SYNONYMS
OP
THE NEW TESTAMENT.
SYNONYMS
THE NEW TESTAMENT
BY
EICHAED CHENEVIX TRENCH, D.D.
ABCHBISHOP
TWELFTH EDITION
COERECTED AND IMPROVED
LONDON
KEGAN PAUL, TEENCH, TEUBNEE, & CO. LTD.
1894
(The rights of translation and of reproduction arc reserved')
PBEFACE
TO
THE EIGHTH EDITION.
THIS VOLUME, not any longer a little one, has grown
out of a course of lectures on the Synonyms of the
New Testament, which, in the fulfilment of my duties
as Professor of Divinity at King's College, London, I
more than once delivered to the theological students
there. The long, patient, and exact studies in language
of our great Schools and Universities, which form so
invaluable a portion of their mental, and of their moral
discipline as well, could find no place during the two
years or two years and a half of the theological course
at King's College. The time itself was too short to
allow this, and it was in great part preoccupied by
more pressing studies. Yet, feeling the immense
value of these studies, and how unwise it would be,
because we could not have all which we would desire,
to forego what was possible and within our reach, I
two or three times dedicated a course of lectures to
the comparative value of words in the New Testament
and these lectures, with many subsequent additions
and some defalcations, have supplied the materials
20GQ721
vi PREFACE TO THE
of the present volume. I have never doubted that
(setting aside those higher and more solemn lessons,
which in a great measure are out of our reach to
impart, being taught rather by God than men), there
are few things which a theological teacher should
have more at heart than to awaken in his scholars an
enthusiasm for the grammar and the lexicon. We
shall have done much for those who come to us for
theological training and generally for mental guidance,
if we can persuade them to have these continually in
their hands ; if we can make them believe that with
these, and out of these, they may be learning more,
obtaining more real and lasting acquisitions, such as
will stay by them, and form a part of the texture of
their own minds for ever, that they shall from these
be more effectually accomplishing themselves for their
future work, than from many a volume of divinity,
studied before its time, even if it had been worth
studying at all, crudely digested, and therefore turning
to no true nourishment of the intellect or the spirit.
Claiming for these lectures a wider audience thau
at first they had, I cannot forbear to add a few obser-
vations on the value of the study of synonyms, not
any longer having in my eye the peculiar needs of
any special body of students, but generally ; and on
that of the Synonyms of the New Testament in parti-
cular; as also on the helps to the study of these
which are at present in existence ; with a few further
remarks which my own experience has suggested.
The value of this study as a discipline for training
the mind into close and accurate habits of thought,
EIGHTH EDITION. vii
the amount of instruction which may be drawn from
it, the increase of intellectual wealth which it may
yield, all this has been implicitly recognized by well-
nigh all great writers for well-nigh all from time to
time have paused, themselves to play the dividers and
discerners of words explicitly by not a few, who
have proclaimed the value which this study had in
their eyes. And instructive as in any language it
must be, it must be eminently so in the Greek a
language spoken by a people of the subtlest intellect ;
who saw distinctions, where others saw none ; who
divided out to different words what others often were
content to huddle confusedly under a common term ;
who were themselves singularly alive to its value,
diligently cultivating the art of synonymous distinc-
tion (the ovo/xara Sicupeti/, Plato, Laches, 197 d) ; and
who have bequeathed a multitude of fine and delicate
observations on the right discrimination of their own
words to the after- world. Many will no doubt re-
member the excellent sport which Socrates makes of
Prodicus, 1 who was possest with this passion to an
extravagant degree (Protag. 337 a b c).
And while thus the characteristic excellences of
the Greek language especially invite us to the investi-
gation of the likenesses and differences between words,
to the study of the words of the New Testament there
are reasons additional inviting us. If by such investi-
gations as these we become aware of delicate varia-
tions in an author's meaning, which otherwise we
1 On Prodicus and Protagoras see Grote, History of Greece, vol. vi.
p. 67 ; Sir A. Grant, Ethics of Aristotle, 3rd edit. vol. i. p. 123. In
Grafenham's most instructive Gesch. der klassischen Philologie there a^e
several chapters on this subject.
viii PREFACE TO THE
might have missed, where is it so desirable that we
should miss nothing, that we should lose no finer
intention of the writer, as in those words which are
the vehicles of the very mind of God Himself? If
thus the intellectual riches of the student are increased,
can this anywhere be of so great importance as there,
where the intellectual may, if rightly used, prove
spiritual riches as well ? If it encourage thoughtful
meditation on the exact forces of words, both as they
are in themselves, and in their relation to other words,
or in any way unveil to us their marvel and their
mystery, this can nowhere else have a worth in the
least approaching that which it acquires when the
words with which we have to do are, to those who
receive them aright, words of eternal life ; while in
the dead carcases of the same, if men suffer the spirit
of life to depart from them, all manner of corruptions
and heresies may be, as they often have been, bred.
The words of the New Testament are eminently
the crroix^cL of Christian theology, and he who will
not begin with a patient study of those, shall never
make any considerable, least of all any secure,
advances in this : for here, as everywhere else, sure
disappointment awaits him who thinks to possess the
whole without first possessing the parts of which that
whole is composed. The rhyming couplet of the
Middle Ages contains a profound instruction :
1 Qui nescit paites in vanum tendit ad artes ;
Artes per partes, non partes disce per artes.'
Now it is the very nature and necessity of the dis-
crimination of synonyms to compel such patient
investigation of the force of words, such accurate
EIGHTH EDITION. IX
weighing of their precise value, absolute and relative,
and in this its chief merits as a mental discipline
consist.
Yet when we look around us for assistance herein,
neither concerning Greek synonyms in general, nor
specially concerning those of the New Testament, can
it be affirmed that we are even tolerably furnished
with books. Whatever there may be to provoke
dissent in Doderlein's Lateinische Synonyme und
Etymologieen, and there could be scarcely an error
more fatally misleading than his notion that Latin
was derived from Greek, there is no book on Greek
synonyms which for compass and completeness can
bear comparison with it ; and almost all the more
important modern languages of Europe have better
books devoted to their synonyms than any which have
been devoted to the Greek. The works of the early
grammarians, as of Ammonius and others, supply a
certain amount of valuable material, but cannot be
said even remotely to meet the needs of the student
at the present day. Vomel's Synonymisches Worter-
buch, Frankfurt, 1822, excellent as far as it goes, but
at the same time a school-book and no more, and
Pillon's Synonymes Grecs, of which a translation into
English was edited by the late T. K. Arnold, London,
1850, are the only modern attempts to supply the
deficiency ; at least I am not aware of any other.
But neither of these writers has allowed himself space
to enter on his subject Avith any fulness and com-
pleteness : not to say that references to the synonyms
of the New Testament are exceedingly rare in Vb'mel ;
and, though somewhat more frequent in Pillon's work,
X PREFACE TO THE
are capricious and uncertain there, and in general of
a meagre and unsatisfactory description.
The only book dedicated expressly and exclusively
to these is one written in Latin by J. A. H. Tittmann,
De Synonymis in Novo Testamento, Leipzig, 1829, 1832.
It would ill become me, and I have certainly no
intention, to speak slightingly of the work of a most
estimable man, and a good scholar above all, when
that work is one from which I have derived some, if
not a great deal of assistance, and such as I most
willingly acknowledge. Yet the fact that we are
offering a book on the same subject as a preceding
author ; and may thus lie under, or seem to others to
lie under, the temptation of unduly claiming for the
ground which we would occupy, that it is not solidly
occupied already ; this must not wholly shut our
mouths from pointing out what may appear to us
deficiencies or shortcomings on his part. And this
work of Tittmann's seems to me still to leave room
for another, even on the very subject to which it is
specially devoted. It sometimes travels very slowly
over its ground ; the synonyms which he selects for
discrimination are not always the most interesting ;
nor are they always felicitously grouped for investi-
gation ; he often fails to bring out in sharp and clear
antithesis the differences between them ; while here
and there the investigations of later scholars have
quite broken down distinctions which he has sought
to establish ; as for instance that
and /caraXXao-o-ew, as though the first were a
the second only a one-sided, reconciliation ; L or a-;: in
1 See Fritzsche, On Horn, v. 10.
EIGHTH EDITION. xi
as that between a^pi and ^XP L - Indeed the fact
that this book of Tittmann's, despite the interest of
its subject, and its standing alone upon it, to say
nothing of its translation into English, 1 has never
obtained any considerable circulation among students
of theology here, is itself an evidence of its insuffi-
ciency to meet our wants in this direction.
Of the deficiencies of the work now offered, I am
only too well aware ; none can know them at all so
well as myself. I know too that even were my part
of the work much better accomplished than it is, I
have left untouched an immense number of the
Synonyms of the N. T., and among these many of
the most interesting and instructive. 2 I can only
1 Biblical Cabinet, vols. iii. xviii. Edinburgh, 1833, 1837. The trans-
lation is very poorly performed.
2 The following list is very far from exhausting these : irpoo-<popd, 6vo-ia,
85>pov Trapotp-ia, TrapojSoXjj, 6/Wcocris vibs Qeov, rrals Qfov 8iKaicop.a,
8iKai.(oo-is, 8iKaioo~vv7) fTrirponos, oiKovop.os Kr/nos, iraptideicros X^*l>
TTiKpia opoy, ftovvos ra'fpoy, fj.vrjp.flov p-ovrj, oi/a'a Kfipia, odovia ufoy,
TtKVOv 7rv\r), 6vpa aXvcris, ire8rj fXrris, diroKapa8oKia evraXfjia, 8i8ao~Kd-
Xt'a ^apd, ayaXXiacris, fi>(j)poo~vvr) 86a, TI/XTJ, eiraivos /Sapor, (f>opriov,
oyKos dp.v6s, dpviov vr, x'tpos v\oi>, <rravp6s 7r//Xdj, fiopfiopos veros,
ofJidpos KTT^iara, VTrdp^fis Trorapos, ^'/xappoy KOfjiT),
o//za yXoicrcra, 8id\KTOS Vf<pos, ve<pf\r) rrrorjcns, dap/Bos,
ydfa, dr)<ravpos, dirodrjKr) rap-iflov, opveov, irertivov K\LVT},
Sfo-ficoTrjpiov, (pv\aKT) Kvftfia, fj.(do8eia, iravovpyia naprjyopia, irapa-
fivdia, irapdK\T)o-is TVTTOS, viroSety^a, VTroypap.fj.6s, vnoTvircMris p.dxaipa,
pop,<pala tpis, epiBeia e'ou(ria, 8vvap.is, Kpdros, icr^vr, 0/a, evepyeia
Kptas, crap^ TTvevfia, vovs Xurrrj, 68vvr), a>8iv dvri8iicos, fx&p6s, VTrevavrios
Sia'(3oXos, 8aifj.a>v, 8aifj.6viov, KdTrjycop ddrjs, yeevva, raprapoy, (pv\dKT)
Xo'yos, ptjp-d do-devfia, voo~os, paXa/cia, /na'trrt^ XvrpajTTjs, trcorjjp evQv-
p.T)cris, evvoLd, 8ia\oyicrp.os (7riyp.a, pcoXoj^, Tr\rjyfj o\fdpos, aTrcoXeta
evroXrj, 86yfj,a, TrapayyeXta f$pe(j)os, jraiSiov ayvoia, ayvaxria <rirvpis y
Ko(f)ii>os avoid, dfypoo-vvT), fjuapia dvdndvo~i.s, KdTdjravo-is dyiacr^ioy,
ayioTTjs, ayiuHTvvr) (caXos, dya^or d<r8evT)s, oppcotrros fVfj.(Ta8oTos, KOI-
VCOVIKOS /ze'ro^os, KOIVCOVOS eSpdios, dfj.tTaKLvrjTos Trpcaroroxos, p.ovoyevfjs
dtSios, dlaivios ^pepioj, ^crv^ios fvos, trdpoiKOS, TrapeTTi'S^/ioy tr/coXtoy,
8lfO~Tpap.p.(VOS dTTfldTjS, UTTIOTOS (ppOVTlfa, fJLfplfJ.vd(O TrffJUTd), aTTOCTTeXXa)
Kpcijja), /cpavyd^a), /3uda> ; dva/Souco rpoiya), (pdyoum, eadioi <rvp.Tfd6fa),
xii PREFACE TO THE
hope and pray that this volume, the labour sometimes
painful, but often delightful, of many days, may, not-
withstanding its many faults and shortcomings, not
wholly miss its aim. That aim has been to lead some
into closer and more accurate investigation of His
Word, in Whom, and therefore in whose words, ' all
riches of wisdom and knowledge are contained.'
I might here conclude, but having bestowed a
certain amount of attention on this subject, I am
tempted, before so doing, to offer a few hints on the
rules and principles which must guide a labourer in
this field, if the work is at all to prosper in his hands.
They shall bear mainly on the proper selection of the
passages by which he shall confirm and make good,
in his own sight and in the sight of others, the con-
clusions at which he has arrived ; for it is indeed on
the skill with which this selection is made that his
success or failure will almost altogether depend. It
is plain that when we affirm two or more words to be
synonyms, that is alike, but also different, with resem-
blance in the main, but also with partial difference,
we by no means deny that there may be a hundred
passages where it would be quite as possible to use
the one as the other. All that we certainly affirm is
that, granting this, there is a hundred and first,
where one would be appropriate and the other not,
Herpionadeca KaXfca, ovop,d^o) criydoo, crtcoTraco rrjptat, (^iiXa'crera), (ppovp(u)
TrXawco, aTraraa), 7rapaXoyi'opat 6pda>, /3X7rco, dedopcu, $ecopea>, oirrop.ai
yipaxTKw, ot'Sa, fVi'(rra/nat eiiXoyeco, ei^apicrrea) Idofjuu, Stparrevo), /3ov-
Aopai, $e'Xa> KaTapri(a, reXeidco KarayivuxTKO), KaraKpivia rapacrtrco, rvp-
i f ir(pi(pepa>, rapdcraco opciSt'^ico, XoiSopew,
KdKoXoye'a) TrX^pdu, reXfttico tivfv, xopis viiv, apri.
EIGHTH EDITION. Xlil
or where, at all events, one would be more appropriate
than the other. To detect and cite this passage, to
disengage it from the multitude of other passages,
which would help little or nothing here, this is
a chief business, we may say that it is the chief
business, of one who, undertaking the task of the
discrimination of words, would not willingly have
laboured in vain. It is true that a word can hardly
anywhere be used by one who is at all a master, either
conscious or unconscious, of language, but that his
employment of it shall assist in fixing, if there be any
doubt on the matter, the exact bounds and limitations
of its meaning, in drawing an accurate line of de-
marcation between it and such other words as border
upon it, and thus in defining the territory which it
occupies as its own. Still it would plainly be an
endless and impossible labour to quote or even refer
to all, or a thousandth part of all, the places in which
any much used word occurs ; while, even supposing
these all brought together, their very multitude would
defeat the purpose for which they were assembled ;
nor would the induction from them be a whit more
satisfactory and conclusive than that from select
examples, got together with judgment and from- suffi-
ciently wide a field. He who would undertake this
work must be able to recognize what these passages
are, which, carrying conviction to his own mind, he
may trust will carry it also to those of others. A
certain innate tact, a genius for the seizing of subtler
and finer distinctions, will here be of more profit than
all rules which can beforehand be laid down; at
least, no rules will compensate for the absence of
XIV PREFACE TO THE
this ; and when all has been said, much must be left
to this tact. At the same time a few hints here need
not be altogether unprofitable, seeing that there is no
such help to finding as to know beforehand exactly
what we should seek, and where we should seek it.
It is hardly necessary to observe that the student
in this field -of labour will bestow especial attention
on the bringing together, so far as they bear upon his
subject, of those passages in good authors in which
his work is, so to speak, done to his hand, and some
writer of authority avowedly undertakes to draw out
the distinction between certain words, either in a
single phrase, or in a somewhat longer discussion, or
in a complete treatise. To these he will pay diligent
heed, even while he will claim the right of reconsider-
ing, and it may be declining to accept, the distinctions
drawn by the very chiefest among them. The dis-
tinguishing of synonyms comes so naturally to great
writers, who are also of necessity more or less accurate
thinkers, and who love to make sure of the materials
with which they are building, of the weapons which
they are wielding, that of these distinctions traced by
writers who are only word- dividers accidentally and
by the way, an immense multitude exists, a multitude
far beyond the hope of any single student to bring
together, scattered up and down as they are in
volumes innumerable. I will enumerate a few, but
only as illustrating the wide range of authors from
whom they may be gathered. Thus they are met in
Herodotus (euro's and oXyStos, i. 32) ; in Plato
(6appa\<lo<s and di'Speios, Protag. 349 e ; Qapa-os and
'a, Ib. 351 b; icrxypos and Swaros, Ib. 350 c ;
EIGHTH EDITION. XV
and o-Tctcm, Rep. v. 470 6 ; Stavota and
76. vi. 511 d ; n-vTJp-'r) and di'ci/u'^cri?, Philebus, 34 6 ;
cf. Aristotle, 77zs. Anim. i. i. 15); in Aristotle
(euyev??? and yewcuos, 77z',s. Anim. i. i. 14; 7?A<?. ii.
15; cf. Dio Chrysostom, 0ra. 15, in fine;
and ey/cw/uoi>, Ethic. Nic. i. 12. 6; Rhet.i. 9;
and crv/t(/>v0-i9, Metaph. iv. 4 ; <f>povir)(ri<s and
Ethic. Nic. vi. 1 1 ; d/cdXacrTos and d/cpaTi^s, 7?>. vii. 7,
10 ; 77Tev/Ma and d^e^o?, Zte Mund. iv. 10 ; cf, Philo,
. i. 14 ; o/xy8/309 and verog, De Mund. iv. 6 ;
and </>tXta, Ethic. Nic. ix. 5) ; in Xenophon
and ot/co?, (Econ. i. 5 ; ySacriXeux and Tvpawts,
Mem. iv. 6. 12); in Demosthenes (XotSopta and
ta, xviii. 123); in Philo (fit^ts, /cpcuri?, and
^ C't'TZ/. im^r. 37 ; Swpov and So/xa, Ze^.
iii. 70 ; Scoped and Socris, Z><? Cherub. 25 ;
Bpao-vTys and ^ap/aaXeor^?, QMW jR^r. Zto'u. ^/cpr. 5 ;
77^017 and Trvevpa, Leg. Alleg. i. 13 ; in Plutarch
(d/coXacrta and dfcpcuna, Z?e Ftrf. 3/br. 6 ; ey/cpctreta
and crcu^pocrwiy, ibid.} ; in Lucilius (' pcema ' and
' poesis,' /Sat 9) ; in Cicero (' vitium,' ' morbus,' and
* eegrotatio,' Ttwc. iv. 13; 'gaudium,' ' laetitia,' and
' voluptas,' /&. iv. 6 ; cf. Seneca, .E/). 59 ; Aulus
Gellius, ii. 27; 'cautio' and 'metus,' Tusc. iv. 6;
' labor ' and ' dolor,' Ib. ii. 15; ' versutus ' and ' calli-
dus,' De Nat. Deor. iii. 10 ; 'doctus' and 'peritus,'
De Off. i. 41 ; ' perseverantia ' and ' patientia,' Delnv.
ii. 34 ; ' dignitas ' and ' venustas,' De Off. i. 30. 17;
c maledictum ' and ' accusatio,' Pro Ccel. iii. 6 ; with
others innumerable). They are found in Quintilian
(' salsus,' ' urbanus,' and ' facetus,' Instit. vi. 3,17;
4 fama ' and '.rumor,' Ib. v. 3 ; ^6r) and Tra&y, Ib. vi.
xvi PREFACE TO THE
2, 8) ; in Seneca (' ira ' and ' iracundia,' De Ird, i. 4) ;
in Aulus Gellius (' matrona ' and * materfamilias,'
xviii. 6. 4 ; ' fulvus ' and ' flavus,' ' ruber ' and * rufus,'
Jb. ii. 26) ; in St. Jerome (* pignus ' and ' arrha,' in
Ephes. i. 14; ' pu tens' and * cisterna,' in Osee i. i ;
' bonitas ' and ' benignitas,' in Gal. v. 22 ; ' modestia '
and ' continent!*,' ibid.); in St. Augustine ('flagitium'
and ' facinus,' Conf. iii. 8, 9 ; ' volo ' and ' cupio,' DP
Civ. Dei, xiv. 8 ; ' fons ' and * puteus,' in Joh. iv. 6 ;
' senecta ' and ' senium,' Enarr. in Ps. Ixx. 18 ; 'aBmu-
latio ' and ' invidia,' Exp. in Gal. v. 20 ;' curiosus '
and ' studiosus,' De Util. Cred. 9) ; * in Hugh of St.
Victor (' cogitatio,' ' meditatio,' ' contemplatio,' De
Contemp. i. 3,4); in Muretus ('possessio' and 'do-
minium,' Epist. iii. 80) ; and, not to draw this matter
endlessly out, in South (' envy ' and ' emulation,'
Sermons, 1737, vol. v. p. 403 ; compare Bishop
Butler's Sermons, 1836, p. 15) ; in Barrow (* slander'
and ' detraction ') ; in Jeremy Taylor (' mandatum '
and 'jussio,' Ductor Dubitantium, iv. i. 2. 7); in
Samuel Johnson (* talk ' and ' conversation,' Boswell's
Life, 1842, p. 719) ; in Goschel (' sequitas ' and 'jus,'
Zerst. Blatter, part ii. p. 387); in Coleridge ('fana-
ticism ' and ' enthusiasm,' Lit. Rein. vol. ii. p. 365 ;
'keenness' and 'subtlety,' Table Talk, p. 140;
' analogy ' and 'metaphor,' Aids to Reflection, p. 198);
and in De Quincey (' hypothesis,' ' theory,' ' system,'
Lit. Reminiscences, vol. ii. p. 299, American Ed.).
Indeed in every tongue the great masters of language
would rarely fail to contribute their quota of these.
For many more examples in Augustine see my St. Auyustiw on the
Sermon on the Mount, 3rd edit. p. 27.
EIGHTH EDITION. xvii
There is a vast number of other passages also, in
worth secondary to those which I have just adduced,
inasmuch as they do not draw these accurate lines of
demarcation between the domain of meaning occupied
by one word and that occupied by others bordering
upon it ; but which yet, containing an accurate de-
finition or pregnant description of some ono., will
prove most serviceable when it is sought to distinguish
this from others which are cognate to it. All such
definitions and descriptions he will note who has
taken this subject in hand. Such, for example, is
Plato's definition of Sidvoia (Sophist. 263 e) : 6 eVro?
TT}? t/^X^ 9 Kpos avTyv SiaXoyos avev (j)covrj^ yiyvo^zvos:
of vd/xos (Legg. i. 6440?) : 05 [Xoyicr/zos] yevo^evos Soy/xa
TToXews KOIVOV vo'/zos en-aW/xao-Tcu : with which that of
Aristotle may be compared : vo/xos Se ecrrtv o/ioXoy-^/xa
TroXecos KOIVOV Sta ypaja/xarwv, trpo(jTa.TTOv TTWS -^p-fj
rrpdrreiv e/caora (Rhet. ad Alex, ii.) ; or, again, Ari-
stotle's of VTpa.7re\io. that it is vfipis TreTratSev/aeVry, or
* chastened insolence' (Rhet. ii. 12) ; of O-^VOT^ that
it is /taXa/cr) KCU evax-tip-cuv {3apvTr)<s (Rhet. ii. 19); or
Cicero's of ' temperantia,' that it is ' moderatio cupi-
ditatuni rationi obtemperans ' (De Fin. ii. 17; or
again of ' beatitudo ' (Tusc. v. 10) : ' Secretis malis
omnibus cumulata bonorum omnium possessio ; ' or
of ' vultus,' that it is ' sermo quidam tacitus mentis ; '
or of ' divinatio,' that it is ' Earum rerum quae for-
tuitoe putantur praedictio atque prassensio ' (Divin. i.
5, 9) ; again, of ' gloria' (Tusc. iii. 2), that it is ' con-
sentiens laus bonorum, incorrupta vox bene judi-
cantium de excellente virtute ; ' or once more (Inv.
ii. 55, 156) : ' Estfrequens de aliquo fama cum laude;'
a 2
xviii PREFACE TO THE
or South's of the same, more subtle, and taken more
from a subjective point of view (Sermons, 1737, vol.
iv. p. 67) : ' Glory is the joy a man conceives from
his own perfections considered with relation to the
opinions of others, as observed and acknowledged by
them.' l Or take another of Cicero's, that namely of
1 jactatio,' that it is ' voluptas gestiens, et se efferens
violentius' (Tusc. iv. 9). All these, and the like of
these, he will gather for the use which, as occasion
arises, may be made of them ; or, in any event, for
the mental training in a special direction which their
study will afford him.
Another series of passages will claim especial atten-
tion ; those namely which contain, as many do, a
pointed antithesis, and which thus tell their own tale.
For instance, when Ovid says severally of the soldier
and the lover, 'hie portas frangit, at ille fores,' the
difference between the gates of a city and the doors of
a house, as severally expressed by the one word and
the other, can escape no reader. This from Cicero
(Verr. v. 66), l f acinus est vinciri civem Romanum,
scelus verberari,' gives us at once what was his rela-
tive estimate of ' facinus ' and ' scelus.' There are
few distinctions more familiar than that existing be-
tween ' vir ' and ' homo ' ; but were this otherwise, a
passage like that well-known one in Cicero concerning
1 Compare George Eliot
'What is fame
But the benignant strength of one, transformed
To joy of many ? '
while Godet has a grand definition of ' glory,' but this now the glory of
God: 'La gloire de Dieu est l'6clat que projettent dans le cceur de
creatures intelligentes ses perfections manifestoes.'
EIGHTH EDITION. xix
Marius (Tusc. ii. 22) would bring the distinction to
the consciousness of all. One less trite which Seneca
affords will do the same (Ep. 104) : * Quid est cur
timeat laborem vir, mortem homo?' while this at once
lets us know what difference he puts between ' delec-
tare ' and ' placere ' (Ep. 39) : * Malorum ultimum est
mala sua amare, ubi turpia non solum delectant^ sed
eti&m placent ;' and this what the difference is between
' carere ' and ' indigere ' ( Vit. Beat. 7) : ' Voluptate
virtus ssepe caret, nunquam indiget.' The distinction
between ' secure ' and ' safe,' between ' securely ' and
* safely,' is well-nigh obliterated in our modern
English, but how admirably is it brought out in this
line of Ben Jonson,
' Men may securely sin, but safely never.'
Closely connected with these are passages in which
words are used as in a climacteric, one rising above
the other, each evidently intended by the writer to
be stronger than the last. These passages will at all
events make clear in what order of strength the several
words so employed presented themselves to him who
so used them. Thus, if there were any doubt about
the relation of ' paupertas ' and ' egestas,' a passage
like the following from Seneca (Ep. 58) would be
decisive, so far at least as concerns the silver age of
Latinity : ' Quanta verborum nobis paupertas, imo
egestas sit, nunquam magis quam hodierno die intel-
lexi ; ' while for the relations between ' inopia ' and
* egestas ' we may compare a similar passage from the
younger Pliny (Ep. iv. 18). Another passage from
Seneca (De 7m, ii. 36: 'Ajacem in mortem egit/n?r,
XX PREFACE TO THE
in furorem ira ') shows how he regarded ' ira ' and
4 furor.' When Juvenal describes the ignoble assenta-
tion of the Greek sycophant, ever ready to fall in with
and to exaggerate the mood of his patron, ' si dixeris,
" cestuo," sudat ' (Sat. iii. 103), there can be no ques-
tion in what relation of strength the words 'asstuo'
and ' sudo ' for him stand to one another.
Nor in this way only, but in various others, a great
writer, without directly intending any such thing, will
give a most instructive lesson in synonyms and their
distinction merely by the alternations and interchanges
of one word with another, which out of an instinctive
sense of fitness and propriety he will make. For
instance, what profound instruction on the distinction
between fiios and 0)77 lies in the two noble chapters
with which the Gorgias of Plato concludes, while yet
he was certainly very far from designing any such
lesson. So, too, as all would own, Cicero is often far
more instructive, and far more to be relied on as a
guide and authority in his passionate shifting and
changing of words than when in colder blood he
proceeds to distinguish one from another. So much
we may affirm without in the least questioning the
weight which all judgments of his on his own language
must possess.
Once more, the habitual associates of a word will
claim the special attention of one who is seeking to
mark out the exact domain of meaning which it occu-
pies. Eemembering the proverb, * Noscitur a sociis,'
he will note accurately the company which it uses to
keep ; above all, he will note if there be any one other
word with which it stands in ever-recurring alliance.
EIGHTH EDITION. xxi
He will draw from this association two important
conclusions: first, that it has not exactly the same
meaning as these words with which it is thus con
stantly associated ; else one or the other, and not both,
save only in a few exceptional cases of rhetorical
accumulation, would be employed : the second, that
it has a meaning nearly bordering upon theirs, else
it would not be found in such frequent combination
with them. Pape's Greek Lexicon is good, and Eost
and Palm's still better, for the attention bestowed
upon this point, which had been only very partially
attended to by Passow. The helps are immense
which may here be found for the exact fixing of the
meaning of a word. Thus a careful reader of our
old authors can scarcely fail to have been perplexed
by the senses in which he finds the word ' peevish '
employed so different from our modern, so difficult
to reduce to that common point of departure, which
yet all the different meanings that a word in time
comes to obtain must have once possessed. Let him
weigh, however, its use in two or three such passages
as the following, and the companionship in which he
finds it will greatly help him to grasp the precise
sense in which two hundred years since it was em-
ployed. The first is from Burton (Anatomy of Melan-
choly, part iii. i ) : ' We provoke, rail, scoff, calum-
niate, hate, abuse (hard-hearted, implacable, malicious,
peevish, inexorable as we are), to satisfy our lust or
private spleen.' The second from Shakespeare (Two
Gentlemen of Verona, Act III. Sc. i ) :
Valentine, ' Cannot your Grace win her to fancy him ?*
J}uke. 'No, trust me, she is peevish, sullen, froward,
Proud, disobedient, stubborn, lacking duty. 1
xxii PREFACE TO THE
Surely in these quotations, and in others similar which
could easily be adduced, there are assistances at once
safe and effectual for arriving at a right appreciation
of the force of ' peevish.'
Again, one who is considering and seeking to arrive
at the exact value, both positive and relative, of words
will diligently study the equivalents in other tongues
which masters of language have put forward ; espe-
cially where it is plain they have made the selection of
the very fittest equivalent a matter of earnest con-
sideration. I spoke just now of ' peevish.' Another
passage from Burton ' Pertinax hominum genus, a
peevish generation of men ' is itself sufficient to con-
firm the notion, made probable by induction from
passages cited already, that self-willedness (av#aSeia)
was the leading notion which the word once possessed.
Sometimes possessing no single word of their own
precisely equivalent to that which they would render,
they have sought to approach this last from different
quarters and what no single one would do, to effect
by several, employing sometimes one and sometimes
another. Cicero tells us that he so dealt with the
Greek cra)(f>poo-wr), for which he found no one word
that was its adequate representative in Latin. Each
of these will probably tell us some part of that which
we desire to learn.
But then further, in seeking to form an exact
estimate of ethical terms and their relation to, and
their distinction from, one another, it will profit much
to observe by what other names virtues and vices have
been called, with what titles of dishonour virtues have
been miscalled by those who wished to present them
EIGHTH EDITION. xxiii
in an odious or a ridiculous light ; with what titles of
honour vices have been adorned by those who would
fain make the worse appear the better, who would
put darkness for light and light for darkness ; since,
unjust as in every case these words must be, they must
yet have retained some show and remote semblance
of justice, else they would scarcely have imposed on
the simplest and the most unwary ; and from their very
lie a truth may be extorted by him who knows how
to question them aright. Thus when Plato (Rep. viii.
560 e) characterizes some as vfipiv ^ eu7ratSevcrtai>
/caXovi'Teg, avap^tav Se \ev0pia.v, acrcoTLav Se yueyaXo-
7r/3eVetai>, avaibeiav Se avSpelav (cf. Aristotle, Rhet. i.
g) ; or when Plutarch (Anim. an Corp. Aff. Pej. 3) says,
OvfJiov Se TroXXot KoXov(Tiv oVS^oetaz', /cat epojra <iXtai>.
Kal <f)66voi> ajaiXXav, /cat SetXtW dcr^aXetav : or when
he relates how the flatterers of Dionysius, not now
giving good names to bad things, but bad names to
good, called the cre/xvor^s of Dion vTrepcn/aa, and his
Trapprja-ia av#aSeta (Dion, 8 ; cf. De Adul. et Am. 14) ;
or, once more, when we have a passage before us like
the following from Cicero (Part. Orat. 23) : ' Pru-
dentiam malitia, et temperantiam immanitas in as-
pernandis voluptatibus, et liberalitatem effusio, et
fortitudinem audacia imitatur, et patientiam duritia
immanis, et justitiam acerbitas, et religionem super-
stitio, et lenitatem mollitia animi, et verecundiam
timiditas, et illam disputandi prudentiam concertatio
captatioque verborum ' when, I say, we have such
statements before us, these pairs of words mutually
throw light each upon the other ; and it is our own
fault if these caricatures are. .not helpful to us in
xxiv PREFACE TO THE
understanding what are exactly the true features
misrepresented by them. Wyttenbach, Animadd. in
Plutarch, vol. i. pp. 461, 462, has collected a large
group of similar passages. He might have added,
trite though it may be, the familiar passage from the
Satires of Horace, i. 3. 41-66.
Let me touch in conclusion on one other point
upon which it will much turn whether a book on
synonyms will satisfy just expectations or not ; I
mean the skill with which the pairs, or, it may be,
the larger groups of words, between which it is pro-
posed to discriminate, are selected and matched. He
must pair his words as carefully as the lanista in the
Eoman amphitheatre paired his men. Of course,
no words can in their meaning be too near to one
another ; since the nearer they are the more liable to
be confounded, the more needing to be discriminated.
But there may be some which are too remote, between
which the difference is so patent that it is quite super-
fluous to define what it is. ' Scarlet ' and * crimson '
may be confounded ; it may be needful to point out
the difference between them ; but scarcely between
* scarlet ' and 4 green.' It may be useful to discrimi-
nate between ' pride ' and ' arrogance ' ; but who
would care for a distinction drawn between ' pride '
and ' covetousness ' ? At the same time, one who
does not look for his pairs at a certain remoteness
from one another, will have very few on which to
put forth his skill. It is difficult here to hit always
the right mean ; and we must be content to appear
sometimes discriminating where the reader counts
that no discrimination was required. No one will
EIGHTH EDITION. XXV
have taken up a work on synonyms without feeling
that some words with which it deals are introduced
without need, so broad and self-evident in his eyes
does the distinction between them appear. Still, if
the writer have in other cases shown a tolerable dex-
terity in the selection of the proper groups, it will
be only fair toward him to suppose that what is thus
sun-clear to one may not be equally manifest to all.
With this deprecation of too hasty a criticism of
works like the present, I bring these prefatory re-
marks to a close.
Mai-ch 13, 1876.
PREFACE
TO
THE NINTH EDITION.
WHAT I wrote in the Preface to the eighth edition of
this book about the want of any considerable work
dealing with Greek synonyms needs a certain quali-
fication now. Of J. H. H. Schmidt's Synonymik der
Griechischen Sprache, two volumes (1876, 1879) have
appeared. How many more will follow it is im-
possible to guess. There would be much to say on
this book of an accomplished scholar, who has evi-
dently grudged no amount of toil in its preparation,
if it became me to criticize it, or if this were the place
to do so. This, however, I will observe namely,
that while much may be learned from this book, it
altogether fails to satisfy the needs of the theological
student. The writer's whole interest is in Homeric
and Attic Greek. Having had his book constantly
in my hand while preparing a new edition of this
present work, I have not lighted there upon more than
two citations from the N. T., and not so much as one
from the Septuagint. There may be more, but these
cannot be very many. In Greek as one of the two
great languages of Revelation, and in the various
providential means by which it was formed and
fashioned to be an adequate vehicle of this Eevela-
tion, in all this Schmidt has apparently no interest
whatever ; does not so much as seem to perceive that
there is a great subject before him.
BKOOMFIELD, September 3, 1880.
CONTENTS.
PAGE
PREFACE . . v
i. *EKK\r](ria, cruvayuy?;, TraKiyyvpis . . . . . I
ii. Oeiorrjs, OCOTTJS ....... 7
iii. lepov, vaos . . . . . . . . 10
iv. 7UT6/Aaa>, eXey^u (atria, eXey^o?) . . . 13
V. avdOij/JM, avdOefia . . . . . 15
vi. Trpo<f>r)rev<a, /tavrevoyxat . . . . . 19
vil. TifKapia, /coAacris . . . . . . . 24
viii. aXr]0T)<s, aXTjOivos 26
ix. 6epa.TT(i>v, SovXos, Staxoi/os, ot/cer?/?, V7r/7p'r?7s . . . 30
X. SttXta, ^>o^3os, evXdfitia. . . . , . .34
xi. Ka/a'a, KCLKoyOcia. . . . . . 37
xii. dyaTraw, <tAea> . . . . . . -41
xiii. #aAacro-a, WAayos ..... 45
xiv. o-xXi/po?, avcmjpos. . . . . . -47
xv. eucwv, o/xotwo-ts, o/xotw/ta . . . . . . 4.9
xvi. do-wria, da-e'Ayeta . . . . . . 54
xvii. $iyyava>, aTrro/Aai, i^Aa^xio) . . . . . 58
Xviii. rraAiyyevccrta, dvaKatvwcrts . . . . .60
XIX. ato^vjo;, aiSw?, cvrpOTrn . . . . 66
XX. a'Sws, <rw(}>po(ruvr] ....... 69
xxi. <rupw, e\Ka) . . . . . . ..72
xxii. oAo/cA^pos, Tc'Aetos, aprios . . . . -74
xxiii. crre^avo?, SiaS^/xa . . . . . 78
xxiv. TrAeove^ta, <iAapyv/3ta . . . . . . Si
xxv. y3o<nca>, TroijLuu'va) . . . . . . . 84
XXV111
CONTENTS.
PAGB
xxvi.
87
xxvii.
9 1
xxviii.
96
xxix.
dXawv, i-Trep^avos, vfSpurn'^
98
XXX.
dvTl'xplOTOS, ll/fvSoXpKTTOS . . , . .
I0 5
xxxi.
no
xxxii.
in
xxxiii.
d</>ecn.s, irdpeo-ts .......
114
xxxiv.
/xcopoXoyia, alar)(po\oyLa, eurpaTreXia . .
I2O
XXXV.
I 2 5
xxx vi.
7TK79, 7TTWXOS ...
128
xxxvii.
I 3
xxxviii.
eXatov, fivpov (xpiw, dXei'<a)) .....
135
xxxix.
137
xl.
143
xli.
dvaTravo-is, dvetm . . . . . . .
146
xlii.
TttTreivo^poo-un;, Trpaorrjs . . . . .
I 47
xliii.
TrpaoTT/s, firLfLKtia. . . . . . .
153
xliv.
KXeTTTTJS, XflCTTT/S . . . . . . ,
J 57
xlv.
TrXvVO), VtTTTW, XoUU) . . . . . .
160
xlvi.
<a>s, ^>yyos, 0cocTT7yp, X^xi'os, Xayu.7rds . .
163
xlvii.
X^pts, tXcos .... ....
1 66
xlviii.
^eocre^S^s, evcreyS^s, evXa^S^?, 6prj(TKO<i ) ScicriSttiy/.wi'
172
xlix.
KCVOS, /Aaraios ........
i So
1.
I/xdriov, x""(ov, ^OTUT/AO'S, X^a^^'s, o-roX^ TroS^p^s .
184
li.
tvX^> Tpocrcrx^, Ser/cns, evrevcts, evxapicrTia, air^/xa,
'(.KfTrjpia. ........
iSS
lii.
'93
liii.
fjLa.Kpo6vfjLLa.y vTrofiLovr], di'ox^ .....
!95
liv.
(TTp^vtdco, rptx^dw, O"7raTaXaw . . .
200
lv.
0X%s, OTvoxwpia . . .
2O2
Ivi.
aTrXovs, d/cepatos, d/caKos, aSoXos . .
204
Ivii.
209
Iviii.
<#)pa), <^ope'w . .
21"
lix.
Kooyu>s, atwv . . . .
2I 4
Ix.
219
CONTENTS.
xxix
PACK
lxi.
p-eOrj, TTOTOS, otvo<Xuyia, KW/XOS, KpanrdXri . .
22 5
Ixii.
228
Ixiii.
a/yaOwcrvvT], xp^OTOT^S ......
232
Ixiv.
SLKTVOV, afJicfrLflXycrTpov, (rayrjvi] . . . .
2 3 6
Ixv.
Xv-n-fO/JLai, Trf.v6f.ui, Oprjvta, fcoTrro/xat ....
2 3 8
Ixvi.
d/Aaprta, d/xdpT^/xa, acrf.f3f.ia., 7ra.pa.Koi], &VOfua, Trapa-
i/o/ua, 7rapct/3ao-is, TrapaTrrw/xa, dyvoT/^a, T/TT^JUO. .
239
Ixvii.
dpxato?, TraXatos .......
250
Ixviii.
a<$apTOs, d/xdpavTOS, dyaapavrtvos . . .
2 53
Ixix.
2^6
Ixx.
fj.op<f>fy o"xfj/j.a, tSea . . . . . .
** o
262
Ixxi.
i/a^tKos, orapKLKos .......
268
Ixxii.
o-apKtKos, crdp/ctvo? .......
272
Ixxiii.
TrvoTy, TTTeS/jta, dve/x,oSj XaTXai/'', $veXXa .
275
Ixxiv.
SoKLfj^d^w, Treipd^co . . . . . . .
278
Ixxv.
o~o(i'a, (frpovrjo'i 1 ;, yvwo"ts, 7rtyva)o~ts ....
281
Ixxvi.
XaXew, Xeyw (XaXtd, Xoyos) . . . . .
286
Ixxvii.
a7roXi;Tp(oo"is, /caraXXayiy, tXao"/x.os ....
290
Ixxviii.
l^ttXyLtOS, VfLVOS, wS^ . . . . . .
296
Ixxix.
dypd/x/xaTOs, tStwrr/s
302
Ixxx.
So/ceo), (j)aLvofj.ai . . . . . . .
305
Ixxxi.
wov, Qrjpiov ........
308
Ixxxii.
311
Ixxxiii.
<^OVUS, dv$pC07TOKToVoS, (TLKO-plO^ ....
O
313
Ixxxiv.
/caKo TTOVWOOS dxrDXos
^I">
Ixxxv.
o
"?IQ
Ixxxvi.
TToXeyitos, l^d^r] ........
o y
322
Ixxxvii.
Traces, 7rt$Tjyiua, opfJiiq, opc^is .....
324
Ixxxviii.
tepos, oo~tos, dytos, dyvos . ^
327
Ixxxix.
/ \ '
-J-JA
xc.
OOT^
337
xci.
repas, crrjfjLCLOv, Swa/xts, /xeyctXerov, voooi', Trapaoofov,
Oavpdo-iov
34
xcii.
Kooyuos, o"e//.vos, tepOTrpeTTT^s .
345
xciii.
av^dS^s, (^t'Xauros .......
349
xciv.
diroKaXv^is, eVt^dvcta, ^>avepwcrts
353
XXX
CONTENTS.
PAOB
xcv. oXXo9, Irepos : + . ...... 358
xcvi. TTOiew, 7rpdcro-a> ....... 362
xcvii. /Jtu/i09, 6\)<ria.<TTriptov . . . . . . . 365
xcviii. Xao9, ZOvos, ST///.O?, o^Xos ..... 367
xcix. /JaTmoytos, /?d7rrtoy*.a . . . 37
c. 0-KOT09, yj/o<o9, o</>o9, d^Xvs . . . -373
ci. (3f/3r]Xo<;, KOIV09 . ... -:. . . . 375
Oil. [HO^doS, 7TOJ/09, K07TOS . . . . . -378
ciii. a/Aoyios, a/xe/xTrros, dvyicXr;T05, dvrtA^7rros . 379
civ. ySpaSvs, vw^pos, dpyos . *. . .382
cv. 8r)p.iovpy6<s, TCXVI'T^S . ..... 385
cvi. doreios, wpatos, KaAos . . . . . 387
cvii. i. cXTrt's, TTUTTIS . . . . . 3QO
2. 7rpecr/3vr77s, yepcov . . . . 391
3. <f>peap, -mtrri . . -. . . . . 391
4. <rxioym, arpeo-i? ...... 391
5. p.a.Kpo6v/jiia, Trpao-ny? . . . . . . 392
6. dvd/V7;o-ts, VTr6fJivr)<ris . . . . -392
7. ^>opos, reXos ..... , .. . . . 392
8. TVTTOS, d\XrjyopoviJ.ei'ov . . . . -3Q2
9. XotSopeto, ySXao-^/Ae'd) . . . . . . 392
10. 6<ei'Xei, Sei . . .... . . 392
11. Trpavs, ^o-v'xios . .... . . . 393
12. T$e/AeXiay*'vo9, eSpaios . . . . -393
13. Bvrjros, vtKpos . . . . . . 393
14. eXeos, oiKTip/xo? ...... 393
15. \j/i6vpio"nq<i, KaraXdXos . . . . . . 393
1 6. ax/Mjo-ros, axpaos ...... 394
17. VO/UK09, vo/xo8i8do-KaXo5, ypa/M/xareus * . . 394
SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES ..... . 395
INDEX OP SYNONYMS ........ 4 o 3
INDEX OP OTHER WORDS ....... 409
SYNONYMS
THE NEW TESTAMENT.
1. E/c/c\7^c"ia, crvvcL'ywyr), Travrjyvpis.
THERE are words whose history it is peculiarly interesting
to watch, as they obtain a deeper meaning, and receive a
new consecration, in the Christian Church ; words which
the Church did not invent, but has assumed into its ser-
vice, and employed in a far loftier sense than any to which
the world has ever put them before. The very word by
which the Church is named is itself an example a more
illustrious one could scarcely be found of this progressive
ennobling of a word. 1 For we have sKK\rja-la in three dis-
tinct stages of meaning the heathen, the Jewish, and the
Christian. In respect of the first, 77 i/ctc^crta ( = SK/C^TOI,
Euripides, Orestes, 939) was the lawful assembly in a free
Greek city of all those possessed of the rights of citizen-
1 Zezschwitz, in his very interesting Lecture, Profanyracitiit und
Biblischer Sprachgeist, Leipzig, 1859, p. 5, has said excellently well, ' Das
Christenthum ware nicht als was es siegend iiber Griechenthum uud
Romerthum sich ausgewiesen, hatte es zu reden vermocht, oder zu
reden sich zwingen lassen miissen, nach den Grundbegriffen griechischen.
Geisteslebens, griechischer Weltanschauung. Nursprachumbildend, aus-
stossend was entweiht war, hervorziehend was griechische Geistesrichtung
ungebiihrlich zuriickgestellt hatte, verklarend endlich womit das acht-
menschliche, von Anfang an so sittlich gerichtete Griechentum die
Vorstufen der gottlichen Wahrheit erreicht hatte : nur so ein in seinen
Grundbegriffen christiani.irtes Griechisch sich anbildend konnten die
Apostel Christi der Welt, die damals der allgerneinen Bildung nach
eine griechische war, die Sprache des Geistes, der durch sie zeugte,
vermitteln.'
2 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. i.
ship, for the transaction of public affairs. That they were
summoned is expressed in the latter part of the word;
that they were summoned out of the whole population, a
select portion of it, including neither the populace, nor
strangers, nor yet those who had forfeited their civic
rights, this is expressed in the first. Both the calling
(the K\f)(Tis, Phil. iii. 14 ; 2 Tim. i. 9), and the calling out
(the JXo7?;, Rom. xi. 7 ; 2 Pet. i. 10), are moments to be
remembered, when the word is assumed into a higher
Christian sense, for in them the chief part of its peculiar
adaptation to its auguster uses lies. 1 It is interesting to
observe how, on one occasion in the N. T., the word re-
turns to this earlier significance (Acts xix. 32, 39, 41).
Before, however, more fully considering that word, it
will need to consider a little the anterior history of
another with which I am about to compare it. iLvva-
jcajn occurs two or three times in Plato (thus Thecet. 1 50 a),
but is by no means an old word in classical Greek, and
in it altogether wants that technical signification which
already in the Septuagint, and still more plainly in the
Apocrypha, it gives promise of acquiring, and which it is
found in the N. T. to have fully acquired. 2 But o-vvaywyrj,
while travelling in this direction, did not leave behind it
the meaning which is the only one that in classical Greek
1 Both these points are well made by Flacius Illyrieus, in his Clavts
ScripturcB, 8. v. Ecclesia: 'Quia Ecclesia a verbo Ka\dv venit, boc obser-
vetur primum ; ideo conversionem honiinum vocationem vocari, non
tantum quia Deus eos per se suumque Verbum, quasi clamore, vocat ;
sed etiam quia sicut herus ex turba famulorum certos aliquos ad aliqua
singularia munia evocat, sic Deus quoque turn totum populum suum
vocat ad cultum suum (Hos. xi. i), turn etiam singulos homines ad
certas singularesque functiones. (Act. xiii. 2.) Quoniam autem non
tantum vocatur Populus Dei ad cultum Dei, sed etiam vocatur ex
reliqua turba aut confusioue generis humani, ideo dicitur Ecclesia, quasi
dicas, Evocata divinitus ex reliqua impiorum colluvie, ad cultum cele-
brationemque Dei, et seternam felicitatem.' Compare Witsius In Symbol.
PP- 394-397-
2 An American scholar (Church Review, July 1881) says well, ' The
Septuagint represents only a half-way step in this assignment of the Greek
language to the expreasion of Hebrew ideas.'
i. STNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 3
it knew ; and often denotes, as it would there, any gather-
ing or bringing together of persons or things ; thus we
have there a-vvaywyr) sOvwv (Gen. xlviii. 4) ; o-vvaywyrj
vBaros (Isai. xix. 6) ; a-vvaywyrj ^p^jjidrwv (Ecclus. xxxi.
3), and such like. It was during the time which inter-
vened between the closing of the 0. T. canon and the
opening of that of the New that a-vva<yw<yij acquired that
technical meaning of which we find it in full possession
when the Gospel history begins ; designating, as there it
does, the places set apart for purposes of worship and
the reading and expounding of the Word of God, the
* synagogues,' as we find them named ; which, capable as
they were of indefinite multiplication, were the necessary
complement of the Temple, which according to the divine
intention was and could be but one.
But to return to stcKX-ija-la. This did not, like some
other words, pass immediately and at a single step from
the heathen world to the Christian Church : but here, as
so often, the Septuagint supplies the link of connexion,
the point of transition, the word being there prepared for
its highest meaning of all. When the Alexandrian trans-
lators undertook the rendering of the Hebrew Scriptures,
they found in them two constantly recurring words,
namely, rr$ and ^pj5. For these they employed generally,
and as their most adequate Greek equivalents, avvajcojij
and KK\r)a-ia. The rule which they seem to have pre-
scribed to themselves is as follows to render my for the
most part by a-vvajwy^ (Exod. xii. 3 ; Lev. iv. 13; Num.
i. 2, and altogether more than a hundred times), and,
whatever other renderings of the word they may adopt, in
no single case to render it by sKK\t](Tia. It were to be
wished that they had shown the same consistency in
respect of ?np ; but they have not ; for while sKtcXija-la is
their more frequent rendering (Deut. xviii. 16; Judg. xx.
2 ; i Kin. viii. 14, and in all some seventy times), they too
often render this also by a-vvaywyij (Lev. iv. 13; Num.
a
4 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. i.
xvi. 3 ; Deut. v. 22, and in all some five and twenty times),
thus breaking down for the Greek reader the distinction
which undoubtedly exists between the words. Our Eng-
lish Version has the same lack of a consistent rendering.
Its two words are ' congregation ' and * assembly ; ' but
instead of constantly assigning one to one, and one to the
other, it renders my now by * congregation' (Lev. x. 17 ;
Num. i. 16; Josh. ix. 27), and now by 'assembly' (Lev.
iv. 23) ; and on the other hand, ?np sometimes by 'as-
sembly ' (Judg. xxi. 8 ; 2 Chron. xxx. 23), but much
oftener by ' congregation' (Judg. xxi. 5 ; Josh. viii. 35).
There is an interesting discussion by Vitringa (De
Synag. Vet. pp. 77-89) on the distinction between these
two Hebrew synonyms; the result of which is summed
up in the following statements : ' Notat proprie ^>np uni-
versam alicujus populi multitudinem, vinculis societatis
unitam et rempublicam sive civitatem quandam consti-
tuentem, cum vocabulum my ex indole et vi significationis
suse tantum dicat quemcunque hominum coetum et con-
ventum, sive minorem sive majorem ' (p. 80). And again :
' "Zwaywyr), ut et my, semper significat ccetum conjunctum
et congregatum, etiamsi nullo forte vinculo ligatum, sed
77 sKK\Tj(rla [ = *?np] designat multitudinem aliquam, quse
populum coiistituit, per leges et vincula inter se junctam,
etsi ssepe fiat ut non sit coacta vel cogi possit ' (p. 88).
Accepting this as a true distinction, we shall see that it
was not without due reason that our Lord (Matt. xvi. 18 ;
xviii. 17), and his Apostles claimed this, as the nobler word,
to designate the new society of which He was the Founder,
being as it was a society knit together by the closest
spiritual bonds, and altogether independent of space.
Yet for all this we do not find the title sKKkya-la wholly
withdrawn from the Jewish congregation ; that too was
" the Church in the wilderness " (Acts vii. 38) ; for Chris-
tian and Jewish differed only in degree, and not in kind.
Nor yet do we find trvvajcoy^ wholly renounced by the
i. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 5
Church ; the latest honourable use of it in the N. T., indeed
the only Christian use of it there, is by that Apostle to
whom it was especially given to maintain unbroken to the
latest possible moment the outward bonds connecting the
Synagogue and the Church, namely, by St. James (ii. 2) ;
s 7ri<rvvaya)yrj, I may add, on two occasions is honorably used,
but in a more general sense (2 Thess. ii. I ; Heb. x. 25).
Occasionally also in the early Fathers, in Ignatius for
instance (Ep. ad Polyc. 4 ; for other examples see Suicer,
s. v.), we find a-vvaywyrj still employed as an honorable
designation of the Church, or of her places of assembly.
Still there were causes at work, which led the faithful to
have less and less pleasure in the appropriation of this
name to themselves ; and in the end to leave it altogether
to those, whom in the latest book of the canon the Lord
had characterized for their fierce opposition to the truth
even as " the synagogue of Satan " (Rev. iii. 9 ; cf. John
viii. 44). Thus the greater fitness and dignity of the title
KK\t]a-[a has been already noted. Add to this that the
Church was ever rooting itself more predominantly in the
soil of the heathen world, breaking off more entirely from
its Jewish stock and stem. This of itself would have led
the faithful to the letting fall of avvaycoy^, a word with no
such honorable history to look back on, and permanently
associated with Jewish worship, and to the ever more
exclusive appropriation to themselves of sKK\r)cr{a, so
familiar already, and of so honorable a significance, in
Greek ears. It is worthy of note that the Ebionites, in
reality a Jewish sect, though they had found their way for
a while into the Christian Church, should have acknow-
ledged the rightfulness of this distribution of terms.
Epiphanius (Haires. xxx. 18) reports of these, avvaywjrjv
Bs ovroi Ka\ov(TLv rrjv eavrwv sKKkrjcriav, Kai ov%l sKK\.r)crlav.
It will be perceived from what has been said, that Au-
gustine, by a piece of good fortune which he had no right
to expect, was only half in the wrong, when transferring
6 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. i.
his Latin etymologies to the Greek and Hebrew, and not
pausing to enquire whether they would hold good there,
as was improbable enough, he finds the reason for attri-
buting a-vvaycayrf to the Jewish, and siack^a-ia to the
Christian Church, in the fact that ' convocatio ' ( = SKK\^-
cria) is a nobler term than ( congregatio ' ( = a-vvayco r y^} t
the first being properly the calling together of men, the
second the gathering together (' congregatio,' from ' con-
grego,' and that from ' grex ') of cattle. 1 See Field, On
the Church, i. 5.
The Trav^yvpis, differs from the KK\^a-ia in this, that
in the s/ctc^a-ia, as has been noted already, there lay ever
the sense of an assembly coming together for the trans-
action of business. The Trav^vpis, on the other hand,
w&3 a solemn assembly for purposes of festal rejoicing ;
and on this account it is found joined continually with
soprij, as by Philo, Vit. Hos. ii. 7 ; Ezek. xlvi. 1 1 ; cf.
Hos. ii. ii; ix. 5 ; and Isai. Ixvi. 10, where 7rawr)yvp%tiv
eoprd&iv : the word having given us ' panegyric,' which is
properly a set discourse pronounced at one of these great
festal gatherings. Business might grow out of the fact
that such multitudes were assembled, since many, and for
various reasons, would be glad to avail themselves of the
gathering ; but only in the same way as a ' fair ' grew out of
a 'feria,' a 'holiday' out of a 'holy-day.' Strabo (x. 5 )notices
the business-like aspect which the Travrjyvpsts commonly as-
sumed (TI re Travijyvpis sfiTropifcov ri TTpdj/^a : cf. Pausanias,
x. 32. 9) ; which was indeed to such an extent their promi-
1 Enarr. in Ps. Ixxxi. I : ' In synagoga populum Israel accipirnus,
quia et ipsorum proprie synagoga dici solet, quamvis et Ecclesia dicta sit.
Nostri vero Ecclesiam imnquam synagogam dixerunt, sed semper Eccle-
siam : sive discernendi causa, sive quod inter congregatiouem, unde syna-
goga, et convocatio nem, unde Ecclesia nomen accepit, distet aliquid ; quod
scilicet congregari et pecora solent, atque ipsa proprie, quorum et greges
proprie dicimus ; conwcari autem magis est utentium ratione, sicut aunt
homines.' So also the author of a Commentary on the Book of Proverbs
formerly ascribed to Jerome (Opp. vol. v. p. 533) ; and by Vitriuga
(p. 91) cited as his.
ii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 7
nent feature, that the Latins rendered Travijyvpts by ' mer-
catus,' and this even when the Olympic games were in-
tended (Cicero, Tusc. v. 3 ; Justin, xiii. 5). These with
the other solemn games were eminently, though not ex-
clusively, the Travr)<yvpsis of the Greek nation (Thucydides,
i. 25 ; Tsocrates, Paneg. i). Keeping this festal character
of the iravr)<yvpis in mind, we shall find a peculiar fitness
in the word's employment at Heb. xii. 23 ; where only in
the N. T. it occurs. The Apostle is there setting forth
the communion of the Church militant on earth with the
Church triumphant in heaven, of the Church toiling and
suffering here with that Church from which all weariness
and toil have for ever passed away (Eev. xxi. 4) ; and how
could he better describe this last than as a Travijyvpis, than
as the glad and festal assembly of heaven ? Yery beauti-
fully Delitzsch (in loc.) : ' Havrfyvpts ist die vollzahlige,
zahlreiche und insbesondere festliche, festlich frohliche und
sich ergotzende Versammlung. Man denkt bei Travriyvpis
an Festgesang, Festreigen und Festspiele, und das Leben
vor Gottes Angesicht ist ja wirklich eine unauf horliche
Festfeier.'
ii. dsiorrjs, QSOTTJS.
NEITHER of these words occurs more than once in the
N. T. ; OsioTtjs only at Rom. i. 20 (and once in the Apo-
crypha, Wisd. xviii. 9) ; dsorrjs at Col. ii. 9. We have ren-
dered both by ' Godhead ; ' yet they must not be regarded
as identical in meaning, nor even as two different forms
of the same word, which in process of time have separated
off from one another, and acquired different shades of
significance. On the contrary, there is a real distinction
between them, and one which grounds itself on their
different derivations ; Osor^s being from eos, and fetor^y,
not from TO Oslov, which is nearly though not quite equi-
valent to <H)s6s, but from the adjective dsios.
Comparing the two passages where they severally occur,
8 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. n.
we shall at once perceive the fitness of the employment of
one word in one, of the other in the other. In the first
(Rom. i. 20) St. Paul is declaring how much of God may
be known from the revelation of Himself which He has
made in nature, from those vestiges of Himself which men
may everywhere trace in the world around them. Yet it
is not the personal God whom any man may learn to know
by these aids : He can be known only by the revelation
of Himself in his Son ; but only his divine attributes, his
majesty and glory. This Theophylact feels, who on Romans
i. 20 gives fAsyakstoTrjs as equivalent to Qsiorrjs ; and it is
not to be doubted that St. Paul uses this vaguer, more ab-
stract, and less personal word, just because he would afiirm
that men may know God's power and majesty, his 6sia
Bvvapis (2 Pet. i. 3), from his works; but would not imply
that they may know Himself from these, or from any-
thing short of the revelation of his Eternal Word. 1 Mo-
tives not dissimilar induce him to use TO Oslov rather than
6 Oeos in addressing the Athenians on Mars' Hill (Acts
xvii. 29).
But in the second passage (Col. ii. 9) St. Paul is de-
claring that in the Son there dwells all the fulness of
absolute Godhead ; they were no mere rays of divine glory
which gilded Him, lighting up his person for a season and
with a splendour not his own ; but He was, and is, abso-
lute and perfect God; and the Apostle uses dsorys to
express this essential and personal Godhead of the Son ;
in the words of Augustine (De Civ. Dei, vii. i) : ' Status
ejus qui sit Deus.' Thus Beza rightly : * Non dicit : rrjv
OetoTrjra, i.e. divinitatem, sed rrjv dsorrjra, i.e. deitatem,
ut magis etiam expresse loquatur ; ... 77 Bsiorrjs attribute
videtur potius quam naturam ipsam declarare.' And
Bengel : ' Non modo divinse virtutes, sed ipsa divina
natura.' De Wette has sought to express the distinction
1 Cicero (Tusc. i. 13): 'Multi de Diis prava sentiunt ; ouinea tarnen
ease vim et naturam divinam arbitrantur.'
n. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, 9
in his German translation, rendering Osior-^s by f Gottlich-
There have not been wanting those who have denied
that any such distinction was intended by St. Paul ; and
they rest this denial on the assumption that no such
difference between the forces of the two words can be
satisfactorily made out. But, even supposing that such a
difference could not be shown in classical Greek, this of
itself would be in no way decisive on the matter. The
Gospel of Christ might for all this put into words, and
again draw out from them, new forces, evolve latent dis-
tinctions, which those who hitherto employed the words
may not have required, but which had become necessary
now. And that this distinction between ' deity ' and
'divinity,' if I may use these words to represent severally
dsoT^s and OSIOTIJS, is one which would be strongly felt,
and which therefore would seek its utterance in Christian
theology, of this we have signal proof in the fact that the
Latin Christian writers were not satisfied with ' divinitas,'
which they found ready to their hand in the writings of
Cicero and others ; and which they sometimes were con-
tent to use (see Piper, Theol. Stiid. u. Krit. 1875, P- 79
sqq.) ; but themselves coined ' deitas ' as the only adequate
Latin representative of the Greek dsoTrjs. We have Augus-
tine's express testimony to the fact (De Civ. Dei, vii. i) :
' Hanc divinitatem, vel ut sic dixerim deitatem ; nam et
hoc verbo uti jam nostros non piget, ut de Grseco expressius
transferant id quod illi dsorrjTa appellant, &c. ; ' cf. x. I, 2.
But not to urge this, nor yet the different etymologies of
the words, that one is TO slval nva Osov, the other TO slvai
Tiva [or ri] 6eiov, which so clearly point to this difference
in their meanings, examples, so far as they can be adduced,
go to support the same. Both Osorrjs and 6si6rr]s, as in
general the abstract words in every language, are of late
introduction ; and one of them, BSOTTJS, is extremely rare.
Indeed, only two examples of it from classical Greek have
10 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. in.
hitherto been brought forward, one from Lucian (Icarom.
9) ; the other from Plutarch (De Def. Orac. 10) : ovrws SK
/JLSV dvOpu)Tra>v sis ijpwas, SK Ssrjputwv sis Sal/Jiovas, ai/3s\T loves
^rv^al rrjv /j,Ta{3o\r)v \afj,{3dvov(riv. EK
/JLSV STL %p6vo) TroAAo) Si' dpSTvjs Ka
Osorrjros fjisrsa^ov : but to these a third, that also from
Plutarch (De Isid. et Osir. 22), may be added. In all of
these it expresses, in agreement with the view here as-
serted, Godhead in the absolute sense, or at all events
in as absolute a sense as the heathen could conceive it.
SstoTrjs is a very much commoner word ; and its employ-
ment everywhere bears out the distinction here drawn.
There is ever a manifestation of the divine, of some divine
attributes, in that to which Oeiorys is attributed, but never
absolute essential Deity. Thus Lucian (De Col. 17) attri-
butes dsiorrjs to Hephsestion, when after his death Alex-
ander would have raised him to the rank of a god ; and
Plutarch speaks of the OS^T^S rrjs ^rv^tjs, De Plac. Phil.
v. i ; cf. De Is. et Os. 2 ; Sull. 6 ; with various other pas-
sages to the like effect.
It may be observed, in conclusion, that whether this
distinction was intended, as I am fully persuaded it was,
by St. Paul or not, it established itself firmly in the later
theological language of the Church the Greek Fathers
using never dsiorijs, but always OSOTTJS, as alone adequately
expressing the essential Godhead of the Three several
Persons in the Holy Trinity.
iii. ispov, vaos.
WE have in our Version only the one word ' temple ' for
both of these ; nor is it easy to perceive in what manner
we could have marked the distinction between them ;
which is yet a very real one, and one the marking of
which would often add much to the clearness and precision
of the sacred narrative (see Fuller, A Pisgah Sight of
Palestine, p. 427). 'Ispov ( = templuiu) is the whole com-
SYXCWYJIS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. n
pass of the sacred enclosure, the rspsvos, including the
outer courts, the porches, porticoes, and other buildings
subordinated to the temple itself; at ot'yeoSo/iat rov Ispov
(Matt. xxiv. l). But vaos (= * sedes') from valw, ( habito,'
as the proper habitation of God (Acts vii. 48 ; xvii. 24 ;
I Cor. vi. 19) ; the OLKOS rov sov (Matt. xii. 4 ; cf. Exod.
xxiii. 19), the German 'duom' or ' domus,' is the temple
itself, that by especial right so called, being the heart and
centre of the whole ; the Holy, and the Holy of Holies,
called often fylatrfjui (l Mace. i. 37 ; iii. 45). This dis-
tinction, one that existed and was acknowledged in profane
Greek and with reference to heathen temples, quite as
much as in sacred Greek and with relation to the temple
of the true God (see Herodotus, i. 181, 183 ; Thucydides,
iv. 90 [rd(ppov fJLSVKvK\(i)7rspl rb Ispov fcai rov vscbv s<TKa-jrrov\ ;
v. 18; Acts xix. 24, 27), is, I believe, always assumed in
all passages relating to the temple at Jerusalem, alike by
Josephus, by Philo, by the Septuagint translators, and in
the N. T. Often indeed it is explicitly recognized, as by
Josephus (Antt. viii. 3. 9), who, having described the build-
ing of the vaos by Solomon, goes on to say : vaov 8' s^wdsv
Ispov <aKo86/j,Tja'sv sv rsrpayMvw cr^/icm. In another pas-
sage (Antt. xi. 4. 3), he describes the Samaritans as seek-
ing permission of the Jews to be allowed to share in the
rebuilding of God's house (a-vyKaraa-KSvdcrai, rov vaov).
This is refused them (cf . Ezra iv. 2) ; but, according to
his account, it was permitted to them aQucvovuevois sis r o
Ispov asfistv rov Ssov a privilege denied to mere Gentiles,
who might not, under penalty of death, pass beyond their
own exterior court (Acts xxi. 29, 30; Philo, Leg. adCai. 31).
The distinction may be brought to bear with advantage
on several passages in the 1ST. T. When Zacharias entered
into " the temple of the Lord " to burn incense, the people
who waited his return, and who are described as standing
"without" (Luke i. 10), were in one sense in the temple
too, that is, in the Ispov, while he alone entered into the
12 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. ui.
va6s, the * temple ' in its more limited and auguster sense.
We read continually of Christ teaching " in the temple "
(Matt. xxvi. 55 ; Luke xxi. 37 ; John viii. 20) ; and we some-
times fail to understand how long conversations could there
have been maintained, without interrupting the service
of God. But this ' temple ' is ever the iepov, the porches
and porticoes of which were excellently adapted to such
purposes, as they were intended for them. Into the vaos
the Lord never entered during his ministry on earth ; nor
indeed, being ' made under the law,' could he have so done,
the right of such entry being reserved for the priests alone.
It need hardly be said that the money-changers, the buyers
and sellers, with the sheep and oxen, whom the Lord drives
out, He repels from the iepov, and not from the vaos. Pro-
fane as was their intrusion, they yet had not dared to
establish themselves in the temple more strictly so called
(Matt. xxi. 12; John ii. 14). On the other hand, when
we read of another Zacharias slain " between the temple
and the Altar " (Matt, xxiii. 35), we have only to remember
that * temple ' is vaos here, at once to get rid of a difficulty,
which may perhaps have presented itself to many this
namely, Was not the altar in the temple ? how then could
any locality be described as between these two? In the
tspov, doubtless, was the brazen altar to which allusion is
here made, but not in the vaos : " in the court of the house
of the Lord" (cf. Josephus, Antt. viii. 4. i), where the
sacred historian (2 Chron. xxiv. 21) lays the scene of this
murder, but not in the vaos itself. Again, how vividly
does it set forth to us the despair and defiance of Judas,
that he presses even into the vaos itself (Matt, xxvii. 5),
into the ' adytum ' which was set apart for the priests
alone, and there casts down before them the accursed price
of blood ! Those expositors who affirm that here vaos
stands for Iepov, should adduce some other passage in
which the one is put for the other.
iv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 13
iv. fTTiTf/iao), sXsy^u) (air la, \,sy%os).
ONE may ( rebuke ' another without bringing the rebuked
to a conviction of any fault on his part ; and this, either
because there was no fault, and the rebuke was therefore
unneeded or unjust ; or else because, though there was
such fault, the rebuke was ineffectual to bring the offender
to own it; and in this possibility of 'rebuking' for sin,
without 'convincing' of sin, lies the distinction between
these two words. In sTrtrifMav lies simply the notion of
rebuking ; which word can therefore be used of one un-
justly checking or blaming another; in this sense Peter
'began to rebuke ' his Lord (-tjp^aro sTriTiftav, Matt. xvi.
22; cf. xix. 13; Luke xviii. 39): or ineffectually, and
without any profit to the person rebuked, who is not
thereby brought to see his sin; as when the penitent rob-
ber ' rebuked ' (sirsrip-a} his fellow malefactor (Luke xxiii.
40 ; cf. Mark ix. 25). But E^SJ^SLV is a much more preg-
nant word ; it is so to rebuke another, with such effectual
wielding of the victorious arms of the truth, as to bring
him, if not always to a confession, yet at least to a con-
viction, of his sin (Job v. 17; Prov. xix. 25), just as in
juristic Greek, S\S<YX.IV is not merely to reply to, but to
refute, an opponent.
When we keep this distinction well in mind, what a
light does it throw on a multitude of passages in the N. T. ;
and how much deeper a meaning does it give them. Thus
our Lord could demand, " Which of you convinceth
(s\sy-^si) Me of sin ? " (John viii., 46) . Many ' rebuked '
Him ; many laid sin to his charge (Matt. ix. 3 ; John ix.
1 6) ; but none brought sin home to his conscience. Other
passages also will gain from realizing the fulness of the
meaning of s\sy^siv, as John. iii. 20 ; viii. 9 ; I Cor. xiv.
24, 25 ; Heb. xii. 5 ; but above all, the great passage, John
xvi. 8 ; " When He [the Comforter] is come, He will re-
prove the world of sin, and of righteousness, and of judg-
1 4 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. iv.
tnent : " for so we have rendered the words, following in
our ' reprove ' the Latin * arguet ; ' although few, I think,
that have in any degree sought to sound the depth of our
Lord's words, but will admit that ' convince,' which un-
fortunately our Translators have relegated to the margin,
or { convict/ would have been the preferable rendering,
giving a depth and fulness of meaning to this work of the
Holy Ghost, which ' reprove ' in some part fails to express. 1
" He who shall come in my room, shall so bring home to
the world its own ' sin,' my perfect ' righteousness,' God's
coming 'judgment,' shall so ' convince ' the world of these,
that it shall be obliged itself to acknowledge them ; and
in this acknowledgement may find, shall be in the right
way to find, its own blessedness and salvation." See more
on \<yxiv in Pott's Wurzel-Worterbuch, vol. iii. p. 720.
Between atria and sT^sj^os, which last in the N. T.
is found only twice (Heb. xi. I ; 2 Tim. iii. 16), a difference
of a similar character exists. Atria is an accusation, but
whether false or true the word does not attempt to an-
ticipate ; and thus it could be applied, indeed it was ap-
plied, to the accusation made against the Lord of Glory
Himself (Matt, xxvii. 37) ; but s\y^os implies not merely
the charge, but the truth of the charge, and further the
manifestation of the truth of the charge ; nay more than
all this, very often also the acknowledgment, if not out-
ward, yet inward, of its truth on the part of the accused ;
it being the glorious prerogative of the truth in its highest
operation not merely to assert itself, and to silence the
adversary, but to silence him by convincing him of his
error. Thus Job can say of God, a\ijdsta teal e\sy%os Trap*
1 Lampe gives excellently well the force of this Afy : ' Opus Doc-
toris, qui veritatem quse hactenus non est agnita ita ad conscientiam etiam
renitentis demonstrat, ut victas dare manus cogatur.' See an admirable
discussion on the word, especially as here used, in Archdeacon Hare's
Mission of the Comforter, 1st edit. pp. 528-544.
v. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 15
avTov (xxiii. 7); * and Demosthenes (Con. Androt. p. 600) ;
Hd/ji7roX,v \oiSoplaTSKalalr I a KS^wpiafisvovsarlv E\sy^o v
alria /JLSV yap saTtv, orav rts i/riXw ^p^a-d^svos \6yw fj,rj
Trapdcr^rai Tricmv, wv \s<ysf 8\y%os 8s, orav' wv av SiTrrj
ris KOI rd\f]dss 6/jLov 8sl^rj. Cf. Aristotle (Rhet. ad Alex.
13) : "E\7^oy Icrrt fisv o pr) Svvarbv ak\a)s X iv > ^'
ovrcoy, us r//j,is \eyofjt,ev. By our serviceable distinction
between ' convict ' and ' convince ' we maintain a difference
between the judicial and the moral s\jx os - Both indeed
will flow together into one in the last day, when every
condemned sinner will be at once ' convicted ' and ' con-
vinced ; ' which all is implied in that " he was speechless "
of the guest found without a marriage garment (Matt.
xxii. 12; cf. Eom. iii. 4).
v. dvdd'/jpa, avd6ep.a.
SOME affirm that these are merely different spellings
of the same word, and that they are used indifferently.
Were the fact so, their fitness for a place in a book of
synonyms would of course disappear; difference as well
as likeness being necessary for this. Thus far indeed
these have right namely, that dvddrjf^a and avdOspa, like
svprjfia and svpsfta, sTrldrj^a and sTrids^ia, must severally be
regarded as having been once no more than different pro-
nunciations, which issued in different spellings, of one
and the same word. Nothing, however, is more common
than for slightly diverse pronunciations of the same word
finally to settle and resolve themselves into different words,
with different orthographies, and different domains of
meaning which they have severally appropriated to them-
selves; and which henceforth they maintain in perfect
independence one of the other. I have elsewhere given
1 Therefore Milton could say (P. Z. x. 84) ;
' Conviction to the serpent none belongs : '
this was a grace reserved for Adam and Eve, as indeed they only were
capable of it. .
1 6 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. v.
numerous examples of the kind (English Past and Present,
roth edit. pp. 157-164) ; and a very few may here suffice :
dpdaos and Odpaos, 1 ' Thrax ' and ' Threx,' ' rechtlich ' and
'redlich,' 'fray* and 'frey,' 'harnais' and 'harnois,'
* mettle ' and ' metal.' That which may be affirmed of all
these, may also be affirmed of avdOrjfia and avdQspa.
Whether indeed these words had secured each a domain
of meaning of its own was debated with no little heat by
some of the chief early Hellenists. Foremost names
among these are ranged on either side ; Salmasius among
them who maintained the existence of a distinction, at
least in Hellenistic Greek ; Beza among those who denied
it. Perhaps here, as in so many cases, the truth did not
absolutely lie with the combatants on either part, but lay
rather between them, though much nearer to one part
than the other ; the most reasonable conclusion, after
weighing all the evidence on either side, being this that
such a distinction of meaning did exist, and was allowed
by many, but was by no means recognized or observed by
all.
In classical Greek avadrj/jia is quite the predominant
form, the only one which Attic writers allow (Lobeck,
Phrynichus, pp. 249, 445; Paralip. p. 391). It is there
the technical word by which all such costly offerings as
were presented to the gods, and then suspended or other-
wise exposed to view in their temples, all by the Romans
termed 'donaria,' as tripods, crowns, vases of silver or
gold, and the like, were called ; these being in this way
separated for ever from all common and profane uses, and
openly dedicated to the honour of that deity, to whom
they were presented at the first (Xenophon, Anab. v. 3, 5 ;
Pausanias, x. 9).
But with the translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into
Greek, a new thought demanded to find utterance. Those
1 Gregory Nazianzene (Carm. ii. 34, 35.) :
dpdtros 8, 0ap(ros TTpos TCI fjirj ToA^ro'a.
v. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 17
Scriptures spoke of two ways in which objects might be
holy, set apart for God, devoted to Him. The children of
Israel were devoted to Him ; God was glorified in them :
the wicked Canaanites were devoted to Him ; God was
glorified on them. This awful fact that in more ways
than one things and persons might be Cnn (Lev. xxvii. 28,
29) that they might be devoted to God for good, and for
evil ; that there was such a thing as being " accursed to
the Lord " (Josh. vi. 17 ; cf. Deut. xiii. 16 ; Num. xxi. 1-3) ;
that of the spoil of the same city a part might be conse-
crated to the Lord in his treasury, and a part utterly
destroyed, and yet this part and that be alike dedicated to
Him (Josh. vi. 19, 21), "sacred and devote" (Milton) ;
this claimed its expression and utterance now, and found
it in the two uses of one word ; which, while it remained
the same, just differenced itself enough to indicate in
which of the two senses it was employed. And here let it
be observed, that they who find separation from God as
the central idea of dvdds^a (Theodoret, for instance, on
Rom. ix. 3 : TO dvdde/ma $i7T\r)V %* Trjv Sidvoiav' KOI <yap TO
d(f)isp(t)fisvov Tip &> dvdO^fjia oVo/iaferat, KCLI TO TOVTOV d\\6-
rptov Trjv avTrjv s^si Trpoaqyopiav), are quite unable to
trace a common bond of meaning between it and dvddrjua,
which last is plainly separation to God ; or to show the
point at which they diverge from one another ; while there
is no difficulty of the kind when it is seen that separation
to God is in both cases implied. 1
Already in the Septuagint and in the Apocryphal
books we find dvddr)/j,a and avdQsfUi beginning to disen-
1 Flacius Illyricus ( Clam's Script, s. v. Anathema) excellently explains
the manner in which the two apparently opposed meanings unfold them-
selves from a single root : ' Anathema igitur est res aut persona Deo obli-
gata aut addicta ; sive quia Ei ab hominibus est pietatis causa oblata :
sive quia justitia Dei tales, ob singularia aliqua piacula veluti in suos
carceres pcenasque abripuit, comprobante et declarante id etiam homintim
senteutia. . . . Duplici enim de causa Deus vult aliquid habere ; vel tan-
quam gratum acceptumque ac sibi oblatum ; vel tauquam sibi exosum,
suseque irse ac castjgationi subjectum ac debitum.'
C
1 8 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. v.
gage themselves from one another, and from a confused
and promiscuous use. How far, indeed, the distinction is
observed there, and whether universally, it is hard to deter-
mine, from the variety of readings in various editions;
but in one of the later critical editions (that of Tischen-
dorf, 1850), many passages (such for instance as Judith
xvi. 19; Lev. xxvii. 28, 29 ; 2 Mace. ii. 13), which appear
in some earlier editions negligent of the distinction, are
found observant of it. In the N. T. the distinction that
dvd0r)/j,a is used to express the ' sacrum ' in a better sense,
dvdds/xa in a worse, is invariably maintained. It must be
allowed, indeed, that the passages there are not numerous
enough to convince a gainsay er ; he may attribute to
hazard the fact that they fall in with this distinction ;
dvdOrjfjLa occurring only once : " Some spake of the temple,
how it was adorned with goodly stones and gifts " (dvadrj-
fiaa-i, Luke xxi. 5 ; even here Codd. A and D and Lach-
mann read dvadepaa-i) ; and dvddefia no more than six
times (Acts xxiii. 14; Eom. ix. 3 ; I Cor. xii. 3 ; xvi. 22 ;
Gal. i. 8, 9). So far however as these uses reach, they
confirm this view of the matter ; while if we turn to the
Greek Fathers, we shall find some of them indeed neglect-
ing the distinction ; but others, and these of the greatest
among them, not merely implicitly allowing it, as does
Clement of Alexandria (Coh. ad Gen. iv. 59 : avadr^^a
rys<y6vafjLsv TW c3 vTrep Xpia-Tov : where the context
plainly shows the meaning to be, " we have become a
costly offering to God ") ; but explicitly recognizing the
distinction, and tracing it with accuracy and precision ;
see, for instance, Chrysostom, Horn. xvi. in Eom., as quoted
by Suicer (Thes. s. v. avdOspa).
And thus, putting all which has been urged together,
the anterior probability, drawn from the existence of
similar phenomena in all languages, that the two forms
of a word would gradually have two different meanings
attached to them; the wondrous way in which the two
vi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 19
aspects of dedication to God, for good and for evil, are
thus set out by slightly different forms of the same word;
the fact that every passage in the 1ST. T., where the words
occur, falls in with this scheme ; the usage, though not
perfectly consistent, of later ecclesiastical books, I cannot
but conclude that avdO^p-a and dvddsfia are employed not
accidentally by the sacred writers of the New Covenant in
different senses; but that St. Luke uses avdOyfia (xxi. 5),
because he intends to express that which is dedicated to
God for its own honour as well as for God's glory ; St. Paul
uses dvddsfjLa because he intends that which is devoted to
God, but devoted, as were the Canaanites of old, to his
honour indeed, but its own utter loss ; even as in the end
every intelligent being, capable of knowing and loving
God, and called to this knowledge, must be either avaQ^^a
or avdOsfjia to Him (see Witsius, Hisc. Sac. vol. ii. p. 54,
sqq. ; Deyling, Obss. Sac. vol. ii. p. 495, sqq. ; Fritzsche on
Rom. ix. 3 ; Hengstenberg, Cliristologie, 2nd ed. vol. iii.
p. 655; Cremer, Biblisch-theologisches Worterbuch, 2nd ed.
P- 550).
vi. 7rpo(f)7)TV(i), fiavrsvofjiat.
is a word of constant occurrence in the N. T. ;
but once, namely at Acts xvi. 16 ; where,
of the girl possessed with the " spirit of divination," or
" spirit of Apollo," it is said that she " brought her masters
much gain by soothsaying " (p,avrsvo^vrf}. The abstinence
from the use of this word on all other occasions, and the
use of it on this one, is very observable, furnishing a
notable example of that religious instinct wherewith the
inspired writers abstain from words, whose employment
would tend to break down the distinction between hea-
thenism and revealed religion. Thus v$ai/j,ovia, although
from a heathen point of view a religious word, for it ascribes
happiness to the favour of some deity, is yet never em-
ployed to express Christian blessedness ; nor could it fitly
c 2
20 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. vi.
have been thus employed, Safawv, which supplies its base,
involving polytheistic error. In like manner dpsr^ the
standing word in heathen ethics for ' virtue,' is of very
rarest occurrence in the N. T. ; it is found but once in all
the writings of St. Paul (Phil. iv. 8) ; and where else
{which is only in the Epistles of St. Peter), it is in quite
different uses from those in which Aristotle employs it. 1
In the same way ^#77, which gives us ' ethics,' occurs only
on a single occasion, and, which indicates that its absence
elsewhere is not accidental, this once is in a quotation
from a heathen poet (i Cor. xv. 33).
In conformity with this same law of moral fitness in
the admission and exclusion of words, we meet with Trpo^rj-
TSVSIV as the constant word in the N. T. to express the
prophesying by the Spirit of God : while directly a sacred
writer has need to make mention of the lying art of
heathen divination, he employs this word no longer, but
pavTSveadai, in preference (cf. I Sam. xxviii. 8; Deut.
xviii. 10). What the essential difference between the two
things, 'prophesying' and 'soothsaying,' 'weissagen'
(from ' wizan ' = ' wissen ') and ' wahrsagen,' is, and why it
was necessary to keep them distinct and apart by different
terms used to designate the one and the other, we shall
best understand when we have considered the etymology
of one, at least, of the words. But first, it is almost need-
less at this day to warn against what was once a very
common error, one in which many of the Fathers shared
(see Suicer, s. v. irpo^rrjs), namely a taking of the TT/JO in
7rpo(f)r)TViv and 7rpo(f)jJTr]f as temporal, which it is not any
more than in 7rpo</>a<m, and finding as the primary mean-
ing of the word, he who declares things before they come
to pass. This /oretelling or /oreannouncing may be, and
often is, of the office of the prophet, but is not of the
essence of that office ; and this as little in sacred as in
1 ' Verbum nioiium humile,' as Beza, accounting for its absence, says,
'si cum doms Spiritus Sancti comparatur.'
vi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 21
classical Greek. The Trpo^rrjs is the ottispeaker ; he who
speaks out the counsel of God with the clearness, energy
and authority which spring from the consciousness of
speaking in God's name, and having received a direct
message from Him to deliver. Of course all this appears
in weaker and indistincter form in classical Greek, the
word never coming to its full rights until used of the
prophets of the true God. But there too the Trpo^rrjs is
the 'interpres Deorum ; ' thus Euripides (Ion, 372, 413;
Bacch. 2Il) : sjrsl av c^sjjos, Tsipscrta, roS' ov% opas, sya)
croc \6<ya)v <yvtfao/j,cu : and Pindar (Fragm. 15),
o, Motcra, -jrpo^arsvcrfo &' eyco : while in Philo (Quis
Rer. Div. HCBT. 52) he is defined as sp^vsvs eoO, and
again as opyavov sov rj^ovv, fcpovopsvov ical ir\rirTop,vov
aopdrws UTT' avrov. From signifying thus the interpreter
of the gods, or of God, the word abated a little of the
dignity of its meaning, and ^po^riys was no more than
as interpreter in a more general sense ; but still of the
good and true ; thus compare Plato, Phcedr. 262 d ; and
the fine answer which Lucian puts into the mouth of
Diogenes, when it is demanded of him what trade he
followed (Vit. Auct. 8 d). But it needs not to follow
further the history of the word, as it moves outside the
circle of Revelation. Neither indeed does it fare other-
wise within this circle. Of the Trpo^rjrrjs alike of the
Old Testament and of the New we may with the same
confidence affirm that he is not primarily, but only acci-
dentally, one who foretells things future; being rather
one who, having been taught of God, speaks out his
will (Deut. xviii. 18; Isai. i. ; Jer. i. ; Ezek. ii. ; I Cor.
xiv. 3)-
In fj,avTvo/j,ai we are introduced into quite a different
sphere of things. The word, connected with pdvTis, is
through it connected, as Plato has taught us, with fiavia
and jjualvofjiai. It will follow from this, that it contains
a reference to. the tumult of the mind, the fury, the
22 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. vi.
temporary madness, under which those were, who were
supposed to be possessed by the god, during the time that
they delivered their oracles; this mantic fury of theirs
displaying itself in the eyes rolling, the lips foaming,
the hair flying, as in other tokens of a more than natural
agitation. 1 It is quite possible that these symptoms were
sometimes produced, as no doubt they were often aggra-
vated, in the seers, Pythonesses, Sibyls, and the like, by
the inhalation of earth-vapours, or by other artificial
excitements (Plutarch, De Def. Orac. 48). Yet no one
who believes that real spiritual forces underlie all forms of
idolatry, but will acknowledge that there was often much
more in these manifestations than mere trickeries and
frauds ; no one with any insight into the awful mystery
of the false religions of the world, but will see in these
symptoms the result of an actual relation in which these
persons stood to a spiritual world a spiritual world, it is
true, which was not above them, but beneath.
Revelation, on the other hand, knows nothing of this
mantic fury, except to condemn it. " The spirits of the
prophets are subject to the prophets" (i Cor. xiv. 32 ; cf.
Chrysostom, In Ep. I ad Cor. Horn. 29, ad init.). The true
prophet, indeed, speaks not of himself; Trpo^rrjs yap 'ISiov
ovBsv a7ro<J)ds<yy6Tai,, a\\6rpia 8s Trdvra, VTTTJ^OVVTOS srspov
(Philo, Quis Rer. Div. Ear. 52; cf. Plutarch, Amat. 16) ;
he is rapt out of himself; he is iv Hvsvfjt-aTi (Rev. i. 10) ;
sveKa-Tdcrst (Acts xi. 5) ; VTTO Hvsvparos* Aylov (frepojAcVos
(2 Pet. i. 21), which is much more than 'moved by the
Holy Ghost,' as we have rendered it ; rather ' getrieben/
1 Cicero, who loves to "bring out, where he can, superiorities of the
Latin language over the Greek, claims, and I think with reason, such a
superiority here, in that the Latin had ' divinatio,' a word embodying the
divine character of prophecy, and the fact that it was a gift of the gods,
where the Greek had only /JLCIVTIKT), which, seizing not the thing itself at
any central point, did no more than set forth one of the external signs
which accompanied its giving (De Divin. i. i) : ' Utalianosmelius multa
quam Graeci, sic huic praestantissimre rei nomen nostri a diois ; Graeci, ut
Plato interpretatur, a furore duxeruut.'
vi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 23
as De Wette (cf. Knapp, Script. Far. Argum. p. 33) ; he is
OsoXrjTTTos (Cyril of Alexandria) ; and we must not go so
far in our opposition to heathen and Montanist error as
to deny this, which some, above all those engaged in
controvers} r with the Montanists, St. Jerome for example,
have done (see the masterly discussion on this subject in
Hengstenberg's Christologie, 2nd ed., vol. iii. part 2, pp.
158-188). But then he is lifted above, not set beside, his
every-day self. It is not discord and disorder, but a higher
harmony and a diviner order, which are introduced into
his soul ; so that he is not as one overborne in the region
of his lower life by forces stronger than his own, by an
insurrection from beneath : but his spirit is lifted out of
that region into a clearer atmosphere, a diviner day, than
any in which at other times it is permitted him to breathe.
All that he before had still remains his, only purged,
exalted, quickened by a power higher than his own, but
yet not alien to his own ; for man is most truly man when
he is most filled with the fulness of God. 1 Even within
the sphere of heathenism itself, the superior dignity of the
Trpo^r/rrjs to the fidvTis was recognized ; and recognized
on these very grounds. Thus there is a well-known
passage in the Timceus of Plato (71 e, 72 a, b), where
exactly for this reason, that the fidvns is one in whom
all discourse of reason is suspended, who, as the word
itself implies, more or less rages, the line is drawn broadly
and distinctly between him and the TT/JO^T???, the former
being subordinated to the latter, and his utterances only
allowed to pass after they have received the seal and
approbation of the other. Often as it has been cited, it
may be yet worth while to cite it, at least in part, once
more : TO rwv jrpo(f)r)T(av <yevos 7rl rals svBsois
Kpiras
1 See John Smith, the Cambridge Platonist, On Prophecy: ch. 4.
The Difference of the true prophetical Spirit from att Enthusiastical
Imposture.
24 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. vn.
TO irav rjyvoijKOTSS on, rrjs Si aiviyfiwv ovroi
(fravrdcrscos vTTOKpiral Kal oim fj,dvris, 7rpo<j)r)Tai Bs TWV
[AavTsvo/Asvwv SiKaiorara ovofJud^oLVT av. The truth which
the best heathen philosophy had a glimpse of here, was
permanently embodied by the Christian Church in the
fact that, while it assumed the irpo^Tsvsiv to itself, it
relegated the pavrevsvOai to that heathenism which it was
about to displace and overthrow.
vii. rifjitopia, KoKacns.
Or these words the former occurs but once in the N. T.
(Heb. x. 29), and the latter only twice (Matt. xxv. 46 ;
I John iv. 1 8) : but the verb n^wpslv twice (Acts xxii. 5 ;
xxvi. ii); and Ko\dsiv as often (Acts iv. 21 ; 2 Pet. ii.
9) . In rifjiwpia, according to its classical use, the vindicative
character of the punishment is the predominant thought ;
it is the Latin vindicatio,' by Cicero (Inv. ii. 22) explained
as that act ' per quam vim et contumeliam defendendo aut
ulciscendo propulsamus a nobis, et a nostris ; et per quam
peccata puniinus ; ' punishment as satisfying the inflicter's
sense of outraged justice, as defending his own honour,
or that of the violated law. Herein its meaning agrees
with its etymology, being from TL^TJ, and ovpos, opdw, the
guardianship or protectorate of honour ; ' Ehrenstrafe ' it
has been rendered in German, or better, 'Ehrenrettung,
die der Ehre der verletzten Ordnung geleistete Genug-
thuung' (Delitzsch). In KoXaais, on the other hand, is
more the notion of punishment as it has reference to the
correction and bettering of the offender (see Philo, Leg. ad
Cai. i ; Josephus, Antt. ii. 6. 8) ; it is * castigatio/ and
naturally has for the most part a milder use than
Thus Plato (Protag. 323 e) joins Ko\da-sis and voi
together : and the whole passage to the end of the chapter
is eminently instructive as to the distinction between the
words ; ovSsls /coT^d^st, TOVS dSircovvras OTI rjSiKTja-sv, OGTIS
vii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 25
ftr) waTTSp dijpiov d\o n /icnws r ip-wpslrai, . . . d\\a rov
lj,e\\ovTos ^dptv 'iva /i?) avdis d^i/crja-rj the same change in
the words which he employs, occurring again twice or thrice
in the sentence ; with all which may be compared what
Clement of Alexandria has said, Pcedag. i. 8. 70 ; and again
Strom, vii. 16, where he defines Ko\da-LS as fispiKal Trai&siai,
and Ti/j,c0pia as KCIKOV avrairoSoais. And this is Aristotle's
distinction (Rhet. i. 10) : Sia^spst, Ss n,fio)pia /cal Ko\acns
/7 /JLSV yap Ko\acri$ TOV irda^ovros svs/cd S<TTIV f] 8s n^wpia^
rov TTOIOVVTOS, wa a r jroir\,'r]pa)df) : cf. Ethic. Nic. iv. 5* IO, II:
TLfj-wpia Travel rrjs opyrjs, JjSovrjv dvrl rrjs \inrijs sfj.Trotova'a.
It is to these and similar definitions that Aulus Gellins
refers when he says (Noct. AU. vi. 14) : ' Puniendis pec-
catis tres esse debere causas existimatum est. Una est
quse vovOscria, vel /co'Xacrty, vel Trapaivsa-is dicitur ; cum
poena adhibetur castigandi atque emendandi gratia ; ut is
qui fortuito deliquit, attentior fiat, correctiorque. Altera
est quam ii, qui vocabula ista curiosius diviserunt,
Tifiwpiav appellant. Ea causa animadvertendi est, cum
dignitas auctoritasque ejus, in quem est peccatum, tuenda
est, ne prsetermissa animadversio contemtum ejus pariat,
et honorem levet : idcircoque id ei vocabulum a conserva-
tione honoris factum putant.' There is a profound com-
mentary on these words in Goschel's Zerstreute Blatter,
part 2, p. 343-360; compare too an instructive note in
Wyttenbach's Animadd. in Plutarch, vol. xii. p. 776.
It would be a very serious error, however, to attempt
to transfer this distinction in its entireness to the words
as employed in the N. T. The ico\.acns alwvios of Matt.
xxv. 46, as it is plain, is no merely corrective, and there-
fore temporary, discipline ; cannot be any other than the
dSid\snrrof ri/j,wpia (Josephus, B. J. ii. 8. 1 1 ; cf. Antt. xviii.
I. 3, slpy/jios dt'Sios), the di'Stot Tipwplat, (Plato, Ax. 372 a),
with which the Lord elsewhere threatens finally im-
penitent men (Mark ix. 43-48) : for in proof that KoXaa-is
with Kokd^evdat, had acquired in Hellenistic Greek this
26 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. vin.
severer sense, and was used simply as ' punishment ' or
' torment,' with no necessary underthought of the better-
ing through it of him who endured it, we have only to
refer to such passages as the following : Josephus, Antt.
xv. 2. 2 ; Mart. Poly car. 2 ; 2 Mace. iv. 38 ; Wisd. xix. 4 ;
and indeed to the words of St. Peter himself (2 Ep. ii. 9).
This much, indeed, of Aristotle's distinction still remains,
and may be recognized in the scriptural usage of the
words, that in KoXaa-ts the relation of the punishment to
the punished, in Tipwpia to the punisher, is predominant.
viii. a\t]6rjS, a\r)0ivos.
THE Latin * verax ' and ' verus ' would severally represent
akyOris and a\,r)6iv6s, and in the main reproduce the dis-
tinctions existing between them ; indeed, the Vulgate does
commonly by aid of these indicate whether of the two
stands in the original; but we having lost, or nearly lost,
'very ' (vrai) as an adjective, retaining it only as an adverb,
have ' true ' alone whereby to render them both. It follows
that the difference between the two disappears in our
Version : and this by no fault of our Translators unless,
indeed, they erred in not recovering 'very,' which was
Wiclif's common translation of 'verus' (thus John xv. I,
" I am the verri vine "), and which to recover would have
been easy in their time (indeed they actually so use it
at Gen. xxvii. 21, 24) ; as it would not be impossible in
ours. We in fact do retain it in the Nicene Creed, where
it does excellent service ' very God of very God ' (sov
d\t]0t,vbv SK ov d\t]0ivov). It would have been worth
while to make the attempt, for the differences which we
now efface are most real. Thus God is a\r}6rjs, and He is
also d\r)0ivos : but very different attributes are ascribed to
Him by the one epithet, and by the other. He is d\r)0rj$
(John iii. 33; Eom. iii. 4; =' verax'), inasmuch as He
cannot lie, as He is a^rsv^s (Tit. i. 2), the truth-speaking^
vm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 27
and the truth-loving God (cf. Euripides, Ion, 1554). But
He is a\r]div6s (i Thess. i. 9; John xvii. 3 ; Isai. 1x7. 16;
= * verus '), very God, as distinguished from idols and all
other false gods, the dreams of the diseased fancy of man,
with no substantial existence in the world of realities (cf.
Athenseus, vi. 62, where one records how the Athenians
received Demetrius with divine honours : toy e'lr) povos Oeos
d\7]0i,v6s, ol &' aXXot KadevBovaiv, r) airo^^ova'iv, ?; OVK etcrt).
" The adjectives in -i-vos express the material out of which
anything is made, or rather they imply a mixed relation,
of quality and origin, to the object denoted by the substan-
tive from which they are derived. Thus %v\-i-vos means
* of wood,' ' wooden ; ' [oa-rpd/c-t-vos, ' of earth,' ' earthen ; '
vd\-t,-vos, c of glass,' ' glassen ; '] and a\r)6-t,-vos signifies
' genuine,' made up of that which, is true [that which, in
chemical language, has truth for its stuff and base] . This
last adjective is particularly applied to express that which
is all that it pretends to be ; for instance, pure gold as
opposed to adulterated metal " (Donaldson, New Craiylus,
p. 426).
It will be seen from this last remark that it does not
of necessity follow, that whatever may be contrasted with
the a\T]6iv6s must thereby be concluded to have no actual
existence, to be altogether false and fraudulent. Inferior
and subordinate realizations, partial and imperfect antici-
pations, of the truth, may be set over against the truth in
its highest form, in its ripest and completest development ;
and then to this last alone the title aXyffivos will be vouch-
safed. Kahnis has said well (Abendmahl, p. 119) : "'AXi;-
OTTJS schliesst das TJnwahre und Unwirkliche, aX-yQivos das
seiner Idee nicht Entsprechende auf. Das Mass des
d\r)dijs ist die Wirklichkeit, das des akrjOivos die Idee.
Bei d\?)dijs entspricht die Idee der Sache, bei d\r)0tv6$ die
Sache der Idee." Thus Xenophon affirms of Cyrus (Andb.
i. 9. 17), that he commanded d\rjdivbv crrpaTev^a, an army
indeed, an army deserving the name ; but he would not
28 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. vm.
have altogether refused this name of e army ' to inferior
hosts; and Plato (Tim. 25 a), calling the sea beyond the
Straits of Hercules, 7rs\ayos ovrcos, a\r)6ivos TTOVTOS, would
imply that it alone realized to the full the idea of the great
ocean deep; cf. Rep. i. 347 d : 6 rut OVTI a\.ij6ivos ap-^cov;
and again vi. 499 c: d\i)0ivr)s (j)i\ocro(f)las d\rj@tvos epws. We
should frequently nriss the exact force of the word, we
might find ourselves entangled in serious embarrassments,
if we understood aXydtvos as necessarily the true opposed
to the false. Rather it is very often the substantial as
opposed to the shadowy and outlinear ; as Origen (in Joan.
torn. ii. 4) has well expressed it : aX?7#ti/os, Trpbs dvrt-
&ia(TToXr)v a-Kids Kal TVTTOV teal sltcovos. Thus at Heb. viii. 2,
mention is made of the a-tcyvrj dhydivr] into which our great
High Priest entered ; which, of course, does not imply
that the tabernacle in the wilderness was not also most
truly pitched at God's bidding, and according to the pat-
tern which He had shown (Exod. xxv.) ; but only that it,
and all things in it, were weak earthly copies of heavenly
realities (avrirvrra ra>v d\r)diva)v) ; the passing of the
Jewish High Priest into the Holy of Holies, with all else
pertaining to the worldly sanctuary, being but the a-xia
ra)v /jL\\6vTcov d<ya&(t)v, while the erw/ia, the so filling up
of these outlines that they should be bulk and body, and
not shadow any more, was of Christ (Col. ii. I/). 1
So, too, when the Baptist announces, " The law was
given by Moses, but grace and truth came by Jesus Christ"
(John i. 17), the antithesis cannot lie between the false
1 This F. Spanheim (Dub. Evany. 1 06) has well put: '-'AXiJ&ta in
Scriptuni Sacni interdum sumitur ethice, et oppouitur falsitati et men-
dacio ; interdum mystice, et opponitur typis et urabris, ut Vo>i> illn re-
spondens, quse veritas alio modo etiam o-io/xa vocatur a Spirit u S. opposita
rfj o-Kia." Cf. Deyling, Obss. Sac. vol. iii. p. 317 ; vol. iv. pp. 548, 627;
and Delitzsch : ' Es 1st Beiname dessen was seineui Namen und Begriffe
im vollsten, tiefsten, uneingeschranktesten Sinne entspricht, dessen was
das was es heisst nicht bios relativ ist, sondern absolut ; nicht bios mate-
riell, sondern geistig und geistlich ; nicht bios zeitlich, sondern ewip: ;
nicht bios bildlich, d. h. vorbildlich, abbildlich, nachbildlich, sondern
gegenbildlich und urbildlich.'
vm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 29
and the true, but only between the imperfect and the
perfect, the shadowy and the substantial. In like manner,
the Eternal Word is declared to be TO <&>y TO a\r)divov
(John i. 9), not denying thereby that the Baptist was also
" a burning and a shining light " (John v. 35), or that the
faithful are "lights in the world" (Phil. ii. 15 ; Matt. v. 14),
but only claiming for a greater than all to be " the Light
which lighteth every man that cometh into the world." '
Christ proclaims Himself o apros 6 aXrjQivus (John vi. 32),
not suggesting thereby that the bread which Moses gave
was not also " bread of heaven " (Ps. cv. 40), but only that
it was such in a secondary inferior degree ; it was not
food in the highest sense, inasmuch as it did not nourish
up unto eternal life those that ate it (John vi. 49). He is
f) ap,Tre\os rj d\i)0ivij (John xv. i), not thereby denying that
Israel also was God's vine (Ps. Ixxx. 8; Jer. ii. 21), but
affirming that none except Himself realized this name, and
all which this name implied, to the full (Hos. x. i ; Deut.
xxxii. 32). 2 It would be easy to follow this up further;
but these examples, which the thoughtful student will
observe are drawn chiefly from St. John, may suffice. The
fact that in the writings of this Evangelist aXijBivos is
used two and twenty times as against five times in all the
rest of the N. T., he will scarcely esteem accidental.
To sum up then, as briefly as possible, the differences
between these two words, we may affirm of the a\T)dt]$,
that he fulfils the promise of his lips, but the dXrjQtvds the
1 Lampe (in /or.) : ' Innuitur ergo liic oppositio turn luminarium
naturalium, qualia fuere lux creationis, lux Israelitarum in yEgypto, lux
columnse in deserto, lux gerutnarum in pectorali, quae non nisi umbrae
fuere huj us verse lucis; turn eorum, qui falso se esse lumen hominum
gloriantur, quales sigillatim fuere Sol et Luna Ecclesiaa Judaiese, qui
cum ortu hujus Lucis obscurandi, Joel ii. 31 ; turn denique verorum
quoque luminarium, sed in minore gradu, quseque onine suum lumen ab
hoc Lumine mutuantur, qualia sunt omnes Sancti, Doctores, Angeli lucis,
ipse denique Joannes Baptista.'
2 Laiupe : ' Christus est Vitis vera, . . . et qua talis preejjoni, quin et
opponi, potest omnibus aliis qui etiam sub hoc symbolo in scriptis pro-
pheticis pinguntur.'
30 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. ix.
wider promise of his name. Whatever that name imports,
taken in its highest, deepest, widest sense, whatever ac-
cording to that he ought to be, that he is to the full.
This, let me further add, holds equally good of things
as of persons ; Trio-rot' and ak^Oivoi are therefore at Rev.
xxi. 5 justly found together.
ix. OepaTrav, Sov\os, BLO.KOVOS,
THE only passage in the N. T. in which Ospairmv occurs is
Heb. iii. 5 : " And Moses verily was faithful in all his
house, as a servant " (a>s depaTrwv). The allusion here to
Num. xii. 7 is manifest, where the Septuagint has given
dspdirwv as its rendering of "J?.y ; it has done the same
elsewhere (Exod. iv. 10; Deut. iii. 24; Josh. i. 2), yet has
not made this its constant rule, frequently rendering
it not by dspaTrmv, but by 8ov\os, out of which latter
rendering, no doubt, we have at Eev. xv. 3, the phrase,
Mwixrrjs 6 8ov\os rov sov. It will not follow that there
is no difference between SoOXos and dspaTrcov, nor yet that
there may not be occasions when the one word would be
far more fitly employed than the other; but only that
there are frequent occasions which do not require the
bringing out into prominence of that which constitutes
the difference between them. And such real difference
there is. The SouAos, opposed to sXsvdspos (i Cor. xii. 13 ;
Rev. xiii. 16 ; xix. 18 ; Plato, Gorg. 502 d), having SSO-TTOT???
(Tit. ii. 9), or in the 1ST. T. more commonly Kvpios (Luke
xii. 46), as its antithesis, is properly the * taxi-man,' from
Bso), ' ligo,' one that is in a permanent relation of servitude
to another, his will altogether swallowed up in the will of
the other; Xenophon (Oyrop. viii. I. 4): 01 pev 8ov\ot,
atcovrss rols SscrTrorais vTrrjpsrova'i. He is this, altogether
apart from any ministration to that other at any one
moment rendered ; the dspd-rrwv, on the other hand, is the
performer of present services, with no respect to the fact
ix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 31
whether as a freeman or slave he renders them ; as bound
by duty, or impelled by love ; and thus, as will necessarily
follow, there goes habitually with the word the sense of
one whose services are tenderer, nobler, freer than those
of the Sov\os. Thus Achilles styles Patroclus his OspctTrcav
(Homer, II. xvi. 244), one whose service was not con-
strained, but the officious ministration of love ; very much
like that of the squire or page of the Middle Ages.
Meriones is depciTrav to Idomeneus (xxiii. 113), Sthenelus
to Diomed, while all the Greeks are dspaTrovrss "Ap^os-
(ii. no and often; cf. Nagelsbach, Homer. Theologie, p.
280). Hesiod in like manner claims to be Movcrdwv
dspdiruv : not otherwise in Plato (Symp. 203 c) Eros is
styled the aKo\ov0os teal Ospd'jrwv of Aphrodite ; cf. Pin-
dar, Pytli. iv. 287, where the dspairwv is contrasted with
the Spao-T^s. With all which agrees the definition of Hesy-
chius (ol sv SsvTspa rd^st <f>i\oi,), of Ammonius (ol VTTO-
(f)i\oi), and of Eustathius (rwv fyi\G)v ol 8paaTt-
Intheve'rbdspaTrsvsiv ( = ' curare'), as distin-
guished from Sov\svsiv, and connected with 'faveo,' 'foveo,'
0d\.7ra), the nobler and tenderer character of the service
comes still more strongly out. It may be used of the
physician's watchful tendance of the sick, man's service
of God, and is beautifully applied by Xenophon (Mem. iv.
3. 9), to the care which the gods have of men.
It will follow that the author of the Epistle to the
Hebrews, calling Moses a depdircov in the house of God
(iii. 5), implies that he occupied a more confidential posi-
tion, that a freer service, a higher dignity was his, than
that merely of a 8ov\os, approaching more closely to that
of an olicovo/jLos' in God's house ; and, referring to Num. xii.
6-8, we find, confirming this view, that an exceptional
dignity is there ascribed to Moses, lifting him above other
SoOXot of God ; ' egregius domesticus fidei tusB ' Augustine
(Cow/, xii. 23) calls him ; cf. Deut, xxxiv. 5, where he is
Kvpiov. In agreement with this we find the title
SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. ix.
/cvplov given to Moses (Wisd. x. 16), but to no
other of the worthies of the old Covenant mentioned in
the chapter ; to Aaron indeed at xviii. 21. It would have
been well if our Translators had seen some way to indicate
the exceptional and more honourable title here given to
him who " was faithful in all God's house." The Vulgate,
which has ' famulus,' has at least made the attempt (so
Cicero, 'famulce Idsese matris ') ; Tyndal, too, and Cranmer,
who have * minister,' perhaps as adequate a word as the
language affords.
Neither ought the distinction between Bidicovos and
BovXos to be suffered to escape in an English Version of
the N. T. There is no difficulty in preserving it. Ata/eoi'os,
not from Bid and KOVIS, one who in his haste runs through
the dust a mere fanciful derivation, and forbidden by the
quantity of the antepenultima in BidKovos is probably
from the same root as has given us BIWKCI), 'to hasten
after,' or ' pursue,' and thus indeed means ' a runner ' still
(so Buttmann, Lexil. i. 219 ; but see Doderlein, Lat. Syn.
vol. v. p. 135). The difference between Btd/covos on one
side, and Bov\os and Ospdirwv on the other, is this that
Btd/covos represents the servant more in his activity for the
work (Btdicovos rov sva^j\iov, Col. i. 23 ; 2 Cor. iii. 6 ;
Eph. iii. 7) ; rather in his relation, either servile, as that
of the BovXos, or more voluntary, as in the case of the
Ospdirov, to a person. The attendants at a feast, and this
with no respect to their condition as free or servile, are
Bid/covoi (John ii. 5 ; Matt. xxii. 13). The importance of
preserving the distinction between Bov\os and Btdicovos
may be illustrated from the parable of the Marriage
Supper (Matt. xxii. 2-14). In our Version the king's
"servants" bring in the invited guests (ver. 3, 4, 8, 10),
and his " servants " are bidden to thrust out that guest
who was without a wedding garment (ver. 1 3) ; but in the
Greek, those, the bringers-in of the guests, are Bov\ot, :
these, the fulfillers of the king's sentence, are
ix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 33
this distinction being a most real one, and belonging to
the essentials of the parable ; the Sov\ot being men, the
ambassadors of Christ, who invite their fellow- men into
his kingdom now, the Siditovoi, angels, who in all the judg-
ment acts at the end of the world evermore appear as the
executors of the Lord's will. The parable, it is true, does
not turn on this distinction, yet these ought not any more
to be confounded than the Sov\oi and Ospia-ral of Matt.
xiii. 27, 30 ; cf. Luke xix. 24.
OiKST'rjs is often used as equivalent to Bov\os. It cer-
tainly is so at I Pet. ii. 1 8 ; and hardly otherwise on the
three remaining occasions on which it occurs in the N. T.
(Luke xvi. 13 ; Acts x. 7; Rom. xiv. 4) ; nor does the
Septuagint (Exod. xxi. 27 ; Deut. vi. 21; Prov. xvii. 2)
appear to recognize any distinction between them; the
Apocrypha as little (Ecclus. x. 25). At the same time
ol/ceTijs ( = ' domesticus ') fails to bring out and emphasize
the servile relation so strongly as $ov\os does ; rather
contemplates that relation from a point of view calculated
to mitigate, and which actually went far to mitigate, its
extreme severity. He is one of the household, of the
' family,' in the older sense of this word ; not indeed
necessarily one born in the house ; oiKoysvijs is the word
for this in the Septuagint (Gen. xiv. 14 ; Eccles. ii. 7) ;
'verna,' identical with the Gothic 'bairn,' in the Latin;
compare ' criado ' in the Spanish ; but one, as I have said,
of the family ; OIKSTTJS sarlv 6 /cara TTJV olrclav SutTpifiw, tcav
e\svdspos $, KOivov ( Athenseus, vi. 93) ; the word being used
in the best times of the language with so wide a reach as
to include wife and children; so in Herodotus (viii. 106,
and often); while in Sophocles (Track. 894) by the ol/csrai
the children of Deianira can alone be intended. On the
different names given to slaves and servants of various
classes and degrees see Athenseus, as quoted above.
"Tir'rjpsT^s, which only remains to be considered, is a
word drawn from military matters ; he was originally the
D
34 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. x.
rower (from epsa-a-m, * remigo '), as distinguished from the
soldier, on board a war-galley ; then the performer of any
strong and hard labour ; then the subordinate official who
waited to accomplish the behests of his superior, as the
orderly who attends a commander in war (Xenophon,
Cyrop. vi. 2. 13) ; the herald who carries solemn messages
(Euripides, Hec. 503). Prometheus intends a taunt when
he characterizes Hermes as ewi> vTrrjpsTijs (.ZEschylus,
Prom. Vinct. 990), one who runs on the errands of superior
gods. In this sense, as an inferior minister to perform
certain defined functions for Paul and Barnabas, Mark
was their vir^psr^s (Acts xiii. 5) ; and in this official sense
of lictor, apparitor, and the like, we find the word con-
stantly, indeed predominantly used in the N. T. (Matt.
v. 25 ; Luke iv. 20; John vii. 32 ; xviii. 18 ; Acts v. 22).
The mention by St. John of Sov\oi and vTrrjpsrai together
(xviii. 1 8) is alone sufficient to indicate that a difference
is by him observed between them ; from which difference
it will follow that he who struck the Lord on the face
(John xviii. 22) could not be, as some suggest, the same
whose ear the Lord had just healed (Luke xxii. 51), seeing
that this was a Sov\os, that profane and petulant striker
a uTrrjpsTrjs, of the High Priest. The meanings of SKIKOVOS
and vTrypsri]? are much more nearly allied ; they do in fact
continually run into one another, and there are innumer-
able occasions on which the words might be indifferently
used ; the more official character and functions of the
vTrrjpsTtjs is the point in which the distinction between
them resides. See Vitringa, De Synagoga Vetere, pp. 916-
919, and the Dictionary of the Bible, article Minister.
x. Sei\ia, <o/3os, sv\d/3ia.
OF these three words the first, SstXia, is used always in a
bad sense j the second, <f>6/3os, is a middle term, capable
of a good interpretation, capable of an evil, and lying in-
x. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 35
differently between the two ; the third, sv\dfisia, is quite
predominantly used in a good sense, though it too has
not altogether escaped being employed in an evil.
AstXta, equivalent to the Latin 'timor,' and having
Opaa-vrrjs (' foolhardiness ') for its contrary extreme
(Plato, Tim. 87 a), is our ' cowardice.' It occurs only
once in the N. T., 2 Tim. i. 7 ; where Bengel says, exactly
on what authority I know not, <Est timor cujus causse
potius in animo sunt quam foris ; ' but 8si\id(o at John
xiv. 27 ; and 8si\6s at Matt. viii. 26 ; Mark iv. 40 ; Eev.
xxi. 8 : the 8st\o in this last passage being those who
in time of persecution have under fear of suffering denied
the faith ; cf. Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. viii. 3. It is joined to
dvavSpela (Plato, Phcedr. 254 c; Legg. ii. 659 a), to \siiro-
ra^la (Lysias, Orat. in Alcib. p. 140), to ^v^porys (Plu-
tarch, Fab. Max. 17), to eK\v<ri<f (2 Mace. iii. 24) ; is
ascribed by Josephus to the spies who brought an ill report
of the Promised Land (Antt. iii. 15. i); being constantly
set over against dvSpsia, as Sstkos over against dvbpeios :
for example, in the long discussion on valour and cowardice
in Plato's Protagoras, 360 d ; see too the lively description
of the SetXos in the Characters (27) of Theophrastus. AetXta
seeks to shelter its timidity under the more honorable
title of v\dj3sia * (Philo, De Fort. 5) ; pleads for itself
that it is indeed dcr<f)d\ia (Plutarch, Anim. an Corp. A/.
Pej. 3 ; Philo, Quod Det. Pot. Insid. 11).
Qoftos, very often united with rpopos (as at Gen. ix. 2 ;
Deut. xi. 25 ; Exod. xv. 16 ; I Cor. ii. 3 ; Phil. ii. 12), and
answering to the Latin ' metus,' is a middle term, and as
such used in the N. T. sometimes in a bad sense, but
oftener in a good. Thus in a bad sense, Rom. viii. 1 5 ;
I John iv. 1 8 ; cf. Wisd. xvii. 1 1 ; but in a good, Acts ix.
31 ; Eom. iii. 18 ; Ephes. vi. 5 ; Phil. ii. 12; I Pet. i. 17.
Being this fieaov, Plato, in the Protagoras as referred to
1 ' And calls that providence, which we calljligkt.' DETDEIT.
o2
36 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. x.
above, adds ala-^pos to it, as often as he would indicate
the timidity which misbecomes a man. On the distinction
between ' timor,' * metus,' and ' formido ' see Donaldson,
Complete Latin Grammar, p. 489.
Ey\a/3eta only occurs twice in the N. T. (Heb. v. 7
[where see Bleek] ; and xii. 28), and on each occasion
signifies piety contemplated as a, fear of God; la vigilance
a 1'egard du mal (Godel). The image on which it rests is
that of the careful taking hold and wary handling, the sv
\afj,fidve<r0ai, of some precijus yet fragile vessel, which
with ruder or less anxious handling might easily be broken
(77 jap sv\d{3sia a-wfei iravra, Aristophanes, Aves, 377), as
in Balde's sublime funeral hyuin on the young German
Empress
' Quam manibus osseis tangit,
Crystallinam phialam frangit
inepta et rustica Mors,
O caduca juvenculae sors !'
But such a cautious care in the conducting of affairs ^the
word is joined by Plutarch to jrpovota, Marcell. 9 ; xpr)ai/j,a)-
raTT] OsSyv it is declared by Euripides, Phoen. 794) ; springing
as in part it will from a fear of miscarriage, ea\ly lies open
to the charge of timidity. Thus Demosthenes, who opposes
ev\d{3sia to dpdaos (5 1 7), claims for himself that he was only
s v\alSr)s, where his enemies charged him with being Sei\os
and aroXfjios : while in Plutarch (Fab. 17) sv\a^-i]s and
Bva-s\7riaTos are joined together. It is not wonderful then
that fear should have come to be regarded as an essential
element of v\d/3eia, sometimes so occupies the word as to
leave no room for any other sense (Josephus, Antt. xi. 6.
9), though for the most part no dishonorable fear (see,
however, a remarkable exception, Wisd. xvii. 8) is in-
tended, but one which a wise and good man might fitly
entertain. Cicero (Tusc. iv. 6) : ' Declinatio [a malis] si cum
ratione fiet, cautio appelletur, eaque intelligatur in solo
esse sapiente j quse autem sine ratione et cum exanima-
xi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 37
tione humili atque fracta, nominetur metus.' He has pro-
bably the definition of the Stoics in his eyes. These,
while they disallowed </>6/3os as a irdOos^ admitted siihdftsia,
which they defined as SKK\IO-IS a-vv Xo7&> (Clement of Alex-
andria, Strom, ii. 18), into the circle of virtues; thus
Diogenes Laertius (vii. I. 116) : rrjv Be svXd^siav [svavriav
(bacriv slvat] TO> <o/3<, ovcrav v\o<yov SKK\KTIV (f>of3r)dr/-
<r E <r a i pev <yap rov (ro<f)ov ovSa/j-ws, euXa/3 77^77 o-o-#at Bs:
and Plutarch (De Repugn. Stoic. 1 1) quotes their maxim: TO
yap v\afti<r6ai cro<f)<i)v iBcov. Yet after all, these distinc-
tions whereby they sought to escape the embarrassments
of their ethical position, the admission for instance that
the wise man might feel ' suspiciones quasdam et umbras
affectuum,' but not the 'affectus' themselves (Seneca,
De Ird, i. 1 6 ; cf. Plutarch, De Virt. filor. 9), were nothing
worth ; they had admitted the thing, and were now only
fighting about words, with which to cover and conceal the
virtual abandonment of their position, being ovofjLaro^d^o^
as a Peripatetic adversary lays to their charge. See on
this matter the full discussion in Clement of Alexandria,
Strom, ii. 7-9 ; and compare Augustine, De Civ. Dei, ix. 4.
On the more distinctly religious aspect of v\d@ia there
will be opportunity to speak hereafter ( xlviii.).
xi. Ka/cia, feaKorf0ia.
IT would be a mistake to regard Ka/cia in the N. T. as
embracing the whole complex of moral evil. In this
latitude no doubt it is often used ; thus dperrj and Katcia
are virtue and vice (Plato, Rep. iv. 444 d) ; dpral ical tca/ciai,
virtues and vices (Aristotle, Rhet. ii. 12 ; Ethic. Nic.
vii. I ; Plutarch, Conj. Proec. 25, and often) ; while Cicero
(Tusc. iv. 15) refuses to translate tca/cla by 'malitia,'
choosing rather to coin ' vitiositas ' for his need, and
giving this as his reason : * Nam malitia certi cujusdam
vitii nomen est, vitiositas omnium;' showing plainly
38 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xi.
hereby that in his eye /ca/cia was the name, not of ore
vice, but of the viciousness out of which all vices spring.
In the N. T., however, tca/cta is not so much viciousness as
a special form of vice. Were it viciousness, other evil habits
of the mind would be subordinated to it, as to a larger term
including the lesser ; whereas in fact they are coordinated
with it (Rom. i. 29; Col. iii. 8; I Pet. ii. i). We must
therefore seek for it a more special meaning; and, com-
paring it with irovqpia, we shall not err in saying that tca/cta
is more the evil habit of mind, the 'malitia,' by which
Cicero declined to render it, or, as he elsewhere explains it,
' versuta et fallax nocendi ratio' (Nat.Deor. iii. 30; DeFin.
iii. 1 1 in fine) ; while Trovrjpla is the active outcoming of the
same. Thus Calvin says of Ka/cia (Eph. iv. 3 1) : ' Significat
hoc verbo [Apostolus] animi pravitatem quse huinanitati
et sequitati est opposita, et malignitas vulgo nuncupatur,'
or as Cicero defines ' malevolentia ' (Tusc. Qucsst. iv. 9) :
' voluptas ex malo alterius sine emolumento suo.' Our
English Translators, rendering naicLa so often by ' malice '
(Ephes. iv. 31 ; I Cor. v. 8 ; xiv. 20; I Pet. ii. i), show that
they regarded it very much in this light. With this agrees
the explanation of it by Theodoret on Rom. i. : Ka/ciav
Kakel rrjv tyvx*l s ^^ T " % 6l / )W pOTTijv, Kal rov sirl /3\dftr) rov
7Ts\as yivopsvov \oyta-fj,6v. Not exactly but nearly thus the
author of what long passed as a Second Epistle of Cle-
ment's, but which now is known not to be an Epistle at
all, warns against Kanla as the forerunner (Trpoo&oiTropos)
of all other sins ( 10). Compare the art. Bosheit in
Herzog's Real-Encyclopddie.
While Katcta occurs several times in the N. T., KaKoijdsia
occurs but once, namely in St. Paul's long and terrible
catalogue of the wickednesses with which the heathen
world was filled (Rom. i. 29) ; but some four or five times
in the Books of the Maccabees (3 Mace. iii. 22 ; vii. 3 ;
4 Mace. i. 4 ; iii. 4) ; KaKorjdrjs there as well (4 Mace. i. 25 ;
ii. 1 6); never in the Septuagint. We have translated it
xi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 39
* malignity.' When, however, we take it in this wider
meaning, which none would deny that it very often has
(Plato, Rep. i. 348 d; Xenophon, De Ven. xiii. 16), or in
that wider still which Basil the Great gives it (Reg. Brev.
Int. 77 : KaKorjOsia fisv SCTTIV, eoy \o<yi&fJLCU, avrrj 77 TT/XWTT;
/col KSfcpv/jL/Mevr) Katcta Tov tfdovsf), making it, as he thus does,
exactly to correspond to the * ill nature ' of our early
divines (see my Select Glossary, s. v.), just as the author
of the Third Maccabees (iii. 22) speaks of some rfj avp(j)vra>
KatcoTjOsia TO KO,\OV diroMrdpsvot,, Styvsicws &s sis TO (j>av\ov
Kvsvovrss, when, I say, its meaning is so far enlarged, it
is very difficult to assign to it any domain which will not
have been already preoccupied either by tcaKia or Trovripia.
I prefer therefore to understand KcucorjOsia here in the
more restricted meaning which it sometimes possesses.
The Geneva Version has so done, rendering it by a peri-
phrasis, " taking all things in the evil part ; " which is
exactly Aristotle's definition, to whose ethical terminology
the word belongs (Rhet. ii. 13) : sent yap KaKotfdsia TO sirl
TO xsipov V7ro\a/j,/3dveiv airavra : or, as Jeremy Taylor
calls it, ' a baseness of nature by which we take things
by the wrong handle, and expound things always in the
worst sense ; ' * the * malignitas interpretantium ' of Pliny
(Ep. v. 7) ; 2 being exactly opposed to what Seneca (De
Ird, ii. 24) so happily calls the 'benigna rerum sesti-
matio.' For precisely such a use of /cafcorjdcos see Josephus,
Antt. vii. 6. I ; cf. 2 Sam. x. 3. This giving to all words
and actions of others their most unfavorable interpreta-
tion Aristotle marks as one of the vices of the old, in that
mournful, yet for the Christian most instructive, passage,
which has been referred to just now ; they are KarcotfOsis
and /ca^uTTOTTTot. We shall scarcely err then, taking
1 Grotius : ' Cum quse possumus in bonam partem interpretari, in
pejorem rapimus, contra quam exigit officium dilectionis.'
* How striking, by the \vay, this use of ' interpreter,' as ' to interpret
awry,' in Tacitus (himself not wholly untouched with the vice), Pliny,
and the other writers of their age.
40 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xi.
at Rom. i. 29, in this narrower meaning; the
position which it occupies in that dread catalogue of sins
entirely justifying us in treating it as that peculiar form
of evil which manifests itself in a malignant interpretation
of the actions of others, a constant attribution of them to
the worst imaginable motives.
Nor should we take leave of KaKor/dsta without notic-
ing the deep psychological truth attested in this secondary
meaning which it has obtained, namely, that the evil
which we trace in ourselves makes us ready to suspect and
believe evil in others. The Ka/corjOrfs^ being himself of an
evil moral habit, projects himself, and the motives which
actuate him, into others round him, sees himself in them ;
for, according to our profound English proverb, ' 111 doers
are ill deerners ; ' or, as it runs in the monkish line, ' Au-
tumat hoc in me quod novit perfidus in se ; ' and just as
Love on the one side, in those glorious words of Schiller,
' delightedly believes
Divinities, being itself divine ; '
so that which is itself thoroughly evil finds it impossible
to believe anything but evil in others (Job i. 9-11; ii. 4, 5).
Thus the suitors in the Odyssey, at the very time when
they are laying plots for the life of Telemachus, are per-
suaded that he intends at a banquet to mingle poison with
their wine, and so to make an end of them all (Odyss. ii.
329, 330). lago evidently believes the world to be peopled
with lagoes, can conceive of no other type of humanity
but his own. Well worthy of notice here is that remark-
able passage in the Republic of Plato (iii. 409 a, fe), where
Socrates, showing how well it is for physicians to have
been mainly conversant with the sick, but not for teachers
and rulers with the bad, explains how it comes to pass
that young men, as yet uncorrupted, are svrjOsis rather
than Ka/coijOsLS, are OVK s-^ovrss sv savrois Trap
rols Trovrjpols.
xii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 41
xii. ayaTrdo), <j)t\,sw.
WE have made no attempt to discriminate between these
words in our English Version. And yet there is often a
difference between them, well worthy to have been noted
and reproduced, if this had lain within the compass of our
language ; being very nearly equivalent to that between
' diligo ' and ' amo ' in the Latin. To understand the
exact distinction between these, will help us to understand
that between those other which are the more immediate
object of our inquiry. For this we possess abundant
material in Cicero, who often sets the words in instructive
antithesis to one another. Thus, writing to one friend of
the affection in which he holds another (Ep. Fam. xiii. 47) :
' Ut scires ilium a me non diligi solum, verum etiam
amari;' and again (Ad Brut, i) : ' L. Clodius valde me
diligit, vel, ut s^artKcorspov dicam, valde me amat.' From
these and other like passages (there is an ample collection
of them in Doderlein's Latein. Synon. vol. iv. pp. 98 seq.),
we might conclude that ' amare,' which answers to <j)i\siv,
is stronger than ' diligere,' which, as we shall see, corre-
sponds to dycnrdv. This is true, but not all the truth.
Ernesti has successfully seized the law of their several
uses, when he says : ' Diligere magis ad judicium, amare
vero ad intirnum aniini sensum pertiiiet.' So that, in fact,
Cicero in the passage first quoted is saying, ' I do not
esteem the man merely, but I love him ; there is something
of the passionate warmth of affection in the feeling with
which I regard him. 3
It will follow, that while a friend may desire rather
' amari ' than ' diligi ' by his friend, 'there are aspects
in which the 'diligi' is more than the ' amari,' the
dycnraa-Qat than the <j>i,\i<rdcu. The first expresses a
more reasoning attachment, of choice and selection
(' <Migere ' = ' deligere '), from a seeing in the object upon
42 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XH.
whom it is bestowed that which is worthy of regard ; or
else from a sense that such is due toward the person so
regarded, as being a benefactor, or the like; while the
second, without being necessarily an unreasoning attach-
ment, does yet give less account of itself to itself; is more
instinctive, is more of the feelings or natural affections,
implies more passion ; thus Antonius, in the funeral dis-
course addressed to the Koinan people over the body of
Csesar : s^iXija-ars avrov o)S Trar^pa, Kal qyaTrrfa-ars
toy svepysryv (Dion Cassius, xliv. 48). And see in Xenophon
(Mem. ii. 7. 9, 1 2) two passages throwing much light on the
relation between the words, and showing how the notions
of respect and reverence are continually implied in the
dyajrav, which, though not excluded by, are still not in-
volved in, the <f)i\eiv. Thus in the second of these, al pJsv
a)s KrjSs/Aova e^iXovv, 6 Se u>s MffrsXt/jLovs yyaTra. Out of
this it may be explained, that while men are continually
bidden dyairav rbv Ssov (Matt. xxii. 37; Luke x. 27; I Cor.
viii. 3), and good men declared so to do (Rom. viii. 28 ;
I Pet. i. 8 ; I John iv. 21), the (j>i\,elv TOV Ssoi> is commanded
to them never. The Father, indeed, both dyaTra rov Tiov
(John iii. 35), and also <f>i\t rov Tiov (John v. 20) ; with
the first of which statements such passages as Matt. iii. 1 7,
with the second such as John i. 18; Prov. viii. 22, 30,
may be brought into connexion.
In almost all these passages of the N. T., the Yulgate,
by the help of ' diligo ' and ' amo,' has preserved a dis-
tinction which we have let go. This is especially to be
regretted at John xxi. 15-17 ; for the passing there of the
original from one word to the other is singularly instruc-
tive, and should by no means escape us unnoticed. In
that threefold " Lovest thou Me? " which the risen Lord
addresses to Peter, He asks him first, dyaTras p,s ; At this
moment, when all the pulses in the heart of the now peni-
tent Apostle are beating with a passionate affection toward
xn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 43
his Lord, this word on that Lord's lips sounds far too cold ;
to very imperfectly express the warmth of his affection
toward Him. The question in any form would have been
grievous enough (ver. 17) ; the language in which it is
clothed makes it more grievous still. 1 He therefore in his
answer substitutes for the dyaTras of Christ the word of a
more personal love, <iXw erg (ver. 15). And this he does
not on the first occasion only, but again upon a second.
And now at length he has triumphed ; for when his Lord
puts the question to him a third time, it is not dycnras
any more, but ^t\is. All this subtle and delicate play of
feeling disappears perforce, in a translation which either
does not care, or is not able, to reproduce the variation in
the words as it exists in the original.
I observe in conclusion that spcos, spdv, spaa-r^s, never
occur in the N". T., but the two latter occasionally in the
Septuagint; thus epdv, Esth. ii. 17; Prov. iv. 6; spaarrfs
generally in a dishonorable sense as ' paramour ' (Ezek.
xv i- 33 5 Hos. ii. 5) ; yet once or twice (as Wisd. viii. 2)
more honorably, not as =' amasius,' but * amator.' Their
absence is significant. It is in part no doubt to be ex-
plained from the fact that, by the corrupt use of the world,
they had become so steeped in sensual passion, carried
such an atmosphere of unholiness about them (see Origen,
Prol. in Cant. Opp. torn. iii. pp. 28-30), that the truth of
God abstained from the defiling contact with them ; yea,
devised a new word rather than betake itself to one of
these. For it should not be forgotten that dya-Tri) is a
word born within the bosom of revealed religion : it occurs
in the Septuagint (2 Sam. xiii. 15 ; Cant. ii. 4; Jer. ii. 2),
and in the Apocrypha (Wisd. iii. 9) ; but there is no trace
of it in any heathen writer whatever, and as little in Philo
1 Bengel generally has the honour ' rem acu tetigisse ; ' here he has
singularly missed the point, and is wholly astray : ' dyairdv, amare, est
necessitudinis et affectus ; (j)i\e~iv, diligere, judicii.'
44 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xn.
or Josephus ; the utmost they attain to here is <f>i\av6pwTtia
and <f)i\a$\<j)ia, and the last never in any sense but as the
love between brethren in blood (cf . Cremer, Worterbuch d.
N. T. Gracitat, p. 12). But the reason may lie deeper still.
"E/Hos might have fared as so many other words have
fared, might have been consecrated anew, despite of the
deep degradation of its past history ; l and there were ten-
dencies already working for this in the Platonist use of it,
namely, as the longing and yearning desire after that un-
seen but eternal Beauty, the faint vestiges of which may
here be everywhere traced ; 2 ovpdvios spws, Philo in this
sense has called it (De Fit. Cont. 2; De Vit. Mos. iii. i). But
in the very fact that spws (=6 Sstvos ipspos, Sophocles,
Track. 476), did express this yearning desire (Euripides,
Ion, 6?; Alcestis, noi); this longing after the unpos-
sessed (in Plato's exquisite mythus, Syrup. 203 fe, "Epws is
the offspring of Tlsvla), lay its deeper unfitness to set forth
that Christian love, which is not merely the sense of need,
of emptiness, of poverty, with the longing after fulness,
not the yearning after an unattained and in this world
unattainable Beauty ; but a love to God and to man, which
is the consequence of God's love already shed abroad in
the hearts of his people. The mere longing and yearning,
and epws at the best is no more, has given place, since
the Incarnation, to the love which is not in desire only,
but also in possession. That spws is no more is well
1 On the attempt which some Christian writers had made to distinguish
between ' amor ' and ' dilectio ' or ' caritas/ see Augustine, De Civ. Dei,
xiv. 7 : ' Nonnulli arbitrantur aliud esse dilectionem sive caritatem, aliud
amorem. Dicunt enim dilectionem accipiendam esse in bono, amorem
in malo.' He shows, by many examples of ' dilectio ' and 'diligo ' used
in an ill sense in the Latin Scriptures, of ' amor ' and ' amo ' in a good,
the impossibility of maintaining any such distinction.
2 I cannot regard as an evidence of such reconsecration the well-
known words of Ignatius, Ad Horn. J : 6 epos epa>s eVroupwrai. It is far
more consistent with the genius of these Ignatian Epistles to take (pas
subjectively here, ' My love of the world is crucified,' i.e. with Christ ;
rather than objectively, ' Christ, the object of my love, is crucified.'
xin. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 45
expressed in the lines of Gregory Nazianzene (Carm. ii.
34, 150, 151):
Hod os S' opsgis 77 naXwv -fj fir) ica\wv,
8s dsppos SvcncaffsKTos TS irodos. 1
xiii. OaXacro-a, 7rs\ayos.
THE connexion of Od\aacra with the verb rapda-areiv, that
it means properly the agitated or disturbed, finds favour
with Curtius (p. 596) and with Pott (Etym. Forsch. vol. ii. p.
56). Schmidt dissents (vol. i. p. 642) ; and urges that the
predominant impression which the sea makes on the be-
holder is not of unrest but of rest, of quietude and not of
agitation ; that we must look for the word's primary
meaning in quite another direction : 0d\aa-aa, he says,
' ist das Meer nach seiner natiirlichen Beschaffenheit, als
grosse Salzflut, und dem Sinne nach von dem poetischen
a\s durch nichts unterschieden.' It is according to him
* the great salt flood.' But not entering further into this
question, it will be enough to say that, like the Latin
' mare,' it is the sea as contrasted with the land (Gen. i.
10 ; Matt, xxiii. 15 ; Acts iv. 24) ; or perhaps more strictly
as contrasted with the shore (see Hayman's Odyssey, vol. i.
p. xxxiii, Appendix) . TlsXayos is the vast uninterrupted level
and expanse of open water, the ' altum mare,' 2 as distin-
1 Consult on epvs the noble fragment from Sophocles, preserved by
Stobseus :
No<r7/i' fparos rovr 1 e(f)ifj.epov KOKOV.
e^ot/i' av avro [if] KOKOOS drret/cacrat,
orav Tfayov (pavevros aWpiov \tpoiv
Kpva~rd\\ov apird<ra>(ri iralSts dorayj}.
Ta irp&T e\ov<riv f]8ovas irorawiovS)
Tt\os S' 6 xvpbs ovff OTTOJS o(pfj 6eXfi
our' fv jf^epolv TO KT^/LWI trvp.<popov fifvtiv,
OVTO> ye TOVS tpa>vras avros iftfpos
8pav icai TO p.f) 8pav iro\\aKis irpotfTai.
8 It need hardly be observed that, adopted into Latin, it has the same
meaning :
' Ut pelagus tenuere rates, nee jam amplius ulla
Occurrit tellus, maria undique et undique caelum.'
Virgil, JEn. v. 8.
46 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xm.
guished from those portions of it broken by islands, shut
in by coasts and headlands (Thucydides, vi. 104 ; vii. 49 ;
Plutarch, Timol. 8). 1 The suggestion of breadth, and not
depth, except as an accessory notion, and as that which
will probably find place in this open sea, lies in the word ;
thus Sophocles ((Ed. Col. 659) : pafcpbv TO Bsvpo irsXayos,
ovSs 7r\(t)cri/j,ov : so too the murmuring Israelites (Philo,
Vit. Mos. i. 35) liken to a 7re\a<yo$ the far-reaching sand-
flats of the desert ; and in Herodotus (ii. 92) the Nile over-
flowing Egypt is said 7re\a<ylsiv ra TrsSla, which yet it
only covers to the depth of a few feet; cf . ii. 97. A passage
in the Timceus of Plato (25 a, &) illustrates well the distinc-
tion between the words, where the title of 7r\,ayos is re-
fused to the Mediterranean Sea : which is but a harbour,
with the narrow entrance between the Pillars of Hercules
for its mouth; while only the great Atlantic Ocean be-
yond can be acknowledged as a\r)6ivbs irovros, 7re\a<yo$
OVTQ>S. Compare Aristotle, De Mun. 3 ; Meteorol. ii. I :
psovaa 8' V] 0d\arra ^aivsrat, Kara ras (rrsvoTrjras [the
Straits of Gibraltar], SITTOV Bia Trspis^ovcrav yfjv elf p,iicpov
It might seem as if this distinction did not hold good
on one of the two occasions upon which irsXayos occurs
in the N. T., namely Matt, xviii. 6 : "It were better for
him that a millstone were hanged about his neck, and that
lie were drowned in the depth of the sea " (/cat KaraTrovTiadri
Iv TM TrsXdyei, TTJS daXdcra-ijs). But the sense of depth,
which undoubtedly the passage requires, is here to be
looked for in the KarcnrovTia-Of) : TTOVTOS (not in the N. T.)
being connected with fidOos, J3v66s (Exod. xv. 5), ftsvOos,
perhaps the same word as this last, and implying the sea
in its perpendicular depth, as 7rs\ayos ( = 'inaris sequor,'
1 Hippias, in the Protagoras of Plato (338 a), charges the eloquent
sophist with a (fitvyeiv fls ne'Xayos TQ>V \6yo>v, dnoKpii^avra yrjv. This last
idiom reappears in the French ' noyer la terre,' applied to a ship sailing
out of sight of land ; as indeed in Virgil's ' Phaeacum abscondinius arces.'
xiv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 47
Virgil, Mn. ii. 780), the same in its horizontal dimensions
and extent. Compare Doderlein, Lett. Syn. vol. iv. p. 75.
xiv. o-K\T)p6s, av
IN the parable of the Talents (Matt, xxv.), the slothfui
servant charges his master with being a/eX^os-, " an hard
man " (ver. 24) ; while in the corresponding parable of St.
Luke it is aucrr^pos, "an austere man" (xix. 21), which
he accuses him of being. It follows that the words must
be nearly allied in meaning ; but not that they are identi-
cal in this.
^K\i]p6s, derived from ovceXXo), aK\f)vai, ( = ' arefacio '),
is properly an epithet applied to that which through lack
of moisture is hard and dry, and thus rough and dis-
agreeable to the touch ; or more than this, warped and
intractable, the ' asper ' and ' durus ' in one. It is then
transferred to the region of ethics, in which it chiefly
moves, expressing there roughness, harshness, and intracta-
bility in the moral nature of a man. Thus Nabal (i Sam.
xxv. 3) is a-KKrjpos, and no epithet could better express the
evil conditions of the churl. For other company which
the word keeps, we find it associated with avxjvrjpds (Plato,
Symp. 195 d) ; avrlrvrros (Thecet. 155 a; Plutarch, De
Pyth. Orac. 26) ; a^srdcrrpo^os (Plato, Crat. 407 d) ; aypios
(Aristotle, Eth. Nic. iv. 8. 3 ; Plutarch, Cons, ad Apoll. 3) ;
dvijSvvros (PrcBC. Ger. Reip. 3) ; dir^vrjs (De Vit. Pud.) ; dvs-
paaros (De Adul. et Am. 19); rpa^vs (De Lib. Ed* 18);
aTraiSevTos (Alex. Virt. seu Fort. Or. i. 5) > drpSTrros (Dio-
genes Laertius, vii. I. 64, 117); afaivtcumjs (Philo, De
Septen. i) ; avddSijs (Gen. xlix. 3) ; irovrjpos (i Sam. xxv. 3).
It is set over against svr)dt,K,6s (Plato, Charm. 175 d] ;
fjLa\aKos (Protag. 331 d) ; pakOaKOS (Symp. 195 d ; Sophocles,
(Edip. Col. 771).
Av<TTV)p6$, which in the N. T. appears but once (Luke
xix. 21), and never in the Septuagint, is in its primary
48 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xiv.
meaning applied to such things as draw together and con-
tract the tongue, are harsh and stringent to the palate, as
new wine not yet mellowed by age, unripe fruit, and the like.
Thus Cowper, describing himself, when a boy, as gather-
ing from the hedgerows * sloes austere,' uses ' austere '
with exactest propriety. But just as we have transferred
' strict ' (from ' stringo ') to the region of ethics, so the
Greeks transferred avcrrrjpos, with an image borrowed from
the taste, as in trK\rjpos from the touch. Neither does this
word set out anything amiable or attractive in him to
whom it is applied. It keeps company with aq&rjs (Plato,
Rep. iii. 398 a) ; atcparos and avijBvvros (Plutarch, Prcec.
Conj. 29) ; avr)v<rTos (Phoc. 5) ; avdeicaaTos l (De Adul. et
Am. 14) ; iriKpos (ibid. 2) ; dye\a<TTO$ and avsvrsvKros (De
Cup. Div. 7) ; avx/jLrjpos (Philo, De Prcem. et Pcen. 5) ; while
Eudemus (Ethic. Eudem. vii. 5) contrasts the avaT^pos with
the VTpaTT\os, using the latter word in a good sense.
At the same time none of the epithets with which
ava-Trjpos is associated imply that deep moral perversity
which lies in many with which cric\r)p6s is linked ; and,
moreover, it is met not seldom in more honorable com-
pany ; thus it is joined with a-axppwv continually (Plutarch,
Prcec. Conj. 7, 29 ; Qucest. Or. 40) ; with /J,OV<TIKOS (Symp.
v. 2) ; with crafypovLKos (Clement of Alexandria, Pcedag.
ii. 4) ; one, otherwise <ysvvalos Kal /i^yay, is aba-Typos as not
sacrificing to the Graces (Plutarch, Amat. 23) ; while the
Stoics affirmed all good men to be austere ' (Diogenes
Laertius, vii. I. 64, 117): Kal ava-rypovs Ss fyaaiv slvai TTCLV-
Tas TOVS (nrovSatovs, rw fJLtjre avrovs rrpos r)8ovr)v of^iXslv,
p,r)T Trap" aXXeuv ra Trpos rjSovrjv 'Trpoa^E'^eo'dai : cf. Plu-
tarch, Prcec. Conj. 27. In Latin, * austerus ' is predomi-
nantly an epithet of honour (Doderlein, Lat. Synon. vol.
1 In Plutarch this word is used in an ill sense, as self-willed, joined
by him to areyieros, that is, not to be moulded and fashioned like moist
clay, in the hands of another, ' eigensinnig ; ' being one of the many
which, in all languages, beginning with a good sense (Aristotle, Ethic.
Nic. iv. 7. 4), have ended with a bad.
xv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 49
iii. p. 232) ; lie to whom it is applied is earnest and severe,
opposed to all levity ; needing, it may very well be, to watch
against harshness, rigour, or moroseness, into which he
might easily lapse (' non austeritas ejus tristis, non dis-
soluta sit comitas,' Quintilian, ii. 2. 5) but as yet not
chargeable with these.
We may distinguish, then, between them thus : <r tempos
conveys always a reproach and a grave one, indicates a
character harsh, inhuman, and (in the earlier use of that
word) uncivil ; in the words of Hesiod, dSdjAavros '%&>!/
Kpa,Tp6(f)pova 6vfj*6v. It is not so with avarrjpos. This
epithet does not of necessity convey a reproach at all, any
more than the German * streng,' which is very different
from * hart ; ' and even where it does convey a reproof, it
is one of far less opprobrious a kind ; rather the exaggera-
tion of a virtue pushed too far, than an absolute vice.
XV. sllCCOV, OfJiOiUXTlS, OjAOlW^a.
THERE is a twofold theological interest attending the
distinction between si/cav and the two words which are
here brought into comparison with it ; the first belonging
to the Arian controversy, and turning on the fitness or
un'fitness of the words before us to set forth the relation
of the Son to the Father ; while the other is an interest
that, seeming at first sight remote from any controversy,
has yet contrived to insinuate itself into more than one,
namely, whether there be a distinction, and if so, what it
is, between the * image ' (SIKWV) of God, in which., and the
' likeness ' (o/Woxrts) of God, after which, man was created
at the beginning (Gen. i. 26).
I need hardly remind those who will care to read this
volume of the distinction drawn between the words during
the course of the long Arian debate. Some there may be
who are not acquainted with Lightfoot's note on Col. i. 1 5
in his Commentary on the Colossians. Them I must refer to
his discussion on the words sl/cwv rov foO. It is evident
E
50 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.
that slicwv (from SIKW, SOIKO) and oiioiwfjai might often be
used as equivalent, and in many positions it would be in-
different whether one or the other were employed. Thus
they are convertibly used by Plato (Phcedr. 250 6), o/iotw-
jjiara and stKovss alike, to set forth the earthly copies and
resemblances of the archetypal things in the heavens.
When, however, the Church found it necessary to raise up
bulwarks against Arian error and equivocation, it drew a
strong distinction between these two, one not arbitrary,
but having essential difference in the words themselves for
its ground. Eltccav ( = * imago ' = ' imitago ' = aTrsLKovia-pa,
and used in the same intention of the Logos by Philo, Leg.
Alleg. i\\. 31), always assumes a prototype, that which it
not merely resembles, but from which it is drawn, a irapd-
Ssij/jia (Philo, ibid.) ; it is the German Abbild,' which in-
variably presumes a ' Vorbild ; ' thus Gregory Nazianzene
(Orat. 36) : avrtj jap sl/covos fyvcris, fj,lfjLTjfjLa slvai TOV apx -
TVTTOV. Thus, the monarch's head on the coin is el/cwv
(Matt. xxii. 20) ; the reflection of the sun in the water is
slK(i)v (Plato, Phcedo, 99 d) ; the statue in stone or other
material is SIKCOV (Rev. xiii. 14) ; and, coming nearer to the
heart of the matter than by any of these illustrations
we have done, the child is s^v-xos SIKCOV of his parents.
But in the o/Ww/ia or opoitoo-ts, while there is resemblance,
it by no means follows that it has been acquired in this
way, that it is derived : it may be accidental, as one egg is
like another, as there may exist a resemblance between two
men in no way akin to one another. Thus, as Augustine
in an instructive passage brings out (Qucest. Ixxxiii. 74), the
* imago' ( = to)i/) includes and involves the ' similitudo,'
but the ' similitudo ' (=o/Wo>o-ts) does not involve the
' imago.' The reason will at once be manifest why slica>v
is ascribed to the Son, as representing his relation to the
Father (2 Cor. iv. 4 ; Col. i. 1 5 ; cf. Wisd. vii. 26) ; while
among all the words of the family of o/iotos-, not merely
none are so employed in the Scripture, but they have all
xv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 51
been expressly forbidden and condemned by the Church ;
that is, so soon as ever this has had reason to suspect that
they were not used in good faith. Thus Hilary, address-
ing an Arian, says, " I may use them, to exclude Sabellian
error ; but I will not suffer you to do so, whose intention
is altogether different" (Gun. Constant. Imp. 17-21).
'Eilxtavj in this its augustest application, like ^apa/crr/p
and aTrav^/aa-fia (Heb. i. 3), with which theologically it is
nearly allied, like saoirTpov, dr^ls, aTroppota (Wisd. vii. 25,
26), like (TKid (Philo, Leg. Alleg. iii. 31 ; but not Heb. x. i) ;
which are all remoter approximations to the same truth,
is indeed inadequate ; but, at the same time, it is true
as far as it goes ; and in human language, employed for
the setting forth of truths which transcend the limits of
human thought, we must be content with approximate
statements, seeking for the complement of their inade-
quacy, for that which shall redress their insufficiency, from
some other quarter. Each has its weak side, which must be
supported by strength derived from elsewhere. Ei/c&>i> is
weak ; for what image is of equal worth and dignity with
the prototype from which it is imaged ? But it has also
its strong side ; it implies an archetype from which it has
been derived and drawn; while o/iotorT/y, o/Weocriy, and
words of this family, expressing mere similarity, if they
did not actually imply, might yet suggest, and if they
suggested, would seem to justify, error, and that with no
compensating advantage. Exactly the same considera-
tions were at work here, which, in respect of the verbs
ysvvav and KTi&tv, did in this same controversy lead the
Church to allow the former and to condemn the latter.
The student who would completely acquaint himself with
all the aspects of the great controversy to which these
words, in their relation to one another, gave rise, above all,
as to the exact force of SIKMV as applied to the Son, will
find the materials admirably prepared to his hand by
Petavius, De Trin. ii. n ; iv. 6 ; vi. 5, 6; while Gfrorer
B2
52 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xv.
(Philo, vol. i. p. 261 sqq.) will give him the very interest-
ing, but wholly inadequate, speculations of the Alexandrian
theosophists on the same subject.
The second interest in the discrimination of these words
lies in the question, which has often been discussed,
whether in that great fiat announcing man's original con-
stitution, " Let us make man in our image (/car' sltcova,
LXX., D^X Heb.), after our likeness" (icaff O^OLWO-LV, LXX.,
n-ID"] Heb.), anything different was intended by the second
from the first, or whether the second is merely to be
regarded as consequent upon the first, "in our image,"
and therefore " after our likeness." Both the SIKWV and
6/jLotcoa-is are claimed for man in the N. T. : the sltewv,
i Cor. xi. 7 ; the ofioiwais, Jam. iii. 9. The whole subj ect
is discussed at large by Gregory of Nyssa in a treatise which
he has devoted exclusively to the question (Opp. 1638, vol.
ii. pp. 22-34), but mainly in its bearing on controversies
of his own day. He with many of the early Fathers, as also
of the Schoolmen, affirmed a real distinction. Thus, the
great Alexandrian theologians taught that the elxatv was
something in which men were created, being common to
all, and continuing to man as much after the Fall as
before (Gen. ix. 6), while the o/W&xns was something
toward which man was created, that he might strive after
and attain it ; Origen (De Prin. iii. 6) : ' Imaginis digni-
tatem in prima conditione percepit, sirnilitudinis vero per-
fectio in consummatione servata est;' cf. in Joan. torn. xx.
20 ; Irenseus, v. 16. 2 ; Tertullian, De Bapt. 5. Doubtless
the Platonist studies and predilections of the illustrious
theologians of Alexandria had some influence upon them
here, and on this distinction which they drew. It is well
known that Plato presented the 6/ioto00-#at ro> e &> Kara TO
Svvarov (Thecet. 176 a) as the highest scope of man's life ;
and indeed Clement (Strom, ii. 22) brings the great passage
of Plato to bear upon this very discussion. The School-
men, in like manner, drew a distinction, although it was
xv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 53
not this one, between ' these two divine stamps upon man/
Thus Anselm, Medit. l ma ; Peter Lombard, Sent. ii. dist.
16; H. de S. Victore, Dei Animd, ii. 25 ; De Sac. i. 6. 2 :
* Imago secundum cognitionem veritatis, similitude secun-
dum aniorem virtutis ; ' the first declaring the intellectual,
as the second the moral, preeminence in which man was
created.
Many, however, have refused to acknowledge these, or
any other distinctions, between the two declarations ; as
Baxter, for instance, who, in his interesting reply to
Elliott the Indian Missionary's inquiries on the subject,
rejects them all as groundless conceits, though himself in
general only too anxious for distinction and division (Life
and Times, by Sylvester, vol. ii. p. 296). They were scarcely
justified in this rejection. The Alexandrians, I believe,
were very near the truth, if they did not grasp it altogether.
There are portions of Scripture, in respect of which the
words of Jerome, originally applied to the Apocalypse, ' quot
verba tot sacramenta,' hardly contain an exaggeration.
Such an eminently significant part is the history of man's
creation and his fall, all which in the first three chapters
of Genesis is contained. We may expect to find mysteries
thera; prophetic intimations of truths which it might
require ages upon ages to develop. And, without attempt-
ing to draw any very strict line between SLKWV and O/JLOICOO-IS,
or their Hebrew counterparts, we may be bold to say that
the whole history of man, not only in his original creation,
but also in his after restoration and reconstitution in the
Son, is significantly wrapped up in this double statement ;
which is double for this very cause, that the Divine Mind
did not stop at the contemplation of his first creation, but
looked on to him as "renewed in knowledge after the
image of Him that created him" (Col. iii. 10, on which
see Bishop Lightfoot in loco) ; because it knew that only
as partaker of this double benefit would he attain the
true end for which he was ordained.
54 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xvi.
xvi. acrwri'a, acr\jsia.
IT is little likely that one acrwros will not be
also ; but for all this acroma and dasXysta are not iden-
tical in meaning ; they will express different aspects of his
sin, or at any rate contemplate it from different points of
view.
'Aerama, a word in which heathen ethics said much
more than they intended or knew, occurs thrice in the
N. T. (Ephes. v. 18 ; Tit. i. 6 ; I Pet. iv. 4); once in the
Septuagint (Prov. xxviii. 7) and once in the Apocrypha,
being there joined with KM/JLOC (2 Mace. vi. 4). We have
further the adverb aa-darws, at Luke xv. 13 ; and aaoaros
once in the Septuagint (Prov. vii. u). At Ephes. v. 18
we translate it excess ; ' in the other two places, * riot/ as
%wv aa-coTws, " in riotous living ; " the Vulgate always by
* luxuria ' and * luxuriose,' words implying in medieval
Latin a loose and profligate habit of living which is strange
to our * luxury ' and ' luxuriously * at the present : see my
Select Glossary, s. vv. in proof. "Ao-wros is sometimes
taken in a passive sense, as = aa-uxrros (Plutarch, Alcib. 3) ;
one who cannot be saved, <rd>%ea-0ai fir) Svvd/jievos, as
Clement of Alexandria (Pcedag. ii. i . 7) explains it, ' per-
ditus' (Horace, Sat. i. 2. 15), 'heillos,' or as we used to
say, a 'lose!,' a 'hopelost' (this noticeable word is in
Grimeston's Polylius) ; Grotius : ' Genus hominuin ita im-
mersorum vitiis, ut eorum salus deplorata sit ; J the word
being, so to speak, prophetic of their doom to whom it
was applied. 1 This, however, was quite the rarer use ;
1 Thus in the Adelphi of Terence (vi. 7), one having spoken of a youth
' luxu perditum,' proceeds :
' ipsa si cupiat Salus,
Servare prorsus non potest hanc familiam.'
No doubt in the Greek original there was a threefold play here on no-wroy,
o-oM-qpi'a, and <r<b(iv, which the absence of a corresponding group of words
in Latin has hindered Terence from preserving.
xvi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 55
more commonly the aawros is one who himself cannot
save, or spare, = ' prodigus ; ' or, again to use a good old
English word more than once employed by Spenser, but
which we have now let go, a * scatterling.' This extra-
vagant squandering of means Aristotle notes as the proper
definition of da-wria (Ethic. Nic. iv. 1.3): dawria scrrlv
V7rsp/3o\r) irspl xpifaara. The word forms part of his
ethical terminology; the e\svdspios, or the truly liberal
man, keeps the golden mean between the two aicpa, namely,
da-wria ( ( effusio ') on one side, and avsXsvdspla, or ig-
noble stinginess ( = ( tenacitas,' Augustine, Ep. 167. 2),
on the other. It is in this view of da-wria that Plato (Rep.
viii. 560 e), when he names the various catachrestic terms,
according to which men call their vices by the names of
the virtues which they caricature, makes them style their
dacorla, fis<ya\o-jrpe'7rLa : compare Quintilian (Inst. viii. 36) :
* Pro luxuria liberalitas dicitur.'
But it is easy to see that one who is acrwros in this
sense of spending too much, of laying out his expenditure
on a more magnificent scheme than his means will war-
rant, slides easily, under the fatal influence of flatterers,
and of all those temptations with which he has surrounded
himself, into a spending on his own lusts and appetites
of that with which he parts so freely, laying it out for the
gratification of his own sensual desires. Thus the word
takes a new colour, and indicates now not only one of a too
expensive, but also and chiefly, of a dissolute, debauched,
profligate manner of living; the German ' liederlich.'
Aristotle has noted this (Ethic. Nic. iv. I. 35) : Sib /cal
d/c6\aa'roi avrwv \_rwv acrtarwv] slaiv ol 7ro\\ol' sv^spws <ydp
dva~\,i(TKOVTs teal &ls ras atcoX-aalas BctTravijpol slai, Kai 8ia
TO fir} irpos TO Kakov ^rjv, irpos ray r/Sovas a7TOK\lvov(riv.
Here he explains a prior statement : rovs dtcparsis xal sis
cucdXacr iav BaTravrjpovs dcra)TOv$ Ka\ovjj,V (ibid. 3)-
In this sense do-aria is used in the N. T. ; as we find
da-corlai and tcpaiTrdXai joined elsewhere together (Herodian,
56 SFNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xvi.
ii. 5). The two meanings will of course run often into
one another, nor will it be possible to keep them strictly
asunder. Thus the several examples of the aa-wros, and of
aa-wTia, which Athenseus (iv. 59-67) gives, are sometimes
rather of one kind, sometimes of the other. The waster
of his goods will be very often a waster of everything
besides, will lay waste himself his time, his faculties, his
powers ; and, we may add, uniting the active and passive
meanings of the word, will be himself laid waste ; he at
once loses himself, and is lost. In the Tabula of Cebes,
'Ao-oma, one of the courtesans, the temptresses of Her-
cules, keeps company with 'A.Kpaa-{a, 'A-TrX^crria and KoX,a-
Ksia.
The etymology of a<rs\ysia is wrapped in obscurity;
some going so far to look for it as to Selge, a city of
Pisidia, whose inhabitants were infamous for their vices ;
while others derive it from dsXysw, probably the same
word as the German * schwelgen : J see, however, Donald-
son, Cratylus, 3rd edit. p. 692. Of more frequent use than
aawria in the N. T., it is in our Version generally rendered
' lasciviousness ' (Mark vii. 22 ; 2 Cor. xii. 21 ; Gal. v. 19 :
Ephes. iv. 19; I Pet. iv. 3 ; Jude 4); though sometimes
* wantonness ' (Rom. xiii. 1352 Pet. ii. 1 8) ; as in the
Vulgate now ' impudicitia,' and now ' luxuria; ' even as it
is defined in the Etymologicon Magnum as sroi/jiOTrjs Trpbs
Traa-av ^8ov^v. If our Translators or the Latin had im-
purities and lusts of the flesh exclusive!^ In their eye, they
have certainly given to the word too nurrow a meaning.
'A(rs\rysia, which, it will be observed, is n}t grouped with
such in the catalogue of sins at Mark vii. 21, 22, is best
described as wanton lawless insolence; being somewhat
stronger than the Latin ' protervitas/ though of the same
quality, more nearly ' petulantia,' Chrysostom (Rom. 37
in Matt.) joining tVa/ior^s with it. It is defined by Basil
the Great (Reg. Brev. Int. 67) as SidQsa-is ^v^rjs pn sx ovaa
^ p.i] <f>spovo-a a\<yos a&XtjrtKov. The da-e^rjs, as Passow
SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 57
observes, is very closely allied to the vfipia-ri/cos and
tt/coA-ao-Tos-, being one who acknowledges no restraints,
who dares whatsoever his caprice and wanton petulance
may suggest. 1 None would deny that aa-e\ysia may dis-
play itself in acts of what we call ' lasciviousness ; ' for
there are no worse displays of vftpis than in these; but
still it is their petulance, their insolence, which this
word, linked by Polybius (v. 1 1 1) with ySta, expresses. Of
its two renderings in our Version, ' wantonness ' is the
best, standing as it does in a remarkable ethical con-
nexion with do-eXysia, and having the same duplicity of
meaning.
In numerous passages the notion of lasciviousness is
altogether absent from the word. In classical Greek it is
defined (Bekker's Anecdota, p. 451) 77 per sTr^psao-p-ov KCU
Opao-vrrjros (3ta. Thus, too, Demosthenes in his First
Philippic, 42, denounces the acrshyeia of Philip ; while
elsewhere he characterizes the blow which Meidias had
given him, as in keeping with the known das\jsia of the
man, joining this and vfipis together (Cont. Meid. 514) ;
linking elsewhere acrskyws with Ssa-TroTirc&s (Or. xvii. 2 1 ),
and with Trpoirsrws (Or. lix. 46). As acrs\ysia Plutarch
characterizes a similar outrage on the part of Alcibiades,
committed against an honorable citizen of Athens (Alcib. 8) ;
indeed, the whole picture which he draws of Alcibiades is
the full-length portrait of an dcr\y>j$. Aristotle notices
fyfjiaywywv dcrsXysiav as a frequent cause of revolutions
(Pol. v. 4). Josephus ascribes aa-elvyeta and pavia to Jezebel,
daring, as she did, to build a temple of Baal in the Holy
City itself (Antt. viii. 13. i) ; and the same to a Roman
soldier, who, being on guard at the Temple during the
1 Thus "Witsius (Melet. Leid. p. 465) observes : ' do-e\yeiav dici posse
omnem tarn ingenii, quam morum proterviam, petulantiam, lasciviam,
quse ab ^Eschine opponitur 777 /ierptdrj/rt *cat (raxfrpoo-vvrj.' There is ft
capital note, but too long to quote, on all that do-e'A/eta includes by Coc-
ceius on Gal. v. 19.
58 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XVH.
Passover, provoked by an act of grossest indecency a
tumult, in which many lives were lost (xx. 5.3). Other
passages, helpful to a fixing of the true meaning of the
word, are 3 Mace. ii. 26; Polybius, viii. 14. I ; Eusebins,
Hist. Eccl. v. 1 . 26 ; and see the quotations in Wetstein,
vol. i. p. 588. 'Ao-f'X/yeta, then, and da-aria are clearly dis-
tinguishable ; the fundamental notion of aawrLa being
wastefulness and riotous excess j of da-s\ysia } lawless in-
solence and wanton caprice.
xvii. Ovyyava), aTrro/iat, -fyrfXafydw.
AN accurate synonymous distinction will sometimes cause
us at once to reject as untenable some interpretation of
Scripture, which might, but for this, have won a certain
amount of allowance. Thus, many interpreters have ex-
plained Heb. xii. 1 8 : *' For ye are not come unto the
mount that might be touched " (^nrfka^wfjLsvw opsi\ by Ps.
civ. 32 : " He toucheth the hills, and they smoke ; " and
call in aid the fact that, at the giving of the Law, God
came down upon mount Sinai, which " was altogether on
a smoke, because the Lord descended upon it" (Exod.
xix. 1 8). But decisively forbidding this is the fact that
fyrj\a<j>da> never expresses the so handling of an object as
to exercise a moulding, modifying influence upon it, but
at most a feeling of its surface (Luke xxiv. 39 : I John i. i) ;
this, it may be, with the intention of learning its composi-
tion (Gen. xxvii. 12, 21, 22) ; while not seldom it signifies
no more than a feeling for or after an object, without any
actual coming in contact with it at all. It continually ex-
presses a groping in the dark (Job v. 14) ; or of the blind
(Isai. lix. IO; Gen. xxvii. 12 ; Deut. xxviii. 29; Judg.
xvi. 26) ; tropically sometimes (Acts xvii. 27) ; compare
Plato (PhcBdo, 99 6), -^rrfKafywvTSS axTTrsp ev a/corst', Ari-
stophanes, Pax, 691 ; Eccles. 315, and Philo, Quis Rer. Div.
Hcer. 5 1 . Nor does the ^rrfka^xa^svov opos, to which refer-
XVH. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 59
ence was just made, the ' rnons palpabilis,' or ' tractabilis,'
as the Vulgate has it, mean anything else : ' Te are not
come,' the writer to the Hebrews would say, ' to any mate-
rial mountain, like Sinai, capable of being touched and
handled ; not, in this sense, to the mountain that might
be felt, but to the heavenly Jerusalem, to a voyrov, not to
an ala-OijTov, opos' Thus Knapp (Script. Var. Argum. p.
264) : * Videlicet TO ^rrjXa^wp.svov idem est, quod ata-ffijTov,
vel quidquid sensu percipitur aut investigatur quovis
modo; plane ut Tacitus (Ann. iii. 12) oculis contrectare
dixit, nee dissimili ratione Cicero (Tusc. iii. 1 5) mente con-
trectare. Et Sina quidem mons ideo aurdij/ros appellatur,
quia Sioni opponitur, quo in monte, quse sub sensus
cadunt, non spectantur ; sed ea tantum, quse mente atque
animo percipi possunt, vorjrd, Trvsv/j-aTi/cd, r/OiKa. Appo-
site ad h. 1. Chrysostomus (Horn. 32 in Ep. ad Hebr.} :
Trdvra TOLVVV TOTS aladrjTa, real o^sis, Kal (j>a)val ' Trdvra
vorjrd Kal dopara vvv'
The so handling of any object as to exert a modifying
influence upon it, the French 'rnanier,' as distinguished
from 'toucher,' the German 'betasten,' as distinguished
from ' beriihren,' would be either airTsvOai 1 or Otyydvsiv.
These words may be sometimes exchanged the one for the
other, as at Exod. xix. 1 2 they are ; and compare Aristotle,
De Gen. et Corrupt. I. 8, quoted by Lightfoot with other
passages at Coloss. ii. 21 ; but in the main the first is
stronger than the second ; aTrrsaOai ( = ' contrectare ') than
Oiyydvsiv (Ps. civ. 15 ; I John v. 1 8), as appears plainly in
a passage of Xenophon (Cyr. i. 3. 5), where the child
Cyrus, rebuking his grandfather's delicacies, says : art a-g
opw, orav fjisv TOV apTOV a -^77, sis ovSsv TTJV %slpa airo^rw-
, orav 8s TOVTWV TWOS Oiyrjs, svdiis airoKadaipr) TTJV
sis TCL ^sLpop,aKTpa, u>s irdvv d^do^svos. It is, indeed,
so much stronger that it can be used, which certainly
1 In the passage alluded to already, Ps. civ. 32, the words of the Sep-
tuagint are, 6 anTopevos TUV optcov KOI KairvL^ovrat.
60 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xvm.
not, of the statuary's shaping of his mate-
rials (Plutarch, Phil. cumPrin. i) ; the self-conscious effort,
which is sometimes present to this, being always absent
from the other. Our Version, then, has exactly reversed
the true order of the words, when, at Col. ii. 21, it trans-
lates /i?; a-^rr], fJ,r)Ss <ysv(rr), /i^Sg Oi^ys, " Touch not, taste
not, handle not." The first and last prohibitions should
change places, and the passage read, ''Handle not, taste
not, touch not j " just as in the Latin Versions * tangere,'
which now stands for aTrrsa-Oai, and < attaminare,' or ' con-
trectare,' for Oiysiv, should be transposed. How much
more vividly will then come out the ever ascending scale
of superstitious prohibition among the false teachers at
Colosse. To abstain from ' handling ' is not sufficient ;
they forbid to ' taste,' and, lastly, even to ' touch/ those
things from which, according to their notions, uncleanness
might be contracted. Beza has noted this well : ' Verbuin
6i<yeiv a verbo aTrrsadai sic est distinguendum, ut decres-
cente semper oratione intelligatur crescere snperstitio.'
The verb tyavstv does not once occur in the N. T., nor in
the Septuagint. There is, I observe in conclusion, a very
careful study on this group of words in Schmidt's Syno-
nymilc, vol. i., pp. 224-243.
xviii. TraXiyyevso'la, ava/calvcocns.
HdXiyjsvsa-ia is one among the many words which the
Gospel found, and, so to speak, glorified ; enlarged the
borders of its meaning ; lifted it up into a higher sphere ;
made it the expression of far deeper thoughts, of far
mightier truths, than any of which it had been the vehicle
before. It was, indeed, already in use ; but as the Chris-
tian new-birth was not till after Christ's birth ; as men
were not new-born, till Christ was born (John i. 12); as
their regeneration did not precede, but only followed his
generation ; so the word could not be used in this its
xvm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 6 1
highest, most mysterious sense, till that great mystery of
the birth of the Son of God into our world had actually
found place. And yet it is exceedingly interesting to
trace these its subordinate, and, as they proved, prepara-
tory uses. There are passages (as, for instance, in Lucian,
Muscce Encom. 7) in which it means revivification, and
nothing more. In the Pythagorean doctrine of the trans-
migration of souls, their reappearance in new bodies was
called their 7ra\iyyi><ria (Plutarch, De Esu Car. i. 7 ;
ii. 6: De Isid. et Osir. 35: 'OcriptSos at ava/3ta)(Ti$ ical
ira\iyyVcriat : De Ei ap. Delph. 9 : aTroftiwcrsis KOL 7ra\iy-
yVo-iai : De Def. Orac. 5 1 : /iera/SoXal KOL 7ra\iyyi>(Ticu} .
For the Stoics the word set forth the periodic renovation
of the earth, when, budding and blossoming in the spring-
time, it woke up from its winter sleep, and, so to speak,
revived from its winter death : which revival therefore
Marcus Antoninus calls (ii. l) rrjv TrspioSifcrjv TraXiyysvs-
ffiav rwv o\wv. Philo also constantly sets forth by aid of
7ra\iyyV<ria the phcenix-like resurrection of the material
world out of fire, which the Stoics taught (De Incorr. Mun.
17, 21 ; De Mun. 15) ; while in another place, of Noah
and those in the Ark with him, he says (De Vit. Mos. ii.
12) : 7ra\iyyVO'ias sysvovro rjys/Aoves, KOI SsvTepas dpxij-
yerai 7Tpi6Bov. Basil the Great (Hexa'e'm. Horn. 3) notes
some heretics, who, bringing old heathen speculations
into the Christian Church, u7Tlpovs <f>0opas Koapov KCU
7ra\iyyVcria$ iadyov<riv. Cicero (Ad Attic, vi. 6) calls
his restoration to his dignities and honours, after his
return from exile, 'hanc 7ra\tyyevcriav nostram,' with
which compare Philo, Leg. ad Cai. 41. Josephus (Antt.
xi. 3. 9) characterizes the restoration of the Jewish nation
after the Captivity, as rqv avdicrija-iv KOI 7ra\iyyV(riav ri}s
TrarplBos (=fao7roi7)(riv, Ezra ix. 8, 9). And, to cite one
passage more, Olympiodorus, a later Platonist, styles
recollection or reminiscence, which must be carefully dis-
62 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xvm.
tinguished from memory, 1 the TrdXiyyevsa-ta of knowledge
(Journal des Savans, 1834, p. 488) : iraXiyysvscria rijs
S(TTIV rj QvdfHH)W9,
-ta, which has thus in heathen and Jewish
Greek the meaning of a recovery, a restoration, a revival,
yet never reaches, or even approaches, there the depth of
meaning which it has acquired in Christian language.
The word does not once occur in the O. T. (but 7rd\iv
yivsaBai at Job xiv. 14; cf. Josephus, Con. Apion. ii.
30), and only twice in the New (Matt. xix. 28 ; Tit. iii.
5) ; but on these two occasions (as is most remarkable),
with meanings apparently different. In our Lord's own
words there is evident reference to the new-birth of the
whole creation, the aTroKciTdaravis iravrwv (Acts iii. 21),
which shall be when the Son of Man hereafter comes in
his glory ; while " the washing of regeneration " whereof
St. Paul speaks, has to do with that new-birth, not of the
whole travailing creation, but of the single soul, which is
now evermore finding place. Is then TraXiyysvscrla used
in two different senses, with no common bond binding the
diverse uses of it together ? By no means : all laws of
language are violated by any such supposition. The fact
is, rather, that the word by our Lord is used in a wider,
by his Apostle in a narrower, meaning. They are two
circles of meaning, one comprehending more than the
other, but their centre is the same. The TraXiyysvsa-la
which Scripture proclaims begins with the fj,iKpoKO(T/j,os
1 The very purpose of the passage in Olympiodorus is to bring out
the old Aristotelian and Platonic distinction between ' memory ' (^nj/xj;,
Gedachtniss) and ' recollection ' or ' reminiscence ' (dvd[i.vT)<ris, Heb. x. 3 j
Wiedererinnerung), the first being instinctive, and common to beasts
with men, the second being the reviving of faded impressions by a distinct
act of the will, the reflux, at the bidding of the mind, of knowledge
which has once ebbed (Plato, Pkilebus, 34 b ; Legg. v. 732 b : dixlfivrja-is
8' (<rr\v (irippoti (ppovrja-fo): aTroXiTrouo-q? : cf. Philo, Cony. Eruil. Grat, 8),
and as such proper only to man (Aristotle, De Hist. Anim. i. i. 15;
Brandis, Aristoteles, pp. 1148-53). It will at once be seen that of this
latter only Olympiodorus could say, that it is na\iyyfvrLa rrjs yf&xrewj.
xvin. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 63
of single souls ; but it does riot end with this, nor cease
its effectual working till it has embraced the whole
of the universe. The primary seat of the
is the soul of man ; it is of this that St. Paul
speaks ; but, having established its centre there, it extends
in ever- widening circles ; and, first, to his body ; the day
of resurrection being the day of iraX^^svscria for it. It
follows that those Fathers had a certain, though only a
partial, right, who at Matt. xix. 28 made TraXiyyevsa-ia
equivalent to avdo-raa-ts, and themselves continually used
the words as synonymous (Eusebius, Hist. Ecc.l. v. I. 58;
iii. 23 ; Euthyinius : TraX.iyysvsa'iav \eysi rr)v SK vsicpwv
avdcnao-iv a>s ira\wwtav ; see Suicer, s. v.). Doubtless
our Lord there implies, or presupposes, the resurrection,
but he also includes much more. Beyond the day of
resurrection, or, it may be, contemporaneous with it, a
day will come when all nature shall put off its soiled
work-day garments, and clothe itself in its holy-day attire,
"the time of restitution of all things" (Acts iii. 21) ; of
what Plutarch, reaching out after this glorious truth, calls
the yu,ra/<:ooyi?7<ny (De Fac. in Orb. Lun. 13); of ' the new
heaven and the new earth ' (Rev. xxi. I ; Isai. Ixv. 17 ; Ixvi.
22 ; 2 Pet. iii. 13) ; a day by St. Paul regarded as one in
the labour-pangs of which all creation is groaning and
travailing until now (Rom. viii. 2 1-23). l Man is the pre-
sent subject of the TraXiyysvscria, and of the wondrous
change which it implies; but in that day it will have
1 Parallels from heathen writers are very often deceptive, none are
more likely to prove so than those which Seneca offers ; on which see
Bishop Lightfoot in an Appendix to his Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle
to the Galatians, p. 268, sqq. ; and Aubertin, Sur les Rapports supposes
entre Seneque et S. Paul. And yet, with the fullest admission of this, the
words which follow must be acknowledged as remarkable (Ep. 102):
' Quemadmodum novem mensibus nos tenet maternus uterus, et prseparat
non sibi sed illi loco in quern videmur emitti, jamidonei spiritum trahere,
etin aperto durare, sic per hoc spatium quod ab infantia patet in senectu-
tem, in alium naturae sumimur partum, alia origo nos expect it, alius rerum
status.'
64 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xvm.
included within its limits that whole world of which man
is the central figure : and here is the reconciliation of the
two passages, in one of which it is contemplated as per-
taining to the single soul, in the other to the whole re-
deemed creation. These refer both to the same event, but
at different epochs and stages of its development. ' Palin-
genesia,' as Delitzsch says concisely and well (Apologetik,
p. 213),' ist ein kurzer Ausdruck fur die Wiedergeburt oder
Verklarung der menschlichen Leiblichkeit und der ausser-
menschlichen Gesammtnatur.' Compare Engelhardt,
WeltverTclarung und Welterneuerung in the Zeitsclirift fur
Luther. Theol. 1871, p. 48, sqq.
'Avayswrjais, a word common enough with the Greek
Fathers (see Suicer, s. v.), nowhere occurs in the N. T.,
although the verb avajswdco twice (l Pet. i. 3, 23). Did
we meet it there, it would constitute a closer synonym
to TrdXi'yysvsa'ia than avaKaivaxris can do; dvcvyswrjcris
(=regeneratio) bringing out the active operation of Him
who is the author of the new-birth; while 7ra\L<yyi>cria
( = renascentia) is that same new-birth itself. But not
urging this further, we have now to speak of dvafcalvwais
(=renovatio), of the relations in which it stands to 7ra\iy-
and the exact, limits to the meaning of each.
And first it is worth observing that while the word
is drawn from the realm of nature, dvaicai-
is derived from that of art. A word peculiar to the
Greek of the N. T., it occurs there only twice once in
connexion with 7ra\,iyyV<rla (Tit. iii. 5), and again at
Rom. xii. 2 ; but we have the verb dvafeaivoa), which also
is exclusively a N. T. form, at 2 Cor. iv. 16; Col. iii. 10;
and the more classical dvaicaivi^w, Heb. vi. 6, from which
the nouns, frequent in the Greek Fathers, dva/caivia-pos
and dva/catvia-is, 1 are more immediately drawn ; we have
also dvavsoa) at Ephes. iv. 23 ; all in similar uses. More
1 Thus Gregory of Nazianzus (Oral. lo) : avap.ev<a TOV ovpavov p.era-
^y yrjs p.(T<nroi oiv^rjv rcav orrot^fi'wi' f\evdfpiav, TOV Koanov
Travrbs avaKaivuriv.
xvni. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 65
on these words will be found in Ix. Our Collect for
Christmas day expresses excellently well the relation in
which the 7ra\i<y<yVa'ia, and the avaKalvaxrif stand to each
other ; we there pray, ' that we being regenerate,' in other
words, having been already made the subjects of the
Trakiyyevsa-la, < may daily be renewed by the Holy Spirit,'
may continually know the avaKawcaais TIvsv/jLaros 'Aytov.
In this Collect, uttering, as do so many, profound theolo-
gical truth in forms at once the simplest and the most ac-
curate, the new-birth is contemplated as already past, as
having found place once for all, while the ' renewal ' or
' renovation ' is daily proceeding being as it is that
gradual restoration of the Divine image, which is ever
going forward in him who, through the new-birth, has
come under the transforming * powers of the world to
come. It is called ' the renewal of the Holy Ghost,' inas-
much as He is the efficient cause, by whom alone this
putting on of the new man, and putting off the old, is
brought about.
These two then are bound by closest ties to one another;
the second the following up, the consequence, the consum-
mation of the first. The TraXtyyevsa-ta is that free act of
God's mercy and power, whereby He causes the sinner to
pass out of the kingdom of darkness into that of light,
out of death into life ; it is the avwOsv ysvvrjdfjvai, of John
iii. 3 ; the ysvvrjdrjvai SK sov of I John v. 4 ; the dso^svsa-ia
of Dionysius the Areopagite and other Greek theologians ;
the a.vay^vvriOrjvai, etc (TTropas a<j>ddprov of I Pet. i. 23 ; in
it that glorious word begins to be fulfilled, ISov tcaivci
iroiS) ra Trdvra (Rev. xxi. 5). In it, not in the prepara-
tions for it, but in the act itself, the subject of it is
e rfi dvaicaivao-ei TOV voos (Rom xii. 2). The striking
words of Seneca (Ep. 6) : ' Intelligo me emendan non tantum, sed trans-
figurari} are far too big to express any benefits which he could have
indeed gotten from his books and schools of philosophy ; they reach out
after blessings to be obtained, not in the schools of men, but only in the
Church of the living God.
P
66 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xix.
passive, even as the child has nothing to do with its own
birth. With the avatcalvcao-is it is otherwise. This is the
gradual conforming of the man more and more to that
new spiritual world into which he has been introduced,
and in which he now lives and moves ; the restoration of
the Divine image ; and in all this, so far from being
passive, he must be a fellow-worker with God. That was
' regeneratio,' this is * renovatio ; ' which two must not be
separated, but as little may be confounded, as Gerhard
(Loc. Theoll. xxi. 7. 113) has well declared: 'Renovatio,
licet a regeneratione proprie et specialiter accepta di-
stinguatur, individuo tamen et perpetuo nexu cum ea est
conjuncta.' What infinite perplexities, conflicts, scan-
dals, obscurations of God's truth on this side and on that,
have arisen now from the confusing, and now from the
separating, of these two !
xix. ala-wij, al&ws,
THERE was a time when albws occupied that whole domain
of meaning afterwards divided between it and ala%vvrj.
It had then the same duplicity of meaning which is latent
in the Latin ' pudor,' in our own ' shame ; ' and indeed
retained a certain duplicity of meaning till the last
(Euripides, Hippol 387-389). Thus Homer, who does
not know ala-^vvt], sometimes, as at II. v. 787, uses at'Scos,
where alcr^vvrj would, in later Greek, have certainly been
employed ; but elsewhere in that sense which, at a later
period, it vindicated as exclusively its own (II. xiii. 122 ;
cf. Hesiod, Op. 202). And even Thucydides, in a difficult
and doubtful passage where both words occur (i. 84), is by
many considered to have employed them as equipollent
and convertible (Donaldson, Cratylus, 3rd ed. p. 545). So
too in a passage of Sophocles, where they occur close to-
gether, al8(i)s joined with <f>6pos, and ala-^vvrj with Ssosr
(Ajax, 1049, 1052), it is very difficult, if not impossible, to
xix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 67
draw any distinction between them. Generally, however, in
the Attic period of the language, they were not accounted
synonymous. Ammonius formally distinguishes them in
a philological, as the Stoics (see Plutarch, De Vit. Pud. 2)
in an ethical, interest ; and almost every passage in which
either occurs attests the sense of a real difference existing
between them.
This distinction has not always been seized with a
perfect success. Thus it has been sometimes said that
alSws is the shame, or sense of honour, which hinders one
from doing an unworthy act ; ala-^vinj is the disgrace, out-
ward or inward, which follows on having done it (Luke
xiv. 9). This distinction, while it has its truth, yet is
not exhaustive ; and, if we were thereupon to assume that
aia-^vvr) was thus only retrospective, the conscious result
of things unworthily done, it would be an erroneous one : l
seeing that ttiffjfvmi continually expresses that feeling
which leads to shun what is unworthy out of a prospective
anticipation of dishonour. Thus in the Definitions ascribed
to Plato (416) it is (f>6@os strl Trpoo-Sotcla dSo^Las: Aristotle
including also the future in his comprehensive defini-
tion (Rhet. ii. 6) : ICTT&) 8rj ala-^vvr}, \v7rrj TIS KOI Tapa%r)
Trspl ra SLS dSo^tav (fraivo/ASva <f)spstv ra)i> /ca/cwv, % jrapovrcov,
TI ysyovoToyv, rj jjLsKXovrwv : cf. Ethic. Nic. iv. 9. I . In this
sense, as 'fuga dedecoris,' it is used Ecclus. iv. 21; by
Plato (Gorg. 492 a) ; and by Xenophon (Andb. iii. i. 10) :
<j)o/3ovfj,svoi Sg Trjv oSbv KOI UKOVTSS ofiws ol TroXXot St al~
a"^yvr)v Kal d\\^\a)v Kal Kypou <rvvrjKO\ov0i ! ]crav : Xenophon
implying here that while he and others, for more reasons
than one, were disinclined to go forward with Cyrus to
assail his brother's throne, they yet were now ashamed to
draw back.
1 There is the same onesidedness, though exactly on the other side, in
Cicero's definition of 'pudor,' which he makes merely prospective:
'Pudor, imtm rerum turpium, et ingenua qiuedam timiditas, dedecus
fugiens, laudeiuque consectaus : ' but Ovid writes,
' Irruit, et nostrum vulgat clamore pudorem.'
68 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xix.
This much of truth the distinction drawn above pos-
sesses, that alSws (=< verecundia,' which is denned by
Cicero, Rep. vi. 4 : ' quidam vituperationis non injustse
timer ' *) is the nobler word, and implies the nobler motive :
in it is involved an innate moral repugnance to the doing
of the dishonorable act, which moral repugnance scarcely
or not at all exists in the ala-^vvrj. Let the man who is
restrained by it alone be insured against the outward dis-
grace which he fears his act will entail, and he will refrain
from it no longer. It is only, as Aristotle teaches, Trspl
a$o%ias ^avracria (Rhet. ii. 6) : or as South, ' The grief a
man conceives from his own imperfections considered with
relation to the world taking notice of them ; and in one
word may be denned, grief upon the sense of disesteem ; '
thus at Jer. ii. 26 we have ala-^vvrj K\TTTOV orav a\w.
Neither does the definition of ' shame ' which Locke gives
(Of Human Understanding, ii. 20) rise higher than this.
Its seat, therefore, as Aristotle proceeds to show, is not
properly in the moral sense of him that entertains it, in
his consciousness of a right which has been, or would be,
violated by his act, but only in his apprehension of other
persons who are, or who might be, privy to its violation.
Let this apprehension be removed, and the afcy&iH) ceases ;
while alScos finds its motive in itself, implies reverence for
the good as good (see Aristophanes, Nubes, 994), and not
merely as that to which honour and reputation are at-
tached ; on which matter see some admirable remarks in
Gladstone's Studies on Homer, vol. ii. p. 43 1 ; and again in
his Primer on Homer, p. 112. Thus it is often connected
with sv\d/3sta (Heb. xii. 28 ; if indeed this reading may
stand) ; the reverence before God, before his majesty, his
holiness, which will induce a carefulness not to offend, the
1 In the Latin of the silver age, ' verecundia ' had acquired a sense of
false shame ; thus Quintilian, xii. 5.2:' Verecundia est timor quidam
reducens animum ab eis quse facienda aunt.' It is the duo-an-i'a, on the
mischiefs of which Plutarch has written so graceful an essay.
xx. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 69
German Scheu ' (Plutarch, Goes. 14 ; Prcec. Conj. 47 ; Philo,
Leg. ad Cai. 44) ; often also -with Seos (Plato, Euthyphro,
12 &, c) ; with svKoo-pia (Xenophon, Cyrop. viii. I. 33) ; with
svra^ta and /cooyuoT^s 1 (Plutarch, Gees. 4) ; with
(Prcec. Conj. 26). To sum up all, we may say that
would always restrain a good man from an unworthy act,
while alcrxyvr) might sometimes restrain a bad one.
'EvrpoTT^ occurring only twice in the N. T. (i Cor. vi.
5 ; xv. 34), is elsewhere found in connexion now with
alaxyvr], and now with alSws, with the first, Ps. xxxiv. 26,
cf. Ps. Ixix. 3 ; Ezek. xxxvi. 32 ; with the second in lam-
blichus (quoted by Rost and Palm). It too must be
rendered ' shame,' but has something in it which neither
alSws nor ala-^vvt} has. Nearly related to ivrpsTrca, hrps-
rrofjLai, it conveys at least a hint of that change of con-
duct, that return of a man upon himself, which a wholesome
shame brings with it in him who is its subject. This
speaks out in such phrases as irai&sia svrpoTrffs (Job xx. 3) ;
and assuredly it is only to such shame that St. Paul seeks
to bring his Corinthian converts in the two passages re-
ferred to already ; cf. Tit. ii. 8 ; and 2 Thess. iii. 14, Iva
evrpcnrf}, which Grotius paraphrases rightly, ' ut pudore
tactus ad mentem meliorem redeat.' Pott (Etym. Forsch.
vol. v. p. 138) traces well the successive meanings of
the words : ' hrpeiro), umwenden, umkehren, umdrehen.
Uebertr. einen in sich kehren, zu sich bringen, machen,
dass er in sich geht . . . hrpoTrij das Umkehren; 2. das in
sich Gehn. Bescharnung, Scham, Scheu, Eiicksicht, Ach-
tung, wie aiStos.'
xx. alScos, (raxfrpoa-vwrj.
THESE two are named together by St. Paul (i Tim. ii. 9 ;
cf. Plato, Phcedrus, 253 d) as constituting the truest adorn-
ment of a Christian woman ; crwcppoa-vvr) occurs only on
two other occasions (Acts xxvi. 25 : i Tim. ii. 15). If the
70 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xx.
distinction which has been drawn in xix. be correct, then
that which Xenophon (Cyrop. viii. I. 31) puts into the
mouth of Cyrus cannot stand: Siypsi Ss alSa> teal a-cotypoavvrjv
rf), ws rovs fisv alSov/J,svovs TO, sv TO> <j>avpa> aia"%pa
Asvyovras, rovs 8s (raxppovas icai ra sv T3 d(j>avsi. It is
faulty on both sides; on the one hand at&tws does not
merely shun open and manifest basenesses, however al-
a"Xyvr] may do this ; on the other a mere accident of <rw-
<f>po(rvvi] is urged as constituting its essence. The etymology
of a'dx^poavvq, as o-oa^ova'a rrjv (f>p6wr)o~iv (Aristotle, Ethic.
Nic. vi. 5. 5), or ffvnfpfa rijs (ppovrja-sas (Plato, Crat. 41 1 e ;
cf. Philo, De Fort. 3), must not be taken as seriously in-
tended ; Chrysostom has given it rightly : aw^pocrvvrj
\sjsrai aTTo rov <ra>as ras Qpevas s%iv. Set over against
aico\aa-la (Thucydides, iii. 37 ; Aristotle, Rhet. i. 9 ; Philo,
Mund. Of if. 21), and aKpaaia (Xenophon, Mem. iv. 5 7)>
the mean between do-oma and <psi8a)\ia (Philo, De Proem,
et Pcen. 9), it is properly the condition of an entire com-
mand over the passions and desires, so that they receive
no further allowance than that which the law and right
reason admit and approve (sTriKparsia TWV sTTiOvfuwv, 4
Mace. i. 31 ; cf. Tit. ii. 12) ; cf. Plato (Symp. 196 c) : slvai
yap ofjioXoyslrai, crax^poa-vvrj TO tcpareiv f)ovS>v KOL sTridv-
/j,i(ov: his Charmides being dedicated throughout to the
investigation of the exact force of the word. Aristotle
(Rhet. i. 9) : apsrr) St' fy irpbs ras r/Sovas rov a-wfiaros ovrws
eyovGiv, CDS 6 v6fj.o? K\svst : Plutarch (De Curios. 14 ; De
Virt. Mor. 2 ; and Gryll. 6) ; ^pa-^yr^s ris sariv
Kal ra^is, avaipovara fj,sv ras STrsiadicrovs KOI Trspirras,
8s Kal fj,rpi6rr)ri Koa-^ovcra ras dvayicaias : Philo (De Im-
mut. Dei, 35) : psa-rj padvfj,ia$ SKKS^V^SV^S Kal <peiSco\ias
avs\vdspov, o-oKppoa-vvr) : cf. Diogenes Laertius, iii. 57.
91 ; and Clement of Alexandria, Strom, ii. 18. In Jeremy
Taylor's words (The House of Feasting) : ' It is reason's
girdle, and passion's bridle, ... it is pco/jirj ^tr^y, as
Pythagoras calls it; KOO-JJLOS dyaQwv irdvrwv, so Plato;
xx. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 71
a<r<f)d\eia TWV KaXkia-ruv sgswv, so lamblichus.' We find
it often joined to KOO-^LOTVJS (Aristophanes, Plut. 563, 564) ;
to evragia (2 Mace. iv. 37) ; to /caprspia (Philo, De Agric.
22); to dyveia (Clement of Eome, Cor. 64). No single
Latin word exactly represents it ; Cicero, as lie himself
avows (Tusc. iii. 8 ; cf. v. 14), rendering it now by * tem-
perantia,' now by * moderatio,' now by ' modestia ; ' and
giving this account of it: 'ejus enim videtur esse pro-
prium motus animi appetentes regere et sedare, semperque
adversantem libidini, moderatam in omni re servare con-
stantiam.' ^wtypoa'vvr) was a virtue which assumed more
marked prominence in heathen ethics than it does in
Christian (Sd)pij/j,a KaXkivrov 0swv, as Euripides, Med. 632,
has called it) ; not because more value was attached to it
there than with us ; but partly because there it was one of
a much smaller company of virtues, each of which there-
fore would singly attract more attention ; but also in part
because for as many as are " led by the Spirit," this con-
dition of self-command is taken up and transformed into a
condition yet higher still, in which a man does not order
and command himself, which, so far as it reaches, is well,
but, which is better still, is ordered and commanded by
God.
At i Tim. ii. 9 we shall best distinguish between alBcos
and a-ax^poa-vvr) , and the distinction will be capable of
further application, if we affirm of alBa>s that it is that
' shamefastness,' 1 or pudency, which shrinks from over-
1 It is a pity that 'shamefast' (Ecclua. xli. 16), and 'shamefastness'
by which our Translators rendered o-utypoo-vvr) here, should have been
corrupted in modern use to ' shame/acerf,' and ' 8h&rn.efacedness.' The
words are properly of the same formation as 'steadfast," steadfastness,'
' soothfast,' ' soothfastness,' and those good old English words, now lost to
us, 'rootfast,' and ' rootfastness : ' to which add ' masterfast,' engaged to
a master ; ' footfast,' captive ; ' bedfast,' bedridden ; ' handfast,' affianced ;
' weatherfast,' weatherbound. As by ' rootfast ' our fathers understood
that which was firm and fast by its root, so by ' shamefast ' that which
was established and made/a^ by (an honorable) shame. To change this
into ' shamefaced ' is to allow all the meaning and force of the word
72 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxi.
passing the limits of womanly reserve and modesty, as
well as from the dishonour which would justly attach
thereto ; of a-^poa-vvrj that it is that habitual inner self-
government, with its constant rein on all the passions and
desires, which would hinder the temptation to this from
arising, or at all events from arising in such strength
as should overbear the checks and barriers which alScos
opposed to it.
xxi. (Tvpw, S\KW.
THESE words differ, and the difference between them is
not theologically unimportant. We best represent this
difference in English, when we render a-vpsiv, ' to drag,'
s\Ksiv t ' to draw.' In <rvpsiv, as in our ' drag/ there lies
always the notion of force, as when Plutarch (De Lib. Ed.
8) speaks of the headlong course of a river, irdvra crvpwv
real Trdvra irapafyepwv : and it will follow, that where per-
sons, and not merely things, are in question, crvpsiv will
involve the notion of violence (Acts viii. 3 ; xiv. 19 ; xvii. 6 ;
cf. Karaa-vpeiv, Luke xii. 58). But in s\tcsiv this notion
of force or violence does not of necessity lie. It may be
there (Acts xvi. 19; xxi. 30; Jam. ii. 6; cf. Homer, II. xi.
258; xxiv. 52,417; Aristophanes, Equit. 710; Euripides,
Troad. 70 : Alas elXtcs Ka<rdv&pav /3m) ; but not of necessity
(thus Plato, Rep. vi. 494 e : sav s\K7jrai, irpos (f)i\o<ro(f)iav :
cf. vii. 538 d), any more than in our ' draw,' which we use
of a mental and moral attraction, or in the Latin ' traho '
(< trahit sua quemque voluptas ').
Only by keeping in mind the difference which thus
to run to the surface, to leave us ethically a far poorer word. It is inex-
cusable that all modern reprints of the Authorized Version should have
given in to this corruption. So long as the spelling does not affect the life
of a word, this may very well fall in with modern use ; we do not want
' sonne ' or ' marveile,' when everybody now spells ' son ' and ' marvel.'
But where this life is assailed by later alterations, corruptions in fact of
the spelling, and the word in fact changed into another, there the edition
of 1611 should be exactly adhered to, and considered authoritative and
exemplary for all that followed.
xxi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 73
exists between these, can we vindicate from erroneous
interpretation two doctrinally important passages in the
Gospel of St. John. The first is xii. 32 : " I, if I be lifted
up from the earth, will draw all men [jrdvras S\KIKTW] unto
Me." But how does a crucified, and thus an exalted,
Saviour draw all men unto Him ? Not by force, for the will
is incapable of force, but by the divine attractions of his
love. Again (vi. 44) : " No man can come to Me, except
the Father which hath sent Me draw him " (e\Kva-r) avrov).
Now as many as feel bound to deny any such 'gratia
irresistibilis ' as turns man into a machine, and by which,
willing or unwilling, he is dragged to God, must at once
allow, must indeed assert, that this S\KUO-T} can mean no
more than the potent allurements, the allective force of
love, the attracting of men by the Father to the Son ;
compare Jer. xxxi. 3, " With loving-kindness have I drawn
thee " (ii\Kva-d <rs), and Cant. i. 3,4. Did we find avpsiv
on either of these occasions (not that this would be
possible), the assertors of a ' gratia irresistibilis ' l might
then urge the declarations of our Lord as leaving no
room for any other meaning but theirs ; but not as they
now stand.
In agreement with all this, in \KSW is predominantly
the sense of a drawing to a certain point, in crvpsiv merely
of dragging after one; thus Lucian (De Merc. Cond. 3),
likening a man to a fish already hooked and dragged
1 The excellent words of Augustine on this last passage, himself some-
times adduced as an upholder of this, may be here quoted (In Ev. Joh.
Tract, xxvi. 4) : ' Nemo venit ad me, nisi quern Pater adtraxerit. Noli
te cogitare invitum trahi ; trahitur animus et amore. Nee timere debe-
mus ne ab bominibus qui verba perpendunt, et a rebus maxime divinis
intelligendis longe remoti sunt, in hoc Scripturarum sanctarum evan-
gelico verbo forsitan reprehendarnur, et dicatur nobis, Quomodo voluntate
credo, si trahor ? Ego dico : Parum est voluntate, etiam voluptate tra-
heris. Porro si poe'tse dicere licuit, Trahit sua quemque voluptas ; non
necessitas, sed voluptas; non obligatio, sed delectatio; quanto fortius
nos dicere debemus, trahi hominem ad Christum, qui delectatur veritate,
delectatur beatitudine, delectatur justitiu, delectatur sempiterna vita,
quod totum Christua est ? '
74 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxn.
through the water, describes him as crvpo/jisvov KOI irpos
dvdyKqv dyopevov. Not seldom there will lie in crvpeiv the
notion of this dragging being upon the ground, inasmuch
as that will trail upon the ground (cf. a-vp^a, avpSijv, and
Isai. iii. 16), which is forcibly dragged along with no will
of its own; a dead body, for example (Philo, In Flac. 21).
We may compare John xxi. 6, 1 1 with ver. 8 of the same
chapter, in confirmation of what has just been affirmed.
At ver. 6 and 1 1 sXiceiv is used ; for there a drawing of
the net to a certain point is intended ; by the disciples to
themselves in the ship, by Peter to himself upon the shore.
But at ver. 8 S\KSIV gives place to avpziv : for nothing is
there intended but the dragging of the net, which had
been fastened to the ship, after it through the water.
Our Version has maintained the distinction ; so too the
German of De Wette, by aid of 'ziehen' (=e\iceiv) and
' nachschleppen ' (avpsiv) ; but neither the Vulgate, nor
Beza, both employing ' traho ' throughout.
, TS\SLOS, aprios.
'O\6K\.tjpos and TS\SIOS occur together, though their order
is reversed, at' Jam. i. 4, "perfect and entire" (cf. Philo,
De Sac. Ab. et Cain. 33 : sp,Tr\&a ical 6\OK\rjpa ical TsXsta:
Dio Chrysostom, Orat. 12, p. 203); oXo/eX^os only once
besides in the N. T. (i Thess. v. 23) ; okoK^pia also, but
in a physical not an ethical sense, once (Acts iii. 16; cf.
Isai. i. 6). 'Q\oKkr)pos signifies first, as its etymology
declares, that which retains all which was allotted to it at
the first (Ezek. xv. 5), being thus whole and entire in all
its parts (o\6K\r)pos ical TravTsXrfs, Philo, De Merc. Meret. i) ;
with nothing necessary for its completeness wanting. Thus
Darius would have been well pleased not to have taken
Babylon if only Zopyrus, who had maimed himself to
carry out the stratagem by which it fell, were 6\6K\r}pos
still (Plutarch, Reg. et Imper. Apoph.). Again, unhewn
xxn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 75
stones, as having lost nothing- in the process of shaping
and polishing, are oXotcXrjpoi (Deut. xxvii. 6 ; I Mace. iv.
47) ; perfect weeks are eftSopdSss 6\6K\-rjpot (Lev. xxiii. 15) ;
and a man h 6\oK\^pa> 8sp/j,a,Ti is ' in a whole skin ' (Lucian,
Philops. 8). We next find o\OK\r]pos expressing that in-
tegrity of body, with nothing redundant, nothing deficient
(cf. Lev. xxi. 17-23), which was required of the Levitical
priests as a condition of their ministering at the altar,
which also might not be wanting in the sacrifices they
offered. In both these senses Josephus uses it (Antt. iii.
12. 2) ; as does Philo continually. It is with him the
standing word for this integrity of the priests and of the
sacrifice, to the necessity of which he often recurs, seeing
in it, and rightly, a mystical significance, and that these
are o\oK\r)pot, Qvcrlat, O\OK\^PW sw (De Viet. 2 ; De Viet.
Off. I, o\bic\r)pov KOI Travrs\5)s fjiutpwv ap-sTo^ov : De Agricul.
29 ; De Cherub. 28 ; cf. Plato, Legg. vi. 759 c). Te\sios is
used by Homer (II. i. 66) in the same sense.
It is not long before 6\oK\,r)pos and oXo/cXqpt'a, like the
Latin * integer* and * integritas,' are transferred from
bodily to mental and moral completeness (Suetonius, Claud.
4). The only approach to this in the Apocrypha is Wisd.
xv. 3, oXd/cX-qpos SiKaioavvr) : but in an interesting and im-
portant passage in the Phcedrus of Plato (2500; cf. Tim.
44 c), 6\6K\t)pos expresses the perfection of man before the
Fall ; I mean, of course, the Fall as Plato contemplated
it; when to men, as yet oXo/eA-T/pot KOI airaQsls /ea/cwv, were
vouchsafed oXo/cX7;pa ^da^a-ra, as contrasted with those
weak partial glimpses of the Eternal Beauty, which are
all that to most men are now vouchsafed. That person
then or thing is oXotcXypos, which is * omnibus numeris
absolutus,' or EV fjuySsvi Xst7ro//,j'os, as St. James himself
(i. 4) explains the word.
The various applications of TS\SIOS are all referable to
the rs\os, which is its ground. In a natural sense the
re\sioi are the adult, who, having attained the full limits
76 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxn.
of stature, strength, and mental power within their reach,
have in these respects attained their rs\os, as distinguished
from the vioi or TraiBss, young men or boys (Plato, Legg.
xi. 9290; Xenophon, Cyr. viii. 7. 6; Polybius, v. 29. 2).
This image of full completed growth, as contrasted with
infancy and childhood, underlies the ethical use of reXsioi
by St. Paul, he setting these over against the viJTnot, ev
Xpto-Ty (i Cor. ii. 6; xiv. 20; Ephes. iv. 13, 14; Phil,
iii. 15; Heb. v. 14; cf. Philo, De Agricul. 2); they cor-
respond in fact to the irarspss of I John ii. 13, 14, as dis-
tinct from the vsavia-Kot, and TraiSia. Nor is this ethical
use of r&sios confined to Scripture. The Stoics distin-
guished the rs\sios in philosophy from the TrpoK^Trrcov, just
as at I Chron. xxv. 8 the r\siot are set over against the
H-avQavovTzs. With the heathen, those also were ri\siot,
who had been initiated into the mysteries ; for just as the
Lord's Supper was called TO TS\SLOV (Bingham, Christ.
Antiquities, i. 4. 3), because there was nothing beyond it,
no privilege into which the Christian has not entered, so
these T&SIOI of heathen initiation obtained their name as
having been now introduced into the latest and crowning
mysteries of alK
It will be seen that there is a certain ambiguity in our
word 'perfect/ which, indeed, it shares with reXetoy itself;
this, namely, that they are both employed now in a rela-
tive, now in an absolute sense; for only so could our
Lord have said, " Be ye therefore perfect (rs\sioi), as
your Heavenly Father is perfect" (rs\sios), Matt. v. 48;
cf. xix. 21. The Christian shall be ' perfect/ yet not in
the sense in which some of the sects preach the doctrine
of perfection, who, as soon as their words are looked into,
are found either to mean nothing which they could not
have expressed by a word less liable to misunderstanding;
or to mean something which no man in this life shall
attain, and which he who affirms he has attained is
deceiving himself, or others, or both. The faithful man
xxii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 77
shall be ' perfect,' that is, aiming by the grace of God to
be fully furnished and firmly established in the knowledge
and practice of the things of God (Jam. iii. 2 ; Col. iv. 1 2 :
reXsios Kal TrsTrXrjpofoprjpsvos) ; not a babe in Christ to the
end, ' not always employed in the elements, and infant
propositions and practices of religion, but doing noble
actions, well skilled in the deepest mysteries of faith and
holiness.' l In this sense St. Paul claimed to be TeXaos,
even while almost in the same breath he disclaimed the
being rsrs\sLW[jLsvos (Phil. iii. 12, 15).
The distinction then is plain. The oXo/cX^pos- is one who
has preserved, or who, having once lost, has now regained,
his completeness : the rs\stos is one who has attained his
moral end, that for which he was intended, namely, to be
a man in Christ; however it may be true that, having
reached this, other and higher ends will open out before
him, to have Christ formed in him more and more. 2 In
the 6\6K\r)pos no grace which ought to be in a Christian
man is deficient ; in the TS\SIOS no grace is merely in its
weak imperfect beginnings, but all have reached a certain
ripeness and maturity. 'OXorsX?^, occurring once in the
N. T. (I Thess. v. 23 ; cf. Plutarch, De Plac. Phil. v. 21),
forms a connecting link between the two, holding on to
oXo/eXT/pos in its first half, to re\sios in its second.
"Aprios, occurring only once in the N. T. (2 Tim. iii. 17),
and there presently explained more fully as e&prurp&vos,
approximates in meaning more closely to oXo/eX^poy, with
which we find it joined by Philo (De Plant. 29), than to
re\etos. It is explained by Calvin, in quo nihil est mu-
tilum,' see further the quotation from Theodoret in Sui-
cer, s.v., and is found opposed to %o>Xos (Chrysostom), to
1 On the sense in which ' perfection ' is demanded of the Christian,
there is a discussion at large by Jeremy Taylor, Doctrine and Practice
of Repentance, i. 3. 40-56, from which this quotation is drawn.
2 Seneca (Ep. 1 20) says of one, ' Habebat perfectum aninium, ad
eummam sui adductus.'
78 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxm.
rco\o/36s (Olympiodorus), to avdirijpos (Theodoret). Yulcan
in Lucian (Sacrif. 6) is OVK aprios TOO vroSs. If we ask
ourselves under what special aspects completeness is con-
templated in aprios, it would be safe to answer that it is
not as the presence only of all the parts which are necessary
for that completeness, but involves further the adaptation
and aptitude of these parts for the ends which they were
designed to serve. The man of God, St. Paul would say
(2 Tim. iii. 17), should be furnished and accomplished
with all which is necessary for the carrying out of the
work to which he is appointed.
xxiii. <TTe<f)avos,
WE must not confound these words because our English
' crown ' stands for them both. I greatly doubt whether
anywhere in classical literature crrtyavos is used of the
kingly, or imperial, crown. It is the crown of victory in
the games, of civic worth, of military valour, of nuptial
joy, of festal gladness woven of oak, of ivy, of parsley,
of myrtle, of olive, or imitating in gold these leaves or
others of flowers, as of violets or roses (see Athemeus,
xv. 9-33) ; the ' wreath,' in fact, or the ' garland,' the
German ' Kranz ' as distinguished from * Krone ; ' but
never, any more than 'corona' in Latin, the emblem
and sign of royalty. The Sidfyfjia was this ^a<n\sias
yvcopia-fta, as Lucian calls it (Pise. 35 ; cf. Xenophon, Cyr.
viii. 3. 13 ; Plutarch, De Frat. Am. 18) ; being properly a
white linen band or fillet, 'tsenia' or 'fascia' (Curtius,
iii. 3), encircling the brow ; so that no language is more
common than TrsptTiQsvai StdStjfjLa to indicate the assump-
tion of royal dignity (Polybius, v. 57. 4; I Mace. i. 9;
xi. 13 ; xiii. 32 ; Josephus, Antt. xii. 10. i), even as in
Latin in like manner the * diadem a ' alone is the ' insigne
regium' (Tacitus, Annal. xv. 29). With this agree Sel-
den's opening words in his learned discussion on the
xxiii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 79
distinction between 'crowns' and 'diadems' (Titles of
Honour, c. 8, 2) : ' However those names have been from
antient time confounded, yet the diadem strictly was a
very different thing from what a crown now is or was ;
being, indeed, no more than a fillet of silk, linen, or some
such thing. Nor does it appear that any other kind of
crown was used for -a royal ensign, except only in some
kingdoms of Asia, until the beginning of Christianity in
the Koman Empire.'
A passage in Plutarch brings out very clearly the dis-
tinction here affirmed. The kingly crown which Antonius
offers to Csesar the biographer describes as SidS^/Aa
crTSffrdvw Bd(f)vtjs TrspiTTSTr'Xsjpsvov (Cces. 6l). Here the
a-rsfyavos is the garland or laureate wreath, with which
the diadem proper was enwoven ; indeed, according to
Cicero (Phil. ii. 34), Csesar was already ' coronatus '
(=i(rT(f)avajfjievos : ), this he would have been as Consul,
when the offer was made. It is by keeping this distinc-
tion in mind that we explain a version in Suetonius (Cces.
79) of the same incident. One places on Caesar's statue
' coronam lauream Candida fascia prseligatam ' (his statues,
Plutarch also informs us, were SiaSrjfjiaa-iv dvaSsSepsvoi
Pa<n\i,Kol$) ; on which the tribunes command to be re-
moved, not the ' corona,' but the 'fascia; ' this being the
diadem, in which alone the traitorous suggestion that he
should suffer himself to be proclaimed king was con-
tained. Compare Diodorus Siculus, xx. 54, where of one
he says, StaS^a pev OVK etcpivsv %etz', s<f>6psi yap dsl crrs-
How accurately the words are discriminated in the
Septuagint and in the Apocrypha may be seen by com-
paring in the First Maccabees the passages in which
SidSrjiAa is employed (such as i. 9; vi. 15; viii. 14; xi.
13, 54; xii. 39; xiii. 32), and those where o-rtyavos ap-
pears (iv. 57 ; x. 29; xi. 35 ; xiii. 39 ; cf. 2 Mace. xiv. 4).
Compare Isai. Ixii. 3, where of Israel it is said that it
So SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxm.
shall be crrs^avos /cdX\ovs, but, as it is added,
In the N. T. it is plain that the ars^avos whereof St.
Paul speaks is always the conqueror's, and not the king's
(i Cor. ix. 24-26; 2 Tim. ii. 5) ; it is the same in what passes
for the Second Epistle of Clement, 7. If St. Peter's allu-
sion (i Pet. v. 4) is not so directly to the Greek games,
yet he too is silently contrasting the wreaths of heaven
which never fade, the ajj-apavrivos a-rtyavos rijs S6%r)s,
with the garlands of earth which lose their beauty and
freshness so soon. At Jam. i. 12 ; Rev. ii. 10 ; iii. 1 1 ; iv.
4, it is little probable that a reference, either near or
remote, is intended to these Greek games ; the alienation
from which, as idolatrous and profane, reached so far
back, was so deep on the part of the Jews (Josephus, Antt.
xv. 8. 1-4 ; i Mace. i. 14 ; 2 Mace. iv. 9, 12) j and no doubt
also of the Jewish members of the Church, that imagery
drawn from the prizes of these games would have rather
repelled than attracted them. Yet there also the crrtyavos,
or the crTsfavos rfjs a)f)s, is the emblem, not of royalty,
but of highest joy and gladness (cf. a-rs^avos dya\\td-
fj.aros, Ecclus. vi. 31), of glory and immortality. We may
the more confidently conclude that with St. John it was
so, from the fact that on three occasions, where beyond a
doubt he does intend kingly crowns, he employs SidSyfjia
(Rev. xii. 3 ; xiii. I [cf. xvii. 9, IO, al STTTO, K$a\al . . .
/3ao-t\6y fTTTa slaiv] ; xix. 12). In this last verse it is
sublimely said of Him who is King of kings and Lord of
lords, that " on his head were many crowns " (StaS^/zara
TroXXa) ; an expression, with all its magnificence, difficult
to realize, so long as we picture to our mind's eye such
crowns as at the present monarchs wear, but intelligible
at once, when we contemplate them as ' diadems,' that is,
narrow fillets encircling the brow. These " many dia-
dems " will then be the tokens of the many royalties
of earth, of heaven, and of hell (Phil. ii. 10) which are
xxiv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 8 1
his ; royalties once usurped or assailed by the Great Red
Dragon, the usurper of Christ's dignities and honours,
who has therefore his own seven diadems as well (xiii. i),
but now openly and for ever assumed by Him whose
rightfully they are; just as, to compare earthly things
with heavenly, when Ptolemy, king of Egypt, entered
Antioch in triumph, he set two ' crowns,' or ' diadems *
rather (StaB^/jLara}, on his head, the ' diadem ' of Asia,
and the 'diadem' of Egypt (i Mace. xi. 13); or as in
Diodorus Siculus (i. 47) we read of one s-^ova-av rpsls
ftaaiXslas eirl rfjs tcs(j)a\7Js, the context plainly showing
that these are three diadems, the symbols of a triple
royalty, which she wore.
The only occasion on which (TTsfyavos might seem to
be used of a kingly crown is Matt, xxvii. 29 ; cf . Mark xv.
17 ; John xix. 2 ; where the weaving of the crown of
thorns (vrsfyavos afcdvOivos), and placing it on the Saviour's
head, is evidently a part of that blasphemous masquerade
of royalty which the Eoinan soldiers would fain compel
Him to enact. But woven of such materials as it was,
probably of the juncus marinus, or of the lycium spinosum,
it is evident that SidSr)/j,a could not be applied to it ; and
the word, therefore, which was fittest in respect of the
material whereof it was composed, takes the place of that
which would have been the fittest in respect of the pur-
pose for which it was intended. On the whole subject of
this see The Dictionary of the Bible, s. vv. Crown and
Diadem ; and Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, art. Coro-
nation, p. 464.
xxiv.
BETWEEN these words the same distinction exists as be-
tween our ' covetousness ' and ' avarice,' as between the
German 'Habsucht' and ' Geiz.' HXsovegia, primarily
the having more, and then in a secondary and more usual
82 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxiv.
sense, the desire after the having more, is the more active
sin, <f>i\apyvpia the more passive : the first, the ' amor
sceleratus habendi,' seeks rather to grasp what it has not ;
the second, to retain, and, by accumulating, to multiply
that which it already has. The first, in its methods of
acquiring, will be often bold and aggressive ; even as it
may, and often will, be as free in scattering and squander-
ing, as it was eager and unscrupulous in getting : the
ir\oveicrr)s will be often ' rapti largitor,' as was Catiline ;
characterizing whom Cicero demands (Pro Ccel. 6) : * Quis in
rapacitate avarior ? quis in largitione effusior ? ' even as
the same idea is very boldly conceived in the Sir Giles
Overreach of Massinger. Consistently with this, we find
jrXsov^KTris joined with apTrat; (l Cor. v. IO) ; ir\eovs^ia
with Papvrrjs (Plutarch, Arist. 3) ; TrXsovsgtcu with /cXoTreu
(Mark vii. 22) ; with aSiicuii (Strabo, vii. 4. 6) ; with
<J3i\oveirciai (Plato, Legg. iii. 677 6) ; and the sin defined by
Theodoret (in Ep. ad Rom. i. 30) : rj TOV TT\SIOVOS etysa-is,
KOL TWV ov irpoa-^KovTcav rj apTrayij : with which compare
the definition, whosesoever it may be, of 'avaritia* as
'injuriosa appetitio alienorum ' (ad Herenn. iv. 25) ; and
compare further Bengel's note (on Mark vii. 22) : ' TT\EOV-
%ia, comparativum involvens, denotat medium quiddam
inter f urtum et rapinam ; ubi per varias artes id agitur
ut alter per se, sed cum Isesione sui, inscius vel invitus,
offerat, concedat et tribuat, quod indigne accipias.' It is
therefore fitly joined with aia-^poicspSela (Polybius, vi. 46.
3). But, while it is thus with ir\sov^la, ^Ckap^vpia^ on
the other hand, the miser's sin (it is joined with p,Licpo-
Xo7/a, Plutarch, Quom. Am. ab Adul. 36) will be often
cautious and timid, and will not necessarily have cast off
the outward shows of uprightness. The Pharisees, for
example, were <f>i\dpyvpot (Luke xvi. 14) : this was not
irreconcilable with the maintenance of a religious profes-
sion, which the 7r\sovsj;ia would have manifestly been.
Cowley, in the delightful prose which he has inter-
xxiv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 83
spersed among his verse, draws this distinction strongly
and well (Essay 7, Of Avarice), though Chaucer had done
the same before him (see his Persones Tale ; and his de-
scription severally of Covetise and Avarice in The Romaunt
of the Rose, 183-246). ' There are,' Cowley says, 'two
sorts of avarice ; the one is but of a bastard kind, and
that is the rapacious appetite for gain ; not for its own
sake, but for the pleasure of refunding it immediately
through all the channels of pride and luxury ; the other
is the true kind, and properly so called, which is a rest-
less and un satiable desire of riches, not for any further
end or use, but only to hoard and preserve, and per-
petually increase them. The covetous man of the first
kind is like a greedy ostrich, which devours any metal,
but it is with an intent to feed upon it, and, in effect, it
makes a shift to digest and excern it. The second is like
the foolish chough, which loves to steal money only to
hide it.'
There is another point of view in which Tr\ov%ia
may be regarded as the larger term, the genus, of which
ftkapyvpta is the species ; this last being the love of
money, while 7r\eovs%ia is the drawing and snatching by
the sinner to himself of the creature in every form and
kind, as it lies out of and beyond himself ; the ' indigentia'
of Cicero (' indigentia est libido inexplebilis ; ' Tusc. iv.
9. 21); compare Dio Chrysostom, De Avarit. Orat. 17;
Augustine, Enarr. in Ps. cxviii. 35, 36; and Bengel's pro-
found explanation of the fact, that, in the enumeration of
sins, St. Paul so often associates irXs-ovs&a with sins of the
flesh ; as at I Cor. v. 1 1 ; Ephes. v. 3, 5 ; Col. iii. 5 : ' Solet
autem jungere cum impuritate 7r\sovs^lav, nam homo
extra Deum quserit pabulum in creatura materiali, vel per
voluptatern, vel per avaritiam : bonum alienum ad se
redigit.' But, expressing much, Bengel has not expressed
all. The connexion between these two provinces of sin
is deeper and more intimate still j and this is witnessed
e 2
84 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxv.
in the fact, that not merely is Tr\sovs%ia, as signifying
covetousness, joined to sins of impurity, but the word is
sometimes used, as at Ephes. v. 3 (see Jerome, in loc.), and
often by the Greek Fathers (see Suicer, Thes. s. v. : and
Hammond's excellent note on Rom. i. 29), to designate
these sins themselves ; even as the root out of which they
alike grow, namely, the fiercer and ever fiercer longing
of the creature which has forsaken God, to fill itself
with the lower objects of sense, is one and the same.
The monsters of lust among the Roman emperors were
monsters of covetousness as well (Suetonius, Calig. 38-41).
Contemplated under this aspect, 7r\soveJ;ia has a much
wider and deeper sense than <j>tkapyvpia. Plato (Gory. 493),
likening the desire of man to the sieve or pierced vessel of
the Danaids, which they were ever filling, but might never
fill, 1 has implicitly a sublime commentary on the word;
nor is it too much to say, that in it is summed up that
ever defeated longing of the creature, as it has despised
the children's bread, to stay its hunger with the husks of
the swine.
xxv. y36(7&), Trot/iatVo).
WHILE POO-KSW and Troipaiveiv are both often employed
in a figurative and spiritual sense in the 0. T. (i Chron.
xi. 2 ; Ezek. xxxiv. 3 ; Ps. Ixxvii. 72 ; Jer. xxiii. 2), and
TToipaivsiv in the New ; the only occasions in the latter, on
which ftoarKSLv is so used, are John xxi. 15, 17. There our
Lord, giving to St. Peter that thrice-repeated commission
to feed his "lambs" (ver. 15), his " sheep" (ver. 16), and
again his " sheep " (ver. 17), uses first /3oWe, then secondly
irolfjiaivs, returning to jSoV/ee at the last. This return, on
1 It is evident that the same comparison had occurred to Shakespeare:
' The cloyed will,
That satiate yet unsatisfied desire,
That tub both filled and running.' 1
Cymbeline, Act i. Sc. 7.
vxv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 85
the third and last repetition of the charge, to the word
employed on the first, has been a strong argument with
some for an absolute identity in the meaning of the
words. They have urged, with some show of reason, that
Christ could not have had progressive aspects of the
pastoral work in his intention here, else He would not
have come back in the end to the (Boaics, with which Ho
began. Yet I cannot ascribe to accident the variation of
the words, any more than the changes, in the same verses,
from ayajrdv to (friXsiv (see p. 41), from apvia to
It is true that our Version, rendering fioa-fcs and
alike by " Feed," as the Vulgate by " Pasce," has not
attempted to follow the changes of the original text, nor
can I perceive any resources of language by which either
our own Version or the Latin could have helped itself
here. ' Tend ' for Troiftaivs is the best suggestion which I
could make. The German, by aid of ' weiden ' (z=/36<rtceiv)
and 'hiiten' ( = 7roijjiaiviv}, might do it; but De Wette
has ' weiden ' throughout.
The distinction, notwithstanding, is very far from
fanciful. Boovcstz/, the Latin ' pascere,' is simply ' to feed : '
but TToiftaivsiv involves much more ; the whole office of the
shepherd, the guiding, guarding, folding of the flock, as
well as the finding of nourishment for it. Thus Lampe :
' Hoc symbolum totum regimen ecclesiasticum compre-
hendit;' and Ben gel : ' jSbcricsiv est pars rov Troipaivsiv.'
The wider reach and larger meaning of Troiftaivsiv makes
itself felt at Eev. ii. 27 ; xix. 1 5 ; where at once we are
conscious how impossible it would be to substitute ftocricsiv ;
and compare Philo, Quod Dei. Pot. Insid. 8.
There is a fitness in the shepherd's work for the setting
forth of the highest ministries of men for the weal of
their fellows, out of which the name, shepherds of their
people, has been continually transferred to those who are,
or should be, the faithful guides and guardians of others
committed to their charge. Thus kings in Homer are
86 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxv.
G>v: cf. 2 Sam. v. 2 ; vii. 7 ; Ps. Ixxviii. 71,72.
Nay more, in Scripture God Himself is a Shepherd (Isai.
xl. n; Ezek. xxxiv. 11-31; Ps. xxiii.) ; and God manifest
in the flesh avouches Himself as 6 'JTOI^V o tcd\,6s (John
x. Il) ; He is the apxiTroiprfv (l Pet. v. 4) ; o fis^as iroi^v
TWV Trpoftdroov (Heb. xiii. 20) ; as such fulfilling the pro-
phecy of Micah (v. 4). Compare a sublime passage in
Philo, De Agricul. 12, beginning : OVTCO /ASVTOL TO Troiftaivsiv
earlv ayaObv, &CTTS ov fiacrihevai povov teal (robots dv&pdcri,
KOI ^rv^ats rs\eia KSfcadapjASvats, d\\.a KOI @a> TW Travrjys-
p,6vi SiKalws dvarlOsrai, with the three preceding.
But it may very naturally be asked, if iroi^aivsiv be thus
so much the more significant and comprehensive word, and
if on this account the Troipaws was added to the fiocnce in
the Lord's latest instruction to his Apostle, how account
for his going back to (36<rKe again, and concluding thus,
not as we should expect with the wider, but with the
narrower charge, and weaker admonition ? In Dean Stan-
ley's Sermons and Essays on the Apostolic Age, p. 138, the
answer is suggested. The lesson, in fact, which we learn
from this is a most important one, and one which the
Church, and all that bear rule in the Church, have need
diligently to lay to heart ; this, namely, that whatever else
of discipline and rule may be superadded thereto, still, the
feeding of the flock, the finding for them of spiritual
food, is the first and last ; nothing else will supply the
room of this, nor may be allowed to put this out of
that foremost place which by right it should occupy.
How often, in a false ecclesiastical system, the preaching
of the Word loses its preeminence ; the fioa-Ksiv falls into
the background, is swallowed up in the Trotyu-atVetv, which
presently becomes no true Troipaivsiv, because it is not a
ftocr/csiv as well, but such a i shepherding ' rather as God's
Word by the prophet Ezekiel has denounced (xxxiv. 2, 3,
8, 10; cf. Zech. xi. 15-17 ; Matt, xxiii.).
xxvi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 87
xxvi. f)\os, (f)0ovo$
THESE words are often joined together; they are so by
St. Paul (Gal. v. 20, 21) ; by Clement of Rome (Cor. 3, 4,
5) ; and virtually by Cyprian in his little treatise, De Zelo
et Livore : by classical writers as well ; by Plato (Phileb.
47 e ; Legg. iii. 679 c ; Menex. 242 a) ; by Plutarch, Coriol.
19; and by others. Still, there are differences between
them ; and this first, that %fj\o$ is a fj,e<rov, being used
sometimes in a good (as John ii. 17; Rom. x. 2 ; 2 Cor.
ix. 2), sometimes, and in Scripture oftener, in an evil sense
(as Acts v. 17 ; Rom. xiii. 13 ; Gal. v. 20 ; Jam. iii. 14, in
which last place, to make quite clear what ^rfKos is meant,
it is qualified by the addition of Trircpos, and is linked with
spidsia) : while (f)06vos t incapable of good, is used always
and only in an evil, signification. When &\os is taken in
good part, it signifies the honorable emulation, 1 with the
consequent imitation, of that which presents itself to the
mind's eye as excellent : ^fj\os rwv aplffTtav (Lucian, Adv.
Indoct. 17) : ^ffKos rov fiskriovos (Philo, de Prcem. et Poen.
3) ; <f>i\OT!-ila real 77X05- (Plutarch, De Alex. Fort. Or. ii. 6 ;
An Seni Resp. Ger. 25) ; f}\os KOI plpya-is (Herodian, ii. 4) ;
^\wrr)s teal fiijji'rjrrjs (vi. 8). It is the Latin ' semulatio,'
in which nothing of envy is of necessity included, however
such in it, as in our ' emulation,' may find place ; the
German ' Nacheiferung,' as distinguished from ' Eifer-
sucht.' The verb ' semulor,' I need hardly observe, finely
expresses the difference between worthy and unworthy
emulation, governing an accusative in cases where the
first, a dative where the second, is intended. South here,
as always, expresses himself well: *We ought by all
1 "Epis, which often in the Odyssey, and in the later Greek, very nearly
resembled 7X0? in this its meaning of emulation, was capable in like
manner of a nobler application ; thus Basil the Great defines it {Reg.
Brev. Tract. 66) : epis fiev forty, OTOV rtf, vnep TOV p,rj (\O.TTU>V (pavtjvai
TWOS,
88 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.
means to note the difference between envy and emulation ;
which latter is a brave and a noble thing, and quite of
another nature, as consisting only in a generous imitation
of something excellent; and that such an imitation as
scorns to fall short of its copy, but strives, if possible, to
outdo it. The emulator is impatient of a superior, not
by depressing or maligning another, but by perfecting
himself. So that while that sottish thing envy sometimes
fills the whole soul, as a great dull fog does the air ; this,
on the contrary, inspires it with a new life and vigour,
whets and stirs up all the powers of it to action. And
surely that which does so (if we also abstract it from those
heats and sharpnesses that sometimes by accident may
attend it), must needs be in the same degree lawful and
laudable too, that it is for a man to make himself as use-
ful and accomplished as he can* (Works, London, 1737,
vol. v. p. 403 ; and compare Bishop Butler, Works, 1836,
vol. i. p. 15).
By Aristotle 77X0? is employed exclusively in this
nobler sense, as that active emulation which grieves, not
that another has the good, but that itself has it not ; and
which, not pausing here, seeks to supply the deficiencies
which it finds in itself. From this point of view he con-
trasts it with envy (Rhet. ii. n) : sa-rt 77X0? AUTTT? ns STT\
<j)aivofj,Evr) Trapovcria a<ya6S)v svrl^wv .... ov% ori a\\(o,
dXX' OTI ov-fti teal avr(S sart, Sib real ETTLSLKSS sarnv o 77X0?,
/cat STTISIKWV TO 8s <f)0ovsiv, <j>av\ov, ical <f>av\d)if. The
Church Fathers follow in his footsteps. Jerome (Exp. in
Gal. v. 20) : ' %?i\os et in bonam partem accipi potest,
quum quis nititur ea quse bona sunt semulari. Invidiu,
vero aliena felicitate torquetur ; ' and again (in Gal. iv.
17) : '^Emulantur bene, qui cum videant in aliquibus esse
gratias, dona, virtutes, ipsi tales esse desiderant.' (Ecu-
menius : scrri ij\os Kiwrja-is ^fv^fjs svdova-icaStjs sirL TI, JJLSTCI
TIVOS a<f)o/jLoi(0a-Ci)$ TOV Trpbs o 77 <77rov8ij ecrri : cf. Plutarch,
Pericles, 2. Compare the words of our English poet :
xxvi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 89
' Envy, to which the ignoble mind's a slave,
Is emulation in the learned and brave.'
But it is only too easy for this zeal and honorable
rivalry to degenerate into a meaner passion ; the Latin
' simultas,' connected (see Doderlein, Lat. Synon. vol. iii.
p. 72), not with 'simulare,' but with 4 simul,' attests the
fact : those who together aim at the same object, who are
thus competitors, being in danger of being enemies as
well ; just as a/uXXo. (which, however, has kept its more
honorable use, see Plutarch, Anim. an Corp. Aff. Pej. 3),
is connected with apa ; and ' rivales ' meant no more
at first than occupants of the banks of the same river
(Pott, Etym. Forsch. ii. 2. 191). These degeneracies which
wait so near upon emulation, and which sometimes cause
the word itself to be used for that into which it degene-
rates (' pale and bloodless emulation,' Shakespeare), may
assume two shapes : either that of a desire to make war
upon the good which it beholds in another, and thus to
trouble that good, and make it less; therefore we find
77X0$ and spis continually joined together (Rom. xiii. 1 3 ;
2 Cor. xii. 20 ; Gal. v. 20; Clement of Rome, Cor. 3, 6) :
77X05 and fyCkovsiKia (Plutarch, De Cap. Inim. Util. i) :
or, where there is not vigour and energy enough to
attempt the making of it less, there may be at least the
wishing of it less ; with such petty carping and fault-finding
as it may dare to indulge in $66vos and fj,&/jt,os being
joined, as in Plutarch, Prcec. Reg. Eeip. 27. And here in
this last fact is the point of contact which 77X0? has with
<f)66vos (thus Plato, Menex. 242 a : irpwrov /JLSV T}A.OS, cnro
77X01; 8s (f>06vo?: and ^Eschylus, Agamem. 939 : 6 8' afydo-
vrjros OVK siTL^tf^os Trs'ksi) ; the latter being essentially
passive, as the former is active and energic. We do not
find (fidovos in the comprehensive catalogue of sins at
Mark vii. 21, 22 ; but this envy, Sva-(f>po)v 16s, as ^Eschylus
(Agam. 755)> o-tj^slov fyvazws TravTairacn Trovijpas, as De-
mosthenes (499, 2l), TTCKTWI/ /Asyia-TV) rwv sv d
90 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxvi.
, as Euripides has called it, and of which Herodotus
(iii. 80) has said, apxfjQsv s^vsrai avOpwirw, could not,
in one shape or other, be absent ; its place is supplied by
a circumlocution, cxpOaXfibs Trowrjpos (cf. Ecclus. xiv. 8,
10), bat on putting it in connexion -with the Latin
* invidia/ which is derived, as Cicero observes (Tusc.
iii. 9), 'a nimis intuendo fortunam alterius;' cf. Matt.
xx. 1 5 ; and I Sam. xviii. 9 : " Saul eyed," i. e. envied
"David." The 'urentes oculi' of Persius (Sat. ii. 34),
the ' mal' occhio ' of the Italians, must receive the
same explanation. QQovos is the meaner sin, and there-
fore the beautiful Greek proverb, 6 fydovos s^w TOV dsiov
'Xopov, being merely displeasure at another's good ; J
\VTTIJ ETT aX\,orpiOLS ayaOois, as the Stoics denned it
(Diogenes Laertius, vii. 63, in), XVTTT? Trjs rov TT^O-IOV
sinrpaylas, as Basil (Horn, de Invid.), 'segritudo suscepta
propter alterius res secundas, quse nihil noceant invidenti,'
as Cicero (Tusc. iv. 8; cf. Xenophon, Mem. iii. 9. 8),
' odium felicitatis alienee,' as Augustine (De Gen. ad Lit.
I I-I4), 2 with the desire that this good or this felicity may
be less : and this, quite apart from any hope that thereby
its own will be more (Aristotle, Rhet. ii. 10) ; so that it is
no wonder that Solomon long ago could describe it as
'the rottenness of the bones ' (Prov. xiv. 30). He that is
conscious of it is conscious of no impulse or longing to
raise himself to the level of him whom he envies, but only
to depress the envied to his own. When the victories of
Miltiades would not suffer the youthful Themistocles to
sleep (Plutarch, Them. 3), here was %rj\os in its nobler
form, an emulation which would not let him rest, till he
had set a Salamis of his own against the Marathon of his
1 Augustine's definition of <f>66vos (Exp. in Gal. v. 21) introduces
into it an ethical element -which rarely if at all belongs to it : ' Invidia
dolor animi est, cum indiynus videtur aliquis assequi etiam quod non
appetebas.' This would rather be vt^fvis and txfjifa-av in the ethical ter-
minology of Aristotle (Ethic. NIC. ii. 7. 15 ; Rhet. ii. 9).
2 Sick of a strange disease, another's health.' Phineas Fletcher.
xxvn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 91
great predecessor. But it was <pdovos which made that
Athenian citizen to be weary of hearing Aristides ever-
more styled ' The Just ' (Plutarch, Arist . 7) ; an envy which
contained no impulses moving him to strive for himself
after the justice which he envied in another. See on this
subject further the beautiful remarks of Plutarch, De Prof.
Virt. 14; and on the likenesses and differences between
fucros and (j>06vos, his graceful essay, full of subtle analysis
of the human heart, Delnvidid et Odio. T$a<TKavla, a word
frequent enough in later Greek in this sense of envy,
nowhere occurs in the N. T. ; ftaa-icalvsiv only once (Gal.
iii. I.
xxvii. far), ftios.
THE Latin language and the English as well are poorer
than the Greek, in having but one word, the Latin ' vita,'
the English 'life,' where the Greek has two. There
would, indeed, be no comparative poverty here, if far) and
ftios were merely duplicates. But, contemplating life as
these do from very different points of view, it is inevitable
that we, with our one word for both, must use this one in
very diverse senses ; and may possibly, through this equi-
vocation, conceal real and important differences from our-
selves or from others ; nothing being so effectual for this
as the employment of equivocal words.
The true antithesis of far] is ddvaros (Rom. viii. 38 ;
2 Cor. v. 4 ; Jer. viii. 3 ; Ecclus. xxx. 17 ; Plato, Legg. xii.
944 c), as of ^, aTroOvrja/cstv (Luke xx. 38 ; I Tim. v. 6 ;
Eev. i. 18; cf. II. xxiii. 70; Herodotus, i. 31 ; Plato,
Phcedo, 7 1 d ; OVK svavriov fyys ru> %f)v TO rsQvdvcu slvai ;) ;
fatf, as some will have it, being nearly connected with
a&>, ar)/j,t, to breathe the breath of life, which is the neces-
sary condition of living, and, as such, is involved in like
manner in Trvsv^a and ^f%^, in 'spiritus' and 'anima.'
But, while far] is thus life intensive (' vita qua vivimus '),
ftios is life extensive (' vita quam vivimus '), the period or
92 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxvn.
duration of life ; and then, in a secondary sense, the means
by which that life is sustained ; and thirdly, the manner
in which that life is spent ; the * line of life,' ' profession,'
career. Examples of filos in all these senses the N. T.
supplies. Thus it is used as
a. The period or duration of life ; thus, ^povos rov fiiov
(i Pet. iv. 3) : cf. ft LOS rov ^povov (Job x. 20) : ^KOS /3iot>
KOI eri) fays (Prov. iii. 2) : Plutarch (De Lib. Ed. 17),
0-Tty/j.rj xpovov iras o fiios Jerri : again, /3lo$ rrjs farjs (Cons.
ad Apoll. 25) ; and far) Ka \ pios (De Plac. Phil. v. 18).
/9. The means of life, or living,' A. V. ; Mark xii. 44 ;
Luke viii. 43 ; xv. 12 ; I John iii. 17, rov ftiov rov Koa-fiov,
cf Plato, Gorg. 486 d ; Legg. xi. 9360; Aristotle, Hist. An.
ix. 23. 2 ; Euripides, low, 329 ; and often, but not always,
these means of life, with an under sense of largeness and
abundance.
7. The manner of life ; or life in regard of its moral
conduct, having such words as rpoTros, rj6r), rrpafys for its
equivalents, and not seldom such epithets as /cocr/uos-,
Xprja-ros, a-axppfov, joined to it ; I Tim. ii. 2 ; so Plato (Rep.
i. 344 e), ftiov Siaywyrf : Plutarch, Si'aira ical ftios (De Virt. et
Vit. 2) : and very nobly (De Is. et Os. i), rov &s JIVOXTKSIV
ra ovra teal (ppovelv a^aipsdsvros? ov ftiov aXXa %povov
[ot/zat] slvai rr}v aQavaaiav : and De Lib. Ed. 7, rsraypevos
fiios : Josephus, Antt. v. 10. I ; with which compare Augus-
tine (De Trin. xii. 11): Cujus vitce sit quisque ; id est,
quomodo agat hcec temporalia, quam vitam Grseci non farfv
sed ftiov vocant.'
In jBios, thus used as manner of life, there is an ethical
sense often inhering, which, in classical Greek at least, fai'j
does not possess. Thus in Aristotle (Pol. i. 13. 13), it
is said that the slave is KOIVWVOS farjs, he lives with the
family, but not KOIVCWOS fitov, he does not sharf in the
career of his master ; cf. Ethic. Nic. x. 6. 8 ; and L. draws,
according to Ammonius, the following distinction: /3io?
f arl \o<yitcr) fatf : Ammonius himself affirming /3ios to be
xxvii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 93
never, except incorrectly, applied to the existence of plants
or animals, but only to the lives of men. 1 I know not
how he reconciled this statement with such passages as
these from Aristotle, Hist. Anim. i. I. 15 ; ix. 8. I ; un-
less, indeed, he included him in his censure. Still, the
distinction which he somewhat too absolutely asserts (see
Stallbaum's note on the Timceus of Plato, 44 d), is a real
one : it displays itself with singular clearness in our words
' zoology ' and ' biography ; ' but not in ' biology,' which,
as now used, is a manifest misnomer. 2 We speak, on one
side, of ' zoology,' for animals (eoa) have the vital prin-
ciple ; they live, equally with men, and are capable of being
classed and described according to the different workings
of this natural life of theirs : but, on the other hand, we
speak of ' biography ; ' for men not merely live, but they
lead lives, lives in which there is that moral distinction
between one and another, which may make them worthy
to be recorded. They are STTJ &rjs, but 6Bol fiiov (Prov.
iv. 10) ; cf. Philo, De Carit. 4, where of Moses he says
that at a certain epoch of his mortal course, r/pfaro ^sra-
fidXXstv EK Ovrjrfjs a)rjs sis dQdvarov fSiov.
From all this it will follow, that, while QdvaTos and farf
constitute, as observed already, the true antithesis, yet
they do this only so long as life is physically contemplated ;
thus the Son of Sirach (xxx. 17) : Kpslaa-cov Odvaros vjrsp
%wrjv TriKpav rj dppaxrTrj/jia sppovov. But so soon as a moral
element is introduced, and 'life ' is regarded as the oppor-
tunity for living nobly or the contrary, the antithesis is
not between ddvaros and fatf, but Odvaros and fiios : thus
compare Xenophon (De Rep. Lac. ix. i) : alpsTtorspov elvat
1 See on these two synonyms, Vomel, Synon. Worterbuch, p. 168 sq. ;
and Wyttenbach, Animadd. in Plutarchum, vol. iii. p. 1 66.
2 The word came to us from the French. Gottfried Reinhart Trevi-
sanus, who died in 1837, was its probable inventor in his book, Bioloyie,
ou la Philosophie do la Nature vivante, of which the first volume appeared
in 1802. Some flying pages by Canon Field, of Norwich, Biology and
Social Science, deal well with this blunder.
94 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxvii.
rov KaKov ddvarov dvrl rov ata-^pov ft(ov s with Plato
(Legg. xii. 944 d) : ^wrjv alcr^pav dpvv/jLSvos psra rd%ovs,
fjid\\ov rj [AST dvSpstas /ca\bv ical evSaifiova ddvarov. A
reference to the two passages will show that in the latter
it is the present boon of shameful life, (therefore &>?;,)
which the craven soldier prefers to an honorable death ;
while in the former, Lycurgus teaches that an honorable
death is to be chosen rather than a long and shameful
existence, a /3/os- aftios (Empedocles, 326) ; a ftios dftiwros
(Xenophon, Mem. iv. 8. 8 ; cf. Meineke, Fragm. Com. Grcec.
p. 542) ; aySt'os ov ft tear 6s (Plato, Apol. 38 a) ; a 'vita non
vitalis ; ' from which all the ornament of life, all reasons
for living, have departed. The two grand chapters with
which the Gorgias of Plato concludes (82, 83) constitute a
fine exercise in the distinction between the -words them-
selves, as between their derivatives no less; and Hero-
dotus, vii. 46, the same.
But all this being so, and fitos, not farj, the ethical word
of classical Greek, a thoughtful reader of Scripture might
not unnaturally be perplexed with the fact that all is there
reversed ; for no one will deny that farj is there the nobler
word, expressing as it continually does all of highest and
best which the saints possess in God ; thus (rre<f>avos rr}?
^wrfs (Rev. ii. IO), fuXoz/ rrfS wf)S (ii. 7), /3//3\os rrjs 0)17 y
(iii. 5), vStop %(orjs (xxi. 6), o>^ KOI sva-sfBsia (2 Pet. i. 3),
fay KOI d<f>dap<rta (2 Tim. i. 10), far) rov eoO (Ephes. iv.
18), farj alwvios (Matt. xix. 16; Rom. ii. 7), 1 far) aKard-
\vros (Heb. vii. 16) ; 17 ovrws farj (i Tim. vi. 19) ; or some-
times farj with no further addition (Matt. vii. 14: Rom.
v. 17, and often); all these setting forth, each from its
own point of view, the highest blessedness of the creature.
Contrast with them the following uses of ftios, r)Soval rov
/3t'ou (Luke viii. 14), 7rpay/j.aTiai rov ftiov (2 Tim. ii. 4),
d\aovsia rov /3iW (i Johnii. 16), jBios rov KOO-^OV (iii. 17),
1 ZO>TI alavios occurs once in the Septuagint (Dan. xii. 2 ; cf.
dtvaos, 2 Mace. vii. 36), and in Plutarch, De Is. et Os. I.
xxvn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 95
/Stan/cat (Luke xxi. 34). How shall we explain
this?
A little reflection will supply the answer. Revealed
religion, and it alone, puts death and sin in closest con-
nexion, declares them the necessary correlatives one of
the other (Gen. i.-iii. ; Rom. v. 12); and, as an involved
consequence, in like manner, life and holiness. It is God's
word alone which proclaims that, wherever there is death,
it is there because sin was there first ; wherever there is
no death, that is, life, this is there, because sin has never
been there, or having once been, is now cast out and ex-
pelled. In revealed religion, which thus makes death to
have come into the world through sin, and only through
sin, life is the correlative of holiness. Whatever truly
lives, does so because sin has never found place in it, or,
having found place for a time, has since been overcome
and expelled. So soon as ever this is felt and understood,
0)77 at once assumes the profoundest moral significance ;
it becomes the fittest expression for the very highest
blessedness. Of that whereof we predicate absolute &>??,
we predicate absolute holiness of the same. Christ affirm-
ing of Himself, syw slfj,i 77 ^wrf (John xiv. 6; cf. I John
i. 2 ; Ignatius, ad Smyrn. 4 : Xptcn-os TO a\r)divbv -fj^wv
f)v}, implicitly affirmed of Himself that He was absolutely
holy ; and in the creature, in like manner, that alone truly
lives, or triumphs over death, death at once physical and
spiritual, which has first triumphed over sin. No wonder,
then, that Scripture should know of no higher word than
&>?7 to set forth the blessedness of God, and the blessedness
of the creature in communion with God.
It follows that those expositors of Ephes. iv. 1 8 are in
error, who there take a7rr)\\orpta)/jLsvoi, rrjf fw^y TOV sov,
as ' alienated from a divine life,' that is, 'from a life lived
according to the will and commandments of God ' (' remoti a
vita ilia quse secundum Deum est : ' as Grotius has it),
&>J7 never signifying this. The fact of such alienation was
96 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxvm.
only too true ; but the Apostle is not affirming it here, but
rather the miserable condition of the heathen, as men
estranged from the one fountain of life (irapa Sot 77777?)
%wf)s, Ps. xxxv. 10) ; as not having life, because separated
from Him who only absolutely lives (John v. 26), the living
God (Matt. xvi. 16; I Titn. iii. 15), in fellowship with
whom alone any creature has life. Another passage,
namely Gal. v. 25, will always seem to contain a tautology,
until we give to far) (and to the verb %rj v as well) the force
which has been claimed for it here.
xxviii. Kvpios,
A MAN, according to the later Greek grammarians, was
Sfo-TroT??? in respect of his slaves (Plato, Legg. vi. 756 c),
therefore olKoBsa-Trorrjs, but Kvpios in regard of his wife and
children ; who in speaking either to him or of him, would
give him this title of honour ; " as Sara obeyed Abraham,
calling him lord" (icvpiov avrov ica\.ova-a, I Pet. iii. 6;
cf. Plutarch, De Virt. Mul. s. vv. M//c/ea KOI Msyia-rci)}.
There is a certain truth in this distinction. Undoubtedly
there lies in Kvpios the sense of an authority owning
limitations moral limitations it may be ; it is implied
too that the wielder of this authority will not exclude,
in wielding it, a consideration of their good over whom
it is exercised ; while the Ssa-TroTijs exercises a more un-
restricted power and absolute domination, confessing no
such limitations or restraints. He who addresses another
as Bsa-irora, puts an emphasis of submission into his
speech, which /cvpis would not have possessed ; therefore
it was that the Greeks, not yet grown slavish, refused this
title of SSO-TTOTTJS to any but the gods (Euripides, Hippol.
88; ava%, dsovs jap Be<r7r6ras Ka\slv ^pstov) ; while
our own use of ' despot,' * despotic,' ' despotism,' as set over
against that of * lord,' * lordship,' and the like, attests
xxvin. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 97
that these words are coloured for us, as they were for those
from whom we have derived them.
Still, there were influences at work tending to break
down this distinction. Slavery, or the appropriating,
without payment, of other men's toil, however legalized,
is so abhorrent to men's innate sense of right, that they
seek to mitigate, in word at least, if not in fact, its
atrocity ; and thus, as no southern Planter in America
willingly spoke of his ' slaves,' but preferred some other
term, so in antiquity, wherever any gentler or more hu-
mane view of slavery obtained, the antithesis of Seo-TroTT/s
and 8ov\os would continually give place to that of tcvpios
and Sov\os. The harsher antithesis might still survive, but
the milder would prevail side by side with it. "We need
not look further than to the writings of St. Paul, to see
how little, in popular speech, the distinction of the gram-
marians was observed. Masters are now Kvpioi (Ephes. vi.
9 ; Col. iv. l), and now Sea-TroTai (i Tim. vi. 1,2; Tit. ii.
9; cf. I Pet. ii. 18), with him; and compare Philo, Quod
Omn. Prob. Lib. 6.
But, while all experience shows how little sinful man
can be trusted with unrestricted power over his fellow,
how certainly he will abuse it a moral fact attested in
our use of ' despot ' as equivalent with ' tyrant,' as well
as in the history of * tyrant' itself it can only be a
blessedness for man to regard God as the absolute Lord,
Ruler, and Disposer of his life ; since with Him power is
never disconnected from wisdom and from love : and, as
we saw that the Greeks, not without a certain sense of
this, were well pleased to style the gods SeaTrorai, however
they might refuse this title to any other ; so, within the
limits of Revelation, BSO-TTOTI^S, no less than Kvpios, is ap-
plied to the true God. Thus in the Septuagint, at Josh,
v. 14; Prov. xxix. 25; Jer. iv. IO; in the Apocrypha, at
2 Mace. v. 1 7, and elsewhere ; while in the N. T. on these
occasions : Luke ii. 29 ; Acts iv. 24 ; Rev. vi. 10 ; 2 Pet. ii.
H
98 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxix.
i ; Jude 4. In the last two it is to Christ, but to Christ
as God, that the title is ascribed. Erasmus, indeed, out
of that latent Arianism, of which, perhaps, he was scarcely
conscious to himself, denies that, at Jude 4, SscnroTrjs is to
be referred to Christ ; attributing only xvpios to Him, and
Ssa-TTorris to the Father. The fact that in the Greek text,
as he read it, sov followed and was joined to Ssa-irorrjv,
no doubt really lay at the root of his reluctance to ascribe
the title of Bsa-Trorrjs to Christ. It was for him not a
philological, but a theological difficulty, however he may
have sought to persuade himself otherwise.
This Sca-TroTrjs did no doubt express on the lips of the
faithful who used it, their sense of God's absolute disposal
of his creatures, of his autocratic power, who " doeth ac-
cording to his will in the army of heaven and among the
inhabitants of the earth" (Dan. iv. 35), more strongly
than Kvpios would have done. So much is plain from
some words of Philo (Quis Rer. Div. Hcer. 6), who finds
evidence of Abraham's svXdftsia, of his tempering, on one
signal occasion (Gen. xv. 2), boldness with reverence and
godly fear, in the fact that, addressing God, he is not
content with the simple icvpis, but links with it the less
usual SscnroTa; for Sea-iroTrjs, as Philo proceeds to say, is
not Kvpios only, but (f>o{3spbs icvpios, and implies, on his
part who uses it, a more entire prostration of self before
the might and majesty of God than Kvpios would have
done.
xxix. a\a%(ov, v
THESE words occur all of them together at Eorn. i. 30,
though in an order exactly the reverse from that in which
I have found it convenient to take them. They constitute
an interesting subject for synonymous discrimination.
'AXacoz/, occurring thrice in the Septuagint (Hab. ii.
5 ; Job xxviii. 8 ; Prov. xxi. 24), is found twice in the N. T.
(here and at 2 Tim. iii. 2) j while aKa&vs-ia, of which the
xxix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 99
Septuagint knows nothing, appears four times in the Apo-
crypha (Wisd. v. 8 ; xvii. 7 ; 2 Mace. ix. 8 ; xv. 6), and in
the N. T. twice (Jam. iv. 16 ; I John ii. 16). Derived from
aXt], ' a wandering about,' it designated first the vagabond
mountebanks ('marktschreyer'), conjurors, quacksalvers,
or exorcists (Acts xix. 1351 Tim. v. 13) ; being joined with
yoT/s (Lucian, Revivisc. 29) ; with <f>vag (Aristophanes,
Ban. 909) ; with KSVOS (Plutarch, De Prof. Virt. 10) ; full
of empty and boastful professions of cures and other
feats which they could accomplish; such as Volpone in
The Fox of Ben Jon son (Act ii. Sc. i). It was from them
transferred to any braggart or boaster (aXacot/ KOI vTrsp-
av%os, Philo, Gong. Erud. Grat. 8 ; while for other in-
different company which the word keeps, see Aristophanes,
Nub. 445-452); vaunting himself in the possession of skill
(Wisd. xvii. 7), or knowledge, or courage, or virtue, or
riches, or whatever else it might be, which were not truly
his (Plutarch, De Seips. Laud. 4). He is thus the exact
antithesis of the sipwv, who makes less of himself and his
belongings than the reality would warrant, in the same
way as the d\a(ov makes more (Aristotle, Ethic. NIC. ii. 7.
12). In the Definitions which pass under Plato's name,
a\aovsla is defined as s^is irpoa-Troi^TtKr) dyaOwv ftr) VTT-
apxovrcov: while Xenophon (Gyr. ii. 2. 12) describes the
d\a%(t>v thus : 6 fisv yap d\a^a>v s/jioiys SOKSL ovojjia KSicrOat.
STT\ TOLS TTpOCTTTOlOV/JiSVOlS Kdl 7T\,OV(Tt(0TepOlS slvCll r) tVt, KOI
dvSpsLorspois, Kal TTonjcrsiv a firj Uavoi sl(riv vTricr^vov/Jisvois'
Kal ravra, <f>avspoi$ yiyvojMsvois, OTI rov \aj3siv TI sveica KOI
KspBavat Troiovaiv : and Aristotle (Ethic. Nic. iv. 7. 2) : So/cct
Br) 6 fisv d\ao)v Trpo&TroiTjTiKos rwv svSo^oiV slvai, KOI /j,rf
vTrap-%GVTO)v, /cal JJLS^OVWV r/ vTrdpjfSL : cf . Theodoret on Rom.
i. 30 : d\a^6vas Koksl TOVS ov&Sfiiav /JLSV fypVT&S Trpofyacriv
sis (f)povijfjt,aTo$ oyfeov, fjidTiyv Bs ^vaLWfisvovs. As such he
is likely to be a busybody and meddler, which may explain
the juxtaposition of dXafrvsia and wXim/>a'y/t0<rwq (Ep. ad
Diognetum, 4). Other words with which it is joined are
H 2
100 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxix.
/3Xa/ceta (Plutarch, De Rect. And. 18) ; rvfyos (Clement of
Rome, 1 3) ; ajspco^ia (2 Mace. ix. 7) ; diraiSsvcria (Pbilo,
Migrat. Abrah. 24) : while in the passage from Xenophon,
which was just now quoted in part, the aka^ovss are dis-
tinguished from the acrrsioi and sv^aplrss.
It is not an accident, but of the essence of the dXa^&w,
that in his boastings he overpasses the limits of the truth
(Wisd. ii. 1 6, 17) ; thus Aristotle sees in him not merely
one making unseemly display of things which he actually
possesses, but vaunting himself in those which he does
not possess ; and sets over against him the aKyQevTiKos KOL
T&> y9/ft) fcal T&> \6ja) : cf. Rhet. ii. 6 : TO ra dXXorpta avrov
<f>d<rKiv, a\a%oveias erT)fj.iov : and Xenophon, Mem. i. 7;
while Plato (Rep. viii. 560 c) joins tysvSsis with a\a^6vss
\6yoi : and Plutarch (Pyrrh. 19) d\a(ov with KOJATTOS. We
have in the same sense a lively description of the a\a&v
in the Characters (23) of Theophrastus ; and, still better,
of the shifts and evasions to which he has recourse, in the
treatise, Ad Herenn. iv. 50, 5 1. While, therefore, ' boaster '
fairly represents a\a^wv (Jebb suggests l swaggerer,' GJia-
racters of Theophrastus, p. 193), 'ostentation' does not
well give back aXabi/aa, seeing that a man can only be
ostentatious in things which he really has to show. No word
of ours, and certainly not ' pride ' (i John ii. 16, A. V.),
renders it at all so adequately as the German ' prahlerei.'
For the thing, Falstaff and Parolles, both of them un-
scarred braggarts of the war,' are excellent, though mar-
vellously diverse, examples; so too Bessus in Beaumont
and Fletcher's King and no King; while, on the other hand,
Marlowe's Tamburlaine, despite of all his big vaunting
words, is no aXaeoz/, inasmuch as there are fearful reali-
ties of power by which these his fjieydXrjs 7X060-0-775 KO/JLTTOI
are sustained and borne out. This dealing in braggadocio
is a vice sometimes ascribed to whole nations ; thus an
spfyvros aka^ovsia to the .ZEtolians (Polybius, iv. 3 ; cf.
Livy, xxxiii. 1 1) ; and, in modern times, to the Gascons j
xxix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. ioi
out of which these last have given us ' gasconade.' The
Vulgate, translating dXa^oi/sy, ' elati ' (in the Ehemish,
'haughty'), has not seized the central meaning as suc-
cessfully as Beza, who has rendered it ' gloriosi.' l
A distinction has been sometimes drawn between the
a\a%(ov and the irspirspos [77 aydirr] ov TrspTrspsvsrai, I Cor.
xiii. 4], that the first vaunts of things which he has
not, the second of things which, however little this his
boasting and bravery about them may become him, he
actually has. The distinction, however, cannot be main-
tained (see Polybius, xxxii. 6. 5 : xl. 6. 2) ; both are liars
alike.
But this habitual boasting of our own will hardly fail
to be accompanied with a contempt for that of others. If
it did not find, it would rapidly generate, such a tendency ;
and thus the a\a^a>v is often avOdSijs as well (Prov. xxi.
24) ; a\a%ovsia is nearly allied to vTrspo-^i'a : they are used
as almost convertible terms (Philo, De Carit. 22-24). But
from vTrepo-fyia to vTrsprjtyavia there is but a single step ;
we need not then wonder to meet vjrspityavos joined with
a\aojv : cf. Clement of Eome, Cor. 16. The places in
the N. T. where it occurs, besides those noted already, are
Luke i. 5 1 ; Jam. iv. 6 ; I Pet. v. 5 ; virsprjfyavia at Mark
vii. 22. A picturesque image serves for its basis: the
vTTSpijcpavos, from inrep and <j)aivofAai, being one who shows
himself above his fellows, exactly as the Latin ' superbus '
is from ' super ; ' as our ' stilts ' is connected with ' Stolz,'
and with * stout ' in its earlier sense of ' proud/ or ' lifted
up.' Deyling (Obss. Sac. vol. v. p. 219): 'Vox proprie
notat hominem capite super alios eminentem, ita ut, quem-
admodum Saul, prse ceteris sit conspicuus, I Sam. ix. 2.'
1 We formerly used ' glorious ' in this sense. Thus in North's Plu-
tarch, p. 1 83 : ' Some took this for a glorious brag ; others thought he
[ Alcibiades] was like enough to have done it.' And Milton ( The Reason
of Church Government, i. 5) : ' He [Anselm] little dreamt then that the
weeding hook of Reformation would, after two ages, pluck up his glori-
ous poppy [prelacy] from insulting over the good corn [presbytery].'
102 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxix.
Compare Horace (Carm. i. 18. 15): <Et tollens vacuum
plus nimio Gloria verticem.'
A man can show himself a\a&v only when in company
with his fellow-men; but the proper seat of the vTreprj^avla,
the German ' hochmuth,' is within. He that is sick of this
sin compares himself, it may be secretly or openly, with
others, and lifts himself above others, in honour preferring
himself; his sin being, as Theophrastus (Charact. 34)
describes it, KaT-afypovqa-is TIS 7r\r)v avrov rwv a\\(ov:
joined therefore with vTrspotyla (Demosthenes, Orat. xxi.
247) ; with e%ov$evw<n,s (Ps. xxx. 19) ; virspiyfiavos with
avOdSrjs (Plutarch, Akib. c. Cor. 4). The bearing of the
vTTp^(pavos toward others is not of the essence, is only tb e
consequence, of his sin. His * arrogance,' as we say, his
claiming to himself of honour and observance (v7rspr]<j>avla
is joined with </>i\oSofta, Esth. iv. 10) ; his indignation,
and, it may be, his cruelty and revenge, if these are with-
held (see Esth. iii. 5, 6; and Appian, De Reb. Pun. viii.
1 1 8 ; Gt>fj,a /cal vTrsprjtpava), are only the outcomings of this
false estimate of himself; it is thus that virsprjcpavos and
Eiri<f)dovos (Plutarch, Pomp. 24), virsprj^avou and ftapsls
(Qu. Rom. 63), V7rspr)<pavia and djspco-^la (2 Mace. ix. 7),
are joined together. In the v-jrsprjfyavos we may have the
perversion of a nobler character than in the a\aa>v, the
melancholic, as the a\a^wv is the sanguine, the v^pLa-njs
the choleric, temperament ; but because nobler, therefore
one which, if it falls, falls more deeply, sins more fear-
fully. He is one whose " heart is lifted up " (v-^rrfKoKap-
Biosj Prov. xvi. 5) ; one of those TO, v\lrr)\a (ppovovvrss
(Rom. xi. 1 6), as opposed to the rairsLvol rfj icapSla: he
is Tv<f>(0dsis (i Tim. iii. 6) or TSTV^W^VOS (2 Tim. iii. 4),
besotted with pride, and far from all true wisdom (Ecclus.
xv. 8) ; and this lifting up of his heart may be not merely
against man, but against God; he may assail the very
prerogatives of Deity itself (i Mace. i. 21, 24; Ecclus. x.
12, 13; Wisd. xiv. 6 : vTrsptffavoi, <ytjdvTss\ Theophylact
xxix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 103
therefore does not go too far, when he calls this sin atcpo-
TTO\IS KCIKWV : nor need we wonder to be thrice reminded,
in the very same words, that '' God resisteth the proud "
(vTTSpv^dvois avrirda-crsTai : Jam. iv. 6 ; I Pet. v. 5 > Prov.
iii. 34) ; sets Himself in battle array against them, as they
themselves against Him.
It remains to speak of v/3pt,a-Tij?, which, by its deriva-
tion from v ftp is, which is, again, from. vTrsp (so at least
Schneider and Pott; but Curtius, Grundzuge, 2nd edit,
p. 473, doubts), and as we should say, ' uppishness,'
stands in a certain etymological relation with virspi'ifyavos
(see Donaldson, New Cratylus, 3rd ed. p. 552). ''Tfipis is
insolent wrongdoing to others, not out of revenge, or any
other motive except the mere pleasure which the infliction
of the injury imparts. So Aristotle (Rhet. ii. 2) : SCTTL <yap
, TO /3~\.a.7rTiv Kal \VTrslv., !</>' ols ala^vvr) sari TO> Trdcr-
, pr) iva TL ysvyTai avrw aXXo, r> ori i'ysvsro, a\V OTTWS
oiyap avrnroiovvTSs ov% vftpiovaiv,a\\a TifjLwpovvTai.
What its flower and fruit and harvest shall be, the dread
lines of ^schylus (Pers. 822 : cf. (Ed. Bex, 873-883) have
told us. ef Y^piarrjs occurs only twice in the N. T. ; Rom.
i. 30 ('despiteful,' A. V.),and I Tim. i. 13 (' injurious,' A.
and E. V. ; a word seldom now applied except to things,
but preferable to * insolent,' which has recently been pro-
posed) ; in the Septuagint often ; being at Job xl. 6, 7 ;
Isai. ii. 12, associated with virsprj^avos (cf. Prov. viii. 13) ;
as the two, in like manner, are connected by Aristotle
(Rhet. ii. 16). Other words whose company it keeps are
aypios (Homer, Od. vi. I2O); drda6a\os (Ib. xxiv. 282) ;
aWwv (Sophocles, Ajax, 1061) ; avop,os (Trachin. 1076) }
/3/aioy (Demosthenes, Orat. xxiv. 169) ; irdpoivos, dyvai/Acov,
TriKpos (Orat. liv. 1261); aSt/eos (Plato, Legg. i. 6306) ; d/co-
\aa-ros (Apol. Socr. 26 e) ; atypwv (Phileb. 45 e) ; uTrsporrrrijs
(Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. iv. 3. 21); Qpaavs (Clement, of
Alexandria, Strom, ii. 5) ; <f)av\os (Plutarch, Def. Orac.
45) ; <f>i\o<y\(o$ (Symp. 8. 5 ; but here in a far milder
104 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxix.
sense). In his Lucullus, 34, Plutarch speaks of one as
avrjp u/3/c><rr?yy, Kal /Aetrros o~\,vyci)plas aTrdcnjs icai Opacrvrrfros.
Its exact antithesis is o-ctxppwv (Xenophon, Apol. Soc. 19;
Ages. x. 2; cf. TrpavOvpos, Prov. xvi. 19). The vfipia-rris is
contumelious ; his insolence and contempt of others break
forth in acts of wantonness and outrage. Menelaus is
vfiptcrTrjs when he would fain withhold the rites of sepul-
ture from the dead body of Ajax (Sophocles, Ajax, 1065).
So, too, when Hanun, king of Ammon, cut short the gar-
ments of king David's ambassadors, and shaved off half
their beards, and so sent them back to their master
(2 Sam. x.), this was vftpts. St. Paul, when he persecuted
the Church, was vftpi<rrr)s (l Tim. i. 13; cf. Acts viii. 3),
but himself vfipta-dsis (i Thess. ii. 2) at Philippi (see Acts
xvi. 22, 23). Our blessed Lord, prophesying the order of
his Passion, declares that the Son of Man vftpiaOijasTai
(Luke xviii. 32) ; the whole blasphemous masquerade of
royalty, in which it was sought that He should sustain
the principal part (Matt, xxvii. 27-30), constituting the
fulfilment of this prophecy. ' Pereuntibus addita ludibria *
are the words of Tacitus (Annal. xv. 44), describing the
martyrdoms of the Christians in Nero's persecution ; they
died, he would say, ns6' vftpsas. The same may be said
of York, when, in Shakespeare's Hemy VI., the paper
crown is set upon his head, in mockery of his kingly pre-
tensions, before Margaret and Clifford stab him. In like
manner the Spartans are not satisfied with throwing down
the Long Walls of Athens, unless they do it to the sound
of music (Plutarch, Lys. 15). It is //3/ots, and is desig-
nated as such in the Electro, of Euripides, when -ZEgisthus
compels Electra to marry a hind on her father's land (257).
Prisoners in a Spanish civil war are shot in the back. And
indeed all human story is full of examples of this demo-
niac element lying deep in the heart of man ; this evil for
evil's sake, and evermore begetting itself anew.
Cruelty and lust are the two main shapes in which
xxx. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 105
vflpis will display itself; or rather they are not two; for
as the hideous records of human wickedness have too often
attested, the trial, for example, of Gilles de Retz, Marshal
of France, in the fifteenth century, they are not two sins
but one ; and Milton, when he wrote, " lust hard by hate,"
saying much, yet did not say all. Out of a sense that in
vfipts both are included, one quite as much as the other,
Josephus (Antt. i. 1 1. i) characterizes the men of Sodom as
vftpuTTal to men (cf. Gen. xix. 5), no less than acrsftels to
God. He uses the same language (/&. v. 10. i) about the
sons of Eli (cf. I Sam. ii. 22) ; on each occasion showing
that by the vfipis which he ascribed to those and these,
he intended an assault on the chastity of others (cf. Eu-
ripides, Hipp. 1086) ; Critias (quoted by ./Elian, V. H. x.
13) calls Archilochus Xdyvos teal vftpKTTrjs: and Plutarch,
comparing Demetrius Poliorcetes and Antony, applies this
title to them both (Com. Dem. cum Anton. 3 ; cf. Demet.
24 ; Lucian, Dial. Deor. vi. I j and the article "TjSpsajs
SIKT) in Pauly's Encyclopddie}.
The three words, then, are clearly distinguishable,
occupying three different provinces of meaning : they pre-
sent to us an ascending scale of guilt ; and, as has been
observed already, they severally designate the boastful in
words, the proud and overbearing in thoughts, the insolent
and injurious in acts.
xxx. avrfypicrTOS,
THE word avri-^pia-Tos is peculiar to the Epistles of St.
John, occurring five times in them (i Ep. ii. 18, bis; ii.
22 ; iv. 3 ; 2 Ep. 7), and nowhere else in the N. T. But
if he alone has the word, St. Paul, in common with him,
designates the person of this great adversary, and the
marks by which he shall be recognized ; for all expositors
of weight, Grotius alone excepted, are agreed that St.
Paul's av6pa)Tros rffs apaprlas, his vibs rrjs aTrcoXeias, his
106 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxx.
avo/jLos (2 Thess. ii. 3, 8), is identical with St. John's avri-
Xpia-Tos (see Augustine, De Civ. Dei, xx. 19. 2) ; and,
indeed, to St. Paul we are indebted for our fullest instruc-
tion concerning this arch-enemy of Christ and of God.
Passing by, as not relevant to our purpose, many discus-
sions to which the mysterious announcement of such a
coming foe has given rise, whether, for example, the Anti-
christ is a single person or a succession of persons, a person
or a system, we occupy ourselves here with one question
only ; namely, what the force is of avri in this composi-
tion. Is it such as to difference avrl-^pia-Tos from tysvSo-
Xpicrros ? does avrtxpuTTos imply one who sets himself up
against Christ, or, like ^sv^o^piaros, one who sets himself
up in the stead of Christ ? Does he proclaim that there is
no Christ? or that he is Christ?
There is no settling this matter off-hand, as some are
so ready to do ; seeing that ai/rt, in composition, has both
these forces. For a subtle analysis of the mental processes
by which it now means ' instead of,' and now ' against,'
see Pott, jEtymol. Forschungen, 2nd edit. p. 260. It often
expresses substitution; thus, dvTt/3ao-i\sv$, he who is instead
of the ting, ' prorex,' ' viceroy ; ' dvOviraros, ' proconsul ; '
dvTibeiTTvos, one who fills the place of an absent guest ;
dvrtyvxos, one who lays down his life for others (Josephus,
De Mace. 17 ; Ignatius, Eplies. 21) ; dvri\vTpov, the ransom
paid instead of a person. But often also it implies opposi-
tion, as in dvTi\oyia (' contradiction '), dvriOsa-is^ dvrucsi-
IJLEVOS: and, still more to the point, as expressing not merely
the fact of opposition, but the very object against which
the opposition is directed, in dvTivo/j,ia (see Suicer, Thes. s.
v.), opposition to law; dvri^ip^ the thumb, not so called,
because equivalent in strength to the whole hand, but as
set over against the hand ; dvrL^L\6<ro^os, one of opposite
philosophical opinions ; avTiKarcov, the title of a book
which Caesar wrote against Cato ; avridsos not indeed in
Homer, where, applied to Mygdon (//. iii. 186), to Poly-
xxx. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 107
pheinus (Od. i. 70), and to the Ithacan suitors (xiv. 18 ;
cf. Pindar, Pyth. iii. 88), it means 'godlike,' that is, in
strength and power ; but yet, in later use, as in Philo ;
with whom dvridsos vovs (De Conf. Ling. 19; De Somn. ii.
27) can be only the ( adversa Deo mens ; ' and so in the
Christian Fathers; while the jests about an Antipater
who sought to murder his father, to the effect that he was
fapwvvfios, would be utterly pointless, if dvrl in composi-
tion did not bear this meaning. I will not further cite
'Avrepcos, where the force of ami is more questionable ;
examples already adduced having sufficiently shown that
dvrl in composition implies sometimes substitution, some-
times opposition. There are words in which it has now
this force, and now that, as these words are used by one
writer or another. Thus dvTia-Tpdrrjyos is for Thucydides
(vii. 86) the commander of the hostile army, while for later
Greek writers, such as Plutarch, who occupy themselves
with Koinan affairs, it is the standing equivalent for 'pro-
prsetor.' All this being so, they have equally erred, who,
holding one view of Antichrist or the other, have claimed
the name by which in Scripture he is named, as itself
deciding the matter in their favour. It does not so ; but
leaves the question to be settled by other considerations. 1
To me St. John's words seem decisive that resistance to
Christ, and defiance of Him, this, and not any treacherous
assumption of his character and offices, is the essential
mark of the Antichrist ; is that which, therefore, we should
expect to find embodied in his name : thus see I John ii.
22 ; 2 John 7 ; and in the parallel passage, 2 Thess. ii. 4,
he is d dvriKsifjLsvos, or ' the opposer ; ' and in this sense,
if not all, yet many of the Fathers have understood the
word. Thus Tertullian (De Prcesc. Hear. 4) : ' Qui anti-
christi, nisi Christi rebelles ? ' The Antichrist is, in Theo-
1 Liicke (Comm. iiber die Sriefedes Johannes, pp. 190-194) excellently
discusses the word. On the whole subject of Antichrist see Schnecken-
burger, Jahrbuchfiir Deutsche Theoloyie, vol. iv. p. 405 sqq.
108 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxx.
phylact's language, svavrios T> Xpcrr&>, or in Origen's
(Con. Cels. vi. 45), X/WO-TW Kara Sidpsrpov svavrios, ' Wider-
christ,' as the Germans have rightly rendered it; one who
shall not pay so much homage to God's word as to assert
its fulfilment in himself, for he shall deny that word
altogether; hating even erroneous worship, because it
is worship at all, and everything that is called 'God'
(2 Thess. ii. 4), but hating most of all the Church's worship
in spirit and in truth (Dan. viii. n); who, on the destruc-
tion of every religion, every acknowledgment that man is
submitted to higher powers than his own, shall seek to
establish his throne ; and, for God's great truth that in
Christ God is man, to substitute his own lie, that in him
man is God.
The term i/reuSo^io-roy, with which we proceed to com-
pare it, appears only twice in the !N". T. ; or, if we count,
not how often it has been written, but how often it was
spoken, only once ; for the two passages in which it occurs
(Matt. xxiv. 24 ; Mark xiii. 22) are records of the same
discourse. In form it resembles many others in which
tysvSos is combined with almost any other nouns at will.
Thus i/reuSa-Troo-ToXos (2 Cor. xi. 13), tyevftdSsX^os (2 Cor.
xi. 26), ^lrv8oSi8d(TKd\os (2 Pet. ii. l^^evSoTrpo^T^s^Matt.
vii. 15; cf . Jer. xxxiii. 7), ^evBofjidpTvp (Matt. xxvi. 60 ;
cf. Plato, Gorg. 472 b). So, too, in ecclesiastical Greek,
^svBoTroif^jv, TfrsvSo\.aTpeia ; and in classical, -^rv8dyj\of
(Homer, II. xv. 159), tysvSo/jLavTts (Herodotus, iv. 69), and
a hundred more. The tyevSoxpto-Tos does not deny the
being of a Christ ; on the contrary, he builds on the world's
expectations of such a person ; only he appropriates these
to himself, blasphemously affirms that he is the foretold
One, in whom God's promises and men's expectations are
fulfilled. Thus Barchochab, ' Son of the Star,' as, ap-
propriating the prophecy of Num. xxiv. 17, he called
himself who, in Hadrian's reign, stirred up again the
smouldering embers of Jewish insurrection into a flame so
xxx. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 109
fierce that it consumed himself with more than a million
of his fellow-countrymen, was a -^suSo^picrros : and such
have been that long series of blasphemous pretenders and
impostors, the false Messiahs, who, since the rejection of
the true, have, in almost every age, fed and flattered and
betrayed the expectations of the Jews.
The distinction, then, is plain. The avr^pia-ros denies
that there is a Christ ; the ifrsvSoxpiarTos affirms himself to
be the Christ. Both alike make war against the Christ
of God, and would set themselves, though under different
pretences, on the throne of his glory. And yet, while the
words have this broad distinction between them, while
they represent two different manifestations of the kingdom
of wickedness, there is a sense in which the final Anti-
christ ' will be a ' Pseudochrist ' as well ; even as it will
be the very character of that last revelation of hell to
gather up into itself, and to reconcile for one last assault
against the truth, all anterior and subordinate forms of
error. He will not, it is true, call himself the Christ, for
he will be filled with deadliest hate against the name and
offices, as against the whole spirit and temper, of Jesus of
Nazareth, the exalted King of Glory. But, inasmuch as
no one can resist the truth by a mere negation, he must
offer and oppose something positive, in the room of that
faith which he will assail and endeavour utterly to abolish.
And thus we may certainly conclude that the final Anti-
christ will reveal himself to the world, for he too will have
his aTTOKa\v^is (2 Thess. ii. 3, 8), his irapova-ia (ver. 9),
as, in a sense, its Messiah ; not, indeed, as the Messiah
of prophecy, the Messiah of God, but still as the world's
saviour ; as one who will make the blessedness of as many
as obey him, giving to them the full enjoyment of a pre-
sent material earth, instead of a distant, shadowy, and
uncertain heaven; abolishing those troublesome distinc-
tions, now the fruitful sources of so much disquietude,
abridging men of so many enjoyments, between the Church
110 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxr.
and the world, between the spirit and the flesh, between
holiness and sin, between good and evil. It will follow,
therefore, that however he will not assume the name of
Christ, and so will not, in the letter, be a ^evSoxpivTos,
yet, usurping to himself Christ's offices, presenting him-
self to the world as the true centre of its hopes, as the
satisfier of all its needs and healer of all its hurts, he,
' the Eed Christ,' as his servants already call him, will in
fact take up and absorb into himself all names and forms
of blasphemy, will be the great ^rev^o^pia-ros and dvri-
xxxi. fj,o\vvw,
WE have translated both these words, as often as they
occur in the N. T. (fj,o\vva>, at I Cor. viii. 7 ; Rev. iii. 4 ;
xiv. 4; fjiiaiva), at John xviii. 28 ; Tit. i. 15 ; Heb. xii. 15 ;
Jude 8), by a single word 'defile,' which doubtless covers
them both. At the same time they differ in the images
on which they severally repose ; fjt,o\vvsiv being properly
' to besmear,' or ' besmirch,' as with mud or filth, ' to de-
foul ; ' which, indeed, is only another form of 'defile ; ' thus
Aristotle (Hist. An. vi. 17. i) speaks of swine, TOO TTT/XW
P,O\VVOVTS savTovs, that is, as the context shows, crusting
themselves over with mud (cf. Plato, Rep. vii. 535 e;
Cant. v. 3 ; Ecclus. xiii. i) : while /jitatvsiv, in its primary
usage, is not ' to smear ' as with matter, but ' to stain ' as
with colour. The first corresponds to the Latin l inquinare '
(Horace, Sat. i. 8. 37), 'spurcare ' (itself probably connected
with ' porcus '), the German ' besudeln ; ' the second to
the Latin maculare,' and the German ' beflecken.'
It will follow, that while in a derived and ethical
sense both words have an equally dishonorable signifi-
cation, the /io\uo>ios <rapKos (2 Cor. vii. i) being no other
than the ^ida-f^ara rov ic6ap,ov (2 Pet. ii. 20), both being
also used of the defiling of women (cf. Gen. xxxiv. 5 ;
Zech. xiv. 2), this will only hold good so long as they are
xxxii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT, in
figuratively and ethically regarded. So taken indeed, ptai-
vsiv is in classical Greek the standing word to express the
prof an ing or unhallo wing of aught (Plato, Legg. he. 868 a;
Tim. 69 d; Sophocles, Antig. 1031; cf. Lev. v. 3; John
xviii. 28). In a literal sense, on the contrary, piaivsiv
may be used in good part, just as, in English, we speak of
the staining of glass, the staining of ivory (II. iv. 141 ; cf.
Virgil, JEn. xii. 67) ; or as, in Latin, the ' macula ' need
not of necessity be also a * labes ; ' nor yet in English the
f spot ' be always a ' blot.' Mo\vv siv, on the other hand,
as little admits of such nobler employment in a literal as
in a figurative sense. The verb <nn\ovv, a late word, and
found only twice in the N. T. (Jam. iii. 6; Jude 23), is
in meaning nearer to piaivziv. On it see Lobeck, Phryni-
clius, p. 28.
xxxii. TraiBeia, vovOzcria.
IT is worth while to attempt a discrimination between
these words, occurring as they do together at Ephes. vd. 4,
and being often there either not distinguished at all, or
distinguished erroneously.
YlatSsia is one among the many words, into which re-
vealed religion has put a deeper meaning than it knew of,
till this took possession of it ; the new wine by a wondrous
process making new even the old vessel into which it was
poured. For the Greek, TraiSsla was simply ' education ; '
nor, in all the many definitions of it which Plato gives, is
there the slightest prophetic anticipation of the new force
which it one day should obtain. But the deeper appre-
hension of those who had learned that " foolishness is
bound in the heart " alike " of a child " and of a man,
while yet " the rod of correction may drive it far from
him" (Prov. xxii. 15), led them, in assuming the word, to
bring into it a further thought. They felt and under-
stood that all effectual instruction for the sinful children
of men, includes and implies chastening, or, as we are
112 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxn.
accustomed to say, out of a sense of the same truth, ( cor-
rection.' There must be sTravopdwa-ts, or ' rectification ' in
it ; which last word, occurring but once in the N. T., is there
found in closest connexion with TraiSsla (2 Tim. iii. I6). 1
Two definitions of TraiSsia the one by a distinguished
heathen philosopher, the other by an illustrious Christian
theologian, may be profitably compared. This is Plato's
(Legg. ii. 659 d) : vraiSsla psv sad' 77 irai^wv 6\/ci] rs Kal
dycoyr) irpos rov VTTO rov vopov \6<yov opQov slprj^vov. And
this is that of Basil the Great (InProv. l) : ecmv fj ira&sia
dywytf ris a>fys\ip,os rfj ^v^fj, sTrnrovws TroXXa/as rwv avro
Kd/cias Krj\lBa)v avTrjv sKtcadatpovcra. For as many as felt and
acknowledged all which St. Basil here asserts, TraiSsta sig-
nified, not simply ' eruditio,' but, as Augustine expresses it,
who has noticed the changed use of the word (Enarr. in
Ps. cxviii. 66), 'per molestias eruditio.' And this is quite
the predominant use of TraiSsia and TTCU&SVSIV in the Sep-
tuagint, in the Apocrypha, and in the N. T. (Lev. xxvi. 1 8 ;
Ps. vi. I ; Isai. liii. 5 ; Ecclus. iv. I/; xxii. 6, ^dart^ss Kal
frai&sla : 2 Mace. vi. 12 ; Luke xxiii. 16 ; Heb. xii. 5, 7, 8 ;
Eev. iii. 19, and often). The only occasion in the N. T.
upon which iraiSsvsiv occurs in the old Greek sense is Acts
vii. 22. Instead of ' nurture ' at Ephes. vi. 4, which is
too weak a word, ' discipline ' might be substituted with
advantage the laws and ordinances of the Christian
household, the transgression of which will induce correc-
tion, being indicated by TraiSsia there.
Nou^so-f'a (in Attic Greek vovOsriaor vovderrjcns, Lobeck,
Phrynichus, pp. 513, 520) is more successfully rendered,
' admonition ; ' which, however, as we must not forget,
has been defined by Cicero thus : * Admonitio est quasi
1 The Greek, indeed, acknowledged, to a certain extent, the same, in
his secondary use of aKoXaoror, which, in its primary, meant simply ' the
imchastised.' Menander too has this confession :
6
(Meineke, Fragm. Com. Gr. p. 1055).
And in other uses of naifaveiv in profane Greek there are slight Linta of
the same : thus see Xenophon, Mem. i. 3. 5 ; Polybius, Hist. ii. 9. 6.
xxxn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 113
lenior objurgatio.' And such is vovOscria here ; it is the
training by word by the word of encouragement, when
this is sufficient, but also by that of remonstrance, of
reproof, of blame, where these may be required; as set
oier against the training by act and by discipline, which
is iraiSsia. Bengel, who so seldom misses, has yet missed
the exact distinction here, having on sv TraiSsia ical vovdsaia
this note : ' Harum altera occurrit ruditati ; altera oblivion i
et levitati. Utraque et sermonem et reliquam disciplinam
includit.' That the distinctive feature of vov0s<ria is the
training by word of mouth is evidenced by such combi-
nations as these : vrapaivea-sis KOI vov6 serial (Plutarch, De,
Coh. Ira, 2) ; vovdsriKol \6yoi (Xenophon, Mem. i. 2. 21);
SiSa^r) fcal vovdsrrjcns (Plato, Rep. iii. 399 6) ; vovdsrelv KCU
SiSda-icsiv (Protag. 323 d).
Eelatively, then, and by comparison with TratSsia, vov-
Oea-ia is the milder term ; while yet its association with
TratSet'a teaches us that this too is a most needful element
of Christian education ; that the ircu&eta without it would
be very incomplete ; even as, when years advance, and
there is no longer a child, but a young man, to deal with,
it must give place to, or rather be swallowed up in, the
vovdsa-ta altogether. And yet the vovdsa-La itself, where
need is, will be earnest and severe enough; it is much
more than a feeble Eli-remonstrance : " Nay, my sons, for
it is no good report that I hear" (i Sam. ii. 24) ; indeed,
of Eli it is expressly recorded, in respect of those sons,
OVK svovOsrei, avrovs (iii. 13). Plutarch unites it with
fjis/ji^ns (Conj. Prcec. 1 3) ; with tyoyos (De Virt. Mor. 12; De
Adul. et Am. 17) ; Philo with a-axppovia-^os (Lo'sner, Obss.
ad N. T. e Philone, p. 427) ; while vovOsrsiv had continually,
if not always, the sense of admonishing with blame (Plu-
tarch, De Prof. Virt. ii; Conj. Prcec. 22). Jerome, then,
has only partial right, when he desires to get rid, at Ephes.
vi. 4, and again at Tit. iii. 10, of correptio ' (still retained
by the Vulgate), on the ground that in vovdsvia no rebuke
I
114 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxm.
or austerity is implied, as in correptio ' there certainly is :
' Quam correptionem nos legimus, melius in Grseco dicitur
vovdso-ta, quse admonitionem magis et eruditionem quam
austeritatem sonat/ Undoubtedly, in vovdsvia such is not
of necessity involved, and therefore ' correptio ' is not its
happiest rendering ; but it does not exclude, nay implies
this, whenever it may be required : the derivation, from
vovs and Ti6r}fj.i, affirms as much : whatever is needed to
cause the monition to be taken home, to be laid to heart,
is involved in the word.
In claiming for it, as discriminated from ira&sia, that
it is predominantly what our Translators understand it,
namely, admonition by word, none would deny that both
it and vovOsrsiv are employed to express correction by
deed; only we affirm that the other the appeal to the
reasonable faculties is the primary and prevailing use of
both. It will follow that in such phrases as these, pdfiSov
vovOerrja-is (Plato, Legg. iii. 700 c), 7r\rjyais vovdsrslv (Lecjg.
ix. 879 d; cf. Rep. viii. 560 a), the words are employed in
a secondary and improper, but therefore more emphatic,
sense. The same emphasis lies in the statement that
Gideon " took thorns of the wilderness and briers, and
with them he taught the men of Succoth " (Judg. viii. 16).
No one on the strength of this language would assert that
the verb ' to teach ' had not for its primary meaning the
oral communicating of knowledge. On the relations be-
tween vovdsTtlv and StSdvKsw see Bishop Lightfoot, on
Col. i. 28.
xxxiii. a<j>(Tis, -jrapsats.
v A.<f>s<ris is the standing word by which forgiveness, or
remission of sins, is expressed in the N. T. (see Vitringa,
Obss. Sac. vol. i. pp. 909-933) ; though, remarkably
enough, the LXX. knows nothing of this use of the word,
Gen. iv. 1 3 being the nearest approach to it. Derived from
d<f)ivai, the image which underlies it is that of a releasing,
as of a prisoner (Isai. Ixi. i), or letting go, as of a debt
xxxm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 115
(Deut. xv. 3). Probably the year of jubilee, called con-
stantly Iroy, or huivros, rr}s d(psa-(os, or simply a(f><ris (Lev.
xxv. 31, 40; xxvii. 24), the year in which all debts were
forgiven, suggested the higher application of the word,
which is frequent in the N. T., though more frequent in
St. Luke than in all the other books of the New Covenant
put together. On a single occasion, however, the term
Trdpsa-ts rwv a^aprrjfidrmv occurs (Rom. iii. 25). Our Trans-
lators have noticed in the margin, but have not marked
in their Version, the variation in the Apostle's phrase,
rendering Trdpso-is here by 'remission,' as they have ren-
dered a(f)cris elsewhere ; and many have since justified
them in this ; whilst others, as I cannot doubt, more
rightly affirm that St. Paul of intention changed his word,
wishing to say something which Trdpscns would express
adequately and accurately, and which a<e<rts would not ;
and that our Translators should have reproduced this
change which he has made.
It is familiar to many, that Cocceius and those of his
school found in this text one main support for a favourite
doctrine of theirs, namely, that there was no remission of
sins, in the fullest sense of these words, under the Old
Covenant, no rsKeiwa-is (Heb. x. 1-4), no entire abolition
of sin even for the faithful themselves, but only a present
prcetermission (frdpsa-Ls) , a temporary dissimulation, upon
God's part, in consideration of the sacrifice which was
one day to be ; the dvdp,vt]cns rwv dpapricav remaining the
meanwhile. On this matter a violent controversy raged
among the theologians of Holland towards the end of the
sixteenth and beginning of the following century, which
was carried on with strange acrimony; and for a brief
history of which see Deyling, Obss. Sac. vol. v. p. 209 ;
Vitringa, Obss. Sac. vol. iv. p. 3 ; Venema, Diss. Sac. p. 72 ;
while a full statement of what Cocceius did mean, and
in his own words, may be found in his Commentary on the
Romans , in loc. (Opp. vol. v. p. 62) ; and the same more
i 2
Il6 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxm.
at length defended and justified in his treatise, Utilitas
Distinctionis duorum Vocabulorum Scriptures, napea-sms et
d(j)sa-sws (vol. ix. p. 121, sq.). Those who at that time
opposed the Cocceian scheme denied that there was any
distinction between asserts and irdpscris ; thus see Wit-
sius, (Econ. Feed. Dei, iv. 12. 36. But in this they erred ;
for while Cocceius and his followers were undoubtedly
wrong, in saying that for the faithful, so long as the
Old Covenant subsisted, there was only a m-apseis, and
no afaa-is a/j,apTr)fjLaTo>v, in applying to them what was
asserted by the Apostle in respect of the world ; they were
right in maintaining that Trdpscris was not entirely equi-
valent to a(f)<ris. Beza, indeed, had already drawn atten-
tion to the distinction. Having in his Latin Version, as
first published in 1556, taken no notice of it, he acknow-
ledges at a later period his omission, saying, Hsec duo
plurimum inter se differunt ; ' and now rendering irdpsais
by ' dissimulatio.'
In the first place, the words themselves suggest a
difference of meaning. If a<j>s<ri,s is remission, ' Loslas-
sung,' irdpscns, from irapi^^i, will be naturally ' prceter-
mission,' ( Yorbeilassung,' the Trdpsa-is d^apTrj^drwv, the
pretermission or passing by of sins for the present, leaving
it open in the future either entirely to remit, or else
adequately to punish them, as may seem good to Him
who has the power and right to do the one or the other.
Fritzsche is not always to my mind, but here he speaks
out plainly and to the point (Ad Rom. vol. i. p. 199) :
* Conveniunt in hoc [afaais et Trdpsa-is] quod sive ilia, sive
hsec tibi obtigerit, nulla peccatorum tuorum ratio habetur ;
discrepant eo, quod, hac data, facinorum tuorum poenas
nunquam pendes ; ilia concessa, non diutius nullas pec-
catorum tuorum poenas lues, quam ei in iis connivere pla-
cuerit, cui in delicta tua animadvertendi jus sit.' And
the classical usage both of irapisvai and of Trdps&is bears
out this distinction. Thus Xenophon (Hipp. 7. 10) :
xxxm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 117
ov %prj Traptsvat, o.KO\aa'ra : while of Herod
Josephus tells us, that being desirous to punish a certain
offence, yet for other considerations he passed it by (Antt.
xv. 3.2): TraprJKS rrjv apapTiav. When the Son of Sirach
(Ecclus. xxiii. 2) prays that God would not "pass by" his
sins, he assuredly does not use ov f^rj Trapfj as =ov pr; d<f>f),
but only asks that he may not be without a wholesome
chastisement following close on his transgressions. On the
other side, and in proof that irdpsa-is = asserts, the following
passage from Dionysius of Halicarnassus (Antt. Rom. vii.
37), is adduced : rrjv pev 6\oa-^sprj Trdpscrtv ov% svpovTO, rrjv
Se sis xpovov ocrov TI^IOVV dva/3o\r)V e\aftov. Not Trdpscrts,
however, here, but oXoa-^sprjs Trdpsa-is, is equal to afacris,
and no doubt the historian added that epithet, feeling that
Trdpsa-ts would have insufficiently expressed his meaning
without it.
Having seen, then, that there is a strong primd facie
probability that St. Paul intends something different by
the Trdpsa-is a^apT^fidrwv., in the only place where he
employs this phrase, from that which he intends in the
many where he employs afao-is, that passage itself, namely
Rom. iii. 25, may now be considered more closely. It
appears in our Version : " Whom God hath set forth to
be a propitiation through faith in his blood, to declare
his righteousness for the remission of sins that are past,
through the forbearance of God." I would venture to
render it thus : ' Whom God hath set forth as a propitia-
tion, through faith in his blood, for a manifestation of
his righteousness because of the pretermission [8ia TTJV
Trdpsa-iv, not Sta TTJS Trapecrews], in the forbearance of God,
of the sins done aforetime ; ' and his exact meaning I take
to be this ' There needed a signal manifestation or display
of the righteousness of God, on account of the long praeter-
inission or passing over of sins, in his infinite forbearance,
with no adequate expression of his wrath against them,
during all those long ages which preceded the coming of
Il8 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxm.
Christ ; which manifestation of God's righteousness found
place, when He set forth no other and no less than his
own Son to be the propitiatory sacrifice for sin ' (Heb. ix.
15, 22). During long ages God's extreme indignation
against sin and sinners had not been pronounced ; during
all the time, that is, which preceded the Incarnation. Of
course, this connivance of God, this his holding of his
peace, was only partial ; for St. Paul has himself just
before declared that the wrath of God was revealed from
heaven against all unrighteousness of men (Rom. i. 18) ;
and has traced in a few fearful lines some ways in which
this revelation of his wrath displayed itself (i. 24-32).
Yet for all this, it was the time during which He suffered
the nations to walk in their own ways (Acts xiv. 16) ; they
were " the times of ignorance " which " God winked at "
(Acts xvii. 30), in other words, times of the avo^rj rov
OeoO, this avo^rf being the correlative of irdpsa-is, as %apts
is of a<f><ris : so that the finding avo^rf here is a strong
confirmation of that view of the word which has been just
maintained.
But this position in regard of sin could, in the very
nature of things, be only transient and provisional. With
a man, the praetermission of offences, or ' prseterition,' as
Hammond would render it (deducing the word, but
wrongly, from Trapet/u, 'prsetereo '), will often be identical
with the remission, the Trdpsa-is will be one with the afaais.
Man forgets ; he has not power to bring the long past into
judgment, even if he would ; or he has not righteous energy
enough to undertake it. But with an absolutely righteous
God, the Trdpscris can only be temporary, and must always
find place with a looking on to a final settlement ; for-
bearance is no acquittance ; every sin must at last either
be absolutely forgiven, or adequately avenged ; for, as the
Russian proverb tells us, ' God has no bad debts.' But in
the meanwhile, so long as these are still uncollected, the
itself might seem to call in question the absolute
xxxin. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 119
righteousness of Him who was thus content to pass by and
to connive. God held his peace, and it was only too near
to the evil thought of men to think wickedly that He was
such a one as themselves, morally indifferent to good and
to evil. That such with too many was the consequence of
the avo^r) rov sov, the Psalmist himself declares (Ps. 1.
21 ; cf. Job xxii. 13 ; Mai. ii. 17 ; Ps.lxxiii. ll). But now
(sv Tc3 vvv Kaipa>) God, by the sacrifice of his Son, had
rendered such a perverse misreading of his purpose in the
past dissimulation of sin for ever impossible. Bengel :
* Objectum prsetermissionis [Trap^aecas], peccata; tolerantise
[avojtft], peccatores, contra quos non est persecutus Deus
jus suum. Et hsec et ilia quarndiu f uit, non ita apparuit
justitia Dei: non enim tarn vehementer visus est irasci
peccato, sed peccatorem sibi relinquere, dfj,s\,iv, negligere,
Heb. viii. 9. At in sanguine Christi et morte propitiatoria
ostensa est Dei justitia, cum vindicta adversus peccatum
ipsum, ut esset ipse Justus, et cum zelo pro peccatoris
liberatione, ut esset ipse justificans.' Compare Hammond
(in loc.}, who has seized with accuracy and precision the
true distinction between the words ; and Godet, Comm.
sur VEpitre aux Rom. iii. 25, 26, who deals admirably with
the whole passage.
He, then, that is partaker of the asserts, has his sins
forgiven, so that, unless he bring them back upon himself
by new and further disobedience (Matt, xviii. 32, 34;
2 Pet. i. 9; ii. 20), they shall not be imputed to him, or
mentioned against him any more. The Trdpsais, differing
from this, is a benefit, but a very subordinate one ; it is
the present passing by of sin, the suspension of its punish-
ment, the not shutting up of all ways of mercy against the
sinner, the giving to him of space and helps for repentance,
as it is said at Wisd. xi. 23 : Trapopas df^apr^j^aTa dvdpwTrwv
sis jjLsrdvotav : cf. Rom. ii. 3-6. If such repentance follow,
then the Trdpso-is will lose itself in the afaaif, but if not,
then the punishment, suspended, but not averted, in due
time will arrive (Luke xiii. 9).
120 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxiv.
ALL these designate sins of the tongue, but with a
difference.
Mo)po\ojta, employed by Aristotle (Hist. Anim. i. n),
but of rare use till the later Greek, is rendered well in the
Vulgate, on the one occasion of its occurrence (Ephes. v. 4),
by ' stultiloquium,' a word which Plautus may have coined
(Mil. Glor. ii. 3. 25) ; although one which did not find more
favour and currency in the after language of Some, than did
the ' stultiloquy ' which Jeremy Taylor sought to introduce
among ourselves. Not merely the TTOLV prj[j,a dp<yov of our
Lord (Matt. xii. 36), but in good part also the TTCLS \o<yos
acnrpos of his Apostle (Ephes. iv. 29), will be included in
it ; discourse, as everything else in the Christian, needing
to be seasoned with the salt of grace, and being in danger
of growing first insipid, and then corrupt, without it. Those
who stop short with the dpya prf/tara, as though fiwpoXoyLa
reached no further, fail to exhaust the fulness of its mean-
ing. Thus Calvin too weakly : ' Sermones inepti ac inanes,
nulliusque frugis ; ' and even Jeremy Taylor (On the Good
and Evil Tongue, Serin, xxxii. pt. 2) fails to reproduce the
full force of the word. ' That,' he says, ' which is here
meant by stultiloquy or foolish speaking is the " lubricum
verbi," as St. Ambrose calls it, the " slipping with the
tongue" which prating people often suffer, whose dis-
courses betray the vanity of their spirit, and discover
"the hidden man of the heart."' In heathen writings
/jLtopoXoyla may very well pass as equivalent to dSoXscr^ia,
' random talk,' and pcapoXoysiv to \ypsiv (Plutarch, De Garr.
4) ; but words obtain a new earnestness when assumed
into the ethical terminology of Christ's school. Nor, in
seeking to enter fully into the meaning of this one, ought
we to leave out of sight the greater emphasis which the
words 'fool,' 'foolish,' 'folly,' obtain in Scripture, than
xxxiv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 121
elsewhere they have, or can have. There is the positive
of folly as well as the negative to be taken account of,
when we are weighing the force of /j,copo\oyia : it is that
* talk of fools,' which is foolishness and sin together.
At 0-^/30X07 ta, which also is of solitary use in the N". T,
(Col. iii. 8), must not be confounded with ala-^por'rjf
(Ephes. v. 4). By it the Greek Fathers (see Suicer, Thes.
s. v.), whom most expositors follow, have understood ob-
scene discourse, ' turpiloquium,' ' filthy communication '
(E.V.), such as ministers to wantonness, o-^ij^a Tropvelat,
as Chrysostom explains it. Clement of Alexandria, in a
chapter of his Pcedagogus, Trspl ala-^poko^ias (ii. 6), recog-
nizes no other meaning but this. Now, beyond a doubt,
alo"xpo\oyLa has sometimes this sense predominantly, or
even exclusively (Xenophon, De Rep. Lac. v. 6 ; Aristotle,
Pol. vii. 1 5 ; Epictetus, Man. xxxiii. 1 6 ; see, too, Becker,
ChariJdes, ist ed. vol. ii. p. 264). But more often it in-
dicates all foul-mouthed abusiveness of every kind, not
excluding this, one of the most obvious kinds, readiest to
hand, and most offensive, but including, as in the well-
known phrase, ala-^po\oyla !</>' ispols, other kinds as well.
Thus, too, Polybius (viii. 13. 8; xii. 13. 3 ; xxxi. 10. 4) :
alfr^poXojia ical \oiSopta Kara rov fiacrikews : while the
author of a treatise which passes under Plutarch's name
(De Lib. Ed. 14), denouncing all ata-^po\ojia as unbecom-
ing to youth ingenuously brought up, includes therein
every license of the ungoverned tongue employing itself
in the abuse of others, all the wicked condiments of saucy
speech (r}8v(Tf^ara Trovrjpa rrjs Trappfjcrias) ; nor can I doubt
that St. Paul intends to forbid the same, the context and
company in which the word is used by him going far to
prove as much ; seeing that all other sins against which
he is here warning are outbreaks of a loveless spirit toward
our neighbour.
EuT/mTTfXta, a finely selected word of the world's use,
which, however, St. Paul uses not in the world's sense,
122 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxiv.
like its synonyms, occurs only once in the N. T. (Ephes.
v. 4). Derived from sv and rpsTrsa-dai (evrpaTrshoi, olov
svrpoTToi, Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. iv. 8. 3 ; cf. Pott, Etym.
Forsch. vol. v. p. 136), that which easily turns, and in this
way adapts, itself to the shifting circumstances of the
hour, to the moods and conditions of those with whom at
the instant it may deal ; * it had very slightly and rarely,
in classical use, that evil signification which, as used by
St. Paul and the Greek Fathers, is the only one which it
knows. That St. Paul could be himself svrpaTrsXos in
the better sense of the word, he has given illustrious
proof (Acts xxvi. 29). Thucydides, in that panegyi'ic of
the Athenians which he puts into the mouth of Pericles,
employs svrpairsXws (ii. 41) as= SVKIVIJTWS, to characterize
the ' versatile ingenium ' of his countrymen j while Plato
(Rep. viii. 563 a) joins svrpaTrsXla with ^apisvna-fjLos, as
does also Plutarch (De Adul. et Am. 7) ; Isocrates (Or. xv.
316) with <f>i\o\oyia ; Philo (Leg. ad Cai. 45) with %/?ts.
For Aristotle, also, the evrpdirskos or ETn&si-ios (Ethic. Nic.
ii. 7. 13; iv. 8. 5 ; compare Brandis, Aristoteles, p. 1415)
is one who keeps the happy mean between the /3cofjio\6^os
and the aypios, dypoi/cos, or cncXypos. He is no mere
7\a>T07rot6s or buffoon ; but, in whatever pleasantry or
banter he may allow himself, still -^apisis or refined, always
restraining himself within the limits of becoming mirth
(sppskws Traifav), never ceasing to be the gentleman. Thus
P. Volumnius, the friend or acquaintance of Cicero and of
Atticus, bore the name ' Eutrapelus/ on the score of his
festive wit and talent of society : though certainly there is
nothing particularly pleasant in the story which Horace
(Epp.i. 18. 31-36) tells about him.
1 Chrysostom, who, like most great teachers, often turns etymology
into the materials of exhortation, does not fail to do so here. To other
reasons why Christians should renounce evrpcm-fXia he adds this (Horn,
17 in Ephes.)'. "Opa KOI atro Tovvofj.a ' (irrpairtKoy Ac'yrrai 6 TroiKiXo*,
6 ira.VTo8a.Trbs, 6 acrraroy, 6 djKciXos, 6 navra yivopfvos ' TOVTO 8f iroppat ra>v
rfj Ilcrpa SovXeuowft)!'. Ta^e'wf rptirfTat o TOIOVTOS /cat
xxxiv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 123
With all this there were not wanting, even in classical
usage, anticipations of that more unfavourable signification
which St. Paul should stamp upon the word, though they
appear most plainly in the adjective svTpaTrsXos : thus, see
Isocrates, Orat. vii. 49; and Pindar, Pyth. i. 92 (Diss.,
178 Heyn.) ; iv. 104 (Diss., 186 Heyn.) ; where Jason, the
model of a noble-hearted gentleman, affirms that during
twenty years of fellowship in toil he has never spoken to
his companions siros evrpaTrshov, ' verbum fucatum, fallax,
simulatum : ' Dissen on this last passage traces well the
downward progress of svrpaTT\os : ' Primum est de facili-
tate in motu, turn ad mores transfertur, et indicat
hominem temporibus inservientem, diciturque turn de
sermon e urbano, lepido, faceto, imprimis cum levitatis et
assentationis, simulationis notatione.' EurpaTrsXt'a, thus
gradually sinking from a better meaning to a worse,
has a history closely resembling that of ' urbanitas '
(Quintilian, vi. 3. 17) ; which is its happiest Latin equi-
valent, and that by which Erasmus has rendered it,
herein improving much on the 'jocularitas' of Jerome, still
more on the ' scurrilitas ' of the Vulgate, which last is
wholly wide of the mark. That ' urbanitas ' is the proper
word, this quotation from Cicero attests (Pro Ccel. 3) :
' Contumelia, si petulantius jactatur, convicium ; si f ace-
tius, urbanitas nominatur ; ' which agrees with the striking
phrase of Aristotle, that svTpcnrsXia isvfipts TrsTraiSsvpswr):
1 chastened insolence * is Sir Alexander Grant's happy
rendering (Rhet. ii. 12; cf. Plutarch, Gic. 50). Already in
Cicero's time (De Fin. ii. 31) 'urbanitas' was beginning
to obtain that questionable significance which, in the usage
of Tacitus (Hist. ii. 88) and Seneca (De Ira, i. 28), it far
more distinctly acquired. The history, in our own lan-
guage, of ' facetious ' and ' facetiousness ' would supply a
not uninstructive parallel.
But the fineness of the form in which evil might a,rray
itself could not make a Paul more tolerant of the evil it-
124 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxiv.
self; he did not count that sin, by losing all its coarse-
ness, lost half, or any part of, its malignity. So far from
this, in the finer banter of the world, its ' persiflage,' its
' badinage,' there is that which would attract many, who
would be in no danger of lending their tongue to speak,
or their ear to hear, foul-mouthed and filthy abuse ; whom
scurrile buffoonery would only revolt and repel. A far
subtler sin is noted in this word than in those which went
before, as Bengel puts it well : ' Hsec subtilior quam
turpitudo aut stultiloquium ; nam ingenio nititur ; ' %apts-
adapts, as Chrysostom has happily called it ; and Jerome :
* De prudenti mente descendit, et consulto appetit qusedam
vel urbana verba, vel rustica, vel turpia, vel faceta/ I
should only object, in this last citation, to the ' turpia,'
which belong rather to the other forms in which men
offend with the tongue than to this. The vrpd7rs\.os
always, according to Chrysostom, aa-rsia \s<yei : keeps ever
in mind what Cicero has said (De Orat. ii. 58) : ' Hsec ri-
dentur vel maxime, quse notant et designant turpitudinem
aliquam non turpiter.' What he deals in are %dptTss,
although, in the striking language of the Son of Sirach,
Xdpires fjiwpwv (Ecclus. xx. 13). Polish, refinement, know-
ledge of the world, presence of mind, wit, must all be his ;
these, it is true, enlisted in the service of sin, and not
in that of the truth. The profligate old man in the
Miles Gloriosus of Plautus (iii. I. 42-52), who prides him-
self, and not without reason, on his festive wit, his
elegance, and refinement (' cavillator f acetus,' ' conviva
commodus '), is exactly the svrpaTrsXof : and, keeping in
mind that svrpaTrsXia, being only once expressly and by
name forbidden in Scripture, is forbidden to Ephesians, it
is not a little noticeable to find him urging that all this
was to be expected from him, being as he was an Ephesian
by birth :
' Post Ephesi sum natus ; non enim in Api lis, non Animulse I '
xxxv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 125
See on this word's history, and on the changes through
which it has passed, an interesting and instructive article
by Matthew Arnold in the Comhill Magazine, May, 1 879.
While then by all these words are indicated sins of the
tongue, it is yet with this difference, that in fjuapdhoyia
the foolishness, in ala%po\o<yia the foulness, in svrpatrs^ia
the false refinement, of discourse not seasoned with the
salt of grace, are severally noted and condemned.
xxxv. \aTpsvo), \siTOVpjsa).
IN both these words the notion of service lies, but of
service under certain special limitations in the second, as
compared with the first. Aarpevsiv, allied to \drpis, ' a
hired servant,' \drpov, ' hire, 5 and perhaps to \sla, \t)is
(so Curtius), is, properly, ' to serve for hire,' and therefore
not of compulsion, as does a slave, though the line of
separation between \drpis and Sov\o$ is by no means
always observed. Already in classical Greek both it and
\arpsia are occasionally transferred from the service of
men to the service of the higher powers ; as by Plato,
Apol. 23 c : rj ToO sov \arpsia : cf . Phcedr. 244 e ; and
Euripides, Troad. 450, where Cassandra is rj 'A.7r6\\a)vos
\drpis : and a meaning, which in Scripture is the only one,
is anticipated in part. In the Septuagint, \arpevstv never
expresses any other service but either that of the true
God, or of the false gods of heathenism ; for Deut. xxviii.
48, a seeming exception, is not such in fact ; and Augus-
tine has perfect right when he says (De Civ. Dei, x. I, 2) :
' Aarpsla secundum consuetudinem qu locuti sunt qui
nobis divina eloquia condiderunt, aut semper, aut tarn
frequenter ut psene semper, ea dicitur servitus quse pertinet
ad colendum Deum; ' and again (con. Faust, xx. 21) : 'Cultus
qui grsece latria dicitur, latine uno verbo dici non potest,
cum sit qusedam proprie divinitati debita servitus/
boasts a somewhat nobler beginning j from
126 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxv.
\siros ( =^rjii6crios\ and spyov: and thus sis TO
spyd&o-Oai,, to serve the State in a public office or function.
Like \arpviv,it was occasionally transferred to the highest
ministry of all, the ministry to the gods (Diodorus Siculus,
i. 21). When the Christian Church was forming its ter-
minology, which it did partly by shaping new words, but
partly by elevating old ones to higher than their previous
uses, of the latter kind it more readily adopted those be-
fore employed in civil and political life, than such as had
already played their part in religious matters ; and this,
even when it was seeking for the adequate expression of
religious truth. The same motives were here at work which
induced the Church more willingly to turn basilicas,
buildings, that is, which had been used in civil life, than
temples, into churches ; namely, because they were less
haunted with the clinging associations of heathenism. Of
the fact itself we have a notable example in the words
\siTovpyos, \siTovpyia, \strovpystv, and in the prominent
place in ecclesiastical language which they assumed. At
the same time the way for their adoption into a higher use
had been prepared by the Septuagint, in which \eirovpyslv
( = n^) is the constant word for the performing of priestly
or ministerial functions (Exod. xxviii. 39 ; Ezek. xl. 46) ;
and by Philo (De Prof. 17). Neither in the Septuagint,
however, nor yet by the Christian writers who followed,
were the words of this group so entirely alienated from
their primary uses as \arpsia and \arpsvstv had been;
being still occasionally used for the ministry unto men
(2 Sam. xiii. 18 ; I Kin. x. 5 ; 2 Kin. iv. 43 ; Rom. xv. 27;
Phil. ii. 25, 30).
From the distinction already existing between the
words, before the Church had anything to do with them,
namely, that \arpsvst,v was ' to serve/ \sirovpysiv, 'to serve
in an office and ministry,' are to be explained the different
uses to which they are severally turned in the N. T., as
previously in the Septuagint. To serve God is the duty of
xxxv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 127
all men ; \arpsveiv, therefore, and \arpeia, are demanded
of the whole people (Exod. iv. 23 ; Deut. x. 12 ; Josh. xxiv.
31 ; Matt. iv. 10; Luke i. 74; Acts vii. /; Eom. ix. 4;
Heb. xii. 28) ; but to serve Him in special offices and
ministries can be the duty and privilege only of some, who
are specially set apart to the same ; and thus in the 0. T.
the \siTovpysiv and the Xfirou/ryia are ascribed only to the
priests and Levites who were separated to minister in holy
things ; they only are \sirovpyot (Num. iv. 24 ; I Sam. ii.
1 1 ; Nehem. x. 39; Ezek. xliv. 27) ; which language, mutatis
mutandis, reappears in the New, where not merely is that
old priesthood and ministry designated by this language
(Luke i. 23 ; Heb. ix. 21 ; x. i 1), but that of apostles, pro-
phets, and teachers in the Church (Acts xiii. 2 ; Eom. xv.
1 6 ; Phil. ii. 17), as well as that of the great High Priest
of our profession, ra>v ayiwv \sirovpyos (Heb. viii. 2). In
later ecclesiastical use it has been sometimes attempted to
push the special application of \sirovpyta still further, and
to limit its use to those prayers and offices which stand in
more immediate relation to the Holy Eucharist ; but there
is no warrant in the best ages of the Church for any such
limitation ; thus see Suicer, Thes. s. v. ; Bingham, Chris-
tian Antiqq. xiii. 1.8; Deyling, Obss. Sac. vol. i. p. 285 ;
Augusti, Christ. Archaol. vol. ii. p. 537 ; Scudamore, Notitia.
Eucharistica, p, 1 1 .
It may be urged against the distinction here drawn
that \arpsvsiv and \arpsia are sometimes applied to official
ministries, as at Heb. ix. I, 6. This is, of course, true ;
just as where two circles have the same centre, the greater
will necessarily include the less. The notion of service is
such a centre here ; in \eiTovpysiv this service finds a cer-
tain limitation, in that it is service in an office : it follows
that every \sirovpjia will of necessity be a \arpsla, but not
the reverse, that every \arpsta will be a \eirovpyia. No
passage better brings out the distinction between these
two words than Ecclus.iv. 14: ol \arpsvovTss avrrj [i.e.
128 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxvi.
rfj 2o$/a] \siTovp<yr)<rov(Ti,v 'Ayteo. " They that serve
her, shall minister to the Holy One."
IN both these words the sense of poverty, and of poverty
in this world's goods, is involved; and they continually
occur together in the Septuagint, in the Psalms especially,
with no rigid demarcation of their meanings (as at Ps.
xxxix. 18; Ixxiii. 22; Ixxxi. 4 ; cf. Ezek. xviii. 12 ; xxii.
29) ; very much as our " poor and needy ; " and whatever
distinction may exist in the Hebrew between jVnsi and ^y,
the Alexandrian translators have either considered it not
reproducible by the help of these words, or have not cared
to reproduce it ; for they have no fixed rule, translating
the one and the other by TTTW^OS and Trvr)s alike. Still
there are passages which show that they were perfectly
aware of a distinction between them, and would, where
they thought good, maintain it ; occasions upon which
they employ iriv^s (as Deut. xxiv. 14, 15; 2 Sam. xii. I,
3, 4), and where TTT&)%O'S would have been manifestly unfit.
H.vr)s occurs but once in the N. T., and on that one
occasion in a quotation from the Old (2 Cor. ix. 9), while
TTTO)%OS between thirty and forty times. Derived from
Trevofiai, and connected with TTOVOS, TTOVEO/ACII, and the Latin
' penuria,' it properly signifies one so poor that he earns
his daily bread by his labour ; Hesychius calls him well
avroScdicovos, one who by his own hands ministers to his
own necessities. The word does not indicate extreme want,
nor a condition verging upon it, any more than does the
' pauper ' and ' paupertas ' of the Latin ; but only the ' res
angusta ' of one for whom 7r\ovaios would be an inappro-
priate epithet. What was the popular definition of a
jrsvqs we learn from Xenophon (Mem. iv. 2. 37) : TOVS p,sv
ft?) iKava s^ovras sis a Bst rsXslv, Trsvrjras ' TOVS 8s
T&V ticavwv, 7rXov<riovs. It was an epithet commonly
applied to Socrates, and irsvia he claims more than once
xxxvi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 129
for himself (Plato, Apol. 23 c ; 31 c). What his irevta was
we know (Xenophon, (Econ. ii. 3), namely, that all which
he had, if sold, would not bring five Attic minse. So, too,
the Usvsa-rat in Thessaly (if, indeed, the derivation of the
name from Trsvsa-dai is to stand), were a subject population,
but not reduced to abject want ; on the contrary, retaining
secondary rights as serfs or cultivators of the soil.
But while the m-svrjs is ' pauper,' the TTTCO^OS is * men-
dicus ; ' he is the * beggar,' and lives not by his own labour
or industry, but on other men's alms (Luke xvi. 20, 21) ;
being one therefore whom Plato would not endure in his
ideal State (Legg. xi. 936 c). If indeed we fall back on
etymologies, irpoaairris (which ought to find place in the
text at John ix. 8), or JTTCUT^S, would be the more exactly
equivalent to our ' beggar ; ' while TTTW-XOS is generally
taken for one who in the sense of his abjectness and
needs crouches (0.73-0 TOV Trrwao-siv} in the presence of his
superiors ; though it may be safest to add here the words
of Pott (Etym. Forsch. vol. iii. p. 933), ' falls dieser wirklich
iiach scheum unterwiirfigem Wesen benannt worden, und
nicht als petax.' The derivation of TTTWXOS, as though he
were one who had fallen from a better estate (SKTTSTTTWKWS
EK TWV ovrcov : see Herodotus, iii. 14), is merely fanciful :
see Didymus, in Ps. xii. 5, in Mai's Nov. Pat. Bibl. vol. vii.
part ii. p. 165.
The words then are clearly distinct. A far deeper depth
of destitution is implied in Trrat^sia than in irsvla, to keep
which in mind will add vividness to the contrasts drawn
by St. Paul, 2 Cor. vi. 10 ; viii. 9. The TTSVTJS may be so
poor that he earns his bread by daily labour ; but the
irrw'xos is so poor that he only obtains his living by
begging. There is an evident climax intended by Plato,
when he speaks of tyrannies (Rep. x. 618 a). EIS trsvias re
teal <f>vyas KOI sis Trrco^slay TsXsvrca&as. The 7rsi>tjs has
nothing superfluous, the TTTW^OS nothing at all (see Doder-
lein, Lat. Synon. vol. iii. p. 117). Tertullian long ago
130 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxvn.
noted the distinction (Adv. Marc. iv. 14), for, dealing with
our Lord's words, patcdpioi, ol irroi^oi (Luke vi. 20), he
changes the ' Beati pauperes,' which still retains its place
in the Vulgate, into 'Beati mendici,' and justifies the
change, ' Sic enim exigit interpretatio vocabuli quod in
Greeco est ; ' and in another place (De Idol. 1 2) he renders
it by 'egeni.' The two, Trsvia (= c paupertas,' cf. Martial,
ii. 32 : ' Non est paupertas, Nestor, habere nihil ') and TTT&>-
%a'a (=' egestas '), may be sisters, as one in Aristophanes
will have them (PLut. 549) ; but if such, yet the latter far
barer of the world's good than the former ; and indeed
Hsvla in that passage seems inclined wholly to disallow
any such near relationship at all. The words of Ari-
stophanes, in which he discriminates between them, have
been often quoted :
TTTW^OV iifv yap ftios, ov crv Xe'yeiy, T}V tcmv fjLijSev e '\ovra
TOV Se TTfvrjTOSj ^v (^tibo^Lfvov, Kal rols epyois irpofrtyovra.)
jreptyiyvf<r0ai 5' avrw fjLTjftev, pr) p.fvroi firjb' eVtXeiTretf.
xxxvii. 0v/jLos, 0/3777, 7rapop>yt,(Tfji6s.
u/i6s and opjij are found several times together in the
N. T. (as at Eom. ii. 8 ; Ephes. iv. 31 ; Col. iii. 8 ; Eev.
xix. 15) ; often also in the Septuagint (Ps. Ixxvii. 49 ;
Dan. iii. 13 ; Mic. v. 15), and often also in other Greek
(Plato, Philebus, 47 e ; Polybius, vi. 56. 1 1 ; Josephus,
Antt. xx. 5. 3 ; Plutarch, De Coh. Ira, 2 ; Lucian, De Gal.
23) ; nor are they found only in the connexion of juxta-
position, but one made dependent on the other; thus
Ovfjibs rffs opyrjs (Rev. xvi. 19; cf. Job iii. 17; Josh. vii.
26) ; while opyr) Ovpov, not occurring in the N. T., is fre-
quent in the Old (2 Chron. xxix. 10; Lam. i. 12 ; Isai.
xxx. 27 ; Hos. xi. 9). On one occasion in the Septuagint
all the words of this group occur together (Jer. xxi. 5).
When these words, after a considerable anterior his-
tory, came to settle down on the passion of anger, as the
strongest of all passions, impulses, and desires (see Donald-
xxxvu. 5 YN ON YMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 1 3 1
son, New Cratylus, 3rd ed. pp. 675-679; and Thompson,
Phcedrus of Plato, p. 165), the distinguishing of them occu-
pied not a little the grammarians and philologers. These
felt, and rightly, that the existence of a multitude of
passages in which the two were indifferently used (as
Plato, Legg. ix. 867), made nothing against the fact of
such a distinction ; for, in seeking to discriminate between
them, they assumed nothing more than that these could
not be indifferently used on every occasion. The general
result at which they arrived is this, that in dvpos, con-
nected with the intransitive dvco, and derived, according to
Plato (Crat. 419 e), airo rrfs Overseas teal ^sa-sws rrjs -^f%^y,
* quasi exhalatio vehementior' (Tittmann), compare the
Latin 'fumus/ is more of the turbulent commotion, the
boiling agitation of the feelings, 1 fjisdr) T-fjs ^i>xn s ^ St. Basil
calls it, either presently to subside and disappear, like the
Latin * excandescentia,' which Cicero defines (Tusc. iv. 9),
' ira nascens et modo desistens ' or else to settle down
into 0/3777, wherein is more of an abiding and settled habit
of mind (' ira inveterata ') with the purpose of revenge ;
'cupiditas doloris reponendi ' (Seneca, De Ira, i. 5) ; 6p/j,rj
"^rv^fjs, sv fj,e\Trj KaK(i)O'sa)s Kara TOV Trapo^vvavros (Basil,
Reg. Brev. Tract. 68) ; 2 the German ' Zorn,' ' der activ sich
gegen Jemand oder etwas richtende Unwille, die Opposition
des unwillig erregten Gemiithes ' (Cremer). Thus Plato
(Euthyph. 7) joins e%0pd, and Plutarch Svo-fisveia (Pericles,
39), with 0/3777. Compare Theol. Stud. u. Krit. 1851, p.
99 sqq.
1 It is commonly translated ' furor ' in the Vulgate. Augustine (Enarr.
in Ps. Ixxxvii. 8) is dissatisfied with the application of this word to God,
* furor' being commonly attributed to those out of a sound mind, and pro-
poses ' indignatio ' in its room. For another distinction, ascribing ' ira '
and ' furor ' alike to God, see Bernard, Serm. in Cant. 69, 3 ; a notice-
able passage.
2 In ayavcLKrrjffiy St. Basil finds the further thought that this eager-
ness to punish has the amendment of the offender for its scope. Certainly
the one passage in the N. T. where ayavaKTyvis occurs (2 Cor. vii. li)
does not refuse this meaning.
K 2
132 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxvn.
This, the more passionate, and at the same time more
temporary, character of Ovpos (Ov^oi, according to Jeremy
Taylor, are great but transient angers ;' ! cf. Luke iv. 28 ;
Dan. iii. 19) may explain a distinction of Xenophon, namely
that 6vp,bs in a horse is what 0/9777 is in a man (De Re
Eques. ix. 2; cf. Wisd. vii. 20, Ovpol Orjptcov : Plutarch,
GrylL 4, in fine; and Pyrrh. 16, Trvsvparos ^scrros Kal
Qv^ov, full of animosity and rage) . Thus the Stoics, who
dealt much in definitions and distinctions, denned 6vp6$
as opyrj apKopevr) (Diogenes Laertius, vii. i. 63. 114);
and Ammonius : dvpos p,sv e<m Trpocncaipos ' 6/3777 &s
7roXv%p6vios iwt)viK,aK,ia. Aristotle, too, in his wonderful
comparison of old age and youth, thus characterizes the
angers of old men (Rhet. ii. 13) : Kal ol 6vfj,ol, o^sls p,ev
eia-tv, da-dsvsls Be like fire in straw, quickly blazing up,
and as quickly extinguished (cf. Euripides, Androm. 728,
729). Origen (in Ps. ii. 5, Opp. vol. ii. p. 541) has a
discussion on the words, and arrives at the same re-
sults : Siaffrspsi 8e Ov/jubs opyfjs, ra> dv/Mtv plev slvat opyrjv
teal ert eKKaiOfAsvrjv opyrjv 8s opsf;tv avrt-
: cf. in Ep. ad Rom. ii. 8, which only exists in
the Latin : ' ut si, verbi gratia, vulnus aliquod pessimum
iram ponamus, hujus autem tumor et distentio indignatio
vulneris appelletur : ' so too Jerome (in Ephes. iv. 31):
' Furor [dvpos] incipiens ira est, et fervescens in aniino
indignatio. Ira [0/379] autem est, quse furore extincto de-
siderat ultionern, et eum quern nocuisse putat vult Isedere.'
This agrees with the Stoic definition of 0/3777, that it is
TtfUOpUu sTTidv^ia TOV SOKOVVTOS riSiKij/cevai ov TrpocrriKovTWS
(Diogenes Laertius, vii. 113). So Gregory Nazianzene
(Carm. ii. 34. 43, 44) :
\
1 Hampole in his great poem, The Priclce of Conscience, does not
agree. In his vigorous, but most unlovely picture of an old man, this is
one trait :
' He es lyghtly wrath, and waxes fraward,
Bot to turne hym fra wrethe, it es hard.'
xxxvn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 133
6vfj.os p.ev ta-riv ddpoos (<ris <f>pfvos,
opyf) 8e 0vp.bs (upevuv.
And so too Theodoret, in Ps. Ixviii. 25 (Ixix. 24, E. V.),
where the words occur together: Sia TOV Qvpov TO ra^v
SsSfacoKS, Sia 8s rr)s 0/3777* TO sirifjiovov. Josephus in like
manner (B. J. ii. 8. 6) describes the Essenes as 0/3777? ra^iai
SiKaioi, dvfjiov KadsKTtKoL So, too, Dion Cassius notes as
one of the characteristic traits of Tiberius, topyl&ro ev o<
r\K(,cna sdvpovro (Vita Tib.).
Mrjvis (Isai. xvi. 6 ; Ecclus. xxviii. 5 ; ' ira perdurans/
Damm's Lex. Horn.) and KOTOS, being successively 'ira
inveterata ' and ' ira inveteratissiina ' (John of Damascus,
De Fid. Orthod. 1 1. 16), nowhere occur in the N. T.
Hapopyio-fjios, a word not found in classical Greek, but
several times in the Septuagint (as at I Kin. xv. 30 ; 2 Kin.
xix. 3), is not = 0/3777, though we have translated it ' wrath/
This it cannot be ; for the Trapopyia-fAos (Ephes. iv. 26,
where only in the N. T. the word occurs ; but Trapopyi&iv,
Eom. x. 19; Ephes. vi. 4) is absolutely forbidden; the
sun shall not go down upon it; whereas under certain
conditions 0/3777 is a righteous passion to entertain. The
Scripture has nothing in common with the Stoics' ab-
solute condemnation of anger. It inculcates no aTrddeia,
but only a fisTpioTrdOsia, a moderation, not an absolute
suppression, of the passions, which were given to man as
winds to fill the sails of his soul, as Plutarch excellently
puts it (De Virt. Mor. 12). It takes no such loveless view
of other men's sins as his who said, o-savrov /AT) rdpaffas
d/j^apravst, TIS ; savrw d^aprdvst (Marcus Antoninus, iv. 46).
But even as Aristotle, in agreement with all deeper ethical
writers of antiquity (thus see Plato, Legg. v. 731 6 ;
6v/j,oiSf] p.sv %pr) irdvra avSpa stvai, K. r. X. ; Thompson's
Phcedrus of Plato, p. 166; and Cicero, Tusc. Qucest. iv. 19),
had affirmed (Eth. Nic. iv. 5. 3) that, when guided by
reason, anger is a right affection, so the Scripture permits,
and not only permits, but on fit occasions demands, it.
134 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxvu.
This all the profounder teachers of the Church have
allowed ; thus Gregory of Nyssa : dyadov KTYIVOS S<TTIV 6
6v/j.os, orav TOV \oyicrfjiov vTro^vyiov <ysvr)Tai : and Augustine
(De Civ. Dei, ix. 5) : ' In diseiplina nostra non tarn quseritur
utrum pius animus irascatur, sed quare irascatur.' There
is a " wrath of God " (Mat. iii. 7 ; Rom, xii. 19, and often),
who would not love good, unless He hated evil, the two
being so inseparable, that either He must do both or
neither ; * a wrath also of the merciful Son of Man (Mark
iii. 5) ; and a wrath which righteous men not merely may,
but, as they are righteous, must feel ; nor can there be a
surer and sadder token of an utterly prostrate moral con-
dition than the not being able to be angry with sin and
sinners. 'Anger,' says Fuller (Holy State, iii. 8), 'is one
of the sinews of the soul ; he that wants it hath a maimed
mind, and with Jacob sinew-shrunk in the hollow of his
thigh, must needs halt. Nor is it good to converse with
such as cannot be angry.' ' The affections,' as another
English divine has said, 'are not, like poisonous plants,
to be eradicated ; but as wild, to be cultivated.' St. Paul
is not therefore, as so many understand him, condescend-
ing here to human infirmity, and saying, ' Your anger
shall not be imputed to you as a sin, if you put it away
before nightfall ' (see Suicer, Thes. s. v. opyrj) ; but rather,
' Be ye angry, yet in this anger of yours suffer no sinful
element to mingle ; there is that which may cleave even
to a righteous anger, the Trapopyia-pos, the irritation, the
exasperation, the embitterment (' exacerbatio '), which
must be dismissed at once ; that so, being defeated of this
impurer element which mingled with it, that only may
remain which has a right to remain.'
1 See on this anger of God, as the necessary complement of his love,
the excellent words of Lactantius (De Ira Dei, c. 4) : ' Natu si Deus non
irascitur impiis et injustis, nee pios utique justosque diligit. In rebus
enim diversis aut in utramque partem moveri necesse est, aut in nullam.'
xxxvin. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 135
xxxviii. s\aiov, p,vpov
SOME have denied that the 0. T. knows of any distinction
between ' oil ' and ' ointment ; ' and this on the very in-
sufficient grounds that the Septuagint renders J?? some-
times by fjujpov (Prov. xxvii. 9 ; Cant. i. 3 ; Isai. xxxix. 2 ;
Am. vi. 6) ; though more frequently, indeed times out of
number, by s\aiov. But how often in a single word of one
language are latent two of another ; especially when that
other abounds, as does Greek compared with Hebrew, in
finer distinctions, in a more subtle notation of meanings ;
irapoifjita and irapajBoKri furnish a well-known example of
this, both lying in the Hebrew hvfo ; and this duplicity
of meaning it is the part of a well-skilled translator to
evoke. Nay the thing itself, the pvpov ( = 'unguentum '),
so naturally grew out of the eXatov ( = ' oleum'), having
oil for its base, with only the addition of spice or scent
or other aromatic ingredients, Clement of Alexandria,
(Pcedag. ii. 8) calls it 'adulterated oil' (SeSoXw/ieW
s\aiov J ), that it would be long in any language before
the necessity of differencing names would be felt. Thus
in the Greek itself pvpov first appears in the writings of
Archilochus (Athenseus, xv. 37). Doubtless- there were
ointments in Homer's time ; he is satisfied, however, with
' sweet-smelling oil' (svwSes s\aiov, Od. ii. 339), 'roseate
oil' (poBosv sXaiov, II. xxiii. 1 86), wherewith to express
them.
In later times there was a clear distinction between the
two, and one which uttered itself in language. A passage
in Xenophon (Conv. ii. 3, 4) turns altogether on the greater
suitableness of e\aiov for men, of pvpov for women ; these
last consequently being better pleased that the men should
1 Compare what Plutarch says of Lycurgus (Apoph. Lac. 16) ; TO p.fv
pvpov f(\ao-fv, a>s TOV eXatov <f>6opav KO\ SXttipov. Compare too Virgil
(Gforg. ii. 466) : ' Nee casia liquidi corrumpitur usus olivi.'
136 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxvin.
savour of the manly ' oil ' than of the effeminate ' oint-
ment ' (eXatou 8s TOV ev <yv/j,va<riois cxrprj ical Trapovcra fj&lxov
TI fjivpov yvvai^i, teal airovaa TroBsivorspa). And on any
other supposition our Lord's rebuke to the discourteous
Pharisee, 'My head with oil thou didst not anoint, but
this woman hath anointed my feet with ointment " (Luke
vii. 46), would lose all, or nearly all, its point. ' Thou
withheldest from Me,' He would say, ' cheap and ordinary
courtesies ; while she bestowed upon Me costly and rare
homages ; ' where Grotius remarks well : ' Est enim per-
petua avno-Toixia. Mulier ilia lacrimas impendit pedibus
Christo proluendis : Simon ne aquam quidem. Ilia assidua
est in pedibus Christi osculandis : Simon ne uno quidem
oris osculo Christum accepit. Ilia pretioso unguento non
caput tantum sed et pedes perfundit : ille ne caput quidem
mero oleo : quod perfunctorise amicitiee fuerat.'
Some have drawn a distinction between the verbs
a\si^iv and %/u'e^, which, as they make it depend on this
between pvpov and eXaioi/, may deserve to be mentioned
here. The a\i<f>siv, they say, is commonly the luxurious,
or at any rate the superfluous, anointing with ointment,
'Xpi^v the sanitary anointing with oil. Thus Casaubon
(Anim. in Athenceum, xv. 39) : ' a\et</>eo-#at, proprium volup-
tuariorum et mollium : ^pieaOai etiam sobriis interdum,
et ex virtute viventibus convenit : ' and Yalcknaer : * a\si-
<f>a-0ai dicebantur potissimum homines voluptatibus dediti,
qui pretiosis unguentis caput et manus illinebant : y^pUaOai
de hominibus ponebatur oleo corpus, sanitatis caussd, in-
unguentibus.' No traces of such a distinction appear in
the N. T. ; thus compare Mark vi. 13 ; Jam. v. 14, with
Mark xvi. I ; John xi. 2 ; nor yet of that of Salmasius
(Exerc. p. 330), * Spissiora linunt, yjpiovai: liquida per-
fundunt, a\i<f>ovcri,.'
A distinction is maintained there, but different from
both of these ; namely, that a\i<f)tv is the mundane and
xxxix. SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 1 3 7
profane, %pisiv the sacred and religious, word,
is used indiscriminately of all actual anointings, whether
with oil or ointment ; while xpisiv, no doubt in its con-
nexion with 'Xpia-Tos, is absolutely restricted to the anoint-
ing of the Son, by the Father, with the Holy Ghost, for
the accomplishment of his great office, being wholly sepa-
rated from all profane and common uses : thus see Luke
iv. 18; Acts iv. 27; x. 38 ; 2 Cor. i. 21 ; Heb. i. 9; the
only places where it occurs. The same holds good in the
Septuagint, where i xjpl<ns y ^pia-pa (cf. i John ii. 20, 27),
and %ptstz/, are the constant and ever-recurring words for
all religious and symbolical anointings ; aXslfaiv hardly
occurring in this sense, not oftener, I believe, than twice
in all (Exod. xl. 13 ; Num. iii. 3).
xxxix. 'E/3/ratos, 'loi/Satoy, 'lcrparj\iTr]s.
ALL these names are used to designate members of the
elect family and chosen race ; but they are very capable,
as they are very well worthy, of being discriminated.
'Eftpaios claims to be first considered. It brings us
back to a period earlier than any when one, and very
much earlier than any when the other, of the titles we
compare with it, were, or could have been, in existence
(Josephus, Antt. i. 6. 4). It is best derived from ">5y,
the same word as virep, ' super ; ' this title containing
allusion to the passing over of Abraham from the other
side of Euphrates ; who was, therefore, in the language
of the Phoanician tribes among whom he came, 'Abram
the Hebrew,' or o TrspaTrjy, as it is well given in the
Septuagint (Gen. xiv. 13), being from beyond (irepav) the
river : thus rightly Origen (in Matt. torn. xi. 5) : f E/3p<xtot,
O'ITIVSS spfi'rjvsvovrai irepartKoi. The name, as thus ex-
plained, is not one by which the chosen people know
themselves, but by which others know them; not one
which they have taken, but which others have imposed
138 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxix.
on them ; and we find the use of 'Efipalos through all
the O. T. entirely consistent with this explanation of
its origin. In every case it is either a title by which
foreigners designate the chosen race (Gen. xxxix. 14, 17;
xli. 12; Exod. i. 16, 19; I Sam. iv. 6; xiii. 19; xxix. 3 ;
Judith xii. n); or by which they designate themselves
to foreigners (Gen. xl. 15 ; Exod. ii. 7 j iii. 18; v. 3 ; ix. I ;
Jon. i. 9) ; or by which they speak of themselves in tacit
opposition to other nations (Gen. xliii. 32 ; Deut. xv. 12 ;
I Sam. xiii. 3 ; Jer. xxxiv. 9, 14) ; never, that is, without
such national antagonism, either latent or expressed.
When, however, the name 'louSatos arose, as it did in
the later periods of Jewish history (the precise epoch will
be presently considered), 'E/3patos modified its meaning.
Nothing is more frequent with words than to retire into
narrower limits, occupying a part only of some domain
whereof once they occupied the whole ; when, through
the coming up of some new term, they are no longer
needed in all their former extent ; and when at the same
time, through the unfolding of some new relation, they may
profitably lend themselves to the expressing of this new.
It was exactly thus with 'Efipalos. In the N. T., that
point of view external to the nation, which it once always
implied, exists no longer ; neither is every member of the
chosen family an 'Eftpalos now, but only those who,
whether dwelling in Palestine or elsewhere, have retained
the sacred Hebrew tongue as their native language ; the
true complement and antithesis to 'Eftpalos being 'E\\r)-
vLcrrijs, a word first appearing in the N. T. (see Salmasius,
De Hellenisticd, 1643, p. 12), and there employed to
designate a Jew of the Dispersion who has unlearned his
proper language, and now speaks Greek, and reads or
hears read in the synagogue the Scriptures in the Septu-
agint Version.
This distinction first appears in Acts vi. i, and is pro-
bably intended in the two other passages, where 'Efipaio?
xxxix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 139
occurs (2 Cor. xi. 22 j Phil. iii. 5) ; as well as in the super-
scription, on whosesoever authority it rests, of the Epistle
to the Hebrews. It is important to keep in mind that
in language, not in place of habitation, lay the point of
difference between the ' Hebrew ' and the * Hellenist.'
He was a ' Hebrew,' wherever domiciled, who retained the
use of the language of his fathers. Thus St. Paul, though
settled in Tarsus, a Greek city in Asia Minor, describes
himself as a 'Hebrew,' and of 'Hebrew' parents, "a
Hebrew of Hebrews " (Phil. iii. 5 ; cf. Acts xxiii. 6) ;
though it is certainly possible that by all this he may
mean no more than in a general way to set an empha-
sis on his Judaism. Doubtless, the greater number of
' Hebrews ' were resident in Palestine ; yet not this fact,
but the language they spoke, constituted them such.
It will be well however to keep in mind that this dis-
tinction and opposition of 'Eftpalos to 'EXT^/wo-r^y, as a
distinction within the nation, and not between it and other
nations, is exclusively a Scriptural one, being hardly recog-
nized by later Christian writers, not at all by Jewish and
heathen. Thus Eusebius can speak of Philo, an Alexandrian
Jew, who only once in his life visited Jerusalem, for so much
I think we may gather from his own words (vol. ii. p. 646,
Mangey's Ed.), and who wrote exclusively in Greek (Hist.
Eccl. ii. 4) : TO pJsv ovv ysvos avsicaQsv 'EySpatoy TJV : cf. iv. 16;
Proep. Evang. vii. 13. 21 ; while Clement of Alexandria,
as quoted by Eusebius (H. E. vi. 14), makes continually
the antithesis to 'Eftpaioi, not 'EXX^wo-rai, but "EXX^yfs
and WVT]. Theodoret (Opp. vol. ii. p. 1246) styles the
Greek-writing historian, Josephus, a-wyypafyevs 'Efipalos :
cf. Origen, Ep. ad Afric. 5. Neither in Josephus himself,
nor yet in Philo, do any traces of the N. T. distinction be-
tween 'Eftpalos and 'EXXtjvta-T^s exist; in heathen writers as
little (Plutarch, Symp. iv. 6; Pausanias, v. 7. 3 ; x. 12. 5).
Only this much of it is recognized, that 'Eftpatos, though
otherwise a much rarer word than 'lovSaio?, is always
140 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxix.
employed when it is intended to designate the people
on the side of their language. This rule Jewish, heathen,
and Christian writers alike observe, and we speak to the
present day of the Jewish nation, but of the Hebrew tongue.
This name 'lovSatos is of much later origin. It does
not carry us back to the very birth and cradle of the
chosen people, to the day when the Father of the faithful
passed over the river, and entered 011 the land of in-
heritance ; but keeps rather a lasting record of the period
of national disruption and decline. It arose, and could
only have arisen, with the separation of the ti-ibes into
the two rival kingdoms of Israel and Judah. Then, in-
asmuch as the ten tribes, though with worst right (see
Ewald, Gesch. des Volkes Israel, vol. iii. part i. p. 138),
assumed Israel as a title to themselves, the two drew their
designation from the more important of them, and of
Judah came the name Dn-in*, or 'lovSaloi. Josephus, so
far as I have observed, never employs it in telling the
earlier history of his people ; but for the first time in
reference to Daniel and his young companions (Antt. x.
10. i). Here, however, by anticipation ; that is, if his own
account of the upcoming of the name is correct ; namely,
that it first arose after the return from Babylon, and out
of the fact that the earliest colony of those who returned
was of that tribe (Antt. xi. 5.7): eK\ij0r)aav 8s TO ovo^a
s rjs rj/Aspas dve/3r)<7av EK Ba/3iA,(i>os', curb rrjs 'louSa. (^uX^y,
rjs 7rpu)Tr)s s\6ov<Tijs sis SKsivovs rovs TOTTOVS, avTOt TS /cat
r) %(i>pa rrjs Trpoa-tjjopias avrrjs fj,T\a/3ov. But in this
Josephus is clearly in error. We meet 'lovSaioi, or rather
its Hebrew equivalent, in books of the sacred canon com-
posed anterior to, or during, the Captivity, as a designa-
tion of those who pertained to the smaller section of the
tribes, to the kingdom of Judah (2 Kin. xvi. 6; Jer. xxxii.
12; xxxiv. 9; xxxviii. 19); and not first in Ezra, Nehe-
miah, and Esther ; however in these, and especially in
Esther, it may be of far more frequent occurrence.
xxxix. S TNON YMS OF THE NE W TESTA ME NT. 1 4 1
It is easy to see how the name extended to the whole
nation. When the ten tribes were carried into Assyria,
and were 'absorbed and lost among the nations, that
smaller section of the people which remained henceforth
represented the whole ; and thus it was only natural that
'lovBatos should express, as it now came to do, not one of
the kingdom of Judah as distinguished from that of Israel,
but any member of the nation, a * Jew ' in this wider
sense, as opposed to a Gentile. In fact, the word under-
went a process exactly the converse of that which c Eftpato<?
had undergone. For 'Eftpatos, belonging first to the
whole nation, came afterwards to belong to a part only ;
while 'lovSatos, designating at first only the member of
a part, ended by designating the whole. It now, in its
later, like 'Efipatos in its earlier, stage of meaning, was a
title by which the descendant of Abraham called himself,
when he would bring out the national distinction between
himself and other peoples (Eom. ii. 9, 10) ; thus 'Jew
and Gentile ; ' never Israelite and Gentile : ' or which
others used about him, when they had in view this same
fact j thus the Eastern Wise Men inquire, " Where is He
that is born King of the Jews? " (Matt. ii. 2) testifying
by the form of this question that they were themselves
Gentiles, for they would certainly have asked for the
King of Israel, had they meant to claim any nearer share
in Him. So, too, the Roman soldiers and the Roman
governor give to Jesus the mocking title, " King of the
Jews" (Matt, xxvii. 29, 37), while his own countrymen,
the high priests, challenge Him to prove by coming
down from the cross that He is " King of Israel " (Matt.
xxvii. 42).
For indeed the absolute name, that which expressed
the whole dignity and glory of a member of the theocratic
nation, of the people in peculiar covenant with God, was
'Io7>cM?7u'T7?y. It rarely occurs in the Septuagint, but is often
used by Josephus in his earlier history, as convertible with
142 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xxxix.
ios (Antt. ii. 9. I, 2) ; in the middle period of his his-
tory to designate a member of one of the ten tribes (viii.
8. 3 ; ix. 14. i) ; and toward the end as equivalent to
'lovSalos (xi. 5.4). It is only in its relations of likeness
and difference to this last that we have to consider it
here. This name was for the Jew his especial badge and
title of honour. To be descendants of Abraham, this
honour they must share with the Ishmaelites (Gen. xvi.
15) ; of Abraham and Isaac with the Edomites (Gen. xxv.
25) ; but none except themselves were the seed of Jacob,
such as in this name of Israelite they were declared to be.
Nor was this all, but more gloriously still, their descent
was herein traced up to him, not as he was Jacob, but as
he was Israel, who as a Prince had power with God and
with men, and prevailed (Gen. xxxii. 28). That this title
was accounted the noblest, we have ample proof. Thus,
as we have seen, when the ten tribes threw off their alle-
giance to the house of David, they claimed in their pride
and pretension the name of the " kingdom of Israel " for
the new kingdom which they set up the kingdom, as
the name was intended to imply, in which the line of the
promises, the true succession of the early patriarchs, ran.
So, too, there is no nobler title with which the Lord can
adorn Nathanael than that of '' an Israelite indeed " (John
i. 47), one in whom all which that name involved might
indeed be found. And when St. Peter, and again when
St. Paul, would obtain a hearing from the men of their
own nation, when therefore they address them with the
name most welcome to their ears, avSpss 'Ic-pa^Xtrai ( Acts
ii. 22; iii. 12 ; xiii. 16; cf. Rom. ix.4; Phil. iii. 5; 2 Cor.
xi. 22) is still the language with which they seek to secure
their good-will.
When, then, we restrict ourselves to the employment
in the N. T. of these three words, and to the distinctions
proper to them there, we may say that 'Rftpatos is a
Hebrew- speaking, as contrasted with a Greek-speaking,
XL. SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 1 43
or Hellenizing, Jew (which last in our Version we have
well called a * Grecian/ as differenced f rom^EXX^i/, a veri-
table ' Greek ' or other Gentile) ; 'lovSaios is a Jew in his
national distinction from a Gentile ; while 'Ia-parj\iTT]s, the
augustest title of all, is a Jew as he is a member of the
theocracy, and thus an heir of the promises. In the first
is predominantly noted his language ; in the second his
nationality ('lovSaicrpos, Josephus, DeMacc. 4; Gal. i. 13 :
'lovSat&iv, Gal. ii. 14) ; in the third his theocratic privi-
leges and glorious vocation.
xl. alrsa), epcorda).
THESE words are often rendered by our Translators as
though they covered the same spaces of meaning, the one
as the other; nor can we object to their rendering, in
numerous instances, alrslv and spwrav alike by our English
'to ask.' Yet sometimes they have a little marred the
perspicuity of their translation by not varying their word,
where the original has shown them the way. For example,
the obliteration at Johnxvi. 23 of the distinction between
alrscv and sptorav might easily suggest a wrong interpreta-
tion of the verse, as though its two clauses were in near
connexion, and direct antithesis, being indeed in none.
In our Version we read : * In that day ye shall asJc Me
nothing [gyne OVK sptoT^a-srs ovBtv], Verily, verily, I say
unto you, Whatsoever ye shall ask [oaa av alr^a-tjTs] the
Father in my name, He will give it you." Now every one
competent to judge is agreed, that " ye shall ask " of the
first half of the verse has nothing to do with " ye shall
ask " of the second ; that in the first Christ is referring
back to the ijds\ov avrbv epwrav of ver. 19 ; to the questions
which the disciples would fain have asked of Him, the
perplexities which they would gladly have had resolved by
Him, if only they dared to set these before Him. 'In
that day,' He would say, ' in the day of my seeing you
again, I will by the Spirit so teach you all things, that
1 44 S YNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. XL.
ye shall be no longer perplexed, no longer wishing to ask
Me questions (cf. John xxi. 12), if only you might venture
to do so.' Thus Lampe well: 'Nova est proinissio de
plenissima cognitionis luce, qua convenienter ceconomisB
Novi Testamenti collustrandi essent. Nani sicut qusestio
supponit inscitiam, ita qui nihil amplius quserit abunde se
edoctuin existimat, et in doctrina plene exposita ac intel-
lecta acquiescit. There is not in this verse a contrast
drawn between asking the Son, which shall cease, and
asking the Father, which shall begin ; but the first half of
the verse closes the declaration of one blessing, namely,
that hereafter they shall be so taught by the Spirit as to
have nothing further to inquire; the second half of the
verse begins the declaration of a new blessing, that
whatever they shall seek from the Father in the Son's
name, He will give it them. Yet none will say that this is
the impression which the English text conveys to his mind.
The distinction between the words is this. Airew, the
Latin 'peto,' is more submissive and suppliant, indeed
the constant word for the seeking of the inferior from the
superior (Acts xii. 20); of the beggar from him that
should give alms (Acts iii. 2) ; of the child from the
parent (Matt. vii. 9 ; Luke xi. 1 1 : Lam. iv. 4) ; of the
subject from the ruler (Ezra viii. 22) ; of man from God
(l Kin. iii. 1 1 ; Matt. vii. 7 ; Jam. i. 5 ; I John iii. 22 ;
cf. Plato, Euthyph. 14: sv^scrdai [K<7Tii/] alrsiv rovs Osovs).
'Epcorda), on the other hand, is the Latin ' rogo ; ' or some-
times (as John xvi. 23; cf. Gen. xliv. 19) 'interrogo,' its
only meaning in classical Greek, where it never signifies
' to ask,' but only ' to interrogate,' or ' to inquire.' Like
' rogare,' l it implies that he who asks stands on a certain
footing of equality with him from whom the boon is asked,
as king with king (Luke xiv. 42), or, if not of equality,
on such a footing of familiarity as lends authority to the
request.
1 Thus Cicero (Plane, x. 25) : ' Neque enim ego sic rogabam, utpetere
viderer, quia familiaris esset meus.'
XL. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 145
Thus it is very noteworthy, and witnesses for the sin-
gular accuracy in the employment of words, and in the
record of that employment, which prevails throughout the
N. T., that our Lord never uses alrstv or alrsia-dat, of Him-
self, in respect of that which He seeks on behalf of his
disciples from God ; for his is not the petition of the
creature to the Creator, but the request of the Son to the
Father. The consciousness of his equal dignity, of his
potent and prevailing intercession, speaks out in this,
that often as He asks, or declares that He will ask, any-
thing of the Father, it is always spwrw, spwrtjaaj, an ask-
ing, that is, as upon equal terms (John xiv. 16 ; xvi. 26 ;
xvii. 9, 15, 20), never alrsco or ainja-a). Martha, on the
contrary, plainly reveals her poor unworthy conception
of his person, that she recognizes in Him no more than a
prophet, when she ascribes that alrsta-dat, to Him, which
He never ascribes to Himself: oa-a av ainja-r) rbv Qsbv,
Baa-si O-QI, 6 Ssos (John xi. 22) : on which verse Bengel
observes : * Jesus, de se rogante loquens sSsijd-rjv dicit (Luc.
xxii. 32), et spcar^crci), at nunquam atrou/iat. TsTon Greece
locuta est Martha, sed tamen Johannes exprimit iinpro-
prium ejus sermonem, quern Dominus benigne tulit : nain
aiTslcrOai videtur verbum esse minus dignurn : ' compare
his note on I John v. 16.
It will follow that the spwrav, being thus proper for
Christ, inasmuch as it has authority in it, is not proper
for us ; and in no single instance is it used in the N. T.
to express the prayer of man to God, of the creature to
the Creator. The only passage seeming to contradict this
assertion is I John v. 16. The verse is difficult, but which-
ever of the various ways of overcoming its difficulty may
find favour, it will be found to constitute no true exception
to the rule, and perhaps, in the substitution of epwrija-r) for
the atTija-sL of the earlier clause of the verse, will rather
confirm it.
L
146 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xu.
xli. dvdirava-is, avscris.
OUK YEESION renders both these words by ' rest ' ;
at Matt. xi. 29 ; xii. 43 ; and avsa-is at 2 Cor. ii. 13 ; vii.
5 ; 2 Thess. i. /. No one can object to this ; while yet,
on a closer scrutiny, we perceive that they repose on dif-
ferent images, and contemplate this ' rest ' from different
points of view. 'Ai/a7raucrts, from avaTravw, implies the
pause or cessation from labour (Rev. iv. 8) j it is the con-
stant word in the Septuagint for the rest of the Sabbath ;
thus Exod. xvi. 23 ; xxxi. 15 ; xxxv. 2, and often. "Ai/eo-ty,
from dvirjfu, implies the relaxing or letting down of chords
or strings, which have before been strained or drawn tight,
its exact and literal antithesis being eiriraa-is (from STTI-
rsivto) : thus Plato (Rep. i. 349 e) : sv rfj sTrtrda-st KCU dvsa-si,
rwv xopS&v : and Plutarch (De Lib. Ed. 13): ra roa Kal
rds \vpas dvlspsv, iva l-nnzlvai Swrjdco^sv : and again (Lye.
29) : OVK avsvis TJV, dXV ETTITCLVIS T?}y 7ro\iTia$ : cf. Philo,
De Incorr. Hun. 13. Moses in the year of jubilee gave,
according to Josephus (Antt. iii. 12. 3), dvecnv ry <yfj airo
rs dporpov KOI (pvrslas. But no passage illustrates avscris
so well as one from the treatise just quoted which goes by
Plutarch's name (De Lib. Ed. 1 3) : Soreov ovv TOIS Traicrlv
dvcnrvorjv rwv (rvvs^wv TTOVCOV, svOvpovpsvovs, OTI TTCLS o (3ios
rj/jiwv sis avscriv teal (nrovBrjv Siyprjrai, ical Sea rovro ou jj,6vov
syp^yopcris, d\\a Kal VTTVOS svpsOrj ov&s TroXe/zos, d\.\d KOI
slprjvr) ovBs %ifMav, d\\a Kal svftia ovSs svspyol Trpd^sif,
aX\a Kal eoprai . . . Kado\ov 8s crw^srai, crw/Jia /j,ev, sv&sia
KOI 'jfk'rjpoiXTSi' ^rv^r} 8s, dvs<ri Kal TTOVU>. Plato has the
same opposition between dvscris and (nrov8ij (Legg. iv.
724 a) ; while Plutai'ch (Symp. v. 6) sets dvsais over
against o-Tvo%a>pia, as a dwelling at large, instead of in
a narrow and straight room ; and St. Paul over against
6\tyts (2 Cor. viii. 13), not being willing that there should
be 'ease' (dv<ris) to other Churches, and 'affliction'
XLII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 147
s), that is from an excessive contribution, to the
Corinthian. Used figuratively, it expresses what we, em-
ploying the same image, call the relaxation of morals
(thus Athenaeus, xiv. 13 : a/coXao-i'a KOL avscris, setting it
over against a-w<j>po<rvvri : Philo, De Cherub. 27 ; De Ebriet.
6 : avecrts, padvp,ia, rpv(j)tj : De Merc. Meret. 2).
It will at once be perceived how excellently chosen s^eiv
avscriv at Acts xxiv. 23 is, to express what St. Luke has in
hand to record. Felix, taking now a more favourable view
of Paul's case, commands the centurion who had him in
charge, to relax the strictness of his imprisonment, to
keep him rather under honorable arrest than in actual
confinement; which partial relaxation of his bonds is
exactly what this phrase implies; cf. Ecclus. xxvi. 10;
Josephus, Antt. xviii. 6. 10, where averts is used in a per-
fectly similar case.
The distinction, then, is obvious. When our Lord pro-
mises avdiravvis to the weary and heavy laden who come to
Him (Matt. xi. 28, 29), his promise is, that they shall cease
from their toils ; shall no longer spend their labour for that
which satisfieth not. When St. Paul expresses his confi-
dence that the Thessalonians, troubled now, should yet find
avscris in the day of Christ (2 Thess. i. 7), he anticipates for
them, not so much cessation from labour as relaxation of
the chords of affliction, now so tightly drawn, strained
and stretched to the uttermost. It is true that this pro-
mise arid that at the heart are not two, but one ; yet for
all this they present the blessedness which Christ will
impart to his own under different aspects, and by help
of different images ; and each word has its own fitness in
the place where it is employed.
xlii. Ta7reivo(f>po(rvvr), Trpaorrjf.
THE work for which Christ's Gospel came into the world
was no less than to put down the mighty from their seat,
148 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLII.
and to exalt the humble and meek. It was then only in
accordance with this its mission that it should dethrone
the heathen virtue /ieyaXo^ir^'a, and set up the despised
Christian grace Tairsivo^pocrvvr] in its room, stripping that
of the honour it had unjustly assumed, delivering this from
the dishonour which as unjustly had clung to it hitherto ;
and in this direction advancing so far that a Christian
writer has called this last not merely a grace, but the
casket or treasure house in which all other graces are
contained (ya%o<f)v\dKiov apsrwv, Basil, Const. Mon. 16).
And indeed not the grace only, but the very word rairsi-
vo(f>po<rvvr) is itself a fruit of the Gospel ; no Greek writer
employed it before the Christian sera, nor, apart from the
influence of Christian writers, after. In the Septuagint
Tairswofypwv occurs once (Prov. xxix. 23) SLndLTcnrsivotfrpoveiv
as often (Ps. cxxx. 2) ; both words being used in honour.
Plutarch too has advanced as far as raTrsivcKppcoi' (De Alex.
Virt. ii. 4), but employs it in an ill sense ; and the use by
heathen writers of ra^rsivos^ rairsivor^s^ and other words of
this family, shows plainly how they would have employed
TaTTSivo^pocrvvr), had they thought good to allow it. The
instances are few and exceptional in which Tcnrsivos sig-
nifies anything for them which is not grovelling, slavish,
and mean-spirited. It keeps company with dvs\sv6epos
(Plato, Legy. vi. 774 c) ; with dvSpaTroScaSvjs (Eth. Eudem.
iii. 3) ; with dyevvrfs (Lucian, De Calum. 24) ; with /car^r/s
(Plutarch, Fab. Max. 18) ; with aSogos (De Vit. Pud. 14) ;
with 8ov\iic6s (Demosthenes, p. 1313); with SovkoTrpSTnjs
(Philo, Quod Omn. Prob. Lib. 4) ; with gofcalfi^Xoff (De
Leg. Spec. iii. i), and the like: just as the German
' Demuth,' born as it was in the heathen period of the
language, is properly and originally ' servilis animus,'
<deo' (= servus) constituting the first syllable of it
(Grimm, Wb'rterbuch, s. v.) and only under the influences
of Christianity attained to its present position of honour.
XLII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 149
Still those exceptional cases are more numerous than
some will allow. Thus Plato in a very noticeable passage
(Legg. iv. 716 a) links rajrsivos with KSKOO-^TI^SVOS, as in
Demosthenes we have \6joi jjierpioi KOI rairsivoi: while
Xenophon more than once sets the rairsivos over against
the vTTsprftpavos : cf. JEschylus, Prom. Vinct. 328 ; Luke i.
51, 52) : and see for its worthier use a noble passage in
Plutarch, De Prof. Virt. 10 ; and another, De Sera Num.
Vind. 3, where the purpose of the divine punishments is
set forth as being that the soul may become avvvovs Kal
raTTSivrj, Kal Kardcjiofios jrpbs rbv sov. Combined with
these prophetic intimations of the honour which should
one day be rendered even to the very words expressive of
humility, it is very interesting to note that Aristotle him-
self has a vindication, and it only needs to receive its due
extension to be a complete one, of the Christian rairei-
vo(f)poo-vvr) (Ethic. Nic. iv. 3. 3 ; cf. Brandis, Aristoteles,
p. 1408; and Nagelsbach, Homer. Theologie, p. 336).
Having confessed how hard it is for a man Ty a\v)0s(a
/j,ja\6-^rv^ov slvai for he will allow no ^e^ako^rv^ia^ or
great-souledness, which does not rest on corresponding
realities of goodness and moral greatness, and his peya-
\6-^rv^os is one psyahcov avrov dgiwv, agios u>v he goes
on to observe, though merely by the way and little con-
scious how far his words reached, that to think humbly
of oneself, where that humble estimate is the true one, can-
not be imputed to any as a culpable meanness of spirit ;
it is rather the true awfypoa-vwt] (o jap jjuicpcov agios, Kal
TOVTWV dgiwv savrov, a-(d(j>pa)v) . But if this be so (and
who will deny it ?), then, seeing tnat for every man the
humble estimate of himself is the true one, Aristotle has
herein unconsciously vindicated rairswo^poavvr) as a grace
in which every man ought to abound ; for that which he,
even according to the standard which he set up, confessed
to be a xa\7r6v, namely rfj aXyOsta fjLja\6^rv^ov slvai, the
Christian, convinced by the Spirit of God, and having in
150 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLII.
his Lord a standard of perfect righteousness before his
eyes, knows to be not merely a ^aXsTror, but an dSvvarov.
Such is the Christian Ta7reivo<f)poa-vvr), 110 mere modesty or
absence of pretension, which is all that the heathen would
at the very best have found in it; nor yet a self-made
grace ; and Chrysostom is in fact bringing in pride again
under the disguise of humility, when he characterizes it
as a making of ourselves small, when we are great (Tcnrstvo-
<f>poo-vwrj rot-To eartv, orav rts /j,e<ya$ &v, savrov raTrsivot:
and he repeats this often; see Suicer, Thes. a. v.). Far
truer and deeper is St. Bernard's definition : ' Est virtus
qu quis ex verissimd sui cognitione sibi ipsi vilescit ; ' the
esteeming of ourselves small, inasmuch as we are so ; the
thinking truly, and because truly, therefore lowlily, of
ourselves.
But it may be objected, how does this account of
Christian Tcnrsivo^poa-vwr], as springing out of and resting
on the sense of unworthiness, agree with the fact that
the sinless Lord laid claim to this grace, and said, " I am
meek and lowly in heart " (raTrsivbs rfj KapBla, Matt. xi.
29) ? The answer is, that for the sinner raTrsivotypoa-vvrj
involves the confession of sin, inasmuch as it involves the
confession of his true condition ; while yet for the un-
fallen creature the grace itself as truly exists, involving
for such the acknowledgment not of sinfulness, which
would be untrue, but of creatureliness, of absolute de-
pendence, of having nothing, but receiving all things
of God. And thus the grace of humility belongs to the
highest angel before the throne, being as he is a creature,
yea, even to the Lord of Glory Himself. In his human
nature He must be the pattern of all humility, of all
creaturely dependence; and it is only as a man that
Christ thus claims to be rairsivos : his human life was a
constant living on the fulness of his Father's love ; He
evermore, as man, took the place which beseemed the
creature in the presence of its Creator.
XLH. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 151
The Gospel of Christ did not rehabilitate Trpaor^s so
entirely as it had done TaTreivo^poa-vvv), but this, because
the word did not need rehabilitation to the same extent.
HpaoTijs did not require to be transformed from a bad
sense to a good, but only to be lifted up from a lower level
of good to a higher. This indeed it did need ; for no one
can read Aristotle's portraiture of the irpaos and oiirpaor^s
(Ethic. Nic. iv. 5), mentally comparing the heathen virtue
with the Christian grace, and not feel that Revelation has
given to these words a depth, a richness, a fulness of
significance which they were very far from possessing
before. The great moralist of Greece set Trpaor^s as the
^so-orrjs Trspl opyrjs, between the two extremes, 0/374X0x77?
and dopyr)(ria, with, however, so much leaning to the latter
that it might very easily run into this defect; and he
finds it worthy of praise, more because by it a man retains
his own equanimity and composure (the word is associated
by Plutarch with fierpioTrddsia, De Frat. Am. 18; with
a^oXt'a, Cons, ad Uxor. 2 ; with dvsgiKa/cla, De Cap. ex In.
Util. 9 ; with fju-ryakoTrddsia, De Ser. Num. Vind. 5 ; with
svTTsidsia, Comp. Num. et Lye. 3 ; with eu/coXt'a, De Virt. et
Vit. i), than for any nobler reason. Neither does Plu-
tarch's own graceful little essay, Hepl dop^a-ias, rise any-
where to a loftier pitch than this, though we might have
looked for something higher from him. Tlpaorys is opposed
by Plato to dypioTr)? (Symp. 1 97 d) ; by Aristotle to %a\s-
TTOTIJS (Hist. Anim. ix. I ; cf. Plato, Rep. vi. 472 /) ; by
Plutarch or some other under his name, to anorexia (De
Lib. Ed. 1 8) ; all indications of a somewhat superficial
meaning by them attached to the word.
Those modern expositors who will not allow for the new
forces at work in sacred Greek, who would fain restrict,
for instance, the Trpaorijs of the N.T. to that sense which
the word, as employed by the best classical writers, would
have borne, deprive themselves and as many as accept
their interpretation of much of the deeper teaching in
152 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLII.
Scripture : l on which, subject, and with reference to this
very word, there are some excellent observations by F.
Spanheim, Dubia Evangelica, vol. iii. p. 398 ; by Eambach,
Inst. Herm. Sac. p. l69; 2 cf. also, passim, the lecture
or little treatise by Zezschwitz, Profangracitat undBiblischer
Sprachgeist, from which I have already given (p. i) an
interesting extract ; and the article, Hellenistisches Idiom,
by Eeuss in Herzog's Real-Encyclopadie. The Scriptural
TrpaoTijs is not in a man's outward behaviour only ; nor
yet in his relations to his fellow-men ; as little in his mere
natural disposition. Eather is it an inwrought grace of
the soul ; and the exercises of it are first and chiefly
towards God (Matt. xi. 29; Jam. i. 21). It is that temper
of spirit in which we accept his dealings with us as
good, and therefore without disputing or resisting ; and it
is closely linked with the raTrstvo^poavvrj, and follows
directly upon it (Ephes. iv. 2; Col. iii. 12; cf. Zeph. iii.
12); because it is only the humble heart which is also
the meek; and which, as such, does not fight against
God, and more or less struggle and contend with Him.
This meekness, however, being first of all a meekness
before God, is also such in the face of men, even of
evil men, out of a sense that these, with the insults and
injuries which they may inflict, are permitted and em-
ployed by Him for the chastening and purifying of his
elect. This was the root of David's TrpaoTi)?, when Shimei
cursed and flung stones at him the consideration, namely,
that the Lord had bidden him (2 Sam. xvi. 11), that it
1 They will do this, even though they stop short of lengths to which
Fritzsche, a very learned but unconsecrated modern expositor of the
Romans, has reached ; who, on Rom. i. 7, writes : ' Deinde considerandum
est formula x<*P ls fy"" * a ' "V"?" 7 ? ^ n N. T. nihil aliud dici nisi quod Grseci
illo suo x a V tlv 8 - f u Ttparrtiv enuntiare consueverint, h. e. ut aliquis for-
tunatus sit, sive, ut cum Horatio loquar, Ep. i. 8. I, ut gaudeat et bene
rem gerat.'
2 He concludes, Unde dignus esset reprehensione qui graciles illas et
exiles notiones quas pagani de virtutibus habuerunt Christianamin virtu-
tum nominibus subjiceret.'
XLIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 153
was just for him to suffer these things, however unjustly
the other might inflict them ; and out of like convictions
all true Christian irpaor^s must spring. He that is meek
indeed will know himself a sinner among sinners ; or, if
there was One who could not know Himself such, yet He
too bore a sinner's doom, and endured therefore the con-
tradiction of sinners (Luke xxiii. 35, 36; John xviii. 22, 23) ;
and this knowledge of his own sin will teach him to
endure meekly the provocations with which they may pro-
voke him, and not to withdraw himself from the burdens
which their sin may impose upon him (Gal. vi. I ; 2 Tim.
ii. 25; Tit. iii. 2).
Hpaorr)?, then, or meekness, if more than mere gentle-
ness of manner, if indeed the Christian grace of meek-
ness of spirit, must rest on deeper foundations than its
own, on those namely which raTrsivo^poa-vvrj has laid for it,
and can only subsist while it continues to rest on these.
It is a grace in advance of raTrsivo^poa-vvr), not as more
precious than it, but as presupposing it, and as being
unable to exist without it.
xliii. TrpaoTrjs,
r] and sTrisiiczia, though joined together by
Clement of Rome (Cor. 56), are in their meanings too
far apart to be fit subjects of synonymous discrimination ;
but TrpaoTtjf, which stands between, holds on to both. The
attempt has just been made to seize its points of contact
with TaTrsivo^poa-vvrj. Without going over this ground
anew, we may consider the relations to sTrisitcsia in which
it stands.
The mere existence of such a word as sTrisiKsia is itself a
signal evidence of the high development of ethics among
the Greeks. 1 It expresses exactly that moderation which
1 No Latin word exactly and adequately renders it ; ' dementia ' sets
forth one side of it, ' sequitas' another, and perhaps ' modestia ' (by which
154 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xun.
recognizes the impossibility cleaving to all formal law, of
anticipating and providing for all cases that will emerge,
and present themselves to it for decision; which, with
this, recognizes the danger that ever waits upon the
assertion of legal rights, lest they should be pushed into
moral wrongs, lest the ' sumnium jus ' should in practice
prove the * suinrna injuria ' ; which, therefore, ui-ges not
its own rights to the uttermost, but, going back in part or
in the whole from these, rectifies and redresses the in-
justices of justice. 1 It is thus more truly just than strict
justice would have been; being Si/caio^, Kal fte\Tiov TWOS
Si/caiov, as Aristotle expresses it (Ethic. Nic. v. 10. 6) ; 'es
ist namlich nicht das gesetzlich gerechte, sondern das
dasselbe berichtigende ' (Brandis) ; being indeed, again to
use Aristotle's words, STravopdw^a vopov, $ sXXsiTrsi Sia
TO ica6o\ov : 2 and he sets the d/cpiftoSiKaios, the man who
stands up for the last tittle of his legal rights, over
against the STTISIKIJS. In the Definitions which go under
Plato's name (412 6) it is Si/calov Kal crvufyspbvTwv fXar-
: it is joined by Lucian (Vit. Auct. 10) to aiSws and
s, and in a fragment of Sophocles is opposed to 17
Correctio ejus, Grotius defines it, in quo lex
propter universalitatem deficit. 'Evyvw/jboo-vvr] in its mean-
ing approaches very closely to smsl/ceia, but has not as
the Vulgate translates it, 2 Cor. x. r) a third ; but the word is wanting
which should set forth all these excellencies reconciled in a single and a
higher one.
1 In the words of Persius (iv. 1 1),
' rectum discernit ubi inter
Curva subit, vel cum fallit pede regula varo.'
2 Daniel, a considerable poet, but a far more illustrious thinker, in a
poem addressed to Lord Chancellor Egerton very nobly expands these
words, or the thought in these words ; indeed, the whole poem is written
in honour of (irieiKtia or ' equity,' as being
' the soul of law,
The life of justice, and the spirit of right.'
So too in Spenser's Fairy Queen the legend of Artegal is devoted to the
glorifying of the Christian grace of eVtcMceuz.
XLIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 155
completely been taken up into the scientific language of
ethics. This aspect of sTriecicsia, namely that it is a going
back from the letter of right for the better preserving of
the spirit, must never be lost sight of. Seneca (De Clem.
ii. 7) well brings it out: 'Nihil ex his facit, tanquam
justo minus fecerit, sed tanquam id quod constituit, jus-
tissimum sit ; ' and Aquinas : ' Diminutiva est pcenarum,
secundum rationem rectam ; quando scilicet oportet, et in
quibus oportet.' Goschel, who has written so much and
so profoundly on the relations between theology and juris-
prudence, has much on this matter which is excellent (Zur
Philos. und Theol. des Rechts und der Rechtgeschichte, 1835,
pp. 428-438).
The archetype and pattern of this grace is found in
God. All his goings back from the strictness of his rights
as against men ; all his allowance of their imperfect righte-
ousness, and giving of a value to that which, rigorously
estimated, would have none ; all his refusals to exact ex-
treme penalties (Wisd. xii. 18; Song of Three Children, 18;
2 Mace. x. 4; Ps. Ixxxv. 5 : ore <rv, Kvpis, ^pr^aros ical
fcal TTO\VS\SOS : cf. Clement of Rome, Cor. 29 :
/cai svcnrXayxvos Tlarrfp : Plutarch, Coriol. 24 ;
Peric. 39 ; Cces. 57) ; all his keeping in mind whereof we
are made, and measuring his dealings with us thereby ;
all of these we may contemplate as sTmlKsia upon his
part ; even as they demand in return the same, one toward
another, upon ours. Peter, when himself restored, must
strengthen his brethren (Luke xxii. 32). The greatly
forgiven servant in the parable (Matt, xviii. 23), having
known the eirisiKeia of his lord and king, is justly expected
to shew the same to his fellow servant. The word is often
joined with ^i^avOpwjria (Polybius, v. 10. I ; Philo, De
Vit. Mos. i. 36 ; 2 Mace. ix. 27) ; with ^^spoTTjs (Philo, De
Car. 18; Plutarch, De Vit. Pud. 2); with /j,aicpodvfj.la
(Clement of Rome, Cor. 13); with avst-ucaKia (Wisd. ii.
19); often too with Trpaorrjs: thus, besides the passage
156 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLIII.
in the N. T. (2 Cor. x. i), by Plutarch (Peric. 39; Cces. 57;
cf. Pyrrh. 23; De Prof. Virt. 9). It will be called avavbpia
by as many as seek to degrade a virtue through the calling
it the name of the vice which is indeed only its caricature
(Aristides, De Concord, i. p. 529).
The distinction between irpaorr^s and eTrisiKsia Estius
(on 2 Cor. x. i ) sets forth in part, although incompletely :
' Mansuetudo [Trpaorys] magis ad animum, sirisiKSia vero
magis ad exteriorem conversationem pertinet ; ' compare
Bengel : * Trpaorrjs virtus magis absoluta, sirisUsia magis
refertur ad alios.' Aquinas too has a fine and subtle dis-
cussion on the relations of likeness and difference between
the graces which these words severally denote (Summ.
Theol. 2 a 3", qu. 157): 'Utrum dementia et Mansuetudo
sint penitus idem.* Among other marks of difference he
especially presses these two : the first that in dementia '
(=s7riiKSia) there is always the condescension of a su-
perior to an inferior, while in ' mansuetudo ' (TrpaoTrjs)
nothing of the kind is necessarily implied : * dementia est
lenitas superioris adversus inferiorem : mansuetudo non
solum est superioris ad inferiorem, sed cujuslibet ad quem-
libet ; ' and the second, that which has been already urged,
that the one grace is more passive, the other more active,
or at least that the seat of the irpaor^s is in the inner
spirit, while the sTrisitceia must needs embody itself in
outward acts : ' Differunt ab invicem in quantum de-
mentia est moderativa exterioris punitionis, mansuetudo
proprie diminuit passionem irse.'
It is instructive to note how little of one mind our
various Translators from Wiclif downward have been as
to the words which should best reproduce sTriel/csia and.
for the English reader. The occasions on which
occur are two, or reckoning TO STTISLKSS as an
equivalent substantive, are three (Acts xxiv. 4; 2 Cor. x.
I ; Phil. iv. 5). It has been rendered in all these ways :
* meekness,' ' courtesy,' ' clemency,' ' softness,' ' modesty,'
XLIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 157
* gentleness,' 'patience,' ( patient mind,' 'moderation.'
'ETTistfcys, not counting the one occasion already named,
occurs four times (i Tim. iii. 3 ; Tit. iii. 2 ; Jam. iii. 17 ;
I Pet. ii. 1 8), and appears in the several Versions of our
Hexapla as 'temperate/ 'soft,' 'gentle,' 'modest,' 'pa-
tient,' ' mild,' ' courteous.' ' Gentle ' and ' gentleness,'
on the whole, commend themselves as the best ; but the
fact remains, which also in a great measure excuses so
much vacillation here, namely, that we have no words in
English which are full equivalents of the Greek. The
sense of equity and fairness which is in them so strong is
more or less wanting in all which we offer in exchange.
xliv.
THESE words occur together John x. I, 8 ; but do not con-
stitute there ! or elsewhere a tautology, or mere rhetorical
amplification (cf. Obad. 5; Plato, Rep. i. 351 c). The
K\,STTT>JS and the \rj(rrrjs alike appropriate what is not
theirs, but the K^e-rrr^s by fraud and in secret (Matt. xxiv.
43 ; John xii. 6 ; cf. Exod. xxii. 2 ; Jer. ii. 26) ; the
\rja-Tijs by violence and openly (2 Cor. xi. 26 ; cf. Hos. vii.
I ; Jer. vii. 1 1 ; Plutarch, De Superst. 3 : ov </>o/3emu \fi<rras
6 olicovpwv} ; the one is the 'thief and steals ; the other
is the 'robber' and plunders, as his name, from \r)ts or
\sia (as our own ' robber,' from ' Raub,' booty), suffici-
ently declares. They are severally the ' fur ' and ' latro ; '
t fures insidiantur et occult^, fraude decipiunt ; latrones
audacter aliena diripiunt' (Jerome, In Osee,vii. i). 'Larron,'
however, in French, 'voleur qui derobe furtivement et
par adresse,' notwithstanding its connexion with ' latro,'
has slipt into the meaning of ' fur.' Wiclif, who renders
the words, ' night- thief ' and 'day- thief,' has not very
happily distinguished them.
1 Grotius: 'Fur [(cXeVr^s] quia venit ut rapiat alienum ;
quia ut occidat, ver. 10.'
158 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLIV.
Our Translators have always rendered /cXeVr^y by
'thief;' they ought with a like consistency to have ren-
dered \rjarrfs by ' robber } ' but it also they have oftener
rendered 'thief/ effacing thus the distinction between the
two. We cannot charge them with that carelessness here,
of which those would be guilty who should now do the
same. Passages out of number in our Elizabethan lite-
rature attest that in their day ' thief and 'robber' had not
those distinct meanings which they since have acquired.
Thus Falstaff and his company, who with open violence rob
the king's treasure on the king's highway, are ' thieves '
throughout Shakspeare's Henry IV. Still one must regret
that on several occasions in our Version we do not find
'robbers ' rather than 'thieves.' Thus at Matt. xxi. 13 we
read : " My house shall be called the house of prayer, but
ye have made it a den of thieves ; " but it is ' robbers,' and
not ' thieves ' that have dens or caves ; and it is rightly
"den of robbers" at Jer. vii, u, whence this quotation
is drawn. Again, Matt. xxvi. 55 : "Are ye come out as
against a thief with swords and staves for to take Me ? " ;
but it would be against some bold and violent robber that
a party armed with swords and clubs would issue forth,
not against a lurking thief. The poor traveller in the
parable (Luke x. 30) fell, not among ' thieves,' but among
' robbers ; ' violent and bloody men, as their treatment of
him plainly declared.
No passage has suffered so seriously from this con-
founding of 'thief and 'robber' as Luke xxiii. 39-43,
taken with Matt, xxvii. 38 and Mark xv. 27. The
whole anterior moral condition of him whom we call
' the penitent thief is obscured for many by the associa-
tions which almost inevitably cling to this name. The two
malefactors crucified with Jesus, the one obdurate, the
other penitent, in all likelihood had belonged both to
the band of Barabbas, who for murder and insurrection
had been cast with his fellow insurgents into prison (Mark
XLIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 159
xv. 7). He too was himself a Xrjarr^s (John xviii. 40), and
yet no common malefactor, on the contrary *a notable
prisoner' (Seoyuos eiriffrj^os, Matt, xxvii. 16). Now con-
sidering the fierce enthusiasm of the Jewish populace on
his behalf, and combining this with the fact that he was
in prison for an unsuccessful insurrection; keeping in
inind too the moral estate of the Jews at this period, with
false Christs, false deliverers, every day starting up, we
can hardly doubt that Barabbas was one of those wild
and stormy zealots, who were evermore raising anew the
standard of resistance against the Roman domination ;
nattering and feeding the insane hopes of their country-
men, that they should yet break the Roman yoke from
off their necks. These men, when hard pressed, would
betake themselves to the mountains, and from thence
wage a petty war against their oppressors, living by
plunder, if possible, by that of their enemies, if not, by
that of any within their reach. The history of Dolcino's
( Apostolicals,' as that of the Camisards in the Cevennes,
illustrates only too well the downward progress by which
such would not merely presently obtain, but deserve, the
name of ' robbers.' By the Romans they would be called
and dealt with as such (see Josephus, Antt. xx. 8. 6, infine) ;
just as in the great French Revolution the Vendean royalists
were styled ' the brigands of the Loire ; ' nay, in that
great perversion of all moral sentiment which would mark
such a period as this was, the name of robber, like ' klept '
among the modern Greeks, would probably have ceased to
be dishonorable, would not have been refused by them-
selves.
And yet of stamp and character how different would
many of these men, these maintainers of a last protest
against a foreign domination, probably be from the mean
and cowardly purloiner, whom we call the ' thief.' The
bands of these X^crrat, numbering in their ranks some of
the worst, would probably include also some that were
160 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLV.
originally among the noblest, spirits of the nation even
though these had miserably mistaken the task which their
time demanded, and had sought by the wrath of man
to work out the righteousness of God. Such a one we
may well imagine this penitent \ya-T^s to have been.
Should there be any truth in this view of his former
condition, and certainly it would go far to explain his
sudden conversion, it is altogether obscured by the
name * thief ' which we have given him ; nor can it under
any circumstances be doubtful that he would be more
fitly called ' the penitent robber.' See my Studies in the
Gospels, 4th edit. pp. 302 sqq. ; Dean Stanley, The Jewish
Church, vol. iii. p. 466.
Xlv. Tr\.VVto, Z/tTTTft), \OVW.
THERE is a certain poverty in English, which has one only
word, * to wash,' with which to render these three Greek ;
seeing that the three have each a propriety of its own,
and one which the inspired writers always observe. Thus
TrXvvsiv is always to wash inanimate things, as distin-
guished from living objects or persons ; oftenest garments
(ifaara, Homer, II. xxii. 155 ; i/j,drtov, Plato, Charm. 161 e;
and in the Septuagint continually ; so o-roXas-, Rev. vii.
14); but not exclusively garments, as some affirm, for
see Luke v. 2, where it expresses the washing or cleans-
ing of nets (BiKTva: cf. Polybius, ix. 6, 3). When David
exclaims H\vvov ps airo rrjs avop,las (Ps. 1. 3 [li. 2,
A. Y.j), this is no exception to the rule; for the men-
tion of hyssop, which follows, shows plainly that the
royal penitent had the ceremonial aspersions of the Le-
vitical law primarily in his eye, aspersions therefore upon
the garments of the unclean person (Lev. xiv. 9 ; Num.
xix. 6, 7), however he may have looked through these to
another and better sprinkling beyond. 1
[' Ezek. xvi. 9, however, should perhaps he quoted as an exception,
where en-Xwa is used of the person of a new-born infant.]
XLV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 161
and \oveiv, on the other hand, express the
washing of living persons ; although with this difference,
that VLTTTSLV (which displaced in the later period of the
language the Attic vifeiv), and vtyaa-Oai, almost always
express the washing of a part of the body the hands
(Mark vii. 3; Exod. xxx. 19), the feet (John xiii. 5;
Plutarch, Thes. 10), the face (Matt. vi. 17), the eyes
(John ix. 7), the back and shoulders (Homer, Od. vi.
224); while \ovsiv, which is not so much 'to wash' as
' to bathe,' and \ovsa0ai, ' to bathe oneself,' implies always,
not the washing of a part of the body, but of the whole
(thus \s\ov [tsvot TO aa)fj,a, Heb. x. 22 ; cf. Exod. xxix. 4 ;
Acts ix. 37 ; 2 Pet. ii. 22 ; Eev. i. 5 ; Plato, Phcedo,
115 a). This limitation of VITTTSIV to persons as contra-
distinguished from things, which is always observed in
the N. T., is not without exceptions, although they are
very unfrequent elsewhere ; thus, SSTTCIS (Homer, II. xvi.
229); rpajrs^as (Od. i. 112); CTKSVOS (Lev. xv. 12). A
single verse in the Septuagint (Lev. xv. n) gives us all
the three words, and all used in their exact propriety
of meaning : KOI oawv sav a^njraL o yovoppvrjs, Kal rap
%ipa$ avrov ov vsvnrrai, vSari, 7r\vvsi ra Ijjbdna, Kal
\ov<rsrai TO <rwfia v8ari.
The passage where it is most important to mark the
distinction between VLTTTSIV, to wash a part, and \ovsw
or \ovsa6ai, to wash the whole, of the body, and where
certainly our English Version loses something in cleai--
ness from the absence of words which should note the
passing from one word to the other in the original, is
John xiii. 10 : "He that is washed [6 \s\ovpsvos] needeth
not save to wash [ytyaa-Oai] his feet, but is clean every
whit." * The foot-washing was a symbolic act. St.
1 The Latin labours under the same defect ; thus in the Vulprate it
stands : ' Qui lotus est, non indiget nisi ut pedea lai:et.' De Wette hast
sought to preserve the variation of word : ' Wer ycbadet 1st, der bniuch
sich nicht als an den Fiissen zu u-asch^n.'
1 62 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLV.
Peter had not understood this at the first, and, not
understanding, had exclaimed, u Thou shalt never wash
my feet." But so soon as ever the true meaning of what
his Lord was doing flashed upon him, he who had before
refused to suffer his Lord to wash even his feet, now
prayed to be washed altogether : " Lord, not my feet
only, but also my hands and my head." Christ replies,
that it needed not this : Peter had been already made
partaker of the great washing, of that forgiveness which
included the whole man : he was \s\ov/jievo$, and this great
absolving, cleansing act did not need to be repeated, was
indeed incapable of repetition : " Now ye are clean through
the word which I have spoken unto you" (John xv. 3).
But while it fared thus with him in respect of the all-
inclusive forgiveness, he did need to wash his feet (vi^raa-Qat,
TOVS Tro'Say), evermore to cleanse himself, which could only
be through suffering his Lord to cleanse him, from the
defilements which even he, a justified and in part also a
sanctified man, should gather as he moved through a
sinful world. One might almost suppose, as it has been
suggested, that there was allusion here to the Levitical
ordinance, according to which Aaron and his successors in
the priesthood were to be washed once for all from head to
foot at their consecration to their office (Exod. xxix. 4;
xl. 12) ; but were to wash their hands and their feet in the
brazen laver as often as they afterwards ministered before
the Lord (Exod. xxx. 19, 21; xl. 31). Yet this would
commend itself more, if we did not find hands and feet in
the same category there, while here they are not merely
disjoined, but set over against one another (John, ver. 9,
10). This much however to me is plain, that the whole mys-
tery of our justification, which is once for all, reaching
to every need, embracing our whole being, and of our
sanctification, which must daily go forward, is wrapped up
in the antithesis between the two words. This Augustine
has expressed clearly and well (In Ev. Joh. xiii. 10) :
XLVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 163
* Homo in sancto quidem baptismo totus abluitur, non
prseter pedes, sed totus omnino : veruntamen cum in rebus
humanis postea vivitur, utique terra calcatur. Ipsi igitur
humani affectus, sine quibus in hac mortalitate non
Tivitur, quasi pedes sunt, ubi ex humanis rebus afficirnur.
Quotidie ergo pedes lavat nobis, qui interpellat pro nobis :
et quotidie nos opus habere ut pedes lavemus in ipsa
Oratione Dominica confiternur, cum dicirnus, Dimitte
nobis debita nostra.'
xlvi. (pw
ALL these words are rendered, some occasionally, some
always, in our Version, by ' light ' ; thus, <<yy at Matt,
iv. 16; Rom. xiii. 12, and often; <f>syyos at Matt. xxiv.
29 ; Mark xiii. 24 ; Luke xi. 33 (it does not occur again) ;
(^wcrrTJp at Phil. ii. 15; Rev. xxi. 1 1 (where only it occurs) ;
\v-xyos at Matt. vi. 22 ; John v. 35 ; 2 Pet. i. 19, and else-
where ; though this often by ' candle ' (Matt. v. 15;' Rev.
xxii. 5) ; and Xa/iTras at Acts xx. 8, though elsewhere
rendered 'lamp ' (Matt. xxv. I ; Rev. viii. 10), and ' torch'
(John xviii. 3).
The old grammarians distinguish between <wy and
<f>syyos (which are but different forms of one and the
same word), that <ws is the light of the sun or of the day,
(frsyyos the light or lustre of the moon. The Attic writers,
to whom this distinction must belong, if to any, them-
selves only imperfectly observe it. Thus, in Sophocles
(frsyyos is three or four times ascribed to the sun (Antig.
800 ; Ajax, 654, 840 ; Trachin. 597) ; while in Plato we
meet <<ws o-eXtfvrjs (Rep. vii. 516 6; cf. Isai. xiii. 10;
Ezek. xxxii. 7). This much right the grammarians have,
that (frsyyos is oftenest the light of the moon or other
luminaries of the night, (f>ws that of the sun or of the
day; thus Plato (Rep. vi. 508 c) sets over against one
another r^^spivov <wy and vv/cTspiva (f>eyyr]. This, like so
K 2
1 64 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVI.
many other finer distinctions of the Greek language, is
so far observed in the N. T., that the light of the moon,
on the only occasions that it is mentioned, is (freyyo?
(Matt. xxiv. 29; Mark xiii. 24; cf. Joel ii. 10; iii. 15),
as (f>)s is that of the sun (Rev. xxii. 5). It will follow
that <f)ws, rather than <j)sy<yos, is the true antithesis to
O-KOTOS (Plato, Rep. vii. 518 a; Matt. vi. 23 ; I Pet. ii. 9) ;
and generally that the former will be the more absolute
designation of light ; thus Hab. iii. 4 : KOI <f>syyos aurov
[rov sou] MS (frws go-rat: compare Euripides, Helen. 530 :
<f)rj(ri S' sv <f)dsi irocriv rov a^wv ^wvra (psyyos slaopav. See
Doderlein, Lett. Synon. vol. ii. p. 69.
3>o)<TTrip is rendered * light ' in our Version ; thus, at
Phil. ii. 15: " Among whom ye shine as lights in the
world" (coy fywa-TTipss sv /coa-py}. It would be difficult
to improve on this, which yet fails to mark with entire
precision what St. Paul intends. The ^xoa-rrjpss here
are the heavenly bodies, * luminaria ' (Vulg.), ' Himmels-
lichter' (De Wette), and mainly the sun and moon, the
Mights,' or * great lights ' (=< luces,' Cicero, poet.),
of which Moses speaks, Gen. i. 14, 16; where nh'Xfp is
rendered ^uxrrrjpss in the Septuagint. Compare Ecclus.
xliii. 7, where the moon is <j>a)a-Tijp : and Wisd. xiii. 2,
where (fecoa-rfjpss ovpavov is exactly equivalent to fyaxr-
rrjpss sv Ko<rp,w here, the tcoa-fios of this place being the
material world, the a-rspsw/jia or firmament, not the ethical
world, which has been already designated by the ysvsa
<r/co\ia fcal 8is<TTpafji,jj,ei>'rj. Nor would it be easy to improve
on our version- of Rev. xxi. 1 1 : " Her light 6 ^wcrr^p
avrrji] was like unto a stone most precious." Our Trans-
lators did well in going back to this, Wiclif's rendering,
and in displacing " her shining" which had been admitted
into the intermediate Versions, and which must have
conveyed a wrong impression to the English reader. Not
that the present rendering is altogether satisfactory,
being itself not wholly unambiguous. Some may still be
XLVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 165
tempted to understand ' her light * as the light which the
Heavenly City diffused; when, indeed, (fxao-r^p means,
that which diffused light to the Heavenly City, her
luminary or light-giver ; ' lumen ejus,' as in the Vulgate.
What this light-giver was, we learn from ver. 23 : " the
Lamb is the light thereof;" o \v^yos avrrjsr there being
= o <f)(o<TTT)p avrrjs here.
In rendering \v%vos and \a^.'jrds our Translators have
scarcely made the most of the words at their command.
Had they rendered \ap.Trds by ' torch,' not once only
(John xviii. 3), but always, this would have left ' lamp,'
now wrongly appropriated by \afj.7rds, disengaged. Alto-
gether dismissing ' candle,' they might then have rendered
\v%vos by ' lamp ' wherever it occurs. At present there
are so many occasions where ( candle ' would manifestly
be inappropriate, and where, therefore, they are obliged
to fall back on ' light,' that the distinction between <ws
and \v%vos nearly, if not quite, disappears in our Version.
The advantages of such a re-distribution of the words
would be many. In the first place, it would be more
accurate. Ai^i/os is not a ' candle ' (candela,' from
' candeo,' the white wax light, and then any kind of
taper), but a hand-lamp, fed with oil. Neither is \a^irds
a * lamp,' but a * torch,' and this not only in the Attic,
but in the later Hellenistic Greek as well (Polybius, iii.
93. 4; Herodian, iv. 2; Plutarch, Timol. 8; Alex. 38;
Judg. vii. 16; xv. 4) ; and so, I believe, always in the N.T.
In proof that at Rev. viii. 10, \afnrds should be translated
1 torch' ('Fackel,' De Wette), see Aristotle, De Hund. 4.
Our early translators, who rendered it ( brand ' or * fire-
brand' (John xviii. 3), showed that they understood the
force of the word. It may be urged that in the parable
of the Ten Virgins the \afi7rdSss are nourished with oil,
and must needs therefore be lamps. But this does not
follow. In the East the torch, as well as the lamp, is fed
in this manner : ' The true Hindu way of lighting up is by
1 66 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVII.
torches held by men, who feed the flame with oil from a
sort of bottle [the dyyslov of Matt. xxv. 4], constructed for
the purpose* (Elphinstone, Hist, of India, vol. i. p. 333).
More passages than one would gain in perspicuity by
such a re-arrangement ; and mainly through the clear
distinction between </><yy and \v%vos, which would then be
apparent. One of these is John v. 35 : " He was a burning
and a shining light," so our Translation; but in the
original, sKslvos r^v 6 \v^vos 6 Kaio^svos Kal fyalvwv; or,
as the Vulgate has ifc : ' Ille erat lucerna ardens et lucens ; '
not obliterating, as we have done, the whole antithesis
between Christ, the <j>ws a\T]0t,v6v (John i. 9), $>ws etc (frwros,
that Eternal Light, which, as it was never kindled, so
shall never be quenched, and the Baptist, a lamp kindled
by the hands of Another, in whose brightness men might
for a season rejoice, and which must then be extinguished
again. In the use of \v%vo$ here and at 2 Pet. i. 19,
tacitly contrasted here with <<ws, and there avowedly
with (f)0)o-(f)6pos, the same opposition is intended, only now
transferred to the highest sphere of the spiritual world,
which our poet had in his mind when he wrote those
glorious lines :
'Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund Day
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-tops.'
xlvii.
THEEE has often been occasion to observe the manner in
which Greek words taken up into Christian use are glorified
and transformed, seeming to have waited for this adoption
of them, to come to their full rights, and to reveal all the
depth and the riches of meaning which they contained, or
might be made to contain. Xdpis is one of these. It is
hardly too much to say that the Greek mind has in no
word uttered itself and all that was at its heart more
distinctly than in this j so that it will abundantly repay
XLVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 167
our pains to trace briefly the steps by which it came to its
highest honours. Xdpis, connected with xaipsiv, is first
of all that property in a thing which causes it to give joy
to the hearers or beholders of it, as Plutarch (Phil, cum
Princ. 3) has rightly explained it, ~x,apas jap ovBsi> ovrws
<yovifj,6v scrriv toy %a/9ty (cf. Pott. Etym. Forsch. vol. ii. part
I, p. 217); and then, seeing that to a Greek there was
nothing so joy-inspiring as grace or beauty, it implied the
presence of this, the German ' anmuth ' ; thus Homer, Od.
ii. 12; vi. 237 ; Euripides, Troad. 1108, irapQsvwv j^dptres;
Lucian, Zeux. 2, ^dpis 'ATTIKIJ. It has often this use in
the Septuagint (Ps. xliv. 3 ; Prov. x. 32), the Hebrew jn
being commonly rendered by it ; yet not invariably ; being
translated by apsa-Ksia (Prov. xxxi. 30) ; by s\sos (Gen.
xix. 19) ; by eiri^apis (Nah. iii. 4). Xdpis has the same
use in the Apocrypha (Ecclus. xxiv. 16; xl. 22, xdpis /cal
KaXkos) : nor is this altogether strange to the N. T. ; thus
see Luke iv. 22, and perhaps Ephes. iv. 29.
But xdpis after a while came to signify not necessarily
the grace or beauty of a thing, as a quality appertaining
to it; but the gracious or beautiful thing, act, thought,
speech, or person it might be, itself the grace embodying
and uttering itself, where there was room or call for this,
in gracious outcomings toward such as might be its
objects ; not any longer ' favour ' in the sense of beauty,
but ' the favour ' ; for our word here a little helps us to
trace the history of the Greek. So continually in classical
Greek we have x^P iV dirairsiv, Xapfldvciv, Sovvai : so in the
Septuagint (Esth. vi. 3) ; and so also %dpis as a merely
human grace and favour in the N. T. (thus Acts ii. 47 ;
xxv. 3; 2 Cor. viii. 19). There is a further sense which
the word obtained, namely the thankfulness which the
favour calls out in return ; this also frequent in the N.T.
(Luke xvii. 9; Rom. vi. 17; 2 Cor. viii. 16) ; though with
it, as we are only treating the word in its relations to
eXsos, we have nothing to do. It is at that earlier point
1 68 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVII.
which we have just been fixing that %apty waited for and
obtained its highest consecration ; not indeed to have its
meaning changed, but to have that meaning ennobled,
glorified, lifted up from the setting forth of an earthly to
the setting forth of a heavenly benefit, from signifying the
favour and grace and goodness of man to man, to setting
forth the favour, grace and goodness of God to man, and
thus, of necessity, of the worthy to the unworthy, of the
holy to the sinful, being now not merely the German
' gunst ' or ' huld,' to which the word had corresponded
hitherto, but ' gnade ' as well. Such was a meaning to
which it had never raised itself before, and this not even
in the Greek Scriptures of the elder Covenant; for the
Hebrew word which most nearly approaches in meaning
to the %dpts of the N. T., namely ipn, is not translated by
%a/9ts-, one occasion only excepted (Esth. ii. 9), but usually
by E\SOS (Gen. xxiv. 12 ; Job vi. 14; Dan. i. 9; and often).
Already, it is true, if not there, yet in another quarter
there were preparations for this glorification of meaning
to which %a/)ts was destined. These lay in the fact that
already in the ethical terminology of the Greek schools
^dpLs implied ever a favour freely done, without claim or
expectation of return the word being thus predisposed
to receive its new emphasis, its religious, I may say its
dogmatic, significance ; to set forth the entire and abso-
lute freeness of the lovingkindness of God to men. Thus
Aristotle, defining %dpis, lays the whole stress on this
very point, that it is conferred freely, with no expectation
of return, and finding its only motive in the bounty and
free-heartedness of the giver (Rhet. ii. 7) : sa-rw Brj xdpif,
Kad' rjv 6 s%<wi> \sysrai xdpiv vTrovpysiv rw Ssopsvq), ^ dvrl
TWOS, fjLtjB' iva ri avru> TO) virovpyovvTi, d\\' iva SKSivy TI.
Agreeing with this we have %a/ats KOI Swpsd, Polybius,
1.31.6 (cf . B-orn. iii. 24, Sapsav Ty avrov %'ptrt ; v. 15,17;
xii. 3, 6 ; xv. 1 5 ; Ephes. ii. 8 ; iv. 7) ; so too %a/3ts joined
vith evvoia (Plato, Legg. xi. 931 a; Plutarch, Quom.Adul.
XLVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 169
ab Amic. 34) ; with tyikia (Lye. 4) ; with irpaorr^s (Adv.
Colot. 2); opposed to fjuados (Lye. 15) ; and compare Roin.
xi. 6, where St. Paul sets %a/3ts and sp<ya over against one
another in directest antithesis, showing that they mutually
exclude one another, it being of the essence of whatever
is owed to ^dpis that it is unearned and unmerited, as
Augustine urges so often, * gratia, nisi gratis sit, non est
gratia;' or indeed demerited, as the faithful man will
most freely acknowledge.
But while ^apis has thus reference to the sins of men,
and is that glorious attribute of God which these sins call
out and display, his free gift in their forgiveness, s\sos has
special and immediate regard to the misery which is the
consequence of these sins, being the tender sense of this
misery displaying itself in the effort, which only the
continued perverseness of man can hinder or defeat, to
assuage and entirely remove it ; so Bengel well : ' Gratia
tollit culpam, misericordia miseriam.' But here, as in
other cases, it may be worth our while to consider the
anterior uses of this word, before it was assumed into
this its highest use as the mercy of Him, whose mercy is
over all his works. Of e'Xeos we have this definition in
Aristotle (Rhet. ii. 8) : sarw Srj eXeos, \virr] ris 7rl <^aLvop,svw
Ka/CM (frdapriKM teal \v7rrjp(i), rov ava^iov Tvy%dviv, o KCLV
avTos TrpocrSoKrjcrsiEv av Tradsiv, rj TWV avrov nva. It will be
at once perceived that much will have here to be modified,
and something removed, when we come to speak of the
g'Xeos of God. Grief does not and cannot touch Him, in
Avhose presence is fulness of joy; He does not demand
unworthy suffering (\v7nj &>s sirl ava^ias KaKo-Tradovvr^
which is the Stoic definition of I'Xsoy, Diogenes Laertius,
vii. I. 63), J to move Him, seeing that absolutely unworthy
suffering there is none in a world of sinners ; neither can
1 So Cicero (Tusc. iv. 8. 18): 'Misericordia est aegritudo ex miseriti
alter ius injurid labor antis. Nemo enim parricidae aut proditoris supplicio
misericordia commovetur.'
1 70 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVII.
He, who is lifted up above all chance and change, contem-
plate, in beholding misery, the possibility of being Him-
self involved in the same. It is nothing wonderful that
the Manichseans and others who desired a God as unlike
man as possible, cried out against the attribution of s\sos
to Him, and found here a weapon of their warfare against
that Old Testament, whose God was not ashamed to pro-
claim Himself a God of pity and compassion (Ps. Ixxviii.
385 Ixxxvi. 15; and often). They were favoured here in
the Latin by the word ' misericordia,' and did not fail to
appeal to its etymology, and to demand whether the
' miserum cor ' could find place in Him ; compare Virgil,
Georg. ii. 498, 499. Seneca too they had here for a fore-
runner, who observes in respect of this ' vitium pusilli
animi,' as he calls it (De Clemen, ii. 6), ' Misericordia vicina
est miseries ; habet enim aliquid trahitque ex ea.' Augus-
tine answered rightly that this and all other words used to
express human affections did require certain modifications,
a clearing away from them of the infirmities of human
passions, before they could be ascribed to the most High; .
but that such for all this were only their accidents, the
essentials remaining unchanged. Thus De Div. Qucest. ii.
2 : ' Item de misericordia, si auferas compassionem cum
eo, quern miseraris, participatse miserise, ut remaneat tran-
guilla bonitas subveniendi et a miseria, liberandi, insinuatur
divinse misericordise qualiscunque cognitio:' cf. De Civ.
Dei, ix. 5 ; Anselm, Proslogium, 8 j and Suicer, Thes. s. v.
In man's pity there will always be an element of grief, so
that by John of Damascus s\sos is enumerated as one of
the four forms of \v7rrj, the other three being a%oy, a%#os-,
and $66vo$ (De Fid. Orthod. ii. 14) ; but not so in God's.
We may say then that the %dpis of God, his free grace
and gift, displayed in the forgiveness of sins, is extended
to men, as they are guiliy, his eXeoy, as they are miserable.
The lower creation may be, and is, the object of God's
sKsos, inasmuch as the burden of man's curse has redounded
XLVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 171
also upon it (Job xxxviii. 41 ; Ps. cxlvii. 9; Jon. iv. u ;
Rom. viii. 20-23), but of his ^dpts man alone; he only
needs, he only is capable of receiving it.
In the Divine mind, and in the order of our salvation
as conceived therein, the s\sos precedes the %apty. God
so loved the world with a pitying love (herein was the s\sos},
that He gave his only begotten Son (herein the %dpis), that
the world through Him might be saved (cf. Ephes. ii. 4 ;
Luke i. 78, 79). But in the order of the manifestation of
God's purposes of salvation the grace must go before the
mercy, the ^dpis must go before and make way for the
s\os. It is true that the same persons are the subjects of
both, being at once the guilty and the miserable ; yet the
righteousness of God, which it is quite as necessary should
be maintained as his love, demands that the guilt should
be done away, before the misery can be assuaged ; only
the forgiven may be blessed. He must pardon, before He
can heal ; men must be justified before they can be sanc-
tified. And as the righteousness of God absolutely and in
itself requires this, so no less that righteousness as it has
expressed itself in the moral constitution of man, linking
as it there has done misery with guilt, and making the
first the inseparable companion of the second. From
this it follows that in each of the apostolic salutations
where these words occur, xdpis precedes s\sos (I Tim. i. 2 ;
2 Tim. i. 2; Tit. i. 4; 2 John 3 ; Zech. xii. 10; cf. Wisd.
iii. 9) ; nor could this order have been reversed. Xiipts
on the same grounds in the more usual Pauline salutations
precedes slptjvrj (i Cor. i. 3 ; 2 Cor. i. 2; and often). On
the distinction between the words of this , see some
excellent words in Delitzsch, An die Elmer, p. 163.
SYNOJKYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVIII.
xlviii. dzoas/Siis, suo-e/zfy's-, svXafirjs, O
SftcrtScu'yu wv.
foo-e/3???, an epithet three times applied to Job (i. I, 8 ;
ii. 3), occurs only once in the N. T. (John ix. 31) ; and
Qsoaspsia no oftener (i Tim. ii. IO; Gen. xx. II ; cf. Job
xxviii. 28). Euo-ejSjfc, rare in the Septuagint (Isai. xxiv.
j'S ; xxvi. 7 ; xxxii. 8), but common in the Apocrypha
(Ecclus. xi. 22 ; xii. 2, 4), with the words dependent on it,
is of more frequent occurrence (i Tim. ii. 2 ; Acts x. 2 ;
2 Pet. ii. 9, and often. Before we proceed to consider
the relation of these to the other words in this group,
a subordinate distinction between themselves may fitly be
noted ; this, namely, that in Osocrsftijs is implied, by its
very derivation, piety toward Ood, or toward the gods;
while evasftrfs, often as it means this, may also mean piety
in the fulfilment of human relations, as toward parents or
others (Euripides, Elect. 253, 254), the word according to
its etymology only implying ' worship ' (that is * worth-
ship ') and reverence, well and rightly directed. It has in
fact the same double meaning as the Latin ' pietas,' which
is not merely 'justitia adversum Deos,' or 'scientia colcn-
dorum Deorum' (Cicero, Nat. Deor. i. 41) ; but a double
meaning, which, deeply instructive as it is, yet proves oc-
casionally embarrassing; so that on several occasions
Augustine, when he has need of accuracy and precision in
his language, pauses to observe that by l pietas' he means
what sva-sftsta may mean, but deoasfisia alone must mean,
namely, piety toward God (' Dei pietatem, quarn Grseci vel
svasfisiav, vel expressius et plenius Qsoasfisiav, vocant,' Ep.
clxvii. 3 ; De Trin. xiv. I ; Civ. Dei, x. I ; Enchir. i). At
the same time svo-sfteia, explained in the Platonic Defini-
tions (412 c) as Si/caiocrvwr) Trspi 6sovs } by the Stoics as
7ri(TTijjji.r) dswv Bspcnrsias (Diogenes Laertius, vii. i. 64, 1 19),
XLVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 173
and not therefore every reverencing of the gods, but a
reverencing of them aright (sv), is the standing word to
express this piety, both in itself (Xenophon, Ages. iii. 5 ;
xi. i), and as it is the right mean between adsorbs and
(Plutarch, De Super. 14) ; aa-eflsia and SSHTI-
(Philo, Quod Deus Jrara. 34) ; Josephus in like
manner opposes it to slSa)\o\aTpsia. The ucre/3??s is set
over against the avo<rios (Xenophon. Apol. Soc. 19) ; he is
himself fyikoOeos (Lucian, De Calum. 14) ; a-wfypwv Trspl rovs
Osovs (Xenophon, Mem. iv. 3. 2). For some further beau-
tiful remarks on evas/Ssia in the Greek sense of the word
see Nagelsbach, Nachhomerische Theologie, p. 191. Chris-
tian evcrefisia is well described by Eusebius (Prcsp. Evang.
i. p. 3) as r) Trpos rov sva KCU JJLOVOV (as a\r)8a)$ 6/no\oyoviJ.v6v
rs Kal OVTO, ov avdvsvvis, ical 97 Kara TOVTOV 0)77.
What would have needed to be said on v\a/3/j$ has
been for the most part anticipated (see x.) ; yet some-
thing further may be added here. I observed there how
sv\dpeia passed over from signifying caution and careful-
ness in the handling of human things to the same in
respect of divine ; the German * andacht ' had much the
same history (see Grimm, Worterbuch, s. v.). The only
places in the N. T. where svXaftijs occurs are Luke ii. 25 ;
Acts ii. 5 ; viii. 2 ; cf. Mic. vii. 2. Our E. Y. has uni-
formly translated it ' devout ' : nor could this translation
be bettered. It is the Latin * religiosus,' but not our 're-
ligious.' On all these occasions it expresses Jewish, and
as one might say, Old Testament piety. On the first
it is applied to Simeon ; on the second, to those Jews who
came from distant parts to keep the commanded feasts at
Jerusalem ; and, on the third, the ai'Spss euXa/3sts who
carry Stephen to his burial, are in all likelihood not
Christian brethren, but devout Jews, who avowed by this
courageous act of theirs, as by their great lamentation
over the slaughtered saint, that they separated themselves
in spirit from this deed of blood, and thus, if it might be,
174 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVIII-
from all the judgments which it would bring down on the
city of those murderers. Whether it was further given
them to believe on the Crucified, who had such witnesses
as Stephen, we are not told ; we may well presume that
it was.
If we keep in mind that, in that mingled fear and love
which combined constitute the piety of man toward God,
the Old Testament placed its emphasis on the fear, the
New places it on the love (though there was love in the
fear of God's saints then, as there must be fear in their
love now), it will at once be evident how fitly sv\a^i]s was
chosen to set forth their piety under the Old Covenant,
who, like Zacharias and Elizabeth, were righteous before
God, walking in all the commandments and ordinances
of the Lord blameless ' (Luke i. 6), and leaving nothing
willingly undone which pertained to the circle of their
prescribed duties. For this sense of accurately and
scrupulously performing that which is prescribed, with the
consciousness of the danger of slipping into a careless
negligent performance of God's service, and of the need
therefore of anxiously watching against the adding to or
diminishing from, or in any other way altering, that which
has been by Him commanded, lies ever in the words
v\a[3r)s, v\dfisia, when used in their religious significa-
tion. 1 Compare Pott, Etym. Forsch. vol. v. p. 369.
Plutarch on more occasions than one exalts the
sv\d/3eia of the Romans in the handling of divine things,
as contrasted with the comparative carelessness of the
Greeks. Thus, after other instances in proof (CorioL 25),
he goes on : 'Of late times also they did renew and begin
a sacrifice thirty times one after another ; because they
thought still there fell out one fault or other in the same ;
1 Cicero's well-known words deducing 'religio' from ' relejrere ' may
be here fitly quoted (De Nat. Deor. ii. 28) : ' Qui omnia quse ad cultum
deorum pertinerent, diligenter retractarent, et tanquain relegerent, sunt
dicti reliaiosi.'
XL viii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 175
so holy and devout were they to the gods ' (roiavrrj fisv
ev\dfteia trpos TO dsiov f P<w/ieuW). Elsewhere, he pour-
trays jEmilius Paulus (c. 3) as eminent for his sv\d/3sia.
The passage is long, and I only quote a portion of it,
availing myself again of Sir Thomas North's hearty
translation, which, though somewhat loose, is in essentials
correct : * When he did anything belonging to his office of
priesthood, he did it with great experience, judgment, and
diligence ; leaving all other thoughts, and without omit-
ting any ancient ceremony, or adding to any new ; con-
tending oftentimes with his companions in things which
seemed light and of small moment ; declaring to them
that though we do presume the gods are easy to be
pacified, and that they readily pardon all faults and
scrapes committed by negligence, yet if it were no more
but for respect of the commonwealth's sake they should
not slightly or carelessly dissemble or pass over faults
committed in those matters' (p. 206). Compare Aulus
Gellius, ii. 28 : ' Veteres Romani in constituendis religioni-
bus atque in diis immortalibus animadvertendis castissimi
cautissimique.' Euripides in one passage contemplates
sv\d/3sta as a person and a divine one, ^p^a-L^wrdrri Oswv
(Phcen. 794) .
But if in sv\a^rjs we have the anxious and scrupulous
worshipper, who makes a conscience of changing any-
thing, of omitting anything, being above all things
fearful to offend, we have in 0pr)<rico$ (Jam. i. 26), which
still more nearly corresponds to the Latin 'religiosus,' the
zealous and diligent performer of the divine offices, of
the outward service of God. The word indeed nowhere
else occurs in the whole circle of the profane literature of
Greece ; but working back from Oprja-Ksia, we are in no
difficulty about its exact meaning. Sprj^Ksla ( = 'cultus,'
or perhaps more strictly, 'cultus exterior') is predomi-
nantly the ceremonial service of religion, of her whom
Lord Brooke has so grandly named ' mother of form and
176 SYNOXYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.
fear,' the external framework or body, of which
is the informing soul. The suggestion of Plutarch (Alex.
2), deriving OprjaKOf from Orpheus the Thracian, who
brought in the celebration of religious mysteries, is
etymologically worthless ; but points, and no doubt truly,
to the celebration of divine offices as the fundamental
notion of the word.
How delicate and fine then is St. James's choice of
Qprja-Kos and dpya-Ksia (i. 26, 27). * If any man,' the Apostle
would say, ' seem to himself to be Opija-fcos, a diligent
observer of the offices of religion, if any man would
render a pure and undefiled Opyo-KSi'a to God, let him know
that this consists not in outward lustrations or ceremonial
observances; nay, that there is a better dprja-icsia than
thousands of rams and rivers of oil, namely, to do justly
and to love mercy and to walk humbly with his God '
(Mic. vi. 7,8); or, according to his own words, ' to visit
the widows and orphans in their affliction, and to keep
himself unspotted from the world' (cf. Matt, xxiii, -23).
St. James is not herein affirming, as we sometimes hear,
these offices to be the sum total, nor yet the great
essentials, of true religion, but declares them to be the
body, the dprjcrKsia, of which godliness, or the love of God,
is the informing soul. His intention is somewhat
obscured to the English reader from the fact that * reli-
gious ' and ' religion,' by which we have rendered dpija/cof
and dprjo-Ksia, possessed a meaning once which they now
possess no longer, and in that meaning are here employed.
The Apostle claims for the new dispensation a superiority
over the old, in that its very Qprja-fcsla consists in acts of
mercy, of love, of holiness, in that it has light for its gar-
ment, its very robe being righteousness ; herein how much
nobler than that old, whose dprja-Ksia was at best merely
ceremonial and formal, whatever inner truth it might
embody. These observations are made by Coleridge (Aids
to Reflection, 1825, p. 15), who at the same time complains
XLVIII. SYXONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 177
of our rendering of Opr}cncos and Opijo-tcsia as erroneous
But it is not so ranch erroneous as obsolete ; an explana-
tion indeed which he has himself suggested, though he
was not aware of any such use of ' religion ' at the time
when our Version was made as would bear our Translators
out. Milton offers more than one. Some heathen
idolatries he characterizes as being
' adorned
With gay religions full of pomp and gold.'
Paradise Lost, b. i.
And our Homilies will supply many more : thus, in that
Against Peril of Idolatry : ' Images used for no religion or
superstition rather, we mean of none worshipped, nor in
danger to be worshipped of any, may be suffered.' A very
instructive passage on the merely external character of
dpriaiceia, which same external character I ana confident
our Translators saw in ' religion/ occurs in Philo (Quod
Det. Pot. Ins. 7). Having repelled such as would fain be
counted among the svo-sftels on the score of divers washings,
or costly offerings to the temple, he proceeds : 7rs7r\dvr)rai
>yap KOI OVTOS TTJS Trpbs svaefteiav 68ov, dpyatcelav uvrl
off LOT TIT os rj^ov/ASvos. The readiness with which dp^a/csia
declined into the meaning of superstition, service of false
gods (Wisd. xiv. 18, 27; Col. ii. 18), of itself indicates
that it had more to do with the form, than with the
essence, of piety. Thus Gregory Nazianzene (Carm. ii. 34.
150, 151):
QprjcrKfiav ol8a KOI TO Saifidvuv <r/3aj,
'H 8' ev<re/3eia irpcHncvtrjcris TpidBos.
i/, the concluding word of this group, and
as well, had at first an honourable use ; was
= 0oa-/3ij$ (Xenophon, Cyrop. iii 3. 58). It is quite pos-
sible that ' superstitio ' and * superstitiosus ' had the same.
There seem traces of such a use of ' superstitiosus ' by
Plautus (Curcul. iii. 27; Amphit. i. i. 169) ; although, as
N
178 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLVIII.
no one has yet solved the riddle of this word, 1 it is im-
possible absolutely to say whether this be so or not. In
Cicero's time it had certainly left its better meaning be-
hind (De Nat. Deor. ii. 28 ; Divin. ii. 72) ; and compare
Seneca: 'Religio Deos colit, superstitio violat.' The phi-
losophers first gave an unfavourable significance to Bsta-t-
SaifAovia. Ast indeed affirms that it first occurs in an ill
sense in a passage of Polybius (vi. 56. 7) ; but Jebb (Cha-
racters of Theophrastus, p. 264) quotes a passage from
Aristotle (Pol. v. n), showing that this meaning was not
unknown to him. So soon as ever the philosophers began
to account fear not as a right, but as a disturbing element
in piety, one therefore to be carefully eliminated from the
true idea of it (see Plutarch, De And. Poet. 1 2 ; and Wyt-
tenbach, Animadd. in Plutarchum, vol. i. p. 997), it was
almost inevitable that they should lay hold of the word
which by its very etymology implied and involved fear
(bsicnSaifjiovla, from Sa'&w), and should employ it to denote
that which they disallowed and condemned, namely, the
'timor inanis Deorum ' (Cicero, Nat. Deor. i. 41) : in
which phrase the emphasis must not be laid on ' inanis,'
but on ' timor ' ; cf. Augustine (De Civ. Dei, vi. 9) : ' Varro
religiosum a superstitioso ea distinctione discernit, ut a
superstitioso dicat timeri Deos ; a religiose autem vereri
ut parentes ; non ut hostes timeri.' Baxter does not place
the emphasis exactly where these have done ; but his de-
finition of superstition is also a good one (Cathol. Theol.
Preface): 'A conceit that God is well pleased by over-
doing in external things and observances and laws of
men's own making.'
But even after they had just turned SccaiSaifjuovta to
ignobler uses, defined it, as does Theophrastus SsiXia Trspl
TO $aifj,6vi,ov, and Plutarch (De Superst. 6), more vaguely,
1 Pott (Etym. Forsch. vol. ii. p. 921) resumes the latest investiga-
tions on the derivation of 'superstitio.' For the German ' A berglaube '
( = ' Ueterglaube ') see Herzog, Real-JEncyc. s. v.
XLVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 179
TToX-vrrdOeia tcatcbv TO dyadbv vTrovoovaa, it did not at once
and altogether forfeit its higher signification. It re-
mained indeed a middle term to the last, receiving its
inclination to good or bad from the intention of the user.
Thus we not only find Bsia-tSal/juwv (Xenophon, Ages. xi. 8 ;
Cyr. iii. 3. 58) and Ssicrt&aifj.ovia (Polybius, vi. 56. 7;
Josephus, Antt. x. 3.2) in a good sense ; but St. Paul
himself employed it in no ill meaning in his ever memor-
able discourse upon Mars' Hill. He there addresses the
Athenians, " I perceive that in all things ye are &>y Ssiac-
Saifjiovea-rspovs " (Acts xvii. 22), which is scarcely "too
superstitious," as we have rendered it, or 'allzu aber-
glaubisch/ as Luther; but rather ' religiosiores,' as Beza,
* sehr gottesfiirchtig,' as De Wette, has given it. For
indeed it was not St. Paul's habit to affront, and by af-
fronting to alienate his hearers, least of all at the outset
of a discourse intended to win them to the truth. Deeper
reasons, too, than those of a mere calculating prudence,
would have hindered him from expressing himself thus ;
none was less disposed than he to overlook or deny the
religious element in heathenism, however overlaid or
obscured by falsehood or error this might be. Led by such
considerations as these, some interpreters, Chrysostom for
instance, make 8sia-i,&ai/j.ovs<TTspovs = v\a/3E(rrepov$, taking
it altogether as praise. Yet neither must we run into
an extreme on this side. St. Paul selects with finest tact
and skill, and at the same time with most perfect truth,
a word which almost imperceptibly shaded off from praise
to blame. Bengel (in loc.) : ' Ssia-c^aifMcov, verbum per se
/j,eaov, ideoque ambiguitatem habet clementem, et exordio
huic aptissimam.' In it he gave to his Athenian hearers
the honour which was confessedly their due as zealous wor-
shippers of the superior powers, so far as their knowledge
reached, being Osoa-sftea-raroi, as Sophocles ((Edip. Col.
256), calls them, and SIHTS ft so-rare i irdvrwv r&v ' EX\?7//<wi/,
as Josephus (c. Apion. ii. 12) says they were styled by all
K 2
l8o SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLIX.
men ; their land 6so^>i\sarrdrq^ as ^Eschylus (Eumen. 867)
names it ; compare the beautf ul chorus in The Clouds of
Aristophanes, 299-313. But for all this, the Apostle does
not squander on them the words of very highest honour
of all, reserving- these for the true worshippers of the true
God. And as it is thus in the one passage where Ssi-
<ri8ajjia)v, so also in the one where Ssia-iBaifiovia, occurs
(Acts xxv. 19). Festus may speak there with a certain
covert slight of the SeicriSaipovia, or overstrained way of
worshipping God (' Gottesverehrung ' De Wette translates
it), which, as he conceived, was common to St. Paul and
his Jewish accusers; but he would scarcely have called
it a ' superstition ' in Agrippa's face, for it was the same
to which Agrippa himself was addicted (Acts xxvi. 3, 27),
whom certainly he was very far from intending to insult.
xlix. KSVOS.)
THESE words nowhere in the N.T. occur together; but
on several occasions in the Septuagint, as for instance at
Job xx. 18; Isai. xxx. 7; cf. lix. 4; Hos. xii. I; in
Clement of Koine, Cor. 6 ; and not unfrequently in clas-
sical Greek ; as in Sophocles (Elec. 324) ; in Aristotle
(Ethic. Nic. i. 2. i) ; and in Plutarch (Adv. Colot. 17). We
deal with them here solely in their ethical use ; for seeing
that (jbdraios knows, at least in Scripture, no other use, it
is only as ethically employed that KSVOS can be brought
into comparison with it, or the words made the subject of
discrimination.
The first, KSVOS, is ' empty,' ' leer,' ' gehaltlos,' ' inanis ' ;
the second, fidraios, 'vain,' 'eitel' ('idle'), 'erfolglos,'
'vanus.' In the first is characterized the hollowness, in
the second the aiinlessness, or, if we may use the word,
the resultlessness, connected as it is with /nar^y, of that
to which this epithet is given. Thus tcsval \7ri8ss (JEschy-
us, Pers. 804; cf. Job vii. 6; Ecclus. xxxiv. I, where they
XLIX. SYNONFMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 181
are joined with -^rsv^sis) are empty hopes, such as are
built on no solid foundation ; and in the N. T. Ksvol \6yoi
(Ephes. v. 6 ; cf. Deut. xxxii. 47 ; Exod. v. 9) are words
which have no inner substance and kernel of truth, hollow
sophistries and apologies for sin ; KOTTOS KSVOS, labour
which yields no return (i Cor. xv. 58) ; so Ksvo^wviai
(l Tim. vi. 20; 2 Tim. ii. 16) ; cf. Ksvo\oyia (Plutarch,
Adv. Stoic. 22), and KsvoSogia (Phil. ii. 3), by Suidas ex-
plained paraia ns vrspl savrov oiya-ts. St. Paul reminds
the Thessalonians (i Thess. ii. i) that his entrance to
them was not KSVTJ, not unaccompanied with the demon-
stration of Spirit and of power. When used not of things
but of persons, KSVOS predicates not merely an absence
and emptiness of good, but, since the moral nature of
man endures no vacuum, the presence of evil. It is thus
employed only once in the N. T., namely at Jam. ii. 20
where the dvdpwn-os KSVOS is one in whom the higher
wisdom has found no entrance, but who is puffed up with
a vain conceit of his own spiritual insight, ' aufgeblasen/
as Luther (on Coloss. ii. 18) has it. Compare the avBpss
KSVOL of Judg. ix. 4 ; Plutarch De seips. Laud. 5) : rovs sv
TO) TTSpiTraTSiv STraipofjisvovs KOI vtyav%svovvTas avorjrovs
r)ryov/j,sda KOL KSVOVS: and compare further the Greek
proverb, Ksvol KSVO, (frpovrt^ovo'i (Gaisford, Paroem. Greed,
p. 146).
But if KSVOS thus expresses the emptiness of all which
is not filled with God, /iaratos, as observed already, will
express the aimlessness, the leading to no object or end,
the vanity, of all which has not Him, who is the only
true object and end of any intelligent creature, for its
scope. In things natural it is paTaiov, as Gregory of
Nyssa, in his first Homily on Ecclesiastes explains it, to build
houses of sand on the sea-shore, to chase the wind, to
shoot at the stars, to hunt one's own shadow. Pindar
(Pyth. iii. 37 Dm., 40-1 Heyn.) exactly describes the
fidraios as one /j,sra/j,ci)via Oypsvav aKpdvrois e\7r{<riv.
1 82 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. XLIX
That toil is pdraios which can issue in nothing (Plato,
Legg. v. 735 &) ; that grief is fidrcuos for which no ground
exists (Axioch. 369 c) ; that is a fjidraios sv^rj which in the
very nature of things cannot obtain its fulfilment (Euri-
pides, Iphig. in Taur. 633) ; the prophecies of the false
prophet, which God will not bring to pass, are pavrslcu
fidraiat (Ezek. xiii. 6, 7, 8 ; cf. Ecclus. xxxiv. 5) ; so in the
N. T. /jLaraioi ical dvtotyeXsis ^Trjasis (Tit. iii. 9) are idle
and unprofitable questions whose discussion can lead to no
advancement in true godliness ; cf. /jbaraioXoyla (l Tim. i.
6 ; Plutarch, De Lib. Educ. 9), paTaioXoyoi, (Tit. i. 10), vain
talkers, the talk of whose lips can tend only to poverty,
or to worse (Isai. xxxii. 6 : LXX.) ; paraioTrovia (Clement
of Rome, Cor. 9), labour which in its very nature is in
vain.
Maraiorrjs is a word altogether strange to profane
Greek ; one too to which the old heathen world, had it
posses sed it, could never have imparted that depth of
meaning which in Scripture it has obtained. Tor indeed
that heathen world was itself too deeply and hopelessly
sunken in * vanity ' to be fully alive to the fact that it was
sunken in it at all; was committed so far as to have lost
all power to pronounce that judgment upon itself which
in this word is pronounced upon it. One must, in part at
least, have been delivered from the fj-araioT^s, to be in a
condition at all to esteem it for what it truly is. When
the Preacher exclaimed All is vanity ' (Eccles. i. 2), it is
clear that something in him was not vanity, else he could
never have arrived at this conclusion. Hugh of S. Victor :
'Aliquid ergo in ipso fuit quod vanitas non fait, et id
contra vanitatem non vane loqui potuit.' Saying this I
would not for an instant deny that some echoes of this
cry of his reach us from the moral waste of the old heathen
world. From none perhaps are they heard so often and so
distinctly as from Lucretius. How many of the most
pathetic passages in his poem do but draw out at greater
XLIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 183
length that confession which he has more briefly summed
up in two lines, themselves of an infinite sadness :
' Ergo hominum genus incassum frustraque laborat
Semper, et in curis consumit inanibus sevom.'
But if these confessions are comparatively rare elsewhere,
they are frequent in Scripture. It is not too much to say
that of one book in Scripture, I mean of course the book
of The Preacher, it is the key-word. In that book paraio-
n/y, or its Hebrew equivalent ^3n, occurs nearly forty
times ; and this * vanity,' after the preacher has counted
and cast up the total good of man's life and labours apart
from God, constitutes the zero at which the sum of all is
rated by him. The false gods of heathendom are emi-
nently TO. /j,aTaia (A.cts xiv. 15 ; cf. 2 Chron. xi. 15 ; Jer.
x. 1 5 ; Jon. ii. 8) ; the /iaraioOcr&u is ascribed to as many
as become followers of these (Rom. i. 21 ; 2 Kin. xvii. 15 ;
Jer. ii. 5 ; xxviii. 17, 1 8) ; inasmuch as they, following after
vain things, become themselves /jLaraioffrpovss (3 Mace. vi.
n), like the vain things which they follow (Wisd. xiii. I;
xiv. 21-31; their whole conversation vain (i Pet. i. 18),
the f^aTaioT-rjs having reached to the very centre and citadel
of their moral being, to the vovs itself (Ephes. iv. 17). Nor
is this all ; this fjbaraiorrjs, or Sov\sia rrjs (j>6opa$ (Rom. viii.
21), for the phrases are convertible, of which the end is
death, reaches to that entire creation which was made
dependent on man ; and which with a certain blind con-
sciousness of this is ever reaching out after a deliverance,
such as it is never able to grasp, seeing that the resti-
tution of all other things can only follow on the previous
restitution of man. On this matter Olshausen (on Rom.
viii. 20, 21) has some beautiful remarks, of which I can
quote but a fragment : ' Jeder natiirliche Mensch, ja jedes
Thier, jede Pflanze ringt iiber sich hinaus zu kommen,
eine Idee zu verwirklichen, in deren Verwirklichung sie
ihre s\svdspia hat, d. h. das der gottlichen Stimmung
volkommen entsprechende Seyn; aber die ihr Wesen
184 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. L.
durchziehende Nichtigkeit (Ps. xxxix. 6 ; Pred. i. 2, 14),
d. h. die mangelnde Lebensfiille, die darin begriindete
Verganglichkeit und deren Ende, der Tod, lasst kein
geschaffenes Ding sein Ziel erreichen ; jedes Individuum
der Gattung fangt vielinehr den Kreislauf wieder von
neuem an, und ringt trostlos wider die Unmb'glichkeit,
sich zu vollenden.' There is much, too, excellently said on
this ' vanity of the creature ' in an article in the Zeitschrift
fur Luther. Theol. 1872, p. 50 sqq. ; and in another by
Koster in the Theol. Stud. u. Krit. 1862, p. 755 sqq.
1. iftdriov, %ira>z>, ifiaria-fjios, ^a^vs, <TTO\IJ,
THE reader need not be alarmed here in prospect of a
treatise de Re Vestiarid ; although such, with the abundant
materials ready to hand in the works of Ferrarius, Braun,
and others, might very easily be written, and need cost little
more trouble than that of transcription. I do not propose
more than a brief discrimination of a few of the words by
which garments are most frequently designated in the N.T.
' Ifidnov, properly a diminutive of lfj,a ( = el/ia) , although
like so many words of our own, as ' pocket, 5 ' latchet/ it
has quite lost the force of a diminutive, is the word of com-
monest use, when there is no intention to designate one
manner of garment more particularly than another (Matt.
xi. 8 ; xx vi. 65). But ifjidnov is used also in a more re-
stricted sense, of the large upper garment, so large that
a man would sometimes sleep in it (Exod. xxii. 26), the
cloke as distinguished from the WTMV or close-fitting
inner vest ; and thus 7rspi/3d\\ei,v ipdriov (it is itself
called TrspiftoXaiov, Exod. xxii. 9; Trspt/BoXij, Plutarch,
Conj. Prcec. 12), but svBvsiv %ir(ova (Dio Chrysostom,
Or at. vii. ill). 'Ipdriov and %mui>, as the upper and the
under garment, occur constantly together (Ac^s ix. 39;
Matt. v. 40 ; Luke vi. 29 ; John xix. 23). Thus at Matt.
v. 40 our lord instructs his disciples : u If any man will
L. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 185
sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat (^ir&va}, let
him have thy cloJce (IfJtdriov) also." Here the spoiler is
presumed to begin with the less costly, the under garment,
which we have rendered, not very happily, the * coat '
(Dictionary of the Bible, art. Dress), from which he pro-
ceeds to the more costly, or upper; and the process of
spoliation being a legal one, there is nothing unnatural in
such a sequence : but at Luke vi. 29 the order is reversed :
" Him that taketh away thy cloke (ljj,aTiov) forbid not to
take thy coat (^ircova) also." As the whole context plainly
shows, the Lord is here contemplating an act of violent
outrage ; and therefore the cloke or upper garment, as
that which would be the first seized, is also the first
named. In the JEsopic fable (Plutarch, Prcec. Conj. 12),
the wind with all its violence only makes the traveller to
wrap his ifjtdrtov more closely round him, while, when the
sun begins to shine in its strength, he puts off first his
Ifjuariov, and then his ^irwv. One was styled <yv/j,vos, who
had laid aside his ifjudriov, and was only in his %ir(i)v ; not
* naked,' as our Translators have it (John xxi. 7), which
suggests an unseemliness that certainly did not find place ;
but stripped for toil (cf . Isai. xx. 2 ; Iviii. 7 ; Job xxii. 6 ;
Jam. ii. 15 ; and in the Latin, * sere nudus,' Georg. i. 299).
It is naturally his i^driov which Joseph leaves in the hands
of his temptress (Gen. xxxix. 12) ; while at Jude 2^^ira)v
has its fitness.
'Ipario-fjios, a word of comparatively late appearance,
and belonging to the KOIVT) SmXe/cTos, is seldom, if ever,
used except of garments more or less stately and costly.
It is the * vesture ' this word expressing it very well of
kings; thus of Solomon in all his glory (l Kin. x. 5 ; cf.
xxii. 30) ; is associated with gold and silver, as part of a
precious spoil (Exod. iii. 22; xii. 35; cf. Acts xx. 33); is
found linked with such epithets as si>Soj;os (Luke vii. 25 ; cf.
Isai iii. 18, 86%a rov iparKT/jLov), TrouciXos (Ezek. xvi. 18),
(Ps. xliv. 10), TroXureX^y (i Tim. ii. 9; cf.
1 86 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. L,
Plutarch, Apoph. Lac. Archid. 7) ; is a name given (Matt,
xxvii. 35 ; John xix. 24) to our Lord's %n-a>i>, which was
woven all of a piece (appafyos, John xix. 23), and had that
of cost and beauty about it which made even the rude
Roman soldiers unwilling to rend, and so to destroy it.
The purple robe with which our Lord was arrayed
in scorn by the mockers in Pilate's judgment-hall is a
%\a[j,vs (Matt, xxvii. 28-31). Nor can we doubt that the
word has its strictest fitness here. XXa/^us- so constantly
signifies a garment of dignity and office, that ^Xa/iuSa
TreptTiOsvai was a technical phrase for assuming a magi-
stracy (Plutarch, An Sen. Ger. Resp. 26). This might be
a civil magistracy ; but %Xa/xys, like * paludamentum '
(which, and not * sagum,' is its nearest Latin equivalent),
far more commonly expresses the robe with which military
officers, captains, commanders or imperators, would be
clothed (2 Mace. xii. 35); and the employment of x\a/j,vs
in the record of the Passion leaves little doubt that these
profane mockers obtained, as it would have been so easy
for them in the prsetorium to obtain, the cast-off cloke
of some high Roman officer, and with this arrayed the
sacred person of the Lord. We recognise a certain con-
firmation of this supposition in the epithet KOKKIVOS which
St. Matthew gives it. It was ' scarlet,' the colour worn
by Roman officers of rank ; so ' chlamys coccinea ' (Lam-
pridius, Alex. Severus, 40) ; xXapvs TrsptTrop^vpos (Plu-
tarch, Prwc. Ger. Reip. 20). That the other Evangelists
describe it as 'purple' (Mark xv. 17; John xix. 2) does
not affect this statement ; for the ' purple ' of antiquity
was a colour almost or altogether indefinite (Braun, De
Vest. Sac. Heb. vol. i. p. 220 ; Gladstone, Studies on Homer,
vol. iii. p. 457).
2-7-0X77, from o-TsXX&>, our English ' stole,' is any stately
robe; and as long sweeping garments would have emi-
nently this stateliness about them, always, or almost
always, a garment reaching to the feet, or trainlike sweep-
L. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 187
ing the ground. The fact that such were oftenest worn
by women (the Trojan women are s^Ksa-iTrsirXoi in Homer)
explains the use which ' stola ' in Latin has predominantly
acquired. The Emperor Marcus Antoninus tells us in his
Meditations, that among the things which he learned from
his tutor, the famous Stoic philosopher Kusticus, was, not
to stalk about the house in a 0-7-0X77 (/AT) iv a-ro\fj KCUT OIKOV
TTEpiTrarsiv, i. 7). It was, on the contrary, the custom and
pleasure of the Scribes to " walk in long clothing " (Mark
xii. 38; cf. Luke xx. 46), making this solemn ostentation
of themselves in the eyes of men. SroX?; is in constant
use for the holy garments of Aaron and his descendants
(Exod. xxviii. 2; xxix. 21 ; a-roXrj So^ys they are called,
Ecclus. 1. n); or, indeed, for any garment of special
solemnity, richness, or beauty; thus aro\r) \sirovpyiKr)
(Exod. xxxi. 10) ; and compare Markxvi. 5 ; Luke xv. 22 ;
Eev. vi. II ; vii. 9; Esth. vi. 8, 1 1 ; Jon. iii. 6.
Ho^rjprfs, naturalised in ecclesiastical Latin as ' poderis '
(of which the second syllable is short), is properly an ad-
jective, = ' talaris;' thus aairls TroSijpvjs, Xenophon, Cyrop,
vi. 2. 10 (=0vpsos, Ephes. vi. 16) ; TroSijpss svSv/j,a, Wisd.
xviii. 24 ; TroSijp^s TTW^WV, Plutarch, Quom. Am. ab AduL
7 ; being severally a shield, a garment, a beard, reaching
down to the feet. It differs very little from o-roX?/. Indeed
the same Hebrew word which is rendered TroSrfprjs at Ezek.
ix. 2, 3, is rendered o-roX?;, ibid. x. 2, and o-roX?) or/fa, ibid.
6, 7. At the same time, in the enumeration of the high-
priestly garments, this o-ToX?;, or o-roX^ a<yia, signifies the
whole array of the high priest ; while the TroSrjpijs (XLTQIV
Tro&rjp'rjs Plutarch calls it in his curious and strangely in-
accurate chapter about the Jewish festivals, Symp. iv. 6. 6)
is distinguished from it, and signifies one portion only,
namely, the robe or chetoneth (Exod. xxviii. 2, 4 ; Ecclus.
adv. 7, 8).
There are other words which might be included in this
group, as sadrjs (Luke xxiii. n), Ha-Bya-is (Luke xxiv. 4),
[88 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LI.
svSvfj.0, (Matt. xxii. 12) ; but it would not be very easy to
assign severally to each of these a domain of meaning
peculiarly its own. On the whole subject see Marriott,
Vestiarium Christianum, pp. vii. seq.
li.
FOUR of these words occur together at I Tim. ii. I ; on
which Flacius Illyricus (Clavis, s. v. Oratio) justly ob-
serves : ' Quern vocum acervum procul dubio Paulus non
temere congessit.' I propose to consider not these only,
but the larger group of which they form a portion.
EU^T; is found only once in the N. T. in the sense of a
prajer (Jam. v. 15) ; twice besides in that of a vow (Acts
xviii. 1 8 ; xxi. 23) ; compare Plato (Legg. vii. 801 a), sv^ai
irapa dewv aiTrjasis dcrL On the distinction between it and
Trpoasv^ between sv^sa-dat and irpocrsv-^saOai,, there is a
long discussion in Origen (De Oral. 2, 3, 4), but of no
great value, and not bringing out more than the obvious
fact that in su%^ and sv^sadai the notion of the vow, of
the dedicated thing, is more commonly found than that of
prayer. A more interesting treatment of the words, and
the difference between them, may be found in Gregory of
Nyssa, De Orat. Dom. Orat. 2, ad init.
Tlpoo-svxrj and Sevens often in the N. T. occur together
(Phil. iv. 6; Ephes. vi. 18; I Tim. ii. I ; v. 5), and not
unfrequently in the Septuagint (Ps. vi. 10; Dan. ix. 21,
23 ; cf. I Mace. vii. 37). There have been many, but for
the most part not very successful, attempts to distinguish
between them. Grotius, for instance, affirms that they
are severally ' precatio J and ' deprecatio ' ; that the first
seeks to obtain good, the second to avert evil. Augustine,
let me note by the way, in his treatment of the more im-
portant in this group of words (Ep. 149, 12-16 ; cf. Bishop
Taylor, Pref. to Apology for Set Forms of Liturgy, 31),
LI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 189
which, though interesting, yields few definite results of
value, observes that in his time this distinction between
' precatio ' and ' deprecatio ' had practically quite disap-
peared. Theodoret, who had anticipated Grotius here,
explains Trpoa-sv^ as aiTTjo'is dyadwv, and Berjcris as vTrsp
aTra^Xa'yfis TIVWV \VTrr] pwv IKSTSLO, Trpoffispofisvij. He has
here in this last definition the words of Aristotle (Rhet. ii.
7) before him : Bsrja-sis sivlv al bps^eis, KOI TOVTCOV fidXia-ra
at fjisra \v7n)s TOV pr) >yiyvofj,evov : compare Gregory of Na-
zianzus : Bsrja-iv o'lov rrjv aiTycnv svSswv. x But this distinc-
tion is altogether arbitrary ; it neither lies in the words,
nor is it borne out by usage. Better Calvin, who makes
irpoa-sv^ ( = ' precatio '), prayer in general, Ssrjcris (='ro-
gatio'), prayer for particular benefits: ' Trpocrsv^ omne
genus orationis, Beycris ubi certum aliquid petitur ; genus
et species.' Bengel's distinction amounts very nearly to
the same thing : ' Bs^a-is (a 8si) est imploratio gratise in
necessitate quadam speciali ; Trpoa-sv^r), oratio, exercetur
qualibet oblatione voluntatum et desideriorum erga Deum.'
But Calvin and Ben gel, bringing out one important
point of distinction, have yet failed to bring out another
namely, that Trpoa-sv^ is ' res sacra,' the word being
restricted to sacred uses; it is always prayer to God;
Ssrjais has no such restriction. Fritzsche (on Rom. x. i) has
not failed to urge this : ' rj Trpoa-sv^ij et rj Ss?)ais differunt
lit precatio et rogatio. IT pocrsv-^sa-dat, et r/ Trpocrsv^ verba
sacra sunt ; precamur enim Deum : BetaBat,, TO Sey^a
(Aristophanes, Acharn. 1059) et r) Bsrjais turn in sacra turn
in prof ana re usurpantur , nam et Deum rogare possumus
et homines.' It is the same distinction as in our 'prayer'
(though that has been too much brought down to mundane
uses) and ' petition,' in the German ' Gebet ' and ' Bitte.'
"Etvrsv^is occurs in the N.T. only at I Tim. ii. i ; iv. 5
(but evTirfxdvsiv four or five times), and once in the
Apocrypha (2 Mace. iv. 8). 'Intercession,' by which
the A. V. translates it, is not, as we now understand
1QO SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LI-
' intercession,' a satisfactory rendering. For evrsv^is does
not necessarily mean what intercession at present com-
monly does mean namely, prayer in relation to others
(at I Tim. iv. 5 such meaning is impossible) ; a pleading
either for them or against them. 1 Least of all does
it mean exclusively the latter, a pleading against our
enemies, as Theodoret, on Bom. xi. 2, missing the fact
that the 'against' lay there in the Kara, would imply,
when he says : svrsv^is sent /caTrjjopia T>V aSi/covvrmv : cf.
Hesychius : Bsijais els SK^LK^O-IV virsp TWOS (Bom. viii. 34),
Kara TWOS (Bom. xi. 2); but, as its connexion with svTvj-^a-
vew, to fall in with a person, to draw close to him so as to
enter into familiar speech and communion with him (Plu-
tarch, Conj. Prwc. 13), implies, it is free familiar prayer,
such as boldly draws near to God (Gen. xViii. 23 ; Wisd.
viii. 21; cf. Philo, Quod Det. Pot. 2$; svrsvgsis fcal
sK/Boya-sis ; Plutarch, Phoc. 17) . In justice, however, to our
Translators, it must be observed that ' intercession ' had
not in their time that limited meaning of prayer for
others which we now ascribe to it ; see Jer. xxvii. 1 8 ;
xxxvi. 25. The Vulgate has 'postulationes'; but Augus-
tine, in a discussion on this group of words referred to
already Ep. 149, 12-16), prefers ' interpellations,' as
better bringing out the Trapprjo-ia, the freedom and bold-
ness of access, which is involved in, and constitutes the
fundamental idea of, the SVTSVJ;IS * interpellare,' to inter-
rupt another in speaking, ever implying forwardness and
freedom. Origen (De Orat. 14) in like manner makes the
boldness of approach to God, asking, it may be, some great
thing (he instances Josh. x. 12), the fundamental notion
of the svTsvgis. It might mean indeed more than this,
Plato using it of a possible encounter with pirates (Politic.
298 d).
1 The rendering of 81 firfvt-tns, 2 Mace. iv. 8, ' by intercession,' can
scarcely be correct. It expresses more probably the fact of a confidential
interview face to face between Jason and Antiochus.
LI. STNOjVYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 191
-which our Translators have rendered
* thankfulness/ (Acts xxiv. 3) ; * giving of thanks' (i Cor.
xiv. 1 6) ; 'thanks' (Rev. iv. 9) ; 'thanksgiving' (Phil. iv.
6), a somewhat rare word elsewhere, is frequent in sacred
Greek. It would be out of place to dwell here on the
special meaning which sv^apiaria and ' eucharist ' have
acquired from the fact that in the Holy Communion the
Church embodies her highest act of thanksgiving for the
highest benefits which she has received of^God. Regarded
as one manner of prayer, it expresses that which ought
never to be absent from any of our devotions (Phil. iv. 6 ;
Ephes. v. 20; I Thess. v. 18 ; I Tim. ii. i) ; namely, the
grateful acknowledgment of past mercies, as distinguished
from the earnest seeking of future. As such it may, and
will, subsist in heaven (Rev. iv. 9; vii. 12) ; will indeed be
larger, deeper, fuller there than here : for only there will
the redeemed know how much they owe to their Lord ;
and this it will do, while all other forms of prayer, in
the very nature of things, will have ceased in the entire
possession and present fruition of the things prayed for.
A.iTr)fj,a occurs twice in the N. T. in the sense of a
petition of men to God, both times in the plural (Phil. iv.
6; I John v. 15) ; it is, however, by no means restricted
to this meaning (Luke xxiii. 24 ; Esth. v. 7 ; Dan. vi. 7).
In a Trpoa-sv^ of any length there will probably be many
alrr/para, these being indeed the several requests of which
the Trpoffsv^ is composed. For instance, in the Lord's
Prayer it is generally reckoned that there are seven alrij-
/ttara, though some have regarded the first three as efyai,
and only the last four as alrij/j.ara. Witsius (De Oral.
Dom.) : Petitio pars orationis ; ut si totam Orationem
Dominicam voces orationem aut precationem, singulas
vero illius partes aut septem postulata petitiones.'
'IfcsTijpia, with pd/38os or e\aia, or some such word un-
derstood, like i^cHTTijpiov, OvcriacrTijpiov, Sttcaa'T'ijpiov, and
other words of the same termination (see Lobeck, Pathol.
192 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LI.
Serm. Grcec. p. 281), was originally an adjective, but little
by little obtained substantival power, and learned to go
alone. It is explained by Plutarch (Thes. 18) : K\d$os cnro
rffs Ispas sKaias epiw \SVKW KaTsars^svos (cf. Wyttenbach,
Animadd. in Plutarch, vol. xiii. p. 89 ; and Wunder on
Sophocles, CEdip. Rex, 3), the olive-branch bound round
with white wool, held forth by the suppliant in token of
the character which he bore (^Eschylus, Eumen. 43, 44 ;
compare Virgil, JEn. viii. 1 16 : ' Paciferseque manu ramura
prsetendit olivse ; ' and again ver. 128: ' Et vitta comtos
voluit prsetendere ramos ' ; and once more xi. 101). A
deprecatory letter, which Antiochus Epiphanes is said on
his death-bed to have written to the Jews, is described
(2 Mace. ix. 1 8) as iKsrrjpias rdgiv e%ov(ra, and Agrippa
designates one addressed to Caligula : <ypa(prj r)v dvd' IKSTI)-
pias Trporslvti) (Philo, Leg. ad Cai. 36). It is easy to trace
the steps by which this, the symbol of supplication, came
to signify the supplication itself. It does so on the only
occasion when it occurs in the N. T. (Heb. v. 7), being
there joined to Se^crts, as it often is elsewhere (Job xli. 3
[xl. 22 LXX.]; Polybius, iii. 112. 8).
Thus much on the distinction between these words ;
although, when all has been said, it will still to a great
extent remain true that they will often set forth, not
different kinds of prayer, but prayer contemplated from
different sides and under different aspects. Witsius (De
Or at. Dom. 4) : ' Mihi sic videtur, unam eandemque rem
diversis nominibus designari pro diversis quos habet as-
pectibus. Preces nostrse Ss-ija-eis vocantur, quatenus iis
nostram apud Deum testamur egestatem, nam Sssa-Oai in-
digere est ; trpoa-sv^a^ quatenus vota nostra continent ;
airy para, quatenus exponunt petitiones et desideria ; sv-
rsvgeis, quatenus non timide et diffidenter, sed familiariter,
Deus se a nobis adiri patitur ; evn-v^is enim est collegium
et congressus familiaris : sv^apKTrlav gratiarum actionem
esse pro acceptis jam beneficiis, notius est quam ut inoneri
LII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 193
oportuit.' On the Hebrew correlatives to the several
words of this group, see Vitringa, De Synagogd, iii.
2. 13-
Iii. aa-vvOsros, a<nrovSos.
'Acrvvdsros occurs only once in the N. T., namely at Rom.
i. 31 ; cf. Jer. iii. 8-n, where it is found several times,
but not elsewhere in the Septuagint. There is the same
solitary use of a.(nrovSos (2 Tim. iii. 3) ; for its right to a
place in the text at Rom. i. 31 is with good reason con-
tested, and the best critical editions omit it there. It is
nowhere found in the Septuagint.
The distinction between the two words, as used in
Scripture, is not hard to draw ; I have said, as used in
Scripture; because there may be a question whether
aavvOsros has anywhere else exactly the meaning which it
challenges there. Elsewhere often united with aTrXous,
with atcparos (Plutarch, Adv. Stoic. 48), it has the passive
sense of ' not put together ' or f not made up of several
parts'; and in this sense evidently the Vulgate, which
renders it * incompositus,' has taken it ; we have here the
explanation of the ' dissolute ' of the Rheims Version.
But the aarvvOsroi of St. Paul the word with him has an
active sense are they who, being in covenant and treaty
with others, refuse to abide by these covenants and
treaties : pr) s^psvovrss rats (rvvOij/cats (Kesychius) ; * pac-
torum haudquaquam tenaces ' (Erasmus) ; ' bundbriichig '
(not * unvertraglich,' as Tittrnan maintains) ; ' covenant-
breakers ' (A.V.). The word is associated with aa-Tad/xijTos,
Demosthenes, De Fals. Leg. 383.
Worse than the &va-$ta\,vToi (Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. iv. 5.
IO), who are only hard to be reconciled, the dcnrovSot are
the absolutely irreconcileable (acnrovSoi, real a/cara\/VaTOi,
Philo, Quis Rer. Div. Hcer. 50) ; those who will not be
atoned, or set at one, who being at war refuse to lay aside
their enmity, or to listen to terms of accommodation;
T94 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIT.
* implacabiles, qui semel offensi reconciliation em non ad-
mittunt ' (Estius) ; ' unversohnlich, ' implacable ' (A.V.) ;
the word is by Philo (De Merc. Mer. 4) joined to dav^aros
and aKoivwvrjTos, opposed to sv8td\\aKTos by Plutarch (De
Alex. Virt. 4). The phrase, da-TrovSos KCL\ d/crfpvKTos iro\fAos
is frequent, indeed proverbial, in Greek (Demosthenes, De
Coron. 79 ; Philo, De Prcem. et Pcen. 1 5 ; Lucian, Pise. 36) ;
in this connexion dicrjpvKTos Tro\sp,os does not mean a war
not duly announced by the fecial ; but rather one in which
what Virgil calls the ' belli commercia ' are wholly sus-
pended; no herald, no flag of truce, as we should now say,
being allowed to pass between the parties, no terms of
reconcilement listened to ; such a war, for example, as
that which the Carthaginians in the interval between the
first and second Punic Wars waged with their revolted
mercenaries. In the same sense we have elsewhere aairov-
al dSid\\aKTos spis (Aristsenetus, 2, 14) ; cf.
KOTOS (Nicander, Ther. 367 ; quoted by Blom-
field, Agamemnon, p. 285) ; daTrovBos s^Opa (Plutarch,
Pericles, 30) ; d<nrovSos sos (Euripides, Alcestis, 431).
'AavvQsTos then presumes a state of peace, which they
who are such unrighteously interrupt ; while da-jrovSos
presumes a state of war, which the dcnrovSoi refuse to bring
to an equitable close. It will follow that Calvin, who
renders acrirovSoi, ' foedifragi,' and davvderoi ' insociabiles,'
has exactly missed the force of both ; Theodoret has done
the same; who on Eom. i. 31 writes: da-vvOerovs, rovs
aKOivwvrjTOV Kal vrovrjpbv ftlov dcnra^ofjisvovs' dcnrovSovs
rovs d&sws rd myiettfuva TrapaftaivovTas. Only by ascrib-
ing to each word that meaning which these interpreters
have ascribed to the other, will the right equivalents be
obtained.
In agreement with what has been just said, and in con-
firmation of it, is the distinction which Ammonius draws
between a'vvdiJK'r) and (nrovBij. ^wOiJKij assumes peace ;
being a further agreement, it may be a treaty of alliance,
LIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 195
between those already on general terms of amity. Thus,
there was a a-vvd^Kij between the several States which
owned the leadership of Sparta in the Peloponnesian War ;
that, with whatever territory any one of these began the
war, with the same it should close it (Thucydides, v. 31).
But cnrovSr), oftener in the plural, assumes war, of which
the <r7roi>Si] is the cessation ; a merely temporal cessation,
an armistice it may be (Homer, II. ii. 341). It is true
that a (TwOij/cr) may be attached to a cnrovSij, terms of
alliance consequent on terms of peace ; thus aTrov8)j and
a-vvdriKT) occur together in Thucydides, iv. 1 8 : but they
are different things ; in the CTTTOV^ there is a cessation of
the state of war, there is peace, or at all events truce ; in
the <Tvv6r)Kr] there is, superinduced on this, a further
agreement or alliance. ^va-vvOsros, I may observe, which
would be the exact opposite of acrvvOsros, finds no place
in our lexicons ; and we may presume is not found in any
Greek author; but svavvOscria in Philo (De Merc. Mer. 3) ;
as aa-wdsala in the Septuagint (Jer. iii. 7), and ddscria in
the same sense often in Polybius (ii. 32).
liii. fiafcpodvfila, VTTO/JLOVI],
BETWEEN p,aKpo6vp,[a and v7rofj,ovij, which occur together
at Col. i. n, and in the same context 2 Cor. vi. 4, 6;
2 Tim. iii. 10; Jam. v. 10, n (cf. Clement of Rome, 64;
Ignatius, Ephes. 3), Chrysostom draws the following dis-
tinction; that a man paicpodvpsl, who having power to
revenge himself, yet refrains from the exercise of this
power ; while he vTroftsvsi, who having no choice but to
bear, and only the alternative of a patient or impatient
bearing, has grace to choose the former. Thus the faithful,,
he concludes, would commonly be called to exercise the
former grace among themselves (i Cor. vi. 7), the latter
in their commerce with those that were without : paKpo-
os a\\ij\ous, V7rofj,ovr)v irpos TOVS s^a) p,aicpoOvp,l
02
196 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIII.
<ydp rts Trpos sicsivovs ovs Bvvarov Kal d^vvacrdai, v
s ovs ov Bvvarat, df^vvaadai. This distinction, however,
will not endure a closer examination ; for see decisively
against it Heb. xii. 2, 3. He to whom virofiovr) is there
ascribed, bore, not certainly because He could not avoid
bearing; for He might have summoned to his aid twelve
legions of angels, if so He had willed (Matt. xxvi. 53). It
may be well then to consider whether some more satis-
factory distinction between these words cannot be drawn.
Ma/cpoQvfjLia belongs to a later stage of the Greek
language. It occurs in the Septuagint, though neither
there nor elsewhere exactly in the sense which in the N. T.
it bears ; thus at Isai. Ivii. 15 it is rather a patient hold-
ing out under trial than long-suffering under provocation,
more, that is, the vTro^ovr] with which we have presently to
do; and compare Jer. xv. 15, I Mace. viii. 4; in neither
of which places is its use that of the N. T. ; and as little
is it that of Plutarch (Lucull. 32); the long-suffering of
men he prefers to express by ave^i/catcta (De Cap. ex Inim.
Util. 9 ; cf. Epictetus, Enchir. 10), while for the grand
long-suffering of God he has a noble word, one probably of
his own coining, .p.e<yakoird6sLa (De Ser. Num. Vind. 5).
The Church-Latin rendered it by c longanimitas,' which
the Rheims Version sought to introduce into English in
the shape of ' longanimity.' There is no reason why
( longanimity ' should not have had the same success as
* magnanimity '; but there is a fortune about words, as
well as about books, and this failed, notwithstanding that
Jeremy Taylor and Bishop Hall allowed and employed it.
We have preferred ' long-suffering,' and understand by it
a long holding out of the mind before it gives room to
action or passion generally to passion ; avs-^ofjusvou d\\i']-
\wv sv dyaTrr), as St. Paul (Ephes. iv. 2) beautifully ex-
pounds the meaning which he attaches to the word.
Anger usually, but not universally, is the passion thus
long held aloof ; the paKpodu/Mos being one fipaSvs sis
LIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 197
opytfv, and the word exchanged for Kparwv 6p<yrjs (Prov.
xvi. 32); and set over against 6vp,w^s (xv. 18). Still it
is not necessarily anger, which is thus excluded or set at
a distance ; for when the historian of the Maccabees de-
scribes how the Eomans had won the world * by their policy
and their patience ' (l Mace. viii. 4), iiaKpoQvpia expresses
there that Roman persistency which would never make
peace under defeat. The true antithesis to fiafcpodvpia in
that sense is o^vOv/j-ia, a word belonging to the best times
of the language, and employed by Euripides (Androm. 739),
as b^vQvjjios by Aristotle (Rliet. ii. 12 ; cf. ofir^oXoy, Solon).
But vTTo/Jiovii, /3aa-i\ls rwv apsrcov Chrysostom calls it,
is that virtue which in heathen ethics would be called
more often by the name of tcaprspla l (the words are joined
together, Plutarch, Apoph. Lac. Ages. 2), or Kaprsp^cris,
and which Clement of Alexandria, following in the track
of some heathen moralists, describes as the knowledge of
what things are to be borne and what are not (sTricrrij^r)
fyfAsvsTswv real ovtc sj^psvsrscov, Strom, ii. iS; cf. Plutarch,
De Plac. Phil. iv. 23), being the Latin ' perseverantia '
and ' patientia ' 2 both in one, or, more accurately still,
' tolerantia.' " In this noble word vTropovij there always
appears (in the N. T.) a background of dvSpsia (cf. Plato,
Thecet. 177 6, where dvSpiicws viro/jistvai, is opposed to
avdvSpws favysiv) ; it does not mark merely the endurance,
the ' sustinentia ' (Yulg.), or even the ' patientia '
(Clarom.), but the 'perseverantia,' the brave patience
with which the Christian contends against the various
hindrances, persecutions, and temptations that bei'al him
1 If, however, we may accept the Definitions ascribed to Plato, there
is a slight distinction : Kaprtpia i/nap-ovr) XI'TTIJS, evfica TOV KU\OV ' \nrop,ovri
irovatv, evfKa TOV KO\OV,
3 These two Cicero (De Inven. ii. 54) thus defines and distinguishes:
' Patientia est honestatis aut utilitatis causa rerum arduarum ac difficilium
voluntaria ac diuturna perpessio ; perseverantia est in ratione bene con-
eiderata stabilis et perpetua perrnansio ; ' compare Tusc. Disp. iv. 24,
where he deals with ' fortitude '; and Augustine, Qucest. Lxxxiii. qu. 31.
198 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIII.
in his conflict with the inward and outward world " (Elli-
cott, on I Thess. i. 3). It is, only springing from a nobler
root, the Kparspa rXrjfjioa-vvi] of Archilochus, Fragm. I.
(Gaisf. Poett. Min. Gr.}. Cocceius (on Jam. i. 12) describes
it well: ''TTrofiovri versatur in contemtu bonorum hujus
inundi, et in forti susceptione amictionum cum gratiarum
actione; imprimis autem in constantia fidei et caritatis,
ut neutro modo quassari aut labefactari se patiatur, aut
iinpediri quominus opus suum et laborem suum efficiat.'
For some other definitions see the article ' Geduld ' in
Herzog's Real Encyclopadie.
We may proceed now to distinguish between these ;
and this distinction, I believe, will hold good wherever the
words occur; namely, that fiaKpodv^ia will be found to
express patience in respect of persons, uTro/ioz/j? in respect
of things. The man fia/cpoOv/^st, who, having to do with
injurious persons, does not suffer himself easily to be pro-
voked by them, or to blaze up into anger (2 Tim. iv. 2).
The man vTropsvei,, who, under a great siege of trials, bears
up, and does not lose heart or courage (Rom. v. 3 ; 2 Cor.
i. 6 ; cf. Clement of Rome, Cor. 5). We should speak,
therefore, of the paKpoQvpla of David (2 Sam. xvi. 10-13),
the vTropovi] of Job (Jam. v. n). Thus, while both graces
are ascribed to the saints, only fia/cpoOv/jiia is an attribute
of God ; and there is a beautiful account of his fia/cpodv^i'a
at Wisd. xii. 20, however the word itself does not there
appear. Men may tempt and provoke Him, and He may
and does display an infinite fia/cpo6v/jiia in regard of them
(Exod. xxxiv. 6 ; Rom. ii. 4 ; i Pet. ii. 20) ; there may be
a resistance to God in men, because He respects the wills
which He has given them, even when these wills are
fighting against Him. But there can be no resistance to
God, nor burden upon Him, the Almighty, from things ;
therefore vTro/jbovtf can find no place in Him, nor is it, as
Chrysostom rightly observes, properly ascribed to Him
(yet see Augustine, DePatientid, i), for it need hardly be
SLIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 199
observed that when God is called Qsbs rfjs vTrouovrjs (Rom.
xv. 5), this does not mean, God whose own attribute viro-
fjiovi] is, but God who gives viropovr) to his servants and
saints (Tittmann, p. 194 : ' 0os rrjs viro^ovrfs, Deus qui
largitur vTrofj.ovr)v : y cf. Ps. Ixx. 5, LXX.) ; in the same
way as Ssos %dpiTos (i Pet. v. 10) is God who is the author
of grace; sbs rijs slpijvtjs (Heb. xiii. 20), God who is the
author of peace ; and compare sbs rffs \irlSos (R,oin. xv.
13), 'the God of hope.'
'Ai/0%7/, used commonly in the plural in classical Greek,
signifies, for the most part, a truce or suspension of arms,
the Latin ' iudutise.' It is excellently rendered c forbear-
ance ' on the two occasions of its occurrence in the N. T.
(Rom. ii. 4; iii. 26). Between it and (jtaxpoOvfjiia Origen
draws the following distinction in his Commentary on the
Romans (ii. 4) the Greek original is lost : ( Sustentatio
[avo%iy] apatientia \JJMK pod vp.td\ hoc videtur differre, quod
qui infirmitate magis quam proposito delinquunt sustentari
dicuntur; qui vero pertinaci mente velut exsultant in de-
lictis suis, ferri patienter dicendi sunt.' This does not
seize very successfully the distinction, which is not one
merely of degree. Bather the avo^y is temporary, trans-
ient : we may say that, like our ' truce,' it asserts its
own temporary, transient character ; that after a certain
lapse of time, and unless other conditions intervene, it
will pass away. This, it may be urged, is true of iiaicpo-
6vfj,la no less j above all, of the divine fiaKfoBvftta (Luke
xiii. 9). But as much does not lie in the word; we may
conceive of a fiaKpodv^ia, though it would be worthy of
little honour, which should never be exhausted ; while avo^ij
implies its own merely provisional character. Fritzsche
(on Rom. ii. 4) distinguishes the words : ' 77 avo%ij indul-
gentiam notat qua jus tuum non continuo exequutus, ei
qui te Iseserit spatium des ad resipiscendum ; 77 /ia/epo-
Ovpia clementiam significat qua irse temperans delictum
tion statim viudices, sed ei qui peccaverit poenitendi locum
200 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIV.
relinquas ; ' elsewhere (Rom. iii. 26) he draws the matter
still better to a point : ' Indulgentia \j) avo^rf] eo valet, ut
in aliorum peccatis conniveas, non ut alicui peccata con-
dones, quod clementice est.' It is therefore most fitly used
at Rom. iii. 26 in relation to the irdpsa-is dpapTifov which
found place before the atoning death of Christ, as con-
trasted with the asserts dpapricov, which was the result of
that death (see back, p. 114). It is that forbearance or
suspense of wrath, that truce with the sinner, which by no
means implies that the wrath will not be executed at the
last ; nay, involves that it certainly will, unless he be
found under new conditions of repentance and obedience
(Luke xiii. 9 ; Rom. ii. 3-6). The words are distinguished,
but the difference between them not very sharply defined,
by Jeremy Taylor, in his first Sermon ' On the Mercy of the
in init.
liv. o-TpTjvida), Tpvtyda), cnraTa\da).
IN all these words lies the notion of excess, of wanton,
dissolute, self-indulgent, prodigal living, but in each case
with a difference.
^rpijvidci) occurs only twice in the N. T. (Rev. xviii. 7,
9), a-rprjvos once (Rev. xviii. 3 ; cf. 2 Kin. xix. 28), and
the compound Karaa-rpi^vidw as often (i Tim. v. Ii). It
is a word of the New or Middle Comedy, and is used by
Lycophron, as quoted in Athenseus (x. 420 &) ; by Sophilus
(ib. iii. 100 a) ; and Antiphanes (ib. iii. 127 d) ; but re-
jected by the Greek purists Phrynichus, indeed, affirm-
ing that none but a madman would employ it, having
rpv(f>av at his command (Lobeck, Phrynichus, p. 381).
This last, which is thus so greatly preferred, is a word of
solitary occurrence in the N. T. (Jam. v. 5) 5 farpwfrav
(2 Pet. ii. 13) of the same; but belongs with Tpv<f>tf (Luke
vii. 25; 2 Pet. ii. 13) to the best age and most classical
writers in the language. It will be found on closer in-
LIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 20 1
spection that the words do different work, and that often-
times one could not be employed in room of the other.
In <TTpr)vtdv ( = araiCTSiv, Suidas; Sia rbv TT\OVTOV vftpl
%SLV, Hesychius), is properly the insolence of wealth, the
wantonness and petulance springing from fulness of bread ;
something of the Latin 'lascivire.' There is nothing of
sybaritic effeminacy in it ; so far from this that Pape con-
nects arp'fjvos with < strenuus ' ; see too Pott\ Etymol. Forsch.
ii. 2. 357 ; and there is ever the notion of strength, vigour,
the German ' Uebermuth,' such as that displayed by the
inhabitants of Sodom (Gen. xix. 4-9), implied in the word.
On the other hand, effeminacy, brokenness of spirit through
self-indulgence, is exactly the point from which rpv^ij and
rpv(f)dv (connected with OpinrTstv and dpv-^is), start ; thus
Tpv(f)ij is linked with %XtS^ (Philo, De Merc. Mer. 2} ; with
Tro\vT\sia (Plutarch, Marcell. 3 ) ; with /iaXa/a'a (De Aud.
Poet. 4) ; with paOvpla (Marcellus, 21) ; cf. Suicer, Thes.
s. v.; and note the company which it keeps elsewhere
(Plato, I Alcib. 122 &); and the description of it which
Clement of Alexandria gives (Strom, ii. 20) : rt jap srspov
i] Tpv(j)ij, rj <j)t\,ijSovos \i^vsla^ KOL r ir\ova<jp 1 os Trspispyos, irpos
JfivTrddsiav avsi/Jbevwv ; It only runs into the notion of the
insolent as a secondary and rarer meaning ; being then
united with v/3pis (Aristophanes, Ranee, 21 ; Strabo, vi. i) ;
Tpv<j)dv with v/3petv (Plutarch, Prcec. Ger. Reip. 3) ; and
compare the line of Menander (Meineke, Fragm. Com. Gr.
p. 984) : vTrspijffravov TTOV ylvsO' r/ \tav rpvtyij. It occasion-
ally from thence passes forward into a good sense, and
expresses the triumph and exultation of the saints of God
(Chrysostom, in Matt. Horn. 67, 668 ; Isai. Ixvi. 1 1 ; Ezek.
xxxiv. 13; Ps. xxxv. 9) ; so, too, svrpvfyav (Isai. Iv. 2);
while the garden of Eden is TrapdSsia-os rrjs rpv^s (Gen.
ii. 15 ; Joel ii. 3).
^7rara\dv (occurring only I Tim. v. 6 ; Jam. v. 5 ; cf.
Ecclus. xxi. 17; Ezek. xvi. 49; Amos vi. 4; the last two
being instructive passages) is more nearly allied to rpv^av,
202 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LV.
with which at Jam. v. 5 it is associated, than with crrprjvLav,
but it brings in the further notion of wastefulness (=ava-
\la-Ksiv, Hesjchius), which, consistently with its derivation
from a-Trda), a-Traddca, is inherent in it. Thus Hottinger :
' rpv<bav deliciarum est, et exquisite voluptatis, a-TraraXav
luxuries atque prodigalitatis.' Tittmann : * rpv<f>av potius
mollitiam vitse luxuriosse, airarakav petulantiam et prodi-
galitatem deiiotat.' Theile, who takes them in the reverse
order : ' Coinponuntur tanquam antecedens et consequens ;
diffluere et dilapidare, luxuriare et lascivire.'
It will follow, if these distinctions have been rightly
drawn, that the cnrarakav might properly be laid to the
charge of the Prodigal, scattering his substance in riotous
living (%)v aa-MTws, Luke xv. 13); the rpvcfrav to the Rich
Man faring sumptuously every day su^paivofjisvos Ka6'
r)fj,4pav Xa/i7T/?<ws, Luke xvi. 19) ; the crrp^viav to Jeshurun,
when, waxing fat, he kicked (Deut. xxxii. 15).
Iv. 0\l^ris, crTSvoxcopla.
THESE words were often joined together. Thus <7Tvo%copia,
occurring only four times in the N. T., is on three of these
associated with 0A,n/ay (Rom. ii. 9 ; viii. 3 5 ; 2 Cor. vi. 4 ;
cf. Deut. xxviii. 55 ; Isai. viii. 22; xxx. 6). So too the
verbs G\ij3iv and a-revo^wpsiv (2 Cor. iv. 8 ; cf. Lucian,
Nigrin. 13; Artemidorus, i. 79; ii. 37). From the anti-
thesis at 2 Cor. iv. 8, OXiftofMsvoi, a\\' ov arsvo-^wpovfjisvoi,,
and from the fact that, wherever in the N. T. the words
occur together, a-Tevo^wpLa always occurs last, we may
conclude that, whatever be the difference of meaning,
arsvoxwpia is the stronger word.
They indeed express very nearly the same thing, but
not under the same image. Xtyis (joined with fidcravos
at Ezek. xii. 18, with dvay/ctj, Zeph. i. 15, and for which
we have the form 6\inpos t Exod. iii. 9 ; Deut. xxvi. 7) is
properly pressure, *pressura,' * tribulatio,' which last
LV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 203
word in Church-Latin, whereto it belongs, had a metaphor-
ical sense, that which presses upon or burdens the spirit ;
I should have said ' angor,' the more that Cicero (Tusc. iv.
8) explains this 'segritudo premens,' but that the con-
nexion of ' angor ' with * angst,' enge ' (see Grimm, Wor-
terbuch, s. v. Angst ; and Max Miiller, On the Science of
Language, 1861, vol. i. p. 366, makes it better to reserve
this for (rrsvojfapfa.
The proper meaning of crrsvo-^wpia is narrowness of
room, confined space, * angustise,' and then the painf ulness
of which this is the occasion : djropla arsv^ and a-TSVO^oapia
occurring together, Isai. viii. 22. It is used literally by
Thucydides, vii. 70 : being sometimes exchanged for Sva-
%wpia : by Plutarch (Syrnp. v. 6) set over against avsais ;
while in the Septuagint it expresses the straitness of a siege
(Deut. xxviii. 53, 57). It is once employed in a secondary
and metaphorical sense in the 0. T. (a-rsvo^copia jrvsu^aros,
Wisd. v. 3) ; this being the only sense which it knows in
the New. The fitness of this image is attested by the
frequency with which on the other hand a state of joy is
expressed in the Psalms and elsewhere as a bringing into
a large room (irXarvafjios^ Ps. cxvii. 5 ; 2 Sam. xxii. 20 ;
Ecclus. xlvii. 12; Clement of Rome, Cor. 3; Or'gen, De
Orat. 30; sitpv^copia, Marcus Antoninus, ix. 32); so that
whether Aquinas intended an etymology or not, and most
probably he did, he certainly uttered a truth, when he
said, ' IsBtitia est quasi latitia.'
When, according to the ancient law of England, those
who wilfully refused to plead had heavy weights placed on
their breasts, and were so pressed and crushed to death,
this was literally 0\tyis. When Bajazet, vanquished by
Tamerlane, was carried about by him in an iron cage, if
indeed the story be true, this was arevo-^wpia : or, as we
do not know that any suffering there ensued from actual
narrowness of room, we may more fitly adduce the oubli-
ettes in which Louis XI. shut up his victims ; or the * little-
204 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LVI.
ease ' l by which, according to Lingard, the Roman Catho-
lics in Queen Elizabeth's reign were tortured ; ' it was of
so small dimensions and so constructed, that the prisoners
could neither stand, walk, sit, nor lie at full length in it.'
For some considerations on the awful sense in which 6\tyis
and arsvo^wpia shall both, according to St. Paul's words
(Rom. ii. 9), be the portion of the lost, see Gerhard, Loc.
Theoll. xxxi. 6. 52.
Ivi. aTrXovy, a/cepatos, CLKCIKOS, a
IN this group of words we have some of the rarest and
most excellent graces of the Christian character set forth ;
or perhaps, as it may rather prove, the same grace by aid
of different images, and with only slightest shades of real
difference.
f ATT'XOVS occurs only twice in the N". T. (Matt. vi. 22 ;
Luke xi. 34) ; biit a-TrXoTT/s seven times, or perhaps eight,
always in St. Paul's Epistles; and air\Sis once (Jam. i. 5).
It would be quite impossible to improve on 'single' 2 by
which our Translators have rendered it, being as it is from
a-TrXoo), ' expando,' ' explico,' that which is spread out, and
thus without folds or wrinkles; exactly opposed to the
7roXu77 \OKOS of Job v. 1 3 ; compare ' simplex ' (not * with-
out folds ' ; but ' one-folded,' ' semel,' not * sine,' lying in
its first syllable, 'einfaltig,' see Donaldson, Varronianus,
p. 390), which is its exact representative in Latin, and a
word, like it, in honorable use. This notion of singleness,
simplicity, absence of folds, which thus lies according to
its etymology in aTrXoOs, is also predominant in its use
1 The word ' little-ease ' is not in our Dictionaries, but grew in our
early English to a commonplace to express any place or condition of
extreme discomfort.
2 See a good note in Fritzsche, Commentai~y on the Romans, vol. iii.
p. 64, denying that drrAoTJjr has ever the meaning of liberality, which our
Translators have so often given to it.
LVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 205
' animus alienus a versutia, f raude, simulatione, dolo malo,
et studio nocendi aliis' (Suicer) j cf. Herzog, Real-Encyclop.
art. Einfalt, vol. iii. p. 723.
That all this lies in the word is manifest from those
with which we find it associated, as aX^O^s (Xenophon,
Anab. ii. 6. 22 ; Plato, Legg. v. 738 e, and often) ; airovrjpos
(Theophrastus) ; yswalos (Plato, Rep. ii. 361 6); axparos
(Plutarch, Adv. Stoic. 48) ; fiovosiStfs (De Anim. Procr.
21); aa-vvdsros ( = ' iucompositus,' not put together, ib. ;
Basil, Adv. Eunom. i. 23); ftovorpoTros (Horn, in Prin.
Prov. 7) ; <ra(f)TJ$ (Alexis, in Meineke's Fragm. Com. G-rcec.
p. 750); aicaKos (Diodorus Siculus, xiii. 76); ir/ufa (De-
mosthenes, Orat. xxxvii. 969). But it is still more appa-
rent from those to which it is opposed ; as irouciXos (Plato,
Thecet. 146 d) ; 7ro\vst,^rjs (Phcedrus, 270 d] ; Tro\i>Tpoiros
(Hipp. Min. 364 e) ; irsTr\^^svos (Aristotle, Poet. 13 ; Bi-
TT\OVS (ib.) ; Tril3ov\.os (Xenophon, Mem. iii. 1.6); iravro-
&a7ros (Plutarch, Quom. Adul. ab Amic. 7). 'ATrXor^y (see
I Mace. ii. 37 ; cf. Philo, de Vit. Contempt. IO : a7r\ovcrraTa
Kal etXiKpivsa-Tara} is in like manner associated with
slXiicpivsta (2 Cor. i. 12), with arca/cla (Philo, Mund. Opif.
61) ; the two words being used indiscriminately in the
Septuagint to render the Hebrew which we translate now
' integrity ' (Ps. vii. 8 ; Prov. xix. i), now * simplicity ' (2
Sam. xv. n); again with /ue>ya\o^ri;;us (Josephus, Antt.
vii. 13. 4), with a^aOor^s (Wisd. i. i). It is opposed to
7roitci\ia (Plato, Rep. iii. 404 e) to iro\vrpoiria, to /caieovp-
yia (Theophylact), to Kaxo^dsia (Theodore t), to 86\os
(Aristophanes, Plut. 1158). It may further be observed
that DP) (Gen. xxv. 27), which the Septuaginfc renders
aTrXao-ros, Aquila has rendered aTrXous. As happens to at
least one other word of this group, and to multitudes
besides which express the same grace, air\ovs comes often
to be used of a foolish simplicity, unworthy of the
Christian, who with all his simplicity should be fypovipos
as well (Matt. x. 16; Rom. xvi. 19). It is so used
2C6 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LVI.
"by Basil the Great (Ep. 58) ; but nowhere in biblical
Greek.
'A/cspaios (not in the Septuagint) occurs only three
times in the N. T. (Matt. x. 16; Eora. xvi. 19; Phil. ii.
15). A mistaken etymology, namely, that it was
aKsparos, and derived from a and Kspas (cf. itspai^siv,
' Isedere ' ; Ksparl^siv, LXX.), without horn to push or hurt,
one into which even Bengel falls, who at Matt. x. 16 has
this note : ' dicspaioi : sine cornu, ungula, dente, aculeo,'
has led our Translators on two of these occasions to
render it * harmless.' In each case, however, they have
put a more correct rendering, 'simple' (Matt. x. 16),
'sincere' (Phil. ii. 15), in the margin. At Rom. xvi. 19
all is reversed, and ' simple ' stands in the text, with
'harmless' in the margin. The fundamental notion of
d/cspaios, as of atcrfparos, which has the same derivation
from a and icepdvvvfM,, is the absence of foreign admixture :
o fir) KSKpa/jisvos KCLKOLS, aX\' a,7r\ovs KCU diroiKi\os (Etym.
Mag.}. Thus Philo, speaking of a boon which Caligula
granted to the Jews, but with harsh conditions annexed,
styles it a yapis OVK aKfyaios, with manifest reference to
this its etymology (De Leg. ad Cai. 42) : o/itoy, pevrot teal
TTJV %dpiv BiBovs, sScovsv OVK d/cepatov, a\X' dva/jii^as avrfj
Bsos dp<ya\()Tpov. Wine unmingled with water is
aicspaios (Athenseus, ii. 45). To unalloyed metal the
same epithet is applied. The word is joined by Plato
with d/3\a(3rj$ (Hep. i. 342 &), and with opdos (Polit. 268 6) ;
by Plutarch with vjnjs (Adv. Stoic. 31) ; set over against
rapa/crtKos (De Def. Orac. 51); by Clement of Rome
(Cor. 2} with etXi/cpivrfs. That, we may say, is dicspaios,
which is in its true and natural condition (Polybius, ii.
IOO. 4; Josephus, Antt. i. 2. 2) 'integer'; in this border-
ing on 6\oK\r]pos, although completeness in all the parts is
there the predominant idea, and not, as here, freedom
from disturbing elements.
The word which we have next to consider, a/ca/coy, ap-
LVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 207
pears only twice in the N. T. (Heb. vii. 26 ; Rom. xvi. 18).
There are three stages in its history, two of which are
sufficiently marked by its use in these two places ; for the
third we must seek elsewhere. Thus at Heb. vii. 26 the
epithet challenges for Christ the Lord that absence of
all evil which implies the presence of all good ; being asso-
ciated there with other noblest epithets. The Septuagint,
which knows all uses of a/catco?, employs it sometimes in
this highest sense ; thus Job is described as avQpwrros
aica/cos, aXyQivoS) a/jiSfATTTOs, deoo-eftrfs, aTre^o/^svos K.T.\. (Job
ii. 3); while at Job viii. 20, the a/caws is opposed to the
aa-s^ijsf', and at Ps. xxiv. 21 is joined to the evO^s, as by
Plutarch (De Prof. Virt. 7) to the awfypwv. The word
at its next stage expresses the same absence of all harm,
but now contemplated more negatively than positively : thus
apviov afca/cov (Jer. xi. 19); Trai^icr/cr] vsa KOL atca/cos (Plutarch,
Virt. Mul. 23) ; aica/eos KOI aTrpdy^wv (Demosthenes, Orat.
xlvii. 1164). The N. T. supplies no example of the word
at this its second stage. The process by which it comes
next to signify easily deceived, and then too easily de-
ceived, and a/cd/cia, simplicity running into an excess
(Aristotle, Rhet. ii. 12), is not difficult to trace. He who
himself means no evil to others, oftentimes fears no evil
from others. Conscious of truth in his own heart, he
believes truth in the hearts of all : a noble quality, yet in a
world like ours capable of being pushed too far, where, if
in malice we are to be children, yet in understanding to
be men (i Cor. xiv. 20) ; if "simple concerning evil," yet
" wise unto that which is good " (Rom. xvi. 19 ; cf. Jeremy
Taylor's Sermon On Christian Simplicity, Works, Eden's
edition, vol. iv. p. 609). The word, as employed Rom.
xvi. 1 8, already indicates such a confidence as this be-
ginning to degenerate into a credulous readiness to the
being deceived and led away from the truth (0av/j.aaTiicol
Kal aKdicoi, Plutarch, De Red. Rat. Aud. 7; cf. Wisd. iv.
12; Prov. i. 4 [where Solomon declares the object with
208 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LVI.
which his Proverbs were written, 'iva Sw a/cdfcois Travovp-
<yiav~\ ; viii. 5> x i v> J 5> atca/cop Triarsvei Travrl Xo^ft)).
For a somewhat contemptuous use of aVa/cos-, see Plato,
TimcBUS, gi d, with Stallbaum's note ; and Plutarch (Dem.
l) : r^y airsipta TWV KCIKWV Ka\\o)7TL^o/j.svijv aKaKiav OVK
STraivoixriv \_ol crocjW], aXX' afBsKrspiav yyovvrai Ka\ a-
ryvoiav wv /iaXttrra yivcotricsiv TrpoaiJKSt : but above all, the
words which the author of the Second Alcibiades puts into
the mouth of Socrates (140 c) : rovs fjikv ir\slcrTov avrrjs
\_a^)po(rvvr]s~\ pspos e^ovras fAaivo/jisvovs Ka\ovfj,v,Tovs S' o\i-
<yov s\arrov r)\idiovsicai s^^povrrjrovs' ol
6v6/j,a(ri ftov\6psvoi Karovo/jid^siV) ol fjfsv
Ss svr)6si$, srspot 8s d/cd/covs, Kal dirsipovs, KCUSVSOVS* But
after all it is in the mouth of the rogue Autolycus that
Shakespeare put the words, ' What a fool Honesty is, and
Trust, his sworn brother, a very simple gentleman' (Win-
ter's Tale, act iv. sc. 3).
The second and third among these meanings of a/ccutos
are separated by so slight and vanishing a line, oftentimes
so run into one another, that it is not wonderful if some
find rather two stages in the word's use than three ; Basil
the Great, for example, whose words are worth quoting
(Horn, in Princ. Prov. 1 1) : Sirrws voov^zv rrjv aKaKiav. * H
<yap rrjv a-Tro rrjs apaprias d\\orpiwat,v \o^L<rp,u> /caropOov-
fjLsvrjv, ical Sia fjiaKpas 7rpoao%f)s KOI yu-fXer^* TWV d<ya0a)v
olov Tiva pl&v rfjs Kaiclas SKTS/AOVTSS, Kara aripqffW avrrjy
7rai>TS\f), rrjv rov d/cd/cov Trpoo-rjjopiav Ss^o/j-sda" rj dica/cia
e<TTiv rj p,ri TTCO TOV Katcov s/jiTrstpla 8id vsorrjTa vroXXa^iS 1 rj
ySt'ou TWOS s r iriTr)$eva'iVi dirsipwv TIVWV irpos rivas ica/cias
Olov slat, TIVSS rwv TIJV dypoiKiav OIKOVVTWV,
slSorss rds sfMTTOpucds KaKovpjias ov8s rds sv BlKCUmjplqp
TOVS TOIOVTOVS CLKaKOVS ~\,SJOfJ.V, OV% O)S K
Trpoaipso'sws rfjs Karcias Ks^aipiafjisvovs, aXX' d>s prf irw sis
TTZipav TTJS Trovrjpds s^stos d(f>i'y/jLvovs. From all this it will
be seen that a/caicos has in fact run the same course, and
has the same moral history as ^prjcrros dirXoi'S, svt'jGiis,
LVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 209
with which it is often joined (as by Diodorus Siculus, v.
66), 'bon' (thus Jean le Bon=l'etourdi), 'bonhomie,'
* silly,' ' simple,' * daft,' 'einfaltig,' ' giitig,' and many more.
The last word of this beautiful group, a8o\os, occurs
only once in the N. T. (i Pet. ii. 2), and is there beauti-
fully translated ' sincere,' " the sincere milk of the word; "
see the early English use of ' sincere ' as unmixed, unadul-
terated ; and compare, for that ' milk of the word ' which
would not be ' sincere,' 2 Cor. iv. 2. It does not appear
in the Septuagint, nor in the Apocrypha, but a&6\(os once
in the latter (Wisd. vii. 13). Plato joins it with vyirfs (Ep.
viii. 355 e) ; Philo, with a/ju^s and icadapos (Hund.
Opif. 47) ; Philemo with yv^a-ios (Meineke, Fragm. Com.
GTCBC. p. 843). It is difficult, indeed impossible, to vindi-
cate an ethical province for this word, on which other of
the group have not encroached, or, indeed, preoccupied
already. We can only regard it as setting forth the same
excellent grace under another image, or on another side.
Thus if the a/caKos his nothing of the serpent's tooth, the
aSoXos has nothing of the serpent's guile ; if the absence of
willingness to hurt, of the malice of our fallen nature, is
predicated of the a/ca/eos, the absence of its fraud and
deceit is predicated of the aSoXo s, the Nathanael " in whom
is no guile " (John i. 48) . And finally, to sum up all, we
may say, that as the a/caws (=< innocens') has no harm-
fulness in him, and the aSoXos (=' sincerus') no guile, so
the atcepaios ( = ' integer ') no foreign admixture, and the
ebrXoOs (=' simplex ') no folds.
Ivii. xpovos, /caipof.
SEVERAL times in the N. T. but always in the plural,
yjpovoi Kal fcaipoi are found together (Acts i. 7 ; I Thess.
v. i) ; and not unfrequently in the Septuagint and the
Apocrypha, Wisd. vii. i8j viii. 8 (both instructive passages) ;
Dan. ii. 21 ; and in the singular, Eccles. iii. I j Dan. vii. 12
P
210 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LVII.
(but in this last passage the reading is doubtful). Grotius
(on Acts i. 7) conceives the difference between them to
consist merely in the greater length of the ^povoi as com-
pared with the Kaipoi, and writes : ' xpovoi sunt majora
temporum spatia, ut aniii; Kaipoi minora, ut menses et
dies.' Compare Bengel : ' yjpovwv partes /catpol.' This
distinction, if not inaccurate, is certainly insufficient, and
altogether fails to reach the heart of the matter.
"Kpovos is time, contemplated simply as such ; the suc-
cession of moments (Matt. xxv. 19 ; Rev. x. 6 ; Heb. iv. 7) ;
alwvos sifcaiv KtvrjTrj, as Plato calls it (Tim. 37 d ; compare
Hooker, Eccles. Pol. v. 69) ; Stda-rt]/j,a TT?S TOV ovpavov KIVIJ-
(Tscos, as Philo has it (De Mund. Op. 7). It is the German
' Zeitraum,' as distinguished from ' ZeitpunJd ; ' thus com-
pare Demosthenes, 1357, where both the words occur;
and Severianus (Suicer, Thes. s. v.) : xpovos w/cos ecru,
Kaipbs svKaipia. Kaipos, derived from tcsipo), as ' tempus '
from ' temno,' is time as it brings forth its several births ;
thus Kaipos 6spi<T/j,ov (Matt. xiii. 30) ; Kaipbs avKcov (Mark
xi. 13) ; Christ died Kara icatpov (Rom. v. 6) ; and above all
compare, as constituting a miniature essay on the word,
Eccles. iii. 1-8 : see Keil, in loco. Xpovos, it will thus
appear, embraces all possible /caipoi, and, being the larger,
more inclusive term, may be often used where Kaipos would
have been equally suitable, though not the converse ; thus
TOV TSKsiv, the time of bringing forth (Luke i. 57) ;
TOV xpovov (Gal. iv. 4), the fulness, or the ripe-
ness, of the time for the manifestation of the Son of God,
where we should before have rather expected TOV Kaipov,
or TOW Kaipwv, this last phrase actually occurring at Ephes.
i. 10. So, too, we may confidently say that the xP ovot
(Acts iii. 21) are identical with the Kaipo I
s which had just been mentioned before (ver. 19).
Thus it is possible to speak of the Kaipbs xpovov, and
Sophocles (Elect. 1 292) does so :
\povov yap av <roi Kaipov (etpyoi Xo'yos,
LVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 211
but not of the %p6vos /catpov. Compare Olympiodorus
(Suicer, Tlies. s. v. %povos) : ftpovos psv scm TO Bidcrrij/jia
tca0' o irpdrrsrai TL' tcaipbs 8s 6 sTrinfisios rrjs spyacrlas
^povos' wars o pJsv ^povos Kal /ccupbs elvai 8vvarai' 6 8s
icaipbs ov %povoS) aXX' evtcaipla rod Trparro/msvov sv ^povw
Ammonius : 6 fisv icaipbs 8r)\oi TroioTrjTd %povov,
8s iroa-oTtjra. In a fragment of Sosipater, quoted
by AthensQus, ix. 22, svicaipos ^povos occurs.
From what has been said, it will appear that when the
Apostles ask the Lord, " Wilt thou at this time restore
again the kingdom to Israel? " and He makes answer, "It
is not for you to know the times or the seasons " (Acts i.
6, 7), 'the times' (%povoi) are, in Augustine's words, ' ipsa
spatia temporum,' and these contemplated merely under
the aspect of their duration, over which the Church's history
should extend; but 'the seasons' (/catpoi) are the joints
or articulations in these times, the critical epoch-making
periods fore-ordained of God (/caipol TrpoTSTaypsvoi,, Acts
xvii. 26; cf. Augustine, Conf. xi. 13: ' Deus operator
temporum ') ; when all that has been slowly, and often
without observation, ripening through long ages is mature
and comes to the birth in grand decisive events, which
constitute at once the close of one period and the com-
mencement of another. Such, for example, was the passing
away with a great noise of the old Jewish dispensation ;
such, again, the recognition of Christianity as the religion
of the Eoman Empire; such the conversion of the Germanic
tribes settled within the limits of the Empire ; and such
again the conversion of those outside ; such the great
revival which went along with the first institution of the
Mendicant Orders ; such, by still better right, the Eefor-
ination ; such, above all others, the second coming of the
Lord in glory (Dan. vii. 22).
The Latin had no word by which adequately to render
Kaipol. Augustine complains of this (Ep. cxcvii. 2) ;
'Greece legitur ^povovs f) /caipovs. Nostri autem utrumque
p2
212 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LVII.
hoc verbum tempora appellant, sive ^povovs, sive tcaipovs,
cum habeant hsec duo inter se non negligendam differen-
tiam : icaipovs quippe appellant Greece tempora qusedam,
non tameii quse in spatiorum voluminibus transeunt, sed
quse in rebus ad aliquid opportunis vel importunis senti-
untur, sicut messis, vindemia, calor, frigus, pax, bellum,
et si qua similia ; ^povovs autem ipsa spatia temporum
vocant.' It will be seen that he does not recognize ' tem-
pestivitas,' which, however, is used by Cicero. Bearing
out this complaint of his, we find in the Vulgate the most
various renderings of Kaipol, as often as it occurs in combi-
nation with xpovot, and cannot therefore be rendered by
' tempora,' which yjpbvoi has preoccupied. Thus ' tempora
et momenta ' (Acts i. 7 ; I Thess. v. i), * tempora et estates '
(Dan. ii. 21), * tempora et scecula ' (Wisd. viii. 8) j while a
modern Latin commentator on the N. T. has ' tempora et
articuli ' ; Bengel, ' intervalla et tempora.' It might be
urged that * tempora et opportunitates ' would fulfil all
necessary conditions. Augustine has anticipated this
suggestion, but only to demonstrate its insufiiciency, 011
the ground that ' opportunitas ' ( = ' opportunum tempus')
is a convenient, favourable season (svKaipla) ; while the
tcaipos may be the most inconvenient, most unfavourable of
all, the essential notion of it being that it is the critical
nick of time, the d/c/i^, Sophocles, Philoct. 12 ; Ajax, 822;
but whether, as such, to make or to mar, effectually to
help or effectually to hinder, the word determines not at
all (' sive opportuna, sive importuna sint tempora, /caipot
dicuntur'). At the same time it is oftener the former:
fcaipos <yap oa-irsp dv$pd<riv MsyicrTOS spyov iravros scrr
ETria-TaT'rjs (Sophocles, Electra, 75, 76). On the distinction
between %povos, Kaipos, and alo)v, see Schmidt, SynonymiJc,
vol. ii. p. 54 sqq.
LVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 213
Iviii. <j)spw, <j)opsa>.
ON the distinction between these words Lobeck (Phry-
nichus, p. 585) has the following remarks : * Inter (frspa) et
(fropsa hoc interesse constat, quod illud actionem simplicem
et transitoriam, hoc autem actionis ejusdem continua-
tionem significat ; verbi causa dyysXirjv (f>epsiv, estalicujus
rei nunciuni afferre, Herod, iii. 53 et 122 ; v. 14; ayy\Lrjv
(f>opssiv, iii. 34, nuncii munere apud aliquem fungi. Hinc
et (fropsiv dicimur ea quse nobiscum circumferimus, quibus
amicti indutique sumus, ut iftdriov, rpi&wviov, arcTv\iov
<f)opslv, tum quse ad habitum corporis pertinent.' He
proceeds, however, to acknowledge that this distinction is
by no means constantly observed even by the best Greek
authors. It is, therefore, the more noticeable, as an ex-
ample of that accuracy which so often takes us by surprise
in the use of words by the writers of the N. T., that they
are always true to this rule. On the six occasions upon
which $opsiv occurs (Matt. xi. 8 ; John xix. 5 : Rom. xiii.
4; i Cor. xv. 49, bis ; Jam. ii. 3), it invariably expresses,
not an accidental and temporary, but an habitual and
continuous, bearing. 'Sic enim differt (fropsiv a (frspsiv, ut
hoc sit ferre, illud ferre solere' (Fritzsche, on Matt. xi. 8).
A sentence in Plutarch (Apoph. Reg.), in which both words
occur, illustrates very well their different uses. Of Xerxes
he tells us : opytardsls Bs ~Ba/3v\covlois cnroaTacn, KOI
av\scv KOI Tropvoftoa-Ksiv leal Ka7rt}\svsiv, Kal (jiopsiv KO\-
TTWTOVS xiT&vas. Arms would only be borne on special
occasions, therefore (frspsiv ; but garments are habitually
worn, therefore this is in the second clause exchanged for
fapsiv.
214 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIX.
lix. Koa-ftos, alwv.
s our Translators have rendered * world ' in every
instance but one (i Pet. iii. 3) ; aiatv often, though by no
means invariably so ; for (not to speak of sis alwva) see
Ephes. ii. 2, 7 ; Col. i. 26. It may be a question whether
we might not have made more use of ' age ' in our Version :
we have employed it but rarely, only, indeed, in the two
places which I have cited last. * Age* may sound to us
inadequate now : but it is quite possible that, so used, it
would little by little have expanded and adapted itself to
the larger meaning of the Greek word for which it stood.
One must regret that, by this or some other like device,
our Translators did not mark the difference between
Koa-fios ( mundus), the world contemplated under aspects
of space, and alwv (=seculum), the same contemplated
under aspects of time ; for the Latin, no less than the
Greek, has two words, where we have, or have acted as
though we had, but one. In all those passages (such as
Matt. xiii. 39; i Cor. x. n) which speak of the end or
consummation of the almv (there are none which speak of
the end of the /edcr/ios), as in others which speak of " the
wisdom of this world" (i Cor. ii. 6), "the god of this
world " (2 Cor. iv. 4), "the children of this world " (Luke
xvi. 8), it must be admitted that we are losers by the
course which we have adopted.
Kocr/ioy, connected with KO^SLV, 'comere,' 'comptus,'
has a history of much interest in more respects than one.
Suidas traces four successive significations through which
it passed : arjfiaivsi $e 6 Kca~fios rea-crapa, einrpsTreiav, roSs TO
Trav, rr)v rd^tv, TO 7r\ijdos Trapa ry T*pa,(j)f). Originally signi-
fying ' ornament,' and obtaining this meaning once in the
N. T. (i Pet. iii. 3), where we render it ' adorning,' and
hardly obtaining any other in the Old (thus the stars are
o Koa-fios rov ovpavov, Deut. xvii. 3 ; Isai. xxiv. 21 ; cf. xlix.
LIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 215
1 8 ; Jer. iv. 30 ; Ezek. vii. 20 ; Ecclus. xliii. 9) ; from this
it passed to that of order, or arrangement ('lucidus ordo '),
or beauty as springing out of these ; SVTT psirs 10, and rd^ts,
as Suidas gives it above, or Ka\\wma-p.6s, Karacr/csvy, rdgis,
Karaa-TacTi?, /cd\\os, as Hesychius. Pythagoras is recorded
as the first who transferred KOO-^OS to the sum total of the
material universe (for a history of this transfer see a note
in Humboldt's Cosmos, 1846, Engl. edit. p. 371), desiring
thereby to express his sense of the beauty and order which
are everywhere to be traced therein : so Plutarch (De Plac.
Phil. i. 5) tells us; while others report that he called by
this name not the whole material universe, but only the
heaven ; claiming for it this name on the same ground,
namely, on that of the well-ordered arrangement which was
visible therein (Diogenes Laertius, viii. 48) ; and we often
find the word so used ; as by Xenophon, Mem. i. I. n ; by
Jsocrates, i. 179; by Plato (Tim. 28 6), who yet employs
it also in the larger and what we might call more ideal
sense, as embracing and including within itself, and in the
bonds of one communion and fellowship heaven and earth
and gods and men (Gorg. 508 a) ; by Aristotle (De Mund.
2 ; and see Bentley, Works, vol. i. p. 391 ; vol. ii. p. 117).
' Mundus ' in Latin, f digestio et ordinatio singularum
quarumque rerum formatarum et distinctarum,' as Augus-
tine (De Gen. ad Lit. c. 3) calls it, followed in nearly the
same track as the Greek KOV/JLOS ; giving occasion to pro-
found plays of words, such as ' munde immunde,' in
which the same illustrious Church-teacher delights. Thus
Pliny (H. N. ii. 3) : Quern icoa-pav Grseci nomine ornamenti
appellaverunt, eum nos a perfecta absolutaque elegantid
mundum ; ' cf. Cicero (De Universo, 10) : * Hunc hac
varietate distinctum bene Grseci Koa-p-ov, nos lucentem
mundum nominamus ; ' cf. De Nat. Deor. ii. 22 ; but on the
inferiority as a philosophical expression of ' mundus ' to
, see Sayce, Principles of Comparative Philology, p. 98.
From this signification of KOO-^OS as the material uni-
216 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIX.
verse, which is frequent in Scripture (Matt. xiii. 35 ; John
xvii. 5; xxi. 25; Acts xviii. 24; Rom. i. 20), followed
that of Koa-fjios as that external framework of things in
which man lives and moves, which exists for him and
of which he constitutes the moral centre (John xvi. 21 ;
I Cor. xiv. 10 ; I John iii. 17) ; here very nearly equivalent
to oiKovpsvrj (Matt. xxiv. 14 ; Acts xix. 27) ; and then the
men themselves, the sum total of persons living in the
world (John i. 29; iv. 42; 2 Cor. v. 19) ; and then upon
this, and ethically, all not of the KK\.r}ala, } alienated from
the life of God and by wicked works enemies to Him
(i Cor. i. 2O, 21 ; 2 Cor. vii. IO ; Jam. iv. 4). I need hardly
call attention here to the immense part which Koapos thus
understood plays in the theology of St. John; both in
his record of his Master's sayings, and in his own writings
(John i. IO ; vii. 7 ; xii. 31 ; I John ii. 16 ; v. 4) ; occur-
ring in his Gospel and Epistles more than a hundred times,
most often in this sense. On this last use of KOO-/JLOS, and
on the fact that it should have been utterly strange to the
entire heathen world, which had no sense of this opposi-
tion between God and man, the holy and unholy, and that
the same should have been latent and not distinctly called
out even in the O. T., on all this there are some admirable
remarks by Zezschwitz, Profangrdcitat und Bibl. Sprach-
geist, pp. 21-24: while on these various meanings of
Koa-jjios, and on the serious confusions which, if not
carefully watched against, may arise therefrom, Augustine
(Con. JuL Pelag. vi. 3, 4} may be consulted with advantage.
We must reject the etymology of alcav which Aristotle
(De Ccel. i. 9) propounds : dirb TOV a si elvai, sl\T)<f)ws rrjv
sTTfovvfilav. It is more probably connected with ao>, a?7/u,
to breathe. Like icba-pos it has a primary and physical,
and then, superinduced on this, a secondary and ethical,
1 Origen indeed (in Joan. 38) mentions some one in his day who in-
terpreted Kuo-pos as the Church, being as it is the ornament of the world
(KOCTfJLOS OV(TCt TOV KOCT^Ov),
LIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 217
sense. In its primary, it signifies time, short or long, in
its unbroken duration ; oftentimes in classical Greek the
duration of a human life (=/3/oy, for which it is exchanged,
Xenophon, Cyrop. iii. 3. 52 ; cf. Plato, Legg. iii. 701 c;
Sophocles, Trachin. 2 ; Elect. 1085 : 7rd<ytc\avTov alwva
SL\OV : Pindar, Olymp. ii. 1 20 : aSatcpvv vejiovrai alwva) ;
but essentially time as the condition under which all created
things exist, and the measure of their existence ; thus Theo-
doret : o alobv OVK ova-la ns S(TTIV, ciAA,' avvTrocrraTov xpfj/j-a,
avfATrapofiapTOVv rois ysvvrjTrjV s^ovcri (frvaiv KaXclrat yap
aiwv real TO airo Ti]s TOV KOCTJAOV a-varda-scas fis^pi rrjs <rvv-
T\sias SidaTijfAa. alu>v TOLVVV scrrl TO Ty KTicrTf} (frvcrsi
7raps^svjfj,svov Sida-Trj^a. Thus signifying time, it comes
presently to signify all which exists in the world under
conditions of time ; * die Totalitat desjenigen, was sich in
der Dauer der Zeit ausserlich darstellt, die Welt, sofern
sie sich in der Zeit bewegt ' (C. L. W. Grimm ; thus see
Wisd. xiii. 9; xiv. 6; xviii. 4; Eccles. iii. 11) ; and then,
more ethically, the course and current of this world's
affairs. But this course and current being full of sin, it is
nothing wonderful that o alwv OVTOS, set over against o alwv
sKslvos (Luke xx. 35), 6 alcov 6 ip^ofjisvos (Mark x. 30), o
alwv o p,s\\wv (Matt. xii. 32), acquires presently, like /co<r/ioy,
an unfavourable meaning. The /3aa-i\,slai TOV Kocrpov of
Matt. iv. 8 are ftaaCkslai, TOV alwvos TOVTOV (Ignatius, Ep.
ad Rom. 6) ; God has delivered us by his Son s^ svea-TWTos
alwvos Trovrjpov (Gal. i. 4) ; Satan is dsos TOV alwvos TOVTOV
(2 Cor. iv. 4 ; cf. Ignatius, Ep. ad Magn. I : o ap%a>z> TOV
alwvos TOVTOV} ; sinners walk KUTO, TOV alwva TOV KOCT^OV
TOVTOV (Ephes. ii. 2), too weakly translated in our Ver-
sion, as in those preceding, " according to the course of this
world." This last is a particularly instructive passage,
for in it both words occur together ; Bengel excellently
remarking : ' alwv et KOO-^OS differunt. Ille hunc regit et
quasi informat: KOO-^OS est quiddam exterius, altov sub-
tilius. Tempus \_=al<av\ dicitur non solum physice, sed
218 SYNONTMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LIX.
etiam moraliter, connotata qualitate liominum in eo viven-
tium ; et sic alcav dicit longam temporum seriem, ubi setas
mala malam setatem excipit.' Compare Windischmann (on
Gal. i. 4) : ' alwv darf aber durcbaus nicht bloss als Zeit
gefasst werden, sondern begreift alles in der Zeit befang-
ene; die Welt und ihre Herrlichkeit, die Menschen und
ihr natiirliches unerlostes Thun und Treiben in sich, im
Contraste zu dem hier nur beginnenden, seiner Sehnsuclit
und Vollendung nach aber jenseitigen und ewigen, Reiche
des Messias.' We speak of 'the times,' attaching to the
word an ethical signification ; or, still more to the point,
' the age,' ' the spirit or genius of the age,' ' der Zeit-
geist.' All that floating mass of thoughts, opinions,
maxims, speculations, hopes, impulses, aims, aspirations,
at anytime current in the world, which it may be impossible
to seize and accurately define, but which constitute a most
real and effective power, being the moral, or immoral,
atmosphere which at every moment of our lives we inhale,
again inevitably to exhale, all this is included in the
alwv, which is, as Bengel has expressed it, the subtle in-
forming spirit of the Koa-pos, or world of men who are
living alienated and apart from God. ' Seculum,' in Latin
has acquired the same sense, as in the familiar epigram
of Tacitus (Germ. 19), Corrumpere et corrumpi seculum
vocatur.'
It must be freely admitted that two passages in the
Epistle to the Hebrews will not range themselves accord-
ing to the distinction here drawn between alwv and icoa-pos,
namely i. 2 and xi. 3. In both of these aiwvss are the
worlds contemplated, if not entirely, yet beyond question
mainly, under other aspects than those of time. Some
indeed, especially modern Socinian expositors, though not
without forerunners who had no such motives as theirs,
have attempted to explain alwvss at Heb. i. 2, as the suc-
cessive dispensations, the xpovoi real /catpoi of the divine
economy. But however plausible this explanation might
LX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 219
have been if this verse had stood alone, xi. 3 is decisive
that the altaves in both passages can only be, as we have
rendered it, ' the worlds,' and not the ages.' I have called
these the only exceptions, for I cannot accept I Tim. i. 17
as a third ; where ai&vss must denote, not ' the worlds ' in
the usual concrete meaning of the term, but, according to
the more usual temporal meaning of alcov in the N. T.,
' the ages,' the temporal periods whose sum and aggregate
adumbrate the conception of eternity. The fiaan\vs TWV
alwvwv (cf. Clement of Rome, Gor. 35:0 Sr)/jLiovpyos ical
irarrjp TWV alutvwv] will thus be the sovereign dispenser
and disposer of the ages during which the mystery of
God's purpose with man is unfolding (see Ellicott, in
loco). 1 For the Hebrew equivalents of the words express-
ing time and eternity, see Conrad von Orelli, Die Hvbrai-
schen Synonyma der Zeit und Ewiglceit, Leipzig, 1 87 1 ; and
for the Greek and Latin, so far as these seek to express
them at all, see Pott, Etym. Forsch. ii. 2. 444.
Ix. vsos, /caivos.
SOME have denied that any difference can in the N". T. be
traced between these words. They derive a certain plau-
sible support for this denial from the fact that manifestly
vsos and KCUVOS, both rendered ' new ' in our Version, are
often interchangeably used ; thus vsos avOpwiros (Col. iii.
10), and Kaivos avOpwiros (Eph. ii. 15), in both cases "the
1 Our English ( world,' etymologically regarded, more nearly represents
ala>v than Kocr/io?. The old ' weralt' (in modern German ' welt ') is com-
posed of two words, 'war/ man, and 'alt,' age or generation. The
ground-meaning, therefore, of 'weralt' is generation of men (Pott.
Etym. Forsch. vol. ii. pt. i. p. 125). Out of this expression of time
unfolds itself that of space, as alvv passed into the meaning of KOO-^OS
(Grimm, Deutsche Myth. p. 752) ; but in the earliest German records
' weralt ' is used, first as an expression of time, and only derivatively as
one of space (Rudolf von Raumer, Die Einioirkung des Christenthums auf
die alt-hochdeutsche Sprache, 1845, p. 375). See however another deri-
vation altogether which Grimm seems disposed to favour (Klein. Schrift,
vol. i. p. 305, and which comes very much to this, that ' world ' = whirled.
220 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LX
new man " ; vsa Siadrj/cr) (Heb. xii. 24) and tcau^ Siadrj/cr)
(Heb. ix. 15), both "a new covenant"; vsos olvos (Matt.
ix. 17) and KCUVOS olvos (Matt. xxvi. 29), both "new wine."
The words, it is contended, are evidently of the same force
and significance. This, however, by no means follows,
and in fact is not the case. The same covenant may be
qualified as vsa, or /caivij, as it is contemplated from one
point of view or another. So too the same man, or the
same wine, may be vsos, icaivos, or may be both; but
a different notion is predominant according as the one
epithet is applied or the other.
Contemplate the new under aspects of time, as that
which has recently come into existence, and this is vsos
(see Pott, Etymol. Forschung. vol. i. pp. 290-292). Thus
the young are ol vsoi, or ol vscarspot, the generation which
has lately sprung up ; so, too, vsoi 6soi, the younger race
of gods, Jupiter, Apollo, and the other Olympians (^schy-
lus, Prom. Vinct. 991, 996), as set over against Saturn,
Ops, and the dynasty of elder deities whom they had de-
throned. But contemplate the new, not now under aspects
of time, but of quality, the new, as set over against that
which has seen service, the outworn, the effete or marred
through age, and this is /caivds : thus compare sTrifiXyfia
paKovs ayvd(f)ov (Matt. ix. 1 6) with E7ri/3\rjfjt,a UTTO l^ariov
icaivov (Luke v. 36), the latter "a new garment," as con-
trasted with one threadbare and outworn ; Kaivol CUTKOI,
"new wine-skins" (Matt. ix. 17; Luke v. 38), such as
have not lost their strength and elasticity through age
and use ; and in this sense, KCLIVOS ovpavos (2 Pet. iii. 13),
"a new heaven," as set over against that which has waxen
old, and shows signs of decay and dissolution (Heb. i. u,
12). In like manner the phrase rcaival yXwa-crai (Mark
xvi. 17) does not suggest the recent commencement of
this miraculous speaking with tongues, but the unlikeness
of these tongues to any that went before; therefore called
srspai 7\o)cro-at elsewhere (Acts ii. 4), tongues unwonted
LX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 221
and different from any hitherto known. The sense of the
unwonted as lying in naivos comes out very clearly in a
passage of Xenophon (Cyrop. in. I. 30) : tcaivfjs ap^op.evrjs
rjs, rj rrjs slwOvias Karafjisvoixr^s. So too that rcaivov
, in which Joseph of Arimathea laid the body of
the Lord (Matt, xxvii. 60 ; John xix. 41), was not a tomb
recently hewn from the rock, but one which had never
yet been hanselled, in which hitherto no dead had lain,
making the place ceremonially unclean (Matt, xxiii. 27 ;
Num. xix. 16; Ezek. xxxix. 12, 16). It might have been
hewn out a hundred years before, and could not therefore
have been called vsov : but, if never turned to use before,
it would be KCLIVOV still. That it should be thus was part
of that divine decorum which ever attended the Lord in
the midst of the humiliations of his earthly life (cf. Luke
xix. 30 ; I Sam. vi. 7 ; 2 Kin. ii. 20).
It will follow from what has been said that icawos will
often, as a secondary notion, imply praise ; for the new is
commonly better than the old ; thus everything is new in
the kingdom of glory, "the new Jerusalem " (Eev. iii. 12 ;
xxi. 2) ; the " new name " (ii. 17 ; iii. 12) ; "a new song "
(v. 9 ; xiv. 3) ; " a new heaven and new earth " (xxi. I j
cf . 2 Pet. iii. 13); "all things new" (xxi. 5). But this
not of necessity ; for it is not always, and in every thing,
that the new is better, but sometimes the old ; thus the
old friend (Ecclus. ix. 10), and the old wine (Luke v. 39),
are better than the new. And in many other instances
/caivos may express only the novel and strange, as con-
trasted, and that unfavourably, with the known and the
familiar. Thus it was mentioned just now that vsoi dsoi
was a title given to the younger generation of gods ; but
when it was brought as a charge against Socrates that he
had sought to introduce KCMVOVS Qsovs, or KCLLVO. Saiftovia
into Athens (Plato, Apol. 26 b; Euthyphro, 36; cf. %sva
SaifAovia, Acts xvii. 1 8), something quite different from
this was meant a novel pantheon, such gods as Athens
222 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LX.
had not hitherto been accustomed to worship ; so too in
Plato (Rep, iii. 405 c?) : Kaiva ravra ical aroTra voa-^p-drwv
ovopara. In the same manner they who exclaimed of
Christ's teaching, " What new doctrine [fcaivr) StSa%7;] is
this?" intended anything but praise (Mark i. 27). The
Kaivov is the srspov, the qualitatively other; the veov is the
a\\o, the numerically distinct. Let us bring- this differ-
ence to bear on the interpretation of Acts xvii. 21. St.
Luke describes the Athenians there as spending their
leisure, and all their life was leisure, ' vacation,' to adopt
Fuller's pun, * being their whole vocation,' in the market-
place, rj \fysiv rj dtcovsiv Tt Kaivorspov. We might perhaps
have expected beforehand he would have written n vswrs-
pov, and this expectation seems the more warranted when
we find Demosthenes long before pourtraying these same
Athenians as haunting the market-place with this same
object and aim he using this latter word, irvvQavo^voi
Kara rrjv djopav st Tt \eyTai vscorspov. Elsewhere, how-
ever, he changes his word and describes them as St. Luke
has done, demanding one of another (Philip, i. 43), \ejsral
TI icaivov ; But the meaning of the two passages is not
exactly identical. The vswrspov of the first affirms that
it is ever the latest news which they seek, ' nova statim
sordebant, noviora quEerebantur,' as Bengel on Acts xvii.
21 has it; the icaivov of the second implies that it is
something not only new, but sufficiently diverse from what
had gone before to stimulate a jaded and languid curiosity.
If we pursue these words into their derivatives and
compounds, the same distinction will come yet more clearly
out. Thus vsorvjy (i Tim. iv. 12; cf. Ps. cii. [LXX.] 5 : dva-
Kaivicr0)j(rTai cos O.STOV rj vsorrjs trot) is youth : Kaivorrfs (Rom.
vi. 4) is newness or novelty ; vsoei&rfs, of youthful appear-
ance ; /caivosi&rfs, of novel unusual appearance ; vso^.ojla
(had such a word existed) would have been, a younger
growth of words as distinguished from the old stock of
the language, or, as we say, * neologies '; tcaivoXoyla, which
LX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 223
does exist in the later Greek, a novel anomalous invention
of words, constructed on different laws from those which
the language had recognized hitherto ; <f>t\ovso$, a lover
of youth (Lucian, Amor. 24) ; <f>i\6/c<uvos, a lover of
novelty (Plutarch, De Mus. 12).
There is a passage in Polybius (v. 75. 4), as there are
many elsewhere (^schylus, Pers. 665 ; Euripides, Med.
75, 78; and Clement of Alexandria, Pcedag. i. 5. 14, 20, will
furnish such), in which the words occur together, or in
closest sequence ; but neither in this are they employed as
a mere rhetorical accumulation : each has its own special
significance. Relating a stratagem whereby the town of
Selge was very nearly surprised and taken, Polybius re-
marks that, notwithstanding the many cities which have
evidently been lost through a similar device, we are, in
some way or other, still new and young in regard of such
like deceits (/catvot nvss alsl KOI vsoi Tr/aoy ras roiavTa?
airdras Trs^v/ca/^sv'), ready therefore to be deceived by them
over again. Here /caivot is an epithet applied to men on
the ground of their rawness and inexperience, vsoi on that
of their youth. It is true that these two, inexperience
and youth, go often hand and hand ; thus vsos and airsipos
are joined by Plutarch (De Rect. Rat. And. 17); but this
is not of necessity. An old man may be raw and un-
practised in the affairs of the world, therefore rcaivos :
there have been many young men, vsoi in respect of age,
who were well skilled and exercised in these.
Apply the distinction here drawn, and it will be mani-
fest that the same man, the same wine, the same covenant,
may have both these epithets applied to them, and yet
different meanings may be, and will have been intended to
be, conveyed, as the one was used, or the other. Take, for
example, the vsos avdpanros of Col. iii. IO, and the KO.IVOS
avdpcDTros of Ephes. ii. 15. Contemplate under aspects of
time that mighty transformation which has found and is
still finding place in the man who has become obedient to
224 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LX.
the truth, and you will call him subsequently to this
change, vsos avdpwTros. The old man in him, and it well
deserves this name, for it dates as far back as Adarn, has
died ; a new man has been born, who therefore is fitly so
called. But contemplate again, and not now under aspects
of time, but of quality and condition, the same mighty
transformation ; behold the man who, through long com-
merce with the world, inveterate habits of sinning, had
grown outworn and old, casting off the former conversa-
tion, as the snake its shrivelled skin, coming forth "a
new creature" (/caivr) KT<TIS), from his heavenly Maker's
hands, with a Trvsvpa KCLIVOV given to him (Ezek. xi. 19),
and you have here the icaivos avOpwiros, one prepared to
walk ' in newness of life ' (sv KaLvorrjTt, ^wrjs, Rom. vi. 4)
through the avatcaivaxris of the Spirit (Tit. iii. 5) ; in the
words of the Epistle of Barnabas, 16, ejsvo/jisda icaivot,
Trd\iv e% dp-^s KTi^o/jisvoi. Often as the words in this
application would be interchangeable, yet this is not always
so. When, for example, Clement of Alexandria (Peed. i.
6) says of those that are Christ's, %pr) jap sivat, icaivovs
Aojov tcaivov fisrsiXrj^oTas, all will feel how impossible it
would be to substitute vsovs or vsov here. Or take the
verbs dvavsovv (Ephes. iv. 23), and dvaicatvovv (Col. iii. 10).
We all have need dvaveovadai, and we have need dva/cai-
vova-dai as well. It is, indeed, the same marvellous and
mysterious process, to be brought about by the same
almighty Agent; but the same regarded from different
points of view ; dvavsovaOai, to be made young again ; dva-
icaivovcrQai, or dvaKaivl^sadai, to be made new again. That
Chrysostom realized the distinction between the words, and
indeed so realized it that he drew a separate exhortation
from each, the following passages, placed side by side, will
very remarkably prove. This first (in Ep. ad Ephes. Horn.
13) : avavsovcrOs os, (^crt, TO) Trvsv^ian rov vobs vpwv .... TO
Ss dvavsovadal <rnv orav avro TO ysyijpaKbs dvavswrai, a\\o
s% a\\ov yivofisvov. . . . 'O vsos la^vpos sariv, 6 vsos pvri^a
LXI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 225
OVK %i, o vsos oi> TTSpicfrspsTai. The second is in ~Ep. ad Rom.
Horn. 2O : OTrsp 7rl TO)V OLKICOV Troiovfisv, TTO\aiovp,va$ avras
del Siopdovvrss, TOVTO Kal S7rl aavTOv iroisi,. "Hfj-aprss cr^e-
pov ; eirdXaiwa'ds <rov Trjv "^rv^jv ; fir) aTroyvws, f^rjos dva-
irscrrjs, dX\' dvatcaivtaov avrijv fisravoia.
The same holds good in other instances quoted above.
New wine may be characterized as vsos or icaivos, but from
different points of view. As veos, it is tacitly set over
against the vintage of past years; as Kaivof, we may as-
sume it austere and strong, in contrast with that which is
^/37;crTos, sweet and mellow through age (Luke v. 39).
So, too, the Covenant of which Christ is the Mediator is a
SiaOritcr) vea, as compared with the Mosaic, confirmed
nearly two thousand years before (Heb. xii. 24) ; it is a
Siadij/cr) Kaivr], as compared with the same, effete with age,
and with all vigour, energy, and quickening power gone
from it (Heb. viii. 13 ; compare Marriott's Elp^viKa, part
ii. pp. I ii-i 15, 170).
A Latin grammarian, drawing the distinction between
* recens ' and ' novus,' has said, ' Eecens ad tempus, novum
ad rent refertur ; ' and compare Doderlein, Lat. Syn. vol.
iv. p. 64. Substituting vsos and tcaivos, we might say,
' vsos ad tempus, /cacvds ad rem refertur,' and should thus
grasp in a few words, easily remembered, the distinction
between them at its central point. 1
Ixi.
THE notion of riot and excess in wine is common to all
these ; but this with differences, and offering for contem-
plation different points of view.
MsOr), occurring in the N. T. at Luke xxi. 34; Rom.
1 Lafaye (Diet, des Synonymes, p. 798) claims the same distinction for
' nouveau ' ( = veos), and ' neuf ' ( = xati/or) : ' Ce qui est nouveau vieut de
paraitre pour la premiere fois : ce qui est neuf vient d'etre fait et n'a pas
ciicore servi. Une invention est nouvelle, une expressioa ueuve.'
226 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXI.
xiii. 1 3 ; Gal. v. 2 1 ; and TTOTOS, found only at I Pet. iv.
3, are distinguishable as an abstract and a concrete.
(stronger, and expressing a worse excess, than
from which it is distinguished by Plutarch, De Garr. 4 ;
Symp. iii. I ; cf. Philo, De Plant. 38), denned by Clement
of Alexandria (Pcedag. ii. 2. 26) dtcpdrov ^pfjais a<f)o$po-
rspa, is drunkenness (Joel i. 5 ; Ezek. xxxix. 19) ; iroros
(=ua)^la y Hesychius ; cf. Poly bias, ii. 4. 6), the drinkirg
bout, the banquet, the symposium, not of necessity exces-
sive (Gen. xix. 3 ; 2 Sam. iii. 20 ; Esth. vi. 14), but giving
opportunity for excess (i Sam. xxv. 36; Xenophon, Anab.
vii. 3. 26: sTrsI Trpov^apsi 6 TTOTOS).
The next word in this group, olvo(j>\vyia (" excess of
wine," A. V.), occurs in the N. T. only at i Pet. iv. 3 ; and
never in the Septuagint ; but olvo^vysiv, Deut. xxi. 20 ;
Isai. Ivi. 22. It marks a step in advance of fisdrj (Philo,
l)e Ebriet. 8). The same writer (De Merc. Her. i) names
oivo<j>\vyia among the vfipsis sa^arat,: compare Xeno-
phon (CEcon. i. 22) : 8ov\oi\i^vsia)v,\ajvst,(ov, olvo(f)\vjia)v.
In strict definition it is sTriOvpia o/lvov CLTT^OTOS (Andro-
nicus of Rhodes), dirX^pwros sTnOvfiia, as Philo (Vit. Mos.
iii. 22) calls it ; the German ' Trinksucht.' Commonly,
however, it is used for a debauch; no single word render-
ing it better than this ; being as it is an extravagant
indulgence in potations long drawn out (see Basil, Horn, in
Ebrios, 7), such as may induce permanent mischiefs on the
body (Aristotle, Eth. Nic. iii. 5. 15) ; as did, for instance,
that fatal debauch to which, adopting one of the reports
current in antiquity, Arriau ascribes the death of
Alexander the Great (vii. 24, 25).
KCO/JLOS, in the N. T. found in the plural only, and ren-
dered in our Version once 'rioting' (Kom. xiii. 13), and
twice ' revellings' (Gal. v. 21 ; I Pet. iv. 3), may be said
to unite in itself both those notions, namely, of riot and
of revelry. It is the Latin ' comissatio,' which, as it
hardly needs to observe, is connected with Kcofid&tv, not
LXI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 227
with * comedo.' Thus, K&IJLOS ical aa-uria (2 Mace. vi. 4) ;
tca>/j,oi (Wisd. xiv. 23) ; TTOTOI teal KM/AOI KOI 6a\tai
(Plutarch, Pyrrh. 16) ; cf. Philo, De Cher. 27, where
we have a striking description of the other vices with which
fisdij and KWfjLoi, are associated the most nearly. At the
same time KW/JLOS is often used of the company of revellers
themselves ; always a festal company, but not of necessity
riotous and drunken; thus see Euripides, Alces. 816, 959.
Still the word generally implies as much, being applied in a
special sense to the troop of drunken revellers, f comis-
santium agmen ' (the troop of Furies in the Agamemnon,
1 1 60, as drunk with blood, obtain this name), who at the
late close of a revel, with garlands on their heads, and
torches in their hands, 1 with shout and song 2 (K&JJLOS KOI
{3od, Plutarch, Alex. 38), pass to the harlots' houses, or
otherwise wander through the streets, with insult and
wanton outrage for every one whom they meet; cf.
Meinete, Fragm. Com. Qrcec. p. 617; the graphic de-
scription of such in Juvenal's third Satire, 278-301 ; and
the indignant words of Milton :
' when night
Darkens the streets, then wander forth the sons
Of Belial, < /Z0wn with insolence and wine.'
Plutarch (Alex. 37) characterizes as a /CW/AOS the mad
drunken march of Alexander and his army through Car-
mania, on the return from their Indian expedition. On
possible, or rather on impossible etymologies of KW^OS, see
Pott, Etym. Forsch. 2. 2. 551.
Kpcu7ra\r}, the Latin ' crapula,' though with a more
limited signification (77 ^Osa-ivr) ftsOij, Ammonius ; 77 7rl rp
IMsQy Suo-apea-Trja-is ical a^Sla, Clement of Alexandria, Pcedag.
eoiKe &' ri Ko>
ye rot KOI SaS' e\a>v iropevfTai.
Aristophanes, Plut. 1040.
9 Theophylact makes these songs themselves the KU/IOI, defining th
word thus : TO. p.(ra fj.edr}s KOI u/3pecoj ao-para.
Q2
228 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXII.
ii. 2. 26), is another word whose derivation remains in
obscurity. We haye rendered it ' surfeiting ' at Luke xxi.
34, the one occasion on which it occurs in the N,T. In the
Septuagint it is never found, but the verb Kpanra~\,dw
thrice (Ps. Ixxvii. 65 ; Isai. xxiv. 20; xxix. 9). ' Fulsome-
ness,' in the early sense of that word (see my Select Glos-
sary of English Words, s. v. * fulsome'), would express it
very well, with only the drawback that by ' f ulsomeness '
is indicated the disgust and loathing from over-fulness of
meat as well as of wine, while KpanrdXij expresses only
the latter. [Aristophanes compounds these two synonyms
into the word KpaiTrdKoKWfj.os (Ran. 217).]
Ixii. Ka-Tnj\svM, SoXow.
IN two passages, standing very near to one another, St.
Paul claims for himself that he is not " as many, which
corrupt the word of God " (/caTr^XeiWrey, 2 Cor. ii. 17); and
presently again he disclaims being of them who can be
accused of " handling deceitfully " the same (SoXovvrss, iv.
2) ; neither word appearing again in the N. T. It is evi-
dent, not less from the context than from the character of
the words themselves, that the notions which they express
must lie very near to one another ; oftentimes it is asserted
or assumed that they are absolutely identical, as by all
translators who have only one rendering for both ; by the
Vulgate, for instance, which has c adulterantes ' in both
places ; by Chrysostom, who explains tc(nri]\Viv as =
vodsvsiv. Yet this is a mistake. On nearer examination,
it will be found that while Kairrf\.svsLv covers all that
So\ovv does, it also covers something more ; and this,
whether in the literal sense, or in the transferred and
figurative, wherein it is used by St. Paul ; even as it is
evident that our own Translators, whether with any very
clear insight into the distinction between the words or
LXII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 229
not, did not acquiesce in the obliteration of all distinction
between them.
The history of Kcnrr)\sviv is not difficult to follow. The
Kd7rr]\os is properly the huckster or petty retail trader, as
set over against the s/j, r rropos or merchant who sells his
wares in the gross ; the two occurring together, Ecclus.
xxvi. 29. But while the word would designate any such
pedlar, the KaTrrfKos is predominantly the vendor in retail
of wine (Lucian, Hermot. 58). Exposed to many and strong
temptations, into which it was only too easy for such to fall
(Ecclus. xxvi. 29), as to mix their wine with water(Isai. i. 22),
or otherwise to tamper with it, to sell it in short measure,
these men so generally yielded to these temptations, that
Ku7rt}\os and KaTrijXsvsiv, like ' caupo J and ' cauponari,'
became words of contempt; Kairrfksvsiv being the making
of any shameful traffic and gain as the Kcnrrfkos does
(Plato, Hep. vii. 525 <Z; Protag. 313 d; Becker, Char-ikies,
1840, p. 256). But it will at once be evident that the
SoXo5i> is only one part of the K(nn)\vstv, namely, the
tampering with or sophisticating the wine by the admix-
ture of alien matter, and does not suggest the fact that
this is done with the purpose of making a disgraceful
gain thereby. Nay, it might be urged that it only ex-
presses partially the tampering itself, as the following
extract from Lucian (Hermot. 59) would seem to say : ol
<j)i\6a-o(j)oi, atroBlBovrat ra fiad^/j,ara &cnrep ol KUTTW^OI,
tcspaadfASvol <ys ol TroXXot, Kal 8o\(t)o~avTSS, KOI KO,KO/J,S-
rpovvrss : for here the So\ovv is only one part of the de-
ceitful handling by the KdTrrj\.os of the wares which he
sells.
But whether this be worth urging or not, it is quite
certain that, while in 8o\ovv there is no more than the
simple falsifying, there is in KaTrrjKsvsw the doing of this
with the intention of making an unworthy gain thereby.
Surely here is a moment in the sin of the false teachers,
which St. Paul, in disclaiming the KaTrrfksvsw, intended to
230 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXII.
disclaim for himself. He does in as many words most
earnestly disclaim it in this same Epistle (xii. 14; cf. Acts
xx. 33); and this the more earnestly, seeing that it is
continually noted in Scripture as a mark of false prophets
and false apostles (for so does the meanest cleave to the
highest, and untruthfulness in highest things expose to
lowest temptations), that they, through covetousness, make
merchandise of souls ; thus by St. Paul himself, Tit. i. 1 1 ;
Phil. iii. 19; cf. 2 Pet. ii. 3, 14, 15 ; Jude II, 16 ; Ezek.
xiii. 19; and see Ignatius (the longer recension), where,
no doubt with a reference to this passage, and showing
how the writer understood it, the false teachers are de-
nounced as ^pr)/jLaro\ai\a7rf^ as xpHTTSfiTropoi, TOV 'Irjaovv
TrwKovvTSS, KOI Kajrri\vovTs TOV \6yov TOV svayjs\iov.
Surely we have here a difference which it is well worth
our while not to pass by unobserved. The Galatian false
teachers might undoubtedly have been charged as Bo\ovv TSS
TOV \6yov, mingling, as they did, vain human traditions
with the pure word of the Gospel : building in hay, straw,
and stubble with its silver, gold, and precious stones ; but
there is nothing which would lead us to charge them as
Kcnrr)'\,vovTs TOV \o/ov rov sou, as working this mischief
which they did work for filthy lucre's sake (see Deyling,
Obss. Sac. vol. iv. p. 636).
Bentley, in his Sermon on Popery (Works, vol. iii. p.
242), strongly maintains the distinction which I have
endeavoured to trace. " Our English Translators," he says,
* ' have not been very happy in their version of this passage
[2 Cor. ii. 17]. We are not, says the Apostle, KaTrrjXsvovres
TOV \6<yov TOV soO, which our Translators have rendered,
* we do not corrupt,' or (as in the margin) ' deal deceit-
fully with,' < the word of God.' They were led to this by
the parallel place, c. iv. of this Epistle, ver 2, * not walk-
ing in craftiness,' firjSe SO\OVVTSS TOV \6yov TOV got), * nor
handling the word of God deceitfully;' they took KaTnj-
\SVOVTSS and BO\OVVTSS in the same adequate notion, as the
LXII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 231
vulgar Latin had done before them, which expresses both
by the same word, adulterantes verbum Dei ; and so, like-
wise,Hesychius makes them synonyms, eKKcnrrjXevsiv, So\ovv.
AoAoDz/, indeed, is fitly rendered ' adulterare ' ; so So\ovv
rbv xpvcrov, rbv olvov, to adulterate gold or wine, by mixing
worse ingredients with the metal or liquor. And our
Translators had done well if they had rendered the latter
passage, not adulterating, not sophisticating the word.
But KaTTT]\vovTss in our text has a complex idea and a
wider signification ; Ka7rtj\vsiv always comprehends So\ovv,
but SoXovv never extends to KaTnjX.svsiv, which, besides the
sense of adulterating, has an additional notion of unjust
lucre, gain, profit, advantage. This is plain from the
word Ku.Tni\.os, a calling always infamous for avarice and
knavery : * perfidus hie caupo,' says the poet, as a general
character. Thence Kcnr^svsiv, by an easy and natural
metaphor, was diverted to other expressions where cheating
and lucre were signified : iccnrrfktvsLv rov \6yov, says the
Apostle here, and the ancient Greeks, KamiKsvsiv ras Si/cas,
rr]v slprjvrjv, ryv <ro(f)iav, ra ftaOtffAara, to corrupt and sell
justice, to barter a negociation of peace, to prostitute
learning and philosophy for gain. Cheating, we see, and
adulterating is part of the notion of KairrjXsvsiv, but the
essential of it is sordid lucre. So ' cauponari ' in the well-
known passage of Ennius, where Pyrrhus refuses to treat
for the ransom for his captives, and restores them gratis :
' Non mi aurum posco, nee mi pretium dederitis,
Non cauponanti bellum, sed belligeranti.'
And so the Fathers expound this place So that, in
short, what St. Paul says, KaTrrjXsvovrss rbv \6<yov, might
be expressed in one classic word \oysjj,Tropoi or ^070-
Trparai, 1 where the idea of gain and profit is the chief
part of the signification. Wherefore, to do justice to
our text, we must not stop lamely with our Translators,
1 So AoyoTTwAat in Philo, Cong. Erud. Grot. 10.
232 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXIII.
'corrupters of the word of God;' but add to it as its
plenary notion, * corrupters of the word of God for filthy
lucre.' "
If what has been just said is correct, it will follow that
* deceitfully handling ' would be a more accurate, though
itself not a perfectly adequate, rendering of Ka7rrj\svovTs,
and ' who corrupt ' of 8o\ovvT$, than the converse of this,
which our Version actually offers.
Ixiii. dya6a)(Tvv7j,
is one of many words with which revealed
religion has enriched the later language of Greece. It
occurs nowhere else but in the Greek translations of the
O. T. (2 Chron. xxiv. 16; Nehem. ix. 25 ; Eccles. ix. 18),
in the N. T., and in writings directly dependent upon
these. The grammarians, indeed, at no time acknow-
ledged, or gave to it or to ayadorrjs the stamp of allow-
ance, demanding that ^p^o-Tor^y, which, as we shall see, is
not absolutely identical with it, should be always employed
in its stead (Lobeck, Pathol. Serm. Grcec. p. 237). In the
N. T. we meet with dyadcixrvvt] four times, always in the
writings of St. Paul (Rom. xv. 14; Gal. v. 22 ; Ephes. v.
9; 2 Thess. i. n) ; being invariably rendered 'goodness*
in our Version. We sometimes feel the want of some word
more special and definite, as at Gal. v. 22, where dyadwa-vvr)
makes one of a long list of Christian virtues or graces, and
must mean some single and separate grace, while ' good-
ness ' seems to embrace all. To explain it there, as does
Phavorinus, f) a-nripna-yusv'^ dpsTJ, is little satisfactory ;
however true it may be that it is sometimes, as at Ps. li.
[LXX] 5, set over against /ea/aa, and obtains this larger
meaning. With all this it is hard to suggest any other
rendering; even as, no doubt, it is harder to seize the
central force of dyadcaa-vvr] than of ^^O-TOT^S-, this difficulty
LXIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 233
mainly arising from the fact that we have no helping pas-
sages in the classical literature of Greece ; for, however
these can never be admitted to give the absolute law to
the meaning of words in Scripture, we at once feel a loss,
when such are wanting altogether. It will be well, there-
fore, to consider ^p-rja-TOTns first, and when it is seen what
domain of meaning is occupied by it, we may then better
judge what remains for dyaOwa-vvr).
XprjcrTOTTjs, a beautiful word, as it is the expression of
a beautiful grace (cf. ^p^arro^dsia, Ecclus. xxxvii. 1 1), like
ayaOwavvrj, occurs in the N. T. only in the writings of
St. Paul, being by him joined to (f>t\av0pa)7ria (Tit. iii. 4 ;
cf. Lucian, Timon, 8 ; Plutarch, Demet. 50) ; to p,a-
KpodvjAia and a vo-yr] (Rom. ii. 4) ; and opposed to tnrorofiia
(Rom. xi. 22). The A. V. renders it 'good' (Rom. iii.
12); 'kindness' (2 Cor. vi. 6; Ephes. ii. 7; Col. iii. 12 ;
Tit. iii. 4) ; ' gentleness' (Gal. v. 22). The Rheims, which
has for it ' benignity,' a great improvement on ' gentle-
ness* (Gal. v. 22), 'sweetness' (2 Cor. vi. 6), has seized
more successfully the central notion of the word. It is
explained in the Definitions which go under Plato's name
(412 e), fjOovs aTrkaaria /ter' suXoyicrrias : by Phavorinus,
ia, r] Trpbs TOVS TrsXas (rvv^iddscns, TO, avrov &>s
ov/jisvT]. It is joined by Clement of Rome
with s\sos (Cor. 9) ; by Plutarch with svpsveia (De Cap.
ex Inim. Util. 9) ; with ^\vKv6vjj,ia (De Soler. Anim. 33) ;
with avrXoTT/y and fj,ya\ofipo<Tvvr) (G-cdba, 22) ; by Lucian
with ol/crof (Timon, 8) ; as ^prjcnos with (f)i\,dvdp(t)7ro$
(Plutarch, Symp. i. I. 4). It is grouped by Philo with
svflvpia, rifj.spoTrjs, rjirioTrjs (De Mere. Mer. 3). Josephus,
speaking of the xprja-TOTrjs of Isaac (Antt. i. 18. 3), dis-
plays a fine insight into the ethical character of the
patriarch ; see Gen. xxvi. 20-22.
Calvin has quite too superficial a view of XP^O-TOTT??,
when, commenting on Col. iii. 12, he writes : 'Comitatem
sic enim vertere libuit ^pTja-Torrj-ra qu& nos redditnus
234 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXIII.
amabiles. Mansuetudo [_irpaiiTrjs\ t quee sequitur, latius
patet quam comitas, nam ilia prsecipue est in vultu ac
sermone, hsec etiara in affectu interiore.' So far from
being this mere grace of word and countenance, it is one
pervading and penetrating the whole nature, mellowing
there all which would have been harsh, and austere ; thus
wine is 'xfrjcrros, which has been mellowed with age (Luke
v - 39) 5 Christ's yoke is ^p^aros, as having nothing harsh
or galling about it (Matt. xi. 30). On the distinction
between it and ayadcaa-vvrj Cocceius (on Gal. v. 22), quoting
Tit. iii. 4, where xprja-TOTrjs occurs, goes on to say : { Ex
quo exemplo patet per hanc vocem siguificari quandam
liberalitatem et studium benefaciendi. Per alteram autem
[aya8a)o-vwr}~\ possumus intelligere comitatem, suavitatem
morum, concinnitatem, gravitatem morum, et oinnein
amabilitatem cum decoro et dignitate conjunctam.' Yet
neither does this seem to me to have exactly hit the mark.
If the words are at all set over against one another, the
* suavitas ' belongs to the ^prjcrror^s rather than to the
ayaQwavvt). More germane to the matter is what Jerome
has said. Indeed I know nothing so well said elsewhere
(in Ep. ad Gal. v. 22) : ' Benignitas sive suavitas, quia apud
Graces X^O-TOT^S- utrumque sonat, virtus est lenis, blanda,
tranquilla, et omnium bonorum apta consortio ; invitans
ad familiaritatem sui, dulcis alloquio, moribus temperata.
Denique et hanc Stoici ita defmiunt : Benignitas est virtus
sponte ad benefaciendum exposita. Non multum bonitas
[a^adwa-vvrf] a benignitate diversa est ; quia et ipsa ad bene-
faciendum videtur exposita. Sed in eo differt ; quia potest
bonitas esse tristior, et fronte severis moribus irrugata,
bene quidem facere et prsestare quod poscitur : non tamen
suavis esse consortio, et sua cuuctos invitare dulcedine.
Hanc quoque sectatores Zenonis ita definiunt: Bonitas
est virtus quse prodest, sive, virtus ex qua oritur utilitas ;
aut, virtus propter semetipsam ; aut, affectus qui fons sit
utilitatum.' With this agrees in the main the distinction
LXIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 235
which St. Basil draws (Reg. Brev. Tract. 214) : ir\arvTspav
oifj.ai sivai rrjv ^prfarTOT^ra, sis svspysa-lav T&V OTTWS STJTTOTOVV
STTiSso/Asvcov ravrrjs' arvvr)'yp,evr]v Bs fj,a\\ov rrjv djaddxrvvrjv,
Kal TOIS rfjs SiKaioavvrjs \6yois si> rats svsp^saLais crwyxpa)-
fievrjv. Lightfoot, on Gal. v. 22, finds more activity in
the ayadaxrvvr) than in the ^p^crrorris : ( they are distin-
guished from one another as the rjQos from the svepyeia :
Xpija-TOTr)? is potential dyadwa-vvi], djadwavvrj is energizing
A man might display his ayadaxrvvrj, his zeal for good-
ness and truth, in rebuking, correcting, chastising. Christ
was not working otherwise than in the spirit of this grace
when He drove the buyers and sellers out of the temple
(Matt. xxi. 13); or when He uttered all those terrible
words against the Scribes and Pharisees (Matt, xxiii.) ; but
we could not say that his xprja-TOTV]? was shown in these
acts of a righteous indignation. This was rather dis-
played in his reception of the penitent woman (Luke vii.
37-50 ; cf. Ps. xxiv. 7, 8) ; as in all other his gracious
dealings with the children of men. Thus we might speak,
the Apostolic Constitutions (ii. 22) do speak, of the
Xprja-Torris rfjs dyadwavvrjs of God, but scarcely of the
converse. This ^prjarorris was so predominantly the
character of Christ's ministry, that it is nothing wonderful
to learn from Tertullian (Apol. 3), how * Christus ' became
' Chrestus,' and ' Christian! * * Chrestiani ' on the lips of
the heathen with that undertone, it is true, of contempt,
which the world feels, and soon learns to express in words,
for a goodness which to it seems to have only the harm-
lessness of the dove, and nothing of the wisdom of the
serpent. Such a contempt, indeed, it is justified in enter-
taining for a goodness which has no edge, no sharpness in
it, no righteous indignation against sin, nor willingness
to punish it. That what was called ^/J^O-TOTT/S-, still
retaining this honourable name, did sometimes degenerate
into this, and end with being no goodness at all, we have
236 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXIV.
evidence in a striking fragment of Menander (Meineke,
Ftagm. Com. Grcec. p. 982) :
T) Vl>V V7TO TlVtoV Xp^CTTOT^y KClXoV^ffT)
fj.e6iJKf TOV SKov els Trovrjpiav ftiov '
ovdfls yap ddiK&v Tvy^avfi Tip.(apias,
Ixiv. SiKTVOV, a^(j3\T]crrpov, a-ay^vrj.
OUR English word 'net' will, in a general way, cover all
these three, which yet are capable of a more accurate dis-
crimination one from the other.
AIKTVOV (=' rete,' * retia'), from the old &IKSLV, to cast,
which appears again in &LCTKOS, a quoit, is the more general
name for all nets, and would include the hunting net, and
the net with which birds are taken (Prov. i. 17), as well as
the fishing, although used only of the latter in the N. T.
(Matt. iv. 20 ; John xxi. 6). It is often in the Septuagint
employed in that figurative sense in which St. Paul uses
Tray Is (Rom. xi. 9 ; I Tim. iii. 7), and is indeed associated
with it (Job xviii. 8 ; Prov. xxix. 5).
*A/ji(>if3\'ri<rTpoi> and crayijvr) are varieties of fishing nets ;
they are named together, Hab. i. 15 ; and in Plutarch
(De Soler. Anim. 26), who joins yptTros with crayiivr), VTTO^IJ
with ufi^i^X'qa-rpov. 'A/i</>(/3X^crTpoz/ found only in the
N. T. at Matt. iv. 18 ; Mark i. 16; cf. Eccl. ix. 12 ; Ps.
cxl. 10 (a^L^o\t^ Oppian) is the casting net, ' jaculum,'
i.e. *rete jaculuni' (Ovid, Art. Am. i. 763), or 'funda*
(Virgil, Georg. i. 141), which, when skilfully cast from over
the shoulder by one standing on the shore or in a boat,
spreads out into a circle (a^L^aXksraL) as it falls upon
the water, and then sinking swiftly by the weight of the
leads attached to it, encloses whatever is below it. Its
circular, bell-like shape adapted it to the office of a
mosquito net, to which, as Herodotus (ii. 95), tells us, the
Egyptian fishermen turned it ; but see Blakesley, Herodo-
tus, in loc. The garment in whose deadly folds Clytem-
nestra entangles Agamemnon is called
LXIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 237
(JEschylus, Agamem. 1353; C/ioeph. 490; cf. Euripidos,
Helen. 1088) ; so, too, the fetter with which Prometheus is
fastened to his rock (JEschylus, Prom. Vinct. 81) ; and the
envenomed garment which Deianira gives to Hercules
(Sophocles, Track. 1052).
^ayi'jvr) found in the N. T. only at Matt*, xiii. 47 ; cf.
Isai. xix. 8 ; Ezek. xxvi. 5 (from o-aTrw, crsa-aya, ' onero ')
is the long-drawn net, or sweep-net (' vasta sagena '
Manilius calls it), the ends of which being carried out in
boats so as to include a large extent of open sea, are then
drawn together, and all which they contain enclosed and
taken. It is rendered ' sagena ' in the Vulgate, whence
1 seine/ or ' sean,' the name of this net in Cornwall, on
whose coasts it is much in use. In classical Latin it is
called ' everrieulum (Cicero, playing upon Yerres' name,
calls him, ' everrieulum in provincia'), from its sweeping
the bottom of the sea. From the fact that it was thus a
jravajpov or take-all (Homer, II. v. 487), the Greeks gave
the name of crayrjvsvsiv to a device by which the Persians
were reported to have cleared a conquered island of its
inhabitants (Herodotus, iii. 149; vi. 31; Plato, Legg. iii.
698 d ; curiously enough, the same device being actually
tried, but with very indifferent success, in Tasmania not
many years ago ; see Bonwick's Last of the Tasmanians.
Virgil in two lines describes the fishing by the aid first of
the a/j,(j)(/3\r)(rTpov and then of the aa^^vr] (Georg. i. 141) :
' Atqne alius latum funda jam verberat amnem
Alta petens, pelagoque alius trah.it hutnida lina.'
It will be seen that an evident fitness suggested the
use of oayi'ivr) in a parable (Matt. xiii. 47) wherein our
Lord is setting forth the wide reach, and all-embracing
character, of his future kingdom. "Neither a^i^K^a-rpov,
nor yet SIKTVOV which might have meant no more than
a/j,<j>l/3\'r]crTpov, would have suited at all so well.
238 SWOXYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXV.
1XV. \V7TSOfiai, TTZvdsto, OpTJVSO), KOTTTOfJiai.
IN all these words there is the sense of grief, or the utter-
ance of grief; but the sense of grief in different degrees
of intensity, the utterance of it in different forms of mani-
festation.
AvTTsicrdai, (Matt. xiv. 9 ; I Pet. i. 6) is not a special
but a most general word, embracing the most various
forms of grief, being opposed to %a{psiv (Aristotle, Rhet. j.
2 ; Sophocles, Ajax, 555) ; as XVTTT; to %apd (John xvi. 20 ;
Xenophon, Hell. vii. i. 32); or to 17 801/17 (Plato, Legg. v.
733). This \v-rrrj, unlike the grief which the three follow-
ing words express, a man may so entertain in the deep of
his heart, that there shall be no outward manifestation of
it, unless he himself be pleased to reveal it (Rom. ix. 2).
Not so the Trsvdsiv, which is stronger, being not merely
* dolere ' or ( angi,' but ' lugere,' and like this last, properly
and primarily (Cicero, Tusc. i. 13; iv. 8 : ' luctus, ccgri-
tudo ex ejus, qui carus fuerit, interifru acerbo ') to lament
for the dead; TrsvQslv V&KVV (Homer, II. xix. 225); rovs
aTroX.w\6ras (Xenophon, Hell. ii. 2.3); then any other
passionate lamenting (Sophocles, (Ed. Uex y 1296; Gen.
xxxvii. 34) ; jrsvdos being in fact a form of TrdOos (see Plu-
tarch, Cons, ad Apoll. 22) ; to grieve with a grief which
so takes possession of the whole being that it cannot be
hid; cf. Spanheim (Dub. Evang. Si): ' trsvOeiv enim apud
Hellenistas respondit verbis n33 K\aist,v, dp^vsiv, et ^'n
o\.o\v^siv, adeoque non tantum denotat luctum conceptum
intus, sed et expressurn foris.' According to Chrysostom
(in loco) the irsvdovvTss of Matt. v. 4 are 01 /ier' sTnrda-sws
\vjrovfjisvot,, those who so grieve that their grief manifests
itself externally. Thus we find vrsvdsiv often joined with
K\aLiv (2 Sam. xix. I ; Mark xvi. 10 ; Jam. iv. 9 ; Eev.
xviii. 15) ; so irsvOwv ical <rKv0p(07rda)v, Ps. xxxiv. 14.
Gregory of Nyssa (Suicer, Tkes. s. v. irsvdos) gives it more
generally, irsvOos scrrl <TK.v6pa>irr) Biddsais rfjs tyv~xf)s, STTI
LXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 239
rrrsprjcrsi TWOS rwv KaraOvfjLiwv (rvviara^vr] : but he was
not distinguishing synonyms, and not therefore careful
to draw out finer distinctions.
Qprjvsiv, joined with o&vpsa-dat, (Plutarch, De Prof.
Virt. 5), with Karoi/cTsipsiv (Cons, ad Apoll. n) is to
bewail, to make a 6pr)vos, a ' nenia ' or dirge over the
dead, which may be mere wailing or lamentation (Qpijvos
Kal K\av0fj,ds, Matt. ii. 1 8), breaking out in unstudied
words the Irish wake is such a dpijvos or it may take the
more elaborate form of a poem. That beautiful lamenta-
tion which David composed over Saul and Jonathan is
introduced in the Septuagint with these words, eOpijvrjo-s
Aa/3t8 TOV dprjvov TOVTOV, K.T.\. (2 Sam. i. 17), and the sub-
lime dirge over Tyre is called a Oprjvos (Ezek. xxvi. 17 ; cf.
Rev. xviii. II ; 2 Chron. xxxv. 25 ; Amos viii. 10).
We have finally to deal with KoirrsaOat, (Matt. xxiv.
30; Luke xxiii. 27 ; Rev. i. 7). This being first to strike,
is then that act which most commonly went along with the
6prjviv, to strike the bosom, or beat the breast, as an out-
ward sign of inward grief (Luke xviii. 13) ; so KOTTSTOS
(Acts viii. 2) is Opijvos fisra -fyofyov ^sipwv (Hesychius),
and, as is the case with irsvQslv, oftenest in token of
grief for the dead (Gen. xxiii. 2; 2 Kin. iii. 31). It is
the Latin ' plangere ' (' laniataque pectora plan gens,' Ovid,
Metam. vi. 248; cf. Sophocles, Ajax, 615-617), which is
connected with ' plaga ' and TrX^Vo-w. Plutarch (Cons, ad
Ux. 4) joins 6\o(f)vp(T6is and KOTTSTOI, (cf. Fab. Max. 17 :
KOTTsrol yvvaiKsioi) as two of the more violent manifesta-
tions of grief, condemning both as faulty in their excess.
Ixvi. a/jiapTia, afidpTrj/jia, TrapaKO^ avopia,
irapdinwfJia) dyvoTj/aa,
A MOURNFULLY numerous group of words, and one which
it would be only too easy to make larger still. Nor is it
hard to see why. For sin, which we may define in the
240 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXV!.
language of Augustine, as { factum vel dictuin vel concu-
pitum aliquid contra seternam legem ' (Con. Faust, xxii.
27 ; cf. the Stoic definition, dftdpTr]/J,a, vopov aTrayopsvp.a,
Plutarch, De Rep. Stoic, n) ; or again, < voluntas adniit-
tendi vel retinendi quod justitia vetat, et unde liberutn
est abstinere ' (Con. Jul. i. 47), may be regarded under an
infinite number of aspects, and in all languages has been
so regarded ; and as the diagnosis of it belongs most of
all to the Scriptures, nowhere else are we likely to find it
contemplated on so many sides, set forth under such various
images. It may be regarded as the missing of a mark or
aim ; it is then apapria or d/j.dpTT)fj,a : the overpassing or
transgressing of a line ; it is then Trapdflacris : the dis-
obedience to a voice ; in which case it is irapaicor] : the
falling where one should have stood upright; this will be
irapdirrwp.a : ignorance of what one ought to have known ;
this will be a^/vo^^a: diminishing of that which should
have been rendered in full measure, which is
non-observance of a law, which is dvo/j-la or
a discord in the harmonies of God's universe, when it is
ir\r t (j.ij,i\ia : and in other ways almost out of number.
To begin with the word of largest reach. In seeking
accurately to define d/j.apria, and so better to distinguish
it from other words of this group, no help can be derived
from its etymology, seeing that it is quite uncertain.
Suidas, as is well known, derives it from pdpTrro), * d^aprla
quasi a/xa/37TTi'a,' a failing to grasp. Buttmanu's conjecture
(Lexilogus, p. 85, English ed.), that it belongs to the root
fispos, fjisipo/jiai, on which a negative intransitive verb, to be
without one's share of , to miss, was formed (see Xenophon,
Cyrop. i. 6. 36), has found more favour (see a long note by
Fritzsche, on Rom. v. 12, with excellent philology and
execrable theology). Only this much is plain, that when
sin is contemplated as d^apTia, it is regarded as a failing
and missing the true end and scope of our lives, which is
God ; 97 rov djadov dTroTnwGis, as CEcumenius : 97 rov dya-
LXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 241
0ov d-rrorv^ia, and apapravsiv an da-Koira rogsvstv, as Sui-
das ; 17 TOV KO\OV s/CTpoirij, sire TOV Kara <f)vcriv, SITS TOV Kara
vopov, as another. We may compare the German ' fehlen.'
It is a matter of course that with slighter apprehensions
of sin, and of the evil of sin, there must go hand in hand
a slighter ethnical significance in the words used to express
sin. It is therefore nothing wonderful that dfj-apria and
a/jiaprdvsiv should nowhere in classical Greek obtain that
depth of meaning which in revealed religion they have
acquired. The words run the same course which all words
ultimately taken up into ethical terminology seem inevit-
ably to run. Employed first about things natural, they
are then transferred to things moral or spiritual, according
to that analogy between those and these, which the human
mind so delights to trace. Thus apaprdvsiv signifies, when
we meet it first, to miss a mark, being exactly opposed to
So a hundred times in Homer the warrior is said
, who hurls his spear, but fails to strike his foe
(e.g. II. iv. 491) ; so rwv oScov d^aprdvsiv (Thucydides, iii.
98. 2) is to miss one's way. The next advance is the transfer
of the word to things intellectual. The poet a/iapram,
who selects a subject which it is impossible to treat poetically,
or who seeks to attain results which lie beyond the limits
of his art (Aristotle, Poet. 8 and 25) ; so we have oofys
dfiaprta (Thucydides, i. 3 1 ) ; yvcofj.rjs a^dpr^^a (ii. 65 ). It is
constantly set over against opOorris (Plato, Legg. i. 627 d ;
ii. 668 c 5 Aristotle, Poet. 25). So far from having any ethical
significance of necessity attaching to it, Aristotle some-
times withdraws it, almost, if not altogether, from the
region of right and wrong (Eth. Nic. v. 8. 7). The dfiapricu
is a mistake, a fearful one it may be, like that of (Edipus,
but nothing more (Poet. 13; cf. Euripides, Hippolytus,
1426). Elsewhere, however, it has as much of the mean-
ing of our ' sin,' as any word, employed in heathen ethics,
could possess; thus Plato, Phcedo, 113 e; Rep. ii. 366 a;
Xenophon, Cyrop. v. 4. 19.
E
242 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVI.
from d^apria, in that dpapria is sin
in the abstract as well as the concrete ; or again, the act
of sinning no less than the sin which is actually sinned,
'peccatio' (A. Gellius, xiii. 20. 19) no less than ' pecca-
tum ' ; while d/JidpTrjjuLa (it only occurs Mark iii. 28 ; iv. 1 2 ;
Rom.iii. 25 ; I Cor. vi. 1 8) is never sin regarded as sinfulness,
or as the act of sinning, but only sin contemplated in its
separate outcomings and deeds of disobedience to a divine
law; being in the Greek schools opposed to /car
There is the same difference between dvo^ia and
(which last is not in the N. T. ; but I Sam. xxv. 28 ;
Ezek. xvi. 49), do-eftsia and das ft?) pa (not in the N. T. ; but
Lev. xviii. 17), dSi/cia and aSi/c^/ta (Actsxviii. 14). This is
brought out by Aristotle (Ethic. Nic. v. 7. 7), who sets over
against one another aSircov ( = dSiKia) and aSi/c7?yu,a in these
words : &ia<f>spei TO d8LKijfj,a KOI TO aSifcov. "ASitcov pJsv yap
ia-ri rf) <j)V(rsi, f) rdgsi TO auTo 8s rovro, orav TrpaxOfj, d&t-
Kf]^d <TTI. Compare an instructive passage in Xenophon
(Mem. ii. 2. 3) a 'i> ToXfts sjrl rots psy ((Trots
ty/jiiav Odvarov irsTroiriKacrw, <as OVK av /nsl^ovos fcafcov
rr)v do IK Lav iravo-ovrss. On the distinction between
dfiapria and d^dpr^^a, doiKia and doiKr)[j,a, and other
words of this group, there is a long discussion by Cle-
ment of Alexandria (Strom, ii. 15), but one not yielding
much profit.
'Aas/Bsia, joined with doucca (Xenophon, Apol. 24;
Rom. i. 1 8) ; as do-s/3ijs with aSiicos, with dvoa-ios (Xenophon,
Cyrop. viii. 8. 27), with a/tapTtwXo'y (i Tim. i. 9 ; I. Pet. iv.
1 8), is positive and active irreligion, and this contemplated
as a deliberate withholding from God of his dues of
1 When the Pelagians, in their controversy with the Catholic Church,
claimed Chrysostom as siding with them on the subject of the moral
condition of infants, Augustine (Con. Jul. Pday. vi. 2) replied by quot-
ing the exact words which Chrysostom had used, and showing that it
was not &f.'.apria, or sin, but apapi ly/xara, the several acts and outcomings
of sin, from which the Greek Father had pronounced infants to be free.
Only in this sense were they partakers of the dvapaprijoia of Christ.
LXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 243
prayer and of service, a standing, so to speak, in battle
array against Him. We have always rendered it ' ungodli-
ness,' while the Eheims as constantly 'impiety,' and
acrsftrjs impious,' neither of these words occurring any-
where in our English Bible. The aa-sprf? and the SIKCIIOS
are constantly set over against one another- (thus Gen.
xviii. 23), as the two who wage the great warfare between
light and darkness, right and wrong, of which God has
willed that this earth of ours should be the stage.
TlapaKOjj is in the N. T. found only at Eom. v. 19
(where it is opposed to inraKorj) ; 2 Cor. x. 6; Heb. ii. 2.
It is not in the Septuagint, but Traparcovsiv (in the N.T. only
at Matt, xviii. 17) occurs several times there in the sense
of to disobey (Esth. iii. 3, 8; Isai. Ixv. 12). HapaKorj is in
its strictest sense a failing to hear, or a hearing amiss ;
the notion of active disobedience, which follows on this
inattentive or careless hearing, being superinduced upon
the word ; or, it may be, the sin being regarded as already
committed in the failing to listen when God is speaking.
Bengel (on Eom. v. 19) has a good note : ' Trapd in trapaKon
perquam apposite de^larat rationem initii in lapsu Adami.
Quseritur quomodo hominis recti intellectus aut voluntas
potuit detrimentum capere aut noxam admittere ? Eesp.
Intellectus et voluntas simul labavit per d/j,s\siav neque
quicquam potest prius concipi, quam dpsXsia, incuria, sicut
initium capiendse urbis est vigiliarum rernissio. Hanc in-
curiam significat irapaKo^ inobedientia.' It need hardly
be observed how continually in the O. T. disobedience is
described as a refusing to hear (Jer. xi. 10; xxxv. 17) ;
and it appears literally as such at Acts vii. 57- Joined
with and following 7rapd(3aa-i,s at Heb. ii. 2, it would there
imply, in the intention of the writer, that not merely every
actual transgression, embodying itself in an outward act
of disobedience, was punished, but every refusal to hear,
even though it might not have asserted itself in such overt
acts of disobedience.
E 2
244 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVI.
We have generally translated dvopia ' iniquity ' (Matt.
vii. 23; Eom. vi. 19 ; Heb. x. 17) ; once ' unrighteousness f
(2 Cor. vi. 14), and once "transgression of the law'*
(i John iii. 4). It is set over against St/caioa-vvrj (2 Cor.
vi. 14; cf. Xenophon, Mem. i. 2. 24) ; joined with avapyia,
(Plato, Rep. ix. 575 a), with dvTi\oyia (Ps. liv. [LXX] 10).
While avopos is once at least in the N.T. used negatively of
a person without law, or to whom a law has not been given
(i Cor. ix. 21 ; cf. Plato, Politic. 302 e, avo/jios fjuovap^ia) ;
though elsewhere of the greatest enemy of all law, the
Man of Sin, the lawless one (2 Thess. ii. 8) ; avopia is never
there the condition of one living without law, but always
the condition or deed of one who acts contrary to law : and
so, of course, Trapavop,ia, found only at 2 Pet. ii. 16; cf.
Prov. x. 26, and Trapavo/j,siv, Acts xxiii. 3. It will follow
that where there is no law (Rom. v. 13), there may be
df^apria, dSiKia, but not dvo/j,ia: being, as CEcumenius
defines it, 77 Trepl TOV 6srov vopov TrKru^fisKsLa : as Fritzsche,
* legis contemtio aut morum licentia qua lex violatur.'
Thus the Gentiles, not having a law (Rom. ii. 14), might
be charged with sin; but they, sinning without law (dvo^ws
=^a)pls v6fj.ov, Rom. ii. 12 ; iii. 21), could not be charged
with dvopia. It is true, indeed, that, behind that law of
Moses which they never had, there is another law, the
original law and revelation of the righteousness of God,
written on the hearts of all (Rom. ii. 14, 15) ; and, as
this in no human heart is obliterated quite, all sin, even
that of the darkest and most ignorant savage, must
still in a secondary sense remain as dvopla, a violation of
this older, though partially obscured, law. Thus Origen
(in Rom. iv. 5) : ' Iniquitas sane a peccato hanc habet
differentiam, quod iniquitas in his dicitur quse contra
legem committuntur, unde et Grsecus sermo dvopiav ap-
pellat. Peccatum vero etiam illud dici potest, si contra
quam natura docet, et conscientia arguit, delinquatur.'
Cf. Xenophon, Mem. iv. 4. 1 8, 19.
LXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 245
It is the same with 7rapd{3acris. There must be some-
thing to transgress, before there can be a transgression.
There was sin between Adam and Moses, as was attested
by the fact that there was death ; but those between the
law given in Paradise (Gen. ii. 16, 17) and the law given
from Sinai, sinning indeed, yet did not sin -"after the
similitude of Adam's transgression" (Trapaftdcrsa)?, Rom. v.
14). With law came for the first time the possibility of
the transgression of law (Rom. iv. 15) ; and exactly this
transgression, or trespass, is 7rapd{3a<n.s, from Trapafialveiv,
* transilire lineam ; ' the French ' forfait ' (' faire fors ' or
*hors'), some act which is excessive, enormous. Cicero
(Parad. 3) : ' Peccare est tanquam transilire lineas ; ' com-
pare the Homeric vTrspfiaa-irj, II. iii. 107, and often. In
the constant language of St. Paul this 7rapd{3a<ris, as the
transgression of a commandment distinctly given, is more
serious than a^apria (Rom. ii. 23 ; I Tim. ii. 14; cf. Heb.
ii. 2 ; ix. 15). It is from this point of view, and indeed
with reference to this very word, that Augustine draws
often a distinction between the ' peccator ' and the ' prseva-
ricator,' between 'peccatum' (a^apria) and ' proevaricatio '
(Trapdftaa-Lsi). Thus Enarr. in Ps. cxviii. ; Serm. 2$:
* Omnis quidem prsevaricator peccator est, quia peccat in
lege, sed non omnis peccator prsevaricator est, quia pec-
cant aliqui sine lege. Ubi autem non est lex, nee prse-
varicatio.' It will be seen that his Latin word introduces
a new image, not now of overpassing a line, but of halting
on unequal feet; an image, however, which had quite
faded from the word when he used it, his motive to
employ it lying in the fact that the 'prsevaricator,' or
collusive prosecutor, dealt unjustly with a law. He who,
being under no express law, sins, is, in Augustine's lan-
guage, ' peccator ' ; he who, having such a law, sins, is
* prsevaricator ' ( = 7rapa^dTrjs y Rom. ii. 25; Jam. ii. 9, a
name constantly given by the Church Fathers to Julian
the Apostate). Before the law came men might be the
246 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVI.
former; after the law they could only be the latter.
In the first there is implicit, in the second explicit, dis-
obedience.
We now arrive at trapaTrrw^a, a word belonging alto-
gether to the later Greek, and of rare occurrence there ;
it is employed by Longinus of literary faults (De SuU.
36). Cocceius : ' Si originem rerbi spectemus, signincat
ea facta prse quibus quis cadit et prostratus jacet, ut stare
coram Deo et surgere non potest.' At Ephes. ii. I, where
TrapaTrrcafjLara and a^apriai are found together, Jerome
records with apparent assent a distinction between them ;
that the former are sins suggested to the mind and par-
tially entertained and welcomed there, and the latter the
same embodied in actual deeds : ' Aiunt quod Trapa-TTTw^ara
quasi initia peccatorum sint, quum cogitatio tacita sub-
repit, et ex aliqua parte conniventibus nobis ; necdum
tamen nos impulit ad ruin am. Peccaturn vero esse, quum
quid opere consummatum pervenit ad finem.' This dis-
tinction has no warrant. Only this much truth it may
be allowed to have ; that, as sins of thought partake more
of the nature of infirmity, and have less aggravation than
the same sins consummated, embodied, that is, in act, so
doubtless irapaTrrw^a is sometimes used when it is intended
to designate sins not of the deepest dye and the worst
enormity. One may trace this very clearly at Gal. vi. i,
our Translators no doubt meaning to indicate as much
when they rendered it by 'fault'; and not obscurely, as
it seems to me, at Eom. v. 15, 17, 18. HapaTrrcD/jia is used
in the same way, as ati error, a mistake in judgment, a
blunder, by Polybius (ix. 10. 6) ; compare Ps. xviii. 13, 14,
where it is contrasted with the ap-apria fj,<yd\r) : and for
other examples see Cremer, Biblisch-Theolog. Worterbuch,
p. 501. To a certain feeling of this we may ascribe an-
other inadequate distinction, that, namely, of Augustine
(Qu. ad Lev. 20), who will have TrapaTTTw^a to be the
negative omission of good ('desertio boni,' or 'delictum'),
LXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 247
as contrasted with dfj,apria, the positive doing of evil
(* perpetratio mali ') .
But this milder subaudition is very far from belonging
always to the word (see Jeremy Taylor, Doctrine and Prac-
tice of Repentance, iii. 3. 21). There is nothing of it at
Ephes. ii. I, "dead in trespasses (TrapaTTTMfjiao'i) and sins."
is mortal sin, Ezek. xviii. 26 ; and the trapa-
of Heb. vi. 6 is equivalent to the SKOVO-ICOS dpapTavsiv
of x. 26, to the dtroa-Trjvai diro sot) WZ/TOS of iii. 1 2 ; while
any such extenuation of the force of the word is expressly
excluded in a fragment of Philo (vol. ii. p. 648, ed. Mang.),
which very closely resembles these two passages in the
Epistle to the Hebrews, and in which he distinctly calls it
TrapaTTTfofjia, when a man, having reached an acknowledged
pitch of godliness and virtue, falls back from, and out of
this ; ' he was lifted up to the height of heaven, and is
fallen down to the deep of hell.'
'Ayvoij/jia occurs in the N. T. only at Heb. ix. 7 (see
Tholuck, On the Hebrews, Appendix, p. 92), but also at
Judith v. 2O ; I Mace. xiii. 39 ; Tob. iii. 3 ; and ayvota in
the same sense of sin, Ps. xxiv. 7, and often ; and dyvostv,
to sin, at Hos. iv. 15; Ecclus. v. 1 5 ; Heb. v. 2. Sin is
designated as an dyvorj^a when it is desired to make excuses
for it, so far as there is room for such, to regard it in the
mildest possible light (see Acts iii. 17). There is alwa} 7 s
an element of ignorance in every human transgression,
which constitutes it human and not devilish; and which,
while it does not take awa} r , yet so far mitigates the sin-
fulness of it, as to render its forgiveness not indeed neces-
sary, but possible. Thus compare the words of the Lord,
" Father, forgive them, for they know not what they do"
(Luke xxiii. 34), with those of St. Paul, " I obtained mercy
because I did it ignorantly, in unbelief" (i Tim. i. 13),
where, as one has well said, * Der Ausdruck fasst Schuld
und Entschuldigung zusammen.' No sin of man, except
perhaps the sin against the Holy Ghost, which may for
248 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVI.
this reason be irremissible (Matt. xii. 32), is committed
with, a full and perfect recognition of the evil which is
chosen as evil, and of the good which is forsaken as good.
Compare the numerous passages in which Plato identifies
vice with ignorance, and even pronounces that no man is
voluntarily evil ; ovSsls EKWV KCIKOS, and what is said qualify-
ing or guarding this statement in Archer Butler's Lectures
on Ancient Philosophy, vol. ii. p. 285. Whatever exaggera-
tions this statement of Plato's may contain, it still remains
true that sin is always, in a greater or a less degree, an
ayv6r)/j,a, and the more the ayvosiv, as opposed to the
EKova-lws djjuaprdvsiv (Heb. x. 26), predominates, the greater
the extenuation of the sinfulness of the sin. There is
therefore an eminent fitness in the employment of the
word on the one occasion, referred to already, where it
appears in the N. T. The dyvorfpaTa, or ' errors ' of the
people, for which the High Priest offered sacrifice on the
great day of atonement, were not wilful transgressions,
"presumptuous sins" (Ps. xix. 13), committed Kara
irpoaLpsGiv, Kara 7rp60<riv, against conscience and with a
high hand against God ; those who committed such were
cut off from the congregation ; no provision having been
made in the Levitical constitution for the forgiveness of
such (Num. xv. 30, 31) ; but they were sins growing out
of the weakness of the flesh, out of an imperfect insight
into God's law, out of heedlessness and lack of due cir-
cumspection (dicovcrlws, Lev. iv. 13; cf. v. 15-19; Num.
xv. 22-29), an( l afterwards looked back on with shame
and regret. The same distinction exists between ayvoia
and dyvoyfjui which has been already traced between
d/Actpria and dp,dpTrip,a, dSi/cta and dBiKrjfMa : that the
former is often the more abstract, the latter is always the
concrete.
"Hrrfj/jia appears nowhere in classical Greek ; but ^rra,
a briefer form of the word, is opposed to vlmj, as discom-
fiture or worsting to victory. It has there past very much
LXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 249
through the same stages as the Latin * clades.' It ap-
pears once in the Septuagint (Isai. xxxi. 8), and twice
in the N. T., namely at Rom. xi. 12; I Cor. vi. 7; but
only in the latter instance having an ethical sense, as a
coming short of duty, a fault, the German ' Fehler,' the
Latin 'delictum.' Gerhard (Loc. Theoll. xir) : <r/TT77/ia
diminutio, defectus, ab ^rraadat victum esse, quia pec-
catores succumbunt carnis et Satanse tentationibus.'
HXy/AfjisXsia, a very frequent word in the O. T. (Lev. v.
15 ; Num. xviii. 9, and often), and not rare in later eccle-
siastical Greek (thus see Clement of Rome, Cor. 41),
does not occur in the New. Derived from Tr^/i/isX^s, one
who sings out of tune (Tr\r)v and /-teXos-), as J/i/ieA.?;? is
one who is in tune, and sp/jLsXsia, the right modulation
of the voice to the music ; it is properly a discord or dis-
harmony (TrX^/i/ifA.f iai teal apeTpiat, Plutarch, Symp. ix. 14.
7) ; so that Augustine's Greek is at fault when he finds in
it fjLs\i, 'curse est ' (Qu. in Lev. iii. 20), and makes Tr\rj/j,-
fjLsXsia = dfj,s\sia, carelessness. Rather it is sin regarded as
a discord or disharmony in the great symphonies of the
universe :
' disproportioned sin
Jarred against nature's chime, and with harsh din
Broke the fair music that all creatures made
To their great Lord.'
Delitzsch, on Ps. xxxii. I, with whom Hupfeld, on the
same passage, may be compared, observes on the more
important Hebrew words, which more or less correspond
with these : ' Die Siinde heisst r#9 als Losreissung von
Gott, Treubruch, Fall aus dem Gnadenstande [= aasfteia],
nspn. als Verfehlung des gottgewollten Zieles, Abirrung
vom Gottgefalligen, Vollbringung des Gottwidrigen
[ = a/j,apTid], fiJJ als Verkehrung des Greraden, Missethat.
Verschuldung \_=avop,ta, a&uclajf
250 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVII.
Ixvii. dp%aio$, 7ra\aios.
WE should go astray, if we regarded one of these words as
expressing a higher antiquity than the other, and at all
sought in this the distinction between them. On the con-
trary, this remoter antiquity will be expressed now by one,
now by the other. 'Ap^aioy, expressing that which was
from the beginning (dpxrfv, air dp^tjs), must, if we accept
this as the first beginning of all, be older than person or
thing that is merely jraXatos, as having existed a long time
ago (-TraXat) ; whilst on the other hand there may be so
many later beginnings, that it is quite possible to conceive
the Trakatos as older than the dp-^alos. Donaldson (New
Cratylus, p. 19) writes : ' As the word archaeology is already
appropriated to the discussion of those subjects of which
the antiquity is only comparative, it would be consistent
with the usual distinction between dp^aiosa,n(\.7ra\ai,6s to
give the name of palceology to those sciences which aim at
reproducing an absolutely primeval state or condition.'
I fail to trace in the uses of irakaios so strong a sense, or at
all events at all so constant a sense, of a more primeval
state or condition, as in this statement is implied. Tims
compare Thucydides, ii. 15: %v/j,/3e@r)K TOVTO diro rov rrdw
dp%aiov, that is, from the prehistoric time of Cecrops, with
i. 1 8 : AaeSa//t&)i/ stc jra\atrdrov svvo/j,y6r), from very early
times, but still within the historic period j where the
words are used in senses exactly reversed.
The distinction between dp-^alos and 7ra\at6$, which is
not to be looked for here, is on many occasions not to be
looked for at all. Often they occur together as merely
cumulative synonyms, or at any rate with no higher
antiquity predicated by the one than by the other (Plato,
Legg. 865 d; Demosthenes, xxii. 597; Plutarch, Cons, ad
Apoll. 27; Justin Martyr, Coh. ad Grcec. 5). It lies in
the etymology of the words that in cases out of number
LXVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 251
they may be quite indifferently used; that which was from
the beginning- will have been generally from a long while
since ; and that which was from a long while since will
have been often from the beginning. Thus the dp-^ala
(frwvij of one passage in Plato (Grat. 418 c) is exactly
equivalent to the ira\aia $wvr] of another \Tb. 398 d) ;
the dp%aioi 0soi of one passage in the Euthyphro are the
Trakaia Sai/jwvia of another; ol 7ra\aiol and ol dp^aloL
alike mean the ancients (Plutarch, Cons, ad Apoll. 14
ftnd 33) ; there cannot be much difference between
7ra\aiol ^povoi (2 Mace. vi. 2l) and ap^alai ^spat (Ps.
xliii. 2).
At the same time it is evident that whenever an em-
phasis is desired to be laid on the reaching back to a
beginning, whatever that beginning may be, ap-^alos will
be preferred ; thus we have ap-^ala and Trpwra joined to-
gether (Isai. xliii. 18). Satan is o O$LS o ap-^alos (Rev.
xii. 9 ; xx. 2), his malignant counter workings of God
reaching back to the earliest epoch in the history of man.
The world before the flood, that therefore which was indeed
from the first, is o apxatos KOCT^JLOS (2 Pet. ii. 5). Mnason
was dp%aios /juadrjTijs (Acts xxi. 16), c an old disciple,' not
in the sense in which English readers almost inevitably
take the words, namely, l an aged disciple,' but one who
had been such from the commencement of the faith, from
the day of Pentecost or before it ; aged very probably he
will have been ; but it is not this which the word declares.
The original founders of the Jewish Commonwealth, who,
as such, gave with authority the law, are ol dp%aioi, (Matt,
v. 21, 27, 33; cf. I Sam. xxiv. 14; Isai. xxv. l); TTIVTIS
dpxaia (Eusebius, H. E. v. 28, 9) is the faith which was
from the beginning, " once delivered to the saints." The
Timceus of Plato, 22 6, offers an instructive passage in
which both words occur, where it is not hard to trace the
finer instincts of language which have determined their
several employment. Sophocles (Trachin. 546) has another,
252 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVII.
where Deianira speaks of the poisoned shirt, the gift to
her of Nessus :
ap^aov ITOTC
Kficpvp.p.fvov.
JSschylus (Eumenides, 727, 728) furnishes a third.
'Apxatos, like the Latin * priscus,' will often designate
the ancient as also the venerable, as that to which the
honour due to antiquity belongs ; thus Kvpos 6 ap-^alos
(Xenophon, Anab. i. 9. I ; cf. Aristophanes, Nub. 961) ;
just as on the other side ' modern ' is always used slight-
ingly by Shakespeare ; and it is here that we reach a point
of marked divergence between it and Tra\ai6s, each going
off into a secondary meaning of its own, which it does not
share with the other, but possesses exclusively as its proper
domain. I have just observed that the honour of antiquity
is sometimes expressed by apxaios, nor indeed is it alto-
gether strange to ira\aios. But there are other qualities
that cleave to the ancient ; it is often old-fashioned, seems
ill-adapted to the present, to be part and parcel of a world
which has passed away. We have a witness for this in the
fact that * antique ' and ' antic ' are only different spellings
of one and the same word. There lies often in ap-^aios this
sense superadded of old-world fashion ; not merely antique,
but antiquated and out of date, not merely * alterthum-
lich,' but ' altfrankisch ' (JEschylus, Prom. Vinct. 325;
Aristophanes, Plut. 323, -^aipsiv so-rlv ap^alov rjBrj ical
aairpov (Nub. 915) ; and still more strongly in ap^aioTrjs,
which has no other meaning but this (Plato, Legg. ii,
657 &)
But while ap^aios goes off in this direction (we have,
indeed, no example in the N. T.), TraXaios diverges in
another, of which the N. T. usage will supply a large
number of examples. That which has existed long has
been exposed to, and in many cases will have suffered
from, the wrongs and injuries of time ; it will be old in
LXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 253
the sense of more or less worn out ; and this is always
TrdXaios. 1 Thus l/jLartov iraKaiov (Matt. ix. 1 6) ; do-fcol ira-
\atol (Matt. ix. 17); so da-fcol 7ra\.aiol KOI KarsppcoyoTSS' (Josh.
ix. 10) ; 7ra\aia pater) (Jer. xiv. n). In the same way,
while ol dp%aioi could never express the old men of a living
generation as compared with the young of the same, ol
ira\aioi continually bears this sense ; thus vsos r^s iraXaios
(Homer, II. xiv. 108, and often) ; vroXvsTsis /cat, 7ra\aioi
(Philo, De Vit. Gont. 8; cf. Job xv. 10). It is the same
with the words formed on TraXatos : thus Heb. viii. 1 3 : TO
Bs 7ra\,aiov/j,evov ical yrjpdcrKov, syyvs d(j>avio-fjiov : cf . Heb. i.
II; Luke xii. 33; Ecclus. xiv. 17; while Plato joins
TraKawTris and a-aTrporrjs together (Rep. x. 609 e ; cf.
Aristophanes, Plut. 1086: rpvt; TraXcua /cal aairpa). As
often as irakaws is employed to connote that which is worn
out, or wearing out, by age, it will absolutely demand
icatvbs as its opposite (Josh. ix. 13; Mark ii. 21 ; Heb.
viii. 13), as it will also sometimes have it on other occa-
sions (Herodotus, ix. 26, bis). When this does not lie in
the word, there is nothing to prevent vsos being set over
against it (Lev. xxvi. IO ; Homer, Od. ii. 293 ; Plato,
Cratylus, 418 &; .ZEschylus, Eumenides, 778, 808); and
Kaivos against ap^alos (2 Cor. v. 17; Aristophanes, Ranee,
720 ; Isocrates, xv. 82 ; Plato, Euthyphro, 3 b ; Philo, De
Vit. Con. 10).
Ixviii. a(f>dapTos, dfidpavros, a^apavnvos.
IT is a remarkable testimony to the reign of sin, and
therefore of imperfection, of decay, of death, throughout
this whole fallen world, that as often as we desire to set
forth the glory, purity, and perfection of that other higher
world toward which we strive, we are almost inevitably
compelled to do this by the aid of negatives, by the deny-
1 The same lies, or may lie, in 'vetus,'as in Tertullian's pregnant
antithesis (Adv. Marc. i. 8) : ' Deus si est vetus, non erit ; si est novus,
non fuit.'
254 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXVIII.
ing to that higher order of things the leading features and
characteristics of this. Such is signally the case in a pas-
sage wherein two of the words with which we are now deal-
ing occur. St. Peter, magnifying the inheritance reserved
in heaven for the faithful (i Pet. i. 4), does this, and he
had hardly any choice in the matter, by aid of three
negatives ; by affirming that it is afydapros, or without our
corruption ; that it is apiavTos, or without our defilement ;
that it is dfidpavros, or without our withering and fading
away. He can only set forth what it is by declaring what
it is not. Of these three, howevei-, I set one, namely
dpiavTos, aside, the distinction between it and the others
being too evident to leave them fair subjects of synonymous
discrimination.
" A(j>0aproy, a word of the later Greek, is not once found
in the Septuagint, and only twice in the Apocrypha (Wisd.
xii. I ; xviii. 4). Properly speaking, God only is afyOapros,
the heathen theology recognizing this not less clearly than
the Biblical. Thus Plutarch (De Repugn. Stoic. 38) quotes
the grand saying of the Stoic philosopher, Antipater of
Tarsus, ebv voovpsv wov /jLa/cdpiov KOI a^Oaprov : cf.
Diogenes Laertius, x. i. 31. 139. And in agreement with
this we find the word by him associated with IcroQeos (Ne
Suav. Viv. Posse, 7), with dtSios (Adv. Colot. 13), with
dvsK\ei7rTos (De DeJ.Orac. 51), with dysvvrjTos (De Repugn.
Stoic. 38), with d<yvr)To$ (De Ei ap. Delph. 19), with
diradrjs (De Def. Orac. 20) ; so, too, with oXvfnrios by
Philo (quod Det. Pot. Ins. 23), and with other epithets
corresponding. * Immortal ' we have rendered it on one
occasion (i Tim. i. 17) ; but there is a clear distinction
between it and aOdvaros or 6 e%&>z> ddavaaiav (i Tim. vi, 1 6) ;
and * incorruptible,' by which we have given it in other
places (i Cor. ix. 25 ; xv. 52 ; I Pet. i. 23), is to be pre-
ferred ; the word predicating of God that He is exempt
from that wear and waste and final perishing ; that <f)6opd,
which time, and sin working in time, bring about in all
LXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 255
which is outside of Him and to which He has not com-
municated of his own dcpdapaia (i Cor. xv. 52; cf. Isai.
li. 6; Heb. i. 10-12).
5 'Apdpavros occurs only once in the N. T. (i Pet. i. 4) ;
once also in the Apocrypha, being joined there with
\afjL7rpos (Wisd. vi. 12) ; and dpapavTivos not oftener
(i Pet. v. 4). There may well be a question whether
dpapavTivos, an epithet given to a crown, should not be
rendered 'of amaranths.' We, however, have made no
distinction between the two, having rendered both by
the same circumlocution, ' that fadeth not away ' ; our
Translators no doubt counting ' immarcescible ' a word
which has found favour with Bishops Hall and Taylor and
with other scholarly -writers of the seventeenth century
too much of an ' inkhorn term ' to be admitted into our
English Bible. Even the Eheims Translators, with ' iinmar-
cescibilis ' in the Vulgate before them, have not ventured
upon it. In this dfidpavros there is affirmed of the heavenly
inheritance that it is exempt from that swift withering
which is the portion of all the loveliness which springs out
of an earthly root ; the most exquisite beauty which the
natural world can boast, that, namely, of the flower, being
also the shortest-lived (' breve lilium'), the quickest to fall
away and fade and die (Job xiv. 2 ; Ps. xxxvii. 2 ; ciii. 1 5 ;
Isai. xl. 6, 7; Matt. vi. 30; Jam. i. 10-11 ; i Pet. i. 24).
All this is declared to find no place in that inheritance of
unfading loveliness, reserved for the faithful in heaven.
If, indeed, it be asked wherein a^dapros and dpdpavros
differ, what the latter predicates concerning this heavenly
inheritance which the former had not claimed already,
the answer must be that essentially it claims nothing ;
yet with all this in d^dpavros is contained, so to speak, a
pledge that the more delicate grace, beauty, and bloom
which it owns will as little wither and wane as will its
solid and substantial worth depart. Not merely decay
and corruption cannot touch it; but it shall wear its
256 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXIX.
freshness, brightness, and beauty for ever. Estius : ( Im-
marcescibilis est, quia vigorem suum et gratiam, instar
amaranti floris, semper retinet, ut nullo unquain tempore
possessor! fastidium tsediuinve subrepat.'
Ixix.
IT is often stated by theologians of the Reformation
period that fjuerdvoia and fisra^s^sta, with their several
verbs, psravoslv and jjisra^eXsadat, are so far distinct, that
where it is intended to express the mere desire that the
done might be undone, accompanied with regrets or even
with remorse, but with no effective change of heart, there
the latter words are employed; but where a true change
of heart toward God, there the former. It was Beza, I
believe, who first strongly urged this. He was followed
by many ; thus see Spanheim, Dub. Evang. vol. iii. dub. 9 j
and Chilling worth (Sermons before Charles I. p. 1 1) : 'To
this purpose it is worth the observing, that when the
Scripture speaks of that kind of repentance, which is only
sorrow for something done, and wishing it undone, it con-
stantly useth the word /iera/AfXeta, to which forgiveness of
sins is nowhere promised. So it is written of Judas the
son of perdition (Matt, xxvii. 3), fisra^sk^Osls airsa-rp^e,
he repented and went and hanged himself ; and so con-
stantly in other places. But that repentance to which
remission of sins and salvation is promised, is perpetually
expressed by the word /xeravoia, which signifieth a thorough
change of the heart and soul, of the life and actions.'
Let me, before proceeding further, correct a slight in-
accuracy in this statement. MsTa/jisXsia nowhere occurs
in the N. T. ; only once in the Old (Hos. xi. 8). So far as
we are dealing with N. T. synonyms, it is properly between
the verbs alone that the comparison can be instituted, and
a distinction drawn ; though, indeed, what stands good of
them will stand good of their conjugates as well. But
LXIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
257
even after this correction made, the statement will itself
need a certain qualification. Jeremy Taylor allows as
much ; whose words they occur in his great treatise, On
the Doctrine and Practice of Repentance, ch. ii. i, 2 areas
follows : ' The Greeks use two words to express this duty,
fjisrafj,s\ia and fjiSTavoia. Msra/ieXeia is from /j,jau\ela6ai,
post factum angi et cruciari, to be afflicted in mind, to be
troubled for our former folly ; it is Svaapsa-TTjo-ts s-jrl
TrsTrpa^iJLEvois, saith Phavorinus, a being displeased for wha.t
we have done, and it is generally used for all sorts of re-
pentance; but more properly to signify either the beginning
of a good, or the whole state of an ineffective, repentance.
In the first sense we find it in St. Matthew, vpsls 8s iBovres
oi> fJusTSp-sX-rjO^TS varspoy rov iria-rsva-ai avra>, ' and ye, seeing,
did not repent that ye might believe Him.' Of the second
sense we have an example in.Tudas, /zsra/zeA/r^sts dTrsa-rps-^s,
he " repented " too, but the end of it was he died with
anguish and despair. . . . There is in this repentance a
sorrow for what is done, a disliking of the thing with its
consequents and effect, and so far also it is a change of
mind. But it goes no further than so far to change the
mind that it brings trouble and sorrow, and such things
as are the natural events of it. ... When there was a
difference made, psrdvoia was the better word, which does
not properly signify the sorrow for having done amiss, but
something that is nobler than it, but brought in at the
gate of sorrow. For 97 Kara Qsbv XUTTT;, a godly sorrow,
that is /.lEra/jLsXsia, or the first beginning of repentance,
/ASTUVOUIV Karspjd^cTat, worketh this better repentance,
fisrdvoiav dpsra^sXijTov and sis crwTripiav.' Thus far Jeremy
Taylor. Presently, however, he admits that ' however the
grammarians may distinguish them, yet the words are
used promiscuously,' and that no rigid line of discrimina-
tion can be drawn between them as some have attempted
to draw. This in its measure is true, yet not so true but
that a predominant use of one and of the other can very
6
258 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXIX.
clearly be traced. There was, as is well known, a conflict
between the early Reformers and the Roman Catholic
divines whether f pcenitentia,' as the latter affirmed, or
' resipiscentia/ as Beza and the others, was the better
Latin rendering of //.frai/ota. There was much to be said
on both sides ; but it is clear that if the standing word
had been /iera/if'Xem, and not ^sravoia, this would have
told to a certain degree in favour of the Roman Catholic
view. * Pcenitentia,' says Augustine (De Ver. et Fals. Pan.
c. viii.), * est qusedam dolentis vindicta, semper puniens in
se quod dolet commisisse.'
Msravoslv is properly to know after, as irpovoslv to know
before, and fisrdvota a//erknowledge, as Trpovoia /oreknow-
ledge ; which is well brought out by Clement of Alexan-
dria (Strom, ii. 6) : si scf) ols ijfJ,apTSv fj.STSvdr/a'sv, si avvscriv
eXaftsv <>' ols sTrraiasv, Kal fjisrsyvco, ojrsp scrrl, fjisra Tavra
syvw fipaSsta yap yv&ais, psTavoia. So in the Florilegium
of Stobseus, i. 14 : ov psravoslv d\\a irpovoslv ^pr) TOV avSpa
rov <ro<f)6v. At its next step ftsTavota signifies the change
of mind consequent on this after-knowledge ; thus Tertul-
lian (Adv. Mar don. ii. 24) : * In Grseco sermon e poeniten-
tise nomen non ex delicti confessione, sed ex animi demu-
tatione, compositum est.' At its third, it is regret for the
course pursued ; resulting from the change of mind con-
sequent on this after-knowledge ; with a ovo-apso-Trjffis, or
displeasure with oneself thereupon; ' passio quaedain animi
quse veniat de offensa sententisc prioris,' which, as Ter-
tullian (De Pcenit. i) affirms, was all that the heathen
understood by it. At this stage of its meaning it is found
associated with B^J/JLOS (Plutarch, Quom. Am. ab Adul. 12);
with ala-^vvrj (De Virt. Mor. 12) ; with irodos (Pericles, IO;
cf. Lucian, De Saltat. 84). Last of all it signifies change
of conduct for the future, springing from all this. At the
same time this change of mind, and of action upon this
following, may be quite as well a change for the worse
as for the better ; there is no need that it should be a
LXIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 259
* resipiseentia ' as well; this is quite a Christian super-
addition to the word. Thus A. Gellius (xvii. 1.6): ' Pce-
nitere tum dicere solemus, cum quse ipsi fecimus, aut quse
de nostra voluntate nostroque consilio facta sunt, ea nobis
post incipiunt displicere, sententiarnque in iis nostram
demutamus.' In like manner Plutarch (Sept. Sap. Conv. 21)
tells us of two murderers, who, having spared a child, after-
wards ' repented' (fiersvoqaav), and sought to slay it (cf. his
Timoleon, 6) ; fisrapeXsia is used by him in the same sense
of a repenting of good (De Ser. Num. Vind. 11) ; so that
here also Tertullian had right in his complaint (De Pcenit.
i) : Quam autem in poenitentise actu irrationaliter dever-
sentur [ethnici], vel uno isto satis erit expedire, cum illain
etiam in bonis actis suis adhibent. Poanitet fidei, ainoris,
simplicitatis, patientise, misericordise, prout quid in in-
gratiam cecidit.' The regret may be, and often is, quite
unconnected with the sense of any wrong done, of the
violation of any moral law, may be simply what our fathers
were wont to call 'hadiwist' (had-I-wist better, I should
have acted otherwise) ; thus see Plutarch, De Lib. Ed. 14 ;
Sept. Sap. Conv. 12 ; De Soler. Anim. 3 : \VTTTJ Si? aXyrjSovos,
TJV fjLsrdvotav ovopdZofjisv, ' displeasure with oneself, pro-
ceeding from pain, which we call repentance' '.Holland).
That it had sometimes, though rarely, an ethical meaning,
none would deny, in which sense Plutarch (De Ser. Num.
Vind. 6) has a passage in wonderful harmony with
Rom. ii. 4; and another (De Tranq. Animi, 19), in which
pSTctfjisXsia and pera-voia are interchangeably used.
It is only after fisravoia has been taken up into the uses
of Scripture, or of writers dependent on Scripture, that it
conies predominantly to mean a change of mind, taking a
wiser view of the past, avvaiffdrivis ^vx^s s(j> ols sTrpagev
UTOTTOIS (Phavorinus), a regret for the ill done in that past,
and out of all this a change of life for the better ; sTria-Tpo^tj
rov fiiov (Clement of Alexandria, Strom, ii. 245 a), or
as Plato already had, in part at least, described it,
8 2
260 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXIX.
airo TWV GKIWV JTTI TO <f>a)s (Rep. vii. 53 2 &)
^VXTJS irepiaryw^i (ibid. 521 c). This is
all imported into, does not etymologically nor yet by
primary usage lie in, the word. Not very frequent in the
Septuagint or the Apocrypha (yet see Ecclus. xliv. 16 ;
Wisd. xi. 23; xii. 10, 19; and for the verb, Jer. viii. 6),
it is common in Philo, who joins ^erdvoia with
(De AbraJi. 3), explaining it as Trpos TO ftsXnov 77
(ibid. ; cf. De Posnit. 3) ; while in the IS". T. fisravoslv and
fjLsrdvoia, whenever they are nsed in the N. T., and it is
singular how rarely this in the writings of St. Paul is the
case, fjLeravotiv but once (2 Cor. xii. 2i),and fterdvoia only
four times (Rom. ii. 4; 2 Cor. vii. 9, 10; 2 Tim. ii. 25),
are never employed in other than an ethical sense ; * die
unter Schmerz der Reue sich im Personleben des Menschen
vollziehende radicale Umstimmung,' Delitzsch has finely
described it.
But while thus /J-STCIVOSIV and fjusravoia gradually advanced
in depth and fulness of meaning, till they became the fixed
and recognized words to express that mighty change in
mind, heart, and life wrought by the Spirit of God (' such
a virtuous alteration of the mind and purpose as begets a
like virtuous change in the life and practice,' Kettlewell),
which we call repentance ; the like honour was very par-
tially vouchsafed to /iSTo/ieXeia and nsrapsXscrOat,. The first,
styled by Plutarch awrsipa Bal/j-wv, and by him explained as
fj STTI Tais r]$>ovals, oaai 7rapdvo/j.oi Koi UK par sis, altr^vvrj (De
Gen. Socr. 22), associated by him with ft*pv0vpla (An Vit. ad
Inf. 2), by Plato with rapa^ij (Rep. ix. 577 e; cf. Plutarch,
De Cohib. Ird, 16), has been noted as never occurring in
the N. T. ; the second only five times ; and designating on
one of these the sorrow of this world which worketh
death, of Judas Iscariot (Matt, xxvii. 3), and on another
expressing, not the repentance of men, but the change of
mind of God (Heb. vii. 21) ; and this while fisrdvoia occurs
some five and twenty, and fjLsrai'oslv some five and thirty
LXIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 261
times. Those who deny that either in profane or sacred
Greek any traceable difference existed between the words
are able, in the former, to point to passages where fisra-
ps\sia is used in all those senses which have been here
claimed for /ieraz/oia, to others where the two are employed
as convertible terms, and both to express remorse (Plutarch,
De Tranq. Anim. 19) ; in the latter, to passages in the
N. T. where fj,srafj.s\scrdai, implies all that psravodv would
have implied (Matt. xxi. 29, 32). But all this freely
admitted, there does remain, both in sacred and profane
use, a very distinct preference for fAsravoia as the expression
of the nobler repentance. This we might, indeed, have
expected beforehand, from the relative etymological force
of the words. He who has changed his mind about the
past is in the way to change everything ; he who has an
after care may have little or nothing more than a selfish
dread of the consequences of what he has done (Aristotle,
Etliic. Nic. ix. 4. IO : AiETa/isAs/as- 01 <pav\oi js/j^ovcriv] ; so
that the long dispute on the relation of these words with
one another may be summed up in the statement of Bengel,
which seems to me to express the exact truth of the
matter; allowing a difference, but not urging it too far
(Gnomon N.T.; 2 Cor. vii. 10) : ' Vi etymi nsrdvoia proprie
est mentis, fjLsrap.s\sLa voluntatis ; quod ilia sententiam,
hsec solicitudinem vel potius studium mutatum dicat. . . .
Utrumque ergo dicitur de eo, quern facti consiliive pcenitet,
sive pcenitentia bona sit sive mala, sive malse rei sive bonse,
sive cum mutatione actionum in posterum, sive eitraeam.
Veruntamen si usum spectes, fisra^sXsia plerunque est
fjLsvov vocabulum, et refertur potissimum ad actiones sin-
gulares : ps-rdvoia vero, in N.T. prsesertim, in bonam partem
sumitur, quo notatur prenitentia totius vitae ipsorumque
nostri quoddammodo: sive tota ilia beata mentis post
errorem et peccata reminiscentia, cum omnibus affectibus
earn ingredientibus, quam fructus digni sequuntur. Hinc
fit nt fjLsravosiv ssepe in imperativo ponatur, p,srap.s\slcr6ai,
262 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXX
nunquam : ceteris autem locis, ubicunque fj,srdvoia legitur,
fjirafji\iav possis substituere : sed non contra.' Compare
Witsius, De CEcon. Feed. Dei, iii. 12. 130-136; Girdlestone,
Old Testament Synonyms, p. 153 sqq.
Ixx. jjioptpr'), o"x?)na, ISea.
THESE words are none of them of frequent recurrence in
the N. T., poptyri occurring there only thrice (Mark xvi. 12 ;
Phil. ii. 6, 7) ; but compare popfaaisr (Rom. ii. 20 ; 2 Tim.
iii. 5) : a"xf]/JLa twice (l Cor. vii. 31 ; Phil. ii. 8) ; and 18 e a
only once (Matt, xxviii. 3). Mopfoj is 'form,' 'forma,'
' gestalt ' ; ^x^p-a is ' fashion,' ' habitus,' ' figur ' ; ISea,
4 appearance,' ' species,' ' erscheinung.' The first two,
which occur not unfrequently together (Plutarch, Syrup.
viii. 2. 3), are objective ; for the 'form ' and the 'fashion '
of a thing would exist, were it alone in the universe, and
whether there were any to behold it or no. The other
(lBsa = sl8os, John v. 37) is subjective, the appearance of a
thing implying some to whom this appearance is made ;
there must needs be a seer before there can be a seen.
We may best study the distinction between /uo/30?; and
(T^pa, and at the same time estimate its importance, by aid
of that great doctrinal passage (Phil. ii. 6-8), in which St.
Paul speaks of the Eternal Word before his Incarnation
as subsisting " in the form of God " (ev popfyfi Ssov
vTrdpxwv), as assuming at his Incarnation " the form of a
servant" ( popffiv SovXov Xa/3coi/), and after his Incarnation
and during his walk upon earth as " being found in
fashion as a man " (tr^/zari svpt-Osls &s avOpwrros). The
Fathers were wont to urge the first phrase, h popfyfj Ssov
vTrapxcov, against the Arians (thus Hilary, De Trin. viii.
45 ; Ambrose, Ep. 46 ; Gregory of Nyssa, Con. Eunom.
4) ; and the Lutherans did the same against the Soci-
nians, as a 'dictum probans ' of the absolute divinity
LXX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 263
of the Son of God ; that is, pop<f>r) for them was here
equivalent to ola-ia or fyvcris. This cannot, however, as is
now generally acknowledged, be maintained. Doubtless
there does lie in the words a proof of the divinity of
Christ, but this implicitly and not explicitly. Mop<j>r) is
not=ouo-/a: at the same time none could be sv p-op^fj
Ssov who was not God ; as is well put by Bengel : ' Forma
Dei non est natura divina, sed tamen is qui in forma
Dei extabat, Deus est;' and this because p,3p$i], like the
Latin l forma/ the German ' gestalt,' signifies the form
as it is the utterance of the inner life ; not ' being,' but
' mode of being,' or better, ' mode of existence ' ; and
only God could have the mode of existence of God. But
He who had thus been from eternity sv pop^f) Ssov (John
xvii. 5), took at his Incarnation nopfyv oouXov. The verity
of his Incarnation is herein implied ; there was nothing
docetic, nothing phantastic about it. His manner of
existence was now that of a Sov\os, that is, of a BovXos rov
Ssov : for in tie midst of all our Lord's humiliations He
was never a Bov\os avQpwTrwv. Their Bid/covos He may
have been, and from time to time eminently was (John
xiii. 4, 5 ; Matt. xx. 28) ; this was part of his TcnrslvaHrisr
mentioned in the next verse; but their 8ov\os never;
they, on the contrary, his. It was with respect of God He
so emptied Himself of his glory, that, from that manner
of existence in which He thought it not robbery to be
equal with God, He became his servant.
The next clause, " and being found in fashion (o^T^cm)
as a man," is very instructive for the distinguishing of
0-yiip.a from jjiopfpij. The verity of the Son's Incarnation
was expressed, as we have seen, in the /jLoptfryv 8ov\ov
\a(3(ov. These words which follow do but declare the
outward facts which came under the knowledge of his
fellow-men, with therefore an emphasis on svpsOsts : He
was by men found in fashion as a man, the e^p-a here
signifying, his whole outward presentation, as Bengel puts
264 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXX.
it well : ' o-^^a, habitus, cultus, vestitus, victus, gestus,
sermones et actiones.' In none of these did there appear
any difference between Him and the other children of men.
This superficial character of o^/aa appears in its associa-
tion with such words as -^pw^a (Plato, Gorg. 465 6; Thecetet.
163 6) and viroypafoj (Legg. v. 737 d) ; as in the definition of
it which Plutarch gives ( De Plac. Phil. 14) : s a-rlv 7ri<f)dvsia
Kai Trepvypacfrr) icai irepas crco/zaros. The two words are used
in an instructive antithesis by Justin Martyr (l Apol. 9).
The distinction between them comes out very clearly
in the compound verbs p,sTaa"^rjp,aTi^siv and fisrafiop<^ovv.
Thus if I were to change a Dutch garden into an Italian,
this would be /teTaer^/iaTtcryu.os' : but if I were to transform
a garden into something wholly different, as into a city, '
this would be p,srap.op^xo(TLs. It is possible for Satan
^racr^rjfj,aTL^iv himself into an angel of light (2 Cor. xi.
14) j he can take the whole outward semblance of such.
But to any such change of his it would be impossible to
apply the ^sra^op^ovcrdai, : for this would imply a change
not external but internal, not of accidents but of essence,
which lies quite beyond his power. How fine and subtle
is the variation of words at Rom. xii. 2 ; though * con-
formed ' and transformed ' l in our Translation have failed
adequately to represent it. ' Do not fall in/ says the
Apostle, ' with the fleeting fashions of this world, nor be
yourselves fashioned to them (prj crva-^fiari^sa-ds), but
undergo a deep abiding change (a\\a ^sra^op^ovads) by
the renewing of your mind, such as the Spirit of God
alone can work in you ' (cf. 2 Cor. iii. 1 8) . Theodoret,
commenting on this verse, calls particular attention to
this variation of the word used, a variation which it would
1 The Authorized Version is the first which uses ' transformed ' here ;
"VViclif and the Rheims, both following closely the Vulgate, ' transfigured,'
and the inteitnediate Reformed Versions, ' changed into the fashion of.'
If the distinctions here drawn are correct, and if they stand good in
English as well as Greek, ' transformed ' is not the word.
LXX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 265
task the highest skill of the English scholar adequately
to reproduce in his own language. Among much else
which is interesting, he says : e&iSaa-Ksv ovov Trpos ra irapovra
Tffs aperfjs TO &id(f)opov' Tavra yap s/caXscrs cr^?}/xa, rrjv
upsrrjv 8s /jiOp(f)}jv' r/ fj,op(f>r) 8e d\rjd(H)v Trpajudrwv a-rj^avrtKi],
TO & a^/jLa vSt,d\vTov xpf)fji.a. Meyer perversely enough
rejects all this, and has this note : ' Beide Worte stehen im
Gegensatze nurdurch die Prapositionen, ohneSinnverschie-
denheit der Stamm-Verba ;' with whom Fritzsche agrees (in,
loc.). One can understand a commentator overlooking, but
scarcely one denying, the significance of this change.
For the very different uses of one word and the other, see
Plutarch, Quom. Adul. db Amic. 7, where both occur.
At the resurrection Christ shall transfigure (/ifracr^T/-
fiaTiasi) the bodies of his saints (Phil. iii. 21 ; cf. I Cor.
xvr - 53) ; on which statement Calov remarks, ' Ille fiSTa-
o-^rjfiaTicr^os non substantialem mutationem, sed acciden-
talem, non ratione quidditatis corporis nostri, sed ratione
qualitatum, salva quidditate, importat : ' but the changes
of heathen deities into wholly other shapes were fj,sTa(j.op-
(j)(o(Tis. In the /jLSTaa-^rjfjLaTLa-fj.os there is transition, but
no absolute solution of continuity. The butterfly, pro-
phetic type of man's resurrection, is immeasurably more
beautiful than the grub, yet has been duly unfolded from
it; but when Proteus transforms himself into a flame, a
wild beast, a running stream (Virgil, Georg. iv. 442), each
of these disconnected with all that went before, there is
here a change not of the a-^rj^a merely, but of the popfoj
(cf. Euripides, Hec. 1266; Plato, Locr. 104 e). When the
Evangelist records that after the resurrection Christ ap-
peared to his disciples sv sTspa pop<f>fj (Mark xvi. 12), the
words intimate to us how vast the mysterious change to
which his body had been submitted, even as they are in
keeping with the fisTs/jiop^Mdr] of Matt. xvii. 2 ; Mark ix. 2 ;
the transformation upon the Mount being a prophetic
anticipation of that which hereafter should be ; compare
266 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXX.
Dan. iv. 33, where Nebuchadnezzar says of himself, 77
fjt>op<f)ij fiov eTrsa-Tpstyev sis epe.
The popfyr) then, it may be assumed, is of the essence of
a thing. 1 We cannot conceive the thing as apart from
this its formality, to use * formality' in the old logical
sense ; the a-^r}fj,a is its accident, having to do, not with
the ' quidditas,' but the ( qualitas,' and, whatever changes
it may undergo, leaving the 'quidditas' untouched, the
thing itself essentially, or formally, the same as it was
before ; as one has said, fJLop<j>rj fyvcrews o-^/za s^scos. Thus
o-^fj-a fiaa-iXiKov (Lucian, Pise. 35 ; cf. Sophocles, Antig.
1 148) is the whole outward array and adornment of a
monarch diadem, tiara, sceptre, robe (cf. Lucian, Hermot.
86) all which he might lay aside, and remain king not-
withstanding. It in no sort belongs or adheres to the
man as a part of himself. Thus Menander (Meineke,
Fragm. Com. Gr. p. 985) :
irpaov KdKovpyos trx*)^ VTret(Tf\6cav avi]p
K(KpVfifj.tvr) Ktirui irayls TOIS it\r)a'iov.
Thus, too, the <r^T)/za TOV Koa-pov passes away (l Cor. vii.
31), the image being here probably drawn from the shift-
ing scenes of a theatre, but the Koo-pos itself abides ; there
is no TsXos TOV KOO-/J,OV, but only TOV alwvos, or TWV alwvwv.
For some valuable remarks on the distinction between
fj-opfoi and cr^fia see The Journal of Classical and Sacred
Philology, No. 7, pp. 113, 116, 121 ; and the same drawn
out more fully by Bishop Lightfoot, their author, in his
Commentary on the Philippians, pp. 125-131.
The use in Latin of ' forma ' and ' figura ' so far cor-
responds with those severally of fj-op^ and o-^/za, that
while * figura formee ' occurs not rarely (' veterem forma?
servare figuram'; cf. Cicero, Nat. Deor. i. 32), 'forma
figurse ' never (see Doderlein, Latein. 8yn. vol. iii. p. 87).
1 ' La forme est ngcefsairemeiit es rapport avec la matiere ou avec le
fond. La Jtyure au contraira est plus ind^pendante des objets ; se cou-
$oit a part' (Lafaje ; Xyn. Fran. p. 617).
LXX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 267
Contrast too in English * deformed * and ' disfigured.' A
hunchback is t deformed,' a man that has been beaten
about the face may be l disfigured'; the deformity is
bound up in the very existence of the one ; the disfigure-
ment of the other may in a few days have quite passed
away. lu ' transformed ' and * transfigured' it is easy to
recognize the same distinction.
'IBsa on the one occasion of its use in the N. T. (Matt.
xxviii. 3) is rendered * countenance,' as at 2 Mace. iii. 16
' face.' It is not a happy translation ; * appearance ' would
be better ; ' species sub oculos cadens,' not the thing
itself, but the thing as beholden; thus Plato (Rep. ix.
588 c), 7r\drrs IBeav drjpiov TTOLKL\OV, ' Fashion to thyself
the image of a manifold beast '; so IBs a rov TrpoawTrov, the
look of the countenance (Plutarch, Pyrrh. 3, and often);
IBs a Ka\6s, fair to look on (Pindar, Olymp. x. 122) ; -^LOVOS
IBea, the appearance of snow (Philo, Quod Det. Pot. Ins.
48). Plutarch defines it, the last clause of his definition
alone concerning us here (De Plac. Phil. i. 9) : IBsa scrrlv
ova-la da-to/jLaTOS, avrr) /j,ev p,r) vfa&rwa-a KaO' avrijv, SLKOVI-
%ovcra Be ras apopfyovs /Xas>, KOI air La yivopsvr) rijs rovrwv
Bsl^sws. The word is constant to this definition, and to
the IBstv lying at its own base ; oftentimes it is manifestly
so, as in the following quotation from Philo, which is
further instructive as showing how fundamentally his doc-
trine of the Logos differed from St. John's, was in fact a
denial of it in its most important element : 6 Be v
Tovrwv [rwv xspovfilfji] Aoyos dzlos sis oparrjv OVK rf
IBeav (De Prof. 19). On the distinction between elBos and
IBea, and how far the Platonic philosophy admits a dis-
tinction between them at all, see Stallbaum's note on
Plato's Republic, x. 596 b ; Donaldson's Cratylus, 3rd ed.
p. 105 ; and Thompson's note on Archer Butler's Lectures,
vol. ii. p. 127.
268 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXI.
Ixxi.
occurs six times in the N. T. On three of these
it cannot be said to have a distinctly ethical employment ;
seeing that in them it is only the meanness of the crwyiia ^rv-
XIKOV which the faithful now bear about that is contrasted
with the glory of the a-wpa irvsv/juaTiKov which they shall
bear (i Cor. xv. 44 bis, 46). On the other three occasions
a moral emphasis rests on the word, and in every instance
a most depreciatory. Thus St. Paul declares that the
tyvxiKos receives not and cannot receive, as having no organ
for their reception, the things of the Spirit of God (i Cor.
ii. 14) ; St. James (iii. 15) characterizes the wisdom which
is -fyw%LKri, as also sTrljstos, ( earthly,' and
' devilish ; ' St. Jude explains the -^v-^LKoL as those
pr) e-^ovTss (ver. 19). The word nowhere appears in the
Septuagint; but ^TV^LKWS in the sense of ' heartily ' (=SK
^rv^rjs, Col. iii. 23) twice in the Apocrypha (2 Mace. iv.
37; xiv. 24).
It is at first with something of surprise that we find
tyvxiic6s thus employed, and keeping this company ; and
the modern fashion of talking about the soul, as though it
were the highest part of man, does not diminish this sur-
prise ; would rather lead us to expect to find it associated
with TrvsvfjLartKos, as though there were only light shades
of distinction between them. But, indeed, this (which
thus takes us by surprise) is characteristic of the inner
differences between Christian and heathen, and indicative
of those better gifts and graces which the Dispensation of
the Spirit has brought into the world, ^ir^t/cos, continu-
ally used as the highest in later classical Greek literature
the word appears first in Aristotle being there opposed
to crapKiKos (Plutarch, Ne Suav. Vivi Posse, 14), or, where
there is no ethical antithesis, to aw^ariKos (Aristotle, Eth.
Nic. iii. 10. 2; Plutarch, De Plac. Phil. i. 9; Polybius, vi.
ixxi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 269
5. 7), and constantly employed in praise, must come down
from its high estate, another so much greater than it being
installed in the highest place of all. That old philosophy
knew of nothing higher than the soul of man ; but Reve-
lation knows of the Spirit of God, and of Him making
his habitation with men, and calling out an answering
spirit in them. There was indeed a certain reaching out
after this higher in the distinction which Lucretius and
others drew between the 'anima' and the 'animus,'
giving, as they did, the nobler place to the last. Ac-
cording to Scripture the ^u%^, no less than the crdpj;,
belongs to the lower region of man's being ; and if a double
employment of ^nr^ there (as at Matt. xvi. 26 ; Mark viii.
35), requires a certain caution in this statement, it is at
any rate plain that -^V^LKOS is not a word of honour 1 any
more than a-apiciKos, being an epithet quite as freely
applied to this lower. The ^TV^LKOS of Scripture is one for
whom the ^u%?? is the highest motive power of life and
action ; in whom the irvevfj-a, as the organ of the divine
Hvsvpa, is suppressed, dormant, for the time as good as
extinct ; whom the operations of this divine Spirit have
never lifted into the region of spiritual things (Rom. vii.
14; viii. i ; Jude 19). For a good collection of passages
from the Greek Fathers in which -^TV^IKOS is thus employed
see Suicer, Thes, s. v.
1 Hilary has not quite, however nearly, extricated himself from thij
notion, and in the following passage certainly ascribes more to the ^ V^IKOS
than the Scriptures do, however plainly he sets him in opposition to the
TrvftfjiaTiKos (Tract, in Ps. xiv. 3): 'Apostolus et carnalem [crapKucoj/]
hominem posuit, et animalem fyvxiKav], etspiritalem [rrvfVfi.aTiKoi>] ; car-
nalem, belluae modo divina et huinana negligentem, cujus vita corporis
famula sit, negotiosa cibo, sornno, libidine. Animalis autem, qui ex
judicio sensus human! quid decena honestumque sit, sentiat, atque ab
omnibus vitiis animo suo auctore se referat, suo proprio sensu utilia et
honesta dijudicans ; ut pecuniam spernat, ut jejuniis parcus sit, ut am-
bitione careat, ut voluptatibus resistat. Spiritalis autem est, cui superiors
ilia ad Dominum studia sint, et hoc quod agit, per scientiam Dei agat,
intelligens et cognoscens qase sit voluntas Ejus, et sciens quae ratio sit a
Deo carnis assuuiptse, qui crucis triumphus, quso mortis potestas, quae in
virtute resurrectionis operatic.' Compare Irenaeus, v. 6.
2/0 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXI.
It may be affirmed that tlie capKiKos and the
alike, in the language of Scripture, are set in opposition
to the Trvev/jLartKos. Both epithets ascribe to him of whom
they are predicated a ruling principle antagonistic to the
TTvsvpa, though they do not ascribe the same. When
St. Paul reminds the Ephesians how they lived once,
" fulfilling the desires of the flesh and of the mind " (Ephes.
ii. 3), he describes them first as crapKi/col and then as
"fyw%iicoi. For, indeed, in men unregenerate there are two
forms of the life lived apart from God; and, though every
unregenerate man partakes of both, yet in some one is
more predominant, and in some the other. There are
trapKiKot, in whom the <rdpj; is more the ruling principle,
as there are -^v^iKol, in whom the ^f%^. It is quite true
that crdpj; is often used in the N. T. as covering that
entire domain of our nature fallen and made subject to
vanity in which sin springs up, and in which it moves
(Rom. vii. 18; viii. 5). Thus the spya rrjs <rap/c6s (Gal.
v. 19-21) are not merely those sinful works that are
wrought in and through the body, but those which move
in the sphere and region of the mind as well; more than
one half of those enumerated there belonging to the latter
class. But for all this the word, covering at times the
whole region of that in man which is alienated from God
and from the life in God, must accept its limitation when
the ^rv^tj is brought in to claim that which is peculiarly
its own.
There is an admirable discussion on the difference
between the words, in Bishop Reynolds' Latin sermon on
I Cor ii. 14, preached before the University of Oxford,
with the title Animalis Homo (Works, Lond. 1826, vol. iv.
P- 349)- I quote the most important paragraph bearing
on the matter in hand : ' Yerum cum homo ex carne et
anim& constet, sitque anima pars hominis prsestantior,
quamvis eaepius irregenitos, propter appetitum in vitia
pronum, atque prjjecipites concupiscentia motus, <rdpica et
LXM. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 271
o-ap/citcovs Apostolus noster appellet; hie tamen hujusmodi
homines a prsestantiore parte deuominat,, ut eos se intelli-
gere ostendat, non qui libidinis mancipia sunt, et crassis
concupiscentiis vel nativutn lumen obruunt (hujusmodi
enim homines a\oya rwa vocat Apostolus, 2 Pet. ii. 12),
sed homines sapientiae studio deditos, et qui ea sola, quae
stulta et absurda sunt, rejicere solent. Hie itaque <frvxtKol
sunt quotquot TO irvsv^ia OVK s^ovcri (Jud. 19), utcunque
alias exquisitissimis naturae dotibus prsefulgeant, utcunque
potissimam partem, nempe animam, omiiigena eruditione
excolant, et rectissime ad preescriptum rationis vitam
dirigant. Denique eos hie -^V^LKOVS vocat, quos supra
Sa.pientes, Scribas, Disquisitores, et istius seculi principes
appellaverat, ut excludatur quidquid est nativae aut ac-
quisitae perfectionis, quo naturae viribus assurgere possit
ratio humana. ^fv^iKos, o TO TTCLV TOIS \oyicrpols T^S tyv-xfis
8io"ov$, Kal fir) vo^ii^wv avwdsv Seicrdai florjOsLd?, ut recte
Chrysostomus : qui denique nihil in se eximium habet,
praeter animam rationalem, cujus solius lucem ductumque
sequitur.' I add a few words of Grotius to the same effect
(Annott. in N. T. ; I Cor. ii. 14) : 'Non idem est -^V^KOS
avOpwiros et crapiciKos. ^V-^IKOS est qui humanae tantum
rationis luce ducitur, aapKi/cos qui corporis affectibus guber-
natur; sed plerunque -^rv^KoL aliqua in parte sunt aaptcitcoi,
ut Graecorum philosophiscortatores, puerorum corruptores,
glorias aucupes, maledici, invidi. Verum hie [i Cor. ii.
14] nihil aliud designatur quana homo humana tantum
ratione nitens, quales erant Judaeorum plerique et philo-
sophi Graecorura.'
The question, how to translate -v/rin^/eoy, is one not very
easy to answer. ' Soulish,' which some have proposed, has
the advantage of standing in the same relation to * soul '
that "ty-v%iic6s does to ^fv^ and ' animalis ' to ' anima '5 but
the word is hardly English, and would certainly convey
no meaning at all to ordinary English readers. Wiclif
rendered it.* beastly,' which, it need hardly be said, had
272 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXII.
nothing for him of the meaning of our ' bestial ' (see my
Select Glossary, s. v.) ; but was simply = ' animal ' (he found
* animalis ' in his Vulgate) ; the Rhemish * sensual,' which,
at Jam. iii. 15; Jude 19, our Translators have adopted,
substituting this for ' fleshly,' which was in Cranmer's and
the Geneva Version. Ou the other three occasions they
have rendered it * natural.' These are both unsatisfactory
renderings, and 'sensual ' more so now than at the time
when our Version was made, ' sensual ' and ' sensuality '
having considerably modified their meaning since that
time ; and now implying a deeper degradation than once
they did. On the whole subject of the relations of the ^fv^jj
to the a-dpl; and the TTVSV/JLO., there is much very interest-
ing, though not very easy to in aster, in Delitzsch's Psycho-
logy, English Version, pp. 109-128.
Ixxii. crapKifcos, adptcivos.
A DISCUSSION on the relations between ^vxivos&ndia-apKtKos
naturally draws after it one on the relations between a-ap-
KIKOS and another form of the same, (rdptcivos, which occurs
three, or perhaps four, times in the N. T. ; only once in-
deed in the received text (2 Cor. iii. 3) ; but the evidence
is overwhelming for the right it has to a place at Rom.
vii. 14; Heb. vii. 16, as well, while a preponderance of
evidence is in favour of allowing crdpKivo? to stand also at
i Cor. iii. I.
Words with the termination in -ti/os, fisrova-iaariKa as
they are called, designating, as they most frequently do,
the stuff of which anything is made (see Donaldson,
Cratylus, 3rd ed. p. 458; Winer, Grammatik, xvi. 3;
IVitzsche, Ep. ad Rom. vol. ii. p. 46), are common in the
N. T. ; thus dvlvos, of thyine wood (Rev. xviii. 12), vd\ivos,
of glass, glassen (Rev. iv. 6), vatcwOivos (Rev. ix. 17), 8sp-
pdrtvos (Matt. iii. 4), atcdvOwos (Mark xv. 17). One of
these is crdpKivos, the only form of the word which classical
LXXII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 273
antiquity recognized (o-apKtKos, like the Latin l carnalis,'
having been evoked by the ethical necessities of the
Church), and at 2 Cor. iii. 3 well rendered 'fleshy ' ; that
is, having flesh for the substance and material of which it
is composed. I am unable to affirm that the word
' fleshen ' ever existed in the English language. If it had
done so, and still survived, it would be better still ; for
' fleshy t may be ' carnosus,' as undoubtedly may crdpicivos
as well (Plato, Legg. x. 906 c; Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. iii.
9. 3), while * fleshen ' must mean what a-dpicivos means
here, namely 'carneus,'or having flesh for its material.
The former existence of such a word is not improbable,
many of a like form having once been current, which have
now passed away ; as, for example, ' stonen,' ' hornen,'
'hairen,' 'clayen' (all in Wiclif's Bible), ' threaden '
(Shakespeare), 'tinnen' (Sylvester), ' milken,' ' breaden,'
' reeden,' with many more (see my English Past and Pre-
sent, loth edit. p. 256). Their perishing is to be regretted,
for they were often very far from superfluous. The German
has ' steinig ' and ' steinern,' and finds use for both ; as
the Laiin does for ( lapidosus ' and ' lapideus,' for ' saxo-
sus ' and ' saxeus.' We might have done the same for
' stony ' and ' stonen ' ; a ' stony ' place is one where the
stones are many, a ' stonen ' vessel would be a vessel made
of stone (see John ii. 6 ; Rev. ix. 20, Wiclif s Version,
where the word is found). Or again, a 'glassy' sea is a
sea resembling glass, a 'glassen' sea is a sea made of
glass. And thus too 'fleshly,' 'fleshy,' and 'fleshen,'
would have been none too many ; as little as are ' earthly,'
' earthy,' and ' earthen,' for each of which we are able to
find its own proper employment.
' Fleshly ' lusts (' carnal ' is the word oftener employed
in our Translation, but in fixing the relations between
aapKLKos and crdpKivos, it will be more convenient to em-
ploy ' fleshly ' and ' fleshy ') are lusts which move and stir
in the ethical domain of the flesh, which have in that
T
274 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXU
rebellious region of man's corrupt and fallen nature their
source and spring. Such are the <rapKi/cal S7ri0v/j,iat (i Pet.
ii. ll), and the man is crap/ci/cos who allows to the <ra/>f
a place "which does not belong to it of right. It is in its
place so long as it is under the dominion of the 7rvev/j,a,
and receives a law from it ; but becomes the source of all
sin and all opposition to God so soon as the true positions
of these are reversed, and that rules which should have
been ruled. When indeed St. Paul says of the Corinthians
(i Cor. iii. i) that they were o-dptcivoi, he finds serious
fault indeed with them ; but the accusation is far less
grave than if he had written a-apxiKoc instead. He does
not hereby charge them with positive active opposition to
the Spirit of God this is evident from the coy V^TTIOI with
which he proceeds to explain it but only that they were
intellectually as well as spiritually tarrying at the thresh-
old of the faith (cf. Heb. v. n, 12) ; making no progress,
and content to remain where they were, when they might
have been carried far onward by the mighty transforming
powers of that Spirit freely given to them of God. He
does not charge them in this word with being anti-
spiritual, but only with being wwspiritual, with being flesh
and little more, when they might have been much more.
He goes on indeed, at ver. 3, 4, to charge them with the
graver guilt of allowing the crdpj; to work actively, as a
ruling principle in them; and he consequently changes
his word. They were not aapnivoi only, for no man and
no Church can long tarry at this point, but a-ap/ciicoi as
well, and, as such, full of "envying and strife and
divisions."
In what way our Translators should have marked the
distinction between crdpicivos and aaptciKos here it is not
so easy to suggest. It is most likely, indeed, that the
difficulty did not so much as present itself to them, accept-
ing, as they probably did, the received text, in which there
is no variation of the words. At 2 Cor. iii. 3 all was
LXXIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 275
plain before them : the a-dp/civat, TrKdices are, as they have
given it well, the "fleshy tables " ; Erasmus observing to
the point there, that ardptcivos, not crapiciKos, is used, ' ut
materiam intelligas, non qualitatem.' St. Paul is drawing
a contrast between the tables of stone on which the law of
Moses was written and the tables of flesh on which
Christ's law is written, and exalting the last over the
first ; and so far from ' fleshy ' there being a dishonour-
able epithet, it is a most honourable, serving as it does to
set forth the superiority of the new Law over the old the
one graven on dead tables of stone, the other on the
hearts of living men (cf. Ezek. xi. 19; xxxvi. 265 Jer.
xxxi. 33; Heb. viii. 10; x. 16).
Ixxiii. irvor}, TTVSVJJLCI. avspos, XaiXa-v^r, 6vs\\a.
FROM the words into comparison with which Trvevfia is
here brought, it will be evident that it is proposed to deal
with it in its natural and earthly, not in its supernatural
and heavenly, meaning. Only I will observe, that on the
relations between TTVOTJ and irvsv^a in this its higher sense
there is a discussion in Augustine, De Civ. Dei, xiii. 22 ;
cf. De Anim. et huj. Orig. i. 14, 19. The first three words
of this group, as they designate not things heavenly but
things earthly, differ from one another exactly as, accord-
ing to Seneca, do in the Latin * aer,' ' spiritus,' ' ventus '
(Nat. Qu. v. 13) :' Spiritum a vento motus > separat; vehe-
mentior enim spiritus ventus est ; invicem spiritus leviter
fluens aer.'
Tiro?? and 7Tvsvfj,a occur not seldom together, as at Isai.
xlii. 5 ; Ivii. 1 6 ; irvo-i^ conveying the impression of a lighter,
gentler, motion of the air than irvsv^a, as ' aura ' than
'ventus.' Compare Aristotle (DeMundo, iv. 10} : ra h dspi
TTVSOVTO, Trvsv/xara Ka\ovp.ev dvepovs, avpas Ss rds eg irypov
1 So quoted byDodeiiein ; but the edition of Sen eca before me reads
' modus.'
T2
276 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXIII.
r e/cTrvods. Pliny (Ep. v. 6) recognizes a similar
distinction : ' Semper aer spiritu aliquo movetur ; frequen-
ting tainen auras quam ventos habet ' ; Philo no less (Leg.
Alleg. i. 13) : irvorjv Be, dAA,' ov irvsvpa s'lprjtcsv, (as Siafyopas
ovals' TO /jisv <yap Trvsvpa vsvoTjTai Kara T?;I/ Icr^yv icai
evTovi'av Kal Svva/Aiv rj 8s TTVOTJ cos av avpd rls S<TTI- Kal ava-
Ovpiacns rjpspaia KOI Trpasta. Against this may be urged,
that in one of the two places where irvorj occurs in the
N. T., namely Acts ii. 2, the epithet fiiaia is attached to it,
and it plainly is used of a strong and vehement wind (cf.
Job xxxvii. 9). But, as De Wette has observed, this may
be sufficiently accounted for by the fact that on that occa-
sion it was necessary to reserve irvsvpa for the higher
spiritual gift, whereof this TTVOTJ was the sign and symbol ;
and it would have introduced a perplexing repetition to
have already employed TTVEV/AO, here.
UvsvfjLa is seldom used in the N. T. indeed only at
John iii. 8 ; Heb. i. 7 (in this last place not certainly)
for wind ; but in the Septuagint often, as at Gen. viii. i ;
Ezek. xxxvii. 9 ; Eccles. xi. 5. The rendering of nn in
this last passage by * spirit,' and not, as so often, by
'wind' (Job i. 19; Ps. cxlviii. 8), in our English Version
is to be regretted, obscuring as it does the remarkable
connexion between this saying of the Preacher and our
Lord's words to Nicodemus (John iii. 8). He, who ever
loves to move in the sphere and region of the 0. T., in
those words of his, " The wind bloweth where it listeth,"
takes up words of Ecclesiastes, " Thou knowest not what
is the way of the wind ; " the Preacher having thus already
indicated of what higher mysteries these courses of the
winds, not to be traced by man, were the symbol.
is found often in the Septuagint in connexion with
but generally in a figurative sense (Job xxxiii. 4 ; Isai.
xlii. 5 ; Ivii. 16; and at 2 Sam. xxii. 16 : Trvotiirvsv paras] f
Of ai>fj,os Aristotle (De Mund. 4) gives this account :
ov8sv yap scmv avspos 7T\r)V drjp TTO\VS psatv Kal ddpoos, ocrris
LXXIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 277
a/ia /col TTvsvfjba \sysrai : we may compare Hippocrates :
dvsjjLos <ydp sa~ri rjspos pevfia KOI ^svfia. Like { ventnis ' and
* wind,' avfj,os is usually the strong, oftentimes the tem-
pestuous, wind (i Kin. xix. II ; Job i. 19; Matt. vii. 25 ;
John vi. 18 ; Acts xxvii. 14; Jam. iii. 4; Plutarch, Prcec.
Conj. 12). It is interesting and instructive to observe that
our Lord, or rather the inspired reporter of his conversa-
tion with Nicodemus, which itself no doubt took place in
Aramaic, uses not avs/^os, but irvsv/jLa, as has been noted
already, when he would seek analogies in the natural
world for the mysterious movements, not to be traced
by human eye, of the Holy Spirit; and this, doubtless,
because there is nothing fierce or violent, but all measured
in his operation ; while on the other hand, when St. Paul
would describe men violently blown about and tempested
on a sea of error, he speaks of them as K\vS(0vi%6/jivot
Kal TTSplfapOfJLSVOl TTdVTl CL V fJb to TrjS SiSaCTKaXi'ttS 1 (El)heS.
iv. 14; cf. Jude 12 with 2 Pet. ii. 17).
AatXa-^ is a word of uncertain derivation. It is prob-
ably formed by reduplication, and is meant to be imitative
in sound of that which it designates. We meet it three
times in the N. T. (Mark iv. 37 ; Luke viii. 23 ; 2 Pet. ii.
17) ; oftener, but not often, in the Septuagint. It is our
* squall ' ; but with something more formidable about it
than we commonly ascribe to the squall. Thus J. H. H.
Schmidt, who, in his Synonymik, vol. ii. p. 218 sqq., has a
very careful and full discussion on the whole group of
words having to do with wind and weather, and the phe-
nomena which these present, words in which the Greek
language, as might be expected, is singularly rich, writes
on XatXai/r thus : ' Die Alten verstanden darunter ganz
allgemein den unstaten, aus finsterem Gewolk hervor-
brechenden mit Eegengiissen verbundeuen hin und her to-
benden Sturm.' And examples which he gives quite bear
out this statement ; it is, as Hesychius explains it, avepov
pofy /j,sd' VSTOV : or as Suidas, who brings in the fur-
278 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXIV
ther notion of darkness, /ier' avspoav opftpos ical (TKOTOS: the
constant association in Homer of the epithets tee\aivi) and
ips/jiv^ with XatXa-^r certainly implying that this feature
of it, namely the darkness which goes along with it,
should not be passed over (II. xi. 747 ; xvi. 384; xx. 51).
vs\\a, joined with >yvo<j>os whenever it occurs in the
Septuagint, namely at Deut. iv. 1 1 ; v. 22 ; Exod. x. 22,
is found in the N. T. only at Heb. xii. 18, and sounds there
rather as a reminiscence from the Septuagint, than a word
which the writer would have other wise employed. Schmidt
is at much pains to distinguish it from the Homeric aeAAa,
but with the difference between these we have nothing to
do. It is sufficient to say that in the 6vs\\a, which is
often a natural phenomenon wilder and fiercer, as it would
seem, than the XatXa>Jr itself, there is not seldom the
mingling in conflict of many opposing winds (Homer, Od.
v. 317; xii. 288-9), something of the turbulent cyclone.
Ixxiv.
THESE words occur not seldom together, as at 2 Cor. xiii.
5 ; Ps. xciv. 10 (at Heb. iii. 9 the better reading is sv SOKI-
fiaa-ia) ; but notwithstanding that they are both in our
English Version rendered * prove' (Luke xiv. 19 ; John vi.
6), both ' try ' (i Cor. iii. 13 ; Rev. ii. 2), both ' examine ' (l
Cor. xi. 28; 2 Cor. xiii. 5), they are not perfectly synony-
mous. In SoKifjid&iv, which has four other renderings in
our Version, namely, * discern ' (Luke xii. 56) ; ' like *
(Rom. i. 28); * approve' (Rom. ii. 18); 'allow' (Rom.
xiv. 22), lies ever the notion of proving a thing whether
it be worthy to be received or not, being, as it is, nearly
connected with Se'^so-tfai. In classical Greek it is the
technical word for putting money to the BOKI/J,^ or proof,
by aid of the SoKiptov or test (Plato, Timceus, 65 c ; Plu-
tarch, Def. Orac. 21) ; that which endures this proof being
So'/a/xos, that which fails a8o/a/ioy, which words it will be
LXXIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 279
well to recollect are not, at least immediately, connected
with Sotcifjid&iv, but with ^s^sffOai. Resting on the fact
that this proving is through fire (i Cor iii. 13), SoKifjud^siv
and Trvpovv are often found together (Ps. Ixv. 9 ; Jer. ix. 7).
As employed in the N. T. &o/ayu.ae> almost always implies
that the proof is victoriously surmounted, the proved
is also approved (2 Cor. viii. 8 ; I Thess. ii. 4 ; I Tim.
iii. 10), just as in English we speak of tried men ( = Ss-
SoKi/jiacr/jLsvoi), meaning not merely those who have been
tested, but who have stood the test. It is then very nearly
equivalent to agiovv (2 Thess. i. 1 1 ; cf. Plutarch, Thes.
12). Sometimes the word will advance even a step fur-
ther, and signify not merely to approve the proved, but
to select or choose the approved (Xenophon, Anab. iii. 3.
20; cf. Eom. i. 28).
But on the Sotci/jiaa-ia there follows for the most part not
merely a victorious coming out of the trial, but it is further
implied that the trial was itself made in the expectation
and hope that the issue would be such ; at all events, with
no contrary hope or expectation. The ore is not thrown
into the fining pot and this is the image which con-
tinually underlies the use of the word in the 0. T. (Zech.
xiii. 9; Prov. viii. 10; xvii. 3; xxvii. 21; Ps. Ixv. 10;
Jer. ix. 7 ; Ecclus. ii. 5 ; Wisd. iii. 6 ; cf. I Pet. i. 7)
except in the expectation and belief that, whatever of
dross may be found mingled with it, yet it is not all dross,
but that some good metal, and better now than before, will
come forth from the fiery trial (Heb. xii. 5-11 ; 2 Mace,
vi. 1 2- 1 6). It is ever so with the proofs to which He who
sits as a Refiner in his Church submits his own ; his inten-
tion in these being ever, not indeed to find his saints pure
gold (for that He knows they are not), but to make them
such ; to purge out their dross, never to make evident that
they are all dross. As such, He is So/ci/Aaa-Trjs TWV tcapSi&v
(i Thess. ii. 4 ; Jer. xi. 20 ; Ps. xvi. 4) ; as such, Job could
say of Him, using another equivalent word, Sis/cpivs p.s
280 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXIV.
&a"irep TO xpv&iov (xxiii. 10). To Him, as such, his people
pray, in words like those of Abelard, expounding the sixth
petition of the Lord's Prayer, * Da ut per tentationern
probemur, non reprobemur.' And here is the point of
divergence between &oKi/j,d&iv and Treipd&tv, as will be
plain when the latter word has been a little considered.
This putting to the proof may have quite another in-
tention, as it may have quite another issue and end, than
such as have been just described ; nay, it certainly will
have such in the case of the false-hearted, and those who
belong to God only in semblance and in show. Being
' proved ' or tempted, they will appear to be what they
have always been ; and this fact, though not overruling all
the uses of Treipd^stv, does yet predominantly affect them.
Nothing in the word itself required that it should oftenest
signify a making trial with the intention and hope of
entangling the person tried in sin. Hupdtw t connected
with ' perior,' ' experior,' irslpa), means properly no more
than to make an experience of (jrsipav \afj,(3dvsiv, Heb. xi.
2 9> S^) ; to pierce or search into (thus of the wicked it is
said, TTsipd^ova-i ddvarov, Wisd. ii. 25 : cf. xii. 26; Ecclus.
xxxix. 4) ; or to attempt (Acts xvi. 7 ; xxiv. 6). It came
next to signify the trying intentionally, and with the pur-
pose of discovering what of good or evil, of power or weak-
ness, was in a person or thing (Matt. xvi. I ; xix. 3 ; xxii.
1 8 ; I Kin. x. i) ; or, where this was already known to the
trier, revealing the same to the tried themselves ; as when
St. Paul addresses the Corinthians, savrovs Trsipd^srs,
" try," or, as we have it, " examine yourselves " (2 Cor.
xiii. 5). It is thus that sinners are said to tempt God
(Matt. iv. 7 [eKTrsipd&iv'] ; Acts v. 9 ; I Cor. x. 9 ; Wisd. i.
2), putting Him to the proof, refusing to believe Him on
his own word, or till He has manifested his power. At this
stage, too, of the word's history and successive usages we
must arrest it, when we affirm of God that He ' tempts '
men (Heb. xi. 17: cf. Gen. xxii. i ; Exod. xv. 25 ; Deut.
LXXV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 281
xiii. 3) ; in no other sense or intention can He do this
(Jam. i. 13); but because He does tempt in this sense
(yv/jLva<ras "x,apiv KOI dvappTJasws, (Ecumenius), and because
of the self-knowledge which may be won through these
temptations, so that men may, and often do, come out
of them holier, humbler, stronger than they were when
they entered in, 1 St. James is able to say, " Count it all
joy when ye fall into divers temptations " (i. 2 ; cf. ver. 12).
But the word itself enters on another stage of meaning.
The melancholy fact that men so often break down under
temptation gives to Trsipdfeiv a predominant sense of
putting to the proof with the intention and the hope that
the ( proved ' may not turn out * approved,' but ' repro-
bate'; may break down under the proof; and thus the
word is constantly applied to the solicitations and sug-
gestions of Satan (Matt. iv. I ; I Cor. vii. 5 ; Eev. ii. 10),
which are always made with such a malicious hope, he
himself bearing the name of ' The Tempter ' (Matt. iv. 3 ;
I Thess. iii. 5), and evermore revealing himself as such
(Gen. iii. i. 4, 5 ; i Chron. xxi. i).
We may say then in conclusion, that while Trstpd^siv
may be used, but exceptionally, of God, SoKifjid^siv could
not be used of Satan, seeing that he never proves that he
may approve, nor tests that he may accept.
Ixxv. aocpta,
2o<ta, <$>p6vr)cns, and <yi>&ais occur together, Dan. i. 4, 17.
They are all ascribed to God (fypovrjais not in the N. T.,
1 Augustine (Serm. Ixxi. c. 10) : ' In eo quod dictum est, Deus ne-
minem tentat, non omni sed quodam tentationis modo Deus neminem
tentare intelligendus est: ne falsuin sit ilJud quod scriptum est, Tentat
vos Dominus Deus vester [Deut. xiii. 3] ; etne Christum negemus Deum,
vel dicamus falsuni Evangelium, ubi legimus quia interrogabat discipulmn,
tentans eum [Job. vi. 6]. Est enim tentatio adducens peccatum, qua
Deus neminem tentat : et est tentatio probans fidem, qua et Deus tentare
dignatur.' Cf. Serm. Ivii. c. 9 : Enarr. in Ps. Iv. I ; Serm. ii. c. 3 : ' Deus
tentat, ut doceat : diabolus tentat, ut decipiat.'
282 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXV.
for Ephes. i. 8 is not in point) ; <ro<f)ia and yvwo-ts, Rom.
xi. 33 j faovrpru and ero</a, Prov. iii. 19; Jer. x. 12. There
have been various attempts to divide to each its own
proper sphere of meaning. These, not always running
in exactly the same lines, have this in common, that in all
cro(j)la is recognized as expressing the highest and noblest ;
being, as Clement of Alexandria has it (Pcedag. ii. 2. 25),
Osio)v teal av0pa)7riv(i)v TrpajfiaTcov sTricmJiJir) ; adding, how-
ever, elsewhere, as the Stoics had done before him, teal rwv
rovrcov alriwv (Strom, i. 5. 30). l Augustine distinguishes
between it and ^vwcns as follows (De Div. Qucest. ii. qu. 2) :
' Hsec ita discerni solent, ut sapientia [aofyid] pertineat
ad intellectum eeternorum, scientia [yvwcris] vero ad ea
quse sensibus corporis experimur ; ' und for a much fuller
discussion to the same effect see De Trin. xii. 22-24 '> x i y - 3-
Very much the same distinction has been drawn between
<ro<})ia and <f)povr}cns : as by Philo, who defining (frpovrjcris as
the mean between craftiness and folly, piai] Travovpylas teal
fjiwplas (frpvvrjcris (Quod Deus Imm. 35), gives elsewhere this
distinction between it and a-ofyia (De Prcem. et Pcen. 14) :
<ro<pia p,sv jap TT/JOS- dspairsiav soO, fypovqcns Be irpos avdpw-
irivov ySt'ou Sioitcrjo-iv. This was indeed the familiar and
recognized distinction, as witness the words of Cicero (De
Off. ii. 43) : * Princeps omnium virtutum est ilia sapientia
quam aofyiav Greed vocant. Prudentiam enim, quam
Grseci ^povrja-tv dicunt, aliam quandam intelligimus, quse
est rerum expetendarum fugiendarumque scientia; ilia
autem sapientia, quam principem dixi, rerum est divinarum
atque humanarum scientia ' (cf. Tusc. iv. 26 ; Seneca, Ep.
85). In all this he is following in the steps of Aristotle,
1 On the relation of (^iXoero^Ha (rfjs T>V ovra>v dd (Tria'TrjiJ.rjs opfis f
Plato, Def. 414 ; 5ptis TTJS 6fias a-o(j)ias, Id., quoted by Diogenes
Laertius, iii. 63; eVirijSeuo-is arKpias, Philo, De Cony. Erud, Grat. 14;
' studium virtutis, sed per ipsam virtutem,' Seneca, Ep. 89. 7) to a-ofyia
see Clement of Alexandria, Strom, i. 5. The word first appears in
Herodotus,!. 30; for a sketch of its history, see Ueberweg, Hist, of
Phil. p. I.
LXXV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 283
who is careful above all to bring out the practical cha-
racter of (ppovrja-is, and to put it in sharp contrast with
(rvvsats, which, as in as many words he teaches, is the
critical faculty. One acts, the other judges. This is his
account of <pp6v/]cris (Ethic. Nic. vi. 5- 4) : ^ IS o,\ij8rjs //.era
\6jov TrpatcTiKrj irspl ra dvdpwirw djada Kal icaicd : and
again (Rhet. i. 9) : strrtv dperr) Siavoias, naff 1 rjv sv /3ov\sv-
scrdat, Svvavrai Trspl d<ya6wv /cal fcatccov TWV slprjfjisvwv sis
evSaipovlav. Not otherwise Aristo the Peripatetic (see
Plutarch, De Virt. Kor. 2) : 77 dperrj Troirjrsa sTnvKoirovaa
Kal arj TroiTjTsa KSK\T]Tai <f)p6v7]<rts : and see too ch. 5,
where he has some excellent words, discriminating between
these. It is plain from the references and quotations
just made that the Christian Fathers have drawn their
distinctions here from the schools of heathen philosophy,
with only such widening and deepening of meaning as
must necessarily follow when the ethical and philosophical
terms of a lower are assumed into the service of a higher;
thus compare Zeller, Philos. d. Griechen, iii. i. 222.
We may affirm with confidence that ao$ia is never in
Scripture ascribed to other than God or good men, except
in an ironical sense, and with the express addition, or sub-
audition, of rov Koafjiov TOVTOV (i Cor. i. 20), TOV alwvos
TOVTOV (i Cor. ii. 6), or some such words (2 Cor. i. 12);
nor are any of the children of this world called o-o^ot
except with this tacit or expressed irony (Luke x. 21) ;
being never more than the fydcrKovrss dvat, crofoi of Rom.
i. 22. For, indeed, if <ro<f)ia includes the striving after
the best ends as well as the using of the best means, is
mental excellence in its highest and fullest sense (cf.
Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. vi. 7. 3), there can be no wisdom dis-
joined from goodness, even as Plato had said long ago
Menex. 247 a) : tracra STricrrrj^ri ^wpi^ofisvr] SiKaioa-vwrjs Kal
rf)S aXA,7/s dperrfSi iravovpyia ov <ro(f)ia (fraivsrai : to which
Ecclus. xix. 20, 22, offers a fine parallel. So, too, the Socrates
of Xenophan (Mem. iii. 9. 4, 5) refuses to separate, or even by
284 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXV.
a definition to distinguish, ao$i.a, from o-fo^poavvrj, from
SiKaiocrvvrj, or indeed from any other virtue. It will follow
that the true antithesis to credo's is rather avo-^ros (Rom. i.
14) than aavvsTos; for, while the da-vvsros need not be
more than intellectually deficient, in the avorjros there is
always a moral fault lying behind the intellectual ; the
vovs, the highest knowing power in man, the organ by
which divine things are apprehended and known, being
the ultimate seat of the error (Luke xxiv. 25,0) avoyroi KOI
ppa&slst rfj /capSta: Gal. iii. I, 3 ; I Tim. vi. 9; Tit. hi. 3).
"Avoid (Luke vi. 1 1 ; 2 Tim. iii. 9) is ever the foolishness
which is akin to and derived from wickedness, even as
aofyia is the wisdom which is akin to goodness, or rather
is goodness itself contemplated from one particular point
of view ; as indeed the wisdom which only the good can
possess. Ammon, a modern German rationalist, gives
not badly a definition of the a-ofybs or ' sapiens ' ; i.e. ' cog-
nitione optimi, et admiuiculoruin ad id efficienduni idoneo-
rum instructus.'
But (frpovrjais, being a right use and application of the
<f>pijv, is a middle term. It may be akin to a-o<j>ia (Prov.
x. 23), they are interchangeably used by Plato (Symp.
2O2 a), but it may also be akin to iravovp^/ia (Job v. 13 ;
Wisd. xvii. 7). It skilfully adapts its means to the attain-
ment of the ends which it desires ; but whether the ends
themselves which are proposed are good, of this it affirms
nothing. On the different kinds of ^poi^o-ts, and the very
different senses in which <f)p6vr)<ris is employed, see Basil
the Great, Horn, in Princ. Prov. 6. It is true that as
often as (frpovrja-is occurs in the N. T. (sv $povr)<rei SIKO.LWV,
Luke i. 17; <ro<j>ia KOI (f>povi]crei, Ephes. i. 8), it is used of
a laudable prudence, but for all this fypowrjcns is not wisdom,
nor the ^poVt/ios the wise; and Augustine (De Gen. ad
Lit. xi. 2) has perfect right when he objects to the
* sapientissimus,' with which his Latin Version had ren-
dered {frpoviftuTaros at Gen. iii. i, saying, 'Abusione
LXXV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 285
no minis sapientia dicitur in malo ; ' cf. Con. Chiad. i. 5.
And the same objection, as has been often urged, holds
good against the "wise as serpents" (Matt. x. 16), "wiser
than the children of light" (Luke xvi. 8), of our own
Version. 1
On the distinction between o-otfrla and yvaxris Bengel
has the following note (Gnomon, in i Cor. xii. 8) : ' Illud
certum, quod, ubi Deo ascribuntur, in solis objectis dif-
ferunt; vid. Eoin. xi. 33. Ubi fidelibus tribuuntur,
sapienlia [<ro<J>td] magis in longum, latum, profundum et
altum penetrat, quam cognitio [yvwa-is]. Cognitio est
quasi visus ; sapientia visus cum sapore ; cognitio, rerum
agendarum ; sapientia, rerum aeternaruin ; quare etiam
sapientia non dicitur abroganda, i Cor. xiii. 8.'
Of STriyvwais, as compared with yvwcris, it will be
sufficient to say that STTI must be regarded as intensive,
giving to the compound word a greater strength than the
simple possessed ; thus sTrnrodsa) (2 Cor. v. 2), 7rt/isXeo/xat :
and, by the same rule, if yvwcris is ' cognitio,' ' Kenntniss,'
sTTiyvcoa-is is * major exactiorque cognitio ' (Grotius), ' Er-
kenntniss/ a deeper and more intimate knowledge and
acquaintance. This we take to be its meaning, and not
* recognition,' in the Platonic sense of reminiscence, as
distinguished from cognition, if we might use that word ;
which Jerome (on Ephes. iv. 13), with some moderns, has
affirmed. St. Paul, it will be remembered, exchanges the
yivd)(TKQ>, which expresses his present and fragmentary
knowledge, for sir i yvwo- o/zat, when he would express his
future intuitive and perfect knowledge (i Cor. xiii. 12).
It is difficult to see how this should have been preserved
in the English Version; our Translators have made no
attempt to preserve it ; Bengel does so by aid of ' nosco '
1 The Old Italic runs perhaps into the opposite extreme, rendering
</>pon/*oi here by ' astuti ' ; which, however, had not in the later Latin at
all so evil a subaudition as it had in the classical ; so Augustine (Ep.
167. 6) assures us.
286 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVI.
and 'pernoscam,' and Culverwell (Spiritual Optics,p. 180)
has the following note : ' 'EiTriyvaxris and <yvS)<ris differ.
'EiTTiyvwais is f) fjtsra rr)v Trpcarr^v yvwcriv rov Trpd^jJiaros
7rcn>T\r)s Kara Svva/Aiv Karavorjcris, It is bringing me
better acquainted with a thing I knew before ; a more
exact viewing of an object that I saw before afar off.
That little portion of knowledge which we had here shall
be much improved, our eye shall be raised to see the same
things more strongly and clearly.' All the uses of sirl-
ryvwais which St. Paul makes, justify and bear out this dis-
tinction (Eom. i. 28 ; iii. 20 ; x. 2 ; Ephes. iv. 13 ; Phil. i. 9 ;
I Tim. ii. 4 ; 2 Tim. ii. 25 ; cf. Heb. x. 26) ; this same inten-
sive use of eTTiyvcoa-is is borne out by other similar passages
in the N. T. (2 Pet. i. 2, 8 ; ii. 20) and in the Septuagint
(Prov. ii. 5 ; Hos. iv. I ; vi. 6) ; and is recognized by the
Greek Fathers ; thus Chrysostom on Col. i. 9 : eyvcoTs, d\\a
Sscrt KOI ETTiyvwvai. On the whole subject of this see
Lightfoot on Col. i. 9.
Ixxvi. \a\so), \jd) (\a\id, \6yos).
IN dealing with synonyms of the N. T. we plainly need
not concern ourselves with such earlier, or even contem-
porary, uses of the words which we are discriminating, as
lie altogether outside of the N. T. sphere, when these uses
do not illustrate, and have not affected, their Scriptural
employment. It follows from this that all those con-
temptuous uses of \a\stv as to talk at random, as one
d0vp6(7To/j,o$, or with no door to his lips, " might do ; of
\a\id, as chatter (&icpcurl\6yov a\o<yos, Plato, Defin. 416)
for I cannot believe that we are to find this at John iv.
42 may be dismissed and set aside. The antithesis in
the line of Eupolis (Meineke, Fragm. Com. Gr. p. 174),
A.a\iv apicnos, dBwarwraTos' A^yetz/, does little or nothing
to illustrate the matter in hand.
The distinction which indeed exists between the words
LXXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 287
may in this way be made clear. There are two leading
aspects under which speech may be regarded. It may,
first, be contemplated as the articulate utterance of human
language, in contrast with the absence of this, from what-
ever cause springing; whether from choice, as in those
who hold their peace, when they might speak ; or from the
present undeveloped condition of the organs and faculties,
as in the case of infants (V^TTLOI) ; or from natural defects,
as in the case of those born dumb ; or from the fact of
speech lying beyond the sphere of the faculties with
which as creatures they have been endowed, as in the
lower animals. This is one aspect of speech, namely arti-
culated words, as contrasted with silence, with mere sounds
or animal cries. But, sacondly, speech (' oratio ' or oris
ratio ') may be regarded as the orderly linking and knitting
together in connected discourse of the inward thoughts
and feelings of the mind, ' verba legere et lecta ac selecta
apte conglutinare ' (Valcknaer ; cf. Donaldson, Cratylus,
453). The first is \a\siv = ^31. , the German < lallen,'
'loqui,' ' sprechen," to speak '; the second = ^V$, 'dicere,'
' reden,' * to say,' ' to discourse.' Ammonius : \a\stv KOI
\eysiv St,a(j)Epet,- \eystv fjikv TO rsTaj/J.VO)f Trpoa-fyepsiv rov
\6<yov \a\slv Bs, TO aTaKTWs s/ctyspsiv TO,
Thus the dumb man (a\a\os, Mark vii. 37), restored to
human speech, sXaX^s (Matt. ix. 33 ; Luke xi. 14), the
Evangelists fitly using this word, for they are not con-
cerned to report what the man said, but only the fact
that he who before was dumb, was now able to employ
his organs of speech. So too, it is always \a\siv y\(i)a-<rais
(Mark xvi. 17 ; Acts ii. 4 ; I Cor. xii. 30), for it is not what
those in an ecstatic condition utter, but the fact of this
new utterance itself, and quite irrespective of the matter
of it, to which the sacred narrators would call our atten-
tion ; even as \a\slv may be ascribed to God Himself (it
is so more than once in the Epistle to the Hebrews, as at
288 SYNONY.VS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVI.
i. i, 2), where the point is rather that He should have
spoken at all to men than what it was that He spoke.
But if in \a\slv (=' loqui ') the fact of uttering articu-
lated speech is the prominent notion, in \sysiv ( = 'dicere'}
it is the words uttered, and that these correspond to
reasonable thoughts within the breast of the utterer. Thus
while the parrot or talking automaton (Rev. xiii. 1 5) may
be said, though even they not without a certain impropriety,
\a\siv, seeing they produce sounds imitative of human
speech ; and in poetry, though by a still stronger figure,
a \a\siv may be ascribed to grasshoppers (Theocritus,
Idyl. v. 34), and to pipes and flutes (Idyl. xx. 28, 29) ; yet
inasmuch as there is nothing behind these sounds, they
could never be said \e<ysiv : for in the \sysiv lies ever the
evvota, or thought of the mind (Heb. iv. 12), as the corre-
lative to the words on the lips, and as the necessary con-
dition of them ; it is ' colligere verba in sententiaui ' ; even
as \6yos is by Aristotle defined (Poet. 20), (fxuvrj a-vvdsrrj,
a-rjfj.avTiKtj (see Malan, Notes on the Gospel of St. John,
p. 3). Of (f>pd%iv in like manner (it only occurs twice
in the N. T., Matt. xiii. 36; xv. 15), Plutarch affirms
that it could not, but \d\slv could, be predicated of
monkeys and dogs (\a\ovai <yap, ov (frpd&vai 8s, De Plac.
Phil. v. 20) .
Often as the words occur together, in such phrases as
e\d\r)<re \e<ywv (Mark vi. 50 ; Luke xxiv. 6), \a\rj6sls \6yos
(Heb. ii. 2), and the like, each remains true to its own
meaning, as just laid down. Thus in the first of these
passages e\d\r](re will express the opening of the mouth
to speak, as opposed to the remaining silent (Acts xviii. 9) ;
while \sywv proceeds to declare what the speaker actually
said. Nor is there, I believe, any passage in the N. T.
where the distinction between them has not been observed.
Thus at Rom. xv. 18 ; 2 Cor. xi. 17 ; i Thess. i. 8, there is
no difficulty in giving to \d\siv its proper meaning ; indeed
all these passages gain rather than lose when this is done;
LXXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 289
while at Rom. iii. 19 there is an instructive interchange
of the words.
AaXta and \6yos in the N. T. are true to the distinction
here traced. How completely AaTua, no less than \a\eiv,
has put off every slighting sense, is abundantly evident
from the fact that on one occasion our Lord claims \d\id
as well as Xo'yos for Himself: " Why do ye not understand
my speech (~\.a\idv) ? even because ye cannot hear my
word" (\6yov, John viii. 43). Aa\id and \6yos are set in
a certain antithesis to one another here, and in the seizing
of the point of this must lie the right understanding of
the verse. What the Lord intended by varying \a\id and
\oyos has been very differently understood. Some, as
Augustine, though commenting on the passage, have
omitted to notice the variation. Others, like Olsliausen,
have noticed, only to deny that it had any significance.
Others again, admitting the significance, have failed to
draw it rightly out. It is clear that, as the inability to
understand his 'speech* (XaXm) is traced up as a conse-
quence to a refusing to hear his ' word ' (\uyos), this lasf-,
as the root and ground of the mischief, must be the deeper
and anterior thing. To hear his ' word ' can be nothing
else than to give room to his truth in the heart. They who
will not do this must fail to understand his ' speech,' the
outward form and utterance which his 'word' assumes.
They that are of God hear God's word, his prj^ara as else-
where (John iii. 34 ; viii. 47) , his XaTua as here, it is
called ; 1 which they that ai*e not of God do not and cannot
hear. Melanchthon : ' Qui veri sunt Dei filii et dornestici
non possunt paternse domus igiiorare linguam.'
1 Philo maltes the distinction of the Xo'yor and the pjjpa to be that of
the -whole and of its parts (Leg. Alley, iii. 6l) : TO 8e prjua /ipos \6yov.
On the distinction between pfip-n TOV 6eoO and \6yos TOV Qeoii there are
some important remarks by Archdeacon Lee, On Inspiration, pp. 135, 539.
2QO SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVII.
Ixxvii. airo\vTpo)(Tif, Kara\\ajr),
THEKE are three grand circles of images, by aid of which
are set forth to us in the Scriptures of the N. T. the in-
estimable benefits of Christ's death and passion. Tran-
scending, as these benefits do, all human thought, and
failing to find anywhere a perfectly adequate expression
in human language, they must still be set forth by the help
of language, and through the means of human relations.
Here, as in other similar cases, what the Scripture does is
to approach the central truth from different quarters ; to
exhibit it not on one side but on many, that so these may
severally supply the deficiencies of one another, and that
moment of the truth which one does not express, another
may. The words here grouped together, aTro\i>Tpw<ris
or ' redemption,' Kara\\.a<yrj or ' reconciliation,' tXacr/ios or
' propitiation,' are the capital words summing up three
such families of images ; to one or other of which almost
every word and phrase directly bearing on this work of
our salvation through Christ may be more or less nearly
referred.
'ATToXvTpacris is the form of the word which St. Paul
invariably prefers, \vrptaais occurring in the N. T. only at
Luke i. 68 ; ii. 38 ; Heb. ix. 12. Chrysostom (upon Rom.
iii. 24), drawing attention to this, observes that by this
ttTTo the Apostle would express the completeness of our
redemption in Christ Jesus, a redemption which no later
bondage should follow : KOI ov% cnr\ws slirs, \vrpw(rsws 1
aXX' a7ro\vrpci)<T0)5, MS fAijtcsri rjfjuas 7ravi\.dsiv TrdXiv 7rl rrjv
avrrjv 8ov\ELav. In this he has right, and there is the
same force in the OTTO of aTro/earaXXacrcreti' (Ephes. ii. 16;
Col. 5. 20, 22), which is 'prorsusreconciliare ' (see Fritzsche
on Rom. v. IO), of aTrotcapaSoKia and arrefcBs^sa-Bai, (Rom.
viii. 19). Both aTrdXvrpwa-is (not in the Septuagint, but
tnro\.vTp6w twice, Exod. xxi. 8; Zeph. iii. i) and Xirrpoxrtj
are late words in the Greek language, Rost and Palm
LXXVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 291
(Lexicon) giving no earlier authority for them than Plu-
tarch (Arat. 1 1 ; Pomp. 24) ; while \vrpwrr)s seems peculiar
to the Greek Scriptures (Lev. xxv. 31 j Ps. xviii. [LXX.]
15 ; Acts vii. 35).
When Theophylact defines dirdXiirpwcns as r/ diro rf/y
al^aKwaiassTravdKX.ria-is, he overlooks one most important
element in the word; for diro\vTpu>cns is not recall from
captivity merely, as he would imply, but recall of captives
from captivity through the payment of a ransom for them ;
cf. Origen on Rom. iii. 24. The idea of deliverance through
a \vrpov or dvrd\\a<y/jia (Matt. xvi. 26 ; cf . Ecclus. vi. 1 5 ;
xxvi. 14), a price paid, though in actual use it may often
disappear from words of this family (thus see Isai. xxxv.
9), is yet central to them (i Pet. 18, 19; Isai. Iii. 3).
Keeping this in mind, we shall find connect themselves-
with d"jro\vTp(i)cri$ a whole group of most significant words ;
not only \vrpov (Matt. xx. 28; Mark x. 45), avTi\,vrp&v
(l Tim. ii. 6), \vrpovv (Tit. ii. 14; I Pet. i. 18), \vrpwa-is-
(Heb. ix. 12), but also ayopd&iv (i Cor. vi. 20) and s^ayo-
pd^siv (Gal. iii. 13 ; iv. 5). Here indeed is a point of con-
tact with tXturpos, for the \vrpov paid in this d7ro\vTpcocns-
is identical with the irpoa-^opd or dvcrla by which that
i\aa-fj,6s is effected. There also link themselves with
d7To\vTp(oa-is all those statements of Scripture which speak
of sin as slavery, and of sinners as slaves (Rom. vi. 17, 20;
John viii. 34: 2 Pet. ii. 19) ; of deliverance from sin as
freedom, or cessation of bondage (John viii. 33, 36; Bom.
viii. 21 ; Gal. v. i).
Kara\\ayrj, occurring four times in the N. T., only
occurs once in the Septuagint, and once in the Apocrypha.
On one of these occasions, namely at Isai. ix. 5, it is
simply exchange ; on the other (2 Mace. v. 20) it is em-
ployed in the N. T. sense, being opposed to the opyrj TOV
Ssov, and expressing the reconciliation, the svpevsta of
God to his people. There can be no question that (rvva\-
\ayij (Ezek. xvi. 8, Aquila) and <rvva\\*"*<reiv (Acts vii. 26,
2Q2 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVII.
Lachmann),StaXXa7?7 (Ecclus. xxii. 22 ; xxvii. 21 ; cf. Aristo-
phanes, Acharn. 988) and Sia\\dcra-iv (in the N. T. only at
Matt. v. 24 ; cf. Judg. xix. 3 ; i Esdr. iv. 3 1 ; Euripides, Hel.
1235), are more usual words in the earlier and classical
periods of the language ; l but for all this the gram-
marians are wrong who denounce Kara\\ay)j and tcara\-
\daa-eiv as words avoided by all who wrote the language
in its highest purity. None need be a.shamed of words
which found favour with JEschylus (Sept. Con. Theb. 767),
with Xenophon (Anal), i. 6. 2) and with Plato (Phced. 69 a).
Fritzsche (on Rom. v. 10) has effectually disposed of
Tittmann's fanciful distinction between Kara\\da-<TSLV and
The Christian /caraX^ayij has two sides. It is first a
reconciliation, ' qua Deus nos sibi reconciliavit,' laid aside
his holy anger against our sins, and received us into favour,
a reconciliation effected for us once for all by Christ upon
his cross ; so 2 Cor. v. 18, 19 ; Rom. v. 10 ; where /cara/V-
\d<ra-(T0ai is a pure passive, ' ab eo in gratiam recipi apud
quern in odio fueras.' But Kara\\ay^ is secondly a.nd
subordinately the reconciliation, * qu& nos Deo reconcilia-
mur,' the daily deposition, under the operation of the
Holy Spiiit, of the enmity of the old man toward God. In
this passive middle sense KaToXkda-a-saQai is used, 2 Cor. v.
20 ; cf. I Cor. vii. II. All attempts to make this secondary
to be indeed the primary meaning and intention of the
word, rest not on an unprejudiced exegesis, but on a fore-
gone determination to get rid of the reality of God's anger
against the sinner. With Kara\\ay^ is connected all that
language of Scripture which describes sin as a state of
enmity (*%0/oa) with God (Rom. viii. 7 ; Ephes. ii. 15;
Jam. iv. 4), and sinners as enemies to Him and alienated
from Him (Rom. v. 10 ; Col. i. 21) ; which sets forth Christ
on the cross as the Peace, and the maker of peace between
1 Christ, according to Clement of Alexandria (Coh. ad Gen. 10) if
ijs Ka\
LXXVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 293
God and man (Ephes. ii. 14; Col. i. 20); all such invita-
tions as this, " Be ye reconciled with God " (2 Cor. v. 20).
Before leaving Kara\\aj)j we? observe that the exact
relations between it and t'Xattytov, which will have to be
considered next, are somewhat confused for the English
reader, fzx>m the fact that the word ' atonement,'. by which
our Translators have once rendered Kara\\ajrj (Rom. v.
n), has little by little shifted its meaning. It has done
this so effectually, that were the translation now for the
first time to be made, and words to be employed in their
present sense and not in their past, < atonement ' would
plainly be a much fitter rendering of 4X007*0?, the notion
of propitiation, which we shall find the central one of
i\ao-fi6f, always lying in * atonement ' as we use it now.
It was not so once. When our Translation was made, it
signified, as innumerable examples prove, reconciliation,
or the making up of a foregoing enmity ; all its uses in our
early literature justifying the etymology now sometimes
called into question, that 'atonement' is ' at-one-ment,'
and therefore = ' reconciliation ' : and that consequently
it was then, although not now, the proper rendering of
Kara\\ayr) (see my Select Glossary, s. vv. ' atone,' ' atone-
ment ' ; and, dealing with these words at full, Skeat, Etym.
Diet, of the English Language, s. v., an article which leaves
no doubt as to their history).
'I\a<rfji6s is found twice in the First Epistle of St. John
(ii. 2 ; iv. 10) ; nowhere else in the N. T. : for other ex-
amples of its use see Plutajch, Sol. 1 2 ; Fab. Max. 1 8 ;
Camill. 7 : Oswv fj,fjvi$ ikaa^ov KCU ^aptaT'rjpLwv Sso/jisvr). I
am inclined to think that the excellent word ' propitiation,'
by which our Translators have rendered it, did not exist in
the language when the earlier Eeformed Versions were
made. Tyndale, the Geneva, and Cranmer have " to make
agreement," instead of " to be the propitiation," at the first
of these places ; " He that obtaineth grace " at the second.
In the same way iXaa-Tijpiov, which we, though I think
294 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVII.
wrongly (see Theol. Stud, und Krit. 1842, p. 314), have
also rendered 'propitiation' (Rom. iii. 25), is rendered in
translations which, share in our error, ' the obtairier of
mercy ' (Cranmer), ' a pacification ' (Geneva) ; and first
* propitiation ' in the Kheims the Latin tendencies of
this translation giving it boldness to transfer this word
from the Vulgate. Neither is i\aa-p6s of frequent use
in the Septuagint ; yet in such passages as Num. v. 8 ;
Ezek. xliv. 27 ; cf. 2 Mace. iii. 33, it is being prepared for
the more solemn use which it should obtain in the N. T.
Connected with \\sws, { propitius,' i\da-Ko-0ai, ' placare,'
' iram avertere,' ' ex irato mitem reddere,' it is by Hesy-
chius explained, not incorrectly (for see Dan. ix. 9 ; Ps.
cxxix. 4), but inadequately, by the following synonyms,
evfj,svia, (fvy^wprjcTLS, Bia\\a<yi], /caraXXayij, TrpaoTtjs. I say
inadequately, because in none of these words thus offered
as equivalents, does there lie what is inherent in i\a<r/j.os
and iXda-fcsarOai, namely, that the svpsvna or goodwill has
been gained by means of some offering, or other ' placa-
men' (cf. Herodotus, vi. 105 ; viii. 112 ; Xenophon, Cyrop.
vii. 2. 19 ; and Nagelsbach, Nachhomer. Theol. vol. i. p. 37).
The word is more comprehensive than iXacrr^y, which
Grotius proposes as covering the same ground. Christ
does not propitiate only, as iX.da-rrjs would say, but at
once propitiates, and is Himself the propitiation. To
speak in the language of the Epistle to the Hebrews, in
the offering of Himself He is both at once, dp^ispsvf and
Bvaia or Trpoafopa, (for the difference between these latter
see Mede, Works, 1672, p. 360), the two functions of
priest and sacrifice, which were divided, and of necessity
divided, in the typical sacrifices of the law, meeting and
being united in Him, the sin-offering by and through
whom the just anger of God against our sins was ap-
peased, and God, without compromising his righteousness,
enabled to show Himself propitious to us once more. All
this the word l\a^6s t used of Christ, declares. Cocceius :
LXXVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 295
* Est enim l\aa-p,os mors sponsoris obita ad sanctifica-
tionem Dei, volentis peccata condonarej atque ita tol-
lendara condemnationem.'
It will be seen that with i\aap,os connect themselves a
larger group of words and images than with either of the
words preceding all, namely, which set forth the benefits
of Christ's death as a propitiation of God, even as all
which speak of Him as a sacrifice, an offering (Ephes. v. 2 ;
Heb. x. 14; i Cor. v. 7), as the Lamb of God (John i. 29,
36; i Pet. i. 19), as the Lamb slain (Eev. v. 6, 8), and
a little more remotely, but still in a lineal consequence
from these last, all which describe Him as washing us in
his blood (Rev. i. 5). As compared with Kara\\ayij (=the
German ' Versohnung'), t'Xaoyios ( = ' Versiihnung ') is
the deeper word, goes nearer to the innermost heart of
the matter. If we had only /caraXXaj^ and the group of
words and images which cluster round it, to set forth the
benefits of the death of Christ, these would indeed set
forth that we were enemies, and by that death were made
friends : but how made friends KaraXkay^ would not de-
scribe at all. It would not of itself necessarily imply
satisfaction, propitiation, the Daysman, the Mediator, the
High Priest ; all which in i\acr/j,6s are involved (see two
admirable articles, c Erlosung ' and ' Versohnung,' by
Schoeberlein, in Herzog's Real-Encyclopddie). I conclude
this discussion with BengePs excellent note on Rom. iii.
24 : ' t\aa-/ji,6s (expiatio sive propitiatio) et airo\vTpwai,s
(redemtio) est in fundo rei unicum beneficium, scilicet,
restitutio peccatoris perditi. 'KirokvTpwa-Ls est respectu
hostium, et Ka,Ta\\ayr) est respectu Dei. Atque hie voces
i\aa-fj,6s et Kara\\ay^ iterum differunt. 'JXacr/zoy (pro-
pitiatio) tollit offensam contra Deum ; KaraX\,ayij (recon-
ciliatio) est Siir\svposr et tollit (a) indignationem Dei ad-
versum nos, 2 Cor. v. 19, (&) nostrainque abalienationem a
Deo, 2 Cor. v. 20.'
296 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVIII.
Ixxviii. v|raX/io'y, VJJLVOS, (p$/j.
ALL these words occur together at Ephes. v. 19, and again
at Col. iii. 16; both times in the same order, and in pas-
sages which very nearly repeat one another ; cf. Ps. Ixvi. I.
When some expositors refuse even to attempt to distinguish
between them, urging that St. Paul had certainly no in-
tention of classifying the different forms of Christian
poetry, this statement, no doubt, is quite true ; but neither,
on the other hand, would he have used, where there is
evidently no temptation to rhetorical ampli6cation, three
words, if one would have equally served his turn. It may
fairly be questioned whether we can trace very accurately
the lines of demarcation between the " psalms and hymns
and spiritual songs " of which the Apostle makes mention,
cr whether he traced these lines for himself with a perfect
accuracy. Still each must have had a meaning which
belonged to it more, and by a better right, than it belonged
to either of the others ; and this it may be possible to
seize, even while it is quite impossible with perfect strict-
ness to distribute under these three heads Christian poetry
as it existed in the Apostolic a.ge. 'Aoyia, it may be here
observed, a word of not unfrequent occurrence in the
Septuagint, does not occur in the N. T.
The Psalms of the O.T. remarkably enough have no
single, well recognized, universally accepted name by
which they are designated in the Hebrew Scriptures
(Delitzsch, Comm. ub. den Psalter, vol. ii. p. 371 ; Herzog,
Real-Encyclop. vol. xii. p. 269). They first obtained such
in the Septuagint. WaX/tos, from tyda), properly a touch-
ing, and then a touching of the harp or other stringed
instruments with the finger or with the plectrum (\/raX//,ot
rogwv, Euripides, Ion, 174; cf. Bacch, 740, are the twang-
ings of the bowstrings), was next the instrument itself,
and last of all the song sung with this musical accompani-
ment. It is in this latest stage of its meaning that we
LXXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 297
find the word adopted in the Septuagint; and to this
agree the ecclesiastical definitions of it ; thus in the
Lexicon ascribed to Cyril of Alexandria: \6yos UOVO-IKOS,
orav vpvBafos Kara rovs apuoviicovs \6yovs TO opyavov
Kpovrjrai : cf. Clement of Alexandria (Pcedag. ii. 4) : 6
fya\jj,6s, ua\Tjs <TTIV svXoyia Kal crotitypwv : and Basil the
Great, who brings out with still greater emphasis what
differences the ' psalm ' and the ode or ' spiritual song '
(Horn, in Ps. 44) : <aorj >ydp fern, Kal ou^i -^raXfjiOs ' 8i6ri
yvavfj (f)(0vf), arj (Tvvr^^ovvTos avrfj rov opyavov, /ir'
e/j,f J L/j.s\ov$ rffs K<f}(0vija-c0s, TrapsSi'SoTO : compare in Psal.
xxix. i ; to which Gregory of Njssa, in Psal. c. 3, agrees.
In all probability the i/raX/W of Ephes. v. 10, Col. iii. 16,
are the inspired psalms of the Hebrew Canon. The word
certainly designates these on all other occasions when it
is met in the N. T., with the one possible exception of
I Cor. xiv. 26; and probably refers to them there; nor
can I doubt that the ' psalms ' which the Apostle would
have the faithful to sing to one another, are psalms of
David, of Asaph, or of some other of the sweet singers of
Israel ; above all, seeing that the word seems limited and
restricted to its narrowest use by the nearly synonymous
words with which it is grouped.
But while the ' psalm ' by the right of primogeniture,
as being at once the oldest and most venerable, thus
occupies the foremost place, the Church of Christ does
not restrict herself to such, but claims the freedom of
bringing new things as well as old out of her treasure-
house. She will produce " hymns and spiritual songs " of
her own, as well as inherit psalms bequeathed to her by
the Jewish Church; a new salvation demanding a new
song (Rev. v. 9), as Augustine delights so often to re-
mind us.
It was of the essence of a Greek vavos that it should
be addressed to, or be otherwise in praise of, a god, or of
a hero, that is, in the strictest sense of that word, of a
298 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVIII.
deified man ; as Callisthenes reminded Alexander ; who,
claiming hymns for himself, or suffering them to be
addressed to him, implicitly accepted not human honours
but divine (vpvoi pJsv ss rovs Qsovs TTOIOVVTCU, sTratvoi, Be es
av0p(t>7rovs, Arrian, iv. n). In the gradual breaking
down of the distinction between human and divine, which
marked the fallen days of Greece and Rome, with the
usurping on the part of men of divine honours, the vpvos
came more and more to be applied to men ; although this
not without observation and remonstrance (Athencous, vi.
62; xv. 21, 22). When the word was assumed into the
language of the Church, this essential distinction clung
to it still. A * psalm ' might be a De profundis, the story
of man's deliverance, or a commemoration of mercies
which he had received; and of a " spiritual song" much
the same could be said : a ' hymn ' must always be more
or less of a Magnificat, a direct address of praise and
glory to God. Thus Jerome (in Ephes. v. 19): ' Breviter
hymnos esse dicemlum, qui fortitudinem et majestatem
prscdicant Dei, et ejusdem semper vel beneficia, vel facta,
mirantur.' Compare Origen, Con. Gels. viii. 67 ; and a
precious fragment, probably of the Presbyter Cains, pre-
served by Eusebius (H. E. v. 28) : ^a\^ol 8s oaoi /cal <aSal
aBs\^>(ov UTT ap%rjs vrro TTKTTWV <ypa(f>t(rai, TOV Aojov TOV
sou TOV XpiaTov vfj,vov(ri OsoXo^ovvTSs. Compare further
Gregory of Nyssa (in Psalm, c. 3) : v/ii/os, rj eirl rots VTT-
ap^ovaiv rjpZv ayadois avariOsiisvi) TW @f3 si>(f)r)fi,ia: the
whole chapter is interesting. Augustine in more places
than one states the notes of what in his mind are the
essentials of a hymn which are three: I. It must be
sung; 2. It must be praise ; 3. It must be to God. Thus
Enarr. in Ps. Ixxii. I : * Hymni laudes sunt Dei cum
cantico : hymni cantus sunt continentes laudes Dei. Si
sit laus, et non sit Dei, non est hymnus: si sit laus, et
Dei laus, et non cantetur, non est hymnus. Oportet ei'go
ut, si sit hymnus, habeat haec tria, et laudem, et Dei, et
LXXVJII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 299
canticum.' So, too, Enarr. in Ps. cxlviii. 14: 'Hymnus
scitis quid est? Cantus est cum laude Dei. Si laudas
Deum, et non cantas, non dicis hymnum ; si cantas, et non
laudas Deum, non dicis hymnum; si laudas aliud quod
non pertinet ad laudem Dei, etsi cantando laudes non dicis
hymnum. Hymnus ergo tria ista habet, et cantum, et
laudem, et Dei.' l Compare Gregory Nazianzene :
(iraivos ta-Tiv ev TI rcov tptov (f>p'i(rai t
atvos 8' tnaivos fls Qfov a-ffidaptos,
6 8' Vfivos, aivos efJ.fif\r)s, <ay oio/xcu.
But though, as appears from these quotations, VJJ.VQS
in the fourth century was a word freely adopted in the
Church, this was by no means the case at an earlier day.
Notwithstanding the authority which St. Paul's employ-
ment of it might seem to have lent it, V/JLVOS nowhere
occurs in the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, nor in
those of Justin Martyr, nor in the Apostolic Constitutions ;
and only once in Tertullian (ad Uxor. ii. 8) . It is at least
a plausible explanation of this that vp,vos was for the early
Christians so steeped in heathenism, so linked with pro-
fane associations, and desecrated by them, there were so
many hymns to Zeus, to Hermes, to Aphrodite, and to
the other deities of the heathen pantheon, that the early
Christians shrunk instinctively from the word.
If we ask ourselves of what character were the
'hymns,' which St. Paul desired that the faithful should
sing among themselves, we may confidently assume that
these observed the law to which other hymns were sub-
mitted, and were direct addresses of praise to God.
Inspired specimens of the vpvos we meet at Luke i. 46-55 ;
68-79 ; Acts iv. 24 ; such also probably was that which
1 It is not very easy to follow Augustine in his distinction between a
' psalm ' and a ' canticle.' Indeed, he acknowledges himself that he has
not arrived at any clearness on this matter ; thus see Ennrr. in Ps. Ixvii.
I ; where, however, these words occur, ' in psalmo est sonoritas, in can-
tico Iratitia': cf. in Ps. iv. I ; and Hilary, Prol, in Lib. Psalm. 19-21.
300 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXVIII.
Paul and Silas made to be heard from the depth of their
Philippian dungeon (vpvovv TOV sov, Acts xvi. 25). How
noble, how magnificent, uninspired hymns could prove we
have signal evidence in the Te Deum, in the Veni Creator
Spiritus, and in many a later possession for ever which
the Church has acquired. That the Church, brought
when St. Paul wrote into a new and marvellous world of
heavenly realities, would be rich in these we might be
sure, even if no evidence existed to this effect. Of such
evidence, however, there is abundance, more than one
fragment of a hymn being probably embedded in St.
Paul's own Epistles (Ephes. v. 14; I Tim. iii. 16; 2 Tim. ii.
11-14; cf- Rambach, Antholoyie, vol. i. p. 33; and Neale,
Essays onLiturgiology, pp. 413, 424). And as it was quite
impossible that the Christian Church, mightily releasing
itself, though with no revolutionary violence, from the
Jewish synagogue, should fall into that mistake into
which some of the Reformed Churches afterwards fell,
we may be sure that it adopted into liturgic use, not
'psalms' only, but also 'hymns,' singing hymns to Christ
as to God (Pliny, Ep. x. 96) ; though this, as we may
conclude, more largely in Churches gathered out of the
heathen world than in those wherein a strong Jewish
element existed. On vfjivos from an etymological point of
view Pott, Etymol. Forsch. vol. ii. pt. ii. p. 612, may be
consulted.
'ty&ij ( = aoiSr)) is the only word of this group which
the Apocalypse knows (v. 9 ; xiv. 3 ; xv. 3). St. Paul, on
the two occasions when he employs it, adds Trvsv/maTt/cri to
it ; and this, no doubt, because a>Sij by itself might mean
any kind of song, as of battle, of harvest, or festal, or
hymeneal, while i/raX/i6y, from its Hebrew use, and vpvos
from its Greek, did not require any such qualifying adjec-
tive. This epithet thus applied to these ' songs ' does not
affirm that they were divinely inspired, any more than the
avrjp TTVcVfjLariKos is an inspired man (i Cor. iii. I ; Gal.
LXXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 301
vi. i) ; but only that they were such as were composed by
spiritual men, and moved in the sphere of spiritual
things. How, it may be asked, are we to distinguish
these " spiritual songs " from the ' psalms ' and * hymns '
with which they are associated by St. Paul? If the
' psalms ' represent the heritage of sacred song which the
Christian Church derived from the Jewish, the ' hymns '
and " spiritual songs " will between them cover what
further in the same kind it produced out of its bosom ;
but with a difference. What the hymns were, we have
already seen; but Christian thought and feeling will soon
have expanded into a wider range of poetic utterances
than those in which there is a direct address to the Deity.
If we turn, for instance, to Herbert's Temple, or Vaughan's
Silex Scintillans, or Keble's Christian Year, in all of these
there are many poems, which, as certainly they are not
f psalms,' so as little do they possess the characteristics of
' hymns.' " Spiritual songs " these might most fitly be
called ; even as in almost all our collections of so called
* hymns ' at the present day, there are not a few winch by
much juster title would bear this name. Calvin, it will be
seen, only agrees in part with the distinctions which I
have here sought to trace: ' Sub his tribus nominibus corn-
plexus est [Paulus] omne genus canticorum ; quse ita
vulgo distinguuntur, ut psalmus sit in quo concinendo
adhibetur musicum aliquod instrumentum prseter linguam :
hymnus proprie sit laudis canticum, sive assa voce, sive
aliter canatur; oda non laudes tan turn contineat, sed
parseneses, et alia argumenta.' Compare in Vollbeding's
Thesaurus, vol. ii. p. 27 sqq., a treatise by J. Z. Hillger,
De Psalmorum, Hymnorum, et Odarum discrimine ; Palmer
in Herzog's Real-Encyclopadie, vol. v. p. 100 sqq. ;
Deyling, Obss. Sac. vol. iii. p. 430 ; Lightfoot, On Colos-
sians, iii. 16; and the art. Hymns in Dr. Smith's Dic-
tionary of Christian Antiquities.
302 SYXOXYAIS OF THE NE w TESTAMENT. LXXIX
Ixxix. aypiifjifjiaTos,
THESE words occur together Acts iv. 13 ; dypd^fiaros no-
where else in the N. T., but iStom/s on four other occasions
(i Cor. xiv. 16, 23, 24; 2 Cor. xi. 6). Where found to-
gether we must conclude that, according to the natural
rhetoric of human speech, the second word is stronger
than, and adds something to, the first: thus our Trans-
lators have evidently understood them, rendering dypdp-
P.CLTOS ( unlearned,' and IStwTrjs ' ignorant ' ; and so Bengel :
' dypdfijjiaTos est rudis, i&i(aTr)s rudior.'
When we seek more accurately to distinguish them,
and to detect the exact notion which each conveys, dypdp,-
liaros need not occupy us long. It corresponds exactly to
our * illiterate ' (ypdjj,fj,ara pr) /ie/ia^/ccos, John vii. 1 5 ;
Acts xxvi. 24; 2 Tim. iii. 15) : being joined by Plato with
ops toy, rugged as the mountaineer (Grit. 109 d), with
apovaos (Tim. 23 b) ; by Plutarch set over against the
fj,Sfj,ovcro)fji^vos (Adv. Colot. 26).
But t'SttwTT/s is a word of far wider range, of uses far
more complex and subtle. Its primary idea, the point
from which, so to speak, etymologically it starts, is that
of the private man, occupying himself with his own things
(TO, iSia), as contrasted with the political; the man un-
clothed with office, as set over against and distinguished
from him who bears some office in the state. But lying
as it did very deep in the Greek mind, being one of the
strongest convictions there, that in public life the true
education of the man and the citizen consisted, it could
not fail that the word should presently be tinged with
something of contempt and scorn. The iStMTTjf, staying
at home while others were facing honourable toil, oUovpos,
as Plutarch calls him (Phil, cum Princ. i), a 'house- dove,'
as our ancestors slightingly named him, unexercised in
business, unaccustomed to deal with his fellow-men, is un-
practical j and thus the word is joined with uTrpdy^wv by
LXXIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 303
Plato (Eep. x. 620 c ; cf. Plutarch, De Virt. et Vit. 4), Avith
aTrpanros by Plutarch (Phil, cum Princ. i), who sets him
over against the TTO\ITIKOS /cat Trpatcriteos. But more than
this, he is often boorish, and thus ISiwTijs is linked with
aypoifcos (Chrysostom, in I Ep. Cor. Horn. 3), with uirai-
BSVTOS (Plutarch, Arist. et Men. Comp. i), and other words
such as these. 1
The history of t'Stwr^y by no means stops here, though
we have followed it as far as is absolutely necessary to
explain its association (Acts iv. 13) with ajpa^aros, and
the points of likeness and difference between them. But
to explain why St. Paul should employ it at i Cor. xiv.
1 6, 23, 24, and exactly in what sense, it may be well to
pursue this history a little further. There is a singular
feature in the use of ISiwrrjf which, though not very easy
to describe, a few examples will at once make intelligible.
There lies continually in it a negation of that particular
skill, knowledge, profession, or standing, over against which
it is antithetically set, and not of any other except that
alone. For example, is the tStoor^y set over against the
Srjptovpyof (as by Plato, Theag. 124 r), he is the unskilled
man as set over against the skilled artificer ; any other
dexterity he may possess, but that of the Brjfiiovpyos is
denied him. Is he set over against the iarpos, he is one
ignorant of the physician's art (Plato, Eep. iii. 389 6 ;
Philo, De Conf. Ling. 7) ; against the <ro(f)ia-Tijs, he is one
unacquainted with the dialectic fence of the sophists
(Xenophon, De Venat. 13; cf. Hiero, i. 2; Lucian, Pise.
34 ; Plutarch, Symp. iv. 2, 3) ; against the <f>i\6\oyoy
1 There is an excellent discussion on the successive meanings of iouanjs
in Bishop Horsley's Tracts in Controversy icith Dr. Priestley, A)*)>tn(U.r y
Disquisition Second, pp. 475-485. Our English 'idiot' has also an in-
structive history. This quotation from Jeremy Taylor (Dissuasive from
Popery, part ii. b. i. i) will show how it was used two hundred years
ago: ' S. Austin affirmed that the plain places of Scripture are sufficient
to all laics, and all idiots or private persons.' See my Select Glossary
s. v. for other examples of the same use of the word.
304 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. i.xxix.
(Sextus Empiricus, adv. Grainmat. 235), he has no interest
in the earnest studies which occupy the other; prose
writers are ISiwrai as contrasted with poets. Those un-
practised in gymnastic exercises are iBiwrcu as contrasted
with the a6\r]Tal (Xenophon, Hiero, iv. 6; Philo, De Sept.
6) ; subjects as contrasted with their prince (De Abrali.
33) ; the underlings in the harvest-field are ISiwrai /ecu
vTrypsTai as distinguished from the rjy/jt.6ves (De Somn. ii.
4) ; the weak are IBtwrai, aVo/Jot and aSogoi being qualita-
tive adjectives, as contrasted with the strong (Philo, De
Great. Princ. 5 ; cf. Plutarch, De Imper. Apoph. I ) ; and
lastly, the whole congregation of Israel are ISiwrai as set
over against the priests (De Vit. Mos. iii. 29). With these
examples of the word's use to assist us, we can come to no
other conclusion than that the IBiurat of St. Paul (i Cor.
xiv. 1 6, 23, 24) are the plain believers, with no special
spiritual gifts, as distinguished from such as were possessed
of such ; even as elsewhere they are the lay members of
the Church as contrasted with those who minister iii the
Word and Sacraments ; for it is ever the word with which
lSta)Tr)s is at once combined and contrasted that determines
its meaning.
For the matter immediately before us it will be sufficient
to say that when the Pharisees recognized Peter and John
as men aypdpfjiaToi Kal ISiwrat, in the first word they ex-
pressed more the absence in them of book-learning, and,
confining as they would have done this to the Old Testa-
ment, the Ispa ypdf^fj.ara, and to the glosses of their own
doctors upon these, their lack of acquaintance with such
lore as St. Paul had learned at the feet of Gamaliel , in
the second their want of that education which men insen-
sibly acquire by mingling with those who have important
affairs to transact, and by taking their own share in the
transaction of such. Setting aside that higher training of
the heart and the intellect which is obtained by direct
communion with God and his truth, no doubt books and
LXXX. SYNONTMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 305
public life, literature aiid politics, are the two most effec-
tual organs of mental and moral training which the world
has at its command the second, as needs hardly be said,
immeasurably more effectual than the first. He is aypd/j,-
/J.CITOS who has not shared in the first, IStuTiis who has had
no part in the second.
Ixxx. SOKSCO,
OUR Translators have not always observed the distinction
which exists between BOKSIV ( = 'videri') and faivsaOai
( = <apparere'). Ao/csiv expresses the subjective mental
estimate or opinion about a matter which men form, their
Sofa concerning it, which may be right (A.cts xv. 28 ;
I Cor. iv. 9 ; vii. 40 : cf. Plato, Tim. 5 1 d, Sofa d\rjOijsi),
but which also may be wrong ; involving as it always must
the possibility of error (2 Mace. ix. 10; Matt. vi. 7 ; Mark
vi. 49; John xvi. 2; Acts xxvii. 13; cf. Plato, Rep. iv.
423 o- ; Gorg. 458 a, Sofa -v^euS?;?; Xenophon, Cyrop. i. 6.
22 ; Mem. i. 7. 4, la^vpov, prj 6Wa, So/cslv, to have a false
reputation for strength) ; fyaivsaOai on the contrary ex-
presses how a matter phenomenally shows and presents
itself, with no necessary assumption of any beholder at all ;
suggesting an opposition, not to the ov, but to the voov-
usvov. Thus, when Plato (Rep. iii. 408 a) says of certain
heroes in the Trojan war, a<ya6ol irpos rbv iro\s^ov sc^dvijaav,
he does not mean they seemed good for the war and were
not, but they showed good, with the tacit assumption that
what they showed, they also were. So too, when Xenophon
writes sfyaivero t^via 'ITTITWV (Anab. i. 6. i), he would imply
that horses had been actually there, and left their foot-
prints on the ground. Had he used SOKSIV, he would have
implied that Cyrus and his company took for the tracks
of horses what indeed might have been such, but what
also might not have been such at all; cf. Mem. iii. 10. 2.
Z^une : ' &OKSIV cernitur in opinione, quse falsa esse potest
306 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXX.
et vana; sed fyaivsvOai plerumque est in re extra mentem,
quamvis nemo opinatur.' Thus SOKSI fyaivsa-Bai (Plato,
Phcedr. 260 d-, Legg. xii. 960 d).
Even in passages where SOKSIV may be exchanged with
elvat,, it does not lose the proper meaning which Zeune
has ascribed to it here. There is ever a predominant
reference to the public opinion and estimate, rather than
to the actual being; however the former may be the faithful
echo of the latter (Prov. xxvii. 14). Thus, while there is
no touch of irony, no shadow of depreciation, in St. Paul's
use of ol SOKOVVTSS at Gal. ii. 2, of ol SOKOVVTSS slvai TL
presently after (ver. 6) exactly which same phrase occurs
in Plato, Euthyd. 303 d, where they are joined with aspvoi
and while manifestly there could be no slight intended,
seeing that he so characterizes the chief of his fellow
Apostles, the words for all this express rather the reputa-
tion in which these were held in the Church than the
worth which in themselves they had, however that reputa-
tion of theirs was itself the true measure of this worth
( = e7rio-r)/jioi, Rom. xvi. 7). Compare Euripides, Troad. 608,
where ra Sorcovma are set over against ra ftrjSsv ovra, Hec.
295, and Porphyry, De Abst. ii. 40, where ol BOKOVVTSS in
like manner is put absolutely, and set over against ra
In the same way the words of Christ, ol &OKOVVTSS
iv rwv sQvwv (Mark x. 42) = ' they who are acknowledged
rulers of the Gentiles,' cast no doubt on the reality of the
rule of these, for see Matt. xx. 25 ; though indeed there may
be a slight hint, looking through the words, of the contrast
between the worldly shows and the heavenly realities of
greatness ; but as little are they redundant (cf. Josephus,
Antt. xix. 6. 3 ; Susan. 5 : and Winer, Gramm. Ixvii. 4).
But as on one side the mental conception may have,
but also may not have, a corresponding truth in the world
of realities, so on the other the appearance may have a
reality beneath it, and $aivs<rdcu is often synonymous with
elvcu and yiyvsaQcu (Matt. ii. 7 j xiii. 26) ; but it may also
LXXX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 307
have none ; <f>aiv6fj,sva, for instance, are set off against TO,
ovra -rfj a\rj6eia}yy Plato (jRep.x. 5 96 e), being the reflections
of things, as seen in a mirror : or shows, it may be, which
have no substance behind them, as the shows of goodness
which the hypocrite makes (Matt, xxiii. 28). It must not
be assumed that in this latter case tyaivsa-Oat, runs into the
meaning of &OKSIV, and that the distinction is broken down
between them. That distinction still subsists in the
objective character of the one, and the subjective character
of the other. Thus, at Matt, xxiii. 27, 28, the contrast is
not between what other men took the Pharisees to be, and
what they really were, but between what they showed
themselves to other men ((fratvsads rots- avOpwTrois SiKaioi),
and what in very truth they were.
AOKSIV signifying ever, as we have seen, that subjective
estimate which may be formed of a thing, not the objective
show and seeming which it actually possesses, it will
follow that our rendering of Jam. i. 26 is not perfectly
satisfactory : " If any man among you seem to be religious
(ooKsl 6pr)a-Kos slvai), and bridleth not his tongue, but
deceiveth his own heart, this man's religion is vain." This,
verse, as it here stands, must before now have perplexed
many. How, they will have asked, can a man " seem to
be religious," that is, present himself to others as such,
when his religious pretensions are belied and refuted by
the license of an unbridled tongue? But render the words
" If any man among you thinketh himself religious " (cf.
Gal. vi. 3, where Sorest is rightly so translated ; as it is
in the Vulgate here, " se putat religiosum esse "), "and
bridleth not his tongue, &c.," and all will then be plain.
It is the man's own mental estimate of his spiritual
condition which BOKSI expresses, an estimate which the
following words declare to be altogether erroneous. Com-
pare Heb. iv. i, where f or SOK$ the Vulgatehas rightly <exis-
tiraetur.' If the Vulgate in dealing with Soicslv here is right,
while our Translators are wrong, elsewhere in dealing with
z2
308 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXI.
i it is wrong, while these are right. At Matt. vi.
1 8 ("that thou appear not unto men to fast"), it has
'ne videaris,' although at ver. 16 it had rightly 'ut ap-
pareant ' ; but the disciples in this verse are warned, not
against the hypocrisy of wishing to be sxipposed to fast
when they did not, as this ' ne videaris ' might imply, but
against the ostentation of wishing to be known to fast when
they did; as lies plainly in the oirws ^ <f>ai>rjs of the
original.
The force of fyaivsa-Oai, attained here, is missed in
another passage of our Version ; although not through
any confusion between it and SOKSIV, but rather between it
and (fraivsiv. We render sv ols fyaivscrOs coy <f)a)(TTf)pes sv
/coa-fjiM (Phil. ii. 15), "among whom ye shine as lights in
the world ; " where, instead of ' ye shine,' it should stand,
'ye are seen,' or 'ye appear.' To justify "ye shine" in
this place, which is common to all the Versions of the
English Hexapla, St. Paul should have written <f>aii>T
(cf. John i. 5 ; 2 Pet. i. 19 ; Rev. i. 16), and not, as he has
written, fyaivsads. It is worthy of note that, while the
Vulgate, having 'lucetis,' shares and anticipates our
error, an earlier Latin Version was free from it ; as is
evident from the form in which the verse is quoted by
Augustine (Enarr. in Ps. cxlvi. 4) : 'In quibus apparetis
tanquam luminaria in cselo.'
Ixxxi. wo
IN passages out of number one of these words might be
employed quite as fitly as the other, even as there are
many in which they are used interchangeably, as by
Plutarch, De Cap. ex Inim. Util. 2. This does not how-
ever prove that there is no distinction between them, if
other passages occur, however few, where one is fit and
the other not ; or where, though neither would be unfit,
one would possess a greater fitness than the other. The
LXXXI. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 309
distinction, latent in other cases, because there is nothing
to evoke it, reveals itself in these.
The difference between foz> (by Lachmann always more
correctly accented oW) and Bvjplov is not that between two
coordinate terms; but one, the second, is wholly subor-
dinate to the first, a less included in a greater. All
creatures that live on earth, including man himself, Xo7i-
KOV KOI TTO\ITIKOV a)ov, as Plutarch (De Am. Prol. 3) so
grandly describes him, are %wa (Aristotle, Hist. Anim. L
5. i); nay, God himself, according to the Definitions of
Plato, is %wov dddvarov, being indeed the only One to whom
life by absolute right belongs (<f>a/j,sv 8s rov sbv slvai &ov
diSiov cipiarov, Aristotle, Metaph. xii. 7). It is true that
<woi> is nowhere employed in the N. T. to designate man
(but see Plato, Pol. 271 e; Xenophon, Cyrop. i. i. 3;
Wisd. xix. 21) ; still less to designate God ; for whom, as
not merely living, but as being absolute Life, the one
fountain of life, the avro^ov, the irt^rj farjs, the fitter as
the more reverent &>?; is retained (John i. 4 ; i John i. 2).
In its ordinary use %wov covers the same extent of meaning
as ' animal ' with us, having generally, though by no means
universally (Plutarch, De Garr. 22; Heb. xiii. n), a\oyov
or some such epithet attached (2 Pet. ii. 12 ; Jude 10).
looks like a diminutive of O^p, which in its
form ^p reappears as the Latin ' fera/ and in its
more usual shape in the German ' Thier ' and in our own
'deer./ Like xpva-iov, /3i/3\lov, fyopTiov, dyysiov, and so
many other words (see Fischer, Prol. de Vit. Lex. N. T.
p. 256), it has quite left behind the force of a diminutive,
if it ever possessed it. That it was already without this
at the time when the Odyssey was composed is sufficiently
attested by the /^eya dyplov which there occurs (x. 180) ;
compare Xenophon, Cyrop. i. 4. n. It would be a mis-
take to regard Oqpia as exclusively mischievous and raven-
ing beasts, for see Heb. xii. 20; Exod. xix. 13 ; however
such by this, word are generally intended (Mark i. 13:
3 10 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXI.
Acts xxviii. 4, 5) ; Gyp la at Acts xi. 6 being distinguished
from rsTpdiroSa : while yet Schmidt says rightly : ' In
O^PLOV liegt eine sehr starke Nebenbeziehung auf Wildheit
und Grausamkeit.' It is worthy of notice that, numerous
as are the passages of the Septuagint where beasts of
sacrifice are mentioned, it is never under this name. The
reason is evident, namely, that the brutal, bestial element
is in dijpiov brought prominently forward, not that wherein
the inferior animals are akin to man, not that therefore
which gives them a fitness to be offered as substitutes for
man, and as his representatives. Here, too, we have an
explanation of the frequent transfer oftiijplov and diipiwSrjs,
as in Latin of 'bestia' and 'bellua,' to fierce and brutal
men (Tit. i. 12 ; I Cor. xv. 32; Josephus, Antt. xvii. 5. 5 ;
Arrian, in Epict. ii. 9).
All this makes us the more regret, and the regret has
been often expressed it was so by Broughton almost as
soon as our Version was published that in the Apocalypse
our Translators should have rendered OrjpLov and &ov by
the same word, "beast"; and should thus for the English
reader have obliterated the distinction between them.
Both play important parts in this book ; both belong to its
higher symbolism ; while at the same time they move in
spheres as far removed from one another as heaven is
from hell. The 000. or " living creatures," which stand
before the throne, and in which dwells the fulness of all
creaturely life, as it gives praise and glory to God (iv.
6-9; v. 6; vi. i; and often), constitute a part of the
heavenly symbolism; the Orjpia, the first beast and the
second, which rise up, one from the bottomless pit (xi. 7),
the other from the sea (xiii. i), of whom the one makes
war upon the two Witnesses, the other opens his mouth
in blasphemies, these form part of the hellish symbolism.
To confound these and those under a common designation,
to call those * beasts ' and these ' beasts,' would be an over-
sight, even granting the name to be suitable to both ; it is
LXXXII. SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 3 1 1
a more serious one, when the word used, bringing out, as
does dypiov, the predominance of the lower animal life, is
applied to glorious creatures in the very court and presence
of Heaven. The error is common to all the English trans-
lations. That the Rheims should not have escaped it is
strange; for the Vulgate renders coa by 'animalia' ('ani-
mantia' would have been still better), and only Oyptov by
* bestia.' If a had always been rendered " living crea-
tures," this would have had the additional advantage of
setting these symbols of the Apocalypse, even for the
English reader, in an unmistakeable connexion with Ezek.
i. 5, 13, 14, and often; where "living creature" is the
rendering in our English Version of nn, as (uoi/ is in the
Septuagint.
Ixxxii. V7TSp, aVTl,
IT has been often claimed, and in the interests of an
all-important truth, namely the vicarious character of the
sacrifice of the death of Christ, that in such passages as
Heb. ii. 9; Tit. ii. 14; I Tim. ii. 6; Gal. iii. 13 ; Luke
xxii. 19, 20 ; I Pet. ii. 21 ; iii. 18 ; iv. I ; Rom. v. 8 ; John
x. 15, in all of which Christ is said to have died virep
Trdvrwv, vTrsp rj/Awv, VTrsp rwv Trpoftdrcov, and the like, vTrsp
shall be accepted as equipollent with dvrt. And then, it
is further urged that, as avrl is the preposition first of
equivalence (Homer, 12. ix. 116, 117) and then of ex-
change (l Cor. xi. 15 ; Heb. xii. 2, 16; Matt. v. 38), vvrep
must in all those passages be regarded as having the same
force. Each of these, it is evident, would thus become a
dictum probans for a truth, in itself most vital, namely
that Christ suffered, not merely on our behalf and for our
good, but also in our stead, and bearing that penalty of
our sins which we otherwise must ourselves have borne.
Now, though some have denied, we must yet accept as
certain that virsp has sometimes this meaning. Thus in
the Gorgias. of Plato, 5150, eya) virsp ffov uTTOKpivovfiai, 1 1
3 1 2 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXII.
will answer in your stead ; ' compare Xenophon, Anab. vii.
4. 9: eds\ois av v-rrsp rovrov aTroOavscv ; 'Wouldstthou die
instead of this lad ? ' as the context and the words si
Traicreisv avrbv avrl SKSLVOV make abundantly manifest ;
Thucydides, i. 141 ; Euripides, Alcestis, 712 ; Polybius, iii.
67. 7 ; Philem. 13 ; and perhaps I Cor. xv. 29 ; hut it is
not less certain that in passages far more numerous vTrsp
means no more than, on behalf of, for the good of ; thus
Matt. v. 44; John xiii. 37 ; I Tim. ii. I, and continually.
It must be admitted to follow from this, that had we
in the Scripture only statements to the effect that Christ
died VTrsp ?;/zwi/, that He tasted death vTrsp Travros, it
would be impossible to draw from these any irrefragable
proof that his death was vicarious, He dying in our stead,
and Himself bearing on his Cross our sins and the penalty
of our sins ; however we might find it, as no doubt we do,
elsewhere (Isai. liii. 4-6). It is only as having other
declarations, to the effect that Christ died avrl TroXXwv
(Matt. xx. 28), gave Himself as an avri \vrpov (i Tim. ii.
6), and bringing those other to the interpretation of these,
that we obtain a perfect right to claim such declarations
of Christ's death for us as also declarations of his death in
our stead. And in them beyond doubt the preposition
vTrsp is the rather employed, that it may embrace both
these meanings, and express how Christ died at once for
our sakes (here it touches more nearly on the meaning of
Trspi, Matt. xxvi. 28; Mark xiv. 24; I Pet. iii. 18; Sid
also once occurring in this connexion, I Cor. viii. ii),
and in our stead ; while az/rt would only have expressed
the last of these.
Tischendorf, in his little treatise, Doctrina Pauli de Vi
Mortis Christi Satis factorid, has some excellent remarks
on this matter, which I will quote, though what has been
just said has anticipated them in part : * Fuerunt, qui ex
sola natura et usu preepositionis vjrsp demonstrare cona-
rentur, Paulum docuisse satis factionem Christi vicariam ;
LXXXIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 313
alii rursus negarunt prsepositionem fnrep a N. Test, au-
ctoribus recte positam esse pro dvri, inde probaturi con-
travium. Peccatum utrimque est. Sola preepositio ntram-
que pariter adjuvat sententiarum partem; pariter, inquam,
utramque. Natnque in promptu sunt, contra perplurium
opinionem, desumta ex multis veterum Grsecorum scripto-
ribus loca, quse prsepositioni vjrsp significatum, loco, vice,
alicujus plane vindicant, atque ipsum Paulum eodem signi-
ficatu earn usurpasse, et quideni in locis, quse ad nostram
rem non pertinent, nemini potest esse dubium (cf. Philem.
13 ; 2 Cor. v. 20 ; I Cor. xv. 29). Si autem quseritur, cur
Me potissimum prsepositione incerti et fluctuantis sigriifi-
catus in re tarn gravi usus sit Apostolus inest in ipsa prf*3-
positione quo sit aptior reliquis ad describendam Christi
mortem pro nobis oppetitam. Etenim in hoc versari rei
summam, quod Christus mortuus sit in commodum homi-
num, nemo negat; atque id quidem factum est ita, ut
moreretur hominum loco. Pro conjuncta significatione et
commodi et vicarii preeclare ab Apostolo adhibita est prse-
positio vTrsp. Itaque rectissime, ut solet, contendit Winerus
noster, non licere nobis in gravibus locis, ubi de morte
Christi agatur, prfepositionem vTrsp simpliciter = dvri
sumere. Est enim plane Lattnorum pro, nostrum fur.
Quotiescunque Paulus Christum pro nobis uiortimin esse
docet, ab ipsa notione vicarii non disjunctam esse voluit
notionem commodi, neque iimquam ab hac, quamvis per-
quam aperta sit, excludi illarn in ist& formula, jure meo
dico.'
Ixxxiii. (^ovsvs, avdpwiroicrovos, cri/capias.
CUE Translators have rendered all these words by ' mur-
derer,' which, apt enough in the case of the first (Matt.
xxii. 7 ; i Pet. iv. 15 ; Rev. xxi. 8), is at the same time so
general that in the other two instances it keeps out of
sight characteristic features which the words would bring
forward.
3H SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXIII.
, exactly corresponding to our * man-
slayer,' or ' homicide,' occurs in the N. T. only in the
writings of St. John (viii. 44 ; Ep. iii. 15, bis) ; being
found also in Euripides (Iphig. in Taur. 390). On our
Lord's lips, at the first of these places, avOpwTroK-rovos
has its special fitness ; no other word would have suited
at all so well ; an allusion being here to that great, and in
part only too successful, assault on the life natural and
the life spiritual of all mankind which Satan made, when,
planting sin, and through sin death, in them who were
ordained the authors of being to the whole race of man-
kind, he infected the stream of human existence at its
fountain-head. Satan was thus o aiPpwrroKTovos indeed ;
for he would fain have slain not this man or that, but the
whole race of mankind.
"Zi/cdpios, which only occurs once in the N. T., and then,
noticeably enough, on the lips of a Roman officer (Acts
xxi. 38), is one of many Latin words which had followed
the Roman domination even into those Eastern provinces
of the empire, which, unlike those of the West, had refused
to be latinized, but still retained their own language.
The 'sicarius,' having his name from the 'sica,' a short
sword, poniard, or stiletto, which he wore and was prompt
to use, was the hired bravo or swordsman, troops of whom
in the long agony of the Republic the Antonies and the
Clodiuses kept in their pay, and oftentimes about their
persons to inspire a wholesome fear, and if needful to
remove out of the way such as were obnoxious to them.
The word had found its way into Palestine, and into the
Greek which was spoken there: Josephus in two instruc-
tive passages (B. J. ii. 13. 3; Antt. xx. 8. 10) giving us full
details about those to whom this name was transferred.
They were ' assassins,' which word would be to my mind
the best rendering at Acts xxi. 38, of whom a rank growth
sprang up in those latter days of the Jewish Common-
wealth, when, in ominous token of the approaching doom,
LXXXIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 3 1 5
all ties of society were fast being dissolved. Concealing
under their garments that short sword of theirs, and
mingling with the multibude at the great feasts, they
stabbed in the crowd whom of their enemies they would,
and then taking part with the bystanders in exclama-
tions of horror, effectually averted suspicion from them-
selves.
It will appear from what has been said that (frovsv? may
be any murderer, the genus of which ai/capias is a species,
this latter being an assassin, using a particular weapon,
and following his trade of blood in a special manner.
Again, avOpwiroicrovos has a stress and emphasis of its
own. He to whom this name is given is a murderer of
men, a homicide. Qovsvs is capable of vaguer use ; a wicked
man might be characterized as fyovsvs Trjs svasftsias, a de-
stroyer of piety, though he made no direct attack on the
lives of men, a traitor or tyrant as (frovsus rtjs trarpiSos
(Plutarch, Prcec. Ger. Reip. 19) ; and such uses of the word
are not unfrequent.
Ixxxiv. KCIKOS,
THAT which is morally evil may be contemplated on various
sides and from various points of view ; the several epithets
which it will thus obtain bringing out the several aspects
under which it will have presented itself to us.
Katcos and Trovrjpos occur together, Rev. xvi. 2 ; as
Ka/cta and Trovrjpta at I Cor. v. 8 ; the SiaXoytoyiol KCIKOI of
St. Mark vii. 21 are Sia\oyta-jj,ol irovTjpoL in the parallel
passage of St. Matthew (xv. 19). The distinction between
these will best be considered when we come to deal with
Trovijpos. Ka/cos, the constant antithesis to ayatfbs (Deut.
xxx. 15; Ps. xxxiii. 15; Bom. xii. 21 ; 2 Cor. v. 10; cf.
Plato, Rep. x. 608 e), and though not quite so frequently
to Ka\6s (Gen. xxiv. 50; xliv. 4; Heb. v. 14; Plutarch,
Rerj. et Imp. Apoph. Epam. 20), affirms of that which it
3 1 6 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXIV.
characterizes that qualities and conditions are wanting
there which would constitute it worthy of the name which
it bears. 1 This first in a physical sense ; thus Kaica ii^ara
(Homer, Od. xi. 191) are mean or tattered garments ; KCIKOS
larpos (jEschylus, Prom. Vinct. 473), a physician wanting
in the skill which physicians should possess ; icaicos Kpirris
(Plutarch, Reg. et Imp. Apoph. Fabr. 4), an unskilful judge.
So, too, in the Scripture it is often used without any ethi-
cal intention (Prov. xx. 14 ; Luke xvi. 25 ; Acts xxviii. 5 ;
Rev. xvi. 2). Often, however, it assumes one; thus KCIKOS
SoOXo? (Matt. xxiv. 48) is a servant wanting in that fidelity
and diligence which are properly duo from such ; cf . Prov.
xii. 12 ; Jer. vii. 24; I Cor. xv. 33 ; Col. iii. 5 ; Phil. iii. 2.
But the Trovijpos is, as Ammonius calls him, 6 Spaa-Tiicos
KCIKOV, the active worker out of evil ; the German ' Bose-
wicht,' or as Beza (Annott. in Matt. v. 37) has drawn the
distinction : 'Significat irovrjpos aliquid ampliusquam KCLKOS,
nempe eum qui sit in omni scelere exercitatus, et ad inju-
riam cuivis inferendam totus comparatus.' He is, accord-
ing to the derivation of the word, 6 Trape^wv TTOVOVS, or one
that, as we say, ' puts others to trouble ; ' * and irovr^pia is
the ' cupiditas nocendi ' ; or as Jeremy Taylor explains it :
* aptness to do shrewd turns, to delight in mischiefs
and tragedies ; a loving to trouble our neighbour and to
1 Cremer : ' So characterisirt KHKO'S dasjenige was nicht so beschaffen
ist wie es>, seiner Natur, Bestimmung und Idee nach, sein konnte oder
sollte.'
2 J. H. H. Schmidt is of the mind that the connexion between rrovot
and novrjpos is not this, but another ; that we have here an illustration
of what we may call the aristocratic tendencies of language, which
meet us so often and in so many tongues. What, he asks, is the feature
concerning their poorer neighbours' manner of life which must most
strike the leisured few what but this, namely that they are always at
work ; they are novrjpoi or laborious, for their trovoi never cease. It is
not long, however, before a word constantly applied to the poor obtains
an unfavourable subaudition ; it has done so in words out of number, as
in our own ' churl,' ' villain,' and so many more ; the poor it is suggested
in thought are also the bad, and the word moves into a lower sphere in
agreement with the thought.
LXXXIV. SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 3 1 7
do him ill offices ; crossness, perverseness, and peevishness
of action in our intercourse ' (Doctrine and Practice of
Repentance, iv. i). In irovijpos the positive activity of evil
conies far more decidedly out than in tea/cos, the word
therefore being constantly opposed to xprja-ros, or the good
contemplated as the useful (Isocrates, Or. i. 6 d ; viii. 184
a ; Xenophou, Mem. ii. 6. 2O ; Jer. xxiv. 2, 3 ; and in the
same way associated with axprja-Tos, Demosthenes, 1271).
If KCIKOS is ' mauvais,' ' mechant,' irov^pos is ' nuisible,'
noxious, or 'noisome' in our elder sense of the word.
The Kaicos may be content to perish in his own corruption,
but the TTowrjpos is not content unless he is corrupting
others as well, and drawing them into the same destruc-
tion with himself. * They sleep not except they have done
mischief, and their sleep is taken away except they cause
some to fall ' (Prov. iv. 1 6) . We know, or we are happier
still if we do not know even by report, what in French is
meant by 'depraver les femmes.' Thus o-^ov irovqpov
(Plutarch, Sept. Sap. Conv. 2) is an unwholesome dish :
aa-para irovr^pd (De And. Poet. 4), wicked songs, such
as by their wantonness corrupt the minds of the young ;
ryvvr) TTOvypd (De Virt. et Vit. 2), a wicked wife; o^)6a\p.os
irovrjpos (Mark vii. 22), a mischief-working eye. Satan is
emphatically 6 irovripos, as the first author of all the mis-
chief in the world (Matt. vi. 13 ; Ephes. vi. 16 ; cf. Luke
vii. 21 ; Acts xix. 12) ; ravening beasts are always Gypta
Trovijpd in the Septuagint (Gen. xxxvii. 33 ; Isai. xxxv. 9 ;
cf. Josephus, Antt. vii. 5. 5) ; rcafca Oypla, indeed, occurs
once in the N. T. (Tit. i. 12), but the meaning is not pre-
cisely the same, as the context sufficiently shows. An
instructive line in Euripides (Hecuba, 59^)? testifies to the
Greek sense of a more inborn radical evil in the man who
is irovrjpos than in the /caicos :
'O fifv irovrjpbs ovdev oXXo n\f)V KOKOS.
A reference to the context will show that what Euripides
318 SYNONYMS OF THE NEJV TESTAMENT. i.xxxiv.
means is this, namely, that a man of an evil nature (TT
will always show himself base in act (ica/cos).
But there are words in most languages, and <f>av\o$ is
one of them, which contemplate evil under another aspect,
not so much that either of active or passive malignity,
but that rather of its good-for-nothingness, the impossi-
bility of any true gain ever coming forth from it. Thus
' nequam' (in strictness opposed to 'frugi'), and 'nequitia*
in Latin (see Ramsay on the Mostellaria of Plautus,
p. 229) ; ' vaurien ' in French ; ' naughty ' and ' naughtiness '
in English ; ' Taugenichts,' ' schlecht,' ' Schlechtigkeit ' in
German ; ! while on the other hand ' Tugend ' ( = ' taugend ')
is virtue contemplated as usefulness. This notion of
worthlessness is the central notion of <j>av\os (by some
very questionably identified with 'faul,' ' foul '), which in
Greek runs successively through the following meanings,
light, unstable, blown about by every wind (see Donald-
son, Cratylus, 152; ' synonymum ex levitate permuta-
tum,' Matthai), small, slight (* schlecht ' and * schlicht ' in
German are only different spellings of the same word),
mediocre, of no account, worthless, bad ; but still bad pre-
dominantly in the sense of worthless : thus <f>av\r) av^rpis
(Plato, Symp. 215 c), a bad flute-player; $av\os ^wypdfyos
(Plutarch, De Adul. et Am. 6), a bad painter. In agree-
ment with this, the standing antithesis to (f>av\os is
(rTrovSaios (Plato, Legg. vi. 757 a; vii. 8146; Philo, De
Here. Her. i) ; the Stoics ranging all men in two classes,
either in that of cnrov&aioi or <j>av\oi, and not recognizing
any middle ethical position ; so too it stands over against
Xprja-ros (Plutarch, De Aud. Poet. 4) ; ica\6s (De Adul. et
Am. 9) ; STriSLKrjS (Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. iii. 5. 3) ; aarslos
(Plutarch, De Rep. Stoic. 1 2) ; while words with which it is
commonly associated are a^p^ros (Plato, Lysis, 204 &) ;
evT\r)s (Legg. vii. 806 a) ; fjLo%6r]pos (Gorg. 486 b) ;
1 Graff (Alt-hochdeutscher Sprachscliatz, p. 138) ascribes in like manner
to ' bose ' (' bose '} an original sense of weak, small, nothing worth.
LXXXV. s r.vo.v r J/S OF THE NE w TESTA MEXT. 3 \ 9
(Euripides, Med. 803) ; aroiros (Plutarch, De Aud.
Poet. 12; Cory. Prcec. 48); s\a<j>p6s (De Adul. et Amic.
32) ; fiXafispcs (De Aud. Poet. 14) ; KO'.VOS (Prcec. San.
14); aKparrfs (Gryll. 8); avoijros (De Comm. Nrt. 11);
a/caipos (Conj. Prase. 14) ; 0751/1/775 (De Adul. et Amic. 2) ;
djopatos (Chariton). <J>at)Xoy. as used in the N. T., has
reached the latest stage of its meaning ; and ra <f)av\a
frpd^avrss are set in direct opposition to ra dya0a Troirjaav-
rss, and condemned as such to " the resurrection of dam-
nation " (John v. 29; cf. iii. 20; Tit. ii. 8; Jam. iii. 16;
Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. ii. 6. 18 ; Philo, De Abrah. 3). We
have the same antithesis of (pav\a and ayaffd elsewhere
(Phalaris, Ep. 144 ; Plutarch, De Plac. Phil. i. 8) ; and for
a good note upon the word see Schoeinann, Agis et Cleo-
menes, p. 71.
Ixxxv. elXiKpiv^s, Kadapos.
THE difference between these words is hard to express,
even while one may instinctively feel it. They are con-
tinually found in company with one another (Plato, Pliileb.
52 d; Eusebius, Prcep. Evan. xv. 15. 4), and words asso-
ciated with the one are in constant association with the
other.
li\iKpivT]s occurs only twice in the N. T. (Phil. i. 10;
2 Pet. iii. i); once also in the Apocrypha (Wisd. vii. 25) ;
el\iKpiveia three times (i Cor. v. 8; 2 Cor. i. 12 ; ii. 17).
Its etymology, like that of ' sincere,' which is its best
English rendering, is doubtful, uncertainty in this matter
causing also uncertainty in the breathing. Some, as Stall-
baum (Plato, Phcedo, 66 a, note), connect with i\os, I\TJ
(sth-siv, siXsiv), that which is cleansed by much rolling and
shaking to and fro in the sieve ; ' volubili agitatione secre-
tum atque adeocribro purgatum.' Another more familiar
and more beautiful etymology, if only one could feel suffi-
cient confidence in it, Losner indicates: *dicitur de iis
rebus quarum puritas ad solis splendorem exigitur,' o ev
320 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXV.
ry iiky Ketcpi/Asvos, held up to the sunlight and in that
proved and approved. Certainly the uses of tlXitcpivtjs,
so far as they afford an argument, and there is an instinct
and traditionary feeling which lead to the correct use of a
word, long after the secret of its derivation has been
altogether lost, are very much in favour of the former
etymology. It is not so much the clear, the transparent,
as the purged, the winnowed, the unmingled ; thus see
Plato, Axioch. 370, and note the words with which it
habitually associates, as dfjLi f ytjs (Plato, Henex. 245 d ;
Plutarch, Qucest. Rom. 26) ; afjutcros (De Def. Or. 34 ; cf. De
Isid. et Os. 6l) ; aTradrjs (De Adul. et Amic. 33) ; aKparos
De Anim. Procr. 27) ; dtcpai<f)vijs (Philo, Mund. Opif. 2) ;
aicspaios (Clement of Home, Cor. 2 ; compare Xenophon,
Oyro^.viii. 5. 14; Philo, Mund. Opif. 8 ; Plutarch, Adv. Colot.
5: DeFac. in Orb. Lun. 16: iruo-^si TO fj,iyvvfj,svov ' d7ro/3d\\et
yap TO ei\itcpivs$). In like manner the Etym. Mag. ;
slXiKpivrjs (rrifjiaivsi rbv itaOapov teal d/j,iyfj erspov : compare
an interesting discussion in Plutarch, De Ei ap. Delph. 20.
Various passages, it is quite true, might be adduced in
which the notion of clearness and transparency predomi-
nates thus in Philo (Quis Rer. Div. Hccr. 6l) etXi/cpivss Trvp
is contrasted with the Kkiftavos KairvL^opsvos but they are
much the fewer, and may very well be secondary and
superinduced.
The ethical use of slXiKpivijs and stXiicplvsia first makes
itself distinctly felt in the N. T. ; there are only approxi-
mations to it in classical Greek ; as when Aristotle (Ethic.
Nic. x. 6. 4) speaks of some who, ajsvaroi OVTSS rj&ovijs sl\i-
Kpivovs teal sXsvdspiov, sTrl ras aw panic as tcara^svyovaiv.
Theophylact defines tt\ucpvsui well as tcadapiorrjs Siavoias
Kal dBo\oTtjy ov&ev e^ovaai crvv<7Kiacrp,vov teal VTTOV\OV :
and Basil the Great (in Reg. Brev. Int.] : stXt/cpivss slvai
\oyiofj.at TO a^ifye's 1 , teal atcpcos KSKadappsvov diro iravros
evavTiov. It is true to this its central meaning as often
as it is employed in the N. T. The Corinthians must
LXXXV. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 32 I
purge out the old leaven, that they may keep the feast
with the unleavened bread of sincerity (slXi/epivstas) and
truth (i Cor. v. 8). St. Paul rejoices that in simplicity
and in that sincerity which, comes of God (sv sfaucpivsia
sou), not in fleshly wisdom, he has his conversation in
the world (2 Cor. i. 12) ; declares that he is not of those
who tamper with and adulterate (tcaTr^svovrss) the word
of God, but that as of sincerity (s% sl\iKpivsias} he speaks
in Christ (2 Cor. ii. 17).
KaOapos, connected with the Latin ' castus,' with the
German ' heiter/ in its earliest use (Homer does not know
it in any other, Od. vi. 61 ; xvii. 48), is clean, and this in
a physical or non-ethical sense, as opposed to pvrrapos.
Thus KaOapov a-wpa (Xenophon, (Econ. x. 7) is the body
not smeared with paint or ointment ; and in this sense it
is often employed in the N. T. (Matt, xxvii. 59 ; Heb. x.
22; Eev. xv. 6). In another merely physical sense icaQapos
is applied to that which, is clear and transparent ; thus
we have icadapos and Siawyr/s (Plutarch, De Gen. Socr. 22).
But already in Pindar (Pyth. v. 3, Kadapa dpsrrf)^ in Plato
(Rep. vi. 496 d, KaOapos dSi/cias TS Kal avocriwv spyatv), and
in the tragic poets it had obtained an ethical meaning.
The same is not uncommon in the Septuagint, where it
often designates cleanness of heart (Job viii. 6 ; xxxiii. 9 ;
Ps. xxiii. 4), although far oftener a cleanness merely ex-
ternal or ceremonial (Gen. viii. 20 ; Lev. xiv. 7). That it
frequently runs into the domain of meaning just claimed
for slkiKpivrjs must be freely admitted. It also is found
associated with d\r)divos (Job viii. 6) ; with dfAiyqs (Philo,
Mund. Opif. 8) ; with aKparos (Xenophon, Cyrop. viii.
7. 20 ; Plutarch, JEmil. Paul. 34) ; with a%pavro9 (De Is.
et Osir. 79) ; with dicrjparos (Plato, Grat. 396 6) ; /caOapbs
<rlros is wheat with the chaff winnowed away (Xenophon,
(Econ. xviii. 8. 9) ; KaQapos (rrpaTos, an army rid of its sick
and ineffective (Herodotus, i. 211 ; cf. iv. 135), or, as the
same phrase is used in Thucydides (v. 8), an army made up of
322 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXVI.
the best materials, not lowered by an admixture of mer-
cenaries or cowards ; the flower of the army, all avSpss
d-xpsioi having been set aside (Appian, viii. 117). In the
main, however, KaQapbs is the pure contemplated under
the aspect of the clean, the free from soil or stain ; thus
tiprjo-icsia icaOapa KOI dfjiiavros (Jam. i. 27), and compare
the constant use of the phrases icadapos <povov, KaOapbs
dSiicias (Plato, Rep. vi. 496 d ; Acts xviii. 6), and the like ;
and the standing antithesis in which the icadapov stands
to the KOIVOV, contemplated as also the dtcddaprov (Heb. ix.
13; Rom. xiv. 14, 20).
It may then be affirmed in conclusion, that as the
Christian is stXticpiv^s, this grace in him will exclude all
double-mindedness, the divided heart (Jam. i. 8 ; iv. 8),
the eye not single (Matt. vi. 22), all hypocrisies (i Pet.
ii. i) ; while, as he is icadapos rfj KapSia, by this are ex-
cluded the /Litao-ynara (2 Pet. ii. 20 ; cf. Tit. i. 15), the
u,o\vcrp.6s (2 Cor. vii. l),the pvTrapla (Jam. i. 21 ; I Pet.
iii. 21 ; Rev. xxii. ii) of sin. In the first is predicated
his freedom from the falsehoods, in the second from the
defilements, of the flesh and of the world. If freedom
from foreign admixture belongs to both, yet is it a more
primary notion in ei\LKpivr)$, being probably wrapt up in
the etymology of the word, a more secondary and super-
induced notion in icadapos.
Ixxxvi. Tr6\fjios, fjid^rj.
IloXs/iosand f^d^rj occur often together (Homer, II. i. 177 ;
v. 891 ; Plato, Tim. ige-, Job xxxviii. 23 ; Jam. iv. i); and
in like manner TroXspstv and /nd^scrdai. There is the same
difference between them as between our own ' war ' and
' battle ' ; 6 iroXepos TIsXaTrovwrja-iatcos, the Peloponnesian
War ; rj ev MapaQwvi payy, tne battle f Marathon. Deal-
ing with the words in this antithesis, namely that 7r6\/j,os
embraces the whole course of hostilities, ^d^rj the actual
shock in arms of hostile armies, Pericles, dissuading the
LXXXVI. SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 323
Athenians from yielding to the demands of the Spartans,
admits that these with their allies were a match for all the
other Greeks together in a single battle, but denies that
they would retain tli3 same superiority in a war, that is,
against such as had their preparations of another kind
(fJ'd-^rj psv jap fiia irpbs diravras " E\\ijva$ Bvvarol He\o-
jrovvrjcriot Kal ol ^vfj./jia'^ot avricf^slv, TroXsfjiSiv Bs firj irpos
o^oiav dvTtTrapaa-KEvrjv dSvvaroi, Thucydides, i. 141). "We
may compare Tacitus, Germ. 30 : ' Alios ad prselium ire
videas, Chattos ad bellum.'
But besides this, while TroXe/nos and iro\fjistv remain
true to their primary meaning, and are not transferred to
any secondary, it is altogether otherwise with /j^d^ij and
^d^scrdai. Contentions which fall very shert of the shock
of arms are continually designated by these words. There
are pd^ai of every kind : spwriKai (Xenophon, Hiero, i.
35); vo/jbiKat (Tit. iii. 9; cf. 2 Tim. ii. 23) ; Xoyo/ia^i'at (i
Tim. vi. 4) ; <TKiafji,a^iat: and compare John vi. 5 2 ; 2 Tim.
ii. 24; Prov. xxvi. 20, 21. Eustathius (on Homer, II. i.
177) expresses these differences well : TO 7r6\/j,ol TS i^d-^ai
re, 77 SK 7rapa\\ri\ov 8rj\oi TO avro, r) Kal Biafopd TIS scrrt,
Tals \ef;<Tiv, siys fid^srat fisv ns Kal Xoyois, <uy Kal r;
Srj\ol. Kal avrbs $s 6 TTOL^rrjs per' 6\tya fyya-i,
STTSSO-O-I, (ver. 304). Kal d\\o)s Ss p-d^ psv,
avrr) 17 rwv dvSpwv (rvvsicrftoKr) ' 6 8s 7roX,f/ioy Kal e-rrl
Trapard^saiv KCU /ia-^t/iou Katpov \sysrat. Tittmann (De
Synon. in N. T. p. 66) : ' Conveniunt igitur in eo quod
dimicationem, contentionem, pugnam denotant, sed iro\s-
JJLOS et jrdXsfjislv de pugna quse manibus fit proprie dicuntur,
/Md%r) autem et ^d^aQai de quacunque contentione, etiam
animorum, etiamsi non ad verbera et csedes pervenerit.
In illis igitur ipsa pugna cogitatur, in his sufficit cogitare
de contentione, quam pugna plerumque sequitur.'
I may observe before quitting this subject that a-rdo-ts
(Mark xv. 7 ; Luke xxiii. 19; Actsxxiv. 5 ; cf. Sophocles,
CEdip. Col. 1228), insurrection or sedition, is by Plato
Y 2
324 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXVII.
distinguished from TroXs/ios, in that the one is a civil and
the other a foreign strife (Rep. v. 470 &) : e TT\ yap rfj rov
OIKSLOV s^dpa <rrd<ris /ceK\r)Tai,, STrl 8s ry rwv
Ixxxvii. irddos, sTrtOvf^la, 0/9/177, opsgis.
occurs three times in the N. T. ; once coordinated
with sTridvpla (Col. iii. 5 ; for Trad^ara and eindv^Lai in
like manner joined together see Gal. v. 24) ; once subor-
dinated to it (irddos sTnOvpiaS) I Thess. iv. 5) ; while on.
the other occasion of its use (Eom. i. 26), the irddr) drtplas
(" vile affections," A. Y.) are tosts that dishonour those
who indulge in them. The word belongs to the ter-
minology of the Greek Schools. Thus Cicero (Tusc. Qucest.
iv. 5) : ' Quse Grseci irdffri vocant, nobis perturbationes
appellari magis placet quam morbos ; ' on this preference
see iii. 10 ; and presently after he adopts Zeno's definition,
'aversa a recta ratione, contra naturam, animi commotio;*
and elsewhere (Offic. ii. 5), 'motus animi turbatus.' The
exact definition of Zeno, as given by Diogenes Laertius, is
as follows (vii. I. 63) : earn 8s avro TO irddos rj aXoyos KOL
irapa <$v(Tiv tyvxns Kivrjcris, r) op/j,r) Tr\ovd^ovara. Clement
of Alexandria has this in his mind when, distinguishing
between 0/3/1,77 and Trades, he writes (Strom, ii. 13) : opfjurj
/JLSV ovv <j)0pd Siavoias siri Ttrj drro rov iraQos &s, 7r\sovd-
%ov<ra op/jur], 77 vTrsprscvovaa TO, Kara rov \6yov H.ST pa,' rj op/J-rj
sK(j)pofji,svrj, KOI dTrei6r)s\6yq>(see7ie\ler,Philos. d. Griechen^.
iii. i. 208).
So far as the N. T, is concerned, Traces nowhere obtains
that wide sense which it thus obtained in the Schools ; a
sense so much wider than that ascribed to sTridvpia, that
this last was only regarded as one of the several Trddrj of
our nature, being coordinated with 0/97*7, ^>o/3os, and the
rest (Aristotle, Eth. Nic. ii. 5, 2 ; Diogenes Laertius, vii. i.
67). ' 'E,Tri0vfjLia, on the contrary, in Scripture is the larger
word, including the whole world of active lusts and desires,
LXXXVII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 325
nil to which the a-dpj;, as the seat of desire and of the
natural appetites, impels ; while the Trades is rather the
* morosa delectatio,' not so much the soul's disease in its
more active operations, as the diseased condition out of
which these spring, the ' morbus libidinis,' as Bengel has
put it well, rather than the * libido,' the ' lustfulness '
{' Leidenschaft ') as distinguished from the ' Lust.' Theo-
phylact : ird6os 77 \vaaa TOV crut^aTos, KOL waTrsp irvpsros, rj
Tpavfia, 77 d\\rj VOGOS. Godet (on Rom. i. 26) : * Le t-erme
"irdQifi, passions, a quelque chose de plus ignoble encore que
<?elui de sTridvpiai, convoitises, au ver. 24; car il ren-
ferme une notion plus prononcee de passivite morale, de
honteux esclavage.'
'E7rt$v/it'a, being TOV rjosos ops^is, as Aristotle (Rhet. i.
II), aXoyos opsgis, as the Stoics, 'imuioderata appetitio
opinati magni boni, rationi non obtemperans,' as Cicero
{Tusc. Qucest. iii. n) defined it, is rendered for the most
part in our Translation ' lust' (Mark iv. 19, and often) ;
but sometimes 'concupiscence' (Rom. vii. 8; Col. iii. 5),
and sometimes ' desire ' (Luke xxii. 15; Phil. i. 23). It
appears now and then, though rarely, in the N. T. in a
good sense (Luke xxii. 15 ; Phil. i. 23 ; I Thess. ii. 17 ; cf.
Prov. x. 24 ; Ps. cii. 5) ; much oftener in a bad ; not as
* concupiscentia ' merely, but as ' prava concupiscentia,'
which Origen (in Joan. torn, x.) affirms to be the only
sense which in the Greek Schools it knew (but see Ari-
stotle, Rhet. i. Ii) ; thus sTridv/jila /ca/o? (Col. iii. 5); STTL-
(TapiciKai (I Pet. ii. II) ; vswrspiical (2 Tim. ii. 22) ;
l f-faaftspal (i Tim. vi. 9); Koo-fjuiicai (Tit. ii. 12) ;
fydopas (2 Pet. i. 4) ; /uaoyioi) (2 Pet. ii. IO) ; dvdpwTrwv
(l Pet. iv. 2); TOV aa)/j,aTo$ (Rom. vi. 12); TOV Sta/36~\.ov
(John viii. 44) ; Trjs aTrar^y (Ephes. iv. 22); Trjs (rap/cos
(I Johnii. 16); T&V o<j>0a\f*,a>v (ibid.)-, and without a quali-
fying epithet (Rom. vii. 7; I Pet.iv. 3 ; Jude 16; cf. Gen.
xlix. 6 ; Ps. cv. 14). It is then, as Vitringa, in a disserta-
tion De Concupiscentia Vitiosd et Damnabili (Obss. Sac. p.
326 SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. LXXXVIU
598 sqq.), defines it, 'vitiosa ilia voluntatis affectio, qua
fertur ad appetendum quse illicite usurpantur; aut quse
licite usurpantur, appetit drd/crcos',' this same evil sense
being ascribed to it in such definitions as that of Clement
of Alexandria (Strom, ii. 20) : efaa-LS teal opsgis aXoyos TOV
Ksxapi(T/jt,evov avTrj. Compare iv. 18: opsgiv ovv sTridvpias
BiaKptvovatv ol frspl ravra Ssivoi' teal rrjv p,sv, STT\ rjBovals /cal
dicoKavia rdrTovcnv, d\oyov ovaav TTJV Bs opsgiv, sirl rwv
Kara <f>vcriv dvay/calcov, \ojifcrjv VTrdp%ov<rav Kiwrjcrtv. In
these Ssivoi he of course mainly points to Aristotle (thus
see Rhet. i. 10). Our English word 'lust,' once harmless
enough (thus see Deut. vii. 7, Coverdale's Version, and my
Select Glossary, s. v.), has had very much the same history.
The relation in which sTriOvpia stands to jrdQos it has been
already sought to trace.
'O/J/Z77, occurring twice in the N. T. (Acts xiv. 5 ; Jam.
iii. 4), and opsgis, occurring once (Rom. i. 27), are else-
where often found together ; thus in Plutarch (De Amor.
Prol. i; De Rect. Rat. And. 18; where see Wytten-
bach's note) ; and by Eusebius (Prcep. Evang. xiv. 765 d}.
'Oppri, rendered by Cicero on one occasion 'appetitio*
(Off. ii. 5), ' appetitus animi ' on another (Fin. v. 7), is thus
defined by the Stoics (Plutarch, De Repugn. Stoic. 1 1 : f) op^rj
TOV dvOpfOTrov \6<yos eo"rt TTpocrraKTiKOf ayr&> TOV TTOISIV.
They explain it further as this ' motus animi,' tfropa T|ry^7>
eiri n (see Zeller, Philos. d. Griechen, iii. i. 206), which, if
toward a thing is opsfys, if from it efCK\i(ris. When our
Translators render op^ ' assault ' (Acts xiv. 5), they
ascribe to it more than it there implies. Manifestly there
was no ' assault ' actually made on the house where Paul
and Barnabas abode; for in such a case it would have
been very superfluous for St. Luke to tell us that they
" were ware " of it ; but only a purpose and intention of
assault or onset, ' Trieb,' * Drang,' as Meyer gives it. And
in the same way at Jam. iii. 4, the opfiij of the pilot is not
the ' impetus brachioruin,' but the * studium et conatus-
LXXXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 327
voluntatis.' Compare for this use of 6pfj,ij, Sophocles,
Philoct. 237 ; Plutarch, De Red. Rat. And. I ; Prov. iii.
25 ; and the many passages in which op/jLij is joined with
Trpoaipscris (Josephus, Antt. xix. 6. 3).
But while the opfjuj is thus oftentimes the hostile motion
and spring toward an object, with a purpose of propelling
and repelling it still further from itself, as for example
the oppri of the spear, of the assaulting host, the opegis
(from opsjsaBat,) is always the reaching out after and
toward an object, with a purpose of drawing that after
which it reaches to itself, and making it its own. Very
commonly the word is used to express the appetite for
food (Plutarch, De Frat. Am. 2; Symp. vi. 2. i) ; so too
' orexis ' in the Latin of the silver age (Juvenal, Sat. vi.
427; xi. 127); in the Platonic Definitions (414 &) philo-
sophy is described as rrjs rwv OVTOJV asl 7rio'T)j/j,r)s ops!;L9.
After what vile enjoyments the heathen, as judged by St.
Paul, are regarded as reaching out, and seeking to make
these their own, is sufficiently manifest from the context
of the one passage in the N. T. where ops^is occurs (Eom.
i. 27; cf. Plutarch, Qucest. Nat. 21).
Ixxxviii. Ispos, ocrioy, ayios, ayvos.
'Ispos, probably the same word as the German ' hehr '
(see Curtius, Grundzilge, vol. v. p. 369), never in the N. T.,
and very seldom elsewhere, implies any moral excellence.
It is singular how seldom the word is found there, indeed
only twice (i Cor. ix. 13; 2 Tim. iii. 15) ; and only once
in the Septuagint (Josh. vi. 8 : Ispal a-d\7nyyss} ; four times
in 2 Maccabees, but not else in the Apocrypha ; being in
none of these instances employed of persons, who only are
moral agents, but always of things. To persons the word
elsewhere also is of rarest application, though examples
are not wanting. Thus ispbs avQpwjros is in Aristophanes
(Ranee, 652) a man initiated in the mysteries ; kings for
328 SFNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXVIII.
Pindar (Pyth, v. 97 [Diss., 131 Heyn.]) are ispoi, as having
their dignity from the gods ; for Plutarch the Indian
gymnosophists are avSpss Ispol KOI avrovofj-ot (De Alex.
Fort. i. 10); and again {De Gen. Socr. 20), Ispol /ecu Sai-
fjLoviot avflpcoTToi : and compare De Def. Orac. 2. '\spos (reo
Osw avarsOst/^svos, Suidas) answers very closely to the Latin
' sacer ' (' quidquid destinatum est diis sacrum vocatur '),
to our * sacred.' It is that which may not be violated,
the word therefore being constantly linked with aftsftrfkos
(Plutarch, Qiicest. Rom. 27), with a/3aros (Ibid.)., with
aavkos (De Gen. Socr. 24) ; this its inviolable character
springing from its relations, nearer or remoter, to God;
and Oslos and Ispos being often joined together (Plato, Tim.
45 a). At the same time the relation is contemplated
merely as an external one ; thus Pillon (Syn. Grecs) : ' ayios
exprime 1'idee de saintete naturelle et interieure ou
morale ; tandis qu' Ispos, conime le latin sacer, n'exprime
que 1'idee de saintete exterieure ou d'inviolabilite con-
sacree par les lois ou la coutume.' See, however, Sopho-
cles, CEdip. Col. 287, which appears an exception to the
absolute universality of this rule. Tittman : * In voce
ispos proprie nihil aliud cogitatur, quam quod res qusedam
aut persona Deo sacra sit, nulla ingenii morumque ratione
habita; imprimis quod sacris inservit.' Thus the Ispsvs
is a sacred person, as serving at God's altar ; but it is not
in the least implied that he is a holy one as well ; he may
be a Hophni, a Caiaphas, an Alexander Borgia (Grinfield,
ScTiol. in N. T., p. 397). The true antithesis to Ispos is
ySeyST/Xos (Plutarch, Qucest. Rom. 27), and, though not so
perfectly antithetic, fnapos (2 Mace. v. 16).
"Oaios is oftener grouped with SIKCLIOS for purposes of
discrimination, than with the words here associated with
it; and undoubtedly the two constantly keep company
together; thus in Plato often (Thecct. 176 &; Rep. x. 615
6; Legg. ii. 663 fc) ; in Josephus (Antt. viii. 9. i), and in
the N. T. (Tit. i. 8) ; and so also the derivatives from these ;
LXXXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. 329
oa-lojs and Siicaiws (i Thess. ii. 10) ; oaiorrjs and SiKaiovvvrj
(Plato, Prot. 329 c; Luke i. 75 ; Ephes. iv. 24; Wisd. ix.
3 ; Clement of Rome, Cor. 48) . The distinction too has
been often urged that the ocrios is one careful of his duties
toward God, the BUatos toward men ; and in classical
Greek no doubt we meet with many passages in which
such a distinction is either openly asserted or implicitly
involved : as in an often quoted passage from Plato (Gorg.
507 &) : fcal firjv Trspl rovs av6pu>irovs ra rrpocn^Kovra
Trpdrrojv, Si/cai' av Trpdrroi, Trspl Bs dsovs ocria. 1 Of So-
crates, Marcus Antoninus says (vii. 66), that he was Sifcaios
ra Trpbs avdputirovs, ocrios ra irpos Bsovs : cf. Plutarch,
Demet. 24 ; Charito, i. 10. 4 ; and a large collection of pas-
sages in Rost and Palm's Lexicon, s. v. There is nothing,
however, which warrants the transfer of this distinction to
the N. T., nothing which would restrict Bi/caios to him who
should fulfil accurately the precepts of the second table
(thus see Luke i. 6; Rom. i. 17; i John ii. i) ; or oaios to
him who should fulfil the demands of the first (thus see
Acts ii. 27; Heb. vii. 26). It is beforehand unlikely that
such distinction should there find place. In fact the Scrip-
ture, which recognizes all righteousness as one, as growing
out of a single root, and obedient to a single law, gives no
room for such an antithesis as this. He who loves his
brother, and fulfils his duties towards him, loves him in
God and for God. The second great commandment is not
coordinated with the first greatest, but subordinated to,
and in fact included in, it (Mark xii. 30, 31).
If ispos is 'sacer,' ocrios is 'sanctus' ( = 'sancitus '),
'quod sanctione antiqua et prsecepto firmatum* (cf. Augus-
1 Not altogether so in the Euthyphro, where Plato regards TO Siiaiiov,
or 8iKaioo-vvtj, as the sum total of all virtue, of which oo-to'rqr or piety is
a part. In this Dialogue, which is throughout a discussion on the oariov,
Plato makes Euthyphro to say (12 e) : TOVTO TOLVVV e/xotye SOKCI, & 2o>-
KpaTfs, TO fiepos TOV diKaiov tlvai fio-ffies re nal oa-iov, TO ire pi TIJV TWV 6t5>v
BfpajTfiav TO Se Ttepl TTJV TU>V avdputtrav TO \wirov dvai TOV ftiKaiov fitpos.
Socrates admits and allows this ; indeed, has himself forced him to it.
330 SYNONYMS OF THE NE W TESTAMENT. LXXXVIII.
tine, De Fid. et Symb. 19), as opposed to < pollutus/
Some of the ancient grammarians derive it from afecrdai,
the Homeric synonym for crsBsadai, rightly as regards
sense, but wrongly as regards etymology ; the derivation
indeed of the word remains very doubtful (see Pott, Etym.
Forschung. vol. i. p. 126). In classical Greek it is far more
frequently used of things than of persons; oo-t'a, with
ftovXi] or Si/cij understood, expressing the everlasting or-
dinances of right, which no law or custom of men has
constituted, for they are anterior to all law and custom ;
and rest on the divine constitution of the moral universe
and man's relation to this, on that eternal law which, in
the noble words of Chrysippus, is irdvrtav ftaa-tXsvs dsiwv
TS teal dvdpwTrivwv Trpajf^aToiv : cf. Euripides, Hecuba, 799
Soi. Thus Homer (Odyss. xvi. 423): ouS' 00-477 KUKO, pdirTsiv
a\\ij\oi(riv. The ocrioy, the German ' fromm,' is one who
reverences these everlasting sanctities, and owns their ob-
ligation ; the word being joined with vcr^rjs(2 Mace. xii.
45), with svopKos (Plato, Rep. ii. 363 d), with dstos (Plutarch,
De Def. Orac. 40) ; more than once set over against STTL-
opKos (Xenophon, Anab. ii. 6. 25). Those things are avo<ria,
which violate these everlasting ordinances ; for instance, a
Greek regarded the Egyptian custom of marriage between
a brother and sister, still more the Persian between a
mother and son, as 'incestum' (incastum), /j.r}Sa/j.w$ oa-ia
as Plato (Legg. viii. 838 b) calls them, mixtures which no
human laws could ever render other than abominable.
Such, too, would be the omission of the rites of sepulture
by those from whom they were due, when it was possible to
pay them ; if Antigone, for instance, in obedience to the
edict of Creon, had suffered the body of her brother to
remain unburied (Sophocles, Antig. 74). What the oa-iov
is, and what are its obligations, has never been more
nobly declared than in the words which the poet puts into
her mouth:
LXXXVIII. S FNON YMS OF THE NE W TES TAMENT. 3 3 1
ov&e crdevfiv rocrovrov aofjirjv ra era
KT]pvyfj.aff , WOT' aypatrra (cd(T0uAf} 0fS>v
vvp.ip.a 8vva(T0ai dvrjTov ov6' virtpdpandv (453~ 5).
Compare an instructive passage in Thucydides, ii. 52,
where Ispd and ovia occur together, Plato in like manner
(Legg. ix. 878 6) joining them with one another. This
character of the oaiov as anterior and superior to all
human enactments, puts the same antithesis between oa-ia
and vofiifia as exists between the Latin ' fas ' and 'jus.'
When we follow oa-ios to its uses in sacred Greek, we
find it. as was inevitable, gaining in depth and intensity of
meaning ; but otherwise true to the sense which it already
had in the classical language. We have a striking testi-
mony for the distinction which, in the minds of the Sep-
tuagint translators at least, existed between it and ayios,
in the very noticeable fact, that while oaios is used some
thirty times as the rendering of *rpn (Deut. xxxiii. 8 ;
2 Sam. xxii. 26; Ps. iv. 4), and aytos nearly a hundred
times as that of Bnii? (Exod. xix. 6 ; Num. vi. 5 ; Ps. xv.
3), in no single instance is oa-ios used for this, or cryios-
for that ; and the same law holds good, I believe, univer-
sally in the conjugates of these ; and, which is perhaps
more remarkable still, of the other Greek words which are
rarely and exceptionally employed to render these two,
none which is used for the one is ever used for the other ;
thus Kadapos, used for the second of these Hebrew words
(Num. v. 17), is never employed for the first; while, on
the other hand, s\s^fj.(ov (Jer. iii. 12), TTO\VS\SOS (Exod.
xxxiv. 6), sv\a/3ijs (Mic. vii. 2), used for the former, are in
no single instance employed for the latter.
"A7ioy=B ? ni5 (on the etymology of which word see the
article in Herzog's Real-Encyclopadie, Heiligkeit Gottes)
and ajvos have been often considered different forms of
one and the same word. At all events, they have in
common that root 'AF, reappearing as the Latin ' sac ' in
* sacer,' ' sancio,' and many other words. It will thus be
332 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXVIII.
only natural that they should have much in common,
even while they separate off, and occupy provinces of
meaning which are clearly distinguishable one from the
other. "Ayios is a word of rarest use in Attic Greek,
though Porson is cert linly in error when he says (on Euri-
pides, Med. 750; and compare Pott, Etymol. Forsch.vol.
iii. p. 577) that it i . never used by the tragic poets ; for
see JEschylus, tiuppl. 85 1. Its fundamental idea is separa-
tion, and, so to speak, consecration and devotion to the
service of Deity ; thus tspbv /j,d\a ayiov, a very holy temple
(Xenophon, Hell. iii. 2. 19) ; it ever lying in the word, as
in the Latin ' sacer,' that this consecration may be as
dvd6r)fj,a or avdOspa (see back, page 1 6). Note in this
point of view its connexion with dyrjs, ayos : which last it
may be well to observe is recognized now not as another
form of ayos, and as being indeed no more than the Ionic
form of the same word, but fundamentally distinct (Curtius,
Grundziige, p. 155 sqq.). But the thought lies very near,
that what is set apart from the world and to God, should
separate itself from the world's defilements, and should
share in God's purity ; and in this way ayios speedily ac-
quires a moral significance. The children of Israel must
be an Wvos ayiov, not merely in the sense of being God's
inheritance, a Xaoy Trspiovcrios, but as separating them-
selves from the abominations of the heathen nations round
(Lev. xix. 2 ; xi. 44) ; while God Himself, as the absolutely
separate from evil, as repelling from Himself every possi-
bility of sin or defilement, and as warring against these
in every one of his creatures, 1 obtains this title of ay LOS by
highest right of all (Lev. x. 3 ; I Sam. ii. 2 ; Rev. iii. 7 ;
iv. 8).
It is somewhat different with dyvos. 'Ayveia (i Tim.
1 When Quenstedt defines the holiness of God as ' sunirua omnis labis
expers in Deo puritas,' this, true as far as it goes, is not exhaustive. One
side of this holiness, namely, its intolerance of unholiiiess and active war
against it, is not brought out.
LXXXVIII. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 333
iv. 12; v. 2) in the Definitions which go by Plato's name
too vaguely and too superficially explained (414 a) sv\d/3sia
rwv 7r/>09 rovs Osovs dpaprrjfidT(av rrjs 0sov rifj,f)$ Kara
<f>vcriv OspaTTSia : too vaguely also by Clement of Alexandria
as rwv dfjLapTr]/j,dro)v ajro^, or again as (ppovsiv o<ria (Strom.
v. l); 1 is better defined as sTriTdGis crax^poa'vvris by Suidas
(it is twice joined with vw^poavvrj in the Apostolic Fathers :
Clement of Eome, Cor. 64 ; Ignatius, Ephes. 20), as s\sv-
Ospia Travrbs /ioXuoyioO (rap/cos Kal irvsvp-aros by Phavorinus.
'Ayvos (joined with dftlavros. Clement of Eome, Cor. 29)
is the pure ; sometimes only the externally or ceremonially
pure, as in this line of Euripides, 071/0$ yap slfit %eipa$,
a\V ov rds <f>psvas (Orestes, 1604; cf. Hippotytus, 316, 317,
and ayvi&tv as = ' expiare,' Sophocles, Ajax, 640). This
last word never rises higher in the Septuagint than to
signify a ceremonial purification (Josh. iii. 5 ; 2 Chron.
xxix. 5 ; cf. 2 Mace. i. 33) ; neither does it rise higher in
four out of the seven occasions on which it occurs in the
1ST. T. (John xi. 55; Acts xxi. 24, 26 ; xxiv. 1 8, which is
also true of dyvia-fAos, Acts xxi. 26). ' Ayi>os however sig-
nifies often the pure in the highest sense. It is an epithet
frequently applied to heathen gods and goddesses, to
Ceres, to Proserpine, to Jove (Sophocles, Philoct. 1273) ;
to the Muses (Aristophanes, Ranee, 875 ; Pindar, Olymp.
vii. 60 [Diss., 109 Heyn.], and Dissen's note); to the Sea-
nymphs (Euripides, Tphig. in Aid. 982) ; above all in Homer
to Artemis, the virgin goddess, and in Holy Scripture to
God Himself (i John iii. 3). For this nobler use of dyvos
in the Septuagint, where, however, it is excessively rare as
compared to ayios, see Ps. xi. 7 ; Prov. xx. 9. As there are
no impurities like those fleshly, which defile the body and
1 In the vestibule of the temple of JSsculapius at Epidaurus were
inscribed these lines, which rank among the noblest utterances of the
ancient world. They are quoted by Theophrastus in a surviving frag-
ment of his work, Hept Euo-ejSei'as :
dyvov xpfj vaidio 0v<a8eos fvros lovra
' , '.< (fjLfjLfvai- &yvtir) 8' eart tppovflv ocria.
334 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXIX.
the spirit alike (i Cor. vi. 1 8, 19), so djvos is an epithet pre-
dominantly employed to express freedom from these (Plu-
tarch, Prcec. Cunj. 44 ; Qucest. Rom. 20 ; Tit. ii. 5 ; cf.
Herzog, Beal-Encyclop. s. v. Keuschheit) ; while some-
times in a still more restricted sense it expresses, not
chastity merely, but virginity; as in the oath taken by
the priestesses of Bacchus (Demosthenes, Adv. Neceram,
1371): sl/Jil KaOapa KOI dyvrj air* dv&pos crvvovcrias: with
which compare dtcrfpaTos <ydiiwv re djvos (Plato, Legg. viii.
840 e ; and Euripides, Hippolytus, 1016) ; dyvsta too some-
times owns a similar limitation (Ignatius, ad Polyc. 5).
If what has been said is correct, Joseph, when tempted
to sin by his Egyptian mistress (Gen. xxxix. 7-12), ap-
proved himself oVtos, in reverencing those everlasting
sanctities of the marriage bond, which God had founded,
and which man could not violate without sinning against
Him : " How can I do this great wickedness and sin
against God ? " he approved himself ayios in that he
separated himself from any unholy fellowship with his
temptress ; he approved himself dyvos in that he kept his
body pure and undenled.
Ixxxix. (f)0}v^ Xoyos.
ON these words, and on their relation to one another, very
much has been written by the Greek grammarians and
natural philosophers (see Lersch, Sprachphilosophie der
Alten, vol. iii. pp. 35, 45, and passim).
<E>o>i>77, from </>a&>, &>y <f>ftmbu<7a TO voovpevov (Plutarch,
De Plac. Phil. 19), rendered in our Version 'voice' (Matt.
ii. 18), 'sound' (John iii. 8), < noise' (Eev. vi. i), is dis-
tinguished from -^6(os, in that it is the cry of a living
creature (77 8s <fxovT) -ty-ofyos ris scrnv e/i-vjrir^ou, Aristotle, De
Anima, 2. 8. 14), being sometimes ascribed to God (Matt.
iii. 17), to men (Matt. iii. 3), to animals (Rev. ix. 9), and,
though improperly, to inanimate objects as well (i Cor.
LXXXIX. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT 335
xiv. 7), as to the trumpet (Matt. xxiv. 31), to the wind
(John iii. 8), to the thunder (Rev. vi. I ; cf. Ps. Ixxvi. 19).
But \6yos, a word, saying, or rational utterance of the vovs,
whether spoken (irpofopifeos, and thus ^xavrj rwv \6ywv,
Dan. vii. 1 1) or unspoken (sv8tddsTos\ being, as it is, the cor-
relative of reason, can only be predicated of men (\6yov
Kcivwvst /jiovov dv6pa)7ros, ra Be aAAa (f)(ovr)S, Aristotle, Probl.
ii. 55), of angels, or of God. The <f)wvij may be a mere inarti-
culate cry, and this whether proceeding from man or from
any other animal ; and therefore the definition of the Stoics
(Diogenes Laertius, vii. I. 38. 55) will not stand: cooy
fJLSV SCTTl (f)Ci)VT) dr)p VTTO OpfjLrjS 7T7r\rjyfJ,SVOf, dv0p(l)TTOV oV
SCTTIV svapdpos Kal diro 8iavolas SK7re/j,7ro/j,svrj. They transfer
here to the $wvf\ what can only be constantly affirmed of
the \6yos ; indeed, whenever it sought to set the two in
sharp antithesis with one another, this, that the (fxovrj is a
TTvsvfJia dSidpOpwTov, is the point particularly made. It is
otherwise with the \6yos, of which the Stoics themselves
say, \oyos 8s io-ri <f)(ovrj a"r)/jiavTiKr), a?ro Siavolas s
(ibid.}, a,s of the \sysiv that it is TO rrjv voovpsvov
TOS (TijfAavTiicrjv 7rpo(f)spscr0ai, (fxovrjv. Compare Plutarch
(De Anim. Proc. 7) ' <f>o)vij TLS scrnv aXoyos Kal d&ijfjiavTos,
\6<yos 8s \%is sv fywvr) a-q/jiavTiKf) Siavotas. 1 His treatise
De Genio Socratis has much on the relations of <fxavij and
\6<yosf to one another, and on the superior functions of the
latter. By such an unuttered 'word' he affirms the
Demon of Socrates to have intimated his presence (c. 20) :
TO 8s TrpoaTTiTTTOv, ov (f)6jjov, d\\d \6yov dv ns sltcdo-sis
8aifAOVos, dvsv (fxovfjs s^arrTO/JiSvov avrw rw 8^\ovfjLva> rov
voovvros. 11X7777} yap rj (fxovij Trpoasoitcs T?;y T/ru^y, 81,'
wrcov $ia rov \6yov slcrBs^ofisvijS) orav dX\
vwjji&v. f O 8s rov Kpsirrovos vovs dyst rrjv sv(j>vd
STTidiyydvcov TO) voTjdsvn, 7r\rjyrjs /j,rj 8so/j,svriv.
1 On the distinction between Xo'yos and Xe'^u , which last does not
occur in the N.T., see Petavius, De Trin. vi. i. 6 ; and Lersch, Sprad*-
philosophie der Alien, vol. iii. p. 45-
336 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. LXXXIX.
The whole chapter is one of deepest theological in-
terest ; the more so seeing that the great theologians of
the early Church, above all Origen in the Greek (in Joan.
torn. ii. 26), and Augustine in the Latin, loved to transfer
this antithesis of the (frwvij and the \6jos to John the
Baptist and his Lord, the first claiming for himself no
more than to be " the voice of one crying in the wilder-
ness " (John i. 23), the other emphatically declared to be
the Word which was with God, and was God (John i. i).
In drawing out the relations bet\veen John and his Lord
as expressed by these titles, the Voice and the Word,
'Vox' and 'Verbum,' (frwvr) and \6jos, Augustine traces
with a singular subtlety the manifold and profound fit-
nesses which lie in them for the setting forth of those
relations. A word, he observes, is something even without
a voice, for a word in the heart is as truly a word as after
it is outspoken ; while a voice is nothing, a mere un-
meaning sound, an empty cry, unless it be also the vehicle
of a word. But when they are thus united, the voice in a
manner goes before the .word, for the sound strikes the
ear before the sense is conveyed to the mind : yet while it
thus goes before it in this act of communication, it is not
really before it, but the contrary. Thus, when we speak,
the word in our hearts must precede the voice on our lips,,
which voice is yet the vehicle by which the word in us is
transferred to, and becomes also a word in, another ; but
this being accomplished, or rather in the very accomplish-
ment of this, the voice has passed away, exists no more ;
but the word which is planted now in the other's heart,
no less than in our own, abides. All this Augustine
transfers to the Lord and to his forerunner. John is
nothing without Jesus : Jesus just what before He was
without John : however to men the knowledge of Him
may have come through John. John the first in time,
and yet He who came after, most truly having been before,
him. John, so soon as he had accomplished his mission,
xc. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 337
passing away, -having no continual significance for the
Church of God ; but Jesus, of whom he had told, and to
whom he witnessed, abiding for ever (8erm. 293. 3) :
'Johannes vox ad tempus, Christus Yerbum in principio
seternmn. Tolle verbum, quid est vox? Ubi nullus est
intellectus, inanis est strepitus. Vox sine verbo aurem.
pulsat, cor non sedificat. Verumtamen in ipso corde
nostro sedificando advertamus ordinem rerum. Si cogito
quid dicam, jam verbum est in corde meo : sed loqui ad te
volens, qusero queniadmoduui sit etiam in corde tuo, quod
jam est in meo. Hoc quaerens quoinodo ad te perveniat,
et in corde tuo insideat verbum quod jam est in corde meo,
assuuio vocem, et assumta voce loquor tibi : sonus vocis
ducit ad te intellectum verbi, et cum ad te duxit sonus
vocis intellectum verbi, sonus quidem ipse pertransit,
verbum autem quod ad te sonus perduxit, jam est in corde
tuo, nee recessit a meo.' Cf. Serm. 288. 3; 289. 3.
xc. \6yos, jjii)6os,
Aoyos is quite as often ' sermo ' as ' verbum,' a connected
discourse as a single word. Indeed, as is well known,
there was once no little discussion whether Aojos in its
very highest application of all (John i. I) should not
rather be rendered by ' Sermo ' than by ; Verbum ' ; on
which controversy see Petavius, De Trin. vi. I. 4-6. And,
not to dwell on this exceptional and purely theological
employment of \6yos, it is frequently in the N. T. employed
to express that word which by superemineut right deserves
the name, being, as it is, " the word of God " (Acts iv. 31),
" the word of the truth " (2 Tim. ii. 15) ; thus at Luke i.
2 ; Jam. i. 22 ; Acts vi. 4. As employed in this sense, it
may be brought into relations of likeness and unlikeness
with ftvdos, between which and \6jos there was at one
time but a very slight difference indeed, one however
z
338 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xc.
which grew ever wider, until in the end a great gulf has
separated them each from the other.
There are three distinctly marked stages through
which jjLvdos has passed ; although, as will often happen, in
passing into later meanings it has not altogether renounced
and left behind its earlier. At the first there is nothing
of the fabulous, still less of the false, involved in it. It
stands on the same footing with pr)/j,a, STTOS, \6jos, and, as
its connexion with /j,vw, pvsa), nvtya sufficiently indicates,
must have signified originally the word shut up in the mind,
or muttered within the lips (see Creuzer, Symbolik, vol. iv.
p. 517); although of this there is no actual trace; for
already in Homer it appears as the spoken word ( II. xviii.
252), the tragic poets with such other as form their dic-
tion on Homer continuing so to employ it (thus ^Eschylus,
Eumen. 582; Euripides, Phoen. 455), and this at a time
when in Attic prose it had nearly or altogether exchanged
this meaning for another.
At the second stage of its history fivdos is already in a
certain antithesis to \6jos, although still employed in a
respectful, often in a very honourable, sense. It is the
mentally conceived as set over against the actually true.
Not literal fact, it is often truer than the literal truth,
involves a higher teaching; \6yos tysvSrjs, sltcovlfav rrjv
a\t]0iav (Suidas) ; \6yov ftvdos el/cwv KOI i8a)\6v scrrt (Plu-
tarch, Bell, an Pace clar. Athen. 4) . There is a \6yos sv
/j,v6y (' veritas quse in fabulse involucre latet,' as Wytten-
bach, Annott.in Plutarch, vol. ii. part I, p. 406, gives it),
which may have infinitely more value than much which is
actual fact, seeing that oftentimes, in Schiller's words,
' a deeper import
Lurks in the legend told our infant years
Than lies upon the truth we live to learn.'
Mv0os had already obtained this significance in Herodotus
(ii. 45) and in Pindar (Olymp. i. 29; \_Diss. 47 Heyn.'\);
xc. SYNONYMS OF THE XEW TESTAMENT. 339
and Attic prose, as has been observed, hardly knows any
other (Plato, Gorg. 523 a ; PJicedo, 6 1 a; Legg. ix. 872 d- y
Plutarch, De Ser. Num. Vind. 18 ; Symp. i. i. 4).
But in a world like ours the fable easily degenerates
into the falsehood.
'Tradition, Time's suspected register,
That wears out truth's best stories into tales,*
is ever at work to bring such a result about ; ' story/ tale/
and other words not a few, attest this fact ; and at its
third stage /j,v0o<t is the fable, but not any more the fable
undertaking to be, and often being, the vehicle of some
lofty truth ; it is now the lying fable with all its false-
hood and all its pretences to be what it is not : Eustathius ;
fjivdos irap" 1 'OfAijpy 6 a7r\ws Xdyos, Trapa Bs rots varspov, o
tyevBrjS Kal 7T7rXatr/zeVoj, /cat a\r]6slas s")(wv s^acriv \6yos :
this being the only sense of nvdos which the N. T. knows
(in the Apocrypha it occurs but once, Ecclus. xx. 19; in
the Septuagint never). Thus we have there pvdoi
si9(l Tim. iv. 7);'IofSai'ot (Tit. i. 14);
(2 Pet. i. 16; cf. fj.vdot TTSTrXacr/ieVot, Diodorus Siculus,
i. 93) ; the other two occasions of the word's use (i Tina. i.
4 ; 2 Tim. iv. 4) being not less slighting and contemptuous.
* Legend,' a word of such honourable import at the be-
ginning, meaning, as it does, that worthy to be read, but
which has ended in designating ' a heap of frivolous and
scandalous vanities ' (Hooker), has had much the same
history as /xy^op; very similar influences having been at
work to degrade the one and the other. J. H. H. Schmidt
(Synonymik, vol. i. p. loo) traces the history of p.v6os
briefly and well : Mv0os ist zu der Bedeutung einer er-
dichteten Erzahlung gekommen, weil man den naiven
Glauben an die alten Ueberlieferungen, die ihren herge-
brachten Namen behielten, a.llmalig verloren hatte. So
wird denn fivdos wie \6yos der Wirklichkeit entgegen-
1
340 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcr.
gesetzt, jedoch so dass man zugleich auf die Albernheit
und Unwahrscheinlichkeit der Erdichtung hindeuiet.'
It will thus be seen that \6yos and /j,vdos, which begin
their journey together, or at all events separated bj very
slight spaces, gradually part company, the antagonism
between them becoming ever stronger, till in the end they
stand in open opposition to one another, as words no less
than men must do, when they come to belong, one to the
kingdom of light and of truth, the other to that of darkness
and of lies.
xci.
THESE words have this in common, that they are all used
to characterize the supernatural works wrought by Christ
in the days of his flesh ; thus a-r^stov, John ii. 1 1 ; Acts ii.
19; rspas, Acts ii. 22; John iv. 48; ^vva^iis, Mark vi. 2 ;
Acts ii. 22 ; fj,syd\,eiov, Luke i. 49 ; svSogov, Luke xiii. 17 ;
Trapdo%ov, Luke v. 26; 6avp,d<riov,~M.&tt. xxi. 15 ; while the
first three and the most usual are in like manner employed
of the same supernatural works wrought in the power of
Christ by his Apostles (2 Cor. xii. 12) ; and of the lying
miracles of Antichrist no less (2 Thess. ii. 9). They will
be found, on closer examination, not so much to represent
different kinds of miracles, as miracles contemplated under
different aspects and from different points of view.
Tepas and crypsiov are often linked together in the N. T.
(John iv. 48; Acts ii. 22; iv. 30; 2 Cor. xii. 12); and
times out of number in the Septuagint (Exod. vii. 3,9;
Deut. iv. 34; Neh. ix. 10; Dan. vi. 27) ; the first = nnin,
and the second = H'lN ; often also in profane Greek, in
Josephus (Antt. xx. 8. 6 ; Bell. Jud. Proem. 1 1 ) ; in Plutarch
(Sept. Sap. Conv. 3) ; in Polybius (iii. 1 12. 8) ; in Philo (De
Vit. Mos. i. 1 6) ; and in others. The ancients were fond
of drawing a distinction between them, which however
xci. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 341
will not bear a moment's serious examination. It is suf-
ficiently expressed in these words of Ammonius : rfyas 0-77-
fjislov 8ia(pspsi- TO pevyap Tspas-jrapa (frvaiv jiveTai, TO&S
crrjfj,stov Trap a <rvv ijOsiav ; and again by Theophylact (in
Rom, XV. 19) : Bia(f>pi os arj/^slov Kal Tspas T&> TO JJLSV crrj/jLStov
sv Tols Kara VGIV \s r ysa'dai, tcaivoTrpeTrws [ASVTOI ywofASVOts,
olov STTC TOV TTJV TrsvBspav Ylerpov TrvpsTTOvcrav svdsws
ladrjvai [Matt. viii. 15]? T O &e rspas ev rois fj,rj Kara (pvcriv,
olov TO TOV etc ysvSTrjs TV$\OV laQr\vai [John ix. 7] ; compai e
Suicer, Thes. s. v. a-^fislov. But in truth this distinction
breaks down so entirely the instant it is examined, as
Fritzsche, in a good note on Rom. xv. 19, has super-
abundantly shown, that it is difficult to understand how
so many, by repeating, have given allowance to it. An
earthquake, however rare, cannot be esteemed Trapa <$VCTLV.
cannot therefore, according to the distinction traced
above, be called a Tspas, while yet Herodotus (vi. 98) gives
this name to the single earthquake which in his experience
had visited Delos. As little can a serpent snatched up in
an eagle's talons and dropped in the midst of the Trojan
army be called beyond and beside nature, which yet
Homer (II. xii. 209) calls Aios Tspas alyioxoio. I notice
here that the Homeric idea of the ripas is carefully dis-
cussed by Nagelsbach, Homeriscke Theologie, p. 168 sqq.
On the other hand, beyond and beside nature are the
healing with a word of a man lame from his mother's
womb, the satisfying of many thousand men with a few
loaves, the raising of a man four days dead from the
grave, which all in Scripture go by the name of o-rjfjieia
(Acts iv. 1 6 ; John vi. 14 ; xi. 47) ; compare Plutarch, Sept.
Sap. Conv. 3, where a monstrous birth is styled both a Tepas
and a ar]p,slov.
It is plain then that the distinction must be sought
elsewhere. Origen has not seized it, who finds a prophetic
element in the crrjfiscov, which is wanting in the T^pas (in
Eom. xv. 19): ' Signa [o-^sla] appellantur in quibus cum sit
342 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xci.
aliquid mirabile, indicatur qaoque aliquid futurum. Pro-
digia \rspara] vero in quibus tantummodo aliquid mira-
bile ostenditur.' Bather the same miracle is upon one
side a rspas, on another a a-ijiJ.siov, and the words most
often refer, not to different classes of miracles, but to
different qualities in the same miracles ; in the words
of Lampe (Comm. in Joh. vol. i. p. 513): 'Eadem enim
miracula dici possunt signet, quatenus aliquid seu occultum
seu futurum decent ; ekprodigia, quatenus aliquid extraor-
dinarium, quod stuporem excitat, sistunt. Hinc sequitur
signorutn notionem latius patere, quam prodigiorum.
Omnia prodigia sunt siyna, quia in ilium usum a Deo
dispensata, ut arcanum indicent. Sed omnia signa non
sunt prodigia, quia ad signaiidum res cselestes aliquaiido
etiam res communes adhibentur.'
Tispas, certainly not derived from rpsco, the terrifying,
but now put generally in connexion with rrjpsa), as being
that which for its extraordinary character is wont to be
observed and kept in the memory, is always rendered
'wonder' in our Version. It is the miracle regarded as
a startling, imposing, amazement-wakening portent or
prodigy; being elsewhere frequently used for strange
appearances in the heavens, and more frequently still for
monstrous births on the earth (Herodotus, vii. 57 ; Plato,
Crat. 393 fe). It is thus used very much with the same
meaning as the Latin ' inonstrum '^monestrum (Virgil,
JEn. ii. 1 7 1 : Nee dubiis ea signa dedit Tritonia monstris ') ,
or the Homeric a-i]p.a (II. ii. 308 : svQ" 1 tydvr) /j,sya a-rj/^a,
SpaKtov). Origen (in Joh. torn. xiii. 60 ; in Rom. lib. x.
12) long ago called attention to the fact that the name
rspara is never in the N. T. applied to these words of
wonder, except in associationwith some other name. They
1 On the similar group of synonymous words in the Latin, Augustine
writes (De Civ. Dei, xxi. 8) : ' Monstra sane dicta perhibent a mon-
etrando, quod aliquid significando demonstrant, et ostenta ab ostendendo,
et portenta a portendendo, id est, praostendendo, et prc-diyia quod porro
dicant, id est, futura predicant.' Compare Cicero, Divin. i. 42.
xci. SYNON7MS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 343
are often called a-rj/xtia, often Swapsis, often repara Kala-rj-
JJ.EIO,, more than once Tspara^ o^/zeta, KO,\ Svvdpsis, but never
rspara alone. The observation was well worth the making ;
for the fact which we are thus bidden to note is indeed
eminently characteristic of the miracles of the N. T. ;
namely, that a title, by which more than any other these
might seem to hold on to the prodigies and portents of
the heathen world, and to have something akin to them,
should thus never be permitted to appear, except in the
company of some other necessarily suggesting higher
thoughts about them.
But the miracles are also cnjpsla. The a-^p-slov Basil
the Great (in Esai. vii. 198) defines well: sari (nj^eloi'
7rpdy/j.a (fiavspov, KSK^V^HISVOV rivos KOI dtpavovs sv savru>
T7)v &i]\u)cnv s^ov : and presently after, ?} /ieWoi Tpa(j)rj ra
TrapdSo^a, ical TrapacrrariKa TWOS fj-vcrriKov \6yov Gr^sia
tcaXsl. Among all the names which the miracles bear,
their ethical end and purpose comes out in arj/j,slov with
the most distinctness, as in rspas with the least. It is
involved and declared in the very word that the prime
object and end of the miracle is to lead us to something
out of and beyond itself; that, so to speak, it is a kind
of finger-post of God (Sioa-rjjjLEta, a sign from Zeus, is no
unfrequent word in later Greek), pointing for us to this
(Isai. vii. 1 1 ; xxxviii. 7) ; valuable, not so much for what
it is, as for what it indicates of the grace and power of
the doer, or of his immediate connexion with a higher
spiritual world (Mark xvi. 20 ; Acts xiv. 3 ; Heb. ii. 4 ;
Exod. vii. 9, 10; I Kin. xiii. 3). Lampe has put this
well : ' Designat sane a-rj/j-siov naturd su rein non tantum
extraordinariam, sensusque percellentem, sed etiam talem,
quse in rei alterius, absentis licet et futurse, signijicatio-
nem atque adumbrationtm adhibetur, unde et prognostica
(Matt. xvi. 3) et typi (Matt. xii. 39 ; Luc. xi. 29) nee non
sacramenta, quale est illud circumcisionis (Rom. iv. ii),
eodem nomine in N. T. exprimi solent. Aptissime ergo
344 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xci
hcec vox de miraculis usurpatur, ut indicet, quod non
tantum admirabili modo fuerint perpetrata, sed etiam
sapientissimo consilio Dei ita directa atque ordinata, ut
fuerint simul characteres Messise, ex quibus cognoscendus
erat, sigilla doctrinse quam proferebat, et beneficiorutn
gratiae per Messiaui jam prsestandse, nee non typi viarum
Dei, earumque circumstantiarum per quas talia beneficia
erant applicanda.' It is to be regretted that cr^^clov is
not always rendered ' sign ' in our Version ; that in the
Gospel of St. John, where it is of very frequent recurrence,
* sign ' too often gives place to the vaguer ' miracle ' ;
and sometimes not without serious loss : thus see iii. 2 ;
vii. 31 ; x. 41 ; and above all, vi. 26.
But the miracles are also * powers ' (Bvvd^,stf= l virtutes ') ,
outcomings of that mighty power of God, which was in-
herent in Christ, Himself that "great Power of God" which
Simon blasphemously allowed himself to be named (Acts
viii. 10) ; these powers being by Him lent to such as
were his witnesses and ambassadors. One must regret
that in our Version Bvvdfisis is translated now "wonderful
works " (Matt. vii. 22) ; now " mighty works " (Matt. xi.
20: Luke x. 13); and still more frequently 'miracles'
(Acts ii. 22; I Cor. xii. 10; Gal. iii. 5) ; in this last case
giving such tautologies as " miracles and wonders " (Acts
ii. 22 ; Heb. ii. 4) ; and always .causing something to be
lost of the true intention of the word pointing as it does
to new and higher forces (evspysiai^vspyrjfAara, I Cor. xii. 6,
10), ' powers of the world to come ' (Heb. vi. 5 ), which have
entered and are working in this lower world of ours.
Delitzsch : ' Jedes Wunder ist eine Machtausserung der in
die Welt der Schopfung, welche dem Tode verfallen ist,
eintretenden Welt der Erlosung.' With this is closely
connected the term ftsyaXsia, only occurring at Luke i. 49
( = * magnalia ') and at Acts ii. II, in which, as in Swd^sis,
the miracles are contemplated as outcomings of the great,
ness of God's power and glory.
xcn. SYXOXTMS OF THE NEW TESTAMEXT.
345
They are further styled Ij/Sofo. (Luke xiii. 17), as being
works in which the Soga or glory of God and of the Son of
God shone manifestly forth (John ii. 1 1 ; xi. 40 ; Luke v.
25; Acts iii. 13). They are Trapd&oj-a (Luke v. 26), as
being " new things " (Num. xvi. 30), not hitherto seen
(Mark ii. 12), and thus beside and beyond all opinion and
expectation of men. The word, though finding place only
this once in the N. T., is of very frequent occurrence in
ecclesiastical Greek. They are Oavpda-ta (Matt. xxi. 15),
as provoking admiration and astonishment (viii. 27 ; ix.
8, 33; xv. 31 ; Mark v. 20; Acts iii. ii). &av/j.ara they
are never called in the N. T., though often in the writings
of the Greek Fathers. A word which conjurers, magi-
cians, and impostors of various kinds had so long made their
own could only after a while be put to nobler uses again.
XCil. KOGfJLlOS, CTSfJLVOS, ISpOTTpeTTl'lS.
Koa-fjiios and a-s/j,v6$ are both epithets applied occasionally
to things, but more frequently to persons. They are so
nearly allied in meaning as to be often found together ;
but at the same time are very clearly distinguishable the
one from the other.
Kocr/xtos, related to KOV/JLOS in its earlier sense as ' orna-
ment,' while Koa-fjLifcos (Tit. ii. 12 ; Heb. ix. i) is related to
it in its secondary sense as * world,' occurs twice in the
N. T., being rendered in our Version on one occasion
* modest' (i Tim. ii. 9), on the other, ' of good behaviour '
(i Tim. iii. 2: marg. modest); and corresponds very
nearly to the * compositus ' of Seneca (Ep. 114), to the
* compositus et ordinatus ' (De Vit. Beat. 8), of the same.
The ' ornatus,' by which it is both times rendered in the
Vulgate, is strangely at fault, though it is easy enough to
see how the fault arose. It is a very favourite word with
Plato, and is by him and others constantly applied to the
citizen who is quiet in the land, who duly fulfils in his
346 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. sen.
place and order the duties which are incumbent on him
as such; and is in nothing UTCIKTOS (i Thess. v. 14; cf.
2 Thess. iii. 6, 7, 11) ; but Tsraypsvos rather. It is asso-
ciated by him, as by St. Paul, with a-co^pcov (Legg. vii.
802 e) this indeed is everywhere its most constant com-
panion (thus see Lysias, Orat. xxi. 163 ; Plutarch, Quom.
Adul. ab Am. 36, and often) ; with rj/j.spos (Plato, Rep.
iii. 410 e) ; with vcfj.i/j.09 (Gorg. 504 d) ; with
(Phcedr. 256 6) ; with svcrTaX-^s (Meno, 90 a) ;
(Phcedo, 108 a) ; with 0-rda-ifj.os (Rep. vii. 539 cZ) ; with
evKo\os (Ib. i. 329 d) ; with dvSpsios (Ib. iii. 399 e} ; with
tca\6s (Ib. iii. 403 a); with SVTO.KTOS by Aristotle; with
ai&)']fj.wv by Epictetus (Enchir. 40) ; and by Plutarch
(De Garrul. 4); with ysvvaios (Ib.} ; with svdjMjos (Phil,
cum Princ. 2) ; opposed by Plato to aKo^aaros (Gorg.
494 a). Keeping company as KOO-[J.IQS does with epithets
such as these, it must be admitted that an explanation of
it like the following, 'of well ordered demeanour, de-
corous, courteous ' (Webster), dwells too much on the
outside of things ; the same with still greater truth may
be affirmed of Tyndale's rendering, 'honestly apparelled '
(i Tim. iii. 2). No doubt the KO<T/J,IOS is all this;
but he is much more than this. The well ordering is
not of dress and demeanour only, but of the inner life ;
uttering indeed and expressing itself in the oxitward con-
versation. Even Bengel has taken a too superficial view of
the word, when at I Tim. iii. 2 he says, ' Quod o-o'xfrpwv
est intus, id Ko<rp.Los est extra ; ' though I cannot refuse
the pleasure of quoting what he says in one of his most
characteristic notes, unfolding more fully his idea of what
in these two epithets is implied : ' Homo novus festum
quiddam est, et abhorret ab omni eo quod pollutum, con-
i'usum, inconditum, immoderatum, vehemens, dissolutum,
affectatum, tetricum, perperum, lacerum, sordidum est:
ipsi necessitate nature materia?que, quse ingerendo, dige-
rendo, egerendo agitatur, parce et dissimulanter paret,
xcn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 347
corporis que corruptibilis tecta habet vestigia.' This, it
must be confessed, goes a good deal deeper than does Phile-
mon, the comic poet, in four lines preserved by Stobseus
(Meineke, Fragm. Com. Gr. p. 822), describing who is
Koa/niosf, and who is not. I hardly know whether they are
worth quoting, but they follow here :
OVK (iv \a\fj Tit [tiKpov, e'ort Koarmos
ov8' (iv iropfVTjrai ns dsTrjv yfjv /3A/7ro>i>*
6 8' T)\IKOV [lev fj <f)v(Tis (fre'pd \a\wv,
[ir)Sev nouav 8' acrxr
But whatever may be implied in Koap-Los, and there is
much, something more is involved in CTS/AVOS. If the
/eooyuos orders himself well in that earthly iro\nsia, of
which he is a support and an ornament, the <re/j,v6s has a
grace and dignity not lent him from earth ; but which he
owes to that higher citizenship which is also his; being
one who inspires not respect oi.ly, but reverence and
worship. In profane Greek crspvos is a constant epithet of
the gods of the Eumenides, the as^val deal, above all.
It is used also constantly to qualify such things as pertain
to, or otherwise stand in any very near relation with, the
heavenly world. All this will appear the more clearly,
when we enumerate some of the epithets wherewith it
habitually is linked ; which are these : ayios (Plato, Sophist.
249 a; cf. Clement of Rome, Cor. I, where it is joined
to ayvos and ap,wp.os} ; opOos (Defin. 41 2 e) ; /j,syas ( Thccetet.
203 e) ; ri/jiios (Crito, 5 1 a) ; [isrpios (Clement of Borne,
Cor. l); ftaaCXiKos (Plutarch, Quom. A \'d. Poet. 8); evripos
(Proec. Ger. Eeip. 31) ; ^ja\o7rp7njf (De Def. Orac. 30) ;
Qetos and foftspos. From all this it is plain that there
lies something of majestic and awe-inspiring in crs/j-vos,
which does not at all lie in Koa-pios, although this has
nothing about it to ropel, but all rather to invite and to
attract, p.a\aKrj Kttl eva-^rj^wv (3apvTr)s being Aristotle's
happy definition of O-S^VOTTJS (Rhet. ii. 17), making it as
he does the golden mean between dpecrfceia, or unmanly
348 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcn.
assentation, at one extreme, and avdaSsia, or churlish bear-
ishness, pleasing itself, and careless how much it displeases
others, at the other; even as in Plutarch a-spvos is asso-
ciated with $>L\IKOS (Quom. Am. ab Adul. 26) ; with r)$vs
(Conviv. 4, Proem.} ; with fyCK.dvOpwjros, with STTISIKTJS, and
other like words ; so too with Trpoa-rjvrjs in Josephus (Antt.
xi. 6. 9). But all this does not exclude the fact that the
O-S/JLVOS is one who, without in as many words demanding,
does yet challenge and inspire reverence and, in our earlier
use of the word, worship, the word remaining true to the
o-e/3<u with which it is related. How to render it in
English is not very easy to determine. On the one occa-
sion that it qualifies things rather than persons (Phil. iv.
8), we have translated it by 'honest,' an unsatisfactory
rendering (marg. venerable) ; and this, even though we in-
clude in ' honest ' all which was included in it at the time
when our Translation was made. Alford has here changed
' honest ' into ' seemly ' ; if changed at all, I should prefer
' honorable.' On the other three occasions it is rendered
* grave ' (i Tim. iii. 8, 1 1 ; Tit. ii. 2) ; while crs/JLvoTijs is once
'honesty ' (i Tim. ii. 2), and twice ' gravity' (i Tim. iii. 4;
Tit. ii. 7). Here too it must be owned that ' grave ' and
' gravity ' are renderings which fail to cover the full mean-
ing of their original. Malvolio in Twelfth Night is ' grave,'
but his very gravity is itself ridiculous ; and the word
we want is one in which the sense of gravity and dignity,
and of these as inviting reverence, is combined ; a word
which I fear we may look for long without finding.
'IspoTrpsTnjs belongs to the best age of the Greek lan-
guage, being used by Plato (Theag. 122 c?) and by Xenophon
(Conv. viii. 40), in this unlike oa-ioTrpzTrrjs and
which are of later ecclesiastical formation. Like
it belongs to that large group of noticeable words, which,
being found nowhere else in St. Paul's Epistles, and indeed
nowhere else in the N. T., are yet found in the Pastoral
Epistles, some of them occurring several times over in
xcm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 349
these. The number and character of these words, the new
vein of Greek which St. Paul in these later Epistles
opens, 1 constitute a very remarkable phenomenon, one for
which no perfectly satisfactory explanation has hitherto
been offered. Alford indeed in his Prolegomena to these
Epistles has made a valuable contribution to such an
explanation ; but after all has been said, it remains per-
plexing still.
It will follow from what has been already claimed fur
(rsfivos that lepoirpsTT^s is more nearly allied in meaning to
it than to /eooyuos. It expresses that which beseems a
sacred person, thing, or act. On the one occasion of its
use in the N. T. (Tit. ii. 3-5 ), it is joined with a-ca^pcov,
being an epithet applied to women professing godliness,
who shall be in their bearing or behaviour cspoTrpSTrsts, or
"as becometh holiness" (cf. I Tim. ii. 10), or 'reverent in
demeanour' as it is rendered in our Revised Version.
That such behaviour will breed reverence and awe, we may
reasonably expect, but this is not implied in ispoTrpsTrtjs
as it is in O-Z/JLVOS, and here we must find the distinction
between them.
THE etymology of these words holds out, perhaps, the ex-
pectation of a greater nearness of meaning than in actual
use is the case. Yet they sometimes occur together, as in
Plutarch (De Rect. Rat. And. 6), nor can it be denied that
'the pleaser of himself and { the lover of himself stand
in sufficient moral proximity, and are sufficiently liable to
1 For instance, take the adjectives alone which are an addition to, or
a variation from, his ethical terminology in all his other Epistles ; occur-
ring as they do nowhere else but in these Epistles : aiperiKos, aKparfjs,
a/iia^oy, ai>fixaKns, dvfTrai&xvtvos, dvfnl\T)TTTos, dvf)p.epos, dvoa-nts, dirai-
SevTos, dprios, d(pi\dya6os, ctyfvSij?, 8i/3oXoy, SiSa/crt/co?, SiXoyos , e'yicpanyr,
firiopnos, ev/xerufiorov 1 , rfpffios, KaAoSiSaoxuAoy, KOIVUVIKOS, paTaioXoyos,
vr)(pd\ios, oiKovpos, opyt\os, irdpoivos, traxppwv, (piXdyados, (pi\av8pos,
os, (pXvapot,
350 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcm.
be confounded, to justify an attempt to distinguish them
one from the other.
Avdd&rjs ( = auTodSris, or avrw a&wv, as Aristotle informs
us, Ethic. M. i. 28), ' sibi placens,' occurs twice in the N. T.
(Tit. i. 7 ; 2 Pet. ii. 10), and three times in the Old
(Gen. xlix. 3, 7 ; Prov. xxi. 24) ; avOdSeia never in the
New, but once in the Old (Isai. xxiv. 8, Alex.)
The avddSrjs, who etymologically is hardly distinguish-
able from the avrdpsa-rcos, but the word is of earlier and
more classical use, is properly one who pleases himself,
who is so pleased with his own that nothing pleases him
besides : * qui nisi quod ipse facit nihil rectum putat
(Terence, Adelph. iv. 2. 18). He is one so far overvaluing
any determination at which he has himself once arrived
that he will not be removed from it; for this element of
stubbornness or obstinacy which so often lies in avddBsia
see the Prometheus Vinctus of JEschylus, 1037: while
Cicero translates it ' pervicacia.' The man thus obsti-
nately maintaining his own opinion, or asserting his own
rights ia"xvpo<yv(t)fji(i)v Aristotle (Eth. Nic. vii. 9. 2) would
call him is reckless of the rights, feelings, and interests of
others ; one indeed who with no motive at all is prompt
rather to run counter to these, than to fall in with them :
* selbstgefallig, selbstsiichtig, anmassend, frech, sich um
keinen andern kiimmernd, riicksichtlos, grausam ' (Pott,
Etym. Forsch. vol. iv. p. 315). Thus we find avOdfys
associated with l^Lo^vwfjiwv (Hippocrates, p. 295, 12. 29) ;
with aypios (Euripides, Mecl. 102) ; with Triicpos (Ib. 223);
with dfjiadrfs (Plato) ; with ^a\7ros (Id. Leyg. xii. 950 b) ;
with d/jLi\iKTos (Philo, Leg. ad Cai. 38) ; with (TK\r)p6s
(Polybius, iv. 21 ; Plutarch, Symp. vii. 2. i) ; with eira-^d^s
and avdsKaa-ros (Id. Prcec. Ger. Reip. 31); which lasfc
word does not necessarily bear an unfavourable meaning;
thus see Ai-istotle, Ethic. Nic. iv. 7. 4 ; and lines ascribed
to the Stoic Cleanthes, to be found in Eusebius, Prwp.
Evang. xiii. 3 ; with 0pd<rvs (Plutarch, Marius, 40. 8 ;
xcin. SYNOXYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 351
Prov. xxi. 24); with d/coXacrTos (J)e Gen. Socr. 9); with
lrap,6s (De Laud. Scip. 16); with <pi\6vsiKos (Qnom. Am.
ab Adul. 32); with <TKvdpwTr6s (Isocrates, see Eost and
Palm); with aka^oov (Prov. xxi. 24); with irpoTrsrrjs
(Clement of Rome, Cor. i) ; with ToX/^rqy (2 Pet. ii. 10) :
avddSsta with Opdvos and roX/wi (Clement of Rome, Cor.
30) ; while the Greek grammarians give such words as
vTTsprjfiavos, 6u/j,(i)$ijs, vTrspoTTTtjs as its nearest equivalents.
Eudemus identifies him with the 8uo-Ko\o$, and describes
him as regulating his life with no respect to others (p.i)$ev
Trpbs sTepov a)v, Ethic. Eudem. iii. 7. 4 ; cf. Ethic. Nic. iv.
6.9). He is the ' prsefractus,' ' pertinax,' 'morosus' of
the Latins, or, going nearer to the etymological heart of
the word, the German ' eigensinnig ' ; auddSr)? is by
Luther so translated ; while our own ' peevish * and
* humorous ' in their earlier uses both represent some
traits and aspects of his character. He is opposed to the
evTTpoa-faopos, the easy of access or affable (Plutarch,
PTCBC. Reip. Ger. 31). In the unlovely gallery of portraits
which Theophrastus has sketched for us, the avdd&rjs finds
his place (C/tar. 3) ; but this his rudeness of speech, his
surliness, his bearishness as we should now say, is brought
too exclusively out, as is evident from the very superficial
and inadequate definition of avddSsta by Theophrastus
given, as being dir^vsia 6/j,t\ia$ sv Xo'yots.
AvddSeia, which thus cares to please nobody, is by
Aristotle (Ethic. Magn. i. 29; Eth. Eudem. ii. 3. 7) set over
against dpsa-Ksia, which is the ignoble seeking to please
everybody, the endeavouring at all costs of dignity and
truth to stand well with all the world ; these two being in
his ethical system the opposite extremes, between which
a-fjLv6rr}s constitutes the mean (see p. 347). There is
always something to be learned from the hypocoristic
phrases with which it is sought to give a fair show to an
ugly thing; and it is worth therefore noticing that the
avddSrjs is called by his flatterers asp,vos and fjLs^a\oTrpsTrr)y
352 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcm.
(Aristotle, liliet. i. 9. 3), while on the other hand- a worthy
1'reedom of speech (irapprfaLa) may be misnamed avOdSsia
by those who resent, or would fain induce others to resent
it. It was this hateful name which the sycophants of the
younger Dionysius gave to the manly boldness of speech
which Dion used, when they desired to work his ruin with
the tyrant (Plutarch, Dion, 8).
Bengel profoundly remarks, and all experience bea.rs
out the truth of his remark, that there are men who are
' simul et molles et duri ' ; at once soft and hard, soft to
themselves, and hard to all the world besides ; these two
dispositions being in fact only two aspects andoutcomings
of the same sin, namely the wrong love of self. But if
aiiddBrjs expresses this sin on one side, (frlXavros expresses
it on the other. Having dealt with that, we may now
proceed to treat a little of this. It need hardly be ob-
served that when bad men are called (frlXavroL, or ' lovers
of themselves,' as by St. Paul they are on the one occasion
when the word is employed in the N. T. (2 Tim. iii. 2), the
word can be only abusively applied ; for, indeed, he is no
true 'lover of himself who loves himself overmuch, more
than God's law allows, or loves that in himself which he
ought not to love but to hate, that which constitutes his
sickness and may in the end be his death, and not his
health. All this, when treating of this word, Aristotle
brings out with admirable clearness and distinctness, and
with an ethical feeling after, and in part at least anticipa-
tion of, that great word of Christ, " He that loveth his life
shall lose it," which is profoundly interesting to note
(Ethic. Nic. ix. 8).
The <f)i\avTos is exactly our * selfish ' (Plutarch, Cons,
ad ApolL 19; Quom. Am. ab Adul. 26), and fyikavrla
' selfishness ' ; but this contemplated rather as an undue
sparing of self and providing things easy and pleasant for
self, than as harshness and rigour toward others. Thus
(f>i\avros is joined with (jiiXo-^rv^os by Plutarch (Dion, 46),
xciv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 353
this last epithet indicating one loving his life overmuch.
Before the English language had generated the word
' selfishness,' which it did not until the middle of the
seventeenth century, there was an attempt made to supply
an evident want in our ethical terminology by aid of
* philauty * ; thus see Beaumont's Psyche, passim, and
other similar poems. ' Philauty,' however, never succeeded
in obtaining any firm footing among us, and 'suicism,'
which was a second attempt, as little ; an appeal to the
Latin proving as unsuccessful as that to the Greek. Nor
was the deficiency effectually supplied till the Puritan di-
vines, drawing upon our native stock of words, brought in
^selfish' and ' selfishness ' (see my English Past and Present,
loth ed. p. 171). One of these same divines helps me to
a comparison, by aid of which the matter of the likeness
and difference between avddBrjs and ^IXavros may be
brought not inaptly to a point. He likens the selfish man
to the hedgehog, which, rolling itself up in a ball, presents
only sharp spines to those without, keeping at the same
time all the soft and warm wool for itself within. In some
sinful men their avddbsia, the ungracious bearing towards
others, the self-pleasing which is best pleased when it dis-
pleases others, is the leading feature of their character ;
in others the <^i\.avri'a, the undue providing of all which
shall minister to their own ease, and keep hardness aloof
from them. In each of these there is potentially wrapped
up the other ; but as the one sinful tendency predominates
or the other, the man will merit the epithet of avOdSys or
xciv.
is is only once found in the books of the 0. T.
canon, namely at I Sam. xx. 30 ; and there in altogether
a subordinate sense, as = ' denudatio ' ; three times in the
Apocrypha (Ecclus. xi. 27 ; xxii. 22 ; xli. 23) ; but as little
A A
354 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xciv.
in this as in the other does it obtain that grander mean-
ing which it has acquired in the N. T. In this last it is
predominantly, though not exclusively, a Pauline word ;
and, occurring altogether some nineteen times, being
rendered once 'coming' (i Cor. i. 7), once 'mani-
festation' (Eom. viii. 19), once 'appearing' (i Pet. i.
7), and once 'to lighten' (els aTrotfaXv^nv, Luke ii. 32),
has always that auguster sense of an unveiling by God of
Himself to his creatures, to which we have given the more
Latin term, revelation. The same auguster sense the verb
a7roKd\v7TTiv in the N. T. commonly possesses ; but not
there for the first time, this sense having been anticipated
in the great apocalyptic book of the Old Covenant (see
Dan. ii. 19,22,28). Nor does it always possess this, some-
times simply meaning ' to uncover ' or ' to lay bare ' (Luke
xii. 2; Prov. xx. 19).
'ATro/caXinJrty, as St. Jerome would fain persuade us, is
nowhere to be found outside of sacred Greek (Comm. in
Gal. i. 12) : ' Verbum aTroKakv-^sws proprie Scripturarum
est; a nullo sapientum seculi apud Grsecos usurpatum.
Unde mihi videntur quemadmodum in aliis verbis, quse de
Hebrseo in Grseeum LXX Interpretes transtulerunt, ita et
in hoc magnopere esse conati ut proprietatem peregriui
sermonis exprimerent, novanovis rebus verba fingentes, et
sonare, quum quid tectum et velatum ablato desuper operi-
mento ostenditur et profertur in lucem.' In thus claiming
the word as proper and peculiar to the Scriptures, and not
found in any writings of the wise of this world, St.
Jerome is in error; although the total absence in his
time of exhaustive Lexicons or Concordances of the great
writers of antiquity might well excuse his mistake. Not to
speak of airoKa\vTrriv^ which is used several times by
Plato (Protag. 352 d; Gorg. 460 a), a7roKa\,v^is itself
is far from unfrequent in the later Greek of Plutarch (see
Paul. JEyriil. 14; Cato Maj. 20, where it is = jv^vtoais ;
Quom. Am. ab Adul. 32 ; and elsewhere.) Thus far indeed
xciv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 355
Jerome has right, namely, that the religious use of the
word was altogether strange to the heathen world, while
the corresponding ' revelatio ' was absolutely unknown to
classical Latin, having first come to the birth in the Latin
of the Church. Elsewhere (Ep. cxxi. ad Algas.) he makes
a somewhat similar mistake in respect of the verb Kara-
fipaftsvsiv (Col. ii. 1 8), which he claims as a Cilicism of
St. Paul's. It occurs in a document cited by Demosthenes,
Mid. p. 544.
The word in its highest Christian sense has been ex-
plained by Arethas as r/ TWV KpvTrrwv p,vaTr)piu>v SrjXwa-i?,
fcaravya^opsvov rov rjysfAoviKov Trjs ^v^rjs, sirs Sta Oslwv
ovsipctTcov, sirs Kaff vTrap, SK dsias \\d[j,tye(t)S. Joined
with cnrraa-ia (2 Cor. xii. l), it is by Theophylact (see
Suicer, s. v.) distinguished from it in this, that the oirraa-La
is no more than the thing shown or seen, the sight or
vision, which might quite possibly be seen without being
understood ; while the airoKaXv^is includes not merely
the thing shown and seen, but the interpretation or
unveiling of the same. His words are as follows : 17
cnroKa\v^ns ir\sov ri %i rrjs OTTTacrias' f) fisv jap povov
fi\TTl,V SlSciHTlV ' aVTT) Ss Kttl Tl ftaQvTSpOV TOU OpU)flVOV
aTToyv/jLvol. Thus Daniel's vision of the four beasts was
seen but not understood, until one that stood by made
him know the interpretation of the things (Dan. vii. 15,
16, 19, 23: cf. viii. 15, 19; Zech. i. 18-21). On this
distinction see more in Liicke's Einleitung in die 0/en-
barung des Johannes, 2nd ed. p. 26. What holds good of
the oTTTacria will of course hold good of the opafia (Matt.
xvii. 9 ; Acts vii. 31 ; x. 19), and of the opavis (Acts. ii. 17)
as well ; between which and the birracria it would scarcely
be possible to draw any distinction that would stand.
'E7ri(j)dvia, which Tertullian renders 'apparentia' (Adv.
Marc. i. 19), occurs only twice in the Septuagint (2 Sam.
vii. 23, fi^dX-wavvr] KOI 7ri<j)dvia [ct. Soga KOL sinfyavzia,
Plutarch, De Tranq. Anim. n]; Amos v. 22): but often
AA2
356 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xciv.
in the Second Maccabees ; being always there used of
God's supernatural apparitions in aid of his people ; thus
ii. 21 (J ovpavov sTri^avsiat) : iii. 24; v. 4; xii. 22 ; xv. 27.
Already in heathen use this grand word was constantly
employed to set forth these gracious appearances of the
higher powers in aid of men ; so Diony sius Hal. (ii. 68) .
The word is found only six times in the N. T., always in
the writings of St. Paul. On five occasions our Trans-
lators have rendered it ' appearing ' ; on the sixth, how-
ever (2 Thess. ii. 8), they seem to have shrunk from what
looked to them as a tautology, ( appearance of his coming/
as in the earlier Protestant Versions it stood ; and have
rendered sTri^avsia T?)S irapovviasS brightness of. his coming,*
giving to the word a meaning not properly its own. It
expresses on one occasion (2 Tim. i. 10, and so sTnfyaivsiv,
Tit. ii. 1 1 ; iii. 4) our Lord's first Epiphany, his sis av6p(i>Trov$
svo-apKos S7ri<f)dvta : but on all the other his second ap-
pearing in glory, the sinfydveia rij? irapovcrias avrov (2
Thess. ii. 8), rrjs Sogrjs rov fisjd\.ov eoO (Tit. ii. 13 ; I Tim.
vi. 14; 2 Tim. iv. I, 8; cf. Acts ii. 20).
If we bring these two into comparison, airoKaXv^rLs
is the more comprehensive, and, grand as is the other, the
grander word. It sets forth nothing less than that pro-
gressive and immediate unveiling of Himself to his Church
on the part of the otherwise unknown and unknowable
God which has run through all ages ; the body to which
this revelation is vouchsafed being thereby designated or
indeed constituted as his Church, the object of his more
immediate care, and the ordained diffuser of this know-
ledge of Him to the rest of mankind. The world may
know something of Him, of his eternal power and Godhead,
from the things which are seen ; which things except for
the darkening of men's hearts through sin would have
told of Him much more clearly (Rom. i. 20) ; but there is
no aTTOKuXv-^TLs save to the Church. We may say of the
S7ri(f)dviat, that they are contained in the uiroKaXv^rif, being
xciv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 357
separate points or moments therein. If God is to be
immediately known to men, He must in some shape or
other appear to them, to those among them whom He has
chosen for this honour. Epiphanies must be Theophanies
as well ; and as such the Church has claimed not merely
such communications made to men as are recorded at Gen.
xviii. I ; xxviii. 13 ; but all in which the Angel of the Lord
or of the Covenant appears ; such as Gen. xvi. 7 ; Josh,
v. 13-15 ; Judg. ii. I ; vi. II ; xiii. 3. All these it has
regarded as preludings, on the part of the Son, of his
Incarnation ; itself the most glorious Epiphany that as yet
has been, even as his second coming is an Epiphany more
glorious still which is yet in the future.
3?avspwais is only twice used in the N. T. (i Cor. xii. 7;
2 Cor. iv. 2). Beaching far on both these occasions, it does
not reach to the very highest of all ; it does not set forth, as
do the words we have just been treating, either the first
or the second appearing of our Lord Jesus Christ ; although
that it could have borne even this burden is sufficiently
plain from the fact that the verb $avepova6at is continually
employed of both ; thus of the first coming at I Tim. iii.
165 Heb. ix. 26; I John i. 2; I Pet. i. 20; and of the
second at Col. iii. 4 ; I Pet. v. 4 ; I John iii. 2 ; and for
other august uses of it see John ii. 1 1 ; xxi. I ; and
(fravspwcris itself is not seldom so employed by the Fathers.
Thus Athanasius (quoted by Suicer, s. v.) calls the Incar-
nation r/ sv (Teaman (fravspcocrts TOU irarpiKOv Aojov. It is
hard to trace any reason why fyavepaxns should not have
been claimed to set forth the same glorious facts which
these other words, to which in meaning it is so nearly
allied, have done ; but whether by accident or of intention
this honour has not been vouchsafed. "EXsvais, a far
tamer word than any of the others here, is used once in
Acts (vii. 52) for the setting forth of the Lord's coming.
358 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcv.
xcv. aXXos, erspos.
"AXXoy, identical with the Latin ' alias,' is the numerically
distinct ; thus Christ spoke we are told * another ' parable,
and still ' another ,' but each succeeding one being of the
same character as those which He had spoken before
(Matt. xiii. 23, 24, 31, 33), a\\rjv therefore in every case.
But srepos, equivalent to the Latin * alter,' to the German
' ander ' (on which last word see an instructive a.rticle in
Grimm's Worterbuch), superadds the notion of qualitative
difference. One is ' divers,' the other is ' diverse.' There
are not a few passages in the N. T. whose right interpre-
tation, or at any rate their full understanding, will depend
on an accurate seizing of the distinction between these
words. Thus Christ promises to his disciples that He
will send, not srspov, but aXXoz/, IlapafcXijTov (John xiv.
16), 'another' Comforter therefore, similar to Himself.
The dogmatic force of this aXXos- has in controversy with
various sects of Trvsv^aro^d^oi been often urged before
now; thus by Petavius (De Trin. ii. 13. 5) : ' Eodem per-
tinet et Paracleti cognomen, maxime cum Christus alium
Paracletum, hocest, parem sibi, et sequalem eum nominat.
Quippe vox alius dignitate ac substantia prorsus eundem,
et sequalem fore demonstrat, ut Gregorius Nazianzenus et
Ambrosius admonent.'
But if in the a'XXos there is a negation of identity, there
is oftentimes much more in srspos, the negation namely,
up to a certain point, of resemblance; the assertion not
merely of distinctness but of difference. A few examples
will illustrate this. Thus St. Paul says, ' I see another law '
[srepov vdfAov~\ , a law quite different from the law of the
spirit of life, even a law of sin and death, ' working in my
members' (Rom. vii. 23). After Joseph's death 'another
king arose' in Egypt (/3a<ri\vs erspos, Acts vii. 18; cf.
Exod. i. 8), one, it is generally supposed, of quite another
xcv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 359
dynasty, at all events of quite another spirit, from his
who had invited the children of Israel into Egypt, and so
hospitably entertained them there. The 68os srspa and
icapSta srspa which God promises that He will give to his
people are a new way and a new heart (Jer. xxxix. 39 ; cf.
Deut. xxix. 22). It was not 'another spirit' only but a
different (srspov Trvsvfia} which was in Caleb, as distin-
guished from the other spies (Num. xiv. 24). In the
parable of the Pounds the slothful servant is srspos (Luke
xix. 20). When Iphigenia about to die exclaims, srspov,
srspov alwva Kal poipav olrcijo-o/jisv, a different life with
quite other surroundings is that to which she looks for-
ward (Euripides, Iphig. in Aul. 1516). The spirit that
has been wandering through dry places, seeking rest in
them in vain, takes * seven other spirits ' (srspa rrvsvpara],
worse than himself, of a deeper malignity, with whose
aid to repossess the house which he has quitted for a
while (Matt. xii. 45). Those who are crucified with the
Lord are srspoi Svo, /caicovpyoi, 'two other, malefactors,'
as it should be pointed (Luke xxiii. 32 ; cf. Bornemann,
Schol. in Luccim, p. 147 ; it would be inconceivable and
revolting so to confound Him and them as to speak
of them as a\\oi ovo. It is only too plain why St. Jude
should speak of srspa <rdpj; (ver. 7), as that which the
wicked whom he is denouncing followed after (Gen. xix.
5). Christ appears to his disciples sv srspa pop<f)fj (Mark
xvi. 12), the word indicating the mighty change which
had passed upon Him at his resurrection, as by anticipa-
tion at his Transfiguration, and there expressed in the
same way (Luke ix. 29). It is ^si\cnv erspots, with alto-
gether other and different lips, that God will speak to his
people in the New Covenant (i Cor. xiv. 21) ; even as the
tongues of Pentecost are srspat y\o!)cr<rai (Acts ii. 4),
being quite different in kind from any other speech of
men. It would be easy to multiply the passages where
srspos could. not be exchanged at all, or could only be
360 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcv.
exchanged at a loss, for a\\os, as Matt. xi. 3 ; i Cor. xv.
40 ; Gal. i. 6. Others too there are where at first sight
a'XXos seems quite as fit or a fitter word ; where yet srspos
retains its proper force. Thus at Luke xxii. 65 the srspa
TroXXa are ' multa diversi generis convicia,' blasphemous
speeches now of one kind, now of another ; the Roman
soldiers taunting the Lord now from their own point of
view, as a pretender to Caesar's thrcme ; and now from the
Jewish, as claiming to be Son of God. At the same time it
would be idle to look for qualitative difference as intended
in every case where erspos is used ; thus see Heb. xi. 36,
where it would be difficult to trace anything of the kind.
What holds good of erspos^ holds good also of the
compounds into which it enters, of which the N. T. con-
tains three; namely, ersporyXayao-os (i Cor. xiv. 21), by
which word the Apostle intends to bring out the non-
intelligibility of the tongues to many in the Church ;
it is true indeed that we have also a\\6<y\Q)a(ros (Ezek.
iii. 6) ; erEpoSiSao-Kohsiv ( I Tim. i. 3), to teach other things,
and things alien to the faith ; erspofrysiv (2 Cor. vi. 14),
to yoke with others, and those as little to be yoked with
as the ox with the ass (Deut. xxii. 10) ; cf. srspoK\ivijs
(Clement of Rome, Cor. n), swerving aside ; srspo^vca^wv
(ibid.}, an epithet applied to Lot's wife. So too we have
in ecclesiastical Greek erspoBo^a, which is not merely
another opinion, but one which, in so far as it is another,
is a worse, a departure from the faith. The same re-
appears in our own ' heterogeneous/ which is not merely
of another kind, but of another and a worse kind. For
this point also deserves attention, and is illustrated by
several of the examples already adduced; namely, that
srspos is very constantly, not this other and different, a\\o
Kal &id(j)opov, only, but such with the further subaudition,
that whatever difference there is, it is for the worse. Thus
Socrates is accused of introducing into Athens erspa icaiva
(Xenophon, Mem. i. I. i); Saip-wv srspos (Pindar,
xcv. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 361
Pyth. iii. 61) is an evil or hostile deity; erepai 6v<riat
(^Eschylus. Agamemnon, 151), ill-omened sacrifices, such
as bring back to their offerer not a blessing but a curse ;
fyfjuvyayrfol srspot (Plutarch, Pericles, 3), are popular leaders
not of a different only, but of a worse stamp and spirit
than was Pericles. So too in the Septuagint other gods
than the true are invariably srspoi 6soi (Deut. v. 7 ; Judg.
x. 13; Ezek. xlii. 14; and often) ; compare Aristophanes
(Ran. 889) ' srspoi yap slcrtv oicriv sv^o/^at 6 sots. A bar-
barous tongue is srspa >y\wo-(ra (Isai. xxviii. 1 1), the phrase
being linked with ^avXtoyios %j=A,eW.
We may bring this distinction practically to bear on
the interpretation of the N. T. There is only one way in
which the fine distinction between srspov and a\\o, and
the point which St. Paul makes as he sets the one over
against the other at Gal. i. 6, 7, can be reproduced for
the English reader. ' I marvel,' says the Apostle, ' that ye
are so soon removed from them that called you into the
grace of Christ unto another (srspov} Gospel, which is not
another' (aXXo). Dean Alford for the first 'other ' has sub-
stituted 'different' ; for indeed that is what St. Paul intends
to express, namely, his wonder that they should have so
soon accepted a Gospel different in character and kind
from that which they had already received, which there-
fore had no right to be called another Gospel, to assume
this name, being in fact no Gospel at all ; since there
could not be two Gospels, varying the one from the other.
Cocceius : ' Yos transferimini ad aliud Evangelium quod
aliud nee est, nee esse potest.'
There are other passages in the N. T. where the student
may profitably exercise himself with the enquiry why one
of these words is used in preference to the other, or rather
why both are used, the one alternating with, or giving
partial place to, the other. Such are I Cor. xii. 8-10; 2
Cor. xi. 4 ; Acts iv. 12. See also Plato's Politicus, 6 a, and
Stallbaum's .note thereupon.
362 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcvi.
xcvi. TTOISW,
THERE is a long discussion in Rost and Palm's Lexicon, s. v.
jrpdcra-Q), on the distinction between these words ; and the
references there given sufficiently attest that this distinc-
tion has long and often occupied the attention of scholars ;
this occupation indeed dating as far back as Prodicus (see
Plato, Charmides, 162 cT). It is there rightly observed
that TTOISIV brings out more the object and end of an act,
Tcpaaaziv the means by which this object is attained, as,
for instance, hindrances moved out of the way, and the
like ; and also that the idea of continuity and repetition
of action is inherent in 7rpda-<Tsiv = c a,gere ' or 'gerere,'
'handeln,' 'to practise'; but not necessarily in iroizlv =
1 facere,' * machen,' which may very well be the doing once
and for all; the producing and bringing forth something
which being produced has an independent existence of its
own ; as TTQIZIV iraiSicv, of a woman, iroislv Kapjrovs, of a
tree ; in the same way, TTOISIV sipr/vyf, to make peace,
while TTpdtrcrsiv elp^vrjv is no more than to negotiate with
the view to peace (see Pott, Etym. Forsch. vol. iii.
p. 408) ; that attaining what this is only aiming to attain.
Hpdrrsiv and TTOISIV are in this sense often joined together
by Demosthenes, and with no tautology ; thus of certain
hostile designs which Philip entertained he assures the
Athenians OTI Trpd^si ravra Kal TTOIIJCTSI (Orat. xix. 373)
he will busy himself with the bringing about of these
things, and he will effect them ! (cf. Xenophon, Cyrop. ii.
1 These are some of Host and Palm's words : Auch Kriiger und
Franke (Demosthenes, Qlynth. iii. 15) unterscheiden irpava-fiv als die
geschaftige, iroieiv als die schaffende Tbatigkeit. Zulanglicher wird es
indess sein, diesen Unterschied dahin festzustellen, dass tei iroitiv rnehr
die Vorstellung -von dem Product der Thatigkeit, bei Trpdo-o-etf rnehr die
von dem Hinarbeiten auf ein Ziel mit Beseitigung entgegentre tender
Hindernisse, von den Mitteln und Wegen vorberrsclifnd ist, wodurch
dasselbe erreicht wird. Damit verbindet sich die Vorstellung einer
wenigstens relativen Continuitat, wie aufgewandter Anstrengung. It
xcvi. SYXONFMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 363
2. 29 ; Aristotle, Ethic. Nic. vi. 5. 3): Trpda-o-siv, in the
words of a recent German scholar, ist die geschaftige,
TToistv die schaffende Thatigkeit.
How far can we trace the recognition of any such dis-
tinction in the Greek of the N. T. ? There are two or
three passages where it is difficult not to recognize an
intention of the kind It is hard, for example, to suppose
that the change of words at John iii. 20, 2 1 is accidental ;
above all when the same reappears at chapter v. 29. In
both places it is the <>av\a Trpdaa-stv, which is set, in the
first instance, over against the TTOISCV rrjv dXrjdsiav, in the
second against the TTOISIV ra dyadd, just as at Eom. vii. 19
we have iroislv dyadov and Trpaa-crsw fca/cov. It would of
course be idle to assert that the TTOLSLV relates only to good
things, for we have iroislv dvopiav CMatt. xiii. 41), apapriav
2 Cor. v. 2l), TO, Kaicd (Eom. iii. 8); not less idle to affirm
that Trpdcro-siv is restricted to ill things ; for, to go no
farther than the N. T., we have Trpdaa-siv dyadov (Eom.
ix. 1 1 ). Still it is not to be denied that very often where
the words assume an ethical tinge, the inclination makes
itself felt to use TTOISIV in a good and Trpda-a-siv in an evil
sense ; the latter tendency appearing in a more marked
way in the uses of irpa&s, which, occurring six times in
the N. T. (namely at Matt. xvi. 27 ; Luke xxiii. 51 ; Acts
xix. 1 8 ; Eom. viii. 13 ; xii. 4 ; Col. iii. 9), has in all these
places except the first an evil signification, very much
like our ' practices ' ; cf. Poly bins, iv. 8. 3 (-irpdj-eis, airdrai,
7ri/3ov\ai} ; v. 96. 4.
Bengel, at John iii. 20, gives the proper explanation of
this change of words : ' irpdo-o-wv. Malitia est irrequieta ;
est quiddam operosius quam veritas. Hinc verbis diversis
notantur, uti cap. v. 29.' There may be a busy activity
may be added that in irpda-a-tiv the action is always more or less con-
scious of itself, so that, as was observed long ago, this could not be pre-
dicated of animals (Ethic. Eudem. vi. 2. 2) ; while the noulv is more
free and spontaneous.
364 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcvi.
in the working of evil, yet not the less it is true that ' the
wicked worketh a deceitful work,' and has nothing to
show for all his toil at the end, no fruit that remains.
Then too evil is manifold, good is one ; they are epya rrjs
crap/cos (Gal. v. 22), for these works are many, not merely
contradicting good, but often contradicting one another ;
but it is icapTros rov 7rvev/j,aros (Gal. v. 19), for there is
an inner consent, between all the parts of good, a con-
sensus virtutum,' as Cicero calls it, knitting them into a
perfect and harmonious whole, and inviting us to con-
template them as one. Those are of human art and de-
vice, this of Divine nature. Thus Jerome (in loco): 'In
carne opera posuit [Paulus], et fructus in spiritu; quia
vitia in semetipsa finiuntur et pereunt, virtutes frugibus
pullulant et redundant.' Here is enough to justify and
explain the fact that the inspired reporter of our Lord's
words has on these two occasions (John iii. 20, 21) ex-
changed the <f>av\a TrpaGcreiv for the Troislv a\ij08UU>j Troitiv
TO. ajadd, the practising of evil for the doing of good. Let
me add in conclusion a few excellent words of Bishop
Andrewes : "There are two kinds of doers: I. iroLyrai,
and 2. irpaKTiKoi, which the Latin likewise expresseth in
I. 'agere,' and 2. ' facere.' 'Agere,' as in music, where,
when we have done singing or playing, nothing rernaineth :
' facere,' as in building, where, after we have done, there is
a thing permanent. And iroirjTai, ' factores,' they are St.
James' doers. But we have both the words in the English
tongue : actors, as in a play ; factors, as in merchandise.
When the play is done, all the actors do vanish : but
of the factors' doing, there is a gain, a real thing
remaining." On the distinction between irpa^s and
spjov see Wyttenbach's note on Plutarch's Moralia, vol.
vi. p. 60 1.
xcvn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 365
xcvii.
THEEE was occasion to note, in dealing with the words
7rpo(f)i]Tsvo) and pavTSvofiai, ( vi.), the accuracy with which
in several instances the lines of demarcation between the
sacred and profane, between the true religion and the
false, are maintained in the words which, reserved for the
one, are not permitted to be used for the other, each
retaining its proper and peculiar term. We have another
example of this same precision here, in the fact of the
constant use in the N. T. of Ova-iaa-Tijptov, occurring as it
does more than twenty times, for the altar of the true
God, while on the one occasion when a heathen altar
needs to be named (Acts xvii. 23), /Solo's is substituted in
its stead.
But, indeed, there was but a following here of the good
example which the Septuagint Translators had shown, the
maintenance of a distinction which these had drawn. So
resolute were they to mark the difference between the altars
of the true God and those on which abominable things
were offered, that there is every reason to suppose they
invented the word Ova-iacmjpiov for the purpose of main-
taining this distinction ; being indeed herein more nice
than the inspired Hebrew Scriptures themselves ; for these,
while they have a word which they use for heathen altars,
and never for the altars of the true God, namely no? (Isai.
xv. 2; Amos vii. 9), make no scruple in using n3?D now
for the one (Lev. i. 9), and now for the other (Isai. xvii.
8). I need hardly observe that Ova-iaa-Tijpiov, properly
the neuter of dva-Lacmjpios, as l\a<TTijpiov (Exod. xxv. 17;
Heb. ix. 5) of i\aa-r^pios, nowhere occurs in classical
Greek ; and it is this coining of it on the part of the
Septuagint Translators which Philo must have had in
mind when he implied that Moses invented the word (De
Vit. Mos. iii. 10). With all this the Greek of the 0. T.
366 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcvn.
does not invariably observe this distinction. I cannot
indeed accept Num. xxiii. i, 2 as instances of a failure
so to do ; for what altars could be more truly heathen
than those which Balaam reared ? Still there are three
occasions, one in Second Maccabees (xiii. 8), and two in
Ecclesiasticus (1. 12, 14), where /3&>/i6s designates an altar
of the true God ; these two Books, however, it must be
remembered, hellenize very much. So too there are occa-
sions on which dvcnatrrripiov is used to designate an idol
altar; for example, Judg. ii. 2; vi. 25 ; 2 Kin. xvi. 10.
Still these are rarest exceptions, and sometimes the antago-
nism between the words comes out with a most marked
emphasis. It does so, for example, at 2 Mace. x. 2, 3 ; but
more remarkably still at I Mace. i. 59, where the historian
recounts how the servants of Autiochus offered sacrifices
to Olympian Jove on an altar which had been built over
the altar of the God of Israel (dua-id&vTss sirl rov PWJJLOV,
os rjv fTTi rov OvGiacrrriplov). Our Translators are here
put to their shifts, and are obliged to render ftw/jios
* idol altar,' and Overiaa-r^piov ' altar.' We may compare
Josephus, Antt. xii. 5. 4, where relating these same events
he says, sTroiKo^o/jL^cras KOL rw dvcriaa'Tijpiq) fta>p.6v, <rvas s TT'
avrov KaTea(j>aJ~E. Still more notable, as marking how
strong the feeling on this matter was, is the fact of the
refusal of the Septuagint Translators to give the title of
dva-iaa-Tijpiov (Josh, xxii.) to the altar which the Trans-
jordanic tribes had reared being as it was a piece of
will-worship upon their parts, and no altar reared ac-
cording to the will, or by the express command, of God.
Throughout the chapter this altar is Papas (ver. 10, u,
1 6, 19, 23, 26, 34), the legitimate divinely ordained altar
Ov(Tta(mfjpiov (ver. 19, 28, 29), and this while the Hebrew
text knows no such distinction, but indiscriminately em-
ploys D3p for both.
I mentioned just now an embarrassment, in which on
one occasion our Translators found themselves. In the
xcvni. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 367
Latin there is no such difficulty ; for at a very early day
the Church adopted ' altare ' to designate her altar, and
assigned ' ara ' exclusively to heathen uses. Thus see the
Vulgate at Judg. vi. 28 ; I Mace. i. 59 ; 2 Mace. x. 2, 3 ;
Acts xvii. 23. Cyprian in like manner expresses his
wonder at the profane boldness of one of the * turificati '
those, that is, who in time of persecution had consented
to save their lives by burning incense before a heathen
idol, that he should afterwards have dared, without
obtaining first the Church's absolution, to continue his
ministry ' quasi post aras diaboli accedere ad altare Dei
fas sit (Ep. 63). In profane Latin 'ara' is the genus,
' altare ' the specific kind of altar on which the victims
were offered (Yirgil, Eel. v. 65, 66; cf. Tacitus, AnnaL
xvi. 31, and Orelli thereupon). The distinction between
/3&>/i6s and Ovaiaa-rijpiov, first established in the Septua-
gint, and recognized in the N. T., was afterwards main-
tained in ecclesiastical Greek ; for the Church has still
her 6veia alvsvscas (Heb. xiii. 15), and that which is at
once her Ovaia, dvapvija-ecos and dvanvija-iy Ovcrias, and
therefore her QvaiaaTTJpiov still. We have clear testimony
to this in the following passage of Chrysostom (in I Cor.
Horn. 24), in which Christ is supposed to be speaking:
<uo"T sl a'ifjiaros eTTidvpsis, fir) rbv TWV ElSa>\ft)v /3a>fiov T&>
TWV d\6y(0v <j)6va), d\\a TO Ovo'iaa'TTjpiov TO S[M>V T&5
sfjiw (f>oivi<ras aJ/tart (compare Mede, Works, 1672, p. 391 ;
Augusti, Christl. Archaol vol. i. p. 412; and Smith,
Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, s. v. ' Altar ').
xcviii. Xaos-, Wvos, crjfj,os,
Aaos, a word of rarest use in Attic prose, but occurring
between one and two thousand times in the Septuagint,
is almost always there a title reserved for the elect
people, the Israel of God. Still there are exceptions.
The Philistines are a Xaos (Gen. xxvi. u), the Egyptians
368 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcvm.
(Exod. ix. 15), and the Moabites (Ruth i. 15); to others
too the name is not refused. Then, too, occasionally in the
plural ol Xao/are = ra sdvr); as for example at Neh. i. 8 ;
x. 30, 31 ; Ps. xcvi. 6; Hos. x. 10; Mic. vi. 1 6. Or again
we find Xaot joined with sdvrj as a sort of exhaustive
enumeration of the whole race of mankind ; thus Ps. cvii.
4 ; Wisd. iii. 8 ; Rev. v. 9 ; vii. 9 ; x. 1 1 ; xi. 9 ; xiii.
7; xiv. 6; xvii. 15. It is true indeed that in all these
passages from the Book of Revelation the exhaustive
enumeration is fourf old ; and to \aol and sdvrj are added
<f>v\a,L and 7\&>o-crat, on one occasion <j)v\ai making way
for /3acri\is (x. n) and on another for o^Xot (xvii. '15).
We may contrast with this a distributive use of \aos and
sdwrj, but \aos here in the singular, as at Luke ii. 32 ;
Acts xxvi. 17, 23, where also, being used together, they
between them take in the whole of mankind, but where
\aos is claimed for and restricted to the chosen people,
while Wvr] includes all mankind outside of the covenant
(Deut. xxxii. 43 ; Isai. Ixv. i, 2 ; 2 Sam. vii. 23 ; Acts xv.
14). And this is the general law of the words' use, every
other being exceptional ; \aos the chosen people, sOvrj, or
sometimes more fully TO. sdvrj TOV KOO-^OV (Luke xii. 30),
or rfjs <yfjs ; but always in the plural and with the article,
the residue of mankind (o* Kard\oi7roi TWV av6p<airwv 9
Acts xv. 17). At the same time sdvos in the singular has
no such limitation ; it is a name which, given to the Jews
by others, is not intended to convey any slight, thus TO
sdvos rwv 'lovSaiwv (Acts x. 22) ; they freely take it as in
no way a dishonorable title to themselves, TO sdvos ?;/iwi/
(Luke vii. 5; cf . xxiii. 2; John xi. 18), TO sdvos TOVTO
(Acts xxiv. 3 ; cf. Exod. xxxiii. 13; Deut. iv. 6; Wisd.
xvii. 2) ; nay sometimes and with certain additions it is
for them a title of highest honour ; they are sdvos ajiov
(E xod. xix. 6 ; cf. I Pet. ii. 9) ; sdvos SK psvov sdvwv
(Clement of Rome, Cor. 29). If indeed the word be con-
nected with sdos, and contemplates a body of people living
xcvm. SntONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 369
according to one custom and rule, none could deserve the
title better or so well as a nation which ordered their lives
according to a more distinctive and rigidly denned custom
and rule of their own than probably any other nation that
ever lived.
A^/ios occurs only in St. Luke, and in him, as might be
expected, only in the Acts, that is, after his narrative has
left behind it the limitations of the Jewish Church, and
has entered on and begun to move in the ampler spaces,
and among the more varied conditions of the heathen
world. The following are the four occasions of its use,
xii. 22 ; xvii. 5 ; xix. 30, 33 ; they all exemplify well that
fine and accuiate use of technical terms, that choice of
the fittest among them, which we so often observe in
St. Luke, and which is so characteristic a mark of the
highly educated man. The Greek S?}/zoy is the Latin
* populus,' which Cicero (De Re Pull. i. 25 ; cf. Augustine,
De Civ. Dei) ii. 21) thus defines: 'Populus autein non
omnis hominum ccetus quoquo modo congregatus, sed
costus multitudinis juris conseiisu et utilitatis couimunione
sociatus ; ' ( die Gemeinde,' the free commonalty (Plutarch,
MuL Virt. 1 5, in fine), and these very often contemplated
as assembled and in actual exercise of their rights as
citizens. This idea indeed so dominates the word that ev
TW Btjfio) is equivalent to, ' in a popular assembly.' It is
invariably thus used by St. Luke. If we want the exact
opposite to Bijfj-os, it is o%\os, the disorganized, or rather
the unorganized, multitude (Luke ix. 38 ; Matt. xxi. 8 ;
Acts xiv. 14) ; this word in classic Greek having often a
certain tinge of contempt, as designating those who share
neither in the duties nor privileges of the free citizens.
Such contempt, however, does not lie of necessity in the
word (Rev. vii. 9 ; Acts i. 15), and there is no hint of it in
Scripture, where a man is held worthy of honour even
though the only Tro\irsv/j,a in which he may claim a share
is that which is eternal in the heavens (Pliil. iii. 20).
B B
370 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcix.
xcix. Paima-pos, ft aimer pa.
THESE are exclusively ecclesiastical terms, as are /9a7r-
Ti<mf)s and fiairTia-Tijpiov ; none of them appearing in the
Septuagint, nor in classical Greek, but only in the N. T.,
or in writings dependent on this. They are all in lineal
descent from /3a7TTlsiv, a later form of ftaTTTEiv, and to be
found, though rarely, in classical Greek ; thus twice in
Plato (Euthyd. 277 d', Symp. 176 6), in which last place
fte[3aTni(Tp,vos signifies well washed with wine ; the
'uvidus' of Horace (Carm. ii. 19. 18) ; and often in later
writers, as in Plutarch (De Superst. 3; Galba, 21), in
Lucian (Bacch. 7), and in others.
Before proceeding further, a word or two may fitly
find place here on the relation between words of the same
famil} r , but divided from one another by their several ter-
minations in fia and /uos, as KJjpvjfjia and /crjpvypos, Blwy^a
and 84&>7/i6y, Srjjpa and 777/^6$, with others innumerable.
It seldom happens that both forms are found in the N. T. ;
that in pa being of the most frequent occurrence ; thus-
this has aTravjacrfia (Heb. i. 3)? but not
as^aa-fia (Acts xvii. 23), but not a-sftaap
(Matt. xxiv. 15), but not fiosXvy/jios; pfjypa (Luke vi. 49),
but not /07/7/ios; TrspiKadappa (l Cor. iv. 13), but not trepi-
naOappos. Sometimes, but more rarely, it offers us the
termination of pos ; thus apiraypos (Phil. ii. 6), but not
apTrayfia ; ajrapritrpos (Luke xiv. 28), but
KaraprKT/jios (Ephes. iv. 12), but not KardprLcrpa ;
(Eom. vi. 19), but not a^iaapa. It will happen, but only
in rare instances, that both forms occur in the N. T. ; thus
piaa-pa (2 Pet. ii. 20) and fjnaa-pos (2 Pet. ii. 10) ; and
these with which we have at present to deal, ^d-jma-pa
and fiaTTTia-pos. There is occasionally, but not in the
N. T., a third form ; thus besides o-sjBaa-pa and as/Baa-pos
there is as/3a<n,s ; besides airdprLa-pa and d7rapTio-/j,os there
xcix. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 371
is aTrdpTKTts ; besides ir^sovacrua and tr\ova(rp.6s there is
vrXeoi'acrts ; besides apTray/ma and ap7ra<y/ji6s there is apTracris^
and so too besides /3a7TTio>ta and Paima-pos we have /3a7r-
Ticrts in Josephus (.4%^. xviii. $. 2) and in others. There
is no difficulty in severally assigning to each of these forms
the meaning which properly belongs to it ; and this, even
while we must own that in actual use the words are very
far from abiding true to their proper significance, those
with the active termination in pos continually drifting
into a passive signification, as is the case with if^sovaa-jjios,
^aa-avia-fjios, and in the N. T. with ayiaa-fj-ds and others ;
while the converse, if not quite so common, is yet of fre-
quent occurrence ; cf . Tholuck, Disp. Christ, de loco Pauli
Ep. ad Phil. ii. 6-9, 1848, p. 18. Thus, to take the words
which now concern us the most nearly, ftdTrrtcris is the
act of baptism contemplated in the doing, a baptizing ;
fiaTTTia-fids the same act contemplated not only as doing,,
but as done, a baptism ; while Paima-pa is not any more
the act, but the abiding fact resulting therefrom, baptism ;
the first embodying the transitive, the second the in-
transitive, notion of the verb; while the third expresses
the result of the transitive notion of the same this last
therefore, as is evident, being the fittest word to designate
the institution of baptism in the Church, as an abstract
idea, or rather as an ever-existing fact, and not the same
in its several concrete realizations. See on these passives
in fia the exhaustive essay on 7r\^pcofia in Bishop Light-
foot, On the Colossians, pp. 323-339.
How far is this the usage of the N. T. ? It can only
be said to be approximately so; seeing that /3 'a-rrria- post
has not there, as I am convinced, arrived at the dignity
of setting forth Christian baptism at all. By fiaimanos in
the usage of the N. T. we must understand any ceremonial
washing or lustration, such as either has been ordained of
God (Heb. ix. 10), or invented by men (Mark vii. 4, 8) ;
but in neither case as possessing any central significance :
BB2
372 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. xcix.
while by /3tt7rrto-yLta we understand baptism in our Christian
sense of the word (Rom. vi. 4 ; I Pet. iii. 21 ; Ephes. iv. 5) ;
yet not so strictly as to exclude the baptism of John (Luke
vii. 29: Acts x. 37; xix. 3). This distinction is in the
main preserved by the Greek ecclesiastical writers. Jose-
phus indeed calls the baptism of John fiaTrria-pos (Antt.
xviii. 5. 2) ; but Augusti (Christl. Archdol. vol. ii. p. 313) is
strangely in error, affirming as he does of the Greek
Fathers that they habitually employ the same for Christian
Baptism. So far from this, it would be difficult to adduce
a single example of this from Chrysostom, or from any
one of the great Cappadocian Fathers. In the Latin
Church it is true that ' baptismus ' and ' baptisma ' are
both employed to designate Christian baptism ; by Ter-
tullian one perhaps as frequently as the other; while
' baptismus ' quite predominates in Augustine ; but it is
altogether otherwise in ecclesiastical Greek, which remains
faithful to the distinctions which the N. T. observes.
These distinctions are there so constantly maintained,
that all explanations of Heb. vi. 2 (^airTLa^wv Si^a^f?*),
which rest on the assumption that Christian Baptism is
intended here, break down before this fact ; not to urge
the plural ftaTTTicr/jLwv, which, had the one baptism of the
Church been intended, would be inexplicable. If, indeed,
Ave take the ySaTrrtoyW of this place in its widest sense, as
including all baptisms whatever with which the Christian
had anything to do, either in the way of rejecting or
making them his own, we can understand a "' doctrine of
baptisms,' such as should teach the young convert the
definitive abolition of the Jewish ceremonial lustrations,
the merely preparatory and provisional character of the
baptism of John, and the eternal validity of the baptism
of Christ. We can understand too how these all should
be gathered up under the one name of ^aTrria^oi, being
that they were all washings ; and this without in the least
allowing that any other save /3d7TTia-/j,a was the proper
c. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 373
title of that \ovrpov TraXiyyi-vEGias which is the exclusive
privilege of the Church of Christ.
C. er/eoToy, 71/0^05, fyfos, a-)(\vs.
OF (TKoros it needs hardly to speak. It is the largest and
most inclusive word of this group ; being of very frequent
occurrence in the N. T., both in this its Attic form, as
also in that of a-Koria, which belongs to the common dia-
lect. It is the exact opposite to $&>y; thus in the pro-
foundly pathetic words of Ajax in Sophocles (Aj. 394),
ia>' (TKOTOS s[wv <f)dos : compare Plato, Rep. vii. 518 a;
Job xxii. ii ; Luke xii. 3; Acts xxvi. 18.
Tv6(f)o$, which is rightly regarded as a later Doric form
of Sv6(f)os, occurs only once in the N. T., namely at Heb.
xii. 1 8. and there in connexion with o</>os; in which same
connexion it is found elsewhere (Deut. iv. II.; Exod. x.
22; Zeph. i. 16). There was evidently a feeling on the
part of our early Translators, that an element of tempest
was involved in the word, the renderings of it by them being
these : ' mist (Wiclif and Tyndale) ; ' storm ' (Cranmer);
* blackness ' (Geneva and Authorized Version) ; * whirl-
wind ' (Rheims, as c turbo' in the Yulgate). Onr ordi-
nary lexicons indicate very faintly, or not at all, that such
a force is to be found in yvofas ; but it is very distinctly
recognized by Pott (Etymol. Forsch. vol. v. page 346), who
gives, as explanatory equivalents, ' Finsterniss,' dunkel,'
' Wirbelwind,' and who with the best modern scholars sees
in vtyas, vefos, yvofos and o<os, a group of words having
much in common, perhaps only different shapes of what
was once a single word. It is joined, too, in the Septua-
gint, where it is of frequent use, with vs(j)s\rj (Joel ii. 2 ;
Ps.xcvi. 2; Ezek. xxxiv. 12), and with 6vs\\a (Deut. iv.
II ; v. 22).
Zo<j)os, which occurs four times in the N. T. (2 Pet. ii.
4, 17 ; Jude 6, 13), or five times, if we make room for it at
374 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. c.
Heb. xii. 18, as it seems we should, is not found in the
Septuagint ; twice, however, namely at Ps. x. 2, (Ps.) xc. 6,
in the Version of Symmachus. The %6<j)os may be con-
templated as a kind of emanation of CTKOTOS ; thus 6 b'(/>os
rov O-KOTOVS (Jude 13); and signifies in its first meaning
the twilight gloom which broods over the regions of the
setting sun, and constitutes so strong a contrast to the life
and light of that Orient where the sun may be said to be
daily new-born. 'Heposis, or the cloudy, is in Homer the
standing epithet with which o</>cs, when used in this
sense, is linked. But it means more than this. There is
a darkness darker still, that, namely, of the sunless under-
world, the ' nigra Tartara ' of Virgil (JEn. vi. 134) ; the
' opaca Tartara ' of Ovid (Met. x. 20) ; the icvefyala Taprd-
pov fidOv) of JEschylus (Prom. Vinct. 1029). This, too, it
further means, namely that sunless world itself, though
indeed this less often than the gloom which wraps it
(Homer, Hymn, ad Cer. 338 ; Euripides, Hippolytus, 1434;
cf. Job x. 21, 22). It is out of the o0oy that Ahriman in
the Persian mythology is born, as is Ormuzd out of the
light (Plutarch, De Is. et Osir. 47). It will at once be per-
ceived with what fitness the word in the N. T. is employed,
being ever used to signify the darkness of that shadowy
land where light is not, but only darkness visible.
'A^Xus occurs only once in the N. T., namely at Acts
xiii. 1 1 ; never in the Septuagint, although once in the
Version of Symmachus (Job iii. 5). It is by Galen defined
as something more dense than o^Xt], less dense than
vs(f)os. In the single place of its N. T. use it attests the
accuracy in the selection of words, and not least of medical
words, which < the beloved physician ' so often displays.
For him it expresses the mist of darkness, a^Xus- KCU
<r/fo'roy, which fell on the sorcerer Elymas, being the out-
ward and visible sign of the inward spiritual darkness
which should be his portion for a while in punishment for
his resistance to the truth. It is by ' mist ' that all the
ci. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 375
translations of our English Hexapla render it, with the
exception of the Kheims, which has ' dimness ' ; while it is
rendered well by ' caligo J in the Vulgate. St. Luke's use
of the word in the Acts is divided by nearly a thousand
years from its employment by Homer ; but the meaning
has remained absolutely the same ; for indeed it is words
with an ethical significance, and not those which express
the phenomena of the outward world, that change with the
changing years. Thus there is in the Odyssey a fine use
of the verb a^vstv (xii. 406), the poet describing there
the responsive darkness which comes over the sea as it is
overshadowed by a dark cloud (cf. ' inhorruit unda tene-
bris ' : Virgil, JEn. iii. 195). 'A^Xus, too, is employed by
Homer to express the mist which clouds the eyes of the
dying (II. xvi. 344), or that in which the gods, for one
cause or another, may envelope their favourites.
ci. fieftrjXos, KOWOS.
THE image which /Se/S^Xos, derived from j3r)\6s, a thresh-
old, suggests, is that of a spot trodden and trampled on,
lying open to the casual foot of every intruder or careless
passer-by ; and thus, in words of Thucydides, a ^wpiov
p@ri\ov (iv. 97). Exactly opposite to this, is the aSvTov, a
spot, that is, fenced and reserved for sacred uses, as such
not lightly to be approached, but in the language of the
Canticles, ' a garden enclosed, a spring shut up, a fountain
sealed ' (Cant. iv. 1 2). It is possible indeed that the 'profane-
ness ' which is predicated of person or thing to whom this
title is applied, may be rather negatively the absence of any
higher consecration than positively the active presence of
aught savouring of unholy or profane. Thus it is often joined
witha/iiVoy (as by Plutarch, De Def. Orac. 16), signify ing
no more than one uninitiated, the dvopyLaaTos, and, as
such, arcendus a sacris ; compare Plato, Symp. 2186, where
it is joined .with aypoixos. In like manner aprot
376 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. ci.
(i Sam. xxi. 4) are simply unconsecrated common loaves,
as contrasted with the she w-b read which the high priest
declares to be holy. Not otherwise the Latin ' profanus '
means no more than that which is left outside the rfysvos,
that which is 'pro fano,' and thus wanting the consecra-
tion which the re^svos, or sanctuary, has obtained. We,
too, in English mean no more, when we distinguish be-
tween * sacred * and ' profane ' history, setting the one
over against the other. We do not imply thereby any
profaneness, positive and properly so called, in the latter,
but only that it is not what the former is, a history having
in the first place to do with the kingdom of G-od, and the
course of that kingdom. So too it fared at first with
fts(3rj\.of. It was only in later use that it came to be set
over against ayios (Ezek. xxii. 6) and ocrtos, to be joined
with avoa-Los (l Tim. i. 9), with ypa^S^s (iv. 7), with
avofj,os (Ezek. ii. 25), that /juiapal ^slpss (2 Mace. v. 16)
could within a few lines be changed for psjSrjXoi., as an
adequate equivalent.
But in what relations, it may be asked, do /3s{3rj\os and
KOLVOS stand to one another ? Before bringing the latter
into such questionable company it may be observed that we
have many pleasant arid honourable uses of KOLVOS and its
derivatives, Kowwvia and KOLVWVLKOS, in the N. T. ; thus
Jude 3 ; 2 Cor. xiii. 13 ; I Tim. vi. 18 ; while in heathen
Greek Socrates is by Dio Chrysostom happily charac-
terized as KOLVOS KOI (f)L\,dv8p(i)7ros, giving himself, that is,
no airs, and in nothing withdrawing himself from friendly
and familiar intercourse with his fellow-men ; the word
being capable of finding a yet higher application to Him,
of whom some complained that He ate with publicans and
sinners (Matt. ix. 10, n). He, too, in this sense, and in
the noblest aspect of the word, was KOLVOS. This, however,
only by the way. The employment with which we have
here to do of KOIVOS and KOLVOW in sacred things, and as equi-
valent to yS^/3?/Xos and ySe^Xoo), is exclusively Jewish Hel-
ci. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 377
lenistic. One might claim for it to be restricted to the
N. T. alone, if it were not for two exceptional examples
(i Mace. i. 47, 62). Comparing Acts xxi. 28, and xxiv. 6,
we have curious implicit evidence that such an employ-
ment of KOIVOS was, at the time when the Acts were written,
unfamiliar, probably unknown, to the heathen. The
Jewish adversaries of St. Paul, when addressing their
Israelitish fellow-countrymen, make their charge against
him, KKolvo)Ks rbv ayiov TOTTOV (Acts xxi. 28) ; but when they
are bringing against him the same accusation, not now to
their Jewish fellow-countrymen, but to Felix, a heathen,
they change their word, and the charge runs, sjrsipacrs
fSsl3ri\.wcrai TO tepdv (Acts xxiv. 6) ; the other language
would have been here out of keeping, might very likely
have been unintelligible.
Very noticeable is the manner in which KOIVOS in the
N. T. more and more encroaches on the province of mean-
ing which, first belonging exclusively to ySe/ST/Xoy, the two
came afterwards to divide between them, but with the re-
sult that KOIVOS gradually assumed to itself the larger
share, and was used the most often (Mark vii. 2 ; Acts x.
14 ; Rom. xiv. 14, bis ; Heb. x. 29). How this came to pass,
how Ps(3rf\.os had, since the Septuagint was written, been
gradually pushed from its place, is not difficult to see. Kot-
vos, which stepped into its room, more commended itself to
Jewish ears, as bringing out by contrast the sic\.oyjj of the
Jewish people as a \abs Trepiovaios, having no fellowship
with aught which was unclean. The less that there neces-
sarily lay in KOIVOS of defilement, the more strongly the
separation of Israel was brought out, that would endure
no fellowship with things which had any commonness
about them. The ceremonially unclean was in fact more
and more breaking down the barrier which divided it from
that which was morally unclean ; and doing away with
any distinction between them.
378 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. en.
Cil. fJLO-^Oos, 7TOVOS, K07TOS.
M6%0os only occurs three times in the N. T., and al-
ways in closest sequence to KOTTOS (2 Cor. xi. 27 ; I Thess.
ii. 9 ; 2 Thess. iii. 8). There can scarcely be a doubt of
its near connexion with /j,6yts, this last, as Curtius suggests,
being a dative plural, /JLOJOLS, which has let fall a letter,
and subsided into an adverb. The word, which does not
occur in Homer nor in Plato, is the homely everyday word
for that labour which, in one shape or another, is the
lot under the sun of all of the sinful children of Adam.
It has been suggested by some that the infinitely laborious
character of labour, the more or less of distress which is
inextricably bound up with it, and cannot be escaped, is
hardly brought out in ^o-^dos with the same emphasis as it
is in the other words which are here grouped with it, and
especially in TTOVOS, and that a point of difference may
here be found between them ; but this is hardly the case.
Phrases like the 7ro\vfj.o^6os " Aprjs of Euripides (Phcen.
791), and they may be multiplied to any extent, do not
bear out this view.
Out of the four occasions on which TTOVOS occurs in the
N. T., three are found in the Apocalypse (xvi. 10, n ;
xxi. 4), and one in Colossians (iv. 13); for TTOVOS must
there stand beyond all serious question, however there
may be no fewer than four other readings, iroQos, KOTTOS,
f?Xoi, dywv, which are competitors for the place that
it occupies by a right better than them all. Hovos is
labour such as does not stop short of demanding the
whole strength of a man ; and this exerted to the utter-
most, if he is to accomplish the task which is before him.
Thus in Homer war is constantly regarded as the irovos,
not of mortal warriors only, but immortal, of Ares him-
self j TTOVOS avSpwv, as Theognis (985) calls it ; being joined
with &r)pis (II. xvii. 158) and with 7ro\e/ioy (xvii. 718).
cm. SYNONFMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 379
Uovos is the standing word by which the labours of Her-
cules are expressed ; poxQoi too they are sometimes, but
not nearly so often, called (Sophocles, Track. 1080, 1150).
Hovos in Plato is joined with aycbv scr^aros (Phcedr.
247 6), with voa-os (244 d), with KivSvvos (2 Alcib. 142 6),
with fopta (Rep. ii. 365 6), in the Septuagint with oovvy
(i Kin. xv. 23), with pdo-ri^ ( Jer. vi. 7), with 7^7/7/7 (2 Chr.
ix. 28). The cruel bondage of the children of Israel in
Egypt is their irovos (Exod. ii. 1 1). It is nothing wonder-
ful that, signifying this, irovos should be expressly named
as having no place in the Heavenly City (Eev. xxi. 4).
KOTTOS is of much more frequent recurrence. It is
found some twenty times in the N. T., being not so much
the actual exertion which a man makes, as the lassitude
or weariness (see Pott, Etym. Forsch. vol. v. p. 10) which
follows on this straining of all his powers to the utmost.
It is well worth our while to note the frequent use which
is made of KOTTOS and of the verb o7rta&>, for the desig-
nating what are or ought to be the labours of the Chris-
tian ministry, containing as they do a word of warning
for all that are in it engaged (John iv. 38 ; Acts xx. 35 ;
Col. i. 29 ; 2 Cor. vi. 5 ; I Thess. iii. 5, and often).
It may be said in conclusion that 'labour,' 'toil' (or
perhaps ' travail ') and ' weariness,' are the three words
which in English best reproduce the several Greek words,
, TTOVOS, KOTTOS, with which we here have to do.
ciii. afAto/jLOS, CL^S^TTTOS, avsyfcXijTOS, av7ri\rjTrros.
WORDS expressing severally absence of blemish, and absence
of blame, are very easily confounded, and the distinction
between them lost sight of; not to say that those which
bear one of these meanings easily acquire and make the
other their own. Take in proof the first in this group of
words of which all have to do with the Christian life, and
what its character should be. We have in the rendering
380 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. CUT.
of this a singular illustration of a shortcoming on the part
of our Translators of 161 1, which has been often noted, the
failure I mean upon their parts to render one Greek word by
a fixed correspondent word in the English. It is quite true
that this feat cannot always, or nearly always, be done ; but
what constraining motive was there for six variations such
as these which are the lot of a^w^os on. the six occasions
of its occurrence ? At Ephes. i. 4 it appears as ' without
blame'; at Col. i. 22, as ' unblameable ' ; at Ephes. v. 27
as 'without blemish'; at Heb. ix. 14, as 'without spot';
at Jude 24 as ' faultless ' ; at Eev. xiv. 5 as ' without
fault.' Of these the first and second have failed to seize
the exact force of the word. No such charge can be
brought against the other four ; one may be happier than
another, but all are sufficiently correct. Inaccurate it
certainly is to render afiwfios ' without blame,' or ' un-
blameable,' seeing that /iw/Aos in later Hellenistic Greek
has travelled from the signifying of blame to the signifying
of that which is the subject of blame, a blot, that is, or
spot, or blemish. "A/iw/ios, a rare word in classical Greek,
but found in Herodotus (ii. 177), and in JEschylus (Persw,
185), in this way became the technical vrord to designate
the absence of anything amiss in a sacrifice, of anything
which would render it unworthy to be offered (Exod. xxix.
2 ; Num. vi. 14; Ezek. xliii. 22 ; Philo, DeProfug. 3. 15) ;
or the sacrificing priest unworthy to offer it (i Mace. iv.
42).
When joined with aa"m\os for the designation of this
faultlessness, as it is joined at I Pet. i. 19, afjiw^os would
indicate the absence of internal blemish, acnri\os that of
external spot. Already in the Septuagint it has been
transferred to the region of ethics, being of constant use
there to set forth the holy walking of the faithful (Ps.
cxviii. (cxix. E. V.) I ; Prov. xi. 5), and even applied as
a title of honour to God Himself (Ps. xvii. 33). We find
it joined with aveyK\r)Tos (Col. i. 22); and with ayios
cm. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 381
(Ephes. i. 4; v. 27), and we may regard it as affirming a
complete absence of all fault or blemish on the part of
that whereof it is predicated.
But if apwuos is thus the ' unblemished,' apsfiirTos is
the ( unblamed.' There is a difference between the two
statements. Christ was apwpos in that there was in Him
no spot or blemish, and He could say, " Which of you
convinceth Me of sin?" but in strictness of speech He
was not afisfjLTTTos, nor is this epithet ever given to Him
in the N. T., seeing that He endured the contradiction of
sinners against Himself, who slandered his footsteps and
laid to his charge things that He knew not. Nor, how-
ever they may strive after this, can the saints of God lay
to their account that they will certainly attain it, and that
fault, just or unjust, will not be found with them. The
a/^w/jLos may be a^s^-n-ros (for see Luke i. 6; Phi!, ii. 15),
but he does not always prove so (i Pet. ii. 12, 15). At
the same time there is a constant tendency to regard the
( inculpatus ' as also the ' inculpabilis,' so that in actual
usage there is a continual breaking down of the distinct
and several use of these words. The 0. T. uses of a^s^irros,
as Job xi. 4, sufficiently prove this.
'A-vsyicXrjTos, which, like av7rl\rjTrTos, is in the N. T.
exclusively a word of St. Paul's, occurring five times in
his Epistles, and nowhere else, is rendered ' unreprovable '
(Col. i. 22), 'blameless ' (i Cor. i. 8 ; i Tim. iii. 10; Tit. i.
6, 7). It is justly explained by Chrysostom as implying
not acquittal merely, but absence of so much as a charge
or accusation brought against him of whom it is affirmed.
It moves, like dfiw^os, not in the subjective world of the
thoughts and estimates of men, but in the objective world
of facts. It is an epithet by Plutarch (De Cap. ex In.
Util. 5) accurately joined with dXoiSoprjTos. In a passage
cited above, namely I Tim. iii. 10. there is a manifest
allusion to a custom which still survives in our Ordinations,
at the opening of which the ordaining Bishop demands of
382 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.
the faithful present whether they know any notable crime
or charge for the which those who have been presented
to him for Holy Orders ought not to be ordained; he
demands, in other words, whether they be UV^K^IJTOI,, that
is, not merely unaccusable, but unaccused ; not merely
free from any just charge, for that question is reserved, if
need be, for later investigation, but free from any charge
at all the intention of this citation being, that if any
present has such a charge to bring, the ordination should
not go forward until this had been duly sifted.
'Ai/fTTiX^TTToy, of somewhat rare use in classical Greek,
occurring once in Thucydides (v. 17) and once in Plato
(Phileb. 43 c), never in the Septuagint or the Apocrypha,
is found in company with icaQapos (Lucian, Fiscal, i. 8),
with avejK\r]ros (ib. 46), with rA.etoy (Plutarch, Sept.
Sap. Conv. 9), with dSia/3\T)Tos (De Lib. Ed. 7), is in our
Version twice rendered 'blameless' (i Tim. iii. 2 ; v. 7),
but once ' unrebukeable J (vi. 14); these three being the
only occasions on which it is found in the N. T. t Irre-
prehensible,' a word not occurring in our Authorized
Version, but as old as it and older ; and on one of the
above occasions, namely, at I Tim. iii. 2, employed by the
Rhemish, which had gotten it from the ' irreprehen-
sibilis ' of the Vulgate, would be a nearer translation,
resting as it does on the same image as the Greek ;
that, namely, of affording nothing which an adversary
could take hold of, on which he might ground a charge :
fjirj jraps^wv Kanyyopias d<f)op/Aijv, as the Scholiast on
Thucydides has it. At the same time ' urireprehended,' if
such a word might pass, would be a nearer rendering still.
uy, vwdpos, dpyos.
IN a careful article which treats of these words, Schmidt
expresses in German the ultimate conclusions about them
whereat he has arrived ; which it may be worth while to
civ. SYS ON YMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 383
repeat, as some instruction may be gotten from them.
'BpaSvs, he states, would best be represented in German
by * langsam,' with ra-^vs, or else with WKVS (Homer, Odys.
viii. 329), or with a^ivovs for its antithesis; vcodpos by
' trage/ with b%vs for its proper opposite ; while he morally
identifies apyos with the German 'faul,' or with ' untha-
tig,' and finds in evepyos the proper antithesis of this.
Let us examine these words a little closer.
TSpaSvs differs from the words with which it is here
brought into comparison, that no moral fault or blame is
necessarily involved in it ; so far indeed from this, that
of the three occasions on which it is used in the N. T.,
two are in honour; for to be ' slow ' to evil things, to rash
speaking, or to anger (Jam. i. 19, bis), is a grace, and not
the contrary. Elsewhere too ySpaSus- is honourably used,
as when Isocrates (i. 34) advises, to be 'slow' in planning
and swift in performing. Neither is it in dispraise of the
Spartans that Thucydides ascribes slowness of action
(Ppa&vTrjs) to the Spartans and swiftness to the Athenians.
He is in this doing no more than weighing in equal
scales, these against those, the more striking and more
excellent qualities of each (viii. 96).
Of vci)0p6f, only found twice in the N. T., and both
times in the Epistle to the Hebrews (v. II; vi. 12), the
etymology is uncertain ; that from vrj and wOslv, which
found favour once, failing to do so now. We meet the
word in good Attic Greek ; thus in Plato (Thecetet. 144 b) ;
the form vwdrjs being the favourite in the classical periods
of the language, and vwOpos not coming into common use
till the times of the Kouf) Sid\sKTos. It occurs but once
in the Septuagint (Prov. xxii. 29), vaiflporcdpSio? also once
(Prov. xii. 8); twice in the Apocrypha, at Ecclus. xi. 13,
and again at iv. 34, where vwdpos and -rrapsi^evos sv rots
stand in instructive juxtaposition.
There is a deeper, more inborn sluggishness implied in
pos, and this bound up as it were in the very life,
384 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. civ.
than in either of the other words of this group. The
ftpa&vs of to-day might become the GOKVS of to-morrow ;
the apyos might grow to evspyos ; but the very constitu-
tion of the vwdpos unfits him for activities of the mind or
spirit; he is vwdpos sv rals STTIVOIULS (Polybius, iv. 8. 5).
The word is joined by Dionjsius of Halicarnassus with
avatad'rjros, aKivyTos, arid aTraOrfs ; by Hippocrates, cited
by Schmidt, with fiapvs ; by Plutarch (De Def. Orac.},
with SvcrKLV'rjTos, this last epithet expressing clearly what
in others just named is only suggested, namely, a certain
awkwardness and unwieldliness of gait and demeanour, re-
presenting to the outward world a slowness and inaptitude
for activities of the mind which is within. On its second
appearance, Heb. vi. 12, the Vulgate happily renders it
by ' segnis ' ; ' sluggish,' in place of the ' slothful,' which
now stands in our Version, would be an improvement.
Delitzsch, upon Heb. v. 12, sums up the force of vwOpos:
Schwer in Bewegung zu setzen, schwerfallig,trage, stumpf,
matt, lassig ; while Pollux makes vwOpsia a synonym of
afj,/3\vTi]$. It is in its earlier form a standing epithet for
the ass (Homer, 17. ii. 559).
'Apyos ( = apj6s}, used of persons (2 Pet. i. 8; Tit. i.
12) and of things (Matt. xii. 36), is joined in the first of
these places with aKapTros. It is there rendered ' barren,'
a not very happy rendering, for which * idle ' might be
substituted with advantage, seeing that ' barren and
unfruitful,' as we read it now, constitute a tautology
which it would be well to get rid of. It is joined by
Plato to ap,s\r)s (R e P- i y ' 4 21 <ty> an ^ to SetXos (Legg.
x. 903) ; by Plutarch, as already had been done by St.
Peter, to aKapTros (Poplic. 8) -, the verb ap^slv by De-
mosthenes to a^o\d^iv and airopslv. It is set over against
evspryos by Xenophon (Cyrop. iii. 2. 19), against sp juris
by Sophocles (Phil. 97).
'Slow' (or 'tardy'), 'sluggish,' and 'idle' would
severally represent the words of this gi'oup.
cv. SYKONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 385
^ CV. Srjfjuovpycs,
k BDILDER and maker' cannot be regarded as a very satis-
factory rendering of the -rs-xyirrjs KOI Srj/juovpyos of Heb. xi.
IO; 'maker' saving little more than 'builder* had said
already. The words, as we have them, were brought into
the text by Tyndale, and have kept their place in all the
Protestant translations since, while 'craftyman and maker '
are in Wiclif, ' artificer and builder ' in the Eheims. De-
litzsch traces this distinction between them, namely that
God, regarded as rsj(viTt}, is contemplated as laying out
the scheme and ground plan, if we might so speak, of the
Heavenly City. He is Sr]/j,iovpy6s, as embodying in actual
form and shape the divine idea or thought of his mind.
This distribution of meaning to the several words, which
is very much that of the Vulgate (' artifex et conditor '),
and in modern times of Meyer (Baukiinstler und Werk-
meister), has its advantage, namely, that what is first,
so far as a first and last exist in the order of the work
of God, is named first, the divine intention before the
divine realization of the same; but it labours under this
serious defect, namely, that it assigns to rsxvtnjs a mean-
ing of which it is difficult, if not impossible, to find any
example. Assuredly it is no unworthy conception of God
to conceive of Him as the drawer of the ground-plan of
the Heavenly City ; while the Epistle to the Hebrews, with
its relations to Philo, and through him to Plato, is
exactly where we might expect to meet it ; but rs^virrjs
in no other passage of its occurrence in the N. T. (they
are three, Acts xix. 24, 38 ; Eev. xviii. 22), nor yet in
the thirteen of the Septuagint and Apocrypha, gives the
slightest countenance to the ascription to it of such a
meaning; the same being as little traceable in the Greek
which lies outside of and beyond the sacred writings.
While therefore I believe that 8r)fj.Lovpj6s and
*co
386 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. cv.
may and ought to be distinguished, I am unable to accept
this distinction.
But first let something be said concerning each of these
words. ArjfMovpyos is one of those grand and for rhetori-
cal purposes finely selected words, which constitute so
remarkable and unique a feature of the Epistle to the
Hebrews ; and, in the matter of style, difference it so mate-
rially from all the other Epistles. Beside its single occur-
rence there (Heb. xi. 10), it is to be found once in the
Apocrypha (2 Mace. iv. i) ; in the Septuagint not at all.
Its proper meaning, as it bears on its front, is 'one
whose works stand forth to the public gaze' ('cujus
opificia publice prostant '). But this of the public cha-
racter of the works has dropt out of the word ; and
' maker ' or ' author ' this on more or less of a grand
scale is all which remains to it. It is a very favourite
word with Plato, and of very various employment by
him. Thus rhetoric is the Srj^iovpyos of persuasion (Gorg.
453 a) ; the sun, by its presence or absence, is the
ovpyos of day or night (Tim. 40 a) ; God is the
of mortal men (compare Josephus, Antt. i. 7. i). There
is 110 hint in Holy Scripture of the adoption of the word
into the theosophic or philosophic speculations of the
age, nor any presentiment of the prominent part which it
should play in coming struggles, close at hand as were
some of these.
But if God, as He obtains the name of Sr)}j,iovpy6s, is
recognised as Maker of all things, Trarrjp KOI TroirjT^s, as He
is called by Plutarch (De Fac. in Orb. Lun. 13), Trarijp /cat
fy/jiiovpyos by Clement of Rome (Cor. 35), rs^virrjs, which is
often found in connexion with it (thus Lucian, Hipp. 8 ; Philo,
Alley. Leg. iii. 32), brings further out what we may ven-
ture to call the artistic side of creation, that which justifies
Cicero in speaking of God as ' artifex mundi,' He mould-
ing and fashioning, in many and marvellous ways, the
materials which by a prior act of his will, prior, that
cvi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 387
is, in our conception of it. He has called into existence.
If Brj/jLiovpyos more brings out the power of the divine
Creator, rs^virrjy expresses rather his manifold wisdom,
the infinite variety and beauty of the works of his hand ;
' how manifold are thy works ; in wisdom hast Thou made
them all ! ' All the beauty of God's world owns Him for
its author, rov KO\\OVS 'ysvsa'idp^ijs, as a writer in the
Apocrypha, whose further words I shall presently quote,
names Him. Bleek therefore (on Heb. xi. 10) is, as I
cannot doubt, nearer the mark when he says, Durch
Ts-xyiTTjs wird hier gleichfalls der Schopfer bezeichnet,
aber mit Beziehung auf das Kiinstlerische in der Be-
reitung des Werkes : and he quotes Wisdom xiii. I : ovrs
TOIS spools Trpoa^ovTSS sjrs'yvwa'av rov rs^virrjv. There is
a certain inconvenience in taking the words, not as they
occur in the Epistle itself, but in a reverse order, Srjftiovpyos
first and TS^VLTIJS afterwards ; this, however, is not so
great as in retaining the order as we find it, and allowing
it to dominate our interpretation, as it appears to me that
Delitzsch has done.
cvi. d&TSios, wpalos, Ka\6s.
'Aareios occurs twice in the N. T. (Acts vii. 20, and Heb.
xi. 23), and on both occasions it is an epithet applied to
Moses ; having been drawn from Exod. ii. 2, where the
Septuagiut uses this word as an equivalent to the Hebrew
2113; compare Philo, De Vita Mos. i. 3. The TOJ <w,
which at Acts vii. 20 is added to daTsios, has not a little
perplexed interpreters, as is evident from the various
renderings which the expression has found. I will enu-
merate a few : ' gratus Deo ' (Vulg.) ; ' loved of God '
(Wiclif) ; ' a proper child in the sight of God ' (Tyndale) ;
' acceptable unto God ' (Cranmer, Geneva, and Rheimsj ;
* exceeding fair' (A. V.) ; this last rendering, which makes
the T 0c a heightening of the high quality of the thing
c c 2
388 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. cvi.
which is thus extolled, being probably the nearest to the
truth; see for a like idiom Jonah iii. 3 : 7ro\ts fisyaXrj TOO
Sew. At Heb. xi. 23, * a proper child ' is the rendering of
all our English Versions, nor would it be easy to improve
upon it ; though ' proper/ so used, is a little out of date.
The d(7Tv which lies in aarstof, and which constitutes
its base, declares at once what is the point from which it
starts, and explains the successive changes through which
it passes. He first of all is aarelos who has been born
and bred, or at all events reared, in the city ; who in this
way is * urban.' But the urban ' may be assumed also
to be * urbane ' ; so testifying to the gracious civilizing in-
fluences of the life among men, and converse with men,
which he has enjoyed ; and thus aa-rstos obtains a certain
ethical tinge, which is real, though it may not be very
profound ; he who is such being implicitly contrasted with
the aypoitcos, the churl, the boor, the villein. Thus in an
instructive passage in Xenophon (Cyrop. ii. 2. 12) the
d<rTioi are described as also sv^dpnes, obliging, that is, and
gracious, according to the humbler uses of that word. It
is next assumed that the higher culture which he that is
bred in cities enjoys, will display itself in the very aspect
that he wears, which will be fashioned and moulded under
humanizing influences ; and thus the avreios may be
assumed as fair to look on and comely, a suggestion of
beauty, not indeed generally of a high character, finding
its way very distinctly into the word ; thus Plutarch, De
Gen. Socr., contrasts the do-moy and the ala-%pos, or posi-
tively ugly ; and thus too Judith is aa-rsia (Judith xi. 23)
= the svTrpoa-toiros applied to Sarah (Gen. xii. n).
'Qpaios is a word of constant recurrence in the Septu-
ugint, representing there a large variety of Hebrew words.
In the N. T. it appears only four times (Matt, xxiii. 27 ;
Acts iii. 2, 10; Bom. x. 15). The steps by which it
obtains the meaning of beautiful, such as in all these pas-
sages it possesses, are few and not difficult to trace. All
cvi. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 380
which in this world lives submitted to the laws of growth
and decay, has its ' hour ' or &pa, the period, that is, when
it makes fairest show of whatever of grace or beauty it
may own. This wpa, being thus the turning point of its
existence, the time when it is at its loveliest and best,
yields wpaios with the sense first of timely; thus <fy>aK
Odvaros in Xenophon (Ages. x. 3) a timely because honour-
able death ; and then of beautiful (in voller Entwicklung
oder Bliithe stehend, Schmidt).
It will be seen that dcrrsios and &palos arrive at one
and the same goal ; so that * fair,' or ' proper,' or ' beau-
tiful,' might be the rendering of either or of both ; but
that they arrive at it by paths wholly different, reposing as
they do on wholly different images. One belongs to art,
the other to nature. In da-rslos the notions of neatness,
symmetry, elegance, and so finally more or less of beauty,
are bound up. It is indeed generally something small
which da-rstos implies, even when it is something proposed
for our admiration. Thus Aristotle, while he admits (Eth.
Nic. iv. 3. 5) that small persons (ol ptxpoi) may be da-rsioi
and a-vfji/jLsrpoi, dapper and well shaped, refuses them the
title of KaXoL 'Qpalos is different. There speaks out in
it the sense that for all things which belong to this passing
world, the grace of the fashion of them perishes, but that
they have their * hour,' however brief, the season of their
highest perfection.
The higher moral aspects and uses of Ka\6s are most
interesting to note, above all, the perfect freedom with
which it moves alike in the world of beauty and in that
of goodness, claiming both for its own ; but of this we
are not here to speak. It is only as designating physical
aspects of beauty that it could be brought iiito comparison
with wpaios here. KaXJs, affirmed to be of the same
descent as the German ' heil,' as our own ' whole ' (Curtius,
Grrundzuge, 130), as we first know it, expresses beauty, and
beauty contemplated from a point of view especially dear
390 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. cvn.
to the Greek mind, namely, as the harmonious complete-
ness, the balance, proportion, and measure of all the parts
one with another of that to which this epithet is given.
Basil the Great brings this out excellently well as he
draws the line between it and oapalos (Horn, in Ps. xliv.) :
To wpaiov, he says, TOV KO\,OV Biacfrepsi OTI TO pJsv oupalov
\fygTai TO a-vfjLTrSTrXrjpwfisvov elf TOV e-jriTrjSsiov /caipbv Trpos
Trjv ol/ceutv aicfjiijv &>s tapaios 6 tcapiros TTJS afvjreXov, 6 TTJV
oltCSldV TTstylV elf TS\l(0(TlV SCIVTOV BlO, TTfS TOV STOVS WpaS
a7roXa/3ft>i>, real itriT^Beiof elf aTToXava-iv Ka\ov Be eaTi TO
sv Ty <rvv6ecrei T&V p,\wv evappoa-TOV, sTravdoixrav CLVTU> TTJV
X^pw *X OV - Compare Plato, Tim. 30 c; Rep. x. 60 1 6,
and Stallbaum's note.
cvii.
[This concluding article contaius contributions toward the illustration of
some other synonyms, for a fuller dealing with which I have not
found place in this volume.]
I. \7ris, TTIO-TLS. Augustine (Encliirid. 8); 'Est itaque
fides et malarum rerum et bonarum : quia et bona cre-
duntur et mala ; et hoc fide bona, non mala. Est etiam
fides et praeteritarum rerum, et prsesentium, et futurarum.
Credimus enim Christum mortuum ; quod jam praeteriit :
credimus sedere ad dexteram Patris ; quod nunc est : cre-
dimus ventnrum ad judicandum ; quod futurum est. Item
fides et suarurn reratn est et alienarum. Nam et se quisque
credit aliquando esse coepisse, nee fuisse utique sempi-
ternum; et alios, atque alia; nee solum de aliis hominibus
multa, quse ad religionem pertinent, verum etiam de
angelis credimus. Spes autem non nisi bonarum rerum est,
nee nisi futui-arum, et ad eum pertinentiurn qui earum
spem gerere perhibetur. Quse cum ita sint, propter has
caussas distinguenda erit fides ab spe, sicut vocabulo, ita
et rationabili differentia. Nam quod adtinet ad non videre
sive quse creduntur, sive quao sperantur, fidei speique com-
mune est.' Compare Bishop O'Brien, Nature and E/ects
cvn. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. 391
of Faith, p. 304; and Zoch, De Vi ac Notione Vocis !X?m
in N. T.
2. irpea-^vr'rjs, jspcav. Augustine (Enarr. in Ps. Ixx.
1 8) : ' Senecta et senium discern untur a Grsecis. Gravitas
enim post juventutem aliud nomen habet apud Grsecos, et
post ipsam gravitatem veniens ultima setas aliud nomen
habet ; nam Trpsa^vrrfs dicitur gravis, et yspwv senex.
Quia autem in Latina lingua duorum istorum nominum
distinctio deficit, de senectute ambo sunt positse, senecta
et senium. Scitis autem esse duas setates.' Cf. Qucest. in
Gen. i. 70.
3. (j>psap, 7r??7?;. Augustine (in Joh. Evang. Trad. 15) :
' Onmis puteus [$peap], fons [^777?;]; non omnis fons
puteus. Ubi enim aqua de terra manat et usui prsebetur
haurientibus, fons dicitur ; sed si in promptu et superficie
sit, fons tantuui dicitur : si autem in alto et profundo sit,
ita puteus vocatur, ut fontis nomen non amittat.'
4. a-^Lo-fj-a, aipsa-is. Augustine (Cow. Crescon. Don. ii.
7) : ' Schisma est recens congregationis ex aliqua sen-
tentiarum diversitate dissensio : hseresis autem schisma
inveteratum.' Cf. Jerome (in Ep. ad Tit. iii. 10) : 'Inter
hseresim et schisma hoc esse arbitrantur, quod hseresis
perversum dogma habeat ; schisma propter episcopalem
dissensionem ab Ecclesia separetur ; quod quidem in prin-
cipio aliqu ex parte intelligi queat. Cseterum nullum
schisma non sibi aliquam confingit hearesim, ut recte ab
ecclesia recessisse videatur.' And very admirably Nevin
(Antichrist, or the Spirit of Sectarianism] : ' Heresy and schism
are not indeed the same, but yet they constitute merely
the different manifestations of one and the same disease.
Heresy is theoretic schism; schism is practical heresy.
They continually run into one another, and mutually com-
plete each other. Every heresy is in principle schismatic ;
every schism is in its innermost constitution heretical/
392 SYNONYMS OF TEE NEW TESTAMENT. cvn.
5. naicpoOvpia, irpaoT^s. Theophylact (in Gal. v. 22) :
'rrpaorrjTOs sv TOUT&) SOKSI irapa rfj ypa(f>y Bia-
ru> rbv fj,sv fiafcpoOv/jiov 7rd\vv ovra sv <f>povr)ai, p.^
aXka o")(o\f) sTriridsvat rrjv Trpoa-qtcovcrav Sltcqv rr3
TOV Ss TTpdov dfpis
6. avafjivrjcris, vTro^vrjcns. Ammonius : avd^vrjcris orav
eX0r) sis p,vr] fjLtjV T&V TrapsXddvrwv vTrd/Awrjo'is 8s orav y0'
erspov sis TOVTO Trpoa^Bf} [2 Tim. i. 5 ; 2 Pet. i. 13 ; iii. l].
7. (frdpos, rs\os. Grotius : ' <f)6poi tributa sunt quse ex
agris solvebantur, atque in ipsis speciebus fere pendebantur,
id est in tritico, ordeo, vino et similibus. Vectigalia vero
sunt quse Greece dicuntur TE'XT/, quse a publicanis conduce-
bantur et exigebantur, cum tributa a susceptoribus vel ab
apparitoribus prsesidum ac prsefectorum exigi solerent.'
8. TVTTOS, d\\r)yopovijisvov.- Ttivetus (Prcef. adPs. xlv.) :
* Typus est cum factum aliquod a Vetere Testamento ac-
cersitur, idque extenditur prsesignificasse atque adurnbrasse
aliquid gestuni vel gerendumin Novo Testamento; allegoria
vero cum aliquid sive ex Vetere sive ex Novo Testamento
exponitur atque accommodatur novo sensu ad spiritualem
doctrinam, sive vitse institutionem.'
9. \oiSopsw, fi^aa-faftect). Calvin (Comm. in N. T. :
I Cor. iv. 12): ( Notandum est discrimen inter hoac duo
participia,XotSo/3oi;yu,z/o< KOI ftXaa^Ti/Aov/jisvoi. QuoniamXot-
Sopia est asperior dicacitas, quos non tantum perstrinyifc
hominem, sed acriter etiam mordet, f amamque aperta con-
tumelia sugillat, non dubium est quin \oiSopstv sit male-
dicto tanquam aculeo vulnerare hominem ; proinde reddidi
maledictis lacessiti. 'BXacr^ijfjiia est apertius probrum, quum
quispiam graviter et atrociter proscinditur/
10. o^eiXst, 8si. Bengel (Gnomon, i Cor. xi. 10):
' o^s/Xst notat obligationem, 8st necessitatem; illud morale
cvii. SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT.
393
est, hoc quasi physicum ; ut in vernacula, wir sollen und
miissen.'
II. Trpavs, rj&vxios. Bengel (Ib. I Pet. iii. 4): ( Man-
suetus \Trpavs], qui non turbat: tranquillus [^cr^tos] , qni
turbas aliorum, superior urn, inferiorum, sequalium, fert
placide ..... Adde, mansuetus in affectibus : tranquillus
in verbis, vultu, actu.'
1.2. Td/j,\iw/j,vo$, eSpaios. Bengel (Tb. Col. i. 23)
* T0/j l \ic0/LLsvoi, affixi fundamento ; sSpaiot,, stabiles, firmi
intus. Illud metaphoricum est, hoc magis proprium:
illud importat majorem respectum ad fundamentum quo
sustentantur fideles ; sed eSpaiot, stabiles, dicit internum
robur, quod fideles ipsi habent ; quemadmodum sedificium
primo quidem fundamento recte solideque inniti, deinde
vero sua etiam mole probe cohserere et firmiter consistere
debet. J
13. Qvr]Tos t vs/cpos. Olshausen (Opusc. Theoll. p. 195):
' vs/cpos vocatur subjectum, in quo sejunctio corporis et
animse facta est : OVTJTOS, in quo fieri potest.'
14. g'Xeos, olKTipfjios. Fritzsche (in Rom. ix. 1 5): 'Plus
significari vocabulis o oiKTippos et oiKTelpsiv quam verbis
o s\sos et e\iv recte veteres doctores vulgo statuunt.
Illis enim cum iXaoy, l\dojj,ai et tXao-/coyu.ai, his cum ol et
olfcTos cognatio est. 'O e'Xsos segritudinem benevole ex
miseri& alterius haustam denotat, et commune vocabulum
est ibi collocandum, ubi misericordise notio in genere
enuntianda est ; 6 olfcrtp/Aos segritudinem ex alterius mi-
seria susceptam, qusa fletum tibi et ejulatum excitet, h. e.
magnam ex alterius miseria segritudinem, miserationem
declarat.'
15. tyi0vpi(TTtfs, Ko,ra\d\os. Fritzsche (in Rom. i. 30) :
sunt susurrones, h. e. clandestini delatores,
394 SYNONYMS OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. cvn.
qui ut inviso homini noceant quse ei probro sint crimina
tanquam in aurem alicui insusurrant. Contra tearaXaXoi
omnes ii vocantur, qui quse alicujus famse obsint narrant,
sermonibus celebrant, divulgant maloque rumore aliquem
differunt, sive id malo animo faciant, ut noceant, sive
teniere neque nisi garriendi libidine abrepti. Qui utrum-
que vocabuluni ita discriminant, ut tyidvpiards clandestinos
calumniator es, Karakakovs calumniatores qui propalam
criminentur explicent, arctioribus quam par est limitibus
voc. /cara\a\,os circumscribunt, quum id vocabuluni calum-
niatorem nocendi cupidum sua vi non declaret.'
1 6. a%pr)a-Tos, d^psios. Tittmann : ' Omnino in voce a-
non inest tantum notio negativa quam vocant (ov
, sed adjecta utplerumque contraria rov irovypov,
quod non tantum nihil prodest, sed etiam damnum affert,
molestum et damnosum est. Apud Xenophontem, Hiero,
i. 27, lydfjios a%pr)(7Tos non est inutilis, sed molestissimus, et
in (Econom. viii. 4. Sed in voce d^pslos per se milla inest
nota reprehensionis, tantum denotat rem aut liominem quo
non opus est, quo supersedere possumus, unnothig, ent-
behrlich [Thucydides, i. 84; ii. 6], quse ipsa tamen raro
sine vituperatione dicuntur.'
17. VO/MKOS, vofjio&iSdcrKa\o$, ^pa^^aTsvs. Meyer (in
Matt. xxii. 35) : 'VOJJLIKOS, ein Eechtskundiger, STTICTT^WV
rwv vofjiav (Photius, Lexicon ; Plutarch, Suit. 36) ; ein
Mosaischer Jurist ; vopoBi&dcrKaXos bezeichnet einen sol-
chen als Lehrer ; ^pa^arsvs ist ein weiterer Begriff als
vofjiiKos; Schriftkundiger, dessen Beruf das Studium und
die A-uslegung der heiligen Sclirift ist.'
SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES
BY
A. L. MAYHEW, M.A.
PAGE 11, LINE 7.
The German ' duom ' or ' domus.'
The modern German form is Dom, which is used in the sense of a
cathedral church, the church in which is placed the bishop's throne.
The ordinary Old High German form was tuom. which is not a native
German word but a word borrowed from ecclesiastical Latin. Both G.
Dom and OHG. tuom represent the Latin domus used in the sense of
' domus dei.' See Kluge's Etym. Diet.
PAGE 16, LINE 6.
The author, in dealing with avaB^^a and a va6fp.a, gives some instances
of a word separating into two forms in consequence of what was at first
a mere variety of pronunciation, which two forms in course of time
acquire distinctive meanings, and are looked upon as independent words.
From these instances we must set aside ' rechtlich ' and ' redlich,' which
are of course words of radically distinct origin. The two forms ' fray '
and ' frey ' never acquired a distinct meaning ; in fact the form ' frey ' no
bnger exists.
PAGE 17, LINE 6.
Read Qnrj.
PAGE 20, LINES 20, 21.
' Weissagen ' and ' wahrsagen.'
These words are contrasted by the author, but it must not be supposed
that the -sagen in both verbs is sagcn (to say). German weissayen, Old
High German wissagon, is derived frotn wizzayo (a prophet) ; compare
O.E. witga (a prophet). On the other hand, German wahrsagen is con-
nected with Old Saxon icdr-sago (lit. sooth-sayer).
PAGE 30, LINE 7.
The SoCXof ... is properly the ' bond-m&n,' from fa'a, ' ligo.'
This derivation is now given up by comparative philologists. Gr.
fo'w represents *6f-iw (compare Sanskrit dyati) from a root de, to bind ;
see Brugmann's Gram. ii. 707. It would be impossible to bring the
fiav- of SoiXo? into connexion with an original root de. The etymology of
dov\os is unknown. See Prellwitz, Etym. Diet. (s.vv. &<*>, SovAor).
^506 SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES.
O v
PAGE 31, LINES 19-21.
fopanevfiv . . . connected with ' f&veo,' 'foveo,' &UL\TTG>.
It is utterly impossible that any of these four words can have any
etymological connexion with one another. They correspond neither in
form nor in meaning. They are all four difficult words of very obscure
derivation.
PAGE 32, LINE 11.
Suutovos ... is probably from the same root as has given us 8ta>w, ' to
hasten after.'
No comparative philologist would now accept this etymology. The
formation of SMKOVOS from SHOW is not supported by analogy, no instance
occurring of the suffix -ovo- being added to a present verbal stem. The
d for is not accounted for. Besides this the senses of the two words
do not agree pursuit and service being very different things. The ety-
mology of SiaKofos is unknown.
PAGE 33, LINE 25.
Latin verna identical with the Gothic bairn.
The Gothic form is barn (not bairn) and is quite distinct etymologi-
cally from the Latin verna. Barn (a child) is derived from the root ber.
appearing iu O.E. beran, Goth, bairan (to bear). Lat. verna (a slave
born in the house) is derived from the root ves (Indo-European wen), to
dwell; see Brugnmnn, Gram. ii. 66. From the same root wes we tiiid
Lat. vfsta, Gr. eori'a, a hearth.
PAGE 36, LINE 8.
For (Godel) read (Godet).
PAGE 46, LINES 29, 30.
TTOVTOS . . . being connected with /Saflos, ftvOds, @e'i>0os, perhaps the
tame word as this last.
Of these four words the only two that are etymological I y connected
are fidQos and ftevdos. These two have nothing in the world to do with
fivdos, and the word novros stands quite apart from all these three.
irovros (the sea) is probably related to S-uiakrit panthan, path, way
(cp. vypa K(\(vOa), Lat. pons (pont-), from an Indo-European root
pont (to come, to go); see Prellwitz, Etym. Diet..
PAGE 48, LINE 5.
' Sloes austere.'
These words occur in Cowper'a Task, i. 122.
See New Eng. Diet. (s.v. austere). It may be noted that ava-Tijpns
is closely related to our word tear (O.E. geir), meaning properly ' dry.'
They are both derived from a root saus, cp. Lithuanian sausas, dry.
SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES. 397
PAGE 50, LIXB 11.
' Imago ' = ' imitngo.'
This equation may mislead tlie student ; he may think that the
author intends to say that ' imago' is a contraction of and identical with
'*imitago' etymologically. Doubtless Dr. Trench merely intended to
f-ay that ' imago ' and the verb ' imitor ' were from the same root i?.
This im may perhaps be for tnim : compare Gr. plp-do-dat ; see Robv's
Lnt. Gram. 845.
PAGE 56, LINE 14.
The etymology of dat\yaa (1) from Selge, a city of Pisidia . . . ; (2)
from 6i\y(iv, probably the same word as the German ' schwelgen.'
There is no scientific value to be attached to any of these etymological
conjectures. The comparison of ao-e'Xyetet with 6i\ytiv is phonetically
impossible, as is that of 6i\ytiv with German ' schwelgen.' The etymo-
logy of do-eXytta is really quite unknown. Some etymologists fancy
that the element <reX is from a root sicel (to swell) ; see Prellwitz. Etijm.
Diet. p. 278.
PAGE 85, LINE 21.
BOO-KCIP, the Latin ' pascere,' is simply ' to feed.'
The student must not suppose that this is an etymology ; the two
words are not related to one another. Gr. /SOO-KCIP has been sup-
posed to be for p6p<rKeu>, root ftop + suffix o-*a, cp. jSopu, food, Lat.
vurare ; see Brugmann, Gram. 432.
Lat. j9asco is from a root p /, to protect, feed ; whence "Eog.food.
PAGE 91, LINE 30.
ZO>TI, as some will have it, being nearly connected with au>, ag/ii, to
breathe the breath of life.
Greek fuij is now generally connected by comparative philologists
with /3i'or, both words being derived from an Indo-European root g*ei;
see Brugmann, Gram. 5i. 737, and Prellwitz, Etym. Diet. pp. 46, 1 lu.
For the f /rom a velar guttural, cp. vifa from root neiy.
PAGE 93, LIKE 9.
The scientific term ' Biology ' was invented by Gottfried Reinhold
Trenranus, born in Bremen, 1776. He studied in Gottingen, and his
chief work was Bioloqie oder Fhilosopnie der lebenden Natur, Gottingen,
6 vols. 1802-1822. See Pierers' Conv. Lexikon.
PAGE 99, Lnra 4.
The derivation of aXafwi/ from 0X1; (a wandering about) has nothing
to recommend it ; it fails to account for the latter part of the word, -afav,
and there is no connexion between ' bragging' and 'wandering about.'
398 SO. WE ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES.
PAGE 110, LINE 12.
On the relation between the two verbs defoul&nA. dffile see New Eng.
Diet. There has been confusion in the case of defile between the Old
French defouler (to trample down) and Old English fylan (to befoul) from
ful (foul).
PAGE 110, LINE 27.
' Spurcare ' (itself probably connected with ' porcus ').
This suggestion has nothing to recommend it ; the stem-vowels of
the two words do not correspond.
PAGE 125, LINES 12, 13.
Aarpti/fiv allied . . . perhaps to A'a, AJJI?.
Gr. Aft'u, Doric Aai'a for \ufia, should rather be placed with a7ro\au<u,
cp. Latin lucmm ; see BrtSal's Lat. Dice., and Prellwitz, Etym. Diet.
PAGE 126, LINE 1.
Atiros = &7/fio<rto?.
The Gr. Xetroy does not mean 'public,' but 'an offering, a service.'
AfiTovpyos means ' one who undertook for the State a public service.'
See the account of the word in Prellwitz, p. 182.
PAGE 128, LINES 23, 24.
Ilfvrjs connected with . . . the Latin ' penuria.'
These two words are probably of distinct origin.
Uei'Tjs is probably (as stated in the text) connected with KOVOS. M.
Bre"al says that we have in ' penuria ' a substantive formed from an old
desiderative *penurio, to be in need of provisions, from ptnus, provisions;
penus is probably connected with penes, in the power of; so Bre"al, and
Brugmann, Gram. ii. 132.
PAGE 137, LINES 23, 24.
"I3J?) the same word as virtp.
The author no doubt got this surprising equation from Gesenius. It
is hardly necessary nowadays to point out that, it is quite impossible to
connect Indo-European prepositions with Semitic ones.
PAGE 148, LINE 31.
' Demuth,' born ... in the heathen period of the language . . . and
only under the influences of Christianity attained to its present position
of honour.
Kluge (s.v. Demut) says that neither the word nor the conception
belonged to the heathen period of the language. Both the word and the
idea came into the old German language with Christianity.
SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES. 399
PAGE 167, LINE 24.
' Robber,' from ' Raub,' booty.
Our word ' robber ' is the Anglo-Norman robbere, cp. Old French
robeor, a word derived from Old High German roub (mod. G. Raub),
booty. See Kluge's Etym. Diet.
PAGE 163, LINE 10.
*wf and (frtyyos, which are different forms of one and the same word.
These two words are quite distinct ; <b<as is the same word as the
Sanskrit bhas, light.
*eyyos may be derived from an Indo-European type (s)phtngo$.
Prellwitz gives some Lithuanian forms in which tbe initial s- is retained.
PAGE 178, NOTE.
The German ' Aberglaube ' = ' Ueberglaube.'
Kluge (s.v.) shows that the prefix in ' Aberglaube ' is quite distinct
from the preposition iiber. The same element occurs in M. H. G. aberlist ;
Germ. Abergunst, Abername, Aberwille, Aberwandel, Abcnritz. The word
occurs in Alberus in the year 1540; he distinguishes ( diih'dentia ' (Miss-
ylaub) from ' superstitio ' (Aberglaub).
PAGE 210, LINES 17, 18.
Ktttpo'?, derived from Kftpco, as ' tempus ' from ' temno.'
These derivations are no longer believed in by Greek and Latin
grammarians. The etymologies of icaipos and 'teinpus' are unknown.
Kluge (s. v. weil) with praiseworthy hesitation suggests that natpos may
be from the same root as while, Goth, hweila, time.
PAGE 214, LINE 26.
Koa-fj-os connected with tcopfiv, ' comere,' ' comptus.'
It is impossible to connect KOO-^OS with these words, because the a- of
KO<T- is thus left without explanation. Prellwitz and Brugmaun agree
in connecting *cdo-/ioswith Sanskrit qamsali (he praises), and Lat. censere
(to pass judgment on).
PAGE 216, LINES 29-31.
We must reject the et)rnology of almv which Aristotle propounds:
dno rev del fivat (l\r}<j}o>s rf)v inttmtfutar.
The fact is that Aristotle's etymology is accepted by comparative
philologists ; bee Prellwitz, Brugmanu, i. 96, Kluge (s.v. Ehe), Breal
(s.v. eevum).
PAGE 219, NOTE.
' World ' = whirled.
It is a pity that this absurd guess should have found a place
even in a foot-note. The etymology of world ' given by Dr. Trench
from Pott is perfectly correct.
400 SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES.
PAGE 226, LINES 35, 36.
Kw/ioj ... is the Latin ' comissatio,' which, as it hardly needs to
observe, is connected with Kw^idfeu/.
' C'omissor, mot emprunt6 au grec. Le primitif est cw/ior " festin." '
Les formations en issare, assez maladroitement imite'es des verhes grecs
en ifw, e"taient fre"quentes dans le latin du temps d'Ennius et de Plaute.
On avait, par exemple, badissare = @a8i<a, patrissare = Trarpifw,
atticissare = drrtKt'fw, &c. Comissor est un des rares verbes qui ont
surv(5cu dans le latin classique; la forme grecque employe par les
auteurs n'est pas K<op.ifa mais /c/ida>.' Bre"al.
PAGE 240, LINE 23.
Gr. &fj.apria is no doubt connected with the verb ap.apT<ivu>. Brug-
mann (see Gram. ii. 682) says that a^apTiivat is probably from
d-p.ap-To-, d-/^3pa-ro-, ' without a share of,' connected with pfpvs popes.
He quotes the gloss ap.apiiv ap.aprav(iv (Hesychius).
PAGE 296, LIKE 29.
^aAjioc , from ^a'co.
These words are quite unconnected etymologically, and are far
apart from one another in meaning. See Prellwitz on the two words.
The verb ^dXXw is from an Indo-European root sphal, cp. Sanskrit
sphalati. The verb ^dw, ' I rub,' is supposed by Prellwitz to be from a
root bhas.
PAGE 309, LINES 24-27.
efjp, which in its JEolio form <pi']p reappears as the Latin ' fera,' and in
its more usual shape in the German ' Thier ' and in our own ' deer.'
The older forms of ' Thier' and ' deer' prove conclusively that these
words have no connexion whatever with the Greek 6f]p. The Germanic
forms point to an Indo-European ground-form dheuso-, which shows a
difference irom Ofo ((pr)p) both in stem-vowel and in the two radical con-
sonants. See Kluge (s.v. Tier) and Prellwitz (s.v.
PAGE 318, LINES 14, 18.
*auXos cannot possibly be connected with German faul, our foul.
Such an equation shows an utter disregard to Grimm's law.
'Schlecht' and 'schlicht' in German are not merely different spell-
ings of the same word. The difference in spelling goes back for its
origin to the woiking of a phonetic law in primitive Germanic. The
fact is, 'schlecht' and 'schlicht' are not forms of precisely the same
word. See Kluge.
PAGE 321, LINES 10, 11.
Kadapos, connected with the Latin ' castus,' with the German ' heiter.'
These words have absolutely no connexion with or,e another. The
German heiter, Old English hddor, point to an Indo-European root kait- }
which in Greek would be represented by KMT- (not a0-).
SOME ETYMOLOGICAL NOTES. 4 oi
PAGE 327, LINE 23.
'lepdy, probably the same word as the German ' hehr.'
The German hehr goes back to a base haira, and is probably radically
related to 'heiter' (see note to p. 321). This presupposes an Indo-
European root kai-. German 'hebr' cannot, therefore, have anything to
do with Greek Itpos, which is related to Sanskrit ishira- ; see Brugmann,
Gram. ii. 74.
PAGE 331, LINES 31-36.
"Ayios, ayvos . . . have in common that root dy, reappearing as the
Latin ' sac ' in ' eacer.'
Comparative philologists connect this Greek root dy- with Sanskrit
yaf, 'to honour a god ' ; see Brugmann, Gram. ii. 140. If this com-
parison holds good, there can, of course, be no connexion with the
Latin ' sac.'
PAGE 373, LINES 27-29.
vtyas, vtyos, yv6(f>os and o'$os, a group of words . . . perhaps only
different shapes of what was once a single word.
This could no longer be held by the best modern scholars.
PAGE 389, LINES 33, 34.
KaXdy, affirmed to be of the same descent as the German 'heil, 1 as
our own ' whole.'
Their relationship is no longer held by modern scholars. The vocali-
sation of the Germanic words renders any connexion with <caXdr
impossible. See Kluge (s.v. heil).
A. L. M.
OXFORD :
May 28, 1895.
n n
INDEX OF SYNONYMS.
PAGB
PACK
ayaGiaavvr}
. 232
avdOffut
. 15
dyaTrau)
. . 41
avd(h](ui
aytos
331, 401
dva/caiVwo-ts
. ; . 6 5
dyvo?7/i,a . .
. . 240
dva/iny<ris .
. . 392
dyyos
331. 401
dvctTravats
. 146
dypa/t/iaros .
. . 302
o.veyK\r)TOf
. . . 381
aSoAos .
. 209
avcfjios .
. 276
aiScos .
. 66, 69
aVCTTtXiyTTTOS
aipecris .
39i
aWcris
. i 4 6
atcr^poAoyia
. . 121
OLvBptinroKTovc
s . . . 314
aitrxwi? .
. 66
avofjua
. 240
'
A ttf\-\ '
AV
4 . 199
aiT7//AO .
. 191
dvri
. 311
atria . . .
. . 14
avrt^ptcTTOS
. . I0 5
atoiv .
214, 399
aTrAovs .
. 204
UKIIKOS . .
. . 206
aTTOKoAvi/as
353
uKepatos . .
. 206
dn-oAurpwo-ts
. 290
dAafrov
98, 397
aTTTOfjiai .
59
uA'</>0) .
. 136
dpyo's .
. 384
dAij^S .
. . 26
aprios .
. . 77
dA^^tvos
. 26
dp^atos .
250
dAAipyopov/ievov .
. . 392
do-e/?ia
. . 242
aAAos .
358
do-eAyewi
- 5 6 . 397
d/iapaWivos 4
255
aoTrovSos
X 93
d/xapavros .
255
do-TU)S .
. , . 387
d/^apny/xa .
. . 240
d<ruV^Tos .
. . 193
a/zapria . .
. 240, 400
do-wrta .
. 54
a/ie/XTTTOS .
381
av6J&)<;
349
a.fi(^iftXr](rTpov
. . 236
avo-nipos.
... 46
ifJLWfWS .
. .380
d<^CT4& .
. . 114
P D 2
404
INDEX OF SYNONYMS.
yepcuv
yvo^os
yvaio-i5 .
ypaju./xareiJ5
87o-is e
SetXt'a
8777x05
8l(XKOVO5
StKTVOV
8oK0>
8oXoa>
8oOXo5
eSpaios
I^V05 .
ei/cuv
PACK
TAG*
- 254
eXaiov . . . . 135
374
eXeyxos . . . .14
394
eXeyxw 13
394
eXeos . . .167, 393
eX*<o 72
37
eXTris . . . .390
37
cvoocov 34^
375
cWerfts . . . .189
9 J i 397
(vrpowrj . , . . 69
392
eWyvaxrts . . .285
84, 397
ImfiKcia . . , . 153
383
firtOvfjiia . . .324
. -365
e7rtTi/xaa> . . . 13
7ri<aj/eia . .. -355
391
epwraw . . . . 143
373
crepes . . . .358
. 281
cvXa/?a . . . . 36
394
evXa/Srfc . . . .173
evo-/3?7S . . . . 172
. 188
evrpaTreXta . . .121
. . 392
cuxapum'a . . . . 191
34
ei>Xy . . .188
. . 177
. 96
17X05 87
385
o'<os . . . .373
369
fan 9 1 * 397
. . 78
wov .... 309
3 2 > 39 6
. . 236
T7o-V>5 . . . . 393
305
WTT>7/XCl ... 240
. . 278
. 228
0aXao~o~a . . . . 45
3, 395
Oav/Jidcrtov . . . 340
34
$eidr>7s . . . 7
^eoo-e/3775 . . .172
137
^OT77S . . . . 8
393
Ofpdiriav . , . 30, 396
. . 368
Orjpiov . . . . 309
. 49
tfiyyavw . . . .58
3*9
$Xti/a5 . . . . 202
i
0vwos . 393
INDEX OF SYNONYMS.
405
flpiyvew .
PACK
. . 239
AdAe'o>
FAGK
. . 286
Oprf(TKo<i . ,
.175
AdAid .
. 289
OveXXa
. . . 2 7 8
Aa/wrds .
. . 163
0VfWS .
. I 3
Aao's .
367
6vo-ia<Trripiov
' - 365
Aarpevw .
125, 398
Aeyw
. 286
iSta
. 262
AeiToupyeco .
126, 398
t&tcm/s .
. . 302
Aflonfc .
157
lepov
. 10
Aoyo?
289, 335> 337
UpoTrpeTnfc .
. . . 348
AoiSopea) .
39 2
icpds
. 327, 401
Aouw . .
. . 161
iKfnjpia
. . 191
Av7TO/H .
. . 238
lAdcr/Ao? .
. 290
Av^VOS
. . 163
1/XdTlOV
. . . 184
i/AdTioyzds
. . 185
fJMKpodvfiia
*95 39 2
'lovSdios
. . 140
fJtavrevofJMi .
. . 21
'lo-parjXiTrjs .
. 142
/WITdlOS .
. 180
l^o-X 1 !
. . 322
Kdflapd?
320, 400
/xcyaActov
340
KdlJ'OS
. 219
p,eOr) .
225
Kdipds
209, 399
fJ.fTafJ.fXo/JLOt .
. . 256
KO.K.LO.
37
fj.fTavof<o .
. . . 256
KaKoijOfia .
. . . 38
/uaiva) '.
. no
KOXO9
. 315
/xoXvvo)
. . no
KoAds .
389, 401
ftop^i; .
. 262
KdTT^AeuOJ
. 228
fwx$os
- 378
KdTdAdAo? .
394
fj.v6os
337
KdTdAAayjy .
. 290
ftvpov
135
/tcvds
. . 180
fj.wpoX.oyia
. 120
KAeVnys .
157
KOIVOS
. . . 376
vaos .
. . 12
AcdAdo-is .
. 24
ve^pds
393
/CO7TO5 . .
. .378
Wos . .
. . 219
KOTTTO/Xdl
. 239
vwrra)
. 161
KOOyUO?
345
VO/tlKOS
394
KOCTyU.OS .
. 214, 399
vo/xo8i8d07caAos
394
KpCUTTdAiy
. . 227
vov0f<rta
. . 112
KVplOS
. . 9 6
vw^pds .
. 383
KW/AOS .
. 226, 400
oucen;? .
- 33
AdZAdl/r .
- . 77
o'l KTlp/JLOS .
- 393
406
INDEX OF SYNONYMS.
o/W(o<ri9
opTl
opei9
opfj.rj .
7TC1009
ira.LOf.ia .
TroXaios
jraAiyyeveo-i'a
n-avifyupis .
TrapaySacrts
7rapaSoov .
ira.pa.Kori
ira.pavop.ia. .
Trapo/r y toyz.os
TTe'Aayos .
irevT/s .
TTMTTIS
irXeovc^ta
7TVOJ/
TTOICQ)
iroifj.aiv<a
7TOT09 .
Trpao'-njs .
PAGE
. . 226
74
. . 50
. 49
. 13
325
324
328
. . 392
369
324
. in
250
. 60
. . 6
. 240
34
. 240
. . 240
. 240
H5
133
. . 280
45
128, 398
. 238
39i
39
. . 81
. 160
275
275
. . 187
362
. . 84
. 322
315
378
. . 220
153, 392
Trpacroxi)
crapKivos
criKaptos .
<T/cA/>7po9
(TKOT09 .
(rwajwyrj
o~vp<j)
(rxurfut .
o-<a<f>poo~vvr)
reXcios
Tpa9
V/1VOS
PAGB
362
393
. 188
. . 19
. 128
236
269, 272
. . 272
345
. . 340
. . 46
373
. . 281
. 2OI
. . 202
. . 186
. 2OO
. . 2
72
. . 262
391
. . 6 9
. I 4 8
393
75
392
340
385
. 24
. . 200
392
. . I0 3
. 297
3". 398
. 101
INDEX OF SYNONYMS.
407
inrofMOvrj ,
(faaivofjuii
</>avepftKris .
<f>@6vo<;
33
392
195
305
357
318, 400
l6 3> 399
. 213
. . 87
. 82
- 352
. 41
34
315
. . 213
392
391
. 281
\j/Tj\a.<f>a.<a
wpaio?
- 334
163, 399
. . 163
. 166
. . 184
. 186
. . 232
136
. . 209
296, 400
. . 106
58
393
. 268
. . 300
387
INDEX OF OTHER WORDS,
Abbild .
Aberglaube
dSt'/cTj/xa .
dSiKta .
Admonitio
deAAa
^Emulor
Aer . r
aydirr) .
atvos . .
aKT/paTOS
d.KoA.ao'TOS
Altare
Amo
dvayevvTjcris
dvaKaii/oa)
avaKatVoKTis
avavfow
Andacht
Angst
Animal .
CIVOTJTOS
Antic .
afTLKOLTfliV
Antipater
Avrt&tot .
Ara .
PAGE
5
Archaeology
399
aperij .
242
Assassin
242
Astutus
112
dcruvcTOs
2 7 8
Atonement
87
Aura
275
Austerus .
41
avOdBfia .
299
avfleWrros .
206
Avarice .
I 9 4
Avaritia .
112
367
Baptisma
Baptismus
4 1
Befleckeu
64 .
Benignitas
224
/? ' A
64
Beriihren .
62
Bestia .
224
Besudeln .
173
Betasten
203
Biography
39
Biology .
284
Bitte
252
Bonitas .
106
Bose .
107
Candela .
107
106
Canticum .
367
Caritas .
PAGB
. 250
. . 2O
. . 285
. 28 4
293
275
47, 39 6
3S 1
, . 48
. 81
, . 82
372
372
. no
234
46, 396
31
, . no
59
397
. 189
234
. 3i8
165
299
. 44
INDEX OF OTHER WORDS.
409
Castigatio .
Cautio .
dementia
Comissatio
Congregatio ,
Convict
Convince
Convocatio
Corona .
Correptio .
Covetousness
Crapula .
Cultus .
Deer .
Defile .
Defoul
Deitas .
Demuth
Deprecatio
Despot
Diadema
Sucaios .
Dilectio .
Diligo .
Discipline .
Divinatio
Divinitas .
SoKlftLOV .
Dom .
Donarium
Drag, Draw
Eifersucht
Emulation
ITTCUVOS .
PAGE
24
3 6
** ..
PAOt
. . 112
o
234
Equity
154
.
153
epo>5
. 44
226,
400
Eruditio
. . 112
6
fa . . .
. 20
15
cv&u/Wa .
. . 19
6
eiryvupoavrr! .
'54
eupv^wpia .
. . 203
78
Eutrapelus .
. 122
"3
81
Exacerbatio
134
Excandescentia
X 3 r
227
175
Facetious .
. . 123
Fail- [subst.] .
. 6
.
400
Fascia
. . 79
no,
398
Feria .
. 6
1 10,
398
Figura
. . 266
148,
9
398
Figure [^V-]
Fons .
. 266
1 88
Forma . .
. 266
96
78
Formality .
. . 266
"
i
Forme .
. 266
.
292
328
Fulsomeness
Fur ...
. . 228
44
4i
Furor
. . 131
112
22
Gasconade
. 101
9
Gebet
. . 189
2 7 8
Geiz
. 81
395
Glassen
273
,
16
Gloriosu.s
. 101
.
72
Glorious .
. . 101
.
68
Gratia .
. 169
Grecian
. 143
130
87
Habsncht
. 81
.
3 r 9
Hadiwist .
. . 259
249
ayveia
332
.
8?
dyvtfw
333
.
298
5/uAAa .
. 89
4io
INDEX OF OTHER WORDS.
dTrXdV
PAGE
. . 2O4
Losel .
'EXXi/vumfc
. 138
Loslassung .
IXaa-rrjpiov .
293
Luctus . .
oXorcX^s . , -
77
Xurpwr^s
Hopelost . ...
54
Luxuria, luxuriose
Hiiten . ...
85
Hymnus .
. . 298
p.dxop,ai
Macula .
Idiot . ,. ..
33
Malitia
Ill nature . . . , ;
Imago . . <
Immarcescible .
39
5, 397
255
Manier .
Mansuetus
Indigentia
- 83
pM.VTt.K-r)
Indignatio .
. . 132
/tavT
Iniquitas .
Inquino
Integer, integritas .
244
. . no
75
p.eyaXo7rdOeLa
Mendicus
Intercession . .
Interpellate . . ''
. . 189
. 190
Mercatus
Interpreter . .
39
IMnUt&CM
Invidia .
. 90
J^oJwp^O/uu
Jaculum .
. . 236
/teravoia
Metus
KaivoXoyta .
KCWD/XoS
. 222
. . 22 9
Misericordia
KaTacrrp-rjviauo . .
Klept
. 200
159
Moderatio .
Modestia
KOTOS
Kranz .
Krone ...
133
Monstrum .
Mundus
Labes . ; . ,
. . Ill
Nacheiferung
Lsetitia .
. 203
Nachschleppen
Xarpeia . .
. . 126
vcp-etrdw, v/xe<rts .
Latro .
. 157
Neuf .
Legend
339
Nouveau .
Liederlich
55
Novus . ,
Life . . , :
. . 91
Nurture . .
Little-ease
. 204
Longanimity
. . 196
oivwcrts . ,
54
116
238
291
54
322
no
38
59
392
22
21
182
196
I2 9
133
7
63
256
264
256
264
35
169
62
7i
153
342
214
87
74
90
225
225
225
226
INDEX OF OTHER WORDS.
Opportunitas
PAGE
. . 212
Recens . . . .
PAOl
225
Ostentation .
. 100
Regeneratio .
66
Religio . . . .
174
Palseology .
. . 250
Religion, religious .
176
Panegyric
. 6
Religiosus . . . .
175
Pasco
85> 397
Renascentia .
64
Patientia . .
. 197
Renovatio . . . .
66
Pauper, paupertas
129, 130
Reprove
13
Peccatio, peccatum
. 242
Resipiscentia . . .
258
Pelagus
45
Revelatio
355
IleveoTai . .
. 129
Robber . . 157,
399
Penuria
128, 398
Rogo ....
144
Perditus
54
Rootfast, rootfastness
7i
7T/37repOS
. . 101
Perseverantia
. 197
Sacer .
401
Petitio
. . 191
Sagena ....
237
Peto
. 144
Sapientia . . . .
282
Petulantia .
56
Scatterling
55
Philauty
353
Scheu
69
<f>i\ocro<f>ia. .
. . 282
Scurrilitas
123
<f>pd& .
. 288
Seculum . . . .
218
Pietas
. . 172
<n}/x ....
342
7r\a.TVcrp.6<i . .
. 203
trcfuforrp . . . .
348
TrA^yM/AcAcia
. . 249
Senecta .
39 r
Prenitentia
. 258
Senium . . . .
391
iro\ep.t(a
. . 322
Sensual .
272
7TOVT09 .
46, 396
Shamefast, shamefastness
7 1
Populus
. . 369
Sicarius .
3 J 4
Prseterition .
. 118
Signum . . . .
341
Pretermission .
. . 116
Similitude
50
Prsevaricatio .
245
Simplex . . . .
204
Prahlerei .
. . 100
Simultas
89
Precatio
. 1 88
awftpw
346
Prodigium .
. . 342
Spiritus
2/5
Prodigus
55
<T77~OVO/y . . . .
'95
Propitiation
. . 290
Spurco . . .no,
398
TrpocraiTT)<s
. 129
Stain
no
Protervitas
. 56
<rra<ris ....
323
Prudentia .
. 282
Stilts
101
Pudor
. . 66
Stolz .
101
Puteus . .
39'
Stonen . . .
273
412
INDEX OF OTHER WORDS.
Stout ....
PAGE
101
Uppishness
PAGK
. . 103
Strenuus . . .
201
Urban, urbane
3^8
Strict ....
4 8
Urbanitas .
. . 123
Stultiloquy
120
Suicism ....
353
Ventus .
2 75
crvvOrjKrj . . . .
194
Verax
. . 26
Superbus
IOI
Verbum
335
Superstitio, superstitiosus
177
Verecundia
. . 68
crvcr^rjfjLaTi^di .
264
Verna .
396
Susurro . . .
393
Verus
. . 26
Very .
. 26
Tsenia ....
78
Vetus
253
Ternperantia
7i
Vindicatio
. 24
Tempestivitas
212
Vita .
. . 91
Tempus . . 210,
399
Vitiositas
37
Tento .
281
Vorbeilassung .
. . 116
0a/3cros . . . .
16
Vorbild .
. 50
6av/j,a ....
345
Vox .
335
tfeoyevecria . . .
65
/\ /
Vyp ....
400
"Wahrsagen .
20, 395
Thief . . 157,
158
Wantonness
56
Thier ....
400
Weiden .
. . 85
6pd.uo<s . . . .
16
Weissagen .
20, 395
Tolerantia . . .
197
Welt .
. 219
Toucher . . . .
59
Weralt
. . 219
Traho ....
72
Widerchrist .
. 108
Tranquillus . . .
393
World
219, 399
Transfigure .
264
Worship
. 172
Transform . . . .
264
TpvM ....
200
Ziehen . .
. . 74
Tugend . .
3i8
Zoology .
93
Turpiloquium
121
Zorn .
. . 131
PRINTED BY
SPOTTIEWOODK AND CO., NEW-STREET SQUARE
LONDON
University of California
SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY
405 Hilgard Avenue, Los Angeles, CA 90024-1388
Return this material to the library
from which it was borrowed.
QL, DUE
APR 1 9 1999
1JAN 121998
EMS LIBRARY
A 000018264