SYNONYMS 
 
 OP 
 
 THE NEW TESTAMENT.
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 BY 
 EICHAED CHENEVIX TRENCH, D.D. 
 
 ABCHBISHOP 
 
 TWELFTH EDITION 
 COERECTED AND IMPROVED 
 
 LONDON 
 
 KEGAN PAUL, TEENCH, TEUBNEE, & CO. LTD. 
 1894
 
 (The rights of translation and of reproduction arc reserved')
 
 PBEFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE EIGHTH EDITION. 
 
 THIS VOLUME, not any longer a little one, has grown 
 out of a course of lectures on the Synonyms of the 
 New Testament, which, in the fulfilment of my duties 
 as Professor of Divinity at King's College, London, I 
 more than once delivered to the theological students 
 there. The long, patient, and exact studies in language 
 of our great Schools and Universities, which form so 
 invaluable a portion of their mental, and of their moral 
 discipline as well, could find no place during the two 
 years or two years and a half of the theological course 
 at King's College. The time itself was too short to 
 allow this, and it was in great part preoccupied by 
 more pressing studies. Yet, feeling the immense 
 value of these studies, and how unwise it would be, 
 because we could not have all which we would desire, 
 to forego what was possible and within our reach, I 
 two or three times dedicated a course of lectures to 
 the comparative value of words in the New Testament 
 and these lectures, with many subsequent additions 
 and some defalcations, have supplied the materials 
 
 20GQ721
 
 vi PREFACE TO THE 
 
 of the present volume. I have never doubted that 
 (setting aside those higher and more solemn lessons, 
 which in a great measure are out of our reach to 
 impart, being taught rather by God than men), there 
 are few things which a theological teacher should 
 have more at heart than to awaken in his scholars an 
 enthusiasm for the grammar and the lexicon. We 
 shall have done much for those who come to us for 
 theological training and generally for mental guidance, 
 if we can persuade them to have these continually in 
 their hands ; if we can make them believe that with 
 these, and out of these, they may be learning more, 
 obtaining more real and lasting acquisitions, such as 
 will stay by them, and form a part of the texture of 
 their own minds for ever, that they shall from these 
 be more effectually accomplishing themselves for their 
 future work, than from many a volume of divinity, 
 studied before its time, even if it had been worth 
 studying at all, crudely digested, and therefore turning 
 to no true nourishment of the intellect or the spirit. 
 
 Claiming for these lectures a wider audience thau 
 at first they had, I cannot forbear to add a few obser- 
 vations on the value of the study of synonyms, not 
 any longer having in my eye the peculiar needs of 
 any special body of students, but generally ; and on 
 that of the Synonyms of the New Testament in parti- 
 cular; as also on the helps to the study of these 
 which are at present in existence ; with a few further 
 remarks which my own experience has suggested. 
 
 The value of this study as a discipline for training 
 the mind into close and accurate habits of thought,
 
 EIGHTH EDITION. vii 
 
 the amount of instruction which may be drawn from 
 it, the increase of intellectual wealth which it may 
 yield, all this has been implicitly recognized by well- 
 nigh all great writers for well-nigh all from time to 
 time have paused, themselves to play the dividers and 
 discerners of words explicitly by not a few, who 
 have proclaimed the value which this study had in 
 their eyes. And instructive as in any language it 
 must be, it must be eminently so in the Greek a 
 language spoken by a people of the subtlest intellect ; 
 who saw distinctions, where others saw none ; who 
 divided out to different words what others often were 
 content to huddle confusedly under a common term ; 
 who were themselves singularly alive to its value, 
 diligently cultivating the art of synonymous distinc- 
 tion (the ovo/xara Sicupeti/, Plato, Laches, 197 d) ; and 
 who have bequeathed a multitude of fine and delicate 
 observations on the right discrimination of their own 
 words to the after- world. Many will no doubt re- 
 member the excellent sport which Socrates makes of 
 Prodicus, 1 who was possest with this passion to an 
 extravagant degree (Protag. 337 a b c). 
 
 And while thus the characteristic excellences of 
 the Greek language especially invite us to the investi- 
 gation of the likenesses and differences between words, 
 to the study of the words of the New Testament there 
 are reasons additional inviting us. If by such investi- 
 gations as these we become aware of delicate varia- 
 tions in an author's meaning, which otherwise we 
 
 1 On Prodicus and Protagoras see Grote, History of Greece, vol. vi. 
 p. 67 ; Sir A. Grant, Ethics of Aristotle, 3rd edit. vol. i. p. 123. In 
 Grafenham's most instructive Gesch. der klassischen Philologie there a^e 
 several chapters on this subject.
 
 viii PREFACE TO THE 
 
 might have missed, where is it so desirable that we 
 should miss nothing, that we should lose no finer 
 intention of the writer, as in those words which are 
 the vehicles of the very mind of God Himself? If 
 thus the intellectual riches of the student are increased, 
 can this anywhere be of so great importance as there, 
 where the intellectual may, if rightly used, prove 
 spiritual riches as well ? If it encourage thoughtful 
 meditation on the exact forces of words, both as they 
 are in themselves, and in their relation to other words, 
 or in any way unveil to us their marvel and their 
 mystery, this can nowhere else have a worth in the 
 least approaching that which it acquires when the 
 words with which we have to do are, to those who 
 receive them aright, words of eternal life ; while in 
 the dead carcases of the same, if men suffer the spirit 
 of life to depart from them, all manner of corruptions 
 and heresies may be, as they often have been, bred. 
 
 The words of the New Testament are eminently 
 the crroix^cL of Christian theology, and he who will 
 not begin with a patient study of those, shall never 
 make any considerable, least of all any secure, 
 advances in this : for here, as everywhere else, sure 
 disappointment awaits him who thinks to possess the 
 whole without first possessing the parts of which that 
 whole is composed. The rhyming couplet of the 
 Middle Ages contains a profound instruction : 
 
 1 Qui nescit paites in vanum tendit ad artes ; 
 Artes per partes, non partes disce per artes.' 
 
 Now it is the very nature and necessity of the dis- 
 crimination of synonyms to compel such patient 
 investigation of the force of words, such accurate
 
 EIGHTH EDITION. IX 
 
 weighing of their precise value, absolute and relative, 
 and in this its chief merits as a mental discipline 
 consist. 
 
 Yet when we look around us for assistance herein, 
 neither concerning Greek synonyms in general, nor 
 specially concerning those of the New Testament, can 
 it be affirmed that we are even tolerably furnished 
 with books. Whatever there may be to provoke 
 dissent in Doderlein's Lateinische Synonyme und 
 Etymologieen, and there could be scarcely an error 
 more fatally misleading than his notion that Latin 
 was derived from Greek, there is no book on Greek 
 synonyms which for compass and completeness can 
 bear comparison with it ; and almost all the more 
 important modern languages of Europe have better 
 books devoted to their synonyms than any which have 
 been devoted to the Greek. The works of the early 
 grammarians, as of Ammonius and others, supply a 
 certain amount of valuable material, but cannot be 
 said even remotely to meet the needs of the student 
 at the present day. Vomel's Synonymisches Worter- 
 buch, Frankfurt, 1822, excellent as far as it goes, but 
 at the same time a school-book and no more, and 
 Pillon's Synonymes Grecs, of which a translation into 
 English was edited by the late T. K. Arnold, London, 
 1850, are the only modern attempts to supply the 
 deficiency ; at least I am not aware of any other. 
 But neither of these writers has allowed himself space 
 to enter on his subject Avith any fulness and com- 
 pleteness : not to say that references to the synonyms 
 of the New Testament are exceedingly rare in Vb'mel ; 
 and, though somewhat more frequent in Pillon's work,
 
 X PREFACE TO THE 
 
 are capricious and uncertain there, and in general of 
 a meagre and unsatisfactory description. 
 
 The only book dedicated expressly and exclusively 
 to these is one written in Latin by J. A. H. Tittmann, 
 De Synonymis in Novo Testamento, Leipzig, 1829, 1832. 
 It would ill become me, and I have certainly no 
 intention, to speak slightingly of the work of a most 
 estimable man, and a good scholar above all, when 
 that work is one from which I have derived some, if 
 not a great deal of assistance, and such as I most 
 willingly acknowledge. Yet the fact that we are 
 offering a book on the same subject as a preceding 
 author ; and may thus lie under, or seem to others to 
 lie under, the temptation of unduly claiming for the 
 ground which we would occupy, that it is not solidly 
 occupied already ; this must not wholly shut our 
 mouths from pointing out what may appear to us 
 deficiencies or shortcomings on his part. And this 
 work of Tittmann's seems to me still to leave room 
 for another, even on the very subject to which it is 
 specially devoted. It sometimes travels very slowly 
 over its ground ; the synonyms which he selects for 
 discrimination are not always the most interesting ; 
 nor are they always felicitously grouped for investi- 
 gation ; he often fails to bring out in sharp and clear 
 antithesis the differences between them ; while here 
 and there the investigations of later scholars have 
 quite broken down distinctions which he has sought 
 to establish ; as for instance that 
 and /caraXXao-o-ew, as though the first were a 
 the second only a one-sided, reconciliation ; L or a-;: in 
 
 1 See Fritzsche, On Horn, v. 10.
 
 EIGHTH EDITION. xi 
 
 as that between a^pi and ^XP L - Indeed the fact 
 that this book of Tittmann's, despite the interest of 
 its subject, and its standing alone upon it, to say 
 nothing of its translation into English, 1 has never 
 obtained any considerable circulation among students 
 of theology here, is itself an evidence of its insuffi- 
 ciency to meet our wants in this direction. 
 
 Of the deficiencies of the work now offered, I am 
 only too well aware ; none can know them at all so 
 well as myself. I know too that even were my part 
 of the work much better accomplished than it is, I 
 have left untouched an immense number of the 
 Synonyms of the N. T., and among these many of 
 the most interesting and instructive. 2 I can only 
 
 1 Biblical Cabinet, vols. iii. xviii. Edinburgh, 1833, 1837. The trans- 
 lation is very poorly performed. 
 
 2 The following list is very far from exhausting these : irpoo-<popd, 6vo-ia, 
 85>pov Trapotp-ia, TrapojSoXjj, 6/Wcocris vibs Qeov, rrals Qfov 8iKaicop.a, 
 8iKai.(oo-is, 8iKaioo~vv7) fTrirponos, oiKovop.os Kr/nos, iraptideicros X^*l> 
 TTiKpia opoy, ftovvos ra'fpoy, fj.vrjp.flov p-ovrj, oi/a'a Kfipia, odovia ufoy, 
 TtKVOv 7rv\r), 6vpa aXvcris, ire8rj fXrris, diroKapa8oKia evraXfjia, 8i8ao~Kd- 
 Xt'a ^apd, ayaXXiacris, fi>(j)poo~vvr) 86a, TI/XTJ, eiraivos /Sapor, (f>opriov, 
 oyKos dp.v6s, dpviov vr, x'tpos v\oi>, <rravp6s 7r//Xdj, fiopfiopos veros, 
 ofJidpos KTT^iara, VTrdp^fis Trorapos, ^'/xappoy KOfjiT), 
 o//za yXoicrcra, 8id\KTOS Vf<pos, ve<pf\r) rrrorjcns, dap/Bos, 
 ydfa, dr)<ravpos, dirodrjKr) rap-iflov, opveov, irertivov K\LVT}, 
 Sfo-ficoTrjpiov, (pv\aKT) Kvftfia, fj.(do8eia, iravovpyia naprjyopia, irapa- 
 fivdia, irapdK\T)o-is TVTTOS, viroSety^a, VTroypap.fj.6s, vnoTvircMris p.dxaipa, 
 pop,<pala tpis, epiBeia e'ou(ria, 8vvap.is, Kpdros, icr^vr, 0/a, evepyeia 
 Kptas, crap^ TTvevfia, vovs Xurrrj, 68vvr), a>8iv dvri8iicos, fx&p6s, VTrevavrios 
 Sia'(3oXos, 8aifj.a>v, 8aifj.6viov, KdTrjycop ddrjs, yeevva, raprapoy, (pv\dKT) 
 Xo'yos, ptjp-d do-devfia, voo~os, paXa/cia, /na'trrt^ XvrpajTTjs, trcorjjp evQv- 
 p.T)cris, evvoLd, 8ia\oyicrp.os (7riyp.a, pcoXoj^, Tr\rjyfj o\fdpos, aTrcoXeta 
 evroXrj, 86yfj,a, TrapayyeXta f$pe(j)os, jraiSiov ayvoia, ayvaxria <rirvpis y 
 Ko(f)ii>os avoid, dfypoo-vvT), fjuapia dvdndvo~i.s, KdTdjravo-is dyiacr^ioy, 
 ayioTTjs, ayiuHTvvr) (caXos, dya^or d<r8evT)s, oppcotrros fVfj.(Ta8oTos, KOI- 
 VCOVIKOS /ze'ro^os, KOIVCOVOS eSpdios, dfj.tTaKLvrjTos Trpcaroroxos, p.ovoyevfjs 
 dtSios, dlaivios ^pepioj, ^crv^ios fvos, trdpoiKOS, TrapeTTi'S^/ioy tr/coXtoy, 
 
 8lfO~Tpap.p.(VOS dTTfldTjS, UTTIOTOS (ppOVTlfa, fJLfplfJ.vd(O TrffJUTd), aTTOCTTeXXa) 
 
 Kpcijja), /cpavyd^a), /3uda> ; dva/Souco rpoiya), (pdyoum, eadioi <rvp.Tfd6fa),
 
 xii PREFACE TO THE 
 
 hope and pray that this volume, the labour sometimes 
 painful, but often delightful, of many days, may, not- 
 withstanding its many faults and shortcomings, not 
 wholly miss its aim. That aim has been to lead some 
 into closer and more accurate investigation of His 
 Word, in Whom, and therefore in whose words, ' all 
 riches of wisdom and knowledge are contained.' 
 
 I might here conclude, but having bestowed a 
 certain amount of attention on this subject, I am 
 tempted, before so doing, to offer a few hints on the 
 rules and principles which must guide a labourer in 
 this field, if the work is at all to prosper in his hands. 
 They shall bear mainly on the proper selection of the 
 passages by which he shall confirm and make good, 
 in his own sight and in the sight of others, the con- 
 clusions at which he has arrived ; for it is indeed on 
 the skill with which this selection is made that his 
 success or failure will almost altogether depend. It 
 is plain that when we affirm two or more words to be 
 synonyms, that is alike, but also different, with resem- 
 blance in the main, but also with partial difference, 
 we by no means deny that there may be a hundred 
 passages where it would be quite as possible to use 
 the one as the other. All that we certainly affirm is 
 that, granting this, there is a hundred and first, 
 where one would be appropriate and the other not, 
 
 Herpionadeca KaXfca, ovop,d^o) criydoo, crtcoTraco rrjptat, (^iiXa'crera), (ppovp(u) 
 
 TrXawco, aTraraa), 7rapaXoyi'opat 6pda>, /3X7rco, dedopcu, $ecopea>, oirrop.ai 
 
 yipaxTKw, ot'Sa, fVi'(rra/nat eiiXoyeco, ei^apicrrea) Idofjuu, Stparrevo), /3ov- 
 Aopai, $e'Xa> KaTapri(a, reXeidco KarayivuxTKO), KaraKpivia rapacrtrco, rvp- 
 
 i f ir(pi(pepa>, rapdcraco opciSt'^ico, XoiSopew, 
 KdKoXoye'a) TrX^pdu, reXfttico tivfv, xopis viiv, apri.
 
 EIGHTH EDITION. Xlil 
 
 or where, at all events, one would be more appropriate 
 than the other. To detect and cite this passage, to 
 disengage it from the multitude of other passages, 
 which would help little or nothing here, this is 
 a chief business, we may say that it is the chief 
 business, of one who, undertaking the task of the 
 discrimination of words, would not willingly have 
 laboured in vain. It is true that a word can hardly 
 anywhere be used by one who is at all a master, either 
 conscious or unconscious, of language, but that his 
 employment of it shall assist in fixing, if there be any 
 doubt on the matter, the exact bounds and limitations 
 of its meaning, in drawing an accurate line of de- 
 marcation between it and such other words as border 
 upon it, and thus in defining the territory which it 
 occupies as its own. Still it would plainly be an 
 endless and impossible labour to quote or even refer 
 to all, or a thousandth part of all, the places in which 
 any much used word occurs ; while, even supposing 
 these all brought together, their very multitude would 
 defeat the purpose for which they were assembled ; 
 nor would the induction from them be a whit more 
 satisfactory and conclusive than that from select 
 examples, got together with judgment and from- suffi- 
 ciently wide a field. He who would undertake this 
 work must be able to recognize what these passages 
 are, which, carrying conviction to his own mind, he 
 may trust will carry it also to those of others. A 
 certain innate tact, a genius for the seizing of subtler 
 and finer distinctions, will here be of more profit than 
 all rules which can beforehand be laid down; at 
 least, no rules will compensate for the absence of
 
 XIV PREFACE TO THE 
 
 this ; and when all has been said, much must be left 
 to this tact. At the same time a few hints here need 
 not be altogether unprofitable, seeing that there is no 
 such help to finding as to know beforehand exactly 
 what we should seek, and where we should seek it. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to observe that the student 
 in this field -of labour will bestow especial attention 
 on the bringing together, so far as they bear upon his 
 subject, of those passages in good authors in which 
 his work is, so to speak, done to his hand, and some 
 writer of authority avowedly undertakes to draw out 
 the distinction between certain words, either in a 
 single phrase, or in a somewhat longer discussion, or 
 in a complete treatise. To these he will pay diligent 
 heed, even while he will claim the right of reconsider- 
 ing, and it may be declining to accept, the distinctions 
 drawn by the very chiefest among them. The dis- 
 tinguishing of synonyms comes so naturally to great 
 writers, who are also of necessity more or less accurate 
 thinkers, and who love to make sure of the materials 
 with which they are building, of the weapons which 
 they are wielding, that of these distinctions traced by 
 writers who are only word- dividers accidentally and 
 by the way, an immense multitude exists, a multitude 
 far beyond the hope of any single student to bring 
 together, scattered up and down as they are in 
 volumes innumerable. I will enumerate a few, but 
 only as illustrating the wide range of authors from 
 whom they may be gathered. Thus they are met in 
 Herodotus (euro's and oXyStos, i. 32) ; in Plato 
 (6appa\<lo<s and di'Speios, Protag. 349 e ; Qapa-os and 
 'a, Ib. 351 b; icrxypos and Swaros, Ib. 350 c ;
 
 EIGHTH EDITION. XV 
 
 and o-Tctcm, Rep. v. 470 6 ; Stavota and 
 76. vi. 511 d ; n-vTJp-'r) and di'ci/u'^cri?, Philebus, 34 6 ; 
 cf. Aristotle, 77zs. Anim. i. i. 15); in Aristotle 
 (euyev??? and yewcuos, 77z',s. Anim. i. i. 14; 7?A<?. ii. 
 15; cf. Dio Chrysostom, 0ra. 15, in fine; 
 and ey/cw/uoi>, Ethic. Nic. i. 12. 6; Rhet.i. 9; 
 and crv/t(/>v0-i9, Metaph. iv. 4 ; <f>povir)(ri<s and 
 Ethic. Nic. vi. 1 1 ; d/cdXacrTos and d/cpaTi^s, 7?>. vii. 7, 
 10 ; 77Tev/Ma and d^e^o?, Zte Mund. iv. 10 ; cf, Philo, 
 . i. 14 ; o/xy8/309 and verog, De Mund. iv. 6 ; 
 and </>tXta, Ethic. Nic. ix. 5) ; in Xenophon 
 and ot/co?, (Econ. i. 5 ; ySacriXeux and Tvpawts, 
 Mem. iv. 6. 12); in Demosthenes (XotSopta and 
 ta, xviii. 123); in Philo (fit^ts, /cpcuri?, and 
 ^ C't'TZ/. im^r. 37 ; Swpov and So/xa, Ze^. 
 iii. 70 ; Scoped and Socris, Z><? Cherub. 25 ; 
 Bpao-vTys and ^ap/aaXeor^?, QMW jR^r. Zto'u. ^/cpr. 5 ; 
 77^017 and Trvevpa, Leg. Alleg. i. 13 ; in Plutarch 
 (d/coXacrta and dfcpcuna, Z?e Ftrf. 3/br. 6 ; ey/cpctreta 
 and crcu^pocrwiy, ibid.} ; in Lucilius (' pcema ' and 
 ' poesis,' /Sat 9) ; in Cicero (' vitium,' ' morbus,' and 
 * eegrotatio,' Ttwc. iv. 13; 'gaudium,' ' laetitia,' and 
 ' voluptas,' /&. iv. 6 ; cf. Seneca, .E/). 59 ; Aulus 
 Gellius, ii. 27; 'cautio' and 'metus,' Tusc. iv. 6; 
 ' labor ' and ' dolor,' Ib. ii. 15; ' versutus ' and ' calli- 
 dus,' De Nat. Deor. iii. 10 ; 'doctus' and 'peritus,' 
 De Off. i. 41 ; ' perseverantia ' and ' patientia,' Delnv. 
 ii. 34 ; ' dignitas ' and ' venustas,' De Off. i. 30. 17; 
 c maledictum ' and ' accusatio,' Pro Ccel. iii. 6 ; with 
 others innumerable). They are found in Quintilian 
 (' salsus,' ' urbanus,' and ' facetus,' Instit. vi. 3,17; 
 4 fama ' and '.rumor,' Ib. v. 3 ; ^6r) and Tra&y, Ib. vi.
 
 xvi PREFACE TO THE 
 
 2, 8) ; in Seneca (' ira ' and ' iracundia,' De Ird, i. 4) ; 
 in Aulus Gellius (' matrona ' and * materfamilias,' 
 xviii. 6. 4 ; ' fulvus ' and ' flavus,' ' ruber ' and * rufus,' 
 Jb. ii. 26) ; in St. Jerome (* pignus ' and ' arrha,' in 
 Ephes. i. 14; ' pu tens' and * cisterna,' in Osee i. i ; 
 ' bonitas ' and ' benignitas,' in Gal. v. 22 ; ' modestia ' 
 and ' continent!*,' ibid.); in St. Augustine ('flagitium' 
 and ' facinus,' Conf. iii. 8, 9 ; ' volo ' and ' cupio,' DP 
 Civ. Dei, xiv. 8 ; ' fons ' and * puteus,' in Joh. iv. 6 ; 
 ' senecta ' and ' senium,' Enarr. in Ps. Ixx. 18 ; 'aBmu- 
 latio ' and ' invidia,' Exp. in Gal. v. 20 ;' curiosus ' 
 and ' studiosus,' De Util. Cred. 9) ; * in Hugh of St. 
 Victor (' cogitatio,' ' meditatio,' ' contemplatio,' De 
 Contemp. i. 3,4); in Muretus ('possessio' and 'do- 
 minium,' Epist. iii. 80) ; and, not to draw this matter 
 endlessly out, in South (' envy ' and ' emulation,' 
 Sermons, 1737, vol. v. p. 403 ; compare Bishop 
 Butler's Sermons, 1836, p. 15) ; in Barrow (* slander' 
 and ' detraction ') ; in Jeremy Taylor (' mandatum ' 
 and 'jussio,' Ductor Dubitantium, iv. i. 2. 7); in 
 Samuel Johnson (* talk ' and ' conversation,' Boswell's 
 Life, 1842, p. 719) ; in Goschel (' sequitas ' and 'jus,' 
 Zerst. Blatter, part ii. p. 387); in Coleridge ('fana- 
 ticism ' and ' enthusiasm,' Lit. Rein. vol. ii. p. 365 ; 
 'keenness' and 'subtlety,' Table Talk, p. 140; 
 ' analogy ' and 'metaphor,' Aids to Reflection, p. 198); 
 and in De Quincey (' hypothesis,' ' theory,' ' system,' 
 Lit. Reminiscences, vol. ii. p. 299, American Ed.). 
 Indeed in every tongue the great masters of language 
 would rarely fail to contribute their quota of these. 
 
 For many more examples in Augustine see my St. Auyustiw on the 
 Sermon on the Mount, 3rd edit. p. 27.
 
 EIGHTH EDITION. xvii 
 
 There is a vast number of other passages also, in 
 worth secondary to those which I have just adduced, 
 inasmuch as they do not draw these accurate lines of 
 demarcation between the domain of meaning occupied 
 by one word and that occupied by others bordering 
 upon it ; but which yet, containing an accurate de- 
 finition or pregnant description of some ono., will 
 prove most serviceable when it is sought to distinguish 
 this from others which are cognate to it. All such 
 definitions and descriptions he will note who has 
 taken this subject in hand. Such, for example, is 
 Plato's definition of Sidvoia (Sophist. 263 e) : 6 eVro? 
 TT}? t/^X^ 9 Kpos avTyv SiaXoyos avev (j)covrj^ yiyvo^zvos: 
 of vd/xos (Legg. i. 6440?) : 05 [Xoyicr/zos] yevo^evos Soy/xa 
 TToXews KOIVOV vo'/zos en-aW/xao-Tcu : with which that of 
 Aristotle may be compared : vo/xos Se ecrrtv o/ioXoy-^/xa 
 TroXecos KOIVOV Sta ypaja/xarwv, trpo(jTa.TTOv TTWS -^p-fj 
 rrpdrreiv e/caora (Rhet. ad Alex, ii.) ; or, again, Ari- 
 stotle's of VTpa.7re\io. that it is vfipis TreTratSev/aeVry, or 
 * chastened insolence' (Rhet. ii. 12) ; of O-^VOT^ that 
 it is /taXa/cr) KCU evax-tip-cuv {3apvTr)<s (Rhet. ii. 19); or 
 Cicero's of ' temperantia,' that it is ' moderatio cupi- 
 ditatuni rationi obtemperans ' (De Fin. ii. 17; or 
 again of ' beatitudo ' (Tusc. v. 10) : ' Secretis malis 
 omnibus cumulata bonorum omnium possessio ; ' or 
 of ' vultus,' that it is ' sermo quidam tacitus mentis ; ' 
 or of ' divinatio,' that it is ' Earum rerum quae for- 
 tuitoe putantur praedictio atque prassensio ' (Divin. i. 
 5, 9) ; again, of ' gloria' (Tusc. iii. 2), that it is ' con- 
 sentiens laus bonorum, incorrupta vox bene judi- 
 cantium de excellente virtute ; ' or once more (Inv. 
 ii. 55, 156) : ' Estfrequens de aliquo fama cum laude;' 
 
 a 2
 
 xviii PREFACE TO THE 
 
 or South's of the same, more subtle, and taken more 
 from a subjective point of view (Sermons, 1737, vol. 
 iv. p. 67) : ' Glory is the joy a man conceives from 
 his own perfections considered with relation to the 
 opinions of others, as observed and acknowledged by 
 them.' l Or take another of Cicero's, that namely of 
 1 jactatio,' that it is ' voluptas gestiens, et se efferens 
 violentius' (Tusc. iv. 9). All these, and the like of 
 these, he will gather for the use which, as occasion 
 arises, may be made of them ; or, in any event, for 
 the mental training in a special direction which their 
 study will afford him. 
 
 Another series of passages will claim especial atten- 
 tion ; those namely which contain, as many do, a 
 pointed antithesis, and which thus tell their own tale. 
 For instance, when Ovid says severally of the soldier 
 and the lover, 'hie portas frangit, at ille fores,' the 
 difference between the gates of a city and the doors of 
 a house, as severally expressed by the one word and 
 the other, can escape no reader. This from Cicero 
 (Verr. v. 66), l f acinus est vinciri civem Romanum, 
 scelus verberari,' gives us at once what was his rela- 
 tive estimate of ' facinus ' and ' scelus.' There are 
 few distinctions more familiar than that existing be- 
 tween ' vir ' and ' homo ' ; but were this otherwise, a 
 passage like that well-known one in Cicero concerning 
 
 1 Compare George Eliot 
 
 'What is fame 
 
 But the benignant strength of one, transformed 
 To joy of many ? ' 
 
 while Godet has a grand definition of ' glory,' but this now the glory of 
 God: 'La gloire de Dieu est l'6clat que projettent dans le cceur de 
 creatures intelligentes ses perfections manifestoes.'
 
 EIGHTH EDITION. xix 
 
 Marius (Tusc. ii. 22) would bring the distinction to 
 the consciousness of all. One less trite which Seneca 
 affords will do the same (Ep. 104) : * Quid est cur 
 timeat laborem vir, mortem homo?' while this at once 
 lets us know what difference he puts between ' delec- 
 tare ' and ' placere ' (Ep. 39) : * Malorum ultimum est 
 mala sua amare, ubi turpia non solum delectant^ sed 
 eti&m placent ;' and this what the difference is between 
 ' carere ' and ' indigere ' ( Vit. Beat. 7) : ' Voluptate 
 virtus ssepe caret, nunquam indiget.' The distinction 
 between ' secure ' and ' safe,' between ' securely ' and 
 
 * safely,' is well-nigh obliterated in our modern 
 English, but how admirably is it brought out in this 
 line of Ben Jonson, 
 
 ' Men may securely sin, but safely never.' 
 
 Closely connected with these are passages in which 
 words are used as in a climacteric, one rising above 
 the other, each evidently intended by the writer to 
 be stronger than the last. These passages will at all 
 events make clear in what order of strength the several 
 words so employed presented themselves to him who 
 so used them. Thus, if there were any doubt about 
 the relation of ' paupertas ' and ' egestas,' a passage 
 like the following from Seneca (Ep. 58) would be 
 decisive, so far at least as concerns the silver age of 
 Latinity : ' Quanta verborum nobis paupertas, imo 
 egestas sit, nunquam magis quam hodierno die intel- 
 lexi ; ' while for the relations between ' inopia ' and 
 
 * egestas ' we may compare a similar passage from the 
 younger Pliny (Ep. iv. 18). Another passage from 
 Seneca (De 7m, ii. 36: 'Ajacem in mortem egit/n?r,
 
 XX PREFACE TO THE 
 
 in furorem ira ') shows how he regarded ' ira ' and 
 4 furor.' When Juvenal describes the ignoble assenta- 
 tion of the Greek sycophant, ever ready to fall in with 
 and to exaggerate the mood of his patron, ' si dixeris, 
 " cestuo," sudat ' (Sat. iii. 103), there can be no ques- 
 tion in what relation of strength the words 'asstuo' 
 and ' sudo ' for him stand to one another. 
 
 Nor in this way only, but in various others, a great 
 writer, without directly intending any such thing, will 
 give a most instructive lesson in synonyms and their 
 distinction merely by the alternations and interchanges 
 of one word with another, which out of an instinctive 
 sense of fitness and propriety he will make. For 
 instance, what profound instruction on the distinction 
 between fiios and 0)77 lies in the two noble chapters 
 with which the Gorgias of Plato concludes, while yet 
 he was certainly very far from designing any such 
 lesson. So, too, as all would own, Cicero is often far 
 more instructive, and far more to be relied on as a 
 guide and authority in his passionate shifting and 
 changing of words than when in colder blood he 
 proceeds to distinguish one from another. So much 
 we may affirm without in the least questioning the 
 weight which all judgments of his on his own language 
 must possess. 
 
 Once more, the habitual associates of a word will 
 claim the special attention of one who is seeking to 
 mark out the exact domain of meaning which it occu- 
 pies. Eemembering the proverb, * Noscitur a sociis,' 
 he will note accurately the company which it uses to 
 keep ; above all, he will note if there be any one other 
 word with which it stands in ever-recurring alliance.
 
 EIGHTH EDITION. xxi 
 
 He will draw from this association two important 
 conclusions: first, that it has not exactly the same 
 meaning as these words with which it is thus con 
 stantly associated ; else one or the other, and not both, 
 save only in a few exceptional cases of rhetorical 
 accumulation, would be employed : the second, that 
 it has a meaning nearly bordering upon theirs, else 
 it would not be found in such frequent combination 
 with them. Pape's Greek Lexicon is good, and Eost 
 and Palm's still better, for the attention bestowed 
 upon this point, which had been only very partially 
 attended to by Passow. The helps are immense 
 which may here be found for the exact fixing of the 
 meaning of a word. Thus a careful reader of our 
 old authors can scarcely fail to have been perplexed 
 by the senses in which he finds the word ' peevish ' 
 employed so different from our modern, so difficult 
 to reduce to that common point of departure, which 
 yet all the different meanings that a word in time 
 comes to obtain must have once possessed. Let him 
 weigh, however, its use in two or three such passages 
 as the following, and the companionship in which he 
 finds it will greatly help him to grasp the precise 
 sense in which two hundred years since it was em- 
 ployed. The first is from Burton (Anatomy of Melan- 
 choly, part iii. i ) : ' We provoke, rail, scoff, calum- 
 niate, hate, abuse (hard-hearted, implacable, malicious, 
 peevish, inexorable as we are), to satisfy our lust or 
 private spleen.' The second from Shakespeare (Two 
 Gentlemen of Verona, Act III. Sc. i ) : 
 
 Valentine, ' Cannot your Grace win her to fancy him ?* 
 
 J}uke. 'No, trust me, she is peevish, sullen, froward, 
 
 Proud, disobedient, stubborn, lacking duty. 1
 
 xxii PREFACE TO THE 
 
 Surely in these quotations, and in others similar which 
 could easily be adduced, there are assistances at once 
 safe and effectual for arriving at a right appreciation 
 of the force of ' peevish.' 
 
 Again, one who is considering and seeking to arrive 
 at the exact value, both positive and relative, of words 
 will diligently study the equivalents in other tongues 
 which masters of language have put forward ; espe- 
 cially where it is plain they have made the selection of 
 the very fittest equivalent a matter of earnest con- 
 sideration. I spoke just now of ' peevish.' Another 
 passage from Burton ' Pertinax hominum genus, a 
 peevish generation of men ' is itself sufficient to con- 
 firm the notion, made probable by induction from 
 passages cited already, that self-willedness (av#aSeia) 
 was the leading notion which the word once possessed. 
 Sometimes possessing no single word of their own 
 precisely equivalent to that which they would render, 
 they have sought to approach this last from different 
 quarters and what no single one would do, to effect 
 by several, employing sometimes one and sometimes 
 another. Cicero tells us that he so dealt with the 
 Greek cra)(f>poo-wr), for which he found no one word 
 that was its adequate representative in Latin. Each 
 of these will probably tell us some part of that which 
 we desire to learn. 
 
 But then further, in seeking to form an exact 
 estimate of ethical terms and their relation to, and 
 their distinction from, one another, it will profit much 
 to observe by what other names virtues and vices have 
 been called, with what titles of dishonour virtues have 
 been miscalled by those who wished to present them
 
 EIGHTH EDITION. xxiii 
 
 in an odious or a ridiculous light ; with what titles of 
 honour vices have been adorned by those who would 
 fain make the worse appear the better, who would 
 put darkness for light and light for darkness ; since, 
 unjust as in every case these words must be, they must 
 yet have retained some show and remote semblance 
 of justice, else they would scarcely have imposed on 
 the simplest and the most unwary ; and from their very 
 lie a truth may be extorted by him who knows how 
 to question them aright. Thus when Plato (Rep. viii. 
 560 e) characterizes some as vfipiv ^ eu7ratSevcrtai> 
 /caXovi'Teg, avap^tav Se \ev0pia.v, acrcoTLav Se yueyaXo- 
 7r/3eVetai>, avaibeiav Se avSpelav (cf. Aristotle, Rhet. i. 
 g) ; or when Plutarch (Anim. an Corp. Aff. Pej. 3) says, 
 OvfJiov Se TroXXot KoXov(Tiv oVS^oetaz', /cat epojra <iXtai>. 
 Kal <f)66voi> ajaiXXav, /cat SetXtW dcr^aXetav : or when 
 he relates how the flatterers of Dionysius, not now 
 giving good names to bad things, but bad names to 
 good, called the cre/xvor^s of Dion vTrepcn/aa, and his 
 Trapprja-ia av#aSeta (Dion, 8 ; cf. De Adul. et Am. 14) ; 
 or, once more, when we have a passage before us like 
 the following from Cicero (Part. Orat. 23) : ' Pru- 
 dentiam malitia, et temperantiam immanitas in as- 
 pernandis voluptatibus, et liberalitatem effusio, et 
 fortitudinem audacia imitatur, et patientiam duritia 
 immanis, et justitiam acerbitas, et religionem super- 
 stitio, et lenitatem mollitia animi, et verecundiam 
 timiditas, et illam disputandi prudentiam concertatio 
 captatioque verborum ' when, I say, we have such 
 statements before us, these pairs of words mutually 
 throw light each upon the other ; and it is our own 
 fault if these caricatures are. .not helpful to us in
 
 xxiv PREFACE TO THE 
 
 understanding what are exactly the true features 
 misrepresented by them. Wyttenbach, Animadd. in 
 Plutarch, vol. i. pp. 461, 462, has collected a large 
 group of similar passages. He might have added, 
 trite though it may be, the familiar passage from the 
 Satires of Horace, i. 3. 41-66. 
 
 Let me touch in conclusion on one other point 
 upon which it will much turn whether a book on 
 synonyms will satisfy just expectations or not ; I 
 mean the skill with which the pairs, or, it may be, 
 the larger groups of words, between which it is pro- 
 posed to discriminate, are selected and matched. He 
 must pair his words as carefully as the lanista in the 
 Eoman amphitheatre paired his men. Of course, 
 no words can in their meaning be too near to one 
 another ; since the nearer they are the more liable to 
 be confounded, the more needing to be discriminated. 
 But there may be some which are too remote, between 
 which the difference is so patent that it is quite super- 
 fluous to define what it is. ' Scarlet ' and * crimson ' 
 may be confounded ; it may be needful to point out 
 the difference between them ; but scarcely between 
 * scarlet ' and 4 green.' It may be useful to discrimi- 
 nate between ' pride ' and ' arrogance ' ; but who 
 would care for a distinction drawn between ' pride ' 
 and ' covetousness ' ? At the same time, one who 
 does not look for his pairs at a certain remoteness 
 from one another, will have very few on which to 
 put forth his skill. It is difficult here to hit always 
 the right mean ; and we must be content to appear 
 sometimes discriminating where the reader counts 
 that no discrimination was required. No one will
 
 EIGHTH EDITION. XXV 
 
 have taken up a work on synonyms without feeling 
 that some words with which it deals are introduced 
 without need, so broad and self-evident in his eyes 
 does the distinction between them appear. Still, if 
 the writer have in other cases shown a tolerable dex- 
 terity in the selection of the proper groups, it will 
 be only fair toward him to suppose that what is thus 
 sun-clear to one may not be equally manifest to all. 
 With this deprecation of too hasty a criticism of 
 works like the present, I bring these prefatory re- 
 marks to a close. 
 
 Mai-ch 13, 1876.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 TO 
 
 THE NINTH EDITION. 
 
 WHAT I wrote in the Preface to the eighth edition of 
 this book about the want of any considerable work 
 dealing with Greek synonyms needs a certain quali- 
 fication now. Of J. H. H. Schmidt's Synonymik der 
 Griechischen Sprache, two volumes (1876, 1879) have 
 appeared. How many more will follow it is im- 
 possible to guess. There would be much to say on 
 this book of an accomplished scholar, who has evi- 
 dently grudged no amount of toil in its preparation, 
 if it became me to criticize it, or if this were the place 
 to do so. This, however, I will observe namely, 
 that while much may be learned from this book, it 
 altogether fails to satisfy the needs of the theological 
 student. The writer's whole interest is in Homeric 
 and Attic Greek. Having had his book constantly 
 in my hand while preparing a new edition of this 
 present work, I have not lighted there upon more than 
 two citations from the N. T., and not so much as one 
 from the Septuagint. There may be more, but these 
 cannot be very many. In Greek as one of the two 
 great languages of Revelation, and in the various 
 providential means by which it was formed and 
 fashioned to be an adequate vehicle of this Eevela- 
 tion, in all this Schmidt has apparently no interest 
 whatever ; does not so much as seem to perceive that 
 there is a great subject before him. 
 
 BKOOMFIELD, September 3, 1880.
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 PREFACE . . v 
 
 i. *EKK\r](ria, cruvayuy?;, TraKiyyvpis . . . . . I 
 
 ii. Oeiorrjs, OCOTTJS ....... 7 
 
 iii. lepov, vaos . . . . . . . . 10 
 
 iv. 7UT6/Aaa>, eXey^u (atria, eXey^o?) . . . 13 
 
 V. avdOij/JM, avdOefia . . . . . 15 
 
 vi. Trpo<f>r)rev<a, /tavrevoyxat . . . . . 19 
 
 vil. TifKapia, /coAacris . . . . . . . 24 
 
 viii. aXr]0T)<s, aXTjOivos 26 
 
 ix. 6epa.TT(i>v, SovXos, Staxoi/os, ot/cer?/?, V7r/7p'r?7s . . . 30 
 
 X. SttXta, ^>o^3os, evXdfitia. . . . , . .34 
 
 xi. Ka/a'a, KCLKoyOcia. . . . . . 37 
 
 xii. dyaTraw, <tAea> . . . . . . -41 
 
 xiii. #aAacro-a, WAayos ..... 45 
 
 xiv. o-xXi/po?, avcmjpos. . . . . . -47 
 
 xv. eucwv, o/xotwo-ts, o/xotw/ta . . . . . . 4.9 
 
 xvi. do-wria, da-e'Ayeta . . . . . . 54 
 
 xvii. $iyyava>, aTrro/Aai, i^Aa^xio) . . . . . 58 
 
 Xviii. rraAiyyevccrta, dvaKatvwcrts . . . . .60 
 
 XIX. ato^vjo;, aiSw?, cvrpOTrn . . . . 66 
 
 XX. a'Sws, <rw(}>po(ruvr] ....... 69 
 
 xxi. <rupw, e\Ka) . . . . . . ..72 
 
 xxii. oAo/cA^pos, Tc'Aetos, aprios . . . . -74 
 
 xxiii. crre^avo?, SiaS^/xa . . . . . 78 
 
 xxiv. TrAeove^ta, <iAapyv/3ta . . . . . . Si 
 
 xxv. y3o<nca>, TroijLuu'va) . . . . . . . 84
 
 XXV111 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 
 
 PAGB 
 
 xxvi. 
 
 
 87 
 
 xxvii. 
 
 
 9 1 
 
 xxviii. 
 
 
 96 
 
 xxix. 
 
 dXawv, i-Trep^avos, vfSpurn'^ 
 
 98 
 
 XXX. 
 
 dvTl'xplOTOS, ll/fvSoXpKTTOS . . , . . 
 
 I0 5 
 
 xxxi. 
 
 
 no 
 
 xxxii. 
 
 
 in 
 
 xxxiii. 
 
 d</>ecn.s, irdpeo-ts ....... 
 
 114 
 
 xxxiv. 
 
 /xcopoXoyia, alar)(po\oyLa, eurpaTreXia . . 
 
 I2O 
 
 XXXV. 
 
 
 I 2 5 
 
 xxx vi. 
 
 7TK79, 7TTWXOS ... 
 
 128 
 
 xxxvii. 
 
 
 I 3 
 
 xxxviii. 
 
 eXatov, fivpov (xpiw, dXei'<a)) ..... 
 
 135 
 
 xxxix. 
 
 
 137 
 
 xl. 
 
 
 143 
 
 xli. 
 
 dvaTravo-is, dvetm . . . . . . . 
 
 146 
 
 xlii. 
 
 TttTreivo^poo-un;, Trpaorrjs . . . . . 
 
 I 47 
 
 xliii. 
 
 TrpaoTT/s, firLfLKtia. . . . . . . 
 
 153 
 
 xliv. 
 
 KXeTTTTJS, XflCTTT/S . . . . . . , 
 
 J 57 
 
 xlv. 
 
 TrXvVO), VtTTTW, XoUU) . . . . . . 
 
 160 
 
 xlvi. 
 
 <a>s, ^>yyos, 0cocTT7yp, X^xi'os, Xayu.7rds . . 
 
 163 
 
 xlvii. 
 
 X^pts, tXcos .... .... 
 
 1 66 
 
 xlviii. 
 
 ^eocre^S^s, evcreyS^s, evXa^S^?, 6prj(TKO<i ) ScicriSttiy/.wi' 
 
 172 
 
 xlix. 
 
 KCVOS, /Aaraios ........ 
 
 i So 
 
 1. 
 
 I/xdriov, x""(ov, ^OTUT/AO'S, X^a^^'s, o-roX^ TroS^p^s . 
 
 184 
 
 li. 
 
 tvX^> Tpocrcrx^, Ser/cns, evrevcts, evxapicrTia, air^/xa, 
 
 
 
 '(.KfTrjpia. ........ 
 
 iSS 
 
 lii. 
 
 
 '93 
 
 liii. 
 
 fjLa.Kpo6vfjLLa.y vTrofiLovr], di'ox^ ..... 
 
 !95 
 
 liv. 
 
 (TTp^vtdco, rptx^dw, O"7raTaXaw . . . 
 
 200 
 
 lv. 
 
 0X%s, OTvoxwpia . . . 
 
 2O2 
 
 Ivi. 
 
 aTrXovs, d/cepatos, d/caKos, aSoXos . . 
 
 204 
 
 Ivii. 
 
 
 209 
 
 Iviii. 
 
 <#)pa), <^ope'w . . 
 
 21" 
 
 lix. 
 
 Kooyu>s, atwv . . . . 
 
 2I 4 
 
 Ix. 
 
 
 219
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 xxix 
 
 
 
 PACK 
 
 lxi. 
 
 p-eOrj, TTOTOS, otvo<Xuyia, KW/XOS, KpanrdXri . . 
 
 22 5 
 
 Ixii. 
 
 
 228 
 
 Ixiii. 
 
 a/yaOwcrvvT], xp^OTOT^S ...... 
 
 232 
 
 Ixiv. 
 
 SLKTVOV, afJicfrLflXycrTpov, (rayrjvi] . . . . 
 
 2 3 6 
 
 Ixv. 
 
 Xv-n-fO/JLai, Trf.v6f.ui, Oprjvta, fcoTrro/xat .... 
 
 2 3 8 
 
 Ixvi. 
 
 d/Aaprta, d/xdpT^/xa, acrf.f3f.ia., 7ra.pa.Koi], &VOfua, Trapa- 
 
 
 
 i/o/ua, 7rapct/3ao-is, TrapaTrrw/xa, dyvoT/^a, T/TT^JUO. . 
 
 239 
 
 Ixvii. 
 
 dpxato?, TraXatos ....... 
 
 250 
 
 Ixviii. 
 
 a<$apTOs, d/xdpavTOS, dyaapavrtvos . . . 
 
 2 53 
 
 Ixix. 
 
 
 2^6 
 
 Ixx. 
 
 fj.op<f>fy o"xfj/j.a, tSea . . . . . . 
 
 ** o 
 
 262 
 
 Ixxi. 
 
 i/a^tKos, orapKLKos ....... 
 
 268 
 
 Ixxii. 
 
 o-apKtKos, crdp/ctvo? ....... 
 
 272 
 
 Ixxiii. 
 
 TrvoTy, TTTeS/jta, dve/x,oSj XaTXai/'', $veXXa . 
 
 275 
 
 Ixxiv. 
 
 SoKLfj^d^w, Treipd^co . . . . . . . 
 
 278 
 
 Ixxv. 
 
 o~o(i'a, (frpovrjo'i 1 ;, yvwo"ts, 7rtyva)o~ts .... 
 
 281 
 
 Ixxvi. 
 
 XaXew, Xeyw (XaXtd, Xoyos) . . . . . 
 
 286 
 
 Ixxvii. 
 
 a7roXi;Tp(oo"is, /caraXXayiy, tXao"/x.os .... 
 
 290 
 
 Ixxviii. 
 
 l^ttXyLtOS, VfLVOS, wS^ . . . . . . 
 
 296 
 
 Ixxix. 
 
 dypd/x/xaTOs, tStwrr/s 
 
 302 
 
 Ixxx. 
 
 So/ceo), (j)aLvofj.ai . . . . . . . 
 
 305 
 
 Ixxxi. 
 
 wov, Qrjpiov ........ 
 
 308 
 
 Ixxxii. 
 
 
 311 
 
 Ixxxiii. 
 
 <^OVUS, dv$pC07TOKToVoS, (TLKO-plO^ .... 
 
 O 
 313 
 
 Ixxxiv. 
 
 /caKo TTOVWOOS dxrDXos 
 
 ^I"> 
 
 Ixxxv. 
 
 
 o 
 "?IQ 
 
 Ixxxvi. 
 
 TToXeyitos, l^d^r] ........ 
 
 o y 
 
 322 
 
 Ixxxvii. 
 
 Traces, 7rt$Tjyiua, opfJiiq, opc^is ..... 
 
 324 
 
 Ixxxviii. 
 
 tepos, oo~tos, dytos, dyvos . ^ 
 
 327 
 
 Ixxxix. 
 
 / \ ' 
 
 -J-JA 
 
 xc. 
 
 
 OOT^ 
 
 337 
 
 xci. 
 
 repas, crrjfjLCLOv, Swa/xts, /xeyctXerov, voooi', Trapaoofov, 
 
 
 
 Oavpdo-iov 
 
 34 
 
 xcii. 
 
 Kooyuos, o"e//.vos, tepOTrpeTTT^s . 
 
 345 
 
 xciii. 
 
 av^dS^s, (^t'Xauros ....... 
 
 349 
 
 xciv. 
 
 diroKaXv^is, eVt^dvcta, ^>avepwcrts 
 
 353
 
 XXX 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 xcv. oXXo9, Irepos : + . ...... 358 
 
 xcvi. TTOiew, 7rpdcro-a> ....... 362 
 
 xcvii. /Jtu/i09, 6\)<ria.<TTriptov . . . . . . . 365 
 
 xcviii. Xao9, ZOvos, ST///.O?, o^Xos ..... 367 
 
 xcix. /JaTmoytos, /?d7rrtoy*.a . . . 37 
 
 c. 0-KOT09, yj/o<o9, o</>o9, d^Xvs . . . -373 
 
 ci. (3f/3r]Xo<;, KOIV09 . ... -:. . . . 375 
 
 Oil. [HO^doS, 7TOJ/09, K07TOS . . . . . -378 
 
 ciii. a/Aoyios, a/xe/xTrros, dvyicXr;T05, dvrtA^7rros . 379 
 
 civ. ySpaSvs, vw^pos, dpyos . *. . .382 
 
 cv. 8r)p.iovpy6<s, TCXVI'T^S . ..... 385 
 
 cvi. doreios, wpatos, KaAos . . . . . 387 
 
 cvii. i. cXTrt's, TTUTTIS . . . . . 3QO 
 
 2. 7rpecr/3vr77s, yepcov . . . . 391 
 
 3. <f>peap, -mtrri . . -. . . . . 391 
 
 4. <rxioym, arpeo-i? ...... 391 
 
 5. p.a.Kpo6v/jiia, Trpao-ny? . . . . . . 392 
 
 6. dvd/V7;o-ts, VTr6fJivr)<ris . . . . -392 
 
 7. ^>opos, reXos ..... , .. . . . 392 
 
 8. TVTTOS, d\XrjyopoviJ.ei'ov . . . . -3Q2 
 
 9. XotSopeto, ySXao-^/Ae'd) . . . . . . 392 
 
 10. 6<ei'Xei, Sei . . .... . . 392 
 
 11. Trpavs, ^o-v'xios . .... . . . 393 
 
 12. T$e/AeXiay*'vo9, eSpaios . . . . -393 
 
 13. Bvrjros, vtKpos . . . . . . 393 
 
 14. eXeos, oiKTip/xo? ...... 393 
 
 15. \j/i6vpio"nq<i, KaraXdXos . . . . . . 393 
 
 1 6. ax/Mjo-ros, axpaos ...... 394 
 
 17. VO/UK09, vo/xo8i8do-KaXo5, ypa/M/xareus * . . 394 
 
 SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES ..... . 395 
 
 INDEX OP SYNONYMS ........ 4 o 3 
 
 INDEX OP OTHER WORDS ....... 409
 
 SYNONYMS 
 THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 1. E/c/c\7^c"ia, crvvcL'ywyr), Travrjyvpis. 
 
 THERE are words whose history it is peculiarly interesting 
 to watch, as they obtain a deeper meaning, and receive a 
 new consecration, in the Christian Church ; words which 
 the Church did not invent, but has assumed into its ser- 
 vice, and employed in a far loftier sense than any to which 
 the world has ever put them before. The very word by 
 which the Church is named is itself an example a more 
 illustrious one could scarcely be found of this progressive 
 ennobling of a word. 1 For we have sKK\rja-la in three dis- 
 tinct stages of meaning the heathen, the Jewish, and the 
 Christian. In respect of the first, 77 i/ctc^crta ( = SK/C^TOI, 
 Euripides, Orestes, 939) was the lawful assembly in a free 
 Greek city of all those possessed of the rights of citizen- 
 
 1 Zezschwitz, in his very interesting Lecture, Profanyracitiit und 
 Biblischer Sprachgeist, Leipzig, 1859, p. 5, has said excellently well, ' Das 
 Christenthum ware nicht als was es siegend iiber Griechenthum uud 
 Romerthum sich ausgewiesen, hatte es zu reden vermocht, oder zu 
 reden sich zwingen lassen miissen, nach den Grundbegriffen griechischen. 
 Geisteslebens, griechischer Weltanschauung. Nursprachumbildend, aus- 
 stossend was entweiht war, hervorziehend was griechische Geistesrichtung 
 ungebiihrlich zuriickgestellt hatte, verklarend endlich womit das acht- 
 menschliche, von Anfang an so sittlich gerichtete Griechentum die 
 Vorstufen der gottlichen Wahrheit erreicht hatte : nur so ein in seinen 
 Grundbegriffen christiani.irtes Griechisch sich anbildend konnten die 
 Apostel Christi der Welt, die damals der allgerneinen Bildung nach 
 eine griechische war, die Sprache des Geistes, der durch sie zeugte, 
 vermitteln.'
 
 2 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. i. 
 
 ship, for the transaction of public affairs. That they were 
 summoned is expressed in the latter part of the word; 
 that they were summoned out of the whole population, a 
 select portion of it, including neither the populace, nor 
 strangers, nor yet those who had forfeited their civic 
 rights, this is expressed in the first. Both the calling 
 (the K\f)(Tis, Phil. iii. 14 ; 2 Tim. i. 9), and the calling out 
 (the JXo7?;, Rom. xi. 7 ; 2 Pet. i. 10), are moments to be 
 remembered, when the word is assumed into a higher 
 Christian sense, for in them the chief part of its peculiar 
 adaptation to its auguster uses lies. 1 It is interesting to 
 observe how, on one occasion in the N. T., the word re- 
 turns to this earlier significance (Acts xix. 32, 39, 41). 
 
 Before, however, more fully considering that word, it 
 will need to consider a little the anterior history of 
 another with which I am about to compare it. iLvva- 
 jcajn occurs two or three times in Plato (thus Thecet. 1 50 a), 
 but is by no means an old word in classical Greek, and 
 in it altogether wants that technical signification which 
 already in the Septuagint, and still more plainly in the 
 Apocrypha, it gives promise of acquiring, and which it is 
 found in the N. T. to have fully acquired. 2 But o-vvaywyrj, 
 while travelling in this direction, did not leave behind it 
 the meaning which is the only one that in classical Greek 
 
 1 Both these points are well made by Flacius Illyrieus, in his Clavts 
 ScripturcB, 8. v. Ecclesia: 'Quia Ecclesia a verbo Ka\dv venit, boc obser- 
 vetur primum ; ideo conversionem honiinum vocationem vocari, non 
 tantum quia Deus eos per se suumque Verbum, quasi clamore, vocat ; 
 sed etiam quia sicut herus ex turba famulorum certos aliquos ad aliqua 
 singularia munia evocat, sic Deus quoque turn totum populum suum 
 vocat ad cultum suum (Hos. xi. i), turn etiam singulos homines ad 
 certas singularesque functiones. (Act. xiii. 2.) Quoniam autem non 
 tantum vocatur Populus Dei ad cultum Dei, sed etiam vocatur ex 
 reliqua turba aut confusioue generis humani, ideo dicitur Ecclesia, quasi 
 dicas, Evocata divinitus ex reliqua impiorum colluvie, ad cultum cele- 
 brationemque Dei, et seternam felicitatem.' Compare Witsius In Symbol. 
 PP- 394-397- 
 
 2 An American scholar (Church Review, July 1881) says well, ' The 
 Septuagint represents only a half-way step in this assignment of the Greek 
 language to the expreasion of Hebrew ideas.'
 
 i. STNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 3 
 
 it knew ; and often denotes, as it would there, any gather- 
 ing or bringing together of persons or things ; thus we 
 have there a-vvaywyr) sOvwv (Gen. xlviii. 4) ; o-vvaywyrj 
 vBaros (Isai. xix. 6) ; a-vvaywyrj ^p^jjidrwv (Ecclus. xxxi. 
 3), and such like. It was during the time which inter- 
 vened between the closing of the 0. T. canon and the 
 opening of that of the New that a-vva<yw<yij acquired that 
 technical meaning of which we find it in full possession 
 when the Gospel history begins ; designating, as there it 
 does, the places set apart for purposes of worship and 
 the reading and expounding of the Word of God, the 
 * synagogues,' as we find them named ; which, capable as 
 they were of indefinite multiplication, were the necessary 
 complement of the Temple, which according to the divine 
 intention was and could be but one. 
 
 But to return to stcKX-ija-la. This did not, like some 
 other words, pass immediately and at a single step from 
 the heathen world to the Christian Church : but here, as 
 so often, the Septuagint supplies the link of connexion, 
 the point of transition, the word being there prepared for 
 its highest meaning of all. When the Alexandrian trans- 
 lators undertook the rendering of the Hebrew Scriptures, 
 they found in them two constantly recurring words, 
 namely, rr$ and ^pj5. For these they employed generally, 
 and as their most adequate Greek equivalents, avvajcojij 
 and KK\r)a-ia. The rule which they seem to have pre- 
 scribed to themselves is as follows to render my for the 
 most part by a-vvajwy^ (Exod. xii. 3 ; Lev. iv. 13; Num. 
 i. 2, and altogether more than a hundred times), and, 
 whatever other renderings of the word they may adopt, in 
 no single case to render it by sKK\t](Tia. It were to be 
 wished that they had shown the same consistency in 
 respect of ?np ; but they have not ; for while sKtcXija-la is 
 their more frequent rendering (Deut. xviii. 16; Judg. xx. 
 2 ; i Kin. viii. 14, and in all some seventy times), they too 
 often render this also by a-vvaywyij (Lev. iv. 13; Num. 
 
 a
 
 4 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. i. 
 
 xvi. 3 ; Deut. v. 22, and in all some five and twenty times), 
 thus breaking down for the Greek reader the distinction 
 which undoubtedly exists between the words. Our Eng- 
 lish Version has the same lack of a consistent rendering. 
 Its two words are ' congregation ' and * assembly ; ' but 
 instead of constantly assigning one to one, and one to the 
 other, it renders my now by * congregation' (Lev. x. 17 ; 
 Num. i. 16; Josh. ix. 27), and now by 'assembly' (Lev. 
 iv. 23) ; and on the other hand, ?np sometimes by 'as- 
 sembly ' (Judg. xxi. 8 ; 2 Chron. xxx. 23), but much 
 oftener by ' congregation' (Judg. xxi. 5 ; Josh. viii. 35). 
 
 There is an interesting discussion by Vitringa (De 
 Synag. Vet. pp. 77-89) on the distinction between these 
 two Hebrew synonyms; the result of which is summed 
 up in the following statements : ' Notat proprie ^>np uni- 
 versam alicujus populi multitudinem, vinculis societatis 
 unitam et rempublicam sive civitatem quandam consti- 
 tuentem, cum vocabulum my ex indole et vi significationis 
 suse tantum dicat quemcunque hominum coetum et con- 
 ventum, sive minorem sive majorem ' (p. 80). And again : 
 ' "Zwaywyr), ut et my, semper significat ccetum conjunctum 
 et congregatum, etiamsi nullo forte vinculo ligatum, sed 
 77 sKK\Tj(rla [ = *?np] designat multitudinem aliquam, quse 
 populum coiistituit, per leges et vincula inter se junctam, 
 etsi ssepe fiat ut non sit coacta vel cogi possit ' (p. 88). 
 Accepting this as a true distinction, we shall see that it 
 was not without due reason that our Lord (Matt. xvi. 18 ; 
 xviii. 17), and his Apostles claimed this, as the nobler word, 
 to designate the new society of which He was the Founder, 
 being as it was a society knit together by the closest 
 spiritual bonds, and altogether independent of space. 
 
 Yet for all this we do not find the title sKKkya-la wholly 
 withdrawn from the Jewish congregation ; that too was 
 " the Church in the wilderness " (Acts vii. 38) ; for Chris- 
 tian and Jewish differed only in degree, and not in kind. 
 Nor yet do we find trvvajcoy^ wholly renounced by the
 
 i. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 5 
 
 Church ; the latest honourable use of it in the N. T., indeed 
 the only Christian use of it there, is by that Apostle to 
 whom it was especially given to maintain unbroken to the 
 latest possible moment the outward bonds connecting the 
 Synagogue and the Church, namely, by St. James (ii. 2) ; 
 s 7ri<rvvaya)yrj, I may add, on two occasions is honorably used, 
 but in a more general sense (2 Thess. ii. I ; Heb. x. 25). 
 Occasionally also in the early Fathers, in Ignatius for 
 instance (Ep. ad Polyc. 4 ; for other examples see Suicer, 
 s. v.), we find a-vvaywyrj still employed as an honorable 
 designation of the Church, or of her places of assembly. 
 Still there were causes at work, which led the faithful to 
 have less and less pleasure in the appropriation of this 
 name to themselves ; and in the end to leave it altogether 
 to those, whom in the latest book of the canon the Lord 
 had characterized for their fierce opposition to the truth 
 even as " the synagogue of Satan " (Rev. iii. 9 ; cf. John 
 viii. 44). Thus the greater fitness and dignity of the title 
 KK\t]a-[a has been already noted. Add to this that the 
 Church was ever rooting itself more predominantly in the 
 soil of the heathen world, breaking off more entirely from 
 its Jewish stock and stem. This of itself would have led 
 the faithful to the letting fall of avvaycoy^, a word with no 
 such honorable history to look back on, and permanently 
 associated with Jewish worship, and to the ever more 
 exclusive appropriation to themselves of sKK\r)cr{a, so 
 familiar already, and of so honorable a significance, in 
 Greek ears. It is worthy of note that the Ebionites, in 
 reality a Jewish sect, though they had found their way for 
 a while into the Christian Church, should have acknow- 
 ledged the rightfulness of this distribution of terms. 
 Epiphanius (Haires. xxx. 18) reports of these, avvaywjrjv 
 Bs ovroi Ka\ov(TLv rrjv eavrwv sKKkrjcriav, Kai ov%l sKK\.r)crlav. 
 It will be perceived from what has been said, that Au- 
 gustine, by a piece of good fortune which he had no right 
 to expect, was only half in the wrong, when transferring
 
 6 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. i. 
 
 his Latin etymologies to the Greek and Hebrew, and not 
 pausing to enquire whether they would hold good there, 
 as was improbable enough, he finds the reason for attri- 
 buting a-vvaycayrf to the Jewish, and siack^a-ia to the 
 Christian Church, in the fact that ' convocatio ' ( = SKK\^- 
 cria) is a nobler term than ( congregatio ' ( = a-vvayco r y^} t 
 the first being properly the calling together of men, the 
 second the gathering together (' congregatio,' from ' con- 
 grego,' and that from ' grex ') of cattle. 1 See Field, On 
 the Church, i. 5. 
 
 The Trav^yvpis, differs from the KK\^a-ia in this, that 
 in the s/ctc^a-ia, as has been noted already, there lay ever 
 the sense of an assembly coming together for the trans- 
 action of business. The Trav^vpis, on the other hand, 
 w&3 a solemn assembly for purposes of festal rejoicing ; 
 and on this account it is found joined continually with 
 soprij, as by Philo, Vit. Hos. ii. 7 ; Ezek. xlvi. 1 1 ; cf. 
 Hos. ii. ii; ix. 5 ; and Isai. Ixvi. 10, where 7rawr)yvp%tiv 
 eoprd&iv : the word having given us ' panegyric,' which is 
 properly a set discourse pronounced at one of these great 
 festal gatherings. Business might grow out of the fact 
 that such multitudes were assembled, since many, and for 
 various reasons, would be glad to avail themselves of the 
 gathering ; but only in the same way as a ' fair ' grew out of 
 a 'feria,' a 'holiday' out of a 'holy-day.' Strabo (x. 5 )notices 
 the business-like aspect which the Travrjyvpsts commonly as- 
 sumed (TI re Travijyvpis sfiTropifcov ri TTpdj/^a : cf. Pausanias, 
 x. 32. 9) ; which was indeed to such an extent their promi- 
 
 1 Enarr. in Ps. Ixxxi. I : ' In synagoga populum Israel accipirnus, 
 quia et ipsorum proprie synagoga dici solet, quamvis et Ecclesia dicta sit. 
 Nostri vero Ecclesiam imnquam synagogam dixerunt, sed semper Eccle- 
 siam : sive discernendi causa, sive quod inter congregatiouem, unde syna- 
 goga, et convocatio nem, unde Ecclesia nomen accepit, distet aliquid ; quod 
 scilicet congregari et pecora solent, atque ipsa proprie, quorum et greges 
 proprie dicimus ; conwcari autem magis est utentium ratione, sicut aunt 
 homines.' So also the author of a Commentary on the Book of Proverbs 
 formerly ascribed to Jerome (Opp. vol. v. p. 533) ; and by Vitriuga 
 (p. 91) cited as his.
 
 ii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 7 
 
 nent feature, that the Latins rendered Travijyvpts by ' mer- 
 catus,' and this even when the Olympic games were in- 
 tended (Cicero, Tusc. v. 3 ; Justin, xiii. 5). These with 
 the other solemn games were eminently, though not ex- 
 clusively, the Travr)<yvpsis of the Greek nation (Thucydides, 
 i. 25 ; Tsocrates, Paneg. i). Keeping this festal character 
 of the iravr)<yvpis in mind, we shall find a peculiar fitness 
 in the word's employment at Heb. xii. 23 ; where only in 
 the N. T. it occurs. The Apostle is there setting forth 
 the communion of the Church militant on earth with the 
 Church triumphant in heaven, of the Church toiling and 
 suffering here with that Church from which all weariness 
 and toil have for ever passed away (Eev. xxi. 4) ; and how 
 could he better describe this last than as a Travijyvpis, than 
 as the glad and festal assembly of heaven ? Yery beauti- 
 fully Delitzsch (in loc.) : ' Havrfyvpts ist die vollzahlige, 
 zahlreiche und insbesondere festliche, festlich frohliche und 
 sich ergotzende Versammlung. Man denkt bei Travriyvpis 
 an Festgesang, Festreigen und Festspiele, und das Leben 
 vor Gottes Angesicht ist ja wirklich eine unauf horliche 
 Festfeier.' 
 
 ii. dsiorrjs, QSOTTJS. 
 
 NEITHER of these words occurs more than once in the 
 N. T. ; OsioTtjs only at Rom. i. 20 (and once in the Apo- 
 crypha, Wisd. xviii. 9) ; dsorrjs at Col. ii. 9. We have ren- 
 dered both by ' Godhead ; ' yet they must not be regarded 
 as identical in meaning, nor even as two different forms 
 of the same word, which in process of time have separated 
 off from one another, and acquired different shades of 
 significance. On the contrary, there is a real distinction 
 between them, and one which grounds itself on their 
 different derivations ; Osor^s being from eos, and fetor^y, 
 not from TO Oslov, which is nearly though not quite equi- 
 valent to <H)s6s, but from the adjective dsios. 
 
 Comparing the two passages where they severally occur,
 
 8 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. n. 
 
 we shall at once perceive the fitness of the employment of 
 one word in one, of the other in the other. In the first 
 (Rom. i. 20) St. Paul is declaring how much of God may 
 be known from the revelation of Himself which He has 
 made in nature, from those vestiges of Himself which men 
 may everywhere trace in the world around them. Yet it 
 is not the personal God whom any man may learn to know 
 by these aids : He can be known only by the revelation 
 of Himself in his Son ; but only his divine attributes, his 
 majesty and glory. This Theophylact feels, who on Romans 
 i. 20 gives fAsyakstoTrjs as equivalent to Qsiorrjs ; and it is 
 not to be doubted that St. Paul uses this vaguer, more ab- 
 stract, and less personal word, just because he would afiirm 
 that men may know God's power and majesty, his 6sia 
 Bvvapis (2 Pet. i. 3), from his works; but would not imply 
 that they may know Himself from these, or from any- 
 thing short of the revelation of his Eternal Word. 1 Mo- 
 tives not dissimilar induce him to use TO Oslov rather than 
 6 Oeos in addressing the Athenians on Mars' Hill (Acts 
 xvii. 29). 
 
 But in the second passage (Col. ii. 9) St. Paul is de- 
 claring that in the Son there dwells all the fulness of 
 absolute Godhead ; they were no mere rays of divine glory 
 which gilded Him, lighting up his person for a season and 
 with a splendour not his own ; but He was, and is, abso- 
 lute and perfect God; and the Apostle uses dsorys to 
 express this essential and personal Godhead of the Son ; 
 in the words of Augustine (De Civ. Dei, vii. i) : ' Status 
 ejus qui sit Deus.' Thus Beza rightly : * Non dicit : rrjv 
 OetoTrjra, i.e. divinitatem, sed rrjv dsorrjra, i.e. deitatem, 
 ut magis etiam expresse loquatur ; ... 77 Bsiorrjs attribute 
 videtur potius quam naturam ipsam declarare.' And 
 Bengel : ' Non modo divinse virtutes, sed ipsa divina 
 natura.' De Wette has sought to express the distinction 
 
 1 Cicero (Tusc. i. 13): 'Multi de Diis prava sentiunt ; ouinea tarnen 
 ease vim et naturam divinam arbitrantur.'
 
 n. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, 9 
 in his German translation, rendering Osior-^s by f Gottlich- 
 
 There have not been wanting those who have denied 
 that any such distinction was intended by St. Paul ; and 
 they rest this denial on the assumption that no such 
 difference between the forces of the two words can be 
 satisfactorily made out. But, even supposing that such a 
 difference could not be shown in classical Greek, this of 
 itself would be in no way decisive on the matter. The 
 Gospel of Christ might for all this put into words, and 
 again draw out from them, new forces, evolve latent dis- 
 tinctions, which those who hitherto employed the words 
 may not have required, but which had become necessary 
 now. And that this distinction between ' deity ' and 
 'divinity,' if I may use these words to represent severally 
 dsoT^s and OSIOTIJS, is one which would be strongly felt, 
 and which therefore would seek its utterance in Christian 
 theology, of this we have signal proof in the fact that the 
 Latin Christian writers were not satisfied with ' divinitas,' 
 which they found ready to their hand in the writings of 
 Cicero and others ; and which they sometimes were con- 
 tent to use (see Piper, Theol. Stiid. u. Krit. 1875, P- 79 
 sqq.) ; but themselves coined ' deitas ' as the only adequate 
 Latin representative of the Greek dsoTrjs. We have Augus- 
 tine's express testimony to the fact (De Civ. Dei, vii. i) : 
 ' Hanc divinitatem, vel ut sic dixerim deitatem ; nam et 
 hoc verbo uti jam nostros non piget, ut de Grseco expressius 
 transferant id quod illi dsorrjTa appellant, &c. ; ' cf. x. I, 2. 
 But not to urge this, nor yet the different etymologies of 
 the words, that one is TO slval nva Osov, the other TO slvai 
 Tiva [or ri] 6eiov, which so clearly point to this difference 
 in their meanings, examples, so far as they can be adduced, 
 go to support the same. Both Osorrjs and 6si6rr]s, as in 
 general the abstract words in every language, are of late 
 introduction ; and one of them, BSOTTJS, is extremely rare. 
 Indeed, only two examples of it from classical Greek have
 
 10 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. in. 
 
 hitherto been brought forward, one from Lucian (Icarom. 
 9) ; the other from Plutarch (De Def. Orac. 10) : ovrws SK 
 /JLSV dvOpu)Tra>v sis ijpwas, SK Ssrjputwv sis Sal/Jiovas, ai/3s\T loves 
 ^rv^al rrjv /j,Ta{3o\r)v \afj,{3dvov(riv. EK 
 /JLSV STL %p6vo) TroAAo) Si' dpSTvjs Ka 
 Osorrjros fjisrsa^ov : but to these a third, that also from 
 Plutarch (De Isid. et Osir. 22), may be added. In all of 
 these it expresses, in agreement with the view here as- 
 serted, Godhead in the absolute sense, or at all events 
 in as absolute a sense as the heathen could conceive it. 
 SstoTrjs is a very much commoner word ; and its employ- 
 ment everywhere bears out the distinction here drawn. 
 There is ever a manifestation of the divine, of some divine 
 attributes, in that to which Oeiorys is attributed, but never 
 absolute essential Deity. Thus Lucian (De Col. 17) attri- 
 butes dsiorrjs to Hephsestion, when after his death Alex- 
 ander would have raised him to the rank of a god ; and 
 Plutarch speaks of the OS^T^S rrjs ^rv^tjs, De Plac. Phil. 
 v. i ; cf. De Is. et Os. 2 ; Sull. 6 ; with various other pas- 
 sages to the like effect. 
 
 It may be observed, in conclusion, that whether this 
 distinction was intended, as I am fully persuaded it was, 
 by St. Paul or not, it established itself firmly in the later 
 theological language of the Church the Greek Fathers 
 using never dsiorijs, but always OSOTTJS, as alone adequately 
 expressing the essential Godhead of the Three several 
 Persons in the Holy Trinity. 
 
 iii. ispov, vaos. 
 
 WE have in our Version only the one word ' temple ' for 
 both of these ; nor is it easy to perceive in what manner 
 we could have marked the distinction between them ; 
 which is yet a very real one, and one the marking of 
 which would often add much to the clearness and precision 
 of the sacred narrative (see Fuller, A Pisgah Sight of 
 Palestine, p. 427). 'Ispov ( = templuiu) is the whole com-
 
 SYXCWYJIS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. n 
 
 pass of the sacred enclosure, the rspsvos, including the 
 outer courts, the porches, porticoes, and other buildings 
 subordinated to the temple itself; at ot'yeoSo/iat rov Ispov 
 (Matt. xxiv. l). But vaos (= * sedes') from valw, ( habito,' 
 as the proper habitation of God (Acts vii. 48 ; xvii. 24 ; 
 I Cor. vi. 19) ; the OLKOS rov sov (Matt. xii. 4 ; cf. Exod. 
 xxiii. 19), the German 'duom' or ' domus,' is the temple 
 itself, that by especial right so called, being the heart and 
 centre of the whole ; the Holy, and the Holy of Holies, 
 called often fylatrfjui (l Mace. i. 37 ; iii. 45). This dis- 
 tinction, one that existed and was acknowledged in profane 
 Greek and with reference to heathen temples, quite as 
 much as in sacred Greek and with relation to the temple 
 of the true God (see Herodotus, i. 181, 183 ; Thucydides, 
 iv. 90 [rd(ppov fJLSVKvK\(i)7rspl rb Ispov fcai rov vscbv s<TKa-jrrov\ ; 
 v. 18; Acts xix. 24, 27), is, I believe, always assumed in 
 all passages relating to the temple at Jerusalem, alike by 
 Josephus, by Philo, by the Septuagint translators, and in 
 the N. T. Often indeed it is explicitly recognized, as by 
 Josephus (Antt. viii. 3. 9), who, having described the build- 
 ing of the vaos by Solomon, goes on to say : vaov 8' s^wdsv 
 Ispov <aKo86/j,Tja'sv sv rsrpayMvw cr^/icm. In another pas- 
 sage (Antt. xi. 4. 3), he describes the Samaritans as seek- 
 ing permission of the Jews to be allowed to share in the 
 rebuilding of God's house (a-vyKaraa-KSvdcrai, rov vaov). 
 This is refused them (cf . Ezra iv. 2) ; but, according to 
 his account, it was permitted to them aQucvovuevois sis r o 
 Ispov asfistv rov Ssov a privilege denied to mere Gentiles, 
 who might not, under penalty of death, pass beyond their 
 own exterior court (Acts xxi. 29, 30; Philo, Leg. adCai. 31). 
 The distinction may be brought to bear with advantage 
 on several passages in the 1ST. T. When Zacharias entered 
 into " the temple of the Lord " to burn incense, the people 
 who waited his return, and who are described as standing 
 "without" (Luke i. 10), were in one sense in the temple 
 too, that is, in the Ispov, while he alone entered into the
 
 12 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. ui. 
 
 va6s, the * temple ' in its more limited and auguster sense. 
 We read continually of Christ teaching " in the temple " 
 (Matt. xxvi. 55 ; Luke xxi. 37 ; John viii. 20) ; and we some- 
 times fail to understand how long conversations could there 
 have been maintained, without interrupting the service 
 of God. But this ' temple ' is ever the iepov, the porches 
 and porticoes of which were excellently adapted to such 
 purposes, as they were intended for them. Into the vaos 
 the Lord never entered during his ministry on earth ; nor 
 indeed, being ' made under the law,' could he have so done, 
 the right of such entry being reserved for the priests alone. 
 It need hardly be said that the money-changers, the buyers 
 and sellers, with the sheep and oxen, whom the Lord drives 
 out, He repels from the iepov, and not from the vaos. Pro- 
 fane as was their intrusion, they yet had not dared to 
 establish themselves in the temple more strictly so called 
 (Matt. xxi. 12; John ii. 14). On the other hand, when 
 we read of another Zacharias slain " between the temple 
 and the Altar " (Matt, xxiii. 35), we have only to remember 
 that * temple ' is vaos here, at once to get rid of a difficulty, 
 which may perhaps have presented itself to many this 
 namely, Was not the altar in the temple ? how then could 
 any locality be described as between these two? In the 
 tspov, doubtless, was the brazen altar to which allusion is 
 here made, but not in the vaos : " in the court of the house 
 of the Lord" (cf. Josephus, Antt. viii. 4. i), where the 
 sacred historian (2 Chron. xxiv. 21) lays the scene of this 
 murder, but not in the vaos itself. Again, how vividly 
 does it set forth to us the despair and defiance of Judas, 
 that he presses even into the vaos itself (Matt, xxvii. 5), 
 into the ' adytum ' which was set apart for the priests 
 alone, and there casts down before them the accursed price 
 of blood ! Those expositors who affirm that here vaos 
 stands for Iepov, should adduce some other passage in 
 which the one is put for the other.
 
 iv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 13 
 
 iv. fTTiTf/iao), sXsy^u) (air la, \,sy%os). 
 
 ONE may ( rebuke ' another without bringing the rebuked 
 to a conviction of any fault on his part ; and this, either 
 because there was no fault, and the rebuke was therefore 
 unneeded or unjust ; or else because, though there was 
 such fault, the rebuke was ineffectual to bring the offender 
 to own it; and in this possibility of 'rebuking' for sin, 
 without 'convincing' of sin, lies the distinction between 
 these two words. In sTrtrifMav lies simply the notion of 
 rebuking ; which word can therefore be used of one un- 
 justly checking or blaming another; in this sense Peter 
 'began to rebuke ' his Lord (-tjp^aro sTriTiftav, Matt. xvi. 
 22; cf. xix. 13; Luke xviii. 39): or ineffectually, and 
 without any profit to the person rebuked, who is not 
 thereby brought to see his sin; as when the penitent rob- 
 ber ' rebuked ' (sirsrip-a} his fellow malefactor (Luke xxiii. 
 40 ; cf. Mark ix. 25). But E^SJ^SLV is a much more preg- 
 nant word ; it is so to rebuke another, with such effectual 
 wielding of the victorious arms of the truth, as to bring 
 him, if not always to a confession, yet at least to a con- 
 viction, of his sin (Job v. 17; Prov. xix. 25), just as in 
 juristic Greek, S\S<YX.IV is not merely to reply to, but to 
 refute, an opponent. 
 
 When we keep this distinction well in mind, what a 
 light does it throw on a multitude of passages in the N. T. ; 
 and how much deeper a meaning does it give them. Thus 
 our Lord could demand, " Which of you convinceth 
 (s\sy-^si) Me of sin ? " (John viii., 46) . Many ' rebuked ' 
 Him ; many laid sin to his charge (Matt. ix. 3 ; John ix. 
 1 6) ; but none brought sin home to his conscience. Other 
 passages also will gain from realizing the fulness of the 
 meaning of s\sy^siv, as John. iii. 20 ; viii. 9 ; I Cor. xiv. 
 24, 25 ; Heb. xii. 5 ; but above all, the great passage, John 
 xvi. 8 ; " When He [the Comforter] is come, He will re- 
 prove the world of sin, and of righteousness, and of judg-
 
 1 4 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. iv. 
 
 tnent : " for so we have rendered the words, following in 
 our ' reprove ' the Latin * arguet ; ' although few, I think, 
 that have in any degree sought to sound the depth of our 
 Lord's words, but will admit that ' convince,' which un- 
 fortunately our Translators have relegated to the margin, 
 or { convict/ would have been the preferable rendering, 
 giving a depth and fulness of meaning to this work of the 
 Holy Ghost, which ' reprove ' in some part fails to express. 1 
 " He who shall come in my room, shall so bring home to 
 the world its own ' sin,' my perfect ' righteousness,' God's 
 coming 'judgment,' shall so ' convince ' the world of these, 
 that it shall be obliged itself to acknowledge them ; and 
 in this acknowledgement may find, shall be in the right 
 way to find, its own blessedness and salvation." See more 
 on \<yxiv in Pott's Wurzel-Worterbuch, vol. iii. p. 720. 
 
 Between atria and sT^sj^os, which last in the N. T. 
 is found only twice (Heb. xi. I ; 2 Tim. iii. 16), a difference 
 of a similar character exists. Atria is an accusation, but 
 whether false or true the word does not attempt to an- 
 ticipate ; and thus it could be applied, indeed it was ap- 
 plied, to the accusation made against the Lord of Glory 
 Himself (Matt, xxvii. 37) ; but s\y^os implies not merely 
 the charge, but the truth of the charge, and further the 
 manifestation of the truth of the charge ; nay more than 
 all this, very often also the acknowledgment, if not out- 
 ward, yet inward, of its truth on the part of the accused ; 
 it being the glorious prerogative of the truth in its highest 
 operation not merely to assert itself, and to silence the 
 adversary, but to silence him by convincing him of his 
 error. Thus Job can say of God, a\ijdsta teal e\sy%os Trap* 
 
 1 Lampe gives excellently well the force of this Afy : ' Opus Doc- 
 toris, qui veritatem quse hactenus non est agnita ita ad conscientiam etiam 
 renitentis demonstrat, ut victas dare manus cogatur.' See an admirable 
 discussion on the word, especially as here used, in Archdeacon Hare's 
 Mission of the Comforter, 1st edit. pp. 528-544.
 
 v. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 15 
 
 avTov (xxiii. 7); * and Demosthenes (Con. Androt. p. 600) ; 
 Hd/ji7roX,v \oiSoplaTSKalalr I a KS^wpiafisvovsarlv E\sy^o v 
 alria /JLSV yap saTtv, orav rts i/riXw ^p^a-d^svos \6yw fj,rj 
 Trapdcr^rai Tricmv, wv \s<ysf 8\y%os 8s, orav' wv av SiTrrj 
 ris KOI rd\f]dss 6/jLov 8sl^rj. Cf. Aristotle (Rhet. ad Alex. 
 13) : "E\7^oy Icrrt fisv o pr) Svvarbv ak\a)s X iv > ^' 
 ovrcoy, us r//j,is \eyofjt,ev. By our serviceable distinction 
 between ' convict ' and ' convince ' we maintain a difference 
 between the judicial and the moral s\jx os - Both indeed 
 will flow together into one in the last day, when every 
 condemned sinner will be at once ' convicted ' and ' con- 
 vinced ; ' which all is implied in that " he was speechless " 
 of the guest found without a marriage garment (Matt. 
 xxii. 12; cf. Eom. iii. 4). 
 
 v. dvdd'/jpa, avd6ep.a. 
 
 SOME affirm that these are merely different spellings 
 of the same word, and that they are used indifferently. 
 Were the fact so, their fitness for a place in a book of 
 synonyms would of course disappear; difference as well 
 as likeness being necessary for this. Thus far indeed 
 these have right namely, that dvddrjf^a and avdOspa, like 
 svprjfia and svpsfta, sTrldrj^a and sTrids^ia, must severally be 
 regarded as having been once no more than different pro- 
 nunciations, which issued in different spellings, of one 
 and the same word. Nothing, however, is more common 
 than for slightly diverse pronunciations of the same word 
 finally to settle and resolve themselves into different words, 
 with different orthographies, and different domains of 
 meaning which they have severally appropriated to them- 
 selves; and which henceforth they maintain in perfect 
 independence one of the other. I have elsewhere given 
 
 1 Therefore Milton could say (P. Z. x. 84) ; 
 
 ' Conviction to the serpent none belongs : ' 
 
 this was a grace reserved for Adam and Eve, as indeed they only were 
 capable of it. .
 
 1 6 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. v. 
 
 numerous examples of the kind (English Past and Present, 
 roth edit. pp. 157-164) ; and a very few may here suffice : 
 dpdaos and Odpaos, 1 ' Thrax ' and ' Threx,' ' rechtlich ' and 
 'redlich,' 'fray* and 'frey,' 'harnais' and 'harnois,' 
 * mettle ' and ' metal.' That which may be affirmed of all 
 these, may also be affirmed of avdOrjfia and avdQspa. 
 Whether indeed these words had secured each a domain 
 of meaning of its own was debated with no little heat by 
 some of the chief early Hellenists. Foremost names 
 among these are ranged on either side ; Salmasius among 
 them who maintained the existence of a distinction, at 
 least in Hellenistic Greek ; Beza among those who denied 
 it. Perhaps here, as in so many cases, the truth did not 
 absolutely lie with the combatants on either part, but lay 
 rather between them, though much nearer to one part 
 than the other ; the most reasonable conclusion, after 
 weighing all the evidence on either side, being this that 
 such a distinction of meaning did exist, and was allowed 
 by many, but was by no means recognized or observed by 
 all. 
 
 In classical Greek avadrj/jia is quite the predominant 
 form, the only one which Attic writers allow (Lobeck, 
 Phrynichus, pp. 249, 445; Paralip. p. 391). It is there 
 the technical word by which all such costly offerings as 
 were presented to the gods, and then suspended or other- 
 wise exposed to view in their temples, all by the Romans 
 termed 'donaria,' as tripods, crowns, vases of silver or 
 gold, and the like, were called ; these being in this way 
 separated for ever from all common and profane uses, and 
 openly dedicated to the honour of that deity, to whom 
 they were presented at the first (Xenophon, Anab. v. 3, 5 ; 
 Pausanias, x. 9). 
 
 But with the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into 
 Greek, a new thought demanded to find utterance. Those 
 
 1 Gregory Nazianzene (Carm. ii. 34, 35.) : 
 
 dpdtros 8, 0ap(ros TTpos TCI fjirj ToA^ro'a.
 
 v. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 17 
 
 Scriptures spoke of two ways in which objects might be 
 holy, set apart for God, devoted to Him. The children of 
 Israel were devoted to Him ; God was glorified in them : 
 the wicked Canaanites were devoted to Him ; God was 
 glorified on them. This awful fact that in more ways 
 than one things and persons might be Cnn (Lev. xxvii. 28, 
 29) that they might be devoted to God for good, and for 
 evil ; that there was such a thing as being " accursed to 
 the Lord " (Josh. vi. 17 ; cf. Deut. xiii. 16 ; Num. xxi. 1-3) ; 
 that of the spoil of the same city a part might be conse- 
 crated to the Lord in his treasury, and a part utterly 
 destroyed, and yet this part and that be alike dedicated to 
 Him (Josh. vi. 19, 21), "sacred and devote" (Milton) ; 
 this claimed its expression and utterance now, and found 
 it in the two uses of one word ; which, while it remained 
 the same, just differenced itself enough to indicate in 
 which of the two senses it was employed. And here let it 
 be observed, that they who find separation from God as 
 the central idea of dvdds^a (Theodoret, for instance, on 
 Rom. ix. 3 : TO dvdde/ma $i7T\r)V %* Trjv Sidvoiav' KOI <yap TO 
 d(f)isp(t)fisvov Tip &> dvdO^fjia oVo/iaferat, KCLI TO TOVTOV d\\6- 
 rptov Trjv avTrjv s^si Trpoaqyopiav), are quite unable to 
 trace a common bond of meaning between it and dvddrjua, 
 which last is plainly separation to God ; or to show the 
 point at which they diverge from one another ; while there 
 is no difficulty of the kind when it is seen that separation 
 to God is in both cases implied. 1 
 
 Already in the Septuagint and in the Apocryphal 
 books we find dvddr)/j,a and avdQsfUi beginning to disen- 
 
 1 Flacius Illyricus ( Clam's Script, s. v. Anathema) excellently explains 
 the manner in which the two apparently opposed meanings unfold them- 
 selves from a single root : ' Anathema igitur est res aut persona Deo obli- 
 gata aut addicta ; sive quia Ei ab hominibus est pietatis causa oblata : 
 sive quia justitia Dei tales, ob singularia aliqua piacula veluti in suos 
 carceres pcenasque abripuit, comprobante et declarante id etiam homintim 
 senteutia. . . . Duplici enim de causa Deus vult aliquid habere ; vel tan- 
 quam gratum acceptumque ac sibi oblatum ; vel tauquam sibi exosum, 
 suseque irse ac castjgationi subjectum ac debitum.' 
 
 C
 
 1 8 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. v. 
 
 gage themselves from one another, and from a confused 
 and promiscuous use. How far, indeed, the distinction is 
 observed there, and whether universally, it is hard to deter- 
 mine, from the variety of readings in various editions; 
 but in one of the later critical editions (that of Tischen- 
 dorf, 1850), many passages (such for instance as Judith 
 xvi. 19; Lev. xxvii. 28, 29 ; 2 Mace. ii. 13), which appear 
 in some earlier editions negligent of the distinction, are 
 found observant of it. In the N. T. the distinction that 
 dvd0r)/j,a is used to express the ' sacrum ' in a better sense, 
 dvdds/xa in a worse, is invariably maintained. It must be 
 allowed, indeed, that the passages there are not numerous 
 enough to convince a gainsay er ; he may attribute to 
 hazard the fact that they fall in with this distinction ; 
 dvdOrjfjLa occurring only once : " Some spake of the temple, 
 how it was adorned with goodly stones and gifts " (dvadrj- 
 fiaa-i, Luke xxi. 5 ; even here Codd. A and D and Lach- 
 mann read dvadepaa-i) ; and dvddefia no more than six 
 times (Acts xxiii. 14; Eom. ix. 3 ; I Cor. xii. 3 ; xvi. 22 ; 
 Gal. i. 8, 9). So far however as these uses reach, they 
 confirm this view of the matter ; while if we turn to the 
 Greek Fathers, we shall find some of them indeed neglect- 
 ing the distinction ; but others, and these of the greatest 
 among them, not merely implicitly allowing it, as does 
 Clement of Alexandria (Coh. ad Gen. iv. 59 : avadr^^a 
 rys<y6vafjLsv TW c3 vTrep Xpia-Tov : where the context 
 plainly shows the meaning to be, " we have become a 
 costly offering to God ") ; but explicitly recognizing the 
 distinction, and tracing it with accuracy and precision ; 
 see, for instance, Chrysostom, Horn. xvi. in Eom., as quoted 
 by Suicer (Thes. s. v. avdOspa). 
 
 And thus, putting all which has been urged together, 
 the anterior probability, drawn from the existence of 
 similar phenomena in all languages, that the two forms 
 of a word would gradually have two different meanings 
 attached to them; the wondrous way in which the two
 
 vi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 19 
 
 aspects of dedication to God, for good and for evil, are 
 thus set out by slightly different forms of the same word; 
 the fact that every passage in the 1ST. T., where the words 
 occur, falls in with this scheme ; the usage, though not 
 perfectly consistent, of later ecclesiastical books, I cannot 
 but conclude that avdO^p-a and dvddsfia are employed not 
 accidentally by the sacred writers of the New Covenant in 
 different senses; but that St. Luke uses avdOyfia (xxi. 5), 
 because he intends to express that which is dedicated to 
 God for its own honour as well as for God's glory ; St. Paul 
 uses dvddsfjLa because he intends that which is devoted to 
 God, but devoted, as were the Canaanites of old, to his 
 honour indeed, but its own utter loss ; even as in the end 
 every intelligent being, capable of knowing and loving 
 God, and called to this knowledge, must be either avaQ^^a 
 or avdOsfjia to Him (see Witsius, Hisc. Sac. vol. ii. p. 54, 
 sqq. ; Deyling, Obss. Sac. vol. ii. p. 495, sqq. ; Fritzsche on 
 Rom. ix. 3 ; Hengstenberg, Cliristologie, 2nd ed. vol. iii. 
 p. 655; Cremer, Biblisch-theologisches Worterbuch, 2nd ed. 
 P- 550). 
 
 vi. 7rpo(f)7)TV(i), fiavrsvofjiat. 
 
 is a word of constant occurrence in the N. T. ; 
 but once, namely at Acts xvi. 16 ; where, 
 of the girl possessed with the " spirit of divination," or 
 " spirit of Apollo," it is said that she " brought her masters 
 much gain by soothsaying " (p,avrsvo^vrf}. The abstinence 
 from the use of this word on all other occasions, and the 
 use of it on this one, is very observable, furnishing a 
 notable example of that religious instinct wherewith the 
 inspired writers abstain from words, whose employment 
 would tend to break down the distinction between hea- 
 thenism and revealed religion. Thus v$ai/j,ovia, although 
 from a heathen point of view a religious word, for it ascribes 
 happiness to the favour of some deity, is yet never em- 
 ployed to express Christian blessedness ; nor could it fitly 
 
 c 2
 
 20 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. vi. 
 
 have been thus employed, Safawv, which supplies its base, 
 involving polytheistic error. In like manner dpsr^ the 
 standing word in heathen ethics for ' virtue,' is of very 
 rarest occurrence in the N. T. ; it is found but once in all 
 the writings of St. Paul (Phil. iv. 8) ; and where else 
 {which is only in the Epistles of St. Peter), it is in quite 
 different uses from those in which Aristotle employs it. 1 
 In the same way ^#77, which gives us ' ethics,' occurs only 
 on a single occasion, and, which indicates that its absence 
 elsewhere is not accidental, this once is in a quotation 
 from a heathen poet (i Cor. xv. 33). 
 
 In conformity with this same law of moral fitness in 
 the admission and exclusion of words, we meet with Trpo^rj- 
 TSVSIV as the constant word in the N. T. to express the 
 prophesying by the Spirit of God : while directly a sacred 
 writer has need to make mention of the lying art of 
 heathen divination, he employs this word no longer, but 
 pavTSveadai, in preference (cf. I Sam. xxviii. 8; Deut. 
 xviii. 10). What the essential difference between the two 
 things, 'prophesying' and 'soothsaying,' 'weissagen' 
 (from ' wizan ' = ' wissen ') and ' wahrsagen,' is, and why it 
 was necessary to keep them distinct and apart by different 
 terms used to designate the one and the other, we shall 
 best understand when we have considered the etymology 
 of one, at least, of the words. But first, it is almost need- 
 less at this day to warn against what was once a very 
 common error, one in which many of the Fathers shared 
 (see Suicer, s. v. irpo^rrjs), namely a taking of the TT/JO in 
 7rpo(f)r)TViv and 7rpo(f)jJTr]f as temporal, which it is not any 
 more than in 7rpo</>a<m, and finding as the primary mean- 
 ing of the word, he who declares things before they come 
 to pass. This /oretelling or /oreannouncing may be, and 
 often is, of the office of the prophet, but is not of the 
 essence of that office ; and this as little in sacred as in 
 
 1 ' Verbum nioiium humile,' as Beza, accounting for its absence, says, 
 'si cum doms Spiritus Sancti comparatur.'
 
 vi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 21 
 
 classical Greek. The Trpo^rrjs is the ottispeaker ; he who 
 speaks out the counsel of God with the clearness, energy 
 and authority which spring from the consciousness of 
 speaking in God's name, and having received a direct 
 message from Him to deliver. Of course all this appears 
 in weaker and indistincter form in classical Greek, the 
 word never coming to its full rights until used of the 
 prophets of the true God. But there too the Trpo^rrjs is 
 the 'interpres Deorum ; ' thus Euripides (Ion, 372, 413; 
 Bacch. 2Il) : sjrsl av c^sjjos, Tsipscrta, roS' ov% opas, sya) 
 croc \6<ya)v <yvtfao/j,cu : and Pindar (Fragm. 15), 
 o, Motcra, -jrpo^arsvcrfo &' eyco : while in Philo (Quis 
 Rer. Div. HCBT. 52) he is defined as sp^vsvs eoO, and 
 again as opyavov sov rj^ovv, fcpovopsvov ical ir\rirTop,vov 
 aopdrws UTT' avrov. From signifying thus the interpreter 
 of the gods, or of God, the word abated a little of the 
 dignity of its meaning, and ^po^riys was no more than 
 as interpreter in a more general sense ; but still of the 
 good and true ; thus compare Plato, Phcedr. 262 d ; and 
 the fine answer which Lucian puts into the mouth of 
 Diogenes, when it is demanded of him what trade he 
 followed (Vit. Auct. 8 d). But it needs not to follow 
 further the history of the word, as it moves outside the 
 circle of Revelation. Neither indeed does it fare other- 
 wise within this circle. Of the Trpo^rjrrjs alike of the 
 Old Testament and of the New we may with the same 
 confidence affirm that he is not primarily, but only acci- 
 dentally, one who foretells things future; being rather 
 one who, having been taught of God, speaks out his 
 will (Deut. xviii. 18; Isai. i. ; Jer. i. ; Ezek. ii. ; I Cor. 
 xiv. 3)- 
 
 In fj,avTvo/j,ai we are introduced into quite a different 
 sphere of things. The word, connected with pdvTis, is 
 through it connected, as Plato has taught us, with fiavia 
 and jjualvofjiai. It will follow from this, that it contains 
 a reference to. the tumult of the mind, the fury, the
 
 22 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. vi. 
 
 temporary madness, under which those were, who were 
 supposed to be possessed by the god, during the time that 
 they delivered their oracles; this mantic fury of theirs 
 displaying itself in the eyes rolling, the lips foaming, 
 the hair flying, as in other tokens of a more than natural 
 agitation. 1 It is quite possible that these symptoms were 
 sometimes produced, as no doubt they were often aggra- 
 vated, in the seers, Pythonesses, Sibyls, and the like, by 
 the inhalation of earth-vapours, or by other artificial 
 excitements (Plutarch, De Def. Orac. 48). Yet no one 
 who believes that real spiritual forces underlie all forms of 
 idolatry, but will acknowledge that there was often much 
 more in these manifestations than mere trickeries and 
 frauds ; no one with any insight into the awful mystery 
 of the false religions of the world, but will see in these 
 symptoms the result of an actual relation in which these 
 persons stood to a spiritual world a spiritual world, it is 
 true, which was not above them, but beneath. 
 
 Revelation, on the other hand, knows nothing of this 
 mantic fury, except to condemn it. " The spirits of the 
 prophets are subject to the prophets" (i Cor. xiv. 32 ; cf. 
 Chrysostom, In Ep. I ad Cor. Horn. 29, ad init.). The true 
 prophet, indeed, speaks not of himself; Trpo^rrjs yap 'ISiov 
 ovBsv a7ro<J)ds<yy6Tai,, a\\6rpia 8s Trdvra, VTTTJ^OVVTOS srspov 
 (Philo, Quis Rer. Div. Ear. 52; cf. Plutarch, Amat. 16) ; 
 he is rapt out of himself; he is iv Hvsvfjt-aTi (Rev. i. 10) ; 
 sveKa-Tdcrst (Acts xi. 5) ; VTTO Hvsvparos* Aylov (frepojAcVos 
 (2 Pet. i. 21), which is much more than 'moved by the 
 Holy Ghost,' as we have rendered it ; rather ' getrieben/ 
 
 1 Cicero, who loves to "bring out, where he can, superiorities of the 
 Latin language over the Greek, claims, and I think with reason, such a 
 superiority here, in that the Latin had ' divinatio,' a word embodying the 
 divine character of prophecy, and the fact that it was a gift of the gods, 
 where the Greek had only /JLCIVTIKT), which, seizing not the thing itself at 
 any central point, did no more than set forth one of the external signs 
 which accompanied its giving (De Divin. i. i) : ' Utalianosmelius multa 
 quam Graeci, sic huic praestantissimre rei nomen nostri a diois ; Graeci, ut 
 Plato interpretatur, a furore duxeruut.'
 
 vi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 23 
 
 as De Wette (cf. Knapp, Script. Far. Argum. p. 33) ; he is 
 OsoXrjTTTos (Cyril of Alexandria) ; and we must not go so 
 far in our opposition to heathen and Montanist error as 
 to deny this, which some, above all those engaged in 
 controvers} r with the Montanists, St. Jerome for example, 
 have done (see the masterly discussion on this subject in 
 Hengstenberg's Christologie, 2nd ed., vol. iii. part 2, pp. 
 158-188). But then he is lifted above, not set beside, his 
 every-day self. It is not discord and disorder, but a higher 
 harmony and a diviner order, which are introduced into 
 his soul ; so that he is not as one overborne in the region 
 of his lower life by forces stronger than his own, by an 
 insurrection from beneath : but his spirit is lifted out of 
 that region into a clearer atmosphere, a diviner day, than 
 any in which at other times it is permitted him to breathe. 
 All that he before had still remains his, only purged, 
 exalted, quickened by a power higher than his own, but 
 yet not alien to his own ; for man is most truly man when 
 he is most filled with the fulness of God. 1 Even within 
 the sphere of heathenism itself, the superior dignity of the 
 Trpo^r/rrjs to the fidvTis was recognized ; and recognized 
 on these very grounds. Thus there is a well-known 
 passage in the Timceus of Plato (71 e, 72 a, b), where 
 exactly for this reason, that the fidvns is one in whom 
 all discourse of reason is suspended, who, as the word 
 itself implies, more or less rages, the line is drawn broadly 
 and distinctly between him and the TT/JO^T???, the former 
 being subordinated to the latter, and his utterances only 
 allowed to pass after they have received the seal and 
 approbation of the other. Often as it has been cited, it 
 may be yet worth while to cite it, at least in part, once 
 more : TO rwv jrpo(f)r)T(av <yevos 7rl rals svBsois 
 Kpiras 
 
 1 See John Smith, the Cambridge Platonist, On Prophecy: ch. 4. 
 The Difference of the true prophetical Spirit from att Enthusiastical 
 Imposture.
 
 24 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. vn. 
 
 TO irav rjyvoijKOTSS on, rrjs Si aiviyfiwv ovroi 
 (fravrdcrscos vTTOKpiral Kal oim fj,dvris, 7rpo<j)r)Tai Bs TWV 
 [AavTsvo/Asvwv SiKaiorara ovofJud^oLVT av. The truth which 
 the best heathen philosophy had a glimpse of here, was 
 permanently embodied by the Christian Church in the 
 fact that, while it assumed the irpo^Tsvsiv to itself, it 
 relegated the pavrevsvOai to that heathenism which it was 
 about to displace and overthrow. 
 
 vii. rifjitopia, KoKacns. 
 
 Or these words the former occurs but once in the N. T. 
 (Heb. x. 29), and the latter only twice (Matt. xxv. 46 ; 
 I John iv. 1 8) : but the verb n^wpslv twice (Acts xxii. 5 ; 
 xxvi. ii); and Ko\dsiv as often (Acts iv. 21 ; 2 Pet. ii. 
 9) . In rifjiwpia, according to its classical use, the vindicative 
 character of the punishment is the predominant thought ; 
 it is the Latin vindicatio,' by Cicero (Inv. ii. 22) explained 
 as that act ' per quam vim et contumeliam defendendo aut 
 ulciscendo propulsamus a nobis, et a nostris ; et per quam 
 peccata puniinus ; ' punishment as satisfying the inflicter's 
 sense of outraged justice, as defending his own honour, 
 or that of the violated law. Herein its meaning agrees 
 with its etymology, being from TL^TJ, and ovpos, opdw, the 
 guardianship or protectorate of honour ; ' Ehrenstrafe ' it 
 has been rendered in German, or better, 'Ehrenrettung, 
 die der Ehre der verletzten Ordnung geleistete Genug- 
 thuung' (Delitzsch). In KoXaais, on the other hand, is 
 more the notion of punishment as it has reference to the 
 correction and bettering of the offender (see Philo, Leg. ad 
 Cai. i ; Josephus, Antt. ii. 6. 8) ; it is * castigatio/ and 
 naturally has for the most part a milder use than 
 Thus Plato (Protag. 323 e) joins Ko\da-sis and voi 
 together : and the whole passage to the end of the chapter 
 is eminently instructive as to the distinction between the 
 words ; ovSsls /coT^d^st, TOVS dSircovvras OTI rjSiKTja-sv, OGTIS
 
 vii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 25 
 
 ftr) waTTSp dijpiov d\o n /icnws r ip-wpslrai, . . . d\\a rov 
 lj,e\\ovTos ^dptv 'iva /i?) avdis d^i/crja-rj the same change in 
 the words which he employs, occurring again twice or thrice 
 in the sentence ; with all which may be compared what 
 Clement of Alexandria has said, Pcedag. i. 8. 70 ; and again 
 Strom, vii. 16, where he defines Ko\da-LS as fispiKal Trai&siai, 
 and Ti/j,c0pia as KCIKOV avrairoSoais. And this is Aristotle's 
 distinction (Rhet. i. 10) : Sia^spst, Ss n,fio)pia /cal Ko\acns 
 /7 /JLSV yap Ko\acri$ TOV irda^ovros svs/cd S<TTIV f] 8s n^wpia^ 
 rov TTOIOVVTOS, wa a r jroir\,'r]pa)df) : cf. Ethic. Nic. iv. 5* IO, II: 
 TLfj-wpia Travel rrjs opyrjs, JjSovrjv dvrl rrjs \inrijs sfj.Trotova'a. 
 It is to these and similar definitions that Aulus Gellins 
 refers when he says (Noct. AU. vi. 14) : ' Puniendis pec- 
 catis tres esse debere causas existimatum est. Una est 
 quse vovOscria, vel /co'Xacrty, vel Trapaivsa-is dicitur ; cum 
 poena adhibetur castigandi atque emendandi gratia ; ut is 
 qui fortuito deliquit, attentior fiat, correctiorque. Altera 
 est quam ii, qui vocabula ista curiosius diviserunt, 
 Tifiwpiav appellant. Ea causa animadvertendi est, cum 
 dignitas auctoritasque ejus, in quem est peccatum, tuenda 
 est, ne prsetermissa animadversio contemtum ejus pariat, 
 et honorem levet : idcircoque id ei vocabulum a conserva- 
 tione honoris factum putant.' There is a profound com- 
 mentary on these words in Goschel's Zerstreute Blatter, 
 part 2, p. 343-360; compare too an instructive note in 
 Wyttenbach's Animadd. in Plutarch, vol. xii. p. 776. 
 
 It would be a very serious error, however, to attempt 
 to transfer this distinction in its entireness to the words 
 as employed in the N. T. The ico\.acns alwvios of Matt. 
 xxv. 46, as it is plain, is no merely corrective, and there- 
 fore temporary, discipline ; cannot be any other than the 
 dSid\snrrof ri/j,wpia (Josephus, B. J. ii. 8. 1 1 ; cf. Antt. xviii. 
 I. 3, slpy/jios dt'Sios), the di'Stot Tipwplat, (Plato, Ax. 372 a), 
 with which the Lord elsewhere threatens finally im- 
 penitent men (Mark ix. 43-48) : for in proof that KoXaa-is 
 with Kokd^evdat, had acquired in Hellenistic Greek this
 
 26 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. vin. 
 
 severer sense, and was used simply as ' punishment ' or 
 ' torment,' with no necessary underthought of the better- 
 ing through it of him who endured it, we have only to 
 refer to such passages as the following : Josephus, Antt. 
 xv. 2. 2 ; Mart. Poly car. 2 ; 2 Mace. iv. 38 ; Wisd. xix. 4 ; 
 and indeed to the words of St. Peter himself (2 Ep. ii. 9). 
 This much, indeed, of Aristotle's distinction still remains, 
 and may be recognized in the scriptural usage of the 
 words, that in KoXaa-ts the relation of the punishment to 
 the punished, in Tipwpia to the punisher, is predominant. 
 
 viii. a\t]6rjS, a\r)0ivos. 
 
 THE Latin * verax ' and ' verus ' would severally represent 
 akyOris and a\,r)6iv6s, and in the main reproduce the dis- 
 tinctions existing between them ; indeed, the Vulgate does 
 commonly by aid of these indicate whether of the two 
 stands in the original; but we having lost, or nearly lost, 
 'very ' (vrai) as an adjective, retaining it only as an adverb, 
 have ' true ' alone whereby to render them both. It follows 
 that the difference between the two disappears in our 
 Version : and this by no fault of our Translators unless, 
 indeed, they erred in not recovering 'very,' which was 
 Wiclif's common translation of 'verus' (thus John xv. I, 
 " I am the verri vine "), and which to recover would have 
 been easy in their time (indeed they actually so use it 
 at Gen. xxvii. 21, 24) ; as it would not be impossible in 
 ours. We in fact do retain it in the Nicene Creed, where 
 it does excellent service ' very God of very God ' (sov 
 d\t]0t,vbv SK ov d\t]0ivov). It would have been worth 
 while to make the attempt, for the differences which we 
 now efface are most real. Thus God is a\r}6rjs, and He is 
 also d\r)0ivos : but very different attributes are ascribed to 
 Him by the one epithet, and by the other. He is d\r)0rj$ 
 (John iii. 33; Eom. iii. 4; =' verax'), inasmuch as He 
 cannot lie, as He is a^rsv^s (Tit. i. 2), the truth-speaking^
 
 vm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 27 
 
 and the truth-loving God (cf. Euripides, Ion, 1554). But 
 He is a\r]div6s (i Thess. i. 9; John xvii. 3 ; Isai. 1x7. 16; 
 = * verus '), very God, as distinguished from idols and all 
 other false gods, the dreams of the diseased fancy of man, 
 with no substantial existence in the world of realities (cf. 
 Athenseus, vi. 62, where one records how the Athenians 
 received Demetrius with divine honours : toy e'lr) povos Oeos 
 d\7]0i,v6s, ol &' aXXot KadevBovaiv, r) airo^^ova'iv, ?; OVK etcrt). 
 " The adjectives in -i-vos express the material out of which 
 anything is made, or rather they imply a mixed relation, 
 of quality and origin, to the object denoted by the substan- 
 tive from which they are derived. Thus %v\-i-vos means 
 * of wood,' ' wooden ; ' [oa-rpd/c-t-vos, ' of earth,' ' earthen ; ' 
 vd\-t,-vos, c of glass,' ' glassen ; '] and a\r)6-t,-vos signifies 
 ' genuine,' made up of that which, is true [that which, in 
 chemical language, has truth for its stuff and base] . This 
 last adjective is particularly applied to express that which 
 is all that it pretends to be ; for instance, pure gold as 
 opposed to adulterated metal " (Donaldson, New Craiylus, 
 p. 426). 
 
 It will be seen from this last remark that it does not 
 of necessity follow, that whatever may be contrasted with 
 the a\T]6iv6s must thereby be concluded to have no actual 
 existence, to be altogether false and fraudulent. Inferior 
 and subordinate realizations, partial and imperfect antici- 
 pations, of the truth, may be set over against the truth in 
 its highest form, in its ripest and completest development ; 
 and then to this last alone the title aXyffivos will be vouch- 
 safed. Kahnis has said well (Abendmahl, p. 119) : "'AXi;- 
 OTTJS schliesst das TJnwahre und Unwirkliche, aX-yQivos das 
 seiner Idee nicht Entsprechende auf. Das Mass des 
 d\r)dijs ist die Wirklichkeit, das des akrjOivos die Idee. 
 Bei d\?)dijs entspricht die Idee der Sache, bei d\r)0tv6$ die 
 Sache der Idee." Thus Xenophon affirms of Cyrus (Andb. 
 i. 9. 17), that he commanded d\rjdivbv crrpaTev^a, an army 
 indeed, an army deserving the name ; but he would not
 
 28 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. vm. 
 
 have altogether refused this name of e army ' to inferior 
 hosts; and Plato (Tim. 25 a), calling the sea beyond the 
 Straits of Hercules, 7rs\ayos ovrcos, a\r)6ivos TTOVTOS, would 
 imply that it alone realized to the full the idea of the great 
 ocean deep; cf. Rep. i. 347 d : 6 rut OVTI a\.ij6ivos ap-^cov; 
 and again vi. 499 c: d\i)0ivr)s (j)i\ocro(f)las d\rj@tvos epws. We 
 should frequently nriss the exact force of the word, we 
 might find ourselves entangled in serious embarrassments, 
 if we understood aXydtvos as necessarily the true opposed 
 to the false. Rather it is very often the substantial as 
 opposed to the shadowy and outlinear ; as Origen (in Joan. 
 torn. ii. 4) has well expressed it : aX?7#ti/os, Trpbs dvrt- 
 &ia(TToXr)v a-Kids Kal TVTTOV teal sltcovos. Thus at Heb. viii. 2, 
 mention is made of the a-tcyvrj dhydivr] into which our great 
 High Priest entered ; which, of course, does not imply 
 that the tabernacle in the wilderness was not also most 
 truly pitched at God's bidding, and according to the pat- 
 tern which He had shown (Exod. xxv.) ; but only that it, 
 and all things in it, were weak earthly copies of heavenly 
 realities (avrirvrra ra>v d\r)diva)v) ; the passing of the 
 Jewish High Priest into the Holy of Holies, with all else 
 pertaining to the worldly sanctuary, being but the a-xia 
 ra)v /jL\\6vTcov d<ya&(t)v, while the erw/ia, the so filling up 
 of these outlines that they should be bulk and body, and 
 not shadow any more, was of Christ (Col. ii. I/). 1 
 
 So, too, when the Baptist announces, " The law was 
 given by Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ" 
 (John i. 17), the antithesis cannot lie between the false 
 
 1 This F. Spanheim (Dub. Evany. 1 06) has well put: '-'AXiJ&ta in 
 Scriptuni Sacni interdum sumitur ethice, et oppouitur falsitati et men- 
 dacio ; interdum mystice, et opponitur typis et urabris, ut Vo>i> illn re- 
 spondens, quse veritas alio modo etiam o-io/xa vocatur a Spirit u S. opposita 
 rfj o-Kia." Cf. Deyling, Obss. Sac. vol. iii. p. 317 ; vol. iv. pp. 548, 627; 
 and Delitzsch : ' Es 1st Beiname dessen was seineui Namen und Begriffe 
 im vollsten, tiefsten, uneingeschranktesten Sinne entspricht, dessen was 
 das was es heisst nicht bios relativ ist, sondern absolut ; nicht bios mate- 
 riell, sondern geistig und geistlich ; nicht bios zeitlich, sondern ewip: ; 
 nicht bios bildlich, d. h. vorbildlich, abbildlich, nachbildlich, sondern 
 gegenbildlich und urbildlich.'
 
 vm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 29 
 
 and the true, but only between the imperfect and the 
 perfect, the shadowy and the substantial. In like manner, 
 the Eternal Word is declared to be TO <&>y TO a\r)divov 
 (John i. 9), not denying thereby that the Baptist was also 
 " a burning and a shining light " (John v. 35), or that the 
 faithful are "lights in the world" (Phil. ii. 15 ; Matt. v. 14), 
 but only claiming for a greater than all to be " the Light 
 which lighteth every man that cometh into the world." ' 
 Christ proclaims Himself o apros 6 aXrjQivus (John vi. 32), 
 not suggesting thereby that the bread which Moses gave 
 was not also " bread of heaven " (Ps. cv. 40), but only that 
 it was such in a secondary inferior degree ; it was not 
 food in the highest sense, inasmuch as it did not nourish 
 up unto eternal life those that ate it (John vi. 49). He is 
 f) ap,Tre\os rj d\i)0ivij (John xv. i), not thereby denying that 
 Israel also was God's vine (Ps. Ixxx. 8; Jer. ii. 21), but 
 affirming that none except Himself realized this name, and 
 all which this name implied, to the full (Hos. x. i ; Deut. 
 xxxii. 32). 2 It would be easy to follow this up further; 
 but these examples, which the thoughtful student will 
 observe are drawn chiefly from St. John, may suffice. The 
 fact that in the writings of this Evangelist aXijBivos is 
 used two and twenty times as against five times in all the 
 rest of the N. T., he will scarcely esteem accidental. 
 
 To sum up then, as briefly as possible, the differences 
 between these two words, we may affirm of the a\T)dt]$, 
 that he fulfils the promise of his lips, but the dXrjQtvds the 
 
 1 Lampe (in /or.) : ' Innuitur ergo liic oppositio turn luminarium 
 naturalium, qualia fuere lux creationis, lux Israelitarum in yEgypto, lux 
 columnse in deserto, lux gerutnarum in pectorali, quae non nisi umbrae 
 fuere huj us verse lucis; turn eorum, qui falso se esse lumen hominum 
 gloriantur, quales sigillatim fuere Sol et Luna Ecclesiaa Judaiese, qui 
 cum ortu hujus Lucis obscurandi, Joel ii. 31 ; turn denique verorum 
 quoque luminarium, sed in minore gradu, quseque onine suum lumen ab 
 hoc Lumine mutuantur, qualia sunt omnes Sancti, Doctores, Angeli lucis, 
 ipse denique Joannes Baptista.' 
 
 2 Laiupe : ' Christus est Vitis vera, . . . et qua talis preejjoni, quin et 
 opponi, potest omnibus aliis qui etiam sub hoc symbolo in scriptis pro- 
 pheticis pinguntur.'
 
 30 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. ix. 
 
 wider promise of his name. Whatever that name imports, 
 taken in its highest, deepest, widest sense, whatever ac- 
 cording to that he ought to be, that he is to the full. 
 This, let me further add, holds equally good of things 
 as of persons ; Trio-rot' and ak^Oivoi are therefore at Rev. 
 xxi. 5 justly found together. 
 
 ix. OepaTrav, Sov\os, BLO.KOVOS, 
 
 THE only passage in the N. T. in which Ospairmv occurs is 
 Heb. iii. 5 : " And Moses verily was faithful in all his 
 house, as a servant " (a>s depaTrwv). The allusion here to 
 Num. xii. 7 is manifest, where the Septuagint has given 
 dspdirwv as its rendering of "J?.y ; it has done the same 
 elsewhere (Exod. iv. 10; Deut. iii. 24; Josh. i. 2), yet has 
 not made this its constant rule, frequently rendering 
 it not by dspaTrmv, but by 8ov\os, out of which latter 
 rendering, no doubt, we have at Eev. xv. 3, the phrase, 
 Mwixrrjs 6 8ov\os rov sov. It will not follow that there 
 is no difference between SoOXos and dspaTrcov, nor yet that 
 there may not be occasions when the one word would be 
 far more fitly employed than the other; but only that 
 there are frequent occasions which do not require the 
 bringing out into prominence of that which constitutes 
 the difference between them. And such real difference 
 there is. The SouAos, opposed to sXsvdspos (i Cor. xii. 13 ; 
 Rev. xiii. 16 ; xix. 18 ; Plato, Gorg. 502 d), having SSO-TTOT??? 
 (Tit. ii. 9), or in the 1ST. T. more commonly Kvpios (Luke 
 xii. 46), as its antithesis, is properly the * taxi-man,' from 
 Bso), ' ligo,' one that is in a permanent relation of servitude 
 to another, his will altogether swallowed up in the will of 
 the other; Xenophon (Oyrop. viii. I. 4): 01 pev 8ov\ot, 
 atcovrss rols SscrTrorais vTrrjpsrova'i. He is this, altogether 
 apart from any ministration to that other at any one 
 moment rendered ; the dspd-rrwv, on the other hand, is the 
 performer of present services, with no respect to the fact
 
 ix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 31 
 
 whether as a freeman or slave he renders them ; as bound 
 by duty, or impelled by love ; and thus, as will necessarily 
 follow, there goes habitually with the word the sense of 
 one whose services are tenderer, nobler, freer than those 
 of the Sov\os. Thus Achilles styles Patroclus his OspctTrcav 
 (Homer, II. xvi. 244), one whose service was not con- 
 strained, but the officious ministration of love ; very much 
 like that of the squire or page of the Middle Ages. 
 Meriones is depciTrav to Idomeneus (xxiii. 113), Sthenelus 
 to Diomed, while all the Greeks are dspaTrovrss "Ap^os- 
 (ii. no and often; cf. Nagelsbach, Homer. Theologie, p. 
 280). Hesiod in like manner claims to be Movcrdwv 
 dspdiruv : not otherwise in Plato (Symp. 203 c) Eros is 
 styled the aKo\ov0os teal Ospd'jrwv of Aphrodite ; cf. Pin- 
 dar, Pytli. iv. 287, where the dspairwv is contrasted with 
 the Spao-T^s. With all which agrees the definition of Hesy- 
 chius (ol sv SsvTspa rd^st <f>i\oi,), of Ammonius (ol VTTO- 
 (f)i\oi), and of Eustathius (rwv fyi\G)v ol 8paaTt- 
 Intheve'rbdspaTrsvsiv ( = ' curare'), as distin- 
 guished from Sov\svsiv, and connected with 'faveo,' 'foveo,' 
 0d\.7ra), the nobler and tenderer character of the service 
 comes still more strongly out. It may be used of the 
 physician's watchful tendance of the sick, man's service 
 of God, and is beautifully applied by Xenophon (Mem. iv. 
 3. 9), to the care which the gods have of men. 
 
 It will follow that the author of the Epistle to the 
 Hebrews, calling Moses a depdircov in the house of God 
 (iii. 5), implies that he occupied a more confidential posi- 
 tion, that a freer service, a higher dignity was his, than 
 that merely of a 8ov\os, approaching more closely to that 
 of an olicovo/jLos' in God's house ; and, referring to Num. xii. 
 6-8, we find, confirming this view, that an exceptional 
 dignity is there ascribed to Moses, lifting him above other 
 SoOXot of God ; ' egregius domesticus fidei tusB ' Augustine 
 (Cow/, xii. 23) calls him ; cf. Deut, xxxiv. 5, where he is 
 Kvpiov. In agreement with this we find the title
 
 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. ix. 
 
 /cvplov given to Moses (Wisd. x. 16), but to no 
 other of the worthies of the old Covenant mentioned in 
 the chapter ; to Aaron indeed at xviii. 21. It would have 
 been well if our Translators had seen some way to indicate 
 the exceptional and more honourable title here given to 
 him who " was faithful in all God's house." The Vulgate, 
 which has ' famulus,' has at least made the attempt (so 
 Cicero, 'famulce Idsese matris ') ; Tyndal, too, and Cranmer, 
 who have * minister,' perhaps as adequate a word as the 
 language affords. 
 
 Neither ought the distinction between Bidicovos and 
 BovXos to be suffered to escape in an English Version of 
 the N. T. There is no difficulty in preserving it. Ata/eoi'os, 
 not from Bid and KOVIS, one who in his haste runs through 
 the dust a mere fanciful derivation, and forbidden by the 
 quantity of the antepenultima in BidKovos is probably 
 from the same root as has given us BIWKCI), 'to hasten 
 after,' or ' pursue,' and thus indeed means ' a runner ' still 
 (so Buttmann, Lexil. i. 219 ; but see Doderlein, Lat. Syn. 
 vol. v. p. 135). The difference between Btd/covos on one 
 side, and Bov\os and Ospdirwv on the other, is this that 
 Btd/covos represents the servant more in his activity for the 
 work (Btdicovos rov sva^j\iov, Col. i. 23 ; 2 Cor. iii. 6 ; 
 Eph. iii. 7) ; rather in his relation, either servile, as that 
 of the BovXos, or more voluntary, as in the case of the 
 Ospdirov, to a person. The attendants at a feast, and this 
 with no respect to their condition as free or servile, are 
 Bid/covoi (John ii. 5 ; Matt. xxii. 13). The importance of 
 preserving the distinction between Bov\os and Btdicovos 
 may be illustrated from the parable of the Marriage 
 Supper (Matt. xxii. 2-14). In our Version the king's 
 "servants" bring in the invited guests (ver. 3, 4, 8, 10), 
 and his " servants " are bidden to thrust out that guest 
 who was without a wedding garment (ver. 1 3) ; but in the 
 Greek, those, the bringers-in of the guests, are Bov\ot, : 
 these, the fulfillers of the king's sentence, are
 
 ix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 33 
 
 this distinction being a most real one, and belonging to 
 the essentials of the parable ; the Sov\ot being men, the 
 ambassadors of Christ, who invite their fellow- men into 
 his kingdom now, the Siditovoi, angels, who in all the judg- 
 ment acts at the end of the world evermore appear as the 
 executors of the Lord's will. The parable, it is true, does 
 not turn on this distinction, yet these ought not any more 
 to be confounded than the Sov\oi and Ospia-ral of Matt. 
 xiii. 27, 30 ; cf. Luke xix. 24. 
 
 OiKST'rjs is often used as equivalent to Bov\os. It cer- 
 tainly is so at I Pet. ii. 1 8 ; and hardly otherwise on the 
 three remaining occasions on which it occurs in the N. T. 
 (Luke xvi. 13 ; Acts x. 7; Rom. xiv. 4) ; nor does the 
 Septuagint (Exod. xxi. 27 ; Deut. vi. 21; Prov. xvii. 2) 
 appear to recognize any distinction between them; the 
 Apocrypha as little (Ecclus. x. 25). At the same time 
 ol/ceTijs ( = ' domesticus ') fails to bring out and emphasize 
 the servile relation so strongly as $ov\os does ; rather 
 contemplates that relation from a point of view calculated 
 to mitigate, and which actually went far to mitigate, its 
 extreme severity. He is one of the household, of the 
 ' family,' in the older sense of this word ; not indeed 
 necessarily one born in the house ; oiKoysvijs is the word 
 for this in the Septuagint (Gen. xiv. 14 ; Eccles. ii. 7) ; 
 'verna,' identical with the Gothic 'bairn,' in the Latin; 
 compare ' criado ' in the Spanish ; but one, as I have said, 
 of the family ; OIKSTTJS sarlv 6 /cara TTJV olrclav SutTpifiw, tcav 
 e\svdspos $, KOivov ( Athenseus, vi. 93) ; the word being used 
 in the best times of the language with so wide a reach as 
 to include wife and children; so in Herodotus (viii. 106, 
 and often); while in Sophocles (Track. 894) by the ol/csrai 
 the children of Deianira can alone be intended. On the 
 different names given to slaves and servants of various 
 classes and degrees see Athenseus, as quoted above. 
 
 "Tir'rjpsT^s, which only remains to be considered, is a 
 word drawn from military matters ; he was originally the 
 
 D
 
 34 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. x. 
 
 rower (from epsa-a-m, * remigo '), as distinguished from the 
 soldier, on board a war-galley ; then the performer of any 
 strong and hard labour ; then the subordinate official who 
 waited to accomplish the behests of his superior, as the 
 orderly who attends a commander in war (Xenophon, 
 Cyrop. vi. 2. 13) ; the herald who carries solemn messages 
 (Euripides, Hec. 503). Prometheus intends a taunt when 
 he characterizes Hermes as ewi> vTrrjpsTijs (.ZEschylus, 
 Prom. Vinct. 990), one who runs on the errands of superior 
 gods. In this sense, as an inferior minister to perform 
 certain defined functions for Paul and Barnabas, Mark 
 was their vir^psr^s (Acts xiii. 5) ; and in this official sense 
 of lictor, apparitor, and the like, we find the word con- 
 stantly, indeed predominantly used in the N. T. (Matt. 
 v. 25 ; Luke iv. 20; John vii. 32 ; xviii. 18 ; Acts v. 22). 
 The mention by St. John of Sov\oi and vTrrjpsrai together 
 (xviii. 1 8) is alone sufficient to indicate that a difference 
 is by him observed between them ; from which difference 
 it will follow that he who struck the Lord on the face 
 (John xviii. 22) could not be, as some suggest, the same 
 whose ear the Lord had just healed (Luke xxii. 51), seeing 
 that this was a Sov\os, that profane and petulant striker 
 a uTrrjpsTrjs, of the High Priest. The meanings of SKIKOVOS 
 and vTrypsri]? are much more nearly allied ; they do in fact 
 continually run into one another, and there are innumer- 
 able occasions on which the words might be indifferently 
 used ; the more official character and functions of the 
 vTrrjpsTtjs is the point in which the distinction between 
 them resides. See Vitringa, De Synagoga Vetere, pp. 916- 
 919, and the Dictionary of the Bible, article Minister. 
 
 x. Sei\ia, <o/3os, sv\d/3ia. 
 
 OF these three words the first, SstXia, is used always in a 
 bad sense j the second, <f>6/3os, is a middle term, capable 
 of a good interpretation, capable of an evil, and lying in-
 
 x. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 35 
 
 differently between the two ; the third, sv\dfisia, is quite 
 predominantly used in a good sense, though it too has 
 not altogether escaped being employed in an evil. 
 
 AstXta, equivalent to the Latin 'timor,' and having 
 Opaa-vrrjs (' foolhardiness ') for its contrary extreme 
 (Plato, Tim. 87 a), is our ' cowardice.' It occurs only 
 once in the N. T., 2 Tim. i. 7 ; where Bengel says, exactly 
 on what authority I know not, <Est timor cujus causse 
 potius in animo sunt quam foris ; ' but 8si\id(o at John 
 xiv. 27 ; and 8si\6s at Matt. viii. 26 ; Mark iv. 40 ; Eev. 
 xxi. 8 : the 8st\o in this last passage being those who 
 in time of persecution have under fear of suffering denied 
 the faith ; cf. Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. viii. 3. It is joined to 
 dvavSpela (Plato, Phcedr. 254 c; Legg. ii. 659 a), to \siiro- 
 ra^la (Lysias, Orat. in Alcib. p. 140), to ^v^porys (Plu- 
 tarch, Fab. Max. 17), to eK\v<ri<f (2 Mace. iii. 24) ; is 
 ascribed by Josephus to the spies who brought an ill report 
 of the Promised Land (Antt. iii. 15. i); being constantly 
 set over against dvSpsia, as Sstkos over against dvbpeios : 
 for example, in the long discussion on valour and cowardice 
 in Plato's Protagoras, 360 d ; see too the lively description 
 of the SetXos in the Characters (27) of Theophrastus. AetXta 
 seeks to shelter its timidity under the more honorable 
 title of v\dj3sia * (Philo, De Fort. 5) ; pleads for itself 
 that it is indeed dcr<f)d\ia (Plutarch, Anim. an Corp. A/. 
 Pej. 3 ; Philo, Quod Det. Pot. Insid. 11). 
 
 Qoftos, very often united with rpopos (as at Gen. ix. 2 ; 
 Deut. xi. 25 ; Exod. xv. 16 ; I Cor. ii. 3 ; Phil. ii. 12), and 
 answering to the Latin ' metus,' is a middle term, and as 
 such used in the N. T. sometimes in a bad sense, but 
 oftener in a good. Thus in a bad sense, Rom. viii. 1 5 ; 
 I John iv. 1 8 ; cf. Wisd. xvii. 1 1 ; but in a good, Acts ix. 
 31 ; Eom. iii. 18 ; Ephes. vi. 5 ; Phil. ii. 12; I Pet. i. 17. 
 Being this fieaov, Plato, in the Protagoras as referred to 
 
 1 ' And calls that providence, which we calljligkt.' DETDEIT. 
 
 o2
 
 36 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. x. 
 
 above, adds ala-^pos to it, as often as he would indicate 
 the timidity which misbecomes a man. On the distinction 
 between ' timor,' * metus,' and ' formido ' see Donaldson, 
 Complete Latin Grammar, p. 489. 
 
 Ey\a/3eta only occurs twice in the N. T. (Heb. v. 7 
 [where see Bleek] ; and xii. 28), and on each occasion 
 signifies piety contemplated as a, fear of God; la vigilance 
 a 1'egard du mal (Godel). The image on which it rests is 
 that of the careful taking hold and wary handling, the sv 
 \afj,fidve<r0ai, of some precijus yet fragile vessel, which 
 with ruder or less anxious handling might easily be broken 
 (77 jap sv\d{3sia a-wfei iravra, Aristophanes, Aves, 377), as 
 in Balde's sublime funeral hyuin on the young German 
 
 Empress 
 
 ' Quam manibus osseis tangit, 
 Crystallinam phialam frangit 
 inepta et rustica Mors, 
 O caduca juvenculae sors !' 
 
 But such a cautious care in the conducting of affairs ^the 
 word is joined by Plutarch to jrpovota, Marcell. 9 ; xpr)ai/j,a)- 
 raTT] OsSyv it is declared by Euripides, Phoen. 794) ; springing 
 as in part it will from a fear of miscarriage, ea\ly lies open 
 to the charge of timidity. Thus Demosthenes, who opposes 
 ev\d{3sia to dpdaos (5 1 7), claims for himself that he was only 
 s v\alSr)s, where his enemies charged him with being Sei\os 
 and aroXfjios : while in Plutarch (Fab. 17) sv\a^-i]s and 
 Bva-s\7riaTos are joined together. It is not wonderful then 
 that fear should have come to be regarded as an essential 
 element of v\d/3eia, sometimes so occupies the word as to 
 leave no room for any other sense (Josephus, Antt. xi. 6. 
 9), though for the most part no dishonorable fear (see, 
 however, a remarkable exception, Wisd. xvii. 8) is in- 
 tended, but one which a wise and good man might fitly 
 entertain. Cicero (Tusc. iv. 6) : ' Declinatio [a malis] si cum 
 ratione fiet, cautio appelletur, eaque intelligatur in solo 
 esse sapiente j quse autem sine ratione et cum exanima-
 
 xi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 37 
 
 tione humili atque fracta, nominetur metus.' He has pro- 
 bably the definition of the Stoics in his eyes. These, 
 while they disallowed </>6/3os as a irdOos^ admitted siihdftsia, 
 which they defined as SKK\IO-IS a-vv Xo7&> (Clement of Alex- 
 andria, Strom, ii. 18), into the circle of virtues; thus 
 Diogenes Laertius (vii. I. 116) : rrjv Be svXd^siav [svavriav 
 (bacriv slvat] TO> <o/3<, ovcrav v\o<yov SKK\KTIV (f>of3r)dr/- 
 <r E <r a i pev <yap rov (ro<f)ov ovSa/j-ws, euXa/3 77^77 o-o-#at Bs: 
 and Plutarch (De Repugn. Stoic. 1 1) quotes their maxim: TO 
 yap v\afti<r6ai cro<f)<i)v iBcov. Yet after all, these distinc- 
 tions whereby they sought to escape the embarrassments 
 of their ethical position, the admission for instance that 
 the wise man might feel ' suspiciones quasdam et umbras 
 affectuum,' but not the 'affectus' themselves (Seneca, 
 De Ird, i. 1 6 ; cf. Plutarch, De Virt. filor. 9), were nothing 
 worth ; they had admitted the thing, and were now only 
 fighting about words, with which to cover and conceal the 
 virtual abandonment of their position, being ovofjLaro^d^o^ 
 as a Peripatetic adversary lays to their charge. See on 
 this matter the full discussion in Clement of Alexandria, 
 Strom, ii. 7-9 ; and compare Augustine, De Civ. Dei, ix. 4. 
 On the more distinctly religious aspect of v\d@ia there 
 will be opportunity to speak hereafter ( xlviii.). 
 
 xi. Ka/cia, feaKorf0ia. 
 
 IT would be a mistake to regard Ka/cia in the N. T. as 
 embracing the whole complex of moral evil. In this 
 latitude no doubt it is often used ; thus dperrj and Katcia 
 are virtue and vice (Plato, Rep. iv. 444 d) ; dpral ical tca/ciai, 
 virtues and vices (Aristotle, Rhet. ii. 12 ; Ethic. Nic. 
 vii. I ; Plutarch, Conj. Proec. 25, and often) ; while Cicero 
 (Tusc. iv. 15) refuses to translate tca/cla by 'malitia,' 
 choosing rather to coin ' vitiositas ' for his need, and 
 giving this as his reason : * Nam malitia certi cujusdam 
 vitii nomen est, vitiositas omnium;' showing plainly
 
 38 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xi. 
 
 hereby that in his eye /ca/cia was the name, not of ore 
 vice, but of the viciousness out of which all vices spring. 
 In the N. T., however, tca/cta is not so much viciousness as 
 a special form of vice. Were it viciousness, other evil habits 
 of the mind would be subordinated to it, as to a larger term 
 including the lesser ; whereas in fact they are coordinated 
 with it (Rom. i. 29; Col. iii. 8; I Pet. ii. i). We must 
 therefore seek for it a more special meaning; and, com- 
 paring it with irovqpia, we shall not err in saying that tca/cta 
 is more the evil habit of mind, the 'malitia,' by which 
 Cicero declined to render it, or, as he elsewhere explains it, 
 ' versuta et fallax nocendi ratio' (Nat.Deor. iii. 30; DeFin. 
 iii. 1 1 in fine) ; while Trovrjpla is the active outcoming of the 
 same. Thus Calvin says of Ka/cia (Eph. iv. 3 1) : ' Significat 
 hoc verbo [Apostolus] animi pravitatem quse huinanitati 
 et sequitati est opposita, et malignitas vulgo nuncupatur,' 
 or as Cicero defines ' malevolentia ' (Tusc. Qucsst. iv. 9) : 
 ' voluptas ex malo alterius sine emolumento suo.' Our 
 English Translators, rendering naicLa so often by ' malice ' 
 (Ephes. iv. 31 ; I Cor. v. 8 ; xiv. 20; I Pet. ii. i), show that 
 they regarded it very much in this light. With this agrees 
 the explanation of it by Theodoret on Rom. i. : Ka/ciav 
 Kakel rrjv tyvx*l s ^^ T " % 6l / )W pOTTijv, Kal rov sirl /3\dftr) rov 
 7Ts\as yivopsvov \oyta-fj,6v. Not exactly but nearly thus the 
 author of what long passed as a Second Epistle of Cle- 
 ment's, but which now is known not to be an Epistle at 
 all, warns against Kanla as the forerunner (Trpoo&oiTropos) 
 of all other sins ( 10). Compare the art. Bosheit in 
 Herzog's Real-Encyclopddie. 
 
 While Katcta occurs several times in the N. T., KaKoijdsia 
 occurs but once, namely in St. Paul's long and terrible 
 catalogue of the wickednesses with which the heathen 
 world was filled (Rom. i. 29) ; but some four or five times 
 in the Books of the Maccabees (3 Mace. iii. 22 ; vii. 3 ; 
 4 Mace. i. 4 ; iii. 4) ; KaKorjdrjs there as well (4 Mace. i. 25 ; 
 ii. 1 6); never in the Septuagint. We have translated it
 
 xi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 39 
 
 * malignity.' When, however, we take it in this wider 
 meaning, which none would deny that it very often has 
 (Plato, Rep. i. 348 d; Xenophon, De Ven. xiii. 16), or in 
 that wider still which Basil the Great gives it (Reg. Brev. 
 Int. 77 : KaKorjOsia fisv SCTTIV, eoy \o<yi&fJLCU, avrrj 77 TT/XWTT; 
 /col KSfcpv/jL/Mevr) Katcta Tov tfdovsf), making it, as he thus does, 
 exactly to correspond to the * ill nature ' of our early 
 divines (see my Select Glossary, s. v.), just as the author 
 of the Third Maccabees (iii. 22) speaks of some rfj avp(j)vra> 
 KatcoTjOsia TO KO,\OV diroMrdpsvot,, Styvsicws &s sis TO (j>av\ov 
 Kvsvovrss, when, I say, its meaning is so far enlarged, it 
 is very difficult to assign to it any domain which will not 
 have been already preoccupied either by tcaKia or Trovripia. 
 I prefer therefore to understand KcucorjOsia here in the 
 more restricted meaning which it sometimes possesses. 
 The Geneva Version has so done, rendering it by a peri- 
 phrasis, " taking all things in the evil part ; " which is 
 exactly Aristotle's definition, to whose ethical terminology 
 the word belongs (Rhet. ii. 13) : sent yap KaKotfdsia TO sirl 
 TO xsipov V7ro\a/j,/3dveiv airavra : or, as Jeremy Taylor 
 calls it, ' a baseness of nature by which we take things 
 by the wrong handle, and expound things always in the 
 worst sense ; ' * the * malignitas interpretantium ' of Pliny 
 (Ep. v. 7) ; 2 being exactly opposed to what Seneca (De 
 Ird, ii. 24) so happily calls the 'benigna rerum sesti- 
 matio.' For precisely such a use of /cafcorjdcos see Josephus, 
 Antt. vii. 6. I ; cf. 2 Sam. x. 3. This giving to all words 
 and actions of others their most unfavorable interpreta- 
 tion Aristotle marks as one of the vices of the old, in that 
 mournful, yet for the Christian most instructive, passage, 
 which has been referred to just now ; they are KarcotfOsis 
 and /ca^uTTOTTTot. We shall scarcely err then, taking 
 
 1 Grotius : ' Cum quse possumus in bonam partem interpretari, in 
 pejorem rapimus, contra quam exigit officium dilectionis.' 
 
 * How striking, by the \vay, this use of ' interpreter,' as ' to interpret 
 awry,' in Tacitus (himself not wholly untouched with the vice), Pliny, 
 and the other writers of their age.
 
 40 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xi. 
 
 at Rom. i. 29, in this narrower meaning; the 
 position which it occupies in that dread catalogue of sins 
 entirely justifying us in treating it as that peculiar form 
 of evil which manifests itself in a malignant interpretation 
 of the actions of others, a constant attribution of them to 
 the worst imaginable motives. 
 
 Nor should we take leave of KaKor/dsta without notic- 
 ing the deep psychological truth attested in this secondary 
 meaning which it has obtained, namely, that the evil 
 which we trace in ourselves makes us ready to suspect and 
 believe evil in others. The Ka/corjOrfs^ being himself of an 
 evil moral habit, projects himself, and the motives which 
 actuate him, into others round him, sees himself in them ; 
 for, according to our profound English proverb, ' 111 doers 
 are ill deerners ; ' or, as it runs in the monkish line, ' Au- 
 tumat hoc in me quod novit perfidus in se ; ' and just as 
 Love on the one side, in those glorious words of Schiller, 
 
 ' delightedly believes 
 Divinities, being itself divine ; ' 
 
 so that which is itself thoroughly evil finds it impossible 
 to believe anything but evil in others (Job i. 9-11; ii. 4, 5). 
 Thus the suitors in the Odyssey, at the very time when 
 they are laying plots for the life of Telemachus, are per- 
 suaded that he intends at a banquet to mingle poison with 
 their wine, and so to make an end of them all (Odyss. ii. 
 329, 330). lago evidently believes the world to be peopled 
 with lagoes, can conceive of no other type of humanity 
 but his own. Well worthy of notice here is that remark- 
 able passage in the Republic of Plato (iii. 409 a, fe), where 
 Socrates, showing how well it is for physicians to have 
 been mainly conversant with the sick, but not for teachers 
 and rulers with the bad, explains how it comes to pass 
 that young men, as yet uncorrupted, are svrjOsis rather 
 than Ka/coijOsLS, are OVK s-^ovrss sv savrois Trap 
 rols Trovrjpols.
 
 xii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 41 
 
 xii. ayaTrdo), <j)t\,sw. 
 
 WE have made no attempt to discriminate between these 
 words in our English Version. And yet there is often a 
 difference between them, well worthy to have been noted 
 and reproduced, if this had lain within the compass of our 
 language ; being very nearly equivalent to that between 
 ' diligo ' and ' amo ' in the Latin. To understand the 
 exact distinction between these, will help us to understand 
 that between those other which are the more immediate 
 object of our inquiry. For this we possess abundant 
 material in Cicero, who often sets the words in instructive 
 antithesis to one another. Thus, writing to one friend of 
 the affection in which he holds another (Ep. Fam. xiii. 47) : 
 ' Ut scires ilium a me non diligi solum, verum etiam 
 amari;' and again (Ad Brut, i) : ' L. Clodius valde me 
 diligit, vel, ut s^artKcorspov dicam, valde me amat.' From 
 these and other like passages (there is an ample collection 
 of them in Doderlein's Latein. Synon. vol. iv. pp. 98 seq.), 
 we might conclude that ' amare,' which answers to <j)i\siv, 
 is stronger than ' diligere,' which, as we shall see, corre- 
 sponds to dycnrdv. This is true, but not all the truth. 
 Ernesti has successfully seized the law of their several 
 uses, when he says : ' Diligere magis ad judicium, amare 
 vero ad intirnum aniini sensum pertiiiet.' So that, in fact, 
 Cicero in the passage first quoted is saying, ' I do not 
 esteem the man merely, but I love him ; there is something 
 of the passionate warmth of affection in the feeling with 
 which I regard him. 3 
 
 It will follow, that while a friend may desire rather 
 ' amari ' than ' diligi ' by his friend, 'there are aspects 
 in which the 'diligi' is more than the ' amari,' the 
 dycnraa-Qat than the <j>i,\i<rdcu. The first expresses a 
 more reasoning attachment, of choice and selection 
 (' <Migere ' = ' deligere '), from a seeing in the object upon
 
 42 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XH. 
 
 whom it is bestowed that which is worthy of regard ; or 
 else from a sense that such is due toward the person so 
 regarded, as being a benefactor, or the like; while the 
 second, without being necessarily an unreasoning attach- 
 ment, does yet give less account of itself to itself; is more 
 instinctive, is more of the feelings or natural affections, 
 implies more passion ; thus Antonius, in the funeral dis- 
 course addressed to the Koinan people over the body of 
 Csesar : s^iXija-ars avrov o)S Trar^pa, Kal qyaTrrfa-ars 
 toy svepysryv (Dion Cassius, xliv. 48). And see in Xenophon 
 (Mem. ii. 7. 9, 1 2) two passages throwing much light on the 
 relation between the words, and showing how the notions 
 of respect and reverence are continually implied in the 
 dyajrav, which, though not excluded by, are still not in- 
 volved in, the <f)i\eiv. Thus in the second of these, al pJsv 
 a)s KrjSs/Aova e^iXovv, 6 Se u>s MffrsXt/jLovs yyaTra. Out of 
 this it may be explained, that while men are continually 
 bidden dyairav rbv Ssov (Matt. xxii. 37; Luke x. 27; I Cor. 
 viii. 3), and good men declared so to do (Rom. viii. 28 ; 
 I Pet. i. 8 ; I John iv. 21), the (j>i\,elv TOV Ssoi> is commanded 
 to them never. The Father, indeed, both dyaTra rov Tiov 
 (John iii. 35), and also <f>i\t rov Tiov (John v. 20) ; with 
 the first of which statements such passages as Matt. iii. 1 7, 
 with the second such as John i. 18; Prov. viii. 22, 30, 
 may be brought into connexion. 
 
 In almost all these passages of the N. T., the Yulgate, 
 by the help of ' diligo ' and ' amo,' has preserved a dis- 
 tinction which we have let go. This is especially to be 
 regretted at John xxi. 15-17 ; for the passing there of the 
 original from one word to the other is singularly instruc- 
 tive, and should by no means escape us unnoticed. In 
 that threefold " Lovest thou Me? " which the risen Lord 
 addresses to Peter, He asks him first, dyaTras p,s ; At this 
 moment, when all the pulses in the heart of the now peni- 
 tent Apostle are beating with a passionate affection toward
 
 xn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 43 
 
 his Lord, this word on that Lord's lips sounds far too cold ; 
 to very imperfectly express the warmth of his affection 
 toward Him. The question in any form would have been 
 grievous enough (ver. 17) ; the language in which it is 
 clothed makes it more grievous still. 1 He therefore in his 
 answer substitutes for the dyaTras of Christ the word of a 
 more personal love, <iXw erg (ver. 15). And this he does 
 not on the first occasion only, but again upon a second. 
 And now at length he has triumphed ; for when his Lord 
 puts the question to him a third time, it is not dycnras 
 any more, but ^t\is. All this subtle and delicate play of 
 feeling disappears perforce, in a translation which either 
 does not care, or is not able, to reproduce the variation in 
 the words as it exists in the original. 
 
 I observe in conclusion that spcos, spdv, spaa-r^s, never 
 occur in the N". T., but the two latter occasionally in the 
 Septuagint; thus epdv, Esth. ii. 17; Prov. iv. 6; spaarrfs 
 generally in a dishonorable sense as ' paramour ' (Ezek. 
 xv i- 33 5 Hos. ii. 5) ; yet once or twice (as Wisd. viii. 2) 
 more honorably, not as =' amasius,' but * amator.' Their 
 absence is significant. It is in part no doubt to be ex- 
 plained from the fact that, by the corrupt use of the world, 
 they had become so steeped in sensual passion, carried 
 such an atmosphere of unholiness about them (see Origen, 
 Prol. in Cant. Opp. torn. iii. pp. 28-30), that the truth of 
 God abstained from the defiling contact with them ; yea, 
 devised a new word rather than betake itself to one of 
 these. For it should not be forgotten that dya-Tri) is a 
 word born within the bosom of revealed religion : it occurs 
 in the Septuagint (2 Sam. xiii. 15 ; Cant. ii. 4; Jer. ii. 2), 
 and in the Apocrypha (Wisd. iii. 9) ; but there is no trace 
 of it in any heathen writer whatever, and as little in Philo 
 
 1 Bengel generally has the honour ' rem acu tetigisse ; ' here he has 
 singularly missed the point, and is wholly astray : ' dyairdv, amare, est 
 necessitudinis et affectus ; (j)i\e~iv, diligere, judicii.'
 
 44 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xn. 
 
 or Josephus ; the utmost they attain to here is <f>i\av6pwTtia 
 and <f)i\a$\<j)ia, and the last never in any sense but as the 
 love between brethren in blood (cf . Cremer, Worterbuch d. 
 N. T. Gracitat, p. 12). But the reason may lie deeper still. 
 "E/Hos might have fared as so many other words have 
 fared, might have been consecrated anew, despite of the 
 deep degradation of its past history ; l and there were ten- 
 dencies already working for this in the Platonist use of it, 
 namely, as the longing and yearning desire after that un- 
 seen but eternal Beauty, the faint vestiges of which may 
 here be everywhere traced ; 2 ovpdvios spws, Philo in this 
 sense has called it (De Fit. Cont. 2; De Vit. Mos. iii. i). But 
 in the very fact that spws (=6 Sstvos ipspos, Sophocles, 
 Track. 476), did express this yearning desire (Euripides, 
 Ion, 6?; Alcestis, noi); this longing after the unpos- 
 sessed (in Plato's exquisite mythus, Syrup. 203 fe, "Epws is 
 the offspring of Tlsvla), lay its deeper unfitness to set forth 
 that Christian love, which is not merely the sense of need, 
 of emptiness, of poverty, with the longing after fulness, 
 not the yearning after an unattained and in this world 
 unattainable Beauty ; but a love to God and to man, which 
 is the consequence of God's love already shed abroad in 
 the hearts of his people. The mere longing and yearning, 
 and epws at the best is no more, has given place, since 
 the Incarnation, to the love which is not in desire only, 
 but also in possession. That spws is no more is well 
 
 1 On the attempt which some Christian writers had made to distinguish 
 between ' amor ' and ' dilectio ' or ' caritas/ see Augustine, De Civ. Dei, 
 xiv. 7 : ' Nonnulli arbitrantur aliud esse dilectionem sive caritatem, aliud 
 amorem. Dicunt enim dilectionem accipiendam esse in bono, amorem 
 in malo.' He shows, by many examples of ' dilectio ' and 'diligo ' used 
 in an ill sense in the Latin Scriptures, of ' amor ' and ' amo ' in a good, 
 the impossibility of maintaining any such distinction. 
 
 2 I cannot regard as an evidence of such reconsecration the well- 
 known words of Ignatius, Ad Horn. J : 6 epos epa>s eVroupwrai. It is far 
 more consistent with the genius of these Ignatian Epistles to take (pas 
 subjectively here, ' My love of the world is crucified,' i.e. with Christ ; 
 rather than objectively, ' Christ, the object of my love, is crucified.'
 
 xin. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 45 
 
 expressed in the lines of Gregory Nazianzene (Carm. ii. 
 34, 150, 151): 
 
 Hod os S' opsgis 77 naXwv -fj fir) ica\wv, 
 8s dsppos SvcncaffsKTos TS irodos. 1 
 
 xiii. OaXacro-a, 7rs\ayos. 
 
 THE connexion of Od\aacra with the verb rapda-areiv, that 
 it means properly the agitated or disturbed, finds favour 
 with Curtius (p. 596) and with Pott (Etym. Forsch. vol. ii. p. 
 56). Schmidt dissents (vol. i. p. 642) ; and urges that the 
 predominant impression which the sea makes on the be- 
 holder is not of unrest but of rest, of quietude and not of 
 agitation ; that we must look for the word's primary 
 meaning in quite another direction : 0d\aa-aa, he says, 
 ' ist das Meer nach seiner natiirlichen Beschaffenheit, als 
 grosse Salzflut, und dem Sinne nach von dem poetischen 
 a\s durch nichts unterschieden.' It is according to him 
 * the great salt flood.' But not entering further into this 
 question, it will be enough to say that, like the Latin 
 ' mare,' it is the sea as contrasted with the land (Gen. i. 
 10 ; Matt, xxiii. 15 ; Acts iv. 24) ; or perhaps more strictly 
 as contrasted with the shore (see Hayman's Odyssey, vol. i. 
 p. xxxiii, Appendix) . TlsXayos is the vast uninterrupted level 
 and expanse of open water, the ' altum mare,' 2 as distin- 
 
 1 Consult on epvs the noble fragment from Sophocles, preserved by 
 Stobseus : 
 
 No<r7/i' fparos rovr 1 e(f)ifj.epov KOKOV. 
 e^ot/i' av avro [if] KOKOOS drret/cacrat, 
 orav Tfayov (pavevros aWpiov \tpoiv 
 Kpva~rd\\ov apird<ra>(ri iralSts dorayj}. 
 Ta irp&T e\ov<riv f]8ovas irorawiovS) 
 Tt\os S' 6 xvpbs ovff OTTOJS o(pfj 6eXfi 
 our' fv jf^epolv TO KT^/LWI trvp.<popov fifvtiv, 
 OVTO> ye TOVS tpa>vras avros iftfpos 
 8pav icai TO p.f) 8pav iro\\aKis irpotfTai. 
 
 8 It need hardly be observed that, adopted into Latin, it has the same 
 meaning : 
 
 ' Ut pelagus tenuere rates, nee jam amplius ulla 
 Occurrit tellus, maria undique et undique caelum.' 
 
 Virgil, JEn. v. 8.
 
 46 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xm. 
 
 guished from those portions of it broken by islands, shut 
 in by coasts and headlands (Thucydides, vi. 104 ; vii. 49 ; 
 Plutarch, Timol. 8). 1 The suggestion of breadth, and not 
 depth, except as an accessory notion, and as that which 
 will probably find place in this open sea, lies in the word ; 
 thus Sophocles ((Ed. Col. 659) : pafcpbv TO Bsvpo irsXayos, 
 ovSs 7r\(t)cri/j,ov : so too the murmuring Israelites (Philo, 
 Vit. Mos. i. 35) liken to a 7re\a<yo$ the far-reaching sand- 
 flats of the desert ; and in Herodotus (ii. 92) the Nile over- 
 flowing Egypt is said 7re\a<ylsiv ra TrsSla, which yet it 
 only covers to the depth of a few feet; cf . ii. 97. A passage 
 in the Timceus of Plato (25 a, &) illustrates well the distinc- 
 tion between the words, where the title of 7r\,ayos is re- 
 fused to the Mediterranean Sea : which is but a harbour, 
 with the narrow entrance between the Pillars of Hercules 
 for its mouth; while only the great Atlantic Ocean be- 
 yond can be acknowledged as a\r)6ivbs irovros, 7re\a<yo$ 
 OVTQ>S. Compare Aristotle, De Mun. 3 ; Meteorol. ii. I : 
 psovaa 8' V] 0d\arra ^aivsrat, Kara ras (rrsvoTrjras [the 
 Straits of Gibraltar], SITTOV Bia Trspis^ovcrav yfjv elf p,iicpov 
 
 It might seem as if this distinction did not hold good 
 on one of the two occasions upon which irsXayos occurs 
 in the N. T., namely Matt, xviii. 6 : "It were better for 
 him that a millstone were hanged about his neck, and that 
 lie were drowned in the depth of the sea " (/cat KaraTrovTiadri 
 Iv TM TrsXdyei, TTJS daXdcra-ijs). But the sense of depth, 
 which undoubtedly the passage requires, is here to be 
 looked for in the KarcnrovTia-Of) : TTOVTOS (not in the N. T.) 
 being connected with fidOos, J3v66s (Exod. xv. 5), ftsvOos, 
 perhaps the same word as this last, and implying the sea 
 in its perpendicular depth, as 7rs\ayos ( = 'inaris sequor,' 
 
 1 Hippias, in the Protagoras of Plato (338 a), charges the eloquent 
 sophist with a (fitvyeiv fls ne'Xayos TQ>V \6yo>v, dnoKpii^avra yrjv. This last 
 idiom reappears in the French ' noyer la terre,' applied to a ship sailing 
 out of sight of land ; as indeed in Virgil's ' Phaeacum abscondinius arces.'
 
 xiv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 47 
 
 Virgil, Mn. ii. 780), the same in its horizontal dimensions 
 and extent. Compare Doderlein, Lett. Syn. vol. iv. p. 75. 
 
 xiv. o-K\T)p6s, av 
 
 IN the parable of the Talents (Matt, xxv.), the slothfui 
 servant charges his master with being a/eX^os-, " an hard 
 man " (ver. 24) ; while in the corresponding parable of St. 
 Luke it is aucrr^pos, "an austere man" (xix. 21), which 
 he accuses him of being. It follows that the words must 
 be nearly allied in meaning ; but not that they are identi- 
 cal in this. 
 
 ^K\i]p6s, derived from ovceXXo), aK\f)vai, ( = ' arefacio '), 
 is properly an epithet applied to that which through lack 
 of moisture is hard and dry, and thus rough and dis- 
 agreeable to the touch ; or more than this, warped and 
 intractable, the ' asper ' and ' durus ' in one. It is then 
 transferred to the region of ethics, in which it chiefly 
 moves, expressing there roughness, harshness, and intracta- 
 bility in the moral nature of a man. Thus Nabal (i Sam. 
 xxv. 3) is a-KKrjpos, and no epithet could better express the 
 evil conditions of the churl. For other company which 
 the word keeps, we find it associated with avxjvrjpds (Plato, 
 Symp. 195 d) ; avrlrvrros (Thecet. 155 a; Plutarch, De 
 Pyth. Orac. 26) ; a^srdcrrpo^os (Plato, Crat. 407 d) ; aypios 
 (Aristotle, Eth. Nic. iv. 8. 3 ; Plutarch, Cons, ad Apoll. 3) ; 
 dvijSvvros (PrcBC. Ger. Reip. 3) ; dir^vrjs (De Vit. Pud.) ; dvs- 
 paaros (De Adul. et Am. 19); rpa^vs (De Lib. Ed* 18); 
 aTraiSevTos (Alex. Virt. seu Fort. Or. i. 5) > drpSTrros (Dio- 
 genes Laertius, vii. I. 64, 117); afaivtcumjs (Philo, De 
 Septen. i) ; avddSijs (Gen. xlix. 3) ; irovrjpos (i Sam. xxv. 3). 
 It is set over against svr)dt,K,6s (Plato, Charm. 175 d] ; 
 fjLa\aKos (Protag. 331 d) ; pakOaKOS (Symp. 195 d ; Sophocles, 
 (Edip. Col. 771). 
 
 Av<TTV)p6$, which in the N. T. appears but once (Luke 
 xix. 21), and never in the Septuagint, is in its primary
 
 48 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xiv. 
 
 meaning applied to such things as draw together and con- 
 tract the tongue, are harsh and stringent to the palate, as 
 new wine not yet mellowed by age, unripe fruit, and the like. 
 Thus Cowper, describing himself, when a boy, as gather- 
 ing from the hedgerows * sloes austere,' uses ' austere ' 
 with exactest propriety. But just as we have transferred 
 ' strict ' (from ' stringo ') to the region of ethics, so the 
 Greeks transferred avcrrrjpos, with an image borrowed from 
 the taste, as in trK\rjpos from the touch. Neither does this 
 word set out anything amiable or attractive in him to 
 whom it is applied. It keeps company with aq&rjs (Plato, 
 Rep. iii. 398 a) ; atcparos and avijBvvros (Plutarch, Prcec. 
 Conj. 29) ; avr)v<rTos (Phoc. 5) ; avdeicaaTos l (De Adul. et 
 Am. 14) ; iriKpos (ibid. 2) ; dye\a<TTO$ and avsvrsvKros (De 
 Cup. Div. 7) ; avx/jLrjpos (Philo, De Prcem. et Pcen. 5) ; while 
 Eudemus (Ethic. Eudem. vii. 5) contrasts the avaT^pos with 
 the VTpaTT\os, using the latter word in a good sense. 
 
 At the same time none of the epithets with which 
 ava-Trjpos is associated imply that deep moral perversity 
 which lies in many with which cric\r)p6s is linked ; and, 
 moreover, it is met not seldom in more honorable com- 
 pany ; thus it is joined with a-axppwv continually (Plutarch, 
 Prcec. Conj. 7, 29 ; Qucest. Or. 40) ; with /J,OV<TIKOS (Symp. 
 v. 2) ; with crafypovLKos (Clement of Alexandria, Pcedag. 
 ii. 4) ; one, otherwise <ysvvalos Kal /i^yay, is aba-Typos as not 
 sacrificing to the Graces (Plutarch, Amat. 23) ; while the 
 Stoics affirmed all good men to be austere ' (Diogenes 
 Laertius, vii. I. 64, 117): Kal ava-rypovs Ss fyaaiv slvai TTCLV- 
 Tas TOVS (nrovSatovs, rw fJLtjre avrovs rrpos r)8ovr)v of^iXslv, 
 p,r)T Trap" aXXeuv ra Trpos rjSovrjv 'Trpoa^E'^eo'dai : cf. Plu- 
 tarch, Prcec. Conj. 27. In Latin, * austerus ' is predomi- 
 nantly an epithet of honour (Doderlein, Lat. Synon. vol. 
 
 1 In Plutarch this word is used in an ill sense, as self-willed, joined 
 by him to areyieros, that is, not to be moulded and fashioned like moist 
 clay, in the hands of another, ' eigensinnig ; ' being one of the many 
 which, in all languages, beginning with a good sense (Aristotle, Ethic. 
 Nic. iv. 7. 4), have ended with a bad.
 
 xv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 49 
 
 iii. p. 232) ; lie to whom it is applied is earnest and severe, 
 opposed to all levity ; needing, it may very well be, to watch 
 against harshness, rigour, or moroseness, into which he 
 might easily lapse (' non austeritas ejus tristis, non dis- 
 soluta sit comitas,' Quintilian, ii. 2. 5) but as yet not 
 chargeable with these. 
 
 We may distinguish, then, between them thus : <r tempos 
 conveys always a reproach and a grave one, indicates a 
 character harsh, inhuman, and (in the earlier use of that 
 word) uncivil ; in the words of Hesiod, dSdjAavros '%&>!/ 
 Kpa,Tp6(f)pova 6vfj*6v. It is not so with avarrjpos. This 
 epithet does not of necessity convey a reproach at all, any 
 more than the German * streng,' which is very different 
 from * hart ; ' and even where it does convey a reproof, it 
 is one of far less opprobrious a kind ; rather the exaggera- 
 tion of a virtue pushed too far, than an absolute vice. 
 
 XV. sllCCOV, OfJiOiUXTlS, OjAOlW^a. 
 
 THERE is a twofold theological interest attending the 
 distinction between si/cav and the two words which are 
 here brought into comparison with it ; the first belonging 
 to the Arian controversy, and turning on the fitness or 
 un'fitness of the words before us to set forth the relation 
 of the Son to the Father ; while the other is an interest 
 that, seeming at first sight remote from any controversy, 
 has yet contrived to insinuate itself into more than one, 
 namely, whether there be a distinction, and if so, what it 
 is, between the * image ' (SIKWV) of God, in which., and the 
 ' likeness ' (o/Woxrts) of God, after which, man was created 
 at the beginning (Gen. i. 26). 
 
 I need hardly remind those who will care to read this 
 volume of the distinction drawn between the words during 
 the course of the long Arian debate. Some there may be 
 who are not acquainted with Lightfoot's note on Col. i. 1 5 
 in his Commentary on the Colossians. Them I must refer to 
 his discussion on the words sl/cwv rov foO. It is evident 
 
 E
 
 50 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 that slicwv (from SIKW, SOIKO) and oiioiwfjai might often be 
 used as equivalent, and in many positions it would be in- 
 different whether one or the other were employed. Thus 
 they are convertibly used by Plato (Phcedr. 250 6), o/iotw- 
 jjiara and stKovss alike, to set forth the earthly copies and 
 resemblances of the archetypal things in the heavens. 
 When, however, the Church found it necessary to raise up 
 bulwarks against Arian error and equivocation, it drew a 
 strong distinction between these two, one not arbitrary, 
 but having essential difference in the words themselves for 
 its ground. Eltccav ( = * imago ' = ' imitago ' = aTrsLKovia-pa, 
 and used in the same intention of the Logos by Philo, Leg. 
 Alleg. i\\. 31), always assumes a prototype, that which it 
 not merely resembles, but from which it is drawn, a irapd- 
 Ssij/jia (Philo, ibid.) ; it is the German Abbild,' which in- 
 variably presumes a ' Vorbild ; ' thus Gregory Nazianzene 
 (Orat. 36) : avrtj jap sl/covos fyvcris, fj,lfjLTjfjLa slvai TOV apx - 
 TVTTOV. Thus, the monarch's head on the coin is el/cwv 
 (Matt. xxii. 20) ; the reflection of the sun in the water is 
 slK(i)v (Plato, Phcedo, 99 d) ; the statue in stone or other 
 material is SIKCOV (Rev. xiii. 14) ; and, coming nearer to the 
 heart of the matter than by any of these illustrations 
 we have done, the child is s^v-xos SIKCOV of his parents. 
 But in the o/Ww/ia or opoitoo-ts, while there is resemblance, 
 it by no means follows that it has been acquired in this 
 way, that it is derived : it may be accidental, as one egg is 
 like another, as there may exist a resemblance between two 
 men in no way akin to one another. Thus, as Augustine 
 in an instructive passage brings out (Qucest. Ixxxiii. 74), the 
 * imago' ( = to)i/) includes and involves the ' similitudo,' 
 but the ' similitudo ' (=o/Wo>o-ts) does not involve the 
 ' imago.' The reason will at once be manifest why slica>v 
 is ascribed to the Son, as representing his relation to the 
 Father (2 Cor. iv. 4 ; Col. i. 1 5 ; cf. Wisd. vii. 26) ; while 
 among all the words of the family of o/iotos-, not merely 
 none are so employed in the Scripture, but they have all
 
 xv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 51 
 
 been expressly forbidden and condemned by the Church ; 
 that is, so soon as ever this has had reason to suspect that 
 they were not used in good faith. Thus Hilary, address- 
 ing an Arian, says, " I may use them, to exclude Sabellian 
 error ; but I will not suffer you to do so, whose intention 
 is altogether different" (Gun. Constant. Imp. 17-21). 
 
 'Eilxtavj in this its augustest application, like ^apa/crr/p 
 and aTrav^/aa-fia (Heb. i. 3), with which theologically it is 
 nearly allied, like saoirTpov, dr^ls, aTroppota (Wisd. vii. 25, 
 26), like (TKid (Philo, Leg. Alleg. iii. 31 ; but not Heb. x. i) ; 
 which are all remoter approximations to the same truth, 
 is indeed inadequate ; but, at the same time, it is true 
 as far as it goes ; and in human language, employed for 
 the setting forth of truths which transcend the limits of 
 human thought, we must be content with approximate 
 statements, seeking for the complement of their inade- 
 quacy, for that which shall redress their insufficiency, from 
 some other quarter. Each has its weak side, which must be 
 supported by strength derived from elsewhere. Ei/c&>i> is 
 weak ; for what image is of equal worth and dignity with 
 the prototype from which it is imaged ? But it has also 
 its strong side ; it implies an archetype from which it has 
 been derived and drawn; while o/iotorT/y, o/Weocriy, and 
 words of this family, expressing mere similarity, if they 
 did not actually imply, might yet suggest, and if they 
 suggested, would seem to justify, error, and that with no 
 compensating advantage. Exactly the same considera- 
 tions were at work here, which, in respect of the verbs 
 ysvvav and KTi&tv, did in this same controversy lead the 
 Church to allow the former and to condemn the latter. 
 The student who would completely acquaint himself with 
 all the aspects of the great controversy to which these 
 words, in their relation to one another, gave rise, above all, 
 as to the exact force of SIKMV as applied to the Son, will 
 find the materials admirably prepared to his hand by 
 Petavius, De Trin. ii. n ; iv. 6 ; vi. 5, 6; while Gfrorer 
 
 B2
 
 52 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xv. 
 
 (Philo, vol. i. p. 261 sqq.) will give him the very interest- 
 ing, but wholly inadequate, speculations of the Alexandrian 
 theosophists on the same subject. 
 
 The second interest in the discrimination of these words 
 lies in the question, which has often been discussed, 
 whether in that great fiat announcing man's original con- 
 stitution, " Let us make man in our image (/car' sltcova, 
 LXX., D^X Heb.), after our likeness" (icaff O^OLWO-LV, LXX., 
 n-ID"] Heb.), anything different was intended by the second 
 from the first, or whether the second is merely to be 
 regarded as consequent upon the first, "in our image," 
 and therefore " after our likeness." Both the SIKWV and 
 6/jLotcoa-is are claimed for man in the N. T. : the sltewv, 
 i Cor. xi. 7 ; the ofioiwais, Jam. iii. 9. The whole subj ect 
 is discussed at large by Gregory of Nyssa in a treatise which 
 he has devoted exclusively to the question (Opp. 1638, vol. 
 ii. pp. 22-34), but mainly in its bearing on controversies 
 of his own day. He with many of the early Fathers, as also 
 of the Schoolmen, affirmed a real distinction. Thus, the 
 great Alexandrian theologians taught that the elxatv was 
 something in which men were created, being common to 
 all, and continuing to man as much after the Fall as 
 before (Gen. ix. 6), while the o/W&xns was something 
 toward which man was created, that he might strive after 
 and attain it ; Origen (De Prin. iii. 6) : ' Imaginis digni- 
 tatem in prima conditione percepit, sirnilitudinis vero per- 
 fectio in consummatione servata est;' cf. in Joan. torn. xx. 
 20 ; Irenseus, v. 16. 2 ; Tertullian, De Bapt. 5. Doubtless 
 the Platonist studies and predilections of the illustrious 
 theologians of Alexandria had some influence upon them 
 here, and on this distinction which they drew. It is well 
 known that Plato presented the 6/ioto00-#at ro> e &> Kara TO 
 Svvarov (Thecet. 176 a) as the highest scope of man's life ; 
 and indeed Clement (Strom, ii. 22) brings the great passage 
 of Plato to bear upon this very discussion. The School- 
 men, in like manner, drew a distinction, although it was
 
 xv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 53 
 
 not this one, between ' these two divine stamps upon man/ 
 Thus Anselm, Medit. l ma ; Peter Lombard, Sent. ii. dist. 
 16; H. de S. Victore, Dei Animd, ii. 25 ; De Sac. i. 6. 2 : 
 * Imago secundum cognitionem veritatis, similitude secun- 
 dum aniorem virtutis ; ' the first declaring the intellectual, 
 as the second the moral, preeminence in which man was 
 created. 
 
 Many, however, have refused to acknowledge these, or 
 any other distinctions, between the two declarations ; as 
 Baxter, for instance, who, in his interesting reply to 
 Elliott the Indian Missionary's inquiries on the subject, 
 rejects them all as groundless conceits, though himself in 
 general only too anxious for distinction and division (Life 
 and Times, by Sylvester, vol. ii. p. 296). They were scarcely 
 justified in this rejection. The Alexandrians, I believe, 
 were very near the truth, if they did not grasp it altogether. 
 There are portions of Scripture, in respect of which the 
 words of Jerome, originally applied to the Apocalypse, ' quot 
 verba tot sacramenta,' hardly contain an exaggeration. 
 Such an eminently significant part is the history of man's 
 creation and his fall, all which in the first three chapters 
 of Genesis is contained. We may expect to find mysteries 
 thera; prophetic intimations of truths which it might 
 require ages upon ages to develop. And, without attempt- 
 ing to draw any very strict line between SLKWV and O/JLOICOO-IS, 
 or their Hebrew counterparts, we may be bold to say that 
 the whole history of man, not only in his original creation, 
 but also in his after restoration and reconstitution in the 
 Son, is significantly wrapped up in this double statement ; 
 which is double for this very cause, that the Divine Mind 
 did not stop at the contemplation of his first creation, but 
 looked on to him as "renewed in knowledge after the 
 image of Him that created him" (Col. iii. 10, on which 
 see Bishop Lightfoot in loco) ; because it knew that only 
 as partaker of this double benefit would he attain the 
 true end for which he was ordained.
 
 54 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xvi. 
 
 xvi. acrwri'a, acr\jsia. 
 
 IT is little likely that one acrwros will not be 
 also ; but for all this acroma and dasXysta are not iden- 
 tical in meaning ; they will express different aspects of his 
 sin, or at any rate contemplate it from different points of 
 view. 
 
 'Aerama, a word in which heathen ethics said much 
 more than they intended or knew, occurs thrice in the 
 N. T. (Ephes. v. 18 ; Tit. i. 6 ; I Pet. iv. 4); once in the 
 Septuagint (Prov. xxviii. 7) and once in the Apocrypha, 
 being there joined with KM/JLOC (2 Mace. vi. 4). We have 
 further the adverb aa-darws, at Luke xv. 13 ; and aaoaros 
 once in the Septuagint (Prov. vii. u). At Ephes. v. 18 
 we translate it excess ; ' in the other two places, * riot/ as 
 %wv aa-coTws, " in riotous living ; " the Vulgate always by 
 * luxuria ' and * luxuriose,' words implying in medieval 
 Latin a loose and profligate habit of living which is strange 
 to our * luxury ' and ' luxuriously * at the present : see my 
 Select Glossary, s. vv. in proof. "Ao-wros is sometimes 
 taken in a passive sense, as = aa-uxrros (Plutarch, Alcib. 3) ; 
 one who cannot be saved, <rd>%ea-0ai fir) Svvd/jievos, as 
 Clement of Alexandria (Pcedag. ii. i . 7) explains it, ' per- 
 ditus' (Horace, Sat. i. 2. 15), 'heillos,' or as we used to 
 say, a 'lose!,' a 'hopelost' (this noticeable word is in 
 Grimeston's Polylius) ; Grotius : ' Genus hominuin ita im- 
 mersorum vitiis, ut eorum salus deplorata sit ; J the word 
 being, so to speak, prophetic of their doom to whom it 
 was applied. 1 This, however, was quite the rarer use ; 
 
 1 Thus in the Adelphi of Terence (vi. 7), one having spoken of a youth 
 ' luxu perditum,' proceeds : 
 
 ' ipsa si cupiat Salus, 
 Servare prorsus non potest hanc familiam.' 
 
 No doubt in the Greek original there was a threefold play here on no-wroy, 
 o-oM-qpi'a, and <r<b(iv, which the absence of a corresponding group of words 
 in Latin has hindered Terence from preserving.
 
 xvi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 55 
 
 more commonly the aawros is one who himself cannot 
 save, or spare, = ' prodigus ; ' or, again to use a good old 
 English word more than once employed by Spenser, but 
 which we have now let go, a * scatterling.' This extra- 
 vagant squandering of means Aristotle notes as the proper 
 definition of da-wria (Ethic. Nic. iv. 1.3): dawria scrrlv 
 V7rsp/3o\r) irspl xpifaara. The word forms part of his 
 ethical terminology; the e\svdspios, or the truly liberal 
 man, keeps the golden mean between the two aicpa, namely, 
 da-wria ( ( effusio ') on one side, and avsXsvdspla, or ig- 
 noble stinginess ( = ( tenacitas,' Augustine, Ep. 167. 2), 
 on the other. It is in this view of da-wria that Plato (Rep. 
 viii. 560 e), when he names the various catachrestic terms, 
 according to which men call their vices by the names of 
 the virtues which they caricature, makes them style their 
 dacorla, fis<ya\o-jrpe'7rLa : compare Quintilian (Inst. viii. 36) : 
 * Pro luxuria liberalitas dicitur.' 
 
 But it is easy to see that one who is acrwros in this 
 sense of spending too much, of laying out his expenditure 
 on a more magnificent scheme than his means will war- 
 rant, slides easily, under the fatal influence of flatterers, 
 and of all those temptations with which he has surrounded 
 himself, into a spending on his own lusts and appetites 
 of that with which he parts so freely, laying it out for the 
 gratification of his own sensual desires. Thus the word 
 takes a new colour, and indicates now not only one of a too 
 expensive, but also and chiefly, of a dissolute, debauched, 
 profligate manner of living; the German ' liederlich.' 
 Aristotle has noted this (Ethic. Nic. iv. I. 35) : Sib /cal 
 d/c6\aa'roi avrwv \_rwv acrtarwv] slaiv ol 7ro\\ol' sv^spws <ydp 
 dva~\,i(TKOVTs teal &ls ras atcoX-aalas BctTravijpol slai, Kai 8ia 
 TO fir} irpos TO Kakov ^rjv, irpos ray r/Sovas a7TOK\lvov(riv. 
 Here he explains a prior statement : rovs dtcparsis xal sis 
 cucdXacr iav BaTravrjpovs dcra)TOv$ Ka\ovjj,V (ibid. 3)- 
 
 In this sense do-aria is used in the N. T. ; as we find 
 da-corlai and tcpaiTrdXai joined elsewhere together (Herodian,
 
 56 SFNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xvi. 
 
 ii. 5). The two meanings will of course run often into 
 one another, nor will it be possible to keep them strictly 
 asunder. Thus the several examples of the aa-wros, and of 
 aa-wTia, which Athenseus (iv. 59-67) gives, are sometimes 
 rather of one kind, sometimes of the other. The waster 
 of his goods will be very often a waster of everything 
 besides, will lay waste himself his time, his faculties, his 
 powers ; and, we may add, uniting the active and passive 
 meanings of the word, will be himself laid waste ; he at 
 once loses himself, and is lost. In the Tabula of Cebes, 
 'Ao-oma, one of the courtesans, the temptresses of Her- 
 cules, keeps company with 'A.Kpaa-{a, 'A-TrX^crria and KoX,a- 
 Ksia. 
 
 The etymology of a<rs\ysia is wrapped in obscurity; 
 some going so far to look for it as to Selge, a city of 
 Pisidia, whose inhabitants were infamous for their vices ; 
 while others derive it from dsXysw, probably the same 
 word as the German * schwelgen : J see, however, Donald- 
 son, Cratylus, 3rd edit. p. 692. Of more frequent use than 
 aawria in the N. T., it is in our Version generally rendered 
 ' lasciviousness ' (Mark vii. 22 ; 2 Cor. xii. 21 ; Gal. v. 19 : 
 Ephes. iv. 19; I Pet. iv. 3 ; Jude 4); though sometimes 
 * wantonness ' (Rom. xiii. 1352 Pet. ii. 1 8) ; as in the 
 Vulgate now ' impudicitia,' and now ' luxuria; ' even as it 
 is defined in the Etymologicon Magnum as sroi/jiOTrjs Trpbs 
 Traa-av ^8ov^v. If our Translators or the Latin had im- 
 purities and lusts of the flesh exclusive!^ In their eye, they 
 have certainly given to the word too nurrow a meaning. 
 'A(rs\rysia, which, it will be observed, is n}t grouped with 
 such in the catalogue of sins at Mark vii. 21, 22, is best 
 described as wanton lawless insolence; being somewhat 
 stronger than the Latin ' protervitas/ though of the same 
 quality, more nearly ' petulantia,' Chrysostom (Rom. 37 
 in Matt.) joining tVa/ior^s with it. It is defined by Basil 
 the Great (Reg. Brev. Int. 67) as SidQsa-is ^v^rjs pn sx ovaa 
 ^ p.i] <f>spovo-a a\<yos a&XtjrtKov. The da-e^rjs, as Passow
 
 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 57 
 
 observes, is very closely allied to the vfipia-ri/cos and 
 tt/coA-ao-Tos-, being one who acknowledges no restraints, 
 who dares whatsoever his caprice and wanton petulance 
 may suggest. 1 None would deny that aa-e\ysia may dis- 
 play itself in acts of what we call ' lasciviousness ; ' for 
 there are no worse displays of vftpis than in these; but 
 still it is their petulance, their insolence, which this 
 word, linked by Polybius (v. 1 1 1) with ySta, expresses. Of 
 its two renderings in our Version, ' wantonness ' is the 
 best, standing as it does in a remarkable ethical con- 
 nexion with do-eXysia, and having the same duplicity of 
 meaning. 
 
 In numerous passages the notion of lasciviousness is 
 altogether absent from the word. In classical Greek it is 
 defined (Bekker's Anecdota, p. 451) 77 per sTr^psao-p-ov KCU 
 Opao-vrrjros (3ta. Thus, too, Demosthenes in his First 
 Philippic, 42, denounces the acrshyeia of Philip ; while 
 elsewhere he characterizes the blow which Meidias had 
 given him, as in keeping with the known das\jsia of the 
 man, joining this and vfipis together (Cont. Meid. 514) ; 
 linking elsewhere acrskyws with Ssa-TroTirc&s (Or. xvii. 2 1 ), 
 and with Trpoirsrws (Or. lix. 46). As acrs\ysia Plutarch 
 characterizes a similar outrage on the part of Alcibiades, 
 committed against an honorable citizen of Athens (Alcib. 8) ; 
 indeed, the whole picture which he draws of Alcibiades is 
 the full-length portrait of an dcr\y>j$. Aristotle notices 
 fyfjiaywywv dcrsXysiav as a frequent cause of revolutions 
 (Pol. v. 4). Josephus ascribes aa-elvyeta and pavia to Jezebel, 
 daring, as she did, to build a temple of Baal in the Holy 
 City itself (Antt. viii. 13. i) ; and the same to a Roman 
 soldier, who, being on guard at the Temple during the 
 
 1 Thus "Witsius (Melet. Leid. p. 465) observes : ' do-e\yeiav dici posse 
 omnem tarn ingenii, quam morum proterviam, petulantiam, lasciviam, 
 
 quse ab ^Eschine opponitur 777 /ierptdrj/rt *cat (raxfrpoo-vvrj.' There is ft 
 capital note, but too long to quote, on all that do-e'A/eta includes by Coc- 
 ceius on Gal. v. 19.
 
 58 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XVH. 
 
 Passover, provoked by an act of grossest indecency a 
 tumult, in which many lives were lost (xx. 5.3). Other 
 passages, helpful to a fixing of the true meaning of the 
 word, are 3 Mace. ii. 26; Polybius, viii. 14. I ; Eusebins, 
 Hist. Eccl. v. 1 . 26 ; and see the quotations in Wetstein, 
 vol. i. p. 588. 'Ao-f'X/yeta, then, and da-aria are clearly dis- 
 tinguishable ; the fundamental notion of aawrLa being 
 wastefulness and riotous excess j of da-s\ysia } lawless in- 
 solence and wanton caprice. 
 
 xvii. Ovyyava), aTrro/iat, -fyrfXafydw. 
 
 AN accurate synonymous distinction will sometimes cause 
 us at once to reject as untenable some interpretation of 
 Scripture, which might, but for this, have won a certain 
 amount of allowance. Thus, many interpreters have ex- 
 plained Heb. xii. 1 8 : *' For ye are not come unto the 
 mount that might be touched " (^nrfka^wfjLsvw opsi\ by Ps. 
 civ. 32 : " He toucheth the hills, and they smoke ; " and 
 call in aid the fact that, at the giving of the Law, God 
 came down upon mount Sinai, which " was altogether on 
 a smoke, because the Lord descended upon it" (Exod. 
 xix. 1 8). But decisively forbidding this is the fact that 
 fyrj\a<j>da> never expresses the so handling of an object as 
 to exercise a moulding, modifying influence upon it, but 
 at most a feeling of its surface (Luke xxiv. 39 : I John i. i) ; 
 this, it may be, with the intention of learning its composi- 
 tion (Gen. xxvii. 12, 21, 22) ; while not seldom it signifies 
 no more than a feeling for or after an object, without any 
 actual coming in contact with it at all. It continually ex- 
 presses a groping in the dark (Job v. 14) ; or of the blind 
 (Isai. lix. IO; Gen. xxvii. 12 ; Deut. xxviii. 29; Judg. 
 xvi. 26) ; tropically sometimes (Acts xvii. 27) ; compare 
 Plato (PhcBdo, 99 6), -^rrfKafywvTSS axTTrsp ev a/corst', Ari- 
 stophanes, Pax, 691 ; Eccles. 315, and Philo, Quis Rer. Div. 
 Hcer. 5 1 . Nor does the ^rrfka^xa^svov opos, to which refer-
 
 XVH. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 59 
 
 ence was just made, the ' rnons palpabilis,' or ' tractabilis,' 
 as the Vulgate has it, mean anything else : ' Te are not 
 come,' the writer to the Hebrews would say, ' to any mate- 
 rial mountain, like Sinai, capable of being touched and 
 handled ; not, in this sense, to the mountain that might 
 be felt, but to the heavenly Jerusalem, to a voyrov, not to 
 an ala-OijTov, opos' Thus Knapp (Script. Var. Argum. p. 
 264) : * Videlicet TO ^rrjXa^wp.svov idem est, quod ata-ffijTov, 
 vel quidquid sensu percipitur aut investigatur quovis 
 modo; plane ut Tacitus (Ann. iii. 12) oculis contrectare 
 dixit, nee dissimili ratione Cicero (Tusc. iii. 1 5) mente con- 
 trectare. Et Sina quidem mons ideo aurdij/ros appellatur, 
 quia Sioni opponitur, quo in monte, quse sub sensus 
 cadunt, non spectantur ; sed ea tantum, quse mente atque 
 animo percipi possunt, vorjrd, Trvsv/j-aTi/cd, r/OiKa. Appo- 
 site ad h. 1. Chrysostomus (Horn. 32 in Ep. ad Hebr.} : 
 Trdvra TOLVVV TOTS aladrjTa, real o^sis, Kal (j>a)val ' Trdvra 
 vorjrd Kal dopara vvv' 
 
 The so handling of any object as to exert a modifying 
 influence upon it, the French 'rnanier,' as distinguished 
 from 'toucher,' the German 'betasten,' as distinguished 
 from ' beriihren,' would be either airTsvOai 1 or Otyydvsiv. 
 These words may be sometimes exchanged the one for the 
 other, as at Exod. xix. 1 2 they are ; and compare Aristotle, 
 De Gen. et Corrupt. I. 8, quoted by Lightfoot with other 
 passages at Coloss. ii. 21 ; but in the main the first is 
 stronger than the second ; aTrrsaOai ( = ' contrectare ') than 
 Oiyydvsiv (Ps. civ. 15 ; I John v. 1 8), as appears plainly in 
 a passage of Xenophon (Cyr. i. 3. 5), where the child 
 Cyrus, rebuking his grandfather's delicacies, says : art a-g 
 opw, orav fjisv TOV apTOV a -^77, sis ovSsv TTJV %slpa airo^rw- 
 , orav 8s TOVTWV TWOS Oiyrjs, svdiis airoKadaipr) TTJV 
 sis TCL ^sLpop,aKTpa, u>s irdvv d^do^svos. It is, indeed, 
 so much stronger that it can be used, which certainly 
 
 1 In the passage alluded to already, Ps. civ. 32, the words of the Sep- 
 tuagint are, 6 anTopevos TUV optcov KOI KairvL^ovrat.
 
 60 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xvm. 
 
 not, of the statuary's shaping of his mate- 
 rials (Plutarch, Phil. cumPrin. i) ; the self-conscious effort, 
 which is sometimes present to this, being always absent 
 from the other. Our Version, then, has exactly reversed 
 the true order of the words, when, at Col. ii. 21, it trans- 
 lates /i?; a-^rr], fJ,r)Ss <ysv(rr), /i^Sg Oi^ys, " Touch not, taste 
 not, handle not." The first and last prohibitions should 
 change places, and the passage read, ''Handle not, taste 
 not, touch not j " just as in the Latin Versions * tangere,' 
 which now stands for aTrrsa-Oai, and < attaminare,' or ' con- 
 trectare,' for Oiysiv, should be transposed. How much 
 more vividly will then come out the ever ascending scale 
 of superstitious prohibition among the false teachers at 
 Colosse. To abstain from ' handling ' is not sufficient ; 
 they forbid to ' taste,' and, lastly, even to ' touch/ those 
 things from which, according to their notions, uncleanness 
 might be contracted. Beza has noted this well : ' Verbuin 
 6i<yeiv a verbo aTrrsadai sic est distinguendum, ut decres- 
 cente semper oratione intelligatur crescere snperstitio.' 
 The verb tyavstv does not once occur in the N. T., nor in 
 the Septuagint. There is, I observe in conclusion, a very 
 careful study on this group of words in Schmidt's Syno- 
 nymilc, vol. i., pp. 224-243. 
 
 xviii. TraXiyyevso'la, ava/calvcocns. 
 
 HdXiyjsvsa-ia is one among the many words which the 
 Gospel found, and, so to speak, glorified ; enlarged the 
 borders of its meaning ; lifted it up into a higher sphere ; 
 made it the expression of far deeper thoughts, of far 
 mightier truths, than any of which it had been the vehicle 
 before. It was, indeed, already in use ; but as the Chris- 
 tian new-birth was not till after Christ's birth ; as men 
 were not new-born, till Christ was born (John i. 12); as 
 their regeneration did not precede, but only followed his 
 generation ; so the word could not be used in this its
 
 xvm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 6 1 
 
 highest, most mysterious sense, till that great mystery of 
 the birth of the Son of God into our world had actually 
 found place. And yet it is exceedingly interesting to 
 trace these its subordinate, and, as they proved, prepara- 
 tory uses. There are passages (as, for instance, in Lucian, 
 Muscce Encom. 7) in which it means revivification, and 
 nothing more. In the Pythagorean doctrine of the trans- 
 migration of souls, their reappearance in new bodies was 
 called their 7ra\iyyi><ria (Plutarch, De Esu Car. i. 7 ; 
 ii. 6: De Isid. et Osir. 35: 'OcriptSos at ava/3ta)(Ti$ ical 
 ira\iyyVcriat : De Ei ap. Delph. 9 : aTroftiwcrsis KOL 7ra\iy- 
 yVo-iai : De Def. Orac. 5 1 : /iera/SoXal KOL 7ra\iyyi>(Ticu} . 
 For the Stoics the word set forth the periodic renovation 
 of the earth, when, budding and blossoming in the spring- 
 time, it woke up from its winter sleep, and, so to speak, 
 revived from its winter death : which revival therefore 
 Marcus Antoninus calls (ii. l) rrjv TrspioSifcrjv TraXiyysvs- 
 ffiav rwv o\wv. Philo also constantly sets forth by aid of 
 7ra\iyyV<ria the phcenix-like resurrection of the material 
 world out of fire, which the Stoics taught (De Incorr. Mun. 
 17, 21 ; De Mun. 15) ; while in another place, of Noah 
 and those in the Ark with him, he says (De Vit. Mos. ii. 
 12) : 7ra\iyyVO'ias sysvovro rjys/Aoves, KOI SsvTepas dpxij- 
 yerai 7Tpi6Bov. Basil the Great (Hexa'e'm. Horn. 3) notes 
 some heretics, who, bringing old heathen speculations 
 into the Christian Church, u7Tlpovs <f>0opas Koapov KCU 
 7ra\iyyVcria$ iadyov<riv. Cicero (Ad Attic, vi. 6) calls 
 his restoration to his dignities and honours, after his 
 return from exile, 'hanc 7ra\tyyevcriav nostram,' with 
 which compare Philo, Leg. ad Cai. 41. Josephus (Antt. 
 xi. 3. 9) characterizes the restoration of the Jewish nation 
 after the Captivity, as rqv avdicrija-iv KOI 7ra\iyyV(riav ri}s 
 TrarplBos (=fao7roi7)(riv, Ezra ix. 8, 9). And, to cite one 
 passage more, Olympiodorus, a later Platonist, styles 
 recollection or reminiscence, which must be carefully dis-
 
 62 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xvm. 
 
 tinguished from memory, 1 the TrdXiyyevsa-ta of knowledge 
 (Journal des Savans, 1834, p. 488) : iraXiyysvscria rijs 
 S(TTIV rj QvdfHH)W9, 
 
 -ta, which has thus in heathen and Jewish 
 Greek the meaning of a recovery, a restoration, a revival, 
 yet never reaches, or even approaches, there the depth of 
 meaning which it has acquired in Christian language. 
 The word does not once occur in the O. T. (but 7rd\iv 
 yivsaBai at Job xiv. 14; cf. Josephus, Con. Apion. ii. 
 30), and only twice in the New (Matt. xix. 28 ; Tit. iii. 
 5) ; but on these two occasions (as is most remarkable), 
 with meanings apparently different. In our Lord's own 
 words there is evident reference to the new-birth of the 
 whole creation, the aTroKciTdaravis iravrwv (Acts iii. 21), 
 which shall be when the Son of Man hereafter comes in 
 his glory ; while " the washing of regeneration " whereof 
 St. Paul speaks, has to do with that new-birth, not of the 
 whole travailing creation, but of the single soul, which is 
 now evermore finding place. Is then TraXiyysvscrla used 
 in two different senses, with no common bond binding the 
 diverse uses of it together ? By no means : all laws of 
 language are violated by any such supposition. The fact 
 is, rather, that the word by our Lord is used in a wider, 
 by his Apostle in a narrower, meaning. They are two 
 circles of meaning, one comprehending more than the 
 other, but their centre is the same. The TraXiyysvsa-la 
 which Scripture proclaims begins with the fj,iKpoKO(T/j,os 
 
 1 The very purpose of the passage in Olympiodorus is to bring out 
 the old Aristotelian and Platonic distinction between ' memory ' (^nj/xj;, 
 Gedachtniss) and ' recollection ' or ' reminiscence ' (dvd[i.vT)<ris, Heb. x. 3 j 
 Wiedererinnerung), the first being instinctive, and common to beasts 
 with men, the second being the reviving of faded impressions by a distinct 
 act of the will, the reflux, at the bidding of the mind, of knowledge 
 which has once ebbed (Plato, Pkilebus, 34 b ; Legg. v. 732 b : dixlfivrja-is 
 8' (<rr\v (irippoti (ppovrja-fo): aTroXiTrouo-q? : cf. Philo, Cony. Eruil. Grat, 8), 
 and as such proper only to man (Aristotle, De Hist. Anim. i. i. 15; 
 Brandis, Aristoteles, pp. 1148-53). It will at once be seen that of this 
 latter only Olympiodorus could say, that it is na\iyyfvrLa rrjs yf&xrewj.
 
 xvin. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 63 
 
 of single souls ; but it does riot end with this, nor cease 
 its effectual working till it has embraced the whole 
 of the universe. The primary seat of the 
 is the soul of man ; it is of this that St. Paul 
 speaks ; but, having established its centre there, it extends 
 in ever- widening circles ; and, first, to his body ; the day 
 of resurrection being the day of iraX^^svscria for it. It 
 follows that those Fathers had a certain, though only a 
 partial, right, who at Matt. xix. 28 made TraXiyyevsa-ia 
 equivalent to avdo-raa-ts, and themselves continually used 
 the words as synonymous (Eusebius, Hist. Ecc.l. v. I. 58; 
 iii. 23 ; Euthyinius : TraX.iyysvsa'iav \eysi rr)v SK vsicpwv 
 avdcnao-iv a>s ira\wwtav ; see Suicer, s. v.). Doubtless 
 our Lord there implies, or presupposes, the resurrection, 
 but he also includes much more. Beyond the day of 
 resurrection, or, it may be, contemporaneous with it, a 
 day will come when all nature shall put off its soiled 
 work-day garments, and clothe itself in its holy-day attire, 
 "the time of restitution of all things" (Acts iii. 21) ; of 
 what Plutarch, reaching out after this glorious truth, calls 
 the yu,ra/<:ooyi?7<ny (De Fac. in Orb. Lun. 13); of ' the new 
 heaven and the new earth ' (Rev. xxi. I ; Isai. Ixv. 17 ; Ixvi. 
 22 ; 2 Pet. iii. 13) ; a day by St. Paul regarded as one in 
 the labour-pangs of which all creation is groaning and 
 travailing until now (Rom. viii. 2 1-23). l Man is the pre- 
 sent subject of the TraXiyysvscria, and of the wondrous 
 change which it implies; but in that day it will have 
 
 1 Parallels from heathen writers are very often deceptive, none are 
 more likely to prove so than those which Seneca offers ; on which see 
 Bishop Lightfoot in an Appendix to his Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle 
 to the Galatians, p. 268, sqq. ; and Aubertin, Sur les Rapports supposes 
 entre Seneque et S. Paul. And yet, with the fullest admission of this, the 
 words which follow must be acknowledged as remarkable (Ep. 102): 
 ' Quemadmodum novem mensibus nos tenet maternus uterus, et prseparat 
 non sibi sed illi loco in quern videmur emitti, jamidonei spiritum trahere, 
 etin aperto durare, sic per hoc spatium quod ab infantia patet in senectu- 
 tem, in alium naturae sumimur partum, alia origo nos expect it, alius rerum 
 status.'
 
 64 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xvm. 
 
 included within its limits that whole world of which man 
 is the central figure : and here is the reconciliation of the 
 two passages, in one of which it is contemplated as per- 
 taining to the single soul, in the other to the whole re- 
 deemed creation. These refer both to the same event, but 
 at different epochs and stages of its development. ' Palin- 
 genesia,' as Delitzsch says concisely and well (Apologetik, 
 p. 213),' ist ein kurzer Ausdruck fur die Wiedergeburt oder 
 Verklarung der menschlichen Leiblichkeit und der ausser- 
 menschlichen Gesammtnatur.' Compare Engelhardt, 
 WeltverTclarung und Welterneuerung in the Zeitsclirift fur 
 Luther. Theol. 1871, p. 48, sqq. 
 
 'Avayswrjais, a word common enough with the Greek 
 Fathers (see Suicer, s. v.), nowhere occurs in the N. T., 
 although the verb avajswdco twice (l Pet. i. 3, 23). Did 
 we meet it there, it would constitute a closer synonym 
 to TrdXi'yysvsa'ia than avaKaivaxris can do; dvcvyswrjcris 
 (=regeneratio) bringing out the active operation of Him 
 who is the author of the new-birth; while 7ra\L<yyi>cria 
 ( = renascentia) is that same new-birth itself. But not 
 urging this further, we have now to speak of dvafcalvwais 
 (=renovatio), of the relations in which it stands to 7ra\iy- 
 and the exact, limits to the meaning of each. 
 
 And first it is worth observing that while the word 
 is drawn from the realm of nature, dvaicai- 
 is derived from that of art. A word peculiar to the 
 Greek of the N. T., it occurs there only twice once in 
 connexion with 7ra\,iyyV<rla (Tit. iii. 5), and again at 
 Rom. xii. 2 ; but we have the verb dvafeaivoa), which also 
 is exclusively a N. T. form, at 2 Cor. iv. 16; Col. iii. 10; 
 and the more classical dvaicaivi^w, Heb. vi. 6, from which 
 the nouns, frequent in the Greek Fathers, dva/caivia-pos 
 and dva/catvia-is, 1 are more immediately drawn ; we have 
 also dvavsoa) at Ephes. iv. 23 ; all in similar uses. More 
 
 1 Thus Gregory of Nazianzus (Oral. lo) : avap.ev<a TOV ovpavov p.era- 
 ^y yrjs p.(T<nroi oiv^rjv rcav orrot^fi'wi' f\evdfpiav, TOV Koanov 
 
 Travrbs avaKaivuriv.
 
 xvni. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 65 
 
 on these words will be found in Ix. Our Collect for 
 Christmas day expresses excellently well the relation in 
 which the 7ra\i<y<yVa'ia, and the avaKalvaxrif stand to each 
 other ; we there pray, ' that we being regenerate,' in other 
 words, having been already made the subjects of the 
 Trakiyyevsa-la, < may daily be renewed by the Holy Spirit,' 
 may continually know the avaKawcaais TIvsv/jLaros 'Aytov. 
 In this Collect, uttering, as do so many, profound theolo- 
 gical truth in forms at once the simplest and the most ac- 
 curate, the new-birth is contemplated as already past, as 
 having found place once for all, while the ' renewal ' or 
 ' renovation ' is daily proceeding being as it is that 
 gradual restoration of the Divine image, which is ever 
 going forward in him who, through the new-birth, has 
 come under the transforming * powers of the world to 
 come. It is called ' the renewal of the Holy Ghost,' inas- 
 much as He is the efficient cause, by whom alone this 
 putting on of the new man, and putting off the old, is 
 brought about. 
 
 These two then are bound by closest ties to one another; 
 the second the following up, the consequence, the consum- 
 mation of the first. The TraXtyyevsa-ta is that free act of 
 God's mercy and power, whereby He causes the sinner to 
 pass out of the kingdom of darkness into that of light, 
 out of death into life ; it is the avwOsv ysvvrjdfjvai, of John 
 iii. 3 ; the ysvvrjdrjvai SK sov of I John v. 4 ; the dso^svsa-ia 
 of Dionysius the Areopagite and other Greek theologians ; 
 the a.vay^vvriOrjvai, etc (TTropas a<j>ddprov of I Pet. i. 23 ; in 
 it that glorious word begins to be fulfilled, ISov tcaivci 
 iroiS) ra Trdvra (Rev. xxi. 5). In it, not in the prepara- 
 tions for it, but in the act itself, the subject of it is 
 
 e rfi dvaicaivao-ei TOV voos (Rom xii. 2). The striking 
 words of Seneca (Ep. 6) : ' Intelligo me emendan non tantum, sed trans- 
 figurari} are far too big to express any benefits which he could have 
 indeed gotten from his books and schools of philosophy ; they reach out 
 after blessings to be obtained, not in the schools of men, but only in the 
 Church of the living God. 
 
 P
 
 66 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xix. 
 
 passive, even as the child has nothing to do with its own 
 birth. With the avatcalvcao-is it is otherwise. This is the 
 gradual conforming of the man more and more to that 
 new spiritual world into which he has been introduced, 
 and in which he now lives and moves ; the restoration of 
 the Divine image ; and in all this, so far from being 
 passive, he must be a fellow-worker with God. That was 
 ' regeneratio,' this is * renovatio ; ' which two must not be 
 separated, but as little may be confounded, as Gerhard 
 (Loc. Theoll. xxi. 7. 113) has well declared: 'Renovatio, 
 licet a regeneratione proprie et specialiter accepta di- 
 stinguatur, individuo tamen et perpetuo nexu cum ea est 
 conjuncta.' What infinite perplexities, conflicts, scan- 
 dals, obscurations of God's truth on this side and on that, 
 have arisen now from the confusing, and now from the 
 separating, of these two ! 
 
 xix. ala-wij, al&ws, 
 
 THERE was a time when albws occupied that whole domain 
 of meaning afterwards divided between it and ala%vvrj. 
 It had then the same duplicity of meaning which is latent 
 in the Latin ' pudor,' in our own ' shame ; ' and indeed 
 retained a certain duplicity of meaning till the last 
 (Euripides, Hippol 387-389). Thus Homer, who does 
 not know ala-^vvt], sometimes, as at II. v. 787, uses at'Scos, 
 where alcr^vvrj would, in later Greek, have certainly been 
 employed ; but elsewhere in that sense which, at a later 
 period, it vindicated as exclusively its own (II. xiii. 122 ; 
 cf. Hesiod, Op. 202). And even Thucydides, in a difficult 
 and doubtful passage where both words occur (i. 84), is by 
 many considered to have employed them as equipollent 
 and convertible (Donaldson, Cratylus, 3rd ed. p. 545). So 
 too in a passage of Sophocles, where they occur close to- 
 gether, al8(i)s joined with <f>6pos, and ala-^vvrj with Ssosr 
 (Ajax, 1049, 1052), it is very difficult, if not impossible, to
 
 xix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 67 
 
 draw any distinction between them. Generally, however, in 
 the Attic period of the language, they were not accounted 
 synonymous. Ammonius formally distinguishes them in 
 a philological, as the Stoics (see Plutarch, De Vit. Pud. 2) 
 in an ethical, interest ; and almost every passage in which 
 either occurs attests the sense of a real difference existing 
 between them. 
 
 This distinction has not always been seized with a 
 perfect success. Thus it has been sometimes said that 
 alSws is the shame, or sense of honour, which hinders one 
 from doing an unworthy act ; ala-^vinj is the disgrace, out- 
 ward or inward, which follows on having done it (Luke 
 xiv. 9). This distinction, while it has its truth, yet is 
 not exhaustive ; and, if we were thereupon to assume that 
 aia-^vvr) was thus only retrospective, the conscious result 
 of things unworthily done, it would be an erroneous one : l 
 seeing that ttiffjfvmi continually expresses that feeling 
 which leads to shun what is unworthy out of a prospective 
 anticipation of dishonour. Thus in the Definitions ascribed 
 to Plato (416) it is (f>6@os strl Trpoo-Sotcla dSo^Las: Aristotle 
 including also the future in his comprehensive defini- 
 tion (Rhet. ii. 6) : ICTT&) 8rj ala-^vvr}, \v7rrj TIS KOI Tapa%r) 
 Trspl ra SLS dSo^tav (fraivo/ASva <f)spstv ra)i> /ca/cwv, % jrapovrcov, 
 TI ysyovoToyv, rj jjLsKXovrwv : cf. Ethic. Nic. iv. 9. I . In this 
 sense, as 'fuga dedecoris,' it is used Ecclus. iv. 21; by 
 Plato (Gorg. 492 a) ; and by Xenophon (Andb. iii. i. 10) : 
 <j)o/3ovfj,svoi Sg Trjv oSbv KOI UKOVTSS ofiws ol TroXXot St al~ 
 a"^yvr)v Kal d\\^\a)v Kal Kypou <rvvrjKO\ov0i ! ]crav : Xenophon 
 implying here that while he and others, for more reasons 
 than one, were disinclined to go forward with Cyrus to 
 assail his brother's throne, they yet were now ashamed to 
 draw back. 
 
 1 There is the same onesidedness, though exactly on the other side, in 
 Cicero's definition of 'pudor,' which he makes merely prospective: 
 'Pudor, imtm rerum turpium, et ingenua qiuedam timiditas, dedecus 
 fugiens, laudeiuque consectaus : ' but Ovid writes, 
 
 ' Irruit, et nostrum vulgat clamore pudorem.'
 
 68 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xix. 
 
 This much of truth the distinction drawn above pos- 
 sesses, that alSws (=< verecundia,' which is denned by 
 Cicero, Rep. vi. 4 : ' quidam vituperationis non injustse 
 timer ' *) is the nobler word, and implies the nobler motive : 
 in it is involved an innate moral repugnance to the doing 
 of the dishonorable act, which moral repugnance scarcely 
 or not at all exists in the ala-^vvrj. Let the man who is 
 restrained by it alone be insured against the outward dis- 
 grace which he fears his act will entail, and he will refrain 
 from it no longer. It is only, as Aristotle teaches, Trspl 
 a$o%ias ^avracria (Rhet. ii. 6) : or as South, ' The grief a 
 man conceives from his own imperfections considered with 
 relation to the world taking notice of them ; and in one 
 word may be denned, grief upon the sense of disesteem ; ' 
 thus at Jer. ii. 26 we have ala-^vvrj K\TTTOV orav a\w. 
 Neither does the definition of ' shame ' which Locke gives 
 (Of Human Understanding, ii. 20) rise higher than this. 
 Its seat, therefore, as Aristotle proceeds to show, is not 
 properly in the moral sense of him that entertains it, in 
 his consciousness of a right which has been, or would be, 
 violated by his act, but only in his apprehension of other 
 persons who are, or who might be, privy to its violation. 
 Let this apprehension be removed, and the afcy&iH) ceases ; 
 while alScos finds its motive in itself, implies reverence for 
 the good as good (see Aristophanes, Nubes, 994), and not 
 merely as that to which honour and reputation are at- 
 tached ; on which matter see some admirable remarks in 
 Gladstone's Studies on Homer, vol. ii. p. 43 1 ; and again in 
 his Primer on Homer, p. 112. Thus it is often connected 
 with sv\d/3sta (Heb. xii. 28 ; if indeed this reading may 
 stand) ; the reverence before God, before his majesty, his 
 holiness, which will induce a carefulness not to offend, the 
 
 1 In the Latin of the silver age, ' verecundia ' had acquired a sense of 
 false shame ; thus Quintilian, xii. 5.2:' Verecundia est timor quidam 
 reducens animum ab eis quse facienda aunt.' It is the duo-an-i'a, on the 
 mischiefs of which Plutarch has written so graceful an essay.
 
 xx. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 69 
 
 German Scheu ' (Plutarch, Goes. 14 ; Prcec. Conj. 47 ; Philo, 
 Leg. ad Cai. 44) ; often also -with Seos (Plato, Euthyphro, 
 12 &, c) ; with svKoo-pia (Xenophon, Cyrop. viii. I. 33) ; with 
 svra^ta and /cooyuoT^s 1 (Plutarch, Gees. 4) ; with 
 (Prcec. Conj. 26). To sum up all, we may say that 
 would always restrain a good man from an unworthy act, 
 while alcrxyvr) might sometimes restrain a bad one. 
 
 'EvrpoTT^ occurring only twice in the N. T. (i Cor. vi. 
 5 ; xv. 34), is elsewhere found in connexion now with 
 alaxyvr], and now with alSws, with the first, Ps. xxxiv. 26, 
 cf. Ps. Ixix. 3 ; Ezek. xxxvi. 32 ; with the second in lam- 
 blichus (quoted by Rost and Palm). It too must be 
 rendered ' shame,' but has something in it which neither 
 alSws nor ala-^vvt} has. Nearly related to ivrpsTrca, hrps- 
 rrofjLai, it conveys at least a hint of that change of con- 
 duct, that return of a man upon himself, which a wholesome 
 shame brings with it in him who is its subject. This 
 speaks out in such phrases as irai&sia svrpoTrffs (Job xx. 3) ; 
 and assuredly it is only to such shame that St. Paul seeks 
 to bring his Corinthian converts in the two passages re- 
 ferred to already ; cf. Tit. ii. 8 ; and 2 Thess. iii. 14, Iva 
 evrpcnrf}, which Grotius paraphrases rightly, ' ut pudore 
 tactus ad mentem meliorem redeat.' Pott (Etym. Forsch. 
 vol. v. p. 138) traces well the successive meanings of 
 the words : ' hrpeiro), umwenden, umkehren, umdrehen. 
 Uebertr. einen in sich kehren, zu sich bringen, machen, 
 dass er in sich geht . . . hrpoTrij das Umkehren; 2. das in 
 sich Gehn. Bescharnung, Scham, Scheu, Eiicksicht, Ach- 
 tung, wie aiStos.' 
 
 xx. alScos, (raxfrpoa-vwrj. 
 
 THESE two are named together by St. Paul (i Tim. ii. 9 ; 
 cf. Plato, Phcedrus, 253 d) as constituting the truest adorn- 
 ment of a Christian woman ; crwcppoa-vvr) occurs only on 
 two other occasions (Acts xxvi. 25 : i Tim. ii. 15). If the
 
 70 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xx. 
 
 distinction which has been drawn in xix. be correct, then 
 that which Xenophon (Cyrop. viii. I. 31) puts into the 
 mouth of Cyrus cannot stand: Siypsi Ss alSa> teal a-cotypoavvrjv 
 rf), ws rovs fisv alSov/J,svovs TO, sv TO> <j>avpa> aia"%pa 
 Asvyovras, rovs 8s (raxppovas icai ra sv T3 d(j>avsi. It is 
 faulty on both sides; on the one hand at&tws does not 
 merely shun open and manifest basenesses, however al- 
 a"Xyvr] may do this ; on the other a mere accident of <rw- 
 <f>po(rvvi] is urged as constituting its essence. The etymology 
 of a'dx^poavvq, as o-oa^ova'a rrjv (f>p6wr)o~iv (Aristotle, Ethic. 
 Nic. vi. 5. 5), or ffvnfpfa rijs (ppovrja-sas (Plato, Crat. 41 1 e ; 
 cf. Philo, De Fort. 3), must not be taken as seriously in- 
 tended ; Chrysostom has given it rightly : aw^pocrvvrj 
 \sjsrai aTTo rov <ra>as ras Qpevas s%iv. Set over against 
 aico\aa-la (Thucydides, iii. 37 ; Aristotle, Rhet. i. 9 ; Philo, 
 Mund. Of if. 21), and aKpaaia (Xenophon, Mem. iv. 5 7)> 
 the mean between do-oma and <psi8a)\ia (Philo, De Proem, 
 et Pcen. 9), it is properly the condition of an entire com- 
 mand over the passions and desires, so that they receive 
 no further allowance than that which the law and right 
 reason admit and approve (sTriKparsia TWV sTTiOvfuwv, 4 
 Mace. i. 31 ; cf. Tit. ii. 12) ; cf. Plato (Symp. 196 c) : slvai 
 yap ofjioXoyslrai, crax^poa-vvrj TO tcpareiv f)ovS>v KOL sTridv- 
 /j,i(ov: his Charmides being dedicated throughout to the 
 investigation of the exact force of the word. Aristotle 
 (Rhet. i. 9) : apsrr) St' fy irpbs ras r/Sovas rov a-wfiaros ovrws 
 eyovGiv, CDS 6 v6fj.o? K\svst : Plutarch (De Curios. 14 ; De 
 Virt. Mor. 2 ; and Gryll. 6) ; ^pa-^yr^s ris sariv 
 Kal ra^is, avaipovara fj,sv ras STrsiadicrovs KOI Trspirras, 
 8s Kal fj,rpi6rr)ri Koa-^ovcra ras dvayicaias : Philo (De Im- 
 mut. Dei, 35) : psa-rj padvfj,ia$ SKKS^V^SV^S Kal <peiSco\ias 
 avs\vdspov, o-oKppoa-vvr) : cf. Diogenes Laertius, iii. 57. 
 91 ; and Clement of Alexandria, Strom, ii. 18. In Jeremy 
 Taylor's words (The House of Feasting) : ' It is reason's 
 girdle, and passion's bridle, ... it is pco/jirj ^tr^y, as 
 Pythagoras calls it; KOO-JJLOS dyaQwv irdvrwv, so Plato;
 
 xx. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 71 
 
 a<r<f)d\eia TWV KaXkia-ruv sgswv, so lamblichus.' We find 
 it often joined to KOO-^LOTVJS (Aristophanes, Plut. 563, 564) ; 
 to evragia (2 Mace. iv. 37) ; to /caprspia (Philo, De Agric. 
 22); to dyveia (Clement of Eome, Cor. 64). No single 
 Latin word exactly represents it ; Cicero, as lie himself 
 avows (Tusc. iii. 8 ; cf. v. 14), rendering it now by * tem- 
 perantia,' now by * moderatio,' now by ' modestia ; ' and 
 giving this account of it: 'ejus enim videtur esse pro- 
 prium motus animi appetentes regere et sedare, semperque 
 adversantem libidini, moderatam in omni re servare con- 
 stantiam.' ^wtypoa'vvr) was a virtue which assumed more 
 marked prominence in heathen ethics than it does in 
 Christian (Sd)pij/j,a KaXkivrov 0swv, as Euripides, Med. 632, 
 has called it) ; not because more value was attached to it 
 there than with us ; but partly because there it was one of 
 a much smaller company of virtues, each of which there- 
 fore would singly attract more attention ; but also in part 
 because for as many as are " led by the Spirit," this con- 
 dition of self-command is taken up and transformed into a 
 condition yet higher still, in which a man does not order 
 and command himself, which, so far as it reaches, is well, 
 but, which is better still, is ordered and commanded by 
 God. 
 
 At i Tim. ii. 9 we shall best distinguish between alBcos 
 and a-ax^poa-vvr) , and the distinction will be capable of 
 further application, if we affirm of alBa>s that it is that 
 ' shamefastness,' 1 or pudency, which shrinks from over- 
 
 1 It is a pity that 'shamefast' (Ecclua. xli. 16), and 'shamefastness' 
 by which our Translators rendered o-utypoo-vvr) here, should have been 
 corrupted in modern use to ' shame/acerf,' and ' 8h&rn.efacedness.' The 
 words are properly of the same formation as 'steadfast," steadfastness,' 
 ' soothfast,' ' soothfastness,' and those good old English words, now lost to 
 us, 'rootfast,' and ' rootfastness : ' to which add ' masterfast,' engaged to 
 a master ; ' footfast,' captive ; ' bedfast,' bedridden ; ' handfast,' affianced ; 
 ' weatherfast,' weatherbound. As by ' rootfast ' our fathers understood 
 that which was firm and fast by its root, so by ' shamefast ' that which 
 was established and made/a^ by (an honorable) shame. To change this 
 into ' shamefaced ' is to allow all the meaning and force of the word
 
 72 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxi. 
 
 passing the limits of womanly reserve and modesty, as 
 well as from the dishonour which would justly attach 
 thereto ; of a-^poa-vvrj that it is that habitual inner self- 
 government, with its constant rein on all the passions and 
 desires, which would hinder the temptation to this from 
 arising, or at all events from arising in such strength 
 as should overbear the checks and barriers which alScos 
 opposed to it. 
 
 xxi. (Tvpw, S\KW. 
 
 THESE words differ, and the difference between them is 
 not theologically unimportant. We best represent this 
 difference in English, when we render a-vpsiv, ' to drag,' 
 s\Ksiv t ' to draw.' In <rvpsiv, as in our ' drag/ there lies 
 always the notion of force, as when Plutarch (De Lib. Ed. 
 8) speaks of the headlong course of a river, irdvra crvpwv 
 real Trdvra irapafyepwv : and it will follow, that where per- 
 sons, and not merely things, are in question, crvpsiv will 
 involve the notion of violence (Acts viii. 3 ; xiv. 19 ; xvii. 6 ; 
 cf. Karaa-vpeiv, Luke xii. 58). But in s\tcsiv this notion 
 of force or violence does not of necessity lie. It may be 
 there (Acts xvi. 19; xxi. 30; Jam. ii. 6; cf. Homer, II. xi. 
 258; xxiv. 52,417; Aristophanes, Equit. 710; Euripides, 
 Troad. 70 : Alas elXtcs Ka<rdv&pav /3m) ; but not of necessity 
 (thus Plato, Rep. vi. 494 e : sav s\K7jrai, irpos (f)i\o<ro(f)iav : 
 cf. vii. 538 d), any more than in our ' draw,' which we use 
 of a mental and moral attraction, or in the Latin ' traho ' 
 (< trahit sua quemque voluptas '). 
 
 Only by keeping in mind the difference which thus 
 
 to run to the surface, to leave us ethically a far poorer word. It is inex- 
 cusable that all modern reprints of the Authorized Version should have 
 given in to this corruption. So long as the spelling does not affect the life 
 of a word, this may very well fall in with modern use ; we do not want 
 ' sonne ' or ' marveile,' when everybody now spells ' son ' and ' marvel.' 
 But where this life is assailed by later alterations, corruptions in fact of 
 the spelling, and the word in fact changed into another, there the edition 
 of 1611 should be exactly adhered to, and considered authoritative and 
 exemplary for all that followed.
 
 xxi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 73 
 
 exists between these, can we vindicate from erroneous 
 interpretation two doctrinally important passages in the 
 Gospel of St. John. The first is xii. 32 : " I, if I be lifted 
 up from the earth, will draw all men [jrdvras S\KIKTW] unto 
 Me." But how does a crucified, and thus an exalted, 
 Saviour draw all men unto Him ? Not by force, for the will 
 is incapable of force, but by the divine attractions of his 
 love. Again (vi. 44) : " No man can come to Me, except 
 the Father which hath sent Me draw him " (e\Kva-r) avrov). 
 Now as many as feel bound to deny any such 'gratia 
 irresistibilis ' as turns man into a machine, and by which, 
 willing or unwilling, he is dragged to God, must at once 
 allow, must indeed assert, that this S\KUO-T} can mean no 
 more than the potent allurements, the allective force of 
 love, the attracting of men by the Father to the Son ; 
 compare Jer. xxxi. 3, " With loving-kindness have I drawn 
 thee " (ii\Kva-d <rs), and Cant. i. 3,4. Did we find avpsiv 
 on either of these occasions (not that this would be 
 possible), the assertors of a ' gratia irresistibilis ' l might 
 then urge the declarations of our Lord as leaving no 
 room for any other meaning but theirs ; but not as they 
 now stand. 
 
 In agreement with all this, in \KSW is predominantly 
 the sense of a drawing to a certain point, in crvpsiv merely 
 of dragging after one; thus Lucian (De Merc. Cond. 3), 
 likening a man to a fish already hooked and dragged 
 
 1 The excellent words of Augustine on this last passage, himself some- 
 times adduced as an upholder of this, may be here quoted (In Ev. Joh. 
 Tract, xxvi. 4) : ' Nemo venit ad me, nisi quern Pater adtraxerit. Noli 
 te cogitare invitum trahi ; trahitur animus et amore. Nee timere debe- 
 mus ne ab bominibus qui verba perpendunt, et a rebus maxime divinis 
 intelligendis longe remoti sunt, in hoc Scripturarum sanctarum evan- 
 gelico verbo forsitan reprehendarnur, et dicatur nobis, Quomodo voluntate 
 credo, si trahor ? Ego dico : Parum est voluntate, etiam voluptate tra- 
 heris. Porro si poe'tse dicere licuit, Trahit sua quemque voluptas ; non 
 necessitas, sed voluptas; non obligatio, sed delectatio; quanto fortius 
 nos dicere debemus, trahi hominem ad Christum, qui delectatur veritate, 
 delectatur beatitudine, delectatur justitiu, delectatur sempiterna vita, 
 quod totum Christua est ? '
 
 74 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxn. 
 
 through the water, describes him as crvpo/jisvov KOI irpos 
 dvdyKqv dyopevov. Not seldom there will lie in crvpeiv the 
 notion of this dragging being upon the ground, inasmuch 
 as that will trail upon the ground (cf. a-vp^a, avpSijv, and 
 Isai. iii. 16), which is forcibly dragged along with no will 
 of its own; a dead body, for example (Philo, In Flac. 21). 
 We may compare John xxi. 6, 1 1 with ver. 8 of the same 
 chapter, in confirmation of what has just been affirmed. 
 At ver. 6 and 1 1 sXiceiv is used ; for there a drawing of 
 the net to a certain point is intended ; by the disciples to 
 themselves in the ship, by Peter to himself upon the shore. 
 But at ver. 8 S\KSIV gives place to avpziv : for nothing is 
 there intended but the dragging of the net, which had 
 been fastened to the ship, after it through the water. 
 Our Version has maintained the distinction ; so too the 
 German of De Wette, by aid of 'ziehen' (=e\iceiv) and 
 ' nachschleppen ' (avpsiv) ; but neither the Vulgate, nor 
 Beza, both employing ' traho ' throughout. 
 
 , TS\SLOS, aprios. 
 
 'O\6K\.tjpos and TS\SIOS occur together, though their order 
 is reversed, at' Jam. i. 4, "perfect and entire" (cf. Philo, 
 De Sac. Ab. et Cain. 33 : sp,Tr\&a ical 6\OK\rjpa ical TsXsta: 
 Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 12, p. 203); oXo/eX^os only once 
 besides in the N. T. (i Thess. v. 23) ; okoK^pia also, but 
 in a physical not an ethical sense, once (Acts iii. 16; cf. 
 Isai. i. 6). 'Q\oKkr)pos signifies first, as its etymology 
 declares, that which retains all which was allotted to it at 
 the first (Ezek. xv. 5), being thus whole and entire in all 
 its parts (o\6K\r)pos ical TravTsXrfs, Philo, De Merc. Meret. i) ; 
 with nothing necessary for its completeness wanting. Thus 
 Darius would have been well pleased not to have taken 
 Babylon if only Zopyrus, who had maimed himself to 
 carry out the stratagem by which it fell, were 6\6K\r}pos 
 still (Plutarch, Reg. et Imper. Apoph.). Again, unhewn
 
 xxn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 75 
 
 stones, as having lost nothing- in the process of shaping 
 and polishing, are oXotcXrjpoi (Deut. xxvii. 6 ; I Mace. iv. 
 47) ; perfect weeks are eftSopdSss 6\6K\-rjpot (Lev. xxiii. 15) ; 
 and a man h 6\oK\^pa> 8sp/j,a,Ti is ' in a whole skin ' (Lucian, 
 Philops. 8). We next find o\OK\r]pos expressing that in- 
 tegrity of body, with nothing redundant, nothing deficient 
 (cf. Lev. xxi. 17-23), which was required of the Levitical 
 priests as a condition of their ministering at the altar, 
 which also might not be wanting in the sacrifices they 
 offered. In both these senses Josephus uses it (Antt. iii. 
 12. 2) ; as does Philo continually. It is with him the 
 standing word for this integrity of the priests and of the 
 sacrifice, to the necessity of which he often recurs, seeing 
 in it, and rightly, a mystical significance, and that these 
 are o\oK\r)pot, Qvcrlat, O\OK\^PW sw (De Viet. 2 ; De Viet. 
 Off. I, o\bic\r)pov KOI Travrs\5)s fjiutpwv ap-sTo^ov : De Agricul. 
 29 ; De Cherub. 28 ; cf. Plato, Legg. vi. 759 c). Te\sios is 
 used by Homer (II. i. 66) in the same sense. 
 
 It is not long before 6\oK\,r)pos and oXo/cXqpt'a, like the 
 Latin * integer* and * integritas,' are transferred from 
 bodily to mental and moral completeness (Suetonius, Claud. 
 4). The only approach to this in the Apocrypha is Wisd. 
 xv. 3, oXd/cX-qpos SiKaioavvr) : but in an interesting and im- 
 portant passage in the Phcedrus of Plato (2500; cf. Tim. 
 44 c), 6\6K\t)pos expresses the perfection of man before the 
 Fall ; I mean, of course, the Fall as Plato contemplated 
 it; when to men, as yet oXo/eA-T/pot KOI airaQsls /ea/cwv, were 
 vouchsafed oXo/cX7;pa ^da^a-ra, as contrasted with those 
 weak partial glimpses of the Eternal Beauty, which are 
 all that to most men are now vouchsafed. That person 
 then or thing is oXotcXypos, which is * omnibus numeris 
 absolutus,' or EV fjuySsvi Xst7ro//,j'os, as St. James himself 
 (i. 4) explains the word. 
 
 The various applications of TS\SIOS are all referable to 
 the rs\os, which is its ground. In a natural sense the 
 re\sioi are the adult, who, having attained the full limits
 
 76 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxn. 
 
 of stature, strength, and mental power within their reach, 
 have in these respects attained their rs\os, as distinguished 
 from the vioi or TraiBss, young men or boys (Plato, Legg. 
 xi. 9290; Xenophon, Cyr. viii. 7. 6; Polybius, v. 29. 2). 
 This image of full completed growth, as contrasted with 
 infancy and childhood, underlies the ethical use of reXsioi 
 by St. Paul, he setting these over against the viJTnot, ev 
 Xpto-Ty (i Cor. ii. 6; xiv. 20; Ephes. iv. 13, 14; Phil, 
 iii. 15; Heb. v. 14; cf. Philo, De Agricul. 2); they cor- 
 respond in fact to the irarspss of I John ii. 13, 14, as dis- 
 tinct from the vsavia-Kot, and TraiSia. Nor is this ethical 
 use of r&sios confined to Scripture. The Stoics distin- 
 guished the rs\sios in philosophy from the TrpoK^Trrcov, just 
 as at I Chron. xxv. 8 the r\siot are set over against the 
 H-avQavovTzs. With the heathen, those also were ri\siot, 
 who had been initiated into the mysteries ; for just as the 
 Lord's Supper was called TO TS\SLOV (Bingham, Christ. 
 Antiquities, i. 4. 3), because there was nothing beyond it, 
 no privilege into which the Christian has not entered, so 
 these T&SIOI of heathen initiation obtained their name as 
 having been now introduced into the latest and crowning 
 mysteries of alK 
 
 It will be seen that there is a certain ambiguity in our 
 word 'perfect/ which, indeed, it shares with reXetoy itself; 
 this, namely, that they are both employed now in a rela- 
 tive, now in an absolute sense; for only so could our 
 Lord have said, " Be ye therefore perfect (rs\sioi), as 
 your Heavenly Father is perfect" (rs\sios), Matt. v. 48; 
 cf. xix. 21. The Christian shall be ' perfect/ yet not in 
 the sense in which some of the sects preach the doctrine 
 of perfection, who, as soon as their words are looked into, 
 are found either to mean nothing which they could not 
 have expressed by a word less liable to misunderstanding; 
 or to mean something which no man in this life shall 
 attain, and which he who affirms he has attained is 
 deceiving himself, or others, or both. The faithful man
 
 xxii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 77 
 
 shall be ' perfect,' that is, aiming by the grace of God to 
 be fully furnished and firmly established in the knowledge 
 and practice of the things of God (Jam. iii. 2 ; Col. iv. 1 2 : 
 reXsios Kal TrsTrXrjpofoprjpsvos) ; not a babe in Christ to the 
 end, ' not always employed in the elements, and infant 
 propositions and practices of religion, but doing noble 
 actions, well skilled in the deepest mysteries of faith and 
 holiness.' l In this sense St. Paul claimed to be TeXaos, 
 even while almost in the same breath he disclaimed the 
 being rsrs\sLW[jLsvos (Phil. iii. 12, 15). 
 
 The distinction then is plain. The oXo/cX^pos- is one who 
 has preserved, or who, having once lost, has now regained, 
 his completeness : the rs\stos is one who has attained his 
 moral end, that for which he was intended, namely, to be 
 a man in Christ; however it may be true that, having 
 reached this, other and higher ends will open out before 
 him, to have Christ formed in him more and more. 2 In 
 the 6\6K\r)pos no grace which ought to be in a Christian 
 man is deficient ; in the TS\SIOS no grace is merely in its 
 weak imperfect beginnings, but all have reached a certain 
 ripeness and maturity. 'OXorsX?^, occurring once in the 
 N. T. (I Thess. v. 23 ; cf. Plutarch, De Plac. Phil. v. 21), 
 forms a connecting link between the two, holding on to 
 oXo/eXT/pos in its first half, to re\sios in its second. 
 
 "Aprios, occurring only once in the N. T. (2 Tim. iii. 17), 
 and there presently explained more fully as e&prurp&vos, 
 approximates in meaning more closely to oXo/eX^poy, with 
 which we find it joined by Philo (De Plant. 29), than to 
 re\etos. It is explained by Calvin, in quo nihil est mu- 
 tilum,' see further the quotation from Theodoret in Sui- 
 cer, s.v., and is found opposed to %o>Xos (Chrysostom), to 
 
 1 On the sense in which ' perfection ' is demanded of the Christian, 
 there is a discussion at large by Jeremy Taylor, Doctrine and Practice 
 of Repentance, i. 3. 40-56, from which this quotation is drawn. 
 
 2 Seneca (Ep. 1 20) says of one, ' Habebat perfectum aninium, ad 
 eummam sui adductus.'
 
 78 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxm. 
 
 rco\o/36s (Olympiodorus), to avdirijpos (Theodoret). Yulcan 
 in Lucian (Sacrif. 6) is OVK aprios TOO vroSs. If we ask 
 ourselves under what special aspects completeness is con- 
 templated in aprios, it would be safe to answer that it is 
 not as the presence only of all the parts which are necessary 
 for that completeness, but involves further the adaptation 
 and aptitude of these parts for the ends which they were 
 designed to serve. The man of God, St. Paul would say 
 (2 Tim. iii. 17), should be furnished and accomplished 
 with all which is necessary for the carrying out of the 
 work to which he is appointed. 
 
 xxiii. <TTe<f)avos, 
 
 WE must not confound these words because our English 
 ' crown ' stands for them both. I greatly doubt whether 
 anywhere in classical literature crrtyavos is used of the 
 kingly, or imperial, crown. It is the crown of victory in 
 the games, of civic worth, of military valour, of nuptial 
 joy, of festal gladness woven of oak, of ivy, of parsley, 
 of myrtle, of olive, or imitating in gold these leaves or 
 others of flowers, as of violets or roses (see Athemeus, 
 xv. 9-33) ; the ' wreath,' in fact, or the ' garland,' the 
 German ' Kranz ' as distinguished from * Krone ; ' but 
 never, any more than 'corona' in Latin, the emblem 
 and sign of royalty. The Sidfyfjia was this ^a<n\sias 
 yvcopia-fta, as Lucian calls it (Pise. 35 ; cf. Xenophon, Cyr. 
 viii. 3. 13 ; Plutarch, De Frat. Am. 18) ; being properly a 
 white linen band or fillet, 'tsenia' or 'fascia' (Curtius, 
 iii. 3), encircling the brow ; so that no language is more 
 common than TrsptTiQsvai StdStjfjLa to indicate the assump- 
 tion of royal dignity (Polybius, v. 57. 4; I Mace. i. 9; 
 xi. 13 ; xiii. 32 ; Josephus, Antt. xii. 10. i), even as in 
 Latin in like manner the * diadem a ' alone is the ' insigne 
 regium' (Tacitus, Annal. xv. 29). With this agree Sel- 
 den's opening words in his learned discussion on the
 
 xxiii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 79 
 
 distinction between 'crowns' and 'diadems' (Titles of 
 Honour, c. 8, 2) : ' However those names have been from 
 antient time confounded, yet the diadem strictly was a 
 very different thing from what a crown now is or was ; 
 being, indeed, no more than a fillet of silk, linen, or some 
 such thing. Nor does it appear that any other kind of 
 crown was used for -a royal ensign, except only in some 
 kingdoms of Asia, until the beginning of Christianity in 
 the Koman Empire.' 
 
 A passage in Plutarch brings out very clearly the dis- 
 tinction here affirmed. The kingly crown which Antonius 
 offers to Csesar the biographer describes as SidS^/Aa 
 crTSffrdvw Bd(f)vtjs TrspiTTSTr'Xsjpsvov (Cces. 6l). Here the 
 a-rsfyavos is the garland or laureate wreath, with which 
 the diadem proper was enwoven ; indeed, according to 
 Cicero (Phil. ii. 34), Csesar was already ' coronatus ' 
 (=i(rT(f)avajfjievos : ), this he would have been as Consul, 
 when the offer was made. It is by keeping this distinc- 
 tion in mind that we explain a version in Suetonius (Cces. 
 79) of the same incident. One places on Caesar's statue 
 ' coronam lauream Candida fascia prseligatam ' (his statues, 
 Plutarch also informs us, were SiaSrjfjiaa-iv dvaSsSepsvoi 
 Pa<n\i,Kol$) ; on which the tribunes command to be re- 
 moved, not the ' corona,' but the 'fascia; ' this being the 
 diadem, in which alone the traitorous suggestion that he 
 should suffer himself to be proclaimed king was con- 
 tained. Compare Diodorus Siculus, xx. 54, where of one 
 he says, StaS^a pev OVK etcpivsv %etz', s<f>6psi yap dsl crrs- 
 
 How accurately the words are discriminated in the 
 Septuagint and in the Apocrypha may be seen by com- 
 paring in the First Maccabees the passages in which 
 SidSrjiAa is employed (such as i. 9; vi. 15; viii. 14; xi. 
 13, 54; xii. 39; xiii. 32), and those where o-rtyavos ap- 
 pears (iv. 57 ; x. 29; xi. 35 ; xiii. 39 ; cf. 2 Mace. xiv. 4). 
 Compare Isai. Ixii. 3, where of Israel it is said that it
 
 So SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxm. 
 shall be crrs^avos /cdX\ovs, but, as it is added, 
 
 In the N. T. it is plain that the ars^avos whereof St. 
 Paul speaks is always the conqueror's, and not the king's 
 (i Cor. ix. 24-26; 2 Tim. ii. 5) ; it is the same in what passes 
 for the Second Epistle of Clement, 7. If St. Peter's allu- 
 sion (i Pet. v. 4) is not so directly to the Greek games, 
 yet he too is silently contrasting the wreaths of heaven 
 which never fade, the ajj-apavrivos a-rtyavos rijs S6%r)s, 
 with the garlands of earth which lose their beauty and 
 freshness so soon. At Jam. i. 12 ; Rev. ii. 10 ; iii. 1 1 ; iv. 
 4, it is little probable that a reference, either near or 
 remote, is intended to these Greek games ; the alienation 
 from which, as idolatrous and profane, reached so far 
 back, was so deep on the part of the Jews (Josephus, Antt. 
 xv. 8. 1-4 ; i Mace. i. 14 ; 2 Mace. iv. 9, 12) j and no doubt 
 also of the Jewish members of the Church, that imagery 
 drawn from the prizes of these games would have rather 
 repelled than attracted them. Yet there also the crrtyavos, 
 or the crTsfavos rfjs a)f)s, is the emblem, not of royalty, 
 but of highest joy and gladness (cf. a-rs^avos dya\\td- 
 fj.aros, Ecclus. vi. 31), of glory and immortality. We may 
 the more confidently conclude that with St. John it was 
 so, from the fact that on three occasions, where beyond a 
 doubt he does intend kingly crowns, he employs SidSyfjia 
 (Rev. xii. 3 ; xiii. I [cf. xvii. 9, IO, al STTTO, K$a\al . . . 
 /3ao-t\6y fTTTa slaiv] ; xix. 12). In this last verse it is 
 sublimely said of Him who is King of kings and Lord of 
 lords, that " on his head were many crowns " (StaS^/zara 
 TroXXa) ; an expression, with all its magnificence, difficult 
 to realize, so long as we picture to our mind's eye such 
 crowns as at the present monarchs wear, but intelligible 
 at once, when we contemplate them as ' diadems,' that is, 
 narrow fillets encircling the brow. These " many dia- 
 dems " will then be the tokens of the many royalties 
 of earth, of heaven, and of hell (Phil. ii. 10) which are
 
 xxiv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 8 1 
 
 his ; royalties once usurped or assailed by the Great Red 
 Dragon, the usurper of Christ's dignities and honours, 
 who has therefore his own seven diadems as well (xiii. i), 
 but now openly and for ever assumed by Him whose 
 rightfully they are; just as, to compare earthly things 
 with heavenly, when Ptolemy, king of Egypt, entered 
 Antioch in triumph, he set two ' crowns,' or ' diadems * 
 rather (StaB^/jLara}, on his head, the ' diadem ' of Asia, 
 and the 'diadem' of Egypt (i Mace. xi. 13); or as in 
 Diodorus Siculus (i. 47) we read of one s-^ova-av rpsls 
 ftaaiXslas eirl rfjs tcs(j)a\7Js, the context plainly showing 
 that these are three diadems, the symbols of a triple 
 royalty, which she wore. 
 
 The only occasion on which (TTsfyavos might seem to 
 be used of a kingly crown is Matt, xxvii. 29 ; cf . Mark xv. 
 17 ; John xix. 2 ; where the weaving of the crown of 
 thorns (vrsfyavos afcdvOivos), and placing it on the Saviour's 
 head, is evidently a part of that blasphemous masquerade 
 of royalty which the Eoinan soldiers would fain compel 
 Him to enact. But woven of such materials as it was, 
 probably of the juncus marinus, or of the lycium spinosum, 
 it is evident that SidSr)/j,a could not be applied to it ; and 
 the word, therefore, which was fittest in respect of the 
 material whereof it was composed, takes the place of that 
 which would have been the fittest in respect of the pur- 
 pose for which it was intended. On the whole subject of 
 this see The Dictionary of the Bible, s. vv. Crown and 
 Diadem ; and Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, art. Coro- 
 nation, p. 464. 
 
 xxiv. 
 
 BETWEEN these words the same distinction exists as be- 
 tween our ' covetousness ' and ' avarice,' as between the 
 German 'Habsucht' and ' Geiz.' HXsovegia, primarily 
 the having more, and then in a secondary and more usual
 
 82 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxiv. 
 
 sense, the desire after the having more, is the more active 
 sin, <f>i\apyvpia the more passive : the first, the ' amor 
 sceleratus habendi,' seeks rather to grasp what it has not ; 
 the second, to retain, and, by accumulating, to multiply 
 that which it already has. The first, in its methods of 
 acquiring, will be often bold and aggressive ; even as it 
 may, and often will, be as free in scattering and squander- 
 ing, as it was eager and unscrupulous in getting : the 
 ir\oveicrr)s will be often ' rapti largitor,' as was Catiline ; 
 characterizing whom Cicero demands (Pro Ccel. 6) : * Quis in 
 rapacitate avarior ? quis in largitione effusior ? ' even as 
 the same idea is very boldly conceived in the Sir Giles 
 Overreach of Massinger. Consistently with this, we find 
 jrXsov^KTris joined with apTrat; (l Cor. v. IO) ; ir\eovs^ia 
 with Papvrrjs (Plutarch, Arist. 3) ; TrXsovsgtcu with /cXoTreu 
 (Mark vii. 22) ; with aSiicuii (Strabo, vii. 4. 6) ; with 
 <J3i\oveirciai (Plato, Legg. iii. 677 6) ; and the sin defined by 
 Theodoret (in Ep. ad Rom. i. 30) : rj TOV TT\SIOVOS etysa-is, 
 KOL TWV ov irpoa-^KovTcav rj apTrayij : with which compare 
 the definition, whosesoever it may be, of 'avaritia* as 
 'injuriosa appetitio alienorum ' (ad Herenn. iv. 25) ; and 
 compare further Bengel's note (on Mark vii. 22) : ' TT\EOV- 
 %ia, comparativum involvens, denotat medium quiddam 
 inter f urtum et rapinam ; ubi per varias artes id agitur 
 ut alter per se, sed cum Isesione sui, inscius vel invitus, 
 offerat, concedat et tribuat, quod indigne accipias.' It is 
 therefore fitly joined with aia-^poicspSela (Polybius, vi. 46. 
 3). But, while it is thus with ir\sov^la, ^Ckap^vpia^ on 
 the other hand, the miser's sin (it is joined with p,Licpo- 
 Xo7/a, Plutarch, Quom. Am. ab Adul. 36) will be often 
 cautious and timid, and will not necessarily have cast off 
 the outward shows of uprightness. The Pharisees, for 
 example, were <f>i\dpyvpot (Luke xvi. 14) : this was not 
 irreconcilable with the maintenance of a religious profes- 
 sion, which the 7r\sovsj;ia would have manifestly been. 
 Cowley, in the delightful prose which he has inter-
 
 xxiv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 83 
 
 spersed among his verse, draws this distinction strongly 
 and well (Essay 7, Of Avarice), though Chaucer had done 
 the same before him (see his Persones Tale ; and his de- 
 scription severally of Covetise and Avarice in The Romaunt 
 of the Rose, 183-246). ' There are,' Cowley says, 'two 
 sorts of avarice ; the one is but of a bastard kind, and 
 that is the rapacious appetite for gain ; not for its own 
 sake, but for the pleasure of refunding it immediately 
 through all the channels of pride and luxury ; the other 
 is the true kind, and properly so called, which is a rest- 
 less and un satiable desire of riches, not for any further 
 end or use, but only to hoard and preserve, and per- 
 petually increase them. The covetous man of the first 
 kind is like a greedy ostrich, which devours any metal, 
 but it is with an intent to feed upon it, and, in effect, it 
 makes a shift to digest and excern it. The second is like 
 the foolish chough, which loves to steal money only to 
 hide it.' 
 
 There is another point of view in which Tr\ov%ia 
 may be regarded as the larger term, the genus, of which 
 ftkapyvpta is the species ; this last being the love of 
 money, while 7r\eovs%ia is the drawing and snatching by 
 the sinner to himself of the creature in every form and 
 kind, as it lies out of and beyond himself ; the ' indigentia' 
 of Cicero (' indigentia est libido inexplebilis ; ' Tusc. iv. 
 9. 21); compare Dio Chrysostom, De Avarit. Orat. 17; 
 Augustine, Enarr. in Ps. cxviii. 35, 36; and Bengel's pro- 
 found explanation of the fact, that, in the enumeration of 
 sins, St. Paul so often associates irXs-ovs&a with sins of the 
 flesh ; as at I Cor. v. 1 1 ; Ephes. v. 3, 5 ; Col. iii. 5 : ' Solet 
 autem jungere cum impuritate 7r\sovs^lav, nam homo 
 extra Deum quserit pabulum in creatura materiali, vel per 
 voluptatern, vel per avaritiam : bonum alienum ad se 
 redigit.' But, expressing much, Bengel has not expressed 
 all. The connexion between these two provinces of sin 
 is deeper and more intimate still j and this is witnessed 
 
 e 2
 
 84 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxv. 
 
 in the fact, that not merely is Tr\sovs%ia, as signifying 
 covetousness, joined to sins of impurity, but the word is 
 sometimes used, as at Ephes. v. 3 (see Jerome, in loc.), and 
 often by the Greek Fathers (see Suicer, Thes. s. v. : and 
 Hammond's excellent note on Rom. i. 29), to designate 
 these sins themselves ; even as the root out of which they 
 alike grow, namely, the fiercer and ever fiercer longing 
 of the creature which has forsaken God, to fill itself 
 with the lower objects of sense, is one and the same. 
 The monsters of lust among the Roman emperors were 
 monsters of covetousness as well (Suetonius, Calig. 38-41). 
 Contemplated under this aspect, 7r\soveJ;ia has a much 
 wider and deeper sense than <j>tkapyvpia. Plato (Gory. 493), 
 likening the desire of man to the sieve or pierced vessel of 
 the Danaids, which they were ever filling, but might never 
 fill, 1 has implicitly a sublime commentary on the word; 
 nor is it too much to say, that in it is summed up that 
 ever defeated longing of the creature, as it has despised 
 the children's bread, to stay its hunger with the husks of 
 the swine. 
 
 xxv. y36(7&), Trot/iatVo). 
 
 WHILE POO-KSW and Troipaiveiv are both often employed 
 in a figurative and spiritual sense in the 0. T. (i Chron. 
 xi. 2 ; Ezek. xxxiv. 3 ; Ps. Ixxvii. 72 ; Jer. xxiii. 2), and 
 TToipaivsiv in the New ; the only occasions in the latter, on 
 which ftoarKSLv is so used, are John xxi. 15, 17. There our 
 Lord, giving to St. Peter that thrice-repeated commission 
 to feed his "lambs" (ver. 15), his " sheep" (ver. 16), and 
 again his " sheep " (ver. 17), uses first /3oWe, then secondly 
 irolfjiaivs, returning to jSoV/ee at the last. This return, on 
 
 1 It is evident that the same comparison had occurred to Shakespeare: 
 
 ' The cloyed will, 
 That satiate yet unsatisfied desire, 
 That tub both filled and running.' 1 
 
 Cymbeline, Act i. Sc. 7.
 
 vxv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 85 
 
 the third and last repetition of the charge, to the word 
 employed on the first, has been a strong argument with 
 some for an absolute identity in the meaning of the 
 words. They have urged, with some show of reason, that 
 Christ could not have had progressive aspects of the 
 pastoral work in his intention here, else He would not 
 have come back in the end to the (Boaics, with which Ho 
 began. Yet I cannot ascribe to accident the variation of 
 the words, any more than the changes, in the same verses, 
 from ayajrdv to (friXsiv (see p. 41), from apvia to 
 It is true that our Version, rendering fioa-fcs and 
 alike by " Feed," as the Vulgate by " Pasce," has not 
 attempted to follow the changes of the original text, nor 
 can I perceive any resources of language by which either 
 our own Version or the Latin could have helped itself 
 here. ' Tend ' for Troiftaivs is the best suggestion which I 
 could make. The German, by aid of ' weiden ' (z=/36<rtceiv) 
 and 'hiiten' ( = 7roijjiaiviv}, might do it; but De Wette 
 has ' weiden ' throughout. 
 
 The distinction, notwithstanding, is very far from 
 fanciful. Boovcstz/, the Latin ' pascere,' is simply ' to feed : ' 
 but TToiftaivsiv involves much more ; the whole office of the 
 shepherd, the guiding, guarding, folding of the flock, as 
 well as the finding of nourishment for it. Thus Lampe : 
 ' Hoc symbolum totum regimen ecclesiasticum compre- 
 hendit;' and Ben gel : ' jSbcricsiv est pars rov Troipaivsiv.' 
 The wider reach and larger meaning of Troiftaivsiv makes 
 itself felt at Eev. ii. 27 ; xix. 1 5 ; where at once we are 
 conscious how impossible it would be to substitute ftocricsiv ; 
 and compare Philo, Quod Dei. Pot. Insid. 8. 
 
 There is a fitness in the shepherd's work for the setting 
 forth of the highest ministries of men for the weal of 
 their fellows, out of which the name, shepherds of their 
 people, has been continually transferred to those who are, 
 or should be, the faithful guides and guardians of others 
 committed to their charge. Thus kings in Homer are
 
 86 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxv. 
 
 G>v: cf. 2 Sam. v. 2 ; vii. 7 ; Ps. Ixxviii. 71,72. 
 Nay more, in Scripture God Himself is a Shepherd (Isai. 
 xl. n; Ezek. xxxiv. 11-31; Ps. xxiii.) ; and God manifest 
 in the flesh avouches Himself as 6 'JTOI^V o tcd\,6s (John 
 x. Il) ; He is the apxiTroiprfv (l Pet. v. 4) ; o fis^as iroi^v 
 TWV Trpoftdroov (Heb. xiii. 20) ; as such fulfilling the pro- 
 phecy of Micah (v. 4). Compare a sublime passage in 
 Philo, De Agricul. 12, beginning : OVTCO /ASVTOL TO Troiftaivsiv 
 earlv ayaObv, &CTTS ov fiacrihevai povov teal (robots dv&pdcri, 
 KOI ^rv^ats rs\eia KSfcadapjASvats, d\\.a KOI @a> TW Travrjys- 
 p,6vi SiKalws dvarlOsrai, with the three preceding. 
 
 But it may very naturally be asked, if iroi^aivsiv be thus 
 so much the more significant and comprehensive word, and 
 if on this account the Troipaws was added to the fiocnce in 
 the Lord's latest instruction to his Apostle, how account 
 for his going back to (36<rKe again, and concluding thus, 
 not as we should expect with the wider, but with the 
 narrower charge, and weaker admonition ? In Dean Stan- 
 ley's Sermons and Essays on the Apostolic Age, p. 138, the 
 answer is suggested. The lesson, in fact, which we learn 
 from this is a most important one, and one which the 
 Church, and all that bear rule in the Church, have need 
 diligently to lay to heart ; this, namely, that whatever else 
 of discipline and rule may be superadded thereto, still, the 
 feeding of the flock, the finding for them of spiritual 
 food, is the first and last ; nothing else will supply the 
 room of this, nor may be allowed to put this out of 
 that foremost place which by right it should occupy. 
 How often, in a false ecclesiastical system, the preaching 
 of the Word loses its preeminence ; the fioa-Ksiv falls into 
 the background, is swallowed up in the Trotyu-atVetv, which 
 presently becomes no true Troipaivsiv, because it is not a 
 ftocr/csiv as well, but such a i shepherding ' rather as God's 
 Word by the prophet Ezekiel has denounced (xxxiv. 2, 3, 
 8, 10; cf. Zech. xi. 15-17 ; Matt, xxiii.).
 
 xxvi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 87 
 
 xxvi. f)\os, (f)0ovo$ 
 
 THESE words are often joined together; they are so by 
 St. Paul (Gal. v. 20, 21) ; by Clement of Rome (Cor. 3, 4, 
 5) ; and virtually by Cyprian in his little treatise, De Zelo 
 et Livore : by classical writers as well ; by Plato (Phileb. 
 47 e ; Legg. iii. 679 c ; Menex. 242 a) ; by Plutarch, Coriol. 
 19; and by others. Still, there are differences between 
 them ; and this first, that %fj\o$ is a fj,e<rov, being used 
 sometimes in a good (as John ii. 17; Rom. x. 2 ; 2 Cor. 
 ix. 2), sometimes, and in Scripture oftener, in an evil sense 
 (as Acts v. 17 ; Rom. xiii. 13 ; Gal. v. 20 ; Jam. iii. 14, in 
 which last place, to make quite clear what ^rfKos is meant, 
 it is qualified by the addition of Trircpos, and is linked with 
 spidsia) : while (f)06vos t incapable of good, is used always 
 and only in an evil, signification. When &\os is taken in 
 good part, it signifies the honorable emulation, 1 with the 
 consequent imitation, of that which presents itself to the 
 mind's eye as excellent : ^fj\os rwv aplffTtav (Lucian, Adv. 
 Indoct. 17) : ^ffKos rov fiskriovos (Philo, de Prcem. et Poen. 
 3) ; <f>i\OT!-ila real 77X05- (Plutarch, De Alex. Fort. Or. ii. 6 ; 
 An Seni Resp. Ger. 25) ; f}\os KOI plpya-is (Herodian, ii. 4) ; 
 ^\wrr)s teal fiijji'rjrrjs (vi. 8). It is the Latin ' semulatio,' 
 in which nothing of envy is of necessity included, however 
 such in it, as in our ' emulation,' may find place ; the 
 German ' Nacheiferung,' as distinguished from ' Eifer- 
 sucht.' The verb ' semulor,' I need hardly observe, finely 
 expresses the difference between worthy and unworthy 
 emulation, governing an accusative in cases where the 
 first, a dative where the second, is intended. South here, 
 as always, expresses himself well: *We ought by all 
 
 1 "Epis, which often in the Odyssey, and in the later Greek, very nearly 
 resembled 7X0? in this its meaning of emulation, was capable in like 
 manner of a nobler application ; thus Basil the Great defines it {Reg. 
 Brev. Tract. 66) : epis fiev forty, OTOV rtf, vnep TOV p,rj (\O.TTU>V (pavtjvai 
 TWOS,
 
 88 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 means to note the difference between envy and emulation ; 
 which latter is a brave and a noble thing, and quite of 
 another nature, as consisting only in a generous imitation 
 of something excellent; and that such an imitation as 
 scorns to fall short of its copy, but strives, if possible, to 
 outdo it. The emulator is impatient of a superior, not 
 by depressing or maligning another, but by perfecting 
 himself. So that while that sottish thing envy sometimes 
 fills the whole soul, as a great dull fog does the air ; this, 
 on the contrary, inspires it with a new life and vigour, 
 whets and stirs up all the powers of it to action. And 
 surely that which does so (if we also abstract it from those 
 heats and sharpnesses that sometimes by accident may 
 attend it), must needs be in the same degree lawful and 
 laudable too, that it is for a man to make himself as use- 
 ful and accomplished as he can* (Works, London, 1737, 
 vol. v. p. 403 ; and compare Bishop Butler, Works, 1836, 
 vol. i. p. 15). 
 
 By Aristotle 77X0? is employed exclusively in this 
 nobler sense, as that active emulation which grieves, not 
 that another has the good, but that itself has it not ; and 
 which, not pausing here, seeks to supply the deficiencies 
 which it finds in itself. From this point of view he con- 
 trasts it with envy (Rhet. ii. n) : sa-rt 77X0? AUTTT? ns STT\ 
 <j)aivofj,Evr) Trapovcria a<ya6S)v svrl^wv .... ov% ori a\\(o, 
 dXX' OTI ov-fti teal avr(S sart, Sib real ETTLSLKSS sarnv o 77X0?, 
 /cat STTISIKWV TO 8s <f)0ovsiv, <j>av\ov, ical <f>av\d)if. The 
 Church Fathers follow in his footsteps. Jerome (Exp. in 
 Gal. v. 20) : ' %?i\os et in bonam partem accipi potest, 
 quum quis nititur ea quse bona sunt semulari. Invidiu, 
 vero aliena felicitate torquetur ; ' and again (in Gal. iv. 
 17) : '^Emulantur bene, qui cum videant in aliquibus esse 
 gratias, dona, virtutes, ipsi tales esse desiderant.' (Ecu- 
 menius : scrri ij\os Kiwrja-is ^fv^fjs svdova-icaStjs sirL TI, JJLSTCI 
 TIVOS a<f)o/jLoi(0a-Ci)$ TOV Trpbs o 77 <77rov8ij ecrri : cf. Plutarch, 
 Pericles, 2. Compare the words of our English poet :
 
 xxvi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 89 
 
 ' Envy, to which the ignoble mind's a slave, 
 Is emulation in the learned and brave.' 
 
 But it is only too easy for this zeal and honorable 
 rivalry to degenerate into a meaner passion ; the Latin 
 ' simultas,' connected (see Doderlein, Lat. Synon. vol. iii. 
 p. 72), not with 'simulare,' but with 4 simul,' attests the 
 fact : those who together aim at the same object, who are 
 thus competitors, being in danger of being enemies as 
 well ; just as a/uXXo. (which, however, has kept its more 
 honorable use, see Plutarch, Anim. an Corp. Aff. Pej. 3), 
 is connected with apa ; and ' rivales ' meant no more 
 at first than occupants of the banks of the same river 
 (Pott, Etym. Forsch. ii. 2. 191). These degeneracies which 
 wait so near upon emulation, and which sometimes cause 
 the word itself to be used for that into which it degene- 
 rates (' pale and bloodless emulation,' Shakespeare), may 
 assume two shapes : either that of a desire to make war 
 upon the good which it beholds in another, and thus to 
 trouble that good, and make it less; therefore we find 
 77X0$ and spis continually joined together (Rom. xiii. 1 3 ; 
 2 Cor. xii. 20 ; Gal. v. 20; Clement of Rome, Cor. 3, 6) : 
 77X05 and fyCkovsiKia (Plutarch, De Cap. Inim. Util. i) : 
 or, where there is not vigour and energy enough to 
 attempt the making of it less, there may be at least the 
 wishing of it less ; with such petty carping and fault-finding 
 as it may dare to indulge in $66vos and fj,&/jt,os being 
 joined, as in Plutarch, Prcec. Reg. Eeip. 27. And here in 
 this last fact is the point of contact which 77X0? has with 
 <f)66vos (thus Plato, Menex. 242 a : irpwrov /JLSV T}A.OS, cnro 
 77X01; 8s (f>06vo?: and ^Eschylus, Agamem. 939 : 6 8' afydo- 
 vrjros OVK siTL^tf^os Trs'ksi) ; the latter being essentially 
 passive, as the former is active and energic. We do not 
 find (fidovos in the comprehensive catalogue of sins at 
 Mark vii. 21, 22 ; but this envy, Sva-(f>po)v 16s, as ^Eschylus 
 (Agam. 755)> o-tj^slov fyvazws TravTairacn Trovijpas, as De- 
 mosthenes (499, 2l), TTCKTWI/ /Asyia-TV) rwv sv d
 
 90 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxvi. 
 
 , as Euripides has called it, and of which Herodotus 
 (iii. 80) has said, apxfjQsv s^vsrai avOpwirw, could not, 
 in one shape or other, be absent ; its place is supplied by 
 a circumlocution, cxpOaXfibs Trowrjpos (cf. Ecclus. xiv. 8, 
 10), bat on putting it in connexion -with the Latin 
 * invidia/ which is derived, as Cicero observes (Tusc. 
 iii. 9), 'a nimis intuendo fortunam alterius;' cf. Matt. 
 xx. 1 5 ; and I Sam. xviii. 9 : " Saul eyed," i. e. envied 
 "David." The 'urentes oculi' of Persius (Sat. ii. 34), 
 the ' mal' occhio ' of the Italians, must receive the 
 same explanation. QQovos is the meaner sin, and there- 
 fore the beautiful Greek proverb, 6 fydovos s^w TOV dsiov 
 'Xopov, being merely displeasure at another's good ; J 
 \VTTIJ ETT aX\,orpiOLS ayaOois, as the Stoics denned it 
 (Diogenes Laertius, vii. 63, in), XVTTT? Trjs rov TT^O-IOV 
 sinrpaylas, as Basil (Horn, de Invid.), 'segritudo suscepta 
 propter alterius res secundas, quse nihil noceant invidenti,' 
 as Cicero (Tusc. iv. 8; cf. Xenophon, Mem. iii. 9. 8), 
 ' odium felicitatis alienee,' as Augustine (De Gen. ad Lit. 
 I I-I4), 2 with the desire that this good or this felicity may 
 be less : and this, quite apart from any hope that thereby 
 its own will be more (Aristotle, Rhet. ii. 10) ; so that it is 
 no wonder that Solomon long ago could describe it as 
 'the rottenness of the bones ' (Prov. xiv. 30). He that is 
 conscious of it is conscious of no impulse or longing to 
 raise himself to the level of him whom he envies, but only 
 to depress the envied to his own. When the victories of 
 Miltiades would not suffer the youthful Themistocles to 
 sleep (Plutarch, Them. 3), here was %rj\os in its nobler 
 form, an emulation which would not let him rest, till he 
 had set a Salamis of his own against the Marathon of his 
 
 1 Augustine's definition of <f>66vos (Exp. in Gal. v. 21) introduces 
 into it an ethical element -which rarely if at all belongs to it : ' Invidia 
 dolor animi est, cum indiynus videtur aliquis assequi etiam quod non 
 appetebas.' This would rather be vt^fvis and txfjifa-av in the ethical ter- 
 minology of Aristotle (Ethic. NIC. ii. 7. 15 ; Rhet. ii. 9). 
 
 2 Sick of a strange disease, another's health.' Phineas Fletcher.
 
 xxvn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 91 
 
 great predecessor. But it was <pdovos which made that 
 Athenian citizen to be weary of hearing Aristides ever- 
 more styled ' The Just ' (Plutarch, Arist . 7) ; an envy which 
 contained no impulses moving him to strive for himself 
 after the justice which he envied in another. See on this 
 subject further the beautiful remarks of Plutarch, De Prof. 
 Virt. 14; and on the likenesses and differences between 
 fucros and (j>06vos, his graceful essay, full of subtle analysis 
 of the human heart, Delnvidid et Odio. T$a<TKavla, a word 
 frequent enough in later Greek in this sense of envy, 
 nowhere occurs in the N. T. ; ftaa-icalvsiv only once (Gal. 
 iii. I. 
 
 xxvii. far), ftios. 
 
 THE Latin language and the English as well are poorer 
 than the Greek, in having but one word, the Latin ' vita,' 
 the English 'life,' where the Greek has two. There 
 would, indeed, be no comparative poverty here, if far) and 
 ftios were merely duplicates. But, contemplating life as 
 these do from very different points of view, it is inevitable 
 that we, with our one word for both, must use this one in 
 very diverse senses ; and may possibly, through this equi- 
 vocation, conceal real and important differences from our- 
 selves or from others ; nothing being so effectual for this 
 as the employment of equivocal words. 
 
 The true antithesis of far] is ddvaros (Rom. viii. 38 ; 
 2 Cor. v. 4 ; Jer. viii. 3 ; Ecclus. xxx. 17 ; Plato, Legg. xii. 
 944 c), as of ^, aTroOvrja/cstv (Luke xx. 38 ; I Tim. v. 6 ; 
 Eev. i. 18; cf. II. xxiii. 70; Herodotus, i. 31 ; Plato, 
 Phcedo, 7 1 d ; OVK svavriov fyys ru> %f)v TO rsQvdvcu slvai ;) ; 
 fatf, as some will have it, being nearly connected with 
 a&>, ar)/j,t, to breathe the breath of life, which is the neces- 
 sary condition of living, and, as such, is involved in like 
 manner in Trvsv^a and ^f%^, in 'spiritus' and 'anima.' 
 
 But, while far] is thus life intensive (' vita qua vivimus '), 
 ftios is life extensive (' vita quam vivimus '), the period or
 
 92 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxvn. 
 
 duration of life ; and then, in a secondary sense, the means 
 by which that life is sustained ; and thirdly, the manner 
 in which that life is spent ; the * line of life,' ' profession,' 
 career. Examples of filos in all these senses the N. T. 
 supplies. Thus it is used as 
 
 a. The period or duration of life ; thus, ^povos rov fiiov 
 (i Pet. iv. 3) : cf. ft LOS rov ^povov (Job x. 20) : ^KOS /3iot> 
 KOI eri) fays (Prov. iii. 2) : Plutarch (De Lib. Ed. 17), 
 0-Tty/j.rj xpovov iras o fiios Jerri : again, /3lo$ rrjs farjs (Cons. 
 ad Apoll. 25) ; and far) Ka \ pios (De Plac. Phil. v. 18). 
 
 /9. The means of life, or living,' A. V. ; Mark xii. 44 ; 
 Luke viii. 43 ; xv. 12 ; I John iii. 17, rov ftiov rov Koa-fiov, 
 cf Plato, Gorg. 486 d ; Legg. xi. 9360; Aristotle, Hist. An. 
 ix. 23. 2 ; Euripides, low, 329 ; and often, but not always, 
 these means of life, with an under sense of largeness and 
 abundance. 
 
 7. The manner of life ; or life in regard of its moral 
 conduct, having such words as rpoTros, rj6r), rrpafys for its 
 equivalents, and not seldom such epithets as /cocr/uos-, 
 Xprja-ros, a-axppfov, joined to it ; I Tim. ii. 2 ; so Plato (Rep. 
 i. 344 e), ftiov Siaywyrf : Plutarch, Si'aira ical ftios (De Virt. et 
 Vit. 2) : and very nobly (De Is. et Os. i), rov &s JIVOXTKSIV 
 ra ovra teal (ppovelv a^aipsdsvros? ov ftiov aXXa %povov 
 [ot/zat] slvai rr}v aQavaaiav : and De Lib. Ed. 7, rsraypevos 
 fiios : Josephus, Antt. v. 10. I ; with which compare Augus- 
 tine (De Trin. xii. 11): Cujus vitce sit quisque ; id est, 
 quomodo agat hcec temporalia, quam vitam Grseci non farfv 
 sed ftiov vocant.' 
 
 In jBios, thus used as manner of life, there is an ethical 
 sense often inhering, which, in classical Greek at least, fai'j 
 does not possess. Thus in Aristotle (Pol. i. 13. 13), it 
 is said that the slave is KOIVWVOS farjs, he lives with the 
 family, but not KOIVCWOS fitov, he does not sharf in the 
 career of his master ; cf. Ethic. Nic. x. 6. 8 ; and L. draws, 
 according to Ammonius, the following distinction: /3io? 
 f arl \o<yitcr) fatf : Ammonius himself affirming /3ios to be
 
 xxvii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 93 
 
 never, except incorrectly, applied to the existence of plants 
 or animals, but only to the lives of men. 1 I know not 
 how he reconciled this statement with such passages as 
 these from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. i. I. 15 ; ix. 8. I ; un- 
 less, indeed, he included him in his censure. Still, the 
 distinction which he somewhat too absolutely asserts (see 
 Stallbaum's note on the Timceus of Plato, 44 d), is a real 
 one : it displays itself with singular clearness in our words 
 ' zoology ' and ' biography ; ' but not in ' biology,' which, 
 as now used, is a manifest misnomer. 2 We speak, on one 
 side, of ' zoology,' for animals (eoa) have the vital prin- 
 ciple ; they live, equally with men, and are capable of being 
 classed and described according to the different workings 
 of this natural life of theirs : but, on the other hand, we 
 speak of ' biography ; ' for men not merely live, but they 
 lead lives, lives in which there is that moral distinction 
 between one and another, which may make them worthy 
 to be recorded. They are STTJ &rjs, but 6Bol fiiov (Prov. 
 iv. 10) ; cf. Philo, De Carit. 4, where of Moses he says 
 that at a certain epoch of his mortal course, r/pfaro ^sra- 
 fidXXstv EK Ovrjrfjs a)rjs sis dQdvarov fSiov. 
 
 From all this it will follow, that, while QdvaTos and farf 
 constitute, as observed already, the true antithesis, yet 
 they do this only so long as life is physically contemplated ; 
 thus the Son of Sirach (xxx. 17) : Kpslaa-cov Odvaros vjrsp 
 %wrjv TriKpav rj dppaxrTrj/jia sppovov. But so soon as a moral 
 element is introduced, and 'life ' is regarded as the oppor- 
 tunity for living nobly or the contrary, the antithesis is 
 not between ddvaros and fatf, but Odvaros and fiios : thus 
 compare Xenophon (De Rep. Lac. ix. i) : alpsTtorspov elvat 
 
 1 See on these two synonyms, Vomel, Synon. Worterbuch, p. 168 sq. ; 
 and Wyttenbach, Animadd. in Plutarchum, vol. iii. p. 1 66. 
 
 2 The word came to us from the French. Gottfried Reinhart Trevi- 
 sanus, who died in 1837, was its probable inventor in his book, Bioloyie, 
 ou la Philosophie do la Nature vivante, of which the first volume appeared 
 in 1802. Some flying pages by Canon Field, of Norwich, Biology and 
 Social Science, deal well with this blunder.
 
 94 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxvii. 
 
 rov KaKov ddvarov dvrl rov ata-^pov ft(ov s with Plato 
 (Legg. xii. 944 d) : ^wrjv alcr^pav dpvv/jLSvos psra rd%ovs, 
 fjid\\ov rj [AST dvSpstas /ca\bv ical evSaifiova ddvarov. A 
 reference to the two passages will show that in the latter 
 it is the present boon of shameful life, (therefore &>?;,) 
 which the craven soldier prefers to an honorable death ; 
 while in the former, Lycurgus teaches that an honorable 
 death is to be chosen rather than a long and shameful 
 existence, a /3/os- aftios (Empedocles, 326) ; a ftios dftiwros 
 (Xenophon, Mem. iv. 8. 8 ; cf. Meineke, Fragm. Com. Grcec. 
 p. 542) ; aySt'os ov ft tear 6s (Plato, Apol. 38 a) ; a 'vita non 
 vitalis ; ' from which all the ornament of life, all reasons 
 for living, have departed. The two grand chapters with 
 which the Gorgias of Plato concludes (82, 83) constitute a 
 fine exercise in the distinction between the -words them- 
 selves, as between their derivatives no less; and Hero- 
 dotus, vii. 46, the same. 
 
 But all this being so, and fitos, not farj, the ethical word 
 of classical Greek, a thoughtful reader of Scripture might 
 not unnaturally be perplexed with the fact that all is there 
 reversed ; for no one will deny that farj is there the nobler 
 word, expressing as it continually does all of highest and 
 best which the saints possess in God ; thus (rre<f>avos rr}? 
 ^wrfs (Rev. ii. IO), fuXoz/ rrfS wf)S (ii. 7), /3//3\os rrjs 0)17 y 
 (iii. 5), vStop %(orjs (xxi. 6), o>^ KOI sva-sfBsia (2 Pet. i. 3), 
 fay KOI d<f>dap<rta (2 Tim. i. 10), far) rov eoO (Ephes. iv. 
 18), farj alwvios (Matt. xix. 16; Rom. ii. 7), 1 far) aKard- 
 \vros (Heb. vii. 16) ; 17 ovrws farj (i Tim. vi. 19) ; or some- 
 times farj with no further addition (Matt. vii. 14: Rom. 
 v. 17, and often); all these setting forth, each from its 
 own point of view, the highest blessedness of the creature. 
 Contrast with them the following uses of ftios, r)Soval rov 
 /3t'ou (Luke viii. 14), 7rpay/j.aTiai rov ftiov (2 Tim. ii. 4), 
 d\aovsia rov /3iW (i Johnii. 16), jBios rov KOO-^OV (iii. 17), 
 
 1 ZO>TI alavios occurs once in the Septuagint (Dan. xii. 2 ; cf. 
 dtvaos, 2 Mace. vii. 36), and in Plutarch, De Is. et Os. I.
 
 xxvn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 95 
 /Stan/cat (Luke xxi. 34). How shall we explain 
 
 this? 
 
 A little reflection will supply the answer. Revealed 
 religion, and it alone, puts death and sin in closest con- 
 nexion, declares them the necessary correlatives one of 
 the other (Gen. i.-iii. ; Rom. v. 12); and, as an involved 
 consequence, in like manner, life and holiness. It is God's 
 word alone which proclaims that, wherever there is death, 
 it is there because sin was there first ; wherever there is 
 no death, that is, life, this is there, because sin has never 
 been there, or having once been, is now cast out and ex- 
 pelled. In revealed religion, which thus makes death to 
 have come into the world through sin, and only through 
 sin, life is the correlative of holiness. Whatever truly 
 lives, does so because sin has never found place in it, or, 
 having found place for a time, has since been overcome 
 and expelled. So soon as ever this is felt and understood, 
 0)77 at once assumes the profoundest moral significance ; 
 it becomes the fittest expression for the very highest 
 blessedness. Of that whereof we predicate absolute &>??, 
 we predicate absolute holiness of the same. Christ affirm- 
 ing of Himself, syw slfj,i 77 ^wrf (John xiv. 6; cf. I John 
 i. 2 ; Ignatius, ad Smyrn. 4 : Xptcn-os TO a\r)divbv -fj^wv 
 f)v}, implicitly affirmed of Himself that He was absolutely 
 holy ; and in the creature, in like manner, that alone truly 
 lives, or triumphs over death, death at once physical and 
 spiritual, which has first triumphed over sin. No wonder, 
 then, that Scripture should know of no higher word than 
 &>?7 to set forth the blessedness of God, and the blessedness 
 of the creature in communion with God. 
 
 It follows that those expositors of Ephes. iv. 1 8 are in 
 error, who there take a7rr)\\orpta)/jLsvoi, rrjf fw^y TOV sov, 
 as ' alienated from a divine life,' that is, 'from a life lived 
 according to the will and commandments of God ' (' remoti a 
 vita ilia quse secundum Deum est : ' as Grotius has it), 
 &>J7 never signifying this. The fact of such alienation was
 
 96 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxvm. 
 
 only too true ; but the Apostle is not affirming it here, but 
 rather the miserable condition of the heathen, as men 
 estranged from the one fountain of life (irapa Sot 77777?) 
 %wf)s, Ps. xxxv. 10) ; as not having life, because separated 
 from Him who only absolutely lives (John v. 26), the living 
 God (Matt. xvi. 16; I Titn. iii. 15), in fellowship with 
 whom alone any creature has life. Another passage, 
 namely Gal. v. 25, will always seem to contain a tautology, 
 until we give to far) (and to the verb %rj v as well) the force 
 which has been claimed for it here. 
 
 xxviii. Kvpios, 
 
 A MAN, according to the later Greek grammarians, was 
 Sfo-TroT??? in respect of his slaves (Plato, Legg. vi. 756 c), 
 therefore olKoBsa-Trorrjs, but Kvpios in regard of his wife and 
 children ; who in speaking either to him or of him, would 
 give him this title of honour ; " as Sara obeyed Abraham, 
 calling him lord" (icvpiov avrov ica\.ova-a, I Pet. iii. 6; 
 cf. Plutarch, De Virt. Mul. s. vv. M//c/ea KOI Msyia-rci)}. 
 There is a certain truth in this distinction. Undoubtedly 
 there lies in Kvpios the sense of an authority owning 
 limitations moral limitations it may be ; it is implied 
 too that the wielder of this authority will not exclude, 
 in wielding it, a consideration of their good over whom 
 it is exercised ; while the Ssa-TroTijs exercises a more un- 
 restricted power and absolute domination, confessing no 
 such limitations or restraints. He who addresses another 
 as Bsa-irora, puts an emphasis of submission into his 
 speech, which /cvpis would not have possessed ; therefore 
 it was that the Greeks, not yet grown slavish, refused this 
 title of SSO-TTOTTJS to any but the gods (Euripides, Hippol. 
 88; ava%, dsovs jap Be<r7r6ras Ka\slv ^pstov) ; while 
 our own use of ' despot,' * despotic,' ' despotism,' as set over 
 against that of * lord,' * lordship,' and the like, attests
 
 xxvin. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 97 
 
 that these words are coloured for us, as they were for those 
 from whom we have derived them. 
 
 Still, there were influences at work tending to break 
 down this distinction. Slavery, or the appropriating, 
 without payment, of other men's toil, however legalized, 
 is so abhorrent to men's innate sense of right, that they 
 seek to mitigate, in word at least, if not in fact, its 
 atrocity ; and thus, as no southern Planter in America 
 willingly spoke of his ' slaves,' but preferred some other 
 term, so in antiquity, wherever any gentler or more hu- 
 mane view of slavery obtained, the antithesis of Seo-TroTT/s 
 and 8ov\os would continually give place to that of tcvpios 
 and Sov\os. The harsher antithesis might still survive, but 
 the milder would prevail side by side with it. "We need 
 not look further than to the writings of St. Paul, to see 
 how little, in popular speech, the distinction of the gram- 
 marians was observed. Masters are now Kvpioi (Ephes. vi. 
 9 ; Col. iv. l), and now Sea-TroTai (i Tim. vi. 1,2; Tit. ii. 
 9; cf. I Pet. ii. 18), with him; and compare Philo, Quod 
 Omn. Prob. Lib. 6. 
 
 But, while all experience shows how little sinful man 
 can be trusted with unrestricted power over his fellow, 
 how certainly he will abuse it a moral fact attested in 
 our use of ' despot ' as equivalent with ' tyrant,' as well 
 as in the history of * tyrant' itself it can only be a 
 blessedness for man to regard God as the absolute Lord, 
 Ruler, and Disposer of his life ; since with Him power is 
 never disconnected from wisdom and from love : and, as 
 we saw that the Greeks, not without a certain sense of 
 this, were well pleased to style the gods SeaTrorai, however 
 they might refuse this title to any other ; so, within the 
 limits of Revelation, BSO-TTOTI^S, no less than Kvpios, is ap- 
 plied to the true God. Thus in the Septuagint, at Josh, 
 v. 14; Prov. xxix. 25; Jer. iv. IO; in the Apocrypha, at 
 2 Mace. v. 1 7, and elsewhere ; while in the N. T. on these 
 occasions : Luke ii. 29 ; Acts iv. 24 ; Rev. vi. 10 ; 2 Pet. ii. 
 
 H
 
 98 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxix. 
 
 i ; Jude 4. In the last two it is to Christ, but to Christ 
 as God, that the title is ascribed. Erasmus, indeed, out 
 of that latent Arianism, of which, perhaps, he was scarcely 
 conscious to himself, denies that, at Jude 4, SscnroTrjs is to 
 be referred to Christ ; attributing only xvpios to Him, and 
 Ssa-TTorris to the Father. The fact that in the Greek text, 
 as he read it, sov followed and was joined to Ssa-irorrjv, 
 no doubt really lay at the root of his reluctance to ascribe 
 the title of Bsa-Trorrjs to Christ. It was for him not a 
 philological, but a theological difficulty, however he may 
 have sought to persuade himself otherwise. 
 
 This Sca-TroTrjs did no doubt express on the lips of the 
 faithful who used it, their sense of God's absolute disposal 
 of his creatures, of his autocratic power, who " doeth ac- 
 cording to his will in the army of heaven and among the 
 inhabitants of the earth" (Dan. iv. 35), more strongly 
 than Kvpios would have done. So much is plain from 
 some words of Philo (Quis Rer. Div. Hcer. 6), who finds 
 evidence of Abraham's svXdftsia, of his tempering, on one 
 signal occasion (Gen. xv. 2), boldness with reverence and 
 godly fear, in the fact that, addressing God, he is not 
 content with the simple icvpis, but links with it the less 
 usual SscnroTa; for Sea-iroTrjs, as Philo proceeds to say, is 
 not Kvpios only, but (f>o{3spbs icvpios, and implies, on his 
 part who uses it, a more entire prostration of self before 
 the might and majesty of God than Kvpios would have 
 done. 
 
 xxix. a\a%(ov, v 
 
 THESE words occur all of them together at Eorn. i. 30, 
 though in an order exactly the reverse from that in which 
 I have found it convenient to take them. They constitute 
 an interesting subject for synonymous discrimination. 
 
 'AXacoz/, occurring thrice in the Septuagint (Hab. ii. 
 5 ; Job xxviii. 8 ; Prov. xxi. 24), is found twice in the N. T. 
 (here and at 2 Tim. iii. 2) j while aKa&vs-ia, of which the
 
 xxix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 99 
 
 Septuagint knows nothing, appears four times in the Apo- 
 crypha (Wisd. v. 8 ; xvii. 7 ; 2 Mace. ix. 8 ; xv. 6), and in 
 the N. T. twice (Jam. iv. 16 ; I John ii. 16). Derived from 
 aXt], ' a wandering about,' it designated first the vagabond 
 mountebanks ('marktschreyer'), conjurors, quacksalvers, 
 or exorcists (Acts xix. 1351 Tim. v. 13) ; being joined with 
 yoT/s (Lucian, Revivisc. 29) ; with <f>vag (Aristophanes, 
 Ban. 909) ; with KSVOS (Plutarch, De Prof. Virt. 10) ; full 
 of empty and boastful professions of cures and other 
 feats which they could accomplish; such as Volpone in 
 The Fox of Ben Jon son (Act ii. Sc. i). It was from them 
 transferred to any braggart or boaster (aXacot/ KOI vTrsp- 
 av%os, Philo, Gong. Erud. Grat. 8 ; while for other in- 
 different company which the word keeps, see Aristophanes, 
 Nub. 445-452); vaunting himself in the possession of skill 
 (Wisd. xvii. 7), or knowledge, or courage, or virtue, or 
 riches, or whatever else it might be, which were not truly 
 his (Plutarch, De Seips. Laud. 4). He is thus the exact 
 antithesis of the sipwv, who makes less of himself and his 
 belongings than the reality would warrant, in the same 
 way as the d\a(ov makes more (Aristotle, Ethic. NIC. ii. 7. 
 12). In the Definitions which pass under Plato's name, 
 a\aovsla is defined as s^is irpoa-Troi^TtKr) dyaOwv ftr) VTT- 
 apxovrcov: while Xenophon (Gyr. ii. 2. 12) describes the 
 d\a%(t>v thus : 6 fisv yap d\a^a>v s/jioiys SOKSL ovojjia KSicrOat. 
 
 STT\ TOLS TTpOCTTTOlOV/JiSVOlS Kdl 7T\,OV(Tt(0TepOlS slvCll r) tVt, KOI 
 
 dvSpsLorspois, Kal TTonjcrsiv a firj Uavoi sl(riv vTricr^vov/Jisvois' 
 Kal ravra, <f>avspoi$ yiyvojMsvois, OTI rov \aj3siv TI sveica KOI 
 KspBavat Troiovaiv : and Aristotle (Ethic. Nic. iv. 7. 2) : So/cct 
 Br) 6 fisv d\ao)v Trpo&TroiTjTiKos rwv svSo^oiV slvai, KOI /j,rf 
 vTrap-%GVTO)v, /cal JJLS^OVWV r/ vTrdpjfSL : cf . Theodoret on Rom. 
 i. 30 : d\a^6vas Koksl TOVS ov&Sfiiav /JLSV fypVT&S Trpofyacriv 
 sis (f)povijfjt,aTo$ oyfeov, fjidTiyv Bs ^vaLWfisvovs. As such he 
 is likely to be a busybody and meddler, which may explain 
 the juxtaposition of dXafrvsia and wXim/>a'y/t0<rwq (Ep. ad 
 Diognetum, 4). Other words with which it is joined are 
 
 H 2
 
 100 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxix. 
 
 /3Xa/ceta (Plutarch, De Rect. And. 18) ; rvfyos (Clement of 
 Rome, 1 3) ; ajspco^ia (2 Mace. ix. 7) ; diraiSsvcria (Pbilo, 
 Migrat. Abrah. 24) : while in the passage from Xenophon, 
 which was just now quoted in part, the aka^ovss are dis- 
 tinguished from the acrrsioi and sv^aplrss. 
 
 It is not an accident, but of the essence of the dXa^&w, 
 that in his boastings he overpasses the limits of the truth 
 (Wisd. ii. 1 6, 17) ; thus Aristotle sees in him not merely 
 one making unseemly display of things which he actually 
 possesses, but vaunting himself in those which he does 
 not possess ; and sets over against him the aKyQevTiKos KOL 
 T&> y9/ft) fcal T&> \6ja) : cf. Rhet. ii. 6 : TO ra dXXorpta avrov 
 <f>d<rKiv, a\a%oveias erT)fj.iov : and Xenophon, Mem. i. 7; 
 while Plato (Rep. viii. 560 c) joins tysvSsis with a\a^6vss 
 \6yoi : and Plutarch (Pyrrh. 19) d\a(ov with KOJATTOS. We 
 have in the same sense a lively description of the a\a&v 
 in the Characters (23) of Theophrastus ; and, still better, 
 of the shifts and evasions to which he has recourse, in the 
 treatise, Ad Herenn. iv. 50, 5 1. While, therefore, ' boaster ' 
 fairly represents a\a^wv (Jebb suggests l swaggerer,' GJia- 
 racters of Theophrastus, p. 193), 'ostentation' does not 
 well give back aXabi/aa, seeing that a man can only be 
 ostentatious in things which he really has to show. No word 
 of ours, and certainly not ' pride ' (i John ii. 16, A. V.), 
 renders it at all so adequately as the German ' prahlerei.' 
 For the thing, Falstaff and Parolles, both of them un- 
 scarred braggarts of the war,' are excellent, though mar- 
 vellously diverse, examples; so too Bessus in Beaumont 
 and Fletcher's King and no King; while, on the other hand, 
 Marlowe's Tamburlaine, despite of all his big vaunting 
 words, is no aXaeoz/, inasmuch as there are fearful reali- 
 ties of power by which these his fjieydXrjs 7X060-0-775 KO/JLTTOI 
 are sustained and borne out. This dealing in braggadocio 
 is a vice sometimes ascribed to whole nations ; thus an 
 spfyvros aka^ovsia to the .ZEtolians (Polybius, iv. 3 ; cf. 
 Livy, xxxiii. 1 1) ; and, in modern times, to the Gascons j
 
 xxix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. ioi 
 
 out of which these last have given us ' gasconade.' The 
 Vulgate, translating dXa^oi/sy, ' elati ' (in the Ehemish, 
 'haughty'), has not seized the central meaning as suc- 
 cessfully as Beza, who has rendered it ' gloriosi.' l 
 
 A distinction has been sometimes drawn between the 
 a\a%(ov and the irspirspos [77 aydirr] ov TrspTrspsvsrai, I Cor. 
 xiii. 4], that the first vaunts of things which he has 
 not, the second of things which, however little this his 
 boasting and bravery about them may become him, he 
 actually has. The distinction, however, cannot be main- 
 tained (see Polybius, xxxii. 6. 5 : xl. 6. 2) ; both are liars 
 alike. 
 
 But this habitual boasting of our own will hardly fail 
 to be accompanied with a contempt for that of others. If 
 it did not find, it would rapidly generate, such a tendency ; 
 and thus the a\a^a>v is often avOdSijs as well (Prov. xxi. 
 24) ; a\a%ovsia is nearly allied to vTrspo-^i'a : they are used 
 as almost convertible terms (Philo, De Carit. 22-24). But 
 from vTrepo-fyia to vTrsprjtyavia there is but a single step ; 
 we need not then wonder to meet vjrspityavos joined with 
 a\aojv : cf. Clement of Eome, Cor. 16. The places in 
 the N. T. where it occurs, besides those noted already, are 
 Luke i. 5 1 ; Jam. iv. 6 ; I Pet. v. 5 ; virsprjfyavia at Mark 
 vii. 22. A picturesque image serves for its basis: the 
 vTTSpijcpavos, from inrep and <j)aivofAai, being one who shows 
 himself above his fellows, exactly as the Latin ' superbus ' 
 is from ' super ; ' as our ' stilts ' is connected with ' Stolz,' 
 and with * stout ' in its earlier sense of ' proud/ or ' lifted 
 up.' Deyling (Obss. Sac. vol. v. p. 219): 'Vox proprie 
 notat hominem capite super alios eminentem, ita ut, quem- 
 admodum Saul, prse ceteris sit conspicuus, I Sam. ix. 2.' 
 
 1 We formerly used ' glorious ' in this sense. Thus in North's Plu- 
 tarch, p. 1 83 : ' Some took this for a glorious brag ; others thought he 
 [ Alcibiades] was like enough to have done it.' And Milton ( The Reason 
 of Church Government, i. 5) : ' He [Anselm] little dreamt then that the 
 weeding hook of Reformation would, after two ages, pluck up his glori- 
 ous poppy [prelacy] from insulting over the good corn [presbytery].'
 
 102 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxix. 
 
 Compare Horace (Carm. i. 18. 15): <Et tollens vacuum 
 plus nimio Gloria verticem.' 
 
 A man can show himself a\a&v only when in company 
 with his fellow-men; but the proper seat of the vTreprj^avla, 
 the German ' hochmuth,' is within. He that is sick of this 
 sin compares himself, it may be secretly or openly, with 
 others, and lifts himself above others, in honour preferring 
 himself; his sin being, as Theophrastus (Charact. 34) 
 describes it, KaT-afypovqa-is TIS 7r\r)v avrov rwv a\\(ov: 
 joined therefore with vTrspotyla (Demosthenes, Orat. xxi. 
 247) ; with e%ov$evw<n,s (Ps. xxx. 19) ; virspiyfiavos with 
 avOdSrjs (Plutarch, Akib. c. Cor. 4). The bearing of the 
 vTTp^(pavos toward others is not of the essence, is only tb e 
 consequence, of his sin. His * arrogance,' as we say, his 
 claiming to himself of honour and observance (v7rspr]<j>avla 
 is joined with </>i\oSofta, Esth. iv. 10) ; his indignation, 
 and, it may be, his cruelty and revenge, if these are with- 
 held (see Esth. iii. 5, 6; and Appian, De Reb. Pun. viii. 
 1 1 8 ; Gt>fj,a /cal vTrsprjtpava), are only the outcomings of this 
 false estimate of himself; it is thus that virsprjcpavos and 
 Eiri<f)dovos (Plutarch, Pomp. 24), virsprj^avou and ftapsls 
 (Qu. Rom. 63), V7rspr)<pavia and djspco-^la (2 Mace. ix. 7), 
 are joined together. In the v-jrsprjfyavos we may have the 
 perversion of a nobler character than in the a\aa>v, the 
 melancholic, as the a\a^wv is the sanguine, the v^pLa-njs 
 the choleric, temperament ; but because nobler, therefore 
 one which, if it falls, falls more deeply, sins more fear- 
 fully. He is one whose " heart is lifted up " (v-^rrfKoKap- 
 Biosj Prov. xvi. 5) ; one of those TO, v\lrr)\a (ppovovvrss 
 (Rom. xi. 1 6), as opposed to the rairsLvol rfj icapSla: he 
 is Tv<f>(0dsis (i Tim. iii. 6) or TSTV^W^VOS (2 Tim. iii. 4), 
 besotted with pride, and far from all true wisdom (Ecclus. 
 xv. 8) ; and this lifting up of his heart may be not merely 
 against man, but against God; he may assail the very 
 prerogatives of Deity itself (i Mace. i. 21, 24; Ecclus. x. 
 12, 13; Wisd. xiv. 6 : vTrsptffavoi, <ytjdvTss\ Theophylact
 
 xxix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 103 
 
 therefore does not go too far, when he calls this sin atcpo- 
 TTO\IS KCIKWV : nor need we wonder to be thrice reminded, 
 in the very same words, that '' God resisteth the proud " 
 (vTTSpv^dvois avrirda-crsTai : Jam. iv. 6 ; I Pet. v. 5 > Prov. 
 iii. 34) ; sets Himself in battle array against them, as they 
 themselves against Him. 
 
 It remains to speak of v/3pt,a-Tij?, which, by its deriva- 
 tion from v ftp is, which is, again, from. vTrsp (so at least 
 Schneider and Pott; but Curtius, Grundzuge, 2nd edit, 
 p. 473, doubts), and as we should say, ' uppishness,' 
 stands in a certain etymological relation with virspi'ifyavos 
 (see Donaldson, New Cratylus, 3rd ed. p. 552). ''Tfipis is 
 insolent wrongdoing to others, not out of revenge, or any 
 other motive except the mere pleasure which the infliction 
 of the injury imparts. So Aristotle (Rhet. ii. 2) : SCTTL <yap 
 , TO /3~\.a.7rTiv Kal \VTrslv., !</>' ols ala^vvr) sari TO> Trdcr- 
 , pr) iva TL ysvyTai avrw aXXo, r> ori i'ysvsro, a\V OTTWS 
 oiyap avrnroiovvTSs ov% vftpiovaiv,a\\a TifjLwpovvTai. 
 What its flower and fruit and harvest shall be, the dread 
 lines of ^schylus (Pers. 822 : cf. (Ed. Bex, 873-883) have 
 told us. ef Y^piarrjs occurs only twice in the N. T. ; Rom. 
 i. 30 ('despiteful,' A. V.),and I Tim. i. 13 (' injurious,' A. 
 and E. V. ; a word seldom now applied except to things, 
 but preferable to * insolent,' which has recently been pro- 
 posed) ; in the Septuagint often ; being at Job xl. 6, 7 ; 
 Isai. ii. 12, associated with virsprj^avos (cf. Prov. viii. 13) ; 
 as the two, in like manner, are connected by Aristotle 
 (Rhet. ii. 16). Other words whose company it keeps are 
 aypios (Homer, Od. vi. I2O); drda6a\os (Ib. xxiv. 282) ; 
 aWwv (Sophocles, Ajax, 1061) ; avop,os (Trachin. 1076) } 
 /3/aioy (Demosthenes, Orat. xxiv. 169) ; irdpoivos, dyvai/Acov, 
 TriKpos (Orat. liv. 1261); aSt/eos (Plato, Legg. i. 6306) ; d/co- 
 \aa-ros (Apol. Socr. 26 e) ; atypwv (Phileb. 45 e) ; uTrsporrrrijs 
 (Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. iv. 3. 21); Qpaavs (Clement, of 
 Alexandria, Strom, ii. 5) ; <f)av\os (Plutarch, Def. Orac. 
 45) ; <f>i\o<y\(o$ (Symp. 8. 5 ; but here in a far milder
 
 104 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxix. 
 
 sense). In his Lucullus, 34, Plutarch speaks of one as 
 avrjp u/3/c><rr?yy, Kal /Aetrros o~\,vyci)plas aTrdcnjs icai Opacrvrrfros. 
 Its exact antithesis is o-ctxppwv (Xenophon, Apol. Soc. 19; 
 Ages. x. 2; cf. TrpavOvpos, Prov. xvi. 19). The vfipia-rris is 
 contumelious ; his insolence and contempt of others break 
 forth in acts of wantonness and outrage. Menelaus is 
 vfiptcrTrjs when he would fain withhold the rites of sepul- 
 ture from the dead body of Ajax (Sophocles, Ajax, 1065). 
 So, too, when Hanun, king of Ammon, cut short the gar- 
 ments of king David's ambassadors, and shaved off half 
 their beards, and so sent them back to their master 
 (2 Sam. x.), this was vftpts. St. Paul, when he persecuted 
 the Church, was vftpi<rrr)s (l Tim. i. 13; cf. Acts viii. 3), 
 but himself vfipta-dsis (i Thess. ii. 2) at Philippi (see Acts 
 xvi. 22, 23). Our blessed Lord, prophesying the order of 
 his Passion, declares that the Son of Man vftpiaOijasTai 
 (Luke xviii. 32) ; the whole blasphemous masquerade of 
 royalty, in which it was sought that He should sustain 
 the principal part (Matt, xxvii. 27-30), constituting the 
 fulfilment of this prophecy. ' Pereuntibus addita ludibria * 
 are the words of Tacitus (Annal. xv. 44), describing the 
 martyrdoms of the Christians in Nero's persecution ; they 
 died, he would say, ns6' vftpsas. The same may be said 
 of York, when, in Shakespeare's Hemy VI., the paper 
 crown is set upon his head, in mockery of his kingly pre- 
 tensions, before Margaret and Clifford stab him. In like 
 manner the Spartans are not satisfied with throwing down 
 the Long Walls of Athens, unless they do it to the sound 
 of music (Plutarch, Lys. 15). It is //3/ots, and is desig- 
 nated as such in the Electro, of Euripides, when -ZEgisthus 
 compels Electra to marry a hind on her father's land (257). 
 Prisoners in a Spanish civil war are shot in the back. And 
 indeed all human story is full of examples of this demo- 
 niac element lying deep in the heart of man ; this evil for 
 evil's sake, and evermore begetting itself anew. 
 
 Cruelty and lust are the two main shapes in which
 
 xxx. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 105 
 
 vflpis will display itself; or rather they are not two; for 
 as the hideous records of human wickedness have too often 
 attested, the trial, for example, of Gilles de Retz, Marshal 
 of France, in the fifteenth century, they are not two sins 
 but one ; and Milton, when he wrote, " lust hard by hate," 
 saying much, yet did not say all. Out of a sense that in 
 vfipts both are included, one quite as much as the other, 
 Josephus (Antt. i. 1 1. i) characterizes the men of Sodom as 
 vftpuTTal to men (cf. Gen. xix. 5), no less than acrsftels to 
 God. He uses the same language (/&. v. 10. i) about the 
 sons of Eli (cf. I Sam. ii. 22) ; on each occasion showing 
 that by the vfipis which he ascribed to those and these, 
 he intended an assault on the chastity of others (cf. Eu- 
 ripides, Hipp. 1086) ; Critias (quoted by ./Elian, V. H. x. 
 13) calls Archilochus Xdyvos teal vftpKTTrjs: and Plutarch, 
 comparing Demetrius Poliorcetes and Antony, applies this 
 title to them both (Com. Dem. cum Anton. 3 ; cf. Demet. 
 24 ; Lucian, Dial. Deor. vi. I j and the article "TjSpsajs 
 SIKT) in Pauly's Encyclopddie}. 
 
 The three words, then, are clearly distinguishable, 
 occupying three different provinces of meaning : they pre- 
 sent to us an ascending scale of guilt ; and, as has been 
 observed already, they severally designate the boastful in 
 words, the proud and overbearing in thoughts, the insolent 
 and injurious in acts. 
 
 xxx. avrfypicrTOS, 
 
 THE word avri-^pia-Tos is peculiar to the Epistles of St. 
 John, occurring five times in them (i Ep. ii. 18, bis; ii. 
 22 ; iv. 3 ; 2 Ep. 7), and nowhere else in the N. T. But 
 if he alone has the word, St. Paul, in common with him, 
 designates the person of this great adversary, and the 
 marks by which he shall be recognized ; for all expositors 
 of weight, Grotius alone excepted, are agreed that St. 
 Paul's av6pa)Tros rffs apaprlas, his vibs rrjs aTrcoXeias, his
 
 106 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxx. 
 
 avo/jLos (2 Thess. ii. 3, 8), is identical with St. John's avri- 
 Xpia-Tos (see Augustine, De Civ. Dei, xx. 19. 2) ; and, 
 indeed, to St. Paul we are indebted for our fullest instruc- 
 tion concerning this arch-enemy of Christ and of God. 
 Passing by, as not relevant to our purpose, many discus- 
 sions to which the mysterious announcement of such a 
 coming foe has given rise, whether, for example, the Anti- 
 christ is a single person or a succession of persons, a person 
 or a system, we occupy ourselves here with one question 
 only ; namely, what the force is of avri in this composi- 
 tion. Is it such as to difference avrl-^pia-Tos from tysvSo- 
 Xpicrros ? does avrtxpuTTos imply one who sets himself up 
 against Christ, or, like ^sv^o^piaros, one who sets himself 
 up in the stead of Christ ? Does he proclaim that there is 
 no Christ? or that he is Christ? 
 
 There is no settling this matter off-hand, as some are 
 so ready to do ; seeing that ai/rt, in composition, has both 
 these forces. For a subtle analysis of the mental processes 
 by which it now means ' instead of,' and now ' against,' 
 see Pott, jEtymol. Forschungen, 2nd edit. p. 260. It often 
 expresses substitution; thus, dvTt/3ao-i\sv$, he who is instead 
 of the ting, ' prorex,' ' viceroy ; ' dvOviraros, ' proconsul ; ' 
 dvTibeiTTvos, one who fills the place of an absent guest ; 
 dvrtyvxos, one who lays down his life for others (Josephus, 
 De Mace. 17 ; Ignatius, Eplies. 21) ; dvri\vTpov, the ransom 
 paid instead of a person. But often also it implies opposi- 
 tion, as in dvTi\oyia (' contradiction '), dvriOsa-is^ dvrucsi- 
 IJLEVOS: and, still more to the point, as expressing not merely 
 the fact of opposition, but the very object against which 
 the opposition is directed, in dvTivo/j,ia (see Suicer, Thes. s. 
 v.), opposition to law; dvri^ip^ the thumb, not so called, 
 because equivalent in strength to the whole hand, but as 
 set over against the hand ; dvrL^L\6<ro^os, one of opposite 
 philosophical opinions ; avTiKarcov, the title of a book 
 which Caesar wrote against Cato ; avridsos not indeed in 
 Homer, where, applied to Mygdon (//. iii. 186), to Poly-
 
 xxx. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 107 
 
 pheinus (Od. i. 70), and to the Ithacan suitors (xiv. 18 ; 
 cf. Pindar, Pyth. iii. 88), it means 'godlike,' that is, in 
 strength and power ; but yet, in later use, as in Philo ; 
 with whom dvridsos vovs (De Conf. Ling. 19; De Somn. ii. 
 27) can be only the ( adversa Deo mens ; ' and so in the 
 Christian Fathers; while the jests about an Antipater 
 who sought to murder his father, to the effect that he was 
 fapwvvfios, would be utterly pointless, if dvrl in composi- 
 tion did not bear this meaning. I will not further cite 
 'Avrepcos, where the force of ami is more questionable ; 
 examples already adduced having sufficiently shown that 
 dvrl in composition implies sometimes substitution, some- 
 times opposition. There are words in which it has now 
 this force, and now that, as these words are used by one 
 writer or another. Thus dvTia-Tpdrrjyos is for Thucydides 
 (vii. 86) the commander of the hostile army, while for later 
 Greek writers, such as Plutarch, who occupy themselves 
 with Koinan affairs, it is the standing equivalent for 'pro- 
 prsetor.' All this being so, they have equally erred, who, 
 holding one view of Antichrist or the other, have claimed 
 the name by which in Scripture he is named, as itself 
 deciding the matter in their favour. It does not so ; but 
 leaves the question to be settled by other considerations. 1 
 To me St. John's words seem decisive that resistance to 
 Christ, and defiance of Him, this, and not any treacherous 
 assumption of his character and offices, is the essential 
 mark of the Antichrist ; is that which, therefore, we should 
 expect to find embodied in his name : thus see I John ii. 
 22 ; 2 John 7 ; and in the parallel passage, 2 Thess. ii. 4, 
 he is d dvriKsifjLsvos, or ' the opposer ; ' and in this sense, 
 if not all, yet many of the Fathers have understood the 
 word. Thus Tertullian (De Prcesc. Hear. 4) : ' Qui anti- 
 christi, nisi Christi rebelles ? ' The Antichrist is, in Theo- 
 
 1 Liicke (Comm. iiber die Sriefedes Johannes, pp. 190-194) excellently 
 discusses the word. On the whole subject of Antichrist see Schnecken- 
 burger, Jahrbuchfiir Deutsche Theoloyie, vol. iv. p. 405 sqq.
 
 108 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxx. 
 
 phylact's language, svavrios T> Xpcrr&>, or in Origen's 
 (Con. Cels. vi. 45), X/WO-TW Kara Sidpsrpov svavrios, ' Wider- 
 christ,' as the Germans have rightly rendered it; one who 
 shall not pay so much homage to God's word as to assert 
 its fulfilment in himself, for he shall deny that word 
 altogether; hating even erroneous worship, because it 
 is worship at all, and everything that is called 'God' 
 (2 Thess. ii. 4), but hating most of all the Church's worship 
 in spirit and in truth (Dan. viii. n); who, on the destruc- 
 tion of every religion, every acknowledgment that man is 
 submitted to higher powers than his own, shall seek to 
 establish his throne ; and, for God's great truth that in 
 Christ God is man, to substitute his own lie, that in him 
 man is God. 
 
 The term i/reuSo^io-roy, with which we proceed to com- 
 pare it, appears only twice in the !N". T. ; or, if we count, 
 not how often it has been written, but how often it was 
 spoken, only once ; for the two passages in which it occurs 
 (Matt. xxiv. 24 ; Mark xiii. 22) are records of the same 
 discourse. In form it resembles many others in which 
 tysvSos is combined with almost any other nouns at will. 
 Thus i/reuSa-Troo-ToXos (2 Cor. xi. 13), tyevftdSsX^os (2 Cor. 
 xi. 26), ^lrv8oSi8d(TKd\os (2 Pet. ii. l^^evSoTrpo^T^s^Matt. 
 vii. 15; cf . Jer. xxxiii. 7), ^evBofjidpTvp (Matt. xxvi. 60 ; 
 cf. Plato, Gorg. 472 b). So, too, in ecclesiastical Greek, 
 ^svBoTroif^jv, TfrsvSo\.aTpeia ; and in classical, -^rv8dyj\of 
 (Homer, II. xv. 159), tysvSo/jLavTts (Herodotus, iv. 69), and 
 a hundred more. The tyevSoxpto-Tos does not deny the 
 being of a Christ ; on the contrary, he builds on the world's 
 expectations of such a person ; only he appropriates these 
 to himself, blasphemously affirms that he is the foretold 
 One, in whom God's promises and men's expectations are 
 fulfilled. Thus Barchochab, ' Son of the Star,' as, ap- 
 propriating the prophecy of Num. xxiv. 17, he called 
 himself who, in Hadrian's reign, stirred up again the 
 smouldering embers of Jewish insurrection into a flame so
 
 xxx. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 109 
 
 fierce that it consumed himself with more than a million 
 of his fellow-countrymen, was a -^suSo^picrros : and such 
 have been that long series of blasphemous pretenders and 
 impostors, the false Messiahs, who, since the rejection of 
 the true, have, in almost every age, fed and flattered and 
 betrayed the expectations of the Jews. 
 
 The distinction, then, is plain. The avr^pia-ros denies 
 that there is a Christ ; the ifrsvSoxpiarTos affirms himself to 
 be the Christ. Both alike make war against the Christ 
 of God, and would set themselves, though under different 
 pretences, on the throne of his glory. And yet, while the 
 words have this broad distinction between them, while 
 they represent two different manifestations of the kingdom 
 of wickedness, there is a sense in which the final Anti- 
 christ ' will be a ' Pseudochrist ' as well ; even as it will 
 be the very character of that last revelation of hell to 
 gather up into itself, and to reconcile for one last assault 
 against the truth, all anterior and subordinate forms of 
 error. He will not, it is true, call himself the Christ, for 
 he will be filled with deadliest hate against the name and 
 offices, as against the whole spirit and temper, of Jesus of 
 Nazareth, the exalted King of Glory. But, inasmuch as 
 no one can resist the truth by a mere negation, he must 
 offer and oppose something positive, in the room of that 
 faith which he will assail and endeavour utterly to abolish. 
 And thus we may certainly conclude that the final Anti- 
 christ will reveal himself to the world, for he too will have 
 his aTTOKa\v^is (2 Thess. ii. 3, 8), his irapova-ia (ver. 9), 
 as, in a sense, its Messiah ; not, indeed, as the Messiah 
 of prophecy, the Messiah of God, but still as the world's 
 saviour ; as one who will make the blessedness of as many 
 as obey him, giving to them the full enjoyment of a pre- 
 sent material earth, instead of a distant, shadowy, and 
 uncertain heaven; abolishing those troublesome distinc- 
 tions, now the fruitful sources of so much disquietude, 
 abridging men of so many enjoyments, between the Church
 
 110 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxr. 
 
 and the world, between the spirit and the flesh, between 
 holiness and sin, between good and evil. It will follow, 
 therefore, that however he will not assume the name of 
 Christ, and so will not, in the letter, be a ^evSoxpivTos, 
 yet, usurping to himself Christ's offices, presenting him- 
 self to the world as the true centre of its hopes, as the 
 satisfier of all its needs and healer of all its hurts, he, 
 ' the Eed Christ,' as his servants already call him, will in 
 fact take up and absorb into himself all names and forms 
 of blasphemy, will be the great ^rev^o^pia-ros and dvri- 
 
 xxxi. fj,o\vvw, 
 
 WE have translated both these words, as often as they 
 occur in the N. T. (fj,o\vva>, at I Cor. viii. 7 ; Rev. iii. 4 ; 
 xiv. 4; fjiiaiva), at John xviii. 28 ; Tit. i. 15 ; Heb. xii. 15 ; 
 Jude 8), by a single word 'defile,' which doubtless covers 
 them both. At the same time they differ in the images 
 on which they severally repose ; fjt,o\vvsiv being properly 
 ' to besmear,' or ' besmirch,' as with mud or filth, ' to de- 
 foul ; ' which, indeed, is only another form of 'defile ; ' thus 
 Aristotle (Hist. An. vi. 17. i) speaks of swine, TOO TTT/XW 
 P,O\VVOVTS savTovs, that is, as the context shows, crusting 
 themselves over with mud (cf. Plato, Rep. vii. 535 e; 
 Cant. v. 3 ; Ecclus. xiii. i) : while /jitatvsiv, in its primary 
 usage, is not ' to smear ' as with matter, but ' to stain ' as 
 with colour. The first corresponds to the Latin l inquinare ' 
 (Horace, Sat. i. 8. 37), 'spurcare ' (itself probably connected 
 with ' porcus '), the German ' besudeln ; ' the second to 
 the Latin maculare,' and the German ' beflecken.' 
 
 It will follow, that while in a derived and ethical 
 sense both words have an equally dishonorable signifi- 
 cation, the /io\uo>ios <rapKos (2 Cor. vii. i) being no other 
 than the ^ida-f^ara rov ic6ap,ov (2 Pet. ii. 20), both being 
 also used of the defiling of women (cf. Gen. xxxiv. 5 ; 
 Zech. xiv. 2), this will only hold good so long as they are
 
 xxxii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, in 
 
 figuratively and ethically regarded. So taken indeed, ptai- 
 vsiv is in classical Greek the standing word to express the 
 prof an ing or unhallo wing of aught (Plato, Legg. he. 868 a; 
 Tim. 69 d; Sophocles, Antig. 1031; cf. Lev. v. 3; John 
 xviii. 28). In a literal sense, on the contrary, piaivsiv 
 may be used in good part, just as, in English, we speak of 
 the staining of glass, the staining of ivory (II. iv. 141 ; cf. 
 Virgil, JEn. xii. 67) ; or as, in Latin, the ' macula ' need 
 not of necessity be also a * labes ; ' nor yet in English the 
 f spot ' be always a ' blot.' Mo\vv siv, on the other hand, 
 as little admits of such nobler employment in a literal as 
 in a figurative sense. The verb <nn\ovv, a late word, and 
 found only twice in the N. T. (Jam. iii. 6; Jude 23), is 
 in meaning nearer to piaivziv. On it see Lobeck, Phryni- 
 clius, p. 28. 
 
 xxxii. TraiBeia, vovOzcria. 
 
 IT is worth while to attempt a discrimination between 
 these words, occurring as they do together at Ephes. vd. 4, 
 and being often there either not distinguished at all, or 
 distinguished erroneously. 
 
 YlatSsia is one among the many words, into which re- 
 vealed religion has put a deeper meaning than it knew of, 
 till this took possession of it ; the new wine by a wondrous 
 process making new even the old vessel into which it was 
 poured. For the Greek, TraiSsla was simply ' education ; ' 
 nor, in all the many definitions of it which Plato gives, is 
 there the slightest prophetic anticipation of the new force 
 which it one day should obtain. But the deeper appre- 
 hension of those who had learned that " foolishness is 
 bound in the heart " alike " of a child " and of a man, 
 while yet " the rod of correction may drive it far from 
 him" (Prov. xxii. 15), led them, in assuming the word, to 
 bring into it a further thought. They felt and under- 
 stood that all effectual instruction for the sinful children 
 of men, includes and implies chastening, or, as we are
 
 112 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxn. 
 
 accustomed to say, out of a sense of the same truth, ( cor- 
 rection.' There must be sTravopdwa-ts, or ' rectification ' in 
 it ; which last word, occurring but once in the N. T., is there 
 found in closest connexion with TraiSsla (2 Tim. iii. I6). 1 
 
 Two definitions of TraiSsia the one by a distinguished 
 heathen philosopher, the other by an illustrious Christian 
 theologian, may be profitably compared. This is Plato's 
 (Legg. ii. 659 d) : vraiSsla psv sad' 77 irai^wv 6\/ci] rs Kal 
 dycoyr) irpos rov VTTO rov vopov \6<yov opQov slprj^vov. And 
 this is that of Basil the Great (InProv. l) : ecmv fj ira&sia 
 dywytf ris a>fys\ip,os rfj ^v^fj, sTrnrovws TroXXa/as rwv avro 
 Kd/cias Krj\lBa)v avTrjv sKtcadatpovcra. For as many as felt and 
 acknowledged all which St. Basil here asserts, TraiSsta sig- 
 nified, not simply ' eruditio,' but, as Augustine expresses it, 
 who has noticed the changed use of the word (Enarr. in 
 Ps. cxviii. 66), 'per molestias eruditio.' And this is quite 
 the predominant use of TraiSsia and TTCU&SVSIV in the Sep- 
 tuagint, in the Apocrypha, and in the N. T. (Lev. xxvi. 1 8 ; 
 Ps. vi. I ; Isai. liii. 5 ; Ecclus. iv. I/; xxii. 6, ^dart^ss Kal 
 frai&sla : 2 Mace. vi. 12 ; Luke xxiii. 16 ; Heb. xii. 5, 7, 8 ; 
 Eev. iii. 19, and often). The only occasion in the N. T. 
 upon which iraiSsvsiv occurs in the old Greek sense is Acts 
 vii. 22. Instead of ' nurture ' at Ephes. vi. 4, which is 
 too weak a word, ' discipline ' might be substituted with 
 advantage the laws and ordinances of the Christian 
 household, the transgression of which will induce correc- 
 tion, being indicated by TraiSsia there. 
 
 Nou^so-f'a (in Attic Greek vovOsriaor vovderrjcns, Lobeck, 
 Phrynichus, pp. 513, 520) is more successfully rendered, 
 ' admonition ; ' which, however, as we must not forget, 
 has been defined by Cicero thus : * Admonitio est quasi 
 
 1 The Greek, indeed, acknowledged, to a certain extent, the same, in 
 his secondary use of aKoXaoror, which, in its primary, meant simply ' the 
 imchastised.' Menander too has this confession : 
 6 
 
 (Meineke, Fragm. Com. Gr. p. 1055). 
 
 And in other uses of naifaveiv in profane Greek there are slight Linta of 
 the same : thus see Xenophon, Mem. i. 3. 5 ; Polybius, Hist. ii. 9. 6.
 
 xxxn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 113 
 
 lenior objurgatio.' And such is vovOscria here ; it is the 
 training by word by the word of encouragement, when 
 this is sufficient, but also by that of remonstrance, of 
 reproof, of blame, where these may be required; as set 
 oier against the training by act and by discipline, which 
 is iraiSsia. Bengel, who so seldom misses, has yet missed 
 the exact distinction here, having on sv TraiSsia ical vovdsaia 
 this note : ' Harum altera occurrit ruditati ; altera oblivion i 
 et levitati. Utraque et sermonem et reliquam disciplinam 
 includit.' That the distinctive feature of vov0s<ria is the 
 training by word of mouth is evidenced by such combi- 
 nations as these : vrapaivea-sis KOI vov6 serial (Plutarch, De, 
 Coh. Ira, 2) ; vovdsriKol \6yoi (Xenophon, Mem. i. 2. 21); 
 SiSa^r) fcal vovdsrrjcns (Plato, Rep. iii. 399 6) ; vovdsrelv KCU 
 SiSda-icsiv (Protag. 323 d). 
 
 Eelatively, then, and by comparison with TratSsia, vov- 
 Oea-ia is the milder term ; while yet its association with 
 TratSet'a teaches us that this too is a most needful element 
 of Christian education ; that the ircu&eta without it would 
 be very incomplete ; even as, when years advance, and 
 there is no longer a child, but a young man, to deal with, 
 it must give place to, or rather be swallowed up in, the 
 vovdsa-ta altogether. And yet the vovdsa-La itself, where 
 need is, will be earnest and severe enough; it is much 
 more than a feeble Eli-remonstrance : " Nay, my sons, for 
 it is no good report that I hear" (i Sam. ii. 24) ; indeed, 
 of Eli it is expressly recorded, in respect of those sons, 
 OVK svovOsrei, avrovs (iii. 13). Plutarch unites it with 
 fjis/ji^ns (Conj. Prcec. 1 3) ; with tyoyos (De Virt. Mor. 12; De 
 Adul. et Am. 17) ; Philo with a-axppovia-^os (Lo'sner, Obss. 
 ad N. T. e Philone, p. 427) ; while vovOsrsiv had continually, 
 if not always, the sense of admonishing with blame (Plu- 
 tarch, De Prof. Virt. ii; Conj. Prcec. 22). Jerome, then, 
 has only partial right, when he desires to get rid, at Ephes. 
 vi. 4, and again at Tit. iii. 10, of correptio ' (still retained 
 by the Vulgate), on the ground that in vovdsvia no rebuke 
 
 I
 
 114 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxm. 
 
 or austerity is implied, as in correptio ' there certainly is : 
 ' Quam correptionem nos legimus, melius in Grseco dicitur 
 vovdso-ta, quse admonitionem magis et eruditionem quam 
 austeritatem sonat/ Undoubtedly, in vovdsvia such is not 
 of necessity involved, and therefore ' correptio ' is not its 
 happiest rendering ; but it does not exclude, nay implies 
 this, whenever it may be required : the derivation, from 
 vovs and Ti6r}fj.i, affirms as much : whatever is needed to 
 cause the monition to be taken home, to be laid to heart, 
 is involved in the word. 
 
 In claiming for it, as discriminated from ira&sia, that 
 it is predominantly what our Translators understand it, 
 namely, admonition by word, none would deny that both 
 it and vovOsrsiv are employed to express correction by 
 deed; only we affirm that the other the appeal to the 
 reasonable faculties is the primary and prevailing use of 
 both. It will follow that in such phrases as these, pdfiSov 
 vovOerrja-is (Plato, Legg. iii. 700 c), 7r\rjyais vovdsrslv (Lecjg. 
 ix. 879 d; cf. Rep. viii. 560 a), the words are employed in 
 a secondary and improper, but therefore more emphatic, 
 sense. The same emphasis lies in the statement that 
 Gideon " took thorns of the wilderness and briers, and 
 with them he taught the men of Succoth " (Judg. viii. 16). 
 No one on the strength of this language would assert that 
 the verb ' to teach ' had not for its primary meaning the 
 oral communicating of knowledge. On the relations be- 
 tween vovdsTtlv and StSdvKsw see Bishop Lightfoot, on 
 Col. i. 28. 
 
 xxxiii. a<j>(Tis, -jrapsats. 
 
 v A.<f>s<ris is the standing word by which forgiveness, or 
 remission of sins, is expressed in the N. T. (see Vitringa, 
 Obss. Sac. vol. i. pp. 909-933) ; though, remarkably 
 enough, the LXX. knows nothing of this use of the word, 
 Gen. iv. 1 3 being the nearest approach to it. Derived from 
 d<f)ivai, the image which underlies it is that of a releasing, 
 as of a prisoner (Isai. Ixi. i), or letting go, as of a debt
 
 xxxm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 115 
 
 (Deut. xv. 3). Probably the year of jubilee, called con- 
 stantly Iroy, or huivros, rr}s d(psa-(os, or simply a(f><ris (Lev. 
 xxv. 31, 40; xxvii. 24), the year in which all debts were 
 forgiven, suggested the higher application of the word, 
 which is frequent in the N. T., though more frequent in 
 St. Luke than in all the other books of the New Covenant 
 put together. On a single occasion, however, the term 
 Trdpsa-ts rwv a^aprrjfidrmv occurs (Rom. iii. 25). Our Trans- 
 lators have noticed in the margin, but have not marked 
 in their Version, the variation in the Apostle's phrase, 
 rendering Trdpso-is here by 'remission,' as they have ren- 
 dered a(f)cris elsewhere ; and many have since justified 
 them in this ; whilst others, as I cannot doubt, more 
 rightly affirm that St. Paul of intention changed his word, 
 wishing to say something which Trdpscns would express 
 adequately and accurately, and which a<e<rts would not ; 
 and that our Translators should have reproduced this 
 change which he has made. 
 
 It is familiar to many, that Cocceius and those of his 
 school found in this text one main support for a favourite 
 doctrine of theirs, namely, that there was no remission of 
 sins, in the fullest sense of these words, under the Old 
 Covenant, no rsKeiwa-is (Heb. x. 1-4), no entire abolition 
 of sin even for the faithful themselves, but only a present 
 prcetermission (frdpsa-Ls) , a temporary dissimulation, upon 
 God's part, in consideration of the sacrifice which was 
 one day to be ; the dvdp,vt]cns rwv dpapricav remaining the 
 meanwhile. On this matter a violent controversy raged 
 among the theologians of Holland towards the end of the 
 sixteenth and beginning of the following century, which 
 was carried on with strange acrimony; and for a brief 
 history of which see Deyling, Obss. Sac. vol. v. p. 209 ; 
 Vitringa, Obss. Sac. vol. iv. p. 3 ; Venema, Diss. Sac. p. 72 ; 
 while a full statement of what Cocceius did mean, and 
 in his own words, may be found in his Commentary on the 
 Romans , in loc. (Opp. vol. v. p. 62) ; and the same more 
 
 i 2
 
 Il6 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxm. 
 
 at length defended and justified in his treatise, Utilitas 
 Distinctionis duorum Vocabulorum Scriptures, napea-sms et 
 d(j)sa-sws (vol. ix. p. 121, sq.). Those who at that time 
 opposed the Cocceian scheme denied that there was any 
 distinction between asserts and irdpscris ; thus see Wit- 
 sius, (Econ. Feed. Dei, iv. 12. 36. But in this they erred ; 
 for while Cocceius and his followers were undoubtedly 
 wrong, in saying that for the faithful, so long as the 
 Old Covenant subsisted, there was only a m-apseis, and 
 no afaa-is a/j,apTr)fjLaTo>v, in applying to them what was 
 asserted by the Apostle in respect of the world ; they were 
 right in maintaining that Trdpscris was not entirely equi- 
 valent to a(f)<ris. Beza, indeed, had already drawn atten- 
 tion to the distinction. Having in his Latin Version, as 
 first published in 1556, taken no notice of it, he acknow- 
 ledges at a later period his omission, saying, Hsec duo 
 plurimum inter se differunt ; ' and now rendering irdpsais 
 by ' dissimulatio.' 
 
 In the first place, the words themselves suggest a 
 difference of meaning. If a<j>s<ri,s is remission, ' Loslas- 
 sung,' irdpscns, from irapi^^i, will be naturally ' prceter- 
 mission,' ( Yorbeilassung,' the Trdpsa-is d^apTrj^drwv, the 
 pretermission or passing by of sins for the present, leaving 
 it open in the future either entirely to remit, or else 
 adequately to punish them, as may seem good to Him 
 who has the power and right to do the one or the other. 
 Fritzsche is not always to my mind, but here he speaks 
 out plainly and to the point (Ad Rom. vol. i. p. 199) : 
 * Conveniunt in hoc [afaais et Trdpsa-is] quod sive ilia, sive 
 hsec tibi obtigerit, nulla peccatorum tuorum ratio habetur ; 
 discrepant eo, quod, hac data, facinorum tuorum poenas 
 nunquam pendes ; ilia concessa, non diutius nullas pec- 
 catorum tuorum poenas lues, quam ei in iis connivere pla- 
 cuerit, cui in delicta tua animadvertendi jus sit.' And 
 the classical usage both of irapisvai and of Trdps&is bears 
 out this distinction. Thus Xenophon (Hipp. 7. 10) :
 
 xxxm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 117 
 
 ov %prj Traptsvat, o.KO\aa'ra : while of Herod 
 Josephus tells us, that being desirous to punish a certain 
 offence, yet for other considerations he passed it by (Antt. 
 xv. 3.2): TraprJKS rrjv apapTiav. When the Son of Sirach 
 (Ecclus. xxiii. 2) prays that God would not "pass by" his 
 sins, he assuredly does not use ov f^rj Trapfj as =ov pr; d<f>f), 
 but only asks that he may not be without a wholesome 
 chastisement following close on his transgressions. On the 
 other side, and in proof that irdpsa-is = asserts, the following 
 passage from Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Antt. Rom. vii. 
 37), is adduced : rrjv pev 6\oa-^sprj Trdpscrtv ov% svpovTO, rrjv 
 Se sis xpovov ocrov TI^IOVV dva/3o\r)V e\aftov. Not Trdpscrts, 
 however, here, but oXoa-^sprjs Trdpsa-is, is equal to afacris, 
 and no doubt the historian added that epithet, feeling that 
 Trdpsa-ts would have insufficiently expressed his meaning 
 without it. 
 
 Having seen, then, that there is a strong primd facie 
 probability that St. Paul intends something different by 
 the Trdpsa-is a^apT^fidrwv., in the only place where he 
 employs this phrase, from that which he intends in the 
 many where he employs afao-is, that passage itself, namely 
 Rom. iii. 25, may now be considered more closely. It 
 appears in our Version : " Whom God hath set forth to 
 be a propitiation through faith in his blood, to declare 
 his righteousness for the remission of sins that are past, 
 through the forbearance of God." I would venture to 
 render it thus : ' Whom God hath set forth as a propitia- 
 tion, through faith in his blood, for a manifestation of 
 his righteousness because of the pretermission [8ia TTJV 
 Trdpsa-iv, not Sta TTJS Trapecrews], in the forbearance of God, 
 of the sins done aforetime ; ' and his exact meaning I take 
 to be this ' There needed a signal manifestation or display 
 of the righteousness of God, on account of the long praeter- 
 inission or passing over of sins, in his infinite forbearance, 
 with no adequate expression of his wrath against them, 
 during all those long ages which preceded the coming of
 
 Il8 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxm. 
 
 Christ ; which manifestation of God's righteousness found 
 place, when He set forth no other and no less than his 
 own Son to be the propitiatory sacrifice for sin ' (Heb. ix. 
 15, 22). During long ages God's extreme indignation 
 against sin and sinners had not been pronounced ; during 
 all the time, that is, which preceded the Incarnation. Of 
 course, this connivance of God, this his holding of his 
 peace, was only partial ; for St. Paul has himself just 
 before declared that the wrath of God was revealed from 
 heaven against all unrighteousness of men (Rom. i. 18) ; 
 and has traced in a few fearful lines some ways in which 
 this revelation of his wrath displayed itself (i. 24-32). 
 Yet for all this, it was the time during which He suffered 
 the nations to walk in their own ways (Acts xiv. 16) ; they 
 were " the times of ignorance " which " God winked at " 
 (Acts xvii. 30), in other words, times of the avo^rj rov 
 OeoO, this avo^rf being the correlative of irdpsa-is, as %apts 
 is of a<f><ris : so that the finding avo^rf here is a strong 
 confirmation of that view of the word which has been just 
 maintained. 
 
 But this position in regard of sin could, in the very 
 nature of things, be only transient and provisional. With 
 a man, the praetermission of offences, or ' prseterition,' as 
 Hammond would render it (deducing the word, but 
 wrongly, from Trapet/u, 'prsetereo '), will often be identical 
 with the remission, the Trdpsa-is will be one with the afaais. 
 Man forgets ; he has not power to bring the long past into 
 judgment, even if he would ; or he has not righteous energy 
 enough to undertake it. But with an absolutely righteous 
 God, the Trdpscris can only be temporary, and must always 
 find place with a looking on to a final settlement ; for- 
 bearance is no acquittance ; every sin must at last either 
 be absolutely forgiven, or adequately avenged ; for, as the 
 Russian proverb tells us, ' God has no bad debts.' But in 
 the meanwhile, so long as these are still uncollected, the 
 itself might seem to call in question the absolute
 
 xxxin. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 119 
 
 righteousness of Him who was thus content to pass by and 
 to connive. God held his peace, and it was only too near 
 to the evil thought of men to think wickedly that He was 
 such a one as themselves, morally indifferent to good and 
 to evil. That such with too many was the consequence of 
 the avo^r) rov sov, the Psalmist himself declares (Ps. 1. 
 21 ; cf. Job xxii. 13 ; Mai. ii. 17 ; Ps.lxxiii. ll). But now 
 (sv Tc3 vvv Kaipa>) God, by the sacrifice of his Son, had 
 rendered such a perverse misreading of his purpose in the 
 past dissimulation of sin for ever impossible. Bengel : 
 * Objectum prsetermissionis [Trap^aecas], peccata; tolerantise 
 [avojtft], peccatores, contra quos non est persecutus Deus 
 jus suum. Et hsec et ilia quarndiu f uit, non ita apparuit 
 justitia Dei: non enim tarn vehementer visus est irasci 
 peccato, sed peccatorem sibi relinquere, dfj,s\,iv, negligere, 
 Heb. viii. 9. At in sanguine Christi et morte propitiatoria 
 ostensa est Dei justitia, cum vindicta adversus peccatum 
 ipsum, ut esset ipse Justus, et cum zelo pro peccatoris 
 liberatione, ut esset ipse justificans.' Compare Hammond 
 (in loc.}, who has seized with accuracy and precision the 
 true distinction between the words ; and Godet, Comm. 
 sur VEpitre aux Rom. iii. 25, 26, who deals admirably with 
 the whole passage. 
 
 He, then, that is partaker of the asserts, has his sins 
 forgiven, so that, unless he bring them back upon himself 
 by new and further disobedience (Matt, xviii. 32, 34; 
 2 Pet. i. 9; ii. 20), they shall not be imputed to him, or 
 mentioned against him any more. The Trdpsais, differing 
 from this, is a benefit, but a very subordinate one ; it is 
 the present passing by of sin, the suspension of its punish- 
 ment, the not shutting up of all ways of mercy against the 
 sinner, the giving to him of space and helps for repentance, 
 as it is said at Wisd. xi. 23 : Trapopas df^apr^j^aTa dvdpwTrwv 
 sis jjLsrdvotav : cf. Rom. ii. 3-6. If such repentance follow, 
 then the Trdpso-is will lose itself in the afaaif, but if not, 
 then the punishment, suspended, but not averted, in due 
 time will arrive (Luke xiii. 9).
 
 120 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxiv. 
 
 ALL these designate sins of the tongue, but with a 
 difference. 
 
 Mo)po\ojta, employed by Aristotle (Hist. Anim. i. n), 
 but of rare use till the later Greek, is rendered well in the 
 Vulgate, on the one occasion of its occurrence (Ephes. v. 4), 
 by ' stultiloquium,' a word which Plautus may have coined 
 (Mil. Glor. ii. 3. 25) ; although one which did not find more 
 favour and currency in the after language of Some, than did 
 the ' stultiloquy ' which Jeremy Taylor sought to introduce 
 among ourselves. Not merely the TTOLV prj[j,a dp<yov of our 
 Lord (Matt. xii. 36), but in good part also the TTCLS \o<yos 
 acnrpos of his Apostle (Ephes. iv. 29), will be included in 
 it ; discourse, as everything else in the Christian, needing 
 to be seasoned with the salt of grace, and being in danger 
 of growing first insipid, and then corrupt, without it. Those 
 who stop short with the dpya prf/tara, as though fiwpoXoyLa 
 reached no further, fail to exhaust the fulness of its mean- 
 ing. Thus Calvin too weakly : ' Sermones inepti ac inanes, 
 nulliusque frugis ; ' and even Jeremy Taylor (On the Good 
 and Evil Tongue, Serin, xxxii. pt. 2) fails to reproduce the 
 full force of the word. ' That,' he says, ' which is here 
 meant by stultiloquy or foolish speaking is the " lubricum 
 verbi," as St. Ambrose calls it, the " slipping with the 
 tongue" which prating people often suffer, whose dis- 
 courses betray the vanity of their spirit, and discover 
 "the hidden man of the heart."' In heathen writings 
 /jLtopoXoyla may very well pass as equivalent to dSoXscr^ia, 
 ' random talk,' and pcapoXoysiv to \ypsiv (Plutarch, De Garr. 
 4) ; but words obtain a new earnestness when assumed 
 into the ethical terminology of Christ's school. Nor, in 
 seeking to enter fully into the meaning of this one, ought 
 we to leave out of sight the greater emphasis which the 
 words 'fool,' 'foolish,' 'folly,' obtain in Scripture, than
 
 xxxiv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 121 
 
 elsewhere they have, or can have. There is the positive 
 of folly as well as the negative to be taken account of, 
 when we are weighing the force of /j,copo\oyia : it is that 
 * talk of fools,' which is foolishness and sin together. 
 
 At 0-^/30X07 ta, which also is of solitary use in the N". T, 
 (Col. iii. 8), must not be confounded with ala-^por'rjf 
 (Ephes. v. 4). By it the Greek Fathers (see Suicer, Thes. 
 s. v.), whom most expositors follow, have understood ob- 
 scene discourse, ' turpiloquium,' ' filthy communication ' 
 (E.V.), such as ministers to wantonness, o-^ij^a Tropvelat, 
 as Chrysostom explains it. Clement of Alexandria, in a 
 chapter of his Pcedagogus, Trspl ala-^poko^ias (ii. 6), recog- 
 nizes no other meaning but this. Now, beyond a doubt, 
 alo"xpo\oyLa has sometimes this sense predominantly, or 
 even exclusively (Xenophon, De Rep. Lac. v. 6 ; Aristotle, 
 Pol. vii. 1 5 ; Epictetus, Man. xxxiii. 1 6 ; see, too, Becker, 
 ChariJdes, ist ed. vol. ii. p. 264). But more often it in- 
 dicates all foul-mouthed abusiveness of every kind, not 
 excluding this, one of the most obvious kinds, readiest to 
 hand, and most offensive, but including, as in the well- 
 known phrase, ala-^po\oyla !</>' ispols, other kinds as well. 
 Thus, too, Polybius (viii. 13. 8; xii. 13. 3 ; xxxi. 10. 4) : 
 alfr^poXojia ical \oiSopta Kara rov fiacrikews : while the 
 author of a treatise which passes under Plutarch's name 
 (De Lib. Ed. 14), denouncing all ata-^po\ojia as unbecom- 
 ing to youth ingenuously brought up, includes therein 
 every license of the ungoverned tongue employing itself 
 in the abuse of others, all the wicked condiments of saucy 
 speech (r}8v(Tf^ara Trovrjpa rrjs Trappfjcrias) ; nor can I doubt 
 that St. Paul intends to forbid the same, the context and 
 company in which the word is used by him going far to 
 prove as much ; seeing that all other sins against which 
 he is here warning are outbreaks of a loveless spirit toward 
 our neighbour. 
 
 EuT/mTTfXta, a finely selected word of the world's use, 
 which, however, St. Paul uses not in the world's sense,
 
 122 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxiv. 
 
 like its synonyms, occurs only once in the N. T. (Ephes. 
 v. 4). Derived from sv and rpsTrsa-dai (evrpaTrshoi, olov 
 svrpoTToi, Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. iv. 8. 3 ; cf. Pott, Etym. 
 Forsch. vol. v. p. 136), that which easily turns, and in this 
 way adapts, itself to the shifting circumstances of the 
 hour, to the moods and conditions of those with whom at 
 the instant it may deal ; * it had very slightly and rarely, 
 in classical use, that evil signification which, as used by 
 St. Paul and the Greek Fathers, is the only one which it 
 knows. That St. Paul could be himself svrpaTrsXos in 
 the better sense of the word, he has given illustrious 
 proof (Acts xxvi. 29). Thucydides, in that panegyi'ic of 
 the Athenians which he puts into the mouth of Pericles, 
 employs svrpairsXws (ii. 41) as= SVKIVIJTWS, to characterize 
 the ' versatile ingenium ' of his countrymen j while Plato 
 (Rep. viii. 563 a) joins svrpaTrsXla with ^apisvna-fjLos, as 
 does also Plutarch (De Adul. et Am. 7) ; Isocrates (Or. xv. 
 316) with <f>i\o\oyia ; Philo (Leg. ad Cai. 45) with %/?ts. 
 For Aristotle, also, the evrpdirskos or ETn&si-ios (Ethic. Nic. 
 ii. 7. 13; iv. 8. 5 ; compare Brandis, Aristoteles, p. 1415) 
 is one who keeps the happy mean between the /3cofjio\6^os 
 and the aypios, dypoi/cos, or cncXypos. He is no mere 
 7\a>T07rot6s or buffoon ; but, in whatever pleasantry or 
 banter he may allow himself, still -^apisis or refined, always 
 restraining himself within the limits of becoming mirth 
 (sppskws Traifav), never ceasing to be the gentleman. Thus 
 P. Volumnius, the friend or acquaintance of Cicero and of 
 Atticus, bore the name ' Eutrapelus/ on the score of his 
 festive wit and talent of society : though certainly there is 
 nothing particularly pleasant in the story which Horace 
 (Epp.i. 18. 31-36) tells about him. 
 
 1 Chrysostom, who, like most great teachers, often turns etymology 
 into the materials of exhortation, does not fail to do so here. To other 
 reasons why Christians should renounce evrpcm-fXia he adds this (Horn, 
 17 in Ephes.)'. "Opa KOI atro Tovvofj.a ' (irrpairtKoy Ac'yrrai 6 TroiKiXo*, 
 6 ira.VTo8a.Trbs, 6 acrraroy, 6 djKciXos, 6 navra yivopfvos ' TOVTO 8f iroppat ra>v 
 rfj Ilcrpa SovXeuowft)!'. Ta^e'wf rptirfTat o TOIOVTOS /cat
 
 xxxiv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 123 
 
 With all this there were not wanting, even in classical 
 usage, anticipations of that more unfavourable signification 
 which St. Paul should stamp upon the word, though they 
 appear most plainly in the adjective svTpaTrsXos : thus, see 
 Isocrates, Orat. vii. 49; and Pindar, Pyth. i. 92 (Diss., 
 178 Heyn.) ; iv. 104 (Diss., 186 Heyn.) ; where Jason, the 
 model of a noble-hearted gentleman, affirms that during 
 twenty years of fellowship in toil he has never spoken to 
 his companions siros evrpaTrshov, ' verbum fucatum, fallax, 
 simulatum : ' Dissen on this last passage traces well the 
 downward progress of svrpaTT\os : ' Primum est de facili- 
 tate in motu, turn ad mores transfertur, et indicat 
 hominem temporibus inservientem, diciturque turn de 
 sermon e urbano, lepido, faceto, imprimis cum levitatis et 
 assentationis, simulationis notatione.' EurpaTrsXt'a, thus 
 gradually sinking from a better meaning to a worse, 
 has a history closely resembling that of ' urbanitas ' 
 (Quintilian, vi. 3. 17) ; which is its happiest Latin equi- 
 valent, and that by which Erasmus has rendered it, 
 herein improving much on the 'jocularitas' of Jerome, still 
 more on the ' scurrilitas ' of the Vulgate, which last is 
 wholly wide of the mark. That ' urbanitas ' is the proper 
 word, this quotation from Cicero attests (Pro Ccel. 3) : 
 ' Contumelia, si petulantius jactatur, convicium ; si f ace- 
 tius, urbanitas nominatur ; ' which agrees with the striking 
 phrase of Aristotle, that svTpcnrsXia isvfipts TrsTraiSsvpswr): 
 1 chastened insolence * is Sir Alexander Grant's happy 
 rendering (Rhet. ii. 12; cf. Plutarch, Gic. 50). Already in 
 Cicero's time (De Fin. ii. 31) 'urbanitas' was beginning 
 to obtain that questionable significance which, in the usage 
 of Tacitus (Hist. ii. 88) and Seneca (De Ira, i. 28), it far 
 more distinctly acquired. The history, in our own lan- 
 guage, of ' facetious ' and ' facetiousness ' would supply a 
 not uninstructive parallel. 
 
 But the fineness of the form in which evil might a,rray 
 itself could not make a Paul more tolerant of the evil it-
 
 124 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxiv. 
 
 self; he did not count that sin, by losing all its coarse- 
 ness, lost half, or any part of, its malignity. So far from 
 this, in the finer banter of the world, its ' persiflage,' its 
 ' badinage,' there is that which would attract many, who 
 would be in no danger of lending their tongue to speak, 
 or their ear to hear, foul-mouthed and filthy abuse ; whom 
 scurrile buffoonery would only revolt and repel. A far 
 subtler sin is noted in this word than in those which went 
 before, as Bengel puts it well : ' Hsec subtilior quam 
 turpitudo aut stultiloquium ; nam ingenio nititur ; ' %apts- 
 adapts, as Chrysostom has happily called it ; and Jerome : 
 * De prudenti mente descendit, et consulto appetit qusedam 
 vel urbana verba, vel rustica, vel turpia, vel faceta/ I 
 should only object, in this last citation, to the ' turpia,' 
 which belong rather to the other forms in which men 
 offend with the tongue than to this. The vrpd7rs\.os 
 always, according to Chrysostom, aa-rsia \s<yei : keeps ever 
 in mind what Cicero has said (De Orat. ii. 58) : ' Hsec ri- 
 dentur vel maxime, quse notant et designant turpitudinem 
 aliquam non turpiter.' What he deals in are %dptTss, 
 although, in the striking language of the Son of Sirach, 
 Xdpires fjiwpwv (Ecclus. xx. 13). Polish, refinement, know- 
 ledge of the world, presence of mind, wit, must all be his ; 
 these, it is true, enlisted in the service of sin, and not 
 in that of the truth. The profligate old man in the 
 Miles Gloriosus of Plautus (iii. I. 42-52), who prides him- 
 self, and not without reason, on his festive wit, his 
 elegance, and refinement (' cavillator f acetus,' ' conviva 
 commodus '), is exactly the svrpaTrsXof : and, keeping in 
 mind that svrpaTrsXia, being only once expressly and by 
 name forbidden in Scripture, is forbidden to Ephesians, it 
 is not a little noticeable to find him urging that all this 
 was to be expected from him, being as he was an Ephesian 
 by birth : 
 
 ' Post Ephesi sum natus ; non enim in Api lis, non Animulse I '
 
 xxxv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 125 
 
 See on this word's history, and on the changes through 
 which it has passed, an interesting and instructive article 
 by Matthew Arnold in the Comhill Magazine, May, 1 879. 
 While then by all these words are indicated sins of the 
 tongue, it is yet with this difference, that in fjuapdhoyia 
 the foolishness, in ala%po\o<yia the foulness, in svrpatrs^ia 
 the false refinement, of discourse not seasoned with the 
 salt of grace, are severally noted and condemned. 
 
 xxxv. \aTpsvo), \siTOVpjsa). 
 
 IN both these words the notion of service lies, but of 
 service under certain special limitations in the second, as 
 compared with the first. Aarpevsiv, allied to \drpis, ' a 
 hired servant,' \drpov, ' hire, 5 and perhaps to \sla, \t)is 
 (so Curtius), is, properly, ' to serve for hire,' and therefore 
 not of compulsion, as does a slave, though the line of 
 separation between \drpis and Sov\o$ is by no means 
 always observed. Already in classical Greek both it and 
 \arpsia are occasionally transferred from the service of 
 men to the service of the higher powers ; as by Plato, 
 Apol. 23 c : rj ToO sov \arpsia : cf . Phcedr. 244 e ; and 
 Euripides, Troad. 450, where Cassandra is rj 'A.7r6\\a)vos 
 \drpis : and a meaning, which in Scripture is the only one, 
 is anticipated in part. In the Septuagint, \arpevstv never 
 expresses any other service but either that of the true 
 God, or of the false gods of heathenism ; for Deut. xxviii. 
 48, a seeming exception, is not such in fact ; and Augus- 
 tine has perfect right when he says (De Civ. Dei, x. I, 2) : 
 ' Aarpsla secundum consuetudinem qu locuti sunt qui 
 nobis divina eloquia condiderunt, aut semper, aut tarn 
 frequenter ut psene semper, ea dicitur servitus quse pertinet 
 ad colendum Deum; ' and again (con. Faust, xx. 21) : 'Cultus 
 qui grsece latria dicitur, latine uno verbo dici non potest, 
 cum sit qusedam proprie divinitati debita servitus/ 
 
 boasts a somewhat nobler beginning j from
 
 126 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxv. 
 
 \siros ( =^rjii6crios\ and spyov: and thus sis TO 
 spyd&o-Oai,, to serve the State in a public office or function. 
 Like \arpviv,it was occasionally transferred to the highest 
 ministry of all, the ministry to the gods (Diodorus Siculus, 
 i. 21). When the Christian Church was forming its ter- 
 minology, which it did partly by shaping new words, but 
 partly by elevating old ones to higher than their previous 
 uses, of the latter kind it more readily adopted those be- 
 fore employed in civil and political life, than such as had 
 already played their part in religious matters ; and this, 
 even when it was seeking for the adequate expression of 
 religious truth. The same motives were here at work which 
 induced the Church more willingly to turn basilicas, 
 buildings, that is, which had been used in civil life, than 
 temples, into churches ; namely, because they were less 
 haunted with the clinging associations of heathenism. Of 
 the fact itself we have a notable example in the words 
 \siTovpyos, \siTovpyia, \strovpystv, and in the prominent 
 place in ecclesiastical language which they assumed. At 
 the same time the way for their adoption into a higher use 
 had been prepared by the Septuagint, in which \eirovpyslv 
 ( = n^) is the constant word for the performing of priestly 
 or ministerial functions (Exod. xxviii. 39 ; Ezek. xl. 46) ; 
 and by Philo (De Prof. 17). Neither in the Septuagint, 
 however, nor yet by the Christian writers who followed, 
 were the words of this group so entirely alienated from 
 their primary uses as \arpsia and \arpsvstv had been; 
 being still occasionally used for the ministry unto men 
 (2 Sam. xiii. 18 ; I Kin. x. 5 ; 2 Kin. iv. 43 ; Rom. xv. 27; 
 Phil. ii. 25, 30). 
 
 From the distinction already existing between the 
 words, before the Church had anything to do with them, 
 namely, that \arpsvst,v was ' to serve/ \sirovpysiv, 'to serve 
 in an office and ministry,' are to be explained the different 
 uses to which they are severally turned in the N. T., as 
 previously in the Septuagint. To serve God is the duty of
 
 xxxv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 127 
 
 all men ; \arpsveiv, therefore, and \arpeia, are demanded 
 of the whole people (Exod. iv. 23 ; Deut. x. 12 ; Josh. xxiv. 
 31 ; Matt. iv. 10; Luke i. 74; Acts vii. /; Eom. ix. 4; 
 Heb. xii. 28) ; but to serve Him in special offices and 
 ministries can be the duty and privilege only of some, who 
 are specially set apart to the same ; and thus in the 0. T. 
 the \siTovpysiv and the Xfirou/ryia are ascribed only to the 
 priests and Levites who were separated to minister in holy 
 things ; they only are \sirovpyot (Num. iv. 24 ; I Sam. ii. 
 1 1 ; Nehem. x. 39; Ezek. xliv. 27) ; which language, mutatis 
 mutandis, reappears in the New, where not merely is that 
 old priesthood and ministry designated by this language 
 (Luke i. 23 ; Heb. ix. 21 ; x. i 1), but that of apostles, pro- 
 phets, and teachers in the Church (Acts xiii. 2 ; Eom. xv. 
 1 6 ; Phil. ii. 17), as well as that of the great High Priest 
 of our profession, ra>v ayiwv \sirovpyos (Heb. viii. 2). In 
 later ecclesiastical use it has been sometimes attempted to 
 push the special application of \sirovpyta still further, and 
 to limit its use to those prayers and offices which stand in 
 more immediate relation to the Holy Eucharist ; but there 
 is no warrant in the best ages of the Church for any such 
 limitation ; thus see Suicer, Thes. s. v. ; Bingham, Chris- 
 tian Antiqq. xiii. 1.8; Deyling, Obss. Sac. vol. i. p. 285 ; 
 Augusti, Christ. Archaol. vol. ii. p. 537 ; Scudamore, Notitia. 
 Eucharistica, p, 1 1 . 
 
 It may be urged against the distinction here drawn 
 that \arpsvsiv and \arpsia are sometimes applied to official 
 ministries, as at Heb. ix. I, 6. This is, of course, true ; 
 just as where two circles have the same centre, the greater 
 will necessarily include the less. The notion of service is 
 such a centre here ; in \eiTovpysiv this service finds a cer- 
 tain limitation, in that it is service in an office : it follows 
 that every \sirovpjia will of necessity be a \arpsla, but not 
 the reverse, that every \arpsta will be a \eirovpyia. No 
 passage better brings out the distinction between these 
 two words than Ecclus.iv. 14: ol \arpsvovTss avrrj [i.e.
 
 128 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxvi. 
 
 rfj 2o$/a] \siTovp<yr)<rov(Ti,v 'Ayteo. " They that serve 
 her, shall minister to the Holy One." 
 
 IN both these words the sense of poverty, and of poverty 
 in this world's goods, is involved; and they continually 
 occur together in the Septuagint, in the Psalms especially, 
 with no rigid demarcation of their meanings (as at Ps. 
 xxxix. 18; Ixxiii. 22; Ixxxi. 4 ; cf. Ezek. xviii. 12 ; xxii. 
 29) ; very much as our " poor and needy ; " and whatever 
 distinction may exist in the Hebrew between jVnsi and ^y, 
 the Alexandrian translators have either considered it not 
 reproducible by the help of these words, or have not cared 
 to reproduce it ; for they have no fixed rule, translating 
 the one and the other by TTTW^OS and Trvr)s alike. Still 
 there are passages which show that they were perfectly 
 aware of a distinction between them, and would, where 
 they thought good, maintain it ; occasions upon which 
 they employ iriv^s (as Deut. xxiv. 14, 15; 2 Sam. xii. I, 
 3, 4), and where TTT&)%O'S would have been manifestly unfit. 
 H.vr)s occurs but once in the N. T., and on that one 
 occasion in a quotation from the Old (2 Cor. ix. 9), while 
 TTTO)%OS between thirty and forty times. Derived from 
 Trevofiai, and connected with TTOVOS, TTOVEO/ACII, and the Latin 
 ' penuria,' it properly signifies one so poor that he earns 
 his daily bread by his labour ; Hesychius calls him well 
 avroScdicovos, one who by his own hands ministers to his 
 own necessities. The word does not indicate extreme want, 
 nor a condition verging upon it, any more than does the 
 ' pauper ' and ' paupertas ' of the Latin ; but only the ' res 
 angusta ' of one for whom 7r\ovaios would be an inappro- 
 priate epithet. What was the popular definition of a 
 jrsvqs we learn from Xenophon (Mem. iv. 2. 37) : TOVS p,sv 
 ft?) iKava s^ovras sis a Bst rsXslv, Trsvrjras ' TOVS 8s 
 T&V ticavwv, 7rXov<riovs. It was an epithet commonly 
 applied to Socrates, and irsvia he claims more than once
 
 xxxvi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 129 
 
 for himself (Plato, Apol. 23 c ; 31 c). What his irevta was 
 we know (Xenophon, (Econ. ii. 3), namely, that all which 
 he had, if sold, would not bring five Attic minse. So, too, 
 the Usvsa-rat in Thessaly (if, indeed, the derivation of the 
 name from Trsvsa-dai is to stand), were a subject population, 
 but not reduced to abject want ; on the contrary, retaining 
 secondary rights as serfs or cultivators of the soil. 
 
 But while the m-svrjs is ' pauper,' the TTTCO^OS is * men- 
 dicus ; ' he is the * beggar,' and lives not by his own labour 
 or industry, but on other men's alms (Luke xvi. 20, 21) ; 
 being one therefore whom Plato would not endure in his 
 ideal State (Legg. xi. 936 c). If indeed we fall back on 
 etymologies, irpoaairris (which ought to find place in the 
 text at John ix. 8), or JTTCUT^S, would be the more exactly 
 equivalent to our ' beggar ; ' while TTTW-XOS is generally 
 taken for one who in the sense of his abjectness and 
 needs crouches (0.73-0 TOV Trrwao-siv} in the presence of his 
 superiors ; though it may be safest to add here the words 
 of Pott (Etym. Forsch. vol. iii. p. 933), ' falls dieser wirklich 
 iiach scheum unterwiirfigem Wesen benannt worden, und 
 nicht als petax.' The derivation of TTTWXOS, as though he 
 were one who had fallen from a better estate (SKTTSTTTWKWS 
 EK TWV ovrcov : see Herodotus, iii. 14), is merely fanciful : 
 see Didymus, in Ps. xii. 5, in Mai's Nov. Pat. Bibl. vol. vii. 
 part ii. p. 165. 
 
 The words then are clearly distinct. A far deeper depth 
 of destitution is implied in Trrat^sia than in irsvla, to keep 
 which in mind will add vividness to the contrasts drawn 
 by St. Paul, 2 Cor. vi. 10 ; viii. 9. The TTSVTJS may be so 
 poor that he earns his bread by daily labour ; but the 
 irrw'xos is so poor that he only obtains his living by 
 begging. There is an evident climax intended by Plato, 
 when he speaks of tyrannies (Rep. x. 618 a). EIS trsvias re 
 teal <f>vyas KOI sis Trrco^slay TsXsvrca&as. The 7rsi>tjs has 
 nothing superfluous, the TTTW^OS nothing at all (see Doder- 
 lein, Lat. Synon. vol. iii. p. 117). Tertullian long ago
 
 130 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxvn. 
 
 noted the distinction (Adv. Marc. iv. 14), for, dealing with 
 our Lord's words, patcdpioi, ol irroi^oi (Luke vi. 20), he 
 changes the ' Beati pauperes,' which still retains its place 
 in the Vulgate, into 'Beati mendici,' and justifies the 
 change, ' Sic enim exigit interpretatio vocabuli quod in 
 Greeco est ; ' and in another place (De Idol. 1 2) he renders 
 it by 'egeni.' The two, Trsvia (= c paupertas,' cf. Martial, 
 ii. 32 : ' Non est paupertas, Nestor, habere nihil ') and TTT&>- 
 %a'a (=' egestas '), may be sisters, as one in Aristophanes 
 will have them (PLut. 549) ; but if such, yet the latter far 
 barer of the world's good than the former ; and indeed 
 Hsvla in that passage seems inclined wholly to disallow 
 any such near relationship at all. The words of Ari- 
 stophanes, in which he discriminates between them, have 
 been often quoted : 
 
 TTTW^OV iifv yap ftios, ov crv Xe'yeiy, T}V tcmv fjLijSev e '\ovra 
 TOV Se TTfvrjTOSj ^v (^tibo^Lfvov, Kal rols epyois irpofrtyovra.) 
 jreptyiyvf<r0ai 5' avrw fjLTjftev, pr) p.fvroi firjb' eVtXeiTretf. 
 
 xxxvii. 0v/jLos, 0/3777, 7rapop>yt,(Tfji6s. 
 u/i6s and opjij are found several times together in the 
 N. T. (as at Eom. ii. 8 ; Ephes. iv. 31 ; Col. iii. 8 ; Eev. 
 xix. 15) ; often also in the Septuagint (Ps. Ixxvii. 49 ; 
 Dan. iii. 13 ; Mic. v. 15), and often also in other Greek 
 (Plato, Philebus, 47 e ; Polybius, vi. 56. 1 1 ; Josephus, 
 Antt. xx. 5. 3 ; Plutarch, De Coh. Ira, 2 ; Lucian, De Gal. 
 23) ; nor are they found only in the connexion of juxta- 
 position, but one made dependent on the other; thus 
 Ovfjibs rffs opyrjs (Rev. xvi. 19; cf. Job iii. 17; Josh. vii. 
 26) ; while opyr) Ovpov, not occurring in the N. T., is fre- 
 quent in the Old (2 Chron. xxix. 10; Lam. i. 12 ; Isai. 
 xxx. 27 ; Hos. xi. 9). On one occasion in the Septuagint 
 all the words of this group occur together (Jer. xxi. 5). 
 
 When these words, after a considerable anterior his- 
 tory, came to settle down on the passion of anger, as the 
 strongest of all passions, impulses, and desires (see Donald-
 
 xxxvu. 5 YN ON YMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 1 3 1 
 
 son, New Cratylus, 3rd ed. pp. 675-679; and Thompson, 
 Phcedrus of Plato, p. 165), the distinguishing of them occu- 
 pied not a little the grammarians and philologers. These 
 felt, and rightly, that the existence of a multitude of 
 passages in which the two were indifferently used (as 
 Plato, Legg. ix. 867), made nothing against the fact of 
 such a distinction ; for, in seeking to discriminate between 
 them, they assumed nothing more than that these could 
 not be indifferently used on every occasion. The general 
 result at which they arrived is this, that in dvpos, con- 
 nected with the intransitive dvco, and derived, according to 
 Plato (Crat. 419 e), airo rrfs Overseas teal ^sa-sws rrjs -^f%^y, 
 
 * quasi exhalatio vehementior' (Tittmann), compare the 
 Latin 'fumus/ is more of the turbulent commotion, the 
 boiling agitation of the feelings, 1 fjisdr) T-fjs ^i>xn s ^ St. Basil 
 calls it, either presently to subside and disappear, like the 
 Latin * excandescentia,' which Cicero defines (Tusc. iv. 9), 
 ' ira nascens et modo desistens ' or else to settle down 
 into 0/3777, wherein is more of an abiding and settled habit 
 of mind (' ira inveterata ') with the purpose of revenge ; 
 'cupiditas doloris reponendi ' (Seneca, De Ira, i. 5) ; 6p/j,rj 
 "^rv^fjs, sv fj,e\Trj KaK(i)O'sa)s Kara TOV Trapo^vvavros (Basil, 
 Reg. Brev. Tract. 68) ; 2 the German ' Zorn,' ' der activ sich 
 gegen Jemand oder etwas richtende Unwille, die Opposition 
 des unwillig erregten Gemiithes ' (Cremer). Thus Plato 
 (Euthyph. 7) joins e%0pd, and Plutarch Svo-fisveia (Pericles, 
 39), with 0/3777. Compare Theol. Stud. u. Krit. 1851, p. 
 99 sqq. 
 
 1 It is commonly translated ' furor ' in the Vulgate. Augustine (Enarr. 
 in Ps. Ixxxvii. 8) is dissatisfied with the application of this word to God, 
 
 * furor' being commonly attributed to those out of a sound mind, and pro- 
 poses ' indignatio ' in its room. For another distinction, ascribing ' ira ' 
 and ' furor ' alike to God, see Bernard, Serm. in Cant. 69, 3 ; a notice- 
 able passage. 
 
 2 In ayavcLKrrjffiy St. Basil finds the further thought that this eager- 
 ness to punish has the amendment of the offender for its scope. Certainly 
 the one passage in the N. T. where ayavaKTyvis occurs (2 Cor. vii. li) 
 does not refuse this meaning. 
 
 K 2
 
 132 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxvn. 
 
 This, the more passionate, and at the same time more 
 temporary, character of Ovpos (Ov^oi, according to Jeremy 
 Taylor, are great but transient angers ;' ! cf. Luke iv. 28 ; 
 Dan. iii. 19) may explain a distinction of Xenophon, namely 
 that 6vp,bs in a horse is what 0/9777 is in a man (De Re 
 Eques. ix. 2; cf. Wisd. vii. 20, Ovpol Orjptcov : Plutarch, 
 GrylL 4, in fine; and Pyrrh. 16, Trvsvparos ^scrros Kal 
 Qv^ov, full of animosity and rage) . Thus the Stoics, who 
 dealt much in definitions and distinctions, denned 6vp6$ 
 as opyrj apKopevr) (Diogenes Laertius, vii. i. 63. 114); 
 and Ammonius : dvpos p,sv e<m Trpocncaipos ' 6/3777 &s 
 7roXv%p6vios iwt)viK,aK,ia. Aristotle, too, in his wonderful 
 comparison of old age and youth, thus characterizes the 
 angers of old men (Rhet. ii. 13) : Kal ol 6vfj,ol, o^sls p,ev 
 eia-tv, da-dsvsls Be like fire in straw, quickly blazing up, 
 and as quickly extinguished (cf. Euripides, Androm. 728, 
 729). Origen (in Ps. ii. 5, Opp. vol. ii. p. 541) has a 
 discussion on the words, and arrives at the same re- 
 sults : Siaffrspsi 8e Ov/jubs opyfjs, ra> dv/Mtv plev slvat opyrjv 
 teal ert eKKaiOfAsvrjv opyrjv 8s opsf;tv avrt- 
 : cf. in Ep. ad Rom. ii. 8, which only exists in 
 the Latin : ' ut si, verbi gratia, vulnus aliquod pessimum 
 iram ponamus, hujus autem tumor et distentio indignatio 
 vulneris appelletur : ' so too Jerome (in Ephes. iv. 31): 
 ' Furor [dvpos] incipiens ira est, et fervescens in aniino 
 indignatio. Ira [0/379] autem est, quse furore extincto de- 
 siderat ultionern, et eum quern nocuisse putat vult Isedere.' 
 This agrees with the Stoic definition of 0/3777, that it is 
 TtfUOpUu sTTidv^ia TOV SOKOVVTOS riSiKij/cevai ov TrpocrriKovTWS 
 (Diogenes Laertius, vii. 113). So Gregory Nazianzene 
 (Carm. ii. 34. 43, 44) : 
 
 \ 
 
 1 Hampole in his great poem, The Priclce of Conscience, does not 
 agree. In his vigorous, but most unlovely picture of an old man, this is 
 
 one trait : 
 
 ' He es lyghtly wrath, and waxes fraward, 
 Bot to turne hym fra wrethe, it es hard.'
 
 xxxvn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 133 
 
 6vfj.os p.ev ta-riv ddpoos (<ris <f>pfvos, 
 opyf) 8e 0vp.bs (upevuv. 
 
 And so too Theodoret, in Ps. Ixviii. 25 (Ixix. 24, E. V.), 
 where the words occur together: Sia TOV Qvpov TO ra^v 
 SsSfacoKS, Sia 8s rr)s 0/3777* TO sirifjiovov. Josephus in like 
 manner (B. J. ii. 8. 6) describes the Essenes as 0/3777? ra^iai 
 SiKaioi, dvfjiov KadsKTtKoL So, too, Dion Cassius notes as 
 one of the characteristic traits of Tiberius, topyl&ro ev o< 
 r\K(,cna sdvpovro (Vita Tib.). 
 
 Mrjvis (Isai. xvi. 6 ; Ecclus. xxviii. 5 ; ' ira perdurans/ 
 Damm's Lex. Horn.) and KOTOS, being successively 'ira 
 inveterata ' and ' ira inveteratissiina ' (John of Damascus, 
 De Fid. Orthod. 1 1. 16), nowhere occur in the N. T. 
 
 Hapopyio-fjios, a word not found in classical Greek, but 
 several times in the Septuagint (as at I Kin. xv. 30 ; 2 Kin. 
 xix. 3), is not = 0/3777, though we have translated it ' wrath/ 
 This it cannot be ; for the Trapopyia-fAos (Ephes. iv. 26, 
 where only in the N. T. the word occurs ; but Trapopyi&iv, 
 Eom. x. 19; Ephes. vi. 4) is absolutely forbidden; the 
 sun shall not go down upon it; whereas under certain 
 conditions 0/3777 is a righteous passion to entertain. The 
 Scripture has nothing in common with the Stoics' ab- 
 solute condemnation of anger. It inculcates no aTrddeia, 
 but only a fisTpioTrdOsia, a moderation, not an absolute 
 suppression, of the passions, which were given to man as 
 winds to fill the sails of his soul, as Plutarch excellently 
 puts it (De Virt. Mor. 12). It takes no such loveless view 
 of other men's sins as his who said, o-savrov /AT) rdpaffas 
 d/j^apravst, TIS ; savrw d^aprdvst (Marcus Antoninus, iv. 46). 
 But even as Aristotle, in agreement with all deeper ethical 
 writers of antiquity (thus see Plato, Legg. v. 731 6 ; 
 6v/j,oiSf] p.sv %pr) irdvra avSpa stvai, K. r. X. ; Thompson's 
 Phcedrus of Plato, p. 166; and Cicero, Tusc. Qucest. iv. 19), 
 had affirmed (Eth. Nic. iv. 5. 3) that, when guided by 
 reason, anger is a right affection, so the Scripture permits, 
 and not only permits, but on fit occasions demands, it.
 
 134 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxvu. 
 
 This all the profounder teachers of the Church have 
 allowed ; thus Gregory of Nyssa : dyadov KTYIVOS S<TTIV 6 
 6v/j.os, orav TOV \oyicrfjiov vTro^vyiov <ysvr)Tai : and Augustine 
 (De Civ. Dei, ix. 5) : ' In diseiplina nostra non tarn quseritur 
 utrum pius animus irascatur, sed quare irascatur.' There 
 is a " wrath of God " (Mat. iii. 7 ; Rom, xii. 19, and often), 
 who would not love good, unless He hated evil, the two 
 being so inseparable, that either He must do both or 
 neither ; * a wrath also of the merciful Son of Man (Mark 
 iii. 5) ; and a wrath which righteous men not merely may, 
 but, as they are righteous, must feel ; nor can there be a 
 surer and sadder token of an utterly prostrate moral con- 
 dition than the not being able to be angry with sin and 
 sinners. 'Anger,' says Fuller (Holy State, iii. 8), 'is one 
 of the sinews of the soul ; he that wants it hath a maimed 
 mind, and with Jacob sinew-shrunk in the hollow of his 
 thigh, must needs halt. Nor is it good to converse with 
 such as cannot be angry.' ' The affections,' as another 
 English divine has said, 'are not, like poisonous plants, 
 to be eradicated ; but as wild, to be cultivated.' St. Paul 
 is not therefore, as so many understand him, condescend- 
 ing here to human infirmity, and saying, ' Your anger 
 shall not be imputed to you as a sin, if you put it away 
 before nightfall ' (see Suicer, Thes. s. v. opyrj) ; but rather, 
 ' Be ye angry, yet in this anger of yours suffer no sinful 
 element to mingle ; there is that which may cleave even 
 to a righteous anger, the Trapopyia-pos, the irritation, the 
 exasperation, the embitterment (' exacerbatio '), which 
 must be dismissed at once ; that so, being defeated of this 
 impurer element which mingled with it, that only may 
 remain which has a right to remain.' 
 
 1 See on this anger of God, as the necessary complement of his love, 
 the excellent words of Lactantius (De Ira Dei, c. 4) : ' Natu si Deus non 
 irascitur impiis et injustis, nee pios utique justosque diligit. In rebus 
 enim diversis aut in utramque partem moveri necesse est, aut in nullam.'
 
 xxxvin. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 135 
 
 xxxviii. s\aiov, p,vpov 
 
 SOME have denied that the 0. T. knows of any distinction 
 between ' oil ' and ' ointment ; ' and this on the very in- 
 sufficient grounds that the Septuagint renders J?? some- 
 times by fjujpov (Prov. xxvii. 9 ; Cant. i. 3 ; Isai. xxxix. 2 ; 
 Am. vi. 6) ; though more frequently, indeed times out of 
 number, by s\aiov. But how often in a single word of one 
 language are latent two of another ; especially when that 
 other abounds, as does Greek compared with Hebrew, in 
 finer distinctions, in a more subtle notation of meanings ; 
 irapoifjita and irapajBoKri furnish a well-known example of 
 this, both lying in the Hebrew hvfo ; and this duplicity 
 of meaning it is the part of a well-skilled translator to 
 evoke. Nay the thing itself, the pvpov ( = 'unguentum '), 
 so naturally grew out of the eXatov ( = ' oleum'), having 
 oil for its base, with only the addition of spice or scent 
 or other aromatic ingredients, Clement of Alexandria, 
 (Pcedag. ii. 8) calls it 'adulterated oil' (SeSoXw/ieW 
 s\aiov J ), that it would be long in any language before 
 the necessity of differencing names would be felt. Thus 
 in the Greek itself pvpov first appears in the writings of 
 Archilochus (Athenseus, xv. 37). Doubtless- there were 
 ointments in Homer's time ; he is satisfied, however, with 
 ' sweet-smelling oil' (svwSes s\aiov, Od. ii. 339), 'roseate 
 oil' (poBosv sXaiov, II. xxiii. 1 86), wherewith to express 
 them. 
 
 In later times there was a clear distinction between the 
 two, and one which uttered itself in language. A passage 
 in Xenophon (Conv. ii. 3, 4) turns altogether on the greater 
 suitableness of e\aiov for men, of pvpov for women ; these 
 last consequently being better pleased that the men should 
 
 1 Compare what Plutarch says of Lycurgus (Apoph. Lac. 16) ; TO p.fv 
 pvpov f(\ao-fv, a>s TOV eXatov <f>6opav KO\ SXttipov. Compare too Virgil 
 (Gforg. ii. 466) : ' Nee casia liquidi corrumpitur usus olivi.'
 
 136 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxvin. 
 
 savour of the manly ' oil ' than of the effeminate ' oint- 
 ment ' (eXatou 8s TOV ev <yv/j,va<riois cxrprj ical Trapovcra fj&lxov 
 TI fjivpov yvvai^i, teal airovaa TroBsivorspa). And on any 
 other supposition our Lord's rebuke to the discourteous 
 Pharisee, 'My head with oil thou didst not anoint, but 
 this woman hath anointed my feet with ointment " (Luke 
 vii. 46), would lose all, or nearly all, its point. ' Thou 
 withheldest from Me,' He would say, ' cheap and ordinary 
 courtesies ; while she bestowed upon Me costly and rare 
 homages ; ' where Grotius remarks well : ' Est enim per- 
 petua avno-Toixia. Mulier ilia lacrimas impendit pedibus 
 Christo proluendis : Simon ne aquam quidem. Ilia assidua 
 est in pedibus Christi osculandis : Simon ne uno quidem 
 oris osculo Christum accepit. Ilia pretioso unguento non 
 caput tantum sed et pedes perfundit : ille ne caput quidem 
 mero oleo : quod perfunctorise amicitiee fuerat.' 
 
 Some have drawn a distinction between the verbs 
 a\si^iv and %/u'e^, which, as they make it depend on this 
 between pvpov and eXaioi/, may deserve to be mentioned 
 here. The a\i<f>siv, they say, is commonly the luxurious, 
 or at any rate the superfluous, anointing with ointment, 
 'Xpi^v the sanitary anointing with oil. Thus Casaubon 
 (Anim. in Athenceum, xv. 39) : ' a\et</>eo-#at, proprium volup- 
 tuariorum et mollium : ^pieaOai etiam sobriis interdum, 
 et ex virtute viventibus convenit : ' and Yalcknaer : * a\si- 
 <f>a-0ai dicebantur potissimum homines voluptatibus dediti, 
 qui pretiosis unguentis caput et manus illinebant : y^pUaOai 
 de hominibus ponebatur oleo corpus, sanitatis caussd, in- 
 unguentibus.' No traces of such a distinction appear in 
 the N. T. ; thus compare Mark vi. 13 ; Jam. v. 14, with 
 Mark xvi. I ; John xi. 2 ; nor yet of that of Salmasius 
 (Exerc. p. 330), * Spissiora linunt, yjpiovai: liquida per- 
 fundunt, a\i<f>ovcri,.' 
 
 A distinction is maintained there, but different from 
 both of these ; namely, that a\i<f)tv is the mundane and
 
 xxxix. SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 1 3 7 
 
 profane, %pisiv the sacred and religious, word, 
 is used indiscriminately of all actual anointings, whether 
 with oil or ointment ; while xpisiv, no doubt in its con- 
 nexion with 'Xpia-Tos, is absolutely restricted to the anoint- 
 ing of the Son, by the Father, with the Holy Ghost, for 
 the accomplishment of his great office, being wholly sepa- 
 rated from all profane and common uses : thus see Luke 
 iv. 18; Acts iv. 27; x. 38 ; 2 Cor. i. 21 ; Heb. i. 9; the 
 only places where it occurs. The same holds good in the 
 Septuagint, where i xjpl<ns y ^pia-pa (cf. i John ii. 20, 27), 
 and %ptstz/, are the constant and ever-recurring words for 
 all religious and symbolical anointings ; aXslfaiv hardly 
 occurring in this sense, not oftener, I believe, than twice 
 in all (Exod. xl. 13 ; Num. iii. 3). 
 
 xxxix. 'E/3/ratos, 'loi/Satoy, 'lcrparj\iTr]s. 
 
 ALL these names are used to designate members of the 
 elect family and chosen race ; but they are very capable, 
 as they are very well worthy, of being discriminated. 
 
 'Eftpaios claims to be first considered. It brings us 
 back to a period earlier than any when one, and very 
 much earlier than any when the other, of the titles we 
 compare with it, were, or could have been, in existence 
 (Josephus, Antt. i. 6. 4). It is best derived from ">5y, 
 the same word as virep, ' super ; ' this title containing 
 allusion to the passing over of Abraham from the other 
 side of Euphrates ; who was, therefore, in the language 
 of the Phoanician tribes among whom he came, 'Abram 
 the Hebrew,' or o TrspaTrjy, as it is well given in the 
 Septuagint (Gen. xiv. 13), being from beyond (irepav) the 
 river : thus rightly Origen (in Matt. torn. xi. 5) : f E/3p<xtot, 
 O'ITIVSS spfi'rjvsvovrai irepartKoi. The name, as thus ex- 
 plained, is not one by which the chosen people know 
 themselves, but by which others know them; not one 
 which they have taken, but which others have imposed
 
 138 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxix. 
 
 on them ; and we find the use of 'Efipalos through all 
 the O. T. entirely consistent with this explanation of 
 its origin. In every case it is either a title by which 
 foreigners designate the chosen race (Gen. xxxix. 14, 17; 
 xli. 12; Exod. i. 16, 19; I Sam. iv. 6; xiii. 19; xxix. 3 ; 
 Judith xii. n); or by which they designate themselves 
 to foreigners (Gen. xl. 15 ; Exod. ii. 7 j iii. 18; v. 3 ; ix. I ; 
 Jon. i. 9) ; or by which they speak of themselves in tacit 
 opposition to other nations (Gen. xliii. 32 ; Deut. xv. 12 ; 
 I Sam. xiii. 3 ; Jer. xxxiv. 9, 14) ; never, that is, without 
 such national antagonism, either latent or expressed. 
 
 When, however, the name 'louSatos arose, as it did in 
 the later periods of Jewish history (the precise epoch will 
 be presently considered), 'E/3patos modified its meaning. 
 Nothing is more frequent with words than to retire into 
 narrower limits, occupying a part only of some domain 
 whereof once they occupied the whole ; when, through 
 the coming up of some new term, they are no longer 
 needed in all their former extent ; and when at the same 
 time, through the unfolding of some new relation, they may 
 profitably lend themselves to the expressing of this new. 
 It was exactly thus with 'Efipalos. In the N. T., that 
 point of view external to the nation, which it once always 
 implied, exists no longer ; neither is every member of the 
 chosen family an 'Eftpalos now, but only those who, 
 whether dwelling in Palestine or elsewhere, have retained 
 the sacred Hebrew tongue as their native language ; the 
 true complement and antithesis to 'Eftpalos being 'E\\r)- 
 vLcrrijs, a word first appearing in the N. T. (see Salmasius, 
 De Hellenisticd, 1643, p. 12), and there employed to 
 designate a Jew of the Dispersion who has unlearned his 
 proper language, and now speaks Greek, and reads or 
 hears read in the synagogue the Scriptures in the Septu- 
 agint Version. 
 
 This distinction first appears in Acts vi. i, and is pro- 
 bably intended in the two other passages, where 'Efipaio?
 
 xxxix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 139 
 
 occurs (2 Cor. xi. 22 j Phil. iii. 5) ; as well as in the super- 
 scription, on whosesoever authority it rests, of the Epistle 
 to the Hebrews. It is important to keep in mind that 
 in language, not in place of habitation, lay the point of 
 difference between the ' Hebrew ' and the * Hellenist.' 
 He was a ' Hebrew,' wherever domiciled, who retained the 
 use of the language of his fathers. Thus St. Paul, though 
 settled in Tarsus, a Greek city in Asia Minor, describes 
 himself as a 'Hebrew,' and of 'Hebrew' parents, "a 
 Hebrew of Hebrews " (Phil. iii. 5 ; cf. Acts xxiii. 6) ; 
 though it is certainly possible that by all this he may 
 mean no more than in a general way to set an empha- 
 sis on his Judaism. Doubtless, the greater number of 
 ' Hebrews ' were resident in Palestine ; yet not this fact, 
 but the language they spoke, constituted them such. 
 
 It will be well however to keep in mind that this dis- 
 tinction and opposition of 'Eftpalos to 'EXT^/wo-r^y, as a 
 distinction within the nation, and not between it and other 
 nations, is exclusively a Scriptural one, being hardly recog- 
 nized by later Christian writers, not at all by Jewish and 
 heathen. Thus Eusebius can speak of Philo, an Alexandrian 
 Jew, who only once in his life visited Jerusalem, for so much 
 I think we may gather from his own words (vol. ii. p. 646, 
 Mangey's Ed.), and who wrote exclusively in Greek (Hist. 
 Eccl. ii. 4) : TO pJsv ovv ysvos avsicaQsv 'EySpatoy TJV : cf. iv. 16; 
 Proep. Evang. vii. 13. 21 ; while Clement of Alexandria, 
 as quoted by Eusebius (H. E. vi. 14), makes continually 
 the antithesis to 'Eftpaioi, not 'EXX^wo-rai, but "EXX^yfs 
 and WVT]. Theodoret (Opp. vol. ii. p. 1246) styles the 
 Greek-writing historian, Josephus, a-wyypafyevs 'Efipalos : 
 cf. Origen, Ep. ad Afric. 5. Neither in Josephus himself, 
 nor yet in Philo, do any traces of the N. T. distinction be- 
 tween 'Eftpalos and 'EXXtjvta-T^s exist; in heathen writers as 
 little (Plutarch, Symp. iv. 6; Pausanias, v. 7. 3 ; x. 12. 5). 
 Only this much of it is recognized, that 'Eftpatos, though 
 otherwise a much rarer word than 'lovSaio?, is always
 
 140 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxix. 
 
 employed when it is intended to designate the people 
 on the side of their language. This rule Jewish, heathen, 
 and Christian writers alike observe, and we speak to the 
 present day of the Jewish nation, but of the Hebrew tongue. 
 This name 'lovSatos is of much later origin. It does 
 not carry us back to the very birth and cradle of the 
 chosen people, to the day when the Father of the faithful 
 passed over the river, and entered 011 the land of in- 
 heritance ; but keeps rather a lasting record of the period 
 of national disruption and decline. It arose, and could 
 only have arisen, with the separation of the ti-ibes into 
 the two rival kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Then, in- 
 asmuch as the ten tribes, though with worst right (see 
 Ewald, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, vol. iii. part i. p. 138), 
 assumed Israel as a title to themselves, the two drew their 
 designation from the more important of them, and of 
 Judah came the name Dn-in*, or 'lovSaloi. Josephus, so 
 far as I have observed, never employs it in telling the 
 earlier history of his people ; but for the first time in 
 reference to Daniel and his young companions (Antt. x. 
 10. i). Here, however, by anticipation ; that is, if his own 
 account of the upcoming of the name is correct ; namely, 
 that it first arose after the return from Babylon, and out 
 of the fact that the earliest colony of those who returned 
 was of that tribe (Antt. xi. 5.7): eK\ij0r)aav 8s TO ovo^a 
 s rjs rj/Aspas dve/3r)<7av EK Ba/3iA,(i>os', curb rrjs 'louSa. (^uX^y, 
 rjs 7rpu)Tr)s s\6ov<Tijs sis SKsivovs rovs TOTTOVS, avTOt TS /cat 
 r) %(i>pa rrjs Trpoa-tjjopias avrrjs fj,T\a/3ov. But in this 
 Josephus is clearly in error. We meet 'lovSaioi, or rather 
 its Hebrew equivalent, in books of the sacred canon com- 
 posed anterior to, or during, the Captivity, as a designa- 
 tion of those who pertained to the smaller section of the 
 tribes, to the kingdom of Judah (2 Kin. xvi. 6; Jer. xxxii. 
 12; xxxiv. 9; xxxviii. 19); and not first in Ezra, Nehe- 
 miah, and Esther ; however in these, and especially in 
 Esther, it may be of far more frequent occurrence.
 
 xxxix. S TNON YMS OF THE NE W TESTA ME NT. 1 4 1 
 
 It is easy to see how the name extended to the whole 
 nation. When the ten tribes were carried into Assyria, 
 and were 'absorbed and lost among the nations, that 
 smaller section of the people which remained henceforth 
 represented the whole ; and thus it was only natural that 
 'lovBatos should express, as it now came to do, not one of 
 the kingdom of Judah as distinguished from that of Israel, 
 but any member of the nation, a * Jew ' in this wider 
 sense, as opposed to a Gentile. In fact, the word under- 
 went a process exactly the converse of that which c Eftpato<? 
 had undergone. For 'Eftpatos, belonging first to the 
 whole nation, came afterwards to belong to a part only ; 
 while 'lovSatos, designating at first only the member of 
 a part, ended by designating the whole. It now, in its 
 later, like 'Efipatos in its earlier, stage of meaning, was a 
 title by which the descendant of Abraham called himself, 
 when he would bring out the national distinction between 
 himself and other peoples (Eom. ii. 9, 10) ; thus 'Jew 
 and Gentile ; ' never Israelite and Gentile : ' or which 
 others used about him, when they had in view this same 
 fact j thus the Eastern Wise Men inquire, " Where is He 
 that is born King of the Jews? " (Matt. ii. 2) testifying 
 by the form of this question that they were themselves 
 Gentiles, for they would certainly have asked for the 
 King of Israel, had they meant to claim any nearer share 
 in Him. So, too, the Roman soldiers and the Roman 
 governor give to Jesus the mocking title, " King of the 
 Jews" (Matt, xxvii. 29, 37), while his own countrymen, 
 the high priests, challenge Him to prove by coming 
 down from the cross that He is " King of Israel " (Matt. 
 xxvii. 42). 
 
 For indeed the absolute name, that which expressed 
 the whole dignity and glory of a member of the theocratic 
 nation, of the people in peculiar covenant with God, was 
 'Io7>cM?7u'T7?y. It rarely occurs in the Septuagint, but is often 
 used by Josephus in his earlier history, as convertible with
 
 142 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxix. 
 
 ios (Antt. ii. 9. I, 2) ; in the middle period of his his- 
 tory to designate a member of one of the ten tribes (viii. 
 8. 3 ; ix. 14. i) ; and toward the end as equivalent to 
 'lovSalos (xi. 5.4). It is only in its relations of likeness 
 and difference to this last that we have to consider it 
 here. This name was for the Jew his especial badge and 
 title of honour. To be descendants of Abraham, this 
 honour they must share with the Ishmaelites (Gen. xvi. 
 15) ; of Abraham and Isaac with the Edomites (Gen. xxv. 
 25) ; but none except themselves were the seed of Jacob, 
 such as in this name of Israelite they were declared to be. 
 Nor was this all, but more gloriously still, their descent 
 was herein traced up to him, not as he was Jacob, but as 
 he was Israel, who as a Prince had power with God and 
 with men, and prevailed (Gen. xxxii. 28). That this title 
 was accounted the noblest, we have ample proof. Thus, 
 as we have seen, when the ten tribes threw off their alle- 
 giance to the house of David, they claimed in their pride 
 and pretension the name of the " kingdom of Israel " for 
 the new kingdom which they set up the kingdom, as 
 the name was intended to imply, in which the line of the 
 promises, the true succession of the early patriarchs, ran. 
 So, too, there is no nobler title with which the Lord can 
 adorn Nathanael than that of '' an Israelite indeed " (John 
 i. 47), one in whom all which that name involved might 
 indeed be found. And when St. Peter, and again when 
 St. Paul, would obtain a hearing from the men of their 
 own nation, when therefore they address them with the 
 name most welcome to their ears, avSpss 'Ic-pa^Xtrai ( Acts 
 ii. 22; iii. 12 ; xiii. 16; cf. Rom. ix.4; Phil. iii. 5; 2 Cor. 
 xi. 22) is still the language with which they seek to secure 
 their good-will. 
 
 When, then, we restrict ourselves to the employment 
 in the N. T. of these three words, and to the distinctions 
 proper to them there, we may say that 'Rftpatos is a 
 Hebrew- speaking, as contrasted with a Greek-speaking,
 
 XL. SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 1 43 
 
 or Hellenizing, Jew (which last in our Version we have 
 well called a * Grecian/ as differenced f rom^EXX^i/, a veri- 
 table ' Greek ' or other Gentile) ; 'lovSaios is a Jew in his 
 national distinction from a Gentile ; while 'Ia-parj\iTT]s, the 
 augustest title of all, is a Jew as he is a member of the 
 theocracy, and thus an heir of the promises. In the first 
 is predominantly noted his language ; in the second his 
 nationality ('lovSaicrpos, Josephus, DeMacc. 4; Gal. i. 13 : 
 'lovSat&iv, Gal. ii. 14) ; in the third his theocratic privi- 
 leges and glorious vocation. 
 
 xl. alrsa), epcorda). 
 
 THESE words are often rendered by our Translators as 
 though they covered the same spaces of meaning, the one 
 as the other; nor can we object to their rendering, in 
 numerous instances, alrslv and spwrav alike by our English 
 'to ask.' Yet sometimes they have a little marred the 
 perspicuity of their translation by not varying their word, 
 where the original has shown them the way. For example, 
 the obliteration at Johnxvi. 23 of the distinction between 
 alrscv and sptorav might easily suggest a wrong interpreta- 
 tion of the verse, as though its two clauses were in near 
 connexion, and direct antithesis, being indeed in none. 
 In our Version we read : * In that day ye shall asJc Me 
 nothing [gyne OVK sptoT^a-srs ovBtv], Verily, verily, I say 
 unto you, Whatsoever ye shall ask [oaa av alr^a-tjTs] the 
 Father in my name, He will give it you." Now every one 
 competent to judge is agreed, that " ye shall ask " of the 
 first half of the verse has nothing to do with " ye shall 
 ask " of the second ; that in the first Christ is referring 
 back to the ijds\ov avrbv epwrav of ver. 19 ; to the questions 
 which the disciples would fain have asked of Him, the 
 perplexities which they would gladly have had resolved by 
 Him, if only they dared to set these before Him. 'In 
 that day,' He would say, ' in the day of my seeing you 
 again, I will by the Spirit so teach you all things, that
 
 1 44 S YNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. XL. 
 
 ye shall be no longer perplexed, no longer wishing to ask 
 Me questions (cf. John xxi. 12), if only you might venture 
 to do so.' Thus Lampe well: 'Nova est proinissio de 
 plenissima cognitionis luce, qua convenienter ceconomisB 
 Novi Testamenti collustrandi essent. Nani sicut qusestio 
 supponit inscitiam, ita qui nihil amplius quserit abunde se 
 edoctuin existimat, et in doctrina plene exposita ac intel- 
 lecta acquiescit. There is not in this verse a contrast 
 drawn between asking the Son, which shall cease, and 
 asking the Father, which shall begin ; but the first half of 
 the verse closes the declaration of one blessing, namely, 
 that hereafter they shall be so taught by the Spirit as to 
 have nothing further to inquire; the second half of the 
 verse begins the declaration of a new blessing, that 
 whatever they shall seek from the Father in the Son's 
 name, He will give it them. Yet none will say that this is 
 the impression which the English text conveys to his mind. 
 The distinction between the words is this. Airew, the 
 Latin 'peto,' is more submissive and suppliant, indeed 
 the constant word for the seeking of the inferior from the 
 superior (Acts xii. 20); of the beggar from him that 
 should give alms (Acts iii. 2) ; of the child from the 
 parent (Matt. vii. 9 ; Luke xi. 1 1 : Lam. iv. 4) ; of the 
 subject from the ruler (Ezra viii. 22) ; of man from God 
 (l Kin. iii. 1 1 ; Matt. vii. 7 ; Jam. i. 5 ; I John iii. 22 ; 
 cf. Plato, Euthyph. 14: sv^scrdai [K<7Tii/] alrsiv rovs Osovs). 
 'Epcorda), on the other hand, is the Latin ' rogo ; ' or some- 
 times (as John xvi. 23; cf. Gen. xliv. 19) 'interrogo,' its 
 only meaning in classical Greek, where it never signifies 
 ' to ask,' but only ' to interrogate,' or ' to inquire.' Like 
 ' rogare,' l it implies that he who asks stands on a certain 
 footing of equality with him from whom the boon is asked, 
 as king with king (Luke xiv. 42), or, if not of equality, 
 on such a footing of familiarity as lends authority to the 
 request. 
 
 1 Thus Cicero (Plane, x. 25) : ' Neque enim ego sic rogabam, utpetere 
 viderer, quia familiaris esset meus.'
 
 XL. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 145 
 
 Thus it is very noteworthy, and witnesses for the sin- 
 gular accuracy in the employment of words, and in the 
 record of that employment, which prevails throughout the 
 N. T., that our Lord never uses alrstv or alrsia-dat, of Him- 
 self, in respect of that which He seeks on behalf of his 
 disciples from God ; for his is not the petition of the 
 creature to the Creator, but the request of the Son to the 
 Father. The consciousness of his equal dignity, of his 
 potent and prevailing intercession, speaks out in this, 
 that often as He asks, or declares that He will ask, any- 
 thing of the Father, it is always spwrw, spwrtjaaj, an ask- 
 ing, that is, as upon equal terms (John xiv. 16 ; xvi. 26 ; 
 xvii. 9, 15, 20), never alrsco or ainja-a). Martha, on the 
 contrary, plainly reveals her poor unworthy conception 
 of his person, that she recognizes in Him no more than a 
 prophet, when she ascribes that alrsta-dat, to Him, which 
 He never ascribes to Himself: oa-a av ainja-r) rbv Qsbv, 
 Baa-si O-QI, 6 Ssos (John xi. 22) : on which verse Bengel 
 observes : * Jesus, de se rogante loquens sSsijd-rjv dicit (Luc. 
 xxii. 32), et spcar^crci), at nunquam atrou/iat. TsTon Greece 
 locuta est Martha, sed tamen Johannes exprimit iinpro- 
 prium ejus sermonem, quern Dominus benigne tulit : nain 
 aiTslcrOai videtur verbum esse minus dignurn : ' compare 
 his note on I John v. 16. 
 
 It will follow that the spwrav, being thus proper for 
 Christ, inasmuch as it has authority in it, is not proper 
 for us ; and in no single instance is it used in the N. T. 
 to express the prayer of man to God, of the creature to 
 the Creator. The only passage seeming to contradict this 
 assertion is I John v. 16. The verse is difficult, but which- 
 ever of the various ways of overcoming its difficulty may 
 find favour, it will be found to constitute no true exception 
 to the rule, and perhaps, in the substitution of epwrija-r) for 
 the atTija-sL of the earlier clause of the verse, will rather 
 confirm it. 
 
 L
 
 146 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xu. 
 
 xli. dvdirava-is, avscris. 
 
 OUK YEESION renders both these words by ' rest ' ; 
 at Matt. xi. 29 ; xii. 43 ; and avsa-is at 2 Cor. ii. 13 ; vii. 
 5 ; 2 Thess. i. /. No one can object to this ; while yet, 
 on a closer scrutiny, we perceive that they repose on dif- 
 ferent images, and contemplate this ' rest ' from different 
 points of view. 'Ai/a7raucrts, from avaTravw, implies the 
 pause or cessation from labour (Rev. iv. 8) j it is the con- 
 stant word in the Septuagint for the rest of the Sabbath ; 
 thus Exod. xvi. 23 ; xxxi. 15 ; xxxv. 2, and often. "Ai/eo-ty, 
 from dvirjfu, implies the relaxing or letting down of chords 
 or strings, which have before been strained or drawn tight, 
 its exact and literal antithesis being eiriraa-is (from STTI- 
 rsivto) : thus Plato (Rep. i. 349 e) : sv rfj sTrtrda-st KCU dvsa-si, 
 rwv xopS&v : and Plutarch (De Lib. Ed. 13): ra roa Kal 
 rds \vpas dvlspsv, iva l-nnzlvai Swrjdco^sv : and again (Lye. 
 29) : OVK avsvis TJV, dXV ETTITCLVIS T?}y 7ro\iTia$ : cf. Philo, 
 De Incorr. Hun. 13. Moses in the year of jubilee gave, 
 according to Josephus (Antt. iii. 12. 3), dvecnv ry <yfj airo 
 rs dporpov KOI (pvrslas. But no passage illustrates avscris 
 so well as one from the treatise just quoted which goes by 
 Plutarch's name (De Lib. Ed. 1 3) : Soreov ovv TOIS Traicrlv 
 dvcnrvorjv rwv (rvvs^wv TTOVCOV, svOvpovpsvovs, OTI TTCLS o (3ios 
 rj/jiwv sis avscriv teal (nrovBrjv Siyprjrai, ical Sea rovro ou jj,6vov 
 syp^yopcris, d\\a Kal VTTVOS svpsOrj ov&s TroXe/zos, d\.\d KOI 
 slprjvr) ovBs %ifMav, d\\a Kal svftia ovSs svspyol Trpd^sif, 
 aX\a Kal eoprai . . . Kado\ov 8s crw^srai, crw/Jia /j,ev, sv&sia 
 KOI 'jfk'rjpoiXTSi' ^rv^r} 8s, dvs<ri Kal TTOVU>. Plato has the 
 same opposition between dvscris and (nrov8ij (Legg. iv. 
 724 a) ; while Plutai'ch (Symp. v. 6) sets dvsais over 
 against o-Tvo%a>pia, as a dwelling at large, instead of in 
 a narrow and straight room ; and St. Paul over against 
 6\tyts (2 Cor. viii. 13), not being willing that there should 
 be 'ease' (dv<ris) to other Churches, and 'affliction'
 
 XLII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 147 
 
 s), that is from an excessive contribution, to the 
 Corinthian. Used figuratively, it expresses what we, em- 
 ploying the same image, call the relaxation of morals 
 (thus Athenaeus, xiv. 13 : a/coXao-i'a KOL avscris, setting it 
 over against a-w<j>po<rvvri : Philo, De Cherub. 27 ; De Ebriet. 
 6 : avecrts, padvp,ia, rpv(j)tj : De Merc. Meret. 2). 
 
 It will at once be perceived how excellently chosen s^eiv 
 avscriv at Acts xxiv. 23 is, to express what St. Luke has in 
 hand to record. Felix, taking now a more favourable view 
 of Paul's case, commands the centurion who had him in 
 charge, to relax the strictness of his imprisonment, to 
 keep him rather under honorable arrest than in actual 
 confinement; which partial relaxation of his bonds is 
 exactly what this phrase implies; cf. Ecclus. xxvi. 10; 
 Josephus, Antt. xviii. 6. 10, where averts is used in a per- 
 fectly similar case. 
 
 The distinction, then, is obvious. When our Lord pro- 
 mises avdiravvis to the weary and heavy laden who come to 
 Him (Matt. xi. 28, 29), his promise is, that they shall cease 
 from their toils ; shall no longer spend their labour for that 
 which satisfieth not. When St. Paul expresses his confi- 
 dence that the Thessalonians, troubled now, should yet find 
 avscris in the day of Christ (2 Thess. i. 7), he anticipates for 
 them, not so much cessation from labour as relaxation of 
 the chords of affliction, now so tightly drawn, strained 
 and stretched to the uttermost. It is true that this pro- 
 mise arid that at the heart are not two, but one ; yet for 
 all this they present the blessedness which Christ will 
 impart to his own under different aspects, and by help 
 of different images ; and each word has its own fitness in 
 the place where it is employed. 
 
 xlii. Ta7reivo(f>po(rvvr), Trpaorrjf. 
 
 THE work for which Christ's Gospel came into the world 
 was no less than to put down the mighty from their seat,
 
 148 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLII. 
 
 and to exalt the humble and meek. It was then only in 
 accordance with this its mission that it should dethrone 
 the heathen virtue /ieyaXo^ir^'a, and set up the despised 
 Christian grace Tairsivo^pocrvvr] in its room, stripping that 
 of the honour it had unjustly assumed, delivering this from 
 the dishonour which as unjustly had clung to it hitherto ; 
 and in this direction advancing so far that a Christian 
 writer has called this last not merely a grace, but the 
 casket or treasure house in which all other graces are 
 contained (ya%o<f)v\dKiov apsrwv, Basil, Const. Mon. 16). 
 And indeed not the grace only, but the very word rairsi- 
 vo(f>po<rvvr) is itself a fruit of the Gospel ; no Greek writer 
 employed it before the Christian sera, nor, apart from the 
 influence of Christian writers, after. In the Septuagint 
 Tairswofypwv occurs once (Prov. xxix. 23) SLndLTcnrsivotfrpoveiv 
 as often (Ps. cxxx. 2) ; both words being used in honour. 
 Plutarch too has advanced as far as raTrsivcKppcoi' (De Alex. 
 Virt. ii. 4), but employs it in an ill sense ; and the use by 
 heathen writers of ra^rsivos^ rairsivor^s^ and other words of 
 this family, shows plainly how they would have employed 
 TaTTSivo^pocrvvr), had they thought good to allow it. The 
 instances are few and exceptional in which Tcnrsivos sig- 
 nifies anything for them which is not grovelling, slavish, 
 and mean-spirited. It keeps company with dvs\sv6epos 
 (Plato, Legy. vi. 774 c) ; with dvSpaTroScaSvjs (Eth. Eudem. 
 iii. 3) ; with dyevvrfs (Lucian, De Calum. 24) ; with /car^r/s 
 (Plutarch, Fab. Max. 18) ; with aSogos (De Vit. Pud. 14) ; 
 with 8ov\iic6s (Demosthenes, p. 1313); with SovkoTrpSTnjs 
 (Philo, Quod Omn. Prob. Lib. 4) ; with gofcalfi^Xoff (De 
 Leg. Spec. iii. i), and the like: just as the German 
 ' Demuth,' born as it was in the heathen period of the 
 language, is properly and originally ' servilis animus,' 
 <deo' (= servus) constituting the first syllable of it 
 (Grimm, Wb'rterbuch, s. v.) and only under the influences 
 of Christianity attained to its present position of honour.
 
 XLII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 149 
 
 Still those exceptional cases are more numerous than 
 some will allow. Thus Plato in a very noticeable passage 
 (Legg. iv. 716 a) links rajrsivos with KSKOO-^TI^SVOS, as in 
 Demosthenes we have \6joi jjierpioi KOI rairsivoi: while 
 Xenophon more than once sets the rairsivos over against 
 the vTTsprftpavos : cf. JEschylus, Prom. Vinct. 328 ; Luke i. 
 51, 52) : and see for its worthier use a noble passage in 
 Plutarch, De Prof. Virt. 10 ; and another, De Sera Num. 
 Vind. 3, where the purpose of the divine punishments is 
 set forth as being that the soul may become avvvovs Kal 
 raTTSivrj, Kal Kardcjiofios jrpbs rbv sov. Combined with 
 these prophetic intimations of the honour which should 
 one day be rendered even to the very words expressive of 
 humility, it is very interesting to note that Aristotle him- 
 self has a vindication, and it only needs to receive its due 
 extension to be a complete one, of the Christian rairei- 
 vo(f)poo-vvr) (Ethic. Nic. iv. 3. 3 ; cf. Brandis, Aristoteles, 
 p. 1408; and Nagelsbach, Homer. Theologie, p. 336). 
 Having confessed how hard it is for a man Ty a\v)0s(a 
 /j,ja\6-^rv^ov slvai for he will allow no ^e^ako^rv^ia^ or 
 great-souledness, which does not rest on corresponding 
 realities of goodness and moral greatness, and his peya- 
 \6-^rv^os is one psyahcov avrov dgiwv, agios u>v he goes 
 on to observe, though merely by the way and little con- 
 scious how far his words reached, that to think humbly 
 of oneself, where that humble estimate is the true one, can- 
 not be imputed to any as a culpable meanness of spirit ; 
 it is rather the true awfypoa-vwt] (o jap jjuicpcov agios, Kal 
 TOVTWV dgiwv savrov, a-(d(j>pa)v) . But if this be so (and 
 who will deny it ?), then, seeing tnat for every man the 
 humble estimate of himself is the true one, Aristotle has 
 herein unconsciously vindicated rairswo^poavvr) as a grace 
 in which every man ought to abound ; for that which he, 
 even according to the standard which he set up, confessed 
 to be a xa\7r6v, namely rfj aXyOsta fjLja\6^rv^ov slvai, the 
 Christian, convinced by the Spirit of God, and having in
 
 150 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLII. 
 
 his Lord a standard of perfect righteousness before his 
 eyes, knows to be not merely a ^aXsTror, but an dSvvarov. 
 Such is the Christian Ta7reivo<f)poa-vvr), 110 mere modesty or 
 absence of pretension, which is all that the heathen would 
 at the very best have found in it; nor yet a self-made 
 grace ; and Chrysostom is in fact bringing in pride again 
 under the disguise of humility, when he characterizes it 
 as a making of ourselves small, when we are great (Tcnrstvo- 
 <f>poo-vwrj rot-To eartv, orav rts /j,e<ya$ &v, savrov raTrsivot: 
 and he repeats this often; see Suicer, Thes. a. v.). Far 
 truer and deeper is St. Bernard's definition : ' Est virtus 
 qu quis ex verissimd sui cognitione sibi ipsi vilescit ; ' the 
 esteeming of ourselves small, inasmuch as we are so ; the 
 thinking truly, and because truly, therefore lowlily, of 
 ourselves. 
 
 But it may be objected, how does this account of 
 Christian Tcnrsivo^poa-vwr], as springing out of and resting 
 on the sense of unworthiness, agree with the fact that 
 the sinless Lord laid claim to this grace, and said, " I am 
 meek and lowly in heart " (raTrsivbs rfj KapBla, Matt. xi. 
 29) ? The answer is, that for the sinner raTrsivotypoa-vvrj 
 involves the confession of sin, inasmuch as it involves the 
 confession of his true condition ; while yet for the un- 
 fallen creature the grace itself as truly exists, involving 
 for such the acknowledgment not of sinfulness, which 
 would be untrue, but of creatureliness, of absolute de- 
 pendence, of having nothing, but receiving all things 
 of God. And thus the grace of humility belongs to the 
 highest angel before the throne, being as he is a creature, 
 yea, even to the Lord of Glory Himself. In his human 
 nature He must be the pattern of all humility, of all 
 creaturely dependence; and it is only as a man that 
 Christ thus claims to be rairsivos : his human life was a 
 constant living on the fulness of his Father's love ; He 
 evermore, as man, took the place which beseemed the 
 creature in the presence of its Creator.
 
 XLH. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 151 
 
 The Gospel of Christ did not rehabilitate Trpaor^s so 
 entirely as it had done TaTreivo^poa-vvv), but this, because 
 the word did not need rehabilitation to the same extent. 
 HpaoTijs did not require to be transformed from a bad 
 sense to a good, but only to be lifted up from a lower level 
 of good to a higher. This indeed it did need ; for no one 
 can read Aristotle's portraiture of the irpaos and oiirpaor^s 
 (Ethic. Nic. iv. 5), mentally comparing the heathen virtue 
 with the Christian grace, and not feel that Revelation has 
 given to these words a depth, a richness, a fulness of 
 significance which they were very far from possessing 
 before. The great moralist of Greece set Trpaor^s as the 
 ^so-orrjs Trspl opyrjs, between the two extremes, 0/374X0x77? 
 and dopyr)(ria, with, however, so much leaning to the latter 
 that it might very easily run into this defect; and he 
 finds it worthy of praise, more because by it a man retains 
 his own equanimity and composure (the word is associated 
 by Plutarch with fierpioTrddsia, De Frat. Am. 18; with 
 a^oXt'a, Cons, ad Uxor. 2 ; with dvsgiKa/cla, De Cap. ex In. 
 Util. 9 ; with fju-ryakoTrddsia, De Ser. Num. Vind. 5 ; with 
 svTTsidsia, Comp. Num. et Lye. 3 ; with eu/coXt'a, De Virt. et 
 Vit. i), than for any nobler reason. Neither does Plu- 
 tarch's own graceful little essay, Hepl dop^a-ias, rise any- 
 where to a loftier pitch than this, though we might have 
 looked for something higher from him. Tlpaorys is opposed 
 by Plato to dypioTr)? (Symp. 1 97 d) ; by Aristotle to %a\s- 
 TTOTIJS (Hist. Anim. ix. I ; cf. Plato, Rep. vi. 472 /) ; by 
 Plutarch or some other under his name, to anorexia (De 
 Lib. Ed. 1 8) ; all indications of a somewhat superficial 
 meaning by them attached to the word. 
 
 Those modern expositors who will not allow for the new 
 forces at work in sacred Greek, who would fain restrict, 
 for instance, the Trpaorijs of the N.T. to that sense which 
 the word, as employed by the best classical writers, would 
 have borne, deprive themselves and as many as accept 
 their interpretation of much of the deeper teaching in
 
 152 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLII. 
 
 Scripture : l on which, subject, and with reference to this 
 very word, there are some excellent observations by F. 
 Spanheim, Dubia Evangelica, vol. iii. p. 398 ; by Eambach, 
 Inst. Herm. Sac. p. l69; 2 cf. also, passim, the lecture 
 or little treatise by Zezschwitz, Profangracitat undBiblischer 
 Sprachgeist, from which I have already given (p. i) an 
 interesting extract ; and the article, Hellenistisches Idiom, 
 by Eeuss in Herzog's Real-Encyclopadie. The Scriptural 
 TrpaoTijs is not in a man's outward behaviour only ; nor 
 yet in his relations to his fellow-men ; as little in his mere 
 natural disposition. Eather is it an inwrought grace of 
 the soul ; and the exercises of it are first and chiefly 
 towards God (Matt. xi. 29; Jam. i. 21). It is that temper 
 of spirit in which we accept his dealings with us as 
 good, and therefore without disputing or resisting ; and it 
 is closely linked with the raTrstvo^poavvrj, and follows 
 directly upon it (Ephes. iv. 2; Col. iii. 12; cf. Zeph. iii. 
 12); because it is only the humble heart which is also 
 the meek; and which, as such, does not fight against 
 God, and more or less struggle and contend with Him. 
 
 This meekness, however, being first of all a meekness 
 before God, is also such in the face of men, even of 
 evil men, out of a sense that these, with the insults and 
 injuries which they may inflict, are permitted and em- 
 ployed by Him for the chastening and purifying of his 
 elect. This was the root of David's TrpaoTi)?, when Shimei 
 cursed and flung stones at him the consideration, namely, 
 that the Lord had bidden him (2 Sam. xvi. 11), that it 
 
 1 They will do this, even though they stop short of lengths to which 
 Fritzsche, a very learned but unconsecrated modern expositor of the 
 Romans, has reached ; who, on Rom. i. 7, writes : ' Deinde considerandum 
 est formula x<*P ls fy"" * a ' "V"?" 7 ? ^ n N. T. nihil aliud dici nisi quod Grseci 
 illo suo x a V tlv 8 - f u Ttparrtiv enuntiare consueverint, h. e. ut aliquis for- 
 tunatus sit, sive, ut cum Horatio loquar, Ep. i. 8. I, ut gaudeat et bene 
 rem gerat.' 
 
 2 He concludes, Unde dignus esset reprehensione qui graciles illas et 
 exiles notiones quas pagani de virtutibus habuerunt Christianamin virtu- 
 tum nominibus subjiceret.'
 
 XLIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 153 
 
 was just for him to suffer these things, however unjustly 
 the other might inflict them ; and out of like convictions 
 all true Christian irpaor^s must spring. He that is meek 
 indeed will know himself a sinner among sinners ; or, if 
 there was One who could not know Himself such, yet He 
 too bore a sinner's doom, and endured therefore the con- 
 tradiction of sinners (Luke xxiii. 35, 36; John xviii. 22, 23) ; 
 and this knowledge of his own sin will teach him to 
 endure meekly the provocations with which they may pro- 
 voke him, and not to withdraw himself from the burdens 
 which their sin may impose upon him (Gal. vi. I ; 2 Tim. 
 ii. 25; Tit. iii. 2). 
 
 Hpaorr)?, then, or meekness, if more than mere gentle- 
 ness of manner, if indeed the Christian grace of meek- 
 ness of spirit, must rest on deeper foundations than its 
 own, on those namely which raTrsivo^poa-vvrj has laid for it, 
 and can only subsist while it continues to rest on these. 
 It is a grace in advance of raTrsivo^poa-vvr), not as more 
 precious than it, but as presupposing it, and as being 
 unable to exist without it. 
 
 xliii. TrpaoTrjs, 
 
 r] and sTrisiiczia, though joined together by 
 Clement of Rome (Cor. 56), are in their meanings too 
 far apart to be fit subjects of synonymous discrimination ; 
 but TrpaoTtjf, which stands between, holds on to both. The 
 attempt has just been made to seize its points of contact 
 with TaTrsivo^poa-vvrj. Without going over this ground 
 anew, we may consider the relations to sTrisitcsia in which 
 it stands. 
 
 The mere existence of such a word as sTrisiKsia is itself a 
 signal evidence of the high development of ethics among 
 the Greeks. 1 It expresses exactly that moderation which 
 
 1 No Latin word exactly and adequately renders it ; ' dementia ' sets 
 forth one side of it, ' sequitas' another, and perhaps ' modestia ' (by which
 
 154 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xun. 
 
 recognizes the impossibility cleaving to all formal law, of 
 anticipating and providing for all cases that will emerge, 
 and present themselves to it for decision; which, with 
 this, recognizes the danger that ever waits upon the 
 assertion of legal rights, lest they should be pushed into 
 moral wrongs, lest the ' sumnium jus ' should in practice 
 prove the * suinrna injuria ' ; which, therefore, ui-ges not 
 its own rights to the uttermost, but, going back in part or 
 in the whole from these, rectifies and redresses the in- 
 justices of justice. 1 It is thus more truly just than strict 
 justice would have been; being Si/caio^, Kal fte\Tiov TWOS 
 Si/caiov, as Aristotle expresses it (Ethic. Nic. v. 10. 6) ; 'es 
 ist namlich nicht das gesetzlich gerechte, sondern das 
 dasselbe berichtigende ' (Brandis) ; being indeed, again to 
 use Aristotle's words, STravopdw^a vopov, $ sXXsiTrsi Sia 
 TO ica6o\ov : 2 and he sets the d/cpiftoSiKaios, the man who 
 stands up for the last tittle of his legal rights, over 
 against the STTISIKIJS. In the Definitions which go under 
 Plato's name (412 6) it is Si/calov Kal crvufyspbvTwv fXar- 
 : it is joined by Lucian (Vit. Auct. 10) to aiSws and 
 s, and in a fragment of Sophocles is opposed to 17 
 Correctio ejus, Grotius defines it, in quo lex 
 propter universalitatem deficit. 'Evyvw/jboo-vvr] in its mean- 
 ing approaches very closely to smsl/ceia, but has not as 
 
 the Vulgate translates it, 2 Cor. x. r) a third ; but the word is wanting 
 which should set forth all these excellencies reconciled in a single and a 
 higher one. 
 
 1 In the words of Persius (iv. 1 1), 
 
 ' rectum discernit ubi inter 
 Curva subit, vel cum fallit pede regula varo.' 
 
 2 Daniel, a considerable poet, but a far more illustrious thinker, in a 
 poem addressed to Lord Chancellor Egerton very nobly expands these 
 words, or the thought in these words ; indeed, the whole poem is written 
 in honour of (irieiKtia or ' equity,' as being 
 
 ' the soul of law, 
 
 The life of justice, and the spirit of right.' 
 
 So too in Spenser's Fairy Queen the legend of Artegal is devoted to the 
 glorifying of the Christian grace of eVtcMceuz.
 
 XLIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 155 
 
 completely been taken up into the scientific language of 
 ethics. This aspect of sTriecicsia, namely that it is a going 
 back from the letter of right for the better preserving of 
 the spirit, must never be lost sight of. Seneca (De Clem. 
 ii. 7) well brings it out: 'Nihil ex his facit, tanquam 
 justo minus fecerit, sed tanquam id quod constituit, jus- 
 tissimum sit ; ' and Aquinas : ' Diminutiva est pcenarum, 
 secundum rationem rectam ; quando scilicet oportet, et in 
 quibus oportet.' Goschel, who has written so much and 
 so profoundly on the relations between theology and juris- 
 prudence, has much on this matter which is excellent (Zur 
 Philos. und Theol. des Rechts und der Rechtgeschichte, 1835, 
 pp. 428-438). 
 
 The archetype and pattern of this grace is found in 
 God. All his goings back from the strictness of his rights 
 as against men ; all his allowance of their imperfect righte- 
 ousness, and giving of a value to that which, rigorously 
 estimated, would have none ; all his refusals to exact ex- 
 treme penalties (Wisd. xii. 18; Song of Three Children, 18; 
 2 Mace. x. 4; Ps. Ixxxv. 5 : ore <rv, Kvpis, ^pr^aros ical 
 fcal TTO\VS\SOS : cf. Clement of Rome, Cor. 29 : 
 /cai svcnrXayxvos Tlarrfp : Plutarch, Coriol. 24 ; 
 Peric. 39 ; Cces. 57) ; all his keeping in mind whereof we 
 are made, and measuring his dealings with us thereby ; 
 all of these we may contemplate as sTmlKsia upon his 
 part ; even as they demand in return the same, one toward 
 another, upon ours. Peter, when himself restored, must 
 strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 32). The greatly 
 forgiven servant in the parable (Matt, xviii. 23), having 
 known the eirisiKeia of his lord and king, is justly expected 
 to shew the same to his fellow servant. The word is often 
 joined with ^i^avOpwjria (Polybius, v. 10. I ; Philo, De 
 Vit. Mos. i. 36 ; 2 Mace. ix. 27) ; with ^^spoTTjs (Philo, De 
 Car. 18; Plutarch, De Vit. Pud. 2); with /j,aicpodvfj.la 
 (Clement of Rome, Cor. 13); with avst-ucaKia (Wisd. ii. 
 19); often too with Trpaorrjs: thus, besides the passage
 
 156 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLIII. 
 
 in the N. T. (2 Cor. x. i), by Plutarch (Peric. 39; Cces. 57; 
 cf. Pyrrh. 23; De Prof. Virt. 9). It will be called avavbpia 
 by as many as seek to degrade a virtue through the calling 
 it the name of the vice which is indeed only its caricature 
 (Aristides, De Concord, i. p. 529). 
 
 The distinction between irpaorr^s and eTrisiKsia Estius 
 (on 2 Cor. x. i ) sets forth in part, although incompletely : 
 ' Mansuetudo [Trpaorys] magis ad animum, sirisiKSia vero 
 magis ad exteriorem conversationem pertinet ; ' compare 
 Bengel : * Trpaorrjs virtus magis absoluta, sirisUsia magis 
 refertur ad alios.' Aquinas too has a fine and subtle dis- 
 cussion on the relations of likeness and difference between 
 the graces which these words severally denote (Summ. 
 Theol. 2 a 3", qu. 157): 'Utrum dementia et Mansuetudo 
 sint penitus idem.* Among other marks of difference he 
 especially presses these two : the first that in dementia ' 
 (=s7riiKSia) there is always the condescension of a su- 
 perior to an inferior, while in ' mansuetudo ' (TrpaoTrjs) 
 nothing of the kind is necessarily implied : * dementia est 
 lenitas superioris adversus inferiorem : mansuetudo non 
 solum est superioris ad inferiorem, sed cujuslibet ad quem- 
 libet ; ' and the second, that which has been already urged, 
 that the one grace is more passive, the other more active, 
 or at least that the seat of the irpaor^s is in the inner 
 spirit, while the sTrisitceia must needs embody itself in 
 outward acts : ' Differunt ab invicem in quantum de- 
 mentia est moderativa exterioris punitionis, mansuetudo 
 proprie diminuit passionem irse.' 
 
 It is instructive to note how little of one mind our 
 various Translators from Wiclif downward have been as 
 to the words which should best reproduce sTriel/csia and. 
 for the English reader. The occasions on which 
 occur are two, or reckoning TO STTISLKSS as an 
 equivalent substantive, are three (Acts xxiv. 4; 2 Cor. x. 
 I ; Phil. iv. 5). It has been rendered in all these ways : 
 * meekness,' ' courtesy,' ' clemency,' ' softness,' ' modesty,'
 
 XLIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 157 
 
 * gentleness,' 'patience,' ( patient mind,' 'moderation.' 
 'ETTistfcys, not counting the one occasion already named, 
 occurs four times (i Tim. iii. 3 ; Tit. iii. 2 ; Jam. iii. 17 ; 
 I Pet. ii. 1 8), and appears in the several Versions of our 
 Hexapla as 'temperate/ 'soft,' 'gentle,' 'modest,' 'pa- 
 tient,' ' mild,' ' courteous.' ' Gentle ' and ' gentleness,' 
 on the whole, commend themselves as the best ; but the 
 fact remains, which also in a great measure excuses so 
 much vacillation here, namely, that we have no words in 
 English which are full equivalents of the Greek. The 
 sense of equity and fairness which is in them so strong is 
 more or less wanting in all which we offer in exchange. 
 
 xliv. 
 
 THESE words occur together John x. I, 8 ; but do not con- 
 stitute there ! or elsewhere a tautology, or mere rhetorical 
 amplification (cf. Obad. 5; Plato, Rep. i. 351 c). The 
 K\,STTT>JS and the \rj(rrrjs alike appropriate what is not 
 theirs, but the K^e-rrr^s by fraud and in secret (Matt. xxiv. 
 43 ; John xii. 6 ; cf. Exod. xxii. 2 ; Jer. ii. 26) ; the 
 \rja-Tijs by violence and openly (2 Cor. xi. 26 ; cf. Hos. vii. 
 I ; Jer. vii. 1 1 ; Plutarch, De Superst. 3 : ov </>o/3emu \fi<rras 
 6 olicovpwv} ; the one is the 'thief and steals ; the other 
 is the 'robber' and plunders, as his name, from \r)ts or 
 \sia (as our own ' robber,' from ' Raub,' booty), suffici- 
 ently declares. They are severally the ' fur ' and ' latro ; ' 
 t fures insidiantur et occult^, fraude decipiunt ; latrones 
 audacter aliena diripiunt' (Jerome, In Osee,vii. i). 'Larron,' 
 however, in French, 'voleur qui derobe furtivement et 
 par adresse,' notwithstanding its connexion with ' latro,' 
 has slipt into the meaning of ' fur.' Wiclif, who renders 
 the words, ' night- thief ' and 'day- thief,' has not very 
 happily distinguished them. 
 
 1 Grotius: 'Fur [(cXeVr^s] quia venit ut rapiat alienum ; 
 quia ut occidat, ver. 10.'
 
 158 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLIV. 
 
 Our Translators have always rendered /cXeVr^y by 
 'thief;' they ought with a like consistency to have ren- 
 dered \rjarrfs by ' robber } ' but it also they have oftener 
 rendered 'thief/ effacing thus the distinction between the 
 two. We cannot charge them with that carelessness here, 
 of which those would be guilty who should now do the 
 same. Passages out of number in our Elizabethan lite- 
 rature attest that in their day ' thief and 'robber' had not 
 those distinct meanings which they since have acquired. 
 Thus Falstaff and his company, who with open violence rob 
 the king's treasure on the king's highway, are ' thieves ' 
 throughout Shakspeare's Henry IV. Still one must regret 
 that on several occasions in our Version we do not find 
 'robbers ' rather than 'thieves.' Thus at Matt. xxi. 13 we 
 read : " My house shall be called the house of prayer, but 
 ye have made it a den of thieves ; " but it is ' robbers,' and 
 not ' thieves ' that have dens or caves ; and it is rightly 
 "den of robbers" at Jer. vii, u, whence this quotation 
 is drawn. Again, Matt. xxvi. 55 : "Are ye come out as 
 against a thief with swords and staves for to take Me ? " ; 
 but it would be against some bold and violent robber that 
 a party armed with swords and clubs would issue forth, 
 not against a lurking thief. The poor traveller in the 
 parable (Luke x. 30) fell, not among ' thieves,' but among 
 ' robbers ; ' violent and bloody men, as their treatment of 
 him plainly declared. 
 
 No passage has suffered so seriously from this con- 
 founding of 'thief and 'robber' as Luke xxiii. 39-43, 
 taken with Matt, xxvii. 38 and Mark xv. 27. The 
 whole anterior moral condition of him whom we call 
 ' the penitent thief is obscured for many by the associa- 
 tions which almost inevitably cling to this name. The two 
 malefactors crucified with Jesus, the one obdurate, the 
 other penitent, in all likelihood had belonged both to 
 the band of Barabbas, who for murder and insurrection 
 had been cast with his fellow insurgents into prison (Mark
 
 XLIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 159 
 
 xv. 7). He too was himself a Xrjarr^s (John xviii. 40), and 
 yet no common malefactor, on the contrary *a notable 
 prisoner' (Seoyuos eiriffrj^os, Matt, xxvii. 16). Now con- 
 sidering the fierce enthusiasm of the Jewish populace on 
 his behalf, and combining this with the fact that he was 
 in prison for an unsuccessful insurrection; keeping in 
 inind too the moral estate of the Jews at this period, with 
 false Christs, false deliverers, every day starting up, we 
 can hardly doubt that Barabbas was one of those wild 
 and stormy zealots, who were evermore raising anew the 
 standard of resistance against the Roman domination ; 
 nattering and feeding the insane hopes of their country- 
 men, that they should yet break the Roman yoke from 
 off their necks. These men, when hard pressed, would 
 betake themselves to the mountains, and from thence 
 wage a petty war against their oppressors, living by 
 plunder, if possible, by that of their enemies, if not, by 
 that of any within their reach. The history of Dolcino's 
 ( Apostolicals,' as that of the Camisards in the Cevennes, 
 illustrates only too well the downward progress by which 
 such would not merely presently obtain, but deserve, the 
 name of ' robbers.' By the Romans they would be called 
 and dealt with as such (see Josephus, Antt. xx. 8. 6, infine) ; 
 just as in the great French Revolution the Vendean royalists 
 were styled ' the brigands of the Loire ; ' nay, in that 
 great perversion of all moral sentiment which would mark 
 such a period as this was, the name of robber, like ' klept ' 
 among the modern Greeks, would probably have ceased to 
 be dishonorable, would not have been refused by them- 
 selves. 
 
 And yet of stamp and character how different would 
 many of these men, these maintainers of a last protest 
 against a foreign domination, probably be from the mean 
 and cowardly purloiner, whom we call the ' thief.' The 
 bands of these X^crrat, numbering in their ranks some of 
 the worst, would probably include also some that were
 
 160 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLV. 
 
 originally among the noblest, spirits of the nation even 
 though these had miserably mistaken the task which their 
 time demanded, and had sought by the wrath of man 
 to work out the righteousness of God. Such a one we 
 may well imagine this penitent \ya-T^s to have been. 
 Should there be any truth in this view of his former 
 condition, and certainly it would go far to explain his 
 sudden conversion, it is altogether obscured by the 
 name * thief ' which we have given him ; nor can it under 
 any circumstances be doubtful that he would be more 
 fitly called ' the penitent robber.' See my Studies in the 
 Gospels, 4th edit. pp. 302 sqq. ; Dean Stanley, The Jewish 
 Church, vol. iii. p. 466. 
 
 Xlv. Tr\.VVto, Z/tTTTft), \OVW. 
 
 THERE is a certain poverty in English, which has one only 
 word, * to wash,' with which to render these three Greek ; 
 seeing that the three have each a propriety of its own, 
 and one which the inspired writers always observe. Thus 
 TrXvvsiv is always to wash inanimate things, as distin- 
 guished from living objects or persons ; oftenest garments 
 (ifaara, Homer, II. xxii. 155 ; i/j,drtov, Plato, Charm. 161 e; 
 and in the Septuagint continually ; so o-roXas-, Rev. vii. 
 14); but not exclusively garments, as some affirm, for 
 see Luke v. 2, where it expresses the washing or cleans- 
 ing of nets (BiKTva: cf. Polybius, ix. 6, 3). When David 
 exclaims H\vvov ps airo rrjs avop,las (Ps. 1. 3 [li. 2, 
 A. Y.j), this is no exception to the rule; for the men- 
 tion of hyssop, which follows, shows plainly that the 
 royal penitent had the ceremonial aspersions of the Le- 
 vitical law primarily in his eye, aspersions therefore upon 
 the garments of the unclean person (Lev. xiv. 9 ; Num. 
 xix. 6, 7), however he may have looked through these to 
 another and better sprinkling beyond. 1 
 
 [' Ezek. xvi. 9, however, should perhaps he quoted as an exception, 
 where en-Xwa is used of the person of a new-born infant.]
 
 XLV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 161 
 
 and \oveiv, on the other hand, express the 
 washing of living persons ; although with this difference, 
 that VLTTTSLV (which displaced in the later period of the 
 language the Attic vifeiv), and vtyaa-Oai, almost always 
 express the washing of a part of the body the hands 
 (Mark vii. 3; Exod. xxx. 19), the feet (John xiii. 5; 
 Plutarch, Thes. 10), the face (Matt. vi. 17), the eyes 
 (John ix. 7), the back and shoulders (Homer, Od. vi. 
 224); while \ovsiv, which is not so much 'to wash' as 
 ' to bathe,' and \ovsa0ai, ' to bathe oneself,' implies always, 
 not the washing of a part of the body, but of the whole 
 (thus \s\ov [tsvot TO aa)fj,a, Heb. x. 22 ; cf. Exod. xxix. 4 ; 
 Acts ix. 37 ; 2 Pet. ii. 22 ; Eev. i. 5 ; Plato, Phcedo, 
 115 a). This limitation of VITTTSIV to persons as contra- 
 distinguished from things, which is always observed in 
 the N. T., is not without exceptions, although they are 
 very unfrequent elsewhere ; thus, SSTTCIS (Homer, II. xvi. 
 229); rpajrs^as (Od. i. 112); CTKSVOS (Lev. xv. 12). A 
 single verse in the Septuagint (Lev. xv. n) gives us all 
 the three words, and all used in their exact propriety 
 of meaning : KOI oawv sav a^njraL o yovoppvrjs, Kal rap 
 %ipa$ avrov ov vsvnrrai, vSari, 7r\vvsi ra Ijjbdna, Kal 
 \ov<rsrai TO <rwfia v8ari. 
 
 The passage where it is most important to mark the 
 distinction between VLTTTSIV, to wash a part, and \ovsw 
 or \ovsa6ai, to wash the whole, of the body, and where 
 certainly our English Version loses something in cleai-- 
 ness from the absence of words which should note the 
 passing from one word to the other in the original, is 
 John xiii. 10 : "He that is washed [6 \s\ovpsvos] needeth 
 not save to wash [ytyaa-Oai] his feet, but is clean every 
 whit." * The foot-washing was a symbolic act. St. 
 
 1 The Latin labours under the same defect ; thus in the Vulprate it 
 stands : ' Qui lotus est, non indiget nisi ut pedea lai:et.' De Wette hast 
 sought to preserve the variation of word : ' Wer ycbadet 1st, der bniuch 
 sich nicht als an den Fiissen zu u-asch^n.'
 
 1 62 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLV. 
 
 Peter had not understood this at the first, and, not 
 understanding, had exclaimed, u Thou shalt never wash 
 my feet." But so soon as ever the true meaning of what 
 his Lord was doing flashed upon him, he who had before 
 refused to suffer his Lord to wash even his feet, now 
 prayed to be washed altogether : " Lord, not my feet 
 only, but also my hands and my head." Christ replies, 
 that it needed not this : Peter had been already made 
 partaker of the great washing, of that forgiveness which 
 included the whole man : he was \s\ov/jievo$, and this great 
 absolving, cleansing act did not need to be repeated, was 
 indeed incapable of repetition : " Now ye are clean through 
 the word which I have spoken unto you" (John xv. 3). 
 But while it fared thus with him in respect of the all- 
 inclusive forgiveness, he did need to wash his feet (vi^raa-Qat, 
 TOVS Tro'Say), evermore to cleanse himself, which could only 
 be through suffering his Lord to cleanse him, from the 
 defilements which even he, a justified and in part also a 
 sanctified man, should gather as he moved through a 
 sinful world. One might almost suppose, as it has been 
 suggested, that there was allusion here to the Levitical 
 ordinance, according to which Aaron and his successors in 
 the priesthood were to be washed once for all from head to 
 foot at their consecration to their office (Exod. xxix. 4; 
 xl. 12) ; but were to wash their hands and their feet in the 
 brazen laver as often as they afterwards ministered before 
 the Lord (Exod. xxx. 19, 21; xl. 31). Yet this would 
 commend itself more, if we did not find hands and feet in 
 the same category there, while here they are not merely 
 disjoined, but set over against one another (John, ver. 9, 
 10). This much however to me is plain, that the whole mys- 
 tery of our justification, which is once for all, reaching 
 to every need, embracing our whole being, and of our 
 sanctification, which must daily go forward, is wrapped up 
 in the antithesis between the two words. This Augustine 
 has expressed clearly and well (In Ev. Joh. xiii. 10) :
 
 XLVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 163 
 
 * Homo in sancto quidem baptismo totus abluitur, non 
 prseter pedes, sed totus omnino : veruntamen cum in rebus 
 humanis postea vivitur, utique terra calcatur. Ipsi igitur 
 humani affectus, sine quibus in hac mortalitate non 
 Tivitur, quasi pedes sunt, ubi ex humanis rebus afficirnur. 
 Quotidie ergo pedes lavat nobis, qui interpellat pro nobis : 
 et quotidie nos opus habere ut pedes lavemus in ipsa 
 Oratione Dominica confiternur, cum dicirnus, Dimitte 
 nobis debita nostra.' 
 
 xlvi. (pw 
 
 ALL these words are rendered, some occasionally, some 
 always, in our Version, by ' light ' ; thus, <<yy at Matt, 
 iv. 16; Rom. xiii. 12, and often; <f>syyos at Matt. xxiv. 
 29 ; Mark xiii. 24 ; Luke xi. 33 (it does not occur again) ; 
 (^wcrrTJp at Phil. ii. 15; Rev. xxi. 1 1 (where only it occurs) ; 
 \v-xyos at Matt. vi. 22 ; John v. 35 ; 2 Pet. i. 19, and else- 
 where ; though this often by ' candle ' (Matt. v. 15;' Rev. 
 xxii. 5) ; and Xa/iTras at Acts xx. 8, though elsewhere 
 rendered 'lamp ' (Matt. xxv. I ; Rev. viii. 10), and ' torch' 
 (John xviii. 3). 
 
 The old grammarians distinguish between <wy and 
 <f>syyos (which are but different forms of one and the 
 same word), that <ws is the light of the sun or of the day, 
 (frsyyos the light or lustre of the moon. The Attic writers, 
 to whom this distinction must belong, if to any, them- 
 selves only imperfectly observe it. Thus, in Sophocles 
 (frsyyos is three or four times ascribed to the sun (Antig. 
 800 ; Ajax, 654, 840 ; Trachin. 597) ; while in Plato we 
 meet <<ws o-eXtfvrjs (Rep. vii. 516 6; cf. Isai. xiii. 10; 
 Ezek. xxxii. 7). This much right the grammarians have, 
 that (frsyyos is oftenest the light of the moon or other 
 luminaries of the night, (f>ws that of the sun or of the 
 day; thus Plato (Rep. vi. 508 c) sets over against one 
 another r^^spivov <wy and vv/cTspiva (f>eyyr]. This, like so 
 
 K 2
 
 1 64 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVI. 
 
 many other finer distinctions of the Greek language, is 
 so far observed in the N. T., that the light of the moon, 
 on the only occasions that it is mentioned, is (freyyo? 
 (Matt. xxiv. 29; Mark xiii. 24; cf. Joel ii. 10; iii. 15), 
 as (f>)s is that of the sun (Rev. xxii. 5). It will follow 
 that <f)ws, rather than <j)sy<yos, is the true antithesis to 
 O-KOTOS (Plato, Rep. vii. 518 a; Matt. vi. 23 ; I Pet. ii. 9) ; 
 and generally that the former will be the more absolute 
 designation of light ; thus Hab. iii. 4 : KOI <f>syyos aurov 
 [rov sou] MS (frws go-rat: compare Euripides, Helen. 530 : 
 <f)rj(ri S' sv <f)dsi irocriv rov a^wv ^wvra (psyyos slaopav. See 
 Doderlein, Lett. Synon. vol. ii. p. 69. 
 
 3>o)<TTrip is rendered * light ' in our Version ; thus, at 
 Phil. ii. 15: " Among whom ye shine as lights in the 
 world" (coy fywa-TTipss sv /coa-py}. It would be difficult 
 to improve on this, which yet fails to mark with entire 
 precision what St. Paul intends. The ^xoa-rrjpss here 
 are the heavenly bodies, * luminaria ' (Vulg.), ' Himmels- 
 lichter' (De Wette), and mainly the sun and moon, the 
 Mights,' or * great lights ' (=< luces,' Cicero, poet.), 
 of which Moses speaks, Gen. i. 14, 16; where nh'Xfp is 
 rendered ^uxrrrjpss in the Septuagint. Compare Ecclus. 
 xliii. 7, where the moon is <j>a)a-Tijp : and Wisd. xiii. 2, 
 where (fecoa-rfjpss ovpavov is exactly equivalent to fyaxr- 
 rrjpss sv Ko<rp,w here, the tcoa-fios of this place being the 
 material world, the a-rspsw/jia or firmament, not the ethical 
 world, which has been already designated by the ysvsa 
 <r/co\ia fcal 8is<TTpafji,jj,ei>'rj. Nor would it be easy to improve 
 on our version- of Rev. xxi. 1 1 : " Her light 6 ^wcrr^p 
 avrrji] was like unto a stone most precious." Our Trans- 
 lators did well in going back to this, Wiclif's rendering, 
 and in displacing " her shining" which had been admitted 
 into the intermediate Versions, and which must have 
 conveyed a wrong impression to the English reader. Not 
 that the present rendering is altogether satisfactory, 
 being itself not wholly unambiguous. Some may still be
 
 XLVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 165 
 
 tempted to understand ' her light * as the light which the 
 Heavenly City diffused; when, indeed, (fxao-r^p means, 
 that which diffused light to the Heavenly City, her 
 luminary or light-giver ; ' lumen ejus,' as in the Vulgate. 
 What this light-giver was, we learn from ver. 23 : " the 
 Lamb is the light thereof;" o \v^yos avrrjsr there being 
 = o <f)(o<TTT)p avrrjs here. 
 
 In rendering \v%vos and \a^.'jrds our Translators have 
 scarcely made the most of the words at their command. 
 Had they rendered \ap.Trds by ' torch,' not once only 
 (John xviii. 3), but always, this would have left ' lamp,' 
 now wrongly appropriated by \afj.7rds, disengaged. Alto- 
 gether dismissing ' candle,' they might then have rendered 
 \v%vos by ' lamp ' wherever it occurs. At present there 
 are so many occasions where ( candle ' would manifestly 
 be inappropriate, and where, therefore, they are obliged 
 to fall back on ' light,' that the distinction between <ws 
 and \v%vos nearly, if not quite, disappears in our Version. 
 
 The advantages of such a re-distribution of the words 
 would be many. In the first place, it would be more 
 accurate. Ai^i/os is not a ' candle ' (candela,' from 
 ' candeo,' the white wax light, and then any kind of 
 taper), but a hand-lamp, fed with oil. Neither is \a^irds 
 a * lamp,' but a * torch,' and this not only in the Attic, 
 but in the later Hellenistic Greek as well (Polybius, iii. 
 93. 4; Herodian, iv. 2; Plutarch, Timol. 8; Alex. 38; 
 Judg. vii. 16; xv. 4) ; and so, I believe, always in the N.T. 
 In proof that at Rev. viii. 10, \afnrds should be translated 
 1 torch' ('Fackel,' De Wette), see Aristotle, De Hund. 4. 
 Our early translators, who rendered it ( brand ' or * fire- 
 brand' (John xviii. 3), showed that they understood the 
 force of the word. It may be urged that in the parable 
 of the Ten Virgins the \afi7rdSss are nourished with oil, 
 and must needs therefore be lamps. But this does not 
 follow. In the East the torch, as well as the lamp, is fed 
 in this manner : ' The true Hindu way of lighting up is by
 
 1 66 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVII. 
 
 torches held by men, who feed the flame with oil from a 
 sort of bottle [the dyyslov of Matt. xxv. 4], constructed for 
 the purpose* (Elphinstone, Hist, of India, vol. i. p. 333). 
 
 More passages than one would gain in perspicuity by 
 such a re-arrangement ; and mainly through the clear 
 distinction between </><yy and \v%vos, which would then be 
 apparent. One of these is John v. 35 : " He was a burning 
 and a shining light," so our Translation; but in the 
 original, sKslvos r^v 6 \v^vos 6 Kaio^svos Kal fyalvwv; or, 
 as the Vulgate has ifc : ' Ille erat lucerna ardens et lucens ; ' 
 not obliterating, as we have done, the whole antithesis 
 between Christ, the <j>ws a\T]0t,v6v (John i. 9), $>ws etc (frwros, 
 that Eternal Light, which, as it was never kindled, so 
 shall never be quenched, and the Baptist, a lamp kindled 
 by the hands of Another, in whose brightness men might 
 for a season rejoice, and which must then be extinguished 
 again. In the use of \v%vo$ here and at 2 Pet. i. 19, 
 tacitly contrasted here with <<ws, and there avowedly 
 with (f)0)o-(f)6pos, the same opposition is intended, only now 
 transferred to the highest sphere of the spiritual world, 
 which our poet had in his mind when he wrote those 
 glorious lines : 
 
 'Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund Day 
 Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-tops.' 
 
 xlvii. 
 
 THEEE has often been occasion to observe the manner in 
 which Greek words taken up into Christian use are glorified 
 and transformed, seeming to have waited for this adoption 
 of them, to come to their full rights, and to reveal all the 
 depth and the riches of meaning which they contained, or 
 might be made to contain. Xdpis is one of these. It is 
 hardly too much to say that the Greek mind has in no 
 word uttered itself and all that was at its heart more 
 distinctly than in this j so that it will abundantly repay
 
 XLVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 167 
 
 our pains to trace briefly the steps by which it came to its 
 highest honours. Xdpis, connected with xaipsiv, is first 
 of all that property in a thing which causes it to give joy 
 to the hearers or beholders of it, as Plutarch (Phil, cum 
 Princ. 3) has rightly explained it, ~x,apas jap ovBsi> ovrws 
 <yovifj,6v scrriv toy %a/9ty (cf. Pott. Etym. Forsch. vol. ii. part 
 I, p. 217); and then, seeing that to a Greek there was 
 nothing so joy-inspiring as grace or beauty, it implied the 
 presence of this, the German ' anmuth ' ; thus Homer, Od. 
 ii. 12; vi. 237 ; Euripides, Troad. 1108, irapQsvwv j^dptres; 
 Lucian, Zeux. 2, ^dpis 'ATTIKIJ. It has often this use in 
 the Septuagint (Ps. xliv. 3 ; Prov. x. 32), the Hebrew jn 
 being commonly rendered by it ; yet not invariably ; being 
 translated by apsa-Ksia (Prov. xxxi. 30) ; by s\sos (Gen. 
 xix. 19) ; by eiri^apis (Nah. iii. 4). Xdpis has the same 
 use in the Apocrypha (Ecclus. xxiv. 16; xl. 22, xdpis /cal 
 KaXkos) : nor is this altogether strange to the N. T. ; thus 
 see Luke iv. 22, and perhaps Ephes. iv. 29. 
 
 But xdpis after a while came to signify not necessarily 
 the grace or beauty of a thing, as a quality appertaining 
 to it; but the gracious or beautiful thing, act, thought, 
 speech, or person it might be, itself the grace embodying 
 and uttering itself, where there was room or call for this, 
 in gracious outcomings toward such as might be its 
 objects ; not any longer ' favour ' in the sense of beauty, 
 but ' the favour ' ; for our word here a little helps us to 
 trace the history of the Greek. So continually in classical 
 Greek we have x^P iV dirairsiv, Xapfldvciv, Sovvai : so in the 
 Septuagint (Esth. vi. 3) ; and so also %dpis as a merely 
 human grace and favour in the N. T. (thus Acts ii. 47 ; 
 xxv. 3; 2 Cor. viii. 19). There is a further sense which 
 the word obtained, namely the thankfulness which the 
 favour calls out in return ; this also frequent in the N.T. 
 (Luke xvii. 9; Rom. vi. 17; 2 Cor. viii. 16) ; though with 
 it, as we are only treating the word in its relations to 
 eXsos, we have nothing to do. It is at that earlier point
 
 1 68 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVII. 
 
 which we have just been fixing that %apty waited for and 
 obtained its highest consecration ; not indeed to have its 
 meaning changed, but to have that meaning ennobled, 
 glorified, lifted up from the setting forth of an earthly to 
 the setting forth of a heavenly benefit, from signifying the 
 favour and grace and goodness of man to man, to setting 
 forth the favour, grace and goodness of God to man, and 
 thus, of necessity, of the worthy to the unworthy, of the 
 holy to the sinful, being now not merely the German 
 ' gunst ' or ' huld,' to which the word had corresponded 
 hitherto, but ' gnade ' as well. Such was a meaning to 
 which it had never raised itself before, and this not even 
 in the Greek Scriptures of the elder Covenant; for the 
 Hebrew word which most nearly approaches in meaning 
 to the %dpts of the N. T., namely ipn, is not translated by 
 %a/9ts-, one occasion only excepted (Esth. ii. 9), but usually 
 by E\SOS (Gen. xxiv. 12 ; Job vi. 14; Dan. i. 9; and often). 
 Already, it is true, if not there, yet in another quarter 
 there were preparations for this glorification of meaning 
 to which %a/)ts was destined. These lay in the fact that 
 already in the ethical terminology of the Greek schools 
 ^dpLs implied ever a favour freely done, without claim or 
 expectation of return the word being thus predisposed 
 to receive its new emphasis, its religious, I may say its 
 dogmatic, significance ; to set forth the entire and abso- 
 lute freeness of the lovingkindness of God to men. Thus 
 Aristotle, defining %dpis, lays the whole stress on this 
 very point, that it is conferred freely, with no expectation 
 of return, and finding its only motive in the bounty and 
 free-heartedness of the giver (Rhet. ii. 7) : sa-rw Brj xdpif, 
 Kad' rjv 6 s%<wi> \sysrai xdpiv vTrovpysiv rw Ssopsvq), ^ dvrl 
 TWOS, fjLtjB' iva ri avru> TO) virovpyovvTi, d\\' iva SKSivy TI. 
 Agreeing with this we have %a/ats KOI Swpsd, Polybius, 
 1.31.6 (cf . B-orn. iii. 24, Sapsav Ty avrov %'ptrt ; v. 15,17; 
 xii. 3, 6 ; xv. 1 5 ; Ephes. ii. 8 ; iv. 7) ; so too %a/3ts joined 
 vith evvoia (Plato, Legg. xi. 931 a; Plutarch, Quom.Adul.
 
 XLVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 169 
 
 ab Amic. 34) ; with tyikia (Lye. 4) ; with irpaorr^s (Adv. 
 Colot. 2); opposed to fjuados (Lye. 15) ; and compare Roin. 
 xi. 6, where St. Paul sets %a/3ts and sp<ya over against one 
 another in directest antithesis, showing that they mutually 
 exclude one another, it being of the essence of whatever 
 is owed to ^dpis that it is unearned and unmerited, as 
 Augustine urges so often, * gratia, nisi gratis sit, non est 
 gratia;' or indeed demerited, as the faithful man will 
 most freely acknowledge. 
 
 But while ^apis has thus reference to the sins of men, 
 and is that glorious attribute of God which these sins call 
 out and display, his free gift in their forgiveness, s\sos has 
 special and immediate regard to the misery which is the 
 consequence of these sins, being the tender sense of this 
 misery displaying itself in the effort, which only the 
 continued perverseness of man can hinder or defeat, to 
 assuage and entirely remove it ; so Bengel well : ' Gratia 
 tollit culpam, misericordia miseriam.' But here, as in 
 other cases, it may be worth our while to consider the 
 anterior uses of this word, before it was assumed into 
 this its highest use as the mercy of Him, whose mercy is 
 over all his works. Of e'Xeos we have this definition in 
 Aristotle (Rhet. ii. 8) : sarw Srj eXeos, \virr] ris 7rl <^aLvop,svw 
 Ka/CM (frdapriKM teal \v7rrjp(i), rov ava^iov Tvy%dviv, o KCLV 
 avTos TrpocrSoKrjcrsiEv av Tradsiv, rj TWV avrov nva. It will be 
 at once perceived that much will have here to be modified, 
 and something removed, when we come to speak of the 
 g'Xeos of God. Grief does not and cannot touch Him, in 
 Avhose presence is fulness of joy; He does not demand 
 unworthy suffering (\v7nj &>s sirl ava^ias KaKo-Tradovvr^ 
 which is the Stoic definition of I'Xsoy, Diogenes Laertius, 
 vii. I. 63), J to move Him, seeing that absolutely unworthy 
 suffering there is none in a world of sinners ; neither can 
 
 1 So Cicero (Tusc. iv. 8. 18): 'Misericordia est aegritudo ex miseriti 
 alter ius injurid labor antis. Nemo enim parricidae aut proditoris supplicio 
 misericordia commovetur.'
 
 1 70 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVII. 
 
 He, who is lifted up above all chance and change, contem- 
 plate, in beholding misery, the possibility of being Him- 
 self involved in the same. It is nothing wonderful that 
 the Manichseans and others who desired a God as unlike 
 man as possible, cried out against the attribution of s\sos 
 to Him, and found here a weapon of their warfare against 
 that Old Testament, whose God was not ashamed to pro- 
 claim Himself a God of pity and compassion (Ps. Ixxviii. 
 385 Ixxxvi. 15; and often). They were favoured here in 
 the Latin by the word ' misericordia,' and did not fail to 
 appeal to its etymology, and to demand whether the 
 ' miserum cor ' could find place in Him ; compare Virgil, 
 Georg. ii. 498, 499. Seneca too they had here for a fore- 
 runner, who observes in respect of this ' vitium pusilli 
 animi,' as he calls it (De Clemen, ii. 6), ' Misericordia vicina 
 est miseries ; habet enim aliquid trahitque ex ea.' Augus- 
 tine answered rightly that this and all other words used to 
 express human affections did require certain modifications, 
 a clearing away from them of the infirmities of human 
 passions, before they could be ascribed to the most High; . 
 but that such for all this were only their accidents, the 
 essentials remaining unchanged. Thus De Div. Qucest. ii. 
 2 : ' Item de misericordia, si auferas compassionem cum 
 eo, quern miseraris, participatse miserise, ut remaneat tran- 
 guilla bonitas subveniendi et a miseria, liberandi, insinuatur 
 divinse misericordise qualiscunque cognitio:' cf. De Civ. 
 Dei, ix. 5 ; Anselm, Proslogium, 8 j and Suicer, Thes. s. v. 
 In man's pity there will always be an element of grief, so 
 that by John of Damascus s\sos is enumerated as one of 
 the four forms of \v7rrj, the other three being a%oy, a%#os-, 
 and $66vo$ (De Fid. Orthod. ii. 14) ; but not so in God's. 
 We may say then that the %dpis of God, his free grace 
 and gift, displayed in the forgiveness of sins, is extended 
 to men, as they are guiliy, his eXeoy, as they are miserable. 
 The lower creation may be, and is, the object of God's 
 sKsos, inasmuch as the burden of man's curse has redounded
 
 XLVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 171 
 
 also upon it (Job xxxviii. 41 ; Ps. cxlvii. 9; Jon. iv. u ; 
 Rom. viii. 20-23), but of his ^dpts man alone; he only 
 needs, he only is capable of receiving it. 
 
 In the Divine mind, and in the order of our salvation 
 as conceived therein, the s\sos precedes the %apty. God 
 so loved the world with a pitying love (herein was the s\sos}, 
 that He gave his only begotten Son (herein the %dpis), that 
 the world through Him might be saved (cf. Ephes. ii. 4 ; 
 Luke i. 78, 79). But in the order of the manifestation of 
 God's purposes of salvation the grace must go before the 
 mercy, the ^dpis must go before and make way for the 
 s\os. It is true that the same persons are the subjects of 
 both, being at once the guilty and the miserable ; yet the 
 righteousness of God, which it is quite as necessary should 
 be maintained as his love, demands that the guilt should 
 be done away, before the misery can be assuaged ; only 
 the forgiven may be blessed. He must pardon, before He 
 can heal ; men must be justified before they can be sanc- 
 tified. And as the righteousness of God absolutely and in 
 itself requires this, so no less that righteousness as it has 
 expressed itself in the moral constitution of man, linking 
 as it there has done misery with guilt, and making the 
 first the inseparable companion of the second. From 
 this it follows that in each of the apostolic salutations 
 where these words occur, xdpis precedes s\sos (I Tim. i. 2 ; 
 2 Tim. i. 2; Tit. i. 4; 2 John 3 ; Zech. xii. 10; cf. Wisd. 
 iii. 9) ; nor could this order have been reversed. Xiipts 
 on the same grounds in the more usual Pauline salutations 
 precedes slptjvrj (i Cor. i. 3 ; 2 Cor. i. 2; and often). On 
 the distinction between the words of this , see some 
 excellent words in Delitzsch, An die Elmer, p. 163.
 
 SYNOJKYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVIII. 
 
 xlviii. dzoas/Siis, suo-e/zfy's-, svXafirjs, O 
 SftcrtScu'yu wv. 
 
 foo-e/3???, an epithet three times applied to Job (i. I, 8 ; 
 ii. 3), occurs only once in the N. T. (John ix. 31) ; and 
 Qsoaspsia no oftener (i Tim. ii. IO; Gen. xx. II ; cf. Job 
 xxviii. 28). Euo-ejSjfc, rare in the Septuagint (Isai. xxiv. 
 j'S ; xxvi. 7 ; xxxii. 8), but common in the Apocrypha 
 (Ecclus. xi. 22 ; xii. 2, 4), with the words dependent on it, 
 is of more frequent occurrence (i Tim. ii. 2 ; Acts x. 2 ; 
 2 Pet. ii. 9, and often. Before we proceed to consider 
 the relation of these to the other words in this group, 
 a subordinate distinction between themselves may fitly be 
 noted ; this, namely, that in Osocrsftijs is implied, by its 
 very derivation, piety toward Ood, or toward the gods; 
 while evasftrfs, often as it means this, may also mean piety 
 in the fulfilment of human relations, as toward parents or 
 others (Euripides, Elect. 253, 254), the word according to 
 its etymology only implying ' worship ' (that is * worth- 
 ship ') and reverence, well and rightly directed. It has in 
 fact the same double meaning as the Latin ' pietas,' which 
 is not merely 'justitia adversum Deos,' or 'scientia colcn- 
 dorum Deorum' (Cicero, Nat. Deor. i. 41) ; but a double 
 meaning, which, deeply instructive as it is, yet proves oc- 
 casionally embarrassing; so that on several occasions 
 Augustine, when he has need of accuracy and precision in 
 his language, pauses to observe that by l pietas' he means 
 what sva-sftsta may mean, but deoasfisia alone must mean, 
 namely, piety toward God (' Dei pietatem, quarn Grseci vel 
 svasfisiav, vel expressius et plenius Qsoasfisiav, vocant,' Ep. 
 clxvii. 3 ; De Trin. xiv. I ; Civ. Dei, x. I ; Enchir. i). At 
 the same time svo-sfteia, explained in the Platonic Defini- 
 tions (412 c) as Si/caiocrvwr) Trspi 6sovs } by the Stoics as 
 7ri(TTijjji.r) dswv Bspcnrsias (Diogenes Laertius, vii. i. 64, 1 19),
 
 XLVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 173 
 
 and not therefore every reverencing of the gods, but a 
 reverencing of them aright (sv), is the standing word to 
 express this piety, both in itself (Xenophon, Ages. iii. 5 ; 
 xi. i), and as it is the right mean between adsorbs and 
 (Plutarch, De Super. 14) ; aa-eflsia and SSHTI- 
 (Philo, Quod Deus Jrara. 34) ; Josephus in like 
 manner opposes it to slSa)\o\aTpsia. The ucre/3??s is set 
 over against the avo<rios (Xenophon. Apol. Soc. 19) ; he is 
 himself fyikoOeos (Lucian, De Calum. 14) ; a-wfypwv Trspl rovs 
 Osovs (Xenophon, Mem. iv. 3. 2). For some further beau- 
 tiful remarks on evas/Ssia in the Greek sense of the word 
 see Nagelsbach, Nachhomerische Theologie, p. 191. Chris- 
 tian evcrefisia is well described by Eusebius (Prcsp. Evang. 
 i. p. 3) as r) Trpos rov sva KCU JJLOVOV (as a\r)8a)$ 6/no\oyoviJ.v6v 
 rs Kal OVTO, ov avdvsvvis, ical 97 Kara TOVTOV 0)77. 
 
 What would have needed to be said on v\a/3/j$ has 
 been for the most part anticipated (see x.) ; yet some- 
 thing further may be added here. I observed there how 
 sv\dpeia passed over from signifying caution and careful- 
 ness in the handling of human things to the same in 
 respect of divine ; the German * andacht ' had much the 
 same history (see Grimm, Worterbuch, s. v.). The only 
 places in the N. T. where svXaftijs occurs are Luke ii. 25 ; 
 Acts ii. 5 ; viii. 2 ; cf. Mic. vii. 2. Our E. Y. has uni- 
 formly translated it ' devout ' : nor could this translation 
 be bettered. It is the Latin * religiosus,' but not our 're- 
 ligious.' On all these occasions it expresses Jewish, and 
 as one might say, Old Testament piety. On the first 
 it is applied to Simeon ; on the second, to those Jews who 
 came from distant parts to keep the commanded feasts at 
 Jerusalem ; and, on the third, the ai'Spss euXa/3sts who 
 carry Stephen to his burial, are in all likelihood not 
 Christian brethren, but devout Jews, who avowed by this 
 courageous act of theirs, as by their great lamentation 
 over the slaughtered saint, that they separated themselves 
 in spirit from this deed of blood, and thus, if it might be,
 
 174 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVIII- 
 
 from all the judgments which it would bring down on the 
 city of those murderers. Whether it was further given 
 them to believe on the Crucified, who had such witnesses 
 as Stephen, we are not told ; we may well presume that 
 it was. 
 
 If we keep in mind that, in that mingled fear and love 
 which combined constitute the piety of man toward God, 
 the Old Testament placed its emphasis on the fear, the 
 New places it on the love (though there was love in the 
 fear of God's saints then, as there must be fear in their 
 love now), it will at once be evident how fitly sv\a^i]s was 
 chosen to set forth their piety under the Old Covenant, 
 who, like Zacharias and Elizabeth, were righteous before 
 God, walking in all the commandments and ordinances 
 of the Lord blameless ' (Luke i. 6), and leaving nothing 
 willingly undone which pertained to the circle of their 
 prescribed duties. For this sense of accurately and 
 scrupulously performing that which is prescribed, with the 
 consciousness of the danger of slipping into a careless 
 negligent performance of God's service, and of the need 
 therefore of anxiously watching against the adding to or 
 diminishing from, or in any other way altering, that which 
 has been by Him commanded, lies ever in the words 
 v\a[3r)s, v\dfisia, when used in their religious significa- 
 tion. 1 Compare Pott, Etym. Forsch. vol. v. p. 369. 
 
 Plutarch on more occasions than one exalts the 
 sv\d/3eia of the Romans in the handling of divine things, 
 as contrasted with the comparative carelessness of the 
 Greeks. Thus, after other instances in proof (CorioL 25), 
 he goes on : 'Of late times also they did renew and begin 
 a sacrifice thirty times one after another ; because they 
 thought still there fell out one fault or other in the same ; 
 
 1 Cicero's well-known words deducing 'religio' from ' relejrere ' may 
 be here fitly quoted (De Nat. Deor. ii. 28) : ' Qui omnia quse ad cultum 
 deorum pertinerent, diligenter retractarent, et tanquain relegerent, sunt 
 dicti reliaiosi.'
 
 XL viii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 175 
 
 so holy and devout were they to the gods ' (roiavrrj fisv 
 ev\dfteia trpos TO dsiov f P<w/ieuW). Elsewhere, he pour- 
 trays jEmilius Paulus (c. 3) as eminent for his sv\d/3sia. 
 The passage is long, and I only quote a portion of it, 
 availing myself again of Sir Thomas North's hearty 
 translation, which, though somewhat loose, is in essentials 
 correct : * When he did anything belonging to his office of 
 priesthood, he did it with great experience, judgment, and 
 diligence ; leaving all other thoughts, and without omit- 
 ting any ancient ceremony, or adding to any new ; con- 
 tending oftentimes with his companions in things which 
 seemed light and of small moment ; declaring to them 
 that though we do presume the gods are easy to be 
 pacified, and that they readily pardon all faults and 
 scrapes committed by negligence, yet if it were no more 
 but for respect of the commonwealth's sake they should 
 not slightly or carelessly dissemble or pass over faults 
 committed in those matters' (p. 206). Compare Aulus 
 Gellius, ii. 28 : ' Veteres Romani in constituendis religioni- 
 bus atque in diis immortalibus animadvertendis castissimi 
 cautissimique.' Euripides in one passage contemplates 
 sv\d/3sta as a person and a divine one, ^p^a-L^wrdrri Oswv 
 (Phcen. 794) . 
 
 But if in sv\a^rjs we have the anxious and scrupulous 
 worshipper, who makes a conscience of changing any- 
 thing, of omitting anything, being above all things 
 fearful to offend, we have in 0pr)<rico$ (Jam. i. 26), which 
 still more nearly corresponds to the Latin 'religiosus,' the 
 zealous and diligent performer of the divine offices, of 
 the outward service of God. The word indeed nowhere 
 else occurs in the whole circle of the profane literature of 
 Greece ; but working back from Oprja-Ksia, we are in no 
 difficulty about its exact meaning. Sprj^Ksla ( = 'cultus,' 
 or perhaps more strictly, 'cultus exterior') is predomi- 
 nantly the ceremonial service of religion, of her whom 
 Lord Brooke has so grandly named ' mother of form and
 
 176 SYNOXYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 fear,' the external framework or body, of which 
 is the informing soul. The suggestion of Plutarch (Alex. 
 2), deriving OprjaKOf from Orpheus the Thracian, who 
 brought in the celebration of religious mysteries, is 
 etymologically worthless ; but points, and no doubt truly, 
 to the celebration of divine offices as the fundamental 
 notion of the word. 
 
 How delicate and fine then is St. James's choice of 
 Qprja-Kos and dpya-Ksia (i. 26, 27). * If any man,' the Apostle 
 would say, ' seem to himself to be Opija-fcos, a diligent 
 observer of the offices of religion, if any man would 
 render a pure and undefiled Opyo-KSi'a to God, let him know 
 that this consists not in outward lustrations or ceremonial 
 observances; nay, that there is a better dprja-icsia than 
 thousands of rams and rivers of oil, namely, to do justly 
 and to love mercy and to walk humbly with his God ' 
 (Mic. vi. 7,8); or, according to his own words, ' to visit 
 the widows and orphans in their affliction, and to keep 
 himself unspotted from the world' (cf. Matt, xxiii, -23). 
 St. James is not herein affirming, as we sometimes hear, 
 these offices to be the sum total, nor yet the great 
 essentials, of true religion, but declares them to be the 
 body, the dprjcrKsia, of which godliness, or the love of God, 
 is the informing soul. His intention is somewhat 
 obscured to the English reader from the fact that * reli- 
 gious ' and ' religion,' by which we have rendered dpija/cof 
 and dprjo-Ksia, possessed a meaning once which they now 
 possess no longer, and in that meaning are here employed. 
 The Apostle claims for the new dispensation a superiority 
 over the old, in that its very Qprja-fcsla consists in acts of 
 mercy, of love, of holiness, in that it has light for its gar- 
 ment, its very robe being righteousness ; herein how much 
 nobler than that old, whose dprja-Ksia was at best merely 
 ceremonial and formal, whatever inner truth it might 
 embody. These observations are made by Coleridge (Aids 
 to Reflection, 1825, p. 15), who at the same time complains
 
 XLVIII. SYXONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 177 
 
 of our rendering of Opr}cncos and Opijo-tcsia as erroneous 
 But it is not so ranch erroneous as obsolete ; an explana- 
 tion indeed which he has himself suggested, though he 
 was not aware of any such use of ' religion ' at the time 
 when our Version was made as would bear our Translators 
 out. Milton offers more than one. Some heathen 
 idolatries he characterizes as being 
 
 ' adorned 
 With gay religions full of pomp and gold.' 
 
 Paradise Lost, b. i. 
 
 And our Homilies will supply many more : thus, in that 
 Against Peril of Idolatry : ' Images used for no religion or 
 superstition rather, we mean of none worshipped, nor in 
 danger to be worshipped of any, may be suffered.' A very 
 instructive passage on the merely external character of 
 dpriaiceia, which same external character I ana confident 
 our Translators saw in ' religion/ occurs in Philo (Quod 
 Det. Pot. Ins. 7). Having repelled such as would fain be 
 counted among the svo-sftels on the score of divers washings, 
 or costly offerings to the temple, he proceeds : 7rs7r\dvr)rai 
 >yap KOI OVTOS TTJS Trpbs svaefteiav 68ov, dpyatcelav uvrl 
 off LOT TIT os rj^ov/ASvos. The readiness with which dp^a/csia 
 declined into the meaning of superstition, service of false 
 gods (Wisd. xiv. 18, 27; Col. ii. 18), of itself indicates 
 that it had more to do with the form, than with the 
 essence, of piety. Thus Gregory Nazianzene (Carm. ii. 34. 
 150, 151): 
 
 QprjcrKfiav ol8a KOI TO Saifidvuv <r/3aj, 
 'H 8' ev<re/3eia irpcHncvtrjcris TpidBos. 
 
 i/, the concluding word of this group, and 
 as well, had at first an honourable use ; was 
 = 0oa-/3ij$ (Xenophon, Cyrop. iii 3. 58). It is quite pos- 
 sible that ' superstitio ' and * superstitiosus ' had the same. 
 There seem traces of such a use of ' superstitiosus ' by 
 Plautus (Curcul. iii. 27; Amphit. i. i. 169) ; although, as 
 
 N
 
 178 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVIII. 
 
 no one has yet solved the riddle of this word, 1 it is im- 
 possible absolutely to say whether this be so or not. In 
 Cicero's time it had certainly left its better meaning be- 
 hind (De Nat. Deor. ii. 28 ; Divin. ii. 72) ; and compare 
 Seneca: 'Religio Deos colit, superstitio violat.' The phi- 
 losophers first gave an unfavourable significance to Bsta-t- 
 SaifAovia. Ast indeed affirms that it first occurs in an ill 
 sense in a passage of Polybius (vi. 56. 7) ; but Jebb (Cha- 
 racters of Theophrastus, p. 264) quotes a passage from 
 Aristotle (Pol. v. n), showing that this meaning was not 
 unknown to him. So soon as ever the philosophers began 
 to account fear not as a right, but as a disturbing element 
 in piety, one therefore to be carefully eliminated from the 
 true idea of it (see Plutarch, De And. Poet. 1 2 ; and Wyt- 
 tenbach, Animadd. in Plutarchum, vol. i. p. 997), it was 
 almost inevitable that they should lay hold of the word 
 which by its very etymology implied and involved fear 
 (bsicnSaifjiovla, from Sa'&w), and should employ it to denote 
 that which they disallowed and condemned, namely, the 
 'timor inanis Deorum ' (Cicero, Nat. Deor. i. 41) : in 
 which phrase the emphasis must not be laid on ' inanis,' 
 but on ' timor ' ; cf. Augustine (De Civ. Dei, vi. 9) : ' Varro 
 religiosum a superstitioso ea distinctione discernit, ut a 
 superstitioso dicat timeri Deos ; a religiose autem vereri 
 ut parentes ; non ut hostes timeri.' Baxter does not place 
 the emphasis exactly where these have done ; but his de- 
 finition of superstition is also a good one (Cathol. Theol. 
 Preface): 'A conceit that God is well pleased by over- 
 doing in external things and observances and laws of 
 men's own making.' 
 
 But even after they had just turned SccaiSaifjuovta to 
 ignobler uses, defined it, as does Theophrastus SsiXia Trspl 
 TO $aifj,6vi,ov, and Plutarch (De Superst. 6), more vaguely, 
 
 1 Pott (Etym. Forsch. vol. ii. p. 921) resumes the latest investiga- 
 tions on the derivation of 'superstitio.' For the German ' A berglaube ' 
 ( = ' Ueterglaube ') see Herzog, Real-JEncyc. s. v.
 
 XLVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 179 
 
 TToX-vrrdOeia tcatcbv TO dyadbv vTrovoovaa, it did not at once 
 and altogether forfeit its higher signification. It re- 
 mained indeed a middle term to the last, receiving its 
 inclination to good or bad from the intention of the user. 
 Thus we not only find Bsia-tSal/juwv (Xenophon, Ages. xi. 8 ; 
 Cyr. iii. 3. 58) and Ssicrt&aifj.ovia (Polybius, vi. 56. 7; 
 Josephus, Antt. x. 3.2) in a good sense ; but St. Paul 
 himself employed it in no ill meaning in his ever memor- 
 able discourse upon Mars' Hill. He there addresses the 
 Athenians, " I perceive that in all things ye are &>y Ssiac- 
 Saifjiovea-rspovs " (Acts xvii. 22), which is scarcely "too 
 superstitious," as we have rendered it, or 'allzu aber- 
 glaubisch/ as Luther; but rather ' religiosiores,' as Beza, 
 * sehr gottesfiirchtig,' as De Wette, has given it. For 
 indeed it was not St. Paul's habit to affront, and by af- 
 fronting to alienate his hearers, least of all at the outset 
 of a discourse intended to win them to the truth. Deeper 
 reasons, too, than those of a mere calculating prudence, 
 would have hindered him from expressing himself thus ; 
 none was less disposed than he to overlook or deny the 
 religious element in heathenism, however overlaid or 
 obscured by falsehood or error this might be. Led by such 
 considerations as these, some interpreters, Chrysostom for 
 instance, make 8sia-i,&ai/j.ovs<TTspovs = v\a/3E(rrepov$, taking 
 it altogether as praise. Yet neither must we run into 
 an extreme on this side. St. Paul selects with finest tact 
 and skill, and at the same time with most perfect truth, 
 a word which almost imperceptibly shaded off from praise 
 to blame. Bengel (in loc.) : ' Ssia-c^aifMcov, verbum per se 
 /j,eaov, ideoque ambiguitatem habet clementem, et exordio 
 huic aptissimam.' In it he gave to his Athenian hearers 
 the honour which was confessedly their due as zealous wor- 
 shippers of the superior powers, so far as their knowledge 
 reached, being Osoa-sftea-raroi, as Sophocles ((Edip. Col. 
 256), calls them, and SIHTS ft so-rare i irdvrwv r&v ' EX\?7//<wi/, 
 as Josephus (c. Apion. ii. 12) says they were styled by all 
 
 K 2
 
 l8o SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLIX. 
 
 men ; their land 6so^>i\sarrdrq^ as ^Eschylus (Eumen. 867) 
 names it ; compare the beautf ul chorus in The Clouds of 
 Aristophanes, 299-313. But for all this, the Apostle does 
 not squander on them the words of very highest honour 
 of all, reserving- these for the true worshippers of the true 
 God. And as it is thus in the one passage where Ssi- 
 <ri8ajjia)v, so also in the one where Ssia-iBaifiovia, occurs 
 (Acts xxv. 19). Festus may speak there with a certain 
 covert slight of the SeicriSaipovia, or overstrained way of 
 worshipping God (' Gottesverehrung ' De Wette translates 
 it), which, as he conceived, was common to St. Paul and 
 his Jewish accusers; but he would scarcely have called 
 it a ' superstition ' in Agrippa's face, for it was the same 
 to which Agrippa himself was addicted (Acts xxvi. 3, 27), 
 whom certainly he was very far from intending to insult. 
 
 xlix. KSVOS.) 
 
 THESE words nowhere in the N.T. occur together; but 
 on several occasions in the Septuagint, as for instance at 
 Job xx. 18; Isai. xxx. 7; cf. lix. 4; Hos. xii. I; in 
 Clement of Koine, Cor. 6 ; and not unfrequently in clas- 
 sical Greek ; as in Sophocles (Elec. 324) ; in Aristotle 
 (Ethic. Nic. i. 2. i) ; and in Plutarch (Adv. Colot. 17). We 
 deal with them here solely in their ethical use ; for seeing 
 that (jbdraios knows, at least in Scripture, no other use, it 
 is only as ethically employed that KSVOS can be brought 
 into comparison with it, or the words made the subject of 
 discrimination. 
 
 The first, KSVOS, is ' empty,' ' leer,' ' gehaltlos,' ' inanis ' ; 
 the second, fidraios, 'vain,' 'eitel' ('idle'), 'erfolglos,' 
 'vanus.' In the first is characterized the hollowness, in 
 the second the aiinlessness, or, if we may use the word, 
 the resultlessness, connected as it is with /nar^y, of that 
 to which this epithet is given. Thus tcsval \7ri8ss (JEschy- 
 us, Pers. 804; cf. Job vii. 6; Ecclus. xxxiv. I, where they
 
 XLIX. SYNONFMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 181 
 
 are joined with -^rsv^sis) are empty hopes, such as are 
 built on no solid foundation ; and in the N. T. Ksvol \6yoi 
 (Ephes. v. 6 ; cf. Deut. xxxii. 47 ; Exod. v. 9) are words 
 which have no inner substance and kernel of truth, hollow 
 sophistries and apologies for sin ; KOTTOS KSVOS, labour 
 which yields no return (i Cor. xv. 58) ; so Ksvo^wviai 
 (l Tim. vi. 20; 2 Tim. ii. 16) ; cf. Ksvo\oyia (Plutarch, 
 Adv. Stoic. 22), and KsvoSogia (Phil. ii. 3), by Suidas ex- 
 plained paraia ns vrspl savrov oiya-ts. St. Paul reminds 
 the Thessalonians (i Thess. ii. i) that his entrance to 
 them was not KSVTJ, not unaccompanied with the demon- 
 stration of Spirit and of power. When used not of things 
 but of persons, KSVOS predicates not merely an absence 
 and emptiness of good, but, since the moral nature of 
 man endures no vacuum, the presence of evil. It is thus 
 employed only once in the N. T., namely at Jam. ii. 20 
 where the dvdpwn-os KSVOS is one in whom the higher 
 wisdom has found no entrance, but who is puffed up with 
 a vain conceit of his own spiritual insight, ' aufgeblasen/ 
 as Luther (on Coloss. ii. 18) has it. Compare the avBpss 
 KSVOL of Judg. ix. 4 ; Plutarch De seips. Laud. 5) : rovs sv 
 TO) TTSpiTraTSiv STraipofjisvovs KOI vtyav%svovvTas avorjrovs 
 r)ryov/j,sda KOL KSVOVS: and compare further the Greek 
 proverb, Ksvol KSVO, (frpovrt^ovo'i (Gaisford, Paroem. Greed, 
 p. 146). 
 
 But if KSVOS thus expresses the emptiness of all which 
 is not filled with God, /iaratos, as observed already, will 
 express the aimlessness, the leading to no object or end, 
 the vanity, of all which has not Him, who is the only 
 true object and end of any intelligent creature, for its 
 scope. In things natural it is paTaiov, as Gregory of 
 Nyssa, in his first Homily on Ecclesiastes explains it, to build 
 houses of sand on the sea-shore, to chase the wind, to 
 shoot at the stars, to hunt one's own shadow. Pindar 
 (Pyth. iii. 37 Dm., 40-1 Heyn.) exactly describes the 
 fidraios as one /j,sra/j,ci)via Oypsvav aKpdvrois e\7r{<riv.
 
 1 82 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLIX 
 
 That toil is pdraios which can issue in nothing (Plato, 
 Legg. v. 735 &) ; that grief is fidrcuos for which no ground 
 exists (Axioch. 369 c) ; that is a fjidraios sv^rj which in the 
 very nature of things cannot obtain its fulfilment (Euri- 
 pides, Iphig. in Taur. 633) ; the prophecies of the false 
 prophet, which God will not bring to pass, are pavrslcu 
 fidraiat (Ezek. xiii. 6, 7, 8 ; cf. Ecclus. xxxiv. 5) ; so in the 
 N. T. /jLaraioi ical dvtotyeXsis ^Trjasis (Tit. iii. 9) are idle 
 and unprofitable questions whose discussion can lead to no 
 advancement in true godliness ; cf. /jbaraioXoyla (l Tim. i. 
 6 ; Plutarch, De Lib. Educ. 9), paTaioXoyoi, (Tit. i. 10), vain 
 talkers, the talk of whose lips can tend only to poverty, 
 or to worse (Isai. xxxii. 6 : LXX.) ; paraioTrovia (Clement 
 of Rome, Cor. 9), labour which in its very nature is in 
 vain. 
 
 Maraiorrjs is a word altogether strange to profane 
 Greek ; one too to which the old heathen world, had it 
 posses sed it, could never have imparted that depth of 
 meaning which in Scripture it has obtained. Tor indeed 
 that heathen world was itself too deeply and hopelessly 
 sunken in * vanity ' to be fully alive to the fact that it was 
 sunken in it at all; was committed so far as to have lost 
 all power to pronounce that judgment upon itself which 
 in this word is pronounced upon it. One must, in part at 
 least, have been delivered from the fj-araioT^s, to be in a 
 condition at all to esteem it for what it truly is. When 
 the Preacher exclaimed All is vanity ' (Eccles. i. 2), it is 
 clear that something in him was not vanity, else he could 
 never have arrived at this conclusion. Hugh of S. Victor : 
 'Aliquid ergo in ipso fuit quod vanitas non fait, et id 
 contra vanitatem non vane loqui potuit.' Saying this I 
 would not for an instant deny that some echoes of this 
 cry of his reach us from the moral waste of the old heathen 
 world. From none perhaps are they heard so often and so 
 distinctly as from Lucretius. How many of the most 
 pathetic passages in his poem do but draw out at greater
 
 XLIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 183 
 
 length that confession which he has more briefly summed 
 up in two lines, themselves of an infinite sadness : 
 
 ' Ergo hominum genus incassum frustraque laborat 
 Semper, et in curis consumit inanibus sevom.' 
 
 But if these confessions are comparatively rare elsewhere, 
 they are frequent in Scripture. It is not too much to say 
 that of one book in Scripture, I mean of course the book 
 of The Preacher, it is the key-word. In that book paraio- 
 n/y, or its Hebrew equivalent ^3n, occurs nearly forty 
 times ; and this * vanity,' after the preacher has counted 
 and cast up the total good of man's life and labours apart 
 from God, constitutes the zero at which the sum of all is 
 rated by him. The false gods of heathendom are emi- 
 nently TO. /j,aTaia (A.cts xiv. 15 ; cf. 2 Chron. xi. 15 ; Jer. 
 x. 1 5 ; Jon. ii. 8) ; the /iaraioOcr&u is ascribed to as many 
 as become followers of these (Rom. i. 21 ; 2 Kin. xvii. 15 ; 
 Jer. ii. 5 ; xxviii. 17, 1 8) ; inasmuch as they, following after 
 vain things, become themselves /jLaraioffrpovss (3 Mace. vi. 
 n), like the vain things which they follow (Wisd. xiii. I; 
 xiv. 21-31; their whole conversation vain (i Pet. i. 18), 
 the f^aTaioT-rjs having reached to the very centre and citadel 
 of their moral being, to the vovs itself (Ephes. iv. 17). Nor 
 is this all ; this fjbaraiorrjs, or Sov\sia rrjs (j>6opa$ (Rom. viii. 
 21), for the phrases are convertible, of which the end is 
 death, reaches to that entire creation which was made 
 dependent on man ; and which with a certain blind con- 
 sciousness of this is ever reaching out after a deliverance, 
 such as it is never able to grasp, seeing that the resti- 
 tution of all other things can only follow on the previous 
 restitution of man. On this matter Olshausen (on Rom. 
 viii. 20, 21) has some beautiful remarks, of which I can 
 quote but a fragment : ' Jeder natiirliche Mensch, ja jedes 
 Thier, jede Pflanze ringt iiber sich hinaus zu kommen, 
 eine Idee zu verwirklichen, in deren Verwirklichung sie 
 ihre s\svdspia hat, d. h. das der gottlichen Stimmung 
 volkommen entsprechende Seyn; aber die ihr Wesen
 
 184 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. L. 
 
 durchziehende Nichtigkeit (Ps. xxxix. 6 ; Pred. i. 2, 14), 
 d. h. die mangelnde Lebensfiille, die darin begriindete 
 Verganglichkeit und deren Ende, der Tod, lasst kein 
 geschaffenes Ding sein Ziel erreichen ; jedes Individuum 
 der Gattung fangt vielinehr den Kreislauf wieder von 
 neuem an, und ringt trostlos wider die Unmb'glichkeit, 
 sich zu vollenden.' There is much, too, excellently said on 
 this ' vanity of the creature ' in an article in the Zeitschrift 
 fur Luther. Theol. 1872, p. 50 sqq. ; and in another by 
 Koster in the Theol. Stud. u. Krit. 1862, p. 755 sqq. 
 
 1. iftdriov, %ira>z>, ifiaria-fjios, ^a^vs, <TTO\IJ, 
 
 THE reader need not be alarmed here in prospect of a 
 treatise de Re Vestiarid ; although such, with the abundant 
 materials ready to hand in the works of Ferrarius, Braun, 
 and others, might very easily be written, and need cost little 
 more trouble than that of transcription. I do not propose 
 more than a brief discrimination of a few of the words by 
 which garments are most frequently designated in the N.T. 
 ' Ifidnov, properly a diminutive of lfj,a ( = el/ia) , although 
 like so many words of our own, as ' pocket, 5 ' latchet/ it 
 has quite lost the force of a diminutive, is the word of com- 
 monest use, when there is no intention to designate one 
 manner of garment more particularly than another (Matt. 
 xi. 8 ; xx vi. 65). But ifjidnov is used also in a more re- 
 stricted sense, of the large upper garment, so large that 
 a man would sometimes sleep in it (Exod. xxii. 26), the 
 cloke as distinguished from the WTMV or close-fitting 
 inner vest ; and thus 7rspi/3d\\ei,v ipdriov (it is itself 
 called TrspiftoXaiov, Exod. xxii. 9; Trspt/BoXij, Plutarch, 
 Conj. Prcec. 12), but svBvsiv %ir(ova (Dio Chrysostom, 
 Or at. vii. ill). 'Ipdriov and %mui>, as the upper and the 
 under garment, occur constantly together (Ac^s ix. 39; 
 Matt. v. 40 ; Luke vi. 29 ; John xix. 23). Thus at Matt. 
 v. 40 our lord instructs his disciples : u If any man will
 
 L. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 185 
 
 sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat (^ir&va}, let 
 him have thy cloJce (IfJtdriov) also." Here the spoiler is 
 presumed to begin with the less costly, the under garment, 
 which we have rendered, not very happily, the * coat ' 
 (Dictionary of the Bible, art. Dress), from which he pro- 
 ceeds to the more costly, or upper; and the process of 
 spoliation being a legal one, there is nothing unnatural in 
 such a sequence : but at Luke vi. 29 the order is reversed : 
 " Him that taketh away thy cloke (ljj,aTiov) forbid not to 
 take thy coat (^ircova) also." As the whole context plainly 
 shows, the Lord is here contemplating an act of violent 
 outrage ; and therefore the cloke or upper garment, as 
 that which would be the first seized, is also the first 
 named. In the JEsopic fable (Plutarch, Prcec. Conj. 12), 
 the wind with all its violence only makes the traveller to 
 wrap his ifjtdrtov more closely round him, while, when the 
 sun begins to shine in its strength, he puts off first his 
 Ifjuariov, and then his ^irwv. One was styled <yv/j,vos, who 
 had laid aside his ifjudriov, and was only in his %ir(i)v ; not 
 * naked,' as our Translators have it (John xxi. 7), which 
 suggests an unseemliness that certainly did not find place ; 
 but stripped for toil (cf . Isai. xx. 2 ; Iviii. 7 ; Job xxii. 6 ; 
 Jam. ii. 15 ; and in the Latin, * sere nudus,' Georg. i. 299). 
 It is naturally his i^driov which Joseph leaves in the hands 
 of his temptress (Gen. xxxix. 12) ; while at Jude 2^^ira)v 
 has its fitness. 
 
 'Ipario-fjios, a word of comparatively late appearance, 
 and belonging to the KOIVT) SmXe/cTos, is seldom, if ever, 
 used except of garments more or less stately and costly. 
 It is the * vesture ' this word expressing it very well of 
 kings; thus of Solomon in all his glory (l Kin. x. 5 ; cf. 
 xxii. 30) ; is associated with gold and silver, as part of a 
 precious spoil (Exod. iii. 22; xii. 35; cf. Acts xx. 33); is 
 found linked with such epithets as si>Soj;os (Luke vii. 25 ; cf. 
 Isai iii. 18, 86%a rov iparKT/jLov), TrouciXos (Ezek. xvi. 18), 
 (Ps. xliv. 10), TroXureX^y (i Tim. ii. 9; cf.
 
 1 86 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. L, 
 
 Plutarch, Apoph. Lac. Archid. 7) ; is a name given (Matt, 
 xxvii. 35 ; John xix. 24) to our Lord's %n-a>i>, which was 
 woven all of a piece (appafyos, John xix. 23), and had that 
 of cost and beauty about it which made even the rude 
 Roman soldiers unwilling to rend, and so to destroy it. 
 
 The purple robe with which our Lord was arrayed 
 in scorn by the mockers in Pilate's judgment-hall is a 
 %\a[j,vs (Matt, xxvii. 28-31). Nor can we doubt that the 
 word has its strictest fitness here. XXa/^us- so constantly 
 signifies a garment of dignity and office, that ^Xa/iuSa 
 TreptTiOsvai was a technical phrase for assuming a magi- 
 stracy (Plutarch, An Sen. Ger. Resp. 26). This might be 
 a civil magistracy ; but %Xa/xys, like * paludamentum ' 
 (which, and not * sagum,' is its nearest Latin equivalent), 
 far more commonly expresses the robe with which military 
 officers, captains, commanders or imperators, would be 
 clothed (2 Mace. xii. 35); and the employment of x\a/j,vs 
 in the record of the Passion leaves little doubt that these 
 profane mockers obtained, as it would have been so easy 
 for them in the prsetorium to obtain, the cast-off cloke 
 of some high Roman officer, and with this arrayed the 
 sacred person of the Lord. We recognise a certain con- 
 firmation of this supposition in the epithet KOKKIVOS which 
 St. Matthew gives it. It was ' scarlet,' the colour worn 
 by Roman officers of rank ; so ' chlamys coccinea ' (Lam- 
 pridius, Alex. Severus, 40) ; xXapvs TrsptTrop^vpos (Plu- 
 tarch, Prwc. Ger. Reip. 20). That the other Evangelists 
 describe it as 'purple' (Mark xv. 17; John xix. 2) does 
 not affect this statement ; for the ' purple ' of antiquity 
 was a colour almost or altogether indefinite (Braun, De 
 Vest. Sac. Heb. vol. i. p. 220 ; Gladstone, Studies on Homer, 
 vol. iii. p. 457). 
 
 2-7-0X77, from o-TsXX&>, our English ' stole,' is any stately 
 robe; and as long sweeping garments would have emi- 
 nently this stateliness about them, always, or almost 
 always, a garment reaching to the feet, or trainlike sweep-
 
 L. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 187 
 
 ing the ground. The fact that such were oftenest worn 
 by women (the Trojan women are s^Ksa-iTrsirXoi in Homer) 
 explains the use which ' stola ' in Latin has predominantly 
 acquired. The Emperor Marcus Antoninus tells us in his 
 Meditations, that among the things which he learned from 
 his tutor, the famous Stoic philosopher Kusticus, was, not 
 to stalk about the house in a 0-7-0X77 (/AT) iv a-ro\fj KCUT OIKOV 
 TTEpiTrarsiv, i. 7). It was, on the contrary, the custom and 
 pleasure of the Scribes to " walk in long clothing " (Mark 
 xii. 38; cf. Luke xx. 46), making this solemn ostentation 
 of themselves in the eyes of men. SroX?; is in constant 
 use for the holy garments of Aaron and his descendants 
 (Exod. xxviii. 2; xxix. 21 ; a-roXrj So^ys they are called, 
 Ecclus. 1. n); or, indeed, for any garment of special 
 solemnity, richness, or beauty; thus aro\r) \sirovpyiKr) 
 (Exod. xxxi. 10) ; and compare Markxvi. 5 ; Luke xv. 22 ; 
 Eev. vi. II ; vii. 9; Esth. vi. 8, 1 1 ; Jon. iii. 6. 
 
 Ho^rjprfs, naturalised in ecclesiastical Latin as ' poderis ' 
 (of which the second syllable is short), is properly an ad- 
 jective, = ' talaris;' thus aairls TroSijpvjs, Xenophon, Cyrop, 
 vi. 2. 10 (=0vpsos, Ephes. vi. 16) ; TroSijpss svSv/j,a, Wisd. 
 xviii. 24 ; TroSijp^s TTW^WV, Plutarch, Quom. Am. ab AduL 
 7 ; being severally a shield, a garment, a beard, reaching 
 down to the feet. It differs very little from o-roX?/. Indeed 
 the same Hebrew word which is rendered TroSrfprjs at Ezek. 
 ix. 2, 3, is rendered o-roX?;, ibid. x. 2, and o-roX?) or/fa, ibid. 
 6, 7. At the same time, in the enumeration of the high- 
 priestly garments, this o-ToX?;, or o-roX^ a<yia, signifies the 
 whole array of the high priest ; while the TroSrjpijs (XLTQIV 
 Tro&rjp'rjs Plutarch calls it in his curious and strangely in- 
 accurate chapter about the Jewish festivals, Symp. iv. 6. 6) 
 is distinguished from it, and signifies one portion only, 
 namely, the robe or chetoneth (Exod. xxviii. 2, 4 ; Ecclus. 
 adv. 7, 8). 
 
 There are other words which might be included in this 
 group, as sadrjs (Luke xxiii. n), Ha-Bya-is (Luke xxiv. 4),
 
 [88 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LI. 
 
 svSvfj.0, (Matt. xxii. 12) ; but it would not be very easy to 
 assign severally to each of these a domain of meaning 
 peculiarly its own. On the whole subject see Marriott, 
 Vestiarium Christianum, pp. vii. seq. 
 
 li. 
 
 FOUR of these words occur together at I Tim. ii. I ; on 
 which Flacius Illyricus (Clavis, s. v. Oratio) justly ob- 
 serves : ' Quern vocum acervum procul dubio Paulus non 
 temere congessit.' I propose to consider not these only, 
 but the larger group of which they form a portion. 
 
 EU^T; is found only once in the N. T. in the sense of a 
 prajer (Jam. v. 15) ; twice besides in that of a vow (Acts 
 xviii. 1 8 ; xxi. 23) ; compare Plato (Legg. vii. 801 a), sv^ai 
 irapa dewv aiTrjasis dcrL On the distinction between it and 
 Trpoasv^ between sv^sa-dat and irpocrsv-^saOai,, there is a 
 long discussion in Origen (De Oral. 2, 3, 4), but of no 
 great value, and not bringing out more than the obvious 
 fact that in su%^ and sv^sadai the notion of the vow, of 
 the dedicated thing, is more commonly found than that of 
 prayer. A more interesting treatment of the words, and 
 the difference between them, may be found in Gregory of 
 Nyssa, De Orat. Dom. Orat. 2, ad init. 
 
 Tlpoo-svxrj and Sevens often in the N. T. occur together 
 (Phil. iv. 6; Ephes. vi. 18; I Tim. ii. I ; v. 5), and not 
 unfrequently in the Septuagint (Ps. vi. 10; Dan. ix. 21, 
 23 ; cf. I Mace. vii. 37). There have been many, but for 
 the most part not very successful, attempts to distinguish 
 between them. Grotius, for instance, affirms that they 
 are severally ' precatio J and ' deprecatio ' ; that the first 
 seeks to obtain good, the second to avert evil. Augustine, 
 let me note by the way, in his treatment of the more im- 
 portant in this group of words (Ep. 149, 12-16 ; cf. Bishop 
 Taylor, Pref. to Apology for Set Forms of Liturgy, 31),
 
 LI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 189 
 
 which, though interesting, yields few definite results of 
 value, observes that in his time this distinction between 
 ' precatio ' and ' deprecatio ' had practically quite disap- 
 peared. Theodoret, who had anticipated Grotius here, 
 explains Trpoa-sv^ as aiTTjo'is dyadwv, and Berjcris as vTrsp 
 aTra^Xa'yfis TIVWV \VTrr] pwv IKSTSLO, Trpoffispofisvij. He has 
 here in this last definition the words of Aristotle (Rhet. ii. 
 7) before him : Bsrja-sis sivlv al bps^eis, KOI TOVTCOV fidXia-ra 
 at fjisra \v7n)s TOV pr) >yiyvofj,evov : compare Gregory of Na- 
 zianzus : Bsrja-iv o'lov rrjv aiTycnv svSswv. x But this distinc- 
 tion is altogether arbitrary ; it neither lies in the words, 
 nor is it borne out by usage. Better Calvin, who makes 
 irpoa-sv^ ( = ' precatio '), prayer in general, Ssrjcris (='ro- 
 gatio'), prayer for particular benefits: ' Trpocrsv^ omne 
 genus orationis, Beycris ubi certum aliquid petitur ; genus 
 et species.' Bengel's distinction amounts very nearly to 
 the same thing : ' Bs^a-is (a 8si) est imploratio gratise in 
 necessitate quadam speciali ; Trpoa-sv^r), oratio, exercetur 
 qualibet oblatione voluntatum et desideriorum erga Deum.' 
 
 But Calvin and Ben gel, bringing out one important 
 point of distinction, have yet failed to bring out another 
 namely, that Trpoa-sv^ is ' res sacra,' the word being 
 restricted to sacred uses; it is always prayer to God; 
 Ssrjais has no such restriction. Fritzsche (on Rom. x. i) has 
 not failed to urge this : ' rj Trpoa-sv^ij et rj Ss?)ais differunt 
 lit precatio et rogatio. IT pocrsv-^sa-dat, et r/ Trpocrsv^ verba 
 sacra sunt ; precamur enim Deum : BetaBat,, TO Sey^a 
 (Aristophanes, Acharn. 1059) et r) Bsrjais turn in sacra turn 
 in prof ana re usurpantur , nam et Deum rogare possumus 
 et homines.' It is the same distinction as in our 'prayer' 
 (though that has been too much brought down to mundane 
 uses) and ' petition,' in the German ' Gebet ' and ' Bitte.' 
 
 "Etvrsv^is occurs in the N.T. only at I Tim. ii. i ; iv. 5 
 (but evTirfxdvsiv four or five times), and once in the 
 Apocrypha (2 Mace. iv. 8). 'Intercession,' by which 
 the A. V. translates it, is not, as we now understand
 
 1QO SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LI- 
 
 ' intercession,' a satisfactory rendering. For evrsv^is does 
 not necessarily mean what intercession at present com- 
 monly does mean namely, prayer in relation to others 
 (at I Tim. iv. 5 such meaning is impossible) ; a pleading 
 either for them or against them. 1 Least of all does 
 it mean exclusively the latter, a pleading against our 
 enemies, as Theodoret, on Bom. xi. 2, missing the fact 
 that the 'against' lay there in the Kara, would imply, 
 when he says : svrsv^is sent /caTrjjopia T>V aSi/covvrmv : cf. 
 Hesychius : Bsijais els SK^LK^O-IV virsp TWOS (Bom. viii. 34), 
 Kara TWOS (Bom. xi. 2); but, as its connexion with svTvj-^a- 
 vew, to fall in with a person, to draw close to him so as to 
 enter into familiar speech and communion with him (Plu- 
 tarch, Conj. Prwc. 13), implies, it is free familiar prayer, 
 such as boldly draws near to God (Gen. xViii. 23 ; Wisd. 
 viii. 21; cf. Philo, Quod Det. Pot. 2$; svrsvgsis fcal 
 sK/Boya-sis ; Plutarch, Phoc. 17) . In justice, however, to our 
 Translators, it must be observed that ' intercession ' had 
 not in their time that limited meaning of prayer for 
 others which we now ascribe to it ; see Jer. xxvii. 1 8 ; 
 xxxvi. 25. The Vulgate has 'postulationes'; but Augus- 
 tine, in a discussion on this group of words referred to 
 already Ep. 149, 12-16), prefers ' interpellations,' as 
 better bringing out the Trapprjo-ia, the freedom and bold- 
 ness of access, which is involved in, and constitutes the 
 fundamental idea of, the SVTSVJ;IS * interpellare,' to inter- 
 rupt another in speaking, ever implying forwardness and 
 freedom. Origen (De Orat. 14) in like manner makes the 
 boldness of approach to God, asking, it may be, some great 
 thing (he instances Josh. x. 12), the fundamental notion 
 of the svTsvgis. It might mean indeed more than this, 
 Plato using it of a possible encounter with pirates (Politic. 
 298 d). 
 
 1 The rendering of 81 firfvt-tns, 2 Mace. iv. 8, ' by intercession,' can 
 scarcely be correct. It expresses more probably the fact of a confidential 
 interview face to face between Jason and Antiochus.
 
 LI. STNOjVYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 191 
 
 -which our Translators have rendered 
 * thankfulness/ (Acts xxiv. 3) ; * giving of thanks' (i Cor. 
 xiv. 1 6) ; 'thanks' (Rev. iv. 9) ; 'thanksgiving' (Phil. iv. 
 6), a somewhat rare word elsewhere, is frequent in sacred 
 Greek. It would be out of place to dwell here on the 
 special meaning which sv^apiaria and ' eucharist ' have 
 acquired from the fact that in the Holy Communion the 
 Church embodies her highest act of thanksgiving for the 
 highest benefits which she has received of^God. Regarded 
 as one manner of prayer, it expresses that which ought 
 never to be absent from any of our devotions (Phil. iv. 6 ; 
 Ephes. v. 20; I Thess. v. 18 ; I Tim. ii. i) ; namely, the 
 grateful acknowledgment of past mercies, as distinguished 
 from the earnest seeking of future. As such it may, and 
 will, subsist in heaven (Rev. iv. 9; vii. 12) ; will indeed be 
 larger, deeper, fuller there than here : for only there will 
 the redeemed know how much they owe to their Lord ; 
 and this it will do, while all other forms of prayer, in 
 the very nature of things, will have ceased in the entire 
 possession and present fruition of the things prayed for. 
 
 A.iTr)fj,a occurs twice in the N. T. in the sense of a 
 petition of men to God, both times in the plural (Phil. iv. 
 6; I John v. 15) ; it is, however, by no means restricted 
 to this meaning (Luke xxiii. 24 ; Esth. v. 7 ; Dan. vi. 7). 
 In a Trpoa-sv^ of any length there will probably be many 
 alrr/para, these being indeed the several requests of which 
 the Trpoffsv^ is composed. For instance, in the Lord's 
 Prayer it is generally reckoned that there are seven alrij- 
 /ttara, though some have regarded the first three as efyai, 
 and only the last four as alrij/j.ara. Witsius (De Oral. 
 Dom.) : Petitio pars orationis ; ut si totam Orationem 
 Dominicam voces orationem aut precationem, singulas 
 vero illius partes aut septem postulata petitiones.' 
 
 'IfcsTijpia, with pd/38os or e\aia, or some such word un- 
 derstood, like i^cHTTijpiov, OvcriacrTijpiov, Sttcaa'T'ijpiov, and 
 other words of the same termination (see Lobeck, Pathol.
 
 192 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LI. 
 
 Serm. Grcec. p. 281), was originally an adjective, but little 
 by little obtained substantival power, and learned to go 
 alone. It is explained by Plutarch (Thes. 18) : K\d$os cnro 
 rffs Ispas sKaias epiw \SVKW KaTsars^svos (cf. Wyttenbach, 
 Animadd. in Plutarch, vol. xiii. p. 89 ; and Wunder on 
 Sophocles, CEdip. Rex, 3), the olive-branch bound round 
 with white wool, held forth by the suppliant in token of 
 the character which he bore (^Eschylus, Eumen. 43, 44 ; 
 compare Virgil, JEn. viii. 1 16 : ' Paciferseque manu ramura 
 prsetendit olivse ; ' and again ver. 128: ' Et vitta comtos 
 voluit prsetendere ramos ' ; and once more xi. 101). A 
 deprecatory letter, which Antiochus Epiphanes is said on 
 his death-bed to have written to the Jews, is described 
 (2 Mace. ix. 1 8) as iKsrrjpias rdgiv e%ov(ra, and Agrippa 
 designates one addressed to Caligula : <ypa(prj r)v dvd' IKSTI)- 
 pias Trporslvti) (Philo, Leg. ad Cai. 36). It is easy to trace 
 the steps by which this, the symbol of supplication, came 
 to signify the supplication itself. It does so on the only 
 occasion when it occurs in the N. T. (Heb. v. 7), being 
 there joined to Se^crts, as it often is elsewhere (Job xli. 3 
 [xl. 22 LXX.]; Polybius, iii. 112. 8). 
 
 Thus much on the distinction between these words ; 
 although, when all has been said, it will still to a great 
 extent remain true that they will often set forth, not 
 different kinds of prayer, but prayer contemplated from 
 different sides and under different aspects. Witsius (De 
 Or at. Dom. 4) : ' Mihi sic videtur, unam eandemque rem 
 diversis nominibus designari pro diversis quos habet as- 
 pectibus. Preces nostrse Ss-ija-eis vocantur, quatenus iis 
 nostram apud Deum testamur egestatem, nam Sssa-Oai in- 
 digere est ; trpoa-sv^a^ quatenus vota nostra continent ; 
 airy para, quatenus exponunt petitiones et desideria ; sv- 
 rsvgeis, quatenus non timide et diffidenter, sed familiariter, 
 Deus se a nobis adiri patitur ; evn-v^is enim est collegium 
 et congressus familiaris : sv^apKTrlav gratiarum actionem 
 esse pro acceptis jam beneficiis, notius est quam ut inoneri
 
 LII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 193 
 
 oportuit.' On the Hebrew correlatives to the several 
 words of this group, see Vitringa, De Synagogd, iii. 
 2. 13- 
 
 Iii. aa-vvOsros, a<nrovSos. 
 
 'Acrvvdsros occurs only once in the N. T., namely at Rom. 
 i. 31 ; cf. Jer. iii. 8-n, where it is found several times, 
 but not elsewhere in the Septuagint. There is the same 
 solitary use of a.(nrovSos (2 Tim. iii. 3) ; for its right to a 
 place in the text at Rom. i. 31 is with good reason con- 
 tested, and the best critical editions omit it there. It is 
 nowhere found in the Septuagint. 
 
 The distinction between the two words, as used in 
 Scripture, is not hard to draw ; I have said, as used in 
 Scripture; because there may be a question whether 
 aavvOsros has anywhere else exactly the meaning which it 
 challenges there. Elsewhere often united with aTrXous, 
 with atcparos (Plutarch, Adv. Stoic. 48), it has the passive 
 sense of ' not put together ' or f not made up of several 
 parts'; and in this sense evidently the Vulgate, which 
 renders it * incompositus,' has taken it ; we have here the 
 explanation of the ' dissolute ' of the Rheims Version. 
 But the aarvvOsroi of St. Paul the word with him has an 
 active sense are they who, being in covenant and treaty 
 with others, refuse to abide by these covenants and 
 treaties : pr) s^psvovrss rats (rvvOij/cats (Kesychius) ; * pac- 
 torum haudquaquam tenaces ' (Erasmus) ; ' bundbriichig ' 
 (not * unvertraglich,' as Tittrnan maintains) ; ' covenant- 
 breakers ' (A.V.). The word is associated with aa-Tad/xijTos, 
 Demosthenes, De Fals. Leg. 383. 
 
 Worse than the &va-$ta\,vToi (Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. iv. 5. 
 IO), who are only hard to be reconciled, the dcnrovSot are 
 the absolutely irreconcileable (acnrovSoi, real a/cara\/VaTOi, 
 Philo, Quis Rer. Div. Hcer. 50) ; those who will not be 
 atoned, or set at one, who being at war refuse to lay aside 
 their enmity, or to listen to terms of accommodation; 
 

 
 T94 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIT. 
 
 * implacabiles, qui semel offensi reconciliation em non ad- 
 mittunt ' (Estius) ; ' unversohnlich, ' implacable ' (A.V.) ; 
 the word is by Philo (De Merc. Mer. 4) joined to dav^aros 
 and aKoivwvrjTos, opposed to sv8td\\aKTos by Plutarch (De 
 Alex. Virt. 4). The phrase, da-TrovSos KCL\ d/crfpvKTos iro\fAos 
 is frequent, indeed proverbial, in Greek (Demosthenes, De 
 Coron. 79 ; Philo, De Prcem. et Pcen. 1 5 ; Lucian, Pise. 36) ; 
 in this connexion dicrjpvKTos Tro\sp,os does not mean a war 
 not duly announced by the fecial ; but rather one in which 
 what Virgil calls the ' belli commercia ' are wholly sus- 
 pended; no herald, no flag of truce, as we should now say, 
 being allowed to pass between the parties, no terms of 
 reconcilement listened to ; such a war, for example, as 
 that which the Carthaginians in the interval between the 
 first and second Punic Wars waged with their revolted 
 mercenaries. In the same sense we have elsewhere aairov- 
 al dSid\\aKTos spis (Aristsenetus, 2, 14) ; cf. 
 KOTOS (Nicander, Ther. 367 ; quoted by Blom- 
 field, Agamemnon, p. 285) ; daTrovBos s^Opa (Plutarch, 
 Pericles, 30) ; d<nrovSos sos (Euripides, Alcestis, 431). 
 
 'AavvQsTos then presumes a state of peace, which they 
 who are such unrighteously interrupt ; while da-jrovSos 
 presumes a state of war, which the dcnrovSoi refuse to bring 
 to an equitable close. It will follow that Calvin, who 
 renders acrirovSoi, ' foedifragi,' and davvderoi ' insociabiles,' 
 has exactly missed the force of both ; Theodoret has done 
 the same; who on Eom. i. 31 writes: da-vvOerovs, rovs 
 aKOivwvrjTOV Kal vrovrjpbv ftlov dcnra^ofjisvovs' dcnrovSovs 
 rovs d&sws rd myiettfuva TrapaftaivovTas. Only by ascrib- 
 ing to each word that meaning which these interpreters 
 have ascribed to the other, will the right equivalents be 
 obtained. 
 
 In agreement with what has been just said, and in con- 
 firmation of it, is the distinction which Ammonius draws 
 between a'vvdiJK'r) and (nrovBij. ^wOiJKij assumes peace ; 
 being a further agreement, it may be a treaty of alliance,
 
 LIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 195 
 
 between those already on general terms of amity. Thus, 
 there was a a-vvd^Kij between the several States which 
 owned the leadership of Sparta in the Peloponnesian War ; 
 that, with whatever territory any one of these began the 
 war, with the same it should close it (Thucydides, v. 31). 
 But cnrovSr), oftener in the plural, assumes war, of which 
 the <r7roi>Si] is the cessation ; a merely temporal cessation, 
 an armistice it may be (Homer, II. ii. 341). It is true 
 that a (TwOij/cr) may be attached to a cnrovSij, terms of 
 alliance consequent on terms of peace ; thus aTrov8)j and 
 a-vvdriKT) occur together in Thucydides, iv. 1 8 : but they 
 are different things ; in the CTTTOV^ there is a cessation of 
 the state of war, there is peace, or at all events truce ; in 
 the <Tvv6r)Kr] there is, superinduced on this, a further 
 agreement or alliance. ^va-vvOsros, I may observe, which 
 would be the exact opposite of acrvvOsros, finds no place 
 in our lexicons ; and we may presume is not found in any 
 Greek author; but svavvOscria in Philo (De Merc. Mer. 3) ; 
 as aa-wdsala in the Septuagint (Jer. iii. 7), and ddscria in 
 the same sense often in Polybius (ii. 32). 
 
 liii. fiafcpodvfila, VTTO/JLOVI], 
 
 BETWEEN p,aKpo6vp,[a and v7rofj,ovij, which occur together 
 at Col. i. n, and in the same context 2 Cor. vi. 4, 6; 
 2 Tim. iii. 10; Jam. v. 10, n (cf. Clement of Rome, 64; 
 Ignatius, Ephes. 3), Chrysostom draws the following dis- 
 tinction; that a man paicpodvpsl, who having power to 
 revenge himself, yet refrains from the exercise of this 
 power ; while he vTroftsvsi, who having no choice but to 
 bear, and only the alternative of a patient or impatient 
 bearing, has grace to choose the former. Thus the faithful,, 
 he concludes, would commonly be called to exercise the 
 former grace among themselves (i Cor. vi. 7), the latter 
 in their commerce with those that were without : paKpo- 
 os a\\ij\ous, V7rofj,ovr)v irpos TOVS s^a) p,aicpoOvp,l 
 
 02
 
 196 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIII. 
 
 <ydp rts Trpos sicsivovs ovs Bvvarov Kal d^vvacrdai, v 
 s ovs ov Bvvarat, df^vvaadai. This distinction, however, 
 will not endure a closer examination ; for see decisively 
 against it Heb. xii. 2, 3. He to whom virofiovr) is there 
 ascribed, bore, not certainly because He could not avoid 
 bearing; for He might have summoned to his aid twelve 
 legions of angels, if so He had willed (Matt. xxvi. 53). It 
 may be well then to consider whether some more satis- 
 factory distinction between these words cannot be drawn. 
 Ma/cpoQvfjLia belongs to a later stage of the Greek 
 language. It occurs in the Septuagint, though neither 
 there nor elsewhere exactly in the sense which in the N. T. 
 it bears ; thus at Isai. Ivii. 15 it is rather a patient hold- 
 ing out under trial than long-suffering under provocation, 
 more, that is, the vTro^ovr] with which we have presently to 
 do; and compare Jer. xv. 15, I Mace. viii. 4; in neither 
 of which places is its use that of the N. T. ; and as little 
 is it that of Plutarch (Lucull. 32); the long-suffering of 
 men he prefers to express by ave^i/catcta (De Cap. ex Inim. 
 Util. 9 ; cf. Epictetus, Enchir. 10), while for the grand 
 long-suffering of God he has a noble word, one probably of 
 his own coining, .p.e<yakoird6sLa (De Ser. Num. Vind. 5). 
 The Church-Latin rendered it by c longanimitas,' which 
 the Rheims Version sought to introduce into English in 
 the shape of ' longanimity.' There is no reason why 
 ( longanimity ' should not have had the same success as 
 * magnanimity '; but there is a fortune about words, as 
 well as about books, and this failed, notwithstanding that 
 Jeremy Taylor and Bishop Hall allowed and employed it. 
 We have preferred ' long-suffering,' and understand by it 
 a long holding out of the mind before it gives room to 
 action or passion generally to passion ; avs-^ofjusvou d\\i']- 
 \wv sv dyaTrr), as St. Paul (Ephes. iv. 2) beautifully ex- 
 pounds the meaning which he attaches to the word. 
 Anger usually, but not universally, is the passion thus 
 long held aloof ; the paKpodu/Mos being one fipaSvs sis
 
 LIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 197 
 
 opytfv, and the word exchanged for Kparwv 6p<yrjs (Prov. 
 xvi. 32); and set over against 6vp,w^s (xv. 18). Still it 
 is not necessarily anger, which is thus excluded or set at 
 a distance ; for when the historian of the Maccabees de- 
 scribes how the Eomans had won the world * by their policy 
 and their patience ' (l Mace. viii. 4), iiaKpoQvpia expresses 
 there that Roman persistency which would never make 
 peace under defeat. The true antithesis to fiafcpodvpia in 
 that sense is o^vOv/j-ia, a word belonging to the best times 
 of the language, and employed by Euripides (Androm. 739), 
 as b^vQvjjios by Aristotle (Rliet. ii. 12 ; cf. ofir^oXoy, Solon). 
 But vTTo/Jiovii, /3aa-i\ls rwv apsrcov Chrysostom calls it, 
 is that virtue which in heathen ethics would be called 
 more often by the name of tcaprspla l (the words are joined 
 together, Plutarch, Apoph. Lac. Ages. 2), or Kaprsp^cris, 
 and which Clement of Alexandria, following in the track 
 of some heathen moralists, describes as the knowledge of 
 what things are to be borne and what are not (sTricrrij^r) 
 fyfAsvsTswv real ovtc sj^psvsrscov, Strom, ii. iS; cf. Plutarch, 
 De Plac. Phil. iv. 23), being the Latin ' perseverantia ' 
 and ' patientia ' 2 both in one, or, more accurately still, 
 ' tolerantia.' " In this noble word vTropovij there always 
 appears (in the N. T.) a background of dvSpsia (cf. Plato, 
 Thecet. 177 6, where dvSpiicws viro/jistvai, is opposed to 
 avdvSpws favysiv) ; it does not mark merely the endurance, 
 the ' sustinentia ' (Yulg.), or even the ' patientia ' 
 (Clarom.), but the 'perseverantia,' the brave patience 
 with which the Christian contends against the various 
 hindrances, persecutions, and temptations that bei'al him 
 
 1 If, however, we may accept the Definitions ascribed to Plato, there 
 is a slight distinction : Kaprtpia i/nap-ovr) XI'TTIJS, evfica TOV KU\OV ' \nrop,ovri 
 irovatv, evfKa TOV KO\OV, 
 
 3 These two Cicero (De Inven. ii. 54) thus defines and distinguishes: 
 ' Patientia est honestatis aut utilitatis causa rerum arduarum ac difficilium 
 voluntaria ac diuturna perpessio ; perseverantia est in ratione bene con- 
 eiderata stabilis et perpetua perrnansio ; ' compare Tusc. Disp. iv. 24, 
 where he deals with ' fortitude '; and Augustine, Qucest. Lxxxiii. qu. 31.
 
 198 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIII. 
 
 in his conflict with the inward and outward world " (Elli- 
 cott, on I Thess. i. 3). It is, only springing from a nobler 
 root, the Kparspa rXrjfjioa-vvi] of Archilochus, Fragm. I. 
 (Gaisf. Poett. Min. Gr.}. Cocceius (on Jam. i. 12) describes 
 it well: ''TTrofiovri versatur in contemtu bonorum hujus 
 inundi, et in forti susceptione amictionum cum gratiarum 
 actione; imprimis autem in constantia fidei et caritatis, 
 ut neutro modo quassari aut labefactari se patiatur, aut 
 iinpediri quominus opus suum et laborem suum efficiat.' 
 For some other definitions see the article ' Geduld ' in 
 Herzog's Real Encyclopadie. 
 
 We may proceed now to distinguish between these ; 
 and this distinction, I believe, will hold good wherever the 
 words occur; namely, that fiaKpodv^ia will be found to 
 express patience in respect of persons, uTro/ioz/j? in respect 
 of things. The man fia/cpoOv/^st, who, having to do with 
 injurious persons, does not suffer himself easily to be pro- 
 voked by them, or to blaze up into anger (2 Tim. iv. 2). 
 The man vTropsvei,, who, under a great siege of trials, bears 
 up, and does not lose heart or courage (Rom. v. 3 ; 2 Cor. 
 i. 6 ; cf. Clement of Rome, Cor. 5). We should speak, 
 therefore, of the paKpoQvpla of David (2 Sam. xvi. 10-13), 
 the vTropovi] of Job (Jam. v. n). Thus, while both graces 
 are ascribed to the saints, only fia/cpoOv/jiia is an attribute 
 of God ; and there is a beautiful account of his fia/cpodv^i'a 
 at Wisd. xii. 20, however the word itself does not there 
 appear. Men may tempt and provoke Him, and He may 
 and does display an infinite fia/cpo6v/jiia in regard of them 
 (Exod. xxxiv. 6 ; Rom. ii. 4 ; i Pet. ii. 20) ; there may be 
 a resistance to God in men, because He respects the wills 
 which He has given them, even when these wills are 
 fighting against Him. But there can be no resistance to 
 God, nor burden upon Him, the Almighty, from things ; 
 therefore vTro/jbovtf can find no place in Him, nor is it, as 
 Chrysostom rightly observes, properly ascribed to Him 
 (yet see Augustine, DePatientid, i), for it need hardly be
 
 SLIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 199 
 
 observed that when God is called Qsbs rfjs vTrouovrjs (Rom. 
 xv. 5), this does not mean, God whose own attribute viro- 
 fjiovi] is, but God who gives viropovr) to his servants and 
 saints (Tittmann, p. 194 : ' 0os rrjs viro^ovrfs, Deus qui 
 largitur vTrofj.ovr)v : y cf. Ps. Ixx. 5, LXX.) ; in the same 
 way as Ssos %dpiTos (i Pet. v. 10) is God who is the author 
 of grace; sbs rijs slpijvtjs (Heb. xiii. 20), God who is the 
 author of peace ; and compare sbs rffs \irlSos (R,oin. xv. 
 13), 'the God of hope.' 
 
 'Ai/0%7/, used commonly in the plural in classical Greek, 
 signifies, for the most part, a truce or suspension of arms, 
 the Latin ' iudutise.' It is excellently rendered c forbear- 
 ance ' on the two occasions of its occurrence in the N. T. 
 (Rom. ii. 4; iii. 26). Between it and (jtaxpoOvfjiia Origen 
 draws the following distinction in his Commentary on the 
 Romans (ii. 4) the Greek original is lost : ( Sustentatio 
 [avo%iy] apatientia \JJMK pod vp.td\ hoc videtur differre, quod 
 qui infirmitate magis quam proposito delinquunt sustentari 
 dicuntur; qui vero pertinaci mente velut exsultant in de- 
 lictis suis, ferri patienter dicendi sunt.' This does not 
 seize very successfully the distinction, which is not one 
 merely of degree. Bather the avo^y is temporary, trans- 
 ient : we may say that, like our ' truce,' it asserts its 
 own temporary, transient character ; that after a certain 
 lapse of time, and unless other conditions intervene, it 
 will pass away. This, it may be urged, is true of iiaicpo- 
 6vfj,la no less j above all, of the divine fiaKfoBvftta (Luke 
 xiii. 9). But as much does not lie in the word; we may 
 conceive of a fiaKpodv^ia, though it would be worthy of 
 little honour, which should never be exhausted ; while avo^ij 
 implies its own merely provisional character. Fritzsche 
 (on Rom. ii. 4) distinguishes the words : ' 77 avo%ij indul- 
 gentiam notat qua jus tuum non continuo exequutus, ei 
 qui te Iseserit spatium des ad resipiscendum ; 77 /ia/epo- 
 Ovpia clementiam significat qua irse temperans delictum 
 tion statim viudices, sed ei qui peccaverit poenitendi locum
 
 200 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIV. 
 
 relinquas ; ' elsewhere (Rom. iii. 26) he draws the matter 
 still better to a point : ' Indulgentia \j) avo^rf] eo valet, ut 
 in aliorum peccatis conniveas, non ut alicui peccata con- 
 dones, quod clementice est.' It is therefore most fitly used 
 at Rom. iii. 26 in relation to the irdpsa-is dpapTifov which 
 found place before the atoning death of Christ, as con- 
 trasted with the asserts dpapricov, which was the result of 
 that death (see back, p. 114). It is that forbearance or 
 suspense of wrath, that truce with the sinner, which by no 
 means implies that the wrath will not be executed at the 
 last ; nay, involves that it certainly will, unless he be 
 found under new conditions of repentance and obedience 
 (Luke xiii. 9 ; Rom. ii. 3-6). The words are distinguished, 
 but the difference between them not very sharply defined, 
 by Jeremy Taylor, in his first Sermon ' On the Mercy of the 
 in init. 
 
 liv. o-TpTjvida), Tpvtyda), cnraTa\da). 
 
 IN all these words lies the notion of excess, of wanton, 
 dissolute, self-indulgent, prodigal living, but in each case 
 with a difference. 
 
 ^rpijvidci) occurs only twice in the N. T. (Rev. xviii. 7, 
 9), a-rprjvos once (Rev. xviii. 3 ; cf. 2 Kin. xix. 28), and 
 the compound Karaa-rpi^vidw as often (i Tim. v. Ii). It 
 is a word of the New or Middle Comedy, and is used by 
 Lycophron, as quoted in Athenseus (x. 420 &) ; by Sophilus 
 (ib. iii. 100 a) ; and Antiphanes (ib. iii. 127 d) ; but re- 
 jected by the Greek purists Phrynichus, indeed, affirm- 
 ing that none but a madman would employ it, having 
 rpv(f>av at his command (Lobeck, Phrynichus, p. 381). 
 This last, which is thus so greatly preferred, is a word of 
 solitary occurrence in the N. T. (Jam. v. 5) 5 farpwfrav 
 (2 Pet. ii. 13) of the same; but belongs with Tpv<f>tf (Luke 
 vii. 25; 2 Pet. ii. 13) to the best age and most classical 
 writers in the language. It will be found on closer in-
 
 LIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 20 1 
 
 spection that the words do different work, and that often- 
 times one could not be employed in room of the other. 
 
 In <TTpr)vtdv ( = araiCTSiv, Suidas; Sia rbv TT\OVTOV vftpl 
 %SLV, Hesychius), is properly the insolence of wealth, the 
 wantonness and petulance springing from fulness of bread ; 
 something of the Latin 'lascivire.' There is nothing of 
 sybaritic effeminacy in it ; so far from this that Pape con- 
 nects arp'fjvos with < strenuus ' ; see too Pott\ Etymol. Forsch. 
 ii. 2. 357 ; and there is ever the notion of strength, vigour, 
 the German ' Uebermuth,' such as that displayed by the 
 inhabitants of Sodom (Gen. xix. 4-9), implied in the word. 
 On the other hand, effeminacy, brokenness of spirit through 
 self-indulgence, is exactly the point from which rpv^ij and 
 rpv(f)dv (connected with OpinrTstv and dpv-^is), start ; thus 
 Tpv(f)ij is linked with %XtS^ (Philo, De Merc. Mer. 2} ; with 
 Tro\vT\sia (Plutarch, Marcell. 3 ) ; with /iaXa/a'a (De Aud. 
 Poet. 4) ; with paOvpla (Marcellus, 21) ; cf. Suicer, Thes. 
 s. v.; and note the company which it keeps elsewhere 
 (Plato, I Alcib. 122 &); and the description of it which 
 Clement of Alexandria gives (Strom, ii. 20) : rt jap srspov 
 i] Tpv(j)ij, rj <j)t\,ijSovos \i^vsla^ KOL r ir\ova<jp 1 os Trspispyos, irpos 
 JfivTrddsiav avsi/Jbevwv ; It only runs into the notion of the 
 insolent as a secondary and rarer meaning ; being then 
 united with v/3pis (Aristophanes, Ranee, 21 ; Strabo, vi. i) ; 
 Tpv<j)dv with v/3petv (Plutarch, Prcec. Ger. Reip. 3) ; and 
 compare the line of Menander (Meineke, Fragm. Com. Gr. 
 p. 984) : vTrspijffravov TTOV ylvsO' r/ \tav rpvtyij. It occasion- 
 ally from thence passes forward into a good sense, and 
 expresses the triumph and exultation of the saints of God 
 (Chrysostom, in Matt. Horn. 67, 668 ; Isai. Ixvi. 1 1 ; Ezek. 
 xxxiv. 13; Ps. xxxv. 9) ; so, too, svrpvfyav (Isai. Iv. 2); 
 while the garden of Eden is TrapdSsia-os rrjs rpv^s (Gen. 
 ii. 15 ; Joel ii. 3). 
 
 ^7rara\dv (occurring only I Tim. v. 6 ; Jam. v. 5 ; cf. 
 Ecclus. xxi. 17; Ezek. xvi. 49; Amos vi. 4; the last two 
 being instructive passages) is more nearly allied to rpv^av,
 
 202 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LV. 
 
 with which at Jam. v. 5 it is associated, than with crrprjvLav, 
 but it brings in the further notion of wastefulness (=ava- 
 \la-Ksiv, Hesjchius), which, consistently with its derivation 
 from a-Trda), a-Traddca, is inherent in it. Thus Hottinger : 
 ' rpv<bav deliciarum est, et exquisite voluptatis, a-TraraXav 
 luxuries atque prodigalitatis.' Tittmann : * rpv<f>av potius 
 mollitiam vitse luxuriosse, airarakav petulantiam et prodi- 
 galitatem deiiotat.' Theile, who takes them in the reverse 
 order : ' Coinponuntur tanquam antecedens et consequens ; 
 diffluere et dilapidare, luxuriare et lascivire.' 
 
 It will follow, if these distinctions have been rightly 
 drawn, that the cnrarakav might properly be laid to the 
 charge of the Prodigal, scattering his substance in riotous 
 living (%)v aa-MTws, Luke xv. 13); the rpvcfrav to the Rich 
 Man faring sumptuously every day su^paivofjisvos Ka6' 
 r)fj,4pav Xa/i7T/?<ws, Luke xvi. 19) ; the crrp^viav to Jeshurun, 
 when, waxing fat, he kicked (Deut. xxxii. 15). 
 
 Iv. 0\l^ris, crTSvoxcopla. 
 
 THESE words were often joined together. Thus <7Tvo%copia, 
 occurring only four times in the N. T., is on three of these 
 associated with 0A,n/ay (Rom. ii. 9 ; viii. 3 5 ; 2 Cor. vi. 4 ; 
 cf. Deut. xxviii. 55 ; Isai. viii. 22; xxx. 6). So too the 
 verbs G\ij3iv and a-revo^wpsiv (2 Cor. iv. 8 ; cf. Lucian, 
 Nigrin. 13; Artemidorus, i. 79; ii. 37). From the anti- 
 thesis at 2 Cor. iv. 8, OXiftofMsvoi, a\\' ov arsvo-^wpovfjisvoi,, 
 and from the fact that, wherever in the N. T. the words 
 occur together, a-Tevo^wpLa always occurs last, we may 
 conclude that, whatever be the difference of meaning, 
 arsvoxwpia is the stronger word. 
 
 They indeed express very nearly the same thing, but 
 not under the same image. Xtyis (joined with fidcravos 
 at Ezek. xii. 18, with dvay/ctj, Zeph. i. 15, and for which 
 we have the form 6\inpos t Exod. iii. 9 ; Deut. xxvi. 7) is 
 properly pressure, *pressura,' * tribulatio,' which last
 
 LV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 203 
 
 word in Church-Latin, whereto it belongs, had a metaphor- 
 ical sense, that which presses upon or burdens the spirit ; 
 I should have said ' angor,' the more that Cicero (Tusc. iv. 
 8) explains this 'segritudo premens,' but that the con- 
 nexion of ' angor ' with * angst,' enge ' (see Grimm, Wor- 
 terbuch, s. v. Angst ; and Max Miiller, On the Science of 
 Language, 1861, vol. i. p. 366, makes it better to reserve 
 this for (rrsvojfapfa. 
 
 The proper meaning of crrsvo-^wpia is narrowness of 
 room, confined space, * angustise,' and then the painf ulness 
 of which this is the occasion : djropla arsv^ and a-TSVO^oapia 
 occurring together, Isai. viii. 22. It is used literally by 
 Thucydides, vii. 70 : being sometimes exchanged for Sva- 
 %wpia : by Plutarch (Syrnp. v. 6) set over against avsais ; 
 while in the Septuagint it expresses the straitness of a siege 
 (Deut. xxviii. 53, 57). It is once employed in a secondary 
 and metaphorical sense in the 0. T. (a-rsvo^copia jrvsu^aros, 
 Wisd. v. 3) ; this being the only sense which it knows in 
 the New. The fitness of this image is attested by the 
 frequency with which on the other hand a state of joy is 
 expressed in the Psalms and elsewhere as a bringing into 
 a large room (irXarvafjios^ Ps. cxvii. 5 ; 2 Sam. xxii. 20 ; 
 Ecclus. xlvii. 12; Clement of Rome, Cor. 3; Or'gen, De 
 Orat. 30; sitpv^copia, Marcus Antoninus, ix. 32); so that 
 whether Aquinas intended an etymology or not, and most 
 probably he did, he certainly uttered a truth, when he 
 said, ' IsBtitia est quasi latitia.' 
 
 When, according to the ancient law of England, those 
 who wilfully refused to plead had heavy weights placed on 
 their breasts, and were so pressed and crushed to death, 
 this was literally 0\tyis. When Bajazet, vanquished by 
 Tamerlane, was carried about by him in an iron cage, if 
 indeed the story be true, this was arevo-^wpia : or, as we 
 do not know that any suffering there ensued from actual 
 narrowness of room, we may more fitly adduce the oubli- 
 ettes in which Louis XI. shut up his victims ; or the * little-
 
 204 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LVI. 
 
 ease ' l by which, according to Lingard, the Roman Catho- 
 lics in Queen Elizabeth's reign were tortured ; ' it was of 
 so small dimensions and so constructed, that the prisoners 
 could neither stand, walk, sit, nor lie at full length in it.' 
 For some considerations on the awful sense in which 6\tyis 
 and arsvo^wpia shall both, according to St. Paul's words 
 (Rom. ii. 9), be the portion of the lost, see Gerhard, Loc. 
 Theoll. xxxi. 6. 52. 
 
 Ivi. aTrXovy, a/cepatos, CLKCIKOS, a 
 
 IN this group of words we have some of the rarest and 
 most excellent graces of the Christian character set forth ; 
 or perhaps, as it may rather prove, the same grace by aid 
 of different images, and with only slightest shades of real 
 difference. 
 
 f ATT'XOVS occurs only twice in the N". T. (Matt. vi. 22 ; 
 Luke xi. 34) ; biit a-TrXoTT/s seven times, or perhaps eight, 
 always in St. Paul's Epistles; and air\Sis once (Jam. i. 5). 
 It would be quite impossible to improve on 'single' 2 by 
 which our Translators have rendered it, being as it is from 
 a-TrXoo), ' expando,' ' explico,' that which is spread out, and 
 thus without folds or wrinkles; exactly opposed to the 
 7roXu77 \OKOS of Job v. 1 3 ; compare ' simplex ' (not * with- 
 out folds ' ; but ' one-folded,' ' semel,' not * sine,' lying in 
 its first syllable, 'einfaltig,' see Donaldson, Varronianus, 
 p. 390), which is its exact representative in Latin, and a 
 word, like it, in honorable use. This notion of singleness, 
 simplicity, absence of folds, which thus lies according to 
 its etymology in aTrXoOs, is also predominant in its use 
 
 1 The word ' little-ease ' is not in our Dictionaries, but grew in our 
 early English to a commonplace to express any place or condition of 
 extreme discomfort. 
 
 2 See a good note in Fritzsche, Commentai~y on the Romans, vol. iii. 
 p. 64, denying that drrAoTJjr has ever the meaning of liberality, which our 
 Translators have so often given to it.
 
 LVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 205 
 
 ' animus alienus a versutia, f raude, simulatione, dolo malo, 
 et studio nocendi aliis' (Suicer) j cf. Herzog, Real-Encyclop. 
 art. Einfalt, vol. iii. p. 723. 
 
 That all this lies in the word is manifest from those 
 with which we find it associated, as aX^O^s (Xenophon, 
 Anab. ii. 6. 22 ; Plato, Legg. v. 738 e, and often) ; airovrjpos 
 (Theophrastus) ; yswalos (Plato, Rep. ii. 361 6); axparos 
 (Plutarch, Adv. Stoic. 48) ; fiovosiStfs (De Anim. Procr. 
 21); aa-vvdsros ( = ' iucompositus,' not put together, ib. ; 
 Basil, Adv. Eunom. i. 23); ftovorpoTros (Horn, in Prin. 
 Prov. 7) ; <ra(f)TJ$ (Alexis, in Meineke's Fragm. Com. G-rcec. 
 p. 750); aicaKos (Diodorus Siculus, xiii. 76); ir/ufa (De- 
 mosthenes, Orat. xxxvii. 969). But it is still more appa- 
 rent from those to which it is opposed ; as irouciXos (Plato, 
 Thecet. 146 d) ; 7ro\vst,^rjs (Phcedrus, 270 d] ; Tro\i>Tpoiros 
 (Hipp. Min. 364 e) ; irsTr\^^svos (Aristotle, Poet. 13 ; Bi- 
 TT\OVS (ib.) ; Tril3ov\.os (Xenophon, Mem. iii. 1.6); iravro- 
 &a7ros (Plutarch, Quom. Adul. ab Amic. 7). 'ATrXor^y (see 
 I Mace. ii. 37 ; cf. Philo, de Vit. Contempt. IO : a7r\ovcrraTa 
 Kal etXiKpivsa-Tara} is in like manner associated with 
 slXiicpivsta (2 Cor. i. 12), with arca/cla (Philo, Mund. Opif. 
 61) ; the two words being used indiscriminately in the 
 Septuagint to render the Hebrew which we translate now 
 ' integrity ' (Ps. vii. 8 ; Prov. xix. i), now * simplicity ' (2 
 Sam. xv. n); again with /ue>ya\o^ri;;us (Josephus, Antt. 
 vii. 13. 4), with a^aOor^s (Wisd. i. i). It is opposed to 
 7roitci\ia (Plato, Rep. iii. 404 e) to iro\vrpoiria, to /caieovp- 
 yia (Theophylact), to Kaxo^dsia (Theodore t), to 86\os 
 (Aristophanes, Plut. 1158). It may further be observed 
 that DP) (Gen. xxv. 27), which the Septuaginfc renders 
 aTrXao-ros, Aquila has rendered aTrXous. As happens to at 
 least one other word of this group, and to multitudes 
 besides which express the same grace, air\ovs comes often 
 to be used of a foolish simplicity, unworthy of the 
 Christian, who with all his simplicity should be fypovipos 
 as well (Matt. x. 16; Rom. xvi. 19). It is so used
 
 2C6 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LVI. 
 
 "by Basil the Great (Ep. 58) ; but nowhere in biblical 
 Greek. 
 
 'A/cspaios (not in the Septuagint) occurs only three 
 times in the N. T. (Matt. x. 16; Eora. xvi. 19; Phil. ii. 
 15). A mistaken etymology, namely, that it was 
 aKsparos, and derived from a and Kspas (cf. itspai^siv, 
 ' Isedere ' ; Ksparl^siv, LXX.), without horn to push or hurt, 
 one into which even Bengel falls, who at Matt. x. 16 has 
 this note : ' dicspaioi : sine cornu, ungula, dente, aculeo,' 
 has led our Translators on two of these occasions to 
 render it * harmless.' In each case, however, they have 
 put a more correct rendering, 'simple' (Matt. x. 16), 
 'sincere' (Phil. ii. 15), in the margin. At Rom. xvi. 19 
 all is reversed, and ' simple ' stands in the text, with 
 'harmless' in the margin. The fundamental notion of 
 d/cspaios, as of atcrfparos, which has the same derivation 
 from a and icepdvvvfM,, is the absence of foreign admixture : 
 o fir) KSKpa/jisvos KCLKOLS, aX\' a,7r\ovs KCU diroiKi\os (Etym. 
 Mag.}. Thus Philo, speaking of a boon which Caligula 
 granted to the Jews, but with harsh conditions annexed, 
 styles it a yapis OVK aKfyaios, with manifest reference to 
 this its etymology (De Leg. ad Cai. 42) : o/itoy, pevrot teal 
 TTJV %dpiv BiBovs, sScovsv OVK d/cepatov, a\X' dva/jii^as avrfj 
 Bsos dp<ya\()Tpov. Wine unmingled with water is 
 aicspaios (Athenseus, ii. 45). To unalloyed metal the 
 same epithet is applied. The word is joined by Plato 
 with d/3\a(3rj$ (Hep. i. 342 &), and with opdos (Polit. 268 6) ; 
 by Plutarch with vjnjs (Adv. Stoic. 31) ; set over against 
 rapa/crtKos (De Def. Orac. 51); by Clement of Rome 
 (Cor. 2} with etXi/cpivrfs. That, we may say, is dicspaios, 
 which is in its true and natural condition (Polybius, ii. 
 IOO. 4; Josephus, Antt. i. 2. 2) 'integer'; in this border- 
 ing on 6\oK\r]pos, although completeness in all the parts is 
 there the predominant idea, and not, as here, freedom 
 from disturbing elements. 
 
 The word which we have next to consider, a/ca/coy, ap-
 
 LVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 207 
 
 pears only twice in the N. T. (Heb. vii. 26 ; Rom. xvi. 18). 
 There are three stages in its history, two of which are 
 sufficiently marked by its use in these two places ; for the 
 third we must seek elsewhere. Thus at Heb. vii. 26 the 
 epithet challenges for Christ the Lord that absence of 
 all evil which implies the presence of all good ; being asso- 
 ciated there with other noblest epithets. The Septuagint, 
 which knows all uses of a/catco?, employs it sometimes in 
 this highest sense ; thus Job is described as avQpwrros 
 aica/cos, aXyQivoS) a/jiSfATTTOs, deoo-eftrfs, aTre^o/^svos K.T.\. (Job 
 ii. 3); while at Job viii. 20, the a/caws is opposed to the 
 aa-s^ijsf', and at Ps. xxiv. 21 is joined to the evO^s, as by 
 Plutarch (De Prof. Virt. 7) to the awfypwv. The word 
 at its next stage expresses the same absence of all harm, 
 but now contemplated more negatively than positively : thus 
 apviov afca/cov (Jer. xi. 19); Trai^icr/cr] vsa KOL atca/cos (Plutarch, 
 Virt. Mul. 23) ; aica/eos KOI aTrpdy^wv (Demosthenes, Orat. 
 xlvii. 1164). The N. T. supplies no example of the word 
 at this its second stage. The process by which it comes 
 next to signify easily deceived, and then too easily de- 
 ceived, and a/cd/cia, simplicity running into an excess 
 (Aristotle, Rhet. ii. 12), is not difficult to trace. He who 
 himself means no evil to others, oftentimes fears no evil 
 from others. Conscious of truth in his own heart, he 
 believes truth in the hearts of all : a noble quality, yet in a 
 world like ours capable of being pushed too far, where, if 
 in malice we are to be children, yet in understanding to 
 be men (i Cor. xiv. 20) ; if "simple concerning evil," yet 
 " wise unto that which is good " (Rom. xvi. 19 ; cf. Jeremy 
 Taylor's Sermon On Christian Simplicity, Works, Eden's 
 edition, vol. iv. p. 609). The word, as employed Rom. 
 xvi. 1 8, already indicates such a confidence as this be- 
 ginning to degenerate into a credulous readiness to the 
 being deceived and led away from the truth (0av/j.aaTiicol 
 Kal aKdicoi, Plutarch, De Red. Rat. Aud. 7; cf. Wisd. iv. 
 12; Prov. i. 4 [where Solomon declares the object with
 
 208 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LVI. 
 
 which his Proverbs were written, 'iva Sw a/cdfcois Travovp- 
 <yiav~\ ; viii. 5> x i v> J 5> atca/cop Triarsvei Travrl Xo^ft)). 
 For a somewhat contemptuous use of aVa/cos-, see Plato, 
 TimcBUS, gi d, with Stallbaum's note ; and Plutarch (Dem. 
 l) : r^y airsipta TWV KCIKWV Ka\\o)7TL^o/j.svijv aKaKiav OVK 
 STraivoixriv \_ol crocjW], aXX' afBsKrspiav yyovvrai Ka\ a- 
 ryvoiav wv /iaXttrra yivcotricsiv TrpoaiJKSt : but above all, the 
 words which the author of the Second Alcibiades puts into 
 the mouth of Socrates (140 c) : rovs fjikv ir\slcrTov avrrjs 
 \_a^)po(rvvr]s~\ pspos e^ovras fAaivo/jisvovs Ka\ovfj,v,Tovs S' o\i- 
 <yov s\arrov r)\idiovsicai s^^povrrjrovs' ol 
 6v6/j,a(ri ftov\6psvoi Karovo/jid^siV) ol fjfsv 
 Ss svr)6si$, srspot 8s d/cd/covs, Kal dirsipovs, KCUSVSOVS* But 
 after all it is in the mouth of the rogue Autolycus that 
 Shakespeare put the words, ' What a fool Honesty is, and 
 Trust, his sworn brother, a very simple gentleman' (Win- 
 ter's Tale, act iv. sc. 3). 
 
 The second and third among these meanings of a/ccutos 
 are separated by so slight and vanishing a line, oftentimes 
 so run into one another, that it is not wonderful if some 
 find rather two stages in the word's use than three ; Basil 
 the Great, for example, whose words are worth quoting 
 (Horn, in Princ. Prov. 1 1) : Sirrws voov^zv rrjv aKaKiav. * H 
 <yap rrjv a-Tro rrjs apaprias d\\orpiwat,v \o^L<rp,u> /caropOov- 
 fjLsvrjv, ical Sia fjiaKpas 7rpoao%f)s KOI yu-fXer^* TWV d<ya0a)v 
 olov Tiva pl&v rfjs Kaiclas SKTS/AOVTSS, Kara aripqffW avrrjy 
 7rai>TS\f), rrjv rov d/cd/cov Trpoo-rjjopiav Ss^o/j-sda" rj dica/cia 
 e<TTiv rj p,ri TTCO TOV Katcov s/jiTrstpla 8id vsorrjTa vroXXa^iS 1 rj 
 ySt'ou TWOS s r iriTr)$eva'iVi dirsipwv TIVWV irpos rivas ica/cias 
 Olov slat, TIVSS rwv TIJV dypoiKiav OIKOVVTWV, 
 
 slSorss rds sfMTTOpucds KaKovpjias ov8s rds sv BlKCUmjplqp 
 
 TOVS TOIOVTOVS CLKaKOVS ~\,SJOfJ.V, OV% O)S K 
 
 Trpoaipso'sws rfjs Karcias Ks^aipiafjisvovs, aXX' d>s prf irw sis 
 TTZipav TTJS Trovrjpds s^stos d(f>i'y/jLvovs. From all this it will 
 be seen that a/caicos has in fact run the same course, and 
 has the same moral history as ^prjcrros dirXoi'S, svt'jGiis,
 
 LVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 209 
 
 with which it is often joined (as by Diodorus Siculus, v. 
 66), 'bon' (thus Jean le Bon=l'etourdi), 'bonhomie,' 
 * silly,' ' simple,' * daft,' 'einfaltig,' ' giitig,' and many more. 
 The last word of this beautiful group, a8o\os, occurs 
 only once in the N. T. (i Pet. ii. 2), and is there beauti- 
 fully translated ' sincere,' " the sincere milk of the word; " 
 see the early English use of ' sincere ' as unmixed, unadul- 
 terated ; and compare, for that ' milk of the word ' which 
 would not be ' sincere,' 2 Cor. iv. 2. It does not appear 
 in the Septuagint, nor in the Apocrypha, but a&6\(os once 
 in the latter (Wisd. vii. 13). Plato joins it with vyirfs (Ep. 
 viii. 355 e) ; Philo, with a/ju^s and icadapos (Hund. 
 Opif. 47) ; Philemo with yv^a-ios (Meineke, Fragm. Com. 
 GTCBC. p. 843). It is difficult, indeed impossible, to vindi- 
 cate an ethical province for this word, on which other of 
 the group have not encroached, or, indeed, preoccupied 
 already. We can only regard it as setting forth the same 
 excellent grace under another image, or on another side. 
 Thus if the a/caKos his nothing of the serpent's tooth, the 
 aSoXos has nothing of the serpent's guile ; if the absence of 
 willingness to hurt, of the malice of our fallen nature, is 
 predicated of the a/ca/eos, the absence of its fraud and 
 deceit is predicated of the aSoXo s, the Nathanael " in whom 
 is no guile " (John i. 48) . And finally, to sum up all, we 
 may say, that as the a/caws (=< innocens') has no harm- 
 fulness in him, and the aSoXos (=' sincerus') no guile, so 
 the atcepaios ( = ' integer ') no foreign admixture, and the 
 ebrXoOs (=' simplex ') no folds. 
 
 Ivii. xpovos, /caipof. 
 
 SEVERAL times in the N. T. but always in the plural, 
 yjpovoi Kal fcaipoi are found together (Acts i. 7 ; I Thess. 
 v. i) ; and not unfrequently in the Septuagint and the 
 Apocrypha, Wisd. vii. i8j viii. 8 (both instructive passages) ; 
 Dan. ii. 21 ; and in the singular, Eccles. iii. I j Dan. vii. 12 
 
 P
 
 210 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LVII. 
 
 (but in this last passage the reading is doubtful). Grotius 
 (on Acts i. 7) conceives the difference between them to 
 consist merely in the greater length of the ^povoi as com- 
 pared with the Kaipoi, and writes : ' xpovoi sunt majora 
 temporum spatia, ut aniii; Kaipoi minora, ut menses et 
 dies.' Compare Bengel : ' yjpovwv partes /catpol.' This 
 distinction, if not inaccurate, is certainly insufficient, and 
 altogether fails to reach the heart of the matter. 
 
 "Kpovos is time, contemplated simply as such ; the suc- 
 cession of moments (Matt. xxv. 19 ; Rev. x. 6 ; Heb. iv. 7) ; 
 alwvos sifcaiv KtvrjTrj, as Plato calls it (Tim. 37 d ; compare 
 Hooker, Eccles. Pol. v. 69) ; Stda-rt]/j,a TT?S TOV ovpavov KIVIJ- 
 (Tscos, as Philo has it (De Mund. Op. 7). It is the German 
 ' Zeitraum,' as distinguished from ' ZeitpunJd ; ' thus com- 
 pare Demosthenes, 1357, where both the words occur; 
 and Severianus (Suicer, Thes. s. v.) : xpovos w/cos ecru, 
 Kaipbs svKaipia. Kaipos, derived from tcsipo), as ' tempus ' 
 from ' temno,' is time as it brings forth its several births ; 
 thus Kaipos 6spi<T/j,ov (Matt. xiii. 30) ; Kaipbs avKcov (Mark 
 xi. 13) ; Christ died Kara icatpov (Rom. v. 6) ; and above all 
 compare, as constituting a miniature essay on the word, 
 Eccles. iii. 1-8 : see Keil, in loco. Xpovos, it will thus 
 appear, embraces all possible /caipoi, and, being the larger, 
 more inclusive term, may be often used where Kaipos would 
 have been equally suitable, though not the converse ; thus 
 TOV TSKsiv, the time of bringing forth (Luke i. 57) ; 
 
 TOV xpovov (Gal. iv. 4), the fulness, or the ripe- 
 ness, of the time for the manifestation of the Son of God, 
 where we should before have rather expected TOV Kaipov, 
 or TOW Kaipwv, this last phrase actually occurring at Ephes. 
 i. 10. So, too, we may confidently say that the xP ovot 
 (Acts iii. 21) are identical with the Kaipo I 
 
 s which had just been mentioned before (ver. 19). 
 Thus it is possible to speak of the Kaipbs xpovov, and 
 Sophocles (Elect. 1 292) does so : 
 
 \povov yap av <roi Kaipov (etpyoi Xo'yos,
 
 LVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 211 
 
 but not of the %p6vos /catpov. Compare Olympiodorus 
 (Suicer, Tlies. s. v. %povos) : ftpovos psv scm TO Bidcrrij/jia 
 tca0' o irpdrrsrai TL' tcaipbs 8s 6 sTrinfisios rrjs spyacrlas 
 ^povos' wars o pJsv ^povos Kal /ccupbs elvai 8vvarai' 6 8s 
 icaipbs ov %povoS) aXX' evtcaipla rod Trparro/msvov sv ^povw 
 Ammonius : 6 fisv icaipbs 8r)\oi TroioTrjTd %povov, 
 8s iroa-oTtjra. In a fragment of Sosipater, quoted 
 by AthensQus, ix. 22, svicaipos ^povos occurs. 
 
 From what has been said, it will appear that when the 
 Apostles ask the Lord, " Wilt thou at this time restore 
 again the kingdom to Israel? " and He makes answer, "It 
 is not for you to know the times or the seasons " (Acts i. 
 6, 7), 'the times' (%povoi) are, in Augustine's words, ' ipsa 
 spatia temporum,' and these contemplated merely under 
 the aspect of their duration, over which the Church's history 
 should extend; but 'the seasons' (/catpoi) are the joints 
 or articulations in these times, the critical epoch-making 
 periods fore-ordained of God (/caipol TrpoTSTaypsvoi,, Acts 
 xvii. 26; cf. Augustine, Conf. xi. 13: ' Deus operator 
 temporum ') ; when all that has been slowly, and often 
 without observation, ripening through long ages is mature 
 and comes to the birth in grand decisive events, which 
 constitute at once the close of one period and the com- 
 mencement of another. Such, for example, was the passing 
 away with a great noise of the old Jewish dispensation ; 
 such, again, the recognition of Christianity as the religion 
 of the Eoman Empire; such the conversion of the Germanic 
 tribes settled within the limits of the Empire ; and such 
 again the conversion of those outside ; such the great 
 revival which went along with the first institution of the 
 Mendicant Orders ; such, by still better right, the Eefor- 
 ination ; such, above all others, the second coming of the 
 Lord in glory (Dan. vii. 22). 
 
 The Latin had no word by which adequately to render 
 Kaipol. Augustine complains of this (Ep. cxcvii. 2) ; 
 'Greece legitur ^povovs f) /caipovs. Nostri autem utrumque 
 
 p2
 
 212 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LVII. 
 
 hoc verbum tempora appellant, sive ^povovs, sive tcaipovs, 
 cum habeant hsec duo inter se non negligendam differen- 
 tiam : icaipovs quippe appellant Greece tempora qusedam, 
 non tameii quse in spatiorum voluminibus transeunt, sed 
 quse in rebus ad aliquid opportunis vel importunis senti- 
 untur, sicut messis, vindemia, calor, frigus, pax, bellum, 
 et si qua similia ; ^povovs autem ipsa spatia temporum 
 vocant.' It will be seen that he does not recognize ' tem- 
 pestivitas,' which, however, is used by Cicero. Bearing 
 out this complaint of his, we find in the Vulgate the most 
 various renderings of Kaipol, as often as it occurs in combi- 
 nation with xpovot, and cannot therefore be rendered by 
 ' tempora,' which yjpbvoi has preoccupied. Thus ' tempora 
 et momenta ' (Acts i. 7 ; I Thess. v. i), * tempora et estates ' 
 (Dan. ii. 21), * tempora et scecula ' (Wisd. viii. 8) j while a 
 modern Latin commentator on the N. T. has ' tempora et 
 articuli ' ; Bengel, ' intervalla et tempora.' It might be 
 urged that * tempora et opportunitates ' would fulfil all 
 necessary conditions. Augustine has anticipated this 
 suggestion, but only to demonstrate its insufiiciency, 011 
 the ground that ' opportunitas ' ( = ' opportunum tempus') 
 is a convenient, favourable season (svKaipla) ; while the 
 tcaipos may be the most inconvenient, most unfavourable of 
 all, the essential notion of it being that it is the critical 
 nick of time, the d/c/i^, Sophocles, Philoct. 12 ; Ajax, 822; 
 but whether, as such, to make or to mar, effectually to 
 help or effectually to hinder, the word determines not at 
 all (' sive opportuna, sive importuna sint tempora, /caipot 
 dicuntur'). At the same time it is oftener the former: 
 fcaipos <yap oa-irsp dv$pd<riv MsyicrTOS spyov iravros scrr 
 ETria-TaT'rjs (Sophocles, Electra, 75, 76). On the distinction 
 between %povos, Kaipos, and alo)v, see Schmidt, SynonymiJc, 
 vol. ii. p. 54 sqq.
 
 LVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 213 
 
 Iviii. <j)spw, <j)opsa>. 
 
 ON the distinction between these words Lobeck (Phry- 
 nichus, p. 585) has the following remarks : * Inter (frspa) et 
 (fropsa hoc interesse constat, quod illud actionem simplicem 
 et transitoriam, hoc autem actionis ejusdem continua- 
 tionem significat ; verbi causa dyysXirjv (f>epsiv, estalicujus 
 rei nunciuni afferre, Herod, iii. 53 et 122 ; v. 14; ayy\Lrjv 
 (f>opssiv, iii. 34, nuncii munere apud aliquem fungi. Hinc 
 et (fropsiv dicimur ea quse nobiscum circumferimus, quibus 
 amicti indutique sumus, ut iftdriov, rpi&wviov, arcTv\iov 
 <f)opslv, tum quse ad habitum corporis pertinent.' He 
 proceeds, however, to acknowledge that this distinction is 
 by no means constantly observed even by the best Greek 
 authors. It is, therefore, the more noticeable, as an ex- 
 ample of that accuracy which so often takes us by surprise 
 in the use of words by the writers of the N. T., that they 
 are always true to this rule. On the six occasions upon 
 which $opsiv occurs (Matt. xi. 8 ; John xix. 5 : Rom. xiii. 
 4; i Cor. xv. 49, bis ; Jam. ii. 3), it invariably expresses, 
 not an accidental and temporary, but an habitual and 
 continuous, bearing. 'Sic enim differt (fropsiv a (frspsiv, ut 
 hoc sit ferre, illud ferre solere' (Fritzsche, on Matt. xi. 8). 
 A sentence in Plutarch (Apoph. Reg.), in which both words 
 occur, illustrates very well their different uses. Of Xerxes 
 he tells us : opytardsls Bs ~Ba/3v\covlois cnroaTacn, KOI 
 
 av\scv KOI Tropvoftoa-Ksiv leal Ka7rt}\svsiv, Kal (jiopsiv KO\- 
 TTWTOVS xiT&vas. Arms would only be borne on special 
 occasions, therefore (frspsiv ; but garments are habitually 
 worn, therefore this is in the second clause exchanged for 
 fapsiv.
 
 214 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIX. 
 
 lix. Koa-ftos, alwv. 
 
 s our Translators have rendered * world ' in every 
 instance but one (i Pet. iii. 3) ; aiatv often, though by no 
 means invariably so ; for (not to speak of sis alwva) see 
 Ephes. ii. 2, 7 ; Col. i. 26. It may be a question whether 
 we might not have made more use of ' age ' in our Version : 
 we have employed it but rarely, only, indeed, in the two 
 places which I have cited last. * Age* may sound to us 
 inadequate now : but it is quite possible that, so used, it 
 would little by little have expanded and adapted itself to 
 the larger meaning of the Greek word for which it stood. 
 One must regret that, by this or some other like device, 
 our Translators did not mark the difference between 
 Koa-fios ( mundus), the world contemplated under aspects 
 of space, and alwv (=seculum), the same contemplated 
 under aspects of time ; for the Latin, no less than the 
 Greek, has two words, where we have, or have acted as 
 though we had, but one. In all those passages (such as 
 Matt. xiii. 39; i Cor. x. n) which speak of the end or 
 consummation of the almv (there are none which speak of 
 the end of the /edcr/ios), as in others which speak of " the 
 wisdom of this world" (i Cor. ii. 6), "the god of this 
 world " (2 Cor. iv. 4), "the children of this world " (Luke 
 xvi. 8), it must be admitted that we are losers by the 
 course which we have adopted. 
 
 Kocr/ioy, connected with KO^SLV, 'comere,' 'comptus,' 
 has a history of much interest in more respects than one. 
 Suidas traces four successive significations through which 
 it passed : arjfiaivsi $e 6 Kca~fios rea-crapa, einrpsTreiav, roSs TO 
 Trav, rr)v rd^tv, TO 7r\ijdos Trapa ry T*pa,(j)f). Originally signi- 
 fying ' ornament,' and obtaining this meaning once in the 
 N. T. (i Pet. iii. 3), where we render it ' adorning,' and 
 hardly obtaining any other in the Old (thus the stars are 
 o Koa-fios rov ovpavov, Deut. xvii. 3 ; Isai. xxiv. 21 ; cf. xlix.
 
 LIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 215 
 
 1 8 ; Jer. iv. 30 ; Ezek. vii. 20 ; Ecclus. xliii. 9) ; from this 
 it passed to that of order, or arrangement ('lucidus ordo '), 
 or beauty as springing out of these ; SVTT psirs 10, and rd^ts, 
 as Suidas gives it above, or Ka\\wma-p.6s, Karacr/csvy, rdgis, 
 Karaa-TacTi?, /cd\\os, as Hesychius. Pythagoras is recorded 
 as the first who transferred KOO-^OS to the sum total of the 
 material universe (for a history of this transfer see a note 
 in Humboldt's Cosmos, 1846, Engl. edit. p. 371), desiring 
 thereby to express his sense of the beauty and order which 
 are everywhere to be traced therein : so Plutarch (De Plac. 
 Phil. i. 5) tells us; while others report that he called by 
 this name not the whole material universe, but only the 
 heaven ; claiming for it this name on the same ground, 
 namely, on that of the well-ordered arrangement which was 
 visible therein (Diogenes Laertius, viii. 48) ; and we often 
 find the word so used ; as by Xenophon, Mem. i. I. n ; by 
 Jsocrates, i. 179; by Plato (Tim. 28 6), who yet employs 
 it also in the larger and what we might call more ideal 
 sense, as embracing and including within itself, and in the 
 bonds of one communion and fellowship heaven and earth 
 and gods and men (Gorg. 508 a) ; by Aristotle (De Mund. 
 2 ; and see Bentley, Works, vol. i. p. 391 ; vol. ii. p. 117). 
 ' Mundus ' in Latin, f digestio et ordinatio singularum 
 quarumque rerum formatarum et distinctarum,' as Augus- 
 tine (De Gen. ad Lit. c. 3) calls it, followed in nearly the 
 same track as the Greek KOV/JLOS ; giving occasion to pro- 
 found plays of words, such as ' munde immunde,' in 
 which the same illustrious Church-teacher delights. Thus 
 Pliny (H. N. ii. 3) : Quern icoa-pav Grseci nomine ornamenti 
 appellaverunt, eum nos a perfecta absolutaque elegantid 
 mundum ; ' cf. Cicero (De Universo, 10) : * Hunc hac 
 varietate distinctum bene Grseci Koa-p-ov, nos lucentem 
 mundum nominamus ; ' cf. De Nat. Deor. ii. 22 ; but on the 
 inferiority as a philosophical expression of ' mundus ' to 
 , see Sayce, Principles of Comparative Philology, p. 98. 
 From this signification of KOO-^OS as the material uni-
 
 216 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIX. 
 
 verse, which is frequent in Scripture (Matt. xiii. 35 ; John 
 xvii. 5; xxi. 25; Acts xviii. 24; Rom. i. 20), followed 
 that of Koa-fjios as that external framework of things in 
 which man lives and moves, which exists for him and 
 of which he constitutes the moral centre (John xvi. 21 ; 
 I Cor. xiv. 10 ; I John iii. 17) ; here very nearly equivalent 
 to oiKovpsvrj (Matt. xxiv. 14 ; Acts xix. 27) ; and then the 
 men themselves, the sum total of persons living in the 
 world (John i. 29; iv. 42; 2 Cor. v. 19) ; and then upon 
 this, and ethically, all not of the KK\.r}ala, } alienated from 
 the life of God and by wicked works enemies to Him 
 (i Cor. i. 2O, 21 ; 2 Cor. vii. IO ; Jam. iv. 4). I need hardly 
 call attention here to the immense part which Koapos thus 
 understood plays in the theology of St. John; both in 
 his record of his Master's sayings, and in his own writings 
 (John i. IO ; vii. 7 ; xii. 31 ; I John ii. 16 ; v. 4) ; occur- 
 ring in his Gospel and Epistles more than a hundred times, 
 most often in this sense. On this last use of KOO-/JLOS, and 
 on the fact that it should have been utterly strange to the 
 entire heathen world, which had no sense of this opposi- 
 tion between God and man, the holy and unholy, and that 
 the same should have been latent and not distinctly called 
 out even in the O. T., on all this there are some admirable 
 remarks by Zezschwitz, Profangrdcitat und Bibl. Sprach- 
 geist, pp. 21-24: while on these various meanings of 
 Koa-jjios, and on the serious confusions which, if not 
 carefully watched against, may arise therefrom, Augustine 
 (Con. JuL Pelag. vi. 3, 4} may be consulted with advantage. 
 We must reject the etymology of alcav which Aristotle 
 (De Ccel. i. 9) propounds : dirb TOV a si elvai, sl\T)<f)ws rrjv 
 sTTfovvfilav. It is more probably connected with ao>, a?7/u, 
 to breathe. Like icba-pos it has a primary and physical, 
 and then, superinduced on this, a secondary and ethical, 
 
 1 Origen indeed (in Joan. 38) mentions some one in his day who in- 
 terpreted Kuo-pos as the Church, being as it is the ornament of the world 
 
 (KOCTfJLOS OV(TCt TOV KOCT^Ov),
 
 LIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 217 
 
 sense. In its primary, it signifies time, short or long, in 
 its unbroken duration ; oftentimes in classical Greek the 
 duration of a human life (=/3/oy, for which it is exchanged, 
 Xenophon, Cyrop. iii. 3. 52 ; cf. Plato, Legg. iii. 701 c; 
 Sophocles, Trachin. 2 ; Elect. 1085 : 7rd<ytc\avTov alwva 
 SL\OV : Pindar, Olymp. ii. 1 20 : aSatcpvv vejiovrai alwva) ; 
 but essentially time as the condition under which all created 
 things exist, and the measure of their existence ; thus Theo- 
 doret : o alobv OVK ova-la ns S(TTIV, ciAA,' avvTrocrraTov xpfj/j-a, 
 avfATrapofiapTOVv rois ysvvrjTrjV s^ovcri (frvaiv KaXclrat yap 
 aiwv real TO airo Ti]s TOV KOCTJAOV a-varda-scas fis^pi rrjs <rvv- 
 T\sias SidaTijfAa. alu>v TOLVVV scrrl TO Ty KTicrTf} (frvcrsi 
 7raps^svjfj,svov Sida-Trj^a. Thus signifying time, it comes 
 presently to signify all which exists in the world under 
 conditions of time ; * die Totalitat desjenigen, was sich in 
 der Dauer der Zeit ausserlich darstellt, die Welt, sofern 
 sie sich in der Zeit bewegt ' (C. L. W. Grimm ; thus see 
 Wisd. xiii. 9; xiv. 6; xviii. 4; Eccles. iii. 11) ; and then, 
 more ethically, the course and current of this world's 
 affairs. But this course and current being full of sin, it is 
 nothing wonderful that o alwv OVTOS, set over against o alwv 
 sKslvos (Luke xx. 35), 6 alcov 6 ip^ofjisvos (Mark x. 30), o 
 alwv o p,s\\wv (Matt. xii. 32), acquires presently, like /co<r/ioy, 
 an unfavourable meaning. The /3aa-i\,slai TOV Kocrpov of 
 Matt. iv. 8 are ftaaCkslai, TOV alwvos TOVTOV (Ignatius, Ep. 
 ad Rom. 6) ; God has delivered us by his Son s^ svea-TWTos 
 alwvos Trovrjpov (Gal. i. 4) ; Satan is dsos TOV alwvos TOVTOV 
 (2 Cor. iv. 4 ; cf. Ignatius, Ep. ad Magn. I : o ap%a>z> TOV 
 alwvos TOVTOV} ; sinners walk KUTO, TOV alwva TOV KOCT^OV 
 TOVTOV (Ephes. ii. 2), too weakly translated in our Ver- 
 sion, as in those preceding, " according to the course of this 
 world." This last is a particularly instructive passage, 
 for in it both words occur together ; Bengel excellently 
 remarking : ' alwv et KOO-^OS differunt. Ille hunc regit et 
 quasi informat: KOO-^OS est quiddam exterius, altov sub- 
 tilius. Tempus \_=al<av\ dicitur non solum physice, sed
 
 218 SYNONTMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIX. 
 
 etiam moraliter, connotata qualitate liominum in eo viven- 
 tium ; et sic alcav dicit longam temporum seriem, ubi setas 
 mala malam setatem excipit.' Compare Windischmann (on 
 Gal. i. 4) : ' alwv darf aber durcbaus nicht bloss als Zeit 
 gefasst werden, sondern begreift alles in der Zeit befang- 
 ene; die Welt und ihre Herrlichkeit, die Menschen und 
 ihr natiirliches unerlostes Thun und Treiben in sich, im 
 Contraste zu dem hier nur beginnenden, seiner Sehnsuclit 
 und Vollendung nach aber jenseitigen und ewigen, Reiche 
 des Messias.' We speak of 'the times,' attaching to the 
 word an ethical signification ; or, still more to the point, 
 ' the age,' ' the spirit or genius of the age,' ' der Zeit- 
 geist.' All that floating mass of thoughts, opinions, 
 maxims, speculations, hopes, impulses, aims, aspirations, 
 at anytime current in the world, which it may be impossible 
 to seize and accurately define, but which constitute a most 
 real and effective power, being the moral, or immoral, 
 atmosphere which at every moment of our lives we inhale, 
 again inevitably to exhale, all this is included in the 
 alwv, which is, as Bengel has expressed it, the subtle in- 
 forming spirit of the Koa-pos, or world of men who are 
 living alienated and apart from God. ' Seculum,' in Latin 
 has acquired the same sense, as in the familiar epigram 
 of Tacitus (Germ. 19), Corrumpere et corrumpi seculum 
 vocatur.' 
 
 It must be freely admitted that two passages in the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews will not range themselves accord- 
 ing to the distinction here drawn between alwv and icoa-pos, 
 namely i. 2 and xi. 3. In both of these aiwvss are the 
 worlds contemplated, if not entirely, yet beyond question 
 mainly, under other aspects than those of time. Some 
 indeed, especially modern Socinian expositors, though not 
 without forerunners who had no such motives as theirs, 
 have attempted to explain alwvss at Heb. i. 2, as the suc- 
 cessive dispensations, the xpovoi real /catpoi of the divine 
 economy. But however plausible this explanation might
 
 LX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 219 
 
 have been if this verse had stood alone, xi. 3 is decisive 
 that the altaves in both passages can only be, as we have 
 rendered it, ' the worlds,' and not the ages.' I have called 
 these the only exceptions, for I cannot accept I Tim. i. 17 
 as a third ; where ai&vss must denote, not ' the worlds ' in 
 the usual concrete meaning of the term, but, according to 
 the more usual temporal meaning of alcov in the N. T., 
 ' the ages,' the temporal periods whose sum and aggregate 
 adumbrate the conception of eternity. The fiaan\vs TWV 
 alwvwv (cf. Clement of Rome, Gor. 35:0 Sr)/jLiovpyos ical 
 irarrjp TWV alutvwv] will thus be the sovereign dispenser 
 and disposer of the ages during which the mystery of 
 God's purpose with man is unfolding (see Ellicott, in 
 loco). 1 For the Hebrew equivalents of the words express- 
 ing time and eternity, see Conrad von Orelli, Die Hvbrai- 
 schen Synonyma der Zeit und Ewiglceit, Leipzig, 1 87 1 ; and 
 for the Greek and Latin, so far as these seek to express 
 them at all, see Pott, Etym. Forsch. ii. 2. 444. 
 
 Ix. vsos, /caivos. 
 
 SOME have denied that any difference can in the N". T. be 
 traced between these words. They derive a certain plau- 
 sible support for this denial from the fact that manifestly 
 vsos and KCUVOS, both rendered ' new ' in our Version, are 
 often interchangeably used ; thus vsos avOpwiros (Col. iii. 
 10), and Kaivos avOpwiros (Eph. ii. 15), in both cases "the 
 
 1 Our English ( world,' etymologically regarded, more nearly represents 
 ala>v than Kocr/io?. The old ' weralt' (in modern German ' welt ') is com- 
 posed of two words, 'war/ man, and 'alt,' age or generation. The 
 ground-meaning, therefore, of 'weralt' is generation of men (Pott. 
 Etym. Forsch. vol. ii. pt. i. p. 125). Out of this expression of time 
 unfolds itself that of space, as alvv passed into the meaning of KOO-^OS 
 (Grimm, Deutsche Myth. p. 752) ; but in the earliest German records 
 ' weralt ' is used, first as an expression of time, and only derivatively as 
 one of space (Rudolf von Raumer, Die Einioirkung des Christenthums auf 
 die alt-hochdeutsche Sprache, 1845, p. 375). See however another deri- 
 vation altogether which Grimm seems disposed to favour (Klein. Schrift, 
 vol. i. p. 305, and which comes very much to this, that ' world ' = whirled.
 
 220 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LX 
 
 new man " ; vsa Siadrj/cr) (Heb. xii. 24) and tcau^ Siadrj/cr) 
 (Heb. ix. 15), both "a new covenant"; vsos olvos (Matt. 
 ix. 17) and KCUVOS olvos (Matt. xxvi. 29), both "new wine." 
 The words, it is contended, are evidently of the same force 
 and significance. This, however, by no means follows, 
 and in fact is not the case. The same covenant may be 
 qualified as vsa, or /caivij, as it is contemplated from one 
 point of view or another. So too the same man, or the 
 same wine, may be vsos, icaivos, or may be both; but 
 a different notion is predominant according as the one 
 epithet is applied or the other. 
 
 Contemplate the new under aspects of time, as that 
 which has recently come into existence, and this is vsos 
 (see Pott, Etymol. Forschung. vol. i. pp. 290-292). Thus 
 the young are ol vsoi, or ol vscarspot, the generation which 
 has lately sprung up ; so, too, vsoi 6soi, the younger race 
 of gods, Jupiter, Apollo, and the other Olympians (^schy- 
 lus, Prom. Vinct. 991, 996), as set over against Saturn, 
 Ops, and the dynasty of elder deities whom they had de- 
 throned. But contemplate the new, not now under aspects 
 of time, but of quality, the new, as set over against that 
 which has seen service, the outworn, the effete or marred 
 through age, and this is /caivds : thus compare sTrifiXyfia 
 paKovs ayvd(f)ov (Matt. ix. 1 6) with E7ri/3\rjfjt,a UTTO l^ariov 
 icaivov (Luke v. 36), the latter "a new garment," as con- 
 trasted with one threadbare and outworn ; Kaivol CUTKOI, 
 "new wine-skins" (Matt. ix. 17; Luke v. 38), such as 
 have not lost their strength and elasticity through age 
 and use ; and in this sense, KCLIVOS ovpavos (2 Pet. iii. 13), 
 "a new heaven," as set over against that which has waxen 
 old, and shows signs of decay and dissolution (Heb. i. u, 
 12). In like manner the phrase rcaival yXwa-crai (Mark 
 xvi. 17) does not suggest the recent commencement of 
 this miraculous speaking with tongues, but the unlikeness 
 of these tongues to any that went before; therefore called 
 srspai 7\o)cro-at elsewhere (Acts ii. 4), tongues unwonted
 
 LX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 221 
 
 and different from any hitherto known. The sense of the 
 unwonted as lying in naivos comes out very clearly in a 
 passage of Xenophon (Cyrop. in. I. 30) : tcaivfjs ap^op.evrjs 
 
 rjs, rj rrjs slwOvias Karafjisvoixr^s. So too that rcaivov 
 , in which Joseph of Arimathea laid the body of 
 the Lord (Matt, xxvii. 60 ; John xix. 41), was not a tomb 
 recently hewn from the rock, but one which had never 
 yet been hanselled, in which hitherto no dead had lain, 
 making the place ceremonially unclean (Matt, xxiii. 27 ; 
 Num. xix. 16; Ezek. xxxix. 12, 16). It might have been 
 hewn out a hundred years before, and could not therefore 
 have been called vsov : but, if never turned to use before, 
 it would be KCLIVOV still. That it should be thus was part 
 of that divine decorum which ever attended the Lord in 
 the midst of the humiliations of his earthly life (cf. Luke 
 xix. 30 ; I Sam. vi. 7 ; 2 Kin. ii. 20). 
 
 It will follow from what has been said that icawos will 
 often, as a secondary notion, imply praise ; for the new is 
 commonly better than the old ; thus everything is new in 
 the kingdom of glory, "the new Jerusalem " (Eev. iii. 12 ; 
 xxi. 2) ; the " new name " (ii. 17 ; iii. 12) ; "a new song " 
 (v. 9 ; xiv. 3) ; " a new heaven and new earth " (xxi. I j 
 cf . 2 Pet. iii. 13); "all things new" (xxi. 5). But this 
 not of necessity ; for it is not always, and in every thing, 
 that the new is better, but sometimes the old ; thus the 
 old friend (Ecclus. ix. 10), and the old wine (Luke v. 39), 
 are better than the new. And in many other instances 
 /caivos may express only the novel and strange, as con- 
 trasted, and that unfavourably, with the known and the 
 familiar. Thus it was mentioned just now that vsoi dsoi 
 was a title given to the younger generation of gods ; but 
 when it was brought as a charge against Socrates that he 
 had sought to introduce KCMVOVS Qsovs, or KCLLVO. Saiftovia 
 into Athens (Plato, Apol. 26 b; Euthyphro, 36; cf. %sva 
 SaifAovia, Acts xvii. 1 8), something quite different from 
 this was meant a novel pantheon, such gods as Athens
 
 222 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LX. 
 
 had not hitherto been accustomed to worship ; so too in 
 Plato (Rep, iii. 405 c?) : Kaiva ravra ical aroTra voa-^p-drwv 
 ovopara. In the same manner they who exclaimed of 
 Christ's teaching, " What new doctrine [fcaivr) StSa%7;] is 
 this?" intended anything but praise (Mark i. 27). The 
 Kaivov is the srspov, the qualitatively other; the veov is the 
 a\\o, the numerically distinct. Let us bring- this differ- 
 ence to bear on the interpretation of Acts xvii. 21. St. 
 Luke describes the Athenians there as spending their 
 leisure, and all their life was leisure, ' vacation,' to adopt 
 Fuller's pun, * being their whole vocation,' in the market- 
 place, rj \fysiv rj dtcovsiv Tt Kaivorspov. We might perhaps 
 have expected beforehand he would have written n vswrs- 
 pov, and this expectation seems the more warranted when 
 we find Demosthenes long before pourtraying these same 
 Athenians as haunting the market-place with this same 
 object and aim he using this latter word, irvvQavo^voi 
 Kara rrjv djopav st Tt \eyTai vscorspov. Elsewhere, how- 
 ever, he changes his word and describes them as St. Luke 
 has done, demanding one of another (Philip, i. 43), \ejsral 
 TI icaivov ; But the meaning of the two passages is not 
 exactly identical. The vswrspov of the first affirms that 
 it is ever the latest news which they seek, ' nova statim 
 sordebant, noviora quEerebantur,' as Bengel on Acts xvii. 
 21 has it; the icaivov of the second implies that it is 
 something not only new, but sufficiently diverse from what 
 had gone before to stimulate a jaded and languid curiosity. 
 If we pursue these words into their derivatives and 
 compounds, the same distinction will come yet more clearly 
 out. Thus vsorvjy (i Tim. iv. 12; cf. Ps. cii. [LXX.] 5 : dva- 
 Kaivicr0)j(rTai cos O.STOV rj vsorrjs trot) is youth : Kaivorrfs (Rom. 
 vi. 4) is newness or novelty ; vsoei&rfs, of youthful appear- 
 ance ; /caivosi&rfs, of novel unusual appearance ; vso^.ojla 
 (had such a word existed) would have been, a younger 
 growth of words as distinguished from the old stock of 
 the language, or, as we say, * neologies '; tcaivoXoyla, which
 
 LX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 223 
 
 does exist in the later Greek, a novel anomalous invention 
 of words, constructed on different laws from those which 
 the language had recognized hitherto ; <f>t\ovso$, a lover 
 of youth (Lucian, Amor. 24) ; <f>i\6/c<uvos, a lover of 
 novelty (Plutarch, De Mus. 12). 
 
 There is a passage in Polybius (v. 75. 4), as there are 
 many elsewhere (^schylus, Pers. 665 ; Euripides, Med. 
 75, 78; and Clement of Alexandria, Pcedag. i. 5. 14, 20, will 
 furnish such), in which the words occur together, or in 
 closest sequence ; but neither in this are they employed as 
 a mere rhetorical accumulation : each has its own special 
 significance. Relating a stratagem whereby the town of 
 Selge was very nearly surprised and taken, Polybius re- 
 marks that, notwithstanding the many cities which have 
 evidently been lost through a similar device, we are, in 
 some way or other, still new and young in regard of such 
 like deceits (/catvot nvss alsl KOI vsoi Tr/aoy ras roiavTa? 
 airdras Trs^v/ca/^sv'), ready therefore to be deceived by them 
 over again. Here /caivot is an epithet applied to men on 
 the ground of their rawness and inexperience, vsoi on that 
 of their youth. It is true that these two, inexperience 
 and youth, go often hand and hand ; thus vsos and airsipos 
 are joined by Plutarch (De Rect. Rat. And. 17); but this 
 is not of necessity. An old man may be raw and un- 
 practised in the affairs of the world, therefore rcaivos : 
 there have been many young men, vsoi in respect of age, 
 who were well skilled and exercised in these. 
 
 Apply the distinction here drawn, and it will be mani- 
 fest that the same man, the same wine, the same covenant, 
 may have both these epithets applied to them, and yet 
 different meanings may be, and will have been intended to 
 be, conveyed, as the one was used, or the other. Take, for 
 example, the vsos avdpanros of Col. iii. IO, and the KO.IVOS 
 avdpcDTros of Ephes. ii. 15. Contemplate under aspects of 
 time that mighty transformation which has found and is 
 still finding place in the man who has become obedient to
 
 224 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LX. 
 
 the truth, and you will call him subsequently to this 
 change, vsos avdpwTros. The old man in him, and it well 
 deserves this name, for it dates as far back as Adarn, has 
 died ; a new man has been born, who therefore is fitly so 
 called. But contemplate again, and not now under aspects 
 of time, but of quality and condition, the same mighty 
 transformation ; behold the man who, through long com- 
 merce with the world, inveterate habits of sinning, had 
 grown outworn and old, casting off the former conversa- 
 tion, as the snake its shrivelled skin, coming forth "a 
 new creature" (/caivr) KT<TIS), from his heavenly Maker's 
 hands, with a Trvsvpa KCLIVOV given to him (Ezek. xi. 19), 
 and you have here the icaivos avOpwiros, one prepared to 
 walk ' in newness of life ' (sv KaLvorrjTt, ^wrjs, Rom. vi. 4) 
 through the avatcaivaxris of the Spirit (Tit. iii. 5) ; in the 
 words of the Epistle of Barnabas, 16, ejsvo/jisda icaivot, 
 Trd\iv e% dp-^s KTi^o/jisvoi. Often as the words in this 
 application would be interchangeable, yet this is not always 
 so. When, for example, Clement of Alexandria (Peed. i. 
 6) says of those that are Christ's, %pr) jap sivat, icaivovs 
 Aojov tcaivov fisrsiXrj^oTas, all will feel how impossible it 
 would be to substitute vsovs or vsov here. Or take the 
 verbs dvavsovv (Ephes. iv. 23), and dvaicatvovv (Col. iii. 10). 
 We all have need dvaveovadai, and we have need dva/cai- 
 vova-dai as well. It is, indeed, the same marvellous and 
 mysterious process, to be brought about by the same 
 almighty Agent; but the same regarded from different 
 points of view ; dvavsovaOai, to be made young again ; dva- 
 icaivovcrQai, or dvaKaivl^sadai, to be made new again. That 
 Chrysostom realized the distinction between the words, and 
 indeed so realized it that he drew a separate exhortation 
 from each, the following passages, placed side by side, will 
 very remarkably prove. This first (in Ep. ad Ephes. Horn. 
 13) : avavsovcrOs os, (^crt, TO) Trvsv^ian rov vobs vpwv .... TO 
 Ss dvavsovadal <rnv orav avro TO ysyijpaKbs dvavswrai, a\\o 
 s% a\\ov yivofisvov. . . . 'O vsos la^vpos sariv, 6 vsos pvri^a
 
 LXI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 225 
 
 OVK %i, o vsos oi> TTSpicfrspsTai. The second is in ~Ep. ad Rom. 
 Horn. 2O : OTrsp 7rl TO)V OLKICOV Troiovfisv, TTO\aiovp,va$ avras 
 del Siopdovvrss, TOVTO Kal S7rl aavTOv iroisi,. "Hfj-aprss cr^e- 
 pov ; eirdXaiwa'ds <rov Trjv "^rv^jv ; fir) aTroyvws, f^rjos dva- 
 irscrrjs, dX\' dvatcaivtaov avrijv fisravoia. 
 
 The same holds good in other instances quoted above. 
 New wine may be characterized as vsos or icaivos, but from 
 different points of view. As veos, it is tacitly set over 
 against the vintage of past years; as Kaivof, we may as- 
 sume it austere and strong, in contrast with that which is 
 ^/37;crTos, sweet and mellow through age (Luke v. 39). 
 So, too, the Covenant of which Christ is the Mediator is a 
 SiaOritcr) vea, as compared with the Mosaic, confirmed 
 nearly two thousand years before (Heb. xii. 24) ; it is a 
 Siadij/cr) Kaivr], as compared with the same, effete with age, 
 and with all vigour, energy, and quickening power gone 
 from it (Heb. viii. 13 ; compare Marriott's Elp^viKa, part 
 ii. pp. I ii-i 15, 170). 
 
 A Latin grammarian, drawing the distinction between 
 * recens ' and ' novus,' has said, ' Eecens ad tempus, novum 
 ad rent refertur ; ' and compare Doderlein, Lat. Syn. vol. 
 iv. p. 64. Substituting vsos and tcaivos, we might say, 
 ' vsos ad tempus, /cacvds ad rem refertur,' and should thus 
 grasp in a few words, easily remembered, the distinction 
 between them at its central point. 1 
 
 Ixi. 
 
 THE notion of riot and excess in wine is common to all 
 these ; but this with differences, and offering for contem- 
 plation different points of view. 
 
 MsOr), occurring in the N. T. at Luke xxi. 34; Rom. 
 
 1 Lafaye (Diet, des Synonymes, p. 798) claims the same distinction for 
 ' nouveau ' ( = veos), and ' neuf ' ( = xati/or) : ' Ce qui est nouveau vieut de 
 paraitre pour la premiere fois : ce qui est neuf vient d'etre fait et n'a pas 
 ciicore servi. Une invention est nouvelle, une expressioa ueuve.'
 
 226 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXI. 
 
 xiii. 1 3 ; Gal. v. 2 1 ; and TTOTOS, found only at I Pet. iv. 
 3, are distinguishable as an abstract and a concrete. 
 (stronger, and expressing a worse excess, than 
 from which it is distinguished by Plutarch, De Garr. 4 ; 
 Symp. iii. I ; cf. Philo, De Plant. 38), denned by Clement 
 of Alexandria (Pcedag. ii. 2. 26) dtcpdrov ^pfjais a<f)o$po- 
 rspa, is drunkenness (Joel i. 5 ; Ezek. xxxix. 19) ; iroros 
 (=ua)^la y Hesychius ; cf. Poly bias, ii. 4. 6), the drinkirg 
 bout, the banquet, the symposium, not of necessity exces- 
 sive (Gen. xix. 3 ; 2 Sam. iii. 20 ; Esth. vi. 14), but giving 
 opportunity for excess (i Sam. xxv. 36; Xenophon, Anab. 
 vii. 3. 26: sTrsI Trpov^apsi 6 TTOTOS). 
 
 The next word in this group, olvo(j>\vyia (" excess of 
 wine," A. V.), occurs in the N. T. only at i Pet. iv. 3 ; and 
 never in the Septuagint ; but olvo^vysiv, Deut. xxi. 20 ; 
 Isai. Ivi. 22. It marks a step in advance of fisdrj (Philo, 
 l)e Ebriet. 8). The same writer (De Merc. Her. i) names 
 oivo<j>\vyia among the vfipsis sa^arat,: compare Xeno- 
 phon (CEcon. i. 22) : 8ov\oi\i^vsia)v,\ajvst,(ov, olvo(f)\vjia)v. 
 In strict definition it is sTriOvpia o/lvov CLTT^OTOS (Andro- 
 nicus of Rhodes), dirX^pwros sTnOvfiia, as Philo (Vit. Mos. 
 iii. 22) calls it ; the German ' Trinksucht.' Commonly, 
 however, it is used for a debauch; no single word render- 
 ing it better than this ; being as it is an extravagant 
 indulgence in potations long drawn out (see Basil, Horn, in 
 Ebrios, 7), such as may induce permanent mischiefs on the 
 body (Aristotle, Eth. Nic. iii. 5. 15) ; as did, for instance, 
 that fatal debauch to which, adopting one of the reports 
 current in antiquity, Arriau ascribes the death of 
 Alexander the Great (vii. 24, 25). 
 
 KCO/JLOS, in the N. T. found in the plural only, and ren- 
 dered in our Version once 'rioting' (Kom. xiii. 13), and 
 twice ' revellings' (Gal. v. 21 ; I Pet. iv. 3), may be said 
 to unite in itself both those notions, namely, of riot and 
 of revelry. It is the Latin ' comissatio,' which, as it 
 hardly needs to observe, is connected with Kcofid&tv, not
 
 LXI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 227 
 
 with * comedo.' Thus, K&IJLOS ical aa-uria (2 Mace. vi. 4) ; 
 tca>/j,oi (Wisd. xiv. 23) ; TTOTOI teal KM/AOI KOI 6a\tai 
 (Plutarch, Pyrrh. 16) ; cf. Philo, De Cher. 27, where 
 we have a striking description of the other vices with which 
 fisdij and KWfjLoi, are associated the most nearly. At the 
 same time KW/JLOS is often used of the company of revellers 
 themselves ; always a festal company, but not of necessity 
 riotous and drunken; thus see Euripides, Alces. 816, 959. 
 Still the word generally implies as much, being applied in a 
 special sense to the troop of drunken revellers, f comis- 
 santium agmen ' (the troop of Furies in the Agamemnon, 
 1 1 60, as drunk with blood, obtain this name), who at the 
 late close of a revel, with garlands on their heads, and 
 torches in their hands, 1 with shout and song 2 (K&JJLOS KOI 
 {3od, Plutarch, Alex. 38), pass to the harlots' houses, or 
 otherwise wander through the streets, with insult and 
 wanton outrage for every one whom they meet; cf. 
 Meinete, Fragm. Com. Qrcec. p. 617; the graphic de- 
 scription of such in Juvenal's third Satire, 278-301 ; and 
 the indignant words of Milton : 
 
 ' when night 
 
 Darkens the streets, then wander forth the sons 
 Of Belial, < /Z0wn with insolence and wine.' 
 
 Plutarch (Alex. 37) characterizes as a /CW/AOS the mad 
 drunken march of Alexander and his army through Car- 
 mania, on the return from their Indian expedition. On 
 possible, or rather on impossible etymologies of KW^OS, see 
 Pott, Etym. Forsch. 2. 2. 551. 
 
 Kpcu7ra\r}, the Latin ' crapula,' though with a more 
 limited signification (77 ^Osa-ivr) ftsOij, Ammonius ; 77 7rl rp 
 IMsQy Suo-apea-Trja-is ical a^Sla, Clement of Alexandria, Pcedag. 
 
 eoiKe &' ri Ko> 
 
 ye rot KOI SaS' e\a>v iropevfTai. 
 
 Aristophanes, Plut. 1040. 
 
 9 Theophylact makes these songs themselves the KU/IOI, defining th 
 word thus : TO. p.(ra fj.edr}s KOI u/3pecoj ao-para. 
 
 Q2
 
 228 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXII. 
 
 ii. 2. 26), is another word whose derivation remains in 
 obscurity. We haye rendered it ' surfeiting ' at Luke xxi. 
 34, the one occasion on which it occurs in the N,T. In the 
 Septuagint it is never found, but the verb Kpanra~\,dw 
 thrice (Ps. Ixxvii. 65 ; Isai. xxiv. 20; xxix. 9). ' Fulsome- 
 ness,' in the early sense of that word (see my Select Glos- 
 sary of English Words, s. v. * fulsome'), would express it 
 very well, with only the drawback that by ' f ulsomeness ' 
 is indicated the disgust and loathing from over-fulness of 
 meat as well as of wine, while KpanrdXij expresses only 
 the latter. [Aristophanes compounds these two synonyms 
 into the word KpaiTrdKoKWfj.os (Ran. 217).] 
 
 Ixii. Ka-Tnj\svM, SoXow. 
 
 IN two passages, standing very near to one another, St. 
 Paul claims for himself that he is not " as many, which 
 corrupt the word of God " (/caTr^XeiWrey, 2 Cor. ii. 17); and 
 presently again he disclaims being of them who can be 
 accused of " handling deceitfully " the same (SoXovvrss, iv. 
 2) ; neither word appearing again in the N. T. It is evi- 
 dent, not less from the context than from the character of 
 the words themselves, that the notions which they express 
 must lie very near to one another ; oftentimes it is asserted 
 or assumed that they are absolutely identical, as by all 
 translators who have only one rendering for both ; by the 
 Vulgate, for instance, which has c adulterantes ' in both 
 places ; by Chrysostom, who explains tc(nri]\Viv as = 
 vodsvsiv. Yet this is a mistake. On nearer examination, 
 it will be found that while Kairrf\.svsLv covers all that 
 So\ovv does, it also covers something more ; and this, 
 whether in the literal sense, or in the transferred and 
 figurative, wherein it is used by St. Paul ; even as it is 
 evident that our own Translators, whether with any very 
 clear insight into the distinction between the words or
 
 LXII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 229 
 
 not, did not acquiesce in the obliteration of all distinction 
 between them. 
 
 The history of Kcnrr)\sviv is not difficult to follow. The 
 Kd7rr]\os is properly the huckster or petty retail trader, as 
 set over against the s/j, r rropos or merchant who sells his 
 wares in the gross ; the two occurring together, Ecclus. 
 xxvi. 29. But while the word would designate any such 
 pedlar, the KaTrrfKos is predominantly the vendor in retail 
 of wine (Lucian, Hermot. 58). Exposed to many and strong 
 temptations, into which it was only too easy for such to fall 
 (Ecclus. xxvi. 29), as to mix their wine with water(Isai. i. 22), 
 or otherwise to tamper with it, to sell it in short measure, 
 these men so generally yielded to these temptations, that 
 Ku7rt}\os and KaTrijXsvsiv, like ' caupo J and ' cauponari,' 
 became words of contempt; Kairrfksvsiv being the making 
 of any shameful traffic and gain as the Kcnrrfkos does 
 (Plato, Hep. vii. 525 <Z; Protag. 313 d; Becker, Char-ikies, 
 1840, p. 256). But it will at once be evident that the 
 SoXo5i> is only one part of the K(nn)\vstv, namely, the 
 tampering with or sophisticating the wine by the admix- 
 ture of alien matter, and does not suggest the fact that 
 this is done with the purpose of making a disgraceful 
 gain thereby. Nay, it might be urged that it only ex- 
 presses partially the tampering itself, as the following 
 extract from Lucian (Hermot. 59) would seem to say : ol 
 <j)i\6a-o(j)oi, atroBlBovrat ra fiad^/j,ara &cnrep ol KUTTW^OI, 
 tcspaadfASvol <ys ol TroXXot, Kal 8o\(t)o~avTSS, KOI KO,KO/J,S- 
 rpovvrss : for here the So\ovv is only one part of the de- 
 ceitful handling by the KdTrrj\.os of the wares which he 
 sells. 
 
 But whether this be worth urging or not, it is quite 
 certain that, while in 8o\ovv there is no more than the 
 simple falsifying, there is in KaTrrjKsvsw the doing of this 
 with the intention of making an unworthy gain thereby. 
 Surely here is a moment in the sin of the false teachers, 
 which St. Paul, in disclaiming the KaTrrfksvsw, intended to
 
 230 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXII. 
 
 disclaim for himself. He does in as many words most 
 earnestly disclaim it in this same Epistle (xii. 14; cf. Acts 
 xx. 33); and this the more earnestly, seeing that it is 
 continually noted in Scripture as a mark of false prophets 
 and false apostles (for so does the meanest cleave to the 
 highest, and untruthfulness in highest things expose to 
 lowest temptations), that they, through covetousness, make 
 merchandise of souls ; thus by St. Paul himself, Tit. i. 1 1 ; 
 Phil. iii. 19; cf. 2 Pet. ii. 3, 14, 15 ; Jude II, 16 ; Ezek. 
 xiii. 19; and see Ignatius (the longer recension), where, 
 no doubt with a reference to this passage, and showing 
 how the writer understood it, the false teachers are de- 
 nounced as ^pr)/jLaro\ai\a7rf^ as xpHTTSfiTropoi, TOV 'Irjaovv 
 TrwKovvTSS, KOI Kajrri\vovTs TOV \6yov TOV svayjs\iov. 
 Surely we have here a difference which it is well worth 
 our while not to pass by unobserved. The Galatian false 
 teachers might undoubtedly have been charged as Bo\ovv TSS 
 TOV \6yov, mingling, as they did, vain human traditions 
 with the pure word of the Gospel : building in hay, straw, 
 and stubble with its silver, gold, and precious stones ; but 
 there is nothing which would lead us to charge them as 
 Kcnrr)'\,vovTs TOV \o/ov rov sou, as working this mischief 
 which they did work for filthy lucre's sake (see Deyling, 
 Obss. Sac. vol. iv. p. 636). 
 
 Bentley, in his Sermon on Popery (Works, vol. iii. p. 
 242), strongly maintains the distinction which I have 
 endeavoured to trace. " Our English Translators," he says, 
 * ' have not been very happy in their version of this passage 
 [2 Cor. ii. 17]. We are not, says the Apostle, KaTrrjXsvovres 
 TOV \6<yov TOV soO, which our Translators have rendered, 
 * we do not corrupt,' or (as in the margin) ' deal deceit- 
 fully with,' < the word of God.' They were led to this by 
 the parallel place, c. iv. of this Epistle, ver 2, * not walk- 
 ing in craftiness,' firjSe SO\OVVTSS TOV \6yov TOV got), * nor 
 handling the word of God deceitfully;' they took KaTnj- 
 \SVOVTSS and BO\OVVTSS in the same adequate notion, as the
 
 LXII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 231 
 
 vulgar Latin had done before them, which expresses both 
 by the same word, adulterantes verbum Dei ; and so, like- 
 wise,Hesychius makes them synonyms, eKKcnrrjXevsiv, So\ovv. 
 AoAoDz/, indeed, is fitly rendered ' adulterare ' ; so So\ovv 
 rbv xpvcrov, rbv olvov, to adulterate gold or wine, by mixing 
 worse ingredients with the metal or liquor. And our 
 Translators had done well if they had rendered the latter 
 passage, not adulterating, not sophisticating the word. 
 But KaTTT]\vovTss in our text has a complex idea and a 
 wider signification ; Ka7rtj\vsiv always comprehends So\ovv, 
 but SoXovv never extends to KaTnjX.svsiv, which, besides the 
 sense of adulterating, has an additional notion of unjust 
 lucre, gain, profit, advantage. This is plain from the 
 word Ku.Tni\.os, a calling always infamous for avarice and 
 knavery : * perfidus hie caupo,' says the poet, as a general 
 character. Thence Kcnr^svsiv, by an easy and natural 
 metaphor, was diverted to other expressions where cheating 
 and lucre were signified : iccnrrfktvsLv rov \6yov, says the 
 Apostle here, and the ancient Greeks, KamiKsvsiv ras Si/cas, 
 rr]v slprjvrjv, ryv <ro(f)iav, ra ftaOtffAara, to corrupt and sell 
 justice, to barter a negociation of peace, to prostitute 
 learning and philosophy for gain. Cheating, we see, and 
 adulterating is part of the notion of KairrjXsvsiv, but the 
 essential of it is sordid lucre. So ' cauponari ' in the well- 
 known passage of Ennius, where Pyrrhus refuses to treat 
 for the ransom for his captives, and restores them gratis : 
 
 ' Non mi aurum posco, nee mi pretium dederitis, 
 Non cauponanti bellum, sed belligeranti.' 
 
 And so the Fathers expound this place So that, in 
 
 short, what St. Paul says, KaTrrjXsvovrss rbv \6<yov, might 
 be expressed in one classic word \oysjj,Tropoi or ^070- 
 Trparai, 1 where the idea of gain and profit is the chief 
 part of the signification. Wherefore, to do justice to 
 our text, we must not stop lamely with our Translators, 
 
 1 So AoyoTTwAat in Philo, Cong. Erud. Grot. 10.
 
 232 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXIII. 
 
 'corrupters of the word of God;' but add to it as its 
 plenary notion, * corrupters of the word of God for filthy 
 lucre.' " 
 
 If what has been just said is correct, it will follow that 
 * deceitfully handling ' would be a more accurate, though 
 itself not a perfectly adequate, rendering of Ka7rrj\svovTs, 
 and ' who corrupt ' of 8o\ovvT$, than the converse of this, 
 which our Version actually offers. 
 
 Ixiii. dya6a)(Tvv7j, 
 
 is one of many words with which revealed 
 religion has enriched the later language of Greece. It 
 occurs nowhere else but in the Greek translations of the 
 O. T. (2 Chron. xxiv. 16; Nehem. ix. 25 ; Eccles. ix. 18), 
 in the N. T., and in writings directly dependent upon 
 these. The grammarians, indeed, at no time acknow- 
 ledged, or gave to it or to ayadorrjs the stamp of allow- 
 ance, demanding that ^p^o-Tor^y, which, as we shall see, is 
 not absolutely identical with it, should be always employed 
 in its stead (Lobeck, Pathol. Serm. Grcec. p. 237). In the 
 N. T. we meet with dyadcixrvvt] four times, always in the 
 writings of St. Paul (Rom. xv. 14; Gal. v. 22 ; Ephes. v. 
 9; 2 Thess. i. n) ; being invariably rendered 'goodness* 
 in our Version. We sometimes feel the want of some word 
 more special and definite, as at Gal. v. 22, where dyadwa-vvr) 
 makes one of a long list of Christian virtues or graces, and 
 must mean some single and separate grace, while ' good- 
 ness ' seems to embrace all. To explain it there, as does 
 Phavorinus, f) a-nripna-yusv'^ dpsTJ, is little satisfactory ; 
 however true it may be that it is sometimes, as at Ps. li. 
 [LXX] 5, set over against /ea/aa, and obtains this larger 
 meaning. With all this it is hard to suggest any other 
 rendering; even as, no doubt, it is harder to seize the 
 central force of dyadcaa-vvr] than of ^^O-TOT^S-, this difficulty
 
 LXIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 233 
 
 mainly arising from the fact that we have no helping pas- 
 sages in the classical literature of Greece ; for, however 
 these can never be admitted to give the absolute law to 
 the meaning of words in Scripture, we at once feel a loss, 
 when such are wanting altogether. It will be well, there- 
 fore, to consider ^p-rja-TOTns first, and when it is seen what 
 domain of meaning is occupied by it, we may then better 
 judge what remains for dyaOwa-vvr). 
 
 XprjcrTOTTjs, a beautiful word, as it is the expression of 
 a beautiful grace (cf. ^p^arro^dsia, Ecclus. xxxvii. 1 1), like 
 ayaOwavvrj, occurs in the N. T. only in the writings of 
 St. Paul, being by him joined to (f>t\av0pa)7ria (Tit. iii. 4 ; 
 cf. Lucian, Timon, 8 ; Plutarch, Demet. 50) ; to p,a- 
 KpodvjAia and a vo-yr] (Rom. ii. 4) ; and opposed to tnrorofiia 
 (Rom. xi. 22). The A. V. renders it 'good' (Rom. iii. 
 12); 'kindness' (2 Cor. vi. 6; Ephes. ii. 7; Col. iii. 12 ; 
 Tit. iii. 4) ; ' gentleness' (Gal. v. 22). The Rheims, which 
 has for it ' benignity,' a great improvement on ' gentle- 
 ness* (Gal. v. 22), 'sweetness' (2 Cor. vi. 6), has seized 
 more successfully the central notion of the word. It is 
 explained in the Definitions which go under Plato's name 
 (412 e), fjOovs aTrkaaria /ter' suXoyicrrias : by Phavorinus, 
 ia, r] Trpbs TOVS TrsXas (rvv^iddscns, TO, avrov &>s 
 ov/jisvT]. It is joined by Clement of Rome 
 with s\sos (Cor. 9) ; by Plutarch with svpsveia (De Cap. 
 ex Inim. Util. 9) ; with ^\vKv6vjj,ia (De Soler. Anim. 33) ; 
 with avrXoTT/y and fj,ya\ofipo<Tvvr) (G-cdba, 22) ; by Lucian 
 with ol/crof (Timon, 8) ; as ^prjcnos with (f)i\,dvdp(t)7ro$ 
 (Plutarch, Symp. i. I. 4). It is grouped by Philo with 
 svflvpia, rifj.spoTrjs, rjirioTrjs (De Mere. Mer. 3). Josephus, 
 speaking of the xprja-TOTrjs of Isaac (Antt. i. 18. 3), dis- 
 plays a fine insight into the ethical character of the 
 patriarch ; see Gen. xxvi. 20-22. 
 
 Calvin has quite too superficial a view of XP^O-TOTT??, 
 when, commenting on Col. iii. 12, he writes : 'Comitatem 
 sic enim vertere libuit ^pTja-Torrj-ra qu& nos redditnus
 
 234 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXIII. 
 
 amabiles. Mansuetudo [_irpaiiTrjs\ t quee sequitur, latius 
 patet quam comitas, nam ilia prsecipue est in vultu ac 
 sermone, hsec etiara in affectu interiore.' So far from 
 being this mere grace of word and countenance, it is one 
 pervading and penetrating the whole nature, mellowing 
 there all which would have been harsh, and austere ; thus 
 wine is 'xfrjcrros, which has been mellowed with age (Luke 
 v - 39) 5 Christ's yoke is ^p^aros, as having nothing harsh 
 or galling about it (Matt. xi. 30). On the distinction 
 between it and ayadcaa-vvrj Cocceius (on Gal. v. 22), quoting 
 Tit. iii. 4, where xprja-TOTrjs occurs, goes on to say : { Ex 
 quo exemplo patet per hanc vocem siguificari quandam 
 liberalitatem et studium benefaciendi. Per alteram autem 
 [aya8a)o-vwr}~\ possumus intelligere comitatem, suavitatem 
 morum, concinnitatem, gravitatem morum, et oinnein 
 amabilitatem cum decoro et dignitate conjunctam.' Yet 
 neither does this seem to me to have exactly hit the mark. 
 If the words are at all set over against one another, the 
 * suavitas ' belongs to the ^prjcrror^s rather than to the 
 ayaQwavvt). More germane to the matter is what Jerome 
 has said. Indeed I know nothing so well said elsewhere 
 (in Ep. ad Gal. v. 22) : ' Benignitas sive suavitas, quia apud 
 Graces X^O-TOT^S- utrumque sonat, virtus est lenis, blanda, 
 tranquilla, et omnium bonorum apta consortio ; invitans 
 ad familiaritatem sui, dulcis alloquio, moribus temperata. 
 Denique et hanc Stoici ita defmiunt : Benignitas est virtus 
 sponte ad benefaciendum exposita. Non multum bonitas 
 [a^adwa-vvrf] a benignitate diversa est ; quia et ipsa ad bene- 
 faciendum videtur exposita. Sed in eo differt ; quia potest 
 bonitas esse tristior, et fronte severis moribus irrugata, 
 bene quidem facere et prsestare quod poscitur : non tamen 
 suavis esse consortio, et sua cuuctos invitare dulcedine. 
 Hanc quoque sectatores Zenonis ita definiunt: Bonitas 
 est virtus quse prodest, sive, virtus ex qua oritur utilitas ; 
 aut, virtus propter semetipsam ; aut, affectus qui fons sit 
 utilitatum.' With this agrees in the main the distinction
 
 LXIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 235 
 
 which St. Basil draws (Reg. Brev. Tract. 214) : ir\arvTspav 
 oifj.ai sivai rrjv ^prfarTOT^ra, sis svspysa-lav T&V OTTWS STJTTOTOVV 
 STTiSso/Asvcov ravrrjs' arvvr)'yp,evr]v Bs fj,a\\ov rrjv djaddxrvvrjv, 
 Kal TOIS rfjs SiKaioavvrjs \6yois si> rats svsp^saLais crwyxpa)- 
 fievrjv. Lightfoot, on Gal. v. 22, finds more activity in 
 the ayadaxrvvr) than in the ^p^crrorris : ( they are distin- 
 guished from one another as the rjQos from the svepyeia : 
 Xpija-TOTr)? is potential dyadwa-vvi], djadwavvrj is energizing 
 
 A man might display his ayadaxrvvrj, his zeal for good- 
 ness and truth, in rebuking, correcting, chastising. Christ 
 was not working otherwise than in the spirit of this grace 
 when He drove the buyers and sellers out of the temple 
 (Matt. xxi. 13); or when He uttered all those terrible 
 words against the Scribes and Pharisees (Matt, xxiii.) ; but 
 we could not say that his xprja-TOTV]? was shown in these 
 acts of a righteous indignation. This was rather dis- 
 played in his reception of the penitent woman (Luke vii. 
 37-50 ; cf. Ps. xxiv. 7, 8) ; as in all other his gracious 
 dealings with the children of men. Thus we might speak, 
 the Apostolic Constitutions (ii. 22) do speak, of the 
 Xprja-Torris rfjs dyadwavvrjs of God, but scarcely of the 
 converse. This ^prjarorris was so predominantly the 
 character of Christ's ministry, that it is nothing wonderful 
 to learn from Tertullian (Apol. 3), how * Christus ' became 
 ' Chrestus,' and ' Christian! * * Chrestiani ' on the lips of 
 the heathen with that undertone, it is true, of contempt, 
 which the world feels, and soon learns to express in words, 
 for a goodness which to it seems to have only the harm- 
 lessness of the dove, and nothing of the wisdom of the 
 serpent. Such a contempt, indeed, it is justified in enter- 
 taining for a goodness which has no edge, no sharpness in 
 it, no righteous indignation against sin, nor willingness 
 to punish it. That what was called ^/J^O-TOTT/S-, still 
 retaining this honourable name, did sometimes degenerate 
 into this, and end with being no goodness at all, we have
 
 236 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXIV. 
 
 evidence in a striking fragment of Menander (Meineke, 
 Ftagm. Com. Grcec. p. 982) : 
 
 T) Vl>V V7TO TlVtoV Xp^CTTOT^y KClXoV^ffT) 
 
 fj.e6iJKf TOV SKov els Trovrjpiav ftiov ' 
 ovdfls yap ddiK&v Tvy^avfi Tip.(apias, 
 
 Ixiv. SiKTVOV, a^(j3\T]crrpov, a-ay^vrj. 
 
 OUR English word 'net' will, in a general way, cover all 
 these three, which yet are capable of a more accurate dis- 
 crimination one from the other. 
 
 AIKTVOV (=' rete,' * retia'), from the old &IKSLV, to cast, 
 which appears again in &LCTKOS, a quoit, is the more general 
 name for all nets, and would include the hunting net, and 
 the net with which birds are taken (Prov. i. 17), as well as 
 the fishing, although used only of the latter in the N. T. 
 (Matt. iv. 20 ; John xxi. 6). It is often in the Septuagint 
 employed in that figurative sense in which St. Paul uses 
 Tray Is (Rom. xi. 9 ; I Tim. iii. 7), and is indeed associated 
 with it (Job xviii. 8 ; Prov. xxix. 5). 
 
 *A/ji(>if3\'ri<rTpoi> and crayijvr) are varieties of fishing nets ; 
 they are named together, Hab. i. 15 ; and in Plutarch 
 (De Soler. Anim. 26), who joins yptTros with crayiivr), VTTO^IJ 
 with ufi^i^X'qa-rpov. 'A/i</>(/3X^crTpoz/ found only in the 
 N. T. at Matt. iv. 18 ; Mark i. 16; cf. Eccl. ix. 12 ; Ps. 
 cxl. 10 (a^L^o\t^ Oppian) is the casting net, ' jaculum,' 
 i.e. *rete jaculuni' (Ovid, Art. Am. i. 763), or 'funda* 
 (Virgil, Georg. i. 141), which, when skilfully cast from over 
 the shoulder by one standing on the shore or in a boat, 
 spreads out into a circle (a^L^aXksraL) as it falls upon 
 the water, and then sinking swiftly by the weight of the 
 leads attached to it, encloses whatever is below it. Its 
 circular, bell-like shape adapted it to the office of a 
 mosquito net, to which, as Herodotus (ii. 95), tells us, the 
 Egyptian fishermen turned it ; but see Blakesley, Herodo- 
 tus, in loc. The garment in whose deadly folds Clytem- 
 nestra entangles Agamemnon is called
 
 LXIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 237 
 
 (JEschylus, Agamem. 1353; C/ioeph. 490; cf. Euripidos, 
 Helen. 1088) ; so, too, the fetter with which Prometheus is 
 fastened to his rock (JEschylus, Prom. Vinct. 81) ; and the 
 envenomed garment which Deianira gives to Hercules 
 (Sophocles, Track. 1052). 
 
 ^ayi'jvr) found in the N. T. only at Matt*, xiii. 47 ; cf. 
 Isai. xix. 8 ; Ezek. xxvi. 5 (from o-aTrw, crsa-aya, ' onero ') 
 is the long-drawn net, or sweep-net (' vasta sagena ' 
 Manilius calls it), the ends of which being carried out in 
 boats so as to include a large extent of open sea, are then 
 drawn together, and all which they contain enclosed and 
 taken. It is rendered ' sagena ' in the Vulgate, whence 
 1 seine/ or ' sean,' the name of this net in Cornwall, on 
 whose coasts it is much in use. In classical Latin it is 
 called ' everrieulum (Cicero, playing upon Yerres' name, 
 calls him, ' everrieulum in provincia'), from its sweeping 
 the bottom of the sea. From the fact that it was thus a 
 jravajpov or take-all (Homer, II. v. 487), the Greeks gave 
 the name of crayrjvsvsiv to a device by which the Persians 
 were reported to have cleared a conquered island of its 
 inhabitants (Herodotus, iii. 149; vi. 31; Plato, Legg. iii. 
 698 d ; curiously enough, the same device being actually 
 tried, but with very indifferent success, in Tasmania not 
 many years ago ; see Bonwick's Last of the Tasmanians. 
 Virgil in two lines describes the fishing by the aid first of 
 the a/j,(j)(/3\r)(rTpov and then of the aa^^vr] (Georg. i. 141) : 
 
 ' Atqne alius latum funda jam verberat amnem 
 Alta petens, pelagoque alius trah.it hutnida lina.' 
 
 It will be seen that an evident fitness suggested the 
 use of oayi'ivr) in a parable (Matt. xiii. 47) wherein our 
 Lord is setting forth the wide reach, and all-embracing 
 character, of his future kingdom. "Neither a^i^K^a-rpov, 
 nor yet SIKTVOV which might have meant no more than 
 a/j,<j>l/3\'r]crTpov, would have suited at all so well.
 
 238 SWOXYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXV. 
 
 1XV. \V7TSOfiai, TTZvdsto, OpTJVSO), KOTTTOfJiai. 
 
 IN all these words there is the sense of grief, or the utter- 
 ance of grief; but the sense of grief in different degrees 
 of intensity, the utterance of it in different forms of mani- 
 festation. 
 
 AvTTsicrdai, (Matt. xiv. 9 ; I Pet. i. 6) is not a special 
 but a most general word, embracing the most various 
 forms of grief, being opposed to %a{psiv (Aristotle, Rhet. j. 
 2 ; Sophocles, Ajax, 555) ; as XVTTT; to %apd (John xvi. 20 ; 
 Xenophon, Hell. vii. i. 32); or to 17 801/17 (Plato, Legg. v. 
 733). This \v-rrrj, unlike the grief which the three follow- 
 ing words express, a man may so entertain in the deep of 
 his heart, that there shall be no outward manifestation of 
 it, unless he himself be pleased to reveal it (Rom. ix. 2). 
 
 Not so the Trsvdsiv, which is stronger, being not merely 
 * dolere ' or ( angi,' but ' lugere,' and like this last, properly 
 and primarily (Cicero, Tusc. i. 13; iv. 8 : ' luctus, ccgri- 
 tudo ex ejus, qui carus fuerit, interifru acerbo ') to lament 
 for the dead; TrsvQslv V&KVV (Homer, II. xix. 225); rovs 
 aTroX.w\6ras (Xenophon, Hell. ii. 2.3); then any other 
 passionate lamenting (Sophocles, (Ed. Uex y 1296; Gen. 
 xxxvii. 34) ; jrsvdos being in fact a form of TrdOos (see Plu- 
 tarch, Cons, ad Apoll. 22) ; to grieve with a grief which 
 so takes possession of the whole being that it cannot be 
 hid; cf. Spanheim (Dub. Evang. Si): ' trsvOeiv enim apud 
 Hellenistas respondit verbis n33 K\aist,v, dp^vsiv, et ^'n 
 o\.o\v^siv, adeoque non tantum denotat luctum conceptum 
 intus, sed et expressurn foris.' According to Chrysostom 
 (in loco) the irsvdovvTss of Matt. v. 4 are 01 /ier' sTnrda-sws 
 \vjrovfjisvot,, those who so grieve that their grief manifests 
 itself externally. Thus we find vrsvdsiv often joined with 
 K\aLiv (2 Sam. xix. I ; Mark xvi. 10 ; Jam. iv. 9 ; Eev. 
 xviii. 15) ; so irsvOwv ical <rKv0p(07rda)v, Ps. xxxiv. 14. 
 Gregory of Nyssa (Suicer, Tkes. s. v. irsvdos) gives it more 
 generally, irsvOos scrrl <TK.v6pa>irr) Biddsais rfjs tyv~xf)s, STTI
 
 LXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 239 
 
 rrrsprjcrsi TWOS rwv KaraOvfjLiwv (rvviara^vr] : but he was 
 not distinguishing synonyms, and not therefore careful 
 to draw out finer distinctions. 
 
 Qprjvsiv, joined with o&vpsa-dat, (Plutarch, De Prof. 
 Virt. 5), with Karoi/cTsipsiv (Cons, ad Apoll. n) is to 
 bewail, to make a 6pr)vos, a ' nenia ' or dirge over the 
 dead, which may be mere wailing or lamentation (Qpijvos 
 Kal K\av0fj,ds, Matt. ii. 1 8), breaking out in unstudied 
 words the Irish wake is such a dpijvos or it may take the 
 more elaborate form of a poem. That beautiful lamenta- 
 tion which David composed over Saul and Jonathan is 
 introduced in the Septuagint with these words, eOpijvrjo-s 
 Aa/3t8 TOV dprjvov TOVTOV, K.T.\. (2 Sam. i. 17), and the sub- 
 lime dirge over Tyre is called a Oprjvos (Ezek. xxvi. 17 ; cf. 
 Rev. xviii. II ; 2 Chron. xxxv. 25 ; Amos viii. 10). 
 
 We have finally to deal with KoirrsaOat, (Matt. xxiv. 
 30; Luke xxiii. 27 ; Rev. i. 7). This being first to strike, 
 is then that act which most commonly went along with the 
 6prjviv, to strike the bosom, or beat the breast, as an out- 
 ward sign of inward grief (Luke xviii. 13) ; so KOTTSTOS 
 (Acts viii. 2) is Opijvos fisra -fyofyov ^sipwv (Hesychius), 
 and, as is the case with irsvQslv, oftenest in token of 
 grief for the dead (Gen. xxiii. 2; 2 Kin. iii. 31). It is 
 the Latin ' plangere ' (' laniataque pectora plan gens,' Ovid, 
 Metam. vi. 248; cf. Sophocles, Ajax, 615-617), which is 
 connected with ' plaga ' and TrX^Vo-w. Plutarch (Cons, ad 
 Ux. 4) joins 6\o(f)vp(T6is and KOTTSTOI, (cf. Fab. Max. 17 : 
 KOTTsrol yvvaiKsioi) as two of the more violent manifesta- 
 tions of grief, condemning both as faulty in their excess. 
 
 Ixvi. a/jiapTia, afidpTrj/jia, TrapaKO^ avopia, 
 irapdinwfJia) dyvoTj/aa, 
 
 A MOURNFULLY numerous group of words, and one which 
 it would be only too easy to make larger still. Nor is it 
 hard to see why. For sin, which we may define in the
 
 240 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXV!. 
 
 language of Augustine, as { factum vel dictuin vel concu- 
 pitum aliquid contra seternam legem ' (Con. Faust, xxii. 
 27 ; cf. the Stoic definition, dftdpTr]/J,a, vopov aTrayopsvp.a, 
 Plutarch, De Rep. Stoic, n) ; or again, < voluntas adniit- 
 tendi vel retinendi quod justitia vetat, et unde liberutn 
 est abstinere ' (Con. Jul. i. 47), may be regarded under an 
 infinite number of aspects, and in all languages has been 
 so regarded ; and as the diagnosis of it belongs most of 
 all to the Scriptures, nowhere else are we likely to find it 
 contemplated on so many sides, set forth under such various 
 images. It may be regarded as the missing of a mark or 
 aim ; it is then apapria or d/j.dpTT)fj,a : the overpassing or 
 transgressing of a line ; it is then Trapdflacris : the dis- 
 obedience to a voice ; in which case it is irapaicor] : the 
 falling where one should have stood upright; this will be 
 irapdirrwp.a : ignorance of what one ought to have known ; 
 this will be a^/vo^^a: diminishing of that which should 
 have been rendered in full measure, which is 
 non-observance of a law, which is dvo/j-la or 
 a discord in the harmonies of God's universe, when it is 
 ir\r t (j.ij,i\ia : and in other ways almost out of number. 
 
 To begin with the word of largest reach. In seeking 
 accurately to define d/j.apria, and so better to distinguish 
 it from other words of this group, no help can be derived 
 from its etymology, seeing that it is quite uncertain. 
 Suidas, as is well known, derives it from pdpTrro), * d^aprla 
 quasi a/xa/37TTi'a,' a failing to grasp. Buttmanu's conjecture 
 (Lexilogus, p. 85, English ed.), that it belongs to the root 
 fispos, fjisipo/jiai, on which a negative intransitive verb, to be 
 without one's share of , to miss, was formed (see Xenophon, 
 Cyrop. i. 6. 36), has found more favour (see a long note by 
 Fritzsche, on Rom. v. 12, with excellent philology and 
 execrable theology). Only this much is plain, that when 
 sin is contemplated as d^apTia, it is regarded as a failing 
 and missing the true end and scope of our lives, which is 
 God ; 97 rov djadov dTroTnwGis, as CEcumenius : 97 rov dya-
 
 LXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 241 
 
 0ov d-rrorv^ia, and apapravsiv an da-Koira rogsvstv, as Sui- 
 das ; 17 TOV KO\OV s/CTpoirij, sire TOV Kara <f)vcriv, SITS TOV Kara 
 vopov, as another. We may compare the German ' fehlen.' 
 It is a matter of course that with slighter apprehensions 
 of sin, and of the evil of sin, there must go hand in hand 
 a slighter ethnical significance in the words used to express 
 sin. It is therefore nothing wonderful that dfj-apria and 
 a/jiaprdvsiv should nowhere in classical Greek obtain that 
 depth of meaning which in revealed religion they have 
 acquired. The words run the same course which all words 
 ultimately taken up into ethical terminology seem inevit- 
 ably to run. Employed first about things natural, they 
 are then transferred to things moral or spiritual, according 
 to that analogy between those and these, which the human 
 mind so delights to trace. Thus apaprdvsiv signifies, when 
 we meet it first, to miss a mark, being exactly opposed to 
 So a hundred times in Homer the warrior is said 
 , who hurls his spear, but fails to strike his foe 
 (e.g. II. iv. 491) ; so rwv oScov d^aprdvsiv (Thucydides, iii. 
 98. 2) is to miss one's way. The next advance is the transfer 
 of the word to things intellectual. The poet a/iapram, 
 who selects a subject which it is impossible to treat poetically, 
 or who seeks to attain results which lie beyond the limits 
 of his art (Aristotle, Poet. 8 and 25) ; so we have oofys 
 dfiaprta (Thucydides, i. 3 1 ) ; yvcofj.rjs a^dpr^^a (ii. 65 ). It is 
 constantly set over against opOorris (Plato, Legg. i. 627 d ; 
 ii. 668 c 5 Aristotle, Poet. 25). So far from having any ethical 
 significance of necessity attaching to it, Aristotle some- 
 times withdraws it, almost, if not altogether, from the 
 region of right and wrong (Eth. Nic. v. 8. 7). The dfiapricu 
 is a mistake, a fearful one it may be, like that of (Edipus, 
 but nothing more (Poet. 13; cf. Euripides, Hippolytus, 
 1426). Elsewhere, however, it has as much of the mean- 
 ing of our ' sin,' as any word, employed in heathen ethics, 
 could possess; thus Plato, Phcedo, 113 e; Rep. ii. 366 a; 
 Xenophon, Cyrop. v. 4. 19. 
 
 E
 
 242 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVI. 
 
 from d^apria, in that dpapria is sin 
 in the abstract as well as the concrete ; or again, the act 
 of sinning no less than the sin which is actually sinned, 
 'peccatio' (A. Gellius, xiii. 20. 19) no less than ' pecca- 
 tum ' ; while d/JidpTrjjuLa (it only occurs Mark iii. 28 ; iv. 1 2 ; 
 Rom.iii. 25 ; I Cor. vi. 1 8) is never sin regarded as sinfulness, 
 or as the act of sinning, but only sin contemplated in its 
 separate outcomings and deeds of disobedience to a divine 
 law; being in the Greek schools opposed to /car 
 There is the same difference between dvo^ia and 
 (which last is not in the N. T. ; but I Sam. xxv. 28 ; 
 Ezek. xvi. 49), do-eftsia and das ft?) pa (not in the N. T. ; but 
 Lev. xviii. 17), dSi/cia and aSi/c^/ta (Actsxviii. 14). This is 
 brought out by Aristotle (Ethic. Nic. v. 7. 7), who sets over 
 against one another aSircov ( = dSiKia) and aSi/c7?yu,a in these 
 words : &ia<f>spei TO d8LKijfj,a KOI TO aSifcov. "ASitcov pJsv yap 
 ia-ri rf) <j)V(rsi, f) rdgsi TO auTo 8s rovro, orav TrpaxOfj, d&t- 
 Kf]^d <TTI. Compare an instructive passage in Xenophon 
 (Mem. ii. 2. 3) a 'i> ToXfts sjrl rots psy ((Trots 
 ty/jiiav Odvarov irsTroiriKacrw, <as OVK av /nsl^ovos fcafcov 
 rr)v do IK Lav iravo-ovrss. On the distinction between 
 dfiapria and d^dpr^^a, doiKia and doiKr)[j,a, and other 
 words of this group, there is a long discussion by Cle- 
 ment of Alexandria (Strom, ii. 15), but one not yielding 
 much profit. 
 
 'Aas/Bsia, joined with doucca (Xenophon, Apol. 24; 
 Rom. i. 1 8) ; as do-s/3ijs with aSiicos, with dvoa-ios (Xenophon, 
 Cyrop. viii. 8. 27), with a/tapTtwXo'y (i Tim. i. 9 ; I. Pet. iv. 
 1 8), is positive and active irreligion, and this contemplated 
 as a deliberate withholding from God of his dues of 
 
 1 When the Pelagians, in their controversy with the Catholic Church, 
 claimed Chrysostom as siding with them on the subject of the moral 
 condition of infants, Augustine (Con. Jul. Pday. vi. 2) replied by quot- 
 ing the exact words which Chrysostom had used, and showing that it 
 was not &f.'.apria, or sin, but apapi ly/xara, the several acts and outcomings 
 of sin, from which the Greek Father had pronounced infants to be free. 
 Only in this sense were they partakers of the dvapaprijoia of Christ.
 
 LXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 243 
 
 prayer and of service, a standing, so to speak, in battle 
 array against Him. We have always rendered it ' ungodli- 
 ness,' while the Eheims as constantly 'impiety,' and 
 acrsftrjs impious,' neither of these words occurring any- 
 where in our English Bible. The aa-sprf? and the SIKCIIOS 
 are constantly set over against one another- (thus Gen. 
 xviii. 23), as the two who wage the great warfare between 
 light and darkness, right and wrong, of which God has 
 willed that this earth of ours should be the stage. 
 
 TlapaKOjj is in the N. T. found only at Eom. v. 19 
 (where it is opposed to inraKorj) ; 2 Cor. x. 6; Heb. ii. 2. 
 It is not in the Septuagint, but Traparcovsiv (in the N.T. only 
 at Matt, xviii. 17) occurs several times there in the sense 
 of to disobey (Esth. iii. 3, 8; Isai. Ixv. 12). HapaKorj is in 
 its strictest sense a failing to hear, or a hearing amiss ; 
 the notion of active disobedience, which follows on this 
 inattentive or careless hearing, being superinduced upon 
 the word ; or, it may be, the sin being regarded as already 
 committed in the failing to listen when God is speaking. 
 Bengel (on Eom. v. 19) has a good note : ' Trapd in trapaKon 
 perquam apposite de^larat rationem initii in lapsu Adami. 
 Quseritur quomodo hominis recti intellectus aut voluntas 
 potuit detrimentum capere aut noxam admittere ? Eesp. 
 Intellectus et voluntas simul labavit per d/j,s\siav neque 
 quicquam potest prius concipi, quam dpsXsia, incuria, sicut 
 initium capiendse urbis est vigiliarum rernissio. Hanc in- 
 curiam significat irapaKo^ inobedientia.' It need hardly 
 be observed how continually in the O. T. disobedience is 
 described as a refusing to hear (Jer. xi. 10; xxxv. 17) ; 
 and it appears literally as such at Acts vii. 57- Joined 
 with and following 7rapd(3aa-i,s at Heb. ii. 2, it would there 
 imply, in the intention of the writer, that not merely every 
 actual transgression, embodying itself in an outward act 
 of disobedience, was punished, but every refusal to hear, 
 even though it might not have asserted itself in such overt 
 acts of disobedience. 
 
 E 2
 
 244 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVI. 
 
 We have generally translated dvopia ' iniquity ' (Matt. 
 vii. 23; Eom. vi. 19 ; Heb. x. 17) ; once ' unrighteousness f 
 (2 Cor. vi. 14), and once "transgression of the law'* 
 (i John iii. 4). It is set over against St/caioa-vvrj (2 Cor. 
 vi. 14; cf. Xenophon, Mem. i. 2. 24) ; joined with avapyia, 
 (Plato, Rep. ix. 575 a), with dvTi\oyia (Ps. liv. [LXX] 10). 
 While avopos is once at least in the N.T. used negatively of 
 a person without law, or to whom a law has not been given 
 (i Cor. ix. 21 ; cf. Plato, Politic. 302 e, avo/jios fjuovap^ia) ; 
 though elsewhere of the greatest enemy of all law, the 
 Man of Sin, the lawless one (2 Thess. ii. 8) ; avopia is never 
 there the condition of one living without law, but always 
 the condition or deed of one who acts contrary to law : and 
 so, of course, Trapavop,ia, found only at 2 Pet. ii. 16; cf. 
 Prov. x. 26, and Trapavo/j,siv, Acts xxiii. 3. It will follow 
 that where there is no law (Rom. v. 13), there may be 
 df^apria, dSiKia, but not dvo/j,ia: being, as CEcumenius 
 defines it, 77 Trepl TOV 6srov vopov TrKru^fisKsLa : as Fritzsche, 
 * legis contemtio aut morum licentia qua lex violatur.' 
 Thus the Gentiles, not having a law (Rom. ii. 14), might 
 be charged with sin; but they, sinning without law (dvo^ws 
 =^a)pls v6fj.ov, Rom. ii. 12 ; iii. 21), could not be charged 
 with dvopia. It is true, indeed, that, behind that law of 
 Moses which they never had, there is another law, the 
 original law and revelation of the righteousness of God, 
 written on the hearts of all (Rom. ii. 14, 15) ; and, as 
 this in no human heart is obliterated quite, all sin, even 
 that of the darkest and most ignorant savage, must 
 still in a secondary sense remain as dvopla, a violation of 
 this older, though partially obscured, law. Thus Origen 
 (in Rom. iv. 5) : ' Iniquitas sane a peccato hanc habet 
 differentiam, quod iniquitas in his dicitur quse contra 
 legem committuntur, unde et Grsecus sermo dvopiav ap- 
 pellat. Peccatum vero etiam illud dici potest, si contra 
 quam natura docet, et conscientia arguit, delinquatur.' 
 Cf. Xenophon, Mem. iv. 4. 1 8, 19.
 
 LXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 245 
 
 It is the same with 7rapd{3acris. There must be some- 
 thing to transgress, before there can be a transgression. 
 There was sin between Adam and Moses, as was attested 
 by the fact that there was death ; but those between the 
 law given in Paradise (Gen. ii. 16, 17) and the law given 
 from Sinai, sinning indeed, yet did not sin -"after the 
 similitude of Adam's transgression" (Trapaftdcrsa)?, Rom. v. 
 14). With law came for the first time the possibility of 
 the transgression of law (Rom. iv. 15) ; and exactly this 
 transgression, or trespass, is 7rapd{3a<n.s, from Trapafialveiv, 
 
 * transilire lineam ; ' the French ' forfait ' (' faire fors ' or 
 *hors'), some act which is excessive, enormous. Cicero 
 (Parad. 3) : ' Peccare est tanquam transilire lineas ; ' com- 
 pare the Homeric vTrspfiaa-irj, II. iii. 107, and often. In 
 the constant language of St. Paul this 7rapd{3a<ris, as the 
 transgression of a commandment distinctly given, is more 
 serious than a^apria (Rom. ii. 23 ; I Tim. ii. 14; cf. Heb. 
 ii. 2 ; ix. 15). It is from this point of view, and indeed 
 with reference to this very word, that Augustine draws 
 often a distinction between the ' peccator ' and the ' prseva- 
 ricator,' between 'peccatum' (a^apria) and ' proevaricatio ' 
 (Trapdftaa-Lsi). Thus Enarr. in Ps. cxviii. ; Serm. 2$: 
 
 * Omnis quidem prsevaricator peccator est, quia peccat in 
 lege, sed non omnis peccator prsevaricator est, quia pec- 
 cant aliqui sine lege. Ubi autem non est lex, nee prse- 
 varicatio.' It will be seen that his Latin word introduces 
 a new image, not now of overpassing a line, but of halting 
 on unequal feet; an image, however, which had quite 
 faded from the word when he used it, his motive to 
 employ it lying in the fact that the 'prsevaricator,' or 
 collusive prosecutor, dealt unjustly with a law. He who, 
 being under no express law, sins, is, in Augustine's lan- 
 guage, ' peccator ' ; he who, having such a law, sins, is 
 
 * prsevaricator ' ( = 7rapa^dTrjs y Rom. ii. 25; Jam. ii. 9, a 
 name constantly given by the Church Fathers to Julian 
 the Apostate). Before the law came men might be the
 
 246 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVI. 
 
 former; after the law they could only be the latter. 
 In the first there is implicit, in the second explicit, dis- 
 obedience. 
 
 We now arrive at trapaTrrw^a, a word belonging alto- 
 gether to the later Greek, and of rare occurrence there ; 
 it is employed by Longinus of literary faults (De SuU. 
 36). Cocceius : ' Si originem rerbi spectemus, signincat 
 ea facta prse quibus quis cadit et prostratus jacet, ut stare 
 coram Deo et surgere non potest.' At Ephes. ii. I, where 
 TrapaTrrcafjLara and a^apriai are found together, Jerome 
 records with apparent assent a distinction between them ; 
 that the former are sins suggested to the mind and par- 
 tially entertained and welcomed there, and the latter the 
 same embodied in actual deeds : ' Aiunt quod Trapa-TTTw^ara 
 quasi initia peccatorum sint, quum cogitatio tacita sub- 
 repit, et ex aliqua parte conniventibus nobis ; necdum 
 tamen nos impulit ad ruin am. Peccaturn vero esse, quum 
 quid opere consummatum pervenit ad finem.' This dis- 
 tinction has no warrant. Only this much truth it may 
 be allowed to have ; that, as sins of thought partake more 
 of the nature of infirmity, and have less aggravation than 
 the same sins consummated, embodied, that is, in act, so 
 doubtless irapaTrrw^a is sometimes used when it is intended 
 to designate sins not of the deepest dye and the worst 
 enormity. One may trace this very clearly at Gal. vi. i, 
 our Translators no doubt meaning to indicate as much 
 when they rendered it by 'fault'; and not obscurely, as 
 it seems to me, at Eom. v. 15, 17, 18. HapaTrrcD/jia is used 
 in the same way, as ati error, a mistake in judgment, a 
 blunder, by Polybius (ix. 10. 6) ; compare Ps. xviii. 13, 14, 
 where it is contrasted with the ap-apria fj,<yd\r) : and for 
 other examples see Cremer, Biblisch-Theolog. Worterbuch, 
 p. 501. To a certain feeling of this we may ascribe an- 
 other inadequate distinction, that, namely, of Augustine 
 (Qu. ad Lev. 20), who will have TrapaTTTw^a to be the 
 negative omission of good ('desertio boni,' or 'delictum'),
 
 LXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 247 
 
 as contrasted with dfj,apria, the positive doing of evil 
 (* perpetratio mali ') . 
 
 But this milder subaudition is very far from belonging 
 always to the word (see Jeremy Taylor, Doctrine and Prac- 
 tice of Repentance, iii. 3. 21). There is nothing of it at 
 Ephes. ii. I, "dead in trespasses (TrapaTTTMfjiao'i) and sins." 
 is mortal sin, Ezek. xviii. 26 ; and the trapa- 
 of Heb. vi. 6 is equivalent to the SKOVO-ICOS dpapTavsiv 
 of x. 26, to the dtroa-Trjvai diro sot) WZ/TOS of iii. 1 2 ; while 
 any such extenuation of the force of the word is expressly 
 excluded in a fragment of Philo (vol. ii. p. 648, ed. Mang.), 
 which very closely resembles these two passages in the 
 Epistle to the Hebrews, and in which he distinctly calls it 
 TrapaTTTfofjia, when a man, having reached an acknowledged 
 pitch of godliness and virtue, falls back from, and out of 
 this ; ' he was lifted up to the height of heaven, and is 
 fallen down to the deep of hell.' 
 
 'Ayvoij/jia occurs in the N. T. only at Heb. ix. 7 (see 
 Tholuck, On the Hebrews, Appendix, p. 92), but also at 
 Judith v. 2O ; I Mace. xiii. 39 ; Tob. iii. 3 ; and ayvota in 
 the same sense of sin, Ps. xxiv. 7, and often ; and dyvostv, 
 to sin, at Hos. iv. 15; Ecclus. v. 1 5 ; Heb. v. 2. Sin is 
 designated as an dyvorj^a when it is desired to make excuses 
 for it, so far as there is room for such, to regard it in the 
 mildest possible light (see Acts iii. 17). There is alwa} 7 s 
 an element of ignorance in every human transgression, 
 which constitutes it human and not devilish; and which, 
 while it does not take awa} r , yet so far mitigates the sin- 
 fulness of it, as to render its forgiveness not indeed neces- 
 sary, but possible. Thus compare the words of the Lord, 
 " Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do" 
 (Luke xxiii. 34), with those of St. Paul, " I obtained mercy 
 because I did it ignorantly, in unbelief" (i Tim. i. 13), 
 where, as one has well said, * Der Ausdruck fasst Schuld 
 und Entschuldigung zusammen.' No sin of man, except 
 perhaps the sin against the Holy Ghost, which may for
 
 248 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVI. 
 
 this reason be irremissible (Matt. xii. 32), is committed 
 with, a full and perfect recognition of the evil which is 
 chosen as evil, and of the good which is forsaken as good. 
 Compare the numerous passages in which Plato identifies 
 vice with ignorance, and even pronounces that no man is 
 voluntarily evil ; ovSsls EKWV KCIKOS, and what is said qualify- 
 ing or guarding this statement in Archer Butler's Lectures 
 on Ancient Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 285. Whatever exaggera- 
 tions this statement of Plato's may contain, it still remains 
 true that sin is always, in a greater or a less degree, an 
 ayv6r)/j,a, and the more the ayvosiv, as opposed to the 
 EKova-lws djjuaprdvsiv (Heb. x. 26), predominates, the greater 
 the extenuation of the sinfulness of the sin. There is 
 therefore an eminent fitness in the employment of the 
 word on the one occasion, referred to already, where it 
 appears in the N. T. The dyvorfpaTa, or ' errors ' of the 
 people, for which the High Priest offered sacrifice on the 
 great day of atonement, were not wilful transgressions, 
 "presumptuous sins" (Ps. xix. 13), committed Kara 
 irpoaLpsGiv, Kara 7rp60<riv, against conscience and with a 
 high hand against God ; those who committed such were 
 cut off from the congregation ; no provision having been 
 made in the Levitical constitution for the forgiveness of 
 such (Num. xv. 30, 31) ; but they were sins growing out 
 of the weakness of the flesh, out of an imperfect insight 
 into God's law, out of heedlessness and lack of due cir- 
 cumspection (dicovcrlws, Lev. iv. 13; cf. v. 15-19; Num. 
 xv. 22-29), an( l afterwards looked back on with shame 
 and regret. The same distinction exists between ayvoia 
 and dyvoyfjui which has been already traced between 
 d/Actpria and dp,dpTrip,a, dSi/cta and dBiKrjfMa : that the 
 former is often the more abstract, the latter is always the 
 concrete. 
 
 "Hrrfj/jia appears nowhere in classical Greek ; but ^rra, 
 a briefer form of the word, is opposed to vlmj, as discom- 
 fiture or worsting to victory. It has there past very much
 
 LXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 249 
 
 through the same stages as the Latin * clades.' It ap- 
 pears once in the Septuagint (Isai. xxxi. 8), and twice 
 in the N. T., namely at Rom. xi. 12; I Cor. vi. 7; but 
 only in the latter instance having an ethical sense, as a 
 coming short of duty, a fault, the German ' Fehler,' the 
 Latin 'delictum.' Gerhard (Loc. Theoll. xir) : <r/TT77/ia 
 diminutio, defectus, ab ^rraadat victum esse, quia pec- 
 catores succumbunt carnis et Satanse tentationibus.' 
 
 HXy/AfjisXsia, a very frequent word in the O. T. (Lev. v. 
 15 ; Num. xviii. 9, and often), and not rare in later eccle- 
 siastical Greek (thus see Clement of Rome, Cor. 41), 
 does not occur in the New. Derived from Tr^/i/isX^s, one 
 who sings out of tune (Tr\r)v and /-teXos-), as J/i/ieA.?;? is 
 one who is in tune, and sp/jLsXsia, the right modulation 
 of the voice to the music ; it is properly a discord or dis- 
 harmony (TrX^/i/ifA.f iai teal apeTpiat, Plutarch, Symp. ix. 14. 
 7) ; so that Augustine's Greek is at fault when he finds in 
 it fjLs\i, 'curse est ' (Qu. in Lev. iii. 20), and makes Tr\rj/j,- 
 fjLsXsia = dfj,s\sia, carelessness. Rather it is sin regarded as 
 a discord or disharmony in the great symphonies of the 
 
 universe : 
 
 ' disproportioned sin 
 
 Jarred against nature's chime, and with harsh din 
 Broke the fair music that all creatures made 
 To their great Lord.' 
 
 Delitzsch, on Ps. xxxii. I, with whom Hupfeld, on the 
 same passage, may be compared, observes on the more 
 important Hebrew words, which more or less correspond 
 with these : ' Die Siinde heisst r#9 als Losreissung von 
 Gott, Treubruch, Fall aus dem Gnadenstande [= aasfteia], 
 nspn. als Verfehlung des gottgewollten Zieles, Abirrung 
 vom Gottgefalligen, Vollbringung des Gottwidrigen 
 [ = a/j,apTid], fiJJ als Verkehrung des Greraden, Missethat. 
 Verschuldung \_=avop,ta, a&uclajf
 
 250 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVII. 
 
 Ixvii. dp%aio$, 7ra\aios. 
 
 WE should go astray, if we regarded one of these words as 
 expressing a higher antiquity than the other, and at all 
 sought in this the distinction between them. On the con- 
 trary, this remoter antiquity will be expressed now by one, 
 now by the other. 'Ap^aioy, expressing that which was 
 from the beginning (dpxrfv, air dp^tjs), must, if we accept 
 this as the first beginning of all, be older than person or 
 thing that is merely jraXatos, as having existed a long time 
 ago (-TraXat) ; whilst on the other hand there may be so 
 many later beginnings, that it is quite possible to conceive 
 the Trakatos as older than the dp-^alos. Donaldson (New 
 Cratylus, p. 19) writes : ' As the word archaeology is already 
 appropriated to the discussion of those subjects of which 
 the antiquity is only comparative, it would be consistent 
 with the usual distinction between dp^aiosa,n(\.7ra\ai,6s to 
 give the name of palceology to those sciences which aim at 
 reproducing an absolutely primeval state or condition.' 
 I fail to trace in the uses of irakaios so strong a sense, or at 
 all events at all so constant a sense, of a more primeval 
 state or condition, as in this statement is implied. Tims 
 compare Thucydides, ii. 15: %v/j,/3e@r)K TOVTO diro rov rrdw 
 dp%aiov, that is, from the prehistoric time of Cecrops, with 
 i. 1 8 : AaeSa//t&)i/ stc jra\atrdrov svvo/j,y6r), from very early 
 times, but still within the historic period j where the 
 words are used in senses exactly reversed. 
 
 The distinction between dp-^alos and 7ra\at6$, which is 
 not to be looked for here, is on many occasions not to be 
 looked for at all. Often they occur together as merely 
 cumulative synonyms, or at any rate with no higher 
 antiquity predicated by the one than by the other (Plato, 
 Legg. 865 d; Demosthenes, xxii. 597; Plutarch, Cons, ad 
 Apoll. 27; Justin Martyr, Coh. ad Grcec. 5). It lies in 
 the etymology of the words that in cases out of number
 
 LXVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 251 
 
 they may be quite indifferently used; that which was from 
 the beginning- will have been generally from a long while 
 since ; and that which was from a long while since will 
 have been often from the beginning. Thus the dp-^ala 
 (frwvij of one passage in Plato (Grat. 418 c) is exactly 
 equivalent to the ira\aia $wvr] of another \Tb. 398 d) ; 
 the dp%aioi 0soi of one passage in the Euthyphro are the 
 Trakaia Sai/jwvia of another; ol 7ra\aiol and ol dp^aloL 
 alike mean the ancients (Plutarch, Cons, ad Apoll. 14 
 ftnd 33) ; there cannot be much difference between 
 7ra\aiol ^povoi (2 Mace. vi. 2l) and ap^alai ^spat (Ps. 
 xliii. 2). 
 
 At the same time it is evident that whenever an em- 
 phasis is desired to be laid on the reaching back to a 
 beginning, whatever that beginning may be, ap-^alos will 
 be preferred ; thus we have ap-^ala and Trpwra joined to- 
 gether (Isai. xliii. 18). Satan is o O$LS o ap-^alos (Rev. 
 xii. 9 ; xx. 2), his malignant counter workings of God 
 reaching back to the earliest epoch in the history of man. 
 The world before the flood, that therefore which was indeed 
 from the first, is o apxatos KOCT^JLOS (2 Pet. ii. 5). Mnason 
 was dp%aios /juadrjTijs (Acts xxi. 16), c an old disciple,' not 
 in the sense in which English readers almost inevitably 
 take the words, namely, l an aged disciple,' but one who 
 had been such from the commencement of the faith, from 
 the day of Pentecost or before it ; aged very probably he 
 will have been ; but it is not this which the word declares. 
 The original founders of the Jewish Commonwealth, who, 
 as such, gave with authority the law, are ol dp%aioi, (Matt, 
 v. 21, 27, 33; cf. I Sam. xxiv. 14; Isai. xxv. l); TTIVTIS 
 dpxaia (Eusebius, H. E. v. 28, 9) is the faith which was 
 from the beginning, " once delivered to the saints." The 
 Timceus of Plato, 22 6, offers an instructive passage in 
 which both words occur, where it is not hard to trace the 
 finer instincts of language which have determined their 
 several employment. Sophocles (Trachin. 546) has another,
 
 252 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVII. 
 
 where Deianira speaks of the poisoned shirt, the gift to 
 her of Nessus : 
 
 ap^aov ITOTC 
 Kficpvp.p.fvov. 
 
 JSschylus (Eumenides, 727, 728) furnishes a third. 
 
 'Apxatos, like the Latin * priscus,' will often designate 
 the ancient as also the venerable, as that to which the 
 honour due to antiquity belongs ; thus Kvpos 6 ap-^alos 
 (Xenophon, Anab. i. 9. I ; cf. Aristophanes, Nub. 961) ; 
 just as on the other side ' modern ' is always used slight- 
 ingly by Shakespeare ; and it is here that we reach a point 
 of marked divergence between it and Tra\ai6s, each going 
 off into a secondary meaning of its own, which it does not 
 share with the other, but possesses exclusively as its proper 
 domain. I have just observed that the honour of antiquity 
 is sometimes expressed by apxaios, nor indeed is it alto- 
 gether strange to ira\aios. But there are other qualities 
 that cleave to the ancient ; it is often old-fashioned, seems 
 ill-adapted to the present, to be part and parcel of a world 
 which has passed away. We have a witness for this in the 
 fact that * antique ' and ' antic ' are only different spellings 
 of one and the same word. There lies often in ap-^aios this 
 sense superadded of old-world fashion ; not merely antique, 
 but antiquated and out of date, not merely * alterthum- 
 lich,' but ' altfrankisch ' (JEschylus, Prom. Vinct. 325; 
 Aristophanes, Plut. 323, -^aipsiv so-rlv ap^alov rjBrj ical 
 aairpov (Nub. 915) ; and still more strongly in ap^aioTrjs, 
 which has no other meaning but this (Plato, Legg. ii, 
 
 657 &) 
 
 But while ap^aios goes off in this direction (we have, 
 indeed, no example in the N. T.), TraXaios diverges in 
 another, of which the N. T. usage will supply a large 
 number of examples. That which has existed long has 
 been exposed to, and in many cases will have suffered 
 from, the wrongs and injuries of time ; it will be old in
 
 LXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 253 
 
 the sense of more or less worn out ; and this is always 
 TrdXaios. 1 Thus l/jLartov iraKaiov (Matt. ix. 1 6) ; do-fcol ira- 
 \atol (Matt. ix. 17); so da-fcol 7ra\.aiol KOI KarsppcoyoTSS' (Josh. 
 ix. 10) ; 7ra\aia pater) (Jer. xiv. n). In the same way, 
 while ol dp%aioi could never express the old men of a living 
 generation as compared with the young of the same, ol 
 ira\aioi continually bears this sense ; thus vsos r^s iraXaios 
 (Homer, II. xiv. 108, and often) ; vroXvsTsis /cat, 7ra\aioi 
 (Philo, De Vit. Gont. 8; cf. Job xv. 10). It is the same 
 with the words formed on TraXatos : thus Heb. viii. 1 3 : TO 
 Bs 7ra\,aiov/j,evov ical yrjpdcrKov, syyvs d(j>avio-fjiov : cf . Heb. i. 
 II; Luke xii. 33; Ecclus. xiv. 17; while Plato joins 
 TraKawTris and a-aTrporrjs together (Rep. x. 609 e ; cf. 
 Aristophanes, Plut. 1086: rpvt; TraXcua /cal aairpa). As 
 often as irakaws is employed to connote that which is worn 
 out, or wearing out, by age, it will absolutely demand 
 icatvbs as its opposite (Josh. ix. 13; Mark ii. 21 ; Heb. 
 viii. 13), as it will also sometimes have it on other occa- 
 sions (Herodotus, ix. 26, bis). When this does not lie in 
 the word, there is nothing to prevent vsos being set over 
 against it (Lev. xxvi. IO ; Homer, Od. ii. 293 ; Plato, 
 Cratylus, 418 &; .ZEschylus, Eumenides, 778, 808); and 
 Kaivos against ap^alos (2 Cor. v. 17; Aristophanes, Ranee, 
 720 ; Isocrates, xv. 82 ; Plato, Euthyphro, 3 b ; Philo, De 
 Vit. Con. 10). 
 
 Ixviii. a(f>dapTos, dfidpavros, a^apavnvos. 
 
 IT is a remarkable testimony to the reign of sin, and 
 therefore of imperfection, of decay, of death, throughout 
 this whole fallen world, that as often as we desire to set 
 forth the glory, purity, and perfection of that other higher 
 world toward which we strive, we are almost inevitably 
 compelled to do this by the aid of negatives, by the deny- 
 
 1 The same lies, or may lie, in 'vetus,'as in Tertullian's pregnant 
 antithesis (Adv. Marc. i. 8) : ' Deus si est vetus, non erit ; si est novus, 
 non fuit.'
 
 254 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVIII. 
 
 ing to that higher order of things the leading features and 
 characteristics of this. Such is signally the case in a pas- 
 sage wherein two of the words with which we are now deal- 
 ing occur. St. Peter, magnifying the inheritance reserved 
 in heaven for the faithful (i Pet. i. 4), does this, and he 
 had hardly any choice in the matter, by aid of three 
 negatives ; by affirming that it is afydapros, or without our 
 corruption ; that it is apiavTos, or without our defilement ; 
 that it is dfidpavros, or without our withering and fading 
 away. He can only set forth what it is by declaring what 
 it is not. Of these three, howevei-, I set one, namely 
 dpiavTos, aside, the distinction between it and the others 
 being too evident to leave them fair subjects of synonymous 
 discrimination. 
 
 " A(j>0aproy, a word of the later Greek, is not once found 
 in the Septuagint, and only twice in the Apocrypha (Wisd. 
 xii. I ; xviii. 4). Properly speaking, God only is afyOapros, 
 the heathen theology recognizing this not less clearly than 
 the Biblical. Thus Plutarch (De Repugn. Stoic. 38) quotes 
 the grand saying of the Stoic philosopher, Antipater of 
 Tarsus, ebv voovpsv wov /jLa/cdpiov KOI a^Oaprov : cf. 
 Diogenes Laertius, x. i. 31. 139. And in agreement with 
 this we find the word by him associated with IcroQeos (Ne 
 Suav. Viv. Posse, 7), with dtSios (Adv. Colot. 13), with 
 dvsK\ei7rTos (De DeJ.Orac. 51), with dysvvrjTos (De Repugn. 
 Stoic. 38), with d<yvr)To$ (De Ei ap. Delph. 19), with 
 diradrjs (De Def. Orac. 20) ; so, too, with oXvfnrios by 
 Philo (quod Det. Pot. Ins. 23), and with other epithets 
 corresponding. * Immortal ' we have rendered it on one 
 occasion (i Tim. i. 17) ; but there is a clear distinction 
 between it and aOdvaros or 6 e%&>z> ddavaaiav (i Tim. vi, 1 6) ; 
 and * incorruptible,' by which we have given it in other 
 places (i Cor. ix. 25 ; xv. 52 ; I Pet. i. 23), is to be pre- 
 ferred ; the word predicating of God that He is exempt 
 from that wear and waste and final perishing ; that <f)6opd, 
 which time, and sin working in time, bring about in all
 
 LXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 255 
 
 which is outside of Him and to which He has not com- 
 municated of his own dcpdapaia (i Cor. xv. 52; cf. Isai. 
 li. 6; Heb. i. 10-12). 
 
 5 'Apdpavros occurs only once in the N. T. (i Pet. i. 4) ; 
 once also in the Apocrypha, being joined there with 
 \afjL7rpos (Wisd. vi. 12) ; and dpapavTivos not oftener 
 (i Pet. v. 4). There may well be a question whether 
 dpapavTivos, an epithet given to a crown, should not be 
 rendered 'of amaranths.' We, however, have made no 
 distinction between the two, having rendered both by 
 the same circumlocution, ' that fadeth not away ' ; our 
 Translators no doubt counting ' immarcescible ' a word 
 which has found favour with Bishops Hall and Taylor and 
 with other scholarly -writers of the seventeenth century 
 too much of an ' inkhorn term ' to be admitted into our 
 English Bible. Even the Eheims Translators, with ' iinmar- 
 cescibilis ' in the Vulgate before them, have not ventured 
 upon it. In this dfidpavros there is affirmed of the heavenly 
 inheritance that it is exempt from that swift withering 
 which is the portion of all the loveliness which springs out 
 of an earthly root ; the most exquisite beauty which the 
 natural world can boast, that, namely, of the flower, being 
 also the shortest-lived (' breve lilium'), the quickest to fall 
 away and fade and die (Job xiv. 2 ; Ps. xxxvii. 2 ; ciii. 1 5 ; 
 Isai. xl. 6, 7; Matt. vi. 30; Jam. i. 10-11 ; i Pet. i. 24). 
 All this is declared to find no place in that inheritance of 
 unfading loveliness, reserved for the faithful in heaven. 
 
 If, indeed, it be asked wherein a^dapros and dpdpavros 
 differ, what the latter predicates concerning this heavenly 
 inheritance which the former had not claimed already, 
 the answer must be that essentially it claims nothing ; 
 yet with all this in d^dpavros is contained, so to speak, a 
 pledge that the more delicate grace, beauty, and bloom 
 which it owns will as little wither and wane as will its 
 solid and substantial worth depart. Not merely decay 
 and corruption cannot touch it; but it shall wear its
 
 256 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXIX. 
 
 freshness, brightness, and beauty for ever. Estius : ( Im- 
 marcescibilis est, quia vigorem suum et gratiam, instar 
 amaranti floris, semper retinet, ut nullo unquain tempore 
 possessor! fastidium tsediuinve subrepat.' 
 
 Ixix. 
 
 IT is often stated by theologians of the Reformation 
 period that fjuerdvoia and fisra^s^sta, with their several 
 verbs, psravoslv and jjisra^eXsadat, are so far distinct, that 
 where it is intended to express the mere desire that the 
 done might be undone, accompanied with regrets or even 
 with remorse, but with no effective change of heart, there 
 the latter words are employed; but where a true change 
 of heart toward God, there the former. It was Beza, I 
 believe, who first strongly urged this. He was followed 
 by many ; thus see Spanheim, Dub. Evang. vol. iii. dub. 9 j 
 and Chilling worth (Sermons before Charles I. p. 1 1) : 'To 
 this purpose it is worth the observing, that when the 
 Scripture speaks of that kind of repentance, which is only 
 sorrow for something done, and wishing it undone, it con- 
 stantly useth the word /iera/AfXeta, to which forgiveness of 
 sins is nowhere promised. So it is written of Judas the 
 son of perdition (Matt, xxvii. 3), fisra^sk^Osls airsa-rp^e, 
 he repented and went and hanged himself ; and so con- 
 stantly in other places. But that repentance to which 
 remission of sins and salvation is promised, is perpetually 
 expressed by the word /xeravoia, which signifieth a thorough 
 change of the heart and soul, of the life and actions.' 
 
 Let me, before proceeding further, correct a slight in- 
 accuracy in this statement. MsTa/jisXsia nowhere occurs 
 in the N. T. ; only once in the Old (Hos. xi. 8). So far as 
 we are dealing with N. T. synonyms, it is properly between 
 the verbs alone that the comparison can be instituted, and 
 a distinction drawn ; though, indeed, what stands good of 
 them will stand good of their conjugates as well. But
 
 LXIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 
 
 257 
 
 even after this correction made, the statement will itself 
 need a certain qualification. Jeremy Taylor allows as 
 much ; whose words they occur in his great treatise, On 
 the Doctrine and Practice of Repentance, ch. ii. i, 2 areas 
 follows : ' The Greeks use two words to express this duty, 
 fjisrafj,s\ia and fjiSTavoia. Msra/ieXeia is from /j,jau\ela6ai, 
 post factum angi et cruciari, to be afflicted in mind, to be 
 troubled for our former folly ; it is Svaapsa-TTjo-ts s-jrl 
 TrsTrpa^iJLEvois, saith Phavorinus, a being displeased for wha.t 
 we have done, and it is generally used for all sorts of re- 
 pentance; but more properly to signify either the beginning 
 of a good, or the whole state of an ineffective, repentance. 
 In the first sense we find it in St. Matthew, vpsls 8s iBovres 
 oi> fJusTSp-sX-rjO^TS varspoy rov iria-rsva-ai avra>, ' and ye, seeing, 
 did not repent that ye might believe Him.' Of the second 
 sense we have an example in.Tudas, /zsra/zeA/r^sts dTrsa-rps-^s, 
 he " repented " too, but the end of it was he died with 
 anguish and despair. . . . There is in this repentance a 
 sorrow for what is done, a disliking of the thing with its 
 consequents and effect, and so far also it is a change of 
 mind. But it goes no further than so far to change the 
 mind that it brings trouble and sorrow, and such things 
 as are the natural events of it. ... When there was a 
 difference made, psrdvoia was the better word, which does 
 not properly signify the sorrow for having done amiss, but 
 something that is nobler than it, but brought in at the 
 gate of sorrow. For 97 Kara Qsbv XUTTT;, a godly sorrow, 
 that is /.lEra/jLsXsia, or the first beginning of repentance, 
 /ASTUVOUIV Karspjd^cTat, worketh this better repentance, 
 fisrdvoiav dpsra^sXijTov and sis crwTripiav.' Thus far Jeremy 
 Taylor. Presently, however, he admits that ' however the 
 grammarians may distinguish them, yet the words are 
 used promiscuously,' and that no rigid line of discrimina- 
 tion can be drawn between them as some have attempted 
 to draw. This in its measure is true, yet not so true but 
 that a predominant use of one and of the other can very 
 
 6
 
 258 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXIX. 
 
 clearly be traced. There was, as is well known, a conflict 
 between the early Reformers and the Roman Catholic 
 divines whether f pcenitentia,' as the latter affirmed, or 
 ' resipiscentia/ as Beza and the others, was the better 
 Latin rendering of //.frai/ota. There was much to be said 
 on both sides ; but it is clear that if the standing word 
 had been /iera/if'Xem, and not ^sravoia, this would have 
 told to a certain degree in favour of the Roman Catholic 
 view. * Pcenitentia,' says Augustine (De Ver. et Fals. Pan. 
 c. viii.), * est qusedam dolentis vindicta, semper puniens in 
 se quod dolet commisisse.' 
 
 Msravoslv is properly to know after, as irpovoslv to know 
 before, and fisrdvota a//erknowledge, as Trpovoia /oreknow- 
 ledge ; which is well brought out by Clement of Alexan- 
 dria (Strom, ii. 6) : si scf) ols ijfJ,apTSv fj.STSvdr/a'sv, si avvscriv 
 eXaftsv <>' ols sTrraiasv, Kal fjisrsyvco, ojrsp scrrl, fjisra Tavra 
 syvw fipaSsta yap yv&ais, psTavoia. So in the Florilegium 
 of Stobseus, i. 14 : ov psravoslv d\\a irpovoslv ^pr) TOV avSpa 
 rov <ro<f)6v. At its next step ftsTavota signifies the change 
 of mind consequent on this after-knowledge ; thus Tertul- 
 lian (Adv. Mar don. ii. 24) : * In Grseco sermon e poeniten- 
 tise nomen non ex delicti confessione, sed ex animi demu- 
 tatione, compositum est.' At its third, it is regret for the 
 course pursued ; resulting from the change of mind con- 
 sequent on this after-knowledge ; with a ovo-apso-Trjffis, or 
 displeasure with oneself thereupon; ' passio quaedain animi 
 quse veniat de offensa sententisc prioris,' which, as Ter- 
 tullian (De Pcenit. i) affirms, was all that the heathen 
 understood by it. At this stage of its meaning it is found 
 associated with B^J/JLOS (Plutarch, Quom. Am. ab Adul. 12); 
 with ala-^vvrj (De Virt. Mor. 12) ; with irodos (Pericles, IO; 
 cf. Lucian, De Saltat. 84). Last of all it signifies change 
 of conduct for the future, springing from all this. At the 
 same time this change of mind, and of action upon this 
 following, may be quite as well a change for the worse 
 as for the better ; there is no need that it should be a
 
 LXIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 259 
 
 * resipiseentia ' as well; this is quite a Christian super- 
 addition to the word. Thus A. Gellius (xvii. 1.6): ' Pce- 
 nitere tum dicere solemus, cum quse ipsi fecimus, aut quse 
 de nostra voluntate nostroque consilio facta sunt, ea nobis 
 post incipiunt displicere, sententiarnque in iis nostram 
 demutamus.' In like manner Plutarch (Sept. Sap. Conv. 21) 
 tells us of two murderers, who, having spared a child, after- 
 wards ' repented' (fiersvoqaav), and sought to slay it (cf. his 
 Timoleon, 6) ; fisrapeXsia is used by him in the same sense 
 of a repenting of good (De Ser. Num. Vind. 11) ; so that 
 here also Tertullian had right in his complaint (De Pcenit. 
 i) : Quam autem in poenitentise actu irrationaliter dever- 
 sentur [ethnici], vel uno isto satis erit expedire, cum illain 
 etiam in bonis actis suis adhibent. Poanitet fidei, ainoris, 
 simplicitatis, patientise, misericordise, prout quid in in- 
 gratiam cecidit.' The regret may be, and often is, quite 
 unconnected with the sense of any wrong done, of the 
 violation of any moral law, may be simply what our fathers 
 were wont to call 'hadiwist' (had-I-wist better, I should 
 have acted otherwise) ; thus see Plutarch, De Lib. Ed. 14 ; 
 Sept. Sap. Conv. 12 ; De Soler. Anim. 3 : \VTTTJ Si? aXyrjSovos, 
 TJV fjLsrdvotav ovopdZofjisv, ' displeasure with oneself, pro- 
 ceeding from pain, which we call repentance' '.Holland). 
 That it had sometimes, though rarely, an ethical meaning, 
 none would deny, in which sense Plutarch (De Ser. Num. 
 Vind. 6) has a passage in wonderful harmony with 
 Rom. ii. 4; and another (De Tranq. Animi, 19), in which 
 pSTctfjisXsia and pera-voia are interchangeably used. 
 
 It is only after fisravoia has been taken up into the uses 
 of Scripture, or of writers dependent on Scripture, that it 
 conies predominantly to mean a change of mind, taking a 
 wiser view of the past, avvaiffdrivis ^vx^s s(j> ols sTrpagev 
 UTOTTOIS (Phavorinus), a regret for the ill done in that past, 
 and out of all this a change of life for the better ; sTria-Tpo^tj 
 rov fiiov (Clement of Alexandria, Strom, ii. 245 a), or 
 as Plato already had, in part at least, described it, 
 
 8 2
 
 260 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXIX. 
 
 airo TWV GKIWV JTTI TO <f>a)s (Rep. vii. 53 2 &) 
 ^VXTJS irepiaryw^i (ibid. 521 c). This is 
 all imported into, does not etymologically nor yet by 
 primary usage lie in, the word. Not very frequent in the 
 Septuagint or the Apocrypha (yet see Ecclus. xliv. 16 ; 
 Wisd. xi. 23; xii. 10, 19; and for the verb, Jer. viii. 6), 
 it is common in Philo, who joins ^erdvoia with 
 (De AbraJi. 3), explaining it as Trpos TO ftsXnov 77 
 (ibid. ; cf. De Posnit. 3) ; while in the IS". T. fisravoslv and 
 fjLsrdvoia, whenever they are nsed in the N. T., and it is 
 singular how rarely this in the writings of St. Paul is the 
 case, fjLeravotiv but once (2 Cor. xii. 2i),and fterdvoia only 
 four times (Rom. ii. 4; 2 Cor. vii. 9, 10; 2 Tim. ii. 25), 
 are never employed in other than an ethical sense ; * die 
 unter Schmerz der Reue sich im Personleben des Menschen 
 vollziehende radicale Umstimmung,' Delitzsch has finely 
 described it. 
 
 But while thus /J-STCIVOSIV and fjusravoia gradually advanced 
 in depth and fulness of meaning, till they became the fixed 
 and recognized words to express that mighty change in 
 mind, heart, and life wrought by the Spirit of God (' such 
 a virtuous alteration of the mind and purpose as begets a 
 like virtuous change in the life and practice,' Kettlewell), 
 which we call repentance ; the like honour was very par- 
 tially vouchsafed to /iSTo/ieXeia and nsrapsXscrOat,. The first, 
 styled by Plutarch awrsipa Bal/j-wv, and by him explained as 
 fj STTI Tais r]$>ovals, oaai 7rapdvo/j.oi Koi UK par sis, altr^vvrj (De 
 Gen. Socr. 22), associated by him with ft*pv0vpla (An Vit. ad 
 Inf. 2), by Plato with rapa^ij (Rep. ix. 577 e; cf. Plutarch, 
 De Cohib. Ird, 16), has been noted as never occurring in 
 the N. T. ; the second only five times ; and designating on 
 one of these the sorrow of this world which worketh 
 death, of Judas Iscariot (Matt, xxvii. 3), and on another 
 expressing, not the repentance of men, but the change of 
 mind of God (Heb. vii. 21) ; and this while fisrdvoia occurs 
 some five and twenty, and fjLsrai'oslv some five and thirty
 
 LXIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 261 
 
 times. Those who deny that either in profane or sacred 
 Greek any traceable difference existed between the words 
 are able, in the former, to point to passages where fisra- 
 ps\sia is used in all those senses which have been here 
 claimed for /ieraz/oia, to others where the two are employed 
 as convertible terms, and both to express remorse (Plutarch, 
 De Tranq. Anim. 19) ; in the latter, to passages in the 
 N. T. where fj,srafj.s\scrdai, implies all that psravodv would 
 have implied (Matt. xxi. 29, 32). But all this freely 
 admitted, there does remain, both in sacred and profane 
 use, a very distinct preference for fAsravoia as the expression 
 of the nobler repentance. This we might, indeed, have 
 expected beforehand, from the relative etymological force 
 of the words. He who has changed his mind about the 
 past is in the way to change everything ; he who has an 
 after care may have little or nothing more than a selfish 
 dread of the consequences of what he has done (Aristotle, 
 Etliic. Nic. ix. 4. IO : AiETa/isAs/as- 01 <pav\oi js/j^ovcriv] ; so 
 that the long dispute on the relation of these words with 
 one another may be summed up in the statement of Bengel, 
 which seems to me to express the exact truth of the 
 matter; allowing a difference, but not urging it too far 
 (Gnomon N.T.; 2 Cor. vii. 10) : ' Vi etymi nsrdvoia proprie 
 est mentis, fjLsrap.s\sLa voluntatis ; quod ilia sententiam, 
 hsec solicitudinem vel potius studium mutatum dicat. . . . 
 Utrumque ergo dicitur de eo, quern facti consiliive pcenitet, 
 sive pcenitentia bona sit sive mala, sive malse rei sive bonse, 
 sive cum mutatione actionum in posterum, sive eitraeam. 
 Veruntamen si usum spectes, fisra^sXsia plerunque est 
 fjLsvov vocabulum, et refertur potissimum ad actiones sin- 
 gulares : ps-rdvoia vero, in N.T. prsesertim, in bonam partem 
 sumitur, quo notatur prenitentia totius vitae ipsorumque 
 nostri quoddammodo: sive tota ilia beata mentis post 
 errorem et peccata reminiscentia, cum omnibus affectibus 
 earn ingredientibus, quam fructus digni sequuntur. Hinc 
 fit nt fjLsravosiv ssepe in imperativo ponatur, p,srap.s\slcr6ai,
 
 262 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXX 
 
 nunquam : ceteris autem locis, ubicunque fj,srdvoia legitur, 
 fjirafji\iav possis substituere : sed non contra.' Compare 
 Witsius, De CEcon. Feed. Dei, iii. 12. 130-136; Girdlestone, 
 Old Testament Synonyms, p. 153 sqq. 
 
 Ixx. jjioptpr'), o"x?)na, ISea. 
 
 THESE words are none of them of frequent recurrence in 
 the N. T., poptyri occurring there only thrice (Mark xvi. 12 ; 
 Phil. ii. 6, 7) ; but compare popfaaisr (Rom. ii. 20 ; 2 Tim. 
 iii. 5) : a"xf]/JLa twice (l Cor. vii. 31 ; Phil. ii. 8) ; and 18 e a 
 only once (Matt, xxviii. 3). Mopfoj is 'form,' 'forma,' 
 ' gestalt ' ; ^x^p-a is ' fashion,' ' habitus,' ' figur ' ; ISea, 
 4 appearance,' ' species,' ' erscheinung.' The first two, 
 which occur not unfrequently together (Plutarch, Syrup. 
 viii. 2. 3), are objective ; for the 'form ' and the 'fashion ' 
 of a thing would exist, were it alone in the universe, and 
 whether there were any to behold it or no. The other 
 (lBsa = sl8os, John v. 37) is subjective, the appearance of a 
 thing implying some to whom this appearance is made ; 
 there must needs be a seer before there can be a seen. 
 
 We may best study the distinction between /uo/30?; and 
 (T^pa, and at the same time estimate its importance, by aid 
 of that great doctrinal passage (Phil. ii. 6-8), in which St. 
 Paul speaks of the Eternal Word before his Incarnation 
 as subsisting " in the form of God " (ev popfyfi Ssov 
 vTrdpxwv), as assuming at his Incarnation " the form of a 
 servant" ( popffiv SovXov Xa/3coi/), and after his Incarnation 
 and during his walk upon earth as " being found in 
 fashion as a man " (tr^/zari svpt-Osls &s avOpwrros). The 
 Fathers were wont to urge the first phrase, h popfyfj Ssov 
 vTrapxcov, against the Arians (thus Hilary, De Trin. viii. 
 45 ; Ambrose, Ep. 46 ; Gregory of Nyssa, Con. Eunom. 
 4) ; and the Lutherans did the same against the Soci- 
 nians, as a 'dictum probans ' of the absolute divinity
 
 LXX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 263 
 
 of the Son of God ; that is, pop<f>r) for them was here 
 equivalent to ola-ia or fyvcris. This cannot, however, as is 
 now generally acknowledged, be maintained. Doubtless 
 there does lie in the words a proof of the divinity of 
 Christ, but this implicitly and not explicitly. Mop<j>r) is 
 not=ouo-/a: at the same time none could be sv p-op^fj 
 Ssov who was not God ; as is well put by Bengel : ' Forma 
 Dei non est natura divina, sed tamen is qui in forma 
 Dei extabat, Deus est;' and this because p,3p$i], like the 
 Latin l forma/ the German ' gestalt,' signifies the form 
 as it is the utterance of the inner life ; not ' being,' but 
 ' mode of being,' or better, ' mode of existence ' ; and 
 only God could have the mode of existence of God. But 
 He who had thus been from eternity sv pop^f) Ssov (John 
 xvii. 5), took at his Incarnation nopfyv oouXov. The verity 
 of his Incarnation is herein implied ; there was nothing 
 docetic, nothing phantastic about it. His manner of 
 existence was now that of a Sov\os, that is, of a BovXos rov 
 Ssov : for in tie midst of all our Lord's humiliations He 
 was never a Bov\os avQpwTrwv. Their Bid/covos He may 
 have been, and from time to time eminently was (John 
 xiii. 4, 5 ; Matt. xx. 28) ; this was part of his TcnrslvaHrisr 
 mentioned in the next verse; but their 8ov\os never; 
 they, on the contrary, his. It was with respect of God He 
 so emptied Himself of his glory, that, from that manner 
 of existence in which He thought it not robbery to be 
 equal with God, He became his servant. 
 
 The next clause, " and being found in fashion (o^T^cm) 
 as a man," is very instructive for the distinguishing of 
 0-yiip.a from jjiopfpij. The verity of the Son's Incarnation 
 was expressed, as we have seen, in the /jLoptfryv 8ov\ov 
 \a(3(ov. These words which follow do but declare the 
 outward facts which came under the knowledge of his 
 fellow-men, with therefore an emphasis on svpsOsts : He 
 was by men found in fashion as a man, the e^p-a here 
 signifying, his whole outward presentation, as Bengel puts
 
 264 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXX. 
 
 it well : ' o-^^a, habitus, cultus, vestitus, victus, gestus, 
 sermones et actiones.' In none of these did there appear 
 any difference between Him and the other children of men. 
 This superficial character of o^/aa appears in its associa- 
 tion with such words as -^pw^a (Plato, Gorg. 465 6; Thecetet. 
 163 6) and viroypafoj (Legg. v. 737 d) ; as in the definition of 
 it which Plutarch gives ( De Plac. Phil. 14) : s a-rlv 7ri<f)dvsia 
 Kai Trepvypacfrr) icai irepas crco/zaros. The two words are used 
 in an instructive antithesis by Justin Martyr (l Apol. 9). 
 
 The distinction between them comes out very clearly 
 in the compound verbs p,sTaa"^rjp,aTi^siv and fisrafiop<^ovv. 
 Thus if I were to change a Dutch garden into an Italian, 
 this would be /teTaer^/iaTtcryu.os' : but if I were to transform 
 a garden into something wholly different, as into a city, ' 
 this would be p,srap.op^xo(TLs. It is possible for Satan 
 ^racr^rjfj,aTL^iv himself into an angel of light (2 Cor. xi. 
 14) j he can take the whole outward semblance of such. 
 But to any such change of his it would be impossible to 
 apply the ^sra^op^ovcrdai, : for this would imply a change 
 not external but internal, not of accidents but of essence, 
 which lies quite beyond his power. How fine and subtle 
 is the variation of words at Rom. xii. 2 ; though * con- 
 formed ' and transformed ' l in our Translation have failed 
 adequately to represent it. ' Do not fall in/ says the 
 Apostle, ' with the fleeting fashions of this world, nor be 
 yourselves fashioned to them (prj crva-^fiari^sa-ds), but 
 undergo a deep abiding change (a\\a ^sra^op^ovads) by 
 the renewing of your mind, such as the Spirit of God 
 alone can work in you ' (cf. 2 Cor. iii. 1 8) . Theodoret, 
 commenting on this verse, calls particular attention to 
 this variation of the word used, a variation which it would 
 
 1 The Authorized Version is the first which uses ' transformed ' here ; 
 "VViclif and the Rheims, both following closely the Vulgate, ' transfigured,' 
 and the inteitnediate Reformed Versions, ' changed into the fashion of.' 
 If the distinctions here drawn are correct, and if they stand good in 
 English as well as Greek, ' transformed ' is not the word.
 
 LXX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 265 
 
 task the highest skill of the English scholar adequately 
 to reproduce in his own language. Among much else 
 which is interesting, he says : e&iSaa-Ksv ovov Trpos ra irapovra 
 Tffs aperfjs TO &id(f)opov' Tavra yap s/caXscrs cr^?}/xa, rrjv 
 upsrrjv 8s /jiOp(f)}jv' r/ fj,op(f>r) 8e d\rjd(H)v Trpajudrwv a-rj^avrtKi], 
 TO & a^/jLa vSt,d\vTov xpf)fji.a. Meyer perversely enough 
 rejects all this, and has this note : ' Beide Worte stehen im 
 Gegensatze nurdurch die Prapositionen, ohneSinnverschie- 
 denheit der Stamm-Verba ;' with whom Fritzsche agrees (in, 
 loc.). One can understand a commentator overlooking, but 
 scarcely one denying, the significance of this change. 
 For the very different uses of one word and the other, see 
 Plutarch, Quom. Adul. db Amic. 7, where both occur. 
 
 At the resurrection Christ shall transfigure (/ifracr^T/- 
 fiaTiasi) the bodies of his saints (Phil. iii. 21 ; cf. I Cor. 
 xvr - 53) ; on which statement Calov remarks, ' Ille fiSTa- 
 o-^rjfiaTicr^os non substantialem mutationem, sed acciden- 
 talem, non ratione quidditatis corporis nostri, sed ratione 
 qualitatum, salva quidditate, importat : ' but the changes 
 of heathen deities into wholly other shapes were fj,sTa(j.op- 
 (j)(o(Tis. In the /jLSTaa-^rjfjLaTLa-fj.os there is transition, but 
 no absolute solution of continuity. The butterfly, pro- 
 phetic type of man's resurrection, is immeasurably more 
 beautiful than the grub, yet has been duly unfolded from 
 it; but when Proteus transforms himself into a flame, a 
 wild beast, a running stream (Virgil, Georg. iv. 442), each 
 of these disconnected with all that went before, there is 
 here a change not of the a-^rj^a merely, but of the popfoj 
 (cf. Euripides, Hec. 1266; Plato, Locr. 104 e). When the 
 Evangelist records that after the resurrection Christ ap- 
 peared to his disciples sv sTspa pop<f>fj (Mark xvi. 12), the 
 words intimate to us how vast the mysterious change to 
 which his body had been submitted, even as they are in 
 keeping with the fisTs/jiop^Mdr] of Matt. xvii. 2 ; Mark ix. 2 ; 
 the transformation upon the Mount being a prophetic 
 anticipation of that which hereafter should be ; compare
 
 266 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXX. 
 
 Dan. iv. 33, where Nebuchadnezzar says of himself, 77 
 fjt>op<f)ij fiov eTrsa-Tpstyev sis epe. 
 
 The popfyr) then, it may be assumed, is of the essence of 
 a thing. 1 We cannot conceive the thing as apart from 
 this its formality, to use * formality' in the old logical 
 sense ; the a-^r}fj,a is its accident, having to do, not with 
 the ' quidditas,' but the ( qualitas,' and, whatever changes 
 it may undergo, leaving the 'quidditas' untouched, the 
 thing itself essentially, or formally, the same as it was 
 before ; as one has said, fJLop<j>rj fyvcrews o-^/za s^scos. Thus 
 o-^fj-a fiaa-iXiKov (Lucian, Pise. 35 ; cf. Sophocles, Antig. 
 1 148) is the whole outward array and adornment of a 
 monarch diadem, tiara, sceptre, robe (cf. Lucian, Hermot. 
 86) all which he might lay aside, and remain king not- 
 withstanding. It in no sort belongs or adheres to the 
 man as a part of himself. Thus Menander (Meineke, 
 Fragm. Com. Gr. p. 985) : 
 
 irpaov KdKovpyos trx*)^ VTret(Tf\6cav avi]p 
 K(KpVfifj.tvr) Ktirui irayls TOIS it\r)a'iov. 
 
 Thus, too, the <r^T)/za TOV Koa-pov passes away (l Cor. vii. 
 31), the image being here probably drawn from the shift- 
 ing scenes of a theatre, but the Koo-pos itself abides ; there 
 is no TsXos TOV KOO-/J,OV, but only TOV alwvos, or TWV alwvwv. 
 For some valuable remarks on the distinction between 
 fj-opfoi and cr^fia see The Journal of Classical and Sacred 
 Philology, No. 7, pp. 113, 116, 121 ; and the same drawn 
 out more fully by Bishop Lightfoot, their author, in his 
 Commentary on the Philippians, pp. 125-131. 
 
 The use in Latin of ' forma ' and ' figura ' so far cor- 
 responds with those severally of fj-op^ and o-^/za, that 
 while * figura formee ' occurs not rarely (' veterem forma? 
 servare figuram'; cf. Cicero, Nat. Deor. i. 32), 'forma 
 figurse ' never (see Doderlein, Latein. 8yn. vol. iii. p. 87). 
 
 1 ' La forme est ngcefsairemeiit es rapport avec la matiere ou avec le 
 fond. La Jtyure au contraira est plus ind^pendante des objets ; se cou- 
 $oit a part' (Lafaje ; Xyn. Fran. p. 617).
 
 LXX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 267 
 
 Contrast too in English * deformed * and ' disfigured.' A 
 hunchback is t deformed,' a man that has been beaten 
 about the face may be l disfigured'; the deformity is 
 bound up in the very existence of the one ; the disfigure- 
 ment of the other may in a few days have quite passed 
 away. lu ' transformed ' and * transfigured' it is easy to 
 recognize the same distinction. 
 
 'IBsa on the one occasion of its use in the N. T. (Matt. 
 xxviii. 3) is rendered * countenance,' as at 2 Mace. iii. 16 
 ' face.' It is not a happy translation ; * appearance ' would 
 be better ; ' species sub oculos cadens,' not the thing 
 itself, but the thing as beholden; thus Plato (Rep. ix. 
 588 c), 7r\drrs IBeav drjpiov TTOLKL\OV, ' Fashion to thyself 
 the image of a manifold beast '; so IBs a rov TrpoawTrov, the 
 look of the countenance (Plutarch, Pyrrh. 3, and often); 
 IBs a Ka\6s, fair to look on (Pindar, Olymp. x. 122) ; -^LOVOS 
 IBea, the appearance of snow (Philo, Quod Det. Pot. Ins. 
 48). Plutarch defines it, the last clause of his definition 
 alone concerning us here (De Plac. Phil. i. 9) : IBsa scrrlv 
 ova-la da-to/jLaTOS, avrr) /j,ev p,r) vfa&rwa-a KaO' avrijv, SLKOVI- 
 %ovcra Be ras apopfyovs /Xas>, KOI air La yivopsvr) rijs rovrwv 
 Bsl^sws. The word is constant to this definition, and to 
 the IBstv lying at its own base ; oftentimes it is manifestly 
 so, as in the following quotation from Philo, which is 
 further instructive as showing how fundamentally his doc- 
 trine of the Logos differed from St. John's, was in fact a 
 denial of it in its most important element : 6 Be v 
 Tovrwv [rwv xspovfilfji] Aoyos dzlos sis oparrjv OVK rf 
 IBeav (De Prof. 19). On the distinction between elBos and 
 IBea, and how far the Platonic philosophy admits a dis- 
 tinction between them at all, see Stallbaum's note on 
 Plato's Republic, x. 596 b ; Donaldson's Cratylus, 3rd ed. 
 p. 105 ; and Thompson's note on Archer Butler's Lectures, 
 vol. ii. p. 127.
 
 268 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXI. 
 
 Ixxi. 
 
 occurs six times in the N. T. On three of these 
 it cannot be said to have a distinctly ethical employment ; 
 seeing that in them it is only the meanness of the crwyiia ^rv- 
 XIKOV which the faithful now bear about that is contrasted 
 with the glory of the a-wpa irvsv/juaTiKov which they shall 
 bear (i Cor. xv. 44 bis, 46). On the other three occasions 
 a moral emphasis rests on the word, and in every instance 
 a most depreciatory. Thus St. Paul declares that the 
 tyvxiKos receives not and cannot receive, as having no organ 
 for their reception, the things of the Spirit of God (i Cor. 
 ii. 14) ; St. James (iii. 15) characterizes the wisdom which 
 is -fyw%LKri, as also sTrljstos, ( earthly,' and 
 ' devilish ; ' St. Jude explains the -^v-^LKoL as those 
 pr) e-^ovTss (ver. 19). The word nowhere appears in the 
 Septuagint; but ^TV^LKWS in the sense of ' heartily ' (=SK 
 ^rv^rjs, Col. iii. 23) twice in the Apocrypha (2 Mace. iv. 
 37; xiv. 24). 
 
 It is at first with something of surprise that we find 
 tyvxiic6s thus employed, and keeping this company ; and 
 the modern fashion of talking about the soul, as though it 
 were the highest part of man, does not diminish this sur- 
 prise ; would rather lead us to expect to find it associated 
 with TrvsvfjLartKos, as though there were only light shades 
 of distinction between them. But, indeed, this (which 
 thus takes us by surprise) is characteristic of the inner 
 differences between Christian and heathen, and indicative 
 of those better gifts and graces which the Dispensation of 
 the Spirit has brought into the world, ^ir^t/cos, continu- 
 ally used as the highest in later classical Greek literature 
 the word appears first in Aristotle being there opposed 
 to crapKiKos (Plutarch, Ne Suav. Vivi Posse, 14), or, where 
 there is no ethical antithesis, to aw^ariKos (Aristotle, Eth. 
 Nic. iii. 10. 2; Plutarch, De Plac. Phil. i. 9; Polybius, vi.
 
 ixxi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 269 
 
 5. 7), and constantly employed in praise, must come down 
 from its high estate, another so much greater than it being 
 installed in the highest place of all. That old philosophy 
 knew of nothing higher than the soul of man ; but Reve- 
 lation knows of the Spirit of God, and of Him making 
 his habitation with men, and calling out an answering 
 spirit in them. There was indeed a certain reaching out 
 after this higher in the distinction which Lucretius and 
 others drew between the 'anima' and the 'animus,' 
 giving, as they did, the nobler place to the last. Ac- 
 cording to Scripture the ^u%^, no less than the crdpj;, 
 belongs to the lower region of man's being ; and if a double 
 employment of ^nr^ there (as at Matt. xvi. 26 ; Mark viii. 
 35), requires a certain caution in this statement, it is at 
 any rate plain that -^V^LKOS is not a word of honour 1 any 
 more than a-apiciKos, being an epithet quite as freely 
 applied to this lower. The ^TV^LKOS of Scripture is one for 
 whom the ^u%?? is the highest motive power of life and 
 action ; in whom the irvevfj-a, as the organ of the divine 
 Hvsvpa, is suppressed, dormant, for the time as good as 
 extinct ; whom the operations of this divine Spirit have 
 never lifted into the region of spiritual things (Rom. vii. 
 14; viii. i ; Jude 19). For a good collection of passages 
 from the Greek Fathers in which -^TV^IKOS is thus employed 
 see Suicer, Thes, s. v. 
 
 1 Hilary has not quite, however nearly, extricated himself from thij 
 notion, and in the following passage certainly ascribes more to the ^ V^IKOS 
 than the Scriptures do, however plainly he sets him in opposition to the 
 TrvftfjiaTiKos (Tract, in Ps. xiv. 3): 'Apostolus et carnalem [crapKucoj/] 
 hominem posuit, et animalem fyvxiKav], etspiritalem [rrvfVfi.aTiKoi>] ; car- 
 nalem, belluae modo divina et huinana negligentem, cujus vita corporis 
 famula sit, negotiosa cibo, sornno, libidine. Animalis autem, qui ex 
 judicio sensus human! quid decena honestumque sit, sentiat, atque ab 
 omnibus vitiis animo suo auctore se referat, suo proprio sensu utilia et 
 honesta dijudicans ; ut pecuniam spernat, ut jejuniis parcus sit, ut am- 
 bitione careat, ut voluptatibus resistat. Spiritalis autem est, cui superiors 
 ilia ad Dominum studia sint, et hoc quod agit, per scientiam Dei agat, 
 intelligens et cognoscens qase sit voluntas Ejus, et sciens quae ratio sit a 
 Deo carnis assuuiptse, qui crucis triumphus, quso mortis potestas, quae in 
 virtute resurrectionis operatic.' Compare Irenaeus, v. 6.
 
 2/0 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXI. 
 
 It may be affirmed that tlie capKiKos and the 
 alike, in the language of Scripture, are set in opposition 
 to the Trvev/jLartKos. Both epithets ascribe to him of whom 
 they are predicated a ruling principle antagonistic to the 
 TTvsvpa, though they do not ascribe the same. When 
 St. Paul reminds the Ephesians how they lived once, 
 " fulfilling the desires of the flesh and of the mind " (Ephes. 
 ii. 3), he describes them first as crapKi/col and then as 
 "fyw%iicoi. For, indeed, in men unregenerate there are two 
 forms of the life lived apart from God; and, though every 
 unregenerate man partakes of both, yet in some one is 
 more predominant, and in some the other. There are 
 trapKiKot, in whom the <rdpj; is more the ruling principle, 
 as there are -^v^iKol, in whom the ^f%^. It is quite true 
 that crdpj; is often used in the N. T. as covering that 
 entire domain of our nature fallen and made subject to 
 vanity in which sin springs up, and in which it moves 
 (Rom. vii. 18; viii. 5). Thus the spya rrjs <rap/c6s (Gal. 
 v. 19-21) are not merely those sinful works that are 
 wrought in and through the body, but those which move 
 in the sphere and region of the mind as well; more than 
 one half of those enumerated there belonging to the latter 
 class. But for all this the word, covering at times the 
 whole region of that in man which is alienated from God 
 and from the life in God, must accept its limitation when 
 the ^rv^tj is brought in to claim that which is peculiarly 
 its own. 
 
 There is an admirable discussion on the difference 
 between the words, in Bishop Reynolds' Latin sermon on 
 I Cor ii. 14, preached before the University of Oxford, 
 with the title Animalis Homo (Works, Lond. 1826, vol. iv. 
 P- 349)- I quote the most important paragraph bearing 
 on the matter in hand : ' Yerum cum homo ex carne et 
 anim& constet, sitque anima pars hominis prsestantior, 
 quamvis eaepius irregenitos, propter appetitum in vitia 
 pronum, atque prjjecipites concupiscentia motus, <rdpica et
 
 LXM. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 271 
 
 o-ap/citcovs Apostolus noster appellet; hie tamen hujusmodi 
 homines a prsestantiore parte deuominat,, ut eos se intelli- 
 gere ostendat, non qui libidinis mancipia sunt, et crassis 
 concupiscentiis vel nativutn lumen obruunt (hujusmodi 
 enim homines a\oya rwa vocat Apostolus, 2 Pet. ii. 12), 
 sed homines sapientiae studio deditos, et qui ea sola, quae 
 stulta et absurda sunt, rejicere solent. Hie itaque <frvxtKol 
 sunt quotquot TO irvsv^ia OVK s^ovcri (Jud. 19), utcunque 
 alias exquisitissimis naturae dotibus prsefulgeant, utcunque 
 potissimam partem, nempe animam, omiiigena eruditione 
 excolant, et rectissime ad preescriptum rationis vitam 
 dirigant. Denique eos hie -^V^LKOVS vocat, quos supra 
 Sa.pientes, Scribas, Disquisitores, et istius seculi principes 
 appellaverat, ut excludatur quidquid est nativae aut ac- 
 quisitae perfectionis, quo naturae viribus assurgere possit 
 ratio humana. ^fv^iKos, o TO TTCLV TOIS \oyicrpols T^S tyv-xfis 
 8io"ov$, Kal fir) vo^ii^wv avwdsv Seicrdai florjOsLd?, ut recte 
 Chrysostomus : qui denique nihil in se eximium habet, 
 praeter animam rationalem, cujus solius lucem ductumque 
 sequitur.' I add a few words of Grotius to the same effect 
 (Annott. in N. T. ; I Cor. ii. 14) : 'Non idem est -^V^KOS 
 avOpwiros et crapiciKos. ^V-^IKOS est qui humanae tantum 
 rationis luce ducitur, aapKi/cos qui corporis affectibus guber- 
 natur; sed plerunque -^rv^KoL aliqua in parte sunt aaptcitcoi, 
 ut Graecorum philosophiscortatores, puerorum corruptores, 
 glorias aucupes, maledici, invidi. Verum hie [i Cor. ii. 
 14] nihil aliud designatur quana homo humana tantum 
 ratione nitens, quales erant Judaeorum plerique et philo- 
 sophi Graecorura.' 
 
 The question, how to translate -v/rin^/eoy, is one not very 
 easy to answer. ' Soulish,' which some have proposed, has 
 the advantage of standing in the same relation to * soul ' 
 that "ty-v%iic6s does to ^fv^ and ' animalis ' to ' anima '5 but 
 the word is hardly English, and would certainly convey 
 no meaning at all to ordinary English readers. Wiclif 
 rendered it.* beastly,' which, it need hardly be said, had
 
 272 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXII. 
 
 nothing for him of the meaning of our ' bestial ' (see my 
 Select Glossary, s. v.) ; but was simply = ' animal ' (he found 
 * animalis ' in his Vulgate) ; the Rhemish * sensual,' which, 
 at Jam. iii. 15; Jude 19, our Translators have adopted, 
 substituting this for ' fleshly,' which was in Cranmer's and 
 the Geneva Version. Ou the other three occasions they 
 have rendered it * natural.' These are both unsatisfactory 
 renderings, and 'sensual ' more so now than at the time 
 when our Version was made, ' sensual ' and ' sensuality ' 
 having considerably modified their meaning since that 
 time ; and now implying a deeper degradation than once 
 they did. On the whole subject of the relations of the ^fv^jj 
 to the a-dpl; and the TTVSV/JLO., there is much very interest- 
 ing, though not very easy to in aster, in Delitzsch's Psycho- 
 logy, English Version, pp. 109-128. 
 
 Ixxii. crapKifcos, adptcivos. 
 
 A DISCUSSION on the relations between ^vxivos&ndia-apKtKos 
 naturally draws after it one on the relations between a-ap- 
 KIKOS and another form of the same, (rdptcivos, which occurs 
 three, or perhaps four, times in the N. T. ; only once in- 
 deed in the received text (2 Cor. iii. 3) ; but the evidence 
 is overwhelming for the right it has to a place at Rom. 
 vii. 14; Heb. vii. 16, as well, while a preponderance of 
 evidence is in favour of allowing crdpKivo? to stand also at 
 i Cor. iii. I. 
 
 Words with the termination in -ti/os, fisrova-iaariKa as 
 they are called, designating, as they most frequently do, 
 the stuff of which anything is made (see Donaldson, 
 Cratylus, 3rd ed. p. 458; Winer, Grammatik, xvi. 3; 
 IVitzsche, Ep. ad Rom. vol. ii. p. 46), are common in the 
 N. T. ; thus dvlvos, of thyine wood (Rev. xviii. 12), vd\ivos, 
 of glass, glassen (Rev. iv. 6), vatcwOivos (Rev. ix. 17), 8sp- 
 pdrtvos (Matt. iii. 4), atcdvOwos (Mark xv. 17). One of 
 these is crdpKivos, the only form of the word which classical
 
 LXXII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 273 
 
 antiquity recognized (o-apKtKos, like the Latin l carnalis,' 
 having been evoked by the ethical necessities of the 
 Church), and at 2 Cor. iii. 3 well rendered 'fleshy ' ; that 
 is, having flesh for the substance and material of which it 
 is composed. I am unable to affirm that the word 
 ' fleshen ' ever existed in the English language. If it had 
 done so, and still survived, it would be better still ; for 
 ' fleshy t may be ' carnosus,' as undoubtedly may crdpicivos 
 as well (Plato, Legg. x. 906 c; Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. iii. 
 9. 3), while * fleshen ' must mean what a-dpicivos means 
 here, namely 'carneus,'or having flesh for its material. 
 The former existence of such a word is not improbable, 
 many of a like form having once been current, which have 
 now passed away ; as, for example, ' stonen,' ' hornen,' 
 'hairen,' 'clayen' (all in Wiclif's Bible), ' threaden ' 
 (Shakespeare), 'tinnen' (Sylvester), ' milken,' ' breaden,' 
 ' reeden,' with many more (see my English Past and Pre- 
 sent, loth edit. p. 256). Their perishing is to be regretted, 
 for they were often very far from superfluous. The German 
 has ' steinig ' and ' steinern,' and finds use for both ; as 
 the Laiin does for ( lapidosus ' and ' lapideus,' for ' saxo- 
 sus ' and ' saxeus.' We might have done the same for 
 ' stony ' and ' stonen ' ; a ' stony ' place is one where the 
 stones are many, a ' stonen ' vessel would be a vessel made 
 of stone (see John ii. 6 ; Rev. ix. 20, Wiclif s Version, 
 where the word is found). Or again, a 'glassy' sea is a 
 sea resembling glass, a 'glassen' sea is a sea made of 
 glass. And thus too 'fleshly,' 'fleshy,' and 'fleshen,' 
 would have been none too many ; as little as are ' earthly,' 
 ' earthy,' and ' earthen,' for each of which we are able to 
 find its own proper employment. 
 
 ' Fleshly ' lusts (' carnal ' is the word oftener employed 
 in our Translation, but in fixing the relations between 
 aapKLKos and crdpKivos, it will be more convenient to em- 
 ploy ' fleshly ' and ' fleshy ') are lusts which move and stir 
 in the ethical domain of the flesh, which have in that 
 
 T
 
 274 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXU 
 
 rebellious region of man's corrupt and fallen nature their 
 source and spring. Such are the <rapKi/cal S7ri0v/j,iat (i Pet. 
 ii. ll), and the man is crap/ci/cos who allows to the <ra/>f 
 a place "which does not belong to it of right. It is in its 
 place so long as it is under the dominion of the 7rvev/j,a, 
 and receives a law from it ; but becomes the source of all 
 sin and all opposition to God so soon as the true positions 
 of these are reversed, and that rules which should have 
 been ruled. When indeed St. Paul says of the Corinthians 
 (i Cor. iii. i) that they were o-dptcivoi, he finds serious 
 fault indeed with them ; but the accusation is far less 
 grave than if he had written a-apxiKoc instead. He does 
 not hereby charge them with positive active opposition to 
 the Spirit of God this is evident from the coy V^TTIOI with 
 which he proceeds to explain it but only that they were 
 intellectually as well as spiritually tarrying at the thresh- 
 old of the faith (cf. Heb. v. n, 12) ; making no progress, 
 and content to remain where they were, when they might 
 have been carried far onward by the mighty transforming 
 powers of that Spirit freely given to them of God. He 
 does not charge them in this word with being anti- 
 spiritual, but only with being wwspiritual, with being flesh 
 and little more, when they might have been much more. 
 He goes on indeed, at ver. 3, 4, to charge them with the 
 graver guilt of allowing the crdpj; to work actively, as a 
 ruling principle in them; and he consequently changes 
 his word. They were not aapnivoi only, for no man and 
 no Church can long tarry at this point, but a-ap/ciicoi as 
 well, and, as such, full of "envying and strife and 
 divisions." 
 
 In what way our Translators should have marked the 
 distinction between crdpicivos and aaptciKos here it is not 
 so easy to suggest. It is most likely, indeed, that the 
 difficulty did not so much as present itself to them, accept- 
 ing, as they probably did, the received text, in which there 
 is no variation of the words. At 2 Cor. iii. 3 all was
 
 LXXIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 275 
 
 plain before them : the a-dp/civat, TrKdices are, as they have 
 given it well, the "fleshy tables " ; Erasmus observing to 
 the point there, that ardptcivos, not crapiciKos, is used, ' ut 
 materiam intelligas, non qualitatem.' St. Paul is drawing 
 a contrast between the tables of stone on which the law of 
 Moses was written and the tables of flesh on which 
 Christ's law is written, and exalting the last over the 
 first ; and so far from ' fleshy ' there being a dishonour- 
 able epithet, it is a most honourable, serving as it does to 
 set forth the superiority of the new Law over the old the 
 one graven on dead tables of stone, the other on the 
 hearts of living men (cf. Ezek. xi. 19; xxxvi. 265 Jer. 
 xxxi. 33; Heb. viii. 10; x. 16). 
 
 Ixxiii. irvor}, TTVSVJJLCI. avspos, XaiXa-v^r, 6vs\\a. 
 
 FROM the words into comparison with which Trvevfia is 
 here brought, it will be evident that it is proposed to deal 
 with it in its natural and earthly, not in its supernatural 
 and heavenly, meaning. Only I will observe, that on the 
 relations between TTVOTJ and irvsv^a in this its higher sense 
 there is a discussion in Augustine, De Civ. Dei, xiii. 22 ; 
 cf. De Anim. et huj. Orig. i. 14, 19. The first three words 
 of this group, as they designate not things heavenly but 
 things earthly, differ from one another exactly as, accord- 
 ing to Seneca, do in the Latin * aer,' ' spiritus,' ' ventus ' 
 (Nat. Qu. v. 13) :' Spiritum a vento motus > separat; vehe- 
 mentior enim spiritus ventus est ; invicem spiritus leviter 
 fluens aer.' 
 
 Tiro?? and 7Tvsvfj,a occur not seldom together, as at Isai. 
 xlii. 5 ; Ivii. 1 6 ; irvo-i^ conveying the impression of a lighter, 
 gentler, motion of the air than irvsv^a, as ' aura ' than 
 'ventus.' Compare Aristotle (DeMundo, iv. 10} : ra h dspi 
 TTVSOVTO, Trvsv/xara Ka\ovp.ev dvepovs, avpas Ss rds eg irypov 
 
 1 So quoted byDodeiiein ; but the edition of Sen eca before me reads 
 ' modus.' 
 
 T2
 
 276 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXIII. 
 
 r e/cTrvods. Pliny (Ep. v. 6) recognizes a similar 
 distinction : ' Semper aer spiritu aliquo movetur ; frequen- 
 ting tainen auras quam ventos habet ' ; Philo no less (Leg. 
 Alleg. i. 13) : irvorjv Be, dAA,' ov irvsvpa s'lprjtcsv, (as Siafyopas 
 ovals' TO /jisv <yap Trvsvpa vsvoTjTai Kara T?;I/ Icr^yv icai 
 evTovi'av Kal Svva/Aiv rj 8s TTVOTJ cos av avpd rls S<TTI- Kal ava- 
 Ovpiacns rjpspaia KOI Trpasta. Against this may be urged, 
 that in one of the two places where irvorj occurs in the 
 N. T., namely Acts ii. 2, the epithet fiiaia is attached to it, 
 and it plainly is used of a strong and vehement wind (cf. 
 Job xxxvii. 9). But, as De Wette has observed, this may 
 be sufficiently accounted for by the fact that on that occa- 
 sion it was necessary to reserve irvsvpa for the higher 
 spiritual gift, whereof this TTVOTJ was the sign and symbol ; 
 and it would have introduced a perplexing repetition to 
 have already employed TTVEV/AO, here. 
 
 UvsvfjLa is seldom used in the N. T. indeed only at 
 John iii. 8 ; Heb. i. 7 (in this last place not certainly) 
 for wind ; but in the Septuagint often, as at Gen. viii. i ; 
 Ezek. xxxvii. 9 ; Eccles. xi. 5. The rendering of nn in 
 this last passage by * spirit,' and not, as so often, by 
 'wind' (Job i. 19; Ps. cxlviii. 8), in our English Version 
 is to be regretted, obscuring as it does the remarkable 
 connexion between this saying of the Preacher and our 
 Lord's words to Nicodemus (John iii. 8). He, who ever 
 loves to move in the sphere and region of the 0. T., in 
 those words of his, " The wind bloweth where it listeth," 
 takes up words of Ecclesiastes, " Thou knowest not what 
 is the way of the wind ; " the Preacher having thus already 
 indicated of what higher mysteries these courses of the 
 winds, not to be traced by man, were the symbol. 
 is found often in the Septuagint in connexion with 
 but generally in a figurative sense (Job xxxiii. 4 ; Isai. 
 xlii. 5 ; Ivii. 16; and at 2 Sam. xxii. 16 : Trvotiirvsv paras] f 
 
 Of ai>fj,os Aristotle (De Mund. 4) gives this account : 
 ov8sv yap scmv avspos 7T\r)V drjp TTO\VS psatv Kal ddpoos, ocrris
 
 LXXIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 277 
 
 a/ia /col TTvsvfjba \sysrai : we may compare Hippocrates : 
 dvsjjLos <ydp sa~ri rjspos pevfia KOI ^svfia. Like { ventnis ' and 
 
 * wind,' avfj,os is usually the strong, oftentimes the tem- 
 pestuous, wind (i Kin. xix. II ; Job i. 19; Matt. vii. 25 ; 
 John vi. 18 ; Acts xxvii. 14; Jam. iii. 4; Plutarch, Prcec. 
 Conj. 12). It is interesting and instructive to observe that 
 our Lord, or rather the inspired reporter of his conversa- 
 tion with Nicodemus, which itself no doubt took place in 
 Aramaic, uses not avs/^os, but irvsv/jLa, as has been noted 
 already, when he would seek analogies in the natural 
 world for the mysterious movements, not to be traced 
 by human eye, of the Holy Spirit; and this, doubtless, 
 because there is nothing fierce or violent, but all measured 
 in his operation ; while on the other hand, when St. Paul 
 would describe men violently blown about and tempested 
 on a sea of error, he speaks of them as K\vS(0vi%6/jivot 
 
 Kal TTSplfapOfJLSVOl TTdVTl CL V fJb to TrjS SiSaCTKaXi'ttS 1 (El)heS. 
 
 iv. 14; cf. Jude 12 with 2 Pet. ii. 17). 
 
 AatXa-^ is a word of uncertain derivation. It is prob- 
 ably formed by reduplication, and is meant to be imitative 
 in sound of that which it designates. We meet it three 
 times in the N. T. (Mark iv. 37 ; Luke viii. 23 ; 2 Pet. ii. 
 17) ; oftener, but not often, in the Septuagint. It is our 
 
 * squall ' ; but with something more formidable about it 
 than we commonly ascribe to the squall. Thus J. H. H. 
 Schmidt, who, in his Synonymik, vol. ii. p. 218 sqq., has a 
 very careful and full discussion on the whole group of 
 words having to do with wind and weather, and the phe- 
 nomena which these present, words in which the Greek 
 language, as might be expected, is singularly rich, writes 
 on XatXai/r thus : ' Die Alten verstanden darunter ganz 
 allgemein den unstaten, aus finsterem Gewolk hervor- 
 brechenden mit Eegengiissen verbundeuen hin und her to- 
 benden Sturm.' And examples which he gives quite bear 
 out this statement ; it is, as Hesychius explains it, avepov 
 
 pofy /j,sd' VSTOV : or as Suidas, who brings in the fur-
 
 278 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXIV 
 
 ther notion of darkness, /ier' avspoav opftpos ical (TKOTOS: the 
 constant association in Homer of the epithets tee\aivi) and 
 ips/jiv^ with XatXa-^r certainly implying that this feature 
 of it, namely the darkness which goes along with it, 
 should not be passed over (II. xi. 747 ; xvi. 384; xx. 51). 
 
 vs\\a, joined with >yvo<j>os whenever it occurs in the 
 Septuagint, namely at Deut. iv. 1 1 ; v. 22 ; Exod. x. 22, 
 is found in the N. T. only at Heb. xii. 18, and sounds there 
 rather as a reminiscence from the Septuagint, than a word 
 which the writer would have other wise employed. Schmidt 
 is at much pains to distinguish it from the Homeric aeAAa, 
 but with the difference between these we have nothing to 
 do. It is sufficient to say that in the 6vs\\a, which is 
 often a natural phenomenon wilder and fiercer, as it would 
 seem, than the XatXa>Jr itself, there is not seldom the 
 mingling in conflict of many opposing winds (Homer, Od. 
 v. 317; xii. 288-9), something of the turbulent cyclone. 
 
 Ixxiv. 
 
 THESE words occur not seldom together, as at 2 Cor. xiii. 
 5 ; Ps. xciv. 10 (at Heb. iii. 9 the better reading is sv SOKI- 
 fiaa-ia) ; but notwithstanding that they are both in our 
 English Version rendered * prove' (Luke xiv. 19 ; John vi. 
 6), both ' try ' (i Cor. iii. 13 ; Rev. ii. 2), both ' examine ' (l 
 Cor. xi. 28; 2 Cor. xiii. 5), they are not perfectly synony- 
 mous. In SoKifjid&iv, which has four other renderings in 
 our Version, namely, * discern ' (Luke xii. 56) ; ' like * 
 (Rom. i. 28); * approve' (Rom. ii. 18); 'allow' (Rom. 
 xiv. 22), lies ever the notion of proving a thing whether 
 it be worthy to be received or not, being, as it is, nearly 
 connected with Se'^so-tfai. In classical Greek it is the 
 technical word for putting money to the BOKI/J,^ or proof, 
 by aid of the SoKiptov or test (Plato, Timceus, 65 c ; Plu- 
 tarch, Def. Orac. 21) ; that which endures this proof being 
 So'/a/xos, that which fails a8o/a/ioy, which words it will be
 
 LXXIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 279 
 
 well to recollect are not, at least immediately, connected 
 with Sotcifjid&iv, but with ^s^sffOai. Resting on the fact 
 that this proving is through fire (i Cor iii. 13), SoKifjud^siv 
 and Trvpovv are often found together (Ps. Ixv. 9 ; Jer. ix. 7). 
 As employed in the N. T. &o/ayu.ae> almost always implies 
 that the proof is victoriously surmounted, the proved 
 is also approved (2 Cor. viii. 8 ; I Thess. ii. 4 ; I Tim. 
 iii. 10), just as in English we speak of tried men ( = Ss- 
 SoKi/jiacr/jLsvoi), meaning not merely those who have been 
 tested, but who have stood the test. It is then very nearly 
 equivalent to agiovv (2 Thess. i. 1 1 ; cf. Plutarch, Thes. 
 12). Sometimes the word will advance even a step fur- 
 ther, and signify not merely to approve the proved, but 
 to select or choose the approved (Xenophon, Anab. iii. 3. 
 20; cf. Eom. i. 28). 
 
 But on the Sotci/jiaa-ia there follows for the most part not 
 merely a victorious coming out of the trial, but it is further 
 implied that the trial was itself made in the expectation 
 and hope that the issue would be such ; at all events, with 
 no contrary hope or expectation. The ore is not thrown 
 into the fining pot and this is the image which con- 
 tinually underlies the use of the word in the 0. T. (Zech. 
 xiii. 9; Prov. viii. 10; xvii. 3; xxvii. 21; Ps. Ixv. 10; 
 Jer. ix. 7 ; Ecclus. ii. 5 ; Wisd. iii. 6 ; cf. I Pet. i. 7) 
 except in the expectation and belief that, whatever of 
 dross may be found mingled with it, yet it is not all dross, 
 but that some good metal, and better now than before, will 
 come forth from the fiery trial (Heb. xii. 5-11 ; 2 Mace, 
 vi. 1 2- 1 6). It is ever so with the proofs to which He who 
 sits as a Refiner in his Church submits his own ; his inten- 
 tion in these being ever, not indeed to find his saints pure 
 gold (for that He knows they are not), but to make them 
 such ; to purge out their dross, never to make evident that 
 they are all dross. As such, He is So/ci/Aaa-Trjs TWV tcapSi&v 
 (i Thess. ii. 4 ; Jer. xi. 20 ; Ps. xvi. 4) ; as such, Job could 
 say of Him, using another equivalent word, Sis/cpivs p.s
 
 280 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXIV. 
 
 &a"irep TO xpv&iov (xxiii. 10). To Him, as such, his people 
 pray, in words like those of Abelard, expounding the sixth 
 petition of the Lord's Prayer, * Da ut per tentationern 
 probemur, non reprobemur.' And here is the point of 
 divergence between &oKi/j,d&iv and Treipd&tv, as will be 
 plain when the latter word has been a little considered. 
 
 This putting to the proof may have quite another in- 
 tention, as it may have quite another issue and end, than 
 such as have been just described ; nay, it certainly will 
 have such in the case of the false-hearted, and those who 
 belong to God only in semblance and in show. Being 
 ' proved ' or tempted, they will appear to be what they 
 have always been ; and this fact, though not overruling all 
 the uses of Treipd^stv, does yet predominantly affect them. 
 Nothing in the word itself required that it should oftenest 
 signify a making trial with the intention and hope of 
 entangling the person tried in sin. Hupdtw t connected 
 with ' perior,' ' experior,' irslpa), means properly no more 
 than to make an experience of (jrsipav \afj,(3dvsiv, Heb. xi. 
 2 9> S^) ; to pierce or search into (thus of the wicked it is 
 said, TTsipd^ova-i ddvarov, Wisd. ii. 25 : cf. xii. 26; Ecclus. 
 xxxix. 4) ; or to attempt (Acts xvi. 7 ; xxiv. 6). It came 
 next to signify the trying intentionally, and with the pur- 
 pose of discovering what of good or evil, of power or weak- 
 ness, was in a person or thing (Matt. xvi. I ; xix. 3 ; xxii. 
 1 8 ; I Kin. x. i) ; or, where this was already known to the 
 trier, revealing the same to the tried themselves ; as when 
 St. Paul addresses the Corinthians, savrovs Trsipd^srs, 
 " try," or, as we have it, " examine yourselves " (2 Cor. 
 xiii. 5). It is thus that sinners are said to tempt God 
 (Matt. iv. 7 [eKTrsipd&iv'] ; Acts v. 9 ; I Cor. x. 9 ; Wisd. i. 
 2), putting Him to the proof, refusing to believe Him on 
 his own word, or till He has manifested his power. At this 
 stage, too, of the word's history and successive usages we 
 must arrest it, when we affirm of God that He ' tempts ' 
 men (Heb. xi. 17: cf. Gen. xxii. i ; Exod. xv. 25 ; Deut.
 
 LXXV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 281 
 
 xiii. 3) ; in no other sense or intention can He do this 
 (Jam. i. 13); but because He does tempt in this sense 
 (yv/jLva<ras "x,apiv KOI dvappTJasws, (Ecumenius), and because 
 of the self-knowledge which may be won through these 
 temptations, so that men may, and often do, come out 
 of them holier, humbler, stronger than they were when 
 they entered in, 1 St. James is able to say, " Count it all 
 joy when ye fall into divers temptations " (i. 2 ; cf. ver. 12). 
 But the word itself enters on another stage of meaning. 
 The melancholy fact that men so often break down under 
 temptation gives to Trsipdfeiv a predominant sense of 
 putting to the proof with the intention and the hope that 
 the ( proved ' may not turn out * approved,' but ' repro- 
 bate'; may break down under the proof; and thus the 
 word is constantly applied to the solicitations and sug- 
 gestions of Satan (Matt. iv. I ; I Cor. vii. 5 ; Eev. ii. 10), 
 which are always made with such a malicious hope, he 
 himself bearing the name of ' The Tempter ' (Matt. iv. 3 ; 
 I Thess. iii. 5), and evermore revealing himself as such 
 (Gen. iii. i. 4, 5 ; i Chron. xxi. i). 
 
 We may say then in conclusion, that while Trstpd^siv 
 may be used, but exceptionally, of God, SoKifjid^siv could 
 not be used of Satan, seeing that he never proves that he 
 may approve, nor tests that he may accept. 
 
 Ixxv. aocpta, 
 
 2o<ta, <$>p6vr)cns, and <yi>&ais occur together, Dan. i. 4, 17. 
 They are all ascribed to God (fypovrjais not in the N. T., 
 
 1 Augustine (Serm. Ixxi. c. 10) : ' In eo quod dictum est, Deus ne- 
 minem tentat, non omni sed quodam tentationis modo Deus neminem 
 tentare intelligendus est: ne falsuin sit ilJud quod scriptum est, Tentat 
 vos Dominus Deus vester [Deut. xiii. 3] ; etne Christum negemus Deum, 
 vel dicamus falsuni Evangelium, ubi legimus quia interrogabat discipulmn, 
 tentans eum [Job. vi. 6]. Est enim tentatio adducens peccatum, qua 
 Deus neminem tentat : et est tentatio probans fidem, qua et Deus tentare 
 dignatur.' Cf. Serm. Ivii. c. 9 : Enarr. in Ps. Iv. I ; Serm. ii. c. 3 : ' Deus 
 tentat, ut doceat : diabolus tentat, ut decipiat.'
 
 282 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXV. 
 
 for Ephes. i. 8 is not in point) ; <ro<f)ia and yvwo-ts, Rom. 
 xi. 33 j faovrpru and ero</a, Prov. iii. 19; Jer. x. 12. There 
 have been various attempts to divide to each its own 
 proper sphere of meaning. These, not always running 
 in exactly the same lines, have this in common, that in all 
 cro(j)la is recognized as expressing the highest and noblest ; 
 being, as Clement of Alexandria has it (Pcedag. ii. 2. 25), 
 Osio)v teal av0pa)7riv(i)v TrpajfiaTcov sTricmJiJir) ; adding, how- 
 ever, elsewhere, as the Stoics had done before him, teal rwv 
 rovrcov alriwv (Strom, i. 5. 30). l Augustine distinguishes 
 between it and ^vwcns as follows (De Div. Qucest. ii. qu. 2) : 
 ' Hsec ita discerni solent, ut sapientia [aofyid] pertineat 
 ad intellectum eeternorum, scientia [yvwcris] vero ad ea 
 quse sensibus corporis experimur ; ' und for a much fuller 
 discussion to the same effect see De Trin. xii. 22-24 '> x i y - 3- 
 Very much the same distinction has been drawn between 
 <ro<})ia and <f)povr}cns : as by Philo, who defining (frpovrjcris as 
 the mean between craftiness and folly, piai] Travovpylas teal 
 fjiwplas (frpvvrjcris (Quod Deus Imm. 35), gives elsewhere this 
 distinction between it and a-ofyia (De Prcem. et Pcen. 14) : 
 <ro<pia p,sv jap TT/JOS- dspairsiav soO, fypovqcns Be irpos avdpw- 
 irivov ySt'ou Sioitcrjo-iv. This was indeed the familiar and 
 recognized distinction, as witness the words of Cicero (De 
 Off. ii. 43) : * Princeps omnium virtutum est ilia sapientia 
 quam aofyiav Greed vocant. Prudentiam enim, quam 
 Grseci ^povrja-tv dicunt, aliam quandam intelligimus, quse 
 est rerum expetendarum fugiendarumque scientia; ilia 
 autem sapientia, quam principem dixi, rerum est divinarum 
 atque humanarum scientia ' (cf. Tusc. iv. 26 ; Seneca, Ep. 
 85). In all this he is following in the steps of Aristotle, 
 
 1 On the relation of (^iXoero^Ha (rfjs T>V ovra>v dd (Tria'TrjiJ.rjs opfis f 
 Plato, Def. 414 ; 5ptis TTJS 6fias a-o(j)ias, Id., quoted by Diogenes 
 Laertius, iii. 63; eVirijSeuo-is arKpias, Philo, De Cony. Erud, Grat. 14; 
 ' studium virtutis, sed per ipsam virtutem,' Seneca, Ep. 89. 7) to a-ofyia 
 see Clement of Alexandria, Strom, i. 5. The word first appears in 
 Herodotus,!. 30; for a sketch of its history, see Ueberweg, Hist, of 
 Phil. p. I.
 
 LXXV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 283 
 
 who is careful above all to bring out the practical cha- 
 racter of (ppovrja-is, and to put it in sharp contrast with 
 (rvvsats, which, as in as many words he teaches, is the 
 critical faculty. One acts, the other judges. This is his 
 account of <pp6v/]cris (Ethic. Nic. vi. 5- 4) : ^ IS o,\ij8rjs //.era 
 \6jov TrpatcTiKrj irspl ra dvdpwirw djada Kal icaicd : and 
 again (Rhet. i. 9) : strrtv dperr) Siavoias, naff 1 rjv sv /3ov\sv- 
 scrdat, Svvavrai Trspl d<ya6wv /cal fcatccov TWV slprjfjisvwv sis 
 evSaipovlav. Not otherwise Aristo the Peripatetic (see 
 Plutarch, De Virt. Kor. 2) : 77 dperrj Troirjrsa sTnvKoirovaa 
 Kal arj TroiTjTsa KSK\T]Tai <f)p6v7]<rts : and see too ch. 5, 
 where he has some excellent words, discriminating between 
 these. It is plain from the references and quotations 
 just made that the Christian Fathers have drawn their 
 distinctions here from the schools of heathen philosophy, 
 with only such widening and deepening of meaning as 
 must necessarily follow when the ethical and philosophical 
 terms of a lower are assumed into the service of a higher; 
 thus compare Zeller, Philos. d. Griechen, iii. i. 222. 
 
 We may affirm with confidence that ao$ia is never in 
 Scripture ascribed to other than God or good men, except 
 in an ironical sense, and with the express addition, or sub- 
 audition, of rov Koafjiov TOVTOV (i Cor. i. 20), TOV alwvos 
 TOVTOV (i Cor. ii. 6), or some such words (2 Cor. i. 12); 
 nor are any of the children of this world called o-o^ot 
 except with this tacit or expressed irony (Luke x. 21) ; 
 being never more than the fydcrKovrss dvat, crofoi of Rom. 
 i. 22. For, indeed, if <ro<f)ia includes the striving after 
 the best ends as well as the using of the best means, is 
 mental excellence in its highest and fullest sense (cf. 
 Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. vi. 7. 3), there can be no wisdom dis- 
 joined from goodness, even as Plato had said long ago 
 Menex. 247 a) : tracra STricrrrj^ri ^wpi^ofisvr] SiKaioa-vwrjs Kal 
 rf)S aXA,7/s dperrfSi iravovpyia ov <ro(f)ia (fraivsrai : to which 
 Ecclus. xix. 20, 22, offers a fine parallel. So, too, the Socrates 
 of Xenophan (Mem. iii. 9. 4, 5) refuses to separate, or even by
 
 284 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXV. 
 
 a definition to distinguish, ao$i.a, from o-fo^poavvrj, from 
 SiKaiocrvvrj, or indeed from any other virtue. It will follow 
 that the true antithesis to credo's is rather avo-^ros (Rom. i. 
 14) than aavvsTos; for, while the da-vvsros need not be 
 more than intellectually deficient, in the avorjros there is 
 always a moral fault lying behind the intellectual ; the 
 vovs, the highest knowing power in man, the organ by 
 which divine things are apprehended and known, being 
 the ultimate seat of the error (Luke xxiv. 25,0) avoyroi KOI 
 ppa&slst rfj /capSta: Gal. iii. I, 3 ; I Tim. vi. 9; Tit. hi. 3). 
 "Avoid (Luke vi. 1 1 ; 2 Tim. iii. 9) is ever the foolishness 
 which is akin to and derived from wickedness, even as 
 aofyia is the wisdom which is akin to goodness, or rather 
 is goodness itself contemplated from one particular point 
 of view ; as indeed the wisdom which only the good can 
 possess. Ammon, a modern German rationalist, gives 
 not badly a definition of the a-ofybs or ' sapiens ' ; i.e. ' cog- 
 nitione optimi, et admiuiculoruin ad id efficienduni idoneo- 
 rum instructus.' 
 
 But (frpovrjais, being a right use and application of the 
 <f>pijv, is a middle term. It may be akin to a-o<j>ia (Prov. 
 x. 23), they are interchangeably used by Plato (Symp. 
 2O2 a), but it may also be akin to iravovp^/ia (Job v. 13 ; 
 Wisd. xvii. 7). It skilfully adapts its means to the attain- 
 ment of the ends which it desires ; but whether the ends 
 themselves which are proposed are good, of this it affirms 
 nothing. On the different kinds of ^poi^o-ts, and the very 
 different senses in which <f)p6vr)<ris is employed, see Basil 
 the Great, Horn, in Princ. Prov. 6. It is true that as 
 often as (frpovrja-is occurs in the N. T. (sv $povr)<rei SIKO.LWV, 
 Luke i. 17; <ro<j>ia KOI (f>povi]crei, Ephes. i. 8), it is used of 
 a laudable prudence, but for all this fypowrjcns is not wisdom, 
 nor the ^poVt/ios the wise; and Augustine (De Gen. ad 
 Lit. xi. 2) has perfect right when he objects to the 
 * sapientissimus,' with which his Latin Version had ren- 
 dered {frpoviftuTaros at Gen. iii. i, saying, 'Abusione
 
 LXXV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 285 
 
 no minis sapientia dicitur in malo ; ' cf. Con. Chiad. i. 5. 
 And the same objection, as has been often urged, holds 
 good against the "wise as serpents" (Matt. x. 16), "wiser 
 than the children of light" (Luke xvi. 8), of our own 
 Version. 1 
 
 On the distinction between o-otfrla and yvaxris Bengel 
 has the following note (Gnomon, in i Cor. xii. 8) : ' Illud 
 certum, quod, ubi Deo ascribuntur, in solis objectis dif- 
 ferunt; vid. Eoin. xi. 33. Ubi fidelibus tribuuntur, 
 sapienlia [<ro<J>td] magis in longum, latum, profundum et 
 altum penetrat, quam cognitio [yvwa-is]. Cognitio est 
 quasi visus ; sapientia visus cum sapore ; cognitio, rerum 
 agendarum ; sapientia, rerum aeternaruin ; quare etiam 
 sapientia non dicitur abroganda, i Cor. xiii. 8.' 
 
 Of STriyvwais, as compared with yvwcris, it will be 
 sufficient to say that STTI must be regarded as intensive, 
 giving to the compound word a greater strength than the 
 simple possessed ; thus sTrnrodsa) (2 Cor. v. 2), 7rt/isXeo/xat : 
 and, by the same rule, if yvwcris is ' cognitio,' ' Kenntniss,' 
 sTTiyvcoa-is is * major exactiorque cognitio ' (Grotius), ' Er- 
 kenntniss/ a deeper and more intimate knowledge and 
 acquaintance. This we take to be its meaning, and not 
 * recognition,' in the Platonic sense of reminiscence, as 
 distinguished from cognition, if we might use that word ; 
 which Jerome (on Ephes. iv. 13), with some moderns, has 
 affirmed. St. Paul, it will be remembered, exchanges the 
 yivd)(TKQ>, which expresses his present and fragmentary 
 knowledge, for sir i yvwo- o/zat, when he would express his 
 future intuitive and perfect knowledge (i Cor. xiii. 12). 
 It is difficult to see how this should have been preserved 
 in the English Version; our Translators have made no 
 attempt to preserve it ; Bengel does so by aid of ' nosco ' 
 
 1 The Old Italic runs perhaps into the opposite extreme, rendering 
 </>pon/*oi here by ' astuti ' ; which, however, had not in the later Latin at 
 all so evil a subaudition as it had in the classical ; so Augustine (Ep. 
 167. 6) assures us.
 
 286 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVI. 
 
 and 'pernoscam,' and Culverwell (Spiritual Optics,p. 180) 
 has the following note : ' 'EiTriyvaxris and <yvS)<ris differ. 
 'EiTTiyvwais is f) fjtsra rr)v Trpcarr^v yvwcriv rov Trpd^jJiaros 
 7rcn>T\r)s Kara Svva/Aiv Karavorjcris, It is bringing me 
 better acquainted with a thing I knew before ; a more 
 exact viewing of an object that I saw before afar off. 
 That little portion of knowledge which we had here shall 
 be much improved, our eye shall be raised to see the same 
 things more strongly and clearly.' All the uses of sirl- 
 ryvwais which St. Paul makes, justify and bear out this dis- 
 tinction (Eom. i. 28 ; iii. 20 ; x. 2 ; Ephes. iv. 13 ; Phil. i. 9 ; 
 I Tim. ii. 4 ; 2 Tim. ii. 25 ; cf. Heb. x. 26) ; this same inten- 
 sive use of eTTiyvcoa-is is borne out by other similar passages 
 in the N. T. (2 Pet. i. 2, 8 ; ii. 20) and in the Septuagint 
 (Prov. ii. 5 ; Hos. iv. I ; vi. 6) ; and is recognized by the 
 Greek Fathers ; thus Chrysostom on Col. i. 9 : eyvcoTs, d\\a 
 Sscrt KOI ETTiyvwvai. On the whole subject of this see 
 Lightfoot on Col. i. 9. 
 
 Ixxvi. \a\so), \jd) (\a\id, \6yos). 
 
 IN dealing with synonyms of the N. T. we plainly need 
 not concern ourselves with such earlier, or even contem- 
 porary, uses of the words which we are discriminating, as 
 lie altogether outside of the N. T. sphere, when these uses 
 do not illustrate, and have not affected, their Scriptural 
 employment. It follows from this that all those con- 
 temptuous uses of \a\stv as to talk at random, as one 
 d0vp6(7To/j,o$, or with no door to his lips, " might do ; of 
 \a\id, as chatter (&icpcurl\6yov a\o<yos, Plato, Defin. 416) 
 for I cannot believe that we are to find this at John iv. 
 42 may be dismissed and set aside. The antithesis in 
 the line of Eupolis (Meineke, Fragm. Com. Gr. p. 174), 
 A.a\iv apicnos, dBwarwraTos' A^yetz/, does little or nothing 
 to illustrate the matter in hand. 
 
 The distinction which indeed exists between the words
 
 LXXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 287 
 
 may in this way be made clear. There are two leading 
 aspects under which speech may be regarded. It may, 
 first, be contemplated as the articulate utterance of human 
 language, in contrast with the absence of this, from what- 
 ever cause springing; whether from choice, as in those 
 who hold their peace, when they might speak ; or from the 
 present undeveloped condition of the organs and faculties, 
 as in the case of infants (V^TTLOI) ; or from natural defects, 
 as in the case of those born dumb ; or from the fact of 
 speech lying beyond the sphere of the faculties with 
 which as creatures they have been endowed, as in the 
 lower animals. This is one aspect of speech, namely arti- 
 culated words, as contrasted with silence, with mere sounds 
 or animal cries. But, sacondly, speech (' oratio ' or oris 
 ratio ') may be regarded as the orderly linking and knitting 
 together in connected discourse of the inward thoughts 
 and feelings of the mind, ' verba legere et lecta ac selecta 
 apte conglutinare ' (Valcknaer ; cf. Donaldson, Cratylus, 
 453). The first is \a\siv = ^31. , the German < lallen,' 
 'loqui,' ' sprechen," to speak '; the second = ^V$, 'dicere,' 
 ' reden,' * to say,' ' to discourse.' Ammonius : \a\stv KOI 
 \eysiv St,a(j)Epet,- \eystv fjikv TO rsTaj/J.VO)f Trpoa-fyepsiv rov 
 \6<yov \a\slv Bs, TO aTaKTWs s/ctyspsiv TO, 
 
 Thus the dumb man (a\a\os, Mark vii. 37), restored to 
 human speech, sXaX^s (Matt. ix. 33 ; Luke xi. 14), the 
 Evangelists fitly using this word, for they are not con- 
 cerned to report what the man said, but only the fact 
 that he who before was dumb, was now able to employ 
 his organs of speech. So too, it is always \a\siv y\(i)a-<rais 
 (Mark xvi. 17 ; Acts ii. 4 ; I Cor. xii. 30), for it is not what 
 those in an ecstatic condition utter, but the fact of this 
 new utterance itself, and quite irrespective of the matter 
 of it, to which the sacred narrators would call our atten- 
 tion ; even as \a\slv may be ascribed to God Himself (it 
 is so more than once in the Epistle to the Hebrews, as at
 
 288 SYNONY.VS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVI. 
 
 i. i, 2), where the point is rather that He should have 
 spoken at all to men than what it was that He spoke. 
 
 But if in \a\slv (=' loqui ') the fact of uttering articu- 
 lated speech is the prominent notion, in \sysiv ( = 'dicere'} 
 it is the words uttered, and that these correspond to 
 reasonable thoughts within the breast of the utterer. Thus 
 while the parrot or talking automaton (Rev. xiii. 1 5) may 
 be said, though even they not without a certain impropriety, 
 \a\siv, seeing they produce sounds imitative of human 
 speech ; and in poetry, though by a still stronger figure, 
 a \a\siv may be ascribed to grasshoppers (Theocritus, 
 Idyl. v. 34), and to pipes and flutes (Idyl. xx. 28, 29) ; yet 
 inasmuch as there is nothing behind these sounds, they 
 could never be said \e<ysiv : for in the \sysiv lies ever the 
 evvota, or thought of the mind (Heb. iv. 12), as the corre- 
 lative to the words on the lips, and as the necessary con- 
 dition of them ; it is ' colligere verba in sententiaui ' ; even 
 as \6yos is by Aristotle defined (Poet. 20), (fxuvrj a-vvdsrrj, 
 a-rjfj.avTiKtj (see Malan, Notes on the Gospel of St. John, 
 p. 3). Of (f>pd%iv in like manner (it only occurs twice 
 in the N. T., Matt. xiii. 36; xv. 15), Plutarch affirms 
 that it could not, but \d\slv could, be predicated of 
 monkeys and dogs (\a\ovai <yap, ov (frpd&vai 8s, De Plac. 
 Phil. v. 20) . 
 
 Often as the words occur together, in such phrases as 
 e\d\r)<re \e<ywv (Mark vi. 50 ; Luke xxiv. 6), \a\rj6sls \6yos 
 (Heb. ii. 2), and the like, each remains true to its own 
 meaning, as just laid down. Thus in the first of these 
 passages e\d\r](re will express the opening of the mouth 
 to speak, as opposed to the remaining silent (Acts xviii. 9) ; 
 while \sywv proceeds to declare what the speaker actually 
 said. Nor is there, I believe, any passage in the N. T. 
 where the distinction between them has not been observed. 
 Thus at Rom. xv. 18 ; 2 Cor. xi. 17 ; i Thess. i. 8, there is 
 no difficulty in giving to \d\siv its proper meaning ; indeed 
 all these passages gain rather than lose when this is done;
 
 LXXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 289 
 
 while at Rom. iii. 19 there is an instructive interchange 
 of the words. 
 
 AaXta and \6yos in the N. T. are true to the distinction 
 here traced. How completely AaTua, no less than \a\eiv, 
 has put off every slighting sense, is abundantly evident 
 from the fact that on one occasion our Lord claims \d\id 
 as well as Xo'yos for Himself: " Why do ye not understand 
 my speech (~\.a\idv) ? even because ye cannot hear my 
 word" (\6yov, John viii. 43). Aa\id and \6yos are set in 
 a certain antithesis to one another here, and in the seizing 
 of the point of this must lie the right understanding of 
 the verse. What the Lord intended by varying \a\id and 
 \oyos has been very differently understood. Some, as 
 Augustine, though commenting on the passage, have 
 omitted to notice the variation. Others, like Olsliausen, 
 have noticed, only to deny that it had any significance. 
 Others again, admitting the significance, have failed to 
 draw it rightly out. It is clear that, as the inability to 
 understand his 'speech* (XaXm) is traced up as a conse- 
 quence to a refusing to hear his ' word ' (\uyos), this lasf-, 
 as the root and ground of the mischief, must be the deeper 
 and anterior thing. To hear his ' word ' can be nothing 
 else than to give room to his truth in the heart. They who 
 will not do this must fail to understand his ' speech,' the 
 outward form and utterance which his 'word' assumes. 
 They that are of God hear God's word, his prj^ara as else- 
 where (John iii. 34 ; viii. 47) , his XaTua as here, it is 
 called ; 1 which they that ai*e not of God do not and cannot 
 hear. Melanchthon : ' Qui veri sunt Dei filii et dornestici 
 non possunt paternse domus igiiorare linguam.' 
 
 1 Philo maltes the distinction of the Xo'yor and the pjjpa to be that of 
 the -whole and of its parts (Leg. Alley, iii. 6l) : TO 8e prjua /ipos \6yov. 
 On the distinction between pfip-n TOV 6eoO and \6yos TOV Qeoii there are 
 some important remarks by Archdeacon Lee, On Inspiration, pp. 135, 539.
 
 2QO SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVII. 
 
 Ixxvii. airo\vTpo)(Tif, Kara\\ajr), 
 
 THEKE are three grand circles of images, by aid of which 
 are set forth to us in the Scriptures of the N. T. the in- 
 estimable benefits of Christ's death and passion. Tran- 
 scending, as these benefits do, all human thought, and 
 failing to find anywhere a perfectly adequate expression 
 in human language, they must still be set forth by the help 
 of language, and through the means of human relations. 
 Here, as in other similar cases, what the Scripture does is 
 to approach the central truth from different quarters ; to 
 exhibit it not on one side but on many, that so these may 
 severally supply the deficiencies of one another, and that 
 moment of the truth which one does not express, another 
 may. The words here grouped together, aTro\i>Tpw<ris 
 or ' redemption,' Kara\\.a<yrj or ' reconciliation,' tXacr/ios or 
 ' propitiation,' are the capital words summing up three 
 such families of images ; to one or other of which almost 
 every word and phrase directly bearing on this work of 
 our salvation through Christ may be more or less nearly 
 referred. 
 
 'ATToXvTpacris is the form of the word which St. Paul 
 invariably prefers, \vrptaais occurring in the N. T. only at 
 Luke i. 68 ; ii. 38 ; Heb. ix. 12. Chrysostom (upon Rom. 
 iii. 24), drawing attention to this, observes that by this 
 ttTTo the Apostle would express the completeness of our 
 redemption in Christ Jesus, a redemption which no later 
 bondage should follow : KOI ov% cnr\ws slirs, \vrpw(rsws 1 
 aXX' a7ro\vrpci)<T0)5, MS fAijtcsri rjfjuas 7ravi\.dsiv TrdXiv 7rl rrjv 
 avrrjv 8ov\ELav. In this he has right, and there is the 
 same force in the OTTO of aTro/earaXXacrcreti' (Ephes. ii. 16; 
 Col. 5. 20, 22), which is 'prorsusreconciliare ' (see Fritzsche 
 on Rom. v. IO), of aTrotcapaSoKia and arrefcBs^sa-Bai, (Rom. 
 viii. 19). Both aTrdXvrpwa-is (not in the Septuagint, but 
 tnro\.vTp6w twice, Exod. xxi. 8; Zeph. iii. i) and Xirrpoxrtj 
 are late words in the Greek language, Rost and Palm
 
 LXXVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 291 
 
 (Lexicon) giving no earlier authority for them than Plu- 
 tarch (Arat. 1 1 ; Pomp. 24) ; while \vrpwrr)s seems peculiar 
 to the Greek Scriptures (Lev. xxv. 31 j Ps. xviii. [LXX.] 
 15 ; Acts vii. 35). 
 
 When Theophylact defines dirdXiirpwcns as r/ diro rf/y 
 al^aKwaiassTravdKX.ria-is, he overlooks one most important 
 element in the word; for diro\vTpu>cns is not recall from 
 captivity merely, as he would imply, but recall of captives 
 from captivity through the payment of a ransom for them ; 
 cf. Origen on Rom. iii. 24. The idea of deliverance through 
 a \vrpov or dvrd\\a<y/jia (Matt. xvi. 26 ; cf . Ecclus. vi. 1 5 ; 
 xxvi. 14), a price paid, though in actual use it may often 
 disappear from words of this family (thus see Isai. xxxv. 
 9), is yet central to them (i Pet. 18, 19; Isai. Iii. 3). 
 Keeping this in mind, we shall find connect themselves- 
 with d"jro\vTp(i)cri$ a whole group of most significant words ; 
 not only \vrpov (Matt. xx. 28; Mark x. 45), avTi\,vrp&v 
 (l Tim. ii. 6), \vrpovv (Tit. ii. 14; I Pet. i. 18), \vrpwa-is- 
 (Heb. ix. 12), but also ayopd&iv (i Cor. vi. 20) and s^ayo- 
 pd^siv (Gal. iii. 13 ; iv. 5). Here indeed is a point of con- 
 tact with tXturpos, for the \vrpov paid in this d7ro\vTpcocns- 
 is identical with the irpoa-^opd or dvcrla by which that 
 i\aa-fj,6s is effected. There also link themselves with 
 d7To\vTp(oa-is all those statements of Scripture which speak 
 of sin as slavery, and of sinners as slaves (Rom. vi. 17, 20; 
 John viii. 34: 2 Pet. ii. 19) ; of deliverance from sin as 
 freedom, or cessation of bondage (John viii. 33, 36; Bom. 
 viii. 21 ; Gal. v. i). 
 
 Kara\\ayrj, occurring four times in the N. T., only 
 occurs once in the Septuagint, and once in the Apocrypha. 
 On one of these occasions, namely at Isai. ix. 5, it is 
 simply exchange ; on the other (2 Mace. v. 20) it is em- 
 ployed in the N. T. sense, being opposed to the opyrj TOV 
 Ssov, and expressing the reconciliation, the svpevsta of 
 God to his people. There can be no question that (rvva\- 
 \ayij (Ezek. xvi. 8, Aquila) and <rvva\\*"*<reiv (Acts vii. 26,
 
 2Q2 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVII. 
 
 Lachmann),StaXXa7?7 (Ecclus. xxii. 22 ; xxvii. 21 ; cf. Aristo- 
 phanes, Acharn. 988) and Sia\\dcra-iv (in the N. T. only at 
 Matt. v. 24 ; cf. Judg. xix. 3 ; i Esdr. iv. 3 1 ; Euripides, Hel. 
 1235), are more usual words in the earlier and classical 
 periods of the language ; l but for all this the gram- 
 marians are wrong who denounce Kara\\ay)j and tcara\- 
 \daa-eiv as words avoided by all who wrote the language 
 in its highest purity. None need be a.shamed of words 
 which found favour with JEschylus (Sept. Con. Theb. 767), 
 with Xenophon (Anal), i. 6. 2) and with Plato (Phced. 69 a). 
 Fritzsche (on Rom. v. 10) has effectually disposed of 
 Tittmann's fanciful distinction between Kara\\da-<TSLV and 
 
 The Christian /caraX^ayij has two sides. It is first a 
 reconciliation, ' qua Deus nos sibi reconciliavit,' laid aside 
 his holy anger against our sins, and received us into favour, 
 a reconciliation effected for us once for all by Christ upon 
 his cross ; so 2 Cor. v. 18, 19 ; Rom. v. 10 ; where /cara/V- 
 \d<ra-(T0ai is a pure passive, ' ab eo in gratiam recipi apud 
 quern in odio fueras.' But Kara\\ay^ is secondly a.nd 
 subordinately the reconciliation, * qu& nos Deo reconcilia- 
 mur,' the daily deposition, under the operation of the 
 Holy Spiiit, of the enmity of the old man toward God. In 
 this passive middle sense KaToXkda-a-saQai is used, 2 Cor. v. 
 20 ; cf. I Cor. vii. II. All attempts to make this secondary 
 to be indeed the primary meaning and intention of the 
 word, rest not on an unprejudiced exegesis, but on a fore- 
 gone determination to get rid of the reality of God's anger 
 against the sinner. With Kara\\ay^ is connected all that 
 language of Scripture which describes sin as a state of 
 enmity (*%0/oa) with God (Rom. viii. 7 ; Ephes. ii. 15; 
 Jam. iv. 4), and sinners as enemies to Him and alienated 
 from Him (Rom. v. 10 ; Col. i. 21) ; which sets forth Christ 
 on the cross as the Peace, and the maker of peace between 
 
 1 Christ, according to Clement of Alexandria (Coh. ad Gen. 10) if 
 ijs Ka\
 
 LXXVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 293 
 
 God and man (Ephes. ii. 14; Col. i. 20); all such invita- 
 tions as this, " Be ye reconciled with God " (2 Cor. v. 20). 
 
 Before leaving Kara\\aj)j we? observe that the exact 
 relations between it and t'Xattytov, which will have to be 
 considered next, are somewhat confused for the English 
 reader, fzx>m the fact that the word ' atonement,'. by which 
 our Translators have once rendered Kara\\ajrj (Rom. v. 
 n), has little by little shifted its meaning. It has done 
 this so effectually, that were the translation now for the 
 first time to be made, and words to be employed in their 
 present sense and not in their past, < atonement ' would 
 plainly be a much fitter rendering of 4X007*0?, the notion 
 of propitiation, which we shall find the central one of 
 i\ao-fi6f, always lying in * atonement ' as we use it now. 
 It was not so once. When our Translation was made, it 
 signified, as innumerable examples prove, reconciliation, 
 or the making up of a foregoing enmity ; all its uses in our 
 early literature justifying the etymology now sometimes 
 called into question, that 'atonement' is ' at-one-ment,' 
 and therefore = ' reconciliation ' : and that consequently 
 it was then, although not now, the proper rendering of 
 Kara\\ayr) (see my Select Glossary, s. vv. ' atone,' ' atone- 
 ment ' ; and, dealing with these words at full, Skeat, Etym. 
 Diet, of the English Language, s. v., an article which leaves 
 no doubt as to their history). 
 
 'I\a<rfji6s is found twice in the First Epistle of St. John 
 (ii. 2 ; iv. 10) ; nowhere else in the N. T. : for other ex- 
 amples of its use see Plutajch, Sol. 1 2 ; Fab. Max. 1 8 ; 
 Camill. 7 : Oswv fj,fjvi$ ikaa^ov KCU ^aptaT'rjpLwv Sso/jisvr). I 
 am inclined to think that the excellent word ' propitiation,' 
 by which our Translators have rendered it, did not exist in 
 the language when the earlier Eeformed Versions were 
 made. Tyndale, the Geneva, and Cranmer have " to make 
 agreement," instead of " to be the propitiation," at the first 
 of these places ; " He that obtaineth grace " at the second. 
 In the same way iXaa-Tijpiov, which we, though I think
 
 294 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVII. 
 
 wrongly (see Theol. Stud, und Krit. 1842, p. 314), have 
 also rendered 'propitiation' (Rom. iii. 25), is rendered in 
 translations which, share in our error, ' the obtairier of 
 mercy ' (Cranmer), ' a pacification ' (Geneva) ; and first 
 * propitiation ' in the Kheims the Latin tendencies of 
 this translation giving it boldness to transfer this word 
 from the Vulgate. Neither is i\aa-p6s of frequent use 
 in the Septuagint ; yet in such passages as Num. v. 8 ; 
 Ezek. xliv. 27 ; cf. 2 Mace. iii. 33, it is being prepared for 
 the more solemn use which it should obtain in the N. T. 
 Connected with \\sws, { propitius,' i\da-Ko-0ai, ' placare,' 
 ' iram avertere,' ' ex irato mitem reddere,' it is by Hesy- 
 chius explained, not incorrectly (for see Dan. ix. 9 ; Ps. 
 cxxix. 4), but inadequately, by the following synonyms, 
 evfj,svia, (fvy^wprjcTLS, Bia\\a<yi], /caraXXayij, TrpaoTtjs. I say 
 inadequately, because in none of these words thus offered 
 as equivalents, does there lie what is inherent in i\a<r/j.os 
 and iXda-fcsarOai, namely, that the svpsvna or goodwill has 
 been gained by means of some offering, or other ' placa- 
 men' (cf. Herodotus, vi. 105 ; viii. 112 ; Xenophon, Cyrop. 
 vii. 2. 19 ; and Nagelsbach, Nachhomer. Theol. vol. i. p. 37). 
 The word is more comprehensive than iXacrr^y, which 
 Grotius proposes as covering the same ground. Christ 
 does not propitiate only, as iX.da-rrjs would say, but at 
 once propitiates, and is Himself the propitiation. To 
 speak in the language of the Epistle to the Hebrews, in 
 the offering of Himself He is both at once, dp^ispsvf and 
 Bvaia or Trpoafopa, (for the difference between these latter 
 see Mede, Works, 1672, p. 360), the two functions of 
 priest and sacrifice, which were divided, and of necessity 
 divided, in the typical sacrifices of the law, meeting and 
 being united in Him, the sin-offering by and through 
 whom the just anger of God against our sins was ap- 
 peased, and God, without compromising his righteousness, 
 enabled to show Himself propitious to us once more. All 
 this the word l\a^6s t used of Christ, declares. Cocceius :
 
 LXXVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 295 
 
 * Est enim l\aa-p,os mors sponsoris obita ad sanctifica- 
 tionem Dei, volentis peccata condonarej atque ita tol- 
 lendara condemnationem.' 
 
 It will be seen that with i\aap,os connect themselves a 
 larger group of words and images than with either of the 
 words preceding all, namely, which set forth the benefits 
 of Christ's death as a propitiation of God, even as all 
 which speak of Him as a sacrifice, an offering (Ephes. v. 2 ; 
 Heb. x. 14; i Cor. v. 7), as the Lamb of God (John i. 29, 
 36; i Pet. i. 19), as the Lamb slain (Eev. v. 6, 8), and 
 a little more remotely, but still in a lineal consequence 
 from these last, all which describe Him as washing us in 
 his blood (Rev. i. 5). As compared with Kara\\ayij (=the 
 German ' Versohnung'), t'Xaoyios ( = ' Versiihnung ') is 
 the deeper word, goes nearer to the innermost heart of 
 the matter. If we had only /caraXXaj^ and the group of 
 words and images which cluster round it, to set forth the 
 benefits of the death of Christ, these would indeed set 
 forth that we were enemies, and by that death were made 
 friends : but how made friends KaraXkay^ would not de- 
 scribe at all. It would not of itself necessarily imply 
 satisfaction, propitiation, the Daysman, the Mediator, the 
 High Priest ; all which in i\acr/j,6s are involved (see two 
 admirable articles, c Erlosung ' and ' Versohnung,' by 
 Schoeberlein, in Herzog's Real-Encyclopddie). I conclude 
 this discussion with BengePs excellent note on Rom. iii. 
 24 : ' t\aa-/ji,6s (expiatio sive propitiatio) et airo\vTpwai,s 
 (redemtio) est in fundo rei unicum beneficium, scilicet, 
 restitutio peccatoris perditi. 'KirokvTpwa-Ls est respectu 
 hostium, et Ka,Ta\\ayr) est respectu Dei. Atque hie voces 
 i\aa-fj,6s et Kara\\ay^ iterum differunt. 'JXacr/zoy (pro- 
 pitiatio) tollit offensam contra Deum ; KaraX\,ayij (recon- 
 ciliatio) est Siir\svposr et tollit (a) indignationem Dei ad- 
 versum nos, 2 Cor. v. 19, (&) nostrainque abalienationem a 
 Deo, 2 Cor. v. 20.'
 
 296 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVIII. 
 
 Ixxviii. v|raX/io'y, VJJLVOS, (p$/j. 
 
 ALL these words occur together at Ephes. v. 19, and again 
 at Col. iii. 16; both times in the same order, and in pas- 
 sages which very nearly repeat one another ; cf. Ps. Ixvi. I. 
 When some expositors refuse even to attempt to distinguish 
 between them, urging that St. Paul had certainly no in- 
 tention of classifying the different forms of Christian 
 poetry, this statement, no doubt, is quite true ; but neither, 
 on the other hand, would he have used, where there is 
 evidently no temptation to rhetorical ampli6cation, three 
 words, if one would have equally served his turn. It may 
 fairly be questioned whether we can trace very accurately 
 the lines of demarcation between the " psalms and hymns 
 and spiritual songs " of which the Apostle makes mention, 
 cr whether he traced these lines for himself with a perfect 
 accuracy. Still each must have had a meaning which 
 belonged to it more, and by a better right, than it belonged 
 to either of the others ; and this it may be possible to 
 seize, even while it is quite impossible with perfect strict- 
 ness to distribute under these three heads Christian poetry 
 as it existed in the Apostolic a.ge. 'Aoyia, it may be here 
 observed, a word of not unfrequent occurrence in the 
 Septuagint, does not occur in the N. T. 
 
 The Psalms of the O.T. remarkably enough have no 
 single, well recognized, universally accepted name by 
 which they are designated in the Hebrew Scriptures 
 (Delitzsch, Comm. ub. den Psalter, vol. ii. p. 371 ; Herzog, 
 Real-Encyclop. vol. xii. p. 269). They first obtained such 
 in the Septuagint. WaX/tos, from tyda), properly a touch- 
 ing, and then a touching of the harp or other stringed 
 instruments with the finger or with the plectrum (\/raX//,ot 
 rogwv, Euripides, Ion, 174; cf. Bacch, 740, are the twang- 
 ings of the bowstrings), was next the instrument itself, 
 and last of all the song sung with this musical accompani- 
 ment. It is in this latest stage of its meaning that we
 
 LXXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 297 
 
 find the word adopted in the Septuagint; and to this 
 agree the ecclesiastical definitions of it ; thus in the 
 Lexicon ascribed to Cyril of Alexandria: \6yos UOVO-IKOS, 
 orav vpvBafos Kara rovs apuoviicovs \6yovs TO opyavov 
 Kpovrjrai : cf. Clement of Alexandria (Pcedag. ii. 4) : 6 
 fya\jj,6s, ua\Tjs <TTIV svXoyia Kal crotitypwv : and Basil the 
 Great, who brings out with still greater emphasis what 
 differences the ' psalm ' and the ode or ' spiritual song ' 
 (Horn, in Ps. 44) : <aorj >ydp fern, Kal ou^i -^raXfjiOs ' 8i6ri 
 yvavfj (f)(0vf), arj (Tvvr^^ovvTos avrfj rov opyavov, /ir' 
 e/j,f J L/j.s\ov$ rffs K<f}(0vija-c0s, TrapsSi'SoTO : compare in Psal. 
 xxix. i ; to which Gregory of Njssa, in Psal. c. 3, agrees. 
 In all probability the i/raX/W of Ephes. v. 10, Col. iii. 16, 
 are the inspired psalms of the Hebrew Canon. The word 
 certainly designates these on all other occasions when it 
 is met in the N. T., with the one possible exception of 
 I Cor. xiv. 26; and probably refers to them there; nor 
 can I doubt that the ' psalms ' which the Apostle would 
 have the faithful to sing to one another, are psalms of 
 David, of Asaph, or of some other of the sweet singers of 
 Israel ; above all, seeing that the word seems limited and 
 restricted to its narrowest use by the nearly synonymous 
 words with which it is grouped. 
 
 But while the ' psalm ' by the right of primogeniture, 
 as being at once the oldest and most venerable, thus 
 occupies the foremost place, the Church of Christ does 
 not restrict herself to such, but claims the freedom of 
 bringing new things as well as old out of her treasure- 
 house. She will produce " hymns and spiritual songs " of 
 her own, as well as inherit psalms bequeathed to her by 
 the Jewish Church; a new salvation demanding a new 
 song (Rev. v. 9), as Augustine delights so often to re- 
 mind us. 
 
 It was of the essence of a Greek vavos that it should 
 be addressed to, or be otherwise in praise of, a god, or of 
 a hero, that is, in the strictest sense of that word, of a
 
 298 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVIII. 
 
 deified man ; as Callisthenes reminded Alexander ; who, 
 claiming hymns for himself, or suffering them to be 
 addressed to him, implicitly accepted not human honours 
 but divine (vpvoi pJsv ss rovs Qsovs TTOIOVVTCU, sTratvoi, Be es 
 av0p(t>7rovs, Arrian, iv. n). In the gradual breaking 
 down of the distinction between human and divine, which 
 marked the fallen days of Greece and Rome, with the 
 usurping on the part of men of divine honours, the vpvos 
 came more and more to be applied to men ; although this 
 not without observation and remonstrance (Athencous, vi. 
 62; xv. 21, 22). When the word was assumed into the 
 language of the Church, this essential distinction clung 
 to it still. A * psalm ' might be a De profundis, the story 
 of man's deliverance, or a commemoration of mercies 
 which he had received; and of a " spiritual song" much 
 the same could be said : a ' hymn ' must always be more 
 or less of a Magnificat, a direct address of praise and 
 glory to God. Thus Jerome (in Ephes. v. 19): ' Breviter 
 hymnos esse dicemlum, qui fortitudinem et majestatem 
 prscdicant Dei, et ejusdem semper vel beneficia, vel facta, 
 mirantur.' Compare Origen, Con. Gels. viii. 67 ; and a 
 precious fragment, probably of the Presbyter Cains, pre- 
 served by Eusebius (H. E. v. 28) : ^a\^ol 8s oaoi /cal <aSal 
 aBs\^>(ov UTT ap%rjs vrro TTKTTWV <ypa(f>t(rai, TOV Aojov TOV 
 sou TOV XpiaTov vfj,vov(ri OsoXo^ovvTSs. Compare further 
 Gregory of Nyssa (in Psalm, c. 3) : v/ii/os, rj eirl rots VTT- 
 ap^ovaiv rjpZv ayadois avariOsiisvi) TW @f3 si>(f)r)fi,ia: the 
 whole chapter is interesting. Augustine in more places 
 than one states the notes of what in his mind are the 
 essentials of a hymn which are three: I. It must be 
 sung; 2. It must be praise ; 3. It must be to God. Thus 
 Enarr. in Ps. Ixxii. I : * Hymni laudes sunt Dei cum 
 cantico : hymni cantus sunt continentes laudes Dei. Si 
 sit laus, et non sit Dei, non est hymnus: si sit laus, et 
 Dei laus, et non cantetur, non est hymnus. Oportet ei'go 
 ut, si sit hymnus, habeat haec tria, et laudem, et Dei, et
 
 LXXVJII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 299 
 
 canticum.' So, too, Enarr. in Ps. cxlviii. 14: 'Hymnus 
 scitis quid est? Cantus est cum laude Dei. Si laudas 
 Deum, et non cantas, non dicis hymnum ; si cantas, et non 
 laudas Deum, non dicis hymnum; si laudas aliud quod 
 non pertinet ad laudem Dei, etsi cantando laudes non dicis 
 hymnum. Hymnus ergo tria ista habet, et cantum, et 
 laudem, et Dei.' l Compare Gregory Nazianzene : 
 
 (iraivos ta-Tiv ev TI rcov tptov (f>p'i(rai t 
 atvos 8' tnaivos fls Qfov a-ffidaptos, 
 6 8' Vfivos, aivos efJ.fif\r)s, <ay oio/xcu. 
 
 But though, as appears from these quotations, VJJ.VQS 
 in the fourth century was a word freely adopted in the 
 Church, this was by no means the case at an earlier day. 
 Notwithstanding the authority which St. Paul's employ- 
 ment of it might seem to have lent it, V/JLVOS nowhere 
 occurs in the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, nor in 
 those of Justin Martyr, nor in the Apostolic Constitutions ; 
 and only once in Tertullian (ad Uxor. ii. 8) . It is at least 
 a plausible explanation of this that vp,vos was for the early 
 Christians so steeped in heathenism, so linked with pro- 
 fane associations, and desecrated by them, there were so 
 many hymns to Zeus, to Hermes, to Aphrodite, and to 
 the other deities of the heathen pantheon, that the early 
 Christians shrunk instinctively from the word. 
 
 If we ask ourselves of what character were the 
 'hymns,' which St. Paul desired that the faithful should 
 sing among themselves, we may confidently assume that 
 these observed the law to which other hymns were sub- 
 mitted, and were direct addresses of praise to God. 
 Inspired specimens of the vpvos we meet at Luke i. 46-55 ; 
 68-79 ; Acts iv. 24 ; such also probably was that which 
 
 1 It is not very easy to follow Augustine in his distinction between a 
 ' psalm ' and a ' canticle.' Indeed, he acknowledges himself that he has 
 not arrived at any clearness on this matter ; thus see Ennrr. in Ps. Ixvii. 
 I ; where, however, these words occur, ' in psalmo est sonoritas, in can- 
 tico Iratitia': cf. in Ps. iv. I ; and Hilary, Prol, in Lib. Psalm. 19-21.
 
 300 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVIII. 
 
 Paul and Silas made to be heard from the depth of their 
 Philippian dungeon (vpvovv TOV sov, Acts xvi. 25). How 
 noble, how magnificent, uninspired hymns could prove we 
 have signal evidence in the Te Deum, in the Veni Creator 
 Spiritus, and in many a later possession for ever which 
 the Church has acquired. That the Church, brought 
 when St. Paul wrote into a new and marvellous world of 
 heavenly realities, would be rich in these we might be 
 sure, even if no evidence existed to this effect. Of such 
 evidence, however, there is abundance, more than one 
 fragment of a hymn being probably embedded in St. 
 Paul's own Epistles (Ephes. v. 14; I Tim. iii. 16; 2 Tim. ii. 
 11-14; cf- Rambach, Antholoyie, vol. i. p. 33; and Neale, 
 Essays onLiturgiology, pp. 413, 424). And as it was quite 
 impossible that the Christian Church, mightily releasing 
 itself, though with no revolutionary violence, from the 
 Jewish synagogue, should fall into that mistake into 
 which some of the Reformed Churches afterwards fell, 
 we may be sure that it adopted into liturgic use, not 
 'psalms' only, but also 'hymns,' singing hymns to Christ 
 as to God (Pliny, Ep. x. 96) ; though this, as we may 
 conclude, more largely in Churches gathered out of the 
 heathen world than in those wherein a strong Jewish 
 element existed. On vfjivos from an etymological point of 
 view Pott, Etymol. Forsch. vol. ii. pt. ii. p. 612, may be 
 consulted. 
 
 'ty&ij ( = aoiSr)) is the only word of this group which 
 the Apocalypse knows (v. 9 ; xiv. 3 ; xv. 3). St. Paul, on 
 the two occasions when he employs it, adds Trvsv/maTt/cri to 
 it ; and this, no doubt, because a>Sij by itself might mean 
 any kind of song, as of battle, of harvest, or festal, or 
 hymeneal, while i/raX/i6y, from its Hebrew use, and vpvos 
 from its Greek, did not require any such qualifying adjec- 
 tive. This epithet thus applied to these ' songs ' does not 
 affirm that they were divinely inspired, any more than the 
 avrjp TTVcVfjLariKos is an inspired man (i Cor. iii. I ; Gal.
 
 LXXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 301 
 
 vi. i) ; but only that they were such as were composed by 
 spiritual men, and moved in the sphere of spiritual 
 things. How, it may be asked, are we to distinguish 
 these " spiritual songs " from the ' psalms ' and * hymns ' 
 with which they are associated by St. Paul? If the 
 ' psalms ' represent the heritage of sacred song which the 
 Christian Church derived from the Jewish, the ' hymns ' 
 and " spiritual songs " will between them cover what 
 further in the same kind it produced out of its bosom ; 
 but with a difference. What the hymns were, we have 
 already seen; but Christian thought and feeling will soon 
 have expanded into a wider range of poetic utterances 
 than those in which there is a direct address to the Deity. 
 If we turn, for instance, to Herbert's Temple, or Vaughan's 
 Silex Scintillans, or Keble's Christian Year, in all of these 
 there are many poems, which, as certainly they are not 
 f psalms,' so as little do they possess the characteristics of 
 ' hymns.' " Spiritual songs " these might most fitly be 
 called ; even as in almost all our collections of so called 
 * hymns ' at the present day, there are not a few winch by 
 much juster title would bear this name. Calvin, it will be 
 seen, only agrees in part with the distinctions which I 
 have here sought to trace: ' Sub his tribus nominibus corn- 
 plexus est [Paulus] omne genus canticorum ; quse ita 
 vulgo distinguuntur, ut psalmus sit in quo concinendo 
 adhibetur musicum aliquod instrumentum prseter linguam : 
 hymnus proprie sit laudis canticum, sive assa voce, sive 
 aliter canatur; oda non laudes tan turn contineat, sed 
 parseneses, et alia argumenta.' Compare in Vollbeding's 
 Thesaurus, vol. ii. p. 27 sqq., a treatise by J. Z. Hillger, 
 De Psalmorum, Hymnorum, et Odarum discrimine ; Palmer 
 in Herzog's Real-Encyclopadie, vol. v. p. 100 sqq. ; 
 Deyling, Obss. Sac. vol. iii. p. 430 ; Lightfoot, On Colos- 
 sians, iii. 16; and the art. Hymns in Dr. Smith's Dic- 
 tionary of Christian Antiquities.
 
 302 SYXOXYAIS OF THE NE w TESTAMENT. LXXIX 
 
 Ixxix. aypiifjifjiaTos, 
 
 THESE words occur together Acts iv. 13 ; dypd^fiaros no- 
 where else in the N. T., but iStom/s on four other occasions 
 (i Cor. xiv. 16, 23, 24; 2 Cor. xi. 6). Where found to- 
 gether we must conclude that, according to the natural 
 rhetoric of human speech, the second word is stronger 
 than, and adds something to, the first: thus our Trans- 
 lators have evidently understood them, rendering dypdp- 
 P.CLTOS ( unlearned,' and IStwTrjs ' ignorant ' ; and so Bengel : 
 ' dypdfijjiaTos est rudis, i&i(aTr)s rudior.' 
 
 When we seek more accurately to distinguish them, 
 and to detect the exact notion which each conveys, dypdp,- 
 liaros need not occupy us long. It corresponds exactly to 
 our * illiterate ' (ypdjj,fj,ara pr) /ie/ia^/ccos, John vii. 1 5 ; 
 Acts xxvi. 24; 2 Tim. iii. 15) : being joined by Plato with 
 ops toy, rugged as the mountaineer (Grit. 109 d), with 
 apovaos (Tim. 23 b) ; by Plutarch set over against the 
 fj,Sfj,ovcro)fji^vos (Adv. Colot. 26). 
 
 But t'SttwTT/s is a word of far wider range, of uses far 
 more complex and subtle. Its primary idea, the point 
 from which, so to speak, etymologically it starts, is that 
 of the private man, occupying himself with his own things 
 (TO, iSia), as contrasted with the political; the man un- 
 clothed with office, as set over against and distinguished 
 from him who bears some office in the state. But lying 
 as it did very deep in the Greek mind, being one of the 
 strongest convictions there, that in public life the true 
 education of the man and the citizen consisted, it could 
 not fail that the word should presently be tinged with 
 something of contempt and scorn. The iStMTTjf, staying 
 at home while others were facing honourable toil, oUovpos, 
 as Plutarch calls him (Phil, cum Princ. i), a 'house- dove,' 
 as our ancestors slightingly named him, unexercised in 
 business, unaccustomed to deal with his fellow-men, is un- 
 practical j and thus the word is joined with uTrpdy^wv by
 
 LXXIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 303 
 
 Plato (Eep. x. 620 c ; cf. Plutarch, De Virt. et Vit. 4), Avith 
 aTrpanros by Plutarch (Phil, cum Princ. i), who sets him 
 over against the TTO\ITIKOS /cat Trpatcriteos. But more than 
 this, he is often boorish, and thus ISiwTijs is linked with 
 aypoifcos (Chrysostom, in I Ep. Cor. Horn. 3), with uirai- 
 BSVTOS (Plutarch, Arist. et Men. Comp. i), and other words 
 such as these. 1 
 
 The history of t'Stwr^y by no means stops here, though 
 we have followed it as far as is absolutely necessary to 
 explain its association (Acts iv. 13) with ajpa^aros, and 
 the points of likeness and difference between them. But 
 to explain why St. Paul should employ it at i Cor. xiv. 
 1 6, 23, 24, and exactly in what sense, it may be well to 
 pursue this history a little further. There is a singular 
 feature in the use of ISiwrrjf which, though not very easy 
 to describe, a few examples will at once make intelligible. 
 There lies continually in it a negation of that particular 
 skill, knowledge, profession, or standing, over against which 
 it is antithetically set, and not of any other except that 
 alone. For example, is the tStoor^y set over against the 
 Srjptovpyof (as by Plato, Theag. 124 r), he is the unskilled 
 man as set over against the skilled artificer ; any other 
 dexterity he may possess, but that of the Brjfiiovpyos is 
 denied him. Is he set over against the iarpos, he is one 
 ignorant of the physician's art (Plato, Eep. iii. 389 6 ; 
 Philo, De Conf. Ling. 7) ; against the <ro(f)ia-Tijs, he is one 
 unacquainted with the dialectic fence of the sophists 
 (Xenophon, De Venat. 13; cf. Hiero, i. 2; Lucian, Pise. 
 34 ; Plutarch, Symp. iv. 2, 3) ; against the <f>i\6\oyoy 
 
 1 There is an excellent discussion on the successive meanings of iouanjs 
 in Bishop Horsley's Tracts in Controversy icith Dr. Priestley, A)*)>tn(U.r y 
 Disquisition Second, pp. 475-485. Our English 'idiot' has also an in- 
 structive history. This quotation from Jeremy Taylor (Dissuasive from 
 Popery, part ii. b. i. i) will show how it was used two hundred years 
 ago: ' S. Austin affirmed that the plain places of Scripture are sufficient 
 to all laics, and all idiots or private persons.' See my Select Glossary 
 s. v. for other examples of the same use of the word.
 
 304 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. i.xxix. 
 
 (Sextus Empiricus, adv. Grainmat. 235), he has no interest 
 in the earnest studies which occupy the other; prose 
 writers are ISiwrai as contrasted with poets. Those un- 
 practised in gymnastic exercises are iBiwrcu as contrasted 
 with the a6\r]Tal (Xenophon, Hiero, iv. 6; Philo, De Sept. 
 6) ; subjects as contrasted with their prince (De Abrali. 
 33) ; the underlings in the harvest-field are ISiwrai /ecu 
 vTrypsTai as distinguished from the rjy/jt.6ves (De Somn. ii. 
 4) ; the weak are IBtwrai, aVo/Jot and aSogoi being qualita- 
 tive adjectives, as contrasted with the strong (Philo, De 
 Great. Princ. 5 ; cf. Plutarch, De Imper. Apoph. I ) ; and 
 lastly, the whole congregation of Israel are ISiwrai as set 
 over against the priests (De Vit. Mos. iii. 29). With these 
 examples of the word's use to assist us, we can come to no 
 other conclusion than that the IBiurat of St. Paul (i Cor. 
 xiv. 1 6, 23, 24) are the plain believers, with no special 
 spiritual gifts, as distinguished from such as were possessed 
 of such ; even as elsewhere they are the lay members of 
 the Church as contrasted with those who minister iii the 
 Word and Sacraments ; for it is ever the word with which 
 lSta)Tr)s is at once combined and contrasted that determines 
 its meaning. 
 
 For the matter immediately before us it will be sufficient 
 to say that when the Pharisees recognized Peter and John 
 as men aypdpfjiaToi Kal ISiwrat, in the first word they ex- 
 pressed more the absence in them of book-learning, and, 
 confining as they would have done this to the Old Testa- 
 ment, the Ispa ypdf^fj.ara, and to the glosses of their own 
 doctors upon these, their lack of acquaintance with such 
 lore as St. Paul had learned at the feet of Gamaliel , in 
 the second their want of that education which men insen- 
 sibly acquire by mingling with those who have important 
 affairs to transact, and by taking their own share in the 
 transaction of such. Setting aside that higher training of 
 the heart and the intellect which is obtained by direct 
 communion with God and his truth, no doubt books and
 
 LXXX. SYNONTMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 305 
 
 public life, literature aiid politics, are the two most effec- 
 tual organs of mental and moral training which the world 
 has at its command the second, as needs hardly be said, 
 immeasurably more effectual than the first. He is aypd/j,- 
 /J.CITOS who has not shared in the first, IStuTiis who has had 
 no part in the second. 
 
 Ixxx. SOKSCO, 
 
 OUR Translators have not always observed the distinction 
 which exists between BOKSIV ( = 'videri') and faivsaOai 
 ( = <apparere'). Ao/csiv expresses the subjective mental 
 estimate or opinion about a matter which men form, their 
 Sofa concerning it, which may be right (A.cts xv. 28 ; 
 I Cor. iv. 9 ; vii. 40 : cf. Plato, Tim. 5 1 d, Sofa d\rjOijsi), 
 but which also may be wrong ; involving as it always must 
 the possibility of error (2 Mace. ix. 10; Matt. vi. 7 ; Mark 
 vi. 49; John xvi. 2; Acts xxvii. 13; cf. Plato, Rep. iv. 
 423 o- ; Gorg. 458 a, Sofa -v^euS?;?; Xenophon, Cyrop. i. 6. 
 22 ; Mem. i. 7. 4, la^vpov, prj 6Wa, So/cslv, to have a false 
 reputation for strength) ; fyaivsaOai on the contrary ex- 
 presses how a matter phenomenally shows and presents 
 itself, with no necessary assumption of any beholder at all ; 
 suggesting an opposition, not to the ov, but to the voov- 
 usvov. Thus, when Plato (Rep. iii. 408 a) says of certain 
 heroes in the Trojan war, a<ya6ol irpos rbv iro\s^ov sc^dvijaav, 
 he does not mean they seemed good for the war and were 
 not, but they showed good, with the tacit assumption that 
 what they showed, they also were. So too, when Xenophon 
 writes sfyaivero t^via 'ITTITWV (Anab. i. 6. i), he would imply 
 that horses had been actually there, and left their foot- 
 prints on the ground. Had he used SOKSIV, he would have 
 implied that Cyrus and his company took for the tracks 
 of horses what indeed might have been such, but what 
 also might not have been such at all; cf. Mem. iii. 10. 2. 
 Z^une : ' &OKSIV cernitur in opinione, quse falsa esse potest
 
 306 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXX. 
 
 et vana; sed fyaivsvOai plerumque est in re extra mentem, 
 quamvis nemo opinatur.' Thus SOKSI fyaivsa-Bai (Plato, 
 Phcedr. 260 d-, Legg. xii. 960 d). 
 
 Even in passages where SOKSIV may be exchanged with 
 elvat,, it does not lose the proper meaning which Zeune 
 has ascribed to it here. There is ever a predominant 
 reference to the public opinion and estimate, rather than 
 to the actual being; however the former may be the faithful 
 echo of the latter (Prov. xxvii. 14). Thus, while there is 
 no touch of irony, no shadow of depreciation, in St. Paul's 
 use of ol SOKOVVTSS at Gal. ii. 2, of ol SOKOVVTSS slvai TL 
 presently after (ver. 6) exactly which same phrase occurs 
 in Plato, Euthyd. 303 d, where they are joined with aspvoi 
 and while manifestly there could be no slight intended, 
 seeing that he so characterizes the chief of his fellow 
 Apostles, the words for all this express rather the reputa- 
 tion in which these were held in the Church than the 
 worth which in themselves they had, however that reputa- 
 tion of theirs was itself the true measure of this worth 
 ( = e7rio-r)/jioi, Rom. xvi. 7). Compare Euripides, Troad. 608, 
 where ra Sorcovma are set over against ra ftrjSsv ovra, Hec. 
 295, and Porphyry, De Abst. ii. 40, where ol BOKOVVTSS in 
 like manner is put absolutely, and set over against ra 
 In the same way the words of Christ, ol &OKOVVTSS 
 iv rwv sQvwv (Mark x. 42) = ' they who are acknowledged 
 rulers of the Gentiles,' cast no doubt on the reality of the 
 rule of these, for see Matt. xx. 25 ; though indeed there may 
 be a slight hint, looking through the words, of the contrast 
 between the worldly shows and the heavenly realities of 
 greatness ; but as little are they redundant (cf. Josephus, 
 Antt. xix. 6. 3 ; Susan. 5 : and Winer, Gramm. Ixvii. 4). 
 
 But as on one side the mental conception may have, 
 but also may not have, a corresponding truth in the world 
 of realities, so on the other the appearance may have a 
 reality beneath it, and $aivs<rdcu is often synonymous with 
 elvcu and yiyvsaQcu (Matt. ii. 7 j xiii. 26) ; but it may also
 
 LXXX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 307 
 
 have none ; <f>aiv6fj,sva, for instance, are set off against TO, 
 ovra -rfj a\rj6eia}yy Plato (jRep.x. 5 96 e), being the reflections 
 of things, as seen in a mirror : or shows, it may be, which 
 have no substance behind them, as the shows of goodness 
 which the hypocrite makes (Matt, xxiii. 28). It must not 
 be assumed that in this latter case tyaivsa-Oat, runs into the 
 meaning of &OKSIV, and that the distinction is broken down 
 between them. That distinction still subsists in the 
 objective character of the one, and the subjective character 
 of the other. Thus, at Matt, xxiii. 27, 28, the contrast is 
 not between what other men took the Pharisees to be, and 
 what they really were, but between what they showed 
 themselves to other men ((fratvsads rots- avOpwTrois SiKaioi), 
 and what in very truth they were. 
 
 AOKSIV signifying ever, as we have seen, that subjective 
 estimate which may be formed of a thing, not the objective 
 show and seeming which it actually possesses, it will 
 follow that our rendering of Jam. i. 26 is not perfectly 
 satisfactory : " If any man among you seem to be religious 
 (ooKsl 6pr)a-Kos slvai), and bridleth not his tongue, but 
 deceiveth his own heart, this man's religion is vain." This, 
 verse, as it here stands, must before now have perplexed 
 many. How, they will have asked, can a man " seem to 
 be religious," that is, present himself to others as such, 
 when his religious pretensions are belied and refuted by 
 the license of an unbridled tongue? But render the words 
 " If any man among you thinketh himself religious " (cf. 
 Gal. vi. 3, where Sorest is rightly so translated ; as it is 
 in the Vulgate here, " se putat religiosum esse "), "and 
 bridleth not his tongue, &c.," and all will then be plain. 
 It is the man's own mental estimate of his spiritual 
 condition which BOKSI expresses, an estimate which the 
 following words declare to be altogether erroneous. Com- 
 pare Heb. iv. i, where f or SOK$ the Vulgatehas rightly <exis- 
 tiraetur.' If the Vulgate in dealing with Soicslv here is right, 
 while our Translators are wrong, elsewhere in dealing with 
 
 z2
 
 308 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXI. 
 
 i it is wrong, while these are right. At Matt. vi. 
 1 8 ("that thou appear not unto men to fast"), it has 
 'ne videaris,' although at ver. 16 it had rightly 'ut ap- 
 pareant ' ; but the disciples in this verse are warned, not 
 against the hypocrisy of wishing to be sxipposed to fast 
 when they did not, as this ' ne videaris ' might imply, but 
 against the ostentation of wishing to be known to fast when 
 they did; as lies plainly in the oirws ^ <f>ai>rjs of the 
 original. 
 
 The force of fyaivsa-Oai, attained here, is missed in 
 another passage of our Version ; although not through 
 any confusion between it and SOKSIV, but rather between it 
 and (fraivsiv. We render sv ols fyaivscrOs coy <f)a)(TTf)pes sv 
 /coa-fjiM (Phil. ii. 15), "among whom ye shine as lights in 
 the world ; " where, instead of ' ye shine,' it should stand, 
 'ye are seen,' or 'ye appear.' To justify "ye shine" in 
 this place, which is common to all the Versions of the 
 English Hexapla, St. Paul should have written <f>aii>T 
 (cf. John i. 5 ; 2 Pet. i. 19 ; Rev. i. 16), and not, as he has 
 written, fyaivsads. It is worthy of note that, while the 
 Vulgate, having 'lucetis,' shares and anticipates our 
 error, an earlier Latin Version was free from it ; as is 
 evident from the form in which the verse is quoted by 
 Augustine (Enarr. in Ps. cxlvi. 4) : 'In quibus apparetis 
 tanquam luminaria in cselo.' 
 
 Ixxxi. wo 
 
 IN passages out of number one of these words might be 
 employed quite as fitly as the other, even as there are 
 many in which they are used interchangeably, as by 
 Plutarch, De Cap. ex Inim. Util. 2. This does not how- 
 ever prove that there is no distinction between them, if 
 other passages occur, however few, where one is fit and 
 the other not ; or where, though neither would be unfit, 
 one would possess a greater fitness than the other. The
 
 LXXXI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 309 
 
 distinction, latent in other cases, because there is nothing 
 to evoke it, reveals itself in these. 
 
 The difference between foz> (by Lachmann always more 
 correctly accented oW) and Bvjplov is not that between two 
 coordinate terms; but one, the second, is wholly subor- 
 dinate to the first, a less included in a greater. All 
 creatures that live on earth, including man himself, Xo7i- 
 KOV KOI TTO\ITIKOV a)ov, as Plutarch (De Am. Prol. 3) so 
 grandly describes him, are %wa (Aristotle, Hist. Anim. L 
 5. i); nay, God himself, according to the Definitions of 
 Plato, is %wov dddvarov, being indeed the only One to whom 
 life by absolute right belongs (<f>a/j,sv 8s rov sbv slvai &ov 
 diSiov cipiarov, Aristotle, Metaph. xii. 7). It is true that 
 <woi> is nowhere employed in the N. T. to designate man 
 (but see Plato, Pol. 271 e; Xenophon, Cyrop. i. i. 3; 
 Wisd. xix. 21) ; still less to designate God ; for whom, as 
 not merely living, but as being absolute Life, the one 
 fountain of life, the avro^ov, the irt^rj farjs, the fitter as 
 the more reverent &>?; is retained (John i. 4 ; i John i. 2). 
 In its ordinary use %wov covers the same extent of meaning 
 as ' animal ' with us, having generally, though by no means 
 universally (Plutarch, De Garr. 22; Heb. xiii. n), a\oyov 
 or some such epithet attached (2 Pet. ii. 12 ; Jude 10). 
 
 looks like a diminutive of O^p, which in its 
 form ^p reappears as the Latin ' fera/ and in its 
 more usual shape in the German ' Thier ' and in our own 
 'deer./ Like xpva-iov, /3i/3\lov, fyopTiov, dyysiov, and so 
 many other words (see Fischer, Prol. de Vit. Lex. N. T. 
 p. 256), it has quite left behind the force of a diminutive, 
 if it ever possessed it. That it was already without this 
 at the time when the Odyssey was composed is sufficiently 
 attested by the /^eya dyplov which there occurs (x. 180) ; 
 compare Xenophon, Cyrop. i. 4. n. It would be a mis- 
 take to regard Oqpia as exclusively mischievous and raven- 
 ing beasts, for see Heb. xii. 20; Exod. xix. 13 ; however 
 such by this, word are generally intended (Mark i. 13:
 
 3 10 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXI. 
 
 Acts xxviii. 4, 5) ; Gyp la at Acts xi. 6 being distinguished 
 from rsTpdiroSa : while yet Schmidt says rightly : ' In 
 O^PLOV liegt eine sehr starke Nebenbeziehung auf Wildheit 
 und Grausamkeit.' It is worthy of notice that, numerous 
 as are the passages of the Septuagint where beasts of 
 sacrifice are mentioned, it is never under this name. The 
 reason is evident, namely, that the brutal, bestial element 
 is in dijpiov brought prominently forward, not that wherein 
 the inferior animals are akin to man, not that therefore 
 which gives them a fitness to be offered as substitutes for 
 man, and as his representatives. Here, too, we have an 
 explanation of the frequent transfer oftiijplov and diipiwSrjs, 
 as in Latin of 'bestia' and 'bellua,' to fierce and brutal 
 men (Tit. i. 12 ; I Cor. xv. 32; Josephus, Antt. xvii. 5. 5 ; 
 Arrian, in Epict. ii. 9). 
 
 All this makes us the more regret, and the regret has 
 been often expressed it was so by Broughton almost as 
 soon as our Version was published that in the Apocalypse 
 our Translators should have rendered OrjpLov and &ov by 
 the same word, "beast"; and should thus for the English 
 reader have obliterated the distinction between them. 
 Both play important parts in this book ; both belong to its 
 higher symbolism ; while at the same time they move in 
 spheres as far removed from one another as heaven is 
 from hell. The 000. or " living creatures," which stand 
 before the throne, and in which dwells the fulness of all 
 creaturely life, as it gives praise and glory to God (iv. 
 6-9; v. 6; vi. i; and often), constitute a part of the 
 heavenly symbolism; the Orjpia, the first beast and the 
 second, which rise up, one from the bottomless pit (xi. 7), 
 the other from the sea (xiii. i), of whom the one makes 
 war upon the two Witnesses, the other opens his mouth 
 in blasphemies, these form part of the hellish symbolism. 
 To confound these and those under a common designation, 
 to call those * beasts ' and these ' beasts,' would be an over- 
 sight, even granting the name to be suitable to both ; it is
 
 LXXXII. SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 3 1 1 
 
 a more serious one, when the word used, bringing out, as 
 does dypiov, the predominance of the lower animal life, is 
 applied to glorious creatures in the very court and presence 
 of Heaven. The error is common to all the English trans- 
 lations. That the Rheims should not have escaped it is 
 strange; for the Vulgate renders coa by 'animalia' ('ani- 
 mantia' would have been still better), and only Oyptov by 
 * bestia.' If a had always been rendered " living crea- 
 tures," this would have had the additional advantage of 
 setting these symbols of the Apocalypse, even for the 
 English reader, in an unmistakeable connexion with Ezek. 
 i. 5, 13, 14, and often; where "living creature" is the 
 rendering in our English Version of nn, as (uoi/ is in the 
 Septuagint. 
 
 Ixxxii. V7TSp, aVTl, 
 
 IT has been often claimed, and in the interests of an 
 all-important truth, namely the vicarious character of the 
 sacrifice of the death of Christ, that in such passages as 
 Heb. ii. 9; Tit. ii. 14; I Tim. ii. 6; Gal. iii. 13 ; Luke 
 xxii. 19, 20 ; I Pet. ii. 21 ; iii. 18 ; iv. I ; Rom. v. 8 ; John 
 x. 15, in all of which Christ is said to have died virep 
 Trdvrwv, vTrsp rj/Awv, VTrsp rwv Trpoftdrcov, and the like, vTrsp 
 shall be accepted as equipollent with dvrt. And then, it 
 is further urged that, as avrl is the preposition first of 
 equivalence (Homer, 12. ix. 116, 117) and then of ex- 
 change (l Cor. xi. 15 ; Heb. xii. 2, 16; Matt. v. 38), vvrep 
 must in all those passages be regarded as having the same 
 force. Each of these, it is evident, would thus become a 
 dictum probans for a truth, in itself most vital, namely 
 that Christ suffered, not merely on our behalf and for our 
 good, but also in our stead, and bearing that penalty of 
 our sins which we otherwise must ourselves have borne. 
 Now, though some have denied, we must yet accept as 
 certain that virsp has sometimes this meaning. Thus in 
 the Gorgias. of Plato, 5150, eya) virsp ffov uTTOKpivovfiai, 1 1
 
 3 1 2 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXII. 
 
 will answer in your stead ; ' compare Xenophon, Anab. vii. 
 4. 9: eds\ois av v-rrsp rovrov aTroOavscv ; 'Wouldstthou die 
 instead of this lad ? ' as the context and the words si 
 Traicreisv avrbv avrl SKSLVOV make abundantly manifest ; 
 Thucydides, i. 141 ; Euripides, Alcestis, 712 ; Polybius, iii. 
 67. 7 ; Philem. 13 ; and perhaps I Cor. xv. 29 ; hut it is 
 not less certain that in passages far more numerous vTrsp 
 means no more than, on behalf of, for the good of ; thus 
 Matt. v. 44; John xiii. 37 ; I Tim. ii. I, and continually. 
 It must be admitted to follow from this, that had we 
 in the Scripture only statements to the effect that Christ 
 died VTrsp ?;/zwi/, that He tasted death vTrsp Travros, it 
 would be impossible to draw from these any irrefragable 
 proof that his death was vicarious, He dying in our stead, 
 and Himself bearing on his Cross our sins and the penalty 
 of our sins ; however we might find it, as no doubt we do, 
 elsewhere (Isai. liii. 4-6). It is only as having other 
 declarations, to the effect that Christ died avrl TroXXwv 
 (Matt. xx. 28), gave Himself as an avri \vrpov (i Tim. ii. 
 6), and bringing those other to the interpretation of these, 
 that we obtain a perfect right to claim such declarations 
 of Christ's death for us as also declarations of his death in 
 our stead. And in them beyond doubt the preposition 
 vTrsp is the rather employed, that it may embrace both 
 these meanings, and express how Christ died at once for 
 our sakes (here it touches more nearly on the meaning of 
 Trspi, Matt. xxvi. 28; Mark xiv. 24; I Pet. iii. 18; Sid 
 also once occurring in this connexion, I Cor. viii. ii), 
 and in our stead ; while az/rt would only have expressed 
 the last of these. 
 
 Tischendorf, in his little treatise, Doctrina Pauli de Vi 
 Mortis Christi Satis factorid, has some excellent remarks 
 on this matter, which I will quote, though what has been 
 just said has anticipated them in part : * Fuerunt, qui ex 
 sola natura et usu preepositionis vjrsp demonstrare cona- 
 rentur, Paulum docuisse satis factionem Christi vicariam ;
 
 LXXXIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 313 
 
 alii rursus negarunt prsepositionem fnrep a N. Test, au- 
 ctoribus recte positam esse pro dvri, inde probaturi con- 
 travium. Peccatum utrimque est. Sola preepositio ntram- 
 que pariter adjuvat sententiarum partem; pariter, inquam, 
 utramque. Natnque in promptu sunt, contra perplurium 
 opinionem, desumta ex multis veterum Grsecorum scripto- 
 ribus loca, quse prsepositioni vjrsp significatum, loco, vice, 
 alicujus plane vindicant, atque ipsum Paulum eodem signi- 
 ficatu earn usurpasse, et quideni in locis, quse ad nostram 
 rem non pertinent, nemini potest esse dubium (cf. Philem. 
 13 ; 2 Cor. v. 20 ; I Cor. xv. 29). Si autem quseritur, cur 
 Me potissimum prsepositione incerti et fluctuantis sigriifi- 
 catus in re tarn gravi usus sit Apostolus inest in ipsa prf*3- 
 positione quo sit aptior reliquis ad describendam Christi 
 mortem pro nobis oppetitam. Etenim in hoc versari rei 
 summam, quod Christus mortuus sit in commodum homi- 
 num, nemo negat; atque id quidem factum est ita, ut 
 moreretur hominum loco. Pro conjuncta significatione et 
 commodi et vicarii preeclare ab Apostolo adhibita est prse- 
 positio vTrsp. Itaque rectissime, ut solet, contendit Winerus 
 noster, non licere nobis in gravibus locis, ubi de morte 
 Christi agatur, prfepositionem vTrsp simpliciter = dvri 
 sumere. Est enim plane Lattnorum pro, nostrum fur. 
 Quotiescunque Paulus Christum pro nobis uiortimin esse 
 docet, ab ipsa notione vicarii non disjunctam esse voluit 
 notionem commodi, neque iimquam ab hac, quamvis per- 
 quam aperta sit, excludi illarn in ist& formula, jure meo 
 dico.' 
 
 Ixxxiii. (^ovsvs, avdpwiroicrovos, cri/capias. 
 
 CUE Translators have rendered all these words by ' mur- 
 derer,' which, apt enough in the case of the first (Matt. 
 xxii. 7 ; i Pet. iv. 15 ; Rev. xxi. 8), is at the same time so 
 general that in the other two instances it keeps out of 
 sight characteristic features which the words would bring 
 forward.
 
 3H SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXIII. 
 
 , exactly corresponding to our * man- 
 slayer,' or ' homicide,' occurs in the N. T. only in the 
 writings of St. John (viii. 44 ; Ep. iii. 15, bis) ; being 
 found also in Euripides (Iphig. in Taur. 390). On our 
 Lord's lips, at the first of these places, avOpwTroK-rovos 
 has its special fitness ; no other word would have suited 
 at all so well ; an allusion being here to that great, and in 
 part only too successful, assault on the life natural and 
 the life spiritual of all mankind which Satan made, when, 
 planting sin, and through sin death, in them who were 
 ordained the authors of being to the whole race of man- 
 kind, he infected the stream of human existence at its 
 fountain-head. Satan was thus o aiPpwrroKTovos indeed ; 
 for he would fain have slain not this man or that, but the 
 whole race of mankind. 
 
 "Zi/cdpios, which only occurs once in the N. T., and then, 
 noticeably enough, on the lips of a Roman officer (Acts 
 xxi. 38), is one of many Latin words which had followed 
 the Roman domination even into those Eastern provinces 
 of the empire, which, unlike those of the West, had refused 
 to be latinized, but still retained their own language. 
 The 'sicarius,' having his name from the 'sica,' a short 
 sword, poniard, or stiletto, which he wore and was prompt 
 to use, was the hired bravo or swordsman, troops of whom 
 in the long agony of the Republic the Antonies and the 
 Clodiuses kept in their pay, and oftentimes about their 
 persons to inspire a wholesome fear, and if needful to 
 remove out of the way such as were obnoxious to them. 
 The word had found its way into Palestine, and into the 
 Greek which was spoken there: Josephus in two instruc- 
 tive passages (B. J. ii. 13. 3; Antt. xx. 8. 10) giving us full 
 details about those to whom this name was transferred. 
 They were ' assassins,' which word would be to my mind 
 the best rendering at Acts xxi. 38, of whom a rank growth 
 sprang up in those latter days of the Jewish Common- 
 wealth, when, in ominous token of the approaching doom,
 
 LXXXIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 3 1 5 
 
 all ties of society were fast being dissolved. Concealing 
 under their garments that short sword of theirs, and 
 mingling with the multibude at the great feasts, they 
 stabbed in the crowd whom of their enemies they would, 
 and then taking part with the bystanders in exclama- 
 tions of horror, effectually averted suspicion from them- 
 selves. 
 
 It will appear from what has been said that (frovsv? may 
 be any murderer, the genus of which ai/capias is a species, 
 this latter being an assassin, using a particular weapon, 
 and following his trade of blood in a special manner. 
 Again, avOpwiroicrovos has a stress and emphasis of its 
 own. He to whom this name is given is a murderer of 
 men, a homicide. Qovsvs is capable of vaguer use ; a wicked 
 man might be characterized as fyovsvs Trjs svasftsias, a de- 
 stroyer of piety, though he made no direct attack on the 
 lives of men, a traitor or tyrant as (frovsus rtjs trarpiSos 
 (Plutarch, Prcec. Ger. Reip. 19) ; and such uses of the word 
 are not unfrequent. 
 
 Ixxxiv. KCIKOS, 
 
 THAT which is morally evil may be contemplated on various 
 sides and from various points of view ; the several epithets 
 which it will thus obtain bringing out the several aspects 
 under which it will have presented itself to us. 
 
 Katcos and Trovrjpos occur together, Rev. xvi. 2 ; as 
 Ka/cta and Trovrjpta at I Cor. v. 8 ; the SiaXoytoyiol KCIKOI of 
 St. Mark vii. 21 are Sia\oyta-jj,ol irovTjpoL in the parallel 
 passage of St. Matthew (xv. 19). The distinction between 
 these will best be considered when we come to deal with 
 Trovijpos. Ka/cos, the constant antithesis to ayatfbs (Deut. 
 xxx. 15; Ps. xxxiii. 15; Bom. xii. 21 ; 2 Cor. v. 10; cf. 
 Plato, Rep. x. 608 e), and though not quite so frequently 
 to Ka\6s (Gen. xxiv. 50; xliv. 4; Heb. v. 14; Plutarch, 
 Rerj. et Imp. Apoph. Epam. 20), affirms of that which it
 
 3 1 6 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXIV. 
 
 characterizes that qualities and conditions are wanting 
 there which would constitute it worthy of the name which 
 it bears. 1 This first in a physical sense ; thus Kaica ii^ara 
 (Homer, Od. xi. 191) are mean or tattered garments ; KCIKOS 
 larpos (jEschylus, Prom. Vinct. 473), a physician wanting 
 in the skill which physicians should possess ; icaicos Kpirris 
 (Plutarch, Reg. et Imp. Apoph. Fabr. 4), an unskilful judge. 
 So, too, in the Scripture it is often used without any ethi- 
 cal intention (Prov. xx. 14 ; Luke xvi. 25 ; Acts xxviii. 5 ; 
 Rev. xvi. 2). Often, however, it assumes one; thus KCIKOS 
 SoOXo? (Matt. xxiv. 48) is a servant wanting in that fidelity 
 and diligence which are properly duo from such ; cf . Prov. 
 xii. 12 ; Jer. vii. 24; I Cor. xv. 33 ; Col. iii. 5 ; Phil. iii. 2. 
 But the Trovijpos is, as Ammonius calls him, 6 Spaa-Tiicos 
 KCIKOV, the active worker out of evil ; the German ' Bose- 
 wicht,' or as Beza (Annott. in Matt. v. 37) has drawn the 
 distinction : 'Significat irovrjpos aliquid ampliusquam KCLKOS, 
 nempe eum qui sit in omni scelere exercitatus, et ad inju- 
 riam cuivis inferendam totus comparatus.' He is, accord- 
 ing to the derivation of the word, 6 Trape^wv TTOVOVS, or one 
 that, as we say, ' puts others to trouble ; ' * and irovr^pia is 
 the ' cupiditas nocendi ' ; or as Jeremy Taylor explains it : 
 * aptness to do shrewd turns, to delight in mischiefs 
 and tragedies ; a loving to trouble our neighbour and to 
 
 1 Cremer : ' So characterisirt KHKO'S dasjenige was nicht so beschaffen 
 ist wie es>, seiner Natur, Bestimmung und Idee nach, sein konnte oder 
 sollte.' 
 
 2 J. H. H. Schmidt is of the mind that the connexion between rrovot 
 and novrjpos is not this, but another ; that we have here an illustration 
 of what we may call the aristocratic tendencies of language, which 
 meet us so often and in so many tongues. What, he asks, is the feature 
 concerning their poorer neighbours' manner of life which must most 
 strike the leisured few what but this, namely that they are always at 
 work ; they are novrjpoi or laborious, for their trovoi never cease. It is 
 not long, however, before a word constantly applied to the poor obtains 
 an unfavourable subaudition ; it has done so in words out of number, as 
 in our own ' churl,' ' villain,' and so many more ; the poor it is suggested 
 in thought are also the bad, and the word moves into a lower sphere in 
 agreement with the thought.
 
 LXXXIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 3 1 7 
 
 do him ill offices ; crossness, perverseness, and peevishness 
 of action in our intercourse ' (Doctrine and Practice of 
 Repentance, iv. i). In irovijpos the positive activity of evil 
 conies far more decidedly out than in tea/cos, the word 
 therefore being constantly opposed to xprja-ros, or the good 
 contemplated as the useful (Isocrates, Or. i. 6 d ; viii. 184 
 a ; Xenophou, Mem. ii. 6. 2O ; Jer. xxiv. 2, 3 ; and in the 
 same way associated with axprja-Tos, Demosthenes, 1271). 
 If KCIKOS is ' mauvais,' ' mechant,' irov^pos is ' nuisible,' 
 noxious, or 'noisome' in our elder sense of the word. 
 The Kaicos may be content to perish in his own corruption, 
 but the TTowrjpos is not content unless he is corrupting 
 others as well, and drawing them into the same destruc- 
 tion with himself. * They sleep not except they have done 
 mischief, and their sleep is taken away except they cause 
 some to fall ' (Prov. iv. 1 6) . We know, or we are happier 
 still if we do not know even by report, what in French is 
 meant by 'depraver les femmes.' Thus o-^ov irovqpov 
 (Plutarch, Sept. Sap. Conv. 2) is an unwholesome dish : 
 aa-para irovr^pd (De And. Poet. 4), wicked songs, such 
 as by their wantonness corrupt the minds of the young ; 
 ryvvr) TTOvypd (De Virt. et Vit. 2), a wicked wife; o^)6a\p.os 
 irovrjpos (Mark vii. 22), a mischief-working eye. Satan is 
 emphatically 6 irovripos, as the first author of all the mis- 
 chief in the world (Matt. vi. 13 ; Ephes. vi. 16 ; cf. Luke 
 vii. 21 ; Acts xix. 12) ; ravening beasts are always Gypta 
 Trovijpd in the Septuagint (Gen. xxxvii. 33 ; Isai. xxxv. 9 ; 
 cf. Josephus, Antt. vii. 5. 5) ; rcafca Oypla, indeed, occurs 
 once in the N. T. (Tit. i. 12), but the meaning is not pre- 
 cisely the same, as the context sufficiently shows. An 
 instructive line in Euripides (Hecuba, 59^)? testifies to the 
 Greek sense of a more inborn radical evil in the man who 
 is irovrjpos than in the /caicos : 
 
 'O fifv irovrjpbs ovdev oXXo n\f)V KOKOS. 
 
 A reference to the context will show that what Euripides
 
 318 SYNONYMS OF THE NEJV TESTAMENT. i.xxxiv. 
 
 means is this, namely, that a man of an evil nature (TT 
 will always show himself base in act (ica/cos). 
 
 But there are words in most languages, and <f>av\o$ is 
 one of them, which contemplate evil under another aspect, 
 not so much that either of active or passive malignity, 
 but that rather of its good-for-nothingness, the impossi- 
 bility of any true gain ever coming forth from it. Thus 
 ' nequam' (in strictness opposed to 'frugi'), and 'nequitia* 
 in Latin (see Ramsay on the Mostellaria of Plautus, 
 p. 229) ; ' vaurien ' in French ; ' naughty ' and ' naughtiness ' 
 in English ; ' Taugenichts,' ' schlecht,' ' Schlechtigkeit ' in 
 German ; ! while on the other hand ' Tugend ' ( = ' taugend ') 
 is virtue contemplated as usefulness. This notion of 
 worthlessness is the central notion of <j>av\os (by some 
 very questionably identified with 'faul,' ' foul '), which in 
 Greek runs successively through the following meanings, 
 light, unstable, blown about by every wind (see Donald- 
 son, Cratylus, 152; ' synonymum ex levitate permuta- 
 tum,' Matthai), small, slight (* schlecht ' and * schlicht ' in 
 German are only different spellings of the same word), 
 mediocre, of no account, worthless, bad ; but still bad pre- 
 dominantly in the sense of worthless : thus <f>av\r) av^rpis 
 (Plato, Symp. 215 c), a bad flute-player; $av\os ^wypdfyos 
 (Plutarch, De Adul. et Am. 6), a bad painter. In agree- 
 ment with this, the standing antithesis to (f>av\os is 
 (rTrovSaios (Plato, Legg. vi. 757 a; vii. 8146; Philo, De 
 Here. Her. i) ; the Stoics ranging all men in two classes, 
 either in that of cnrov&aioi or <j>av\oi, and not recognizing 
 any middle ethical position ; so too it stands over against 
 Xprja-ros (Plutarch, De Aud. Poet. 4) ; ica\6s (De Adul. et 
 Am. 9) ; STriSLKrjS (Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. iii. 5. 3) ; aarslos 
 (Plutarch, De Rep. Stoic. 1 2) ; while words with which it is 
 commonly associated are a^p^ros (Plato, Lysis, 204 &) ; 
 evT\r)s (Legg. vii. 806 a) ; fjLo%6r]pos (Gorg. 486 b) ; 
 
 1 Graff (Alt-hochdeutscher Sprachscliatz, p. 138) ascribes in like manner 
 to ' bose ' (' bose '} an original sense of weak, small, nothing worth.
 
 LXXXV. s r.vo.v r J/S OF THE NE w TESTA MEXT. 3 \ 9 
 
 (Euripides, Med. 803) ; aroiros (Plutarch, De Aud. 
 Poet. 12; Cory. Prcec. 48); s\a<j>p6s (De Adul. et Amic. 
 32) ; fiXafispcs (De Aud. Poet. 14) ; KO'.VOS (Prcec. San. 
 14); aKparrfs (Gryll. 8); avoijros (De Comm. Nrt. 11); 
 a/caipos (Conj. Prase. 14) ; 0751/1/775 (De Adul. et Amic. 2) ; 
 djopatos (Chariton). <J>at)Xoy. as used in the N. T., has 
 reached the latest stage of its meaning ; and ra <f)av\a 
 frpd^avrss are set in direct opposition to ra dya0a Troirjaav- 
 rss, and condemned as such to " the resurrection of dam- 
 nation " (John v. 29; cf. iii. 20; Tit. ii. 8; Jam. iii. 16; 
 Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. ii. 6. 18 ; Philo, De Abrah. 3). We 
 have the same antithesis of (pav\a and ayaffd elsewhere 
 (Phalaris, Ep. 144 ; Plutarch, De Plac. Phil. i. 8) ; and for 
 a good note upon the word see Schoeinann, Agis et Cleo- 
 menes, p. 71. 
 
 Ixxxv. elXiKpiv^s, Kadapos. 
 
 THE difference between these words is hard to express, 
 even while one may instinctively feel it. They are con- 
 tinually found in company with one another (Plato, Pliileb. 
 52 d; Eusebius, Prcep. Evan. xv. 15. 4), and words asso- 
 ciated with the one are in constant association with the 
 other. 
 
 li\iKpivT]s occurs only twice in the N. T. (Phil. i. 10; 
 2 Pet. iii. i); once also in the Apocrypha (Wisd. vii. 25) ; 
 el\iKpiveia three times (i Cor. v. 8; 2 Cor. i. 12 ; ii. 17). 
 Its etymology, like that of ' sincere,' which is its best 
 English rendering, is doubtful, uncertainty in this matter 
 causing also uncertainty in the breathing. Some, as Stall- 
 baum (Plato, Phcedo, 66 a, note), connect with i\os, I\TJ 
 (sth-siv, siXsiv), that which is cleansed by much rolling and 
 shaking to and fro in the sieve ; ' volubili agitatione secre- 
 tum atque adeocribro purgatum.' Another more familiar 
 and more beautiful etymology, if only one could feel suffi- 
 cient confidence in it, Losner indicates: *dicitur de iis 
 rebus quarum puritas ad solis splendorem exigitur,' o ev
 
 320 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXV. 
 
 ry iiky Ketcpi/Asvos, held up to the sunlight and in that 
 proved and approved. Certainly the uses of tlXitcpivtjs, 
 so far as they afford an argument, and there is an instinct 
 and traditionary feeling which lead to the correct use of a 
 word, long after the secret of its derivation has been 
 altogether lost, are very much in favour of the former 
 etymology. It is not so much the clear, the transparent, 
 as the purged, the winnowed, the unmingled ; thus see 
 Plato, Axioch. 370, and note the words with which it 
 habitually associates, as dfjLi f ytjs (Plato, Henex. 245 d ; 
 Plutarch, Qucest. Rom. 26) ; afjutcros (De Def. Or. 34 ; cf. De 
 Isid. et Os. 6l) ; aTradrjs (De Adul. et Amic. 33) ; aKparos 
 De Anim. Procr. 27) ; dtcpai<f)vijs (Philo, Mund. Opif. 2) ; 
 aicspaios (Clement of Home, Cor. 2 ; compare Xenophon, 
 Oyro^.viii. 5. 14; Philo, Mund. Opif. 8 ; Plutarch, Adv. Colot. 
 5: DeFac. in Orb. Lun. 16: iruo-^si TO fj,iyvvfj,svov ' d7ro/3d\\et 
 yap TO ei\itcpivs$). In like manner the Etym. Mag. ; 
 slXiKpivrjs (rrifjiaivsi rbv itaOapov teal d/j,iyfj erspov : compare 
 an interesting discussion in Plutarch, De Ei ap. Delph. 20. 
 Various passages, it is quite true, might be adduced in 
 which the notion of clearness and transparency predomi- 
 nates thus in Philo (Quis Rer. Div. Hccr. 6l) etXi/cpivss Trvp 
 is contrasted with the Kkiftavos KairvL^opsvos but they are 
 much the fewer, and may very well be secondary and 
 superinduced. 
 
 The ethical use of slXiKpivijs and stXiicplvsia first makes 
 itself distinctly felt in the N. T. ; there are only approxi- 
 mations to it in classical Greek ; as when Aristotle (Ethic. 
 Nic. x. 6. 4) speaks of some who, ajsvaroi OVTSS rj&ovijs sl\i- 
 Kpivovs teal sXsvdspiov, sTrl ras aw panic as tcara^svyovaiv. 
 Theophylact defines tt\ucpvsui well as tcadapiorrjs Siavoias 
 Kal dBo\oTtjy ov&ev e^ovaai crvv<7Kiacrp,vov teal VTTOV\OV : 
 and Basil the Great (in Reg. Brev. Int.] : stXt/cpivss slvai 
 \oyiofj.at TO a^ifye's 1 , teal atcpcos KSKadappsvov diro iravros 
 evavTiov. It is true to this its central meaning as often 
 as it is employed in the N. T. The Corinthians must
 
 LXXXV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 32 I 
 
 purge out the old leaven, that they may keep the feast 
 with the unleavened bread of sincerity (slXi/epivstas) and 
 truth (i Cor. v. 8). St. Paul rejoices that in simplicity 
 and in that sincerity which, comes of God (sv sfaucpivsia 
 sou), not in fleshly wisdom, he has his conversation in 
 the world (2 Cor. i. 12) ; declares that he is not of those 
 who tamper with and adulterate (tcaTr^svovrss) the word 
 of God, but that as of sincerity (s% sl\iKpivsias} he speaks 
 in Christ (2 Cor. ii. 17). 
 
 KaOapos, connected with the Latin ' castus,' with the 
 German ' heiter/ in its earliest use (Homer does not know 
 it in any other, Od. vi. 61 ; xvii. 48), is clean, and this in 
 a physical or non-ethical sense, as opposed to pvrrapos. 
 Thus KaOapov a-wpa (Xenophon, (Econ. x. 7) is the body 
 not smeared with paint or ointment ; and in this sense it 
 is often employed in the N. T. (Matt, xxvii. 59 ; Heb. x. 
 22; Eev. xv. 6). In another merely physical sense icaQapos 
 is applied to that which, is clear and transparent ; thus 
 we have icadapos and Siawyr/s (Plutarch, De Gen. Socr. 22). 
 But already in Pindar (Pyth. v. 3, Kadapa dpsrrf)^ in Plato 
 (Rep. vi. 496 d, KaOapos dSi/cias TS Kal avocriwv spyatv), and 
 in the tragic poets it had obtained an ethical meaning. 
 The same is not uncommon in the Septuagint, where it 
 often designates cleanness of heart (Job viii. 6 ; xxxiii. 9 ; 
 Ps. xxiii. 4), although far oftener a cleanness merely ex- 
 ternal or ceremonial (Gen. viii. 20 ; Lev. xiv. 7). That it 
 frequently runs into the domain of meaning just claimed 
 for slkiKpivrjs must be freely admitted. It also is found 
 associated with d\r)divos (Job viii. 6) ; with dfAiyqs (Philo, 
 Mund. Opif. 8) ; with aKparos (Xenophon, Cyrop. viii. 
 7. 20 ; Plutarch, JEmil. Paul. 34) ; with a%pavro9 (De Is. 
 et Osir. 79) ; with dicrjparos (Plato, Grat. 396 6) ; /caOapbs 
 <rlros is wheat with the chaff winnowed away (Xenophon, 
 (Econ. xviii. 8. 9) ; KaQapos (rrpaTos, an army rid of its sick 
 and ineffective (Herodotus, i. 211 ; cf. iv. 135), or, as the 
 same phrase is used in Thucydides (v. 8), an army made up of
 
 322 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXVI. 
 
 the best materials, not lowered by an admixture of mer- 
 cenaries or cowards ; the flower of the army, all avSpss 
 d-xpsioi having been set aside (Appian, viii. 117). In the 
 main, however, KaQapbs is the pure contemplated under 
 the aspect of the clean, the free from soil or stain ; thus 
 tiprjo-icsia icaOapa KOI dfjiiavros (Jam. i. 27), and compare 
 the constant use of the phrases icadapos <povov, KaOapbs 
 dSiicias (Plato, Rep. vi. 496 d ; Acts xviii. 6), and the like ; 
 and the standing antithesis in which the icadapov stands 
 to the KOIVOV, contemplated as also the dtcddaprov (Heb. ix. 
 13; Rom. xiv. 14, 20). 
 
 It may then be affirmed in conclusion, that as the 
 Christian is stXticpiv^s, this grace in him will exclude all 
 double-mindedness, the divided heart (Jam. i. 8 ; iv. 8), 
 the eye not single (Matt. vi. 22), all hypocrisies (i Pet. 
 ii. i) ; while, as he is icadapos rfj KapSia, by this are ex- 
 cluded the /Litao-ynara (2 Pet. ii. 20 ; cf. Tit. i. 15), the 
 u,o\vcrp.6s (2 Cor. vii. l),the pvTrapla (Jam. i. 21 ; I Pet. 
 iii. 21 ; Rev. xxii. ii) of sin. In the first is predicated 
 his freedom from the falsehoods, in the second from the 
 defilements, of the flesh and of the world. If freedom 
 from foreign admixture belongs to both, yet is it a more 
 primary notion in ei\LKpivr)$, being probably wrapt up in 
 the etymology of the word, a more secondary and super- 
 induced notion in icadapos. 
 
 Ixxxvi. Tr6\fjios, fjid^rj. 
 
 IloXs/iosand f^d^rj occur often together (Homer, II. i. 177 ; 
 v. 891 ; Plato, Tim. ige-, Job xxxviii. 23 ; Jam. iv. i); and 
 in like manner TroXspstv and /nd^scrdai. There is the same 
 difference between them as between our own ' war ' and 
 ' battle ' ; 6 iroXepos TIsXaTrovwrja-iatcos, the Peloponnesian 
 War ; rj ev MapaQwvi payy, tne battle f Marathon. Deal- 
 ing with the words in this antithesis, namely that 7r6\/j,os 
 embraces the whole course of hostilities, ^d^rj the actual 
 shock in arms of hostile armies, Pericles, dissuading the
 
 LXXXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 323 
 
 Athenians from yielding to the demands of the Spartans, 
 admits that these with their allies were a match for all the 
 other Greeks together in a single battle, but denies that 
 they would retain tli3 same superiority in a war, that is, 
 against such as had their preparations of another kind 
 (fJ'd-^rj psv jap fiia irpbs diravras " E\\ijva$ Bvvarol He\o- 
 jrovvrjcriot Kal ol ^vfj./jia'^ot avricf^slv, TroXsfjiSiv Bs firj irpos 
 o^oiav dvTtTrapaa-KEvrjv dSvvaroi, Thucydides, i. 141). "We 
 may compare Tacitus, Germ. 30 : ' Alios ad prselium ire 
 videas, Chattos ad bellum.' 
 
 But besides this, while TroXe/nos and iro\fjistv remain 
 true to their primary meaning, and are not transferred to 
 any secondary, it is altogether otherwise with /j^d^ij and 
 ^d^scrdai. Contentions which fall very shert of the shock 
 of arms are continually designated by these words. There 
 are pd^ai of every kind : spwriKai (Xenophon, Hiero, i. 
 35); vo/jbiKat (Tit. iii. 9; cf. 2 Tim. ii. 23) ; Xoyo/ia^i'at (i 
 Tim. vi. 4) ; <TKiafji,a^iat: and compare John vi. 5 2 ; 2 Tim. 
 ii. 24; Prov. xxvi. 20, 21. Eustathius (on Homer, II. i. 
 177) expresses these differences well : TO 7r6\/j,ol TS i^d-^ai 
 re, 77 SK 7rapa\\ri\ov 8rj\oi TO avro, r) Kal Biafopd TIS scrrt, 
 Tals \ef;<Tiv, siys fid^srat fisv ns Kal Xoyois, <uy Kal r; 
 Srj\ol. Kal avrbs $s 6 TTOL^rrjs per' 6\tya fyya-i, 
 STTSSO-O-I, (ver. 304). Kal d\\o)s Ss p-d^ psv, 
 avrr) 17 rwv dvSpwv (rvvsicrftoKr) ' 6 8s 7roX,f/ioy Kal e-rrl 
 Trapard^saiv KCU /ia-^t/iou Katpov \sysrat. Tittmann (De 
 Synon. in N. T. p. 66) : ' Conveniunt igitur in eo quod 
 dimicationem, contentionem, pugnam denotant, sed iro\s- 
 JJLOS et jrdXsfjislv de pugna quse manibus fit proprie dicuntur, 
 /Md%r) autem et ^d^aQai de quacunque contentione, etiam 
 animorum, etiamsi non ad verbera et csedes pervenerit. 
 In illis igitur ipsa pugna cogitatur, in his sufficit cogitare 
 de contentione, quam pugna plerumque sequitur.' 
 
 I may observe before quitting this subject that a-rdo-ts 
 (Mark xv. 7 ; Luke xxiii. 19; Actsxxiv. 5 ; cf. Sophocles, 
 CEdip. Col. 1228), insurrection or sedition, is by Plato 
 
 Y 2
 
 324 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXVII. 
 
 distinguished from TroXs/ios, in that the one is a civil and 
 the other a foreign strife (Rep. v. 470 &) : e TT\ yap rfj rov 
 OIKSLOV s^dpa <rrd<ris /ceK\r)Tai,, STrl 8s ry rwv 
 
 Ixxxvii. irddos, sTrtOvf^la, 0/9/177, opsgis. 
 
 occurs three times in the N. T. ; once coordinated 
 with sTridvpla (Col. iii. 5 ; for Trad^ara and eindv^Lai in 
 like manner joined together see Gal. v. 24) ; once subor- 
 dinated to it (irddos sTnOvpiaS) I Thess. iv. 5) ; while on. 
 the other occasion of its use (Eom. i. 26), the irddr) drtplas 
 (" vile affections," A. Y.) are tosts that dishonour those 
 who indulge in them. The word belongs to the ter- 
 minology of the Greek Schools. Thus Cicero (Tusc. Qucest. 
 iv. 5) : ' Quse Grseci irdffri vocant, nobis perturbationes 
 appellari magis placet quam morbos ; ' on this preference 
 see iii. 10 ; and presently after he adopts Zeno's definition, 
 'aversa a recta ratione, contra naturam, animi commotio;* 
 and elsewhere (Offic. ii. 5), 'motus animi turbatus.' The 
 exact definition of Zeno, as given by Diogenes Laertius, is 
 as follows (vii. I. 63) : earn 8s avro TO irddos rj aXoyos KOL 
 irapa <$v(Tiv tyvxns Kivrjcris, r) op/j,r) Tr\ovd^ovara. Clement 
 of Alexandria has this in his mind when, distinguishing 
 between 0/3/1,77 and Trades, he writes (Strom, ii. 13) : opfjurj 
 /JLSV ovv <j)0pd Siavoias siri Ttrj drro rov iraQos &s, 7r\sovd- 
 %ov<ra op/jur], 77 vTrsprscvovaa TO, Kara rov \6yov H.ST pa,' rj op/J-rj 
 sK(j)pofji,svrj, KOI dTrei6r)s\6yq>(see7ie\ler,Philos. d. Griechen^. 
 iii. i. 208). 
 
 So far as the N. T, is concerned, Traces nowhere obtains 
 that wide sense which it thus obtained in the Schools ; a 
 sense so much wider than that ascribed to sTridvpia, that 
 this last was only regarded as one of the several Trddrj of 
 our nature, being coordinated with 0/97*7, ^>o/3os, and the 
 rest (Aristotle, Eth. Nic. ii. 5, 2 ; Diogenes Laertius, vii. i. 
 67). ' 'E,Tri0vfjLia, on the contrary, in Scripture is the larger 
 word, including the whole world of active lusts and desires,
 
 LXXXVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 325 
 
 nil to which the a-dpj;, as the seat of desire and of the 
 natural appetites, impels ; while the Trades is rather the 
 
 * morosa delectatio,' not so much the soul's disease in its 
 more active operations, as the diseased condition out of 
 which these spring, the ' morbus libidinis,' as Bengel has 
 put it well, rather than the * libido,' the ' lustfulness ' 
 {' Leidenschaft ') as distinguished from the ' Lust.' Theo- 
 phylact : ird6os 77 \vaaa TOV crut^aTos, KOL waTrsp irvpsros, rj 
 Tpavfia, 77 d\\rj VOGOS. Godet (on Rom. i. 26) : * Le t-erme 
 "irdQifi, passions, a quelque chose de plus ignoble encore que 
 <?elui de sTridvpiai, convoitises, au ver. 24; car il ren- 
 ferme une notion plus prononcee de passivite morale, de 
 honteux esclavage.' 
 
 'E7rt$v/it'a, being TOV rjosos ops^is, as Aristotle (Rhet. i. 
 II), aXoyos opsgis, as the Stoics, 'imuioderata appetitio 
 opinati magni boni, rationi non obtemperans,' as Cicero 
 {Tusc. Qucest. iii. n) defined it, is rendered for the most 
 part in our Translation ' lust' (Mark iv. 19, and often) ; 
 but sometimes 'concupiscence' (Rom. vii. 8; Col. iii. 5), 
 and sometimes ' desire ' (Luke xxii. 15; Phil. i. 23). It 
 appears now and then, though rarely, in the N. T. in a 
 good sense (Luke xxii. 15 ; Phil. i. 23 ; I Thess. ii. 17 ; cf. 
 Prov. x. 24 ; Ps. cii. 5) ; much oftener in a bad ; not as 
 
 * concupiscentia ' merely, but as ' prava concupiscentia,' 
 which Origen (in Joan. torn, x.) affirms to be the only 
 sense which in the Greek Schools it knew (but see Ari- 
 stotle, Rhet. i. Ii) ; thus sTridv/jila /ca/o? (Col. iii. 5); STTL- 
 
 (TapiciKai (I Pet. ii. II) ; vswrspiical (2 Tim. ii. 22) ; 
 l f-faaftspal (i Tim. vi. 9); Koo-fjuiicai (Tit. ii. 12) ; 
 fydopas (2 Pet. i. 4) ; /uaoyioi) (2 Pet. ii. IO) ; dvdpwTrwv 
 (l Pet. iv. 2); TOV aa)/j,aTo$ (Rom. vi. 12); TOV Sta/36~\.ov 
 (John viii. 44) ; Trjs aTrar^y (Ephes. iv. 22); Trjs (rap/cos 
 (I Johnii. 16); T&V o<j>0a\f*,a>v (ibid.)-, and without a quali- 
 fying epithet (Rom. vii. 7; I Pet.iv. 3 ; Jude 16; cf. Gen. 
 xlix. 6 ; Ps. cv. 14). It is then, as Vitringa, in a disserta- 
 tion De Concupiscentia Vitiosd et Damnabili (Obss. Sac. p.
 
 326 SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. LXXXVIU 
 
 598 sqq.), defines it, 'vitiosa ilia voluntatis affectio, qua 
 fertur ad appetendum quse illicite usurpantur; aut quse 
 licite usurpantur, appetit drd/crcos',' this same evil sense 
 being ascribed to it in such definitions as that of Clement 
 of Alexandria (Strom, ii. 20) : efaa-LS teal opsgis aXoyos TOV 
 Ksxapi(T/jt,evov avTrj. Compare iv. 18: opsgiv ovv sTridvpias 
 BiaKptvovatv ol frspl ravra Ssivoi' teal rrjv p,sv, STT\ rjBovals /cal 
 dicoKavia rdrTovcnv, d\oyov ovaav TTJV Bs opsgiv, sirl rwv 
 Kara <f>vcriv dvay/calcov, \ojifcrjv VTrdp%ov<rav Kiwrjcrtv. In 
 these Ssivoi he of course mainly points to Aristotle (thus 
 see Rhet. i. 10). Our English word 'lust,' once harmless 
 enough (thus see Deut. vii. 7, Coverdale's Version, and my 
 Select Glossary, s. v.), has had very much the same history. 
 The relation in which sTriOvpia stands to jrdQos it has been 
 already sought to trace. 
 
 'O/J/Z77, occurring twice in the N. T. (Acts xiv. 5 ; Jam. 
 iii. 4), and opsgis, occurring once (Rom. i. 27), are else- 
 where often found together ; thus in Plutarch (De Amor. 
 Prol. i; De Rect. Rat. And. 18; where see Wytten- 
 bach's note) ; and by Eusebius (Prcep. Evang. xiv. 765 d}. 
 'Oppri, rendered by Cicero on one occasion 'appetitio* 
 (Off. ii. 5), ' appetitus animi ' on another (Fin. v. 7), is thus 
 defined by the Stoics (Plutarch, De Repugn. Stoic. 1 1 : f) op^rj 
 TOV dvOpfOTrov \6<yos eo"rt TTpocrraKTiKOf ayr&> TOV TTOISIV. 
 They explain it further as this ' motus animi,' tfropa T|ry^7> 
 eiri n (see Zeller, Philos. d. Griechen, iii. i. 206), which, if 
 toward a thing is opsfys, if from it efCK\i(ris. When our 
 Translators render op^ ' assault ' (Acts xiv. 5), they 
 ascribe to it more than it there implies. Manifestly there 
 was no ' assault ' actually made on the house where Paul 
 and Barnabas abode; for in such a case it would have 
 been very superfluous for St. Luke to tell us that they 
 " were ware " of it ; but only a purpose and intention of 
 assault or onset, ' Trieb,' * Drang,' as Meyer gives it. And 
 in the same way at Jam. iii. 4, the opfiij of the pilot is not 
 the ' impetus brachioruin,' but the * studium et conatus-
 
 LXXXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 327 
 
 voluntatis.' Compare for this use of 6pfj,ij, Sophocles, 
 Philoct. 237 ; Plutarch, De Red. Rat. And. I ; Prov. iii. 
 25 ; and the many passages in which op/jLij is joined with 
 Trpoaipscris (Josephus, Antt. xix. 6. 3). 
 
 But while the opfjuj is thus oftentimes the hostile motion 
 and spring toward an object, with a purpose of propelling 
 and repelling it still further from itself, as for example 
 the oppri of the spear, of the assaulting host, the opegis 
 (from opsjsaBat,) is always the reaching out after and 
 toward an object, with a purpose of drawing that after 
 which it reaches to itself, and making it its own. Very 
 commonly the word is used to express the appetite for 
 food (Plutarch, De Frat. Am. 2; Symp. vi. 2. i) ; so too 
 ' orexis ' in the Latin of the silver age (Juvenal, Sat. vi. 
 427; xi. 127); in the Platonic Definitions (414 &) philo- 
 sophy is described as rrjs rwv OVTOJV asl 7rio'T)j/j,r)s ops!;L9. 
 After what vile enjoyments the heathen, as judged by St. 
 Paul, are regarded as reaching out, and seeking to make 
 these their own, is sufficiently manifest from the context 
 of the one passage in the N. T. where ops^is occurs (Eom. 
 i. 27; cf. Plutarch, Qucest. Nat. 21). 
 
 Ixxxviii. Ispos, ocrioy, ayios, ayvos. 
 
 'Ispos, probably the same word as the German ' hehr ' 
 (see Curtius, Grundzilge, vol. v. p. 369), never in the N. T., 
 and very seldom elsewhere, implies any moral excellence. 
 It is singular how seldom the word is found there, indeed 
 only twice (i Cor. ix. 13; 2 Tim. iii. 15) ; and only once 
 in the Septuagint (Josh. vi. 8 : Ispal a-d\7nyyss} ; four times 
 in 2 Maccabees, but not else in the Apocrypha ; being in 
 none of these instances employed of persons, who only are 
 moral agents, but always of things. To persons the word 
 elsewhere also is of rarest application, though examples 
 are not wanting. Thus ispbs avQpwjros is in Aristophanes 
 (Ranee, 652) a man initiated in the mysteries ; kings for
 
 328 SFNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXVIII. 
 
 Pindar (Pyth, v. 97 [Diss., 131 Heyn.]) are ispoi, as having 
 their dignity from the gods ; for Plutarch the Indian 
 gymnosophists are avSpss Ispol KOI avrovofj-ot (De Alex. 
 Fort. i. 10); and again {De Gen. Socr. 20), Ispol /ecu Sai- 
 fjLoviot avflpcoTToi : and compare De Def. Orac. 2. '\spos (reo 
 Osw avarsOst/^svos, Suidas) answers very closely to the Latin 
 ' sacer ' (' quidquid destinatum est diis sacrum vocatur '), 
 to our * sacred.' It is that which may not be violated, 
 the word therefore being constantly linked with aftsftrfkos 
 (Plutarch, Qiicest. Rom. 27), with a/3aros (Ibid.)., with 
 aavkos (De Gen. Socr. 24) ; this its inviolable character 
 springing from its relations, nearer or remoter, to God; 
 and Oslos and Ispos being often joined together (Plato, Tim. 
 45 a). At the same time the relation is contemplated 
 merely as an external one ; thus Pillon (Syn. Grecs) : ' ayios 
 exprime 1'idee de saintete naturelle et interieure ou 
 morale ; tandis qu' Ispos, conime le latin sacer, n'exprime 
 que 1'idee de saintete exterieure ou d'inviolabilite con- 
 sacree par les lois ou la coutume.' See, however, Sopho- 
 cles, CEdip. Col. 287, which appears an exception to the 
 absolute universality of this rule. Tittman : * In voce 
 ispos proprie nihil aliud cogitatur, quam quod res qusedam 
 aut persona Deo sacra sit, nulla ingenii morumque ratione 
 habita; imprimis quod sacris inservit.' Thus the Ispsvs 
 is a sacred person, as serving at God's altar ; but it is not 
 in the least implied that he is a holy one as well ; he may 
 be a Hophni, a Caiaphas, an Alexander Borgia (Grinfield, 
 ScTiol. in N. T., p. 397). The true antithesis to Ispos is 
 ySeyST/Xos (Plutarch, Qucest. Rom. 27), and, though not so 
 perfectly antithetic, fnapos (2 Mace. v. 16). 
 
 "Oaios is oftener grouped with SIKCLIOS for purposes of 
 discrimination, than with the words here associated with 
 it; and undoubtedly the two constantly keep company 
 together; thus in Plato often (Thecct. 176 &; Rep. x. 615 
 6; Legg. ii. 663 fc) ; in Josephus (Antt. viii. 9. i), and in 
 the N. T. (Tit. i. 8) ; and so also the derivatives from these ;
 
 LXXXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 329 
 
 oa-lojs and Siicaiws (i Thess. ii. 10) ; oaiorrjs and SiKaiovvvrj 
 (Plato, Prot. 329 c; Luke i. 75 ; Ephes. iv. 24; Wisd. ix. 
 3 ; Clement of Rome, Cor. 48) . The distinction too has 
 been often urged that the ocrios is one careful of his duties 
 toward God, the BUatos toward men ; and in classical 
 Greek no doubt we meet with many passages in which 
 such a distinction is either openly asserted or implicitly 
 involved : as in an often quoted passage from Plato (Gorg. 
 507 &) : fcal firjv Trspl rovs av6pu>irovs ra rrpocn^Kovra 
 Trpdrrojv, Si/cai' av Trpdrroi, Trspl Bs dsovs ocria. 1 Of So- 
 crates, Marcus Antoninus says (vii. 66), that he was Sifcaios 
 ra Trpbs avdputirovs, ocrios ra irpos Bsovs : cf. Plutarch, 
 Demet. 24 ; Charito, i. 10. 4 ; and a large collection of pas- 
 sages in Rost and Palm's Lexicon, s. v. There is nothing, 
 however, which warrants the transfer of this distinction to 
 the N. T., nothing which would restrict Bi/caios to him who 
 should fulfil accurately the precepts of the second table 
 (thus see Luke i. 6; Rom. i. 17; i John ii. i) ; or oaios to 
 him who should fulfil the demands of the first (thus see 
 Acts ii. 27; Heb. vii. 26). It is beforehand unlikely that 
 such distinction should there find place. In fact the Scrip- 
 ture, which recognizes all righteousness as one, as growing 
 out of a single root, and obedient to a single law, gives no 
 room for such an antithesis as this. He who loves his 
 brother, and fulfils his duties towards him, loves him in 
 God and for God. The second great commandment is not 
 coordinated with the first greatest, but subordinated to, 
 and in fact included in, it (Mark xii. 30, 31). 
 
 If ispos is 'sacer,' ocrios is 'sanctus' ( = 'sancitus '), 
 'quod sanctione antiqua et prsecepto firmatum* (cf. Augus- 
 
 1 Not altogether so in the Euthyphro, where Plato regards TO Siiaiiov, 
 or 8iKaioo-vvtj, as the sum total of all virtue, of which oo-to'rqr or piety is 
 a part. In this Dialogue, which is throughout a discussion on the oariov, 
 Plato makes Euthyphro to say (12 e) : TOVTO TOLVVV e/xotye SOKCI, & 2o>- 
 KpaTfs, TO fiepos TOV diKaiov tlvai fio-ffies re nal oa-iov, TO ire pi TIJV TWV 6t5>v 
 BfpajTfiav TO Se Ttepl TTJV TU>V avdputtrav TO \wirov dvai TOV ftiKaiov fitpos. 
 Socrates admits and allows this ; indeed, has himself forced him to it.
 
 330 SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. LXXXVIII. 
 
 tine, De Fid. et Symb. 19), as opposed to < pollutus/ 
 Some of the ancient grammarians derive it from afecrdai, 
 the Homeric synonym for crsBsadai, rightly as regards 
 sense, but wrongly as regards etymology ; the derivation 
 indeed of the word remains very doubtful (see Pott, Etym. 
 Forschung. vol. i. p. 126). In classical Greek it is far more 
 frequently used of things than of persons; oo-t'a, with 
 ftovXi] or Si/cij understood, expressing the everlasting or- 
 dinances of right, which no law or custom of men has 
 constituted, for they are anterior to all law and custom ; 
 and rest on the divine constitution of the moral universe 
 and man's relation to this, on that eternal law which, in 
 the noble words of Chrysippus, is irdvrtav ftaa-tXsvs dsiwv 
 TS teal dvdpwTrivwv Trpajf^aToiv : cf. Euripides, Hecuba, 799 
 Soi. Thus Homer (Odyss. xvi. 423): ouS' 00-477 KUKO, pdirTsiv 
 a\\ij\oi(riv. The ocrioy, the German ' fromm,' is one who 
 reverences these everlasting sanctities, and owns their ob- 
 ligation ; the word being joined with vcr^rjs(2 Mace. xii. 
 45), with svopKos (Plato, Rep. ii. 363 d), with dstos (Plutarch, 
 De Def. Orac. 40) ; more than once set over against STTL- 
 opKos (Xenophon, Anab. ii. 6. 25). Those things are avo<ria, 
 which violate these everlasting ordinances ; for instance, a 
 Greek regarded the Egyptian custom of marriage between 
 a brother and sister, still more the Persian between a 
 mother and son, as 'incestum' (incastum), /j.r}Sa/j.w$ oa-ia 
 as Plato (Legg. viii. 838 b) calls them, mixtures which no 
 human laws could ever render other than abominable. 
 Such, too, would be the omission of the rites of sepulture 
 by those from whom they were due, when it was possible to 
 pay them ; if Antigone, for instance, in obedience to the 
 edict of Creon, had suffered the body of her brother to 
 remain unburied (Sophocles, Antig. 74). What the oa-iov 
 is, and what are its obligations, has never been more 
 nobly declared than in the words which the poet puts into 
 her mouth:
 
 LXXXVIII. S FNON YMS OF THE NE W TES TAMENT. 3 3 1 
 
 ov&e crdevfiv rocrovrov aofjirjv ra era 
 
 KT]pvyfj.aff , WOT' aypatrra (cd(T0uAf} 0fS>v 
 
 vvp.ip.a 8vva(T0ai dvrjTov ov6' virtpdpandv (453~ 5). 
 
 Compare an instructive passage in Thucydides, ii. 52, 
 where Ispd and ovia occur together, Plato in like manner 
 (Legg. ix. 878 6) joining them with one another. This 
 character of the oaiov as anterior and superior to all 
 human enactments, puts the same antithesis between oa-ia 
 and vofiifia as exists between the Latin ' fas ' and 'jus.' 
 
 When we follow oa-ios to its uses in sacred Greek, we 
 find it. as was inevitable, gaining in depth and intensity of 
 meaning ; but otherwise true to the sense which it already 
 had in the classical language. We have a striking testi- 
 mony for the distinction which, in the minds of the Sep- 
 tuagint translators at least, existed between it and ayios, 
 in the very noticeable fact, that while oaios is used some 
 thirty times as the rendering of *rpn (Deut. xxxiii. 8 ; 
 2 Sam. xxii. 26; Ps. iv. 4), and aytos nearly a hundred 
 times as that of Bnii? (Exod. xix. 6 ; Num. vi. 5 ; Ps. xv. 
 3), in no single instance is oa-ios used for this, or cryios- 
 for that ; and the same law holds good, I believe, univer- 
 sally in the conjugates of these ; and, which is perhaps 
 more remarkable still, of the other Greek words which are 
 rarely and exceptionally employed to render these two, 
 none which is used for the one is ever used for the other ; 
 thus Kadapos, used for the second of these Hebrew words 
 (Num. v. 17), is never employed for the first; while, on 
 the other hand, s\s^fj.(ov (Jer. iii. 12), TTO\VS\SOS (Exod. 
 xxxiv. 6), sv\a/3ijs (Mic. vii. 2), used for the former, are in 
 no single instance employed for the latter. 
 
 "A7ioy=B ? ni5 (on the etymology of which word see the 
 article in Herzog's Real-Encyclopadie, Heiligkeit Gottes) 
 and ajvos have been often considered different forms of 
 one and the same word. At all events, they have in 
 common that root 'AF, reappearing as the Latin ' sac ' in 
 * sacer,' ' sancio,' and many other words. It will thus be
 
 332 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXVIII. 
 
 only natural that they should have much in common, 
 even while they separate off, and occupy provinces of 
 meaning which are clearly distinguishable one from the 
 other. "Ayios is a word of rarest use in Attic Greek, 
 though Porson is cert linly in error when he says (on Euri- 
 pides, Med. 750; and compare Pott, Etymol. Forsch.vol. 
 iii. p. 577) that it i . never used by the tragic poets ; for 
 see JEschylus, tiuppl. 85 1. Its fundamental idea is separa- 
 tion, and, so to speak, consecration and devotion to the 
 service of Deity ; thus tspbv /j,d\a ayiov, a very holy temple 
 (Xenophon, Hell. iii. 2. 19) ; it ever lying in the word, as 
 in the Latin ' sacer,' that this consecration may be as 
 dvd6r)fj,a or avdOspa (see back, page 1 6). Note in this 
 point of view its connexion with dyrjs, ayos : which last it 
 may be well to observe is recognized now not as another 
 form of ayos, and as being indeed no more than the Ionic 
 form of the same word, but fundamentally distinct (Curtius, 
 Grundziige, p. 155 sqq.). But the thought lies very near, 
 that what is set apart from the world and to God, should 
 separate itself from the world's defilements, and should 
 share in God's purity ; and in this way ayios speedily ac- 
 quires a moral significance. The children of Israel must 
 be an Wvos ayiov, not merely in the sense of being God's 
 inheritance, a Xaoy Trspiovcrios, but as separating them- 
 selves from the abominations of the heathen nations round 
 (Lev. xix. 2 ; xi. 44) ; while God Himself, as the absolutely 
 separate from evil, as repelling from Himself every possi- 
 bility of sin or defilement, and as warring against these 
 in every one of his creatures, 1 obtains this title of ay LOS by 
 highest right of all (Lev. x. 3 ; I Sam. ii. 2 ; Rev. iii. 7 ; 
 iv. 8). 
 
 It is somewhat different with dyvos. 'Ayveia (i Tim. 
 
 1 When Quenstedt defines the holiness of God as ' sunirua omnis labis 
 expers in Deo puritas,' this, true as far as it goes, is not exhaustive. One 
 side of this holiness, namely, its intolerance of unholiiiess and active war 
 against it, is not brought out.
 
 LXXXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 333 
 
 iv. 12; v. 2) in the Definitions which go by Plato's name 
 too vaguely and too superficially explained (414 a) sv\d/3sia 
 rwv 7r/>09 rovs Osovs dpaprrjfidT(av rrjs 0sov rifj,f)$ Kara 
 <f>vcriv OspaTTSia : too vaguely also by Clement of Alexandria 
 as rwv dfjLapTr]/j,dro)v ajro^, or again as (ppovsiv o<ria (Strom. 
 v. l); 1 is better defined as sTriTdGis crax^poa'vvris by Suidas 
 (it is twice joined with vw^poavvrj in the Apostolic Fathers : 
 Clement of Eome, Cor. 64 ; Ignatius, Ephes. 20), as s\sv- 
 Ospia Travrbs /ioXuoyioO (rap/cos Kal irvsvp-aros by Phavorinus. 
 'Ayvos (joined with dftlavros. Clement of Eome, Cor. 29) 
 is the pure ; sometimes only the externally or ceremonially 
 pure, as in this line of Euripides, 071/0$ yap slfit %eipa$, 
 a\V ov rds <f>psvas (Orestes, 1604; cf. Hippotytus, 316, 317, 
 and ayvi&tv as = ' expiare,' Sophocles, Ajax, 640). This 
 last word never rises higher in the Septuagint than to 
 signify a ceremonial purification (Josh. iii. 5 ; 2 Chron. 
 xxix. 5 ; cf. 2 Mace. i. 33) ; neither does it rise higher in 
 four out of the seven occasions on which it occurs in the 
 1ST. T. (John xi. 55; Acts xxi. 24, 26 ; xxiv. 1 8, which is 
 also true of dyvia-fAos, Acts xxi. 26). ' Ayi>os however sig- 
 nifies often the pure in the highest sense. It is an epithet 
 frequently applied to heathen gods and goddesses, to 
 Ceres, to Proserpine, to Jove (Sophocles, Philoct. 1273) ; 
 to the Muses (Aristophanes, Ranee, 875 ; Pindar, Olymp. 
 vii. 60 [Diss., 109 Heyn.], and Dissen's note); to the Sea- 
 nymphs (Euripides, Tphig. in Aid. 982) ; above all in Homer 
 to Artemis, the virgin goddess, and in Holy Scripture to 
 God Himself (i John iii. 3). For this nobler use of dyvos 
 in the Septuagint, where, however, it is excessively rare as 
 compared to ayios, see Ps. xi. 7 ; Prov. xx. 9. As there are 
 no impurities like those fleshly, which defile the body and 
 
 1 In the vestibule of the temple of JSsculapius at Epidaurus were 
 inscribed these lines, which rank among the noblest utterances of the 
 ancient world. They are quoted by Theophrastus in a surviving frag- 
 ment of his work, Hept Euo-ejSei'as : 
 
 dyvov xpfj vaidio 0v<a8eos fvros lovra 
 ' , '.< (fjLfjLfvai- &yvtir) 8' eart tppovflv ocria.
 
 334 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXIX. 
 
 the spirit alike (i Cor. vi. 1 8, 19), so djvos is an epithet pre- 
 dominantly employed to express freedom from these (Plu- 
 tarch, Prcec. Cunj. 44 ; Qucest. Rom. 20 ; Tit. ii. 5 ; cf. 
 Herzog, Beal-Encyclop. s. v. Keuschheit) ; while some- 
 times in a still more restricted sense it expresses, not 
 chastity merely, but virginity; as in the oath taken by 
 the priestesses of Bacchus (Demosthenes, Adv. Neceram, 
 1371): sl/Jil KaOapa KOI dyvrj air* dv&pos crvvovcrias: with 
 which compare dtcrfpaTos <ydiiwv re djvos (Plato, Legg. viii. 
 840 e ; and Euripides, Hippolytus, 1016) ; dyvsta too some- 
 times owns a similar limitation (Ignatius, ad Polyc. 5). 
 
 If what has been said is correct, Joseph, when tempted 
 to sin by his Egyptian mistress (Gen. xxxix. 7-12), ap- 
 proved himself oVtos, in reverencing those everlasting 
 sanctities of the marriage bond, which God had founded, 
 and which man could not violate without sinning against 
 Him : " How can I do this great wickedness and sin 
 against God ? " he approved himself ayios in that he 
 separated himself from any unholy fellowship with his 
 temptress ; he approved himself dyvos in that he kept his 
 body pure and undenled. 
 
 Ixxxix. (f)0}v^ Xoyos. 
 
 ON these words, and on their relation to one another, very 
 much has been written by the Greek grammarians and 
 natural philosophers (see Lersch, Sprachphilosophie der 
 Alten, vol. iii. pp. 35, 45, and passim). 
 
 <E>o>i>77, from </>a&>, &>y <f>ftmbu<7a TO voovpevov (Plutarch, 
 De Plac. Phil. 19), rendered in our Version 'voice' (Matt. 
 ii. 18), 'sound' (John iii. 8), < noise' (Eev. vi. i), is dis- 
 tinguished from -^6(os, in that it is the cry of a living 
 creature (77 8s <fxovT) -ty-ofyos ris scrnv e/i-vjrir^ou, Aristotle, De 
 Anima, 2. 8. 14), being sometimes ascribed to God (Matt. 
 iii. 17), to men (Matt. iii. 3), to animals (Rev. ix. 9), and, 
 though improperly, to inanimate objects as well (i Cor.
 
 LXXXIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 335 
 
 xiv. 7), as to the trumpet (Matt. xxiv. 31), to the wind 
 (John iii. 8), to the thunder (Rev. vi. I ; cf. Ps. Ixxvi. 19). 
 But \6yos, a word, saying, or rational utterance of the vovs, 
 whether spoken (irpofopifeos, and thus ^xavrj rwv \6ywv, 
 Dan. vii. 1 1) or unspoken (sv8tddsTos\ being, as it is, the cor- 
 relative of reason, can only be predicated of men (\6yov 
 Kcivwvst /jiovov dv6pa)7ros, ra Be aAAa (f)(ovr)S, Aristotle, Probl. 
 ii. 55), of angels, or of God. The <f)wvij may be a mere inarti- 
 culate cry, and this whether proceeding from man or from 
 any other animal ; and therefore the definition of the Stoics 
 (Diogenes Laertius, vii. I. 38. 55) will not stand: cooy 
 
 fJLSV SCTTl (f)Ci)VT) dr)p VTTO OpfjLrjS 7T7r\rjyfJ,SVOf, dv0p(l)TTOV oV 
 
 SCTTIV svapdpos Kal diro 8iavolas SK7re/j,7ro/j,svrj. They transfer 
 here to the $wvf\ what can only be constantly affirmed of 
 the \6yos ; indeed, whenever it sought to set the two in 
 sharp antithesis with one another, this, that the (fxovrj is a 
 TTvsvfJia dSidpOpwTov, is the point particularly made. It is 
 otherwise with the \6yos, of which the Stoics themselves 
 say, \oyos 8s io-ri <f)(ovrj a"r)/jiavTiKr), a?ro Siavolas s 
 (ibid.}, a,s of the \sysiv that it is TO rrjv voovpsvov 
 TOS (TijfAavTiicrjv 7rpo(f)spscr0ai, (fxovrjv. Compare Plutarch 
 (De Anim. Proc. 7) ' <f>o)vij TLS scrnv aXoyos Kal d&ijfjiavTos, 
 \6<yos 8s \%is sv fywvr) a-q/jiavTiKf) Siavotas. 1 His treatise 
 De Genio Socratis has much on the relations of <fxavij and 
 \6<yosf to one another, and on the superior functions of the 
 latter. By such an unuttered 'word' he affirms the 
 Demon of Socrates to have intimated his presence (c. 20) : 
 TO 8s TrpoaTTiTTTOv, ov (f)6jjov, d\\d \6yov dv ns sltcdo-sis 
 8aifAOVos, dvsv (fxovfjs s^arrTO/JiSvov avrw rw 8^\ovfjLva> rov 
 voovvros. 11X7777} yap rj (fxovij Trpoasoitcs T?;y T/ru^y, 81,' 
 wrcov $ia rov \6yov slcrBs^ofisvijS) orav dX\ 
 vwjji&v. f O 8s rov Kpsirrovos vovs dyst rrjv sv(j>vd 
 STTidiyydvcov TO) voTjdsvn, 7r\rjyrjs /j,rj 8so/j,svriv. 
 
 1 On the distinction between Xo'yos and Xe'^u , which last does not 
 occur in the N.T., see Petavius, De Trin. vi. i. 6 ; and Lersch, Sprad*- 
 philosophie der Alien, vol. iii. p. 45-
 
 336 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXIX. 
 
 The whole chapter is one of deepest theological in- 
 terest ; the more so seeing that the great theologians of 
 the early Church, above all Origen in the Greek (in Joan. 
 torn. ii. 26), and Augustine in the Latin, loved to transfer 
 this antithesis of the (frwvij and the \6jos to John the 
 Baptist and his Lord, the first claiming for himself no 
 more than to be " the voice of one crying in the wilder- 
 ness " (John i. 23), the other emphatically declared to be 
 the Word which was with God, and was God (John i. i). 
 In drawing out the relations bet\veen John and his Lord 
 as expressed by these titles, the Voice and the Word, 
 'Vox' and 'Verbum,' (frwvr) and \6jos, Augustine traces 
 with a singular subtlety the manifold and profound fit- 
 nesses which lie in them for the setting forth of those 
 relations. A word, he observes, is something even without 
 a voice, for a word in the heart is as truly a word as after 
 it is outspoken ; while a voice is nothing, a mere un- 
 meaning sound, an empty cry, unless it be also the vehicle 
 of a word. But when they are thus united, the voice in a 
 manner goes before the .word, for the sound strikes the 
 ear before the sense is conveyed to the mind : yet while it 
 thus goes before it in this act of communication, it is not 
 really before it, but the contrary. Thus, when we speak, 
 the word in our hearts must precede the voice on our lips,, 
 which voice is yet the vehicle by which the word in us is 
 transferred to, and becomes also a word in, another ; but 
 this being accomplished, or rather in the very accomplish- 
 ment of this, the voice has passed away, exists no more ; 
 but the word which is planted now in the other's heart, 
 no less than in our own, abides. All this Augustine 
 transfers to the Lord and to his forerunner. John is 
 nothing without Jesus : Jesus just what before He was 
 without John : however to men the knowledge of Him 
 may have come through John. John the first in time, 
 and yet He who came after, most truly having been before, 
 him. John, so soon as he had accomplished his mission,
 
 xc. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 337 
 
 passing away, -having no continual significance for the 
 Church of God ; but Jesus, of whom he had told, and to 
 whom he witnessed, abiding for ever (8erm. 293. 3) : 
 'Johannes vox ad tempus, Christus Yerbum in principio 
 seternmn. Tolle verbum, quid est vox? Ubi nullus est 
 intellectus, inanis est strepitus. Vox sine verbo aurem. 
 pulsat, cor non sedificat. Verumtamen in ipso corde 
 nostro sedificando advertamus ordinem rerum. Si cogito 
 quid dicam, jam verbum est in corde meo : sed loqui ad te 
 volens, qusero queniadmoduui sit etiam in corde tuo, quod 
 jam est in meo. Hoc quaerens quoinodo ad te perveniat, 
 et in corde tuo insideat verbum quod jam est in corde meo, 
 assuuio vocem, et assumta voce loquor tibi : sonus vocis 
 ducit ad te intellectum verbi, et cum ad te duxit sonus 
 vocis intellectum verbi, sonus quidem ipse pertransit, 
 verbum autem quod ad te sonus perduxit, jam est in corde 
 tuo, nee recessit a meo.' Cf. Serm. 288. 3; 289. 3. 
 
 xc. \6yos, jjii)6os, 
 
 Aoyos is quite as often ' sermo ' as ' verbum,' a connected 
 discourse as a single word. Indeed, as is well known, 
 there was once no little discussion whether Aojos in its 
 very highest application of all (John i. I) should not 
 rather be rendered by ' Sermo ' than by ; Verbum ' ; on 
 which controversy see Petavius, De Trin. vi. I. 4-6. And, 
 not to dwell on this exceptional and purely theological 
 employment of \6yos, it is frequently in the N. T. employed 
 to express that word which by superemineut right deserves 
 the name, being, as it is, " the word of God " (Acts iv. 31), 
 " the word of the truth " (2 Tim. ii. 15) ; thus at Luke i. 
 2 ; Jam. i. 22 ; Acts vi. 4. As employed in this sense, it 
 may be brought into relations of likeness and unlikeness 
 with ftvdos, between which and \6jos there was at one 
 time but a very slight difference indeed, one however 
 
 z
 
 338 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xc. 
 
 which grew ever wider, until in the end a great gulf has 
 separated them each from the other. 
 
 There are three distinctly marked stages through 
 which jjLvdos has passed ; although, as will often happen, in 
 passing into later meanings it has not altogether renounced 
 and left behind its earlier. At the first there is nothing 
 of the fabulous, still less of the false, involved in it. It 
 stands on the same footing with pr)/j,a, STTOS, \6jos, and, as 
 its connexion with /j,vw, pvsa), nvtya sufficiently indicates, 
 must have signified originally the word shut up in the mind, 
 or muttered within the lips (see Creuzer, Symbolik, vol. iv. 
 p. 517); although of this there is no actual trace; for 
 already in Homer it appears as the spoken word ( II. xviii. 
 252), the tragic poets with such other as form their dic- 
 tion on Homer continuing so to employ it (thus ^Eschylus, 
 Eumen. 582; Euripides, Phoen. 455), and this at a time 
 when in Attic prose it had nearly or altogether exchanged 
 this meaning for another. 
 
 At the second stage of its history fivdos is already in a 
 certain antithesis to \6jos, although still employed in a 
 respectful, often in a very honourable, sense. It is the 
 mentally conceived as set over against the actually true. 
 Not literal fact, it is often truer than the literal truth, 
 involves a higher teaching; \6yos tysvSrjs, sltcovlfav rrjv 
 a\t]0iav (Suidas) ; \6yov ftvdos el/cwv KOI i8a)\6v scrrt (Plu- 
 tarch, Bell, an Pace clar. Athen. 4) . There is a \6yos sv 
 /j,v6y (' veritas quse in fabulse involucre latet,' as Wytten- 
 bach, Annott.in Plutarch, vol. ii. part I, p. 406, gives it), 
 which may have infinitely more value than much which is 
 actual fact, seeing that oftentimes, in Schiller's words, 
 
 ' a deeper import 
 
 Lurks in the legend told our infant years 
 Than lies upon the truth we live to learn.' 
 
 Mv0os had already obtained this significance in Herodotus 
 (ii. 45) and in Pindar (Olymp. i. 29; \_Diss. 47 Heyn.'\);
 
 xc. SYNONYMS OF THE XEW TESTAMENT. 339 
 
 and Attic prose, as has been observed, hardly knows any 
 other (Plato, Gorg. 523 a ; PJicedo, 6 1 a; Legg. ix. 872 d- y 
 Plutarch, De Ser. Num. Vind. 18 ; Symp. i. i. 4). 
 
 But in a world like ours the fable easily degenerates 
 into the falsehood. 
 
 'Tradition, Time's suspected register, 
 That wears out truth's best stories into tales,* 
 
 is ever at work to bring such a result about ; ' story/ tale/ 
 and other words not a few, attest this fact ; and at its 
 third stage /j,v0o<t is the fable, but not any more the fable 
 undertaking to be, and often being, the vehicle of some 
 lofty truth ; it is now the lying fable with all its false- 
 hood and all its pretences to be what it is not : Eustathius ; 
 fjivdos irap" 1 'OfAijpy 6 a7r\ws Xdyos, Trapa Bs rots varspov, o 
 tyevBrjS Kal 7T7rXatr/zeVoj, /cat a\r]6slas s")(wv s^acriv \6yos : 
 this being the only sense of nvdos which the N. T. knows 
 (in the Apocrypha it occurs but once, Ecclus. xx. 19; in 
 the Septuagint never). Thus we have there pvdoi 
 si9(l Tim. iv. 7);'IofSai'ot (Tit. i. 14); 
 (2 Pet. i. 16; cf. fj.vdot TTSTrXacr/ieVot, Diodorus Siculus, 
 i. 93) ; the other two occasions of the word's use (i Tina. i. 
 4 ; 2 Tim. iv. 4) being not less slighting and contemptuous. 
 * Legend,' a word of such honourable import at the be- 
 ginning, meaning, as it does, that worthy to be read, but 
 which has ended in designating ' a heap of frivolous and 
 scandalous vanities ' (Hooker), has had much the same 
 history as /xy^op; very similar influences having been at 
 work to degrade the one and the other. J. H. H. Schmidt 
 (Synonymik, vol. i. p. loo) traces the history of p.v6os 
 briefly and well : Mv0os ist zu der Bedeutung einer er- 
 dichteten Erzahlung gekommen, weil man den naiven 
 Glauben an die alten Ueberlieferungen, die ihren herge- 
 brachten Namen behielten, a.llmalig verloren hatte. So 
 wird denn fivdos wie \6yos der Wirklichkeit entgegen- 
 
 1
 
 340 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcr. 
 
 gesetzt, jedoch so dass man zugleich auf die Albernheit 
 und Unwahrscheinlichkeit der Erdichtung hindeuiet.' 
 
 It will thus be seen that \6yos and /j,vdos, which begin 
 their journey together, or at all events separated bj very 
 slight spaces, gradually part company, the antagonism 
 between them becoming ever stronger, till in the end they 
 stand in open opposition to one another, as words no less 
 than men must do, when they come to belong, one to the 
 kingdom of light and of truth, the other to that of darkness 
 and of lies. 
 
 xci. 
 
 THESE words have this in common, that they are all used 
 to characterize the supernatural works wrought by Christ 
 in the days of his flesh ; thus a-r^stov, John ii. 1 1 ; Acts ii. 
 19; rspas, Acts ii. 22; John iv. 48; ^vva^iis, Mark vi. 2 ; 
 Acts ii. 22 ; fj,syd\,eiov, Luke i. 49 ; svSogov, Luke xiii. 17 ; 
 Trapdo%ov, Luke v. 26; 6avp,d<riov,~M.&tt. xxi. 15 ; while the 
 first three and the most usual are in like manner employed 
 of the same supernatural works wrought in the power of 
 Christ by his Apostles (2 Cor. xii. 12) ; and of the lying 
 miracles of Antichrist no less (2 Thess. ii. 9). They will 
 be found, on closer examination, not so much to represent 
 different kinds of miracles, as miracles contemplated under 
 different aspects and from different points of view. 
 
 Tepas and crypsiov are often linked together in the N. T. 
 (John iv. 48; Acts ii. 22; iv. 30; 2 Cor. xii. 12); and 
 times out of number in the Septuagint (Exod. vii. 3,9; 
 Deut. iv. 34; Neh. ix. 10; Dan. vi. 27) ; the first = nnin, 
 and the second = H'lN ; often also in profane Greek, in 
 Josephus (Antt. xx. 8. 6 ; Bell. Jud. Proem. 1 1 ) ; in Plutarch 
 (Sept. Sap. Conv. 3) ; in Polybius (iii. 1 12. 8) ; in Philo (De 
 Vit. Mos. i. 1 6) ; and in others. The ancients were fond 
 of drawing a distinction between them, which however
 
 xci. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 341 
 
 will not bear a moment's serious examination. It is suf- 
 ficiently expressed in these words of Ammonius : rfyas 0-77- 
 fjislov 8ia(pspsi- TO pevyap Tspas-jrapa (frvaiv jiveTai, TO&S 
 crrjfj,stov Trap a <rvv ijOsiav ; and again by Theophylact (in 
 Rom, XV. 19) : Bia(f>pi os arj/^slov Kal Tspas T&> TO JJLSV crrj/jLStov 
 sv Tols Kara VGIV \s r ysa'dai, tcaivoTrpeTrws [ASVTOI ywofASVOts, 
 olov STTC TOV TTJV TrsvBspav Ylerpov TrvpsTTOvcrav svdsws 
 ladrjvai [Matt. viii. 15]? T O &e rspas ev rois fj,rj Kara (pvcriv, 
 olov TO TOV etc ysvSTrjs TV$\OV laQr\vai [John ix. 7] ; compai e 
 Suicer, Thes. s. v. a-^fislov. But in truth this distinction 
 breaks down so entirely the instant it is examined, as 
 Fritzsche, in a good note on Rom. xv. 19, has super- 
 abundantly shown, that it is difficult to understand how 
 so many, by repeating, have given allowance to it. An 
 earthquake, however rare, cannot be esteemed Trapa <$VCTLV. 
 cannot therefore, according to the distinction traced 
 above, be called a Tspas, while yet Herodotus (vi. 98) gives 
 this name to the single earthquake which in his experience 
 had visited Delos. As little can a serpent snatched up in 
 an eagle's talons and dropped in the midst of the Trojan 
 army be called beyond and beside nature, which yet 
 Homer (II. xii. 209) calls Aios Tspas alyioxoio. I notice 
 here that the Homeric idea of the ripas is carefully dis- 
 cussed by Nagelsbach, Homeriscke Theologie, p. 168 sqq. 
 On the other hand, beyond and beside nature are the 
 healing with a word of a man lame from his mother's 
 womb, the satisfying of many thousand men with a few 
 loaves, the raising of a man four days dead from the 
 grave, which all in Scripture go by the name of o-rjfjieia 
 (Acts iv. 1 6 ; John vi. 14 ; xi. 47) ; compare Plutarch, Sept. 
 Sap. Conv. 3, where a monstrous birth is styled both a Tepas 
 and a ar]p,slov. 
 
 It is plain then that the distinction must be sought 
 elsewhere. Origen has not seized it, who finds a prophetic 
 element in the crrjfiscov, which is wanting in the T^pas (in 
 Eom. xv. 19): ' Signa [o-^sla] appellantur in quibus cum sit
 
 342 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xci. 
 
 aliquid mirabile, indicatur qaoque aliquid futurum. Pro- 
 digia \rspara] vero in quibus tantummodo aliquid mira- 
 bile ostenditur.' Bather the same miracle is upon one 
 side a rspas, on another a a-ijiJ.siov, and the words most 
 often refer, not to different classes of miracles, but to 
 different qualities in the same miracles ; in the words 
 of Lampe (Comm. in Joh. vol. i. p. 513): 'Eadem enim 
 miracula dici possunt signet, quatenus aliquid seu occultum 
 seu futurum decent ; ekprodigia, quatenus aliquid extraor- 
 dinarium, quod stuporem excitat, sistunt. Hinc sequitur 
 signorutn notionem latius patere, quam prodigiorum. 
 Omnia prodigia sunt siyna, quia in ilium usum a Deo 
 dispensata, ut arcanum indicent. Sed omnia signa non 
 sunt prodigia, quia ad signaiidum res cselestes aliquaiido 
 etiam res communes adhibentur.' 
 
 Tispas, certainly not derived from rpsco, the terrifying, 
 but now put generally in connexion with rrjpsa), as being 
 that which for its extraordinary character is wont to be 
 observed and kept in the memory, is always rendered 
 'wonder' in our Version. It is the miracle regarded as 
 a startling, imposing, amazement-wakening portent or 
 prodigy; being elsewhere frequently used for strange 
 appearances in the heavens, and more frequently still for 
 monstrous births on the earth (Herodotus, vii. 57 ; Plato, 
 Crat. 393 fe). It is thus used very much with the same 
 meaning as the Latin ' inonstrum '^monestrum (Virgil, 
 JEn. ii. 1 7 1 : Nee dubiis ea signa dedit Tritonia monstris ') , 
 or the Homeric a-i]p.a (II. ii. 308 : svQ" 1 tydvr) /j,sya a-rj/^a, 
 SpaKtov). Origen (in Joh. torn. xiii. 60 ; in Rom. lib. x. 
 12) long ago called attention to the fact that the name 
 rspara is never in the N. T. applied to these words of 
 wonder, except in associationwith some other name. They 
 
 1 On the similar group of synonymous words in the Latin, Augustine 
 writes (De Civ. Dei, xxi. 8) : ' Monstra sane dicta perhibent a mon- 
 etrando, quod aliquid significando demonstrant, et ostenta ab ostendendo, 
 et portenta a portendendo, id est, praostendendo, et prc-diyia quod porro 
 dicant, id est, futura predicant.' Compare Cicero, Divin. i. 42.
 
 xci. SYNON7MS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 343 
 
 are often called a-rj/xtia, often Swapsis, often repara Kala-rj- 
 JJ.EIO,, more than once Tspara^ o^/zeta, KO,\ Svvdpsis, but never 
 rspara alone. The observation was well worth the making ; 
 for the fact which we are thus bidden to note is indeed 
 eminently characteristic of the miracles of the N. T. ; 
 namely, that a title, by which more than any other these 
 might seem to hold on to the prodigies and portents of 
 the heathen world, and to have something akin to them, 
 should thus never be permitted to appear, except in the 
 company of some other necessarily suggesting higher 
 thoughts about them. 
 
 But the miracles are also cnjpsla. The a-^p-slov Basil 
 the Great (in Esai. vii. 198) defines well: sari (nj^eloi' 
 7rpdy/j.a (fiavspov, KSK^V^HISVOV rivos KOI dtpavovs sv savru> 
 T7)v &i]\u)cnv s^ov : and presently after, ?} /ieWoi Tpa(j)rj ra 
 TrapdSo^a, ical TrapacrrariKa TWOS fj-vcrriKov \6yov Gr^sia 
 tcaXsl. Among all the names which the miracles bear, 
 their ethical end and purpose comes out in arj/j,slov with 
 the most distinctness, as in rspas with the least. It is 
 involved and declared in the very word that the prime 
 object and end of the miracle is to lead us to something 
 out of and beyond itself; that, so to speak, it is a kind 
 of finger-post of God (Sioa-rjjjLEta, a sign from Zeus, is no 
 unfrequent word in later Greek), pointing for us to this 
 (Isai. vii. 1 1 ; xxxviii. 7) ; valuable, not so much for what 
 it is, as for what it indicates of the grace and power of 
 the doer, or of his immediate connexion with a higher 
 spiritual world (Mark xvi. 20 ; Acts xiv. 3 ; Heb. ii. 4 ; 
 Exod. vii. 9, 10; I Kin. xiii. 3). Lampe has put this 
 well : ' Designat sane a-rj/j-siov naturd su rein non tantum 
 extraordinariam, sensusque percellentem, sed etiam talem, 
 quse in rei alterius, absentis licet et futurse, signijicatio- 
 nem atque adumbrationtm adhibetur, unde et prognostica 
 (Matt. xvi. 3) et typi (Matt. xii. 39 ; Luc. xi. 29) nee non 
 sacramenta, quale est illud circumcisionis (Rom. iv. ii), 
 eodem nomine in N. T. exprimi solent. Aptissime ergo
 
 344 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xci 
 
 hcec vox de miraculis usurpatur, ut indicet, quod non 
 tantum admirabili modo fuerint perpetrata, sed etiam 
 sapientissimo consilio Dei ita directa atque ordinata, ut 
 fuerint simul characteres Messise, ex quibus cognoscendus 
 erat, sigilla doctrinse quam proferebat, et beneficiorutn 
 gratiae per Messiaui jam prsestandse, nee non typi viarum 
 Dei, earumque circumstantiarum per quas talia beneficia 
 erant applicanda.' It is to be regretted that cr^^clov is 
 not always rendered ' sign ' in our Version ; that in the 
 Gospel of St. John, where it is of very frequent recurrence, 
 * sign ' too often gives place to the vaguer ' miracle ' ; 
 and sometimes not without serious loss : thus see iii. 2 ; 
 vii. 31 ; x. 41 ; and above all, vi. 26. 
 
 But the miracles are also * powers ' (Bvvd^,stf= l virtutes ') , 
 outcomings of that mighty power of God, which was in- 
 herent in Christ, Himself that "great Power of God" which 
 Simon blasphemously allowed himself to be named (Acts 
 viii. 10) ; these powers being by Him lent to such as 
 were his witnesses and ambassadors. One must regret 
 that in our Version Bvvdfisis is translated now "wonderful 
 works " (Matt. vii. 22) ; now " mighty works " (Matt. xi. 
 20: Luke x. 13); and still more frequently 'miracles' 
 (Acts ii. 22; I Cor. xii. 10; Gal. iii. 5) ; in this last case 
 giving such tautologies as " miracles and wonders " (Acts 
 ii. 22 ; Heb. ii. 4) ; and always .causing something to be 
 lost of the true intention of the word pointing as it does 
 to new and higher forces (evspysiai^vspyrjfAara, I Cor. xii. 6, 
 10), ' powers of the world to come ' (Heb. vi. 5 ), which have 
 entered and are working in this lower world of ours. 
 Delitzsch : ' Jedes Wunder ist eine Machtausserung der in 
 die Welt der Schopfung, welche dem Tode verfallen ist, 
 eintretenden Welt der Erlosung.' With this is closely 
 connected the term ftsyaXsia, only occurring at Luke i. 49 
 ( = * magnalia ') and at Acts ii. II, in which, as in Swd^sis, 
 the miracles are contemplated as outcomings of the great, 
 ness of God's power and glory.
 
 xcn. SYXOXTMS OF THE NEW TESTAMEXT. 
 
 345 
 
 They are further styled Ij/Sofo. (Luke xiii. 17), as being 
 works in which the Soga or glory of God and of the Son of 
 God shone manifestly forth (John ii. 1 1 ; xi. 40 ; Luke v. 
 25; Acts iii. 13). They are Trapd&oj-a (Luke v. 26), as 
 being " new things " (Num. xvi. 30), not hitherto seen 
 (Mark ii. 12), and thus beside and beyond all opinion and 
 expectation of men. The word, though finding place only 
 this once in the N. T., is of very frequent occurrence in 
 ecclesiastical Greek. They are Oavpda-ta (Matt. xxi. 15), 
 as provoking admiration and astonishment (viii. 27 ; ix. 
 8, 33; xv. 31 ; Mark v. 20; Acts iii. ii). &av/j.ara they 
 are never called in the N. T., though often in the writings 
 of the Greek Fathers. A word which conjurers, magi- 
 cians, and impostors of various kinds had so long made their 
 own could only after a while be put to nobler uses again. 
 
 XCil. KOGfJLlOS, CTSfJLVOS, ISpOTTpeTTl'lS. 
 
 Koa-fjiios and a-s/j,v6$ are both epithets applied occasionally 
 to things, but more frequently to persons. They are so 
 nearly allied in meaning as to be often found together ; 
 but at the same time are very clearly distinguishable the 
 one from the other. 
 
 Kocr/xtos, related to KOV/JLOS in its earlier sense as ' orna- 
 ment,' while Koa-fjLifcos (Tit. ii. 12 ; Heb. ix. i) is related to 
 it in its secondary sense as * world,' occurs twice in the 
 N. T., being rendered in our Version on one occasion 
 
 * modest' (i Tim. ii. 9), on the other, ' of good behaviour ' 
 (i Tim. iii. 2: marg. modest); and corresponds very 
 nearly to the * compositus ' of Seneca (Ep. 114), to the 
 
 * compositus et ordinatus ' (De Vit. Beat. 8), of the same. 
 The ' ornatus,' by which it is both times rendered in the 
 Vulgate, is strangely at fault, though it is easy enough to 
 see how the fault arose. It is a very favourite word with 
 Plato, and is by him and others constantly applied to the 
 citizen who is quiet in the land, who duly fulfils in his
 
 346 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. sen. 
 
 place and order the duties which are incumbent on him 
 as such; and is in nothing UTCIKTOS (i Thess. v. 14; cf. 
 2 Thess. iii. 6, 7, 11) ; but Tsraypsvos rather. It is asso- 
 ciated by him, as by St. Paul, with a-co^pcov (Legg. vii. 
 802 e) this indeed is everywhere its most constant com- 
 panion (thus see Lysias, Orat. xxi. 163 ; Plutarch, Quom. 
 Adul. ab Am. 36, and often) ; with rj/j.spos (Plato, Rep. 
 iii. 410 e) ; with vcfj.i/j.09 (Gorg. 504 d) ; with 
 (Phcedr. 256 6) ; with svcrTaX-^s (Meno, 90 a) ; 
 (Phcedo, 108 a) ; with 0-rda-ifj.os (Rep. vii. 539 cZ) ; with 
 evKo\os (Ib. i. 329 d) ; with dvSpsios (Ib. iii. 399 e} ; with 
 tca\6s (Ib. iii. 403 a); with SVTO.KTOS by Aristotle; with 
 ai&)']fj.wv by Epictetus (Enchir. 40) ; and by Plutarch 
 (De Garrul. 4); with ysvvaios (Ib.} ; with svdjMjos (Phil, 
 cum Princ. 2) ; opposed by Plato to aKo^aaros (Gorg. 
 494 a). Keeping company as KOO-[J.IQS does with epithets 
 such as these, it must be admitted that an explanation of 
 it like the following, 'of well ordered demeanour, de- 
 corous, courteous ' (Webster), dwells too much on the 
 outside of things ; the same with still greater truth may 
 be affirmed of Tyndale's rendering, 'honestly apparelled ' 
 (i Tim. iii. 2). No doubt the KO<T/J,IOS is all this; 
 but he is much more than this. The well ordering is 
 not of dress and demeanour only, but of the inner life ; 
 uttering indeed and expressing itself in the oxitward con- 
 versation. Even Bengel has taken a too superficial view of 
 the word, when at I Tim. iii. 2 he says, ' Quod o-o'xfrpwv 
 est intus, id Ko<rp.Los est extra ; ' though I cannot refuse 
 the pleasure of quoting what he says in one of his most 
 characteristic notes, unfolding more fully his idea of what 
 in these two epithets is implied : ' Homo novus festum 
 quiddam est, et abhorret ab omni eo quod pollutum, con- 
 i'usum, inconditum, immoderatum, vehemens, dissolutum, 
 affectatum, tetricum, perperum, lacerum, sordidum est: 
 ipsi necessitate nature materia?que, quse ingerendo, dige- 
 rendo, egerendo agitatur, parce et dissimulanter paret,
 
 xcn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 347 
 
 corporis que corruptibilis tecta habet vestigia.' This, it 
 must be confessed, goes a good deal deeper than does Phile- 
 mon, the comic poet, in four lines preserved by Stobseus 
 (Meineke, Fragm. Com. Gr. p. 822), describing who is 
 Koa/niosf, and who is not. I hardly know whether they are 
 worth quoting, but they follow here : 
 
 OVK (iv \a\fj Tit [tiKpov, e'ort Koarmos 
 ov8' (iv iropfVTjrai ns dsTrjv yfjv /3A/7ro>i>* 
 6 8' T)\IKOV [lev fj <f)v(Tis (fre'pd \a\wv, 
 [ir)Sev nouav 8' acrxr 
 
 But whatever may be implied in Koap-Los, and there is 
 much, something more is involved in CTS/AVOS. If the 
 /eooyuos orders himself well in that earthly iro\nsia, of 
 which he is a support and an ornament, the <re/j,v6s has a 
 grace and dignity not lent him from earth ; but which he 
 owes to that higher citizenship which is also his; being 
 one who inspires not respect oi.ly, but reverence and 
 worship. In profane Greek crspvos is a constant epithet of 
 the gods of the Eumenides, the as^val deal, above all. 
 It is used also constantly to qualify such things as pertain 
 to, or otherwise stand in any very near relation with, the 
 heavenly world. All this will appear the more clearly, 
 when we enumerate some of the epithets wherewith it 
 habitually is linked ; which are these : ayios (Plato, Sophist. 
 249 a; cf. Clement of Rome, Cor. I, where it is joined 
 to ayvos and ap,wp.os} ; opOos (Defin. 41 2 e) ; /j,syas ( Thccetet. 
 203 e) ; ri/jiios (Crito, 5 1 a) ; [isrpios (Clement of Borne, 
 Cor. l); ftaaCXiKos (Plutarch, Quom. A \'d. Poet. 8); evripos 
 (Proec. Ger. Eeip. 31) ; ^ja\o7rp7njf (De Def. Orac. 30) ; 
 Qetos and foftspos. From all this it is plain that there 
 lies something of majestic and awe-inspiring in crs/j-vos, 
 which does not at all lie in Koa-pios, although this has 
 nothing about it to ropel, but all rather to invite and to 
 attract, p.a\aKrj Kttl eva-^rj^wv (3apvTr)s being Aristotle's 
 happy definition of O-S^VOTTJS (Rhet. ii. 17), making it as 
 he does the golden mean between dpecrfceia, or unmanly
 
 348 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcn. 
 
 assentation, at one extreme, and avdaSsia, or churlish bear- 
 ishness, pleasing itself, and careless how much it displeases 
 others, at the other; even as in Plutarch a-spvos is asso- 
 ciated with $>L\IKOS (Quom. Am. ab Adul. 26) ; with r)$vs 
 (Conviv. 4, Proem.} ; with fyCK.dvOpwjros, with STTISIKTJS, and 
 other like words ; so too with Trpoa-rjvrjs in Josephus (Antt. 
 xi. 6. 9). But all this does not exclude the fact that the 
 O-S/JLVOS is one who, without in as many words demanding, 
 does yet challenge and inspire reverence and, in our earlier 
 use of the word, worship, the word remaining true to the 
 o-e/3<u with which it is related. How to render it in 
 English is not very easy to determine. On the one occa- 
 sion that it qualifies things rather than persons (Phil. iv. 
 8), we have translated it by 'honest,' an unsatisfactory 
 rendering (marg. venerable) ; and this, even though we in- 
 clude in ' honest ' all which was included in it at the time 
 when our Translation was made. Alford has here changed 
 ' honest ' into ' seemly ' ; if changed at all, I should prefer 
 ' honorable.' On the other three occasions it is rendered 
 * grave ' (i Tim. iii. 8, 1 1 ; Tit. ii. 2) ; while crs/JLvoTijs is once 
 'honesty ' (i Tim. ii. 2), and twice ' gravity' (i Tim. iii. 4; 
 Tit. ii. 7). Here too it must be owned that ' grave ' and 
 ' gravity ' are renderings which fail to cover the full mean- 
 ing of their original. Malvolio in Twelfth Night is ' grave,' 
 but his very gravity is itself ridiculous ; and the word 
 we want is one in which the sense of gravity and dignity, 
 and of these as inviting reverence, is combined ; a word 
 which I fear we may look for long without finding. 
 
 'IspoTrpsTnjs belongs to the best age of the Greek lan- 
 guage, being used by Plato (Theag. 122 c?) and by Xenophon 
 (Conv. viii. 40), in this unlike oa-ioTrpzTrrjs and 
 which are of later ecclesiastical formation. Like 
 it belongs to that large group of noticeable words, which, 
 being found nowhere else in St. Paul's Epistles, and indeed 
 nowhere else in the N. T., are yet found in the Pastoral 
 Epistles, some of them occurring several times over in
 
 xcm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 349 
 
 these. The number and character of these words, the new 
 vein of Greek which St. Paul in these later Epistles 
 opens, 1 constitute a very remarkable phenomenon, one for 
 which no perfectly satisfactory explanation has hitherto 
 been offered. Alford indeed in his Prolegomena to these 
 Epistles has made a valuable contribution to such an 
 explanation ; but after all has been said, it remains per- 
 plexing still. 
 
 It will follow from what has been already claimed fur 
 (rsfivos that lepoirpsTT^s is more nearly allied in meaning to 
 it than to /eooyuos. It expresses that which beseems a 
 sacred person, thing, or act. On the one occasion of its 
 use in the N. T. (Tit. ii. 3-5 ), it is joined with a-ca^pcov, 
 being an epithet applied to women professing godliness, 
 who shall be in their bearing or behaviour cspoTrpSTrsts, or 
 "as becometh holiness" (cf. I Tim. ii. 10), or 'reverent in 
 demeanour' as it is rendered in our Revised Version. 
 That such behaviour will breed reverence and awe, we may 
 reasonably expect, but this is not implied in ispoTrpsTrtjs 
 as it is in O-Z/JLVOS, and here we must find the distinction 
 between them. 
 
 THE etymology of these words holds out, perhaps, the ex- 
 pectation of a greater nearness of meaning than in actual 
 use is the case. Yet they sometimes occur together, as in 
 Plutarch (De Rect. Rat. And. 6), nor can it be denied that 
 'the pleaser of himself and { the lover of himself stand 
 in sufficient moral proximity, and are sufficiently liable to 
 
 1 For instance, take the adjectives alone which are an addition to, or 
 a variation from, his ethical terminology in all his other Epistles ; occur- 
 ring as they do nowhere else but in these Epistles : aiperiKos, aKparfjs, 
 a/iia^oy, ai>fixaKns, dvfTrai&xvtvos, dvfnl\T)TTTos, dvf)p.epos, dvoa-nts, dirai- 
 SevTos, dprios, d(pi\dya6os, ctyfvSij?, 8i/3oXoy, SiSa/crt/co?, SiXoyos , e'yicpanyr, 
 firiopnos, ev/xerufiorov 1 , rfpffios, KaAoSiSaoxuAoy, KOIVUVIKOS, paTaioXoyos, 
 vr)(pd\ios, oiKovpos, opyt\os, irdpoivos, traxppwv, (piXdyados, (pi\av8pos, 
 
 os, (pXvapot,
 
 350 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcm. 
 
 be confounded, to justify an attempt to distinguish them 
 one from the other. 
 
 Avdd&rjs ( = auTodSris, or avrw a&wv, as Aristotle informs 
 us, Ethic. M. i. 28), ' sibi placens,' occurs twice in the N. T. 
 (Tit. i. 7 ; 2 Pet. ii. 10), and three times in the Old 
 (Gen. xlix. 3, 7 ; Prov. xxi. 24) ; avOdSeia never in the 
 New, but once in the Old (Isai. xxiv. 8, Alex.) 
 
 The avddSrjs, who etymologically is hardly distinguish- 
 able from the avrdpsa-rcos, but the word is of earlier and 
 more classical use, is properly one who pleases himself, 
 who is so pleased with his own that nothing pleases him 
 besides : * qui nisi quod ipse facit nihil rectum putat 
 (Terence, Adelph. iv. 2. 18). He is one so far overvaluing 
 any determination at which he has himself once arrived 
 that he will not be removed from it; for this element of 
 stubbornness or obstinacy which so often lies in avddBsia 
 see the Prometheus Vinctus of JEschylus, 1037: while 
 Cicero translates it ' pervicacia.' The man thus obsti- 
 nately maintaining his own opinion, or asserting his own 
 rights ia"xvpo<yv(t)fji(i)v Aristotle (Eth. Nic. vii. 9. 2) would 
 call him is reckless of the rights, feelings, and interests of 
 others ; one indeed who with no motive at all is prompt 
 rather to run counter to these, than to fall in with them : 
 * selbstgefallig, selbstsiichtig, anmassend, frech, sich um 
 keinen andern kiimmernd, riicksichtlos, grausam ' (Pott, 
 Etym. Forsch. vol. iv. p. 315). Thus we find avOdfys 
 associated with l^Lo^vwfjiwv (Hippocrates, p. 295, 12. 29) ; 
 with aypios (Euripides, Mecl. 102) ; with Triicpos (Ib. 223); 
 with dfjiadrfs (Plato) ; with ^a\7ros (Id. Leyg. xii. 950 b) ; 
 with d/jLi\iKTos (Philo, Leg. ad Cai. 38) ; with (TK\r)p6s 
 (Polybius, iv. 21 ; Plutarch, Symp. vii. 2. i) ; with eira-^d^s 
 and avdsKaa-ros (Id. Prcec. Ger. Reip. 31); which lasfc 
 word does not necessarily bear an unfavourable meaning; 
 thus see Ai-istotle, Ethic. Nic. iv. 7. 4 ; and lines ascribed 
 to the Stoic Cleanthes, to be found in Eusebius, Prwp. 
 Evang. xiii. 3 ; with 0pd<rvs (Plutarch, Marius, 40. 8 ;
 
 xcin. SYNOXYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 351 
 
 Prov. xxi. 24); with d/coXacrTos (J)e Gen. Socr. 9); with 
 lrap,6s (De Laud. Scip. 16); with <pi\6vsiKos (Qnom. Am. 
 ab Adul. 32); with <TKvdpwTr6s (Isocrates, see Eost and 
 Palm); with aka^oov (Prov. xxi. 24); with irpoTrsrrjs 
 (Clement of Rome, Cor. i) ; with ToX/^rqy (2 Pet. ii. 10) : 
 avddSsta with Opdvos and roX/wi (Clement of Rome, Cor. 
 30) ; while the Greek grammarians give such words as 
 vTTsprjfiavos, 6u/j,(i)$ijs, vTrspoTTTtjs as its nearest equivalents. 
 Eudemus identifies him with the 8uo-Ko\o$, and describes 
 him as regulating his life with no respect to others (p.i)$ev 
 Trpbs sTepov a)v, Ethic. Eudem. iii. 7. 4 ; cf. Ethic. Nic. iv. 
 6.9). He is the ' prsefractus,' ' pertinax,' 'morosus' of 
 the Latins, or, going nearer to the etymological heart of 
 the word, the German ' eigensinnig ' ; auddSr)? is by 
 Luther so translated ; while our own ' peevish * and 
 * humorous ' in their earlier uses both represent some 
 traits and aspects of his character. He is opposed to the 
 evTTpoa-faopos, the easy of access or affable (Plutarch, 
 PTCBC. Reip. Ger. 31). In the unlovely gallery of portraits 
 which Theophrastus has sketched for us, the avdd&rjs finds 
 his place (C/tar. 3) ; but this his rudeness of speech, his 
 surliness, his bearishness as we should now say, is brought 
 too exclusively out, as is evident from the very superficial 
 and inadequate definition of avddSsta by Theophrastus 
 given, as being dir^vsia 6/j,t\ia$ sv Xo'yots. 
 
 AvddSeia, which thus cares to please nobody, is by 
 Aristotle (Ethic. Magn. i. 29; Eth. Eudem. ii. 3. 7) set over 
 against dpsa-Ksia, which is the ignoble seeking to please 
 everybody, the endeavouring at all costs of dignity and 
 truth to stand well with all the world ; these two being in 
 his ethical system the opposite extremes, between which 
 a-fjLv6rr}s constitutes the mean (see p. 347). There is 
 always something to be learned from the hypocoristic 
 phrases with which it is sought to give a fair show to an 
 ugly thing; and it is worth therefore noticing that the 
 avddSrjs is called by his flatterers asp,vos and fjLs^a\oTrpsTrr)y
 
 352 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcm. 
 
 (Aristotle, liliet. i. 9. 3), while on the other hand- a worthy 
 1'reedom of speech (irapprfaLa) may be misnamed avOdSsia 
 by those who resent, or would fain induce others to resent 
 it. It was this hateful name which the sycophants of the 
 younger Dionysius gave to the manly boldness of speech 
 which Dion used, when they desired to work his ruin with 
 the tyrant (Plutarch, Dion, 8). 
 
 Bengel profoundly remarks, and all experience bea.rs 
 out the truth of his remark, that there are men who are 
 ' simul et molles et duri ' ; at once soft and hard, soft to 
 themselves, and hard to all the world besides ; these two 
 dispositions being in fact only two aspects andoutcomings 
 of the same sin, namely the wrong love of self. But if 
 aiiddBrjs expresses this sin on one side, (frlXavros expresses 
 it on the other. Having dealt with that, we may now 
 proceed to treat a little of this. It need hardly be ob- 
 served that when bad men are called (frlXavroL, or ' lovers 
 of themselves,' as by St. Paul they are on the one occasion 
 when the word is employed in the N. T. (2 Tim. iii. 2), the 
 word can be only abusively applied ; for, indeed, he is no 
 true 'lover of himself who loves himself overmuch, more 
 than God's law allows, or loves that in himself which he 
 ought not to love but to hate, that which constitutes his 
 sickness and may in the end be his death, and not his 
 health. All this, when treating of this word, Aristotle 
 brings out with admirable clearness and distinctness, and 
 with an ethical feeling after, and in part at least anticipa- 
 tion of, that great word of Christ, " He that loveth his life 
 shall lose it," which is profoundly interesting to note 
 (Ethic. Nic. ix. 8). 
 
 The <f)i\avTos is exactly our * selfish ' (Plutarch, Cons, 
 ad ApolL 19; Quom. Am. ab Adul. 26), and fyikavrla 
 ' selfishness ' ; but this contemplated rather as an undue 
 sparing of self and providing things easy and pleasant for 
 self, than as harshness and rigour toward others. Thus 
 (f>i\avros is joined with (jiiXo-^rv^os by Plutarch (Dion, 46),
 
 xciv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 353 
 
 this last epithet indicating one loving his life overmuch. 
 Before the English language had generated the word 
 ' selfishness,' which it did not until the middle of the 
 seventeenth century, there was an attempt made to supply 
 an evident want in our ethical terminology by aid of 
 * philauty * ; thus see Beaumont's Psyche, passim, and 
 other similar poems. ' Philauty,' however, never succeeded 
 in obtaining any firm footing among us, and 'suicism,' 
 which was a second attempt, as little ; an appeal to the 
 Latin proving as unsuccessful as that to the Greek. Nor 
 was the deficiency effectually supplied till the Puritan di- 
 vines, drawing upon our native stock of words, brought in 
 ^selfish' and ' selfishness ' (see my English Past and Present, 
 loth ed. p. 171). One of these same divines helps me to 
 a comparison, by aid of which the matter of the likeness 
 and difference between avddBrjs and ^IXavros may be 
 brought not inaptly to a point. He likens the selfish man 
 to the hedgehog, which, rolling itself up in a ball, presents 
 only sharp spines to those without, keeping at the same 
 time all the soft and warm wool for itself within. In some 
 sinful men their avddbsia, the ungracious bearing towards 
 others, the self-pleasing which is best pleased when it dis- 
 pleases others, is the leading feature of their character ; 
 in others the <^i\.avri'a, the undue providing of all which 
 shall minister to their own ease, and keep hardness aloof 
 from them. In each of these there is potentially wrapped 
 up the other ; but as the one sinful tendency predominates 
 or the other, the man will merit the epithet of avOdSys or 
 
 xciv. 
 
 is is only once found in the books of the 0. T. 
 canon, namely at I Sam. xx. 30 ; and there in altogether 
 a subordinate sense, as = ' denudatio ' ; three times in the 
 Apocrypha (Ecclus. xi. 27 ; xxii. 22 ; xli. 23) ; but as little 
 
 A A
 
 354 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xciv. 
 
 in this as in the other does it obtain that grander mean- 
 ing which it has acquired in the N. T. In this last it is 
 predominantly, though not exclusively, a Pauline word ; 
 and, occurring altogether some nineteen times, being 
 rendered once 'coming' (i Cor. i. 7), once 'mani- 
 festation' (Eom. viii. 19), once 'appearing' (i Pet. i. 
 7), and once 'to lighten' (els aTrotfaXv^nv, Luke ii. 32), 
 has always that auguster sense of an unveiling by God of 
 Himself to his creatures, to which we have given the more 
 Latin term, revelation. The same auguster sense the verb 
 a7roKd\v7TTiv in the N. T. commonly possesses ; but not 
 there for the first time, this sense having been anticipated 
 in the great apocalyptic book of the Old Covenant (see 
 Dan. ii. 19,22,28). Nor does it always possess this, some- 
 times simply meaning ' to uncover ' or ' to lay bare ' (Luke 
 xii. 2; Prov. xx. 19). 
 
 'ATro/caXinJrty, as St. Jerome would fain persuade us, is 
 nowhere to be found outside of sacred Greek (Comm. in 
 Gal. i. 12) : ' Verbum aTroKakv-^sws proprie Scripturarum 
 est; a nullo sapientum seculi apud Grsecos usurpatum. 
 Unde mihi videntur quemadmodum in aliis verbis, quse de 
 Hebrseo in Grseeum LXX Interpretes transtulerunt, ita et 
 in hoc magnopere esse conati ut proprietatem peregriui 
 sermonis exprimerent, novanovis rebus verba fingentes, et 
 sonare, quum quid tectum et velatum ablato desuper operi- 
 mento ostenditur et profertur in lucem.' In thus claiming 
 the word as proper and peculiar to the Scriptures, and not 
 found in any writings of the wise of this world, St. 
 Jerome is in error; although the total absence in his 
 time of exhaustive Lexicons or Concordances of the great 
 writers of antiquity might well excuse his mistake. Not to 
 speak of airoKa\vTrriv^ which is used several times by 
 Plato (Protag. 352 d; Gorg. 460 a), a7roKa\,v^is itself 
 is far from unfrequent in the later Greek of Plutarch (see 
 Paul. JEyriil. 14; Cato Maj. 20, where it is = jv^vtoais ; 
 Quom. Am. ab Adul. 32 ; and elsewhere.) Thus far indeed
 
 xciv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 355 
 
 Jerome has right, namely, that the religious use of the 
 word was altogether strange to the heathen world, while 
 the corresponding ' revelatio ' was absolutely unknown to 
 classical Latin, having first come to the birth in the Latin 
 of the Church. Elsewhere (Ep. cxxi. ad Algas.) he makes 
 a somewhat similar mistake in respect of the verb Kara- 
 fipaftsvsiv (Col. ii. 1 8), which he claims as a Cilicism of 
 St. Paul's. It occurs in a document cited by Demosthenes, 
 Mid. p. 544. 
 
 The word in its highest Christian sense has been ex- 
 plained by Arethas as r/ TWV KpvTrrwv p,vaTr)piu>v SrjXwa-i?, 
 fcaravya^opsvov rov rjysfAoviKov Trjs ^v^rjs, sirs Sta Oslwv 
 ovsipctTcov, sirs Kaff vTrap, SK dsias \\d[j,tye(t)S. Joined 
 with cnrraa-ia (2 Cor. xii. l), it is by Theophylact (see 
 Suicer, s. v.) distinguished from it in this, that the oirraa-La 
 is no more than the thing shown or seen, the sight or 
 vision, which might quite possibly be seen without being 
 understood ; while the airoKaXv^is includes not merely 
 the thing shown and seen, but the interpretation or 
 unveiling of the same. His words are as follows : 17 
 cnroKa\v^ns ir\sov ri %i rrjs OTTTacrias' f) fisv jap povov 
 
 fi\TTl,V SlSciHTlV ' aVTT) Ss Kttl Tl ftaQvTSpOV TOU OpU)flVOV 
 
 aTToyv/jLvol. Thus Daniel's vision of the four beasts was 
 seen but not understood, until one that stood by made 
 him know the interpretation of the things (Dan. vii. 15, 
 16, 19, 23: cf. viii. 15, 19; Zech. i. 18-21). On this 
 distinction see more in Liicke's Einleitung in die 0/en- 
 barung des Johannes, 2nd ed. p. 26. What holds good of 
 the oTTTacria will of course hold good of the opafia (Matt. 
 xvii. 9 ; Acts vii. 31 ; x. 19), and of the opavis (Acts. ii. 17) 
 as well ; between which and the birracria it would scarcely 
 be possible to draw any distinction that would stand. 
 
 'E7ri(j)dvia, which Tertullian renders 'apparentia' (Adv. 
 Marc. i. 19), occurs only twice in the Septuagint (2 Sam. 
 vii. 23, fi^dX-wavvr] KOI 7ri<j)dvia [ct. Soga KOL sinfyavzia, 
 Plutarch, De Tranq. Anim. n]; Amos v. 22): but often 
 
 AA2
 
 356 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xciv. 
 
 in the Second Maccabees ; being always there used of 
 God's supernatural apparitions in aid of his people ; thus 
 ii. 21 (J ovpavov sTri^avsiat) : iii. 24; v. 4; xii. 22 ; xv. 27. 
 Already in heathen use this grand word was constantly 
 employed to set forth these gracious appearances of the 
 higher powers in aid of men ; so Diony sius Hal. (ii. 68) . 
 The word is found only six times in the N. T., always in 
 the writings of St. Paul. On five occasions our Trans- 
 lators have rendered it ' appearing ' ; on the sixth, how- 
 ever (2 Thess. ii. 8), they seem to have shrunk from what 
 looked to them as a tautology, ( appearance of his coming/ 
 as in the earlier Protestant Versions it stood ; and have 
 rendered sTri^avsia T?)S irapovviasS brightness of. his coming,* 
 giving to the word a meaning not properly its own. It 
 expresses on one occasion (2 Tim. i. 10, and so sTnfyaivsiv, 
 Tit. ii. 1 1 ; iii. 4) our Lord's first Epiphany, his sis av6p(i>Trov$ 
 svo-apKos S7ri<f)dvta : but on all the other his second ap- 
 pearing in glory, the sinfydveia rij? irapovcrias avrov (2 
 Thess. ii. 8), rrjs Sogrjs rov fisjd\.ov eoO (Tit. ii. 13 ; I Tim. 
 vi. 14; 2 Tim. iv. I, 8; cf. Acts ii. 20). 
 
 If we bring these two into comparison, airoKaXv^rLs 
 is the more comprehensive, and, grand as is the other, the 
 grander word. It sets forth nothing less than that pro- 
 gressive and immediate unveiling of Himself to his Church 
 on the part of the otherwise unknown and unknowable 
 God which has run through all ages ; the body to which 
 this revelation is vouchsafed being thereby designated or 
 indeed constituted as his Church, the object of his more 
 immediate care, and the ordained diffuser of this know- 
 ledge of Him to the rest of mankind. The world may 
 know something of Him, of his eternal power and Godhead, 
 from the things which are seen ; which things except for 
 the darkening of men's hearts through sin would have 
 told of Him much more clearly (Rom. i. 20) ; but there is 
 no aTTOKuXv-^TLs save to the Church. We may say of the 
 S7ri(f)dviat, that they are contained in the uiroKaXv^rif, being
 
 xciv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 357 
 
 separate points or moments therein. If God is to be 
 immediately known to men, He must in some shape or 
 other appear to them, to those among them whom He has 
 chosen for this honour. Epiphanies must be Theophanies 
 as well ; and as such the Church has claimed not merely 
 such communications made to men as are recorded at Gen. 
 xviii. I ; xxviii. 13 ; but all in which the Angel of the Lord 
 or of the Covenant appears ; such as Gen. xvi. 7 ; Josh, 
 v. 13-15 ; Judg. ii. I ; vi. II ; xiii. 3. All these it has 
 regarded as preludings, on the part of the Son, of his 
 Incarnation ; itself the most glorious Epiphany that as yet 
 has been, even as his second coming is an Epiphany more 
 glorious still which is yet in the future. 
 
 3?avspwais is only twice used in the N. T. (i Cor. xii. 7; 
 2 Cor. iv. 2). Beaching far on both these occasions, it does 
 not reach to the very highest of all ; it does not set forth, as 
 do the words we have just been treating, either the first 
 or the second appearing of our Lord Jesus Christ ; although 
 that it could have borne even this burden is sufficiently 
 plain from the fact that the verb $avepova6at is continually 
 employed of both ; thus of the first coming at I Tim. iii. 
 165 Heb. ix. 26; I John i. 2; I Pet. i. 20; and of the 
 second at Col. iii. 4 ; I Pet. v. 4 ; I John iii. 2 ; and for 
 other august uses of it see John ii. 1 1 ; xxi. I ; and 
 (fravspwcris itself is not seldom so employed by the Fathers. 
 Thus Athanasius (quoted by Suicer, s. v.) calls the Incar- 
 nation r/ sv (Teaman (fravspcocrts TOU irarpiKOv Aojov. It is 
 hard to trace any reason why fyavepaxns should not have 
 been claimed to set forth the same glorious facts which 
 these other words, to which in meaning it is so nearly 
 allied, have done ; but whether by accident or of intention 
 this honour has not been vouchsafed. "EXsvais, a far 
 tamer word than any of the others here, is used once in 
 Acts (vii. 52) for the setting forth of the Lord's coming.
 
 358 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcv. 
 
 xcv. aXXos, erspos. 
 
 "AXXoy, identical with the Latin ' alias,' is the numerically 
 distinct ; thus Christ spoke we are told * another ' parable, 
 and still ' another ,' but each succeeding one being of the 
 same character as those which He had spoken before 
 (Matt. xiii. 23, 24, 31, 33), a\\rjv therefore in every case. 
 But srepos, equivalent to the Latin * alter,' to the German 
 ' ander ' (on which last word see an instructive a.rticle in 
 Grimm's Worterbuch), superadds the notion of qualitative 
 difference. One is ' divers,' the other is ' diverse.' There 
 are not a few passages in the N. T. whose right interpre- 
 tation, or at any rate their full understanding, will depend 
 on an accurate seizing of the distinction between these 
 words. Thus Christ promises to his disciples that He 
 will send, not srspov, but aXXoz/, IlapafcXijTov (John xiv. 
 16), 'another' Comforter therefore, similar to Himself. 
 The dogmatic force of this aXXos- has in controversy with 
 various sects of Trvsv^aro^d^oi been often urged before 
 now; thus by Petavius (De Trin. ii. 13. 5) : ' Eodem per- 
 tinet et Paracleti cognomen, maxime cum Christus alium 
 Paracletum, hocest, parem sibi, et sequalem eum nominat. 
 Quippe vox alius dignitate ac substantia prorsus eundem, 
 et sequalem fore demonstrat, ut Gregorius Nazianzenus et 
 Ambrosius admonent.' 
 
 But if in the a'XXos there is a negation of identity, there 
 is oftentimes much more in srspos, the negation namely, 
 up to a certain point, of resemblance; the assertion not 
 merely of distinctness but of difference. A few examples 
 will illustrate this. Thus St. Paul says, ' I see another law ' 
 [srepov vdfAov~\ , a law quite different from the law of the 
 spirit of life, even a law of sin and death, ' working in my 
 members' (Rom. vii. 23). After Joseph's death 'another 
 king arose' in Egypt (/3a<ri\vs erspos, Acts vii. 18; cf. 
 Exod. i. 8), one, it is generally supposed, of quite another
 
 xcv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 359 
 
 dynasty, at all events of quite another spirit, from his 
 who had invited the children of Israel into Egypt, and so 
 hospitably entertained them there. The 68os srspa and 
 icapSta srspa which God promises that He will give to his 
 people are a new way and a new heart (Jer. xxxix. 39 ; cf. 
 Deut. xxix. 22). It was not 'another spirit' only but a 
 different (srspov Trvsvfia} which was in Caleb, as distin- 
 guished from the other spies (Num. xiv. 24). In the 
 parable of the Pounds the slothful servant is srspos (Luke 
 xix. 20). When Iphigenia about to die exclaims, srspov, 
 srspov alwva Kal poipav olrcijo-o/jisv, a different life with 
 quite other surroundings is that to which she looks for- 
 ward (Euripides, Iphig. in Aul. 1516). The spirit that 
 has been wandering through dry places, seeking rest in 
 them in vain, takes * seven other spirits ' (srspa rrvsvpara], 
 worse than himself, of a deeper malignity, with whose 
 aid to repossess the house which he has quitted for a 
 while (Matt. xii. 45). Those who are crucified with the 
 Lord are srspoi Svo, /caicovpyoi, 'two other, malefactors,' 
 as it should be pointed (Luke xxiii. 32 ; cf. Bornemann, 
 Schol. in Luccim, p. 147 ; it would be inconceivable and 
 revolting so to confound Him and them as to speak 
 of them as a\\oi ovo. It is only too plain why St. Jude 
 should speak of srspa <rdpj; (ver. 7), as that which the 
 wicked whom he is denouncing followed after (Gen. xix. 
 5). Christ appears to his disciples sv srspa pop<f)fj (Mark 
 xvi. 12), the word indicating the mighty change which 
 had passed upon Him at his resurrection, as by anticipa- 
 tion at his Transfiguration, and there expressed in the 
 same way (Luke ix. 29). It is ^si\cnv erspots, with alto- 
 gether other and different lips, that God will speak to his 
 people in the New Covenant (i Cor. xiv. 21) ; even as the 
 tongues of Pentecost are srspat y\o!)cr<rai (Acts ii. 4), 
 being quite different in kind from any other speech of 
 men. It would be easy to multiply the passages where 
 srspos could. not be exchanged at all, or could only be
 
 360 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcv. 
 
 exchanged at a loss, for a\\os, as Matt. xi. 3 ; i Cor. xv. 
 40 ; Gal. i. 6. Others too there are where at first sight 
 a'XXos seems quite as fit or a fitter word ; where yet srspos 
 retains its proper force. Thus at Luke xxii. 65 the srspa 
 TroXXa are ' multa diversi generis convicia,' blasphemous 
 speeches now of one kind, now of another ; the Roman 
 soldiers taunting the Lord now from their own point of 
 view, as a pretender to Caesar's thrcme ; and now from the 
 Jewish, as claiming to be Son of God. At the same time it 
 would be idle to look for qualitative difference as intended 
 in every case where erspos is used ; thus see Heb. xi. 36, 
 where it would be difficult to trace anything of the kind. 
 
 What holds good of erspos^ holds good also of the 
 compounds into which it enters, of which the N. T. con- 
 tains three; namely, ersporyXayao-os (i Cor. xiv. 21), by 
 which word the Apostle intends to bring out the non- 
 intelligibility of the tongues to many in the Church ; 
 it is true indeed that we have also a\\6<y\Q)a(ros (Ezek. 
 iii. 6) ; erEpoSiSao-Kohsiv ( I Tim. i. 3), to teach other things, 
 and things alien to the faith ; erspofrysiv (2 Cor. vi. 14), 
 to yoke with others, and those as little to be yoked with 
 as the ox with the ass (Deut. xxii. 10) ; cf. srspoK\ivijs 
 (Clement of Rome, Cor. n), swerving aside ; srspo^vca^wv 
 (ibid.}, an epithet applied to Lot's wife. So too we have 
 in ecclesiastical Greek erspoBo^a, which is not merely 
 another opinion, but one which, in so far as it is another, 
 is a worse, a departure from the faith. The same re- 
 appears in our own ' heterogeneous/ which is not merely 
 of another kind, but of another and a worse kind. For 
 this point also deserves attention, and is illustrated by 
 several of the examples already adduced; namely, that 
 srspos is very constantly, not this other and different, a\\o 
 Kal &id(j)opov, only, but such with the further subaudition, 
 that whatever difference there is, it is for the worse. Thus 
 Socrates is accused of introducing into Athens erspa icaiva 
 (Xenophon, Mem. i. I. i); Saip-wv srspos (Pindar,
 
 xcv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 361 
 
 Pyth. iii. 61) is an evil or hostile deity; erepai 6v<riat 
 (^Eschylus. Agamemnon, 151), ill-omened sacrifices, such 
 as bring back to their offerer not a blessing but a curse ; 
 fyfjuvyayrfol srspot (Plutarch, Pericles, 3), are popular leaders 
 not of a different only, but of a worse stamp and spirit 
 than was Pericles. So too in the Septuagint other gods 
 than the true are invariably srspoi 6soi (Deut. v. 7 ; Judg. 
 x. 13; Ezek. xlii. 14; and often) ; compare Aristophanes 
 (Ran. 889) ' srspoi yap slcrtv oicriv sv^o/^at 6 sots. A bar- 
 barous tongue is srspa >y\wo-(ra (Isai. xxviii. 1 1), the phrase 
 being linked with ^avXtoyios %j=A,eW. 
 
 We may bring this distinction practically to bear on 
 the interpretation of the N. T. There is only one way in 
 which the fine distinction between srspov and a\\o, and 
 the point which St. Paul makes as he sets the one over 
 against the other at Gal. i. 6, 7, can be reproduced for 
 the English reader. ' I marvel,' says the Apostle, ' that ye 
 are so soon removed from them that called you into the 
 grace of Christ unto another (srspov} Gospel, which is not 
 another' (aXXo). Dean Alford for the first 'other ' has sub- 
 stituted 'different' ; for indeed that is what St. Paul intends 
 to express, namely, his wonder that they should have so 
 soon accepted a Gospel different in character and kind 
 from that which they had already received, which there- 
 fore had no right to be called another Gospel, to assume 
 this name, being in fact no Gospel at all ; since there 
 could not be two Gospels, varying the one from the other. 
 Cocceius : ' Yos transferimini ad aliud Evangelium quod 
 aliud nee est, nee esse potest.' 
 
 There are other passages in the N. T. where the student 
 may profitably exercise himself with the enquiry why one 
 of these words is used in preference to the other, or rather 
 why both are used, the one alternating with, or giving 
 partial place to, the other. Such are I Cor. xii. 8-10; 2 
 Cor. xi. 4 ; Acts iv. 12. See also Plato's Politicus, 6 a, and 
 Stallbaum's .note thereupon.
 
 362 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcvi. 
 
 xcvi. TTOISW, 
 
 THERE is a long discussion in Rost and Palm's Lexicon, s. v. 
 jrpdcra-Q), on the distinction between these words ; and the 
 references there given sufficiently attest that this distinc- 
 tion has long and often occupied the attention of scholars ; 
 this occupation indeed dating as far back as Prodicus (see 
 Plato, Charmides, 162 cT). It is there rightly observed 
 that TTOISIV brings out more the object and end of an act, 
 Tcpaaaziv the means by which this object is attained, as, 
 for instance, hindrances moved out of the way, and the 
 like ; and also that the idea of continuity and repetition 
 of action is inherent in 7rpda-<Tsiv = c a,gere ' or 'gerere,' 
 'handeln,' 'to practise'; but not necessarily in iroizlv = 
 1 facere,' * machen,' which may very well be the doing once 
 and for all; the producing and bringing forth something 
 which being produced has an independent existence of its 
 own ; as TTQIZIV iraiSicv, of a woman, iroislv Kapjrovs, of a 
 tree ; in the same way, TTOISIV sipr/vyf, to make peace, 
 while TTpdtrcrsiv elp^vrjv is no more than to negotiate with 
 the view to peace (see Pott, Etym. Forsch. vol. iii. 
 p. 408) ; that attaining what this is only aiming to attain. 
 Hpdrrsiv and TTOISIV are in this sense often joined together 
 by Demosthenes, and with no tautology ; thus of certain 
 hostile designs which Philip entertained he assures the 
 Athenians OTI Trpd^si ravra Kal TTOIIJCTSI (Orat. xix. 373) 
 he will busy himself with the bringing about of these 
 things, and he will effect them ! (cf. Xenophon, Cyrop. ii. 
 
 1 These are some of Host and Palm's words : Auch Kriiger und 
 Franke (Demosthenes, Qlynth. iii. 15) unterscheiden irpava-fiv als die 
 geschaftige, iroieiv als die schaffende Tbatigkeit. Zulanglicher wird es 
 indess sein, diesen Unterschied dahin festzustellen, dass tei iroitiv rnehr 
 die Vorstellung -von dem Product der Thatigkeit, bei Trpdo-o-etf rnehr die 
 von dem Hinarbeiten auf ein Ziel mit Beseitigung entgegentre tender 
 Hindernisse, von den Mitteln und Wegen vorberrsclifnd ist, wodurch 
 dasselbe erreicht wird. Damit verbindet sich die Vorstellung einer 
 wenigstens relativen Continuitat, wie aufgewandter Anstrengung. It
 
 xcvi. SYXONFMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 363 
 
 2. 29 ; Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. vi. 5. 3): Trpda-o-siv, in the 
 words of a recent German scholar, ist die geschaftige, 
 TToistv die schaffende Thatigkeit. 
 
 How far can we trace the recognition of any such dis- 
 tinction in the Greek of the N. T. ? There are two or 
 three passages where it is difficult not to recognize an 
 intention of the kind It is hard, for example, to suppose 
 that the change of words at John iii. 20, 2 1 is accidental ; 
 above all when the same reappears at chapter v. 29. In 
 both places it is the <>av\a Trpdaa-stv, which is set, in the 
 first instance, over against the TTOISCV rrjv dXrjdsiav, in the 
 second against the TTOISIV ra dyadd, just as at Eom. vii. 19 
 we have iroislv dyadov and Trpaa-crsw fca/cov. It would of 
 course be idle to assert that the TTOLSLV relates only to good 
 things, for we have iroislv dvopiav CMatt. xiii. 41), apapriav 
 2 Cor. v. 2l), TO, Kaicd (Eom. iii. 8); not less idle to affirm 
 that Trpdcro-siv is restricted to ill things ; for, to go no 
 farther than the N. T., we have Trpdaa-siv dyadov (Eom. 
 ix. 1 1 ). Still it is not to be denied that very often where 
 the words assume an ethical tinge, the inclination makes 
 itself felt to use TTOISIV in a good and Trpda-a-siv in an evil 
 sense ; the latter tendency appearing in a more marked 
 way in the uses of irpa&s, which, occurring six times in 
 the N. T. (namely at Matt. xvi. 27 ; Luke xxiii. 51 ; Acts 
 xix. 1 8 ; Eom. viii. 13 ; xii. 4 ; Col. iii. 9), has in all these 
 places except the first an evil signification, very much 
 like our ' practices ' ; cf. Poly bins, iv. 8. 3 (-irpdj-eis, airdrai, 
 7ri/3ov\ai} ; v. 96. 4. 
 
 Bengel, at John iii. 20, gives the proper explanation of 
 this change of words : ' irpdo-o-wv. Malitia est irrequieta ; 
 est quiddam operosius quam veritas. Hinc verbis diversis 
 notantur, uti cap. v. 29.' There may be a busy activity 
 
 may be added that in irpda-a-tiv the action is always more or less con- 
 scious of itself, so that, as was observed long ago, this could not be pre- 
 dicated of animals (Ethic. Eudem. vi. 2. 2) ; while the noulv is more 
 free and spontaneous.
 
 364 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcvi. 
 
 in the working of evil, yet not the less it is true that ' the 
 wicked worketh a deceitful work,' and has nothing to 
 show for all his toil at the end, no fruit that remains. 
 Then too evil is manifold, good is one ; they are epya rrjs 
 crap/cos (Gal. v. 22), for these works are many, not merely 
 contradicting good, but often contradicting one another ; 
 but it is icapTros rov 7rvev/j,aros (Gal. v. 19), for there is 
 an inner consent, between all the parts of good, a con- 
 sensus virtutum,' as Cicero calls it, knitting them into a 
 perfect and harmonious whole, and inviting us to con- 
 template them as one. Those are of human art and de- 
 vice, this of Divine nature. Thus Jerome (in loco): 'In 
 carne opera posuit [Paulus], et fructus in spiritu; quia 
 vitia in semetipsa finiuntur et pereunt, virtutes frugibus 
 pullulant et redundant.' Here is enough to justify and 
 explain the fact that the inspired reporter of our Lord's 
 words has on these two occasions (John iii. 20, 21) ex- 
 changed the <f>av\a TrpaGcreiv for the Troislv a\ij08UU>j Troitiv 
 TO. ajadd, the practising of evil for the doing of good. Let 
 me add in conclusion a few excellent words of Bishop 
 Andrewes : "There are two kinds of doers: I. iroLyrai, 
 and 2. irpaKTiKoi, which the Latin likewise expresseth in 
 I. 'agere,' and 2. ' facere.' 'Agere,' as in music, where, 
 when we have done singing or playing, nothing rernaineth : 
 ' facere,' as in building, where, after we have done, there is 
 a thing permanent. And iroirjTai, ' factores,' they are St. 
 James' doers. But we have both the words in the English 
 tongue : actors, as in a play ; factors, as in merchandise. 
 When the play is done, all the actors do vanish : but 
 of the factors' doing, there is a gain, a real thing 
 remaining." On the distinction between irpa^s and 
 spjov see Wyttenbach's note on Plutarch's Moralia, vol. 
 vi. p. 60 1.
 
 xcvn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 365 
 
 xcvii. 
 
 THEEE was occasion to note, in dealing with the words 
 7rpo(f)i]Tsvo) and pavTSvofiai, ( vi.), the accuracy with which 
 in several instances the lines of demarcation between the 
 sacred and profane, between the true religion and the 
 false, are maintained in the words which, reserved for the 
 one, are not permitted to be used for the other, each 
 retaining its proper and peculiar term. We have another 
 example of this same precision here, in the fact of the 
 constant use in the N. T. of Ova-iaa-Tijptov, occurring as it 
 does more than twenty times, for the altar of the true 
 God, while on the one occasion when a heathen altar 
 needs to be named (Acts xvii. 23), /Solo's is substituted in 
 its stead. 
 
 But, indeed, there was but a following here of the good 
 example which the Septuagint Translators had shown, the 
 maintenance of a distinction which these had drawn. So 
 resolute were they to mark the difference between the altars 
 of the true God and those on which abominable things 
 were offered, that there is every reason to suppose they 
 invented the word Ova-iacmjpiov for the purpose of main- 
 taining this distinction ; being indeed herein more nice 
 than the inspired Hebrew Scriptures themselves ; for these, 
 while they have a word which they use for heathen altars, 
 and never for the altars of the true God, namely no? (Isai. 
 xv. 2; Amos vii. 9), make no scruple in using n3?D now 
 for the one (Lev. i. 9), and now for the other (Isai. xvii. 
 8). I need hardly observe that Ova-iaa-Tijpiov, properly 
 the neuter of dva-Lacmjpios, as l\a<TTijpiov (Exod. xxv. 17; 
 Heb. ix. 5) of i\aa-r^pios, nowhere occurs in classical 
 Greek ; and it is this coining of it on the part of the 
 Septuagint Translators which Philo must have had in 
 mind when he implied that Moses invented the word (De 
 Vit. Mos. iii. 10). With all this the Greek of the 0. T.
 
 366 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcvn. 
 
 does not invariably observe this distinction. I cannot 
 indeed accept Num. xxiii. i, 2 as instances of a failure 
 so to do ; for what altars could be more truly heathen 
 than those which Balaam reared ? Still there are three 
 occasions, one in Second Maccabees (xiii. 8), and two in 
 Ecclesiasticus (1. 12, 14), where /3&>/i6s designates an altar 
 of the true God ; these two Books, however, it must be 
 remembered, hellenize very much. So too there are occa- 
 sions on which dvcnatrrripiov is used to designate an idol 
 altar; for example, Judg. ii. 2; vi. 25 ; 2 Kin. xvi. 10. 
 Still these are rarest exceptions, and sometimes the antago- 
 nism between the words comes out with a most marked 
 emphasis. It does so, for example, at 2 Mace. x. 2, 3 ; but 
 more remarkably still at I Mace. i. 59, where the historian 
 recounts how the servants of Autiochus offered sacrifices 
 to Olympian Jove on an altar which had been built over 
 the altar of the God of Israel (dua-id&vTss sirl rov PWJJLOV, 
 os rjv fTTi rov OvGiacrrriplov). Our Translators are here 
 put to their shifts, and are obliged to render ftw/jios 
 * idol altar,' and Overiaa-r^piov ' altar.' We may compare 
 Josephus, Antt. xii. 5. 4, where relating these same events 
 he says, sTroiKo^o/jL^cras KOL rw dvcriaa'Tijpiq) fta>p.6v, <rvas s TT' 
 avrov KaTea(j>aJ~E. Still more notable, as marking how 
 strong the feeling on this matter was, is the fact of the 
 refusal of the Septuagint Translators to give the title of 
 dva-iaa-Tijpiov (Josh, xxii.) to the altar which the Trans- 
 jordanic tribes had reared being as it was a piece of 
 will-worship upon their parts, and no altar reared ac- 
 cording to the will, or by the express command, of God. 
 Throughout the chapter this altar is Papas (ver. 10, u, 
 1 6, 19, 23, 26, 34), the legitimate divinely ordained altar 
 Ov(Tta(mfjpiov (ver. 19, 28, 29), and this while the Hebrew 
 text knows no such distinction, but indiscriminately em- 
 ploys D3p for both. 
 
 I mentioned just now an embarrassment, in which on 
 one occasion our Translators found themselves. In the
 
 xcvni. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 367 
 
 Latin there is no such difficulty ; for at a very early day 
 the Church adopted ' altare ' to designate her altar, and 
 assigned ' ara ' exclusively to heathen uses. Thus see the 
 Vulgate at Judg. vi. 28 ; I Mace. i. 59 ; 2 Mace. x. 2, 3 ; 
 Acts xvii. 23. Cyprian in like manner expresses his 
 wonder at the profane boldness of one of the * turificati ' 
 those, that is, who in time of persecution had consented 
 to save their lives by burning incense before a heathen 
 idol, that he should afterwards have dared, without 
 obtaining first the Church's absolution, to continue his 
 ministry ' quasi post aras diaboli accedere ad altare Dei 
 fas sit (Ep. 63). In profane Latin 'ara' is the genus, 
 ' altare ' the specific kind of altar on which the victims 
 were offered (Yirgil, Eel. v. 65, 66; cf. Tacitus, AnnaL 
 xvi. 31, and Orelli thereupon). The distinction between 
 /3&>/i6s and Ovaiaa-rijpiov, first established in the Septua- 
 gint, and recognized in the N. T., was afterwards main- 
 tained in ecclesiastical Greek ; for the Church has still 
 her 6veia alvsvscas (Heb. xiii. 15), and that which is at 
 once her Ovaia, dvapvija-ecos and dvanvija-iy Ovcrias, and 
 therefore her QvaiaaTTJpiov still. We have clear testimony 
 to this in the following passage of Chrysostom (in I Cor. 
 Horn. 24), in which Christ is supposed to be speaking: 
 <uo"T sl a'ifjiaros eTTidvpsis, fir) rbv TWV ElSa>\ft)v /3a>fiov T&> 
 TWV d\6y(0v <j)6va), d\\a TO Ovo'iaa'TTjpiov TO S[M>V T&5 
 sfjiw (f>oivi<ras aJ/tart (compare Mede, Works, 1672, p. 391 ; 
 Augusti, Christl. Archaol vol. i. p. 412; and Smith, 
 Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, s. v. ' Altar '). 
 
 xcviii. Xaos-, Wvos, crjfj,os, 
 
 Aaos, a word of rarest use in Attic prose, but occurring 
 between one and two thousand times in the Septuagint, 
 is almost always there a title reserved for the elect 
 people, the Israel of God. Still there are exceptions. 
 The Philistines are a Xaos (Gen. xxvi. u), the Egyptians
 
 368 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcvm. 
 
 (Exod. ix. 15), and the Moabites (Ruth i. 15); to others 
 too the name is not refused. Then, too, occasionally in the 
 plural ol Xao/are = ra sdvr); as for example at Neh. i. 8 ; 
 x. 30, 31 ; Ps. xcvi. 6; Hos. x. 10; Mic. vi. 1 6. Or again 
 we find Xaot joined with sdvrj as a sort of exhaustive 
 enumeration of the whole race of mankind ; thus Ps. cvii. 
 4 ; Wisd. iii. 8 ; Rev. v. 9 ; vii. 9 ; x. 1 1 ; xi. 9 ; xiii. 
 7; xiv. 6; xvii. 15. It is true indeed that in all these 
 passages from the Book of Revelation the exhaustive 
 enumeration is fourf old ; and to \aol and sdvrj are added 
 <f>v\a,L and 7\&>o-crat, on one occasion <j)v\ai making way 
 for /3acri\is (x. n) and on another for o^Xot (xvii. '15). 
 We may contrast with this a distributive use of \aos and 
 sdwrj, but \aos here in the singular, as at Luke ii. 32 ; 
 Acts xxvi. 17, 23, where also, being used together, they 
 between them take in the whole of mankind, but where 
 \aos is claimed for and restricted to the chosen people, 
 while Wvr] includes all mankind outside of the covenant 
 (Deut. xxxii. 43 ; Isai. Ixv. i, 2 ; 2 Sam. vii. 23 ; Acts xv. 
 14). And this is the general law of the words' use, every 
 other being exceptional ; \aos the chosen people, sOvrj, or 
 sometimes more fully TO. sdvrj TOV KOO-^OV (Luke xii. 30), 
 or rfjs <yfjs ; but always in the plural and with the article, 
 the residue of mankind (o* Kard\oi7roi TWV av6p<airwv 9 
 Acts xv. 17). At the same time sdvos in the singular has 
 no such limitation ; it is a name which, given to the Jews 
 by others, is not intended to convey any slight, thus TO 
 sdvos rwv 'lovSaiwv (Acts x. 22) ; they freely take it as in 
 no way a dishonorable title to themselves, TO sdvos ?;/iwi/ 
 (Luke vii. 5; cf . xxiii. 2; John xi. 18), TO sdvos TOVTO 
 (Acts xxiv. 3 ; cf. Exod. xxxiii. 13; Deut. iv. 6; Wisd. 
 xvii. 2) ; nay sometimes and with certain additions it is 
 for them a title of highest honour ; they are sdvos ajiov 
 (E xod. xix. 6 ; cf. I Pet. ii. 9) ; sdvos SK psvov sdvwv 
 (Clement of Rome, Cor. 29). If indeed the word be con- 
 nected with sdos, and contemplates a body of people living
 
 xcvm. SntONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 369 
 
 according to one custom and rule, none could deserve the 
 title better or so well as a nation which ordered their lives 
 according to a more distinctive and rigidly denned custom 
 and rule of their own than probably any other nation that 
 ever lived. 
 
 A^/ios occurs only in St. Luke, and in him, as might be 
 expected, only in the Acts, that is, after his narrative has 
 left behind it the limitations of the Jewish Church, and 
 has entered on and begun to move in the ampler spaces, 
 and among the more varied conditions of the heathen 
 world. The following are the four occasions of its use, 
 xii. 22 ; xvii. 5 ; xix. 30, 33 ; they all exemplify well that 
 fine and accuiate use of technical terms, that choice of 
 the fittest among them, which we so often observe in 
 St. Luke, and which is so characteristic a mark of the 
 highly educated man. The Greek S?}/zoy is the Latin 
 * populus,' which Cicero (De Re Pull. i. 25 ; cf. Augustine, 
 De Civ. Dei) ii. 21) thus defines: 'Populus autein non 
 omnis hominum ccetus quoquo modo congregatus, sed 
 costus multitudinis juris conseiisu et utilitatis couimunione 
 sociatus ; ' ( die Gemeinde,' the free commonalty (Plutarch, 
 MuL Virt. 1 5, in fine), and these very often contemplated 
 as assembled and in actual exercise of their rights as 
 citizens. This idea indeed so dominates the word that ev 
 TW Btjfio) is equivalent to, ' in a popular assembly.' It is 
 invariably thus used by St. Luke. If we want the exact 
 opposite to Bijfj-os, it is o%\os, the disorganized, or rather 
 the unorganized, multitude (Luke ix. 38 ; Matt. xxi. 8 ; 
 Acts xiv. 14) ; this word in classic Greek having often a 
 certain tinge of contempt, as designating those who share 
 neither in the duties nor privileges of the free citizens. 
 Such contempt, however, does not lie of necessity in the 
 word (Rev. vii. 9 ; Acts i. 15), and there is no hint of it in 
 Scripture, where a man is held worthy of honour even 
 though the only Tro\irsv/j,a in which he may claim a share 
 is that which is eternal in the heavens (Pliil. iii. 20). 
 
 B B
 
 370 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcix. 
 
 xcix. Paima-pos, ft aimer pa. 
 
 THESE are exclusively ecclesiastical terms, as are /9a7r- 
 Ti<mf)s and fiairTia-Tijpiov ; none of them appearing in the 
 Septuagint, nor in classical Greek, but only in the N. T., 
 or in writings dependent on this. They are all in lineal 
 descent from /3a7TTlsiv, a later form of ftaTTTEiv, and to be 
 found, though rarely, in classical Greek ; thus twice in 
 Plato (Euthyd. 277 d', Symp. 176 6), in which last place 
 fte[3aTni(Tp,vos signifies well washed with wine ; the 
 'uvidus' of Horace (Carm. ii. 19. 18) ; and often in later 
 writers, as in Plutarch (De Superst. 3; Galba, 21), in 
 Lucian (Bacch. 7), and in others. 
 
 Before proceeding further, a word or two may fitly 
 find place here on the relation between words of the same 
 famil} r , but divided from one another by their several ter- 
 minations in fia and /uos, as KJjpvjfjia and /crjpvypos, Blwy^a 
 and 84&>7/i6y, Srjjpa and 777/^6$, with others innumerable. 
 It seldom happens that both forms are found in the N. T. ; 
 that in pa being of the most frequent occurrence ; thus- 
 this has aTravjacrfia (Heb. i. 3)? but not 
 as^aa-fia (Acts xvii. 23), but not a-sftaap 
 (Matt. xxiv. 15), but not fiosXvy/jios; pfjypa (Luke vi. 49), 
 but not /07/7/ios; TrspiKadappa (l Cor. iv. 13), but not trepi- 
 naOappos. Sometimes, but more rarely, it offers us the 
 termination of pos ; thus apiraypos (Phil. ii. 6), but not 
 apTrayfia ; ajrapritrpos (Luke xiv. 28), but 
 KaraprKT/jios (Ephes. iv. 12), but not KardprLcrpa ; 
 (Eom. vi. 19), but not a^iaapa. It will happen, but only 
 in rare instances, that both forms occur in the N. T. ; thus 
 piaa-pa (2 Pet. ii. 20) and fjnaa-pos (2 Pet. ii. 10) ; and 
 these with which we have at present to deal, ^d-jma-pa 
 and fiaTTTia-pos. There is occasionally, but not in the 
 N. T., a third form ; thus besides o-sjBaa-pa and as/Baa-pos 
 there is as/3a<n,s ; besides airdprLa-pa and d7rapTio-/j,os there
 
 xcix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 371 
 
 is aTrdpTKTts ; besides ir^sovacrua and tr\ova(rp.6s there is 
 vrXeoi'acrts ; besides apTray/ma and ap7ra<y/ji6s there is apTracris^ 
 and so too besides /3a7TTio>ta and Paima-pos we have /3a7r- 
 Ticrts in Josephus (.4%^. xviii. $. 2) and in others. There 
 is no difficulty in severally assigning to each of these forms 
 the meaning which properly belongs to it ; and this, even 
 while we must own that in actual use the words are very 
 far from abiding true to their proper significance, those 
 with the active termination in pos continually drifting 
 into a passive signification, as is the case with if^sovaa-jjios, 
 ^aa-avia-fjios, and in the N. T. with ayiaa-fj-ds and others ; 
 while the converse, if not quite so common, is yet of fre- 
 quent occurrence ; cf . Tholuck, Disp. Christ, de loco Pauli 
 Ep. ad Phil. ii. 6-9, 1848, p. 18. Thus, to take the words 
 which now concern us the most nearly, ftdTrrtcris is the 
 act of baptism contemplated in the doing, a baptizing ; 
 fiaTTTia-fids the same act contemplated not only as doing,, 
 but as done, a baptism ; while Paima-pa is not any more 
 the act, but the abiding fact resulting therefrom, baptism ; 
 the first embodying the transitive, the second the in- 
 transitive, notion of the verb; while the third expresses 
 the result of the transitive notion of the same this last 
 therefore, as is evident, being the fittest word to designate 
 the institution of baptism in the Church, as an abstract 
 idea, or rather as an ever-existing fact, and not the same 
 in its several concrete realizations. See on these passives 
 in fia the exhaustive essay on 7r\^pcofia in Bishop Light- 
 foot, On the Colossians, pp. 323-339. 
 
 How far is this the usage of the N. T. ? It can only 
 be said to be approximately so; seeing that /3 'a-rrria- post 
 has not there, as I am convinced, arrived at the dignity 
 of setting forth Christian baptism at all. By fiaimanos in 
 the usage of the N. T. we must understand any ceremonial 
 washing or lustration, such as either has been ordained of 
 God (Heb. ix. 10), or invented by men (Mark vii. 4, 8) ; 
 but in neither case as possessing any central significance : 
 
 BB2
 
 372 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcix. 
 
 while by /3tt7rrto-yLta we understand baptism in our Christian 
 sense of the word (Rom. vi. 4 ; I Pet. iii. 21 ; Ephes. iv. 5) ; 
 yet not so strictly as to exclude the baptism of John (Luke 
 vii. 29: Acts x. 37; xix. 3). This distinction is in the 
 main preserved by the Greek ecclesiastical writers. Jose- 
 phus indeed calls the baptism of John fiaTrria-pos (Antt. 
 xviii. 5. 2) ; but Augusti (Christl. Archdol. vol. ii. p. 313) is 
 strangely in error, affirming as he does of the Greek 
 Fathers that they habitually employ the same for Christian 
 Baptism. So far from this, it would be difficult to adduce 
 a single example of this from Chrysostom, or from any 
 one of the great Cappadocian Fathers. In the Latin 
 Church it is true that ' baptismus ' and ' baptisma ' are 
 both employed to designate Christian baptism ; by Ter- 
 tullian one perhaps as frequently as the other; while 
 ' baptismus ' quite predominates in Augustine ; but it is 
 altogether otherwise in ecclesiastical Greek, which remains 
 faithful to the distinctions which the N. T. observes. 
 
 These distinctions are there so constantly maintained, 
 that all explanations of Heb. vi. 2 (^airTLa^wv Si^a^f?*), 
 which rest on the assumption that Christian Baptism is 
 intended here, break down before this fact ; not to urge 
 the plural ftaTTTicr/jLwv, which, had the one baptism of the 
 Church been intended, would be inexplicable. If, indeed, 
 Ave take the ySaTrrtoyW of this place in its widest sense, as 
 including all baptisms whatever with which the Christian 
 had anything to do, either in the way of rejecting or 
 making them his own, we can understand a "' doctrine of 
 baptisms,' such as should teach the young convert the 
 definitive abolition of the Jewish ceremonial lustrations, 
 the merely preparatory and provisional character of the 
 baptism of John, and the eternal validity of the baptism 
 of Christ. We can understand too how these all should 
 be gathered up under the one name of ^aTrria^oi, being 
 that they were all washings ; and this without in the least 
 allowing that any other save /3d7TTia-/j,a was the proper
 
 c. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 373 
 
 title of that \ovrpov TraXiyyi-vEGias which is the exclusive 
 privilege of the Church of Christ. 
 
 C. er/eoToy, 71/0^05, fyfos, a-)(\vs. 
 
 OF (TKoros it needs hardly to speak. It is the largest and 
 most inclusive word of this group ; being of very frequent 
 occurrence in the N. T., both in this its Attic form, as 
 also in that of a-Koria, which belongs to the common dia- 
 lect. It is the exact opposite to $&>y; thus in the pro- 
 foundly pathetic words of Ajax in Sophocles (Aj. 394), 
 ia>' (TKOTOS s[wv <f)dos : compare Plato, Rep. vii. 518 a; 
 Job xxii. ii ; Luke xii. 3; Acts xxvi. 18. 
 
 Tv6(f)o$, which is rightly regarded as a later Doric form 
 of Sv6(f)os, occurs only once in the N. T., namely at Heb. 
 xii. 1 8. and there in connexion with o</>os; in which same 
 connexion it is found elsewhere (Deut. iv. II.; Exod. x. 
 22; Zeph. i. 16). There was evidently a feeling on the 
 part of our early Translators, that an element of tempest 
 was involved in the word, the renderings of it by them being 
 these : ' mist (Wiclif and Tyndale) ; ' storm ' (Cranmer); 
 * blackness ' (Geneva and Authorized Version) ; * whirl- 
 wind ' (Rheims, as c turbo' in the Yulgate). Onr ordi- 
 nary lexicons indicate very faintly, or not at all, that such 
 a force is to be found in yvofas ; but it is very distinctly 
 recognized by Pott (Etymol. Forsch. vol. v. page 346), who 
 gives, as explanatory equivalents, ' Finsterniss,' dunkel,' 
 ' Wirbelwind,' and who with the best modern scholars sees 
 in vtyas, vefos, yvofos and o<os, a group of words having 
 much in common, perhaps only different shapes of what 
 was once a single word. It is joined, too, in the Septua- 
 gint, where it is of frequent use, with vs(j)s\rj (Joel ii. 2 ; 
 Ps.xcvi. 2; Ezek. xxxiv. 12), and with 6vs\\a (Deut. iv. 
 II ; v. 22). 
 
 Zo<j)os, which occurs four times in the N. T. (2 Pet. ii. 
 4, 17 ; Jude 6, 13), or five times, if we make room for it at
 
 374 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. c. 
 
 Heb. xii. 18, as it seems we should, is not found in the 
 Septuagint ; twice, however, namely at Ps. x. 2, (Ps.) xc. 6, 
 in the Version of Symmachus. The %6<j)os may be con- 
 templated as a kind of emanation of CTKOTOS ; thus 6 b'(/>os 
 rov O-KOTOVS (Jude 13); and signifies in its first meaning 
 the twilight gloom which broods over the regions of the 
 setting sun, and constitutes so strong a contrast to the life 
 and light of that Orient where the sun may be said to be 
 daily new-born. 'Heposis, or the cloudy, is in Homer the 
 standing epithet with which o</>cs, when used in this 
 sense, is linked. But it means more than this. There is 
 a darkness darker still, that, namely, of the sunless under- 
 world, the ' nigra Tartara ' of Virgil (JEn. vi. 134) ; the 
 ' opaca Tartara ' of Ovid (Met. x. 20) ; the icvefyala Taprd- 
 pov fidOv) of JEschylus (Prom. Vinct. 1029). This, too, it 
 further means, namely that sunless world itself, though 
 indeed this less often than the gloom which wraps it 
 (Homer, Hymn, ad Cer. 338 ; Euripides, Hippolytus, 1434; 
 cf. Job x. 21, 22). It is out of the o0oy that Ahriman in 
 the Persian mythology is born, as is Ormuzd out of the 
 light (Plutarch, De Is. et Osir. 47). It will at once be per- 
 ceived with what fitness the word in the N. T. is employed, 
 being ever used to signify the darkness of that shadowy 
 land where light is not, but only darkness visible. 
 
 'A^Xus occurs only once in the N. T., namely at Acts 
 xiii. 1 1 ; never in the Septuagint, although once in the 
 Version of Symmachus (Job iii. 5). It is by Galen defined 
 as something more dense than o^Xt], less dense than 
 vs(f)os. In the single place of its N. T. use it attests the 
 accuracy in the selection of words, and not least of medical 
 words, which < the beloved physician ' so often displays. 
 For him it expresses the mist of darkness, a^Xus- KCU 
 <r/fo'roy, which fell on the sorcerer Elymas, being the out- 
 ward and visible sign of the inward spiritual darkness 
 which should be his portion for a while in punishment for 
 his resistance to the truth. It is by ' mist ' that all the
 
 ci. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 375 
 
 translations of our English Hexapla render it, with the 
 exception of the Kheims, which has ' dimness ' ; while it is 
 rendered well by ' caligo J in the Vulgate. St. Luke's use 
 of the word in the Acts is divided by nearly a thousand 
 years from its employment by Homer ; but the meaning 
 has remained absolutely the same ; for indeed it is words 
 with an ethical significance, and not those which express 
 the phenomena of the outward world, that change with the 
 changing years. Thus there is in the Odyssey a fine use 
 of the verb a^vstv (xii. 406), the poet describing there 
 the responsive darkness which comes over the sea as it is 
 overshadowed by a dark cloud (cf. ' inhorruit unda tene- 
 bris ' : Virgil, JEn. iii. 195). 'A^Xus, too, is employed by 
 Homer to express the mist which clouds the eyes of the 
 dying (II. xvi. 344), or that in which the gods, for one 
 cause or another, may envelope their favourites. 
 
 ci. fieftrjXos, KOWOS. 
 
 THE image which /Se/S^Xos, derived from j3r)\6s, a thresh- 
 old, suggests, is that of a spot trodden and trampled on, 
 lying open to the casual foot of every intruder or careless 
 passer-by ; and thus, in words of Thucydides, a ^wpiov 
 p@ri\ov (iv. 97). Exactly opposite to this, is the aSvTov, a 
 spot, that is, fenced and reserved for sacred uses, as such 
 not lightly to be approached, but in the language of the 
 Canticles, ' a garden enclosed, a spring shut up, a fountain 
 sealed ' (Cant. iv. 1 2). It is possible indeed that the 'profane- 
 ness ' which is predicated of person or thing to whom this 
 title is applied, may be rather negatively the absence of any 
 higher consecration than positively the active presence of 
 aught savouring of unholy or profane. Thus it is often joined 
 witha/iiVoy (as by Plutarch, De Def. Orac. 16), signify ing 
 no more than one uninitiated, the dvopyLaaTos, and, as 
 such, arcendus a sacris ; compare Plato, Symp. 2186, where 
 it is joined .with aypoixos. In like manner aprot
 
 376 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. ci. 
 
 (i Sam. xxi. 4) are simply unconsecrated common loaves, 
 as contrasted with the she w-b read which the high priest 
 declares to be holy. Not otherwise the Latin ' profanus ' 
 means no more than that which is left outside the rfysvos, 
 that which is 'pro fano,' and thus wanting the consecra- 
 tion which the re^svos, or sanctuary, has obtained. We, 
 too, in English mean no more, when we distinguish be- 
 tween * sacred * and ' profane ' history, setting the one 
 over against the other. We do not imply thereby any 
 profaneness, positive and properly so called, in the latter, 
 but only that it is not what the former is, a history having 
 in the first place to do with the kingdom of G-od, and the 
 course of that kingdom. So too it fared at first with 
 fts(3rj\.of. It was only in later use that it came to be set 
 over against ayios (Ezek. xxii. 6) and ocrtos, to be joined 
 with avoa-Los (l Tim. i. 9), with ypa^S^s (iv. 7), with 
 avofj,os (Ezek. ii. 25), that /juiapal ^slpss (2 Mace. v. 16) 
 could within a few lines be changed for psjSrjXoi., as an 
 adequate equivalent. 
 
 But in what relations, it may be asked, do /3s{3rj\os and 
 KOLVOS stand to one another ? Before bringing the latter 
 into such questionable company it may be observed that we 
 have many pleasant arid honourable uses of KOLVOS and its 
 derivatives, Kowwvia and KOLVWVLKOS, in the N. T. ; thus 
 Jude 3 ; 2 Cor. xiii. 13 ; I Tim. vi. 18 ; while in heathen 
 Greek Socrates is by Dio Chrysostom happily charac- 
 terized as KOLVOS KOI (f)L\,dv8p(i)7ros, giving himself, that is, 
 no airs, and in nothing withdrawing himself from friendly 
 and familiar intercourse with his fellow-men ; the word 
 being capable of finding a yet higher application to Him, 
 of whom some complained that He ate with publicans and 
 sinners (Matt. ix. 10, n). He, too, in this sense, and in 
 the noblest aspect of the word, was KOLVOS. This, however, 
 only by the way. The employment with which we have 
 here to do of KOIVOS and KOLVOW in sacred things, and as equi- 
 valent to yS^/3?/Xos and ySe^Xoo), is exclusively Jewish Hel-
 
 ci. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 377 
 
 lenistic. One might claim for it to be restricted to the 
 N. T. alone, if it were not for two exceptional examples 
 (i Mace. i. 47, 62). Comparing Acts xxi. 28, and xxiv. 6, 
 we have curious implicit evidence that such an employ- 
 ment of KOIVOS was, at the time when the Acts were written, 
 unfamiliar, probably unknown, to the heathen. The 
 Jewish adversaries of St. Paul, when addressing their 
 Israelitish fellow-countrymen, make their charge against 
 him, KKolvo)Ks rbv ayiov TOTTOV (Acts xxi. 28) ; but when they 
 are bringing against him the same accusation, not now to 
 their Jewish fellow-countrymen, but to Felix, a heathen, 
 they change their word, and the charge runs, sjrsipacrs 
 fSsl3ri\.wcrai TO tepdv (Acts xxiv. 6) ; the other language 
 would have been here out of keeping, might very likely 
 have been unintelligible. 
 
 Very noticeable is the manner in which KOIVOS in the 
 N. T. more and more encroaches on the province of mean- 
 ing which, first belonging exclusively to ySe/ST/Xoy, the two 
 came afterwards to divide between them, but with the re- 
 sult that KOIVOS gradually assumed to itself the larger 
 share, and was used the most often (Mark vii. 2 ; Acts x. 
 14 ; Rom. xiv. 14, bis ; Heb. x. 29). How this came to pass, 
 how Ps(3rf\.os had, since the Septuagint was written, been 
 gradually pushed from its place, is not difficult to see. Kot- 
 vos, which stepped into its room, more commended itself to 
 Jewish ears, as bringing out by contrast the sic\.oyjj of the 
 Jewish people as a \abs Trepiovaios, having no fellowship 
 with aught which was unclean. The less that there neces- 
 sarily lay in KOIVOS of defilement, the more strongly the 
 separation of Israel was brought out, that would endure 
 no fellowship with things which had any commonness 
 about them. The ceremonially unclean was in fact more 
 and more breaking down the barrier which divided it from 
 that which was morally unclean ; and doing away with 
 any distinction between them.
 
 378 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. en. 
 
 Cil. fJLO-^Oos, 7TOVOS, K07TOS. 
 
 M6%0os only occurs three times in the N. T., and al- 
 ways in closest sequence to KOTTOS (2 Cor. xi. 27 ; I Thess. 
 ii. 9 ; 2 Thess. iii. 8). There can scarcely be a doubt of 
 its near connexion with /j,6yts, this last, as Curtius suggests, 
 being a dative plural, /JLOJOLS, which has let fall a letter, 
 and subsided into an adverb. The word, which does not 
 occur in Homer nor in Plato, is the homely everyday word 
 for that labour which, in one shape or another, is the 
 lot under the sun of all of the sinful children of Adam. 
 It has been suggested by some that the infinitely laborious 
 character of labour, the more or less of distress which is 
 inextricably bound up with it, and cannot be escaped, is 
 hardly brought out in ^o-^dos with the same emphasis as it 
 is in the other words which are here grouped with it, and 
 especially in TTOVOS, and that a point of difference may 
 here be found between them ; but this is hardly the case. 
 Phrases like the 7ro\vfj.o^6os " Aprjs of Euripides (Phcen. 
 791), and they may be multiplied to any extent, do not 
 bear out this view. 
 
 Out of the four occasions on which TTOVOS occurs in the 
 N. T., three are found in the Apocalypse (xvi. 10, n ; 
 xxi. 4), and one in Colossians (iv. 13); for TTOVOS must 
 there stand beyond all serious question, however there 
 may be no fewer than four other readings, iroQos, KOTTOS, 
 f?Xoi, dywv, which are competitors for the place that 
 it occupies by a right better than them all. Hovos is 
 labour such as does not stop short of demanding the 
 whole strength of a man ; and this exerted to the utter- 
 most, if he is to accomplish the task which is before him. 
 Thus in Homer war is constantly regarded as the irovos, 
 not of mortal warriors only, but immortal, of Ares him- 
 self j TTOVOS avSpwv, as Theognis (985) calls it ; being joined 
 with &r)pis (II. xvii. 158) and with 7ro\e/ioy (xvii. 718).
 
 cm. SYNONFMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 379 
 
 Uovos is the standing word by which the labours of Her- 
 cules are expressed ; poxQoi too they are sometimes, but 
 not nearly so often, called (Sophocles, Track. 1080, 1150). 
 Hovos in Plato is joined with aycbv scr^aros (Phcedr. 
 247 6), with voa-os (244 d), with KivSvvos (2 Alcib. 142 6), 
 with fopta (Rep. ii. 365 6), in the Septuagint with oovvy 
 (i Kin. xv. 23), with pdo-ri^ ( Jer. vi. 7), with 7^7/7/7 (2 Chr. 
 ix. 28). The cruel bondage of the children of Israel in 
 Egypt is their irovos (Exod. ii. 1 1). It is nothing wonder- 
 ful that, signifying this, irovos should be expressly named 
 as having no place in the Heavenly City (Eev. xxi. 4). 
 
 KOTTOS is of much more frequent recurrence. It is 
 found some twenty times in the N. T., being not so much 
 the actual exertion which a man makes, as the lassitude 
 or weariness (see Pott, Etym. Forsch. vol. v. p. 10) which 
 follows on this straining of all his powers to the utmost. 
 It is well worth our while to note the frequent use which 
 is made of KOTTOS and of the verb o7rta&>, for the desig- 
 nating what are or ought to be the labours of the Chris- 
 tian ministry, containing as they do a word of warning 
 for all that are in it engaged (John iv. 38 ; Acts xx. 35 ; 
 Col. i. 29 ; 2 Cor. vi. 5 ; I Thess. iii. 5, and often). 
 
 It may be said in conclusion that 'labour,' 'toil' (or 
 perhaps ' travail ') and ' weariness,' are the three words 
 which in English best reproduce the several Greek words, 
 , TTOVOS, KOTTOS, with which we here have to do. 
 
 ciii. afAto/jLOS, CL^S^TTTOS, avsyfcXijTOS, av7ri\rjTrros. 
 
 WORDS expressing severally absence of blemish, and absence 
 of blame, are very easily confounded, and the distinction 
 between them lost sight of; not to say that those which 
 bear one of these meanings easily acquire and make the 
 other their own. Take in proof the first in this group of 
 words of which all have to do with the Christian life, and 
 what its character should be. We have in the rendering
 
 380 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. CUT. 
 
 of this a singular illustration of a shortcoming on the part 
 of our Translators of 161 1, which has been often noted, the 
 failure I mean upon their parts to render one Greek word by 
 a fixed correspondent word in the English. It is quite true 
 that this feat cannot always, or nearly always, be done ; but 
 what constraining motive was there for six variations such 
 as these which are the lot of a^w^os on. the six occasions 
 of its occurrence ? At Ephes. i. 4 it appears as ' without 
 blame'; at Col. i. 22, as ' unblameable ' ; at Ephes. v. 27 
 as 'without blemish'; at Heb. ix. 14, as 'without spot'; 
 at Jude 24 as ' faultless ' ; at Eev. xiv. 5 as ' without 
 fault.' Of these the first and second have failed to seize 
 the exact force of the word. No such charge can be 
 brought against the other four ; one may be happier than 
 another, but all are sufficiently correct. Inaccurate it 
 certainly is to render afiwfios ' without blame,' or ' un- 
 blameable,' seeing that /iw/Aos in later Hellenistic Greek 
 has travelled from the signifying of blame to the signifying 
 of that which is the subject of blame, a blot, that is, or 
 spot, or blemish. "A/iw/ios, a rare word in classical Greek, 
 but found in Herodotus (ii. 177), and in JEschylus (Persw, 
 185), in this way became the technical vrord to designate 
 the absence of anything amiss in a sacrifice, of anything 
 which would render it unworthy to be offered (Exod. xxix. 
 2 ; Num. vi. 14; Ezek. xliii. 22 ; Philo, DeProfug. 3. 15) ; 
 or the sacrificing priest unworthy to offer it (i Mace. iv. 
 42). 
 
 When joined with aa"m\os for the designation of this 
 faultlessness, as it is joined at I Pet. i. 19, afjiw^os would 
 indicate the absence of internal blemish, acnri\os that of 
 external spot. Already in the Septuagint it has been 
 transferred to the region of ethics, being of constant use 
 there to set forth the holy walking of the faithful (Ps. 
 cxviii. (cxix. E. V.) I ; Prov. xi. 5), and even applied as 
 a title of honour to God Himself (Ps. xvii. 33). We find 
 it joined with aveyK\r)Tos (Col. i. 22); and with ayios
 
 cm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 381 
 
 (Ephes. i. 4; v. 27), and we may regard it as affirming a 
 complete absence of all fault or blemish on the part of 
 that whereof it is predicated. 
 
 But if apwuos is thus the ' unblemished,' apsfiirTos is 
 the ( unblamed.' There is a difference between the two 
 statements. Christ was apwpos in that there was in Him 
 no spot or blemish, and He could say, " Which of you 
 convinceth Me of sin?" but in strictness of speech He 
 was not afisfjLTTTos, nor is this epithet ever given to Him 
 in the N. T., seeing that He endured the contradiction of 
 sinners against Himself, who slandered his footsteps and 
 laid to his charge things that He knew not. Nor, how- 
 ever they may strive after this, can the saints of God lay 
 to their account that they will certainly attain it, and that 
 fault, just or unjust, will not be found with them. The 
 a/^w/jLos may be a^s^-n-ros (for see Luke i. 6; Phi!, ii. 15), 
 but he does not always prove so (i Pet. ii. 12, 15). At 
 the same time there is a constant tendency to regard the 
 ( inculpatus ' as also the ' inculpabilis,' so that in actual 
 usage there is a continual breaking down of the distinct 
 and several use of these words. The 0. T. uses of a^s^irros, 
 as Job xi. 4, sufficiently prove this. 
 
 'A-vsyicXrjTos, which, like av7rl\rjTrTos, is in the N. T. 
 exclusively a word of St. Paul's, occurring five times in 
 his Epistles, and nowhere else, is rendered ' unreprovable ' 
 (Col. i. 22), 'blameless ' (i Cor. i. 8 ; i Tim. iii. 10; Tit. i. 
 6, 7). It is justly explained by Chrysostom as implying 
 not acquittal merely, but absence of so much as a charge 
 or accusation brought against him of whom it is affirmed. 
 It moves, like dfiw^os, not in the subjective world of the 
 thoughts and estimates of men, but in the objective world 
 of facts. It is an epithet by Plutarch (De Cap. ex In. 
 Util. 5) accurately joined with dXoiSoprjTos. In a passage 
 cited above, namely I Tim. iii. 10. there is a manifest 
 allusion to a custom which still survives in our Ordinations, 
 at the opening of which the ordaining Bishop demands of
 
 382 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 the faithful present whether they know any notable crime 
 or charge for the which those who have been presented 
 to him for Holy Orders ought not to be ordained; he 
 demands, in other words, whether they be UV^K^IJTOI,, that 
 is, not merely unaccusable, but unaccused ; not merely 
 free from any just charge, for that question is reserved, if 
 need be, for later investigation, but free from any charge 
 at all the intention of this citation being, that if any 
 present has such a charge to bring, the ordination should 
 not go forward until this had been duly sifted. 
 
 'Ai/fTTiX^TTToy, of somewhat rare use in classical Greek, 
 occurring once in Thucydides (v. 17) and once in Plato 
 (Phileb. 43 c), never in the Septuagint or the Apocrypha, 
 is found in company with icaQapos (Lucian, Fiscal, i. 8), 
 with avejK\r]ros (ib. 46), with rA.etoy (Plutarch, Sept. 
 Sap. Conv. 9), with dSia/3\T)Tos (De Lib. Ed. 7), is in our 
 Version twice rendered 'blameless' (i Tim. iii. 2 ; v. 7), 
 but once ' unrebukeable J (vi. 14); these three being the 
 only occasions on which it is found in the N. T. t Irre- 
 prehensible,' a word not occurring in our Authorized 
 Version, but as old as it and older ; and on one of the 
 above occasions, namely, at I Tim. iii. 2, employed by the 
 Rhemish, which had gotten it from the ' irreprehen- 
 sibilis ' of the Vulgate, would be a nearer translation, 
 resting as it does on the same image as the Greek ; 
 that, namely, of affording nothing which an adversary 
 could take hold of, on which he might ground a charge : 
 fjirj jraps^wv Kanyyopias d<f)op/Aijv, as the Scholiast on 
 Thucydides has it. At the same time ' urireprehended,' if 
 such a word might pass, would be a nearer rendering still. 
 
 uy, vwdpos, dpyos. 
 
 IN a careful article which treats of these words, Schmidt 
 expresses in German the ultimate conclusions about them 
 whereat he has arrived ; which it may be worth while to
 
 civ. SYS ON YMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 383 
 
 repeat, as some instruction may be gotten from them. 
 'BpaSvs, he states, would best be represented in German 
 by * langsam,' with ra-^vs, or else with WKVS (Homer, Odys. 
 viii. 329), or with a^ivovs for its antithesis; vcodpos by 
 ' trage/ with b%vs for its proper opposite ; while he morally 
 identifies apyos with the German 'faul,' or with ' untha- 
 tig,' and finds in evepyos the proper antithesis of this. 
 Let us examine these words a little closer. 
 
 TSpaSvs differs from the words with which it is here 
 brought into comparison, that no moral fault or blame is 
 necessarily involved in it ; so far indeed from this, that 
 of the three occasions on which it is used in the N. T., 
 two are in honour; for to be ' slow ' to evil things, to rash 
 speaking, or to anger (Jam. i. 19, bis), is a grace, and not 
 the contrary. Elsewhere too ySpaSus- is honourably used, 
 as when Isocrates (i. 34) advises, to be 'slow' in planning 
 and swift in performing. Neither is it in dispraise of the 
 Spartans that Thucydides ascribes slowness of action 
 (Ppa&vTrjs) to the Spartans and swiftness to the Athenians. 
 He is in this doing no more than weighing in equal 
 scales, these against those, the more striking and more 
 excellent qualities of each (viii. 96). 
 
 Of vci)0p6f, only found twice in the N. T., and both 
 times in the Epistle to the Hebrews (v. II; vi. 12), the 
 etymology is uncertain ; that from vrj and wOslv, which 
 found favour once, failing to do so now. We meet the 
 word in good Attic Greek ; thus in Plato (Thecetet. 144 b) ; 
 the form vwdrjs being the favourite in the classical periods 
 of the language, and vwOpos not coming into common use 
 till the times of the Kouf) Sid\sKTos. It occurs but once 
 in the Septuagint (Prov. xxii. 29), vaiflporcdpSio? also once 
 (Prov. xii. 8); twice in the Apocrypha, at Ecclus. xi. 13, 
 and again at iv. 34, where vwdpos and -rrapsi^evos sv rots 
 stand in instructive juxtaposition. 
 
 There is a deeper, more inborn sluggishness implied in 
 
 pos, and this bound up as it were in the very life,
 
 384 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. civ. 
 
 than in either of the other words of this group. The 
 ftpa&vs of to-day might become the GOKVS of to-morrow ; 
 the apyos might grow to evspyos ; but the very constitu- 
 tion of the vwdpos unfits him for activities of the mind or 
 spirit; he is vwdpos sv rals STTIVOIULS (Polybius, iv. 8. 5). 
 The word is joined by Dionjsius of Halicarnassus with 
 avatad'rjros, aKivyTos, arid aTraOrfs ; by Hippocrates, cited 
 by Schmidt, with fiapvs ; by Plutarch (De Def. Orac.}, 
 with SvcrKLV'rjTos, this last epithet expressing clearly what 
 in others just named is only suggested, namely, a certain 
 awkwardness and unwieldliness of gait and demeanour, re- 
 presenting to the outward world a slowness and inaptitude 
 for activities of the mind which is within. On its second 
 appearance, Heb. vi. 12, the Vulgate happily renders it 
 by ' segnis ' ; ' sluggish,' in place of the ' slothful,' which 
 now stands in our Version, would be an improvement. 
 Delitzsch, upon Heb. v. 12, sums up the force of vwOpos: 
 Schwer in Bewegung zu setzen, schwerfallig,trage, stumpf, 
 matt, lassig ; while Pollux makes vwOpsia a synonym of 
 afj,/3\vTi]$. It is in its earlier form a standing epithet for 
 the ass (Homer, 17. ii. 559). 
 
 'Apyos ( = apj6s}, used of persons (2 Pet. i. 8; Tit. i. 
 12) and of things (Matt. xii. 36), is joined in the first of 
 these places with aKapTros. It is there rendered ' barren,' 
 a not very happy rendering, for which * idle ' might be 
 substituted with advantage, seeing that ' barren and 
 unfruitful,' as we read it now, constitute a tautology 
 which it would be well to get rid of. It is joined by 
 Plato to ap,s\r)s (R e P- i y ' 4 21 <ty> an ^ to SetXos (Legg. 
 x. 903) ; by Plutarch, as already had been done by St. 
 Peter, to aKapTros (Poplic. 8) -, the verb ap^slv by De- 
 mosthenes to a^o\d^iv and airopslv. It is set over against 
 evspryos by Xenophon (Cyrop. iii. 2. 19), against sp juris 
 by Sophocles (Phil. 97). 
 
 'Slow' (or 'tardy'), 'sluggish,' and 'idle' would 
 severally represent the words of this gi'oup.
 
 cv. SYKONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 385 
 
 ^ CV. Srjfjuovpycs, 
 
 k BDILDER and maker' cannot be regarded as a very satis- 
 factory rendering of the -rs-xyirrjs KOI Srj/juovpyos of Heb. xi. 
 IO; 'maker' saving little more than 'builder* had said 
 already. The words, as we have them, were brought into 
 the text by Tyndale, and have kept their place in all the 
 Protestant translations since, while 'craftyman and maker ' 
 are in Wiclif, ' artificer and builder ' in the Eheims. De- 
 litzsch traces this distinction between them, namely that 
 God, regarded as rsj(viTt}, is contemplated as laying out 
 the scheme and ground plan, if we might so speak, of the 
 Heavenly City. He is Sr]/j,iovpy6s, as embodying in actual 
 form and shape the divine idea or thought of his mind. 
 This distribution of meaning to the several words, which 
 is very much that of the Vulgate (' artifex et conditor '), 
 and in modern times of Meyer (Baukiinstler und Werk- 
 meister), has its advantage, namely, that what is first, 
 so far as a first and last exist in the order of the work 
 of God, is named first, the divine intention before the 
 divine realization of the same; but it labours under this 
 serious defect, namely, that it assigns to rsxvtnjs a mean- 
 ing of which it is difficult, if not impossible, to find any 
 example. Assuredly it is no unworthy conception of God 
 to conceive of Him as the drawer of the ground-plan of 
 the Heavenly City ; while the Epistle to the Hebrews, with 
 its relations to Philo, and through him to Plato, is 
 exactly where we might expect to meet it ; but rs^virrjs 
 in no other passage of its occurrence in the N. T. (they 
 are three, Acts xix. 24, 38 ; Eev. xviii. 22), nor yet in 
 the thirteen of the Septuagint and Apocrypha, gives the 
 slightest countenance to the ascription to it of such a 
 meaning; the same being as little traceable in the Greek 
 which lies outside of and beyond the sacred writings. 
 While therefore I believe that 8r)fj.Lovpj6s and 
 
 *co
 
 386 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. cv. 
 
 may and ought to be distinguished, I am unable to accept 
 this distinction. 
 
 But first let something be said concerning each of these 
 words. ArjfMovpyos is one of those grand and for rhetori- 
 cal purposes finely selected words, which constitute so 
 remarkable and unique a feature of the Epistle to the 
 Hebrews ; and, in the matter of style, difference it so mate- 
 rially from all the other Epistles. Beside its single occur- 
 rence there (Heb. xi. 10), it is to be found once in the 
 Apocrypha (2 Mace. iv. i) ; in the Septuagint not at all. 
 Its proper meaning, as it bears on its front, is 'one 
 whose works stand forth to the public gaze' ('cujus 
 opificia publice prostant '). But this of the public cha- 
 racter of the works has dropt out of the word ; and 
 ' maker ' or ' author ' this on more or less of a grand 
 scale is all which remains to it. It is a very favourite 
 word with Plato, and of very various employment by 
 him. Thus rhetoric is the Srj^iovpyos of persuasion (Gorg. 
 453 a) ; the sun, by its presence or absence, is the 
 ovpyos of day or night (Tim. 40 a) ; God is the 
 of mortal men (compare Josephus, Antt. i. 7. i). There 
 is 110 hint in Holy Scripture of the adoption of the word 
 into the theosophic or philosophic speculations of the 
 age, nor any presentiment of the prominent part which it 
 should play in coming struggles, close at hand as were 
 some of these. 
 
 But if God, as He obtains the name of Sr)}j,iovpy6s, is 
 recognised as Maker of all things, Trarrjp KOI TroirjT^s, as He 
 is called by Plutarch (De Fac. in Orb. Lun. 13), Trarijp /cat 
 fy/jiiovpyos by Clement of Rome (Cor. 35), rs^virrjs, which is 
 often found in connexion with it (thus Lucian, Hipp. 8 ; Philo, 
 Alley. Leg. iii. 32), brings further out what we may ven- 
 ture to call the artistic side of creation, that which justifies 
 Cicero in speaking of God as ' artifex mundi,' He mould- 
 ing and fashioning, in many and marvellous ways, the 
 materials which by a prior act of his will, prior, that
 
 cvi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 387 
 
 is, in our conception of it. He has called into existence. 
 If Brj/jLiovpyos more brings out the power of the divine 
 Creator, rs^virrjy expresses rather his manifold wisdom, 
 the infinite variety and beauty of the works of his hand ; 
 ' how manifold are thy works ; in wisdom hast Thou made 
 them all ! ' All the beauty of God's world owns Him for 
 its author, rov KO\\OVS 'ysvsa'idp^ijs, as a writer in the 
 Apocrypha, whose further words I shall presently quote, 
 names Him. Bleek therefore (on Heb. xi. 10) is, as I 
 cannot doubt, nearer the mark when he says, Durch 
 Ts-xyiTTjs wird hier gleichfalls der Schopfer bezeichnet, 
 aber mit Beziehung auf das Kiinstlerische in der Be- 
 reitung des Werkes : and he quotes Wisdom xiii. I : ovrs 
 TOIS spools Trpoa^ovTSS sjrs'yvwa'av rov rs^virrjv. There is 
 a certain inconvenience in taking the words, not as they 
 occur in the Epistle itself, but in a reverse order, Srjftiovpyos 
 first and TS^VLTIJS afterwards ; this, however, is not so 
 great as in retaining the order as we find it, and allowing 
 it to dominate our interpretation, as it appears to me that 
 Delitzsch has done. 
 
 cvi. d&TSios, wpalos, Ka\6s. 
 
 'Aareios occurs twice in the N. T. (Acts vii. 20, and Heb. 
 xi. 23), and on both occasions it is an epithet applied to 
 Moses ; having been drawn from Exod. ii. 2, where the 
 Septuagiut uses this word as an equivalent to the Hebrew 
 2113; compare Philo, De Vita Mos. i. 3. The TOJ <w, 
 which at Acts vii. 20 is added to daTsios, has not a little 
 perplexed interpreters, as is evident from the various 
 renderings which the expression has found. I will enu- 
 merate a few : ' gratus Deo ' (Vulg.) ; ' loved of God ' 
 (Wiclif) ; ' a proper child in the sight of God ' (Tyndale) ; 
 ' acceptable unto God ' (Cranmer, Geneva, and Rheimsj ; 
 * exceeding fair' (A. V.) ; this last rendering, which makes 
 the T 0c a heightening of the high quality of the thing 
 
 c c 2
 
 388 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. cvi. 
 
 which is thus extolled, being probably the nearest to the 
 truth; see for a like idiom Jonah iii. 3 : 7ro\ts fisyaXrj TOO 
 Sew. At Heb. xi. 23, * a proper child ' is the rendering of 
 all our English Versions, nor would it be easy to improve 
 upon it ; though ' proper/ so used, is a little out of date. 
 
 The d(7Tv which lies in aarstof, and which constitutes 
 its base, declares at once what is the point from which it 
 starts, and explains the successive changes through which 
 it passes. He first of all is aarelos who has been born 
 and bred, or at all events reared, in the city ; who in this 
 way is * urban.' But the urban ' may be assumed also 
 to be * urbane ' ; so testifying to the gracious civilizing in- 
 fluences of the life among men, and converse with men, 
 which he has enjoyed ; and thus aa-rstos obtains a certain 
 ethical tinge, which is real, though it may not be very 
 profound ; he who is such being implicitly contrasted with 
 the aypoitcos, the churl, the boor, the villein. Thus in an 
 instructive passage in Xenophon (Cyrop. ii. 2. 12) the 
 d<rTioi are described as also sv^dpnes, obliging, that is, and 
 gracious, according to the humbler uses of that word. It 
 is next assumed that the higher culture which he that is 
 bred in cities enjoys, will display itself in the very aspect 
 that he wears, which will be fashioned and moulded under 
 humanizing influences ; and thus the avreios may be 
 assumed as fair to look on and comely, a suggestion of 
 beauty, not indeed generally of a high character, finding 
 its way very distinctly into the word ; thus Plutarch, De 
 Gen. Socr., contrasts the do-moy and the ala-%pos, or posi- 
 tively ugly ; and thus too Judith is aa-rsia (Judith xi. 23) 
 = the svTrpoa-toiros applied to Sarah (Gen. xii. n). 
 
 'Qpaios is a word of constant recurrence in the Septu- 
 ugint, representing there a large variety of Hebrew words. 
 In the N. T. it appears only four times (Matt, xxiii. 27 ; 
 Acts iii. 2, 10; Bom. x. 15). The steps by which it 
 obtains the meaning of beautiful, such as in all these pas- 
 sages it possesses, are few and not difficult to trace. All
 
 cvi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 380 
 
 which in this world lives submitted to the laws of growth 
 and decay, has its ' hour ' or &pa, the period, that is, when 
 it makes fairest show of whatever of grace or beauty it 
 may own. This wpa, being thus the turning point of its 
 existence, the time when it is at its loveliest and best, 
 yields wpaios with the sense first of timely; thus <fy>aK 
 Odvaros in Xenophon (Ages. x. 3) a timely because honour- 
 able death ; and then of beautiful (in voller Entwicklung 
 oder Bliithe stehend, Schmidt). 
 
 It will be seen that dcrrsios and &palos arrive at one 
 and the same goal ; so that * fair,' or ' proper,' or ' beau- 
 tiful,' might be the rendering of either or of both ; but 
 that they arrive at it by paths wholly different, reposing as 
 they do on wholly different images. One belongs to art, 
 the other to nature. In da-rslos the notions of neatness, 
 symmetry, elegance, and so finally more or less of beauty, 
 are bound up. It is indeed generally something small 
 which da-rstos implies, even when it is something proposed 
 for our admiration. Thus Aristotle, while he admits (Eth. 
 Nic. iv. 3. 5) that small persons (ol ptxpoi) may be da-rsioi 
 and a-vfji/jLsrpoi, dapper and well shaped, refuses them the 
 title of KaXoL 'Qpalos is different. There speaks out in 
 it the sense that for all things which belong to this passing 
 world, the grace of the fashion of them perishes, but that 
 they have their * hour,' however brief, the season of their 
 highest perfection. 
 
 The higher moral aspects and uses of Ka\6s are most 
 interesting to note, above all, the perfect freedom with 
 which it moves alike in the world of beauty and in that 
 of goodness, claiming both for its own ; but of this we 
 are not here to speak. It is only as designating physical 
 aspects of beauty that it could be brought iiito comparison 
 with wpaios here. KaXJs, affirmed to be of the same 
 descent as the German ' heil,' as our own ' whole ' (Curtius, 
 Grrundzuge, 130), as we first know it, expresses beauty, and 
 beauty contemplated from a point of view especially dear
 
 390 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. cvn. 
 
 to the Greek mind, namely, as the harmonious complete- 
 ness, the balance, proportion, and measure of all the parts 
 one with another of that to which this epithet is given. 
 Basil the Great brings this out excellently well as he 
 draws the line between it and oapalos (Horn, in Ps. xliv.) : 
 To wpaiov, he says, TOV KO\,OV Biacfrepsi OTI TO pJsv oupalov 
 \fygTai TO a-vfjLTrSTrXrjpwfisvov elf TOV e-jriTrjSsiov /caipbv Trpos 
 Trjv ol/ceutv aicfjiijv &>s tapaios 6 tcapiros TTJS afvjreXov, 6 TTJV 
 
 oltCSldV TTstylV elf TS\l(0(TlV SCIVTOV BlO, TTfS TOV STOVS WpaS 
 
 a7roXa/3ft>i>, real itriT^Beiof elf aTToXava-iv Ka\ov Be eaTi TO 
 sv Ty <rvv6ecrei T&V p,\wv evappoa-TOV, sTravdoixrav CLVTU> TTJV 
 X^pw *X OV - Compare Plato, Tim. 30 c; Rep. x. 60 1 6, 
 and Stallbaum's note. 
 
 cvii. 
 
 [This concluding article contaius contributions toward the illustration of 
 some other synonyms, for a fuller dealing with which I have not 
 found place in this volume.] 
 
 I. \7ris, TTIO-TLS. Augustine (Encliirid. 8); 'Est itaque 
 fides et malarum rerum et bonarum : quia et bona cre- 
 duntur et mala ; et hoc fide bona, non mala. Est etiam 
 fides et praeteritarum rerum, et prsesentium, et futurarum. 
 Credimus enim Christum mortuum ; quod jam praeteriit : 
 credimus sedere ad dexteram Patris ; quod nunc est : cre- 
 dimus ventnrum ad judicandum ; quod futurum est. Item 
 fides et suarurn reratn est et alienarum. Nam et se quisque 
 credit aliquando esse coepisse, nee fuisse utique sempi- 
 ternum; et alios, atque alia; nee solum de aliis hominibus 
 multa, quse ad religionem pertinent, verum etiam de 
 angelis credimus. Spes autem non nisi bonarum rerum est, 
 nee nisi futui-arum, et ad eum pertinentiurn qui earum 
 spem gerere perhibetur. Quse cum ita sint, propter has 
 caussas distinguenda erit fides ab spe, sicut vocabulo, ita 
 et rationabili differentia. Nam quod adtinet ad non videre 
 sive quse creduntur, sive quao sperantur, fidei speique com- 
 mune est.' Compare Bishop O'Brien, Nature and E/ects
 
 cvn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 391 
 
 of Faith, p. 304; and Zoch, De Vi ac Notione Vocis !X?m 
 in N. T. 
 
 2. irpea-^vr'rjs, jspcav. Augustine (Enarr. in Ps. Ixx. 
 1 8) : ' Senecta et senium discern untur a Grsecis. Gravitas 
 enim post juventutem aliud nomen habet apud Grsecos, et 
 post ipsam gravitatem veniens ultima setas aliud nomen 
 habet ; nam Trpsa^vrrfs dicitur gravis, et yspwv senex. 
 Quia autem in Latina lingua duorum istorum nominum 
 distinctio deficit, de senectute ambo sunt positse, senecta 
 et senium. Scitis autem esse duas setates.' Cf. Qucest. in 
 Gen. i. 70. 
 
 3. (j>psap, 7r??7?;. Augustine (in Joh. Evang. Trad. 15) : 
 ' Onmis puteus [$peap], fons [^777?;]; non omnis fons 
 puteus. Ubi enim aqua de terra manat et usui prsebetur 
 haurientibus, fons dicitur ; sed si in promptu et superficie 
 sit, fons tantuui dicitur : si autem in alto et profundo sit, 
 ita puteus vocatur, ut fontis nomen non amittat.' 
 
 4. a-^Lo-fj-a, aipsa-is. Augustine (Cow. Crescon. Don. ii. 
 7) : ' Schisma est recens congregationis ex aliqua sen- 
 tentiarum diversitate dissensio : hseresis autem schisma 
 inveteratum.' Cf. Jerome (in Ep. ad Tit. iii. 10) : 'Inter 
 hseresim et schisma hoc esse arbitrantur, quod hseresis 
 perversum dogma habeat ; schisma propter episcopalem 
 dissensionem ab Ecclesia separetur ; quod quidem in prin- 
 cipio aliqu ex parte intelligi queat. Cseterum nullum 
 schisma non sibi aliquam confingit hearesim, ut recte ab 
 ecclesia recessisse videatur.' And very admirably Nevin 
 (Antichrist, or the Spirit of Sectarianism] : ' Heresy and schism 
 are not indeed the same, but yet they constitute merely 
 the different manifestations of one and the same disease. 
 Heresy is theoretic schism; schism is practical heresy. 
 They continually run into one another, and mutually com- 
 plete each other. Every heresy is in principle schismatic ; 
 every schism is in its innermost constitution heretical/
 
 392 SYNONYMS OF TEE NEW TESTAMENT. cvn. 
 
 5. naicpoOvpia, irpaoT^s. Theophylact (in Gal. v. 22) : 
 'rrpaorrjTOs sv TOUT&) SOKSI irapa rfj ypa(f>y Bia- 
 ru> rbv fj,sv fiafcpoOv/jiov 7rd\vv ovra sv <f>povr)ai, p.^ 
 aXka o")(o\f) sTriridsvat rrjv Trpoa-qtcovcrav Sltcqv rr3 
 TOV Ss TTpdov dfpis 
 
 6. avafjivrjcris, vTro^vrjcns. Ammonius : avd^vrjcris orav 
 eX0r) sis p,vr] fjLtjV T&V TrapsXddvrwv vTrd/Awrjo'is 8s orav y0' 
 erspov sis TOVTO Trpoa^Bf} [2 Tim. i. 5 ; 2 Pet. i. 13 ; iii. l]. 
 
 7. (frdpos, rs\os. Grotius : ' <f)6poi tributa sunt quse ex 
 agris solvebantur, atque in ipsis speciebus fere pendebantur, 
 id est in tritico, ordeo, vino et similibus. Vectigalia vero 
 sunt quse Greece dicuntur TE'XT/, quse a publicanis conduce- 
 bantur et exigebantur, cum tributa a susceptoribus vel ab 
 apparitoribus prsesidum ac prsefectorum exigi solerent.' 
 
 8. TVTTOS, d\\r)yopovijisvov.- Ttivetus (Prcef. adPs. xlv.) : 
 * Typus est cum factum aliquod a Vetere Testamento ac- 
 cersitur, idque extenditur prsesignificasse atque adurnbrasse 
 aliquid gestuni vel gerendumin Novo Testamento; allegoria 
 vero cum aliquid sive ex Vetere sive ex Novo Testamento 
 exponitur atque accommodatur novo sensu ad spiritualem 
 doctrinam, sive vitse institutionem.' 
 
 9. \oiSopsw, fi^aa-faftect). Calvin (Comm. in N. T. : 
 I Cor. iv. 12): ( Notandum est discrimen inter hoac duo 
 participia,XotSo/3oi;yu,z/o< KOI ftXaa^Ti/Aov/jisvoi. QuoniamXot- 
 Sopia est asperior dicacitas, quos non tantum perstrinyifc 
 hominem, sed acriter etiam mordet, f amamque aperta con- 
 tumelia sugillat, non dubium est quin \oiSopstv sit male- 
 dicto tanquam aculeo vulnerare hominem ; proinde reddidi 
 maledictis lacessiti. 'BXacr^ijfjiia est apertius probrum, quum 
 quispiam graviter et atrociter proscinditur/ 
 
 10. o^eiXst, 8si. Bengel (Gnomon, i Cor. xi. 10): 
 ' o^s/Xst notat obligationem, 8st necessitatem; illud morale
 
 cvii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
 
 393 
 
 est, hoc quasi physicum ; ut in vernacula, wir sollen und 
 miissen.' 
 
 II. Trpavs, rj&vxios. Bengel (Ib. I Pet. iii. 4): ( Man- 
 suetus \Trpavs], qui non turbat: tranquillus [^cr^tos] , qni 
 turbas aliorum, superior urn, inferiorum, sequalium, fert 
 placide ..... Adde, mansuetus in affectibus : tranquillus 
 in verbis, vultu, actu.' 
 
 1.2. Td/j,\iw/j,vo$, eSpaios. Bengel (Tb. Col. i. 23) 
 * T0/j l \ic0/LLsvoi, affixi fundamento ; sSpaiot,, stabiles, firmi 
 intus. Illud metaphoricum est, hoc magis proprium: 
 illud importat majorem respectum ad fundamentum quo 
 sustentantur fideles ; sed eSpaiot, stabiles, dicit internum 
 robur, quod fideles ipsi habent ; quemadmodum sedificium 
 primo quidem fundamento recte solideque inniti, deinde 
 vero sua etiam mole probe cohserere et firmiter consistere 
 debet. J 
 
 13. Qvr]Tos t vs/cpos. Olshausen (Opusc. Theoll. p. 195): 
 ' vs/cpos vocatur subjectum, in quo sejunctio corporis et 
 animse facta est : OVTJTOS, in quo fieri potest.' 
 
 14. g'Xeos, olKTipfjios. Fritzsche (in Rom. ix. 1 5): 'Plus 
 significari vocabulis o oiKTippos et oiKTelpsiv quam verbis 
 o s\sos et e\iv recte veteres doctores vulgo statuunt. 
 Illis enim cum iXaoy, l\dojj,ai et tXao-/coyu.ai, his cum ol et 
 olfcTos cognatio est. 'O e'Xsos segritudinem benevole ex 
 miseri& alterius haustam denotat, et commune vocabulum 
 est ibi collocandum, ubi misericordise notio in genere 
 enuntianda est ; 6 olfcrtp/Aos segritudinem ex alterius mi- 
 seria susceptam, qusa fletum tibi et ejulatum excitet, h. e. 
 magnam ex alterius miseria segritudinem, miserationem 
 declarat.' 
 
 15. tyi0vpi(TTtfs, Ko,ra\d\os. Fritzsche (in Rom. i. 30) : 
 sunt susurrones, h. e. clandestini delatores,
 
 394 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. cvn. 
 
 qui ut inviso homini noceant quse ei probro sint crimina 
 tanquam in aurem alicui insusurrant. Contra tearaXaXoi 
 omnes ii vocantur, qui quse alicujus famse obsint narrant, 
 sermonibus celebrant, divulgant maloque rumore aliquem 
 differunt, sive id malo animo faciant, ut noceant, sive 
 teniere neque nisi garriendi libidine abrepti. Qui utrum- 
 que vocabuluni ita discriminant, ut tyidvpiards clandestinos 
 calumniator es, Karakakovs calumniatores qui propalam 
 criminentur explicent, arctioribus quam par est limitibus 
 voc. /cara\a\,os circumscribunt, quum id vocabuluni calum- 
 niatorem nocendi cupidum sua vi non declaret.' 
 
 1 6. a%pr)a-Tos, d^psios. Tittmann : ' Omnino in voce a- 
 
 non inest tantum notio negativa quam vocant (ov 
 , sed adjecta utplerumque contraria rov irovypov, 
 quod non tantum nihil prodest, sed etiam damnum affert, 
 molestum et damnosum est. Apud Xenophontem, Hiero, 
 i. 27, lydfjios a%pr)(7Tos non est inutilis, sed molestissimus, et 
 in (Econom. viii. 4. Sed in voce d^pslos per se milla inest 
 nota reprehensionis, tantum denotat rem aut liominem quo 
 non opus est, quo supersedere possumus, unnothig, ent- 
 behrlich [Thucydides, i. 84; ii. 6], quse ipsa tamen raro 
 sine vituperatione dicuntur.' 
 
 17. VO/MKOS, vofjio&iSdcrKa\o$, ^pa^^aTsvs. Meyer (in 
 Matt. xxii. 35) : 'VOJJLIKOS, ein Eechtskundiger, STTICTT^WV 
 rwv vofjiav (Photius, Lexicon ; Plutarch, Suit. 36) ; ein 
 Mosaischer Jurist ; vopoBi&dcrKaXos bezeichnet einen sol- 
 chen als Lehrer ; ^pa^arsvs ist ein weiterer Begriff als 
 vofjiiKos; Schriftkundiger, dessen Beruf das Studium und 
 die A-uslegung der heiligen Sclirift ist.'
 
 SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES 
 
 BY 
 
 A. L. MAYHEW, M.A. 
 
 PAGE 11, LINE 7. 
 
 The German ' duom ' or ' domus.' 
 
 The modern German form is Dom, which is used in the sense of a 
 cathedral church, the church in which is placed the bishop's throne. 
 The ordinary Old High German form was tuom. which is not a native 
 German word but a word borrowed from ecclesiastical Latin. Both G. 
 Dom and OHG. tuom represent the Latin domus used in the sense of 
 ' domus dei.' See Kluge's Etym. Diet. 
 
 PAGE 16, LINE 6. 
 
 The author, in dealing with avaB^^a and a va6fp.a, gives some instances 
 of a word separating into two forms in consequence of what was at first 
 a mere variety of pronunciation, which two forms in course of time 
 acquire distinctive meanings, and are looked upon as independent words. 
 From these instances we must set aside ' rechtlich ' and ' redlich,' which 
 are of course words of radically distinct origin. The two forms ' fray ' 
 and ' frey ' never acquired a distinct meaning ; in fact the form ' frey ' no 
 bnger exists. 
 
 PAGE 17, LINE 6. 
 Read Qnrj. 
 
 PAGE 20, LINES 20, 21. 
 
 ' Weissagen ' and ' wahrsagen.' 
 
 These words are contrasted by the author, but it must not be supposed 
 that the -sagen in both verbs is sagcn (to say). German weissayen, Old 
 High German wissagon, is derived frotn wizzayo (a prophet) ; compare 
 O.E. witga (a prophet). On the other hand, German wahrsagen is con- 
 nected with Old Saxon icdr-sago (lit. sooth-sayer). 
 
 PAGE 30, LINE 7. 
 
 The SoCXof ... is properly the ' bond-m&n,' from fa'a, ' ligo.' 
 This derivation is now given up by comparative philologists. Gr. 
 fo'w represents *6f-iw (compare Sanskrit dyati) from a root de, to bind ; 
 see Brugmann's Gram. ii. 707. It would be impossible to bring the 
 fiav- of SoiXo? into connexion with an original root de. The etymology of 
 dov\os is unknown. See Prellwitz, Etym. Diet. (s.vv. &<*>, SovAor).
 
 ^506 SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES. 
 
 O v 
 
 PAGE 31, LINES 19-21. 
 
 fopanevfiv . . . connected with ' f&veo,' 'foveo,' &UL\TTG>. 
 
 It is utterly impossible that any of these four words can have any 
 etymological connexion with one another. They correspond neither in 
 form nor in meaning. They are all four difficult words of very obscure 
 derivation. 
 
 PAGE 32, LINE 11. 
 
 Suutovos ... is probably from the same root as has given us 8ta>w, ' to 
 hasten after.' 
 
 No comparative philologist would now accept this etymology. The 
 formation of SMKOVOS from SHOW is not supported by analogy, no instance 
 occurring of the suffix -ovo- being added to a present verbal stem. The 
 d for is not accounted for. Besides this the senses of the two words 
 do not agree pursuit and service being very different things. The ety- 
 mology of SiaKofos is unknown. 
 
 PAGE 33, LINE 25. 
 
 Latin verna identical with the Gothic bairn. 
 
 The Gothic form is barn (not bairn) and is quite distinct etymologi- 
 cally from the Latin verna. Barn (a child) is derived from the root ber. 
 appearing iu O.E. beran, Goth, bairan (to bear). Lat. verna (a slave 
 born in the house) is derived from the root ves (Indo-European wen), to 
 dwell; see Brugnmnn, Gram. ii. 66. From the same root wes we tiiid 
 Lat. vfsta, Gr. eori'a, a hearth. 
 
 PAGE 36, LINE 8. 
 For (Godel) read (Godet). 
 
 PAGE 46, LINES 29, 30. 
 
 TTOVTOS . . . being connected with /Saflos, ftvOds, @e'i>0os, perhaps the 
 tame word as this last. 
 
 Of these four words the only two that are etymological I y connected 
 are fidQos and ftevdos. These two have nothing in the world to do with 
 fivdos, and the word novros stands quite apart from all these three. 
 
 irovros (the sea) is probably related to S-uiakrit panthan, path, way 
 (cp. vypa K(\(vOa), Lat. pons (pont-), from an Indo-European root 
 pont (to come, to go); see Prellwitz, Etym. Diet.. 
 
 PAGE 48, LINE 5. 
 
 ' Sloes austere.' 
 
 These words occur in Cowper'a Task, i. 122. 
 
 See New Eng. Diet. (s.v. austere). It may be noted that ava-Tijpns 
 is closely related to our word tear (O.E. geir), meaning properly ' dry.' 
 They are both derived from a root saus, cp. Lithuanian sausas, dry.
 
 SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES. 397 
 
 PAGE 50, LIXB 11. 
 
 ' Imago ' = ' imitngo.' 
 
 This equation may mislead tlie student ; he may think that the 
 author intends to say that ' imago' is a contraction of and identical with 
 '*imitago' etymologically. Doubtless Dr. Trench merely intended to 
 f-ay that ' imago ' and the verb ' imitor ' were from the same root i?. 
 This im may perhaps be for tnim : compare Gr. plp-do-dat ; see Robv's 
 Lnt. Gram. 845. 
 
 PAGE 56, LINE 14. 
 
 The etymology of dat\yaa (1) from Selge, a city of Pisidia . . . ; (2) 
 from 6i\y(iv, probably the same word as the German ' schwelgen.' 
 
 There is no scientific value to be attached to any of these etymological 
 conjectures. The comparison of ao-e'Xyetet with 6i\ytiv is phonetically 
 impossible, as is that of 6i\ytiv with German ' schwelgen.' The etymo- 
 logy of do-eXytta is really quite unknown. Some etymologists fancy 
 that the element <reX is from a root sicel (to swell) ; see Prellwitz. Etijm. 
 Diet. p. 278. 
 
 PAGE 85, LINE 21. 
 
 BOO-KCIP, the Latin ' pascere,' is simply ' to feed.' 
 
 The student must not suppose that this is an etymology ; the two 
 words are not related to one another. Gr. /SOO-KCIP has been sup- 
 posed to be for p6p<rKeu>, root ftop + suffix o-*a, cp. jSopu, food, Lat. 
 vurare ; see Brugmann, Gram. 432. 
 
 Lat. j9asco is from a root p /, to protect, feed ; whence "Eog.food. 
 
 PAGE 91, LINE 30. 
 
 ZO>TI, as some will have it, being nearly connected with au>, ag/ii, to 
 breathe the breath of life. 
 
 Greek fuij is now generally connected by comparative philologists 
 with /3i'or, both words being derived from an Indo-European root g*ei; 
 see Brugmann, Gram. 5i. 737, and Prellwitz, Etym. Diet. pp. 46, 1 lu. 
 For the f /rom a velar guttural, cp. vifa from root neiy. 
 
 PAGE 93, LIKE 9. 
 
 The scientific term ' Biology ' was invented by Gottfried Reinhold 
 Trenranus, born in Bremen, 1776. He studied in Gottingen, and his 
 chief work was Bioloqie oder Fhilosopnie der lebenden Natur, Gottingen, 
 6 vols. 1802-1822. See Pierers' Conv. Lexikon. 
 
 PAGE 99, Lnra 4. 
 
 The derivation of aXafwi/ from 0X1; (a wandering about) has nothing 
 to recommend it ; it fails to account for the latter part of the word, -afav, 
 and there is no connexion between ' bragging' and 'wandering about.'
 
 398 SO. WE ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES. 
 
 PAGE 110, LINE 12. 
 
 On the relation between the two verbs defoul&nA. dffile see New Eng. 
 Diet. There has been confusion in the case of defile between the Old 
 French defouler (to trample down) and Old English fylan (to befoul) from 
 ful (foul). 
 
 PAGE 110, LINE 27. 
 
 ' Spurcare ' (itself probably connected with ' porcus '). 
 This suggestion has nothing to recommend it ; the stem-vowels of 
 the two words do not correspond. 
 
 PAGE 125, LINES 12, 13. 
 
 Aarpti/fiv allied . . . perhaps to A'a, AJJI?. 
 
 Gr. Aft'u, Doric Aai'a for \ufia, should rather be placed with a7ro\au<u, 
 cp. Latin lucmm ; see BrtSal's Lat. Dice., and Prellwitz, Etym. Diet. 
 
 PAGE 126, LINE 1. 
 Atiros = &7/fio<rto?. 
 
 The Gr. Xetroy does not mean 'public,' but 'an offering, a service.' 
 AfiTovpyos means ' one who undertook for the State a public service.' 
 See the account of the word in Prellwitz, p. 182. 
 
 PAGE 128, LINES 23, 24. 
 
 Ilfvrjs connected with . . . the Latin ' penuria.' 
 
 These two words are probably of distinct origin. 
 
 Uei'Tjs is probably (as stated in the text) connected with KOVOS. M. 
 Bre"al says that we have in ' penuria ' a substantive formed from an old 
 desiderative *penurio, to be in need of provisions, from ptnus, provisions; 
 penus is probably connected with penes, in the power of; so Bre"al, and 
 Brugmann, Gram. ii. 132. 
 
 PAGE 137, LINES 23, 24. 
 
 "I3J?) the same word as virtp. 
 
 The author no doubt got this surprising equation from Gesenius. It 
 is hardly necessary nowadays to point out that, it is quite impossible to 
 connect Indo-European prepositions with Semitic ones. 
 
 PAGE 148, LINE 31. 
 
 ' Demuth,' born ... in the heathen period of the language . . . and 
 only under the influences of Christianity attained to its present position 
 of honour. 
 
 Kluge (s.v. Demut) says that neither the word nor the conception 
 belonged to the heathen period of the language. Both the word and the 
 idea came into the old German language with Christianity.
 
 SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES. 399 
 
 PAGE 167, LINE 24. 
 
 ' Robber,' from ' Raub,' booty. 
 
 Our word ' robber ' is the Anglo-Norman robbere, cp. Old French 
 robeor, a word derived from Old High German roub (mod. G. Raub), 
 booty. See Kluge's Etym. Diet. 
 
 PAGE 163, LINE 10. 
 
 *wf and (frtyyos, which are different forms of one and the same word. 
 
 These two words are quite distinct ; <b<as is the same word as the 
 Sanskrit bhas, light. 
 
 *eyyos may be derived from an Indo-European type (s)phtngo$. 
 Prellwitz gives some Lithuanian forms in which tbe initial s- is retained. 
 
 PAGE 178, NOTE. 
 
 The German ' Aberglaube ' = ' Ueberglaube.' 
 
 Kluge (s.v.) shows that the prefix in ' Aberglaube ' is quite distinct 
 from the preposition iiber. The same element occurs in M. H. G. aberlist ; 
 Germ. Abergunst, Abername, Aberwille, Aberwandel, Abcnritz. The word 
 occurs in Alberus in the year 1540; he distinguishes ( diih'dentia ' (Miss- 
 ylaub) from ' superstitio ' (Aberglaub). 
 
 PAGE 210, LINES 17, 18. 
 
 Ktttpo'?, derived from Kftpco, as ' tempus ' from ' temno.' 
 
 These derivations are no longer believed in by Greek and Latin 
 
 grammarians. The etymologies of icaipos and 'teinpus' are unknown. 
 
 Kluge (s. v. weil) with praiseworthy hesitation suggests that natpos may 
 
 be from the same root as while, Goth, hweila, time. 
 
 PAGE 214, LINE 26. 
 
 Koa-fj-os connected with tcopfiv, ' comere,' ' comptus.' 
 It is impossible to connect KOO-^OS with these words, because the a- of 
 KO<T- is thus left without explanation. Prellwitz and Brugmaun agree 
 in connecting *cdo-/ioswith Sanskrit qamsali (he praises), and Lat. censere 
 (to pass judgment on). 
 
 PAGE 216, LINES 29-31. 
 
 We must reject the et)rnology of almv which Aristotle propounds: 
 dno rev del fivat (l\r}<j}o>s rf)v inttmtfutar. 
 
 The fact is that Aristotle's etymology is accepted by comparative 
 philologists ; bee Prellwitz, Brugmanu, i. 96, Kluge (s.v. Ehe), Breal 
 (s.v. eevum). 
 
 PAGE 219, NOTE. 
 
 ' World ' = whirled. 
 
 It is a pity that this absurd guess should have found a place 
 even in a foot-note. The etymology of world ' given by Dr. Trench 
 from Pott is perfectly correct.
 
 400 SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES. 
 
 PAGE 226, LINES 35, 36. 
 
 Kw/ioj ... is the Latin ' comissatio,' which, as it hardly needs to 
 observe, is connected with Kw^idfeu/. 
 
 ' C'omissor, mot emprunt6 au grec. Le primitif est cw/ior " festin." ' 
 Les formations en issare, assez maladroitement imite'es des verhes grecs 
 en ifw, e"taient fre"quentes dans le latin du temps d'Ennius et de Plaute. 
 On avait, par exemple, badissare = @a8i<a, patrissare = Trarpifw, 
 atticissare = drrtKt'fw, &c. Comissor est un des rares verbes qui ont 
 surv(5cu dans le latin classique; la forme grecque employe par les 
 auteurs n'est pas K<op.ifa mais /c/ida>.' Bre"al. 
 
 PAGE 240, LINE 23. 
 
 Gr. &fj.apria is no doubt connected with the verb ap.apT<ivu>. Brug- 
 mann (see Gram. ii. 682) says that a^apTiivat is probably from 
 d-p.ap-To-, d-/^3pa-ro-, ' without a share of,' connected with pfpvs popes. 
 He quotes the gloss ap.apiiv ap.aprav(iv (Hesychius). 
 
 PAGE 296, LIKE 29. 
 ^aAjioc , from ^a'co. 
 
 These words are quite unconnected etymologically, and are far 
 apart from one another in meaning. See Prellwitz on the two words. 
 The verb ^dXXw is from an Indo-European root sphal, cp. Sanskrit 
 sphalati. The verb ^dw, ' I rub,' is supposed by Prellwitz to be from a 
 root bhas. 
 
 PAGE 309, LINES 24-27. 
 
 efjp, which in its JEolio form <pi']p reappears as the Latin ' fera,' and in 
 its more usual shape in the German ' Thier ' and in our own ' deer.' 
 
 The older forms of ' Thier' and ' deer' prove conclusively that these 
 words have no connexion whatever with the Greek 6f]p. The Germanic 
 forms point to an Indo-European ground-form dheuso-, which shows a 
 difference irom Ofo ((pr)p) both in stem-vowel and in the two radical con- 
 sonants. See Kluge (s.v. Tier) and Prellwitz (s.v. 
 
 PAGE 318, LINES 14, 18. 
 
 *auXos cannot possibly be connected with German faul, our foul. 
 Such an equation shows an utter disregard to Grimm's law. 
 
 'Schlecht' and 'schlicht' in German are not merely different spell- 
 ings of the same word. The difference in spelling goes back for its 
 origin to the woiking of a phonetic law in primitive Germanic. The 
 fact is, 'schlecht' and 'schlicht' are not forms of precisely the same 
 word. See Kluge. 
 
 PAGE 321, LINES 10, 11. 
 
 Kadapos, connected with the Latin ' castus,' with the German ' heiter.' 
 These words have absolutely no connexion with or,e another. The 
 German heiter, Old English hddor, point to an Indo-European root kait- } 
 which in Greek would be represented by KMT- (not a0-).
 
 SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES. 4 oi 
 
 PAGE 327, LINE 23. 
 
 'lepdy, probably the same word as the German ' hehr.' 
 The German hehr goes back to a base haira, and is probably radically 
 related to 'heiter' (see note to p. 321). This presupposes an Indo- 
 European root kai-. German 'hebr' cannot, therefore, have anything to 
 do with Greek Itpos, which is related to Sanskrit ishira- ; see Brugmann, 
 Gram. ii. 74. 
 
 PAGE 331, LINES 31-36. 
 
 "Ayios, ayvos . . . have in common that root dy, reappearing as the 
 Latin ' sac ' in ' eacer.' 
 
 Comparative philologists connect this Greek root dy- with Sanskrit 
 yaf, 'to honour a god ' ; see Brugmann, Gram. ii. 140. If this com- 
 parison holds good, there can, of course, be no connexion with the 
 Latin ' sac.' 
 
 PAGE 373, LINES 27-29. 
 
 vtyas, vtyos, yv6(f>os and o'$os, a group of words . . . perhaps only 
 different shapes of what was once a single word. 
 
 This could no longer be held by the best modern scholars. 
 
 PAGE 389, LINES 33, 34. 
 
 KaXdy, affirmed to be of the same descent as the German 'heil, 1 as 
 our own ' whole.' 
 
 Their relationship is no longer held by modern scholars. The vocali- 
 sation of the Germanic words renders any connexion with <caXdr 
 impossible. See Kluge (s.v. heil). 
 
 A. L. M. 
 OXFORD : 
 
 May 28, 1895. 
 
 n n
 
 INDEX OF SYNONYMS. 
 
 
 PAGB 
 
 
 PACK 
 
 ayaGiaavvr} 
 
 . 232 
 
 avdOffut 
 
 . 15 
 
 dyaTrau) 
 
 . . 41 
 
 avd(h](ui 
 
 
 aytos 
 
 331, 401 
 
 dva/caiVwo-ts 
 
 . ; . 6 5 
 
 dyvo?7/i,a . . 
 
 . . 240 
 
 dva/iny<ris . 
 
 . . 392 
 
 dyyos 
 
 331. 401 
 
 dvctTravats 
 
 . 146 
 
 dypa/t/iaros . 
 
 . . 302 
 
 o.veyK\r)TOf 
 
 . . . 381 
 
 aSoAos . 
 
 . 209 
 
 avcfjios . 
 
 . 276 
 
 aiScos . 
 
 . 66, 69 
 
 aVCTTtXiyTTTOS 
 
 
 aipecris . 
 
 39i 
 
 aWcris 
 
 . i 4 6 
 
 atcr^poAoyia 
 
 . . 121 
 
 OLvBptinroKTovc 
 
 s . . . 314 
 
 aitrxwi? . 
 
 . 66 
 
 avofjua 
 
 . 240 
 
 ' 
 
 
 A ttf\-\ ' 
 
 
 
 
 AV 
 
 4 . 199 
 
 aiT7//AO . 
 
 . 191 
 
 dvri 
 
 . 311 
 
 atria . . . 
 
 . . 14 
 
 avrt^ptcTTOS 
 
 . . I0 5 
 
 atoiv . 
 
 214, 399 
 
 aTrAovs . 
 
 . 204 
 
 UKIIKOS . . 
 
 . . 206 
 
 aTTOKoAvi/as 
 
 353 
 
 uKepatos . . 
 
 . 206 
 
 dn-oAurpwo-ts 
 
 . 290 
 
 dAafrov 
 
 98, 397 
 
 aTTTOfjiai . 
 
 59 
 
 uA'</>0) . 
 
 . 136 
 
 dpyo's . 
 
 . 384 
 
 dAij^S . 
 
 . . 26 
 
 aprios . 
 
 . . 77 
 
 dA^^tvos 
 
 . 26 
 
 dp^atos . 
 
 250 
 
 dAAipyopov/ievov . 
 
 . . 392 
 
 do-e/?ia 
 
 . . 242 
 
 aAAos . 
 
 358 
 
 do-eAyewi 
 
 - 5 6 . 397 
 
 d/iapaWivos 4 
 
 255 
 
 aoTrovSos 
 
 X 93 
 
 d/xapavros . 
 
 255 
 
 do-TU)S . 
 
 . , . 387 
 
 d/^apny/xa . 
 
 . . 240 
 
 d<ruV^Tos . 
 
 . . 193 
 
 a/zapria . . 
 
 . 240, 400 
 
 do-wrta . 
 
 . 54 
 
 a/ie/XTTTOS . 
 
 381 
 
 av6J&)<; 
 
 349 
 
 a.fi(^iftXr](rTpov 
 
 . . 236 
 
 avo-nipos. 
 
 ... 46 
 
 ifJLWfWS . 
 
 . .380 
 
 d<^CT4& . 
 
 . . 114 
 
 
 
 
 P D 2
 
 404 
 
 INDEX OF SYNONYMS. 
 
 yepcuv 
 yvo^os 
 yvaio-i5 . 
 ypaju./xareiJ5 
 
 87o-is e 
 SetXt'a 
 
 8777x05 
 
 8l(XKOVO5 
 
 StKTVOV 
 
 8oK0> 
 
 8oXoa> 
 
 8oOXo5 
 
 eSpaios 
 
 I^V05 . 
 
 ei/cuv 
 
 PACK 
 
 TAG* 
 
 - 254 
 
 eXaiov . . . . 135 
 
 374 
 
 eXeyxos . . . .14 
 
 394 
 
 eXeyxw 13 
 
 394 
 
 eXeos . . .167, 393 
 
 
 eX*<o 72 
 
 37 
 
 eXTris . . . .390 
 
 37 
 
 cvoocov 34^ 
 
 375 
 
 cWerfts . . . .189 
 
 9 J i 397 
 
 (vrpowrj . , . . 69 
 
 392 
 
 eWyvaxrts . . .285 
 
 84, 397 
 
 ImfiKcia . . , . 153 
 
 383 
 
 firtOvfjiia . . .324 
 
 . -365 
 
 e7rtTi/xaa> . . . 13 
 
 
 7ri<aj/eia . .. -355 
 
 391 
 
 epwraw . . . . 143 
 
 373 
 
 crepes . . . .358 
 
 . 281 
 
 cvXa/?a . . . . 36 
 
 394 
 
 evXa/Srfc . . . .173 
 
 
 evo-/3?7S . . . . 172 
 
 . 188 
 
 evrpaTreXta . . .121 
 
 . . 392 
 
 cuxapum'a . . . . 191 
 
 34 
 
 ei>Xy . . .188 
 
 . . 177 
 
 
 . 96 
 
 17X05 87 
 
 385 
 
 o'<os . . . .373 
 
 369 
 
 fan 9 1 * 397 
 
 . . 78 
 
 wov .... 309 
 
 3 2 > 39 6 
 
 
 . . 236 
 
 T7o-V>5 . . . . 393 
 
 305 
 
 WTT>7/XCl ... 240 
 
 . . 278 
 
 
 . 228 
 
 0aXao~o~a . . . . 45 
 
 3, 395 
 
 Oav/Jidcrtov . . . 340 
 
 34 
 
 $eidr>7s . . . 7 
 
 
 ^eoo-e/3775 . . .172 
 
 137 
 
 ^OT77S . . . . 8 
 
 393 
 
 Ofpdiriav . , . 30, 396 
 
 . . 368 
 
 Orjpiov . . . . 309 
 
 . 49 
 
 tfiyyavw . . . .58 
 
 3*9 
 
 $Xti/a5 . . . . 202 
 
 i 
 
 0vwos . 393
 
 INDEX OF SYNONYMS. 
 
 405 
 
 flpiyvew . 
 
 PACK 
 . . 239 
 
 AdAe'o> 
 
 FAGK 
 . . 286 
 
 Oprf(TKo<i . , 
 
 .175 
 
 AdAid . 
 
 . 289 
 
 OveXXa 
 
 . . . 2 7 8 
 
 Aa/wrds . 
 
 . . 163 
 
 0VfWS . 
 
 . I 3 
 
 Aao's . 
 
 367 
 
 6vo-ia<Trripiov 
 
 ' - 365 
 
 Aarpevw . 
 
 125, 398 
 
 
 
 Aeyw 
 
 . 286 
 
 iSta 
 
 . 262 
 
 AeiToupyeco . 
 
 126, 398 
 
 t&tcm/s . 
 
 . . 302 
 
 Aflonfc . 
 
 157 
 
 lepov 
 
 . 10 
 
 Aoyo? 
 
 289, 335> 337 
 
 UpoTrpeTnfc . 
 
 . . . 348 
 
 AoiSopea) . 
 
 39 2 
 
 icpds 
 
 . 327, 401 
 
 Aouw . . 
 
 . . 161 
 
 iKfnjpia 
 
 . . 191 
 
 Av7TO/H . 
 
 . . 238 
 
 lAdcr/Ao? . 
 
 . 290 
 
 Av^VOS 
 
 . . 163 
 
 1/XdTlOV 
 
 . . . 184 
 
 
 
 i/AdTioyzds 
 
 . . 185 
 
 fJMKpodvfiia 
 
 *95 39 2 
 
 'lovSdios 
 
 . . 140 
 
 fJtavrevofJMi . 
 
 . . 21 
 
 'lo-parjXiTrjs . 
 
 . 142 
 
 /WITdlOS . 
 
 . 180 
 
 
 
 l^o-X 1 ! 
 
 . . 322 
 
 Kdflapd? 
 
 320, 400 
 
 /xcyaActov 
 
 340 
 
 KdlJ'OS 
 
 . 219 
 
 p,eOr) . 
 
 225 
 
 Kdipds 
 
 209, 399 
 
 fJ.fTafJ.fXo/JLOt . 
 
 . . 256 
 
 KO.K.LO. 
 
 37 
 
 fj.fTavof<o . 
 
 . . . 256 
 
 KaKoijOfia . 
 
 . . . 38 
 
 /uaiva) '. 
 
 . no 
 
 KOXO9 
 
 . 315 
 
 /xoXvvo) 
 
 . . no 
 
 KoAds . 
 
 389, 401 
 
 ftop^i; . 
 
 . 262 
 
 KdTT^AeuOJ 
 
 . 228 
 
 fwx$os 
 
 - 378 
 
 KdTdAdAo? . 
 
 394 
 
 fj.v6os 
 
 337 
 
 KdTdAAayjy . 
 
 . 290 
 
 ftvpov 
 
 135 
 
 /tcvds 
 
 . . 180 
 
 fj.wpoX.oyia 
 
 . 120 
 
 KAeVnys . 
 
 157 
 
 
 
 KOIVOS 
 
 . . . 376 
 
 vaos . 
 
 . . 12 
 
 AcdAdo-is . 
 
 . 24 
 
 ve^pds 
 
 393 
 
 /CO7TO5 . . 
 
 . .378 
 
 Wos . . 
 
 . . 219 
 
 KOTTTO/Xdl 
 
 . 239 
 
 vwrra) 
 
 . 161 
 
 KOOyUO? 
 
 345 
 
 VO/tlKOS 
 
 394 
 
 KOCTyU.OS . 
 
 . 214, 399 
 
 vo/xo8i8d07caAos 
 
 394 
 
 KpCUTTdAiy 
 
 . . 227 
 
 vov0f<rta 
 
 . . 112 
 
 KVplOS 
 
 . . 9 6 
 
 vw^pds . 
 
 . 383 
 
 KW/AOS . 
 
 . 226, 400 
 
 
 
 
 
 oucen;? . 
 
 - 33 
 
 AdZAdl/r . 
 
 - . 77 
 
 o'l KTlp/JLOS . 
 
 - 393
 
 406 
 
 INDEX OF SYNONYMS. 
 
 o/W(o<ri9 
 opTl 
 opei9 
 opfj.rj . 
 
 7TC1009 
 
 ira.LOf.ia . 
 TroXaios 
 jraAiyyeveo-i'a 
 n-avifyupis . 
 TrapaySacrts 
 7rapaSoov . 
 ira.pa.Kori 
 ira.pavop.ia. . 
 
 Trapo/r y toyz.os 
 
 TTe'Aayos . 
 irevT/s . 
 
 TTMTTIS 
 irXeovc^ta 
 
 7TVOJ/ 
 
 TTOICQ) 
 
 iroifj.aiv<a 
 
 7TOT09 . 
 
 Trpao'-njs . 
 
 PAGE 
 . . 226 
 
 74 
 . . 50 
 
 . 49 
 . 13 
 
 325 
 
 324 
 
 328 
 . . 392 
 
 369 
 
 324 
 . in 
 
 250 
 . 60 
 
 . . 6 
 . 240 
 
 34 
 . 240 
 
 . . 240 
 . 240 
 
 H5 
 
 133 
 . . 280 
 
 45 
 128, 398 
 
 . 238 
 
 39i 
 
 39 
 . . 81 
 
 . 160 
 
 275 
 
 275 
 . . 187 
 
 362 
 . . 84 
 
 . 322 
 
 315 
 
 378 
 
 . . 220 
 153, 392 
 
 Trpacroxi) 
 
 crapKivos 
 
 criKaptos . 
 <T/cA/>7po9 
 
 (TKOT09 . 
 
 (rwajwyrj 
 o~vp<j) 
 
 (rxurfut . 
 o-<a<f>poo~vvr) 
 
 reXcios 
 Tpa9 
 
 V/1VOS 
 
 PAGB 
 
 362 
 
 393 
 
 . 188 
 
 . . 19 
 
 . 128 
 
 236 
 
 269, 272 
 . . 272 
 
 345 
 . . 340 
 
 . . 46 
 
 373 
 . . 281 
 
 . 2OI 
 . . 202 
 
 . . 186 
 
 . 2OO 
 . . 2 
 
 72 
 . . 262 
 
 391 
 . . 6 9 
 
 . I 4 8 
 
 393 
 
 75 
 
 392 
 
 340 
 
 385 
 . 24 
 
 . . 200 
 
 392 
 
 . . I0 3 
 . 297 
 
 3". 398 
 . 101
 
 INDEX OF SYNONYMS. 
 
 407 
 
 inrofMOvrj , 
 
 (faaivofjuii 
 </>avepftKris . 
 
 <f>@6vo<; 
 
 33 
 
 392 
 
 195 
 
 305 
 
 357 
 318, 400 
 
 l6 3> 399 
 . 213 
 
 . . 87 
 . 82 
 
 - 352 
 . 41 
 
 34 
 
 315 
 . . 213 
 
 392 
 
 391 
 . 281 
 
 \j/Tj\a.<f>a.<a 
 
 wpaio? 
 
 - 334 
 163, 399 
 . . 163 
 
 . 166 
 . . 184 
 
 . 186 
 . . 232 
 
 136 
 . . 209 
 
 296, 400 
 . . 106 
 
 58 
 
 393 
 . 268 
 
 . . 300 
 
 387
 
 INDEX OF OTHER WORDS, 
 
 Abbild . 
 Aberglaube 
 dSt'/cTj/xa . 
 dSiKta . 
 
 Admonitio 
 deAAa 
 
 ^Emulor 
 Aer . r 
 aydirr) . 
 atvos . . 
 
 aKT/paTOS 
 
 d.KoA.ao'TOS 
 
 Altare 
 
 Amo 
 
 dvayevvTjcris 
 
 dvaKaii/oa) 
 
 avaKatVoKTis 
 
 avavfow 
 Andacht 
 Angst 
 Animal . 
 
 CIVOTJTOS 
 
 Antic . 
 
 afTLKOLTfliV 
 
 Antipater 
 
 Avrt&tot . 
 
 Ara . 
 
 PAGE 
 
 5 
 
 Archaeology 
 
 399 
 
 aperij . 
 
 242 
 
 Assassin 
 
 242 
 
 Astutus 
 
 112 
 
 dcruvcTOs 
 
 2 7 8 
 
 Atonement 
 
 87 
 
 Aura 
 
 275 
 
 Austerus . 
 
 41 
 
 avOdBfia . 
 
 299 
 
 avfleWrros . 
 
 206 
 
 Avarice . 
 
 I 9 4 
 
 Avaritia . 
 
 112 
 
 
 367 
 
 Baptisma 
 Baptismus 
 
 4 1 
 
 Befleckeu 
 
 64 . 
 
 Benignitas 
 
 224 
 
 /? ' A 
 
 64 
 
 Beriihren . 
 
 62 
 
 Bestia . 
 
 224 
 
 Besudeln . 
 
 173 
 
 Betasten 
 
 203 
 
 Biography 
 
 39 
 
 Biology . 
 
 284 
 
 Bitte 
 
 252 
 
 Bonitas . 
 
 106 
 
 Bose . 
 
 107 
 
 
 
 Candela . 
 
 107 
 
 
 106 
 
 Canticum . 
 
 367 
 
 Caritas . 
 
 PAGB 
 
 . 250 
 
 . . 2O 
 
 . . 285 
 
 . 28 4 
 
 293 
 
 275 
 
 47, 39 6 
 
 3S 1 
 
 , . 48 
 
 . 81 
 
 , . 82 
 
 372 
 
 372 
 . no 
 
 234 
 46, 396 
 
 31 
 , . no 
 
 59 
 
 397 
 . 189 
 
 234 
 . 3i8 
 
 165 
 
 299 
 . 44
 
 INDEX OF OTHER WORDS. 
 
 409 
 
 Castigatio . 
 Cautio . 
 
 dementia 
 Comissatio 
 Congregatio , 
 Convict 
 Convince 
 Convocatio 
 Corona . 
 Correptio . 
 Covetousness 
 Crapula . 
 Cultus . 
 
 Deer . 
 
 Defile . 
 
 Defoul 
 
 Deitas . 
 
 Demuth 
 
 Deprecatio 
 
 Despot 
 
 Diadema 
 
 Sucaios . 
 Dilectio . 
 Diligo . 
 Discipline . 
 Divinatio 
 Divinitas . 
 
 SoKlftLOV . 
 
 Dom . 
 Donarium 
 Drag, Draw 
 
 Eifersucht 
 
 Emulation 
 ITTCUVOS . 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 24 
 3 6 
 
 ** .. 
 
 PAOt 
 
 . . 112 
 
 
 o 
 
 234 
 
 Equity 
 
 154 
 
 . 
 
 153 
 
 epo>5 
 
 . 44 
 
 226, 
 
 400 
 
 Eruditio 
 
 . . 112 
 
 
 
 6 
 
 fa . . . 
 
 . 20 
 
 
 15 
 
 cv&u/Wa . 
 
 . . 19 
 
 
 6 
 
 eiryvupoavrr! . 
 
 '54 
 
 
 
 eupv^wpia . 
 
 . . 203 
 
 
 78 
 
 Eutrapelus . 
 
 . 122 
 
 
 "3 
 81 
 
 Exacerbatio 
 
 134 
 
 
 
 Excandescentia 
 
 X 3 r 
 
 
 
 227 
 
 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 Facetious . 
 
 . . 123 
 
 
 
 Fail- [subst.] . 
 
 . 6 
 
 . 
 
 400 
 
 Fascia 
 
 . . 79 
 
 no, 
 
 398 
 
 Feria . 
 
 . 6 
 
 1 10, 
 
 398 
 
 Figura 
 
 . . 266 
 
 148, 
 
 9 
 398 
 
 Figure [^V-] 
 Fons . 
 
 . 266 
 
 
 1 88 
 
 
 
 
 
 Forma . . 
 
 . 266 
 
 
 
 96 
 78 
 
 Formality . 
 
 . . 266 
 
 " 
 
 i 
 
 Forme . 
 
 . 266 
 
 . 
 
 292 
 328 
 
 Fulsomeness 
 Fur ... 
 
 . . 228 
 
 
 44 
 
 
 
 
 4i 
 
 Furor 
 
 . . 131 
 
 
 112 
 
 
 
 
 22 
 
 Gasconade 
 
 . 101 
 
 
 9 
 
 Gebet 
 
 . . 189 
 
 
 2 7 8 
 
 Geiz 
 
 . 81 
 
 
 395 
 
 Glassen 
 
 273 
 
 , 
 
 16 
 
 Gloriosu.s 
 
 . 101 
 
 . 
 
 72 
 
 Glorious . 
 
 . . 101 
 
 . 
 
 68 
 
 Gratia . 
 
 . 169 
 
 
 
 Grecian 
 
 . 143 
 
 
 130 
 
 
 
 
 87 
 
 Habsncht 
 
 . 81 
 
 . 
 
 3 r 9 
 
 Hadiwist . 
 
 . . 259 
 
 
 249 
 
 ayveia 
 
 332 
 
 . 
 
 8? 
 
 dyvtfw 
 
 333 
 
 . 
 
 298 
 
 5/uAAa . 
 
 . 89
 
 4io 
 
 INDEX OF OTHER WORDS. 
 
 dTrXdV 
 
 PAGE 
 . . 2O4 
 
 Losel . 
 
 'EXXi/vumfc 
 
 . 138 
 
 Loslassung . 
 
 IXaa-rrjpiov . 
 
 293 
 
 Luctus . . 
 
 oXorcX^s . , - 
 
 77 
 
 Xurpwr^s 
 
 Hopelost . ... 
 
 54 
 
 Luxuria, luxuriose 
 
 Hiiten . ... 
 
 85 
 
 
 Hymnus . 
 
 . . 298 
 
 p.dxop,ai 
 
 
 
 Macula . 
 
 Idiot . ,. .. 
 
 33 
 
 Malitia 
 
 Ill nature . . . , ; 
 Imago . . < 
 Immarcescible . 
 
 39 
 5, 397 
 
 255 
 
 Manier . 
 Mansuetus 
 
 Indigentia 
 
 - 83 
 
 pM.VTt.K-r) 
 
 Indignatio . 
 
 . . 132 
 
 /tavT 
 
 Iniquitas . 
 Inquino 
 Integer, integritas . 
 
 244 
 . . no 
 75 
 
 p.eyaXo7rdOeLa 
 Mendicus 
 
 Intercession . . 
 Interpellate . . '' 
 
 . . 189 
 . 190 
 
 Mercatus 
 
 Interpreter . . 
 
 39 
 
 IMnUt&CM 
 
 Invidia . 
 
 . 90 
 
 J^oJwp^O/uu 
 
 Jaculum . 
 
 . . 236 
 
 /teravoia 
 
 
 
 Metus 
 
 KaivoXoyta . 
 
 KCWD/XoS 
 
 . 222 
 
 . . 22 9 
 
 Misericordia 
 
 KaTacrrp-rjviauo . . 
 Klept 
 
 . 200 
 159 
 
 Moderatio . 
 Modestia 
 
 KOTOS 
 
 Kranz . 
 Krone ... 
 
 133 
 
 Monstrum . 
 Mundus 
 
 Labes . ; . , 
 
 . . Ill 
 
 Nacheiferung 
 
 Lsetitia . 
 
 . 203 
 
 Nachschleppen 
 
 Xarpeia . . 
 
 . . 126 
 
 vcp-etrdw, v/xe<rts . 
 
 Latro . 
 
 . 157 
 
 Neuf . 
 
 Legend 
 
 339 
 
 Nouveau . 
 
 Liederlich 
 
 55 
 
 Novus . , 
 
 Life . . , : 
 
 . . 91 
 
 Nurture . . 
 
 Little-ease 
 
 . 204 
 
 
 Longanimity 
 
 . . 196 
 
 oivwcrts . , 
 
 54 
 116 
 238 
 291 
 
 54 
 
 322 
 no 
 
 38 
 
 59 
 
 392 
 
 22 
 21 
 182 
 196 
 I2 9 
 133 
 
 7 
 
 63 
 256 
 264 
 256 
 264 
 
 35 
 
 169 
 
 62 
 
 7i 
 
 153 
 
 342 
 
 214 
 
 87 
 
 74 
 
 90 
 
 225 
 
 225 
 
 225 
 
 226
 
 INDEX OF OTHER WORDS. 
 
 Opportunitas 
 
 PAGE 
 
 . . 212 
 
 Recens . . . . 
 
 PAOl 
 
 225 
 
 Ostentation . 
 
 . 100 
 
 Regeneratio . 
 
 66 
 
 
 
 Religio . . . . 
 
 174 
 
 Palseology . 
 
 . . 250 
 
 Religion, religious . 
 
 176 
 
 Panegyric 
 
 . 6 
 
 Religiosus . . . . 
 
 175 
 
 Pasco 
 
 85> 397 
 
 Renascentia . 
 
 64 
 
 Patientia . . 
 
 . 197 
 
 Renovatio . . . . 
 
 66 
 
 Pauper, paupertas 
 
 129, 130 
 
 Reprove 
 
 13 
 
 Peccatio, peccatum 
 
 . 242 
 
 Resipiscentia . . . 
 
 258 
 
 Pelagus 
 
 45 
 
 Revelatio 
 
 355 
 
 IleveoTai . . 
 
 . 129 
 
 Robber . . 157, 
 
 399 
 
 Penuria 
 
 128, 398 
 
 Rogo .... 
 
 144 
 
 Perditus 
 
 54 
 
 Rootfast, rootfastness 
 
 7i 
 
 7T/37repOS 
 
 . . 101 
 
 
 
 Perseverantia 
 
 . 197 
 
 Sacer . 
 
 401 
 
 Petitio 
 
 . . 191 
 
 Sagena .... 
 
 237 
 
 Peto 
 
 . 144 
 
 Sapientia . . . . 
 
 282 
 
 Petulantia . 
 
 56 
 
 Scatterling 
 
 55 
 
 Philauty 
 
 353 
 
 Scheu 
 
 69 
 
 <f>i\ocro<f>ia. . 
 
 . . 282 
 
 Scurrilitas 
 
 123 
 
 <f>pd& . 
 
 . 288 
 
 Seculum . . . . 
 
 218 
 
 Pietas 
 
 . . 172 
 
 <n}/x .... 
 
 342 
 
 7r\a.TVcrp.6<i . . 
 
 . 203 
 
 trcfuforrp . . . . 
 
 348 
 
 TrA^yM/AcAcia 
 
 . . 249 
 
 Senecta . 
 
 39 r 
 
 Prenitentia 
 
 . 258 
 
 Senium . . . . 
 
 391 
 
 iro\ep.t(a 
 
 . . 322 
 
 Sensual . 
 
 272 
 
 7TOVT09 . 
 
 46, 396 
 
 Shamefast, shamefastness 
 
 7 1 
 
 Populus 
 
 . . 369 
 
 Sicarius . 
 
 3 J 4 
 
 Prseterition . 
 
 . 118 
 
 Signum . . . . 
 
 341 
 
 Pretermission . 
 
 . . 116 
 
 Similitude 
 
 50 
 
 Prsevaricatio . 
 
 245 
 
 Simplex . . . . 
 
 204 
 
 Prahlerei . 
 
 . . 100 
 
 Simultas 
 
 89 
 
 Precatio 
 
 . 1 88 
 
 awftpw 
 
 346 
 
 Prodigium . 
 
 . . 342 
 
 Spiritus 
 
 2/5 
 
 Prodigus 
 
 55 
 
 <T77~OVO/y . . . . 
 
 '95 
 
 Propitiation 
 
 . . 290 
 
 Spurco . . .no, 
 
 398 
 
 TrpocraiTT)<s 
 
 . 129 
 
 Stain 
 
 no 
 
 Protervitas 
 
 . 56 
 
 <rra<ris .... 
 
 323 
 
 Prudentia . 
 
 . 282 
 
 Stilts 
 
 101 
 
 Pudor 
 
 . . 66 
 
 Stolz . 
 
 101 
 
 Puteus . . 
 
 39' 
 
 Stonen . . . 
 
 273
 
 412 
 
 INDEX OF OTHER WORDS. 
 
 Stout .... 
 
 PAGE 
 101 
 
 Uppishness 
 
 PAGK 
 . . 103 
 
 Strenuus . . . 
 
 201 
 
 Urban, urbane 
 
 3^8 
 
 Strict .... 
 
 4 8 
 
 Urbanitas . 
 
 . . 123 
 
 Stultiloquy 
 
 120 
 
 
 
 Suicism .... 
 
 353 
 
 Ventus . 
 
 2 75 
 
 crvvOrjKrj . . . . 
 
 194 
 
 Verax 
 
 . . 26 
 
 Superbus 
 
 IOI 
 
 Verbum 
 
 335 
 
 Superstitio, superstitiosus 
 
 177 
 
 Verecundia 
 
 . . 68 
 
 crvcr^rjfjLaTi^di . 
 
 264 
 
 Verna . 
 
 396 
 
 Susurro . . . 
 
 393 
 
 Verus 
 
 . . 26 
 
 
 
 Very . 
 
 . 26 
 
 Tsenia .... 
 
 78 
 
 Vetus 
 
 253 
 
 Ternperantia 
 
 7i 
 
 Vindicatio 
 
 . 24 
 
 Tempestivitas 
 
 212 
 
 Vita . 
 
 . . 91 
 
 Tempus . . 210, 
 
 399 
 
 Vitiositas 
 
 37 
 
 Tento . 
 
 281 
 
 Vorbeilassung . 
 
 . . 116 
 
 0a/3cros . . . . 
 
 16 
 
 Vorbild . 
 
 . 50 
 
 6av/j,a .... 
 
 345 
 
 Vox . 
 
 335 
 
 tfeoyevecria . . . 
 
 65 
 
 
 
 /\ / 
 Vyp .... 
 
 400 
 
 "Wahrsagen . 
 
 20, 395 
 
 Thief . . 157, 
 
 158 
 
 Wantonness 
 
 56 
 
 Thier .... 
 
 400 
 
 Weiden . 
 
 . . 85 
 
 6pd.uo<s . . . . 
 
 16 
 
 Weissagen . 
 
 20, 395 
 
 Tolerantia . . . 
 
 197 
 
 Welt . 
 
 . 219 
 
 Toucher . . . . 
 
 59 
 
 Weralt 
 
 . . 219 
 
 Traho .... 
 
 72 
 
 Widerchrist . 
 
 . 108 
 
 Tranquillus . . . 
 
 393 
 
 World 
 
 219, 399 
 
 Transfigure . 
 
 264 
 
 Worship 
 
 . 172 
 
 Transform . . . . 
 
 264 
 
 
 
 TpvM .... 
 
 200 
 
 Ziehen . . 
 
 . . 74 
 
 Tugend . . 
 
 3i8 
 
 Zoology . 
 
 93 
 
 Turpiloquium 
 
 121 
 
 Zorn . 
 
 . . 131 
 
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 APR 1 9 1999 
 
 1JAN 121998 
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