MANUALS OF CATHOLIC THEOLOGY.
.OUTLINES
OF
DOGMATIC THEOLOGY.
SYLVESTER JOSEPH HUNTER,
//
OF THE SOCIETY OF JESUS.
VOLUME L
THIRD EDITION.
NEW YORK, CINCINNATI, CHICAGO:
BENZIGER BROTHERS,
Printers to the Holy Afostolic Set.
Hlbtl Obstat:
JOANNES CLAYTON, S.J.,
^nr/i. Prof.
Die /aid 14 1894.
3mpr (maiut .
HERBERT CARD. VAUGHAN,
Archiep. Wtstmonast.
Die Julii 13, 1894.
PREFACE
THE writer of this work proposes to present 111
three volumes, in English, an outline of a three-
year course of Dogmatic Theology, such as is
offered to students for the priesthood in Catholic
Seminaries. No attempt is made to give more
than the merest outline ; but it is hoped that it
will satisfy the needs of some who are not pro-
fessional students, especially by showing the nature
of the questions dealt with in each Treatise, and
their proportionate importance, as indicated by the
space allowed to them.
Originality would be out of place in a work of
this description: the matter is the common pro-
perty of theologians. The admirable Compendium
of Father Hurter is followed in the arrangement
of the Treatises.
The aim of the work is Exposition, not Contro-
versy, although controversial matter is occasionally
introduced by way of illustration. The writer
believes that if both parties to a controversy will
PREFACE.
give a clear exposition of what they hold upon the
subject, the questions between them will quickly
be brought to a decision.
In the Appendix to this volume will be found
a sketch of the method of disputation commonly
followed in schools of philosophy and theology, by
which the class are practised in the art of stating
objections clearly and answering them concisely.
No attempt is made to give special prominence
to questions that are attracting public attention at
the time of writing. It is hoped that the principles
here given will enable the reader to follow intelli-
gently the course of any theological discussion in
which he may be interested, and to realize how
closely the various parts of theology are linked
together ; so that no question can be considered
as standing by itself, but must be studied in view
of its connection with other branches of the science.
The book is suited for the reader of English.
The authorities exist for the most part in Greek
and Latin. These are translated or referred to in
such a manner that the reader can verify the
reference. The passages from the Fathers are
taken from the Abb6 Migne's great series, Patres
Graci and Patres Latini, quoted as P.G. and P.L.
respectively, and another reference is added which
will guide to the passage in other editions. The
PREFACE.
chief works quoted will be found in a convenient
Latin form in Father Hurter's collection called
Opuscula Sanctorum Patrum. Detached passages
are translated and arranged in Waterworth's Faith
of Catholics. The authoritative documents of
Councils and Popes are taken from Denzinger's
Enchiridion.
The reader is supposed always to have a Bible
beside him.
A list of a few English books bearing on the
matter of the volume will be found appended to
this Preface. The Catalogue of the Catholic Truth
Society will give the names of popular tracts on
most of the subjects dealt with in this volume.
S.J.H.
ENGLISH BOOKS THAT MAY BE CONSULTED
WITH PROFIT.
THE CHRISTIAN REVELATION.
Schant. A Christian Apology. Three volumes, translated from
the German. (Gill and Son, 1892.)
Wiseman. Science and Revealed Religion. (Booker. 1836.)
Maas. Christ in Type and Prophecy. (Benziger, 1893.)
Maher. Tatian's Diatessaron. (London, 1893.)
Lightfoot. Essays in reply to " Supernatural Religion."
Newman. Essays on Miracles.
HOLY
Humphrey, llie Written Word.
Dixon. General Introduction to the Sacred Scripture*.
MacDevitt. Introduction to the Sacred Scriptures.
THE CHURCH AND THB ROMAN PONTIFF.
Allies. The See of St. Peter.
Peter, his Name and Office.
The Formation of Christendom, and other historical Works,
Rhodes. The Visible Unity of the Catholic Church.
Lindsay. De Ecclesia et Cathedra.
Marshall. Christian Missions.
Bagshawe. The Church.
Credentials of the Catholic Church
Rivington. Authority.
Dependence.
Oakeley. The Church and the Bible.
Manning. The Temporal Power.
FAITH.
Manning. The Grounds of Faith,
Newman. The Grammar of Assent
Ward. The Wish to Believe.
CONTENTS.
INTRODUCTION.
z. Design. 2. Theology. 3. Theology, Natural and Revealed.
4. Divisions of Theology. 5. Subsidiary Sciences. 6. Modes
of Treatment. 7. Is it a Science ? 8. Division of the
Subject. 9. Method. 10. Recapitulation . Pp. z 10
TREATISE THE FIRST. THE CHRISTIAN
REVELATION.
CHAPTER I. THE NATURE OF REVELATION.
iz. Plan of the Treatise. 12. Subject of the Chapter.
13. Christianity Supernatural. 14. The Primitive Story.
15. Course of the Discussion. 16. Revelation and Mystery.
17. Possibility of Revelation. 18. Mode of Revelation.
19. Revelation why necessary. 20. Recapitulation
Pp. II 21
CHAPTER II. CREDENTIALS OF REVELATION.
ai. Subject of the Chapter. 22. Private Revelations.
23. Public Revelations. 24. Nature of Miracle. 25. Moral
Miracles and Miracles of Grace. 26. Probative Force.
27. Prophecies. 28. Objections to Miracles. 29. Recapi-
tulation ...... Pp. 22 30
CHAPTER III. DIFFICULTIES AGAINST MIRACLE AND PROPHECY.
30. Subject of Chapter. 31. Faith and Reason. 32. Objections
to Miracles classified. 33. God unchangeable. 34. Testi-
mony untrustworthy. 35. Miraculous character doubtful.
36. Demonic Agency. 37. Criteria of Miracles. 38. Have
Miracles ceased ? 39. Recapitulation . Pp. 31 44
CHAPTER IV. THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. PHYSICAL MIRACLES.
40. Subject of Chapter. 41. Early Existence of the Church.
Pliny. 42. Tacitus. 43. The Christian and other Accounts.
44. Acknowledged Christian Writings. 45. The Four
Gospels. 46. Gospel Miracles. 47. Miracles as Cre-
dentials. 48. The Gospels, when written. 49. Manu-
scripts. 50. Versions. 51. Testimonies. 52. Credibility.
53. Objections. 54. Recapitulation . . Pp. 45 64
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER V PROPHECY.
55. Subject of the Chapter. 56. Nature of the Argument.
57. Vague expectations. 58. Daniel. 59. An Objection
answered. 60. Micheas. 61. Fulfilments of Prophecy.
62. Other Messianic Prophecies. 63. Prophetic Allusions.
64. Recapitulation .... Pp. 65 80
CHAPTER VI. THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. MORAL MIRACLES.
65. Subject of the Chapter. 66. Nature of the Argument.
67. Conversion of the Empire. 68. This Success how
accounted for. 69. The Success foretold. 70. Christian
Morality. 71. Bad Example and State Opposition.
72. Recapitulation . . . . Pp. 81 99
CHAPTER VII. THE CERTAINTY OP THE CHRISTIAN REVELATION.
73. Subject of the Chapter. 74. Definitions. 75. Cogency
of the Argument .... Pp. 100103
TREATISE THE SECOND. THE CHANNEL OF
DOCTRINE.
CHAPTER I. TRADITION.
76. Scope of the Treatise. 77. Subject of the Chapter.
78. The Rival Views. 79. The Method used by Christ.
80. The Charge to the Apostles. 81. Action of the
Apostles. 82. The Second Century. 83. Tertullian.
Prescription. 84. The Work of Theology. 85. Recapitu-
lation ...... Pp. 104117
CHATTER II. THE PROTESTANT ROLE OF FAITH.
86. Subject of the Chapter. 87. The Protestant Rule not
Scriptural. 88. Prescription. 89. Scripture. 90. Reason.
91. The Fathers. 92. Recapitulation . Pp. 118 128
CHAPTER III. MONUMENTS OP TRADITION.
93. Subject of the Chapter. 94. Formal Definitions. 95. The
Liturgy and Ritual. 96. History. 97. Archaeology. 98. The
Fathers. 99. Tests of Unanimity, zoo. Single Witnesses.
101. St. Augustine. 102. The Doctors. 103. Bishops and
People. 104. Recapitulation . . Pp. 129 145'
CHAPTER IV. SCRIPTURE AND TRADITION.
105. Subject of the Chapter. 106. Tradition, prior in Time
and Thought. 107. Wider in Scope. 108. More necessary.
109. Recapitulation . . Pp. 146 155
CONTENTS. xiii
CHAPTER V. DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE.
no. Subject of Chapter, in. Heresies. 112. The Catholic
Doctrine. 113. Progress of Theology. 114. The Vincentian
Canon. 115. Recapitulation . . Pp. 156 166
TREATISE THE THIRD. HOLY SCRIPTURE.
CHAPTER I. WHAT is MEANT BY SCRIPTURE.
116. Plan of the Treatise. 117. Subject of the Chapter.
118. " Scripture," " Bible." 119. Date of Composition.
120. Original Languages. 121. Writers. 122. Extent.
123. Style. 124. Matter. 125. Recapitulation
Pp. 167175
CHAPTER II. THE SPECIAL CHARACTER or SCRIPTURE.
126. Subject of the Chapter. 127. Names given to Scripture.
128. Mode of Citation. 129. Decisiveness. 130. Manu-
scripts and Versions. 131. Laborious Study. 132. Esteemed
by the Jews. 133. Heretics and Heathens. 134. Recapi-
tulation ..... Pp. 176 184
CHAPTER III. INSPIRATION OF SCRIPTURE.
135. Subject of the Chapter. 136. Doctrine of the Church.
137. The Teaching of Christ. 138. Doctrine of the
Apostles. 139. The Fathers. 140. Man's Part: the
Intellect. 141. Man's Part: the Will. 142. Supervision.
143. Verbal Inspiration. 144. Views of Inspiration.
145. Freedom from Error. 146. The Fathers. 147. Re-
capitulation ..... Pp. 185 201
CHAPTER IV. THE CANON.
148. Subject of the Chapter. 149. The Rival Canons.
150. The Canon, how determined. 151. When established.
152. The Old Testament. 153. Recapitulation
Pp. 202 214
CHAPTER V. VERSIONS AND INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE.
154. Subject of the Chapter. 155. Translation. 156. Imperfect
and False Renderings. 157. The Church and the Versions.
158. The Vulgate. 159. Interpretation of Scripture.
1 60. The Use of Versions. 161. Recapitulation
Pp. 215 2*6
CONTENTS.
TREATISE THE FOURTH. THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER I. EXISTENCE OP THE CHURCH.
162. Plan of Treatise. 163. Subject of the Chapter. 164. Mean-
ing of " Church." 165. Church and Churches. 166. The
Church Perennial. 167. Proof of Perennity. 168. The
Church Visible. 169. Proof of Visibility. 170. Difficulties
against Visibility. 171. Recapitulation . Pp. 227 243
CHAPTER II. THE END OF THE CHURCH.
172. Subject of the Chapter. 173. Meaning of "Society."
174. Societies classified. 175 Family, State, and Church.
176. The Church Supernatural. 177. Christ the Head,
the Church the Body. 178. The Mystic Body. 179. The
Three Societies. 180. The Ends compared. 181. Duty
of Membership. 182. Recapitulation . Pp. 244 256
CHAPTER III. THE MEMBERS OP THE CHURCH.
183. Subject of the Chapter. 184. Terms defined. 185. Figures
of the Church. 186. Soul and Body of the Church.
187. Who belong to the Soul. 188. Who belong to the
Body. 189. Various Errors. 190. The Predestined.
191. The Just. 192. Difficulties. 193. Heresy 194. Children
of Heretics. 195. Catechumens. 196. Excommunication
197. Schism. 198. Recapitulation . . Pp. 257 282
CHAPTER IV. CONSTITUTION AND POWERS OP THE CHURCH.
199. Subject of the Chapter. 200. Governors and Governed
201. The Protestant Views. 202. Source of Authority.
203. Authority to Teach. 204. The Protestant System.
205. The Church Infallible. 206. Proofs of Infallibility.
207. Objections against Infallibility. 208. Seat of Infal-
libility. 209. Extent of Infallibility. 210. Faith and
Morals. 211. Dogmatic Facts. 212. Recapitulation
Pp. 283314
CHAPTER V. UNITY OP THE CHURCH.
213. Subject of Chapter. 214. Properties of the Church.
215. Catholic Doctrine on Unity. 216. Schism. 217. The
Donatists. 218. The Great Schism. 2x9. Errors as to
Unity 220. Unity of Faith. 221. Unity of Worship.
222. The Diptychs. 223. Letters. 224. Unity of Govern-
ment. 225. Objections. 226. Riva Views. 227. Recapi-
tulation . . . Pp. 315344
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VI. SANCTITY OF THE CHURCH.
228. Subject of the Chapter. 229. Meaning of Holiness.
230. The Church Holy. 231. Heroic Sanctity. 232. The
Church Holy in her Members. 233. Worldly Success.
234. Objections. 235. Miracles. 236. Recapitulation
Pp- 345359
CHAPTER VII. CATHOLICITY OF THE CHURCH.
237. Subject of the Chapter. 238. Meaning of Catholic."
239. The Church of Christ Catholic. 240. Early Testi-
monies. 241. Force of the Proof. 242. Recapitulation
Pp. 360364
CHAPTER VIII. APOSTOLICITY OF THB CHURCH.
243. Subject of the Chapter. 244. Meaning of "Apostle."
245. Later Use. 246. The Church Apostolic. 247. Re-
capitulation ..... Pp. 365 370
CHAPTER IX. NOTES OF THE CHURCH.
248. Subject of the Chapter. 249. Notes of the Church
250. Christian Communities classified. 251. The Unpre-
latic. 252. The Prelatic. 253. The Easterns. 254. The
Roman Church. Unity. 255. Sanctity. 256. Catholicity.
57. Apostolicity. 258. Objections. 259. Recapitulation
Pp. 37139
TREATISE THE FIFTH. THE ROMAN PONTIFF.
CHAPTER I. POSITION OF THE POPE IN THE CHURCH.
260. Plan of Treatise. 261. Subject of Chapter. 262. Who is
the Pope ? 263. Papal Functions classified. 264. Action
of Pope as Teacher. 265. Papal Legislation. 266. The
Pope and the Bishops. 267. Liturgy. 268. Mode of
Exercise. 269. Prescription. 270. Recapitulation
Pp. 391-^07
CHAPTER II. WHO WAS ST. PETER ?
371. Subject of Chapter. 272. St. Peter, Bishop of Rome.
273. The First of the Apostles. 274. A Dignity Promised.
27} Assistance Promised. 276. The Dignity Conferred.
277. The Acts and Epistles. 278. St. Paul and St. Peter.
279 Recapitulation , Pp. 408 427
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER III. THE PRIMACY.
280. Subject of the Chapter. 281. The Centre of Unity.
282. Peter the Foundation. 283. The Promise of the
Keys. 284. The Confirmer. 285. The Office of Shepherd
86. Papal Primacy. 287. The Universal Bishop. 288. Re-
capitulation ..... Pp. 428 440
CHAPTER IV. INFALLIBILITY.
289. Subject of the Chapter. 290. Infallibility Defined.
291. Proofs of Infallibility. 292. Objections. 293. Reca-
pitulation ..... Pp. 441453
CHAPTER V. THE POPE AMD THE BISHOPS.
294. Subject of Chapter. 295. Episcopal Government.
296. Councils. 297. Ecumenical Councils. 298. The
Time of Schism. 299. Recapitulation . Pp. 454 465
CHAPTER VI. THE TEMPORAL POWER.
300. Subject of the Chapter. 301. Church and State.
302. Immunity. 303. Concordats. 304. The Galilean
Liberties. 305. The Temporal Power. 306. Recapitula-
tion ...... Pp. 466478
TREATISE THE SIXTH. FAITH.
CHAPTER I. THE ACT OF FAITH.
307. Plan of the Treatise. 308. Subject of the Chapter.
309. Explanation of Terms. 310. " Faith " in Scripture.
311. Erroneous Views. 312. Analysis of Faith. 313. The
Certitude of Revelation. 314. Faith and Moral Virtues.
315. Faith in God. 316. Faith Obligatory and Free
317. Doubts as to Faith. 318. Need of Grace. 319. The
Certainty of Faith. 320. Recapitulation . Pp. 479502
CHAPTER II. REVELATION AND REASON.
321. Subject of the Chapter. 322. Oneness of Truth
323. Faith in Mysteries. 324. Recapitulation
Pp. 503506
CHAPTER HI. THE RULE or FAITH
325. Subject of the Chapter. 326 The Material Object of
Faith. 327. Proposal by the Church. 328. Censures
329. Recapitulation. 330. Close of the Volume
Pp. 507513
APPENDIX METHOD or DISPUTATION , . Pp. 514518
OUTLINES OF DOGMATIC
THEOLOGY.
INTRODUCTION.
PLAN AND DIVISIONS OF THE WORK.
I. Design. It is intended in this work to give
a brief outline of the Dogmatic Theology of the
Catholic Church. No more can be attempted than
the very briefest treatment of each portion of this
vast subject, but it is hoped that even such a
synopsis as is here presented will not be without its
use. The student who is beginning to attend to
Theology is often perplexed, through a difficulty in
seeing how the various Treatises that come before
him hang together, or why they should be taken in
one order rather than another ; a special endeavour
will therefore be made here to point out the
sequence of treatises, and to show how far each is
dependent upon others, in accordance with the
advice given by St. Thomas Aquinas in the Prologue
to his Summa Theologica, It is hoped that the
reader will find every important point of doctrine
touched upon, so far at least as to show the place
B VOL. I.
INTRODUCTION.
it holds in the general scheme ; and references will
be given, as far as possible, to English authors,
in whose works further information can most con-
veniently be sought.
2. Theology. The word " Theology " signifies
"A discourse on God," as its derivation shows
(&f6s, \oyos). In its widest sense, therefore, it
would include all systematic study which in any way
concerns God or His works; including, therefore,
the study of Nature, organic or inorganic, and of
Man as revealed in history. But to take the
word so very widely would be to fritter away the
distinction of the sciences, and lead to confusion
instead of orderly knowledge. It is well, therefore,
that actual usage has very much restricted the
meaning of the word.
3. Theology, Natural and Revealed. A knowledge
of the existence of God, our Creator and Lord, can
be attained with certainty by man contemplating
the world around him, by the exercise of the natural
power of his reason. This truth is defined by the
Vatican Council, in the second Chapter, on Revela-
tion, and will be explained and proved hereafter in
its proper place, in the second volume of our work.
The knowledge of the Being and the Attributes of
God which can be gained in this way, constitutes
the science of Natural Theology, which is a branch
of Philosophy. (See Father Boedder's work in
the series called Stonyhurst Manuals of Catholic
Philosophy.)
The knowledge of God which Natural Theology
teaches, however solid and valuable, is far from
3 ] THEOLOGY, NATURAL AND REVEALED. 3
being all that we can know concerning Him, for,
as will be shown in its proper place (Treatise I.),
it has pleased God to give to the human race a
Revelation concerning Himself, by which our natural
knowledge of His being and of His dealings with
us is confirmed and immensely enlarged. The
knowledge that we gain through this Revelation
constitutes Theology in the proper sense of the
term ; and it is of this that we treat in these
Outlines.
4. Divisions of Theology. St. Thomas, in his
Summa Theologica, designed to treat of the whole of
Theology in the sense just explained, having dealt
with Natural Theology in his Summa contra Gentes.
But death prevented the completion of his work,
and subsequent writers have found that the design
is too vast ; no satisfactory result can be obtained
unless the matter is broken up, especially because
the different parts are found to require each its own
appropriate method of treatment. Accordingly,
besides Dogmatic Theology (ra Soteovvra ovra), or
Doctrine, with which we are here chiefly concerned,
there are authors who treat of Moral Theology, or
the rules which God has laid down as obligatory
upon all men as guides of their conduct (mores);
Ascetic Theology (aovajo-t?), which, so far as it can
be distinguished from Moral and Mystic, may be
described as giving the rules for those who aspire
to a closer union with God than is obligatory upon
all, and who receive from Him that help without
which they cannot secure this happiness; and
Mystic Theology, which deals mainly with those
INTRODUCTION. [4
extraordinary favours which God is pleased from
time to time to bestow upon certain persons, not
primarily for their own benefit, but for the benefit
of others. This word Mystic is derived from the
same root (jivco) as Mystery, but by usage the two
words bear different meanings ; all truths known by
Revelation are called Mysteries, however simple in
themselves ; thus we speak of the Mysteries of the
Rosary, which are familiar to all Christians; but
Mystic Theology is concerned with the visions of
the saints, and the like. The boundary lines
between Moral, Ascetic, and Mystic are not clearly
defined.
5. Subsidiary Sciences. All other sciences are in
a sense subsidiary to Theology, for this is imme-
diately concerned with God, the Source of all things,
and Whose knowledge embraces the very truth about
all things actual and possible. But there are some
branches of knowledge which subserve Theology
in a more direct manner. Chief among these is
Philosophy, which discusses the general principles
upon which all knowledge depends, and certain
questions concerning existing things ; especially,
Philosophy is useful as exposing the futility of
attempts that are sometimes made to prove that
certain truths contained in Revelation are self-
contradictory: the Real Presence of the Body of our
Lord under the accidents of bread, for example.
The theologian ought to be acquainted with certain
parts of Physics, both in the ancient and the modern
forms of the science; for otherwise he will be unable
to understand the writings of divines of former ages,
5] SUBSIDIARY SCIENCES. $
or to explain himself to men of his own day. He
ought to possess himself of some portions of History
and Archaeology, which teach what have been God's
dealings with His rational creatures ; and of Canon
Law and Liturgical science, which show what has
been the action of that Society which God has
established for the purpose of guiding men to
Him.
It is part of the proper subject of Theology to
discuss the precise character of the writings which
constitute Holy Scripture, and distinguish them
from all other writings ; also, to lay down certain
rules as to the authority that attaches to the
Fathers of the Church. Again, since Theology
founds some of its arguments upon particular
passages of these monuments of antiquity, it neces-
sarily discusses fully the precise meaning of these
passages. But it is not necessary for Theology to
give a continuous commentary upon Holy Scripture
and the Patristic writings; the interpreter, however,
no less than the historian, must have before his eyes
the teachings of Theology, as the norm to which
his expositions must conform. This rule results
from the certainty which Theology attains, which is
higher than the certainty that can be ascribed to
any interpretation of a text or historical view.
This is explained in the sixth Treatise, on Faith,
(n. 319.)
6. Modes of Treatment. Christian writers of all
times have left us commentaries, sermons, letters,
and treatises on particular points of doctrine,
directed against various errors as they have arisen ;
INTRODUCTION. 1C
and by the study of these writings it is possible to
ascertain what was the belief of the writers on
various points. But for a thousand years or more,
little attempt was made to systematize the body of
doctrine, and to show how it formed a coherent
whole. Afterwards, however, this work was done
by the labour of the Schoolmen, so called because
the earliest of them taught in the schools, which
having been established in cities and monasteries
through the act or influence of Charlemagne,
grew into the Universities of mediaeval Europe.
St. Anselm, who died in 1109, is commonly reckoned
the first of the Schoolmen, just as St. Bernard was
the last of the Fathers, having closed his life in
1*53-
Scholastic Theology is, therefore, a particular
treatment of the subject, where every term is pre-
cisely defined, doctrine is clearly stated without
superfluous matter, order is strictly observed, the
questions why f and how f are raised and answered,
and objections are put shortly but plainly and
replied to in the same manner. In contradistinction
from this, Positive Theology does not concern itself
with formal definitions, adopts a flowing style,
chooses its matter with a view to some practical
object, ignores all subtle inquiry into the reason and
manner of things, and incorporates the answers to
difficulties in the general discourse.
The difference between Positive and Scholastic
Theology is then a difference of method, not of
Joctrine. It happens, however, that most of the
great Scholastics followed one system of Philosophy,
61 SCHOLASTIC THEOLOGY. y
founded on that of Aristotle ; from which it resulted
that this body of philosophical doctrine received the
name of Scholastic Philosophy, and under this
name it still holds its own in most Catholic schools,
witnessing the rise and fall of countless rival
systems.
A third method of treating Theology was
rendered necessary by the circumstances of the
sixteenth century. The teachers who carried a
large part of Europe with them at that time, were
not content with denying one or another point of
Catholic doctrine, but they attacked the system as
a whole and in every point. To meet them it was
necessary to establish the authority of the Church,
which had not been called in question in previous
ages, and also to defend all particular doctrines
against a new method of attack. This Controversy
or Polemic Theology (TroXe/no?, war) was put into
shape by Cardinal Bellarmine, whose method can
scarcely be improved upon, and Polemics still con-
tinue to be a principal, but by no means the only,
employment of a theologian. The result of the
discussions of the last three centuries has been
the separation of one portion of Polemics, and its
formation into a compact whole, which goes by the
name of Apologetics or Fundamental Theology.
Its nature will be explained directly, (n. 8.) A
judicious combination of Positive, Scholastic, and
Controversy is what is required at the present day.
(See n. 84.) It will be remembered that St. Ignatius
of Loyola lays it down as one of the Rules for
nreserving harmony of feeling with the Church
INTRODUCTION. [6
(Rule u), that we must approve of both Positive
and Scholastic Theology, each being useful in
its place. He wrote before Polemic had taken
shape.
7. Is it a Science? The question is sometimes
raised, whether Theology is a science. The answer is
that it is not a science in the sense of being founded
on self-evident principles, like Geometry, for its
principles, while they are supremely certain, are of
a different nature from those of other sciences.
But it deserves to be called a science, and the chief
of sciences, on account of the pre-eminent certainty
of its principles ; as shall be explained when we
treat of Faith. (Treatise VI.)
8. Division of Subject. In the arrangement of
our matter, we shall for the most part follow the
order adopted by St. Thomas in his Summa. The
Saint first treats of God, one Substance existing
in three Persons ; then of the creatures of God,
especially the rational creatures, the Angels and
Man. He then discusses the end for which man
was created, and how he is to attain that end, by
the use of his free-will ; and it is here that Moral,
Ascetic, and Mystic Theology would find their place
did our design extend to them. Afterwards we
have the Treatise on the Incarnation, inasmuch as
Christ is the way by which man attains his end ;
on Grace ; and on the Sacraments, the great means
by which the benefit of the work of Christ is applied
to individual souls. Had not death interfered,
St. Thomas would have finished the work by
Treatises on the Four Last Things.
8] DIVISION OF SUBJECT. g
This sufficed in the thirteenth century, when no
one called in question the authority of the Church.
But at the present day, as already explained (n. 6),
it is necessary to add certain Treatises which are
especially Polemical, inquiring what is the True
Religion, which will be shown to be the Christian
Revelation ; what are the sources of our knowledge
of this Revelation, namely Tradition and Scripture ;
what the position of the Church as guardian of
Revelation, and her constitution, which is monar-
chical, under the Roman Pontiff. The name of
Fundamental Theology is sometimes given to this
group of five Treatises, with which it is convenient
to begin. A sixth Treatise, on Faith, completes the
volume.
9. Method. In discussing each point in its turn,
we shall in general observe the following order.
First we shall point out how the question arises,
and what room there is for difference of opinion
consistent with the truths that are considered as
already established at this place ; this will -involve
all necessary explanation of the terms employed.
The Catholic doctrine will then be stated, or if the
point be open, then that which seems preferable,
and proof of it will be given derived from the three
great loci, Scripture, Tradition, and Reason ; where
by Reason is meant not merely the pure unassisted
reason of man, but more commonly theological
reason, that is to say, the analogy of other parts of
revealed doctrine. Objections that may be raised
against the doctrine will then be considered, if
necessary ; but it will often be found that they have
io INTRODUCTION. [g
been anticipated in the introductory explanation, for
difficulties are very commonly based on an ignoratio
elenchi : mistake of the point.
io. Recapitulation. So far we have explained
the nature of Theology and its branches, Dogmatic,
Fundamental, Moral, Ascetic, and Mystic ; also the
different modes in which it can be treated, Positive,
Scholastic, and Polemic. The convenient distribution
of the subject was then shown, and the arrangement
which will here be observed in the treatment of each
question.
tTreatise tbe jffrst
THE CHRISTIAN REVELATION.
CHAPTER I.
THE NATURE OF REVELATION.
11. Plan of the Treatise. In this Treatise we shall
show in successive chapters, first what is meant by
the Revelation of a Mystery and that such Revela-
tion is possible. Then that Miracles and Prophecy
are possible, and that they may serve as the
credentials of one who claims to be commissioned
to proclaim a Divine revelation. Thirdly, that
Miracles and Prophecy attest the claim of Christ to
be considered a Divine Messenger. Lastly, it will
be pointed out as the result of this discussion that
the Divine origin of the Christian Revelation is
certain but not evident.
12. Subject of Chapter. The first chapter will
point out the supernatural character claimed by the
Christian religion, and we shall study the nature
and necessity of revelation.
13. Christianity Supernatural. It can scarcely be
seriously disputed that Christianity claims to be a
supernatural religion. Its leading doctrines, the
la THE NATURE OF REVELATION. [13
Trinity in Unity and the Incarnation, are thoroughly
supernatural : they could not possibly have been
known to be true, except by revelation from God,
and even assuming that they have been revealed,
the natural powers of man are totally incompetent
to understand the intrinsic reasons on which the)
depend : those who accept them do so purely on
the authority of God. Moreover, the proof that
Christians adduce to justify their belief that God
has spoken is itself supernatural ; for it depends
upon a succession of prophecies and upon miracles,
of which the principal is the Resurrection of our
Lord from the dead. And further, Christianity
holds out to man a final destiny beyond the powers
of his nature or that of any creature, and offers him
supernatural help, to enable him to attain this
destiny. A religion which is supernatural in its
doctrines, its credentials, and its aims, certainly
claims to be called supernatural. By "supernatural"
we understand what surpasses the powers of a
creature : the fuller discussion of this most impor-
tant term will find a place when we treat of the
condition of our first parents before their sin.
14. The Primitive Story. That Christianity as it
now exists, and is professed by the great bulk of
its followers claims to be supernatural, will be
generally admitted : but it is sometimes said that
this was not the primitive character of the religion.
There are those who profess the highest respect for
the teaching of Christ and avow themselves His
followers, but declare that He never aspired to a
higher character than that of a purely human
I 4 ] THE PRIMITIVE STORY. 13
instructor in a sublime system of morality; and
whatever else is attributed to Him is, they say,
a later corruption. These men will quote with
admiration the Sermon on the Mount, and the
verse where St. James teaches that pure religion is
to visit the fatherless and the widows in their afflic-
tion (St. James i. 27); and they add that St. John
the Evangelist, in his old age, had no last lesson to
inculcate upon his disciples except mutual love, as
St. Jerome tells us in his commentary upon the last
chapter of the Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians
(P.L. 26, 433), where St. Paul exhorts his disciples
to work good to all men, and to bear one another's
burdens. In all this, they say, there is admirable
morality, but nothing of the supernatural, or of the
subtleties of theological doctrine.
This patronizing tone was adopted as long ago
as the third century by Porphyry, as we learn from
Eusebius. (Prcep. Evang. 3 ; P.G. 22, 236.) Socinus
was driven to it, as an escape from the doctrinal
strife of the early Protestant sects in the sixteenth
century. It was adopted by the English deists of
the Georgian era, from whom it was borrowed by
the German Lessing, whose influence is still felt in
his own country. Renan has made the view popular
in France, and it prevails extensively in England,
being preached by many popular writers. It is
probably rife among some Freemasons.
We have here to deal with one of those worst
of falsehoods which are half a truth. There is no
height of charity or other natural virtue so sublime
but what Christianity invites men to aspire to it f
14 THE NATURE OF REVELATION. [14
furnishing them with potent helps in the endeavour,
and motives and examples. But along with this,
as we have shown, the religion has a marked super-
natural character. The bases of Christianity are
found in the books of Holy Scripture, especially of
the New Testament, which as they are commonly
read are full of narratives and discourses which admit
of no natural explanation. Accordingly, in all ages
those who are not content to accept Christianity as
it was left by its Founder, have asserted that these
books have been largely interpolated, or that their
true date is far later than is commonly supposed.
Thus, they refuse to admit the authority of the
Gospel of St. John, and of many of the Epistles, but
those who go furthest in this line will admit that
the three Synoptic Gospels represent the original
story, as do also the Acts of the Apostles, and four
at least of the Epistles of St. Paul : those to the
Romans and Galatians and the two to the Corin-
thians. But even from these they cut out the
miraculous narratives as being spurious interpola-
tions, and explain as best they can such passages
as those in St. Matthew (xi. 25) and St. Luke
(x. 21), where our Lord thanks His Father for the
fulness of the revelation that He has granted to the
little ones of earth. We shall prove the authenticity
and genuineness of the Gospels in its proper place
(nn. 48 53) ; but we must here call attention to
the utter untrustworthiness of the line of argument
which rejects passages from an author on purely
internal grounds, though such grounds may have
a certain weight when they go along with other
14] THE PRIMITIVE STORY. 15
circumstances. For instance, there is not a particle
of external objection to the account given by
St. Matthew (i. 19) of the miraculous conception
of our Lord : it is found in all the manuscripts and
versions. To reject it as an interpolation and then
to argue from the silence of the document, thus
manipulated, as showing that there was nothing
supernatural in the original story, is a plain begging
of the question. A course like this seems to have
been adopted by the Manicheans, and elicited a
protest from St. Augustine. (De Utilitate Credendi,
c. 3, n. 7; P.L. 42, 69.)
15. Course of the Discussion. We might at once
proceed to show that this claim of Christianity to
be a supernatural revelation is in fact well founded ;
after which it would be superfluous to prove that
such revelation is possible. But it will be instructive
first to discuss the grounds alleged by some writers
for believing that nothing of the sort can happen,
and to show their futility. In this discussion, we
shall assume as granted the existence of God, the
all-wise and all-powerful Creator of all things. This
truth will, of course, be proved in its proper place,
in the second volume.
16. Revelation and Mystery. Revelation is the
making known of something which was previously
unknown: the unfolding of a mystery. Mysteries
are of various kinds. The thing may be in itself
cognizable by the senses, which, however, have no
opportunity of receiving the necessary impression :
thus, it is a mystery to me how much money my
neighbour has in his pocket, and the state of things
16 THE NATURE OF REVELATION. [16
on the other side of the moon is a mystery to all
mankind. There are other mysteries which lie
beyond the scope of sense ; for instance, my secret
thoughts are unknown to my neighbours, except so
far as I please to reveal them. In all these cases,
man is capable of understanding the matter if it be
brought before him ; he can see how the subject
and predicate hang together: but there may be,
and in fact are, mysteries of a higher nature, in
which the manner of the connection of the terms
remains obscure, even when the truth of their
connection is known. These are called Divine
mysteries, as are also all matters that depend upon
the free-will of God. We shall meet with examples
of both sorts when we prove the doctrines of the
Trinity and Incarnation, and the form of government
which it has pleased God to give to His Church.
Meanwhile, we remark that whoever denies the
possibility of the existence of such mysteries assumes
that the Divine understanding is no wider than his
own : a presumptuous and baseless assumption.
The Vatican Council was therefore justified in
declaring that such mysteries do exist (Const, i, c. 4 ;
Denz. 1643) : a doctrine plainly contained in such
passages as Romans xi. 33, where God's judgments
are declared to be incomprehensible, and His ways
unsearchable.
17. Possibility of Revelation. We have now to
show that it is possible for God to grant to men the
revelation of certain Divine mysteries ; which can
be done only by showing the absence of any insu-
perable difficulty in the way. We must pronounce
17] POSSIBILITY UF REVELATION. 17
all things to be possible to God in which we do
not perceive a contradiction. Now, the work of
instruction can always be carried on if the teacher
knows the matter, the pupil has capacity to receive
the instruction, and communication can be estab-
lished between teacher and pupil. But, when God
is the Teacher, He certainly knows the matter, for
He is all-knowing. Man is capable of receiving
instruction in these mysteries, for nothing else is
needed than that he should have some understanding
of the terms : and it is not difficult to understand to
some extent what is meant by " substance " and
"person," and this is sufficient to make it possible
intelligently to believe that in God there are three
Persons in one Substance, although how this is
be entirely unknown, and even what these Persons
are is beyond our comprehension. Just so, a boy
going to sea understands what is meant by a needle
and by the North ; and he may believe when told
that a magnetic needle, properly poised, will point
to the North, although the wit of man has hitherto
failed to invent a plausible explanation how this
happens. Man is, then, capable of believing truths
which come to him on sufficient authority, even
when he does not see their intrinsic reasonableness.
(See further, n. 323.)
18. Mode of Revelation.- Nor is it impossible for
God to communicate with man ; to say otherwise
would be to deny to the Creator a power which is
possessed by the creature. Man is capable of com-
municating with his fellow-man, and this by means
not of natural signs alone, but also by arbitrary
C VOL. I.
1 8 THE NATURE OF REVELATION. [i*
signs, such as language. The origin of this power
is unknown to us, but its existence is proved by
every day's experience. There is, therefore, nothing
to prevent God, if He pleases, communicating with
us; and we must not call this in doubt merely
because we do not see how it is done.
St. Thomas (Summa Theol. I. q. in, a. I. and
2. 2. q. 172, a. 2.) teaches that revelations are brought
from God to man through the ministry of angels.
The various modes that are recorded to have been
employed are collected by St. Augustine in a sermon
which is sometimes called his i2th, on Scripture,
sometimes his i6th, de Diversis. (P.L. 38, 102.) He
puts the Holy Scripture in the first place as contain-
ing messages to us from God ; but the same purpose
may be served in several other ways. It is to be
observed that the power of communicating with
another involves the power of making that other
know from whom the communication comes, for
the gift of language would be useless to me if I
could not ensure my friend knowing that what he
hears is my voice, and not the voice of a stranger,
or perhaps the soughing of the wind. Mistakes are
possible, but they are exceptional ; and so also,
Divine revelations may be given but not recognized
as such, or their existence may be imagined without
sufficient ground ; but regularly the truth will be
known.
19. Revelation, why necessary. It is conceivable
that God might have so disposed the world that
there should be no need for Revelation : He might
have assigned to man an end which would have
ig] REVELATION. WHY NECESSARY. ig
been within his reach without requiring the know-
ledge of Divine mysteries. But as a matter of fact,
the end for which man is destined surpasses his
natural powers, as will be shown in its proper place.
And this is a great benefit to man, not only on
account of the high destiny that is placed within
his reach, but also because the method of guidance
by the revelation of mysteries is specially suited to
man's mental nature. Man has a constant natural
craving to know something of the secrets of God,
and this craving is satisfied by the Christian Revela-
tion, for the contemplation of its truths has afforded
full employment to some of the greatest intellects
that the world has seen : to St. Augustine, St. Anselm,
and St. Thomas. When this revelation is rejected,
men endeavour to satisfy their craving by such
means as they think suitable : this is proved by the
devotion of the Neo-Platonists of the fourth century
to magic, and of the Priscillianists to astrology m
the fifth : this art was cultivated by the votaries of
revived paganism at the time of the Renaissance,
among whom also the study of the Cabbala found
favour. During the excesses of the French Revolu-
tion these modes of seeking to pry into mysteries
had great vogue ; and in our own time, men seek to
replace Christianity by Esoteric Buddhism, Spiritism,
and the like. Further, all instruction necessarily
begins with an exercise of faith on the part of the
pupil, who accepts much that he cannot understand
simply upon the authority of the teacher : and
unless he do this heartily, he will make little
progress, as will be seen if we consider the process
20 THE NATURE OF REVELATION. [19
of teaching the beginning of any art or science.
Man on earth is beginning to learn a lesson which
he is destined to know perfectly in the world beyond
the grave : the boast, therefore, of Rationalists of
all ages that they believe nothing upon mere autho-
rity is false in fact as well as unreasonable in theory.
This is excellently pointed out by St. Augustine, in
his book, De Utilitate Credendi (P.L. 42, 63 92),
directed against the Manicheans, the Rationalists
of his day, and his arguments are still applicable.
Especially he insists that the Christian Revelation
does not call upon men to believe absurdities, which
important point calls for illustration. No part of it
is contradictory to any other part, or to any truth
which our intellect perceives to be certain and
necessary, (n. 322.) Apparent cases of the kind are
met with, but they will be found on examination to
depend either upon a misunderstanding of the true
doctrine, or upon a hasty assumption that what is
ordinarily true is true necessarily, so as not to admit
an exception even by miracle. For instance, our
experience shows us that each substance is regularly
accompanied by its own set of accidents, but no
man can ever prove that this is necessarily so ; and
thus the doctrine that in the Blessed Eucharist the
Body of Christ exists under the accidents of bread,
does not contradict any known truth, but merely
furnishes an exception to the rule which is found to
be ordinarily observed. We decline to discuss the
supposition of a Divine revelation being given which
contradicts a known truth, for this supposition is
impossible, (n. 322.) God cannot contradict Himself,
ig] REVELATION, WHY NECESSARY. 21
whether He speaks by nature or by revelation ; and
any communication which purported to be a revela-
tion would be at once discredited if it were shown
to contradict known truth. In the words of the
Vatican Council (fourth chapter of the First Consti-
tut : on), "Although Faith be above Reason, yet
between Faith and Reason there never can be true
variance." (Denz. 1645.) Lastly, we may conjecture
that God chose this way of training men by the
revelation of mysteries in order to help them in
combating pride, which refuses to take the humble
position of a learner, as well as disclaims all sub-
jection to law, and thus is the source of all the
sins that are committed.
20. Recapitulation. --We'have seen in this chapter
that Christianity claims, and has always claimed to
be a supernatural religion : we have explained the
nature of mysteries, and have shown that Revelation
is possible and suited to our nature. As will be
remembered (n. 15), we have throughout assumed
provisionally the being and providence of God, the
discussion of which will hate place in our second
volume.
CHAPTER II.
CREDENTIALS OF REVELATION.
21. Subject of the Chapter. In the following
chapter we shall explain the nature of Revelation,
and show how its existence can be attested by
miracles and prophecies.
22. Private Revelations. We have seen (n. 18)
that God can speak to His creature in such a way
as to leave the recipient of the communication in
no doubt as to the Source from which it comes;
but such communications are exceptional, and do
not now concern us, unless they are intended to be
published and to command the acceptance of other
persons. It belongs to Mystic Theology to discuss
the precautions to be observed in order to guard
against delusion in these cases; while Ascetic
Theology discusses the continually occurring cases
where the Creator speaks to His creatures, truly,
but in a way which is not always easy to distinguish
from the thoughts that are generated by the natural
power of the mind. Those Divine communications
which are intended for the benefit of the recipient
alone, need no public credentials.
23. Public Revelations. Hut it is quite otherwise
with Public Revelations, the name given to those
3] PUBLIC REVELATIONS. *$
Revelations which are received by one person, but
are intended to be communicated by him to others,
and to command their submissive acceptance. This
submission cannot reasonably be demanded unless
the person who claims the character of a Divine
messenger produce full proof that he has warrant
for his claim. Belief in every message that purports
to come from God, without proof that the messenger
is neither deceiver nor deceived, so far from being
a duty or even a virtue, may easily be a sin of
imprudence ; as true a sin, though not as great a sin,
as that of the man who rejects a-message that comes
to him from God through a messenger who shows
such proofs of his authority as cannot prudently be
called in question.
It is hard to conceive any mode in which such a
messenger could be accredited, except Miracles and
Prophecies, and the Christian Revelation claims to
be accredited by these means. We must, therefore,
proceed to consider the nature of Miracles, the
possibility of recognizing them, and the manner in
which they afford proof that a revelation is truly
Divine. The same points will also be considered in
regard to Prophecies.
In this part of our subject, as in the preceding
chapter, we postulate the existence of God, the
all-perfect Creator of the universe. The justice of
this postulate will be vindicated hereafter.
24. Nature of Miracle. The nature of what is
meant by Miracle will be best understood by an
example. We will make a supposition which we do
not at present assert to have ever been realized ; we
a 4 CREDENTIALS OF REVELATION, F4
put it as a supposition which no one can show to be
impossible ; it involves no contradiction. Suppose
then that an adult man who has been blind from
his birth meets another man, who says to him,
Receive your sight, and at this mere word the
power of vision comes on the instant to him who
had been blind. Such an event as this is well
calculated to excite the marvel of bystanders, and
of all who learn what has happened ; the occurrence
has therefore one of the elements that go to con-
stitute a public miracle. It is marvellous.
What can be the cause of this man having
suddenly gained the power of sight ? The ordinary
process of growth gives sight to some animals, such
as kittens which are born blind. The surgeon's
knife removes a cataract, and gives or restores sight
to the patient. But the case before us is ascribable
neither to natural growth nor to human agency ; it
cannot be a mere coincidence that the recovery took
place at the very instant that the command was
received, but it must have been in some sense
caused or occasioned by this word. But in the
ordinary course of things, no such effect follows
upon words ; the occurrence is something which is
out of the ordinary course of nature. This is a
second element in the idea of a miracle.
What then is the origin of this event ? It is
neither material nor human : it must, therefore,
either come directly from God or from some
spiritual beings other than those through whom, as
Christians believe, the providence of God is exer-
cised on the earth. I do not now assert the
24] NATURE OF MIRACLE. 25
existence of such spirits, or beings distinct from
matter : I am putting all conceivable suppositions ;
but no one can show that the existence of such
spirits is impossible, as involving a contradiction,
nor that the Christian belief is false, according to
which some of these spirits are good, and act
according to directions received from God ; others
bad, who are permitted by Him to exercise some
part of their natural power ; others perhaps neither
good nor bad, in any marked degree, but who if
they exist must for our purpose reckon as bad.
Since good spirits act as ministers of God, their
action may be spoken of as His ; and therefore
we may say that such an occurrence as we have
supposed must be the work either of God or of evil
spirits ; and if the incident stand alone, we can say
no more about it ; it may be a Divine work, but we
cannot say that it certainly is such, for want of full
knowledge of the powers which evil spirits are
allowed to exercise. We cannot be sure that what
has occurred is a miracle in the proper sense of the
word ; it may be the work of God, but we cannot
be sure that it is so ; it may be supernatural, but it
may also be merely preternatural.
25. Moral Miracles and Miracles of Grace. The
incident which we have been discussing, if a miracle
at all, is a miracle in the physical order: it concerns
a material object, a man's eye. But we may make
another supposition, again without asserting more
than its possibility ; we do not here say that it ever
was verified. Suppose a whole population devoted
to practices the most attractive to human nature,
6 CREDENTIALS OF REVELATION. [25
suddenly to abandon these practices, at the word of
a preacher, and to embrace a life full of incidents
most repulsive to that nature ; and further, to per-
severe in this way of living even though all who
were detected as belonging to the association were
put to death amid horrible torments. If this
happened, we should say it was something out of
accord with the ordinary course of human conduct ;
it would be a marvel calling for explanation, no less
than the grant of sight to the blind man, and it
cannot be an effect in ordinary course of the
preacher's word. It must be either a moral miracle
or possibly the work of an evil spirit.
Further, Christians believe that God ordinarily
grants to men a certain measure of the peculiar
influence called Grace, but that He sometimes may
grant this favour in an altogether extraordinary
abundance ; they therefore speak of miracles of
grace, as when a person embraces the true religion
under circumstances of peculiar difficulty. Christians
may often notice cases which seem to be miracles of
grace in this sense, but the matter is always involved
in considerable obscurity, so that miracles of this
class will seldom or never be capable of serving as
credentials for a preacher, especially as their very
possibility postulates much which cannot be proved
until the whole Christian Revelation is established.
It is otherwise with moral miracles, which are
often less open to cavil than those of the physical
order.
26. Probative Force. So far we have been
regarding the extraordinary occurrence as standing
a6] PROBATIVE FORCE. vj
alone. Now suppose, what is certainly possible,
that the man whose word was followed by the gift
of sight, went on to declare that he was a messenger
sent by God, and that God had granted sight to the
blind man for the purpose of showing that this
mission had His sanction. What now is the
position of a bystander, or of one who, though not
himself present, receives an authentic account of
what has occurred ? Are they to accept the message
as the voice of God, and order their lives in
accordance with it ? Not necessarily. Prudence
requires that they should look carefully into the
matter; it would not be right to recognize the
messenger as a Divine teacher without further
consideration, any more than it would be prudent
and right to neglect his claim altogether. The
matter demanded inquiry. This inquiry will be
directed to the question whether the message which
purports to be a revelation, in any respect con-
tradicts what is already known of the mind of God,
either as He speaks in nature, or by previous
ascertained revelations. If so, the new revelations
must be at once rejected, as St. Paul teaches
(Galat. i. 9) : " If any one preach to you a gospel
besides that which you have received, let him
be anathema." (See also Deut. xiii. I 5.) Either
the marvel was the work of an evil spirit, designed
to perplex men and lead them from the truth, or
this work is not so connected with the message as
to afford sanction to it. Thus no one who accepts
the Christian Revelation can hesitate whether it is
a duty or even allowable to listen to the messages
28 CREDENTIALS OF REVELATION. [aft
which are conveyed to men by spirit-rapping.
These rappers uniformly deny the existence and
eternity of Hell, and so they contradict a reve-
lation which God has already made ; so far, there-
fore, as these indications are not mere trickery,
they come from evil spirits. This negative test
will generally be sufficient, and perhaps all grounds
for rejecting the claim of the messenger can be
reduced to it ; but if, after due inquiry, no reason
is discovered for refusing to admit his claim, he
must be received as a messenger from God, and
his message adopted as the rule of our belief
and life. From the nature of the case, even apart
from the Divine veracity, it is impossible that
a falsehood should ever come before us in such
guise that we should be forced to regard it as
truth, (n. 313.) God does not suffer us to be
made the helpless victims of the malice of the
devils or of the fraud or folly of men. We are
never necessitated to believe a lie, as would be the
case if a marvel attesting a falsehood came before
us in such shape that we could not help regarding
it as a Divine miracle.
27. Prophecies. What has been said of miracles
is easily adapted to the case of prophecies. A writer
points out within a year or two the exact date, at
least some two centuries after his time, at which a
child was to be born who should by his influence
revolutionize the world, although he himself was
put to a violent death by his enemies ; if all this
comes about at the proper time, we feel that
no human intelligence can have seen so far into
27] PROPHECIES. 29
the future, but that the writer must have been
admitted to a share in the Divine foreknowledge.
The probative force of a prophecy is of the same
nature" as that of a miracle.
28. Objections to Miracles. So far we have
exhibited the proof, belonging properly to Philo-
sophy, which explains the doctrine laid down by
the Vatican Council (Const, i. c. iii. on Faith,
and the fourth of the corresponding Canons), that
miracles are possible and that they can some-
times be known by us. (Denz. 1639.) It is hardly-
necessary to quote passages of Scripture to show
that this doctrine is part of the Christian Revela-
tion. It is enough to refer as to miracles to
St. John x. 37, 38, where Christ says, " If I do not
the work of My Father, believe Me not : but if I do,
though you will not believe Me, believe the works ; "
and for prophecy, to Deut. xviii. 18 22, where we
see that prophecy has for a principal purpose to
accredit a messenger, and not so much to forewarn
as to the future.
An immense number of difficulties have been
raised against this doctrine of the possibility of
miracles, their cognoscibility and their probative
force, most of which, however, disappear when
applied to a concrete instance such as we have
supposed. The matter is, as will be readily under-
stood, of first-rate importance, and much light is
thrown upon it by the solution of the difficulties that
have been raised; we will therefore devote a chapter
to the discussion of the different forms that these
difficulties have t^-en.
30 CREDENTIALS OF REVELATION. [29
29. Recapitulation. In the present chapter we
have distinguished between public and private
revelation, and said that public revelations must
be attested by miracles and prophecies ; the'se are
shown to be possible, to be sometimes recognizable,
and to have force to accredit one who claims to be
a Divine messenger.
CHAPTER III.
DIFFICULTIES AGAINST MIRACLE AND PROPHECY.
30. Subject of Chapter. The difficulties which
are raised against the possibility of Miracles admit
of a four-fold classification. The varieties of form
that may be given to each class of objection are
infinite; we here point out the general nature of the
reply. Certain tests of true miracles will be
mentioned, and it will be shown that a sweeping
denial of their occurrence at the present day is
baseless.
31. Faith and Reason. The question which
engaged us in the last chapter is, and has for
some three centuries been the principal battle-
ground between those who acknowledge and those
who reject the claims made by the Christian
Revelation. If miracles and prophecies are im-
possible, they have not occurred ; but we cannot
conceive a revelation demanding the absolute sub-
mission of men, if it be not accredited by these
evidences : hence, if they be impossible, no reve-
lation can do more than set before men a system
of religious doctrine which they are at liberty to
discuss, and accept or reject according to the
judgment which their reason forms of its value.
The term Rationalist is applied to all who believe
32 DIFFICULTIES AGAINST MIRACLE & PROPHECY. [31
that they are at liberty to deal in this way \\ith
the Christian Revelation. It is a misleading word,
because it seems to imply that this school, and
they alone, follow the guidance of Reason, while
Christians abandon Reason in favour of some
opposing principle or faculty called Faith. This
is an utterly false representation. A Christian
exercises Faith in believing the truths which God
has revealed, but he is always ready to obey the
Apostolic precept (i St. Peter iii. 15), and give a
reason of the hope that is in him. In fact, he holds
it to be most irrational to refuse to accept instruc-
tion which comes from a competent teacher, unless
it recommend itself to his own reason. He must
use his reason to scrutinize the grounds on which
he believes in the teacher's competence, and if any
part of the teaching seem to contradict what he
learns from his reason, he must examine the matter,
;ind, supposing him to be dealing with the Christian
Revelation, he will find that the contradiction is only
apparent. On the other hand, the proofs of the
existence of the Christian miracles are so clear and
manifold that probably they are felt to be conclusive
by all who frankly and heartily admit the possibility
of a revelation being made known by these means.
If any man remain unconvinced when the reasons
for believing the miracles that attest the Christian
Revelation are set before him, it will generally be
found that this man does not really believe in the
possibility of miracles : he may not openly deny
this possibility, but the denial is lurking in his
mind, unsuspected perhaps by himself, and effec*
31] FAiTH AND REASON. 33
tually hinders his giving fair consideration to the
historical evidence, of the falsehood of which he is
convinced beforehand.
32. Objections to Miracles classified. The import-
ance of the question of the possibility of Miracles is
felt on all sides, and as may be expected, the litera-
ture of the subject is very large. We can do no more
in this place than give the briefest sketch of different
classes of difficulties that are raised by the oppo-
nents of Revelation, with indications of the line of
answer. The precise shape that the objection takes
may vary indefinitely, and the answer would require
corresponding modification. Some of the difficulties
are founded on the nature of God, and the mode in
which He governs the world ; others on the difficulty
of attaining certainty as to past events; a third
class urges that it is impossible to distinguish what
occurrences are in accordance with the course of
nature ; and a fourth rests on the possibility of the
agency of evil spirits. We will treat these four
classes of objection separately, but first we remark
that we by no means maintain that Miracles can
always be recognized with certainty, but only that
they can sometimes be recognized. The person
who has discerned that certain Miracles have
actually occurred will be ready to recognize the
miraculous character in other events which would
be ambiguous if they stood by themselves. A skilful
connoisseur who has studied the undoubted works
of a great artist will certainly recognize his hand in
some newly discovered painting, although he may
be wholly unable to convey to others the conviction
D VOL. I,
34 DIFFICULTIES AGAINST MIRACLE & PROPHECY. [31
which he feels : so a Christian may feel assured of
the miraculous character of an occurrence which he
would never dream of putting forward as calculated
to convince one who did not agree with him as to
the true character of other works which he has seen
to be demonstrably the immediate work of God.
(See n. 63.)
33. God unchangeable. The first class of objectors
urge that God is unchangeable ; that in creating the
universe He gave it fixed laws by which it should
be regulated, and that any interference with these
laws implies imperfection, as though the work of
the Creator required patching, to meet unforeseen
emergencies.
This objection, turning on the immutability of
the infinite Being, is urged with at least as much
force against the possibility of creation as against
miracles, and it receives full consideration from
philosophers (see Father Boedder, Natural Theologv,
422, seq.) and theologians in the proper place. It
may here be enough to say that when God work?
a miracle, this act does not involve any interior
change in Him: the unchanging will that He has
had from all eternity is manifested outwardly, and
that is all: He can be called by the new name of
Miracle-worker, but to receive a new name works
no interior change in the person or thing to whom
it is applied.
When the objector speaks of the unchanging
laws of the universe, he uses a phrase which is
liable to mislead. These so-called laws are nothing
but a generalization formed by the human mind on
33J GOD UNCHANGEABLE. 33
observing the course of the universe. It is true that
this is ordinarily uniform, because it is in truth the
resultant of the interaction of various portions of
matter, which God in the act of creating endowed
with certain powers, and which exercise these
powers as long as He pleases to conserve them in
their being. If this conservation, which is in truth
perpetual creation, were withheld, the creature would
cease to exist, it would fall to nothingness, and the
result might have the characters of a miracle : but
this is not the way in which God acts, as St. Thomas
teaches, (i. q. 104. a. 4.) Also, a miraculous effect
might be produced if God exercised again His
creative power, which was not exhausted by the
initial act which brought the world into existence ;
but neither is this likely to be the way employed,
for probably the quantity of matter in the world has
remained unchanged, without increase or diminu-
tion, since the beginning. Physical miracles are
therefore to be referred to the action of God Himself,
acting either immediately, for He can by His imme-
diate action do whatever He ordinarily does through
the activity of second causes (St. Thomas, i. q. 105.
a. 2.) ; or more probably using the ministry of good
angels, through whom He exercises His ordinary
providence over the world, as will be shown in its
proper place, when Creation comes before us. (See
St. Thomas, i. q. no. a. i.)
If it be urged that such action of immaterial
beings as we here suppose is inconsistent with that
principle of Conservation of Energy, which is made
the basis of modern physics, we answer that the
,6 DIFFICULTIES AGAINST MIXACLE * PROPHECY. [33
proof of this principle is found in an induction
from the results of experiment, and cannot claim
greater accuracy than that of the fundamental
instruments, the balance, pendulum, and the like ;
besides which, the precise physical circumstances of
a miracle have never been measured with the care
which would be needed to test the question. No
rational man can pretend that the principle is
proved in such a sense as to assure us that no man
born blind ever received his sight. If it be said
that if the balance and the rest were properly
applied they would always show that no immaterial
agent ever affects man's body, this is a mere
unproved assumption, and amounts to a petitio
principii. It may be said with equal fairness that
the presence of an immaterial agent would make
itself manifest, if the opportunity arose of test'ng
the matter ; and, experiment being out of the
question, there is no means of deci !ing between
these conflicting assertions.
Lastly, it is quite a misrepresentation to speak
of a miracle as a patching up of an order which has
been found to be imperfect. The ordinary course
of nature is good in its place, and when the occasion
arises the miracle is also good : the whole has been
foreseen and fore-ordained by God from all eternity,
as the means for carrying out the purposes of
creation.
34. Testimony untrustworthy. Secondly, it is
objected that testimony is untrustworthy, so that
we can never be sure that events happened in past
times as related. Experience often shows us both
34] TESTIMONY UNTRUSTWORTHY. 37
that testimony is false and that miracles do not
happen. Every religion professes to be founded in
miracles, and men are apt to believe in miracles
without ground.
This objector will scarcely maintain that we can
never be certain regarding the occurrence of events
separated from us by distance of time. To profess
to feel prudent doubt whether an English King
named Charles was beheaded in Whitehall, or a
Roman Emperor named Julius stabbed in the
Senate House would be the mere bravado of scepti-
cism ; yet no one who does not make this profession
can deny that historical events may be known with
certainty: much else may be uncertain, but some
occurrences cannot reasonably be called in question.
The objection, therefore, proceeds on a tacit suppo-
sition that miraculous narratives are more difficult
of proof than others. But this supposition confounds
two things : the facts, and their miraculous character.
Julius Caesar was slain on the I5th of March in a
certain year, as history tells us with certainty.
History also tells us that he was living on the ist
of that same month of March, for his contemporaries
saw, heard, and felt him on that day, and their
experience has been transmitted to us with certainty.
Supposing that they had had the same experience
on the last day of the month, this experience would
have taught them that Julius was alive on that day,
and there is nothing to prevent the transmission to
us of their later experiences by the same channels
as told us of the events of the first day. That the
restoration to life after the I5th would have been
38 DIFFICULTIES AGAINST MIRACLE &- PROPHECY, [34
miraculous does not affect the possibility of our
knowing that his contemporaries perceived him to
be dead on one day, and to be alive on a subsequent
day. History does not precisely record a miracle,
but only records the sensible facts from which we
conclude that a miracle was worked. We admit
that testimony is sometimes false, and that miracles
are opposed to general experience : but to say that
they are opposed to universal experience is gratui-
tously to assume the point at issue ; and to deny
that testimony may sometimes be recognized as
truthful is not the part of a reasonable man. That
all religions profess to be founded on miracles
merely shows the general conviction of mankind
that miracles are possible ; but we deny that any
instance can be produced in which a proved
miracle is opposed to the Christian Revelation ;
some apparent examples to the contrary will be
discussed immediately. The proneness of men to
see miracles can hardly have originated, except in
some undoubted examples coming before them,
and at most it merely shows the need of the
greatest caution in examining the testimony before
a miracle is admitted.
35. Miraculous character doubtful. The third class
of objections rests on the alleged impossibility of
telling whether a given occurrence is beyond the
powers of nature : there may be mere coincidence,
or fraud, or some unknown properties of matter and
of the human frame may have had a part in pro-
ducing the effect observed. Occurrences may seem
miraculous to the ignorant which a wider acquaint-
5] MIRACULOUS CHARACTER DOUBTFUL. 39
ance with nature will show to be subject to fixed
law.
To take the last point first, we admit that
circumstances may occur in which savages could
not prudently refuse to admit the claim of a stranger
who came to them professing to be a messenger
from God, and exhibiting in proof of his claim a
power which they could not be blamed for regarding
as imperative upon them, whereas in truth it was a
natural power which his superior knowledge enabled
him to wield. There are stories told of this sort,
where an eclipse has been foretold and coming to
pass has led the ignorant people to ascribe to some
superhuman enlightenment what is really nothing
but the exhibition of elementary knowledge of astro-
nomy. In these cases, the assent of the savages is
given blamelessly, although it could be withheld ;
they will never be constrained to believe falsehood ;
just as in the possible case of wonders being wrought
by evil spirits, as we shall explain presently.
The suggestion of coincidence may be put aside,
in such a case as we chose for our illustration : it is
not so frequent an occurrence that men blind from
birth suddenly gain the use of sight, that we can
call it a mere coincidence if this happens at the
instance when the word of a religious preacher falls
upon their ear ; and no suspicion of fraud can
attach when the man has been long known to have
been blind, and the occurrence takes place in the
presence of watchful and powerful enemies of the
preacher. Nor, lastly, can it be suggested with any
plausibility that the words spoken had a natural
40 DIFFICULTIES AGAINST MIRACLE & PROPHECY. ^33
power of restoring the wasted eye-balls. In this
case at least there can be no doubt that the occur-
rence is superhuman.
36. Demonic Agency. The three groups of
objections which we have been discussing are
those which have chiefly prevailed in modern times :
they may be called respectively the Pantheistic, the
Deistic, and the Materialistic objection a Deist
being understood, according to English usage, to be
one who fully admits the being of God, but denies
the existence of Revelation. We now come to
discuss the Demonic objection, which is scarcely
heard of at the present day, except sometimes when
it is brought up ironically, and as it were ad hominem
against the Christians, but which in former times
was the ground ordinarily alleged for neglecting the
evidence of miracles, both by Jews (St. Matt. ix. 34,
and many other passages of the Gospels), and by
heathen persecutors, as in the case of St. Januarius
(Holland. Acta Sanctorum, t. 6, Sept. 873), and by
heretics. (Victor, De Persecutione Vandalorum, 2, 17 ;
P.L. 58, 217.) The point of the difficulty is that
since evil spirits have power to move matter and
work wonders out of the ordinary course of nature,
it is impossible to tell the source of any marvel that
we meet with, or to know whose utterance it
accredits. Moreover, it is said that miracles have
been wrought by heretics, and therefore do not
attest any 'one form of Christianity, but various
forms ; they therefore attest error.
Certainly, no Christian can deny the action of
evil spirits in the world, for it is clearly taught in
36] DEMONIC AGENCY. 41
Scripture (Exodus vii. 22 ; Acts xvi. 16, &c.), as
will be shown fully in its proper place : also, the
story of a Novatian Bishop having in the year 449
worked a miracle is related by Socrates (Hist. Eccles.
7, 17 ; P.G. 67, 771), and cures are believed to have
been wrought at the tomb of the Jansenist Abbe
Paris, who died in 1727. But the defender of
the Christian miracles as exclusively trustworthy,
remarks that neither heathen nor heretic has
succeeded in establishing a religion on the basis
of miracles, which shows that there was always
something about the marvels in question which
distinguished them from Divine miracles ; and that
this is in accordance with what might be expected
upon Christian principles, for God cannot consis-
tently with His Holiness permit men to be invincibly
led to believe that what is in fact error is the
teaching of God addressed to them. (See Exodus
vii. 12.) Further, it is part of the Christian dispen-
sation that the motives leading to belief should not
be such as to compel assent, but only such as
render refusal to believe evidently wrong; and
Christ Himself declared that there should arise
false prophets working great wonders (St. Matt,
xxiv. 24), so that if nothing of the sort happened we
should have to contend with a serious difficulty, for
a prophecy uttered by Christ would be falsified. As
to miracles of heretics, those ascribed to Paris by
no means abide the application of the tests by
which true miracles are distinguished, and which
are enumerated in our next paragraph ; and we
need have no difficulty in admitting the truth of the
42 DIFFICULTIES AGAINST MIRACLE & PROPHECY. [36
relation in Socrates, although it is hard to avoid
the suspicion of trickery. According to the story,
a scoundrel of a Jew (lovSaios TIS cnrareoav) made
his living by pretending to become a Christian, and
being baptized. He took in the Arians and Mace-
donians, and then offered himself to the Novatians,
asking Baptism at the hands of Paul, the Bishop of
the sect at Constantinople. Paul prescribed a course
of instruction and fasting, which quickened the cate-
chumen's desire for the Sacrament. Paul yielded,
and all was made ready for the ceremony, when the
water disappeared unaccountably, with the result
that the fraud of the Jew became known. Thus we
see that the miracle, supposing it to have been one,
was wrought by God in defence of the sanctity of
holy Baptism ; that is, of truth, and not of Novatian
error. The New Testament plainly recognizes that
the gift of miracles is not confined to saints (St. Matt.
vii. 22; I Cor. xiii. 2), and St. Jerome teaches that
miracles are wrought by God in view of the merits
of Christ, and not of the man who is said to work
them. (Comment, in loc. St. Matt.; P.L. 26, 49.)
This doctrine is the basis of the teaching of
St.Thomas. (2. 2. q. 178. a. 2.)
37. Criteria of Miracles. It is worth while to set
down the points insisted on by Pope Benedict XIV.
as necessary to be attended to, before the cure of a
disease can be admitted to have been miraculous :
they will be found in the eighth chapter of the
fourth Book of the great work De Canonizatione.
First, the disease must be incurable, or at least
difficult of cure : then it must not have reached a
37] CRITERIA OF MIRACLES. 43
stage when natural cure is possibly imminent :
thirdly, no treatment must have been used to which
the cure can be ascribed : the cure must be sudden
and instantaneous : it must be perfect : it must not
have been attended with any such bodily change as
might be a natural cause of the cure : and lastly,
the disease must not recur. We may remark that
Pope Benedict seems to have been quite alive to the
nature of what in our own day have received the
name of " faith-cures," when the mere expectation
of a cure seems to suffice to fulfil itself. He quotes
(n. 29) with approval a writer who says that he has
known many cases where a disease has disappeared
on the approach of a Religious or the application of
a relic, but has subsequently returned with greater
violence than ever. Such cures, of course, are not
miracles, or at least cannot be known as miracles.
Paley (Evidences of Christianity) successfully applies
Benedict's criteria to discredit the miracles said to
have been wrought at the tomb of the Abbe Paris:
but the learned Archdeacon seems not to have been
aware that this supposed wonder-worker was a
heretic. Occurrences are met with which have
some semblance of being miraculous, but it will
generally be found that they totally fail to answer
these conditions ; in which case, whatever may be
their real character, we cannot feel confident that
there has been an extraordinary exercise of the
Divine power.
38. Have Miracles ceased f The attempt is some-
times made to throw doubt on all relations of
miracles by the remark that nothing gf the kind
44 DIFFICULTIES AGAINST MIRACLE & PROPHECY. [38
occurs at the present day. The reply is that the
whole matter is in the hand of God, and that we
cannot pretend always to see why He is pleased
to act in a particular way at a particular time ;
nevertheless, if the fact were as stated, we might
conjecture that a mode of accrediting a revelation
which was suitable when that revelation was first
made may become unsuitable under different circum-
stances ; it is not in accordance with God's provi-
dence to force men's consents, and the disposition
which leads them to refuse acceptance to the well-
attested miracles of the old time would enable them
to evade the force of miracles at the present day :
that the existence of the Christian Church, though
of a different order, is more persuasive than any
physical miracle (see n. 68) ; and that the assertion
is true only so far as relates to miracles publicly
performed in great cities, like Jerusalem and Rome,
for miracles have never ceased to be wrought, and
still continue, in accordance with the promise of
Christ. (St. Mark xvi. 17, 18.) This point will be
mentioned again when we speak of the Holiness of
the Church, (nn. 235, 255.) At present, it is enough
to refer to M. Lasserre's books upon Lourdes.
39. Recapitulation. In this chapter, we have dis-
cussed four classes of objection to miracles, have
pointed out some criteria of assured miracles, and
explained how far it is true that public miracles do
not happen now with the same abundance as in
former times.
CHAPTER IV.
THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. PHYSICAL MIRACLES.
40. Subject of the Chapter. Having shown the
futility of the -grounds that are sometimes alleged
as proving the impossibility of miracles, we may
hope that the reasons which we shall now proceed
to give for believing that they have actually occurred
will be received without prejudice. We shall main-
tain in successive chapters that the Divine Mission
of Christ is attested by miracles of the physical
order, by the fulfilment of ancient prophecies and
by moral miracles, some of which are going on at
the present day before our eyes : from which it will
follow that His words are to be received as the
words of God, and that the work of Theology is
to ascertain and explain His teaching and that of
those who teach in His Name and with His
authority.
In the two preceding chapters we were forced to
assume that the reader admitted the Being and
Attributes of God, which will be proved hereafter.
In the argument of this and the following chapters
no such assumption is necessary, for we shall be
concerned with purely historical questions, and
shall use the ordinary historical arguments, founded
46 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [40
on documents, tradition, monuments, and institu-
tions. We shall have nothing to do with any question
whether the documents are of merely human origin,
or whether they are of a different nature from other
histories. All that will come in its place hereafter.
(Treatise III.)
41. Early Existence of the Church. Pliny. Before
entering on our main subject it is well to point out
that the existence of the Christian Church and of
the mass of truths and moral precepts of which this
Church is the depository and guardian, is altogether
beyond dispute. This is a phenomenon which calls
for some adequate explanation, but none such is
forthcoming except that which alleges the miracles
of Christ. The need of explanation is felt more
pressingly when it is remembered how very short a
time elapsed after the death of Christ before His
religion had become the profession of a well-known
organized body. This is not known from Christian
sources alone, but can be proved from certain
passages in heathen writers. For instance, the
younger Pliny found Christians existing in great
numbers in his province of Bithynia. It was about
the year 112 that he wrote a letter to the Emperor
Trajan, explaining the difficulty he felt in dealing
with the cases of Christians who were^ brought
before him ; and he received an answer from the
Emperor. These letters are numbered 96 and 97
in some editions of the correspondence; in other
editions they are 97 and 98. The whole is most
interesting, and well repays careful study. What
concerns us is to observe that in this remote
4i] EARLY EXISTENCE OF THE CHURCH. 47
province there existed a community of Christians,
numerous and organized. Pliny is familiar with the
name, and assumes that the Emperor is equally
familiar. He notices the Christian practice of
assembling on a particular day for religious worship,
when the people sang a hymn to Christ as God, and
bound themselves by a sacred sanction not to be
guilty of theft or other sins ; after which they
parted, to meet again and share in a meal of ordi-
nary food. They had among them female officials
whom he calls Ministrae deaconesses whom he
tortured without eliciting anything. He consults
the Emperor as to the course to be adopted, because
he had never been present at trials of Christians,
showing us that he knew of such prosecutions being
in use ; and the matter seems to him to be of grave
importance on account of the great number of those
concerned. The contagion of the superstition pre-
vailed not in the cities alone, but had penetrated to
the villages and the open country : the temples were
deserted, the regular sacrifices discontinued : there
was no inducement to breed beasts to be sold as
victims. There were some who avowed that they
had been Christians for twenty years : and all
astonished the enlightened Pagan by declaring that
there was no evil in their religious practices, and by
the constancy with which large numbers of them
persevered in defiance of torture and death.
This passage certainly proves how widespread
was the Christian profession at the very beginning
of the second century ; we may have to recur to it,
:is illustrating other points of our subject. The
48 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [41
genuineness of the correspondence or at least of
this part of it has been disputed, but on insufficient
grounds. See a dissertation by F. Wilde (Leyden,
1889), De Plinii et Trajani Epistolis inutuis. This
author discusses the whole subject, examining all
the arguments that have been advanced on either
side of the controversy. The phrase that at their
meetings, the Christians partook of ordinary food,
points at the report that was current which ascribed
to them the eating of human flesh. This imputation
of cannibalism arose doubtless from some indiscreet
or malicious disclosure of the doctrine of the Real
Presence.
42. Tacitus. Pliny tells us nothing of the origin
of Christianity, but the omission is supplied by a
passage from the Annals of his contemporary,
Tacitus: it is found in the forty-fourth chapter of the
fifteenth Book. The historian has been giving an
account of the great fire that happened at Rome
in the year 64, three years after his own birth :
and he relates that the Emperor Nero came under
suspicion of having purposely caused the confla-
gration ; to avert which suspicion, he tried to throw
the blame on certain persons " whom the populace
hated for their crimes and called by the name of
Christians. This name is derived from Christus,
.Who was punished by the procurator, Pontius
Pilatus, during the reign of Tiberius. The execrable
superstition was suppressed for a time, but broke
out again, and overran not Judaea alone, the country
of its birth, but Rome itself." He then describes
the cruel modes in which death was inflicted,
42] TACITUS. 49
on a sham charge of incendiarism, and speaks of
the "vast multitude" of those that suffered, remark-
ing that the true cause of their death was not the
crime of fire-raising, but " hatred of men : " leaving
it doubtful whether he means that the Christians
hated mankind, or that mankind hated the Christians.
The former meaning seems most probable, and it
may be noticed that Tacitus, who perhaps was never
brought in contact with Christians, speaks of them
in harsher terms than Pliny, who had personally
examined large numbers of them. At presejit,
however, we are not concerned with the morals of
the Christians, but with the proofs of the early
prevalence of the religion.
The principal point to observe is that Tacitus
speaks undoubtingly of the Christian religion as
having originated in Judaea while Pontius Pilate
was procurator there, and Tiberius Emperor ; that
is to say, somewhere between the years 25 and 34 ;
the Founder came under the ban of the Roman
law : and nevertheless within a space of between
thirty and forty years, the religion had so spread as
to count an immense number of followers in the
city ; and the historian tells all this without hesita-
tion or doubt, showing that it was the story which
was current in the mouths of men with whom he
himself mixed, on whom the great conflagration
had made a deep impression. This rapid spread of
a religion, in spite of Government power and mob
prejudice, requires explanation.
43. The Christian and other accounts. Christians
are prepared with an account which is, it will b
K VOL. i.
50 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [43
admitted, a perfectly sufficient explanation, if only
its historical character is established : a task to
which we shall now address ourselves. Many other
explanations have been suggested from time to time,
which have had some vogue for a while and then
have been laid aside as insufficient. Another place
will be found for such account of these attempts as
is necessary for our purpose. (See n. 68.) At present
it is enough to notice that the Christian story as to
the origin of the Christian religion stands alone in
having been received by millions of men throughout
a long succession of centuries.
44. Acknowledged Christian writings. There has
been and is considerable controversy about the date
to which the earliest Christian writings are to be
ascribed. But there are some which are acknow-
ledged by writers the least inclined to admit that
a revelation has been given : scarcely any writer of
the least credit at the present day doubts that the
Epistles to the Romans and Galatians and two to
the Corinthians were actually written by a man
named Paul, and were addressed to communities
of Christians who had been recently converted by
his preaching, or whom he proposed shortly to visit,
(i Cor. i. i* 17; 2 Cor. x. 14; Galat. iv. n;
Romans xv. 22 24.) The authenticity of these
four Epistles is admitted practically by every writer,
as is attested by Davidson (Introduction to New
Testament, vol. i. pp. 41, 62, 85, 116. Edit. 1882),
\\ho can be fully trusted on such a point, and who
gives copious references to ancient authorities \\hich
leave no room for doubt uuon the matter.
44] ACKNOWLEDGED CHRISTIAN WRITINGS. 51
These four Letters contain much that is difficult
to understand, even in regard to history, and still
more on matters of doctrine. One chief reason
of the difficulty is this : a person writing a letter
always has in his mind the particular circumstances
of his correspondent, and remembers what has
occurred during their previous intercourse ; he is
apt therefore to use expressions and to make
allusions which will be readily understood by those
for whose reading the piece is primarily intended,
but will be obscure and in danger of being totally
misunderstood by others who know no more than
they can gather from the writing before them. On
the other hand, letters of this kind are peculiarly
trustworthy as often as the stranger can gather what
is the posture of affairs which the writer assumes to
be familiarly known : there is little risk of being
deceived, for it would be beyond the skill of the
most skilful forger to insert references of this kind
without detection. We may therefore feel con-
fidence that we are correctly informed as to such
parts of the career of St. Paul as are referred to in
these four Letters, and that the substance of his
preaching actually was such as we there find.
Now, it is impossible to read these Epistles
without seeing that the writer preached a religion,
the Founder of which was Jesus Christ (i Cor. iii. n),
Who was crucified (i Cor. i. 23), and Wnom God
raised from the dead. (Romans i. 4.) In the fifteenth
chapter of the First Epistle to the Corinthians he
sketches the main features of his preaching, expressly
saying that Christ died and was buried, and rose
12 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [44
again on the third day and was seen by large
numbers of persons, especially by the Apostles, (vv.
i 7.) His preaching, he says, is vain if Christ
rise not (v. 14) ; and he even claims to have himself
seen the risen Christ (v. 8, and I Cor. ix. i), and
to have received instructions direct from Him.
(Galat. i. 12.) The references on these points, as
well as on some that follow, might be multiplied
almost indefinitely, as will be plain to any reader
of the Epistles : we merely give a few to indicate
the kind of evidence on which we insist.
Further, we learn that the writer of these Letters
was a man of conspicuous ability, as their whole
structure shows. He had formerly been a Jew, and
most zealous in that religion, his zeal leading him
to take an active part in persecuting the Church of
Christ (Galat. i. 13) ; at present, instead of perse-
cuting, he was persecuted, leading a life of hardship
and danger (2 Cor. xi. 23 27), and incessantly
harassed by the cares involved in the work he had
undertaken. (2 Cor. xi. 28.) He made this boast
unwillingly; it was forced from him by the necessity
of asserting his authority against some who were
inclined to dispute it. (2 Cor. xi. 21.) Such a boast
would have ruined the boaster, had not the facts
to which he appealed been acknowledged by all.
From all this it follows that it is impossible to
dispute his sincerity when he declared that he held
a commission from One Who had been dead and
Who rose again from the dead.
What were the grounds of his conviction ? We
have seen that he declares himself to have received
44] ACKNOWLEDGED CHRISTIAN WRITINGS. 53
his commission direct from Christ, or that he had
seen his Master living: but as it does not appear
from these Epistles that he had previously seen
Him dead, we cannot show that he had personal
knowledge of the fact of the resurrection from the
dead on which he laid such stress. But he was
contemporary of some who had this personal know-
ledge (i Cor. xv. 6), and of some whom he calls
" great " Apostles (2 Cor. xi. 5), who were regarded
by some as being entitled to the name of Apostles
in a higher sense than that in which St. Paul could
claim it, and who, as he acknowledges, were
Apostles before him (Galat. i. 17), and there is no
trace of his holding any doctrine as to the Resur-
rection different from that of the rest of Christians.
St. Paul had therefore the opportunity of inquiring
into the grounds on which this fundamental belief
was held ; and unless he was unwise beyond the
possibility of human unwisdom, he must have used
his opportunities, and satisfied himself that some
of those around him had seen the Lord dead and
had afterwards seen Him alive. Thus the reality of
the great basic miracle of the Resurrection of Christ
can be proved from those four of the Epistles which
are recognized on all hands as genuine.
45. The Four Gospels. These four Epistles are
not rejected by any opponent of whom we need take
account ; but the same cannot be said of some
others of what Christians maintain to be among
the earliest documents relating to their religion ;
especially it cannot be said of those four sketches
of parts of the life and teaching of Christ which
54 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [45
we call the Gospels. But in spite of opposition
we maintain that it can be proved with absolute
certainty that these Gospels were written by persons
who were contemporary with the events that they
record, and who had full opportunities of ascertain-
ing the truth of what they related, and who were
not guilty of wilful deception. If these points be
made out, the historic truth of the Gospel history
follows, and this contains a number of undeniably
miraculous events by which the authority of Christ
as a Divine messenger is attested.
46. Gospel Miracles. It will not be seriously
denied that the writers of the Gospels ascribe to
Christ the doing of some works that are above the
power of nature. Thus, such cures as that of the
Centurion's servant (St. Matt. viii. 5 13 ; St. Luke
vii. i 10), and of the Ruler's son (St. John iv. 46
54), admit of no natural explanation, it being
remarked that the sick person was at a distance, so
that confident expectation could have had nothing
to do with the result ; the multiplication of loaves
and fishes, on two occasions, one related by all
the Evangelists (St. Matt. xiv. 14 21 ; St. Mark vi.
34 44 ; St. Luke ix. 12 17 ; St. John vi. i 13),
the other by St. Matthew (xv. 32 38) and St. Mark
(viii. i 8), and the calming the tempest (St. Matt,
viii. 23 27 ; St. Mark iv. 37 40 ; St. Luke viii. 22
25), certainly surpassed all natural power ; still
more is the same true of the restoration to life of
the young man at Nairn (St. Luke vii. n 17),
where the suggestion of fraud is now rejected by
all critics, as inconsistent with the whole life of the
4 6] GOSPEL MIRACLES. 55
Worker of the miracle*; and of Lazarus (St. John xi.
I 53), where we see that the wonder was accom-
plished under the eyes of unfriendly critics, as was
very specially the case also in the instance of the
miracle of the man born blind (St. John ix. i 34) ;
and the great miracle of all, the Resurrection of
Christ, is eminently of the same character : it
is attested in the closing chapters of all the
Gospels.
47. Miracles as Credentials. It is hardly necessary
to quote passages to show that these wonderful
works were regarded by the people who saw them,
and by the writers of the Gospels, as proofs of the
Divine Mission of Christ. This is seen in the
narrative in St. Matt. xvi. i, St. Mark viii. n, and
St. Luke xi. 16, where it seemed that a sign " from
Heaven " was supposed to be beyond the power of
evil spirits : we gather it also from St. Matt. xxi.
15, St. John vii. 3 5, and St. John ix. 31 ; and in
St. John v. 36, the Worker expressly appeals to His
works as His credentials. It remains to show that
the Gospel history is trustworthy.
48. The Gospels when written. We shall divide
the proof into two parts : that the Gospels are the
work of persons who lived at or about the time of
the rise of the Christian religion, so that they
professed to be recording events of their own time ;
and that these writers had and used the means
of knowing the truth of these events and wrote
according to their knowledge.
The authenticity of a work which purports to
contain contemporary history may be gathered
5 6 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [48
from the judgment formed upon the matter by the
generation which immediately succeeded that in
which the work professes to be written ; or even
from the judgment of still later times, if the matter
was sufficiently important in their eyes to assure us
that they used the means that they possessed of
ascertaining the truth. We shall apply this test
to the case of the four Gospels by showing that
within a few years after the events recorded, they
were held in unique honour as containing trust-
worthy records of the life of Christ, in a sense
which was not true of any other books. We shall
show this by considering the multiplication of
manuscripts, the production of versions, and the
direct testimonies that are still accessible.
It will be observed that we do not here under-
take to show that the Gospels were written by the
persons whose names they bear, for in no case is the
name of the author a part of the book ; the names
of the writers are known from other sources, but
the Gospels themselves are anonymous, except so
far as St. John indicates his own authorship in
the last verse but one of his Gospel. (See Comely,
Introductio t 3, 226.) It is enough for us to prove
that the writers, whatever their names, were con-
temporaries.
Also, we do not here claim for the Gospels an
authority of a higher nature than that which
belongs to other human histories. The proof of
their inspiration will be given later. (Treatise III.)
49. Manuscripts. The earliest extant manu-
scripts of the Gospels belong to the beginning of
49] MANUSCRIPTS. 57
the fifth century, or perhaps to the end of the fourth ;
but from that time forward they exist in great
numbers. These manuscripts are far from being
identically alike; they exhibit a multitude of dis-
crepancies, not such as to raise any doubt of the
general integrity of the documents that they
transmit to us, but such as to exclude the idea
that they all rest upon one original of no great
antiquity. The study of the various readings leads
to the conclusion that the documents had been
repeatedly transcribed long before the end of the
fourth century, so that different "families" of
manuscripts are distinguished, the common ancestor
of each family being far more ancient than any-
thing that now exists, while the progenitor from
which all the families spring cannot be younger than
the times of the Apostles. This argument proves
not merely the antiquity of the Canonical Gospels,
but also the peculiar esteem in which they were
held. The transcribers, it is true, were careless,
and by their errors gave rise to the bulk of the
various readings which crowd the pages of critical
editions, and sometimes they altered the text before
them in accordance with their notions of what if
ought to contain ; nevertheless, it is clear that thej
would not have been at the trouble of making the
transcript at all, had there not been a demand foi
copies ; and it is to be observed that nothing of the
kind can be asserted of any of the other narratives
of the life and teaching of Christ which are extant,
and pass under the name of Apocryphal Gospels :
there is no evidence that these ever had a wide
58 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES [49
circulation comparable to that of the Four. Beyond
the contents of the four Gospels, the Christian
community preserved very few traditions concern-
ing their Founder. A very few sayings and historical
particulars have been preserved to us, which have
the appearance of being ancient : they will be found
collected in Appendix C to Dr. Westcott's Intro-
duction to the Study of the Gospels, p. 457. Also, the
case of the Gospels may profitably be contrasted
with that of the most famous classical authors:
particulars will be seen in Mr. Gow's Companion to
School Classics, pp. 36, seq., where we read that our
knowledge of the writings of ^Eschylus, Lysias,
Plato, and Lucretius, and of large portions of
Cicero and Tacitus, is due to single manuscripts
of a date long subsequent to the author ; yet no
serious doubt is entertained that these writings are
genuine. (See n. 130.)
50. Versions. The manuscripts of which we are
speaking are in Greek, the language in which far
the greater part, if not the whole, of the New
Testament was written, and through which the
whole has come to us. But the Gospels were very
soon translated into Syriac and into Latin, both
versions being in existence in the early part of the
second century : and what has been said of the
wide spread of the originals applies also to these
translations. Thus at latest in the third generation
after the date of the events recorded, the Gospels
were accessible and accepted throughout the Roman
Empire and through a great part of the Persian :
that is to say, in all parts of the civilized world.
5i] TESTIMONIES. 59
51. Testimonies. It remains to speak of the
express testimonies that remain to us, showing that
predominant authority was early ascribed to the
four Gospels. The full treatment of this subject is
far too long for our limits ; it will be found in
Father Cornely's Introdttctio, or more completely
in Dr. Salmon's Introduction. We can do no more
than quote a few passages of writers who lived in
the second century. Clement of Alexandria, who
ceased to be head of the Catechetical School of that
city in the year 202, was contending with a heretic
who quoted what purported to be a passage from
the Gospel; but Clement rejects it, saying (Strom.
3, 13; P.G. 8, 11:93): "This passage is not found
in the four Gospels that we have received, but in
the Gospel of the Egyptians." We see there that
Clement clearly distinguished between the tradi-
tional four Gospels and other narratives.
Tertullian, who began to write before the end
of the second century, more than once gives the
names of the four Evangelists, as we know them.
(Advers. Marcion, 4, 2, and 5; P.L. 2, 363 and
368.)
St. Irenaeus, who was probably born in 130, cites
the same four familiar names (Adv. Hcereses, 3, 7;
P.G. 7, 884.) The weight to be attached to these
three testimonies will be seen to be the greater
when it is remembered that they represent the belief
of parts of the Christian world most remote one
from another : Clement belonging to Egypt, Ter-
tullian to Carthage, while St. Irenaeus was born in
Asia Minor, and at the time of writing was Bishop
60 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [51
of Lyons, thus witnessing for Gaul as well as his
native country.
Next, we may cite the fragment preserved in the
Ambrosian Library at Milan, and which goes by
the name of the scholar Muratori, by whom it was
first published. Its date, it is believed, cannot be
later than 170, and it plainly recognizes the four
Gospels, as may be seen in Salmon, p. 64 n, or in
Migne. (P.L. 3, 173.) It seems to have been written
at Rome.
St. Justin, who presented his Apology in the year
150, makes constant use of our Gospels. How
slender are the grounds on which this is disputed
may be seen in Comely, Introdnctio, 3, 222.
Tatian, who was born not far from the year 120,
composed a Life of Christ, which was called Dtates-
saron. This word means " by four," and it was
natural to suppose that it signified a work the
materials of which were drawn from the four
Evangelists. This explanation, however, was con-
tested, and it was maintained that the word was
a musical term, and denoted a full or perfect
harmony. Recent discoveries, however, have set
the question at rest ; and a somewhat long but
perfectly sure train of reasoning proves Tatian to
be a witness that in his time our four Gospels were
recognized as possessing paramount authority. The
particulars of the argument may be read in Salmon,
Introduction, pp. 95 104, in Mr. Maher's tract on
the subject, and elsewhere. Space does not allow
us to give them here ; nor can we do more than
mention Papias, whose remains are collected in the
51] TESTIMONIES. 61
first volume of Routh's Reliquia Sacrce, and have
important bearing upon the point before us, but
give rise to many questions.
. 52. Credibility. It being taken as established
that our four Gospels are the works of contem-
poraries, it remains to consider whether the writers
had the means of knowing the truth as to the
matters they describe, and whether they can be
trusted to have written according to their knowledge.
The miracles in question were sensible facts, and
in their own nature capable of being known, and
one of the writers professes to have been an eye-
witness (St. John xix. 35, xxi. 24) ; and as to all of
them, if we are satisfied of their veracity, we must
suppose that they did not write without having
assured themselves of the truth of their narration.
That they meant to tell the truth follows from this,
that they had no inducement to propagate the
Christian religion except on the supposition that
they were persuaded of its Divine claim upon them.
In proving that the early preachers embraced a life
of toil and hardship, we are somewhat hampered,
because we must draw our materials from the four
Gospels, the four Epistles of St. Paul, and two
heathen writers : we cannot use the Book of the
Acts of the Apostles, the authenticity of which we
have not yet proved, and the discussion of which
would lead us to a long and needless historical
inquiry. But we learn from Tacitus that Christ
was crucified, and His followers are not likely to
have met with better treatment, nor indeed would
they have reported the apparent failure of the
6a THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. (52
Mission of Christ, had not truth compelled them.
They report His prophecies, by which He warned
them that those who undertook to carry on His
work might look forward to scourging and death
as their fate (St. Matt. x. 17 ; St. John xvi. 2) ; il
these prophecies had not been fulfilled in the
persons of the writers, they would have discredited
their cause by reporting them. And we have direct
testimony that these prophecies were fulfilled, not
only in the passage of Tacitus already cited (n. 38),
but in the description which St. Paul gives of his
life (2 COT. xi. 23 33), where he does not deny that
other preachers of Christ, those whom he speaks
of in verse 13 as false apostles, suffered similar
hardships, but only asserts that his own sufferings
exceeded those of the rest. This record of what
he endured in the performance of the work to
which he devoted himself abundantly justifies him
in saying (i Cor. xv. 19) : " If in this life only
we have hope in Christ, we are of all men most
miserable."
53. Objections. Such is then a very brief outline
of the proof that Christ wrought physical miracles
in attestation of His claim to be received as a Divine
Messenger, from which it follows that we must
look to His utterances as containing revelations
from God. The sketch is most imperfect, the full
development requiring much space, as is the case
with all historical arguments: its full treatment
must be sought elsewhere.
The question of thr date of the Gospels being of
vital importance to the opponents of the Christian
53J OBJECTIONS. 63
Revelation, they leave no stone unturned in their
endeavour to find objections to bring against our
position. They elude some of the early testimony
by denying that it applies to our Gospels, and by
inventing certain primitive Gospels, which they say
were once in esteem, but which for no assignable
reason perished, making way to allow the present
Gospels to take their place : to which theory it is
enough to say that it has no producible basis. But
they rest chiefly upon internal evidence, and point
out what seem to be contradictions in the Gospels
as indicating fiction ; at the present stage of our
argument we need say no more than that general
agreement with minute discrepancies is the ordinary
condition of historical narratives : the full discussion
of the bearing of these alleged contradictions will
find its proper place when we speak of the inspira-
tion of Scripture, (n. 139) Also, they assume to
know what the true Evangelist would have said or
not have said under the particular circumstances in
which he was placed ; a presumptuous pretension :
and it is with them a fundamental position that
every narrative involving a supernatural element
cannot possibly be authentic, for miracles never
happen : a position which, if proved, would render
all further inquiry useless, but which never can be
proved, as we tried to show in the last chapter.
54. Recapitulation. In this chapter, after pointing
out that the early existence of Christianity is an
undeniable fact which imperatively calls for explana-
tion, we showed that the Christian explanation is
sufficient, and that this account was based upon
64 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [54
certain physical miracles alleged to have been
wrought by the Founder; these miracles are assumed
to be familiar by St. Paul in four of his Letters, as to
the genuineness of which there is no controversy ;
and the particulars of many are detailed in the four
Gospels, which were received as authentic in the
earliest times.
CHAPTER V.
PROPHECY.
55. Subject of the Chapter. In this chapter we
shall discuss some of the Messianic prophecies found
in the Old Testament, and point out the conclusive
proof which they afford of the Divinity of the
Christian Revelation, in spite of all the criticism to
which they have been subjected.
56. Nature of the Argument. The incapacity of
man to see into the distant future with any approach
to precision is one of the commonplaces of moralists.
Even in a physical matter, such as the weather, the
forecasts for merely a single day are vague, and are
often falsified by the event ; and where the action
of free-will comes in, the most far-sighted statesman
will not pretend to say what will be the state of
public affairs a month hence, much less to foretell
the actions of individuals, which are always less
reducible to rule than those of masses of men. If,
then, we find a case where a detailed prophecy has
been committed to writing, and has received its
fulfilment after the lapse of a century, we must
admit that it is the effect of some power above
nature : and the same tests that we mentioned in
regard to miracles (n. 32) will guide us in judging
F VOL. I.
66 PROPHECY. (56
whether or not this power is Divine. We shall show
in this chapter that prophecies answering to these
requirements have attested the Christian Revelation,
whence it follows that this Revelation is Divine.
In addition to what we have already proved, we
shall assume, what is not called in question, that
the writings of the Old Testament existed some
time before the rise of Christianity.
57. Vague expectations. The subject may be intro-
duced by remarking that about the time of the rise
of Christianity, expectation ran high throughout the
world that some great change was impending, and
men's thoughts were turned to the Jewish nation as
destined to produce some great man who would
change the course of public events. We read this
expressly in Tacitus, who was a boy at the time in
question and may be said to speak from his own
knowledge. Writing of the year 70, he says (Histories,
5, 13) : " There was a widespread persuasion that
according to the ancient books of the priests the
time had come when the East should regain its
strength and those should come forth from Judaea
that should master the world." The expressions of
Suetonius, also a contemporary, are still stronger
(Vesp. 4) : "A steady conviction had long been rife
in the East that at this very time those should come
forth from Judaea who were destined to master the
world." Josephus the Jew testifies that this pro-
phecy was found in the sacred writings of his nation
(Wars of the Jews, 6, 5, 4) ; and he probably had
this passage in his mind when he saluted Vespasian
as destined to be Emperor, and thereby gained
yj] VAGUE EXPECTATIONS. 67
release from his bonds and the favour of the great
man. (Wars, 3, 8, 9, and 3, 10, 7.)
At the very time of which these authors speak,
the prophecy in question was receiving its fulfilment :
a power had lately gone forth from Judaea and was
mastering the world : this power was the Christian
religion.
58. Daniel. The vague expectations of which
we have been speaking were not without a written
basis. Whatever difference of opinion there may be
as to the date when the Book of the Prophet Daniel
was put into its present shape, no critics doubt that
it was in existence substantially in the shape in
which we now have it at least a century and a half
before the Christian era. We believe that its true
date is still earlier, by two hundred and fifty years,
but the later date is sufficient for our purpose, and
we wish for brevity's sake to avoid all historical or
critical controversy, as far as possible. Now there
was nothing in the situation of the Jewish people in
the middle of the second century before Christ, to
suggest that in any sense they were destined ever
to become masters of the world, while to fix a time
when the process should begin, not immediately,
but after five or six generations should have passed
away, was certainly a work surpassing all the possi-
bilities of human sagacity. The history of the
Jewish nation at the period in question is known in
outline with perfect certainty : they had successfully
resisted the Greek King Antiochus, who endeavoured
to force them to abandon their ancestral religion
and peculiar customs, and they had been admittec
68 PROPHECY. [58
to an alliance of nominal equality and real depend-
ence with Rome itself, as may be read in the
eighth chapter of the First Book of Machabees ; but
although strong in their inflexibility, they had shown
no signs of aggressive power, or inclination to
attack their neighbours, nor had they any apostolic
spirit inducing them to bring over converts to their
religion ; such proselytes were received if they
offered themselves, but there was no activity in
seeking to attract them on spiritual grounds : social
and commercial considerations sometimes induced
heathens to submit to circumcision, but such men
were in no great esteem : there were many more
who attended the Synagogue worship and professed
to observe some parts of the moral law as it was
understood by the Jews, but the bond attaching
these " proselytes of the gate " to the nation
was of the loosest description : the circumcised
" proselytes of righteousness " were fully incorpo-
rated.
Now let the ninth chapter of the Book of Daniel
be read, and it will be seen that in the midst of
much that is obscure, it is clear that a revelation
is described which " the man Gabriel," a Divine
messenger, is represented as giving to the Prophet,
in answer to his prayer : and according to this
revelation, " Christ the Prince " would come after
the lapse of a certain space of time from the going
forth of the edict to build up Jerusalem again : and
few critics are found to question the common belief
that this space of time is expressed by weeks of
years, and amounts to something less than five
5 8] DANIEL. 69
centuries. Further, it cannot be doubted that the
"going forth of the edict," whatever it precisely
meant, took place about five hundred years before
the rise of Christianity, which religion at once
began the work of mastering the world, which it
accomplished, so far as the Roman Empire was
concerned, when after the lapse of three more
centuries Constantine gave civil recognition to the
new religion. The minute discussion of this famous
prophecy belongs to commentators upon the Book
of Daniel, and they find considerable difficulty in
determining the exact sense of each phrase, and
the manner in which it received its accomplishment :
but their doubts do not extend to more than a few
years' difference in the results, and this does not
affect the broad view which we have taken, and
which is sufficient for our purpose. This at least
stands out clearly : a writer who lived not later
than a century and a half before Christ foretold
within a few years the date at which a Prince would
come Who should be slain, but on Whose death
iniquity should be abolished. The Founder of
Christianity was a Prince Who answered to this
description, and came at the destined time : He
was a Prince, for notwithstanding His death of
shame, His followers went forth from Jerusalem
and mastered the world. We have here a prophecy
which plainly surpasses the natural power of man,
and no one will suggest that it was diabolic ; it
remains, therefore, that the prediction was Divine,
and that the Prince was in a special sense a
messenger from God.
jo PROPHECY. [59
59. An objection answered. Those writers who
do not admit the interpretation which we have
given of this passage of Daniel, generally explain it
as being a "prophecy after the event," and make
out that it refers to the defeat of the attempt of
Antiochus to destroy the religion and national exist-
ence of the Jews. But this interpretation is open
to the difficulty that the " Christ, the Prince " of
the Prophet, is spoken of as a single person, while
no one man stood conspicuously forward in the
struggle against the Greek tyrant ; the Machabean
family took the leading part, but there was no one
member of the family who took so leading a part as
to account for his being spoken of as the Anointed
Prince, to the exclusion of the rest. Moreover,
there is no possibility of making the chronology suit
with this explanation ; there is no way of making
out that seventy weeks was the interval between the
appearance of the edict for the rebuilding of the city
and the exploits which brought the War of Inde-
pendence to a glorious termination. This interval
cannot have been very different from three hundred
and fifty years.
The main objection to the Messianic interpre-
tation of the Seventy Weeks is based on the
assertion that prophecy is never definite as to times
and places. But this principle, as we have already
pointed out, is of its own nature incapable of proof,
for the whole matter depends upon the free-will of
God, which man cannot discern ; and if the prin-
ciple means no more than that in fact no such
prophecies exist, then it cannot, without a manifest
59] AN OBJECTION ANSWERED. 71
petitio principii, be adduced as proving that a
particular prophecy does not disclose the future in
a definite manner. In fact, the Scriptures contain
many prophecies which Christians assert to be
perfectly definite, and to have been exactly ful-
filled ; the upholders of the principle that we have
been speaking of must discuss each of these on its
merits, and show that the words do not bear the
meaning put upon them. In matters of this kind,
induction is useless unless it rise to the character
of perfect induction, and then it is a truism.
60. Micheas. We proceed to the discussion of a
prophecy which is definite in regard to place. It
relates to the town of Bethlehem, which lies about
six miles south of Jerusalem, in the territory which
formerly belonged to the tribe of Juda. This town
in primitive times had the name of Ephrata, as is
recorded in Genesis xxxv. 19, xlviii. 7 ; we have no
account of the circumstances that led to the change
of name. There was another Bethlehem in the
tribe of Zabulon (Josue xix. 1 5), by way of distinc-
tion from which the town near Jerusalem is spoken
of as Bethlehem Ephrata, or Bethlehem of Juda.
It is noticeable that the name is not found in the
Hebrew text of the fifteenth chapter of the Book
of Josue, where the towns of Juda are enumerated,
and the omission has given some trouble to inter-
preters ; the name is found in the Septuagint, after
verse 59. In 2 Paral. xi. 6, it is mentioned among
the cities of Juda which Roboam " built," or forti-
fied, and its name occurs in connection with the
family of David, who came from there. It still
7J PROPHECY. (60
retains its name, and has a population of some
3,000 Christians.
This town of Bethlehem is mentioned in a
passage found in the Book of the Prophet Micheas.
(v. 2.) This book was certainly written long before
the Birth of Christ ; probably as much as seven
hundred years. The Prophet has been speaking of
the events that were destined to come to pass " in
the last days," that is to say, at some indefinite
future time. In the fourth chapter, the Jewish
people are told that they shall be carried captive to
Babylon, and this specification of place should be
observed ; but they are to be delivered, and to
become strong against their enemies ; after which
comes the verse that we are to consider : " And
thou, Bethlehem Ephrata, art a little one among
the thousands of Juda; out of thee shall He come
forth unto Me that is to be the ruler in Israel ; and
His going forth is from the beginning, from the
days of eternity : " that is to say, the petty town
of Bethlehem is congratulated on its destiny, that
it is to be the birthplace of Him Who is to be the
Captain of the people in their triumphant struggle
with their enemies, and Who shares the eternity of
God.
The Gospels of St. Matthew and St. John afford
us proof that this prophecy was understood at the
time of the Birth of the Founder of the Christian
religion, and that it was fulfilled by His Birth at
Bethlehem, to which place His Mother, leaving her
home at Nazareth, had journeyed for a temporary
purpose. We read the circumstances of the Birth
60] MICHEAS. 73
in the first chapter of St. Matthew's Gospel ; and
in the second chapter, when King Herod asked the
chief priests and scribes where Christ should be born,
they answered : " In Bethlehem of Juda. For so it
is written in the Prophet : And thou, Bethlehem,
the land of Juda, art not the least among the
princes of Juda ; for out of thee shall come forth
the Captain that shall rule My people Israel." And
in St. John (vii. 42) we find the supposed birth of
our Lord in Galilee treated as conclusive against
His claim to be considered the Messiah ; for, it was
asked, Doth not the Scripture say, that Christ
cometh " of the seed of David and from Bethlehem,
the town where David was ? "
That Christ was to be of the seed of David is
not declared in the passage of Micheas ; the popular
and well-founded impression on the subject to
which St. John testifies, was probably derived from
i Paral. xvii. 14, and Psalm cxxxi. n.
The meaning of the prophecy as to the place of
birth is so clear as not to call for explanation. In
the face of it, the fact that our Lord had His
ordinary residence in Nazareth, and was supposed
to have been born there, was a real difficulty, but
one which a little inquiry would have cleared up,
for His Mother was living and accessible (St. Matt,
xii. 47 ; St. John xix. 25) ; and it was probably from
her that St. Matthew and St. Luke learned the
particulars of the visit to Bethlehem that they have
recorded. (St. Matt. ii. I 12 ; St. Luke ii. I 20.)
This instance illustrates what we shall see in the
Treatise on Faith (nn. 313, 314), that the motives
74 PROPHECY. [60
leading men to believe in God and His Revelation
are sufficient to remove all reasonable doubt, but
not so evident as to force the will to a consent
which would not be free, and therefore not meri-
torious. (See Denz. 1661.)
It will be observed that the words of the priests
reported in St. Matthew's Gospel are not absolutely
identical with the citation from the Prophet. The
differences between the passages are quite imma-
terial, but there is no verbal identity. Indeed, at
first sight there is a contradiction : the Prophet
says that Bethlehem is little, and he is cited as
saying that Bethlehem is not little ; but a moment's
thought will show that this contradiction is merely
apparent, and that both forms of expression convey
the same sense : the petty town of Bethlehem is to
be ennobled by the Birth of the Saviour.
The latter part of this prophecy relates to the
eternal generation of the Saviour, as will be
explained in our Treatise on the Blessed Trinity.
61. Fulfilments of Prophecy. The passage of
Micheas which we have been considering appears to
relate to Christ in its direct and most literal sense,
and to be most properly a prophecy. The same
cannot be said of two other passages from the Old
Testament which are quoted by St. Matthew in
connection with the visit of the Magi to Bethlehem,
and a few remarks upon them will be useful. The
first is the pa sage from Osee xi. i, quoted in
St. Matt. ii. 15 ; the second, quoted in the i8th
verse of the same chapter, is taken from Jerem.
xxxi. 15.
6i] FULFILMENTS OF PROPHECY, 75
The Prophet Osee, in this chapter, is describing
the fortunes of the Israelite nation. When young,
and as a child, it was brought forth from the slavery
of Egypt by the power of God, and yet in its
ingratitude it fell off to idolatry. All this seems to
have nothing to do with the sojourn of our Lord in
Egypt, and yet St. Matthew tells us that the return
from that land of exile was a fulfilment of that
prophecy. The apostate Emperor Julian, in the
seventh book of his work against the Christians,
accused the Evangelist of practising upon the
simplicity of his readers, as St. Jerome tells us in
the' third book of his Commentary on Osee. (P.L.
25, 195.) Eusebius (Demonstr. Evang. 9, 4 ; P.G.
22, 665) boldly maintains that the prophecy has
direct reference to Christ, and perhaps Julian had
him in mind as one whom the Evangelist had
deceived. But it is better to adopt the view of
Jerome (I.e.), who holds that the passage primarily
relates to the delivery of the Israelites from Egypt
under Moses ; but it regards this recall of the
chosen people from the land of banishment to the
land of promise as an acted prophecy of the return
of Christ from Egypt to Judaea. God can fore-
shadow the future by events no less than by words ;
and He is said to use this mode of speaking by
types, when His providence has so arranged the
course of one event as to make it prefigure some
future event, which is called the antitype.
In the passage from Jeremias quoted by St.
Matthew, the case seems to be different. If we
still follow the interpretation of St. Jerome, in his
PROPHECY. [61
sixth Book on Jeremias (P.L. 24, 876), this passage
of the Prophet refers exclusively to the circum-
stances of the captivity of the ten tribes ; and the
wailing of the mothers whose sons were suffering
the penalty of their crimes cannot be a type of
what occurred when the Holy Innocents were
slaughtered. It follows that, according to this great
Doctor, the Evangelist merely " accommodated "
the words of the Prophet to the matter which he
was describing, and did not adduce them as
prophetic of the event. The case serves to illus-
trate the meaning of the word "accommodation,"
even if we hold that the Evangelist adduced the
passage as directly applicable. As to this, see the
matter discussed in Father Knabenbauer's Commen-
tary on St. Matthew.
These three passages, cited by St. Matthew in
w. 6, 15, 18, of his second chapter, are specimens of
three ways in which the Old Testament is used in
the New. In the passage of Micheas we have a
direct prophecy of the event, and the Gospel calls
attention to the fulfilment of this prophecy; in that
from Osee, the Prophet refers to a past event,
which event was typical, and therefore prophetic
of that which the Gospel records ; the passage from
Jeremias may have been in no sense prophetic,
but its words are used by the Evangelist as aptly
expressing a matter which was not contemplated
by the Prophet, nor if we may use the expression,
by the Holy Spirit Who spoke through him. It
will be observed that the form of citation is not the
same in the i8th as in the T5th verse: in the earlier
61] FULFILMENTS OF PROPHECY. 77
case we have ut adimpleretur r iva TrXr^pwOrj " in
order that it might be fulfilled ; " in the latter, tune
adimpletum est Tore eVX^pco^ "then was fulfilled/'
But the question to which class any particular
citation is to be referred cannot be settled off-hand
by merely observing the words of introduction ; but
the judgment of interpreters must be exercised
upon all the circumstances of the case, and after
all there is often room left for doubt. Thus,
Cornelius a Lapide follows St. Jerome in the way
he understands the passage from Osee, but differs
from him as to that taken from Jeremias.
62. Other Messianic Prophecies. There are many
other prophecies concerning the Messiah to be found
in the Old Testament, some authors collecting as
many as a hundred. We can do no more than
briefly notice one or two. The name of Prot-
Evangelium, or Primitive Gospel, is given to the
first passage of the kind, in Genesis iii. 15, where
God promises that there should be enmities between
the seed of the woman and the serpent, whose
head should finally be crushed ; a prophecy which
concerns more particularly the Blessed Mother of
the Saviour. A series of passages record the
promises that the Deliverer should be descended
from Abraham (Genesis xii. 3), from Isaac (Genesis
xxvi. 4), and from Jacob. (Genesis xxviii. 14.) The
much controverted passage in Genesis xlix. 8 12,
may perhaps be taken as showing that He should
descend from Juda, that son of Jacob on whom his
father pronounced this blessing ; but it refers more
particularly to the time of coming of this Redeemer,
7 8 PROPHECY. [6a
which should take place before national independ-
ence was altogether lost to the Jewish people.
The same mode of indicating the date is generally
thought to be also adopted by the Prophet Aggeus,
whose office was to encourage the people who were
engaged in erecting a second Temple at Jerusalem,
in place of that which had been built by Solomon
and destroyed by the Assyrians. Some of the elders,
who had seen the glory of the Temple of Solomon,
lamented that with all their efforts, that which they
now were raising fell so short of that which they
remembered ; and to comfort them, Aggeus, speak-
ing in the name of God, declared (ii. 7 10) that
the time should come when the glory of the later
house should be greater than that of the first ; and
he gives the reason which, according to the Vulgate
translation, is that He Whom all nations desire
should come to that house. These words cannot
bear any interpretation except that which refers
them to the Messiah ; and since this second Temple
was destroyed by Titus in A.D. 70, it follows that
He has come long ago. It follows further that the
passage avails in Catholic theology as a proof that
this coming has now past ; for, as will be shown in
its proper place (n. 152), the authority of the Vulgate
is such that no dogmatic error is deducible from its
wcrds. But it by no means follows that the Vulgate
correctly represents what the Prophet wrote, and
in the present case there is great difficulty in accept-
ing the version, unless we suppose that the Hebrew
text is corrupt. In the Hebrew the verb is in the
plural, and its subject is a collective, so that the
6a) OTHER MESSIANIC PROPHECIES. 79
meaning is "the desirable things shall come,"
whether it be the things which the nations desire
or which they possess ; either way the verse would
contain an assurance that the treasures of the
nations should one day be lavished in adorning this
second house ; as was in fact done by the hands
3f Herod the Great, as described by Josephus.
(Antiquities, 15, II, 3.) The same meaning is given
by the Greek of the Septuagint : but, nevertheless,
the Vulgate interpretation finds defenders. See
Corluy (Spicilegium, i, 520), who upholds the Latin,
and Knabenbauer (Propheta Minores, 2, 187 199),
who deserts it.
The latter part of the Book of Isaias (xlii. Ixvi.)
is full of descriptions of the rejection of Christ,
His sufferings and Death ; and many circum-
stances are alluded to by Zacharias ; also the
Psalms afford a large number of passages, four at
least being entirely Messianic. (Psalms ii. xliv. Ixxi.
and cix.)
63. Prophetic Allusions. In the case of many of
these passages the reference to Christ is so clear
that it can scarcely be questioned, but there are
others where the meaning cannot be demonstrated.
In the case of these obscurer passages, no fair
judgment can be formed concerning the allusion
except by those who admit the Messianic interpre-
tation of the clearer texts. Just as was remarked
in the case of miracles (n. 32), so with prophecies ;
there is a family likeness among them, and those
who have made acquaintance with some members
of the family will easily recognize the rest ; only,
to PROPHECY. [63
care must be taken that specimens of undoubted
genuineness are chosen for study.
The full force of the argument for the Christian
Revelation founded on the prophecies contained in
the Old Testament cannot be understood without a
discussion of the whole of these passages, to show
their orderly sequence. Such a discussion will
be found in various works devoted to the special
subject, but it would carry us far beyond our limits
to attempt it.
64. Recapitulation. In the chapter on Prophecy,
after stating the nature of the argument, we quoted
Tacitus, Suetonius, and Josephus, to show that at
the coming of Christ, a vague expectation existed
throughout the world that some power, springing
from Judaea would establish itself and rule. The
origin of this expectation was then traced to the
prophecy of Daniel, and Micheas was quoted as
declaring that Bethlehem should be the birthplace
of the Saviour. Various modes of the fulfilment of
prophecy were explained, and a large number of
Messianic prophecies were briefly indicated.
CHAPTER VI.
THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. MORAL MIRACLES.
65. Subject of the Chapter. This chapter deals
with the moral miracles that attest the truth of
Christianity more persuasively than the physical
miracles and the prophecies found in the Scripture.
The chapter assumes some of the teachings of
history, but there is no need to touch on matters
of historical controversy : the broad facts on which
all agree are sufficient for our purpose.
66. Nature of the A rgument. A moral miracle, as
we explained (n. 25), is an event depending upon the
free-will of man, but which is inconsistent with the
principles that ordinarily regulate human conduct.
These moral miracles, when established, have no
less probative force than physical miracles and pro-
phecies ; and they are peculiarly easy to establish,
inasmuch as they concern the action of large bodies
of men, which is necessarily notorious. A physical
miracle is essentially an isolated occurrence ; if it
happened frequently, it would necessarily cease to
be a probative miracle ; and being isolated, it
necessarily falls under the immediate cognizance of
a few only, and those who know it only by report
are less impressed. But a moral miracle can
C VOL. I.
a THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [66
scarcely be recognized unless it is the act of a
multitude, for the act of one or two persons may
be set down to freak, illustrating the freedom of
the human will. But experience shows that though
the units which compose a multitude of men are
individually free and capable of freaks r yet the
conduct of the whole number can ordinarily be
foreseen and predicted with a degree of assurance
approaching that which is felt in regard to physical
phenomena. But the actions of communities of
men constitute the ordinary matter of the history
of nations : hence our argument in this chapter will
be founded on the broad facts of general history.
We shall show that under the influence of Christi-
anity masses of men have acted in a way which
would not have been adopted by them under the
ordinary influences of nature ; it follows that the
Christian influence was something other than
natural, and in fact it was a miracle attesting the
Christian Revelation. We shall show that the
Christian religion spread rapidly in the world with-
out there being any assignable cause for its success ;
that this spread was in accordance with prophecy ;
that it took place in spite of the Christian dogm;i
requiring humble submission of intellect to un-
attractive beliefs, while the Christian moral law
exacted the renouncement of much that was dear
to man and the adoption of a strange and dis-
tasteful line of conduct ; that the religion spread,
although the civil power was exerted to the utmost
to check it, numbers in all ages having suffered
torments and death rather than do any act which
66] NATURE OF THE ARGUMENT. 83
was inconsistent with the Christian profession ; and
lastly, that the success of the religion was secured
in spite of the misconduct of many that embraced it.
67. The Conversion of the Empire. The change
which came over the Roman Empire in the course
of the half-century between 300 and 350 years after
the Christian era is perhaps unique and unparalleled
in history. The change is foreshadowed, if we
compare two verses of the Acts of the Apostles
(i. 13 and ii. 14) ; the Apostles had been living in
the privacy of the " upper room," when the Holy
Spirit came upon them and the rest ; this was the
foundation of the Christian Church, and the result
is seen when we read that Peter stood up with the
eleven and lifted up his voice and spoke to the
multitude with such effect that by this one sermon
three thousand of the people were converted and
baptized. St. Augustine tells us how the Cross,
which had been the badge of infamy and mark of
the deepest scorn, was in his time raised to honour
as the Christian symbol, and had its place on the
crowns of kings. (Enarr. in Psalm, liv. n. 12 ; P.L.
36, 637.) The same point is illustrated by the
story, true or false, of the vision of the Cross in
the heavens, seen by Constantine when on his
successful march to Rome in the year 311 ; the
Cross bearing the inscription, " In this conquer,"
whether in Latin, In hoc signo vinces, or as others
report in Greek, J Ev rovry vUa. The heavenly
promise or injunction thus given was abundantly
fulfilled, when Constantine secured to himself the
dominion of the whole Roman world and became
THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES.
the first Christian Emperor. A discussion of the
evidence for this story will be found in the second
of Newman's Essays on Miracles, c. v. 4.
But perhaps the most famous narrative of this
kind is that of the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus.
The authorities for the story will be found collected
in the Bollandist Ada Sanctorum for July 27. The
Seven Sleepers are mentioned in the Roman
Martyrology for that day, but without any particulars,
and we are quite at liberty to regard the current
version of their story as pure fable, as is done by
Cardinal Baronius (Annul. Ecclcs. ad ann. 853, n. 61
[84]) ; but even if false it shows how the conversion
of the Empire struck the inventor of the story.
It tells how seven Christian men fled from Ephesus,
to avoid the persecution of the Emperor Decius,
about the year 250. They took refuge in a cave,
the mouth of which was blocked with stones, by
order of the magistrates, and they were left to
starve. They fell asleep and slept for a century or
more. Meanwhile a peasant had removed some
of the stones, and when the sleepers woke, one of
them was able to leave the cave, and make his way
to the city, hoping to buy bread. His astonishment
is described at finding the Cross raised to adorn the
city gates : at seeing the churches, the use of which
he recognized ; and at hearing passers-by swear by
the name of Christ. His sleep had begun while the
old pagan world still existed ; he awoke at the dawn
of Christian civilization.
As to the fact of the rapid spread of the
Christian religion, one or two quotations will suffice.
67] TUB CONVERSION OF THE EMPIRE. * 3
It might be enough to rest on the letter of Pliny,
already cited (n. 41), from which we learn that in
Bithynia at least, a large part of the population was
Christian as early as the year 112; and there is no
reason to suppose that the circumstances of that
province were more favourable to the growth of the
new religion than those of the rest of the Empire :
no Apostle is recorded to have preached there.
But we get positive testimony from the writings of
St. Justin Martyr, who was born about 114. In his
Dialogue with the Jew Trypho, " the best known
Jew of his age," as Eusebius calls him (Hist. 4, 18 ;
P.G. 20, 376), St. Justin ventures to taunt his
formidable antagonist with the utter failure of the
attempt of the priests and teachers of the Jewish
nation to put down the Christian religion : the
upshot of all their efforts was that the name of
Jesus was reviled and blasphemed throughout the
world (Dial. c. Try ph. Judceo, n. 117; P.G. 6, 748) ;
a sure sign that also it was known and honoured
throughout the world little more than a century
after the Death of Christ. Tertullian, who wrote
about the year 200, speaks to the same effect, but
more fully. He is addressing the heathen Emperor
(Apolog. c. 37 ; P.L. i, 462) : " We are but of yesterday,
and we fill all that is yours ; your cities, your islands,
your military posts ; your boroughs, your council-
chambers and your camps ; your tribes, your
corporations ; the palace, the senate, the forum :
your temples alone do we leave to you." And again,
in his book against the Jews (Adv. Jud. 0.7; P.L.
2, 610), he testifies that the tribes of Africa, Spain
86 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [67
and Gaul and Britain, Sarmatians, Dacians, Germans
and Scythians, all the peoples of the Latin world in
short, had admitted Christ to reign : He conquered
where the Roman arms failed ; the bolted gates of
cities opened to admit Him. There is no doubt
some rhetorical exaggeration in this passage, but at
the same time it cannot have been wholly devoid of
foundation. A controversialist would ruin his cause
who spoke thus boastfully and was not known to
speak with substantial truthfulness.
68. This Success how accounted for. Those writers
who do not admit the Divine origin of the Christian
Revelation feel the necessity of discovering some
natural explanation of its success in subduing Rome;
and those who are most familiar with the records of
the time are those who are most pressed by the
sense of this necessity. Gibbon, the historian of
the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, possessed
an unsurpassed acquaintance with his subject, and
he devotes the fifteenth chapter of his great work to
pointing out five causes by which he thinks that the
progress of Christianity can be explained without
recourse to special Divine intervention. We will
briefly examine these in order.
I. The first cause assigned by Gibbon is the
inflexible, intolerant zeal of the Christians. It is
quite true that the Christians in whose time the
conversion of the Empire was wrought were in-
flexible and intolerant : that is to say, they believed
the Christian Revelation to be a message from God
to men, and intended for the benefit of all men ;
and they were anxious to extend this benefit as
4.8] THIS SUCCESS HOW ACCOUNTED FOR. 87
widely as possible, and to root out all views,
principles, and practices which were opposed to this
revelation, as being false and injurious. But this
spirit was as far as possible from that which would
recommend the religion to the Romanj of the time,
whose disposition in religion no less than in philo-
sophy was eclectic ; it is well represented by the
story told, whether truly or falsely, by the writer of
the Life of Alexander Severus, which goes under the
name of Lampridius. (Historia Augusta, p. 123 E of
the Paris Edition of 1620.) This Emperor reigned
from 222 to 235 ; and the historian says, on the
authority of a contemporary writer, that he each
morning went through his devotions in his private
chapel, where he had, amongst others, the images
of Apollonius, Christ, Abraham, and Orpheus : a
strange mixture, for the first-named was a Pytha-
gorean philosopher and wonder-worker of the first
Christian century, whose Life, written about the year
200 by Philostratus, seems to have been intended to
be a rival of the Gospels, and to help the effort then
making to revivify the dying pagan system, while
Orpheus was a merely mythological personage.
What Alexander is said to have done, all Rome
might have done ; and St. Leo truly describes the
spirit which prevailed when he says (Serm. ^ [82] ,
in Natali, A post. Petri et Pauli, n. 2 ; P.L. 54, 423),
that the city which held sway over all nations was
itself under the sway of the errors of all; and
believed herself most attentive to the claims of
religion because there was no falsehood she declined
to embrace. This temper, far from being conciliated
88 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [68
by the claim of the Christian to the exclusive
possession of truth, would be revolted by it : in fact,
Pliny tells us in the letter already quoted (n. 41),
that in his opinion the obstinacy of the Christians
itself deserved punishment.
II. Gibbon assigns as the second cause of the
success of Christianity the doctrine of a future life.
No doubt this doctrine tended to make Christians
firm in their profession, and in fact the words of
Christ, " These shall go into everlasting punish-
ment and the just into life everlasting" (St. Matt.
xxv. 46), have in all ages been powerful deterrents
from evil and supports of virtue ; but the question
remains, how it happened that this doctrine which
had been taught barrenly by the poets and philo-
sophers of paganism suddenly, when preached by
Christian missionaries, became the mainspring of
the life of large communities. The truth is that
men did not believe in Christ because He taught
the immortality of the soul : but they believed in
immortality because Christ taught it.
III. The third cause is the miraculous power
ascribed to the Apostolic Church. This is a real
cause of the success of Christian teachers who
" going forth preached everywhere ; the Lord work-
ing withal, and confirming the word with signs that
followed." (St. Mark xvi. 20.) That these wonderful
works did as a matter of fact occur was fully
admitted even by those who had every opportunity
of knowing the truth and who were most concerned
to deny them : but the only question raised seems
to have concerned the nature of the power to which
68] THIS SUCCESS HOW ACCOUNTED FOR. 89
they were due, which the pagans set down as magic
art, as we saw before, (n. 36.)
IV. The pure and austere morals of the
Christians are assigned as the fourth cause. The
same remarks are applicable here as we made on
the second of Gibbon's causes. How did it happen
that the Christians adopted so pure and austere a
life ? In truth, the Christian standard of morality
was raised so high above that professed by pagan
society that the Divine force of the religion is better
seen in nothing than in its success in imposing this
standard upon the world. We shall have another
opportunity of enlarging upon this point, (n. 70.)
V. The last cause is the union and discipline
of the Christian republic. Again we may use the
same retort. What natural power secured this
unity among men, and induced them to submit to
this discipline ? Gibbon makes special mention of
the wealth which he conceives the Church to have
possessed, and of the practice of excommunication.
But this wealth must have been derived from the
contributions of the Christians, and there is no
inducement to join an institution in the fact that
the neophyte will be expected to contribute to its
support ; and to be cut off from the Church can
have no terrors except for those who already value
the privilege of membership.
This attempt of Gibbon to account for the marvel
whose existence he recognized, cannot be deemed
successful, and what was said by St. Augustine (De
Civit. Dei, 22. 5; P.L. 41, 756) remains true, that
if the world were converted without the aid of
THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES.
miracles, this conversion would be the greatest
miracle of all.
69. The Success foretold. St. Augustine, in his
Tract on Faith in the Invisible, has an argument
which deserves mention. It is found in the fourth
chapter, n. 7. (P.L. 40, 176.) He urges that the
existence of the Christian religion is not only a
standing miracle, but a standing fulfilment of pro-
phecy. It is no small marvel, he says, that the whole
race of man is moved by the name of one crucified
Malefactor. We see before our eyes the accom-
plishment of the promise made to Abraham, that
in him shall all the kindred of the earth be blessed.
(Genesis xii. 3, and xviii. 18.) All the Gentiles have
become the inheritance of the Son of God (Psalm
ii. 8) : all the kindreds of the Gentiles adore in His
sight (Psalm xxi. 28), He that slept has risen from
His sleep (Psalm xl. 9), and to Him the Gentiles
come from the ends of the earth professing the
vanity of the idols which their fathers worshipped
(Jerem. xvi. 19), for the Lord has consumed all the
gods of the earth (Sophon. ii. n), Christ is exalted
above the heavens, and His glory is over all the
earth. (Psalm cvii. 6.)
The prophets and psalmists had no natural
ground for speaking with such assurance ; but the
event proved that their assurance was justified.
70. Christian Morality. The success which
attended the efforts of Christian teachers will
appear the more inexplicable when the obstacles
are considered which stood in their way ; and first
we will mention the point which we referred to
70] CHRISTIAN MORALITY. 91
when discussing the fourth of Gibbon's vaunted Five
Causes. Each man that embraced Christianity
professed his readiness to submit to a moral law
which put a restraint upon his natural inclinations,
far severer than that which any heathen teacher
had succeeded in imposing upon his disciples. The
bulk of the heathen moralists went no further than
to point out the expediency of just dealing, the
control of passions and the like ; the Stoics took
a view which seemed to place morality upon a
sounder basis, when they urged that it was right
to live according to nature : but they failed to
produce any motive that availed to induce men to
do what was right, and all their exhortations were
utterly without effect in moulding the lives of large
bodies of men. The utility of observing certain
lines of conduct and the abstract beauty of a natural
life undisturbed by passion, might have been pro-
claimed for centuries without producing more effect
then they had produced at the time of which we
are speaking ; Christianity laid down its positive
rules, Thou shalt not steal, and the like, and crowds
gathered together at the peril of their lives to pledge
themselves to observe these rules, as Pliny tells us.
(n. 41.) These rules were observed because they
were laws laid down by God the Creator, Who had
the right to impose them and the will and power
to punish their transgression ; and their breach
would be inconsistent with the love which the same
God had won by becoming Man and dying for
the redemption of His creatures; but even these
motives would have been powerless to produce their
THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES.
effect had not the grace of the same God worked
invisibly in the hearts of men, strengthening them
to do that which would have been beyond their
natural strength.
I. To understand something of the effect of
the preaching of this law upon mankind, we may
contrast the manners of Europe of the third century
after Christ with those of the nineteenth. And first,
idolatry was once universal and now is unknown,
so utterly unknown that men find it hard to believe
that such folly and wickedness ever existed, and
suspect that Isaias was exaggerating in the picture
he draws (xliv. 13 17) of the carpenter who uses
one and the same piece of wood, part for fuel to
cook his pottage and part to make a god and bow
down before it and pray to it and say, " Deliver me,
for thou art my god." But that actual idolatry
really prevailed even among educated men long
after the Birth of Christ is proved by the distinct
avowal of Arnobius, the African teacher of rhetoric,
who being converted from paganism to Christianity
not much earlier than the year 300, wrote a brilliant
exposure of the follies and contradictions of the
popular religion. He declares (Adv. Gentcs, I, 39;
P.L. 5, 767) that, before his conversion, in h ; s
blindness he used to venerate gods fashioned on the
anvil with the hammer; and he would speak to a
log of wood and beg benefits from it. This folly
now can scarcely be found in the Western world.
II. Christian honour of purity has replaced the
foul and public vice which formed a leading and
most attractive part of the ceremonial of idol
TO] CHRIST/AN MORALITY. 93
worship. The heathens honoured their gods by
the use of practices which the Apostle will not allow
to be named among Christians. (Ephes. v. 3.) We
read of this in the account of the rites by which the
golden calf was worshipped in the desert (Exodus
xxxii. 6) : the word translated " play " is the same
35 that which, in Genesis xxxix. 14 and 17, is
rendered " abuse." The true character of Roman
games in honour of the gods is set forth in Tertul-
lian's tract, De Spectaculis, and this should be
remembered whenever Patristic authority is invoked
against the practice of going to the theatre. (P.L. i,
630 662.) In no country which has been under
Christian influence are certain acts seen in public,
although heathen morality found in them nothing
to blame. Moreover, Christian instinct has in every
age taught thousands that their service of God will
be most perfect if offered in the state of perfect
chastity, in imitation of the Virgin Mother of their
Lord : and this life, so contrary to nature as to
seem impossible, is found to be easy in virtue of the
grace that God gives to those whom He calls. The
Christian religion has not yet secured that all
men shall observe the law : but this much has
notoriously been gained, that all who" make any
account of the name of Christian that they bear
profess to hold purity in honour, and there is no
public indulgence in immorality.
III. The honour in which the Mother of God is
held has led Christians to treat the weaker sex with
respect, and show a deference to woman to which
the most refined races of antiquity were total
94 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [79
strangers. The wife, who used to be the toiling
slave of the husband and the instrument of his
pleasures, liable to be sent away at his caprice, has
been raised by Christianity to be his life-long com-
panion, sharing with him the headship of the family.
IV. The Christian law that forbade murder was
felt to extend itself so far as to forbid the taking of
life, except by public authority in the case of male-
factors, from any human being, of whatever age.
Heathen morality allowed infanticide, and Aristotle
(Politics, vii. 16) lays down the rules under which it
ought to be practised. In Rome it continued in use
long after the old severity of the patria potestas had
been mitigated, and when public opinion would no
longer have tolerated the act of a father who put
to death the chilli whom he had once acknowledged.
The practice was slow in disappearing. Even after
the time of Constantine, the Imperial laws upon
the subject did not aim at securing the life of a
child whose parents had exposed it to die of cold
and want of food : they were concerned with the
respective property rights of the natural father
who had exposed the child and of the foster-father
who had found and reared it ; the child was a slave,
but which parent was owner of this slave? At
present, in no Christian State does either law or
public opinion sanction infanticide.
V. At the present day the amount of private
alms-giving by Christians exceeds all that can be
suspected except by those who have special oppor-
tunities of knowing the truth ; and statesmen haw
always before their eyes the necessity of publi<
70] CHRISTIAN MORALITY. 95
provision for the poor, so as to secure as far as
possible that the whole community join in main-
taining those who are unable to maintain themselves.
The records of pagan antiquity will be searched in
vain for any institution of the kind : but the words
of Christ, that he that gave a cup of cold water
should not lose his reward (St. Matt. x. 42), that
what was done to one of His least brethren was
done to Him (St. Matt. xxv. 40), sank deep into the
hearts of His disciples, and led in some cases to
the community of goods described in the Acts oi
the Apostles, (ii. 44 46.) The administration of
relief was not without its difficulties (Acts vi. i), but
the system was persevered in, and became a regular
part of the polity of the Church. St. Ambrose, in
the second of his three Books on the Duties of the
Ministers of the Church, argues that even the con-
secrated vessels that serve for the use of the altar
must be sold, when money is needed for the redemp-
tion of captives (De Off. 2. 28; P.L. 16. 139), and
he tells the famous story of St. Lawrence, the
deacon, who being required to surrender the
treasures of the Church to the tyrant, pointed to
the poor, by whose hands all his wealth had been
carried to the store-houses of Heaven.
VI. Perhaps the most striking illustration of the
influence of Christianity upon society is found in
the success which has attended the efforts of the
Church to mitigate the evils of slavery and at length
abolish the institution in all Christian countries. In
early days, the servant of the Christian, by receiving
Baptism, became the most dear brother of his
g5 THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES. [70
master (Philemon 16) ; it was recognized that the
souls of master and slave came from the hand of
a common Creator, that they were alike redeemed
with the Blood of the Son of God, and sanctified by
the same Sacraments : and although cruel abuses
long continued, yet the ordinary practices of upright
pagans were never possible in a Christian society.
Cato the Elder advises the householder to get rid
of old harness and old slaves, sickly slaves and
sickly sheep, utterly regardless of the common
human nature which Moralists talked about.
VII. The Roman theory of the origin of slavery
was that a prisoner of war might lawfully be slain,
and that a victorious general who waived this right
for a while, might employ the services of his captive.
(Justinian, Institutes, I, 3, 3.) Prisoners taken in
battle are now protected by the so-called " laws of
war," and all nations that bear the name of Christian
profess to observe these laws, which do much
towards forcing the stronger party to refrain from
using his strength to the uttermost and to secure
that the natural rights of the weaker shall be
respected.
Other points might be mentioned, but these
seven are sufficient to show how vast a revolution
has been effected in human society by the preaching
of the Gospel.
71. Bud Example and State Opposition. We have
reserved to the last place the mention of the greatest
and most painful of all the hindrances against which
the Christian preacher has to struggle: the bad
lives of many Christians. In the days of persecution
71] BAD EXAMPLE AND STATE OPPOSITION. 97
we read of the courage of the martyrs, but we read
also of the lapsed, who had yielded under torture or
the fear of torture; in later times the history of
missions is full of the complaints of labourers that
the bad lives of professing Christians repelled pagans
from a religion the sublimity of which they recog-
nized. The Jews have a saying that if Israel kept
the Law for but one day, Messiah would come ; and
we may think that if Christians abstained from sin
for but one day, the world would be converted.
God wishes to be served freely by His rational
creatures, and therefore does not constrain their
will: He leaves them free, and they so use their
freedom as to hinder the acceptance of the Gospel
by all the world.
In spite of the great difficulty just mentioned,
the Christian religion won its triumph, and this in
defiance of the utmost efforts of the yet unbroken
Roman Government. There has been much con-
troversy as to the actual number of martyrs who
suffered in the various persecutions which began
under Nero, in 65, and did not end until Constantine,
in 313, issued from Milan the edict which secured
toleration. We shall not enter on the question,
which will be found discussed by Father Hurter in
a dissertation appended to the fourth volume of his
Opuscula Sanctorum Patrum: it is enough for our
purpose to remark that Tacitus speaks (n. 42) of the
vast multitude of those that suffered under Nero ;
and that Pliny was deterred from acting on his own
principles in Bithynia by the multitude of those
whom he would have been forced to put to death.
H VOL. I.
THE CHRISTIAN EVIDENCES.
The Christian Apologists constantly taunted the
tyrants with their helplessness, and the failure of all
their efforts to crush the rising community; these
taunts would have been pointless had not the
Government made such efforts, and yet they were
boldly and publicly addressed to men who knew the
truth and were themselves engaged in carrying out
the measures of the Government. Thus Tertullian
told the Emperor Septimus Severus what the
Emperor must have felt to be the truth : " You mow
us down, and we spring up in greater luxuriance :
each drop of Christian blood that you shed is a seed
from which rises a harvest." (Apol. c. 50; P.L. i,
555.) This strife between the powers of the world
and the faith of Christ began yet earlier : the Jewish
Council commanded the Apostles to preach no
more, and were met by the question, If it be just in
the sight of God to hear you rather than God, judge
ye. No answer was forthcoming, so they had
recourse to threats, imprisonment, and scourging,
and they did not heed the wise advice of Gamaliel
to let these men alone, for if their work were of men,
it would come to nought : it has not come to nought,
showing that it is not of men, but of God. The
instructive history is read in the fourth and fifth
chapters of the Acts of the Apostles.
The same story has been repeated as often as
the State, deserting its true work, has usurped the
province of the Church, trying to be master where
it should be nursing-father. (Isaias xlix. 23.) The
phases of the struggle are recounted by ecclesiastical
historians; those who have maintained so unequal
71] BAD EXAMPLE AND STATE OPPOSITION. 99
a contest, unique in the world, must have been
supported by a strength which is more than natural.
72. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have
tried to show that the conversion of the Roman
Empire to the Christian Faith was itself a moral
miracle, proving that this Faith came from God ;
especially seeing that the attempt of Gibbon to
account for this success by natural causes is a failure.
The marvel is the greater when we remember that
this success was foretold by prophecy; that it
altered the whole tone of society in many con-
spicuous points : and that it was won in spite of the
bad lives of many Christians, in defiance of the
strenuous opposition of the State.
CHAPTER VII.
THE CERTAINTY OF THE CHRISTIAN REVELATION.
73. Subject of the Chapter. In this chapter the
force of the word " certain " is sketched, and it is
shown that the Christian Revelation is shown to be
Divine with full certainty.
74. Definitions. We will now see what has been
proved by the preceding chapters. We maintain
that miracles and prophecies render it certain that
the Christian Revelation is Divine : is the voice of
God speaking to His creature, and demanding
attention and submission. The argument admits
of indefinite development, but enough has been said
to show its nature. This all- important word certain,
however, admits of a variety of meanings, which
must be clearly understood. If I consider a question
which admits of only two answers, Yes and No,
I may see that there are reasons in favour of Yes
and reasons in favour of No, and if these reasons
are equally balanced, or nearly so, I am left in
doubt as to the answer, and am in no sense certain.
But it may be that, although I see something in
favour of No, yet the reasons that favour Yes are
so far predominant that I have no hesitation in
acting as if Yes were the truth, at the same time
74] DEFINITIONS.
that I feel a misgiving which I recognize as pmaent,
that possibly No may be the truth. In this case
I am said to be morally certain of the answer Yes,
in one sense, and that the looser and lower, of that
much abused term ; I have a sort of certainty
sufficient to direct my conduct (mores). If I pay
money into a bank in good repute, I am morally
certain that my cheques will be honoured. A
Christian must have more than this lower sort of
moral certainty of the fact that God has spoken :
as will be explained in the Treatise on Faith.
But I may see that the reasons in favour of Yes
so far exceed those that favour No, that I cannot
prudently attach any weight to these latter. If I
pleased, I might by an effort of the will withdraw
my attention from all that favours Yes, and fix my
attention upon what favours No, but I feel that
such a use of my will would be imprudent, and not
according to reason : I am then certain of the
affirmative in the proper sense of the term. The
reasons for the affirmative may be derived from
the nature of things, and the certainty is termed
metaphysical ; or from the rules by which inanimate
and irrational beings act, and it is called physical ;
or it is moral, derived from what we know of the
conduct of beings that are rational and free. Thus
the immortality of the soul is metaphysically certain;
that the fire will burn me if I touch it, is physically
certain ; while it is morally certain that my bank
has failed, if the newspapers continue for three days
to discuss the calamity. The action of those con-
cerned in getting up the papers is free, but it would
loa THE CERTAINTY OF CHRISTIAN REVELATION. [74
be imprudent in me to cling to any hope that they
were conspiring to mislead the public. It is in
this sense that we assert the Divine origin of the
Christian religion to be certain, with moral cer-
tainty.
Lastly, the reasons for the affirmative may so
wholly outweigh those for the negative as to destroy
them, or rather, there may be strong reasons for
the affirmative, and no reasons at all that make
for the negative. When the thing comes before me
in this shape it is said to be evident, and no effort
of my will can avail to hinder my assenting. The
axioms of geometry are metaphysically evident : the
power of fire to burn is physically evident : the
existence of America is morally evident to those
who have never visited the country.
75. Cogency of the Argument. In all these discus-
sions it is understood that the matter is sufficiently
proposed to me before I form a judgment: reasons
of which I know nothing are to me non-existent,
and do not affect my judgment. In saying that the
laws of motion are physically certain, we mean to
assert our belief that no normally constituted man
can without imprudence doubt them, when what is
to be said upon the subject is brought to his notice.
So with the Christian evidences, we believe that
no normally constituted man can know and weigh
them, and yet believe that it would be consistent
with prudence to doubt their force. The matter is
not evident : it does not force itself on the intellect,
but the will can, if it pleases, withdraw attention
from the argument in favour of the Christian claim
75] DEFINITIONS. 103
and fix it on imaginary difficulties. If it were
evident, the act of faith would no longer be free,
and the whole economy of the Christian scheme
would be upset. (See n. 316.) But although not
evident, the Revelation cannot prudently be rejected,
and there is therefore a duty to accept it with all
its consequences. What these consequences are we
shall inquire in future Treatises; accepting as a
Divine message whatever comes to us, mediately or
immediately, from Christ our Lord.
The fourth and fifth canons, on Faith, of the
Vatican Council contain among other things the
doctrine of this chapter. (Denz. 1660, 1661.) The
whole matter belongs more properly to the sixth
Treatise, on Faith, to which the reader is referred ;
but it seemed convenient to sum up the result of
our first Treatise in this place.
TTreatisc tbe Second
THE CHANNEL OF DOCTRINB.
CHAPTER I.
TRADITION.
76. Scope of the Treatise. All Christians are in
substantial agreement in regard to the matter dealt
with in the preceding Treatise. There may be one
or two arguments which would not be universally
accepted, but the general conclusion is one which
will not be questioned by any that bear the Christian
name : we proved that Christ was certainly a Divine
Messenger, and that therefore men are bound to
exert themselves to inquire what message He
brought, and to receive it, when ascertained, with
implicit submission. And it is the interest as well
the duty of each man to learn what the Divine
Teacher delivered, for it must be a benefit to the
creature to know what the Creator is pleased to
communicate to him ; whether it be an enforcement
of truths which he might have learned, however
imperfectly, by the use of his natural powers ; such
as some of the attributes of God, and the duty of
just dealing : or new truths which his natural powers
would never have discovered, such as the Trinity of
76] SCOPE OF THE TREATISE. 105
Persons in One God, and the duty of receiving
Baptism.
But Christ died many centuries ago. How are
we who are now living to ascertain what His teach-
ing was? There must be some way of doing so
without reasonable misgiving : otherwise the revela-
tion given by God publicly to one generation would
have been lost to future generations, and so far
wasted.
What, then, is this normal way of learning the
doctrine delivered by Christ ? All Christians have
their answer to this question, but there is no agree-
ment among them as to what this answer is. The
Christians of the West are divided into two great
sections upon the point. Catholics maintain that
the man now living obtains the information primarily
from 'the lips of his elder contemporaries : the others
hold that it is to be obtained by the study of the
Scriptures. The object of the present Treatise is to
discuss these two theories.
In this discussion, we shall not only use the
books from which the Divine Mission of Christ was
proved in the preceding Treatise: but we shall
freely employ all the books of the Scriptures and
of early Christian writers as trustworthy witnesses
to the teachings of Christ : the authority of those
books for that purpose is admitted by those with
whom we have here to do. Our next Treatise will
be devoted to the questions that arise as to the
peculiar character that attaches to the books of
Holy Scripture, and distinguishes them from all
other books.
io6 TRADITION. [77
77. Subject of the Chapter. The present chapter
will be devoted to explaining and proving the
Catholic doctrine : in that which follows the oppo-
sing view will be discussed. It will be convenient
at once to present an authoritative statement of
the rival views.
78. The Rival Views. The doctrine of the
Catholic Church on the subject is declared by
the Council of Trent. The point had never
been expressly defined before the sixteenth century
because it had never been called in question. It is
found in the decree of the Fourth Session, held on
April 8, 1546. We will take the translation from
the work of the Rev. J. Waterworth. (Decrees of the
Council of Trent, p. 17.)
"The sacred and holy oecumenical and general
Synod of Trent, lawfully assembled in the Holy
Ghost, the same three Legates of the Apostolic See
presiding therein keeping this always in view that,
errors being removed, the purity itself of the Gospel
be preserved in the Church ; which (Gospel) before
promised through the prophets in the Holy Scrip-
tures, our Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, first
promulgated with His own mouth, and then com-
manded to be preached by His Apostles to every
creature, as the fountain of all, both saving truth
and moral discipline ; and seeing clearly that this
truth and discipline are contained in the written
books and the unwritten traditions which, received
by the Apostles from the mouth of Christ Himself,
or from the Apostles themselves, the Holy Ghost
dictating, have come down even unto us, transmitted
78] THE RIVAL VIEWS. 107
as it were from hand to hand ; (the Synod) following
the examples of the orthodox Fathers, receives and
venerates with an equal affection of piety and rever-
ence, all the books both of the Old and of the New
Testament seeing that one God is the Author of
both as also the said traditions, as well those
appertaining to faith as to morals, as having been
dictated either by Christ's own word of mouth, or
by the Holy Ghost, and preserved in the Catholic
Church by a continuous succession."
More shortly, we may say that according to
this doctrine, Christian truth was delivered to the
Apostles by the spoken word of Christ or by the
inspiration of the Holy Ghost, and that it has come
from them to us, partly committed to written books,
and partly by unwritten tradition.
The opposed view, which we may call that of
Protestants, is held by almost all Western Christians
who are not Catholics : the only exceptions being
the members of some sects, such as the Irvingites
and Quakers, who seem to hold that God inspires
each living man with a knowledge of the truth.
We shall say what is necessary concerning these in
another chapter, when we prove that the public
revelation of Christian doctrine was closed on the
death of the last of the Apostles, (nn. in, 112.)
An expression of the doctrine which will be admitted
by the bulk of Protestants is found in the Sixth of
the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion of the Estab-
lished Church in England. It runs as follows :
" Of the Sufficiency of Holy Scripture for Salva-
tion. Holy Scripture containeth all things necessary
io8 TRADITION. (78
to salvation ; so that whatsoever is not read therein,
nor may be proved thereby, is not to be required of
any man, that it should be believed as an article
of the Faith, or be thought requisite necessary
to salvation."
This is clearer than some other parts of these
Articles of Religion. The doctrine is often quoted
in the form ascribed to Chillingvvorth : The Bible,
and the Bible only, is the religion of Protestants.
We shall try to show in the present chapter that
the Tridentine method is that employed by Christ,
inculcated by Him on His Apostles, employed by
them, again inculcated by them on their immediate
successors, employed by these successors, generation
after generation, and never changed. If this be
made out, we shall have demonstrated that the way
of oral tradition is the appointed way even at the
present time. In the next chapter we shall show
the weakness of the arguments adduced in support
of the Protestant view.
79. The Method used by Christ. It is not disputed
that Christ taught by word of mouth. There is no
trace of any writing being attributed to Him, except
the undoubtedly spurious letter to King Abgar of
Edessa. The text of this alleged letter may be read
in Eusebius. (Hist. Eccl. i, 13; P.G. 20, 121.) The
letter itself bears testimony in favour of our con-
tention ; for it contains no instruction in Christian
doctrine, but the writer is made to promise that He
will in due time send one of His disciples to instruct
the Syrian convert : on the Protestant theory there
ought to have been a promise to send a New Testa-
79] THE METHOD USED BY CHRIST. Io g
ment to Edessa as soon as it should be written.
The method actually used by Christ is to appeal to
the Old Testament (St. John v. 39 46), for the
prophecies contained in it, along with His own
miracles, were His credentials : but He did not
appeal to it as teaching His doctrine ; on the con-
trary, He asserted His authority to be independent
of it, or collateral with it, as when He claimed to be
Lord of the divinely instituted Sabbath (St. Mark
ii. 28 ; St. Luke vi. 5) ; and He did not hesitate to
abrogate parts of the Old Law, teaching a new
and high morality in the Sermon on the Mount
(St. Matt. v. 21, 27, 31, 33) ; and giving the Sama-
ritan woman to understand that Jerusalem was
about to lose the prerogative, given it long ago by
God, of being alone the place where acceptable
worship could be offered to the Father. (St. John
iv. 21 ; Deut. xii. 6.)
80. The Charge to the Apostles. The work of
Christ was to be supplemented and continued by
the action of His Apostles, who received their
charge from Him. The charge as to the work they
were to do during the life of Christ may be read in
the tenth chapter of St. Matthew's Gospel, and the
ninth chapter of that of St. Luke : the sixth chapter
of St. Mark adds nothing to our purpose. In these
charges we find that the Apostles are commanded
to preach and to heal the sick : that is to say, to
exhibit the credentials of miracles, and to deliver
an oral message : not a word is said about writing ;
the Apostles are not commissioned to inculcate the
observance of the Old Law, nor to promise that
I io TRADITION. [80
the New shall be put into book form and distri-
buted ; and we learn from St. Luke ix. 6, that the
Apostles fulfilled the command given them.
The final commission was given to the Apostles
by our Lord immediately before His Ascension.
We read of it in St. Matt, xxviii. 20, St. Mark xvi. 15,
St. Luke xxiv. 47, and Acts i. 8. All these accounts
agree in substance with the terms, of the earlier
mission. The Apostles are not to write, but are to
preach, to bear witness, to teach or make disciples
of (futdrjTevffare. St. Matt, xxviii. 29) all nations ;
all which expressions certainly point to oral instruc-
tion. But this later commission contains one most
important element which is absent from the earlier.
St. John's Gospel, supplementing the Synoptics in
this as in so many other points, tells us that Christ
promised His Apostles that, after His departure, He
would send them another Paraclete, or Comforter,
to abide with them for ever, Who should teach
them all things and bring all things to their mind,
whatsoever Christ should have said to them.
(St. John xiv. 15 26.) The purpose of thii
gracious promise is seen when it is renewed a
part of the great commission (Acts i. 8), and w ,
learn that it is to be through the abiding presence
of this Comforter with the followers of Christ that
His undertaking is to be fulfilled, that He will bo
with them in their work of teaching all days, even
to the consummation of the world. (St. Matt, xxviii.
20.) There will be much to be said about this text
hereafter. At present it may be enough to remark
that this phrase, " be with you," in the language of
8o] THE CHARGE TO THE APOSTLES. in
Scripture, imports infallible and effectual assistance :
the promise given in this form is never followed by
failure. (See Genesis xlviii. 21 ; Amos v. 14 ; Zach.
viii. 23, &c. The full list of the passages will be
found in Murray, De E celesta, ii. 199 ; and see
further, n. 206.) We have here the Divine guarantee
against any corruption of the teaching which the
Apostles and their successors are to impart to all
nations even to the consummation of the world :
the tradition that they hand on will not be a
tradition of men, such as those for which the
Pharisees made void the commandment of God
(St. Matt. xv. 6) ; but it will be the word of
the Spirit of the Father, speaking through His
ministers. (St. Matt. x. 20.)
81. Action of the Apostles. That the Apostles
acted on this commission will be seen in almost
every chapter of the Acts. (See Acts i. 22, ii. 14,
iii. 12, ix. 20, &c.) Nor does any other method
appear in the Epistles. These letters were for the
most part written to supplement and enforce the
writer's preaching (see i Cor. xi. 2 ; 2 Cor. xi. 4 ;
Galat. i. 8 ; Ephes. i. 13, &c. ; St. James i. 22 ;
I St. Peter i. 12 ; 2 St. Peter i. 21 ; St. Jude i. 3) ;
in which last place it is to be observed that the
original gives the force of "the faith which once
came by tradition" (TrapaBoBefa-y), the word em-
ployed being one which in different forms is not
uncommon in the New Testament, and which, when
applied to the faith, always signifies oral trans-
mission. (See St. Matt. xv. 2; St. Mark vii. 5; i Cor.
xi. 2, 23 ; i Cor. xv. 3 ; i St. Peter i. 18.) The only
ua TRADITION. [81
exception is 2 Thess. ii. 15, where it includes both
oral teaching and the teaching of a written docu-
ment.
Further, the Apostles charged their own imme-
diate successors to observe the same method,
showing hereby that its efficacy did not depend
upon any peculiar character attaching to those who
had received the charge from Christ Himself, but
was intended to be a part of the permanent economy
of the Church. This is seen in the exhortation of
St. Paul to his disciple St. Timothy, when he bids
him be diligent in teaching (i Timothy iv. 13), to
avoid profane novelties of words (i Timothy vi. 20) ;
but especially in the command conveyed in the
second chapter of the second Epistle, verse 2 :
" The things which thou hast heard of me by many
witnesses, the same commend to faithful men who
shall be fit to teach others also." It is to be
remembered that at the time when this charge
was given, the greater part of the New Testament
was already in existence ; yet reference is still made
to the word of hearing and not to any written book.
82. The Second Century. We find the same
method in full vigour in the second century. St.
Clement of Rome, the disciple, as is supposed,
whom St. Paul mentions with praise (Philipp. iv. 3),
belongs in fact to the first century, for his first
Epistle to the Corinthians is assigned to the year
97 at the latest. Describing the constitution of
the Church, he says (c. 42; P.G. i, 292): "The
Apostles brought us the good message from our
Lord Jesus Christ, Jesus Christ from God. Christ
8zl THE SECOND CENTURY. XI j
was sent from God, the Apostles from Christ, and
the will of God was duly fulfilled in both cases. . . .
They preached in countries and in towns, and the
first-fruits of their ministry, having tested them in
the power of the Holy Spirit, they appointed to be
overseers and ministers to all that should believe."
And again in chapter 44: "The Apostles made
these appointments and arranged a succession, that
when they had fallen asleep other tried men should
carry on their ministry." (P.G. I, 298.) This is an
exact description of the Catholic system.
St. Irenseus belongs to the second century. He
wrote expressly against heresies, and he knows no
other source of truth than the tradition which has
come down from the Apostles. " All that have the
will to know the truth," he says (3, 3, i ; P.G.
7, 848), " may find in every Church the tradition of
the Apostles which is known to all the world : we
can reckon up those whom the Apostles appointed
to be Bishops and their successors down to our own
day, who never taught nor knew any such absurdi-
ties as these men indulge in. Had the Apostles
known secret mysteries, to be communicated secretly
to the perfect, they to whom the Churches were
committed would assuredly have received the know-
ledge. For the Apostles resolved that their succes-
sors should be perfect and blameless in all, when
they handed to these their own function of teaching:
for if these acted well things would go well, but
great calamity would attend their fall." Again there
is nothing about the Scriptures being the rule of
faith.
I VOL. I.
114 TRADITION. [83
83. Tertullian's Prescription. The last author we
cite shall be Tertullian, whose work belongs to the
end of the second century. He wrote a formal
treatise on the argument with which we are now
engaged, under the name De Prascriptionibus (PX.
2, i.) The word prescription belongs to the Roman
law, from which it was borrowed by Christian
writers, being first used perhaps by Tertullian in
this Treatise : both the word and the thing are in
constant use by theologians, and in many topics no
more powerful argument can be found than that
founded on prescription. English lawyers give the
name of prescription to the title to certain forms of
property founded upon lapse of time with undisturbed
possession : the fact that I have held the property
for such a length of time without disturbance will
sometimes be an answer to every claim that can be
brought against me, let it be ever so well founded.
The Latin usage includes this, but is wider, extend-
ing as it seems to every case where a defendant in
a lawsuit was able to put forward a consideration
which cut the matter short without reference to the
merits. Thus in England in the days of the penal
laws the plea that the plaintiff was a Popish Recu
sant Convict was an absolute answer to every claim,
however just; and this would have been a case of
prescription in the Roman but not in the English
sense.
The theological use of the word is this. The
prescription of novelty is against any doctrine which
can be shown to have originated at a time subse-
quent to the times of the Apostles: the prescription
83] TERTULLIAN'S PKESCRIPTION. 115
of antiquity is in favour of a doctrine which can be
shown to have been held at any time as part of
their faith by all Christians, even though it cannot
be shown to have been held at any earlier date.
The reason for the one is that a novel doctrine
would require to be authenticated as a Divine
revelation by miracle and prophecy, no less than
the original mission of Christ : and the reason of
the other is that otherwise the promise of Christ to
be with His Apostles in their teaching all days
would have failed, through an admixture of false
doctrine having polluted the true. More will be
said on this subject in our Treatise on the Church.
(See n. 269.)
The application of this principle to the heresies
of his time is made by Tertullian in the nineteenth
and following chapters of his work. He declines
to argue the points of difference on the basis of
Scripture, for to do so gives rise to endless questions
as to what books are to be considered authoritative
and what is the meaning of the passages quoted.
Neither party can hope to gain an acknowledged
victory in such a contest : but his appeal is to those
to whom the Scripture belongs, through whom it
has been handed down to us : to the possessors
of the tradition which makes us Christians. These
are the apostolic Churches, founded in various cities
throughout the world by those who received the
commission from Christ Himself, or which are
shoots or suckers proceeding from these parent
stems, but establishing themselves with a separate
life. Peaceful communication and recognition of
n6 TRADITION. (83
brotherhood and the tokens which secure admission
to membership prove the unity of the association
constituted by these several Churches. What is
taught in these mother Churches is truth, all else is
falsehood.
84. The work of Theology. It follows from what
has been said that to ascertain the truth on any
point of doctrine it is enough to inquire what is
held upon the subject by Christian communities
throughout the world ; and in this inquiry no
account need be taken of communities which,
although they keep the name of Christian, hold
doctrines which are new, that is to say, opposed to
what at some previous time was the universal belief.
All this will be better understood when we have
explained the pre-eminent position held by the
Roman Church and its Bishop, the Pope.
But although this inquiry teaches us with abso-
lute assurance what is the tradition that has come
to us from the Apostles; and although the ex-
cathedral definition of the Roman Pontiff affords us
a compendious way of knowing what would be the
result of such an inquiry ; yet it by no means
follows that our doctrine leaves no place for the
work of theologians. Let the three modes of treat-
ment of theological questions be called to mind, as
described in our Introductory Remarks (n. 6), and
it will be found that they are still applicable, even
after an infallible definition. The definition makes
us certain what is the truth upon the point, and
that this truth is contained in the Apostolic Tradi-
tion ; but Positive Theology will still have its work
84] THE WORK OP THEOLOGY. 117
of showing how this doctrine is to be found in the
monuments of this Tradition ; Scholastic Theology
fixes the precise sense of the terms employed, inves-
tigates the causes of the doctrine, in the philosophical
sense of the word cause, and shows how it is con-
nected with other branches of truth ; while Polemical
Theology strives to enter into the minds of those
who have a difficulty in admitting the truth of the
doctrine, explaining and illustrating it in various
ways so as to guard against all risk of misunder-
standing, and urging the argutnentum ad hominem, by
showing the dissentients that on principles which
they avow that they admit, they ought to accept
what we maintain. After the definition, the theolo-
gian is encouraged to proceed with his work with
greater confidence than he could have felt while the
point was yet in doubt : he is by no means disposed
to consider that his work is done.
85. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have set
forth the rival views of Catholics and Protestants
as to the Rule of Faith, and have proved that the
Catholic view was acted on by Christ, His Apostles,
and their immediate successors : we have explained
the meaning of the word prescription and how it is
employed in Theology, as affording a short and sure
way of settling any disputed point ; and we have
shown that this prescription makes for the Catholic
Rule and that our doctrine by no means supersedes
the work of Positive, Scholastic, and Polemical
theologians.
CHAPTER II.
THE PROTESTANT RULE OF FAITH.
86. Subject of the Chapter. In the last chapter
we showed that the true Rule of the Christian faith
is the living voice of the Church of the present day
proclaiming the tradition received from preceding
generations, and divinely guaranteed from error.
In the present chapter we shall prove this more
fully by examining the arguments adduced for the
Protestant view, which is the only rival of that held
by Catholics. This view makes the Bible only be
the Rule of Faith. After stating some preliminary
objections to this view, we shall discuss the argu-
ments in its favour as given in Dr. Harold Browne's
Exposition of the Thirty -nine Articles, the most
authoritative work upon the subject, and show that
they fail to prove the point.
87. The Protestant Rule not Scriptural. As was
before remarked, the Rule is expressed with perfect
accuracy by the oft-quoted words of Chillingworth :
"The Bible, and the Bible only, is the religion of
Protestants." This then is a fundamental part of
their religion ; that the whole of it is to be found in
the Bible. It is therefore curious to remark that
this principle itself is not found in the Bible ; nor,
in fact, is there any pretence for saying that it is
87] THE PROTESTANT RULE NOT SCmPTVRAL. 11$
found. The Bible cannot lay down this principle
without speaking of itself as a whole ; but it does
not do so; there is no passage that so much as
hints at the existence of any complete collection of
the inspired Books of the New Law, and in fact
there is no likelihood that any such collection was
made until long after the death of the last Apostle.
St. Peter, it is true (2 St. Peter iii. 16), speaks of
there being things hard to understand "in all the
Epistles " of St. Paul ; but this reference, whatever
it point to, is by no means enough to establish the
Protestant Rule. It is scarcely worth while to
mention the almost childish use that has sometimes
been made of the passage of the Apocalypse (xxii.
18, 19), where a curse is denounced against any
man who should add to, or take away from, the
words of the book of that prophecy : the book here
referred to is obviously the Apocalypse itself, and
not all that is contained in that collection of books
which we call the Bible. The Apocalypse is probably
put last in the collection because there is no other
book of the same nature, and because there was an
impression, not improbably correct, that it was the
last to be written ; and even if the verses just
referred to, spoke of the whole collection, the woe
would fall upon any one who put a book forward as
inspired which had no just claim to that title; it
would not touch one who maintained that a portion
of God's revelation had never been recorded by any
inspired writer, which is the Catholic position.
88. Prescription. Further, Prescription is in
favour of the Catholic view, and opposed to that of
120 THE PROTESTANT RULE OF FAITH. (86
the Protestants, for there certainly was a time when
the Protestant Rule was not known. We have seen
(n. 80) that the Apostles acted upon the Catholic
principle, urging the claim of the living teacher to
obedience, and the practice of the Church was the
same in subsequent ages. Among the scanty records
of the proceedings of the first General Council held
at Nice, in 325, we find no trace of appeal being
made to Scripture as the sole authority ; and we
learn from St. Athanasius, who was present, and
took a leading part in the business of the Council,
that when the Arianizing party wished to use none
but Scriptural language in the definition of faith,
the assembled Bishops refused to admit the prin-
ciple, and chose the word consubstantial, which,
though old, was not Scriptural. (St. Athan. Epistola
ad Afros Episcopos, n. 6 ; . P.G. 26, 1040.) Also,
Socrates (Hist. Eccl. I, 10 ; P.G. 67, 100), and
Sozomen (Hist. Eccl. i, 22 ; P.G. 67, 924) tell how
cordially Acesius, the Bishop of the schismatical
Novatians, accepted the definition of the Council ;
and he added the reason, that it was nothing new,
but was the tradition which had come down to him
from the days of the Apostles. One who was
familiar with the Protestant Rule would not have
spoken in this way.
The second General Council, held at Constanti-
nople in 381, accepts the faith defined at Nice,
because it is ancient. (Hardouin's Councils, I, 824.)
In the third, held at Ephesus in 431, the Bishops
accepted the exposition of the Nicene faith sent to
thc-.i by St. Cyril of Alexandria, giving for reason
88] PRESCRIPTION. 121
that it was in accord with what the Church had
always held from the beginning, with the primitive
tradition which was preserved incorrupt among
Christians. (Ibid. I, 1365.) Quotations of this sort
might be multiplied indefinitely ; what we have
adduced are enough to show that the Council of
Trent introduced no novelty when in the proemium
to the decree on Justification adopted in the fifth
session, it professed its intention of expounding that
true and sound doctrine which Christ taught, which
the Apostles handed down, and which the Catholic
Church, under guidance of the Holy Spirit, ever
retained. The Vatican Council also acted on the
old principle when it declared (Const, i, c. 4, de
Fide et Rations) that the doctrine of faith revealed
by God was a deposit entrusted by Christ to His
Church, to be faithfully kept and declared with
infallible certainty.
What has been said, makes it clear that the
Catholic Rule is in possession ; no one can assign a
time when it was not in use. The Protestant Rule,
on the other hand, is barred by prescription : it is
discredited as a novelty. Nothing can restore its
credit except proof that a new revelation has been
given by God, abolishing the old economy, and
establishing the new in its place. We shall now
proceed to show how very little there is that can be
found to say on behalf of the Protestant Rule.
89. Scripture. We will first consider the texts of
Scripture which are alleged to prove the sufficiency
of the written word. They will be found collected
in Dr. Browne's work on the Articles, in the dis-
ttt THE PROTESTANT RULE OP FAITH. (89
cussion of the Sixth Article. We will copy them
as they stand in the Protestant authorized version,
to prevent all dispute, but we shall group them in
such manner as will remove the necessity of repeti-
tion of our remarks. We shall find that not one of
the texts is opposed to our doctrine.
I. Thus the Scripture tells us, that if men speak
not according to the law and the testimony, it is
because they have no light in them (Isaias viii. 20) ;
that the law of the Lord is perfect (Psalm xviii. 7) ;
that the Scriptures are able to make us wise unto
salvation (2 Timothy iii. 15); and that it was a great
privilege of the Jews that to them were committed
the oracles of God. (Romans iii. I.) But these
passages are not to the purpose, for they all refer to
the books of the Old Testament, for St. Timothy
cannot have learned the New Testament from his
childhood ; if, then, they have any bearing upon
our question, they prove that the Christian Revela-
tion contained nothing new, which will not be
maintained. They in fact teach us no more than
that the Holy Scriptures are profitable reading,
which we not only admit, but maintain, provided
they are read under proper safeguards. All good
things may be abused, and the reading of Scripture
is no exception.
II. Again, St. Luke wrote his Gospel that
Theophilus might know the certainty of the things
in which he had been instructed ; and St. Peter
wrote his second Epistle that those whom he
addressed might be able, after his decease, to have
those things always in remembrance. (2 St. Peter i.
89] SCRIPTURE. 1*3
15.) This last passage is obscure, and has received
more than one interpretation, as may be seen in
Cornelius a Lapide ; but it certainly cannot put the
matter higher than it is put by St. Luke, and he
teaches us no more than that writing is one useful
way of preserving tradition ; and we know that
God has seen fit to use it ; but St. Luke does not
tell us that it is the only means, and if he did say
so, he would at the same time say that his Gospel
contained the whole of Christian truth, making all
subsequent writings superfluous. The same remark
applies to St. John xx. 31.
III. In Deut. iv. 2, we are warned not to add
to the word which the Lord commands ; and the
Pharisees are reproved for teaching for doctrines
the commandments of men. (St. Matt. xv. 9), and
thus making the word of God of none effect by
their tradition (St. Mark vii. 13) ; along with which
passages Dr. Browne also quotes the verse of the
Apocalypse (xxii. 18) on which we have commented
(n. 87), at the same time that he confesses that it
may apply only to the book in which it occurs : as
we explained. These texts expose the crime of
those who add to the Divine word by setting up
inventions of their own as Divine revelations, but
they do not touch those who proclaim a truly
Divine revelation which they have received in addi-
tion to what had already been committed to writing;
if they forbid all addition to the Old Law, the
Christian Revelation falls under the condemnation.
It is worth while to notice that in the verse
of St. Matthew, where .the authorized version has
i2 4 THE PROTESTANT RULE OP FAITH. [89
"teaching for doctrines the commandments of
men," the equally Protestant revised version has
"teaching as their doctrines," while the Greek
original is merely " teaching doctrines command-
ments ; " the Vulgate, followed by the Douay
version, has "doctrines and commandments," which
is in accord with the Septuagint version of the
passage in Isaias (xxix. 13) from which the words
are taken ; the Hebrew has " commandment of
men, doctrine." It will be observed that among
these versions it is the authorized that makes most
for the purpose for which it is cited by Dr. Browne,
and in fact the words are one of the main supports
of the Protestant cause. Dr. Alford (ad loc.) con-
fesses that the words are in apposition, whereas
both the Protestant versions make " doctrines " a
predicate.
IV. We have just seen an instance whcie a
translator appears to have been influenced by a
doctrinal bias. The first text in the next group
shows the hopelessness of every attempt to r/iake a
translation " without note or comment," as is
required by the Protestant Rule. The passage is
found in St. John (v. 39), and is rendered in the
authorized version, " Search the Scriptures," as if
it were a command. It may be so, but it is by no
means certain. Dr. Browne tells us that " it may
be, and very likely ought to be translated, ' Ye
search the Scriptures,' " merely stating what was
the practice of the Pharisees. Neither the form of
the verb (epevvdre) nor the context decides the
question ; yet the authorized version gives the
Sg] SCRIPTURE. 115
rendering which seems to favour the Protestant
view, without any hint that any other view is
possible. The revised version is fairer, giving both
the alternative renderings, as is done also by the
Douay translators, who found the same" ambiguity
in the Latin (scrutamini) ; but by the course adopted,
the revisers have acknowledged their inability to
give a translation of the Scriptures, thus exhibiting
a fatal flaw in the Protestant system of private
judgment. The great bulk of men must exercise
their judgment on the translation, and Here it is
confessed that the work of translating is impossible.
Every translation is in truth a commentary, and
the commentator is sometimes at a loss, and some-
times prejudiced and fraudulent, (n. 156.)
But even if the passage be taken as giving a
command, the sense ascribed to it by St. Augustine,
St. Chrysostom, and Theophylact, as may be seen
in a Lapide, it fails to bear out the Protestant
advocate. The meaning is the same as that con-
veyed by the place in St. Matthew (xxii. 29), where
our Lord points out that ignorance of the Scriptures
is the cause of error ; and to the same effect, the
Beroeans are praised (Acts xvii. n) because they
"searched the Scriptures daily, whether these things
were so." All these passages refer to Jews who
admitted the authority of the Scriptures, and who
ought to have found enough in these books to lead
them to accept Christ as the Deliverer promised by
the Prophets. The Beroeans did not search the
Scripture to verify the doctrine preached by St. Paul,
such as the necessity of Baptism ; and had they
126 THE PROTESTANT RULE OF FAITH. [8g
done so they would have been disappointed, for
the Old Testament does not teach the necessity
of Christian Baptism ; but they searched to see
whether the prophecies quoted by St. Paul bore the
meaning which he put upon them, for this being
ascertained, his authority to teach followed without
further proof. (See Acts xiii. 32 ; xvii. 2, 3 ; xviii.
28 ; xxvi. 27 ; also n. 204.) In the same way, we
have appealed to the Scriptures in our last chapter
as establishing the Catholic Rule of Faith, and wt
shall make the same appeal when treating of the
Church, and elsewhere. It is an appeal which will
not be declined by those to whom our argument is
addressed.
It is to be observed that St. Paul makes no use
of the Old Testament when addressing Gentiles in
proof of his mission ; for instance, when at Athens,
he quotes the Greek poet (Acts xvii. 28) as an
authority having weight with his hearers, but he
makes no reference to the Prophets, of whom they
knew nothing.
90. Reason. Having exhausted his Scriptural
arguments, Dr. Browne attempts to show that
Reason favours the Protestant view, and first he
says that Tradition is proverbially uncertain, and
that it failed to maintain purity of doctrine under
the Old Law, whereas Scripture has secured us a
knowledge of the great doctrines of the Trinity,
Incarnation, and many more. We reply that what-
ever may have been the case with Tradition under
the Old Law x that of the New Law has no uncer-
tainty if, as we hold, it has been divinely guaranteed
go] REASON. 127
to us; and that Scripture, apart from the living
voice of a teacher, has wholly failed to keep the
.great doctrines alive; for these doctrines are rejected
by many who hold Scripture in reverence, but refuse
to listen to Tradition. To our argument that Tradi-
tion was the first rule, he replies that it may have
been changed, but he offers no proof that it actually
was changed ; he admits that Scripture is not
written systematically, but urges that this casual
collection of memoirs and letters may, under God's
providence, have been so ordered as to convey all
Christian truth. No one would deny that this may
have been so, but the question is, whether we have
any reason to believe, in defiance of appearances,
that it was so. He thinks that Apostolic authorship
is sufficient to establish the character of a book as
being a portion of the Scripture ; unaware, it would
seem, that Apostolic authorship is by no means
identical with inspiration, the special character of
Scripture. It would seem that Dr. Browne has
failed to grasp our idea of Tradition, as being the
voice of the living Church, for he seems to think
that it is to be searched for in the writings of
the Fathers, whereas we hold that the voice of the
Church of the nineteenth century is as authoritative
us that of the Church of the second century. The
voice of the living man tells us what is the truth ;
the researches of the theologian may go to show
us that this truth was explicitly known fifteen
hundred years ago, but our faith does not rest on
his researches.
91. The Fathers. Dr. Browne quotes some
128 THE PROTESTANT RULE OF FAITH. [91
passages from the Fathers as showing that they
looked on Scripture as the exclusive Rule. We
will not go through them all. It is enough to say
that some mean that all things are contained in
Scripture, inasmuch as it is by Scripture that we
know the Divine origin of the Christian dispen-
sation. There are others which speak of the per-
fection of Scripture. Scripture being the work of
God, is certainly perfect with the perfection which
God designed for it ; but whether it was designed
to contain all Christian truth is the point in question.
Lastly, when the Fathers combat a heretic who is
setting up a doctrine which is avowedly not con-
tained in Tradition, they may challenge him to
adduce Scripture proof for it, by way of illustrating
the want of all basis for his novel speculations.
92. Recapitulation. In this polemical chapter,
we have shown that the Protestant Rule is not
Scriptural, and that Prescription is against it ; after
which we have dealt with what Dr. Browne has
found to urge in favour of his Rule, from Scripture,
Reason, and the Fathers.
CHAPTER III.
MONUMENTS OF TRADITION.
93. Subject of the Chapter. We have seen (n. 6)
that it is the work of the Positive theologian to
investigate the monuments of Tradition, and show
that the faith of the Church held at the present
day has been held with more or less explicitness
in all former ages, or at any rate has not been
contradicted. In the present chapter, and the next,
we shall discuss the materials that he uses in this
work. Far the principal among these is the Holy
Scripture, the relations of which to Tradition shall
form the subject of the following chapter; next
come the writings of those men of theological learning
of the earlier times of the Church who go by the
name of Fathers, with whom we shall be chiefly
occupied during the present chapter ; but first some-
thing must be said concerning some monuments of
Tradition which admit of shorter treatment.
94. Formal Definitions. The most explicit
declaration of the consent of the living Church is
obtained when an express definition of doctrine is
put forward, or an anathema is pronounced on error.
This may be done by the Roman Pontiff, either
acting alone, as when, in 1854, Pius IX. defined the
J VOL. I.
130 MONUMENTS OF TRADITION. [94
doctrine of the Immaculate Conception; or con-
firming the decrees of a General Council, as the
decrees of the Vatican Council of 1870 were con-
firmed by the same Pontiff. When a doctrine is
defined in this manner, it becomes part of the
Catholic faith, the denial of which is the sin and
crime of heresy.
95. The Liturgy and Ritual. It is a principal
part of the work of the Church to direct the devo-
tions of the Christian people; whence it follows
that whatever doctrine can be deduced from the
prayers and ceremonies sanctioned for use in any
country, must be supposed to be the belief of the
people of that country ; and the Sacred Liturgy and
Ritual, so far as they are common to the Universal
Church, guide us to a knowledge of what the
Church holds. This principle is set forth in a letter
written by Pope St. Celestine, about the year 431,
to certain Bishops of Gaul, in which he argues
against the Pelagians for the necessity of grace,
and founds an argument upon what he calls " the
sacraments, or mysteries, of the prayers of priests,
handed down from the Apostles, and in constant
use throughout the world and in every orthodox
Church, so that the law guiding our supplications
affords a rule for our belief." (St. Cosiest. I. Epist.
21; P.L. 50, 537; Denz. 95.) Thus, the genuflection
of the priest immediately after he has pronounced
the words of institution in the Mass, shows that
now for the first time there is an Object on the
altar deserving reverence; nor can it be doubted
that this reverence is an act of latria, or Divine
95] THE LITURGY AND RITUAL. 131
worship, offered to our Lord, really present. This
particular ceremony has not always been in use;
and although its presence is a proof that the belief
which it symbolizes is held, it would be a mistake
to suppose that its absence from the liturgy at any
particular date gave any indication that at this date
the belief was unknown. Its presence has a positive
force, its absence has no force at all.
96. History. The importance of history as a
source of knowledge of the doctrine held by the
Church in former times, scarcely needs illustration.
It may be enough to mention the story of the
finding of the Holy Cross at Jerusalem, by the
Empress St. Helena. This is mentioned by St.
Cyril of Jerusalem, more than once, and he was
writing on the spot about the year 345, or twenty
years after the event (see Catech. Myst. 4, 10, 10, 19,
13, 4; P.G. 33, 467, 685, 776), and later, but with
fuller detail, by Sulpicius Severus (Hist. Sacr. 2, 34;
P.L. 20, 148), from whom the story passed into
ordinary history. Whether or not we think that
these authorities outweigh the negative argument
drawn from the silence of Eusebius in the passage
(De Vita Constantini, cc. 42 46; P.G. 20, 1101
1105) where he describes the pious munificence of
St. Helena on occasion of her visit to the Holy
Places, it is at least clear that St. Cyril and Sulpicius
regarded it as natural that the holy Empress should
esteem and honour the sacred relic; and this in-
direct testimony of history is often of no less value
than its uncontroverted statements. A forger or
inventor will set down nothing which does not at
i 3 a MONUMENTS OF TRADITION. [96
least seem to his contemporaries to be what is
likely to have happened.
There is a remark which is true of all sciences,
but which finds special application to the science
of history. An imperfect acquaintance with the
science may seem to raise difficulties against the
truths of faith, but a fuller acquaintance with its
teaching causes these difficulties to disappear. Truth
can never contradict truth, and the supernatural
teachings of faith will never be found in opposition
to natural knowledge, provided this is certain, and
not mere fancy.
A peculiar character attaches to that branch
of history which is concerned with the lives and
deaths of martyrs, who laid down their life for
the faith. When these men were brought before
governors and kings, to answer for their neglect to
comply with the laws, it was not they that spoke,
but the Holy Ghost. (St. Mark xiii. n.) Hence it
is no wonder that the Church has always been
diligent in collecting the " Acts " of the martyrs ;
and amidst much that cannot be trusted, many
documents of undoubted antiquity survive, detailing
the circumstances under which each attained his
victory. The narratives are most interesting and
full of instruction on various subjects ; and among
the rest they incidentally throw much light upon
the belief of the Church at the time. Anastasius,
in his Lives of the Roman Pontiffs, names St.
Clement as having assigned the seven regions of
the city to seven Christian notaries, or shorthand
writers, whose business was to set down the story
96] HISTORY. 133
of the martyrs. (P.L. 127, 1079.) This would have
been in the first century. St. Aneros is said by
the same authority (Ibid. 1331) to have lost his life
in 237, a victim to his zeal in securing the safe
custody of the notarial reports ; and St. Fabian, in
the following year, is reported to have appointed
seven subdeacons to superintend the seven notaries.
These notices, however, cannot be trusted as being
historical, so far as names and dates go ; but they
seem to testify to a tradition that the matter was
regarded as being of public concern in the Church
of Rome, and there is evidence that the same was
the case in other Churches.
97. Archaology. Lastly, among these minor
topics, we may mention the study of the remains of
Christian art as a means of learning what was the
belief of the Church. The artist uses a language
which is, it is true, less readily intelligible than the
language of literature ; but when the key to its
meaning is once secured, it is vastly more impres-
sive. Thus, in the Real-Encyclopedie of F. X. Kraus,
we have (i, 344) a representation of the Prophet
Habbakuk caught by the hair of the head as he
carries a basket of provisions. It is impossible to
doubt that the artist who drew this picture, accepted
the account of this incident as being an integral
part of the Book of the Prophet Daniel (Daniel xiv.
32 38) ; and in this way we have proof that the
canon of Scripture, as accepted in the days of the
artist, was wider than that which Protestants
accept at the present day; and if the caricature
where " Alexamenus worships his God " by kneeling
134 MONUMENTS OF TRADITION. [97
before a crucified ass, be really directed against
the Christians, it gives us very early proof of the
adoration of the crucifix.
98. The Fathers. But to come to the proper
subject of this chapter. The Christian Fathers are
not a class that admit of precise definition. It
would be against common usage to apply the name
" Father " to any modern writer, whatever might be
his other claims to the title, and especially whatever
might be the style in which he treated theological
questions ; a certain antiquity is requisite before an
author can be put in the class of the Fathers. On
the other hand, we cannot reckon all early Christian
writers as being among the Fathers ; for Constanti-
nople produced many historians who were Christians,
yet whom no one would reckon among the Fathers.
The Episcopal character is not necessary, as has
sometimes been thought, for no one will dispute the
claim of St. Jerome to the title ; nor is sanctity
needed, for not to come down beyond the beginning
of the third century, Tertullian died in heresy,
Origen has the credit of the same, and Clement of
Alexandria, though a Catholic, is not esteemed as
a saint ; yet none of the Fathers have more authority
than these, as witnesses to the doctrine of their time.
In fact, the appellation, " Father," is more or less
arbitrary, distinguishing certain writers from the
inspired Prophets and Apostles to whom we owe
the Sacred Books on the one hand, and from those
called " Schoolmen " on the other. In this way,
the Fathers are the great bulk of Christian writers
on theological matters who are later than the first
98] THE FATHERS. 435
century and earlier than the middle of the twelfth.
But no strict chronological limit is possible : for, as
already remarked (n. 6), St. Anselm, the first of the
Schoolmen, is older than St. Bernard, the last of
the Fathers. Understanding the term " Fathers "
in this way, it is plain that their authority is of
great weight as witnesses of the Christian Tradition.
Putting aside for the moment the superintendence
of Divine Providence, which preserves the doctrine
of the Church in its purity, the Fathers, especially
the earlier among them, are good witnesses to the
primitive revelation, inasmuch as they are near the
time when it was given, so that there had been less
opportunity for error to creep in. Also, many of
them were distinguished for their deep and varied
learning, their ability and their sanctity, which adds
weight to their authority as witnesses to Divine
truth. But perhaps the most important considera-
tion is that they often gave their testimony before
any question was raised, and as it were uncon-
sciously. The strong expressions used by them will
disclose the view that they had imbibed from their
teachers, in a manner that is perfectly satisfactory,
even when they use expressions which at a later
date, when controversy was raging, might have
seemed inaccurate.
In all cases where we have the unanimous con-
sentient voice of the Fathers, testifying to the
tradition that they had received, there will be no
difficulty in admitting that their evidence proves
what was the belief of the Church in their time.
Whoever does not accept this witness is a follower
136 MONUMENTS OF TRADITION. [98
of profane novelties of words, coming under the
condemnation of St. Paul, (i Timothy vi. 20.)
It is to be kept in mind that this special autho-
rity which attaches to the Fathers as witnesses, does
not cover every sentiment that is found in their
writings ; especially, in their interpretation of Scrip-
ture, they sometimes testify to the Tradition of the
Church as to the meaning of a particular passage,
but sometimes also they give the conclusion that
they personally have come to, using such materials
for forming a judgment as were available in their
time. In these cases they act as critics, not as
witnesses.
99. Tests of Unanimity. It will seldom, perhaps
never, happen that all the Fathers speak upon a
particular question, and it would be vain, therefore,
to rest upon the authority of their unanimous voice,
as explained in the preceding paragraph. But even
when we are left without direct evidence of their
unanimity on any question, we often can prove
indirectly what their view was. For the circum-
stances may be such that the voice of a few
expresses with certainty the mind of all. This
will be understood when we call to mind the horror
which error regarding the faith excited in early
times. St. John the Evangelist won the name of
the Apostle of Love. In his second Epistle (verse 5),
his exhortation was " that we love one another."
Yet with all this gentleness, he expresses his horror
of novel doctrines, when a few verses after (verse 10)
he says, "If any man come to you and bring not
this doctrine " the doctrine which he had taught
99} TESTS OP UNANIMITY. 137
"receive him not into the house, nor say to him,
God speed you." The same loving spirit is also
exemplified in the anecdote of St. John, preserved by
St. Jerome in his Commentary on St. Paul to the
Galatians (vi. 10), where he tells us that the holy
Apostle in his old age wearied his disciples by
incessantly repeating : " My children, love one
another " (P.L. 26, 433) ; but the hatred of error
comes out in another anecdote told us concerning
the same St. John by St. Irenaeus (Contra Hareses,
3, 4; P.G. 7, 853) and by Eusebius (Hist. Eccles.
3, 28 and 4, 14; P.G. 20, 276 and 337) that he
feared to remain under the same roof with Cerinthus
the heretic. As long as this spirit prevailed, or was
held worthy of admiration, we may be assured that
no group of writers could teach a novelty without
rousing those who heard them to protest.
100. Single Witnesses. In some instances the
testimony of a single ancient writer is conclusive as
to the belief of the Church in his time, at any rate
upon some special subject. Thus, certain letters
written by St. Cyril of Alexandria were received by
the Councils of Ephesus and Chalcedon as the
" rule of the faith : " their statement of the true
tradition upon the Incarnation can be trusted. (See
the authorities collected in Fessler, Institutiones
Patrologice, 2, 550 n.) In the case of St. Gregory
of Nazianzum, sometime Patriarch of Constanti-
nople, we may go further, for Rufinus expresses the
general judgment of theologians when he says that
whoever fails to follow the doctrine of St. Gregory,
without limitation of subject, must be regarded as
138 MONUMENTS OF TRADITION. fioo
a heretic. (See the authorities in Fessler, Instit.
Patrol. i t 582.) But perhaps the most famous
instance of this sort is the case 01 St. Hilary of
Poitou, who receives a special encomium from
St. Jerome himself. This Saint wrote a long letter
to his friend St. Laeta, giving her various practical
directions as to the education of her daughter,
Paula, and among other things he prescribes a
course of reading; and he says that she will find
nothing to lead her wrong in the Letters of Atha-
nasius or in the works of Hilary. (St. Hieron. Epist.
107, n. 12 ; P.L. 22, 877.)
These cases, however, are exceptional. Generally
speaking we must expect to find some passages in
the works even of the greatest Fathers which looked
at by themselves, seem to convey a sense opposed to
the doctrine of the Church ; among human writers,
absolute inerrancy belongs only to the Roman
Pontiff, when speaking ex cathedra, as will be
explained in its place. When, then, we seem to
find in an author of repute a passage which seems
inconsistent with what is known from other sources
to be the truth, we must first make sure that we
have not been misled by a false text ; a subject on
which we still have need to keep in mind the
warning given by St. Jerome to Laeta in the place
just quoted. Errors of copyists are for this purpose
as injurious as wilful forgeries. Next, we must
ascertain whether we really grasp the author's drift,
and especially we must not hastily assume that the
terms as used by him have the same meaning as
when used by other writers. Language is an imper-
4 oo] SINGLE WITNESSES. 139
feet instrument for conveying thought, and it is
seldom that any writer distinctly expresses the
whole of what he means : it is enough if he makes
sure that he will not be misunderstood by those for
whose immediate benefit he is writing; he cannot
hope to preclude all risk of error on the part of
readers for all time. In short, we must make sure
that we understand the Status qutzstionis as it was in
the mind of the author.
When the author's meaning is thoroughly
grasped, it may turn out that he used language
which was harmless at the time, but which after-
wards became associated with error, either by
positive assertion, or by omission of some word
which became the badge of orthodoxy. But it may
also be seen to be necessary to abandon the defence
of the passage and to acknowledge that the writer's
mind was not in accord with the truth : as may
happen blamelessly on points that have not yet
been denned by the Church. When it is necessary
thus to recede from the doctrine taught by some
venerable Father, it should be done with all expres-
sions of respect. St. Augustine was unable to follow
the doctrine of St. Cyprian, who denied the validity
of baptism administered by heretics, and he speaks
as follows (St. Aug. De Baptismo, 6, 2 ; P.L. 43,
199) : " With all reverence ' and honour for the
gentle Bishop and glorious Martyr Cyprian, I do
not hesitate to say that on the subject of heretical
Baptism he thought otherwise than as the truth
afterwards appeared."
Many illustrations of what we have been saying
I 4 o MONUMENTS OF TRADITION. [100
will be found in Fessler, when he enumerates the
doctrines peculiar to each of the Fathers whose life
and works he treats. St. Justin Martyr affords a
good example, (i, 220.)
101. St. Augustine. It will be observed that in
cases like those of St. Cyril, St. Gregory, and
St. Hilary, we regard them as safe guides because
their writings have been examined and have been
found to be free from error. They are not judges
whose decision is authoritative and final, but they
are witnesses who testify to the doctrine of the
Church in their time, and their witness has been
examined and found to be truthful. This principle
was forgotten by some persons whose admiration
for one of the greatest doctors of the Church led
them to raise him from the witness-box to the
bench, with the result that something of a slur has
been cast upon his name.
Among the writers whom God has raised up to
enlighten His Church and defend her doctrine, a
place among the first, if not the very first place,
must be given to St. Augustine, who for keenness
of intellect, enormous and varied learning, quick-
ness of insight, and zeal and success in combating
heresies the most diverse, has scarcely an equal
among the Fathers. The writings of St. Augus-
tine were the principal store-house whence the
Scholastics drew that matter which they put
into shape and arranged, to form the theology of
the Church. Testimonies concerning him will be
found collected in Fessler. (2, 433.) Especially,
St. Augustine's authority stands high on all questions
ioi] ST. AUGUSTINE. 141
connected with Grace, and we shall find that there
are portions of the defined doctrine of the Church
which are taken textually from his writings; and
Suarez holds that the note of " rashness " would
attach to any attempt of a private theologian to
contradict any part of the teaching of St. Augustine
on Grace. (Prolegom. 6, in Tract, de Gratia, c. 6,
n. 17.)
But there are certain other subjects of which the
same could not be said, and phrases may be found
in the writings of the great African Doctor, especially
on the subject of free-will, which taken simply by
themselves, without reference to the meaning which
they bear in their proper place, are indefensible.
In the sixteenth century, Baius of Louvain advo-
cated certain views on this subject, which he
professed to draw from St. Augustine, and these
views were condemned by Pope St. Pius V. in 1567.
(Denzinger, Enchir. nn. 881 959.) Nevertheless,
the teaching of Baius was supported by Jansenius,
and in his hands became the foundation of the
Jansenist heresy. This writer and his followers
maintained that no account need be taken of Ponti-
fical condemnations in face of the clear teaching
of St. Augustine, which he termed irrefragable ;
and Pope Alexander VIII., in 1690, deemed it
necessary to clear the ground by condemning the
following proposition (Denz. n. 1187) : " When a
doctrine is found to be solidly based on Augustine,
it may be held and taught, without regard to any
Pontifical Bull." A discussion of the whole matter
will be found in Viva. (Theses Damnata, part 3,
i 4 a MONUMENTS OF TRADITION. [101
prop. 30, Alex. VIII.) The condemnation was
based upon the principle that no appeal is admis-
sible from the living Church of the present day to
the Church of past ages. The meaning of the
present pronouncement is beyond doubt, whereas
the ancient writer is not here, to explain what he
meant ; besides which, the present pronouncement
undoubtedly represents the mind of the whole
Church, whereas the ancient witness may have been
mistaken in the testimony that he bears. It is to
be observed that the condemnations in question
were in form the utterances of the Popes alone ; but
they were accepted by the Bishops of the Church,
with moral unanimity, and therefore certainly
expressed the mind of the Church, without refer-
ence to the doubt which existed at that time as to
the infallibility of the Pope.
102." Doctors. It may be convenient to mention
some of the various senses attaching to the word
Doctor. It signifies primarily a Teacher, especially
one who has received public license to teach from
some University; thus we have Doctors of Medi-
cine, of Law, and of Theology. Originally no one
was allowed to teach publicly until he had received
the degree of Doctor, and even now it is obligatory
on the holders of certain positions in the Church to
qualify themselves by obtaining the degree of Doctor
of Theology or of Canon Law ; but for the moit
part, the degree no longer confers any special privi-
leges. Some eminent teachers of the thirteenth
and following centuries received complimentary
epithets which have remained in use, and become
io>] DOCTORS. 143
a kind of proper name, although the special appro-
priateness is often obscure. Some seventy cases of
this kind will be found enumerated in the Freiburg
Kirchen Lexicon of Wetzer and Welte, s.v. "Doctor,"
the best known being the name of Angelic Doctor,
applied to St. Thomas Aquinas. More loosely, the
name of Doctor has been applied to all teachers,
without reference to academical qualification ; but
in a special sense it is given to certain Servants of
God who have joined eminent learning to remark-
able sanctity, and on whose feasts the Church has
sanctioned the use of a special Mass and Office.
(See Benedict XIV. De Canonizatione, lib. 2, part 2,
c. II, n. 13.) Four such have long been recognized
belonging to the Eastern Church, SS. Athanasius,
Basil, Gregory of Nazianzum, and Chrysostom ;
and as many in the West, SS. Ambrose, Augustine,
Jerome, and Gregory the Great. It is possible that
the selection of this number was primarily the work
of Christian artists, but it has been long sanctioned
by the Church. The first increase in the number
occurred in the sixteenth century, when the title
was formally conferred by St. Pius V. upon the
Dominican St. Thomas Aquinas, and by Sixtus V.
upon the Franciscan St. Bonaventure : each Pope
promoting his Religious brother.
Of late years, the Mass and Office of a Doctor
has been granted in the case of a large number of
saints. It will be observed that the grant does not
imply any special approbation of the doctrine of the
writer so honoured ; it merely testifies in general
to the greatness of his learning, conjoined with
144 MONUMENTS OP TRADITION. [ioa
sanctity. In the case of St. Alphonsus Liguori, a
decree was issued by the Penitentiaria in 1787,
declaring that his moral doctrine might always be
followed with safety ; but this is not the same thing
as declaring that it is true : the title of Doctor was
not conferred upon him till 1871.
103. Bishops and People. The promise of Divine
assistance in the -work of teaching, which is the
ground of our belief that the Church will not fail,
was made primarily to the Apostles (St. Matt,
xxviii. 20) and through them to their successors,
the Bishops of the Church, under the headship of
the Roman Pontiff: as will be explained in the
Treatise on the Church. These constitute the
Teaching Church (n. 203) : all other Christians are
the Taught. There is no direct Divine guarantee
that the Taught shall be preserved in the truth : but
indirectly we are assured that, as a body, they will
never fall into error, for this could happen only
through some failure on the part of the Teachers,
such as is inconsistent with the promise of help that
they have received. What is here said applies not
only to the mere multitude of the faithful, but also
to priests and other men of theological learning who
teach in the public schools under the supervision
of the Episcopacy and of the Holy See. It is a
remark of Melchior Canus (De Locis Theologicis, 8, i)
that there has always been a close connection
between contempt for the Schools of the Church
and the bane of heresy ; and the general consent of
the faithful people has in all ages been regarded as
a test of truth or falsehood.
104] BISHOPS AND PEOPLE. 145
104. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have
considered the sources of our knowledge of the
doctrine held by the Church in former times. These
are, besides Scripture, formal definitions, the Liturgy,
History, including especially the Acts of the Martyrs
and the works of the Fathers. The meaning of this
word is explained, and the reasons are explained
why the consent of many of the Fathers, or even in
certain circumstances the doctrine taught by one
alone, guides to a knowledge of the doctrine of the
whole Church. The peculiar case of St. Augustine
is explained, as is the force of the title " Doctor of
the Church," and finally it is pointed out that the
Episcopate is the primary depositary of the tradition
of the Church, all others being kept in the truth in
virtue of their adherence to the body of Bishops.
VOL.1.
CHAPTER IV.
SCRIPTURE AND TRADITION.
105. Subject of Chapter. If we put in this
the whole of the doctrine as to the relation of
Scripture and Tradition, it would fill a long chapter:
but much of the subject has been anticipated in
earlier chapters of the present Treatise, and more
will be given in the next Treatise on Holy Scripture.
In that Treatise we shall see the special and alto-
gether unique dignity that attaches to the Sacred
Books, distinguishing them from all other existing
books, in that they came from no human author
and are free from the slightest taint of error. We
shall do no more in this place than vindicate some
points in which the divinely conserved Tradition of
the Church has superiority over the written Word
of God.
1 06. Tradition prior in Time and Thought. We
have already (nn. 79 81) shown that Christian
Tradition existed before the Christian Scriptures
were written. This is obvious, and is admitted on
all hands. The method of teaching by the living
voice of authoritative witnesses was in use on the
first feast of Pentecost, when the Church was
instituted ; and there is no indication forthcoming
106] TRADITION PRIOR IN TIME AND THOUGHT. 147
that the method underwent any subsequent change.
Tradition is undeniably prior in time to the New
Testament Scriptures.
Not only did the Tradition of the Church exist
before the New Testament was written, but we
cannot think of the Scriptures as having authority
in determining the belief of Christians, without first
thinking of the Christian Tradition. The reason
why we look upon the Gospels and Epistles as
having peculiar authority, is that such is the belief
of the Christian Church : in other words, such is
the teaching of Tradition. No other reason can be
alleged ; for no book can prove its own authorship
with certainty, any more than a man's asseverations
of his own truthfulness add a scrap to our reasons
for believing his story. If what we know of him
from other sources does not incline us to believe
him when he tells his story, neither does it incline
us to believe him when he says that his story is true.
But, besides this, no book of the New Testament
makes claim to the possession of any special,
character, still less does it make such a claim on
behalf of the whole collection : there is no clear
indication that one of the sacred writers conceived
himself to be contributing to a collection which
should possess a unique character. No doubt, every
writer of history makes an implicit claim to be
considered credible ; but this is not enough to
entitle a book to be looked upon as forming part of
the Scriptures, for many credible histories have
been written which are not regarded as Scripture ;
and what we are insisting upon is the absence of
148 SCRIPTURE AND TRADITION. [106
any claim to the possession of the peculiar character
which we ascribe to the books of the New Testa-
ment.
107. Wider in Scope. Further, there is matter
contained in the Tradition of the Church which is
not contained in Scripture, while on the other hand
there is nothing in Scripture which is not in Tradi-
tion. This last is clear because Tradition embraces
Scripture and looks upon Scripture as the chiefest
instrument by which Tradition is handed down.
On the other hand, Tradition contains some matters
which are not in Scripture. First and principally,
Tradition teaches us the authoritative character
attaching to the Scripture, as we saw at length in
the last paragraph. But besides this, there are
many points which are accepted by the great bulk
of Protestants as part of the Christian religion in
spite of the weight of purely Scriptural argument
seeming decidedly opposed to them. In these cases,
the Catholic theologian, under the guidance of
Tradition, and knowing the truth, is able to show
that the words of Scripture are not conclusive; at
the same time that the Scriptural argument is too
strong to be resisted by those who have no other
guide. We will point out some of these cases.
I. Infant Baptism. The great bulk of Protestant
sects employ infant Baptism, yet there is no trace
in Scripture of Christian Baptism being administered
to any one who was not capable of asking for it,
while there are many places in which certain dispo-
sitions faith or repentance, or both are mentioned
as necessary conditions. The practice of infant
107] INFANT BAPTISM] 149
Baptism therefore cannot be defended on Scriptural
grounds. (See St. Mark xvi. 16 ; Acts ii. 38, 41, viii.
12, 37.) Dr. Browne, in his Exposition of the 27th
of the Thirty-nine Articles (pp. 671 676), after
some irrelevant remarks on Jewish ceremonies,
urges the hardship of excluding infants from the
benefits promised to the baptized, an unsafe argu-
ment in dealing with the positive institution of God,
and one which would go to prove that water might
be dispensed with in Baptism if it were unattain-
able : a conclusion which Dr. Browne would not
admit. He then quotes some passages showing
that the children of Christian parents were in an
advantageous position, which may refer merely to
the benefit of education ; and lastly he points out
that the Apostles baptized whole households (Acts
xvi. 15, 33 ; i Cor. i. 16), and assumes that there
were infants among the members of these house-
holds, and that these infants were baptized ; whereas
the phrase " the household was baptized " is abun-
dantly satisfied if all the capable members received
that Sacrament. This writer is then glad to support
his doctrine from the Fathers, that is to say, to
admit the force of Tradition.
II. Indissolubility of Marriage. Most Protestants,
at least until recent times, maintained the Catholic
doctrine of the indissolubility of consummated
marriage of Christians. Yet the student of "the
Bible and the Bible only " could hardly fail to come
to the conclusion that there was an exception,
expressly authorized by Christ (St. Matt. v. 32),
which full statement of the doctrine must stand,
I 5 o SCRIPTURE AND TRADITION. [107
although the exception is not mentioned by St. Mark
(x. n) nor by St. Luke (xvi. 18). The full explanation
of this difficult matter must be reserved for our
Treatise on the Sacrament of Matrimony. The
embarrassment of Protestant divines will be seen by
reference to the note in the Speaker's Commentary.
III. Feet Washing. If the earlier part of the
thirteenth chapter of St. John's Gospel be read
(vv. i 7), we see that our Lord on the last night
of His mortal life, washed the feet of His disciples,
and taught them that unless He washed them they
should have no part with Him. Further, that they
ought to wash one another's feet, and if they did
so, they should be blessed. We seem here to have
the formal institution of an obligatory rite, to
the due observance of which a special blessing is
attached, while to neglect it is spiritually disastrous.
And we learn also (i Timothy v. 10) that to use the
rite was one of the marks of an upright Christian.
Nevertheless, with insignificant exceptions, the rite
has never been in use; and the practice of the
Church assures us that " to wash the saints' feet "
is a phrase for readiness to embrace opportunities
of doing acts of kindness, even when they are
humiliating; but one who knew nothing of the
matter beyond what the Scripture teaches, would
have no ground for so understanding the passages.
IV. Eating Blood. The Israelites were forbidden
to eat the blood of any creature whatsoever. (Levit.
vii. 26, and many other places.) The motive of
this law was perhaps partly sanitary, but it also, no
doubt, had reference to the Divine decree by which
107) EATING BLOOD. 151
the redemption of mankind was destined to be
purchased by the shedding of the Precious Blood
on Calvary. This law is still observed by the Jews.
In the earliest days of the Church, probably within
twenty years of the Death of Christ, a question
arose, how far Gentile converts were bound to
observe the Law of Moses, and the Apostles and
others gathered together at Jerusalem to discuss the
point. The proceedings are narrated in the fifteenth
chapter of the Acts of the Apostles. The result
was that the Council sent a circular letter addressed
in form to the Gentile converts of Antioch, Syria,
and Cilicia, but which is referred to in Acts xxi. 25,
as being applicable to all Gentiles ; and this letter
insists on the duty of abstaining from blood.
Nothing but the Tradition of the Church assures
us that this prohibition has ceased to be binding.
V. Oaths. In the Sermon on the Mount we
have a distinct precept of Christ not to swear at
all (St. Matt. v. 34) ; and St. James would have
Christians "above all things, swear not." (St. James
v. 12.) No words can be plainer, and the context
limits them only so far as to indicate by the
examples adduced, that the prohibition is confined
to oaths properly so called. It is to no purpose
therefore that Dr. Browne, defending the ordinary
practice of men against certain fanatical sectaries,
in his comment on the last of the Thirty-nine
Articles, adduces certain forms of speech which are
employed occasionally by St. Paul (Romans ix. I ;
i Cor. xv. 31, &c.) as proof that the Apostle con-
sidered it lawful to take an oath ; these forms are
152 SCRIPTURE AND TRADITION, [107
something different from oaths. Nor does it avail
him more to quote the example of our Lord, Who
suffered Himself to be adjured (St. Matt. xxvi. 63),
for this was the act of the High Priest, not of
Christ ; but to take an oath is the act of the witness,
not of the judge: and by permitting the High Priest
to act in this way, He no more sanctioned his action
than He sanctioned His own condemnation, which
He suffered this same High Priest to pronounce.
VI. No point of the popular religion of Protes-
tants is more prominent than the strictness with
which they observe the weekly rest on Sunday, and
the duty is constantly rested upon that command-
ment of the Decalogue which forbids work on the
Sabbath. The belief is wide-spread among ignorant
Protestants that the Sunday is the Sabbath, whereas
nothing is more certain than that Sunday is observed
as the day of the Resurrection of our Lord, which
took place on the day following the Sabbath.
(St. Luke xxiii. 56.) The Jews have preserved the
true reckoning, and they rest on the Saturday.
Such Protestants as know better than to fall into
this confusion, feel the need jof discovering a
Scriptural basis for their practice of observing
Sunday; but they find nothing better than some
indications that Christians were accustomed to meet
for worship on the first day of the week (Acts xx. 7;
i Cor. xvi. 2), but there is nothing in these passages
to impose a perpetual obligation, or to show that
this observance is of Divine institution. Again we
are driven to Tradition and the practice of the
Church, to justify the existing usage.
107] WIDER SCOPE. 153
We may conclude this discussion by citing two
passages from the Fathers, in which our principle
is stated with great plainness. St. Epiphanius, who
wrote about the year 370, combats certain heretics
with arguments derived from Scripture; and then
goes on (Adv. Hareses, 61, 6; P.G. 41, 1048) : "We
must also call in the aid of Tradition^ for it is
impossible to find everything in Scripture ; for the
holy Apostles delivered to us some things in writing,
and other things by Tradition." To the same effect
we read in St. Basil, writing about the same time,
the clear statement that the Church had Traditions
on doctrinal questions, adding to what is contained
in the Scripture. Many passages to this effect are
found in the Saint's work on the Holy Spirit, where
he discusses the proper way of speaking of the
Three Divine Persons. Thus (n. 66; P.G. 32, 188):
"Among the dogmas that are maintained in the
Church, we find some in the doctrinal writings,
others come to us handed down from the Apostles ;
both of which have the same religious force." And
again (n. 71, p. 200), he is advocating the use of a
certain form of speech, and answers the argument
that this form is not found in Scripture, as follows :
" If nothing else is accepted which is not Scriptural,
then let not this be accepted ; but if most of our
doctrines are accepted among us without writing,
then let us receive this along with the multitude of
the rest." Patristic passages to the same effect
have been collected in abundance.
108. More necessary. It follows from what we
have already said, that the Church could dispense
154 SCRIPTURE AND TRADITION. (108
with Holy Scripture, but cannot dispense with
Tradition. Were it possible to imagine that all
copies of the Scripture should perish, without
possibility of restoration, still the voices of living
men would proclaim what is the Christian teaching.
On the other hand, if a copy of the Bible found its
way to some community who knew nothing of
the Christian Revelation, there would be nothing
about the volume by which it could be distinguished
from other books teaching a sublime morality ; the
community would see no reason to take this Bible,
and this Bible alone, as their religion. This superior
necessity of Tradition plainly appears if we consider
the way in which Protestants in fact learn their
religion. No one actually learns it from the Bible
and the Bible alone. All are taught by way of
authority, however freely they may be referred to
the Bible to verify what they are taught; if they
fail to be convinced by the Scripture proofs, on
such a matter as infant Baptism, for example, or
the observation of Sunday, they will be told that
wiser men than they have considered the matter
and been convinced, and they will not be told that
others have also considered the Scriptural argument
and have found it insufficient ; or more probably
they will be led to stifle their own doubts out of
respect to the usage of those among whom they
have been brought up, and who have their con-
fidence ; they in fact believe Tradition, with which
they could not dispense, the Scripture being a most
valuable help, but not indispensable. The high
position that Catholic doctrine assigns to Holy
io8] MORE NECESSARY. 155
Writ will be seen in the next Treatise, and it will be
seen that we yield to no Christians in our esteem ;
but we esteem it on account of what we learn con-
cerning it from Tradition.
109. Recapitulation. This chapter has taught us
that Tradition is prior in time to Scripture, and
prior in thought ; it is of wider scope, as is shown
by several examples, and it is more necessary.
CHAPTER V.
DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE.
no. Subject of Chapter. It has been pointed
out already (n. 19) that private revelations by God
to man are always possible, and we hold that in fact
they are given occasionally, even at the present day.
In the present chapter we shall give our reasons for
believing that no addition has been made to the
body of doctrine which constitutes the Christian
Revelation since the death of the last survivor among
the Apostles, and further, that no new public reve-
lation is to be looked for in the future. Also we
shall explain the sense in which it may be admitted
that continual growth is going on in our knowledge
of Christian doctrine, and in doing this we shall
freely assume points of doctrine which we have not
yet established, for we bring them forward only as
illustrating our subject.
in. Heresies. Almost all Catholic writers agree
in holding that the Divine scheme for undoing the
work of the Fall and for raising mankind, and
enabling them to attain to their supernatural last
end was completed by the Death of our Redeemer
and by the foundation of the Church. But we read
in the Gospel of St. Matthew (xxiv. 24) the warning
TII] HERESIES. 157
given by our Lord that the time should come when
there would arise false Christs and false prophets ;
and a solemn warning is given to us not to be
misled. Nor has the event failed to show the truth
of the prophecy and the necessity of the warning,
in spite of which many have been led astray in
every age of the Church. Preachers have arisen who
have taught a Gospel besides that which was handed
down by Tradition, and they have found men and
women ready to neglect the warning given by
St. Paul to the Galatians (i. 8), and to listen to
them. It will be enough to mention a few of those
who have sought to supplement the Gospel that
tells of the Word of God made Flesh for the
redemption of man, by a new pretended Gospel of
the Holy Spirit ; as though there were to be a third
dispensation under which the -Third Person of the
Holy Trinity completed the work which was begun
under the Old Testament by the First Person,
and was carried on by the Second Person in the
New.
Among the number of these was one Montanus,
who taught in the rude districts of Phrygia, in the
latter part of the second century, and of whom we
read in the words of an anonymous author quoted
by Eusebius (H.E. 5, 17; P.G. 20, 464), that he
uttered strange sayings beyond the Tradition handed
down from old times. Some of his followers, in-
cluding two women, spoke as though carried away
by the Holy Spirit and full of the gift of prophecy.
Manes, the founder of that Manichean heresy which
has been so deadly a foe to the Church, called
158 DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE. (ill
himself the Paraclete, and professed to know all
things from all eternity. (St. Epiph. Har. 66, n. 19;
P.G. 42, 57.) The year 250 may be assigned as his
date ; and, to pass over many centuries, the pretended
prophecies of the Abbot Joachim, who died in 1202,
remained in credit for many years, in spite of the
condemnation by the Fourth Council of Lateran in
1215 of the doctrine on the Blessed Trinity taught
by their author ; and new revelations were among
the extravagances of the Fraticelli condemned by
the Council at Vienne in 1311.
Among the sects that sprang from the Refor-
mation of the sixteenth century, similar delusions
have been plentiful; it may suffice to mention
Swedenborg, whose death occurred in 1772, who
claimed to have direct illumination from God, not
through Angel or Spirit ; Irving, who believed that
the marvels of the first Pentecost were renewed
about the year 1830 among those who attended his
ministry ; and Smith, the American, who pretended
that the Bible of the Western Continent was dis-
covered to him in 1823, and who was murdered in
1844. The followers of this last are numerous
enough and devoted enough % to be a trouble to the
Government of the United States, but it may be
doubted whether the bond of union among them is
not social and economical rather than any living
belief in the revelation which their prophet professed
to bring. It is deserving of notice that the Catholic
Church has been little troubled by ebullitions of
this kind in recent times.
112. The Catholic Doctrine. In opposition to all
Iia] THE CATHOLIC DOCTRINE. 159
these, the doctrine of Catholic theology is that the
body of public revealed doctrine has received no
objective increase since the days of the Apostles.
It is true, as St. Thomas remarks, (Summa Theol.
2. 2. q. I. a. 7. c.) that the whole of the Divine
economy of salvation is in some sense contained in
the two fundamental articles which have been
revealed from the beginning, that God is, and is a
rewarder of them that seek Him : the explicit belief
in which truths is and always has been a necessary
condition of salvation, according to the doctrine of
St. Paul. (Hebrews xi. 6.) But the whole body of
Christian doctrine could never have been discovered
as contained in this primitive and, so to speak,
elementary revelation, had not further revelations
been vouchsafed ; and such revelations were given
from time to time under the patriarchal dispen-
sation, under the Mosaic Law, and during the life
of Christ and His Apostles ; also, the theologians
of the Church continually discover, and will continue
to discover, more and more of the fulness of mean-
ing contained in these revelations, and from time
to time the Church imprints the seal of her infallible
approval upon their explicit statements of what was
heretofore known implicitly alone ; but we maintain
that no substantially new revelation is given or will
be given, to be proposed by the Church for the
belief of the faithful.
The proof is partly negative. There is no hint
in the New Testament that any such new revelation
is to be looked for. Whatever prophecies or other
indications of future events are met with, refer either
160 DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE. [iia
to the fortunes of the Church under the present dis-
pensation (i Timothy iv. i), or more especially to the
circumstances that will attend the Second Coming
of our Lord, when the time of probation is over
for all mankind and all receive the eternal reward
of their works. (St. John xii. 48.) But there is not
a word that can be represented as pointing to a
time when the Church shall be replaced by another
more perfect institution having the same object,
and when means of grace will be granted to men
more efficient than the Christian Sacraments. In
the Old Testament there are expressions which,
taken by themselves, might seem to point to the
perpetual duration of that institution (Genesis xvii.
13; Numbers x. 8); but these do not necessarily
imply that it shall not receive a more perfect form ;
and in fact many passages plainly point to its
destiny to act as the slave, himself unlettered, that
conducts a boy to the school where he will be
taught. (Galat. iii. 24.) See, for instance, any of the
well-known Messianic prophecies, such as Deut.
xviii. 15, where Moses warns the people of Israel
that the time will come when his message will be
spent and they will be called on to hear another
prophet; and in the New Testament we see that
Jewish priests and people looked forward to the
coming crisis. (St. Matt. ii. 5 ; St. John iv. 25.)
The positive proof of our doctrine is derived
directly from the Epistle to the Hebrews, through-
out which St. Paul insists on the transient character
of the Synagogue as opposed to the perennial
existence in store for the Church. This meaning is
H2] THE CATHOLIC DOCTRINE. 161
plain if the whole Epistle be read ; but we may cite
especially the verse (xii. 27) where St. Paul speaks
of the translation of moveable things as made, that
these things may remain which are immoveable:
and it is noticeable that the Apostle, addressing
Jews, rests his teaching on an interpretation of two
words in the prophecy of Aggeus (ii. 7), and shows
us the depths of meaning that may lurk in the
minutest portions of the inspired text.
That the Fathers did not believe that any new
public revelation was possible, is plain from their
constant habit of appealing to Tradition, as the one
source of our knowledge of Christian truth. We
may quote St. Irenaeus (Contra Hareses, 3, I ; P.G'
7, 844) : " We know no other Gospel than what
came to us from those that wrote the Scriptures.
For it cannot be said that they preached before
they had full knowledge, as is boldly asserted by
some who boast that they can improve upon the
Apostles. After the Resurrection of our Lord and
the coming of the Holy Ghost, they had perfect
knowledge and went forth to preach." Further
examples of such passages are also given in nn. 76,
77, 106.
113. Progress of Theology. But although there
can be no objective increment in the public reve-
lation committed to the custody of the Church,
yet Theology is far from being a dead, unad-
vancing science ; on the contrary, it makes constant
advances. The exact mode and form of this pro-
gression has varied in different ages of the Church,
but it has never ceased. No serious-minded man
L VOL. i.
i6a DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE. [113
will suppose that the truths which it has pleased
God to reveal contain no more than is apparent at
the first glance ; in fact, they are full of depths of
meaning which are sounded only by those who
bring to the task a variety of qualifications, intel-
lectual and spiritual, which this is not the place I?
enumerate. This labour results in glimpses being
gained of truths that are implied in the monuments
of the Tradition of the Church which had not
hitherto been explicitly recognized and set forth.
Mistakes, no doubt, are made from time to time ;
theological students mistake the import of what is
before them and draw erroneous conclusions, and
it may even happen that they gain a considerable
following. But such an error will commonly soon
die away of itself, or perhaps will be condemned
by the supreme authority ; but in some cases, the
Holy See, in its prudence, allows the controversy
to remain undecided, and in this way there are
schools of theology within the Church, more or
less opposed to each other, and well inclined to
maintain their views, but all agreeing in readiness
to submit to the decision of the Church, whenever
the infallible voice is heard. In this way an end
was put in 431, by the Council of Ephesus, to the
controversy concerning the exact mode of the union
of the Divine and Human Natures in Christ; in
1854, Pope Pius IX. terminated the long discussion
concerning the Immaculate Conception of our
Lady; and the Vatican Council of 1870, under the
same Pope, finally established true doctrine as to
the Primacy and Infallibility of the Successor of
113] PROGRESS OF THEOLOGY. 163
St. Peter. All this will be better understood when
the Treatise on the Church has been read.
When speaking of the Canon of Scripture
(n. 152), we shall explain that there was a time
when doubts existed within the Church as to the
character of certain books of the Old Testament.
Before these doubts were raised, there had been a
period of unreflecting acquiescence in a certain
view : doubts founded on difficulties of the sort that
are called critical, led to discussion : discussion
resulted in the solution of these doubts, and in the
explicit recognition of what had been implicitly
held from the beginning; and when theological
discussion had done its work, the Holy See gave
the sanction of its authority to the truth, which
thenceforward became an integral part of the
defined faith which cannot be denied without loss
of the name of Catholic. These three stages of
implicit belief, doubt and controversy, and explicit
avowal, sometimes followed by formal definition,
may be recognized in the history of many points of
doctrine. A superficial study of the history will
sometimes suggest the idea that the doctrine was
new when the first critical doubts were started ;
but in the course of the discussion it becomes clear
that there is nothing new in the substance of
the doctrine, but only in the mode of statement.
These three stages are all seen' in the cases of
Baptism by heretics, of the Real Presence, and of
the Immaculate Conception, but in no instance
better than in the controversy concerning the
Canon of Scripture,
164 DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE. [114
114. The Vincentian Canon. The explanation
just given serves to remove the difficulty which is
sometimes felt in understanding how the Catholic
Church can be said to be unchanging in faith at the
same time that cases are easily produced where a
matter which was not a defined doctrine at one
date, subsequently comes to be defined. This is no
more a change than it is a change for the germ that
is in a seed to unfold and become a tree. It is no
change of doctrine when that which has always been
held implicitly, becomes the subject of an explicit
declaration. There would be change if the Church
of one age taught as of faith, what had not been
held in any sense in a previous age ; still more, if it
taught the contradictory of what had been previously
held : but neither of these cases has occurred, as
we shall see from time to time, as we treat
particular doctrines.
The reader will now understand the sense in
which we may accept the principle laid down by
Vincent of Lerins in a well-known passage, which
is called from him the Vincentian Canon. This
Vincent was a monk who received his surname from
his residence at Lerins, an island in the Mediter-
ranean, off the south coast of France. He lived in
the first half of the fifth century. The canon in
question occurs in the second chapter of his work
called Cotnmonitorium (P.L. 50, 640), and runs as
follows: " In the Catholic Church we must with all
care hold that which has been held in all places, at
all times, by all men, for this is truly and properly
Catholic." Comnwnitorium is the name given
114] THE VINCENT I AN CANON. 165
to a work having for its full title, "A Warning
against the Profane Novelties of all Heresies," and
this title sufficiently describes its character. Directed
especially against certain heresies that concerned
the Word of God, and His union with Human
Nature in Christ Arian, Nestorian, and others its
argument is by no means confined to these forms of
error, but extends to every form of doctrine that is
not the doctrine of the Catholic Church : if once a
doctrine can be shown to have been received as
part of the deposit of faith in all places, at all times,
and by all men, then this doctrine is assuredly part
of the Catholic faith, and whatever is opposed to
it is error ; and this principle is as true now as it
was fourteen centuries ago, and it leads us at once
to reject whatever teaching is out of accord with
the teaching of Ephesus in 431, or with the Vatican
Council in 1870. And it is clear that Vincent did
not mean more when he laid down his canon ; he
did not mean that what has at some time been
denied by Catholic theologians cannot be part of
the faith ; for he himself points out (c. 6, p. 646)
that the Saint and Martyr Cyprian fell into error
in denying the validity of Baptism administered
by heretics, a point which had not been definitely
decided by the Church ; and his error gave occasion
to a letter of Pope St. Stephen, who, quoting the
great principle that no novelties were to be intro-
duced which Tradition did not teach, finally settled
the controversy.
115. Recapitulation. In this chapter which has
been mainly historical, and which has been illustrated
166 DEVELOPMENT OF DOCTRINE. [115
by reference to sundry points of Catholic doctrine
which will be fully explained hereafter, we have
seen that the prophecy read in the Gospel, that false
Christs shall arise and false prophets, has had its
fulfilment in all ages of the Church. Then we saw
the grounds of our belief that the public revelation
of God was closed in the days of the Apostles, and
that no new economy of salvation is to be expected
in succession to the Catholic Church ; it was then
pointed out that the labour of theologians upon the
deposit was continually bringing out and exhibiting
explicitly successive portions of truth which up to
that time had not been known except implicitly;
and finally the sense of the Vincentian Canon was
explained, and thus the Treatise on Tradition was
brought to a close.
{Treatise tbe Ubfrfc.
HOLY SCRIPTURE.
CHAPTER I.
WHAT IS MEANT BY "SCRIPTURE."
116. Plan of Treatise. We have already on many
occasions quoted the Holy Scripture, sometimes
treating its authority as decisive on the questions
which we have discussed, and often using it in such
a manner as implies that a special authority belongs
to these Books, such as no other books can claim to
possess. Yet we have so far not given any reason
for holding this, and, in fact, we have deviated
slightly from logical order, anticipating matter
which was yet to come. No other course could be
adopted without a serious sacrifice of convenience
to merely formal accuracy, and the present Treatise
will justify the assumptions that we have made.
Something similar will be met with in other parts
of Theology ; the science forms one organic whole,
each part ramifying so as to become connected
with other parts, so that there are no sharp
divisions ; every arrangement into Treatises is
necessarily to some extent arbitrary and artificial;
168 WHAT IS MEANT BY "SCRIPTURE." [116
these divisions are needed by the learner, but he
cannot expect to understand any part thoroughly
until he has studied other portions which deal with
kindred matter.
117. Subject of Chapter. It will be found that
there are three classes of occasions on which we
have used the authority of the Scripture. In our
first Treatise, we used the Gospels and some of the
Epistles of St. Paul, along with the Annals of
Tacitus, the Letters of Pliny, and other materials,
as ancient documents which gave a trustworthy
account of the miracles of Christ and other circum-
stances which established the Divine Mission of the
Worker of these miracles, and conveyed to us some
knowledge of His teaching. So far the Scripture
was treated as if it were a purely human work, and
we could not expect that those who did not admit
our doctrine should treat it in any other manner.
But our second Treatise dealt with opponents who
are as ready as ourselves to admit the decisive
authority of Scripture, except that they do not
altogether agree with us in drawing up the list of
Books to which the Scriptural character belongs;
and, therefore, as long as we avoided the disputed
Books, we were at liberty to use the rest as authori-
ties in the controversy on which we were engaged ;
accordingly, we employed the Epistles of St. Paul
to St. Timothy, which we could not have quoted in
our first Treatise without entering on a discussion
of their genuineness ; for questions have been raised
whether they are the work of St. Paul, and it would
have been inconvenient and needless to delay in
117] SUBJECT OF CHAPTER. 169
order to settle the point. In this polemical matter,
therefore, our argument is partly ad hominem. But
thioughout both Treatises we have done something
towards showing how the Catholic doctrine is con-
tained in the monuments of Tradition, and this, as
we have seen, is part of the work of a theologian
(n. 84); and it is here, if anywhere, that we have
slightly anticipated what will be proved in the
present Treatise.
This first chapter will be devoted to giving
some account of the Books that constitute the Holy
Scripture.
118. "Scripture," "Bible." There is a collection,
or rather series, of Books which are now, and have
long been, held in special honour among Christians,
and a portion of which are now, and have long
been, held in special honour by the Jews : and
these Books we mean when we speak of Scripture.
Those Books of Scripture which relate to the
centuries before the Birth of Christ, form the Old
Testament, from which the New Testament is dis-
tinguished. It is usual to bind these Books together
into one volume, and this volume is called the Bible.
We shall see in our next chapter that there are
other names by which these Books have been
known ; and we shall there see that besides there
being names applied to the Books as a whole, there
is much else that can be said about them in
common ; but at present we shall point out various
respects in which they do not agree ; and in this
way we shall obviate by anticipation many mistakes
that are rife as to their true character.
170 WHAT IS MEANT BY "SCRIPTURE." [uc,
119. Date of Composition. Whatever doubts there
may be as to the date of the composition of parti-
cular Books of Scripture, the discussion of which
does not belong to Theology, but must be sought in
the Introduction to the various Books, it is certain
that many centuries elapsed between the earliest
and the latest. The earliest Books we believe to
date from 1400 years before Christ, being the first
five Books, collectively called the Pentateuch, or five
volumes, the work of Moses ; the latest is commonly
reckoned to be the Gospel of St. John, the date of
which is perhaps not much earlier than ico after
Christ.
1 20. Original Languages. Various languages
were employed for the originals of the Scripture.
The greater part of the Old Testament was written
in Hebrew, which was and is the proper language of
the Israelites, and was therefore naturally employed
by writers who addressed themselves primarily to
Israelites. For certain portions, however, a kindred
language was employed, which is called Chaldee or
Syriac. This is the language which was in use on
the east of the Euphrates, in the country to which
the Jews were carried as captives by King Nabucho-
donosor, about 600 years before Christ (2 Paral.
xxxvi. 20), and Daniel, who was among the captives,
employed it for part of his Book. It first occurs in
the fourth verse of the second chapter : " And the
Chaldeans answered the King in Syriac, O King,
live for ever." Down to the word Syriac, all is
Hebrew, but O King is Chaldee, and the same
language is employed up to the seventh chapter ;
120] ORIGINAL LANGUAGES. 171
Hebrew is resumed at the beginning of the
eighth. It is natural to suppose that the words,
King, &c., are given in the language in which
they were originally spoken ; but there is no
apparent reason why the same language is retained
in what follows, nor why, after a while, the use of
Hebrew is resumed. Something similar is found in
the First Book of Esdras, which is concerned with
affairs immediately after the Captivity, where two
pass?ges, iv. 8, vi. 18, and again, vii. 12 26, are in
Cbaldaic. The latter of these is a letter of King
Artaxerxes, given doubtless in its original language ;
the former also opens with a citation, although it
goes on to other matter. There is another instance
(Jerem. x. n), where the Prophet puts some words
into the mouth of his hearers ; and as early as
Genesis xxxi. 47, it is remarked that the language
of Jacob, the Hebrew, was different from that of
Laban, who dwelt in the east country. (Genesis
xxix. i.) The use of the name Chaldee for the
language here spoken of is thoroughly established
and will not mislead, although it originated in an
error, and is regarded as absurd by Semitic
scholars. (Wright, Comparative Grammar of the Semitic
Languages, p. 16.) This tongue is very nearly, but
not quite, identical with what is commonly called
Syriac.
A large part of the Old Testament is still extant
in the original Hebrew or Chaldaic, and this part
constitutes the whole of what is recognized by the
Jews, whom the Protestants follow. Besides these,
the Tradition of the Church recognizes two Books
172 WHAT IS MEANT BY "SCRIPTURE." [120
of Greek origin, and five Books which seem to have
been written originally in Hebrew, although they
are now extant only in a Greek translation, as is the
case also with large parts of the Books of Daniel
and Esther. These seven, Ecclesiasticus, BarucL,
Tobias, Judith, and the First of Machabees, together
with Wisdom and the Second Machabees, are called
deuterocanonical Books, for reasons which will be
explained in our fourth chapter of this Treatise,
where their claim to be considered part of
Scripture will be established. The Protestants,
who reject them, brand them with the name of
Apocrypha.
Probably the whole of the New Testament was
written in Greek. There is some doubt whether
the Gospel of St. Matthew and the Epistle to the
Hebrews may not have had a Hebrew origin, but
however this may be, nothing is now in existence
which is prior to the Greek of these two Books,
from which all the versions are derived.
121. Writers. Many of the Books of Scripture
are anonymous, nor has tradition preserved the
name of the writer ; such are the later Books of
Kings, the Paralipomena, the Machabees, and Job.
Others are believed, with more or less certainty, to
have been written by the leading men whose actions
they relate; Moses, for instance, and Samuel.
Many of the Psalms were written by David, but
not all ; and it is to be remarked that the super-
scriptions or " titles " prefixed to a large proportion
of the Psalms, are perhaps no part of the inspired
Scripture. The three Books of Proverbs, the
I2i] WRITERS. 173
Preacher, and the Song of Songs, with the possible
exception of a part of the first named (see Cornely's
Introductions], were written by Solomon, but the
same cannot be said of Wisdom and Ecclesiasticus,
which deal with a somewhat similar argument.
The Books of the Prophets were probably put
together each by him whose name it bears, or by
his immediate disciples ; but it must be carefully
remembered that the prophetic gift itself was some-
thing different from the commission to write a
Book ; thus Elias, one of the greatest of the
Prophets, seems to have written nothing.
The whole of the New Testament was written
by Apostles, except the Gospels of St. Mark and
St. Luke, which are taken to represent the teaching
of St. Peter and St. Paul respectively. (St. Iren.
Contra Hcereses, 3, i ; P.G. 7, 845; Euseb. Hist. Eccl.
3, 34; P.G. 20, 300, quoting Papias.)
122. Extent. The Books of Scripture are of
very various extent. Genesis contains fifty chapters,
the Prophecy of Isaias sixty-six. On the other
hand, the Epistle to Philemon, the second and third
of St. John, and that of St.Jude, are confined to a
single chapter each. The number of chapters
indicates roughly the extent of the Book. The
division into chapters does not come from the
original authors, being, in fact, no older than
the thirteenth century after Christ, and due either
to Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury
(1227), or to the Dominican Cardinal Hugh a
Sancto Caro (1262). The verses were first numbered
in a Paris edition of the Vulgate (1548). On these
174 WHAT IS MEANT BY " SCRIl^TURE." [122
and other divisions of the Scriptures, see Comely,
Introductio, i. 35.
123. Style. Nor is there less variety in the
literary style. Thus we have bald narration in
2 Paral. xvi. I 5 ; in I Mach. xiv. 4 15, the
narrative is more ornate. A good specimen of the
gnomic style is found in Prov. x. i 5, and in
Wisdom xiii. n 19, there is close philosophical
reasoning. Poetry is abundant, and the 83rd Psalm,
Quam dilecta, may be cited as a convenient specimen ;
and the use of symbols instead of speech is found in
Ezech. x. throughout.
124. Matter. The matter of these Books is as
various as the style, which is in fact accommodated
to it. In general terms we may say that the Old
Testament gives us the history of the Creation and
Flood, and of the Israelite and Jewish nation down
to the year 135 before Christ. But this history is
treated mainly with the view of illustrating the
providence of God in dealing with this chosen
nation ; hence there are long intervals in which
nothing is recorded, and we may suppose that
nothing occurred that bore upon this subject.
Besides this history, we have some narrations
instructing us in piety, such as the stories of Ruth
and Tobit ; there is direct moral teaching in the
Book of Proverbs and elsewhere ; the Books of the
Prophets contain exhortations, and in the Psalms
we have examples showing us how we ought to
praise God and pray to Him.
In the New Testament we have the history of the
Life and Death of Christ, and some account of the
124] MATTER. 175
actions of the Apostles ; there are letters of instruc-
tion and exhortation, and one letter to Philemon on
a private subject ; and lastly, the Apocalypse, with
the account of the revelations vouchsafed to St. John,
which closes the whole series.
125. Recapitulation. This enumeration of the
various characters of the Books of Scripture makes
it clear that they have no internal bond of con-
nection ; the unity which undoubtedly belongs to
the collection must be sought in something that is
external to its members. We have shown that it is
not found in the date, language, writers, bulk, style,
nor matter. We proceed in the next chapter tc
search for it in something external.
CHAPTER II.
THE SPECIAL CHARACTER OF SCRIPTURE.
1 26. Subject of Chapter. In this chapter we shall
show that Jews and heathens have agreed with
Christians in recognizing that a peculiar character
attaches to the Books that we call Scripture. This
is shown by the zeal of the heathen for the destruc-
tion of these Books, and by the care of believers
for their preservation, as also by the laborious study
of their contents and^ by the decisive authority
attributed to them.
127. Names given to Scripture. We have now to
see what there is that belongs in common to all the
Books of which we have hitherto spoken under the
name of Scripture or Scriptures. This name itself
occurs some fifty times in the New Testament, to
denote the writings that make up the Old Testament.
Examples will be found in St. Matt. xxi. 42; xxii. 29;
St. John ii. 22; Acts i. 19; Romans i. 2; i St. Peter
ii. 6. This word means simply Writings. In
2 Timothy iii. 15, another word is employed both
in the Greek and in the Latin (r<i I'e/xfc ypd^/jLara,
sacra litera, instead of 17 ypa<f>t), or ayiai ypatyai,
scriptura), but the sense is the same. Various reasons
have been found for these books being called Holy :
127] NAMES GIVEN TO SCRIPTURE. 177
they come from the Spirit of Holiness, the matter
they teach is holy, and it makes holy those who are
guided by it. Other names are, the Book of the
Lord (Isaias xxxiv. 16), and the Book of the Law
of God. (2 Esdras viii. 8.) The word Bible is
nothing but the Greek word, /3t/3Xta, meaning
" Books." St. Jerome, and others in imitation of
him, use Bibliotheca, which is properly Library. It
occurs in a gossiping letter on literary subjects
(Epist. 5 al 6, ad Florentium; P.L. 22, 336) ; numerous
examples from later writers will be found in Ducange,
Gloss. Med. et Inf. Latin, s.v.
The word Testament which we apply to the two
collections, Old and New, properly signifies the last
will, which is to take effect after the death of him
that made it; and St. Paul uses it in this sense, and
founds an argument upon the mutable nature which
it retains so long as the testator lives. (Hebrews ix.
15 17.) But the same word is used in the Vulgate
in the sense of " covenant " (St. Matt. xxvi. 28),
where it represents the SiaQijici) of the Septuagint,
which Greek word is elsewhere translated fcedus, or
covenant, in the Vulgate. (Exodus xxiv. 7.) From
"covenant" to "instrument testifying to a covenant,"
the transition is easy, and this explains our English
use of the word Testament for the collection of
Books which contain the particulars of the covenant
entered into by God, first with the Israelitish nation,
and then with the Christian people. Tertullian uses
Instrument in the same sense. See, for instance,
Adv. Marcionem, 4, I ; P.L. 2, 361.
The name Canonical Book will be more con-
M VOL. I.
178 THE SPECIAL CHARACTER OF SCRIPTURE. [127
veniently explained in the fourth chapter of this
Treatise, (n. 148.)
128. Mode of citation. A peculiar form is used
whenever one of these Books is cited in another.
" It is written," is the formula in the Synoptic
Gospels and St. Paul (St. Matt. iv. 4; Romans i. 17),
and the slightly different form of the verb employed
by St. John (jjpafifjtevov <rriv t instead of yeypairrat)
can scarcely be distinguished in translation. (St. John
ii. 17.) From the New Testament the same usage
passed to the Fathers, so that when any early
writer employs this formula in citing a Book, we
have an accepted proof that he regarded this Book
as forming a part of the Holy Scriptures. Much is
made of this text by writers on the Canon, and we
shall have occasion to employ it in our chapter on
the subject.
129. Decisiveness. It may be observed that when
a Book of Scripture is cited, it is treated as a
decisive authority, against which there is no appeal.
A good instance is seen in the narrative of the
Temptation of our Lord (St. Matt. iv. 4 ; St. Luke
iv. 4) ; but the examples are very frequent, such as
Acts xxiii. 5; Romans xiv. n. Naturally, Ihe
Scriptures are not quoted in discourses addressed
to the heathen, but Jews and Christians alike
admitted their authority as decisive.
130. Manuscripts and Versions. It will be sufficient
to remind the reader of what was said in our first
Treatise (nn. 49, 50), concerning the multitude of
manuscripts of the Scriptures, in a great variety
of languages. This evidence of care suffices to show
130] MANUSCRIPTS AND VERSIONS. 179
the esteem in which these Books were held, far
above any other writings.
131. Laborious Study. The same high esteem for
these books above all other books is shown by the
diligence with which they were studied. They were
constantly read in the assemblies of Christians, and
were the basis of argument and exhortation. And
to this use corresponded the assiduous toil at their
study and interpretation which occupied so large
a part of the lives of the great writers of the Church,
with results of which their works are full. No books
approach these of which we are speaking in the
number of commentaries which have been written
upon them, and men of the highest intellectual
ability, such as St. Augustine, have thought their
time well spent in searching out the meaning of each
phrase of this text ; a labour which they would have
disdained to employ in the case of any other book.
The result has been that in all Catholic countries
the minds of men are filled with the phraseology of
the Holy Scripture, and the more so in proportion
as religion flourishes among them ; and they find
this familiarity to be perfectly consistent with a
dutiful submission to the teaching of the Church.
The men who lived in those centuries which are
sometimes called the " Dark Ages " and sometimes
the " Ages of Faith," were certainly not lacking in
the spirit of humble acceptance of whatever came to
them by the tradition of the Church ; yet their minds
were altogether saturated with Holy Scripture, as
will be easily seen by any one who, being himself
familiar with the version in use in those days, wilJ
i8o THE Sl'LClAL CHARACTER Ob' SCRIPTURE. [131
study a page of their writings with the view of noting
the ideas and phrases that are borrowed from the
Scripture.
132. Esteemed by the Jews. The esteem in which
the Scriptures were held by the Jews is testified by
the care with which the Hebrew copies were made,
as may be seen in any book on the usages of the
people. It is proved too by the elaborate machinery
of points and accents by which their learned men
strove, with dubious success, to keep alive the
traditional pronunciation. They preserved the text
with sacred care ; and for this object they went
through the labour of counting the verses in each
book and noting which verse held the middle place.
And a still stronger proof of their almost excessive
reverence for the letter is found in this, that they
invented an immense science, called the Cabbala,
which set about the task of deducing secret
meanings from the numerical value of the letters
composing a word. In the Hebrew, as in many
other alphabets, each letter represents a number,
and the numerical value of a word is that obtained
by adding together the numerical values of the
letters. The fundamental principle of the Cabba-
listic science was that when two words had the same
numerical value, their meanings must have some
secret connection which it was the business of the
student to discover. It was pretended, without an
atom of proof, that the bases of this science had
been revealed to Moses, and the knowledge of them
was handed down by secret tradition. Of course, in
skilful hands it led to very remarkable results ; but
132] * ESTEEMED BY THE JEWS. 181
its only interest to us lies in the fact that it proves
how thoroughly the Jews were imbued with the
conviction that the Books of Scripture were in some
way different from all other books.
Their reverence, carried to such excess, raises
a presumption that they did not tamper with the
text, .and it is certain that they have not done so.
In proof, we must distinguish the time that went
before the preaching of Christ and His Apostles
from the years that followed. For the first period
the proof is negative ; there is no trace of any such
corruptions, although the Old Testament contains
much matter which redounds to the discredit of
the Israelitish nation : and in the New Testament
nothing of the sort is laid to the charge of the Jews,
but they are congratulated on the honour of being
custodians of the words of God (Romans iii. 2) : for
the second period, we have positive proof, for the
Greek, Latin, and Syriac versions were in the hands
of the Christians ; and comparing these with the
Hebrew text as preserved by the Jews, we find
substantial identity, and in particular the great
Messianic prophecies are read in the Hebrew as
clearly as in those copies which the Gentiles used.
The innocence of the Jews in this respect seems to
be established beyond doubt ; nevertheless, it is no
great matter of surprise that the charge of corrupting
the Scriptures was made against them. References
to several authors of ancient and comparatively
modern times, who have made the charge, will be
found in Cornely's Introduction, i. 270. Some of
these passages do not seem to impute corruption of
i8a THE SPECIAL CHARACTER OF SCRIPTURE. [132
the text, but unfair translation under the influence
of what would now be called dogmatic prejudice : as
when damsel is put instead of virgin in Isaias vii. 14.
(St. Irenaeus, c. Hcer. 3, 21 ; P.G. 7, 946.) St. Justin
Martyr (c. Tryphon. 71 ; P.G. 6, 641) speaks of
authorities existing in the Books which the Jews
still hold to, implying that he believed them to have
suppressed some Books : Tertullian says roundly
that the Jews reject almost all passages that speak
of Christ (De Cultu Feminarum, 3 ; P.L. i, 1308), and
Origen accuses them of keeping and issuing garbled
copies for the use of the people, while their learned
men had perfect copies for their own use. (Epist. ad
Africanum, 9; P.G. n, 65.) These accusations seem
to have been baseless : they were due to mistakes
which are excusable when we remember the'difficulty
which was experienced in procuring correct copies.
St. Jerome (In Isaiam 3, 7; P.L. 24, 99) quotes Origen
as defending the Jews against these charges by
pretty much the same arguments as we used above ;
and St. Augustine (De Civit. Dei, 15, 13; P.L. 41, 452)
makes the remark that if the copies of the Hebrew
used by the Jews throughout the world are found to
differ from the Septuagint, it is most probable that
this last is in error; for a mistake made accidentally
in an early transcript of the Greek may well have
been transmitted, but it would have been impossible
to alter the multitude of Hebrew copies in all
countries of East and West.
133. Heretics and Heathens. We have a further
proof of the special esteem in which these books
were held in early times, as a sign that they were
HERETICS AND HEATHENS.
believed to differ essentially from all other books, in
the use made of them by heretics, who sometimes
rejected particular Books of Scripture or added
to the list, but who never ventured to deny the
authority of the collection as a whole : the only
exception being perhaps the case of those sects who
regarded the Old Testament as the utterance of
a Being inferior to the God of the New Testament,
or perhaps opposed to Him : but even these acknow-
ledged the Old Testament as not being a merely
human utterance. And lastly, the same point is
illustrated by the course adopted by the Emperor
Diocletian in 303, when he began his final attempt
to suppress the Christian religion, and ordered that
the Sacred Books should be delivered up to be
burnt. (Eusebius, H.E. 3, 2 ; P.G. 20, 745.) God's
providence watched over the preservation of the
precious deposit that He had committed to His
Church, and the Emperor's will was not carried out
to the full : nevertheless, a large number of the then
existing copies were destroyed, and this may be the
reason why no fragment has survived which can be
supposed to have been written before the fourth
century. To deliver up the Scriptures to the
emissaries of the Government was esteemed a form
of apostasy : up to this time three classes of Lapsi
had been recognized ; the Sacrificati, who had
actually sacrificed ; the Thurificati, who had offered
incense to the idols : and the Libellatici, who
procured by bribery a false certificate that they had
complied with the law : the fourth class, who had
delivered up the. books, were called Traditores. (See
184 THE SPECIAL CHARACTER OF SCRIPTURE. fi33
St. Augustine, De Baptismo contra Donatum, lib. 7, c. 2,
n. 3). The accusation of being Traditores, or of having
communion with them, and being thus partakers in
their guilt, was freely handed to and fro in the
beginning of the Donatist controversy.
134. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have
illustrated the truth that a special character was
believed to belong to the Books of Holy Scripture
as shown by the names given to the collection, by
the mode in which they were cited and their decisive
authority ; by the care taken in multiplying copies
and versions and in studying them, and by the
conduct of the Jews, Heretics, and Heathen, in
their regard.
CHAPTER III.
INSPIRATION OF SCRIPTURE.
135. Subject of the Chapter. The two preceding
chapters have shown us that the Books of Holy
Scripture form a class apart from all others, and
that the common character which thus distinguishes
them is not found in anything internal to the books.
We must now inquire what truly is the common
character, and we shall find it in the truth that these
books are the works of one and the same Author,
and this Author is God. The present and two
following chapters differ from the earlier chapters of
this Treatise in being dogmatic, whereas the others
were chiefly either historical or depended on simple
inspection of the Bible. In our present discussion
we shall use the truths that have already been
established : that Christ being a Divine Messenger,
all His utterances and those of all who spoke with
His authority must be accepted without reserve:
that the Books of the New Testament contain an
historically credible account of some of these
utterances : and that a knowledge of these utter-
ances, so far as they concern us, is preserved by
tradition among the followers of Christ, as was
proved in our second Treatise, by arguments still
i86 INSPIRATION OF SCRIPTURE. ['33
founded on the Scripture considered as a human
history. The Divine authorship of the Scripture
will be established in the present chapter, and
thenceforward all arguments drawn from Scripture
will have a higher importance as being founded on
the Word of God Himself.
136. Doctrine of the Church. In the present
chapter we speak of the Scripture in general
terms, embracing in the word the Old Testament
and the New, but not as yet entering on the
controverted question, as to what Books constitute
the collection ; a question which will occupy
us in the next chapter, on the Canon of Scripture.
Subject to this remark, we may say that the
doctrine of the present chapter is not sub-
stantially questioned by any prominent school of
writers among those who cordially maintain the
supernatural character of Christianity. Those who
see in Christianity nothing but a product of the
natural powers of the human mind cannot con-
sistently admit the inspiration of Scripture, in the
sense in which the expression has always been used ;
and they endeavour to attach a new sense to the
word inspiration, for they do not venture to reject
this word ; we shall discuss their new meanings and
show their insufficiency, when we have established
our own doctrine, (n. 144.)
The system of doctrines and principles which
has existed in various forms and which goes under
the name of Manicheism, was for many centuries
one of the chief opponents with whom the Church
had to contend. A leading idea among the Mani-
136] DOCTRINE OF THE CHURCH. 187
cheans was the intrinsically evil nature of matter,
which they believed to owe its existence to a Being
who was not the Supreme God, but a rival to Him.
But the God of the Old Testament proclaims
Himself the Creator of matter; wherefore, most
Manichean sects rejected the authority of these
Books, and accepted the New Testament alon?, and
they were forced to tamper even with this. In
opposition to this error, the Church insisted on the
truth that the Old and New Testaments came from
the same God, and expressed this by saying that
the same God was Author of both : a way of
speaking which assured us not merely that the twc
Testaments are not contrary, one to the other,
but that their harmonious agreement was a result
of Divine authorship. And since these definitions
cannot lead us astray, as was established in our
Treatise on Tradition and will be more fully ex-
plained when we speak of the Church in our next
Treatise, it follows that the form of expression used
assures us of more than the point which was imme-
diately before the minds of those that used it : the
form in which they expressed themselves on the two
Testaments disclosed their mind as to the common
character of both.
A venerable expression of the truth is found in
the Roman Pontifical, in the Order for the Con-
secration of Bishops. The candidate is interrogated
as to his faith, in a form which was in use as long
ago as the middle of the eleventh century (Denzinger,
Enchir. xxxix.), and among the rest he avows his
belief that there is one Author of the New and Old
i88 INSPIRATION OF SCRIPTURE. [136
Testaments, the Law, Prophets, and Apostles, the
Almighty God and Lord. In 1439, Pope Eugenius
IV., in the Council of Florence, taught the same
doctrine, with the addition of the reason. For the
Saints of both Testaments spoke under the inspira-
tion of the same Holy Spirit ; and he pronounced an
anathema on the madness of the Manicheans who
said that one God was the God of the New
Testament, and another of the Old. (Denz. 600.)
The Council of Trent, in its fourth Session (1546), is
content to mention parenthetically that one God is
Author of both Testaments ; the Vatican Council of
1870 (Constitut. i ma - c. 2) teaches that the Books
of Holy Scripture having been written under the
inspiration of the Holy Spirit, have God for their
Author. (Denz. 1636.)
137. The Teaching of Christ. We learn the
teaching of Christ Himself upon this matter in two
ways : by His not correcting the belief held by the
Jews, and by His own way of speaking. There are
two contemporary Jewish writers, from whom we
learn the views current among that people at the
time, Philo and Josephus, and their testimony is the
more valuable, because they give it in a merely
incidental manner, as assuming something in which
all readers would agree, and not as distinctly main-
taining a doctrine which might be peculiar to them-
selves. It will be sufficient to quote a single passage
from each. Philo quotes the law as to Cities of
Refuge, given by God through Moses (Exodus xxi.
12), and he is embarrassed by observing what he
considers to be a superfluous word : Shall die the
i 3 y] THE TEACHING OF CHRIST. 189
death ? Would it not be sufficient to say Shall die f
Philo is, he says, at a loss, for he was sure that the
Lawgiver would not have inserted a redundant word.
(De Profugis, 10, vol. 3, p. 1 21 of Leipsig Edition
of 1828.) Whatever else we may think of the
passage, it at least shows clearly that Philo regarded
God as the Author of the Scriptures, and responsible
for the minutest details of the text. Josephus takes
the same view when he says (Contra Apion. i, 7) that
the Prophets wrote things as they learned them
from God by inspiration ; and he gives the name of
Prophets to all the writers of the Old Testament.
Our Lord Himself considered that which is
related in the Scripture as having been said by God;
for He treats the history of the apparition to Moses
in the burning bush (Exodus iii. 6) as being spoken
by God to the Sadducees of His own time (St. Matt,
xxii. 31), which could not be unless God still spoke
in the pages of His Book. As long as a book
survives, an author speaks to his readers : but he
does not speak in the pages of another.
138. Doctrine of the Apostles. The teaching of
the Apostles is in perfect accord. In Acts i. 16,
St. Peter quotes the Scripture which the Holy
Ghost spoke by the mouth of David. In Hebrews
iv. 3 g, God is repeatedly treated as speaking by
the Scriptures ; and in Galat. iii. 8, the gift of fore-
sight is ascribed to the Scripture ; not surely to the
material Book, but to its Author, the all-foreseeing
God.
139. The Fathers. Among a multitude of Patris-
tic passages, we may be content with two : one
igo INSPIRATION OF SCRIPTURE. [139
derived from the East, the other from the West.
St. Chrysostom (Horn. 2, in Gen. n. 2; P.G. 53, 23)
says that God, wishing to put an end to a temporary
estrangement, has sent letters to His absent friends;
letters written by God and brought us by Moses.
And St. Augustine sets forth God's authorship and
the subordinate part played by the human writer
in the following forcible manner : " All that God
wished us to know concerning His doings and
sayings, He bade be written by man, as by His own
hands." (De Consens. Evangel. I. c. 35, n. 54; P.G.
34, 1070.) There is no need to multiply citations,
for the point is not disputed.
140. Man's part. The Intellect. But although
what has been said affords complete proof of the
doctrine of the Church, that God is the Author of
the Holy Scripture, yet this must not be understood
as if the human writer had no part in the work.
This is plain if we consider the literary style of each
Book, which is found to be in accord with the
character of the human writer, or .at least different
from that found in the works of different writers.
Critics will find many differences of style in the
Epistles of St. Paul, St. James, and St. Peter; in
the Prophecies of Isaias and Amos; in the Psalms
of David and those of Asaph. These differences
are most naturally accounted for, by supposing that
each human writer wrote according to his natural
disposition and circumstances, in such style as he
would have employed in a work which was com-
pletely his own ; the only alternative is to suppose
that the Holy Spirit, for no visible purpose, imitated
I 4 o] MAN'S PART. THE INTELLECT. 191
the style of the man whom He employed as His
secretary, to write from His dictation, an arbitrary
supposition which has nothing to recommend it :
when natural agency is sufficient to bring about a
result, there is no reason to invoke supernatural
influence.
At the same time, the Divine Authorship will
not be preserved unless we attribute to the Holy
Spirit the largest and most important part in the
work of composition ; the human writer is in the
position of a secretary to the true Author of
the letter. If we consider the relation between a
secretary and him for whom he acts, we can see
something of the nature of the Divine influence
which is called inspiration. In the first place, a
secretary will not do his work properly unless he be
accurately informed on the subject of his discourse ;
in technical language, his intellect must be illumi-
nated. It is immaterial whether we suppose che
employer himself to impart the needful information
to his secretary, or to put him in the way to gather
it for himself, or whether he choose for the work
one who is already fully informed. In like manner,
God sometimes by His own direct action, revealed
to the holy writers what He would have them write;
as when the Prophets wrote their visions, and the
Apostles and Evangelists wrote the things that
they had seen and heard. (Acts iv. 20.) Sometimes
the writer gathered his information from the best
sources open to him, as when the unknown person
who put together the Second Book of Machabees
found that he bad taken in hand no easy task in
iga INSPIRATION OF SCRIPTURE. [140
abridging the five books of Jason of Cyrene (2 Mach.
ii. 24 33) ; he here speaks as any purely human
writer might do, and the passage is sometimes made
a ground for denying the inspiration of the Book ;
but in reality nothing more is here said than we
find in St. Luke's preface to his Gospel, who tells
us of his diligence in inquiring at the best sources
(St. Luke i. I 4) ; nor more than is implied in the
references to the Book of the Just made by the
writer of the Book of Josue (x. 13) and of the Second
Book of Kings (i. 18), which references involved a
certain labour ; so that if the right of the Books of
Machabees to be considered a part of Scripture is
denied on this ground, the Old and New Testaments
must be rejected with them.
Cases where a Book was written in the light of
the information which the writer already possesses
from natural sources, without special research,
are found in the Epistles, and also apparently in
the instance of Genesis. Moses would seem
to have put into writing the traditions that had
been preserved, perhaps in writing or perhaps in
the memory of the people, and it is probable that
the young children were taught the story by their
parents, in the way in which it was ordered that
the remembrance of the deliverance from Egypt
should be kept alive. (Exodus xii. 26, 27.) The
history of the Creation cannot have been known
except by revelation ; but there is no reason to
suppose that this revelation was made to Moses.
More probably it was made to Adam, and became
known to Moses through human sources. When
I 4 o] MAN'S PART. THE INTELLECT. 193
we speak thus of the history having come down to
Moses by tradition, we do not mean to imply that
there was any special guarantee that the whole of
this traditional history should be preserved free from
corruption ; the case is not like that of the Tradition
by which the knowledge of the Christian Revela^
tion is preserved, free from admixture of error,
in the Church ; it is enough that God's providence
preserved Moses from being misled by any errors
that may have crept into the current account.
141. Man's part. The will. It is not enough
that the employer should take care that his secretary
should be acquainted with the matter. If the
secretary, of his own accord, and without being
commissioned to do so, writes a treatise, this work
is his own, and the employer cannot be said to be
the author. The design must come from the author,
and he must stir up his assistant to induce him to
do his part ; technically, he must inflame the will.
The impulse to write must then have come to the
inspired writers from God, for otherwise God could
not be said to be the Author of the sacred Books.
It follows that there is no reason to suppose that
all that the Apostles committed to writing was
inspired, even though, as we shall see hereafter, the
Apostolate involved the privilege of inerrancy in
matters of faith and morals. An Apostle may have
written on indifferent subjects without being inspired;
and they may even have written doctrinal treatises
in the exercise of the natural powers of their will,
without any special motion from God. It is even
possible, for aught that we see, that they should at
P VOL. I.
194 INSPIRATION OF SCRIPTURE. [141
one time have written under inspiration and at
another time not under inspiration, without being
aware of the difference; it is, however, highly
improbable that they ever wrote without knowing
well the nature of the task on which they were
engaged, and the influence under which they under-
took it.
142. Supervision. Lastly, before the employer
finally adopts the secretary's work as his own, he
must be careful to use such supervision as shall
exclude all risk of matter having crept in for which
he would not wish to make himself responsible;
he must guard himself against the results of the
mistakes or unfaithfulness of his servant. In the
case of Holy Scripture we need not think of this as
having required what we should conceive as being
a distinct act of God, but it must have been involved
in the illumination of the intellect and inflaming of
the will ; otherwise the work which is ascribed to
the Divine Author would be liable to all the imper-
fections of the works of man.
This supervision, however, is far from being
necessarily equivalent to dictation. If two secre-
taries write letters in the manner that has been
described, each letter may well express the views of
the principal, and may be adopted and signed by
him, and so made his own ; yet a competent person
would easily see that there was a difference of style
between the two. In the same way it is not
difficult to distinguish those parts of the Scripture
where St. Matthew played the part of secretary
from those which we owe to St. John. Tht
14*] SUPERVISION 195
works are distinguishable in style, although they
belong to the same Author Who stirred the writer
to undertake the task, secured him the requisite
knowledge, and superintended the work while it
was in progress.
143. Verbal Inspiration. Our doctrine is opposed
to that which goes by the name of Verbal Inspira-
tion, according to which every word of Scripture
was as it were dictated by the Holy Spir't to the
Prophets and Apostles, so that they acted as mere
machines. The doctrine of Verbal Inspiration
preserves the Divine Authorship to the full ; to a
greater fulness, in fact, than is needed. It is
therefore unproved, and it is open to the grave
objection that it fails to account for the varieties of
style of which we have spoken. In regard to style,
the Books of Scripture exhibit the same variety as
might be expected in purely human books ; but if
each word was dictated by the Holy Spirit, there is
no way of accounting for these varieties, they would
seem to have been introduced for no other purpose
than that of misleading the reader. There are
cases where there may be room for doubt whether
a particular turn of phrase was "intended " by the
Holy Spirit so far as this word can be used of
God, to Whom all the results of His acts are known;
in these cases it is the business of the critic to
determine what teaching is contained in the passage;
the question is often very subtle, and should not be
approached except by those who feel themselves to
be well equipped with the full array of necessary
qualifications ; among which we put in the front
196 INSPIRATION OF SCRIPTURE. [143
rank, thorough grounding in the theology of the
Church, long familiarity with the Sacred Text, and
the disposition to be ready to accept the truth from
another rather than devise a novel view. In some
cases the Author has Himself pointed out that a
true meaning is conveyed by what might otherwise
have been judged to be a casual omission, a notable
instance of which we find in Hebrews vii. 3, where
we read why it is that in Genesis xiv. 18, when
Melchisedech is mentioned, the names of his parents
are not made known.
144. False views of Inspiration. It having been
proved that the Books of Holy Scripture have God
for their Author, and that this character marks
them off from all other books, certain false views of
the nature of inspiration fa'l of themselves. Two
errors are noted and condemned by the Vatican
Council (Constit. I. cap. 2, De Revclatione, Denz.
1636) ; one makes the essence of inspiration consist
in adoption by the Church, even where the book so
adopted had a purely human origin ; whereas it is
impossible for a book which is once written to
change its author ; the other view considers that it
is enough that they contain Revelation without
admixture of error; whereas this may be said of
the "Capitula" of the Councils of Trent and the
Vatican: the professor may watch over the student's
work in such way as to secure him from committing
himself to error, but without interfering with the
authorship of his treatise. The word " inspiration "
is sometimes used of the faculty that enables a man
to write a book which stirs up religious emotions,
144] FALSE VIEWS OF INSPIRATION. 197
but this is plainly not a character belonging to the
whole Bible, as will be seen if the First Book of
Paralipomena is read ; nor is it confined to the
Bible, for it is found also in such works as the
Imitation of Christ; it therefore is not the sense in
which the word Inspiration is used by the Church.
The Church usage originates with St. Paul, who
wrote to St. Timothy that all Scripture, inspired by
God, is profitable to teach ; it expresses the peculiar
and definite character of Divine Authorship; and
confusion is bred if it be used in any other sense.
145. Freedom from Error. From the character
of an author we judge the character of his book.
If his reputation is low, we freely reject his teaching;
if high, we receive what he says with respect, but
with clear remembrance that every man is of himself
fallible ; if the Author be all-perfect, our only
reasonable attitude of mind is that of absolute
acceptance of His statements. Since then God is
the Author of the Scripture, whatever the Scripture
conveys to us is true. This principle holds without
distinction of the nature of the matter disclosed:
of its greater or less importance with reference to
what we conceive to be the principal purpose of the
writing. It is an imperfection in an author to insert
irrelevant matter; still greater is the imperfection,
and impossible in God, to insert what will lead the
attentive reader into error. This inerrancy cannot,
of course, be asserted of every word which is
attributed in Scripture to the characters mentioned,
as when we read the question of the Jews (St. Mark
ii. 7) : Who can forgive sins, save God only ? We
198 INSPIRATION OF SCRIPTURE. [145
no more accept their doctrine, than we accept it
when these same people in the same verse say of our
Lord that He blasphemed ; all that the inspired
writer is pledged to is the use of these words on
this occasion. In certain cases there may be a
doubt whether what prima facie would seem to be
the meaning of a passage is its true meaning, and
commentators must apply all means of interpreta-
tion, and yet occasionally the doubt will remain.
It is tolerably clear that Isaias in his fifth chapter
is not writing about any particular existent vineyard,
while commentators differ as to whether the Prophet
Joel in his first chapter describes an actual visitation
of locusts. Extrinsic knowledge may show ground
for not accepting the surface-meaning of a passage,
and the result is that there is now more difficulty
than formerly in the way of a satisfactory explana-
tion of the history of the Creation. The critic must
also be on his guard against errors of translation
and errors of transcription ; but when all allowances
are made, the principle remains true that the
meaning conveyed to readers by the original docu-
ment did not contain the smallest error. It is no
less certain that Jacob divided his substance into
two companies, as told in Genesis xxxii. 7, than that
Absalom was slain as he hung in an oak. (2 Kings
xviii. 14.)
The whole subject of the Catholic doctrine con-
cerning the nature of Holy Scripture, its excellence,
and the precautions to be observed in its study, will
be found in the Encyclical of Pope Leo XIII,,
beginning Providentissimus Deus, and issued November
143] FREEDOM FROM ERROR. tftft
18, 1893. We here learn that God by His super-
natural influence so stirred and moved the human
writers, and so assisted them, that they rightly
conceived in their minds that, and that only, which
He bade them write, and that they willed to write
it faithfully, and that with unfailing truth they
expressed themselves aptly; for otherwise God
would not be the Author of the whole of the Sacred
Scripture.
146. The Fathers. The point which was insisted
on in the last paragraph is of the highest importance,
because there is a school of writers who think that
they are at liberty to judge whether a given passage
of Scripture is of doctrinal or moral importance,
and if they find it to be of little weight, they will
reject its historical authority. It will be worth
while to cite a few passages of the Fathers, to show
how far these great Saints and learned divines of
early times were from admitting any such distinc-
tion in their conflicts with the rationalists of their
time. The first shall be St. Justin Martyr, who in
the course of his Dialogue with Trypho the Jew
(n. 65 ; P.G. 6, 625), was challenged to reconcile
two seemingly contradictory texts. He answers :
" If you thought to lead me to acknowledge the
existence of a contradiction in Scripture, you are
mistaken. Never will I venture to entertain such
a thought, or say such a thing; if anything be
produced which has the semblance of being a
contradiction in Scripture, and I am unable to clear
it up, I will avow that I do not understand the
passage, and will endeavour to persuade all who
INSPIRATION OF SCRIPTURE.
are in perplexity to make the same avowal." The
great St. Augustine speaks with no less plainness :
"In dealing with these Books you must not say that
the Author was mistaken ; but either the reading is
corrupt or the translation faulty, or you fail to catch
the meaning." (St. Aug. Contra Faustum, n, 5 ; P.L.
42, 249.) The same Saint expresses the same again
in a letter to St. Jerome (Epist. 82, n. 3; P.L.
33, 277), and in another letter to the same, he
expressly denies the possibility of irrelevant inac-
curacies, or officious lies as he calls them, finding a
place in Scripture (Epist. 28, c. 3, n. 3 ; P.L. 33,
113), and he adds the reason that if once it be
allowed that such a thing can exist in Scripture,
every one will set down what is distasteful to him
as being irrelevant. This piece of foresight is fully
justified by experience. St. Jerome expresses his
horror at being supposed to wish to correct the
Gospel narrative, while in reality his only wish was
to restore the purity of the text (Epist. 27, ad
Marcellam, n. I ; P.L. 22, 431), and his testimony
is all the more weighty because he elsewhere shows
himself fully alive to the difficulties with which
critics have to deal ; and we will conclude with one
mort testimony from a Greek, St. Gregory of
Nazianzum (Oratio 2, De Fuga, n. 105 ; P.G. 35,
504), who holds that the diligence of the Spirit
reaches to the smallest points and words. If this
looks like holding Verbal Inspiration, it is all the
further removed from admitting error in Scripture.
147. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have set
forth the formal teaching of the Church on the
I 47 ] RECAPITULATION.
inspiration of Scripture, and have proved it by the
teaching of Christ, of the Apostles and the Fathers,
all speaking as if God were the Author. The part
of the human writer is then discussed, after which
Verbal Inspiration is dealt with, and certain false
views refuted, some of the Fathers being quoted to
establish the absolute inerrancy of Scripture.
CHAPTER IV.
THE CANON.
148. Subject of the Chapter. Having seen that
the peculiar character of the Books of Scripture is
found in their Divine authorship, we must now
proceed to consider what are the Books to which
this character attaches, or what books are canonical.
The Canon of Scripture is the authentic list of the
Books of Scripture; hence the subject of the present
chapter is the determination of the Canon. On
theological principles this determination presents
no difficulty ; we have an express declaration of the
Church, which is clear and unmistakeable, and gives
rise to no controversies ; but the justification of this
declaration from the accustomed sources, Scripture,
Tradition, and Reason, presents no small difficulty.
Scripture is silent as to its own extent, and Reason
has no place in the discussion of a positive matter
of this kind ; there remains Tradition, and this has
not always spoken with clear voice, for there was a
period, corresponding more or less to the latter part
of the fourth century, when some doubt existed
within the Church ; a doubt which, as we shall see,
arose from scholars deserting the teachings of
Tradition which had not yet been authentically
148] SUBJECT OF THE CHAPTER. o 3
declared by the Church, and following the leadings
of their own scholarship. Some of these men, as
St. Jerome, were in the front rank for sanctity as
well as learning, but they adopted a faulty method,
and they fell into error.
The full discussion of the matter must be sought
elsewhere. It properly belongs to Introductions to
Holy Scripture to justify the inclusion of each Book
in the Canon, and the reader must be referred to
Father Cornely's, or similar works. An historical
question of this kind, turning on the opinion of
various Fathers, would require copious citations
from their works, together with such explanation as
is necessary to show the true meaning ; and these
would occupy more space than we can afford. We
can do no more than endeavour to point out the
nature of the existing controversy, and indicate the
line of reasoning which justifies the decision to
which the Church has come.
149. The rival Canons. The list of canonical
writings, as given at the beginning of our Bibles,
contains seventy-three Books, of which forty-six
belong to the Old Testament and twenty-seven to
the New. Besides these, it is not unusual to print
in editions of the Vulgate three other Books, called
the Prayer of Manasses and the Third and Fourth
Books of Esdras. The matter of these belongs to
Old Testament times, but they are no part of
inspired Scripture; the custom of printing them
along with the inspired Books probably comes down
from the days when the Canon was as yet unsettled,
and is retained for convenience; their inferior
THE CANON. [146
position is marked by their being placed at the end,
after the New Testament. In what follows we shall
not be concerned with them.
The great bulk of Protestants, if not all their
sects, agree in accepting a less extensive list of
canonical Books. They reject seven of the Books
of the Old Testament which we receive, as well as
large portions of two other Books : in the New
Testament the two lists are in perfect agreement.
The Books that they reject are Judith and Tobias,
Ecclesiasticus and Wisdom, the Prophet Baruch,
and the First and Second Books of Machabees.
The Protestants give the name of Apocrypha to
the Books of the Old Testament that they reject.
But this word, by ecclesiastical usage, denotes what
is of no authority, mere forgeries, the work of
unknown authors who falsely assumed the names
of Prophets and Apostles. The seven disputed
Books are not of this nature, for even they who
deny that they are inspired Scripture, acknowledge
that these Books had a respectable origin,, and that
they may be read for example of life and instruction
of manners. But although the name Apocrypha is
not fairly applicable to this group of Books, it is
certainly necessary to have some name by which to
distinguish them ; for they stand apart from the
other inspired Books in this, that at one time there
was doubt in the Church concerning their authority.
They might, if usage allowed, conveniently be
termed the Disputed Books, as distinguished on the
one hand from the Acknowledged Books and on
the other from the Spurious. These classes are
i 4 9] THE RIVAL CANONS. 205
discussed by Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. 3, 25 ; P.G. 30,
268 272), and were perhaps first established by
him ; the terms which he employs are : o/io\oyouyu,ei>o*
for the Books that were always acknowledged ;
avTikeyoftevoi for those to which objections were
raised ; and vodoi for those which found no defenders.
He is speaking of the New Testament, but his
terminology is also applied to the Old. The terms
at present in most use for the Books of the first
class is to say that they are protocanonical, while the
second class are deuterocanonical ; these cumbrous
and meaningless words were first used by Sixtus of
Siena, a converted Jew who lived in the sixteenth
century, and became first a Franciscan friar, but
afterwards a Dominican. He was one of the first
writers who treated Scripture in what would now be
call a " critical " spirit, and his works, brought out
under the patronage of St. Pius V., had wide
circulation, and his language passed into common
use. We may say then that Catholics admit to the
Canon, and Protestants reject, the seven deutero-
canonical Books of the Old Testament.
In the New Testament also there are seven
deuterocanonical Books: the Epistle to the Hebrews,
the Second Epistle of St. Peter, the Second and
Third of St. John, the Epistles of St. James and
St.Jude, and the Apocalypse; also, three passages
from the Gospels fall into the same class ; the last
twelve verses of St. Mark, the history of the Agony
and Bloody Sweat in St. Luke xxii. 43, 44, and the
history of the woman taken in adultery, St. John
vii. 53 viii, u. AH these were at one time doubtecl
ao6 THE CANON [l 4 g
in the Church, and therefore cannot be called
protocanonical ; the history of the controversy in
their regard is however quite different from that
which treats of the Old Testament. Catholics
and Protestants alike receive the deuterocanonical
parts of the New Testament, their Canons being
identical.
150. The Canon. How determined. We will now
compare the principles on which Catholics and
Protestants go in determining the list of Books that
they receive.
The Catholic Canon is found in the Decree on
the subject adopted in the Fourth Session of the
Council of Trent. This Decree gives the list of
Books which, it says, have been preserved in the
Church, and reverenced, and treats this as in itself
sufficient reason for receiving them ; the adoption
and approbation of the Decree was in itself proof
that in the year 1546 this was the list which the
Church of the time received ; and on the principles
explained in our Treatise on Tradition, and which
will be more fully developed in the Treatise on the
Church, this consent is conclusive upon the point :
the Church cannot agree in error as to a point of
revealed doctrine.
The Protestant Canon, as received by almost all
the various sects, is found in the Sixth of the
Thirty-nine Articles of Religion, which are part of
the law binding on members of the Established
Church of England. It is introduced as follows:
" In the name of Holy Scripture we do under-
stand those canonical Books of the Old and New
150] THE CANON. HOW DETERMINED. 207
Testament, of whose authority was never any doubt
in the Church." Then after the list of the proto-
canonical Books of the Old Testament, the Article
goes on : " And other books, as Hierome saith, the
Church doth read for example of life and instruction
of manners; but yet doth it not apply them to
establish any doctrine." These are the deutero-
canonical Books of the Old Testament. Then :
" All the Books of the New Testament as they are
commonly received we do receive and account them
Canonical." No list is given.
It will be observed that this Article sets up
different standards for the Old and New Testaments.
In both cases it rests on the general acceptance of
the Books by the Church. This is the true Catholic
principle, but it is totally inconsistent with the
teaching of another clause in the same Article,
which insists on the sufficiency of Scripture as the
Rule of Faith. (Ante, n. 78.) In the application
however of this rule to the Old Testament, it is
required that there should never have been any
doubt, while for the New, the actual consent of
the Church in the year 1571, when the Articles were
finally put into their present form, is held to be
sufficient ; and no account is taken of the grave
doubts which once existed as to the authority of the
seven deuterocanonical Books.
151. The Canon. When established. As before
remarked (n. 148), we cannot attempt to give the
history of the Canon in this place. The first
authoritative enumeration appears to have been
that put forth by the Council of Carthage in 397
ao8 THE CANON. [151
(Denz. 49), which contains all the Books both
protocanonical and disputed. This Council 'was
not ecumenical, but its decree was accepted by the
Church at large, especially after the decrees of
Innocent I. and that of Gelasius in 494. (Denz. 59,
139 ; see n. 297.) By this time all doubt had died
out of the Church, and as regards the seven disputed
Books of the New Testament it has never been
revived. To prove that such doubt once existed, it
will be enough to quote St. Jerome: "The Latins
do not commonly receive the Epistle to the Hebrews
as canonical Scripture, and the Greeks similarly
reject the Apocalypse of John " (Epist. 129, ad
Dardan, 3; P.L. 22, 1003), and similar expressions
are used concerning the other five Books which we
have mentioned as being disputed. St. Jerome
himself accepted these Books, and the reason he
gives is worthy of attention ; in the passage just
quoted he goes on : " For my part I receive both,
being led to do so, not by the usage of the present
day, but by the practice of the ancients." He
recognized that if there had ever been consent in
the Church, the fact that there had at another time
been doubt was of no account.
There are other words in this same weighty
passage which should be noticed. St. Jerome has
been saying that there was some doubt as to the
authorship of the Epistle to the Hebrews, and he
relates various opinions, assigning St. Paul, St.
Barnabas, or St. Clement as the author ; but, says
St. Jerome, it matters not who is the author, for he
is a Catholic, and his Book is constantly read in the
I5i] THE CANON. WHEN ESTABLISHED. 209
churches. This passage shows that St. Jerome was
far from regarding Apostolic authorship as coex-
tensive with inspiration ; thus giving the weight of
his authority against one of the theories current
among Protestants.
152. The Old Testament. As to the Old Testa-
ment, the claim of the protocanonical Books is
established beyond a doubt by the fact that far the
greater number of them are quoted as authoritative
by Christ and His Apostles, as is shown by the
Table of Citations which is to be found in most
copies of the New Testament ; and it is known
historically that the whole collection was held in
honour by the Jews of Palestine in the days of our
Lord, so that no one seriously disputes the right to
a place in the canon of those few Books which are
not expressly quoted. But as to the deutero-
canonical Books there is some difficulty, and we
must try to explain how the matter stands.
These seven Books are not found in the Hebrew
Scriptures as they are preserved among the Jews,
which the Jews esteem so highly and preserve so
carefully (n. 132) ; and there is no reason to think
that they were known, or at any rate held in honour
in Palestine, during the years when our Lord was
preaching ; we may safely admit that they may have
been unknown. On the other hand, they are found
in the Greek version of the Jewish Scriptures made
about two hundred and fifty years before Christ,
and said to be the work of Seventy Interpreters, and
hence called the Septuagint : those Books which
were written after the date of the version, being
VOL. I.
no THE CANON. [15*
associated with the rest. This Septuagint, as it
now exists, containing the seven disputed Books,
represents the Scriptures as they were received by
those Jews who had adopted the Greek language
and the centre of whose learning was at Alexandria.
This is indicated by the fact that the writers of the
New Testament, Jews themselves, and in many
cases writing primarily for Jews, but writing in
Greek, habitually used the Septuagint version,
which is the source of three hundred out of the
three hundred and fifty citations from the Old
Testament that are found in the New ; and in
many of the remaining fifty cases it is easy to see
that the deviation from the Septuagint was rendered
necessary by the particular purpose for which the
citation was made. (See Michaelis, Introduction to the
New Testament, vol. i. p. 215.) It is clear, therefore,
that the Apostles regarded the Septuagint as being
the standard Greek version of the Scriptures.
From the Apostles the same version passed to
the Christian Church. Other Greek versions of
the Scriptures existed, but the Septuagint was the
version in common use, and it naturally followed
that all the Books which it contained were esteemed
to be Holy Scripture. Here we have the first stage
in the history of the question (n. 113) ; general
acceptance undisturbed by doubts. Difficulties, it
is true, arose ; for Christian disputants who engaged
in argument with Palestinian Jews were surprised
to find that some passages cited by them as from
the Scripture were not acknowledged to be of
binding authority. This would occur as often as
152] THE OLD TESTAMENT. ail
a passage was taken from one of the deutero-
canonical Books, for these do not occur in the
Hebrew Canon, which alone the Palestinians recog-
nized. It was felt to be necessary to avoid rebuffs
of this kind, and every one who wished to equip
himself for controversy with the Jews took pains
to ascertain which were the Books from which he
might safely quote. It was for this reason that
about the year 160, Melito, Bishop of Sardis in
Asia Minor, undertook a journey into Palestine in
order to learn what books were received by the
Jews of that country. It is inconceivable that he
undertook this labour as the only means for learning
what were the Christian Scriptures, for as to this
he could have learned the tradition of his own
Church of Sardis ; besides which, Palestine was
no longer a great Christian centre, and this con-
sideration is our guide in interpreting the letter in
which he gives the result of his investigations : it is
preserved by Eusebius. (Hist. Eccl. 4, 26 ; P.G. 5,
1215, 20, 396 ; Routh, Reliq. Sacr. i, 120.) The
catalogue which he gives omits the deuterocanonical
Books, but it does not undertake to show more than
the list of Books which the Jews acknowledged.
In the course of the third century, however,
doubts began to find their way even into the
Church. Thus, not far from the year 240, a man
of learning, named Africanus, an historian, wrote to
Origen, a famous Christian professor, to inquire as
to the deuterocanonical part of the Book of Daniel
which contains the history of Susannah and the
Elders. Origen's reply sets forth clearly the way
THE CANON. [152
in which all such questions are to be treated : much
of what he says applies to all the deuterocanonical
Books of the Old Testament. The two letters will
be found in the works of Origen. (P.G. II, 41 85.)
The difficulty brought by Africanus was two-fold.
First, he adduces certain intrinsic difficulties which
seem to him to show that this portion of the Book
cannot be Divine ; and secondly, he argues, as of
most importance, that the history is not found in
the Daniel which is in use among the Jews. In
modern language, Africanus thinks that criticism
and antiquity are both against the history. Origen,
in his reply, takes the objections in an inverse order :
from the alleged witness of antiquity, he appeals to
the undeniable witness of the Church of his own
day ; and having established his point by the
authority of tradition, he proceeds with confidence
to deal with the critical difficulties. This is exactly
the Catholic procedure. After adducing various
instances in which there is a difference between the
Jewish and the Christian Scriptures, he ventures to
speak ironically of his correspondent's objection.
(P.G. n, 57.) " So then it comes to this : we must
make no account of all the copies that are current
in the churches, and lay it down as a law to
Christians to do away with their own Sacred Books,
and go, cap in hand, to the Jews, begging them to
share with us their pure and unpolluted Scriptures.
Can it be," he proceeds, "that the Providence
which by the Holy Scripture gives edification to
all the churches of Christ had no heed for those
bought with a price, for whom Christ died ? " It is
152] THE OLD TESTAMENT. 213
plain that Origen made more account in this matter
of the living Church than of dead antiquity.
Nevertheless, this same Origen was engaged on
a work which gave rise to a controversy which
lasted for more than a century. This was the com-
pilation of his Hexapla, the Six-fold, an immense
undertaking in which he exhibited the whole of
the Old Testament Scriptures in six distinct forms,
arranged in parallel columns. Only fragments of
this great work have survived : they occupy vols.
xv. and xvi. of the Patres Greed. The first column
exhibits the Hebrew text : the second gives the
same in Greek letters ; the remaining four are
occupied by as many Greek versions : those of
the servilely literal Aquilas, made about the year
128 after Christ ; of the Septuagint (B.C. 250) ;
of Theodotion, somewhat earlier than 176, founded
upon the preceding, with changes which were not
always for the worse, so that this version is still
used in the Eastern Church, in place of the Septua-
gint, for the Book of Daniel ; and lastly, that of
Symmachus, who was somewhat free in his render-
ing of difficult passages. (See Lamy, Introductio,
i, 148154.)
This work became widely known, and brought
to the minds of all interested in the matter that the
seven Books were not extant in the Hebrew; and
doubts as to their authority arose in the minds of
many, who had not Origen's grasp of principles.
The extent, however, to which these doubts pre-
vailed has been much exaggerated, and they seem
never to have led to anything like fixed opinion
414 THE CANON. 151
against the authority of these disputed Books. It
was felt that so long as doubt existed these Books
could not be used in controversy : this is a sound
principle, and the time of uncertainty constituted
the second stage in the history. A discussion of
the relevant passages will be found in Comely,
Introductio, I, go in, where it is shown that the
difficulty felt by St. Jerome himself was speculative
rather than practical : it was not so much that he
rejected the authority of the disputed Books, as
that he failed to see how their authority was to be
defended.
This period of doubt and dispute led to the third
and final stage of universal acquiescence : the con-
sentient voice of Christendom made itself heard,
and the Decree passed at Carthage in 397 being
universally accepted, controversy was at an end.
(Ante, n. 151.)
153. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have
told what are the Canons of Scripture accepted
by the Catholic Church and by the various sects
of Protestants, and we have shown what is the
principle alleged by the supporters of each. We
have shown that the Protestant principle would
require them to reject seven Books of the New
Testament which they accept ; while the objections
which they allege from antiquity against seven
Books of the Catholic Old Testament Canon are
not conclusive.
CHAPTER V.
VERSIONS AND INTERPRETATIONS OF SCRIPTURE.
154. Subject of the Chapter. The fundamental
difference between Catholic theologians and the
expounders of the various Protestant systems is
found in the view taken as to the Rule of Faith.
In our second Treatise we showed that Catholics
regard the living voice of the Church at all times as
being the authentic interpreter of the Divine Revela-
tion, and that there is no appeal from this voice ;
and that if Scripture or Antiquity or any other basis
of argument seem to contradict this living voice, we
are at once assured that there is error either in the
principles or in the reasoning founded on them.
The Protestant theory, on the other hand, holds
that the Written Word of God is the supreme rule ;
that the revelation given by God is to be learned by
each Christian reading the Bible ; and that this
reading, conducted under proper conditions, will not
lead him astray. In the present chapter we shall
explain the doctrine of the Church on the popular
use of Scripture, and the precautions which are
necessary, if the food provided for the souls of men
is not by misuse to be turned to poison.
2i6 VERSIONS & INTERPRETATIONS OF SCRIPTURE.[i&
155. Translation. We have seen (n. 120) that
various languages were employed by the original
writers of the Scriptures ; that the original manu-
scripts have perished, and that the text as it came
from their hands cannot be restored with absolute
certainty in every minutest detail. It follows at
once that translations are necessary before the
Scriptures can be studied by the mass of men, and
none but those who have paid special attention to
the matter can justly estimate the immense difficulty
of the work of making such a translation. The
work cannot be done even tolerably without a
familiar acquaintance with the original languages
and a perfect command over that into which the
translation is to be made. Also, no single chapter
can be safely translated except by one who has
familiar acquaintance with the whole of the Scripture,
for otherwise the translator must be in doubt
whether he has not missed some parallel passage
which is decisive of the meaning of that on which he
is engaged ; and we may say, yet more widely, that
the translator of dogmatic passages must already
have his mind made up as to the true doctrine upon
the subject ; he may have derived his convictions
from his original or from some other source ; but
without convictions of some sort he cannot translate.
Only the ignorant can imagine that it is possible to
produce any tolerable result by translating literally :
" word for word," as they would say. This attempt
was made by the literal Aquila, who probably held
some form of the doctrine of verbal inspiration, and
felt bound to give the exact Greek equivalent for
I 5 5] TRANSLATION.
each Hebrew word. Applied to the first verse of
Genesis this theory would give the result : " In
heading created Gods with the heavens and with
the earth," which is not greater nonsense than the
specimen of Aquila's handiwork that stands in
Origen's Hexapla. Literal translation in this sense
assumes that every language contains some word
which is the exact equivalent of each word in every
other language, which is clearly false ; further, it
assumes that a combination of words in one
language yields the same sense as the combination
Df the equivalent words in every other language,
which is, if possible, still more false ; as will be seen
at once if the attempt be made to render on these
principles the simplest passage from one language
into another. In fact, as we have already remarked,
every translation is in truth a commentary. The
simple Protestant, therefore, adopts as his rule of
faith a human work, while he believes it to be
Divine.
156. Imperfect and false renderings. The diffi-
culties pointed out in the preceding section are
inherent in the work of the translation, but they
are very much enhanced when the work is under-
taken by incompetent men ; and the possibility of
dogmatic prejudice and downright fraud must always
be had in mind. The British and Foreign Bible
Society has no difficulty in finding men who will
undertake to translate the Scriptures into any
language, however rude and destitute of the most
elementary terms of religion ; and particulars as
to the deplorable result will be found in the
218 VERSIONS & INTERPRETA 77OATS 01- SCRIPTURE. [156
first chapter of Mr. Marshall's Christian Missions.
What is commonly, and perhaps deservedly re-
puted as the best of the Protestant vernacular
translations, is that which forms the authorized
version of the English Establishment, and which
was put into its final shape in the year 1611.
In 1870 a revision of this version was begun, and
the result in due time appeared, showing that a
vast number of alterations were deemed necessary;
but the way in which the work was done has not
g* s*en satisfaction to those interested, and it is quite
possible that a revision of the revised version will
appear before long. Meanwhile, the authorized
version holds the field. It was with reference to
this version that Mr. Thomas Ward compiled his
book called Errata, being a long list of passages
where the translators had allowed dogmatic pre-
judice to determine their choice of phrases ; while
cases are not wanting in which words seem to have
been deliberately altered or omitted because the
true version seemed too favourable to the Catholic
side of the controversy. Thus in Cant. vi. 8, both
the authorized and the revised version insert a but,
without authority from the Hebrew original, thus
weakening the argument which sees in this passage
a proof of the unity of the Church. Also, in
Malach. ii. 7, both these versions read should, instead
of shall, making the passage no longer point to the
office of the Bishops and priests of the Church
to be in a special manner the guardians of Divine
Revelation ; but the worst case is I Cor. xi. 27, where
the translators put and in place of or, which was
156] IMPERFECT AND FALSE RENDERINGS. 219
required by all the authorities to which they had
access. The revisors have altered this and to or;
but meanwhile ten generations have read the words
that falsely represent St. Paul as declaring a Divine
command that the Holy Communion was to be
received under both kinds. Another case is seen in
Hebrews xiii. 4.
157. The Church and Versions. The Church
regards the Written Word of God as a most
precious treasure entrusted to her keeping by her
Divine Founder, to be used as an instrument in
doing the work which she is commissioned to
accomplish ; and seeing the necessity of translations
being made, seeing also the difficulty of the task
and the ease with which corruptions may be intro-
duced, she sedulously watches over the production
of versions, especially in vernacular languages.
She knows also how difficult is the work of inter-
preting the Scriptures, and that it is no less true
now than it was in the days of St. Peter, that the
unlearned and unstable wrest the Epistles of
St. Paul and the other Scriptures to their own
destruction. (2 St. Peter iii. 16.) She has therefore
laid down certain rules for the guidance of her
theologians in the interpretation of Scripture ; and
she has legislated with regard to the printing of
editions and versions, and their use especially by
the laity. The Church herein proceeds upon a
theory totally opposed to that acted upon by the
supporters of Bible Societies. The work of these
Societies is to scatter printed copies of versions of
the Scriptures, without note or comment, as widely
220 VERSIONS fr JNTERPRETAIONS OF SCRIPTURE. [157
as possible in all the countries of the world, and
enormous sums of money are yearly expended upon
this enterprise ; with how little fruit will be seen
by the reader of that first chapter of Marshall's
Christian Missions, which we have already quoted in
the preceding section. Foolish as the proceedings
of these Societies are, it must be admitted that the
promoters act consistently upon their theory. This
theory, which we have already met with on several
occasions, holds that the perusal of the Written
Word of God is the divinely appointed means of
salvation for all men ; on this theory, to scatter
Bibles is to spread the Gospel ; just as on the
Catholic theory that faith comes by hearing (Romans
x. 17), not by reading, the way to spread the Gospel
is to send preachers duly commissioned to carry
on the work of the Apostles. We have already
sufficiently discussed the two rival theories, in our
Treatise on the Channel of Doctrine : but we may
add a few citations from some of the earliest
Fathers, to show how far representative Christians
about the year 200 were from holding the Bible
Society theory. St. Irenaeus speaks of the barbarians
as believing in Christ without the aid of ink and
paper (Contra Har. 3, 4 ; P.G. 7, 855) ; Tertullian
(De Prescript. 14; P.L. 2, 27) gives a solemn
warning against engaging with heretics in argu-
ment on the sense of Scripture ; and Clement of
Alexandria (Strom, i, 20 and 2, 6; P.G. 8, 816,
960) expressly states the Christian method is that
faith comes by hearing, which he contrasts with
that of the Greek philosophers. It will be remem-
i 5 7] THE CHURCH AND VERSIONS. 221
bered that these three writers represent the faith
and teaching of almost the whole of the Christian
world. (See n. 51.)
158. The Vulgate. There is one only version
of the Scriptures which has received the formal
approval of the Church : this is that one among the
Latin versions which obtained general currency in
the West, and goes by the name of the Vulgate,
or ordinary version. As to this, the Council of
Trent declared not only that the Books contained
in this version, with all their parts, were inspired ;
but also that among all the current Latin versions
this one was to be held as authentic, and as such was
used by the Council in proving the dogmas of the
Church, and reforming morals.
This declaration of the Council (Sess. 4, Denz.
666, 667) is often misunderstood. It does not
imply the entire conformity of the Vulgate to the
originals ; and it is perfectly allowable to suppose
that the translator was misled by false readings
in the manuscript that he used, or that he
mistook the sense of what was before him. The
work of critically settling the text, and of inter-
pretation, is not interfered with by the Decree ; as
a matter of fact, the critical value of the Vulgate
stands high,' but it is not conclusive. But the
meaning of the declaration is this : that in an
argument upon a question of faith and morals,
there is no appeal from the authority of the
Vulgate : whatever propositions, in these spheres,
follow from the Vulgate are undoubtedly true. It
may be that the corresponding passages of the
222 VERSIONS & INTERPRETATIONS OF SCRIPTURE. [158
originals did not yield the same sense ; this is a
question for theologians to discuss (n. 84) : and
whatever follows from the original texts as to faith
or morals, or any other subject, is to be implicitly
received as the Word of God to man (n. 145) : but
it will never be shown that the teaching of the
Vulgate on faith and morals is in conflict with what
we know on the subject from the originals, or from
other sources of knowledge of Divine truth. On
other subjects the interpreter may, if he think right,
discard the Vulgate, though if he be wise he will be
very slow to do so. Thus the Council leaves him
free to form his own opinion as to the species of
plant that sheltered the Prophet Jonas (Jonas iv. 6),
and he may believe that it was a kind of gourd, as
the current Hebrew and Septuagint have it, and not
ivy, as in the Vulgate : this is a point of botany, not
of faith or morals ; and on such a point we are sure
that the teaching of the original was correct, but
we have no authentic means of determining what
that teaching was ; especially, it must not be hastily
concluded that because the original was written in
Hebrew, therefore it is faithfully represented by the
Hebrew which is now current : it is possible that a
casual mistake has crept into the text.
159. Interpretation of Scripture. We have seen
according to Catholic doctrine, the agreement of
Christians on any point as having been revealed by
God is decisive of the truth : the whole Church
cannot go wrong. It is, therefore, in perfect accord
with this doctrine that the Council of Trent, in the
same Session (Denz. 668). forbade all interpretations
159] INTERPRETATION OF SCRIPTURE. 223
of Scripture which were opposed to the unanimous
consent of the Fathers. We have seen (nn. 93 95)
that in certain cases the existence of this unanimous
consent can be inferred, even where few writers
have treated of the matter, and we must carefully
distinguish between the witness of the Fathers to
the Tradition that they have received, and their
judgment as critics, on points as to which they have
received no tradition. In the former case, their
unanimous voice is decisive ; in the latter, it is
possible for more recent criticism to have discovered
reasons for adopting a different view. We may
illustrate this by the case of the Days of Creation.
The Fathers are not unanimous as to what is meant
by them. (See St. Augustine, Genesis ad Literam,
4, 27; P.L. 34, 314; De Civil. Dei, n, 7; P.L. 41,
322.) But even were it otherwise, they would have
spoken merely according to their knowledge, seeing
no reason to doubt that Day in the first chapter of
Genesis had its natural meaning : if considerations
drawn from the teaching of geology or other sources
lead us to doubt whether they were correct in their
judgment, we shall not be going against their witness.
(See n. 322.) The same remark applies to the
passages of Scripture which have been thought to
be opposed to the Copernican astronomy (Psalm
xcii. I ; Josue x. 13, &c.) : it was natural to take
them as referring to absolute motion, so long as
no reason to the contrary was seen ; but there was
no tradition on the subject ; and therefore there
was no objection to understanding them of relative
motion, as soon as reason to do so was adduced.
224 VERSIONS & INTERPRETATIONS OP SCRIPTURE [159
We shall speak again of the case of Galileo in
another place (n. 292) ; we here only remark that no
unanimous consent of the Fathers, if such existed,
would bind us to accept the Ptolemaic hypothesis.
The doctrine on this matter is given shortly, but
quite clearly, in the Encyclical lately quoted,
(n. 145.)
160. The use of Versions. The Church, aware
of the evil that is apt to result from the rash use of
Scripture, especially of versions in the vernacular,
has guarded it by various regulations. We can
do no more than give a very short sketch of the
Common Law upon the subject, which law, how-
ever, is by no means necessarily binding in any
particular country : modifications to suit the vary-
ing circumstances of the populations have frequently
been introduced by custom or otherwise. The
Common Law, however, forbids the use of all
copies of the Scriptures that have not been printed
under the responsibility of some Catholic : no trans-
lations into the vernacular are to be made unless
accompanied by proper notes, to guard against the
danger of misunderstanding; and they must not be
printed without the approbation of the Ordinary.
These rules are the more necessary because the
Bible Societies sometimes print editions of their
own, founded on former editions which had received
approval : they retain the approbations, but omit
the notes, and often corrupt the text, in this way
endeavouring to mislead the unwary. An episcopal
approbation does no more than allow the printing
of the work : it by no means implies that the prelate
i6o) THE USE OP VERSIONS. 225
giving the approval agrees with all that is said :
in fact, the person that gives the approval will
sometimes see reason subsequently to withdraw it.
The essential opposition between the Catholic
spirit and the spirit of Jansenism comes out clearly
in the condemnation by Pope Clement XL, in the
Bull Unigenitus (1713), of the following propositions
taught by Quesnel :
LXXIX. To study and know the spirit, piety,
and mysteries of Holy Scripture is at all times and
in all places necessary to all sorts of men.
LXXX. The reading of Holy Scripture is for all.
LXXXI. The obscurity of Holy Scripture is
no reason for laymen dispensing themselves from
reading it.
With much more to the same effect. (Denz.
12941300.)
It may be suspected that many of those who
advocate the indiscriminate reading of the Bible
are but imperfectly acquainted with the contents
of some of the Books : and they fail to observe that
not a single text can be cited so much as hinting,
that Christians ought to look to a book to find the
doctrines of their religion : all the texts commonly
cited refer to Jews, who are exhorted to search the
Old Testament, where they will find proof that He
Whom the Apostles preached was the true Messiah ;
but when that is clear, they are to receive His
doctrine from the mouth of His messengers. (See
n. 83.)
161. Recapitulation. Having in our first and
second Treatises spoken of the Christian religion
P VOL. I.
aa6 VERSIONS * INTERPRETATIONS OF SCRIPTURE. [161
and its evidences, and the Channel of Doctrine, our
third Treatise has been devoted to Holy Scripture.
In successive chapters we have spoken of the
meaning of Scripture, of the special character of
the Books, and their Inspiration ; after which we
have determined what Books form the collection.
Lastly, we have explained the necessity of having
translations of the Scripture, and pointed out why
the task of furnishing them is so difficult, and shown
that the work has often been done with negligence,
prejudice, and even fraud. The attitude of the
Church towards versions is then explained and
justified, the special position of the Vulgate is
explained, together with the caution to be observed
in the interpretation of Scripture. Lastly, we
have sketched the Common Law as to the trans-
lating, printing, and reading Scripture.
{Treatise tbe fourtb.
THE CHURCH.
CHAPTER I.
EXISTENCE OF THE CHURCH.
162. Plan of Treatise. Already, more than once,
we have mentioned the Church, and have assumed
the existence of the institution which goes by this
name. In the present Treatise we propose to
explain what is meant by the Christian Church ;
to give proof of its existence at the present day and
for all time to come ; to discuss its nature, when it
will be shown to be a visible, organized society ; to
show who are its members, what powers and
privileges the society has, and how they are
exercised ; and to prove that it possesses certain
properties which admit of being recognized, and
thus become notes by which it may be distinguished
from all other associations of Christians.
In the following Treatise we shall discuss the
question of the position of the Bishop of Rome in
the Church, for it will be shown that his position
is unique ; and this Treatise will complete the
a8 EXISTENCE OF THE CHURCH. [162
preliminary part of our Theology, sometimes called
Fundamental Theology. Although, as just now
remarked, in the course of our second and third
Treatises we occasionally assumed the existence of
the Church, thus anticipating a part of the fourth
Treatise ; yet it will be found that the Fundamental
Theology is complete in itself, except so far as it
assumes the existence of God ; the proof of which
truly primary verity must be sought in Philosophy
with such helps as Revelation affords, and which
will form the subject of a subsequent Treatise.
In the present Treatise we shall assume the
supreme authority of the Holy Scriptures, as a fount
of doctrine acknowledged by all Christians ; and we
shall not have occasion to use passages taken from
the Books the authority of which is disputed. We
shall adduce passages from the Fathers to show
that our doctrine is not new ; and we shall draw
something from theological reason, to illustrate the
matter.
163. Subject of the Chapter. In this chapter we
shall explain what is meant in Christian language
by the Church ; and we shall show that the
institution denoted by this name was brought into
existence by Christ, that it has ever existed, still
exists, and will exist till the end of time ; and that
it is of such nature that membership is constituted
by something which is in its own nature external,
and does not depend purely on anything interior ;
in other words, we shall prove that the Church is
perennial and visible. This chapter is of vital
importance in the controversy with Rationalists
x63] SUBJECT OP THE CHAPTER. tag
and Protestants. It is closely connected with the
Treatise on Tradition, for we saw that the Church
is the divinely appointed guardian of the Tradition
of the faith, which must therefore be received from
the Church ; but this is impossible unless the Church
exists at all times and exists in such a way that it
can be discovered.
164. Meaning of "Church." The word "Church"
is not one the derivation of which throws light upon
the meaning. It seems to be a changed pronuncia-
tion of the Greek Kvpiaxov " belonging to the
Lord," and in its earliest use it signified a building
set apart for Christian worship. So at least it is
explained by Mr. Skeat. (Etymological Dictionary, s.v.)
However this may be, in its present use it corres-
ponds to the Greek eKK\i]<rta ; a word which, with
various changes of spelling, is found in almost all
the languages of Christendom, except those which,
like the English, employ forms of tcvpiaieov. (Scotch
kirk, German kirche ; on the other hand, French
eglise, Italian chiesa, Welsh eglwys, &c.) The Latin
form is ecclesia.
In classical usage, the KK\ija-la specially signifies
an officially summoned assembly, as of citizens
engaged on political business (see Liddell and
Scott, s.v.) ; the derivation being from e/c and tca\ea),
to call out, select. The word is used in this sense
in the Septuagint (i Paral. xxix. I ; cf. xxviii. i) ;
and possibly in the New Testament (Acts xix. 32,
40), though it seems more likely that the crowd at
Ephesus was an informal gathering. (Cf. v. 39.) In
Ecclus. xv. 5, and elsewhere, it is used of a social
ay> EXISTENCE OP THE CHURCH. [164
gathering. But the ordinary use in the Old
Testament refers to meetings for religious purposes,
or to the place of such meetings. (See Deut. xviii. 16,
xxiii. I 3 ; Psalm xxi. 23, in which senses, however,
the common word is a-wcvycoyij, Exodus xvi. 3, xxxiv.
22, &c.) In the New Testament this word occurs
frequently, being once used of a Christian place
of meeting (St. James ii. 2), and once or twice
of an assembly of the Jews (Acts vi. 9, xiii. 43),
but in the great bulk of cases, it plainly means the
building where the Jews met- for religious and other
purposes. (Also called Trpoo-evxtf, Acts xvi. 13, 16 ;
see also Juvenal 3. 296.) In St. Luke vi. 12, we
read that our Lord passed the night ev ry trpoa-ev^
rov 0eoO, which the Vulgate understands of prayer
to God. The word has also been understood of
some building used for prayer. The one sense does
not exclude the other; we should understand that
a night passed " in the chapel " on the eve of some
eventful day, had been passed " in prayer." On
the other hand, the word eKtc\r}<r(a in the New
Testament is almost always used of a collection of
believers in Christ, the only exceptions being the
passages from Acts xix., referring to the multitude
who were so zealous for the honour of the patron
goddess of Ephesus; and two quotations from the
Old Testament. (Acts vii. 38; Hebrews ii. 12.)
It is in this sense that the word ccclcsia passed into
Latin, and so many other languages; and this is
also the ordinary sense of the words church and the
like: the context will always show whether the
place is meant, or the congregation who are united
OP "CtiURCH." 3i
by the bond of acknowledging the teaching of
Christ ; the former sense is the primary with church,
the latter with ecclesia. (See Suicer, Thesaurus, s.v.
KVpldKOV.)
165. Church and Churches. If we study in the
Concordance the list of passages where the word
Church occurs, we should find that not unfrequently
it is used in the plural (Acts xv. 41 ; I Cor. vii. 17 ;
Apoc. i. 4, &c.) ; and often even when it is in the
singular, the sense is clearly such as implies that
the plural is possible ; as in Acts viii. I, " the
church that was at Jerusalem," implies that there
might be churches in other places ; if in Romans
xvi. 5, we read of " the church " which was in the
house of Prisca arui Aquila, we may suppose that
there were " churches " in other pious families ;
see also i Cor. iv. 17; Apoc. ii. i, &c. In these
places where the word " church " is used to denote
what is actually or potentially multiple, the thing
meant clearly is a body of believers in Christ among
whom some local bond of connection existed, pro-
bably that of assembling for prayer and instruction
in the same room. Thus when "the church" is
mentioned in Acts xii. i, there is no local reference,
for the scene at the close of the preceding chapter
is laid at Antioch, while the events of c. xii.
occurred at Jerusalem. In Romans xvi. 23, the
Vulgate tells us that Caius, the host of Paul, and
" all the church," saluted the Romans, which words
must perhaps be understood of the church in his
house, but the Greek text makes Caius, host of
Paul, and of the whole church ; which can scarcely
18* EXISTENCE OF THE CHURCH. [163
be understood of the local church, for he would not
be called the host of his own townspeople ; it would
seem that he was in the habit of receiving all comers,
provided they were Christians, members of the one
Church. A yet plainer place is Ephes. v. 25,
"Christ loved the Church, and delivered Himself
up for it that He might sanctify it," which certainly
is not said of the Ephesian Christians alone. Other
like passages may be found in the Concordance ;
but the principal of all is St. Matt. xvi. 18, where
Christ says : On this Rock I will build My Church.
We shall meet with this verse in more than one
place of this and the subsequent Treatise ; at
present it is enough to point out that it plainly
implies the existence of one institution which is
spoken of as the Church of Christ. See also
St. Matt, xviii. 17.
No explanation of these passages can be suggested
except that according to which the multitude of
believers throughout the world were united together
and formed one body, in virtue of some bond of
union which was not local, but of a different
nature ; concerning which we shall inquire later.
This double use of the word church passed into
the ordinary language of Christendom. According
to Catholic doctrine every Christian is a member of
the unique Church, and is also, regularly, a member
of some smaller body, such as those which we speak
of as the Church of Africa, the" French Church, the
English Church ; each of these being made up of
several still smaller divisions to which the name of
church is given ; as when, on the anniversary of the
165] CHURCH AND CHURCHES. 233
consecration of a Bishop, we pray for him as pre-
siding over the church of such and such a city,
naming his see : this being the phrase used in the
prayer said on that day in all Masses within the
diocese. While Catholic usage speaks of the Church
of each episcopal see, and of national Churches,
which are groups of episcopal Churches, united by
a local or political bond, it never loses sight of the
existence of the one Church to which all Christians
belong, and which is called the Catholic Church, or
the Church of God; this is mentioned in the
Collect used on the anniversary of the coronation
of the reigning Pope, who, as we shall see, presides
over all particular Churches and over all their
members.
The usage of many sects of Protestants gives the
name of church to the people who worship in a
particular building, or even confine it to a select
few among them, who alone are admitted to Com-
munion and to a share in government. There does
not seem to be any particular harm in this mode of
speech, which however is not supported by those
passages of Scripture, such as Romans xvi. 5, which
speak of what we may call " family churches," for
these passages afford no indication of church-
membership even in its strictest sense, being con-
fined to select members of the family ; see Acts xvi.
33, where the gaoler " and all his house " were
admitted to Baptism. But, however this may be,
the important point is to distinguish between the
one Church of God, Church of Christ, Catholic
Church, and those congregations of Christians
34 EXISTENCE OP THE CHURCtt.
which participate in the name of Church; the
prerogatives that belong to the one, and the associa-
tions attaching to its name, are not the portion of
the others, except so far as their members are
children of the one great Mother. This very
important point is developed when we speak of the
unity of the Church.
1 66. The Church Perennial. We have now
explained what we mean by the Church : it is the
company of believers in Christ. We have now to
show that this Church is perennial : that is to say,
that from the days of Christ down to the present
day there have always been men who hold the
doctrine that Christ taught, and that there never
will come a time when this doctrine will wholly
disappear from the earth : in other words, not only
that Christ will never be forgotten, but also that
His doctrine will never be lost through corruption.
This perennial existence has been denied to the
Church by two classes of heretical sects. Some
have held that the truth had perished at some point
of time which is generally left undefined, and that
they were raised up to restore it to its primitive
purity: others hold that the original doctrine of
Christ was imperfect, that it has been improved as
time went on, so that a return to the primitive
doctrine would be a retrogade step. Heretics of
the first class more commonly maintain that the
truth was always held by some obscure handful of
men, even in the worst times, and they are most
conveniently dealt with when we prove that the
perennial Church is essentially visible. The second
166] THE CHURCH PERENNIAL. 935
class who hold that human reason, and the progress
of civilization, have improved upon the original
revelation can hardly be called Christians, although
many of them would claim the name. Such are
some of those who take the name of Unitarians, as
holding the unity of person in God ; these do not
use Baptism in the Name of the Blessed Trinity,
which as we shall see in its place is required for
membership of the Church. Their position is
scarcely different from that of avowed Rationalists,
who regard Christ as not being a Messenger from
God, except so far as being a man of higher moral
enlightenment than most of His contemporaries.
That the Church is perennial is defined doctrine,
contained in the Creed as it is recited in the Mass :
" Of His kingdom shall be no end ; " the phrase
being taken from the words of the Angel of the
Annunciation (St. Luke i. 33), who speaks of the
reign of the Son of the Most High in the house
of Jacob, the Church on earth. A teacher cannot
be said to reign when his teaching is universally
abandoned. This Creed is that which was adopted
at the Council of Constantinople in 381, except that
the one word Filioque was added to it by Papal
authority. It is an enlargement of the Creed of
Nice (325), which ended with the words, "And in
the Holy Ghost." The phrase with which we are
now concerned is not found in the Nicene form, but
it was introduced by a Council held at Laodicea in
341, when Marcellus of Ancyra was condemned.
(See S. Athanas. De Synodis, n. 22; P.G. 26, 721.)
The form here adopted was, " Who remains King
236 EXISTENCE OF THE CHURCH. [166
and God for ever," which is substantially the same
as that adopted forty years afterwards at Constanti-
nople. The precise purpose of the addition made
at Laodicea is unknown, for it does not seem to
have any particular connection with the Sabelliai?
error of which Marcellus,the friend of St. Athanasius,
was accused.
167. Proof of Perennity. That the Church of
Christ is perennial follows from the prophecies
contained in the Old Testament to this effect :
it will be sufficient to cite Ezech. xxxvii. 24 28,
which passage admits of no explanation except
that which we give it, in view of the palpable
fact that the Jewish temporal polity has been
overthrown. The same follows from the pro-
phecy of the Angel Gabriel (St. Luke i. 33), who
assures our Lady that there should be no end to
the Kingdom of her Son. The promise of our Lord
that the gates of Hell should not prevail against
the Church (St. Matt. xvi. 18) proves the same : as
does the other promise that He would be with the
preachers of the Gospel " even to the consummation
of the world." (St. Matt, xxviii. 20.) It will be
sufficient to cite one Patristic passage : more will
be found when we speak of Visibility. That which
we now choose is the close of St. Jerome's com-
mentary on Amos : " As long as the world shall last,
persecution may shake the Church, but shall never
overthrow it : the strength of the Church shall be
tested, and shall abide the test. This will be so,
because the Lord God Omnipotent, Who is the
Lord God of the Church, has promised that so it
167] PROOF OF PERENNITY. 237
shall be : and His promise is an unchanging law."
(P.L. 25, 1096.)
The means by which Divine Providence secures
this lasting firmness is to inspire Christians with
a jealousy of novelty. We have seen how keen
was this jealousy (n. 99) ; and it is especially to be
observed that general corruption of doctrine could
not result from error being introduced in several
places independently, for these partial corruptions
could never lead to general agreement in the same
error, whereas we know that the same doctrine is
held throughout the world.
The Christian religion being founded on a Divine
Revelation, nothing short of a similar revelation
could supersede it. But we have seen (n. 112) that
no such revelation is to be expected : and it is this
that distinguishes the case of the Church from that
of the Synagogue. We have distinct assurance
that the Christian Revelation is final (Hebrews
xii. 26, &c.), but we have no similar revelation in
regard to the Jewish economy. It is true that
phrases are' found which taken by themselves, and
without reference to the actual course of events,
might seem to promise perpetuity to the Synagogue.
(3 Kings ix. 3, &c.) But these promises were not
falsified when the new revelation came, as had
been foretold (Deut. xviii. 15), and substituted for
the Old a New Covenant (Jerem. xxxi. 31), which
perfected that which had gone before.
168. The Church Visible. It remains for us to
show that the Church is perennially visible. For a
society of men to be visible, in the sense in which
t 3 8 EXISTENCE OP THE CHURCH. [168
the word is used in Theology, it is not enough that
the individuals composing it should be visible, in
the sense in which all men are capable of being
seen ; but the fact of their being associated must be
visible : that is to say, the bond of union among
them must be of its own nature cognoscible by
the senses, and it must be of such magnitude as
to attract attention to itself.
There are two theories current among Pro-
testants in opposition to the doctrine that the
Church is always essentially visible. One boldly
declares that no visibility whatever is required, and
that Church membership is purely internal : th6
other is forced by the plain teaching of Scripture
to admit that in some sense the Church must be
visible, but holds that it need not be conspicuous :
according to this view it suffices if there have always
been some true professors to be found on the face
of the earth. Its adherents, therefore, labour to
show that in all ages there have been sects which
maintained pure Scriptural religion, even during the
twelve centuries during which the whole world was
" plunged in damnable idolatry," as the Church of
England Homily expresses it : when, in the words
of Milton, " all our fathers worshipt stocks and
stones:" and since it is true that there always have
been heresies rife in one place or another, about
which very little is known, the work has been done
to the satisfaction of its doers : forgery having
been used to eke out the scanty records of history.
(See Bradshaw, Collected Papers, p. 8.) The truth
is that the sects in question under various names
i68] THE CHURCH VISIBLE. t&
Albigenses, Waldenses, Cathari, &c. maintained a
tradition of Manichean doctrine, maintaining the
essentially evil character of matter ; a doctrine
which, whatever is to be said about it, is certainly
not Scriptural, and from which in many instances
consequences were deduced subversive of morality
and social life.
It does not appear that the word " visible " has
been applied to the Church in any binding utter-
ance ; but the doctrine that the Church is visible is
implied whenever the Church urges the duty of
submission to her teaching, for there can be no
duty of submitting to an invisible body; and the
contrary doctrine was condemned by Pope John
XXII. in 1318. The Pontiff, by his Bull Sancta
Romano, et Universalis Ecchsia, enumerates and con-
demns five errors which were maintained by one
section of that miscellaneous collection of zealots,
some of them Catholic, and some heretical, who
went by the name of Fraticelli. The fifth and last
of these errors is (Denzinger, 417) that the Gospel
had not received its full perfection before their time,
but had been prostrate and even extinct. Also,
Pope Pius VI., by his famous Constitution Auctorem
Fidei (August 28, 1794), condemned as heretical the
assertion that in these last times religious truths of
the greatest moment had become obscured. (Art. i.
Denz. 1364.) These condemnations leave no doubt
that the perpetual visibility of the Church is an
article of the Catholic Faith.
169. Proofs of Visibility. The proof of this
doctrine from Scripture is easy : it follows from
HO EXISTENCE OP THE CHURCH. [169
well-nigh every place where the Church is men-
tioned. Thus in the Old Testament, Isaias (ii. 2)
tells us that in the last days, the days of Christ
(Acts ii. 17 ; Hebrews i. 2), the . mountain of the
house of the Lord should be prepared on the top of
the mountains, and all nations should flow into it ;
and many people should go to it, for the Word of
the Lord should come from Jerusalem.
This passage admits of no interpretation, except
that which makes it ascribe visibility to the Gospel
dispensation. The mountain of the Lord was to
be so placed as to be visible, and there could be no
doubt whether a given person dwelt there or not.
Nearly the same is read in the parallel passage of
Micheas iv. I. Moreover, whatever doubt there
may be as to the details of the interpretation of the
vision of the four kingdoms in the second chapter
of Daniel, there can be no doubt that the kingdom
which the God of Heaven should set up, and which
should consume all those kingdoms, and itself stand
for ever, is the Church of Christ. Yet the terms in
which it is described plainly point to visibility.
The New Testament is yet more clear. " The
Kingdom of Heaven," in the thirteenth chapter of
St. Matthew, is likened to many various objects,
most of which obviously teach the same lesson ;
and we read in St. Matt. v. 14, 15, that the city
seated on a mountain cannot be hid ; and that the
lighted candle is set on a candlestick, to give light
to all that are in the house : a most expressive mode
of saying that the Gospel was to be brought to the
knowledge of all the world, which cannot be, unless
169] PROOFS OF VISIBILITY. 241
the association of believers were "visible." It is
needless to multiply these references.
The testimonies of the Fathers on the subject
will be found in Waterworth's Faith of Catholics, i.
189 igg. They are too long for transcription in
this place. We can do no more than quote one or
two plain sentences : " It is an easier thing for the
sun to be quenched than for the Church to be made
invisible," says St. Chrysostom. (In Oziam, Horn. 4,
n. 2; P;G. 56, 122.) And St. Augustine tells us
that the Church has this sure mark, that it cannot
be hid : for this reason it is known to all nations,
but the party of Donatus is unknown to most ; this
party therefore is not the Church. (Contra lift.
Petiliani, lib. 2, cap. 109, n. 239, ad fin. ; P.L.
43 343-) This holy Doctor repeatedly employs
the argument drawn from visibility against the
Donatists, who ventured to maintain that the whole
world except themselves had fallen into error, so
that the true faith was confined to the corner of
Africa where they dwelt. (Epist. 44, to Eleusius;
P.L. 33, 175; Epist. 208, to Felicia; P.L. 33, 952.)
The visibility of the Church is necessarily
implied in the right of governing her subjects which,
as we shall see, the Church has (St. Matt, xviii. 17,
&c.), and in the duty incumbent on all men to
submit to the Church, as will be explained here-
after, (i St. Peter iii. 21.) An invisible association
could not fulfil the function of making disciples
of all nations (St. Matt, xxviii. 19), nor could it
be the pillar and ground of the truth, (i Timothy
iii. ISO
Q VOL. I.
*4i EXISTENCE OF THE CHURCH [tfo
170. Difficulties against Visibility. The difficulties
that may be raised against the visibility of the
Church fall into three classes. Some are such as
may be directed against the visibility of any human
society, the English nation, for example. There
may be doubts as to when this nation first became
conspicuous in the world, but there is no doubt that
it is conspicuous ; and there may be doubts as to
what precisely constitutes English nationality, but
there is no doubt that a large mass of men possess
this nationality. What is here said of a nation is
true also of the Church. Other objections proceed
upon the ground that the cluster of spiritual gifts
that make up what we call the state of grace are
interior and invisible, and yet without them there
is no effective membership of the Church, so that
it is impossible to tell who are members and who
are not so. All this is true, if we speak of perfect
membership; but we shall show before long (n. 186),
that there is an imperfect membership for which
these graces are not requisite, but which is secured
and indicated by outward signs ; also, the state of
grace will tend to make its existence known by
outward effects. Lastly, it is urged that faith and
sight are opposed (i Cor. xiii. 12), and yet we
profess our belief in the Church, in the Apostles'
Creed. The full answer to this difficulty belongs
to the Treatise on Faith, when we shall speak of
the obscurity of faith ; the reply in short is, that
there is nothing to prevent an object being known
in two ways, one of them clear and the other
obscure ; besides which my belief tells me that the
170] DIFFICULTIES AGAINST VISIBILITY. 243
assembly which I see visible before my eyes is the
Church founded by Christ, which is certain, but not
evident, (n. 201.)
171. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have
explained the meaning of the words church and
churches ; we have shown that the Church is
perennial and that she is visible ; and we have
indicated the lines to be followed in answering the
difficulties that may be brought against the last-
named doctrine.
CHAPTER II.
THE END OF THE CHURCH.
172. Scope of Chapter. Hitherto we have been
considering the Church as being the assemblage of
believers in Christ, who were under such special
providential guidance that they would never cease
to hold the truth. In the present chapter we shall
endeavour to show that the Church is more than
this : that it is a society, the members of which are
bound together by something more than holding a
common belief, and that it is the duty of every man
to join this society and to obey its laws. This will
be the place to explain the true meaning of the
maxim, so often misunderstood, that out of the
Church there is no salvation.
173. Meaning of Society. It is not every collection
of men that constitutes a Society : this word is not
applicable unless the collection have some essential
bond of union. It belongs to writers on Ethics to
discuss this matter fully : it will be enough for us to
give some necessary explanations.
Co-operation towards a common end is the bond
of union. Whenever it is found that several inde-
pendent units are working together to bring about
a result, there is some sort of society. The word
173) MEANING OP SOCIETY. 143
cannot be properly applied unless the units are con-
scious that they are co-operating, which they cannot
be unless they are individually capable of conceiving
what it is to work for an end. Thus it is only in an
analogical sense that we can speak of societies of
bees, or of the animals that work together to build
up coral islands ; for assuredly no particular beast
recognizes that the formation of honey-comb or of
dry land in the midst of the ocean is an object on
which it is well to expend its energies; no more
than the trees of a forest are aware that they are
working together to secure moisture for the earth,
or the waves of the sea to construct a breakwater of
sand. No true society then can be formed, except
of men or angels, for none but spiritual beings are
capable of working for an end.
To form a society, it is not enough that the
members should desire the attainment of the same
end : they must exert themselves towards its attain-
ment, using such means as are suitable to their
nature and capacity. These means will vary
immensely according to the circumstances of various
men ; but they derive unity from the oneness of the
end to which they are directed.
174. Societies Classified. We may distinguish
societies the members of which are free to follow
their own will as to whether they will work for the
common end, or will refrain : and those in which
they are morally bound to do their part, so long as
they continue to be members. A cricket club is an
example of the first, a religious congregation of the
second sort. Again, there are societies the members
246 THE END OF THE CHURCH. [174
of which can withdraw when they please, as in some
congregations without vows ; and others where there
is no right of withdrawal, as when perpetual vows
have been taken, or marriage contracted. A last
distinction is between those societies which men
are free to join or to abstain from as they please,
and those which every man in normal circumstances
is bound to join. These are three, which shall be
described in the following section.
175. Family, State, and Church. There is one
society which every man enters as soon as he is
born, and that without his having any choice as to
the matter. This society is the Family, having for
its end the nurture and education of the child. The
Family is a perfect society, in so far as it is capable
of attaining its end without calling in aid from
without : although such aid is useful, in order to
secure the end more effectually. The State is
another society to which every man belongs, unless
he chance to be placed in wholly abnormal circum-
stances of solitude. The end of this society is the
temporal well-being of its members. It is only as
member of some civil community that a man can
make use of all his faculties ; but he is ordinarily at
full liberty to transfer himself from one to another
at his pleasure. Lastly, as man has a supernatural
destiny appointed him by God, as will be fully
explained in another place in our second volume, it
has pleased God to establish a society which all
men are bound to enter, and which has for its
end the helping its members to attain their true
supernatural end. This Society is the Church.
175] FAMILY, STATE, AND CHURCH. 147
It is to be observed that every permanent, stable
society is entitled to the name of a state : and it
follows that the Church is a state. But this word
is not often used, except as meaning the civil state,
which is distinguished from the ecclesiastical : the
word civil is inserted whenever there is risk of
ambiguity.
176. The Church Supernatural. What we have
said as to the end of the Church suffices to prove
that the Church is a perfect society, or one which
is self-sufficing, not needing the aid of any other
society ; and this because its end is independent,
and not included in the end of any other society,
such as the civil state. The end of a railway com-
pany is to facilitate communication, which belongs
to the temporal well-being of the people, and thus
comes within the end of civil society ; a railway
company, therefore, is not a perfect society. But
the end of the Church is nothing temporal, except
so far as the present life is the time during which
each man is bound to secure his eternal end. The
end of the State, therefore, does not include the end
of the Church.
It is in and through the Church that the work
of Christ is carried on in the world. This follows
from the charge given by Christ to His Apostles
(St. John xx. 21) : " As the Father hath sent Me,
I also send you," and other texts on the same
subject (St. Matt, xxviii. 18 ; St. Mark xvi. 15) ; and
we see from 2 Cor. v. 20 that St. Paul regarded
himself as being an ambassador for Christ. The
work of Christ is double : He once for all redeemed
148 THE END OF THE CHURCH [176
mankind by His Death on Calvary; and this
redemption is continually applied to individual
men by the ministry of the Church.
The Church is to be called a Supernatural
Society, inasmuch as its end is something above
nature : understanding by nature that which is
required by the constitution of man, of body and
soul. It will be shown in its proper place that man
might have been created with no destiny but that
which would be required by his nature, as being
composed of a rational soul informing a material
body. But the actual destiny prepared for man is
something higher than this, being the sight of God,
called the Beatific Vision ; and the end for which
the Church is established is to assist man to lead
a holy life on earth, and by so doing to attain
to his eternal end. This end being supernatural
(St. Thomas, Sum. Theol. i. 2. q. 5. a. 5.), the Church
may be called a Supernatural Society. Moreover, the
foundation of the Church was supernatural, being
the work of the Son of God made Flesh : admission
to it is obtained, as we shall see, by Baptism, and
the means of sanctification which it employs are the
O'her Sacraments, which are supernatural : and it
i> under the special supernatural guidance of the
Holy Spirit.
177. Christ the Head, the Church the Body.
Much that has been said in the last paragraph
needs illustration and development to be obtained
f om various parts of Theology. But the doctrine
that the Church is supernatural follows at once
from the view which the Fathers have derived from
177] CHRIST THE HEAD, THE CHURCH THE BODY. 249
the Scripture, that the Church may be spoken of as
a Body, under Christ the Head. This idea is set
forth in the whole of the twelfth chapter of the First
Epistle to the Corinthians, and is used by St. Paul
as the foundation of an argument on a practical
matter; and in the fourth chapter of the Epistle
to the Ephesians we read that Apostles and other
pastors were given for the edifying of the Body of
Christ ; that we -may in all things grow up in Him
Who is the Head, even Christ. (See also Ephes.
v. 22 24.) The Fathers point out that this
doctrine involves the pre-eminence of Christ over
the Church ; for, as St. Augustine observes (On the
Christian Struggle, c. xx. n. 22 ; P.L. 40, 301), the
head, where the senses have their place, is in a
manner the representative of the soul of man ; and
in like manner Christ is the Head over all the
Christian people. Again, the influence of the head
redounds into the whole body, which derives all its
living power from the head ; and so we read in
St. John (i. 16), that of the fulness of Christ we all
have received ; and St. Paul tells us (Coloss. ii. 19),
that from the head the whole body, by joints and
bands being supplied with nourishment and com-
pacted, groweth unto the increase of God. In like
manner, Origen says (Contra Celsum, vi. 48 ; P.G. n,
1373), that the Word of God, moving the whole
body, that is to say, the Church, as need requires,
moves also each member of them that belong to the
Church.
178. The Mystic Body. When it is wished to
distinguish the natural Body of Christ which formed
ijo THE END OF THE CHURCH. (178
part of the Sacred Humanity from the Church,
that is done by saying that the Church is the
mystic body. This word denotes something the
nature of which is known by revelation only, and
Qot by natural sources of knowledge, It is plain
that the relation of the Church to Christ deserves
this name, for it is by revelation that we know that
He was the Incarnate Son of God, and that He is
still the source of all the grace which comes to the
members of the Church.
179. The Three Societies. We have seen that the
three societies of which we have been speaking,
having distinct and independent ends, are inde-
pendent one of the other, (n. 176.) Not only the
object sought, but the means employed and the
conditions and duration of membership are totally
different in the three cases. The members in each
case are living human beings, and in the ideal con-
dition of affairs every such human being would be a
member of all three, and he would have no difficulty
in conforming his conduct to the laws of all three.
If each society be governed with wisdom, its end
will be attained, without the smallest interference
with the other two. If cases of apparent conflict
arise, it is because the governors of one society have
yielded to an ever-present tendency and encroached
upon the domain of the other ; as if the Church
were to prescribe the number of hours of sleep to
be allowed to an infant, or an emperor to put forth
professions of religious faith.
At the same time, each of the three societies can
assist the other two, by inducing its members to
179] THE THREE SOCIETIES. *ji
do their duty in all respects, which will include
their doing their duty as members of the other
societies; and each will find its advantage in
thus acting. Parents will train their children in
habits of piety and of respect for authority ; while
the State lends the assistance of its physical force
to secure both the family and the Church in the
exercise of their rights. The Church assists the
other societies by its insistance upon the duty of
piety, which regulates the relations of superiors and
inferiors, urging the doctrine of St. Paul that every
soul should be subject to higher powers, for there is
no power but from God ; and this for conscience
sake (Romans xiii. I 5) ; and again, that children
should obey their parents in the Lord. (Ephes. vi. i.)
In point of fact, we learn from history in how many
ways the influence of the Church has helped to
promote the end of civil society, which is the
temporal well-being of man. It has not always
succeeded, but its tendency has been to abolish
slavery, by teaching that all men are brothers of
Christ ; to exalt women, by declaring that marriage
was raised to the dignity of a Sacrament, and pro-
claiming it indissoluble, as well as by exhibiting the
high dignity of the Mother of God ; it has restrained
tyranny, for God shall judge the tyrant ; it has effec-
tively urged men to visit the tribes of barbarians,
bringing civilization along with religion; and it
has wrought a revolution in the condition of the
poor, by the simple promise that what is done to
them shall be regarded as done to Christ. (St. Matt,
xxv. 40.)
5 THE END OF THE CHURCH. [180
180. The Ends compared. We have seen that
the three societies may work together in harmony,
and -will do so, if all do their duty. But cases may
arise of apparent clash, and it is necessary to con-
sider what course is to be adopted. The matter
is settled by considering the ends : the end of
civil society is superior to that of the family, and
the end of the Church is the chief of all ; for the
work of the family belongs principally to infancy,
that of the State to adult life, while that of the
Church is mainly attained beyond the grave, and
concerns eternity. It follows that when parents
plainly and grossly neglect their duty to their
children, the State is in its right in controlling them ;
as if they starve their children, neglect to provide
them with medical care and education, or bring
them up in ways opposed to common morality. In
like manner, the Church curbs the gross excesses of
the State by solemn condemnation, which gives
voice to the judgment of the people, and sometimes
by inflicting excommunication or other spiritual
punishments for crime ; more frequently, however,
by the passive attitude of refusal of obedience to an
unjust command, with patient endurance of the
results ; on the principle taught by the Apostles, that
we ought to obey God rather than men. (Acts v. 29.)
What has just been said is independent of the
question as to the right by which the Roman
Pontiffs at one time were accustomed to take what
may seem to have been purely political action ; it
may be that they acted merely in virtue of a right
Accorded to them by the public law of Christendom.
i8o] THE ENDS COMPARED. 253
More will be found on the subject of this and the
foregoing sections in a future page. (nn. 300 305.)
181. Duty of Membership. It is explained in
Ethics that that conduct of man is morally right
which tends to bring him to his end. We have
already seen (n. 176) that the end of man is the
supernatural possession of God, and the point will
be proved in its proper place ; man is therefore
bound to use all means available to him for
attaining this end, among which must be reckoned
membership of the supernatural society which has
been divinely instituted to help men to attain this
end. It is, therefore, the duty of every man to
become a member of the Church, and, being a
member, to obey its laws. Just as with all other
duties, no man sins by omitting to join himself to
the Church if for any reason it is impossible to do
so, or if he be ignorant of his duty. If a person has
never heard of the claims of the Church to his
obedience, his ignorance obviously excuses him from
sin in not obeying ; for there is no sin where there
is no malicious will, and his ignorance prevents his
exercising any will in the matter. Also, if he has
heard something of the claims of the Church, and
has inquired into the foundation of these claims
without arriving at assurance that they are based on
a Divine command, he is excused ; for under these
circumstances it is not certain to him that there is
any law binding him. But the case is different if
the doubt as to his duty arise in his mind and he
fail to take pains to clear it up, using as much
diligence as he would use if some weighty temporal
154 THE END OF THE CHURCH. {181
interest of his own were concerned. Such neglect
will be more or less faulty according to the greater
or less urgency with which the duty of inquiry
presents itself to his mind ; ignorance may excuse
from the fulfilment of a duty, but it may itself be
sinful, as resulting from the neglect of some other
duty.
The spiritual position of those who live and die
outside the visible communion of the Church, does
not concern us now; it will be considered in its
place, in the Treatise on Grace. At present, it is
enough to say that, as we believe, there is no
eternal torment in store except for such as freely,
knowingly, and wilfully violate the law of God in a
grave matter, and persevere in their rebellious dis-
position to the end of their time of probation.
At the same time it must be remembered that,
though the position of men who are outside the
visible communion of the Church may possibly not
be sin nor the result of sin, yet it is a grievous
misfortune. Membership of the Church is a position
which entails duties, but to which also immense
privileges are attached ; chief among these is the
right of participating in the Sacraments, which are
the principal means by which the merits of the
Death of Christ are applied to individuals; and
this itself is only a part of the life-giving influence
which is ever flowing from Christ the Head to the
members of His Mystic Body. See the same idea
under another figure in St. John's Gospel, (xv. 4.)
The subject of doubts as to faith will recur,
(n.
181) DUTY OF MEMBERSHIP. 855
What we have been saying is embodied in the
short maxim, that outside the Church there is no
salvation. All who attain salvation without being
visible members of the Church, do so by virtue of
an invisible membership. In this way are reconciled
the declarations of the Fourth Lateran Council
under Innocent III. in 1215, Extra Ecclesiam nullus
omnino salvatur " Outside the Church no man
whatever is saved " (Denz. 357 ; see also 635), and
the Decretal of the same Pope (ibid. 343) with the
Encyclicals of Pius IX. (Denz. 1504, 1529), who
teaches that God in His goodness cannot allow
any one to pass to eternal punishment who is not
guilty of wilful fault. The rule is that salvation
belongs to the members of the visible body ; as to
others, we have no distinct revelation, but we know
that God is just. St. Pius V. and other Popes have
condemned the proposition put forward by Baius,
that there is sin in purely negative infidelity, in those
to whom Christ has not been preached.
What we have given as the rule follows from
what we have said as to the Church. Salvation is
through Christ ; the Church is the means by which
the work of Christ is perpetuated on earth. The
parting words of our Lord (St. Mark xvi. 16)
promised salvation to him that believes and by
Baptism becomes a member of the Church ; and
the doctrine of St. Peter (i St. Peter iii. 20) teaches
that in the Ark of Noe a few persons were saved by
water, whereunto Baptism being of the like form
saveth us also. It is in accordance with this Apostle
that St. Augustine speaks (De Unitate Ecclesice, c. 5,
256 THE END OF THE CHURCH. [181
n. 9 ; P.G. 43, 397) : No Christian doubts that,
without interfering with the truth of the narrative,
which tells how the house of the just man was
saved from the Flood while the sinners perished, the
Ark of Noe was also a figure of the Church. Origen
also, commenting on the history of the spies who
were received by Rahab (Josue ii. 19; vi. 22),
remarks that outside this house, that is to say
outside the Church, no man is saved. (Origen, Horn,
in lib. Jesu Nane, 3, n. 5 ; P.G. 12, 841.) The phrase
of St. Cyprian is to the same effect : No one can
have God for his Father, who has not the Church
for his Mother. (De Unitate Eccl. n. 6; P.L. 4,
503.)
182. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have
described what is meant by a society, and pointed
out that there are three principal societies, to which
every one ought to belong, and which are dis-
tinguished by their ends. Among these it is shown
that the Church is a supernatural body having
Christ for its Head ; and that the three can work
harmoniously together, but that in case of clash,
the Church should prevail. Lastly, that is not a
duty alone, but a privilege and advantage to belong
to the Church.
CHAPTER III.
THE MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH.
183. Subject of Chapter. The Church of Christ,
as we have seen (n. 172), is a society made up of
living men. In the present chapter our task will be
to consider what men they are that belong to this
society ; what are the terms of admission ; can one
who has once gained admission lose the privilege :
if so, can he regain it, and on what conditions. We
shall find that the answers to these questions are in
some cases furnished us by formal definitions of the
Church ; in other cases, no such definition can be
found, but there is such an agreement among persons
of authority that the answer to be given is not open
to doubt ; while in yet other cases the point is still
freely discussed in the Catholic schools. A great
part of the discussion is of a fundamental nature,
touching the leading points of difference between
the Church and many of the forms of Christianity
that exist in Western Europe and in America ; and
the whole throws much light upon the true character
of the sacred society.
184. Terms defined. It will be necessary in the
course of this discussion to use certain terms which
enter into the questions which we are to discuss,
R VOL. I.
158 THB MEMBERS OP THE CHURCH. [184
but ths full meaning and bearing of which cannot
be understood until we come to them in their proper
place, in the Treatise on Grace and elsewhere. We
shall find that some of the warmest controversies of
theology turn upon the exact nature of the things
denoted by these terms ; but an explanation of these
terms, sufficient for our present purpose, can be
givsn without the introduction of any controverted
matter. This will be sufficient for our purpose, and
we proceed to endeavour to give it.
I. The Blessed. The Lost. Probably all who
bear the name of Christian agree that, at the close
of the present life on earth, men pass through death
to another form of life : and that in this other life
each man will find himself in one or the other of
two great classes, between which there is a broad,
essential, enduring difference : those whose place is
in the one class enjoying a happiness which the
members of the other class are without. The
doctrine is founded on countless passages of Scrip-
ture, among which it may be sufficient to refer to
St. Matt. xxv. 33. The discussion of the nature of
the life of the two classes belongs to the Treatise
on the Four Last Things. We will speak of these
classes as the Blessed and the Lost.
II. The Just. Sinners. It follows that every
man, at each instant of his existence on earth, is
in such a state that if he die at that instant he will
either be one of the number of the Blessed, or of the
number of the Lost. Following the usage of the
Holy Gospel (St. Luke v. 22) we will call these the
Just and Sinners respectively. With a change of
184] THB JUST. SINNERS. s
phrase, we sometimes speak of the Just as being in
the state of grace, and of Sinners as being in the
state of sin. The sense in which this term ig
generally applicable to infants who have never been
guilty of any sinful act will be seen when we speak
of Original Sin.
III. Predestined. Foreknown. God knows all
things, past, present, and to come : wherefore,
among the rest, He knows, of each man, whether
after death he will be one of the Blessed or of the
Lost ; or, in other terms, whether at the instant
before death he will be one of the Just or of the
Sinners. We hold, with St. Paul (i Timothy ii. 4),
that God will have all men to be saved, or, in other
words, that He has destined each man for a place
in the ranks of the Blessed, and that in the case of
the Lost this Divine destination has been frustrated :
God simply knows beforehand that they will not
attain to that for which He destined them. Hence,
the word Predestined rightly expressed the state of
those living men who after death will be among the
Blessed : those living men who after death will be
among the Lost are fitly said to be Foreknown.
We shall see in the Treatise on Grace that this
doctrine of Predestination in no way interferes with
the freedom and responsibility of men, and that it is
sound advice in which the doctrine of St. Augustine
has been summed up : If you are not predestined,
act so as to make yourself be so. (See Franzelin,
De Deo, p. 592.)
IV. Justification. Sin. We hold that a person
is sometimes transferred, by the free mercy of God
26o THE MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH. [184
with or without his own concurrence, from the
number of Sinners to the number of the Just : and
that no one of the Just ever passes to the ranks of
Sinners unless he commit a mortal sin ; that is to
say, freely and knowingly do some act which God
has forbidden under pain of His grievous dis-
pleasure. This shows the meaning of the term
Justification and Sin. If a Scripture basis for this
language is sought, it will be found in Romans
iii. 24 and i. 32. Throughout the reasoning life of
a man he is liable to sin (i Cor. x. 12), and he is
capable of Justification. (Ezech. xviii. 27.)
185. Figures of the Church. In Holy Scripture
we find various figures employed to describe the
Church, and each of these teaches us some new
lesson. The Church is the Vine, which spreads its
branches everywhere (St. John xv. i 7), and every
leaf of which owes its life to its connection with the
Stem. The Church is the House where God is the
Householder, Who cares for His Family while they
remain with Him, and if they have left Him is ever
ready to receive them when they please to return.
(St. Luke xv. ii 24.) The Church is the Sheep-
fold, wherein are sheep and goats, all of which the
faithful Shepherd defends from the ravening wolves
that devour whatever they find beyond the fence.
(St. John x. ii 16.) The Church is a Kingdom,
and is repeatedly spoken of by St. Matthew as the
Kingdom of Heaven, while St. Mark and St. Luke
prefer the phrase Kingdom of God. But there is
no figure more constantly employed than that of a
Living Body, such as the body of man, in which at
185] FIGURES OF THE CHURCH 261
once we distinguish Head and Members or Limbs,
This figure recommended itself especially to St. Paul,
who uses and enlarges on it repeatedly (Romans xii. ;
i Cor. vi. ; I Cor. xii.), and from him the usage
has passed into the language of Catholic theology,
and it is usual to speak of the Head of the Church,
an I of the Members or Limbs that constitute the
association.
186. Soul and Body of the Church. But when the
Church is compared to a body, it must be remem-
bered that this is a living body, for the Church is
not a dead corpse. Now, we know that in a living
man there is a material body informed by a spiritual
soul : the body considered as being apart from the
soul is dead, while the soul is essentially living ; but
we have not the full life of a man unless soul and
body are fittingly united together. From these con-
siderations we are led to inquire whether there is
anything in the Church that corresponds to the soul
and body of a living man. Now the body, con-
sidered as a mere mass of matter, is equally ready
for many purposes ; it is the union with a human
soul which determines it as being a body of a man.
In the same way, a society is a collection of men,
but there must be something beside and beyond the
fact that a number of men are gathered together
that determines them as being a society of this or
that character : there must be some end which it is
proposed to attain by association, and some spirit
permeating the society, and leading each of its
members so to shape his individual conduct as more
or less to promote this end. It will often be difficult
2fa THE MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH. [186
to put into words what it is that constitutes this
spirit, and it will sometimes be yet harder to feel
assured how far it is partaken of by all those who in
outward semblance belong to the society ; also, we
often have reason to believe that the spirit exists in
some men who do not, in a material sense, belong
to the association. This is well seen in the case of
a nation. There is some principle, some sameness
of spirit, which unites all men who are entitled to
be called Englishmen, although it might be hard to
state with fulness and precision what elements are
found in this spirit. Regularly and in the bulk of
cases the possession of this spirit goes along with
birth and residence in England ; and in a certain
true sense, all in whom this material element is
found may be called Englishmen. But not in the
lull sense ; for there is little doubt that there are
persons resident in England who are wholly devoid
of the English spirit : who make to themselves an
end diverse from the end of the English nation, and
whose action is directed to the attainment of the
end which they have proposed to themselves ; while,
on the other hand, there may be persons resident in
other countries who are full of a spirit which is, in
fact, the English spirit whether they are aware of it
or not. On these principles we can distinguish the
soul and the body of the English nation. The
external fact of residence marks who belong to the
body ; possession of the spirit makes the man
belong to the soul : regularly, the soul and the
body are composed of the same persons ; but excep-
tionally, there may be persons belonging to the soul
t36J SOUL AND BODY OP THE CHURCH. 263
who belong not to the body, and belonging to the
body who belong not to the soul.
In exactly the same way we speak of the Soul
and the Body of the Church. The Church is a
society of men instituted by Christ, and having for
its end to lead and enable men to avail themselves
of the redemption of the human race wrought by
the Founder ; and this society is as we have seen
(n. 168) visible: it has an external organization.
But it is important to know whether the possession
of the spirit is co-extensive -with the outward organi-
zation, or whether, on the other hand, the spirit
may in some instances be found beyond the bounds
of the organization, while in other instances it is
lacking within those bounds. In other words, we
must inquire what constitutes membership of the
Soul of the Church, and who they are that are
members of the Body.
187. Who belong to the Soul. From the explana-
tion given it follows without difficulty that they, and
they only, belong to the Soul of the Church who,
if the question were now to be settled, would be
found to have secured to themselves the fruits of
the Redemption ; to have the spiritual life abun-
dantly that Christ came to give (St. John x. 10) ; to
be partakers of the Divine Nature (2 St. Peter i. 4),
as St. Peter speaks : for these only are fit to pass to
that union with God which constitutes the state of
the Blessed ; in other words, the Just and the Just
alone constitute the Soul of the Church, (n. 184, II.)
It will be seen that membership of the Soul of
the Church is a present fact, and is independent of
j' 4 THE MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH. [187
past and future ; he that is a member of it may
cease to be so by Sin, he that is not a member may
become so by Justification, (n. 184, IV.) Exactly
the same is true of nations : he that is now full
of English spirit which actuates him in all his
conduct may once have been the determined enemy
of England, and may hereafter again take up this
spirit of enmity. It follows that there may be
some of the Predestined who do not now belong to
the Soul of the Church, and some who now belong
to that Soul but are not of the number of the
Predestined.
We have been speaking so far of the fulness of
membership of the Soul of the Church ; but it is
certain that many who are not of the number of the
Just nevertheless are receiving something of the
benefit of the Redemption, for they receive grace
which tends to lead them to Justification, and
without which they cannot be justified, as will be
seen in the Treatise on Grace : these, then, may be
said to belong to the Soul of the Church, but in an
imperfect sense.
It will be observed that there are no outward
means of telling, except by mere conjecture, what
men do belong to the Soul of the Church, and what
men do not belong to it : neither have we any
information, beyond conjecture, what proportion of
mankind belong to it at any given instant. God
has reserved to Himself this knowledge and the
knowledge of the number of the Predestined.
(2 Timothy ii. 19, and the Secret said in the
Mass during Lent.)
1 88] . ; WHO BELONG TO THE BODY. 265
188. Who belong to the Body. There is little room
for difference of opinion as to the matter discussed
in the last paragraph : when once the meaning that
we ascribe to the phrase " Soul of the Church " is
understood, it follows as of course that the Soul is
co-extensive with the Just. But it is otherwise with
regard to the Body of the Church ; and some of the
profoundest differences between Catholics and other
Christians show themselves in connection with the
question W 10 belong to the Body of the Church.
Also, this is a question on some branches of which
there is not absolute agreement among Catholic
theologians. We shall first state what is denned
doctrine : then deal with the principal errors
opposed to it ; and lastly, discuss some of the
points on which we have no declaration of the
Church.
We have seen in the earlier part of this Treatise
that Christ established a society to continue His
work on earth, and enable each man to reap the
benefit of the Redemption which He wrought ;
and this society is indicated in the Scriptures by
various figures, some of which we have cited.
(n. 185.)
We have then now to inquire who they are that
are branches of the Vine : who belong to the Family
of the Great Householder ; who are the sheep that
are within the Fold ; who are the subjects of the
Kingdom : who, finally, are members of the Body.
To discover the answer to these questions we must
look in the Gospels, for it is in them that we read
what are the dispositions which it pleased the
t66 THE MEMBERS OP THE CHURCH. . [188
Founder to make, and it must always be held in
mind that the matter is determined by His will,
and cannot be settled by any speculations of our
own as to what arrangements we should think con-
venient. We must see what are the conditions of
membership : conditions which in the Divine design
were to be fulfilled by all the human race (Isaias ii. 2 ;
Romans x. 12), and the fulfilment of which secures
great spiritual blessings which are lost by those in
whose cases the conditions are not fulfilled, whether
the failure be wilful or unavoidable. Following this
method, we find that the Founder required that
every member of the Church should be admitted by
the initiatory rite of Baptism. The closing charge
given by our Lord to His Apostles was to go and
make disciples of all nations, baptizing them with
the rite which then became a Christian Sacrament
(St. Matt, xxviii. 19) ; and the Apostles acted on
the injunction, as is seen in many passages of the
Acts (ii. 38 ; viii. 12 ; viii. 36 ; ix. 18, &c.), and of
the Epistles. (Galat. iii. 27.) A condition of this
Baptism was the profession of belief in the doctrine
taught by the accredited ministers of the Church
(Acts viii. 37 ; xvi. 31) ; and they who had been
received into the society retained this belief and
continued in spiritual communion with the Apostles.
(Acts ii. 42.) And in these three elements, Baptism,
profession of belief, and communion with those who
have authority in the Church, especially by recep-
tion of the Sacraments administered by them, we
have all that is required to constitute any man a
member of the Body of the Church.
188] WHO BELONG TO THE BODY. 267
The whole of this doctrine will be better under-
stood when the following paragraphs are read, in
which we deal with various errors upon the subject
of the Body.
189. Various Errors. It will be observed that
all the elements which we have just explained as
requisite in a member of the Body of the Church
are of an external nature ; and this is in agreement
with our doctrine (n. 168) that the Church is visible;
for a society is not visible, in the sense explained, if
membership of it depends upon purely internal facts,
especially if they are such as are known to God
alone. Perhaps no one has asserted the necessity
of any further external condition distinct from those
that have been mentioned, so that our doctrine is
admitted by all writers who uphold the doctrine of
the Visibility of the Church, as is done by the
writers of some schools within the Established
Church of England ; and this agreement is per-
fectly consistent with great variety of belief as to
the true nature and conditions of Baptism, as to
the faith which it is necessary to possess, and as
to the ^persons by whom lawful Sacraments are
administered.
But other schools within the Establishment,
together with perhaps all other Protestants, set
up the need of certain internal elements in the
character of a member of the Body of the Church,
and these consistently deny that the Church is
Visible. The systems which are advocated by these
have their speculative side, by which they are con-
nected with certain erroneous views on the nature
268 THE MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH. [189
of justification and on the impossibility of one who
has once been in God's favour and Just, in the sense
explained in n. 184, falling away and passing to the
class of Sinners. But these same systems have their
practical side, which perhaps constitutes no small
part of their attractiveness, for they open a door
which afforded escape from the yoke of subjection
to authority. The view that no one was a member
of that Body of the Church which has authority
to enforce discipline if certain interior, invisible
elements were wanting to him, was supplemented
by another equally false doctrine that no share of
the authority of the Church could be exercised by
one who did not belong to the Body. (See n. 193.)
Hence it was easy to conclude that no one was
bound to render obedience to a man in whose case
he judged that these internal requisites of member-
ship were wanting; ( and as a judgment of this kind
was purely arbitrary, the doctrines in question in
fact afforded an excuse for declining all submission
to ecclesiastical authority ; and it was a not unna-
tural sequel to say that no civil authority over
Christians could belong to one who had never
acquired or had forfeited the name of Christian.
We need not dwell on the history of the
Novatian heresy, which sprang up about the year
251 ; starting from the true doctrine that to obtain
a false certificate of having complied with the law
of the persecutors by sacrificing to idols was a
grievous sin, these heretics maintained that these
libellatici (n. 133) were incapable of pardon ; that
all who communicated with them, in like manner,
189] VARIOUS ERRORS. 269
were guilty of unpardonable sin, and forfeited all
authority in the Church. Hence they concluded
that Pope St. Cornelius, who had compromised
himself in this manner, was no longer Pope, and
they proceeded to supply him with a successor ;
and thus the honour of being the first anti-Pope
falls to Novatian. The particulars will be seen in
any history of the Church : for example, Rohrbacher.
(3, 285, seq.) In like manner, the Donatists main-
tained that the whole Church, except themselves,
had become corrupt through holding communion
with some traditores (n. 133), who had delivered up
the sacred books at the bidding of Diocletian ; and
they are often taunted by St. Augustine with holding
that the true faith which ought to be world-wide
was confined to a corner of Africa. (St. Augustine,
Epistle 44 ; P.L. 33, 175, and Rohrbacher, 3, 489, &c.)
In just the same spirit, the Fraticelli, in the
thirteenth century, held that the holiness of spiritual
life and authority were not to be found beyond
the bounds of their own body: a tenet which was
condemned by Pope John XXII. in 1318. (Denz.
414.) Just a century later, we find Pope Martin V.,
in the Council of Constance, condemning a number
of propositions taught by John Wyclif in England,
and by John Hus in Bohemia, among which we
have, that no one is civil governor, prelate, or
bishop while he is in mortal sin (Denz. 491) ; that
the prayer of the Foreknown is of no avail (Ibid.
502, and see n. 184 ante) ; and that the Church is
the collection of the Predestinate. Similar views
were held by Luther and Calvin, and as to the
70 THE if EMBERS OF THE CHURCH. [185
moral results we may consult the two little books
mentioned in the Note below l : and the same
prevailed among the Jansenists, whose heresy had
so much in common with that of Calvin, and whose
history and teaching will come before us more
than once. One of the most prominent among
them was Pasquier Quesnel, a Frenchman, whose
Reflexions Morales sur U Nouveau Testament was pub-
lished in 1694. These Reflections were expressed
in language of great piety, and insidiously conveyed
doctrines the plain statement of which would have
shocked a reader who retained any Catholic prin-
ciples. It may suffice to quote one : " There is
nothing of more ample reach than the Church of
God, for it is composed of all the Elect and Just
of all ages." (Denz. 1291.) Here we have a
covert insinuation that the Elect and the Just are
co-extensive classes, and that no man is in the
Church who does not belong to the Elect and Just.
This doctrine, along with a hundred other similar
remarks, was justly condemned by Pope Clement
XL, when in 1713 he issued the Bull Unigenitus,
the conflicts concerning which fill so large a place
in Church history. Finally, we may mention the
Synod of Pistoia, an assembly of Tuscan Bishops
who gathered together in the year 1789 under the
guidance of the Grand Duke Leopold and of Scipio
Ricci, the Bishop of the place of meeting. These
1 " The Truth about JOHN WYCLIF, chiefly from Evidence of his
Contemporaries " : by JOHN STEVENSON, S.J.
"The Only Reliable Evidence concerning MARTIN LUTHE"
by HENRY O'CoNiioR, S.J.
189] VARIOUS ERRORS. 271
put into form a large body of propositions on
various points of faith, morals, and discipline,
which embodied the views that recommended
themselves to the Emperor Joseph II., brother of
Leopold, and defended by the courtly theologian,
Hontheim, who published, under the name Febronius.
These were condemned in the Bull Auctorem Fidei,
issued in 1794, in which Pope Pius VI. condemned
a large number of errors which had been taught
at Pistoia, affixing to each its proper censure.
Among the rest, the I5th (Denz. 1378) denounces
as heretical the doctrine that none belong to the
Body of the Church except the faithful who are
perfect worshippers in spirit and in truth.
St. Ignatius of Loyola seems to have had a wise
foresight of these and similar errors : for in his book
of Spiritual Exercises, when laying down rules " for
maintaining due harmony of feeling with the Church,"
he gives the first place to the following : " Laying
aside all judgment of our own, we must keep out
minds prompt and ready to obey in all things the
true Spouse of Christ our Lord, which is our Holy
Mother, the hierarchical Church." The meaning
of this epithet is that our obedience is due not to
any abstract Church of our own imagining, but to
the Church as actually represented and ruled by
the men who compose the various ranks of the
Hierarchy under the Supreme Pontiff. (See Ferrusola,
in Exercitia, p. 2, sect. 7, cap. 2.)
190. The Predestined. The various condemna-
tions that have been quoted leave no doubt as to
the doctrine of the Catholic. Church : persons who
27a THE MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH. [190
are not Predestined may be members of the Body
of the Church, as may also persons who are in the
state of sin ; and there may be persons who are
Predestined, or who are Just, who do not belong
to this Body. As already explained, both these
doctrines follow immediately from the doctrine that
the Church is Visible, for whether each particular
man is Predestined and whether he is at each
instant Just, are secrets known to God alone. But
we will here give direct proof that Predestination
is not a condition of membership, and in the next
paragraph speak of Sinners.
The point must be settled by the language of
Holy Scripture, and this language puts the matter
beyond doubt. It cannot be denied that the com-
munities to whom the Epistles of the Apostles were
addressed belonged to the Body of the Church.
These Epistles are full of expressions of the writer's
anxiety lest any Christian should fail to live up to
his vocation. St. Paul did not believe that his own
salvation was secure unless he used the means
needed for securing it (i Cor. ix. 27) ; and clear
proof must be given before we can believe that
Hymeneus and Alexander were among the Pre-
destined, although we read of them that they made
shipwreck concerning the faith, and were delivered
up to Satan that they might learn not to blaspheme,
(i Timothy i. 20.) Whatever may be the exact
meaning of this phrase, it suggests that St. Paul
did not believe that these men were among the
Predestinate ; and yet they had been members of
the Church. St. Peter knew that those to whom
190] THE PREDESTINED. 273
he wrote stood in need of fear (i St. Peter iii. 16),
St. John knew that some Antichrists went forth
out of the Christian body, (i St. John ii. 19.) It is
Christians who are reminded by St. James (i. 15)
that sin begetteth death ; and St. Jude (verse 4)
speaks of ungodly men who secretly entered in and
despised dominion. All this is inconsistent with
the idea that all the members of the Christian com-
munities were necessarily Predestined ; nor, on the
other hand, can we hold that all the Predestined
are Christians, when we remember that Christian
converts came in from the ranks of the Jews and
heathen : Predestination belongs to the Predestined
man throughout his existence, before his conversion
no less than after.
The difficulties that are urged against our
doctrine, from Scripture and the Fathers, will be
considered in n. 192.
191. The Just. That sinners may be members
of the Church follows from the parables and
figures which are found in the thirteenth chapter of
St. Matthew's Gospel. We there read of the cockle
that was sown among the wheat, and which sprang
up and was allowed to remain until the end ; and
the explanation which is added leaves no doubt as
to who are represented by the wheat and the cockle.
In the same sense we read that the Kingdom of
Heaven is like to a net which gathers all kinds
of fishes, good and bad, and retains them, till it is
drawn to shore; and again we have the express
declaration that this means how at the end of the
world, but not till then, the angels shall separate
S VOL. I.
74 THE MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH. [191
the wicked from among the just. In the same
St. Matthew (xviii. 17), we read of the power given
to the rulers of the Church to excommunicate the
obstinate sinner ; if he refuses to hear the Church
he is to be as the heathen, which implies that up to
that time he was a Christian, in spite of his sin.
St. Paul acted on the power thus given (i Cor. v),
expressly declaring that there was no authority in
the Church to judge any but them that were within;
it follows that the sin which incurred punishment
did not of itself put the sinner without the body of
the Church.
That the Fathers held our doctrine is abundantly
evident from the whole course of the controversy
with the Donatists. It will be sufficient to quote
one short passage from St. Augustine, where we have
a formal statement. Commenting on the Parable
of the Marriage Feast (St. Matt. xxii. I 14), and
remarking that the marriage was filled with guests,
gathered from the highways, both good and bad, h>
goes on : " Such in our own day is the Church, full
of good and bad." (Serm. 250. n. 2; P.L. 39, 1164.)
Also, if sinners cannot partake in the privileges that
belong to members of the Church, it is impossible to
explain the existence of the Sacrament of Penance ;
in this Sacrament pardon is granted to souls stained
with the gravest sins, if only this pardon is sought
with due dispositions, as will be explained when we
treat of this Sacrament. The Sacraments of the
Church are for her members. Also the Sacrifice
of the Mass is daily offered for all the faithful, fo<
the remission of their sins.
IQ] DIFFICULTIES. 175
192. Difficulties. The objections that are brought
against our doctrine are multifarious, and we cannot
afford space to go fully into all. They will be found
collected, at considerable length in Dr. Murray's
very learned and complete work. (Tractatus de
Ecclesia Christi.) This writer has ransacked the
writings of Protestant divines (Disp. iii. sec. 3), and
sets forth their arguments in their own words,
adding his answers. The variety of form which can
be given to the objections is very great, and we
can do no more than deal with some specimens
belonging to different classes, with our replies.
I. The argument from the Parable of the Cockle
assumes that the field in which the seed is sown is
the Church ; whereas this field is the world, as we
are expressly told. (St. Matt. xiii. 38.) I reply that
the crop is the Church, set in the world and
comprising both wheat and cockle.
II. Though some of the Corinthians were for a
time irregular in their life, yet these irregularities did
not deprive them of their holiness, for St. Paul
addresses them as saints. (2 Cor. i. i.) But, he
used this word of the whole community, not as
necessarily applicable to every one ; it was truly
applicable to many.
III. Nothing can belong to the Body which is
not under the influence of the Soul ; but sinners are
not members of the Soul of the Church. I reply
that, although they are not members of the Soul
in the full sense, yet they share to some degree
in the life that the Soul communicates. (See
n. 187.)
276 THE MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH. (192
IV. Christ is the Head of the Church, but the
Body of Christ cannot have members who are
members of Satan, who cannot say, " Our Father
Who art in Heaven." The reply is that sinners are
not altogether cut off from Christ, if they retain the
faith, and these, being sons although undutiful, can
address God as their Father.
V. Arguments are drawn from the very obscure
passages, Ephes. iv. 15 ; Coloss. ii. 19 ; I St. Peter
ii. 4; for the development of which, with the replies,
recourse must be had to Dr. Murray or Cardinal
Franzelin. (De Ecclesia, 440, &c.) The scope of these
passages is confessedly not clear; and it is a sound
rule of interpretation that obscure phrases must be
interpreted by what is clear, not conversely. The
passages which we adduce in support of our doctrine
seem clear.
VI. The same remark must be made concerning
stray passages which are gathered from the volumi-
nous works of St. Augustine. Those who are
familiar with the method of this holy Doctor know
that he frequently speaks of things according to the
ideal which they ought to attain, and not according
to the state in which they actually are ; also, that
in his controversial writings, it is often difficult to
be sure how far he is speaking according to the
mind of his adversary rather than according to
his own ; meeting him on his own ground, as it were.
But the interpretation of St. Augustine is a work for
a lifetime.
.VII. St. Paul frequently uses the word saint or
elect as equivalent to Christian. (Romans xvi. 15 ;
19*] DIFFICULTIES. 277
2 Timothy ii. 10.) He does this because they belong
to a Church which is holy in the end it aims at,
the means it uses, and in the doctrine it teaches ;
also in the holiness of many of its members. (See
the Sixth Chapter of this Treatise.)
VIII. Some writers have thought to support
their cause by urging that if there be one sinner in
the Church, why not two, and three, and so on, till
not one just man remained ? This is of a piece with
many other difficulties against the Catholic Church
that are introduced with the words " why not ? "
The answer is that if the thing in question would be
the ruin of the Church, then our Lord's promise
(St. Matt, xxviii. 20) to be with His Apostles all
days is our reply to the question why the thing
could not happen.
IX. Others yet more weakly urge that if a sinner
be a member of the Church militant on earth up to
the moment of his death, then he must needs be
a member of the Church triumphant in Heaven,
for these are the same Church in different states,
and there is nothing in death to destroy Church-
membership. We reply that the crop in the ground
and the crop in the barn may be called the same
crop, but in different states ; but we read that the
reapers shall, in the time of harvest, gather the
cockle and bind it into bundles to burn, but shall
gather the wheat into the barn. (St. Matt. xiii. 30.)
193. Heresy. Our subject may be illustrated by
a few words concerning the Church-membership of
some other classes of persons ; and first of heretics.
A proposition is heretical which is inconsistent with
*7t THE MEMBERS OF THE CHURCH. [193
the teaching put forward by the Church in pursuance
of her infallible authority as being part of the Reve-
lation which she has received. A heretic is one who,
having been baptized, holds an heretical proposition.
To be a heretic is a grave misfortune, whether it be
accompanied by the sin of heresy or not, there being
no sin in this or in any other matter without a wilful
contempt of known duty. All this will be more fully
explained in the Treatise on Faith ; meanwhile it is
enough to say that an open heretic is* certainly not
a member of the Body of the Church, for unity in
faith is one of the properties of the Church, as will
be seen hereafter (n. 220) : nor does it matter
whether the heresy has come to the knowledge of
one or two only, or whether it be known to. the
whole world. One who is inculpably in heresy may
belong to the Soul of the Church, but it is part of
his misfortune that he does not share in the general
suffrages of the faithful and the other spiritual
advantages which are reserved for the members of
the Body. As to any whose heresy has never been
manifested outwardly, Catholic theologians are not
agreed whether they are to be reckoned as belonging
to the Body of the Church. It is certain that they
are subject to the jurisdiction of the Church, and
may validly exercise ecclesiastical jurisdiction, if
they have any ; but the same is true of open heretics,
so that the question cannot be considered as decided
by these principles ; there has been no clear declara-
tion upon it by the Church, nor do the Scripture or
the Fathers speak decisively. On the one hand, it
is said that he who has abandoned the faith has
igjj HERESY. 279
broken the bond that united him to the unity of
the Church, but it replied that the hidden heretic
retains the outward profession of the faith : and if
Pope Eugenius IV. (Denz. 599) and Pius IX. (Denz.
1502), when putting forward definitions of faith,
declare that all who think otherwise have fallen from
the Church, it is clear that these Pontiffs had no
intention of settling the present controversy. The
chief argument on the other side is that the Visibility
of the Church is impaired if any one is excluded for
a hidden cause ; to which it is answered that we
have solid grounds for believing that secret heresy
will never exist in the Church except in a very few
instances. (See n. 192, VIII.) The opinion that
favours the membership of hidden heretics recom-
mends itself to most modern writers. (See Murray,
De Ecclesia, Disp. iii. sect. 5, to whose list should
be added Mazzella, De Ecclesia, d. 3, a. n, and
Palmieri, De Roman. Pont. Proleg. n.) On the
other side we have the weighty authority of Suarez
and Billuart.
194. Children of Heretics. A question is some-
times mooted concerning the children of heretics,
but it seems that it is easily answered on the prin-
ciples that we have been considering. Every infant
becomes by Baptism a member both of the Soul
of the Church and of the Body, and he retains this
full membership until he do something to destroy
it. If in the course of years he come to hold
heretical doctrine, however inculpably, and avows
it, a misfortune befalls him, and his membership
of the Body of the Church is severed ; and this
t*a TUB MEMBERS OP THE CHURCH ftt
is probably the case with most persons who are
brought up in heretical communions. Membership
of the Soul of the Church is lost by grievous sin,
and by this alone, (n. 184, IV.)
195. Catechumens. Catechumens, or persons who
have not been baptized, but are looking forward to
receiving Baptism, and meantime are going through
a course of training, certainly do not belong to the
Body of the Church. The necessity of Baptism as
the entrance door of the Church was shown in
n. 188 ; and we may add that the same doctrine is
taught by Pope Eugenius IV. in the Council of
Florence (Denz. 591) and by the Council of Trent.
(Sess. 14, cap. 2 ; Denz. 775.) The prayer of the
Church for catechumens is that they may become of
the number of her members (Service for Good
Friday) : and no doubt they reap spiritual benefit
from their imperfect membership.
The difficulties that are sometimes raised con-
cerning the necessity of Baptism will be considered
when we treat of that Sacrament.
196. Excommunication. Excommunication is a
spiritual punishment sometimes inflicted by the
Church on one guilty of grave crimes, for the good
of his soul or in vindication of the law. This cen-
sure deprives the person who has incurred it of the
use of the Sacraments, of a share in public suffrages,
and certain other spiritual privileges ; and this
deprivation endures until the censure is relaxed by
competent authority. It may happen that it has
been inflicted unjustly, for the human judge who
deals with the case is no way guaranteed against
ig6] EXCOMMUNICATION. 281
error : or it may be that the censure was just, but
the culprit has repented of his sin and been restored
to the favour of God before he has procured the
relaxation of the censure ; but even in these cases
the censure produces its effects, as is declared in
the Bull Unigenitus (Prop, gi ; Denz. 1306) against
Quesnel ; and the good providence of God can be
trusted to hinder any real evil befalling him who
incurs this undeserved loss. Writers differ as to
whether one who is under excommunication can be
said to belong to the Body of the Church : the
names may be seen in Murray. (De Eccles. Disp. iii.
sect. 8.)
Excommunication is an act of the external court
of the Church, dealing directly not with sin, but
with crime. The full discussion of its nature
and varieties belongs to Canon Law. It is to
be observed that though excommunication is not
inflicted except in cases where grievous sin has
been committed or is supposed to have been com-
mitted, yet it does not directly affect membership
of the Soul of the Church : nothing but real
grievous sin takes away this privilege or destroys
the hopes founded in it. (See n. 187.)
197. Schism. Schism is explained by St. Thomas
(Summa Theol. 2. 2. q. 39. a. i.) to be the act of one
who wilfully withdraws himself from the obedience
of the Roman Pontiff, the Vicar of Christ on earth,
or who refuses to communicate with the members
of the Church subject to him. This withdrawal
may be culpable, or through ignorance it may be
inculpable ; but in every case, one who has with-
28a THE MEMBERS OP THE CHURCH. (197
drawn can no longer be said to belong to the Body
of the Church. This subject will recur when we
speak of the unity of Government in the Church,
(n. 224.)
198. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have
seen that they are members of the Soul of the
Church who, having been justified, have not subse-
quently incurred the guilt of mortal sin ; that
Baptism, profession of the true faith, and com-
munion with the Head and other members of the
Church constitutes membership of the Body, so
that the Body may be at once wider and narrower
than the Soul ; and we have dealt with certain
iifficulties and doubts that are raised on this
traoject.
CHAPTER IV.
CONSTITUTION AND POWERS OF THE CHURCH.
199. Subject of Chapter. In this chapter we
shall show that the Church is not a society all the
members of which are on an equal footing, who
arrange among themselves such distribution of
offices as convenience may suggest ; but that there
is in it by Divine institution a certain form of
government, and that they who share in the powers
of this government owe their authority to the
Founder, Christ, and not to appointment by those
whom they govern. It will be shown that the
powers of this government fall into three divisions,
and particulars will be given as to one of these : the
other two do not fall within the present Treatise.
The form of government established by Christ
in the Church is monarchical, the Roman Pontiff
being the Monarch ; but this is a matter of so great
importance that it will be convenient to reserve it
for our next Treatise.
200. Governors and Governed. Every society or
collection of men, banded together for some parti-
cular purpose, must have some arrangement to
secure that the members of the society so behave
as to forward this purpose and not to frustrate it.
284 CONSTITUTION * POWERS OP THE CHURCH. [JOG
If there be no such organization, nothing short of a
perpetual miracle could so control the free-will of
men as to save the society from failure in its object.
The Church is no exception to this rule, and it
would be unable to do its office of continuing the
work of King, Priest, and Prophet that Christ came
on earth to do, except there were some distinction
of governors and governed : some members of the
Church whose business was to direct others. This
is implied in the figures of a Kingdom and a Body,
which, as we have seen (n. 185), are used to repre-
sent the Church, and the idea is drawn out fully by
St. Paul in the twelfth chapter of the First Epistle
to the Corinthians. Also, we find the system in
full operation from the beginning, for in the Acts of
the Apostles and the Epistles we constantly read
of Apostles, Deacons, Prophets, Bishops, Ancients,
Priests, Angels. We are not now concerned with
the nature of the offices denoted by these words or
with the distinctions among them ; their existence
is beyond doubt, nor will it be denied that similar
arrangements prevailed in post-Apostolic times, and
continue to the present day.
201. The Protestant Views. All the prominent
sects of Protestants agree with Catholics in recog-
nizing the necessity of some religious organization
among Christians ; but they differ in the names
they give to their officials, and the extent of their
jurisdiction. Some are governed by Shepherds, a
name which does not occur in the Scripture ; but
most prefer to select one or more of the names just
quoted from the New Testament. Thus, in the
201] THE PROTESTANT VIEWS. a8 5
Established Church of England, with the kindred
communions, we find the name of Bishops, and
this name is also used by some of the Lutherans
of the Continent and by certain branches of the
Methodists. These Bishops rule a district con-
taining many congregations. Other sects follow
the " Presbyterian " model, where power is not
confided to. any individual, but is exercised by a
representative assembly of "Elders" elected by
each congregation : the word " Presbyter " having,
according to them, the same meaning as " Elder."
In others, again, there is no bond of common
government uniting the distinct congregations, but
each is " independent," and the " Elders " who
manage its affairs have no authority elsewhere. The
" Elders " are commonly elected by the " Church."
The varieties of detail are endless ; but, with the
exception of some schools among the members of
the Established Church, all agree in regarding the
office-holders as the servants and not the masters
of the community by whom they have been chosen.
The sense in which the word "church" has just
been used has been already explained, (n. 164.)
202. Source of Authority. In opposition to all
these, the Catholic Church holds that Christ Himself
established a Hierarchy, or sacred form of govern-
ment, which is essentially necessary to the existence
of His Church. This doctrine is of faith, for the
note of heresy attaches to the view put forward by
the Council of Pistoia, to the effect that power to
minister and rule flows to the pastors of the Church
from the body of the faithful. (Auctorem Fidei, 2;
a86 CONSTITUTION <S- POWERS OF THE CHURCH. [20*
Denz. 1365) ; and the Bull Unigenitus condemned
the teaching of Quesnel that the power of excom-
munication is exercised by tha leading (or first)
pastors, by the presumed consent of the whole
body. (n. go ; Denz. 1305.)
The proof of our doctrine is taken from the
Holy Scripture, and first from the Acts of the
Apostles. We there read that it was witnesses
preordained of God that were commanded to
preach (x. 41, 42) ; that St. Paul and St. Barnabas,
acting with the authority of Apostles, ordained
Priests in every Church (xiv. 22) ; that the Holy
Spirit placed certain men as Bishops to rule the
Church of God. (xx. 28.) Further, we read in the
Epistles that God set some in the Church to be
Apostles and for other functions (i Cor. xii. 28-;
Ephes. iv. n) ; and lastly, that St. Paul left St.
Titus in Crete that he should set in order the things
that were wanting, and ordain priests in every city.
(Titus i. 5.) In all this, the work of government
is done by men appointed by Christ or by His
authority ; there is not a trace of power being
received by way of communication from the body
of the faithful ; nor is there any indication that the
arrangement that we see in working order, with
provision for its continuance, was intended to last
for a time only, and to be replaced by a totally
different scheme of government.
There are certain texts from which some diffi-
culties are raised against our doctrine (See Isaias
liv. 13 ; St. Jerem. xxxi. 34 ; St. John x. 27 ; St. James
i. 5; I St. John ii. 20) ; but we remark (i) that the
202] SOURCE OF AUTHORITY. 287
Protestant interpretation of these texts is new,
having no sanction in the older commentators ;
(2) that the texts were well-known to all concerned
during many centuries, during which the Catholic
doctrine was received unhesitatingly ; (3) that this
interpretation makes the Scripture self-contra-
dictory, for the texts which we have adduced prove
our doctrine plainly; (4) that it is an unsound
method to interpret the clear by the light of the
obscure; (5) that God is t'.ie First Cause of all
things, and is often said in Scripture to do that
which is really the effect of second causes ; see,
for instance, the I46th Psalm with its sequel, the
I47th, where God is said to build Jerusalem, to
cover the heaven with clouds, to fill His people
with the fat of corn : all which effects came imme-
diately from second causes, acting in virtue of the
power and under the direction of the First Cause :
(6) that often, in Scripture, after the word " not "
we must understand "only," and after "but" we
must supply "chiefly." (e.g., St. Luke xiv. 12, 13.)
The application of these principles to the texts
cited is easy.
203. Authority to Teach. It is usual with theo-
logians to distinguish a three-fold office in Christ,
for He is Prophet, Priest, and King. This distinc-
tion has abundant basis in Scripture (see Deut.
xviii. 15; Hebrews vii. 26; Zach. ix. 9); and we
shall find it convenient to follow, for the same
offices are continually exercised on earth by the
Church. The Church shares the kingship of Christ
in the independence of all earthly control which is
88 CONSTITUTION * POWERS OP THE CHURCH. [203
her due, and which has been asserted by so many
holy Pontiffs and Bishops who have suffered and
still suffer obloquy, exile and death itself rather
than surrender any part of the rights of the Church
at the bidding of emperor or popular assembly.
The reason of this independence is that the end
for which God established the Church, namely, the
spiritual welfare of men, is not included in the end
for which the same God established civil society,
which is their temporal welfare. In virtue of this
kingship, the Church has authority to make laws
for the guidance of all who have become her
subjects by receiving Baptism : nor can these free
themselves from this subjection by any act of their
own. The legislative power implies the power to
pronounce judgment in cases of alleged breach of
the law and to coerce the contumacious. That the
Church possesses these powers is unchangeable
doctrine : the mode of applying them belongs to
changeable discipline, which varies with every
variation in time, place, or circumstance. But the
full discussion of all that belongs to the kingship
of the Church belongs to the canonists when they
treat of public canon law. (See, for example, Bouix,
De Papa.)
The priestly function of Christ is exercised by
the Church in virtue of the Sacrament of Order,
with which she has been entrusted. This Sacra-
ment will be treated in its place.
The Prophetical or teaching office committed by
Christ to His Church finds its proper place in the
present Treatise, and we proceed to show that there
203] AUTHORITY TO TEACH. 289
is in the Church authority to teach. We have seen
in the last section, that there is in the Church, by
Divine institution, a distinction of governors and
governed, and there being authority to teach, it is
consistent that the governors are they who teach
the governed, and thus we have the distinction of
the Church as Teacher and the Church as Learner.
We shall see in its proper place (n. 208) that the
Church as Teacher is constituted by the Bishops
united with the Roman Pontiff. At present, it will
suffice if we speak of teachers, without defining
more particularly who they are.
That the Church has authority to teach follows
from what we have said upon her nature and office.
For the Church is the company of believers in
Christ (n. 166), and faith comes by hearing
(Romans x. 14, 17) ; and there is to be one faith
even as there is one Lord and one Baptism (Ephes.
iv. 5), which oneness of belief cannot be secured
unless there is a judge of controversies who speaks
intelligibly and whom all may obey : but this judge
cannot be the reason of each man which is weak
and variable and has no binding force on the multi-
tude : nor is it the Christian people at large, for we
nowhere find that such power has been given to
them as the Apostles claimed for themselves (see
especially I Cor. ix. I, Ephes. ii. 20) : nor the head
of the civil state, who has his own functions, but is
within the Church as a Learner; nor, lastly, does
it please God to settle controversies by revelations
(n. 112), except perhaps by private revelations that
avail no one but the receiver, (n. 22.) The Scripture
T VOL. I.
go CONSTITUTION 6- POWERS OF THE CHURCH. [203
is dead and cannot make its voice heard, and those
who profess to be its expounders are at variance :
there is no living voice but that of the Church that
can be the judge of whose existence we are assured.
This office of Teacher is exercised by the Church
when the Supreme Pontiff addresses the whole
Christian people by an Encyclical or otherwise ;
when a Bishop sends a pastoral to his flock, when
the parish priest expounds the Gospel ; in some
sort, even when parents teach their children to
pray, or when catechism is explained in the schools.
And although certain portions of the teaching thus
given, whether the teacher act by his own authority
or by delegation from another, may be unsound, yet
the promise of Christ that He will be with His
Church all day (St. Matt, xxviii. 20) assures us that
the Learners will never, as a whole, fall away from
the true faith.
It belongs to the Teaching Church to note and
condemn false doctrines as they are put forward:
to take proper precautions to prevent the publica-
tion of books which will be harmful : and to con-
demn injurious books which appear in spite of these
precautions. It does not belong to us to describe
the mode and limitations under which these powers
are exercised : we will only remark that an approba-
tion of a book by an ecclesiastical authority is quite
consistent with a subsequent condemnation of the
same book by the same authority, if further exami-
nation shows that what had been supposed to be
harmless was really harmful : and that books are
condemned not merely because they contain false
aoj) AUTHORITY TO TEACH. 291
doctrine, but sometimes because their publication is
judged to be inexpedient on other grounds.
The earliest case of the condemnation of a book
by Church authority seems to be the case of the
Thalia of the heretic Arius, which was condemned
by the Council of Nice in 325. In this work, the
author's views that the Word of God was a creature
were " set forth in a loose, free style, reminding one
of the works of Sotades" (Socrates, H.E. i. 9; P.G.
67, 84.) The name of this Sotades, who was living
in 280 B.C., became a proverb among the heathen
for all that is filthy, and the writer in Dr. Smith's
Dictionary says that he " carried his lascivious and
abusive satires to the utmost lengths." Few will
deny that the Council did well to condemn a book
which treated of the most august mysteries of
religion in a style which can be thus described.
Besides all this, it is a part of the work of
teaching to sanction and regulate the prayers and
other devotions of the Christian people.
204. The Protestant System. That the Church
has authority to teach is admitted probably by all
Protestants who hold that there is a visible Church
in the world ; but they do not admit that this teach-
ing is infallible, and we need not be surprised that
there is a want of distinctness in their utterances
on the subject. It does not concern us to discuss
what is precisely held by them ; but before we go
on to establish the infallibility of the Catholic
Church, as we shall do in the next section, it may
be worth while to set forth the teaching of the
Established Church of England on the subject.
19* CONSTITUTION 6- POWERS OP THE CHURCH. [204
This is contained with much else in the Thirty-
nine Articles, which are accepted by all ministers
of the Establishment, the acceptance being renewed
at each step in their profession. Three of these
run as follows :
XIX. Of the Church. The visible Church of
Christ is a congregation of faithful men, in the
which the pure Word of God is preached and the
sacraments be duly administered according to
Christ's ordinance, in all those things that of
necessity are requisite to the same.
As the Church of Jerusalem, Alexandria, and
Antioch have erred, so also the Church of Rome
has erred, not only in their living and manner of
ceremonies, but also in matters of faith.
XX. Of the Authority of the Church. The Church
hath power to decree rites or ceremonies and
authority in matters of faith. And yet it is not
lawful for the Church to ordain anything that is
contrary to God's Word written ; neither may it
so expound one place of Scripture that it be repug-
nant to another. Wherefore, although the Church
be a witness and keeper of Holy Writ, yet, as it
ought not to decree anything against the same, so
besides the same ought it not to enforce anything
to be believed for necessity of salvation.
XXI. Of the Authority of General Councils.
General Councils may not be gathered together
without the commandment and will of princes. And
when they be gathered together (forasmuch as they
be an assembly of men whereof all be not governed
with the Spirit and Word of Gcd), they may err,
THE PROTESTANT SYSTEM. 293
and sometimes have erred, even in things pertaining
unto God. Wherefore, things ordained by them as
necessary to salvation, have neither strength nor
authority, unless it may be declared that they are
taken out of Holy Scripture.
These vague and self-contradictory Articles will
plainly admit of being interpreted so as to be made
consistent with almost any possible view on the
matters of which they treat ; except that they seem
to exclude the notion that there is on earth any
living voice or collection of living voices whose
utterance on matters of faith is absolutely trust-
worthy on account of a Divine guarantee that they
shall never err : according to the Articles, the utter-
ance of the living voice can do no more than suggest
an inquiry as to the teaching of Scripture upon the
point ; and in the absence of any indication to the
contrary it would seem that this inquiry is to be
conducted by each private man on his own account
and with the resources at his command. The
function of the Church as represented by the
Article would seem to be like that of St. Paul when
dealing with the Jewish inquirers at Beroea. (Acts
xvii. 10 12.) The Apostle pointed out to his hearers
in the Synagogue the places in the Old Testament
which proved that Jesus was the Christ, and they
are praised for verifying his references and con-
sidering the interpretations that he proposed. The
result was that they believed and doubtless were
baptized, and in enjoining Baptism, St. Paul en-
forced something to be believed for necessity of
salvation besides what was in Scripture, for the
194 CONSTITUTION & PC WERS OF THE CHURCH. [204
Old Testament is silent on the subject and the New
did not yet exist : that is to say, St. Paul did not
act on the principle of the Articles, proposing his
teaching as something tc be tested by Scripture, but
he proposed it by his cwn authority, having pre-
viously satisfied his hearers that what he taught
came to them with the authority of God Himself:
that is to say, his position was the position taken by
the Catholic Church, and by it alcne, at the present
day. (See n. 89.)
205. The Church Infallible. That the Catholic
Church claims not merely to have received a com-
mission to teach, but also to be divinely guaranteed
from error, will not be seriously denied by any one,
in spite of its being true that no express definition
has been made upon the subject. There are other
ways beside express declaration by which the mind
of a society, no less than that of an individual, can
be manifested : a declaration is implied as often as
conduct is adopted which cannot be explained
except upon the understanding that the matter is as
supposed. Parliament has never expressly declared
its own competence to legislate ; and if such a
declaration were made it would itself be a piece
of legislation, the authority of which would be
admitted by no man who was not already prepared
to admit the legislative power of Parliament. But
the declaration is implied in every statute which
speaks imperatively, and in fitting cases imposes
penalties and even death ; while no word is found
that implies any doubt upon the subject.
In like manner, the Church has never indicated
THE CHURCH INFALLIBLE. 195
that she entertains the slightest doubt of her own
infallibility ; and she has used expressions that are
inconsistent with the notion that she is capable of
error in her teaching. Thus the Synod of Pistoia
(see n. 182) taught that in these latter times a
general obscuration has come on touching religion
and the bases of faith and morals ; and this doctrine
is condemned by Pope Pius VI. as heretical. (Auc-
torem Fidei, prop, i ; Denz. 1364.) And the Vatican
Council (Sess. 4, cap. 4 ; Denz. 1682), while clearly
defining the infallibility of the Sovereign Pontiff,
found no better way to express the doctrine than by
saying that he enjoys the same infallibility as that
with which our Divine Saviour has been pleased
to endow His Church. The same follows from the
strong terms in which all are condemned who refuse
to accept any part of the teaching of the Church,
as may be seen in most of the dogmatic decrees in
Denzinger ; this language would not be used by one
who felt conscious that an appeal to Scripture or to
some other authority might after all show that those
who were condemned were really in the right. (See
Denzinger, n. I, 375, 1683, et alibi passim.') We must
not be supposed to maintain that because the Church
claims Infallibility therefore she is infallible. None
but the Divine Founder could give this gift, and we
must look to His recorded words for the proof that
He has given it. Words to this effect are found in
two places of St. Matthew's Gospel (xvi. 18 and xxviii.
20) and in one of St. John (xvi. 16 20), to which
may be added the expression used by St. Paul in his
First Epistle to St. Timothy, (iii. 14, 15.) We will
*g6 CONSTITUTION POWERS OF THE CHURCH, [ao;
shortly discuss these in order, and in a future para-
graph (n. 207) notice the chief heads of objection that
are brought against this fundamental point of our
doctrine and its proof; but first we must make a
remark upon a difficulty which sometimes imposes
on the unthinking; it is said that we have no right
to use the Scripture to prove the Church, for we
have already maintained (n. 150) that we need the
Church to prove the Scriptures. The answer is
short: we use the Church' to prove that the
Scriptures are the inspired Word of God ; and we
prove the Church by the Scriptures regarded as
trustworthy human histories ; and so to the vaunted
vicious circle which even a writer like Burnet, for
many years the standard authority (On the Articles,
xlx.), was not ashamed to use, turns out to be a
pointless shaft. We have therefore a right to quote
St. Matthew and the rest.
206. Proofs of Infallibility. I. St. Matt. xvi. 18.
Christ addressed St. Peter, " I say unto thee, that
thou art Peter and upon this rock I will build My
Church, and the gates of Hell shall not prevail
against it." We are not here concerned with the
address to St. Peter, nor with any question as to
what was the Rock on which the Church was to be
built ; these matters will come before us again when
we treat of the Roman Pontiff, (n. 274.) We need
only observe that to build upon a rock certainly
implies the stability of the building (St. Matt. vii. 24),
and that "gates" are often used for the seat of
power and government (Psalm cxxvi. 5 ; Isaias xxxviii.
10), much as we say " the Court." We have then the
ao6] PROOFS OF INFALLIBILITY. 297
assurance that the Church is like a city which is
firmly built and which may be besieged by the
enemy but will never be captured, for God Himself
is vigilant in the defence. (Psalm cxxvi. i.) The
enemy is the lord of Hell, Satan ; and if he could
succeed in seducing the Church, which is put on
earth to witness to the truth of God and teach it,
and leading it to falsehood, then it must be admitted
that he has been successful in overthrowing the firm
walls, and destroying the city. The testimonies of
the Fathers, showing the sense they put on this and
the following texts, will be found in Waterworth's
Faith of Catholics, or in the Commentators, and it is
needless to copy them into these pages.
II. St. Matt, xxviii. 20. Christ, when on the
point of leaving this earth, addressed His Apostles,
" Teaching them [all nations] to observe all things
whatsoever I have commanded you ; and behold, I
am with you all days even to the consummation of
*he world."
On this text we have first to consider the force
of the words, " be with you." The phrase is of
very frequent occurrence in Scriptures, and Dr.
Murray (De Ecclesia, Disp. xi. sect. ii. nn. 66 70)
has collectecj no less than ninety places of the Old
and New Testament where it occurs, and by com-
paring these its exact force can be determined with
safety. Only a few specimens can be referred to
in these pages. Sometimes, as in our text, God
promises to be " with " a person while engaged on
some work, and this implies that the work will
certainly be performed (Josue i. 5; ; sometimes we
298 CONSTITUTION 6- POWERS OF THE CHURCH. [206
have statement that God is " with " some one, and
this implies a conviction that he will succeed in his
undertaking (Genesis xxxix. 2) ; or prayer is made
to God that He will be "with" a certain person, to
secure him success (Romans xv. 33) ; and on the
other hand, the negative form that God is " not
with " a person is equivalent to an assertion that he
will fail. (Numbers xiv. 42.) This usage is absolutely
unbroken, there not being a single text to which a
contrary meaning can be given, and there being one
only which can even be considered neutral (Ruth
ii. 4), where the words, " The Lord be with you,"
may be regarded as a common form of salutation,
without any definite force as a prayer. From this
usage we conclude that the persons addressed
in the text would be successful in their work of
teaching, which success is inconsistent with their
teaching error.
A further question remains as to the duration of
this assistance ; in other words, as to what is meant
by the words translated " the consummation of the
world." Some have attempted to cut down the
word represented by " world " to the lifetime of
the Apostles. But there is nothing to suggest
such a limitation, which is contrary to the usage of
the same St. Matthew, in places (xiii. 39, 40, 49 ;
xxiv. 3) where the very same words are employed
and where the meaning is unmistakeable. We
decline, therefore, to believe that there was to be
an infallible living voice on earth for a few years
after the Ascension of our Lord, and that then, on
the death of an old man, the whole economy of the
ao6J PROOFS OF INFALLIBILITY. 299
Church was to be suddenly changed, and a new
method of ascertaining truth to be substituted ; and
that this fundamental change was to come about
without a hint of anything of the sort being given in
the records of Revelation.
III. St. John xiv. 16 26. Christ addresses His
Apostles for the last time before His Death. The
whole passage may be referred to, but it will be
enough to give the commencement and the close.
" I shall ask the Father, and He shall give you
another Paraclete, that He may abide with you for
ever, the Spirit of Truth, Whom the world cannot
receive, because it seeth Him not, nor knoweth
Him ; but you shall know Him because He shall
abide with you and shall be in you. ... The
Paraclete Whom the Father shall send in My
Name, He will teach you all things, and bring all
things to your mind whatsoever I shall have said to
you."
Here we have the promise of some gift the
nature of which does not concern us in this place
the possessors of which gift will not be liable to
error as to the doctrine which Christ taught. This
promise is made immediately to the Apostles, but
the gift is to remain with them " for ever," a phrase
which there is no reason to cut down to anything
less than its popular meaning; and it is given to
them, as opposed to the world, for the world cannot
receive it, which word " world " is repeatedly used
by our Lord for all who do not believe in Him.
(St. John xv. 19 ; xvii. 9, 25, &c.) It follows that
the believers in Christ will be collectively preserved
yx> CONSTITUTION & POWERS OF THE CHURCH. [206
for ever from error as to His doctrine ; in other
words, that the Church is infallible in teaching.
IV. i Timothy iii. 14, 15. St. Paul writes to
St. Timothy : " These things I write to thee, hoping
that I shall come to thee shortly. But if I tarry
long, that thou mayest know how thou oughtest
to behave thyself in the house of God, which is the
Church of the living God, the pillar and ground of
truth."
In the following verse the Apostle sums up the
chief heads of Christian doctrine. Here the Church
is distinctly called the pillar and ground of truth,
for the Greek original will not allow these words to
be applied to God only, as the reader of the English
version might incline to think possible. It is scarcely
necessary to prove that the figure of a pillar implies
unshaken firmness, but Scripture authority is forth-
coming if wanted, as when God made the Prophet
Jeremias a fortified city and a pillar of iron and a
wall of brass. (Jerem. i. 18 ; see also Apoc. iii. 12.)
These three equivalent figures cannot be misunder-
stood. The word (eBpaictfjui) translated " ground "
in our text does not occur elsewhere in the New
Testament, but a closely kindred word is the second
of those (T0\pici)fj,voi xal tSpaloi) used by St. Paul
in writing to the Colossians, which are translated
"grounded and settled" (Coloss. i. 23), where again
the meaning is beyond doubt. Now, a body which
taught falsehood could not be said to be the
unshaken support of truth ; so again we are led to
the conclusion that the Church is infallible.
We are forced to omit an immense amount of
206] PROOFS OF INFALLIBILITY. yen
proof and illustration that has been gathered by
divines when treating on this subject, and we can
only add one argument drawn from theological
reason. We have seen (n. 203) that the Church
has authority to teach given her by God; and to
this authority corresponds a duty on the part of her
members to receive her teaching, for without this
correlative duty the word authority is meaningless.
But God cannot have imposed upon man any duty
to receive and accept falsehood. Hence the Divine
veracity is concerned to see that the authorized
teacher does not go astray.
207. Objections against Infallibility. The all-
important point that has just been discussed, that
Christ left on earth a Church to which is granted a
Divine assurance of immunity from error in her
teaching, has naturally been the principal battle-
ground in all controversy between the Church and
the sects which arose in the sixteenth century, and
which were the first to call this Infallibility in
question. Objections against the Catholic doctrine
have been put forward in immense variety, and
sometimes with much subtlety by a great number of
writers; and some of these have found much
currency, and form, as it were, a great part of the
ordinary stock in trade of Protestant controver-
sialists. It would be out of place, even if space
permitted, to set forth all these objections in a work
of which the main purpose is not polemical, but
expository, and it will be enough again to refer the
reader to the great work of Dr. Murray, De Ecclesia.
It is not the least of the services that the learned
3oa CONSTITUTION POWERS OF THE CHURCH. [207
author has rendered to Theology that he has
searched the whole body of controversial literature
and collected in a short form all the objections that
he finds, together with the answers. They fall
under no less than seventy heads, and many of
these are urged in various shapes. As soon as the
difficulty is exhibited shortly in syllogistic form it
can be understood and dealt with ; a great part of
the skill of a disputant being shown in discovering
the morsel of meaning which his adversary wraps
Op in a cloud of words, but which often turns out
to be a very trifle when set forth in the shape which
alone is admitted by logicians to be conclusive,
and which alone is in use in Catholic schools of
Theology. (See in the Appendix a specimen of a
Disputation carried on upon these lines.) We will
make a few remarks which, taken together with
what we have said already in various places, will
furnish a key to most of the difficulties thus
laboriously got together by Dr. Murray ; some,
however, must be reserved for the sixth Treatise on
Faith.
First, then, some objectors seem to hold in fact,
though not in terms, that God could not establish an
infallible Church ; but they fail to show what con-
tradiction is involved in the idea. Others say that
such an institution would be harmful, destroying
reason and cramping research, as if a man were not
free if he pleased to reject teaching, even if he
recognizes that it comes to him 011 authority which
he cannot deny ; and as if research were cramped
whenever it was provided with an accession to the
ao7] OBJECTIONS AGAINST INFALLIBILITY. 303
stock of undisputable truths. Others think that if
they had established an infallible Church, they
would have arranged it better than Christ has done,
pitting their wisdom against the wisdom of God.
They would have the Church at once infallibly
declare her whole message, forgetting the province
of prudence in regulating the times for producing
things new and old. (St. Matt. xiii. 52.) Others
again say that the Church has in fact failed, for
errors have arisen, as if the power of a perverse will
did not remain with man ; and some urge that the
whole Church has failed, quoting the expression
of St. Jerome that, after the Council of Rimini in
359, the whole world found with surprise that it had
fallen into the Arian heresy (Dial. adv. Luciferianos,
n. 19 ; P.L. 23, 172), but not seeing that this phrase
is merely a rhetorical or perhaps humorous exaggera-
tion (see similar instances in Scripture, St. John
xii. 19 ; xxi. 25), and whatever was the spirit of the
remark, it certainly was not true, as may be seen
by reference to the histories of the period. (See
particularly Jungmann, Diss. in Hist. Eccles. vii.)
If it be said that the Catholic Church practically
disclaims infallibility as often as her Popes and
Councils admit the aid of private theologians
to help their deliberations as to the faith, this
merely shows that the gift given to the Church is
not inspiration, but merely a Divine security that
her governors shall not err in the application of
their human prudence; and this prudence teaches
those concerned to inform themselves of the true
tradition by all available means, among which high
So, CONSTITUTION * POWERS OP THE CHURCH. [207
places are held by the Holy Scripture and by the
feeling that prevails among the laity. St. Paul
addressing the clergy gathered at Miletus (Acts xx.
28, seq.) gave them such instructions as he judged
to be suitable and sufficient to secure them in the
troublous times that he foresaw ; and they who
urge that he would have referred them to an
infallible authority, had he believed such to exist on
earth, forget that they were already instructed
Christians who did not need to be reminded of the
elementary truths of the faith ; and that some of
the Apostles themselves were still living and were
infallible according to most theologians even among
Protestants. (See Galat. i. 8.)
This must suffice. The objections that are taken
against our Scripture proofs are chiefly founded
on arbitrary additions to the text, as when the
promise of Christ to be with His Apostles is con-
fined to assistance in teaching by writing the
Scriptures, a restriction of which the Evangelist
gives no indication. (St. Matt, xxviii. 20.) Some
suggestions that may be useful in this part of the
controversy are given in nn. 192, VIII., 205, and
elsewhere.
208. Seat of Infallibility. The subject of the
seat of infallibility in the Church cannot be ade-
quately discussed until we have established the
doctrine concerning the Roman Pontiff, which
forms the subject of our next Treatise. A few
remarks may, however, be made. The Church has
been shown to be infallible in the work of teaching
(n. 203), and the work of teaching belongs to the
2o8] SEAT OP INFALLIBILITY. 905
governing body of the Church, the Hierarchy
(n. 206) ; it follows from this that the governed, the
Church as Learners, is not the seat of infallibility ;
but that nevertheless we have an assurance that the
Learners will never as a whole fall from the faith,
for this would imply the failure of the Teachers in
their work. Hence these Teachers are the proper
seat of infallibility, biit not the whole of them, for
history and experience prove that not only do
individuals among them make shipwreck of the
faith, but at times a large part of the clergy of
entire provinces have lapsed, as happened in the
days of the Donatist schism, in southern France in
the twelfth century, and in various parts of northern
Europe at the time of the Reformation. History
further shows that simple priests, whether charged
with the care of parishes or not, have never been
considered as ranking with Bishops as judges
of the faith ; and the doctrine according to
which they have in virtue of their ordination
a right to judge, is condemned as at least erro-
neous by Pope Pius VI. (A uctorem Fidei, 10 ; Denz.
I373-)
It remains that the Catholic episcopate, whether
dispersed or united in a General Council, are a seat
of infallibility, and it will be shown in the next
Treatise that one condition of the status of each
individual Catholic Bishop is that he is in com-
munion with the See of Rome. When this has
been established, something more will be said about
General Councils (n. 297) ; but it may be useful to
add in this place that no school of Catholic theology
U VOL. I.
jofi CONSTITUTION POWERS OP THE CHURCH. [zoS
has ever doubted that the morally universal agree-
ment of the Catholic Bishops is a voice of the
infallible Church.
209. Extent of Infallibility. Having established
that the Church is infallible in its teaching, and
having said something as to the seat of this privilege,
we now come to the interesting question of its
extent, and for the answer to this question we must
look to the words and actions of the Church herself.
Every supreme tribunal of whatever kind must
necessarily have authority to define the limits of
the matter with which it is competent to deal, for
by supposition there is no one to set the tribunal
right if it exceed due limits ; the Church therefore,
being supreme in spiritual matters, has authority to
teach what are the bounds of her authority, just as
in the English system of law the House of Lords
is competent to declare what are the matters with
which it is competent to deal ; and since her
teaching is infallible, she is infallible in declaring
the bounds of her own infallibility. Were it other-
wise, the supreme tribunal might be mocked by
any delinquent who questioned its competence to
deal with his case.
We must then look to the matters on which the
Church has taught the Christian world, and we
observe that this teaching may be done by action
no less than by word of mouth. We are not
concerned with the prudence of all her actions,
though we believe that on the whole she is prudent
in a degree which cannot but be supernatural ; nor
do we hold that she can be said to teach doctrine
2og] EXTENT OF INFALLIBILITY. 307
by every act of administration, so that if a certain
privilege or dispensation was granted in a few stray
instances these would not necessarily prove that
this grant was within the competence .of the Church ;
but if these grants were made habitually, as often as
a proper case came before the courts, we should
have proof that the grant was not beyond the scope
of ecclesiastical power.
210. Faith and Morals. In the first place then,
the Church is infallible in denning points of faith
or morals ; for the revealed doctrine which is the
object of faith is the direct matter which she is
placed on earth to teach, and the distinction of
morals from faith is made for convenience only, for
the unlawfulness of certain conduct is as much a
matter of belief as are the articles of the Creed.
This teaching may be exercised in the affirmative
way, as when the Council of Nice defined that the
Word of God is consubstantial with the Father, and
when Pope Pius IX. defined that our Lady was
conceived without being subject to original sin ; or
in the negative way, by condemning certain propo-
sitions, which condemnation, at least if the note of
heresy be affixed, amounts to an infallible definition
that the contradictory is true ; this method has been
in frequent use since the early part of the fifteenth
century, as may be seen in Denzinger. So far there
is agreement among all who profess to be Catholics,
although there is much difference of opinion con-
cerning the precise effect of some of the notes of
condemnation which have been used from time tc
time. (See n. 328.)
3 o8 CONSTITUTION A- POWERS OP THE CHURCH, [aic
But the infallibility of the Church is not con-
fined to those matters which have been revealed ;
it extends to other truths without assurance of
which it would be impossible or very difficult
to preserve the deposit of faith ; and the Vatican
Council (Sess. 3. can. 4), pronounces an anathema
against all who maintain that branches of human
learning may be pursued with liberty to maintain
the truth of assertions, even if opposed to revealed
doctrine, and that the Church is powerless to
condemn these assertions (Denz. 1664); the reason
being that a proposition of philosophy, for instance,
may be so closely connected with revealed doctrine
that a true act of faith in what is revealed will
be impossible for one who errs in the natural
science.
211. Dogmatic Facts. But besides these specu-
lative truths, there are certain matters of fact con-
cerning which the Church can judge with infallible
certainty. These are called by many writers
dogmatic facts, although others use this expression
only of one class among them, which was much
discussed in the course of the controversy with
the Jansenists in the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries. These heretics were anxious to keep the
name of Catholic, and finding their doctrine on
grace condemned by the Church, endeavoured to
escape from the condemnation by showing that the
Church had misunderstood their writings, to which
it was replied that the infallibility of the Church
extended to the determination of the true sense
conveyed by a form of words ; and the phrase
2ii] DOGMATIC FACTS. $09
" dogmatic fact " was little heard of except in regard
to such determinations.
We will proceed to mention some dogmatic
facts, in the wider sense, adding the reason why
we hold that they come within the infallible authority
of the Church. But it must be remembered that if
the Church speak on any of these matters, it does
not follow that she has exercised her infallibility ;
she may have intended to exert a merely disciplinary
authority alone (n. 203), regulating the outward
conduct only, but not touching men's inward belief.
The doubt that may sometimes arise in particular
cases must be solved by considering the terms and
circumstances of the utterance. In this part of
the subject we are not writing controversially, at
least as regards those who do not acknowledge the
authority of the Holy See; we are merely stating
the Catholic doctrine.
First, then, the Church is infallible when she
declares what person holds the office of Pope ; for
if the person of the Pope were uncertain, it would
be uncertain what Bishops were in communion with
the Pope; but according to the Catholic faith, as
will be proved hereafter, communion with the Pope
is a condition for the exercise of the function of
teaching by the body of Bishops (n. 208) ; if then
the uncertainty could not be cleared up, the power
of teaching could not be exercised, and Christ's
promise (St. Matt, xxviii. 20 ; and n. 199, II.) would
be falsified, which is impossible.
This argument is in substance the same as
applies to other cases of dogmatic facts. Also, it
fio CONSTITUTION & POWERS OF THE CHURCH, [an
affords an answer to a much vaunted objection to
the claims of the Catholic Church, put forward by
writers who think that they find proof in history
that the election of a certain Pope was simoniacal
and invalid, and that the successor was elected by
Cardinals who owed their own appointment to the
simoniacal intruder ; from which it is gathered that
the Papacy has been vacant ever since that time.
A volume might be occupied if we attempted to
expose all the frailness of the argument which is
supposed to lead to this startling conclusion ; but
it is enough to say that if the Bishops agree in
recognizing a certain man as Pope, they are cer-
tainly right, for otherwise the body of the Bishops
would be separated from their head, and the Divine
constitution of the Church would be ruined.
In just the same way the infallibility extends
to declaring that a certain Council is or is not
ecumenical ; that certain systems of education are,
or are not, injurious to faith and morals; that the
principles of certain societies are immoral; and that
certain ways of life, especially in Religious Orders,
are not merely free from moral evil, but are laudable.
Unless the Church could judge upon these matters,
she could not exercise her office of guiding and
instructing her members.
The matters of Beatification and Canonization
require a few words more of explanation. The
great authority on the whole subject is the work of
Pope Benedict XIV. De Canonizatione, from which
the late Dr. Faber took the matter of the Essay
which served as a kind of preface to the Oratory
txij DOGMATIC PACTS. 311
series of Lives of the Saints. (Faber, Essay on Beati-
fication, &c.) It is enough to say here that some-
times the Holy See, after suitable investigation,
pronounces a solemn judgment that the virtue of a
deceased person was heroic (n. 231), and that God
has testified to his sanctity by miracles worked by
his intercession ; and then it is accustomed to
declare that the person may be publicly allowed
the title of "Blessed," and that Mass and Office
may be said in his honour within certain limits of
place, or by certain classes of persons. If after an
interval rt is judged that God has been pleased
to show by further miracles His approval of what
has been done, then a further decree may be issued
by which the Pontiff defines that the person is a
" Saint," and is to be honoured as such in the
whole Church with public worship. No writer of
repute doubts that this last decree of Canonization
is an exercise of the infallible authority of the
Church, for were it mistaken, the whole Church
would be led into offering superstitious worship ;
but there is a controversy as to whether this same
can be alleged of Beatification, for this decree is in
a manner reviewed in the subsequent process. We
have no space to enter into the arguments on both
sides of this question, and will only remark that on
every view the decree of Beatification commands
at least the respect of all the faithful, as being the
deliberate judgment of the common Father. If
any one be inclined to scoff at the process by which
the miracles are established in these cases, he may
be referred to the records of the causes, where he
3xa CONSTITUTION &- POWERS OF THE CHURCH, [an
will see the scrupulous care with which the evidence
is scrutinized. (See n . 255.)
Lastly, the Church's infallible authority extends
to determining the true sense conveyed by forms of
speech, whether solitary words, or propositions, or
books; and this without reference to the meaning
intended by the author, of which in general the
Church does not judge. This is the class of cases
to which the name of dogmatic facts is more parti-
cularly applied. The exercise of this power by the
Church has in all ages been most distasteful to all
who have wished to retain the character of being
Catholic, at the same time that they are wanting
in the spirit of hearty interior submission to the
living teacher ; and statesmen who care little about
truth and much about peace, join in protesting
against what they represent as undue insistence on
mere words. Thus the Arians of the fourth century,
in conjunction with the Emperor Constantius, pro-
tested against the Catholics who insisted on their
acceptance of the word " consubstantial," which
the Council of Nice had used in defining the doctrine
of the Blessed Trinity; they wished, they said, to
use no words not found in Scripture, novel words ;
but the Catholics replied by asking whether newly-
discovered poisons might not render necessary novel
drugs as antidotes (St. Hilar. Contra Constantium,
n. 15, 16; P.L. 10, 594); and since that day the
disputed word has held its place in the Catholic
Creed. In the same way, the Council of Trent
(Sess. 13, can. 2 ; Denz. 764) denned that the word
Transubstantiation was most fit to apply to the
2ii] DOGMATIC FACTS. 313
change of the elements in the Eucharist ; and the
Synod of Pistoia, which raised objections similar to
those just quoted from the Arians, and would have
omitted the word, was condemned by Pope Pius VI.
(Auctorem Fidei, prop. 29; Denz. 1392) on the ground
that the word was consecrated by the Church for
the defence of the faith against heresies. The con-
troversy with the Jansenists turned partly on the
question whether the Church had authority to
declare that the famous five propositions were con-
tained in the book written by Jansenius ; this was
felt to be the central point of the whole matter, for
if the Church could not determine the meaning of
language she would be powerless to teach : her only
medium of instruction is human language. For an
account of this mortal contest, the reader must go
to the historians. (See Jungmann, Diss. in Hist.
Eccles. Diss. XL.) At the present day, Jansenism
as a heresy no longer exists, at least in any con-
spicuous form ; but the spirit of Jansenism, which
wishes to claim Catholic communion without sub-
mission of mind and will to the hierarchical Church,
still shows itself frequently in various forms.
212. Recapitulation. In this long chapter we
have shown that there is in the Church by Divine
appointment a hierarchy of governors, who have,
among other functions, authority to teach the
members of the Church, and this with Divine
guarantee that they will not err. The difficulties
that are raised against this doctrine were discussed;
it was shown that though the laity are not the
teachers, yet from the faith of the laity the faith of
3X4 CONSTITUTION 6- POWERS OF THE CHURCH. [an
the teachers may be inferred ; that the seat of the
infallible authority cannot be fully explained until
the doctrine concerning the Roman Pontiff has been
established ; and finally it was shown that the
authority extended to certain matters which though
not actually revealed, are yet closely connected with
Revelation.
CHAPTER V.
UNITY OF THE CHURCH.
213. Subject of Chapter. So far we have been
discussing elements which may be considered as
constituting the essence of the Church. We proceed
now to discuss certain properties of the same super-
natural society, among which the first place will be
assigned to that Unity which is ascribed to the
Church in the Nicene Creed.
214. Properties of the Church. The word Property
is used by logicians to signify something which is
always found to accompany another thing, without
however being conceived as essential to that thing.
Thus, to use the common illustration, the essence
of " man " is to be a rational animal : every man is
a rational animal, and every rational animal is a
man. But further, to be capable of laughter belongs
to all men and to men alone, and yet we do not see
any intrinsic reason why this power should be found
in every rational animal, and in no other. This
being so, capability of laughing is said to be a
property of man.
Whatever may be thought of the example, it
serves to illustrate the sense which is attached to
the word : and so, when we speak of the properties
3i UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [214
of the Church, we have to look for something that
is found in this society and in none other, but which
does not seem obviously to result from the position
occupied by the society of being the instrument by
which the work begun on earth by Christ is to be
carried on and applied to individual men. It is in
this sense that it is usual to speak of four pro-
perties as possessed by the Church : Unity, Sanctity,
Catholicity, and Apostolicity ; and these are some-
times spoken of loosely as essential to the Church,
inasmuch as the Church can never be without any
of them. In the present chapter we shall speak of
the first of these, and show how and in what sense
the Church of Christ is One. The three chapters
that follow will deal with the remaining properties ;
and the closing chapter of the Treatise will point
out the way in which these properties afford the
means of determining which among the various
communions that profess the Name of Christ is
that Church which He founded and which He
endowed with the magnificent prerogatives that we
have described in previous chapters.
Keen controversies exist as to all this branch
of our subject, and many points will arise which
are felt to be absolutely vital. Our proofs will be
gathered mainly from the Scriptures, the authority
of which is acknowledged by all our adversaries :
we shall also use history and the witness of the
Fathers, for many whom we oppose ascribe weight
to these authorities.
215. Catholic Doctrine on Unity. It will be
convenient to begin with a short statement of the
215] CATHOLIC DOCTRINE ON UNITY. 317
elements which make up the idea of the Unity or
Oneness, which is a property of the Church. It is
not only that there is only one Church in the world,
one society only through membership of which
salvation is to be attained, and attained the more
easily the fuller and more perfect is the union of the
individual with the society. (See nn. 165, 181, 187.)
It is true that in this sense the Church is One or
Unique : but this is far from being the only sense.
There may be a man alone in a certain place, but
to say this does not describe the oneness of his
nature : this is found in the way in which the
various powers of the soul and members of the
body work together for one end : there is a common
principle giving a character to the whole, and the
influence of which sharply distinguishes the man
from all things of what kind soever that are not he.
There is variety in the members, but there is some
thing common to them all. The Church, in like
manner, has a principle of oneness, which joins the
members together, and distinguishes the society
from a mere aggregate of unconnected units. The
members are associated in order that, believing
the revelation which God has given, and using the
means of grace which He has provided under the
direction of the governors who have their authority
from Him, they may attain the end of their being,
the salvation of their souls. In other words, the
Unity which the Church must have includes Unity
of Faith, Unity of Worship, and Unity of Govern-
ment. It will be observed that we still say nothing
as to the form of this government, whether monar-
i8 UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [213
chical or otherwise, but that the society may be One
it is necessary that it should be ruled by one supreme
government.
216. Schism. The state and sin of Schism are
so closely connected with that Unity which we are
about to prove to be a property of the Church that
it may be well to say something about it in this
place. The word "schism" signifies cleaving (<r^t'^o>,
to split), but it is perhaps not used except in its
ecclesiastical sense, or in senses derived from this.
Thus we sometimes hear that a schism has occurred
in some political organization, the meaning being
that a portion of the members of the association
have withdrawn from the profession of obedience to
the managers, and ceased to co-operate with the
rest. The cause of the division may be some
dispute as to the genuine principles of the party, or
as to the best means of promoting them, or it may,
and often does, arise from offence being taken at
what seems arbitrary conduct on the part of those
in authority. Whenever such a separation happens,
complaints are heard from both sides of the damage
done to the cause by the split, and there is plenty of
recrimination, as each side throws the blame upon
the other : but impartial bystanders, even though
they understand little of the nature and merits of
the dispute, generally have little trouble in telling
which of the two disputants is the original and
which is the secession. What is here said of
political parties is also frequently observed in the
history of religious sects, the multitudinous forms of
Presbyterian isrn and Methodism having originated
ai6) SCHISM. 3if
in a series of secessions from the Scotch Kirk and
the Wesleyan body.
The Emperor Aurelian was a bystander when in
the year 272 he was appealed to in an action of
ejectment brought by the clergy of Antioch against
Paul of Samosata, who had previously been Bishop,
but had been deposed for heresy. He refused to
surrender possession of the church house, until
compelled to do so by the authority of the Emperor,
whose judgment is that the house belonged to those
with whom the Bishops of Italy and Rome corres-
ponded. (Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. 7, 30 ; P.G. 20, 720 ;
and see n. 213 as to Commendatory Letters.) In
this way, as the historian remarks, Paul was turned
out of the church in most disgraceful fashion by the
secular power (/cooyu/e^ ap^). The word which
is here rendered " correspond with " often means
" give orders to " (eVto-TeXXw).
The word Schism is used frequently in St. John's
Gospel, to describe the different views that were
taken by parties among the Jews as to the true
character of the Mission of our Lord (see St. John
vii. 43 ; ix. 16 ; x. 19, &c. ; the literal sense is in
St. Matt. ix. 16) ; but it does not appear that these
were more than passing differences of opinion. The
ecclesiastical use of the word appears to be founded
on a passage of St. Paul to the Corinthians, namely,
i Cor. i. 10. St. Paul is writing to the members of
the Christian community, which owed its origin to
his preaching, and he beseeches them by the name
of the Lord Jesus Christ that they all speak the
same thing, and that there be no schisms among
}M UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [216
them ; and he speaks thus earnestly, in the very
opening of his letter, because it had been signified
to him that there were contentions among them.
These contentions went so far that the parties took
to themselves the names of leaders of whom they
professed themselves to be in a special manner the
disciples ; some were of Paul, some of Apollos, some
of Cephas, while others professed to be of Christ.
Nothing is known as to the true nature of these
dissensions, though much has been written about
them, and huge theories built up upon most narrow
foundations : some account will be found in Cony-
beare and Howson's Life of St. Paul, in the thirteenth
chapter. We may remark that it seems that the
factions really took the names that are mentioned,
and that these names are not inserted by St. Paul in
order to save the credit of the true leaders. This is
the opinion held by St. Augustine (De Baptismo contra
Donatistas, 5, 13 [15]; P.L. 43, 184), and the Latins
in general, against St. Chrysostom (Horn. 12 in
i Cor.; P.G. 61, 95) and other Greeks, who think
that the precaution that St. Paul mentions (i Cor.
iv. 6) as taken by him extends to the whole oi
the earlier part of the Epistle, whereas it is well
explained as referring only to the five preceding
verses. (See Cornely's Commentary in the Cursus
Scriptures Sacra.) The chief argument for the Latin
view is founded on a passage of the first Epistle of
St. Clement to the Corinthians, chapter xlvii. This
writer can scarcely have been mistaken on the
subject, writing as he did a very few years after the
date of St. Paul's letter ; and his reasoning would
2 1 6] SCHISM. 321
have no force if the view of the Greeks be adopted.
(P.G. i, 308.) That these assumptions of party
names were not countenanced by the leaders whose
names were employed, is proved, if proof be needed,
by the terms in which St. Paul mentions Apollos in
this very Epistle, (xvi. 12.) One party called them-
selves by the name of Christ, and there is a curious
parallel to this exclusiveness in the use of the name
Evangelical by some sects of the present day, as
though they had a monopoly of the Gospels. Since
the members of these parties are clearly among the
number of those to whom the Epistle is addressed,
and who are spoken of collectively with commen-
dation (i. 4 9), we gather that no complete and
formal separation had taken place, and indeed it
. could scarcely have occurred so long as the parties
had no true leaders: it follows that the emphatic
protests of the Apostle were elicited by the existence
of a spirit which gave rise to a danger of actual
schism.
We have schism from the Church in the fullest
sense in the case of heresy, which severs the person
professing it from the membership of the Church
(n. 193) ; but the formal sin of schism is as it were
merged in the yet greater sin of heresy ; and ever
if the sins are material only, through ignorance, the
state of heresy is more disastrous than even the
state of schism ; so that the word Schismatic is
seldom used of one who is also a heretic, whether
formal or material. The sin of schism specially so
called is committed by one who, being baptized, by
a public and formal act renounces subjection to the
v VOL. i.
322 UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [216
governors of the Church ; also by one who formally
and publicly takes part in any public religious
worship which is set up in rivalry to that of the
Church. It is not an act of schism to refuse
obedience to a law or precept of the Supreme
Pontiff or other ecclesiastical Superior, provided
this refusal does not amount to a disclaimer of all
subjection to him ; nor even then, if there be any
doubt of his authority, as when two or more persons
have plausible claims to the position; but formal
schism may be committed by one who claims to
exercise ecclesiastical jurisdiction which has not
been conferred upon him by proper authority.
217. The Donatists. The nature cf schism is
well illustrated by the history of the rise of the
Donatist party, and by what is called the Great
Schism. A very short sketch of each must suffice ;
and first of the Donatists.
In the year 311, Mensurius, Archbishop of Car-
thage, died on his return from Rome, whither he
had been called to answer a charge made against
him by the Emperor. His death becoming known,
an election was held, when Caecilian was chosen
and consecrated by Felix of Aptunga. This election
was highly displeasing, on private grounds, to many
influential persons in Africa, who determined to set
it aside, and they procured the assistance in their
scheme of a considerable body of bishops belonging
to the adjoining province of Numidia. These bishops
met together, and declared the ordination of Caecilian
null, on the ground that Felix had been guilty of
turrendering the Sacred Scriptures at the command
2i7] THE DONATISTS. 323
of Diocletian (see n. 133), which crime, they con-
tended, cut him off from the communion of the
Church ; and it was further alleged that Caecilian
had been elected before the arrival of the bishops
of Numidia, whose presence was necessary. After
pronouncing the decree of deposition, the assembly
proceeded to elect one of their own party,
Majorinus, to fill the vacant see. Majorinus
dying was succeeded by Donatus, from whom the
party took its name.
So far there is nothing in the history to show
conclusively which party was in the right : but
the next steps dispelled all doubt. The question
between Caecilian and Majorinus was brought
before the Pope St. Melchiades and a council of a
few bishops summoned by him : and after hearing
the parties, sentence was pronounced in favour of
Caecilian. Even this was not conclusive, even for
those who admit the supreme authority of the Holy
See, for a personal question like this differs from a
question of faith : the decision may be reheard and
the judgment reversed. The Pope finding that the
defeated party did not acquiesce, had the whole
matter again gone into, at a Council held at Aries,
before a larger and more representative assembly
of bishops. The decision was again in favour of
Caecilian, and the whole Christian world outside
the two provinces in which the dispute had arisen
recognized this decision as final. From that time
the schism was complete : and there was no room
for doubt whether the name of schismatic was to
be given to a knot of bishops holding sees within
j2 4 UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [217
a stretch of some two hundred and fifty miles along
the north coast of what we call Africa, or whether,
as these alleged, they, and they alone, were the true
Church, and the rival Bishops of Carthage and the
neighbourhood, together with 'he Bishops of Rome
and of all the rest of the world, were cut off from
membership. The Donatists soon added to their
schism the heresy of denying Church-membership
to sinners : the sect existed for about a century,
and then died out.
218. The Great Schism. What is rightly called
the " Great Schism " had a different history, for
although there was undoubtedly a schism, yet to
this day there is no ground for an absolute judg-
ment which party were the schismatics. The
division lasted from 1378 to 1417. In the former
year, the Holy See being vacant, a de facto election
was held by the Cardinals : but they soon repented
of their choice, and declaring that they had acted
under fear of a seditious rising of the Roman popu-
lace, they proceeded to a second election, choosing
another person. The names are omitted here, for
they are apt to bring confusion into a history
which in its main features is sufficiently simple.
This double election resulted in there being two
claimants for the Papacy, each of whom obtained a
considerable following, and there was no short and
easy means of determining which was the rightful
Pope. Each had a line of successors, and for a
while there were three claimants, in consequence o f
another double election in one of the lines : and this
deplorable state of things continued until the year
2i8] THE GREAT SCHISM. 325
1417, when, during the Council of Constance, the
moment came for holding an undisputed election ;
all the rival lines happened to be without a head
at the same time : the Holy See was, therefore,
undoubtedly vacant, and Pope Martin V. was duly
chosen, and recognized on all hands with an insigni-
ficant exception. This put an end to a state of
things during which there was wide-spread schism,
involving perhaps half of the Catholic world ; but
the schism was material only, resulting from the
presence of insoluble doubt as to the person of
ihe Pontiff. No one renounced the principle of
Dbedience to the Pope, so soon as he should be
known.
No authorities are quoted here for these
histories, because they have been narrated only
for the purpose of illustrating the nature of Schism.
There probably is not much room for controversy
as to the facts that have been mentioned in these
bare outlines. The whole matter should be con-
sidered in connection with the Catholicity of the
Church, (chapter vii.)
219. Errors as to Unity. The errors opposed to
the Catholic doctrine of the Unity of the Church fall
into two classes. There are some who maintain the
necessity of absolute unity of faith, and are ready
fully to acknowledge the infallible authority of the
Church in denning articles of faith, and to regard
as heretics all who question anything which has
been so denned : but they are content with this,
and believe that the Church may be split into
several communions which, while they agree in
326 UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [219
holding the define 1 faith, disagree as to worship
and government : and they hold that this state of
things is actually existing, and that the English
Established Church, the Church in communion with
the Roman See, and various bodies of Christians in
the East, are so many branches of the one Catholic
Church, united in holding the defined faith, but
each refusing to allow community of worship to the
members of other branches, and disclaiming all
subjection to a common government. These profess
readiness to submit to any pronouncement of the
united Church : but so long as the Church is dis-
united, the voice is dumb which they would regard
as infallible. The upholders of this doctrine are
found among the followers of the Established
Church of England, and its offshoots.
The rest of the members of the English Estab-
lishment, together with such other Protestants as
recognize the existence of any visible Church, take
a different line. They hold that there are certain
articles of faith which they term fundamental, and
they believe that belief in these fundamentals is
sufficient to qualify for Church membership. All
who hold these fundamentals may worship in
common, and may submit themselves to such form
of Church government as seems to them most
convenient for securing order ; and this may be so,
even though they differ on such points of faith as
are not fundamental. This system, as well as the
theory of branch Churches, will be found inconsistent
with the passages of Scripture by which the Unity
of the Church in faith, worship, and government
zig] ERRORS AS TO UNITY. 32)
will be proved: and further it is to be observed
that the distinction of fundamentals and non-
fundamentals is absolutely destitute of Scripture
authority, and that its supporters are not agreed as
to the criteria, nor in the lists they put forward to
show what they hold to be fundamental.
In n. 226 we shall prove that the theory of
Branch Churches adopts in fact the distinction of
Fundamentals and Non-Fundamentals.
220. Unity of Faith. The great and all-sufficient
proof that absolute unity of faith, extending to the
whole body of revealed doctrine, is a property of
the Church is found in what we proved in our last
chapter concerning the infallibility which Christ has
conferred upon the Church. Christ has guaranteed
that the Church shall not err in defining doctrine :
all Christians therefore must be prepared to accept
all definitions which the Church has put forth or
shall put forth, the alternative being to suppose that
Christ is false to His word. Also, if we consider
.the end for which the Church was founded, we see
the necessity for unity of faith, not merely for the fact
of all agreeing to profess certain doctrines, but for
them to admit the authority of some voice which
can give an authoritative decision on all questions
that can arise in the future. The end of the Church
is that men should act together in promoting the
end for which each individual man was created : the
application to himself of the Redemption wrought
by Christ. But experience shows that differences
in points of religious belief are great hindrances
to the co-operation of men in any undertaking :
3 a8 UNITY OF THE CHURCH [220
disputes on these matters are apt to be rancorous
in the extreme : and even where all parties acknow-
ledge that an Authority exists the sound of whose
voice would command implicit submission, dis-
cussions on points which are still undefined are apt
to be carried on with a warmth that is scarcely
consistent with charity ; and the Church from time
to time imposes silence on both parties to a dispute
in her theological schools. This was done, for
example, in 1607, by Pope Paul V. in regard to the
controversy as to the efficacy of grace ; and in 1667,
by Alexander VII., in regard to a question con-
cerning the nature of attrition. One of the main
reasons by which men justify their abandonment of
all belief in Christ is derived from the fierce battles
that rage among the Protestant sects : these cannot
all teach truth, it is said, for they call down curses
on each other's errors ; why should they not all be
wrong ?
The doctrine which we maintain is clearly
implied in the fourth chapter of the Epistle of
St. Paul to the Ephesians. The Apostle is urging
his disciples to support one another in charity : and
he urges them to remember that they have one
body, one spirit, one hope of their calling, one
Lord, one faith, one Baptism, one God. Here the
oneness of faith ascribed to a Christian community
is put along with other things, the absolute oneness
of which is indisputable. The argument of the
Apostle would indeed be weak if the one faith of
which he speaks were confined to a limited number
of doctrines, and were consistent with difference of
220J UNITY OF FAITH. 329
opinion about other parts of revealed doctrine. The
Ephesians are to be perfectly one in charity because
they are in one faith : this would be a futile saying
if there were a possibility that they should differ
in faith while yet remaining members of the same
community.
It will not be questioned that our doctrine is
that of the Fathers, for in fact the idea that member-
ship of the Church is consistent with differences of
faith was unheard of until the great revolt of the
sixteenth century. But it may be useful to cite a
few words from St. Irenaeus, who writing about the
year 166 ventures to 'say that the faith of the whole
Church is one and the same throughout the world.
(Adv. -Hcereses, i, 10, 3 ; P.G. 7, 560.)
Some objections to our doctrine are drawn from
the parallel of the Jewish Church, which admitted
Sadducees as members of the Council, although
these Sadducees held undoubtedly false doctrines.
(Acts xxiii. 6 8.) In answer it is enough to say
that the proofs which we have given for the case of
the Christian Church keep their force, whatever
may be the case with the Jewish Church, con-
cerning whose constitution little is known. Also,
it is objected that some converts from Judaism
continued to observe the Law of Moses after their
conversion, although this law was no longer pleasing
to God. This is true. The Old Law ceased to be
binding, or even a means of grace, from the day of
Pentecost, when the New Law was promulgated
and the Church was founded : and from the date
of the Council of Jerusalem (Acts xv.), the opinion
330 UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [220
that it was still obligatory, either on Jewish or on
Pagan converts, was heretical, and this whether it
were regarded as still retaining its old force or as
having been incorporated into the law of Christ.
But time was needed before so great a change
could come to the minds and consciences of men ;
especially as the wish of the Church that the
Synagogue should be buried with honour led to the
use of the old ceremonies being still allowed to be
optional for Jewish converts, although these derived
no spiritual profit from the obsolete observances.
(See n. 278.)
The above objections are founded on Scripture.
Others of a more general nature are the following :
It is said that there can be no unity of faith in a
community where the bulk of the members cannot
know what they are called upon to believe ; and
this must be the case in every society of men. The
answer is that unity of faith does not require explicit
belief: what can be and is found in all the members
of the Church is the explicit belief of certain dogmas,
which this is not the place to specify, and the readi-
ness of mind to believe whatever is proposed upon
the authority of the Church ; this being what is
called implicit belief, it is further alleged that it is
tyrannical to claim to domineer over the minds of
men : that religion clean and undefiled is found in
outward works of charity (St. James i. 27), and that
to insist on unity of belief hampers the freedom of
men in the search for truth. We reply that this
might be a just complaint, were it not that God has
imposed upon men the duty of hearing the Church,
220] UNITY OF FAITH. 331
which speaks with an authority which is guaranteed
against error by God Himself, as was proved fully
in the last chapter : and that man is helped and
not hampered in the search for truth by being
supplied with certain portions of truth of which he
is absolutely assured.
221. Unity of Worship. That there must be
unity of worship in the Church, in which worship
all its members participate, will be thought hardly
to need proof when we consider that in the Church
men are associated together for the purpose of
helping each other in the service of God and the
following of Christ. They will not help each other
if they refuse to admit them to communion in
worship : and in fact the chief of the sacraments,
the Holy Eucharist, is often called Holy Com-
munion, because admission to common participation
in it is esteemed in a peculiar manner a token of
oneness in religion. In the final charge given to
the Apostles (St. Matt, xxviii. 19) there is no hint of
any Baptism but one ; and we are prepared for the
express declaration of St. Paul to the Ephesians
(Ephes. iv. 5): "One Lord, one Faith, one Baptism."
The same Apostle, seeking to heal the discord
which he found prevailing in the Church of Corinth,
reminds the people that, as they partake of the same
Sacraments, they ought to be united as members of
one body (i Cor. xii. 13 ; x. 16) ; and the young
Church at Jerusalem is praised, for that " they were
persevering in the doctrine of the Apostles, and in
the communication of the breaking of bread and in
prayers."
332 UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [221
The view taken in the earliest times of the guilt
of one who, whether publicly or privately, joined in
prayer with an excommunicated person, is proved
by the tenth and eleventh of the so-called Canons of
the Apostles, which assign excommunication as the
penalty of the offence. The form of these Canons
is certainly not Apostolic : but the substance of the
two which we have quoted is believed by Hefele
(Councils, vol. i. Appendix) to come down from
Apostolic times : and undeniably they have at all
times been held to express the discipline of the
Church, speaking just the same language as is
spoken by the Bull Apostolica Sedis of October 12,
1869.
222. The Diptychs. This unity of worship was
preserved in the early Church by two remarkable
institutions, the Diptychs and Commendatory
Letters. We must find space to give such an
account of these as will indicate their nature ; the
reader will not be able fully to appreciate the
importance which was attached to them unless he
make himself familiar with the original authorities
on Church history.
The word Diptych means folding tablets, such
as were used by the ancients for many purposes.
They were of various sizes and were often highly
ornamented ; and the adornment of dipt} chs with
their panels, has always been a favourite form of
Christian art. But our concern is with the diptychs
used in every church in ancient times containing a
list of names of those persons with whom the priest
when saying Mass publicly professed that he was in
222] THE DIPTYCHS. 333
spiritual communion, and who were in a special
manner partakers in the fruit of the Sacrifice.
These included the Church Militant, the Church
Triumphant, and the Church Suffering. The names
of the Pope and the Bishop were inserted, as they
still are, in the Canon of the Mass in the Roman rite ;
also the names of distinguished persons, the reigning
Emperor, living benefactors, and the like ; also the
names of some martyrs were recited, and of deceased
Bishops who had been distinguished for holiness ;
and to these were added the names of other departed
friends of the Church. To insert the name of a
person in the diptychs was a profession of religious
union with him, and if a name was erased, this act
amounted to a public renunciation of such union ;
and in this way the diptychs are often mentioned
in the history of controversy. St. Augustine
threatens disorderly clerics that he will blot their
names out from the tablets of the clergy (Serm.
356, 14; P.L. 39, 1,580); and when the fortunes of
orthodoxy and of St. John Chrysostom stood and
fell together, and the schism atical Patriarch of
Constantinople had struck the name of his holy
predecessor from the diptychs, the "Joannites"
refused to attend Mass at the Cathedral and held
assemblies of their own ; and Atticus caused the
name of John to be restored, in hopes of thus
satisfying them. (Socrates, Hist. Eccl. 7, 25; P.G.
67, 793.) The historian does not tell us whether the
measure was successful. This was in 408. In 480,
the Patriarch Euthymius with his own hand restored
the name of Pope Felix III. to the diptych of
334 UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [222
Constantinople, erasing that of the heretic Mongus
of Alexandria, with whom his predecessors had held
communion. (Theophanes, Ad Ann. 480; P.G. 108,
324.) The same method was adopted by way of
professing that each church accepted the decrees
of the great Councils in which the doctrine of the
Blessed Trinity and the Incarnation was defined ;
thus, in 513, Euphrasius of Antioch struck out of
his diptychs the Council of Chalcedon and the name
of Pope Hormisdas, but afterwards through fear
restored them, probably dreading a popular rising
(Theophanes, Ad Ann. 513 ; P.G. 108, 392) : and in
533 the Emperor Justinian writes to the Patriarch
Epiphanius that he will lend the weight of his
authority to discountenance all who removed from
the Diptychs of the Church the mention of the
three hundred and eighteen Fathers of Nice, or of
the one hundred and fifty of Constantinople, and
of the Synods of Ephesus and Constantinople : this
constitution being inserted in the Code became part
of the common law of the Empire. (Cod. Just, i,
i, 7, 21.) Such was the care taken to show that
unity in faith and unity of worship were inseparable
companions.
223. Letters. The Scriptures afford us traces of
the early Christian use of Commendatory Letters,
called also Litera Formates, because drawn up in a
fixed form. The practice was probably derived from
the Jews, whose authorities would give letters to
one of their body who was about to travel to secure
him a kind reception by the synagogues. (Acts ix. i.)
The opponents of St. Paul at Corinth objected that
223 LETTERS. 335
he had brought no letters (2 Cor. iii. i), and the
practice is mentioned in other places. (Acts xviii. 27;
Titus iii. 13.) The Galatian Church seems to have
been deceived by forged letters (Galat. ii. 4), and
there is a warning on the subject in what are
called the Canons of the Apostles (chap, xii.), which
though not truly of Apostolic origin, represent the
very early discipline of the Church. St. Augustine,
in one place, describes the seal with which he had
closed his letter, " the face of a man looking to one
ide," apparently as a precaution against tampering.
(Epist. 59, 2 ; P.L. 33, 227.)
We have curious heathen testimony to the
practice and its efficacy. Lucian represents the
philosopher Peregrinus as having wormed himself
into the favour of the Christians, and as feeling
assured that, let him go which way he would, he
was secure of a maintenance ; but he fell into crime
and this resource failed him. (Lucian, De Morte
Peregrini, p. 998 of the edition of Paris, 1615.)
The death of Peregrinus happened about the year
1 66, and Lucian wrote not long after. Again, the
Emperor Julian the Apostate, whose heart was
set on the overthrow of Christianity and the
re-establishment of Paganism, cast about for means
of securing permanence for his change, which he
feared would otherwise not survive him ; and he
thought that he could not do better than imitate
the polity of the Christians, with which he was
acquainted, having had a clerical education and
been advanced to the order of Reader. Accordingly
he gave orders for the temples of the gods being
336 UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [223
arranged after the pattern of Christian churches,
and for the practice of reading and preaching in
them ; he would appoint special days for prayer,
and the practice of public penance for sin was to
be encouraged. He would establish monasteries of
men and women devoted to the study and practice
of philosophy, as well as hospitals and other
charitable institutions. " But especially," it is said,
" he saw the value of the letters of the bishops,
which secured to travellers, whencesoever they
came and whithersoever they arrived, that they
were received with all kindness, as most dear old
friends, on the faith of the testimonial." So at
least we read in Sozomen (5, 16; P.O. 67, 1,259),
and whether or not we believe the story as to
Julian's plans, it is at least plain that the historian
knew that the efficacy of the letters was such as
he mentions. To come to Christian testimonies,
Tertullian (De Prescript, 20; P.L. 2, 32) tells us
that all the many Churches were bound together
by the exchange of " peace " perhaps " the kiss
of peace " and by the name of " brother," and
by the tokens securing hospitality : and our last
quotation shall be from St. Augustine. (Epist. 44, 3 ;
P.L. 33, 175.) Writing of the Donatist Bishop
Fortunius, with whom he had been in controversy,
he says : " First, he tried to make out that his com-
munion existed in all parts of the world. I asked
him whether he could give Commendatory Letters,
such as we call Liter a Formate, to enable me to
travel wherever I would ; and I remarked, what
was clear to every one, that this would afford an
223] LETTERS. 33>
easy way of settling the question." Of course, the
letters of the schismatic would be of no avail outside
the narrow limits of the Africans. Here again we
have plain proof that unity of worship and Church-
membership were considered as going together.
224. Unity of Government. The necessity of
unity of government in the Church follows from
nearly every text that has been quoted to prove
the existence of the Church as a visible, organized
society. It follows from the nature of a society
that there must be some government (n. 200) to
direct the members to' the end and if there is
more than one supreme governor recognizing sub-
jection to no one, there is more than one society :
there is nothing to give unity to these governors.
This lesson is clearly taught, for the case before
us, by the figures under which the Church is spoken
of in Scripture. Thus the Church is a Kingdom.
(St. Matt. xiii. xvi. ; xx. xxv.) This figure is so
common that it is enough to cite a few chapters
from one of the Gospels, in which it is used perpe-
tually ; it is a city (St. Matt. v. 15) ; a household
(St. Luke xv. II 24) ; a sheepfold (St. John x.
n 16) ; a body. (Romans xii. ; i Cor. vi. ;
i Cor. xii.) In all these figures we see a number
of units made one by being under one government.
Men are considered to be subjects of one kingdom
when they are subject to one king : if two kings,
or governments in any other form, bore sway within
the same territory, each claiming absolute inde-
pendence of the other, we should not say that the
state was one; such a condition of things in fact could
w VOL. T.
3 3 UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [224
have no permanent existence, for the question of
predominance would soon be settled by war. If
the territories were distinct we should have two
kingdoms, even though the two were in close
alliance. In the same way, men conceive of a city,
not as being a mere collection of houses, but as
having oneness given to it by some oneness in the
management. So, too, a household implies that
there is one head of the family : otherwise we have
two households, living together perhaps in harmony,
but in no sense one. The sheep within the same
fold are conceived as being under the care of one
shepherd ; and all the members of one living body
are directed by one animating principle.
More directly we are taught the same lesson by
the Apostle writing to the Ephesians (Ephes. iv.
II 16), where we read that Christ instituting a
government in the Church, distributed through
several offices, " for the edifying of the Body of
Christ, until we all meet into the unity of faith."
If there were many governments, they would build
up many bodies, and these could not all be the
Body of Christ, nor would they lead their subjects
to unity of faith, unless there were some supernatural
control, such as is nowhere promised.
There is no need to spend space in quoting testi-
monies of the Fathers on this subject : abundant
passages will be found in Waterworth's Faith oj
Catholics. It will be enough to cite the emphatic
words of St. Irenaeus : " They that cause schism,
be the trifling pretence what it may, hew and rend
the great and glorious Body of Christ, and so far as
224] UNITY OF GOVERNMENT. 339
in them lies put Him to death : ... for the evil
of schism is an evil greater than the good of any
reform that they can work." (Adv. Har. 4, 33, n. 7 ;
P.G. 7, 1,076.) And St. Cyprian, who wrote on the
Unity of the Church, has the following (n. 17 ;
P.L. 4, 513) : " If one be separate from the Church,
turn from him, shun him ; he is perverse and in
sin, and stands self-condemned." The authority of
these Fathers has special weight with many of the
moderns who oppose our doctrine.
225. Objections. The question of the unity of
worship and government in the Church is felt to be
so important that no surprise can be felt at the
multitude of objections that are raised against our
doctrine and its proof. These have been collected
by Dr. Murray at the end of the first volume of his
great work, De Ecclesia, where they should be studied
by all who are interested in the matter. We can do
no more than indicate some principles on which the
replies are based.
I. Many of the objectors try to show that our
argument from the figures is inconclusive, because
they think it possible, in some peculiar circum-
stances, for the thing mentioned as a figure to exist
without unity of government : as if it be said that a
body of men are going down the street, when in
truth they are merely so many unconnected units.
The reply is that the figure used is a popular illus-
tration of the truth, and is not put forward as
conveying more than what would ordinarily be
understood. Now it is undeniable that ordinarily
the phrase "a body of men" suggests that several are
340 UNITY OF 'JHE CHURCH. [225
acting in concert for a common object and under
the direction of a common superior, especially if it
be pointed out that being many they are one body
(i Cor. x. 17), and an argument be drawn from the
fact of this conspiration.
II. It is said again that the Church triumphant
and the Church militant are one, and therefore, if
our arguments hold, ought to have a common
government. We reply that there is a true sense
in which the two are one, and yet in another sense
they are distinct ; and our arguments are drawn
from the teaching of Scripture concerning the
Church militant : none of the passages adduced
make any reference to the Church triumphant.
III. The exhortations which we read to care
in preserving unity among Christians indicate that
there is danger of this unity being lost. But they
show no more than that there is danger of this
unity being lost by individuals, for by carelessness
they may lapse into heresy and schism : besides
which, the mode in which Divine Providence
secures the Church against ever losing her glorious
prerogatives is not by using miracle or forcing the
will of man, but by so effectually seconding the
human means employed by the governors as to
secure that the Church shall never suffer irreparable
damage through the frailty of her members.
IV. Figurative language can never lead to an
assured conclusion. On the contrary, this use of
figures is a most effectual mode of teaching ; and
were this otherwise, it would not have been so
constantly employed by Christ and His Apostles.
225] OBJECTIONS. 341
We do not mean to say that a demonstration can
always be drawn from a single figure, but when
many figures are used, the common character that
runs through them all is easily detected.
V. On one occasion there was a strife among
the disciples of Christ " which of them should seem
to be the greater ; and He said to them, The kings
of the Gentiles lord it over them, and they that have
power over them are called beneficent : but you not
so; but he that is greater among you let him become
as the younger." (St. Luke xxii. 24 26.)
We see to what straits the opponents of our
doctrine are reduced when we read that they
interpret this text as condemning all exercise
of superiority, as though it were unlawful in a
Christian to hold any office of authority. If this
be the meaning, there is an end of civil govern-
ment, for there is not a word to restrict the
reference to Church matters ; and we do not see
how our Lord could have held Himself up as a
model, as He does in the following verse, for He was
undoubtedly Lord and Master. (St. John xiii. 13.)
In truth, the warning is personal, and teaches those
who are entrusted by God with any portion of
authority over their fellow-men not to take honour
and profit to themselves, as will be done by
governors of all sorts who are guided by purely
worldly principles. This is the duty of rulers in
Church and State alike: all are bound to exercise
their office with a view to the welfare of their
subjects, and to set an example of humility and
self-forgetfulness.
34* UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [225
VI. Where there is unity of government, it is
urged, there must be unity of laws ; and since the
Church does not insist on unity of laws, it follows
that it does not really maintain unity of government.
The reply to this is, that as to the Divine laws
touching the constitution of the Church, the Sacra-
ments, and the like, there must be and is unity :
also there is unity in so far as all acknowledge the
authu) ity of one supreme legislator : but this legis-
lator 'S guided in the exercise of his power by con-
siderations of time and place ; and if he neglected
the/,e his conduct in his office would be imprudent :
and in this way the unity of government is preserved,
even though the discipline of one age and country
differ from what is enforced in other centuries and
regions. There is unity of government in Great
Britain, although the laws of Scotland differ from
the laws of England.
These specimens of objections must suffice.
There are none perhaps which can have much
weight with any who fully appreciate the argument
which we found in the figures used by our Lord and
His Apostles to describe the Church. It may be
doubted whether any intelligible theory has ever
been put forward which reconciles a visible Church
and a divided government.
226. Rival Views. In a previous place (n. 219)
we described the system of Branch Churches and
the system of Fundamentals. The latter of these
systems finds favour with those who ^lory in the
name of Protestant, while the supporters of the
farmer, for the most part, disclaim this name,
tilVAL VIEWS. 343
and would dissociate themselves, were it possible,
from all who accept it as applicable to them : if
they keep up spiritual communion with men whom
they regard as heretics, it is with a protest and
as a grudging concession to the times which they
scarcely attempt to justify. But the fact is that
both parties actually agree in holding the distinction
of Fundamentals and Non- Fundamentals. The
advocates of the Branch Church theory do this in
effect as often as they maintain the favourite position
that Church-membership requires no more faith
than is implied in holding the Creed of the Council
of Nice, with the additions made by the Council of
Constantinople, to which some would add the word
Filioquc, which was introduced by the authority
of the Pope alone, without the aid of any Council :
the taste of others, in closer agreement perhaps
with their principles, leads them to reject this word
as making an undue call upon their obedience.
Some of them will urge the Decree by which the
Council of Ephesus in 430 forbade the adding of
new articles to the Creed as then existing, and by
this contention show that they regard these articles
as alone fundamental, while those added at the
Council of Trent must be either false or at least
indifferent, to be held or not without prejudice to
the character of a member of the Church. These
forget that the Council which put forth this Decree
could not mean to bind the hands of future
assemblies whose authority was no less than its
own. For private men to put forth new Creeds
or to curtail those already put forth by authority
344 UNITY OF THE CHURCH. [226
would be a grievous usurpation, even were it not
forbidden.
227. Recapitulation. In this chapter, after ex-
plaining what is meant by a property of the Church,
and showing by certain examples what is the nature
of schism, we have proved that the Church must be
one in faith, in worship, and in government, and we
have considered certain specimens of the objections
brought against our doctrine ; some remarks on the
doctrines of Fundamentals and of Branch Churches
close the chapter.
CHAPTER VI.
SANCTITY OF THE CHURCH.
238. Subject of Chapter. The second property
that we claim for the Church is Sanctity or Holiness.
In the present chapter we shall explain what is
meant by this word, and show that from many
points of view the Church must be pronounced to
be holy, with a holiness which is attested by
singular favours bestowed by God.
229. Meaning of Holiness. The idea of Holiness,
or Sanctity, for the two words seem to have the
same meaning, hardly admits of definition, for it is
simple, and cannot be further analyzed. The older
writers describe it by negatives. Thus, the author
of the book on the Divine Names, that attained so
much authority in the middle ages under the name
of St. Denys the Areopagite, says (cap. 12 ; P.G. 3,
969), " It is nothing but absolute and spotless clean-
ness, the absence of defilement." Another unknown
writer identifies sanctity with Justice in relation
to God. (Horn, in S. Lucam, cap. i, inter opera
S, Joannis Chrysost.)
If we consider what things they are which are
called holy, we find in the Scripture that God is
pre-eminently holy : and we learn from Isaias (vi. 3)
346 SANCTITY OF THE CHURCH. [229
and St. John (Apoc. iv. 8) that to proclaim this
holiness unceasingly is the special occupation of
them that stand nearest to the throne in Heaven.
Also, those spots of ground which were in any
special manner appropriated to God were holy
(Exodus iii. 5 ; St. Matt. iv. 5), as were all articles
employed in the worship of God (Exodus xxix. 29 ;
Hebrews ix. 2) ; but, passing over many other uses,
we find that the word is peculiarly used of persons,
whether on earth or in Heaven, who are, or are
presumed to be, closely united to God by charity.
(Tobias ii. 12 ; Romans i. 7 ; Apoc. v. 8, &c.) The
general idea of holiness would then seem to be
nearness to God, the Source and Author of all
Sanctity : whether it be a thing, as an altar dedi-
cated to Him, or an institution, like a holy day,
designed to lead men to Him : and as the word can
be applied to men, it means the absence, more or
less complete, of all that is positively displeasing to
Him, and the presence of supernatural union with
Him by charity.
230. The Church Holy. That the Church is in
some sense holy will scarcely be disputed. The
Founder of the Church is God Himself, the Fountain
of all Holiness, which He communicates in such
manner as He sees fit to the works of His hands.
When Christ speaks (St. Matt. xvi. 18) of building
His Church upon the rock, He seems to call our
attention to this building as being in some special
sense His handiwork : and we can imagine that
when speaking He contemplated that Church as
He would have made it, " not having spot nor
Z3o] THE CHURCH HOLY. 347
wrinkle nor any such thing," " holy and without
blemish " (Ephes. v. 27), an ideal which, through
the malice of man, will never be realized to the full
upon this earth.
Further, the Church is holy, inasmuch as it is
set on earth to be the means of leading men to
union with God. The purpose and end of the
Church is to continue the work which Christ began
on earth, and this work is holy, for it is to enable
and help men to the attainment of that supernatural
possession and enjoyment of God in Heaven for
which they are destined. This destiny will be theirs
in virtue of their membership of the Church, and
the ability to gain it comes to them as they receive
that interior grace which is the portion of all men,
for all are in some sense members of the soul of
the Church, however imperfect that membership
may be. (n. 187, and Hurter, Compendium, n. 225.)
St. Justin Martyr does not hesitate to claim the
heathen sages as being his fellow-Christians. (Apol.
i. 46 ; P.G. 6, 397.) Further, the members of the
Church receive aids to advance in holiness when
they partake of those Sacraments to which they
have access in virtue of their membership : in which
Sacraments they receive or are restored to habitual
grace, if their souls are lacking the garment of
charity ; or, if they already have this precious gift,
then these Sacraments furnish helps to retain and
adorn it. The Church also, by her infallible voice,
teaches her members the truth about God, instructs
them how they can unite themselves with Him
by prayer, and guides each in the practice of all
34 8 SANCTITY OF THE CHURCH. [230
virtue ; she warns against evil communications, and
encourages all to seek for help to grow in holiness
by studying the example of such of her children as
have profited by her teaching.
These general considerations are common
perhaps to all denominations of Christians, though
there may be some variety in the language in which
they would be expressed. The explanation of the
terms which we have used, and the defence of them
when needful, must be sought in other Treatises :
those on Grace, Justification, and the Sacraments.
They go far to explain the sense in which the
Holy Scripture so constantly ascribes Sanctity to
the Church, and to her members, in virtue of what
ought to be the holiness of the members of a holy
body. In the Acts and Epistles, the word " Saint "
is perpetually used as equivalent to "Christian."
Saul, the persecutor, did much evil to the " Saints
in Jerusalem ; " that is, to the members of the
Church in that city : and most of the Epistles are
addressed to the " Saints " who are in such or such
a place (e.g., Ephes. i. i) ; and in the older books,
the same word is used of all who were serving God
as members of the Jewish Church (Psalm xxix. 5),
and this even when God sees reason to reprove
them for their personal conduct. (Isaias xliii. 28,
on which see Father Knabenbauer's Commentary.)
231. Heroic Sanctity. But this Sanctity of the
Church in the Author that founded her, in the
purpose of her existence, and in the means by
which she strives to promote that purpose, is not
all : besides all this, and in spite of the perversity
231] HEROIC SANCTITY. 349
of man, she is successful in securing holiness in
a large number of her children, some of whom
co-operate with grace so effectually as to rise to
that altogether extraordinary degree of sanctity
which is called heroic virtue. Much depends upon
obtaining a correct notion of the meaning of this
phrase, as used by theologians, and we shall
endeavour to explain it, following the safe guidance
of Pope Benedict XIV., who, before being raised
to the Papacy in 1740, had been employed for many
years as " Devil's Advocate," charged with the duty
of seeing that no Servant of God was admitted to
the honour of being declared " Blessed" or " Saint"
without due proof of all that the law requires in
such cases: and among the rest, he had to weigh
the sufficiency of proofs offered to show the presence
of heroic sanctity in such candidates as did not die
the death of martyrs. The experience gathered in
this office is embodied by the author in his great
work on Beatification and Canonization. The
account of heroic virtue in general is found in the
2ist and 22nd chapters of the Third Book: in
the following chapters the doctrine is applied to
the theological and cardinal virtues.
There is no need to descant in this place upon
virtue in general, for the common understanding
of the word is sufficiently correct for our purpose,
but we may give the definition of it employed by
St. Augustine (De libero arbitr. 2, 19, 50; P.L. 32,
1268), and after him by St. Thomas (Sum. Theol.
i. 2. q. 55. art. 4.) : it is " a good quality of the
mind, directing life rightly, of which none make a
350 SANCTITY OF THE CHURCH. [231
bad use, which God works in us without ourselves:"
nor need we go into details about the theological
virtues of Faith, Hope, and Charity, which relate
directly to God, and the need of which is known
by Revelation alone ; nor about the cardinal virtues
of Prudence, Justice, Temperance, and Fortitude,
which are convenient heads under which to arrange
all other virtues : our concern is to see what is the
special character which these virtues must have
before we cin say they are present in an heroic
degree.
This word " heroic " is borrowed by Christian
theologians from the heathen poets and philosophers
of antiquity, who gave the name of " hero " to
those men whose great achievements were held to
prove that they were the children of the gods, or
were raised to an equality with them. (See Horace,
Odes, 3, 3.) The abstract possibility of high virtue
among men who have not faith will not be ques-
tioned by any but those who hold the condemned
doctrines that all the works of infidels are sins
(Bains, 25 ; Denz. 905), and that an infidel neces-
sarily sins in all he does (Alexander VIII.; Denz.
1165), the justice of which condemnations is shown
in the Treatise on Grace. It may be doubted, how-
ever, whether such virtue ever was in fact attained :
it is true that we read of acts of what looks like a
high degree of temperance and the like, but it seems
probable that the very persons to whom these acts
are ascribed were at the same time the slaves of
habits of vice with which it is impossible for true
virtue to co-exist.
23i] HEROIC SANCTITY. 351
All true virtue must be founded on humility, and
humility is a character as far removed as possible
from the idea of one whom the heathen called a
hero. On this account, St. Augustine hesitates and
apologizes, as for a bold novelty, when he ventures
to speak of the Martyrs as the Heroes of the
Christians. (De Civit. Dei. 10, 21 ; P.L. 41, 299.)
But when Christian ideas had replaced the ideas of
Paganism in the minds of men, the term " hero "
was felt to be suitable as a description of Martyrs,
from whom it was transferred to Confessors and
other Saints.
The explanation of what constitutes an heroic
grade of virtue is given in various forms of phrase
by various theologians, but in substance all agree
that virtue is to be called heroic when it rises
conspicuously above the measure that is common
among men who lead good lives. This account, it
is true, does not touch the essence of the matter,
but it gives a description which is sufficient for our
purpose. We say then that within the body of the
Church of Christ there will always be not only
many who belong to the Soul, in the sense explained
before (n. 187), who are friends of God and live
lives of ordinary virtue, but also that there will
always be some whose virtue is of a higher stamp,
and will show itself from time to time by acts which
surpass the ordinary standard : just as in an army
we may expect that there are many who never for a
moment think of neglecting their duty and failing to
face the enemy, while there are some who only wait
for an occasion to offer itself, when their military
35 SANCTITY OF THE CHURCH. [231
virtue will make itself manifest by conspicuous acts
of valour.
232. Tfo Church holy in her members. In n. 230
we have proved that the Church of Christ must be
holy, and this proof might dispense us from saying
anything about the holiness of her members, for
every society is made up of its members. But it
may be worth while to call attention to some texts
of Scripture, merely as specimens of what might be
produced, which seem to point more directly to the
holiness of the members of the Church : a holiness
which will assuredly from time to time show itself
in the notable and illustrious deeds of those men in
whom the work of Christ is done with the greatest
perfection. Thus, the 7ist Psalm undoubtedly refers
to Christ, whether directly or through Solomon, as
a type of Him (as has been held by almost all
interpreters, following the ancient Chaldee Targum) ;
and in the seventh verse we read : " In His days
shall justice spring up, and abundance of peace, till
the moon be taken away." And Isaias foresees the
time of the coming of Christ (Ixii. n, 12), when
" it shall be heard in the ends of the earth that the
Saviour cometh, and they shall call them, The holy
people, the redeemed of the Lord." See, too,
Psalm ii. 6 ; Isaias xi. 6 ; liv. 7. Let this language
be contrasted with the words of pleading which are
addressed by God to sinners in so many passages
of Scripture, as in Ezechiel (xviii. 30) : " Be con-
verted and do penance for all your iniquities, and
iniquity shall not be your ruin : " the broad line of
separation betw^M the members of the Church and
232] THE CHURCH HOLY IN HER MEMBERS. 353
those who have not as yet the happiness to belong
to her will be felt at once.
The same conclusion follows from the promise
of Christ (St. Matt, xxviii. 20) to be with His
Church all days, in teaching men to observe all
things whatsoever He had commanded : and His
longing for the fulfilment of His work (St. Luke
xii. 50), and that the work of His Church might
produce abiding fruit, could not be altogether frus-
trated. The Parables of the Field (St. Matt, xiii.),
the Net (ibid), the House (i Timothy ii. 20), show
that in the Church are found good fruit, good fish,
and vessels of gold and silver.
For the passages of the Fathers that teach that
there must at all times be many holy men in the
Church, we must refer as usual to Waterworth's
Faith of Catholics. It must suffice to quote
St. Irenaeus, in whose work against heresy the
whole of the Catholic doctrine of the Church is
to be found : " Where is the Church, there is the
Spirit of God ; and where is the Spirit of God,
there is the Church and all grace: the Spirit is
Truth." (St. Irenaeus, Adv. Har. 3, 24, z; P.G.j,
966.)
233. Worldly Success. It is perhaps not useless
to remark that the success which is promised to the
Church is success in her work of applying to the
souls of men the redemption wrought by Christ :
and of working in them such likenesses of God as
by His grace may be possible. It is true that kings
shall be the nursing fathers of the Church, and
queens her nurses (Isaias xlix. 23), but she does
X VOL. I.
354 SANCTITY OF THE CHURCH. [233
not expect worldly greatness, or to do deeds that
win the applause of men. She knows that better
is a child that is poor and wise than a king that is
old and foolish (Eccles. iv. 13) : that it is well rather
to be an abject in the house of God than to dwell
in the tabernacles of sinners (Psalm Ixxxiii. n) :
and although the faithful observation of her precepts
would advance the true good of man in all respects,
and contempt of these precepts leads to the ruin of
civil society, yet she does not seek her saints among
those persons who make themselves famous by
increasing the wealth of themselves or of their
country, or by winning military glory or the like :
she finds that these saints and heroes of the world
are often the slaves of disgraceful appetites ; and
that even if free from the grosser vices they are
apt to be far from having, or even aspiring to any
likeness to Him Who was meek and humble of
heart. (St. Matt. xi. 29.)
234. Objections. Very few objections are brought
by Christians against the doctrine that the Church
of Christ must be holy in her members, for no one
who accepts the Scriptures as the Word of God,
and the teaching of Christ as a Divine message,
will allege that His work has been an entire failure.
That some members of the body of the Church are
not holy is unhappily true, but this does not dis-
prove our doctrine that many are holy, and our
proofs go no further than showing what is the
tendency of the doctrine and discipline of the
Church, which tendency will certainly not be alto-
gether frustrated : nor are we troubled by fear lest
234] OBJECTIONS. 35 j
it should some day be shown that the greater
number of her members are in sin ; for this cannot
be known without a revelation such as there is no
reason to expect, and even if the revelation were
given, we remember that an institution is to be
judged by the effect of its action upon those men
who are imbued with its spirit, not upon those who
pertinaciously resist its influence.
235. Miracles. The favour of God to His Church
is shown not only by the grace imparted to her
members, by which they all may become holy, but
also by His imparting to some among them a share
in His own power over nature which is called the
gift of miracles. When speaking in our first
Treatise of the Credentials of the Christian Revela-
tion (chapters ii. iii. iv.) we recapitulated the proofs
of the possibility of physical miracles furnished by
Catholic philosophy, and we proved historically
that the Divine Mission of Christ was attested by
such miracles. There is no need to repeat this
matter, in the present connection, for we now
accept the authority of the Scriptures as definitive
(see n. 162) ; and no one can doubt that the
Scriptures tell of cases where physical miracles
were worked by Christ and by mere men. Our
business now is to show that Christ has promised
that the gift of miracles should continue in His
Church.
Some of the gratuitous gifts of God to the souls
of men are given primarily for the benefit of the
recipient, and these will be discussed in full in our
Treatise on Grace. Others are given primarily for
356 SANCTITY OP THE CHURCH. [235
the benefit of others, and to enable the recipient to
fulfil some office in the Church, and some of these
are enumerated by St. Paul, (i Cor. xii.) They have
received from theologians the name of "graces
gratuitously given," a tautology justified by usage ;
and they include the gift of prophecy, the gift of
tongues, and among the rest, the grace of healing
and the working of miracles, of which St. Thomas
treats in the Summa. (2. 2. q. 188.) The Saint
teaches that the Holy Spirit, providing all things
necessary for the Church, grants the word of
wisdom, that the doctrine of Christ may be
preached : and that the same Spirit grants the
grace of healing, in attestation of the truth of the
preacher's word, as it is said that the Lord con-
firmed the word of the Apostles with signs that
followed (St. Mark xvi. 20.) This mode of proof,
which was used in the beginning, is peculiarly
adapted to the nature of man, more especially when
the miracle takes the form of the cure of hopeless
diseases. The circumstances of each miracle must
be carefully considered, not merely that we may
distinguish it from merely natural wonders and
from the illusions of Satan, but also to determine
what is the truth which it attests. Sometimes it
attests the sanctity of a man who is still living, and
at whose word it is wrought, and of course sinners
cannot work miracles of this sort : so also, if it be
wrought on the invocation of the aid of one who
has passed out of this world : but if the miracle
attest a true doctrine there is nothing to hinder its
being wrought at the word of one who is in sin, for
a35] MIRACLES. 35?
the words, "God doth not hear sinners" (St. John
ix. 31) were spoken by one who had been healed
of bodily blindness, but who was still spiritually
blind, and did not understand the fulness of the
mercy of God in hearing the prayer of all men,
as St. Augustine observes (Tr. in Joan. 44, n. 13;
P.L. 35, 1718.)
Such is the general account given by St. Thomas
of the reasons why this gift of miracles is granted
to some in the Church. In accordance with his
usual plan, he does not give reasons for believing
that the grant is actually made, for he made it his
business to explain and co-ordinate the Catholic
doctrine, but not to prove it, in the manner that
has been usual since the time when heresy first took
the form of denying the authority of the Church.
(Sum. i. i. 8.) We, however, must give the proof,
and it is not difficult, for the promises made by
Christ are most explicit. Thus He said (St. John
xiv. 12), " He that believeth in Me, the works that
I do, he also shall do, and greater than these shall
he do," and the meaning of the word " work " is
proved by comparison with many places in the same
Gospel, (v. 36, vii. 3, &c.) Again (St. Mark xvi. 17),
"These signs shall follow them that believe. In
My Name they shall cast out devils: they shall
speak with new tongues: they shall take up
serpents: and if they drink any deadly thing, it
shall not hurt them : they shall lay their hands
upon the sick and they shall recover." In the Acts
of the Apostles we read of many occasions when
the preaching was confirmed by miracle, as notably
3J8 SANCTITY OP THE CHURCH.
when the lame man was healed at the Beautiful
Gate of the Temple (Acts iii.) ; the force of which
attestation was felt by the Jewish Sanhedrim. (Acts
iv. 16.) Such, then, was at one time, the mode in
which God dealt with His Church, and if any one
assert that a change has been introduced, the burden
is on him to show when and where this took place,
or at least to give some reason to believe that there
has been a change. This he will be wholly unable
to do. We believe that the gift of physical miracles
is still granted from time to time, when God sees
that it is needed in attestation of the truth, as a
supplement to the moral miracles which are of
incessant occurrence.
No objections, as it seems, can be raised to the
doctrine of this paragraph, except by such as deny
the possibility of miracles, and the authority of the
Scriptures: and with these, as just remarked, we
have not now to deal ; and by such as rest on the
assertion that no miracles do occur at the present
day, and who are therefore forced to find some
meaning for the promises of Christ (St. John xiv.
12 ; St. Mark xvi. 17) and for the doctrine of St.
Paul (i Cor. xii. 10), different from that which
appears on the face of the words. We, on the
contrary, assert that there is no reason to depart
from the literal meaning of the promises, and that
the gift of miracles has not been withdrawn from
the Church : but this discussion will be conveniently
reserved for our ninth chapter, in which we shall
show what communion of Christians it is that
235] MIRACLES. 359
possesses the properties which we prove to belong
to the Church founded by Christ, (n. 245.)
236. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have
shown that the Church is holy in her Author, her
end, her doctrine, and her members : many members
of the Body of the Church living in the habitual
friendship of God, while the sanctity of some
reaches the heroic degree, showing itself in acts
of virtue beyond the spiritual strength of ordinary
men ; and that Christ has promised that the gift of
miracles shall not be wanting to His Church.
CHAPTER VII.
CATHOLICITY OF THE CHURCH.
237. Subject of the Chapter. In this chapter we
shall explain the true meaning of the word Catholic,
and shall show that to be Catholic, in the theo-
logical sense, is an essential, indefeasible, property
of the Church of Christ. The argument of the
chapter is taken from Scripture and history.
238. The Meaning of " Catholic."" Catholic "
is a word of Greek origin, signifying " throughout
the whole," and is used in this sense in various con-
nections by heathen writers both Greek and Latin,
as may be seen in the dictionaries. The word it*
found in the same general sense in the earliest
Christian writers: thus, St. Justin Martyr speaks of
the Catholic, or general, resurrection (Dial. c. Tryph
81 ; P.G. 6, 669), and Tertullian of the Catholic,
or all-embracing, goodness of God. (Adv. Marcion,
2, 17; P.L. 2, 304.) The first occasions where we
find the word used in the sense that is now familiar,
seem to be the declaration in the Epistle of St.
Ignatius to the Church of Smyrna that wherever
Christ is, there is the Catholic Church (P.G. 5,
713) ; and the letter in which the same Church of
Smyrna describes the martyrdom of the holy Bishop
238] THE MEANING OF "CATHOLIC." 361
Polycarp, which is addressed to "all the parishes
of the Holy Catholic Church in every place," that
is to say, to the local Churches, the communities in
each town which adhered to the Universal Church.
(In Euseb. Hist. Eccles. 4, 15 ; P.G. 20, 340.) These
testimonies belong to the second century. By the
time that the Donatist controversy arose, the use of
the word had become so well established, perhaps
because it is employed in the Nicene Creed, that
the schismatics could not venture to discard it, and
yet in its accepted sense it was plainly not applic-
able to a sect confined to a narrow portion of Africa :
they were, therefore, compelled to invent a new
meaning for the old word, and explain that all were
Catholics who observed all the commandments and
used all the Sacraments. St. Augustine, on the other
hand, protested that nothing was Catholic but what
is diffused throughout the world, of which none can
be ignorant, for it cannot be hid. (Epist. lii. i ; P.L.
33, 194, and elsewhere continually.)
It may be useful to remark that the word
Catholic did not come into the form of the Apostles'
Creed employed at Rome and in the West until
somewhat late. (Denz. i 13.)
239. The Church of Christ Catholic. It will not
be questioned that the Church of Christ teaches all
His doctrine, inculcates all His precepts, and uses
all His Sacraments : but we maintain that besides
all this, the Church is by her destiny and con-
stitution suited for all regions of the earth and
all races of men, that she is always conspicuous
among Christian communities for her diffusion and
362 CATHOLICITY OF THE CHURCH. [239
numbers, and that she will before the close of history
become known in all parts of the world. The proof
of this doctrine is found in the prophecies and
promises which we read in the Scripture, and which
are so plain that it will be enough to transcribe a
very few.
I. In Abraham, "shall all the kindred of the
earth be blessed " (Genesis xii. 3), on which text
we have the inspired commentary of St. Paul.
(Galat. Hi. 8.)
II. The Gentiles shall be given as an inheritance
to Christ. (Psalm ii. 8 and Hebrews i. 5.)
III. Christ shall reign from sea to sea: all the
kings of the earth shall adore Him. (Psalm Ixxi. 8,
n, and see n. 232.)
IV. All nations shall flow to the Church, and
many people shall go up to the mountain of the
Lord. (Isaias ii. 2.)
V. The strength of the Gentiles shall come to
the Church. (Isaias Ix. 5.)
VI. From the rising of the sun even to the going
down, the name of God is great among the Gentiles,
and in every place there is Sacrifice. (Malach. i. ii.)
VII. Going, therefore, teach all nations . . . and
behold, I am with you. (St. Matt, xxviii. 19, 20, and
see n. 206, ii.)
We are compelled to be content with quoting
the few most salient words of these texts. The
force of the proof will be better appreciated if the
whole of each passage is read, and compared with
the parallels referred to in the margins of our Bibles.
In this way it will become plain that the Church of
339] THE CHURCH Of CHRIST CATHOLIC. 363
the New Testament was destined to be of world-wide
extent, not confined to the Jews or to any other
nation or nations, but embracing all the Gentiles
and all lands; to be, in fact, of its very nature,
Catholic ; and this diffusion will be such as to force
itself on the attention of men, for the things described
cannot be done in a corner.
340. Early Testimonies. The nature of the diffu-
sion promised will be better understood if we consider
some testimonies that show the great effect already
produced by the preaching of the Gospel before the
end of the second century after the Birth of Christ.
We will cite two places from early writers.
I. "In every nation, Greek or barbarian, of them
that dwell in waggons, or houseless nomads, or tent-
dwellers, prayers and thanksgivings are offered to
the Father and Creator of all in the Name of Jesus
the Crucified." (St. Justin Martyr, Dial. c. Tryph. 117;
P.G. 6, 747.) Josephus tells us that the Jewish race
was found everywhere (Bell. Jud. 2.), but St. Justin
urges against his Jewish adversary the far wider
diffusion of the Christian faith.
II. Tertullian remarks that ignorance of Chris-
tianity was the chief hindrance to conversions ; as
soon as men came to know they ceased to hate, and
conversion followed. The result was that the
enemies of the faith found with sorrow that the
towns, the open country, the villages, the islands,
were full of Christians. (Apol. i ; P.L. i, 262.)
We have already cited other passages to the
same effect in another connection, (nn. 41, 67.)
For the Fathers, see Waterworth's Faith of Catholics.
364 CATHOLICITY OF THE CHURCH. (.241
241. Force of the Proof. The description given
in these texts of the Church of Christ would not be
verified, if at any time it were surpassed in numbers
and diffusion by any other communion claiming to
be Christian. But the texts do not necessarily
imply that the Church will always surpass all other
Christian communions taken together, although we
believe that she has done and always will do so. It
seems most natural to understand the texts as point-
ing to some yet future time when the Church will be
conspicuous in every nation of the earth : but it is
to be borne in- mind that some theologians think
that no more is promised than that each nation in
its turn will be subdued to the Gospel, while we
cannot feel sure that nations which have had the
faith and have lost it, as is the case in northern
Africa, will be again offered the priceless treasure
which they have despised.
Some objections to our doctrine that might be
considered in this place are more conveniently
reserved for the ninth chapter, (nn. 256, 258.) Others
have been answered by anticipation, in the chapter
on the Visibility of the Church, (n. 170.)
242. Recapitulation. In this chapter, after
explaining the theological meaning of the word
Catholic, we showed from Scripture that the Church
of Christ was essentially Catholic, and that she
became conspicuous in diffusion and numbers before
the close of the second Christian century.
CHAPTER VIII.
APOSTOLICITY OF THE CHURCH.
243. Subject of Chapter. In this chapter, we shall
explain the sense in which the Church is declared
in the Nicene Creed to be Apostolic.
244. Meaning of "Apostle." The original mean-
ing of the word " Apostle " is " one sent," an envoy,
messenger; and in this sense the word is freely used
by Greek writers. But the word received its special,
ecclesiastical meaning when our Lord chose it
to denote the office which, early in His Public Life,
He conferred upon a chosen number of His immediate
followers. The account of their appointment, with
the list of their names and the charge they received,
is found in all the synoptic Gospels. (St. Matt. x. ;
St. Mark iii.; St. Luke vi.) The selection was made
after a whole night spent in the prayer of God : the
first, as we learn from St. Matthew (x. 2.), Simon
who is called Peter, with eleven others: these He
named Apostles (St. Luke vi. 13) ; they were to be
with Him, and that He might send them to preach,
and He gave them power to heal the sick, raise the
dead, cleanse the lepers, cast out devils : a power
which was exercised by them (St. Mark vi. 13), as
also by the larger body of disciples who sub-
366 ATOSTOLICITY OF THE CHURCH. [t^
sequently received the same gift. (St. Luke x. 17.)
It was to these Apostles that Christ gave the final
commission to teach all nations, promising to be
with them in their work (St. Matt, xxviii. 16 20),
even to the consummation of the world.
After the Ascension of our Lord, it is clear that
the Apostles were regarded as occupying a peculiar
position in the Church : this is shown by the care
taken to fill up the number when one of the company
had forfeited the office by his crime (Acts i. 21 26),
and we observe that it was held necessary to choose
one who had himself long known Christ, and who
should be a witness to the Resurrection. St. Paul,
who, with St. Barnabas, was divinely set apart for
the same work (Acts xiii. 2), found it necessary to
assert his claim, and to point out that he had seen
Christ (i Cor. ix. i), from Whom he received the
Gospel that he preached (Galat. i. 12.) ; and the
Apostles are spoken of as being in a special sense
the foundation of the Church. (Ephes. ii. 20 ; Apoc.
xxi. 24.)
245. Later Use. In all ages of the Church the
name Apostle has been applied, specially to the
Twelve chosen disciples of Christ, and to those of
whom we read in Scripture that they were associated
with the Twelve. The records that remain to us
concerning the careers of these men are scanty in
the extreme, except in the cases of St. Peter and
St. Paul, with whom St. Luke concerned himself in
the inspired book of the Acts. But we are sure that
they spent their lives in preaching the truths which
they had learned, that God was with them in the
245] LATER USE. -367
work, and confirmed the word with signs that
followed (St. Mark xvi. 20) ; and that their success
was so speedy and glorious as to admit of being
described in the terms that we have quoted from
writers of the following century, (nn. 41, 67, 240.)
All accounts agree in representing that St. John
alone of the Apostles died a natural death, the others
ending their lives by martyrdom. There is a story
told concerning them which is intrinsically probable
and may well be true, although the direct testimony
for it is weak. Perhaps the earliest authority for
it is Rufinus, who died in 410 ; he wrote a Com-
mentary on the Apostles' Creed, and he says (n. 2 ;
P.L. 21, 337) that the Apostles came to a common
agreement as to the standard of the preaching which
they were about to begin, lest after their separation
they should give different accounts of the faith to
which they called men. So coming together, and
filled with the Holy Ghost, they contributed each
an article to what became the common creed
proposed to all who sought Baptism. Later writers
improve on the story, and tell us exactly what point
is due to each of the Twelve, and their accounts
have found their way into Christian art ; they are,
however, of no historical value. It need hardly be
observed that the precaution was directed against
the risk of one teaching something to his neophytes
which others omitted as needless: such accounts
would differ, but not be contradictory. St. Thomas
(Summa, 2. 2. q. I. a. 6.) explains how it is that the
one faith can be broken up into articles of a
creed.
3 6S APOSTOLICITY OF THE CHURCH. ^45
Those Christian communities, or local Churches,
which could boast that they received the faith from
an Apostle, were proud of the circumstance, for it
gave peculiar assurance of the purity of their
doctrine : such Churches are often referred to, under
the name of Apostolic Churches. (St. Augustine,
Epist. 44, Ad Eleusium, 3; P.L. 33, 175.)
Many saints of recent times who have done much
by their preaching to spread the Gospel among the
heathen have sometimes been called Apostles : thus
St. Augustine is the Apostle of England, St. Francis
Xavier of Japan, and so on. No particular signi-
ficance attaches to the title.
246. The Church Apostol : c. The promise of
Christ to be with His Apostles in their preaching
until the end of the world was not fulfilled in their
persons, but its fulfilment is found in the Divine
assistance given to the Church ; and, as we shall
show in the next Treatise, especially to the Pope, the
successor of St. Peter as Bishop of Rome, in whom
the fulness of the Apostolic dignity still exists on
earth.
At present it is enough to observe that we have
shown in a previous chapter, that the Church has
authority to teach, that she is infallible in her
teaching, and that there is in her, by Divine institu-
tion, an organized hierarchy with authority to
gorern. (nn. 200 211.) The seat of these authori-
ties is found in the body of Bishops, who, as will 1 e
proved hereafter (n. 295), cannot fail to be in union
with the Roman Pontiff; and the authority which
has come to the Bishops and is exercised by them,
246] THE CHURCH APOSTOLIC. 369
is none other than that which was bestowed upon
and exercised by the Apostles. No other source is
possible, unless a new revelation be given : and this
we know will not be. (n. 113.)
So far there is general agreement among
Christians : the Church of Christ must in some way
have succeeded to the Apostles. A Bishop of the
present day has his authority because he is a
successor of the Apostles ; whether the Church he
governs be an Apostolic Church (n. 245), or have
been founded by one who came with Apostolic
authority derived from some other Church. We are
not now speaking of that episcopal consecration
which is necessary before any one is capable of
doing all that belongs to the office of a Bishop : we
shall deal with this when speaking of the Sacrament
of Order ; but the authority to teach and to govern
may belong to one who has not received con-
secration, while it cannot belong to one to whom
it has not come by way of succession from the
Apostles.
Thus we are brought to the important question,
What constitutes true succession ? by what test are
we to judge whether a particular claimant is or is
not the lawful successor of one concerning whose
authority there is no doubt? If this question be
asked in the abstract, it is not easy to give an
answer, although there is seldom much difficulty in
replying as regards any particular case. We may,
however, say in general that the rule of the succes-
sion must be the old and acknowledged rule ; the
claimant who asserts that the rule which has been
Y VOL. I.
370 APOSTOLICITY OF THE CHURCH. [2 4
observed heretofore is unauthorized and bad, may
be right in his assertion, but he cannot be said to
come in as successor ; he may possibly have a higher
and better title, but the succession is broken ; the
old line is extinct, a new line has come in, which
must show its credentials. Another test is to
observe how far the claimant is recognized by others
who hold similar positions by an undisputed right.
The justice of these negative tests will be seen if we
think of the case of a person who claims to be mayor
of a town : he may say, for example, that he has
been elected by the voice of the people at large,
whereas his predecessors had for a long series of
years been nominated by the lord of the borough :
we may perhaps agree with him that his title is
better than that of those that went before him, but
it is different : he is the first of a new line on whom
rests the burden of proving that theirs is a lawful
title : prescription is against them ; and especially
is this so, if it be found that none of the surrounding
mayors regard him as sitting in the chair of their
old assoc ate.
247. Recapitulation. In this chapter, the nature
of the Apostolic office is explained, and the Church
is shown to be necessarily Apostolic in doctrine and
in government.
CHAPTER IX.
NOTES OF THE CHURCH.
248. Subject of the Chapter. In this chapter, after
explaining how the properties which we have proved
to belong to the Church furnish us also with marks
by which she may be recognized, we shall show
that no Christian community shows these marks
except that which is in communion with the Bishop
of Rome ; while the community which recognizes
the Primacy of the Roman Pontiff possesses them
all to the full.
249. Notes of the Church. We have shown that
Christ was a Messenger from God, and in due time
we shall show that He was in truth much more.
He was Himself true God at the same time that
He was true Man ; but it is enough for our present
purpose to say that He spoke with the authority of
God. From the record of His teaching which we
find in the Gospels considered merely as trust-
worthy human histories, and not as inspired (n. 205)
and in other monuments, we have shown that
He founded a visible Church (n. 168) or organized
society, the membership of which was something
not purely interior but also exterior; that this
Church is perennial, destined to last to the end of
3?a NOTES OF THE CHURCH. [249
ime (n. 166) ; and He imposed on all men the duty
of becoming members of this Church (n. 181) ; a
duty the fulfilment of which is sometimes impossible,
through ignorance or other causes, but the neglect
of which is in all cases a grievous misfortune, on
account of the loss of the great spiritual blessings
which are reserved for those who are visibly in the
communion of the Church. We have further shown,
in the four chapters preceding the present, that the
Church of Christ is deservedly called, One, Holy,
Catholic, and Apostolic; she is One in doctrine,
worship, and government ; she is Holy in her
doctrine and discipline, and in the holiness of many
of her members, which sometimes is seen to attain
an heroic degree of virtue and to be attested by
miracles ; she is Catholic in being suited and spread
to all the regions and nations of the earth, and in
conspicuously outnumbering any other communion
of followers of Christ, and lastly, she is Apostolic,
being governed by a divinely constituted hierarchy,
the members of which from generation to-generation
receive their authority from their predecessors.
It follows that among the Christian communities
that we see around us, there is one and one only
which is the true Church founded by Christ, which
it is the duty of all men to enter, and to obey ; that
this one community has the properties that have
been enumerated, and that no other Christian
community has these properties. In view of the
duty and advantage of membership, it is necessary
to discover which this one community is.
It is here that the properties which we have
249] NOTES OF THE CHURCH. 373
enumerated prove to be important. They are not
merely internal invisible characters, such as the
perennity, of which we are assured by the Divine
promise alone, for no man can foresee the future
with certainty; nor are they characters which can
be shared by other societies, as visibility can ; but
they are Divine gifts to the Church and to the
Church alone, of such nature that they display
themselves visibly and unmistakeably, serving as
guides to make known to the inquirer where he is
to recognize the Church which has the Divine claim
to his submission. It is in this sense that the four
properties enumerated are said to furnish notes or
badges distinguishing the true Church ; and it is in
this way that they have been used by the theologians
ever since the first rise of this fundamental contro-
versy. Cardinal Bellarmine in his Controversies
(torn. 2, lib. 4) used fifteen Notes, but these can
be conveniently reduced to the four which are
mentioned in the Nicene Creed.
250. Christian Communities Classified. We know
that a large number of communities exist in the
world, all professing to be the^ followers of Christ.
We have to study these in order to discover which
among them bears the badges, by which, as we have
seen, the true Church of Christ is to be known;
and before we can do this, some classification is
necessary, for otherwise we shall be involved in
much needless repetition. First then, there is the
community which glories in submission to the
Roman Pontiff as Vicar of Christ, who has received
from God immediate, ordinary jurisdiction over the
374 NOTES OF THE CHURCH. [250
whole flock (n. 286) ; then, several communities
may conveniently be spoken of collectively as the
Eastern Church, whose adherents are found chiefly
among the Russians and Greeks ; next we may
reckon the Established Church of England, with the
offshoots that exist in all countries where English
is .spoken : we shall speak of these as Prelatic
communions; and lastly, there are multitudinous
sects existing in Great Britain and the colonies, in
northern Europe, the United States of America and
elsewhere, all of whom may for our purposes be
regarded as one: we will use the word Unprelatic
to designate all of these, for this word marks a
feature that is common to them all, that they refuse
to recognize the authority of any order of men
corresponding to Catholic Bishops, and it is this
refusal which, historically, has been the chief cause
of their severance from the Prelatic. In England
they are called Dissenters or Nonconformists, as
being Protestants who dissent from the Established
Church and refuse to conform to it. We will
consider these in order, and it will be convenient
to begin with the last-named.
251. The Unprelatic. Few words are needed to
show that no sect among the Unprelatic has the
Notes of the Church of Christ. They certainly
have not unity of faith, for even among those that
exist in England there are some score of substantial
differences of doctrine, besides minuter shades
innumerable; and the diversity in other countries
where these people are found is at least as great as
here. Nor is this wonderful, for they agree in not
251] THE UNPRELATIC. 37.5
acknowledging any external objective principle of
unity, and boast that they have liberty of private
judgment, without being subject to any control in
matters of faith. They have unity of worship, in
the sense that they do not hesitate to attend the
services in chapels belonging to other sects than
their own, but most among them refuse to admit
any one to the ordinance of the Lord's Supper,
without inquiry into his belief and life. With few
exceptions they disclaim all unity of government as
of Divine institution. As to sanctity, the doctrines
as to grace and justification held by most of these
sects seem little calculated to lead men to lives of
holiness ; but, nevertheless, probably many of them
lead good lives according to their very imperfect
lights ; but we do not hear of any who rise above
the common race of men by what is called heroic
sanctity, and there are few of them who assert that
miracles occur in their body.
Certainly the sects in question are not Catholic,
in the sense in which we have proved that the
Church of Christ is Catholic. Some of them claim
this honoured name to themselves to signify that
they are all-embracing, there being no form of
religious belief that they condemn ; by as good a
right, heathen Rome might have been called Catholic,
for as St. Leo remarks, this city deemed itself very
religious, for there was no error that it was not
ready to embrace. (Serm. 82, 2 ; P.L. 54, 423.) But
it is merely silly to employ old well-known words
in totally new senses ; the true, historical meaning
of the word is that in which it was employed by
376 NOTES OF THE CHURCH. fai
St. Augustine (n. 228), and after him by all writers
down to recent times. In this sense, no one of the
Unprelatic sects can be considered Catholic for
none show any tendency to spread beyond the
country and language in which they had their
origin, nor is any one of them conspicuous for
its numbers. In this matter we must not be
deceived by words ; if we find " Methodists " or
" Baptists " in considerable numbers in the British
Empire and America, we must remember that these
names include many distinct sects differing in faith,
and often without the common bond of mutual
sympathy.
Some of the sects give the name of Bishop to
certain of their officials, as is done by the Lutherans
in Sweden and by the Methodists in America ; but
none of them profess to trace the existence of their
organization further back than the sixteenth century,
so that they have no claim to be called Apostolic.
Each sect started fresh when its founders educed
a new system of doctrine and discipline from the
Scriptures.
252. The Prelatic. There exists in England a
religious body recognized by the law of the country,
and enjoying certain legal privileges, and the appli-
cability of the notes of the Church of Christ to this
body requires distinct consideration. This body is
distinguished from the Dissenters in being governed
by Bishops, many of whom are, materially speaking,
the successors of Bishops whose position was
recognized throughout the Christian world before
the Reformation. Communions sprung from thla
252] THE PRELATIC. 377
central body exist in all the countries where English
is spoken ; these are more or less in sympathy one
with another, and they agree in using the same
formularies, with more or less of modification. They
are Prelatic, and have therefore a semblance of
possessing the notes of the Church of Christ, which
cannot be said of their Unprelatic rivals.
But on closer inspection, this semblance dis-
appears, for what at first looks like one community,
turns out on inspection to be a mere bundle of
discordant sects, bound together by a merely
external bond. It will be enough to speak of the
mother body found in England, for no one will
maintain that the notes of the Church of Christ are
found in the offshoots if they be lacking in the
common stem, the English Establishment. We
proceed then to consider how far the notes appear
in this communion.
First, there is no unity of faith, of worship, or of
government. All the office-bearers agree in having,
in words, accepted certain formularies, as the
condition of admission to their posts, but they
hold themselves at perfect liberty to explain these
formularies as they please; and the language in
which they are couched lends itself to the greatest
variety of explanation. There is no living authority
within the body that even pretends to be able to
decide what is the true doctrine on disputed points ;
and there is no machinery for controlling heretical
teaching, except that the State withdraws its recog-
nition from such ministers of the Establishment as
are convicted in the civil court of having taught
3? NOTES OF THE CHURCH. [252
doctrine which contradicts the formularies which
are part of the law of the land. The principle of
unity of faith being lacking, it is no marvel that
most diverse opinions are held and professed on
points which, in the judgment of all, are of funda-
mental importance. There is unity of worship of
a sort, inasmuch all join in the use of the legalized
forms of devotion, deviating from them, however,
according to each man's taste, so far as the fear of
the law of the State will allow them. But the unity
is of an imperfect sort when two persons partake
of the Lord's Supper, side by side, while one believes
that the rite is a mere commemorative feast, but
the other believes that it is the Sacrifice of the
Body and Blood of Christ. There is no unity
of government, for the Bishops acknowledge no
common superior, unless it be the Sovereign, to
whom each does homage on his appointment ; and
large sections both of clergy and laity openly defy
the authority of the Bishops, in matters of discipline
no less than in matters of faith, and this without
eliciting more than mild expressions of regret from
the rest of the body, who lament these unhappy
divisions, but do not see that they indicate a
fundamental defect in the whole system.
As to sanctity, the same may be said of the
Establishment as was said of the Dissenters ; there
are men and women within it who have grace to
lead lives of ordinary goodness, of the type set forth
in Dean Burgon's Lives of Twelve Good Men. But
cases are rare, or rather non-existent, where the
religion of the Established Church has produced
252] THE PRELAT1C. 379
the fruit of virtue of the kind that can be called
heroic; and we hear nothing of any claim to
miraculous power, which in fact it is usual to
disclaim, without any reason being given for this
falsification of the promise of Christ. The Church
of England uses the Apostles' Creed, and so claims
the name Catholic, but there is no agreement among
its members as to the meaning. By some the word,
though occurring in the legalized formula, is simply
ignored, for they glory in the name of Protestant as
opposed to Catholic ; and it would be dropped by
them could this be done without exciting a com-
motion, just as many have dropped the use of the
Athanasian Creed, which is obligatory upon them,
but the doctrine of which they dislike; and many
drop distasteful clauses of the legal form of ad-
ministering the Eucharist, in spite of their solemn
promise to use it. Others would say that by
claiming to be Catholics they meant that they held
the same doctrine as was held by the Church of
Christ at some remote period, when it seems to
them to have been incorrupt ; but as we pointed out
in the last paragraph, this is not the sense in which
the Church of Christ is Catholic. In that sense, the
Protestants are not Catholic, for they are confined
absolutely to the English race, and embrace no
more than a fraction of this people. The number
of adherents however is but inconsiderable, even if
we allow that all the offshoots from the English
Establishment are sufficiently in sympathy with it
to form one whole ; they amount to about twenty
millions, the other Protestants whom we have spoken
380 NOTES OF THE CHURCH. [25?
of as Unprelatic being perhaps four times as
many ; but these estimates are very uncertain.
But even were it otherwise at the present day,
the note of wide and conspicuous diffusion would
still certainly be wanting, for the existing English
Church is identical with that which existed with
legal recognition in England three centuries ago;
and that communion was confined absolutely to the
dominions ruled by Queen Elizabeth.
One of the sections of the Established Church
holds a peculiar position that must be noticed.
According to them they are members of the Catholic
Church, in the sense in which we use the term, and
they hold that the Christians who are in communion
with Rome, and also the Easterns, are also members
of the same Church : and this position requires
them to maintain that the Establishment and the
Roman communion are really one and the same.
If this were true, they would gain the conspicuous
diffusion of which they feel the lack. But the
asserted union between this party and Rome dis-
appears when judged by the tests of union of
which we spoke in our fifth chapter. The more
thoroughgoing members of the party profess that
they hold all the doctrine that Rome holds : but
most of them would make an exception for the
doctrine of the Infallibility of the Pope, which is
certainly held by Rome. (Cone. Vat. Sess. 4, c. 14 ;
Denz. 1682.) And even if they declare in words
that they admit the Primacy of the Pope (Cone.
Vat. Constit. de Ecc. 2 ; Denz. 1677), yet their acts
belie their words, for they refuse to submit to
252] THE PRELATIC. 381
him : besides which they are content to remain in
spiritual communion with men who hold doctrines
on the Sacraments and other matters which are
undoubtedly heretical. There is no unity of worship
between these men and Rome, for Rome would pay
no regard to testimonials given by the Anglican
Bishops (see n. 223), nor would any Roman priest
be a party to an Anglican receiving the Blessed
Eucharist : and there is no pretence to unity of
government, for there is no living governor to
whom both parties submit. This must suffice as a
short account of a subject on which a large and
increasing literature exists.
As to Apostolicity, the members of the Church
of England believe that they have this Note
because they have a materially unbroken succession
of Bishops from the days when the Bishops of
England are acknowledged by all who care for the
matter to have been Apostolical. But the merely
material succession is not enough, for it may be
that a mere intruder may have been raised to the
dignity by open force ; or it may be that a holder
of the office fell into undisguised heresy, and was
followed by a line of successors of his own sort.
The succession will not avail unless it is formal and
legitimate, as to which we have mentioned two tests
(n. 246), neither of which the Anglican succession
can abide. The Anglican Bishops are not recog-
nized as such by the great body whom all acknow-
ledge to be true and lawful Bishops : and the mode
in which they are appointed has undergone a
change from that in use in the days when all agree
#2 NOTES OF THE CHURCH. [252
that the succession was lawful. At present, as of
old, the Bishops are confirmed by the Archbishop
of Canterbury : but the Archbishop acts without
any authority from Rome, whereas he formerly
acted in virtue of the authority conferred upon
him by the Pope who gave .him the pallium. In
proof of the sense entertained of the necessity of
this investiture, we may cite the letter written
in the year 805 by the English Bishops to Pope
Leo III., in which they recognize the duty of
personal application by the new Archbishop to the
Holy See, but beg that he may be allowed to act
by deputy. (Haddan and Stubbs, Councils, 2, 559.)
This change in the mode of appointment broke the
succession, especially as the new line failed to obtain
recognition by those who had recognized the old :
and thus the Apostolic origin was lost and a new
start made ; and this would have been so, even if
the Episcopal consecration had been preserved, and
even if the new line had not held doctrines on the
number of the Sacraments and on the Sacrifice of
the Mass which the old line denounced as heretical.
253. TJ& Easterns. We cannot afford space to
say more of the Easterns than that they are plainly
without the Note of Catholicity, for they show no
tendency to spread beyond the countries where they
originated.
254. The Roman Church. Unity. We have
found that the Christian communions which do not
acknowledge the supreme authority of Rome have
not got those Notes which, as we have shown, must
be found in the Church of Christ. It remains to
^54] THE ROMAN CHURCH. UNITY. 383
apply the same tests to the Roman Church, by
which name we may conveniently (see n. 258) desig-
nate the collection of local Churches which regard
the Church of the City of Rome as their Mother
and Mistress. (Creed of Pope Pius IV.; Denz. 867.)
And first of Unity.
The Roman Church has the principle of unity
in faith, for all its members acknowledge that the
living voice of the body of Bishops, joined with
the Pope, speaks infallibly on matters of doctrine
(nn. 205 209), and that the same is true of the Pope
personally where he speaks ex cathedra, as will be
explained in the following Treatise, (n. 290.) There
are many points of doctrine on which the Church
has not spoken, and which are sometimes debated
with no little warmth in the theological schools;
but all parties to the debate are prepared to submit,
at once and implicitly, with interior assent, as soon
as the voice of the Church is heard ; and they
are perfectly consistent in doing so : an authority
has come to their knowledge which is decisive of
the dispute. And this function of the Church is
in constant exercise, and is not confined to the
comparatively rare occasions when a Council is
assembled, or an ex-cathedral Decree is issued : but
questions on matters which come within the scope
of the Infallible authority of the Church (n. 209) are
constantly submitted to the tribunals of the Court
of Rome ; and the decisions given, though not
themselves ex-cathedral, are certain with infallible
certainty, at least when they are accepted by the
Church at large. (See n, 327.)
384 NOTES OF THE CHURCH. [254
Unity of worship is found in the Roman Church,
for all recognize that the supreme act of worship is
the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass offered by a priest
who holds authority to celebrate from a Bishop in
communion with the Holy See, and the names of
the reigning Pope and of the Bishop are mentioned
in the Canon of each Mass. (n. 223.) And all the
Bishops who have this communion recognize the
testimonial letters issued by his brethren who have
the same communion. The rite with which the
Mass is offered is not everywhere the same, for
the Holy See sanctions the Latin rite for some
countries, the Greek for other districts, and so of
the Coptic, Syriac, and Armenian : but it is recog-
nized that these differences of rite do not hinder
the essential oneness of the Sacrifice, and all is
done in dependence upon the one centre of unity.
Communion with this same centre secures unity
of government. All the Bishops receive with
reverence the directions which from time to time
reach them from Rome, and each makes periodical
visits to the " threshold of the Apostles " at longer
or shorter intervals according to the distance : on
which occasions he renders a full account of the
state of the diocese under his care, and receives
such advice and directions as the circumstances
may require.
255. The Roman Church. Sanctity. The Sanctity
of the Roman Church receives attestation even from
those who do not belong to her, as often as they let
it be known that they look for a higher standard of
virtue in the life of a Catholii: than they look for
255] THE ROMAN CHURCH. SANCTITY. 385
in members of other communions ; illustrations of
which feeling are of almost daily occurrence in the
life of any one who lives in a mixed society of
Catholics and Protestants. But the Holiness of
the Roman Church shows itself also in the heroic
sanctity of a great multitude of men and women
within her communion. This heroic sanctity is by
no means confined to those on whom the solemn
Decree of the Church has conferred the title of
Saint or Blessed : this honour is not allowed to any
whose holiness cannot be proved to have reached
the heroic standard : but this is not enough ; it
must be shown that the Divine will in the case has
been made manifest by miracles. As to miracles
we shall speak directly, and we are not concerned
with visions and other extraordinary marks of
Divine favour : for the proofs of heroic sanctity
may be studied without reference to them. These
proofs are found in the lives that are written of
holy persons, and especially in those founded on
the authentic processes instituted when a petition
is presented for the beatification of any Servant of
God: the story will be found to show how under every
conceivable variety of circumstances all the virtues
suitable to the person's state were practised with a
perfection far above what is usual even among good
men ; and however strange some of the recorded
actions may seem to some readers, yet it will be
seen that these are nothing but what look like
excesses in what is good; and their character will
be best judged by those whose own lives approach
most nearly to the heroic standard.
Z VOL. I.
386 NOTES OF THE CHURCH. [255
The processes in causes of canonization all
contain full proof that miracles continue to be of
frequent occurrence in the Church-. On a question
of fact of this kind, we must refer to what we said
on the general subject of Miracle in the First
Treatise (nn. 21 -34): testimony proves the exist-
ence of certain fac.ts, and our knowledge of the laws
of nature proves that the co-existence of these facts
admits of no natural explanation. The value of the
testimony must be judged in each case ; but it is to
be remarked that this is a matter on which no man
is a fair judge who does not frankly and fully in his
own mind admit that God can, when He sees fit,
deviate from the rules by which it is His pleasure
ordinarily to govern the universe ; and further,
that God did please to do so on certain occasions
recorded in the Gospels. One who does not admit
this has no concern with any question regarding
the Notes of the Church, for the whole of the
present controversy is based on the authority of
Scripture, which he declines to admit. We con-
ceive that thf: testimony in favour of certain miracles
will be foun 1 absolutely conclusive by any one who
approaches the subject with an open mind, using
the great work of Benedict XIV., to which we have
already referred, (n. 231, and see n. 38.)
256. The Roman Church. Catholicity. That the
Roman Church is Catholic will scarcely be ques-
tioned. In its constitution there is nothing to con-
fine it to certain languages or regions of the earth,
and in point of fact it has penetrated everywhere :
in every case where the circumstances of the con-
256] THE ROMAN CHURCH. CATHOLICITY. 387
version of a nation to Christianity is known from
history, it will be found that the work was effected
by missionaries working under the authority of
Rome ; and although there are some obscure
instances on which history throws little light, yet
in no single case can it be proved that the work
was done independently of Roman mission. The
Annals of the Propagation of the Faith show how
at the present day Roman missionaries are doing
their work with zeal and success, and not seldom
receive martyrdom as their reward ; while the
scanty result of the vast resources squandered on
Protestant Missions is recognized by all who attend
to the subject : lapse of time having done nothing
to modify the effect of the . overwhelming mass of
evidence collected by Mr. Marshall in his book on
Christian Missions. All authorities agree in esti-
mating the members of the Roman Church as
being at least as numerous as all other Christians
put together : it follows that they many times
outnumber the adherents of any single sect, and
form far the most conspicuous body of Christians.
257. The Roman Church. Apostolicity. What
was said when we spoke of unity of worship (n. 254)
sufficiently proves that the members of the hier-
archy of the Roman Church in each generation
receive their authority from the generation that
went before, and in this way the Apostolic character
of the Church is assured.
258. Objections. Various objections are raised
against our doctrine on the Notes of the Church,
and they will be found collected in large number by
3 88 NOTES OF THE CHURCH. [258
Perrone (Prcelectiones ; Tr. de Loci's, c. 3), but the
replies to the great bulk of them have been antici-
pated in what we have said. It is unfortunately
true that there is much corruption of morals among
members of the Church, especially in those countries
where she has been robbed and deprived of liberty
by the action of the civil power : and this corrup-
tion may in some cases have been found among the
holders of high office in the Church: but all this
is perfectly consistent with what we have urged,
that many members of the Church are in the grace
of God, and that some lead lives of heroic sanctity.
It is possible that some persons have been popu-
larly reputed to be saints who have no right to the
title, and that some events have been esteemed
miraculous on insufficient grounds : but this does
not prevent there being true saints and indubitable
miracles. It is said that unity of faith in the
Roman Church is secured by the use of force, and
it is true that in Spain, the action of the civil power
in suppressing heresy saved the country from the
horrors of those religious wars which desolated so
large a part of Europe ; but there is no pretence
for saying that the agreement of so vast a mass of
men is a fruit of violence.
The last objection that we shall notice is a
quibble on names: it is said that the Roman Church
is the Church of a single city, and therefore cannot
be Catholic or universal. We acknowledge that the
terms " Roman Church " or " Roman Catholic
Church " may be misunderstood, if their origin is
not borne in mind. In truth the Church of Christ
258] OBJECTIONS. 389
is one and unique (n. 215) ; it is therefore sufficiently
denoted by the one word, the Church, with no
epithet added, just as we speak of the sun, for there
is one sun only in the heavens : but men are found
to claim the name of Church for other communities,
and therefore, to prevent misunderstanding, it
became usual to adopt epithets which serve to
distinguish the true Church from her rivals, and
the word Catholic, originally employed by way of
protest against the Donatists (n. 238) was found to
be suitable for the purpose. It might still serve,
were it not that it has been perverted from its
original sense (n. 251), which however it still retains
in the mouth of all who have not a cause to serve,
just as was the case in the days of St. Augustine
(Contr.JEpist. Manich. i, 4 [5] ; P.L. 42, 175) ; so, for
the last three hundred years, the epithet Roman has
often been employed, and it still serves its purpose,
for the members of the one true Church alone are
in communion with Rome. It is in this communion
with the common centre that the various local
Churches find their unity in its perfection. The
phrase "the Roman Church" or "the Roman
Catholic Church," is therefore unobjectionable, if
it be understood as merely marking a character of
the one true Church ; but if it be taken to mean
that one true Church is to be distinguished from
another, it is to be rejected as involving a grievous
error.
259. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have
explained the importance of knowing which among
the various Christian communities is the true Church
390 RECAPITULATION. t*59
of Christ, for without this knowledge no one can
perform the duty that is on him of joining this
Church, nor gain the spiritual blessings which
attend the performance of that duty. We then
observe that the properties which we have seen to
belong to the Church furnish us with the means of
recognition that we need ; and then we find that
these properties of being One, Holy, Catholic, and
Apostolic do not exist in any Christian community
except that which acknowledges the supreme
authority of the Roman Pontiff, while in this com-
munity they are found to the full. It follows,
therefore, that the communion of which the Pope is
the Head is the true Church of Christ which has a
Divine claim to the submission of all men, and has
Divine authority to guarantee great spiritual help to
all that submit to her. And thus we close our
Treatise on the Church.
tTrcatise tbe fifth.
THE ROMAN PONTIFF.
CHAPTER I.
POSITION OF THE POPE IN THE CHURCH.
260. Plan of Treatise. In this Treatise we shall
'eal with the position of the Roman Pontiff, the
7icar of Christ and Head of the Church on earth.
The Treatise is partly theological, so far as we
found an argument on Scripture, but it is chiefly
descriptive and historical, especially when the chief
objections are dealt with, which the adversaries of
the Catholic doctrine draw from history.
In the first chapter we shall describe the actual
position held by the Pope in the Church at the
present time, which has been held, without material
change, at least for many centuries; and this will
furnish a basis for an argument from prescription.
We shall next consider the teaching of Holy
Scripture and history concerning St. Peter, the
first in the line of. Popes, and then the Primacy of
the Pope and his Infallibility will be dealt with in
two chapters. The relation of the Pope to the body
of Bishops will be the subject of the next chapter,
39 POSITION OF THE POPE IN THE CHURCH. (260
with especial reference to the Bishops when
assembled in a General Council. The Treatise
will be closed by the justification of the authori-
tative teaching on the subject of the Temporal
Power.
261. Subject of Chapter. That the Bishop of the
city of Rome holds a position in the Church of the
present day essentially different from that held by
any other Bishop is clear. In the present chapter
we propose to explain in what this difference con-
sists, and to show in outline what is the machinery
by which his power is exercised.
262. Who is the Pope f The prerogatives of the
Pope, by Divine right, attach to the person who
from time to time is Bishop of the See of Rome.
The name of Pope, which was formerly common to
all the clergy, as is still the case in the East, has
since the beginning of the sixth century, been
appropriated in the West to the Roman Pontiff;
the example having apparently been set by St.
Ennodius, Bishop of Pavia, who addresses a letter
simply to " Pope Symmachus." (Epist. 4, I ; P.L.
63, 69.) As often as a vacancy occurs, whether by
resignation or by death, it is filled by election. In
ancient times all Bishops were chosen by election,
the electors being the principal clergy of the city ;
and in the case of the Roman See this discipline
still prevails. Formerly, the lay people of Rome
and the Emperors claimed to have some undefined
share in the elections; the toleration of which
claims may be explained by the consideration that
it would usually be inexpedient for a person to be
z62] WHO IS THE POPE? 393
elected who was not acceptable to those whom it
would be his duty to govern in temporals: but in
1179, Pope Alexander III. put the matter on its
present footing, and since that date the right haa
belonged exclusively to the College of Cardinals,
who are the Bishops of six sees in the neighbour-
hood of Rome, with the parish priests of the City
itself, and certain deacons attached to the churches.
There is no completed election until the voices of
two-thirds of the Cardinals present are given for the
same person. The jurisdiction vests immediately
on the completion of the election, for the Pope has
no superior to confirm him in his office, as the Canon
Law requires in the case of other elections. The
choice of the Cardinals is absolutely unfettered, and
it is only in their discretion that since the election
of the Fleming, Adrian VI., in 1522, this choice has
always fallen upon an Italian ; and it is also in their
discretion that they have commonly respected the
practice called Exclusiva or Veto. According to
this, the Sovereigns of Austria, France, and Spain,
have been for some three centuries in the habit of
nominating Cardinals to be their spokesmen, with
the duty of signifying to the Conclave that the choice
of some one particular person, who seemed likely to
gain the required number of votes, would be unac-
ceptable : and a claim of the same sort was some-
times put forward by other powerful states, as Naples
and Venice. But although it was generally felt to
be wise to respect the wishes of one who perhaps
had deserved well of the Church, and who at any
rate had it in his power to do much mischief, yet no
394 POSITION OF THE POPE IN THE CHURCH. [261
strict right of Veto was ever recognized, and in fact
Paul IV., in 1555, and Alexander VII., in 1655, were
chosen in spite of the Veto of France.
The whole ceremonial of the election is most
strictly regulated, one object of the rules being to
secure the electors from all undue influence. We
need not go into the details, which are to be found
in many books ; but it is to our purpose to observe
that the whole matter is in the hands of the Church ;
and whenever the Church at large recognizes any
man whatever as being Pope, that man is Pope,
whatever may have been the circumstances that
led to his being recognized. (See n. 211.) If it were
true that, in 855, the choice of the electors fell upon
one who though supposed to be a man was really a
woman, this election would have been void, for
women are incapable of jurisdiction in the Church;
and so the Holy See would have continued vacant.
If any one urge that a mistake of this sort might
redound to the destruction of the Church, the
answer is that the promise of Christ to be with His
Church gives us assurance that the event will not
occur. (See n. 192, viii.) But the story about Pope
Joan is rejected by all historians : it may be enough
to quote Gibbon (Decline and Fall, chapter 49), and
Mosheim. (2, 196, and 719.) If the person elected
have not already received episcopal consecration, it
is his duty to seek it.
The Pope being supreme can resign his office
when he pleased, as was done by Benedict IX. in
1045, and by St. Peter Celestine in 1294; a bishop
or parish priest, on the other hand, must obtain
262] WHO IS THE POPE? 395
leave of his superior before he can be quit of his
charge. In the chapter of this Treatise on General
Councils we shall show that no human power can
depose a Pope who is once duly constituted in his
office; and acceptance by the Church is a proof
that such or such a person is lawful Pope.
263. Papal functions classified. The Pope is
Sovereign of the States of the Church, a function
which is at present in abeyance, owing to the
usurpation of a neighbouring Government. Before
this usurpation, the form of government was an
absolute monarchy, with an elective monarch, but
the altogether exceptional circumstances hindered
the existence of those evils which commonly attend
that arrangement. The Canon Law was the basis of
the law administered by the courts ; and the people
were happy under a mild and just administration,
with light taxation and no compulsory military
service, but were too ready to listen to the delusive
promises made to them by the agents of envious
neighbours. (See Maguire, Pontificate of Pius IX.)
We shall describe the other functions which are now
actually exercised by the Pope, dealing in successive
paragraphs with his action as teacher and as
governor, making special mention of what he does
in relation to the Bishops of the Church, and to
worship.
264. Action of Pope as Teacher. In his capacity
of teacher of the Church, the Pope sometimes
solemnly defines that some doctrine is to be held as
part of the Catholic faith, the denial of which from
that time forward is heresy: this was done, for
396 POSITION OF THE POPE IN THE CHURCH. [264
example, by Pope Pius IX., when in 1854, he
defined the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception
(Denz. 1502), acting after consultation with the
Bishops of the world, but without having gathered
them into a Council : and again in 1870, the same
Pope, in the Vatican Council, issued the definition
of his own Infallibility (Denz. 1682) and other
matters. The Pope also speaks with infallible
certainty on other matters which come within the
scope of the teaching authority of the Church
(n. 209), for as we shall see when we treat of the
matter, the infallibility of the Pope is the same as
that of the Church, (n. 290.) The Pope can exercise
this infallibility by documents, having any form he
pleases, so long as he makes his intention clear:
but besides these ex-cathedral utterances he often
teaches his flock in a less authoritative manner,
setting forth the doctrine which is ordinarily held
upon some point, and basing some practical in-
struction upon the statement, but without any
intention of defining any doubtful point. The
same teaching office is exercised when propositions
touching faith or morals are condemned, and
forbidden with or without some note of censure :
as also by the practice of condemning books which
contain false doctrine : in rare cases books are pro-
hibited as a disciplinary measure because they
contain matter which, though not actually false,
it is nevertheless inexpedient to publish.
265. Papal Legislation. The Pope as supreme
governor of the Church exercises the right of legis-
lation, laying down disciplinary laws which bind the
265] PAPAL LEGISLATION. 397
conscience of the faithful so far as the legislator
pleases ; and in the exercise of this prerogative he
is not bound to the observance of any forms. The
nature of a law requires that it should be promul-
gated in some way, that is to say, the legislator
must not keep his will locked in his own bosom,
but must take some external step to make his will
known. (See Bucceroni, Theologia Moralis : Quid
sit lex.) The ordinary course is that the law is
published in Rome, by the agency of certain officials
called cursores or messengers, and knowledge of
this publication is conveyed to each Bishop by his
agent instructed for the purpose, and by the Bishop
communicated to the faithful under his charge. It
is understood to be the standing will of the Pontiff
not to bind the people by disciplinary laws until
they have been made known by the Bishop ; and
the Bishop has the right and duty of withholding
the announcement if he sees that circumstances
affecting his diocese make the law locally inex-
pedient, though generally useful : he will communi-
cate with Rome upon the matter, and await the
decision of the Pontiff. (See Bouix, De Principiis
Juris Canonici, P. 2, 2, c. 5.)
There are certain points of discipline which,
according to the common opinion, are of Divine
and not of human institution: such is probably
the religious observance of the weekly memory
of the Resurrection of Christ ; perhaps also the
spring fast. The Pope, therefore, could not wholly
abrogate these institutions, though he can modify
the observance of them as he sees fit ; and his
398 POSITION OF THE POPE IN THE CHURCH. [265
legislative power is subject to no other restriction ;
every merely human law, though it may be ancient
in the Church, and even of Apostolic origin, may be
swept away by him who at the present day wields
an authority equal if not superior to that of the
Apostle or other man by whom the law was enacted.
Of course we are here speaking of the abstract
authority, without reference to the likelihood of its
being exercised : and in the same way, there is no
limit to the Papal prerogative of imposing new
legislation, binding the members of the Church in
all matters which are not against God's law.
The power of legislation involves the right of
punishing violations of the law by excommunica-
tion or other spiritual censures ; as also by imprison-
ment and other forms of what in civil law are called
secondary punishments : the ecclesiastical authority
never condemns to death, or to punishments which
involve the shedding of blood.
Cases will occur from time to time where grave
inconvenience would arise from the enforcement of
a law, which apart from exceptional circumstances
is generally beneficial. It belongs to the legislator
to judge concerning these cases, and if necessary
to grant a dispensation from the law. Of course
this can be done only in matters of human law.
The practice of dispensing is often misrepresented,
as if the Pope claimed power to make that right
which was truly wrong : the reply is that dispensa-
tions are not granted except for things which would
not be wrong were they not forbidden by the legis-
lator: the dispensation removes the prohibition and
265] PAPAL LEGISLATION. 399
the thing is no longer wrong. There is probably no
system of law in which dispensations are not in
use: thus, in England, the Crown, acting under
the authority of the Legislature, frequently grants
licenses in mortmain, that is to say, dispenses a
corporation in a particular case from the law which
forbids it to hold land ; a conveyance of land to a
corporation is illegal, and involves forfeiture, unless
a license has been obtained : if there be a license,
the conveyance is no longer illegal. .
Somewhat akin to dispensations are the graces
granted occasionally by the Holy See, as when
permission was given to the Kings of Hungary
to have the ecclesiastical ornament, the Cross,
carried before them, in acknowledgment of the
good service against the infidel done by them on
the frontiers of Christendom. In the same way,
grants are frequently made of the favour of having
Mass in a private house, and the like.
266. The Pope and the Bishops. Although the
system of government of the Church by Bishops
is Divine and unalterable (nn. 196, 201), yet the
details may be altered by the Supreme Pastor. Thus,
he can suppress ancient dioceses and erect new ones,
as was done by Pope Pius VII. in France in 1801,
and by Pope Pius IX. in England in 1850. It
belongs to him to modify, from time to time, the
mode of appointment of Bishops, making such
arrangements in each locality as are suited to its
peculiar needs : and he determines which Bishops
shall receive the pallium with the dignity and
jurisdiction of a metropolitan or patriarch. He
400 POSITION OF THE POPE IN THE CHURCH. [266
has the right, which he does not now exercise,
to require Bishops to provide his nominees with
benefices, and this practice has had great efficacy
in times past in fostering the Catholic spirit, and
hindering the Church from degenerating into a
bundle of national institutions. If a Catholic
historian see reason to think that at some particular
period the right of provisions was grievously abused,
he is quite at liberty to say so, for it would be a
violation of his duty to try to make a pretence that
there have never been abuses within the Papal
Court: and few will deny that there was much
abuse during the dreary seventy years while the
Popes resided at Avignon. (1307 1377. See Pastor,
History of the Popes. Eng. Trans. I, 72.) All
ecclesiastical property is held subject to the direc-
tions of the Pope, and it cannot be licitly or validly
alienated without his sanction ; the violation of
which principle has led to countless scandals. The
rule already mentioned (n. 254) by which all Bishops
are bound to render periodical accounts of the state
of their dioceses goes far to prevent abuses in this
matter. The Pope also receives appeals from all
local tribunals in the Church, and passes final
judgment upon all causes.
We may also mention here the power of the
Pope to approve of new Religious Orders, or to
regulate and even suppress those already in
existence. Besides having jurisdiction over all
the faithful, the Pope is in a special manner the
supreme prelate of every Religious Order, the
members of which are subject to him in virtue of
266] THE POPE AND THE BISHOPS. 401
their profession. He exercises his power in his
discretion, with regard to time and place : a notable
instance being the action of Pope Pius VII. towards
the Society of Jesus in 1814, compared with ^the
action of Pope Clement XIV. in 1773, towards the
same Society.
267. Liturgy. The Pope approves or dis-
approves devotions proposed for private use, and
regulates with great care the public worship of the
Church. This worship is not absolutely the same
everywhere, for while the substance of the Holy
Sacrifice remains unchanged and unchangeable, the
language and the rite employed vary with time and
place. The variety in Breviaries and Pontificals is
even greater than in Missals, and the Calendar is
modified to suit each diocese and religious family.
Connected with this matter is the reservation to the
Pope of all causes of beatification and canonization,
effected finally by Pope Urban VIII. in 1634, since
which time an early step in each cause has been to
prove that no unauthorized public cultus has been
offered to the servant of God whose cause is pro-
posed. Failure to prove that the law of Urban has
been observed is fatal to the cause.
268. Mode of Exercise. It is evident that the
burden of attending to all this business for the
whole Church would be far beyond the powers of
any one man, and the Divine institution of the
episcopacy distributes a great part of the labour
among the thousand or more Bishops who enjoy
the communion of the Apostolic See. Each of
these has, within his own diocese, certain ordinary
AA VOL. I.
402 POSITION OF THE POPE IN THE CHURCH. [268
jurisdiction, that is to say, a certain authority which
comes to him from the general law in virtue of the
mere fact of his appointment to his office, and
which he exercises in his own right and in his
own name. Moreover, the Bishops have commonly
certain extraordinary jurisdiction conferred on them,
not by the general law, but by the act of the Pope,
and in exercising this they mention the source
from which they derive it. Thus, not only have
the Bishops a jurisdiction of their own, but also a
part of the jurisdiction of the Sovereign Pontiff is
exercised through their medium ; while at the same
time, the jurisdiction of the Pontiff is also ordinary
and immediate over the whole Church, and every
one of her members : so that the inferior clergy
and the laity are subject to the ordinary jurisdiction
both of the Pope and of the Bishop. It follows
that the Pope has and exercises the right, in his
discretion, to deal in the first instance, even with
matters which are within the competence of the
Bishop, and which commonly would not be brought
before the Holy See, unless by way of appeal.
What is here said about jurisdiction belongs alike
to the internal forum of the Sacrament of Penance,
and to the external forum, or courts where the
judge is merely man, and not acting directly in the
place of God.
The Pope sometimes calls in the aid of the
Bishops to assist him in that part of his work which
is not laid upon them, as when he calls a General
Council, or consults them by letter on doubtful
9
points. But his principal reliance is on the body
268] MODE OF EXERCISE. 403
of Cardinals, all of whom, unless they are Bishops
in charge of dioceses, are bound to reside in Rome
and attend the person of His Holiness. In pursuance
of an arrangement introduced by Pope Sixtus V.
(1585 1590), the Cardinals are distributed into a
number of Congregations, to each of which are
attached consultors and other officials, chosen from
among the most learned and capable men that the
Church affords. A distinct class of business is
assigned to each Congregation : thus the Con-
gregation of the Holy Office, or the Roman
Inquisition, deals with questions that directly
concern the faith : the Congregation of the Council
decides cases that arise out of the disciplinary
decrees of Trent : the Congregations of the Bishops
and Regulars and of the Propaganda have a care
for the general business of the Catholic world, the
one taking the older countries, while countries
which have a recently established body of Bishops,
or none at all, fall to the other. The names of the
Congregation of Rites and of Indulgences tell theii
own story, and there are others of less importance.
Occasionally new Congregations of a temporary
character are instituted to dispose of business which
is not of an ordinary description.
When contentious business comes before any of
the Congregations, lawyers are employed at the
discretion of the parties. The pleadings are in
writing. In cases where some exemption from
the ordinary law is sought, a lawyer is appointed
to argue against the applicant : this is the position
of the well-known Devil's Advocate in causes of
404 POSITION OF THE POPE IN THE CHURCH. [268
Canonization, and of the Defender of the Marriage,
when a declaration is sought that some ceremony
which had the semblance of being a marriage is
really null.
The prerogative of Infallibility is personal to
the Pope, and cannot be deputed by him to. a
Congregation, or any other person. Nevertheless,
declarations of the Congregations touching matters
of faith, command the greatest respect, and their
disciplinary decrees may be such as to be binding
on the consciences of all the faithful : the legislative
power of the Pope being in a large measure
exercised through them. The Congregation of
Rites especially has this power.
269. Prescription. In the foregoing sections
(nn. 262 268) we have described the action of
the Pope in the Church at the present day. Except
in a few instances, no proofs have been adduced,
for they are needless : the matter is notorious :
illustrations will be found in the Ada Sanctce Sedis,
which periodical contains select reports of the
proceedings of the Holy See, taken from the official
documents. It follows that the Church is at the
present day governed as an absolute monarchy, the
Bishop of Rome being the monarch ; and assuredly
there is no government in the world where such
speedy and effectual justice is dealt out by the
Sovereign to the humblest of his subjects who lay
complaints before him. This may seem a strange
saying, considering how much we hear about Rome's
delays; but we believe that, making due allowance
for the imperfections of every system that is worked
269] PRESCRIPTION. 405
by men, Rome does not delay except where there
is good reason for delay, and that in urgent cases
her action is found to be prompt and decisive. But
it does not belong to the present work to go into this
matter.
Moreover, the system that is now in action is
no modern growth : it has lasted, without substantial
change, for centuries. It is true that the tightness
of the bonds of discipline has varied in different
ages of the Church, and that the Popes formerly
left to the care of the Bishops certain matters
which now, in view of increased facilities of
communication, they see fit to reserve to them-
selves ; but the Papal right even in these matters,
was preserved and manifested by the practice of
appeals and -by occasional direct action. Also in
certain parts of the Church, especially in France,
the free exercise of the right of the Pope to govern
was obstructed by the civil power, aided by some
subservient theologians, who maintained that no
act of the Pope was valid within the country unless
it were accepted by the Government. These
Gallican liberties as they were called really meant
that the Church was to be the slave of the State,
and their natural result would have been a schism ;
but things never went to that length, and as the
Popes persisted in their claim of right, whatever
moderation they might show in its exercise,
obedience was yielded, though grudgingly, and
Gallicanism as a theological system has long been
dead. (See n. 304.)
The Church then is now and has long been
406 POSITION OF THE POPE IN THE CHURCH. [269
governed as an absolute monarchy, and the monarch
claims to govern by Divine right. On the principle
of prescription, this fact alone proves that the claim
is well founded (n. 83), for the whole Church by
its submission shows that it allows the claim, and
the whole Church cannot err on a matter vitally
affecting her constitution ; and further, if this form
of government had not existed from the beginning,
the monuments of history would have told us when
and under what circumstances the change was
introduced, whereas we find nothing of the kind.
There are instances where men of great weight in
the Church complain of particular exercises of that
Papal authority whose existence in the abstract
they do not deny. A memorable case of this is seen
in the correspondence between St. Cyprian of
Carthage and Firmilian of Caesarea (St. Cyprian,
Letter 75 ; P.L. 3, 1,202), complaining of the action
of Pope St. Stephen in reference to the controversy
as to the validity of heretical Baptism : and we find
other instances in the complaints made of the Holy
See for entertaining appeals which were judged to
be frivolous, or otherwise such as ought not to be
received. Many other cases of the same sort have
been gathered together by the industry of the
Gallican divines, the full discussion of which must
be sought elsewhere, as in Jungmann's Dissertations:
and on the whole subject of the position of the Pope
in early history, the book of Mr. Allies, called The
Formation of Christendom, is most instructive.
There is one thing that history shows beyond
doubt, namely, that appeals to Rome were in use
269] PRESCRIPTION. 407
in the earliest times, and this sufficiently proves
that the authority of the Court of Appeal was
recognized ; and it is impossible to assign any origin
for the practice except primititive institution, for
assuredly the Bishops of Rome during the first
three centuries had no force at their command
except that which the faith of Christians gave to
their office. And there is no trace of any part of
their authority having 'been conferred upon them
by any Council or other human authority. We
must therefore apply the principle spoken of as
St. Augustine's: That which the whole Church
receives, when it has not been introduced by any
Council but by constant usage, must be held to
have come down from the Apostles.
270. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have
described the actual mode in which the Bishop of
Rome exercises his authority to teach and govern
the Church, and have pointed out the proof from
prescription that this authority has no human origin,
but is of Divine institution.
CHAPTER H.
WHO WAS ST. PETER?
271. Subject of Chapter. In the present chapter
we propose to consider what we learn from Scrip-
ture and history concerning St. Peter. We shall
find that certain prerogatives were conferred upon
this Prince of the Apostles by Christ, which are
identical with those which, as we have seen, are
claimed and exercised by the Bishops of Rome,
who are his successors not in the episcopal See
alone, but also in his position of Head of the
Church and Vicar of Christ on earth. Thus we
shall show how we find in Scripture that basis and
Divine origin of the Papal authority, of the exist-
ence of which we were assured by the argument
from prescription.
272. St. Peter, Bishop of Rome. That St. Peter
was at his death Bishop of Rome is not a matter
of Divine revelation ; but it is an historical truth so
closely connected with dogma as to come within the
range of the teaching authority of the Church : it
is a dogmatic fact (n. 211), and we have it defined
with infallible certainty by the Vatican Council
(Constit. DC Eccl. c. 2; Denz. 1670) that St. Peter
still lives and oresides and judges in the person of
*7] ST. PETER, BISHOP OF ROME. 409
his successors, the Bishops of that Holy See of
Rome, which he founded and consecrated by the
shedding of his blood. The historical testimony to
this fact is clear, to the effect that St. Peter was
Bishop of Rome, and suffered death there in the
year 67, during the persecution of Nero. According
to the common opinion his episcopate had begun
twenty-five years before, but there are some
difficulties in the way of this view into which it is
needless to enter : the length of his reign as Pope
at Rome is immaterial. We proceed to give a very
short selection from the many ancient testimonies
that are available. More will be found in Jung-
mann's First Dissertation.
First we will mention Firmilian, whose angry
letter to St. Cyprian we have already quoted in
another connection, (n. 269.) He says that St.
Stephen, by his conduct, does dishonour to the
Apostle St. Peter, whose successor he boasts to be.
(P.L. 3, 1217). Had Firmilian not known that the
boast was well founded, he would not, writing in so
angry a mood, have failed to charge his adversary
with his falsehood. This was written about the
year 260, and is, it will be observed, a testimony
from the East. St. Cyprian agrees with his friend,
for he speaks of the Roman See as " Peter's place,"
(Epists.2,8,AdAntonian.; P.L. 3, 797), and describes
Rome as " the chair of Peter, the principal Church,
the source of the unity of the priesthood." (Epists.
55, 14, Ad Cornel.; P.L. 3, 844.) There are earlier
testimonies from Tertullian (De Prescript, c. 36 ; P.L.
249), from Origen (apud Euseb. Hist. Eccl. 3, 1 ; P.G,
4 to WHO IV AS ST. PETER f [272
20, 215): in the second century we have St.
Irenaeus (Contr. Hcer. 3, 3 ; P.G. 7, 848) and St. Denys
of Corinth (Euseb. Hist. Eccl. 2, .25; P.G. 20, 208)
and others : while in the first century the fact that
St. Peter founded the Church at Rome, where he
suffered death, is testified by St. Clement, himself
Pope and friend of St. Paul (Philipp. iv. 3), whose
letter to the Christians of Corinth is extant and has
always been held in high esteem in the Church. (Ad
Cor. c. 5 ; P.G. I, 217.)
Although we do not find in Holy Scripture any
express mention of St. Peter having been at Rome,
yet curiously there is a verse in which that city is
not named and which nevertheless affords proof
that he was at one time resident in the capital of
the world more convincing perhaps than is afforded
by such direct testimonies as we have given
specimens of. The verse occurs at the end of the
first Epistle of St. Peter (i St. Peter v. 13) and
runs as follows : " The Church that is in Babylon
elected together with you, saluteth you, and so doth
my son Mark." St. Peter then wrote from a place
that he calls Babylon : what place was this ? There
was a place /in Egypt, not far from Old Cairo, bear-
ing the name, but no one thinks that St. Peter
wrote from there ; and no other place is known to
have been called Babylon, except the once great and
famous city on the Euphrates. The future downfall
of this mighty seat of empire had been foretold
long before by Isaias (xiii. xiv. &c.) ; and the
just punishment of its oppression of the people of
God and of its exceeding cruelty (Duke of Argyll,
272] ST. PETER, &ISHOP OF ROME. 41!
Unseen Foundations, 141) had fallen upon it long
before the days of St. Peter: after the hour of its
capture by the Medes and Elamites it sank into
insignificance, and there is no trace of a Christian
congregation ever being gathered on its site. But
in the mouths of Jews and Christians alike the name
of Babylon had been transferred from the old city
to its rival in oppression and wickedness that stood
on the banks of the Tiber, and there is no room
for doubt that by the Babylon of the Apocalypse
(xiv. 8, &c.) is meant the city of Rome. And down
to the time of the Reformation it was the unanimous
judgment of all writers who have expressed an
opinion that the Babylon of St. Peter's Epistle is
this same Rome. Whether the view is thought to
be well or ill-founded, the unwonted agreement of
so many commentators proves convincingly that
they believed that St. Peter had lived at Rome.
The details of the proof may be seen in Father
Cornely's Special Introduction to the Epistle.
But the most persuasive argument both for the
residence of St. Peter at Rome and for his Roman
episcopate is of a negative character. The records
that have been preserved concerning the labours
and deaths of the Apostles are but scanty, and
probably few particulars were ever committed to
writing beyond those that have come down to us.
Accordingly, great uncertainty prevails as to the
Churches they founded and ruled as Bishops ; and
many communities were anxious to claim the
honour of an Apostolic origin (n. 245), the result
being that many conflicting accounts were current
4 ia WHO WAS ST. PETER f [271
concerning each of the Apostles. There is one case
only in which the point is of even the slightest
importance, and this case is also the sole exception
to the rule of discordant traditions : no Church but
Rome has ever claimed to have been governed by
St. Peter at his death.
The difficulties that are put forward in opposi-
tion to the belief that St. Peter was Bishop of Rome
at his death are partly chronological and lose their
point when it is observed that we assert nothing
as to the length of time that he held the See ; and
partly critical, turning on doubts as to the genuine-
ness of some of the ancient testimonies : the dis-
cussion of these doubts cannot be given here, but
we may remark that they do not touch the argu-
ment derived from the word Babylon, nor that from
the absence of all claim by other Churches.
273. The First of the Apostles. It is generally
recognized that Simon, the son of Jona, afterwards
called Peter, is portrayed in the Gospels as holding
a position of eminence among the Apostles. Thus
we read that when first brought to our Lord, he
received the promise that his name should be
changed (St. John i. 42) ; which promise was after-
wards fulfilled, the change being represented as a
special blessing, given in reward of his lively spirit
of faith. (St. Matt. xvi. 18.) Now, we find in Holy
Scripture, that when God gave a new name to any
person it was a sign that the person was entering
on some new position in the Divine economy ; as
when Abram became Abraham, the father of
many nations, the father of the faithful. (Genesis
273] THE FIRST OF THE APOSTLES. 413
xvii. 5.) Also the new name given to Simon was in
itself a name of the highest honour, for it is a name
claimed by our Lord Himself, for Peter means
stone : (Isaias xxvi. 16, Psalm cxvii. 22 as explained
in St. Matt. xxi. 42, Acts iv. n.) What this new
name signified we shall consider hereafter. Christ
also treated St. Peter as in some sense on an.
equality with Himself, commanding him to pay the
tribute " for Me and thee " (St. Matt. xvii. 26) ; and
this favour seems to have excited the jealousy of
the other Apostles. (St. Matt, xviii. I.) St. Peter was
one of the three admitted to the solemn scene of the
Transfiguration (St. Matt. xvii. i) : he was present
at the raising of the daughter of Jairus (St. Mark
v. 37), and in the Garden when our Lord made
His prayer in preparation for His Passion. (St.
Matt. xxvi. 37.) After these instances of dis-
tinguished favour it is scarcely necessary to say
more : but we may refer to some places where
St. Peter acted as spokesman of the Apostles (St.
Matt. xiv. 28, xv. 15, xvii. 4, xvii. 21, &c.) ; and
others where he is mentioned with a turn of
phrase which marks him out from the rest of
the. company. (St. Matt. x. 2 ; St. Mark xvi. 7; Acts
ii. 14, &c.) We naturally expect to hear more
about an Apostle who was thus peculiarly favoured
by his Master.
274. A dignity promised. We learn from St.
Matthew's Gospel (xvi. 13 20) that our Lord,
when the end of His sojourn on earth was approach-
ng, took an opportunity of eliciting from St. Peter
an avowal of the great central truth which he ha.i
4M WHO WAS ST. PETER f [27,
gathered, without being expressly taught. The
account runs as follows :
13. And Jesus came into the quarters of Cesarea
Philippi, and He asked His disciples, saying: Whom
do men say that the Son of Man is ?
14. But they said : Some John the Baptist, and
other some Elias, and others Jeremias or one of the
Prophets.
15. Jesus saith to them : But whom do you say
that I am ?
16. Simon Peter answered and said : Thou art
the Christ, the Son of the living God.
17. And Jesus answering said to him : Blessed
art thou, Simon Bar-Jona : because flesh and blood
hath not revealed it to thee, but My Father Who is
in Heaven.
18. And J say to thee, that thou art Peter; and
upon this rock I will build My Church, and the
gates of Hell shall not prevail against it.
19. And I will give to thee the keys of the
Kingdom of Heaven. And whatsoever thou shalt
bind upon earth, it shall be bound also in Heaven :
and whatsoever thou shalt loose on earth, it shall
be loosed also in Heaven.
20. Then He commanded His disciples that
they should tell no one that He was Jesus, the
Christ.
It is clear that these verses contain a promise of
some kind of dignity or function or position, what-
ever its nature, to be given to some one : we reserve
for the two following chapters the consideration of
the question what was involved in the promised
274] A DIGNITY PROMISED. 415
favour, and inquire here only as to the recipient of
the promise. It may seem strange that any question
should exist upon the subject, for the texts seem to
express with sufficient clearness that the promise
is made to Peter alone : but the exigences of contro-
versy have led some Catholics who were not fully
loyal to the Holy See to maintain that the promise
is made to the Apostles collectively, in the person
of Peter : that the Apostles represented the Church ;
and that the Church in turn put the power which
it had received into the hands of Peter and his
successors, the Popes. We, on the other hand,
maintain that the promise was made to Peter alone,
and that the authority of the Pope comes imme-
diately from God and is not given to him by the
Church. The point now has been defined by
the Church. (Aitct. Fid. 2 and 3; Denz. 1365,
1366; and the Vatican Council, Sess. 4, cap. I,
Denz. 1668.)
That the promise was made to the individual is
shown by the change of number in the pronoun, the
" you " of verse 15, changing to " thou " in verse 18 ;
and it is to be observed that verse 17 is plainly
personal. Also, verse 18 interprets the new personal
name Peter, and corresponds to the personal avowal
of verse 16: the promise is a reward for this
avowal, and it would be a mockery to offer to
reward a man for his personal merit by a favour to
a large body of persons. There are cases, as we
have already pointed out (n. 273), where St. Peter
spoke in answer to a question put to the whole
body of the Apostles ; but when this is so, our Lord
41* WHO WAS ST. PETER f [274
addresses His further remark to the whole bo.ly,
and not to the spokesman. (St. Matt. xix. 26 28 ;
St. John vi. 68 71.)
Some Protestant commentators, catching at
straws, endeavour to make out that the words Peter
and Rock do not mean the same thing, and that
therefore the words " will build " contain no
promise at all, but merely express an intention with
which Peter has no special concern. They think
that the Rock on which the Church is to be built is
either the faith of Peter, or is Christ Himself. This
last view makes Christ to have been guilty of heart-
less mockery, raising hopes and then frustrating
them ; but the view that the Rock is the faith of
Peter is an interpretation which, though inadequate,
is not untrue, and as such, has been adopted by
many Catholic commentators. But the interpreta-
tion is inadequate : for the reasons already given,
the Rock must be the person Peter ; but it is Peter
considered not merely as a man, but as one whose
simplicity of faith led him to adopt in his heart the
teaching of his Master, tremendous as was the
mystery involved in that teaching ; and whost love
made him bold and unhesitating in proclaiming he
truth that he had learned. The Rock is neither
Peter apart from his belief, not the belief apart from
Peter ; but it is the believing Peter.
A linguistic ground is sometimes adduced for
the distinction between Peter (/lerpo?, Petrus).
and the Rock (/ItVpa, Petra). It is observed
that though the body of the two words is the
same in St. Matthew's Greek, just as it is id
a?4] A DIGNITY PROMISED. 417
the Latin, yet the terminations differ; and it is
suggested that this difference indicates a differ-
ence of meaning. The diversity, however, admits
of less violent explanation. The Greek word
for Rock chances to have a feminine termination,
and it cannot be applied to a man without pro-
ducing a ludicrous effect : to avoid this incon-
venience, the Evangelist altered the termination of
the proper name, but retained the other word in
the usual form. It is to be observed that the Greek
of St. Matthew contains the only original record of
these words of Christ that has come down to us
(n. no); but it is not likely that Christ spoke
Greek on this occasion : it is far more probable that
He used a language almost identical with what is
now called Syriac, from which it differed merely as
one dialect differs from another : and we possess a
Syriac translation of St. Matthew's Gospel, made
certainly within a single century after the conversa-
tion of our Lord with St. Peter : in this version, the
words for Peter and Rock are absolutely identical.
Any one who opens the place in a Syriac Bible
may, without knowing a single letter of the language,
convince himself that the same word occurs twice
in the verse, without the smallest difference. It is
pronounced Keepho, and corresponds to Cephas.
The French language similarly admits the use of
the identically same form, Pierre, in both places :
other modern vernaculars, like the Greek and Latin,
require some modification to suit the difference of
gender.
275. Assistance promised. Christ does not entrust
BB VOL. I,
i8 WHO WAS ST. PETER f [275
any office to men without giving them the aids
necessary to enable them to do their work ; and so
we are not surprised to find that the promise that
we have been considering is followed up by another,
giving the assurance of assistance. It is read in
St. Luke's Gospel (xxii. 31, 32), and was spoken in
the course of the Last Supper.
31. And the Lord said : Simon, Simon, behold,
Satan hath desired to have you that he may sift you
as wheat.
32. But I have prayed for thee that thy faith fail
not ; and thou, being once converted, confirm thy
brethren.
We here have the promise of our Lord that He
has prayed in a special manner that the faith of
Peter may not fail in the time when grievous
temptation comes upon him : and there can be no
doubt that the words are addressed to Peter person-
ally and not to the whole company of the Apostles
as represented by him : the rest of the Apostles are
included among the brethren whom Peter is to
confirm. We shall see hereafter (chapters iii. and
iv.) what is the full meaning of the promise here
given.
It may be remarked that the translation " being
converted " is not free from doubt : there is some
authority for taking the word to mean " in turn."
(Venerable Bede quoted without disapproval by
Cornelius a Lapide and others.) Father Palmieri
(De Roman. Pontif. p. 358) urges that as no refer-
ence had yet been made to the impending fall of
Peter, it was out of place to tell him what he was to
75] ASSISTANCE PROMISED. 4x9
do when he had recovered the grace of God : besides
which, his work of confirming was not to begin at
once, but only after he had received the final com-
mission of which we are to speak next. The differ-
ence is of no great importance.
276. The dignity conferred. The dignity which
had been promised to St. Peter, and for the due
bearing of which he was to receive special assist-
ance, was actually conferred on him by Christ, after
His Resurrection, when He stood on the short of
the Sea of Galilee, and was seen and recognized
by St. John and St. Peter, and five other of the
disciples. The account is read in St. John's Gospel.
(xxi. 1517-)
15. When, therefore, they had dined, Jesus saith
to Simon Peter: Simon, son of John, lovest thou
Me more than these ? He saith to Him, Yea, Lord,
Thou knowest that I love Thee. He saith to him,
Feed My lambs.
16. He. saith to him again, Simon, son of John,
lovest thou Me ? He saith to Him, Yea, Lord,
Thou knowest that I love Thee. He saith to him,
Feed My lambs.
17. He said to him the third time, Simon, son of
John, lovest thou Me ? Peter was grieved because
He said to him the third time, Lovest thou Me ?
And he said to Him, Lord, Thou knowest all things :
Thou knowest that I love Thee. He said to him,
Feed My sheep.
In reference to this passage it is to be observed
that our translation, following the Vulgate Latin,
uses the same word, Feed, in all the three verses.
20 WHO WAS ST. PETER f [276
This exactly represents the word employed in the
Greek original (fioa-tce) in the verses 16 and 18 : but
in verse 17, St. John uses a different word (iroinawe) ,
which is rather wider than " Feed," tor it means,
" Be a shepherd to ; " to feed the flock is a principal
part of the work of a shepherd, but it is not the
whole : it also belongs to him to euide and guard
them. Also we may remark that though the ordi-
nary Greek text uses the same word (Trpo/Bara),
translated " sheep," both in verse 16 and verse 17 ;
yet there is reason to believe that the true reading
in verse 16 would give a word (Trpoftdria}, signifying
animals of an age intermediate between the lambs
(dpvla) of verse 16 and the full-grown sheep of
verse 18. Here again the difference, though interest-
ing, is of little import.
277. The Acts and Epistles. As to the conduct of
the Apostles after the coming of the Holy Ghost
(Act ii. i), we learn little from Holy Scripture,
except in the cases of St. Peter and St. Paul. We
have a large number of Epistles written by St. Paul,
and the greater part of the book of the Acts is
concerned with his journeys and preaching: but
with the exception of his so-called rebuke of
St. Peter (Galat. ii. n 14), which will be considered
presently, there is no trace of his having occupied
any position of pre-eminence among the band of
Apostles. It is true that the Roman Pontiffs some-
times warn such as contemn their authority that
they will incur the wrath of the holy Apostles Peter
and Paul (see for example the close of the Bull,
Ineflabilis Dciis, December 8, 1854, defining the
277] THE ACTS AND EPISTLES. 421
dogma of the Immaculate Conception), and that
the two names are often coupled together on other
occasions : but the Popes have never professed to
hold their authority as successors to St. Paul, but
always trace it to St. Peter : and the frequency with
which the names are coupled together is sufficiently
accounted for by the fact that they are honoured as
the joint principal patrons of the Church of the
city where they suffered death. There is, therefore,
no foundation for the fancy put forward by the
Jansenists, with the view of lowering the authority
of the Holy See, that St. Peter and St. Paul formed,
in some sense, a joint head of the Church. (See
Denz. 965.)
St. Peter, on the other hand, is exhibited in the
Acts as occupying a position of unmistakable promi-
nence. It is he whose preaching gathers the very
first converts into the Church (Acts ii. 14, 41), and
he continued to be the speaker on other occasions
(iii. 12, iv. 8), so that St. Chrysostom was right in
calling him "the mouth that spoke for all" (Horn. 4,
In Act. n. 3 ; P.G. 60, 46.) St. Peter receives and
executes the commission to guard Christians against
errors into which they were liable to fall. (Acts x.
9, 34, 47 ; xv. 7.) St. Peter was foremost in the
working of those miracles by which the preaching of
the new faith was confirmed (Acts iii. 6 ; v. 13 16),
where we see that the multitude, taught doubtless
by experience, believed that the passing of the
shadow of Peter had power to cure, just as ttte
touch of the garment of our Lord worked immediate-
cure (St. Mark v. 24 34, and compare St. John
4 M WHO WAS ST. PElERf t77
xiv. 12), as did the bones of the Prophet Eliseus.
(4 Kings xiii. 21.) So much for the action of
St. Peter in spreading the knowledge of the true
*aith ; we find him also prominent in attending to
the internal affairs of the Church. It is he who
takes the lead among the hundred and twenty (Acts
i. 15), requiring them to join in choosing a successor
to Judas ; and if it be asked why he did not make
the appointment by his own authority, the answer
is that he wished to avoid odium and the risk of
being charged with favouritism : such at least is the
explanation given by St. Chrysostom in the Homily
immediately preceding that just quoted (Horn. 3,
In Act. n. 2 ; P.G. 60, 35) ; in which prudent con-
descension he has been imitated by his successors,
who often listen to the wishes of the local clergy
when a Bishop is to be appointed. It was St. Peter
who condemned the first heretic, Simon (Acts viii.
18 24), and who was, in the words of St. Jerome,
"chief mover of the decree that after the Gospel
the law of Moses was no longer to be observed "
(Acts xv., and St. Jerome, Epist. 112, n. 8; P.L.
22, 920) ; and, to mention no more, it was at his
word that God by miracle enforced the law of the
Church concerning vows in the case of Ananias and
Sapphira. (Acts v. i n, and see the overwhelming
proof in Cornelius a Lapide, ad loc.)
278. St. Paul and St. Peter. We have said enough
perhaps to show that St. Peter held a position of
some kind of pre-eminence in the early Church, and
it only remains to notice the one passage which has
been quoted as tending in the opposite direction.
Z78] ST. PAUL AND ST. PETER. 423
It occurs in the Epistle of St. Paul to the Galatians.
He tells us that (i. 18, ig) he went to Jerusalem to
see Peter, but other of the Apostles he saw none
save James the brother of the Lord : and it is to
be observed that the word used with reference
to St. Peter, and translated "se" (urropfjo-ai), is
different from that employed directly afterwards
of St. James (elSov). The first word does not occur
elsewhere in the Scripture, but is not uncommon
in profane authors, and is used of visits to impressive
objects, such as an oracle (Eurip. Ion, 1547) ; and it
is employed by Josephus, a contemporary of St. Paul,
when he tells that he had seen the pillar of salt
representing Lot's wife. (Antiq. Jud. i. n, 4.)
St. Jerome (ad loc.; P.L. 26, 339) remarks that
St. Paul did not visit St. Peter merely in order to
see what sort of a man he was : as, whether he
was bald, as tradition relates. The word used of
St. James is the common word for " saw." And in
the second chapter we have the following :
11. But when Cephas was come to Antioch, I
withstood him to the face, because he was to be
blamed.
12. For before that some came from James, he
did eat with the Gentiles: but when they were
come, he withdrew and separated himself, fearing
them who were of the circumcision.
13. And to his dissimulation the rest of the
Jews assented, so that Barnabas also was led away
by them into that dissimulation.
14. But when I saw they walked not uprightly
unto the truth of the Gospel, I said to Cephas
414 WHO WAS ST. PETER f [278
before them all : If thou, being a Jew, livest after
the manner of the Gentiles, and not as the Jews do,
how dost thou compel the Gentiles to live as do the
Jews?
The history, in other words, was this. Some
converts from Judaism continued to observe the
Mosaic Law as to meats (Levit. ii.), which the
Council of Jerusalem, following the judgment of
St. Peter, with the full concurrence of St. Paul,
declared not to be of obligation, while it did not
forbid the practice. (Acts xv. i 29, and compare
Galat. v. 3 and n. 220.) St. Peter, being at
Antioch, and living in company with Gentile con-
verts, made a practice of eating freely in company
with them ; but when certain converts of Jewish
birth came from Jerusalem, St. Peter finding that
they were in the habit of observing the law, judged
it best to conform to their usage. St. Paul, learning
this, thought that the practice of St. Peter might
lead the Gentiles into the mistake of thinking that
they were bound to the law, an error which was
only too prevalent and against which he was never
tired of protesting. Under these circumstances, he
remonstrated with St. Peter on his conduct, in the
words given in verse 14.
This history has been considered to show that
St. Paul regarded himself as the superior, or at least
the equal, of St. Peter whom he rebuked : also that
it proves St. Peter to have fallen into heresy.
Several remarks occur.
(a) The use that may be made of this passage in
opposition to Catholic doctrine is no new discovery :
278] ST. PAUL AND ST. PETER. 425
it was familiar to the Ebionite heretics (Clementines,
17, 19; P.G. 2, 401), to the heathen philosopher
Porphyry (St. Jerome, Prol. ad Galat. ; P.L. 26, 310),
to the Marcionites, and to the Apostate Emperor,
Julian. (Hurter, Compendium, I, 366.)
(b) Some have thought that the Cephas men-
tioned in the text was a different person from the
Apostle St. Peter, although these are the forms of
the same name in the two languages in use in
Palestine (St. John i. 42), and there is no trace of
the existence of any other person of the name.
This idea is supported by Clement of Alexandria
(in Euseb. H.E. i, 12; P.G. 20, 117), but it now
finds favour with few or none, and it need not
detain us.
(c) Others say that the supposed rebuke was
merely fictitious, and that the whole scene wis
pre-arranged, in order to impress the true doctrine
as to the Jewish law more forcibly on the minds of
all. This view attributes to the Apostles a course
of double-dealing wholly inconsistent with the sim-
plicity that ought to mark Christian preaching ; and
although it has the high authority of St. Jerome
(Comment, in Galat. 2, n ; P.L. 26, 339), who says
that it originated with Origen (Epist. 112, 5;
P.L. 22, 919), and was supported in a homily of
St. Chrysostom on the place (P.G. 51, 375), it
elicited an indignant letter of remonstrance from
St. Augustine (Epist. 40, 3; PX. 33, 155), and is
now generally rejected.
(d) From what has been said in these three
paragraphs it is plain that Catholic and heretic,
t *6 WHO WAS ST. PETER? [278
apostate and heathen, agreed in thinking that an
injury would be done to the Christian cause if it
were established that St. Peter had a superior or an
equal in the Church : their comments, therefore,
afford strong support to the doctrine that we are
upholding.
() There is no pretence for saying that St. Peter
failed in faith, for not a word is said showing that
he had fallen away from the belief which he had
himself formulated at Jerusalem. (Acts xv. 10.) The
most that can be charged against him is a want of
prudence, and it does not concern us to discuss the
truth of this charge.
(/) The conduct of St. Paul does not imply
superiority or even equality, for the duty of fraternal
correction extends to inferiors, in regard to their
superiors ; so that subjects are not only allowed on
a fitting occasion, to correct the r prelates, but are
even bound to do so, as St. Thomas teaches. (Sum.
Theol. 2. 2. q. 33. aa. 3. and 4.) It would excite no
surprise at the present day to learn that one of the
Cardinals called the attention of the Pope to the
likelihood of scandal arising from some course of
conduct which he had adopted without due con-
sideration. The faithful counsellor would be praised.
But what St. Paul did is no more than that Cardinal
would do.
(g) The example of St. Peter is said to "compel"
the Gentiles to live as Jews : a most forcible expres-
sion, showing the influence that St. Peter possessed :
the contrary example of St. Paul had no power to
" compel " the faithful to imitate him.
278] ST. PAUL AND ST. PETER. 427
Thus the only passage of Scripture which can
be quoted against the pre-eminence of St. Peter
really affords cogent proof of his unique and high
position.
279. Recapitulation. In this very important
chapter we have seen that St. Peter died Bishop
of Rome ; that his pre-eminence among the Apostles
is indicated in the Scripture in various ways : that
a great dignity was first promised and then conferred
upon him, with a promise of special assistance : and
this doctrine is confirmed by the only passage which
has even an appearance of being opposed to it. It
remains to see what was involved in the dignity of
which we speak.
CHAPTER III.
THE PRIMACY.
280. Subject of the Chapter. In the first chapter
of this Treatise we saw that the successive Bishops
of Rome in fact exercise, and have long exercised,
a primacy in the Church : in the second chapter we
showed that St. Peter, the first Bishop of Rome,
received certain special and peculiar dignities and
favours from Christ, and that after the Ascension
he occupied a distinguished position among the
Apostles. We have now to consider more par-
ticularly what was involved in the prerogatives
granted to St. Peter, and we shall find that they
included, among other things, a primacy, not of
honour alone, but of jurisdiction, over the whole
Church, granted by God, and not conferred by
man : and that the monarchial constitution of the
Church, thus established, was no merely temporary
arrangement which died with the first monarch,
but that it is an essential part of the constitution
of the Church as now existing, and as it will con-
tinue to the end of time.
In the following chapter we shall show that
these prerogatives included also the gift of Infalli-
bility which is enjoyed in virtue of their office by
28o] SUBJECT OF THE CHAPTER. 429
the Popes, when speaking under certain circum-
stances that will be explained.
These two points of doctrine, the Primacy of
Divine right and the Infallibility, have been the
chief subjects of controversy ever since the Reforma-
tion, and it is scarcely too much to say that a full
half of the theological literature of the last three-
and-a-half centuries has been a commentary upon
the three classical texts which we set forth in
the last chapter. Our treatment of the immense
subject must necessarily be very short. We shall
try to set forth the Catholic argument with all
possible clearness, and in such a way as to answer
by anticipation the chief difficulties that are urged
against our doctrine. These difficulties can be
turned into a great variety of shapes, and some-
times our doctrine is attacked with cavils that do
not deserve the name of difficulties. It were end-
less to attempt to deal with all these, and we must
be content to refer to the immense collection put
together by the industry of Dr. Murray, in the third
volume of his great work, De Ecclesia, where each
receives its appropriate answer in scholastic form.
Waterworth's Faith of Catholics, to which we have
often referred, will be found peculiarly useful as
collecting the passages of the Fathers that have a
bearing upon the controversy.
281. The Centre of Unity. We have seen (nn.
213 227) how perfect is the unity which Christ
would have in His Church, a unity comparable to
the perfect unity of the Divine Father and His
Consubstantial Son (St. John xvii. 21), with unity
430 THE PRIMACY. [281
of faith, of worship and of government : and we
showed also (n. 254) that this unity is found in that
body of Christians who look up to the Bishop of
Rome as their Head, and in none other. But we
were somewhat hampered in that discussion, for
we had not then established that the Pope holds
his position by a Divine right ; and his authority
might, so far as our argument had gone, have been
a mutable arrangement, originating perhaps in the
free choice of the Bishops, and subject to be over-
turned by the authority that brought it into being.
But the eternal Oneness of the Triune God would be
poorly represented by an institution composed of
many elements, united for the time in virtue of a
mutable agreement, but liable to fall to pieces as
soon as this agreement came to an end. We are,
therefore, prepared to find that the Divine Wisdom
devised and the Divine Goodness carried out some
more excellent plan for securing to the Church that
perfection of unity which it was destined to enjoy.
We may consider various suggestions as to the
means by which this unity might have been secured :
and first, it is said by some that the Holy Scripture,
if duly used, will suffice for the purpose. But this
theory supposes that all are at one as to the list of
books composing the Scripture, and as to their
special character, which is far from being the case, as
we saw in our third Treatise. Also, the Scripture at
best can but teach the faith ; it cannot help to unity
of worship or of government ; and in the absence
of an authentic interpreter it is so hard to under-
stand, that men derive from it the most diverse
zii] THE CENTRE OF UNITY. 431
conclusions on the most vital points, although there
is no reason to doubt that they have made faithful
use of their opportunities of gathering the meaning.
Nor can the power of the State be considered as a
divinely appointed means of securing religious unity,
for the State has its own work to do, which is
totally distinct from the end of the Church (nn.
175, 179, 180) : it cannot show any commission
to teach religious doctrine, and experience shows
that civil governors, even if they call themselves
Christians, are far from agreeing in their faith.
The agreement of Christian people at large is not
the bond of unity, for it is they who require to be
kept in the one true way, and they are under a
divinely instituted hierarchy, as we have shown,
(nn. 199203.)
A notion which is widely entertained among
those who do not accept the Catholic doctrine of
the centre of unity, makes unity to depend upon
the agreeing voice of the Bishops. If by this is
intended that we must listen to the voice of the
Bishops of antiquity, it is enough to reply that these
are dead, and can speak to us only through their
writings : and these writings lend themselves to
diverse interpretations no less readily than the
Scriptures themselves. If the episcopate of the
present day is meant, we need an external test to
determine who are the legitimate members of that
body : for there may be false bishops, no less than
false prophets (St. Matt. xxiv. 24) and false apostles
(2 Cor. xi. 13) ; and if two among them differ, as
may well happen, whether on a point of faith, or as
43* THE PRIMACY. [281
to the bounds of their dioceses or any other point
of government, who is to decide the controversy ?
But if the supreme power of teaching and
governing is by Divine appointment, in the hands
of one living man, these difficulties find no place.
He is living and accessible and is able to make his
meaning clear beyond doubt ; and if all recognize
that his decisions are final and binding upon them,
then is unity secured* in its perfection. It is not
well for man to anticipate what God must do to
attain a certain end, for this is to pit his puny
wisdom against the Infinite : but we may say that
these considerations prepare us not to be surprised
if we find that the unity of the Church is secured
by the authority of an individual living man as
centre of unity.
282. Peter the Foundation. We saw (n. 274) that
Christ promised (St. Matt. xvi. 18) to build His
Church upon St. Peter : we have now to show that
by this metaphorical but most expressive language,
the promise was given to St. Peter of the primacy
of jurisdiction in the Church. This follows plainly:
for the foundation of a building is the most indis-
pensable part of the building, being that on which
the strength of the whole structure mainly depends,
and in the choice of which the wisdom of the
builder is chiefly shown. (See St. Matt. v. 24 ; Psalm
xxxix. 3.) The foundation does not merely support
the building, but it has an independent complete-
ness of its own, so that when the foundation is laid,
the builder feels that a substantial part of his work
has been done ; and further, that the extent and
282] PETER THE FOUNDATION. 433
general character of the building is unalterably
determined : no further extension is possible, for
what does not rest on the foundation is not part of
the house.
We learn, therefore, that the whole Church
depends upon St. Peter, while he himself does not
derive support from that which rests upon him.
His position is unique, just as the foundation stands
alone and is independent of the rest. If all the
house were removed the foundation would remain :
but if the foundation be shaken no part of the house
can stand.
283. The Promise of the Keys. In the verse
following that which we have been considering
(St. Matt. xvi. 19), the promise is made to St. Peter
that the keys of the Kingdom of Heaven shall be
given to him, and we must see what this implies.
The phrase Kingdom of Heaven is perpetually used
for the Church Militant (St. Matt. x. 9, and in
chapter xiii. and elsewhere frequently), so that in
the verse we are considering it must have the same
meaning as the words " My Church " in the pre-
ceding verse ; and we observe that the discourse in
both cases concerns the whole of the object, and
not a part only. Further, the phrase "givo the
keys," implies that the object is put entirely at the
disposal of the recipient. To hand over the key of
a house is not merely a conventional sign of yielding
possession : the connection is natural, for he that
has the key is master. He can enter and go out at
his pleasure, admit guests and exclude those whom
he does not wish to receive. The key is regarded
cc
434 THE PRIMACY. [283
as the instrument of imprisonment, and this explains
the second half of the verse, where the power of
binding and loosing is promised to St. Peter: he
can bind and throw into prison, he can loose and
unlock the door. It is remarked that there are
three ways in which the souls of men may be said
to be bound : by the bond of law, of sin, and of
punishment. St. Peter is to exercise the first in his
capacity of legislator, in whose power is included
the power to dispense from law : the second con-
cerns the administration of the Sacrament of
Penance, in which absolution from sin is granted or
withheld, according to the judgment formed by the
confessor concerning the dispositions of the penitent :
the third bond is relaxed when Indulgences are
granted. But these matters will be discussed in
their own place, when we treat of the Sacraments.
284. The Confirmer. The text which we quoted
from St. Luke (xxii. 31, 32 ; n. 265) assures us that
the faith of Peter will not fail, for the prayer of
Christ is always efficacious (St. John ii. 42), and
that the faith of others, especially of his brethren
the Apostles, depends upon his support. We thus
see that he has a Divine commission to guide others
in the faith, however eminent their station in the
Church ; and thus is the centre of unity of faith :
but the bearing of the text on Infallibility is more
direct than on Primacy.
285. The Office of Shepherd. In the last of our
three texts taken from St. John's Gospel (xxi. 15
17 ; n. 266), St. Peter is made the Shepherd of the
sheep and Iambs of Christ, and in this appointment
285) THE OFFICE OF SHEPHERD. 433
we cannot but see the fulfilment of the promises
recorded by St. Matthew (xvi. 18, 19) ; it is the
same office that is spoken of under the figures of
the Foundation, the Bearer of the Keys, and the
Shepherd. The office of a shepherd includes the
work of feeding the sheep, or at least leading them
to the places where they will find healthful pasture ;
to keep the flock together, giving it unity (St. John
x. 16) : he defends the flock against the wolf (St. John
x. 11, 12 ; Acts xx. 29) : all which and other duties
are set forth in the 34th chapter of the Book of
Ezechiel. The charge entrusted to St. Peter is
therefore that he exercise these and analogous
functions in the care of the flock of Christ, the
members of His Church. The distinction of sheep
and lambs, for both of which St. Peter is to do the
work of shepherd, emphasizes the extent of his
jurisdiction. We say that the whole Church is
built upon Peter, because we have no right to
introduce distinctions which are not indicated in
the text : in the charge to be a shepherd the use
of the two words, sheep and lambs, expressly
negatives any limitation to the extent of the
authority. And in fact, if any exception were to
be made, it would extend at least to the Apostles,
who were then present ; yet not a word is said
indicating that they, or any others, were exempted.
This doctrine is perfectly consistent with what
we hold, that the Apostles had by Divine appoint-
ment a universal jurisdiction in the Church, such
as is also possessed by the collective episcopate at
the present day. Each Catholic Bishop exercises
436 THE PRIMACY. [285
the pastoral office in regard to the faithful of his
diocese, and each of the Apostles did the same for
all the world : but they did so in dependence upon
St. Peter, and this dependence was none the less
real, although they had individually a Divine
guarantee that they should not fall away, just as
the collective episcopate is indefectible. Union
with Peter was the condition of their perseverance,
and they were assured that the condition would
never be broken.
286. Papal Primacy. So far we have given an
outline of the proof from Scripture of the truth
taught and declared by the Vatican Council (Sess.
4, cap. i ; Denz. 1668) that " according to the
testimony of the Gospel, a primacy of jurisdiction
over the whole Church was promised immediately
and directly to the Blessed Peter the Apostle, and
was conferred upon him." We now go on to show
the truth of what is taught by the same Council in
the same Session (Sess. 4, cap. 2 ; Denz. 1670) that
"what the Chief Pastor and great Shepherd of
the sheep, the Lord Jesus Christ, instituted in
the person of Blessed Peter the Apostle, for the
perpetual welfare and lasting good of the Church,
this must, by the institution of Christ, last for ever
in the Church which, being founded upon a rock,
shall remain ever firm to the end of the world:"
and again in the Canon : " If any one say that it is
not by the institution of Christ our Lord Himself,
that is by Divine right, that Blessed Peter has an
unbroken line of successors in the Primacy over
the whole Church, or that the Roman Pontiff is
i86] PAPAL PRIMACY. 437
not the successor of Blessed Peter in the same
Primacy, let him be anathema." (Denz. 1671.) The
doctrine here expressed merely taught with a little
more fulness what was already an article of the
Catholic faith, for the Council of Florence, in 1439,
defined that Blessed Peter received from Christ
full power of feeding, ruling, and governing the
Universal Church. (Denz. 589.)
That the Primacy was to be as lasting as the
Church itself follows from the terms in which it
is spoken of in the Gospel, for the need of the
foundation to a house and of a shepherd to the
flock is no temporary need, but will continue and
be pressing as long as the house is to stand, or
the flock is to be kept together. And if this be
granted, it will not be denied that the Roman
Pontiff is the Primate. There is no one else on
whose behalf the claim is made, whereas from the
earliest days the claim was made practical!}' by
the successive Popes, and no rival ever presenied
himself. The action of the Pope in the Church,
as already described (nn. 262 267) is absolutely
unique : there is no pretence for ascribing the
like action to any other Bishop. When difficult
questions arise in any part of the Church, the
decisions of the Popes are sought, and that for the
sake of their office, and not on account of eminent
personal attainments, such as led to similar
inquiries being addressed to individuals of great
reputation, as St. Basil and St. Augustine. The
causes of Bishops and others, from the East as
well as from all the West, were brought before the
43 8 THE PRIMACY.
Papal tribunal, and there judged with authority,
and all who fell under suspicion were anxious to
clear themselves at Rome, and no cause was
hopeless until it had been rejected at Rome. The
history of the Church is filled with illustrations of
what has just been said : the proof is cumulative,
and to adduce one or two particular instances
would merely weaken it ; the details will be found
in abundance in the Formation of Christendom by
Mr. Allies, in Bottalla's The Pope and the Church, and
countless other books.
The difficulties that are brought against the
doctrine of the Primacy are partly founded on cases
like that of Firmilian, of which we have already
spoken (nn. 269, 272) ; but they are often of a
negative character : it is said that there is no
ancient authority to show that the Popes exercised
such or such a prerogative. The answer is, the
imperfection of history : we do not know all that
has been done in the Church, and for early times
we have nothing but a scrap here and a chance
fragment there. How true this is will be best
appreciated by one who is familiar with the Reliquicc
Antiques of Dr. Routh ; he will see the patchwork of
which the earliest history is made up. But there is
no doubt that in earlier times the Popes left much
business in the hands of the Bishops and other local
authorities which afterwards in more peaceful days
they reserved to themselves : the moderation of a
Superior in the use of his authority affords but
a weak ground for showing that this authority is not
claimed by him and acknowledged to be his.
UNIVERSAL StSHOP. 439
287. The Universal Bishop. A difficulty of a
positive nature is raised by certain passages in the
works of St. Gregory the Great, where he repudiates
the title of Universal Bishop, which would seem to
be due to the Pope in virtue of the Primacy. It is
true that according to the doctrine which has been
set out and proved, no member of the Church is
left without the pastoral care of Peter and his
successors, or exempt from their authority. And
yet this care and this authority cannot be dis-
tinguished from that which each individual Bishop
has in his diocese, and so there is a sense in which
the Pope claims to have direct and immediate epis-
copal authority in the whole of the Church : there
is no person, no place, to which his care and authority
does not extend : it is not clear therefore why
the Pope should not allow himself to be called, and
call himself, the Universal Bishop. This title had
been given by the General Council of Chalcedon to
Pope St. Leo the Great, and this Pope had called
himself Bishop of the Roman and Universal Church:
yet St. Gregory calls the title a profane novelty,
which had never been taken by his predecessors.
The explanation is that the title Universal Bishop
admits of two senses : it may mean sole Bishop, or
it may mean that the holder has the episcopal care
extending to all the Church, but not so as to
exclude the authority of each Bishop in his diocese.
St. Gregory was moved by learning that the title
had been taken by the Patriarch of Constantinople,
John, surnamed the Faster, and as the Pope con-
ceived, in the former sense. Whether he was
correct or not, there is no doubt of the view he took,
440 THE PRIMACY.
for he again and again speaks of John as wishing
to be called sole Bishop. (Epist. 5, 18, to John of
Constantinople; P.L. 77, 738, and Epist. 5, 71, Ad
Constantianam; P.L. 77, 749.) It was therefore in
this sense that St. Gregory rejected the title with
indignation, preferring to be called, Servant of the
Servants of God. (St. Gregory to the citizens of
Rome, Epist. 13, i ; P.L. 77, 1253.) There was
no sense in which the title could belong to John,
but in the second sense that we have explained the
power expressed by it was claimed and exercised by
St. Gregory ; it is enough to quote his distinct
assertion that what was undoubtedly the second
See of the world in influence, the Church of Con-
stantinople, was subject to the Apostolic See.
(Epist. 9, 12, to John of Syracuse; P.L. 77, 957);
and in another place he asks, What Bishop is not
subject to it ? (Epist. 9, 59, to the same ; P.L. 77,
996.) It is plain, therefore, that in declining the
ambiguous title St. Gregory did not mean to disclaim
the authority which, rightly understood, it implied.
288. Recapitulation. We can say no more on
this immense and much controverted subject. It
must suffice that we have shown the advantage that
must arise to the Church from the possession of
a personal centre of unity : that the three famous
texts discussed in the last chapter prove that
St. Peter was constituted by Christ to be centre,
and govern the whole Church ; that this power has
passed to his successors, the Bishops of Rome, by
whom it has been exercised : who are not sole
Bishops, although they have by Divine right the
immediate episcopal charge over the whole Church.
CHAPTER IV.
INFALLIBILITY.
289. Subject of the Chapter. It will be convenient
to begin this chapter by setting forth and explaining
the decree adopted by the Council of the Vatican
by which the Infallibility of the Pope, which might
previously have been denied without the guilt of
heresy, became an article of the Catholic faith.
We shall then show how the doctrine is contained
in Scripture, and indicate very briefly the nature of
the -proof of the same from tradition: after which
the difficulties that have been brought against the
doctrine will be dealt with.
290. Infallibility defined. In the Acts of the
Council of the Vatican, held in 1870 (Sess. 4,
cap. 4), we find the following: "The Roman
Pontiff, when he speaks ex cathedra, that is to say,
when in the exercise of his office of pastor and
teacher of all Christians he in virtue of his supreme
Apostolic authority defines that a doctrine on faith
and morals is to be held by the whole Church, by
the assistance of God promised to him in the person
of Blessed Peter, has that infallibility with which
it was the will of our Divine Redeemer that His
Church should be furnished in defining a doctrine
442 INFALLIBILITY. [290
on faith or morals, and that therefore these defini-
tions of the Roman Pontiff, of themselves and not
through the consent of the Church, are irreform-
able."
The assembly which adopted this decree is
recognized as a General Council by the whole
Church (see n. 209), and the decree itself is accepted
as conclusive by the whole Church. (See n. 208.) It
follows that the decree comes to us with the autho-
rity of the infallible Church, and cannot be questioned
without forfeiture of the name of Catholic. This
decree, together with the decrees concerning the
Primacy, which come to us on the same authority,
put an end to a controversy which had been freely
agitated in Catholic schools, and which, as so often
happens (n. 113), had cleared up ambiguities and
ended by establishing the truth on a firm basis,
never to be shaken. The spirit of nationalism, how-
ever good within its own province, has always been
opposed to the spirit of Catholicity ; and it has
repeatedly happened that kings who boasted that
they were true sons of the Church, have striven to
use her power as an instrument for the attainment
of their own ends, and have undertaken to regulate
spiritual matters directly by their own authority
or through the agency of subservient ecclesiastics
whom they have raised to positions of wealth and
influence. In these cases, the authority of the
Popes has been the great obstacle in the way of
the temporal ruler, and has been the means used by
Divine Providence to hinder the Church from becom-
ing merely a part of the machinery used by the
ago] INFALLIBILITY DEFINED. 443
State for its own ends, as happens in countries
which have shaken off obedience to Rome. The
struggles of the Popes with the Byzantine Emperors
and with the successors of Charlemagne fill a large
place in Church history : and the only too success-
ful efforts of the Kings of France to extort practical
independence of Rome were continued down to the
time when the Revolution of 1789 swept away all
existing institutions, (n. 304.) It was in France
that it was first found convenient to devise a theolo-
gical basis for pretensions which had previously
been put forward chiefly on practical grounds, and
after the Great Schism (1377 1417, n. 218) a
school arose, known from the country of its origin
as the Gallican, which maintained that the Pope
received his authority from the Church, and which
consistently went on to hold that dogmatic decrees
issued by the Pope were not infallible in themselves,
but only in virtue of their acceptance by the Church.
Attention being called to the subject, the matter
was studied, and the theologians of Italy, and of
Rome itself, were led to the conclusion that the
Papal Primacy was of Divine institution, and that
the Pope was in virtue of his office infallible. These
views were dubbed by the French divines as Ultra-
montane, while the name Cisalpine was applied to
the doctrines that prevailed on the north of the
Alps. The controversy was far-reaching, touching
principles that are at the very foundation of the
relations between God and man, and it had the
happy result of leading to a deep and critical study
of history, which cannot but bring out the truth
INFALLIBILITY. [age
more clearly. No Gallican ever doubted that the
voice of the Catholic episcopate, even when dis-
persed, was the infallible voice of the Church: nor
that communion with Rome was the necessary con-
dition of the right to the character of a Catholic
Bishop. It follows that on Gallican principles the
doctrine on the Papal Primacy and Infallibility
asserted at the Vatican Council is infallibly defined
as an article of the Catholic faith.
It is to be observed that the decree speaks of
the Roman Pontiff, not merely of the See of Rome :
of the living man, not of the voiceless entity. It
explains the meaning of the phrase ex cathedra with
a plainness that leaves nothing to be desired : an
ex-cathedral utterance is an act of teaching, not an
act of government, still less of personal conduct :
and it does not include every act of teaching by the
Pope, but only those where he teaches the whole
Church, on a point of faith or morals, and this in
the exercise of his supreme Apostolic authority.
Whether any particular utterance fulfils these con-
ditions is a point on which ordinarily there is no
room for doubt : and if ever any difficulty arises, it
is solved by a consideration of all the circumstances
from which the intention of the Pontiff can be
gathered : and if, as is conceivably possible, the
doubt remain, then the utterance is not known to
be infallibly binding. The difficulty here glanced at
is of no more practical import than are the doubts
felt by English constitutional lawyers whether certain
official utterances of the King are or are not to bo
classed as Acts of Parliament. (See Stubbs, Constii.
2go] INFALLIBILITY DEFINED. 445
History, 2, 224.) The decree teaches us that the
extent of Papal Infallibility is the same as that of
the Church, (n. 209.) Infallibility is not secured by
any system of Divine inspiration, for the Papal
decrees have the Pope for their author, whereas the
Author of the inspired Scriptures is God Himself,
(n. 136.) Neither is the Pope infallible by virtue of
Divine revelations made to him : such revelations,
were they given, would be no more than private
revelations (n. 22), and therefore not binding upon
the Church. The Pope does not attain to his know-
ledge of the truth without the use of ordinary
means; prayer, study, consultation, and the like,
along with which goes a peculiar enlightenment
from the Holy Spirit, given to him on account of
his office ; the Vatican definition assures us that he
will not utter an ex-cathedral decree until his dili-
gent and enlightened use of these means has resulted
in his coming to a correct conclusion on the point
before him.
There are some persons who think that they
can learn Catholic doctrine by studying an English
dictionary, and these observe that the word infallible
is connected with failure and with/0//; hence they
conclude that according to our doctrine no Pope
ever fails in prudence or falls into sin. These are
quite mistaken. The infallible character belongs to
ex-cathedral utterances, in the sense explained. It
has nothing to do with prudence in conduct, though
we believe that the Church has been secured from
destruction by the more than human prudence that
has guided her governors ; neither has it nything
44 6 INFALLIBILITY. [age
to do -with the moral character of the Pope, for
lessons of sanctity may come from the mouth of a
wicked man (St. Matt, xxiii. 3) ; and even if there
be any truth at the bottom of the grossly exaggerated
stories that are current concerning the private lives
of some of the Popes, we are merely led to recognize
the Divine guidance which has hindered these men
from teaching ex cathedra the bad principles which
are supposed to have shaped their personal conduct.
291. Proofs of Infallibility. The argument by
which we have shown that the three great Petrine
passages (nn. 282 285) prove that the Bishops of
Rome have by Divine right a Primacy of jurisdiction
over the Church, applies also to establish their
Infallibility, so that little need be said on this head.
It is enough to point out that the passage from
St. Luke (xxii. 31, 32) is conclusive on this head.
St. Peter is to confirm his brethren, and the prayer
of Christ, that shall not fail of effect, has been
offered that his own faith fail not. He is, therefore,
to confirm his brethren, that is, the Apostles and
the whole Church, in their faith, and is furnished
with the necessary means for the accomplishment
of this work : he that is to teach must first know.
Further, the office of shepherd committed to St. Peter
over the sheep and lambs of Christ (St. John xxi.
15 17), includes the work of feeding : and in the
language of Scripture, the food is the doctrine
revealed by God (i Cor. iii. 2 ; I St. Peter ii. 2,
v. 2) ; the action of St. Peter will therefore be liable
to lead the sheep to poisonous pastures, to theii
ruin, unless the Chief Shepherd provides, as He
2Qi] PROOFS OF INFALLIBILITY. 447
can, that His Vicar shall not be deceived. What is
here said of St. Peter applies to his successors for
the same reasons as prove the perpetuity of the
Primacy, (n. 286.) All members of the Church,
therefore, at all times are by Divine appointment
under the care of St. Peter and his successors, and
bound to accept the lessons of faith that he teaches
them, just as they are bound to hear the Church;
and as God could not impose on them a duty to
accept error, the faith that he teaches must be the
truth.
As to the proof of the Papal Infallibility from
tradition, it is so full that it is impossible to set it
forth in a short compass. It is not found so much
in express declarations: there was no need to
declare formally that which everybody knew and
accepted as a matter of course : but we have casual
allusions, such as when St. Leo remarks in passing
that the faith of Peter fails not even in his unworthy
heir. (St. Leo, Serm. 3 ; P.L. 54, 147.) But the
doctrine is taught practically, when the Pope decides
unhesitatingly and with a tone of authority, the
questions on points of faith which were referred to
him from all parts of the Church ; the cases will be
found in profusion in Bottalla on the Infallibility,
and every book on the subject. This practical
teaching is more conclusive than any express state-
ments, for its meaning is less open to question ;
and we must especially notice its negative side.
There is absolutely no trace of an appeal from the
Papal decision on a matter of faith to any higher
tribunal : appeals from the Pope to a future General
448 INFALLIBILITY. [291
Council are sometimes heard of, especially in times
of schism, and they were forbidden by Pope Pius II.,
in 1459, expressly on the ground of the supreme
and full power that he had received as heir of Peter
(Constit. Execrabilis) : but these appeals concerned
discipline, not doctrine.
We may notice a passage of St. Thomas which
shows how undoubtingly the doctrine of the Infalli-
bility was held and tacitly assumed as admitted by
this great theologian of the thirteenth century : he
lived shortly before the rise of the Gallican school.
He discusses (Summ. TheoL 2. 2. q. i. art. 10.) the
question whether it belongs to the Supreme Pontiff
to draw up Creeds; and he answers in the affir-
mative, for this work must fall to him who has
authority to determine what is of faith, to be held
with unswerving faith by all. And this belongs to
the Pontiff, to whom all greater and more difficult
questions in the Church are referred. The text
from St. Luke on confirming the brethren (xxii. 32)
is then quoted, and it is pointed out that unless he
that presides over the whole Church were able to
decide questions of faith, it would be impossible to
avoid the divisions which the Apostle deprecates,
(i Cor. i. 10.)
292. Objections. The arguments against Papal
Infallibility employed by the Gallican school, and
which have been eagerly borrowed from them by
later theologians, in and out of the Church, were
not so much theological as historical : and the theo-
logian, dealing with this matter, is forced to follow
them, and leaving his proper subject to consider
192] OBJECTIONS. 449
what are the teachings of history. He enters on
this inquiry with full assurance what the result will
be, if it is properly conducted, for truth cannot be
opposed to truth t but aware of the imperfection of
the historical record, he is not unprepared to be
confronted with difficulties, the. full elucidation of
which is impossible with our present materials;
and he is content to repel the attacks made upon
the doctrine which he has established on quite other
than historical grounds, and does not expect to find
proof of the truth of his belief in every passage of
history which his opponents have selected as tending
to support their view.
It is impossible in this place to enter on historical
controversy, which necessarily runs to great length,
involving the transcription, comparison, and critical
discussion of the original documents. Fortunately,
it is often possible to show from the facts admitted
by all, that on the face of these facts, the objection
is groundless. The objector often tries to produce
instances where Popes have taught heresy ex cathedra,
and if he succeeded in one instance in proving his
point, our doctrine would, we confess, be untenable :
but in every case it will be found on examination
either that the teaching is not shown to have been
ex-cathedral, or that it cannot be proved to have
been heretical. We can here' do no more than
mention the principal instances that are brought
up, and indicate very briefly the lines on which
a defence may be made.
I. Some think that the fall of St. Peter is in
some way a proof that the Pope is not infallible.
DD VOL. T.
I 5 INFALLIBILITY. [292
But the answer is plain : St. Peter had not at the
time of his fall received his commission to feed the
flock of Christ, and therefore he was not Pope ; and
perhaps the words " being converted " point to the
time when his work was to commence : besides
which, when he told the doorkeeper that he did not
know the Man, he certainly was not uttering a
dogmatic statement, intended to teach the whole
Church : he was only showing his own private
weakness.
II. St. Peter submitted his doctrine to the
Council of Jerusalem, and St. Leo in the same way
submitted his doctrine on the Incarnation to be
discussed by the Council of Chalcedon. But there
is a use in the investigation of the grounds of a
doctrine, even when there is no doubt as to what
the result of the investigation will be : the examina-
tion makes the truth appear more clearly.
III. Pope St. Stephen was opposed by St. Cyprian ;
but most certainly St. Stephen never defined any
heretical doctrine : the error, whatever it may have
been, was not on his side.
IV. Pope Liberius subscribed an heretical for-
mula. But, even if we accept the truth of all that
is said against him, he did no more than accept a
formula of faith on the Blessed Trinity, in which
there was nothing positively heretical, although the
omission from it of the word "consubstantial,"
which was the badge of the Catholics against the
Arians, was taken as a mark of favour to the
enemies of the Nicene faith. And at the worst, he
did this when not free, but in a state of banishment
292] OBJECTIONS. 451
from his see, and there is no pretence for saying
that he taught Arian doctrine ex cathedra.
V. Pope Honorius was anathematized as a
heretic by the Fourth General Council of Constanti-
nople. Not as a heretic, in the proper sense, but
as having negligently permitted the spread of heresy,
and so being involved in the same condemnation
as the actual heretics. Honorius wrote a letter to
Sergius, the Monothelite Patriarch -of Constanti-
nople, in which, as the event proved, he did not
make a sufficiently firm protest against the heresy :
but it cannot be shown that the letter itself con-
tained heresy ; and even were it otherwise, the
letter was a purely private document, and neither
in form nor in substance or in mode of issue showed
any trace of being intended for the instruction of
the Universal Church.
VI. It is sometimes said that the Popes owed
their power to a forgery, the False Decretals. This
work became known early in the ninth century,
and purported to be a collection, put together by
one Isidore, of decretal letters of Popes, such as
make up the greater part of the body of the Canon
Law. The general tendency of these decretals is
to represent the Pope as supreme governor, to
whom appeals may be brought by Bishops and the
inferior clergy who are aggrieved by the action of
the metropolitans. The decretals are attributed to
Popes who reigned in the very earliest days of the
Church, and in form they are undoubted forgeries,
for they were certainly put into shape abcut the
time when they became known. But in substance
INFALLIBILITY. [292
they were old, though not so old as they pretended
to be ; and the proof is easy, for the authors who
have demonstrated the forgery in form do so by
showing that the utterances attributed to the early
Popes are not theirs, but are found in the genuine
works of Popes of the fourth and following centuries,
so that they were old in the days of Isidore. Besides
this, our proofs of the Primacy and Infallibility are
drawn from Scripture and early tradition, and not
from the False Decretals : and we have seen (n. 291)
St. Thomas rests his doctrine as to the position and
authority of the Popes, not on any forgery, but on
the Sacred Scripture.
VII. In the case of Galileo, the Holy See con-
demned as heretical and opposed to Scripture an
astronomical doctrine which is now universally
accepted. On this much debated question, it may
safely be said that no man can prove that the note
of heresy was attached by the Pope himself to the
physical doctrine. The proof of this would require
it to be shown that the Pope acted personally, for
the gift of Infallibility cannot be delegated to any
other person : that he acted with the intention of
exercising his supreme apostolic authority to teach
the Church : and, lastly and most especially, that
the purpose of the decree was to condemn the
doctrine and not merely to prohibit the books con-
taining it. A doctrinal utterance is not proved to
be ex-cathedral by its occurrence among the motives
for a disciplinary decree : and this appears to have
been the case with the decree against Galileo, which
therefore does not conflict with our doctrine. The
2 Q2] OBJECTIONS. 453
action of the Holy See on this matter may be
defended on higher ground than what is here
taken ; but what has been said suffices to show that
nothing that was done in the case is inconsistent
with the doctrine of Papal Infallibility. The remain-
ing cases of alleged ex-cathedral errors are of minor
importance.
293. Recapitulation. Our chief work in this
chapter has been to explain what is the true
doctrine denned by the Vatican Council on the
personal Infallibility of the Pope. When this is
understood, there is not much difficulty in giving
the proof of the doctrine from Scripture, while the
proof from tradition is too bulky for these pages.
The chief historical difficulties against the doctrine
are shortly answered at the close of the chapter.
CHAPTER V.
THE POPE AND THE BISHOPS.
294. Subject of Chapter. We have seen that in
accordance with the decrees of the Vatican Council
(n. 286), the Pope enjoys by Divine right a primacy
of jurisdiction over the whole Church, which juris-
diction is imm >diate over every member of the
Church, and therefore over the Bishops among the
rest. There is therefore no longer any room for
controversy on certain questions which in former
times were warmly discussed, as to the relation of
the Pope to a gathering of Bishops, especially if the
gathering were such as to be morally representative
of the whole Catholic world. Nevertheless, it will
be well to devote a few pages to a short explanation
of the doctrine and practice of the Church as to
Co incils, that the Divine rights of the Pope and the
no less Divine right of the Episcopacy may be seen
more clearly.
295. Episcopal Government. We have seen
(n. 200) that by the Divine constitution of the
Church, there is in it a distinction of Teachers and
Taught, Governors and Governed ; and that the
teaching and governing body is constituted by the
Episcopate (n. 208), under the primacy of the Pope
(n. 285.) Catholic Bishops, therefore, who are known
^95] EPISCOPAL GOVESNMEm. 455
by their communion with the Holy See, have autho-
rity to teach, and from the assured perennity of the
Church (n. 166), we know that this teaching body
will never wholly fail ; individual Bishops may lapse
into heresy, as we know to have happened from
time to time, but the body at large will never lapse.
Should such a lapse of the whole occur, the whole
Church, which is bound to obey the teaching autho-
rity, would be led into error and ruined, which is
impossible. This is the same theological argument
as was employed (n. 291! to show how the infalli-
bility of the Pope followed fnm his right to teach ;
and we may observe that even in the case of the
Pope himself, there is no absolute certainty that
he will never personally fall into heresy : we know
that he can never teach heresy ex cathedra, and most
theologians believe with Suarez that he never will
fall from the faith : but their arguments do not
command universal assent, and so it is well to
remark that such a fall, disastrous as it would be,
would not be of itself destructive to the Church ;
for if the lapse were private, the Church at large
would be unaffecte 1 ; but if it became notorious,
then, it is held, the person would cease to be Pope,
and the Holy See would be vacant : but the main-
tainers of the doctrine that such a fall is possible
admit the difficulty of explaining how the fact of
the vacancy could be authentically ascertained.
Not only does this power belong to the whole
Catholic episcopate, but each member of it has
suthority to teach and govern the faithful committed
to him ; exercising his office in subordination to the
456 THE POPE AND THE BISHOPS.
supreme Pastor, the Roman Pontiff. The teaching
of the Bishop must of course not be contrary to
the faith of the Universal Church, and therefore is
not irreformable, as is that of the Pope : and in like
manner, the legislation of the Bishop must not be
in opposition to the legislation which binds the
Universal Church, over which the Pope alone has
power.
296. Councils. From the days of the Apostles
downwards (Acts xv.) it has been the practice of the
Pastors of the Church from time to time, to meet
together in smaller or larger numbers to deliberate
on matters of common ecclesiastical interest ; and to
these assemblies the name of Council or Synod has
been appropriated. These Councils vary in character,
according to the extent of the territory from which
the members are drawn. There are diocesan Coun-
cils, or Synods, consisting of the clergy of a single
diocese, under their Bishop : Provincial Synods are
attended by the Bishops of an ecclesiastical province
under the Metropolitan : and more rarely we hear
of Plenary Synods, where the assembly of several
provinces exercises jurisdiction over a whole nation.
Thus in old days there were Plenary Councils of
Africa ; and in our own time, Maynooth and Balti-
more have been thus honoured by the Bishops of
Ireland and the United States. All these meetings
exercise in the district to which they belong the
same sort of authority as each Bishop enjoys in his
own diocese, but on account of the numbers gathered
together they naturally have great moral weight.
Occasionally their declarations on matters of faith
296] COUNCILS. 457
have been recognized as sound and useful, and so we
meet with Canons of Councils of Carthage (n. 151)
and Toledo, quoted by theologians as having autho-
rity. These formal Councils, possessing the power
of government, must be distinguished from informal
assemblies, such as are often held by the Bishops
of neighbouring dioceses, when they wish to agree
on a common course of action ; also from such
gatherings as was seen in Rome in 1854, when a
large number of Bishops chose the time appointed
for the definition of the Immaculate Conception as
the season for one of their periodical visits to the
Threshold of the Apostles, (n. 254.) Also, these
purely ecclesiastical meetings must not be con-
founded with the occasions when, in England, and
probably in other countries, the clergy met at the
instance of the King, for the purpose of taxation or
other civil duties. (As to the Convocation as distinct
from Councils, see Stubbs* Constitutional History,
2, 194.)
297. Ecumenical Councils. The word ecumenical
means world-wide (olKovp,ivrf), so that an Ecumenical
Council is one gathered from the whole of the
Church, and having authority over the whole. The
word General is often used as synonymous with
Ecumenical, but some writers make a distinction,
employing General to signify a Council which
embraces the whole of the Greek-speaking or of
the Latin-speaking Church. We shall use the two
words indifferently.
A General Council is of a totally different nature
from the Councils spoken of in the last paragraph.
4 5 8 THE POrE AND THE BISHOPS. ^97
It represents the whole body of the episcopate, and
this, as we saw, cannot fail in the faith (n. 295) ;
but theologians are not agreed whether such a
Council is a distinct seat of infallibility, or whether
the Bishops are infallible only in virtue of the prero-
gative of the Roman Pontiff, with whom they are
necessarily united ; whichever doctrine be held, the
practical consequences are the same.
The assembly of a General Council is never
absolutely necessary, unless we except the possible
case of an ex-cathedral utterance being absolutely
necessary in order to check some grave existing
evil, while at the same time consultation with the
assembled Bishops of the whole Church was needed
in order that the Pontiff might assure himself of
the truth (see n. 290), and for securing the existence
of the Church ; for the Papal authority is, absolutely
speaking, sufficient to cope with all difficulties,
whether they touch faith or morals, heresy or
schism : the Pontiff can teach with infallible autho-
rity what men are bound to believe, and he can
make such laws as the occasion may demand ; and
no Council can do more, for the free-wills of men
are not constrained. Occasions may, however, arise
when the advance of some great evil cannot be
effectually stayed by the authority of the Pope
alone, and in these circumstances it is in a sense
necessary for him to seek the moral support of the
episcopate assembled in Council; but these occa-
sions are not of frequent occurrence, and will
probably be less frequent as time goes on, and
exchange of sentiments grows easier without actual
297] ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 459
meeting. The Church had existed for nearly three
centuries before the first General Council met at
Nice in 325 : and more than that period elapsed
between the close of the Council of Trent in 1563
and the opening of the Council of the Vatican in
1869.
The right to convoke a General Council belongs
to the Roman Pontiff alone, for he alone has juris-
diction over the whole Church, entitling him to call
on all Bishops to meet together. If a number of
Bishops come together without the Papal summons
or consent, they do not constitute a General Council ;
but their proceedings may subsequently attain to
that authority, if they receive the ratification of the
Holy See. This was perhaps actually the case with
the Council held at Constantinople in 381, which
reckons as the first of the four General Councils
which have been held in that city, and as the second
Synod of the Universal Church. Some writers, as
Bouix, think that there is sufficient proof that the
Emperor Theodosius, who in fact issued the
summonses, acted with the previous approval of
Pope St. Damasus ; but the more common opinion
of historians and canonists is that this Council was
not ecumenical except by virtue of a subsequent
Papal ratification of its acts. Also, there is no
distinct record of the previous Papal sanction to
the gathering of Bishops at Nice in 325, but there
is no doubt of Papal approval of their meeting, as
we shall see directly : and we learn from So/omen
(Hist. Eccl. 3, 10 ; P.G. 67, 1057), that in the time
of Pope Julius, about 340, the principle was well
460 THE POPE AND THE BISHOPS. [297
recognized that nothing could be done validly
without the assent of the Roman Pontiff; and he
appealed to this principle without fear of contra-
diction, even in controversy with heretics who had
held a sham council without leave from Rome. See
also Socrates to the same effect (Hist. EccL 2, 17;
P.G. 67, 220) : and many other proofs of the same
doctrine are found in the Acts of the Councils.
There is some controversy as to whether it is
ever lawful for the Catholic Bishops to meet to-
gether to discuss the affairs of the Church without
the Papal summons, and the question is discussed
with reference to certain extreme and highly im-
probable cases. Those writers who believe it to be
possible that the Pope should fall publicly into open
heresy (n. 295) commonly hold that the vacancy in
the Holy See must be declared by the Bishops
gathered together at the summons of the Cardinals,
or of some one from among their own number who
takes the responsibility ; and the same course would
perhaps be lawful if an insoluble doubt arose as to
the rights of two rival claimants to the Papacy,
or if the Cardinals absolutely refused to hold an
election to fill a vacancy. These speculative
questions are interesting, as showing that every
possibility has been foreseen and discussed. It
must be borne in mind that the power which insti-
tuted the practice of the election of the Pope by
the Cardinals, with certain formalities, can modify
that practice, or abolish it altogether, if it seem
expedient (n. 262) ; and we may believe that if a
dying Pontiff foresaw that there was any risk of the
297] ECUMENICAL COUNCILS 461
Cardinals being hindered from holding an election,
by the violence of the civil power or otherwise,
he would make suitable provision to meet the
emergency.
The Primacy of the Roman Pontiff involves the
right to preside in every General Council, which
right he has exercised by himself and his legates.
Also, his right to summon the Council involves the
right to fix the place of meeting, and to change it
as seems expedient.
The right to be summoned to a General Council
belongs primarily to those who are immediately
charged with the work of teaching and governing
the faithful in their several dioceses, that is to say,
to the Bishops having ordinary jurisdiction (n. 268) ;
they may have this right even before they have
received the episcopal consecration. The Cardinals
also are called, even when they are not Bishops;
and in the Vatican Council there were some Bishops
who had none but a delegated jurisdiction, as Vicars
Apostolic, and the like. All these are present as
judges, with a decisive voice: but other persons are
often admitted, such as Generals of Religious Orders,
eminent theologians, and others, whose advice is
likely to be useful, although they do not vote. Lay-
men have also been admitted, and treated with the
honour due to their rank and merits, and we have
an instance of this in the Council of Nice, when
the assembled Fathers were addressed by the
Emperor Constantine. The practice as to admitting
others than Bishops actually ruling dioceses has not
been uniform.
462 THE POPE AND THE BISHOPS. [297
The decisions of the Council are commonly
arrived at by the votes of the individuals who are
present with decisive voice: but sometimes the
Fathers have been divided into nations, each nation
voting among themselves, and the matter being
decided by the majority of nations.
The acts of a General Council have no binding
force unless they are confirmed in some \\ ay by the
Roman Pontiff; for the Bishops do not represent
the Church except in virtue of their union with their
head. The confirmation of disciplinary laws may
be given by legates deputed for the purpose ; but
dogmatic decrees must be confirmed by the Pope
personally, for the prerogative of infallibility belongs
to him alone, and cannot be deputed, (n. 268.)
There are some cases of loose language being
used, as if Councils of the Church had been con-
vened by laymen, Emperors or others, who had also
confirmed the Acts. There may have been instances
of lawless usurpation of some such right ; but the
language of historians is commonly to be explained
as referring to aid given by the civil power in
facilitating the journeys of the Bishops to the
place of meeting, providing for their maintenance,
securing the public peace and adopting the neces-
sary measures for enforcing the decisions arrived
at. The Church is, and always has been, wider than
the dominions of any human ruler; and therefore
it is impossible to maintain that it belongs to
the civil power to command the attendance of the
whole episcopate ; besides which, to convoke and
confirm would be an act of government, and as
2Q7 ECUMENICAL COUNCILS. 463
such is reserved to the divinely instituted hierarchy,
(n. 202.)
298. The Time of Schism. We saw in a former
place (p. 218) that between the years 1378 and 1417,
a serious doubt existed as to the person of the
successor of St. Peter. There had been similar
instances in earlier times of rival claimants to the
Papacy, but there was no instance where the doubt
as to the true succession had continued so long, or
where there was so much difficulty in deciding
which of the rivals had a true right to the obedience
of the world. This state of doubt whether the
Holy See were full, and if so by what person it was
filled, could not fail to weaken all ecclesiastical
discipline and to be the occasion of the gravest
abuses : and men cast about for means of putting
an end to so disastrous a state of things. Many
thought that a meeting should be held of all the
Bishops of the Catholic world, and there is no
doubt that the moral weight of an assembly of the
kind would be likely to induce the rival claimants
to resign whatever rights they had, and so it in fact
proved : a Council was held at Constance, during
which two of the claimants were induced to resign ;
and although a third persisted, he had no following,
and was a palpable usurper, whose claim was disre-
garded : the result was that the Holy See was
undoubtedly vacant, and was filled by the election
of Martin V., who was accepted as Pope by all
parties.
But if the claimants had remained obstinate, and
refused to resign, what could have been done ? This
464 THE POPE AND THE BISHOPS. [298
was a question warmly debated at the time, and
which cannot be said to have been finally settled
for centuries. The tendency of the Gallican school
(n. 290) was to hold that the assembled Bishops,
forming what may be called the material of a
General Council, had power superior to that of the
Pope, however certain his title ; and decrees were
adopted by the assembly at Constance, before the
end of the schism, by which such a right was
claimed : but these were at once repudiated by
Pope Martin V., as soon as an undoubted election
gave him an indisputable claim to the Papacy.
The claim has long been wholly untenable, and a
long series of Papal utterances to this effect will
be found in Denzinger, which have been put forth
without provoking protest from the Church at large,
and which therefore are binding, even according to
Gallican teaching. If any doubt were left, it is
cleared up by the decree of the Ecumenical Council
which we have quoted (n. 286), according to which
the power of the Pope, by Divine institution, extends
directly and immediately to the whole Church, no
exception being made of Bishops, whether scattered
or assembled in one place. There is therefore no
provision in the constitution of the Church for the
case of rival claimants of the Papacy, each having
plausible arguments in favour of his right and com-
manding the obedience of a notable proportion of
the Bishops who had been in communion with the
Pope before the rise of the schism : one may be the
lawful Pope, and if so, no human authority is com-
petent to depose him : but the continuance of this
2g8] THE TIME OF SCHISM. 465
state of things would be destructive to the Church,
and on this ground we believe that the providence
of God will not allow it to occur, (n. 192, viii.)
299. Recapitulation. The account that has been
given in this chapter of a subject of first-rate
importance is most imperfect, for the matter belongs
to works on history and canon law, while its strictly
theological treatment would be very short : the
Vatican decree on the Primacy includes all that
has to be said. The way was prepared for this
decree by the investigations of historians and
canonists, and notices of the now obsolete con-
troversies may be seen in Jungmann's Dissertations
and Bouix On the Pope, and elsewhere. We have
given the results at which they arrive, without
entering into the necessarily lengthy arguments by
which they are supported, the due appraising of
which requires a special training in the methods
of each science, with knowledge of the value of the
sources from which they draw. The general con-
clusion is that the Bishops assembled by authority
of the Pope have, and have always been held to
have, an infallible authority in matters of faith, as
well as power of legislation for the Universal
Church; but that the decision whether such an
assembly shall b>: held lies with the Pope alone,
who also regulates all the details of the meeting,
confirms or annuls the decrees as he sees fit, and
who is himself not bound by any of the disciplinary
proceedings of the Council.
EE VOL. 1.
CHAPTER VI.
THE TEMPORAL POWER.
300. Subject of Chapter. In this chapter we shall
consider certain points of contact between the
Church and Catholic States. The chapter finds
jts place in this Treatise rather than in the Treatise
on the Church, for these are matters in which
action is usually taken by the Roman Pontiff, who
is especially concerned in all that relates to his
Temporal Power, from which important topic the
chapter takes its title. We speak of the relations
of the Church to Catholic States, for the matter does
not directly concern such States as do not profess
to be guided by Catholic principles ; but it is well
that even such civil governors as disclaim the name
of Catholic should understand what is the doctrine
of the Church upon the subject : they will learn that
far from having anything to fear from the Church,
every Civil State will find that it receives strong
support from her action ; and at the same time will
see the wisdom of abstaining from such encroach-
ments upon her domain as she cannot allow without
compromising principles which she is bound to
maintain immutable and sacred. Thus, the State
cannot justify interfering with marriage, except in
300] SUBJECT OF CHAPTER. 467
its purely civil aspects, nor with religious or clerical
vocations, nor with the religious education of
children.
301. Church and State. We have already pointed
out (nn. 173 180) that the Church and the Civil
State are two distinct societies, to both of which
every man should belong, in order to work for the
attainment of his end, by the use of all his faculties.
The Church is unique ; the State exists in various
divisions, and it is in general a matter of indifference
which of these divisions a particular man joins. The
societies have different ends, which, however, are in
perfect accord ; due diligence in the pursuit of the
one is perfectly consistent with the like diligence in
the pursuit of the other, and in fact the two pursuits
are mutually helpful : the more fully a man is
actuated by Catholic principles, a more useful subject
will he be in the State to which he belongs, being
law-abiding, just, and charitable; and active in
advancing all that is good for the community
according to his opportunities : and he will find in
the exercise of his civil and social duties a large
opportunity of working out his supernatural end,
by the service of God in the persons of his fellow-
men.
Further, the two societies can help each other
by their corporate action, for 'each can legislate for
its subjects in such a manner as, without departing
from its own proper end, to promote the end of
the other (see n. 179) ; but, as there pointed out,
a difficulty may arise if the governors of the one
society take a view as to what is necessary, which
4 68 THE TEMPORAL POWER. [301
clashes with the view taken by the governors of the
other society. The difference will often be cleared
up by mutual explanations; but in the last resort,
the dispute must be settled by the consideration
that the end of the Church is higher, and wider,
than that of the State : and again, the governors and
the other members of the State are members of
the Church, for we are speaking of Catholic States,
and in this capacity they owe deference to the
judgment of the governors of the Church, to whom
they themselves, as Catholics, avow themselves
subject.
These very general principles admit of and
require infinite modification in their application to
particular states of circumstances.
302. Immunity. An illustration of what we have
been saying is found in the matter of immunity. It
will conduce to the harmonious co-operation of
Church and State if each society show respect to
the position held by the officials of the other, and
this principle is fully recognized by the Church. If
a person who is convicted of crime before the
Church Court, hold a high position in the State, the
ecclesiastical judge will have regard to this circum-
stance, and either remit the punishment altogether
or at least inflict a lighter penalty than would
otherwise have been awarded. And in the case of
temporal sovereigns this principle of prudence is
enforced by positive law. The Canon Law declares
(Lib. I, Deer. tit. 33, c. 4) that all princes and other
men are subject to the Bishops of the diocese to
which they belong ; yet from the thirteenth century
302] IMMUNITY. 469
downwards the Roman Pontiffs have been in the
habit of granting to various princes an immunity
from this jurisdiction, so 'that they should not be
liable to excommunication save on the sentence
of the Pope alone : and canonists, true to their
principle that favours are to be interpreted widely,
gather that the will of the Pontiff is that all princes
should enjoy this immunity : the reasons for which
it has been granted to some appearing to be
applicable to all. The power thus reserved to the
Sovereign Pontiff has been used most sparingly, in
spite of provocation : and few men will deny that
Pope Pius VII. was justified in proceeding to the
last extremity when, in 1809, he issued an excom-
munication against the first Napoleon, a professing
Catholic, whose power crumbled almost imme-
diately.
On the same principle, the Church strives to
protect her officials from suffering unduly at the
hands of the civil power : and although at the
present day there is in some countries less need of
this protection, and the rule regarding it has been
much modified, as will be seen in our next section,
yet there have been times when prejudice was rife,
and no ecclesiastic could safely commit his cause tc
the temporal tribunal. The general Church law,
therefore, forbids secular judges to force clerics
to appear before them, unless they do so with
the express or implied leave of the ecclesiastical
superior ; and before the change of discipline which
will be explained directly, every accusation made
against a clerk was dealt with in the Bishop's court:
470 THE TEMPORAL POWER. [302
this court heard the case, and if the charge was
proved, passed and executed a sentence of imprison-
ment or such other secondary punishment as seemed
to be called for. If a culprit were brought before
the secular courts and proved that he was a clerk,
he was delivered up to the ecclesiastical tribunal to
be dealt with : and no doubt the same happened in
other countries as in England, where the common
lawyers complained grievously that clerks guilty ot
crime escaped with nominal punishment. It was
natural* that the canonical penalties in use in the
Bishop's court should seem nominal in the eyes of
men accustomed to look upon it as a law of nature
that the most trivial theft was to be punished with
death, while other offences were visited with cruel
public whippings or long and foul imprisonment.
These same common lawyers, as time went on,
became ashamed of their own system, and were glad
to find an escape from its horrors in the fiction by
which they allowed " benefit of clergy " to convicts
who offered no other proof of their clerkship than
the ability to read a prepared verse, usually the first
verse of the Psalm Miserere. The long and curious
history of this matter may be seen in Stephen's
History of the Criminal Law, i. 459 472. Of course,
the Bishops did not consider that the canonical
immunity extended to men who had none but a
sham qualification for clerkship : and so these
criminals escaped scot free. We have here an
instance of the enemies of the Church finding that
their own ways of proceeding failed, so that they
were driven to imitate the Church, and blundered in
J02] IMMUNITY. 471
the process : a process which Blackstone describes
as " a noble alchemy, extracting rich medicines out
of poisonous ingredients." (Comm. 4, 371.)
If the Bishop's court adjudged that a clerk had
been guilty of a crime for which the canonical
penalty was inadequate, it was not without the
means of dealing duly with the case : the criminal
was " degraded " and handed over to the secular
tribunal. The ceremony of degradation may be
seen in the Pontifical. Its effect was to undo, so
far as lay in the power of man, the effect of ordina-
tion, and this effect is symbolized by each step of
the proceeding ; the sacred vestments being taken
away, -the anointed fingers scraped, and so on.
This ceremony was gone through in the case of the
wretched priest by whom Archbishop Sibour of
Paris was murdered in the year 1857. The result
is that the degraded priest loses all canonical
priviler'.'S, and the exercise of all clerical functions
becomes unlawful: but the power of validly con-
secrating and absolving, under the necessary con-
ditions, remains, for these depend on the presence
of the priestly character, which once impressed on
the soul, remains for ever.
303. Concordats. We have said that the strict
law of the Church, such as we have described, is not
necessarily applicable at the present day: and an
illustration of this is found in case of Concordats.
A Concordat is in the nature of a treaty between the
Sovereign Pontiff as Supreme Governor of th
Catholic Church and the Head of a State, whereby
in consideration of certain undertakings on the part
47* THE TEMPORAL POWER. [303
of the civil ruler, the Pope expresses himself content
to abstain from urging for the present certain of his
rights : with the result that all Catholics may with
a safe conscience act in accordance with the Con-
cordat. The real effect of a Concordat, according
to the intention of the Pontiff, is often wider than
the words ; and if any doubt arises concerning the
binding effect of the Canon Law in any country, it
must be solved by application to the Bishop, who if
he sees fit, will obtain instructions from Rome.
Even in countries where no Concordat exists, we
have the high authority of Cardinal D'Annibale
(Summ. Theol. v. 2, n. 353) that in some respects, at
least, the will of the Pontiff is not to urge the Canon
Law : but this question belongs to the Moralists.
Also, we must refer to the Canonists for the
discussion of the question how far the Pontiff is
bound by a Concordat, or whether he can validly
declare that he no longer means to abide by it ;
whether such a renunciation would be prudent or
not must be judged by the circumstances, for it
might be prudent in some extreme case where the
State absolutely refused to carry out its part of
the arrangement : but the abstract question of the
validity is an abstruse point, on which it does not
concern us to enter.
304. The Gallican Liberties. We have spoken
(n. 283) of the Gallican school of theology, whose
tendency was to represent the Pontiff as occupying
a position of less authority than that which is
assigned him by the Vatican Decree on the Primacy.
The lawyers of France adopted similar views ; and
304] THE GALLICAN LIBERTIES. 473
in their mouths, and in the mouths of such of the
clergy as agreed with them, the power of the
Church, or of the Pontiff as representing the Church,
was much limited by certain rights which were
asserted as belonging to the State. There was some
difference of opinion whether these rights should
be claimed as inherent in the Civil State, or as
belonging to the kings of France in virtue of some
ancient grant. Conspicuous among these pretended
rights was the claim that no indication of the will
of the Pontiff, of whatever nature, was to take effect
within the dominions of the kings of France until
it had received the royal sanction : different phases
of this right were known as the placitum regium and
the exequatur. Akin to these was the right claimed
by the royal courts to entertain appeals from the
decisions of the ecclesiastical judges, under pretence
that these were abusing their authority tanquam
ab abusu. In the times before the nature and Divine
right of the Primacy were clearly denned, as being
of Divine origin and incapable of restriction by
human power, these so-called liberties were defended
and approved by men who were undoubtedly learned
and sincere Catholics; at the present day no
defence of them could be possible, unless it were
shown that they were part of an arrangement in the
nature of a Concordat that had been made by some
Pontiff, and was still in force. Nothing of the
kind can be shown for France or for any other
country : no sovereign would cut himself off from
the possibility of free communication with his
subjects.
474 THE TEMPORAL POWER. [305
305. The Temporal Power. We have seen (n. 291)
why it is fitting that the rulers of each of the two
societies, of Church and State, should so exercise
their power as to show some regard for the position
of those who hold office in the other ; and that the
Church is within her right in deciding how far this
immunity is to extend, so that she holds it not
merely through an act of comity on the part of the
State, but as claiming something that is essentially
her own. And plainly, if there be any Churchmen
to whom this immunity belongs, the Sovereign
Pontiff must be of the number, for as his juris-
diction is unlimited, so is the necessity for his
perfect freedom absolute. The exercise of his high
office would be impossible, were he liable, even in
theory, to be summoned to plead his cause before
temporal tribunals whose power was wielded by men
who were his subjects in the spiritual society. And
since it is a clear point of Catholic doctrine that
the Church should be governed by a Pontiff clothed
with the prerogatives that we have described, no
Catholic can question the right of the Pope to be
exempt from the jurisdiction of the tribunals of any
civil power; the duty imposed upon the Pontiff
of governing the whole Church implies a right to
that exemption from common obligations without
which this duty can hardly, or not at all, be
performed.
What is here said of the immunity from the
jurisdiction of civil tribunals which belongs to the
Pope in virtue of his divinely instituted office, must
be said also of the Cardinals and others who are
305] THE TEMPORAL POWER. 475
around him, and without whose aid it would be
impossible for him to govern the Church, (n. 268.)
It follows that the Pope and his court must
either reside in a territory over which the head of
some nation claims to exercise jurisdiction, while
professing to allow full immunity to the Head of
the Church and those around him ; or else that
the Pope must be the acknowledged independent
sovereign of a distinct territory. The first arrange-
ment is not, speculatively speaking, impossible ;
but it will be inconsistent with the free and effective
exercise of the Papal functions unless a number of
conditions are fulfilled which will never be observed.
In the first place, there must be good faith on the
part of the sovereign, and firm honesty of purpose :
he must be proof against the strong temptation
which, will be always upon him to employ for his
own aggrandizement the great power that he has
in his hand, and excuses for doing so will never be
wanting. And it is not enough that the ruler
should be honest : he must also have power over
his subordinates, and over all his subjects, to secure
that they shall faithfully assist him in carrying out
his honest purpose : and this power of control is
far beyond what is possessed, or is likely to be
possessed, by any ruler on the earth. Even if
a man of exceptional strength to command were
able to impress his will on the whole array
of those among whom his authority is shared,
from the Cabinet Ministers down to the post-
men and police, any one of whom would have
great powers of petty annoyance : yet old age would
476 THE TEMPORAL POWER. [305
come and the iron will would fail, and during the
dotage of the Ruler, the promised immunity would
be gone : nor can any assurance be felt that the
successor would have the same honesty and
strength. The conditions on which the government
of the Church depends might fail at any moment,
or could be maintained only by a perpetual miracle.
Nor is this all. It is not enough that the Pope
be free, if he be not known to be free. Now, when
it is seen that the Pope is in the power of one
among the many nations which it belongs to his
office to govern, a suspicion will surely arise that
his actions towards other nations is in some manner
influenced by his connection with that one in the
midst of which he resides : and this suspicion will
be fatal to his influence, which depends wholly
upon his moral power. During the seventy years
(1307 1377) that the Popes resided at Avignon,
their authority fell into great contempt, for they
were regarded as creatures of the French monarch.
Also, it is too clear to need mention that he would
be wholly unable to rebuke as might be needful the
monarch and great men of the place of his abode.
For these reasons and others that might be
added, we see that the government of the Church
cannot be carried on efficiently, unless the Pope is
the independent Ruler of a State : and we under-
stand with how much reason Pope Pius IX.
condemned those who think otherwise. He will
not allow that they deserve to be called sons of
the Catholic Church who argue about the compati-
bility of temporal and spiritual kingship (Denz.
3 05] THE TEMPORAL POWER. 477
1624), and he condemns the proposition that the
abrogation of the temporal power of the Apostolic
See would conduce very much to the liberty and
happiness of the Church (Denz. 1625) ; similar
passages are found in abundance in the Papal
utterances of the last forty years. It was therefore
the good providence of God over His Church that,
immediately after the conversion of the Roman
Empire, secured to the Popes the government of
an independent territory, and no government in
Europe can show a better title than that in virtue
of which the Popes exercised their sovereignty for
more than fifteen centuries. It is true that during
the times of persecution they had no temporal
power, with the result that, almost to a man, they
were murdered by the government that held sway
over them : but no one will say that in those days
the Church had attained her full development and
normal state. Nor must it be said that a small
independent territory, such as the old States of the
Church, was useless for securing freedom to the
Popes, who were necessarily swayed by the wishes
of powerful neighbours. Even a small territory
secured them from the insidious modes of attack
to which the Pope is liable if he rests merely on a
guaranteed immunity ; whereas any violation of the
territory, however small, would have attracted
attention, and roused the spirit of all that was
Catholic in Europe.
The ways of God are unknown to us ; but we
remember that history tells us of many times when
the prospects of the Church seemed no less dark
478 THE TEAfl'ORAL POWER. [305
than they are at present, while the Pontiff is
deprived of his freedom of action. In 527, Pope
John I. died in prison, in exile, in the hands of an
enemy who called himself a Christian : tne same
fate befell St. Silverius, and in more recent times
Pius VI.; whose successor Pius VII. was, in i8cg,
carried prisoner into a foreign land, yet very shortly
he was restored to his own by the influence of a
nation that made no pretence of being his spiritual
children.
306. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have
dealt with a few points, belonging properly to public
Canon Law, concerning the relations of the Church
with temporal princes. This closes our Treatise
on the Roman Pontiff, which may be looked upon
as a continuation of the Treatise on the Church.
The Church under the Roman Pontiff and often
speaking by his voice, gives us proximate guidance
in matters of faith and morals: extracting and
applying the teachings contained in the Holy
Scripture and the other monuments of Tradition,
and thus making known to us the contents of the
message brought to each by Jesus Christ our Lord,
whose Divine authority we learned in our first
Treatise. Thus we reach the close of our pre-
liminary matter, and we might proceed at once to
the Treatises of Theology properly so called : on
God, One and Three, and on the action of God in
the world. But it is usual and convenient, before
passing on, to treat shortly a few points concerning
the virtue of Faith, a Treatise on which will close
this volume.
TTreatlse tbe Sijtb,
FAITH.
CHAPTER I.
THE ACT OF FAITH.
307. Plan of Treatise. "Without faith it is
impossible to please God." (Hebrews xi. 6.) This
declaration of the Apostle teaches us that faith is
necessary for man, if he is to attain his end, in a
way which it is not true of other virtues or disposi-
tions. All forms of Christianity therefore agree in
recognizing the supreme importance of faith, but
they differ very much, one from another, in the
explanations that they give upon the matter. We
shall in this Treatise try to set forth and justify the
Catholic doctrine of faith, so far as is needed to
illustrate the relation of individual Christians to the
Church. The subject of faith has a place, more or
less, in almost every Treatise of Theology, and we
have already had occasion to make frequent use of
the word ; and we shall find ourselves compelled,
in the present Treatise, to anticipate much of what
will be said in future volumes on God, justification,
the Sacraments, and other subjects. The impossi-
480 THE ACT OF FAITH. [307
bility that we so often meet with, of treating any
part of theology alone, apart from other portions,
serves to show that dogmatic theology is a single
science, and not a mere bundle of detached dis-
quisitions. It has been said that each theological
Treatise requires to be introduced by Prolegomena,
containing the whole of the rest of the science. A
clear perception of this essential oneness of the
subject will lead the reader to exercise patience,
and to believe that what seem to be obscurities
and omissions will disappear before the end is
reached.
We shall discuss in three chapters, the nature of
an act of faith, its relation to reason, and to the
Church.
308. Subject of the Chapter. In this chapter we
shall consider the meaning borne by the word faith
in Holy Scripture, and show that it is what is
expressed by the definition given by Catholic
divines. The conditions of an act of faith will
then be shown to be what this definition suggests.
But first it will be necessary to explain some terms
of which we must make use.
309. Explanation of Terms. There are certain
terms connected with our subject, as to which it is
of vital importance to have clear notions. We shall
borrow the explanations of some of these from the
work of Father John Rickaby on The First Principles
of Knowledge, the whole of which, but especially the
third and thirteenth chapters of the first part, should
be studied by all who wish to obtain a compre-
hensive view of the subject.
309] EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 481
I. Certitude is defined to be "the state of the
mind when it firmly assents to something, because
of motives which exclude at least all solid, reason-
able misgivings, though not necessarily all mis-
givings whatsoever." We assume here that man
may have certitude as to some parts of his know-
ledge, in the sense here defined, and that this
knowledge bears a resemblance to the thing known :
to deny this is that ultra scepticism which renders
discussion impossible. The sources of certitude are
discussed in the second part of Father Rickaby's
work, just quoted.
II. Ignorance is the state of mind of a person
who knows nothing on a subject.
III. Doubt " in its widest sense would include
all the states intermediate between Ignorance and
Certitude." But it may conveniently be narrowed,
and confined to those cases where the mind
recognizes that there is a question: we may
have Negative Doubt, where the mind is in a state
of equipoise " due to the absence of valid reasons
on either side ; " or Positive Doubt, which is " the
equipoise of the mind, due to the fact that the
reasons on either side are equal and opposite."
IV. Suspicion is "so faint an inclination to
yield in one direction that not even a probable
assent is yielded, but there is a leaning towards
a side."
V. Opinion is when an assent is given " as to a
mere probability" . . . "in the general sense of
what from the appearance seems likeliest, or at all
events likely." " There is evidently wide room for
FF VOL. I.
48s THE ACT OF FAITH. [309
variety between the limits of slender and of very
substantial probability."
VI. Probability is the character of a thing as
seen by one who holds an opinion concerning it.
VII. Belief will be understood as having mean-
ings that correspond to the meanings of the verb
believe. " To believe signifies sometimes (a) to hold
a thing as a probable opinion : and sometimes (6)
to hold it as " certain, whether (a) generally, without
specially distinguishing the nature of the grounds or
09) specially on the ground of the testimony of
witnesses, or (7) again specially, in cases where the
object is not immediately presented to the percep-
tive faculties, e.g., belief in a fact as remembered."
We shall commonly employ the word b ft.
VIII. Evidence is "that character or quality
about proposed truths or propositions, whereby
they make themselves accepted by the intellect, or
win assent ; while the intellect is made conscious
that such assents are not mere subjective pheno-
mena of its own, but concern facts and principles
which have a validity independent of its perception
of them. . . . "Evidence is not a proposition at all,
but a character of all propositions which so come
before the mind as rightly and for their own sake to
demand its assent." Truths or propositions that
have this character or quality are said to be Evident.
Error being a non-entity can never demand the
assent of the mind, or be evident, in the sense
explained, that is, there cannot be real evidence
of that which is not true : it can only be through
hastiness of judgment, culpable or inculpable, that
3og] EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 483
Probability, however high, is mistaken for Evidence.
It is scarcely worth while to remark that the word
Evidence, as here used, has none but a remote con-
nection with the popular, forensic use of the word,
as when we say of a lawsuit, that conflicting evi-
dence is adduced by the parties. " Evidence " such
as this is very far from making the thing " evident."
IX. Credible is said of an object of Belief, in all
the senses of that word. We shall call a thing
credible when it is held as certain on the testimony
of witnesses. It may be evident that a thing is
credible, although the thing itself is far from evident.
We take the next definition from the Moral
Philosophy of Father Joseph Rickaby.
X. "A Habit is a quality difficult to change,
whereby an agent whose nature it was to work one
way or another, indeterminately, is disposed easily
and readily, at will, to follow this or that particular
line of action. Habit differs from Disposition, as
Disposition is a quality easily changed. . . . Again,
Habit differs from Facility or Power: as Power
enables one to act ; but Habit, presupposing Power,
renders action easy and expeditious, and reliable to
come at call."
XL Natural and Infused Habits are distinct in
origin, and to some extent in result. Naturally, a
habit is the result of acts, and is said to be A cquired.
These primitive acts were done " with difficulty,
fitfully, and with many failures ; " but when they
had engendered the habit, they were done " readily,
reliably, and artistically." Repeated acts, then,
have a natural power of working some change in
484 THE ACT OF FAITH. [309
the man, which is seen in its effects, but the in-
trinsic nature of which it belongs to Psychology to
discuss. The primitive acts engender the natural
habit by way of second causes, and God, the
First Cause, can, if He pleases, do by His direct
action whatever He ordinarily does through second
causes. He can, therefore, produce a habit in a
man, even when the man has not performed any
primitive acts : and such a habit would be said to
be infused. It is to be observed that according to
most theologians Valentia is an exception the
infused habits make the corresponding acts possible,
but do not render them easy. This is all that we
need to say at present : it belongs to the Treatise
on Justification to show that the concession of such
Infused Habits is a part of the ordinary supernatural
providence of God. We shall see when we treat of
grace that the presence of an infused habit is neither
necessary nor sufficient to render possible a super-
natural act.
XII. Grace is the subject of one of the principal
Treatises of Theology. It is enough for our present
purpose to say that by Grace we mean an influence
not required by man's nature, but gratuitously
bestowed upon man by God, without which he
would be unable to attain the supernatural end for
which he is destined : which influence gives light to
the intellect and strength to the will, to help it to
perform an act which is good in itself, and at the
same time to raise this act above its natural value
and make it such as to help the doer towards his
supernatural end.
3io] "FAITH" IN SCRIPTURE. 465
310. "Faith" in Scripture. The English word
faith, representing almost invariably the Greek
7rio-T49 and the Latin Fides, occurs very frequently
in the New Testament: the adjective "faithful"
represents the Greek Trto-ro? and the Latin fidelis;
while the English uses "believe" and the Latin
credo, for the corresponding Greek verb, irurrevm.
The constancy of this usage is remarkable, especially
as it extends to such negative forms as " unbeliever,"
" faithless," &c. : and it is further most remarkable
that, putting aside some stray exceptions which are
easily shown to be apparent only, the meaning con-
veyed by these words is everywhere the same, and
is a meaning not difficult of apprehension: it is
what we have explained as the leading meaning of
" belief." (n. 309, vii. b yS.) Faith is represented in
Scripture as being an act of the intellect, in saying
which we by no means say that the influence of the
will is excluded, but merely that the act of faith is
completed in the intellect. This follows from the
very idea of faith which, as opposed to sight, signifies
belief on the testimony of another : and when this
other is God, we have Divine faith, with which alone
we are concerned : and thus we have the definition
of faith given by the Vatican Council (Sess. 3,
cap. 3 ; Denz. 1638) : " Faith is a supernatural virtue,
through which by the influence and with the aid of
the grace of God we believe that the things which
He has revealed are true, not because of their in-
trinsic truth seen by natural light, but on the
authority of God Himself, who has given the revela-
tion, who cannot be deceived nor deceive." That
4 86 THE ACT OF FAITH. [310
faith is thus opposed to sight is seen plainly in such
passages as the words of Christ to St. Thomas the
Apostle, on the blessedness of them that have not
seen and have believed (St. John xx. 29) ; and that
it is in the intellect follows from the second half of
the verse the opening words of which we quoted at
the beginning of this chapter. He that cometh to
God must believe that He is, and is a rewarder td
them that seek Him. (Hebrews xi. 6.) It is a work
of the intellect to believe that God is. None other
was the faith of Abraham, which was reputed to
him unto justice (Genesis xv. 6), and which is so
extolled by St. Paul (Romans iv.) : he believed on
the authority of God, who made the revelation,
that his seed should be as the number of the stars :
and another passage from the same Epistle (x. 9)
is very clear: If thou confess with thy mouth the
Lord Jesus, and believe in thy heart that God hath
raised Him up from the dead, thou shalt be saved.
Such was the word of faith which St. Paul preached :
the person addressed had not seen the risen Lord,
but if he believed the word of the preacher as a
messenger from God, it would be well with him.
This sense will be found to be applicable in all
places of Holy Scripture, except in some stray
instances as where the words in question (Trio-revo),
credo) are plainly to be translated "committed," or
the like, (i Cor. ix. 17.)
311. Erroneous Views. A great variety of
erroneous meanings have been attached to the word
" faith," and this sometimes by Catholic writers,
especially of early times. Thus, assent to first
3 n] ERRONEOUS VIEWS. 487
principles has sometimes been called faith ; as has
all mediate knowledge of a cause from its effect ;
also, all firm conviction, especially on religious
matters, or approval of certain religious views.
Many confound faith with opinion, ascribing to
belief the first meaning that we gave (n. 309, vii. a) ;
and many again confound it with confidence, in
which sense it is very frequently used by Protestants,
especially in connection with their doctrine on
Justification.
It is perfectly true that the word " faith " is often
used in Scripture where it would seem that we might
substitute " confidence," as in the case of the praise
addressed by our Lord to the Syrophenician woman
(St. Matt. xv. 28), " O woman, great is thy faith,"
where the point might seem to be that her per-
sistence showed great confidence in the power and
goodness of Him to whom she made her prayer.
But this confidence was nothing but the outcome of
her belief that He was good and powerful, a truth
which He had revealed to her by His words and
works, together with the interior working of His
grace ; and so the text gives no new sense to the
word " faith ; " and many other texts are susceptible
of the same explanation : but the meaning " confi-
dence " is wholly out of place in such passages as we
have quoted from Genesis, St. John, and St. Paul.
St. Paul has given us (Hebrews xi. i) an inspired
definition of Faith : Faith is the substance of things
to be hoped for, the evidence of things that appear
not. St. Thomas (Summa, 2. 2. q. 4. a. i.) shows
by a course of subtle reasoning that this definition
488 THE ACT OF FAITH. [311
includes all that is essential in faith, and that
all other definitions are mere expansions of this
text. Thus, he remarks, that the word translated
" evidence " excludes all doubt ; though we must
remember that the word is not here used in the
sense which we have explained (n. 309, viii.) : the
Greek e\ey%o<; and the Latin argumentum would
perhaps be better represented by "conclusive proof."
Faith is concerned with "things, not seen," differing
herein from sight : that it deals with " things to be
hoped for" shows that the Apostle has in mind
Divine faith, which help us to eternal beatitude.
312. Analysis of Faith. In Faith, we must
distinguish the material object, 01 thing that we
believe, e.g., the Trinity of Persons in God, from
the formal object, or reason why we believe it : in
this case, because God has revealed it. If the
formal motive of our assent be the evidence,
immediate or mediate, we have knowledge or sight,
and not faith. There is a controversy whether
there can be Faith and Sight concerning the same
object, in other words whether we can believe a
thing both because we are told it on good authority
and because we see it to be true. St. Thomas,
Scotus, and others hold that when a thing is seen,
the adhesion of the mind receives no strengthening
from the authority of one who states that it is so ;
but the commoner opinion is that of Lugo, who
holds that there may be Sight which does not
satisfy all the requirement of the mind, and that
authority may find a place, to complete its satis-
faction.
3i2] ANALYSIS OF FAITH. 489
In order that a man may have faith, besides
the knowledge that God can neither deceive nor
be deceived, he must have certitude that God has
spoken : and this certitude is given by the what
are called the motives of credibility, the existence
of which man can know with certitude. Several
points of this statement need development.
The authority of God is plainly presupposed in
every act of faith, and we need not base the act on
any assertion of the Divine veracity conveyed along
with the revelation; for this supposition at once
raises the question why we are to believe this
assertion. Faith would not be reasonable if it
rested on such an assertion which by supposition
is unsupported, (i St. Peter iii. 15.) The reader
must be warned that what is here said, although
a common view, is not universally accepted by
theologians. It is the teaching of Lugo, Franzelin,
and many others, who argue at length in support
of their view, on the ground of the vicious circle
which they find in the opposing explanation given
by Viva and many others, following Suarez. They
remark further that if the thing revealed is believed
simply because it is revealed, then it cannot properly
be said to be believed on the authority of Him that
gives the revelation. And our faith is to be a
reasonable service, the work of our reason, aided
by grace ; and it will not be so unless we see that
we have sufficient motives for yielding our assent.
This account of the famous controversy must suffice
for the present. (See further n. 302.)
That we must have certitude, and not mere
490 THE ACT OF FAITH. [312
opinion, that God has spoken, follows from this
that without it we could not have certitude regarding
the material object of the act : we should be in
doubt, which is inconsistent with faith, in the
Scriptural sense. (Acts viii. 37 ; St. James i. 6.)
And this is why the following proposition was
condemned by Pope Innocent XI. (Prop. 21 ; Denz.
1038): "A supernatural assent of faith, profitable
for salvation, is consistent with a merely probable
knowledge of revelation, and even with a misgiving
that perhaps God has not spoken." The motives
of credibility which give this certitude are those
contained in our first Treatise (see nn. 74, 75),
where we showed that the miracles of Christ, the
prophecies, and other topics proved evidently that
the Divine origin of the Christian Revelation was
credible If it is thought that the Divine origin of
a revelation is to be gathered from the sublimity
of the matter revealed, then we no longer have
faith, but sight. The Vatican Council (Sess. 3,
Can. 4, De Fide ; Denz. 1660) defines that miracles
may sometimes be known, and that they prove
the Divine origin of the Christian religion. It
must of course always be kept in mind that these
miracles and other proofs do no more than dispose
men to faith, and render the fact of the revelation
certain : they do not constitute the formal object
of faith, which is none other than the authority of
God. It will be observed that our doctrine leaves
an important function to reason, even in a question
of faith. The relation of the two forms the subject
of our next chapter.
313] THE CERTITUDE OF REVELATION. 491
313. The Certitude of Revelation. We must now
consider more in particular what that certitude of
the fact of Revelation must be, without which no
act of faith is possible. And first it is clear that
there is no need that the whole mass of motives of
credibility should be present to the mind, for if
this were so, no man could ever make an act of
faith, or attain salvation. Nor, on the other hand,
must the motives of credibility be so overwhelming
as to make the fact of Revelation evident, for then
the act of faith would no longer be free and meri-
torious : the devils believe and tremble (St. James
ii. 19), but the fact of Revelation is to them evident,
and they have no merit in their faith, which in
truth is something different from the faith of which
men are capable. It follows, as we have said (n. 75),
that such motives are necessary and sufficient as
make the fact of Revelation evidently credible.
It will be observed that no act of faith can be
made in the presence of our Lord in any particular
Host. We have certitude that the doctrine of the
Real Presence in every duly consecrated Host is
divinely revealed, for this is a part of the Catholic
faith, proposed by the infallible Church (nn. 205,
327) ; but we cannot have certitude concerning any
one Host, that it is duly consecrated, for there may
have been some fatal defect in the rite. We can,
however, adore every Host which we prudently
judge to be consecrated, because the act of adora-
tion does not require certitude as to the character
of the object, provided we have probability : and
there is no peril of idolatry, for an act of. this sort
492 THE ACT OF FAITH. [313
must be judged according to the intention with
which it is done ; and no one intends to adore a
Host absolutely, but only on the supposition that
it is consecrated. In the same way we may give
an alms to an impostor whom we prudently believe
to be a deserving person. By this conduct we
have in fact given encouragement to wickedness;
but it is nevertheless laudable as an act of charity
to our neighbour. A difficulty that may be felt on
this matter has been anticipated, (n. 192, viii.)
The nature and weight of these motives will
vary infinitely with the variety of ability and attain-
ments of each man. Whatever the. man sees to be
enough to remove prudent misgiving from his mind
is enough for him. We saw (n. 309, viii.) that this
state of mind can never go along with falsehood ;
the truth of the thing may show itself to different
persons in very different forms, but falsehood can
never show itself at all. It is to be observed that
children and rude and uninstructed persons, if they
have little power to understand and weigh motives
of credibility, have on the other hand little tendency
to entertain doubts, as is shown by every day's
experience. The tendency of a child's mind is to
believe everything which is told to him by his
parents, or other persons whom he trusts ; hence,
if they tell him that there is a God who rewards
them that seek Him (Hebrews xi. 6), he believes
them without misgiving, and makes a saving act
of faith in the revelation which has been thus
made known to him ; if they go on to tell him that
the Pope is the enemy of God, he still probably
313] THE CERTITUDE OF REVELATION. 493
fails to recognize any ground for misgiving, and so
believes as before; but he is mistaken, however
blamelessly; and if he had considered the matter
more attentively, he would have seen ground of
misgiving, and as time goes on he will perhaps
recognize it ; if not, he will come to his death still
holding the truth and the error, and will attain
salvation by his faith in spite of the misfortune
under which he has been labouring.
What is here said of motives of credibility may
happen in other matters. Thus, a boy may solve
two questions in arithmetic : he deals with the one
correctly and obtains the correct result ; in the
other he blunders, and his answer is wrong. He
feels the same assurance about both ; he is not
conscious of having taken more care with one than
the other; yet the fact that one is right and the
other wrong remains, and is entirely independent
of his assurance on the subject. But there is a
great difference in the cases of the two sums. In
the first case, no amount of diligence will detect
any flaw in the working, for the simple reason that
there is no flaw ; in the other, there is a flaw which
may be detected if sufficient diligence be used.
Also, we may remark that a mistake in arithmetic,
however little culpable, may be financially disastrous;
and in the same way, an inculpable mistake in the
search for revealed truth, though not sinful in itself,
may involve grave spiritual loss.
What is here said of children is true of the rude
and simple of all ages, and in fact, it may perhaps
be said to be true, in a measure, with all mankind.
494 THE ACT OF FAITH. [ 3 ! 3
Those who deal much with the young and un-
educated, often observe that the truths of faith sink
into their minds and seem to find a place there,
whereas they are troubled and tend to reject the
teaching, if any error in faith chances to be set
before them.
All this is curiously illustrated by the history of
conversions to the faith ; the reasons that one
person assigns as having led him into the Church
often seeming strangely insufficient in the eyes of
his fellows. Much, no doubt, depends upon the
measure of illuminating and exciting grace which
is given to each person (n. 318), the distribution of
which is known to God alone ; much also upon the
presence or absence of the infused habit of faith
(n. 309, xi.) which, as we shall show hereafter, is
given to all men who are justified and is not lost
unless and until they commit some sin which is
expressly opposed to the virtue of faith.
The Vatican Council tells us that God by His
grace stirs up them that are in error, and helps
them that they may come to the truth ; and that
in the case of such as have already passed from
darkness into His marvellous light, He strengthens
them that they may persevere, not deserting them
unless He first be deserted.
314. Faith and Moral Virtues. It is worth while
to say something more on the difference between
Faith and the Moral Virtues, to clear up the
difficulty which is sometimes felt as to why certainty
is required for Faith, while Probability suffices in
other cases to make an act meritorious. The
314] FAITH AND MORAL VIRTUES. 495
subject has already been touched on. ^.313.) One
difference between the two cases is found in the
unchangeable nature of Faith, for what we have
once believed we can never be at liberty to deny,
whereas he who has once given an alms to a parti-
cular person is no way obliged to make the same
person the object of a second bounty. Also, Faith
puts him that believes under burdensome obliga-
tions, which is not ordinarily the case with the
other virtues ; if the case accidentally occur that an
act of almsgiving would be specially burdensome,
nothing short of certainty can make it obligatory.
It is seldom that we can have certainty as to the
deserving character of one who is to be the object
of our bounty, and so, were certainty necessary, this
form of virtue would seldom be possible ; probability
is enough to make our act a laudable recognition
of the claims of charity, whereas adhesion to error
can never laudably take the place of adhesion to
truth, although it may sometimes be laudable as
showing humility or other moral virtue. But the
chief difference is found in the exclusion of all
misgiving which is necessary for Faith, as already
explained, (n. 312, and see Viva's commentary on
the condemned proposition there quoted.)
315. Faith in God. Of the wisdom of our Lord
there is no number. (Psalm cxlvi. 5.) He that
sent Christ is true. (St. John viii. 26.) It is impos-
sible for God to lie. (Hebrews vi. 18.) In these
texts we have a clear revelation of the Divine
veracity, which is therefore a part of the material
object of faith. But according to the doctrine of
496 THE ACT OF FAITH. [315
Lugo which we follow (n. 312), this same veracity
is presupposed in every act of faith, and a difficulty
may be felt as to how we can assent to a pro-
position on a ground which presupposes the truth
of that proposition. But it is to be observed that,
as already remarked (n. 312), the same truth may
be the object both of faith and of sight ; our
acceptance of it may rest on two distinct grounds ;
so that in the case before us we may believe in
the Divine veracity, both because our reason teaches
us that God is veracious, and because the veracious
God has revealed the doctrine to us. And this last
assent is a true act of Divine faith, or submission
to the authority of God, and therefore lacks nothing
of the characters that render other acts of Divine
faith laudable.
316. Faith Obligatory and Free. Every person
to whom the fact of revelation becomes known is
bound to believe the truth revealed ; for by suppo-
sition, it is evident to him that he can prudently
accept the truth of the revelation, and to refuse to do
so is an insult to Him that gave it ; besides which,
the revelation teaches that without faith, salvation
is impossible (Hebrews xi. 6), so that he who
refuses to make the act of faith which he sees to
be prudently possible, sins by refusing to do what
is necessary for his salvation.
That faith is free scarcely needs to be demon-
strated, so clear is the teaching of Scripture and
experience on the subject. There is a common
saying that none are so blind as those who will not
see, which attests the conviction of men that belief
3 i6] FAITH OBLIGATORY AND FREE. 497
'depends to some extent upon the free-will. And
it is in accordance with this that we find in Scripture
that faith is praised (Romans iv. 3), and rewarded
(Romans x. 9), while the want of it is blamed
(St. Luke ix. 41), and punished. (St. Mark xvi. 16.)
All this implies that faith is free ; and the root of
this freedom is found, as already explained (n. 75),
in the power of the will to turn the attention
towards or away from considerations which the
evidence afforded by the motives of credibility has
shown to be mere trifles, such as ought not to weigh
with a prudent man.
No one who has once seen that the Christian
Revelation, or any part of it, is evidently credible,
can ever have good reason for reconsidering the
question, on pretence, for example, of suspending
assent until the matter is made clear to them on
intrinsic grounds ; it is evident to him that his
doubt is unreasonable. This is taught by the
Vatican Council (Sess. 3, cap. 3, and Can. 6, De
Fide; Denz. 1642, 1662); and Pope Innocent XI.
had long before condemned the proposition (Prop.
20, Denz. 1037 see Viva on this and the kindred
proposition) that a man may sometimes prudently
withdraw a supernatural assent which he has once
given. Whenever any one who held any part of
Christian faith abandons it, we know that there
has been sin.
317. Doubts as to Faith. This will be the place
to point out the difference between the cases of a
Catholic and of one who is not a Catholic, when
doubts occur to them regarding their religious belief.
GG VOL. I,
498 THE ACT OF FAITH. [317
When this happens, the Catholic is not at liberty
to suspend his belief, even provisionally, while one
who is not a Catholic is not only at liberty to insti-
tute an inquiry, but may be bound to do so, and
even to embrace a new doctrine. The reason of
this difference is that the truth will always be seen
more clearly, the more diligently it is investigated ;
especially when we speak of the truth concerning
the revelation which has been granted by God to
men, and which is the necessary means of their
salvation ; but error will never seem more accept-
able when subjected to closer honest inquiry. He,
therefore, who has once been a Catholic, and who
has had the absolute certainty of the truth of
Catholic faith as a Divine revelation, must be con-
vinced beforehand that an inquiry pursued with
suspended faith cannot possibly lead him to truth ;
but if, retaining his assent, he humbly, faithfully,
and prayerfully seek a sclution of his doubt he will
attain it, for God will not refuse him the light he
needs and asks for. One who is not a Catholic
has not got, and cannot have, the same certainty
(n. 313), for error in religion cannot be evidently
credible ; and when doubt occurs to him, and he
pursues it, he will discover that the certainty which
he imagined that he had was no true certainty, for
it was no more than an opinion which he had
mistaken for certainty, and this whether his mistake
had been culpable or inculpable. It may happen
that a man is outside the Church, and in error
in his religious faith, and that no doubt ever occurs
lo him ; or he may conceive a doubt, but on inquiry
317] DOUBTS AS TO FAITH. 49i
see what he deems to be prudent reasons to put it
aside : in these cases he remains blamelessly in his
error, (see n. 184.)
318. The Need of Grace. It is the doctrine oi
the Catholic Church, to be fully discussed in the
Treatise on the subject, that no salutary act can
be done by man without the assistance of that
supernatural illumination and inspiration of the
Holy Spirit which is called grace. One effect of
this grace is to assist the weakness of man, giving
further light to his intellect and strength to his will,
beyond their natural strength ; but another effect
is to raise the act to a dignity of which it would
otherwise be devoid, and to which no act of any
pure creature can attain without Divine help : this
dignity being what is needed to make the act
conducive to the attainment of the altogether super-
natural end for which man in fact is destined. A
branch of this general doctrine is taught by the
Vatican Council in the third Session (cap. 3, De
Fide, and Can. 5), where those are condemned who
assert that grace is not necessary for an act of faith,
unless it be that living faith which acts through
charity. An act of faith, conducive to salvation,
may be made both by one who is of the number of
the just (n. 184) and by a sinner : but in neither
case can it be made without the aid of Divine,
supernatural grace. When we come to discuss the
distribution of grace we shall see that all men
always receive, either proximately or remotely, the
grace that is necessary to enable them to attain
their end.
500 THE ACT OF FAITH. [318
We see the necessity of grace for a salutary act
of faith when we consider how strong is the natural
disinclination of men to render obedience ; and to
make an act of faith is to humble ourselves to obey.
We must assent to the truths proposed absolutely,
not looking to the internal reasons that may recom-
mend them, but solely on account of the authority
on which they come ; and this, even though we
may seem to see internal difficulties in the matter
proposed. Further, one who accepts the revelation
given by God, acknowledges at the same time that
he is bound to submit to the law of God and of the
Church ; and this submission not only affects his
whole life in every-day matters, but not (infrequently
involves his enduring grave inconvenience rather
than violate his duty. In this way we see how
peculiarly necessary is the grace of God to help
those who are called upon to embrace the true faith
in their riper years : and we remember that prayer
is the ordinary means of securing all necessary
grace.
So far we have spoken chiefly of the need of the
grace that enlightens and strengthens ; there is no
need to enlarge in this place upon that other effect
of grace which is absolutely necessary for every
salutary act.
319. Tlie Certainty of Faith. The nature of an
act of faith will be further illustrated if we consider
its certainty. Among the propositions condemned
by Pope Innocent XIII., the nineteenth runs as
follows : " The will is unable to cause the assent of
faith to be in itself more firm than is due to the
3ig] THE CERTAINTY OF FAITH. 501
weight of the reasons that impel to the assent."
(Denz. 1036.) We see how this condemnation ia
just if we consider that the motives of credibility
are not the formal object of faith (n. 312) ; these
motives convince the reason that God has spoken,
and then the will commands the intellect to assent
on the authority of God who has given the revela-
tion. This authority is the highest possible motive
for believing, and therefore affords grounds for the
firmest possible assent : and this firmness is not
proportioned to the motives of credibility, which are
merely a previous condition. A man visits a place
which he learns on undoubted authority to be the
scene of some stirring historical event : his emotions
depend on the character of the event, and are no
way proportioned to the character of the source of
his information as to the site.
As truth cannot contradict truth (n. 322), no
question can really arise as to whether we are ready
to adhere to the truths of faith even in opposition
to naturally certain knowledge. But subject to this
remark, it is beyond doubt that the dignity of the
formal object of faith, namely the authority of
God, outweighs the dignity of the formal object
of all possible natural knowledge, and commands
a higher degree of firmness of adhesion. And
this doctrine is quite consistent with the teach-
ing of St. Thomas (Summ. Theol. 2. 2. q. 4. a. 8.
corp.), that if certainty be considered on the side
of the subject, natural knowledge, which is more
fully grasped by the intellect, is more certain than
that which the intellect is incapable of grasping;
;os THE ACT OP FAITH. [319
but this accidental difference does not hinder the
simple assertion that faith is in itself more certain
than knowledge.
In all this matter, it is most important to avoid
being led to entertain questions which are founded
on absurd suppositions.
320. Recapitulation. Much more might be said
on the nature of faith, but this much must suffice
at present : the matter will recur more than once.
In this chapter, which should be read in connection
with the seventh and last chapter of our First
Treatise on the Christian Revelation, we have
explained the meaning of certain important words,
and shown the sense which the word Faith bears
in Scripture, which is Belief on the authority of
God. The nature of faith is then analyzed, and the
grounds of its certainty are explained, especially in
the case of the young and the simple : after which
it is shown that faith is at once obligatory and
free : that grace is needed for a salutary act of
faith, and that faith is more certain than all natural
knowledge.
CHAPTER II.
REVELATION AND REASON.
321. Subject of the Chapter. This short chapter
will show, by way of comment upon certain defini-
tions of the Vatican Council, that Revelation and
Reason, far from being opposed to each other, afford
mutual support.
322. Oneness of Truth. In the third chapter of
the Third Session of the Vatican Council, which we
have already frequently quoted, we find the follow-
ing: "Although Faith be above Reason, yet between
Faith and Reason no true opposition is possible ;
for the same God as reveals mysteries and infuses
Faith, has furnished the mind of man with the light
of reason ; and God cannot deny Himself, nor can
Truth ever contradict Truth. An empty semblance
of contradiction arises either from the doctrines of
Faith not having been understood and explained
according to the mind of the Church, or from
fanciful opinions being taken for the voice of
Reason."
This is too clear to need explanation. By way
of illustration we may point out that, granting
geology has established that the work of creation
of the world was not accomplished in six natural
days, yet this is not against the Catholic faith, for
3 04 REVELATION AND REASON. [322
the same doctrine was held by St. Augustine, fifteen
centuries ago. (De Genesi ad Lit. 4, 34, 53 ; P.L. 34,
319.) On the other hand, the Manichean fancy of
two principles, which long captivated a large part
of civilized mankind, was really opposed to the faith
of the Church, and now finds no one to support it.
323. Faith in Mysteries. The same Council
teaches, in the following chapter, the following
doctrine : " Reason enlightened by Faith, by its
diligent, reverent, and sober research, obtains from
God some most fruitful understanding of mysteries,
from their analogy with natural knowledge, and
from their connection one with another and with
the last end of man ; but it never arrives at seeing
them as it sees the truths which are its proper
object. For the mysteries of God by their very
nature so surpass the powers of the created intel-
lect that even when they have been revealed and
accepted by faith, they nevertheless remain covered
by the veil of faith and enveloped in darkness, so
long as in this mortal life, being in the body we are
absent from the Lord, for we walk by faith and not
by sight." The same is expressed more shortly in
the First Canon on Faith and Reason : " If any
one say that Divine revelation contains nothing
that is truly and properly called mystery, but that
all the doctrines of faith may be understood and
demonstrated from natural principles if the Reason
be properly exercised, let him be Anathema."
All this must be admitted, unless any one would
say that the human mind is capable by its own
powers of arriving at all truth ; which can never
323] FAITH IN MYSTERIES. 505
be proved. In fact, all men habitually guide their
conduct by their faith in mysteries, which neither
they nor their fellows understand. No prudent
doubt is possible that messages are sent by the
electric telegraph across the Atlantic ; yet very
few men know this of their own knowledge ; they
believe it on the authority of others, which makes
it evidently credible to them, and their faith is no
way disturbed by knowing that no man on earth
professes to understand how the message is sent ;
vvhat goes on in the submarine cable is a mystery
to all men, at least for the present.
Teachers of physical science sometimes indulge
in a vain boast that their pupils are expected and
encouraged to believe nothing that they do not see ;
and sometimes they will claim for their subject a
peculiar degree of certainty on this ground ; tacitly,
or perhaps openly, contrasting their teaching with
the teaching of Christian preachers, who avow that
they call upon their hearers to believe what is told
them on the authority of another. How vain is
this boast will be seen by an example. A lecturer
on chemistry tells his class that water is formed
by the combination of oxygen and hydrogen in
certain proportions, and he performs an experiment
which, under a large number of reserves, may be
allowed to suggest that what he says is true, but
which certainly does no more. A member of the
class then repeats the experiment for himself, and
declares that he obtains a different result. How
will he be treated ? He will most surely be told
authoritatively that he has blundered, that the
500 REVELATION AND REASON. [333
experiment has been performed thousands of times
by the most skilful manipulators, and so on ; in
short, he will be told that the lecturer's account
is evidently credible, and that he must exercise the
virtue of faith, under pain of being considered and
treated as wilfully obstinate.
Faith assists reason by supplying it with a certain
number of safe points of departure, which are useful
in its study of natural knowledge ; while Reason
assists Faith by its investigation of the motives of
credibility, and by discovering analogies existing
between the various parts of Revelation and of
natural knowledge ; and it clears up all cases of
apparent conflict between the truths of Revelation
and other certain truths. The development of all
this will be found in the Encyclical on the subject
issued by Pope Leo XIII., and beginning with the
words, Mterni Patris.
324. Recapitulation. This chapter has shown the
error of those who represent Faith and Reason as
being in opposition, instead of working harmoniously,
each in its own sphere.
CHAPTER III.
THE RULE OF FAITH.
325. Subject of the Chapter. In this chapter we
shall consider the different modes in which the
contents of the Christian Revelation and kindred
matters may become known to us, and the different
obligations which the knowledge puts us under.
326. The Material object of Faith. So far we
have been speaking of the formal object of Faith,
or the authority of God who has given the Revela-
tion. We now come to consider the material object
(n. 312), or that which we believe. We are taught
by the Vatican Council (Sess. 3, cap. 3, De Fide)
that all things must be believed with Divine and
Catholic faith which are contained in the Word of
God, whether written or handed down by tradition,
and which have been proposed by the Church to
be believed, whether by a solemn judgment, or by
her ordinary and universal teaching. (Denz. 1641.)
It will be observed that this decree recognizes a
distinction between Divine faith and Catholic faith ;
and we hear also of ecclesiastical faith. Thus the
distinction is important and easily understood,
although the names used are perhaps not very apt
to signify it. That which God has revealed may
be believed with Divine faith ; if further, the Church
508 THE RULE OP FAITH. [326
has proposed it for belief as part of the Divine
Revelation, it may be believed with Divine and
Catholic faith, or more shortly, with Catholic faith.
If the matter is proposed by the Church for belief,
not as being revealed, but nevertheless as coming
within the scope of her Infallibility, such as a
dogmatic fact (n. 211), it is the object of ecclesi-
astical faith. To refuse belief to what is a matter
of Divine and Catholic faith is the sin of heresy;
refusal of belief to what is of Divine but not of
Catholic faith, or to what is merely of ecclesiastical
faith, is sinful, but the sin is not heresy.
Nothing can be the object of Catholic faith that
is not contained, and declared by the Church as
being contained, in the public Revelation given to
the Church, (nn. 22, 23.) Such parts of this public
Revelation as are not defined, but become known
with certitude to any person may be believed by
him with Divine faith, as may happen to a theo-
logian who has studied the monuments of tradition
and sees that it contains some doctrine which
the Church has not yet defined in any manner.
Similarly, Divine faith is due to a private Reve-
lation from God, if such a Revelation come to be
known with certitude by any person, which is
possible perhaps, but happens very rarely, if at all.
At the same time it would be rash and presumptuous
of any one to speak or think contemptuously of all
such Revelations, especially of such as are widely
received among the faithful and are circulated
with the sanction, express or tacit, of the Church ;
this sanction assures us that they contain
326] THE MATERIAL OBJECT OF FAITH. 509
opposed to the Catholic faith and that they may
be studied with profit, but assures us of nothing
more.
Revelation may be formal, when the thing is
expressly or impliedly declared by God ; or virtual,
when it can be inferred by necessary consequence
from what is revealed. What is revealed in either
mode may be proposed by the Church for belief,
and become the object of Catholic faith.
327. Proposal by the Church. There are certain
modes employed by the Church for infallibly
declaring to the faithful the contents of the public
revelation that she has received, which are reserved
for occasional use, on extraordinary occasions.
These modes include the definitions of Ecumenical
Councils, whether they are couched in the form of
short "canons" alone, or of fuller "chapters," such
as were used at Trent and at the Vatican, and
which have no less authority than the canons, so
far as it appears that the Council meant them to
be received as a declaration of the faith. They
include also professions of faith or creeds, put forth
by authority, to which may be likened the tests
which have been proposed from time to time to
persons who have come under suspicion of heresy ;
whether in the form of questions to be answered
by them (Denz. 551 583), or propositions to be
subscribed. (Denz. 1488 1493.) Here also come
ex -cathedral definitions of the Roman Pontiff
(n. 290) ; and such doctrinal decrees of local
Councils (n. 296) as have been solemnly approved
by the Pope and received by the whole Church,
5io THE RULE OF FAtFH. [327
But besides these extraordinary modes of mani-
festing her mind, the Church also speaks by way of
ordinary teaching; and this teaching is found in
the preaching of her ministers, whether formally
ordained for this work or not (n. 203), and it is
found also, and very specially, in the teaching con-
veyed by her liturgy and ritual, (n. 95.) It will be
observed that the Vatican definition which we have
quoted in the preceding number recognizes these
two modes of infallible teaching.
Doctrines are sometimes said to be Catholic of
which no one would maintain that they form part of
the Catholic faith, in the sense explained. These
are such as are held by recognized schools of
theology, without rebuke, although they have not
been adopted by the Church, either by the extra-
ordinary or the ordinary exertion of her authority :
they may even be such that the contradictory has
an equal right to be called Catholic, and the word
is in these cases used in a negative sense, merely
meaning that the doctrine in question is not opposed
to the Catholic faith. The parties to these con-
troversies are prepared to submit, if ever the Church
declare where the truth lies : otherwise, they would
forfeit the right to the name of Catholic by their
heresy in denying the infallible authority of the
Church. (See n. 220.)
328. Censures. The Church often teaches by
way of censuring certain theological propositions,
and we have had frequent occasion to refer to such
condemnations. Censures of this sort must not be
confounded with personal censures, such as excom-
328] CENSURES. 511
munication and suspension, which are spiritual
punishments inflicted upon delinquents by the
ecclesiastical courts, (n. 196.) It is even said that
the Church may forbid the teaching of a certain
proposition under pain of excommunication, without
at the same time declaring that the proposition is
false. The terms of censure attached to con-
demned propositions are various and are not
always sharply distinguished : their different shades
of meaning are best learned by the study of the
Bull Auctorem Fidei (n. 182; Denz. 1363 1461),
which stigmatizes a variety of propositions sepa-
rately, and with great attention to propriety of
language. The authority of the condemnation
depends upon the source from which it comes, and
the intention with which it is issued.
The following are some of the commonest
censures, but many others are in use. No less than
sixty-nine are enumerated by Montague in his work
De Censuris, which will be found in Migne's Cursus
Theologicus. (i. mi.)
I. Heretical, of what is directly and immediately
opposed to the Catholic faith.
II. Proximate to heresy, if this opposition is not
certain ; especially when theologians agree that a
doctrine is contained in Divine Revelation, but it has
not yet been defined by the Church.
III. Smacking or suspected of heresy, when the
proposition admits of two senses, one of which is
heretical, and it seems that this is the sense which
it is intended to convey.
IV. Rash, ff opposed without solid ground to an
5ia THE RULE OF FAITH. [328
opinion commonly held 1 in the Church ; or if it be
a theological assertion put forward without plausible
reason.
V. Erroneous, if opposed to what is revealed,
not immediately, but mediately, by way of con-
clusion, when one premiss only is revealed.
If a proposition is condemned by the infallible
authority as heretical, this is equivalent to a defini-
tion of the contradictory as an article of the
Catholic faith, and such condemnations are fre-
quently appealed to by theologians as decisive. The
infallibility of the Church may be exercised in passing
the other censures, for the meaning of a form of
words is a dogmatic fact (n. 211); but these lesser
condemnations, though they prove the falsity of the
proposition, do not amount to a definition of the
contradictory. Condemnations which do not come
from the seat of infallibility are not infallible, and
do not command an absolute internal assent, but
they are to be received with at least external
respect, and with an inclination towards submission
of mind, greater or less according to circumstances,
and especially to the official position held in the
Church by the person or body whose judgment they
express. What is here said of censures applies to
all doctrinal decisions. This respect will be greatest
when the utterance comes from the Supreme Pontiff
himself, who often addresses the whole Church by
Encyclicals or otherwise, without the* intention
which would make the document ex-cathedral.
(n. 290.) Great respect is also due to the doctrinal
declarations of the Roman Congregations (n. 268),
328) CENSURES. 513
who besides the legislative authority which they
receive from the Pontiff, can scarcely be supposed
to issue false declarations on matters of faith : but
it is to be observed that these Congregations do not
speak with an infallible voice, for the gift of infalli-
bility belongs to the Pontiff alone, and cannot be
communicated by him to another. He often adopts
decrees of Congregations and makes them his own,
in which case they may have infallible authority
if such be the intention of the Pope; and this is
in fact one of the commonest ways in which the
Pontiff exercises his office of Doctor of the Universal
Church.
329. Recapitulation. In this chapter we have
explained the exact meaning of the phrase " Catholic
Faith " and kindred matters, and have shown in
what modes the infallible teaching authority of the
Church and the Roman Pontiff is exercised.
330. Close of the Volume. With this Treatise we
bring the present volume to a close. We may say
that its general purpose has been to show what is
meant by being a Catholic: next in order would
come Treatises on God, One and Three, on the
Creation, the Incarnation, and kindred subjects : the
course would be closed by Treatises on Grace, the
Sacraments, and the Four Last Things. In such
a course many interesting and important topics are
necessarily omitted, but at least an outline, however
imperfect, is given of the whole subject of Dogmatic
Theology.
HH VDL. I.
APPENDIX.
METHOD OF DISPUTATION.
THE reader may be interested to see a sketch of
the mode employed in many Catholic Seminaries
to test the work of the classes in Philosophy and
Theology.
A few days' notice is given of the date and
matter of the disputation. A Thesis is selected
embodying some point which has been recently
treated by the Professor, and one student is assigned
to defend this thesis, while one or more others are
assigned to object. We shall call the Defendant
D. and the Objicient O. All the proceedings are
conducted in Latin.
When the time comes, D. reads the Thesis, and
shortly explains its meaning, bearing, and grounds,
but usually without noticing the objections that
may be made against it. This is the business of
O. t who has selected two or three that seem to him
most telling among such as he can invent or find by
diligent search in the books of authors who have
written on either side of the controversy. When
D. pauses, 0. reads the Thesis, and formally denies
it ; D. asserts its truth, and thereupon 0. makes
his attack. This takes the form of a syllogism,
having for its conclusion the contradictory of the
METHOD OF DISPUTATION. 515
Thesis. D. repeats the syllogism, to show that he
has gathered the words correctly, and then gives
his answer to each premiss, granting, denying, or
distinguishing as he sees fit. O. then undertakes to
prove something which D. has denied, and does so
by another syllogism, to which D. replies as before ;
and so the dispute goes on, until either the assigned
time is exhausted, or O. finds it well to abandon his
first difficulty and start a new one ; or, as sometimes
happens, D. is reduced to silence.
A disputation on St. Paul's dealings with St. Peter
at Antioch (n. 278) might run something as follows :
O. Against the Thesis, "The dispute between
St. Paul and Cephas recorded in the second chapter
of the Epistle to the Galatians, far from disproving
the Primacy and Infallibility of St. Peter, tends to
support both," I argue: The passage before us
shows that St. Peter was neither infallible nor
Primate : therefore, the Thesis is false.
D. (After repeating what has been said), / deny
both parts of the Antecedent.
O. I prove the Antecedent, and first as to the
first part.
That passage shows that St. Peter was not
infallible which represents him as failing : But this
passage represents him as failing : therefore, &c.
D. I distinguish the Major: Failing in prudence
or other virtue, except Faith, I deny; failing in
Faith, I sub-distinguish, and abstaining from teaching
falsehood, I deny ; and teaching falsehood, I grant.
I counter-distinguish the Minor : In prudence or other
virtue except Faith, or in Faith and abstaining from
5 i 6 APPENDIX.
teaching error, I pass it over; Failing in Faith and
teaching error, 7 deny.
0. But it represents him as teaching error in
faith, and I prove it.
St. Peter is represented as teaching error in
faith, when his conduct is described as leading
many to a false belief: But the conduct of St. Peter,
&c. Therefore, &c.
D. I distinguish the Major : Leading and intended
to lead, 7 grant the Major; leading, contrary to his
intention and through the hastiness of those that
were led, 7 deny. I counter-distinguish the Minor:
Leading and intended to lead, 7 deny; otherwise,
7 grant.
O. But they were not led away through hastiness,
and I prove it.
It is not hasty to suppose that a Pope will act
according to his convictions : But those whom Peter
led away merely went on the supposition that he
was acting on his convictions. Therefore, &c.
D. I distinguish the Major : Acting on his convic-
tions, so as never to do what he believes to be
forbidden, 7 grant; so as always to use all liberty
that he possesses, 7 deny. But they went on the
supposition that he was doing what he knew to be
forbidden, 7 deny ; on the supposition that whatever
he did not do, he believed to be forbidden, 7 grant.
O. But at any rate, St. Paul treated St. Peter as
an inferior : therefore, St. Peter was not Primate.
D. I deny.
0. He treats another as inferior who blames
him. But St. Paul blamed St. Peter : Therefore, &c.
METHOD OF DISPUTATION. 517
/ distinguish the Major: Blames him by way of
authority, and without any indication of respect,
I grant: By way of charitable warning, and with
indications of respect, / deny. And I counter-dis-
tinguish the Minor ; Blamed him by way of authority
and without showing respect, I deny ; otherwise,
I grant, and refer to Galat. i. 18 and ii. 13.
0. But the Fathers thought the incident as
narrated inconsistent with Petrine Primacy ; and I
prove it.
What Fathers most renowned as interpreters of
Holy Scripture taught is the interpretation of the
Fathers : But such Fathers thought the incident as
inconsistent. Therefore, &c.
D. I distinguish the Major : Taught as witnesses
of traditional interpretation, 7 grant : taught as their
own conjecture, I sub-distinguish : Deserves respect-
ful consideration, I grant : Is the unanimous voice
of the Fathers which demands assent, / deny. To
the Minor, 7 deny.
0. I prove the Minor.
When skilled interpreters adopt far-fetched and
inconsistent explanations of a text, it is a sign that
they feel that the prima facie meaning of the text is
against them : But Clement of Alexandria adopted
one such explanation, St. Jerome and St. Chrysostom
another, (n. 278.) Therefore, &c.
D. I distinguish the' Major: And they hereby
showed that their own belief was opposed to the
prima facie meaning, 7 grant: otherwise, 7 deny.
To the Minor, 7 distinguish, and they hereby showed
that they believed in the Primacy and Infallibility,
5i8 APPENDIX.
I grant : otherwise, I sub-distinguish : and they did
this as private critics, / grant, as witnesses to tradi-
tion, / deny.
Ingenious combatants may go on for long, but
sooner or later the matter is exhausted. The method
seems well suited for securing that each party under-
stands the view put forward by the other, and for
hindering all wandering from the point : to say this
is to say that it is well suited for the attainment of
the truth*
INDEX,
The references are to the paragraphs indicated at the top of each
page at the inner margin.
Abgar, King 79.
Accommodation 61.
Acquired Habits 309, d.
Acts of Martyrs 96.
Advocate, Devil's 268.
Albigenses 168.
Alexamenes 97.
Alexander Severus 68.
Alexandria 152.
Allies quoted 269, 286.
Allusions, Prophetic 63.
Almsgiving 70.
Antiochus 58.
Anti-Popes 189.
Apocrypha 120, 149.
Apocryphal Gospels 49,
Apologetics 6.
" Apostle " 243.
Apostles, Action of the 81.
Charge to the 80.
Revelation closed with
the 78.
Apostolic Succession 246, 252.
Apostolicity of the Church 243
247. 254, 257.
Appeals to Rome 20^.
Approbation of Books 160.
Aquilas 152, 155.
Archaeology 97.
Argyll quoted 272.
Arithmetic, Mistakes in 313.
Arius, Thalia of 203.
Ark, Noe's 181.
Articles, The Thirty-nine 78, 150,
204.
Ascetic Theology 4.
Athanasian Creed 252.
Auctorem Fidei, The Bull 169, 189,
2O2, 205, 208, 211.
Augustine, Authority of St. 101.
,, on the Creation 159.
,, and St. Cyprian 100.
Seal of 223.
Aurelian, The Emperor 216.
" Babylon " or Rome 272.
Baius 101.
Baptism 181, 188, 195.
of Infants 107.
" Baptists" 251.
Basil, St. 107.
Beatification 211, 231, 255, 267.
" Belief" 309, vii.
Benedict XIV. 37, 211, 231, 255.
Benefit of Clergy 302.
Bethlehem 60.
" Be with you " 80.
"Bible" 118. See Scripture.
Bible-reading 160.
Bible Societies 156, 157, 160.
Bishop, Universal 287.
Bishops 20 1.
Anglican and Methodist
251, 252.
and People 103.
INDEX.
Bishops and Pope 266, 268, 294
299.
., and Unity 281.
Bithynia, Christians in 41, 71.
Blackstone quoted 302.
Blessed, The 184.
Blood, Eating 107.
Body of Christ, The Church the
177.
Body of the Church 186, 188.
Bosdder referred to 33.
Books, Condemnation of 203.
Bradshaw quoted 168.
Branch Churches 219, 226, 252.
Browne on the Articles 89 91,
107.
Burnet on the Articles 205.
Cabbala 132.
Canon of Scripture 148153.
,, Doubts concerning the
113
,, The Vincentian 114
Canonical 127.
Canonization 211, 231, 255, 267.
Canons, The Apostolic 221.
Cardinals 268.
Carthage, Council of 151, 152.
Catechumens 195.
Cathari 168.
Catholic Doctrine 327.
" Catholic," Meaning of 238, 251,
258.
Catholicity 237 242, 256.
Celestine, Pope St. 95. .
Censures 328.
"Cephas" 278.
" Certain " 74.
"Certitude 309, 1.. 313, 319.
Chaldee 120.
Chillingworth 78. 87.
Christ charges His Apostles 80.
,, Head of the Church 177.
Prophet, Priest, and King
202.
wrote nothing 79.
Christian Revelation certain 75.
,, Writings 44.
Christianity, Supernatural 13.
Church, The 162259.
" Church " Meaning of 164, 201.
Church and Churches 83, 165.
Church perennial 166, 167.
., visible 168, 169.
existed early 41.
End of the 172 181.
,, Supernatural 176.
Duty to belong to 181.
No Salvation outside
181.
as a Society 175, 179.
Members of 183198.
Figures of 185.
Soul and Body of 186.
Constitution of 199 212.
One 213 227, 254.
The Established 252.
Holy 228236, 255.
Catholic 237 242, 256.
Apostolic 243 247, 257
Notes of the 248 259.
Infallible 205 211.
Proposal by the 327.
and State 301.
Churches, Apostolic 83.
,, Branch 219 226, 252.
Cisalpine 290.
Clement, St., quoted 8a.
Clement of Alexandria 51.
Clergy, Benefit of 302.
Commonitorium 114.
Communion, Holy 221.
Conception, The Immaculate 94.
Concordats 303.
Congregations, Roman 268, 328.
Consecration in Mass 95
Conservation of Energy 33.
Constance, Council of 217, 298.
Constantine the Great 67.
Constantinople, Council of 88.
" Consubstantial " 211.
" Consummation of the world "
206.
Conversion of Empire 67.
,, Graces needed for
3i8.
Conversions. Motives of 313.
Copernican Astronomy 159.
Corinth, Disorders at 216.
Cornelius, Pope St. 189.
INDEX.
Corrupt Translation 156.
Corruptions of Scripture 132.
Councils 296.
Creation, Days of 159.
Credibility of Gospels 51.
Motives of 313.
"Credible" 309, ix.
Creed, The Apostles' 244.
Nicene 166.
Athanasian 252.
Additions to 226.
Cross, Invention of the 96.
Vision of the 67.
Worship of the 96, 97.
Cyprian, St. 114, 269, 272, 292, ii.
and St. Augustine 100.
Cyril, St., of Alexandria 100.
of Jerusalem 96.
Daniel, his Prophecy 58, 59.
his four Kingdoms 168.
Decretals, False 292, vi.
Definitions of Faith 94.
Degradation 302.
Deists 36.
Demonic Agency 36.
Deuterocanonical 120, 149, 152.
Development of Doctrine no
115.
" Devil's Advocate " 231.
Diatessaron 51.
Difficulties against Miracles 31
39-
Diptychs 222.
Dispensations, Papal 265.
" Doctor," Meaning of 102.
Doctrine, Channel of 76 115.
" Dogma" 4.
Dogmatic Facts 211.
,, Theology 4.
Donatists 133, 168, 189, 191, 217.
" Doubt " 309, iii.
as to Faith 317.
Eastern Church 250, 253.
Ecumenical Councils 297.
Elders 201.
Electricity 323.
Encyclical on Scripture 145.
Energy, Conservation of 33.
Ephesus, Council of 226.
Epiphanius, St. 107.
Episcopal Government 295.
" Erroneous " 328.
Error, none in Scripture 145, 156.
Errors on Church Membership
189, 192.
Established Church of England
252.
Evangelicals 216.
" Evidence" 309, viii.
Ex Cathedra 290.
Exclusiva 262.
Exequatur 304.
Excommunication 68, 196.
Expectations, Vague 57.
Extraordinary Jurisdiction 268.
Faber, Dr. 211.
Facts, Dogmatic 211.
Faith 31, 307329.
Cures 37.
Rule of 78, 87, 89, 325
329-
Meaning of 310.
Errors concerning 311.
Analysis of 312.
Obligation of 316.
Freedom of 316.
Certainty of 319.
Doubts as to 317.
in God 315.
Divine, Catholic, Ecclesi-
astical 326.
in Mysteries 323.
Unity of 220.
Family 175, 179.
"Fathers" 98.
as Judges and Witnes-
ses 159.
on Rule of Faith 91.
Febronius 189.
Feet-washing 107.
Ferrusola quoted 189.
Figurative Language 225, iv.
Figures of the Church 185, 1 88.
Filioque 166, 226.
Firmilian 269, 272.
Florence, Council of 136.
582
INDEX.
" Foreknown " 184.
Forum, Internal and External
268.
Foundation, St. Peter 274, 282.
Fraticelli in, 189.
Fulfilments of Prophecy 61.
Fundamentals 219, 226.
Fundamental Theology 6.
Galileo 159, 292, viii.
Gallicanism 290, 304.
Gallican Liberties 269.
Gelasius 151.
General Councils 297.
Geology 159.
Gibbon's Five Causes 68.
God unchangeable 33.
Gospel Miracles 46.
Gospels, The Four 45.
when written 48 53.
,, Apocryphal 49.
Government of Church 200 202.
Unity of 215, 224.
"Grace" 309, xii.
,, Miracles of 25.
Need of 318.
Graces gratuitously given 235.
Gregory of Nazianzum, St. xoo.
Habbakuk 97.
" Habit " 309, x., ri.
Heathen and Scripture 133.
Helena, St. 96.
Heresy 193.
., and Schism 216.
" Heretical" 328.
Heretics 193.
., Children of 194.
,, and Scripture 133.
Heroes, Heathen and Christian
231.
Heroic Sanctity 231.
Hexapla 152.
Hierarchy. Divine 20*.
Hilary ofPoitou 100.
" Holiness " 229, 230.
Honoring. Pope 292, V.
Hus 189.
Idolatry 70.
,, charged against the
Church 168.
Ignorance 309, ii.
Imitation of Christ 144.
Immunity 302, 305.
Independents 201.
Infallibility of Church 205, 206.
,, Papal 268, 289 293
Infanticide 70.
Infused Habits 309, xi.
Innocent I., Pope St. 151.
Inquisition, The Spanish 258.
Inspiration 135 147.
,, False Views on 144.
,, Verbal 143.
,, Encyclical on 145.
Interpretations of Scripture 154.
Irenaeus, St. 51. 82, 112, 157.
,, on Unity 224.
Irving in.
Irvingites 78.
ansenists 189 2ZZ.
ansenius 101
eremias 61.
erusalem, Council of 220, 292, il
erome, St. 207.
,, on the Canon 151.
Jewish Church 220.
Jews 71.
and Scripture 131.
Joachim in.
Joan, Pope 262.
" Joannites" 222.
John, Anecdotes of St. 99.
,, on Love 14.
Tosephus 57, 137.
Julian the Apostate 223.
Jurisdiction, Ordinary 268.
" Just " 184, 191.
Justification 184.
Justin, St. 51,67.
Keys, Power of the 274, 283.
Kraus quoted 97.
Lapsed, The 71, 133.
Laws of Nature 33, 35.
Legislation by Pope 265.
INDEX.
523
Letters 223.
Libellatici 133, 189.
Liberius, Pope 292, iv.
Liberties, Galilean 304.
Liguori, St. Alphonsus 102.
Literte Formate 223.
Liturgy 95, 267.
Lost. The 184.
Lourdes 38.
Loyola, St. Ignatius of 189.
Lucian quoted 223.
Luther 189.
Maher referred to 51.
Manes in.
Manicheans 14, 19.
Manicheism 136.
Manuscripts 49.
Marcellus of Ancyra 166.
Marriage indissoluble 107.
Marshall's Christian Missions 156,
157. 2 56.
Martyrs 71.
,, as heroes 231.
Acts of 96.
Mary, The Blessed Virgin 70.
Mass, Rite of the 254.
Melchisedech 143.
Melito 152.
Members of the Church 183 198,
232.
Messianic Prophecies 58 63, 69.
Metaphysical Certainty 74.
Methodists, 216, 251.
Micheas 60.
Milton 168.
Miracles 23 26.
Objections to 28, 32.
Criteria of 37.
Physical 24.
as Credentials 47.
False 36.
of Sinners 235.
Moral 65 72.
Modern 38, 211, 235, 255.
Missions, Foreign 256.
Monarchy, The Church a 199.
Montanus in.
Moral Certainty 74.
Miracles 65 72.
Moral Theology 4.
,, Virtues 314.
Morality, Christian 68, 70.
Muratori 51.
Murray, Dr. 192, 196, 207.
Mysteries 4, 16.
,, and Faith 323.
Mystic Theology 4.
"Nations" 297.
Nero 42.
Nice, Council of 88.
Notaries, Roman 96.
Notes of the Church 248 259.
Novatian Miracle 36.
Novatians 189.
Oaths 107.
Objections 207, 225, 234, 258, 292.
11 Ordinary " jurisdiction 268.
Origen 152.
"Opinion" 309, T.
Osee 61.
Paley 37.
Pallium 266.
Papal Infallibility 289293.
Papias 51.
Paris, Abbe 36.
Pastor quoted 266.
Paul, Epistles of St. 44.
St., and St. Peter 277, 278.
Paul of Samosata 216.
Pentateuch 119.
Peregrinus 223.
Perennity of the Church 166, 167
Peter, St. 271279.
at Rome 272.
,, his Fall 292, i.
the Rock 274.
and St. Paul 277. 278.
Philo 137.
Philosophy 5, 6.
Physical Certitude 74.
,, Miracles 24.
Pistoia, Synod of 189, 2x1.
Placitum Regiwn 304.
Plenary Councils 296.
Pliny 41, 71.
Polemics 6, 84.
5*4
INDEX.
Pope The 260306.
Election of 262.
Functions of 263.
Who is 262.
resigning 262.
as Teacher 264.
and Bishops 266, 258, 294
299.
Freedom of the 305.
Porphyry 14.
Positive Theology 6, 84.
Power, The Temporal 300 306.
" Predestined " 184, 190.
Prelatic Sects 250, 252.
Presbyterians 201. 216.
Prescription 83, 88, 269.
Priests, not Judges of Faith 208.
Primacy, Papal 280288.
Primitive Christianity 14.
Princes, Excommunication of
302.
" Probability " 309, vL
Properties 214.
Prophecies 27, 5564.
Prophets, False in.
Protestants, Number of 252.
Protocanonical 149.
Provisions, Papal 266.
" Proximate to Heresy " 328.
Psalms, Titles of the 121.
Ptolemaic Astronomy 159.
Purity, Christian 70.
Quakers 78.
Quesnel 189.
11 Rash " 328.
Rationalists 31.
Reason 31.
,, and Revelation 322.
Revelation 16.
Modes of 18.
Craving for 19.
Public 23, 326.
Private 22, 203, 290,
326.
Close of ii2, 167.
Certitude of 313.
and Reason 322.
Rickaby, John 309.
Rickaby, Joseph 309.
Ritual 95.
Rock and Peter 274.
" Roman Catholic " 258.
Roman Church : its Notes 254
258.
Rome, Communion with 208.
Rome's Delays 269.
Rule of Faith 78, 87, 89.
Sabbath 107.
Sacrificati 133.
Saints 231.
Saints' Lives 255.
Salutary Acts 318.
Salvation ; None outside the
Church 181.
Sancta Romano 168.
Sanctity, Heroic 231.
of the Church 228
236, 255.
Schism 197, 216.
and Heresy 216.
The Great 218.
,, Time of 297, 298.
Scholastic Theology 6, 84.
Schools of Theology 113, 220.
Scriptural Language 88.
Scripture, Holy 116 161.
"Scripture" 118, 127.
and Tradition 78, 105
115.
Interpretation of 159.
on the Rule of Faitr-
89.
Septuagint 152.
Shepherd, St. Peter 276, 25
Sin 184.
Sinners 184, 191
Slavery 70.
Sleepers, The Seven 67.
Smith, a False Prophet ill.
Societies classified 174, 179.
Sotades 203.
Soul of the Church 186, i?.
State 175. 179.
,, and Church 301.
Stephen, Pope St. 269, 2U2, ii.
Success, Worldly 233.
Successicn, Apostolic 248, 252.
INDEX.
3*5
Suetonius 57.
Sulpicius Severus 96.
Sunday 107.
" Suspected of Heresy " 328.
" Supernatural " 13.
The Church 176.
" Suspicion " 309, iv.
Swedenborg in.
Synagogue 220.
Syriac 120.
Gospel 274.
Tacitus 42, 57, 71.
Tatian 51.
Teaching by Authority 203, 204.
Temporal Power, The 300 306.
Tertullian 51, 67, 71, 157.
,, on Unity 223.
Testimony 34.
Tests of Unity 223.
Thalia of Arius 203.
Theatres, Heathen 70.
Theodotion 152.
"Theology" 2.
Divisions of 4, 6.
The Work of 84.
,, Advancing 113.
Schools of 113.
Thomas, St., on Miracles 235.
,, on Infallibility 291.
Thvrificati 133.
Tradition 76 115, 140.
,, of Men 80.
,, and Scripture 105 115.
, , Monuments of 93 104.
indispensable 108.
Traditores 133, 189.
Translations 89, 155, 156.
" Transubstantiation " 211.
Trent, Council of 78, 136.
on the Canon 150.
, on the Vulgate 157.
Truth, Oneness of 322.
Type and Antitype 61.
Ultramontane 290.
Unanimity, Tests of 99.
Unigenitus, The Bull 160, 189, 196.
Unitarians 166.
Unity of the Church 213 227,
254.
Tokens of 83, 223.
Catholic Doctrine on 215.
Errors as to 219, 226.
Rival Views on 226.
Centre of 281.
Universal Bishop 287.
Unprelatic Sects 250.
Vatican Council 16, 19, 28, 75,
136, 290.
Verbal Inspiration 143.
Versions 50.
,, of Scripture 154 161.
The Authorized and Re-
vised 156.
Vespasian 57.
Veto at Papal Elections 262.
Vincentian Canon 114.
Virtue 231.
Visibility of the Church 168, 169
,, Difficulties against 170.
Viva 101.
Vulgate, The 158.
Waldenses 168.
War 70.
Ward's Errata 156.
Weeks, The Seventy 58.
Witnesses, Single 100.
" With you " 206.
Woman, Position of 70.
Worship, Unity of 215, 221.
Wyclif 189.
PRINTED BY BENZIGER BROTHERS, NEW YORK.
8X
\'\5\
HS
v.l
THE LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA
Santa Barbara
THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW.
UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY
i inn mi inn inn inn mil mi inn mil mi
A 001 003 046 8