still- ed ^. 2. The subjunctive mood, in its distinctive form, is now fall- ing greatly into disusa The tendency appears to be to lay it aside, and to use the indicative or potential in its stead, wherever it can be done. According to rule, the subjunctive form is used only when it has a future reference ; as, " If he come [viz., at a future time] he will be welcome." The same idea is expressed by saying, " If he comes " (406), " If he shall come " — or, " If he should come" — and one or other of these expressions is now generally preferred to the subjunctive. Formerly, in cases of supposition, the present subjunctive was used, whether it had a future reference or not ; as, " Though God be high, yet hath he respect to the lowly." In all such expressions, accord- ing to present usage, the present indicative would be used ; thus, " Though God is high," etc. 392, The Imjyerative mood commands, exhorts, entreats, or permits; as, *'i>otliis" — "- Rememher thy Creator" — '' Hear^ O my people" — "Go thy way" (467). 393, The Tnfifiitive mood expresses the meaning of the verb in a general manner, without any dis- tinction of person or number ; as, to love, 394, The infinitive is often used as a verbal noun (866, 867) in the nominative case, as the subject of th.e verb ; as " To play is pleasant." Or, in the objective, as the ob- ject of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of a prepo* Vb ENGLISH GEAMMAE. sition ; as, " Boys love to play " " He is about to go ''— " What went ye out /or to seef" (867). 395, 1. The infinitive mood lias always a subject, expressed or understood ; yet the act, being, or state, expressed by it, is sometimes so general that it is unimportant to ascertain its subject, or impossible to designate any particular person or thing as such. Thus, in the above examples, to play is referable to hoys j to go is the act of he, etc. 2. When the infinitive as a subject has its own subject, it is in the objective case, introduced by for ; as, " For us to lie, is base." But when the infinitive with its subject is the object of a transitive verb, that subject in the objective case needs no connecting word ; as, " We believe him to he sincere." Here him is- the subject of to be, and the whole clause " him to be sincere "=" that he is sincere " is the object of "believe" (872). 396* The infinitive active, by an anomaly not uncommon in other languages, is sometimes used in a passive sense ; as, " You are to blame " (to be blamed) — " A house to let " — " A road to make " — " Goods made to sell " — " Knives to grind, etc. 397. The I^articijHal mood is used to denote action or state ; 1. As continuing or incomplete ; 2. As complete or finished without regard to time. It is always used in connection with another verb, as an attribute of its subject, or a limiter of its object, as, " I am luriting " — " I saw him running " — " The letter is written (See 452, et seq.). Tenses, 398. Tenses are certain forms of the verb which serve to point out the distinctions of time. 399. Time is naturally divided into iliepast, the present, and the future. The past includes all that goes before the present ; i\\e future includes all that comes after the present ; and the present, strictly speaking, is the point in which the past and future meet, and which has itself, no space or continuance. In grammar, however, the present is not regarded in this strict sense, but as extending to a greater or less period of which the passing instant forms a part ; as, this moment, ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENSES. 97 hour, day, week, etc. In each of these an act, etc., may be expressed either simply and indefinitely as present, or definitely as completed ; and these are expressed by different forms of the verb called tenses. Hence — 400. The tenses in English are six— the I'resenf, the l^resent-perfecty the ^ast, the Past-perfect, the Future and the Future-perfect.'^ 401. Of these, the present and the past, in the indica- tive mood, and the present in the subjunctive, are simple tenses, consisting of the verb only ; as, " I love " — " I loved" All the rest are compound, consisting of the auxiliary and the verlj ; as, " I have loved." Remark. — The indicative mood alone has all the tenses, and in it alone are the distinctions of time strictly indicated. The tenses may be represented to the eye by the following diagram: Definite Past Time. Definite Future Time. A Present. A Past-Perfect, Present-perfect, A Future-perfect Past, Future. TEIJTSES OF THE IN^DICATIVE MOOD. 402. The Fresent tense expresses what is going on at the present time ; a^i "^ I love " — " I am loved." * The paM tense in Eng'ish, does not correspond to the imperfect in Latin or Greek, but rather to the Greek Aorist. There is, there- fore, no propriety in retaining the name imperfect. The Latin im- I>erfect corresponds precisely to the past-progressive in English (506). So also, the present-perfect does not correspond precisely to the Latin perfect, as that is used in an indefinite sense, like the Greek Aorist, and also in a definite secse, like the English present-perfect. The past-perfect corresponds to i\iQ pluperfect in Latin. The future and the future-perfect in English correspond to the tenses of the same name in Latin. See B. Latin Gr., 167 : B. and M. Latin Gr., 260. 98 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 4:03, Tliis tense is used also to express what is habitual, or always true ; as, " He goes to cliurch " — " Virtue is its own reward " — " Vice produces misery." 404, It is used, in animated narration, to express past events with force and interest, as if they were present ; as, Caesar learns Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy " (1046, 5). 405, It is used sometimes, instead of the present-perfect tense,-in speaking of authors long since dead, when reference is made to their works which still exist, as, " Moses tells us who were the descendants of Abraham " — " Virgil imitates Homer ;" instead of " has told" " has imitated." 406, It is used in dependent clauses after such words as when, before, if, as soon as, after, till, and also after relative pronouns, to express the relative time of a future action, that is of an actioji future at the time of speaking, but which will be present at the time refer- red to ; as, " When he comes, he will be welcome " — " We shall get our letters as soon as the post arrives " — " He will kill every one [whom] he meets," etc. " No longer mourn for me when I am dead." — Shakes. 407. The Present-perfect tense represents an action or event as completed at .the present time, or in a period of which the present forms a part ; as, " I have sold my horse " — " I have wallced six miles to-day " — " John has leen busy this week" — "Many good books have been pub- lished this century." See 911. 408. The sign of the present-perfect is have — ^inflected, have,hast^ Tuts, or hath. 409, In the use of this tense, it matters not how long ago the act referred to may have been performed, if it was in a period reaching to and embracing the present ; as, " Many discoveries in the arts jMve been made since the days of Bacon;" that is, in the period reaching from that time to the present. On the other hand, if the time of an act mentioned is j)ast, and does not include the present, this tense can not be used, however near the time may be. Thus, we can not properly say, " I have seen your friend a moment ago ;" but, ** I saw your friend," etc. 410, This tense is used to express an act or state continue<3 ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TEIfSES. 99 through a period of time reaching to the present ; as, " He has studied grammar six months " — " He has been absent [now] six years." 411, It is used to express acts long since completed, when the reference is not to the act of finishing, but to the thing finished and still existing ; as, " Cicero has written orations " — " Moses has told us many important facts in liis writings " — " Of old thou hast laid the foundation of the earth, and the heavens are the work of thy hand." But if the thing completed does not now exist, or if the reference is to the act of finishing and not to the present continuance of the thing finished, this tense can not be used ; thus, we can not say, " Cicero hMS written poems," because no such productions now remain. Nor, " In the beginning God has created the heavens," because reference is only to the act of God at a certain past time indicated by the words " In the beginning." 412, It is used in the same manner as the present (406), instead of the future-perfect, to represent an action, etc., as perfect at a future time ; as, " The cock shall not crow, till thou hast denied me thrice." 413, Sometimes this tense is used in effect to deny the present existence of that which the verb expresses the completion ; as, " I have been young " — meaning, this is now finished — " I am young no more." 414, This tense corresponds to the loiim perfect definite. 41o. The IPast tense expresses what took place in past time ; as, " In the beginning God created the heavens/' — " God said. Let there be hght." — " The ship sailed when the mail arrived^ See 913. 410. 1. The time expressed by this tense is regarded as entirely past, and, however near to the present, it does not embrace it ; as, " I saw your friend a moment ago ; " I wrote yesterday." 2. In such expressions as " I wrote this morning " — " this week " — " this year" etc., the reference is to a point of time now entirely past, in these yet unfinished periods. 417, The past tense never indicates, of itself, without a limiting word, any definite time. 418, This tense is used to express what was customary in past time ; as, " She attended church regularly all her life." 4:19. The I^ast-perfect tense represents an action 100 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. or event as completed at or before a certain past time ; as, " I had walked six miles that day " — " John had heen busy that week " — " The ship had sailed when the mail arrived " — that is, the ship sailed lefore the mail arrived. See 914, 915. 420. The sign of tlie past-perfect is Jiad ; second person, liadst This tense corresponds to the Latin -pluperfeci, 4:21. The Future tense expresses what will take take place in future time ; as, " I will see you again, and your hearts shall rejoiced 422. The signs of the future are shall, wiU. 423. The Future-perfect tense intimates that an action or event will be completed at or before a certain time yet future ; as, " I shall have got my lesson by ten o'clock " ■ — "He will have finished his letter before you are ready." 424. The signs of the future-perfect are shall have, will have. TE2S"SES OF THE POTE]S"TIAL MOOD. 425. The Fotential has four tenses — called th« Present, the Present-perfect, the Past, and the Past-perfect. 420. The Present potential expresses present liberty, power, or obligation. 427- The signs of the Present are map, can, must. 428. The Present-perfect, in this mood, does not correspond in meaning to the same tense in the indicative, but more properly expresses present possibility, liberty, necessity, etc., with respect to an act or state supposed to be past ; thus, " He may have written" means, It is possible that he wrote, or has written ; " He must have written/' means, " It must be that he wrote, or has written. 429, The signs of the Present-perfect potential are, may have, tan hate, must have. ETYMOLOGY — Y E R B 3-^5^18 I^S ES. XOl 430, The I^ast potential is wry indefinite mt)>?6«p;e^t- to time, being used to express liberty, ability, purpose, or duty, sometimes with regard to what is past, sometimes with regard to what is present, and sometimes with regard t J what is future ; thus — Fast — " He could not do it then, for he was otherwise engaged/' Present — " I would do it with pleasure now, if I could/' Futtire — "If he would delay his journey a few days, 1 77iight [could, would, or should^ accompany him/' 431, The signs of the Past potential are, might, could, would, should. 432, The I^ast-perfect potential, also, never corres- ponds in time to the past-peifect indicative ; that is, it never represents an act, etc., as completed at a certain past time, hut expresses the liberty, ability, 'purpose, or duty, with respect to the act or state expressed by the verb, as now past ; thus, " He could have written^ means. He was able, to write, 4:33. The signs of the Past-perfect potential are, might have, could have, would have, should have. 434. The Future and Future-perfect are wanting in the Potential TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 43o, Tlie Subjunctive mood, in its proper form, has only the Present tense. The verb " to be " has the present and the past. Tlie indicative mood used subjunctively (387), furnishes what may be called a second form of the present subjunctive, and the only form of the other sub- junctive tenses. 430. The I^rese^it subjunctive, in its proper form, according to present approved usage, has always a fu- ture reference; that is, it denotes a present uncertainty or contingency respecting a supposed future action or ^^? " . . '/ '.4"^.<^,I^ ISH GRAMMAR. /;eV€4jtj;V^'u?,''^ if fee-f?^^/^/' is equivalent to, "If he should write/' or, " If he shall write."* 4:37* Uncertainty or contingency respecting a supposed present action or state, is expressed by the present indicative used subjuno- tively • as. " If he writes as well as he reads, he will succeed." 438, The Present-perfect subjunctive is only the same tense ■ of the indicative, used subjunctively. Such expressions as " If she have brought up children, etc. (1 Tim. v. 10), are now obsolete. 439. The JPast subjunctive is used in two senses — 1. It is used to express a past action or state as condi- tional or contingent; as, "If he tvrote that letter he de- serves credit, and should be rewarded ; " If he was at home, I did not know it." 2. It expresses a supposition with respect to something present, and implies a denial of the thing supposed; as, " If I had the money now, I would pay it," implying, I have it not. Used in this way, the verb " to he " (and of course the passive voice of transitive verbs) has a separate form in the singular, but not in the plural, viz., I iverey thou wert, he were ; for I was, thou wast, he was : thus, " If my kingdom were of this world, then would my ser- vants fight," implying. It is not of this world ; " that thou wert as my brother," implying, " thou art not." 4:4:0 » In this way, the Past subjunctive seems to be always used when the conjunctive term is omitted, and the verb or auxiliary is * From this usage, this may properly be regarded as an elliptical form of the future, or of the past potential, in a future sense, the signs shall or should being omitted. The forms of the present sub- junctive were formerly used in the indicative, both in declarative and conditional clauses, where the present usage would require the present indicative ; thus, " Though the Lord he [is] high," etc. — Ps. cxxxviii. 6.—" If thou he [art] the Son of God:'—3fatth. iv. 3, 6.— " That which thou sowest is not quickened except it die [dies]." — 1 Cor. XV. 36. — " Whether he he [is] a sinner or not, I know not.'*— JoA^ ix. 25, etc. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TEl^SES. 103 placed before its subject (390) ; as, " Hadst thou been here, my brother had not [would not have (358) ] died." 4:41, When a supposition, etc., respecting something past, is ex- pressed in this way, the Past-perfect must be used ; as, " If I had had the money yesterday, I would have paid it," imyjlying, I had it not ; " O that thou hadst been as my brother," implying "thou wast not." 442, Though the past tense, used in this way, refers to a present act or state, yet, as it has the past form, it should, in parsing, be called the past tense. TENSE OF THE IMPERATIVE MOOD. 443, Tlio Imperative mood has only the present tense, and that has respect to the time of the com- mand^ exhortation, etc. The doing of the thing commanded, must, of course, I subsequent to the command requiring it. te:n'ses of the infinitive mood. 444, The Infinitive mood has two tenses, the I^resent and the I^erfect,^ These do not so properly denote the time of the action, etc., as its state (446 and 449) ; as, "To write"— "To have written." 44i>, In the other moods the time expressed by the tenses, is estimated from the time of speaking, which is always regarded as present ; as, " I wrote " (that is, in a time now past), " I write " (that is, in time now present), " I shall write " (that is, in time now future). But the infinitive represents the action or state expressed ixB present, not, however, always at the time of speaking, but at the time indi- cated by the preceding verb, or some other word in the sentence ; as, * lie wishes to write " — now — to-morrow — next week, etc. : " He wished * The word present is omitted before perfect, in designating this tense in the infinitive and participles, because the reference in these is only to the state of the act, etc., and not particularly to the present time (455). 104' EN"GLISH GKAMMAR. to write " — then (viz., at the time of wishing, now past) — next day-~> this day — to-morrow, etc. ; " He will wish to write " — then (viz., a* the time of wishing, now future) — next day, etc. Hence the following definitions : — 446, — 1st. The I*resent infinitive expresses an act or state as incomplete, or indefinite, or as taking place at a time indicated by some other word, or at any time referred to, expressed or implied ; as, " I wish to write " — " I wished to go" — "Apt to teach" 44:7 » The sign of the present infinitive is, to (549). 448. After the verb to he, the present infinitive is sometimes used to express a future action or event ; as, " He is to go y" " If he were to go," etc. (876-3). 440, — 2d. The Perfect infinitive expresses an act or state as perfect or finished, at any time referred to, ex- pressed or implied; as, "He is said to have written" — already — yesterday — a year ago, etc. 450, The sign of the perfect infiditive is, to ham. 451, In the use of the infinitive it is necessary to ohserve, that the Present must never be used in circumstances which imply a finished act ; nor the Perfect in circumstances which imply an act not finished. Thus, it is improper to say, " He is said to write yester- day," because the language leads to regard the act as finished, since it took place in past time. It should be, '* To have written yesterday " (921). Nor can we say, " I hoped — I desired — I intended, etc. — to have tcritten yesterday," because an act regarded as perfect or finished, the doing of which, of course, is past, can not be the object of hope, desire, intention, etc. We should say, " I hoped to write yesterday " (930). PAETICIPIAL MOOD OR PARTICIPLES. 452, The JParticipial mood or participle^ ex- presses the action or state of the verb, not asser- tively, bnt^ attributively. It has also the character of the adjective, and as such, qualifies its subject : "The Tnan came seeing^'' — '' Having finished oui task, we may play." See 494, 507. ETYMOLOGY — PARTICIPLES. 105 453, Participles are so called, because they belong partly to the ^r6. and partly to the adjective. From the former, they have signifi' cation, voice, and tense ; and they perform the o^ice of the latter. 4zii4i, Verbs have three participles — the present, the pasty and the perfect ; as, loving, loved, having loved, in the active voice ; and teing loved, loved, having heen loved, in the passive. See 494, 507. 455. The participles, taken by themselves, like the infinitiv^e, do not so properly denote the time of an action, as its state ; while the time of the act, whether progressive or finished, is indicated by the verb with which it is connected, or by some other word ; thus, " I saw him writing yesterday ;" " I see him writing now ;" "I will see him writing to-morrow." In all these examples, writing expresses an act present, and still in progress at the time referred to ; but with respect to the time of speaking-, the act of writing, expressed in the first example, is past ; in the second, it is present ; and in the third, it V& future, as indicated by the accompanying verbs, saw, see, wM see. 456. The I^resent participle active ends always in ing. In all verbs it has an active signification, and de- notes an action or state as continuing and progressive ; as, " James is building a house." In some verbs, it has also a passive progressive signification ; as, " The house is build- ing." Appendix IX. 457. This passive usage, some suppose, has its origin in the use of the verbal noun after in, to express the same idea ; thus, " Forty and six years was this temple in build- ing ;" " And the house when it was in building was built of stone made ready — so that there was neither hammer nor axe heard in the house, while it was in building" In the absence of emphasis, the in being indistinctly uttered, came to be spoken, and consequently to be written, a ; as, " While the ark was a preparing " (1 Pet, iii. 20), and finally to be omitted altogether. Similar changes of pre- positions we have in the expressions, a going, a running, a hunting, a fishing, etc. Others, again, suppose that this ought to be regarded as an original idiom of the language, 106 e:n^glish geammar. Bimilar to the passive use of the infinitive active noticed before (396). But whether either of these is the true ac- count of this matter or not, the fact is certain. It is there- fore the duty of the grammarian to note the fact, though he may be unable to account for it. The following are examples : " This new tragedy was acting" — E. Everett. "An attempt was making^ — D. Webster. "The fortress was huitdmg" etc. — Irving, 458. The JPresent jyci^tielple passive has always a passive signification, but it has the same difierence of meaning with respect to the time or state of the action as the present indicative passive (509). 4o9, The I*ast Participle denotes an action or state us completed. It has the same form in both voices. In the active voice, it belongs equally to transitive and intransitive verbs — has always an active sense — forms, with the auxiliaries, the Present-perfect and Past-per- fect tenses — and is never found but thus combined ; as, has loved,'* had loved" etc. In the passive voice it has always a passive sense, and, with the verb to be as an auxiliary forms the passive voice ; as, " Ho is loved ;" or without it, qualifies a noun or pronoun ; as, " A man loved by all, hated by none." The difference between the active and the passive participle will be seen in the following examples, viz. : Active : " He has concealed a dagger under his cloak ; Passive : He has a dagger concealed under his cloak. 400» The Perfect participle is always compound (477), and represents an action or state as completed at the time referred to. It has always an active sense in the active voice, and a passive sense in the passive ; as. Active: Having finished our task, «:e may play. ( Passive : Our task having been finished, we may play." 4zGl, The Present participle active, and the past participle passive, when separated from the idea of time, become ad- jectives, and are usually called participial adjectives; as, " An amusing story " — " A lound book " (206-iv). ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — TENSES. 107 462, The Participle in ing is often used as a verbal noun (107-5), having the nominative and the objective, but not the possessive. In this character the participle of a transi- tive verb may still retain the government of the verb ; as, " In keeping his comynayidments there is a great reward ;" or, it may be divested of it by inserting an article before it, and the preposition of after it ; as, " In the Jceeping of his com- mandments." When of follows the participle, tJie or a {an) should precede it (899.) But of can not be used before an- other preposition. See, (903). 463. So also the perfect participle ; as, " There is satisfaction in having done well " — " His having done liis duty, was, afterward, a source of satisfaction (89 Namher and Person, 464, Every tense of the verb has two N^umbers, the Singular and the J^lural^ corresponding to the singu- lar and plural of nouns and pronouns. The singular as- serts of 07ie ; the plural of more than one. 46^j. In each number, the verb has three JPersons, called the firsts second^ and third. The first asserts of the person speaking ; the second of the person spoken to ; and the third of the person or thing spoken of. Number and person, as applied to verbs, indicate only the for7n to be used with each number and person of the subject. 466, The subject of the verb, in the first person sin- gular, is always J, in the plural, tve / in the second per- son singular, thou, in the plural, ye or you ; in the third person, the subject is the nafne of any person, or thi'ny spoken of, or a pronoun of the third person in its stead; also, it may be an infinitive mood, or a clause of a sentence, or anything of which a person ca5i think or speak (762). 108 Ei^GLISH GRAMMAR. 467* In ordinary discourse, the imperative mood has only the second person, because a command, exhorta- tio7i, etc., can be addressed only to the person or persons spoken to. 4:(>8, In such expressions as "Let us love'' — "Let Mm love" — " Let them love " — phrases by which the first and the third person of the imperative in some languages are rendered — let is the proper imperative, in the second person, with thou or ye as its subject under stood, and love the infinitive without the sign (877). Thus, " Let [thou] us [to] love, etc. 469. This mode of expression is sometimes used, even when no definite individual is addressed ; as, " Let there be light." 4:70. Among the poets, however, we sometimes find a Jf/rst and a third person in the imperative ; as, " Confide we in ourselves alone." " With virtue be ice armed." — Hunt's Tasso. " And rest we here, Ma- tilda said." — Scott. " Fall he that must beneath his rival's arm. And li/Ge the rest secure from future harm." — Pope. 471* Such expressions as " Hallowed be thy name " — " Thy king- dom come " — " Be it enacted " — " So be it," etc., may be regarded either as examples of the third person in the imperative, or as ellip- tical ioT" May," or, "Let thy name be hallowed" — "Let it be enacted " — " Let it be so," etc. 472. The infinitive does not change its form, whatever the number, person, or case of its subject, and is said, therefore, to have neither number nor person. Conjugation of the Verb. 473. The conjugation of the verb is the regu- lar combination and arrangement of its several Tolces, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons."^ * Inflection, properly speaking, is the making of those changes of form which the verb undergoes in its several parts ; Conjugation is the combining or arranging of thes9 forms in the several voices, moods, tenses, numbers, and persons, to which they belong. Both are tisually included under the term conjugation. ETYMOLOGY — VEKB3 — C ]^ J U Q ATIO N. lOd Table of the Verb. 'Present. Present-perfect (AcTiva r Indicative, Past Past-perfect. . i Stng. 1 Plur. r TRANSITIVE. ] Future. J- INTRANSITIVE. [attributive. ( Passive. Future-perfect -Present PQtmtial. Present-perfect Past. 1 1 Pera. m Past-perfect - \ 2 Pers. _ rREGULAH Svhjunctive. Imperative. " Present Past. Present. Present {3 Pera. %\ IRREGULAR. Infinitive. Perfect [2 Present ^' ■ L DEFECTIVE. , Participial. ■ Past Perfect 474. Note. — The simple verb has only four forms, and every compound tense may be analyzed, and each of its parts be referred to one of these, and its force and meaning determined. The relation of the auxiliary to the principal verb properly belongs to syntax. The simple forms are as follows ; Regular. — 1. Love. 2. Loving. 3. Loved. 4. Loved. Irregular. — 1. Write. 2. Writing. 3. Wrote. 4. Written. 1. The first form, love, is used : 1. To assert ; as, I love. 2. With do, emphatic ; as, I do love. 3. In infinitive, connected with to ; I desire to love. 4. To command ; love thou. 2. The second form is used : 1. Either to limit its subject ; as, " He coming in fell down, etc. ; or, 2. In predication after the verb to he ; He is coming (progressive form of the verb). 3. The third form is the past tense. 4. The fourth form is used : 1. Actively after Tmve, to denote that the actor is in possession of (has, owns, by having performed) the act expressed by the verb. 2. Passively ; (1) In predication, after the verb to he, to express the receiving of the act by the subject ; as, " He is loved (passive voice) , (2) To limit a noun (its own subject, used as the subject or object of another verb ; as, " Admired by all he became vain." no E]^GLISH GRAMMAE. Establislied usage, however, renders it desirable to present the or- dinary tables, without change of nomenclature. 475* In the active voice, most verbs have two forms — the Com- mon and the JProgt'essive, and in some tenses, the Interrogct- tlve and Emphatic. — See Appendix IX, I, 1. The Common form expresses the simple existence of the fact; as, "He speaks" — "She writes" — "They taller 2. The JProgressit^e form represents an action as begun, and in progress, but not completed. It is formed by annexing the present participle to the verb " to be" through all its moods and tenses; as, "lam writing" etc., (506). 3. In the present and the past indicative^ etc., the lymphatic form is used to express a fact with em- phasis or force. It is formed by prefixing to the verb the auxiliary do, m the present tense, and did m the past ; as " I do write " — " I did write." The other tenses, and also the progressive form and passive voice, are rendered em- phatic, by placing emphasis on the auxiliary ; as, " I liave written^' — "I am writing" — "The letter is written." 4. The Interrogative form usually transposes the order of the auxiliary ; as, " Have I written ? " and m the present and past indicative uses do and did; as, " Do I write, did I write ? " 470, To these may be added, the solemn form of the third per son singular, present indicative, ending in t/if or etJif instead of the common, in sor es. Thus — solemn form, loveth, hath loved; common, loxes, has loved. 477. The tenses of the verb, inflected without an aux- iliary, are called Simple tenses ; those inflected with an auxiliary placed before the past participle, are called Com- pound tenses. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION". Ill 478, The only regular terminations added to yerbs are — 1. The tense endings : ed of the past tense and past participle (326 and note) ; and ing in the present participle. 2. The personal endings: st^ or esty of the second person singular ; as, lovest, adest (483) : and s^ es, or ethf of the third ; as, reads, teaches, or teacheth. The other changes are made by auxiliaries. 470, In the present and the past tense, when St will easily coalesce with the final consonant, it is added in the same syllable ; as, saidst, lovedst. But when it will not easily coalesce, or the verb ends in a vowel sound, est is commonly added, and forms another syllable ; as, wishest, teacJiest, lowest, goest, drawest, sayest, mxest, Uessest, etc." 480, In the present indicative, the endings of the third person sfngular, s, and es, are subject to the rules for the plural number of nouns (137-143) ; as, sits, reads, wishes, teaches, loves, goes, draws, carries, says, etc. 481, In the solemn style, instead of s, or es, the third person singular has eth, which always adds a syllable, except in doth, hath, saith, for doeth, haveth, sayeth. 482, The verb need is often used in the third person singular of the present tense, without the personal ending ; as, " The truth need not be disguised " — " It need not be added." 483, In annexing the tenses and personal endings to the verb, the Rules III., IV., and VI., for spelling words (57, 60, 66), must be carefully observed. 484, In the present indicative active, the three persons in the plural, and the first in the singular, are alike. In the past tense, the three persons in the plural, and the first and third in the singular, are all alike, except in the verb " to be," in which the form in the singu- lar is different from that of the plural ; thus, singular, was, wast, was — plural, were. 48o. The principal parts of the verb are the 112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. JPresent indicative^ the Present participle, tlie Past indicative, and the Past participle. In parsing, the mentioning of these parts is called conjugating the verb. Thus : Present. Present Participle. Past. Past Participle. Regular Love, loving, loved, loved. Irregular Write, writing, wrote, written. Conjugation of the Irregular Verb ^* To JBe." 486. The irregular and intransitive (or attributive) verb "to be," is used as a principal verb, and also as an auxiliary in the passive voice, and in the progressive . form of the active voice. It is thus inflected through all its moods and tenses : — been- PRINCIPAL PARTS. Present, am. Pres. Part., being. Past, was. Past Part., Indicative Mood, PRESENT TENSE. Singular. 1. I am.* 2. Thou art (244). 3. He is. Plural. 1. We are. 2. You are. 3. They are. PRESENT -PERFECT TENSB. 1. I have been. 2. Thou hast been. 3. He has been. Sign, have. 1. We have been. 2. You have been. 3. They have bee'^ PAST TENSE. 1. I was. 2. Thou wast. 3. He was. 1. We were. 2. You were. 3. They were. * Be, and beest were formerly used in the present indicative ; as, ** We be true men." — Bible — for, We are true men. " If thou beest he." — Milton. " There be as many miseries beyond riches as on this side of them " — Walton. This usage is now obsolete. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATIOISr. 113 PAST-PERFECT TENSE. Sign, Imd. Singular. Plural. 1. I had been. 1. We had been. 2. Thou hadst been. 2. You had been. 3. He had been. 3. They had been. FUTURE TENSE. Signs, shall, mil. — Inflect with each. 1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 2. Thou Shalt be. 2. You shall be. 3. He shall be. 3. They shall be. FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. Signs, shall have, mil have. — Inflect with each. 1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 2. Thou shalt have been. 2. You shall have been. 3. He shall have been. 3. They shall have been. Potential Mood. PRESENT TENSE. Signs, may, can, must. — Inflect with each. 1. I may be. 1. We may be. 2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be. 3. He may be, 3. They niay be. PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. Signs, may ha've, can have,* or must have. — Inflect with each. 1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 8. He may have been. 3. They may have been. PAST TENSE. Signs, might, covZd, would, should. — Inflect with each. 1. I might be. 1. We might be. 2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be. 8. He might be. 3. They might be. PAST-PERFECT TENSE. Signs, might have, could have, would have, should have* Inflect with each. 1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 2. Thou mightst have been. 2. You might have been. 3. He might have been. 3. They might have been. Jfcf Can have, as an auxiliary, is not used in affirmative sentences. 114 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. Singidar. 1. If * I be. 2. If tliou be. 3. If he be. 1. If I were. 2. If thou wert, or were. 3. If he were. Subjunctive Mood (487)» PRESENT TENSE. Plural. 1. If we be. 2. If you be. 3. If they be. PAST TENSE. 1. If we were. 2. If you were. 3. If they were. Imperative Mood, 2. Be, or be thou. 2. Be, or be ye or you. Infinitive Mood, PRESENT TENSE. To be. PERFECT TENSE. To have been. Participles, Present, Being. Past, Been, Perfect, Having been. 4S7» All the tenses of the indicative, and also of the potential mood, are used subjunctively, by placing the con- junction before them, thus : Present — " If I am," " If thou art," " If lie is," etc. (386). Present-perfect—" If I liave been," etc. Past — " If I was," etc. 488. The verb to be, followed by an infinitive, forms a particular future tense, which often expresses duty^ 7ieces- sity, or purpose ; as, " Government is to be supported " — " We are to pay our debts " — " If we ivere to depend ca others "=" If we shoiiM depend," etc. (876-3). 489, This verb has no progressive form. The em- * The conjunctions, if, though, lest, unless, etc., do not form part of the subjunctive mood, but are placed before it to express a condition or contingency (388). The pupil may go over the indicative, as a subjunctive, with on<) or other of these conjunctions prefixed. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — C IT J U Q A T 1 O l?" . 115 phatic form is used only in the imperative; as, "Do thou be"— "Z>oyoube." Anomalous Usage. 400, Were is sometimes used for would be; and had been, for toould have been, as, " This were excellent advice." — Cowley. " It were a folly." — Sidney. " My fortune had been his, for woiUd have been " (dm).—Dryden. Parsing the Verb* 491. A verb is parsed by stating its class (tran- sitive, intransitive, or attributive), its form (regular or irregular), conjugating it if irregular* (485), and stating its tensc^ mood, voice, the subject of which it affirms, and its person and number ; thus, " He is wise." — Is is a verb, attributive, irregular — am, being, was, been — found in the present, indicative, and affirms the attribute wise, of its subject he, in the third person, singular. 402, Besides stating the several properties of the verb, as above, the teacher may occasionally require the pupil, as a sort of reviewing exercise, to assign a reason for each statement ; thus : — ** Is — a verb, because it affirms of " He." Attributive — ^it affirms the attribute wise of the subject Se. Irregular — its past tense and past participle do not end in ed — am, being, was, been. Present — it refers to present time. Indicative — it declares sirhply, and without limitation. Third person — its subject is spoken of. Singular — it asserts of but one, " Re." As this process would consume much time, it, of course, can not often be used, and it is not necessary after the pupil is familiar with it, and prompt in assigning the reasons as above. * In parsing, it will save time to omit conjugating the verb when it is regular, and it is unnecessary, because its being announced to be regular sufficiently ascertains its principal parts. All irregular verba should be conjugated as in 513. Every teacher, however, will adopt the course wliich he prefers. 116 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 493, Sentences.— The Subject. 1. A sentence is an affirmation, and must contain a verb in the indicative, potential, or imperative mood, by which the affirmation is made ; and a subject of which the verb affirms. This subject is generally a noun or pronoun, in the nominative case ; thus, the sentence, " God is good," contains an affirmation. Tlie verb is affirms of the noun God, which is of course its subject, and in the nominative case. 2. Sentences which have the verb in the imperative mood, contain a command, exhortation, etc. The subject is that to which the com- mand is given (467). The subject of a verb, except in the infinitive and participial moods, is always in the nominative case. When that which is affirmed of a subject in the nominative case, is something expressed by a noun or pronoun after the verb to be, that noun or pronoun is always in the nominative case, and called the pr'edicate-noniinativef or nominative after the verb; as, *' Socrates was a philosopher." Here philosopher is in the predicate- nominative, and expresses what the verb " was " affirms of its subject *' Socrates" See 796. EXERCISES. 1. State the tense, mood, person, and number, of the verb " to be," in the following examples ; thus, " Am," present, indicative, active, first person, singular. 2. Parse all the words. Thus, " Am," a verb, attributive, irregu- lar — am, being, was, been— in the present, indicative, active, first person, singular ; — (491), and the pronouns as directed (253). Am ; is ; art ; I was ; we were ; they are ; you have been ; she had been ; he was ; we will be ; they shall be ; we had been ; hast been ; hadst been ; wast. We may be; they may have been; he might be; you might have been ; you must be ; they should have been ; if I be; thou wert; though he were; if I had been; though I were ; if we could have been ; they might be. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — COltJUGATION. 117 Be ; to be ; do thou be ; be ye ; to bave been ; being ; been ; having been ; be thou. Conjugation of the Regular Verb '* To Love," 494. The regular transitive verb " ^o love^'' is inflected through all its moods and tenses as fol- lows : — ACTIVE VOICE. PBINCIPAL PARTS. Present, love. Pres. part., loving. Past, loved. Past part, loved. Indicative Mood, PRESENT TENSE.* Singtdar. Plural. 1. I love. 1. We love. 2. Thoulovest. 2. You love. 3. He loves {or loveth). 3. They love. PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. . Sign, have. 1. I have loved. 1, We have loved. 2. Thou hast loved. 2. You have loved. 3. He has loved. 3. They have loved. PAST TENSE. 1. I loved. 1. We loved. 2. Thoulovedflt. 2. You loved. 8. He loved. 3. They lovdd. ♦emphatic forms. PBESENT TENSE. 1. I do love. 1. We do love. 2. Thou dost love. 2. You do love. 8. He does love (or doth love). ' 3. They do love. PAST TENSE. 1. I did love. 1. We did love. 2L Thou didst loveT 2. You did love. 8. He did love. 3. They did love. 118 El^GLISHGEAMMAE. PAST-PERFECT TENSE. Sign, ?iad. Singular. Plural. 1. I had loved. 1. We had loved. 2. Thou hadst loved. 2. You had loved. 3. He had loved. 3. They had loved. FUTURE TENSE. Signs, shall, will. — Inflect with each. 1. I shall love. 1. We shall love. 2. Thou shalt love. 2. You shall love. 3. He shaU love. 3. They shall love. FUTURE-PERFECT TENSE. Signs, shall hate, will have. — Inflect with each. 1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 2. Thou shalt have loved. 2. You shall have loved. 3. He shall have loved. 3. They shall have lovedc JPotential Mood, PRESENT TENSE. Signs, mai/, can, must. — Inflect with each. 1. I may love. 1. We may love. 2. Thou mayst love. 2. You may love. 3. He may love. 3. They may love. PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. Signs, may have, can have,^ must have. — Inflect with eaclL 1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. PAST TENSE. Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with each. 1. I might love. 1. We might love. 2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 3. He might love. 3. They might love. * Can have, as an auxiliary, is not used m affirmative sentences. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — C N J U G A T I 25^. 119 PAST-PERFECT TENSE. Signs, might ham, could have, would hojoe, should have. Inflect with each. Singular. Plural. 1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved. 2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. Subjunctive Mood (487). PRESENT TENSE (435). 1. If I love. 1. If we love. 2. If thou love. 2. If you love. 3. If he love. 3. If they love. Imperative Mood, Singular. Plural. Common form. 2. Love, or love thou. 2. Love, or love ye or you. ^mpliatic form. 2. Do thou love. 2. Do ye or you love. Infinitive Mood, Present, To love. Perfect, To have loved. Participles. Present, Loving. Past, Loved. Perfect, Having loved. 495. Preliniinary Oral Exercise, Review the exercise (324), and then proceed thus : — When you say, " John loves learning," which word expresses what John does ? What part of speech are words which express the act of a person or thing (314) ? Then what part of speech is loves f Why ? Whose act does loves express ? Then what is Jo7in to the verb loves (315) ? Then John is the subject of loves. What is tt said that John loves ? Learning. "VNliat does John do to learning ? Of what class are verbs which express what one person or thing does to another (317) ? Is loves, then, transitive or intransi- tive ? Transitive. Conjugate love (485). What is its past tense ? — its past participle? In what do they end ? Of what form are verbs which have the past tense and the past participle ending in ed (326) ? Then is love regular or irregular ? Regular — conjugated, love, loved^ loved. 1^ ENGLISH GEAMMAB. (Do all verbs form the past tense and the past participle by adding ed? Let us try. Is it right to say, "/ go f" Would you say, " I goed to church yesterday ?" What would you say ? What are those verbs called which do not add ed to form the past tense and the past participle (327) ? Then i« " go " regular or irregular ? Why ?) When you say, " John loves learning," does loves express a present, a past, or a future act ? When a verb expresses a present act, in what lense is it (402) ? In what tense, then, is loves f Present. Why ? (What would you say, to express the same act as past 1 — as future ? Then what tense is loved ? — will lo'oe f) When you say, " John loves learning," do you declare a fact simply, or with any limitation ? What mood declares an act simply (378) ? Then what mood is loves f Indicative. In this sentence, does the subject John act, or is it acted ujwn ? What voice represents the subject as acting (368) ? Then what voice is loves ? Is John represented here as speaking, spoken to, or spoken of? What person represents the subject as spoken of (465) ? Then what person is loves f Tliird person. Does loves assert the act of one person, or of more than one? What mmiber asserts of one (464)? Then what number is loves f Singular. 4:90^ The facts ascertained by this process will stand in order, thus: '^ Loves'' — a verl, trmisitive, regular, conju- gated love, loving, loved, loved — found in the present, indica- tive, active, third person, singular, and expresses the act of ''John." See 491. 4:97* This may be extended, by giving the reasons of each state- ment, as follows : — ** Loves " — a verb, because it expresses an act of its subject (314). Transitive, because it expresses an act that passes over from the actor, John, to an object, learning (^20a.) Regular, because its past tense and past participle end in ecL Conjugated, love, loving, loved, loved (485). Present, — it expresses what John does now (402). Indicative, — ^it expresses the act simply (378). Active, — it represents its subject as acting (368). Third person, — ^its subject is spoken of (465). SinAjvlar, — ^it asserts of only one (464). ^ ETYaiOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 121 EXEKCISES — NO. L Inflect the following irregular verbs in the same manner as the rerb " to love :" — taking care to use the past participle in the com- pound tenses (477), Present. Past. Past Participle, Go went gone Write wrote written Do did done Give gave given Ete,ve had had EXERCISES — NO. H. 1. In the following exercises, tell the tense, mood, voice, person and number, and always in this order, thus "Loves " — Present, indic& tive, active, third person, singular. 2. In the Imperative, omit the tense, and say thus, " Love thou "— Imperative, active, second person, singular. 3. In the Infinitive and Participles, omi^; the person and number, and say tlm^To lam" — Present, infinitive, active ; " Loving " — Pres- ent participle, active. N. B. — The pronoun prefixed is no part of the verb, but helps to show its person and number. The auxiliaries (or signs, except in a a special analysis) are not taken separately, but always with the verb ; so that the two words, and sometimes three, as in the future-x)erfect indicative are parsed together as one word, thus, " Has loved " — th-3 present-perfect, indicative, active, third person, singular. He loves. — We have loved. — He loved. — They had loved. — You shall love. — They may have loved. — We might love. — Love thou. — To love. — You had gone. — They will go. — To have gone. — We will write. — They may write. — They should go. — He has fa — You had given. — We might have gone. — James has written. — Robert loves to write. — • To write is useful. — Writing is useful. — Having written.— We gave. — They have given. — You will give. The Objective Case. 498» A transitive verb, m the active voice, tells what 122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. its subject does to some other person or thing. That per- son or thing is the object of the verb, and is in the 06- jective case. Thus, " He loves us ;" loves is a transitive verb in the active voice, and tells what its subject he, does to us. Us, then, is its object, and is in the objective case. See also 320. 1. In the following exercises, tell which words are verhs, and why; whether transitive or intransitive, and why ; what is the subject, and why ; and if transitive, what is their object, and why. 2. Conjugate the verbs, and tell their tense, mood, voice, person, and number ; thus, " Lovies " — Verb, transitive, regular — love, loving, loved, loved — the present, indicative, active, third person) singular. He loves us. — I will love him. — Good boys study their lessons. — Children love play. — God created the world. — Ke- member thy Creator. — Do good to all men. — Forgive your enemies. — He that giveth to the poor (201) lendeth to the Lord. — You should study grammar. — We shoujd read the best books. — Bad books injure the character.— War makes rogues, and peace hangs them.— Children, obey your pa- rents. — A good cause mai:es a strong arm. — Show mercy, and thou shalt find it. EXERCISES — NO. III. PABSING. In the preceding exercises (498), parse each word in order ; the noim, as directed, (183) ; the article, as directed (194) ; the adjective, as directed (235) ; the pronoun, as directed (353) ; and the verb, aa directed (491 or 496). Or, more fully, as an occasional exercise (492 or 497). thus: ** Loves " — a verb, because it expresses an act, viz., of he. transitive, because it has an object, us (498). regular, — its past tense and past participle end hied; conjugated, love, loving, loved, loved, present, because the act takes place in present time. indicative, — it declares the fact simply. third person, — ^its subject, he, is spoken of. singular, — ^it asserts of but orie. ETYMOLOGY — VEKBS — CONJUGATION. 123 Negative Form of the Verb, 499. The verb is made to deny by placing the word not fefter the simple form ; as, " Thou lovest not ;" and between the auxiliary and the verb in the compound form; as, '* I do not love." When two auxiliaries are used, it is placed between them ; as, " I would not have loved." 500. In the infinitive and participles, the negative is put first; as, "Not to love "—"Not loving"— "Not loved." 501. The simple form is seldom used with the negative. In the present and past tenses, the compound or emphatic form is more common. The following synopsis will show the manner of using the negative : — INDICATIVE MOOD. Present. 1. I do not love. Pres.-Perf. 1. I have not loved. Past. 1. I did not love. Past-Perf. 1, I had not loved. Future. 1. I will not love. Fut.-Perf. 1. I shall not have loved. 2. Thou dost not love, etc. 2. Thou hast not loved, etc. 2. Thou didst not love, etc. 2. Thou hadst not loved, etc. 2. Thou wilt not love, etc. 2. Thou shalt not have loved, etc. Present. Pres.-Perf. 1. I may not have loved. Past. 1. I might not love. Past-Perf. 1. I might not have loved. Present. POTENTIAL MOOD. 1. I can not love. 2. Thou canst not love, etc. 2. Thou mayst not have loved, etc. 2. Thou mightst not love, etc. 2. Thou miglitst not have loved, etc. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (487). 1. ijf I do not love. 2. If thou do not love, etc. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Singular. Plural. 2. Love not, or do not thou love. 2. Love not, or do not ye love. INFINITIVE MOOD. Present. Not to love. Perfect. Not to have loved PARTICIPLE. Present. Not loving. Past. Not loved. Perfect. Kot having loved. 124 ENGLISH GilAMMAR. Interrogative Form of the Verb. d02. The verb is made to as7^ a question by placing the nominative or subject cifter the simple form; as, " Lovest thou ?" and between the auxihary and the verb in the compound forms ; as, " Do I love ?" When there are two auxiliaries, the nominative is placed between them ; as, " Shall I have loved ?" 503, The subjunctive, imperative, infinitive, and parti- ciples, can not have the interrogative form. ^04, The simple form of the verb is seldom used interrogatively. The following synopsis will show how how the verb is put into the interrogative form : — INDICATIVE MOOD. Dost thou love ? etc. Hast thou loved ? etc. 2. Didst thou love ? etc. Hadst thou loved ? etc. Wilt thou love? etc. 2. Wilt thou have loved ? etc. POTENTIAL MOOD. Present. 1. May I love ? 2. Canst thou love ? etc. Pres.-Perf. 1. May I have loved ? 2. Canst thou have loved ? etc. Past. 1. Might I love ? 2. Couldst thou love? etc. Past-Perf. 1. Might I have loved ? 2. Couldst thou have loved ? etc 505. Interrogative sentences are made negative by placing the negative either before or after the nominative ; as, " Do I not love ?" or, " Do not I love ?" EXERCISES. 1. Inflect the verb to love in the negative form. 2. Inflect the indicative, and potential, in the interrogative form. 3. Change the exercises (p. 121) into the negative form, and write thsm out. 4. Change the examples in the indicative and the potential into the interrogative form, and writefHhem out. Present. Do I love ? 2. Pres.-Perf Have I loved ? 2. Past. Did I love? 2. Past-Perf. Had I loved ? 2. Future. Shall I love ? 2. Fut.-Perf. Shall I have loved? 2. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 125 Progressive Form of the Active Voice, ^06, The I*rogressive form of the verb is inflected by prefixing the verb to be, through all its moods and tenses, to the present participle ; thus: — Present. 1. I am writing. 2. Thou art writing, etc. Pres.-Perp. 1. I have been writing. 2. Thou hast been writing, etc. Past. 1. I was writing. 2. Thou wast writing, etc. Past-Perp. 1. I had been writing. 2. Thou hadst been writing.etc. Future 1. I shall be writing. 2. Thou shalt be writing, etc. Fut.-Perf. 1. I shall ar will have 2. Thou shalt or wilt have been been writing. writing, etc. Note. — Verbs which in the common form imply continuance, do not usually admit the progressive form ; thus, " I am loving " (if proper) would mean nothing more than " I love." Appendix IX. 1,2. EXERCISES. 1. Change the following verbs from the simple into the progressive form : — He writes. — They read. — Thou teachesi — We have learn- ed. — He had written. — They go. — You will build. — I ran. — John has done it. — We taught. — He stands. — He stood. — They will stand. — They may read. — We can sew. — You should study. — We might have read. 2. Change the following, from the progressive into the simple form : — We are writing. — They were singing. — They have been riding. — ^We might be walking. — I may have been sleeping, — They are coming. — Thou art teaching. — They have been eating. — He has been moving.^ AVe have been defending. 3. Parse these verbs, in the progressive form ; thus, " We are icrit- ing " — " are writing " is a verb, transitive, irregular — write, loriting, wrote, written — in the present, indicative, active, first persoD, plural, progressive form. 4. Change the exercises, No. 2, into the negative form ; thus, " We are not writing ;" — into the interrogative form : aj^, " Are we writing?" — ^into the negative-interrogative form ; as, " Are w« Txot writing V or, ** Are not we writing ?" 126 Ejjtglishgeammar. passive voice. S07» The I^assive voice is inflected Iby adding tlie past participle to the verb "to he,'''' as an auxiliary, through aH its moods and tenses thus ; (486) : — PEIi^rCIPAL PAKTS. Present, Am loved. Present part., Being loved. Past, Was loved. Past participle, Loved. Indicative 3Iood, PBBSENT TENSE. Singidar. Plural. 1. I am loved. 1. We are loved. 2. Thou art loved. 2. You are loved. 3. He is loved. 3. They are loved. PRESENT-PEKFECT TENSE. 1. I have been loved. 1. We have been loved. 2. Thou hast been loved. 2. You have been loved. 3. He has been loved. 3. They have been loved. PAST TENSE. 1. I was loved. 1. We were loved. 2- Thou wast loved. 2. You were loved. 3. He was loved. 3. They were loved PAST-PKRFECT TENSE. Sign, had. 1. I had been loved. 1. We had been loved. 2. Thou hadst been loved. 2. You had been loved. 3. He had been loved. 3. They had been loved. FUTURE TENSE. Signs, sJiall, mil. — Inflect with each. 1. I shall be loved. 1. We shall be loved. 2. Thou shalt be loved. 2. You shall be loved. 3. He shall be loved. 3. They shall be loved. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — CONJUGATION. 127 PUTURB PERFECT TENSE. Signs, shall have, vM have. — Inflect with each. 1. I shall have been loved. 1. We shall have been loved. 2. Thou shalt have been loved. 2. You shall have been loved. 3. He shall have been loved. 3. They shall have been loved. ^Potential Mood, PRESENT TENSE. Signs, may, can, miLst. — Inflect with each. Singular. Plural. t. I may be loved. 1. We may be loved. ^. Thou mayst be loved. 2. You may be loved. S. He may be loved. 3. They may be loved. PRESENT-PERFECT TENSE. Signs, ifnay have, can have,* or must have. — Inflect with each. 1. I may have been loved. 1. We may have been loved. 2. Thou mayst have been loved. 2. You may have been loved. 8. He may have been loved. 3. They may have been loved. PAST TENSE, Signs, might, could, would, should. — Inflect with eacK 1. I might be loved. 1. We might be loved. 2. Thou mightst be loved. 2. You might be loved. 3. He might be loved. 3. They might be loved. PAST PERFECT TENSE. Signs, might have, coidd have, would have, should Tiave.'^ Inflect with each. 1. I might have been loved. 1. We might have been loved. 2. Thou mightst have been loved. 2. You might have been loved. 8. He might have been loved. 3. They might have been loved. • Can 7ia/De, as an auxiliary, is not used in affirmative sentences. 128 Ei^GLISHGRAMMAR. Subjunctive Mood (487). PRESENT TENSE. Singular. Plural. 1. If * I be loved. 1. If we be loved. 2. If thou be loved. 2. If you be loved. • 8. If lie be loved. 3. If they be loved. PAST TENSE. 1. If I were loved. 1. If we were loved. 2. If thou wert or were loved. 2. If you were loved. 3. If he were loved. 3. If they were loved. Imperative Mood, Singular. Plural. 2. Be thou loved. 2. Be ye or you loved. Infinitive 3Iood, Present, To be loved. Perfect, To have beei^ ioved I^articiples, Present, Being loved. Past, Loved. Perfect, Having been loved Observations on the Passive Voice. 508, 1. The passive voice, in the finite moods, properly affirms of the subject the receiving of the act performed by the actor; and in all tenses, except the present, expresses passively the same thing that is expressed by the same tense in the active voice : thus, " Caesar conquered Gaul," and "Gaul was conquered by Caesar," express the same thing. Hence, the subject of the verb in the passive voice, is the object of the act, i. e., it is acted upon by the actor (369). 2. Every tense of the passive voice may be resolved into * The conjunctions, if, though, lest, unless, etc., do not form part of the subjunctive mood, but are placed before it to express a con- dition or contingency (389). The pupil may go over the indicative, fts a subjunctive, with one or other of these conjunctions prefixed. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — lEREGULAR. 129 the verb to be, and the past participle, — the former to be regarded as an attributive verb, and the latter as a participle limiting the subject of the attributive verb, which is also its subject Compare the following : — Sad at lieart, he returned home. Me WAS sad at heart. Admired by all, ?ie became vain. He WAS admired by all, etc. 500, The present passive has a somewhat different office in different verbs. In some, it represents the act as now in progress — in others, as now completed. In t\i.Q former, it expresses passively the present continuance of the action, just as the present active does. Thus, " James loves Robert," and " Robert is loved by James," ex- press precisely the same thing. In the latter, the present passive expresses, not the continuance, but the result of the act now finished, as a predicate of the subject ; as, " The house is built." The act of building is here represented, not as continuing, but as completed ; and the result of the act expressed by "built" is predicated of " house." 510. In all such verbs, the idea expressed by the present passive differs from that expressed by the present active ; the latter express- ing a continuing, the former, a completed act. A continuing act, in this class of verbs, can be expressed passively only when the parti- ciple in ing has a passive as well as an active sense (456). 511, There is no passive form corresponding to the progressive form, in the active voice, except where the participle in ing is used passively ; as, " The house is building " The form introduced within the last fifty years, and now defended by some grammarians, viz., " The house is being built," ought to be regarded only as a clumsy solecism. On this subject, see 457 and Appendix IX. Exercises on the Passive Voice* EXERCISES — KO. I. Inflect the following verbs in the same manner as am loved (507). Present. Past. Past Participle. Am commended. was commended, commended. Am taught, was taught, taught. Am told, was told, told. Am placed, was placed, placed. 130 El^GLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISES — KO. II. 1. In the following exercises, tell the tense, mood, voice, number, and person, and always in this order, viz. : " Is loved " — present, indi- cative, passive, third person, singular. 2. In the imperative, omit the tense, and say thus : " Be ye loved," imperative, passive, second person, plural. 3. In the infinitive and participles, omit the person and number, and say thus : " To be loved," present, infinitive, passive. " Being loved," present participle, passive. They are loved ; we were loved ; she was loved ; lie has been loved; I have been loved; thou hadst been loved; we shall be loved ; they will be loved ; I shall have been loved. lie can be loved ; she must be loved ; they might be loved ; ye would be loved ; I could be loved ; thou mayst have been loved ; it may have been loved. If I be loved. Be thou loved ; you be loved. To be loved. Loved ; having been loved ; being loved. 4. Put the above exercises, first in the negative form, and then, in the indicative and potential moods, in the interrogative form, as di- rected (499 and 503). EXERCISES — NO. III. Change the exercises (497, II. ; 498) into the passive form. Write them out, and then parse them ; thus, " We are loved by him," etc. Put each example in the negative form, and those in the indicative of potential, in the interrogative form, as directed (499 and 502). lAst of Irregular Verbs, 512. An Irregular verb is one that does not form its past tense in the indicative active, and its past participle^ Iby adding ed to the present. ^13, %* The following list comprises nearly all the irregular verbs in the language. Those conjugated regularly, as well as irregu- larly, are marked with an r» When two forms are given, the first \b most used. ETYMOLOGY — VERBS — IRIIEGULAR 131 They may be conveniently divided into three classes : 1. Those which have only one fonn for the three parts given ; nz. : Present. Past. Past Participle. Bet bet r bet r Burst burst burst Cast cast cast Cost cost cost Cut cut cut Hit hit hit Hurt hurt hurt Knit knit r knit r Let let let Put put put Quit quit r quit r Rid rid rid Set, he- set, le- set, be- Shed shed shed Shred shred shred Shut shut shut Slit slit slit, slitted Spit spit, (spat, obsolete) spit Split split split Spread, be- spread, be- spread, be- Sweat r sweat r sweat Thrust thrust thrust Wet r wet r wet Whet r whet ^ r whet 2. Those which have tivo fortns tor the parts given ; viz Abide abode abode Beat beat beaten, beat Bend bent r bent r Bereave r bereft r bereft Beseech besought besought Betide r betid r betid Bless r blest r blest Bind, UTi- bound, tfT*. bound, un- Bleed bled bled Breed bred bred Brmg brought brought 132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Present. Past Past Participle, Build, ra- built, re- r built, re- r Burn r burnt r burnt Buy bought bought Catch caught r caught r Cling clung clung Come, le- came, fee- come, he- Creep crept . crept Deal dealt r dealt r Dig dug r dug r Dream r dreamt V dreamt Dress V drest r drest DweU dwelt r dwelt r Feed fed fed Feel felt felt Fight • fought fought Find found found Flee' fled * fled Fling flung flung Gild r gilt r gilt Gird, he- en. r girt, he- en- r girt, be- en- Grind ground ground Hang hung hung Have had had Hear heard heard Hold, le- loitTi- held, he- vith- held, holden, &«s lOit/^ Keep kept kept Kneel r knelt knelt r Lay, be- laid, fee- laid, fee- head, mia- led, mis- ' led, mis- Lean r leant r leant Leap r leapt r leapt Learn V learnt r learnt Leave left left Lend lent lent Lie lied lied Light r lit r lit Lose lost lost Make made made Mean meant meant Meet met met Pass r past r past ETYMOLOGY — IRREGULAR VERBS, 133 Present Past, Pay, re- paid, re- Pen, to inclose r pent Rap r rapt Read read Rend rent Ride rode Run ran ^ay said Seek songht Sell sold Send sent Shine shone r Shoe shod Shoot shot Sit sat Sleep slept Sling slung Slink slunk Smell r smelt Speed sped Spell r spelt Spend, mis- spent, mis- Spill r spilt Spoil spoilt r Stand, with- etc. stood, witTi- Stave r stove Stay. r staid Stick stuck Sting stung Strike struck String strung Sweep swept Swing swung Teach, mis- taught, mis- Tell told Think, le- thought, &e- Weep wept Win won Wind wound *• Work wrought r Wring V wrung Past Participle. paid, re- T pent r rapt read rent rode, ridden run said sought sold sent shone *• shod shot sat (sitten, obsolete.) slept slung slunk r smelt sped r spelt spent, mis- T spilt r spoilt stood, icitTi- r stove T staid stuck stung struck, stricken strung swept swung taught, mis- told thought, he- wept won wound r wrought T wrung #• 134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3. Those which have three forms for the parts given ; viz. Present. Past. Past Participle. Am was been Arise arose arisen Awake awoke r awaked Bake baked r baken Bear, to Iring forth bare, bore bom Be&T,for- bore, bare,/(?r- borne, for- Begiu began begun Bid bade, bid bidden, bid Bite bit bitten, bit Blow- blew blown Break broke, brake broken, broke Chide chid chidden, chid Choose chose chosen Cleave, to adhere T clave cleaved Cleave, to split clove, cleft cloven, cleft Clothe clothed, clad r clad Crow r crew crowed Dare, to venture r durst dared Dive r dove dived Do, mis- un- did, mis- un- done, mis- un- Draw drew drawn Drink drank drunk Drive drove driven Eat ate, eat eaten Fall, he fell, he- fallen, he- Fly flew flown Forbear forbore forborne Forget forgot forgotten, forgot Forsake forsook forsaken Freeze froze frozen Freight freighted fraught r Get, he- got, gat, he- gotten, got, he- Qiye,for-mi9- gSive,for-mis- given, for- fnis- Go went gone Grave, en- graved, en^ r graven, en- Grow grew grown Heave r hove r hoven Hew hewed r hewn Hide hid hidden, hid Know knew known Lade laded laden iTYMOLOGY — IRREGULAR VERBS, 1*3 Present Past. Future. Lie, to lie down lay lain Load loaded r laden Mow mowed T mown Ring rang, rung rung Rise a- rose, a- risen, Or Rive rived r riven Saw sawed r sawn See saw seen Seethe r sod r sodden Shake shook shaken Shape, mi9- shaped, mis- r shapen, mis- Shave shaved r shaven Shear r shore shorn Show showed r shown Shrink shrunk, shrank shrunk, shrunken Sing sung, sang sung Sink sunk, sank sunk Slay slew slain Slide slidr slidden, slid r Sling slung, slang slung Smite smote smitten, smit Sow sowed sown r Speak, he- spoke, spake, he- spoken, he- Spin spun, span spun Spring sprung, sprang sprung Steal stole stolen Stride, 1)6- ' strode, strid, he- stridden, strid, he- Strive r strove striven Strow, he- strewed, he- r strown, he- Swear swore, sware swom Swell swelled r swollen Swim swum, swam swum Take, he- under- took, he- under- taken, he- under' Tear tor© (tare, obsolete) torn Thrive r throve r thriven Throw threw r r thrown Tread trod (trode, ohs.) trodden, trod Wax waxed waxen Wear wore worn Weave wove woven Write wrote (writ, obs) written (writ, i>6«.) 136 El^GLISH GRAMMAR. Defective Verbs, 514. A Defective Verb is one in wMcli some of the parts are wanting. The following list comprise? the most important. They are irregular, and chiefly auxiliary : — Present. Past. Present. Past. Can could Shall should Maj might Will would Must Wis wist Ought ought Wit ) quoth Wot ) wot Quoth Imperative — Beware. 515. Ought f originally the past tense of owe, is now used to signify present duty ; and tniist^ to denote present obligation or ncr cessity. When they refer to past time, a change is made in the infini- tive -with which they are joined ; thus, Present — " These things ye ought to do;" Past — "These things ye ought to have done." (448 and 449 ) 516, Willf as an auxiliary, has wilt, and sJiall has shalt, in the second person singular. They are both without inflection in the third person singular. Will, as a principal verb, is regular. 517* Wis, wist, which signifies, to know, to imagine, is now obsolete. Wit, of the same meaning and origin, is now used only in the infinitive, in the phrase, " to wit," that is, " namely." 518, JBetvare (properly be and ware, or wary) is now used only in the imperative, and sometimes after an auxiliary ; as, " Beware of him" — " We should beware." 519, Quoth f to say, to speak, is used only in ludicrous Ian. guage ; its nominative always comes after the verb, and it has no variation for person, number, or tense ; as, " Quoth he " — ■" Quoth they," etc. To defective verbs also properly belong — Impersonal Verbs. 520, Impersonal Verbs are those which assert the existence of some action or state, Ibnt refer it to no particular subject. ETYMOLOGY — IRREGULAR VERBS. 13? They are always in the third person singular, and in English are preceded by the pronoun it; as, "It raim," — *' It hails,"—'' It Ulwoves," etc. l>21. To this class of words belong the expressions, methinka, rnethought ; meseerns, tneseenied ; sometimes used for, "It seems to me " — " It appears to me" etc. 522. The pronoun if, preceding the impersonal verb as its sub- ject, is the substitute of some unknown and general, or well-known cause, the action of which is expressed by the verb, but which caa not, or need not, itself be named (346-4). EXERCISES. 1. Conjugate the following irregular verbs (485 and 513), stating why they are called irregular. Make complete sentences with them, and in these tell which are transitive, which are intransitive, and which are attributive, and why (32051). Extend the list at pleasure from the table. Take, drive, creep, begin, abide, buy, bring, arise, catchy bereave, am, burst, draw, drink, fly, flee, fall, get, give, etc. EXERCISES ON" THE PRECEDING PARTS OF SPEECH. 1. In the follo%ving exercises, parse the several words ; viz., the nouns as directed (182) — articles as (194) — adjectives as (225) — pro- nouns as (253) — and verbs as (491 and 496). [The words in Italics are prepositions, and the nouns or pronouns following them are in the objective case.] The wind shakes the trees. — The apples fell to the ground. — God created all things. — The heavens are the work o/his hands. — The sun shines. — The fields are cover- ed with grain. — The crops are excellent. — The rivers run into the sea. — A good man shows pity to the poor (201). — Remember thy Creator in the days of thy youth. — Truth is mighty. 2. Form a list of ten nouns ; say something respecting each ; and parse the sentences so formed, as above. 138 Ei^GLISH GEAMMAE. ADVERBS. S23» Aft Adverb is a word nsed to modify a verh, an adjective^ or another adM^erh, or to denote some circumstance respecting it ; as, "Ann speaks distinctly ; she is remarTcably diligent, and reads i!)ery correctly.'''' 524. An adverb is generally equivalent to a modifying phrase, or adjunct (541) of the word to which it is joined. Thus, in the pre- ceding example, " distinctly " means, in a distinct manner ; " re- markably y' in a remarkable degree. So, " now'' means, at this time ; " then," at that time, etc. Hence, adverbs and adverbial adjuncts are often used indiscriminately in modifying verbs, adjectives, and ad- verbs. 525. On the same principle that an adverb modifies another adverb, it sometimes also modifies an adjunct, a ^i/i-rase, or a sentence ; as, " I met your brother far frofn home " — " He will be here soon after mid-day " — " We shall go immediately after the mail arrives." 526. A few adverbs are sometimes used as adjuncts of nouns and pronouns ; as, " I only [that is, /, and ^0 one else] am escaped alone to tell thee." — " The women also were present," that is, the women as well as the others ■ >—in addition to the others. The adverbs used in this way are such as the following : Chiefly, particularly, especially, entirely, altogether, solely, only, merely, partly also, likewise, too, etc. 527. An adjunct, without the word to which it belongs^ is called an adverbial phrase ; as, in shorty in vaiti, in ge7ieralf at most, at least, at all. 528. Adverbs have been divided into various classes, according to their signification. The chief of these are the following : — . fiTYMOLOGY — ADVEEBS. 139 Table of Adverbs, 1. Manner; fis, justly, bravely. 2. Place / as, here, there, where — JdtTier. 3. Thne ; as, now, tJien, when, soon, often. 4 Direction ; as, upward, downward. Adverbs express / ^' ^i^^^'*««*o»* / ^, yes, verUy, certainly. 6. Negation ; as, nay, no, not, nowise. 7. Interrogation ; as, how f why f when f 8. Comparison ; as, more, most, less, as. 9. Quantity/; &9, much, some, little, enough. ^10. Order ; bs, first, secondly, thirdly, next. 529, TJierCf commonly used as an adverb of place, is often used as an introductorg expletive to the verbs to be, to come, to appear, and some others, when the subject, in declaratory sentences, follows the verb ; as, " T/iere is no doubt of the fact " — " There are four boys here." Sometimes, when the subject goes before, it is placed between the subject and the verb ; as, " A mistake ^/i€re is." In all such cases, there is a mere expletive. It adds nothing to the sense, but still it enables us to vary the form of expression, and to soften the abruptness which would otherwise exist. This will appear by omitting it in any of the preceding examples. Then does not always refer to time, but it is used to indicate a certain circumstance, or a case supposed ; as, " If you wiU go, then^ [that is, in that case] say so." Now is sometimes used without reference to time, merely to indi- cate the transition from one sentence to another ; as, " Not this man, but Barabbas. Now Barabbas was a robber." 530, The words, to-dag, to-night y to-morrow^ yester- ilay, used as adjuncts, may be called adverbs of time, or they may be regarded as nouns in the objective case, without the governing word (838), or as nouns in any case the construction may require. 531, In comparisons, as and so, in the antecedent clause, are usually reck-^ned adverbs, because they modify an adjective or an- other adverb. The corresponding as and so, sometimes called con- junctions, are properly adverbs also, because resolvable into an adjunct (524) ; thus, " It is as high as heaven," that is, It is high in the degree in which heaven is high.—" So id^ as I know," that is, far to the extent to which I know. 140 ENGLISH G R A M M A n . 532, So is often used as the representative of a preceding word, plirase, or sentence, in order to prevent its repetition ; as, " To make men liappy, and keep them so " — " France is highly cultivated — Eng- land more so " — " James is in good health, John is not so " — " I be- lieved that you would succeed, and I told you so." 633, Therefore, wherefore, also, sometimes called con- junctions, are more properly adverbs, because used for the adjuncts, for this reason, for which reason, in addition (524). Conjunctive Adverbs, d34, A Conjunctive Adverb is one that stands for two adjuncts, one of which contains a relative pronoun, and the other, its antecedent ; thus, " I will see you when you come." Here, zvhen is equivalent to, at the time at which; the first part, "at the time^^ modifies ''will see," and the second, " at ivhich,'^ modifies " comer Again, " I know not hoiu it is done." Here hoio is equivalent to the manner in which. The first part, '' tlie manner ^^ is the object of ''Icnow^^ and the second, ''in which" is the ad- junct of " is doneP In a similar way, luhere may be re- solved into the place in which ; whither, into the place to which, etc. These adverbs perform a double office : they modify two different words, and connect the clauses to which they belong. They are, tvhen, tvhere, ivhile, ivhither, tvhence. They are also used interrogatively, both directly and indirectly. Thus used, they are not conjunctive ; as, " When [that is, at whcCt time] will you come?" — " Thou knowest not wlienee [from what place] it cometh, and whither [to what place] it goeth." For^nation and Derivation of Adverbs, 535, Adverbs are either primitive or derivative, 1. A few adverbs are primitive, or derived from no other words In the language ; as, yes, no, not, here, there, now, then, etc. Many adverbs of quality or manner, are derived from adjectives by adding l/tj ; as, diligent, diligently ; happy, happily (57) : or bv chang mg le into ly ; as, able, ably ; simple, simply. But adverba p-ve stJ ETYMOLOGY — ADVERBS. 141 dom formed from adjectives in ly, the adjunct being used in preferenco. Thus, wo would not say, " He acted manlily" but " in a manly man- ner," or " Wee a man.** 3. Many compound adverbs are formed by combining words together, so as of two or more words forming an adjunct, to make one compound term ; as, indeed, hereby, thereby, wherewith, tJiereforci wheresoever, nevertheless, etc. 4 Some nouns and other words are converted into adyerbs by pr0 fixing a, signifying, at, in, on, etc. ; as, ahed, ashore, aloft, ahead, ustern, aground, apart, adrift, afresh, alike, asleep, etc. (190). 5. Many words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes as other parts of speech ; thus : — Much is used — 1. As an adverb, as, " He is much better." 2. As an adjective ; as, " In much wisdom is much grief." 3. As a noun ; as, " Where much is given, much is required.'* )resterdayi&'a'&Q6. — 1. As an adverb; as, "He came yesterday** (530). 2; As a noun ; as, " Yesterday is past." 3ut is used — 1. As an adverb ; as, " Give hut one kind word." 2. As a preposition (538) ; as, " None hut the brave." 3. As a conjunction (561) ; as, " He is poor, hut honest." What is used — 1. As an interrogative ; as, " What is that?" 2. As a relative ; as, " We speak what we know." ^ 8. As an adverb ; as, " What [partly] with one thing, and what [partly] with another, we had enough to do." 6. Circumstances of time, place, manner, etc, are often expressed by two or more words constituting an adverbial phrase (527 and 530) ; as, at length, not at all, hy no means, in vain, in order, long ago, hy-andrby, all aver, to and fro, for ever, etc. Such phrases may be taken together as one word, and parsed as an adverb, or separately, as other words, where it can be done, supplying the ellipsis when necessary. See Appendix L 5, Ii2 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. Comparison of Adverbs. S36. Adverbs of quality, derived from adjec- tives, and a few others, admit of comparison like adjectives ; as, nobly, more nobly, most nobly ; soon, sooner, soonest. The following are compared irregularly : — Pos. Comp. Sup. Pos. Comp. Sup. Badly, or ill, worse, worst. Much, more, most. Far, farther, farthest. Well, better, best. Little, less. least. Parsing the Adverb, \ S37» An adverb is parsed by stating what part of speech — ^the class to which it belongs — the word which it modifies — ^its derivation and comparison, ii derived and compared. Thus :— " He speaks fluently." — Fluently, an adverb of manner, and modifies "speaks ;" derived from fluent, and compared more fluently, most fluently. PEELIMINAEY ORAL EXERCISE. When we say, " John runs rapidly," what part of speech is John f what is runs (314) ? What is the use of the word rapidly in that sen* tence ? What part of speech are those words which express the man, ner of doing a thing (528-1) ? What part of speech, then, is rapidly f Why t Can you think of any other words that might be used to ex- press the manner in which " John runs "f — " Siciftly, slowly, well, ill." What part of speech are these words ? Suppose you say, " John ran yesterday " — " John runs now " — " John will run soon " — what is the use of the words yesterday, now, soon ? What are words called which express a circumstance of time (528-3) ? Then what part of speeclk are yesterday, now, soon ? Why ? What other words besides the verb do adverbs modify (523) f When we say, "John is a very good boy," what word modifies ^(JoxZ.^ "ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS. 143 What part of speech is goodl Whj ? Then what part of speech ia •oery f Why ? If I say, " John reads exceedingly well," what word modifies reads? Ans. Well. Then what part of speech is well ? Why ? What word tells us how well he reads ? What word does exceedingly modify ? Then what part of speech is it ? Why ? EXERCISES. 1. Tell to what class the following adverbs belong — whether primi- tive or derivative — if not primitive, how are they formed — compare if compared : — Justly, wisely, happily, beautifully, fashionably, suffi- ciently, thirdly, nearly, almost, perfectly. Here, there, anywhere, hither, thither, yes, no, thence, somewhere — now, then, to-day, hereafter. 2. Form sentences, each of which will contain one of the preceding adverbs. Parse as directed (537). PREPOSITIONS. 538. A Preposition is a word wMch shows the relation between the noun or pronoun following it, and some other word in the sentence; as, "The Love OY Money y — " Come to me." 539. Of the words related, that before the preposition is called the antecedent term of the relation, and that which follows it is called the subsequent term or regimen. The antecedent term is always limited by the prepositional phrase, which is, in character, adjective or adverbial, according as the antecedent is a substantive or some other word. (596, 2). 540. Instead of a noun or pronoun, a preposition may be followed by an infinitive mood, or clause of a sentence, used as a substantive; as, "We are about to depart" — 144 EKGLISH GBAMMAR. " Honored for having done Ms duty. — " The crime of being a young man.^' 54:1, The preposition and its regimen united are called the adjunct of the antecedent term ; and the antecedent term, as related to its adjunct, may be called the 'principal. It is usually a noun, OT pronoun f&n adjective, a verb, or an adverb ; as, " The waters of Jordan." — " Me with the book in his hand." — " It is good for me." " Pra^ for us." " He acts consistently with his prin. ciples." Sd2. The same word not unfrequently has several adjuncts ; as, " He WENT from Boston to New York, hy railroad, in eight hours." Also the noun or pronoun in the adjunct may be limited by one or more adjuncts — the whole forming a compound adjunct ; as, " It is CONSISTENT With the character of a man of honor." Here " of honor " is the adjunct of man, " of a man of honor " is a compound adjunct of character ; and the whole, "with the character of a man of honor," is a compound adjunct of consistent. 543. The preposition is so called because it is usually placed before its regimen, as in the above examples. Sometimes, however, the sentence may be so inverted that the preposition follows its regimen immediately, or at some distance ; as, " Where echo walks the steep hills among." — " Whom did he speak to ?" 544, In the natural order of a sentence, the adjunct follows its prin- cipal, as, " He withdrew after supper." It is often convenient, however, to arrange the adjunct first, as, "After supper he withdrew with his friend who had called for him." Here the same sense can not be given by placing the adjunct, " after supper " anywhere else in the sentence. 545. Prepositions may be divided into classes wliich shall indi- cate their use, and in some sense, the historical order of their devel- opment. 1. Relations of place. (1) Where a thing is (rest in) ; as in, on, at, hy. (2) Direction to or from a place (motion) ; as, to, into, from, etc. (3) Both place and direction ; as, omr, under, etc. 2. Relations of time, (1) Relations oi place extended, as in, after, etc. (2) Time merely ; as, since, till, during, etc. 3. To indicate the agent or instrument. (1) Simple relations of place extended [The mill is by the river] ; as, " The mill is turned by the river. (2) Compound prepositional phrases ; as, by means of, by virtue of, etc. 4. To denote cause or purpose, as from, for, Gt«. ETYMOLOGY — PREPOSITIONS, 145 5. To denote miscellaneous relations, not easily classified, frequently by means of abbreviated forms of expression. These may be shown approximately in the following Table of Prepositions, Fh Sh H «^ OQ W Ah " W P4 2. Time. 1. Place. < Motion to or from, yRest or motion, j Time and Place, i Time only, 3. Agent or instrument. 4. Cause. Separation, Inclination, Aversion, Substitution, Possession, Reference, ^ Opposition, 5. Miscei> LANEOUS IDEAS. He is in the house. He went into the house. Over. AtWie place, at the time. Till noon IBy his power. For my sake. Without. For. Against. Instead of. Of Touching. Against, The following embraces most of the prepositions in conmion uae : "^ List of Prepositions. TO BE COMMITTED ACCURATELY TO MEMORY. About Above Across After Against Along Amid ) Amidst) Among ) Amongst ) Around At Athwart Bating Before Below Behind From Through Beneath In Throughout Beside Besides ' Into Till Notwithstanding To Between Of Touching Betwixt Off Toward ) Towards!" Beyond On But Over Under By Out of Underneath Concerning Past Until Down Pending Unto During Regarding Up Ere Respecting Upon Except Round With Excepting Save Within For Since Without 146 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 546, Concerning, excepting, regarding, respecting^ and touching^ were originally present participles active of transi- tive verbs, and as such required an objective case aftcf tliem (801). Tliey may frequently be so construed still. During may be regard- ed as originally the present participle active of an intransitive verb, having the noun or pronoun in the nominative case absolute (769) ; thus, " During life," means life during, or while life endures. Not' withstanding, a compound of not and the present participle witTi- standing, may be explained the same way. Still, when used as a preposition, the word following must be regarded as in the objective case (818). 54:7 » Except and save were originally imperatives. Out of may be regarded either as two words — an adverb and preposition — or as one word — forming a sort of compound preposition. Of this char- acter are the following : From between, from beyond, from within, from tvithoiit, over against, and the like. Off is, for the most part, an adverb, and means at a distance ; as, " Far off'^ With a noun or pronoun following, it is a preposition, and means not on, from, etc.; as, " Ojf the table." 548. The word a in the sense of at, in, on, to, of etc., has the force of a preposition in such expressions as a reading, a hunting, etc., and msty be parsed as such. The same word is used as a prefix in such words as aboard, ashore, asleep, abed, afloat, etc. (190.) Better re- gard the whole as an adverbial phrase (535, 6). 549. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is, by some, regarded as a sort of verbal prefix belonging to the form of the verb in that part. It is properly a preposition, but is rarely analysed and parsed as such. 550. When a preposition has not an object, it becomes an ad- verb ; as, " He rides about." But in such phrases as cast up, hold out, fall on, etc., up, out, on, should be considered as parts of the verbs to which they are joined, rather than as prepositions or ad- verbs. 551. Several words in the preceding list are used sometimes as prepositions and sometimes as other parts of speech ; as, thus : — till, until, after, before, etc., are frequently adverbs. But and save, fol- lowed by the objective case, are used as prepositions ; followed by a nominative, they are conjunctions. For and since are also used aa conjunctions. ETYMOLOGY — P R E P O S I T I O N^ 8. 147 552, All words used as prepositions axe followed by a substan- tive in the objective case. Tarsing, 553. A preposition is parsed by stating what part of speech, and between what words it shows the relation ; thus, " The waters of Jordan." Of is a preposition, and shows the relation between Jor- dan and waters. Here Jordan is the regimen of the preposition of; of Jordan is the adjunct of wja^er*; and waters ia the principal to which the adjunct belongs. 554. PRELIMINARY ORAL EXERCISE. When I say, " The book is on the table," what word shows the relation of hook to the table ? What part of speech are words that show the relation between nouns or pronouns, and other words in the sentence ? Then what part of speech is on ? Could the book be in any other relation to the table than on it ? It might be off the table, above the table, under the table, beside the table, etc. Then what part of speech are off, above, under, beside f Why ? When we say, " They live in the country," what word shows the relation between country and lim f Then what part of speech is in f EXERCISES. 1. In the following sentences point out the preposition and the words between which it shows the relation. Name the adjunct and prin- cipal. In what sentences has the principal more than one adjunct ? — in what a compound adjunct? Frame other sentences containing prepositions. He went from Boston. — He went to Washington. — He went from Boston to Washington. — We reside in the coun- try. — All rivers jBlow into the sea. — He gave his book to me. — He gave [to] me his book. — Flowers bloom in summer. — In summer flowers bloom. 2. In the preceding exercises, parse each word in order as directed, under each of the several parts of si)eech. 148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. INTERJECTIONS. *iS5. An Interjection is a word used in excla- mations, to express an emotion of the mind ; as, '^ Oil ! what a fall was there." 550. Tlie Interjection is so called, because it is, as it were, thrown in among the words of a sentence, without any gram- matical connection with them. Sometimes it stands at the beginning of a sentence, sometimes in the middle, and sometimes it stands alone, as if the emotion were too strong to admit of other words being spoken. List of Interjections. 557, The following is a list of the interjections most commonly used. They express various kinds of emotions, but in so vague and indefinite a way as not to admit of accurate classification. Ah ! alas ! ! oh ! ha ! fudge ! tush pshaw ! poh ! pugh ! fie ! avaunt ! ho ! holla ! aha ! hurrah ! huzza ! bravo ! hist ! hush ! heigho ! heyday ! hail ! lo ! welcome ! halloo ! adieu ! etc. 558, Also some words belonging to other parts of speech, when uttered in an unconnected and forcible manner, to express emotion, are called interjections ; as, nonsense ! strange ! wonderful! shocking ! what! hehold! off! away! hark! come! well done! welcome! 559, O is used to express wishing or exclamation, and should be prefixed only to a noun or pronoun, in a direct address ; as, " Virtue ! how amiable thou art !" Oh is used detached from the word, with a point of exclamation after it, or after the next word. It implies an emotion of pain, sorrow, or surprise ; as, " Oh ! what a sight is here." Parsing. 560, An interjection is parsed by stating the part of speech, why, and the emotion expressed ; as, '' Oh ! what a sight is here." ETYMOLOGY — INTERJECTIONS. 149 OJi — an interjection, because used as an exclamation, and expresses an emotion of pain. CONJUNCTIONS. 561. A Conjunction is a word which connects words, phrases, or sentence^; as, "Ke and I must go, but you may stay." — " Of him, and through him, and to him, are all things." />62. Here, and connects the words Re and I, and but connects the sentences, " He and I must go," and " you may stay." no 3, Conjunctions sometimes begin sentences, even after a full period, to show a connection between sentences in the general tenor of discourse. See, as examples, the first chapter of Genesia 564:, Andf or^ and nor^ are the conjunctions most frequently employed to connect words and phrases. From the difference in their use and meaning, conjunctions are divided into classes : 565. Conjunctions are of two classes : Copula^ live and Disjunctive. 566. A Copulative Conjunction not only joins sentences together, but also unites their mean^ in{/. Of these there are two kinds : 1. Conitective^ which simply connect the meaning of two united sentences [words or phrases] ; as, " The sun shines, and the sky is clear." 2. Contimiativef which combine the meaning of the united sentences ; as, " The sun shines because the sky is clear." Note. — The latter generally add a subordinate clause, which limits the preceding, or some part thereof. 567. A Disjunctive Conjunction is one which, while it joins two sentences together, disconnects their meaning* There are two kinds : 150 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 1. Distributive^ which simply disconnect^ or distribute the meaning of the united sentences [words or phrases] ; as, " You may go or you may stay." 2. Adversative^ which contrast the meaning of the united sentences ; as, " It is day, but it is not night." Table of Conjunctions, 'And Also Likewise '1. Connective. ^ Moreover Further Both For I. Copulative. \ 'Before where except Ere whether however After whence as if PI When if so that P3 Whilst because unless < .3. Continuative.- Until that though g Whenever than o Although as since 1 Lost provided ^ Save whereas g \ Ot nor s rl. I>istributive. ^^. , .^, 1 Either neither II. Disjunctive. - fBut* Nevertheless However .2. Adversative. Still. Notwithstanding * Yet Whereas * But as a correllative of not only is copulative ; as, "Wot only the men, hut the boys came." ETYMOLOGY — COlTJUl^rCTIOiq-S. 151 568, And is the principal connective, and connects what follows as an addition to that which precedes. Most of the others connect what follows as a condition, supposi- tion, cause, motive, etc. 560, Hoth is an antecedent conjunction, related to and. When used, it precedes the first of the words or sen- tences connected by and, in order to make the connection more emphatic. 570. JEither and neither are antecedent conjunc- tions, related to or and nor respectively. When used, they precede the first of the words or sentences connected by or or nor, to render them more emphatic. Sometimes they are transposed to the end of the sentence so as to give em- phasis to the latter member ; as, " Wa'fe that your business, or mine either f That was not my business, nor yours neither— neither my business 7ior yours. 571' Therefore and wherefore, sometimes called conjuno tions, are more properly adverbs (533). Parsing the Conjunction, 572, A conjunction is parsed by stating the part of speech, its class, sub-class, and the words, phrases, or sentences which it connects; as, "He and I must go ; hut you may stay." And — a copulative conjunction, connective, and unites the words He and /. But — a disjunctive conjunction, adversative, and con- nects the sentences, " He and I must go,'' and " you may stay." 573. Prelifninary Oral Exercise, When we say, " John and James study," what word connects John and James? What class of words connect words or sentences 1 152 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. What part of speech is and? In the sentence, "John reads &«(! writes," what does and connect ? What does and connect in the fol- lowing phrases, "A red and white rose" — " A red rose and a white rose "— " Well and truly said ?" What conjunction connects the fol- lowing sentences, " They are happy, because they are good f Here the following facts may be noticed (945, etc.) : — 1. When two nouns or pronouns are connected, they are in the same case, and in the same construction. 2. When tivo verbs are connected, they have the same sub- ject; as, "James reads and writes." 3. When two atljectives are connected, they qualify the same noun or 2>^onoun. 4. When two adverbs are connected, they modify the same word, 5. When conjunctiorife connect sentences , they do not connect individual tvords in the sentence. Thus, " They are happy, because they are good," the conjunction does not connect they with tliey, nor are with are, nor happy with good ; but, " They are happy'* with " they are good." So also when they connect phrases : " He spoke to James, and to me " — " Of him, and through him, and to Mm, are all things." EXEECISES ON CON^JUKCTIOKS. 1. In the following sentences, point ont the conjunctions, and state what words, or phrases, or sentences, they connect. Sometimes the order is so inverted, that the conjunctive clause stands first. 2. Parse the words in their order. Time and tide wait for no man. — The evening and the morning were the first day. — The memory of the just is blessed, but. the name of the wicked shall rot. — If thou faint in the day of adversity, thy strength is small. — George or John will go. — They will succeed, because they are industrious. — Because they are industrious they will succeed. — Of him, and through him, and to him, are all things. — Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. ETTjJOLOGT — co>q-JUNCTio:Ers. 153 PARSING. 574, JParsing is the resolving of a sentence into its elements ov parts of speech. J 7o. Words may be parsed in two ways : EtyTnologically (576), and Syntactically (983). 1. Etymological parsing consists in stating the part of speech to which each word in a sentence belongs, its uses and accidents, its inflection, and changes, and deriva- tion, if derived. 2. Sf/fitactical parsing adds to the above a statement of the relation in which the words stand to each other, and the rules according to which they are combined in phrases and sentences. Note, — In the natural order, Etymological parsing should precede Analysis, because we can not analyze a sentence before we have learned the character of the words it contains ; and Analysis should precede Syntactical parsing, because, till we know the parts and elements of a sentence, we can not understand their rela- tions, nor intelligently combine them into one consistent whole. As Etymological parsing has to do only with the accidents of words, it matters not whether the words parsed are unconnected, or in sen- tences. But in both Analysis and Syntactical parsing, not only must the words constitute a sentence, but that also must be both intelligible and understood ; for no one can either analyze or parse syntactically that which he does not understand. Etymological JParsing, 576, Words are parsed etymologically in the man- ner directed under each part of speech, viz. : Nouns (182) — articles (194) — adjectives (225) — ^pronouns of different kinds, viz.: personal (253), relative (278), interrogative (286), adjective (313)— verbs (491 and 496)— adverbs (537) — prepositions (553) — interjections (560) — conjunctions (573). 577". That a pupil should be expert and accurate in this exercise 154 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. is of much importance, in order to pursue with pleasure and success the study of Syntax, and to gain a correct understanding of the forms and usages of speech in the EngHsh language. 57s, A sentence to be parsed must be intelligible, and it is necessary for the pupil, in the first place, to understand it. When he understands a sentence, and also the definition of the different ■parts of speech given in the grammar, he will not find much difficulty in ascertaining to which of them each word belongs. This method will exercise the discriminating powers of the pupil better, engage his attention much more, and, on trial, be found much more easy and certain than that of consulting his dictionary on every occasion — a plan always laborious, often unsatisfactory, and which, instead of leading him to depend on his own resources, will induce habits of slavish dependence on the authority of others. S79. The following general ijvinciples should be remembered, and steadily kept in view, in parsing every sentence, viz. : — 1. Every adjective qualifies or limits a noun or pro- noun, expressed or understood (195 and 196). 2. The subject of a verb, that is, the person or thing spoken of, is always in the nominative (except when the verb is in the infinitive or participial mood) (315 and 7G0). 3. Every iwrb in the indicative, potential, subjunctive, or imperative, has a subject , expressed or understood (661, 4). 4. Every verb in the active voice used transitively, and every preposition, is followed by a noun or pronoun in the objective case, or by an infinitive mood or a clause of a sentence equivalent to It ; and every objective case, except as in 828, is the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of a preposition (661, 6). 5. The infinitive mood, for the most part, depends on a verb or adjective (865). 580. MODEL OF ETYMOLOGICAL PARSING. ^' The minutest plant or animal, if [it is] attentively ex* ETYMOLOGY — CONJUNCTIONS. 155 amincd, affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to ad- mire and adore the Omnipotent Hand by which it was created." 5 51. Previous to parsing' this sentence, the pupil may be led to understand it better, and perceive its parts more distinctly, by attend- ing to such questions as the following : What is spoken of in this sentence ? How are plant and animal qualified ? What is said of them thus qualified ? How is wonders limited ? What else is said of platit and animal ? Whom do they oblige ? What do they oblige us to do ? How is hand qualified ? What liand? etc. 552. The length of time necessary to parse even a few words, giving all the reasons, as in the full schemes (576), renders it imprac- ticable to do it often, though occasionally it may be profitable. The following brief method v^dll answer every purpose : — Tlie Definite article, belonging to plant and animal, and showing them to be limited. minutest . . • .Adjective, superlative degree, qualifying jp^an^, etc. 'plant A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, subject of affords. or A disjunctive conjunction, distributive, comiecimg plant and animal as alternates. animal. A noun, neuter, in the nominative singular, subject of affords. if. A copulative conjunction, continuative, connecting the sentences. it Third personal pronoun, neuter, in the nominative sin- gular, standing for plant or animal, and subject of is examined. is examined. .A verb, transitive, regular, in the present indicative, pas- sive, expressing what is done to its subject it. attentively. . .An adverb, mo^ijmQ examined ; compared by more and most. affords A verb, transitive, regular, in the present indicative, active, third person singular, and affirms of plant or animal. a Indefinite article, showing thousand wonders to be in- definite. thousand. . . .A numeral adjective, used to qualify wonders. wonders A noun, neuter, in the objective plural, object of affords 156 EJq-GLISH GRAMMAR. and A copulative conjunction, connective , connects the predi- cates affords and obliges. obliges A verb, transitive, regular, in the present indicative, active, third person singular, and affirms of plant or animal. us First personal pronoun, in the objective plural, object ol obliges, and subject of to admire, etc. to admire... .A verb, transitive, regular, in the present infinitive, ac- tive, attribute of us, or object of obliges. and A copulative conjunction, connective; connects to ad- mire and to adore. to adore A verb, transitive, regular, etc., (same as to admire). that Demonstrative adjective pronoun, pointing out Tiand. Omnipotent . An adjective, not compared, qualifying hand. hand A noun, neuter, in the objective singular, object of to ad- mire and to adore. by A preposition, which shows the relation between which and was created. which A relative pronoun, related to hand as its antecedent, ob- jective, object of the preposition by. it Third personal pronoun (same as before) subject of was created. was created . A verb, transitive, regular, in the past indicative, passive, third person singular, and affirms of it. Exercises in Parsing, 583. The following exercises are intended to familiar- ize the pupil with the most usual forms of relation, so that he may, without embarrassment, enter upon the more diffi- cult discussions of Syntax. Appropriate exercises should be extended, under each rule. 1, Two or more adjectives in succession, either with or without a conjunction, qualify the same word ; as, 1. A wise and faithful servant will always study his master's interest. 2. He has bought a fine new coat. 2, When an adjective precedes two nouns, it generally qualifies them both ; as, 1. They waited for a fit time and place, 2. He was a man of great wisdom and moderation. ETYMOLOGY — PARSING. 157 S, When an adjective comes after an attributive verb, it gener- oily qualifies the subject of that verb ; as, 1. John is wise, 2. They were temperate, 3. The sky is very clear. 4. These rivers are deep and rapid. 4r. Whatever words the verb ^^ to he'' serves to unite, referring to tlie same thing, must be of the same case ; as, 1. Alexander is a student, 2. Mary is a beautiful painter. 3. Knowledge is power. Note. — It is necessary to the application of this rule, that the words connected refer to the same thing This connection is often made by other words than the verb " to be " (605 or 797). 5. Nouns and pronouns, placed together for the sake of em- phasis or explanation, and denoting the same object, are said to be in aj}2)ositionf and always agree in case ; as, 1. Alexander, the coppersmith, was not a friend to the Apostle Paul, 2. Hope, the balm of life, is our greatest friend. Note. — In parsing such sentences as those above, a relative and a verb may be inserted between the words in apposition. Myself, thyself, himself, etc., often stand at a considerable distance from the words with which they agree ; as, 3. Thomas dispatched 'the letter himself, 6. Myself, thyself, himself, etc., often form the objectives after active-transitive verbs, of which the words they represent are the subjects. They are in such cases generaUy called liefleocive pronouns (249); as, 1. / hurt myself, 2. He wronged himself to oblige us. 3. They will support themselves by their industry. 7. Afljectives taken as nouns and used in reference to persons, are generaUy of the plural number (201) ; as, 1. The yaliant never taste of death but once. 2. The vir- tuous are generally the most happy. S, Kouns and pronouns takenin th^ same conn^ection, miLst b$ of the same case; as, 1. The master taught him and me to write. 2. He and jhe were schoolfellows. 158 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. 9, A relative in the objective case generally precedes the verh on which it depends ; as, 1. He IS a friend whom I greatly respect. 2. The books which I bought yesterday, I have not yet received. 10, WJien both a relative and its antecedent have each a verb belonging to it, the relative is commonly the subject of the first verb, and the antecedent the siibject of the second ; as, 1. He who acts wisely deseeves praise. 2. He who is a stranger to industry may possess, but he can not enjoy. 11, The relative what in itself represents but one case — the nom- inative or objective ; but it implies a reference to a general antecedent omitted, to which belongs the other case required by the construction. When this antecedent is expressed, which is used instead of what (266.) 1. This is precisely lohat was necessary. 2. What can not be prevented must be endured. 12, Whoever and whosoever are equivalent to a simple rela- tive, and a general or indefinite antecedent, and in parsing may be so resolved; thus, wlioever=aiiy one who. The same is the case with whatever and whatsoever ; whatever = everything which ; as, 1. Wlioever told such a story must have been misinformed. 2. Whoever is not content in poverty would not be per- fectly happy in the midst of plenty. Note. — Whatever is most frequently used as ivhat sometimes is (377) simply to qualify a noun ; as, 3. Aspire at perfection, in whatever state of life you may be placed. 4. I forget what words he uttered. 13, Though a participle never directly declares, yet it always implies something done or doing ; and is used in reference to some noun or pronoun which is its subject ; as, 1. Admired and applauded, he became vain. 2. Having finished our lessons, we went to play. 14, The 2)e work to do." 166 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, office is called an element. Some elements are essential to the very existence of the sentence. These are called principal elements. All others are suhordinate and af tendant elements. 595. TJie principal elements are, 1. Subjective^ — tlie noun, pronoun, or clause, of which the aflBi* ation is made. 2. Affirmative, — ^the verb making the aflBrmation. 596» The subordinate eleme^its are, 1. Complementary, — the object or attribute, m transitive and attributive sentences ; and 2. Adjunctive , — words, phrases, or clauses used to lhnit,Vika adjectives and adverbs. 507. Attendant elements are conjunctions, exple^ tives (529), and words of euphony. The following classification exhibits all the sentential elements : ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. f Principal. Subordinate. ( Subjective. \ Affirmative. ( Complementary. {Adjunctive. I Objective. \ Attributive, j Adnominal. ( Adverbial. .Attendant Elements. Note. — In the analysis of a sentence, the larger oflBces must be jtated before the specific uses and connections of the separate woixls. I. Analysis of Sentences. 598, Preliminary Remarks. — The subject of Analysis here introduced will be found to be an important preparation for the Con- struction OP sentences (660, etc.). After the pupil has become familiar with this portion, the Analysis of two or three sentences SYNTAX— ANALYSIS. 167 daily will be an amusement rather than a task. He should begin of course with sentences of the simplest character, gradually advancing to those that are more complex. For this puriwse, sentences may he selected from any " Heading hook " of easy lessons, or from " Par- sing Exercises " (583), or from the little work entitled *' Progressive Exercises in Analysis and Parsing," adapted to this Grammar. At first, the teacher may direct the attention of the pupil orally to the order of Analysis by such questions as the following : What is a sentence ? — Is this sentence [" Qod is good "] single or compound ? — Why single ? — What are the parts of a sentence (586) ? — What is the subject of a sentence (586. 1.) ? — Of whom does this sentence aflSrm ? — Then, what word is the subject of this sentence? — What is the predicate of a sentence (586. 3.) — What is here affirmed of the subject " God " ? — Then what is the predicate in tliis sentence ?— Of how many parts does the predicate consist (601) ? — What are they ? — In this predicate, what word is the attribute ? — What the copula ? What is the verb called when used as a copula only (604) ? What are the verbs commonly used as copulatives (605) ? Having, in some such away as this, conducted the analysis of simple sentences till the pupil has become familiar with it, the same, or a similar process may be pursued with sentences in which the subject or the predicate is modified ; and so with sentences having a compound subject (613), or a compound predicate (627) ; and then proceed to compound sentences (656), and to limiting clauses, etc, (635). After a few trials of this kind, the pupil will be able to analyze sentences vdthout the aid of questions, and do it more rapidly and satisfactorily : thus " God is good." This is a single, attributive, declaratory sentence ; it affirms of " God " that he " is good y" therefore, " God " is the subject ; and " is good," the predicate. In this predicate, " good" is the attribute, and " is " the copula ; it is therefore here an attributive verb (604). Single Sentences, 599, Single sentences (expressing only one complete proposition) are of three kinds. 1. Simple^ containing but one subject, one affirmer, and, if transitive or attributive, one object or attribute. In its most elementary form, these words are unmodified by amy other ; as, Horses run. John strikes Thomas. Sugar is sweet. The simple sentence may be enlarged, 1. By an adjunct 168 ENGLISH GEAMMAB. word, or plirase, in anj or all of its parts ; as, " Wise men use rightly their time. 2. By the substitution of a clause for its subject, object, or attribute ; as, " To be angry is to he mad.*' " That men should lie is base." 2. The single sentence may have two or more suh- jects, afjirmers, objects, or attributes, or any or all of these may be compound ; as, ^^Time and tide wait for no man." — ''Henry and John lift the table." — ''John and his sister study and recite grammar and arithmetic" — " The sky is hright and clear" - 3. The complex sentence is a single sentence, con- taining a subordinate or dependent clause, wliicli limits the principal clause, or some part of it ; as, " The boy who studies will excel." — " If he study, he will improve " (635). Observations on the Single Sentence, 600, 1. The subject of a verb or sentence is com- monly a noun or a pronoun ; as, "God is good; he does good." Also, it may be an infinitive with {seq.) or without a subject (394), a participial noun (462), a substantive phrase (593), or a clause of a sen- tence (635) ; as, "To lie is base." — "For us to lie is base." — "Lying is base." — "To do wrong knowingly is base." — "That men should lie is base" (645). 2. When the infinitive with a subject in the objective case (872) is used as the subject of a proposition, it is introduced by the particle for ; as, " For us to lie is base." 3. When a clause of a sentence, consisting of a finite verb (761) and its subject, is used as the subject of a proposition, it is introduced by the conjunction that ; as, " That men should lie is base." 4. When the infinitive, or the clause of a sentence, as the sub- ject, follows the verb, the pronoun it precedes it, referring to the sub- ject (246. 2, 4.) ; as, " It is base that men sitould lie" — " It is base to lie." — " It is base/• as, " Be not weary in weU-doing." 2. By an adverb ; as, " Truly virtuous men often endure reproach." 3. By an infinitive ; as, " Be swift to hear, and slow to speak." 3. An adverb may be modified-. — 1, By an adjunct ; as, " Agreeably to nature* 2. By another adverb ; as, " Yours, very sincerely." 618. Kmodified gramntatical SMbject^Tegarded. as a complex idea, may itself be modified; as, The old Hack horse is dead. — The first two lines are good, the last 174 ENGLISH GitAMMAR. two are bad. Here old, first, last — modifpng each a sub- ject already modified, viz. : Uack horse, two lines, two {lines), EXERCISES. 1. In the following sentences, by what words are the modifying nouns modified? — the adjectives ? — the adverbs ? Solomon, the son of David, built the temple at Jerusa- lem. — Josephus, the Jewish historian, relates the destruc- tion of the temple. — That picture is a tolerably good copy of the original. — Pride, that never-failing vice of fools, is not easily defined. — The author of Junius's letters is still unknown. — Truly great men are far above worldly pride. 2. Write ten simple sentences, and point out in each the subject and the predicate. In modified subjects, distinguish the grammatical and logical ; tell how each is modified The Predicate. 619, — I. The ^^re^ica^e, like the subject (GOT), is either grammatical or logical. 620, The gra^ninatical predicate consists of the attribute and copula (601), not modified by other words. 021, The attrib^ite, which, together with the copula, forms the predicate, may be expressed by a noun or pronoun, an adjective, a participle, a preposition with its regimen, and sometimes an adverb ; as, " James is a scholar." — " James is he" — " James is diligent" — ^' James is learned" — " James is in health" — " John is not so" 022, The attribute is also expressed by an infinitive, or a depen- dent clause ; as, " To obey is to enjoy." — " The day is to be celebrated." ♦— " The order is, that we must go." 623, The logical predicate is the grammatical, with all the words, phrases, or clauses, that modify it ; thus, " Nero was cruel to his subjects." — " Was cruel " is the grammati- cal, and " was cruel to his subjects," the logical predicate. Again : " The Greeks took Troy by stratagem." — " Took " is the gramtnaticalf and " took Troy by stratagem " is the logical predicate SYNTAX — PREDICATE. 175 624, Wlien the grammatical predicate has no modifying terms connected with it, the grammatical and the logical predicates are the same ; as, " Life is short." — " The fire burns." 625, — II. The predicate, like the subject, is either simple or compound (611). 026, A simjyle predicate ascribes to its subject but one attribute ; as, *' Life is short" — " TinxQ flies" 627* A^ compound predicate consists of two or more simple predicates affirmed of the same subject ; as, " Caesar came, and saw, and conquered." — " Truth is great and will prevail" Note. — Both the subject and the predicate may he compound. EXERCISES. In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate — state whether the predicate is simple or compound — distinguish the gram- matical and logical : — Man is mortal. — Wisdom is the principal thing. — God is good and merciful. — Honesty is praised and neglected. — The heart is the best and the worst part of man. — The use of travel is to widen the sphere of observation, and to en- able us to examine and judge of things for ourselves. — Avarice is a mean and cowardly vice. — Talent is strength and subtility of mind. — Genius is mental inspiration and delicacy of feeling. MODIFICATION'S OF THE PREDICATE. 628. A grammatical predicate may be modified or limited in various ways. 620, When the attribute (601) in the grammatical predicate is a noun, it is modified — 1. By a noun or pronoun, limiting or describing the attribute; as, "He is John the Baptist "—" He is my friend."— "H« is my father's friend." 176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 2. By an adjective or participle, limiting tlie attribute ; as^ " Solomon was a wise king." — " It is a bird singing." 630. When the affirmer contains the attribute (603), it is modified — 1. By a noun or pronoun in the objective case, as the object of the transitive verb ; as, " John reads Homer." — " I have heard him." 2. By an adverb ; as, " John reads well." 3. By an adjunct (541) ; as, " They live in London." 4. By an infinitive ; as, " Boys love to play." 5. By a dependent clause ; as, " Plato taught tMt the smil is immortal." 631, An infinitive or participle may be modified in all respects as the verb in the predicate (630). 632. A inodiffjing clause^ if a dependent proposition, may be modified in both its subject and predicate, as other propositions. 633, All other tnodifying tvords may themselves be modi- fied, as similar words are when modifying the subject (614). 634:, Several 7nodifi,ciUions are sometimes connected with the same predicate. EXERCISES. 1. In the following sentences, name the subject and predicate — dis- tinguish the grammatical and logical predicate — show in what way the grammatical predicate is modified in the logical. Sincerity and truth form the basis of every virtue. — The coach will leave the city in the morning at sunrise. — The coach will leave the city when the mail is ready. — The atrocious crime of being a young man I shall attempt neither to palliate nor deny. His pretense was, that the storm prevented his attendance. — Time flies rapidly. — ^I confess that I am in fault. — William has determined to go. —They said, " Thou hast saved our lives." 2. In the preceding exercises, show in which sentences, and by what words the modifiers of the predicate are themselves modified— also, in which the predicate has more than one modifier. SYNTAX — LIMITIN^G CLAUSES. 177 8. Write five sentences in wMch the principal verb is modified by ft conditional clause. Limiting Clauses, 635. Clauses limiting single sentences (or the mem- bers of compound sentences) may be classified as to their office into substantive, adnominal (adjective), and ad- verbial; and these may be subdivided, to exhibit their forms, mode of connection, and general bearing upon the structure of the sentence. 636. The following is an elementary view : — j Prepositional (1) ( Infinitive (2)l r Relative (3). CLAUSES. \ ^^NOMiNAL. -j Infinitive (4). Substantive. Adverbial. I Participial le one, by abridging its dependent clause. 649. A dependent clause is frequently abridged by omitting the connecting word, and changing the verb of the predicate into a participle or infinitive. 030, The participle in the abridged clause will then stand either with its substantive in the case absolute (769), or as a modifier of the leading subject. Thus, Absolute — " When the boys have fin- ished their lessons we will play ; abridged, '* The boys having finished their lessons, we will play." As a modifier — " When we have fin- ished our lessons, we^vill play ;" abrid^edj " Having finished our leS' SYNTAX — LIMITING CLAUSES. 179 6ona, we will play." Passively and- absolutely — " When our work is finished we will play ;" abridged, " Our work being finished, we will play." OSl. 1. When the . «f fW&f/fe in the dependent clause consists of a noun or 2^yonoun in the nominative case after the verb as a popula, it remains in the same case in the abridged form ; thus, " That lie is & judge is of no consequence ;" abridged, " His being & judge is of no consequence." — "I was not aware that he was & judge;" abridged, '' I was not aware of his being a judge " (799.) 2. The difference between these two modes of expression is this : In the full form, the idea contained in the dependent clause is affii^f^^d 9 in the abridged form, it is assumed. G52, 1. When the dependent clause is the object of the verb in the leading clause, it may often be changed for the infinitive with a subject ; as, " I know that he is a scholar ;" abridged, " I know hUn to be a scholar," 2. When, in such cases, the subject of the dependent clause is the same as the subject of the principal, it is omitted in the abridged form ; as, " I wished that I might go ;" abridged, " I wished to go." (y53. When the subject of the dependent claase, connected by what, which, whom, where, when, how, and the like, and relating to something yet future, is the same as that of the independent on€f it is sometimes abridged by retaining the connecting word, and omitting the subject before the infinitive ; as, " I know not what 1 shall do ;" abridged, "I know not what to do" In this way are to be analyzed and explained such phrases as " Where to go" " when to read," " how to do," " whom to send," etc. 054. A dependent clause may often be abridged by siibstitu ting an equivalent qualifying word, or an adjunct ; as, " The man wJio is honest will be respected ;" abridged, " The honest man will be re- spected." — " When the sun set we returned ;" abridged, "At sunset we returned." 655, Several dependent clauses may be variously con- nected with the same leading clause, and abridged in the same man- ner as above ; as, " When they arrived at the station, they were in- formed that the cars had passed, an hour before ;" abridged, " Having arrived [or, on arriving] at the station, they were informed of the cars having passed an hour before." 180 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISES. 1. Abridge such propositions in the preceding exercises as can be abridged. 2. Extend the following abridged propositions : — Having doubled Cape Horn, we sailed in a direct course for California. — What to do I know not. — No one can tell us where to go, or how to do. — The war being at an end, the troops were disbanded. — At the close of navigation, many will be at a loss where to go. — The industrious and capable need fear no want. — A good name is the richest possession we have while living, and the best legacy we leave behind us when dead. — Of his having been successful, we have full assurance. — Of his being successful now, there is reason to doubt. 3. In the following sentences, what connecting words are omitted ? Pay me that thou owest. — It is said he can not pay his debts. — There is no doubt he is a man of integrity. — I am sure we can never accomplish this without assistance. — That is all you know. — All you can find is yours. — Could we have foreseen this difficulty, we might have avoided it. — ^I soon perceived I had still the power of motion. Compound Sentences, 6o6. A Compound sentence consists of two or more single sentences or propositions (591, 2) connected to- gether ; as, " The man walked, and the boy ran." * 1. The propositions which make up a compound sentence are called members. In the preceding compound sentence, the mem- bers are, " The man walked " and " The boy ran." 2. The members of a compound sentence are co-ordinate, or grammatically independent of each other; each will make sense by itself. * Under compound sentences are sometimes included such as have only one principal clause, modified by a subordinate clause or clauses. It is believed, however, that the classification here given is more rational and consistent. BYliTAX — COMPOUN^D SEKTENCES. 18^ EXERCISES. In the following sentences, state which are single, and which are compound. In the compound sentences, point out the members. K we have not always time to read, we have always time to reflect. — We have not always time to read, but we have always time to reflect. — The poor is hated even of his own neighbor, but the rich hath many friends. — The eyes of the Lord are in every place, beholding the evil and the good. — Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to any people. — Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall. — Death and life are in the power of the tongue. — Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. — The slothful man saith, " There is a lion in the way." — "When the righteous are in authority, the people rejoice. In the preceding single sentences and members, point out the ^wft- ject and predicate, with their respective modifications. 657» Connection of 3Ienihers. The members of a compound sentence are connected by such conjunctions as and^ or^ rior^ but^ V^tf and the like ; as, " The harvest is past, the summer is endedj and we are not saved." In such sentences, the connective is often omitted; and generally, when the sentence consists of more than two members- it is omitted in all except the last, as in the above example (657). EXEECISES. In the following compound sentences, name the members or clauses — name the connecting words — state which may also be regarded as single sentences (646). The weather was fine, and the roads were excellent, but we were unfortunate in our companions. — Beauty attracts admiration, as honor [attracts] applause. — Talent is en- vironed with many perils, and beauty [iis environed] with 182 EKGLISH GKAMMAE. many weaknesses. — Time is ever advancing, but leaves behind it the traces of its flight. — When I was a child, I thought as a child ; but when I became a man, I put away childish things. — I will come again and receive you to my- self, that where I am, there ye may be also. — This we know, that our future depends on our present. 658. Directions for Analysis, State whether the sentence is single or compound ; tran- sitive, intransitive, or attributive; declaratory, interroga- tory, imperative, or exclamatory. If single, its class ; name the logical subject and the logi- cal predicate. [State the principal and subordinate elements (594).] Name the grammatical subject. Show by what words, phrases, or clauses, if any, the grammatical subject is modified in the logical. Show by what modifying words, phrases, or clauses, if any, each modifying word is modified. Name the grammatical predicate. Show by what words, phrases, or clauses, if any, the grammatical predicate is modified in the logical. Show by what modifying words, phrases, or clauses, if any, each modifying word in the predicate is modified. State the elements in their order. If the sentence is compound, mention the members. Show how the members are connected. Analyze each member as a single sentence, by showing its subject, predicate, etc., as above. In analyzing sentences, it will be necessary always to supply words left out by ellipsis, and to supply tlie antecedent to the rela- tive what, and to tlie compound relatives whoever, whosoever, what- ever, whatsoever ; making also the change which is necessary in the relatives themselves, when the antecedent is supplied (266). SYNTAX — MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 183 059. MODELS OF ANALYSIS. NoTB. — In single complex sentences, the whole sentence consists of one logical subject and one logical predicate. A dei>endent clause is always an adjiuictive element, and limits or modifies some part of the principal proposition. In compound and complex sentences, the distinction of transitive, intransitive, etc., may be referred to the separate members or clauses. In declaratory sentences, that distinction may, for brevity, be omitted. 1. " God is good." This is a single sentence, simple ; it contains a single affirmation (591). Attributive, it affirms the attribute good of the subject God. Declaratory, it directly affirms. Ood is the logical subject, because it is that of which the quality good is affirmed. Is good is the logical predicate, because it affirms a quality of its subject. Is is the verb or copula, and good is the attribute. In this sentence the grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical, because they are not modified by other words (610 and 624). Or, more briefly, thus : — The logical subject is God. The logical predicate is is good, in which is is the verb or copula, and good the attribute. The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. 2. " The sun and moon stood still." This is a single sentence, intransitive, declaratory, with a compound subject. The logicaj subject is The sun and moon. The logical predicate is stood still. The grammatical subject is sun and moon, compound, and connected by and, both modified by the (614, 4, Note, and 711). The grammatical predicate is stood, modified by still, an adverb, ex- pressing manner. 3. " The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." This is a single sentence, simple, attributive, declaratory. The logical subject is The fear of the Lord. 184 El!q^GLISHGEAMMAR» The logical predicate is is the beginning of wisdom. The grammatical subject is fear. It is limited by the adjunct phrase, of the Lord, and shown to be limited by the article the (614, 4, Note). The grammatical predicate is is beginning, in which is is the verb or copula, and beginning the attribute. It is limited by the adjunct, of wisdom, and shown to be limited by the. 4. '^ A good man does what (=that which) is right, from principle." This is a single sentence, complex, containing one leading affirma- tion and one dependent clause, connected by which. The logical subject of the whole sentence is A good man; the logi- cal predicate is, does what is right from principle. The leading affirmation is A good man does that from principle. The dependent clause is which is right, and is restrictive of that in the leading proposition, the antecedent to which, the connecting word In the first or leading clause — The logical subject is ^ 5'o^(? TTi^Ti. The logical predicate is does that from principle. The grammatical predicate is man, qualified by good, and shown to be indefinite by a. The grammatical predicate is does, modified by its object that, and the adjunct /rom principle ; that is modified by the relative clause. In the second, or dependent clause — The logical subject is which. It also connects its clause with the antecedent that, and restricts it. The logical predicate is is right, in which is is the verb or copula, and right is the attribute. The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical (610 and 624). ' 5. " There is nothing which all mankind venerate and admire so much as simple truth." This is a single sentence, complex, consisting of one leading propo- sition, and two dependent clauses ; attributive, declaratory. The independent proposition is There is nothing. The first dependent clause is which all mankind venerate and ad' mire so much, connected to the preceding by which. The second dependent clause, connected by as to the preceding, as its leading member, is \they venerate and admire"], simple truth. SYNTAX — MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 185 In the first, or independent proposition — The logical subject is nothing =not any thing. The logical predicate is is. The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical. There is an introductory expletive, used in such sentences when the subject follows the verb. In the second proposition, dependent on the first — The logical subject is all mankind. The logical predicate is venerate and admire which so much. The grammatical subject is mankind, modified by all. The grammatical predicate is venerate and admire, compound, con- nected by and, and modified by their object, which, which also con- nects its clause with its antecedent, thing, for the purpose of restrict- ing it ; it is also modified by the adverbial phrase, so much. In the third proposition, connected with the second by as — The logical subject is they, understood (for all mankind). The logical predicate is venerate and admire simple truth. The grammatical subject is they, or the same as in the preceding clause. The grammatical predicate is venerate and admire understood, modified by their object, tru,th, and that is qualified by the adjective, simple. 6. " Conversation makes a man wax wiser than himself, and that more by an houi-'s discourse than by a day^s medi- tation." This is a compound sentence, consisting of two single sentences, connected by and ; each of them complex, and having its own depen- dent clause. The first indei>endent clause is Conversation makes a man [to] wax wiser. Its dependent clause is himself \is'\, connected by than. The second independent clause is \he does'] that more hy an hour's discourse. Its dependent clause is \he does] by a day's meditation, connected by th^n. (The words supplied are included in brackets). In the first independent clause — The logical subject is conversation. The logical predicate is makes a man [to] wax wiser than himself. The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. The grammatical predicate is makes, modified by its object man, ';^'hich is also the subject of the verb to wax (872). It is shown to be 186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. used indefinitely by a, and is qualified by tlie predicative adjective wiser, which is modified by the clause than himself. In the clause dependent on the preceding, and connected by than—' The logical subject is /limself {in the nominative) (249). The logical predicate is is (understood). The grammatical subject and predicate are the same as the logical In the second independent proposition, connected to the first by and — The logical subject is he understood (for a man). The logical predicate is [does] that rnore by an hour's discourse, etc. The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. The grammatical predicate is does (understood). It is modified by its object that, representing the phrase wax wiser than himself ; also by the adverb m(9r(?, and the adjunct hy discourse; and discourse is limited by hour's, which again is shown to be indefinite by the article an. In the clause dependent on the preceding, and connected by than — The logical subject is lie {a man) understood. The logical predicate is [does'] by a day's meditation. The grammatical subject is the same as the logical. The grammatical predicate is does (understood as before), modified by the adjunct by meditation ; meditation is limited by day's, and that is shown to be indefinite by the article a. 7. " The minutest plant or animal, if attentively exam- ined, affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent hand by which it was created." This is a single sentence, complex, consisting of one independent proposition, and two dependent clauses. The independent proposition is The minutest plant or animal affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipo- tent hand. The first dependent clause is [it is] attentively examined, connected as a condition by if to the leading verbs affords and obliges. The second dependent clause is by which it was created, connected also by which to hand in order to describe it. In the independent clause — The logical subject is The minutest plant or animal. The logical predicate is if attentively examined, affords a thousand wonders, and obliges us to admire and adore the Omnipotent hand b^ which it was created. SYl^TAX — MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 187 Tlie grammatical subject implant and animal, compound ; its partg are connected as alternates by or (570), and botb modified by minutest. The grammatical predicate is affords and obliges, compound ; its parts are connected by and. Affords is modified by its object won- ders, which is limited by a thousand. Obliges is modified by its object us, the infinitive to admire and to adore, of which us is also the sub- ject ; and these infinitives are modified by their object hand, which is qualified and described by Omnipotent, and the relative clause by which it was created. The verbs affords and obliges are modified also by the conditional clause if \it is'\ attentively examined. [Or, obliges is modified by the objective clause " us to admire and adore," etc., of which us is the subject, and admire and adore the Omnipotent hand, etc., is the logical predicate. This clause is itself complex, having the dependent relative clause, " by which it was created," limiting hand,] In the first dependent clause — The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animaC. The logical predicate is is attentively examined. The grammatical subject is it. Tbe grammatical predicate is is examined ; which is modified by the adverb of manner, attentively. In the second dependent clause — The logical subject is it, referring to plant or animal. The logical predicate is was created by which. Tlie grammatical subject is the same as the logical. The grammatical predicate is was created. It is modified by the adjunct by which, referring to hand, its antecedent. The preceding process of analysis, which takes up so much room on paper, may be accomplished orally with great rapidity. Let this be done in the following EXEKCISES. In the same way, analyze the following sentences : — Knowledge is power. — Truth is the basis of honor : it is the beginning of virtue : it liveth and conquereth for ever. ^Time is a gift bestowed on us by the bounty of Heaven. ■ — The heart and the tongue are the best and the worsi parts of man. Proficiency in language is a rare accomplishment. 188 Eiq^GLISH GKAMMAK. Praise is more acceptable to the heart than profitable ta the mind. He who is first to condemn will often be the last to for- give. True religion gives order and beauty to the world, and, after life, a better existence. A little philosophy carries us away from truth, while a greater brings us back to it again. What we know is nothing ; but what we are ignorant of is immense. Books Avhich save the trouble of thinking, and inven- tions which save the labor ot working, are in universal demand. Some cultivate philosophy in theory who are imperfect philosophers in practice ; as others advocate religion, who are nevertheless indifferently religious. II. Constmction of Sentences. 660. Words are arranged in sentences according to certain rules called the Hules of Syntax {662 and 666). 661. General Principles. 1. In every sentence there m.ust be a verb and its subject f expressed or understood. 2. Every article, adjective, adjective pronoun, or participle, must have a substantive (109), expressed or understood. 3. Every subject has its own verb, expressed or un- derstood. 4. Every finite verb (that is, every verb not in the in- finitive or participles) has its own subject in the nomina- tive case, expressed or understood. SYNTAX — CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES. 189 5. Every possessive case limits a noun or substan- tive. 6. Every objective case is the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, or of a preposition, or denotes circumstances of time, value, weight, ot measure (828). 7. The infinitive mood depends upon a verb, adjec-' tive, or noun. 8. Every adverb limits a verb, adjective, or adverb. 9. Conjunctions unite words and phrases that stand in the same relation in a sentence. The exceptions to these general principles will appear under the Eules of Syntax. T*arts of Syntax, 662. The Utiles of Syntax may all be referred to three heads, viz., Concord or agreement, Govern- ment, and Position, 663. Concord is the agreement which one word has with another in gender, number, case, or person. 664:. Government is the power which one word has in determining the mood, tense, or case of another word. The word governed by another word is called its regimen. 665. Position means the place which a word occupies in relation to other words in a sentence. 666. In the English language, which has but few in- flections, the meaning of a sentence often depends much on the position of the words of which, it consists. 190 EI^GLISH GRAMMAR. RULES OF SYNTAX. i -J Rule I. — Substantives denoting the sairne person or thing j agree in case; as, ; The river Thames. — Cicero the orator. — Paul the apostle. — I my- ' self. — I Paul have written it. — I Wisdom dwell with Prudence. . Rxn.E II.— 1. An adjective or a participle qualifies the sub-* \ stantive to which it belongs ; as, 1 A good boy ; a new book ; an old hat ; a rough road ; a steep hill ; • a lofty mountain ; God is good ; an amusing story ; a man loved by all. 3. Adjectives denoting one, qualify nouns in the singular ; adjectives denoting more than one, qualify nouns in the j^lural; as, One man ; this book ; that house ; two men ; these books ; those houses ; the sixth day ; several weeks ; many sorrows ; this court (676,etc.). Rule III. — 1. The article a or an is put before common nouns in \ the singular number, when used indefinitely ; as, ! A man ; a house ; a tree ; an acorn ; an hour ; a history ; an his- j torical fact ; a youth ; a unit (186-187 and 707). 2. The article the is put before common nouns, either singular ■ or plural f when used definitely ; as, " The sun shines." — " The moon rises." — " The city of New York." ; — " The age of improvement." — " Tlie seven stars." — " The twelve j Caesars." — " The most virtuous (men) are the most happy " (707, 2). Rule IV. — Personal pronouns agree with the words for ! which they stand in gender, number, and person ; as, " All that a man hath he will give for his life." — " A tree is known by its fruit." — "The court has finished its business." — " The people : elect their rulers " (729, etc.). 1 Rule V.— The relative agrees with its antecedent in gen- j der, number, and person; as, I "The man who speaks."— " The book which was lost."— ''The j friends whom we love."—" Ye who love mercy."—" I that speak to i you."—" The best tiling you can do " (742, etc.). ! SYNTAX — K U L E S. 191 Rule VI.— The subject of sl finite verb is put in the nomina- tive; as. " I am."—" Thou speakest."- " He reads."—" We talk."—" Time flies."—" Who did that ?"— " I know who did it."—" Do you know who is to blame ?"— " He is taller than I (am) ; than she (is)" (760). Rule VII. — A substantive whose case depends on no other yvoT^'m^ui in the nominative absolute; as, " The ship having arrived, all is safe." — " He being alone, there was no one to disturb him."—" Your fathers, where are they ?" — " Or I only and Barnabas, have not we power to forbear working ?" — "O Absalom ! my son, my son !"— " Plato, thou reasonest well " (768, etc.). Rule VIII.— A verb agrees with its subject in number and person ; as, "I write."-" Thou writest."— " He reads."— " We sell."— " They buy." — "John and James are brothers." — " Jane or Mary is at home." — " The army is on its march." — " The people are kind." — " Come (ye) and see."—" Go thou and do likewise."— " Who art thou?" (776, etc.). Rule IX. — The predicate rjnibstantive after an attributive verb is put in the same case as the subject before it ; as, " I am he." — "Ye are they who justify yourselves." — " God is love." • — " Who do men say that I, the Son of man, am ?" — " He is said to be a good man." — " They represent him to be a good man." — " Saying is not doing " (796, etc.). Rule X. — A substantive being the object of a transitive verb in the active voice, is put in the objective case ; as, " We love him." — " He loves us." — " Whom shall I send ?" — " Send me." — " Honor thy father and mother." — " Them that honor me I will honor." — "Boys love to play." — " Boys love playing." — "I know that thou fearest God." — " Jesus I know, and Paul I know ; but who art thou ?" (801, etc.). Rule XI. — A substantive being \\ie object of a preposition is put in the objective case ; as, " Of him, and through him, and to him, are all things ; to whom be glory for ever." — " To whom much is given, of him much sliall be required," — " Come with us, and we will do (to) thee good." — " Science^ they do not pretend to." — " Whom did he speak to ?" (818, etc.). 192 ENGLISH GEAMIIAR. Rule Xll.— Certain words and phrases should be followed by appropriate prepositions ; as, " Confide in "—" dispose of"—" adapted to "—" swerve /row "—etc. (834, etc.). Rule XIII. — A substantive that limits the signification of another, denoting a different person or thing, must be put in the possessive case ; as, " Pompey's pillar." — " Virtue's reward." — " For conscience' sake." " The Duke of Wellington's funeral." — " The secretary of state's office." — " Whose pen is this ? " — " It is John's : it is not mine " (341). — " It came from the stationer's."—" Sheldon & Co.'s store " (839). Rule XIV. — The subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses, when both contingencj/ or doubt, and futuriti/, are expressed; as, "Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him."— "If he study, he will improve."—" If he do but touch the hills, they shall smoke."— " See thou do it not " (857, etc.). Rule XV. — The infinitive mood is governed by verbs, nouns, or adjectives ; as, "I desire to learn." — "A desire to learn." — "Anxious to learn." — **To do good and to communicate, forget not." — "To perform is bet- ter than to promise." — " Fools who came to scoff, remained to pray." — " Let us go." — " You need not go " (865, etc.). Rule XYI.— Participles have the construction of nouns, ad- jectives, and verbs; as, (Noun). — " Saying is not doing." — " In the keeping of his com- mandments." — "A forsaking of the truth," — "Avoid doing evil." — (Adjective). — " The sword hangs rusting on the wall." — "A bound book." — " The lost sheep." (Verb). — " Having loved his own, he loved them to the end." — " The men stood speechless, hearing a voice, but seeing no man " (890, etc.). Rule XVII. — In the use of verbs, and words that in point of time relate to each other, the order of time must be observed ; as, " I have known him many years." — " I expected he would come " (not " would have come "). — " I expect he will come." — " It would have been easy to do it " (not " to have done it ") — " I expected to go ** (not " to have gone ") (908, etc.). Rule XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and othei adverbs; as. SYN-TAX — APPOSITION 193 " John speaks distinctly ; he is remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly." — " Julia sings well."—" The day is far spent." — " When will you return f — " Soon " (922, etc.). Rule XIX. — Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or sentences; as, " You and he must go, but I stay at home." — " Honor thy father and thy mother." — " He or his brother is to blame." — " They can neither read nor write." — " He is slow, but sure." — " While the earth remaineth, seedtime and harvest, and cold and heat, and sum- mer and winter, and day and night, shall not cease " (944, etc.). Rule XX. — A preposition shows the relation between the sub- sequent of its phrase and the word which the phrase limits; as, " The book lies on the table." gt^ Rule XXI. — Interjections have no grammatical connection vnih. the other words in a sentence ; as, " O ye of little faith ! "—"Ah me ! "— " O cruel thou ! "— " Envious 1 of David Garrick 1 Poh ! poh 1 Pshaw ! pshaw ! " (970, etc.). General Rule, — The icords employed, and the order in which they are arranged, should be such as clearly and properly to express tlie idea intended ; and all the parts of a sentence should correspond, and a regular and dependent construction be preserved throughout (973). Ellipsis, Rule I. — An ellipsis, or omission of words, is admissible, when they can be supplied by the mind with such certainty and readiness as not to obscure the sense ; as, " We walk by faith, not by sight " (977). Rule 3. — An ellipsis is not allowable when it would obscure the sentence, weaken its force, or be attended with an impropriety (979). Substantives in Apposition. 667» EuLE I. — Substantives denoting the same person or thing ^ agpee in case (162) ; as, " Cicero the orator." — " / Paul have written it." — " We, the people of the United States." — " Te woods and wilds." — " This was said to u^ men" — " The river Thames" — " Jane and Eliza, Mary's cousins." — 194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. " The chief of tlie princes, he who defied the enemy," etc. — " That was related of Dr. West, Mm who translated Pindar." 008, The word annexed is said to be in apjjosition with the other, and is added to express some attribute, description^ or appellation^ belonging to it. The words so related must always be in the same member of the sentence — that is, both in the subject, or both in the predicate. A substantive predicated of another is 'not in apposition with it, though denoting the same thing. The substantive in apposition commonly stands last ; sometimes Jirst. 009, Two or more words forming one complex tianiCf or a name and a title prefixed, though really in apposition, are properly inflected and parsed as one word ; as, " George Washington." — " Gene- ral Washington's tent." In such examples, the sign of the possessive is annexed only to the last (848), and sometimes also when the words in apposition do not form a complex name ; as, " We arrived at our friend Wilson's plantation." For the plural of proper names with titles prefixed, see 161. 070, A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sen- tence, and a sentence sometimes in apposition with a noun ; as, " The weather forbids walking, a prohibition hurtful to us both." — " The promise, that he should he the heir of the world, was given to Abraham." — " Delightful task, to rear the tender thought /" (867, 4.) 071, K plural term is sometimes used in apposition after two or more substantives singular, to combine and give them emphasis; as, " Time, labor, money, all were lost." Sometimes the same substantive is repeated for the sake of emphasis ; as, " Cisterns, broken cisterns." 072, Distributive tvords are sometimes put in apposition with a 2^lural substantive ; as, " They went each of them on his way " (301). — " They all went, some one way, and some another." In the construction of a sentence, the distributive word is sometimes omitted ; as, " They [interrogative pronouns] do not relate [eac/i] to a preceding noun." 07 S, Of this character are such expressions as the following : " They stood in each other's way " — thq^ is, they stood each in the other's way. — " They love one another " — that is, t/iey love, one (loves) another (311). 074, A substantive is sometimes connected with another in a sort of apposition by the word as^ meaning in 9S, In the use of the comparative and superlative, when more than two objects are compared, the following distinction should he carefully observed : — 699. When the comparative is used, the latter term of com- parison must always exclude the former ; " Eve was fairer than any of her daughters." — " Russia is larger than any other country in Europe." — "China has a greater population than any nation of Europe," or " than any other nation on the globe." Thus used, the comparative requires tha?i after it (963, 2). 700. When the sujyerlntive is used, the latter term of com- parison must always include the former ; " Russia is the largest country in Europe." — "China has the greatest poxjulation of any nation on the globe." 701. Double comparatives and superlatives are improper ; thus, " James is more taller than John " — omit more ; " He is the Tnoat wisest of the three ' — omit most. 702. The double comparative lesser, however, is sanctioned by good authority ; as, " Lesser Asia " — " Every lesser thing." — M. Y. Review. — " Like lesser streams." — Coleridge. 703. Adjectives not admitting comparison (223) should not be compared, nor connected with comparative words, such as so, as, and the like. Thus, more universal, so universal, as universal, should be more general, so general, as general; and so of similar words. As exceptions see 224. JPosition of Adjectives, 704. An adjective is commonly placed before its substantive ; as, " A good man " — " A virtuous woman." 1. Adjectives should be placed as near as possible to their sub- stantives, and so tliat it may be certain to what noun they belong ; thus, " A new pair of shoes " — " A fine field of corn " — "A good glass of wine," should be, " A pair of new shoes " — " A field of fine corn " ■ — " A glass of good wine," — because the adjectives qualify shoes, corn, irine, and not pair, field, glass. When ambiguity can not other- wise be avoided, the use of the hyphen may be resorted to with advan- tage ; thus, " A good man's coat " — " A good man's-coat." 2. When an adjective qualifies two or more substantives, con- nected by and, it is usually expressed before the first, and understood to the rest ; as, " A man of great wisdom and moderation." »00 EKGLISH GKAMMAR. 3. .It has been disputed whether the numerals, two, three, four, ettt.| should be placed before the words first and last, or after them, when used to indicate the beginning and end of a series. On this point, with small numbers, usage is nearly equally divided ; and, as the matter now stands, in some cases the one form seems to be preferable, and in some, the other. In this construction, as in some others which involve no impropriety, euphony and taste seem to govern This much is certain— neither form can be justly condemned on the ground of either authority or propriety. See Appendix XI. 705. An adjective is placed after its substantive — 1. Generally when it qualifies a pronoun ; as, "We saw him faint and weary" 2. When other words depend on the adjective; as, "A man sick of the palsy " — " A pole ten feet long." 3. When the quality results from the action expressed a verb ; as, " Extravagance makes a man poor " — " Virtue makes a poor man happy." 4. WTien the adjective is predicated of the substantive; as, " God is good " — " We are happy " — " He icho is good is happy " — " He looks feeble" — " To play is pleasant" — " ITiat lie should fail is strange." 706, In many cases the adjective may stand either before or after its substantive, and sometimes — especially in poetry, and in connection with an infinitive or participle — at a considerable distance from it. In all these, the variety is so great that no rules can provide for them. Care, however, should be taken to place the adjective where its relation to the substantive will be clear and natural, and its mean- ing effective. EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. Correct the errors in the following sentences, and give a reason for the change : — These kind of books can hardly be got. — I have not been from home this ten days. — I ordered six ton of coal, and these make the third that has been delivered. — The garden wall is five rod long ; 1, measured it with a ten-foot pole. — Twenty heads of cattle passed along the road. — It is said that a fleet of six sails has just entered the bay. — That three pair of gloves cost twelve shilling. — (159, 2) A man who is prudent and industrious will, by that means, increase his fortune. — SYNTAX— ARTICLES. 201 Charles formed expensive habits, and by those means became poor. — If you are fond of those sort of things, you may have them. — (680) There was a blot on the first or second pages. — The first and second verse are better than the third and fourth. (G87) Come quick and do not hinder us. — Time passes swift, though it appears to move slow. — We got home safely before the dark, and found our friends sitting comfortably around the fire. — The boat glides smooth over the lake. — (685) Magnesia feels smoothly. — Open the door widely. — The door is painted greenly. (688) Hand me that there pen, for this here one is the worst of alL — Them books were sold for a lesser price than they cost. (692) " For beast and bird ; These to their grassy couch, those to their nests, repair." *' Night's shadows hence, from thence the morning's shine ; That bright, this dark, this earthly, that di\ine." (694) That very subject which we are now discussing is still in- volved in mystery. — This vessel, of which you spoke yesterday, sailed in the evening. (698-700) That merchant is the wealthiest of all his neighbors. — Cliina has a greater population than any nation on earth. — That ship is larger than any of its class. — There is more gold in California than in any part of North America. — The birds of Brazil are more beauti- ful than any in South America. — Philadelphia is the most regular of any city in Europe. — Israel loved Joseph more than all his children. — Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kinga (701, 702) A more worthier man you can not find. — The nightin- gale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. — A worser evil yet awaits us. — The rumor has not spread so universally as we sup- posed. — Draw that line more perpendicular. — This figure is a more perfect circle than that is. — He is far from being so perfect as ho thinks he is. The Article and its Noun, 707. Rule III. — 1. The article a or an is put lef ore common nouns in the singular number when used in- definitely (185); as, "J man" — ''An apple;" that is, **cmy man"— "awj/ apple" (186, 187). 502 ENGLISH GRAMMA E. 2. The article the is put 'before common nouns, either singlular or plural, when used definitely (191) ; as, " The sun rises " — " The city of New York." [See Etymology of the Article, 183.] 708, A common noun, in the singular number, without an article or limiting word, is usually taken in its widest sense : as, " Man is mortal " — " Anger is a short madness." 709, The is sometimes used before a singular noun, to particu- larize a species or class, without specifying any iridividiuil under it ; as, the oak, the rose, the horse, the raven, meaning not any particular oak, rose, horse, or raven, but the class so called, in a gen- eral sense. In such cases, whether the noun is used to denote a class or an individual, can be determined only by the sense, as in the fdl- lowing examples : " The oak produces acorns " — " The oak was struck by lightning.-' — " The horse is a noble animal " — " The horse ran away." — " The lion shall eat straw like the ox " — " The lion tore the ox in pieces." — " The night is the time for repose " — " The night was dark." 7 10, Every article belongs to a noun, expressed or understood, except as in 714 and 715. 711, When several nouns are connected in the same con- struction ^ the article is commonly expressed with the first, and understood to the rest ; as, " The men, women, and children, are ex. pected." But when emphasis, or a different form of the article is required, the article is prefixed ; as, " The men, the women, and the children are expected." — " A horse and an ass." 712, But when several nouns in the same construction are dis- junctively connected, the article must be repeated ; as, " The men, or the women, or the children, are expected." 7 IS, The is commonly put before an adjective used as a noun; as, " The righteous is more excellent than his neighbor." Also before adjectives in the superlative degree^ when compari- son is implied (213) ; as, "Gold is the most precious of the metals." But when comparison is not implied, the superlative is either with out an article, or has a or an preceding it ; as, " A most excellent maji." . 714:, Hie is sometimes put intensively before adjectives and adtwrbs iu the comparative degree ; as, " The higher the mountain, SYNTAX — ARTICLES. 203 t?ie colder its top " — " The faster he goes, the sooner he stoics." Thus used, it performs the function of an adverb. 715, An adjective placed after its noun as an epithet, com- monly has the article the before it ; as, " Alexander the Great " — " Charles the Fifth." This may be considered as inverted for " The great Alexander ;" " The fifth Charles ;" or, by ellipsis, for " Alex- ander, the great [conqueror]," " Charles, the fifth [emperor of the name]." 710. A or an is sometimes put before the adjectives few, hundred, thousand, followed by a plural noun; as, " A few men " — " A hundred acres " — " A tlwusand miles." In such cases the adjective and noun may be considered as a compound term, express- ing one aggregate, and having the construction of a collective noun (790). Or the adjective maybe regarded as a collective noun (204), and the noun following governed by of understood ; as, " A few [of] men " — " A hundred [of] acres," etc. This is evidently the construc- tion of larger numbers ; thus, we never say, " A million dollars," but " A million of dollars." 717 » When two or more adjectives belong to the same noun, the article of the noun is put with the first adjective, but not with the rest ; as, " A red and white rose," that is, one rose partly red and partly white. But, 718, When two or more adjectives belong each to a different object of the same name, the article of the noun is put with each adjective ; as, "A red and a wliite rose"=" A red rose and a white rose," that is, two roses, one red and the otlier white. 710, The same remarks apply to the demonstrative that as to the article (717, 718) ; as, " That great and good jRa.n"=one man. 720, So also, when two or more epithets follow a noun, if both designate the same person, the article precedes the first only. If they designate different persons, the article must precede each ; thus, " Johnson, the bookseller and stationer," means one man, who is both a bookseller and a stationer : but, " Johnson the bookseller, and the stationer," means two men, one a bookseller named Johnson, and the other a stationer, not named. 721, When two nouns after a word implying comparison refer to the same x>erson or thing, the last must want the article ; as, " He is a better soldier than statesman." But when they refer to dif- ferent persons, the last must have the article ; as, " He is a better soi« dier than a statesman [would be]." 204 EKGLISH GRAM MAE. 722. The article a before the adjectives /et*? and Ziffle renders the meaning positive ; as, " A few men can do that." — " He de- serves a little credit." But without the article the meaning is negch- tive; as, "Few men can do that." — "He deserves little credit." 723, In the translation of the Scriptures, and in some other writ- ings of that time, the is often used before which ; as, " That worthy- name by tlie which ye are called." — " The which when I had seen." — Bunyan. 724:, The article is generally otnitted before proper names, ab- stract nouns, and names of virtues, vices, arts, sciences, etc., when not restricted, and such other nouns as are of themselves so manifestly definite as not to require it ; as, " Christmas is in December." — " Logic and mathematics are important studies." — " Truth is mighty." Still certain proper names, and names used in a certain way, have the article prefixed ; as, " The Alps " — " The Bhine " — " The Azores " — " The immortal Washington " — " He was Johnson, of the family of the Johnsons in England." Position of the Article, 725, The article is commonly placed before its noun ; as, ** ^ man"—" Tlie man." 726, If the noun is qualified by an adjective before it, the article precedes the adjective ; as, " A good man." 727, But the article follows the adjectives oM, such, many, what, both ; and all adjectives preceded by too, so, as, or how ; as, " All the men " — " Such a man " — " Many a man " — " What a man " — " Both the men " — " Too great a man " — " So great a man " — " As great a man " — " How great a man." 728, When the adjective follows the noun, not as an epithet, the article remains before the noun, and the adjective is without it ; as, " A man destitute of principle should not be trusted." For an adjec- tive as an epithet, see (715) above. Note. — The use of the article is so varied, that the best general rule is to study what the sense requires, both as to its proper use and position. EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. Change, or omit, or insert the article, where necessary, and give a reason for so doing. (707, 1, 2) A country around New York is beautiful in a spring. — A STITTAX — ARTICLES. 205 Kfe of the modem soldier is ill represented by heroic jBction. — Earth existed first in the state of chaos.— An age of chivalry is gone. — ^A crowd at the door was so great that we could not enter. — The large number of men was present. (708) The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, are four elements of the philosophers. — Reason was given to a man to control his pas- sions.— A man was made to mourn. — The gold is corrupting. — The silver is a precious metal. * (709) Horse is a noble animal. — A lion is generous, a cat is treach- erous, a dog is faithful. — A horse-leech cries, " Give, give," and a grave is never satisfied. — The war has means of destruction more dreadful than cannon or sword. (712) Neither the man nor boy was to blame. — A man may be a me. chanic, or farmer, or lawyer, and be useful and respected ; but idler or spendthrift can never be either. (713) We should ever pay attention to graceful or becoming. — The memory of just is blessed ; but the name of wicked shall rot. — Best men are often those who say least. — James is a man of the most brilliant talents. — Keep good and throw bad away. (715) Herod Great was distinguished for his cruelty ; Pliny younger for gentleness and benignity. — Peter Hermit proposed his plan for recovering Jerusalem to Pope Martin II. — The father of William Cow- per, poet, was chaplain to George II. (717) A red and a white flag was the only one displayed from the tower. — A beautiful stream flows between the old and new mansion. — A hot and cold spring were found in the same neighborhood. — The young and old man seem to be on good terms. — The first and second book are difficult. — Thomson the watchmaker and the jeweler made one of the party. (721) A man maybe a better soldier than a logician. — There \p much truth in the saying that fire is a better servant than a master. — He is not so good a poet as an historian. (722) It is always necessary to pay little attention to business. — A little respect should be paid to those who deserve none. — Let the damsel abide with us few days. — Are not my days a few ? — ^A few men of his age enjoy so good health. 206 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. The Pronoun and its Antecedent. 729. EuLE IV. — Personal JPronouns agree icitli the words for which they stand, in gender^ nuinbeVy and person ; as, "All that a 7nan liatli will he give for his life " — " A tree is known by its fruit." Si^ecial Mules. 730. Rule 1. — When a pronoun refers to tivo or more ivords taken together, it lecomes plural ; and if they are of different 'persons, prefers the first person to the second, and the second to the third ; as, " Re and she did tlieir duty " — " John and you, and / will do our duty." Rule 2. — When a pronoun refers to tivo or more words in the singular, taken separately , or to one of them exclusively, it must be singular ; as, " A clock or a watcli moves merely as it is moved." Rule d.—But if either of the ivords referred to is plural, the pronou7i must he plural also ; as, " Neither lie nor they trouble themselves." Distributives are always of the third person singular (301). 7 SI, Nouns are taken together when connected by and — sepa- irately when connected by or or nor, as above; also after each, every, no, though connected by and; as, " Each book and each paper is in its place." 732. When singular nouns of different genders are taken sepa- rately, they can not be represented by a pronoun, for want of a sin- gular pronoun, common gender, except by a clumsy repetition ; thus, " If any man or woman shall violate his or her pledge, he or slie shall pay a fine." The use of the plural pronoun in such cases, though sometimes used, is improper ; as, " If any man or woman shall violate their pledge," etc. 733. Pronouns referring to singular nouns, or other words of the common gender (126), taken in a general sense, are commonly mascu- line ; as, " A parent should love his cliild." " Every person has his faults." — " No one should commend himself" The M-ant of a singular personal pronoun, common gender, is felt also in this construction. 734. A pronoun referring to a collective noun in the singular, expressing many as one whole, should be in the neuter sifigular ; SYNTAX — PROI^OUl^S. 207 but when the noun expresses many as individuals, the pronoun should be plural ; as, " The army proceeded on iU march." — " The court were divided in their opinion." 755. A singular noun after the phrase, ^^ many a," may take a pronoun in the 2>luralf but never in the same clause ; as — " In Hawick twinkled many a light, — Behind him soon they set in night." — W. Scott. 736, The personal pronoun is sometimes used at the bo- ginning of a sentence, instead of the word person or persons ; as, " He wlio "— " They who "—also, " T/iose who " for " The per- sons who." 7S 7- Pronouns representing nouns personified (129), take the gender of the noun as a person ; as, " Night, sable goddess, from her ebon throne." But pronouns representing nouns taken metaphori- cally (1046, 3) agree with them in their literal sense ; as, " Pitt was the l^illar which in its strength upheld the state." 7S8, It is improper in the progress of a sentence to denote the same person by pronouns of different numbers ; as, " I labored long to make thee happy, and now you reward me by ingratitude." It should be either " to make you happy," or " thou rewardest " (245). 739. In the use of pronouns, when it would be uncertain to which of two or more antecedent words (229) a pronoun refers, the ambiguity may be avoided by repeating the noun, instead of using the pronoun, or by changing the form of the sentence ; thus, " When we see the beautiful variety of color in the rainbow, we are led to consider its cause" — better " the cause of thM variety." Position of Pronouns, 74:0, The first and second personal pronouns commonly stand instead of nouns implied^ but not expressed. Possessive pro- nouns, and the pronouns of the third person, are commonly placed after their antecedents (229) ; but sometimes this order, especially in poetry, is reversed. 741, When words of different jyersons come together, the usual order of arrangement, in English, is to place the second person before the third, and the first person last ; as, "You and he, and /are sent for." — " This matter concerns you, or him, or me." In connection with these rules and observations, see also the obser- vations on gender (12&-134), on number (155-160), and on personal pronoims (240-252). .J808 EKGLISH GRAMMA E. EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. In eacli sentence state the antecedent words to which the pronouns refer ; change the pronouns which are wrong, and give a reason for the change : — (729) A person's success in life depends on their exertions ; if they shall aim at nothing, they shall certainly achieve nothing. — Extremes are not in its nature favorable to happiness. — A man's recollections oi the past regulate their anticipations of the future. — Let every boy answer for themselves. — Each of us had more than we wanted. — Every one of you should attend to your own business (801.) (730, 1) Discontent and sorrow manifested itself in his countenance. — Both cold and heat have its extremes. — You and your friend should take care of themselves. — You and I must be diligent in your studies. (730, 2) John or James will favor us with their company. — One or other must relinquish their claim. — Neither wealth nor honor confers happiness on their votaries. — (731) Each day and each hour brings their changes. — No thought, no word, no action, however secret, can escape in the judgment, whether they be good or evil. (732) Let every man and every woman strive to do their best. — If any boy or girl shall neglect her duty, they shall forfeit their place. (733) One should not think too highly of themselves. — A teacher should always consult the interest of her pupils. — A parent's care for her children is not always requited. (734) The assembly held their meetings in the evening.— The court, in their wisdom, decided otherwise. — The regiment was greatly reduced in their number. — Society is not always answerable for the conduct of their members. — The committee were divided in its opin- ions. — The public are informed that its interests are secured. (737) The earth is my mother ; I will recline on its bosom. — That Freedom, in its fearless flight may here announce its glorious reign. — Policy keeps coining truth in its mints, — such truth as it can tole- rate, and every die, except its own, it breaks and casts away. (738) Though you are great, yet consider thou art a man. — Care for thyself, if you would have others care for you. (739) One man may do a kindness to another, though he is his enemy. — John gave his enemy a present which he highly valued. (741) I and my father were invited. — An invitation was sent to me and George. — You and I and James were to be of the party ; but neither I nor you nor he can go. SYNTAX — EELATIVES. 2t/9 The Relative and its Antecedent. Trt!:2, KuLE V. — The Helative agrees with its ante- cedent in gender, number, and person ; as, "Thou who speakest," — " The book lohich was lost." [See Etymology, 255, etc.] 74:3. The tiuniher of the relative can be determined only from the number of the antecedent. 744. JFfio is applied to persons, or tilings personified (129) ; as, " The man who." — " The fox wJw had never seen a lion." 743, IVIiich is applied to things and inferior animals — some- times to children — to collective nouns in the singular, implying unity — and also to persons, in asking questions. 746. In the translation of the Bible, which is applied io per- sons ; as, " Our Father which art in heaven." 747. Which applies to a noun denoting a person, when the character, or the man merely as a word, is referred to ; as, " He ia a good writer, which is all he professes to be." — " That was the work- of Herod, which is but another name for cruelty." 748. Thatf as a relative, is used instead of who or which — 1. After adjectives in the superlative degree — after the words mry, same, and all — often after no, some, and any — and gene- rally in restrictive clauses (268). 2. When the antecedent includes both persons and things ; as, " The man and the horse that we saw." 3. After the interrogative who, and often after the personal pronouns ; as, " Who that knew him could think so ?" — "I that speak in righteousness." 4 Generally when the propriety of who or which is doubtful ; as, " The little child that was placed in the midst." 74.9. The relatives who or tvhich and that should not be f nixed in a series of relative clauses having the same antecedent. Thus, it ia improper to say, " The man that met us and whom we saw." It should be, " who met us," or " tliat we saw." 7oO. The relative refers sometimes to the idea expressed by an adjective, sometimes to the infinitive. But this construction ia rare. See examples (256). 210 EN'GLISH GRAMMAR. 751» The relative in the objective case is often omitted ; as, " Here is the book I promised you." The relative in the nominative case is hardly ever omitted except in poetry ; as — " In this, 'tis God— directs, in that, 'tis man." 752, The antecedent is omitted before tvhat (266), and gene- l-ally before the compound relatives (273). It is sometimes under- stood, especially in poetry ; as — " [He] who lives to nature, rarely can be poor." 753, What should not be used for the co^t junction that. Thus, " I can not believe but wliat it is so," should be, " but t7iat it is 60." Also, the demonstrative that should not be used for the relative what ; as, " We speak that we do know," better, " what we do know." Position of the JRelative, 754, The relative is generally placed after its antecedent. 755, To prevent ambiguity, the relative should be placed as near its antecedent as possible, and so that there can be no uncertainty as to the word to which it refers. 750, In most instances, the sense will be a sufficient guide in this matter : thus, " They removed their wives and children in wagons covered with the skins of animals, which formed their simple habita- tions." Here the sense only can determine to which of the three words, wagons, skins, or animals, the relative which refers. But — 757 , When the antecedent can not be determined by the sense, it should be determined by the position of the relative, which, as a general rule, should belong to the nearest antecedent. Thus — " We walked from the house to the ham ) , . . , , « Tur n J * ^1, 1 fi xi T r which had been erected." " We walked to the barn from the house \ Here the relative which, as determined by its position, refers, in the first sentence, to lam, and in the second, to house. 758. So also, when the antecedents denote the same object, the one being in the subject and the other in the predicate, the relative takes the person of the one next it ; as, " I am the man icho com- mands you " — not " command you." If the relative refer to /, tho words should be arranged, "/ who command you am the man." Hence — 750, A relative clause which modifies the subject should not be placed in the predicate ; thus, " He should not keep a horse that SYNTAX — RELATIVES. 211 can not ride,"* should be, " He that can not ride should not keep a horse." EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. In the following sentences, which are the relatives ? What is the antecedent to which each refers ? Correct those which are wrong, and give the rule, or the reason for the change. (744) Those which seek wisdom will certainly find her. — This is the friend which I love. — (745) That is the vice whom I hate. — The tiger is a beast of prey who destroys without pity. — The court who gives currency to such manners should be exemplary. — The nations who have the best rulers are happy. — Year friend is one of the com- mittee who was appointed yesterday. — The family with whom I lived has left the city. — (747) His father set him up as a merchant, who was what he desired to be. (748) It is the best situation which can be got.— That man was the first who entered. — This is the same horse which we saw yesterday. — Solomon was the wisest king whom the world ever saw. — The lady and the lapdog, which we saw at the window, have disappeared. (749) O Thou who hast preserved us, and that wilt still preserve us ! — The man whom we met to-day, and that was at our house yes- terday, is the same. (752) I have sent every thing what you ordered. — All whosoever came were made welcome. — He whoever steals my purse steals trash. — (753) I can not believe but what you have been sick.— It is not im- possible but what you are mistaken. (755) The king dismissed his minister without inquiry, who had never before committed so unjust an action. (759) He needs no spectacles that can not see, nor boots that can not walk. — Those must not expect the sympathy of the diligent who Bpend their time in idleness. The Subject Nominative. 760. EuLE YL—The subject of a finite verl is put in the nominative ; as, "/ am."—" Thou art."— "^e is." — " Thetj are."—" Time flies."—" The letter is written." 701, A finite verb is a verb in the indicative, potential, sub- junctive, or imperative mood. It is called finite, because in these ^13 El^GLISH GRAMMAR. parts it is Ihnited by person and number. In tlif infinitive and participles, it is not so limited. 702, The subject of a finite verb (315) may be a noun, a pronoun, an infinitive mood (394), a participle used as a noun (462), or a clause of a sentence (637). All these, when the subject of the verb, are re- garded as substantives in the nominative (109 and 867). 703» Every nominativef not absolute (769), or in apposition (688), or in the predicate (796), is the subject of a verb, expressed or understood. 704:. The following sentence is wrong, because the nominative who has no verb of which it is the subject, viz. : " These evils were caused by Cataline, wlio, if he had been punished, the republic would not have been exposed to so great dangers," Better — " If Cataline, hy whom these evils were caused, had been punished," etc. Hence — 705. It is impropor to use both a noun and its pronoun as the subject of the same verb ; thus, " The Mng he is just," should be, " The king is just." Except when the compound pronouns are added to the subject for the sake of emphasis (349); as, "The king himselfhsi^ come." 700, 1. The nominative, especially in answer to a question, and after than or as^ often has the verb understood ; as, " Who said so ?" — " He [said so]." — " James is taller than / [am] ; but not so tall as you [are] ; but — 2. Than is followed by the objective case of the relative; as, " A soldier than whom you never saw a braver." Note. — In comparative clauses, the case after than and as is determined by its relation in the comparison ; as. He loved John better than [he loved] me. He loved John better than / [loved him]. Position of the Subject, 707* The subject is commonly placed before the verb. But in imperative or interrogative sentences, and in sentences inserted for the sake of emphasis or euphony, the subject is often placed after the verb ; as, " Go thou." — " Did he go ?" — " May you be happy !»— " Were / he."—" Neither did they."—'' Said Z"— " There was a man," etc. Under this rule there is liability to error only in the use of pro- nouns, and in leavinor a nominative without its verb. SYKTAX — THE NOMIKATIVE. 213 EXEECISES TO BE COREECTED. Which nouns or pronouns in the following sentences are the sub- ject of a verb ? If not in the proper case, change them, and give the rule or reason for the changes. (7G0) Him and me are of the same age. — Suppose you and me go. — Tliera are excellent. — Whom do you think has arrived ? — Them that seek wisdom will find it.— You and us enjoy many privileges. (7G6) John is older than me. — You are as tall as her. — Who has a knife ? Me. — Who came in ? Her and him. — You can write as well as me. — That is the boy whom we think deserves the prize. (765) Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, yet men are -so constituted as to respect genuine merit. The Nominative Absolute or Independent. 768. EuLE VII. — A substantive whose case depends on no other word is put in the noiniuatlve absolute. Note. — The nominative under this rule is usually called the nomi- native absolute or independent ; because, in English, though always in the form of the nominative, yet it has no grammatical dependence on any word in the sentence. This occurs in all examples under the following Special Mules. 769. Rule 1. — A substanfive with aparticiplef whose case depends on no other word, is put in tlie nominative ; as, " He being gone, only two remain." 770. In this construction, the siihstantive is sometimes tin- derstood / as, " His conduct, viewing it even favorably, can not be commended ;" that is, " we [a person] viewing it," etc. 771. Sometimes being and having been are omitted ; as, " Her wheel [being] at rest " — " He destroyed or won" etc., that is, " He having been destroyed or won," etc. — " This said," that is, " This being said." 772. In this construction, the substantive with the participle is used to express an assumed fact in an abbreviated foi'tn, and is 214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. equivalent to a dependent clause, connected by when, wJiile, if, since^ because, etc. (644); as, "He having gone, his brother returned ;"= " Since or because he went, his brother returned." 773* Rule 2. — A substantive denoting a person or thing ad- dressed without a verb or governing word, is put in the nominative ; as, " I remain, dear sir, yours truly " — " Plato, thou reasonest well." 774:, Rule 3. — A substantive, unconnected , in mere exclama- tion, is put in the nominative ; as, " O, the times ! O, the manners !" 775, Rule 4. — A substantive, used by pleonasm (1044, 2) before an affirmation, is put in the nominative ; as, " The boy, oh ! where was he ?" — " Your fathers, where are they ?" — " The prophets, do they live for ever?" Under this rule, a mistake can be made only in the case of pro- nouns. EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. Point out the noun or pronoun whose case depends on no other word — put it in the case required by the rule, and give the special rule re- quiring it. Me being absent, the business was neglected. — He made as wise proverbs as anybody, him only excepted. — -'All enjoyed themselves very much, us excepted. — Whom being dead, we shall come. Whose gray top Shall tremble, him descending. The bleating sheep with my complaints agree ; Them parched with heat, and me inflamed by thee. Her quick relapsing to her former state. Then all thy gifts and graces we display. Thee, only thee, directing all our way. The Verb and its Subject. 776* Rule VIII. — A verb agrees ivith Us subject \ in number mid person ; as, " I read^^ "Thou reddest" "He J reads," " We read" etc. i [Respecting the subject in the nominative, see (493). This rule, and \ tli6 special rules under it, apply to an infinitive mood or clause of » i SYNTAX — THE VEEB. 215 sentence, when the subject of a verb (762), as well as to nouns and pronouns.] Remark. — Ijnjyersoiial verbs (520) are always in the third person singular ; as, " It hails," " it rains" etc. Such expressions as " it appears," " it seems," "it happens" and the like, sometimes called impersonal verbs, are really personal, having for their subject an in. fiuitive mood or substantive phrase following, to which " it " preced- ing refers ; as, "It appears that the river is rising." — " It seems to be so " (see 246, 4). So also, in the expressions as follows, as concerns, as appears, and the like, the verb is not impersonal ; but whether sin- gular or plural, refers to a subject understood ; as, " The case was OA follows," i. e., as it here follows. — " The conditions were as follow," L e., were as thei/ here follow, or as those which foUow. Special Mules, 777* Rule 1. — A singular noun used in a plural sense has a verb in the 2)lural ; as, " Ten sail are in sight " (160). 778. Rule 2. — Two or more substantives, singular, taken together, ham a mrb in the plural ; as, " James and John are here." 770, Substantives taken together are connected by and, ex- pressed or understood (955), as in the example above. 780, A singular nominative and an objective, connected by with, sometimes have a plural verb ; as, " The ship with the crew were lost." Tills construction is incorrect, and should not be imitated. A mere adjunct of a substantive does not change its number or construction. Either, then, the verb should be singular, " The ship with tlie crew was lost," or, if the second substantive is considered as belonging to the subject, it should be connected by and ; as, " The ship and the crew were lost." But — 781, When substantives connected by and denote one person ov thing, the verb is singular ; as, " Why is dust and a^^e* proud?" «— " The saint, the father, and the husband, prays." — Burns. 782, Singular nouns, preceded by each, every, no, though tonnected by and, have i\\e verb in the singular; as, "Each book and each paper teas arranged." — " Every paper and every book was arranged." — " No book and no paper was arranged." 783, When a verb, having several subjects connected by and, is 216- ENGLISH GEAMMAE. placed after the first, it agrees with that, and is understood to the rest ; as, " Forth in the pleasing spring 7'hy beautt/ walks, thy tenderness, and love." — Thomson. 7S4, When the substantives connected are of different persons, the verb in the plural prefers the first to the second, and the second to the third. This can be i)erceived only in the pronoun (730,1). 785» Rule 3. — Two or more substantives, singular, taJcen sejjaratelf/, or one to the exclusion of the rest, have a verb in the singular ; as, " James or John attends." — " Neither James nor John attends." — " John, and not [but not] James, attends." — •'• John, as well as James, attends." — " Not John, but James, attends." 786. Nouns taken separately are connected by or, nor, as well as, and also, etc. A noim taken so as to exclude others is connected with them by such phrases as and not, but not, not, etc. In such the verb agiees with the subject affirmed of, and is understood with the others. Note. — Singular nouns connected by nor sometimes have a plural verb. In that case the verb denies equally of all, and nor is equivalent to and, connecting the nouns, and a negative which is transferred to, and modifies the verb ; as, " Neither Moses, nor Minos, nor Solon, nor Lycurgus, were eloquent men" — Acton=" Moses, and Minos, and Solon, and Lycurgus, were not eloquent men," or, " were none of them eloquent." This construction has not been generally noticed, but it often occurs in the best writers. 787, But when two or more substantives, taken separately, are of different numbers, the verb agrees with the one next it, and the pliiral subject is usually placed next the verb ; as, " Neither the captain nor the sailors were saved ; rarely, " Neither the sailors nor the captain was saved." 788. RinLE4. — When substantives, taken separately, are of dif- ferent persons, the verb agrees icith the one n^oct it ; as, " James or I am in the wrong." — " Either you or he is mistaken." — " I or thou art to blame." 789, Though sentences are often formed according to this rule, they are generally harsh and inelegent. — It is generally better to put the verb with the first substantive, and repeat it with the second ; or SYNTAX — THE VERB. 817 to express the same idea by arranging the sentence differently ; as, " James is in the wrong, or I am," or, " One of us is in the wrong." " Either you are mistaken or he is." — " / am to blame, or thou art." This remark is sometimes applicable, also, when the substantives are of the same person, but different in number, and requiring each a different form of the verb ; as, " Either the captain or the sailors were to blame ;" otherwise, " Either the captalu was to blame, or the sailors were." 790* Rule 5. — 1. A collective noun, expressing many as one whole, Tuis a verb in the singular; as, "The company was large." 791. 2. But when a collective noun expresses many as individ- uals, the verh must be plural ; as, " My people do not consider.** 792. It is sometimes difficult to determine whether a collective Tioun expresses unity or plurality. It is now generally considered best to use the plural , where the singular is not manifestly required. 793. A subject after " many a " has a verb in the singular; as, ** Full many a flower is born," etc. (735). 794:. Two or more verbs connected in the same construction, as a compound predicate (637) have the same subject; as, "James reads and writes." " James neither reads nor wHtes." 793, But when verbs are 7iot connected in the same construc- tion, each verb should hav^ its own subject. The following sen- tence is wrong in this respect : " The whole is produced as an illu- sion of the first class, and hopes it will be found worthy of patron- age ;" it should be, either " He produces the whole as an illusion," etc., " and h^es" etc. ; " The whole is produced," etc., " and he hopes, etc., or, " and it is hoped," etc. For the position of the verb and its subject, see (767), and also (741). EXEECISES TO BE COREECTED. What is the verb in each of the following sentences ? What is its subject ? See if they agree. If they do, give the rule and show how it applies. If they do not, change the verb so as to agree with its subject, and give the rule. Thus, loves should be love, to agree ■with I, in the first person, singular. Bule — " A verb agrees," etc. (776). (776) I loves reading. — A soft answer turn away vsrath — We is but of yesterday, and knows nothing. — The days of man is as grass. — 218 Eiq-GLISH GKAMMAR. Thou sees how little has been done. — He dare not act otherwise. — Fifty pounds of wheat produces forty pounds of flour. — A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. — So much of ability and merit are seldom found. — A judicious arrangement of studies facilitate improvement. — Was you there ? — I, who are first, has the best claim. — The derivation of these words are imcertain. — To be igno- rant of such things are now inexcusable. — (483). — She needs not trouble herself. (777) Forty head of cattle was sold in one hour. — The horse was Bent forward to engage the enemy. — The foot, in the meantime, was preparing for an attack. — Fifty sail was seen approaching the coast. ?Vo dozen is as many as you can take. — One pair was spoiled ; five pair was in good condition. (778) Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. — Life^ and death is in the power of the tongue. — Anger and impatience is always unreasonable. — Out of the same mouth proceedeth blessing and cursing. — To profess regard, and to act diflerently, marks a base mind. — To be good and to seem good is diflerent things. (781) That able scholar and critic have died. — Your friend and par tron who were here yesterday have called again to-day. (782) Every leaf, and every twig, and every drop of water, teem with life. — Every man and every woman were, searched. — No wife, no mother, no child, soothe his cares. — No oppressor, no tyrant, triumph there. (785) Either the boy or the girl were present. — Neither precept nor discipline are so forcible as example. — Our happiness or misery de- pend much upon our own conduct. — A man's being rich, or his being poor, do not affect his character for integrity. — To do good or to get good are equally neglected by the foolish. (786) His time, as well as his money and health, were lost in the undertaking. — He, and not we, are to blame. — James, and also his brother, have embarked for the gold region. (787) Neither the. scholars nor the teacher was present. — Whether the subjects or the king is responsible, makes no difference. (788) Either he or I are willing to go. — Neither thou nor he art of age. — You or your brother are blamed. — Neither James nor I has had a letter this week. (790) Stephen's party were entirely broken up. — The meeting were large and respectable. — The people often rejoices in that wliich will SYNTAX — PKEDICATE NOMIKATIVE. 219 prove their ruin. — The British Parliament are composed of lords and commons. — The noble army of martyrs praiseth thee, O God ! — A great number of women were present. — The public is respectfully informed. — The audience was much pleased.— The council was not unanimous. — Congress have adjourned. While still the busy world is treading o'er The paths they trod five thousand years before. (793) Many a one have tried to be rich, but in vain. — Many a broken ship have come to land. (795) The letter from which the extract was taken, and came by mail, is lost. — It was proposed by the president to fit out an expedi- tion, and has accomplished it. — Our friend brought two loads to wSt- ket, and were sold at a good prica The Predicate Substantive. 796. Rule IX. — T7ie predicate substantive^ after an attributive verb, is put in the same case as the subject before it (797) ; as, " It is Z"— " He shall be /called John.*:—" She walks a queen."—" I took it to be 7iim." — " He seems to be a scholar" — " The opinion is, that he mil live." Hence — Note. — As the subject of a verb can be only in the nominative (7G0), or objective (872), the predicate substantive can be ouli/ in the noininative or objective, 70 7. Any verb may be the copula [attributive verb] between the subject and the predicate substantive, except a transitive verb in the active voice. But those most commonly used in this way are the verbs to he, to become, to seem, to appear ; intransitive verbs of motion, position , etc., and passive verbs, denoting to call, name, style, appoint, choose, make, esteem, reckon, etc. 70S, The predicate substantive after a verb may be any tiling that can be the subject of a verb (762), 700, The infinitive without a definite subject, or the parti- ciple of an attributive verb (304) in a substantive clause, has a. predicate substantive after it in the nominative ; as. 230 El^GLISHGRAMMAB. " To be a foreigner is a disadvantage." " He was not known to be a foreigner." " His being a foreigner was not known," •• He was suspected of being a foreigner." " We did not know his being [or, of Ms being] a foreigner." In all these examples, the word foreigner is the predicate nomina- tive after to be, or beiiig, because these phrases being only abridged dependent clauses (649), the predicate noun remains in the same case after the clause is abridged as it was before. Thus, " He was not kno^yn to be a foreigner," =" It was not known that he was a for- Hif/ner." As, then, in the latter form, foreigner is in the nominative under the rule, it remains the same in the abridged form, and so of the other examples. But when we say, ' For him to be a foreigner," or, " We did not know him to be a foreigner " (395), him, in both examples, is the subject of to be, and foreigner is in the objective, according to the rule. Position, 800, The usual position of the predicate substantive is after the verb, as that of the subject is before it, and this is always the order of construction. But in both the direct and the indirect ques- ■ tion, and in inverted sentences, its plaxie is often different ; thus, " Who is he f" — " We know not who he is." — " Is he a student V — " He is the same that he was." — " The dog it was that died." — " A MAN he was to all the country dear." — " Feet was /to the lame." EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. In each of the following sentences, which is the attributive verb ? — what is its subject ? — what the predicate substantive ? Correct where it is wrong, and give the reason for the correction. Thus, me is the predicate substantive, and should be /, because the subject it is in the nominative. Rale — " The predicate,'' etc. (796) It is me. — It was me who wTote the letter, and him who car- ried it to the post-office. — I am sure it could not have been her. — You would probably do the same thing if you were him. — I understood it to be he. — It may have been him, but there is no proof of it. — I little thought it had been him. Whom do you think he is? — Who do you think him to be? — Whom do men eay that I am ? — He is the man whom you said it was. SYNTAX— OB J EOT AFTER VERBS. \sl —Let him be whom he maj. — Is it not him whom you thought it was ? — Thomas knew not whom it was that called, though quite cer- tain it was not her who we saw yesterday. The Object after Transitive Verbs. 801, EuLE X. — A substantive^ heing the object of a transitive verb m the active voice, is put in the objective case; as, "We love hi7nJ" — "He loves us." — > " Whom did they send ?" 802, The infinitive mood, a participle usea as a noun, or part of a sentence^ may be the object of a transitive verb, as well as a noun or pronoun ; as, " Boys love to plap." — " I know icTio is there." — " I wish that they were wise." — " You see h/)w few have re- turned." Special Rules, 803, Rule 1. — An intratisitive verb does not govern an. objective case (320, 1). Thus — " Repenting him of his design," should be, "Repenting of his de- sign." Still, a few anomalies of this kind are to be found ; as, " They laughed him to scorn." — " The manliness to look the subject in the face." — " Talked the 7iight away." 804, Rule 2. — Intransitive verbs in a transitive sense (375) govern the objective case (321, 1, 2) ; as, " He runs a race." — • " They live a holy life." 80i>, To this usage may be referred such expressions in poetry as the following : " The brooks ran nectar." — " The trees wept gums and balms." — " Her lips blush deeper sweets" etc 80f}, To this rule also belongs the objective after causatives (375, 3) ; as " He runs a stage." — " John walks his horse." — " He works him hard," etc. Such expressions, however, as " Grows corn" are inelegant, and should be avoided. 807' Rule 3. — Infran.Kitive verbs do not admit a paS" slve voice, except when used transitively (375). Thus — " I am purposed " — '' I am perished." should be. " I have pui^posed* 223 Ei^GLISH GEAMMAR. — " I am perisliing." But we can say, " My race is run," because run is used transitively. Such expressions as, " I am resolved " — " He is deceased " — " He is retired from business." — " We are determined to go on," etc., tliougli common, are incorrect. It is better to say, " I have resolved " — " He has retired," etc. 808. A transitive verb in the active voice, vrithout an object, either lias an object understood, or is used intransitively (323). 809. Rule 4. — A transitive verb does not admit a ^>re- posltion after it ; thus, " I must premise icith a few observations." — " I will not allow of it." Omit tcith and of. 810. Rule 5. — Verbs signifying to name, choose , appoint, constitute, and the like, generally govern two objectives, viz., the direct, denoting the person or thing acted upon, and the indi- rect, denoting the result of the act expressed ; as, " They named him John." — " The people elected him president." — " They made it a book." 811. In such sentences, when the verb is in the passive voice, the direct object of the active form is made the subject of the passive, and the indirect remains as the predicate nomiriative after the verb, according to Rule IX. Thus, " He was named John." — " He was elected president." — "It was made a book." 812. Besides the direct or immediate object in the objective case, some verbs have a remote object between the immediate and the verb, governed by a preposition understood ; as, " John gave me a book." But when the remote object comes last, the preposition must be expressed ; as, " John gave a book to me." The verbs thus used are such as signify to asJi:, teach, offer, promise, give, pay, tell, allow, deny, and some others. 813. These verbs properly take the immediate object of the active voice as the subject in the passive, and the remote object remains in the objective after the passive, governed by a preposition expressed or understood ; as, "A book was promised me, orto?w^" (811). 814:. In loose composition, however, the remote object is some- times made the subject, and the immediate object remains in the ob jective case after the passive voice; as, "/was promised abook." The verbs ask and teach frequently have tliis double construction in the passive, but in general the regular construction is better. Similar to this are certain expressions suflBciently correct in the ao SYNTAX — OBJECT AFTER VERBS. 223 tive form, but which are anojualous, and can not be analyzed in the form usually but incorrectly given to them in the passive. Thus, Active — " They took possession of the farm." Passive (incor- rectly) " The farm was taken possession of by them " — (correctly) " Possession of the farm was taken by them." This anomaly arises from inadvertently making the object of the preposition {farm), in- stead of the object of the verb in the active voice (possession), the subject of the verb in the passive. Such anomalies are the following ; " The circumstance was made use of " — " The ship was lost sight of," — " The occasion was taken advantage of." Either the regular pas- sive form of expression should be used, or, if that be awkward, a dif- ferent form of expression should be chosen. Position. 813. As the nominative and the objective case of nouns are alike in fornif the arrangement of the sentence should clearly distinguish the one case from the other. The nominative gene- rally 2>i^cf'f"d('S tlie verb, and the objective folloivs it. Thus, " Brutus killed Caesar." If one (or both) of these should be a pro- noun, the order may be varied without obscuring the sense, and some- times the objective is rendered more emphatic by being placed j^?"S^y as, " Him he slew." 810. When the objective is a relative or an interrogative pronoun, it precedes both the verb and its subject ; as, ** The man whom we saw is dead." — " Whom did you send ?" 81 7. The object should not, unless unavoidable, be separated from its verb by intervening clauses. As, " We could not discover, for want of proper tests, the quality of the metal." Better, " We could not, for want of proper tests, discover the quality of the metal." EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. In the following sentences, correct the errors according to the rule, and give a reason for the change. Parse the sentences corrected. Thus, /should be mc, because it is the object of loioes. Rule X. — " A substantive being the object," etc. (801) He loves I. — He and they we know, but who art thou? — She that is idle and mischievous, reprove sharply. — Ye only have I known. . — They that honor me I will honor. — Who do you think I saw yes- terday ? — Who, having not seen, we love. — Who .should I meet the JJS4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. other day but my old friend? — Who dost thou take to be such a coward ? (803) You will have reason enough to repent you of your foolish conduct. — They did not fail to enlarge themselves on the subject.— Go, flee thee away into the land of Judea. (807) Several persons were entered into a conspiracy. — ^Fifty men are deserted from the army. — I am purposed that I will not sin. — He has almost perished with cold. — I am resolved to go. (809) No country will allow of such a practice. — False accusation can not diminish from his real merit. — His servants ye are, to whom ye obey. — He ingratiates with some by traducing others. — They shall not want for encouragement. Change the following into the regular form, and give a reason for the change : — (813) I was promised a pension. — He was offered a pardon. — She would not accept the situation, though she was oflered it. — I was paid a dollar for my services. — I was given a book of great value. (817) Becket could not better discover, than by attacking so jww- erful an interest, his resolution to maintain liis right, — The troops pursued, without waiting to rest, the enemy to their gates. The Objective after Prepositions. 818* EuLE XL — A substantive, being the object of a j}'^^POsition, is put in the objective case ; as, " To whom mucli is given, of him much shall be required." 810. The object of a preposition is sometimes an infinitive mood — a participle used as a noun — part of a sentence — a phrase, or dependent clause, as well as a noun or pronoun ; as, " He is about to depart." — " After we came." — " On receiving his diploma." — " Much depends on who are his advi^rs." 820, As a general rule, it is considered inelegant to connect either an active-transitive verb and a preposition, or two prepositions with the same object. Thus, " I wrote to and warned him." Bet- ter, " I wrote to him, and warned him." So, " Of him, and through him, and to him, are all things." Not of, and through^ and t6 him" etc SYNTAX — OBJECT AFTER PREPOSITION'S. 225 821, This general rule is so little regarded, even by the best writers, that it is a matter of doubt whether it should any longer retain a place in our grammars. In many instances, at least, the form of speech condemned by the rule is clearly better in respect of perspicuity, brevity, and strength, than that which it recommends, and in such cases it should be adopted. In some cases, again, as in the above example, the full form is better than the elliptical. In this matter, every one must be guided by his taste and judgment, avoid- ing equally obscurity and harshness. 822, When the prepositions f o, at, in, stand before names of places, the following usage should be carefully observed, viz. : — 1. To — is used after a verb of motiaii toward; as, "Ho went to Spain." But it is omitted before home ; as, " Go home." 2. -4f — is used before names of houses, villages, toivns, and foreifjn cities ; as, " He resides at the Mansion House." — "At Saratoga Springs." — " At Lisbon." 8. In — is used before names of countries and large cities / as, " He lives in England "— " in London "— " in New York." But at is used before the names of places and large cities after the verbs touch, arrive, land, and frequently after the verb to be ; as, " We touched at Liverpool, and, after a short passage, landed at New Orleans." — " I was at New York." 4. In speaking of one's residence in a city, at is used before the number, and in before the street; as, " He resides at No. ." — "He lives in State street." — When both are mentioned together, the preposition is commonly imder- stood before the last ; as, " He lives at No. , State street," or, " He lives in State street. No. ." 823, The preposition is frequently utiderstood, as follows : — 1. A preix)sition expressed with the first noun or pronoim of a series, may be understood as to the rest ; as, " Be kind to John, and Jam£S, and Mary." 2. When the remote object of a verb, governed by a preposi- tion, is placed between the verb and its immediate object, the preposition is often omitted ; as, " Give me your hand." — Bring me a chair." — " Get me a book " (812). 8. To— is commonly omitted after lihe, near, nigh ; as, " Like his father." — " Near a river," etc. ; and o/ frequently after worthy and unworthy. 226 BIS^GLISH GRAMMAR. 824. Sometimes tlie antecedent term of a preposition, and sometimes the subsequent (539), is omitted. Thus, the cmtece- dent : " \_Isay'\ in a word." — " All shall know me [reckoning] from the least to the greatest," The subsequerit : " There is a man I am acquainted with " — that is, with whom I am acquainted. The sub- sequent is always omitted when it is the indefinite antecedent to which a compound I'elative refers (272) : as, " Give it to who- ever will take it." 825. The phrases, in vain, in secret, at first, at last, in short, on high, and the like, may either be parsed together as adverbs, or the noun may be supplied, and each word parsed separately ; as, " In a vain manner." — " In a secret jp?ace," etc. 826. Adverbs representing adverbial phrases ending with a preposition, govern a noun following, in the objective ; as, "' Maugre hell," that is, " in spite of hell." — Milton. 827. Though words denoting weight, measure, etc., are evi- dently governed by a preposition, yet, as it is for the most part under- stood, it is better to dispose of such cases by the following Special Rule. 828. Rule. — Muns denoting time, value, weighty or measure, are commonly put in the objective case, without a governing word (1C6, 3) ; as, " He was absent six months last year." — " It cost a shilling." — It is not worth a cent." — It weighs s^ pound." — "The waU is six /eeif high, and two feet thick." This may be called the objective of time, weight, value, etc., as the case may be. 829. Nouns denoting time how long, are generally without a preposition ; as, "He is ten years old." Also, nouns denoting time when, in a general or indefinite way ; as, " He came last week." But nouns denoting the time when, definitely, or with precision, generally hsve the preposition expresssed ; as, " He came last week, on Wednesday, in the evening." Position of the Preposition. 830. Prepositions should be placed before the words which they govern, and as near to them as possible ; but nei^er before that as a relative. 831. Tfliom ajid whicJi are sometimes governed by a prepo- STltTAX — OBJECT AFTER PREPOSITIONS. 227 eition at sotne flistance after tliem; this, however, should be avoided as much as possible. Thus, " That is the man whom I gave the letter to." Generally better thus — " to wliom I gave the letter." S^2. The preposition with its regimen (539) should be placed as near as possible to the word to which it is related. 833. Under this rule, there is liability to error only in the use of pronouna and with regard to position (330). EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. In each of the following sentences, point out the preposition, and the word governed by it. Correct the errors and give a reason for the change. Parse the sentences when corrected. (818) To who will you give that pen ? — That is a small matter be- tween you and I. — He came along with James and I. — He gave the book to some one, I know not who. — (831) Who does it belong to ? — The book which I read that story in is lost. (822) I have been to Boston. — They live in Saratoga Springs. — ^We touched in Liverpool on our way for New York. — He has been to home for some days. — He lives at Hudson street, in No. 42. — We re- mained in a village in the vicinity of London. (823) Be so good as lend to me your grammar. — Get to him a book like that, — Ask of me that question again. — This has taught to me a lesson which I will always be mindful of. (830) The nature of the undertaking was such as to render the pro- gress very slow of the work. — Beyond this period the arts can not be traced of civil society. (832) The wrong ]X)sition of the preposition and its regimen often produces very ludicrous sentences. The following are specimens : — Wanted, a young man to take care of some horses, of a religious turn of mind. — The following verses were written by a young man wlio has long lain in the grave, for his own amusement. — A public dinner was given to the inhabitants, of roast beef and plum pudding. — I saw that the kettle had been scoured, with half an eye. — He rode to town, and drove twelve cows, on horseback. — ^The man was digging a well, with a Roman nose. ENGLISH GEAMMAR. 834. EuLE XIL— Certain words and phrases should be followed by appropriate prepositions. The following list may be useful for reference : — Ask of a person ; far a thing ; af- ter what we wish to hear of. Aspire to, after. Associate vyith, seldom to. Abhorrence of Abound in, with. Abridge from. Absent /rom. Access to. Accommodate to- Accord with. Accuse of Acquaint icith. Acquit of Acquiesce in. Adapted to. Adequate to. Adhere to. Adjudge to. Admonish of Address to. Admission (accr^sp) to. Admission (entrance) »'.nto. Advantage over, of. Affinity to, with. Affection for. Agree vyith a person ; to a propo- sition from another ; upon & thing among themselves. Agreeable to. Allude to. Alter to, alteration in. Amerce in. Annex to. Analogy to, with. Antipathy to, against. Approve of Array with, in. Arrive at. Ascendant over, * Assent to. Assure of. Attain to. Averse to, from. Banish /row, to. Believe in, sometimes on. Bereft of. Bestow upon, on. Betray to a person ; into a thing. Boast of Bind to, in. Blush at. Border upon, on. Call on a person ; at a place. Capacity /or. Careful of, in. Catch at. Change (exchange) /or; (alter) to^ into. Charge on a person ; with a thing. Compare with, in respect of quaL - ity ; to, by way of illustration. Comply, compliance with. Composed of Concede to. Concur with a person ; in a mea* sure ; to an effect. Condescend to. Confer on, upon. Confide in. Conformable, conformity to, witK Congenial to. SYNTAX — PKEPOSITIOKS 229 Congratulate upon, on. Consonant to. Consist (to be composed) Of; (to be comprised) in. Consistent with. Contrast vyith. Conversant with men ; in things ; about and among are less proper. Convict of a crime ; in a penalty. Copy after a person ;from a thing. Correspond (to be consistent) with; (answering or suitable) to. Correspondence with. Cured of. Debar /wTW. Defend (others) /row/ (ourselves) y an m- /ithf in. Lame of Level unth. Long for, after. Look on what is present ; for what is absent ; after what is distant. Made of. Made much of. Marry to. Martyr /or. Militate against. Mistrustful of. Need of Obedient to. Object to, against. Observance, observation of. Obtrude upon, on. Occasion for. Offensive to. Operate upon, on. Opposite, opposition to. Partake of ; participate of, in. Penetrate into. Persevere in. Pitch upon. Poor in. Prefer to, over, above. Preference to, over. Preferable to. Prefix to. Prejudice againfit. Preside over. Prevent from. Prevail (to persuade) with,on,upon; (to overcome) over, against. Prey on, upon. Productive of. Profit by. Protect others from ; ourselves against. Pronounce against a person ; on a thing. Provide with, for. Proud of. Purge of, away. Quarrel with. Reckon on, upon. SYNTAX — PREPOSITIONS. 231 Reconcile (to friendship) to; (to make consistent) with. Reduce (subdue) under ; (in other cases) to. Reflect upon, on. Regard /(9r; in regard to. Rely upon, on. Replete vyith. Reproached for. Resemblance to. Resolve on. Respect to; in respect to, of. Restore to. Rich in. Rob of Rule over. Share in, of Sick of Significant of. Similar to. Sink into, beneath. Skillful (before a noun) in; (be- fore a participle) at, in. Strain out. Strip of Submit to. Sent to. Swerve from. Taste of, means actual enjoyment; taste for, means capacity oi genius for. Tax mth (for example, a crime, an act) ; for (a purpose, a state). Thankful /or. Think of, on. Touch at. Unite (transitive) to; (intransitive) loith. Unison with, to. Useful for. Value upon, on. Vest, before the possessor, in; be- fore the possessed, u)ith. Wait upon, on. Witness of, Worthy, unworthy of But after these, ofia generally omitted. 835, What preposition it is proper to use, often depends as much upon tvhat follows, as upon what goes before. Thus, " To fall from a height " — " into a pit " — " in battle " — " to work " — ** upon an enemy" 836. Into is used only after verbs of motion , and implies entrance. In is used after verbs of motion or rest, and denotes situation, but never entrance ; as, " He went into a carriage, and rode in it." 837* Boast f approve, and disapprove, are often used without a proposition following ; so also worthy and uiu worthy. 838. The same preposition that follows a verb or adjec- tive, usually follows the noun derwed from it, and viM versa ; as, " Confide in " — " Ck)nfident in " — " Confidence in." 233 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. In the following sentences, point out the prepositions and the ante- cedent term. If not appropriate, correct, and give the rule. This remark is founded with truth. — He was eager of recommend- ing him to his fellow-citizens. — I find great difficulty of writing. — Every change is not a change to the better. — Changed for a worse shape it can not he. — It is important, in times of trial, to have a friend to whom you can confide. — You may rely in the truth of wliat he says. — Many have profited from good advice, but have not always been grateful of it. — I have no occasion of his services. — Favors are not always bestowed to the most deserving. — This is very difierent to that. — Virtue and vice differ widely with each other. — Come in the house. — We rode into a carriage with four horses. — The boy fell under a deep pit. — Such conduct can not be reconciled to your profession. — Go, and be reconciled with thy brother. — A man had four sons, and he divided his property between them. — I am now engaged with that work. — He insists on it that he is right. The Possessive Limiting Substantives. 830. Rule XIII.— J substantive that limits the signification of another, denoting a different person or thing, must he put in the ^Jossessive case ; as, " Virtue's re- ward.'' — "John's hooks." 84=0. The substantive in the possessive case limits the significa- tion of the other, by representing the tiling named as proceedhig fronif possessed hy, or suitable to the person or thing ex- pressed by the possessive (165). It is of course necessary, under this rule, that the substantives signify different things, 841, A substantive, limited by the possessive, may be any noun in any case, or a verbal noun (462), either alone or with its regimen, or modifying words ; as, " On eagle's wings.'' — " He was opposed to John's writing." — " I am in favor of a pupil's composing frequently " (896). — " John's ImvAng devoted himself too much to study was the cause of his sickness" (463). 842* The noun limited by the possessive is often under- SYNTAX — POSSESSIVE. 2)3 stood ; as, " This book is John's [book]." It is always omitted after the possessive case of the personal pvonouns ; as, "This book is inim, thiiie, ours" etc. ; and, in this construction, when supplied, the possessive case must be changed for the possessive pronoun (241) ; as, " This is my book, thy book, aur book ;" not mine book, etc. (293). Appendix VI. S-13, The possessive case, and the preposition of, tvith the objective f are often equivalent ; as, " My/a^A^r'* house "=" The houseof my father." But — 844, Sometimes the idea expressed by o/, tvith the object^ ire, can not be expressed at all by the possessive ; as, " A ring of gold." — "A cup of water." — "A piece of land." — "The house of refuge" etc. Sometimes, again, the ideas expressed are different ; thus, " The Lord's day," means the sabbath ; " The day of the Lord'* means the day of judgment. " M.j father's picture," means a picture belonging to my father ; " A picture of my father," means a portrait of him. " God's love," means only the love which God feels, " The love of God," means either the love which God feels to us, or that which we feel to him. 845. Of, before a possessive case, followed by the substantive which it limits, usually governs that substantive ; as, " The heat of the Sim's rays." But of before a x>ossessive, not folloived by the substantive which it limits, governs that substantive understood, and the expression refers to a part of the things possessed ; as, " A discovery of [that is, from] Sir Isaac Newton's [discoveries] ;" mean- ing, " One of Sir Isaac Newton's discoveries " (242). 84G, Even when the possessive case, and of with the objective, are equivalent in meaning, the arranfjenient and euphony , as well as the perspicuity of the sentence, will often render the one ex- pression preferable to the other. When this is the case, care should be taken to use that form which, in the circumstances, is best. Thus, " In the name of the army." is better than, " In the army's name ;'* " My mother's gold ring," is better than, " The gold ring of my mother." A succession of words in either form is harsh, and may be avoided by a proper mixture of the two ; thus, " My brother's wife's sister —better, "The sister of my brother's wife." — "The sickness of the son of the king " — better, " The sickness of the king's son." 84 7 , When several nouns come together in the possessive cage, implying coniino'n possession, \hQ^\gxioi\h& possessive \9,nn~ nexed to the lastj and understood to the rest y as, " Jan© ^34 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. and Lucy's book, [that is, a Hook the common property of Jane ana Lucy,] was sent after a day or two's delay." But if common posses- sion is not implied, or if several words intervene, the sign of the pos- sessive should be annexed to each ; as, " Jane's and Lucy's books," that is, books, some of which are Jane's, and others Lucy's. " This gained the king's, as well as the people's, approbation." 848, When a name is complete, consisting of more terms than one, the sign of the possessive is annexed to the last only ; as, " Julius Caesar's Commentaries." — " John the Baptist's head." — " His brother Philip's wife." — " The Bishop of London's charge." Here Julius Ccesafs is a complex name, in the possessive ; John and brother are in the possessive, without the sign, that being annexed to the words Baptid and Philip, in apposition. In the last example, " London " is in the objective case, governed by of, and the ^s annexed properly belongs to Bishop, which limits the word charge. In parsing the words separately, the transfer must, of course, be so made. But the true reason for annexing 's to London is, that the whole phrase, *' Bishop of London," is regarded as one term, in the possessive, limit- ing the word charge, and may be so parsed. Thus, " A complex noun in the possessive case, limiting the word charge" 84!), When a short eocplatiatory term is joined to a name, the sign of the possessive may be annexed to either ; as, " I called at Smith's the bookseller," or, " at Smith the bookseller's." But if, to such a phrase, the substantive which it limits is added, the sign of the possessive must be annexed to the last ; as, " I called at Smith the bookseller's shop." 850, If the explanatory circumstance be complex ^ or consist of more terms than one^ the sign of the possessive must be annexed to the name or first substantive ; as, " This psalm is David's, the king, priest, and prophet of the people." — " That book is Smith's, the bookseller in Maiden Lane." 851, This mode of expression, however, is never elegant, and though sometimes used when the governing substantive is under, stood, yet it would be better to avoid it, and say, " This is a psalm of David, the king," etc., or " This is one of the psalms of David," etc. But an expression like this can not, with any propriety, be used when the substantive limited by the possessive is added. Thus, " David, the king, priest, and prophet of the people's psalm," would be intol- erable. 852, When two nouns in the possessive are used to liinit 8Y-N"TAX — POSSESSIVE. 235 different tvordSf the sign of the possessive must be annexed to each ; as, " He took refu^ at the governor's, the king's repre- sentative," that is, " at the governor's house." ^^ 8ij3, The s after the apostrophe is sometimes omitted, when the first word ends and the following word begins with an s, or when the use of it would occasion a disagreeable repetition oi ^-sounds ; as, " For righteousness' sake." — " For conscience' sake." — "For Jesus' sake." — "At Jesus' feet" (173). In other cases such omissions would generally be improper ; as, " James' book." — " Miss' shoes," instead of, " James's book." — " Miss's shoes." SJ4, A clause of a sentence should never come between the possessive case and the word which it limits ; thus, " She began to extol the farmer's, as Bhe called him, excellent understanding," should be " the excellent understanding of the farmer, as she called him." Sijo, A noun limited by the possessive plural, or by two or more noims severally in the possessive singular, should not be plural imless the sense require it. Thus, " The men's health [not healths] suffered from the climate." — " John's and William's wife [not wives] are of the same age." 84>6, The possessive tvJiosesoever is sometimes divided by in- terposing the word which it limits : as, " whose house soever." This, in general, however, is to be avoided, and to be admitted only when euphony and precision are thereby promoted (277). EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. In the following sentences, show which is the limiting substantive, and which is the one limited — where wrong, correct according to the rule or observations. (839) Virtues reward. — One mans loss is often another mans gain. Mans chief end is to glorify God. — My ancestors virtue is not mine. — A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures gifts for mans advantage. — For Christ sake. — For ten sake. — Which dictionary do you prefer— Webster, Walker, or Johnson? — (172) Asa his heart was perfect. — John Thompson his book. — Lucy Jones her book. (841) He was averse to the nation involving itself in war.— Much depends on your pupil composing frequently. — He being rich did not make him hapi^y. — I am opposed to him going on such an expedition. (842) That book is James book, and that one is Roberts. — That knife is your knife, but I thought it was my knife. — ^My book is old, but your book and Roberts book are new. 236 EI^GLISH GEAMMAR. (845) That landscape is a picture of my fatlier, — Tlie work you speak of is one of Irving. — Gravitation was a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton. — That is a ring of my mother. (846) Tlie world's government is not left to chance. — The tree is known by the fruit of it. — The commons' vote was against the measure : the lords' was in its favor. — The weekly return of the day of the Lord is a blessing to man. — The representatives house is now in session. — John's brother's wife's mother is sick. — The severity of the sickness of the son of the king caused great alarm. (847) William's and Mary's reign. — Cain and Abel's sacrifice were not the same. — David and Solomon's reign were prosperous, — ^.lohn and William's wife were cousins. — Men, women, and children's shoes for sale. — He cared for liis father, and also for his mother's interest. (848) Messrs. Sheldon's «& Co.'s bookstore is in New York. — Smith's and McDougal's printing-office is in Beekman street. — Jack's the Giant-killer's wonderful exploits. — The bishop's of London's charge to his clergy. The Grand Sultan's Mahomet's palace. — The secre- tary's of war report. (850 and 851) Call at Smith, the bookseller and stationer's. — The parcel was left at Johnson, a merchant in Broadway's. He emulated Caesar, the greatest general of antiquity's bravery. General Grant, an excellent man and brave soldier's residence. (853) That house is Smith, the poor man's friend. — ^We spent an agreeable hour at Wilson, the governor's deputy. — The coach stopped at Mr. Brown, Henry's father. (853) James father arrived yesterday. — Charles books are com- pletely spoiled. — King James translators merely revised former translations. — For conscience's sake. (854) They condemned the judge's in the case of Bardwell decision. — The prisoner's, if I may say so, conduct was shameful. — Peter the Hermit's, as he was called, opinion. (855) All men have talents committed to their charges. — It ip the duty of Christians to submit to their lots. — We protest against this course, in our names and in the names of our constituents. — A father's and mother's loves to their children are very tender. SYI^TAX — SUBJUNCTIVE. 237 The Subjiiiictive Mood. 857. Rule XIV. — The subjunctive mood is used in dependent clauses, ichen both conthiffeney or doubt, and futurity, are eo:prcssed ; as, "If he continue to study he will improve.^' ' Si>8, Wlien contingency or doubt only and not futurity, is im- plied, tlio indicative is used ; as, " If lie has money lie keeps it." Siji), Contingency or doubt is usually expressed by the connec- tives //, tJioiHjh, unless, except, whether, etc. ; but whether, futurity is im])lied or not, must be gathered from the context. In general, when the sense is the same, with shall, ivill, or should prefixed to the verb, as without it, the subjunctive may be used ; otherwise, not. Thus, in the preceding example, " If he continue," and " Tf he shall contijiue," mean the same thing. 8G0. Formerly the subjunctive was used to express contin- gency, or doubt, whether futuriti/ U'as implied or not. Of this the English Bible furnishes examples on almost every page (see Job XX., 12-14), where present usage would require the indicative. The tendency, at present, is to the other extreme. The present or future indicative, or past potential, is now more generally used in- stead of the present subjunctive (391); and this has led some gram- marians to reject the subjunctive altogether, and to regard what was formerly called the present subjunctive as an elliptical fonn of the future indicative, or past potential. It appears to be certain, how- ever, that there are forms usually called the present subjunctive, established by the authority of the best writers of every age, not ex- cepting even the present, which can not be disposed of in tliis way ; for example, " It is no matter whether this or that be in itself the less or the greater crime." — Lilh. — " The question is not whether man he a free agent." — Hdbhes. ""If this he an error, it is a harmless one." In none of these can shaM, or will, or should be introduced, without changing or destroying the sense. In all of them, present usage would substitute is for he. It will not do, however, for the gramma- rian to set up a rule, by which established and reputable usage is con- demned, though the present taste tends another way. Still, there are cases in which this change is inadmissible (390). 801. Lest and that^, annexed to a command, require the sub- junctive form ; as, " Love not sleep, lest thou come to poverty." — 238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. •' Take heed that thou speak not to Jacob, either good or bad." And sometimes without a command ; as, " They shall bear thee ap, lest thou dash thy foot against a stone." — "Is not this the fast that I have chosen, — that thou bring the poor to thy house ?" 862, If, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the subjunctive mood ; as, " If he do but touch the liills, they shall smoke." But when future time is iiot implied, the itidicu- tive is used ; as, " K he does but whisper, every word is heard dis- tinctly." 863, The subjunctive mood is used to express a ivish or desire ; as, " I wish I were at home." — " Oh that he were wise !" 864:, A supposition or wish, implying a present denial of the thing supposed or desired, is expressed by the past subjunctive ; as, " If my kingdom were of this world, then would my servants fight," implying, " It is not of this world." — " Oh that thou wert as my bro- ther I" implying, " Thou art not " (439, 2). EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. What verbs, in the following sentences, should, according to the rule, be in the subjunctive mood, and what in the indicative ? Cor- rect them accordingly — parse the sentences corrected. (857) If a man smites his servant and he dies, he shall surely be put to death. — We must go to-morrow, unless it rains. — There will be enough to do next week, if the weather is good. — Though the sky be clear, it is cold. — He will maintain his cause, though he loses his es- tate. — Ask John if he know when the legislature meets. — If he know any thing, he surely knows that, unless he gets better, he can not be removed. — If thou be the Son of God, command that these stones be made bread. (861) Take care that the horse does not run away. — See that thou dost it not. — Let him that standeth take heed lest he falls. — Kiss the son, lest he is angry. (862) If he is but in health, it will be the cause of great thankful- ness. — If he does but run, he will soon overtake them. — Oh that he was wise ' — I wish I was at home. (864) If I was not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. — If it was not so, I would have told you. — If he was a year older, I would send him to school. — Was gold more abundant, it would be of less value. — Was I he, I would accept the offer. SYNTAX — INFIN^ITIVE. 239 The Infinitive Mood. 865 > Efle XV. — TJie infinitive mood is governed ly verbs, nouns, or adjectives; as, "I desire to learn." — "A desire to learn." — '■'Anxious to loam." 866 » The infinitive is a sort of verbal noun, and has the construc- tion of both a verb and a noun. 867* As a noun, the infinitive may be: — 1. The subject of a verb (394) ; as, " To play is pleasant." 3. The object of a verb (802) ; as, " Boys love to play" 3. The jjredicate-noniinative after an attributive verb (798) ; as, " He is to be married." 4. In apposi- tion with another noun (670) ; as, " Spare, spare your friends the task, to read, to nod, to scoff, condemn." 5. The object of a jt^^pO" sition (819) ; as, " About to depart." — " What went ye out for to see?" 868, As a verb (at the same time that the infinitive is used as a noun), it may have all the modifications of the verb in respect of time, government, or adjuncts, forming, with them, an abridged sentencCf or clause, or phrase (653) ; as, " To see the sun at mid- night is impossible." Here, to see is modified by its object the sun, and by the adjunct at midnight, and the whole phrase is the subject of is. Hence the following Special Mules, 869, Rule 1. — On^ verb being tTie subject (762) ofanothe/TyiA put in the infinitive ; as, " To study is profitable " (872). 870, Rule 2. — A verb in the infinitive may be the object of another verb; as, " Boys love to play." — " They seem to study (394,' C30, 4 ; 802). 87 1, Verbs which take the infinitive as their object, are transitive verbs in the active voice ; and the infinitive, either alone, or modified by other words, is equivalent to the objective case (802). Verbs fol- lowed by the infinitive as an attribute of their subject are intransitive or passive verbs, which form a sort of modified copula between their subject and the infinitive following. Thus, " The watch seems to go ** =" The watch is apparently going" (797). 872, Rule ^.—TJie infinitive, as the subject or the object of 240 ENGLISH GEAMMAE. a verb, sometimes has a subject of its own in the objective case. 873. In eitlier construction, tlie infinitive, witli its subject, is an abridged dependent clause (653), and wlien used as the subject, is introduced hy/br. Thus, subject — " For us to do so would be im- proper "=" That we should do so would be improper." Object — "I know him to be an honest man "=" I know that he is an honest man." Here the obiect of know is neither 7iim, nor to be, etc., separately, but the whole clause, " him to be an honest man," taken together, equiva- lent to, " that he is an honest man." 874, In many such sentences, the subject of the infinitive re- sembles the dlrecff and the infinitive itself the indirect object of the preceding verb, as in the construction (810). Hence, when the verb is changed into the passive form, the objective after the active verb (which is also the subject of the infinitive) becomes the subject of the passive verb in the nominative, and the infinitive remains after it, like the indirect object (811). Thus, active — " I desired him to go," Passive — " He was desired to go." 87i>. Rule 4. — The infinitive is used as a predicate-nomi- native after any verb, as a copula (603) ; as " You are to blame " (396). 870. When used as a predicate nominative after the verb to be, the infinitive denotes — 1. An equivalent expression ; as, " To obey is to enjoy." 2. What is possible or obligatory ; as, "Gold is to be found in California." — " The laws are to be observed." 3. What is settled and determined upoUj and, of course, future ; as, " The ship is to sail to-morrow." 877' Rule 5. — To^ the sign of the infinitive, is 7iotused after the mrbs bid, dare, need, make, see, hear, feel, and let, in the active voice, nor after let in the passive ; as, " I saw him do it." — ** You need not go." — " He was let go." 87 8, To this rule there are some exceptions. As it relates only to euphony and usage, to may be inserted when harshness will not thereby be produced ; thus, " Conscious that his opinions need to be disguised." — McKenzie. 879 » For the same reason, to is sometimes omitted after the verbs perceive, behold, observe, have, and knoiv. 880» When several infinitives come together in the same con- struction, the sign to, expressed with the first, is sometimes omitted SYNTAX — INFINITIVE. 241 before those that follow ; thus, " It is better to be a king and die, than to live and he a prince." This should never be done when either harsh, uess or obscurity would be the result. 881, To, the sign of the infinitive, should never be used /or tha infinitive itself. Thus, " I have not written, and I do not intend to" is a colloquial vulgarism for, " I have not written, and do not in- tend to icrite." 882, Rule 6. — TTie infinitive is used to express the purpose, end, or design of the preceding act ; as, " Some who came to scoff, remained to pray." Here, to scoff, and to pray are not governed by came and remained, but are put without a governing word, to ex- press the end for which they came and remained. 883, This construction of the infinitive is sometimes preceded by the phrase, " in order," and formerly was preceded by for ; as, " What went ye out for to see ?" This is now obsolete. 884:, Rule 7. — In comparisons, the infinitive mood is put after so as, too, or than ; as, " Be so good as to read this letter," — " Too old to learn." — " Wiser than to undertake it." Some consider this construction as elliptical, and that the infinitive depends on a word understood. 885, The infinitive is sometimes used to assign, in an abridged form, the reason of that which goes before ; as, " Base coward that thou art, tofi^e!" — "Ungrateful man ! to waste my for- tune, rob me of my peace,* etc. — " Must not one sigh to reflect on so grave a subject ?" 886, The infinitive is sometimes put absolutely, without a governing word ; as, " To say the truth, I was in fault." 887, The infinitive is sometimes omitted ; as, " I consider hini \to &«] an honest man." 888, The verb have, followed by the infinitive, sometimes ex- presses ohllgation or necessity ; as, " We have to do it," that is, "We must do it." 88f), In parsing, the infinitive, in these several constructions, may be briefly stated thus : " The infinitive as the subject of ," — " as the object of ," — " as the predicate-nominative after ," — " The infinitive of purpose — comparis&n — cause — u^ed absolutely." Note. — When the infinitive represents the act of any particvJ/vf person or thing, its subject should always be stated- 242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. [There is but little liability to err in the use of this mood, except in its tense (920, 921), and in the improper use or omission of the sign to. When there is no rule to authorize the omission, it should be inserted.] (865) Strive learn.— They obliged him do it.— (8G9) It is better live on a little than outlive a great deal. — It is better to be a king and die, than live and be a prince. — (870) He scorns either to temporize, or deceive, or be guilty of evasion. (877) You need not to be so serious. — I have seen some young per- sons to conduct themselves very discreetly. — He bid me to go home. — They all heard him to say it, — He was heard say it by everybody. — They were seen pass the house. — I have observed some satirists to use the term. — Dare be wise. — They were bid come into the house. — (881) Be sure to write yourself, and tell him to. — I strive to live as God designed me to. [Point out the use of the infinitive in the following correct sen- tences, and show how it is governed.] It too often happens that, to be above the reach of want, just places us within the reach of avarice. — It does no good to preach generosity, or even justice, to those who have neither sense nor soul. — He was born to be great. — They thought to make themselves rich. Great desires are difficult to be gratified. — To know ourselves, we must commence by knowing our own weaknesses. — If we have not always time to read, we have always time to reflect. — To be or not to be, that is the question. — Whatsoever thy hand tindeth to do, do it with thy might. Construction of Participles. 890* Rule XVI. — Participles have the construction of nouns f adjectives^ and verbs (452, etc.). 891, The participle as a noun, in the nominative case, may be the subject of a verb (762), or the predicate-noniinutive after it (798) ; as, " Saying is not doing." In the objective case, it may be the object of a transitive verb (802), or preposition (819); as, ** Avoid doing evil." — " There is pleasure in doing good." SYNTAX — PAKTICIPLES. 243 892. In a substantive phrase, a noun following tlio present oi perfect participle (as well as the infinitive, 799) of an attributive vert (604), is in the predicate-noininative ; as, " His being an expert dancer" — " The crime of being a young man," etc. 893. The i^articiple, as an adjective, expresses an attrihnte of a noun or pronoun, tvithout affirmation ; as, " The sword hangs rusting on the wall." 894. The jx^^ticijile, while used as a noun or adjective, may be inodijied in all respects as the verb (G30). 895. To participles used in these ways, the rules of syntaiC for nouns, adjectives, and verbs, may of course be applied. Special Rules, 896. Rule l. — When the present or perfect participle is used as a noun, a tioun before it is vut in the jwssessive case (841) ; as, " Much depends on the pupil's composing frequently." — " John's having done so is evident." 897. But a pronoun in this construction must be the possessive pronoun, and not the possessive case ; as, " Much depends o» your composing," etc. — not yours. 898. In many cases, the nominative or the objective before the present participle as an adJectlvCf will express nearly the same idea. Thus, " Much will depend on the pupil's composing," and " Much will depend on the pupil composing," mean substantially the same thing. Still, the construction is different : in the first, the dependence is on the composing; in the second, it is on the pupil ; and though in these examples the sense is nearly the same, yet there are often examples in which the sense is entirely different Thus, " What do you think of my horse's running to-day ?" implies he Jias run, and asks, " How do you think he ran ?" But " What do you think of my Iiorse running to-day ?" implies he Jias not run, and asks, " Do you think he should run ?" 899. Rule 3. — When the present participle, used as a noun, Jicts an article or adjective before it, the preposition of follows ; as, " By the observing of these rules." — " This was a complete forsaking of the truth." 900. In this construction, the participle becomes simply a noun, and can not be modified as a verb. Hence we can not say, " By the observing carefully of these rules ;" because the adverb 244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. carefully can not modify a noun. But we can say, " By the careful observing of," etc. ; because careful, being an adjective, can modify a noun. Or we can say, " By observing these rules carefully," etc. ; because the and of being both removed, observing can be modified as a verb (932). 901. Both the article and of may be omitted ; but not the one without the other. By this omission, the participle becomes a parti- cipial noun, and can be modified as the verb (462). Of can not be used when a preposition follows. 902. So here, again, in either of these constructions, the sense in many cases will be the same. Thus, " By the observing of these rules he became eminent," and " By observing these rules he became eminent," express the same idea. But, as in the other case (898), so here, there are examples in which the sense is entirely different. Thus, " He expressed the pleasure he had in the hearing of the phi- losopher," and " He expressed the pleasure he had in hearing the phi- losopher," mean entirely different things. So, " At the hearing of the ear, they will obey," and " At hearing the ear, they will obey." The first is sense — the last, nonsense. In such cases, all ambiguity will be avoided by observing the following : — 903. Rule 3. — When th^ verbal noun expresses something of which the noun foUotcing denotes the doer, it should have the article and the preposition ; as, " It was said in the hearing of the witness." But when it expresses something of which the noun following does not denote the doer, but the object, both should be omitted ; as, " The court spent some time in hearing the witness." 904. Rule 4. — The past particij^le, and not the past tense, should he used after the auociliaries have and be ; as, " I have written," not wrote. — " The letter is written," not wrote. 905. So, also, the past participle should not be used for the past tense ; as, " He ran," not run. — " I saw," not seen. — " I did," not done. 906. In many verbs whose present passive expresses, not the pre- sent continuance of the act, but the result of the act in a finished state, the present participle active has a passive as well as an active sense, and is used vdth the auxiliary verb to be, to express the present passive progressively ; as, " The house is building," not being built. When, in such verbs, the participle in ing has not a passive sense,, or where the use of it in a passive sense would be ambiguous, a different form of expression should be used (456, etc.). SYNTAX — PARTICI.PLES. 245 907. The particljyle is sometimes used absolutely, having no dependence on any other word ; as, " Properly speaking, there is no such thing as chance " (769, 770). EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. In the following sentences, correct the errors, and give a reason for the change : — (893). Its being me need make no difference. — We could not be sure of its being him. — The whole depended on its being them. (896) Man rebelling against his Maker brought him into ruin. — Joseph having been sold by his brethren was overruled for good. — A man being poor does not make him miserable. — (895) What do you think of my horse running to-day ? Did he run well ? — What think you of my horse's nmning to-day ? Will it be safe ? (899) He spends part of his time in studying of the classics. — ^By the obtaining wisdom you will command respect. — By obtaining of wis- dom you will command respect. — The learning any thing well requires application. — Learning of any thing well requires great apj)lication. — Because of provoking his sons and daughters, the Lord abhorred them. — (903) In the hearing of the will read, and in the examining of simdry papers, much time was spent. — The greatest pain is suffered in the cutting of the skin. (904) He has broke his cup.— I have drank enough. — The tree was shook by the wind. — Tlie tree has fell. — I seen the man who done it. — He has began the work. — Some fell by the wayside and was trode down. The following sentences from E. Everett, Daniel Webster, Irving, N. A. Review, Cboper, Bancroft, Thomas Brown, Sir G. M'Kensie, Butler, etc., have been changed into modern newspaper English, Restore them, according to (906). The fortress was being built.— The si)ot where this new and strange tragedy was being acted. — An attempt was being made in the English Parliament. — The magnificent church now being erected in the city of New York. — While these things were being transacted in England. — While the ceremony was being performed. — The court was then being held. — And still be being done and never dona — Wheat is being sold at a fair price. — Gold is being found in great quantities. — A report ia now being prepared. — Goods are now being sold off at first cost.—. While the necessary movement was being made. ?146' E]S"GLISH GRAMMAB. Connection of Tenses. 008, EuLE XVII. — In the use of verbs, and words that, in point of time^ relate to each other, the order of time must be observed; as, "I have known him these many years " — not, " I know him these many years f nor, " I knew him these many years/' 009, Remark. — The particular tense necessary to be used must (lejjeiid upon the sense, and no rules can be given that will apply to aU cases. But it may be proper to observe— 910, What is always true must be expressed in the pre~ sent tense ; as, " The stoics believed that ' all crimes are equal ' " (403). 911, The present-perfect, and not the present tense should be used in connection with words denoting an extent of time continued to the present ; thus, " They continue with me now three days," should be, " ha'oe continued " (407). 912, The present-perfect tense ought never to be used in connection with words which express 2>«s* time ; thus, " I have for- merly mentioned his attachment to study," should be, " I formerly mentioned," etc. 913, To express an event simply as past , without relation to any other point of time than the present, or as taking place at a cer- tain past time mentioned, the past tense is used ; as, " God created the world." — " In the beginning, God created the world." Exercises in (912) are examples. 914, When we wish to represent an event 2i^past at or before a certain past time referred to, the verb must be put in the past- perfect tense. Thus, when we say, " The vessel had arrived at nine o'clock," we mean, at nine o'clock the arriving of the vessel was past. But when we say, " The vessel arrived at nine o'clock," we mean, the arriving of the vessel was then present. 915, It is always essential to the use of this tense that the event be past at the time referred to. It is proper to notice here, also, that, in pointing out the time of a past event, two points or periods of time are often mentioned, — the one for the purpose of ascertaining the other. Thus, " We arrived an hour before sunset." Here the past-perfect i8 not used, though the arrival is represented as past before a past timo S T }S^ T A X — T E N S E S . 247 mentioned, viz., sunset, because sunset ia not the time referred to, but is mentioned in order to ilescvibe that time ; and at the time described, the event of arriving was not past, but present. If in this example we omit the word " hour," and merely say " before sunset," the construction will be the same. This will show that it is correct to say, "Before I went to France I visited England," because the visiting of England is represented as present, and not past, at the time indicated by the word before. But if the event mentioned is repre- sented ds past at the time indicated by the word before, or if the sen- tence is so arranged that only one point of past time is indicated at which the event referred to is past, the jXf'St-pei^fect must be used ; as, " They had arrived before we sailed." — " They arrived after we had sailed.'" — IhMd visited England when we returned to America." 916. The jyresent &nd the past of the auxiliaries shall, will, tnay, can, should never he associated in the same sentence ; and care must be taken that the subsequent verb be expressed in the same tense ^vith the antecedent verb (344) ; thus, " I may, or can do it now, if I choose." — " I might or could do it it now, if I chose." — " I shall or will do it when I can." — " I may do it if I can." — " I once could do it, but I would not." — " I would have done it then, but I could not." — " I mention it to Mm that he may stop if he choose." — " \ mentioned it to him that he might stop if he chose." — " I have men- tioned it to him, that he may stop." — " I had mentioned it to him that he might stop." — " I had mentioned it to him that he might have stopped, had he chosen." i)l7. In dependent clauses, the pasi-per/Jgc^ indicative or potential is used to express an event antecedent to, but never contemporary with, or subsequent to, that expressed by a verb in the past tense in the leading clause. " Thus, we can say, " I believed he had done it," bat not, " I hoped he had done it ;" because belief may refer to what is past, but hope always refers to something future. See also the infinitive (920, 921). i>lS, When should is used instead of ought to express present duty (363), it may be followed by the present or present-perfect ; as, " You should study, that you may hecome learned." 919, The indicative j^^^^^^^^t is frequently used after the words when, till, before, as soon as, after, to express the relative time of a futut^e action (406) ; as, " When he comes he will be welcome." When placed before the present-perfect indicor live, these words denote the completion of a future action or event ; as, " He will never be better tiU he hua felt the pangs of poverty." ^^S- ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 020. A verb in the infinitive mood must be in the present temd (446), when it expresses what is contemporary in point of time with the principal verb, or subsequent to it ; as, " He appeared to be a man of letters." — " The apostles were determined to preach the gospel." Hence, verbs denoting hope, desire, intention, or eoiiininnd, must be followed by the present infinitive, and not by the perfect (451). f^2J, But the perfect infinitive must be used to express .what is antecedeut to the time of the principal verb ; as, " Romulus is said to have founded Rome. EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. (910) The doctor said that fever always produced thirst. — The philosopher said that heat always expanded metals. (911) I know the family more than twenty years. — I am now at school six months. — My brother was sick four weeks, and is no better. — He tells lies long enough. (913) He has lately lost an only son. — He has been formerly very disorderly. — I have been at London last year, and seen the king last summer. — I have once or twice told the story to our friend before he went away. (914) After Columbus made his preparations, he set out on his voy- age of discovery. — When we finished our lessons, we went out to play. — ^He that was dead sat up and began to speak. — It was a strange thing to me, for I never saw such a thing before. (916) I should be obliged to him if he will gratify me in that par- ticular. — Ye will not come to me, that ye might have life. — Be wise and good, that you might be happy. — He was told his danger, that he may shun it. (917) We had hoped that Lord Nugent would have been able to collect much new and interesting information. — Columbus hoped that he would have rendered the natives tributary to the crown of Spain. — We expected that they would have come. (918) He should study diligently, that he might become learned. — We should respect those persons, because they continue long attached to us. (919) We shall welcome him when he shall arrive. — As soon as he ehall return we will recommence our studies. SYKTAX — ADVbRBS. 249 From the little conversation I had with him, he appeared to have been a man of learning. — Our friends intended to have met us. — He was afraid he would have died. (921) Kirkstall Abbey, now in ruins, appears to be an extensive building. — Lycurgus, the Spartan law-giver, is said to be born in the nine hundred and twenty-sixth year before Christ. eonstructioii of Adverbs. 922. EuLE XVIII. — Adverbs modify verbs, adjec-' fives , and other adverbs ; as, "John speaks distinctly; he is remarkably diligent, and reads very correctly" [See Etymology of Adverbs, 523, etc.] 023. A few adverbs sometimes modify nouns or pro- nouns (526) ; as " Not only the men, but the women aXsOy were pre- sent." — " I, eten I, do bring a flood." — Gen. vi. 17. 024:. An adverb sometimes tnodifies a preposition^ and sometimes an adjunct or clause of a sentence (525) ; as, " He sailed nearly round the globe." — " Just helow the eajr." — " Verily^ I say unto you" Special Hules* 923, Rule 1. — Adverbs sJiould not be used as adjectives, nor adjectives as adverbs (686, 687). Thus, " The above [preceding] extract." — " It seems strangely [strange']" — "We arrived safely\safe]" — " He writes ieautiful [beatt- tifuUy]." Remark — Though it is perhaps never necessary to use an adverb as an adjective, yet the authority of good writers has so far sanc- tioned the violation of this rule in certain cases, that remonstrance would be unavailing. Thus, such phrases as the following are com- mon : " The above rule ;" — " the then ministry ;" — " for very age ;" — * the liither side ;" — " thine often infirmities," and the like. Adverbs so used should, of course, be reckoned adjectives, and parsed as Buch. 92G, The adverbs hence, thence, whence, meaning/riwi this 'place, from that 'place, from which place, properly should not hava 250 EJ^GLISH GRAMMAR. from before them, because it is implied. But the practice of the best writers has so sanctioned the use of it, that the omission of it would now sometimes appear stiff and affected. 927 • After verbs of motiofif the adverbs hither, thither, whither f are now used only in solemn style. In ordinary discourse, here, there, and where, are used instead of them ; as, " We came here." " They walked there."—" Where did he go ?" 028. Where should not he used for in which, unless the reference is to place. Thus, " They framed a protestation, where [bet- ter, in which'] they repeated their former claims." 920. The adverbs now, then, tvhen, tvhere, in such phrases as till now, till then, since when, to where, etc., are sometimes used by good writers as nouns. This, however, is rare in prose and should not be imitated. In poetry it is more common (1048). 030, Of this character are the expressions €it once, far from hence, etc. ; but these are now established idioms, and in parsing d-re regarded as one tvord (535, 6). OSl, There, properly an adverb of place, is often used as an in- troductory encpletive / as, *' There came to the beach a poor exile " (529). 032. Rule 2. — Two negatives in the same clause are equiva- lent to an ajfirniative, and should not he used unless affirmation is intended ; as, " I can not drink no \any\ more," or " I can drink no more." Remakk. — ^But a repetition of the negation by independent negative words or phrases, or by transferring the word neither to the end of the clause, usually strengtiiens the negation ; as, " There is none righteous, no, not one." — " He will never consent, not he, nor X neither." 033. One negative is sometimes connected with another implied in the negative prefixes dls, un, ini, in, il, ir, etc. ; as, " You are not unacquainted with liis merits," that is, " You are acquainted," etc. In this way a pleasing variety of expression is sometimes pro- duced. But the word only, with the negative, preserves the negation ; as, " He was not only illiberal, but even covetous." 034:. The adverbs nay, no, yea, yes, often stand alone as a negative or an affirmative answer to a question ; as, " Will he go ?" r^''No"='' He will not go."— "Is he at home?'—" re«"="He is at SYNTAX — ADVERBS. 251 home." Amen is an aflmnative verb, equivalent to " Be it so," or " May it be so." 933, No, before a noun, is an adjective; as, " JVo man.* Before an adjeefive or adverb in the comparative degree, it is an adverb ; as, " No taller." — " No sooner." In all other cases the proper negative is not ; as, " He will not come." — " Whether he come or not." Position of the Adverb. 936, Rule 3. — Adverbs are for the most part placed before adjectives, after a verb in the simple form, and after the first aujciliari/ in the compound form; as, "He is tjery attentive, be- haves well, and is much esteemed.". 937, This rule applies generally to adverbial adjunct phrases as well as to adverbs (825). 938, This is to be considered only as a general rule, to which there are many excei^tions. Indeed, no rule for the position of the adverb can be given which is not liable to exceptions. That order is the best which conveys the meaning with most precision. In order to this, the adverb is sometimes placed before the verb, or at some distance after it. 939, Never, often, always, sometitnes, generally pre- cede the verb. Not, with the participle or infinitive, should gene- rally be placed before it (500). 940, The improper position of the adverb only often occasions ambiguity. This will generally be avoided when it refers to a sen- tence or clause, by placing it at the beginning of that sentence or clause ; when it refers to a predicate, by placing it before the predicated term ; and when it refers to a subject, by placing it after its name or description ; as, " Only acknowledge thine ini- quity." — " The thoughts of liis heart are only evil." — " Take nothing for your journey but a staff only." These observations will generally be applicable to the words merely, solely, chiefly, first, at least, and perhaps to a few others. 94:1, In prose, to, the sign of the infinitive, or rather a part of it, should never be separated by placing an adverb immediately after it. Thus, " They are accustomed to carefully study their les- sons," should be " to study carefully," or " carefully to study," etc 942, The adverb enough is commonly placed after the ad* 252 E 1^ G L I S H GRAMMAR. Jeetlve wliicli it modifies ; as, "A large enough house " — " A lious<* large enough for all." 04:3, ICver and never are sometimes improperly confounded ; thus, " Seldom or ever," -should be " Seldom or never," or " Seldom, if ever." JEver so, referring to quantity or degree, means in whatso- ever degree. Hence, " Charming never so wisely," should be " ever so wisely." So, " Ever so much " — " ever so wise," etc. EXERCISES TO BE CORRECTED. [As adverbs are uninflected, mistakes are liable to be made chiefly in their position, or in using as adverbs words that are not so, or in using adverbs where other words are required.] Correct the errors in the following : — (925) They hoped for a soon and prosperous issue to the war. — The then emperor was noted for his cruelty. — She walks graceful. — He spoke eloquent. — She did that work good. — Our friends arrived safely. — Ilis expressions sounded harshly. — She is a remarkable pretty girl. - -My foot slipped, and I pretty near fell down. (926) He departed from thence into a desert place. — I mil send thee far from hence to the Gentiles. — From hence ! away I (927) Where art thou gone ? — And he said unto me, " Come up here." — The city is near, oh 1 let me escape there. — Where I am, there ye can not come. (928) He drew up a petition, where he represented his own merit. — The condition where I found him was deplorable. — He went to London last year, since when I have not seen him. (932) I can not do no more. — He will never be no taller. — He did not say nothing at all. — I have received no information on the subject, neither from him nor from liis friend. — I can not see to write no more. — Nothing never can justify ingratitude. — (935) Be so kind as to tell me whether he will do it or no. (936) We should not be overcome totally by present events. — We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. — It is impossible con- tinually to be at work. — Not only he found her employed, but pleased and tranquil also. — In the proper disposition of adverbs, the ear care- fully requires to be consulted as well as the sense. — They seemed to be nearly dressed ahke. — (937) I wished that any one would hang m© a hundred times. (938) The women contributed all their rings and jewels voluntarily SYNTAX — CONJUXCTIOKS. 253 to assist tlie government. — He determined to invite back the king, and to call together his friends. — (938) Having not known or having not considered the measures proposed, he failed of success. (940) Theism can only be opposed to polytheism. — By greatness I do not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the distinctness of a whole view. — Only you have I known of all the nations of the earth. — In promoting the public good, we only discharge our duty. — He only read one book, not two. — He read the book only, but did not keep it. — He only read the book, but not the letter. — He chiefly spoke of virtue, not of vice. — He only reads English, not French. (941) Scholars should be taught to carefully scrutinize the senti- ments advanced in the books they read. — To make this sentence per- spicuous, it will be necessary to entirely remodel it. Constmction of Conjunctions. 044, Rule XIX. — Conjunctions connect words ^ phrases f or sentences (561). 945. Words of the same class, having a similar relation to another word to which they belong, are connected by a conjunction. Thus— 1. Nouns OT pronouns ; as, " Ja/mes and John and /are here." 2. Adjectives ; as, " h. 'prudent, hrave, and honorable man." 3. Verbs ; as, " Caesar came, and saw, and conquer ed^ 4. Adverbs, or adverbs and adjuncts ; as, " He won the prize fairly and honorably'' or "fairly and vrith honor" or with fairness and with honor." 5. Prepositions ; as, " To and from the city. — " Tip and down the hill." 04:S, Verbs connected have the same subject; as, "James reads and writes." 947. Nouns or pronouns connected in the nominative case, either as subjects or attributes, are related as such to the same verb ; as, " John and James are cousins." — " He is a gentleman and a scholar." 948. Nouns or pronoxms connected in the possessive case limUs ihe^same fioun; as, "John's and James's Ixwks." 254 ElS^GLISH GRAMMAE. 949. Nouns or pronouns, connected in the objective case, are the object of the same verb or preposition , as, " He studies ^^rammar and logic." — " Give the books to him and me." 950. When nominatives belong to different verbs, or verbs to different nominatives, the conjunction connects the sentences, not the words ; as, "John reads and James writes." 951. Siuf/le sentences or clauses are connected by conjunc- tions, so as to form one compound sentence; as, "I said that ye are gods ; but ye shall die." 952. Similar sentences , whether dependent or independent, aro connected by the conjunctions and, or, nor, but, yet, etc. 953. Dependent clauses are connected with their leading clauses by such conjunctions, or other connective words, as may pro- perly indicate the relation intended (962, 963). 954:, Conjunctions are frequently understood between the words or sentences connected ; as, " Caesar came, saw, and conquered." — " The men, women, and children, were present." — " It is the part of those that are great, to give ; of those that are poor, to ask." — " Learning collects materials ; wisdom applies them." Special Mules, 955. EuLE 1. — Conjunctions connect the same m^oods and tenses of verbs, and the satne cases of nouns and pronouns ; as, "Bo good, and seek peace." — " Honor thy father and mother." [This rule applies to the infinitive smd participles.] 950. Verbs of the same mood and tense, under this rule, are generally also in the same form (475) ; as, " He reads and writes " — not, does write. 957. Verbs in different clauses, connected by a conjunction, but having a different construction, may be in different moods and tenses ; as, " I read that I may learn." 958. When two or more verbs in the compound tenses, or in the progressive or emphatic form, or in the passive voice, are con- nected, the auxiliary expressed with the first may be under- stood to the rest ; as, " He can neither read nor write." — " Dili- gence should he commended and rewarded." Still, however, the repe- tition of the auxiliary is often more emphatic ; as, " They shall come, and they shall declare his truth." 959. Verbs of the same mood, tense, or form, connected as a com- SYNTAX — CONJUNCTIONS. 255 pound predicate (637), have the subject expressed with the first and understood to the rest ; as, " Caesar came, saw, and conquered'^ But— 060. When verbs connected are not of the same mood, tense, ot form, and especially if contrast or opposition, expressed by hut, though, yet, is intended, the nominative is frequently repeated ; as, " He came, but lie would not stay." But still — 061. This is to be regarded only as a general direction, in accord- ance with, perhaps, the majority of cases, but to which, as a rule, there are many exceptions. The object aimed at is to secure euphony and perspicuity ; and when these are preserved with- out repeating the subject, it may be omitted ; as, " The two charges liad been, and still are, united in one person." — North British Review. 062. After expressions implying doubt, fear, or denial, the conjunction that is properly used — not lest, hut, hut that ; as, " I do not doubt that he is honest." — " I am afraid that he will die." Also, what should never be used for that. Thus, " He will not believe but whai I am to blame," should be, " but that I am to blame." 063. Rule 2. — Certain words in the antecedent clause of a sentence require corresponding connectives in the subsequent one ; thus : — 1. In clauses or words simply connected — Soth requires arid (569) ; as, "Both he and I came." Either or (570) ; as, "Either he or I will come." Neither nor (570) ; as, " Neither he nxyr I came." Whether or ; as, " Whether he or I came." TJwugh yet ; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." Not only hut also ; as, " Not only he hut also his brother goes." 2. In clauses connected so as to imply comparison — The comparative degree requires than; as, " He is taUer than I. Other requires than ; as, " It is no other than he" Else than ; as, " What else do you expect than this ?" A.S as (expressing equality) ; as, " He is as tall aa I am." A.S so (expressing equality) ; as, " As the day is, so shall thy strength be." 256 EKGLISH GRAMMAR. So requires as (with a negative, expressing inequality) ; asj " He IS not so learned as his brother.* So that (expressing consequence) ; as, " He is so weak that he can not walk." Such as (expressing similarity); as, "He or such as he." Such that (with a finite verb, to express a conse- quence) ; as, " The difference is sucJi that all will perceive it." For as and so in comparison, see 531. For as, sometimes regarded as a relative, see 271 ; as a connective of words in apposition, 674. For the infinitive after so — as, see 884. 064, Andf or, nor, do not require the corresponding antece- dent, and though does not always require yet. By poetic license (1048, 6), or and nor are sometimes used as antecedents, instead of eitlier, neither (570). 965, In sentences implying comparison, there is commonly an ellipsis in the second member, after than and as ; " My pun- ishment is greater than \that is whicK\ I can bear." — " My punish- ment is as great as \that is which] I can bear." And sometimes in sentences not implying comparison, after though and if ; as, " Though \it is] coarse it is good." — " He is kind, if [he is] sincere " (973, 7). 066, A relative after than is put in the objective case ; as, *' Satan, than whom none higher sat " (766, 2). This anomaly may be regarded as a case of simple enallage (1044, 4). 067* RuiiE 3. — Wlien a subsequent clause or part of a sen- tence is comm^on to two different but connected antecedent clauses, it must he equally applicable to both ; as, " That work always has been, and always will be, admired." — " He is as tall, though not so hand- some, as his brother." 068, When this rule is violated, the correction is made, either — 1. By altering one of the antecedent clauses, so that the subsecuent may be applicable to both. Thus, " The story has and will be be- lieved," is not correct, because, though we can say, loUl be believed, we can not say, has be believed. It should be, " The story has been, and will be believed," or — 2. If this can not be done, we may complete the construction of the first part by annexing its appropriate subsequent, and leave SYNTAX — COKJUNCITIOi^^S. 2DT the subsequent of the second understood. Thus, "He was more beloved, but not so much admired, as Cynthio," is not correct, because we can not say, " He was more beloved as Cynthio." It should be, " He was more beloved than Cynthio, but not so much admired." 969. The principle of tliis rule applies to the appropriate seleC" tioii of words, as well as to their canstructioiu Thus, " This doc- trine is founded and consistent with the truth," should be, " founded upon and consistent with," etc. EXEECISES TO BE CORRECTED. In the following sentences, point out the conjunctions, the words or sentences connected by them — see whether they correspond, according to the rules, and if not, correct, and give a reason for the change. (955) He reads and wrote well. — Anger glances into the breast of a wise man, but will rest only in the bosom of fools. — If he under- stand the subject, and attends to it, he can scarcely fail of success. — Enjoying health, and to live in peace, are great blessings. — Be more anxious to acquire knowledge than about showing it. You and me are great friends. — This is a small matter between you and I. — My father and him are very intimate. — ^He is taller than me ; but I am older than him. (956) He reads and writeth well. — He reads and does write well. — He reads and is writing well. — Does he not read and writes well ? — Earth liath her solitudes, and so has life. (958) He can neither read nor can write. — I will come and will see you, and will tell you the whole story. (960) Can these persons consent to such a proposal, and will con- sent to it ? — How distinguished for talents he is, and how useful might be 1 — He could command his temper, though would not. (962) I do not deny but he has merit. — They were afraid lest you would be offended. — We were apprehensive lest some accident had happened to him. — We can not deny but what he was ill-treated. (963, 1) It is neither cold or hot. — It is so clear as I need not ex- plain it. — The relations are so uncertain, as that they require much examination. — The one is equally deserving as the other. — I must be so candid to own that I have been mistaken. — He was as angry as he could not speak. — Though he slay me, so will I trust in him. — He must go himself, or send a servant. — There is no condition so secure as can not admit of change. — He is not so eminent and as much esteemed as he tliinks himself to be. 2j» English grajimae (963, 2) He has little more of the scholar besides the name. — Be ready to succor such persons who need thy assistance. — They had no sooner risen but they applied themselves to their studies. — These savage people seemed to have no other element but war. — He gained nothing further by his speech but only to be commended for his eloquence. — This is none other but the gate of Paradise. (967) I always have, and I always shall be of this opinion. — He is bolder, but not so wise as his companion.. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more so than knowledge. — Will it be urged that these books are as old or even older than tradition ? — This book is preferable and cheaper than the other. Prepositions. ,970. Rule XX. — A preposition sJioios tJie relation Utiveen the subsequent of its phrase and the word tvhich the phrase limits ; as, " The book lies ok the tahW^ — " The fear or the Lord is the beginning of wisdom." — " I am confident of success.^' 971* Whatever word is limited or described by the prepositional phrase as a whole, is the antecedent term of the relation. The prin- dpal substantive in the objective case is the subsequent term. Interjections. 972. EuLE XXL — Interjections have no gram^ matical connection with the other words in a sentence (556). I 97 S* After interjections, pronouns of the first person r.re com-* monly in the objective case ; those of the second, in the nonii- iiative ; as, " Ah me ! " — " O thou ! " In neither of these, however, does the case depend on the interjec- tion. The objective generally depends upon a word understood ; thus, " Ah \_pity\ me ! " — " Ah \what will become arative and antithetical clauses sxe separated by a comma ; thus, " As the hart panteth after the water- brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee," — " Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull." But when the comparison is short, and the connection intimate, the comma is not used ; as, " Wisdom is better than rubies." 999, Rule 10. — Tlie adverbs naj/f so, hence, again, first, secondly, etc., when considered important, and particularly at the beginning of a sentence, should be separated from the context by a comma ■, as, " Nay, but we will serve the Lord." So also, as and thus, introducing an example or quotation, as in the preceding sentence. 1000, Rule 11. — A relative with its clause, explanatory of its antecedent, is usually separated from the rest of a sentence ; as, " He, who disregards the good opinion of the world, must be utterly abandoned," or, " He must be utterly abandoned, who disregards," etc. But when the relative, with its clause, is restrictive (367, 2), and the connection so close that it can not be separated, the comma is not used ; as, " Self-denial is the sacrifice which virtue must make." 1001, Rule 12. — That, used as a conjunction, and preceded by another clause, usually has a comma before it ; as, " Be virtuous, that you may be happy." But when the clause introduced by that is the subject or the object of the verb in the preceding clause, the comma is not inserted ; as, " It is well tJiat he should know it." — " I said that ye are gods." 1002, Rule 13. — When a ver^b is understood ^ a comma must be inserted ; as, " Reading makes a full man ; conversation, a readj man ; and writing, an exact man." SYKTAX — PUi?^CTUATIO:N". 273 1003. Rule 14. — Words repeated are separated by a comma; as, " Holy, holy, holy, is the Lord God Almighty." — " No, no, no, it can not be." 1004, Rule 15. — Inverted sentences, by throwing two or more words out of their regular connection, often require a comma ; as, " To God, all things are possible." Not inverted, it would be, "AH things are possible to God." — " His delight was, to assist the distressed. In the natural order, " To assist the distressed was his delight." 1€05. Rule 16. — A short expression, in the matter of a quotation, is separated by commas ; as, " Plutarch calls lying, the vice of slaves." Also the verbs say, re-ply, and the like, with their dependent words introducing a quotation or remark, are usually separated by commas ; as, " The book of nature, &aid he, is open before thee." — "I say imto all, watch." 1006. Rule 17. — Adjectives, particijtles, adverbs, ifi- finitives, etc., when separated from the word on which they depend, or, when accompanied by several adjuncts, commonly require commas to be inserted ; as, " His talents, formed for great enterprises, could not faU of rendering him conspicuous." — " To conclude, I can only say this." — " We must not, however, neglect our duty." The Semicolon. 1007. Tlie semicolon is used to separate the parts of a sentence which are less closely cofinected than those which are separated by the comma, and more closely than those which are separated by the colon. General Mule, 1008. The parts of a sentence separated by a semicolon, should contain in themselves a complete and independent pro2)OSi~ tion, but still having a connection with the other parts. Special Rules, 1009. Rule 1. — When the first division of a sentence contains a complete proposition, but is followed by a clause added as an infe- rence or reason, or to give some explanation, the part thus added must be separated by a semicolon ; as, " Perform your duty faithfully ; lor this will procure you the blessing of heaven." — "The orator makes the truth plain to his hearers ; he awakens them ; he excites 274 EITGLISH GRAMMA E. j tliem to action ; he shows them their impending danger." — " Be at ' peace with many ; nevertheless, have but few counselors." \ 1010, Rule 2. — When several short sentences, complete j in themselves, but having a slight connection in idea, follow in sue- j cession, they should be separated by a semicolon ; as, " The epic poem i recites the exploits of a hero ; tragedy represents a disastrous event : i comedy ridicules the vices and follies of mankind ; pastoral poetry ' describes rural life ; and elegy displays the tender emotions of the \ heart." , 1011, Rule 3. — When a sentence consists of several mem- , hers, and these members are compleoc, and subdivided by commas, j the larger divisions of the sentence are sometimes separated by a S semicolon ; as, " As the desire of approbation, when it works according i to reason, improves the amiable part of our species in everytliing that I is laudable ; so nothing is more destructive to them, when it is go- i verned by vanity and folly." 1012, Rule 4. — When a general term has several others, as par- ; ticulars, in apposition under it, the general term is separated from .| the particulars by a semicolon, and the particulars, from each other ; by commas; as, "Adjective pronouns are divided into four classes; \ possessive, distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite." But if the \ word namely be introduced, the separation is made by a comma only. ■ i The Colon. ; 1 013, The colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more ; parts, less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon, ' but not so independent as to require a period. Special Mules, \ 1014, Rule 1. — ^A colon is used when a sentence is complete \ in itself, in both sense and construction, but is followed by some ; additional remark or illustration, depending upon it in sense, though i not in Syntax ; as, " The brute arrives at a point of perfection that he 1 can never pass : in a few years he has all the endowments of which j he is capable." — " Study to acquire a habit of thinking : nothing is i more important." \ 1015, Rule 2. — When several short sentences follow in sue- I cession, each containing a complete sense in itself, but all having a ; common dependence on some subsequent clause; these sen- ; tences are separated from the subsequent clause by a colon, and from i each other by a semicolon ; as, " That Nature is unlimited in her ! SYNTAX — PUNCTUATION-, 2l5 operations ; tliat she has inexhaustible resources in reserve ; that knowledge will always be progressive ; and that all future genera' tions will continue to make discoveries : these are among the asser* tions of pldlosophers." 1016, Rule 3. — A colon (sometimes a semicolon) may be used when an example, a quotation^ or a speech is introduced ; as, " Always remember this ancient maxim : * Know thyself.' " — " The Scriptures give us an animated representation of the Deity in these words : * God is love.' " 1017' Rule 4. — The insertion or omission of a conjunction bafore the concluding member of a sentence frequently determines the usa of the colon or semicolon. When the conjunction is not expressed before the concluding niemher^ which would otherwise be separated by a semicolon, the colon is used ; but when the conjunction is expressed, the semicolon; as, "Apply yourself to learning : it will redound to your honor." — " Apply yourself to learn- ing ; for it will redound to your honor." The Period. 1018, The period separates sentences which are complete in sensCf and not connected in either meaning or grammatical con- struction ; thus, " Fear God. Honor the king. Have charity toward all men." 1019, But when short sentences are connected in mean" ing, but not in construction, they are separated by a semicolon (1010). 1020, Long sentenceSf if complete, even though grammat- ically connected by conjunctions, often insert a period (563); thus, *• He who lifts up himself to the notice and observation of the world, is, of all men, the least likely to avoid censure. For he draws upon himself a thousand eyes that will narrowly inspect him in every part." 1021, A period must be used at the end of all books, chap- ters, sections, etc. ; also, after all abbreviations ; as, A. D., M. A., Art. II., Obs. 3., J. Smith, etc. — Appendix, XII. The Interrogation Point. 1022, A question is regarded as a complete sentence, and the interrogation point as equal to the period. 1023, The note of interrogation is always put at the end of a direct question ; as, " What is truth ?" But the indirect ques- tion does not require the interrogation point ; as, " Pilate inquired what is truth." ^76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Note. — ^Printers are generally tlie best punctuators, as they follow a uniform system. It is therefore for the most part best, in prepar- ing matter for the press, to leave this matter to them, except where the meaning intended may not be clearly perceived without the punctuation. Other Characters Used in Writing. 1024, The JDash{ — ) is used where the sentence breaks off ahvuptly ; also, to denote a significant pause — an unexpected turn in the sentiment — or that the first clause is common to all the rest, as in this definition. 1025, The note of eocclamation (!) is used after expres- sions of sudden etnotion of any kind ; also, in invocations or ad- dresses, as, " Eternity ! thou pleasing, dreadful thought." Oh has the mark immediately after it, or after the next word ; as, " Oh ! that he would come." But when O is used, the note is placed after some intervening words ; as, " my friends !" 1026, The Parenthesis ( ) includes a clause inserted in the body of a sentence, in order to some useful or necessary informa- tion or remark, but which may be omitted without injuring the con- struction of the sentence ; as, " Know ye not, brethren (for I speak to them that know the law), how that the law hath dominion over a man as long as he liveth ?" In reading, the parenthetic part is distin- guished by a lower or altered tone of voice. When the clause is shorts, and accords with the general tenor of the sentence, coni^nas are now generally used instead of parentheses ; as, , " Thou sluggish power, if power thou he, All destitute of energy." The use of parentheses should be avoided as much as pos- sible. 1027* JSrackets [ ] are properly used to enclose a word or phrase interjwlated for the purpose of explanation, or correction, or to supply a deficiency in a sentence quoted or regarded as such, and which did not belong to thf. original composition ; thus," " It is said, the wisest men [and, it might be added, the best too] are not exempt from human frailty." 102 S. The Apostrophe {') is used when a letter or letters are oynitted ; as e'er for etier, tho' for though ; or to mark the pos- sessive case. 1029, Quotation marks (" ") are put at the beginning and end SYNTAX — PUNCTUATIOlir. 277 of a passage quoted from an author in his own words, or to mark a passage regarded as a quotation. 1030. The Hyphen (-) is ^ised to connect compound words which are not permanent compounds, as lap-dog : also at the end of a line, to show that the rest of the word not completed is at the beginning of the next line. 1031. The Section ( § ) is used to divide a discourse or chapter into portions. 1032. The Paragraph (1) was formerly used to denote the beginning of a new paragraph. 1033. The Brace (.--j^— ) is used to connect words which have (yne common ternif or three lines in poetry having the same rhyme, called a triplet. 1034. The Ellipsis ( ) is used when some letters are omitted ; as, K—g for King. Several asterisks are sometimes used for the same purpose ; as, ^* *^. 1035. The Caret (a) is ^is^d to show that some word or lettei is either otnitted or interlined. It is used only in manuscript. 1036. The Index ( B^" ) is used to point out any thing remark- able. 1037. The vowel marks are: the jyimresis ( '* ), on the last of two concurrent vowels, showing that tliey are not to be pro- nounced as a diphthong ; the Acute accent ( ' ) ; the Grave ( ^) ; the Long sound ( " ) ; the Shm^t sound ( *' ). 1038. The marks of reference are : the Asterisk ( * ) ; the Obelisk or JOagger ( f ) ; the Double Dagger (| ) ; the JPa- rallels ( | )• Sometimes, also, the § and 1[. Also, small letters or figures, which refer to notes at the foot of the page. FIGURES. 1089. A Figure, in grammar, is some deviation from the ordinary form, or construction, or application of words in a sentence, for the purpose of greater precision, variety, or elegance of expression. 1040. There are three kinds of Figures, viz. : of Etymology^ of Syntax^ and of RJietork. The first refers to the form of words. 278 EliGLISn GEAMMAR. tlie second to their construction^ and the last to their applica-' lion. Figures of Etymology, 10411 A Fi^re of Etymology is a departure from the usual or simple form of words ^ merely. 104:2, Of these, the most important are eight, viz. : A-phcer'-e-sis, Pro^-the-sis, Syn'-co-pe, A-poc'-o-pe, Par-a-go'-ge, Di-cer'-esis, Syn-cBr'-e- sis, and Tme'-sis. 1. Aphceresis is the elision of a syllable from the beginning of a word ; as, 'gainst, 'gan, 'hove, 'neatli, for against, hegan, above, beneath. 2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a syllable to a word; as, adown, agoing, etc., for dozen, going, etc. 3. Syncope is the elision of a letter or syllable, usually a short one, from the middle of a word ; as, med'cine, sp'rit, e'en, for medi- cine, spirit, even. 4. Apocope is the elision of a letter or syllable from the end of a Word ; as, tho' for though, ih' for the. 5. JParagoge is the annexing of a syllable to the end of a word ; as, deary for dear. 6. Diceresis is the division of two concurrent vowels into dif- ferent syllables, usually marked thus ( " ) on the second vowel ; as, cooperate, aerial. 7. Synmresis is the joining of two syllables into one, in either orthography or pronunciation ; as, dost, seest, for doest, se'est, or loved learned, pronounced in one syllable instead of two, lov-ed, learn-ed. 8. Tmesis is the separating of the parts of a compound word by an intervening term ; as, " What time soever." — " On which side w&oer." — " To us ward." Figures of Syntax, 1043. A figure of Syntax is a deviation from the usual con- struction of words in a sentence, used for the sake of greater beauty or force. 1044, Of these the most important are : El-lip' -sis, Plef-o-nasm, Syl-lep'-sis, E-nal'-la-ge, Hy^er'^Or-ton. 1. Ellipsis is the oinission of a word or words necessary to the full construction of a sentence, but not necessary to convey the idei SYN^TAX — FIGURES. 279 Intended (977). Such words are said to be understood; as, " Tha men, women, and children," for " The men, the women, and t?ie children." 2. Pleonasm is the using of inore words than are ne- cessary to the full construction of a sentence, to give greater force or emphasis to the exj session ; as, " The hoy, oh ! where was Jie !" 3. Syllepsis is an inferior species of personificatiorif by which we conceive the sense of words otherwise than the words im- port, and construe them according to the sense conceived. Thus, of the sun, we say, " He shines " — of a ship, " S7ie sails " (130). 4. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for an- other^ or of one modification of a word for another ; as, an adjective for an adverb, thus, " They fall successive, and successive rise," for suc- cessively ; the use of we and you in the plural, to denote an individual, etc. (245) ; the use of one case for another ; as, " than wTwm " for than who (966). 5. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words and clauses in a sentence, to give variety, force, and vivacity, to the composition ; as, " Now come we to the last," — " A man he was to all the country dear." — " He wanders earth around." Figures of Rhetoric, 104:5, A Figure of Rhetoric is a deviation from the ordinary ajyplication of words in speech, to give animation, strength, and beauty, to the composition. These figures are sometimes called tropes, 1046, Of these, the most important are the following, viz. : — Personification, Hyperbole, Climax, Simile, Irony, ^ Exdamation, Metaphor, Metonymy, Interrogation, Allegory, Synecdoche, Fa/ralepsis, Vision, '^Antithesis, Apostrophe. 1. Personification or prosopopeeia^is that figure of speech by which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects ; as, " The sea saw it and fled." 2. A simile expresses the resemblance that one object bears to another ; as, " He shall be like a tree planted by th^ mvers of water." 558U ENGLISH GKAMMAR. 3. A metaphor is a simile without the sign {like, or as, etc ,] of comparison ; as, " Re shall be a tree planted ly," etc. 4. An allegory is a continuation of several metaphors, so con- nected in sense as to form a kind of parable or fable. Thus, the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine : " Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt," etc. — Ps. Ixxx. 8-17. Of this style are -^sop's Fables, Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress," etc. 5. Vision or imagery , is a figure by which the speaker repre- sents past events or the objects of his imagination, as actually present to his senses ; as, " Csesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, and enters Italy." — " The combat deepens. On, ye brave," etc. 6. An hyperbole is a figure that represents things as greater or less, better or worse, than they really are. Thus, David says of Saul and Jonathan, " They were swifter than eagles; they were stronger than lions." 6. Irony is a figare by which we mean quite the contrary of what we say ; as, when Elijah said to the worshipers of Baal, * Cry aloud ; for he is a god, etc. 7. MetonyTny is a figure by which we put the cause for the effect, or the effect for the cause; as, when we say, "He reads Milton," we mean Milton's works. " Gray hairs should be respected " — that is, old age. 9. Synecdoche is the putting of a paj^t for the whole, or the whole for apart, a definite number for an indefinite, etc.; as, the waves for the sea, the head for the person, and ten thousand for any great number. This figure is nearly allied to metonymy. 10. Antithesis, or contrast, is a figure by which difierent or con- trary objects are contrasted, to make them show one another to advan- tage. Thus, Solomon contrasts the timidity of the wicked with the courage of the righteous, when he says, " The wicked flee when no man pursueth ; but the righteous are as bold as a lion." 11. C/imacc, or amplification, is the hightening of all the cir- cumstances of an object or action which we wish to place in a strong light ; as, " Who shall separate us from the love of Christ ? Shall tribulation, or distress, or persecution, or famine, or nukedness, or peril, or sword ? Nay," etc. See, also, Rom. viii. 38, 39. 12. Exclamatio7i is a figure that is used to express some strong ^motion of the mind ; as, " Oh/ the depth of the riches, both of the vnsdom and knowledge of God !" POETIC LICENSES. 28X 13. Interrogation is a figure by which we express the emotion of our mind, and enliven our discourse hy pro2}osing questions ; thus, ''Hath the Lord said it? and shall lie 7iot do it? Hath he spoken it ? and sJiaU he not make it good ?" 14. Paralepsis, or omission, is a figure by which the speaker pretends to conceal what he is really declaring, and strongly enforcing ; as, " Horatius was once a very promising young gentle men, but in process of time he became so addicted to gaming, not to mention his drunkenness and debauchery, that he soon exhausted his estate, and ruined his constitution." 15. Apostrophe is a turning-oflf from the subject, to address some other person or thing ; " Death is swallowed up in oictory. Death, where is thy sting ?" 104:7* Besides the deviations from the usual form and construc- tion of words, noted under the figures of Etymology and Syntax, there are still others, which can not be classed under proper heads, and which, from being used mostly in poetic composition, are com- monly called — Poetic Licenses, 1048, These are such as the following : — 1. In poetry, words, idioms, and phrases are often used, which would be inadtnissible in prose ; as — , " A man he was to all the country dear. And passing rich with forty pounds a year." '* By fountain clear, or spangled starlight sheen." ** Shall I receive by gift, what of my own. When and where likes me best, I can command," " Thy voice we hear, and thy behests obey." " The whiles, the vaulted shrine around. Seraphic wires were heard to sound." " On the first friendly bank he throws him down.** " 111 seek the solitude he sought. And stretch me where he lay." " Not Hector's self should want an equal foe." 2. More violent and peculiar ellipses are allowable in poetry than in prose ; as — " Su:^e, to-night, these orders to obey." TirM is our tedious song should here have ending." 28^ EI^GLISHGRAMMAR. < *' For is there aught in sleep can cliarm the wise V \ ** *T is Fancy, in her fiery car, i Transports me to the thickest war." ^ " Who never fasts, no banquet e'er enjoys.** ; "Bliss is the same in subject as in king, : In who obtain defense, or who defend." ! 3. In poetry, adjectives are often elegantly connected with nouns i which they do not strictly qualify ; as — " The ploughman homeward plods his weary way." '] " The tenants of the warbling shade." ; " And drowsy tinklings lull the distant /(5?(f5." : 4. The rules of grainmar are often violated by the poets. A : noun and its pronoun are often used in reference to the same verb ; as — " It ceased, the melancholy sound." \ " My hanks they are furnished with bees." 5. An adverb is often admitted between the verb and to, ■ the sign of the infinitive ; as — i " To sit on rocks, to muse o'er flood and fell ; i To slowly trace the forest's shady scenes." \ 6. A common poetic license consists in employing or and noVf instead of either and neither ; as — j *- " And first Or on the listed plain, or stormy sea." j " Nor grief nor fear shall break my rest." 1 7. Intransitive verbs are often made transitive, and adjeo- i lives are used like abstract nouns ; as — 1 " The lightnings jiash a larger curve." \ " Still in harmonious intercourse, they lined \ The rural day, and talked the flowing heart." \ ** Meanwhile, whate'er of beautiful or new, \ By chance or search, was offered to his view, \ He scanned with curious eye." ; 8. Greekf Latin, and other foreign idioms, are alloivable in poetry, though inadmissible in prose ; as — i ** He knew to sing, and huHd the lofty rhyme." \ " Grive me to seize rich Nestor's shield of gold." j i SYNTAX — POETIC LICENSES. 283 " There are, who, deaf to mad ambition's call, Would shrink to hear the obstreperous trimip of fame." " Yet to their general's voice they all obeyed/' " Never, since created man, Met such embodied force." 1049, Such are a few of the licenses allowed to poets, but denied to prose writers ; and, among other purposes which they obviously serve, they enhance the pleasure of reading poetic composition, by increasing the boundary of separation set up, especially in our lan- guage, between it and common prose. EXERCISES. Point out, name, and define, the figures of Etymology in the follow- ing phrases and sentences : — His courage 'gan fail. — Bend 'gainst the steepy liill thy breast. — 'Twas mine, 'tis his. — Vain tamp'ring has but fostered his disease. — Enchained he lay, a monster. — What way soe'er he turned, it met him. — Th' aerial pencil forms the scene anew. Point out, name, and define, the figures of Syntax in the following sentences : — The law I gave to nature him forbids. — So little mercy shows who needs so much. — My head is filled with dew, and my locks with the drops of the night. — Consider the lilies of the field, how they grow. — He that glorieth, let him glory in the Lord. Point out, name, and define, the figures of Rhetoric in the following sentences : — As thy day is, so shall thy strength be. — Without discipline, the favorite, like a neglected forester, runs wild. — Thy name is as oint- ment poured forth. — The Lord God is a sun and shield. — I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice, his spear the blasted fir. — At which the univergal host sent up a shout that tore hell's concave. PART IV. PROSODY 1050. JProsody treats of Elocution and Yersijl cation, ELOCUTION. 1051, Elocution is correct pronunciation^ and the proper management of the voice in reading or speaking. In order to read and speak with grace and eflPect, attention must be paid to correct enunciation, the proper j)itch of the voice, the accent and quantity of the syllables, and to emphasis , pauses, and tones. 1052, — 1. The enunciation should be distinct and clear upon every letter and syllable, giving to each element its proper sound. 1053, — 2. In the 2>ii^67i and management of the voice, it should be neither too high nor too low ; the utterance neither too quick nor too slow, and neither too varied nor too monotonous. 1034:, — 3. A.ccent is the laying of a particular stress of voice on a certain syllable in a word, as the syllable vir- in vir' tue, vir' tuous. 1053, — 4. The quantity of a syllable is the relative time which is required to pronounce it. A long syllable, in quantity, is equal to two short ones. Thus, pine, tube, note, require to be sounded as long again as piii, tuh, not. In English versification, an accented sylla- ble is long, an unaccented one is short, 1056, — 5. Emphasis means that greater stress of the voice which we lay on some particular word or words, in order to mark their superior importance in the sentence, and thereby the better to convey the idea intended by the writer or speaker. 1057 1 — 6. Pauses, or rests, are cessations of the voice, in order to enable the reader or speaker to take breath, and to give the hearer a distinct perception of the meaning, not only of each sentence, but of the whole discourse (985). For poetic pauses, see (1115, 1118). PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 285 1058, — 7. Tones consist in the modulation of the voice, and the notes, or variations of sound, wliich we employ in speaking, to express the different sentiments, emotions, or feelings, intended. %* A full consideration of these topics, in a work of this kind, would be as impracticable as it would be out of place, since it would require a volume for that purpose. They are fully treated of and exemplified in works on elocution, — a subject which is, or should be,' taken up as a separate branch of study. VERSIFICATION. 1059. Versification is the art of arranging words into poetical lines, or verses, 1060. A Verse, or Poetical Line, consists of a certain num- ber of accented and unaccented syllables, arranged according to fixed rules. This regular alternation of long and short syllables constitutes Mhythm, 1061. A Couplet, or Distich, consists of two lines or verses taken together, whether rhyming with each other or not. A Triplet consists of three lines rhyming together. 1062. A Stanza is a combination of several verses or lines, varying in number according to the poet's fancy, and constituting a regular division of a poem or song. This is often incorrectly called a verse. 1063, Rhyme is the similarity of sound in the last syllables of two or more lines arranged in a certain order. Poetry, the verses of which have this similarity, is sometimes called Rhyme. 1064, SlanJc Verse is the name given to that species of poetry which is without rhyme. Feet. 1065, Feet are the smaller portions into which a line is divided — each of wliich consists of two or more syllables, combined according to accent. 1066, In English versification, an accented syllable is ac- counted long ; an unaccented syllable, short. In the following 286 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. examples, a straight line, or macron ( - ), over a syllable sliowa that it is accented, and a curved line, or 'brem ( ^ ), that it is unaccented. 100 7 » Monosyllables, which, when alone, are regarded as without accent, often receive it when placed in a poetical line, and are long or short, according as they are with or without the accent. Thus— " To rotlse him with the spur and rein. With more than rapture's ray." [In the ancient languages, each syllable has a certain quantity, long or short, independent of accent, for which there are certain defi- nite rules. In this they differ widely from the English.] 1008. Meter', or Measure, is the arrangement of a certain number of poetical feet in a verse or line. 1. When a line has the proper metre, or number of feet, it is called Aeatalectic. 2. When it is deficient, it is called Catalectic, 3. When it has a redundant syllable, it is called IIypercata~ lectic, or Hype rineter, 1 009, A line consisting of one foot is called tnonometer ; of two, dimeter ; of three, trimeter ; of four, tetrameter ; of five, pentameter ; of six, heocameter ; of seven, heptameter, 1070. Scanning is dividing a verse into the feet of which it is composed. 1071. All feet in poetry are reducible to eight kinds; four of two syllables, and four of three, as follows : — I. FEET OF TWO SYLLABLES. 1. An Iambus -^ — ; as, defend. 2. A Trochee — 'w ; as, noble. 3. A Spondee ; as, vain man. 4 A Pyrrhic -^ ^ ; as, on a (hill). II. FEET OF THREE SYLLABLES. 1. An Anapaest ^^ ^-' — ; as, intercede. 2. A Dactyl — v^ w ; as. Durable. 3. An Amphibrach w — ^^ ; as, abundant. 4. A Tribrach — ' — ' •-- ; as, (tol) erable. 1072. Of all these, the prineipal are the Iambus, Trochee, Anapmst, and Uactyl. The other four feet are used chiefly in connection with these, in order to give variety to the measure. PKOSODY — VEKSIFIC ATION. 287 1073* A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unaccented ; as, 7idU^, music. 1074, An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accented ; as, adore, defend. 1075, A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented; as, " vain man." 1076, A Pyrrhic has both the words or syllables unaccented; as, " dn a (hill). 1077, A Dactyl has the first syllable accented, and the two last unaccented ; as, mrV'doitiB. 1078, An Amphibrach has the first and the last syllable unac- cented, and the middle one accented ; as, cdntentment 1070. An Anapcest has the the two first syllables unaccented, and the last accented ; as, IntercMe. 1080, A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, numj^r- able. 1081, A verse is usually named from the name of the foot which predominates in it ; thus, lam^bic, Trochaic, etc. I. lam^bic Verse, 1082, An iambic verse consists of iambuses, and consequently has the accent on the second, fourth, sixth, etc.,. syllables. It has different metres, as follows : 1. *Tis sweet. 2. With thee | we rise. 3. In pla I ces far | 5r near. 4. H8w sleep | the brave | who sink | to rest. 5. For me | your trib | lita | ry stores | combine. 6. His heart | is sad, | his hox)e | is gone, | his light | is passed. 7. When all | thymer | cies,0 | my God, | myrls | ingsoul j surveys. 1 083, Each of these kinds of iafnbic verse may have an ad- ditional short syllable, and so be called iambic hypermeter ; thus : — 1. Disdain | ing. 2. Upon I amoun | tain. 3. When on | her Mak \ er's bo | s8m. 4. But hail, | thou god | dess, sage | and ho | ly. 5. What slen | der youth | bedewed | with liq | uid o | dor. 6. Whose front \ can brave | the storm | but will | not rear | the flow | gr. •?. To scat[ter o'er[his pathjof fajne|bright hues | of gem- 1 like showJSra 288 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1084r, It often happens that a trochee , or sometimes a spon- dee, is admitted in the place of the first foot, which gives a pleasing variety to the verse ; as — Planets | and suns | riin law | less through | the sky. Fierce, hard [ y, proud | in con | scious free ] dom bold. 1085. Iambic MonoTueter, Dimeter, and Trimeter, —Of these meters there is no regular form, but they are sometimes introduced into stanzas. 10S6. lafnbic Tetr ammeter. — This verse may extend through & considerable number of stanzas. 1087* Iambic I*entameter.—l&mbic verse of five feet is called heroic verse. Such is Milton's " Paradise Lost," etc. By the admission of trochees, anapaests, etc., in certain places, it is capable of many varieties. 1088, Iambic Hexameter, — A verse of six feet is called Alexandrine, 1080. The Elegiac stanza consists of four pentameter lines rhyming alternately ; as — The cur | few tSUs | the knell | 5f part | ing day. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ; The ploughman homeward plods his weary way. And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 1090, The Spenserian stanza (which takes its name from the poet Spenser) consists of eight pentameter or heroic verses, followed by one hexameter, or Alexandrine verse. This is the stanza in which the " Fairie Queene " is written. 1091, Iambic Heptameter.—l&mhic verses of seven feet, formerly written in one line, are now commonly divided into two, one of four, and one of three feet ; as — When all | thy mer | cies, O | my God, My ris | ing soul | surveys. Transport | ed with the view, | I'm lost In won I der, love, | and praise. 1092, This is called common meter. Stanzas having three feet in the first, second, and fourth lines, and four in the third, are called short meter ; and those consisting of four lines, each con- taining four feet, are called long meter. PEOSODY — VERSIFICATION. 289 TrocJiaic Verse, lot) 3. Trochaic verse consists of Trochees, and consequently lias the accent on the Jirst, third, fifth, et^ syUables. It has different meters, as follows : — 1. Staying. 2. Rich the | treasure. 3. Go where | glory | waits thee. 4. Maids are | sitting | by the | fountain. 5. Oh ! the | strife of | this di | vided | being. 6. On a I mountain, | stretched be | neath a | hoary | will5w. 1094, Each of these may take an additional long syllable, and so become hypercatcUectic, ovhypermeter ; thus— 1. Tumult I cease. 2. In the 1 days of | old. 3. Restless | mortals [ toil for | nought. 4. Idle I after | dinner, | in his | chair. 5. Hail to I thee, blithe | spirit ! | bird thou | never | wert. 6. Night and | morning | were at | meeting, | over | Water | loo. 1095, In the last two forms, each line is usually divided into two ; thus — 5. Hail to I thee, blithe | spirit I Bird thou | never | wert. 6. Night and | morning | were at j meeting, Over I Water ] loo. 1096, Trochaic verse, with an additional long syllable at the end, is the same as Iambic verse wanting a short syllable at the beginning. Anapcestic Verse. 1097, Anapcestic verse consists chiefly of Anapcssts, and, when pure, has the accent on every third syllable. It has different me- ters, as follows : — 1. But tSo far. 2. Biit his cour | age 'gan fail. 3. O ye woods ! | spread your branch 1 es apace. To your deep | est recess | es I fly ; I would hide | with the beasts | of the chase, I would van | ish from ev [ ery eye. 4. M&y I gov I em my pas | siSns with ab | solute swa$r, And grow wis J er and bet | ter as life | wears away. 290 EI^GLISH GRAMMAR. 1098, Of these, tlie first is aiubiguous y for by placing an accent on the first syllable, it becomes a trochaic monometer hyper- meter. 1099, The se<^nd sometimes admits an additional short syllable, at the end ; as — On the road | by thS val \ ley. As he wan | dered lament | ing ; To the green | of the for | est, He returned | him repent | ing. 1100, The third is a very pleasing measure, and is much used in both solenm and cheerful subjects ; but it seldom takes an addi- tional syllable. 1101, The fourth, or tetrameter, admits an additionae syllable, which often has a pleasing effect ; as — On the warm \ cheek of youth j smiles and ros | es are blend j ing. Dactylic Verse. 1102, Dactylic verse consists chiefly of Dactyls, and has the following varieties : — 1. Fearfully. 2. Free from sa | tiety, Care and anx | iety. Charms in va | riety Fall to his | share. 3. Wearing a | way in his | youthfulness llOS, Each of these sometimes takes an additional long syllable, and so becomes hypermeter ; as — 1. Over a | mead. Pricking his | steed. 2. Covered with | snow was the | vale. Sad was the | shriek of the | gale. 8. Time it has | passed, and the | lady is | pale, 1104, By combining these kinds, examples of tetrameter, pen- wM^neter, and even heocameter are obtained ; but they are sel- dom used, 1105, K dactylic verse seldom ends with a dactyl; it more commonly adds a long syllable, sometimes a trochee, as in the itollowing lines : — Brightest and | best 6f the 1 sons of the | mSming, Pawn on our | darkness and | lead us. thine J aid. PROSODY — VERSIFICATION. 291 1106, The following is an example of dactyls and spondees alternately : — Green in tlig] wild wood | proudly the|tall tree|looks 6n thejbrown plain. The following is an example of pure dactylic hexameter : — Ovgr the|valley, withlspeed like the|wind, all thejsteeds were & | gal- 16ping. 1107, Considering the beauty of this kind of verse, and its peculiar adaptedness to gay and cheerful movements, it is surprising that it has not been more cultivated. Mixed Verses, 1108, Scarcely any poem is perfectly regular in its feet. Iam- bic verse, for example, sometimes admits other feet into the line, particularly at the beginning, as has been already noticed. The fol- lowing are examples of iambic lines with different feet intro- duced : — Trochee. Prophet | of plagues, | forev | er bod | ing ill ! Dactyl. Murmuring, | and with | him fled | the shades | of night. AnapcEst, Before | all tem | pies the Up | right heart | and pure. Pyrrhic. Brought death | into | the world | and all | our wo. Tribrach. And thun | ders down | impet | iioiis to | the plain. 1109, In ia'inbic verse, the initial short syllable is sometimes omitted ; and the verse becomes trochaic with an additional long syllable. 1110, In trochaic verse, the initial long syllable is sometimes omitted ; and the line becomes iambic with an additional short syllable. 1111, If the two short syllables are omitted at the beginning of of an anapcestic line, it becomes dactylic with a long syllable added. So — 1112, If the initial long syllable is omitted in a dactylic verse, it becomes anapcestic with two short syllables added. Ills. A pleasing movement is produced by internmigling iam,buses and anapcests, as in the following lines : — " I come, I I come ! | ye have called | me long ; I come I o'er the moiin | tains with light | and song I Ye may trace | my steps | o'er the wak | ening eartl^ By the winds | wliich tell | of the vi | 51et's birth. By the prim | rose stars | of the shad | 5wy grass, By the green | leaves op ) ening as | I pass." »9» EKGLISH GRAMMAR. 1114:, In odes and lyric pieces, verses of different kinds and different meters or measures are often interniingled, after the manner of tlie ancient choral odes, with a pleasing effect. " Alexan- der's Feast," Collins's " Ode to the Passions," etc., are examples. Poetic Pauses. 1115, Besides the usual pauses required to mark the sense in reading, and which may be called sentential pauses, indicated by the punctuation, there are other pauses in poetic composition required by, and necessary to give proper effect to, the movement of the line. 1116, These are chiefly the Final pause and the CcesuraZ 1117, The final pause is generally required at the end of QYQTj line of poetry, even where there is no sentential pause ; but it should not be too distinctly marked, as it consists merely in a brief suspension of the voice without any change in the tone or pitch. When a sentential pause occurs at the end of the line, as it does very often, it takes the place of, and supersedes the final pause. 1118, The ccesural pause is a suspension of the voice some- where in the line itself, for which no rule can be given, but which will always be manifest when poetry is well read. It does not occur in very short lines. In lines of some length, it generally occurs near the middle ; sometimes, however, nearer the beginning, and some- times nearer the end ; often in the middle of a foot, but never in the middle of a word. Sometimes, besides this, a sort of demicmsural pause is required, to give full effect to the expression. The following lines furnish examples of the ccesural pause in different parts of the line, and also of the demiccesural pause. The former is marked i"), and the latter ('):— " The steer and lion" at one crib shall meet. And harmless serpents" lick the pilgrim's feet." " The crested basilisk" and speckled snake." " And on the sightless eyeballs" pour the day." " But not to me returns Day," or the sweet approach of even or mom." ** No sooner had the Almighty ceased," but ail The multitude of angels" with a shout, Loud" as from numbers without numbers," sweet As from blest voices" uttering joy." PROSODY — COMPOSITION. 29d • Warms' in tlio sun/ refreshes' in the breeze, Glows' in the staxs," and blossoms' in the trees ; Lives' through all life," extends' through all extent. Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent." These pauses depend in part upon emphasis. EXERCISES. As exercises in scanning, lines or stanzas from anj poetical work may be selected. COMPOSITION. 1110, Composition is the art of expressing our thoughts in spoken or written language. It is of two kinds, Prose and Poetry. 1120, Prose compositions are those in which the thoughts are expressed in the natural order, in common ^d ordinary language. 1121, Poetic compositions are those in which the thoughts and sentiments are expresse3 in measured verse, in loftier and more in- verted style, by words and figures selected and arranged so as to please the ear, and captivate the fancy. 1122, In both of these, speech or discourse is either direct or indirect. 1123, Direct discourse is that in which a writer or speaker delivers his own sentiments. 1124, Indirect or oblique discourse is that in which a person relates, in his own language, what another speaker or writer said. 1125, In the first, when the speaker refers to himself,, he uses the first person J or we. When he refers to the person or per- sons addressed, he uses the second person tliou, you, etc. 1126, In the second or indirect discourse, whether the speaker is reported as referring to himself, or to those whom he ad- dresses, the third person is used in either case ; as, Tie, ilie, etc. An example will best illustrate the distinction. Thus : — 294 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1127 • DIRECT DISCOURSE. Then Paul stood in the midst of Mars-hill and said : ** Ye men of Athens, I perceive that in all things ye are too superstitious ; for as I passed by and beheld your devotions, I found an altar with this in- scription : ' To THE Unknown God.' Whom, therefore, ye ignorantly worship, Him declare I unto you." 1128, INDIRECT DISCOURSE. The same, reported in indirect or oblique discourse, would run thus : — Then Paul, standing on Mars-hill, told the men of Athens, he per- ceived that in all things they were too superstitious ; for as he passed by and beheld their devotions, he found an altar with this inscription : " To THE Unknown God." Whom, therefore, they ignorantly wor- shipped, Him declared he unto them. 1129, When the reporter, the speaker reported, and the person or persons addressed, are different in gender or number, there is no danger of ambiguity. But when in these respects they are the same, ambiguity is unavoidable, from the same pronoun being used in the progress of the discours^to designate different persons. Hence, to prevent mistakes, it is oncn necessary to insert the name or designa- tion of the person meant by the pronoun. An example will best illustrate this also : — " Then the son went to his father and said to him [direct], ' I have sinned against heaven and in thy sight.' " " Then the son went to his father and said to him [indirect], that he (the son) had sinned against heaven and in his (his father's) sight." It will at once be perceived that, without the words enclosed in parenthesis, for explanation, it would be impossible to tell whether by the word he, the father or the son was intended ; so also with respect to the word his. Hence, when by the indirect discourse, ambiguity is unavoidable, it is generally better to have recourse to the direct form, and quote the writer's or speaker's own words, as in (1127). 1130, The principal kinds of prose composition are — narra- tive, letters, memoirs^ history, biography, essays, phi- losophy, sermons, novels, speeches, and orations, 1131, The principal kinds of poetical composition are — the epigram, the epitaph, the sonnet, pastoral poetry, didac- tic poetry, satires, descriptive poetry, elegy, lyric poetry, dramatic poetry, and epic poetry. PROSODY — COMPOSITION. 295 The Use of Grammar in Composition. 1132. To speak and write with propriety, in every species of composition, is an attainment of no small importance ; and to lead to this attainment is the business of grammar. The grammar of a lan- guage is just a compilation of rules and directions, agreeably to which that language is spoken or written. These rules, however, are not the invention of the grammarian, nor dependent on his authority for their validity. As it is the business of the philosopher, not to make a law of Nature, nor to dictate how her operations should be performed, but, by close observation, to ascertain what those laivs are, and to state them for the information of others ; so the business of the grammarian is, not to make the laws of language, for language is before grammar, but to observe and note those principles, and forms, and modes of speech, by which men are accustomed to express their sentiments, and to arrange the results of his observation into a system of rules for the guidance and assistance of others. It is obvious, then, that the ultimate principle or test to which the rules laid down by the grammarian must conform, is the best usage. 1133. Hence, when the inquiry is whether a particular word or form of speech is right, is good English, the only question to be decided is, ^^ Is it according to the best usage ?" On this subject, however, it has been made a question, " What is the best usage?" The following sentiments, abridged from Dr. Crombie's work on English Etymology and Syntax, seem to be just, and com- prehensive of this whole subject : — The Law of Language. 1134. The usage which gives law to language, in order to establish its authority, or to entitle its suffrage to our assent, must be, in the first place, reputable ; by which is meant, not the usage of the court, nor great men, nor merely scientific men ; but of those whose works are esteemed hy the picblic, and who may therefore be denominated reputable authors. 1135. In the second place, this usage must be national. It must not be confined to this or that province or district. " Those," to use Campbell's apposite similitude, " who deviate from the beaten road may be incomparably more numerous than those who travel in it ; yet, into whatever number of by-paths the former may be divided, there 296 EJ^GLISH GRAMMAR. may not be found in any one of these tracks so many as travel in th% king's highway." 1136, TJdrdly, This usage must be presenf. It is diflBcult to fix, with any precision, what usage may in all cases be deemed present. It is, perhaps, in this respect, diiferent with different com- positions. In general, words and forms of speech which have been long disused should not be employed. And so, on the contrary, the usage of the present day is not implicitly to be adopted. Mankind are fond of novelty, and there is a fashion in language as there is in dress. Whim, vanity, and affectation, delight in creating new words, and using new forms of pbraseology. Now, to adopt every new-fangled upstart at its birth, would argue, not taste, nor judgment, but childish fondness for singularity and novelty. But should any of these maintain its ground, and receive the sanction of reputable usage, it must in that case be received. 1137 » The usage, then, which gives law to language, and wliich is generally denominated good usage, must be reputable, ua^ tional, and present. It happens, however, that " good usage " is not always uniform in her decisions, and that in unquestionable authorities are found far different modes of expression. In such cases, the foUoAving canons, proposed by Dr. Campbell, will be of service in enabling to decide to which phraseology the preference ought to be given. They are given nearly in the words of tha author : — 113S* Cakok 1. — When the usage is divided as to any particular words or phrases, and when one of the expressions is susceptible of a different meaning, while the other admits of only one signification, the expression which is strictlj univocal should he preferred. 1139, Cakon^ 2.— In doubtful cases, analogy should be regarded. 114z0, Cakois' 3. — When expressions are, in other re- spects, equals that should he preferred which is most agreeable to the ear, 114:1, (jA.^0^ 4. — When none of the preceding rules takes place, regard should be had to simplicity, 114:2, But though no expression or mode of speech can be justi* PROSODY — COMPOSITIOIT. 297 fied whicli is not sanctioned by usage, yet the converse does not follow — ^that every phraseology sanctioned by usage should be re- tained. In many such cases, custom may properly be checked by criticism, whose province it is, not only to remonstrate against the introduction of any words or phraseology which may be either un- neccessary or contrary to analogy, but also to extrude whatever is reprehensible, though in general use. It is by this, her prerogative, that languages are gradually rejfined and improved. In exercising this authority, she can not pretend to degrade instantly any phrase- ology which she may deem objectionable ; but she may, by repeated remonstrances, gradually effect its dismission. Her decisions in such cases may be properly regulated by the following rules, laid down by the same author : — 114:3. Rule 1. — ^All words and phrases particularly harsh, and not absolutely necessary, should be dismissed. 1144, Rule 2. — When the etymology plainly points to a different signification from what the word bears, propriety and simplicity require its dismission. 1145. Rule 3. — When words become obsolete , or are never used but in particular phrases, they should be repudiatedf as they give the style an air of vulgarity and cant when this general disuse renders them obscure. 11 40. Rule 4. — All words and phrases which, analyzed gram- matically, include a solecism^ should be dismissed. 1147. Rule 5. — All expressions which, according to the estab- lished rules of language, either have no tneaning, or involve a cofitradiction, or, according to a fair construction of the words, convey a mefyaing different from the intention of the speaker, should be dismissed. 11 48. In order to write any language with grammatical purity, three things are required : — 1. That the words be all of that language. The violation of this rule is called a barbarism. 2. That they be construed and arranged according to the rules of syntax in that language. A violation of this rule is called a solecism. 3. That they be employed in that sense which usage has annexed to them. A violation of this rule is called impropriety. '298 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 114:9, A barbarism is an offense against lexicography^ a solecism is an offense against the rules of syntadc ; and an impropriety is an offense against lexicography , by mistaking the meaning of words and phrases. Hints for Correct and Elegant Writing, IISO. Correct and elegant writing depends partly upon the choice of words ^ and partly upon thefortn and structure of sentences. I. In so far as respects single words, the chief things to be observed are purity, propriety, and precision. Purity. 1151, Purity consists in the rejection of such words and phrases as are not strictly English, nor in accordance with the prac- tice of good writers or speakers. 1. Avoid foreign words and modes of expression ; as, "Fraicheur " — "politesse " — " He repents him of his folly." 2. Avoid obsolete and unauthorized words ; as, albeit, afore^ time, inspectator, judgmatical. Propriety. 1152. Propriety consists in the use of such words as are best adapted to express our meaning. 1. Avoid low and provincial expressions ; as, " To get into a scrape." 2. In writing prose, reject words that are merely poetical ; as, "This morn." — " The celestial orbs." 3. Avoid technical terms, imless you write for those who perfectly understand them. 4. Do not use the safne word too frequently ^ot in different senses ; as, " The king communicated his intention to the minister, who disclosed it to the secretary, who made it known to the public." — *' His own reason might have suggested better reasons. 5. Supply words that are tvantingf and necessary to com- plete the sense. Thus, instead of " This action increased his former services," say, " This action increased the merit of his former serv ices." PROSODY — COMPOSITION. 299 6. Avoid equivocal or ambiguous expressions; as, "His memory shall be lost on the earth." 7. Avoid unintelligible and inconsistent expressions ; as, " 1 have an opaque idea of what you mean." Precision. 1153. Precision rejects superfluous words. 1. Avoid tautology ; as, " His faithfulness and fidelity were un* equaled." 2. Observe the eocact meaning of words accounted synonymous. Thus, instead of " Though his actions and intentions were good, he lost his cTiaracter," say, " He lost his reputation." II. With respect to sentences^ clearness, unity, strength, and a proper application of the figures of speech, are neces- sary. Clearness. 1154:, Clearness demands a proper arrangement of words. 1. Adverbs, relative pronouns, and ex-planatory phra- ses, must be placed as near as possible to the words which they affect, and in such situation as the sense requires. 2. In prose, a poetic collocation must be avoided. 3. Pronouns must be so used as clearly to indicate the word for which they stand. Unity. 1155. Unity retains one predominant object throughout a sen- tence, or a series of clauses. 1. Separate into distinct sentences such clauses as have no immediate connection. 2. The principal words must, throughout a sentence, be the most prominent, and only one leading subject should be presented. 3. Avoid the introduction oi parentheses, except when a lively remark may be thrown in, without too long suspending the sense of what goes before. Strength. 1156. Strength gives to every word and every member its due Importance. 1. Reject all superfluous words and members. This is also one of the elements of precision (1153). In the following sen» 300 -. Eiq^GLISH GKAMMAR. tence, the word printed in italics should be omitted : " Being conscious of his own integrity, he disdained submission." 2. Place the most important words in the situation in which they will make the strongest impression. 3. A iveaJaer assertion should not follow a stronger ; and, when the sentence consists of two members, the longer should be the concluding one, 4. When two things are compared or contrasted with each other where either resemblance or opposition is to be expressed, some re- semblance in the language and construction should be preserved. 5. A sentence should not be concluded with a 2*f ^position, or any inconsiderable word or phrase, imless it is emphatic. 1157- Figures of Speech. 1. Figurative language must be used sparingly, and never except when it serves to illustrate or enforce what is said. 2. Figures #/ speech, when used, should be such as appear natural, not remote or foreign from the subject, and not pursued too far. 3. Literal audi figurative language should never be blended together. 4. When figurative language is used, the same figure should be preserved throughout, and different figures never jumbled together. Transposition, lis 8, As a preparatory step to the important business of compo- sition, the pupil, after he has acquired a knowledge of grammar, may be exercised with great advantage upon the transposition of words and members in sentences, so as to try in how many different ways the same thought or sentiment may be expressed. This will give him a command of language, and prove, at the same time, a source of considerable mental cultivation. It is often necessary to give an entirely new turn to an expression, before a sentence ca£ be rendered elegant, or even perspicuous. 1159, There are chiefly four ways in which the mode of ex- pressing a thought may be varied : — 1. By changing an active into a passive, or a passive into an active verb ; as, " The sun dissolves the snow." — " The snow is di» solved by the sun." PROSODY — COMPOSITIOIT. 301 2. By inversions or transpositions, which consist in changing the order in which the words stand in a sentence ; as, " Competence may be acquired by industry." — " By industry, competence may be acquired." 3. By changing an ajflrmatwe into a negative^ or a negative into an aflBrmative, of an entirely contrary character; as, "Virtue promotes happiness." — " Virtue does not promote misery." 4. By either a partial or an entire change of the words em- ployed to express any sentiment ; as, " Diligence and application are the best means of improvement." — " Nothing promotes improvement like diligence and application." EXERCISES ON TRANSPOSITION. The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase of luxury. I am willing to remit all that is past, provided it can be done with safety. A good man has respect to the feelings of others in all that he says or does. Bravely to contend for a good cause is noble ; silently to suffer for it is heroic. EXAMPLE OF TRANSPOSITION The Roman state evidently declined, in proportion to the increase of luxury. In proportion to the increase of luxury, the Roman state evidently declined. The Roman state, in proportion to the increase of luxury, evidently declined. EXERCISES ON VARIETY OP EXPRESSION. His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. It is better to be moved by false glory than not to be moved at all. I shall attend tlie meeting, if I can do it with convenience. He who improves in modesty as he improves in knowledge, has an undoubted claim to greatness of mind. The spirit of true religion breathes gentleness and affability. EXAMPLE OP VARIETY OP EXPRESSION. His conduct was less praiseworthy than his sister's. His sister's conduct was more praiseworthy than his. His sister's mode of acting was entitled to more praise than his. His conduct was less entitled to praise than that of his sister, etc. 1160, Another exercise, not destitute of utility as a foundation for composition, consists in giving the pupil, especially if very young, a list of words f with directions to form from them such sentences »3 sliall contain these words. 802 ElTGLISn GRAMMAR. EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. Construct a number of such sentences as shall each contain one or more of the following words : — Contentment, behavior, consideration, elevation, distance, application, respect, duty, intercourse, evidence, social, bereavement, nonsensical, absurdity, elucidate, consternation, temperance, luxury, disarm, expatiate, etc. Letters. 1161, One of the simplest and yet most useful species of compo- Bition is letter tvriting. This species of composition may be prac- ticed either by way of real correspondence between those pursuing the same studies, or it may consist of letters written to ifnaginary correspondents. The following are a few topics adapted to composition of this latter kind : — Letter 1. — Write to a friend at a distance. State to him the object of your writing. Tell him what studies you are pursuing, and how you like them. Mention how yourself and friends are. Give an account of some of the alterations wliich have been lately made, or are now making, in your neighborhood ; and conclude by expressing your desire either to see him or hear from him soon. Letter 2, — Write to a companion an account of a long walk which you lately had. Tell him whether you were alone or in com- pany. Mention what particular thing struck you by the way ; and enumerate all the incidents of any moment that occurred. Letter 3, — Write to a friend who is supposed to have sent you a present of books, and thank him for such kindness. Tell him the use you intend to make of them ; and inform him to what particular books you are most partial. Conclude by giving some account of those you have lately been reading, and how you like them. Letter 4. — Write to a friend supposed to be going abroad. De- scribe to him how you would feel if called to leave your friends and your native country. Express your regret at losing him, but state your hope that you will not forget each other when seas roll between you. Request him to write to you frequently ; and advise him to be careful about his health and of the society he keeps. Letter S. — Write to a friend at a distance, and give him an account of a sail which you lately had in a steamboat. Mention what places you visited, and state the objects that most delighted you. Tell him how long you were away, what sort of weather you had, and what were your feelings upon returning homa PROSODY — COMPOSITION^. 303 Letter 6. — Write to a friend an account of the church you were at last Sabbath. Tell who preached. Mention the psalms or hymns that were sung, and the port;ions of Scripture that were read. State the text from which the minister preached ; and give your opinion of the different sermons. 1102. These have been given as mere specimens of the subjects upon which the student who has acquired a knowledge of grammar may be required to write. The prudent and skillful teacher will be enabled to multiply and vary them at pleasure to any extent. Keproduction, 1163» Another method of exercising the minds of pupils in com- jKisition consists in reading some shnple story or narrative, till such time as they are acquainted with the facts, and then directing them to express these in their own tvorcls. A still further, and perhaps even a simpler method, is, to take advantage of a young person's having given some account of what he has either seen, heard, or read, and desire him to commit to writing what he has stated orally. Impromptu Composition, 1104, For the purpose of securing readiness and facility in the expression of thought, and cultivating vigor of mind, inijtrotnptii exercises in composition are earnestly recommended. The pupils are all seated with slate (or paper) and pencil in hand, when the teacher writes upon the blackboard or announces some dmple theme. At a given signal all the pupils begin to write. The exercises may occupy from three to ten minutes. At a signal from the teacher all cease writing. No emendations are afterward to be made by any pupil, before the reading. Each pupil, or so many as it is deemed expedient, may now be called upon to read, and the pupils first, and afterward the teacher, criticize in a friendly spirit. The results at first wiU not be very promising, but practice will develop skill on the part of the pupils, and create interest in the exercise. TJienies, llOii, The next step in composition is the writing of regular themes. The subject, however, should always be such as is not above the capacity of the person who is desired to compose, for, if it is, the whole benefit resulting from the exercise will be nullified. A theme is a regular, set subject, upon which a person is required to write : or the dissertation that has been written upon such a sub- 904 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. . ject. Some of the simplest subjects for themes are those drawn from natural history or natural philosophy. At all events, they should not, m the first instance, be drawn from subjects of an abtruse and abstract character. 1166, The following may serve as specimens in this depart- ment : — Theme 1. — The horse, — 1. Describe what sort of an animal the horse is. 3. Tell some of the different kinds. 3. Mention the various ways in which this noble animal is serviceable to man. 4. State what would be the consequence of wanting him. 5. Mention the treatment to which he is entitled, and the cruelty of ill-using such a creature. Write themes upon the cow, the dog, the sheep ^ poultry ; and follow the same plan as that followed in writing upon the horse. Theme 2. — The sun, — 1. Begin by stating what the sun is. 2. Tell all you know of its size, figure, and distance from our earth. 3. Mention the effect it has upon the earth, and the benefits we derive from it. 4. State what would be the consequence if the sun were extinguished ; and what our feelings ought to be toward the Supreme Being for such an object. Write themes upon the moon, the stars, fire, air, and wa^ ter ; and in all, follow the same plan. Theme 3. — Day and night. — 1. Tell what you mean by day and night. 2. State whether they are always alike long, and what is the advantage arising from their length being different at different seasons. 3. Mention the different purposes to which they are adapted. 4. Say of what the continued succession of day and night is fitted to remind us, and how this should lead us to act. Write themes upon the different seasons, and upon the mountains, rivers, and the tides of the sea ; and follow a similar plan in the whole. TJieme 4. — On composition, — 1. Explain what you mean by this term. 2. Point out the necessity of studying this art, by show- ing how much it contributes to add to the value of one's knowledge. 3. Mention what is necessary to fit one for composing well. 4. State the means by which skill in this art is to be obtained. Theme 5. — On company, — 1. Explain what you mean by com- pany. 2. Show how natural it is for man to seek society. 3. State the danger of keeping either too much company, or of keeping bad company. 4. Point out the advantages of good company. PROSODY — C0MP0SITI0 2T. 30o Write themes upon conversation, study, improvement of time, choice of books, tnemory, and the different organs of sense, etc., and in all, follow tlio same general method as you did in writing on company. Theme 6. — Narratives, — Describe the place or scene of the actions related, the persons concerned in, the time, j)Osture of afiairs, state of mind, motives, ends, etc., of the actors ; results. Write themes upon the discovery of America, the French war, the Revolutionary war, the battle of Bunher Hill, the French Revolution, Theme 7. — J>issertations on remarkable events in sacred or profane history. — The place, the origin, the circumstances, results, moral influence, etc. Following tliis or a similar arrangement of parts, write composi- tions on : the creation ; death of Abel ; the deluge ; the world after the flood ; the tower of Babel; the Israelites in Egypt ; their deliverance from it ; the giving of the law from Sinai ; the advent of the Messiah — his death — his resurrection ; destruction of Jerusalem ; the siege of Troy ; rise and fall of the Roman Empire; the Crusades; the burning of Moscow ; thebattle of Waterloo ; the death of Bonaparte,etc. Theme 8. — JBiographies, — Give an accoimt of some of the most distinguished characters in different ages of the world, — warriors, statesmen, artists, philosophers, poets, orators, philanthropists, di- vines, — mentioning what is known respecting their country, parent- age, education, character, principles, exploits, influence on society for good or evil, death. 1167. The following list of themes is selected from Parker's Exercises in Composition : — 1. On Attention, 13. On Charity, Clemency, Compassion, Conscience, Constancy, Carelessness, Curiosity, Cheerfulness, Contentment, Diligence, Duplicity, 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. IL Adversity, 13. Ardor of Mind, 14. Art, [cal, 15. Attachment, lo- 16. 23. On Early Rising, Anger. Air? 17. 18. Benevolence, 19. Beauty, 20. Biography, 21. Bad Scholar, 22. 24 " Envy, 25. " Friendship, 26. " Fortune, 27. " Fear, 28. " Forgiveness, 29. " Government, 30. " Grammar, 31. " Greatness, tru^ 32. ** Genius, 33. « Habit. S06 EI^GLISH GKAMMAR 84 On Honor, 48. On Novelty, 63. On Piety, 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 76. 77. 78. 79. 80. 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. 87. 88. 89. 90. 106. 107. 108. 109. 110. HI. 112. 113. Happiness, Humility, Hypocrisy, History, Hope, Indolence, Industry, Ingraitude, Justice, Learning, Love of Fame, Music, Moon, 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. Night. Order, Ocean, Pride, Party Spirit, Poverty, Principle, Perseverance, Patriotism, Politeness, Providence, Punctuality, Poetry, 63. 64 65. 66. 67. 70. 71. 72. 73. 74 75. Religion, Reading, Sincerity, Summer, Spring, Sun, System, Truth, Time, Talent, Vanity, Virtue, Wealth. Knowledge is Power, 91. Progress of Error, 92. Progress of Truth, 93. Government of the Tongue, 94. Government of the Temper, 95. Government of the Affections, 96. Love of Country, 97. The Power of Association, 98. Immortality of the Soul, 99. The Uses of Knowledge, 100. The Power of Conscience. 101. The Power of Habit, 102. Life is Short, 103. Miseries of Idleness, 104 Never too old to Learn, 105. Public Opinion, Diligence insures Success, Idleness destroys Character, Contrivance proves Design, Avoid Extremes, Visit to an Almshouse, Pleasures of Memory, Example better than Precept, Misery is wed to Guilt, Value of Time, Virtue, the way to Happiness, No one lives for Himself, Thou God seest me. Trust not Appearances, Whatever is, is right. " An honest man's the noblest work of God." Every man's the architect of his own fortune. Man, " Mysterious link in being's endless chain.'* " A little learning is a dangerous thing." *' How blessings brighten as they take their flight !" Advantages derived from the invention of the mariner's compass — of the telescope — the steam-engine — the art of printing. History of a needle — a cent — a Bible — a beaver hat. Description of a voyage to England — coast of Africa — Constanti- nople — South America — East Indies — China. APPENDIX I. SUFFIXES. The limits of a ^ammatical text-book forbid sucb a fall discussion of suffixes as is usually presented in works on Analysis of Words, and it lias therefore been deemed best to make a classification on a grammatical, rather than a philological, basis, leaving to the works named above their proper oflBce. The following is taken substantially from Morell's " Grammar of the English Language." 1 . Structure of the Noun, English nouns are either — 1. Original Boots ; 2. Primary Deriiaar tives or Stems; 3. Secondary Derivatives or Branches; or, 4 Com- pound Words. 1. The origlncU noun roots consist of the names of all the common objects of nature and human life around us ; as, Sun, moon, star, sea, store, father, mother, hope, fear, love, eye, ear, hand, cow, sheep, dog, etc. These words, and many others of the same kind, have descended to us from the old Saxon stock, from a period lying beyond all historical research. Some of them have undergone partial changes in spelling and pronunciation, but without at all losing their original character. 2. English nouns, which cotne under the title of primary de- rivativeSf are also, with few exceptions, of Saxon origin. They are, for the most part, formed as follows : — (1). By modiff/ing the root-vowel (generally of a primitive verb) ; as, Bless, bliss ; feed, food ; bind, bond ; set, seat ; knit, knot, net ; sing, song ; strike, stroke, etc. [Sometimes the noun retains the original verb-form.] (2). By modifying the final co^tsonant.of the root, or adding another consonant ; as, Stick, stitch ; dig, ditch ; heal, healtJi ; drive, drift ; believe, bdief, etc. 308 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. (3). By7nodifi/inghoth vowel and consonant; as, Live,Hf9j choose, choice ; lose, loss ; thieve, theft, etc. 3. Secondary Derivatives are formed by a considerable va^, iety of suffixes. {a). Saxon derivatives are formed by the following : — or, a/rd, art, ster, ess (fern.), Ung, MUy ock, let, or et. (1). Signifying Agent or Boer. as, sing, singer, as, lie, liar, as, drink, drunkard, as, brag, braggart, as, pun, punster. as, seam, seamstress. Derived from Verbs. (2). Forming Diminutives. as, dear, darling. as, lamb, lambkin. as, hill, hillock, (stream, streamlet, (flower, floweret. Derived from Nomis. (3). Denoting Alstract Ideas, such as State, Condition, Action, ete. Derived from Nouns. ship,. as, friend, friendship. hood, or head, as, man, manhood. dom, ery, age, ter, lock, ness, le, el, et. as, king, kingdom, as, slave, slavery. as, till, tillage as, laugh, laughter as, wed, wedlock •. j- Derived from Verbs, as, white, whiteness. I Derived from Adjectives (4). Denoting Instrument. as, gird, girdle. as, shove, shovel, as, hack, hatchet . I Derived from Verbs. (6). Latin and French Derivatives are formed by the following suffixes : — APPENDIX — SUFFIXES, 309 to,\ 8or, trix, aster, cvlc, le, ide. a/ry, cy. ence, ance ice. ■i m, \ ion, don tion merit, our, or, ty, ity. tude, ture, ) sure, ) (1). Signifying an Agent or a Person generally. as, auditor, sponsor, From Latin nouns in tor and sor. as, executrix, From Latin nouns in trix. ( From French nouns in aire, ier, as, auctioneer, ^ ^^^ From French nouns in e. (2). Forming Diminutives. as, poetaster. From Italian nouns in astro. , , (From Latin nouns in culu^, — as, animalcule, \ - i i _. , < a, — urn ; as, ammakulum, par- as, particle, ) . \ ticiua, etc. (3). Signifying Abstract Ideas. as, commentary. as, clemency, as, penitence, as, justice, ( action, as, •< passion, (junction, as, ornament, as, ardo(u)r,' as, dignity, as, multitude. as, -j ^ tincture, censure. jFrom Latin words in arius ; as, ( commentarius. I From Latin words in tia ; as, de- \ mentia. (From Latin words in entia, or l antia; as, pcenitentia. c From Latin words in itia ; as I justitia. \ From Latin words in io ; as, actio, \ etc. (From Latin words in mentum ; \ as, omamentum. ( From Latin words in or, through ( the French ; as, a/rdor, ardeur. J From Latin words in tas ; as, ( dignitas. (From Latin words in tvdo; as, \ mvMUudo. \ From Latin words in ura; as, ) tinctura, etc. Bemabe. — Many nouns of the above description are formed directly 510 ENGLISH GEAMMAR. from verbs, by simply changing the accent ; e. g., to affiT^, an ctf'fiX} to export', an ey^port; also some monosyllables are both nouns and verbs ; as to u%e, a use. • (c.) Greeic Derivatives are formed by the following sufl&xes : — ] (1.) Signifying Agent or Person. \ an, as, musician. From Greek words in kos {ko^). , ist, as, sophist, " " istes {Larrjc;), \ ite, as, Israelite (patro- ) « « ites{iTm). ' nymic), ) ! (2.) Forming Diminutives. . . X . ■!_ S From the Greek asteriskos, ^ %8kf as, astensk, i / \ i (3.) Signifying Abstract Ideas. \ e, y, as, epitome, anarchy. From Greek nouns in e {rj). \ ism,sm, as, deism, j From Greek nouns in im.5, oi i ( isma {tafior lajua). < ic, ics, as, arithmetic, \ ^^«"^ ^'^^^ adjectives in ikos, a, j ( on (f/cof, a, ov). ; ma, as, panorama. From Greek nouns in ma (jua). \ sis, as, hypothesis. From Greek nouns in sis ((tlc). \ 4. Compound Nouns of Saxon origin exist largely in the pre- ; sent English language, and new ones are not imfrequently coined, ; as necessity requires; as, housemaid, railroad, steamboat, cast-iron, \ etc. "\ \ Compound words (except new terms in the sciences) derived from \ the Latin and Greek, are borrowed in their compound from those Ian- • guages. 2» Structure of the Adjective. •English adjectives, like English nouns, are either — 1. Original \ Roots; 2. Primary Derivatives ; 3. Secondary Derivatives; or, 4 \ Compound Words. \ 1. Many adjectives derived from the Saxon are roots, inasmuch as no simpler form of the word can now be traced ; such are good, : bad, long, short, high, thin, thick, whUe, black, etc. ! APPENDIX — SUFFIXES. 311 2. Pritnary derivatives are also of Saxon origin. They are formed, like the noun-stems, from verbs, noims, and other adjectives, as follows : — (1.) By modifying the vowel; aa,fiU,full; vyring, wrong; ^de, proud; string, strong. (2.) By modifying or adding a consonant ; as, loatTie, loth ; Sour, fourth. (3.) By modifying both vowel and consonant; as, udt, wise; poe, fifth. 3. English adjectives which come under the title of secondary derivatives are formed by a considerable variety of suffixes. (a.) Saxon derivatives are formed by the following : — ed, as. left-handed. (participial form). en. as. wooden, meaningr material. em,. as. northern, ) northerly, ) (( direction (of points of compass) erly. as. foU, as, fourfold, u repetition. fuU, as, truthful. t< full of ixh as whitish. tt j somewhat (diminutivei^ likeness. laiv. boyish. less, as. houseless. t< without. like. as, lifelike, ) lovely, ) M ji resemblance ; or, 1 fitness. ly. as. 907ne, as. winsome. M {possessing i the quMity of. vxvrd. as, homeward. M direction toward. y» as, mighty. \ (adjectival form of \ a noun). un (prefix), as, imlovely. t* not. (&.) Latin derivatives are formed by the following : — «^, as, equal. From Latin adjectives in o^ an, as, human. u " anus. ant. as, elegant. tt ans. ent, as, ancient. « ens. e (preceded by a consonant), "! ■ t( jmtw (preceded by a consonant). marine. M as, terrific^ « mfi^cui. 812 ENGLISH GKAMMAR as. as, pestiferous, visible, ) culpable, ) timid, as fertile, violent, verbose, copious, triple, double, migratory, captive, arduous, oblique. From Latin adjectives in y^''' ^^ 3, ) bUis. idu8. His. olena. 0SU8. pex. { torious, i sorious. tivus. uus. qutLS. ferous, ible, able, id, U,Ue, olent, 086, as, Otis, as, pie, as, ble, as, torj/, sory, as, t%x>e, as, 'ux)us, as, que (French), as, (c.) The principal Greelz derivatives are formed by — ic, as, hieroglyphic, (From Greek adjectives in %ko% ical, as, arithmetical, ( (ikoq) ; as, apL6(iTjTLKo^. S. Structure of the Pronoun. Pronouns are either — 1. Original Roots; 3. Derivatives; or, 3, Compound words. They are all of Saxon origin, except '* one '* (235). 1. The pronouns which may be regarded as original roots, aro, I, me, we, us, thou, ye, you, he, she, it, they, who (self), this, that. 2. The following are derivatives (chiefly by inflection) : — Thee is the objective form from thmi. JSim, originally a dative from the masculine he, and the neuter hit, o£ the Saxon he, heo, hit (he, she, it). J^er, originally a dative and possessive from Saxon heo. TJiem " " " " that. Whom, " " " " who. What, neuter form from who. One (385), derived from the French on, an abbreviation of homme. Which, a compound form, from who and like (contracted in the Scot- tish dialect, whilk). My is possessive form from me; thy, thou; our, we ; your, you; their, APPENDIX — SUFFIXES. 313 The possessive cases (239), mine, thine, etc., are derived from the corresponding possessive pronouns (391). 3. The compound pronoutis are those formed by the union of the words, self {selves), and evei', with the simple pronouns. See list, page 59. 4, Structure of the Verb. English verbs are either — 1. Original Moots ; 2. Primary JDeriva- tives ; or, 3. Secondary Derivatives. 1. All the verbs of the '* old conjugation'' (irregular verbs) are of Saxon origin, and all are original roots of the English lan- guage. A considerable number of these have, in recent times, assumed the regular form ; as, climb, laugh, quake, etc. 2. The primary derivatives are also mostly of Saxon origin. They are formed from original nouns and verbs, as follows : — (1.) By modifying the vowel; as, lie, lay ; fly, flee; fall, felZ (transitive), etc. (2.) By modifying the last consonant, either as to form or pronunciation ; as, advice, advise ; hath, bathe ; grease, grease (greez) ; use, use, etc. Note. — This class is formed from nouns, and some of them are of Latin origin. (3.) By modifying both vowel and consonant; as, drink, drench; gldss, glaze ; hound, hunt, etc. (4.) By prefixing s or t; as, dun, stun; melt, smelt; whirl, twirl, etc. 3. Secondary derivatives are formed by a considerable variety of suffixes. (a.) Saxon derivatives are formed by the following : — m, signifying to make ; as, heighten, weaken. er, " {frequentative) ; as, climb, clamber. ish, " {various) ; as, bum, burnish. le, " {frequentative) ; as, nip, nibble. y, " to make; as, soil, sully. Rejcakk. — Many nouns and adjectives have been turned into verbs 314 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Without any change; as, dry, to dry ; cool, to cool, rain, to rain', mlt, to salt, etc. The growing tendency to use the same word for different parts of speech should be resisted ; as, to crop a farm ; to ship goods, etc Avoid also such vulgarisms as, to grow corn, and the like. (&.) Latin derivatives are formed — (1.) From the root of the verb, by rejecting the termination of tha infinitive; as — Discern, from discernere. Concur, " concurrere. Condemn, ** condemnare. etc. etc. (2.) From the supine of the verb ; as — Act, from actum. Audit, " auditum. Accept, " ' acceptum. (c.) Greek derivatives are formed by the terminations ise or ize ; as, baptize, (from jSaTrriCo).) This termination has been adopted to form many modern English verbs ; as, to Italicize, to Germanize, to scrutinize, etc. 5, Structure of the Adverb, English adverbs are either — 1. Original Boots ; 2. Primary Deriva- tives ; 3. Seconda/ry Derivatives ; or, 4. Compound words. 1. The original adverbs consist of a few monosyllables derived from the Saxon : as, now, then, there, here, oft, well, ill, not, so, thus. Some of these were, doubtless, formerly oblique cases of Saxon pronouns. 2. Primary derivatives are formed — (1.) From nmnerals ; as, one, once ; two, twice, etc., — originally genitive forms of the numerals. (2.) From nouns, by adding s, as need, (must) needs, so, alao^ mornings, Mondays, etc. (3.) From other adverbs ; as, there, thither ; here, hither, etc. Remarks. — (1.) A few adverbs are formed from adjectives and prepositions, by adding s ; as, unaware, unawares ; heside, besides. (2.) Many words, ordinarily prepositions , are joined to verbs APPENDIX — SUFFIXES. 315 flnthont change of form, and used adverbially ; as, to go down^ come wp, etc. All the jirhnary derivatives among English adverbs are of Saocon origin, and nearly all have been inflections of nouns, pro- nouns, or adjectivbri. 3. SecQudary derivatives are formed as follows : — (1.) By suffixes — ly, as wise, vmely ; just, justly. This is the usual form of the adverb, when derived regularly from the corresponding adjective. ward or wards ; as, backward, from lack, backward, from 6ac^, ) . .^ . ,. sideward, from side, | o^ ^ » or wise ; as, always, from all \ likewise, from like, (2.) By Prefixes— . a ; as, ashore, adrift, aboard, etc. he ; as, behind, betimes, etc. 4. Compound adverbs are formed by combining various parts of speech, in many instances being abridged forms of adverbial phrases or clauses ; as, sometimes, somewhere, forthwith, thereabout, straightway, henceforward, headlong, etc. [Some are derived in the usual way from compound adjectives ; as, ill-naturedly, ill-manneredly, etc.] 6. Structure of the Preposition, Prepositions may be divided, in reference to their structure, into three classes: — 1. Original prepositions; 2. Derivatives; 3. Verbal prepositions. 1. The simple prepositions are the following :—at, by, for, from, in, on, of, tiU, to, through, up, mth. 2. The derived prepositions are for the most part formed from verbs, adjectives, and other parts of speech, by means of prefixes; as — a ; amid, about, above, along, among, around, against, etc. be ; beside, before, behind, below, beneath, between, beyond. [Some are formed by combining two simple prepositions together, or adding a syllable ; as, into, unto, upon, within, uithout, through- out, etc.] 3. Verbal prepositions are the imperative and parti" 316 EN^GLISH GEAMMAE. clpial forms of verbs, Vise^prepositlonally, generally in abridged form ; as, concerning, during, except, excepting, respecting, touching, regarding, save, etc. Prepositions of the first and second class are of Saxon origin; those of the third class, of Latin, 7. Structure of the Conjunction, Conjunctions are — 1. Simple ; 2. Derivative; or, 3. Compound. 1. The simple conjunctions are — and, or, but, if, as. 2. The derivatives are such as — nor, neither, either, than, though, whether, even, for, that, since, etc. 3. Cotnpound conjunctions are made up of two or more other words ; as, howbeit, in as far as, nevertheless, moreover, wherefore, whereas, etc. II. GENDER OF NOUNS. In all languages, the distinction of nouns with regard to sex has been noted. Every substantive denotes either a male or female, or that which is neither the one nor the other. This accident, or char- acteristic of nouns, is called their Gender. In English, all words de- noting male animals are considered as masculine ; all those denoting female animals, /emwwe ; and those denoting things neither male nor female, are termed neuter. " In this distribution," says Crombie, " we follow the order of nature ; and our language is, in this respect, both simple and animated." Both in Latin and Greek, many words denoting things without sex are ranked as masculine or feminine, without any regard to their meaning, but simply on account of their terminations. In French, all nouns are regarded as either masculine or feminine, which is a still greater departure from the order and sim- plicity of nature, for which the English language on this point is dis- tinguished. Some have objected to the designation of three genders ; they think, that, as there are but two sexes, it would be more philosophical and accurate to say there are only two genders ; and to regard all words not belonging to these, as without gender. A little reflection, I think, will show that this objection has no just foundation, either in phi- losophy or in fact, and that the change it proposes would be no im- provement. It has probably arisen from confounding the word gender^ APPENDIX — GENDER — PRONOUNS. SVt which properly signifies a kind, class, or species (Lat. genus, French genre), with the word sex, and considering them as synonymous. This, however, is not the case ; these words do not mean tlie same tiling ; and they can not be properly applied in the same way. We never say, " the masculine sex, the feminine sex ;" nor " the male gender, the female gender." In strict propriety of speech, the word sex can be predicated only of animated beings ; the word gender, only of the term by which that being is expressed. The being man, has sex, not gender ; the word man, has gender, not sex. Though there- fore it is very absurd to speak of three sexes, yet it may be very proper to speak of three genders ; that is to say, there are three classes (gen- ders) of nouns, distinguished from one another by their relations to sex. One denotes objects of the male sex, and is called masculine ; another denotes objects of the female sex, and is caMedi feminine ; and the third denotes objects neither male nor female, for which a name more appropriate than the word neuter need not be desired. The teiTQ " common gender," applied to such words as parent, child, friend, etc., does not constitute a distinct class of words, which are neither masculine, nor feminine, nor neuter, but is used for conve- nience, merely to indicate that such words sometimes denote a male, and sometimes a female. Instead of " common," those who prefer it, may call such words " masculine or feminme." III. THE PRONOUNS, MINE, THINE, etc. Some grammarians have given it as their opinion that mine, thine, ours, yours, theirs, are not pronouns in the possessive case, but that that they are something or other in the nominative or objective case, but never in the possessive. This is surely a very singular notion. The anomaly which such an idea would introduce into our language would be a curious one. According to this view, these words could belong to no part of speech hitherto defined. They are not nouns, for they are not the names of any thing— nor adjectives, for they do not qualify nouns, nor can ever be joined with them — nor pronouns, for they never stand instead of a noun, but always instead of a noim and a possessive pronoun together. They have always the sense of the pos- sessive case, and are always construed just as the possessive case of a noim is, not followed by a noun ; and yet they are never in the posses* 318 ENGLISH GKAMMAR. Bive case. These words, standing by themselves, have no fixed or do- terminate meaning, and yet in sentences they may have as many differ- ent meanings as there are objects capable of being possessed. Mine, for example, may mean my horse, my farm, my Imt, my stick, my gun, my — any thing you please. And besides this, those of them which are singular in form, according to analogy, may have a 'plural verb ; and those of them which are plural may have a singular verb ; thus, " John's books are new ; mine are old ;" again, " John's house is built of stone ; ours is built of brick." Such is the result to which this no- tion leads us ; and if these words are not possess! ves, but in the nominative or objective, as some allege, there certainly are no more curious words in the English, nor in any other language. lY. "WHAT" AS A RELATIVE. " Various opinions have been entertained about the nature of the relative ivhat. It is said to be * a compound relative pronoun, in- cluding both the antecedent and the relative, and equivalent to that which, or the thing which.' Though this may seem plausible, yet we shall find, on examination, that what is nothing more than a relative pronoun, and includes nothing else. Compare these two sentences : — " * I saw whom I wanted to see ;' " * I saw what I wanted to see/ " If what, in the latter, is equivalent to that which, or the thing whicJi, whom, in the former, is equivalent to him whom, or the person whom. ' Who steals my purse steals trash,' is equivalent to he who, or, the man who. " And, on the same principle, when the relative is omitted, the an- tecedent should be represented as equivalent to the relative and the antecedent. Thus, ' I saw the man I wanted to see.' Here, man should be represented as equivalent to the man whom. " The cause of the error in respect to what, is, that the antecedent is never expressed with it. It is not like the word who, which is used both when the antecedent is expressed, and when it is omitted. The relative that, however, was formerly used in many cases where we use what, that is, with the antecedent omitted. A few examples of this will help us to ascertain the nature of what : ' We speak that we do know.' — English Bible. — * I am that I am.* — lb. APPENDIX — RELATIVES. 319 " * Who had been seen imagine mote thereby, 2%tW whylome of Hercules had been told.' — Spenser. " ' Eschewe that wicked is.' — Gower. •* * Is it possible he should not know what he is, and be that he is ?* — Shakes. ** * Gathei' the sequel by tliat went before.' — lb. " In these examples, that is a relative, and is exactly synonymous with whut. No one would contend that that stands for itself, and its antecedent at the same time. The antecedent is omitted because it is indefinite, or easily supplied." — Butler's Chammar, p. 48. These remarks appear to me just, and conclusive on this point V. IS *^AS" EVER A RELATIVE? That the word as should not be considered a relative in any cir- cumstances, I think is plain from the following considerations : — 1. It has neither the meaning nor the use of a relative. Its oflBce is simply to connect things compared, and, together with its ante- cedent word, to express the idea of equality, likeness, etc., between them ; thus, " James is as tall as his father." — " Your hat is such as mine." 2. It does not, like a relative, relate to a noun or pronon before it, called the antecedent, nor stand instead of it, or of any other word, but is related only to the comparative word, as, such, so, etc., in the preceding clause. Thus, in the sentence, "As many as received him," the second as relates to the first, and the two convey the idea of equality. Again, " Send such books as you have:" Here, as refers, not to hooks, but to such. Take away such, and a« can not be used. 3. As can nevei be used as a substitute for another relative pro- noun, nor another relative pronoun as a substitute for it. 4 In sentences in which as is said to be a relative, it evidently has the same meaning and use as those in which it is allowed to be only a conjunction. Compare the following examples : " As many a^ five men received a reward." — " As many as received him." — " As many as they can give." In all these, the phrase " as many as," means, and is felt to mean, the same thing — equality of number. Thero surely, then, can be no propriety in calling the second as a conjuno- 820 E:N^GL I SH GRAMMAR. tion in the first sentence, and a relative in fhe other two. The same thing will be evident if we change the antecedent word. Thus, " Such books as these are useful." — " Such books as are useful."— " Suxh books as you can give." _ 5. If the word as in the preceding sentences and clauses is a rela- tive pronoun, for the same reason alleged for this, the word than must be a relative in those which follow. The construction is pre- cisely the same : " More books than were wanted." — " More books than are useful." — " More books than you can give." Now, if, in the second of these examples, than is not a relative in the nominative case before are, nor in the third a relative in the objective case after can give, what need for considering as a relative in the same position, in the same construction, and for the same purpose, to denote com- parison ? There is the same ellipsis in both, and the same words ne- cessary to be supplied, in the one case, as in the other. Thus, "More books than [those which] were wanted." — " More books than [those which] are useful," etc. So, " Such books as [those which] were wanted." — "As many books as [those which] are necessary," etc. YI. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. The fourth class of pronouns, sometimes called adjective pronouns, and sometimes pronominal adjectives, is usually subdivided into pos- sessive, distributive, demonstrative, and indefinite. Of these, the first, or 2)OSsessive, are derived from the personal, and in meaning are strictly pronouns, being always the representative or substitute of a noun ; but in construction they are adjectives, and are always joined with a noun, and hence are appropriately denominated adjective pro nouns, i.e. pronouns used adjectively. By some, they are classed with adjectives, and csMq^l pronominal adjectives. In many grammars the possessives my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their, are set down as the possessive case of the personal pronouns, with mine, thine, his, hers, its, ours, yours, theirs, making two forms of the possessive case : thus, my or mine, thy or tJiine, etc. Which of these methods is adopted in teaching or studying grammar, is a matter of no practical moment : some grammarians adopt the one, and some the other, merely as a matter of taste, without any contro- versy on the subject. The classification in the text is preferred a?i being on the whole more simple, because the possessives my, thy^ APPEiq^DIX — ADJECTIVE PRONOUITS. 321 etc., like the adjective, can never stand alone, as the possessive case does, but must be supported by a noun following them ; thus, we say, " It is the king's ;" " It is yours ;" but we can not say, " It is your," — the presence of a noun being necessary to the last expression. This classification is favored by the analogy of other languages both ancient and modern. The possessives, my, thy, etc., for example, have precisely the same meaning as the Latin meus, mea, meum ; or the French mon, ma ; or the German mein (or meiTier), meine, mein; or the Anglo-Saxon (which is the mother of the English language), min, mine, min; and they are used in precisely the same way. There seems, therefore, to be no good reason for giving them a dif- ferent classification. Indeed, the only circumstance which renders it possible to regard them as a possessive case in English, is, that, like the English adjective, they are indeclinable. Had they been declin- able, like the Latin or French, etc., they never could have been used as a possessive case. The words belonging to the Other three divisions have been found more difficult to arrange in a satisfactory manner. They seem to occupy a sort of middle ground between adjectives and 2yrotiouris, and are sometimes used as the one, and sometimes as the other, without the strict and appropriate character of either. They are generally adjectives in construction having a noun ex- pressed or understood, which they serve to limit or restrict in various ways. On the other hand, with few exceptions, they are so often used without a noun, or as its substitute, that they are not improperly regarded as pronouns, though in a sense less strict than the oth- ers; thus, "Let each esteem others better than himself." — "Among men, some are good, others bad, none perfect." " All things come alike to all," etc. From this equivocal, or rather double, character of these words, they have been variously arranged by different authors. Some, among whom are Grant, Crombie, Hiley, Sutcliffe, Allen, Cooper, Brown, etc., class them with adjectives, and call them ^^ Pronominal Adjectives j^' and others, such as Lowth, Priestly, Smart, Murray, Lennie, Booth, Churchill, Wright Cobbet, Kirkham, Smith, and many others, class them with pronouns, and call them ''Adjective Pronouns." Since all are agreed about the use of these words, it seems in itself a matter of less importance to which of these two classes they be attached, or whether they are more appropriately called Pronominal Adjectives or Adjecti'oe Pronouns. 322 ENGLISH GRAMMA B. YII. THE VERB. Though there is little, if any, difference of judgment among gram- marians, as to what a verb is, yet all have probably found it a diffi- cult matter to give an accurate and at the same time a brief de/ifiition of it ; and, accordingly, nearly all grammars differ in their definition of this part of speech. The old definition, that " a verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or to suffer," though unex- ceptionable as any, as far as it goes, is yet greatly defective in stating nothing respecting the functions or use of this part of speech. The use of the verb in simple propositions is to affirm or declare ; and that of which it affirms is called its subject. This is always the office of the verb in the indicative, potential, or subjunc- tive. In the use of its other parts, however, namely, the imperative, infinitive, and participles, there is properly no affirmation, though the action or state expressed by the verb in these parts is clearly seen to be the act or state of some person or thing, and which for that reason is strictly and properly, though not technically, its subject. Thus, " For me to die is gain," is a simple proposition, containing two verbs, the first of which, to die, in the infinitive, expresses no affirmation, though it evidently, without affirming, attributes di/ing to a person, expressed by the word me. So, when we say, " I see a man walking," the word walking expresses an act of the person man, though there is properly no affirmation. In like manner, when I say, " Do this," the verb do attributes action imperatively to the person addressed, but there is no affirmation. To speak of " affirming imperatively" is cer- tainly not very intelligible, though, for want of a better expression, we sometimes use it in a loose sense. For these reasons, the definition of a verb which says it is " a part of speech which asserts or affirms," appears to me to be defective. It states one function of this class of words, but excludes, or at least does not include, others. It gives, as the distinguishing characteristic of a verb, that which does not belong to it in several of its parts and uses. It is too restrictive. The definition, " A verb is a word used to express an action or state," Is liable to an objection of an opposite kind : it is too general, and not sufficiently distinctive. A verb does, indeed, " express an action or state," but there are other words that do so also. Nouns, such as love, desire, wish, hope, etc., and most verbal nouns, such as eruption, JktioTif APPENDIX, — DIVISION OF VERBS. 323 collidon, diffusion, progression, etc., express dction, and many words, both nouns and adjectives, express a state. The definition given in the text, though perhaps not unexception- able, occupies a middle place between these extremes ; avoids the in- definiteness of the old definition, and is probably less liable to objec- tion than most of those which have been given. YIII. DIVISION OF VERBS. The division of verbs into Transitive and Intransitive^ which has been so generally adopted by grammarians, was a step in the right direction. The former of these terms is specific, and indicates a distinction demanded by the meaning and oflfice of those verbs to which it is applied. The latter, as generally used, is only a denial of the special characteristic of the former, and does not provide for those cases in which, while there is 7io object required, there is demanded some attribute or limiter of the subject to complete the The present division (316, 1) is made upon the distinct characteris- tic and oflBce of the verb, and divides all verbs into three classes, transitive, intransitive^ and attributive, distinguished by a clear and definite characteristic derived from their use in the con- struction of sentences. To the first belong those which are used transitively, whatever be their meaning or form ; to the second, those that are used intransitively , and require no other tvord as a complement, whether they denote action or not (319) ; and the third, those whose office is to relate an attribute with the subject. This arrangement and nomenclature still leaves the terms active and passive at liberty to be applied exclusively to the two forms which all transitive verbs assume, called the active and the passim eaice. It dispenses with the term neuter altogether, as applied to verbs, and leaves it to be appropriated in grammar to the designation of gender only. 324 _E N G L I S H G R.A M M A R , IX. THE PRESENT INDICATIVE PASSIVE, AND THE PARTICIPLE IN "ING-" IN A PASSIVE SENSE. According to the definition, the passive voice expresses, pas- sively f the same thing that the active does activelyc For example, " Caesar conquered Gaul," and " Gaul was conquered by Caesar," express precisely the same idea. This, however, is not always done by the regular passive form in the j)resent tense, though it generally is done in the other tenses. Thus, it will be felt at once that the expression, " Caesar conquers Gaul," and " Gaul is conquered by Caesar," do not express the same thing. In regard to this matter, there are evidently ttvo classes of verbs ; namely, those whose present-passive expresses precisely the same thing passively, as the active voice does actively, and those in which it does not. I. To the first of these classes belong — 1. All those verbs which, in the regular present passive, imply a continuance of the act ; such as, to love, to hate, to regard, to esteem, to envy, to please, etc. Thus, " James loves me," and " I am loved by James," express precisely the same idea, and consequently continuance is implied as much in the passive form as in the active. Hence, '^Hs loved ^' is a true passive, in both foi-m and mean- ing. In verbs of this class the progressive form in the active voice is seldom used, because it would express the same thing generally as the common form; thus, "James loves me," and "James is loving me " (though improper), express the same thing. 2. All verbs when used to express general truths, or what is usual or customary from time to time. Thus, " Vinegar dissolves pearls " — " Vice produces misery " — " The cobbler mends shoes," etc. Passive, " Pearls are dissolved by vinegar " — " Misery is produced by vice " — " Shoes a/re mended by the cobbler," etc. In verbs used in this way, the progressive form is not employed. The use of it would change the meaning from a general expression to a particular act. Thus, "Vice is producing misery,' would immediately direct the mind, not to a general truth, but to a particular case. But, when these verbs express a particular act, and not a general truth, the present active and the present passive express differetit ideas ; thus, " James builds a house," represents an act A P P E N D I X — PASSIVE. 325 in progress ; but when we say, " A house is built by James," the act or operation of building is represented as completed. 3. To this class belong all verbs, which, by the figure called vision (1046, 5), are used in the present tense to express tvhat is past. Thus, actively, "Caesar leaves Gaul, crosses the Rubicon, enters Italy." Passively, " Gaul is left by Caesar, the Rubi- con is crossed, Italy is entered." In all these, used in this figurative way, the present-pas^ve expresses the same thing as the present-ac- tive. II. The second class of verbs, consists of those (x)erhaps the greater number) whose present-passive implies that the act expressed by the active voice has ceased, and the effect or result only remains as a finished act, and as such is predicated of the subject. Thus, " The house is built." Here it is implied that the act of building is completed, and has ceased, and the result, expressed by huilt, is predicated of the house. In all verbs of this kind, the past participle, after the verb to he, has reference to the .state resulting from the act as predicated of the subject of the verb, and not to the act itself. Strici> ly speaking, then, the past participle with the verb to he is not the present tense in the passive voice of verbs thus used ; that is, this form does not express passively the doing of the act. These verbs either have no present-passive, or it is made by annexing the participle in iuff, in its passive sense, to the verb to be ; as, " The house is buUding." It is supposed by some that " is built," though in the form of the present passive, really is a present-perfect ; because it represents the act as completed, and because the perfect-definite, in Latin, is often translated by this form into English, Due consideration, however, I think, will show that it differs quite as much from the present-perfect as it does from the present. To be satisfied of this, compare the following expressions : " This garment is torn, merely asserts the present state of the garment, with no reference to the act but what is implied. But when we say, " This garment has been torn," the reference is chiefly to the act as having been done, with no reference to the state of the garment but what is implied. The one asserts that the garment remains torn, the other does not — it may have been mended ; the latter is the regular passive of the present-perfect active, the former is not. This will perhaps be more clearly perceived by means of another example : " This house has been painted, but the paint is worn off." Tliis is good English. But if we 3^6 EITGLISII GRAMilAR. say, " TMs house is painted, but tlie paint is worn off," we would assert a contradiction. There is properly no passive form, in English, corresjyond-' ing to the progressive form in the aetive voice, except where it is made by the participle ing, in a passive sense ; thus, " The house is building " — " The garments are making " — " Wheat is selling," etc. An attempt has been made by some grammarians, of late, to banish such expressions from the langu%e, though they have been used in all time past by the best writers, and to justify and de- fend a clumsy solecism, which has been recently introduced chiefly through the newspaper press, but which has gained such currency, and is becoming so familiar to the ear, that it seems likely to prevail, with all its uncouthness and deformity. I refer to such expressions as, " The house is being built " — " The letter is being written " — " The mine is being worked " — " The news is being telegraphed," etc., etc. Respecting this mode of expression, it may be noticed — 1. That it had no existence in the language till ivifhin the last fifty years. This, indeed, would not make the ex- pression wrong, were it otherwise unexceptionable ; but its recent origin shows that it is not, as is pretended, a necessary form. 2. This form of expression, when analyzed, is found not to express what it is intended to express, and would be used only by such as are either ignorant of its import, or are careless and loose in their use of language. To make this manifest, let it be considered, first, that there is no progressive form, of the verb to he, and no need of it ; hence, there is no such expression in English as is being. Of course the expression " is being built," for example, is not a com- pound of is being and built, but of is and being built ; that is, of the verb to be and the present participle passive- Now, let it be observed, that the only verbs in which the present participle passive expresses a continued action are those mentioned above as the first class, in which the regular passive form expresses a continuance of the action ,• as, is loved, is desired, etc., and in which, of course, the form in ques- tion {is being built) is not required. Nobody would think of saying, " He is being loved " — " This result is being desired." In all other verbs, then, ^ae present participle passive, like the present tense, in the second class of verbs mentioned above, expresses, not a continued action, or the continued receiving of an action, but that the action had ceased, and the result only exists in a finished APPENDIX — PASSIVE. 327 state. Thus, "Our arrangements being made, we departed. "— The house being finished, was immediately occupied." — " Our work being finished, we may rest," etc. In all such expressions, the present participle passive represents the action as now finished, and existing only in its restdts (509). This finished act, then, can not be made unfinished and progressive, by being asserted of a subject, which is all the verb to be, as a copula, can express. Hence it is manifest that is being built, if it mean any thing, can mean nothing more than is built, which is not the idea intended to be expressed. 8. For the same reason that is being built, etc., is contended for as a proper expression, we should contend also for " Has been being built." — "Had been being built." — " Shall have been being built." — " Might have been being built." — " To be being built." — " To have been being built." — " Being being built." — " Having been being built." When all these shall have been introduced, our language will be rich indeed ! 4. The use of this form is justified only by condemning an estab- lished usage of the language ; namely, the passive sense in some verbs of the participle in ing (459). In reference to this it is flippantly asked, " What does the house build ?" — " What does the letter write," etc. — taking for granted, without attempting to prove, that the parti- ciple in ing can not have a passive sense in any verb. The following are a few examples from writers of the best reputation, which this novelty would condemn : " While the ceremony was performing."— Tom. Brown. "The court was then holding." — Sir G. McKenzie. " And still be doing, never done." — Butler. " The books are selling." — Allen's Grammar. " To know nothing of what is transacting in the regions above us." — Br. Blair. " The spot where this new and strange tragedy was acting." — JS. Everett. " The fortress was build- ing," — Irving. "An attempt is making in the English parlia- ment." — D. Webster. " The church now erecting in the city of New York." — i\r. A. Meview. "These things were transacting in England." — Bancroft. 5. This new doctrine is in opposition to the almost unanimous judg- ment of the most distinguished grammarians and critics, who have considered the subject, and expressed their views concerning it. The following are a specimen : " Expressions of this kind are condemned by some critics ; but the usage is unquestionably of far better author, ity, and (according to my apprehension) in far better taste, than the more complex phraseology which some late writers adopt in its stead; 328 EKGLISH GRAMMAR, as, ' The books are now being sold.' " — Ooold Bromn. " As to the notion of introducing a new and more complex passive form of conj u- gation, as, ' The bridge is being built,' * The bridge was being built,' and so forth, it is one of the most absurd and monstrous innovations ever thought of." " The work is now being published " is certainly no better English than, " The work was being published, lias been being published, had been being published, shall or will be being published, shall or lolll hav6 been being published," and so on through all the moods and tenses. What a language shall we have when our verbs are thus conjugated! — Brown's Qr. of Eng-. Gr., p. 361. De War observes: " The participle in ing is also passive in many instances ; as, ' The house is building.' — ' I heard of a plan forming,' " etc. — Quoted in FrOr zee's Grammar, page 49. " It would be an absurdity, indeed, to give up the only way we have of denoting the incomplete state of action by a passive form" (viz., by the participle in ing in the passive sense). — Arnold's English Grammar, p. 4G. " The present participle is often used passively ; as, the ' The ship is building.' The form of expres- sion, is being built, is being committed, etc., is almost universally con- demned by grammarians, but it is sometimes met with in respectable writers ; it occurs most frequently in newspaper paragraphs, and in hasty compositions. See Worcester's Universal and Critical Diction, ary." — Weld's Grammar, pp. 118 and 180. "When we say, ' The house is building,' the advocates of the new theory ask, " Building what ?" We might ask, in turn, when you say, * The field ploughs well,'— ' Ploughs what ?'—* Wheat sells well,'— ' Sells what?' If usage allows us to say, ' Wheat sells at a dollar,' in a sense that i-s not active, why may we not say, ' Wheat is selling at a dollar,' in a sense that is not active T — Hart's Gram., p. 78. " The prevailing practice of the best authors is in favor of the simple form ; as, ' The house is building.' " — Wells's School G'ram., p. 148. "Several other expressions of this sort now and then occur, such as the new-fangled and most uncouth solecismi * is being done,' for the good old English idiom ' is doing ' — an absurd periphrasis driving out a pointed and pithy turn of the English language." — JST. A. Review, quoted by Mr. Wells, p. 148. " The phrase ' is being built,' and others of a similar kind, have been for a few years insinuating themselves into our lan- guage ; still they are not English." — Harrison's Rise, Progress, and Present Structure of the English Language. " This mode of expression [the house is being built] is becoming quite common. It is liable, however, to several important objections. It appears formal and pgdantic. It has not, as far as I know, the support of any respectable APPE'NDIX — THE VERB. 32C grammarian. The easy and natural expression is, ' The house is buUding.' "—Prof. J. W. Oibba. Analysis of the English Verb, The analysis of the verb shows that, except for convenience in the use of established idioms, there are no more than four radical forms, viz : — I. ^ . ' [• the simple name of the act, which has three uses. (wnte, ) 1. Connected directly with a subject, to affirm a present act or state ; as, I love. 2. Used indefinitely f to indicate an act or state, in a general sense, and depending upon some other word, generally a verb ; ais, " He desires to write " (infinitive use). 3. To express a simple command; as, write (thou). II. The participle in ing^ denoting the action or state, as con- tinuing, or incomplete (397, 456). In the progressive form, as, " I am writing ;" the participle is an attributive of the subject. III. The past tense, in the regular conjugation, ending in ed (meaning did), and in the strong conjugation, changing, in some instances, the form of the root ; as — Present, write ; past, wrote, IV. The fourth form (participial) takes, in regular verbs ed, and in irregular verbs sometimes changes the root ; as — Present, lorie ; part., lo^ed. Present, write ; part., written. This form, in transitive verbs, is used in both an active and a passive sense. 1. The pa^t participle active is never used except when pre- ceded by hate, and denotes the completion of the act it expresses, referring to the subject of the sentence, while the word ham expresses its complete possession by that subject ; as, " I have written," i.e., I am in possession of (have) written (by having performed the act). It is no longer in the future. I have attained to it. It is mine. I hane written. In this sense, written is a verbal — the object of the verb have. 2. In the passive voice this fourth form (loved, written) refers to some person or thing as the receiver to the act ; as, " He was a man loved by all." After the verb to he, the past pasi-iciple passive is simply an attribute (see 508,) and till the pupil is thoroughly familiar with the nature and idiomatic use of the so-called passive conjugation, should always be so analyzed ; thus, " He is loved." " He " is the subject; "is loved," is the predicate, ol which "is" is the affirmer 330 E2!?^GLISHGEAMMAR. (copula), and " loved " the attribute. " Loved " is found in tlie past : participle passive, from love, loving, etc., and limits " he" whicli is '- also its subject. This is, strictly speaking, the only fbrjn in the \ voice. i See " Analysis and Composition." X. FIRST AND SECOND, etc. Two or more adjectives connected, without an article intervening, belong to the same noun ; as, " A red and white rose " — that is, one rose partly red and partly white. Hence, care should be taken to see that the qualities expressed by adjectives so used be consistent, or such as may be found in one object. Thus, it would be improper to say, " An old and young man " — " A round and square hole." — " A hot and cold spring " — because a man can not be old and young at the same time, nor a hole round and squa/re, nor a spring hot and cold. Hence — When two or more adjectives express qualities that belong to different objects of the same name, and that name expressed only with the last, the article should be placed before each adjective. Thus, " A red and a white rose," means two roses — one red, and one white. In this case, it makes no difference whether the qualities ex- pressed by the adjective be consistent or not, since they belong to different individuals. Thus, we can say, " A young and an old man " — " A round and a square hole " — " A hot and a cold spring " — that is, one young man, and another old, etc. It is therefore manifest that we can not properly say, " The first and second page "— " The fifth and sixth verse " — " The Old and New Testament " — ^because no page can be at once jirst and second — no verse fifth and sixth — and no Testament Old and New. It is equally improper in principle to say, " The first and second pages " — " The fifth and sixth verses," because two adjectives can not be joined with a word jointly which can not be joined with it separately. We can not say, " The first pages," nor "the second pages," when we mean but one first and one second. Besides, when the ellipsis is supplied, it stands " the first page and the second page," and the omission of the first noun can not, on any correct principle, affect the number of the second. In many cases, too, the use of the plural, if it would relieve from the absurdity of uniting APPENDIX— TWO FIRST, ETC. 331 Inconsistent qualities in an object, will as certainly lead into ambi- guity. For if, to avoid the absurdity of sayiug " the old and young man," we say " the old and young men," the latter expression may mean fifty, or a hundred, or any number of men, instead of two— one young and one old. Notwithstanding, however, usage has prevailed over principle in this as well as in other cases ; and it has become quite common to say, " The first and second verses "— " The Old and New Testaments "—"The hot and cold springs "—" The indicative and subjunctive moods," etc. Where no ambiguity exists in the use of such expressions, they must be tolerated. The correct expression, however, when more than one is intended, is made by repeating tlw article inth the adjective, and retaining the noun in the singular; thus, " The first and the second verse "— " The Old and the New Tes- tament "-^" The hot- and the cold spring," etc. Or, " The first verse and the second," etc. XI. TWO FIRST-THREE LAST, etc. The expressions, tivo first, three last, and the like, have been opposed and ridiculed by some, on the ground, as they allege, that there can be only one first, and one last. The objectors evidently have not well considered their position ; for — 1. The terms first and last do not necessarily mean only one. First, according to Webster, means, '^ preceding all others,^' The tico first, then, means the two preceding all others, and the three last means the three succeeding all others — expressions in which there is surely nothing either ridiculous or absurd. 2. If we say, " The first days of summer " — " The first years of our life " — " The last days of Pompeii," which nobody doubts, then, it is not true that there can be only one first and ons last ; and so the ground of objection fails. If we can say. " The laM days of summer,' why not the two last, or the three last ? 3. The expression objected to is used by the best authorities in the language, and has been in use hundreds of years ; and there- fore, on the well-known maxim, " Usage is the law of language," if it were absurd, it can not be rejected. The following are examples, most of them mentioned by Mr. Wells : " The four first acts." — Bp. Berkeley. — "The three first monarchies." — Warhurton. — "The two first persons." — Latham's Eng. Gram. — " My two last letters." — Ad- dison. — " The two first lines." — Blair. — " Th» *hree first generations." 332 ENGLISH GRAMMAE. — E. Everett. — " The two first years." — Bancroft. — " The two first days." — Irving. — " The two first cantos." — A. H. Everett. — " The foul first centuries. " — Prescott. 4. This e.Jcpressio}i is, in some cases, evidently better than the other. It is probably always so, when the number characterized as fvrst or last constitutes a majority of the whole. When we say, " the first four," there is evidently a reference to a second four, or a last four. But if the first four constitute a majority of the whole, there remains no second four to justify the reference. Thus, when we say, " The first four acts of a play were well performed," there remains only one to which any other reference can be made. On the other hand, when a whole is divided into equal portions, each containing a certain number, as the recurrence of the census every five years — of the Olympic games every four — of the sabbath every seven*days — of four lines in each stanza of a poem, and the like — then the expression first four, second four, last four, etc., is, preferable, because it implies a reference to other portions of equal extent. Also, even when there is no such reference, it is often properly used, especially when the number is large ; as, " The first hundred " — " The last thousand/' etc. 5. Several distinguished scholars and grammarians have ex- amined this point, and expressed their views respecting it as fol- lows : — " It has been doubted whether the cardinal should precede or follow the ordinal numeral." — Atterbury says in one of his letters to Pope : " Not but that the four first lines are good." — " We conceive the expression to be quite correct, though the other form be often employed to denote the same conception." — Gromhie's English Syntax, p. 240. — " Some grammarians object to the use of the numerals two, four, etc., before the adjectives ^rsi and last. There seems, however, to be no good reason for the objection, and the expressions two first, two last, etc., are fully sanctioned by good usage." — Wells's Grammar, p. 137. — The ibllowing is a note on the same page : — " It has been fashionable of late to write the first three, and so on, instead of the three first. People write in this way to avoid the seeming absurdity of implying that more than one thing can he first ; but it is at least equally as absurd to talk about the first four, when, as often happens, there is no second four." — Arnold. — " Surely, if there can be only one last, one first, there can be only * a last one,' ' a first one.' I need only observe, that usage is decidedly in favor of the former phrase* ology." — Orant. "' The only argument against the use of two first, and in favor of APPENDIX — ABBREVIATIONS. 333 substituting jw's^ two, so far as I can recollect, is tliis : — In the nature of tilings, tliere can be only one first and one last in any series of things- But is it true that there can never be more than one first, and one last ? If it be so, then the adjectives first and l(ist must always be of the singular number, and can never agree with nouns in the plural. * We are told that the first years of a lawyer's practice are seldom very lucrative.' — * The poet tells us that his first essays were severelyi handled by the critics, but his last efforts have been well received.' Examples like these might be produced, without number ; they occur everywhere, in all our standard writers. * * * When a numeral adjective, and a qualifying epithet, both refer to the same noun, the general rule of the English language is to place the numeral first then the qualifying epithet, and then the noun. Thus, we say, * The two wise men ' — ' The two taU men,' and not * The wise two men ' — * The tall two men.' And the same rule holds in superlatives. We say, * The two wisest men ' — ' The two tallest men,' and not ' The wisest two men ' — * The tallest two men.' Now if this be admitted to be the general rule of the EngUsh language, then it follows that generally we should say, 'The two first' — 'The two last,' etc., rather than "V\\Q first two' — 'The last two,' qIq. This, I say, should ^e^ie- rally be the order of the words. Yet there are some cases in which it seems preferable to say, ' The first two ' — * The last two,' etc."— i>r. Murdoch. XII.- ABBREVIATIONS. [The following list contains those most commonly in use :— ] A, or Ans. Answer. [Academy. A. A, S. Fellow of the American A.B. or B.A. Bachelor of Arts.^ Abp. Archbishop. Account. In the year of our Lord.^ Administrator. Alabama. A. M. (W M. A. Master of Arts.* A. M. In the forenoon.* Acct. A. D. Admr, Ala. 1 Artium Brrcealaureus. 2 Anno Domini. 8 Artium Mngiater. 4 Ante Meridiem. A.M. In the year of the world.' Amt. Amount. Anon. Anonymous. Apr. April. Ark. Arkansas. Atty. Attorney. Aug. August. Bal. Balance. B.C. or A.C. Before Christ." Bp. Bishop. Cal. California. Capt. Captain. 5 Anno Mimdi. 6 Ante Christum, 334 E2^GLISH GRAMMAR. Cash. Cashier. Chap. Chapter. C.J. Chief Justice. Co. Company; County Col. Colonel. Conn. Of Ct. Connecticut. Cr. Credit ; Creditor. Ct., Cts. Cent, Cents. D. C. District of Columbia. D.D. Doctor of Divinity.'' Dec. December. Del. Delaware. Dft. Defendant. Do.,ditto . The same. Dolls. Dollars. Dr. Doctor, or Debtor. E. East. Ed. Edition ; Editor. e.j?. For example.^ Eng. England ; English. Esq. Esquire. Etal. And others.^ Etc. Of &c. And so forth.^° [ception. Ex. Example; Exodus; ex- Exr. Executor. Feb. February. Fla. Florida. Fr. France ; French. Fri. Friday. [ciety. F. R. S. Fellow of the Royal So- Ga. Georgia. Gen. General. Gent. Gentleman. Gov. Governor. [esty. H. B. M. His or Her Britannic Maj- H.M. His or Her Majesty. Hon. Honorable. H.R. House of Representatives Hund. Hundred. Ind. Indiana. [place. Va.OT Ibid. The same ; in the" same i.e. That is. 111. Illinois. [month. Inst. Instant, or the present Int. Interest. la. Iowa. 7 Docto r IHvinitatia. 8 Ew.m nli gratld. 9 FA alii. 10 Et cvntera. It. Italian; Italy. Jan. January. J. P. Justice of the Peace. Jr. (^rJun. Junior. Kan. Kansas. Ky. Kentucky. Lat. Latitude. L. I. Long Island. Lieut. Lieutenant. LL.D. Doctor of Laws." Lon. Longitude. Lou. or La. Louisiana. L. S. Place of the Seal." M. Meridian or Noon. Maj. Major. Mar. March. Mass. Massachusetts. M. C. Member of Congress. M. D. Doctor of Medicine.^^ Md. Maryland. Mdlle. [Fr.] (Mademoiselle), Miss. Me. Maine. [men, or girs. Messrs. [Fr.] (Messieurs), Gentle- Mich. Michigan. Minn. Minnesota. Miss. Mississippi. Mo. Missouri ; Month. Mons. or M. Monsieur. M. P. Member of Parliament. Mr. Master or Mister. Mrs. Mistress. MS. Manuscript. ' MSS. Manuscripts. Mt. Mount or Mountain. N. North. N. A. North America- N.B. Take notice ^^ ; New Brunswick. N. C. North Carolina. [land. N. E. North-east ; New Eng, Neb. Nebraska. N. H. New Hampshire. N. J. New Jersey. No. Number. Nov. November. N. S. Nova Scotia; New Style. 11 Legum Doctor. 12 Loeun fiigiUi. 13 Medicinoe, Doctor. 14 Nota bene [note well]. APPENDIX — A BBREVIATIOI^S. 335 N. W. North-west. S. C. South Carolina. N. Y. New York. S. B. South-east. 0. Ohio. Sec. Secretary. Obj . Obj ecti ve ; Obj ection. Sect. Section. Obt. Obedient. Sen. Senator; Senior. Oct. October. Sept. September. 0. S. Old Styla Serg. Sergeant. P., pp. Page, pages. Servt. Servant. Pa. or Penn. Pennsylvania. S8..y. 193? NOV I S *^^' ;s. _ Revolu- \g. ted to the ~ embraces listration. "1, accuracy Is admira- -ing, which ams, have _ension of collecting ire a suffi- series of the youth 11.00. iS. Price -. Review -sources of corrected. jnd events -IS. Price [•ation of "ions. _ States* _ of an im '.I race who I record of iduals and Settlements " 'y of these il develop- -jsulted in a tant events -/ of tlie Re- LD 21-95m-7,'37 YB 01732 Sheldon d- Company s Text-^ooks, / FRENCH SERIES. JPinney's Easy Lessons. 137 pp. Price 80c. 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